A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance
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Table of Contents
Section 1 (Page 1)
Section 2 (Page 38)
Section 3 (Page 71)
Section 4 (Page 111)
Section 5 (Page 156)
Section 6 (Page 201)
Section 7 (Page 250)
Section 8 (Page 297)
Section 9 (Page 349)
Section 10 (Page 424)
Section 11 (Page 478)
Section 12 (Page 564)
Section 13 (Page 584)
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A history of literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance. Weinberg, Bernard, 1909-1973. [Chicago] University of Chicago Press [1961] https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c081044511
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A HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
A HISTORY of
LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE VOLUME I
By Bernard
Weinberg
TO
THE UNIVERSITY OF
G
CHICAGO PRESS
MAIN
01436320x
Library of Congress
Repl
Catalog Card Number : 60-5470
The University of Chicago Press , Chicago & London The University of Toronto Press , Toronto 5 , Canada Published 1961 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
425
Second Impression 1963 Printed by The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois , U.S.A.
РP
Q
4031
اب
196 / a
vil
MAIN
Το
RONALD CRANE RICHARD
MCKEON
ELDER OLSON
PREFACE HE
HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM in the Italian Renaissance has been written several times . It is the subject of a volume by Ciro Trabalza
T:
La Critica letteraria ( Dai primordi dell'Umanesimo all'Età published in Milan ( 1915 ) in the series “ Storia dei generi nostra ) and letterari italiani.” Inside and outside Italy the most widely read and in entitled
fluential treatment of the subject is to be found in Joel Elias Spingarn's History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance (New York : Macmillan , form in 1904. The 1899 ) , published in Italian in a somewhat expanded various works of Marvin T. Herrick have provided much useful informa tion on the development of the theory of the genres during the Renais sance ,
The present attempt to rewrite that history has two justifications . The first of these lies in the limited bibliography upon which the earlier histories were based . Spingarn discussed , in the briefest fashion , only some thirty documents in the original edition , a few more in the Italian translation . Trabalza and Herrick dealt with a considerably larger number of docu ments , but they fell far short of an adequate representation of the numerous texts that actually constitute the vast bibliography of literary criticism in Renaissance . This bibliography comprises, besides the major printed works , a great quantity of manuscript materials preserved in the libraries of Italy ; these were left untouched by the earlier historians . It also includes many texts that are “ minor ” only in the sense that they are short the Italian
or relatively unknown ; they are frequently “ major " because of their ideas or because of the contribution they have made to the development of literary criticism . The second , and more important , justification derives from the way in which Spingarn and Trabalza used their materials . Their methods were those of the literary historians of an earlier generation . They tended rather to summarize texts than to analyze them , rather to disrupt texts ( by isolat ing terms and passages ) than to discover their structures , rather to con struct chronologies than to write histories . What one learns from them , essentially
,
is the order and
the content
of
a certain
number of works ;
but even here one cannot be sure , since the content as they state it is often philosophically unconvincing . One cannot be sure , from the evidence they
others
that
a
will convince
it is
it , his
,
its
is
for
present, that their reading is a proper one . Such cautions , of course , attach to any reading of any text ; the only recourse for the reader is his own reading of the text , and the only hope the historian that reading through consistency and through the citations that support tenable hypothesis about the particular the writing
of
experiment
in
an
have attempted
is
what
I
sense
,
a
In
.
text
viii
PREFACE
intellectual history . What is experimental is not the extension of the bibliography through the addition of hundreds of items not hitherto considered : this is merely the normal effect of the growth of biblio graphical knowledge and the continued pursuit of the subject. It is rather the organization of the materials and the elaboration of the historical statement . I have not sought to follow any author through his career or any term or concept through the century . Instead , I have tried to dis tinguish the main intellectual traditions of the century as they relate to literary criticism and to trace them , year by year and text by text , up through the sixteenth century to the final, arbitrary date of 1600. These traditions were of two kinds : they were ways of regarding the art of poetry ( a theoretical approach ) and ways of judging poetic works (a practical approach ) . This distinction accounts for the two major divisions
of my book . With respect
to the theoretical traditions , it has seemed to me useful to distinguish and identify them as developments and continuations of three great critical positions of the classical past : those of Plato , Aristotle , and Horace . These were the positions that provided Italians of the Renais sance with the greater part of their ideas on the art course , that any one of them appears , purely and
of poetry . It
is rare ,
of
of
those tendencies
be
one
of its
to
at
or
bear some resemblance
the major is
It
,
.
is a
it
completely eclectic work the texts indeed that we discover the existence unless
.
only through the reading
;
of
expected
the century
,
tendencies
of — to
or
of
be
may
dencies
,
its
simply , in any single text ; the Renaissance was not a period of intellectual purity and order entirety should liness . But any individual text , taken in classifiable major ten under one another the major traditions least
of of
,
at
is ,
,
in
.
It
its
a
or
,
;
of
to
I
.
its
it
,
, to
of
of
in
of
of
A
of
entirety should constitute consideration each the texts my approach the experimental aspects least one the first principles that approach have attempted the reading each work discover essential position discern what basically particular poetry about was saying about the art and peculiarly another
its
to
I
to
to
,
its
,
.
or
,
discover the method a
,
,
of
.
I
to
I
have frequently found
it
the texts themselves
,
Given the nature
of
.
a
conclusions and
have not undertaken conclusions guide any reading text but instead for the
passed from premises
which provide substitute that reading it
its
its
of
premises and
to to by an to to its
to
to
no
;
I
,
epitome
of
.
I
I
in
terms
of
methodological
the
is
define
in its
determine to
statements
;
;
to
and the logical bases for terms the whole complex relation should point out that what have said the work and concepts present represent the totality not intended about any individual text every report have tried idea than tried more have contents My inconsistency rather has been every aim failure account for give position economy possible greatest central state with the poem
PREFACE
ix
to discuss certain of them at two or three or four points in my commentary on Aristotle's Poetics , for example , might also make A significant contribution to the study of Horace's Ars poetica, another to a development of Platonic ideas , still another to the criticism of a con the temporary author . For the most part , though , each work is given major necessary study .
-
consideration only once . In a few cases I have had to deal with texts whose broad philo main subjects were not directly pertinent to my inquiry sophical treatises , works on other arts -- but which did contain useful materials . Here I have been obliged , contrary to my general practice , 10 isolate passages or sections rather than to study entire texts . I have limited my inquiry to literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance .
The temptation was present , constantly , to associate with literary criti cism such related fields as rhetorical theory and the criticism of the other arts, for the problems are the same or nearly so , and the documents them from one discipline to another . But I have had to sternly . The materials on literary criticism are them temptation resist this selves so abundant that to add others to them would have made the subject completely unmanageable . Moreover , the virtues of limitation to a
selves readily lead
of inquiry seemed to me obvious . Hence , the reader will find history here no of the important rhetorical documents of the century , even though there is much discussion of rhetorical ideas which appear in the treatises on poetry . Nor will he find any discussion of the quarrel over the
single line
Italian language , of the theory of painting or sculpture or architecture , in of the many resemblances of this theory to literary theory . I have taken " Italian " in a fairly broad sense , including the works not only of Italians publishing in Italy but of foreigners publishing there and
spite
century , except
those few cases
in
have limited it to the sixteenth
the
I
for
of Italians publishing abroad ; the criterion for inclusion is the direct relationship of any given document to the Italian tradition . On the other hand , I have given to the term “ Renaissance " a highly restricted meaning :
the
of
of
movement
by
a
to
trace
,
necessary
.
.
I
have found Here again
it
back into Quattro cento the decision was determined the nature the major development and full materials The Cinquecento was the century which
criticism had run
its
the renaissance
in
of
,
of
in
of
;
in
in
1600
,
century
.
preceding
By
,
a
,
its
all
,
in
poetic theory and practical criticism realization both Quattro overwhelming importance for other phases the Renais literary criticism sance provided only minor impetus the domain and the Seicento did little more than repeat and reorder the ideas the cento
full
sixteenth
to
.
all
In
to
of
.
.
century usage many terms had multiple meanings
-
Because
in
a
.
,
I
in
or
a
as
as
A
in
I
,
at
course and that date have ended my investigation my text provide word about the translations included order possible continuous text nearly one language have translated quoted passages from Latin make the Italian into English The effort translations both accurate and literate has been task full difficulties
and
PREFACE
х
because syntax and construction , in both the Italian and the Latin texts , are frequently loose and inaccurate , it has been necessary at every point to decide upon the particular meaning intended . I present these transla
tions with the usual reservations of the translator , urging the reader — if he thinks that I may have gone astray or if he wishes to follow the terminology in the original languages — to check them against the original texts , given in the footnotes . Among other technical matters , I have sometimes pro within the chapters for authors or subjects ; but this is consistently not done for every text - merely from time to time in order to help with the chronology and to call attention to the most important documents . I have regularly reproduced original texts exactly , in spite of vided subheadings
I
thought it necessary to make emenda all
obvious errors ; only rarely have tions .
materials are concerned , I have attempted in cases consult the best manuscripts and the earliest printed editions single Bibliography arranged alphabetically All documents are listed
As far
of
by
a
,
in
.
to
as the source
,
I
is
I
all
.
of
,
a
),
in
in of
.
of I
by
in
as
as
is
to
a
of
as
sulted freely such bibliographical
C.
I
tries show how those ideas are Renaissance thought have con
of . R.
to
.
,
writer obtained his ideas Rather related the developing currents
of it
,
in
. It
,
,
( to or of a at
a
of of
fresh history the subject lay the rereading pertinent many single the materials least could find My according analysis history reader and constant method therefore excludes some the approaches common the writing intellectual and literary history not concerned with sources and given fluences the usual sense with the discovery where and how
of
only possibility
on
on
to
by
,
I
of
of
.
no
.
;
a
is
given work author where more than one edition described study virtually have indicated the edition used for and citation There secondary bibliography Except for light bibliography itself and the dating works have chosen discuss works themselves rather than interpretations the those works others was convinced that the
;
I
of
of
.
of
,
in -
,
L.
instruments the lists Williams Bullock the Cooper Gudeman bibliography Aristotle's Poetics the bibliographies found earlier histories the subject and have also made use various biographies and separate studies concerning the authors themselves and W.
-
of
to
.
I
to
a
,
I
to
discharge those institutions which have both have many debts subsidized and furthered my work over period some twenty five years and those individuals who have counseled and helped me can dis
of
to
to
,
to
its
,
,
to
at
of
.
;
of
;
of
in
,
to
them
University
:
of
only through the simplest kind Washington thanks Chicago Northwestern University and the University my research for grants aid the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and the administrators the Fulbright Program for generous fellowships Princeton for the Institute for Advanced Study and hospitality Many friends have been unsparing time wisdom charge
PREFACE
I
of
all
material assistance ; would thank especially Donald Bryant , Ronald Phillip , DeLacy , Crane Edward Kaufmann , Paul Kristeller , and Peter Riesenberg for their reading of parts or the manuscript and for
.
of
,
of in
at
,
to
;
of
,
;
useful suggestions Mrs. Anne McDonnell Heisler for help the prepara Chicago too the manuscript and colleagues the University their erudition and advice name for the generous giving numerous tion
,
-o
,
,
in
,
of
,
all
;
in
,
at
all
I
to
co
peration should wish also thank many librarians for their kind University Chicago Newberry above those The Libraries the Library the Harvard University Library the British Museum the Biblio Italy but mostly thèque Nationale Paris the Biblioteche Nazionali ;
.
all
;
in
that Florence the other great Florentine libraries and the Vatican provincial libraries over Italy
and
CONTENTS PART ONE
POETIC
:
THEORY
I. The Classification of Poetics among the Sciences / The Methodology of the Theorists / 38
1
The Confusion with
/
I.
II .
Ars poetica
:
Horace's
The Earliest Commentaries
Aris
The Application
Practical
to
201
:
II .
Aristotle's Poetics
and Exegesis
/
/
Discovery
I.
Aristotle's Poetics
:
The Tradition tions 424 The Tradition
/
IV .
of
of of
The Tradition
Theory
/
of
:
of
II .
I.
Platonism
Horace's Ars poetica The Return Poetry The Defence 250 Christianity 297 The Triumph
349
Applica
The First Theoretical
of
Aristotle's Poetics
:
IV .
The Effect
V.
Theory
/
819 /
|
/
)
991
/
)
/
(
1113
/
on
1159
/
:
of
CRITICISM
Quarrel over Ariosto and Tasso Concluded The Quarrel over Guarini's Pastor Fido 1074 Conclusions Practical Criticism 1106 /
.
.
.
/
Index
the Genres
The Quarrel over Dante Concluded 877 The Quarrel over Speroni's Canace and Dramatic Poetry The Quarrel over Ariosto and Tasso 954
Bibliography
the Literary
797
PRACTICAL
(
. .
. .
The Quarrel over Dante
XX The
XXI XXII
Commen
715
Poetic Theory
PART TWO
XIX
/
Poetry
:
. .
Aristotle's Poetics
of
564
XIV The New Arts XV Conclusions on
XVI XVII XVIII
.
The Vernacular
:
III
/
The Tradition
/
XIII
.
The Tradition
.
Aristotle's Poetics
478
XII
Quarrels
of
taries
of of
.
XI
/
/
X. IX . .
VIII
The Tradition Platonism
:
.
VII
:
VI .
/
:
of
The Tradition Horace's Ars poetica Criticism 156
to
111
III .
/
IV .
totle
:
of
The Tradition
71
V.
Horace's Ars poetica
The Tradition
of
III .
II .
912
635
PART ONE POETIC THEORY
CHAPTER ONE . THE CLASSIFICATION OF POETICS AMONG THE SCIENCES
A
beginning a series of lessons on a topic or a text , almost invariably devoted the first lecture — the prolusio explaining his subject's place in the whole scheme of arts and
RENAISSANCE
,
PROFESSOR
-to
sciences . This was not merely an academic
by
to
its
by
of
of
of
the mind
possibilities belonged
,
means and
what faculty
it
ends and
its
;
neighboring sciences determining
were discovered
to its
from
by
its
it
.
or
as a
to
or
.
, it on
his
It fulfilled an intellectual expectation of auditors which had been passed them their medieval and humanist forebears For some centuries had been custom ary part regard each art science the great complex Phil osophy The individual science was defined distinguishing delimited gesture .
of
of
,
of
.
of
by
,
be
.
.
it
to
be it
what human need served under which the major branches human activity All subsequent thinking about the science subsumed was flowed from these initial and fundamental presuppositions To sure the time the Cinquecento the logical tightness these systematic attitudes had been considerably weakened The stern syllogistic ,
in
byan
by
,
of
of
.
,
as
-
—
to
of
it
in
the Schools had some cases been openly attacked others degenerate had been allowed almost imperceptibly into the rhe they did torical loquacity the universities The academies attracting great numbers aristocrats and bourgeois and providing them with essentially lay instruction frequently replaced the old severity method
of
discipline
a ,
,
to
of
.
of
to
,
,
a
of
fostering enthusiasm for new fields study and questioning even disparaging approach thought Nevertheless the traditional modes supply the usual points the old framework continued reference and
of
of
its
of
at a
a
to
to to
no
to of
to
.
it
be to
of
philo thinking continued inform the major part sophical discussion Perhaps say that the habit would correct systematic approach time when the the sciences was still cultivated analysis were longer adequate pursuing instruments the task the old habits
. as
a
,
,
an
.
—
of
-
of
an
.
it
,
of
,
of
by
last consequences
as , a
the science
of
For
its
and distinction final implications poetics one the old sciences made new fresh practical need and the rediscovery interest ancient texts this was true for other sciences Perhaps was especially true For poetics formerly considered auxiliary grammar and rhetoric auxiliary speech whose particular concern was with versification and figures but classification
of
,
,
.
a
”
of of
to
“
as a
,
on
.
of
of
guide now given new dignity the greatest the arts had special justification poesy need Witness the defenses which from the literary expression One fourteenth century were standard form
( 1 )
.
all
or
in
—
of
,
,
,
of
a
in
science
to
of
supplying that justification was place the means position dignity honor and utility among the others But even where justification was not the motive the theorists followed the exposition and somewhere traditional pattern the prolusio later the most effective
POETIC
-provided for poetics
THEORY
,
or
,
a
of
to
of of
or
of
of
it
"
"
or
”
to
example
were
classify
his
,
for
he
it .
it of
of
say about poetics would necessity great importance Hence the
.
in
a
to
Much what theorist was later derive from his original classification this initial step the critical process
If , of
of
.
,
“
.
of
,
or
to
be
.
its
proper place among the other sciences The family large which poetics was assigned might small incomplete complete depending upon the cast mind the theorist the neces sities his argument But always was sufficient magnitude throw upon the science light which for man the art the kind the Cinquecento could come only from classification and distinction
,
in
,
a
he
;
if
,
of
of
an
he
-
-
in
of
.
,
to
be
as
if in of
tendency would with rhetoric one the instrumental disciplines then poems consider terms their probable specific effects upon specific poems audiences He would were Aristotelian rhetorician think poet relationships poem terms audience were Ciceronian
,
.
,
of
an
or
as a
he
of
,
,
of
or his by do of to
,
of
invention disposition and elocution and what the poet must gain the acclaim begin his listeners On the other hand should defining poetry philosophy branch instrument moral then
terms
to
in
-
.
in
of
all
its
,
of
to
,
or
or
.
of
a
in
of
.
it to
of
be
produce whole theory must oriented toward the ability the poet Any judge change the critic the desired ethical effect classifica consequent shift tion brings with the whole conception the poetic beauty art The relationship the parts within the poem the criteria for hierarchy goodness poetic genres success the the various poetics these varied with the place assigned the total family sciences
.
.
of
its
all
, as
as to
,
,
its
we
a
of
THE ARTS OF DISCOURSE The Cinquecento inherited from the immediate past method classi may characterize fying poetry which the traditional system Poetics place according discourse this method among the arts took
.
or to
.
to (
to
on
,
a
in
),
of
all
—
,
it
,
of
as
,
,
—
belonged with Since poetry used words medium the logical disciplines with logic dialectic rhetoric and sophistic and with such grammar and history which also used words This meant that arts poetry was joined on the one hand Aristotle's group the trivium history instrumental sciences the other hand Renaissance theorists sense never abandoned this classification although the
in
different groupings and combina with poetry appear tions Throughout the sixteenth century find systems modeled this essentially medieval pattern on
.
.
we
sciences associated
to
),
,
In
of
on
hierarchy
their the basis definitely among the discursive
a
,
and sophistic and arranged with them relationship the truth.1 This placed
it in
,
,
.
so
(
as
For some Renaissance theorists such Bartolomeo Lombardi the classifying poetry was Averroës Averroës source and authority for they found poetry grouped with demonstrative logic dialectic rhetoric
[ 2 ]
.
,
,
se of
in
”,
;
so
in in
: "
,
Pt .
), 1,
,
(
“
in
.
I
of 1
no
single passage Averroës making this complete association and hierarchy have found combined various scattered places individual arts are the various arts mentioned But Aristotle trans Mantinus the Venice edition libros posteriorum cf. the Prooemium IIA 9-9v Ad reliquas vero quinque artes habet verè veluti dominus luntas 1574
AMONG
POETICS
SCIENCES
THE
sciences . Such early humanists as Coluccio Salutati had also , in passing , placed it among these sciences ; in his De laboribus Herculis , begun between 1383 and 1391 and left unfinished at his death in 1406 , Salutati character
ized poetics as a “ sermocinalis philosophie pars ,” a part of the branch of philosophy concerned with words.2 By the time we come to the later humanists , this particular branch has been fitted into more comprehensive views of the whole of philosophy . Thus Angelo Poliziano in the Panepiste , sets out to find a general scheme for doctrine into three the sciences treated in Aristotle's works . He divides philosophy and the mixed the invented kinds the inspired theology Philosophy the following way then subdivided divination Spectativa
De Anima Mathematicae
all
:
).
is
in (
(
,
(
1498
),
of
),
mon , printed in the Opera
Actualis
Rationalis
Mores Ethica
Grammatica
Historia Dialectica
Economica
Arithmetica Musica
Rhetorica
Politica Agricultura
Geometria Sphaerica
Poetica
Pastio Venatio
Calculatoria Geodesia Canonice
Architectura Grafice
Astrologia
Coquinaria
Optica
Teatricae
Mecanica
Etc.
to
is
" )
is
)
"
("
("
is
.”
as
. "
it is
“
,
to
:
be
is
is
)
"
,
,
,
to
as
,
music which comes under mathematics and graphics which belong the practical sciences and
,
)
);
(
"
to
such
architecture and
(
arts
"
"
creative
"
,
"
"
or
res
,
as
"
"
,
“
to
"
a
(“
,
In
spectativa one which science this system the contemplative given considers materia the practical actualis one which leads useful activity and the rational rationalis one which iudicat narrat demonstrat suadet oblectat Apparently one take referring specifically poetics the oblectat Poetica Insofar dissociated from other first noted two things need concerned
II,
" ; :
:
:
in
,
sit
,
,
, & 13 : “
, , .p
.
,
,
ad
, ac in
I
.
&
,
in
sic
,
& &
"
est
,
In
."
on ,
,
vt
,
&
ad
proportio illius cui subministratur ipsum seruum adinuentae enim suos subiectos quam hçc pars nobis tradit nempe sunt illae artes inseruiant scientiae demonstratiuae quod per persuasionem dialecticam vel rhetoricam persuadetur aut per fictionem poeticam fingitur Also the commentary Bk the same edition Potest tamen haec genera definitionum partes definitionum enuntiatio complecti quinque artes logicas and the libros rhetoricorum Aristotelis paraphrases trans Balmes same edition 73v quòd vnoquoque istorum generum orationis species rhetorica species manifestum topica species demonstratiua species sophistica qui sicut reperiuntur his artibus de
), is “
to a
.
by a '
". A
& :
( ,
by
[ 3 ]
.
viii
-
vii
.pp
also Introduction
,
17 ;
Ullman
, I,
B.
ed .
26 ).
De laboribus Herculis
,
2
” ( .p
,
)
(
to of
,
'
of
of
of in
syllogismus enthymema rhetorica reperiuntur exemplum 1522 volume logical works Averroës paraphrases Aristotle containing also Abram Balmes translation the Averroës paraphrase the Poetics Venice De Sabio followed separate section dated 1523 devoted the Epithoma Auerroys omnium librorum logice After treating other logical works the Epithoma passes section entitled De orationibus poeticis inductio
POETIC
THEORY
with the three members of the medieval trivium logic , grammar , and rhetoric — and with history . In a later passage , Poliziano places the poet close to the orator : " For the poet is very close to second , it is associated
Mathematica
Astrologia
Analytica Topica
Perspectiva
Sophistica [
Rhetorica
thus
aut organicae
]
,
Grammatica
,
),
Partes subministrae
Physica
Nifo
similar classi
into two sections
Partes principes
Musica Theologia
Of
1531
intellect
a
vivere
contemplative
”
solitudine
,
in
divided the
proposed
(
Poetica
auxiliary
)
He
iis
fication
qui apte possunt
.
( De
later date another formal philosopher , Agostino
a somewhat
“
At
in rhythms , so is he
:
the orator ( as Cicero says ) ; just as he is more restricted freer in the choice of words . " 3
:
he
on
Moreover
.
to
as
in of
discourse
express ourselves before listeners which are accustomed poetry was invented Aristotle suggested the book which
,
as
analytics
of
all
of
in
it
,
we
moral philosophy useful forms
is
the instrument
nevertheless
is
of
,
rhetoric natural philosophy
is
Though
“
is
of
)
or
(
”
,
,
is
.
In
of
“
,
analytics logic and instrumental parts the instru philosophy ment natural and rhetoric the instrument moral phil osophy the text however the connection between rhetoric and poetics completely not clear and the place the latter left ambiguous the
,
.” 4
of
“
of
is
we
is
.
,
)
as
in
of
(
wrote pleasure and utility for purposes both Here again with Poliziano music and poetry retain their essentially medieval positions merely one The implication that poetry those forms discourse poetics
of
",
to
by
so
far have not been specifically
which
concerned with the a
in
find the same basis classification lecture which must have been one the first public expositions Aristotle's Poetics Around 1541 according the testimony Vincenzo Maggi Bartolomeo
,
of
to
,
.
of
of
But
of
we
poetry
.
art
distin
.
pursues The documents cited
of
it
in
express ourselves before listeners which are accustomed utility and pleasure guished from the others the combined ends
at
the
;
est ( ut
Lombardi took Averroës
,
ut
,
de
,
eo
quibus dicere solemus Libro quem
: estin in
.”
I,
De
sit
" (q
est ( ut
conferendum [ 4 ]
est in
ad
&
delectandum
,
poetica scripsit
,
ita
.
89 : "
) & . ad
:
ed .) , .p
4 (
).
Sicut numeris astrictior 1535 Rhetorica naturalis philosophię tamen utilis omnibus dicendi generibus coram auditoribus Poetica autem inuenta Aristoteles auctor
).
Quippe finitimus oratori poeta Cicero uoted from Cicero uerbis licentior Oratore xvi Analytica licet moralis philosophie instrumentum : “
-
.
),
1498 fols Yix Yixy and Zvi
inquit
as de
In
.
ij )
(
;
1550
.p *
to
as a
(
In
3
poetica communes explanationes Opera
;
lectures
by on
of
series
,
a
of
addressed
to
Accademia degl'Infiammati Padua the the Poetics Lombardi died soon there Maggi but the first lecture was printed after and the series was given preface by Maggi Aristotelis librum his and Lombardi's Lombardi exordium
POETICS
AMONG
THE SCIENCES
his authority for placing poetry among the logical and rational sciences ; it logic , dialectic , sophistic , and rhetoric certain shares with demonstrative
common qualities :
...
,
,
,
its
.
all .
neither do they have a specific thing as their subject matter , but only words and discourse , nor do they consist in one specific genus but introduce themselves into These are their common characteristics As for the particular and distinct ones demonstration and two companions dialectic and sophistic are called
in
as
a
in
of
so ,
,
on
. . . .
,
,
if I
to
do
by
,
is
logical faculties since their major and more common use arguments and they effect what they set out means certain concise points and brief may say they exist exclusively syllogistic and strict fashion and forms Rhetoric and poetic the other hand are not called logical faculties ,
.
,
to
so
,
of
,
,
of
,
as
of ,
,
a
in
true and proper sense and hardly ever use the syllogism but they use rather example popular devices Their speak the and the enthymeme which are products insofar they are this kind are orations and poems and for the most part they are concerned with political subject matters.S
.
a
a
The use words and discourse and the cultivation universal rather particular classifying poetics subject than matter are thus the bases for along with these other sciences (
,
)
( or
as
he
,
,
.
is
of
)
,
,
a
In
much less systematic document Sperone Speroni Dialogo della rhetorica 1542 again conjoins poetry and rhetoric but for entirely dif Speroni ferent reasons not concerned with the whole system the sciences but only with the arts which classifies useful mechanical
:
;
and pleasurable the latter are subdivided into the arts which delight the body and those which delight the spirit Body
Spirit
Painting
Rhetoric
)
(
eyes
Cooking
of
? )
,
a
,
a
.
to
:
to
,
by
he
,
,
pp
.
(
words
.)
more difficult structure 138 154-54v is
of
which are the instruments the please their ends poetry aims only please and persuade As result the orator's since must produce much tighter rhythmic
to
.
art
rhetoric wishes both
)
( (
taste
touch
Poetry and rhetoric are arts They are distinguished
mind
)
nose
(
Perfumery Heating
Poetry
)
(
Music ears
ita
& .
in
&
.
...
,
&
:
&
,
&
;
:
in
:
), .p 8 : “
(
.
in
5
quòd neque materiae loco res habeant uerba tantum 1550 certo uno genere uersentur sed omnia insinuant sese haec communia Sophistica illa propria atque distincta quòd Demonstratiua eius duae comites Dialectica logicae ipsae appellantur quòd harum maior quidam usus communior dissertationibus quibusdam quasi punctis concisa breuiter admodum atque strictim quod proposuerunt Explanationes neque
orationem
[ 5 ]
,
:
. "
,
in
:
,
,
,
.
,
ac
ut
,
,
&
,
loquar syllogisticae prorsus existunt Poeticaque contra efficiunt Rhetorica quòd non adeò uerè propriè Logicae appellantur neque syllogismo ferè sed exemplo atque enthymemate rationibus quasi popularibus atque harum quà huiusmodi utuntur sunt politicis occupantur argumentis extant opera orationes atque poemata plurimumque
POETIC
THEORY
Robortello's In librum Aristotelis de arte poetica ( 1548 ) we return to the position of Lombardi ( whose preface was published two years later ) ; the classification is the same , although some of the reasons are different . Robortello's point of view is stated in his own preface , before the commentary on Aristotle actually begins :
With Francesco
is
,
it
material
all
Discourse is placed under the poetic faculty as
as
its
explicationes
placed under , ,
,
,
it
of
. .
.
to as
.
in
,
prove something for that different some way The most express what Insofar true degree that same moves nearer
forth
is
of
or
, to , is in to to set be a
it
treats and from the person who uses necessary that every discourse reason proper and genuine function discourse it is
;
as
),
to
is
. . .
a .
,
(
so it
.
in
the others which concern themselves with discourse These are five number proper demonstrative for call apodeictic discourse dialectic rhetoric sophistic poetic All these have discourse their matter indeed since dis things which course assumes different force and form both from the kind
it
the apparently
true
,
From among
(
seu probabile quod videtur
or
(
),
in
be
,
of
το
),
,
το
;
that which
these each separate faculty seizes upon one
kind
:
apparens verum seems probable
).
(
as
,
το
.
is
of
any kind departs from truth discourse what false Between truth and falseness kind interval between the two expressed are placed ένδοξον πιθανόν φαινόμενον which may Latin the probabile the probable the suasorium the persuasive and the
,
medium
,
words
as a
the use
of
.
or
of
in
,
of ;
,
on
the basis
.
The traditional classification still prevails here
,
,
;
,
of ;
;
,
demonstration upon the true dialectic upon the probable rhetoric upon the persuasive sophistic upon that which has the appearance probability but poetics upon the false the sense verisimilitude the fabulous
of be
to
VI .
.
all
of
as
of
,
his point
the soul gives the following
schema
:
His division
poetics among the sciences the more general the arts among human activities He admittedly departure the Nicomachean Ethics especially Book
of
the place
of
as
took
of
the place
of
lem
problem
to so
of
"
,
in
“
is a
.
as
,
to
,
by
in
be
to
an
to
a
is
,
.
if
A
of
approach seems present different kind the thinking original statement Varchi But Varchi which ante dates Robortello added later one his ultimate position turns out essentially the same Lezzione Robortello's The first document della maggioranza dell'arti delivered before the Florentine Academy the spring 1546. Varchi here addressed himself not much the prob Benedetto
,
. . .
.
ad
eo ,
ab
,
.
,
.
)
;
;
,
ex
& ,
&
,
,
), .p 1 : "
&
( sic
,
et
(
6
Explicationes 1548 Subiicitur tanquàm materies poëticę facultati oratio sicuti aliis omnibus quae circa orationem uersantur Eae autem sunt quinque numero Demon stratoria enim TTOSEIKTIKDV licet appellare dialectice rhetorice sophistice poëtice Omnes hae subiectam sibi habent orationem Verùm quoniam oratio diuersam accipit uim aliquid edisse qui ipsa vtitur genere rerum quas tractat tùm formam tùm
;
.
;
to
, est
ad , id , TÒ
, TÓ
&
,
...
[6]
.
,
.
,
;
&
;
id ,
.
seu fabulos
."
,
Poëtice falsum
[u ]m
.
.
,
;
apparens verum seu probabile quod libet Latinè proferre probabile suasorium his quaelibet facultas vnum arripit genus Demonstratoria verum Dialectice quod probabilis sed verisimilis habet speciem Rhetorice suasorium Sophistice
videtur probabile
Ex
sic
quę
.
id ,
,
,
à
,
&
,
;
probandum ideò diuersam quoque omnium oportet esse orationem Orationis genuinum munus est proferre quod verum est maximè proprium Quantum autem quod orationis quodque genus vero recedit tantò propius accedit falsum Inter pavóuevov verum sanè falsum medio quodam interuallo posita sunt Evdofov Miðavóv rendum
POETICS
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
Anima
Ragione particolare intenzioni individuali cose particolari, gene
Ragione
universale intenzioni uniuersali cose private d'ogni materia , spogliate da tutte le pas
rabili , & corruttibili - cogitativa
sioni , teriali
ma
& accidenti
cose ingenerate , et incorru
tibili Ragione inferiore intelletto pratico ,
Ragione superiore specolativo , intelletto contemplativo
attivo fare , operare
= conoscere , intendere
Habiti pratichi
Habiti contemplativi intelletto
agibile
sapienza
fattibile
scienza
All
of the “ practical habits . " 7 Varchi gives of the kinds of arts included under each category : horsemanship , dancing , singing, playing musical instruments under the “ attiva ; " archi tecture , painting , and sculpture ( and “ infinite others ” ) under the “ fattiva . ” Presumably , poetry is one of the " infinite others ” ; although poetry is not specifically mentioned here , the last section of the lecture is devoted to a detailed comparison of poetry and painting ( pp. 68 , 72 ) . The major purpose of the lecture is to establish a hierarchy among the arts according to their nobility ; and since the dignity of the end is the criterion and since the arts fall under the second
the
.
be
,
to
,
,
and architecture occupy the highest positions warfare medicine relatively humble poetry will hierarchy the place assigned
in
,
up
as
set
examples
,
-
,
in
(
parole
)
(
cose
Contemplativa
Pratica
Specolativa
Attiva Agibile
Fisica
Etica
Matematiche 58–59
.
pp
.
549
),
7
”
philosophy
Loica giudiziale Dialettica Topica
Metafisica
Due lezzioni
real
Rationale
Reale
In
a
dividing philosophy into
“
by
He begins philosophy
)
"
rational
:
.
the sciences
and
“
of
—
,
to
,
in
be
to
a
in
to
,
by
of
supplemented These views Varchi's are and perhaps corrected way expressed another lecture careful and more fuller those delivered the Florentine Academy October 1553. This time refer ring again the Aristotelian system but including the Poetics which had been absent from the earlier materials Varchi does offer complete system
]
17
Sofistica Tentativa
POETIC
THEORY
Reale
Rationale
( cose )
( parole )
Aritmetica Musica
Economica
Rettorica
Politica Fattibile Arti meccaniche
Geometria
Astrologia
Poetica Storica Gramatica
In the commentary on this scheme , Varchi specifically states that poetry , coming as it does in the group of disciplines dealing with words , cannot be considered either an art or a science but merely a faculty . If it is sometimes called an art , this is only because it has been reduced to precepts and rules . 8
it
all
,
In
a to
.
,
"
:
It is
;
to
is
it it in is
to
its
position
in
fourth place among the instrumental sciences nobility shows rank according inferior not only the sciences but also the disciplines above the same group sense indistinguishable from those disciplines indeed true that dialectic its
Moreover ,
,
of
these faculties which Varchi assigns each corresponding instrument among the instruments
a
to
is
in
. " 9
of
of
,
,
a
subject matter and
in
another classification
of
is
to
at
be
,
in
,
logic and poetics are almost the same thing not being different substan tially but only accidents and thus the dialectician the rhetorician and nobility and placed honor the same level the poet may poetics How related the other rational faculties indicated
vero
demonstrative syllogism topical syllogism
favoloso
enthymeme example
)
finto
)
poetica
]
(
persuasivo
,
)
sophistical syllogism
retorica
is
,
of
,
,
of
,
, he
,
;
:
,
of
of
,
a
in
,
it
its to .
,
whose
is
is
,
”
placed
of
instrument the least worthy the very position.10 others inferior says later take into But this not Varchi's final word One must poetry first the host consideration two things with respect wonderful things which become the objects imitation second the magnificent making men good virtuous and happy that end which serves that Once again
“
poetics
ma
è
non
all
,
pare probabile
(
,
[
probabile
[
dimostrativa topica
dialetica sofistica
Discourse )
loica
Part [
Subject
,
Rational Faculty
of
:
discourse
so
, as
as
:
all
,
the sciences
poetica sono quasi vna medesima retore
,
,
il
."
, e
di
( 8 )
, e
,
vn
in
.
., si .p
,
il
e
il
loica
, e la
dialettica
cosa non essendo differenti sostanzialmente ma per accidente così dialettico poeta posson mettere medesimo grado nobiltà d'honore Ibid 573 10
,
of
,
,
itself necessarily
all
in
contain
.
),
571–72 Ben'è vero che
to in
, of
it
comes
, la
572
things divine well human sublime the most beautiful useful and delightful
and
la
1590
.pp
it
language
,
., .p
Ibid
(
Lezzioni
: “
In
9 8
,
way because
is
,
an
,
,
Since poetics then treats desirable and worthy end
all
as
of
.
,
perfecting the human soul When these qualities are taken into account human activities the greatest
poetry emerges
THE SCIENCES
AMONG
all
all
POETICS
,
of
,
arts and sciences
. 11
,
as
an
it is
in
,
it
; is
,
at
a
science than all the other faculties
,
greater honor
,
as a
as
of
,
of
,
the arts and the faculties once whence more noble more delight deserving without perfect itself thus them than each one ful and more any doubt greater marvel faculty and greater praise art and
to
its
, a
to
.
by
.
a
of
,
)
(
his
to
In
as
of
of
,
by
in
,
of
the desire break out the argument this last phase systematic restrictions imposed the system elevate poetry above the rational faculties the lowest rank one Dialogi della inventione poetica 1554 Alessandro the dedication Lionardi allies poetics once more with rhetoric and history although there stating are no traces more complete philosophical system He begins
One senses
...
be
:
that the two most necessary and useful human activities are speaking and doing
in in
in
,
in
us
,
...
.
as
is of
,
of
,
of to
,
,
of to
do ,
be ,
to
is of
to
us a
of
of
completely and properly neither the one nor the other these actions can knowledge history poems orations and those things say and required which teach deliberate what this life age and every manner actions and condition showing state discourse what imitated and what avoided done without
to
in
. 12
to
in
an
to
an
is
,
of
,
be
,
of
.
It
of
,
is
Poetry contains the other two within itself and hence the most worthy study again will noted that here there effort ennoble the assigning poetry poetry and that part art the process consists teaching men how important function live
it
,
;
so
to
subject
fix
,
on
:
no
logic have had
as
...
“
no
of
its
of
to
( I
,
is ) ,
For Giovanni Battista Pigna romanzi 1554 the reason for classifying poetry with rhetoric and dialectic under logic permit the explanation universality subject matter like the other instrumental sciences just has fixed subject rhetoric and dialectic since they are under ,
to
to
is
it
13
by
,
as
Ibid 592 Trattando dunque degno fine tanto sublime desiderato
is
).
all
in
,
somewhat different basis offered Antonio his De poeta 1559 He groups sciences under poetica tutte nel piu bello vtile
di
11
Sebastiano Minturno
(
which proceeds
a
on
A
of
."
in
.
of
,
,
poetry
be
,
matter which themselves any specific which falls under the same will not restricted say that the poet branch human activity Whence common every science participates division the sciences which again presents itself traditional but definite
,
,
le
e
&
,
, si di ,
di
,
de '
&
,
in
à
à
poemi come quelli ogni maniera stato parlamenti quel che
ne '
,
dell'orationi
questa uita nelle operationi
&
;
, di
. "
, , e e
di
,
nè
la
), da si , su .p à 19 : . si " ” ,
a
di
ha età , da & ci
di
, e
le
di
, e
nè
: di “
,
),
(
12
cognitione dell'istoria conueneuolmente fare senza insegnano fare dire deliberare cioche
che
, e le
la
e
se
è
à
in
, e
: “
., .p
cose così diuine come humane diletteuole modo per esser prosa viene contenere necessariamente tutte scienze tutte l'arti tutte facultà insieme più nobile piu piaceuole piu perfetta perse dunque merita donde ciascuna loro maggior lode come arte maggiore senza alcun dubbio maggior merauiglia come facultà honore come scienza tutte quante l'altre facultà arti scienze Dialogi 1554 p.3 queste due attioni potersi compiutamente l'una l'altra
la
la , è
si
dir
,
la
il
&
,
.
[ 9 ]
. "
La
;
,
la
&
la
,
&
ad
,
(
I
13
,
,
conditione richiede mostrandoci fuggire imitare Logica romanzi 1554 come Rhetorica Dialettica perche sono sotto alcun certo soggetto che fermino hauuto non hanno cosi Poesia che cade sotto poeta medesima alcuna certa professione non sarà astretta onde suole che d'ogni scienza partecipe
POETIC THEORY four major
headings : ( 1) those which are concerned
with
“
knowing the
things " and with a "contemplation
nature and the causes of
of divine
things ” ; ( 2 ) those concerned with “ instructions for good living ” ; ( 3) those
his
belonging to the “ faculty of discussing and speaking ” ; ( 4) mathematics. 14 Poetics , of course , belongs in the third category , along with grammar , rhetoric , logic, and history . Minturno introduces this distinction at a point where he is estimating the contribution of each of the other sciences to
his of
,
. 15
as a
of
an
poetry ; but the fact that it is fundamental in thinking about poetry analysis emerges from whole his work Alessandro Piccolomini who wrote commentaries both on the Rhetoric ,
Aristotle
considered himself an Aristotelian and found
on
and the Poetics
in
he
):
,
(
to
he
he is
he
;
as
.
of
of
justification for poetics views the philosophical position the works Aristotle themselves Thus defends the affiliation between explaining why expects rhetoric and poetics follows work on the Poetics after finishes his labors on the Rhetoric Piena parafrase nel terzo libro della Retorica d'Aristotele 1572 so
,
he ,
)
(
in .
it
is
of
to
in
,
in
be
a
in
,
..
closely for the reason that these two faculties rhetoric and poetics are kinship that great many linked together the subjects they treat can and equally useful should the one and the other faculty Thus that Aristotle knowing this repeat the same things order not both treatises when a
,
it ;
,
in
,
to
as
to it in
the first when necessary.16 ), on
to
he
In
referred
of
was writing about the one and the other made choice the aforementioned put common materials such wise one faculty those considerations which were closest and most conjoined with then writing about the other
its
as
“
at
,
he
,
;
”
life
.
to
by
”
“
,
faculty work the other Annotationi nel libro della Poetica d'Aristotile 1575 Piccolomini indicates his basic position referring directly says aim the Ethics All arts some honest utility and convenience for human hence poetry will also seek
(
the subsequent
it of
is
, all
to
The notion that civil science will gain
architectonic
"
the
"
) is
subordinated
."
in
all
which others are paraphrase for politics 87 : "
(a to
14
that art prudence
a
is
,
be
is
it
,
an to
of
be
“
,
end some such usefulness since poetry also habit the practical things may conse intellect relevant which can made and since quently among called art and since most honored the other nobility very close habits this kind and civil prudence which
,
of
.pp
in
in
",
.”
in
;
St.
, “
of
,
ac
in
cf.
., W. .p , 92 ;
15
in ,
in
), .p
ea
(
partem cognoscendo rerum naturam causasque posuerunt De poeta 1559 partem atque cum bene uiuendi institu rerum diuinarum perspicientiam coniunxerunt loquendi ratione partem tione uersari partem disserendi Mathematicis uoluerunt my article Ibid The Poetic Theories Mintumo Studies Honor ,
, & & la .
]) ,
la
,
a
,
&
,
;
in
, si
,
in
,
,
10 )
(
, le è
: di
,
&
in ,
di
,
rimetteua
.”
, si
&
,
'
' in
,
&
dell'altra
,
" (
“
di * 2v :
), ( " .p
(
16
Parafrase
,
Washington University Studies Louis Mo. 1942 101–29 1572 Percioche essendo queste due facultà Retorica parentela insieme che moltissime lor considerationi possono Poetica tanto congiunte qui che debbon communemente seruir all'una all'altra come Aristotele conoscendo questo per non replicar scriuer dell'una dell'altra stesse cose amendue fece delle dette communi considerationi vna scelta modo che quelle ch'alquanto fusser più vicine congiunte all'una ch'all'altra quella poneua quella scriuendo dette facultà Shipley
Frederick
AMONG
POETICS
THE SCIENCES
currency later in the century , and poetry will with increasing frequency be subsumed under it.17 Piccolomini's approach presupposes a purview of the Aristotelian system which extends beyond poetics and rhetoric and includes at least one other science in a different category , politics . A system which extends still farther beyond, and which really returns to the universal classifications of the first part of the century , is proposed by Federico Ceruti in a work which he presents as anonymous but which is probably his own , the De re poetica libellus incerti auctoris of 1588. Indeed , Ceruti outlines two possible com plete schemata
the sciences . The first would be divided as follows :
of
Practice
Logice
theologia
ethice
rhetorice
lanificium
mathematica arithmetice
oiconomice
grammatice
res militares navigatio
Theoretice
politice
Mecanice
historia poetice
musice geometria
agricultura venatio
astronomia physice
medicina pictura tectonica architectonica
fabrilis
A
and somewhat different division would proceed as follows
second
Theoretice mathematice metaphysice phisice etc.
Practice
Poietice
:
Instrumentales
de moribus
ars militaris
logice
de ciuili gubernatione
nautica
grammatice
pictura
rhetorice
de legibus etc.
musica
poetice
etc.
historia
,
“
vt "
of
a
by is
.
is
all
on
Whichever of these systems one adopts , says Ceruti , the place of poetics is clear. In both , in fact, it is linked with the same cognate disciplines, although in the first it is subsumed under grammar , which in turn is subsumed under logic , whereas in the second five instrumental sciences are the same plane What why group poetical arts which for the not clear ),
his
Il
-
,
commodo
dell'humana ;
intorno cose fattibili cosi fatti habiti honora vicinissima
."
&
,
( 11 )
.
10–11
gli
&
;
,
.pp
),
(
chap
. ix ,
re & in
poetica 1588
di trà
: "
), .p
(
la
.
,
&
18
De
Gabriele
the sciences
in
of
another such system
of
to
—
)
presents
qualche honesto giouamento 1575 ft6v poesia anch'ella vn'habito dell'intelletto prattico vita essendo por conseguente potendosi chiamar'arte essendo tutti altri tissima nobiltà alla ciuil prudentia architetonica tutte l'arti Annotationi
...
"
"
.
"
of
Ginani
à
17
the terms does not raise any questions for him.18 years later and very close the end the century
( or
Two Zinano
so "
is
of
proximity
(
part make things plurimum fiunt quae manibus hand poetics Apparently should not include itself for Ceruti the traditional poetry firmly established that even the close etymological place most
POETIC
THEORY
sogno , overo della poesia ( 1590 ). Zinano claims that the one he offers
is
Aristotelian : SCIENCES
Practical
Speculative
Internal
Metaphysics Physics
External Operations
Operations
Mathematics Geometry
(words, deeds )
( mind )
will : moral philosophy
Arithmetic Astrology Music
ethics
grammar
military art
economics
rhetoric
politics
poetry
agriculture navigation wool -making
intellect : dialectic
history
memory :
etc.
art of remembering
it
all
so
is
;
all
a
all its
Grammar , among the practical sciences dealing with words , is concerned with “ il ben dire " ; rhetoric , with “l'ornato dire . " As for poetry , it soon assigned compartment and becomes breaks out of universal science encompassing the others this because the others furnish with ,
it
or
or
,
on
to
,
is
an
is a
, in
).
(
to
sequel Della poesia romanzesca 1596 This earlier dialogue 1589 Della nuova poesia which Malatesta had not raised the question
testa's
of of
,
,
of
,
. 19
of
—
its
,
it
of
subject matter because teaches the lessons the others and because through allegory moral natural divine- contains the essential doctrines all the others The last important document among those examined insist the Gioseppe Mala grouping poetics with logic grammar and rhetoric
,
a
he
,
of ,
:
,
In
.
;
.
,
.
.
all of
poetry general the present one does hazard He divides the sciences into five groups the natural sciences the metaphysical sciences the rational faculties the liberal arts and the mechanical arts The rational faculties are arts discourse which have no specific subject matter they include logic and grammar They might also the classification
system
.pp
no
nature treat
specific
as
to
,
,
is
of
this group and this kind also poetry which subject matter was given but which rather remained free
of
by
to its
In
:
include poetics
many ,
,
,
le
,
scienze
gli enti
si in ,
La
la
le
il
si
.
,
de le
, ò
,
&
,
il
:
in
è
si
in
&
,
in
&
, la
,
di
,
da
origine hanno Non Peripatetico d'hauer cosi nel primo contenta qualità l'arti diuise che ancora considerando scienze esser varie secondo
cose le &
lui &
il
,
le
la
in
,
&
,
: “
),
(
Il
19
sogno 1590 prattica speculativa 19–21 Le scienze l'arti diuidono questa divisione presa dal fine perciò come vuole Aristotile nel primo della Metafisica speculatiua consiste contemplatione prattica operatione l'vna contempla tutto che cose dell'vniuerso l'altra quelle che sono soggette all'arti l'vna considera vero l'altra qui hanno origine l'intelletto speculatiuo prattico più tosto sopradette buono
&
,
,
in
in
.
.
." .
in di
& & .
,
12 ]
,
,
,
, in ,
(
, in di
si
di
&
,
,
.
la
&
,
).
of
. . . .
(
speculatiua subdiuide nel sesto the Metaphysics Metafisica Fisica Matematica subdiuide La prattica versando circa l'operationi secondo l'operationi diuide Del'operationi altre sono esterne altre interne L'operationi interne prouengono dalla mente sono tre sorti uolontà d'intelletto memoria Nella volontà consiste filosofia morale che diuide Etica Economia Politica Cf. also pp 21-31
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
...
POETICS
,
to
to
he
,
,
be
in by
,
or
a
in
,
as a
it
things as it might wish and to enter everywhere . And therefore would have compared rhetoric been very proper for Aristotle when dialectic have added third poetics which no less than the other two occupies itself with things which can anyone which does not certain sense understood ,
on
is
classification
.
uniquely the subject matter
,
is
the basis
since the initial assumption
of
by
of
a
this analysis
,
In
in
recognize any definite limited subject matter and which every subject finds some way participant the goodness Nature
itself
that sciences are differentiated one from
-
,
is
it
—
in
of
subject matter.20 another solely the basis differences Beginning with the humanistic period which had inherited from the Middle Ages and extending throughout the sixteenth century there
,
“
is
,
of
to
, of
( or
it
of
.
" )
as
its
as a
the discursive
.
or
as
one with the others
,
,
strong tradition that associates poetry with logic
and history
of
a
grammar rhetoric instrumental sciences Poetry belongs discursive science because uses words dis that the this association means One consequence course emphasize problems language the special resultant theories will tend poetry from the other discursive kind diction which differentiates thus
or
of
by
to
on
,
is
for
to
,
is
,
.
as
to
the matter
of
rhythm and rhyme the figures and tropes which are peculiar poetic expression Another consequence that since words are symbols for things and represent meanings person the whom signification intended theories this kind will hesitate oscillate between emphasis the things themselves and attention the sciences
regarded
instrument
,
.
poetry
,
of
it
the end
of
it
of
.
of
,
,
conceptions an
as on
philosophy i.e.
of
theories based specifically especially those which consider
set
is
its
on
of
.
,
;
it
of
its
of
no
.
to
is
,
to
it
an
meanings as
of
Poetry associated with the words the readers thought instrumental science because have fixed subject matter and hence resemble logic grammar and rhetoric Result ing theories will stress on the one hand the universality subject and compile long things will lists the kinds treats the other hand quality qua instrument and the ends which they will consider achieves This latter activity will bring such theories into close contact with another kinds regarded
moral and civil
ethics and politics
HISTORY
or .
of as
of
be
,
.pp
it
,
20
.
,
to
it or
be
A
place must made for those classifications which include among the discursive poetry instrumental sciences related thought History may serving ethical too uses words and political ends But comparison with also presents other possibilities special
history
dal
si ,
che la
Et
,
, è
di
....
,
,
di
da
&
,
la
,
[ 13 ]
Natura
&
In
la
in
per
in se
ne
di fù ),
(
&
,
che
,
se
di
, a
la
è
". ,
: “
questo numero questa conditione 27-28 dalla natura sua prescritto niun soggetto particolare anzi quante cose volesse ingerirsi per tutto per tanto non saria stato non molto conueniente che quando Aristotele proportionò Rethorica quale non meno alla Dialettica hauesse aggiunta terza Poesia l'altre due ponno essercita sopra cose certo modo capirsi ciascuno non riconosce materia ognuna qualche modo partecipe definita limitata troua benefitio della Poesia romanzesca 1596 ancora Poesia cui non poter trattare venne libera
POETIC THEORY poetry ; these may be boiled down to the essential fact that history , like so many forms of poetry , presents a " narration . " One may thus apply to it ( albeit equivocally ) such common terms of the critical vocabulary as action , character, thought , episode, and so forth ; one may discover in it such common features as descriptions of places and persons, speeches , great deeds of kings and heroes . These further possibilities of comparison led another group of theorists to set up a separate classification of poetry as a kind of history ; they constitute in a sense a cognate strain of classification , beginning again with the humanists and continuing - although much less century . It is appropriate at this — throughout the sixteenth point , in order to picture out the this kind classification group examine the position theorists representing this cognate strain
,
to
of
of
a
.
of
of
fill
frequently
de
,
a
in
,
,
:
of
.
,
;
is
,
as
to
to
et
of
)
or
(
dialogue entitled Actius Giovanni Gioviano Pontano numeris poeticis lege historiae and written toward the end the fifteenth century prophecy history attempted relate poetry such divers activities oratory and painting but the comparison developed most extensively similarity are discovered the one with history The following bases both
;
,
as
,
of
;
;
of ,
relate ancient and remote deeds both describe places peoples nations both condemn vices and praise virtues both partake the demonstrative oratory and deliberative types shown by the orations which they
is
in
,
in
.
common characteristics
21
.
,
a
of of
.
by in
so
;
introduce both treat the unexpected and accidental events which happen frequently life The comparison continues these terms then supplemented series contrasts demonstrating what ways the two Finally arts differ sets criteria for both arts are derived from their
,
at
.
.
in is
.
In
on
is
in
an
to
pair poetry with history developed The same tendency some History found anonymous Dialogue length MS Vat Lat 6528 probably around 1560-65 whose date this dialogue the main exposi to
of
a
,
chiasmus
"
“
four way -
a
of
.
of
,
of
,
existence
be
presenting tor Hieronimo Zabbarella claims and defending the Pomponazzi on history He starts with the assertion theory the
division
narration into four
of a
of
a
the action narrated language
Both
and the whole
in
,
14 )
.
193–227
(
.pp
Previtera
,
ed .
,
Dialoghi
/
In
21
of
).
,
.
(
essentially analogical quality fols 142v 151 discussion has Julius Caesar Scaliger's point view the Poetices libri septem
of
very broad senses
.
of
kind
,
in
are used
special
of
of
the character
verse and
a
,
of ,
”
history
first
in
of
and
the use
an
”
poetry
“
,
,
second
in
Poetry differs from history “
single man many persons
of
:
Sermone
and
of
a
single action single action
many sayings and actions single man narration many and various actions many men narration
:
Vita
of a
:
:
Poema narration Historia narration
of
:
subordinate parts
POETICS
AMONG
THE SCIENCES
puts him into both categories of critics , those who classified poetry of “ oratio " and those who considered it a form of narration . He begins with a general division of “ oratio ” according to follows ends 1561 ,
Type
vtilitas
cives
voluptas
delectatio
theatra
,
“
by
narra
uses the common form
delectatio
. , It "
of
necessitas
expression
:
,
philosophi
veritas prudentia
The third type
as
Audience
Expression
of
End
of
its
as a part
,
is
a
is to
of in
another which
is is
intermediate
to
imitation
is
,
,
of
by
"
“
,
simpler thread poetry which either adds any case true things means false but poetry the case for history the final end )
This end
: “
teach
(
to
.”
with greater splendor also
a
in
imitates
As
or
discourse
truth
,
to
spinning fiction
of is
its
:
“
,
subdivided into history and ornate language tion accompanied by history which poetry sure belief professes and produces truth
a
of
,
on
22
."
a
,
.
a
in
of
a
is
In ,
final and which teach with pleasure history the De ratione essentially work which treatise scribendae historiae 1574 Uberto Foglietta spends certain amount drawing comparison between history and epic poetry Both are time it
In
.
,
of
by
of
in
it
it,
as
.
is
as
(
),
narrations the essential basis for the comparison both treat events which depends upon have actually happened But history different insofar may dispense with the truth and cannot exist without and insofar poetry various ornaments and decorations which are required his history Foglietta indicates that these discussion the component graces a
,
.
of
its
,
history
.
poetry
to
,
Il
as
means
the relationship
of .
instruction
raises the whole issue he
),
1584
of
,
so
common end
,
a (
serve
Lasca
theorists the two arts are narration because they pleasure His dialogue
by
of
the last this group much because they are forms
For Lionardo Salviati related not
of of of
. 23
its
of
is
this
as
document the poet Indeed such assumption that the internal procedures more interesting for history and poetry are the same than for the two arts theoretical statements about them
are the ones commonly cultivated
of
is to ,
the
of
a
is
it
if
,
to
Its
.
&
,
o
leggono
s'ella
sia ,
la
,
il
,
,
case
."
, e
medesimi
.
vtile cioè faccia prudente quei che guerra sappiano ben gouernare comune lor
8 : “
pace
947–48 963 ,
.pp
1576
Ch'ella
[ 15 ]
privata
lorin .p
che
with Bodin
( , in e le sia ),
, ed e ), .
,
:
pubblica
,
l'ascoltano
1584
si (
Lasca
se
Il
24 23
”.
,
ad
est
,
,
is
.
,
&
delectatione De ratione
private
pleasure inherent
profitetur Differunt autem quòd alterius fides certa verum altera aut addit ficta veris aut fictis vera imitatur medius illum vltimum qui docendi cum
prodit simpliciore filo texens orationem maiore sanè apparatu ... Hic enim finis
: est
1581
and themselves and their houses
achieved through the means
ed .) , .p 2 : “
;
this end
(
Poetice
24
,
public history
"
history 22
so be
it,
or
it is a
if it
is
,
history which tells not Unlike earlier theorists admits the possibility commonly believed and which may even tell lies when the truth but what these would useful usefulness render prudent those who read govern the community well hear that ... they may know how
che
storia
THEORY
POETIC
in the reading. Such views, of course , bring history very close to the com mon conception of poetry , and Salviati sees between them the following differences (pp . 11-13 ) : Poetry
History
forma : imitazione soggetto : verisimile fine : purgar gli animi
forma : narrazione soggetto : quel che si crede fine : prudenza
renderci ben costumati stromento : verso , melodia , ballo
stromento : favellare sciolto
For which reasons , ” he goes on to say , “ poetry may in a way be made subordinate to the philosophy of conduct , and history to that of govern ment ; nevertheless , as far as the end is concerned there might be occasion to argue to the contrary , that is , that it is the same both in history and in poetry ." 25 As the dialogue continues , however , Salviati argues that poetry “
achieves these ends less well than history , since it is not believed and has as a result no lasting moral effect , and hence is to be considered
an inferior
these texts , classifying poetry with
of
Most of
all
art .
.
as
to
of
,
a
of
in
it it all , to
to
as
,
.
to
is
,
of
is a
it
its
,
to
of
,
is
an
,
it
,
an
,
a
of
times out the conviction that poetry instrument that serves higher purposes assign more particular way there effort not another position but regarding find some supplementary way which will companion arts This effort make transcend with Varchi results recipient the affirmation that poetry universal science the riches philosophy whose function contribute the highest welfare .
classification might indicate really something more than
At
a
so
,
,
of
in is of all
a
to to
.
do
,
or
of
or
the rest the discursive with history singled out from among them fall the century The few which come later little more than continue tradition dating back the humanist period Not poetry them indeed give role restricted the mere process
instrumental sciences within the first sixty years
or be
is ,
as a
of
,
.
of in
its ,
.
to
an
as
,
to of
During the rest the century while the old classification con appear from time poetics will time the essential position keeping with part one rather more exalted functions that instrument moral philosophy mankind
tinues
MORAL PHILOSOPHY This position first assigned
,
,
to
nella poesia
.
medesimo
da :
de '
la
costumi
sarebbe forse . "
, e
16 )
è
,
nella storia (
, e
cioè che fosse ,
contrario
,
in
disputare
filosofia
fine
, ci
qualche modo sotto
La Storia ridur potrassi sotto quella della città tuttauia quanto
il il
Poesia
in
Per laqual cosa
la
11 : “
Ibid
., .p
25
:
,
.
of
of
,
Il
in
a
is
by
is
poetics among the documents studied Dedalione overo del poeta dialogo dated 1560 essentially The work rebuttal Plato's banishment the poets Ammirato divides philosophy into two main branches the contemplative and the active Scipione Ammirato
POETICS
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
Active
Contemplative
Natural
"morale
Supernatural
“ domestica , familiare " ( = Economics )
Mathematics
“ civile ”
costumatezza " ( = Ethics )
( = Politics )
in
us
26
."
of
,
of
it
a
Poetics is subsumed “ If civil philosophy concerns good , the of our minds and of our bodies it will really concern both these larger , arts that is , poetics and medicine ; but take the matter equivocally say both the one and the other that concerns sense and medicine that the soul and that the body The poet bears the same let
under civil philosophy :
”
in it .
of
,
27
,
to
by
of
for
of
the reasons given below an
"
Poetica Ethica
:
The Poetics would fall into the sequence
-
-
-
“
Dialectica Rhetorica
works
.
Aristotle's
)
(
of
of
contents
is to
of
to
is
is
"
of
as
to
relationship the physician the legislator does the surgeon and the poetry driving end induce virtue into the soul vice out essentially the point This view Antonio Posio whose aim the pertinent section his Thesaurus 1562 summarize the order and the
,
,
to , a
it of
of
in
of
,
all
.
,
In
,
.
of
of it
in
do
to
to
,
be
,
is
of a
justice
of
and the other things that are necessary state To poetics rejected from perfect state what indeed added which must not ever Plato seems want with the eighth book the Republic fact ,
charity
of
of
is
is
in
Rhetoric fact the instrument the moral philosopher instrument with which good laws are proposed and which used the senate for the best deli peace berations about the observance the laws divine worship
,
.
be
is
it
,
,
as
,
,
them were added immediately
the
.
to
,
moral and civil philosophy ethics dedicated Nicomachus
to
.
true Moreover the same
discourse since the poet must arouse anger These books having been placed first hand
an
on
maidens books
to ,
,
poetics serves the state fear hope and the other passions
of
to
decide whether this
art
others as
leave
an
to
I
rhetoric
.
of
.
,
,
a
language purges the soul the poet using certain sweetness evil passions and brings great utility through the action and great pleasure through the imita part tion Those have not been lacking even who have maintained that
it ,
is
it
to
,
of
;
,
to
by
”
“
its
as a ,
Poetics remains here associate dialectic and rhetoric maintaining belongs function discursive science but the whole group which ancillary becomes moral and civil philosophy and poetry itself distinguished the pleasure and the utility which affords.28
28 27
la ,
de
&
;
la
&
&
la
il
la
.”
&
&
,
: “
), .p
(
In
26
corpi Opuscoli 1642 386 Se ciuile riguarda bene degli animi nostri poetica veramente ella riguarderà amendue questi cioè medicina ma prendiamo cosa più larga diciamo ch'ella riguarda equiuocamente l'vna l'altra medicina dell'anima del corpo
,
& in
ad
,
."
il
. * :Sv “ è
,
),
., “ il
(
la
Ibid fine della poetica indur nell'anima virtù discacciandone vizio Thesaurus 1562 fol Rhetorica enim est instrumentum moralis philosophi quo bonae proponuntur leges optimaeque fiunt senatu deliberationes obseruandas leges
in
.
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
sit
.
sit ,
,
&
.
,
de
,
ab
,
cultum diuinum Pacem pietatem Iustitiam caetera quae Reipub sunt necessaria Accedit optima Repub non est abiicienda Quicquid videatur velle Plato vero Poetica quae Repub Poeta enim cum quadam sermonis suauitate animum malis affectibus octauo purgat magnamque actione vtilitatem imitatione delectationem affert Non defuerunt
[ 17 ]
ac
,
."
de
.
,
ad ,
,
,
,
id
.
,
autem qui partem Rhetorices eam esse putauerint An verum aliorum nunc iudicium seruit autem ipsa Poetica Reipublicae tanquam sermocinalis facultas cum debeat poeta spem caeterosque affectus His praepositis ciuili commouere iram timorem morali philosophiae ancillis libri Nicomachum moribus statim adiecti sunt
THEORY
POETIC
its
The next statement is neither so systematic nor so explicit , since it relates poetry to moral philosophy without specifying the nature of the relation ship . It is found in Jacopo Mazzoni's Discorso in difesa della Comedia del divino poeta Dante ( 1572 , under the pseudonym of Donato Rofia ), which is
it
“
to
."
to
...
a
of he
to
I
no
by
we
3 .)
(p .
”
,
. in .
be
is
moral philosophy The assertion neither developed nor supported later the text nor are told how poetry serves the end moral philosophy have found earlier text Mazzoni which might referring
of
part
is
: “
devoted first chapter the proposition that not improper for philosophers discuss poets Mazzoni here makes only the bald state ment elsewhere we have sufficiently clearly proved that poetry
so
,
”
,
,
,
of
,
"
:
up ,
.
,
to
seems
.
in
medicine and architecture his final arrangement Giacomini divide letters into two subgroups the first the scienzie contem
,
history
In ,
he
to
be
e
in
“
in
, in
is
"
“
a
of as
its of
dignity really the primary characteristic the art work which made public conclusions four years later 1576. Just Varchi 1546 had been concerned with the maggioranza dell'arti Lorenzo Giacomini 1576 proposed the topic Della nobiltà delle lettere delle armi for three lectures read the Florentine Academy Under logic rhetoric poetics letters included moral philosophy the art Concern with the
it
.
.
is
,
to
is
,
to
;
,
so
it
in is
of
,
;
to
of
is
”
,
plative superior arms the second made moral philosophy knowledge merely supplies and other forms inferior arms since the doctrine which leads action Action itself more noble than doctrine Although not stated poetry presumably falls into the last category
be
to
,
,
of
to
us
“
,
instruction the literary arts will include rhetoric and poetics which explain moral subjects for our own benefit and furnish with the means that others and music also which like poetry used used for four
his
,
of
to
a
on .
it ,
?
of
.
to
,
,
five years earlier Jacopo Mazzoni had initiated
of
that
remembered
29
."
, an
or
it a
of
a
in
be
It
will
as
of
be
,
is
is
:
;
is
,
By
,
in
,
,
of
ends for formation character for the purgation the passions for rest our studies from our affairs and for recreation poetics this date 1576 the position related moral philosophy firmly established very few dissenters later there will But new question now arises part philosophy instrument moral The distinction sometimes not clear but much debate centers upon especially large group documents relating the quarrel over Dante
MS B.N.
is a
in
,
di
...
,
he
,
,
on
every possible point counter Mazzoni this statement Poetry insisted
take issue with him
.
to
out
on
to
did not fail
29
he
1583. Since Bulgarini
set in
,
of
di
.”
“
defense
of
in
Dante with the statement that poetry part moral philosophy Sometime between 1573 and 1576-77 Bellisario Bulgarini M. Siena wrote his Alcune considerazioni sopra'l discorso Giacopo Mazzoni fatto difesa della Comedia Dante published only the discussion
, et
18 )
(
la , .
,
et
il
et
la
.” ,
in
: "
i
.
,
la
da i
si
,
,
il
di
,
ci
quali
la
la
et
le
impareremo Paris Fonds italien 982 fols 62-63 Rettorica spiegare suggetti morali danno modo benefizio nostro d'altrui quale Musica ancora come Poesia per quattro fini soleua vsarsi per costume negozij per diporto negli studij per purgazione degli affetti per riposo Poctica
POETICS
THE
AMONG
SCIENCES
could not be considered a part of moral philosophy because it was an art ; Aristotle and Horace should be taken as authorities for this . Moreover , if it were a part of philosophy it would belong to the rational and discursive branches, not to the practical group in which moral philosophy falls . Nor do I see , at best, how one can say anything else about it except that it might be an instrument of moral philosophy, in the way in which ( by those who know best ) logic is held to be an instrument of philosophy in general : and this
also according to the opinion of those who claim that the principal end of this same poetics is not to delight — as is maintained by many and not without reason —but to profit.30 thesis is an attempt to liberate poetry from the
a sense , Bulgarini's
In
be an
as
it
no
a
,
In
).
place
as
an
currently established
:
in
would not
be
...
all
to
retain poetry
wish
its
; (
di
in
his
by
.
to
is
an
;
he
its
place domination of moral philosophy ; to do so , he returns it to implies meanwhile that really should instrumental science but independent art whose end only give pleasure considered The passage cited from Bulgarini was answered directly Orazio Capponi manuscript Risposte alle prime cinque particelle delle con reality there are adequate siderazioni Bellisario Bulgarini 1577 opposition following given reasons for the the text largely illustrates
is
it
of
it
us
,
us ,
it in
as
as
,
,
to
of
is a
it
us
direct
)
to
say that part moral philos along the road which may lead
us
is
to
not improper
on an to
go
.
31
(
it
is
bring about this effect ophy whose only purpose happiness
—
at
of
of
,
in its
,
to
at
human life
of
us to
it
improper thing say that poetry insofar parts some we see clearly considering which the excess those passions which are found and teaches good modes conduct distinguishing them from the bad and many other such things useful for arriving poetry can human happiness insofar then useful purge
is
Di .sig
“
at
is
moral philosophy but
the same relationship that logic bears
to
part
of
he
a
not
asserted the same position but
lei , al
.pp
it
to
poetry
so
:
of it,
an at
bearing
30
instrument
it,
1579
( is In
Maggio
somewhat greater length
).
20.
"
di
,
il
Siena
di
,
in
in
.
,
to
,
of
a
to
Capponi does say that even according Aristotle there no objection calling philosophy art part Bulgarini's reply came two years later his Repliche alle Risposte del Capponi published Orazio 1585 but the work dated the end
si
,
,
,
,
il
da
: e
di
."
il
da ' ,
di
;
in
,
fin
;
si
31
,
: “
),
(
sia
,
,
di è
la
se
,
Alcune considerazioni più altro possa 1583 14–15 Ne veder che più intendenti dire non ch'ella istromento della moral filosofia nella maniera che Logica per istromento della filosofia questo anco per l'opinion tenuta vniuersale quelli che voglion ch'il principale essa Poetica sia non dilettare come molti giouare non senza ragion tiene ma ,
il
, a
,
la
19 )
(
, e ci fà
in
si
,
si
e
da
la
fa ,
,
."
,
,
i
rei ,
ci
di
,
si
: "
.
,
.
è
,
la
in
.
MS Bibl Com Siena G.IX.54 fol 14v non sarebbe cosa del tutto sconcia dire che quanto Poesia utile alla vita humana come uede manifesto risguardando nelle sue parti alcuna delle quali purga dal souerchio quelli affetti che trovano noi peruenire conoscere buoni costumi distinguendoli molte delle fatte cose utili poesia pud questo effetto cagionare sia parte alla felicità humana Inquanto dunque che della filosofia morale laquale altro non che indrizzarci per strada che possa condurci alla felicità
POETIC
THEORY
philosophy in general. He would suggest , with respect to logic and poetics , that the one and the other of them should perhaps be placed among the arts , or we might say sciences ( taking science in a broad sense ) which are called rational or discursive ; and that just as logic , agreeing in this with rhetoric , has no fixed subject matter about which it operates , almost the same thing happens with respect to poetics , and particularly with relationship to the human actions that it under takes to imitate ; so that , not being confined to speaking or treating exclusively of such or such human actions , it may have free choice with respect to any and all ,
directing them toward practical happiness the moral philosopher.32
,
,
of
men
the most immediate end
an
is
,
which
so
in
means
by a
to
(
to
it
certain
it )
it
of
,
it ; to
of
with the subject matters these latter whence will come also way their instrument since they use bring profit and form better always carries with the pleasure which the moral characters
of
be ,
to
)
(
its
with one or another kind of poem . Add to this the fact that just as logic was particular instrument invented primarily to serve philosophy in general as poetry perchance was invented serve the moral philosophies occupying itself
of
to
,
,
be
all
if
,
,
,
.
,
It
improper however consider poetry instrument natural compositions treating really poems science since verse the latter are not Bulgarini repeats finally his notion that arts are divided into the would
be
,
to
,
of
at
in
of
be
to
is in
an
;
,
this interchange
of
.
as
;
of
a
poetics
a
of to
of
,
,
the practical and the instrumental logic and rhetoric and belong the last these poetics cannot thus possibly con part practical sidered such science moral philosophy Bulgarini's manuscript this last work came the attention Lelio presumably Marretti who wrote answer the form Avvertimenti around 1579-80 the manuscript found with most the others speculative
.
of
: “
a
an in
,
It
“
to
,
it
.
,
it
as .
of to of a
it of
of an
an
is
it of
It
33
to
."
;
the moral
da
instrument
, si Ò
:
ad
,
, si , ò o di
,
,
in
)
in
;
,
, ha ò
, e
: la “
la
(p
, e
,
; e
, si
(
27–28 igliando
di
riporsi infra l'arti l'vna l'altra loro sia forse largo modo che razionali Scienza sermocinali Logica conforme chiamano che come ciò alla Retorica non alcuna deter minata materia intorno alla quale s'esserciti quasi che questo medesimo interuiene alla particolarmente prende Poetica intorno alle azzioni vmane ch'ella imitare con ),
Repliche 1585 vogliam dire scienze
.pp
me that one might say that poetry was
32
to to
be
is
a
of
in
the Biblioteca Comunale Siena Marretti's notes are misunderstanding Bulgarini's ideas He confused and show some politics begins with the thesis that poetry subordinate insofar the politician must judge poem the possible moral effects Still would proper does moral philosophy since call instrument not principles only not teach the that science teaches how live well special sense ignorant men instrument only seems
di
'
,
,
,
'
,
e
de
gli ,
di
lei ,
di
.
;
la
,
è
'
di
, ò à
la
;
."
."
à
[ 20 ]
,
, i
il
il è
'
;
: "
.
,
huomini costumi che ella porta tuttauia seco qual fin più propinquo del moral Filosofo gl'huomini rozzi ben viuere ma sol
la
,
per mezzo della dilettazione zandoli alla felicità pratica Avvertimenti fol 438 33
si
,
,
vn
'
in
,
in
.
à
,
à
,
à
queste quelle vmane azzioni dire trattar solamente habbia l'elezzion libera intorno tutte quante con vna con vn'altra sorte questo che Logica Poemi Aggiungasi come stata principalmente trouata per seruire alla Filosofia vniuersale come suo proprio stromento così Poesia per auentura per esse laonde verrà ad esser seruir alle Morali venendo ad essercitarsi intorno alle materie per giouare formar meglio anco certo modo loro stromento seruendosi quelle ciosiacosa che non essendo ristretta
indiriz
POETICS
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
philosopher , since he uses it to give proper moral character to men , rather than an instrument of moral philosophy , since the latter teaches us man's end in life and how to achieve it, for which teaching neither poetics nor poetry is useful to us . I suspect that there is considerable equivocation about this word ' instrument . ""34 This stand rather leads Marretti to take sides with Capponi : “ The opinion of Capponi seems to me quite probable , that poetry is rather a part than an instrument of moral science , since it to be
of
placed anywhere without doubt could not moral philosophy both because deals with it
,
of
,
it
philosophy
it :
of
,
part
of
a
called
else than under the branch
be If
its
As
own way happiness poetry among the poetry could
for Bulgarini's classification rational disciplines Marretti will have none .” 35
the ordinary man
“
does exactly what that science does , bringing in
the very same matter and because
36
an
a
as
as -
of
or -
."
it
,
,
concerns the very same end During the years 1573–80 then the Bulgarini Capponi Marretti con troversy revolved about the designation poetry part instru
of
.
,
Francesco Patrizi was concerning himself with the same question
to In ,
same
a
the
,
.
of
to
About
instrumental
the
They hesitated between the practical period formal philosopher
.
science the art
and
of
to
poetry belonged
of
of
of
.
of
ment moral philosophy Some the difficulty decision arose from the inability the theorists decide which the Aristotelian branches
),
"
,
and sections to
The assignment
,
,
“
of
by .
,
,
,
Economics Poetics Rhetoric
the Problemata
: “
of
,
,
,
is
and
of
,
Ethics Politics 29
:
."
28 ,
(
(“
,
,
,
27 ,
these treatises 18 ,
of
he
” ),
a
I
of of
VIII Volume his Discussiones peripateticae 1571 devoted division Aristotle's works Aristotelicorum librorum extantium per Logi genera distributio first distinguishes eight groups works cum De Ente De Sapientia Mathematicum Naturale Medicum Morale Artificiale Each then subdivided and under the group Morale come Book
the Poetics
the
of
In
.
IX
is
to
in
be
the last book
. 37
Patrizi insists that the Poetics was really meant
to
(“
in
.
of
,
is ,
is
of
of by
at
for several previous theorists poetry ,
,
For Jacopo Zabarella
is
the Politics
as
of
” ,
)
butio
of
justified the Politics Book VIII reference moral sciences and the argument that along with music poetics useful for the instruc support tion the young The authority Plato cited Book singulis generibus distri the same volume Aristotelicorum librorum group
one
,
la
,
à
, al
et
,
il
.
la
ne
,
la
sia
del
fol .
."
,
ne
ci
il gli
,
si
à
: “
,
.
.,
34
potrebbe dire che Ibid fol 438v Più tosto par me Poetica fusse istromento del filosofo morale seruendosi d'essa per render costumati huomini che istrumento della filosofia morale insegnandoci questa fine dell'huomo modo d'acquistarlo che non poetica poesia Dubbito che non s'equiuochi assai intorno questa serue parola istromento
la di si
e
82 .
66-66v
,
.pp
."
(
1571
ed .) ,
'l
la
il
tomi primi
la
fa
la
,
,
."
se
la
: “
se
Discussionum peripateticarum
( 21 )
37
, e
,
.
.,
36
il
,
il
: “
.,
,
35
Capponi che poesia piu Ibid 438v Parmi assai probabile l'oppinion tosto parte che istromento del morale facendo medesimo appunto che scientia inducendo con suo modo felicità nell'huomo ordinario poetica potesse chiamar parte Ibid fols 439-439v Se filosofia senza dubbio perche raggira intorno alla non potrebbe porsi non sotto membro della morale perche riguarda medesima materia medesimo fine
POETIC
THEORY
&
,
; 13 , “
II,
in
to
of
his
and the same time related to the rational sciences and to moral philosophy . It should be noted that the work in which he discusses the problem is a work on logic, De natura logicae libri duo 1578 the specific chapters chapter devoted the discussion are Book De Rhetorica
,
."
&
,
.
by
is
of
do
an
is
at
,
,
to
&
15 , “
,
&
"
;
,
14 , “
” ;
Poetica quòd philosophiae contemplatiuae instrumenta non sint chapter neque Quòd Rhetorica Poetica neque artium moralis phi losophiae instrumenta sint chapter and Quòd Rhetorica Poetica quomodo solius ciuilis disciplinae instrumenta sint The relationship logic the association with rhetoric are thus initial assumptions The point specifically what branch philosophy poetry issue served is
he
action rather than
Next
,
action
con
to
,
related
38
to
)
or
their usefulness
. "
...
they deal with things
in is
;
with action templation
: “
(
.
as
instrument Zabarella argues first that poetry and rhetoric not contemplative philosophy since the latter speculative serve con cerned only with knowledge whereas the two sister faculties are concerned argues that they
, of ' to
its
as
“
to
.
:
in
.
is to
by
,
to
,
to
moral philosophy which has function improve teach each man how himself but rather the civil discipline improve others Both are thus the tools which each man attempts the politician The distinction made clear the following passage are not instrumental
,
;
to
,
,
in
as
of
it
of
part particular rather logic insofar uses taken the broad sense
a
is
is a
.
,
of
,
of of
In
later chapters Zabarella contends that they are part than universal logic and that poetics Example example logic the one the means
or of
to
,
,
;
uses rhetoric through his own means but
. 39
by
he ,
however that other persons ,
.
with this distinction poetics means
of ,
to
;
to
is
he
The moral man who does right the citizen however causes others do right for the moral man wants make himself good whereas the citizen wants make others good ... Rhetoric and poetics are thus instrumental faculties which the citizen employs for action namely make his fellow citizens good
of
,
on
as in
of
of
as
in
be
, ,
of
.
,
,
to
the audience for imitation actions characters and passions presented rejection view Lionardo the point Some expansion and clarification poetry classifying already appeared with those one Salviati who has history may Aristotle's Poetics written seen his Commentary
he
,
a
a
on
.”
As
,
is
to
.
,
its
,
of
“
.
,
of to
of
Salviati considers the opinions such other commentators He decides that with respect and Castelvetro relative moral character the operation which the end the poem place for history within moral philosophy the poet will have poetry rejects Castelvetro's theory that presupposes treatise treatise 1585–86
Maggi Piccolomini
ad
,
53 : “
. .p
,
[ 22 ]
."
Poetica uerò per alios
;
,
ad ,
,
. ad . . .
,
,
,
vt
,
,
,
55 : “
., .p
39
."
.
),
(
38
con ad actionem potius quàm De natura logicae 1578 pp 53–57 esp templationem vtilitas ipsarum pertinet alii bene agant moralis moralis ipse est qui bene agit ciuilis verò facit Ibid atque Sunt igitur Rhetorica enim uult seipsum bonum reddere ciuilis autem alios agendum vtitur idest quibus homo ciuilis ciues Poetica facultates instrumentales bonos efficiendos cum hoc tamen discrimine quòd arte Rhetorica per semetipsum vtitur
POETICS
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
on history . Even though the poet must know something about truth , “ to the knowledge of truth , in what pertains to things that have happened , not a treatise on the writing of history but history itself is required . And without reading histories the truth about things which happen may rather
...
be derived from experience . ” 40 Salviati's approach is not basically syste matic , and these statements show rather a preoccupation with current
.
All
As
41
. "
,
all
branches
of no
its
problems than an orderly attempt at solving them . A much more orderly treatment is seen in Bernardino Baldino's Discorso breve intorno all'utilità delle scienze et arti ( 1586 ) ; but the order here is derived less from philosophical principle than from moral conviction . That conviction is briefly put at the outset : “ ... poetry by essence can and must blame misdeeds less than certain other disciplines and arts
.”
So
,
;
"
"
,
its
If of
:
“
, “
in
“
to
.
sciences
in
,
a
of
philosophy are transformed into types moral are divided into speculative and practical The speculative exist theology order heal the soul which presumably provides medicine against our sins belongs for the this group practical the moral disciplines heal the mind vices and medicine result philosophy
is
of
Its ,
. 42
:
,
to
.
,
,
is
"
.”
to
in
gized
of
everything thus the health human bodies analo specifically curative medical terms the medical science involved rather than preventive Poetry along with rhetoric falls within the class curative functions are the soul liberal arts those which pertain stated thus contributes
to
in
is
,
.
it
,
,
it
... also like the other noble arts came into being enrich our spirit with salutary and honorable precepts But different from the other disciplines this that the others come unveiled and bear openly their bitterness and their
with which they freely touch and beat the hearts the harmful and the whereas poetry with masks and with sharp words but covered with
of
,
whip
,
;
vicious
as
of
,
to
its
.
to
,
by
to
to
as
,
,
proposes
do
the other doctrines attack the guilty and scold faults and bring corrupted spots and rottenness just errors and health sick minds the clever doctor sweetens bitter medicines ... And this they do attract young people study teachings and remedies against mis works which are full honey
del
11 ,
40
deeds and crimes.43 , a '
è
il
,
il
vero dell'accadenti
il
storie
la
" ; "
,
al
: “
,
senza legger
le
...
cose dall'esperienzia
eziandio misfatti
;
deue biasimare
i
&
sua ragione può
arti
B4v
.
de ., ., .p pp . B3 : B4 “ -
43
42 Ibid
.” di
poesia
,
non meno ch'alcune altre discipline
&
A2v
: “ la
1586
), .p
Discorso
(
41
."
puo ritrarsi
E
richiesta
.
è
in
,
la
.
II, II,
risguardando poema quale MS BNF fols 13–13v fine intorno costumi l'esercizio del poeta tra moral filosofia harà luogo ... alla cognizion del uero cio che all'auuenute cose appartiene non trattato dello scriuer storia ma essa storia
,
,
;
la
& e
ciò
In
.
& , de & i
,
, e
in
anch'essa come l'altre nobili arti venuta luce per arricchire l'animo precetti salutari questa nostro horreuoli differente dall'altre discipline che portano palese l'amarezza l'altre vengono scoperte sferza conche liberamente toc Ibid
,
.”
a il
i
per, e
delitti
, e
ciò
misfatti
.
,
& &
la
E
i
23 )
i
. &
...
remedij contra (
documenti
, e
le
,
&
le
;
, e
di
i
,
piene
de
studiare l'opere
sue
& ma
&
,
le
,
,
flagellano poesia con maschere cano cuori nocenti vitiosi doue con parole pungenti coperte riprendere mele dissegna come altre dottrine mordere diffettosi magagne come diffalte errori sanare gl’animi amalati corrotti dalle macchie gioueni medico auueduto ch'adolcisce medecine amare fanno allettare
of
, is
the Dante quarrel
poetry
to
the documents
in
of
The last
the latter
.
of
representa
in
certain kind the century
a
tive decades
with extreme moralizing tendency thinking found with some frequency
,
of
of
Baldino's little treatise
THEORY
its
POETIC
concern itself specifically
Jacopo
by
.
in
is
II
,
of
by
.
is
at
I
in
,
a
di
with the classification Mazzoni's Della difesa della Comedia Dante voluminous work two parts completed about 1585 Part was published 1587 Part not until 1688. The argument which very complex He begins with the state Mazzoni arrives his conclusion ment that the arts and sciences are distinguished from one another the
things makable
:
as .” : 44
one might say
by
,
so ,
,
things and
of
.
to
it
interprets as
...
the objects
he in
,
”
" “
objects
of
which they treat As for the meaning according the opinion the Peripatetics eir sciences and arts derive their true and real distinction from objects not insofar they are knowable these are things but insofar differences
In
-
to
),
(
),
).
of
;
these
Poetics falls among the arts poetry form images kinds and forms
imitation
all
by
of
which deal with the last
is
to —
of the “
to
all
X ,
."
,
to
(
as
(
and Images which are made or
of
“
to
“
he —
of
of
,
,
the considerations
of
,
”
, of ”
,
if
art the Aristote persua rhetoric are directed the philosophy poetics phrase sible the imitable moral untranslatable the beatificabile humano For clarification the idea Republic way imitation turns Plato Book the three distinc objects tion Ideas which are contemplated Works which are made lian system
,
(
,
,
At
).
,
is
,
of
of
a
by ).
or
,
;
.
(
secs 9–10 tiates the species
,
The genus being thus established Mazzoni differen determination the means which are harmony rhythm and meter and the subject matter which the credible rather possible than the false the this point finally comes the classifica Idols
45
be
:
is
. ”
by
;
is
“
deals with the credible
,
it
since
an
:
poetry placed under must properly faculty sophistic that rational which was called the ancients But this incomplete classification the complete one given shortly afterward tion
it
.
In In
as
is
.
,
in
,
is a
of
is a
,
,
sua vera
,
l'arti prendano
ma inquanto
la
, e :
,
,
), “
",
. 7 : “ le
1587 Proemio Sec scienze oggetti non inquanto che sono cose potesse dire artificiabili
che sono
....
fù
da
,
& ,
.”
se
, e
e
45
,
it in
as
or
,
53 , : si " da Pt . si I gli(
Della Difesa
reale distintione Scibili cosi
produc
Mazzoni can now summarize thus his reasons for placing
54 : "
,
pleasure
.
44
tive
faculty.46
.
of
Since
....
had previously stated that the means were exclusively
,
he
under the rational
an
it is
In it
is
an
I
,
it
be
,
of
be
art
may ... the poetic considered two ways that either considers the rightness the poetic Image makes and forms the latter the first way say that should called poetics and the second poetry the first part art which controls and uses the Image and the civil faculty species the second way art which forms and makes the Image and
,
."
( 24 )
,
.
arte formante
, e
modo
è
.
è
, , e lo , o
lo in
,
, e
... Nel secondo
parte della facoltà Ciuile specie della facoltà rationale .
vsante l'Idolo cante l'Idolo
, si o
.,
, , si & & è è
,
la
46
.”
gli
.,
Ibid Sec deue drittamente collocare sotto quella facoltà rationale che antichi Sophistica nominata può prendere Ibid Sec l'arte poetica due modi cioè secondo ch'ella con sidera drittura dell'Idolo poetico secondo che fabbrica forma Nel primo modo dico ch'ella deue nomare Poetica nel secondo Poesia Nel primo arte imperante
fabbri
THE
AMONG
POETICS
SCIENCES
,
by ,
its
is
is is
,
of
be or
,
it
all .
be
,
.
of ,
of
or
of
of
“
by
,
a
is a
:
of
serious
,
as a
kind privation
of
game the art poetry cessation activity the most noble may them Thus said that the civil faculty should divided into two highly important activity and was called parts one which considers the proper form politics the civil faculty The other considers the the general name
of of
higher justification
it
by
, 47
. ”
to
,
of
by
,
;
its
is
,
of
its
poetry under the rational faculty : “ Poetry is a sophistic art because of subject proper genus and the credible which imitation , which is being under that genus pleasure and which end since concerning itself with that subject and frequently seeking that end explained constrained admit the false The role the civil faculty
its
,
.
,
he
:
to it
assign
a
to
he
,
;
so
wishes
pedagogic
end
of
In
.
because
all
,
of
'
as
,
is
is
he
does not do an ethical purpose
of
of
or
."
,
be
of
politics or
48
of
proper form activity the cessation the proper form the activity Therefore the Poetics should properly and was called poetics considered the ninth book the Politics This argument for diffuseness remarkable for two points first Mazzoni insists that the end poetry pleasure exclusively places poetry under second even when games
to in
,
. ; ”
,
“
”
“
is
,
to
so
,
as
of
.
of
a
in
by
the types the ideal republic
in of
of
is
explained
Plato
,
a
of
practical useful Aristotle mankind which poetry
is
, il
che
è
per l'imitatione
il ,
in
of
be :
arte Sophistica
, e
Secs 66-67
Poesia
il è
Ibid
: " la
Sec
.
be
is a
if
;
of
of
of
in
lo 60
in
a
. 49
in it ,
is
which they spoke poetry would special kind conformity with the habits terms
Ibid
, e .,
47
of Aristotle
between the two philosophers
divergence
which only government
it
be
be
admitted poets on the side
The
has
moral philosophy and therefore good character will neces poetics way that bad character will not with and such since would destroy moral goodness But the practice the
conjoined
governments
philosophy
regulated and
;
qualified
it
by ,
speak
poetry part Plato for follows that poetic pleasure must
the side
been shown above
sarily
,
,
:
is
Reason
"
good
on
the
"
in
,
as
of
of
”
“
to
is
of
II,
poems Part the first book which devoted character poetry politics Mazzoni reopens the discussion the relationship He emphasizes the difference between the positions Aristotle and Plato poems admits both good and bad Aristotle who considers poems poetry whereas Plato whose approach characters ethical admits only
suo genere
è
.”
,
, e
,
lo
a
, e
è
“ la
48
a
al
,
,
proprio per per credibile che suo soggetto diletto che suo fine poiche per quel soggetto per rimirare quel fine viene esser sotto quel genere per esser intorno 99 astretta molte volte dar luogo falso
se la
è è
il
;
.
,
,
25 ]
[
ad
la
o
la
è
di
,
col
,
in
fù
, e
la
), .p 2 : si " .” è a
.”
de
, e
,
(
II
Pt . fù
.
, e ,
'
de
49
si
la :
.
.,
facoltà ciuile deua diuidere due principalissime parti l'vna considera rettitudine dell'operationi nomata nome generale Politica L'altra considera rettitudine della cessatione rettitudine delle operationi giochi nomata Poetica ragione percioche Difesa 1688 Platone fauoreuole Poetica parte della Philosophia come sopra dimostrato segue che diletto Poetico debba per cosi dire qualificato dalla morale Philosophia esser regolato Ma Aristotele fauoreuole I'vso Poeti
delle quali cioè ciuile
...
POETIC THEORY admissible as a form of entertainment . When the two theories are so seen , the contradiction between them disappears ( pp . 3–4 ). Similarly , the diffi culty over the classification of the art is solved if one realizes , again , that there are two ways of looking at it :
to
...
it
so of
by
in ; a
to
or
.
50
,
in
by
,
in
who read them One may the other way consider regulated and ordered operation ... the civil faculty .
them
poetry insofar
it is
to
who listen
as
it
no
in
,
in
its
Poetry may be considered in two ways , that is , in itself insofar as it is an art having the pleasure of man as pleasure aim such wise that means restores the energies grown weary serious occupations and when considered way delight those has other function but imitate human actions
in
he
a
of
;
.
,
of
of
,
to ,
Mazzoni for the most part considers poetry the first way and addresses problems himself structure and artistry but never completely loses sight preoccupation the second and there are constantly evidences with moral problems and values to
,
is
.
an
as
)
, la
,
et
,
,
'
à
.
In
il
,
da '
et
, : & la ,
its
,
of
by
que principii cause accrescimenti che poema heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale governatori delle republiche accordance with this
tragedia
civile
many auxiliary questions and art The first highly 1586 whose title itself
classification
(
,
of
.
of
is a
Giason Denores
Discorso intorno
comedia
&
treatise
to
,
of
Fido The central issue legitimate forms the literary art led poetry and one these was the end document significant
of
this group belong another the great that waged over Battista Guarini's Pastor whether the pastoral and the tragicomedy were in
The remaining documents literary polemics the century
by
of
it
of of
,
51
."
its
to of ,
generate good principles
to
every
is
owes delight
,
their republics and
:
he
;
it
of
.
us
...
its
utility intermediate the more important end should never pursued for own sake Denores concludes where had begun let
be
the state
direct them towards happiness ... since moral and civil philosophy and subordinate The end most regulated productions
conduct poetry
also rhetoric one
to
serve the purposes
, “
wise men
to of
to is as it in is to
.
;
of
to ,
of
phil announced intention Denores throughout seeks the contribution osophers and rulers the invention and development the various kinds poems Poetry sprang from natural causes but was soon directed
is
in
,
it
to
it
of we
.
to of
any other part philosophy except conclude that does not belong everything that such compositions relation have dealt with remains within the province the moral and civil philosopher whose duty
...
politics
Si
. . . .
le
,
di le
se
in
retta
,
è
,
le
in
& e
ha di ,
in
,
& in
quanto ch'ella
ordinata dalla facolta
&
. "
,
la
,
è
( 26 )
;
ciuile
), da .p 2 : la “
.
,
&
morale
Poetica
per generar buoni costumi nelle loro republiche per inuiarle poetica come ancho rhetorica soggetta alla philosophia essa riceuendo ogni sua piu regolata produttione
1586 essendo
&
Discorso
alla felicità
( . "
51
può nell'altro modo considerare ciuile operante
la
le
in
,
è
il
si
, ., .p 6 : “ la
50
può Ibid Poetica due modi considerare cioè stessa inquanto ch'ella quello ella ristori vn'arte che rimira diletto humano accioche per mezo forze affati questo modo ella non assomigliare cate nelle graui occupationi altro officio che leggono attioni humane modo ch'elle dilettino quelli che ascoltano che
SCIENCES public
is
,
that
of
to
utility and benefit Two years later .
doctrines
THE
their true and proper end
to
arts and
AMONG
52
to direct
all
all
POETICS
in
a
to
.
.
;
to
of
of
.
,
is
of
of
,
, &
in
si
,
,
the same discussion Denores returned l'opinion qual genres d'Arist della tratta secondo his Poetica nella tragedia del poema heroico della comedia The second work adds little the theories the first except for certain emphases not formerly present poetry politics poetry One these the claim the superiority 1588
is
It
to it .
of
,
is
It
).
of
,
,
,
of
as
by
(
of
to
is
, in
to
equal
as is
in
part superior equal moral and civil philosophy both attend with every care the two most noble actions already men superior tioned the purgation the passions the inculcation virtue insofar the other proceeds means laws penalties and punishments while this produces the same result with the greatest enjoyment and recreation the part
insofar
spirit.53
,
in ,
,
as
in
.”
a
he
as as is a a to in
be
of
of
of
far be
is a
, or
.
,
is
it
;
in
.
,
he
.
fully instructed insists that the poet must not only politics ethics and but must himself the kind man undertakes praise cry from the early notions works This the poet rhetorician even farther from the more recent conception him sophist Poetry has become one with moral philosophy and the poet stances
his
,
a
of
To each these genres Denores specific circum specific audience
states ordered the common weal assigns special ethical function for
54
to
of
as
to
from the rulers and legislators
,
principles from Moral and Civil Philosophy
Finally
of
. “
as
in
all
art
a
,
he
a
in
of
-
is
the insistence
tragedy
-
in
that Aristotle the Poetics treated only three comedy and epic because these were the three com monly recited public gatherings and hence the only ones capable exerting moral influence the state With the greatest perspicacity philosopher parts accept moral and civil refused the poetic compositions such verse did not receive their rules and their Another such
genres
the
.
identified both with Cicero's ideal orator and with the Philosopher Good Man be
to
.
ha ,
in
,
pastorali
un
, di
,
le
he
Il
le
tragicomedie ad
.pp
52
scritto M. Giason Denores contra
et
of
to in
in
an
,
of
In
of
any controversial neither these works would there seem especially century materials for the last decades the But Battista Guarini saw the first them attack upon his manuscript Pastor Fido reply and quanto this attack wrote Verrato ovvero difesa suo
,
è
le
,
&
,
&
. "
al
,
,
è
&
, a
le
,
di
,
,
,
2v : " è
+
&
(
), , .p
al
53
&
,
..
.
.,
: “
43-43v concluderemo che non aspetti altra parte della philosophia che tutto quel che habbiamo trattato tai componimenti non fuor della profession del philosopho morale ciuile cui aspetta dirizzar tutte arti tutte proprio fine cioe alla utilità dottrine loro uero beneficio publico parte vguale parte superiore alla philosophia Morale Poetica 1588 Ibid alla politica
,
si
,
'da
67 . ,
Ciuile
See also
.p
,
...
"
27 )
Morale
beneficio commune
.
a
(
loro principii dalla Philosophia
delle Republiche
&
,
,
in
,
i
,
&
i
legislatori
. "
& , &
,
"
le
loro regole
da '
&
,
riconosceuano gouernatori
,
,
, in
,
il
tt :
., .p
di
54
&
.
E
.
E
vguale inquanto che ambedue con ogni studio attendono alle predette due nobilis superiore quanto che quella procede con leggi con pene con castigamenti sime attioni questa opera medesimo con sommo godimento ricreation d'animo egli come Philosopho Ibid Morale Ciuile con sommo auedimento non componimenti curò ridur tutti fatti verso come parti dell'arte Poetica che non
Ciuile
POETIC
THEORY
discorso di poesia ( 1588 ) . Guarini's stand on the classification of poetry is directly opposed to Denores ' :
of
is a
of
,
its
How can you hold that poetics , which is an art and therefore a habit of the speculative intellect , can take principles from ethics which habit the
teach them but solely
not
;
is
to it
does
to .
so
of
,
it
I
insist that
imitate them
it or .
...
,
from ethics
it
in
I
to
?
it
active intellect You will tell me that from ethics derives notions character say you that gets them rather from rhetoric which and much different from ethics the definition the virtues But even granted that does get them
,
it
;
is
.
or
a
to
it
as
add further that serves politics insofar the legislator does given poem depending upon whether does not permit the people have demonstrates good bad mores That true but does not follow from that
You will
re
of
do
to
it
,
is it
in
.
.
point
of
by -
point denial
of
,
Guarini passes
argument
a
of
position
general
to
From this
its or
as
,
a
is
;
, it
its
principles from politics ... depending upon the form that takes the public poetry has more placed under less freedom ... And this only the politician but for intrinsic and formal principles has nothing sophistic and rhetoric.ss with politics but member
,
all of or
,
he
an
.
as
he
,
in
.
of
:
a
,
’
Denores Aristotle's intention the Poetics the status the minor poetic genres the nature the poet But does not completely relationship between poetry and politics rule out ethics the above quotation shows Instead distinguishes for each the dramatic genres
,
of
:
,
of
(
is
(
an
)
of an ,
;
,
is a
of
two separate ends instrumental end which for dramatic genres the imitation action and architectonic end which for each genre purgation for comedy the purgation special kind sadness through pity and fear which are moderated laughter for tragedy the purgation as
).
of
,
be
;
:
the Poetics
of
on
any
of its
he
the repetitions
was not concerned with speaking
its
,
moral and civil philosopher as
a
as
be
by
.
more than reaffirm his earlier convictions The nature Aristotle's intention this passage will indicated
in of
of of
.
an
in
to ,
.
of
is
of
in
.
of
a
in
to
way melancholy induce virtue for tragicomedy the purgation theory developed This Guarini's will and reinforced the polemic with Denores continues Apologia contra l'auttor del Verato Much 1590 Denores replied problems essay specific the devoted the tragicomedy and the poetry pastoral On the matter Denores does little the classification
]
[
,
40 : “
.pp
55
,
of
of
poetry principles from moral and such form did not receive rules and republics designed for the civil philosophy and from the rulers and legislators receiving only good them from these sources which those forms but common
,
il
,
gli
,
è
.
&
,
è
, la
la
io vi
.
&
.
i
,
mi
'
i
,
),
(
II
quale però Verrato 1588 39v Come volete che Poetica arte suoi principi dalla morale ch'è habito dell'attiuo habito dello ntelletto speculatiuo prenda quale Voi direte che dal morale prende costumi dico che anzi dal ritorico prenda dal molto diferente dal morale nelle difinizioni delle virtù ma posto che pur
è di ,
&
ha
,
."
, e
ai
le
,
al
è
lui ,
28 ]
[
.
See also pp 20–27 .
nò ,
al
,
la
,
è
il
la ,
fà
è
.
.
ha
di al
in
,
. vi
, e i
...
&
,
...
&
ma solo per imitargli ... soggiugnerete ancora popolo secondo ch'ella concede buoni cattiui costumi Egli vero ma non per tanto non seguita che dal Politico più quale secondo prenda principi forme delle Republiche della poetica politico ma quanto sottoposta suoi principi intrin E’n questo solo meno licenza della ritorica membro della sofistica ma che fare con esso sechi formali non per insegnargli morale dico che ciò non legislatore quanto politico che serue
POETICS
THE
AMONG
SCIENCES
could generate good principles of conduct or not so receiving them could generate bad principles of conduct in the minds of the citizens in general.56
The general contention is , again , that tragedy , comedy , and the epic have moral influence on the masses assembled to hear as their function to exert them , and that any kind of poem which does not fulfil this function is not
Il
to
,
it
(
or
)
to
(
He entitled
it
).
the title page
,
in
his
worthy of consideration as poetry . Although Guarini finished answer the following year 1591 was according not published until 1592 according the colophon 1593 Verato secondo ovvero replica dell'Attizzato it,
of
.
to
of
:
of
of
,
;
to at
is
of
of
.
in
In
ferrarese difesa del Pastor Fido Guarini first recon question poetry politics sidered the whole the subordination the first the achievement the outset Certain new principles appear politics necessary poetry the end the achievement not end accademico
,
,
,
moral betterment
?
means
.
of
as a
to
,
But what about purgation
of or
of to
,
in
;
?
,
is
moral and civil philosophy it
of
If
none other than public what need does have order make man happy fables Man acquires his happiness through the exercise the virtues which are rational and true operations fictional works for the most part since they are false and lying will rather harm than aid the achievement this end then the end happiness
individual
its
be
to
it
,
;
of
its
.
of
of
...
.
of
to
of
of
, it is
to
in
be ,
I
it
to
morality answer that order subordinate poetry not sufficient that should useful for the purgation the passions but would have necessary end virtue for the superior art cannot obtain the acquisition without the operation the inferior art man can purge the passions tragedy And moral terror and pity through other and better means than that and civil philosophy has own laws and private and public expedients for the this end.57
achievement
an
,
of
.
is
is
to
no
to
of
,
In
poetry auxiliary merely sum whatever moral profit may attach accompaniment pleasurable objects What the contemplation more an
, is
he
;
if
,
to
a
is
or
he :
“
is
to
.
of
is
to
poetry
in
foundation anywhere Aristotle for the subordination politics The end the poet not utilitarian one but aes thetic one His end then not imitate the good but imitate well whether imitate good bad moral character and imitates what there
di
si
,
, &
ha
è
. , " ò
, e
il
in
de '
,
ad
i
&
&
Se
63 : ne “
(
, ), ò .p
,
,
,
le
,
2v : "
,
da '
,
Il
57
,
&
,
&
di
(
), .p
1590 poesia
di
,
di
56
egli come philosopho morale ciuile non curo fauellar che non riceuea sue regole suoi principii dalla philosophia gouernatori legislatori delle Republiche morale ciuile utilità commune ma quelle che riceuendogli poteuano generar buoni costumi solamente non riceuendogli gli poteuano generar cattiui costumi Cittadini uniuersale animi dunque Verato secondo 1593 fine della morale ciuile Filosofia non Apologia
ogni forma
? ,
,
sia
,
, e
,
,
sia
,
...
,
lo
,
.
,
, di
,
,
la
o
, ' al
e il
,
la
publica priuata che bisogno altro che felicità ella per far felice l'huomo fauole qual huomo acquista sua felicità con l'esercizio della vertù che son opere ragioneuoli qual suo fine possono per più l'opere fauolose come false vere mentite anzi Rispondo che per esser subalternata alla morale non basta che nuocere che giouare
,
le
di
ha
, e
del
.
il
,
, e
."
29 ]
[
gli
'
la
E
, e
.
,
, e le
ha
ed
,
,
,
,
se ,
gioueuole alla purgazion degli affetti ma bisogna che necessaria all'acquisto della vertù perciochè l'arte superiore non può non con l'opera della nferiore ottenere suo fine può ben l'huomo per altra molto miglior maniera purgar affetti terrore della compassione che per quella della Tragedia Filosofia morale ciuile ciò sue leggi per questo fine pubbliche cure sue priuate
...
POETIC THEORY
be
to
:
of
do
,
or
or
,
;
or
get the rules from legislators ,
from whom does
from
? 59
,
which
he
,
of
,
or
,
,
or
,
or
?
of
to
to
or
,
or
as
an ,
or
,
sententious happy ending with respect poets
what does the poet have with the laws the city To whom accounting whether his plots are pathetic ethical complex simple single ridiculous double with poetry with turbulent ending which are the essential parts
to , or
he
Furthermore give
must
in
a
lie
all
good poorly , he will not be a good poet, but he may be called a good poet if he imitates well what is bad . " 58 Indeed , the important questions poem exclusively poetics itself asked about the realm
of
Like
,
the rhetorician
archi
in
or
;
the art
:
to
,
is a
,
a
or
of
;
a
it in or is
.
vigorous kind But primary one still remains the artistic end proper
... the poet that subject
.
uses
he would achieve his
persuasion form different audiences different less violent tragic effects purgation more less secondary one the any event this rhetorical end
tectonic end since times require more ,
he
moral character which his audience
if
the notions
he must consider the nature
of
,
ethics
of
.
,
of
on
to
of
,
Guarini also now develops two points made earlier that touching the poetry relation rhetoric and that the existence the instrumental and architectonic ends The poet derives from rhetoric rather than from
—
he
,
all
,
a
do
,
a
he
it
a
if
in
-
,
,
;
so
be
is
not concerned with purging more less but with imitating well may even though little useful for purgation which under subject with happy ending takes that will his job well with good imitation with the required unity with artful recognition with judicious to
is
(
of
,
of
its
it
or
or
of
a
or
an
as
66 il :“
58
.
to
by
own special ends is a
its
to
the ethical sciences and achieving following principles which are specifically own There definite philosophical relationship between the large group part texts which classified poetry instrument moral philosophy group placed among and that earlier which the rational discursive
neither
the rational disciplines nor
any his contemporaries come independent art subordinated
an
poetry
as
,
he
or
comes
as
a
Guarini theory
of
close
developing
to
as
as
This
is
)
of
,
,
sententiae with appropriate character and what more proper him than the rest with splendor diction will without doubt avoid being charged with that mediocrity which Horace blames.60
? le ” , o
?
, o
o
, da
A
ha
“
il
,
, o
di
le
fin , o
le fin
, , o o il
ha ). da
an
be
,
, se 90 : le “
in
, e
,
se di
,
,
la
,
,
,
fuggirà
senza fallo
, la
,
( 30 )
,
lo
.”
,
'l
di
più suo proprio splendor della locuzione tutto resto con quella mediocrità che biasima Orazio di
da '
,
,
, e
di
si
,
la
la
,
la
di
, o
,
ha
da '
, o
,
da
, o
: “ il
...
,
.p
,
poesia
60
., , o
semplici doppie parti essenziali con lieto con turbulento che sono regole legislatori pur poeti delle quali chi prende poeta non riguardo purgar più Ibid 118 meno ma bene imitar quel soggetto quantunque poco purgante che propone per modo che soggetto parte sua con lieto fine farà bene buona imitazione con debita vnità con l'arti prudente sentenza col conueneuol costume quello ch'è fizioso riconoscimento con
di o
piane
,
,
” (
,
e'l
è
:
., .p
, il ., " p .
)
59
(
il
Non dunque suo fine d'imitare buono ma bene imitare buono costume buono male imitando non sarà buon poeta ma imitando bene cattivo buon poeta potrà chiamarsi the original text reads imitando male cattivo but this must error poeta con leggi della città egli Ibid Del resto che fare cui render conto sue fauole son patetiche morate sentenziose ridicole rannodate
Ibid cattivo che sia
nota
SCIENCES
THE
AMONG
POETICS
;
of
,
.
or
an
or
, .
its
If
—
or
of
,
of ,
—
its
as
instrumental sciences . If the earlier group insisted upon the character of means poetry as useful for serving some final purpose through argu powers signification variously considered words which have group persuasion powers the later conviction ments which have poetry was discursive usefulness provided insisted upon the kinds political civil discourse concerned itself with moral activity ethical as
.
of
of
a
to to ,
to
or
,
of
—
of
, it
If
instrument for the achievement poetry was instrumental served good and bad conduct for examples supplying moral ends for inactivity activity persuading administering praise and blame for specification the group kind constitute thus comes The second
in
,
.
in
of
.
is
of
;
a
,
pushing
of
assumptions further conclusions the earlier critics are instrumentality problem the later ones with the ends concerned with the change concern accounts for the used The for which the instrument the art change classification
first
as
at
be
is
.
.
of
its
is
in
;
in
, of
le
his
as a
of
in
few works
equal position Such the case with Agnolo reference are both philosophy and history Ragionamento sopra cose pertinenti alla published revision lectures given 1573 basically Platonic his position which
an
to
in
states the essence
decide
the closest
a
or
,
all
)
in
(
,
for
in
occupy which seem Segni whom the frames The following passage from Poetica written 1576 1581
or
,
of
or
of
It
be
surprising that among these attempts should not logic history rhetoric favor moral philosophy poetry among the sciences there should least relative
to
all
ECLECTIC CLASSIFICATIONS
of
...
we
:
assumptions
, up
,
,
,
as
.
;
in
of
and the former history each the two being separate from the other but the one and the other conjoined generate poetry History residing things past and present expounds and narrates them different from their ,
philosophy
.
in
we
,
,
,
,
of
,
of
history may consider the difference manifest among these three faculties discourse For since there are and poetry and among their forms objects one the things two extreme species our world with their imperfec tions the other their perfect forms which call Ideas the latter make philosophy
of
to
,
or
,
to
,
.
is
,
at
,
to ,
,
,
;
in
as
,
present not they are were but similar their Ideas and show ing the Ideas not things which have been and things which are themselves but Whence history and philosophy which are the pure extremes are each com pletely true poetry which tries combine them since they remain uncombined
in
things past
or
.
in
,
as
.
in
,
as
or
they are Ideas just were themselves Philosophy rises the Ideas things different from the things themselves and these she contemplates they are their perfect nature Poetry joins the one part and the other recounting
,
;
it
in
.
is
,
to
:
in
in
in
part true and part false true for the Ideas which she expresses and false for the things which she puts these Ideas and because she makes things similar these Ideas whereas they are really different And therefore poetry intermediate participates between philosophy and history because these two extremes in
in
31 ]
[
, it is
in
in
its
it
of
;
as
philosophy and participates and insofar her objects better than history but because participation history and the particular sensible
POETIC
THEORY
things which are the objects of history , to this extent it is below philosophy, and the poet is of lesser dignity than the philosopher.61
Another eclectic document , and perhaps a more extreme one , is Torquato Tasso's Discorsi del poema heroico [ 1594 ). Poetry , for Tasso , serves the traditional ends of pleasure and utility ; but utility is foremost , pleasure auxiliary . Hence the role of the moral philosopher : Therefore it is the task of the political philosopher to consider what poetry is to be prohibited and what pleasure , so that the pleasure ... should not produce the effect of an infectious poison , or should not keep the mind occupied in idle reading . ... poetry is a first philosophy which from our earliest years teaches us principles of conduct and the ways of life . 62
to
the
proper
.
his own art the other
to of
is
queen
honest than useful Thus ,
,
is
the two ends which the poet envisages one the superior art.63
is
that art which
,
of
a
to
subordinated
profit and rather that which
of all
,
as he
;
is
his art
will not err far from that goal which political person and part the city
to
,
seeks some
but
,
he
least insofar
others
...
his attention as
all a
If
at
or he
poet pursues this end
as
the poet must direct
:
its
But insofar as poetry achieves political ends it is subordinate to a higher art and is considered in terms of that art ; considered in itself , it seeks only pleasure as end
,
,
. “
is
as
da
, .pp
,
of
is a
61
,
;
to
of
poetry the classifica When one comes consider the subject matter tion again changes abruptly the poet treating the probable and the veri similar kind dialectician the rhetorician Without doubt la
.
le
in se ,
.
la
se :
,
, da
,
,
le
,
&
: , “ & si
&
,
co '
tra
),
&
,
,
la le , (
Ragionamento può contemplare 1581 65-66 noi differenza tra queste poesia tre facultà manifesta historia filosofia tra loro orazioni che essendo due spezie estreme vna cose noi loro difetti l'altra loro perfezzioni che noi chiamiamo quelle l'historia Idee queste fanno filosofia ciascuna delle due parti ma l'vna parte poesia L'historia stando nelle cose nelle passate l'altra congiunte insieme generano ò
&
se ,
,
&
.
La
.
,
,
le
&
,
&
nelle presente l'espone narra dalle loro Idee diuerse così com'elle sono furono quelle contempla com'elle stesse La filosofia s'alza all'Idee delle cose diuerse dalle cose poesia congiugne l'vna parte sono nella natura loro perfette l'altra narrando cose in
&
,
,
,
le
,
di
,
filosofia
&
sotto
&
la
:
in è
&
Et
per questo
&
,
le
:
), . .p ” 7 : “
,
oggetto
la
'
la :
.
di ,
a
, è
,
il
particolari sensibili dell'historia degnità del filosofo poeta 62
la
, le
,
la
.
:
fa
le
de la
&
de
,
:
&
, et , le &
, è
, è
&
&
,
ò
&
,
è
presenti non come sono furono ma simili all'Idee mostrando l'Idee non ma nelle cose state nelle presenti Onde l'historia filosofia che stanno nelle pure poesia che congiugner estremità tutta vera l'vna l'altra vuole non essendo con giunte parte vera parte falsa vera per l'Idee quali ella esprime falsa per cose pone però doue ella cose simili loro essendo diverse mezzana tra filosofia poesia perche participa que due estremi quanto participa della l'historia migliore dell'historia ma per participazione dell'historia filosofia suoi oggetti state
minor
di
,
di
è
.
...
."
da
...
in ,
hà
, e
ne
... ...
la
il
al in
in
., .p 8 : “
63
, la , ò
, gli ci
;
, e
(
Poema heroico 1594 Però Politico s'appartiene considerare quale poesia qual diletto accioche piacere pestifero debba esser prohibita non facesse effetto poesia veleno non tenesse occupati animi vana lettione vna prima Filo qual sin dalla tenera età sofia ammaestra costumi nelle ragioni della vita quanto Poeta questo fine non errerà lontano Ibid Se'l Poeta dunque
,
è
,
."
,
,
.
à
è
32 )
de ,
;
i
è
(
è il
la
in
,
,
il il ,
si
i
, si
ò
e
,
quel segno alquale egli deue dirizzare tutti suoi pensieri quanto ma huomo ciuile parte della Città quanto quella ch'è Regina delle almeno sua Arte sottordinata propone giouamento quale altre honesto più tosto che vtile due fini dunque quali prepone proprio dell'arte sua l'altro dell'arte superiore Poeta l'vno
SCIENCES
THE
AMONG
POETICS
...
the poetry is placed in order under dialectic , along with rhetoric . probable insofar as it is verisimilar belongs to the poet, for the poet uses proofs less effectively than does the dialectician . " 64 Or the poet may be regarded as a kind of logician , if one attends now to the kinds of proofs he uses .
If there of
parts
of logic , so there are three kinds of poetry (or employs different proofs ( p . 28 ) : which of
are three kinds
poetry ), each
Logic
Poetry
Demonstrative
“dimostrando co ’
Filosofi ,
e usando
il
Filosofema ” “ seguendo il verisimile ,
Sophistic
poetic diction
" :
,
use
, a
of
of of a “
;
result
of
it its is to its
it
,
art
an
as a
of
,
grammar and rhetoric
it,
is
,
,
of ,
is a
,
in as
a
to
,
or
to
is
of
is
it
an
..
logic really part subordinated not only because produce pleasure just art grammar pro discourse which seeks poetic diction duces regulated speech and rhetoric persuasion but because frequently which not without imitation there kind tacit proof which is
poetry
a
on "
to
related
of
Poetry is then a part of moral philosophy if one looks at external part according part subject end dialectic matter logic but the basis the arguments uses also part
superior logic
of
“
its
( or apparent probable )
or
& seruendosi dell'essempio , e dell'enthimema ” "equiuoco , fallaci argomenti "
Probable
in
as
of
to
of
the methods them again
.
.
I
by
of
of
a
as
of
all
of
some the characteristics and the deficiencies thinking used speak the critics shall have occasion the following chapter
demonstrate in
is
they represent Tasso's position are interesting not only epitome they the theories the century but
kind
of of
in
one work
a
These shifts
in
in
,
;
most effective for one cannot imitate without the simile and the example but everything which appears verisimilar there proof.65 the example and kind
of
,
,
of
as
.
in
Aristotelian
from that most theorists the century strikingly absent the one we might call proper sense Of this type there were among
Tasso
classification the strict
is
type
or
one
of
From the thinking
of
ARISTOTELIAN CLASSIFICATIONS
a
,
,
in
,
.
., .p
., .p le
27 : “
64
65
of
:
of
,
, a
,
really only two examples that Lionardo very slight one and that Salviati Francesco Buonamici much more considerable one For Lionardo Salviati his Trattato della poetica the documents examined
il
:
al
la
nel
,
la ,
, è
il
,
[ 33 ]
,
,
in
&
,
:
; e
,
, la
,
, , , e è e la
persuasione ma perche parlar poetico Rhetorica vna tacita proua molte volte efficacissima perche non ogni cosa che paia senza essempio ma nell'essempio
”.
è il
è la
."
[ è ]
fà il
, è
è
regolato parlare Grammatica quale non senza imitatione può imitare senza similitudine proua verisimile
si il
in
è
la
il
la
: "
.
la
poesia senza dubio collocata ordine sotto dialettica insieme con probabile inquanto egli verisimile appertiene Poeta percioche 15 proue men efficacemente che non Poeta vsa dialettico poesia Ibid 129 vn'arte subordinata alla logica veramente vna sua parte laqual cerca non solamente perch'ella arte dell'oratione diletto non altrimente che Ibid rhetorica
THEORY
POETIC
prima ( 1564 ), the problem is less to relate poetry to other arts than
Lezzion
,
it
Salviati
of
66
the latter group
is
in
active inducing perfection
.
)
factitive
of an
in or
in
);
(i
not establishing inquiring into the kind
the intellectual are either
;
are either moral intellectual nducing perfection the operator poetry belongs some external matter habits
(
or
all
to establish the fact that it is an intellectual habit and hence susceptible of cultivation . He is replying to Plato , to the assertion that poetry is merely a furor . The skeleton plan which he suggests is essentially Aristotelian :
in
.
of
.
as
by
of
so
.”
“
of
of
in
of
of
of
he
an
).
(
it
in
it
by
to
to
set
,
a
in
, is
he is
is
merely Aristotelian system the sciences but activity involved poetry the production This not the case with Francesco Buonamici who wrote treatise which out restore Aristotle's Poetics whatever glory and authority may have been removed from such critics Castelvetro He called Discorsi poetici nella Accademia fiorentina difesa d'Aristotile 1597 He thought that could solve some the difficulties the text poetics presenting elaborate system the sciences which the place would explain some the operations the art But the system clear
(
of
speculative
sciences
),
things
of
seeks truth and contemplates the nature
the
,
is
all
:
is
.
;
I
in
,
,
is
to
examples itself confused difficult follow and lacking offer the following schematic reduction only with reservations The first knowledge step clear enough divided into two kinds one which presented
to
it
of
,
).
follows
:
as
be
(
activity represented may
is
the of
applying which seeks truth for purposes later some practical sciences among the latter which perhaps Poetics
the other
)
(
)
(
)
ποιεϊν
)
Politics
Logic
Poetics
Dialectic Rhetoric
Each
the subgroups under the practical sciences has itself
practical phase
theory
theoretical
of
of
Medicine
a
( (
πράττειν
Sciences
works
activities
)
(
specific subject matters with Instrumental
)
(
with specific subject matters Making Doing
no
Practical Sciences
is its an
of
)
the
(
,
a
of
,
is
,
it
In
.
in
;
is
,
10–12
of
).
(
in
all
.
,
speculative
.pp
or
of
of
,
in
of
in
from which the others derive the contemplative practical metaphysics sciences this the sciences
one master science politics
a
is a
:
a
a
there medicine which affords precepts practice applies theory poetry and which them Poetics and application theory writing poems theory logic and this the every divisions there the main each Moreover other science use and
of to
its
a
( 34 )
.
,
,
29 .
,
as
,
.
MS BNF Magl VII 307 fol ,
66
a
in
is
It
century which considered itself note that poetic very last years Aristotelian matters should have waited until produce showing comprehension text such Buonamici's some perhaps worthy
11
POETICS
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
Aristotle's general system of the sciences and of the place of poetry among them . Buonamici lists poetry neither among the instrumental sciences nor
among the parts or instruments of moral philosophy . He sees it as speci fically a “ poetic " science whose function is to make poems. Along with the
of his contemporaries , however,
be
be a
to .
to
a
is
its
of
to
,
so
,
,
of
"
“
It to
he continues to regard it , in a broader larger ; politics intermediate artistic end view , as auxiliary to contributing happiness architectonic end that man's would good regard poetry without ceasing possible course rest
,
in
,
I
.
a
.
the Poetics
in
the text
to
of
;
everything would depend upon how general one interprets relation the other sciences reserve that analysis and that judgment for later chapter Aristotelian
of
to ,
,
us
.
of
to
an
a
of
—
to
be a
CONCLUSIONS Although there may seem similarity among the certain amount proposed during century might various theories the one even say monot ony the reasons for the predominant classifications close questioning impression diversity Let leads rather take for example the
faculty
;
as
or
,
,
be
(
,
).
“
"
a
art be "
an "
it
,
may Second made because poetry neither nor science but will belong with the others the family as
.
,
“
"
discursive sciences along with the others
of
is
they are regarded
,
in ,
, all all ,
of
by
,
is
assigned earliest and most persistent classification where poetry the logic grammar rhetoric with the occasional addition group constituted dialectic sophistic and history This assignment may made first because the arts the group use language their medium material
do
( as
or
of to
on
to
;
it
of
of
)
or
of
in
a
,
,
it
;
of
.
, it
"
of
"
a
the mind hence may third result from rational faculties Or consideration the poetics which deals not with the truth subject matter certain other sciences but with one the variations the probable the false sophistic the verisimilar this will relate the one hand and
,
as
for
or
,
presenting
persuasion the position will
how the reason for the assignment
in
see
to
,
to
,
how
be
,
as
its
the other discursive sciences
its
to of
is
).
is a
If
(
,
theory which the critic will give the poetic art unless contrariwise the classification proceeds from the poetry emphasis discursive science then the important thing qualities language how these differ from the language investigate
of
each case predetermine the emphasis
his
easy
to
is
It
.
,
of
, "
or as "
be
no
in
investigating expounding means materials of some other science
of
,
.
be
composed rhetoric on the other Or fourth the whole group may those disciplines which could classified instrumental sciences since knowledge activity but are useful only themselves they produce
language
will depend
to
to
an
it
If
or .
upon the total
is
,
,
in
,
-
35 ]
[
acceptable
its
as a
,
is a
its it
its
not
it is
whether
or
similar
—
by
of
of
.
If
,
may made conform rational faculty one will wish operation faculty about what know about the peculiarities special characteristics products the mind are manifested subject matter the false the probable art determined the veri the special norms established
philo
THEORY
POETIC
it is is an
it
If
.
of
all
sophical outlook of the theorist ; moreover , the plots to be used , the traits to be attributed to the characters, the handling of situation and story, will depend upon this conception subject matter instrumental to
be
;
it
to
is
be
broad range
diverging theories
and traditional interpretations and may pro
the poetic art
.
a
simple enough
of of
of
of
whole gamut
to
may seem
”
,
susceptible
is
it
,
a
duce
poetic
rhetoric
,
“
logic
enough
.
of
of
it
,
its
,
science finally uses will vary with the sciences which made serve caught inextricably between and the ends which made seek will the principles the architectonic science and the devices required for achieving the purposes that science Thus although the classification
an
or
as a
,
,
.
poetics
if Or
his
in
;
poems produced according
to
reflected
may result from
of
have
in to
to
be
.
in of
as
of
of
,
,
is
of
of
part The same true the classification instrument philosophy may example moral This result for from the observation persons with their conduct that poetry deals with the moral characters just does the science ethics both would then have the same subject matter The principles behavior established the theorist's ethics would
. of
poetry
by
achieved
is
how happiness
or
lost
:
,
,
in
persons
to
to
of
offers examples
various kinds
in of it
a
its
to
as
it
conviction with respect the ends the sciences produce happiness ethics has end the individual and politics produce happiness the state then poetics belongs both since
the of
to
to
as
,
on by
Or
or
.
be
.
is a
a
be
It
.
in
must therefore offer these examples various situations way right taught and the proper such that the moral lessons will effect produced But even within these limits there fair breadth possibilities The poet may completely subservient regarded moral philosopher the politician using his art achieve the ends
of
by
)
,
a
of of
,
be
he
to
.
he
be
(
he
an
.
or of as
may par with the other achieving ethical political ends determined using the resources himself his may completely independent own art Or the other functioning artist who merely happens cross the path the moral philosopher the other
"
as "
,
.
or
as
to
as
or
a
,
,
or
be
.
as
when touches upon character and conduct According this theory being the architectonic considered ethics will varies politics belonging having merely science for poetry the same family slight and accidental resemblance
of
,
.
,
be
of
.
in
be
subsequent chapters Another one and more said classification the method the present discussion would
much will to
,
Of this
germane
or
or
of
,
of
,
.
of
be
of
be
opinion Several explanations might offered for this great divergency poetics The most obvious one over the classification course would the nature the antecedent philosophical tradition and the character paraphrased the texts which were being explained commented upon
, of
of
a
.
of
be
at it ,
in
;
a
it of in
.
,
multiplicity itself Any art may the abstract considered from points from innumerable external positions view one may look large variety discussion contexts But these possibilities consider
if
36 ]
[
of
a
in
its
or
an
as
;
its
phil place need not affect essence art total system osophy these may remain firm and fixed the system itself provides
POETICS
AMONG
THE
SCIENCES
constant principles of classification . For the critics and philosophers of the Cinquecento , two things happened , one dependent upon the other . First , they used each of the many points of view as a basis for classification : if poetry may be considered in the light of the principles of ethics , it is an ;
is a
,
to
of
.
of
the rest
of
to
philosophy the parts for those which The critic might begin with principles which thought satisfactory for the classification might the sciences but might abandon them without realizing pursue them imperfectly
of
relationship
So
its
in
be
.
or
,
on .
so
it
its
if it uses words as means discursive science and Second the philosophical systems into which they fitted poetics were incompletely improperly understood Various systems which claimed widely different conceptions Aristotelian resulted the poetic art and ethical science ;
he
;
it
he
an
,
or
of
.
he
were admittedly Platonic
,
in
of
.
is
.
on be
of
in
be
to of
entirely different context analysis Such insufficiencies Perhaps this found frequently the documents studied literary matters were not because the large majority the men writing philosophers but critics not specialists analysis the formal disciplines and pass into
will
an
or
an
be
in
,
.
,
exculpation
as .
but critics and poets curious about the literary art This was not always explanation however and no event should taken
true
is
in
or
.
be
It
.
to
is
of
,
,
or
progress One may ask also whether any change evolution the perceptible through the century This question classification difficult answer should clear that the major theories exist simul theories
137
in
.
of
”
in
an
,
do
“
to
is
of
“
or
.
the century
)
among the dominant tendencies
of
a
”
be
to
in
an "
be
at
is
it
,
in
"
as a
of
is
be
;
It
.”
of
more prominent the first part the century whereas relative moral philosophy more frequent the second part the rhetorical approach gradually gives way the ethi may also cal that only the last decades the century we find any insistence that poetry has the right considered art itself that might approached from point artistic aesthetic view very mild insistence and might almost pass unperceived But this best the classification
"
rational faculty
or
as a
.
in
is
to
.
in
taneously throughout the century Perhaps the early years the tendency occupy oneself with complete philosophical systems more prevalent than the later Perhaps also the classification discursive science
CHAPTER TWO . THE METHODOLOGY OF THE THEORISTS
HE
PROBLEM of literary criticism in the Cinquecento was largely a problem in aesthetics . This would , of course , be true of criticism in any place and in any period . But it is true in sixteenth - century Italy
in a very special way and for two special reasons . Perhaps more than in any other time and place , the problem of criticism was essentially a theoretical problem . The major effort of the critics was to develop a theory of the literary art; even when they were engaged in practical criticism , their
of
of
of
a
so
, in
,
so
.
so
as ,
.
of
It to
,
it
,
to
at
all
of
.
a
of
.
,
is
literary theory Moreover and this the second reason literary the aesthetics the Cinquecento did not develop independently free and indigenous flowering Instead was transplanted from Greece and Rome and the European soils the Middle Ages must therefore manifest times two concerns concern with fidelity the borrowed
of
upon problems
,
,
,
of
all
preoccupation was primarily with theory and with the possibilities of applying theory to the judgment of specific works . At times they were aware theoretical cruxes theoretical difficulties theoretical modes approach Perhaps nowhere else the intellectual history the West can centering one find continual abundant and diverse attention
set
.
he
,
,
.
,
-
at a
or
of
,
to ,
.
a
, a
it
pretended tradition which continue and concern with the usefulness this tradition for new age and new literature For the theorist the task was thus extremely complex He must discover first the meaning the ancient text texts which had out interpret and this time when the texts themselves were imperfectly established The texts moreover were difficult ones which are still subject
of
he
,
it
of
.
,
a
it
,
his
to it
he
of
or by
he
,
.
to
of
a
or
of
to
.
,
he
he
by
of
a
it
to
to
of
interpretation Next much uncertainty and diversity must decide satisfactory reading possible whether was reach the text remaining within the données and the arguments the text itself whether must seek assistance reference another the available develop proceeded ancient texts Then when own theory basing upon single must choose between the alternative possibilities Finally upon ancient author conflation several ancient authors grew must see that his theory not only fitted the text out which
all
a
be
,
a
of
;
,
they are merely the problems which theorists developing theory must process the con
.
or
conscious fashion somewhere other sidered and resolved
in
by
in
.
by
it
to
judge more but that accounted for and explained and permitted him countrymen contemporaries recent works his and his We should not assume that these problems were posed and solved deliberate and
the procedure was only slightly less complica
an he
the practical critic
,
For
or
a
of
a
in
be
( 38 )
to
.
or
,
a
,
his
,
.
He too had
developed
to
find theoretical basis for his criticism whether contemporary own theory borrowed one from long and ancient philosopher He had versed the literature ted
OF THE THEORISTS to
he
all ,
THE METHODOLOGY
,
of
of
,
to
,
a
of
,
of
.
he
or
of
,
of
he
convert the had diversified critical tradition . Most important of reading guides for the into started which from theoretical statements poems admis the judging for norms into poems into criteria for the weapons types literary current contro for into new exclusion sion his intellectual reconcile the findings versy Perhaps had also with sensitivity his enthusiasms promptings his explorations with the long acceptances contrary theoretical conclusions his dislikes with the .
tradition
in
to
it
of
:
,
of
,
.
of
its
of
at
,
of
a
in
at
the crucial point Both the theorist and the practical critic stood point classical the doctrines which history that Western criticism antiquity were transformed into something new and different which view modern literary criticism From their point turn became the basis attempted essentially extract backward the critical process looked from classical and medieval traditions the lessons needed for the solution
;
at
,
,
or
of
the light
of
,
in
of
of
'
,
of of
.
of
view the whole contemporary critical problems From our point significance greater process had consequences even for the future specific the exact transformation the nature four centuries remove the considerable import character the new orientations become matters history ance intellectual
given
in
.
of
a
;
a
;
to
,
,
a
of
in
in
is
It
method these last considerations that the matter methodology becomes vital Given Renaissance criticism the history which these ancient texts given medieval tradition limited number certain transmutation texts when not forgotten had already suffered on
a
in
a
find these ancient and medieval materials new critical these materials will what results from this desire operating about large part upon the way depend which theorists and critics the solution their problems the individual theorist comes his problem with one set intellectual habits with one discipline for the desire
go
to
If
,
of
.
of
in
in :
apparatus
an
,
no
.
of
of
he
,
.
be
,
,
of
of
reading and interpretation texts with one attitude toward the procedures theory his predecessors the that himself propounds will one discipline kind Another habit another another attitude might produce entirely different kind theory
no
of
.
of
all
;
to
a
In
such situation there are really constants The basic texts them procedure selves change from reader reader the mode each critic
of
;
. In
,
a
in
of
.
be
in
of
will differ some way from those the others two the resulting exactly identical Hence the tremendous variety and com theories will plexity critical thought the Cinquecento sense the only valid a
as
a
.
of
.
,
a
statements one can make are statements about individual authors and thing general current individual texts Nevertheless there was such discipline through fairly constant intellectual the century There was
of
, a
a
39 ]
-
by
of
.
an
,
treated
[
-
to
of
to
the schools
be in
of
fairly definite tradition about relatively widespread assumption argument This general tendency always with respect the conduct with variations formed the basis the method employed the indi
formation habits mind how certain subjects were
THEORY
POETIC
vidual writer in his theorizing or in his criticism . It is this general method which I wish to describe in the present chapter , as a means to aiding the reader in his understanding of subsequent textual analyses . CLASSIFICATION AMONG THE SCIENCES The first characteristic of this method has already been described : the position to preface discussion of the poetic art by indicating This effort situating poetics
to in a
.
of
forms that
several
classification
at
the other arts and sciences
of
with reference might take one
to
its
tendency
a
of
,
.
of
,
;
a
as
its its
of in
a
of
to
it
of ,
of
a
by
it ,
all
or
;
as
of
art
;
as
of of
the components cognate arts such
of
:
the whole philosophy that relating smaller logic and rhetoric single sister art history that transforming analogy into such kind encompassing philosophy The first universal other branches symptomatic these forms has already been studied general phil osophical approach which essence was systematic the same approach
family group
.
in
.
be
poetics
,
to
the relating
history throughout the cen
to
several examples
of
of
to
,
us
,
to
,
is
in
apparent but reduced the scope intention the second Of the third and fourth something further needs said Let take illustrate how poetics was assimilated another art
,
to
since
of
an
of
.
,
Agricola's De inventione dialectica Here the two arts are compared
,
is
,
,
.
of
in
as
or
to
so
of
,
as
.
is
of
tury The problem here distinguished from that the preceding chapter not much discover the fact the basis classification determine what methodological approaches are involved the coupling Rodolphus the two arts An early case from the fifteenth century
.
in
,
to as in
As
happenings
antecedent
.
later summation
“
of
is
of
.
”
a
"
res with
,
in
"
“
an
"
,
to
both them use words narrate order events which have happened But whereas history bent upon representing the truth gives events the natural order which they actually occurred poetry may permit itself artificial order The typical case that the beginning medias far
method
of
Any other
.
of
in
as a
to
a
in
,
is
seeking concerned Agricola's consists factor common the two using this factor comparison and differentiation arts and means
as
;
he
.
la
de
in
is
of
)
(
la
,
poetry The important .
complete theory
of
which incidentally provides
a
a
of
to
et
de
of
features the arts are left out consideration.1 Dionigi Atanagi eccellentia his Ragionamento The procedure perfettione historia 1559 much more complex Atanagi wishes essentially history adopts characterize the art the best expedient lengthy set likenesses and differences between history and poetry
ad
a
.
:
[ 40 ]
id
:
.)
of : :
:
. (E
. . . .
...
'
.
conuenit
: “
. b
:
in
:
ex
:
.
,
),
,
ad
:
est
ab
:
(
1
De inventione dialectica Louvain Martin 1515 Liber Tertius fol viv Est tamen differentia poetice dispositionis historia vel maxima quod poeta solum quantum ipsius speciem tantum sequitur temporum hoc narrantis personam pertinet rerum gestarum natura plerunque perturbat eas atque ordinem quantum autem est mediis orditur rebus deinde quae primae fuerant earum posterius personae colore alicuius xample Aeneid Sin vero res ipsas respici aut alio quouis commento infert mentionem est mus non personas quibus dat orationem poeta iam videmus contrarium naturali Historie cuius prima laus est veritas naturalis tamen ordo artificialem ordinem esse
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
difference is not between the use of prose and the use of verse ( since some poems are also found in prose ), but between the use , or not , of imitation .
The differences may be summarized thus : History
Poetry
1.
No
2.
Many actions of many men
Imitation
imitation
3. Treats
Single action of one man Treats the universal , the pure Idea of things
the particular , things as
they are 4. Narrates things done as they were done
Narrates
things as they should be done , according to necessity, veri similitude , and probability
5. Presents characters as they were ,
Maintains
constancy of character subordinating
central plot beginning
Artificial order
in
hap
events
as
pened
events
;
Natural order ,
me
"
dias res
8. Limited by the materials , the truth of the facts
by
facts extensive addi produce the marvelous the tions stupendous the delightful
men real art consists dialogues orations
as
they should
speak
,
,
will
Freer
sen
use
words
,
at words
,
use
of
in
11. Restricted
Introduces gods uses personification
uses
of
gods
introduces personifications
in
10. Rarely
or
,
;
Also makes men speak
speeches attributed writing
to
Invents
in
9.
,
,
to
Not limited
;
7.
order ,
Certain
“
and confused order ,
following events themselves
to
6. Uncertain
all
varied , unstable , etc.
sententiae
tentiae 12.
Allegorical meanings hidden under
Literal meanings only for words
:
deliberative
types
of
invocation
"
but only poetry uses
“
be
summarized briefly
"
and the
,
"
“
demonstrative
narration
"
use the
and
“
Both
“
use
"
proposition
Both
similarity may also
"
or
likeness
rhetoric
to
;
,
to
,
is ,
,
, to
"
,
to
"
history Both use the judicial type which however more proper Both observe prudence and decorum delight bring profit history especially Both seek teach move and to
5.
4.
3.
2. 1.
The points
of
literal meanings
,
,
,
,
Both use ancient and distant subjects describe places peoples laws customs ,
6.
seeks utility
amplifications
variety
( 41 )
Both use digressions
,
emotions ,
8.
wide variety
a
leading
to
fortune
,
of
,
Both use sudden and unexpected accidents changes of
7.
etc.
POETIC THEORY 9. 10.
Both use numbers , figures of speech , although different ones Both must represent things in so graphic a way as to make them visible to the eye
What was for Agricola the whole basis of comparison becomes for Atanagi only one of many points of contact between the two arts . His method is to multiply such points of juxtaposition as far as his ingenuity will permit . Each additional point further circumscribes the material or the operation
of the art . One ends up with a conception of what poetry is compared not - as to history — and of what it is . What it is is not determined by discovery of a definition ( inductively ) and by derivation of the conse quences of that definition ; rather, it comes from an accumulation of isolated descriptive statements , generated dialectically by considering how it differs from something else . Moreover , the topics which are themselves significant of a method of thinking about poetry . Roughly , the topics are these : the genus , kind of action , relation to truth and probability , character , order , factualness, dia logue, use of the supernatural , diction , literalness , type of rhetoric , decorum , ends, ornaments , nature of plot , figures, numbers, visual quali resembles
and
all
ties . Presumably , a poem which satisfied
by
give rise to these statements
the
it
by or a
,
be
as
to
be a
of
the conditions established good poem consideration these topics would whether not might required conformed such other artistic demands more systematic approach.2
of
, is
to
,
we
to be
I
,
.
.
of
,
of As ,
in
on
,
A
anonymous similar approach but again fairly restricted that Dialogue History MS Vat Lat 6528 which have dated roughly around 1565. however the principal protagonist claims maintain ing the point Pomponazzi the ideas would belong view the early by
a
on of to
of
.
:
,
a
of
a
of
,
of
,
in
,
as
.
of
part the preceding chapter both have seen the century Here history and poetry are species the the genus narration differentiated single action fact that poetry narrates one man whereas history narrates many men The various poetic genres spring from single single action source historical annals these give rise the epic through the selection
;
.
a
he
,
to
,
,
of
to it ;
of
,
of a
"
"
a
to
;
so
one exceptionally great man and one his exceptionally great actions from the epic springs tragedy and for the rest Once the poet has treating the exceptional dedicated himself must find decorum and style and diction appropriate thence come into being the various poems the use poetic diction allegory and modes verse and ,
a
construct
a
a
discovered
whole
42 ]
(
on
,
history the two treatises starting point the genus his
as
in
-
.
34-6 142v 150v 151. ,
.
,
.
,
of
.pp
),
1559
(
Ragionamento
MS Vat Lat 6528 fols .
3 2
De
,
Giovanni Antonio Viperano the first scribenda historia 1569 also uses
of
of
difference
to of
from the single elementary theory the poetic art.3
so
—
of
.
is
to
prosopopoeia The procedure single common once more select factor the narration an action seek basis differentiation and
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
narration . Within this genus he finds three species , history , poetry , and oratory . (Oratory is included because , according to currently accepted rhetorical doctrines , " narration ” was one of the component parts of any speech : “ Habet quoque Orator narrationes suas . ") Further distinctions sometimes include oratory , sometimes do not . History and poetry differ in
of actions they represent , history using only “res gestas ” and poetry “res fictas .” Each of the three species has a separate end ; indeed , each seems to have several ends , one serving the other . History tries immediately to “ narrate well , ” ultimately to teach proper modes of action the kinds
and to form character ; it is also useful to the other arts, by supplying and materials, and should be accompanied by pleasure . Poetry tries immediately to " invent what is proper to each character ," finally to bring pleasure through narration For oratory the immediate end
to
is
,
.
its
examples
,
by
of
is
as
is
in
.
,
.
to
it
,
to
please through narration Finally blame but too seeks while history guides the mind poetry arouses and calms the passions interesting equivocation What this method the kind which oratory falls into the same genus history and poetry and the multiple praise and
),
in
to
present
all
biography
is
is
is
the main task
of
-
,
.
example
-
,
.
to
as
in a
For
the author's mind
.
of
to
of
,
(
.
to
distinctions applied these arts Viperano's second work De scribendis virorum illustrium vitis 1570 applies the general ideas biography the first the more specific field The general ideas are not repeated Instead biography discussed such way indicate that the trilogy history poetry oratory still present
of
the best poets
.
the best rhetorical tradition and practised
S
in
so
if
be
,
,
;
,
,
—
by
prescribed
by
-
of
the character the hero this will done properly the topics age sex condition nation and decorum forth are treated the way
as
I
,
;
of
of
he
If
,
of ,
,
.
he
;
).
(
of a
of
,
he
is
to
to
A
:
to in
is
on
to
of
position similar that the anonymous Dialogue History Sperone Speroni's Dialogo dell'historia found which Speroni assign published have not been able date 1596 For also history and poetry are kinds narration poetry narrates one action many men But goes beyond the Dialogue one man history one action when subject matter contrary introduces the question truthfulness commonly believed says both poetry and history treat the what One final example
,
,
.
.
.
,
( 43 )
in
of
845-48
B4v Cv
376 394-403 411–412 ,
is
; it
is
,
it
esp pp
B4 . . ,
it
. ed .pp )., .pp
is , . a it
”
an
(
ed ( .) , ) esp, .
(
to
be
;
De scribenda historia 1576 De scribendis vitis 1570 esp Dialoghi 1596
In
4 s 6
necessity and probability
this that imitation Thus although poetry like history history unlike since transforms the particular higher and more noble art.6 hence
, it
makes treating the truth into the universal
according
is
should poetry
of
it
as
“
it
of
is
of
,
is
,
,
.”
is
: "
is
.
truth one takes three such forms the annal history and poetry the following distinctions apply the annal true history true and worthy poetry poetry changed true and worthy and marvelous The truth into something higher and more wonderful through the process treating
POETIC
THEORY
What is involved , essentially , in these multiple comparisons of the art of history to the art of poetry is not classification but delimitation . The critic is faced with the problem of explaining the nature of one art . He finds that it is like another art in some salient respect — the use of language , the narra tion of an action , the treatment of the truth and he proceeds to search for
,
,
or
.
of or
;
of
be
or
or
be
of
be
of
his
other points of agreement or disagreement . The more such points he can comparison find , the more complete will be the two arts and hence satisfactory description the more will his either one For poetry the comparison may with history with rhetoric with painting with logic the resulting delineation the poetic art will more less ade
be
or
an
distinguishing characters
as
Its
the art
apprehended
art may thus never
method may also result merely
of
be
features
.
of
or
,
is
of in
.
of
of
is
as
or
or
ill
of
is
or
is
as
compari the other art well chosen the initial point danger potential inappropriate appropriate the method The son equivalence may that the original basis some aspect the poetic art which not really the essence the art and that the whole resulting discussion may therefore deal with auxiliary incidental accidental quate
systematic
a
in
a
in
to
in
of
no
,
to
,
.
a
Such collection commonplace pros and cons rela traditional statements about the art attempt tive the central topics with examine the art itself
all
a
which poetry becomes
The method and transcending
universal
science
,
by
.
way
containing
;
is
.
,
he
he
of
of
he
If
,
.
a "
.
"
-
“
:
in
a
;
if
he
in
,
the
“
a ”
or
-
,
“
or
of
display Homer's expertness thinking about geography and forth without end This kind poetry which document the such the late Greek world gave rise pseudo Plutarchian De Homeri poesi which made ocean Homer the
"
as
"
of
a
to
,
,
-
all
of
is
.
so
in
;
,
the
Odysseus
;
in of
the military art the wanderings
of
poetry rather the subject matters the broadest sense not human action things character verisimilar but the infinite variety poet may speak speaks poem about which the stars applies his knowledge encompasses astronomy battle describes same one
all
the subject matter Subject matters are here taken
or
a
of
,
is
others not too different Once again the critic always the single aspect selects for consideration the poetic art this
in
to )
,
a
distinguishing authority 339–75
.
.pp
in
of
no
way
degree
,
( 44 )
to
of
is
it
,
a
", is
),
in
is
“
48 .
( .p
);
have
Alter Tomus Operum Angeli Politiani
.
(
,
ed .
.
, by it
subject matters
the method came
to
How
If ,
.
8
,
.
of
the art
Lyon Gryphius See 1527-28 Orationes 1557 see See pp 3-5 In
9 8 7
de
in
as
.?
in
in
), (
(
singled out for attention feature
its
'
of
make
1557 Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica using this method possible and numerous others poetry poetry universal science because that aspect a
1560
),
(
laudibus poetarum
In
,
In
.
by
of
knowledge the Quattrocento the De Homeri poesi was copied expositione Homeri Angelo Poliziano the his Oratio Cinquecento the same ideas were expressed Varchi's such texts Giacopo Grifoli's Oratio Lezzioni della poetica already referred large part
OF THE THEORISTS
subject
from
others
;
all
it
matter
all
a
single
included
the
of
of
.
be
,
a
,
by
"
“
of
to
.
in
hence
it
must universal science and the others The ambiguities involved here the use the the definition term subject matter the misconceptions with respect sciences their subject matters the imperfections the systems which logical impossibility will immediately apparent could permit such ;
the other sciences
philosopher , every
the systematic
which separated
,
materials preferable
to of all all
but poetry rather than having
For ,
its
the Renaissance is easily understood . specific subject matter
science had
be a
THE METHODOLOGY
GLOSSES AND COMMENTARIES
All
or
of
of a
.
of
as a
to
to
in
of
poetry classification and assimilation procedures part another art were which came the Renaissance treating the antecedent intellectual tradition The principal method in
the procedures involved
of
,
of
of
to
of it
if
a
it
a
or
of
a
a
.
,
in
of
as
.
, it
of
;
as
,
that
,
the gloss the extended commentary was another such applied from the recent past the chief critical texts anti quity approaching problems constituted one the standard ways criticism during the Cinquecento The method was fairly constant although the century progressed some variants were introduced and some refine ments added One took small section the text short paragraph prose section and printed after verses small number was text
heritage
a
.
it ,
.
If
of
by
,
of
.
at
.
Certain
.
and commentaries
authors chose
to
,
translations
by
vernacular
on to
so
a
a
;
in
,
in
,
a
or
,
of
of
,
or
short Sometimes marginal notation summarized commentary the content the Then the same was done for the next way section the text and the end Sometimes the end summary digest conclusion the comments was given the text usually was Greek Latin translation followed and after this the commentary later the same procedure was followed for the century commentary long
-
be
a
.
is
on ,
,
so
as
-
.
,
provide further enlightenment inserting paraphrase between trans text translation that the order would lation and commentary paraphrase commentary Thus time went the whole apparatus became more complicated and the commentary much longer What in
is
,
A
.
to
.
of
,
of
important for the student criticism course what was said the and how they were conceived few examples should suffice illustrate this method
commentaries
;
to
of on
a
“
,
of
grammatical gloss
reduces
in
.
that
is all )
he
,
the text
(
of
( 45 )
a
of
a
sections
and these precepts some forty brief final section the commentary There
precepts
in
concise collected together
writing
,
intervals corresponding to
meaning
to to
, in
At
.
ing
Instead
the text Gaurico does continuous prosification distinguish and clarify Horace's mean attempts
he
of
.
were the earlier ones
his
in
of
it is a
as
”
more
the separate words the epistle which
it
on
of
Pomponio Gaurico's Super Arte poetica Horatii was the earliest the Cinquecento commentaries the Ars poetica was written shortly dedicatory epistle before 1510. Gaurico himself claims Francesco commentary not written grammaticorum Pucci that new kind
are
little
POETIC
THEORY
in the way of explanation , although occasionally examples from ancient art or literature are added . A commentary of this type does little more than extract the barest meaning from the Ars poetica and isolate a given number of critical ideas . It makes no attempt to discover the philosophical structure of the work , the reasons for the order of presentation of ideas , the concep tion of the poetic art contained within it . The later edition of Gaurico , published in 1541, intercalates the commentary among passages of the text , divided into thirty -seven sections ; in this form , both text and com mentary are fragmented , and any semblance of synthesis is destroyed .
Indeed , such fragmentation may prevent the reader from seeing the work if it is badly done , if the points of separation are badly chosen , a totally false conception of the meaning of the text may result. A much more highly developed form of the same method is found in as a whole ; and
Battista Pigna's Poetica Horatiana of 1561. Once the text has been divided into sections — there are eighty in Pigna's division and the "precept ” stated for each fragment, the commentator proceeds to an elaborate exposition of the ideas of the text. He cites supporting or illustra tive passages from innumerable other theorists -- Cicero , Quintilian , , Aristotle Plutarch , Donatus , Plato — from miscellaneous philosophical Giovanni
texts on other sciences , finally from many poets who demonstrate Horace's principles . He goes into lengthy discussions of individual words and phrases , citing the authority of previous expositors of the text and seeking clarification from other texts . Sometimes this leads to the most astonishing
of the Ars poetica are made to refer , for example , to the four genres distinguished by Aristotle , with the “caput humanum " standing for the epic , the “ ceruicem equinam " for tragedy , the " collatas plumas ” for the dithyramb and the lyric, and the " atrum piscem " for comedy. Moreover , certain distinctions from other sciences are made to results : the first four lines
bear upon the text ; in an introduction , Pigna insists that the work must be studied in the light of “ res ” and “ verba " ( an essentially grammatical dis tinction ) and these in turn in their relationship to " invention , disposition , rhetorical distinction ). Thus, in spite of his tight chain the work Horace's precepts are linked expounds orderly becomes more confused and sense development lost procedure are say vices Some the same characteristics not an
of
on
—
,
in all a
it ,
he
to
of
,
).
is
;
is
(
de
Pietro Vettori's extensive commentary the Poetics his primum librum Aristotelis Commentarii arte poetarum 1560 Here the approach closely much more carefully philological the Greek text in
apparent
in of
is
10
as
of
all
elocution " ( an essentially
and
contention that
,
in
be
all
[ 46 ]
see
.p 3 .
);
1561
At .
.
as a
of
no
:
Poetica Horatiana
(
10
of
,
is
,
,
studied useful emendations are suggested better translations are proposed comprehensive interpretation But there still the text whole best there are certain general notions which determine the interpretation poetry must specific passages the idea that verse the idea that
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
of the poem must be such as to assure the persuasion and of the audience . Unfortunately , these ideas are such as to lead warping to a rather than to a clarification of Aristotle's meaning, and they capable are not of binding into an organized whole the multiple passages the treatment
the pleasure
into which the text has been broken
of
.
of
,
from the linguistic buted considerably
a
to
are
of to or
use
will
be examined in disruptive — sufficient illustrate the effect gloss was frequently helpful the textual gloss Such philological standpoint and the Cinquecento contri the critical the accuracy and the intelligibility
detail in later chapters the consistent
.
as these — and many others
Even so few examples
,
;
as
to
.
a
It
of
be
no
of
matter how different
to
,
result
”
authorities a
.
frantic search for outside
“
or
of
a a
general philosophical tendency
As
to
encouraged the total philosophical form the work parallel similar passages from other works and
citing
kind
of
of
of
.
of . It
, it
as
or
paragraph
miscellaneous
it
From the philosophical standpoint was almost always disadvantageous promoted regarding texts inculcated and the habit fragments collections and hence collections isolated precepts beyond any prevented the single line effort see over and contrariwise texts involved
Horace ceased
Horace
,
,
;
vast
.
of
all
a
Aristotle never became Aristotle each grew instead into containing monument the multiform remains the literary past and
SCHOLASTIC APPROACHES a
as
of
of
in
,
a
of
be
his
.
of
.
as
,
.
"
“
,
be
a
it
I
;
to
I
the textual commentary method Cinquecento which came the from the antecedent literary tradition might have called frankly scholastic method Certain other ap proaches could also loosely described somewhat remains the fairly standard scholastic tradition One such approach would the use any subject After the prolusio formula for the introduction which have characterized this use
to
is ,
(
)
to
"
“
,
de
."
11
;
is
"
it
its
it .
,
.
),
(
on
to
he
;
it
In it
go
he
be
,
,
he
his
of
In to
of
particular subject among the other might sciences well indicate how meant about treating For many authors the pattern would prefatory the same the materials great commentary Aristotle 1548 for example Francesco Robor says tello that means discuss what the poetic faculty and what proposes for itself what effect has what end the subject matter out product Similarly the Prolegomena which makes Vincenzo Maggi's poetica communes explanationes Aristotelis librum 1550 the author indicated the place
.
of
, in
of
sit
In
. " 12
de
,
11
,
of
its
,
“
,
be ,
in
,
a
, of
contains program for Maggi's own treatment the Aristotelian text He subject will discuss order the usefulness the title what order the author should read the divisions the text the method instruc practical tion and under what faculty the latter falls the field ,
,
,
,
,
ex
), .p 1 : “
(
;
uia Quamque haec sub facultatem cadat
. "
,
Doctrinae
[ 47 ]
,
,
auctor legi debeat Divisio
13 : "
ed .) , .p
." 9
;
In
(
12
&
poëtica facultas librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes 1548 Qualis quam habeat uim Quem finem propositum qua opus Quam materiem subiectam suum conficiat Explanationes scriptionis Propositum 1550 Vtilitas Inscriptio Quo ordine
THEORY
POETIC
,
,
et
,
of
of
,
a
as
as
, .” 13
the handling
instruction
Such programs these subject providing
of
in
order
the method
author
the
,
“
,
,
,
of
the name
of
they did
the book semblance
the proportion
of
the division
,
the name made for
praefationes written around the Orationes the topics are respectively the purpose the
;
in
is
the order
1582
of
,
utility
a
,
1550
of
VIII
Preface published
the text
;
he
of
set
criticism , Marcantonio Maioragio applies to the analysis of Book IV of admittedly borrows from Averroës eight topics which the Aeneid a
a
of
.
to
of
of
as a
in ,
,
of
a
kind advance outline for the consecutive discussion important points relevant number the materials They came into assuring the consideration being indeed means these points .
of
order and completeness
theorists and critics on
for
the same advantages
,
of
.
by
,
of
.
of
set
a
replace
as
of
For
But
by
to
the discussion
they tended
of
,
of
the course
as is
the case with many thinking rules thumb active about poetics answering questions parts routine The various the outline were considered isolated topics without the necessary illumination any one the topics the answers found for the others somewhere
It
.
organizing their ideas used another such fixed system the poetic art was one which had very ancient and very firm philosophical bases and
of
a
in
.
and realized An example Maggi's Explanationes 1550 where by imitating human actions poetry ),
be
fully developed
found
(
sometimes
the former type might
in
,
much reduced form
of
,
,
In
."
“
:
a
to
to
which had contributed the later Middle Ages and the humanistic period mold for their intellectual procedures namely the method the four causes the Cinquecento the mold was sometimes used
of
”
,
its
“
to
the
15
"
the
.
the listener
of
,
eloquence
, in
is
which
the end which
is
—
,
the form
and
in
,
is
in
—
),
(
in
be
14
:
"
,
"
every oration and speech consists the thing proposed which
matter
is ,
it to
,
“
is
,
of
he
points out first that the end through pleasant language material and later that ennoble the mind proposes the human mind which refine with the best principles conduct another would Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi della inven passing author remarks that almost where tione poetica 1554
to
he
;
is
in
by
),
(
As
it .
of
a
is
vague reflection obviously only the method and little Here there Filippo Sassetti employed comprehension his marginalia merely Piccolomini's Annotationi 1575 the form still abbreviated
,
is
,
its
of
In
16
,
13
.”
,
“
of
poetry was the poet says that one might say that the efficient cause himself the formal cause the imitation the material cause the verse and brevity this statement spite the final cause pleasure revela ,
,
."
,
,
, : "
,
sibi expolien è la
che
cosa
pro lo
causa efficiente della Poesia fusse finale diletto . "
uerso
,
nella materia parlamento
, la e & , la
il
,
materiale
moribus
."
:
l'eloquenza
... optimis
il
), .p
13 : "
quem
consiste ogni oratione potrebbe dire che
BNF Postillati formale l'imitatione stesso Poeta la
è
“
nella forma che
l'uditore
[ 48 ]
nel fine che
16
animus scilicet humanas
la
), .p
1554
and
15 , è 15 .p : “ 65 : “ , si
( . ”1
Dialogi
, et
posta
,
15
excultum reddere dum proponit
" ;
(
14
,
ed .) , , ( .p
et
praefationes 1582 Orationes 178 intentionem utilitatem ordinem diuisionem proportionem uiam doctrinae nomen Libri nomen authoris Explanationes 1550 actiones humanas imitando suaui sermone animum
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
tory of the whole theory of poetics held by Sassetti ; it indicates the useful ness of the method for concentrating the attention on certain central problems of the art and for eliciting definite pronouncements about those problems .
All four of the causes are present in Julius Caesar Scaliger's Poetices libri ( septem 1561 ), but in a strange way ; they are introduced at a point where Scaliger is making the traditional distinction among the terms poesis , poema , and poeta . “ Poema, ” he says , “ is the work itself , the matter ...
to
...
in
;
."
,
to
of
,
,
a
it
a
of
the
I
,
is
or
.
”,
he
In
,
of
e
as
called acting disposition
...
the case may verisimilar expressed
indeed the
is
section entitled interprets the
the poem that cause say which operating through habit poet the be .
the soul
,
of of
cause
the divine spirit
poem
Aristotle's Poetics 1585–86 actually basing upon good
discussion the Poetics forma fine difinizione del poema ,
,
, : by is “
efficient
on
in a
to
,
of
his
The
causes thus moved
his Commentary much fuller extent
preliminary
materia
,
“
Agente
or or
combine this analysis with the traditional defini
17
)
.
Lionardo Salviati exploits the method
same
or
,
(
to
of
is
of
,
is ,
,
,
,
is
two and the attempt tions
deal
: “
his
which is made . But poesis is the reason and the form of the poem ” ; poeta argument of course the poet. Then he concludes Thus you have three causes the material the formal and the efficient and the preceding commentary the final that the ultimate end instruction imitation poema and poesis strange What the assigning the meanings say nothing the first two causes the interpretations given the other is
The matter through ornamented
disposition The final cause which treated only much later when Salviati finally concerns moral character poetry decides that the special and ultimate final cause to profit and delight imitating with verse major part Since the the work running commentary however Aristotle the method soon aban any sense inform the rest doned and does not the treatment.18 , “
.”
the flawless
“
is
,
is
,
of
of pp ) .
example Niccolò Rossi's Discorsi intorno Jacopo Mazzoni's Della difesa della
,
-
.p
,
for
in
In
various other texts alla tragedia 1590 21v
(
is
of
."
on
a
,
by
of
,
is
is
The form
, ”
.
speech
and
fit .
as
Poesis autem Efficientem
:
,
,
to
it
as
of
of ,
is
it of
its
to .
,
or
, in
:
,
Formam
...
"
' col
a
è
, o
mossa diuino verisimile espresso quale intorno
il 13 , “ il
fol
.
" ", ;
,
disposta
, si o è
, o
del
( 49 )
da
, la
, , la
,
,
e è la
sia . . . .
si è
.
.
" ;
: “
,
o
quae
contribute
est Imitationem siue vlteriorem finem doctionem cagione del poema cagione dico quale agente La
, " id
9–9v
: “
11 ,
II, II,
Finem , . La è
(
...
uero efficiente chiamata l'anima del poeta habituata spirito ch'ella materia medesimo poema disposizione senza fallo fauellar condito La forma costumi fol 151v Giouare dilettare imitando col uerso
...
fails
Poema est opus ipsum materia and Ita habes causas tres Materiam
...
fols
that
,
" 13 : “
Poetice 1581 forma Poematis superiori commentario
MS BNF
all
—
)
ff .
as
is
ed .) , .p
a
is
it
,
,
&
18 in
ratio
analysis
total and exhaustive
ac
17
producing
63
;
in
(
di
Comedia Dante 1587 several the causes appear incidentally development the course the Indeed because essen tially the method employed incidental some other frame discus capable sion because never fully exploited own right
POETIC
THEORY
of
of
of it
would
properly on ,
solutions proposed
no
to
,
;
its
something about general nature did not assure that applied the few examples cited here with the variety
be
a
of
of
to
,
,
.
a
of
all
completely as it might to a clarification of critical ideas . The eclectic possible methods approach within tendency , the wish to amalgamate single treatise easily led the best characteristics the nullification the best methods Moreover knowing the existence method and
.
of
full
scale
, it
wished
-
to
be
of
,
Since
it
.
a
of
text
operated
,
,
,
in ;
is
"
“
a
.
,
its
of
of
in
develop and expound the ideas contained After the poem principal the sonnet and restatement idea the author
paraphrase
a
to
usually
.
of
,
of
,
in
.
as
shorter texts such the sonnet There are throughout the there had been the Quattrocento innumerable lectures Exposition mostly they discourses epistles which take the form the this form Petrarch The intention concern themselves with sonnets
,
most readily Cinquecento
as on
Sposizione
“
scale
”
In
of
a
of
to
of
,
in
,
suggest that there was should suffice this century sure grasp logical the instruments that would have been needed make the device the four causes valid basis for discussion the poetic art practical criticism one the field the favorite devices was the full
its
,
of
a
a
or
.
its
,
a
in
,
,
a
to
usually proceeds philosophical back discussion the idea itself validity and usefulness for human conduct grounds and implications provides the text for philosophical The poem sense sermon
.
.
of of
as a to
it
to
philosophy than almost
.
in
be
,
entirely from the materials
some other branch
and have hence omitted them considered the present work
I
to
the history
the Cinquecento
to
in
ments belong rather aesthetics
of
or
of
do
of
disquisition that soon leaves the poem entirely out consideration Rarely these expositions make any reference the artistic structure and attempt qualities art Such docu work evaluate the poem
FOUR CHARACTERISTIC METHODS
All
,
be
to
,
as
of
in
.
of
a
of
its ,
by ,
of
that the Italian sixteenth century did the way method was not imperfect approaches inherited piecemeal however and combination from recent past Writers the century developed the years went
of
as
be
may examine the method
of
the first among these
we
.
ideas
,
As
of
,
,
,
,
—
a
set characteristic methods that were their own which had many ties with the past which had been practiced before and which have been practiced since but which nevertheless may studied development and presentation representing the predominant modes sure
imitation a
of
as
in a
to
-
of
,
or
,
.
a
of
theory single ancient text Theorists who wished develop antiquity literary genre which had not been satisfactorily treated comedy say chivalry would take the romance their model some
[ 50 ]
,
;
.
in
of
or
of
fit
of
,
as
or
to
.
be
ancient theoretical text The rules for the new genre would merely the subject matter old rules transposed the special circumstances question end manner the genre The ancient text most frequently used the model was course Aristotle's Poetics hence the production
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
of a large number of “Aristotelian ” theories of the minor or the recent literary genres or, in fact, of any genre which Aristotle himself had not completely explored . We may take , as an example of this methodological phenomenon ,
I
Giovanni Battista Pigna's romanzi ( 1554 ) , which is a lengthy study of the “ romance " form as practiced by Italian poets . Pigna himself , at the end of Book I , which is devoted to the general theory of the romance , confesses his indebtedness to Aristotle :
of
on
us
on
he
,
of
.
of
he
to
in
is
of
",
in
.
is
”
“
:
how the framework the new form
the subject
used the highest interest The skeleton Argomento del primo libro shows brief part the Poetics transferred the discussion
called
of
I,
Book
is
,
which Aristotle
outline
of in
The way
“
,
of
so
he
had never seen here has been our guide them had never spoken even though
the duel which romances
as
its .
This is what I have thought proper to say about the romance considering it in general . Although I have never mentioned Aristotle while speaking about it , that does not mean that I have not used the whole of his Poetics , making use of every part of light And just this same Aristotle gave the subject
;
to
is
,up
.
is
First words and subject matters are treated generally And then the epic which considered with respect the plot and thence springs the
taken
of
be
and reversal
;
of
complex type come the recognition kinds the question whether good poets should
be ,
.
,
,
six
,
.
of of
,
be of
,
it
of
;
conclusion that imitation and narration are practically opposites and then the role truth and verisimilitude and how the action may made illustrious may and how made one Similarly we derive the plot one and two plot Under the kinds and the simple complex passionate and ethical types which last contains
of
all
.
;
in
,
to
of
is
of
.
of to
.
to
as
banned from the republic Under the ethical type the four requirements for character are expounded And this discussion concerns the qualitative parts With respect the quantitative parts there composition and the introduction beginnings with the matter giving the reason for this out going back the first origins the story and
"
“
.
of
,
is
"
ex
,
“
it
of
.
is
greater than epic And then there we then discuss why tragedy the resolution which brings with the treatment the deus machina and the Fates Next come the episodes both good and bad which are divided into epangelia ),
....
are
of
all
,
" (
“
[
)
amaprattomena and those actually acted under which fall paladins knights explained the cantos and the errant and the which those narrated
,
at
I,
is
)
(
on
)
15
,
,
to
.
(p
as
of
of
;
1450a4
)
( 51
or
.
.
It
of
all
on
so
;
15 )
.
however
,
,
mean
(p
from 1447a15 and down the line All this does not points that Pigna agrees with Aristotle even that accepts the general body merely means that Aristotelian doctrine
means he
2
.p
,
in
plot from Poetics 1451b5 the definition imitation from object manner and the differentiation imitations according ;
is
.
to
;
is
in
although many other ideas This outline followed fairly closely Book many points not intervene and there are lengthy digressions moreover referred the outline Aristotle called upon for distinctions and clarification Thus the initial distinction between poetry and history
POETIC
THEORY
from the Poetics a relatively complete schematism for the handling of the genre.19 Francesco Robortello appended to his commentary on Aristotle's he borrows
of
in
.
,
,
A
as
and Cicero
Donatus Vitruvius
to of
could find such supple the brief outline
them are added whatever materials Robortello
mentary sources
,
of
.
of
all
Poetics ( 1548 ) , a short treatise on comedy , in which the method is again the imitation of the procedures of the basic text . The treatise is very short (less than ten folio pages ) ; hence it presents a kind of epitome of that comedy Aristotle said about tragedy translated into terms All Aristotle's direct statements about comedy are course included and
byto
of
,
on
its so
of
of
and
imitate
and the time
the types
on
long section
a
For
,
the form
of
on
.
of
;
as
to
a
man's instinct
then the growth and development compared with that tragedy invention forth
of
invention
-
)
,
its in
( as
.
then the causes for
;
genre
in
.
of
,
,
of
.
a
contents will show how the method works Robortello begins with state poetry ment the end He then differentiates imitations according each case which are used means object and manner indicating comedy There follows Aristotle brief history the origins the
,
he
,
.
In
of
;
he
or is
,
of
comedy Aristotle Donatus but his imitation draws heavily para tragedy apparent qualitative parts the discussion the phrases transposes Aristotle making almost identical statements about recognition knot and solution about the four require with some parallels taken from Horace about say about apparatus spectacle sententiae and diction For what has ) ;
;
,
or
to
.
he
(
for character
,
,
,
of
plot the kinds
ments
he
of
.
to
,
however the core
the work
an
is
,
in
is
,
mi
, al
di ho
è
.
Questo
di
&
65 : “
the
itself
;
), .p
(
found
which
comica
quello che intorno Romancio m'è paruto dire quantunque d'Aristotile mai del quale mentre fauellato non stato però che tutta sua Poetica seruito non sia
romanzi 1554 generalmente considerandolo
I
single text
,
19
of
A
clear statement the intention imitate prefatory section Antonio Riccoboni's De
re a
to
of
. 20
,
of
these supplementary borrowings still follows the outline of the Poetics spite
In
to
,
of .
to
,
he
rests upon Vitruvius and for the quantitative parts refers Donatus The final statements about the limitation five acts and the number interlocutors are ascribed Horace and Donatus
however directly
,
:
:
&
& il
.
Et
" la ;
ne ne
,
lui
da la
:
,
.
&
&
&
.
ne
si
è
la
il
in
. ne Et
:
ne
& la in
;
a2 : è “
.p
è
mentione fatto non habbia tutta maneggiandola come tutto Duello non mai veduto lume diede esso parlasse Aristotile cosi quiui Romanzi stato nostra guida benche egli mai non pigliasi l'Epopeia Prima delle parole delle materie generalmente tratta quale quanto alla fauola considerata cosi nasce come l'imitare narrare sieno quasi contrarij parte del uero del uerisimile come l'attione sia illustre come
,
:
la
&
:
il
i
il
&
,
,
il
& il
& lo . . i &
da
.
il
si sei
:
di
&
la
.
se i
.
la de
&
& il è,
si
,
la il
.
genere semplice composto una nasce parimente fauola d'un genere due agnitioni perturbato composto sono peripetia che contiene costumato sotto quistione che poeti quattro una buona republica scaccino sotto costumato espongono comporre decori tutto cio intorno alla qualità Nella quantità euui ,
di
il
la
i
:
&
,
i
in
:
&
i
&
i
i
ui è
:
gli
&
la
la
52 )
(
.
.
),
(
de
"
In
of
II
20
.
.
&
in ,
....
si
&
da
principij senza prima origine cagione l'introducimento nel render cio segue perche piu sia Tragedia che Epopeia sciorre che con seco porta trattare Episodij della machina delle Fate Vengono uitiosi buoni che diuisi sono epangelia amaprattomena sotto quali cadono canti cauaglieri erranti paladini che tutti dichiarano Part the librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes 1548 pp 41-50
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
appendix to his translation of the Poetics ( 1579 ) . The full title is “ De re comica ex Aristotelis doctrina , ” and the purpose is summarized thus :
...
with respect to comedy , on the one hand to collect together everything that is
found in that most authoritative philosopher , on the other hand also , in imitation of those things which have been written down about tragedy and the epic , to devise some precepts which will in no way disagree with the Aristotelian theory , and by means of which comedy may be created in a laudable fashion . We shall do this in such a way as to investigate first the origin of comedy ; then what comedy is ; in the third place what qualitative parts it has ; in the fourth place, what quantitative parts ; finally , what kinds of ridiculous things they are that serve the purposes of comedy .
The program here outlined is virtually a complete listing of the later chapter headings , except for such additions as the chapters for the various "
parts ."21
Such imitative treatises , long or short , constituted a large part of the effort of the century . They will be examined , along with the theories they produced , in later chapters . theoretical
The second of the characteristic methods of the Cinquecento was the systematic comparison or combination of two different texts of classical
, it
the Poetics was clearer
.
in
of
as a
,
,
de
.
on
His statement
demonstrate that those things which ea
de
to
if,
.pp
ed .) ,
have declared the
Aristotle's Poetics matters pertinent
,
in
of
were able
I
...
,
Aristotle
all of we
:
be
of it
the
I
to 21
Latini
Vincenzo Pisones Interpre
more specific
Since indeed those two parts this little book which fundamental ones were written almost entirely imitation believed that would useful after having explained Poetics
kind
view
of
is
.
the point
of ad
If ,
order and ideas were
easily understood
his
to Q.
In
his be
,
could not
then
and
both
was even thought
Horatii Flacci arte poetica librum commentary 1550 the Poetics
appended
tatio
Horace
the Greek Poetics Such indeed
in
zation Maggi
of
,
that the same order was followed generally the same Horace could
.
since the order
be by
,
Moreover
of
if
that the two works said essentially the same things about the poetic that one sought carefully one could find identical statements
art
antiquity . The method was most constantly applied to Horace's Ars poetica, which presented to the commentators grave problems of understanding and interpretation ; therefore , they sought clarification in a point -by - point paralleling of the text with Aristotle's Poetics . The initial assumption was
, ita
ab
,
,
ad
,
de
,
&
de
:
: "
(
In
colligere omnia Aristotelis ars poetica 1579 433–34 tum Comoedia quaecunque apud grauissimum philosophum reperiuntur imitationem eorum tum uero quę Tragoedia Epopoeia tradita sunt praecepta quaedam conformare Aris quibus confici Comoedia laudabiliter possit Quod doctrina non abhorrentia primum originem Comediae inuestigemus faciemus deinde quid Comoedia tertio loco quas partes habeat qualitatis quarto quas quantitatis postremo cuiusmodi sint ridicula illa quae comicae seruiunt The 1587 140 substitutes the following sentence ipsius origine differentijs Poesis genere simili naturam eius inuestigemus quam habet cum alijs Poesibus definitione imitationibus tudine dissimilitudine pulcherrima constitutione partibus quantitatis partibus qualitatis .
:
sit
:
ex
:
ex
:
."
:
&
,
ex
ex
:
,
ed ., .p
:
,
&
( 53 )
ex
ex ,
:
&
,
ex
."
rei
ut ,
“
:
:
:
vt
,
,
totelica
POETIC
THEORY
are found in Horace are already found in Aristotle , as in a spring from which he made this book flow like a small river .
In the treatise that follows , Maggi's only interest is to demonstrate the conformity between the two texts . The first thirteen lines of Horace , for example, are equivalent to what Aristotle has to say about plot ; no less than five passages in Aristotle — referred to by the numbers earlier assigned by Maggi in his commentary on the Poetics — are adduced as parallels . Lines 14–23 refer to episodes ; compare passages from Aristotle on episodes . The same procedure continues for the whole of the Horatian text . Wherever Maggi is unsuccessful in finding a comparable text in Aristotle , he declares that the passage in the Ars poetica is a digression ; for example , most of the final section on the poet , lines 412 ff. to the end , is so labeled . Besides the indication of the parallels, there is little of interest for the theory of poetry in the Maggi text.22
Sometimes the search for parallels is less dogged and unimaginative . At of the century , for example , in 1599 , Antonio Riccoboni published his De Poetica Aristoteles cum Horatio collatus . In the course of up
all
the very end
of
of
;
of
these headings
.
;
;
;
;
of
:
,
.
to
of ,
the Ars poetica broken into small sections and according his outline That outline itself was the needs very simple containing the following general headings On the nature poetry On the kinds poetry On the causes imitations and poems On the qualitative parts On the quantitative parts On faults and their excuse the work he cited
rearranged
to
.
he
of
as
he
;
of
to a
he
placed prose passage meant sum Aristotle relevant that heading then followed the thought pertinent Riccoboni's approach passages from Horace which Maggi's differs from insofar seeks correspondence only between the
Under each
marize the doctrine
a
of
,
A
of on
.
,
doctrine Aristotle and the passages from Horace not between passage and passage third method this technique which really constitutes variant
,
his
-
In
a
in
so
does
of
,
plot character ,
composed
of
is
decided
to
,
,
diction
,
,
thought
Aristotle's opinion tragedy
spectacle and melody
he
Seeing then that
in
:
he
Aristotle
,
Horace treats the same materials different order
whereas
as
,
in in
).
(
of
.
is
,
a
a
or
.
a
to
,
is
one text with several the conflation the century characteristic limiting others Rather than himself Horace Aristotle comparison the triple quadruple analogy thereby enriching theorist introduces the commentary and making his interpretation more complex This procedure Giacopo Grifoli the Artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio the introduction makes the point that An initial statement 1550
discuss the constitution ,
:
in
,
librum hunc deduxit
. "
,
,
ab
;
quo uelut riuulum [ 54 ]
fonte demonstrarem
, à
uelut
in
,
;
Aristotele
ad
ea ,
, si
ad : “
. .p
),
,
(
22
Quoniam uero partes illae duae libelli huius quas 328 1550 esp praecipuas esse diximus totae ferè Poetices Aristotelis imitationem conscriptae sunt non expli quae postquam Aristotelis Poeticam attinebant inutile futurum existimaui Horatio habentur cauimus cuius ratione omnis mihi fuerat susceptus labor quae hic Interpretatio
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
.
of
,
believed
he
of
(
or
of
by
is ,
,
,
.
in
.
to
so
,
he
no
is
to
of
of
he
speech
Aristotle and omitting
controversy could most conveniently might wish the come And
which
...
means
23
,
all
those points over which there progress those places both spoke place diction second
to is
)
,
ή
by
no
which not treated even changing the order
περί διανοίας περί μύθου discussing speech that in
detail But Horace seeing that although place thought character that
is in
“
”,
is
a
is
it
diction , and he handled these play said that acted there
in
all of
the plot first since it contains the basis for the imitation of the whole object ; then , since character and thought are expressed through words , he began to elaborate the on style immediately after plot . In this he did not follow either the order plan of Aristotle ; for the latter treated character after plot, then thought, then
an
is
,
-
is
It
.
or
, of
,
,
,
to
.
in
.
in
of
This analysis Horace's attitude toward the text Aristotle prepares the way for the second the fundamental analogies Grifoli's text This implicit one The order suggested plot then diction the passage above -brings pseudo mind the traditional divisions Ciceronian Ciceronian rhetoric i.e. invention disposition and elocution not in
.
of
he
:
at
of
as
long before Grifoli specifically sees these divisions supplying the ordering principle parts least certain Horace's text Thus the passage the commentary on verses 32-45 to
he
is
to
is
of
( a
he
.
,
,
he ,
,
a
-
a
,
at
And the same time touches upon the three points which belong the orator's faculty invention elocution and disposition And because had used thing which turned about order placing elocution before disposition did treating language proper for reason since here the matter and this
To
a
,
..
to
he
,
to
his
),
in
passing about dis the right place for language and then speaking lightly and position nevertheless returning order after having said little about 24 disposition elocution now comes back
he is
a
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
is
six
is
following Aristotle's division into the first assumption that Horace qualitative parts added then following second assumption that the commonplace three way rhetorical distinction Grifoli's commentary will therefore shift back and forth between these two analyses although commentary
the
of
in
a
is
sense reversed .pp
23
The situation
in
.
the comparison with Aristotle remains the dominant one
Giason
,
,
do
,
de
,
,
in
;
:
ea
,
de
;
&
,
,
: "
,
&
est
,
,
rei
,
.
,
,
(
),
Interpretatio 1550 esp 11-12 Videns igitur Aristotelis iudicio Tragoediam constare fabula moribus sententia dictione apparatu melodia primum constitutione fabulae disserendum esse statuit nam totius imitandae rationem continet deinde cum mores sententiae verbis explicentur orationem statim post fabulam coepit expolire quo non secutus nec ordinem nec rationem Aristotelis nam hic post fabulam mores tum sententiam post dictionem explicauit atque his omnibus omnia diligenter executus
.pp
24
,
de
ijs
ac
.
...
"
.
ad
,
,
, h
se
de
,
,
ea
de
,
de
.
,
est Videns autem Horatius quamuis agi fabula dicatur tamen nullum esse locum aut Tepl uứdou qui non tractetur oratione existimauit sententia aut more idest tepl Slavolas quibus disserendo etiam mutata Aristotelis dispositione omissis omnibus posse quàm commodissimè quos vellet vtriusque locos peruenire nulla est controuersia Itaque secundo loco oratione dixit
"
in
...
,
rei
,
.
,
de
,
ad
&
,
,
35 )
(
.
vi
in
Et
de
de Et
vbi
.
sit ,
&
,
.
: & “
,
.,
Atque simul tres partes attigit quae sunt Ibid 24–25 oratoris sitae Inuen dispositionem quia praepostero vsus erat ordine praeponens tionem elocutionem quod tamen cum causa fecit cum elocutionem dispositioni oratione hic apta tractet proprius orationis dispositione casu hic locus obiter loquatur tamen ordi pauca Dispositione dixit nem hçc suum redigens Elocutionem redijt
POETIC
THEORY
Denores , In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica ( 1553 ) . Here the major point of reference is the invention disposition elocution schema, as Denores indicates at the beginning : “ in this same epistle to the Pisos are collected together by Horace , who chose them from various works by many authors, the points which seemed to him to be essential for the
...
judging of the writings of poets or for the formation of our taste with respect to every rule of invention , disposition , and elocution in every type of poetry .” 25 Denores follows this schematism faithfully throughout . The first lines of the Ars poetica , he says , concern invention ; lines 24–31 make distinctions relative to elocution ; lines 32-41 are on disposition , as are lines 42-45 ; lines 46–72 treat certain problems of elocution ; and so forth . How ever , from the very beginning the parallels with Aristotle are presented either implicitly or explicitly . So Denores ' first remark about invention is that it is the “ anima " of poetry : the term comes directly from Aristotle's characterization of plot . Figurative language ( in re lines 46–72) is pleasur able because of the imitation involved , and imitation itself is enjoyable
of knowledge ; compare Aristotle . In a similar way , constantly brings Denores in from the Poetics statements or comparisons which illuminate his essentially rhetorical interpretation . Such a method is among the most dangerous of those used by theorists because it is a source
of
the Cinquecento : dangerous in the sense that it must inevitably result
of the texts involved . The mere fact that it should have been practiced so widely is symptomatic of the philosophical naïveté in hopeless deformation
,
,
,
.
of
do
in
.
to
to
.
or
They discovered
users
;
its
certain obvious parallels similarities between texts this led them seek other less obvious agreements the point where the texts became totally equivalent What they did not realize was that two texts having occasional similarities may their essence present completely different theories the poetic art Aristotle and
of
possibility
of
in
to of
.
at a
ever arriving
of
all
understand
if
as
.
if
as
either text To read Horace
indicate complete failure were Aristotle Aristotle or
the Poetics and the Ars poetica
is he to
to
an
a
a
,
of
is
as ;
of
a
of
touch upon certain number common topics but the one poems concerned with the internal structures these become objects contemplation poems beautiful the other with the making specific upon particular given which will have effect audience time identity To generalize from the accidental similarities doctrine Horace
essentially
he were
to of
a
at
,
de
ad
5v : "
25
.
to
of
,
to
of
on
to
eliminate
.
of
is
proper interpreta tion either This error the part the Cinquecento was course correlative other errors already noted especially the tendency reduce texts series isolated fragments thereby destroying their basic phil osophical integrity Horace
,
,
."
[
56 ]
ex
,
,
ab
ac
,
ad
in
), .p
in
de
(
In
epistolam 1553 poetarum scriptis diiudicandis hac ipsa Pisones uel dispositionisque uel communiter nostris ingenijs omnem inuentionis elocutionis quocunque poematum genere formandis quae praecipua uidebantur uarijs rationem multorum libris excerpta diligentissime Horatio colliguntur
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
A
fourth characteristic approach of critics in this century was the con to reconcile divergent positions . When " authorities ” were recognized as equally valid , differences of opinion between them must be explained away and ultimate agreement must be discovered . Perhaps the stant attempt
central figure in such discussions was Plato , whose attacks upon poetry in the Republic needed to be reconciled on the one hand with his own defences
and on the other hand with the numerous “ apolo authorities ” and with such a position as Aristotle's . The passages in the Republic on the banishment of the poets were at the center through the humanistic period and the of attention and controversy
of
it in other dialogues
by other
“
XXX
libri
1516
to
)
in
is
of
all ,
):
antiquarum
(
Lectionum
(
as
a
of
.
to
he
, in
One the favorite arguments the attempt reconcile only those poets Plato with himself was insist that banished after whose writings contained undesirable moral teachings That the point view such writer Lodovico Ricchieri Caelius Rhodiginus his .
Cinquecento
of
all
gies ”
he
in
to
he
,
and eloquently
the Dialogues ,
all
their wicked doctrines
:
of
:
),
is
.
,
of
(
de
Plato banished them because
the
said
In
in
poets
in
cite others
which Plato praises poets and poetry Giacopo Grifoli's opinion Oratio laudibus poetarum 1557 similar despite that might
be in
of
to
on
,
After this statement Ricchieri goes
favor
their
to
in
improvement celebrating elegantly their hymns the gods.26
moral heroes
or
,
exhort praises
of to to
be
;
by
)
(
to
But with respect these fables for the young we must note carefully that the poets are not condemned outright Plato since the degree which holds rejected when they disturb the state and invent shameful that they should things that same degree embraces them and kisses them tenderly when they
;
all
he
,
he of
he
go -
or
he
,
of
truth we must believe that that famous philosopher condemned the teach ings poets even though himself had called them the fathers wisdom that banished them because they were harmful even though himself had ,
he
. 27
of
of
of
of
be
of
;
of
declared that they were the betweens the gods and although held that their poems are not human inventions but gifts the gods ordered that they should driven from the territory his state because they were wicked
in
of
is
do
it
.
of
or it
,
it
in
:
analysis This type the various Platonic texts does one two things concludes that good poets remain acceptable the state while bad ones are excluded decides that only poems with undesirable moral tenden cies are the objects Plato's attack What does not discover that different conclusions about poetry are reached different texts because
26
the fact that the problems posed and the contexts established
are themselves
,
,
,
ad
,
si
."
59 : “
), .p
(
In
27
,
,
,
,
iis
in
: “
), .p
,
,
à
(
Lectionum 1516 158 Sed illud impense animaduertendum non damnari prorsum Platone Poetas Siquidem quantum ubi perturbant aut turpia fingunt reiiciendos putat tantundem amplexatur exosculaturque bonam frugem hortentur laudibus heroum aut Deorum hymnis eleganter facundeque concelebratis Orationes 1557 est vero credendum illum philosophum doctrinam damnasse
57 ]
[
,
.”
,
à
,
&
,
,
qui eosdem ipse sapientiae patres appellarit aut tanquam perniciosos exclusisse quos idem interpretes deorum testetur esse quorum poemata non hominum inuenta sed munera coelestia esse ducat hos tanquàm impios arcendos finibus ciuitatis suae statuisse ,
poetarum
POETIC THEORY different . Plato is seeking answers to widely divergent questions in the Symposium and the Republic and the Laws; hence , what he has to say about poetry will in each case be influenced by the special context in which he is considering it . That this was not realized , or was realized rarely, by the critics of the Renaissance is again explained by their general method : fragmentation and the concentration on the isolated passage did not lead to an awareness of the total philosophical meaning of texts and of the relationship of any individual passage to that meaning. At times, of course , this kind of awareness was present. We may take as an example Marcan
XXIV
of :)
ca.
tonio Maioragio's statement in the “ Oratio the Orationes et praefationes ( 1550
De arte poetica
:
of
"
to
a
he all
,
all
.
to at a
is
so
,
all
is
no
,
in
,
of
,
as
in
,
is
The fact that Plato led the poets out his state no argument against them especially since many other places Plato himself praises them the skies with almost divine commendations and admires them most extraordinary degree Indeed just that state where nobody sick but are healthy and body there sound need for doctors Plato since was inventing be
,
,
of no
it ,
,
itself
it
of
,
,
in
for
conduct
to
,
in
things removed the poets from state most blessed and most wise because state which had already achieved the highest end there seemed living for any instructions for any precepts further need for any teachers
for that
was ready for good and blessed living.28
it
, .
to of
so
we
in ,
to
of
explain away Plato's banishment the poets which the most common construction put upon the
large degree
purgation
as a
.
the Cinquecento
to
in
,
of
is
,
a
to
,
was this wish a
is
It
relatively rare
led
or
to
all
,
of
Here Maioragio realizes that within the assumption the Republic that things are considered with reference justice within the achievement unnecessary the state poetry undesirable means that justice But such realization along with the making distinctions that involves
.
to
it all
;
,
in
.
of
,
on
as
in to
of
of
"
an
"
Aristotle's Poetics Here are confronted not attempt reconcile two contradictory texts with the one text the light the other the grounds that both are talking about the same thing Plato had banished the poets because things their undesirable moral effects Aristotle who wished con clause
much with interpretation
.
So
.
of
that whereas
by
Castelvetro argues
be
;
al
in
1570
)
Platone
ca.
comune
(
di
of
"
it " is
in
,
;
tradict Plato said that their moral effect was desirable consisted pre cisely pity and fear the purgation runs the argument One variation found Lodovico Castelvetro's Chiose intorno libro del Plato
poems must their followed found assumes rejected readers Aristotle answers that they may either followed :
or
,
be
in
that the examples
è
.
in
,
& ,
ea
ex
ita sit
,
.
in
: "
), .p ,
ea
,
,
&
in in
, id
est
(
et
28
praefationes Orationes 1582 147v quod autem ciuitate sua Plato poetas quidem nullum eduxerit contra illos argumentum cum praesertim alijs locis plurimis idem Plato propè diuinis celum laudibus eosdem efferat mirandum modum admiretur aegrotus sed omnes bene Verum quemadmodum ciuitate ubi nullus omnino corpore bene constituto nihil medicis opus est ualentes Plato cum omnium beatissi
. "
ad
,
,
ei
,
,
se
[ 58 ]
,
,
,
&
sapientissimam fingeret ciuitatem poetas eduxit quoniam mam ciuitati quae iam optimum finem esset consecuta nullis uitae magistris nullis institutionibus nullis morum praeceptis amplius opus esseuidebatur cum per contenta esset benè beateque uiuendum
Plato supposes that poetry was invented for examples and that whatever found means teach necessity others This followed bad can and must )
.
be
by
is
of
by
of
be it
395
,
or to
( Rep .
other reason than good poetry ,
III ,
In this passage
in no
OF THE THEORISTS
THE METHODOLOGY
it
to
we
what Plato says
29
this passage
.
contradicting
in
to del
listened
by
to it,
,
of
.
,
,
to
,
of
—
to
,
so ,
is
in
;
as a
is
is of all ,
proposed before we wish that poetry should contained may have examples matter for careful consideration and that frighten the wicked and learn about console the good and kinds men and women And therefore Aristotle said that tragedy through the nature the men who fears and injustices drove out fears and injustices from the heart
for what
false
teach
of
is
,
in
.
of
so
was always eager
so
He does this because
to
he
?
tragedy
its ,
he
, of
).
(
is
presented Another variation Girolamo Frachetta's Dialogo that Aristotle assigns Frachetta's general thesis furore poetico 1581 pleasure never that poetry only the single end instruction Why then pedagogical intent the definition should include purgation with
,
in
of
by
;
in
such passions.30
on
frees our minds
to us
)
he (
of
,
of
]
(
of
fear
it
,
he
,
of
of on
and
in
he
at
so .
do
to
we
contradict Plato much that times went about begging and borrowing the occa sions Wherefore seeing that Plato forbids his Republic the horrible and pitiable subjects the poets which his opinion make fearful pity and consequently and full low and poor heart and wishing correct defining tragedy that pity him this matter Aristotle said means might almost say that
to
is
of
to as an
the
of
utility
in
or
pedagogical device part the is
.
an is
,
,
, in
never questioned
That assumption itself
.pp
to
the Poetics
moral improvement
is
of to
is
the same argument what
these variations
the assumption that catharsis
29
and the special kind
. 31
,
all
In
,
of
performance the circumstances which the genre meant have audience
and
of
of
poets answer Plato's banishment tragedy specifically because the nature
is a
it
.
,
to is ,
,
la
;
of in
theory purgation poetry He ascribes
instrument
in
Lorenzo Giacomini's opinion the matter stated his academic dis purgazione della tragedia delivered the Accademia degli course Sopra again that Aristotle develops his Alterati 1586 his general position
.
, o
da ,
e
, 92 : “
& a
cid fà
), .p ,
30
. "
,
le .
, e
uomini delle donne ingiustizie scacciava quello che dice Platone
,
, e
le gli
de
la
le
gli
de la
i
, e le
,
E
i
ventare consolare buoni conoscere natura perciò diceva Aristotele Tragedia con paure che con paure ingiustizie dal cuore uomini ascoltanti riprovando questo luogo in
lo se
o
sia ,
,
sia
, o
da
da
rei , e
,
, e &
,
;
è
,
, e è
Il
.
da
,
: "
),
si
in la
( ,
In
In
Opere varie critiche 1727 215-16 561. Nihil aliud agere vel imitari oportet questo luogo presuppone Platone che Poesia non trovata per altro non per insegnare per Esempio possa ciò che truova Poesia bene male che altri proposta prima che vogliamo che insegna per debba seguire che falso perciocchè spa materia farvi pensamenti sopra acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni maniera
59 ]
[
.
29–52
,
.
le
,
la
. "
,
in
&
di
;
&
de ,
da
ci
di , & le
&
a
di
fu
lo
&
ci
&
.
1597
.pp ,
e
discorsi
),
la ,
di
,
Orationi
(
In
,
si
31
(
Dialogo 1581 perche egli sempre uago contradire Platone intan può dir per poco ch'egli sia andato alle volte limosinando accattando occasioni poeti horribili La onde ueggendo ch'egli diuieta nella sua Republica cose com passioneuoli perciò che pieni suo parere fanno paurosi misericordia conse pouero cuore guentemente disse definendo cio ripigliare uolendol stremo tragedia che ella per compassione per spauento libera l'animo cotai passioni toche
POETIC THEORY of reading Platonic intentions into Aristotle . For Plato , in the Republic, the “ effect” of poetry is a pedagogical or a moral one ; therefore , in Aristotle , the " effect " of tragedy must also be pedagogical or moral . result
of
as
its
,
,
its
its
if
The two texts are more than reconciled ; the second is read as procedures and premises conclusions were the same those
the
of
a
the imitation
the conflation
for
single text
or the
one text with another
;
of
be
)
:
;
new theories
(2
of
development
four characteristic methods
the
(1
would seem Cinquecento critics
,
of
approaches
)
then
,
These
to
.
first
of
of
of
:
of
of
of
,
be
of
;
( 4 )
of
we
.
If
)
(
3
divergent conflation several texts the reconciliation would explain certain the difficulties Renaissance criticism two auxiliary problems must considered the problem ter minology and the meanings words and the problem the procedure the
positions
.
argumentation
TERMINOLOGY AND MEANINGS to
if
.
a
of
to
to
or
.
of
of
”
“
of
“
is
of
in
a
is
(
epistola
ad as it
Giraldi Cintio's Super imitatione
imita
Ciceronian
model for matters Giovambattista found Coelium Calcagninum dated
the use
—
This meaning
the case
confusion was the
,
style
.
expression
,
,
language
and
single term
of
of
.”
of
-
meaning confusion associated with tion One sense the word not subject meaning the imitation earlier poets
to a
of
of
;
of
to
,
to
a
in
is
of
terminology and meanings sense related the the attempt reconcile differing texts For one try tried reconcile the major ideas one also had reconcile the terms the discussions the latter attempt was concomitant the former Perhaps the best example meanings the multitude hence the The matter
subject just discussed
re in
or
),
(
is
),
an
recall that there are two kinds
of
:
me reasonable and necessary
.
speech
32
of
,
to
in
in
of
is
,
figures
.
words and
to
of we
treat only the other one which consists
of
.
,
in
One
in
expressing which consists excellent fashion the nature and characters those persons whom undertake imitate And this poetry ... But leaving this type the end imitation Aristotle we shall .
poetic imitation
to
seems
to
...
it
of
.
,
(
),
in
Celio Calcagnini's Super imitatione commentatio 1532 Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica 1560 clear and mains distinct from the others Indeed Parthenio states the difference be imitation tween two major kinds 1532
"
“
.pp
we
la
.
of
et
de
"
in
as
a
be
,
of
“
is
It
these which might called rhetorical imitation Ciceronians were talking about and that interested such langue française theorist Du Bellay the Deffence illustration that was free confusion and ambiguity The difficulty arises when wish the second
the type that the
,
,
è
il
Et
.
"
. ad
di
la
ne
, et
[ 60 ]
et
,
ci
di
,
: , “
),
,
di
i
et
di
.
le
. . . .
le
(
32
imitatione poetica 1560 92-94 mi pare ragioneuole douuto ricordar sorti della Imitatione poetica Vna laquale consiste nell'esprimere eccellente quelle persone che proponiamo d'imitare questo mente nature costumi queste sorti cura Aristotele sola imitationi lasciando Ma fine della poesia dire modi mente tratteremo dell'altra laquale consiste nelle parole Della due esser
the
in
or
of
,
)
is
.
.
where which the
392–93
poetry the narrative
in
Steph
(
of
the Republic :
"
three
styles
of
Book
"
in
distinguishes
Socrates
III
in
it
as
to in
,
,
;
.
of ”
“
,
of
:
was the discussion
And
assigned
meanings
of
,
,
;
"
of
"
,
he
;
in
of
in
which the poet takes the his own person the imitative which the and the mixed imitates thus another whom
poet speaks
person
in
all
imitation
to
difficulty springs the the term superimposition dialogues several Plato and second the various the Poetics used these meanings upon the term Perhaps the single passage Plato which led the greatest uncertainty
of
meaning poetic to consider from two causes first the variety
the
OF THE THEORISTS
THE METHODOLOGY
in
for
the second
or
)
(
second style and Aristotle's TTPÓTTOVTAS KAI Évepyoữvtas
for
(
.
of
an
,
to
an
.
two other styles are combined Now critics the Renaissance saw this imitation Poetics 1448a19 on the manners exact parallel They thus saw also equivalence between Plato's dià uiuñoews the passage
”
of
he
to of
"
"
or
”
“
: Is
of to
"
in
. ”
"
of
,
is
If
on , a
so
?
an
?
it
an
Aristotle
what extent
poetry considered come within the categories Or are tragedy and comedy the only true imitations To the epic imitation narrative poem not imitation
and does
is ?
,
by an
imitation
as
in
he
“
if
).
”
of
“
“
",
:
“
reasoning was the basis manner The next step the later equivalent confusion Aristotle here uses dramatic Plato's imitative then when himself uses imitative imitation the interminable discussion This assumption led means dramatic meaning imitation Aristotle and related problems the lyric dramatic
to
be
as
of a
if
in
,
of
is
.
one single thing
the case horse were repre descriptions the painter things which differ from one by
is
the imitation
by
:
as
would
of
,
the first
art means lines and colors the poet The second the imitation ,
).
(
I
:
of of
imitating
imitation
by
by by
..
there are three ways through different kinds sented words
.
?
as
an
as
be
be
in of
it
to
need have unity And into manifold ramifications Echoes these doubts and uncertainties and misunderstandings are Pigna's found such texts romanzi 1554 The following passage example may taken
does
as is
;
in
,
a
of
is to
I
if
.
of in
of
(
.
is
to
,
in
on
,
,
of
in
in
,
,
of
through one kind represent beautiful things imitation were verse alone and ugly things verse alone The last the imitation one single thing through one kind imitation but different manner the case with poetry but the latter intro the epic and the tragic poet who treat heroes persons stage duces action the the former narrates how they accomplish their actions And this epic procedure also appropriate our own writers another
them
,
done
the more the poet
so
is
the more frequently
,
which
the
,
person and another
it
,
,
),
since these relate how matters stand and when the opportunity presents they quote the conversatio that have taken place between one
romance
itself
said that these compositions
come closest
to
it
.
and not merely heard And
is
,
of
.
of
is a
,
imitates since introducing actors themselves that they may speak together way making the action come more directly before our eyes And therefore tragic and comic plots are called dramatic because the events which are seen being
be
in
61 ]
[
”
“
as
.
in
,
"
“
to
,
paintings are truly praised when they really true imitations the same way come close life itself Therefore since the word poet means nothing else but imitator the more we introduce people conversation the more will we
THEORY
POETIC
worthy of that name . Nevertheless it would seem to be better to avoid this kind of imitation and to use narration more continuously.3 .
I
of
of
equivalent to " dramatic " and as opposed to consequences
narrative .
"
all
quote the text at such length because it is important to see how the shift in terminology takes place . Pigna begins with a distinction of the three kinds of imitation (which he calls “ modi " ) , paraphrasing Poetics 1447a16 . The third distinction , that of manner , leads him to use " imitation ” as
Follow
”
the
.
,
of
it
to
in
I
the manuscript
.
in
follows
poetry once more the ,
:
at a
;
of
,
to
the Poetics
arrive definition merit lengthy quotation
to
in
is
to
,
of
the Republic Plato says that imitate make one and that poetic imitation exists when the poet speaks says the Tenth differentiating imitation whole making images and that the that idols that he
,
as a
of
, of
,
.
,
he be
it
is
he is
,
is
.
of of
of
of
idols with things
he
all is
in
is a
,
follows that poetic imitation fabrication speech which fabricates idols and images But that form it
speech
of
.
speech
is
imitates
.
in to
by
is a
of is , of
of
is a
,
is is a a
it
fabrication images ... whence imitator fabricator and maker idols that led say also that poetic imitation fabrication idols But surely not neces sary speaking fabricate idols only the person another but this can done another way But since the proper instrument the poet with which to
that
In
of
,
the Third book thing resemble another the person another
is a a
”
“
,
of
to
is
such
In
is
passage
attempting as
,
whose translation
it
Giacomini Giacomini
of
.
is
"
“
of
the term
in
this Platonic sense Another document which involves such progression meanings not only fragment but also imitation fable MS Laurenziana anonymous but Ashb 531. The fragment attribute Lorenzo the use
in
,
,
is
.
the Third book divides mythology
mythology
;
to
,
which Plato
of
,
is ,
,
of
is
of
.
,
says that none other than fable and mythology Aristotle therefore when poetry imitation means not that first imitation the Third book Plato but mythology and fable And this this second one the Tenth that clear furthermore because Aristotle himself applies imitation the same division with
for Plato assigns three kinds ,
,
by
.
,
to
in
pp .
33
,
he
is
an
,
to
and Aristotle three kinds imitation and the same ones But when Aristotle says that poetry imitation meaning imitation mythology agrees with Plato who the Third book conjoins poetry with mythology and
di
in
.
in se
di
:
gli
,
in
&
in
.
di
:
le
in
&
,
:
.
le
il
vn
i
: “
(
&
;
I
),
1554 15-16 tre sono modi dell'imitare L'uno vna istessa cosa quale mostrato sarà dal dipintore come nell'esprimere con l'arte cauallo parole l'altro con lineamenti con colori dal poeta con descrittion cose tra diverse d'un genere istesso come s'io versi solo belle cose rappresentar voglia versi solo sozze L'ultimo vna cosa medesima d'un medesimo genere ma diuerso romanzi genere diuersa
su la
in
&
.
ci
da à
.
&
:
la
, è
gli gli
i
tra
le
i
.
il : Et & i
.
de
&
:
,
,
à
si
di
,
i
si
le
:
& à il :
Tragico che poeticamente modo come l'Epico heroi trattano ma questi persone induce negociare quegli narra come scena fatti loro trattino tale tutta quando uia con nostri confà conciosia cosa ch'essi dicono come cose stiano l'opportunità loro s'offre riferiscono parlamenti corsi l'una parte l'altra che quanto proprij piu frequenta essendo che l'introducere fare tanto maggiormente s'imita negociatori insieme venga perciò fauellare far che piu cosa dinanzi occhi :
, di
.
al
,
essere nel narrar piu continouo
]
[
62
.”
.
sia
di
la le
,
&i
sorte d'imitatione
,
le
&
Et ,
,
le
.
si
le
Tragiche Dramatiche chiamano Comiche fauole affari che non vditi ma nel modo dicesi che cotesti componimenti piu alla imitatione s'accostano veduti sono dipinture quali veramente lodate sono quando che viuo veramente s'appressano poeta altro non suona che imitatore Adunque perche tal nome degni tanto piu voce fuggir questa saremo quanto piu parlamenti induceremo Con tutto ciò pare che meglio
OF THE THEORISTS
THE METHODOLOGY
the poet with the mythologist , that is , the teller of fables . If then poetry is an imitation , and the poet an imitator, and to imitate is to feign and compose fables , it follows that the poet can imitate even if he speaks in his own person . There
...
being then two kinds of imitation , these two authors mean now the one , now the other ; but in the definition of poetry Aristotle means that broader one, that is, mythology , that is, fable - telling speech .
,
or
of
.
is
of
a
as
"
“
it
by
,
in
lie ;
he
Besides , it seems that fable has two meanings according to the aforementioned two authors , because Plato in the Second book of the Republic says that fable lying and tells fables But generally is a for discourse which later takes part tragedy Aristotle the poetic art taking the fable the epic ;
by
,
, of
,
...
certain lying and falseness
or
by
an
.
is ,
,
themselves and with imitates true actions and real things.34
in
narrated discourses not true
a
a
of
,
of
.
we
,
is ,
is is ,
a
means fable the actions themselves feigned and false whence fable has double meaning that say that false discourse and false action When therefore lying dicourse poetry mythology we mean the first kind fable that Poetry feigned and mendacious form speech thus which means
of
in
.
of
ligent
;
of
is
of
careless unintel the errors produced extreme case not handling procedures terms such are common much the critical writing the Cinquecento
This
is
.
also related the even more important shifting and the theorist's use terms
of
argumentation For
of
question
terminology
is
To this matter
if
of
PROCEDURES OF ARGUMENTATION
lo
il
lei
et
lo
et di
a di
è
...
la
de
: “
la
,
et la
ad .
,
.
è è di
,
di di
di X
.
.
in
34
Repa Platone dice 531 fols 39–39v Nel terzo libro imitare poeta parla essere assimigliare una cosa unaltra imitazion poetica essere quando persona d'altri Nel ponendo differenza tutta l'imitazione dico essere fabrica imagini mento cio facimento idoli cio imitatore essere fabricatore facitore imagini idoli cio onde viene dire ancora che l'imitazione poetica sia fabricamento
MS Laur Ashb
,
è
la
di
de le
et le
gli
la
et
è
X ,
la
la
la
à
tre
,
.
il
et
è è
in et
,
il
et
,
,
il
et
è
,
la
,
il
et
al
3
, la et i
,
, la è et
la
.
Se
la
medesima con assegna Platone essere imitazione
,
. et
manifesto ancora perche esso Aristotile divide l'imitaziono con divisiono quale Platone nel mythologia perche mytologia divide modi poesia tre Aristotile imitazione medesimi Ma dicendo Aristotele per imitazione intendendo mytheologia convien con Platone quale favoleg poesia congiunge mithologia mythologo nel terzo con col poeta cio giatore adunque poesia poeta imitatore fingere imitazione l'imitare favola
questo
,
di
.
la
et ,
il
.
la
si
in
questo puo fare ancora quale egli imita l'orazione
è
è
,
che non
in
persona d'altri ma che necessario fabricare idoli parlando proprio instrumento del poeta col altro modo ma essendo seguita poetica imitazione essere fabricamento idoli con quale fabrica imagini orazione ma l'orazione idoli cose altro non che mythologia Aristotile adunque quando dice ogni poesia essere imitazione intendo favola non quella prima del terzo libro Platone ma questa seconda del ciò mythologia
idoli ma certo
.
,
la
.
,
è
,
et
,
la
de
la
è
ne
,
il
propria persona comporre favole seguita che poeta puo imitare parlando ancora essendo adunque due l'imitazioni ora questa ora quella intendono questi due autori poesia Aristotile intende quella piu larga cio mythologia ma diffinitione cio l'orazione fauolosa ,
è
lo
vero azzioni
et
,
la
.
falsità imita
le
,
il
et
]
63
et
mendacio
[
con qualunque
la de
,
et
et
la
è
la
,
narrate
,
la
la
i
la
.
,
è
E
...
et
vere voraci
se
.” da
.
la
la
la
et
la
de
et
la
de
la
Ancora pare che fauola sia doppia secondo due autori predetti perche Platono nel piglia per Republica dice secondo favola generalmente essere mendacio dipoi orazione mendace favolosa Ma Aristotile nel arte poetica pigliando favola per una parte tragedia del epopeia intende favola essere l'azzioni stesse finte false per qual cosa doppia cio favola l'orazion falsa l'azzione falsa quando adunque poesia essere mythologia intendiamo primo genere diciamo favola cio l'orazion adunque poesia orazione finta quale con l'orazioni non mendace mendace cose
POETIC THEORY uncertain , he can with difficulty pursue an orderly argument or achieve a convincing demonstration . Among critics of the Cinquecento the two defi ciencies , of terminology and of argumentation , were sometimes concomit
ant , sometimes separate . That weakness in logical method should appear is not surprising , given the wilful rejection of the Aristotelian logic of the schools , the failure to discover the essence of Plato's method of dialectic,
of
and the unawareness
of considering and analyzing
the art
plete and consistent philosophical documents. The best way to illustrate these deficiencies or peculiarities
texts as com
of argumenta
tion is , of course , to analyze some work or works in entirety . Since I shall be doing that frequently and repeatedly in the later chapters , perhaps it will be sufficient at this point - in order to avoid repetition — to study a section of a work which presents a typical example . Let us take the sections
of Francesco Patrizi's Della poetica : La deca disputata ( 1586 ) in which he attacks Aristotle's proposition that poetry is an imitation . Patrizi is a reputable philosopher ; much of his philosophy was based upon a wish to controvert the theories of Aristotle ; his method in controverting them must have been the best he could find and the object of careful attention and consideration . This particular attack begins with Book III . Starting with the objection that Aristotle had nowhere defined the term imitation , Patrizi collects six passages from Aristotle in which the term uiunois has six different meanings , two from the Rhetoric and four from the Poetics . For several of these passages the meaning is found by consulting texts of
,
cf.
of ,
Hermogenes kai
TÒ
If
( cf. 2 )
2;
, .
(
XI ,
III
Rhet
,
vivid description
.
be
of
or
enargia
”
"
all
III
),
Plato . Patrizi concludes that these are six separate meanings , with distinct definitions . Asking , then , whether individually these meanings supply a proper definition for poetry , he concludes that they do not: ( 1) If poetry is , I, 8 ; Cratylus 423 an imitation because words are imitations ( Rhet. poetry then forms discourse would imitation means
in
Book
of
.
IV ,
"
be a
:
;
or
,
or
,
(
”
“
these propositions
"
"
,
be a "
),
.
( 3 )
If
,
be
)
,
poetry μέγιστον ποιήσεως μίμησιν εναργή then only some parts would contain imitation which would also found rhetoric and history plot mythology imitation means favola fable propositions necessarily every poem Poetics 1450a3 then two must follow poem Leaving the first will favola and every favola will
)
,
(
“
:
he
,
.
poem
,
is a
"
an
”
imitation
favola
accord neither with the first premise nor (
in
“
conclusion which
is
a
we
obtain
is
an imitation
favola Therefore every
64 )
Every
“
Every poem
is
to
we
,
if
a
,
in
”
in
,
is
Patrizi demonstrates that the many second false for the ancients wrote favole here fables which prose and many ancient authorities were not poems because they were made careful distinction between poetry and mythology Moreover says reduce Aristotle's argument the following syllogism
for discussion
OF THE THEORISTS
, as in would
representation ),
394
,
.
cf.
with the facts . ( 4) If by imitation is meant a dramatic Rep III comedy and tragedy ( Poetics 1449b24 ; admit neither epic nor dithyrambic poetry but prose comedy and dialogues imitation does
then
it
THE METHODOLOGY
If
in
be
it to ,
is
by
;
),
25 ,
these are taken
,
if
,
;
then
be
:
,
.
of
;
.
-
of
which some are
And none
them
is
,
all all
sufficient
this argument are immediately apparent Not only .
of
48a9
other writings also and not writers both poetry and non
of
to
,
to
will
have different meanings
others are common others make the compositions poetry and others make them non poetry provide the genus for poems.35 ,
poetry
imitations only when the stage Patrizi summarizes thus
therefore
to
of
these are not forms poetry then they
poetry
The weaknesses
"
“
If
( 6 )
Poetics 1447a15
of to
”
,
imitations
“
six
not appropriate proper poetry
and gnomes
,
they are represented
All
.
,
,
all ,
for
forms on
,
as
is
at
not poetry metaphorically
(
hymns blames
,
,
encomia
of
,
,
in
of in
)
(
he
(
),
.
( 5 )
in
,
it
would include both include the epic and then Aristotle contradicts himself when the dithyramb Poetics 1447a13 very little because imitate later says 1460a5 that many epic poets they speak constantly and imitation consists their own persons auletic speaking constituted another imitation the person equivalent citharistic syringic and orchestic poetry which would
,
in ,
is
,
.
in
,
(
." of
,
of
' is a
'
"
,
;
of
)
is a
as
or
"
by
to
,
by
"
all
imitation plot -given mean Aristotle which are directly excluded that context but these terms and others shift their meaning passes stage Patrizi from stage the argument Moreover there pseudological analysis propositions being attacked which kind the very proposition e.g. itself unsure his treatment the itself incorrectly every poem derived that favola The careful reader working his poetry are the terms from the Poetics— ings which are not justified the context
of
a
to
,
he
is
by
he
of ,
in
to
context and submitted always
searching analysis
on
.
,
redefinition justified and careful distinction
,
by
,
of
;
of
.
no
no
a
of
way through such series arguments feels himself driven point complete confusion where words longer have fixed meanings and validity Perhaps Patrizi felt that demonstration has was following example the the Platonic dialectic instead was violating the very principles meaning accompanied that dialectic which change
I
in
partial explana they were and , ad tra
as
a
as
sei
be
74 : "
.pp
to
of
:
,
reasons first and primarily that they might serve interpreted tion how the ancient theories came 35
,
,
of
to
so
.
I
of in
of
a
to
.
,
to of
These remarks the methodology the critics have been fear fairly damaging They would seem point philosophical incom degree petence both the reading and interpretation earlier texts and the development new theories have ventured make them for two
,
le
, e
.
le
65 )
essere genere alle poesie tutte
. "
ad
.
niuna bastante
(
.
altre del tutto non poesie
E
),
; .v a p . de
, e
non poesic
. e
e
ad ( sic )
.
(
Della poetica 1586 59–74 Tutte adunque imitazioni hanno loro significati differenti De quali altri poesia non conuengono Altre sono communi poeti Altre che fanno composizioni altrui poesie altri scrittori non proprie
POETIC
THEORY
how the new theories came to assume the form that they did ; second , so that the reader might be more acutely aware , as he reads the subsequent chapters , of what is taking place in the individual texts analyzed . He should not , however, conclude from these remarks either that method was univer sally bad or that the theorists never succeeded in making consistent sense in their treatises . There were examples of good method ; there were cases of solid contribution to theory ; there were completely consistent and well developed documents.
.
or
,
,
a
,
let
.
-
on
be to
of
a
to
us
Perhaps we may thus analyze the situation with respect to the procedure best of the theorists . A given critic has developed , say clearly thought out and perfectly self contained poetics He may undertake then commentary write Aristotle's Poetics The peculiarities the defi ciencies his general philosophical method permit him read his own
of the
.
of
set
a
to
of
in or
of
of
an ,
to of
set
he
.
Or
theory into the text Aristotle even though the two may worlds apart may poetry which will expound his own out write art theory The peculiarities the deficiencies his general philosophical support method permit him cite his doctrine whole miscel
,
of
,
his is
as
,
;
it
In
. or it
be
entirely irreconcilable with laneous texts which might taken separately essentially the interpretation either situation the ancient text texts which suffers own theory remains undamaged except insofar
on
.
or
of
.
,
in
,
)
on
I
to
of , to
at
of ,
,
(
of
By
be
inappropriate places inadequate the proofs offered may appear way illustration such procedures wish summarize briefly my Cinque findings published previously four the most prominent cento critics Robortello Scaliger Minturno and Castelvetro Francesco Robortello published 1548 the first extensive commentary
In
his
in
far
of in
;
as it
.
of
a
to
,
he
of
36
.
de
Aristotle's Poetics his librum Aristotelis arte poetica explica tiones But from approaching basic text without prior suppositions interpreting the text only about the poetic art and with the intention brought completely worked out theory and for itself the text poetics He had derived this theory from his reading Horace's Ars poetica and the Greek and Roman rhetoricians hence was essentially
of
if
of
of
of
,
be
an
of
of
.
on of a
of
.
in
poetry character Robortello conceived written for the given utility pleasure and producing certain effects good audience The audience was composed elite wise men persuaded only actions certain kinds moral character who would rhetorical purpose
a
a
;
,
on
.
,
,
as a
.
of of
to
persuasion was necessary ante and characters were presented them cedent both utility and pleasure The work itself would produce variety utilities and pleasures not whole but through different parts and elements For example certain lessons about human destiny
in
on
,
.
319-48
and
:
by
the sententiae
Critics and Criticism
pp , .
),
,
66 )
(
al .
et
S.
R.
in
demonstrated
the Poetics Crane University Chicago Press 1952
of , "
:
Chicago
on
Robortello
Modern
(
36 “
;
poems certain truths would
be
,
of
a
of
be
tragedy develop would learned from watching the action the stage certain lessons about character from the observation characters the
Ancient and
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
basis of these the audience would be moved to undertake action or to refrain from it . With respect to pleasure , again it would be produced by separate parts of the poem : that related to imitation would come from the plot itself, that associated with the difficulté vaincue from successful treat
ment of unpleasant subjects , that ascribable to admiration from certain kinds of episodes , from diction , from various ornaments . Now this is a completely conceived system of poetics , which Robortello could defend upon philosophical or pragmatic grounds . But when he to
.
:
be
his
proceeds to read Aristotle as if this were Aristotle's theory , too , he com pletely deforms the meaning of Aristotle basic text What happens may summarized thus
to of
to a
is
in
a
,
a
in
.
is a
poetic method essentially different from Aristotle's The ... what emerges poetic fundamental alteration comes the passage from rhetorical posi position the achievement which the essential consideration tion from
; in
do
of
to
of
.
I
a
is
no
a
is
in
the internal and structural relationship which will make the poem beautiful one which the main problem the discovery those devices which will upon produce specified desired effect audience not mean that given Aristotle consideration the effect the poem upon the audience as
of
of
.
,
to
of
of
;
of to
its
it to or
likeness hero audience the argument they are funda giving certain kind artistic ”
”
"
of
of
a
to
"
,
tragedy and their purgation fear the among the requisites character are integral
“
of
"
,
is
to
in
at
,
every crucial point object indeed the Poetics the relationship con templation contemplator concepts maintained constant Such the pleasure proper given species the pity and derived from imitation the effect
of
a
it .
to
or to
this
no
.
of
of
is
of
is
of
,
merely accompaniment inaction which the pleasure involved composed yielding instrument and the audience men capable persuasion rather than enjoying this pleasure men capable ; in
an or
of
an
,
of
is
of
:
no
is
to
if
mental the work art fulfil function pleasure the men who see hear But herein lies the basic departure longer one Robortello the effect produced artistic pleasure resulting from the formal qualities the work but one moral persuasion action
of
to
is
in of its
a
,
as
of
a
a
in
,
.
or
its be
to
"
.
,
these are not vital On the other hand which diction made ornate assume is
no
of
.
as
;
structure for the work need retained such elements diction and the means great importance
by
be
.
a
a
of
of be :"
,
in
,
of
as
.
of
pleasure This means turn that the artistic unity and plot may part the work disappear the problem removed specific from among the poetic elements work and may transferred ally histrionic functions Only the vaguest notions unifying and ordering tegrity
of
persuasion
by
,
,
separate pleasure The bases for the inclusion any given part highly specified audience given reaction itself awaken to
a
or ,
capacity
by
utility
a
,
,
,
to
as is
an
longer compound out This means that the problem for the poet the constitutive parts artistic whole which whole will produce the desired aesthetic effect but rather insert into the work such parts will them selves produce multiple utilities and pleasures each part producing separate
,
is
,
is
.
a
of
,
[ 67 ]
or
,
of
,
Moreover since the sense the total poetic structure lost there longer any possibility deriving from such structure the criteria for the appro priateness for the goodness badness individual parts Instead criteria for
POETIC
THEORY
each separate part will be separately derived by a reference to the character of the audience as it specifically affects that part and in the light of the utility or the pleasure which that part should produce . At each step , there will be reference outside the poem . The poem becomes , as a result , a collection rather than a unit. From it the audience derives utility of a moral character and pleasure of a non aesthetic kind, since it is not related to the structure or the form of the work as a whole . 37
Julius Caesar Scaliger, who died in 1558 , left behind him the completed manuscript of his Poetices libri septem , which was published in 1561.38 Unlike Robortello's work , this is an original art of poetry ; it presents in an orderly and highly systematic fashion Scaliger's theory of the art . Indeed , so orderly and systematic is the presentation that this work might well be taken as an example of a " good " method employed by a Renaissance theorist . The theory as a whole might be described as a grammatical one , in the sense that Scaliger is essentially preoccupied with poetry as an art of discourse . Poetry is conceived primarily as language . As language , it must enter into two distinct relationships : ( 1) the relationship with the things which are signified by the words employed and ( 2) the relationship with
for whom
principles of
its
the signification is intended . Scaliger will thus con things cern himself with as they are in nature - or in Vergil's Aeneid , which represents perfectly the norm of nature — and with the effects of pleasure and utility produced in the audience . Both nature and the needs of the audience impose conditions upon poetry , which has no conditions or the audience
a
.
,
,
,
,
,
of
as
, of on
;
of
to
its
.
arguments
as . a
of
,
of
he
,
of
is ,
system own except those that are purely prosodic Such recog d iametrically opposed Scaliger course that Aristotle and points nizes this fact when takes direct issue with Aristotle such tragedy poetry and the the definition constituent parts the end internal economy the poem This does not prevent him however from using the Poetics constantly source definitions distinctions and
),
.
,
as
,
,
—
, of
,
a
It
39
,
,
,
,
,
.
, is
in
(
of
The De poeta Antonio Sebastiano Minturno 1559 almost exactly achieving contemporary with Scaliger's work much less successful order and system draws heavily upon wide variety works Plato's Republic Laws Ion etc. Aristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric Horace's Ars poetica Quintilian Cicero's Orator De oratore De optimo genere oratorum Topica Such works the Poetics and the Ars poetica are almost completely or
incorporated into Minturno's treatise
—
his
to
of
,
W.
.
),
(
1942 337-60 Shipley
Frederick 101–29 .
pp .
of
XXXIX
Honor
)) in ,
,
,
Mo. 1942
[ 68 ]
St.
”, (
Studies
,
Modern Philology
The Poetic Theories Minturno Washington University Studies Louis
in
", ",
Poetics
of
on
.
.,
of
. .
.pp
39 38 37 “ “
Ibid 346-47 Scaliger versus Aristotle
( “
,
no
;
others contribute more less exten single central But from these disparate elements apply certain approach emerges Not only does Minturno fail concepts distinctions consistently but there are whole groups the rules sive developments
THE METHODOLOGY
OF THE THEORISTS
of an
its
its
and precepts for the specific genres , for example — which do not in any way derive from the more general concepts of the work . Even among these more general ideas , a complete ordering to a central problem is lacking . Some of them relate to the poet himself , to his faculties and his character as a good man ; some of them to the audience with desire for pleasure
an
.
is
as
.
to
to
an
is
no
.
in a
is
;
is
, it
of
as
to
of
;
of
and need for moral improvement some them the poem qualitative and quantitative parts But imitation composed one complete each fragmentary form and presented these analyses Minturno passes rapidly from one context another Insofar there ordering ordering rhetorical principles For the various ideas
Aristotle's system
of of
at
is
,
in
,
of
,
or
of
,
is
,
of
,
a
a
or
to
,
.
at a
to
of
in
,
,
system
of
.
the detail the really treatment however Minturno's Ciceronian and most specific passages comes from one the discussion another Cicero's discipline again rhetorical works Here the lack order the lack the impose synthesis failure arrive central organization upon
in
taken into consideration
In
the speech itself must
the Rhetoric which the the orator and the proofs presented
of
the character be
,
the audience
,
at
in
in is
.
reminiscent
of
nature
all
vaguely
of
as a
or
;
of
,
each chain
;
an
is ,
of
relationships established within the work there one end effect upon the audience the other end some faculty producing that effect the poet capable the middle the poem serving arrangement essentially rhetorical and means instrument This chains
of irreconcilable materials are evident Lodovico Castelvetro's Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata sposta 1570 commentary like Robortello's work the Poetics.40 Unlike Robor
)
(
on
Castelvetro sets out
refute Aristotle and
to
however
,
,
tello
to
,
a
is ,
et
.
mass
suggest his
no
in is its
,
,
imagination
to no
no
a
.
own theories instead He begins with the basic assumption that poems are written for specific audience the ignorant multitude which has knowl ,
memory
in
it
,
so
:
so
or
all
—
. In
,
respected —
be
,
comfort and which demands that please this audience order and pleasure the only end the poet must above seek credibility verisimilitude combina credibility tion with the marvelous that the unimaginative audience will believe the marvelous that will find pleasure the uncommon edge
plots These two factors determine the nature they poetry character the choice materials make kind history which differs from history only the use verse The audience's
of ,
a
of
.
of of a
;
in
,
,
of
.
of
and the extraordinary episodes
to
its
of
it is
(
,
of
of
”
“
a
in
which every
349–71
.
,
.pp
as cit
this
.,
.op
system
al .,
a
in
be
S.
in R. .
Cranc
[ 69 ]
, ”
of
Poetics
Such
et
of
40 “
precepts which the poet must follow Castelvetro's Theory
an
as ,
;
of
”
)
an
,
it .
of
;
of
as by
“
of
demand for comfort introduces the requirement unity time imagination adds the unity place the unity lack action which Castelvetro does not really consider essential even though the only adjunct one the three required Aristotle comes the unities time and place serves additional ornament and shows the excel lence the poet Moreover the audience will impose upon the work special conditions which will whole set codified the rules and
POBTIC
THEORY
.
the Poetics the commentary
,
in
of
be a
commentary
the course
Castelvetro's own doctrine will result
of
.
but much illumination
of
be
on
its
presentation should that the vehicle for Little light will thrown the Poetics
on
thing results from the necessity of pleasing a specific audience , is rhetorical in a sense ; besides , it is historical to the degree that it concerns itself with credibility . It is , of course , clearly distinct from Aristotle's conception of poetics ; and what is amazing from the point of view of methodology is
of ,
I
the details
of
of
An examination
in
,
,
of
by
this chapter
in
These four documents are representative their general outlines the produced application results the methods that have described
by
all
to
of
the characteristic ways
of
,
lectual approach the major difficulties
,
of
we
.
,
-
,
all
,
We should not ,
work
.
in at
.
discussion would show other course expect find the methods exemplified any single work the faults and failings epitomized any one theorist who would thus become the arch sinner Renaissance critical theory Rather should expect that the various habits intel procedures
solving
,
a
,
in
we
.
If
of
of
in ,
in
varying those difficulties would manifest themselves variously and body combinations the numerous documents which constitute the critical materials the Cinquecento are concerned not only with practical what the theoretical and the critics said their writings but with why they said what they did we should anticipate that constant awareness is to
of
of
of
.
,
to
us
of
methodological factors will enable judge both understand and writings problem reading their The Renaissance critical texts com plex not only because the critical situation itself but the complexities a
in
to
in
.
in
of
( 70 )
.
in
be
we
,
or it in
of
time and intellectual habits By con given vices method are present simplicity document shall without doubt able discover some complexity and some clarity confusion our distance from stantly asking what virtues because
CHAPTER THREE . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS : I. THE EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
POETICA
T
HIS
CHAPTER and the three succeeding ones will be concerned with tracing through the course of the sixteenth century in Italy the intel lectual fortunes of Horace's Ars poetica . Of all theoretical documents relative to the art of poetry in classical antiquity , this was the only one which had some currency during the Middle Ages and which came to the
humanistic period and the Renaissance as a part of their more immediate intellectual heritage.1 Throughout both periods , it continued to be a dominant text in the molding of critical opinion and in the formation of new doctrines . Horace's work represented , in addition to the specific recommendations of the text itself, a general way of thinking about poetry which was highly acceptable to the Renaissance mind and which continued to dominate critical thinking in spite of the emergence of such new points
of view
as that contained in Aristotle's Poetics .
,
an in
in
,
,
of
ticular audience
of
of
be
a
a
by
.
in
to
to
to
of
to
all
Essentially , the Ars poetica regards poems in the context of the society for which they are written . It considers above the dramatic forms please and relation both nature and their capacity instruct given kind that would see them given age under given audience any poem will circumstances What goes into the making determined large part the expectations the requirements the taste this par
its
(
its
of
the
),
of
(
a
),
at
the
,
its
.
Translated into terms the poem these requirements ordering and unification audience disunity certain conventions for super ficial forms the audience expects that plays will have five acts and limited number interlocutors certain recommendations for the decorum certain precepts for dislikes disorder and laughs become
,
of
the
of
of
.
a
to
it
in .)
, of
(
),
(
characters audience has fixed notions both about types and about traditional heroes and certain generalizations about diction audience writing with each associates specific kinds diction and styles the literary genres Moreover since the various age groups and the divers social sectors the audience make different demands upon the poem provide proper combination pleasurable and profitable will have elements
of
,
.
to
his
,
In
of
brings
audience
by
,
of
Horace's theory the internal characteristics the poem not exclusively the external demands the theory very close specifically rhetorical approaches
if
, in
The fact that
are determined largely
in
,
all of
of
be
)
(
71
Poetics
during
the medieval period
,
of
Aristotle's
352
.
.p
an
in
,
an
of
is
,
chap
. ix ,
1
For the scattered appearances
below
of
this kind the determining factor the production the internal principle structural perfection but rather acceptance the those elements are included the assumption that producing upon susceptible work that will the desired effect the theories work not
sco
POETIC THEORY envisaged , arranged in an order calculated to achieve the
audience
maxi
or
it
as
)
( or
:
of
approaches , one essential element - absent from Horace - enters at poet really times into consideration the character the orator
is all
mum degree of that effect. However , in proper and complete rhetorical
).
(
it
If
be
to
is
to
,
For theorists and critics
of
of
.
it
is
is a as it
)
(
appear Quintilian made Aristotle's Rhetoric incomplete rhetoric because Horace's thesis rhetorical one omits this essential aspect
,
.
or
of it
as a
of
I,
in
we
as
its
,
the Renaissance the rhetorical tendency poetica perhaps Horace's Ars was most appealing characteristic Indeed already Chapter have seen their own thinking about poetry frequently considering inclined most toward kinsman rhetoric
.
an
be
to
,
to
in
as
to
instrumental science serving the ends moral philosophy Whatever may they specific passages doubts have had about how Horace's text were interpreted they seem have sensed immediately what extent the ,
.
of
at
to
of
an
in
to
of of
looking poetry whole corresponded their favorite ways the art Perhaps they merely continued the paths their medieval ancestors for adjunct many rhetoric and for whom the Ars whom poetry was to
to by
so
is
it
-
an
in
of be
to
,
of
"
I
,
.
all
in
,
be
;
,
,
of or
.
of
“
a
of
,
be on
an
predominantly
such
Horatian text the Cinquecento from one which sprang primarily from Cicero Quintilian transmuted into authority poetry The details the art the treatment the specific ideas might different but the basic assumptions the fundamental ways considering the poetic art would the same For this reason shall include the present chapter and the following ones not only those works difficult
distinguish
fact was taken rhetorical approach frequently extent that
taken and essentially
is
as
—
.
to of
(
)
poetry
Horace's verse epistle may thus Renaissance critics the epitome poetry Indeed this the art true
an
aspects
.
of
of
of
poetica provided occasional ideas for the arts poetry which were other rhyming and for passing allusions wise largely arts the broader
to
of
as
to
I
do
as
,
in
since that
of
,
the rhetorical documents themselves
But treatment cognizance were not a
vast and complex undertaking
if .
in
itself would poetic theory
be a
Cinquecento the history
of
I
.
,
a
in
it
which are commentaries upon Horace but such works are related secondary way insofar approach they represent the kind indicated As stated the Preface not mean trace through the
,
of
,
.
treatment
-
THE LATE CLASSICAL COMMENTATORS
:
for
its
,
of
be
to
the logical place
in
;
of
is
of
in
be
incomplete the period would taken the impact rhetorical theory upon poetics and since this rhetorical theory most closely associated the Renaissance with the interpretation chapters seems Horace's Ars poetica the present series
ACRON AND PORPHYRION
72 )
(
.
be
of
by
to
a
as
to
The Ars poetica did not come the Renaissance naked text for provided which the simplest and most elementary interpretations had printed accompanied The earliest editions were two commentaries the
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
Roman period , that attributed to Helenius Acron ( second century of Porphyrion ( third century A.D. ). Moreover , these printed editions continued an ancient manuscript tradition ( extant manuscripts late
A.D. ) and that
date back to the ninth and tenth centuries ) in which the same commentaries
accompanied the Horatian text.3 To these were added , before 1500 , the commentary of Cristoforo Landino , and , around 1500, the commentary of Iodocus Badius Ascensius ; and although Badius ' annotations were for a
a
all
number of years printed only in Paris editions , they ultimately were added to the earlier commentaries in Italian editions . By the time, then , that the major Cinquecento studies of the text were made , four glosses were
.
,
is
,
of
is
in
.
;
of
,
.
a
He provides classifications for the various Horace cites parallels from other poets explains
paraphrase
speech used
,
of
,
gives
by
he ,
obscure figures
in
or
to
of
as a
of
,
of
standard part the available editions and critics and theorists took them point departure for their own interpretations say Much essentially gram what Acron has his commentary explanatory explains meanings matical character He the words particularly syntax word order matters sometimes when the sense
of a
-
an
in
of
—
or
.
in , a
he
a
,
to
grammatical and histori legends and allusions brings the text kind explication passages cal However for numerous makes remarks single word interpretation sentence sometimes which suggest
he
.
to it in do it
as
of ,
a
fairly com the basic work and these remarks taken together constitute poetry thing plete theory Acron discovers Horace One that
)
in
,
as
et
,
of
et
de
est
.
Et :
“
his
of
tia
at
a
a
was the first
precepts
,
that
of
I
presume
.
is to
(
and
distinguish
he
for this particular text definitely series labeled such the Ars poetica He prefaces these indications with statement the very beginning commentary De inaequalitate operis loquitur dat praecepta poema primum praeceptum dispositione scribendi conuenien does
set
.
It
.
is
"
“
as
he
,
”
in
is
of
a
of
to
to
a
a
for reducing the text fixed rules for the writing precedent which Renaissance commentators were follow
precedent
poetry
,
of
lishes
to
,
he
,
a
"
a
.
At
.” 's
he
or
some dozen more precepts this kind few other places although does not specifically praeceptum call his remark uses some such word docet thinking essentially the same terms This procedure show that not without importance for the subsequent history Horace's text estab Subsequently
carminis
are pointed out
.
;
, "
Guldin
.
, et
,
,
II,
iii ;
,
Porphy Ferdinand Hauthal Acronis 1864 also 574 648 649 and 665 ), I,
,
of (
Bartholomew forth
by
,
;
"
,
Q.
in
,
of
a
3
For list the manuscripts see the edition rionis commentarii Horatium Flaccum Berlin
so by
,
called editio Romana printed Milan 1474 of Venice 1481 and
-
,
;
,
2
B.g. the editio princeps the beck around 1475 the edition
of so
,
.
constantly More important still however was the general orientation which Acron
in
);
as
:
be
Acron will
be
.
,
by
( 73 )
.
to
85 ,
II,
is
,
3
in
,
;
to
Ed .
the Badius commentary Item Milan 1518 Hauthal cited note above 575. All subsequent references page will this volume comments not specifically located found number indicated s
containing
,
,
,
(
*
,
See the Index s.v. Badius Ascensius Quintus Horatius Flaccus Editions the United States and Canada Mills College California 1938 the earliest Italian edition listed here
under the line
POETIC
THEORY
gave to the Ars poetica in his reading
of it . This
was an essentially rhetorical any if it did not introduce new ideas, emphasized and exaggerated tendencies latent in the Horatian text . One such tendency is to consider poetry in terms of the conventional rhetorical distinction of invention , disposition , and elocution . The passage previously cited ( " pri already shows this intention The dispositione mum praeceptum trilogy appear other two terms the the commentary line subject matter which fulfilling neither capable one selects : "
if
40 .
on
dispositio
“
The term
”
,
of
him . " .
lacking
the gloss on the following
line But the .
in
inventions nor eloquence can appears close conjunction
in be
a
he in to is
of
)
"
de
est
orientation which ,
a .
of .
to
all
to
is
,
of
be a
to
it
,
of
If
to
of
-
is
three way distinction little more than suggested and does not constitute the major effort the commentary attempt guiding principle for Acron's whole one were find reading principle appropriateness the text would probably Everywhere the attempt questions made reduce matters est
“
it :
of ,
on ,
:
).
So
is
.
(p
"
on
31
in
is
the commentaries
...
of
27
the
ne si
(“ ,
a
.
a
in in
fit ,
of
Ars poetica
the
rule the
prin
,
in all .
;
the Horatian text itself the only operating many places where the imply For example lines 125–
it at
sees
Horace seems not
,
fit
,
that Acron
was to as
original text
is it it
is
difference
more vague than
of
is
ciple
no
,
of
,
of
fit
diction must the characters the conception characters must notion decorum the end must the beginning one has made whose application depends almost exclusively upon the sensitivity right given relationship But the poet upon his sense what
of
.
fit
,
is in
"
);
so
" ),
ita
(“
),
”
ab
in
et ,
.
is
...
(“
"
et
,
et
in
,
hic
),
line Docet quis non esse indulgendum eloquentiae quae careat arte ratione opinionem superflui inepti incidat lines 35–37 enitor omni parte tota parte poeta uideri nulla lines 47–48 alia discrepans through ponantur proprie innumerable on opportune and uerba passages The principle itself vague since no criterion for appropriate presented the subject the When one has said that the style must ness ,
line
de ,
is
.
et
,
"
of
The same organizing concept invoked Ita ergo qui scribit nisi opportune scribat
577
20 (“ ).
(
.p
“
,
of
it
;
.
of
.”
et
,
“
, to
of
”
“
,
fittingness
in
”
"
of
apparent this that This attempt precept already primum praeceptum the first cited dispositione conuenientia carminis From then one hardly ever loses sight principle Praecipit precept the central The second restates poetam conuenientiam seruare debere here Acron's summation the meaning the first three lines the text 576 does the third Docet non inportune inducendam esse parabolam aut descriptionem propriety
again
,
et
,
ab
,
ad
et
Siquid inexpertum scaenae committis audes personam formare novam imum servetur qualis incepto processerit sibi constet
( 74 )
,
,
,
a
: “
deesse possunt
."
eloquentia
.p
.,
-
6
be
undoubtedly contain kept constant recommendation that character qui eligit quam possit inplere Ibid 581 materiam huic nec inuentiones nec
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
or consistent throughout a work ; but Acron's gloss on “ sibi constet " is as follows : “Let the material finish within itself , nor should it pass on to something else . Do not pass to anything else before you have finished it. " 7 The idea is generalized and is made into another expression of the notion of " fittingness " or " belongingness . " That central notion itself provides in effect a rhetorical rather poetic basis of organizing and constructing a work . I do not mean norm of “ appropriateness ” does not or could not apply to poetic
central than a that a
works . But in such a document as Aristotle's Poetics , the relationship between one part and another of the poem is stated in other terms : in terms of the hierarchical interdependence of such component parts as plot, character , thought , and diction , or in terms of the specifically poetic devices which link the parts together, necessity and probability . That is, a given element ( a word or an action or a passion ) is “ appropriate ” to the whole work in a special way determined by the total unity and the total order of the given work itself . But for Acron ( following and simplifying Horace ), the ;
thus unspecified
,
it is
If
to
of
it
of
as
character historical personages the last analysis appropriateness
.
traits
to
and
in of
of
of
,
all
principle of appropriateness is general rather than specific ; it applies in the same way to works regardless their particular natures involves appropriateness subject matters such diverse kinds that meters
by
is
,
all
,
.
its
In
.
all
is at
,
,
it
is
not determined from within the work but times judged from without the particular peculiarly rhetorical quality audience this resides As Acron interprets Horace the constant search for the appropriateness because
” ;
,
ac
a
,
,
to
,
“
:
...
of
"
;
to
"
,
,
a
.
“
,
all
it
to
of
is a
a
of
is ,
This
it
.
of
poem part please the the constant search course Horatian principle but Acron extends and states much more explicitly For example the commendare line 225 clearly means to render acceptable the public Acron expands the applied originally general statement statement satiric drama into poetry about nam omnia quae dicimus placere desideramus elements within
audience
,
, id
“
”
of of
on
“
ad
,
.
explaining the in the good poet “
In
: "
to
."
the work goes say
on
to )
(
”
of
:
the end
beginning line 148 medias leads his listener immediately
he
hastens
to
he
the reader
res ,
.
, ut ,
,
by a
is
up
."
In
a
,
is ut
ita ,
per hoc uidentur conmendare quae dicimus auribus auditorum Omnia quae dicuntur poetis enim debent dici conmendari uideantur est libenter adspiciantur similar way Horace's emphasis the audience everywhere pointed semper Acron The euentum festinat Considering the possible distaste line 148 the occasion for the gloss
...
." 9
aliam
,
ad
.
nec
ad
,
finiatur materia
ante
."
“
”
ad
,
in
)
ea
,
75 )
(
,
(
."
Cogitans fastidium lectoris 601 exitum operis properat 602 adducit bonus poeta auditorem suum quasi nota and bonus poeta quae placere non possunt hoc est praeterit quae tractatu ingrata sunt : : “ "
., ., ea .p .p ,
9 8
Ibid Ibid relinquit
ad
."
: “
., .p
In
se
in
,
is ,
,
Ne transeas
"
aliud transeat
...
Ibid 598 quam illam finias 7
;
he
“
,
known things and then for the next line the good poet excludes those things which cannot please that passes over those things which are not agreeable the treatment
THEORY
POETIC
...
"
"
"
a
11
."
a
in
:
of
]
[
” 10
he all
153 is
in
elucidated thus : “ what I and the people might desire , that would willingly listen to .... For omne tulit punctum provides this explanation He alone obtains the votes and the line 343 poem favorable judgment the people who writes useful and pleasant fashion and who can both profit and delight Line
is , what
"
by
be
it
of
: “
of
no
:
of
;
so
on
,
,
.
:
,
is
of
of
,
be
an
,
12 : "
in
."
”
in
is
in
The general thesis stated connection with the phrase Ut pictura poesis poem pleases line 361 indeed excellent even when fre quently repeated Within this audience various segments must pleased special ways Acron again emphasizes Horace's ideas Part special pleased the audience low ignorant and wicked and must poetic commentary kinds fare the lines 213–14 He indicates the cause for the increase licence because the ignorance the
of :
: "
is
be
,
on
,
;
by
13
."
“
",
people and because there was difference between the good and the bad and because the people was uneducated Another segment consists anything grave persons officials and noblemen offended who will dishonorable the commentary line 248 reads The meaning this
of ,
if
,
The Roman Knights and senate fathers who have great wealth and hence anything shame are noble and enjoy honorable reputation are offended
by
(
its
to
,
do
:
is
of
15
is ."
of
):
"
on
,
in
is
." 14
expressed before them ful Some the audience are young and will light things some are old and want serious materials com find delight mentary line 342 The meaning this Old men are pleased the gravity weight the verse and the the diction young men not like the same gloss shows that The introduction austere and grave things : 16
. "
it
it
its
,
so
,
its
“
be
of
poetry profit for the old the pleasure intended for the young poem properly through tempered pleasure The must that will satisfy severity through younger the older will men and serve the
,
those
, is
—
”
dulcia sunto
poems which are morally
...
et
.
,
id
est quid libenter audiant omncs iudicium populi tulit qui utile dulce poema scripsit
."
,
: “
Ibid 632 Solus suffragia qui prodest delectare potest et
let
populus desideret
,
ego
esse poemata
Therefore
et
quid
et
602
: "
Ibid
after the gloss
., ., .p .p
11 10 et
Ibid
13 12
,
-when
“
Non satis est pulchra
:
%
put on line
99
.
to
“
—
of
,
,
Apparently the insistence upon moral precepts philosophical arguments grave and the arousing the passions because these are matters especially intended for the older men The effort find everywhere both pleasure and utility may account for the somewhat startling construction
. ”
,
, , si
."
,
;
et "
est et :
. "
,
et
pondere delectantur
( 76 )
seniorum
ut
,
et
. "
:
et : “
: ." “
satisfaciat
dictionis
seruiat iuniorum
,
., .p ., .p
Ibid 631 Sensus est Senes grauitate carminis grauia non amant iuuencs austera uoluptati Poema debet temperari Ibid 631
et
15
16
honestum fuerit prolatum
"
,
: : “ “ : “
et
., ., .p .p
,
14
et
., ac p .
probum uero poema placet etiam saepe repetitum 634 Ibid 611 Dicit autem causam per quam creuit licentia propter inperitiam populi quia nulla erat differentia inter bonos malos and quia indoctus erat populus Equites Romani patres senatores quibus sunt substantiae Ibid 619 Sensus aliquid coram cis in per hoc nobiles magnae honestate gaudentes offenduntur
seueritati
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
recommendable have beauty as well and carry the mind of the auditor wherever they will , either to pity or to indignation , " the phrase " dulcia sunto " is translated by the formula “ Ethica sint, ” which I take to mean “ having moral implications . " 17 In any case , the pleasure - profit distinction
of
,
,
,
be of
it
,
of a
is
of
important the consideration what extent customs saying story through the suitableness the persons introduced and may without art without beauty the mores even though pleases sounding verses which are high sententiae more than
to
He shows only that sometimes the expression
:
cf.
on
comes to be crossed with another grammatical and rhetorical one , the “ res verba " juxtaposition ; the gloss line 320
-
of
.
in
of ,
without gravity lacking the observation the mores Things without ornament can please more than poems adorned with words without substance.18
is
nature
Acron
.
of
his notion
ut
25 , is
of
"
“
."
,
"
,
:
a
."
is on
"
"
“
.
the same connection The
have
all
is
of
”
“
20
)
“
(
.”
we
.
:
he
of
"
ad
,
we
,
as
."
ad
,
,
ad
,
, et ,
Habeant ergo haec quae sunt probata etiam uenustatem quocumque indignationem siue siue misericordiam Ostendit modo quantum prodest consideratio consuetudinis dicens ,
593
: “
, ., .p
it
us
"
19
. "
is we
"
17
Ibid
uoluerint animum auditoris trahant 18
in
We
follows
: “
glossed
as ff .
108
108
,
line
lines
interesting
intus passions within our souls nature and they are moved singly whenever they see their own images says this others For the iuvat aut impellit iram line 109 charmingly presented For through Nature delights when we see nature become angry feel pleasure have pity The angit explained meaning that Nature herself troubles the spec line 110 in byof
comments
as et
sit
unum
of
quod vis simplex dumtaxat
highly significant phrase Quiduis scribe simplex Similarly interpreted specie ueri simile the recte line imagine boni dum praeferimus imaginem ueritatis The whole series adds
is
”
a
of
is
is
a
.
in be
course true
Thus for line 23— et
.
does This
the first lines indicates that
,
sit
Denique
,
is
of
does not conform
sees
merely states the idea more explicitly
-he
to
of
he
,
in
,
not count but what the audience thinks the spectator Horace and the laughter the monster
certain conception what nature does
;
as
it its to
.
it
,
of
is
nature The audience the custodian nature and uses this conception criterion
reference
if
“
at
,
to
.
of in
it
"
as
of
nature
a
in
“
of
his
of
the audience the role Acron's conception figures Horace's work Clearly for appropriateness judging poem the precise way many things possible through not made apparent for some least the judgment
One special aspect interpretation
,
,
,
, et
ex
in
natura
singuli mouen
(
uidemus
Nam natura irascimur
,
cum delicata
.
,
nos natura
."
,
: “
594 Delectat miseremur
., .p
Ibid delectamur
animis nostris
."
in
: "
.,
Ibid 594 adfectus omnes habemus aliis tur cum imagines suas uiderint
77 )
.p
20 , 19
."
.
,
,
,
,
,
sit
ot
,
: “
., .p
Ibid 629 quod interdum fabula opportunitate personarum inductarum expressione morum quamuis sine arte sine uenustate sine grauitate sententiarum plus placet quam uersus bene quidem sonantes sed morum obseruatione carentes Magis possunt delectare res sine ornatu quam ornata poemata uerbis sine rebus
POBTIC
THEORY
tator . " 21 The commentary on line 111 is essentially the same in intent.22 Finally , the distinction between historical and newly invented subjects is transformed by Acron into a distinction between the true and the veri similar ; for line 119 he says : “Si ergo certam scribis, famam sequere , aut
,
verisimilitude
”
the term
all
Aliud prae In these upon
the insistence
the interaction between nature and the spectator
,
of
an
,
,
the introduction
the indication
“
passages nature
of
si fingis, habeat artem et uerisimilitudinem figmentum tuum . ceptum : aut notam historiam scribe , aut uerisimilia finge ."
.
of
”
"
"
,
.23
“
,
he
"
,
or
be
by
"
“
it to
.”
“
to
is
of
in
,
.
to
In
an
in
to
of
approach poetry are signs which the role the audience even Horace himself more emphatically stressed than approach the goal pursued such the poet must also related laughter applause the audience Acron begins with the the something very close the audience and extends mean fame glory victory the Ciceronian Whoever writes unless write appropri to
as
20 )
,
"
"
by
) is (
of in
” (
,
"
"
"
“
finis
on
will not obtain glory for himself line The single word referring line 406 which Acron apparently mistakes the poetry end translated laudatio and several comments on line 412– ately
ad
...
,
"
gloriam uenire studet quia finis istiusmodi uitae
“
:
Qui
dicit gloriam
parit
a
,
.
to
.
, ,
in
mind authority for their own ideas Finally
of
or
of
the text have these remarks constantly
cite them when they need support
,
of
their orientation
large measure determine
.
in
-
of
,
to
—
precepts Acron's commentary the reduction the upon rhetorical elements the attention the role later critics about the Horatian enter bodily into the thinking
the salient tendencies the emphasis text and
.
,
all
in
if
as
it
Renaissance students
audience
,
in as
,
of
,
of
a
so
.”
,
Id
“
”
at
it is
have insisted
;
propositi finem gloriam such length on ancient commentator Acron because his remarks for readers the Cinquecento are sense contemporary both with the text Horace and with themselves They scholarly and critical editions are read along accompany that text they with almost had been written by Horace himself Moreover
If I
gloriam sempiternam
glory
is
that the goal Optatam ergo metam
est ,
"
-insist
;
Qui studet optatam cursu contingere metam
is
or
a
of
.
of
Only
the basis
a
,
.
,
.
precepts
few points are worthy
for judging appropriate ,
."
."
,
78 ]
[
."
ad
,
,
:
: “
ad Id
: "
pp
,
Ibid
series
As with Acron
Ipsa natura spectatorem 594 est natura quae me deiecit rerum miseratione extollit 594–95 iracundiam humanitatem modo modo deducit 578 qui scribit nisi opportune scribat non sibi conparat gloriam
, ., ., ., et .p .p .
23
Ibid Ibid peritate
: "
22 21
special mention here
of
to of a
,
of
the work
of
reduction
of
,
is
;
of
,
,
. It
the commentary
of
Porphyrion Acron that repeats certain amount brief pedestrian and relatively unimportant usually material material from Acron but this the grammatical Porphyrion's contribution explanatory type which constitutes the bulk The major emphases Acron are lacking save perhaps that upon the
As compared with
pros
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
approval — is by reference to , laughs says Porphyrion , is “quod nature . The reason that the audience contra naturam omnia faciat . " 24 Poets should choose subjects equal to their strength not ( as we presume Horace to have meant ) so that they can
for assuring
In
).
.p
(
"
,
ut
the work properly
so
but that they may please the eligant qua possint placere eam materiam 651 the
: "
audience
parts
the audience's
,
complete
of
all
ness — and hence
gloss on line 119
Aut famam sequere aut sibi conuenientia finge
,
,
an or
”
-
“
in
as
of
,
of
.
,
Acron
1482
)
CRISTOFORO LANDINO
(
.
its
to
addendum that the Cinquecento
of
res verba terms very
they corroborate These few ideas insofar Porphyrion made the commentary Acron which was not without influence upon critics
Acron
of of
to
of
in
.
a
but between known history and some other known fact The distinction again appears connection with lines 319–20 similar those insist upon those
as
to
: “
25
a
in
.”
a
is in
a
to
he
if
,
or
is he
,
it
of
is
to
-
a
of
precept different from that Porphyrion states For the poet Acron going write must either describe something according the handle dry history does not wish men common opinion proper way were must introduce known things The distinc tion here not between history and what invented verisimilar way
who
in
in
by
is
.
,
at
.
century
sixteenth
Cristoforo
Landino
and
Badius
commentary
as
on
.
the
Both groups enter the Horatian tradi two commentators who stand the ,
of
of
humanists the fifteenth century tion through the intermediary threshold Ascensius
:
,
is a
,
of
-
by
of
,
,
Acron second century Porphyrion third century between them and long gap This gap part the critics the Cinquecento there filled part the late classical grammarians Donatus and Diomedes the
in
I
as
his
he
a
,
in , of
of
;
he
,
,
,
of
by
he
of
of
, Byin
the edition
in ,
the Ars poetica appeared first far published Horace's Opera which Florence way incorporating into 1482. remarks typical medieval thinking poetic lengthy quotations from Diomedes about matters introduced way taking cognizance quoted the humanist contribution Plato cited Aristotle called frequently upon Cicero and long pre
Landino's
know
of .
in
on
in
of
to a
he
;
no
by
,
the Hauthal edition
which
,
is
in
a
high esteem
kings
cited throughout
Nam
.
for Acron
poeta scripturus
historiam
aut secundum hominum consensum debet aliquid tamquam tritam non vult adtingere debet conucnicnter notam ,
655
aut
649
of
, .p
has always been held
[ 79 ]
."
,
si : as “
., .p
Ibid
describere inducore
he by
;
a
,
religion
the comment on the first line
for Porphyrion 25
of in
instrument
In
an
24
is
:
is
.
,
fatory section presented poesy defence the fashion Boccaccio poetry Moreover referred his own dialogue his edition Vergil Landino's defence comprises the arguments which were already traditional the poet creator inspired the divine furor other writer equals him civilizing influence wisdom and eloquence exerts
THEORY
POETIC
and rulers . Great philosophers have always praised him , especially Plato in the lon and Aristotle- " et ipse de facultate poetica duos : de poetis
its
:
its
autem tres libros elegantissime scripserit . " One passage in this preface indi cates clearly how Landino conceives of the art of poetry and of allegorical uses
,
by
in
,
by
;
of
by
[ is ]
,
of
all
Indeed matter much more divine than that other writings for embrac ing them and bound together varied rhythms and circumscribed separated measures and adorned short various ornaments and various
be
of
it
be
For when
us ,
by
;
a
,
,
,
it
embellishes with admirable fictions whatever men have heretofore done whatever they have accomplished whatever they have known and contem plated with divine genius and for fear that they cannot understood except through allegories perceived transposes completely into things flowers
it
at all ,
by
of
is
in
of
,
it
a
be
a or . to
to to
narrating something most humble most appears singing delight little fable idle ears that very time writing rather secret way the most excellent things and which are drawn forth from the fountain the gods.26 different kinds and ignoble
of
in
.
,
,
,
is
: "
as ,
be
he
at
invention and disposition
In
relate
.”
to
,
a
to
of
of
in
of
,
In
way the commentary itself Landino goes far beyond Acron interpreting Horace disposition terms invention and elocution His gloss on the first words the text reads follows Because the writing poem the first thing investigated invention disposition and explains immediately those things which elocution the very beginning this regard Landino points out how to
to
to
on to
in
of
:
.
to in
;
to ),
cf.
(
is to
close poetry rhetoric the precepts for elocution are common both Cicero whereas the differences occur the other two parts He then proceeds subdivide the text according these distinctions after the lines which the relationship the subject matter nature and
in
')
"
.
46 , “
, ”
27
41 ,
(
"
is
low
high
)
.
selves into three groups
In
(
If
,
of
(
"
an A
"
),
to
,
is
disposition beginning with line decorum treated Horace passes lucidus ordo then elocution beginning with line verbis cognate rhetorical distinction that three styles introduced the interesting fashion subject matters which are invented divide them ,
"
to
of
”
,
“
"
,
develop
.pp
as
,
Verum rem esse multo illis diuiniorem quç illas distinctisque pedibus circumscripta numeris colligata uarias denique luminibus uariisque floribus illustrata quçcunque hactenus homines fecerint ingenii diuinitate contemplati fuerint admi quecunque egerint quecunque cognouerint
clviv_clvii
et
:
ad .
nobis perceptis intelligi
possint
in
:
ne
:
randis figmentis exornat nisi allegoriis omnino species traducit Nam cum ostendat
se a ac
;
ac
uariisque
:
(
1482 amplectens
:
omnes
: "
Opera
ed .) ,
26
.
,
,
,
.
to
"
the
,
of
poems used
"
the middle and the then diction used them and the kinds express them must also fall into the same three groups Vergil's three major poems the Aeneid the Georgics and the Bucolics may serve examples proper adaptation the types
diversas
aliud quippiam longe humilius ignobiliusque
in
ad
a in
( 80 )
.
clviii clviii -
also
.pp
exequitur
" ;
:
: “
., .p
27
. ”
et a
narrare aut fabellam ociosas aures oblectandas canere tunc res omnino egregias diuinitatis fonte exhaustas occultius scribit poemate scribendo inuentio dispositioque atque elocutio Ibid clvii Quoniam primis inuestiganda est statim principio quę inuentionem dispositionemque spectant
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
As far as Horace is concerned , the principle is intimated in lines 86 ff ., Descriptas servare vices , etc. ” Elocution thus fits invention , always within the framework of one of the three " figures , " and a mixing of styles becomes as impossible as a mixing of matters : “ neither may we write a tragedy “
about comic matters nor a comedy about tragic ones .
" 28 This fittingness of matter is expressed in the general term decorum , which for Landino is one of the concerns most “ proper " to poets . As for invention itself, subjects must be natural , verisimilar , but “ feigned " or created ; this is because the end of poetry is to please or delight— “Nos enim delectare uult ” —and there is no delight without belief . The false , the
style to genre to subject
ridiculous , the monstrous will cause laughter or disdain because they are not representations of nature, and one of the fundamental notions about poetics is that every art imitates nature— “ omnis ars naturam imitetur . "29 The same end of delight necessitates the cultivation of variety : “The major
be
,
is
to
a
to
be
of
It
.”
all
virtue is to distinguish the poem by much variety ; for by variety we delight the soul of the listener, and render him attentive , and remove him from boredom will noted what extent these remarks depend upon conception given pleasure rhetorical the audience which either
, to is
in
,
.
of
,
he
on
” ;
in
ut
“
or to
be
quemcunque affectum mouere possit moved— auditores although and Landino makes the appropriate comments Horace's emphasizes much more demands for moral utility his commentary pleasure and feeling The audience itself however superior elements
a
,
,
of
fashion
invention
and
disposi of
the three styles
in
to
is
the elements we
,
or
this same consistent
, or in
circles close
whether we start with the audience
it at is
,
to
-
A
.
of
or
all
,
end with some other these totally self consistent rhetorical system factors with them imposed bodily upon the Horatian poetic and made coincide with
,
tion and elocution
,
,
, in
,
all
Landino
,
one
In
. 30
an
.
of
,
to
engage that for rhetoric being more erudite and having more time reading and rereading disposition example the work Hence for the poet may use natural restricted artificial order whereas the orator
point
.
every
1500
)
(
BADIUS ASCENSIUS
in
.
of
of
aut
tragica comediam
in
so
:
comica tragediam
de
,
re
de
ne
: “
clxv and clxi
importantly
the
scri
clxii and
clviii
" ;
ab
et
:
et
:
.
est
.
.p
clxiiv poema multa varietate distinguere Animum enim Virtus maxima uarietate delectamus attentum reddimus omni fastidio remouemus ;
see also
clviiiv
( 81 )
.p
auditoris
clviiv
: “
Ibid
.
Ibid
., ., ex .p .p p .
30 29
."
bamus
. in
of
a
,
are added the grammarians who figured .pp
Ibid
.,
28
To them
of
by
is
.
,
it
'
is
,
of of
With the publication the commentary Iodocus Badius Ascensius 1500 the interpretation the Ars poetica takes another step forward Not only Badius discussion much longer and more complete than any the earlier ones but enriched vast quantity materials brought from new sources Acron Porphyrion and Landino are course quoted
POETIC
THEORY
conceptions of poetry , Diomedes , Donatus , and Priscian . There to Plato.31 But most significant of Badius calls constantly upon the Institutes Quintilian and upon the various rhetorical works Cicero for explanations clarifications and examples Horace's ideas sense then the commentary Badius once bridges the gap between the late classical period and the Renaissance incorporating the all ,
medieval
of
,
,
relates Horace specifically
the chief
of
of
.
“
"
sources and
to
principal medieval Latin rhetoricians
it
-
by
at
of
,
,
a
,
In of
.
of
are also references
in
to
he
a
&
In
diligentem castigationem cohor Badius sees almost everywhere
the work
,
the ideas
ad
:
&
.
&
in
quinta
of
).
In
Ilv
"
tatur
( .fol
.
consummata fuit docet
Et In
.
&
.
. In
: "
is
.
a
in
is a
Badius lover divisions and maker distinctions almost the prologue scholastic fashion Hence his commentary indicates that the Ars poetica divided into five sections Item quarum prima inquiunt poeta vitia extirpat secunda verbi decorum instituit tertia rerum qualitatum personarum decora discrimina Item poematos genera quarta actores formam agendi quomodo inuentores demonstrat
Pro descriptione poetice subnotandum est tripli triplicem stylum triplex potissimum materiam scribentium triplicem triplicem qualitatem decorum finem similia ibid The distinguished are the true which supplies the facts for three matters history the verisimilar which supplies the arguments for comedy and the fictional which neither true nor verisimilar and which supplies the
(
.) .
”
(
,
is
(
),
(
so
"
),
"
,
,
&
,
esse
his ,
-
: “
three way distinctions
cem
as a
is
"
in
or or
”
to
on
“
“
;
,
of
,
,
of
.
to
is
it
38
of
, ,
-
is
,
at
“
ad
be
should ”
).
It
gloss noted that the distinction made Rhetorica from the derived and that line materiam say Herennium that time ascribed Cicero But Badius goes way sublime into the division matters three that there another elevated which involves gods heroes and kings the mediocre middling which consists didactic the scientific information exploited
for poetry
fables
upon the
”
of ) -
,
a
:
,
of
'
32
."
of
"
in
"
,
a
of
.
,
a or
low
style and
of (
is
of
adapted
,
.
of
"
humble
is
“
and the
of
;
containing pastoral and trivial subjects To each these form verse result three way styles also called distinction characteres figurae genera dicendi and commonplace the division rhetorical the course This meters Vergil decorums Ages epitomized The three wheel the Middle poetry
”
“
;
at ;
or to
,
to
,
of
of
,
,
du
Faral Les Arts poétiques ,
E.
cf.
87 ). ",
), .p
[ 82 ]
,
"
of
.
to
on
(
:
-
(
.
•
Gerlier 1500 the earliest edition that ,
of
,
to
is
It
31 ° 32 I et ; . du ,
in
,
,
,
trilogies should come significant that the first statement this set commentary preface second expanded that the and his the author's
Paris quote Badius passages from the edition this edition know all references are Vergil wheel the Ibid fols VIII VIIIy XIII siècle Paris Champion 1923 XII
I
,
;
of
,
to
VIIIv
).
.
(
same time fol
,
of of to , of
of
qualities persons the three things verse words and are the styles the low correspond and the middle elevated the the three poems the mixed and the are the narrative the dramatic three kinds please bring profit the do both the poet are three ends
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
should appear very early in his remarks on the text . For the interpretation is in every sense prior to Horace His key standard procedure will wait for some point the text where gives him the opportunity word such the materiam line exploit one fully develop distinctions and then connection .
in
to
a
in
46
X ).
(
"
oratore
fol .
the has
”
becomes
de
re
And
est
,
a
of
to
characters their age
,
and their
indeed central
the whole conception
of
decorum
it is
This matter
to
of
(
).
various kinds
,
life
XIXv
of
condition country fol.
of
or
of
"
,
id
“
-
of
to
persons prefaced the decorum the personarum imprimis remark Quia decorum obseruandum ostendit quo pacto the fortune the discussion and continuing seruabitur leads
long development
by
dicentis erunt fortunis absona dicta
on
Si
line
for citing what Cicero
in
style and
of it
to )38
of
low
”
ita “
on
“
verbis etiam tenuis
the
De hac dicit Cicero beginning with line 112— “
say about
In
it :
to
.
with that word Thus the occasion for expatiating the passage
to
”
“
his
of
(
as
be
schematism
of
his
statement
the
if
is
,
,
he
.
in
is
of
on
,
so
work even more than Horace For Badius separates his ideas poetry into small groups three must find some device for collecting precisely the them together again into larger units and that device
:
Styles
Middle
Low
gods heroes kings sublime
information
shepherds
mediocre
humile
pentameter
iambic comedy
,
Elevated
altisonum
tenue
hexameter epic tragedy
didactic
:
,
Genres
,
:
Meters
,
to
a
."
to
as
follows
:
“
,
"
"
,
a
rough tabular form
,
:
Matters
in
"
“
relationships
of we
is
, in
all
'
,
of
principle
.
in
he
of as
.
of
really little Decorum accepted this broader sense appropriateness similar that which have major group seen Acron Once again Badius ideas fall into three things dividing themselves according sees the major distinction the the elevated middle and the low One may represent these decorum
more than
a
principle
pastoral
it
of of
),
of
,
"
: a "
a
(
of in
in
a
them hence the decorum general rhythmic patterns and them both sounds Moreover these persons will engage .
of
of to its
the structure
style fitted
, its to (
of
of to in
or
in
),
in
spoken
verse suited
.
to
of
or
as
speaking words
'
in
the ideas necessitate
a
of
,
is
inexact and incomplete since certain subsequent refinements crossing over from column column But does represent the fundamental concept thinking high genre Badius tragedy will present persons such the epic certain kind each persons whom has the proper traits character hence the decorum The table
.
of
(
of (
83 ]
[
in
)
of
).
actions appropriate their characters and stations hence the decorum things All but two representation and the smaller trilogies manner major relationships end the poet are combined this set
POETIC THEORY The Ars poetica is thus read as if it were part of the classical -medieval rhetorical tradition , which culminated in the rigorous hierarchy of the literary types as it is symbolized in the " wheel of Vergil . " What is more , Badius introduces other essentially rhetorical distinctions which complete
of the Horatian text . As the above table shows, the " res verba " division is made to apply in a very real way , “ matters " being the “ res ” and “ styles ” the “ verba .” Such a statement as the following , the transformation
offered as explanation of lines
310-11
Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae : Verbaque provisam rem non invita sequentur
-may
no
,
of
,
, ,
to
of
in
,
at
.
is ,
).
, of
a
,
of
art
fol .
be cited in corroboration : “ Poema enim constat ex re & oratione . Res autem ex philosophia originem trahit vt praecepta contineat . Oratio in grammatica & rhetorica dicitur " ( XXXVIv There thus poetry merely combination philosophy grammar and separate rhetoric The rhetorical categories invention disposition and elocution very are introduced the outset the conclusion the first set :
or
be
;
an
be
to
)
of
33
."
"
"
(
;
a
in ,
a
in
in
of
: “
at
remarks Three things are therefore necessary first The careful con economy sideration and invention disposition the whole matter placed other fitted with deliberation for the events narrated will poem than history and their embellishment wise exornatio accordance with their arrangement As for the rhetorical ideas
of
,
: "
in
( ex 23 .fol
in .
,
a
Cicero and Quintilian they are introduced whenever Badius can find plausible reason for bringing them For example the requirement unity stated Apta autem digressio line elicits the following remark
of
;
"
de
ita
...
ideas incorporated into the commentary
those
,
the medieval
of
).
( .
in
As for
de
),
(
: “
in
is
).
V
of
"
;
quarto Quintiliani colligitur tribus modis fieri and Quintilian's falling enumeration follows Where Horace speaks the danger sought lines 25–26 into obscurity when brevity Badius finds the anti qua Cicero dote Cicero De apta tamen breuitate non nihil dicemus inquit rhetorice veteri enarratione loquens and the quota tion follows fol VII ”
“
in
de
arte
listen
of
, "
us
Pisones
say
let
ad
on of to
",
he
"
;
he
“
,
,
"
goes
of
a is
.
Horatii Flacci
Quinti matters among them the title poetica institutio to understand this to
no
),
of
(
I
which call medieval since they were the standard sources ideas about poetry throughout the Middle Ages they frequently come into the discussion even when there justification general the Horatian text itself Badius opens his prologue with number Diomedes and Donatus
,
or
a
is
,
in
,
.
,
says Diomedes Poetics metrical structure narration true proper rhythm meter suitable for pleasure and false things composed
:
in
. "
: in 84 ]
[
&
& in
.
.
: “
.
.,
.
33
Ibid fol IIIly Tria ergo primum sunt necessaria Materiae totius excogitatio atque poemate aliter historia aliter enim inucntio Excogitate apta oeconomia seu dispositio qua elegantic disposite exornatio decori habenda est ratio locabuntur res narrande
ARS POETICA
BARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
pages collecting together
he
,
'
he
,
of
,
. 35
do
on
lines 275
to
have nothing
ff .,
,
on
,
remarks
a
set
Diomedes dicta about the dramatic forms Similarly after his with Horace treating the history tragedy and comedy
,
which essentially
of
all
”
,
;
us
let
or utility . " 34 Much later, after he has finished his gloss on lines 189–201 , he adds : “ Since we have promised to speak of the decorum of comedies and tragedies a little later , now forth few things about their description and parts taken from Diomedes and writes over three full
to
“
:
is
no
a
us
let
of
a
it
.
so
,
to
of
as a
or
,
to
,
"
to
.
...
36
,
,
of
in
,
to
say the same subject With respect the invention satires tragedies and comedies recite few things found Obviously the intention longer the grammarian Donatus provide elucidation for Horace's text but merely use the commentary repository for everything that Badius knew could find about the art poetry transform into vade mecum the kind which the Renais useful sance found adds what Donatus has
its
to
in
found
is
of
precepts
the text
the addition Horace was
to
to
The net result taries
six
.
Badius
'
epitome
-
the twenty
which they interpretations in
of
-
of in
complete
five
the order
these four pre Cinquecento commen that text something very special
-
of of .
of
,
one would have the Ars poetica
the first twenty
assemble them
make
of
are given
a
.
the text Were one
of
of
portions
to
five such rules corresponding
to
of
a
",
of
“
at
"
"
as
.
to a
set
:
The tendency
to
Acron and Porphyrion here carried inevitable conclu sion For whereas the earlier commentators had only occasionally labeled precepts their remarks Badius constantly and invariably supplies regula the end each section the commentary There are twenty One final remark reduce Horace
its
.
as
of
by
.
of
for Cinquecento readers The latent rhetorical characteristics the Ars poetica had been made explicit and stated overtly the two earlier com mentators The two later ones had produced further evidence ,
,
of
all
of
a
no
.
all
,
of
so
of
,
of
.
a
of
parallel quotations from classical rhetori rhetorical character number cians and had completed the rhetorical distinctions Moreover they had knowledge about the made their commentaries compendiums poetic art longer theory poetry but the that Horace's work was theory poetry the summum useful ideas about the art Text and be
,
let it
,
—
to
a
of
an
.
est
34
,
an
,
as
they always were provided for the commentaries taken together Cinquecento reader poetics which was initiation not very special kind forgotten initiation
tragoediarum decoro paulo post loqui Dyo partibus pauca praemittemus ex
& &
de
de
Quia comoediarum ipsarum descriptione
"
....
Nunc
"
...
[ 85 ]
.
: “
.
ex
.,
Ibid fol XXXIIIv Circa inuentionem satyrarum 19 pauca Donato grammatico recitabimus
tragoediarum
&
36
mede
.
polliciti sumus
: “
fol XXVv .
Ibid
.,
35
."
:
ad
.
: "
.
.,
Ibid fol Ilv Pro quo intelligendo audiamus Diomedem Poetica inquit ficte vereque narrationis congruenti rythmo vel pede composita metrica structura vtilitatem voluptatemque accommodata
comoediarum
THEORY
POETIC QUATTROCENTO THEORISTS
During the Quattrocento , evidences that this Horatian - rhetorical mode of thinking about poetry was common are found in various documents . I
shall cite here only a few cases , which are not in themselves directly related to the Horatian text but which show the continuation , into the humanistic period , of the standard medieval distinctions about the art of poetry . A brief example is found in the In errores Antonii Raudensis adnotationes of Lorenzo Valla ( d. 1457 ). Antonio had provided the following definition : * Clamare , deinde mouere tragoedias , est mouere exclamationes & excla mare . " To which Lorenzo objects thus : And he cites the example of Quintilian ; but neither in Quintilian nor in Cicero is it found in this sense . Rather , [ it means ] to make things more terrible and shameful by the use of the right words , which is the function of the writers of tragedy , who always speak of sad and terrible things ; just as , on the contrary , to make comedies or comoediari is used by Aristophanes "to speak ridiculously or bitingly . "
and certain other Greeks
to mean
To Antonio's remarks on comedy
he offers these corrections :
The author seems not to know that the " toga ” is the dress of the Romans just as the " pallium " is the dress of the Greeks ; and that the " togatae ” were comedies which were not translated from the Greek but composed by Romans of
of
“
,
since they themselves
.
"
”
,
called inventors than Caecilius invented and did not translate
,
,
”
;
,
all
and Terence
,
,
,
Plautus
or
all
nearly ... Indeed , the works the best comic writers Caecilius Plautus and Terence were translated from the Greek and therefore Antonio should not have have said that Plautus was the greatest inventor comedies ... for certainly Afranius and others like him are much more properly and Latins .
,
to
of ,
of
37
."
,
et
of
of
In
"
to
,
is
is
significant here What the reference Quintilian and Cicero the simple distinction between tragedy and comedy and the meaning attached the rhetorical term invention regno regis the De institutione libri IX Francesco Patrizi Bishop
ed .) , .p
37
II,
IX ,
,
is
of
in of
.
to
its
.
of
.
(d
1494
),
poetry Horatian notions the pleasure and utility utility comedy are crossed with Platonic ideas moral criteria The comprise also made usefulness for teaching the language another conception pertinent chapter passage occurs medieval The Book Gaeta
.
ac
,
,
,
,
de
est
,
& ,
e
:
,
: in “
(
&
,
, In
Opera 1543 Affertque exemplum Quintiliani sed neque apud Quinti 399 lianum neque apud Ciceronem hanc significationem inuenitur Imò rem uerbis atrocem magis indignam efficere quale opus tragicorum rebus atrocibus semper moestisque loquentium pro ridicule sicut contrario comoedias agere siue comoediari dicaciter
."
86 )
(
,
Et
: “ .
. . . , .
Plautus
,
quàm Caecilius
,
,
&
,
,
torem nam certe Afranius similes magis inuentores Terentius dicendi sunt qui ipsi inuenerunt non transtulerunt ,
,
,
è
...
alij
,
,
:
.p
" ;
,
,
à
,
è
,
ut
,
loqui apud Aristophanem alios nonnullos Graecorum and 400 Autor uidetur pallium togatas esse nescire togam esse vestem Romanorum uestem Graecorum Latinisque compositas comoedias non Graeco traductas sed Romanis Etenim Graeco traducti sunt Caecilij Plauti omnes aut ferè omnes summorum comicorum libri Terentij eoque non fuit Raudensi dicendum fuisse Plautum maximum fabularum inuen
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES “
Qui Scriptores Legendi Discendique sint , quíue negli
Rege
Futuro
A
gendi ” :
without utility that one may also read tragedies , if morality is respected ; in them for they carry weight , and have elegance of expression and gravity of thought , especially Euripides. ... In the same way the writers of comedy are also to be read . For they nourish everyday conversation , and by the propriety and the elegance of their words they make the art of speaking more polished and
It is not
.
, of a
be
to
all
richer . But to conclude briefly , individual poets , even if they are read with a certain pleasure , have certain virtues of their own , and a certain wonderful grace king which is not at unsuitable the dignity wh
,
to
us
.
38
if
to
.
let
absolutely rejected because they corrupt good mores Obscene poets must orders and imbue the soul with wickedness ... But listen Plato write those things which will make men good and will teach them the poets they are rich and that the good are happy and the bad are unhappy even lucky -
,
,
in
.
of
as is
of
A
of
this Horatian rhetorical point much more complete representation view contained Giovanni Pontano's dialogue Actius already men tioned one those documents which classified poetry with history On to ,
,
,
its
as
of
;
of
;
”
,
ut
:
,
is
of
the one hand the dialogue full rhetorical distinctions applied poetry both history and poetry fall within the deliberative and demonstra oratory each proposes tive categories ends doceat delectet moveat the functions both are divided into invention disposition and
to
is
,
”
is in
:
in
or
in
,
in
no
,
to
.pp
De
,
a
?
that both men give
it
attention
to
to
.
is to
move and carry away the listener Indeed carry directed this capacity move and to
away and the extraordinary
is
what end
:
,
;
of .
"
,
I
ask
to
both orater and poet
what end
is
res
medias
of
a
; "
in
,
, of
of to
The end to
of
,
natural order narration while poetry beginning The language the orator special the forum and the senate that the poet must display magnificence elevation and excellence
cultivates the kind
”,
probabilia ficta history follows
veri similia
fitted
is in
;
"
well
vocabulary and rhythms especially the the truth whereas poetry treats and sometimes things which are wise restricted
"
“
as
of
more studied and elegant use new words history
its in
of
or
.
”
“
or
”
“
of
“
;
of
victory very similar elocution the personal goal for the orator glory for the poet On the other hand differences that fame between poetry and either history rhetoric are usually explained terms distinctions found Horace his commentators poetry
The orator in
,
,
.
,
, si
.
,
&
, si
ac 57 : “
,
ed .) ,
(
, . . &. vt .
,
38
regno 1567 56v Non sine vtilitate etiam leguntur Tragoedi mores tuto fuerint habent enim pondus nitorem verborum sententiarum grauitatem precipue Euripides Eodem etiam modo Comici legendi sunt Alunt siquidem quotidianum proprietate elegantiáque verborum eloquentiam nitidiorem uberiorémque sermonem reddunt Sed breuiter concludam singuli poëtae cùm delectu quodam leguntur proprias
,
,
,
ea
,
,
87 ]
[
." ,
ac
si , &
à
,
&
,
...
. . . .
.
quasdam virtutes habent regia dignitate nequaquam mirificam quandam gratiam quae aliena est Obscoeni poëtae omnino negligendi sunt bonos enim mores corrumpunt poëtas scribere iubet animum nequitiis imbuunt Nos autem Platonem audiamus qui quae viros bonos efficiant doceantque bonos beatos esse malos verò miseros etiam fortunati diuites essent
THEORY
POETIC
of
he
by
,
the reader
means
.
he
in
of
and impressed admiration the soul the listener which will acquire fame and reverence
or his
clearly wishes to persuade the judge , the poet wishes to obtain the admiration of the listener and the reader , since the first strives for victory , the second for fame and glory .... The poet will be completely cheated of end unless has aroused
;
to in
. 39
of
to
)
us ,
for
is a
'
some ancient
it , in is
their works all
,
their characters lists has any interest
of
,
,
,
, on
.
in
)
(
,
of
,
of
series notices place and time which they practiced opinions about them
offer
the way
theoretical poetis Latinis 1505 was very slight His work the Latin poets containing brief remarks the poets birth family studies protectors and friends the genres
Libri on
statements
had
Petrus Crinitus de
in
his
What Pietro Ricci
(
of
,
it
of
is
a
as
passage Such this almost completely Ciceronian tone taken together with the other ideas the text demonstrates what extent rhetoric and poetics were combined under the aegis Horace
,
at of
at
In
amplum
" ;
&
"
ac ,
he
I
,
,
.
as
of
,
of
.
or
of
his
it
If
.
because for work are offered usually the form formulas these occasional attempts practical criticism judgment remain essentially the same the standards those the Middle Ages reflecting the tradition which am here dis cussing says elegantia Plautus excelled scribendi salibus each poet passing estimates epithets concise critical
"
"
,
a
in
“
de
to
of
is
to
, .” "
& of
&
"
,
of
he to
,
"
elegantia
sermonis
“
was perfect
;
sonorum dicendi genus Terence proprietate and moreover according the opinion Donatus he controlled the emotions such way that tragedy nor descends neither swells the magnitude the level praised for his senarii simple history officio Sextus Turpilius Pacuvius cultivated the
:
ut
."
be ,
they may
state thinking about century older ,
into the sixteenth
of
of
Brief though
the current ways
.
of
: "
to
. "
, of
quam delectare
this kind are indicative poetic works and the persistence orientations toward the art ments
40
,
as
a
uideatur
:
docere
of
ac
in
"
&
”
(
a
),
“
grauitatem atque ratione uiuendi Publius Syrius for his sententiarum singularem elegantiam standard formula used also for other writers gratiae Horace because plenus est iucunditatis The Horatian ends magis instruere phrase appear Manilius this applied such
1510
on
)
(
POMPONIO GAURICO
et pp .
,
in
of
,
to
I
as
, ed .
39
as
The earliest formal commentary the Ars poetica the Cinquecento Pomponio Gaurico far have been able discover was that
,
in
,
ac
ut ,
,
,
?
in
ex
[ 88 ]
,
neque
ad
ut
Bv ,
D2
Avi
.
temperauit affectus
historicam
",
: ad "
,
,
,
:
),
(
De poetis Latinis 1505 Alii Aiv Av Avv tragicam magnitudinem intumescat neque abiciatur
ita
.pp
40
."
,
sit
. . . .
et
ac
,
: “
.p
;
;
,
,
),
(
est
et
ut
et
,
et
ac
I
In
Dialoghi Utriusque etiam Previtera 1943 193-94 202 232 and 233 poetae officium oratoris movere flectere auditorem verum quonam quo inquam haec commotio flexio maximum utriusque hoc ipso studium Oratoris scilicet persuadeat iudici poetae legente comparet admirationem sibi audiente cum ille gloria poeta fine omnino defraudabitur suo nisi pro victoria nitatur hic pro fama legentis animo pepererit infixeritque admirationem per quam audientis famam venera tionemque assecuturus
of
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES in
on
to
he
in
to
an
to
in
as
,
).
ca.
1541 under the title Horace Published with the text ( 1482-1530 Pomponius Gauricus super Arte poetica Horatii the commentary alone had undated edition which the De Arte poetica been previously printed his dedication about 1510.41 Gaurico declares must go back -
of
.”
,
be
to
be
.
In
a
is
as
of
set )
to
he a
42
“
(
,
of
,
of
or
to
is
-
to
,
he
.
,
he
to
in
of
does not wish
a
give word for word gloss the grammarians text the fashion the but collect together the precepts themselves and tell what himself Horace had warned against precepts Nevertheless does not reduce the text certain predecessors gives his had done Instead what little more than running paraphrase prosification the original text that paraphrase little added the ideas the text little that might said the
Francesco Pucci that
"
De
be
“
”
,
.
of
,
” “
,
De Dispositione
” “
“
ff . , ,
Inuentione
indicating that Gaurico
De
once again effecting the conflation
is
38
as
,
” “
of
a
De
the marginalia read
Elocutione
,
in
De
,
” “
."
“
lines
to
he
he
by
.
in
.
of
contribution Gaurico What does contribute follows the lines pre viously indicated chapter this He emphasizes what thinks the putting brief formulas most important ideas the margin such speciebus concipiendis totius operis aequabilitate De proposito provide reading De stilo These kind outline for his Horace For
Horace and the standard rhetorical approach Other significant remarks are found such formulas Numeros materiam accomo dandos De Comoediae Tragoediaeque decoro De optima Ratione
,
Comoedia Tragoediaque necessarium
In
in
”
Quid
“
and
,
compositionis
.”
” “
” “
,
“
in
as
ad
.
between
”
is is is
a
to
,
be 43
to
. "
,
A
38 ,
.” :
of
of
:
of
"
“
44
“
materiam uestris line further circumscribes this and indicates the essential orientations the commentary
Sumite
"
nature
as
: “
do
,
.: do
of
to
24 ff
to
on
"
on the
"
,
on
of
reduce
;
a
to
of
appropriateness
all
,
versal principle
.
to
Horace's suggestions uni Frequently this appropriateness norm nature thus the comment the first lines for what said about poets and painters that they may what they please this valid the extent that they not depart from nature Or the remarks style relevant lines That style turns out the best which will imitate the nature the thing treated somewhat longer passage the text itself Gaurico tends
,
to
by
is
to
it
of
,
of ,
:
on
,
is
it
De
41
.
If
it
in be
,
,
a
to
You will have find subject matter this kind not absurd not difficult not far removed from daily usage but appropriate susceptible ornament and thoroughly and capable sustaining such that you will know the very end such you will understand better what manner the disposition
,
be
"
a “
,
II;
,
page Bivv given Pope The Arte poetica the first edition prints Sanctio Julius since Julius was Pope between 1503 and 1513 this would presumably the ten
&
eatenus licet
:
Poetis licere quod uelint
:
praecepta ipsa colligerem
:
quod aiunt Pictoribus
ac
"
A :
.p
ed . .),
( :
: “
., a .p
Nam
Av
sed tantummodo
[ 89 ]
qui eius
de
illum uideri stilum
rei
optimum
:
"
-
Av
Aii :
."
natura non recedant
.,
Ibid imitabitur
1510 cnarrarem
."
44
Ibid quatenus
.pp
43
De Arte poetica quid ille commonuerit
ca.
42
.
year period during which the edition was printed
qua agitur naturam
POETIC
THEORY
be treated and you will be able to express the matter in words much more appropriately.45
At other
" merely means following the norms of of comic verse for a tragic subject would be like an impropriety of dress ( p. Aiiv ). A few isolated passages are worthy of attention : ( 1) the " prodesse " of line 333 is explained as meaning “ ad
times , “ appropriateness
decorum ; for example , the use
institutiones uitaeque praecepta referamus , " thus putting the emphasis upon moral teaching ( p. Bv ) ; ( 2) the pendant “ delectare ” is made to depend upon verisimilitude , “ we invent things which make for pleasure, the things invented must appear as similar to the truth as possible ; lest by
if
chance you may suppose
that you must invent things which cannot be in any way believed to have happened " ; 46 ( 3) the end of the lyric is also made one of utility , in the following terms : "ut hominibus uiam ad uirtutem
significaremus : Regum gratiam aucuparemur ” ( p. Biji ). The main direc tions of Gaurico's development of the Horatian text would thus seem to be toward a pointing up of the rhetorical tendencies of the Ars poetica and their association with Ciceronian rhetorical principles , toward an extension
of
or even exaggeration
of appropriateness, and toward an insist of nature held by the audience addressed .
the idea
De
his
ence upon the conception
an
be
it
it
).
,
(
During the same years , Vittore Fausto published brief comoedia expansion upon Donatus and libellus 1511 He declares that will Diomedes and soon becomes clear that this expansion will take the form .
of
“
,
is
,
in
"
is
in
.
of
,
a
to
of
few references Aristotle and some crossing with the rhetorical mode The Ars poetica does not enter directly into cause but some the positions approximated example the earlier commentators are For the res present verba distinction the following statement which Fausto to
: “
of
....
,
of
said
in
what require great
discussed
to
.
is
poetry
The poet
poesy
is
,
another defence
of
In
.
the first one the art
of
a
) is
(
of
,
. 47
,
of
to
of
on
45
is
sundry matters
essentially
,
.
of
"
is
treatise
to
plot For the rest Fausto's types The two ways refer concerned with the seven kinds words which cause laughter stage action and apparatus with the appropriate with the importance action and with historical matters ness intonation Le selvette Niccolò Liburnio 1513 collection short dialogues so
doing
of ,
to
of
be
telling how the goals comedy may try achieved Since poets used bring this about with things and with words they will have two ways
:
:
:
:
.
:
ea
:
uoluptatem faciunt confingemus hec que confingentur ueri que facta fuisse nullo modo forte putetis fingenda uobis
"
.
[
primis poetae rebus
&
illud
,
...
in
Quandoquidem
bifariam 90 ]
1511 AA3 ipsa quidem
re : “
uerbis efficere conabantur
), .p
comoedia libellus
, (
De
47
."
:
: "
., .p
que Ibid Büi simillima uideri debebunt credi possunt
:
ne ad
."
poteritis
si
46
cloqui
: et
sit
et
et
:
a
:
: “
., .p
Ibid Aii Inuenienda uero uobis scribendi materia erit non absurda non aspera non longius cotidiana consuetudine remota sed que conueniat que ornamenta suscipiat quam constanter substinere ualeatis Sic enim uos pulcherrime cognitam habeatis quemadmodum dispositio tractanda rem ipsam multo conuenientius melius intelligetis
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES erudition , especially in Greek literature ; he must be adept in language ( acquired through art ) and in subject matters ( acquired through extensive reading ). To achieve perfection in a work he must combine art , nature , and
. Horace's precepts for the comportment of the poet are cited , and various models for the writer are proposed , including Dante , Petrarch , Antonio Tibaldeo , Sannazaro , and Bembo . Follows at last a long series of the conventional arguments in defence of the art. The “ Selvetta terza " urges the poet to imitate earlier models , as Dante imitated Vergil and Vergil diligence
of to it
."
quindecim annotationes appeared centum about although this time the exact date unknown Bonfini's annotations the Ars poetica are however disappointing since they are exclusively grammatical and lexicographical light upon the character and throw interpretation theoretical document the text
on
.
no
of
.
as a
of
in
,
,
,
,
is
at
et
Horatianis operibus
In
be
,
it
record
is to
is
a
it a
,
of
matter
with the eyes the mind may derive from way which will teach good and happy living pointed out that Matteo Bonfini's should
48
to
,
, ... it a
in
,
Horace are
from such profit and
of of
;
necessary
, it in is
“
so
these
for
tricked into assaying and utility a
may benefit
great mass read necessary the second whatever you write garland lovely and elegant varied flowers that whoever the first
pleasure
As
“ stile ”
as
The ends of
ancient authors weave
of all
.
for
:
please
in
imitation
” and poetic writing
“ materia
to
imitated Homer . Both
a
of in
, ,
,
his
of
comedies Terence not have sufficient so
the seams and
so
all
do
:
construction Horace
Plautus often gape
of of
a
on
.
These are the standard terms
at
of
.
all
The comedies
limatior
the general
rhetorical criticism the requirements
satisfies
." . In
" "
,
cultior
In
"
,
is "
a
"
elegantia
is
by
it
an
is
It
.
of
in
in
of of
49
"
,
In
to
"
In
the 1517 Aldine edition Terence there appeared for the first time prefatory letter entitled which has since been Terentium epistola Navagero interesting attributed Andrea letter because judges Terence terms the criteria supplied Horace and thus practical Horatian criticism The author proceeds essay kind the comparison between Terence and Plautus indicating throughout basis language the reasons for Terence's superiority first Terence excels
,
be
is
in
to
is
.
be
tu 33 ~
it
if
.pp
,
in
.pp
Le
all
if
-
so
any others For that decorum which not observed dramatic compositions
, be
be
,
all
in
the greatest art indeed there carefully observed things 48
.
,
,
of
.
a
all
Those Terence are well woven within themselves make unity out the elements that nothing could more completely precisely the realized than those compositions nothing more perfect And this thing poets and writers must principally excel and which demands which cohesion complete
...
[ 91 ]
si
l'Hellénisme
,
-
à
:
(
."
&
,
&
di
fa
Alde Manuce
et
,
Didot
.
see Firmin 465–66
-
A.
,
,
gli
al co
,
ed pp. . ,
,
-
:
(
),
427. On the 1917 Firmin Didot 1875
), .p
1718 Paris
de
, "
,
in
; ),
of
49
&
;
(
selvette 1513 9–14v and —34: alla prima mestieri leggere uaga selue d'authori antichi alla seconda cio iscriui bisogna fiori uarii tessere pulita ghirlanda posse che chiunque s'inueschi d'assagiarla occhi dello'ntelletto dillettatione utilita sciugharne con modo maestreuole buono beato viuere Opera omnia Padua Volpi Camino For the basis the attribution see Navagero
Venise
THEORY
POETIC
to each personage , then
of
of
50
.
is
appropriately
of
all
where everything must be contrived nothing at accomplished
.
audience
To
1518
)
(
GIOVANNI BRITANNICO DA BRESCIA
(
of
,
of
da
approximately the same period belongs another extensive commen the Ars poetica that Giovanni Britannico Brescia Ioannes
on
tary
a
to
,
,
of
,
Furthermore the two possible types humor that actions and that superior words Terence cultivates the former and hence appeals
26 ,
by
,
as
of
;
).
Britannicus Brixianus Britannico flourished toward the end the fifteenth century and produced commentaries on various Latin authors the standard biographical dictionaries give the date his death 1510 but Tiraboschi
. It
is a
I
),
is
to
or
on
I
Q.
at
(
,
of
a
)
.,
,
,
I
do
;
(
,
ed
VI3 992 cites document him dated November not know when the commentary Horace was written first but since the first edition that have been able discover that Horatij Flacci poemata Milan Scinzenzeler 1518 am discussing the commentary conventional commentary this chronological position Venice 1796
1518. appeared
of
,
,
of
no
to
of
It
.
its
, of
glosses
It
,
as
be
.
,
,
,
in
every respect frequently calling did others the time upon Acron Porphyrion Diomedes and Donatus Badius and mention makes may possibly goes beyond most other early earlier than his exegesis
,
.
,
,
a
,
,
;
,
,
, in
however the extent references multitude classical writers Plato Cicero Quintilian Pliny Valerius Flaccus Vitruvius Vergil and Homer are called upon frequently for examples and explanations One
to
a
in
is
.
to
of
to
,
are
.
of
is
of
being brought humanistic erudition upon explanation poetica emerges bear the the Ars What sense disappointing since few new critical orientations discovered Britannico realizes that the whole richness
a
,
,
of
"
“
to
:
on at
in
of
to
.
he
,
,
of
of
a
,
of
continues make systematic reduction the Horatian text series precepts and most these precepts repeat the traditional rhetorical thinking admonitions The undercurrent terms invention disposi proper places tion and elocution rises the surface the when for provide example wishes remarks the Rem line 310—
says
Thus
to of
-he
in he
Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae
of
is
of
”
of
of
)
in
is
a
“
.”
in
)
as
(
: "
"
“
."
is
be
of to
is ”
“
(
Or
indicates
: "
he
42
all
: “
that the invention the materials neces respect poet line the ordinis with else the defines for order the disposition and distribution the materials put which shows what each place The verba line 311 provides following the definition the occasion for line 310 rem elocution for elocution Cicero teaches the Rhetorica the fitting sary above
."
,
.
ab
ut in
&
:
,
,
:
92 ]
[
:
, si
,
id
ac
.
:
in
,
.
,
ex
ita
:
ad
ab
&
,
,
a2 se : “
ed .) , .p
50 (
Hyant nonnunquam neque satis cohaerent Plauti Comoediae ita 1517 omnia Terentij inter nexa omnibus unum quoddam conficitur nihil aptius illius unguem possit atqui hoc fabulis nihil magis fieri est quod praecipue praestari poetis scriptoribus omnibus debeat maximam aliud quippiam artem exigat iam decorum illud quod omnibus tantopere custudiendum rebus est fabulis uero ubi congrua unicuique personae effingenda sunt omnia nisi seruetur nihil prorsus fiat
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
ARS POETICA :
sententiae to the invention . ” 51 What Britannico says in the sentences immediately following shows that he is also making
of proper words and of of
the usual association “
For
,"
every poem
with the
these elements
" res - verba " distinction
of words and things. The things
he says , “ consists
:
are
these same moral precepts , and the words are the diction itself .”: 52
What is perhaps a more distinctive contribution on Britannico's part is his development of a dichotomy between the parts of poems providing pleasure and utility to the audience . Pleasure is a product of both “ verba " and "res " : of “ verba ," insofar as pleasantness and elegance of language are delightful in themselves (of the " dulci " in line 343 he says : " iucundi intelligit : quae multum delectat , ” after expression which he states that it is another of the “ delectare ” in line 333 ) ; tatem , elegantiamque
sermonis
“ res, ” insofar as a " natural " and " verisimilar ” objects is pleasurable. The conditions here imposed are Horace's monster is ridiculous rather than pleasurable, “ contra naturam , " and however fictional and imaginary
of
representation of important ; for if
-
to
be
"
“
,
by
be
by
to
is a
,
.
it
if
It
.
”
“
in to
.
nature Both the real and the fictional must impress the audience Utility however they are product give pleasure only consists the lessons learned the audience from
being true res
by
is
;
”
as
“
like
of
in or a
be
,
to
is
res ”
it is because it is the ornaments of a poem may be , they must nevertheless be like the truth . Another principle is really involved here : that part of “ which imitated from nature e.g. the characters assigned people according decorum must actually faithfully copied from nature consistent and appropriate way whereas that part which feigned created the poet must
.
he
as
in sit
"
“
.
“
;
to ”
“
of
"
to
sit as of
it is
,
and the moral examples presented the poet Hence not sufficient for the poet imitate the mores men must limit good himself the imitation mores Britannico interprets morataque meaning having correct mores but meaning recte line 319 not
of
the moral precepts
no
53
of .
of
,
).
In
a
a
by
of
merely
be
would not
by
be
the same kind are assorted
ed .) , .p
as
of
31
transposition into literary nature and put together nature must not
is
appropriateness
the notion that things
that such things
-
(v .
of
is .pp
of
of
of
or
versal principle terms
. "
quae
a
instructa
:
“
turpitudine aliena difficulty fitting the stand Into this central scheme Britannico has ard elements Horatian theory and the traditional interpretations Simplicity unity plot merely reflection the natural oneness the materials imitated CXIIIv CXIV the same way the uni quae bonis moribus
in
sit
: “
, "
cf. .p
:
&
: “
in
."
:
&
."
:
ut
,
ad : "
: “
especially
CXXXVI
( 93 )
the last page
debet enim fictio
: "
CXVv
,
CXIV
-
Ibid CXXXVIIv artificiosa naturam imitari
.
; ” ; pp .p .
" ., ; .p & ., : .p
.p
52
53
&
:
: sit “
" ; .p
rei
(
,
sicque ostendit poeta necessariam imprimis Poemata Milan 1518 CXXXVI esse inuentionem CXVIv Est autem ordo dispositio distributio rerum qui CXXXIy Per seriem igitur demonstrat quid quibusque locis collocandum and intellige ordinem quae distribuit quid quibusque locis rerum dispositionem collo candum and CXXXVI est enim elocutio docet Cicero rhetoricis idoneorum uerborum sententiarum inuentionem accommodatio Ibid CXXXVI omne enim poema rebus uerbis constat res enim sunt ipsa praecepta uerba uero ipsa oratio
POETIC THEORY combined by art . Therefore the three styles , each of which assembles coherent and consonant elements , and the interdiction against crossing or mixing them : literary " species " are as distinct and discrete as natural species . The theory
of the literary genres is rounded out by prescription of subject the matters and of the meters for each . Thus, as compared with earlier or with contemporary commentators , Britannico would seem to place greater emphasis on the relationships between poetry and nature , although he by no means decreases the time and attention devoted to rhetorical matters.
:
its
,
,
as
a
in
;
it
.
to is
his
The Epistola of Andrea Navagero , cited a few pages back , had been dedicated to Pietro Bembo . In 1525 , Bembo himself published Prose linguistic document essentially della volgar lingua This title belongs indicates but the present inquiry two ways first because
be ,
to
in
of of
so he
for
example
Bembo discusses the
for any
used
given
subject
matter
the three styles
be
be
:
referring
to
by
of
.
current Horatian tradition Book choice and disposition words
,
II
In
,
,
in
,
it
in
was the earliest important document the quarrel over Dante which century speaks later the and second because when the relationship between language and poetry Bembo does terms the
raged
a
of
;
if
,
a
;
,
,
,
,
,
or
of
in
as
as
, .
of
in
,
of
,
in
is
.
, a
by
to
,
,
little
to
all
is
move necessary
possible
the direction the one the other extreme these rules the observance use discretion nevertheless varying occasionally both grave words with and above avoid satiety temperate ones and temperate words with light ones Nevertheless most general and universal rule that each one these manners and styles we
It
tend
to
,
,
if of
,
a
,
be
,
to
of
is
If
speaking high subject matter the words one chosen should grave elevated sonorous clear luminous low and vulgar subject matter light plain humble popular quiet they should subject midway between these two one should speak with middling and temperate words and ones which
,
.
54
to
,
,
must choose the purest the cleanest the clearest the most beautiful and agree able words possible and bring them our compositions -
in
on
to
of
of
se di
in
an
of
de
de
.
, in
an
ed .) , .p
54
as
,
be
.
of
,
to
an
,
In
self determined Bembo's linguistic theory styles and words exist categories with the only reference external context being the subject matters which they express As for his dicta general types Dante they will treated the appropriate chapter Like Navagero's Epistola Mario Equicola's Libro natura amore practical criticism application example the 1525 may serve
si ,
,
,
di
È
.
la
et in le
, et
si
di
et
:
et
,
;
;
et li
di
,
: se
: “
,
: , se , di
et
,
;
(
Prose 1525 xxiiiv Da scieglerc adunque sono uoci materia grande ragiona graui alte sonanti apparenti luminose uolgare lieui piane dimesse bassa popolari chete temperate mezzana tra queste due medesimamente con uoci mezzane lequali meno all'uno questi due termini che puo all'altro pieghino mestiero queste medesime regole seruar modo nondimeno schifare sopra tutto satieta uariando
...
94 )
(
."
si
le .
et
di
et
le
et
, le
et
è
et
,
, le
, le
in ,
temperate con alcuna leggiera uoci graui con alcuna temperata queste maniere piu Tuttafiata generalissima uniuersale regola ciascuna stili piu chiare sempre pure piu monde piu belle piu grate uoci scieglere arrecaro possa alle nostre compositioni che alle uolte
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES Horatian and rhetorical principles which are here occupying us . The occa sion for such an application comes in the first book , where Equicola is discussing the poets who have treated of love . In his remarks on Guittone d'Arezzo he speaks of the pleasure afforded by poets through the use of music and rhythms , and Guido Cavalcanti is praised for the everyday flavor of his diction . Petrarch seems to occupy his high position in Italian poetry largely because he added to Tuscan many words from other regions of Italy , and Boccaccio because ( like Lucian and Apuleius ) he wrote poeti cally in prose and “ embraced delightful poetry and beautiful materials .” Most of Equicola's critical remarks , though , concern the work of Jacopo Calandra of Mantua , in connection with whom he states a number of critical principles . He speaks of the difficult task of the poet who must “ delight and move with ornamented language " and of the remarkable talent required to “ discover , and to take care to dispose and order well , whatever he invents . ” Even if invention and disposition are provided by nature , the poet will fail to delight and move unless he be a master of diction ; and this requires erudition , study , labor , art. “The invention may be as beautiful as you please ; without ornament it is a mass of gold that does not shine ." To achieve ornament , the poet must know many things, cultivate exquisite sententiae , tend to the propriety of words ; above all, he must choose words in common usage and those which will please the ear .
All
as all
he is
,
of
to
of
these qualities are found in Calandra . In his Aura he observes the decorum of persons throughout ; above all, his style displays great virtues : words purely and properly derived from Latin , well - chosen diction , a great impression of naturalness and perfect rhythms . 55 In the last analysis, Equicola's criteria reduce language matters and almost
of
is
.
as
"
materials in
art versus nature
Pro Archia
on
—
so
fitted
the commentators
,
of
Of
the side
,
-
-
,
he
of
he
oratory which distinguishes invention the five parts memory elocution and pronunciation accords most time ,
.
,
disposition
as is
length
of
at
He debates
to
a
,
.
for the orator language
frequently done the question the poet citing Plato's Ion and Cicero's
Horace had
the work
of
poet
the three styles
the basis
nature
for the
of
the effect that
as
,
,
on on to
,
of
tre
in
"
exclusively concerned with the volgar lingua was Bembo Another work essentially linguistic character Niccolò Liburnio's Le fontane the following year 1526. Liburnio studies the language preliminary statement Dante Petrarch and Boccaccio after having made
95 )
(
."
is
inuentione
the best as
well
quanto uoi bella
,
39 : “ la
3v 5v ,
.pp
),
(
natura amore 1525 una massa d'oro che non risplende
all
cultivate as
to
.
to
as
is , is
,
,
Tuscan words and
,
de
Libro
omamento
learn thoroughly
the past who will provide them with invention
e de
55
authors
all
is
writers
of to
;
of
.
,
is
in
.
to
elocution The reasons are clear for this the part which most admirable which involved the three styles and which demands the greatest application Of the three styles Vergil cited the consummate young master the opinion the Middle Ages endures The advice with senza
POETIC THEORY elocution . Cicero and Quintilian and Horace are cited as authorities for this opinion . 56 In the light of these last documents , it is perhaps not fortuitous that Giovan Giorgio Trissino should have published his Italian translation of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia in 1529. Clearly , we are in a period of intense interest in problems
of language and
the problem
especially
of
the
Italian
language . Dante's De la volgare eloquenzia comes appropriately just a few years after Bembo's Prose della volgar lingua . Moreover , for readers of
,
at
did not fall Dante's treatment
of it
of of in
.
contemporaries The basis
",
of
,
to
,
be
”
“
,
"
“
language into three levels the illustre division the subject and the humile which conform three kinds
is a
of "
poetry
,
these years were saying that
much like what writers strangely upon the ears mediocre
to
.
to
his
all so by
the time , it was a contemporary document . Many of them believed that Trissino himself had written it - no version of Dante's text had previously been printed — and was merely trying to gain authority for ideas assigning them say besides sounded Dante What Dante had
,
:
,
,
to
is
,
.
to
,
It
.
,
,
of
,
,
matter the tragic the comic and the elegiac should noted that these are kinds materials not literary genres and that the meanings attached the terms are different from the conventional ones The tragic style for poems about war about love and about virtue example adapted
...
the sententiae and the excel
has already and this style
,
,
but because the highest
it
;
be
we
to
of
the words are assorted one another been proved that the highest things are worthy
lence
of of
all
of
It
of
appears certain that we use the tragic style when the gravity and the loftiness the verse and the elevation of the constructions
;
"
to
”
set “
)
in
in
to
.
of
as a
to
,
which rhetoric whose course sound very familiar kind
)
(
1531
46 ,
be
,
Q.
of
should probably attributed Aulo Horatii Flacci Artem poeticam commentaria pub the twenties
.pp * iiv ,
la tre
Giano Parrasio's
In
the same decade
Le
the subject matters
.
of
AULO GIANO PARRASIO
57 56
of it
to
regard poetry
problems are essentially linguistic would the reader the 1520's
To
or
,
,
the three styles and
this tendency
of
terms
to
,
of
thinking
they belong
music
regulated
the best and that composed the vulgar tongues the degree which imitates the other This way
to
is
achieve excellence
in
of
will
(
“ a
in
it
be
is
as
Poetry itself defined rhetorical fiction invention may any composed language written but that the
classical languages
in
be
to ,
,
,
is ,
:
in
be
as
,
to
call the tragic seems the highest the styles therefore those things which we have already distinguished demanding sung the highest manner must sung safety love and virtue.57 this style only that
which
[ 96 ]
, e ,
;
de i
si , e cv la : “ , e
,
). lo
,
la
by;
,
,
de le
c
), de i de .pp le b
(
in
da
I
;
,
(
"
.
de i
la
il
,
le , e
,
e la
.
,
),
(
è de il le ,
...
, e la
la
fontane 1526 64v volgare eloquenzia trans Trissino 1529 Appare certamente De viii and gravità superbia che noi usiamo stilo tragico quando sentenzie versi elevazione construzioni excellenzia vocabuli concordano insieme ma perche gia provato che questo stilo cho cose somme sono degne somme stili però quelle cose che havemo gia distinte sommo kiamiamo tragico pare essere questo solo stilo cantate cioè doversi sommamente cantare sono essere salute spelling modified conventional o's have replaced Trissino's omegas amore virtù
ARS POETICA
EARLIEST COMMENTARIES
:
lished posthumously by Bernardino Martirano in 1531. This is another full scale commentary that was to be incorporated frequently into later editions the Horatian text . 58 Parrasio's position is essentially the same as that of his predecessors , but there are certain notable departures that show some forward movement in the thinking about Horace's epistle . Before beginning
of
his study of the text , Parrasio writes a lengthy introduction , which is in itself a kind of miniature ars poetica. He develops , on the basis of Plato , the theory of the divine origin of poetry , of the divine furor , of the poet as prophet . He may be alluding indirectly to Averroës ' paraphrase of the Poetics when he insists that harmony and rhythm are natural or instinctive in man , that poetry was used originally for purposes of praising virtue and attacking vice, that the poet must form in advance a complete conception of the poem before beginning to write it . 59 From Quintilian he derives not only the idea that the poet must be a good man , but also that he must be “ peritus " in an infinity of subjects . Both of these ideas are developed in because they are so frequently re - echoed in he
First
unless
the virtues
he ,
in
all
able
“
understand do
,
wisdom unless so
he
" :
,
is
all
,
an
of
he
he .
poetry that infinite knowledge
the whole
be “
And
of
,
.”
vices
on
have absorbed 60
all
unless
his
he
he
be a
a
to
good man This will not what things are proper good man himself unless himself abound lack
of the poet :
wise man that
to
“ goodness ”
be a
is
all it
later critical writing of the century . On the of essential that the poet himself
be
passages which are interesting
,
in
be
,
,
,
,
let
,
of
,
,
.
to
He
is
of be
It
necessary then that every poet expert on may matters that speak copiously everything able about must know well the customs the various peoples the usages the laws the details about maritime and places agriculture the military art the sayings land cities the descriptions
in
,
in
as
of
necessary and ,
myths
is
of
of
histories and
.
of
.
of
,
,
of
,
of in
every
grammar.61 list
to
a
knowledge
related
58
thing that
is
But above
all
as
,
in
;
of
expert with the stylus erudite and the acts illustrious men him geometry learned architecture and music experienced well natural and writing not ignorant moral science the art medicine He must remem lawyers have certain knowledge astrology and astronomy ber the opinions
-
to
ed .) , .p
.
cf.
6v ; as
.pp 1, to
,
;
to
is
of
,
.
,
),
by in
59
,
as
(
4
to
of
For references some these editions see the Index the Mills College check commonly given note above s.v. Parrhasius Aulus Janus The date Parrasio's death 1534 the standard biographical dictionaries but note that the dedication the 1531 already dead edition Martirano refers him (“
,
,
,
,
,
X.
ch .
Bk . I,
, ut
I.
ch . ,
,
,
[ 97 ]
,
cf.
" ;
,
.
,
,
,
&
,
sit ,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
in
,
Bk .
,
cf.
" ;
,
sit
,
,
f
" ), .p , , p .gv.
(
2,
(
: “
re 2v 3 : “
.pp
., &
, . ., id pp .
60
de
61
),
Commentaria 1531 Averroës 1481 f2v Omne itaque poema omnis oratio poetica aut est uituperatio aut est laudatio Ibid 3–3v Ante omnia oportet ipsum poetam esse sapientem quae boni uiri sint intelligat quod non faciet nisi ipse bonus nisi omnibus abundet uirtutibus nisi poeticam omnem est sapientiam imbiberit careat uitijs Quintilian XII Quemcunque autem poetam rerum omnium peritum esse oportet Ibid possit copiose dicere Mores populorum una quaque consuetudines iura terrestrium maritimarumque cognitiones urbium locorumque descriptiones agriculturam rem mili geometriae eruditus tarem clarorum uirorum dicta factaque pernoscat graphidos peritus architecturam edoctus musicam sciat scientiam cum naturae morum tum disserendi responsa teneat astrologiam coelique calleat medicinae non ignaris iurisconsultorum fabularumque cognitio quaeque grammaticae rationes compertas habeat Nam historiarum copulantur primis sunt necessaria Quintilian
POETIC THEORY Parrasio's introduction contains , moreover , other elements that reveal his attitudes toward poetry . He conceives of the end of poetry as being both rhetorical and moral : rhetorical insofar as it must "inflame the souls
of men , extinguish wrath ,
arouse hate and sorrow , or lead them away from passions gentleness these same to and pity " ; moral insofar as it must good living by " invite men to means of examples and reasoning , teach
character and the passions, prescribe in a pleasant way what things are to be done . ” 62 The insistence , in the above paragraph concerning knowledge, on a mastery of grammar and , in this last citation , on the pleasant way " is explained by Parrasio's stand on diction . For whereas most of his remarks so far have pertained to the poet and the effect of the poem upon the audience, when he actually does speak about the poem itself , he speaks of it largely in terms of diction . “ Nothing , " he says , “ is as poetic as the diction . " This emphasis will be apparent in the commentary itself ; it is also prominent in the concluding section of the introduction , where he outlines Horace's general procedure . This procedure consists in dividing the work into two parts , the function of the first being to show what things are to be avoided ( “ uitanda ostendere " ) and of the second to prescribe what things are to be done ( “ sequenda praecipere " ). Five precepts contain the essence of the first : ( 1) admit nothing inappropriate , lest there be discrepancies in the invention and a lack of total harmony ; ( 2) avoid placing things where
they do not belong, or introducing digressions
or superfluous ornaments ; style pursue ( “ dicendi figuras " ) to the point the various kinds of ( 3) do not falling opposite ; of into the vices ( 4) in the search for variety , so important poet , to the refrain from the excessive cultivation of mythology , the exces
for eloquence , for superfluous and inappropriate ornament ; ( 5 ) depart never from the most important matters . For the second , there seem to be seven brief precepts : ( 1) know how to provide a fitting order for the whole work ; ( 2) narrate elegantly ; ( 3) write beautifully ; ( 4) cultivate variety constantly ; ( 5) attend to the perfection of the whole ; ( 6 ) start from an advance idea of the structure of the total poem ; ( 7) achieve a tight cor respondence of beginning , middle , and end. It is in the set of negative sive desire
on style is found . 63 In the commentary itself , Parrasio develops and expands the notions epitomized in his precepts. As he does so , certain of the distinctions now so familiar - invention , disposition , and elocution , “ and verba the to
,
”
all
”
-
in
(
dolorem incen bene uiuen gerendas cum
:4y res " ,
,
.p
.
";
,
" ;
.pp
,
&
,
98 ]
[
,
est
,
&
ad
”.
., .p 3 : “
to
;
to
”
,
is
“
to
., ab .p 3 : “
,
becomes
belong elocution the three styles verba invention poetis maiori obser which more important than invention
extinguere iram odium Ibid inflammare animos hominum and misericordiam reuocare lenitatem dere aut his ijsdem exemplisque inuitare dum rationibus mores affectionesque docere iocunditate praecipere poeticum quam eloquutio Ibid Nihil tam 6-6v 63
light and are
res
ad
62
elocution
,
equivalent
the poet come interesting ways
: “
.
in
,
,
,
three styles nature art and practice exploited These cross one another
“
res ”
precepts especially that the emphasis
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES uanda diligentia , ” p . 12 ) since it depends more completely upon genius (or nature ) than upon art, which is sufficient for invention and disposition . The further distinction of pleasure and utility is also related , because in a general way utility comes from the " res " and pleasure from the “verba . " One might reduce his argument in connection with Horace's line 333 as follows
:
voluptas
necessitas 1
modus ( = verba )
res
1
1
elocutio
inventio 1
1
iucunde scribere
fabula morata 1
delectet elegantia
prosit doctrina
to
. "
“
in
in a
,
"
"
it
res ”
Furthermore , a kind of distinction among genres seems to be made on the same basis : tragedy aims primarily at utility , comedy at pleasure.64 The principle of decorum applies to both “ and verba With respect things correspondence the work imitated between the res involves
to
is
...
so
,
we
is
in
;
is
to
. “
in
of
art and things nature this the most important thing for the poet only speech nothing observe Not our lives but also more difficult proper perceive what than what the Greeks call Tapétrov and call
,
." 65
of
“
a
an
,
67 )
in
in
to
78 ),
man
(p
.
"
ut
to .
"
to
the
On
,
and and move through credibility
se
in
,
,
autem cum morata recto prosit doctrina delectet est
,
ut
.
est
.
,
38 .
...
,
&
.
ad
,
in
,
,
7 : “ .p
., " . ; .p
instinctive
they involve verisimilitude and decorum
constituta delectatio uero modo quo docemus Prosumus fabula delectamus cum iucunde scribimus Laus poetae elegantia and 65
66
is (
,
of
"
of
,
as
of as
that imitation
habent inter nonnullam similitudinem uescentes scribentes uoluptatem quibusdam necessitatem Docendi necessitas rebus
,
69v utantur
not only connection poetry there are again strong
imitatio naturae the genius matters res are referred criteria
they must persuade
ad 72 : “
.,
.pp
64
estest
Ibid quibusdam
as
a
.
In
general way
of of to
the poet
nature insofar audience insofar
the origins
the statement
poetry
the definition
."
of
in to
related
in
Averroës
the commentary
all an “
of
with decorum but echoes
its
do
of
be
all
enter prominently as
nature
"
"
to
to
of
“
; ",
to
in
.
to
appropriateness We must pay due attention that we really happens imitate what nature and not disturb order appropriate With respect verba the principle decorum involves things way ness words words must chosen and placed in fitting and proper Considerations the things the dignity decorum
&
in
."
cf.
" ;
. "
a
est
a
homini respectu ceterorum animalium
( 99 )
in
istud proprium
,
&
. "
&
est
&
...
...
,
.
,
,
in
ad in
rem
:
assimilatio
ut
ed .) ., ., , , p p , p . . rei . ut ad : : : , “ “ “
(
67 66
Ibid non solum omni uita sed etiam oratione nihil difficilius quam uidere quid deceat TrpétrovGraeci uocant nostri decorum Est suus conuenientiae labor quae adhibendus naturam cadunt fingantur illius ordo non perturbetur rerumque dignitatem apte Ibid 12v decore poesis nisi imitatio uitae Ibid 68v Nihil enim aliud morum quae hominis propria est facitque uel hac una differat caeteris animalibus with which Averroès prima sua natiuitate 1481 f2v Prima quidem quum homine existit naturaliter
are referred
to
of
the three styles according
the
.
in
art which consists ,
verba
essentially the proper exploitation usual rhetorical precepts
to
THEORY "
matters
“
the other hand ,
of
all
POETIC
a .
as
to
,
as
.
as
on
in
of
of
in
of
These interrelationships distinctions perhaps indicate Parrasio poetry than was present more tightly knit conception the art earlier many disconnected remarks commentators He provides just isolated many different authorities passages did his predecessors refers in
a
by
art ;
as
;
of
:
his
,
in
But over and above these one senses some fairly definite orientations thinking toward seeing system what had hitherto been independent sets distinctions toward emphasizing diction the really poetic element ,
to
to
a
est
.
,
to
of
a
as
of
special talent furthered special and the product toward analyzing more searchingly the relationships the poem nature the poet and the audience
on
,
“
”
followed
of
the model
be
as
Vergil 20 ).
three styles
( .pp
all
had previously recommended
unfailingly for
to
as
of
"
he
models
;
"
,
of
,
...
of
In
proprie connection with line 128 the Ars poetica Difficile communia dicere Parrasio had developed his ideas another kind imitation that other writers whom the poet might take his ,
on
by
tradition
the
Ars
state
poetica
.
the commentaries
I
has the Horatian
on
to
of
,
,
ad
lenitatem
,
uegetior
?
,
,
uel dolorem incitandos ad
odium
amorem
:
in
in
is
in
uel ad
,
iram animos uel ijsdem permotionibus
ad
ad
it
time
the rhetoricians that Giraldi's
praising Cicero which Giraldi the compared with similar ones the commentators
passage
may
ad
quis ab
...
that
,
following
original
be
cite the
so
ments bear close resemblance
this
,
by
so
it
of
,
to
, is
by
. of
;
completely imitation but assimilated the standard language
quis
of by
.
is
,
in
,
,
These were not course conjunction with the new ideas and they had before this appeared Horatian text But their timeliness here indicated the fact that they the appear almost contemporaneously with the writing two letters subject Celio Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio and imitation Calcagnini dated 1532 Calcagnini Giraldi's letter concerned exclu sively with the art oratory and with what may gain from proper 43–43v
misericordiam
. 68
in
?
?
?
?
?
?
quis uerborum copia locupletior quis sententiarum pondere reuocandos aptior quis totius grauior quis figuris iucundior quis trallationibus magnificentior quis dicendo candidior orationis serie magis elaboratus
of
,
.
-
100 ]
[
of
he
202–3
.
.pp
ed .) ,
in
,
be
1540
(
In
in
68
Poematia
,
of
the single model who
the components Cicero and for Latin must long the Horatian rhetorical tradition familiar terms speaks
of
of
favor
,
of
.
a
Giraldi decides
in
rhythms and harmonies
.
:
is
"
”
by
be
is
occupied with the debate between those who insist that Giraldi's letter many different authors should imitated and those who maintain that single model The subject imitating this the best results are obtained exclusively figures speech imitation diction choice words imitation
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES Celio Calcagnini , to whom the letter had been addressed , answered in the same year in another letter entitled Super imitatione commentatio . In it , he defended the necessity of practicing imitation , especially for modern Italians who wished to rise out of barbarism . Then , basing his discussion on the three elements of invention , disposition , and elocution , he pointed out that the first of these is inherent in the material itself, the second is within the power of the writer , the third comes entirely from without . That
by
is to
” ),
as
of
,
of
).
(p .
of
of
of an
a
is
rei
uerba inuenire
of
"
of
proper imitation things the proper fitting words propositae accommodata phrase which almost the battle cry the Horatians 217 poetry Two other favorite ideas the Horatians the interpretation allegory concealing moral lessons and the insistence upon the necessity
(
lesson taught
.
its
is , the ability to handle language in an excellent manner is learned from the part The greatest teacher or the models ; it is here that imitation plays
to
a
in
tre tiranni
.
of
respect
comedy
to
of
joyous and pleasant
With
is ,
Agostino Ricchi's
I
to
as a ,
preface
the first Vellutello argues that the principal requirement
,
to
readers printed
is
,
emphasis short critical document verse are the main points the following year 1533. This Alessandro Vellutello's letter the
“
or
is
as
a
is
or
,
.
is
of
,
in
...
, of
on
of
.”
“
:
or to
of
of
.
of
”
,
He
"
discourse hide always some then interprets the allegory senso mistico Ricchi's play He defends Ricchi's use verse the basis comedy the usage the whole history the Greeks and the Romans the authority Aristotle the Poetics Poetry verse and such opposed everything that prose true history rhetorical under the veil
useful and appropriate morality
In
of
;
to
an
to
of
,
in
as
in
,
”
al
uero —and goes far modern subject alive
69
a
et
,
imitation
with . "
al
naturale
comedies
“
no in
“
be
of
contra
accept the use prose themselves and necessitating
to
as
to
be
it
—
."
which would
to
as
verse
to
do
or we
,
of
do .
,
any part belongs prose but the fictional fables oration them the poets never Since not believe that the same things one can equally well adapt verse prose we think that when this write them happens judgment than must rather attributed lack over sight He admits blank verse everyday speech than rhymed closer
in
of
of
a
by
it
;
,
to of
Lodovico Dolce published his translation the Ars poetica into Italian verse was accompanied dedication Pietro Aretino which Dolce raises the practical question the usefulness Horace's 1535
69
.
is
;
of
by
he
be
,
of
.
in
precepts the present day His first argument itself Horatian Starting from the premiss that the poet depends both upon nature and upon art for suggests that the mediocrity against which the excellence his work Horace had warned may avoided only the practice art and the
de i
le
,
è
, ot
di
; .p
)
101
a
ci
".
(
a ,
,
in
,
a : la “
, o
le
A
.
di
,
et
di " : ; " .p ,
(
et
, o
al
), .p
I
,
In
Aijv sotto uclo tre tiranni 1533 piaceuole discorso sempro lieto Aiij Aiijv tutto quello che accomodata moralità fidele Hi parte prosa ma storia ucro Oration rethorica loro appartiene finte fauole quali cose non considerando potendosi nel medesimo modo adattaro Poeti non mai uerso scriuere Prosa pensiamo che sempre questo saria piu tosto attribuito giuditio che trascuraggine mancamento Ricchi
nascondere utile
of
all
He
THEORY
POETIC
. “
in
a
of is
,
a
,
." 70
a
a
in
he
phases Ars poetica is the best source of wisdom on the art com book which collected together wonderfully small space everything that good poet needs Dolce feels that such work posed
the basic elements
:
,
of
especially needed today when poets are ignorant their art
,
,
it )
in
a
or
,
all of
,
spent
their time not without ,
all
all
,
,
our language
.
, in
71
a
to
little splendor has come studies labor
do
, we
in
.
of
,
we
(
up
,
to
in
pass because writing today for the most part the vulgar since we are born and grow we think that having studied Petrarch can with little effort write some verse sonnet that will give off perfect odor poetry And not understand that this same Petrarch and our own century Sannazaro Bembo and also Ariosto from whom not
And this comes
tongue
his
concerned with the more philosophical
"
“
It
as
(
) is a
1541
Horatian
the ingredient
of
a
in
a
to
be
.
in
.
,
in
,
is
Bartolomeo Ricci imitation models but more complete and way than they had been His De imitatione libri tres justifies document several respects imitation
of
, in
he
.
poetry
Giraldi and Calcagnini
ike
of
art
,
brief defence
.
all
of
of
make
a
—
to his
in
,
of
his
,
of
the century
,
his
writers
, of , of
to
include Aretino himself among the distinguished praising him for the purity and appropriateness disposition diction for the felicity invention for the observing decorum for the pleasantness and gravity for his judgment thoughts passing them Horatian qualities Nor does fail Dolce does not fail
a
it
no
a
a
of
(
).
of
.
of of
of
precepts
it
the genres that they represent and ;
provides certain important genres number for each the more Ricci recognizes the existence two theories imitation and current debate over their respective merits The first proposes that any writer imitate only his own to
models according
; it
,
,
of
;
art that must added nature maintains that writer imitates the disposition and elocution selects and classifies his model
invention
he
to ,
,
.
of
;
all
at
.
of
I
. “
is
che
a
,
in
tutto quello
."
cui
,
;
-
),
in
, (
Poetica d'Horatio 1535 A2v vn Libro compose breue campo mirabilmente racolse buon Poeta necessario questo auiene che scriuendosi hoggidi per Ibid A3 .p è
in
,
of
in a
of
to
other matters artifice artifice and that each one needs
A3 : “
is
in
imitation
nature
.pp
as
that
nature
70
to
:
therefore believe this great benefit
as
to it
by
in
,
to a
,
to
,
help devote from outside the second proposes that nature with exclusively positions himself the imitation another Both thinks Ricci are extreme for the first neglects the contribution that art can make single model nature while the second unnecessarily restricts the writer supplementing nature with art correcting The best solution consists variety experience adding other authors genius the one's
]
(
102
; :
di
il
,
, e
il
,
il
;
gli studi
.”
consumato
ne
i
;
,
senza fatica
la
il
,
,
, e
;
e
; ci
o
si
;
e
in
;
: " E
.,
71
maggior parte nella pare che hauendo Petrarcha studiato per esser noi nati cresciuti essa Poesia possa dettare alcun verso Sonetto che renda perfetto odore con poca fatica l'Ariosto Bembo Sannazaro nel secol nostro che esso Petrarcha non comprendemo lor tempo non anchora da quali n'è vscito non poco splendore alla lingua hanno tutto lingua volgare
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES entirely the help of the other .”
By this process , the deficiencies of the individual's talent will be compensated by the experience of his predeces 72
sors .
? ”
of
,
so to
73
do
,
of
to
of
is a
as
to
all
art
Such a procedure, says Ricci, merely follows the normal patterns of nature . All the arts derive ultimately from nature ; one may take rhetoric as speaking what else an example : “ Indeed , in the universal the propose adapt precepts rhetoricians than their Nature herself any art any precepts Just reduction nature the activity
to
,
his
if
by
he
...
he
. “
is
he
;
be
, do :
of
in
to
reducing his own nature artist should consist the satisfactory modes artistry and for this purpose the best device imitation Thus will my imitator will preserve carefully the many natural gifts with which any then are lacking may obtain will have but endowed
I,
of
his
.
in
,
of
,
74
. "
of
study through the imitation from elsewhere the good selecting the best models writers The problem then becomes one those which will best complement one's native genius Late Book them
of
.
to
he
;
of
Ricci indicates that criteria for the choice models are essentially their invention and elocution but some his discussions the narrative and dramatic genres reveal that also accords some importance disposition
in of
,
of
endings sufficiently makes enacted on the stage following (
of
words
he
or ,
the latter
his
,
of
be
;
in to
in
its
denouement with respect whether they related
,
sad
in .
is
),
of
triviality one must beware Terence for seriousness and decorum Seneca the only model for tragedy He satisfies the requirements suspense excellence the arousing the conduct the action and
.
(
;
is
.
,
,
of
,
.
in
in
of
as
of
,
is
Since his greatest concern with Latin eloquence Ricci surveys the whole field Latin poetry and selects those poets who may best serve necessity criteria for the models each the genres This involves only Plautus and Terence genre and for poetry general For comedy are acceptable Plautus better for continuous comedy and laughter but
to
in
as
,
a
“
,
he
:
The
is
in
,
greater applause for himself from the spectator the elicit obtain for himself merited esteem this discussion .pp
of
In
75
.”
a
,
a
more will more will
he he
,
in
of
,
in
).
Horace's distinction His whole conduct the tragedy the serious the royal personages the grave words such achieve applause for the poet the desired goal more tragic writer arouses pity the spectator the more makes the subject cruel and terrible the action
&
,
,
&
,
ut
. "
75
,
id
? "
."
,
...
ca
,
14 : , “ si ita
.p
,
sic
, – sic 13 : in “
ed .) ,
in
ut (
In
ad
., .p
.,
,
73
74
1545
4v : “
72
Ego igitur 12x sentio naturao artificium caeteris rebus imitatione plurimum prodesse atque alterum alterius auxilio omnino indigere Ibid uniucrsa ucro dicendi arte quid aliud Rhetores attendunt quàm cius praecepta omnia naturam ipsam accommodentur Ibid meus faciat imitator cui naturae bonum plurimum affuerit dili genter conseruabit quae uero desiderabuntur suo studio aliunde bonorum imita tione comparare debebit De imitatione naturam
artificio
."
)
103
ab
,
ac
(
,
,
,
: “
., .p
Ibid 22v Quanto tragoediae scriptor magis misericordiam auditori commouebit quanto rem crudeliorem magis atrocem facict tanto hoc maiorem sibi plausum excitabit tanto eius gratiam inibit aequiorem
POETIC THEORY tragedy, Ricci's sources and orientations become apparent. Horace is accompanied by some allusions to Aristotle ; Cicero provides the general rhetorical goal ; moreover , the old medieval conception of the genre still serves as a basis . Similar recommendations are made for the other forms: Tibullus is first among the elegiac poets , Horace for the lyric and hexa meter ,
, Vergil for the epic . of the De imitatione treat the practical rules for imita , Ricci declares that one may imitate the invention and
Martial for
the epigram
II and III
Books
tion . Once again disposition of a work as well as elocution . He authorizes the copying or translation of whole passages and points to the great achievements of modern imitators . Yet there are important theoretical statements . In his insistence that the moderns can equal the ancients, that Nature has been
a all
,
as
.
of
a
to
,
language consideration Ricci's treatise bridge between works rhetorical theory and works time when the latter were just beginning come into
a
,
of
of
to
devoted
whole represents poetic theory
at a
III
Book
is
as generous to us as to men of the classical past, he presents an idea that was soon to be exploited by Sperone Speroni and then by Du Bellay . He distinguishes natural from artificial order in the development of a plot , discerns a rhetorical order of parts ( demonstration , narration , and so forth ) in the poems and cantos of Vergil . On the purely practical side,
of
,
is
is
-
on
mally called
again the subject the Giraldi Calcagnini sense Giulio Camillo Delminio although only one them in
by
Imitation treatises
of
.
prominence
two
for
in
of
is
its
no
it
exclusively linguistic and upon language
in ,
is
,
on
, :
lo
of
is
more remote from Horace than the letters largely because approach almost higher rationale evinces terms the ,
on
.
than from Horace The second imitation already studied
:
is
.
treatise
che possono
in
,
a
imitation The work his Due trattati l'uno delle uenir sotto stile dell'eloquente l'altro della imitatione published strictly rhetorical eloquence 1544. The first these character and derives its materials and its basic theses rather from Cicero materie
“
as ,
up
of
.
it , at is
,
, "
as
or
or in
,
.
a
as
or
,
in
language
as
of
potential audience Camillo distinguishes figurative topically figurative literal and con cludes that one author may borrow the first two types from another without engaging either plagiarism imitation The third provides the occa sion for true imitation and hence the special prerogative the poet effects
,
as
in is ,
)
of its
of of its
of
occasion
discuss
a
finds
to
a
to
Giraldi
104
of
by
genres
,
practicing the separate
the course the ten dia mere biographical account
. In
the expositors
which are devoted
(
of
the ideas added
certain
by
to
,
,
of
many logues poets
.
.
,
In
be
in
although the orator may also use times Cicero usual held the sole model for imitation Latin and the ways which proper imita achieved are outlined tion may 1545 Lilio Gregorio Giraldi published his long Historiae poetarum dialogi which belongs the Horatian tradition virtue not only reflection numerous borrowings from the Ars poetica itself but also
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES The first dialogue, especially , is a full - scale principles defence of the art and a statement of finds useful the standard commentators but also call not only upon the witness upon such ancient authorities Tyre and Plato Strabo Maximus number of theoretical matters
it
he
,
of
,
,
In
certain sections closely after Aris subsequent chapter connection
.
a
he
patterns
shall indicate
in
I
,
,
Moreover
totle's Poetics
.
Theophrastus
as
as
to
of
it ,
. In
its
.
in
of
,
hidden meanings literal statements upon generally the art and that the meaning an
is
in
,
is
: "
is
it
,
its
,
connection with these Giraldi insists upon the poetry upon the mysteries concealed beneath essentially allegorical nature seems that poetry one thing said whereas another meant its
of . all In
as a
;
its
its in
;
:
of
.
,
of
he
,
,
,
of
poetry with his defence cites the recent apologies Petrarch Boccaccio Budé and Pontano The defence itself follows the traditional lines the early esteem which poetry was held kind first theology civilizing function and first philosophy uses sacred writings
to
Eratosthenes and
that poetry need only
must be
that
to
Horace
it
need only instruct
(
(
that
),
Strabo
it
discusses the arguments
of (
of
),
of
delight
,
second
he
.
;
he
.
,
—
of
a
to
of
." 76
a
,
to
,
so
to
speak under veil The defence also requires answer topics long Plato's ban and demonstration the usefulness the art familiar the Horatians For the first Giraldi declares that Plato had quotes Petrarch exiled only poets who lied about the gods the effect that only scenic poets had been excluded from the Republic For the hidden
.
the poets
in
of
an
by
in
us it
,
Indeed these things have been feigned
: we "
daily lives
,
" ).
“
”
as
is
“
both prodesse and delectare His own conclusion would seem necessary and that that instruction takes several forms For one thing image Cicero pointed out poetry offers fictional guise our
such
,
in
;
,
77
"
as .
in
in
of
in
wise that see our own characters represented other persons and we daily life see expressed them our image For another specific tragedy and comedy moral lessons are contained such genres
:
tragedy
...
in
,
of all
,
;
,
to
.
to
of
all
is
of
tragedy are this the opinion the comic poet Timocles who says that found the models and the teachings for life and for every human condi tion ... thus from some writers you will learn bear with equanimity certain things and from other writers how things bear other indeed the sum ,
to
,
is
greater than those which any one person suffers and the man who misfortunes has observed that they have befallen others has become accustomed bear his
...
dici uidetur
,
poëtica enim unum plerunque dicam uelamine occultatur
from the aliud
."
, 9 : ut “
), .p
10 : “
72 ,
., .pp ., .p
81 , ,
77
78
&
(
Historiae poetarum 1545 uerò significatur sensus quodam
and comedy are derived
tragedy
,
76
Giraldi's general notions
ita in
of
own more easily and more imperturbably.78
in
ut
,
)
105
& : ,
ab ait ,
. "
,
sic
...
&
,
.
(
,
: “
ex
."
,
à
Ibid Haec enim conficta sunt Poëtis effictos nostros mores alienis personis expressamgue imaginem nostram uitae quotidianae uideamus idque qui apud Tragoediam totius uitae Ibid 676 Timocle Comico alijs alia aequo animo ferre disces conditionis esse exempla atque documenta qui alijs accidisse contemplatus omnia enim maiora quàm quiuis patitur infortunia suas ipsius calamitates aequius faciliusque ferre consueuit
POETIC THEORY medieval - Horatian school , and this in spite of the fact that he cites defini tions and discussions from Aristotle . Dialogue VI is devoted to tragedy . He defines the genre thus : “ Tragoedia est heroicae fortunae in aduersis com
, ut nostri definiunt ” (“ nostri ” being critics writing in Latin , such as Diomedes ); then , after citing Theophrastus ' definition in Greek , he is
in
.”
&
,
est
.” I
cite these
of
,
by
&
“
,
plena
molestiae
Giraldi
traditional ideas and ,
he
compare tragedy and comedy Donatus and Diomedes
again
:
readers
of
in
so
comes
terms familiar
In
does
to
When
formulas.79
turbulenta
the continued use
to
samples
he
as
passages
re
the antiquity
bium Tragoedia exiuit
,
fortunę heroicae calamitas seu enim propria tristia luctus Aristotle prouer tragedy and then Giraldi remarks that
of , of
cited
: “ Tragoedia
de
tragoediae
.
it in Latin
on
paraphrases infortunium
est
prehensio
,
in
.
;
at
In
is
In
.
,
,
,
at
:
,
,
of
,
of
comedy indeed the ordinary fortunes men the minor shocks and perils tragedy everything are represented and the ends the actions are happy imposing personages great fears calamitous outcomes the opposite the former unsettled events the beginning calm ones the end whereas
it .
us
,
be
is a
of
, to
as
,
by
a
an
as in
,
to of in
In
" 81
in is
—
the
of it .
be
to to
of
.
If
of
,
as a
to
if
he
: "
,
of
composite his definition the poet himself elements accepted Perhaps wrong derived from various sources one would not poet were define the man who moved the divine afflatus speaks nobly and appropriately great things such way arouse equal element every admiration this definition verse added thing will seem plainly included his treatment the details poetic composition handling the three styles the five acts
of
Similarly
to
so
by as
is
in
.
it, in
to
us
,
is
to
as
a
in
in
tragedy things transpire tragedy life represented the opposite order Then way comedy such make wish flee make desire Finally every comedy derived from subjects invented the poet but tragedy frequently springs from historical truth.80
,
by
.
“
"
of
,
—
to
,
of
,
its
comedy and various kinds the histories the genres the definitions the minor types Giraldi refers directly and specifically Horace and the various expositors who the Renaissance commentators were inte grated into the corpus ideas Horatian
of
CONCLUSIONS
of
in
., ., .p , pp .
79
to
Aristotle's Poetics and the references The gradual emergence Gregorio formal definitions and discussions Giraldi Lilio
appearance
,
vii ;
,
,
,
Tragoedia
saepe
de
,
,
fictis argumentis
in
,
,
,
1 .
V.
,
,
, ed .
,
de
postremò omnis Comoedia
."
106 )
(
si
,
hominem esse qui cui definitioni
. . . .
,
is
,
., .p
Ibid non malè fortasse dixerit qui poëtam ita definierit spiritu afflatus magna egregiè appositeque cum admiratione loquatur par carmen addatur omnia planè comprehensa uidebuntur
,
86 : “
81
."
capessenda exprimitur historica fide petitur
,
.
in
, at
& in
:
,
in
,
; cf.
,
I,
ed .
In
,
,
;
2;
IV .
: "
,
80
ed .
Etymologiae 671-74 for the formulas Isidore VIII Evanthius Diomedes Keil 487 Donatus Wessner parui impetus Ibid 681 Comoedia quidem mediocres fortunae hominum periculaque laetique sunt exitus actionum Tragoedia omnia contraria ingentes per sonae magni timores exitus funesti habentur illic turbulenta prima tranquilla ultima Tragoedia contrario ordine res aguntur tum Tragoedia fugienda uita Comoedia Ibid Wessner
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES derived from Aristotle indicate the arrival at a turning point in the Horatian tradition . The next text to be studied will be the first in a long series of texts which effect an intermingling of Horace's theories with those of Aristotle , and which produce in the end a complete confusion of Horace
with Aristotle . Before proceeding to that study , however , it will be well to estimate the effects of the growth of the Horatian tradition in Italy up to about the year 1545 . In the first place , there is what we might call the material growth of the
tradition . By that I mean the gradual accretion to the text of Horace of a host of other texts , which first become attached to it and then become inseparably identified with it . The earliest of these would be the ancient commentators , who persist with the text throughout the Middle Ages and bring to it an initial interpretation . Next would come the commentators of the fifteenth century , who add not only their own glosses and their own ideas but who incorporate as well relevant materials from the the end
of
grammarians and from the Latin rhetoricians . To some degree , also , these writers bring into the tradition the growing humanist knowledge of ancient texts , including both theoretical documents and
late - classical
various kinds of poems . Finally , the commentators of the first half of the sixteenth century expand the number of Greek and Latin theorists who are considered to have said things relevant to the interpretation of the Ars poetica . Plato , Aristotle , and Averroës are called upon increasingly, as well as many minor writers on poetic and rhetorical theory. There is another sense in which we may perceive a material growth
of the tradition : to formal , commentaries on the Horatian text are added first , independent theoretical statements in other contexts or in separate works , and , second , essays in practical criticism in which principles belonging to the tradition are applied to poems of one kind or another . Not only are more things added to the text
In
the Ars poetica , but it is constantly applied to more things. the second place , we discern what might be called a methodological
of
growth of the tradition . The earliest form of commentary is essentially a grammatical commentary , in which the exegesis of the text as a linguistic document is the primary problem . To be sure , philosophical interpretation is already present, but it is present in a secondary way . This type of gram matical commentary will continue throughout the later phases , but will gradually be subordinated to other types. To it is added , in the fifteenth century , more and more interpretation of a philosophical and literary character . At the outset, this kind of interpretation is applied to separate lines or passages in the text , for which analogues or explanations are found
in other texts and for which illustrations are found in the poets . But already , because of the character of the documents which are cited as analogues, a totality of interpretation ( which , as we have seen , is a rhetori cal one ) is present . In the sixteenth - century commentaries , the large body of disparate distinctions brought into the tradition in connection with one ( 107)
THEORY set
POETIC
of
,
.
of
by
, .
of
of
is a
of
,
is
of
systematic
In
of
or another is organized into a related distinctions and interpretations Horace appear with some frequency None gloss the earlier forms abandoned and the increasing length and complexity the commentaries reflection the greater number things done with the text and their greater diversity passage
it
.
,
of
all
-
in
be
”
at
.
"
to
,
,
of
evidences
of
and far the most important the tradition presents considerable doctrinal growth Two words caution are growth necessary about the meaning given this point For one thought that during the period under consideration there was should not any notable change understanding the over the Horatian epistle the third place
of
as a
be
by
by
or
of
,
.
to
of
any appreciable shift from one way regarding the text another Throughout these years the Ars poetica was read kind rhetoric that utility pleasure could brought about indicated how certain effects
.
of
,
or as
.
,
in
to
of
a
or
"
”
be
of
a
in
specific audience making treating nature certain ways and adaptations subject matter For another certain kinds words meaning necessarily that the later growth should not understood documents were more sophisticated more complicated philosophically larger and richer body that they contained ideas What doctrinal
be
as
of of
see
we
If
a
of
.
is
.
in
,
as a
as
of
as in
be
growth there was must sought the tradition whole the sum compared with the sum during the doctrine during the later years compared with the sum during the early years Here there middle years development substantial progress the general process consisting Horace with the more and more complete identification to
in
At
is
to
-
.
as
-
of
,
present rhetorical tradition then the first stages would the simplest assimilation the invention disposition elocution analysis Horace's correspond statements This assimilation will grow the division made
-
of of of
.
all
,
in its
or of
at
of
of
more and more completely with parts the Ars poetica the same time looking main point being the the text another way poetic matters appropriateness emphasis upon the necessity appears
,
,
to
of
.
so
,
genre
of to
type
to
of .
as
of
,
of
,
or
,
to
be
to
or
to
to
historical conceptions genre social station appropriateness will genre and verse material forth The canon enlarged and expanded likewise the tradition grows Consonant with the text critics the rhetorical associations the increasing complexity character traits character subject matter style diction
.
an
;
all
times each
The constantly this manner
of
.
of
of
or
At
.
part
these
times
108
)
(
back again
to
needs
go
,
For certain other relevant distinctions one
to
.
greater attention moral considerations considering the ends
the audience
is a
of
of
as
(
to
sought for some special segment
at ); at
to
,
to
be
to
times one
pleasure with Landino the only one the work achieved through separate parts as
is
,
is
are said one
clarified
emphasized
is
or
both
ends
of
to
by
explanations and examples
of
its
to
will tend orient their thinking more definitely toward the audience and develop theories fitting orientation The requirements and such instructing pleasing poetry with respect the audience that end
ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES the earliest commentators and from them trace a widening and diversified of ramifications . This would be the case for the insistence , with respect be
discourse
It
the arts
grammatical
essentially
.
to
belong
of
an
dichotomy
”
verba
,
to Horace , upon the “ distinction which comes
all
to res -
set
would
of all ,
in
a
of
;
is
questions
diction
;
reduced
of
to
then they may also
be
all
if
.
be
of ,
the three styles
.
an
,
diction and to
with the text To them also related the matter interesting way For poetic concerns may reduced
the ideas connected
in
of
to
,
,
the case again for the three styles especially the postmedieval years upon provide organization styles these are called basis for nearly
its
of
it
in
of
,
to
be
.
a
If
or
as a res .”
,
or
,
of
considering poetry which will never lose popularity one during the Renaissance will exclusively consider terms words expression style there are thus several separate approaches verbal character there are also several which spring from preoccupations the ways
in
is
of
,
of
a
,
"
to
'
the theorists attention
facet
res ."
to
, of in
,
is a
.
of
and verisimilitude
One special
in
.
is be
,
to
“
."
a
to
a
of
as
of
of
is
it
or
he
be
,
this the insistence certain writers that when the poet deals with historical matters must true whereas when his subjects are feigned invented sufficient for him verisimilar Still another direction doctrinal growth discerned what we may transforming poetica characterize the the Ars into total poetics pertinent large number Horace himself had treated matters the art is
phase
a
of
an
to
.
in
a
of
is
of
“
The most prominent these the reading Horace essen principle reading document centered about decorum complete interpretation expression which reaches Badius Such course related those which were insistent upon appropriateness but specialized way Similarly the persistent return considerations nature with tially
,
of
,
or
,
of
.
in
,
of
,
of
so
by
,
of
of
:
of
poetry the internal order poems the appropriateness diction the history and the materials certain genres the behavior the poet the function great the critic and forth All these matters are developed examples detail the commentators either through the addition
At
constitutes no
,
times this actually basis ).
dogmas for which there
is
as
(
for Badius
a
is
of
or
.
,
of
regula
”
“
)
(
for Acron the discovery
a
as
the declaration that every statement
of or
effort results
”
praeceptum
in
“
solid and substantial
by
.
of
be
of
a .
of
through the expansion the ideas Moreover other developments occur precepts would probably The transformation the text into set rules one these Horace's fairly fluid organization materials made more
it
a
in
109
the commentators
of
,
to
.
Finally
,
prophet
.
seer and
:
the poet essential goodness the universality the character
a
as , a (
his
,
of
his inspiration through divine furor capacities his knowledge
ideas
relevant
his
concepts
]
“
Horatian
"
a
a
evalism enter into the sum introduce large number
of of
,
of
.
A
of
to
a
,
to
of
of
to
it
.
in
poetry the Horatian text itself The aggregation the defence the Horatian tradition expands and enriches notable degree since soon involves the crossing with other traditions and the appeal other part authorities this defence consists the allegorical interpretation poetry where again both continued medi renewed Platonism and
Through such
its
POETIC THEORY
.
to
,
In
up to
in
a
—
accretions as these , the Ars poetica — with attendant glosses becomes repository for everything that was being thought about poetry the humanistic period and during the Renaissance about 1545 the following years another impulsion material and methodological a
in
,
110
)
(
.
of
.
to
as
is
to
given and doctrinal growth the Horatian tradition and such way merit separate and detailed study This impulsion comes from the Aristotle's Poetics text and the interpretation
CHAPTER FOUR . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S POETICA : II. THE CONFUSION WITH ARISTOTLE
ARS
BE ERRONEOUS to believe that in the years before 1545 work on Horace's Ars poetica had been done exclusively by persons who
' T WOULD
did
Poetics . The passing allusions and refer chapter would disprove such a belief. A more correct statement would be that although these scholars knew Aristotle's treatise or knew of it , such knowledge did not fundamentally affect their general reading and interpretation of the not know
Aristotle's
ences to the Poetics mentioned in the preceding
Horatian text. They read it in the same way as did their colleagues
who
lacked this knowledge ; and allusion and reference were incidental to an interpretation which had nothing to do with the Poetics . In the years that we shall now be studying , however , a number
of theorists brought Horace's work into clear juxtaposition to and explicit comparison with Aristotle's , and in some cases at least , a new analysis of Horace resulted . What hap pened to Aristotle will be treated in a later section.1 Nor should it be thought that the comparison with Aristotle produced a revolution in the interpretation of Horace . We shall increasingly discover commentators and theorists who make the assimilation of the Greek to more fre - writers who persist in the earlier tradition . Both in theory and in practical criticism , it may be that the “ un - Aristotelians ” or the “ non Aristotelians " constitute the dominant element in the Horatian tradition of the later years as they did in the earlier . To determine the proportion , the Roman ; but we shall also continue to meet - and perhaps
quently
to weigh the importance of the two trends, will be one of the problems of this and the succeeding chapters. FRANCESCO FILIPPI PEDEMONTE ( 1546) The first of the Cinquecento commentaries on the Ars poetica to make use of Aristotle was Francesco Filippi Pedemonte's Ecphrasis in Horatii Flacci Artem poeticam , published by his pupil Puresius in 1546. In some respects this is a conventional commentary , but in others it presents extensive
notable innovations . For example , Pedemonte follows the usual routine of dividing Horace's text into small sections , with a commentary for each section ; but he varies the technique by giving a heading to each section .
Thus lines 1-13 are preceded by “De Idea Concipienda , " lines 14-23 by Non esse à materia discedendum , " and so on . These headings themselves indicate the direction of the interpretation . But the great innovation con “
1 The samo subject with respect to Horace is treated by Marvin T. Herrick in The Fusion Horatian and Aristotelian Literary Criticism , 1531–1555 (Urbana : University of Illinois Press , 1946); but since Herrick proceeds by a fragmentation of texts and an arrangement according to critical ideas , he does not achieve the kind of historical statement of the develop ment which I am here seeking .
of
( 111 )
POETIC THEORY of Aristotle
sists in the use made
Let us
.
how this is done in several
see
typical passages . In the first passage , lines 1-13 , Pedemonte sees an expres sion of Plato's theory that Ideas precede forms ; from this theory he derives Horace's contention that “ it is necessary that the artist have a preconceived notion of the things which are made by him before putting his hand to them , and that he see in advance in his mind's eye the Form according to This is the procedure , painting the arts molding and sculpturing which indeed seem proceed Aristotle the same way imitation does poetry Thus Aristotle's theory imitation made equivalent Plato's theory the imitation Forms ."
of
to
of
.”
as
to
,
is
of in ,
of
work
especially
to
,
“
the arts and
of
,
he goes on to say , in
in
all
he may give form to every
of which
the model
in
.
of
no
,
( as
: “
a
an as
,
of
fit ,
,
passage
of
he is
in
to
Horace's initial statements the Ars poetica Later the same speaking unity when disparate when the impossibility elements are combined Pedemonte again quotes Aristotle the first parts the poem will not with the last and the poem whole which and
in
on
the reference
to
of
"
a
In
by .
be
)
his
lie "
by
he
,
of
shed upon the Horatian passage
is
,
is
of
,
to
as
be
a
,
be
.
be be
(
new light Aristotle.2 cases
,
a
,
,
of .”
be
)
a
of
beginning way Aristotle says consists middle and end will complete Here Aristotle's principle unity identified with Horace's principle appropriateness Finally Horace's recommendations that nature must followed are said corroborated Aristotle's insistence that Homer taken the best model since best taught how something out which would nature should told each these
,
ad
.
by
the Horatian passage goes
on to
”
(I
to to
of
an
he
“
As
TTPÉTTOV
.
TÒ
),
,
. ”
“
,
is
in
commentary Pedemonte's procedure similar lines 92–107 De decoro atque affectibus exprimendis quae res actionem pertinere uidetur After initial sentence about the importance quotes Aristotle observing decorum locate the have been unable passage quid deceat equivalent thus making Horace's Aristotle's headed
the effects produced
the
poem
et
Non satis est pulchra
:
,
esse poemata dulcia sunto quocumque volent animum auditoris agunto
to
of
;
he is
,
est
.
to
is
to
to
on
to
of
-Pedemonte first cites Cicero on the closeness the poet the orator sway their audiences then both Cicero and and the necessity for both portraying Aristotle the need for the poet feel the passions that the reference Aristotle Poetics 1455a31 At the end the com ,
se
à
,
" ;
,
,
,
in
sic
]
[
,
I
, by 4v
.pp
" ;
up
to
of
since was called Pedemonte scholars and including
).
112
he ,
ac
“
Filippi rather than the whole tradition 235
”
,
ex
,
ed , .,
,
(
,
''
the name Pedemonte pupil Puresius and Venice 1796 VIII
by "
)
;
4 : “
( .p ut
;
.
,
;
3v : “
,
), .p
(
2
Ecphrasis 1546 necesse enim artificem earum rerum quae fiunt prius quam manum admoueat precognitam habere notitiam animoque praeuidere formam cuius exemplo opus quodque informet itaque omni arte pingendi maxime fingendi atque sculpendi quae quidem eodem imitationis tramite cum poesi Aristoteli incedere uidentur poematis primę partes cum postremis non conuenient miniméue totum ipsum quod inquit Aristoteles principio medio fine constat absoluetur also 16. use his own Tiraboschi
ARS POETICA : CONFUSION
WITH ARISTOTLE
mentary
- and for reasons difficult to discern - he quotes Aristotle on the beautiful animal and on the proper magnitude of a poem ( 1450635 ). These passages in the Ecphrasis are typical . For an indication of the extent to which Pedemonte seeks parallels in Aristotle , a simple list of the texts involved will suffice :
Ars poetica
Poetics 1447a18 , 1450627 , 1460a18
1-13 42-45
1459631
46–72
1458631
73-88 89-91
1459631 , 1448632 , 1459a11 144969 , 1448a16
92–107
1455a31 , 1450635 1448635 , 1460616
128–34 149_52
1451a32
179_88
1448a36 , 1449b21 , 1448a30 , 144964 , 1449a31 , 1451a16 , 145363 ,
189–92
1451a9
193-95 202-19
1456a25
220-24
1449a21
234-39
1458631 , 1456a20
1453619
1455632
275-80
144999
281-84
1449a36
338
40
1451a36
457-69
1447619
As compared with earlier commentators , the extent of these references is considerable ; but the study of later commentators will show that we have here only the beginning of an important tendency . What is important , however, is not the fact of reference , but the degree to which such reference causes a change in the interpretation of the text of Horace . A careful reading of Pedemonte's commentary shows that while several new ideas are added to the Horatian tradition as the result of the parallel with Aristotle , none of the old ideas is in any way modified ; the process is one of accretion rather than change . I have already referred to several of these new ideas : Aristotle's theories of imitation and of the magnitude of beautiful poems compared to that of beautiful animals . Other added elements are the notion of necessary order , in which no part of a poem may be moved or removed without destroying the total struc the explanation of the various compo ; that definition the insistence that unity of plot is not provided by
ture ; the definition
of
its
nents
of tragedy and
of
(
113
the statement that the
they should
be ,
;
of
things
as
the presentation
of
poetry
plot and
four kinds
)
domain
is
the distinction
of
,
spectacle
of ;
in
unity of hero ; the declaration that tragedy should attain effect even the reading through the constitution the plot rather than through stage according
POETIC THEORY
on
Acron
;
,
to
of
)
in
the first
group
in
and Parrasio the second Pedemonte's contribution consists ing them together and adding necessity them the notion
he
had appeared in earlier commentators (
be "
cf.
should
on
to necessity and probability . In connection with this last , it should be noted that both the idea of the “ verisimile " and the idea of " things as they
which
of
.
does not explain
“
,
”
on to
he
compositione
” “
“
,
,
of
.
,
,
,
,
of
or
of
,
.
is
in
of
,
,
The addition these Aristotelian concepts does not mean however that any the old components the Horatian theory are lost dimin ished The work still read the light Cicero Quintilian Acron and Donatus and the essentially rhetorical interpretation still obtains Thus lines 38–72 the Ars poetica are divided into three sections entitled respectively De Inventione De Dispositione and De Vocabulorum
:
is
,
it
,
of
he
to ,
.” 3
is
It
: “
of
“
,
,
"
;
as
passes the next section Pedemonte remarks and abundantly discoursed about poetic invention disposition Similarly when speaks comedy and the artistry elocution Pedemonte insists not sufficient have invention but also
So far we have
to
”
“
by
”
"
“
,
“
.” 4
to
a
in
res -
to
understand disposition and elocution and fashion the poem itself according the rules The related verba distinction appears rhythmi somewhat special form since the verba are replaced necessary
).
of
,
to
(
”
”
,
own colors
of
his
on
.
on
is he
of
he
he
,
he
,
so ” in ),
,
." .
to
(“
,
'
,
obliged
variety the necessity means produce admiration
insists
aim Much later however when Aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae the text itself consider the dual end and does these
line 333
by
discusses
will
no
“
,
otherwise and pleasure which are the poets
by
,
the Ars poetica
for
it
line
the poetic work
of
29
of
in "
variare
”
6
be
,
by
,
respect
to
poetry Pedemonte seems the ends remain unde pre cided between the two rival positions most commonly held decessors that which maintained that the end was pleasure and that which mingled with utility Commenting declared that pleasure must the
to
With
."
distinct
its
by
is
of
by
,
in
So
: “
is
“
“
in
contrary and these turn are called colores the usual practice speech which reserved the term colores for figures The distinction poetry two principal things are considered formulated thus namely the material the things which are taken the poet for treatment and the numbers from which this material receives its form and made
dispositione
elocutionisque
to in
give pleasure and was entirely alien
artificio
uerum etiam dispositionem
ac
,
poetica
est
inuentione
,
,
of
be
: ." “
.
.,
3
Ibid 12v Hactenus abunde disseruimus
de
p
to
to
in
part Yet since poetry seems have been invented part also utility lest someone might think that
it to
:
terms
,
,
."
)
114
qui poetarum est scopus
,
,
oblectationemque
praebeat
(
,
;
,
admirationem
,
, à
ac
;
,
cum alioquin
6 : "
Ibid
nequaquam
."
in
: “
., .p
., . " .p
6
à
s
;
: “
., .p
*
Ibid 40v Non enim satis inuentionem habere elocutionem callere oportet ipsumque poema rite intexere poesi duo praecipua considerantur Ibid 14v Ita rerum uidelicet quae tractandę poeta sumuntur quibus informatur efficiturque suis coloribus materia numeri distincta
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
of
in
. [
,
,
,
of
of
.]
I
,
all
pleasure he (Horace ) felt it necessary to remove such a concern from men's minds by making a universal distinction among poets The three kinds poets dis tinguished say who communicate Those provide utility verse the precepts the disciplines and the arts especially the precepts which are called moral ,
[E
.
of
in
a
In
,
:
,
of
as
,
a
By
the wrappings life.7
of in
envelop way
to
to
fiction fact those very ancient poets have set for themselves that same purpose fables doctrinal mysteries and moral instructions
seem
and
of
they include under the appearance
who first invented poetic lies
.
)
to to
,
in
of
,
,
of
proper living ... These poets mpedocles Lucre and who teach the norm tius Aratus etc. seem have created many things their poems for purposes pleasure sculptured image addition moral portraits and life which
an
in
as
in
of
by
of
of
.
,
is he
of
,
a
such statement the last one Pedemonte allies himself with those poetry residing theorists who had seen the chief utility alle gorical function Moreover indicates the passage that his whole con ception poetry the ends unaffected his study and his citation be
to
it
of
seems
brought about
In
by
proverbs
or
utility
,
the actual production entirely almost the introduction
for
of
As
.
Aristotle
to
,
of
"
among
,
lines 309–22 where
all
the commentary
on
).
(
present
in
sententiae
is
to
by
"
,
in
be ,
to
."
of
“
,
.
sententiae connection with lines 202–19 Pedemonte insists that ethical philosophy filled tragedy right and comedy with most weighty sententiae apposite the teaching living appears passage There the same some connection plot between poems offering such sententiae and the moral type distinguished position respect Aristotle Poetics 1456al The same with
,
: “
,
of
a
we
? ” 9
a
,
to
,
other related things Pedemonte says this Indeed unless comedies and tragedies derived their seriousness from precepts and sententiae pertaining dry discourse everyday life what would say they were other than commentary and sterile matter At the end the same Pedemonte A
a
,
of
ad
or
no
if
ad
.pp
or
or
: “
,
, or
of
,
of
,
it
is
if
,
to
of
utility over pleasure itself gives priority poem faithfully this kind reflecting mores adorned with philosophical passages containing useful grandeur beauty matter even without the seduction words delight cleverness construction will better and hold the public than poem with the most highly embellished verses knowledge wisdom ,
: "
...
carmini
,
tum praesertim quç moralia uocantur
...
ab
,
praecepta artiumúe ,
inquam qui disciplinarum
.
ex
,
à
ne
,
.,
7
Ibid 51-51v cum tamen poesis oblectandum partim partim uero iuuandum aliquis existimaret omnino uoluptate eam esse alienam uatum omnium inuenta uideatur uniuersali distinctione eiusmodi scrupulum euellere animis necessarium duxit Prosunt
,
,
,
ab
illi ,
inuoluerent
,
ad
quae tragoedias comoediasque grauissimis sententijs
&
."
modum
., .p
recte uiuendum
repleuit
."
8
Ibid appositis
36 : "
uiuendique
ut
;
&
.
,
,
.
,
bus tradunt recteque uiuendi normam edocent multa enim illis oblectationis causa alioquin expressos mores insculptamquo uitae imaginem sub falsitatis efficta uidentur qui umbra continent Nam uetustissimi initio poetica mendacia excogitarunt illud sub fabularum inuolucris doctrinarum mysteria mores sibi scopum proposuisse uidentur
,
,
ac
à
,
,
,
)
(
? "
115
ni
,
: “
., .p
ad
9
sententijs praeceptis pondus Ibid 49v comoedias omnes tragoediasque quottidianam uitam spectantibus accepissent quid aliud esse quàm iciunum sermonum sterilemguc materiam diceremus
POETIC THEORY supports it . ” The position is of course that of Acron and later commenta tors ; 10 it would not be that of Aristotle at any point in the Poetics . A little later , Horace's dictum on brevity ( 1. 335 ) is expanded to refer specifically to these moral precepts : “He advises us to make every possible effort
toward brevity, which indeed is held to be particularly suitable for teaching the mind , and to stray as little as possible from the line of profiting and teaching ; so that the learners may more easily grasp the precepts and may
keep them as long as possible locked within the storehouse of the memory ." 11 We have already examined the tenor of Pedemonte's discussion of decorum in connection with Ars poetica 92–107 ; as in the Horatian text , decorum will be throughout one of the commentator's primary concerns . It should be pointed out further , relative to the above passage , that
;
, to
of to of
to
be
,
,
so
let is
,
let
Pedemonte tends to make a proper observance of decorum one of the con ditions both of sound teaching and of audience attention . Two sentences show this : " All of those who have undertaken the task of writing poetry , according judgment them pay attention especially their powers what decorous that the proper qualities attributed each person and them observe decorum itself through ignorance which offense ”
;
in
in
of
or
to
no to
12
;
. "
of
is in
by
"
,
,
in
poetry and speeches results not only life but most frequently and give Furthermore the writer who fails each personage speech that keeping with character will means obtain the attentive minds the open ears his listeners Decorum also provides one the bases for distinguishing poetry from history for whereas the historian treats
no
to to
"
", "
"
locisque philosophicis
ornatum
,
"
, "
of of
.
his
:
,
50 : “
poema bene moratum
Ibid
., .p
10
is
in
by
,
what Pedemonte adds the text predecessors The basic principle Horace had already been added unity stated simplex congruens the conventional terms unum
”
to
.
."
work The treatment significant additions Aside from these major emphases
of
13
of
,
or
treated with decorum
be
only those things which can which seem likely confer splendor upon the ages follows Horace with the decorum
true the poet pays attention ,
is
what
utilemúe continens ,
,
sit
,
: “
II,
,
ed .
,
,
,
,
cf.
,
" ;
,
,
materiam sine tamen uenustatis lenocinio aut uerborum maiestate aut constructionis quàm exornatissimis uersibus artificio melius spectantem populum oblectat detinetque nulla subiecta sententia neque scientia Acron Hauthal 629 dicens quod ,
,
ut ,
ac
à ad
: "
pp .
,
11
,
.”
,
,
et
expressione morum quamuis interdum fabula opportunitate personarum inductarum sine arte sine uenustate sine grauitate sententiarum plus placet quam uersus bene quidem sonantes sed morum obseruatione carentes Ecphrasis quae quidem 512-52 docendos animos admodum idonea habetur
12
;
.”
,
;
praecipiendi linea errandum maxime studendum esse monet minimeque iuuandi discentes praecepta facilius comprehendant memoriaeque thesauro recondita quamdiutissime seruent
in
&
,
;
in
.”
,
,
13
,
16 : “
.p
" ;
;
in
,
ut
,
: “
., .p
Ibid 15v Omnes qui poeticam prouinciam susceperint pro suo iudicio maxime quid deceat animaduertant unicuique persone suę partes tribuantur ipsumque decorum poemate obseruent cuius ignoratione non modo uita sed sepissime oratione peccatur and Praeterea qui personae cuique congruentem orationem nequaquam tribuet nullo pacto attentos animos patentesúe aures habebit
."
,
ea
,
116
]
[
,
: “
., .p
Ibid 24v sic Poeta non omnia sed tantummodo attendere debet quae tractari cum decoro possint quaeúe splendorem operi allatura uideantur
ARS POETICA : CONFUSION ( p.
5).
For
each
of
WITH ARISTOTLE
the “ simple " styles , Vergil may be taken as the model
5v) . But lest simplicity cloy, one introduces variety into the poem always keeping appropriateness in mind — and in so doing one follows the example of nature ; “for poetry and numerous noble arts follow nature as
( p.
their guide, and nature , indeed , rejoices to an astonishing degree in variety . " 14 The " following of nature " is one of the kinds of imitation ; but in addition to the Platonic and Aristotelian meanings assigned to the term , the text also uses it to mean the adaptation of old plots and the following the commentary on lines 128 ff.
of
,
he a
model and
sort
,
to
;
to
he is
if
: “
a
good man
castum decet
).
.p
(
”
,
a
must himself
be
,
,
proper moral influence pium poetam 56v
exert esse
15
.”
,
I
,
whose likeness everyone should execute his own work should say make the sum total and not merely separate parts conform this Finally the poet who executes such works image excel and in
image
as in a
to
be
”
is
,
tendis fabulis and the general thesis stated poem which we undertake imitate must
: “
( “ Difficile imitatione atque conver this way Finally the
De
“
entitled
is
of
the section
proprie communia dicere
" )
est
of models. Hence
.
,
at
.
to
of
to
in
in
it
to
of of
a
of
on
,
,
its
In
main lines then Pedemonte's Ecphrasis 1546 adds the tradi commentary the Poetics reference Horace sizable amount interpretation and This reference adds some new ideas the corpus changes times results that interpretation But for the most part the tion
in
is
found
a
.
similar alliance of Aristotelian and rhetorical elements by
A
a
to
by
,
construction put upon the Ars poetica remains unaltered and Pedemonte merely adds another document the series which this time had estab lished standard reading for the text
. in
),
is
of
(
to
),
(
in
I
: “
remember
,
to
praises
on
;
”
This insistence
Aristotle Poetics 1458a18 although directly from Aristotle the the discussion
reference is
what
finds that clarity which
what Aristotle says the Poetics 1459631 greatly the hexameter verse appropriate the heroic style
hexameter
14
so ,
not necessarily
of
,
its
is
itself
be a
in
derives both from the words and from their ordering.16
he
,
in
"
of
lovely through their varied ornamentation distinguished clarity the kind by
,
,
in
,
selected words
the translation
clarity may
,
of
of
is
he
in
;
1 ,
,
,
in
to
letter Claudio Tolomei Marcantonio Cinuzzi dated July 1543 but published 1547. Once more the rhetorical elements are predominant discussing Cinuzzi's translation Tolomei Claudian's Rape Proser pine ingenious praises the three books the work because they are disposition elevated invention clear their great sentiments terse
who
since
&
,
,
;
ad
;
)
.p 9 .
,
";
,
8 : "
), .p
117
(
,
(
Delle lettere 1547 son ingegnosi per inuenzione chiari per disposizione per gran sentimenti tersi per iscelte parole uaghi per uario ornamento also
,
."
&
,
16
."
6 : “
21 : “
., .p
., ; .p
15
in &
Nam poetica artes quamplurimae nobiles naturam tanquam ducem quae quidem mirum modum uarietate gaudet Ibid Poema denique quod imitandum suscipimus debet esse exemplar imago quasi quaedam cuius similitudinem opus suum quisque effingat totum inquam corpus non partes singulas conformet Ibid sequuntur
alti
, all
POETIC THEORY
as
)
)
(
readjustments
1550
(
AND MAGGI
1548
a
,
to
,
of
Pedemonte although lesser degree Francesco Robortello seeks establish parallels between Horace and Aristotle his Paraphrasis librum Horatii qui vulgo arte poetica Pisones inscribitur in
ad
on
de
,
is in
to
Continuing the lead
systematic
.
sembled from various sources with
ROBORTELLO
17
. "
;
no
of
all
-
do
as
that kind of verse does not as easily happen in the speech of men at times six syllable verses and other similar forms Here again critical elements kinds are slight and commonplace they are
is
it
all ,
at
is
is
if
to
he
a
.
If , ,
to
of
As
in
.
(
);
1548 this one the appendices Robortello's commentary the Poetics his title promises limits himself almost exclusively paraphrasing Horace's epistle and there any doctrinal value little paraphrase necessary Robortello's statements
be
"
.
of In to
all is
,
.
a "
of all ,
at
"
in of
"
an
is
of
—
he
so
—
says because the order Horace's treatise obscure and many points need expansion and clarification Indeed Horace's work not poetry art but merely sermo touching upon current poetry The expositor's function will therefore errors the writing
42-45
1460a5
73–74
1459631
79
101-13
iambic definite passage 1454a16 mores
125-27
1453a17
(
Homer's narration
1454a37
193–201
1456a25
.
as
(
ex
Trapahoyiouós
deus
machina
1456al
)
)
(
)
)
(
(
(
of ,
of
,
,
in
was interested
,
decorum
of
subject matters juxtaposing the two texts metrics certain rules for the handling narration and ,
of
A
and
ethical plot
the comparisons shows first the kinds
for which Robortello ethics
(
317-20
ff .
281-88
chorus tragedy from satire 1449a19 1449a2 old comedy
mere listing
)
)
1460a18
191-92
)
(
151-52
( (
dualiav
)
)
few families
1451611
1454a25
meter
)
,
(
;
necessity
of
)
(
no
(
)
(
hexameter for epic
1449a23
82
)
Aristotle
Horace
220
a
to
)
he
opinions These are the parallels established
:
does and thus corroborate
.
his
(
,
his
of
is
to
distinguish what order perceptible and expand and clarify the text paraphrase the course Robortello finds occasion cite number passages from the Poetics which claims say the same things Horace
,
to ,
.
)
these historical considerations and second the miscellaneous character problems Robortello goes Aristotle for scattered details which resemble
]
[
118
, e
i
il
,
di
,
ne la
.”
,
fa a
:
lo
a
di
8v : “
., .p
17
qvel che dice Aristotile poetica ilqval loda molto Ibid mi souuiene percio che qvella sorte uerso non cade cosi stile Heroico uerso Hesametro atto alcvne altre simili ageuolmente nel parlar che l'hvom tutte l'hore come uersi senarii forme
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
isolated remarks in Horace , not for any consistent
or particularized theory
of poetry . In this series of
de
Q.
In
an
I
).
(
,
ad
on
his
the early “ comparers " of Horace to Aristotle , the first to read Horace in the light of the Aristotelian text was Vincenzo Maggi , commentary who appended to the Poetics Horatii Flacci arte poetica librum Pisones Interpretatio 1550 have already referred
. "
in
.
18
to
“
in ”
“
in
of
II
in
of
to
Chapter and quoted Maggi's assumption that the important Horace's work were written almost entirely imitation Aristotle's Poetics and his intention demonstrate that those things which are found Horace are already found Aristotle But the text Maggi discovers three merits more complete and more intensive study this text
sections
,
all
,
to
)
(
;
treat
3
to
(1 )
:
in
Horace teach the laws for the proper making poetry itself criticize satirize and render
of
to
poems
; . 19 ( 2 )
of
separate purposes
is
,
be
is
;
of
,
to
on
.
,
to
is
is
."
is
“
of
of
,
he .
of
parallels This clearly stated Maggi the introduction where declares that will not repeat the explanations quae huic nostro others but merely treat those things cum Aristotele communia sunt The procedure not novel course Maggi's parti pris begin with Aristotle and work but what new forward Horace rather than following the usual inverse process in
satisfied with the discovery and adducing
by
lla
is
,
a
of
,
in
of
.
a
;
to
to
Only the first two are essential the work and materials them derive from Aristotle anything concerning the third digression and promptly dismissed Since labeled fundamental parts the work have their source Aristotle their meaning can clarified citation the parallel Aristotelian text and Maggi for the most part ridiculous belonging
in
.
on
:
to
he
.
be
all
to
of
to
all
,
,
of
is
of
of
reading example this method found the commentary very the first section the Horatian text lines 1-13 Maggi quotes five relating separate texts from the Poetics the distinction between plot plot itself Then goes say and episode and the importance
An
to
at
is
,
is ,
is ,
,
is
of
of of so all , it to
,
it
,
may clearly concluded that Aristotle Therefore since from these texts plot and episodes and himself divided Homer's poetry into two parts that speak the soul poetry that that plot the thing which most important seems me reasonable that Horace should have given the so
is ,
and
Ars
,
to
,
,
is
in
no
is
of
on
that
the
53 .
19 18
of
,
;
in
at
he
of
this work the precepts for the proper making the plot evidently treats very once and the threshold his work what first poetry especially since there foremost other place Horace's poetica except this one which explicitly deals with the plot that say composition events.20 beginning
ac
,
: "
; , &
in
."
)
119
,
sit ,
in
ex
(
in
&
,
,
: &
,
,
,
,
,
in
ut
,
: est
,
, id
de
, ), .p
(
de
ex
.
,
in
: “
pp .
., ut
20
,
In
de
, .p
See above poetica communes explanationes Aristotelis librum 1550 328 partim leges partim criminari rectè Poesim conficiendi docere partim Poesi ipsa tractare perinde satyricum mordere irridereque Ibid 329–30 Quare cùm omnibus his locis plane colligi possit Aristotelem ipsum Homeri Poesim episodia duas diuisisse partes fabulam inquam fabulam esse ueluti Poeseos animam hoc est quiddam omnium maximum rationi consentaneum praecepta quibus posset operis esse mihi uidetur Horatium recte fabula confici huius quod potissimum est ipso statim libri limine initio tradidisse Poesi primum praesertim excepto tractare uideretur cùm nullus tota Horatii arte Poetica locus hoc qui fabula rerum constitutione instituto pertractet
POETIC THEORY He then asks whether the precepts for plot suggested by the two theorists are the same and concludes that they are , with Aristotle's requirements of and probability corresponding to Horace's insistence upon the properly constituted animal . Plainly , the argument runs this way : Horace is imitating Aristotle ; he finds in Aristotle precepts for the proper constitu necessity
as
own
say
:
to
his
to of
of
as as
.
on
.
...
;
in
.
as a
be
.
of
to
”
particulae the the Poetics are the commentary preceding He has this “
in to
of
ff .,
example his treatment
Maggi's references divisions the text
as
can possibly discover We may take lines 312 the general subject decorum
Aristotle
of
in
many equivalents an
he is
,
In
of
,
is
of
set
tion of the plot , the most important part of any poem ; he introduces at the beginning of his treatise an equivalent precepts As far the interpre tation Horace concerned this means that lines 1-13 will read poetic plot section on the proper organization general Maggi's procedure seek for each passage Horace
.
et
.
Aristotle quoted
).
translation
]
=
(
of
.
ex
[
, :ait
ibi
:
:
siquidem
Pars uero
:
sumptum uidetur illa
.
in
):
[
,
=
.
. II .
ex
,
mihi uidetur Horatius intelligere poetam oportere rectè actiones exprimere personis congruas quae pars desumpta esse uidetur VIII .IX particulis quibus dicitur Poesim necessario imitari Illud 1447a13 1447613–24 Respicere exemplar uitae autem .LXXX particula 1454b8 Aristotelis
, .
:
in
,
in
:
,
Interdum speciosa iocis morataque rectè ubi Horatius uerba cum rebus confert docetque multo maiorem rebus ipsis quàm particulae Poetices Aristotelis .XLI uerbis curam esse adhibendam eo
ac
translation
).
.
]
(p
.
. (
Verba autem Aristotelis sunt haec
of
primas sibi uendicare asserit Aristotle quoted 360
,
,
,
.
in
,
, et
.
]
(
=
proportione respondere uidetur fabulam enim 1450a29 loco cum praecipuum locum moribus dictionibus sententiis conferens principatum Poesi obtinere docuit ita Horatius illum imitatus res uerbis comparans ipsas
to
a
is
in
,
at
to
.
to
,
on
A
,
a
of
It
be
can readily seen how such determination will lead times the discovery parallels that are very farfetched indeed point case subject the remark lines 38-41 where Horace advises the poet select ,
all
of
of
,
.
of
,
as
to
it
or
Horace's departures
is
).
justify finds possible clever imitations from the order the doctrine the Aristotelian text
he
Indeed
,
.
crepancies
(p .
or
of
in
"
"
to
"
“
,
to
;
"
“
to in
his own genius order achieve facundia and correspond ordo for Maggi this seems Poetics 1450a35 treating plot than which Aristotle insists upon the greater difficulty any such dis character diction 334 But Maggi unaware matter suited
“
factam
120
it
Aristotele
,
communemýue
nec uerbum uerbo reddens
of
." 21
treating epic first instead ." ab
,
,
by
it
iam
]
nam uulgatam
Poeticam effecit alio eam ordine tradens
[
”
“
his borrowings ,
345
: “
Ibid
dissimulated
., .p
21
Horace
,
by
,
he
,
“
) ;
1.
In
in a
(
”
/
Horace follows his own precept Nec uerbum uerbo curabis reddere fidus Interpres 133 fact made the Poetics his own which had already been made generally known and public Aristotle handing down different order and not translating word for word Thus
propriam
ARS POETICA : CONFUSION
WITH ARISTOTLE
(
,
38-41
genius subject
1450a33
42-45
epic
1460a1 1459a29 1458631–1459a16
)
,
)
).
,
1449a21
1459631
digression
)
,
old comedy
1448a29
,
(
260_74
)
)
(
,
)
(
)
(
)
;
;
( )
( (
satire
(
1458631
1449a19 145146 no equivalent
rustic audience iamb
(
but
)
)
digression
satire and tragedy
cf.
3
(
(
,
)
(
)
1456a25
chorus
tragedy
1461626
1452614
201-19
1449a14
146066
)
121
ff .
)
,
1450a29
1453611
also Rhetoric
on
,
,
1449621 1453al brevity
(
)
(
defences
145468
(
( pleasure
)
(
,
utility
,
1447b13-24
digression
)
,
equivalent
1447a13
)
)
9
no
( (
)
(
imitation
)
(
wisdom
)
(
digression
295–308
347–60
)
;
1449a14
interlocutors
also Rhetoric 145361
,
192
(
1460all
333-46
,
,
,
(
)
1454a33
)
of
age
179–88 incredible 189-92 plot
275–84 285-94
but cf. 146263
1460a18-33
)
true and false
decorum
317-22 323–32
1448634
no equivalent
)
151-52
309-16
1454a15
,
,
1456a7
)
of
,
)
)
old
( (
( ( (
1453b21
1459a29
153–78
193–201
1456a33
1454a15 146169
plot
epic
1449a21
1448a14
,
)
)
( ( (
(
,
)
,
1455a31 145668
new characters poets 128-35 imitation 136 45 epic beginning 146-50
1448628
digression
diction
decorum
244-50 251-59
:
)
( (
)
(
1460al
tragic comic verse passions pity
(
89-95
234-43
,
,
)
( )
)
digression
96-103
220-33
(
)
)
:
)
(
new words
73–85 meters 86-88
119–27
last two above
digression
46–59 60_72
112–18
,
1451633 1458a18
,
episodes
diction
( (
14-23 24-31 32-37
1450a38
1451a36 )
,
1456a25
1450a15
,
,
1450a3
1451a23
,
1455b12 1451627
(
)
(
1-13 plot
104-11
complete listing follows
Aristotle
Horace 1
of
satirical digressions
A
characterizes
.
which
as
he
all
tragedy, as Aristotle had done ( p. 335 ) , and by introducing his counsels on new words in connection with the epic rather than with tragedy, since the epic demands high - sounding speech ( p. 336 ). This generous conception of parallelism leads Maggi to find equivalent passages in Aristotle for almost sections the Ars poetica except those
POETIC THEORY Horace
Aristotle
361-65 (poetry and painting ) 366_78
145468
379-90
(digression (
) )
391-407 ( natural origins)
144864
408–11 ( nature vs. art ) 412-18
( digression )
419-44
(
445-52 (meter and poetry ) 453–76
1456624
1461626
)
( digression )
of
all
Maggi's initial thesis that Horace was versifying Aristotle and his demon stration of the parallelism of the two texts did not fail to produce changes in the interpretation of the Ars poetica . Not only are traces the late in
"
.
of
read
of .
necessity
,
"
,
,
of
to "
of
”
of
of
be
“
.
is
of to
as
is
prodesse Aristotle's pity similarly pity the arousal fear and
an
,
audience's passions now related exemplification taken
;
),
99
(
1.
of
by by
to
by
.
of
and probability episodes digressions Horace's are identified with Aristotle's The vices diction pointed out the Roman are found the opposites the virtues diction extolled the Greek The dulcia sunto Horace long since identified the commentators with the arousing the to
principles
plot and diction The
the poem cohere
as
parts
is
admonition make equivalent the organizing
of
general
all
becomes the much more specific division
to
"
verba
"
.
"
.
of
),
in
(
classical and the humanistic commentators removed this had already been accomplished Robortello's Paraphrasis but certain new orientations the reading the text are introduced And these concern really important poetic matters Horace's somewhat vague distinction between res and
a
to
by
.
is
of
”
by
,
of
to
.
by
“
,
qidávopwtrov while delectare becomes synonymous with the pleasure produced traced truth with falsehood mixture Horace's imitation trapaloyiouós impossible probable back Aristotle's and the Notions imitation which had already been related earlier commentators in
'
,
,
on
.
of
,
,
of
Maggi more definitely connected with Aristotles copying nature are conception Finally Maggi follows his predecessors associating action
of
.
in
a
of
is
,
)
1550
of (
GRIFOLI
,
of
.
in
Horace's precepts decorum with Aristotle's recommendations for character All all this not an inconsiderable reorientation the reading pioneer Horace and Maggi becomes kind this respect
he
early
or
was published
,
:
it
to
as
whether
of
in
.
it
122
]
[
in
,
,
,
I
,
.
is
the Grifoli volume
true for the Maggi volume But since the dedication the latter am assuming that was published fairly early 1550 and hence
is
indication
the year the same dated September 1549 antedated Grifoli
late
in
.
; no
There
is
22
of
in
In
of
in
,
to
be
Giacopo the same credit for pioneering may also accorded Grifoli who the same year 1550 published his Artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio.22 For Grifoli also rereads the Ars poetica the light the Poetics Two factors however decrease his originality first Some
ARS POETICA : CONFUSION
WITH ARISTOTLE
came after Maggi and probably knew his Interpretatio ; second , in certain senses , his "rereading ” reverts to a much earlier tradition .
Grifoli's
com
in Its
is for -
for -
mentary is long and complete ; it follows the usual pattern of citing a passage of the text, giving a general interpretation of the passage , and then a
is
is
.
do
I
in
as
: "
,
of
is
.
to to
,
,
.
-
or
providing a line very line word word gloss total position assumption Epistle imitating curious one The basic that Horace the Aristotle and adopting paraphrasing and reorganizing Aristotle's central ideas This clear from such statements the one found the dedication Fabio Mignanelli Bishop Lucera This certainly not hesitate in
",
of
,
,
in
,
,
to
,
he
,
of
: “
of
of
I
,
in
that have expounded the passages Horace and that this work Poetry was culled almost entirely from Aristotle's Art and others body proper Seeing the the text then that Aristotle's opinion plot characters thought diction spectacle tragedy consists and melody thing decided that the first discuss was the construction affirm
plot nor does follow any the less here than elsewhere Starting way Aristotle from this assumption seeks
the teaching
he
“
of
”
;
the
of
,
he
,
, a
in
,
,
to
,
,
of
.
to of 45 ,
he
as .
it
he
,
(
.p
11 ).
as
,
is
in
of
,
.” 23
explaining organization Horace's terms the Poetics He finds first that Horace concerned essentially with tragedy just Aristotle was and that treats the epic only insofar has characteristics common with tragedy Second believes that Horace has ordered his work tragedy altering however the sequence around the six qualitative parts plot lines 114-18 and 319–22 treatment Thus lines 1-23 are devoted to
,
,
to
,
,
of
as
,
to ,
.
is
,
,
thought lines 24–31 32 character lines 93-113 114-18 and 319-22 spectacle 114-18 and 319–22 diction and lines 179–83 and 275–80 uncertainty overlappings melody and But there much the and repeti
of
to
,
of of
,
II
of
I
in
.
by
;
is a
tions indicate this result the corruption the original assumption positions systems other derived from other Chapter have already pointed out how Grifoli adds the system just outlined the set disposition rhetorical distinctions invention and a
of
,
is
a
of of
-
of
to
as , to a
In
.
.
of
,
read
it
is
says
.
thereby introducing meanings What Horace third layer preconceptions about the not only under the influence representation Poetics but also well known rhetorical topics This possible given passages variety makes attach associated mean ings speaking lines 32–45 for example Horace the necessity elocution
on
,
"
he in
;
is
if
."
,
.
a
a
to
choosing subject fitted one's genius this done eloquent words proper things more and order will ensue Grifoli sees the lines abstruse than most people suspect paraphrases First and quotes to
."
)
(
123
; he a
" ; .p
&
,
, " ; .p
,
de
,
;
primum melodia constitutione fabulae disserendum esse statuit minus quàm vnquam alias praeceptionem Aristotelis secutum
11 : 39 : , “ "
,
certe affirmare non dubito ostendisse me locos Horati Aristotelis Arte poetica decerptum Videns igitur constare fabula moribus sententia dictione apparatu ,
(
ac
,
Illud
), .p 7 : “
Interpretatio 1550 anos totum ferè hoc opus Aristotelis iudicio Tragoediam
ex
23
in
)
(
to
,
in
of
poems those ascribable Aristotle the two types errors the poetic art and those ascribable some other art Poetics 1460015 craftsman like the one Horace mentions sins the poetic art when
neque nunc
THEORY 11.
POETIC
:
of
a
is
),
undertakes a task superior to his capacities . Next ( for 38-41 Grifoli here beginning new section the work after having
states that Horace
he
,
:
,
.
to
Grifoli
leads
the proper choice
of
ordo
"
”
a
“
Horace's statement about facundia and parallel between the poet and the orator equivalent matter invention ordo
“
is
in
.
be
of
expounded the proper composition the plot now indicates how beauty may achieved through diction We shall see that this division between plot and diction fundamental the commentary Finally
draw subject
understand
his
In
Grifoli's commentary
to
.
of
order
in
however
,
,
,
in on is in
A
”
by
II ).
in
of
to
,
necessary
further distinction completely what going
“
,
to
"
,
“
see
(
to
is
to
disposition and facundia Chapter elocution the passage quoted above The general rhetorical preoccupations the work are confirmed Grifoli's frequent references Cicero Quintilian and other masters the art
est : ,
to
).
In
12
(p .
”
ea
, of
ex
ijs
&
“
)
11
.
(p
in
”
,
ad
),
“
,
.
(
,
is
introduction speaking tragedy incidentally Grifoli twice insists that about and the epic Horace was concerned essentially with the matter appropriateness diligenter quaecunque rerum congruentiam decorum attinent igitur praecipuè persecutus and Constat hic libellus rebus quibus maxime quid deceat apparet his effort reconcile in
,
,
a
,
in
of
“
",
or
"
"
fabula
.
on
of
",
and Régis
oratio and the time between these two parts Thus lines 1–23 commentary but the section lines 24–31 begins
on ad
"
fabula
or
.
are uïdos
Ars poetica thus divides concern
six
:
to
two most important
its
the
of
is
at
he
this emphasis with the Aristotelian system that sees the work Grifoli appropriateness poetic arrives this solution The major form things Of Aristotle's qualitative parts therefore work words
eis
to
a
in as
?
of
&
:
.
17 ),
(p
”
.
ad
:
by
of
is
the translator
the mind and
its
since speech
is or
, “
;
diction moreover
,
in
.
no
is
of
means
.
.
Already the introduction Grifoli has declared that point concerning sententiae mores that not treated
lapsed with diction there
“
,
82 )
p
,
of
:
is
”
(
“
with Transit alteram partem quae nominatur and the commentary line 280 starts thus léxiv redit supra quoque tulit eloquium insolitum But what the other four parts The fairly melody belonging simple spectacle answer and are dismissed thought poetry the instruments and character and are sense col
).
,
The same idea
is
(
or ,
“
if
requisities for character περί της λέξεως
,
Although the subject discussed
is
made even more explicit later
:
terms are hidden Aristotle's
it
, of
of
." 24
in
,
of
to
of
"
be
of
is
of
speaking this the indicator character decorum one has also spoken language the decorum the rest Without consideration hardly possible proprietas would know the officium similitudo constantia character are properly observed not under these four
nevertheless nature
normally
and
it
.
we
de
haec est morum index
,
,
."
124
&
in
be
he
quoniam oratio est interpres mentis reliquorum quoque decoro dixit )
., .p
Ibid decoro dicendo
(
12 : de “
24
,
,
be
,
character are here treated from which diction derives Otherwise appropriate and from the beginning will not have warned that whenever speaking the poet spoke about diction would the proper places about
illius
)
119–135 and
what follows.25
six
sententia and character , as he does here ( A.p.,
in
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
11.
ARS POETICA
to
of
to .
as
,
to
,
,
.
as
his as
to
97 ),
, ( p
,
,
,
to
qualitative parts assign the these reasons when Grifoli comes object manner and means object the three belonging imita tion are identified diction thought and character the two belonging plot spectacle and melody and the one belonging means manner
For
to
he
is
in
."
26
in
be
“
”
“
:
of
let it
a
in
in
,
”
of
“
imitation
, it is
of
explanation apparent that gives this last assignment representation the meaning Since plot the composite tragedy the events imitated both that way and that sequence which the plot itself has been composed
From
.
if
,
of
all
if
“
to
"
“
to
,
of
,
is
it
in
,
in
of
"
—
,
,
Horace thus the last analysis reduces Aristotle the old res verba dichotomy and then turn reduces verba alone For the object imitation character thought and diction and diction
I
is ,
:
is
Unity
to
corresponds
of
Horace's natural sary and probable
"
1451a16
Aristotle's
“
Aristotle
1-23
"
Horace
.
shall indicate for the most signifi
,
of
parallel passages following the list passages true how this cant
In
.
to
of
a
,
in
of
,
contains the essence the other two then one treats the essential problems poetry when one speaks about language Grifoli's analysis linguistic problems fact largely reduction Horace's poetics
neces
,
.
Of
as
language
,
In
.
is
.
spectacle and melody
vices exist which imitate virtues
character
,
in
passing
,
MÉEis
;
none
)
(
24-31
in
,
of
.
,
a
.
"
action which does not single hero cannot possibly even result from having come from mixed subjects Unity and simplicity are re quired mixture styles and genres condemned the
in in
.
to
.
to
of
.
,
of
of
;
disposition
in
or
of
"
"
"
of
"
;
.
,
; in
tragedy produces admiration Lamb and daily speech quod decet Diction adapted the color the persons tragedy iamb adapted the quality to
)
(
none
avoid artistic error diction after beauty and elocution
subject
beauty
to
1449a23
86-92
,
plot Invention Epic verse
Rexis
.
1459632
the monster
.
return
to
proper choice
Then
.
73–85
monster comparable
First
,
1460616
,
32-45
11.
diction creates 1-23
plot of
a
.
to
,
is
treating the middle Cross three styles Horace here references rhetorical works Excess of ornament
,
In
etc.
cf.
,
situation
.
;
the audience the orator tragedy metus misericordia ,
pleasure
;
,
comedy
characters
passions
,
Arousal
,
1455a31
"
Language adapted
of
1449627
in in to
.
comedy 93-113
à
,
&
& , &
,
,
de
,
&
,
eo
&
in
."
)
(
125
,
."
sit
sit ,
.
ea
"
Quamuis enim tepi tñs AEEEwsdisputetur tamen natura mores expri principio emanare solet alioqui decorum suum non habebit nos Oratione dissereret poëta Sententia Moribus suis locis eum dic sequentibus cum dicit compositio rerum omnium tragoedia cum fabula modo quo composita ipsa fabula
97 : & “ in de
ab
,
.p
26
,
,
.
., ., vt , & p
Ibid muntur his monuimus cum turum hic Ibid ordine imitandum
sit
41 :
25
.'
horror
POETIC Horace
Aristotle
114-18
1454a16
THEORY
Language appropriate
to persons : Aristotle's TÓ ÓHolov , equivalents Horace's for Aristotle's four requisites of character : line 312 for Tà Xenota ; line 156 for to đPUÓTTOVTA ; line 114 for tò ouoiov ; line 119 for to
1454a33
duałóv . Differences in a &is from differences in character . new characters , TÒ duałóv .
In
119–35
Epic characters insofar as they resemble tragic ; mixture
153–78
179-83
1452619
of the
true and the false .
Decorum of age ; τα αρμόττοντα . tage action Parts of tragedy ; on- and off -s
1460a20
]
(
1448a25
.
136-52
1455624 145361
ex
1449627
189-201
1454a37
Deus
202–19
1447a22
220_43
145662
Spectacle and melody Horace's primitive audience The diction satire Cicero against the mixing genres Sententiae and appropriate verba
275-80
1450a13
to of
.
.
as
”
“
.
the rhetoricians as
.
to
.
reference
,
of
"
.
2 )
of of
"
(
,
delectatio
;
.
.
precepts Horace's double intention precepts for the end poetry i.e. for and utilitas
.
nature
,
poem
(1 )
for
:
Art
vs.
in
.
of
Spectacle and melody instruments imitation action and memory rhetoric XÉEis again
öyrs
cf. )
(
none
.
of
"
" ;
res
295–308
machina
145468
Imitation
319-22
1450a7
Six parts
1454a16
sion above
1450a25
tion
1451627
ingless without Pleasure from the fabula morata tragedy For affecting the audience from pity and fear necessity properly constituted plot and decorum
as
.
in
(
meaning from character
,
and mean
,
"
.
in
“
it .
deriving
,
its
).
as
discus indicated distributed Diction from character and thought Dic
tragedy
.
great Nature and Both diction and materials must art Utility and pleasure need brevitas for the first quae and natura verosimilia for the second Utility Appeal doceant corrigant moueant the young through pleasure the old through utility
Grifoli's
leading
“
”
:
of
to
source
utility
.
.
of
general interpretation
to
Pleasure
Imitation
utility
.
)
(
none
as
As
391-407
poetry
turn leads
of
which
to
pleasure
in
Two natural causes ,
144864
as
366–78
as . a
."
to ,
,
,
"
.
"
;
,
“
)
none
(
333-60
of
.
)
be
none
(
323–32
.
of
1453611
Platonic Ideas and Forms
.
309-18
of is
, it
is
.
its
all
,
of
126
)
(
.
of
an
as
,
is
to
to
to an
attempt
,
a
to is its
a
of
concerned then Horace imitator Horace read combination approaches Aristotle and reversion the rhetorical earlier years subject itself and rhetoric the rhetoricians made soon Aristotle study language problems reduced minimal term the and
far
strange
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
That these were the ideas about poetry still most current is indicated by such a work as Lodovico Dolce's Osservationi nella volgar lingua ( 1550 ),
all
whose first three books are exclusively linguistic and grammatical but whose fourth book deals with poetry. Here again , a few ideas are borrowed from
.
: "
,
of
to
,
,
of
,
an
is
to
of
is
of
.
of
-
in
is
of
Aristotle : poetry is an imitation ; not writers verse are poets But the body main doctrine the old Horatian rhetorical tradition Imme diately after the statement that poetry imitation Dolce says for the poet function the imitate the actions men and his end under lovely veils delight the soul useful and moral inventions him who ,
,
is
,
of
:
not too distant from that of
so
make
it ,
of
by
his invention
the poet
marvelous
he
to
of
since verses and words are the brush and the paints
shades and colors the canvas
of
he
,
Nevertheless
with which portrait
to
to
in
in
is
of
. ,
passions The whole position Dolce which Grifoli contained the following passage
of
by
.
,
of
of
;
"
, "
is
,
,
,
27
. "
reads The poet must possess not only wisdom but also invention order artifice and words these the most important are the last two expressing the invented materials The real poetic gift that means delight the reader beauties and ornaments order arouse his
so
;
all
,
,
he in
of
poëtis nostrorum
temporum
1551
of . )
duo
(
Lilio Gregorio Giraldi's Dialogi
de
vain.28
of its
in
exerted and consumed
be
, to
so
to
a
nature that the minds men are ravished must devote his greatest attention and industry composing them this way and with words appropriate beautiful and the matter which treats that that end sought and desired by him who reads will achieved without which his labors are
an
to
,
.
is
is a
is
in
poetics even more backward looking few passages relevant Essentially the work catalogue contemporary poets recent and summary providing merely various European countries The listing
to of
.
So
at
,
“
;
"
gli
de
le
. "
,
29
"
. "
chi legge
& di i
di
e
da & ; un
de
gli
, e
darno
."
in
consumata
,
il
e le
)
attioni
colori del tauola della sua inuentione per fare glihuomini stupiscano intelletti comporgli tali con uoci cosi belle riesca quel fine ricercato desiderato
ne in
e
,
è
(
40 .
127
imitare
inuentioni dilettar l'animo parole sono pennello
ne la
i
,
e
e
di
,
),
.pp
,
; e
(
16–20
è
“
&
di
,
di
ua
diligenza dec porre ogni suo principale studio appartinenti alla materia che egli tratta che posta chi legge senza ilquale ogni sua fatica
Dialogi duo 1551
del Poeta
: “
), .p
(
: "
,
28
., : e .p il
huomini
29
,
",
,
,
,
is
”
"
,
percioche l'ufficio 1550 87v fine sotto leggiadri ueli morali utili Ibid 88v Non meno perche uersi dipingendo Poeta con che egli adombrando ritratto cotanto marauiglioso della natura che Osservationi
",
,
"
;
,
,
“
27
ingenium
elegans
“
as
“
doctus
,
praised
Pontano
is
;
"
is
doctrina for his facilitas absolutus enucleatus exquisitus grauitas Sadoleto has his qualities modestia Bembo's poems are ingenij exquisita dulcia mollia delicata Sannazaro has created Calcagnini noteworthy monumenta and for eruditio doctrina Mirandola
affectus
for his
in
in
;
or in
all
to by
he
.
,
,
,
, a
occasional fact and for each poet conventional bouquet complimentary phrases The that Giraldi accords the poets admires sound for the world like those used Pietro Ricci the beginning the century the epithets applied 1505 Latin poets are now applied writing vulgar poets tongues modern Latin the Pico della names
POETIC
THEORY
These epithets indicate no more than certain kinds of knowledge on the part of the poet and certain qualities of style in his writing ; they do not presuppose any poetic theory beyond the simplest rhetorical preconcep tions . DENORES ( 1553)
After Grifoli's fairly complex and experimental commentary , that of Giason Denores in his In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica Interpretatio (
1553 ) seems
like a return to the patterns and the procedures
. Indeed , Denores takes frequent issue with the interpretations of both Maggi and Grifoli , claiming that he is reflecting instead the lectures of Trifon Gabriele on Horace , as he had heard them of an earlier
generation
.
to
and
Horace's aims
the
"
affirms that one
is
when
, of of
,
the Ars poetica
he
is
in
.
of —
states
to
-
of he
that lines
the precepts
he
returns also the preceptive are concerned with one the three terms The initial statement intends follow this pattern found connection with the first
Almost form
he
all
his
and as he had summarized them even before Gabriele's death in 1549 . Gabriele's ideas , if they are accurately represented here , are very close to those of Giovanni Britannico and Parrasio . For Denores organizes the whole of the Horatian text around the invention -disposition - elocution predecessors distinction , and in a way even more systematic than that of
,
,
.
,
he
30
of
"
“
of
or
the
in
in
,
"
“
of
,
, in
natural versus artificial order figures verba lines 46–72 lines 73–88 Lines 89-98 make special
32–41
.
, of
and the more particular problem lines 42-45 The second part elocution
).
"
(
"
" of or (
or
"
"
."
,
"
, "
"
or
"
“
of
),
of
: "
,
he
,
is
in
of
.” to
of
every rule formation our taste with respect invention disposition poetry every type says are concerned and elocution Lines 1-23 poetry To explain the subsequent with invention which the soul passages calls upon the rhetorical division into three parts elocution qua particular kind genus itself ratio dicendi character lity style verba and numeri meters verses Lines 24–31 treat disposition appear lines the first these character General notions
to
.
to
”
“
.
its
,
to
,
it
is
,
”
on “
,
in , on
.
in
”
,
“
of
,
and the third part numeri applications tragedy and comedy therules for character and verba Then after long sections other matters Horace returns the distinc disposition and elocution rather tion lines 220–50 pointing out that commonplace materials Lines 251– than invention that give quality
for the full text
.
25
and
n .
;
56
.p
II,
128
)
(
.
,
see above chap
of
fit
to
is
of is
to
of
"
of ( "
”
“
he
,
,
to
3v ;
), .p
1553
(
In
,
of
as
30
epistolam
of , of it
a
all ,
.
In
.
in
).
,
,
of
of
74 ,
tragedy and comedy treat rounding out numeri sapere and lines 89-98 Finally when Horace speaks returning Socratic philosophy lines 309–32 the problem invention somewhat over third the text made into this general scheme As for the rest Denores sees the long central section arousing the audience's emotions problems devoted primarily conventions for the stage but even here the major dis decorum and the verse
the materials
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
)
he ;
,
,
to
,
in
.
of
to
of
be
to
as
of
)
of
the poet seems interest Denores mostly for the utility and pleasure poetry discussion the ends Throughout the Ars poetica although comparatively small number the behavior
11.
is
to
),
(
or ,
as ,
of
"
of
or
of
-
11.
of
—
to
“
as
of
,
no
.
Denores finds analogies the Aristotelian poetics Sometimes these are merely implied with direct reference Aristotle for example the poetry characterization invention the anima 1-23 the suggestion that the five act magnitude dramas related the proper ,
"
“
on
).
11.
"
“
:
on
poetry and history and veri
( by11.
in on
;
on
between
)
11.
(
the difference gestae 73–88 ”
“
,
to
(
words and figures 46–72 history relevant Horace's
res );
in 11.
of
,
is
(
by
to
(
be ),
size animals 189–90 the inclusion timor and misericordia among the passions poet aroused the 99–113 Elsewhere the references are explicit and the text cited Aristotle the pleasure derived from imitation connection with Horace's remarks on the choice
);
,
)
;
on
11.
)
;
11.
(
”
of , on
11.
"
(
-
of
as a
,
on
the necessity
of
,
of
by
of
apropos Horace's three types narrative 131-52 producing pity and fear plot rather than spectacle purga connection with Horace's precept off stage action 179-88 producing prodesse tion means Horace's 333-46 and similitude
of
For Denores reading
is
.
of
,
it
be
an
is
of
).
(
parallels artistic and nonartistic errors 347-60 The list not long readily seen that they merely indicate and will association Aristotle's text with Horace's without any important influence upon the interpretation the latter .
to
to
in
is
to
to
of
.
of
,
of
-d
a in
so
-
to
of
'
Horace remains essentially rhetorical This isposi applying the invention his persistence portion large tion elocution terminology the text but also because other rhetorical tendencies are evident The whole conception poet the relationship audience work and the Ciceronian tradi true not only because
of
of
of
,
a
).
,
as
to
a
in it
to
,
he ) as
11.
by
a
to
(
in
its is
so ,
do
,
To
of .)
(
(
11. in
:
his ,
admiration induce the audience tion the poet like the orator seeks part for passions own genius and awaken wide variety 46–113 must pay particularly close attention the persons just decorum the orator does and just Aristotle recom mends the Rhetoric 114-18 153–78 Such arousing the passions correcting and directing itself merely means further end that in
is
rhetorical devices
of
.
by
)
129
means
of
by
of
audiences (
produce stated effects
on
of
(
,
mind and the two together produce the desired moral effects 333-46 Many details poems are determined the construction this desire
to .)
11.
as
its
a
is
"
“
”
of
;
on
“
"
to
.
It
providing moral precepts and examples interesting lives this connection note that Denores insists that delectare does not mean oblectare but rather movere and that pleasure itself thus form utility concerns utility pleasure operates the audience the will
"
i
he
,
(
of
,
).
11.
(
if
he
11.
tinction is sometimes applicable . For example , if the poet wishes to arouse the passions, he must attend to “ ornaments " and " figures ” ( 99-113 uses old traditional characters exercises no invention but makes these characters his own through proper disposition and elocution 119-30 The last part the text aside from the recommendations for
POETIC
THEORY
LOVISINI ( 1554) As compared with Denores , the Aristotelian flavor of Francesco Lovisini's In librum Q. Horatii Flacci de arte poetica commentarius ( 1554 ) is much more considerable . This results in part from the generous citation of the Poetics to explain passages in the Ars poetica , in part from the numerous to various other works of Aristotle , especially the Nicomachean Ethics and the Rhetoric . Indeed , the whole impression of erudition is much greater ; Lovisini brings into his commentary on Horace every possible quotation from Greek and Latin literature that seems to him to have some
of
the
references
,
,
,
to
.
—
of to
—
of
.
in
of
in
to
of
an
as at
,
of
be or
question to words the lines Much this erudition turns out historical content very like that the expositors the beginning the century and adds little the meaning poetry For Lovisini's interpretation the text art Horace the most significant references are those rhetorical treatises primarily relevance
however
,
,
new words
)
)
(
)
diction
)
(
)
none
(
)
130
)
)
(
none
of
)
)
(
)
epic meter )
iamb
tragedy
daily speech
)
(
iamb
)
(
iamb
in in
1449a26
meters
poetic genres
1459634
1449a21
poetic styles
mixture
1447a15
(
1460al
(
(
meters for genres
)
none
usage
(
)
)
(
(
)
)
1456620
1448631
86-88
)
)
(
) )
of of
)
(
)
( ( (
(
none
elocution
(
73-85
none
epic
)
60_72
none
subject
)
52-59
(
46-51
order
(
42-45
choice
nity not from hero
none
total excellence
(
38-41
vices
style
(
32-37
in
1451a19
24-31
as
(
(p
1451633
soul
)
unity
)
(
,
simplicity
lot
poetry and painting episodic plot
( (
144804
14-23
poet from imitation
1447613 1450a38
(u
)
(
congruous subject
)
Aristotle
as
of
of
Horace 1-13
the texts cited from the Poetics
which follows
:
of
,
.
the majority
list
a
also true Horace
to is
text This parallels
of
of
;
,
,
as
as
,
he
,
all
,
,
.
to ,
Demetrius Hermogenes invokes enable him contest and correct the older commentators such Acron and Porphyrion Maggi Grifoli and Denores but these and the more recent ones such corrections concern points detail rather than any general reading the Aristotle's Rhetoric but also Cicero Quintilian and others These sources plus the others
ARS POETICA
:
93-95
WITH ARISTOTLE
Aristotle
Horace 89-92
CONFUSION
( trag . and comedy )
( style
com . )
of tr . ,
96-103 ( speech of tragedy )
( audience emotion
)
( trag .
1453a18
( Thyestes
145361 1453a21
( pity and fear ) ( tragic families )
145361
(pity and fear )
1455a30
( emotion of poet ) ( sources of emotion
145224 speech )
( none )
of speech
( none )
104-13
(action and
114-18
(decorum
119-27
(old , new heroes )
( improbabilities
1453622
( Từ đouỚTTOVTG )
1454a22
( TÓ Suolov )
14S4a25
( Tò đuaAO
(Homeric subjects )
1448b38
( epic beginning )
( none )
(
( none )
)
( “in medias res " )
( true ,
1451a36
( decorum
158-60
( child )
of
age )
(none
)
161-65
( youth )
(none )
(adult )
( none )
169–74
( old man )
175–78
( traits for
179-88
( on-, off - stage )
189–90
( five acts )
(none ) each )
( none ) 145361
( emotions from spectacle )
1450635
(magnitude ) ( time of tragedy , epic )
1449612 deus ex machina " )
193-201 ( chorus ) 202–7
( necessary , probable )
( none )
166-68
(“
)
false )
153-57
191-92
in Odyssey )
144a20
( old subjects )
)
plots )
(traditional
136–39 140-45
)
1460a35
128–35
146-52
and comedy )
1448a16
(melody , music )
1452a15
( “ deus ex machina ( parts of tragedy )
1456a29
(choral
1450a7
( qualitative parts ) (melody ) ( harmony , rhythm
145462
1450618 1447a23
208-19
( licence , vulgarity )
1447a26
220-24
( satyrs in tragedy
1449627
songs )
)
) and fear )
1451637
( satyric tragedy ) (dramatic contests
1462b11
( tr. superior to epic )
1449a19
225–33
( decorum of satyrs )
( none )
234–39
( satyric diction
(none )
240-43
( satyric invention )
)
( (pity
")
( none ) ( 131 )
)
THEORY
POETIC
Aristotle
)
,
) )
) )
of
'
" )
)
“
)
) )
)
of
,
( (
)
)
»
)
of
,
(
)
(
)
(
)
)
(
)
(
(
)
)
(
)
)
(
)
(
)
)
(
)
)
( ( (
)
) )
none
)
(
none
)
)
of
all
)
(
(
none
of
)
)
none
)
)
none
(
of
„ „
music and poetry
none
)
(
( (
(
463–69 470–76
(
453-63
none
none
critic mad poet role
painting
none
true critic
445–52
oetry
none
)
( (
434–37
(p
)
) )
)
poet
friends
438-44
1450a38
none
)
,
(
flatterers
426-33
145469
1447a24
art
to
(
419-25
advice
(
412–18
errors
Homer
none
)
of
(
nature
errors
none
correction civilizing role raise poetry
(p
408-11
two kinds
probable
none
ignorant poets
391-99
necessary
none
poetry for delight
386-90 400-7
,
( (
no mediocrity
(
379–85
painting
(
374–78
as
(
)
(
)
1460b15
)
poet
(
366-73
poetry
,
)
none
1451a36
1454a29
361-65
imitation
)
of
(
(
errors
oetry
qualitative parts
poetry
of
347–60
(p
( )
1447a15
Roman avarice ends
as
)
)
model
(
333-46
officium
none
144967
323-32
imitation
(
as
(
life
(
309-16 317–22
talent poetic furor
(
1447a13
knowledge
comedy
comedy
)
( )
)
(
1455a33
poetic problems
(
art and nature
(
301-8
definition chorus
additions
none
Latin poets
295–301
tragedy
)
1449a37
origins
Aeschylus
in
)
(
1449a31
of
)
(
)
1448a29
)
of
(
tragedy
old comedy
285–94
errors
none
1449a15
281–84
Euripides
'
1454a28
)
.
(
history
275–80
φθαρτικόν
)
(
Lat poets
Plautus censured
270–74
αισχρόν
none
( (
(Gk .
1449a35
(
260-69
satyrs )
(
( amb and spondee )
(
(speech of vs.
244-50 251-59
(
Horace
to
,
to
,
,
-
]
[
132
.
of
as
-
is
.
,
an
it is
I
in
Lovisini's divisions such detail respecting have given this list interesting what see the Horatian text for several reasons First sixty number divisions now subdivided Lovisini's extent the text each division the subject matter eight and what topics are indicated are brought passages many the Poetics from Second the list shows how
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
into association with the text , and to what ideas in Horace they are said to be parallel . It is easy to see how commentators and critics , finding so many recurrences of ideas in the two documents, might be strengthened in their conviction that Horace was merely imitating or paraphrasing Aristotle and that the two theorists were saying essentially the same things . But a close study of the parallels in the above list shows that the resemblances are largely topical ; in some cases they concern purely historical matters , such as the identity of Thyestes or Aeschylus ' additions to the tragic form ; in others they show that the two theorists were writing about the same topics,
us , ,
; in
as
as
he
,
the soul
or
is
imitation and not because tragedy the third
of
of
that plot
or
the second
,
;
verse
in
writes
in
states that the poet is a poet by reason
his
but do not indicate conclusions by any means similar . For example , to take a case of “ multiple reference ,” three passages from Aristotle are cited as parallel to lines 1-13 of the Ars poetica. In the first of these Aristotle
,
,
”
;
at
to
,
of
in
is
, is
of it
,
"
,
“
,
;
to
in
to
as
do .
that poets represent characters better worse than we like just painters support Now the first cited the general idea attributed these lines Horace that the poet follows fantasy rather opinion proper for Horace than the second show that treat very beginning the the constitution the argument and the plot the pictoribus atque third because Horace had drawn the comparison
....
,
,
of
a
on
of
it
Or
,
of
or
of
of
"
of
passages neither indicates This juxtaposition clear con plot nor Aristotle's theory imitation his definition any light comprehension for that matter does throw additional the
poetis ception
:
be
to
,
be
in
be
in
,
to
.
Horace's lines for another such example five passages from Aristotle lines 119–27 which Horace says that when traditional keeping with the tradi characters are introduced they must handled tion and that when new ones are used they must made self are fitted
of
,
is
to
&
tà
,
;
as
...
;
"
of
of
"
the honoratum Achillem consistency identical with that they may for Lovisini's interpre be
.
,
Horace These parallels interesting
as
a
,
traditional character such dualov states principle
,
historical fifth that
,
;
to or
"
“
to
be
be ;
no
,
be
.
is
to
consistent Aristotle first quoted show that traditional materials must followed exactly matter how improbable they may second that equiv puÓTTOVTA traditional plots must not modified third that alent sibi conuenientia fourth that to ouoiov means similarity
be
it
—
.
as
,
be
,
of
to ,
poets which Aristotle's theoretical position
all
of
this elaborate commentary and this extensive juxtaposition called Lovisini's interpretation Erudition and the conventional explanations have taken the 133
)
(
Horace
.
of
,
texts there emerges very little that might
be
Out
of
.
and certain practical counsels did not admit
it
at
.
of
,
in
I
,
to
a
of
,
to
of
tation Aristotle add little the interpretation Horace unless certain number irrelevant and inappropriate considerations Finally have produced the complete list above demonstrate what scholarship were still regarded passages Horace this stage independent Aristotle These will seen largely concern Latin poetry
POETIC
THEORY
of independent reading. Lovisini assigns the usual passages to inven tion , disposition , and elocution , makes the usual comparisons between place
and rhetoric , insists as did his predecessors on the decisive role of in determining the nature of poems. A few points that he makes are , however, original enough to deserve special mention . For one , he seems to be more of a Platonist than many of his forerunners ; in the poetry
all
the audience
on
“
)
”
all (
1.
,
“
as he
;
a
in
first section of commentary , he quotes the Symposium to the effect that artisans and artificers are poets sense and the Apology the divine furor identifies Horace's exemplar vitae 317 with the Idea ,
,
as
of
:
,
he
in
at in
"
is
,
he
it
is
on
.
.
,
in
in
.”
the Parmenides contains
31
,
Plato says
separate from them
is
particular things and Moreover many passages are quoted from Plato connection with incidental matters For another Lovisini emphasizes certain ideas about the relationship between poetry and nature From his probability comments lines 14–23 clear that thinks natural probability for defends the Dido episode the Aeneid this way that episode not completely inconsistent with the matter hand but which
in
,
." 32
;
a
as
at
is
,
to
he
.
of
,
us in as
“
",
of
”
ut
,
of
,
ut
us
is
,
in
to
life
as
ut
,
of
,
24v
in of
of
).
( .p
in
”
“
to
,
“
33
us
.
mity
in
the Odyssey exhort bear adverse fortune with equani resulting from allegory plots He sees the prodesse which repre wisely thoroughly teach and what best and from the sentation character which teaches our duty.34 Utility and pleasure moueret delectaret doceret are expanded into the triple Cicero with the third member the trilogy making the other two effective
,
justice
:
on
by
.
a
in
a
in
,
by
of
rather produces pleasure through the variety materials frequently the outermost lands storms have arrived fact voyagers driven justification for The fact that thing may happen nature taken particular happening Lastly Lovisini expands Horace's specific poem poetry He quotes Theon notions about utility and pleasure the ends might inspire men the ends proposed Homer the Iliad that
in
of
'
,
,
1554. The next such formal discussion will not
be
Lovisini's
in
,
1553
in
:
in
of
a
of
five formal series 1554 was the last Lovisini's commentary space appeared poetica expositions six short the which the Ars Maggi's 1550 Denores years and Grifoli's 1548 Robortello's
pub "
.
Parmenide
,
Plato
no
by
in
ait
,
,
), à .p re est ." : “
res
(
., , & .p ab 7v : “ ijs
32
Idaea quae
ut
,
31
63v
Commentarius 1554 continet seiuncta
"
in
.
,
,
in
,
in
1561 when Pigna produces his Poetica Horatiana lished for many documents years intervening the Horatian mode But the published means interrupted and the tradition was were written and
seven years
singularia
omnia
,
."
)
(
134
prudenter
edocent
"
uita
sit ,
,
,
in
66 : “
., .p
Ibid fabularum allegoria quibus quid optimum officium poetae boni inflammant moribus etiam nos ad
and
“
34
."
, in
ad
. "
in
ad
ut :
4v : "
., .p
33
proposita non penitus abhorret quin potius rerum uarietate Ibid illa delectationem affert nauigantes enim saepe ultimas terras tempestate appulsi peruenerunt Odyssaea ferendam aequo animo iustitiam inflammct homines Ibid aduersam fortunam nos cohortatur
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
six
:
In fact, during
the last two of these were being published Benedetto
,
he
a
In
.
”
(“
dal
of
he
,
“
as
to
in
of
;
of
but most the Lezzioni della poetica the direction Horace sense speaks ascribes the same movement Horace himself since the quale Poetics the text from which Horace drew his own art
of
specifically the text the Poetics move rapidly away from Aristotle
,
at a
,
of
,
we
As
.
,
, in
to
of
,
,
years while the formal com Varchi was delivering series part lectures the Accademia Fiorentina which reflected least the same Horatian ideas The lectures dated 1553 and 1554 were not published until 1590. departure was shall see later Varchi's point mentaries
.
,
of of
be is
or
,
; of to ,
of
a
in
close contact with that
.
of
,
Cicero whom Varchi cites and brings Varchi's position into the rhetoricians ,
in
authority
).
.p
,
of
",
la
cauò Horazio sua 677 With Horace also Varchi insists that the knowledge poetry ancient the art derived from arts modern insufficient without the poet's natural gifts both art and nature must added firm knowledge several languages and the poets who have written them This emphasis upon knowledge various kinds finds
.
he
,
an
As
,
be
,
to
.
if
of
:
in ,
as
,
is
Cicero the authority well for Varchi's declaration that the qualities requisite for the poet are three number eloquence goodness and know poetry are ledge All three are required the ends achieved produces Varchi explains the relationship between qualities and ends to
an
,
a
,
, of
,
is
It
,
or
of
we ,
,
are soon
the sensual kind which comes from the harmonies
of
a
kind combining the two
source
pleasure
for
the
:
.
,
be a
poetry but also the intellectual kind and utility itself will others For this reason soul ,
But pleasure
35
things
."
knowledge
of
,
behavior not only
of
, is
told
of of
ness
or
of
of
;
“
:
...
,
be
,
,
in
.
, in ,
.
as
,
in
extremely interesting statement one degree certain dis which tinctions are lost The ends Horace would wish them are utility and pleasure We discover the following sentence initial dependence ends from qualities which utility springs from goodness and knowledge and pleasure from eloquence therefore necessary that good and eloquent virtuous and erudite otherwise we could perfect poets should good never derive and learn from them either delightfulness words
,
all ),
),
in
or
in
so
of , ... or
(
in
all
of
(
of
,
of
(
of
),
is
... because pleasure three sorts the mind which we shall call intellectual pleasure the body which we shall call sensual pleasure and the soul and the body together which we shall call mixed common pleasure we must know surely more that the poets alone the poets than other writers pleasures are found together
)
,
si
, e
i
, o
poeti buoni perfetti siano imparare non potrebbe
."
cose
it be
of
.
;
be ;
ne scienza
135
che
loro trarre di
,
costumi
(
ne bontà
. . .
da
: “
Bisogna dunque
di
di
630
dottrinati altramente mai ,
, e
(
,
ne
1
od .) , .p
. . .
are
35
Lezzioni 1590 eloquenti virtuosi leggiadria
of
For the harmony the delights properly body words which heard the and the utility the things which are understood delights properly the mind but because words cannot separated from things expressed without words and things cannot these three kinds
THEORY
POETIC
comes to pass that the soul as well as the body , at the very same time , are delighted by words through things and by things through words.36 these passages , an additional distinction has been introduced . It is the distinction between " res " and " verba , " taken both as components of the poem and as causes of effects All some such schematism the following results as
all ,
in
Parts
or
the poet
Qualities
of
of
:
.
its
In
Ends
the poem
effects
pleasure
knowledge eloquence
things
utility
pleasure
words
pleasure
to
Much
to
utility
,
,
things
of
goodness
to is ,
or
of
,
of
:
all of of of
all
,
.
a
of
,
in
,
as
he
is
,
of
say what Varchi has this Horatian context relates the utility essentially teaching What end which sees form taught primarily lessons for ethics secondarily information pertaining knowledge the rewards branches virtue the punishments for vice
or to
be
to
: “
or
as
or
as
do
,
in
).
the sciences
this kind alone merit
(p .
576 On the basis their success failure teaching one will classify poets good bad Those praise who remove men from the vices and inspire them
the elements
or
,
,
to or
:
(
)
1
be
do
. "
all
“
,
37
,
, in
;
.
,
they then the others this more less are more praised less and held esteem Those who the opposite should punished Among them Varchi distinguishes four separate classes The plebeian poets judgment knowledge those who without art the virtues
.”
2 )
.
Examples
3
,
or
in
,
or
or be )
(
.
,
;
"
,
38 . ”
banished
.
be ill
of
,
or
(
, of it ,
mendation should .pp
,
:
as
4 )
,
The obscene poets such
.
,
Burchiello Antonio Alamanni Berni Ovid and Catullus these especially should through their wicked nature punished The satirical poets who through hatred paid merely for because they have been besought joy keeping with Plato's recom speak the others These
.”
words
of
all
,
“
on
of
plays
(
of
to
please the common people and write only make the crowd laugh Examples are the authors Morgante the and the Girone Cortese The ridiculous poets those poets who write for the sake nonsense and
,
o
ne i
,
il
, di il
di
...
, e
il
e
,
da '
gli
,
ė,
,
le ;
le
parole non l'animo ma perche parole sprimersi quinci senza medesimo tempo cosi l'animo come ,
vn
e le
, e
., ."
il
à
,
possono separarsi dalle cose che l'vne per l'altre l'altre per l'vne dilettano corpo quegli soli meritano tutte Ibid 585 37
ne '
; e ,
,
,
diletta propiamente cose non possono
l'vtilità delle cose che s'intendono
...
, e
,
è di
il
: “
, , si
,
in
gli
,
,
il
.,
;
di
36
perchè quale chiamaremo intel 631–32 diletto tre ragioni d'animo corpo quale chiamaremo sensuale corpo insieme quale lettuale d'anima poeti soli chiamaremo misto ouero comune deuemo sapere che certamente piu poeti che tutti altri scrittori ritrouano tutte tre queste maniere diletti insieme corpo mente percioche l'armonia delle parole che s'odono diletta propriamente Ibid
)
136
, o
, o
da
, e
, o
,
o
,
."
male d'Altrui
(
,
, o
i
,
o
,
, o ”; “
,
il
,
le
." ,
in
,
, e
: far “
" o
"
;
, e
.
,
.,
38
scriuono
gli
: "
.p
gl'accendono
o pp
,
o
lodi quali rimuouono huomini alle virtù altri poi12secondo che piu meno cio fanno deono pregio tenuti meno lodati essere piu giudizio Ibid 585–87 tutti quegli che senza arte dottrina scriuono solo per Volgo piacere alla Plebe ridere tutti quei poeti che scrivono per ciancia motteggio per loro cattiva Natura per odio per preghi per danari per sollazzo vizij
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
There are , in Varchi's lengthy Lezzioni , a number of miscellaneous borrow for the proper use of specifically from Horace , as is the demand decorum ( p. 583 ) are derived ings from the Ars poetica . The recommendations
for the hexameter as the correct epic verse ( p. 616 ). But these , by 1553 , are completely commonplace and make very little contribution to the develop ment of the Horatian mode. The " Horatian mode ” is clearly present Dialogi della inventione poetica of 1554. The
of
,
of
“
to
its
of
in
is
.
a
,
a
of
it of a
of
set
in Alessandro Lionardi's two dialogues represents preceding years for instead kind converse the commentaries the introducing rhetorical distinctions into basically Horatian exposition basically rhetorical treatise The introduces Horatian elements into poetical spite treatise rhetorical the fact that title refers —
is
as
,
.
to
to
of
,
of
,
. "
a
of
Lionardi begins with consideration three associated arts rhetoric history and poetry which belong together not only because they are arts discourse but also because they serve the same practical ends teaching men how speak and act Of these arts poetry the most invention
it
:
in
of
is
it
;
is
;
If
all an
.
,
in
he
so
,
a
(
in
he
,
in
)
as or
historian
.
imposes
in , of
language ,
special kind
,
is
,
by
a
predominant
the historian
of
expresses them
in
,
an
artificial order
the historian and
here that invention
the poet takes the true materials provided
upon them
of
includes the arts
is
It ,
his information
the orator and goes beyond them
.
well
as
,
.
the orator
His art For
by
of
.
be
of
to
of
to
order
to
order describe nature and contrive plots write speeches and deliberations for his personages and may know the that historian his audience move the passions great men and the pertinent facts about virtuous and vicious actions astrology pre countries and peoples Moreover must erudite sumably because the relationships between the constellations and the myths about the gods and numerous other arts not needed the orator
in
and moral philosopher
of
,
be be ). a
to
be
of
a
else
it
of
which Aristotle had given primacy over other elements these above true about poetry and invention then the poet must knowledge He must man possessed various kinds natural
(
poetry things
,
is
,
of
,
it
.
of
,
it
because embraces the other two which serve auxiliaries and instruments All three make use invention disposition and elocu tion which invention the most important for various reasons requires the greatest and most special talent most directly responsible speaking and action imitation the equivalent for the teaching excellent
,
the passions
,
, of of
obtains his knowledge
to
necessity and probability
in of
.
.
in
and treats them verse His inventive powers are manifested besides the transformation of truth into verisimilitude From the rhetorician he actions and their causes
]
of
he
;
,
,
by
of
he
of
137
[
.
is
of
as
of
.
to
all
argue how various circumstances these are matters which pertain invention From the rhetorician also disposition and elocution learns such aspects the proper ordering speeches and the many figures speech various kinds which language made more ornate From both these obtains the means for achieving
POETIC
THEORY
his ends of teaching
men how to live and speak properly ; he will argue provide him , persuade with the truth , move with the they with the reasons passions, and delight with the eloquent diction . Into this context , many Horatian ideas are readily incorporated . This is done not so much by way of the citation of corroborating arguments as by the casual use of formulas borrowed directly from the Ars poetica . Thus at
of Dialogue I , Lionardi says that one of the main tasks poetic of the art is so to operate “ that common materials become one's p ; own ” ( . 7) later in the same dialogue he treats decorum and natural
the very beginning
( pp .
versus artificial order in terms which suggest Horace's
of
.
In
67 )
(p .
of
is
res ”
line 333 of the Ars poetica. In Dialogue II , the passing discussion of the “ beginning again reminiscent spite medias Horace
in
of
end
16–18 ); at the
it , the phrase “ it is proper to the poet to delight and profit ” reflects
of
on on
imita
plot without
on
,
51 )
of
as
on
15 ),
.p ( .p
(
on
,
,
tion
and harmony the possibility impossible probable the and
14 14 ), ),
.
( (p .p .
its
as
poetry deriving essence not from verse but from imitation the source on Nature the necessary and the probable rhythm
.
an
the direct textual reference
is
of of
on
of
cites the Poetics
of
perhaps current trends that there even larger the Poetics and other Aristotelian works Lionardi the distinction between poetry and history
is
It
in
,
the Horatian text than because
also significant number citations
of
attached
its ,
to of
such allusions however Lionardi's work belongs the present series rather because associations with the rhetorical tradition now currently
.
76 )
62 ),
:
of
of
( .p
of
of
)
80
to
of
.
I
of
by
as
an
of
a
in
.
(p
as
, "
imitation also for the division between the passions banned and those permitted —all this poetry connection with defence the utility cite these various borrowings not for their own sake but the extent indication “
and for the distinction between narration and
(p . on on
67 ),
( .p
(p .
58 ),
other subjects upon support He also calls various Platonic texts for his ideas the Republic and the Phaedo for the requisites the poet the Republic for the condemnation the arousing certain passions character
;
e
II
in
similar mixture found Book
a
of of
basically rhetorical analysis other elements into Matteo San Martino's Osservationi grammaticali
A is
.
to
of
a
of
,
is a
.
which the divers intellectual traditions are this time mixed and confused For Lionardi the essential approach rhetorical one but poetic elements formal character from Aristotle and moral elements from Plato are intermingled the discussion serve the purposes
II
an
.
is
in
a
of
is
),
(
It
:
an
by
.
of
,
of
;
it
that contains the Book for della lingua italiana 1555 poesy begins with the standard poetical observations defence expanded present here Then comes interest fashion nothing poetry which merits quotation definition
poetiche
to
so
to
)
(
,
138
;
,
as
so
be
I
...
,
.
of
is a on is
of
nothing else but human actions accompanied imitation say that might perhaps part bold the listener the wonder lovely fiction which restricted within harmonized rhythms imitating poetics that him who listens human actions brings profit along with delight Poetry
an
is
it
. . .
.
certain
that
he
is
do
he is
he of
(
in ,
he
;
a
be
as
,
be
,
is
they should such discord with the middle nor the middle
. 39
,
they were but
in
as so
),
of
of
in
,
profit and delight else such wise that they really not filling poet constantly the reader with joy and with the name may delight mixing ever feigning new things that with such novelty
wonder true things with false that not way that neither the beginning will with the end ,
part
principal
in
.
,
should tend and delight and
I
not
pre made unless the invention with which one imitates the poet and the end toward which for the function say that the poems must investigate things which can profit
imitation cannot pared first And
worthy
its
secondary
,
is
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
as be
imitation
its
ARS POETICA
One begins
, .
of
-
in
in
on
.
of
a
in
all
,
,
,
,
a
in
on to ,
such definition with Aristotle continues with Cicero Horace encounters nameless rhetoricians and concludes with final statement which are lumped together the most helter skelter fashion The same kind confusion prevails other parts the work passes
,
,
(p .
the imitation
” .
"
"
is "
.p in or
"
to
the poets
, or
or
,
; a
In
.
final intention
the
“
to
be e
of
farther
“
);
133
on , of
of
is to ; " all
,
,
There are for example five statements the role the function the main concern the poet are different the passage just quoted the giovar function and end are dilettare few pages later the poetry principal part fittione inventione the said
,
in
,
of
“
to
a
,
);
(
or to
to
he
,
to
;
is , to in
of
is
in
of
in
almost direct contradiction the passage above 135 still later longer text considerable interest which the poet said need per suasion which consists the principal strength the intent the poet acquire belief for his incitements which for which purpose order profit through delight placate others under the strives move
As
an of .)
”
(
at
.p
,
clear subordination
of
;
is at
a
,
a
to
make
any one source document
.
another
)
”
all
,
is as ,
“
unwillingness to
;
, ( .p
of
finally his activities are directed toward veil his fictions 178 teaching delighting and profiting readers the same time 180 through There these texts certain concentration upon the end poetry instructing and giving pleasure but there the same time
1555
, is ,
is
pp
San Martino provides the usual suggestions
129–31
: “ la
Osservationi
However
,
133
).
.
,
.
no
;
of
39
(p
them
be of
he
in
the making
rhetorician
,
a
he
poems the poet for San Martino provided with precepts for invention must disposition and elocution precepts for the first But really there are subjects since the number infinite and the poet has free choice among operates
essentially
Poesia altro non
for
la
,
a
,
.
si
de
,
,
e
e
o
,
)
(
139
ne ,
le
;
."
,
si
la
si
in
di
, le
che con simil nouita diletti cose uere con false mescolando per maniera che ne'l principio dal mezzo
furono ma quali esser deucano discordino
, e
è
la
, di
, si
, al e il si
,
e
& ,
Si
far
;
a
a
lo
è
Et
è di
fingendo
... .
... temerario
,
.
chi l'ascolta
è
.
di ),
(
che imitatione delle humane forse mi mouero dire che Poetica sia una uaga fittione che fra harmonizzati numeri ristretta imitando l'humane attioni con diletto gioui chi l'ascolta che imitatione sua parte secondaria non principale prepari certo non potersi imitatione che prima non inuentione con cui imitti quanto inuestigar officio del Pocta fine oue tender debbia dico che nei Poemi cose che giouar possano dilettare che effecto giovino dilettino che degno non giocondita merauiglia nuoue cose sempre tal nome continuo riempiendo lettor
attioni con merauiglia
cioè non quali questo dal fine
POETIC what he calls
THEORY
parts of invention , " i.e.
“ the six
, exordium
, narration , divi
sion , confirmation , confutation , and conclusion ; the poet's invention is thus the same as the orator's ( p. 159 ). Disposition , or the “ ordinatione " the materials , largely concerns words ; Horace is called upon for many
,
and occasional borrowings from Aristotle and
-
the long quoted passage
in
-
in
.
of
in
be
all
of of the precepts here . As for elocution , the largest part of San Martino's treat ment is devoted to it ; for words constitute the “ materia " of poetry ( p. 159 ) and if they are properly chosen and arranged , “from them will result in the minds of the readers a most sweet harmony adorned with inconceivable loveliness " ( p . 179 ) . For these elements the counsels are those which might any found the standard rhetorics To them are added gener incorporated ous materials from the Ars poetica the way exemplified ,
in
,
.
in
,
,
is
in
his
:
it
is
,
10 ,
to
,
is
by
as
.
,
Plato These remain however auxiliary and subsidiary and they are intro they furnish additional authority for points duced only the rhetorical unchanged system their accretion which Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio's Letter Bernardo Tasso dated October scope 1557 more limited than the preceding document two ways first only poetry defending his epic deals with since Giraldi
"
“
is ;
of
is a as
—
.
is
in
it ,
of
if
.
,
,
it
to
it
to
to
so ,
,
of
be
me that this must
to
of
to
wit was granted me see that the whole the light the useful and the honest since seemed the end the poet and not pleasure alone For we
in
work was composed
do
as
:
strove insofar ,
I
passage
of
is
, it
.
of
;
no
—
,
of by of in
Ercole
the ends
in
and second Horatian almost solely the con departure the poetry Giraldi takes his point thesis means original that poetry kind first philosophy utility proposed utility pleasure hence the two ends and for indisputably the more important The theory expounded the following practice ception
to a we
,
chartae.40
41
,
usai quanto meglio
mi fu
ed .) , .p
."
of
“
to
,
di
In
Lettere XIII huomini illustri 1565 871 l'ingegno perche l'opera tutta fusse composta all'utile 40
to
.
to
is
represent
to
assigned goal
thus exclusively moral The poet must seek appropriate behavior which honest and honorable living praiseworthy actions and social procedures the whole scale is
The utility proposed
an
to
,
Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere
said
:
—
as
us
;
from the fountain that philosophy which life must direct our actions Horace showed when
he as
to a
of
of
,
of
a
us
,
is
it ,
to
say about poetry nothing else but believe what the ancient writers have working philosophy secretly proposes first which like schoolmistress life under poetic covering the image civilized and praiseworthy life drawn
,
le
,
a
,
&
,
gli
ne
,
,
,
:
& "
,
la
di
la
a
,
, ci
,
mostrò Horatio quando disse Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae
140
)
(
."
attioni
&
alle lodeuoli
,
honorata
,
,
si
: “
., .p
Ibid 872 che conuiene alla uita honesta alla uarietà delle cose ciuili
et
41
."
.
,
che
ci
il
, di
,
attioni
.
il
,
&
,
è
La
;
il
,
.
(
concesso all'honesto parendomi che questo debba essere fine del Poeta non diletto solo Però che per quanto dicono auttori quale quasi occulta maestra della antichi Poesia non altro che una prima filosofia imagine propone lodeuole uita tratta dal una ciuile uita sotto uelame poetico proposto segno habbiamo drizzare nostre fonte essa filosofia alla qual uita quasi
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
Applying this theory in his own poem , Giraldi has depicted the life of a man who was an example of praiseworthy and honorable actions ( p. 868 ) ; he has universalized the illustrious actions , making sure that honesty was respected ( p. 874 ) ; he has tried to arouse compassion and move morality by praising his audience ( ibid . ) ; above has attended condemning the vices and giving wherever necessary the the virtues instruct order the latter rewards the former and the punishments praiseworthy according persons the station their ranks various
,
"
to
, in in
,
to
42
.”
life
,
of to
to
,
,
to
he
all ,
everywhere
,
I
in
“
.
as
“
to
.
).
(p
it
to
I
,
by
at
is
to byI
,
to
43
a
by.”
by
, "
is ,
it
to
of
be
, to a
of
is a
to
of
means the achievement this utility saw that the reader with greater make this utility enter into the mind sought pleasure whence very wide pathway could efficacy made companion make the profit and did not wish take my primary object produced writing the work poetica Pleasure given places stopping intercalate ornaments and mente that devising entertaining digressions the These add beauty 873
Pleasure
order
an
,
in
it
of ,
.
an
)
as
(
be
of
is
it
if
.
it
composition and make the reader follow with greater attention Even the Aristotle and Horace have pointed out rendered beautiful treated with the proper decorum and then becomes additional Similarly the use pleasure source the pagan gods acceptable
ugly may
is
, an
of
,
).
(p .
of
,
it is
).
.
(p
its
,
as
ancient subject such the Ercole may increase the marvelous the poem possibilities for delight Finally verse itself and hence 882 additional ornament which when allied with appropriate diction 888 both utility and pleasure serves the purposes
,
by
it
—
is
of
).
(
.p
of
of
.
of
to
to
,
of
he
,
no of
Giraldi's conception the poem made conform these require clearly unity ments involves notion the artistic structure Indeed specifically rejects the need for unity unity action and replaces only unifying hero 868 The life Hercules the element unless
in of
of
.
,
or
one take into consideration the general moralizing intent the prevailing many gathered concern with decorum Around this life Giraldi has
of
of
( .pp
as
it
he
,
to
an
he
,
.
)
hold the interest his readers please and insists calculated is
order
does
,
he in
from one canto another Everything that 879–80
he to
to
,
of ,
is
”
.
by
“
,
actions some them taken from ancient poets some them invented himself Since the subject ancient has treated the manner the ancients except for the addition such modern devices transitions
, a
la
,
“ to
of
in
è
secondo
dare oue uarie qualità
&
di
,
i
,
stato bisogno
,
—
of it
or
,
le
,
. la "
, a : "
., .p
il
42
uitij Ibid 881 con lodare uirtù biasimare quelle premio queste pena per formare persone conditione alla lodeuole uita 43
is
.
in
of
"
“
to
of
instruct the specific audience that has mind This not audience vulgo praise ever wrote give the -10 poet worthy order pleasure this vulgar crowd made his judges but the best
loro
al
il
)
(
&
141
." ,
,
: "
, ui
., .p
,
a
Ibid 872 uidi ch'a fare che con maggiore efficacia questo utile entrasse nell'animo poteua fare assai ampia strada giouamento chi leggeua diletto onde cercai ch'egli fussi compagno no'l uolli prendere per primo oggetto
POETIC
THEORY
its
.pp
judges , " those who know why the poem pleases them and are capable
evaluating
of
in it
of
a
of
again falls into broadly the goal proposed patterns rhetorical But much the detailed treatment diction the figures and the styles present the more ambitious treatises absent here ,
of
,
is
an
of to of
of
in
is ,
,
—
in
to
de '
in
,
at
.
are the numerous cross references ancient theorists Similar ideas about the poetic art are work even briefer compass poeti illustri Girolamo Ruscelli's dedication his Fiori delle rime 1558 similar that the general application rhetorical criteria
,
as
to
,
in
.
of
as
effect upon that audience
is to
).
of
.
, of it
,
to
its
In
.
to
to
of
,
In
(
artistic excellences 876–78 poetry comes these ways the Horatian conception the ends poetic everything inform Giraldi's whole theory the art Almost subordinated the wish instruct and even the devices for pleasure are ancillary general supposition this the work and certain
in
of
,
in
of
,
of
,
in
.
a
poetry Ruscelli starts out with poetry general but defence not spite Italian poetry declaring that the prejudice favor Greek and
.
in
.
”
in
,
in
in
a
is
,
in
“
to
possibility that Italian will soon come equal Latin literature there profit Ariosto has already proved this delight and both the epic and Petrarch elegiac verse One may judge for the lyric others them
of of of
,
of
,
all
,
of of La
,
of
in
in
,
, in
in
to
be
: “
to be
oneself This may easily discovered by those who having the art and the judgment able know entirely the degrees and the places perfection disposition style and invention the other parts elocution will consider those compositions Bembo Guidiccioni be
,
a
,
in
of
,
of
, of
of
all
spiritual things
the sciences
are able
to ,
is
, of
of
philosophy
as
as
history and cases many other subjects
.”
to
and almost poetry furnish
45
of
there are subjects
in
.” : 44
,
a
of
,
of
"
,
,
all
of in
of
Molza Pescara The proof word will found poetry Ruscelli's anthology which one may see the true portrait poetry where one finds the examples every splendor the beauties capable receiving and where every ornament that language and Sannazaro
of
on
)
,
of
(
in
Although the passages Cristoforo Rufo's Antexegemata 1559 which interest for poetic theory largely concern the Poetics there are
are
;
, a
of
The work
he
,
as
13 ).
.p
(
the plot
is to a
,
of
refers rather
to
it
that 44
is
.
in
is
to
a
several commentaries lines Horace and few places where rhetorical interpretation applied Aristotle This not true everywhere however connection with Poetics 1452b11 for example takes issue with referring Robortello's interpretation Trátos the audience and insists
collection
isolated
...
,
,
si gli
.
,
,
,
,
di
e i
i
, & in
" is
,
,
, &
La
., .p * .” “ :vij "
45
: "
), .p * da
(
jijv possono ageuolmente conoscer coloro che 1558 Ilche giudicio poter conoscere interamente gradi luoghi perfettione nella dispositione nello stile tutte l'altre parti della clocutione haue ranno considerati quei componimenti del Bembo del Guidiccioni del Sannazaro del Molza della Pescara Pescara Vittoria Colonna
Fiori delle rime
hauendo arte nella inucntione
." , &
di
le
)
(
142
&
di ,
,
le
di
,
,
di
,
ne
,
&
&
il
si
Ibid oue vede vero ritratto tutte bellezze della Poesia oue sono essempi d'ogni candidezza d'ogni omamento che vna lingua possa riceuere oue quasi hanno soggetti occasioni d'istorie filosofia cose spirituali tanti altri possono somministrar tutte soggetti quanti alla Poesia scienze
ARS POETICA
ARISTOTLE
WITH
CONFUSION
:
remarks on passages selected by Rufo because he disagrees with previous commentators . On Poetics 1456b8 , disagreeing with Maggi's reading, he maintains that the writer of tragedy may derive arguments from the same topics as does the rhetorician , since both seek to arouse the emotions ; but the poet must do so in a hidden way , whereas the orator's devices are apparent . On 1456b3 , adding to “pity and fear ” the additional effects of " amplification , proof , and persuasion , ” he again points out that these must be sought in the appropriate topics . For the Ars poetica , he provides commentary on two lines , on line 1 (where he disagrees with Maggi's gloss )
three short Origine the first della satira comedy emphasizing above a
dis all he
of
, and Ars poetica of Horace of of
the satires , epistles
set
to insist that the initial passage does not refer to plot alone but to the combination of plot and episodes, and on line 132 ( rejecting Maggi again ) to clarify the proper manner of adapting borrowed materials. 46 On the whole , however, the document is more interesting as it relates to the history of the Poetics , and I shall discuss it again later in that context . In the same year , 1559, Lodovico Dolce appended to his translation of
of
In
. "
to
le
,
In ,
epistole Discorso sopra had complementary functions second
47
is
"
"
,
"
of
:
to
,
of
,
In
said that the satires and the epistles
,
.
traced
he to
,
one for each the works tragedy and also the origins purposes the moral for which they were invented tragedy demonstrate how much the condition human frailty different from that divine felicity and beatitude comedy scold men for their vices the courses
to
to
:
its
in
art
on
be
it
I
,
by
be
is
,
of
by
)
it
la
(
in
,
a
of
;
it
,
48
. ”
of
: "
was his intention remove plant epistles the vices from the breast men and these the there poetica the virtues The third the Discorso sopra far the most important since gives brief summa what Dolce considered the points entirety salient Horace's text translate below almost the satires
he
in
;
he
on
in
,
of
In
he
,
of
on
.
in
in
be
;
he
.
of
he
,
all
it,
be in to
;
or
.
in
it
anything dis such form that there will not conformity everything but that will and appropriate be
give
it
to ,
or
cordant
and contrary
it
order
to , to
of
.
of us
in
to
is
to
submitting them correct diligently their compositions the judgment those who know The reader will thus learn from the notes that Horace gives this brief but most useful work his consider first very carefully the dispose material that these poets have proposed write about then that to
poets
of
poetry may This little book composed Horace the divided into five parts For demonstrates first the vices that the poet must flee then speaks the appropriateness that must observed words the third place touches the quality materials and persons and the differences that are present them the fourth treats actions and the fifth counsels
)
(
143
to
humana ,
.”
huomini huomini
gli
uitij dal petto
gli
uitij
de
i
della fragilità de
leuare
i
di
"
fu la
."
: “
le
di
sua intentione
conditione
per riprendere
"
: "
(
e
In
1
., .p
in 48
&
316 Nelle Satire piantarui uirtù
la
.
and H8 respectively
dilettevoli sermoni 1559 313 quanto fosse differente dalla felicità beatitudine Diuina and Ibid queste
to
or
,
H ,
,
G6 GS GSv ), , .p -
.pp
1559
),
Antexegemata
(
47 46
,
to
it
promised From this results that when poets have begun write serious things they should not descend low ones describe others that are lovely
POETIC THEORY and delightful but not pertinent , to show that they are clever . And in this , as in every other aspect , Ariosto merits infinite praise . Also , when we need to pass from one subject to another , we should do it in such a way that the composition
will not resemble a monster . Nor, fleeing one vice , should we fall into another ; but taking upon ourselves a burden equal to our strength , we should see to it
,
,
,
as
,
as
49
our Ariosto
of
or
.
its
that the end corresponds to the beginning and the middle ; and although we may treat divers things , and although the parts be varied , it should be a single body parts And which is not discordant in any of for the order they should begin from the middle after the middle the subject Homer Vergil and
.
did
, to
It
.
it
in
as
be
in
of
be
of
,
to
a
a
as
Such summary this indicates what points the Ars poetica seemed vulgarizer like Dolce worthy emphasis will noted that invention and disposition are clearly intimated and that the dominant principle appropriateness appears again had the earliest Horatian .
exegesis
,
Girolamo Ruscelli who only the year before had published his Fiori delle :
a
;
is
all
.
of
. of its , of
problems the superiority poetry over other forms superiority verse over prose He regards forms persuading delighting and moving the function
expression speech
and the having
as
,
of on
, . In of
a in
di
a
of
a
,
a
;
,
in
comporre rime published 1559 work called Del modo versi nella lingua italiana this was really combination two works treatise on verse comprising also fairly complete poetics and very lengthy rhyming dictionary poetics Ruscelli the section most concerned with two
its
of
.
on ”
da
,
is )
it is
“
,
to be
.
a
as
.
in
as a
(
If
.
.pp
It
of it of is be a
be
it
so ,
if
;
of
49
by of
is of to
to
to
if
contemporaries eternal life and bring glory
.
—
,
appeal only
-
it to
,
But whereas other poetry has added author Hence respect the basic dichotomy excellence These beauties one his analysis are both material and words For the subject matter poetry must itself may well special kind false invented produce belief the poet must handled such way the part the reader true historical subject rendered more forms are written beauties which give
:
:
,
ui
da i
,
le .
i
, e
,
,
di :
lei
darle una cotal forma che non u'habbia corrispondente conforme Onde hauendo
,
Il
di
,
.
,
di
al
coloro che sanno lettore adunque apparerà ricordi che questa sua brieue ma utilissima fatica considerar primieramente molto materia che essi hanno proposto scriuere poi disponerla cioè ordinarla in
giudicio
,
bene tutta
la
Horatio
,
,
, si e a le
i
.
; e
, e
la
da
ci
rimettendole
il
: “ Si
in
.,
puo diuidere questo libricciolo composto Ibid 317–18 Horatio sopra l'arte uitij che dee fuggire cinque parti Percioche egli prima dimostra della Poetica Poeta dipoi fauella della conueneuolezza che conuien serbare nelle parole nel terzo luogo tocca qualità delle materie delle persone differenze che entrano Nel quarto tratta corregger diligentemente dell'attioni nel quinto conforta Poeti lor compositioni
,
in
, , ci
,
,
e
in
,
in
.
di ,
, e
, o
in
i
a
Et in
,
.
,
,
.
e
,
cosa discordante contraria ma tutto sia promesso Poeti cominciato scriuer cose graui non discendano alle basse ouero discriuere alcune uaghe diletteuoli ma imperti questa come ogni altra parte merita infinita lode nenti per dimostrarsi ingeniosi guisa che'l componi l'Ariosto Douendo anco passar d'uno altro soggetto facciano al
&
."
,
e'l ,
,
,
un
al
le
. E ,
]
[
il
;
144
:
in
un
,
.
,
se
, o
, : e
,
un
a
mento non sia simile Mostro Ne schifando uitio incorriamo un'altro ma pren principio dendo peso eguale alle nostre forze procuriamo che'l fine corrisponda solo membra siano diverse sia mezo ben trattiamo diverse cose quantunque quanto all'ordine debbono cominciar corpo ilquale punto nelle sue parti non discordi dopo nostro Ariosto mezo della materia come fece Homero Virgilio dal mezo
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
In
.
,
,
or
,
,
beautiful dress
which all
of
, is
—
is
,
it of
to
, be
in
to
be
.
of
,
or
of
.
is
clothed Great attention must the purity lan style organizing guage the placing the words the qualities things which constitute the virtues elocution Disposition clear poet closely by words with both connection the watched element an
paid
in
,
,
The words are the
”
the same time
the subject
“
.” 50
at
delight
or ,
or “
is
be
in
it
,
of
all
perfect by the kind of selection and rearrangement which are the preroga reality are removed either the imperfections of the poet , and something lovely pleasing gay grave pleasant case must that profit and that the end will delight better still that will profit and
tive
all
in
,
,
of
as
of
of
of
.
of is
,
be
perfection followed however the ultimate harmony achieved unless verse added For verse adds and persuasion and additional source arousal the pas these precepts
an
will not harmony
is be
Even
if .
and things
:
is
of
,
.
is
is
,
in
as
;
of its
so
of in
;
of
a
;
to
of
all
to
verse
,
of
.
beauty
in
follows the the reader the soul events poetry gives increased added the other beauties delight this delight leads the reader higher estimate have the poet's genius the work thereby becomes more credible and more capable producing utilitarian effects the profit that results hence greater As many argument developed these texts the end term the that sions The sequence
:
be
...
" 51
,
of
”
“
a
to
is
.
in
is
of
the declaration that Italian
verse and that Petrarch and more
models
recent years
in in
the literati whose names had appeared
in
number
)
(
1560
of
A
which
.
be
is
for as
to
all
,
kind one feature
other languages recent Italian poets may used
PARTHENIO
a
if
a
of
of
of
most extravagant superior
by
,
of
by
“
, to
.
,
is
utility Indeed the same true for the argument about subject matter say nothing much greater utility the pleasure will obtained poet than from the same event narrated told historian and reality the point about the perfecting made substantiation This poetry and exaltation verse leads Ruscelli write defence the
.
of
,
,
,
,
,
as
connection with Horatian criticism appear again interlocutors Bernardino Parthenio's lengthy dialogue Della imitatione poetica 1560 Trifon Gabriele Giovan Giorgio Trissino Paolo Manuzio Francesco
,
,
be
in
of
.p
broader since they will treat
un
."
,
, ò
,
...
di da
,
et
,
,
:
,
, ò (
piaceuole 1559) xix cosa grata uaga leggiadra graue gioui ma molto più che ella gioui diletti unitamente ,
;
diletti
un xii : “
so
.
of
be
to
of
di
da xi -
.pp
their own concern will
comporre
o
Del modo
che finalmente
In
to
it
,
&
So
with those genres
51
, of
Lovisini and Parthenio himself gather together discuss the matter poetic imitation and how doing differs from rhetorical imitation supplementing the work they pretend Aristotle and Horace who plot and character spoke only tragedy and the epic and connection
il
.
,
)
145
&
,
(
, ò in
in
,
si , si
la
,
da
o
,
.”
,
& lo
lo
, è
.,
Ibid molto più utilità per tacer dilettatione trarrà fatto poeta che stesso narrato uno istorico percioche all'istorico conuiene narrarlo parte Là oue ucramento come sia seguito poeta bene male che sia stato tutto finge forma nelle parti non buone quale douerebbe essere stato per esser buono perfetto nell'esser suo
of words ,
speech , and sententiae
of
figures
THEORY all
POETIC
. is
of
(
as
a
of
by
such general subjects
by
In
)
and
as
, of
( which are common to invention and the universal topics adducing the custom his preface Parthenio defends poetry not only ary arguments but pointing out the multitude knowledge kinds poet which one may derive from such Homer the De Homeri poesi genres
,
"
, ,
,
he
,
,
,
,
us
,
,
,
,
?
in
,
“
in
morality—
in us
Besides
).
here
lessons
he
imparts Homer teaches the knowledge that What philosopher teaches better what prudence every slightest action what fortitude what discretion we should use than his poems He makes wise prudent modest strong patient constant just good religious and holy 52_and shows orators how echoed
so
he
.
of
to
is
by
It
he
“
,
,
to of
.
all ,
be
to .
us
of
6 ).
.p
he
(
”
of
of
our soul that they representing the ,
that we bear
in
to
of
faculty
,
or
that certain force
,
"
Horace
his title On Poetic Imitation the art not already who seems have kept his feet
the precepts
that same Aristotle But soon limits excluding one dis imitation which the two types will not here treat that kind imitation which seeks
by
tinguished represent
;
his scope
by
by
Aristotle and
the very footsteps
misled
present
he
fixed
means
33
in
exhausted
to
he
Parthenio does not wish and insists that
,
,
,
in
if
he
,
,
.
be
,
to
write expositions beginnings confirmations amplifications and These then will the ends that the poet must pursue But will not achieve them does not pay attention the delight that comes from excellence verse and elocution the latter these that consti tutes Parthenio's central subject forth
in
in
on
,
poetry which intends
to he
the end
,
of
and this
is
;
represent
"
undertakes
to
,
of
.
of
A
he
is
he
,
a
In
.
.
as
,
of
of
"
,
call Idea but rather that other kind which consists Ideas and the Forms others word interested the imitation poets appears other taken models further restriction when poetic imitation The poet may makes still another subdivision the one hand imitate the natures and the characters the persons whom
by
is
of
54
to
the poet may imitate the words other poets and the problem
the other hand
speech already used
,
On
by ,
of
.
Aristotle
and the figures
. "
its
is
to
,
Parthenio
its
,
to
express human actions and with that expression instruct and inform the subject soul which and matter Imitation this kind left
him
in
a
,
to
to
is
of ,
by
of
.
is
of
properly accomplished Parthenio addresses himself The how this major part suggestions about how the poet the dialogue devoted long practice may ultimately come way very express himself
quale portiamo
,
che
suoi
religiosi
nell'animo
,
,
buoni
,
,
giusti
,
costanti
ne i
,
ci
”
;
or
"
uero facultà
la
,
forti patienti
,
de '
insegna qual prudenza
ciascuna minima attione
,
,
quella certa forza
o
,
modesti
Filosofi meglio
in
Qual usare
,
), .p 3 : “ ,
,
fa
93 . : " 11 : " "
. ., " .p
Ibid chiamano
che
idea
."
,
le
,
,
)
è
;
(
146
&
il
è
,
&
., .p
Ibid Et questo fine della poesia laquale intende esprimer attioni humane materia informare bene l'animo che suo soggetto con quello amaestrare
54
&
saggi prudenti
Santi
53
&
?
pocmi Questo
ci
,
(
Della imitatione poetica 1560 qual fortezza qual discritione habbiamo
da
52
to
of
to
plagiarizing similar that the model without actually copying analysis distinguished topics and detailed the numerous rhetorical
ARS POETICA
WITH
CONFUSION
:
ARISTOTLE
by Giulio Camillo Delminio , proposed as devices to guide the poet in his imitation . Throughout Parthenio's treatise , the assumption is implicit that the really important thing about poetry is the diction that it uses . Poetic diction , in fact , is different from that of oratory in several respects . The words used
by the orator “must be such that they may be understood by the people and must be drawn from common usage , from that usage which the writers of comedy and the orators have established . Those ( used by the poets) must be highly ingenious — I almost said ' bizarre ' - and completely alien from
They must be selected for their qualities of sound as well as of sense ( full - sounding words containing " a " and " o " are to be pre ferred ), and compound or complicated words are better than simple ones ( p. 80 ) . As he proceeds with this analysis, Parthenio comes closer and closer to the kind of teaching that would be found in the section on diction habitual use . "
55
in
to
to
on
in
At
.
on
,
of
a
...
.
"
,
to
a
of
be
,
to
of
to
I
is
he
.
: “
,
agrees
,
pass judgment certain recent Italian poets now says about Sannazaro what have always prized him and has always seemed me grave and sonorous have had fine great and truly poetic nature selection words And
This
dead
he to
living poets
is
in
,
of
II
he
its
in almost any standard rhetoric . It is interesting to note that, in spite of the elaborateness of such a theory engage as the one just outlined , when author called upon practical criticism commonplaces talks ancient one point Book the dialogue Trifon Gabriele after having refused comment
as
,
."
of in
: “
of
;
”
,
,
on
( of
Petrus Crinitus
or
the poet they hark
Pietro Ricci
)
the days
of
,
a
the genius
characterize
.
of
to ;
in
but their effort much earlier time Lilio Gregorio Giraldi
to
diction back
to
as
. ”
56
,
"
,
is
is
: “
is
Pontano Pontano also very sublime and Fracastoro Most imagining fables ornate and most polished Fracastoro and excellent Navagero charming elegant and full light poetic polished new thoughts varied and versatile Such comments these are consistent they bear almost exclusively with the theory behind them insofar
of
is
(
in
of
,
,
,
of
'
., .p
., .p
34 : “
55 56
a
,
is a
It
di
)
its
its
A
to
document closely related the preceding one through the person author and through rhetorical associations Giulio Camillo Hermogene Delminio's Discorso sopra l'idee published posthumously 1560. brief treatise which after comparison Cicero's three styles oratory- the judicial the deliberative and the with Hermogenes types da
, . & .. .
,
Fracastoro eccellente pieno pensieri poetici
di
è
& il
,
&
,
."
.
&
&
,
)
,
&
,
(
&
politissimo Ornatissimo polito uago elegante
147
&
,
& , & gli
di ,
,
Nauaicro uersatile
."
uario
86 : “
.p
87 , : “ & Il ";
Pontano
, "; .p
&
,
è
il
sublime altresi nel finger fauole leggiadri noui
&
i
,
,
di
, 85 & : “ ,
,
Ibid Questi deono esser tali che dal popolo possano esser intesi esser tratti quello che Comici dalla communanza Oratori hanno fatto Quelli hanno essere ingeniosissimi quasi che non dissi bizarri del tutto estratti dalla consuetudine Ibid l'ho sempre prezzato emmi sempre paruto graue sonoro hauer parole esser havuta bella elettione natura grande ueramente poetica Molto
POETIC THEORY panegyric - goes on to a brief summation of the various “ senses " found in Hermogenes . Only one short section is of interest for poetic theory , a section entitled “ Panegirica in Metro , " which discusses poetry as a versi
it
. of
of
it of
of
,
Its ”,
.
it
,
Its ,
.
in
of all
fied type of panegyric oratory ; the classification itself is significant . Camillo's notions of poetry are simple and , at the same time , somewhat things that confused ; he says that it is an “ imitation of contains proper materials pleasure and greatness that involves the use verse are myths about the gods the supernatural and the superhuman impossible procedures are the narration and incredible actions events simply and
,
he ,
),
(
in
he ,
;
as
of
in
;
,
,
of
the muses and the use
57
special kinds words panegyric oratory general shares with Francesco Patrizi would have disagreed with Camillo's classification poetry panegyric for although his Della historia 1560 too
detail the invocation figures the latter and
of of
poetry but
in
of he
kind
,
these views history
,
to
According
prose
of
he is
,
history
.
to
is on a
.
,
it
,
to
poetry under oratory assigns the demonstrative and deliberative branches His dialogue concerns history and when classi expounding Pontano's views poetry fies poetry the relationship classifies
praise and blame their ,
,
,
do
of
.
,
to ,
."
,
,
,
: “
,
“
."
,
of
,
as
;
,
,
to
.
Both arts treat the same kind materials oratory parts oratory they actors belong the same branches employ similar procedures they arouse the passions they things with decorum Their ends are the same Both teach delight move profit adorn elevate lower Their differences are those between truth and probability prose and verse natural order and artificial order Patrizi does to
to
)
of
to
links
of
specific literary genre materia della satira
are
1560
).
Francesco Sansovino's Discorso
,
to in a
applied
. 58
the necessary
the same principles
(
, all
.
the two arts provide
Some operative
in of
ends
of
in
;
he
( or
identify his sources what kind indicate Pontano's not need belongs traces intellectual tradition both Horace and the rhetoricians are manifest his statements The verbs collected together define the
: “
;
;
it
is
to
of ,
in
,
an
,
,
so
a
it
is
of
of
in a
poetry then this statement The dedication presents brief defence the poetry consists nothing else than withdrawing men from vice gift whence God directing them according the good orders that that they will know their own minds hence nature His servant
end
of
,
119–21
.
) le , .pp
1560
(
M. Giulio Camillo Delminio gli
.pp
di
secondo tomo dell'opere
Il
In
58 57
:
-
.
,
59
. ”
it of
,
a
is
,
to
certain poets wishing achieve such end have written precepts human life under various forms verse Of these divers genres satire always scolds men for their evil doing The favored one since Discorso proper differentiates satire from the other forms on several bases
" ;
(
,
in
).
,
."
,
of
.
II
he
,
,
: “
,
),
è ), .p * 3 : la di “ il
(
59
,
“
,
,
(
Della historia 1560 5–5v muouono affetti fanno cose con decoro giouano Patrizi un abbassano insignano dilettano adornano inalzano muouono doubtedly knew Camillo's work since Camillo's Opere 1560 edited Vol altro ch'in ritrar gli huomini fin della Poesia non consiste Discorso 1560
148
)
(
. "
di
, ,
a è i
di
,
,
,
dal vitio ond'ella dono Dio indirizzandoli buoni ordini della natura sua ministra qui ch'alcuni volendo conseguir cotal fine mente loro accio ch'essi riconoschino versi hanno scritto precetti della vita humana sotto varie forme
ARS POETICA
WITH ARISTOTLE
CONFUSION
:
style ( satire uses the humble , low style , rather than the high or the middle ) , subject matter (which is humble and low , not high and magnificent ), the kinds of persons depicted ( who are humble , such as servants and sinners , not great ), the nature of the imitation ( in satire , nature is imitated directly, without adornment or artifice ). It will be readily seen that the opposite
of
subject matter
,
style
,
its
a literary genre by
its
its
of describing and delimiting
its
term in each case is tragedy or the epic , and Sansovino points up the contrast wherever possible. Once again , the insistence is upon diction ; this must not differ from the language of prose , must contain neither ornament nor grace , must be instead simple , sharp , witty, and direct . Such a method
( .pp
of
,
a
in
).
*
* 7
as
an
I
,
)
a
(
of
,
in
special sense falls imitation taken the tradition that have been tracing and epitome many tendencies Sansovino's little Discourse serves 6vAs final sample the present chapter we may examine those few
characters and form readily within the context
of
it
In
.
of
,
be
,
of
of
.p
he
a
In
,
),
( .pp
by
.
;
all
of
(
."
“
),
51 ),
( .p
notes
are verse
"
"
"
poeteggiare
in
“
he
that the two components language and certain kind present remarks 123 the second fauellare poeticamente eloquence that whereas other writers practice only one form the poet practices forms hence his divinity The third 219-20 more exten poetare
or
pertinent paragraphs
"
in
;
in
by
is
to
-
.
,
it
”
in
of
, is
,
,
of
.
in
paragraphs Benedetto Varchi's Hercolano which concern poetry The dialogue one question the important documents the the language almost wholly linguistic content although was published only 1570 posthumously was written around 1560 during the years anticipated Varchi's the Caro Castelvetro controversy As might approach poetics here colored this specific concern one the
( .p
,
:
is
in
.
,
to is
to
in
),
is
;
of
,
ticed them
it
of
distinguishes seven kinds poetry naming the authors who prac the basis the distinction not clear but would seem that classifying according merely Varchi verse forms The last passage declaring again necessary 269 poetry con addition that verse tains the following passage sive
,
,
if
,
,
a
uses
special kind
.
a
best they display
,
at
;
of
it
:
is
a
,
,
of
for imitation and
most natural for man.60
it
the Poetics
)
Aristotle shows
poetry These passages hardly constitute theory preconceptions poetry few common current verse language and seeks ethical and rhetorical ends 60
a
,
,
those who are naturally disposed
in
all
as
is (
,
noble and gentle and consequently poetry
in
in
of
,
,
-
to
in
a
,
The poet addition well composed and sententious verse has greatness majesty more divine than human and not only teaches delights and moves they are but engenders admiration and wonder the minds the listeners
]
149
e
in
e
il ,
,
all'huomo
."
naturalissimo
[
)
mostra Aristotile nella Poetica
, e
, e
, o
, e
,
ne
, o
,
, e
,
,
, e
il
: “ Il
, e
), .p
(
ha
come
(
,
Hercolano Florence 1570 269 Poeta oltra verso ben composto sentenzioso vna grandezza maestà più tosto diuina che humana non solo insegna diletta stupore negli animi generosi gentili muoue ma ingenera ammirazione tutti conseguentemente coloro che sono naturalmente disposti perche l'imitare poetare
POETIC
THEORY
CONCLUSIONS
of
, in .
on
, a
on
six
The materials contained in this chapter have covered a span of approxi mately fifteen years , from 1546 to 1560 , and have included , besides formal commentaries the Ars poetica wide variety shorter docu ments miscellaneous literary subjects The common basis for their inclu
By this period
,
a
to
or
,
.
,
;
to it
.
-
of
of
or
a
it
is
of
I
of
sion was the fact that they belonged one way another tradition poetic theory that have called the Horatian rhetorical tradition The center this tradition the text the Ars poetica but allied and mingled with are multitude ideas derived for the most part from classical treatises on oratory on style do
.
I
of
of
,
in
a
be
,
at
midcentury critics and theorists and commentators had might what termed standard reading Horace not everybody precisely mean that read him the same way but merely that certain interpretations recur with great frequency and that from the maze developed
a
,
no
is
all
of
be
"
"
to
of
be
its
.
,
to
in
suggestions and theories and precepts contained the Ars poetica certain number seem the favorites readers and cited most constantly Of these perhaps the most signally Horatian the is
in
of of
,
is
" )
(
as
"
or
be
,
, at
.
so .
is
”
as
(
to
“
of
a
it
"
delectare so
"
and
becomes
no
statement
"
poetry constitute the ends Indeed the probably has much commonplace that times really direct connections with the text Horace itself This may one readily expanded reason why the formula aut prodesse aut delectare include additional goals such the Ciceronian admiratio crossed with similar statements from other theorists such Cicero's
"
prodesse
,
of
as
of
.
to
as
profit and delight There notion that poetry has dual ends major commentator who does not emphasize this one the charac many cases shorter texts are teristic features the Horatian system and identified with this tradition basically because their insistence that
,
to is to the to
,
.
of
,
of
" ).
,
,
,
in
in
“
delectare mouere Such expansion and augmentation accounts part for the conflation Horace with the purely rhetorical treatises part explains the confusion attaching and the purposes the poetic regard the really import art Nevertheless the predominant tendency docere
by is
,
,
By
is
.
a
its
,
as to a or
to
he
and episodes retains full status utility but more usually reduced for the achievement that utility As it
of
a
or
of or
resulting from the imitation
the pleasure
of
, . or
Sometimes
from diction from ornaments accompaniment partner the the role means instrument device for stirring the emotions
;
proper living
,
,
all
by
,
to
of
.
be a
to
as
of
bringing some profit ant purpose that reader and that profit invariably said using sententiae and aphorisms moral one demonstrating the common fate man and the rewards and punishments presenting charming allegories which hide attached virtues and vices eternal truths the poem teaches man the lessons needs know for
)
150
are
according
to
poems
,
of
.
the internal components
(
Certain
of
of
,
to
of
the reader and persuading him through examples pleasure makes him amenable the moral teachings that are the real end the poet
this
ARS POETICA
ARISTOTLE
WITIL
CONFUSION
:
reading of Horace , in direct relationship to the ends proposed . The whole matter of decorum is extremely important if moral lessons are to be conveyed ; in fact, the observance of decorum is itself a form of teaching, since the proper behavior for persons of kinds should
be
all
standard
.
of
pleasure
; it
—
decorum for moral elements correctly accon but only recognized true
.
,
to
for artistic elements
,
sine qua non for the production
is a
-
the Horatians
the counterpart
,
is
of
.
,
,
of
the achievement
.
for
of
to
able
is a
positive contribu from the characters and their actions This the ends Most the components though operate indirectly through the pleasure which they afford Thus the central unity and appropriateness the two elements are indistinguish principle deducible
tion
."
,
"
"
,
in
of
,
of
of
"
be
is
if
in to it
is ,
of
is ,
as
of
.
,
.
of
a
of
by of
if
as
,
is a
of
Similarly imitation pleasure source represented plished and the object reading Horace consist The other habitual ways the application midcentury universally associated with the number distinctions text First and foremost these course the trilogy invention disposition and elocution Certain sections the Ars poetica are now regularly identified parts treatments these three and when ,
,
A
is
It
.
of
,
is
of
.
a
is
practical criticism singled out for comment that comment will work almost always revolve about the same three parts second trilogy that styles equally prominent the three almost connected with what
a
is ,
is
of
.
to to
"
"
as
to
,
of
,
Horace says about the vices diction becomes the main device for assuring the integrity the separate literary genres and often regarded auxiliary both appropriateness That given decorum and proper style speech persons given will entail the social status and in
to
,
.
of
its
of
seen some
con
the Ciceronian ends
of
for
if
;
.
have already ends
, of
in
or to
of
the criticism rhetorical doctrine that was
kind
to
an
be
,
the earliest Horatian criticism
for understanding
of
as
be
A
“
.
all
to
it to
,
as
”
to
applied just had been parallel inquiry equal usefulness inquiry into the the period would ordinarily associated with Horace We stituents especially with respect the tinues
,
it
of
,
to
their actions and characters and will require figures and ornaments keeping with the general nature the subject matter Finally the res according poetry verba distinction which considerations relevant belonging are classified the subject matter the expression con
,
of
in
,
be
It
.
of
a
,
"
"
"
"
admiratio directed toward the orator himself and docere delectare and mouere directed toward the audience are the ones proposed then special brand rhetoric results can seen strictly terms the
151
, in
is
the ends
often
, a
.
In
an
as "
(
of
is
of
all
of
of
him of .
of
frequently the basis for calling
primary reason for developing extended )
the
the ends
the specific nature
(
,
critics
,
of
the
of of
so
the conception
document Horatian
so
just
as
)
"
in
to
,
of
moral bias Horace's interpreters and the construction which they put upon his text why this type rhetoric rather than variant possibilities Cognate ends are the arousing should have been related the passions found many the critics sometimes intermediate end and the imparting kinds miscellaneous information fact the minds
rhetorical
POETIC
THEORY
parallels. As for the rest of the rhetorical system involved , it is usually of a linguistic character , with the main stress on diction , on figures and styles , and on the “ topics ” which are curiously transformed into stylistic pro cedures . Thus of the three traditional parts , elocution is the one accorded the greatest amount of attention and importance - a tendency also notable in the late - classical rhetoricians . When one compares the set of ideas belonging to the reading of Horace with those composing the rhetorical tradition , one finds very close resemblances if not complete identity ; one
may begin within the text of Horace , as critics of this period did , and end within the context of a standard rhetoric ; or one may reverse the process and pass from the Rhetorica ad Herennium or from the De oratore or from the Institutes into the Ars poetica. The two traditions are in many very real senses indistinguishable .
But what of Aristotle ? This is the period , as I have indicated , when the first persistent attempts are made to connect the Ars poetica with the Poetics . Especially in the formal commentaries , Aristotle tends to replace
of illumination and elucidation of the
the older authorities as a source
text .
The belief becomes current that Horace knew Aristotle's work , used it as his source and guide , meant to do no more than paraphrase it in verse . Of necessity , the ideas in the two works must be the same . This is the basis for the increasing vogue of citing parallels between the two texts ; from modest
we
in
,
of
By
we
.
If
of
,
by
or
of
of
art
in
.
,
,
as
its
beginnings in Pedemonte , this fashion attains full expression such Maggi commentators Grifoli and Lovisini the time Lovisini parallels are available for almost every passage Horace that specifically poetry composition poems compare the concerns the the parallel passages suggested various lists the successive commentators in
.
to
of
as
, in ,
.
to
a
of
revealing facts First certain passages discover number Aristotle permanently given lines assigned become Horace each expounder borrows from his predecessors For example the opening lines the
,
to
);
),
of
of
(
),
on
)
of
as
on
(
(
( Il .
1-23 three passages from the Poetics are equated 1450a38 Ars poetica plot episodic plots and 1451a19 the soul the poem 1451633 unity plot on the fact that does not result from unity hero lines
of
of
a
in
of
,
to
;
be a
to
of
.
;
in
.
on
,
in on
,
suggesting
1459631
,
styles and meters for various genres three passages again epic meter and 1448631 and 1449a21 iambic verse The same lines Horace will sometimes suggest other parallels Aristotle but large number the the glosses certain basic comparisons recur body writers There thus comes traditional cross references for each section the Horatian text this body each commentator adds 73–88
as
,
.
of
,
,
as
his ingenuity can devise and indeed one has the such other parallels impression occasionally that the parallels have their only merit this display ingenuity in of
to
as a
an
,
of
we
.
If
in
of
152
)
(
of
.
of
of
parallelism certain advantages accrue From this cultivation the interpretation enrichment the form Horace These are mostly the understanding isolated sections the text take case
WITH ARISTOTLE )
1-13
of
point , the first section of Horace's text (
and compare the glosses may estimate what we
CONFUSION
:
11.
ARS POETICA
,
,
.
as -y
in
,
Badius Ascensius and Francesco Lovisini interpretation has been made during the fifty ear period separating the two commentaries Badius takes the passage being first
advance
is ,
“
,
"
,
"
:
”
regula
“
to
the following
so
be
.
Badius reduces the meaning
,
“
"
,
,
,
of
each genre
,
is ,
",
it
. ”
"
,
of “
“
a
of
mala accumulatione warning against the errors that soresmos vitiosa communicatione coinismos that and Positively seu commixtione sermonis recommends symmetry measure and the integrity economy decorum insistence upon the proper color seu aggregatione
,
is
be
all
,
or
,
is
a
be
,
it
in
so
is
so
or
composed invent the any work that written the poet must dispose what disposed that invented decorate what things will incongruous but similar like monster
For
whole subject nothing will
in to
be
in
elegance and decorum.61
the text the problem
limiting the free play
of
to
be
had
of
in
which regard must
,
,
;
seeing
:
to
,
in in a
Lovisini
a
arrangement
be
or
an
;
of
at
.
in
agreement among themselves first The careful consideration and inven Three things thus are necessary economy disposition fitted with deliberation tion the whole matter placed differently the materials invented for the things narrated will history poem and accordance with their and their embellishment
and
the )
,
62
to
of
. "
in
,
of
"
,
he
as
,
,
he
on to
,
of
of
,
;
,
( in
imagination begins with Aristotle's distinction the De anima fantasy opinion poet says fantasy between and the follows for the poet not because poets adopt for themselves the name the verse but because the plot and the fiction Aristotle testified the Poetics goes say permits the use figments only Horace the extent
poet's
all
. “
“
a
is
to
,
let
;
,
be
in let
a ”
“
on
of
to
a
,
63
of
a
.
in
all
is
;
,
a
it
"
,
so
;
”
is
;
is
"
"
prudence
in
all to
observed the monstrous never tolerated Let poem therefore harmonize agree correspond them nothing regard the aim and the end inconsistent nothing unsuit unfitting able that nothing the Aeneid summus Imperator things and the Iliad and the Odyssey serve the moral purposes envisaged Then after referring Quintilian coinismos comparison between and drawing mixture Greek dialects and
which things
Ed .
61
as
,
be , he
by
is it
of
:
“
as
,
mixture sublime and humble styles Lovisini compliments Horace for having chosen this taught his first precept Nor chance that first what the construction the argument and the plot should for
sic
se )
,
,
sed
."
scopum
,
respondeant
,
consentiant
, sit . ”
153
)
(
,
,
poemate sibi conueniant Ibid omnia igitur finem omnia spectent nihil abhorreat nihil alienum ., .p
in
.”
&
decori habenda est ratio
quia poetae nomen sibi asciscunt non propter carmen poetice testatum relinquit Aristoteles ,
fictionem
qua elegantie
:
in
.
.
(
,
.
1554
& (
:4v “ ,
Commentarius propter fabulum 63
), .p , 4 in ut ": : . in in
&
disposite exornatio
62
narrande
ac
vt
: “
, .p
sit
eo
“
in
,
,
,
Compositurus seu cumscripturus quodlibet opus Paris Gerlier 1500 IIllv rem omnem excogitabit excogitatam disponet dispositam ornabit nihil monstri simile quadrantia aut repugnans sed omnia sui similia atque inter Tria ergo primum sunt necessaria Materiae totius excogitatio atque inuentio Excogitate apta oeconomia seu dispositio poemate aliter aliter enim historia locabuntur res
POETIC
THEORY
is
.
It
of
is for -
Aristotle established in the Poetics , the plot is the soul of the poem ." 64 He then proceeds to the word word explanation the passage clear ,
in
,
of
on
.
of
of
of
we
the total poetic structure
As
in to
of
'
,
purely linguistic and rhetorical that whereas Badius gloss character speaking only matters diction and invention Lovisini's passes beyond considerations the poetic imagination and plot the importance
of
of
it
to is
of
of
a
is
ages
so
personages
,
,
,
a .
of
;
be
to in
may juxtapose the readings another case Badius and Grifoli Ars poetica 114–18 Badius largely concerned with textual problems sees these lines only formulation the principle decorum and how solely question fitting the proper speech observed this .
.
to
in
).
.p
"
;
in
be
.
is
of
or
over
the
necessity and probability
be of
of
of
all
the passage carries with
it
Grifoli's remarks
one who reads the Horatian passage
Aristotle's theories character and and hence whether not these associations tones
is (
as
of
For ,
by
.
cites Poetics 1454a32
accompanied
as
,
to
in
in all by
,
,
them
he
of
respect
all
cites the passages he to
,
which Horace treats the Ars poetica which each the four adumbrated With says necessity and verisimilitude must observed
Grifoli
-and
as ac
,
,
of
he
for character
requisites
,
,
,
brief
: “
,
different
the rule
is
of
stations countries sexes and forth The Seruandum est igitur studiose decorum personarum pro sua cuiusque fortuna aetate patria XXv Grifoli always starts with this point stating that Horace here interested the fitting things persons people decorum and words well But bringing into consideration Aristotle's four expands these ideas statement
.
to
,
of
a
a
of
to
be
it
) is
(
correct for the text here richer and more suggestive than was for Badius exemplify the claim that through the cited Other passages might parallelism with the Poetics cultivation Aristotle critics gave those passages more complex meaning than they had had more extensive and studied
at
it
is
, to
of
I
,
,
be
It
the
to
in
.
of
.
of
for commentators the preceding generation But the enrichment stops possible the level the individual passage would not believe any interpretation general change state that Horace takes place any different from what that the total approach the Ars poetica was
later approach ,
of
.
the
as
,
the earliest commentators and the fundamental nature text itself prevented any such change from taking place Moreover the text
of
by
,
of
.
,
of
previously The close ties with the rhetorical tradition the persistence basically rhetorical distinctions the survival the construction put upon
to
,
)
154
:
intima
the fact that ,
qualis esse debeat argumenti fabula poematis anima est
&
no
slightest
these two texts
.
poetice auctor est Aristoteles
,
,
nec temere primum docuit
(
quia
there was
to
of
, 4v ut 5 : in "
.pp
.,
Ibid
constitutio
,
the Poetics and the Ars poetica affairs with respect the true state
,
64
tion
of
,
all
.
of
of
of
equation
of
certain modes this study will demonstrate problems habits method practically assured the and certain intellectual approaches These same modes and habits were the older continuation responsible for the fact that throughout this extensive comparison and chapters
fabulae
ARS POETICA
:
CONFUSION
WITII
ARISTOTLE
different problems , that they use produce statements of a completely different nature about poetry . For theorists of this period , only the acci dental — and sometimes the forced - resemblances between the two were discovered ; their real opposition was not even suspected . So it was that they address
themselves
widely different methods
to essentially
, and that they
of
his
text could be identified with Aristotle , and at the same time the whole
of
Horace could
be said to be an
imitator of Aristotle
the text could be read much as it had been before
into the discussion .
( 155 )
, that many
lines
Aristotle was brought
CHAPTER FIVE . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS POETICA : III . THE APPLICATION TO PRACTICAL CRITI CISM FIRMLY ENTRENCHED
O
SH
an intellectual tradition as the tradition of
Horace's would not be apt to change with the change of the decades . The habits of interpretation were by 1560 so firmly estab lished that little modification could be expected . Even the way of coupling Aristotle's text with Horace's was a fairly unimaginative procedure . Yet Ars poetica
we are not to suppose that the succeeding decades add nothing and modify nothing , nor that the remaining documents to be considered are merely repetitions of the earlier ones . For one thing , the major effort of the
century to provide formal commentaries to the Ars poetica seems , from this date on , to taper off; and although there will still be some important glosses to the text, they will occur less frequently from now until 1600 than they had in the decade of the fifties. In their place , we shall have to deal
usually with shorter treatises , many of which will apply Horatian principles to literary works of current interest . As a matter of fact , the first two works to be discussed in this chapter on the Ars poetica . One of them is undated , and include it at this point merely because author's literary activity fell approximately around 1560. unpublished manuscript MS BNF Quintij Horatij II.IV.192 fols 1532–161v entitled Petri Angelii arte poetica librum annotationes author was Pietro Angeli who also called are formal commentaries
in
1456a9 1460615
42
1451a34
82
1449a27
105
1455a23
146
1459a33
150
1451a36
179
1460all
259
1460al
333
1449626
338
145161
347
1460616
465 156
)
(
be ,
complete ,
these notations
Angeli
had done
:
his predecessors
to
pretends a
it
is
,
1451a22
38
number
of
a
In
just
Aristotle
34
de
,
an
is
it .
of
,
14 1
Horace
exactly what
Horace's work rather than as
miscellaneous notations and thoroughgoing treatment indicates parallels with Aristotle
a
on
The manuscript
of
set
.
himself Petrus Bargaeus
its
,
;
.
,
It
its
I
ARS POETICA
CRITICISM
PRACTICAL
:
The briefness of the list is explained not only by the fragmentary character of Angeli's notes , but also by the fact that he seeks such parallels only incidentally , not as a major intention . In fact, he takes pains to point out how Aristotle differs from Horace on such matters as the history of to
as
(
on
,
,
is
,
,
as
an
to
of
;
is
)
1.
(
.
by
,
by
is
drama
audience He also declares
on a
,
-
we ")
, or to
ex
“
a
.
TÒ
)
and Daữua five act division
produced
what shown the stage and his insistence that the what narrated means the resting and refreshing the 318 that the poet imitator must
Trádos
produced
of
re TÒ 1.
in
(
between
179
sim
,
of up
,
to
or
of
).
fol .
tragedy and comedy and how superior Aristotle is on such subjects as para verisimilitude ( 160 For the rest his annotations are limited unity major pointing phrasing the text and ideas such the deriving the denouement from internal plot plicity the necessity emphasizing certain elements rather than from deus machina might note his distinction original interpretations Among these latter
of
“
of
.
. ” 1
is
1561
)
(
PIGNA
by )
(
1.
a
of
to
direct his attention the general rather than the particular and that this profit involves close observance decorum He equates Horace's ends delight mitigating perturbations and 333 with Aristotle's end the violently affected which the soul and movements
,
of
is
;
it
such
as
those who had
disposition and elocution
invention
(
fact
,
In
, it .
of
a
of
Its
them had found
one
,
used the rhetorical terms
of
the Horatian text
,
for
no
of
his .
of
-
a
is
,
of
The second work Giovanni Battista Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561 not only full scale commentary one the lengthiest and most detailed the century author apparently starts from the premise that although various organization predecessors had sought principle
of
:
on
of
,
),
.
(
(
the matter belong invention the composition belong the
2
...
..
the poet
ac
fol .
To
.
of .
to
,
of
MS BNF II.IV.192
To
to
).
compositionem
(
the two
and disposition and the same two also words whole form the poem and the entire power
remas ),
,
of
,
;
be
of
,
it
and the combination
to
it ,
to
a
in
;
to as
,
be its ,
to
it of
poetry
as
way expound first the whole Horace was written such treated still unknown then continue with after having divided species into the point where the necessary parts these same species completely analyzed finally collecting together these separate elements would fully known As poetry but treated now touch again upon the whole not yet known must considered according matter words verba
of
The poetics
as
.
of
,
to
-
)
had explained successfully the first seventy two lines the Ars poetica but then had been obliged start again with some other organized system Pigna sees the whole the work another basis Pedemonte
: "
,
,
vt
,
ex
,
Vt
.
)
(
157
&
:
&
,
dispositio Rei sunt inuentio integra forma poetae integrae ,
compositionem sunt poematis
.
,
,
rem verba compositionis
"
....
est secundum idem pariter
.
sideranda verborum vires
&
,
:
:
in
eo
,
1 : “
), .p
,
(
2
."
,
1
poëticae finem uidetur statuisse perturbationum motuum quibus animi uehementer afficiuntur mitigationem Poetica Horatiana 1561 poesim totam Poetica Horatij ita est conscripta prout est ignota primo suscipiat deinde illam vsque perducat sua genera partitam quousque ipsorum generum necessariae particulae sint absolutae postremò singulis collectis totam rursus poesim perstringat sed prout iam cognoscitur tota ignota con 159v
POETIC
THEORY
“
,
,
II .
the second
.
divisions has each section
(
of of
.
"
-
inventio
;
the
rei ”
in
a
)
concerns
summary
14
to
of
” )
;
ac
,
,
),
( II .
the third 25–28 the invention and disposition disponendo uerbis agit eodem modo inueniendo ” ;
de
(“
the words
the number
“
( 11.
—
to
a
it
1-13
dispositio rei
“
,
of 24 )
the
—
"
of of
,
to it .
;
of
as
divides into sections few lines each eighty precept now grown and states
The first precept
.
( as
all
of
an
)
,
”
fit a
of
The first half of the preceding paragraph gives the general outline of the Ars poetica as Pigna analyzes it ; the second half establishes the methodo logical framework into which he will large part the text The res verba distinction which had been for commentators for Horace himself incidental aspect the total structure becomes for Pigna the methodology central element Horace's even invention and disposition quotation the shows are made subordinate Pigna organizes most the text around this res verba distinction He
all
.
-
),
)
(e
in to
so
as
(
of
a
,
is
It
.
of
to
to
”
“
of
)
11.
est
it
,
we
(
a
of
set
).
to
prudence The analysis continues equivalent this fashion consistent application the same terms not until the composition twelfth precept 73-76 that the element enters into play and any discover then that refers metrical form rather than with
(
disposition
cf.
;
an
of
of
on
-
of
"
),
(
the
“
),
1l .
32–37
,
the same with respect
29–31
( ll .
fifth precept
on
styles The the mixture poematis forma integra combines things and words these elements invention and disposition and pro analogy with life just ceeds the basis the happy life results from the proper admixture reason and prudence the Ethics the perfect poem effects proper combination quivalent invention reason and the fourth
;
on
"
“
res ”
“
11.
to
),
,
of
”
.
do “
(
fifty four 309–10 moral poetry obviously belongs the -
satyric drama Precept supplying the materia
to as
.
to
-
to
-
,
set
with respect philosophy
ab
32 )
( .p
”
of
,
est
" : "
“
of
composition quae non other kind elocutio Oratore con sideranda sed carmen this element accounts for Horace's treatment the verse forms appropriate the various genres For lines precepts forty forty and verba treat both f ifth first 220–50 the
.
is
of
If
of
.
of
to a
,
be
to
,
,
as
of
of
all
of
,
of
many other precepts throughout the analysis distinctions Pigna's One result consistent application this method the reduc theory tion almost Horace's poetics the genres material fittingness must words and verse are fitted together some principle same
of
it
”
,
be
,
as to
.
,
as
“
of
.
of
the vague notion
or
be
;
this may
in
many
of
so
by be
appropriateness employed appro the more restricted notion the commentators appropriateness Pigna priateness involved genre uses the latter early principle This becomes apparent the first precept which insists poetry should not joined together that the different forms and established
of to a
in
)
(
."
("
'
"
and
ad
,
debeant
"
“
by
”
“
,
2 : "
., .p
vt
158
non
“
3
."
it
diuersę poeseos formae simul coniungi Ibid poescos genus eligendum refertur 3
to
the second
,
in
length
,
at
of
is
single the choice which refers make Pigna order text poetry forces the Horatian genus Indeed caput distinguished humanum Aristotle include the four genres tragedy equinam representing collatas plumas ceruicem the epic developed
solum
ARS POETICA
CRITICISM
PRACTICAL
:
to
in
the individual tragedy and
77 ,
to so
to
42 ,
to
:
. " 4
in to of
,
first lines genres
treatment his epistle and then passes rapidly the lyric with line the epic with line
of
it is ,
he
all
of
dithyrambic and lyric poetry, and “ atrum piscem ” comedy ) and to justify this statement of principle : “ it is to be understood that those four kinds of poetry can never be brought together in one poem and , in fact, that there Hence them is no different method that would be appropriate to general the says that Horace lays the groundwork for poetry
in
),
ll .
(
-
at
.
of
of
of
A
,
all .
"
in
"
“
in
,
to
“
“
and
be a
89 res , ”
satyric drama with line 220 and each forth invention and their relationships verba compositio disposition and then connection with theory necessity this general approach will concomitant Pigna makes and precept twenty one Arriving 114-18 decorum
comedy with line case considering
we
:
explains the transition
;
-
,
so
,
so
in
,
.
as
is
...
to
,
I
,
to
Up this point think have discussed plot and diction now comes make the plot one order which not expressed for itself but character which has character And just mores are derived from the plot are the passions because when the diction contains character and passion too does the subject matter.5
be a
in
,
of
,
it is et a
in
be
to )
to
(
,
of
be
reasoning may not very clear here but Pigna apparently thought means that character and the Aristotelian qualitative parts are the plot and that when referred here must depend upon the nature sign that they are correct proper they are seen the diction The line
."
he
res
”
"
"
“
,
of
.
he
,
a
-
”
et “
.
"
of
tion
is ,
perturbata oratio morata will reflec perturbata fabula morata verba When fairly original and interesting theory discusses character Pigna develops
the material itself That
,
"
,
"
he
,
-
to
)
: (1
of
),
is
(
it
,
is
.
of
a
of to
,
proceeds He starts with Aristotle's four requisites for character which system requisites says rebuild into his own All four are forms easy the verisimilar which itself two types the verisimilar applicable easily believed because well known persons and for
"
“
by
be
:
,
to
;
a
,
or in .
is
,
of
”
“
;
( 2 )
,
”
-
to
“
quod decet
is
sufficient the difficult verisimilar applicable persons less well known and for which some kind similitudo may required personage Under each type considered him comparison with others and the four resulting kinds correspond self the four requisites thus which
verisimile
facile τα
χρηστά
difficile
per se
collatione
in
in
per se
το ομαλόν
τα αρμόττοντα
collatione
το όμοιον in
)
(
159
:
est morata
&
oratio
,
quia
vt
,
."
ita
ita etiam perturbationes
:
vt
....
ipsa suscepti sunt mores quoque materia
& . & de
de
: "
.pp
,
modum perturbata
,
.”
,
., .p 3 : " .,
ex
de
s
:
4
Ibid sciendum est quatuor illa Poeseos genera nunquam vnum poema posse reduci etenim nulla esset diuersa ratio illis consentanea Ibid 42-45 Mea est interpretatio hucusque actum esse fabula dictione qui non absolute traduntur sed quemad nunc moribus fabulam moratam efficiunt
THEORY
POETIC
show that Tà Xpnotá is merely a theoretical type of
Further statements
mores and is never really considered in a poem , since no person's actions are of interest of and by themselves ; that tà áp ÓTTOVTA refers to type
characteristics , differentiating persons according to station , age , profession , nation ; that TÒ dualov or “ conuenientia ” is essentially a principle of self
completely faithful to
for
mores
theory
literary genres when
of
,
separate kinds
the separate genres
.
conceives
of
of
he
Pigna is , of course
his
consistency and is useful especially in comedy ; that TÒ Õuolov is a matter of opinion or " fama , " demanding that known persons be presented in keeping with their reputations , and is proper to both epic and tragedy.
the
( on
a
to
,
is
on ,
of
of
philosophy poetry had approved poetry rests upon mores But he
of
.
,
of
)
(
of
closely allied for To the question mores character and decorum Pigna the question poetry and this leads him the moral ends seemingly contradictory position Commenting lines 311-18 the uses
of “
,
he
,
of
,
a
is
in of
,
of
,
,
be is
of
I
,
is
.
is
no
“
if
,
in
of
In
.
be
is
by
“
.”
.
pleasure
it of
,
, of
,
to
poetry prove contrariwise that the real end The reconciliation this conflict found believe the notion poetry pleasure the verisimile For Pigna the primary end but accompanied utility pleasure order that there may the audience must convinced the credibility the persons and actions assured by moral verisimilitude and this credibility involved the poem things were treated which were completely alien from truth and For
a
long argument
he a
."
of
is
”
"
"
‘
.
of
),
in
Horace's insistence that little later speaking the prodesse argues against the frequent and delectare line 333 assumption that delight merely handmaiden utility and presents whole
is
of
in to
" ;?
.
74 ).
.p
fabula morata
(
the
”
guaranteed
“
by
is
on
be
by
,
credibility would attach which could not really happen them nor support would they followed that pleasurable remembrance which Aristotle cited the impossible probable Such credibility
:
I
;
of
.
,
of in
is ,
an .
,
as
to
,
, in
in of
various places Pigna calls upon the authority general Aristotle's role That sustain his arguments Aristotle inspirer the whole Horatian theory his commentary rather than citing parallels give the But Pigna does not resist the current fashion list for the record We have seen that
Aristotle 1447al4
Aristotelis poetica illis competunt tum subiecta materia consistant tum nexu congruenti con ,
,
,
ex
Duo sunt quae
ex
vt .: “
(
gen
”
,
iungantur
vt
,
1448a4
14-23
5. ]
1-13
.p
Horace
ab
Aristo
:
."
]
[
160
,
&. "
:
si à
in
poesim totam positam moribus quae accidere non possint tractarentur Quòd uerò prorsus aliena fides adhiberetur neque subsequeretur iucunda illa recordatio
eis ., ., .p .p
7 6
Ibid Ibid nulla
72 79 : : “ “
,
, "
tele reponitur 1453a12 1451b15
8. ]
"
neque enim Hesiodus sub aliquo poeseos genere .p
gen
.:
[
1456a30
ARS POETICA Horace
:
PRACTICAL
CRITICISM
Aristotle
24-28
1458a18
29-31
146063 , 1458a18 , 1458a21
32–37
1450b34 , 1460b17 , 1456a18
38-41
( gen .: “Homerum ab Aristotele 146062
excusatum
42-45
1447a14 , 1449b23 , 1448a19 ( ?), 1454a26 ( ?)
46-50
145761
52-59
145762
73-76
1449a21 , 1448a21
79-82
1449a25
83-85
1447a15
89-92
1448a16 , 1453a20
93-98
1455625 , 1453a12
104-13
1462a4
114-18
1450a8
119-27
1454a16
,
128–30
1454a16
136-45
1451a22
149-50
1451a24 1454a21 , 1453a33
179–88
1452b12 , 145362
189–90
1450637
191
1452b17 , 1454b19 , 145462
192
1449a16
202–19 220-24
144967 1449a19
244-50
[ ? : “ Aristoteles
vulgarium prudentum 1458620
p . 18 )
1454a16
153-60
260_74
,”
enim Agathonem hominum ," p . 67 )
reprehendit , quòd eius fabulae potius satisfacerent , quam
sententiae
275-80
1448a29 , 1449a16
295–301
1455a34
333-34 338-42
1449b26 , 145165 , 146066 , 1460a18 1460a26 , 1451a38
347–50
1460616
351-60 361-65
[ ? : A. on Homer : many virtues , few faults , pp . 80–81 ) 1448a4
453-69
1455a34
Although
of Aristotle is considerable (less considerable , might it seem , since many of the passages are quoted several times ), it has little effect upon the total view of the Ars poetica . Pigna seems rather to build his interpretation about the “ verba distinction about theory the genres and about the standard rhetorical notion the the presence
, of
"
-
of
to
,
(
161
)
,
,
."
,
another rhetorical approach via discovering the order means
as a
he
,
of
a "
objects verisimile However invention disposition and elocution
,
, than
res
perhaps
POETIC
THEORY
text . His own proposed order is more consistent
of Horace's
with his own
does not prevent him , nevertheless , from effecting a fragmenta tion of the text into a number of passages and precepts even greater than that proposed by earlier commentators .
It
system .
BARTOLOMEO MARANTA ( 1561)
in of
)
of
.8
R.
precepts
,
”
Horace the materials discussion and one Maranta admits that did and
its
it
very extended give
a
obviously
which could not help but bore listeners that has rewritten the last two lectures In he
in
, six
A
.
the first two
to
1-24
;
lines
a “
to
lectures
-
in his
,
R.
(
in
,
in
to
a
of
in
of
six
all
contained
by
These positions of Pigna and the even more traditional ones of Robor tello and Maggi are attacked openly in a set of lectures delivered Bartolomeo Maranta the Accademia Napoletana meeting the con vent San Pietro Maiella 1561. Latin summary the first lecture and the actual notes for the other five Italian are now the Ambrosian Library Sup Sup Milan MSS 118. and 126. Maranta devotes
presenta
more succinct
,
,
,
is
its
-
of
of
by
. " 9
or
to
be
it
necessary that who proper basis division which science He finds this proper
believe
a
to
.
, "
brought into consideration Instead analyze poetics should seek wishes applicable any other art would not
he
we
be
on
to by
no
in so
,
is
,
:
of
.
,
.
long winded and repetitious but tion fact the discourses they are not without merit Their initial premiss itself noteworthy for time Maranta declares that the distinction invention disposition and universally applied elocution earlier commentators the Ars poetica wise appropriate the poetic art and should not are hopelessly
poems are differentiated Aristotle's Poetics where kinds poem their means imitation and where each divided into qualitative parts quantitative others had before him believes Moreover and he
and especially those which are
of
,
the precepts
"
,
a
)
( as is
six
qualitative parts that Aristotle had borrowed from different order and that
treat the same
greatest
10
Aristotle almost
to
out albeit all
,
that Horace distinguished
in
set
.
he
,
of
,
in
division
,
of
of
:
to
his
as
he
to
.”
importance These distinctions from Aristotle enable Maranta make the point original contribution regards which Horatian exegesis the first plot and the second plot and the unifying precept concerns the choice
:
,
a
of
,
to
of of
,
,
of in of
,
as
(
.
,
of
so
),
is
of to
precept episodes Just devoted Aristotle according Maranta had person unity named three kinds false unity unity time unity single war false unity the three kinds Horace gives examples multiplex monster the vision fevered sleep and the mixture the man
,
.
(
),
di
a
to
of
II,
,
)
162
et
fere omnia
,
ipsa tamen praecepta est
mutuatus
(
Aristotele
."
: "
fol 118v .
.,
Ibid momentj
ab
10
,
."
: "
.
.,
et
9
R.
",
di
:
“
,
of
.
8
general The manuscripts are anonymous For my attribution them Maranta and Critica Lette Nuovi Manoscritti discussion the problem see Bartolomeo Maranta XXIV 1955 115-25 Pisa Serie raria Annali della Scuola Norinale Superiore MS 118. Sup fol 117v Oportere autem eum qui poeticam partiri cupiat propriam quae nulli praeterea arti aut scientiae conueniat diuisionem quaerere existimauimus praesertim quae maioris
sunt
ARS POETICA
of wild
CRITICISM
PRACTICAL
:
and tame beasts . The first
these corresponds to the manifold
of
actions of a single man , which do not constitute unity ; the second , to successive but disconnected events , which do not constitute unity ; the third , to contemporary but unrelated events , equally without unity . in Horace ( fols . 120 The second precept , on episodes , demands the major part of the treat ment after the first lecture . Maranta decides , on the basis of Aristotle , that the episode must be a quantitative part whose function is to give greater volume to the poem . It is thus never a part of the unified plot , but some Aristotle's three kinds are thus found exemplified 23 ) .
thing added to it and integrated with it . Certain difficult problems arise as How can a quantitative part be integrated with a “ formal ” or qualitative part ? Can extraneous elements appear in the prologue and a result :
How
as well as in the “ episodes ” ?
from plot itself in
of
these Maranta devoted most
To such considerations as his time before the Accademia Napoletana .
seem that the debate is trivial , and it is certain that the discussion
all
for Maranta the subject warranted the time and reflec any theory could give since was the central problem in
it
tion that
it,
he
is too long . But
of
It may
does one distinguish episode
genres as the epic ?
such
-
exode
in
to it .
of
,
, an he in
.
of
he
to
,
he
to
if
—
of
:
of
poetics the constitution the central unifying element the poem the and the relationship other parts the action Maranta apparently believed that could decipher Horace's meaning with respect this problem would have the key the rest the text The way
plot
of
,
do a
,
to
be
as
unpublished manuscript
of
I
de
at
is
,
,
,
a
as
of
;
it
of
,
.
of
is
.
It
to
an
of
as
)
an
it
(
is
in
is
,
this one undated well has both practical perhaps pertinence theoretical and the Horatian mode early Torquato greater even interest estimate Tasso's Rinaldo Perugia and This MS 985 M.8 the Biblioteca Comunale have approximate date assigned tragoedia 1561 entitled Tractatus dialogue involving such celebrated interlocutors and the form Cardinal Ranuzio Farnese Jacopo Sadoleto Pietro Bembo Bernardo ,
Another
.
a
of
a
to
.
it ,
he
as
;
he
,
, to he
a
,
is in
in
he
seeking the solution which uses Aristotle sense original for does not merely cite parallel passages does not merely call upon apply the method attempts rather additional authority Aristotle understood the Horatian text and this constitutes considerable innovation The recognition that rhetorical distinctions not supply poetic questions and that specifically poetic method must answers used marks notable departure from the thinking his contemporaries
11
,
:
in
,
. 11
Tasso and Annibale Caro On the theoretical side the prologue and the dialogue itself touch upon four points connection with tragedy the :
.
of
)
(
163
at of a
,
by
.
,
at
in
in
of
The list names raises some question about anachronism the text both Sadoleto and Bembo died 1547 which time Torquato Tasso was only three years old Such anachronism suggests the possibility that the treatise may have been written much later somebody whose knowledge date than that assigned the earlier years the century was very imperfect
POETIC
THEORY
effect produced , the ends , the pleasure
derived from imitation , and the following passage demonstrates the atti educative function of poets . The tude with respect to the effect and , to some extent , with respect to the ends :
For what
of the fact that we very willingly give applause to a mournful ? that we follow with a pleasant sense of grief the horrible des truction of the most prosperous of princes ? that we behold without satiety their unexpected vicissitudes and reversals of fortune ? that we are reduced to pity by the pretended complaint of the actors , very pleasurably albeit with pain ? that we fill up our eyes with gloomy images ? that we cannot satisfy our grief with else are we to say
poem
weeping ? that , lastly , we are so regaled by fictional deaths , bereavements , grief , wailing , ruin ? if not that we have already accustomed ourselves to wretched ness and failings in the most catastrophic way in the natural course of events , and we have grown so hardened to the sensation of our own calamity , after the pain has healed , that to have the wound now aggravated by one's own hand when it is rough to the touch produces a very agreeable sensation , ameliorated by habit itself . Last of all, so you may not fail to be aware of the ultimate state of the most calamitous exile , there is great pleasure in weeping when a moral man has been overwhelmed by misfortunes that inspire tears . 12
The effect is here a pleasurable participation in the woes of others ( a thesis , incidentally , that explains much of the characteristic quality of Renaissance tragedy ), the end is to harden the soul to misfortune and suffering. But the pleasure results also from the artifice of the poet and even more from the fact that the poem is an imitation ; things which are disagreeable in life through imitation ( fols . 103y - 104v ). “Quanto sunt illa quam iucundiora ficta facta ? ” (fol. 104v ). Because of the presence of such pleasure , the lessons taught by poetry are willingly received compare the sugar - coated pill - and the utility results , in an almost automatic fashion . become
agreeable
Hence the author of the Tractatus takes issue with Plato's banishment of the poets and with the severe condemnations of Proclus and of Maximus of Tyre and prefers to adopt instead the opinion of Plato in Book II of the Laws. His arguments on the role of poets as educators are the ones commonly used in the defences of poetry . On the practical side , the author gives extravagant praise to the adoles cent Torquato Tasso's Rinaldo , of which he has heard a reading. His 12 Perugia , Bibl . com . , MS 985 ( M.8 .) , fol . 96v : “Quid enim aliud dicamus esse, quod lamentabili carmini libentissime plausum damus . quod horribiles exitus Principum florentis rerumque simorum iucunda conquestione prosequimur ? quod inopinatas uicissitudines conuersiones sine satietate spectamus ? quod ad misericordiam actorum ficta querimonia
ob
sit ,
, ,
this MS after that
,
99 " ;
"
In
at “
,
164
)
(
.
I I
...
referring flebilibus aerumnis obruto flere magna uoluptas use the new folio numbers penciled into the codex which numbers stop have supplied numbers myself
mortali
to
est .
vt
?
ut
,
sic
iucundissime quamuis dolenter incondimur ? quod oculos moestis imaginibus explere ? quod dolorem lacrymis satiare non possumus ? Quod denique simulatis funeribus , orbitatibus , luctibus , eiulationibus , vastitatibus tantopere delectamur ? nisi quod aerumnosissime natura miserijs ac uitijs iam insueuimus , et ad sensum nostrae calamitatis obducto dolore ipsa con sua manu vulnus asperum tactu iam exulcerari iucundissimum duruimus exilij calamitosissimi conditionem ultimam non ignores Demum suetudine mitigatum
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
CRITICISM his
:
of
all
he as
;
unhampered
gives
copi
“
,
and
such epithets and descriptions elegant grave will sententious
Tasso's style
to
what will teach
discerns
”
he
“
how acutely
special attention
he
all
his
he
please
,
will
ever
.
,
his
remarks center largely around the genius of the young poet , faculties knowledge familiarity with poetry and and branches philosophy But seeks out what how diligently also comments on
sound tracing have been ,
;
—
to
.
”
we
,
,
,
,
in of
to
,
,
free ous varied familiar the reader who knows the tradition that Some modicum the theory the reference the ends for example practical pierces through the criticism but for the most part the latter
di
tre
speak later
of
he
between theory and practice Since
close relationship
,
his case there really
is a
except that
in
(
),
1562
in
Petrarca
to
in
his
a
of
.
in
is
so
satisfied with the facile adjectives for genius and style that had for long been vogue Sebastiano Erizzo likewise effects combination theoretical and practical criticism Espositione nelle canzoni M. Francesco
-
a
be a he
,
is
;
in a
.
,
is
of
of in
of
-
as
his
in all
wishes
having achieved such and such effects
he
.
Petrarch the his poems states theoretical ideas terms the requisites for the poet rather than terms the nature the poem His starting point the statement from poet rather must Horace that mediocrity not sufferable have poet
on
of
;
of
within the latter
,
,
is
It
.
to
no
of
be
in
“
is
if
to
,
philosophy and
moral
all
...
he
:
the natural sciences and philosophy
to to
,
all
13
of
.”
,
,
.
in
,
a
of
,
of
divine and superhuman genius the components which will natural many things and the ability gift knowledge combine the right words verse These are needed the poet teach and move the him admiration with his listener and then give pleasure and awaken precepts given but poem For the natural gift there are the knowledge Erizzo has much say essentially knowledge score
, of
of
,
,
of
,
of all of of
,
of
,
of all
,
of
in
to
he
,
of
he
,
, of
of all
,
of
of
,
of
of ,
it
of is
necessary that learn the precepts the best arts for since has any subject whatsoever should show himself most well versed that things art which treats the causes the vices men the pleasures pain death the passions and the perturbations the soul the honest the true good the virtues life mores which things are con treat
of
Its
tained under moral science.14
13
Espositione
,
of
.
to
“
&
,
,
&
&
,
."
)
,
le
tutte
de i
perturba
costumi
, le
,
&
,
,
è le
affetti
della uita
de di i
,
uirtù
gli
,
di
,
,
,
si
(
165
de ,
della morte le
dolore
,
del
si
i
di
.”
"
del ,
,
de i
piaceri
dell'onesto uero bene tutte contengono scientia morale
la
cose tutte sotto
, , in
fa
gli
huomini
tioni dell'animo
lv :
(
., à .p 2 : “
14
de
uitij
), .p
insegnare appresso dilettare 1561 commouere l'uditore marauiglia col suo poema Ibid mestieri che egli apprenda precetti tutte ottime arti perche douendo qualunque cosa trattare quella peritissimo dimostri cio delle cagioni delle cose
indurlo di
.
”
,
of
“
is
in
, its ”
all
content moral wisdom makes poetry excellent among the arts capacity and the same excellence give pleasure found also beauty Pleasure results from the various ornaments from the the diction from the harmony verse Nor does Erizzo neglect the standard
quai
POETIC
its
THEORY
of
.
a
,
.
,
is
he
in
of
to
of
a
of
;
be
distinctions in his enumeration of sources the poem must rare delightful words and exquisite invention and must have choice Before passing on theory the discussion Petrarch Erizzo attempts specifically interested lyric poetry Distinguish the genre which
to
of
,
,
of
a
an of
.
,
of
in
Aristotelian ring Of the lyric action and sometimes
he
I
(
,
),
in
in
it
he
,
,
of
ing first three general kinds poetry the expository and narrative take that has didactic poetry mind the fictional and the mixed places lyric poetry the third category He then proceeds definitions general and decidedly the lyric the elegy both which have
,
of ,
of
”
;
at
it
its
is
“ it
so
,
in
a
is
it
a
times
,
,
of at
.
, “
grave and imitation joyous and light one composed verses which are not bare but adorned with rhythm and harmony that may with sweetness the same time profit and delight the elegy for the most part love poetry which revolves about the passions honest
a
all
.
,
of
.
of
its
of
its
to
be
,
,
or at in
,
a
of
]
is
it
of
is
. "
15
,
in an
complete lamentable action which the soul and imitation feigning the action the poet himself another expresses melan choly effect The Aristotelian ring has times Horatian overtones Lyric poetry said the most pleasing and delightful the types qualities elegance special because the diction and musical Petrarch belongs among the lyric and elegiac poets because his treat
at
,
an
Petrarch's ideas are
style easy and full
of
grave
sentiments
)
his . (1
,
his
,
wisdom
of
noble and full
.
of
,
it
;
,
rhetorical criteria and Horatian elements
of
,
epithets
an
.
of
modest
,
a
of in
style amorous subjects The weeping and lamenting poems elegiac After the tone his the tears and sighs make him many praise classification the and contains once the traditional ment
in ,
is
of
,
,
so
in
,
,
of
so
.
in ( 3 )
,
of
,
in
2 )
(
of
so
, “
so
,
of
of of
,
of
nobility
.
greatness gravity ornate words He equals Pindar spirit choice splendor unique style words and and the imitation the passions love His invention shows the workings nature and art abundant his style was the natural facility figures like gayety and loveliness rich sweet and full rich abundance
of
in
.
( 5 )
is
.
to
,
of
his
(
4 )
.” 16
,
of
precious jewels and poems the most beautiful and most necessary rhythmical and harmonious this kind His verse The moral poems show his mastery sententiae throughout moral philosophy Plato and the natural philosophy shows his indebtedness
.
is
to
,
of
is
as
as
Such practical criticism this shows some progress over the earlier bring into operation the con insofar some attempt made clusions the antecedent theoretical thinking But the progress still not varieties
&
onesta
,
,
attione graue
&
una imitatione
di
alle uolte
è
3v 4 : “
.,
Ibid giocosa
& .pp
15
.
very great
alcune uolte
)
(
166
à sì
necessarie
,
di
&
,
delle più belle
&
,
,
& ."
di
,
,
di
,
&
" è di in
,
,
,
care gioie
&
è
la
di
à
guisa
"
& ,
P.
il
se
in
fu
4v : " è
di
,
figure
."
copiosa
&
,
si
, ., la .p
16
uaghezza poemi
, in
di
si
,
,
di
compone lieue che uersi non nudi ma numero armonia ornati gran parte poesia amorosa accioche colla sua dolcezza gioui parimente diletti and riuolge intorno alle passioni dell'animo perfetta attione lamen che una imitatione fingendola quale effetto ouero altrui esprime malinconioso stesso teuole leggiadria piena larga del suo stile uena ricca dolce Ibid tanto fatti
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
ORAZIO TOSCANELLA ( 1562) In the
of the purely theoretical, again
realm
document of some interest
, a
sopra diverse cose pertinenti alla grammatica , poetica , retorica , historia, loica , et ad altre facoltà ( 1562 ) . And is Orazio Toscanella's Precetti necessarii
he
of
his
the interest does not derive from the author's originality ; quite the con trary. For Toscanella aims only to simplify other works for beginners and
he
for does not much material
,
example
,
For
.
the text that
treating
.
of
,
,
a
,
not completely accurate he is
,
though
is
,
,
;
stick very closely
to so of ,
do
to
His claim
in
poetics therefore gives reductions students of time the field Minturno section paraphrases and Aristotle Horace Donatus and
a
a
,
or
all at
of
.
the time
his ideas about comedy
of
of
,
is
as
a
he .
,
significant for estimating the state criticism the Donatus section Toscanella collects —and comedy taken the broadest sense
In
it
in
is
of
of
of
to
of
.”
,
such
“
,
not identified
da is
as
incorporated into the section schoolboy's entitled Auertimenti della Comedia Donato Such interesting represents version the classics criticism that kind popularizer vulgate Toscanella critical thinking What such expansion emphasize singles out for quotation chooses what from Horace
.
so
“
as
such headings
comedy the subject Why they are called acts
of
Toscanella goes comedy What
to
better
become
persons are introduced
on
might
", 17
of
"
a
is
in
dramatic representation comedy was first discovered preliminary statement that that people might moderate their desires through the examples others and After
What
,
” “
of
,
of
he
to
of
the development
sus
he
of
”
in
“
beginning and the medias res the spectator When speaking acts
in on
, in
on .
a
note
"
of
. ”
of
“
in
" "
,
,
is
,
” “
in
” “
),
(
or
On music On vocal sections and these concern the Most each scene How many persons may speak kind mechanics with which Donatus was occupied but there are digres sions and excursions which add considerably the richness the comedy materials For example connection with the subject adds sounds
is
it
,
,
in
,
,
,
with egualità
"
"
, "
18 a
of
in
. "
in
)
is
of
.
A
(
he
as be
to
,
,
is
all
,
.
in
.
observed
imita uno
,
,
innamorato
,
fa la
.”
si
&
,
fù
]
[
167
,
,
Vno che rappresenta
lo
;
;
&
lo
di
: “
(
), .p
del seruo
."
: " gli la
Ibid 15v imita quanto può andamenti che sia ueramente innamorato ., .p
persons
and
12v La Comcdia primieramente ritrouata accioche 91 essempio loro desiderij con altri facessero migliori parte del seruo Comedia consiste nella Imitatione uno che 1562
i
le
17 18
Precetti Necessarii persone moderassero
decorum similitudine
the
narration Here again parallel Clearly very far this obvious that the latter has merely been used
the verisimilitude
several texts from Aristotle are cited
from Donatus's text and
, to
devoted
convenevolezza
" "
is
,
"
-s
on
,
of
to
and another
on
of
Donatus
passages
he
a
as
a
a
,
to
paraphrase extended
,
as in
.
: “
of of
in
gives his con drama Comedy consists ception imitation imitation and one who plays the part servant imitates much can the comportment really love lover imitates man who servant one who represents Like the expositors the Ars poetica cites Aristotle 145361 refer long section still ence Horace's lines off tage action this pense
THEORY
POETIC as a starting point
for the development of a complete collection , poetics ments on with special reference to the dramatic forms.
of state
on poetics in general ( “ Che cosa sia poetica ,” pp . , way which reveals the eclecticism 57v ff .) Toscanella defines the feigned his method Poetics structure art and true narration com fitting rhythm posed rather metric feet Then after the division poems into the narrative the dramatic and the mixed defines
In
he
,
,
,
." 19
,
of a
embracing
of
Tragedy
of
tragedy
an
,
in
, is or a
: “
in
of
of
art in
a later section
a
in
“
)
."
of
“
in
'
in
is
is
(
. ”
“
:
the heroic condition state having difficulty translating Diomedes misfortune Toscanella Tragoedia est heroicae fortunae adversis conprehensio The subject
,
,
,
to
,
,
theory
of
to
pretends
be a
in
What
compendium
the commonplaces on the
in
.
I
a
so
,
of
to :
the poet
is
.
poet
brief and treat only he knows will suffice make the listen
,
er
,
.
things
etc.
168
]
[
.
,
ing treated.21
in
,
persons
delight the young who pleasant take delight ,
.
as
grave
mature men old etc. who take de men light utility
The sweet
So that the poem may
understand what
is
much The useful So that the poem may
profit
his poem must
as be
He who wishes with
to as
:
he
,
a
In
.
of
,
to
delight must not depart too much from the truth but must stand firm within the limits verisimilitude word must mix together
to
Profit
He who wishes
in
he
.
,
"
of
of the
Delight
,
a a
of of
on
of
A
.
,
he
“
at
poetry Toscanella must discuss the ends of which he was fond and reductions tabular the prominently throughout his little manual reproduce which
The function
delight
to
by
a
as
be
to
.
paragraph style contains Horace's epistle disposition and elocution When
invention
On the functions
such
make
brief statement five the the salient aspects composition contained
:
it
of
so
one which figure part here presents
of
recommendations reaches the point
on of to
all
,
;
the first few lines
preceded
taken principles
the general
refer
merely
is
the section on Horace selected lines from the Ars poetica strung together
fairly continuous exposition This precepts which apparently are text they
in
what Toscanella gives
is
Most
translation
of
of
.
of
be
merely
an
;
.
the other genres
a
So
.
for to
of
the genre
In
20
”
,
from Diomedes and the subjects listed the medieval descriptions
translated
are those which had appeared traditionally
poetics turns out art
,
,
,
,
of
,
is
comedy
of
,
,
,
,
definition
,
,
of ,
,
tragedy are sufferings and the material tears hate murders poisonings burnings bitternesses poverty heartaches sobbings sighs dismember great houses movements ments small children downfalls madness betrayals arms violence fury wrath etc. identical fashion the
be
ARS POETICA
Aristotle's Poetics
a
I
shall discuss his treatment
in
of
basic text ; he summarizes, codifies, simplifies, outlines , but
later
.
)
that is chapter
be said that here or elsewhere Toscanella offers any interpre
(
all .
It can hardly tation of his
CRITICISM
PRACTICAL
:
practical criticism that involves incidental pronouncements theory was made Sperone Speroni his Discorsi sopra Virgilio most probably which wrote around 1563-64 but which was still incomplete ,
in
by
at
he
in of on
An effort
Speroni’s central inten and was published only posthumously.22 Vergil and prove inferiority attack the reputation comparison with Homer both absolutely and examines Vergil's performance the areas invention disposition and
as he a
,
so ,
do
,
of
.
To
his
to
of
on
in
,
in
to
is
,
1581
tion poet
:
.
he
as
of
,
of
of
on
he
in
,
of of
;
its
in
at
all ,
at
he
,
he
.
elocution Speroni insists first the importance the first these which plot identifies with plot and cites Aristotle the soul the poem Here finds Vergil fault several ways does not invent anything disposition from Homer there but borrows both the plot and plot and character are many errors and insufficiencies the handling he
La
19
In
."
:
of
,
on
"
of
in
of
so
is
.
of
at
length and for some suggests which Speroni points out which slight that one wonders corrections The matter the poem itself whether Vergil might not have foregone imitation entirely favor the cultivation beauties which were essentially extra fabulam this plot connection Speroni proposes his theory the unity
,
;
di
&
,
gli di ,
,
,
,
,
, le
,
,
,
i
,
a
,
,
di
,
in
."
la
,
& ,
,
,
Ibid
De gli uffici del poeta Vfficio del poeta è
.
21
è
:
Il
., ira , .p & c di . , 76 : "
. .
20
di
furore
:
: “ : “
di è
., .p
di
., .p
Ibid 57v Poetica una struttura d'arte finta uera narratione composta piede metrico numero conueneuole ouero Ibid 58v La Tragedia uno abbracciamento della conditione heroica stato soggetto lagrime l'odio disauentura materia della Tragedia sono dolori ammazzamenti ueleni incendij amaritudini pouertà cordogli singulti sospiri sbranamenti figliuoli disgratie pazzia tradimenti membra case mouimenti arme uiolenza
Di
Giouare Bisogna
.
,
& ,
,
.
,
di
ne i
,
che sia breve colui che intenda giouare col suo poema tanto tratti quanto conosca che basti per fare intendere allo ascoltante cio che tratta
,
Il
L'utile
In :
.
si
,
,
Dilettare Bisogna che colui che uuol dilettare non parta troppo dal uero ma stia saldo termini del uerisimile somma bisogna che mescoli insieme .
,
il
i
c .
&
i
,
c .
&
,
che
prendono by
di ca.
22
.
dell'utilità diletto
dilettano
,
fatti
huomini uecchi
persone gli
di
come
poema Accioche giouani diletti che cose dolci si
graui
il
diletti
:
le
.
dolce
Accioche poema
169
)
(
.
IV ,
,
of
in
ed .
V , to ,
),
(O
(
of
,
; a
), .p
,
(
is
,
of
,
e le
).
La
suggested Speroni's biographer Francesco Cammarosano The date 1563–64 opere Sperone Speroni Empoli vita 1920 164 letter 1581 from Speroni pere 1740 Felice Paciotto dated 1581 states that the discourses are still incomplete 280–81 The Discorsi were first published the Venice 1740 419-579
POETIC
TILEORY
Hence it is that the poem must consist of one single action , as Aristotle said , not only because any imitation must imitate one single thing just as any science concerns one subject , but also because if a poem consists essentially in redundant ord and superfluous ornament , if a poet were to undertake to imitate poetically than one action , the poem in order to be complete would grow to infinite size.23
for Vergil, Speroni concludes that
As
Vergil did not possess the poetic
“
art ; because with respect to invention , in which the art consists , he does
not poetry
is
it
.
an
.
in in
of
: "
even
of ,
by
or
of
in
verse
the art
the restrictions which
it
in
its
,
be be
historians
the sweetness
But
confirmation That poetry figurative modes speech
,
in
orators
or
by
of
is
;
it
which are not used grammar seen
cited
seen
of by
ornament Another passage may ornament may
consists entirely
elocution
places the whole essence in
, we is
,
.
exclusively
have seen
.
in
as
,
Vergil's merit therefore absolute merit Speroni
in
all
not dare to break away from Homer ; for just as the art of oratory resides in invention , so does that of poetry . "24 Without Homer , he says , Vergil plot and disposition would have been nothing at
“
to
if
no
he he
,
in
of ,
on
a
he
in
.
is
,
:
is
. "
for brevity cannot ornate and consequently not pleasur The comparison between the two poets concluded thus be
26
;
reader able
of to
,
”
."
“
, in in
”
25
premium place This leads him two qualities ornate floridity ness and both which finds Homer both which are Vergil Vergil's error lies lacking the fact that was concerned with brevity delight delight the which the poet should take wishes imposes
,
.
of
of
,
;
so
of
.
,
IV ,
to ,
is
of
to is
23
is
he
does with much brevity and precision and without affectation But from the delightfulness Homer born joyfulness and gaiety from that Vergil born astonishment and melancholy which not proper the poet but the historian.27 rather as
speaking
in
he
,
I
to
of
Vergil and the floridity speak again return the brevity Homer The pleasantly ornamenting and amplifying his subjects latter delights properly always abounds epithets but Vergil delights through the marvelous whence
,
,
,
è
nella invenzione
così
è la
,
.
on .p
is
:
, sia e
.
a
il
di
che come l'arte oratoria
in
."
da
,
. ., ” .p
e
è
,
di
;
a
in
Omero
: "
., .p
24
consiste non osa scostarsi 99 poetica 25
di
di
: "
,
un
,
di
,
(
In
Opere 1740) qui nasce che'l poema dee essere 438–39 una azione sola come disse Aristotile non solo perchè una imitazione debba essere una cosa sola imitata soggetto una scienzia ma anche perchè se'l poema come ornamento redundante superfluo se'l poeta togliesse poema imitar più una azione poeticamente volere repeated esser perfetto cresceria infinito The argument 534 Virgilio però quanto all'invenzione ove l'arte Ibid 571 L'arte poetica non era
di
: si
la
li
, si
."
se
,
è
il
de '
, e
la
,
di
si
."
Fu
: “
;
i
26
., , .p
li
, e
: "
la
poesia Ibid 534 Che tutta ornamento vede per suoi modi figurati dire non usati dalli oratori dalli istorici dall'arte istessa della gramatica vede per soavità suoi obblighi del verso per poeta Ibid 438 studioso brevità della quale non dilettare vuol per conseguente non dilettar lettori perchè brevità non può essere ornata dilettevole .
;
ed
,
è
di
: il
)
(
170
di
, e
;
le
,
la
,
e
fa ,
." di
, e
di
ed
: “
., .p
,
:
di
da
dell'istorico
a
27
Virgilio parlar della brevità 439 Torna foridità Omero Costui amplificando gentilmente diletta ornando cose sue onde sempre abbonde epiteti ma Virgilio diletta con meraviglia parlando con tanta brevità cosi assegnata mente come senza affettazione ma dalla dilettazion Omero nasce allegria ilarità Virgilio nasce stupore quella proprio del poeta ma anzi melanconia che non Ibid propriamente
ARS POETICA
:
PRACTICAL
CRITICISM
So that whereas Vergil may be praised for his brevity and his diction for certain rhetorical effects , these are not qualities which necessarily make of him a great poet. He is likened , indeed , to the “ Asiatic " poets whose decoration is not appropriate to their subject matter . From this process of applying a method of invention , disposition , and elocution there results a fairly consistent poetic. The plot , from invention , must be single and simple ( but not too brief ) so that a proper amount
ornamentation may be added
of
The diction must be ornate , but not too much so , lest it be in excess of what is demanded by the materials . If the poet strikes a proper balance between invention and elocution , as Homer did , then he is a great poet and worthy of the highest praise; if he fails in .
of these aspects , much as he may be admired for other qualities , he ranks as an inferior poet , as Vergil did . Speroni's insistence upon ornament , upon the florid style , shows that his total approach is rhetorical in con tripartite division ception elements well diction
,
.
of
its
his
in
is
near Naples
,
Lucullo
the
the work
we find nothing but the most fulsome praise
,
(
.
of
)
by of
,
villa
,
Caracciolo's
discourses
Vergil's work The interlocutors they include Scipione Cambi Girolamo Colonna Giovanni Villani Gian and other members the Accademia Napoletana talk
Alfonso
Pietro Ciccarello
the five dialogues contained
,
,
every aspect
Ammirato
set )
called after Colantonio
where the dialogues are
Maranta's
For Maranta's position at
,
Speroni's and
Maranta
.
reply
in to we
1564
that Speroni knew Bartolomeo might almost think that
,
so
(
exact opposite
of
on
Lucullianae quaestiones Vergil were written
for
in
as
)
(
any evidence
had
),
we
1564
in (
If
MARANTA
as
of
its
either
is
of
,
to
.
of
,
of
of
Vergil's studied assortments about the beauties produced sounds about the appropriateness certain sounds certain ideas about onomatopoeia Their second major concern effects with figures most
;
,
all
.
as
or
figures
sounds
.
.
,
,
,
in
is
of
of
uses
;
of
on
to
an
is
in
of
general Girolamo Colonna's original and the use words proposal defend Vergil the basis his diction For these matters presented elaborate theory the conversations develop the classical authority especially Cicero Hermogenes rhetoricians are cited and Dionysius Halicarnassus Other classical writers are quoted for parallel speech
so
to to
of
At
.
by
is
to
-
of
,
, ,
of
of
a
is
the five dialogues however
of
In
paid some attention theoreti develop broader import since Maranta apparently wishes though complete theory epic generalized the even much the Vergil material never applied specifically least some the conclu presented are reached comparing the epic with tragedy and sions each
cal matters
,
is
of
as a
171
)
(
times
,
.
upon the comparison between the poet and the orator
At
.
is
in
.
,
comedy and result the theoretical scope the Quaestiones consider ably widened Aristotle and Horace are the main authorities here with large part Plato being used incidentally The theory evolved based Maranta
POETIC
THEORY
states the comparison explicitly , as in Book V : “ We are
not now comparing
oratorical matters with poetic ones ; but observing certain rules in the former , as in the very fountainhead , we then apply them to poetic matters , with due respect to the differences . ” 28 But more usually it is implicit in statements
exclusively about poetics, as in this sentence praising
made
his
Vergil :
he
—
if
less
”
“
as -
all
res verba
such
would
.
a
the
he
as
in we to
,
,
,
all
be
verbs describing the effect upon the audience
,
of
wholly faulty and
praise for the style are distinction the general terms properly belong conventional rhetorical estimate
The poet
ever you
diction.29
of
of
The string
and how also without adapts things that
would
to
,
or
,
or
,
to
expression
both matter and form change add remove anything shall address myself the discussion
I
;
were perfect
content and
it he
neglecting brevity
to
to to
with respect both
so ;
,
he
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
of
;
—
he
Indeed , to say nothing about the vehemence and the greatness that we see in and how variedly and always wherever wishes draws away men inflames calms teaches impels excites diverts discourages them and how distinctly and clearly and abundantly and luminously writes sententiae the souls
.
to
,
,
.
or
the things which are common
he
as
: “
of of
...
,
both
have
30
achieve the goal
,
Furthermore although this most .”
to
order
of
the same devices
in in
.
,
must thus
them
,
to of
is
as
in
to
to as
... Each recourse
his
in
is
,
III
,
like the orator the ends seeks Maranta principal goal Book also The poet proposes arouse the different passions the soul and whichever ones wishes generate them and the souls those who listen read Therefore far this concerned the poet and the orator are very close together have seen
insists upon this
to
is
,
.
of
to
, is
as
,
Nos nunc non conferimus proprio fonte proportione seruata
364
,
: “
in
."
ad
"
,
of
1564 quasi
,
in
oratoria poeticis sed regulas illis obseruantes res poeticas deinde accommodamus :
to
is
quaestionum libri quinque
Lucullianarum
is
“
:
it
;
.” 31
delectare
these statements
), .p
”
and
...
pro the ends the familiar notably are absent Maranta here elsewhere
From
(
28
desse
can “
source
"
he
of
,
to
to
the poet shares with the orator the end admiration properly attributed the epic poet the marvelous more proper the epic than tragedy but nevertheless belongs poems both kinds Among the principal aims arouse admiration from whatever the poet
ac
,
,
,
."
ad
:
,
his
&
ac
,
&
:
:
,
,
&
ut
,
in
& ,
,
sit
., & , .p
,
,
&
,
,
&
,
,
,
&
ac
uideamus
ut
15 : “
., .p
29
magni quantam Nam omittam eius sententijs uehementiam quàm uariè semper quocunque uult animos hominum distrahat quàm distinctè explicatė incendat leniat doceat impellat concitet reflectat deterreat quoque breuitatis haud abundanter illuminatè rebus uerbis scribat cum quicquid aut addideris aut mutaueris aut detraxeris immemor ita res omnes temperet uitiosius deterius omnino futurum orationem meipsum conuertam Ibid
tudinem
&
in . re . . .
,
,
ut
...
." .
ut
,
& in
,
se
,
: “
88 : “ ut
, ., ad ad p .
31
,
30
quas uult affectiones Ibid 179 Poeta precipuum scopum sibi proponit uarias Igitur uel audiunt uel legunt animis eorum qui animi concitet atque generet communi quantum Debet igitur Poeta maximè conueniunt hoc attinet Orator scopum attingant utrisque eadem uterque confugere
)
(
172
:
ut
est ,
...
.”
.
,
Ibid admirabilitas magis Epopoeiae conueniat quàm Tragoediae tametsi admirationem utriusque poematis propria est Inter praecipuos poetae scopos illud undique pariat
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
closer to the rhetoricians themselves than to Horace . For similar ends , similar means . The poet will have to pay particular attention to the “ propo " of his poem , which must be simple and unornate and must stand proper relationship to the plot , just as the orator will use poetic diction in in his exordium ( p . 179 ) . Both must study the proper handling of “
he
res ”
sition
,
"
“
),
“
,
:
is
It
he
.
he
in
of
of
,
he is
,
;
of
of
,
in
of
an
in
,
. ”
;
but the words can exist without sententiae primarily interested and these indeed which sacrifices the other parts favor abundant discussion the multiple aspects words any given poem works within the frame Like the orator again the poet work one the three styles chooses the proper style for the genre is
without words
,
that
32
.
"
"
in
res "
"
(
.”
verba
of
“
may have Maranta equates two rhetorical elements and qualitative parts mind two Aristotle's sententiae and oratio with and verba respectively The words produce the diction and the things themselves the sententiae The latter cannot exist without language
and
,
.
,
of
,
to
96 ).
,
is
we
to
plots proper
as
,
to to
,
in
is
of
germane
in
an
specifically the work however which truth and verisimilitude and the the poet and that relates
one lengthy discussion
to
There
(p .
to
,
,
,
as
a
(
V )
Finally one and then the proper words and figures for that style Book may analyze poet's work one does orator's terms invention disposition and elocution and Maranta does not fail pay passing Vergil's invention and disposition tribute
,
to
to .
is
.
of
to
be
here that
a
is
.
between the marvelous and the verisimilar
It
a
;
,
be
,
of ,
“
,
of
33
."
is
At by
is
,
of
of
tragedy Maranta assumes the epic and that one the ends the poet stir the reader admira tion and that this done through the use the marvelous The marvelous produced actions which are unheard new and completely unex pected the same time however the poet must sure never tax the credulity his audience delicate balance must maintained
kinds
have seen
difference
arises
it is
by
,
is
be
by
be
by
.
as
between tragedy and the epic For the reader will accept certain things rejected credible which will the spectator and the spectator will sometimes more deeply moved what narrated than what
no
is
in
,
be
,
is
it
“
in
." 34
of
in
attaches
to
.
,
Therefore certain that the marvelous especially when represented those things which cannot really happen cannot simple discourse where there repre the same way drama and sentation actions The epic poet may thus cultivate the extraordinary enacted
”
to
Hae sine oratione
."
.”
.
,
35 )
,
,
of
,
: “
, : & at
91 89 : : “ "
90 : "
ac
, ., ., .p .p
., .p
,
34 33 35
.,
Ibid 17–18 Verba orationem conflant res ipsae sententias hoc est sine uerbis esse non possunt uerba sine sententijs possunt praeter expectationem Ibid inaudita noua
,
.pp
32
of
(“
to
,
and incredible more freely than the tragic poet and the latter must take relegate certain violent actions care death itself massacres the cook ing and eating human flesh and others this kind narrative
est
:
in
)
(
173
id
&
,
,
,
."
,
. "
,
in
,
praesertim uerò earum rerum quae fieri Constat igitur admirabilitatem non aequè posse dramatibus effingi atque sermone nudo ubi nulla actionum repraesentatio Ibid Mors ipsa trucidatio membrorum humanorum coctio comestio genus caetera Ibid nequeunt
POETIC
THEORY
of
the explanation
“
viri
of of
,
be
a
is
of
vulgus
It
the
."
selectissimi
credibility and verisimilitude actions and through whose ears
this audience that sets the standards whose eyes will believe limited number the proper emotions
"
as
be
,
in
,
is
being made defined this connection whose judgment would more discerning than that
"
.
ideas about the nature the rhetorical theories The audience
up
to
involves certain audience which bring the analysis close
of
--but
of
an
is
scaenis aut acta refertur
of
Aut agitur res
in
% .
,
all
,
his
passages ; in these , however , the “ imitative " actions of the messenger or gestures and pronunciation may considerably enhance other narrator , expansion and explanation the emotional effect Clearly this Horace's line 179
.
in
all
in
;
,
e
treatise
all ,
mutamenti at
discorso sopra
really not
of
).
(
con
This
1564
of
of
dell'Ariosto
a
,
eleganti della volgar lingua
diuersi ornamenti
with Ariosto Dolce's Modi affigurati
Lodovico
a
presented
the same principles is un
by
,
is
studied
et
the poet
of
.
to
of
an
of
to
a
, it be
.
,
,
of
the trilogy
to the of
in
of
is
of
is
as
application
even more restricted
voci scelte
In all
,
,
.
to
theory the direction found left without application just such expansion that leads poet name
An
poetic worth and Maranta whatever more complete poetics may Vergil itself Speroni text Vergil's right the denial the
the diction but refused
the other two elements
expansion
e
.
as a its
so
,
general way the merit
quality
of
in to a
of
of
he
,
tragedy may aroused and purged On the whole then Maranta's position remains rhetorical one The Vergil which object the various praise generously bestows has Vergil's diction although compliments are offered passing excellences Speroni also admitted his invention and disposition Curiously enough
"
.
,
”
he
to
in
be
to
I
“
in
his
by
, “
A
as
of
"
" )
(“
a
examples but collection selected and elegant words and meta phors modi affigurati cited demonstrations Ariosto's artistry The only theoretical statements appear the preface Lettori where Everybody who wishes compositions Dolce says read willingly judicious and learned men must without fail try write and praised
,
”
,
,
of
of
,
of
di
i
,
."
&
e
,
,
Ciascuno che disidera che suoi componimenti siano huomini giudiciosi dotti dee senza fallo procacciar scriuer figuratamente artificiosamente 174
)
(
,
e
uolentieri letti lodati regolctamente ornatamente ,
comedy Lodovico Castelvetro's Giuditio delle
), gli .p 1 : “
1564 da
Modi affigurati
(
36
may add two discussions
we
36
.
as
in
.
of
a
,
insists regulated and where ornate figurative and artful manner following the rules He admits that both ornate and upon the necessity figurative writing find their rules rhetoric and cites Bartolomeo Caval providing examples and sugges canti's Retorica and the Modi affigurati tions practical criticism the epic and the romance To these specimens
ARS POETICA
all
in
,
the true and the verisimilar
and
.
of
cases these terms refer
to to
is or
on
of of
.
of
present
his Parere sopra ciascuna comedia di Plauto . 37 , and I have assigned them arbitrarily to 1565 specific words scattered remarks lines Terence Castelvetro's main concern with the He reproaches Terence with having neglected ca.
and
Both of these are undated The Giuditio consists the various comedies problem verisimilitude
CRITICISM
.
di Terentio
comedie
PRACTICAL
:
”
“
in
,
,
is
it
38
to
he
”
as
to
in
,
to
"
is
his
,
.
it is
natural rather than artistic probability For example not verisimile that Pamphilus the Andria should walk from the forum house complete silence and then begin approaches the house shout acceptable since nor the line Ex ara hinc sume verbenas not common find on the public streets altars covered with sacred boughs
of
;
in
-
"
of
.
in ,
set
to
guides
to up
art
-
of
these remarks
and the strict rules
as is
or to
in
as
as
all
The tendency ,
,
nature
).
decorum
( .p
174
three criteria
of
of
spendthrift soldiers -
;
to
“
at
;
be
,
a
to in is
be
or
or
need
persons
;
committing sconvenevolezze assigning them actions not appropriate situations speeches narrating briefly what should length and vice versa Rarely told proper solution applauded for the his introduction Terence parasite comedy only the Eunuch such persons may used com good family whose fathers are far away panions vain and sons
of
prior explanation
by
to no
,
be
:
to
,
I
be ,
).
.
(p
presume sins against nature the remainder 170 These would Castelvetro's strictures apply sins against art telling the story the completely self contained and have prologue since the comedy should
.
the practicing poet
of ex
“
.
9 ) ;
:
(p
8 to is );
(p .
.
an
in
much the same
by
is
the Parere concerning the comedies implication Plautus More rules are added actor must not address the audience the stage must not remain empty the deus
The situation
p
.
(
.
of
:
39 —
,
"
the
is
it
;
a
is
, in it
;
or
"
,
,
.
the Amphytrion Castelvetro says kings gods Next this action involves and but not known through implica history through legend hence poetic subject not being poems kings gods may figure only tion the familiar one that and score
several new points are made
Of
in
,
of
,
of
14 .)
,
is
to
,
9 )
.
p
(
"
machina ending not desirable nor the double ending which brings happiness unhappiness some and others For the most part Castelvetro talks about the plots the comedies and criticizes details construction again usually terms natural probability On this
,
.
,
in
I
)
for
.
.
),
divina
nè
(
,
of
(
in
,
is
the manuscript Vat Lat 5337 only Bologna 1868 argues the attri
appare per historia
.
of
of
identified the title the text Giuseppe Spezi
)
175
,
,
reale
e
è
.
."
(
dunque non
), .p
1727 168 Appresso questa azione soggetto poetico
(
Parere per fama
cit ., .p 8 : è "
In
the Parere
but the editor Castelvetro Opere varie critiche ; , ed .
o,
39 38
bution
to C. ” ;
The author
L.
as “ 37
to
.
of
to
of
in
to
actions already known the audience Moreover Castelvetro raises moral objections certain the actions the Asinaria indicates the possibility sad endings for comedy and happy endings for tragedy All these criticisms belong strictly the Horatian tradition which have been
POETIC
THEORY
tracing, and there are only the slightest reflections of the Aristotelian Poetics. This is surprising indeed for one of the century's principal com mentators on Aristotle . It may be explained either by assuming that these criticisms were
written before
Castelvetro began
of textual
his work
exegesis , or by concluding that even a professional Aristotelian theorist could operate , in the domain of practical criticism , in complete independ ence
of the Poetics .
Torquato Tasso , himself a sonneteer , provides us with an example of criticism of the sonnet in the same mode . It is his Lezione sopra un sonetto di Monsignor Della Casa , written in his youth and recited before the
Accademia Ferrarese ; I have assigned to it a tentative date of 1565.40 After a preliminary discussion of nature and art in the poet ( Tasso gives pre cedence to art and indicates how the poet must combine the imitation of models with the following of precepts ), he chides the imitators of Casa with having failed to reflect his greatest qualities . “What is marvelous in him , the choice of words and of sententiae , the novelty of the figures and especially of the metaphors, his strength , greatness and majesty , they either do not try to express or are unable to do so in any degree . " 41 Tasso will attempt to explain these elements in his lecture . Since they refer exclusively to matters of style , he prefaces his remarks by a distinction of the various styles as seen by Demetrius , by Hermogenes , and by Cicero ; then , placing magnificent, grand , and sublime ” style , he defends Casa's use of this style in the sonnet . Dante's objections are overridden , since if grave and magnificent matters may be used in the sonnet , why not this sonnet in the
“
III
words of the same kind ? Tasso here applies the rhetorical distinction between concepts and words : “ It is clear that the concepts are the end and consequently the form of discourse , and the words and the composition of the verse are the material or the instrument. " 42 Casa's concepts are then analyzed in terms of Demetrius ' criteria - with passing reference to Book
of
of
.
in
to
.
the reader Two basic conceptions relative
the
no
40
were comprehensible
to
to
,
in
,
.
a
at
.
is
-
to
of
the Rhetoric and Cicero's Orator and the general question the proper subjects for poetry raised This was moot question the time Tasso shares the position those profound philosophical concepts especially who held that and scientific proper philosophical terms are not acceptable poetry when expressed He praises Petrarch for having reduced Plato's philosophy terms that
).
(
in
lui
,
in
di
,
II,
),
(
in
,
,
.pp
),
.
to
,
ed .
41
(
,
its
of
the Prose diverse 1875 111-34 gives indication Torquato Tasso date According Solerti Bibliografia delle opere minori versi Bologna 1893 12–13 the lecture was first published Delle rime Venice 1582
Guasti who edited the Lezione
,
la
."
."
o
e
il
, la
)
(
176
la
,
il
de '
, la
è in
, e : “
in
, è, o
, e la
i
II,
,
In
,
; e , , le : o la “
., .p
42 la
e e
quel che maraviglioso Guasti 117 scelta delle voci particolarmente grandezza novità delle figure traslati nerbo qualche parte esprimere maestà sua non tentano non possono pur conseguentemente Ibid 119 chiara cosa che concetti siano fine forma parole composizione del verso dell'orazione materia l'instromento Prose diverse
delle sentenze
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
CRITICISM his
:
a or
... since
:
to
.
of
is
up
poetic art are present here : first, the poet must delight ; second , audience primarily people respect made the common With the first he is
,
in
his
,
to
. 43
be
in
poet speaks not only
to
The
pleasure
to
, to
to
is
is
no
,
to
contrary understand them and since fatigue human nature and present pleasure can any way wherever fatigue found
And
,
I
,
as
as
,
he
;
a
,
it is a
to
,
is
the poet must delight either because pleasure his end believe necessary means bring about utility because others judge not good poet who does not delight nor can delight with those concepts which bring with them difficulty and obscurity for man must weary mind order
as
I
;
and therefore
be
let
,
the orator does
a
of
,
,
is
an
,
an
on is to
,
“
,
by
44
a
is
a
;
, in
.”
to
,
by
as
the second
: “
the learned but the popular his concepts popular not those which the people uses ordinarily but such mean Judged are intelligible the people these standards Casa receives high rating the concepts this sonnet are clear pure easy but purity that clearness that not ordinary not low ease that not
people
.
of
to
of
of
of
of
,
he
of
to
,
,
.” 45
ignoble appreciation From these bases Tasso goes Casa's speech and their versification the sounds uses the figures appropriateness style employed The approach remains the kind
in
judgment
.
or
interpretation
)
,
(
Grasso's Oratione contra Terentiani 1566 Terence Like Castelvetro's criticism Grasso's
is we
”
-
,
of
to
to
"
"
is
it
no
other kind
of gli
return
nega
on
Benedetto
comedy and
to
to
With
could produce
.
)
are lacking
"
(
in
.
,
of
—
language various levels elocution and versification inquires possibility poetic structure and and never into the other types excellence For this reason related the Horatian rhetorical trend plot and characters which the sonnet where the strictest sense restricted
...
.
of
:
.
as
is
is
it
is
;
it
essentially different grounds tive but more severe and based Perhaps the starting point for Grasso his comparison the poet and having the orator He sees them different ends and different procedures
he
at
so
he
so
,
.
to
,
of
he
,
of
as
just the orator follows the wide road and goes wandering through the spacious fields eloquence never departing from common usage that the may show the happy abundance same time his speech also tries with every art and diligence obtain the desired victory The poet since moves
43
of
in
of
,
of
such wise that with the happy representation
of
,
in
the figures
of
floridity
,
of
,
he
,
a
toward different end issues forth from the common usage men and this way becomes admirable giving pleasure and attracting the souls the listen ers with the beauty the words the sweetness the rhymes the variety and the
charac ,
io
,
il
44
;
ivi
, di
si
.'
,
ed al
a
la
si
ed
;
il
, il
, o
il
è
la
a la
:
ed
nè
,
è o
ad
: "
., .p
poeta dilettare perchè Ibid 124 dovendo diletto sia suo fine come credo perchè sia mezzo necessario giovamento come altri giudica buon poeta non indurre può con quei concetti che recano seco difficoltà colui che non diletta dilettar l'intelligenza quelli oscurità perchè necessario che l'uomo affatichi mente intorno per essendo fatica contraria natura degli uomini diletto ove fatica trovi alcun modo non può diletto ritrovarsi ; e
,
gli
,
,
,
,
. "
il al
,
a i
il
,
al
177
]
[
. "
,
., .p
45
,
i
:
: “
., .p
Ibid
: "
poeta non popolo come l'oratore però 124 Parla dotti solo ma popolo suoi concetti popolari popolari chiamo non quai usa ordinariamente popolo siano intelligibili ma tali che Ibid 125 chiari puri facili ma d'una chiarezza non plebea d'una purità non umile d'una facilità non ignoble siano
POETIC
THEORY
ters , gestures , and actions at one and the same time he gives us pleasure , and giving us pleasure he so attracts us that , as if beside ourselves , we are intent upon nothing else but considering the loveliness and perfection of that poem.46
According to this statement , the poet produces a kind of Platonic rapture , largely by means of extraordinary diction but also through the proper imitation of actions and characters . The statement is incomplete, however , ; for elsewhere Grasso expands it by intro ducing the formula “insegna , deletta , e moue ” ( p . 6 ) and by citing Plutarch on the uses of poetry in curbing violent passions and in teaching men to bear with equanimity the excesses of adverse or propitious fortune ( p . 35 ) .
as far as the ends are concerned
.
a
to
,
it of
he
,
on
his
But his real meaning becomes apparent only when he proceeds to condemn Terence for the immorality and the obscenity of comedies Quoting Horace the civilizing function the earliest poets who were priests please the and philosophers declares that was through desire
of
and that the reading such can produce only blushes and contempt Terence one these poets such this with the sweetness their rhymes and the beauty and smoothness their words first delight but they leave our souls
:
is
of
by
,
at
us ;
,
of
"
as
.
poets
of
masses that later poets fell into decadence
is
in
of
,
in ,
:
of
of
.
to
of
.' "
of
infected and poisoned the corruption their enormous vices and their immoral stories 47 again On the basis the quality the imitation says Grasso Terence open originality and criticism His deficiencies are dual the lack
.
of
)
1
(
:
,
of
.
of
,
)
;
(b
,
(
in )c
,
and words only , , , a e e ua
,
,
as ;
,
topics sententiae
of
form
,
a
,
changed
of
of
,
of
of
,
(
:
in
as
in
the use but 46
a )
the use other names general outline means Vergil's use Homer and Cicero's Demosthenes the same argument but with different words sententiae and Vergil's descriptions Horace's imitation rustic life
in
of
figures
as
,
and ends
; ( 3 )
,
,
in ;
( 2 )
entirely new treatment the use different words subject words and other ornaments The last these itself
has three subdivisions the use
an of an
”
he
“
of
,
,
on
as
.
of
in
of
translation different
,
,
the imitation itself Grasso equates imitation with invention only borrowing from other poets but the narrow sense imitation justify develops To his attack Terence elaborate theory this may any simple kind imitation which take one three forms the nature
un '
li
, e
,
'
,
ad
.
: el
&
,
ad
la
), .p 7 : " si
(
di
la
la
li
uagando per come l'Oratore abbracia strada larga tempo non partendosi dalla consuetudine ciuile ciò dimostri felice copia del suo fauelare Così ancora tenta con ogni arte studio acquistare poeta come tende desiderata vittoria un'altro fine cosi esce fuori della consuetudine per questo admirabil delli huomini resta dilettando tirando animi delli ascoltanti Orarione 1566 spaciosi campi eloquentia
a
17
.p
ad
."
, ci in
in
tal
,
e la
&
,
, la
di da
&
' la ,
,
)
(
178
&
parole delli
al
di
,
la
,
."
enormi
&
questi tali poeti con dolcezza delle rime vaghezza lisci dilettano ma lasciano gl'animi infettati auelenati dalla corruttela dishoneste suoe narrationi
, ci . e , .p
Ibid primo
38 : "
47
.
a
, e
ci
,
la
, la
la
vaghezza delle parole con dolceza delle rime varietà floridezza delle figure modo che con felice representatione delli costumi gesti attioni alle volte modo diletta dilettando tira che come alienati noi medesimi altro non siamo intenti quanto che legiadria quel poema considerar felicità Cf. also for restate ment
vitij
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
Vergil's borrowings from Lucretius and Ariosto's and Petrarch's borrow ings from ancient authors . All the latter forms constitute the perfect art of imitation , but Terence did not possess this art , being a mere translator or at best a borrower of plots without the beauty and excellence that should accompany them . He can thus be credited with no talent for invention . ( We may remember Speroni's similar strictures on Vergil .) This deficiency is related to Terence's failings in the other kind of imitation , that which consists in the representation of the actions , lives, and characters of men . The criterion here is resemblance
66
one
poet
comes to be called more than another insofar as he comes closer to what is natural , and this talent of expressing actions and characters and , in describing them , of representing faithfully the nature of things and their decorum , gives life, soul, and eloquence to the poet . " 48 But Terence's imitations do not :
excellent
nature , largely because
resemble
of their immorality and obscenity.
These failures in invention are accompanied by unsatisfactory per formance in elocution . Grasso concedes that Terence's diction is familiar and in the low style proper to comedy , that the words and sentences are good ( albeit somewhat licentious ), but not that he is a truly eloquent writer . For true eloquence demands a diction above and beyond that of the people : “ It must use more choice and more beautiful words so that, by delighting with the diction , it will hold with wonder the minds of the listeners ; and this thing simple and plebeian speech , because it is lacking in ornament and grace , cannot do . " 49 One may wonder how Grasso would
.
its
exclu a
da
of
plete commentary
on
,
,
to
devoting themselves Fighine published
)
when most Horatians seemed practical criticism Giovanni Fabrini
1566
sively
various senses
1566
to
In
GIOVANNI FABRINI
(
the current notions about imitation taken in
be
reconcile his requirement of florid and eloquent language with his notions about the proper style for comedy ; but the problem is neither suggested nor solved . One sees at work , throughout Grasso's analysis , the traditional categories of invention and disposition , the rhetorical ends of teaching, delighting , and moving ( accompanied by pleasure , admiration , and a kind of rapture ), the moral goals of proper instruction and exemplification , and
com
in on
.
is
il '
."
parlar
'
la
qual cosa non puo operare
."
.
&
,
)
,
(
179
, La
,
&
,
,
&
&
,
,
i
,
,
da
Ibid tando tienni ancora con marauiglia gl'animi dell'ascoltanti plebeio semplice per esser priuo d'ornamento legg adria ., .p
is
"
to
he
,
poeta viene esser chiamato piu eccellente del altro quanto che piu questa virtu d'esprimer gesti costumi descriuendo accostarsi decoro vita anima eloquenza del poeta parole piu scielte leggiadre aciò con dolcezza del dir delet
il
"
16 : “ &
s'accosta naturale alla Natura delle cose 49
”
. in
is
it
be
, vn ' , vsi e &
Ibid
., al p . 6 :
48
in
to
:
“
in
Italian the Opere Horace The final section poetica contained the Ars col comento vulgare and remarkable two scores the first commentary written Italian and the only one published during the Cinquecento Since Fabrini writing his Italian vulgar tongue gloss the and since wishes make the two languages
POETIC
THEORY
explain each other , " he spends much of his time on simple translation or paraphrase of the original ; by piecing together the equivalents suggested
for
each word , one would have a continuous translation of the epistle . Otherwise , he provides the usual identification of historical persons, cita tion of authorities , and quotation of illustrative examples. Fabrini states at the outset what he thinks to be the content of Horace's treatise : “first it
or
It
11.
seems to me that in this epistle ... he teaches the laws of poetry , second that he treats of poetry itself, and finally that he blames and scoffs at those who do not observe in poetry what should be observed by good and true poets . " 50 The laws of poetry , he insists , are the same as those taught by Aristotle : ,
)
it is to
at
,
51
and with the same arrangement
.
,
,
pace with the same order
of , in it
;
,
to
it,
it
in
he
is
,
to
,
that Horace in this passage ( 1-13 imitated Aristotle rather one single art which has only one single path from the beginning wishing the end and that who has perfect knowledge discourse only about can discourse about one way for truth seen that Aristotle and Horace have from the beginning the end proceeded the same seems
that poetics
),
[
his
. "
52
,
be
to
is
of
his
of
,
he
to
it is
in
: "
If
repeated
to
that Horace imitated Aristotle
is
you later proceed wish see how Horace means that one should imitation place before yourself this poetics and the poetics Aristotle which clear see that imitated and you will know what done The statement
Aristotle
1-13
1450a38
1455612
14-23
1451b33
1451a16
24-31
1456a25
,
,
Horace
1450635 1459a29
1460a1
1459b34
1460al
1448a14
96–103
1455a30
SO
,
90-95
-a23
1456a33 mi
,
,
38-41 42-45 60–76
,
:
,
to
,
of
so
as
,
many predecessors Convinced had been that Horace was copying directly the Poetics Fabrini could not fail point out numerous parallels between the two texts
...
in
,
, , e e
.
I
,
is
questa diuisione
,
:
un
, in e
se al
,
ne
un
,
habbia imitato Aristotile ouero solo camino dal principio fine che ragio possa ragionar non non modo se
da
la
quale habbia Poetica sia un'arte nandosene chi n'ha perfetta cognitione che
,
che Oratio
in
Pare
, , la
355v
: “
Ibid
., .p
51
as
,
,
in
de , da la
: "
;
ne le
di le
.”
e si
, de la of
(
), .p
L'Opere d'Oratio 1566 primieramente pare che questa epistola egli 355 leggi poesia secondariamente che tratti poesia finalmente biasima poesie non osseruano quello che ride coloro che buoni ueri poeti dee essere osseruato Much the pagination this edition erroneous and where errors occur printed and then the correct number give first the wrong number insegni
al
)
(
180
ha
;
,
si
,
si
."
,
,
dee fare
."
come
la &
,
,
( =
conoscerà
, ): si e “ la chi , e
, e
imitato
,
52
., , .p
si
perche inuerità uede che Aristotile Oratio hanno dal principio fine proceduto con pari passo col medesimo ordine medesima dispositione con Ibid 372v 368v ben uuol uedere come Oratio intende che faccia mettasi poetica d'Aristotile che manifestamente uede che egli innanzi questa sua poetica
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
Aristotle
Horace 104-13
1457a31 ( ?)
119-27
1453b22
146–52
1459a29
153-65
1454a33
,
1454a15
179-92
1460a11 , 1453b1 , 1450635 , 1454a33
193-201
1456425
347-60
1460613
361-65
145468
some of the commentators of the preceding decade , this is a modest list indeed , and it is more significant for the general state ment that it seeks to prove than for own size Fabrini's ideas on the Horatian text itself show the curious eclecticism .
these ideas are merely
his
Italy Some
of
commonplace
.
this date
in
which
is
by
its
In comparison with
by
is a in
,
;
be
.
the part
more recent emphases
of
is
to
;
in
on by
resemblance he
a
Others show
to
,
be
,
is
if
of
he
)
(
he
.
of
preliminary reflections the old rhetorical tradition For example points out quoting Aristotle that the poet poet remarks reason invention rather than because uses rhyme connection with lines imperative pleased 42-45 that proper disposition the audience on lines 46-59 that elocution may made more striking certain devices
the
).
.p
(
is
of
,
in
)
as
;
is
holds
(
Maranta had done that Horace's main con cern with the distinction between plot and episodes that fact this division the basis for Horace's organization his Ars poetica 355v commentators
In
.
of
he
of
he
is
;
he
a
to
is
...
on
it is
no
.
or
of
be ,
a
prince should how that way.53
mind
prince and that should write how that Idea rather that example his end write even though found that real prince has ever been
of
the true prince
to
be
to
the example the Idea ought according
,
or
.
a
derive the precepts that that he does not have some fault But Horace wishes that he should have
in so
no
as
set before his eyes any individual
,
a
to
,
prince write about the duties should not prince the example from which would prince should observe for single prince good
one wishes
if
For example
:
a
in
of
a
in
,
,
Horace
of
finds solutions
where
is in
,
he
the ancient philosophers his gloss on speaking the poet's wisdom Fabrini knowledge develops the thesis that this wisdom will consist rather knowledge Ideas than realities Elsewhere
lines 309–22
of ,
,
,
as
on
de
.pp
53
.
is
,
ideas
on
is a
strange mixture here Horace's ideas decorum Aristotle's probably on the universal and Plato's ideas Ideas seen through Cicero's Orator Cicero's Brutus quoted the subject
There
181
i
: fin e
...
il
.
troua
,
si
bene non
)
,
se
,
,
la
,
è
,
gli
a
come principe dee essere
(
,
scriuere
, si
:
,
:
di
,
." è
suo tale
, .
“
:
]
( =
si
.,
Ibid 384v 380v –381 Vno uerbigratia vuole scriuere l'uffitio d'un Principe questo tale non precetti dee proporre innanzi occhi per essempio donde egli caui che dee osseruare un principe perche nessun principe tanto buono che non habbia qualche proponga l'essempio ouero mancamento ma uuole che egli idea del uero principe scriua come dec essere un principe secondo quella idea ouero quello essempio
che nessuno mai sia stato
POETIC decorum , and Fabrini expands
THEORY
of topics to include " fortune , and place ” ( p. 371 [ = 367 ] ) ; he
the usual list
age , sex , profession , parentage , nation ,
decorum an equivalent of Aristotle's necessity and probability
also makes
( p . 375 [ = 371 ] ) . Here and there , Fabrini expresses fairly original ideas , as when he finds that tragedy and comedy are comparable in their use of
iambus and in their interchange of styles in certain circumstances p ( . 368 [ = 364 ]); or when , in the perennial controversy on nature versus art, he decides unhesitatingly for the primacy of nature ( pp . 383v [ = 379v ], 386 ) ; the
or when he interprets line 128 the following way :
est proprie communia dicere ') in
( “ Difficile
Those matters are called “ common ” which have never been written down by anybody , for they are in the common domain and anybody can help himself to them . and he speaks the truth , for common material is material without any
...
form whatsoever , in which it is much more difficult to introduce an artificial form than it is to introduce it in a matter which already has some arti ficial form . 54 artificial
The conception of form and matter provides an illumination ( although a questionable one ) of this particular passage .
of poems to their
to
poetry
this audience
"
"
in of
"
“
is
composed both dotti and indotti following Horace very closely both old mind the still another that the poet has -
another
it
says that
-
at he
370
]) ,
at
374
[ =
( .p
one place
for
whole approach
the nature
, .
no
makes numerous statements which delimit specific conception He apparently has
audience , Fabrini
of
the relationship
of of his
On one subject,
It
.
it
be by
by
as be
he
at
),
.
he
of
"
“
( .p
381v and young persons popolo when writes But does have definite ideas about the kinds things that will affect the audience and what will believe will
it
.
a
),
a
to
it
on ,
it
, to
,
.
( If ,
it
is
of
more moved what sees than what hears but will reject incredible certain actions that might shown the stage The basis credibility again dubious poet wished for example show mother murdering her children Medea obviously the audience would
a a
If
and hence the delight and profit for
the audience
is
It
.
,
for
prerequisite
.
it
.
pleasure
to
”
be is a no
,
verisimile
,
(1 )
,
no
it
)
an
)
(
to
,
,
“
or
"
the
(2
;
of
on
to
] ).
[
=
so
.p
(
of
54
"
out such belief there can vero
2
( 1 )
:
it
for two reasons would not accept the possibility that mother could actually commit this crime and would know that the paper and children murdered the stage were belief would ensue 372 368 These objections presuppose certain fixed ex pectations with respect incapacity through human behavior and imagination accept representation for reality lack the same event credence With however the audience would readily give were narrated refuse belief
in
la
è e
...
,
, .
se le
182
)
(
."
,
è
è
&
,
,
si
): "
( =
:
.p
la
:
da .,
Ibid 372 368 Comuni chiamano quelle materie che non sono mai state puo appropriare scritte nessuno perche sono del comune ciascuno dice molto una materia senza alcuna forma artifitiale doue materia comune uerità perche piu difficile introdurre una forma artifitiale che non introdurla una materia che hauesse qualche forma artifitiale
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
this reason especially that the poet must observe decorum with the greatest care ; if he does , he will please “ the educated , because they will recognize the artistry
of
because even
the writer and will derive pleasure
if
from it ; the uneducated , of the composition ,
these latter do not know the artistry
nevertheless they will have pleasure from it because nature in itself , without sees them whenever they are done with
art , causes things to please whoever
decorum and appropriately . "
55 The audience will also find pleasure in the kind of decorations which episodes add to a plot ( p . 3611 [ = 357v ] ) and generally in anything that gives variety to the work : “Variety is a necessary thing and is a great virtue in a poet ; for with variety , great delight is given
to the listener , and he is made attentive , and he is prevented
from being Thus , like Horace , although to a greater extent , Fabrini makes much of what may happen within a poem depend upon the likes and the capacity for belief of the audience .
.”
annoyed
56
In 1557 , Luca Antonio Ridolfi had published at Lyons a Ragionamento sopra alcuni luoghi del Cento novelle del Boccaccio , in which Alessandro degli Uberti discussed with Claude d'Herberé various linguistic problems con of Boccaccio . Some years later ( probably around 1567 ) Lodovico Castelvetro and Francesco Giuntini exchanged letters relating to this Ragionamento , which have some bearing on the critical tradition we are here discussing. Castelvetro's Lettera del Dubioso Academico answered nected with the text
of Ridolli's linguistic objections before passing on to more general remarks on Boccaccio ; in these , Castelvetro considerably broadened the whole basis of discussion , making it include both literary and moral issues . On the literary side , his strictures are of two kinds . He objects to a certain some
number of Boccaccio's stories
because
in
verisimilitude
them
-- and
he
natural verisimilitude — is not properly observed . Every body knows , for example , that young ladies of good family are carefully guarded by their parents ; yet Boccaccio frequently has them meeting with men and he does not tell how this surveillance had been circumvented . might Next , Boccaccio does not do that order arouse greater to
“
in
he he
” ; 57
to
is
a
,
.
of .
in
other sacraments various priests actions unbecoming their office and de lo
,
to
,
.pp
for attributing
to
He criticizes Boccaccio for his neglect the stories
rather religious grounds ,
,
moral
or
raises
of
on
the one which
he
related
55
as
he
in
the minds the readers should have treated the sacrament awakening confession when was discussing the plague means compassion objection greater closely the readers for the victims This
to
in
of
pity
of
all
means exclusively
183
)
(
,
." ."
rincresce
Lettori
."
gli :
animi
de
gli
che non
ne
stare attento muouere compassione maggiore
le
de fa , la
&
in , lei
da
, e si fa ,
è
, e si , fa
&
le
è
l'uditore
12 : " a &
ed ., .p
dà
: " il
a
:
la
se
:
;
., .p si
gran dilettatione
Lettera undated ,
la
56
57
uarietà
:
); " a
( =
; a
e
.,
Ibid 374–74v 370–70v dotti perche conosceranno l'artifitio scrittore gl'indotti perche n'haranno piacere bene essi non conoscono l'artifitio com positione nondimeno n'haranno piacere perche per natura senza l'arte che cose piacciono sempre chi uede quando elle son fatte con decoro conueneuolmente Ibid 358v uariare cosa necessaria una gran uirtu un poeta perche con
POETIC
THEORY
offences . These criticisms are essentially outside
for similar
the Horatian
mode as we have defined
the limits of his Risposta to Castelvetro ,
In
it .
asserts that although Boccaccio's style has many faults, it may
Giuntini
be defended against some of Castelvetro's attacks . Then he adds objections of his own , based again on violations natural veri
be
of
he
,
5,
indicates how
met and how solutions favorable
to
be
of
Decameron
I,
lengthy discussion
the objections may
some
of ,
.
similitude
a
In
all
nevertheless
Boccac , its
on
,
by
,
in
,
found.58
in
Both these critics present their practical criticism contacts with the Horatian tradition their concern with style with natural probability and with effects produced the work cio may
Tasso returns
of
Torquato
to
.
readers
this series
practical criticisms with his
on
of
,
in
.
in
Pigna's canzoni But
At
as an a
love found
"
“
of
of
so
as
,
is
,
to
to
of
,
.
di
Considerazioni sopra tre canzoni M. Gio Battista Pigna intitolate Le tre sorelle which Pier Antonio Serassi assigned the date 1568.59 The largely many little treatise devoted these lezioni sonnets were the philosophical content the work studied here the conception several excursions Tasso manifests
point
,
of
.
"
"
;
a
.
he
superior an
Petrarch may seem
, to is be
.”
concetti
“
,
,
versification and
,
of
,
.
language
on
In
"
, "
at an
is
of
"
“
a
,
to
of
;
its
in
it
of
he
,
one
is
theoretical matters
.
in
compares the canzone form with the epic the shorter poem less perfect than the longer but has own parts corresponding those the epic Both them having proposition are alike invocation and narration the rhetorical source these terms once apparent his comparison again applies criteria derived from the same Petrarch and Pigna subject matter source The comparison revolves around the topics interest
,
a
” ;
“
to
,
of
in
is
).
of
(
of
subject matter
,
of
variety
of
of
merely but this says Tasso accident fortune the death Laura having provided him with new body materials Petrarch more prudent the choice his subjects selecting only those which will clearly lend themselves ornament and poetic splendor whereas Pigna sometimes chooses sterile subjects and the basis
,
is
he
,
is
to
,
is
;
majesty
. In
of
language their difficulties through the strength his genius striving for grandeur and more sparing Pigna bolder since expand and dilate his ideas while the older poet more apt
overcomes
Petrarch
,
is
.
,
,
a
in
—
so .
a
to
of
Pigna usually confines his phrase Petrarch brief turn clear Pigna sometimes obscure but gracefully The former puts his words together and organizes his rhythms delicate fashion the latter more roundly all in
;
,
. 60
)
(
184
73 .
23-30
.
(
II,
,
),
undated
.pp
,
,
a
109–110
.
,
81-82
all ,
"
,
to
,
Castelvetro Lettera del Dubioso Prose diverse prefatory note this treatise , in
,
.pp
.,
in
or
,
of
60 59 58
Risposta del Giuntino See Guasti Ibid
"
,
“
to
at
,
at
,
”
Pigna
, is
. In
of
the variety
the sciences
of
concetti drawn from the innermost foun definitely superior his poems are paintings range give like Horace's which when seen close even more pleasure the viewer than when seen distance Choice and variety subject matter paucity richness diction clarity and obscurity the and fully
tains
ARS POETICA
CRITICISM
PRACTICAL
:
is
is
by
of
of
an
The epigram serves brings praise and glory
to
it it .
concerned with
at ,
it .
he
,
in
its
to
its
influence
charac
relationship
whom composes mind these goals when Second way persons subjects and some the who are
in
he
,
,
19 ),
is
.
it (p
meant
must keep
the peculiar
types
three different
sees
the poet
to
first with respect and
,
is
and perhaps because
between the poem and persons end
to
in
in
genre
At
the epigram
,
ter
as a
of
and the effects produced
he
.
is
.
,
general but the minor one relation partial implicit theory what said but total preoccupied much with the ends served the poem
by it ;
to
poetry
the epigram specific and Correa
A
not with respect genres
of
its
general effect of the versification , these are problems and solutions familiar to the practicing rhetorician . On the purely theoretical side , Tommaso Correa's De toto eo poematis genere , quod epigramma vulgo dicitur Libellus ( 1569 ) is different from most theory of the documents that we have seen thus far in that it develops
it
,
”
: “
of
its “
of
or
The
of
expres
this
: "
series
22 ). ad
an
,
such
as
or
is a
it
something a
in
;
which
very definition
straightforward mention either declaration drawn in of
an
.
it
vituperatio
a
is a ”
(
“
in
22 );
.p of .
is
in
,
61
. "
the
part
action commendation The formula appears again a
,
of
censure
laus
treats This short poem which makes
person something whether from what has been stated
sion
the
or
simply
is
consists
the persons a
metes out
epigram
way
,
general
to
a
in
be
,
of
or
praise whom blame directed this point more general principles poetry intervene the form the Horatian idea that the poem must both useful and give pleasure the utility the epigram stated
( .p
”
,
,
it
in
great baseness present
with one single effort
,
the vices
almost
must both moderate the
it
;
in
“
is a
must show that there divine glory the virtues
an
,
to
In
,
,
laudem uituperationem irrisionem cauillationem criminationem provide the specific utility for which order exists the epigram
,
in
of
,
an
it
,
.
of
its ” 62
the soul and render the mores more honest Third and per produces haps most prominently general audience effect upon those who merely read about the actions others but are not involved feelings
or
as
",
("
so
of
63
.”
delectatio
of
“
.
of do on ,
.
,
he
repeats them For this effect Correa has many descriptions and any speech any poem would presumably various occasions Just the epigram affects and almost seizes upon the most intimate feelings voluptas pleasure the soul The feelings aroused are ones
them
, , "
(“
of
64
).
"
,
is
" ),
(“
est
“
,
”
,
" "
.pp
(“
"
" ),
"
" ),
joy gaudio wonder and admiration admiratio pleasant delightful and the poem which produces them praiseworthy iucundus dulcis laudabilis All these effects are laetitia
,
."
,
ac
)
(
39 ,
32 ,
98 .
185
pene capiat
&
,
&
,
intimos animi sensus afficiat 23 ,
.
.
See esp pp
21 ,
19 : "
., .p
64 63
."
nestet
Ibid
ex
est
;
in
."
,
rei
,
: “
),
23 : “
:
in
62
., rei .p in
(
61
Epigramma enim nihil Libellus 1569 25–26 aliud quam breue poema cum simplici cuiuspiam indicatione uel personae uel facti seu contestatio deducta propositis commendationem alicuius seu detestationem uitijs summam inesse turpitudinem prope diuinam gloriam Ibid demonstret uirtutibus una denique eademque opera sensus animi leniter afficiat mores coho
POETIC
THEORY
such as might result from any form
its
of poetry . But they are produced in a qualities of the epigram ; universal and par passage ticular qualities are combined such the following :
as
a
in
special way by the specific
to ,
as
a
of
,
,
certain dexterity and discernment.65
a
,
,
and
it
,
becoming brevity
talent
It
.
an
,
,
in
,
,
is
if
its ,
so
it
In
beautiful well proportioned and unified polished and perfect parts cohere and harmonize among themselves way such express clearly briefly sharply and elegantly any thought arouses admiration extraordinary pleasure requires great art wit sharpness and produces fact that
,
in
us ,
to it,
the epigram such
elogium
for the
aenus
as
,
,
,
to
,
,
incredible as ;
of
with
all
as
these apply
an
us ,
:
a
,
,
naenia
“
,
the
palinodia another
our mind
forms but has many subforms related epicedium monodia threnus
single genre
a
it is
epitaph
pervades
humor
the
“
,
us ,
the sharpness
Such broad descriptions not
of
,
us ,
with
."
remains pleasure
66
and expanded
delights
combination with the effects they produce are little later But the epigram the brevity harmony arouses the seizes the thought
The latter
in
the second
repeated
.
in
in
Horace's vague recommendations for cohesion and appropriateness are contained the first sentence the peculiar characteristics the epigram
as
of
to
, ,
a
.
In
45 )
,
as ( .p
;
of
of
.”
or
is ,
in
they conform turn fall into three categories one oratory that the three kinds there are judicial epigrams general way deliberative epigrams and epideictic epigrams many epigrams subject there are different kinds there are matters These
a
,
his
of
).
)
of
include along with ,
Correa does not fail
by
,
,
et
of
,
(
the genre
verses are admissible
to in
all
verse form
(
special
true Renaissance fashion
of
In
and
a
:
a
is
an
,
50 ).
.p
(
of
”
de
: “
in
the form Tot enim epigrammatum sunt genera quot rerum quibus texitur Correa establishes for each the kinds principle appropriateness that merely application general theory special style one each subject matter will demand the three treated
the epigram and the means which they are indications about the particular genius the poet necessary produce poems Horatian the poet the genre His initial assumption produce the perfect poem This needs both nature and art translated into two substitute terms which reveal his meaning iudicium and "
.
,
"
.
is
;
to
he
,
he
,
,
say about About the first naturally acquired has little artificially developed has many suggestions Imitation the
,
. ”
it is
It
sit ,
19 : “
05
:
it .
,
for moderns and this manner
in
,
;
of
indispensable ancient poets unnecessary for the ancients contemporary poet can succeed without operates
imitation
no
“
imitatio
the second
is
:
is
to
.
in
,
achieved
to
of
his dicta on the ends
,
&
et ,
ut ,
,
."
,
." .
,
,
&
,
,
,
186
)
(
49 .
39 ,
32 ,
25 ,
,
24 ,
23 ,
.
see pp
,
ut
,
,
21 : “
&
,
,
& si
,
in ,
,
., .p
,
66 ;
&
. ita , .p
se
Ibid Nam illud uenustum aptum connexumque teres rotundum partes cohaereant congruant inter distincte breuiter acute ornate sententia exprimatur uoluptatem affert non uulgarem Multa arte opus admirationem mouet iudicio est sale ingenij acumine brcuitate decora dexteritate quadam epigrammate breuitas delectat acumen excitat concinnitas capit Ibid Sed For other similar statements haeret sententia lepor uoluptate incredibili animum perfundil
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
CRITICISM the
:
be
,
,
to
be
.
...
In
to
,
in
,
,
,
we
,
;
in of
We must therefore consider carefully in what way old poets expressed the feelings poetic and what they judged not the soul what they judged poetic accordance with what order ornaments and figures what rhythms length method even particulars we should adapt our own epigram to
so
us
be
which other poets treated the same subject that we may understand what way these poets achieved proper form and what respect another failed thus we shall become more prudent through the errors others and the trials others we may make trial our own talent.67
of
of
;
of
by
in
,
in
,
in
ways
, it
it to
a
may more easily and properly compose perfect epigram and more order that diligently polish perfection very useful for compare the various will
of
.
so
:
to
,
poetic talent thus and prosodic
style
,
matter
.
form
of
becomes the basis for the correct assorting
,
A
23 ).
the subject matter
nature
(p , .
,
of
,
in
;
in
to
be
particular kind
as
of
assigned poets Such qualities and procedures these might course epigram general any genre the argument practicing The far remains matist must possess addition the peculiar capacities necessary for his art cleverness wittiness artistry judgment and the ability estimate the
of
, of
of
of
of
Its
.
a
of
,
of
to
is
an
interesting example Correa's little treatise the adaptation the literary type conceptions specific Horatian mode the ends poetry the principles internal organization the poet's talent and
,
it
,
by
"
-
, ,
at
.
res
“
,
of
in
all in
its
to
every point and above method are closely related the Ars poetica But styles relationship notions the three the verba the effects produced the audience and the personal glory sought the poet extends beyond the basic text and makes contact with the broader rhetori .
cal tradition
an
is
.
a
As is
He
,
of
'
),
he
by
it
, a it
finds that the action accompanied passions
poem
is
action and the classification the simple one since
one but not
begins with the customary state Euripides Hippolytus about the the muses about the nature the
.
of
(
or ,
.
words and figures But about the poet's model here reasons why poets invoke the gods ments
to
,
on
by
a
produced
to
I
to
,
),
of
(
an in
il
in
The latter tradition far outweighs the purely Horatian elements Pietro Pagano's Discorso sopra secondo sonetto del Petrarca undated manu script the British Museum Additional MS 33,470 which have pro arbitrary date given about 1570. Pagano's main intention running commentary vide the text with special attention the effects
single
for
the
,
,
judicial
we
or
deliberative
,
to
,
demonstrative
or
,
82 ,
,
the three types .pp
of
67
one
of
: "
is
derived from Aristotle's Rhetoric And since every dis course and composition falls according the opinion Aristotle under classification
shall
,
&
,
,
&
,
in
,
&
,
,
:
,
,
: “
&
"
"
,
,
.,
Ibid 85–86 Videndum igitur diligenter est quomodo ueteres animi sensa exposuerint quae poetica iudicarint quae non quo ordine quibus luminibus figuris quibus numeris qua longitudine qua ratione singulis accommodemus epigramma nostrum and Quo facilius commodius perfectum epigramma componere queamus
)
187
in
ut
:
,
de
re
in
,
(
et
,
,
ut
a
diligentiam expoliendi adhibere erit utilissimum conferre rem eandem diuersis poetis explica quomodo his assequatur decorum qua tam ille fuerit mancus intelligamus alienis erroribus cautiores efficiamur aliorum periculis faciamus nostro ingenio peri
POETIC
THEORY
say that this sonnet belongs to the judicial kind , and in that part of the assumptive juridical constitution which is called translation of the fault , where guilt is transferred to another person .” 68 In the treatment of this
fol .
to
an
.
a
of
of
on
to
of
,
.
indicates how Petrarch achieves
the
ends
:
poetry
he
Finally
rhetoricians
of
to
of
of
II
,
he
.
of
passages
of
,
style When Pagano passes from generalities the individual Petrarch's sonnet cites Book the Rhetoric the figures speech and points out Petrarch's conformity the teachings the 6v )
(
is
it
of
his
kind of subject matter , Petrarch uses the form of expression called by Hermogenes DEUVÓTns , or the “ grave , " and sonnet belongs the highest level powerful god speaks this form since the action unexpected event The effect produced admiration resulting from
a
if
to
be ;
to a
an
allegorical and
for man can never disentagle him
much better shown Christian explanation.69
.
to
happen him what happened Petrarch self from that knot But the profit would give the poem
he
he
,
by he
be
,
,
to
to
;
he
,
a
,
he
delights with And since poets must delight and profit we might say that the poetic fiction supposing that powerful god has wounded him with mortal profits next because blow that teaches man that should take heed not vanquished allow himself vain and carnal love lest should have one were
it is
.
of
as
,
68
is
,
a
,
it
as
more recent years we have seen the ,
the styles
;
of
and this conception
in
of
of
an
.
we
,
it
is
to
,
in
Longinum another contemporary document the Commentarius attributed Franciscus Portus and probably dating from around 1570.70 important since brings The commentary were new dimension into the critical tradition that are here discussing We have seen through emphasis upon the three styles out the development this tradition relationship established between Horace's theories and various kinds
in
fully
”
“
of
by
.
in
an
,
is
of
to
an
Whereupon Pagano proceeds interpretation offer such the sonnet Pagano's approach The rhetorical tone whole evident and crossed interesting fashion with certain medieval practices such this closing allegorical interpretation explained What Pagano meant the highest level the grave form
, et
, in ó
,
et
, ó
,
Et
, : "
.
che
chiama translatione
del mancamento
,
assontiua
si
di
si
,
lui è
á
che
mortale
;
,
et
,
."
un
,
,
tal
dire
d'Amore non puo
]
[
188
This MS
of
.
.
,
1-87
.
,
II °
the Commentarius
of ,
I
in
”,
“
to it,
A
:
,
fols
to
the
Parte
On
,
of
),
(
Modena Estense MS y.S.3.18 Portus name '
si
,
il
."
, . et
si
giouamento quando nodo Ma molto piu mostrarebbe uolesse christianamente dichiarare see Translations and and the objections On the reasons for the attribution Longinus Bibliography Commentaries Sublime 1600 Modern Philology the existence XLVII 1950 149. have since found confirmation for the attribution 70
mai suilupparsi allegoricamente
da
,
et
,
,
,
,
li in
la
Et
15 : “
.
la
69
., si
altra persona giouare potressimo Ibid fol Poeti deuono dilettare colpo diletta con fictione poetica con fingere che Dio potente l'habbia ferito lascia uincere che auertisca che non che gioua poi perche insegna all'huomo auenuto che l'huomo uano lasciuo che non gli intrauenga quello che
,
giuridiciale colpa perche
,
parte della constitutione quando transferisce
,
,
, ó
,
.
,
perche ogni ragionamento componimento MS BM Add 33,470 fols 5-5v casca secondo l'opinione d'Aristotele sotto uno delli tre genere Demonstratiuo Deli quella beratiuo Giudiciale diremo che questo sonetto uersa nel genere Giudiciale
bears
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
four forms or Ideas of Hermogenes associated with the same theories , giving somewhat more variety and flexibility to critical discussion . What Portus does is to interpret Longinus , now , as a treatise on Hermogenes ' sublime, magnificent, and grave form of expression ." Longinus ' On the emphasis Sublime lends itself , of course , to such an interpretation, given produced speech Thus Portus the effects diction and figures
of '
,
.
of
is a
distinction
the four subtypes
the one that speaks truly
,
as
as
a
to
of
The significant consideration everywhere the nature the Portus also distinguishes three methods for handling sublime style clearly and unambiguously allegorically and is
Horace
.
or
or
of
,
he
.
as
is
God the gods Just Longinus himself had done selects examples indiscrimin philosophy and ately from the sciences and the various branches exemplify given style Aristotle Cicero may serve well Homer ,
which
or
highest
of
the grave style
the commentary
of
in
initial statement
of
on
by
its
"
,
,
the grave
:
or
.
subject matter treated
to
to
,
,
to
is
:
,
in
.
or ,
on
states his ideas
,
he
.
or
mysteriously He comes closest poetic theory however when belong words which come the sublime form either through their sound because they are used metaphorically The poet who otherwise has much distinguished common with the orator from him on this basis secretly
,
,
be ,
;
to
.
all
,
in
be
;
be
)
(
They the poets may doubtless using words freer and more audacious figuratively orators must much more diffident Among poets the tragic lyric and dithyrambic poets are more daring than the others sure they seem
,
. 71
,
elevated and more sublime
293
on
the
sive
(“
or in it in he
(
.p
of
7
in
.
of
in
,
as
Longinus other places the remarks section comparison poets Portus extends his and orators This does assumption that the sublime may appear either poetry prose
),
be
the verse must
on
At
,
persons into account
so
on
,
;
of
in
.
to
to
aim and strive make their verse inflated and turgid Tragic poets achieve this most easily because the persons they introduce are above the ordinary station course they present the stage kings and princes that taking the
&
Perhaps Portus
passages
.
of
since nowhere
assemblages
),
.
the work
in
of
, "
, " as
.p
(“
of
the defects
of
“
Ed .
is
a
it
do
of &
ut
the virtues rather than
one should say rather the defects the passage any there consideration works other than 71
as
a
is
to
as
do
,
of
in
is ,
terms
.
in
”
)
in
of
of
,
in
poësi and that soluta oratione sive represents either case certain kind state soul and produces similar effect the audience His contention with respect audience that should judge not the ignorant masses plebeiorum but serious and wise men non imperitorum more sed sapientes homines solent graves 339 that
in
&
sit
, ut
,
ut
,
,
&
,
."
,
in
,
)
,
&
fiat sublimius
189
(
narum ratione necessario tollatur carmen
ita
,
.
& ,
id
:
.
.
&
,
: "
), .p
:
(
,
Pearce Amsterdam 1733 282 Sunt nimirum liberiores audaciores Dithy Lyrici verbis transferendis Oratores multo verecundiores Inter Poëtas Tragici rambici audent prae caeteris illud nimirum spectare affectareque videntur carmen turgidum Tragici facilius inflatum obtinent quòd personae quas inducunt habent non principes mediocrem dignitatem inducunt nimirum reges scenam habita perso
THEORY his
poetic theory
.
,
,
a
to
of
He remains close to the text he is explaining , and theory styles diction and effects limited
is
POETIC
,
by
.
is
of
,
its
of
His premisses for the discussion
be
some end
,
other things
,
are
,
or
of ,
or
be
it
to
to
or is to
to
to
do
no
a be
a
...
as
in
.
be
be
those which will which they are directed will
in
way that they achieve the such end the only ones worthy called plots and the others will not even taken into account And certain thing composing plots have profit delight and that poets their end either they put themselves that for other reason this trouble than some to
organized
to
,
as
Plots having been ordered and composed undoubtedly
all
:
of
a
by
to
be
,
it
.
Horatian point view Neroni the two authorities mixture
a
from are
it .
to
,
,
;
it
is
]
in in an a to
The Lettione sulla favola which Baccio Neroni prepared for delivery the Accademia degli Alterati around 1571 also restricted but different way attacks the proposition defended Carlo Rucellai comprise recognition and earlier lecture that every plot does not need plot solely aspects reversal Hence deals with Aristotelian though the problem would seem from statement nevertheless attacked
it
,
the other parts that are found these poems since they are those which are more apt than the others move the passions and they seize upon the souls persons either delighting them moving them disdain compassion according being represented the action that
of
.
72
to
or
,
or
is
to
to
,
of
to
powerful above
to
in , in
all
to it .
do
,
on
.
to
usefulness men Wherefore when they compose either tragedies comedies epic poems they have their eye they use this end and order achieve those means which best lead them To this reversal and recognition are
in
is ,
of
.
,
an
to
of
.
of
of
to
an
.
,
by
,
,
,
all
in
is
all
,
as
he
;
,
In
pursuing his argument Neroni cites Aristotle's definitions the two parts but for the rest citing examples from argues almost exclusively such poets Homer Vergil Sophocles Euripides and Terence His con recognition and reversal genres display the use clusion that since genres Neroni's Horatianism this lecture they are necessary poetry limited his conception the ends adjunct As Lodovico Dolce's translations Homer and Vergil
,
the later pages where
It it
practical criticism
in
it
as
.
in
-
,
the art
to
by
the ends served 72
of
,
a
,
of di
et
to
,
in
Andrea Menechini published 1572 oration Delle lodi della poesia Virgilio highly inflated and bombastic discourse which d'Omero repeats most praise poetry the sixteenth century commonplaces belongs theoretical criticism insofar makes general statements about
, si
et
,
,
, ò
le il
,
,
tal
à
ad
i
si
,
,
da
, è et
Et
,
, o . . . .
di
, o
in di
, ò se
tal
in
,
al
,
da
le
et
ò
le
. 1 : “
,
.
, à
le
.
composte MS Laur Ashb 559 fol Essendo fauole state ordinate come qualche fine quelle senza dubbio che tutte altre cose modo saranno disposte che quale son indiritte saranno solamente quel fine conseguitino essere chiamate fauole dell'altre non sara tenerne conto alcuno cosa per certa che poeti nel com porre giouare fauole hanno per fine dilettare che per altro non muouono qualche utilita agli huomini Onde componendo essi tragedie affaticarsi non per essere poemi Heroici tuttj hanno l'occhio quale conseguire adoperano comedie fine per
)
190
in
si
."
a
, ò
, ò
,
si
.
(
,
et
gli
. et , gli la
il
, ò à
à
la
,
que mezzi che meglio uegli conducono parti che alche fare sopra tutte trovano tali poemi sono potentissime Peripetia recognitione come quelle che sono piu che altro pigliano mouendo dilettando animi delle persone affetti atte muouere sdegno compassione secondo rappresenta fatto che allora
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
gives appreciations of Homer and Vergil . The ends , as we might expect, are utility and pleasure . Concerning utility , rather than develop a reasoned
(since that is neither his method nor his tone ) , Menechini accu mulates in a haphazard fashion as many kinds of usefulness as he can think
argument
(
or .p
religion use the everlasting fame
a iv );
by
these are historical , such as the civilizing function
of
Some
early days and
its
its
of.
of poetry
in
some are remote from every
,
of
we
of
,
of
us
of
,
of of
we
us
to
?
to
to
of
its
? to 73
in ?
of
?
to
to
accompanied
superior capacity
persuade and
pleasure
.
it is
because
does because by
these things
it
?
us
All
?
ever taught more graceful behavior what orator ever more ardently follow the road the virtues what jurist ever regulate with ordered treat with greater prudence the affairs state greater wisdom our magistrates high matters take more holy counsel help the fatherland with hotter zeal persuaded
to us
What philosopher
so
.
will Vergil's excellence
,
of
in
every phase man and woman into paths virtue making chaste and any discipline may better than other And
us
of
dross and imperfection poetry will teach the
:
it
do
,
,
and this
thinking
every kind
will lead
it
.
,
life Especially
us
of
its
ij
).
b
( .p
duties and functions simple
or
( .p a
”
.
by
by
the historian since they are relieved Through delineations characters
those told
ask
ijv ),
a
In
.
b )
.p
(
more immediate
we
us
“
it is
the poet
of of
such
by
,
as
infamy bestowed upon the good and more present way poetry the largely through the examples corrector our life which furnishes monstrous things that must avoid and Examples desirable things that must follow these kinds are deduced from the actions narrated the poet which are much more effective than day life
the wicked
he
or
,
(
and maxims poetry
Menechini
collects
:
the following apostrophe
to
;
diction
,
,
,
rhyme
is
,
,
us
,
we
,
harmony
be
these sources
in
elements
as
).
do
in
.
its
of
Menechini does not specify the nature this pleasure but does point out manifold sources Principal among them perhaps the imitation poetry which fills why we contained with incredible delight how not know More directly derive pleasure from such technical
is
a
be
?
,
,
is
I
Shall silent about the delight that derived from you when there no harmony that more sweetly strikes our minds For what ordered discourse what eloquent language can lovely sound and more sweet and more pleasant than
of
?
?
is
as a
as
us
)
?
di
'
Magistrati
? i "
la
regger con più rara Sapienza Patria con più caldo zelo
aiutar
191
ci
?
?
ci
? di
'
? di
cose publiche
alti affari
(
gli le
trattar con maggior prudenza consigliar più santamente di
all
ivo : “
), .p e
(
qual Orator insegnò più gratiosi costumi Delle lodi 1572 Qual Filosofo persuase più ardentemente d'incaminar alle Virtù qual Giureconsulto diede ordine
73 ci
a
of
,
in
a
of
pure concord harmonious verses felicitously unrolled What more elegant high composition and adorned speech can generate much joy beautiful and chosen rhymes full and resounding What more ingenious greater marvel than very beautiful subject developed with very ornate and full
POETIC
THEORY
and very lovely words , adorned with the splendor of wise and most grave maxims . sung according to the perfect rule of Music ? 74
be
of
.
,
,
,
of
all
Finally , we presumably are pleased at the discovery , within a good poem , of the riches and the treasures of the arts sciences and disciplines practical criticism the same considerations will On the side course prominent Vergil the felicity
of
,
,
I he
do .
as
, to
,
small number
in
.
of
of
to
to
as
every other aspect any man may These character making parts texts them They come from the application topics which belong almost entirely the tradition
or
,
of
. In
of
he
is
a
of of
specific reference
his
.
the lessons that the good poet should teach and since
no
teaches
displays every imaginable kind knowledge perfection excellent approaching close judgments Menechini's are vague and general
,
since
all
he
of
of
be
;
,
to
,
his diction
.
is
of
.
,
praised
,
for example for the vehemence the care for his abundance words and their correctness from these one obtains the pleasures proper poetry suppose that the same would true for the gravity maxims and the artful disposition his materials He would also make profitable reading fulness
to
.
the Horatians
( in
of
section
pertinent
of
the Prolegomena announces that the tragedy and comedy the comparison
of
on
-
well
on
work contains
as
.
The title page
to
;
I
in '
to ) a
have been written about 1575. Both contain materials
the present analysis
a
them
to
,
by
,
.
of
in
,
,
in
Franciscus Portus who died 1581 left behind him addition the Longinum already discussed number other unpub Sophocles tragedies and the lished works Two these the Prolegomena presume Orationes were published together his son Aemilius 1584 Commentarius
to
is
,
subject But the hope
on
'
.
of
Sophocles and Euripides And from the relative merits Portus early statement that tragedy and comedy both derive from nature through imitation one expect some fairly original ideas led the and another
it
life " ;
of
or
on ,
or
.
in
Diomedes
any
their
their safety the other hand
, ]
their fears tragedy
; , in
of
,
,
,
in
comedy the fortunes men are moderate are small the dangers small the endings are happy
on ( for
:
Donatus
,
...
"
is
,
as
might have been found continuators
are such medieval
of
of
on
,
of
to
,
is
no
.
in
.
soon dashed for becomes clear that Portus has poetry mimetic theory but wishes merely differentiate between tragedy and comedy the basis the different kinds they represent Man's life divided into fortunate and unfortunate events comedy treats the first tragedy the second From then the distinctions mind
da
74
;
,
; in
,
in
,
,
of
great importance their fears are great the endings are fatal the persons are tragedy contrari the former the first events are agitated the last ones calm ,
ui
,
?
'
&
,
, et
in
di
'
,
,
di
,
un ,
&
)
? ”
,
di
& , &
,
,
(
di
192
di
&
&
,
te si
'
un
'
?
un '
,
è ,
,
, ? il
iij : “
, ò
., .p e
prende non Ibid Tacerò diletto che essendo armonia che più perciò che qual ordinato parlare qual eloquente lingua può addolcisca l'intelletto nostro più soaue che leggiadro suono puro concento esser più dolce armoniosi uersi più adorna può generar felicissimamente spiegati Qual oratione più culta noi tanta gioia che uaghe alto componimento scielte rime tutte piene risuonanti Qual più ingeniosa piena maggiore stupore che cosa bellissimo soggetto spiegato con leggiadrissime parole illustrato con splendor saggie grauissime sentenze ornatissime Musica cantato con perfetta ragion
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
,
its
wise , the beginnings are joyous and peaceful , the endings disturbed and fateful ; and in tragedy the life to be avoided is expressed , in comedy the life to be sought . Finally , comedy invents subjects tragedy frequently borrows them from historical truth.75
to
.
In
to
,
is
of
he he is , is to
.
He
to
is
as a he
;
,
,
13 ).
tragedy
is ( .p
to
the two feelings proper
,
of
,
,
,
is
all .
of
,
quote Aristotle the most tragic poet the emotions Sophocles always grave tragic sublime grandiloquent but tempers gravity with joy tragic severity with poetic sweetness and pity and admiration result produces great delight through the arousing
of
the arousing
,
to
to
to
.
be
,
In
the comparison between Euripides and Sophocles the criteria are largely oratory rhetorical Euripides said less pretentious hence close and more acceptable the popular ear more useful those who wish learn how act since full maxims and commonplaces
,
&
"
"
of
an
as
on
"
"
be
.
to
in
of
it
in
,
it
,
of
a
,
I
."
it
the Orationes
"
of
subtitled Qua Historia Historici laudantur cite here not only because contains along toward the comparison history and poetry but because the terms end which praises history are almost identical with those familiar the defences poetry Were one poetry substitute the word for the word history The second
,
of
all us
set
we
in
in
76
we
. "
,
its
of
,
,
,
so its
at
if
as
,
deliberations and events upon which posterity certain pictures may easily take counsel for both private affairs All things life and nature are recorded
it
public and history
“
,
.
exploits characters gazes when by
us ,
,
in
acceptable the discussion the rest would oration the uses poetry examples The historians Portus tells before lives
of
"
.
of
: “
,
we
;
is
by ,
of
?
of of
by
is
of
? ” 77
59 : "
76
,
,
,
,
,
.
ab
, in
:
in
in
&
."
.
:
, &
,
,
in
,
&
:
.
,
parua pericula
In
), .p
1584 Comoedia mediocres fortunae hominum parui metus Tragoedia contrà ingentes personae magni metus exitus laeti sunt Tragoedia contrà funesti sunt exitus illa turbulenta prima tranquilla postrema principia laeta pacata exitus turbulenti Tragoedia vita fugienda funesti Co Denique Comoedia fingit argumenta Tragoedia saepe moedia vita expetenda exprimitur historica fide petit (
Prolegomena
12 : “ in
75
of
by
,
reading
in
places and regions the skilful descriptions Who kept variety epochs not attentive the the vicissitudes fortune the great and important deeds accomplished various illustrious heroes and placed the historian almost under the eyes and before the everybody face Aware the argument that the same things might
in
does not take delight
in
,
by
in
,
in
,
we
so
we
60 ).
to
.
"
(p
,
that have before our eyes the things that must avoid and those that we must follow We also learn from the reading history how may ultimately become form our own characters that men shunning the vices that see some imitating the virtues others purely origins swayed These effects are not intellectual their are moved impressed the way which the history written Who indeed
,
& ,
,
&
,
,
,
in
,
]
[
193
res
,
sub oculos
,
viris gestae
ac
,
quibúsque
,
clarissimis subiectae
? "
à
grauissimaeque penè historico ab
?
ac
62 : “
., .p
in
77
."
in
., .p
exempla vitae morum factorum consiliorum atque euentuum proponunt Ibid quae omnis posteritas tanquam publicis rationibus tabulas quasdam inspiciens priuatis rebus facilè consulat regionum Ibid Quem enim non delectent locorum scitae descriptiones quem legendo non retineant temporum varietates fortunae vicissitudines maximae aspectúmque
omnium
POETIC
THEORY
of
by
awaken
.
it
,
Philosophy
individual character supporting examples
.
a
,
have previously pointed out
of of to
to
it
,
on
it
of
any one the numerous passions which seeks argue effectively when wishes matters and public affairs must borrow from history host itself
or
,
its
be said about poetry or oratory , Portus answers it by declaring the superi ority of history to both arts . Poetry is less effective since it relates false hoods or incredible actions and hence loses the confidence of the reader ; the more closely it resembles true history , the better it is . Oratory exag gerates effects thereby alienating certain listeners sins excess
a
)
I,
(
.
of
,
as a
of
I
Chapter pages 13–16 that large group theorists associated history with poetry sister art and the reader may remember that the points contact indicated were precisely those which Portus here claims for history alone
da
Fabrini formal com Aldo Manuzio
and the work
on
a
of of to
Giovanni
come again
in
,
date
we (
,
to
,
on
)
a
lapse After ten years from 1566 Fighine's Italian commentary 1576 mentary Latin the Ars poetica this one the Younger does not have much new
of
)
(
1576
of
ALDO MANUZIO
.
1454a15
1451627
1456a2
1454a37
1452616
1449a19
1453a4
234–43
1449a19
,
,
191-219 220-33 275-94
1449a15
295–308 347-65
1455a33
,
1459b8
194
)
(
.
Horace
be
to
).
all :
of
;
all
They are poet
very
by
all .
in of
poet
a
" )
a
is a
virtue and show neither him source make
of
intention
the texts appear twice
to
The
uses verse
an
of
of
counterpart
” “
,
imitation he
,
(“
is
,
used three times
of
in
,
this short list several
Poetics 1451627 Poetry nature
them
an is
noted that even
in
be
1454a30
the imitation and not because thorough knowledge Aristotle nor a
,
,
1454a30
113-27 128–52
,
,
1455a27
,
1455a31
,
1459a11
89–113
or
list
-as
1451627
of
.
1460al
the commentary
below gives them
Aristotle
1449a24
It
in
the
73-88
general
the body
Aristotle are slight
1-23
will
; In
to
,
of
the references
,
itself
Horace
of
poetry
roles
one
,
,
truth and falsehood
,
,
,
(
,
of
,
an
In
.
",
“
do
go
,
as
.
It
to
offer Most the remarks individual passages are the same the ones made earlier and frequently beyond simple paraphrase introductory section they not Prolegomena poetry called the Manuzio gives initial definitions deriving his materials largely from Aristotle four different texts from the He seems Poetics are quoted 1447a13 1451627 1447a29 1447b26 verisimilitude and the most intent here upon establishing the nature
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
all
On the other hand , there are almost as many references to the rhetorical works of Cicero . But here again they are miscellaneous in character and do not go together to make up a rhetorical theory . Manuzio follows the ,
,
res ', he :
the first place
in
;
"
in
,
in
for
gave
. "
;
so
is
,
,
of
an
,
,
78
: “
invention when said Cui lecta potenter erit then The sixth this the rhetoricians also do on order finally on elocution precept deduced from lines 46–72 the last named for although orderly begun stating precepts Manuzio had with enumeration and ;
precepts
diction
he
eloquence
on
his
sixth precept treats
in
so
of
;
he
of
a
in
pointing out parallel between lead of almost his predecessors Horace's theories and the oratorical divisions invention disposition and only passing clocution yet does the following sentence The
to
be
,
;
a
for it
to
in
is
in
no as
is
.
a
to
.
in he
after this one abandons the method We shall probably forced imperfect and conclude that this other aspects his commentary haphazard There distinguish any plan attempt Horace's work impose general interpretation upon the commentary remains col
,
be
.
;
at
,
of
,
the first
,
:
contain two precepts
the poet
his he
the subject that
.
is
are said
he
to
to
three lines
-
twenty
to
,
,
of
is
an
of
.
of
very simple lection isolated glosses These tend the most part much simpler than those the preceding generation scholars Some advantage since unwarranted subtleties are avoided times this but other times the meat Horace's meaning missed For example the first
,
in
,
a
in (
,
he
he
,
a
,
.
the earlier commentaries
.
of
of
;
connection
where would the
becomes historian and These few passages relieve one misses here the enthusiasm
only slightly the mediocrity the text the scholarship and the imagination some
of
insists
else
(
when
the poet
treats only the truth tempered falsehood
,
)
of
as
or
is
for
);
of
to
comers
necessary by
? ),
that
that hence truth must
all
"
open
that truth be he
imitation
,
151
be
unused materials
with line
if
by
used
(
he
declares against the major part the antecedent tradition communia line 128 means materials which have already been another poet and are hence available for imitation rather than
when
that the
“
as
.
In
be
;
should stick has undertaken the second should keeping with avoid descriptions since they would not serious only few cases does Manuzio offer interesting readings subject matter
an
perhaps Manuzio's commentary chapter for leaves
on
CONCLUSIONS to
.
in
its
in
of
theory has
."
,
10 : "
), .p
,
(
195
]
[
:
,
de
dc
.
,
de
tum
facundia nam ordine postremo
the progress
arte poetica Commentarius 1576 Sextum prae inuentione primo loco cum dixit Cui lecta potenter erit res clocutione praecipit quod etiam rhetores faciunt
Horatii Flacci librum
ceptum
de
, In Q. de
78
,
been three extensive commentaries the bulk
.
of
of
its
of
-
.
is
a
of
an
a
of
of
,
it
is
unfortunate work which end impression disappointment and sense the decadence tradition Perhaps this itself significant For the fifteen year period under consideration has been distinguished less expansion and applica for illuminations the Horatian text than for tion the Horatian mode independent the text itself While there have the present
POETIC
THEORY
in the shorter theoretical articles or incidentally to practical criticism . In the field of practical criticism , this period has contained the first sizable body of pertinent materials and has permitted us to see in what way contemporary critics translated their theory into actual apprecia tions of works . been made
Of
the specifically Horatian ideas , the one most , and modified by the theorists is the notion
developed
constantly repeated , of utility and pleasure
of poetry . In a sense , this becomes the hallmark of the mode . Many writers who seem to know little else of the Ars poetica emphasize the importance of “ prodesse " and " delectare , " of the “ utile dulci ," as the ends to be sought . In these particular years , the stress is probably stronger on utility ; writers are concerned with the moral implications of poems and as the ends
of the individual They relate to this their preoccupations with truth and veri similitude ; for the general assumption is that moral effects will be properly accomplished only if the audience believes what it sees or reads , and that this belief depends upon the correct admixture of the true or the seeming true into the ingredients of the poem . The need for the marvelous , the are insistent that they must contribute to the betterment
or of society
.
( both to capture
strange , the extraordinary
the attention
of
the audience
and to give it pleasure ) is a complicating factor , and many critics debate the relationship between truth and falsehood , the credible and the incred ible . In these debates , the character of the audience enters as a considera tion , since the capacity for believing is recognized as varying from group to group . Here , the ground has shifted somewhat from Horace's old man or young man , senator or nut - eating farmer, to the wise against the ignorant , the elite against the masses .
is difficult to see a preference , for Tasso will
It
declare just as loudly in favor
of
the common people as Maranta does for
the most part , though , critics at this time seem to have in mind an audience educated at least in two special fields, the rules decorum
.
poetry and the eternal laws
of
and requirements of the
of
viri . " For
art
the “selectissimi
is
it
as a ,
in ;
a
of
.
an
by
of
us
of
away from the Horatian text Considerations the audience lead strictly interpreted and into the broader rhetorical tradition which integral part The explicit comparison between the poet and this time starting point for develop the orator still serves number theorists ing their ideas about the poetic art for some the historian replaces the
)
(
196
.
of
,
;
such
a
of in
,
does anybody warn against the basic impropriety
as " ;
“
"
.
of
on
"
,
,
of
of
.
is
,
a
on
.
a
or
orator becomes third writer the comparison The more complete comparisons nearly these are the more the theories propounded take special flavor Thus for many writers there little perceptible difference poetry the rhetorics usual doctrine and the theories between their They talk constantly about invention disposition and elocution they they construct elabor organize their materials around res and verba rarely Only systems Maranta the case decorum the basis ate
procedure for
ARS POETICA
PRACTICAL
:
CRITICISM
discussion of poetry . One of the most persistent forms of rhetorical pproach is via the notion of the effects produced in the audience , and in he years from 1560 to 1567 an even wider variety than had previously xisted is introduced into the conception of these effects . Poetry, of course , he
of the audience ; but it must also arouse admira rapture kind must inspire virtue and create abhorrence vice Thinking this sort terms rhetorical ends was thinking ound lead terms rhetorical means and hence have growing desire speak poem such parts the proposition the classify poems belonging arration the exordium and one to
,
or
to
as
to
a
as
of
,
we
in
of
,
of
of
of in
.
ideas the
of
sets
,
of
two
the fixed genres
The first
by
of
to
.
of
be
to
of
it
.
,
,
or
of
or
certain
corres
and
the four
Hermogenes
)
poetic genre falls within one
the traditional Ciceronian three by it
personages
maxims
of of
Any
or
.
“
or
listener
”
of
a
the reader
(
the styles
in
onding effects
or
of
a
no
is
as "
"
involves well certain kinds actors special variety thoughts actions ,
inds
,
;
of
, a
of
;
purse
it
a
s
the attention paid
medieval was enriched ancient rhetoric but poetry then these Cinquecento critics add certain refinements longer merely style result now form diction dis
neorists
f
taken
the fixed styles and the theory
nese goes back
nd
oratory
the known types
Special note must
otion
of
nother
it
of
a
of
,
,
to
to
.
to of
it
must produce
n
ion ,
nust move the passions
the works
,
,
.
he
as
of
the poet
operates within
the same time practice the form only
his model
.
at
must
of
exploited
he
especially
in
it
;
he
,
given genre
if
ese more and more restrict the freedom finds
of
.
in ,
,
,
ve
f
,
of
,
of
,
is
circumscribed from the outset To the ideas Donatus and iomedes concerning the subject matter the meter and some the echanics individual genres critics now bring more subtle conceptions figures the sententiae the qualitative and quantita the style the kind parts and the specific reactions aroused the audience Consequently
—
his
to
.
—
as
ho
.
in
he
,
as a
Throughout this theorizing Aristotle enters much less prominently urce than had done the earlier years There are still commentators exemplar Maranta and insist that Horace used Aristotle examples abrini are but there are fewer than previously For the most
of
is
,
.
of
A
-
,
in
be
to
of
almost faddish use
Hermogenes
.
an
a
of
,
'
of
Demetrius On Style and confirm this supposition to
ould tend
.
we
),
if
en
tations
(
of
of
,
,
,
the Poetics are scattered and incidental centering about parallels andard and obvious resemblances and the main body contrary probably eory proceeds independently them On the there greater investigated mewhat use Plato this matter will later apters and Longinus have even seen one reference indications broadening inconsiderable ones the critical horizon few art references
,
of
of
a
)
(
197
in
of
,
of
an
of
a
to
us
In
of
practical criticism the domain the proliferation documents opinion estimating the state opportunity years affords ese literary types and number authors both number ith respect
POETIC THEORY ancient and modern . We have evaluations not only of the epic , tragedy , and comedy ( represented by Homer and Vergil, Sophocles and Euripides , and Terence ), but also of such newer forms as the sonnet ( Petrarch and
it
as
to
of
Lilio Gregorio Giraldi Most
a
a
or
of
-
of
,
,
on
;
to
his
Giovanni della Casa ) and the verse “ romanzo ” ( Ariosto ). It must be said immediately that some of this criticism represents no advance over earlier periods and might have been written at any time during the previous one hundred years ; I mean here on the one hand the compliments to the poet's genius, to operates faculties and knowledge the divine furor within him the other hand the repetition those time worn epithets that had constituted the only evaluative apparatus Pietro Ricci .
,
example
of
,
a
of
an
to
;
Grasso affords
Benedetto
.
an
or as
,
.
of
judgments from the comparison approach such
-
or
;
a
is
—
"
"
by
.
style But this these epithets refer epithets criticism now secondary tendency primarily writers are making some application through intention habit the theoretical positions evolved Frequently they begin the theorists did with comparison their author the orator the historian and derive
as
,
of
in
(
as
or
.
is
of
)
of
(
it
With even greater frequency undoubtedly because they regard poets more important they speak terms the ends achieved remark ing upon the peculiar qualities the delight procured the effectiveness with which the utility achieved This leads some critics such Grasso .
.
be
I
,
I
;
on
to
At
”
"
,
or
)
negative
,
a
to
make severe moral judgments the utility here being unacceptable moral lessons one and involving improper religious grounds but times the objections are believe that these belong rather discussing later For the Platonic mode which shall and Castelvetro
of
as
;
of
an
to
allegorical interpretation
.
of
an
means
of
to
by
them
,
by
in
.
its
of
its as
judges Menechini the chief value the poetry they considering positive were was contribution the moral improvement allegory still serves readers The old medieval justification auxiliary poetry certain poems the discussion the utilitarian ends whose moral lessons are not immediately discernible are endowed with such enthusiastic
of
of
.
,
as
primary Just for the theorists the problem verisimilitude was importance for the practical critics They asked constantly whether the ;
of
of
in an
by
as
;
,
of
is ,
as
,
,
it
,
"
,
;
:
,
be
It
.
to
"
a
in
poem were true life the answer for actions upon their conceptions Aristotle's necessity and probability for persons upon the laws de pointed out again that for such men corum should Castelvetro and Giuntini probability was always natural never artistic that producing actions life action was probable because they thought probable way the prior condi been made had not because the same actions and persons represented upon several criteria
depended
,
a
,
,
of
a
198
)
(
to
he
,
to
to
.
of
tions and preparations the poem itself As for decorum the requirements year until one wonders how grow stringent from year more seem given could have poet once character kind treat had elected
done otherwise than to copy in detail the treatments
on
of
predecessors
as .
CRITICISM
PRACTICAL
:
his
ARS POETICA
Speroni and Bartolomeo Maranta Vergil may serve practical criticism examples another typically rhetorical procedure that the inquiry into the invention disposition and elocution their making judgments upon subject poet Others course did the same the
,
of
,
an ,
,
his
,
the
.
(
of
to
of
of
a
to
in
plot construction half hearted approval his -
a
and giving
a
,
.
detail Vergil's deficiencies
character development diction
of
.
and handling in
examining
in
,
here
us
,
of
the two sets
,
);
(
conflation and practical critics alike effected typical dis terms Once again Speroni supplies with
have seen theorists
cussion
,
of
of
is
It
(
)
we
as
,
.
as
of
,
of
of
),
to
related
as
upon poet skill imitator other poets both invention upon his arrangement the parts his poem and dis especially upon his handling sometimes difficult diction tinguish treatments disposition invention and elocution from treat plot and character associated with ments such qualitative parts invention and thought and diction associated usually with elocution for
of
originality
of or
,
is ,
in
of
Sperone
style
.
of
to
aspects
of
.
analysis and praise
all
extreme case
but there were many others
of
quaestiones presents
of
an
of
of
to
all
,
an
of
the extent
of of of
to
of I
sententiae and which considerations practical period diction dominate the criticism this The use epithets describing style was not the tendencies accident for one questions rhetorical approaches was reduce critical questions long figures speech and ornaments Lucullianae Maranta's diction must emphasize
these maxims one
a
of
.
Hence the praise given the truth equally course have been
in of
,
,
so of ,
,
.
as
"
in
of
.
,
of
of
"
pearls the little wisdom contained satisfying parts the most the poems they read frequently bestowed upon the gravity the variety
found
of
,
of
.
of
in
is a
,
a
of
to
as
in of
,
of
all
so
not
were
is
if
,
which the intention was the same even prosodic monumental The whole matter excellence linked this same brand criticism since the sounds investigation subject words become much their sense The posi special one The seeker after moral usefulness tion sententiae again philosophical the lover wisdom the student mores and character the results
,
in
,
,
,
in
or
separate from them this the rest
.
it
to
,
in
;
works art the main they were content judge independently that component and
of
to
of
.
as
;
or
,
to
.
,
author's sententiae Such statements would appropriate philosophical maxims found orations histories writings anywhere else this the critics realized and admitted but the complete realization did not deter them Poems rarely existed for them
set
of
on
to
of
on
styles
)
199
,
find
a
we
of
writer like Castelvetro (
a
."
ex
-
of
.
)
( or
and
in
oped and expanded
“
,
interlocutors
it ,
for the habit
four
Horace himself had the pattern his remarks on the five act division drama on the three the deus machina Critics the Cinquecento devel
the three
on by
the basis
of
of
A
of
practical criti final result the application rhetorical theories judging cism was the habit the basis rules and conventions and
multiplicity
POETIC
THEORY
rules applied to the comedies of Plautus and Terence . It should not be thought , however , that anywhere nearly so elaborate a procedure is in volved here as was later to flourish in French neo - classical criticism ; but this is certainly a formative period for that later development . Judgment
of
200
]
[
.
his
fit
by asking whether the appropriate style was practiced and exploited in the right way was also popular , and it furnished another compartment into which the practicing critic could neatly remarks and asseverations
CHAPTER SIX . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS : IV . THE RETURN TO THEORY
POETICA
T
HE
LAST GENERATION of critics working in the Horatian mode , cover ing approximately the last twenty years of the sixteenth century , reverses the tendency of the preceding generation and returns largely
of poetic theory. The materials for the present chapter include only a few documents in the field of practical criticism , and these concern themselves with the sonnet The theoretical materials moreover commentary only are still only secondarily devoted the Ars poetica
,
,
;
to
on
.
all
to the cultivation
—
to
of
be
practical criticism may the period was being
of
in
on
,
in
-
,
;
on
the decline
the critical energy
BONCIANI AND PINO DA CAGLI
1578
,
of
problems that
poetic
the miscellaneous
prosopopeia
or
)
(
of
One
is
one sided
.
seem
-
this chapter
so
I
to
,
turned
it
the fact that much only toward the major literary quarrels then raging and quarrels separately because have chosen treat those that materials for
in
found
of of
partial explanation
A
.
arts
,
.
in
to
,
,
, of
a
,
on
-
-
possibly four three treatises belong this category Instead theorists produce large number particular genres short treatises the madri gal the sonnet the elegy comedy the verse romance which they apply Horatian principles these special forms they write besides poetic problems and miscellaneous the relationship the art other
per
of
his
of
as
of
prosopopeia
is
(
(
of
.
249–50
to
is
the
one ask how manoscritti
di
di
.
by
Nuove Attribuzioni 1952
),
“ (
III
,
201
)
(
.
.
,
.
",
,
1
On the attribution and the MSS see my article critica letteraria del Cinquecento Rinascimento MS Ricc 1539 fols 132–34v
added
If
of
,
,
) .2
,
—
is
it
that the special effect admiration speech and the moving ordinarily produced
hence
persuasion
2
in
of
,
in
so is
be
;
possible
is
); ( 2 )
here being applied
,
is
is
he
his own person Plato's imitation occurs whenever one repre any thing whatsoever sents the form habit and action Aristotle's justification objects which Rhetoric cited of the four categories may imitated the true the false the verisimilar and the impossible -prosopopeia imitates those false objects that are neither verisimilar nor distinction
not speaking
,
as
,
as
:
( 1 )
an
.
,
;
the last
or
inanimate objects imitating because poet ,
,
by
.
in a
of
an of
is
is
in
it
.
gives several ways
speech
one imitation and hence marvelous Bonciani which this figure imitation insofar animals incorporeal beings are represented speaking the
For
the most effective
is
it
,
harmony and figures
,
,
verse
in
poetics make lecture little which principles simple the fundamental are and few number All speech per accompanied suades and moves especially when such ornaments the treatment
to
expands
as
,
in
so
of
,
sonification Francesco Bonciani's Lettione della proso popea read before the Accademia Fiorentina 1578.1 But Bonciani forms the object
POETIC
THEORY
."
3
in
,
and because this marvel ,
had not known before
accompanied
by a be ,
it ;
is
at
it
of
learning what
experiences
the audience
extreme pleasure
.
an
process
thus something which has never been and cannot
marvels
is
as
imitation
the audience
is
as
object
of
all
it is feasible to imitate things which do not exist , the answer is that we assemble into a nonexistent whole parts which we know from nature : “ since we have known various things, our fancy sometimes confuses the natures of these things , making of them a new nature different from the others far the whole concerned but similar the parts Since the
,
.
in
,
as it
,
to ,
do
,
to
to
of to
is
graces
.
in
,
to
be
transmits the ignorant lessons which they need but would understanding any more recondite form Pleasure insofar merely
an
as
incapable
of
,
Aesop
it
of
of
an
;
he is
is
he
quoting Aristotle when Bonciani mentions the pleasure which accompanies learning but really preparing the way for the develop ment idea that has nothing with Aristotle namely that the triple end prosopopeia delight and persuade When instruct figure apologues the takes the form animal did Hesiod and
no
art
.
it
of
to
in
a
:
to
This above
in
be is
. “
character
all
it
,
a
conformity with
every one
;
of
to
—
in
of
is
imagined for person must each person only such speeches and actions his
are
in
as
be
given
and
be to
be
may
to
dwelling
,
keeping with his station
of
a
if
;
place
or
to
all
assigned
of
,
,
it .
of
of
of
the
are
in
,
whereas
so
doing they incompletely fulfil the purposes their persuade orators who exploit prosopopeia order through apologues and the invention making supposed persons much more proper use Poet orator and philosopher alike must appropriateness prosopopeia follow the prime rule their handling attributes must conform the nature the object which they are in
delight but
,
,
.
A
the utilitarian ends
achievement
a
is
,
of
it
means and instrument for the more philosophical poet like Dante proper express abstract and divine ideas for which will use the figure language poets employ solely words exist the Some for purposes these stories
. ” 4 ,
to
it
(
he is
.
is
of
,
In
to
so
us
,
of
,
in
our discourses that evil mores shall not things belong introduced and that we should speak with due reverence ing religion with matter for ridicule that these will not supply general the verisimilitude prosopopeia comparable any other once the initial impossibility has been granted treating and Concerning the figure which has been seen that this observed
,
of
to
on
,
la
fantasia nostra confonde talhora hauendo noi uarie cose conosciute ogni altra differente ma simile nelle tutto una quanto
]
202
."
il
da
la
,
in
è
ogni nostro parlare che osseruarsi cosa debita riuerenza delle cose alla religione pertinenti con ridicolo cauarne somministrino materia
si rei
da
questo sopr'ogni
: “
139
[
, in
fauelli
fol
non s'introducano guisa che elle non
, ci e
costumi
.
Ibid
.,
4
. "
,
nature d'esse formandone
parti
to
,
nature indicates the ends and offers recommendations for the da
: “
fol 135v .
.,
3 le
Ibid
the imitation
made
,
the relationships
is
establishes
for which the imitation
of
a
of
a
),
Bonciani thus figure may sometimes provide the basis for whole poem general theory starts from diction passes one imitation
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
internal organization of the work or the part of the work involved . At almost every one of these points , except perhaps the theory of diction , we find him in complete agreement with the many theorists who preceded him in the Horatian - rhetorical tradition . That popular literary exercise , the defence of poetry, takes the special form of defence of comedy in the Discorso intorno al componimento de la comedia de ' nostri tempi, which , in 1578 , Bernardo Pino da Cagli published as an adjunct to Sforza d'Oddo's Erofilomachia ; the discourse itself is dated 1572. Pino feels that he must justify comedy against the opinion currently held : Today, this composition should either be abandoned altogether or else treated with much care and diligence , for it has come to such a state in the opinion of the masses that for the most part they regard it as a simple tale , vain and without profit, and as the work of a low mind , considering not the true artifice present in it and the utility that is had from it , when it is prudently written and treated , but the baseness of certain authors . . . . This results from no other thing than from the false opinion that is held with respect to the end of that type of work ; whereas this should be to profit by means of the ridiculous , on the contrary the ridiculous is proposed as the end , to give pleasure alone by means of obscenity and ugliness .
If the
masses err in this way , erudite men and certain poets err in another , by a faulty interpretation of Aristotle's remarks on comedy ; for the scholars read the Poetics as justifying the imitation of low and vile persons, the poets take it as permitting the imitation of vice . The antidote to these
positions is obviously the restatement of the proper ends and the correct construction of the Aristotelian text . The ends are Horatian : to give pleasure and profit by means of laughter and without harm to the specta tors ( p . al0v ) . These ends require a reinterpretation of Aristotle , for vice could under no circumstances generate pleasure , and abject and immoral could not possibly provide acceptable moral lessons . Instead , Aristotle meant that the personages of comedy are less noble and less exalted than those of tragedy , being gentlemen and private citizens rather than kings and princes (we return to the medieval differentiation of genres persons
by the station of the actors ) ; and the ugliness he spoke of excluded im morality , dishonesty , and obscenity and referred only to deformity and disproportion . In fact, the vices , sins , and actions of comedy are less repre hensible
than those
wickedness
of
tragedy , where
the
really monstrous deeds of
occur . , tal
-
,
,
&
,
ne
Il
se
&
tal
ò a
si
il .
,
,
il
si
."
)
203
si
di
&
,
in
&
è
,
ha la
, o
il
,
si
,
...
quale del fine cotal opera come douerebbe cosi per contrario mette per fine ridiculo per della brutezza
(
da la ,
,
&
,
il
altro che falsa opinione che giouare col mezzo del ridiculo essere piacer solo col mezzo della dishonestade
:
,
di
,
;
da
è
da
&
, ò
componimento 5 Discorso ( 1578) , pp . a6 a6v : " al di d'oggi douerebbe fatto diligenza trattare poiche lasciare con molto studio venuto conditione opinione del volgo che piu l'hanno per simplice fauola vana per opera infruttuosa prende quando vile ingegno considerando non vero artifitio d'esso l'utile che prudentemente scritto trattato ma bassezza d'alcuni autori che non prouiene
POETIC THEORY
his subjects
But composi
of
kind
: "
at
Comedy
times remain the same
.
.
the comic poet new mores and new actions
the form will
all
present
is a as is ,
to
its
Since it is an imitation of life, says Pino , comedy will change as life changes , but only with respect to materials That new times will
to
its
,
:
of of
Its
"
,
“
.
,
,
,
in
.”
be
to
,
it
in
;
so ,
it
, its its
tion which retaining always the same form changes from time time always had five acts always complication and that good denouement order immutable rules for form are found entirely would seem almost Horace rules for the handling the chorus rules for diction rules for decorum The latter are really two kinds since they involve the proper circumstances for any given action matter
,
In
.
both the spectator must impression seeing represented have the nature herself and the principal wisdom the poet will consist his knowledge decorum and circum stances Indeed Pino's generalization upon them almost constitutes comedy comedy definition the whole body we wish consider
a
“
of
on ,
,
,
all
, to
of
.
,
in
a
“
,
be
to
to
”
of
an
.
metaphorical turn An Aristotelian
of
to
,
of
." 7
expressed
in
must
his condition
of of
these matters
be
condition
if
of
: "
speaking and ways person the addressed and ,
of
,
maxims sayings
divers passions thoughts and Each person presented the
with proverbs apposite that will both the the circumstances Finally preferably beautiful language noted this dis would have 1578 qualitative comedy parts the four
of
stage must
nothing else but the matter familiar conversations speak according made to
be
actions treated
in
is
carefully
,
it
of
,
.”
in
of
;
of
and the proper behavior for any given person
he
,
is a
is
,
the utilitarian value
.
Giason Denores published short treatise which that have been discussing was
It
.
,
the tendencies
I
sense reversed
a
the same year 1578
tre
is
which the most important thing
said
,
a In
in
of what
in
comedy
of
theory
is
of
of
;
,
,
,
the rules
plot character
,
enumeration thought and diction but also would have noted that thought that the the other three are really transformed into functions destroyed parts hierarchy moralistic what remains and that the cussion
of
to
,
, it di
of
in
,
to
of
I
an
.
a
of
all in
at
it
i
entitled Introduttione sopra libri della Rhetorica Aristotile and since might seem not dealt with the Rhetoric rather than the Poetics history poetic theory But whereas most belong the theorists poetics have analyzed heretofore had effected assimilation rhetoric the present work detaches one whole part rhetoric Denores
as
is
at
.
),
,
,
,
si
,
."
)
(
204
attioni
,
&
pensieri
famigliari
se
." :
il
affetti
di
diuersi
,
di
che materia
la
,
di
la
in
: “ di E la : “
., .p , ,
e'l
., .p
6
il
7
Ibid
siderarla
to
componimento comedia vna sorte che ritenendo sempre mede tempo tempo materia che haueua sempre cinque atti sempre suo scioglimento per essere bona corpo della Comedia vogliamo bene con b7v non essendo altro tutto
Ibid a7v sima forma muta suo nodo
he
by
(
in
of
it
poetics The part from that science and attaches issue the materials contained Book III the Rhetoric which Denores summarizes including action which means histrionics elocution and disposi
trattata
con ragionamenti
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
THEORY
TO
-
tion . He maintains that , according to Aristotle's conception , only those namely , proper and which contribute directly to persuasion common propositions , examples , and enthymemes - belong to rhetoric ; elements
III
treated in Book
the elements
are hence not substantial , and the book
in the Aristotelian corpus . Why with the Poetics ? Since action , elocution , and disposition contribute nothing to rhetorical proof , be it demonstrative , ethical , or pathetic , and since they have as their sole purpose to give pleasure , to add beauty , to beguile the listener , their affiliation is clearly much closer with poetics and poetics than with sister art fact they belong primarily really should have been placed elsewhere
,
to
,
;
in
is
,
,
it
is
The implication that the specific domain amusing the the idle and that not con
accidental
the pleasurable
,
rhetoric
is
of
poetry
is
in
their use
.
its
not , then , placed
an
cerned with more serious purposes.8 dis La
is
to
by
is
to
its
,
In
.
of
IV
in ,
of
),
(
of
to a
of
,
.
figures
I,
In
of
.
to
,
be
,
;
,
"
it by be is
,
by
,
,
.”
9
to
"
,
,
a
is in
,
is ,
he
;
of
. "
of
so
he
,
be
to
take before beginning the task
,
is ,
however one prior step that the poet must expression must discover the materials through invention way the expressed and does which poetry most important aspect And when the invention beautiful .
and possibly thought There
“
of
no
,
is
is
he
,
by
,
,
.
to
figures topical passages beautiful and the other parts appropriate well regulated poetry any parts consideration above and beyond diction
ornamented
graceful style and
Clearly there
to It of
,
by
beautiful
he
;
if
in
to
,
to
,
discourse the consultative delibera and the judicial these the first two are more proper well for would therefore the orator the poet the third going the poet know which type write but not absolutely lovely and necessary even does not his compositions may several
the three kinds
or
of
the demonstrative
:
is
tive
in
,
in
is
,
of
or
of
one
no
,
In a
this approach appear the dedication and commonplaces poetry are once Book the former the the defence again collected together and there need retail them Book the whole principle the work stated Everything that one says falls under I.
justification
,
of of
of
and
including
listing topics are devoted passions bases figures demonstration thought respectively More general materials and
,
II,
III ,
in
art
;
of
:
speech
,
of
Books
means arguments
he
of
the work
which
in
of
of
,
of
inverse method we return what almost perfect poetry rhetoricizing Giovanni Andrea Gilio's the topica poetica author wishes 1580 the title itself shows that topics poetry cover rhetorical the fact this the main endeavor
After this case
example
10 ,
'
."
in
,
a
,
), be di .p . 1 bv la : , “ , 64 c, di a , e è .gt , , , e e
to
be
it
,
,
,
well ordered and well clothed and well ornamented with words with figures with topical passages and with beautiful style may said not only perfect but perfect the highest degree and well conceived
205
)
(
."
perfetta ma perfettissima
e
,
, e
Si
:
,
di
di
di
."
,
di
-
),
,
(
., , .p e
4v di : " E
e
10
9
(
8
g3v Introduttione 1578 pp Topica poetica 1580 vaghi figure luoghi topici belli ornati bello vago stile d'altre parti conueneuoli ben regolata poesia quando Ibid inuentione bella bene intesa ben ordinata ben vestita parole figure luoghi Topici potrà dire non solo bene ornata bello stile
POETIC
THEORY
Invention itself is a product of imitation , either of nature
art , or fortune .
,
or of earlier poets taken as models ; imitation , in turn , applies to disposition and elocution as well as to invention . Throughout Gilio's treatise , the Horatian references are numerous , but they are always altered in the direction of a more purely rhetorical ap proach . For example , Horace's statement of the ends of poetry is expanded from two to four : to delight, to profit , to move or persuade , and to be sweet or agreeable ( referring to the " dulcia sunto " of line 99 ) . All would seem to be achieved when words are correctly suited to matter . The subject
of variety leads to a discussion of the mixture of styles and of the three styles in general. The quantitative parts distinguished are the proem , the narration , and the invocation . Decorum boils down to the “ proportion , correspondence , or conformity that style has with subject matter . " 11 All roads thus lead to diction and to the specific topics which Gilio is treating. He shows how the demonstrative , deliberative, and judicial types are used by Dante and Petrarch , how Petrarch and Ariosto may be used as models
of style , how native and foreign words may be properly mixed . This limita tion of the examples to Italian poets is an interesting feature of the work . From the dual ends of pleasure and instruction , Torquato Tasso derives as much of the theory of epic poetry as he presents in the Allegoria del poema printed with the 1581 edition of the Gerusalemme Liberata . The whole passage merits quotation : Heroic poetry , like an animal in which two natures are conjoined , is composed of imitation and of allegory . With the former it attracts the minds and the ears of men to itself and delights them in a wonderful way ; with the latter it instructs them in the virtues or in knowledge , or in both together . And just as epic imi tation is never anything else but a resemblance and image of human action , so the allegory of the epic poets is wont to be for us a figuration of human life. But imitation concerns the actions of man which are subject to the external senses , and laboring mainly over these, it tries to represent them with effective and ex
deeds . Allegory , on
the
pressive words and ones apt to place clearly before the physical represented ; nor does it consider characters or passions or the the mind insofar as these are intrinsic , but only insofar as they accompany action by manifesting themselves in speech and in
eyes the things discoursings of
issue forth and actions and in
of
it
stile co'l sog
.
c'ha
lo
conformità
, . 12
;
in
corrispondenza
et si gli
,
à in
,
è
,
“
lv :
**
L'Heroica Poesia Quasi Animale d'Allegoria composta con quella alletta
& , ** & 1 -
.pp
1581 d'imitatione ),
(
,
gli
gli
se
Perchacino coniungano
de
,
Allegoria
cui due Nature
gli si ed .
12
.”
getto
o
quella proportione
,
10 : "
Ibid
., .p
11
be
by
,
,
as
,
contrary concerns passions and opinions and characters their intrinsic being and these are apparent but mainly not only insofar signifies them more obscurely with what one might call mysterious notes and fully understood only things which can those who know the nature
de
,
,
,
,
gli
,
206
)
(
, è
,
,
&
.
,
è,
, è
gli
, ( e )
&
,
marauigliosamente animi orecchi huomini diletta con questa nella nella scienza nell'una nell'altra amaestra come l'Epica imitatione imagine d'attione humana cosi suole l'Allegoria altro giamai non che somiglianza Epici dell'humana Vita esserci figura Ma l'imitatione riguarda l'attioni dell'huomo che Virtù
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
all
ARS POETICA
:
in
.
of
;
,
,
or
of
be
,
of
,
or
of
its
of
,
, Tasso states that since the epic wishes to represent life works will depict the life the soul the contemplative life others the life the body the civil life the Odyssey and the Divina the latter the former the Iliad and the Aeneid Commedia are examples figured graphically The whole dichotomy may the following way
Furthermore
some
Epic poetry imitation
allegory
delights
teaches virtue passions opinions characters
(b
)
of
obscure presentation things those who know nature ody soul (
(
men
)
all
,
,
,
external actions appearance clear presentation
)
,
attracts
contemplative life Odyssey
civil life Iliad
Dante
Aeneid
in
to
its
,
,
;
of
,
of
,
;
a
of to
,
of
:
in
Several points are significant this analysis first the importance placed upon the allegorical interpretation importance literature equal the Middle Ages second the restricted conception imitation which comes external actions third the division mean literal and simple portrayal he
it ),
as
( as
all .
of
of
.
a
of
of
poem providing pleasure and utility the functions the two parts writing When Tasso was speaking the epic well was occupying himself with the genre that many Renaissance theorists con When Filippo Massini delivered his sidered the most important in
to
of
.
to
,
to
as
as
by
;
,
,
”
,
it
. “
,
style
of
,
subject matter
of
be
”
”
of
“
of
might thought belonging Regulation for Massini involves metrical pattern for the madrigal this
indicate how poems free
of
of
fixity
,
form them and the other category
to
by
“
a
to
of
of
all
,
he
,
he
,
to
,
Del madrigale
at
Perugia the Accademia degli Insensati the was about admitted with becoming modesty that treat the smallest and weakest Tuscan verse forms The object his lecture was contest the assertions Ruscelli and Minturno that the madrigal was regulated deny the limitations placed upon the poem lecture
same year 1581
in in a
in all
.
a
,
is
,
is
or
, in
, on in
.
,
),
a
in
use
(
rustic materials recommended Bembo and Minturno treated low style eleven twelve lines rhyming set way Massini contends the contrary that the madrigal free general fashion these respects His authority Aristotle's statement means exclusive
ad
;
its
of
: “
, to
,
he
paraphrases thus Poetics 1447b13 which the quality the verse does distinguish poem substantially poem not the use this term the takes
&
,
&
,
à
)
;
207
)
(
di
à , gli
gli
, ò i
.
(
le
,
&& i
[
se
, à ò
,
in i
&
,
&
nè
,
da i
, ,
le
,
."
&
,
&
&
le
,
ne
;
;
le
&
à i
sono sensi esteriori sottoposte intorno esse principalmente affaticandosi cerca por chiaramente dinanzi rappresentarle con parole efficaci espressiue atte occhi corporali rappresentate affetti discorsi dell'animo costumi considera cose inquanto essi sono intrinseci quanto parlare ma solamente fuori n'escono nel gli atti L'Allegoria all'incontro nell'opere manifestandosi accompagnano ll'attione passioni opinioni rimira costumi non solo inquanto essi apparino ma principal piu oscuramente significa con note per cosi dire mente nel lor essere intrinseco pieno com misteriose che solo conoscitori della Natura delle cose possono essere prese
POETIC
THEORY
of
or
,
,
.
all
be ,
of
is
of
it
all
may
all
at
no is
,
as
of
of
proper and more fitting which however not distinguished matter which one ,
practices
since pleasantness
"
to ,
along the line The best without any doubt more the very agreeable nature this composition incapable gravity The style should preferable
.” 14
,
,
subjects
be :
,
it
low There are however are the light ones .
or
he
. "' 13
to
of
its
quality from the quality the plot the thought that one admitting write about Since thinks the madrigal any subject matter may thus admit any one the styles high middle form and undertakes
,
in
,
,
,
,
,
be
,
be
in its
,
,
,
the poem
to
In
,
,
,
I
else that the madrigal should contain some rare ingenious thought very pure and artful and and and that elocution should thought graver madrigals that both and elocution the should such that they would produce honesty dignity majesty magnificence and greatness and the more amusing ones grace suavity loveliness sweetness jokes and playful expressions.15
should wish then above
.”
be
it
he ;
By
:
“
be ,
,
a
it
”
“
,
of
up”
“
fixed number
is
free the extent that does not have lines that some unrhymed lines are permitted and that intermingled with versi interi But Massini never mezzi versi may theless sets certain rules must not contain fewer than five lines and preferably should not have more than twenty rhymes should not more the verse form
,
by
in
be ,
,
it
,
of
a
185
).
by
by
evolving one's own rules and then following them
173–74
,
(
)
,
other poet consistently
2
:
)
or ( 1 .pp (
of
is
.
way than five lines apart conclusion states that like the canzone essentially may regulated the madrigal free form but that one accepting and following the form practiced two ways some
.
,
a
In
reaction against some Horace's specific prescriptions join the But one breaks away from Horace here only ranks the rhetoricians associated with him current thinking The three appropriateness thought styles invention and elocution the principle produced and diction specific effects the diction these are part
of
to
for
be a
attempt may
.
it
as
of
)
a
go of
(
,
a
it
to
-
to at
in
;
an
attempt liberation from the rule of Massini's analysis represents thumb poetizing which had given substance the late medieval and early belongs Renaissance prosodic treatises broader sense the general contention over freedom and regulation extending far beyond prosodic permanent concern Cinquecento theory We shall matters which was along meet many other examples we minor way this
,
all
of
.
of in
by
,
be
La
il pp .
.
the contemporary tradition
13
of
,
to
,
of
.
the drama
,
, e
la
, e
..
,
)
(
208
gli
,
, e e i la
la ,
,
, la
,
la
, e
'l
,
,
."
giochi
,
,
, la
la , , , e la
'l
, &
,
, la
,
, e
,
, e
&
15
di
di
,
."
à
),
, il : “
la
: “
: “
,
., .p ., ." .p
14
, e ,
(
In
qualità del verso non qualifica per vsar questo Lensioni 1588 168-69 quale prende qualità sua dalla qualità della termine sostantialmente Poema forma fauola del concetto che s'imprende scriuere piaceuolezza senz'alcun dubbio più propria più propor Ibid 173 essendo questo componimento tionata alla natura piaceuolissima non incapace però affatto grauità Ibid 181 Desidererei poi sopra tutto che'l Madrigale hauesse concetto raro ingegnoso quello nei Madrigali più l'elocution purissima artifitiosa che questa graui fossero tali che producessero l'honestà dignità magnificenza maestà vaghezza gratia grandezza scherzi dolcezza suauità nei più piaceuoli
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
1581 , the Plantin press published an edition of Cicero's genere optimo oratorum , with a commentary containing several pages De of remarks specifically devoted to poetics; it was written by Giovanni
by
at
of
.
poetica just two years before the beginning Cicero's
to
It
be
Antonio Viperano , who had published pointed out that the passage should
De
his
In the same year ,
which these remarks refer had been used repeatedly writers those who were intent upon establishing airtight divi sions between the genres and scholars working the text Horace genres but system Viperano also uses somewhat incorrectly estab different way indeed attacks previous divisions
.
a
in
of
on
strange
an
as
,
of
set
a
between Aristotle and the human actions and human actions are two sorts Either they are good and virtuous and merit praise they are bad and vicious and merit blame Hence one may vituperatio provide they for classify poems for the former laus ,
,
cross
imitation
“
”
or .
”
of
an
of
“
is , as
,
or
.
of
.
,
he
.
is
lished
of
His own solution says rhetoricians Poetry
is
it
,
;
up by a
especially
he to ,
poetry
,
on
treatise
.
'
,
,
its
)
of
(
its
for
.
,
to
;
or
accurate (
.
course
,
reflection Averroës system To lyric and the laudative poems belong the melic derivatives the epic the vituperative comedy Having thus classified the genres and tragedy Viperano then indicates subject matter usually persons each one the latter This
).
)
of
style
,
, of at
(
( of a
its
its
kind
,
),
),
life
(
its
,
at a
so in
action happy the beginning unhappy the end and forth combination sententiae and diction Unfortunately most and meter iambic hexameter the materials given station
to
is
learned from
study
circumstances
mixed
all
,
argues that although distinct one from another
:
,
no
of
so
.”
comoedia turpe tragicum
they are
in
to
Viperano takes occasion insist tragoedia comicum Itaque He &
,
,
“
on
his
Cicero
the sentence
the genus poetry
that they can under
...
gloss
be
in
&
uitiosum belong
poems
to
est ,
continues upon the meaning
of
he
As
.
,
nothing new
be
-
,
here are the time worn ones from Donatus and Diomedes with occasional
additions from Horace and there ing them
is
it
if
,
of
in a of
or
up in a
to
of
.
,
,
be
,
a
of
poetry one cannot the forms associated with another given the fact separate and distinct nature Since then tragedy imitates the that they have improper and actions illustrious men and comedy those humble men faulty and contrary the nature either one comic and humorous matters . .
.
of
a
12 : “
. 16
of
.
de
16
,
to
,
in
in
do
,
tragedy comedy tragic upheavals are employed are brought comedy and tragedy differ only Nor the diverse imitation illustrious and ordinary actions but also grave and sublime dic diction For tragedy uses tion comedy instead descends the familiar usage almost pure talk ), .p
(
&
&
."
oratione
)
209
vtitur
,
&
.
(
ad
verò
res
&
,
, si
&
sed etiam oratione Nam tragoedia graui sublimi vsitatam ferè puri sermonis consuetudinem sese dimittit
,
differunt
...
in
,
,
ac
est ,
in
,
vt
,
. in
In
optimo genere oratorum commentarius 1381 poëticae formarum Ciceronis quae propriam habcant distinctamque altera alterius consociationem venire non potest naturam Quando igitur virorum illustrium actioncs tragoedia imitatur comoedia humi lium indecorum vitiosum repugnansque cuiusque naturae aut comicae tragoedia excitentur aut iocosae comoedia tragicae perturbationes adhibeantur neque solùm diuersa actionum illustrium tragoedia humilium imitatione comoedia comoedia
is
is
;
on
he .
a
certain kind
of
-
subject earlier distinguished the basis having specific separate words and tonal effect
of
a
each
,
in
"
"
"
to
,
the genres
"
he
has added
of
by
to
assigns
matter
THEORY
thinking Viperano does not feel that the distinction verba res this conclusion borne the commentary on the following sentence Cicero where
As elsewhere in complete until out
his
POETIC
With Roberto Titi's Locorum
a
)
to
poetica
an
,
,
”
.
of
to
“
of
(
controversorum 1583 we return briefly fragmentarily large number and the text Horace Titi's work treats many pretending improve disputed points from ancient authors upon earlier interpretations and included are two texts from the Ars
,
of
17
."
,
,
,
est ,
“
is
is
of
.
in
"
,
of
.
...
“
is
ff .,
The first lines 408 Natura fieret laudabile carmen which treats the general question art and nature the poet Titi's original contribution his insistence that even the combination art and nature not sufficient and that the poet must possess also effort opportunity love exercise time judgment The second remark concerns arte
,
a
of
on
"
“
.
as
,
of
"
a
to .
Difficile
.
128
“
ff .,
proprie communia dicere on the use general theory new and borrowed materials Titi extends the meaning imitation with special emphasis the parts model which the poet concerning both should imitate He sees imitation materia and lines
"
"
to
in
is "
“
illustrate
low
as
all
to
he
,
is
chosen
suspect that the criterion being applied
by
.
a
again
The fact that the example
Catullus leads one moral one
to
.
and nondescript passages
on
;
to
be
,
)
to
."
(a
"
The particular passage Horace refers materia only and ccording point poet Titi makes the that the should select those passages for imitation which are splendid and noble which will enable the poet brilliant the other hand should avoid such are low verba
"
“
to
,
.
to
,
a
to
be
to
of (P
a
be
of
.
his )
pp
.
,
to
,
of
,
,
: (1 )
of
is
them
,
poetic theory the doctrine consistent and unified and may reduced few major poetry are not immutable but change with the The laws times with audiences with the wishes the patrons who order them and rologue age with the subject matters that are different from age prologue Altile 7–8 An example such change would his use found points
in
are five prologues containing reflections
on
,
it is
to
.
,
,
,
In
1583 also Giraldi Cintio's tragedies were collected and published Prologues his son Celso and thus the verse the various tragedies were printed for the first time They had probably been written many years impossible Although there assign exact dates earlier but them
,
a
is
on
to
of .
a
,
.) ( 3 )
.
a
to
,
to
)
pp
,
(
his
,
be ;
,
.
comedy
( 2
,
a
tragedies
in
of
in
practice unknown the ancients who used tragic Tragedy does not need have ending but may end happily when after turmoil and sadness happy the case with ending ensues the play may called tragicomedy This tragedy are give own Altile Prologue 8-9 The ends each
prologues only
]
[
210
.
, .
.
,
,
Amor exercitium xxii pp 219-20 ,
VIII
ch .
,
sumptus ,
,
, .p
II,
),
."
,
,
(
Locorum controversorum 1583 xxiii tempus Iudicium opportunitas For the second passage
: cf. 56 “ bk .
ch .
bk .
17
is
in
,
to
provide utility with the emphasis decidedly pleasure and the latter This the one point most insistently repeated the various prologues
ARS POETICA the
RETURN
:
THEORY
TO
kind of utility varying from prologue to prologue . In Aliile, for
example : Vedrete adunque in questa nostra Altile Quanta inconstanza è ne l'humane cose . che per mal oprar mai non gioisce Vn animo maluagio , e che conuiene
E
Ch'auenga quel , ch'è statuito in Cielo Dal supremo Motor , che il tutto regge , Con quella sua ineffabil prouidenza ( p . 9 ) .
The lessons
: the
inconstancy of human affairs ; the wicked are never happy ; expressed through Providence , will be done .
will of God , In Didone , the
the
gli
same moral as the one taught by the ancient poets who borrowed subjects from Homer :
E
,
lead men
to a
pity and terror
7 ).
( .p
,
gli
miglior vita
to
through purgation
of
:
The utility
vana ridurle
à
Da
la
E,
de
,
,
l'esposero in scena , a occhi altrui Per purgar l'humane alme col terrore altrui casi con compassion
better
statement
first about the dual end
of
to
Cleopatra
gli
da
:
In
the Prologue dramatic poetry
a
.
life
,
,
,
,
( .p 7 ).
il
di
that wealth and power are nothing
:
.
by
Then the specific moral this tragedy unless accompanied virtue
primo luoco
:
Tragedia
of
la
Ottiene
In
sorti maggior loda le
E
Fra quelle nondimen
Arrenopia
scena
,
,
le
Che fauole ben condutte benche d'esse sian varie
in , e
,
ue
i
al
le
Fra cose trouate antichi Per insegnare buon costumi Mondo gioui Nulla n'hà che piu diletti
,
,
Hor qui vedrete spettatori
quanto ,
il
,
a
)
1211
9-10
appetite
,
resist the promptings
of
).
( .pp
,
,
,
the truth
.
see
The conclusions one must obey one's superiors
ch'à guerra piu potenti Regi
scandali i
di
il
cagione
Inducon spesso :
in
il
à
il
E E Et Ci
apporti danno non vedere vero l'appetito preda lasciarsi che non vbedire suoi maggiori
POETIC From the Prologue to Selene
THEORY
gli
:
,
di
,
,
& &
di
,
&
E Di
, e
spettatori Perche ueggendo indi Varie sembianze d'huomini donne uarij vffici qualità diuerse varij costumi varie leggi in
se
da
tanta ,
il
,
costumi ischiuare biasmo
,
loda
di
of
,
à
men and women
to
via the divers kinds
reo
in
&
,
demonstrate
,
:
The purpose
to
à
,
ueder che chiunque uirtù segue Giunge buon fine chi'l mal segue
( .p 9 ).
,
& , &
la
Et
genti
di
Varietà Seguir
;
uarie sorti
,
,
Sortir diuersi fini Fatti acuti sapesser
,
the dignity
the persons
,
,
decorum
the audience which
in ,
single day
of
on
,
gives some
brief remarks be on
to —
these examples
,
a
the action within
—
be
to
-
he
enumerates be
of
of to
the inclusion
in
of
to
as
is a
of ,
Giraldi
presented how they should actions and the general tone
to up it . of
on on
indications the fitting
.
shunned as
-to
as
be ,
of
.
is
it
be
.
,
to
;
to
to ,
happiness and the world and the ends they come that virtue leads unhappiness and through the demonstration vice make the specta tors wary and wise utility involved and how There can little doubt here the kind place for examples achieved The stage both characters and proper kinds actions behavior followed and improper kinds
to
he
.
to
)
of
in
a
to (
of
it
)
(
1584
to
to
;
is
18
,
in
),
,
of
an
(
in
poesia toscana written illuminating treatment
in
the subtitle
,
Torquato Tasso's dialogue La Cavaletta overo della expect 1584 published 1587 one led poetry expectation the vernacular and this
of
TORQUATO TASSO
From
"
"
is
of
spoken thousands and must terms precepts accessible Giraldi's own are accessible this way and show smattering what elements Horatian theory with Aristotle possible deemed and worth while address the pit and the boxes made
people
,
by
, .
of
,
Tempo supplemented two medieval theorists Dante and Antonio Hermogenes Ideas and the truisms classical rhetoric
'
a
in
by
.
da
,
of
is a
it
.
, is
by
,
by
is
proceed further aroused when one discovers that Tasso means practical and deductive fashion comparing two sonnets one Fran Giovanni della Casa Some illumination cesco Coppetta and one provided But light out indeed the past coming largely from
" )
,
19
“ a
as
in
]
(
212
.
: "
fictio una fizione
, .p c : "
1529
396 129
), ), I, .p
,
of
Trissino translation
musica
,
Roma 1895 Florence 1896
(
,
Torino Rajna
P. (
of
the
.”
In
.
,
In di
in
posta
musicaque posita
Torquato Tasso the edition
."
, e
rettorica
...
in
rethorica
,
,
On the date see Solerti Vita De vulgari eloquentia Il.iv.2 in
19 18
he
”
(“
to
is
of
poetry Tasso's starting point Dante's definition rhetorical posta fiction set music una fintione Retorica musica for which finds corroboration Plato's statement from the Gorgias that
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
are better than those who do
is “ a deceit in which the deceivers
tragedy
THEORY
TO
not and the deceived are wiser than those who are not deceived . " Poets , rhetoricians , musicians , actors are all “ dissimulators . " Aristotle deceive ,
would
have
called
( except
imitators
them
for the
rhetorician ) , but art
it is clear that Tasso does not mean to speak in the same way as Aristotle .
of
to
so
,
,
of
as
his
.
of
.
at
” 20
,
,
: " is
,
to
Dissimulation involves , among other things , the hiding of the effects of speak the dissimulation the hide the deceit and itself Thus artistry compari highest develops length art the Tasso some the sons the poet with the orator and the musician Unlike the logician argument who uses induction and the syllogism forms the orator ,
is
in
;
,
.
exists
,
"
even though the argument may poetry the argument concealed
sense argues
In
and hence formally stated
it in a
be
“
example
not
.
by
,
and these are the same forms and the example uses the enthymeme the poet Generally anybody who imitates imitates some
employed
cer "
is
their weakness able
Dante's
conclude with be
as it is
and Tasso
.
of
“
,
of
;
is a
the highest
some
the lower ones must
it
poetry
,
respect
sign
of
only accidentally with
all ,
at
it
an
as
additional ornament
thus now fully explained
is
it
have
the more
,
which the latter
associated
since the latter may dispense with indeed genres do not need and the fact that some
definition
as
by
,
it is
,
).
“
of
of
is ” a ( .p
;
of
.
As
of
,
in
for music
,
poetry
poetry
poems are parallel with
reflection the divisive 36v Finally both arts are
its to
kinds
of
of
,
,
certain
arguments tain kinds the canzone argument the sonnet compositive the compounded sententiae and elocution
important
to ;
,
I
of
to
,
Furthermore
of
themselves
to as
it
,
,
.
is
to
." 21
,
,
in
"
and this makes
all
per the more effective far poet persuade suasion concerned For the like the orator wishes truth through reading the poets have been greatly persuaded glory and honor virtue and almost more than the philosophers
some fictional form
its
“
in
. ” 22
excessive and intemperate
it
Tasso holds that
in
has various
of
he
the sonnet
means various rhyme schemes
.
.
”
.
In
“
a
,
one dominant style
31 : ." " Il
,
be
of
"
or
"
be
, . è VI (
mixed but there will
which
)
(
213
,
,
, e
e
la
la
."
da
e
."
37 : " , il e
i
,
), .p
,
36 : “
e
&
,
22
. & ., , , .p .p
21
In
per cosi dire 1587 nasconder dunque l'inganno 11 sommo artificio Ibid Veramente leggendo Poeti molto sono stato persuaso all'honore alla gloria quasi piu che alla virtù filosofi stessi genere suo quasi Ibid materia sarà fintione sue forme aranno Rethorica Musica la
prose Vol Rime dissimulatione dell'arte
of
)
"
of
"
or
“
"
,
sonnet the style may 20
"
is “
a
in of
,
is
of
and that each these the Ideas characters diction The determin ing factor every case the nature the subject matter Thus Coppetta's very noble subject and very grave texture sonnet which has will require the most noble form any given character discourse (
forms which capable any
,
to
.
musical ornament
reference
by
With special
,
,
to
in
he
,
,
a
its
to
general that genus and were matter will forms will have rhetoric and music The practicing poet poet though and sophistic still remains must avoid indulging both subtleties which would bring him too close the rhetoricians and the fiction and
.
is
.
should
,
The poem must end the dominant toward which there steady progression throughout The musical terminology not
the tone be
will
THEORY on
set
POETIC
"
-s
to
is
of of
he
he is
,
of
he
,
.
difference
the
“
title
Guido exposi
di
the
canzone ,
spite
of
its la
of
1585
In
prega
).
as , a & in c . ( his to
mi
of ,
within the art
remains
directly the problem Spositione sopra
Girolamo Frachetta attacks poetry and prosody Donna
and when rhetoric
;
of
also astride the art
between
Cavalcanti
it
—
,
poetry
of
the art
at
to
,
of
he is
,
to
In
prosody than poetry
“
in
to
,
of
In
of
,
"
so
,
-
low
.
“
he
.
of
ounding and high since Tasso has mind effects tone— sounding words and development through the forth and their comparison largely sonnet his the two sonnets these effects that discusses the advantage Casa because builds properly toward Coppetta because the concluding sonorities the discredit does part not this the discussion least Tasso closer the art amiss here
,
so
;
as a
content and with detailed speculations
be on
,
of
"
is
practical document greater interest tion theoretical than many for the sections referring directly Cavalcanti's poem are like similar works the century concerned exclusively with the philosophical the meaning
.
,
is
" :
“
of
of
,
,
to
on
so it
he
.
When
raises
,
these arts can exist without the other
of
finds himself variance with the opinion they maintained that cannot Frachetta's own stand he
,
,
as
its
is
of
is
pleasure
is
external end
of
as
internal end whether either ;
to its
.
to
and constitutes the question
;
, of
,
of
of
things which have happened which can happen sometimes prosody syllables vowels and consonants com make verse Verse the form the work viewed prosodically
things
whereas the matter bined
up he He
at
all ,
.
as a
rated
of
is
Frachetta's thesis poem and the demonstration this thesis leads him into various theoretical questions distinguish first between poetry and prosody and necessary finds poetry does the basis their materia the matter made that Cavalcanti's canzone should not
of
,
,
.
: “
no
,
of
con
quella dar
le
in
si
."
la
)
(
,
gli
in
&
,
&
è
214
la
.
an
,
), , .p 3 : “ il :
gli gli è
he
In
to is
of
be
it
poeta che uuvle essere stiinato dal popolo trapassar 1585 huomini come massimamente uoleuan antichi dee fauellare piu isquisita dell'altre quella appunto nella qual soleuano questa Oracoli senza fallo niuno maniera del uerso
(
,
,
de da
of
23
its
che
and this
is
23
other forms besides poetry
;
to . ”
declares that since versification may own attached
in
give their answers
ditione maniera risposte
the one
without any support the second statement instrumental science having essence
which the oracles used doubt the manner verse
Spositivne
in
),
be
to
,
than
in of ,
the rest and precisely
the poet and
the masses especially wished
more exquisite
his
as
ends the poet who surpassing the condition other him must speak that
all
of
is
—
as
)
of
the ancients
manner which
is a he
of
To
considered
by
be
keeping with the nature
is
men
( as
wishes
to in
This
is
of
by
(
.
,
of
is
.
at
Castelvetro who had poetry that the art prosody cannot exist without versification but that the art can exist justify the first interprets without poetry these statements meaning that the poet poet more Aristotle's text Poetics 1451b27 virtue than imitation verse but that verse nevertheless necessary
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
TO THEORY
The upshot of this argument is that there may be compositions in verse that are not poems , even whole verse genres that are not poetry . The canzone as practiced by early poets was of this kind . How , then , would poem from another that was not ? The one distinguish a canzone that wa
Lyric
poems contain
or
of various kinds, but above
of
all
answer is double : from the style and from the matter .
of
,
or
to in
give recreation
,
,
men's minds and not compared with these nonpoetic forms style they are distinguished mainly the
by
Moreover
,
them
24
weary
. ”
to
“
because poems were invented
as to
or
on
.
matters commendations one sort another and amorous themes But they must not approach commendatory philosophical disquisitions difficulty subtlety orations love
by
is
is
not because an
to
to
a
,
a
it its , it
by
,
is
if
explain
shed light upon
obscure
(
.p 7 ).
work
and Frachetta has undertaken expound poem but merely
to ,
he
too obscure wished
;
: “
,
by
,
." 25
,
by
of
a
poems have special kind transformation the material which depends upon additions meta phors allegories hyperboles and similar colorings and embellish subject matter ments Cavalcanti's canzone not poem because
TOMMASO CORREA
to
,
in
as
,
of
.
,
in
of
of
of
of
more closely knit and the promiscuous citing
sense
some
of
,
.
Besides
,
:
to
,
;
a
eliminated Plato and Cicero are cited few times each Donatus with some frequency and the parallels with Aristotle are whittled down the following modest list is
authorities
;
,
The consequence
better organized exposition
is a
he
,
one again
.
,
part from the accompanying
Horace Correa Pigna's four separate sections instead gives only one and instead the six for lines five
-
.
precepts for lines 73–85 275–308
of
in
of of
with the great complexity earlier exegeses This results reduction the number divisions the text and precepts Whereas Pigna had seen eighty separate rules subdivides into only twenty
appear
The immediate impres compared the text
to
.
Horace
in
of
”
of
Horatian criticism the whole approach
explanationes
.
Horatij Flacci on
Q.
In ,
of
of
“
is
arte poetica
the three complete commentaries
was the first during this last generation simplification sion one
It
through his treatise on the epigram
us
de to
)
(
1587
Tommaso Correa known 1587 published his librum
Aristotle
1447a16 7 : "
., .p
91
percioche
., .p ." ; 6 : " si le
25
Ibid affaticargli
le
,
309-32
,
1450a12
24
1449a24
pocsie sono state trouate per ricrear
animi
&
1459631
73-85 275-308
1450624
,
1451a16 1449612
,
1450a38 1450a38
,
1-23 42-45
gli
Horace
non per
;
&
,
)
(
215
le
;
le
;
."
, &
seperano principalmente per l'alteratione della materia laqual depende Ibid per allegorie per hiperboli per somiglianti colora dalle aggiunte per tralationi abbeglimenti menti
POETIC
If
THEORY that they contain only the
these passages be consulted , it will be noted
most familiar commonplaces of the Aristotelian text : “ The poet is an 9 imitator , “ The plot is the soul of the poem ,” “The plot must be one, ” and so forth . But these changes do not mean that Correa wishes to make wide departures from the antecedent tradition ; rather , he preserves much of the rhetorical machinery which had for so long been a standard feature of the interpretations of the text .
In part , at least , Correa organizes the Ars poetica according to the ele of invention , disposition , and elocution . He thinks that the first
ments
,
,
is
is
its
11.
,
at
in in
he
explicitly stated
,
terms appears not only
as
the group
For
of
.
more original
)
( 11.
,
.
;
"
"
-
).
of
of
.
to
)
11.
precept ( 1l. 1-23 ) concerns invention and disposition and that the second one ( 24–31 treats elocution Later the fourth precept 42–45 returns disposition To these three elements adds least one passage pronunciation and action the rhetorical parts connection with 99 111 Crossed with this set distinctions constant concomitant the res verba distinction but here the treatment more interesting and
in
to
,
a
,
a
the opposition had
elocution
),
“
“
speech poem like connection with the second
since
“
.” 26
as res
belonging
of
(
precept already identified taken the various forms
, ”,
to
verba
Earlier
res
words as
of
of
the text here passes from things and
consists
,
of
.
,
he is
discussing lines 46–72 where When upon Horace touches the invention new words Correa indicates that but also under various disguises
”
"
,
.
in
.
of
"
to
,
.”
:
”
;
,
“
"
of
“
dictio
res : :
",
to ‘
to
of ,
as
res
is a
in
,
it
:
“
res oratio Clearly what later the sixth precept states modified versus major juxtaposition Correa has mind matter form and suiting the latter the problem the former The question decorum we shall see arises connection with both matter and form verba
by
as
.
to
of
,
of
,
to a
Alongside these fairly conventional approaches Correa presents cer personal tain number ideas which constitute modifications the poetry regard the materials standard theory He seems circum
,
in
,
as
a
27
. ”
to
must not say things which are contrary
society
the institutions
)
216
as
:
is
;
to
,
pugnantibus
and
...
"
verbis
.
,
constat rebus
diuersis inter
actions
&
oratio
persons
se
,
vt
,
Quoniam poema
non videatur monstrum aliquod
ex
28 : "
certain types
of
,
be
”
“
in
of
6 ) ;
by (p .
.
1587
action
(
., ." p . 3 : "
inverse ), .p
Explanationes
Ibid conflatum
of
by
kind vt (
27 26
but
a
as
of
a
to ,
for this restriction Correa uses the term writing conuenientia Third the rules the style which the poet equivalent these are second nature whose requirements are strict adapted those the first Basically the style should the materials
'
and customs
:
of
he
." of
invention since
of by up
,
in
as
,
.
of
so
in
of
, “
in
:
in
a
in
ways First and determined number Horace parts and elements which are poem may poet his not mix nature the separate monster made that his poem will not resemble nature various natures conflict with one another Second Plato society the conventions the poet does not have complete freedom scribed
naturis
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
thoughts come to be associated the sublime style :
invariably with each style
For example,
.
The highest style contains important personages and excellent actions , to which are to be fitted choice sententiae , which must be expressed with choice words and adorned by rhythmic grouping , as if you were to speak of God or describe heroes , kings , military leaders , governments ; but if others are mixed in , such as chariot eers , sailors , merchants , artisans and others of that kind , it is done so that hu man society may constitute a kind of complete body . Excellent matters are such things as wars for peace , deliberative councils , trials for selection , the virtues useful for the regulation of life , and great actions . Choice sententiae are those
,
its
which are remote from common usage , choice words those which are not trite ; a rhythmic grouping is one which , through sounds almost depicts the thing the fixed subjects prescribed for the individual genres each genre
tragedy
is
Not only
is ,
this
;
.
the preceding In
for
action recommended
of
and specification
refinement
(“
type
,
sense
of
a
in
,
Fourth
a
by
itself.28
the
incredible and
,
.
is
,
,
well
action
kind
super law
-
of
,
Indeed the whole
a
to
.
of
as
characters
is
of
”
as
decorum
,
of
the laws
“
in
:
"
,
their father their mother their
these limitations one adds the typification
and almost invariable parts the work poetry equivalent the matter
of
30
,
,
by
,
all
to
. "
decorum
girls sold into slavery who are later
.
of
in set
of
become
byIf
31
be
to
,
brother their nurse personages imposed hemming
,
“
,
New Comedy about loves marriages free and are recognized
found
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
of
“
in
,
-
—
” 29 ),
of
,
in
comedy actions from the average and most horrible actions are related common life men and from their usual behavior but for some proposed genres very definite content largely from traditional sources tragedy the plots will revolve about great and horrible actions Thus kings hopeless situations exiles parricides burnings armed the murders contests weepings wailings laments funerals burial hymns the
it .
of
If
,
to
he
res
his
.pp
28
,
to
in
of
,
in
The poet circumscribed these ways with respect his subject matter activity finds his great field imposes upon the form which poetry one were ask Correa what the distinguishing characteristics undoubtedly primarily were answer would include those elements ,
fit , ,
,
id
,
,
,
,
,
&
ad
ad
ad
.
,
&
&
,
&
,
,
,
de
;
,
si
vt vt si
,
: "
.,
Ibid 14–15 Genus summum personas graues excellentes continet quibus lectę sententie accommodandae sunt illae proferendae verbis lectis numerosa collo catione illustrandae Deo loquaris Heroas describas Reges Duces Ciuitates quòd Aurigae Nautae Mercatores fabri alia admisceantur quòd huiusmodi adeo Hominum societas quasi quoddam corpus efficiat Res excellentes sunt bella propter pacem
,
.
&
,
.”
virgines venditae quae ,
,
."
,
,
,
,
,
)
,
,
vt
,
217
in
&
,
,
."
,
&
)
,
,
,
,
plurimum amores nuptiae Comoedia noua cognoscuntur patre matre fratre nutricę (
Ibid liberae inueniantur
a
31
30
&
., , ., ., p .p .p de . 95 41 : 93 : : " " , , " In In
29
."
:
,
,
,
,
ab
,
,
eligendum virtutes deliberandum Iudicia vitam constituendam actiones Sententiae lectae vsu remote communi lecta verba quae non sunt trita numerosa collo quae quasi rem ipsam suo sono depingit catio Tragedijs atrocissimlę Ibid Comoedijs res exponuntur incredibiles res sumpte media communi hominum vita moribus Ibid Res Tragicae grandes atroces cedes Regum desperationes exsilia parricidia incendia pugnae fletus vlulatus conquestiones funera Epicedia Concilia
POETIC THEORY which he regarded as belonging to the form . Verse would be one of them , inseparably and inescapably connected with any conception of poetry . Therefore , to each type of subject matter the proper verse must be matched . Some genres have verse as their only poetic property ;
if one were
to remove
verse from the satire ,
,
in
of ).
( .pp
place
the orator
.
of
an
artificial order
the narrations he
in
an
the use
history and
in
distinguished
the natural order found
of
or in
so
to
by
poetry
,
Again
is
he
do
,
.
is
everyday usage The real poet not different from that one metaphorically who writes who cultivates the figures and the tropes even though inappropriate way must not excess 28–29 is
language
of
its
for example , one would no longer have a poem ( p. 79 ). required Another feature would be a special kind of language or diction . , In fact one reason why the satire is so unstable a poetic genre is that
,
if
he
;
is
,
of
all
.
in
of
he
,
of
.
,
of
in
an
a
it
to
be
,
it
provides places else the natural order pursues those things which where those which seemed ought said the present Nor that law imposed upon him which would make him write history and collect kind things orderly fashion He may course choose the events express and pass over others which embellish some them does not deem worthy scribed
to
In
all
mention.32
,
this answer
,
say about imitation except Correa would have little remark about the requirement that the imitation should follow the thing imitated and another indicating that the poet imitates when introduces other persons who speak for themselves
it (p . is 35 an .)
he
.
(p
18 )
passing
a
for
,
critical parlance
and
he
by
is
in
common
to
of
.
or
of
to
, "
"
"
stilus
so
.
,
"
character
does
follows
, it , as or
:
as
",
Idea
so
“
of
,
In
;
a
it is
is
to
poetry through the fact that No special essence contributed merely particular kind history imitation rhetoric keeping with this conception Correa devotes much his time style He takes pains matters define what meant the terms
,
is
23 : “
diction
to a
refer
of
is a to
is
used
plain
,
a
,
and therefore the form
phrasis
”
"
; of
to
speech
for the word est à
”
,
stilus
in
is
expressed
to
,
of
as
.
“
or
”
of
the thing
genus
it
to
, is a
, "
do in in
called
"
so an
the Idea
32
is
it “ is
A
designates character then diction similar the thing which the effigy and image the thing for speech expresses the thing just painting Just applied colors one obtains from wax when seal representation image every respect similar the thing which the seal else
,
,
in
,
in
,
,
)
(
&
,
ea
&
.
."
218
,
,
, ac vt
,
,
,
,
si
., .p
ordinem
&
legibus Historię longe abscedere Poetę summa laus naturalem negligere quę naturalis ordo pre series rerum spectetur quoniam quae presentia dicenda videbantur scribit interdum negligit quę fert prosequitur quasi Historiam scribat omnia ordine lex imponitur alium locum traducit neque illi colligat Habeat sanè delectum rerum alia dicat ornet alia pretereat que non esse dicenda iudicauerit Ibid
narrandi
?
by
of
of
of
in
of
departs considerably The greatest merit the poet consists the fact that history and disregards the natural order from the laws narration one passes over the things pre consider the succession events for sometimes
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
or elegant , or a strange and foreign diction
or
, whereas “ stilus "
" forma dicendi ” indicates the general conformation
of the
" character ”
or
diction.33
of
,
of
,
of
compounded
he
.
,
all
Correa then proceeds to a description of each of the three styles , to an indication of the subject matters to which each is appropriate , and to a statement of the general principle of decorum operative in matters comedy and tragedy they are style When later gives his definitions
,
in by
of to
,
Tragedy
is
,
of
,
is a
,
,
.”
in
is
of
may relate what Correa has these questions matter and form say about the audience for which the poem intended and about the
Audience considerations are not prominent but they beyond their number The ends poetry are stated
of in
,
the instruction and pleasure as
several ways
.p as
.
the audience
:
terms
, in
of
are important
of
poet who writes
it .
to
To
we
of
.
of
of
36
,
,
: “
with
,
,
to
then
an
: “
an
a
;
illustrious destiny comedy this and
,
”
35
of
imitation means unhappy ending and the grave Comedy then style dramatic poem full happy ending and activity with The elaborate the humble style apparatus distinctions thus produces definitions which are not notably Diomedes and the whole medieval than those more sophisticated school action
definition
an ,
to
34
.”
: “
."
he
,
in
,
in a
,
the following
of
in
;
of
“
in
,
he
three himself says that they differ ways the social status the personages the manner and quality the affairs and destinies and finally the ending And then adds immediately fourth difference This being the case they must neces sarily differ Applied tragedy these distinctions lead style also these elements
,
.
of
,
of
,
vt
...
,
)18 ;
",
&
93 ( ). “ vt
of
.p
,
",
,
,
“
(
,
voluptas hominum institutio admiration admonish spectator admiretur ment delight teaching admoneatur delec tetur doceatur The nature these ends determines certain characteristics both matter and form Of the many available subjects men
;
he
24 )
(
.p
to
of
by
be
,
the poet chooses those which are most outstanding and excellent since greatest interest these will his audience will retain this
,
rei
est
rei ,
illi
40 ).
(
be .p
so
be
no
,
,
,
be
to
is
"
13 : "
33
"
if
to in
.
introducing the greatest possible variety into the materials No besieged and two deaths will occur the same way two cities will conquered according pattern the same and forth Moreover accomplished materials must the institutio verisimilar and interest
91 : “
34
,
,
. "
,
,
,
ad
,
& ,
, vt :
Ex
.
rei
sic
;
vt in
,
rei ,
;
& ,
,
,
ei
, ., .p
&
quam notat siue effigies Est autem character dictio similis quoniam oratio rem exprimit pictura colores cera addita nota expri mitur effigies persimilis cuius nota est oratione Idea exprimitur ideo dicend forma aut genus aut stilus dicitur quoniam phrasis elocutionem planam elegantem aut peregrinam barbaram refertur stillus siue character aut forma dicendi conforma tionem orationis indicat Ibid imago
ita
.
,
&
,
,
a
]
[
219
exitu laeto
,
negotiosum
,
[ m ]
poema dragmaticum
,
autem Comoedia
,
Est
."
humili
."
,
&
92 : “
94 ." : "
., .p
Ibid
., .p
36
35
,
,
., .p
Ibid Differt Tragedia comoedia tribus potissimum rebus personarum con qualitate atque tandem exitu Haec cum dicione negotiorum fortunarum modo sint stilo etiam differant necesse est Ibid Est autem Tragedia imitatio Illustris fortunae per actione exitu infoelici oratione graui stylo
POETIC
THEORY
self - consistent ( note the references to nature and to decorum ) ; and if the " voluptas " is to accompany it , variety must be cultivated ( p . 18 ) . As for form , the great reason for the necessity of artificial order is that by means
of it the poet creates suspense . The passage cited previously on artificial order continues thus : “ In fact, since the poet makes an effort to detain the auditor as it were against his will and in suspense , he makes his poem
...
varied throughout by the arrangement of the events . For the highest praise of the poet is to hold the listener as if he were a captive . " 37 Finally , the pleasure so provided is itself an aid to the achieving of the utility , and the utility involved makes the pleasure more acceptable and more memor able ( p. 107 ). That Correa is independent of certain parts of the current tradition is attested by his discarding
the notion , in connection with the poet ,
of
of is
, “
.
is
he he
",
” .) “
et
,
,
to
.
.
of
("
of
must express the essence nature exprimit both Plato and Aristotle For the opinion by
this
is
,
);
103
he
imitator
.p
"
, an
uim is
the poet naturae
of
question concerns for the poet the rules character and human nature Since
especially with reference
decorum
—
The knowledge
in
."
of
things
38
,
et
when he is discussing lines 309 ff. principium says ( " Scribendi recte sapere fons So far the poet from being mad that nobody can write well unless wise Indeed every good and proper discourse must derive from the knowledge est
the poetic furor . He treats the subject
or as
"
"
,
,
"
,
to
do
,
varietas efficacia suauitas activity have largely with ,
his
of
translated into terms
,
to
prudentia
“
have such virtues
These
an
of
of
he
.
to
as
)18 .
he ”
so
(
must
.p
“
a
of
,
is
study Correa this knowledge obtained rules and does not come inspiration The poet must ingenium form course have practice genre facultas suited the which means but even more
all
”
in
“
res ”
so
“
of
,
in
.
—
of
disposition and elocution with the proper handling the elements con stituting form Thus the major orientations Correa's commentary are probably more definitely toward the internal relationships than and verba specifically present toward the more rhetorical factors common the in
on
,
,
its
of
.
,
a
is ,
;
.
way only slightly divergent developed and tradition These latter are ordinary emphasis from the but the elsewhere One feels after studying preoccupations commentary matter are with problems main that the and form rather than with the devices and expedients for swaying influ , it
,
to
,
a
eo
in
,
.
it
-
,
,
all
in
is a
it
.
of ,
encing and arousing the audience Since commentary Horace centrifugal the necessity make movements that are found the must text itself toward nature toward conventions toward the poet toward fairly consistent way manages reverse the But the audience
. . . .
,
vt
,
in
in
: “
. ,
.,
23-24
]
[
220
.”
,
vt
sit ,
ex
& , vt
: “
,
.
., .p
."
vt
38 ,
&
37
vel inuitum detineat auditorem elaboret Nam cum poeta Nam poetę illa summa finem vsque variat poema collocatione rerum laus auditorem quasi captiuum detineat bene scribere nemo possit furiosus poeta Tantum verò abest Ibid 102 cognitione rerum promanet necesse est apta nisi sapiens Omnis enim oratio bona pp Ibid suspensum
ARS POETICA
these and bring them into contact with the central
in
it
he
of
claim that method
“
the true order
”
is
this last period
Nicola Colonio's
is
,
It
Correa's 1587. principal distinction —
In
appear
or its
to
)
(
,
and
had never been done before
to
—
perceives
commentaries
the same year
Arte poetica
.
Methodus
the complete
is
as de
The second was published
1587
its
in of
NICOLA COLONIO
problem
it .
Correa interprets
his
the text
as
as all
of
motion of
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
he
:
is
it
an
is by
to
I
of —
with the whole army most an
in
,
to
up in
learning
an
as
held contained
the art but
the poetic
terms
of
of
universal nature
in
the general nature
,
“
that Horace treats the
of
terms
of
”
is
discovers
faculty not
in
What
he
.
39
,
with the greatest
,
),
he
,
of
I
it
,
to
of
insofar especially great poet and adorned within his own mind
(
what order
the fashion
order seems me that have seen that Horace wanted this Epistle the Pisos the universal nature the poetic faculty the law metrical expression would permit which himself in
as ,
explain
in
teaches and what way and and thoroughly examined in
what
,
he
,
,
namely
method frequently beautifully drawn to
presented
confess that was first impelled this consider more attentively the sub then pondering the particular matters not only carefully but fastidiously
;
ject
and how
of
, to ",
“
he
by
,
.
I
Horace's principal subject matter
in
),
( .p
the Ars poetica dedication iiiv Colonio boasts that has for analytic method long years studied Aristotle's the and his intention apply what present work has learned the analysis Horace's epistle He believes that application such has discovered what
the
,
,
.
to
:
to
of
as is
of
.
,
,
to
:
,
four main genres epic tragic comic and satiric Moreover since the plot Colonio any genre major problem with respect the handling sees the largest section the Ars poetica devoted this problem His summary the first two hundred and fifty lines makes this clear of
in
,
,
of
in of
of
be
to
.
its
is
is
, is
is
,
worked plot
in a
is
to in
,
he
it
all
plot which any plot common what Along with the fact that what required especially taught briefly both about language order and its
,
one
the constitution the epic plot composed many episodes con that plot which one may most
...
he
.
else
of
,
all be
it
on
that
; 39
is
above
so
.
by is
of
.
,
satiric plots He treated these singly and first which the most difficult because taught trived the poet's genius And easily fail that unity
,
,
,
, it
of
:
be ,
,
of
poetics adopted have been To this point the principal matters the method explained expressing man's life whatever the imitation may invented plot and these are the epic tragic comic and fables has four fixed species
... Just ,
,
vt
221
]
[
."
,
,
, in
,
,
&
,
,
in
,
,
,
,
), .p 2 : “
(
,
ad
&
Methodus 1587 Hac me fateor primo compulsum rem attentius considera rem deinde singulis rebus non diligenter modo sed fastidiose expendendis quidnam scilicet quomodo quoue ordine doceret tota Methodo instar exercitus pulcherrime instructi saepius perlustrata vidisse mihi videor Horatium vniuersam vim Poeticae facultatis quam ipse magnus primis Poeta magnis excultus doctrinis animo comprehensam tenebat hoc libello Pisones quantum lex carminis pateretur explicare voluisse
POETIC
THEORY
as he did for the epic plot , so he treated with respect to the comic and the tragic in what way they differ in matter , diction , and style.40
Consistent with this discovery of the general lines of Horace's develop ment , Colonio gives a detailed interpretation of the first part of the Ars poetica as a treatise on epic plot . Lines 1-9 treat of plot and episodes , 9-18 the objects of epic imitation ( with the indication , in 14–18 , that digres sions are a vice and that when they appear, as in the Orlando Furioso , they
of
must be condemned ). Line 23 is devoted to epic unity , 24–31 to excessive variety as a source of error , 32–37 to knowledge as the source of epic plot .
.
;
in
, its
of
of in
is
to
of
After pausing, in 38-40, to make the essential division into invention , dis position , and elocution , Horace goes on ( in 42-45 ) to discuss epic disposi tion and the artificial order and then ( in 46-56 ) elocution The relation ship epic plot epic meter epic diction outlined 73-82 83-92
to
is
of
,
.
in
to
;
he
of
,
, of
of
of
),
,
( in ll .
applied the latter problem involves the principle decorum and this elocution 93–109 character 114–18 Horace then speaks the epic hero 119–30 the distinction between old and new epic plots epic order concludes with the objects imitation and once again
,
",
of
of
similar sections
albeit
,
—
Colonio
and
satire
.
tragedy
on
to ,
[
on
according
.
is
is
is
,
: “
,
of
terms
, it
thinking largely these sections clear that Colonio explicit invention disposition and elocution The reference his remark on lines 38-40 He makes the transition from invention and Within each
in in
,
—
of on
,
There then follow comedy
]
, he
,
"
,
of
.” 41
plot
abbreviated
. “
of
on
episodes further remarks the juncture To this point says Colonio after expounding line 152 has treated the whole circle the epic composing distributing treating and writing the epic matter and and
is
.
he
At
de
"
.
a
in
,
So
of
,
of
all
? ” 42
43
. "
,
to
a
, of
.pp
40
: “
to
of
more consequent in
be
the plot
to
poetic elocution What could order and than these things and indicate better that they are propounded the This adds lines 55–56 methodical way poetic invention first part the method common those who write disposition and elocution the familiar rhetorical distinc But others striking way tions are also present sometimes for the res from composition
& .
,
vt
,
& , &
,
de
, in de
,
de
est
,
.
,
,
,
sit
ea
.
in
vt
...
ordine Tragica quomodo
Epica componenda
distri
.”
materia fabulaque
,
."
de
,
&
31 13 : , : " , “
oratione Ibid Hactenus orbe Epico scribenda buenda tractanda ., .p
quod commune omni fabulae qua facilius peccari possit
fabula
vna docuit breuiter fabula Epica sic tractauit Comica stylo
&
Sicut fecit
differant materia ,
Itaque
,
. . . .
clocutione
& de
in
, eo ,
,
ingenio poetae excogitatis multis Episodijs vna hoc praecipue elaborandum esse docuit quod Cum fabula maxime postulatur
41
,
,
,
,
de
sit ex ac
;
,
,
: & sit “
:
.,
Ibid 39-40 Hactenus exposita sunt quae sunt praecipua susceptae Methodi Poetica quae cum imitatio exprimens hominum vitam fictis fabulis certas habet species fabularum quatuor sunt fabula Epica Tragica Comica Satyrica De singulis tractauit primum constitutione Epicae fabulae que est omnium difficillima quoniam constat
pars communis
]
(
222
&
ad
omni
Scribonti
de
prima
&
,
,
&
ab
est
Methodi elocutione
."
&
,
,
Haec dispositione
., .p
Ibid inuentione
18 : “
43
? ” :
., .p
42
parit transitum compositione fabulae Ibid inuentione ordinem quibus rebus quid potest esse magis consequens magis indicare elocutionem Poeticam haec methodice tradi Poetica
ARS POETICA verba " distinction . Colonio
RETURN
:
it as equivalent to Aristotle's object and and the " quibus imitantur " ; the three
sees
means , as the " quas
TO THEORY
in
an
is
if
,
the words
or
in
a
wishes
designate
the language
. " 44
,
,
if
: "
to
;
of
,
splendor
certain to
use when
he
the things even
,
to
fail
of
in
,
is
nature
So
).
on
by Il .
21
.p
is see
”
res
“
of
”
"
imitantur kinds of things which poets imitate are expressed in the three kinds of language or style ( 83–85 The close relationship between supplied easily verba and Nature herself abund anybody only she subjects ance Nature herself without lead her practiced will glide into the ornaments speech moreover there decency the things themselves that are written there emerges from the "
He does not
style appropriate
of
in
he
:
Aristotle
23
1451a29
24-31
1459634
73–74
1448634
79
1448631
80-82
1455634
1456a12
,
1451627
,
1451a4
,
1450a38
,
1450a34 1448a5
,
1-9
9-10
,
Horace
.
in
of
;
,
of
,
us
an
."
“
the rhetorical term
of
,
to a
character early The statement Aristotelian intention prepares for the discovery throughout the treatise parallels with the the same kinds Poetics which Colonio's predecessors had used but cites them the moderate way current this latter part the century The list follows given matter
1459b28
1449a22 1455615
132 134
1451627
140
1451a22 1451a20 1450b25
193-95
1456a26
,
146
189-90 202-3
1449628
241-43 275-77
1448634
278-80
1449a15
338-40
1461611
1449612
145766
of
-
in
do
.
"
as
of
of
we
as
are ,
-
,
in
on
of
on .
"
in
)
(
."
,
,
,
,
si
,
,
in
223
ornamenta sine duce natura rebus ipsis quae scribuntur
in
ad
.
of
Ita
., .p
facile rerum abundantia orationis modo est exercitata labetur praeterea est honestas rerum natura quidam etiam splendor verbis
ex
existit
48 : “
, 44 si
Ibid
ipsa
or
or
of
of
,
of
ity
of
,
to
its
in
,
to of
Except for repeated praise Homer and certain details the histories plot unity the genres Colonio refers Aristotle mostly matters relationship episodes and imitation rather than verse constituting the essence poetry These have seen earlier commentators the stock topics which the Horatians sought the author the Aristotelians Aristotle himself They not show any special command any particular penetration Aristotle's method into the essence the Poetics
POETIC
THEORY
Colonio's claims to having made original discoveries with to the “ method ” of the Ars poetica substantiated by his com mentary . In reality , that does declare that Horace treated four poctic genres separately rather than poetry general and find order
Nor
are
to
,
in
an
to
is
all
he
respect
of
to
in
no
in
of
of
.
of
in
.
In
of
,
.
he
,
in
of
the succession these four treatments Otherwise when talking about gives interpretations very similar individual passages those his predecessors His finding the basic analogies rhetorical theory and way distinguishes him from the occasional parallels Aristotle Horatians common breed
,
in
in
to
to
,
it
,
of
It
.
-
to
.
so
of
,
13 ,
on
,
is
It
.
,
at
,
the year these two commentaries on Horace we find this period the first real effort practical criticism Giovanni Talentoni's Lettione sopra'l principio del Canzoniere del Petrarca read before the September Accademia Fiorentina 1587 and published the same many other practical essays apply year Like attempts the time well stated theoretical criteria an individual work and derive evalua goes beyond the implications tive conclusions the short title for the
,
,
,
a
an
of
an
:
.
at
in
all
it
,
of
all
of
it
complete title indicates that will treat the beginning narration and con poems dealing with clusion kinds and touches upon these approach general Petrarch This same title demonstrates once the and approach via the traditional parts the general method oration
of of
) a
3
(
;
and
to
to
an
as
of
; ( 2 )
Greek and Latin poets or
these parts
by
the treatment
,
,
of
tion study
of
of
,
,
: ( 1 ) a
of
.
a
of
of
judg deducing from the practice the ancients standard investigation ment for moderns Talentoni's will therefore consist three discovery steps the principles underlying the use such parts prologue invocation proposition narrative and epilogue examina method
“
them and aware and ,
to
,
make him attentive
a
in
is in
,
of
. ” : 45
so
of
a
or
,
to
,
-
.
to
understand what they say the way cited taught Aristotle's Rhetoric Book III the rhetoricians slightly prologues dif support Epic tragic and comic poets used for spectator give the reader the plot foretaste ferent purpose by to
make him well disposed
to
a
to
,
,
make the listener favorable
finally
to
.
In
in
of
.
,
it
Petrarch's Canzoniere see whether not conforms their usage Since the parts distinguished are rhetorical parts Talentoni will naturally think prospective them reference their effects upon prologue example poets audience their for the ancient strove
.
”
“
of
,
Petrarch's
,
,
, in
a
)
(
.”
224
il
in
: “
),
in -
i
,
maniera
that genre before determining the correctness
farselo attento farsi l'uditor fauoreuole s'allaticauano Av A2 1587 comprendere lor parlare con quella farselo ben disposto finalmente Retori che c'insegnano
Lellione auuertito
, e (
&
45
examples
.pp
of
is a
.
as
of
to
to
,
he
might anticipate what was coming whereas philosophers used them give Similar prepare their readers for the instruction that they meant parts preliminary such other reasons are adduced for the cultivation the invocation and the proposition lyric poet Talentoni must analyze some ancient Since Petrarch that
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
THEORY
TO
procedures
; the cases he chooses are Pindar and Horace . He finds that Pindar wrote merely a “ gay procm , " and that this was justified by the “demonstrative kind " in which he was writing ; Horace sometimes used invocation , dedication , and proposition , sometimes omitted them . As
sometimes
for
...
Petrarch , he " did not depart from this practice of the lyric poets , since once in his canzoni he also merely proposed the subject ; some
...
is
(
,
" )
he ,
as a ,
is
of
,
he
its
,
, ,
where
"
to
,
of
bella
his love
and name
.
of
Vergine
place
his life
by
.
of
,
by
“
to
in
)
is
,
48 as
he
,
,
of
time
,
discussion
and for Petrarch's poems
(
the efficient cause
being
treated
single narra
Talentoni seeks justification for his more general principles the art profit the audience says essentially intro withdrawing Aristotle taught good mores and
this
remarks poetry The end ducing into our souls
what
understand
considered
the canzone
follow the example
the course
of
state
in
,
is
not
of
In
warns
to
us
.
Its
F3 )
( .p
,
the final cause the manner epilogue found
its
of
later
be
." 47
of
,
the reader
:
himself known
disposed docile that The whole series sonnets may tion having the following order materials makes
"
of
error and his apology for his varied style good man high morals and thus
as a is ,
“
he
since through his confession makes
...
, "
of
his
times , he both proposed and invoked ; at other times he did neither the one beginning Talentoni nor the other .”' :46 The content and the effect of speaking the first sonnet Voi ch'ascoltate are also acceptable
;
to
be
to
is
utility
.
of
,
the working
he
to
be
to
,
instrument
his
.
to
an
but only
as
the poet
,
by
of
,
he
to
of
. ”
is
them from bad ones Plato the second authority for this end his apply only banishment the poets was meant those who sought pleasure alone and gave highest praise those who taught good sought behavior and the proper ways life Pleasure sure On this to
“
in
,
we
,
,
is
in
us
,
epilogue score also Petrarch merits praise for makes clear enjoy only rhymes that his should the sweetness and take from them that utility which taken from lyric poems but that we should
it ,
he
,
of
.
his
onestà
" )
"
(
in
be
It
.
,
as a
;
his
actions
his errors
the decency
Christian poet avowing shame proper the most terms will noted that speaks
de '
.pp E -
46
words and and confessing
Greek and Latin lyricists
Ev : “
his
Italian surpasses
in he
all
—
of
a
of
,
In
49
. ”
to
as
him
to
of
attaching ourselves passed through that life which write them fact the moral lessons taught and the superiority subject matter from which they arise constitute Petrarch over his compeers the superiority the Christian over pagans The beware
caused
,
.
."
si
, e ne
come uolle Aristotile
costumi
buoni
, e
,
si
,
ne
il
,
il
si
." e
.
negli animi nostri
)
(
225
, e
di
."
a :
si
,
,
la
,
a
la
significare che dobbiamo delle rime sue sol goder Ibid viene dolcezza quelle prendere quell'vtilità prende dalle poesie liriche ma che guardiamo che non appigliare quella vita per quale camminando egli hebbe comporle
ci da
49
l'introdur
,
E4v
ritrargli da rei
,
Ibid
...
Fv : “ si
.,
,
., ., “ ' p , . ci ." : “ a a
., .p
47
48
, da e a
Da questa vsanza Lirici non scostò Petrarca come uero Lirico soggetto alcuna volta anch'egli nelle sue canzoni solamente propose Alcuna volta propose inuocò Alcuna volta ancora non fece l'vn l'altro perciò Ibid conoscere per huomo costumato buono rende l'auditor comprender quel che poi docile cioè disposto tratta Ibid impercioche
POETIC
to
,
and
forth
.
the canzone
matter (Petrarch's emotions and experiences ) prosodic larger sense the latter also refers so
a
in
) ;
the sonnet
of
,
words
,
,
form
his
honesty " is one both
this
and of form (
THEORY
to
,
,
as
.
be
?
by
:
,
,
In
tragedy comedy and the connection with the larger genres such epic Talentoni raises another general question what extent are veri similitude and credibility observed the poet The conditions governing widely different for these change with the subject matter They would comedy
,
" )
“
we
of
a
,
,
.
an
is
to
be
,
a
.
of
an
be
(
in
,
and
a
separate prologue and thus the latter admits prologue whereas the former the which should call the exposition integral part must made the drama Credibility involves believing audience and Talentoni points out that three matters are considered here First even the popular audience omedy recognizes that the play representation imitation and and tragedy
on
these latter considera ,
Horace and the
rhictoricians
.
of
the purest strain
,
,
.
by
.
In
of
respected
the commentators
1588
as )
(
FEDERICO CERUTI
be
the genres must to
each
tions Talentoni comes very close former ones relate him directly
to
decorum
of
of of
up
to
or
it
.
,
that the actors are not real people Second lends credence more readily tragedy because the events are known through history legend whereas comedy are made the plots whole cloth the poet Third the
Q.
,
,
its
a
of
.
is
a
be
,
,
in
in
to
on
"
“
de
is a
question There whether Federico Ceruti's Paraphrasis Horatii Flacci librum arte poetica published 1588 should called very major commentary the Horatian text For the volume itself plan somewhat different from that slight and follows predecessors printing the complete text first and then adding the Paraphrase which
, be
is ,
in
of
or
at
of
an
.
in
a
of
Is
Is
?
if
,
.
—
of
no
of
actuality the material about twenty pages Besides much paraphrase original questions more than the Yet the crucial original interpretation asked there something here the way theory poetry that goes beyond Horace Horace there least occupies
a
.
to
a
good poem will appealing of
,
,
.
,
of of
an
,
kept interested pleased Essentially then cultivate those ornaments and those devices susceptible
entertained
,
to be a
as
.
all
at
it
,
is
it
if
of on
,
of
at
?
a
special orientation —the affirmative answers indicate that the shows theory little work least merits careful consideration Ceruti does have poetry and least contains fairly substantial not complete concep ideas what makes good poetry These ideas are related ignorant populace tion the audience the which must amused
by
,
as
,
an
a
in
can
be
all ,
of
the disposal on
subject placed
at
:
of
as
of
like
a
which
is
,
The epic material
these will
,
to
.
.
audience First
be ,
genre such the epic the plot provided history epic Ceruti thinks the central long importance and familiar the reader minimum such
episodes
)
(
226
of
he
,
,
be
to
;
in
in
is
,
no
if
made the writer's own the epic poet does not dwell the exact history the subject proposed which has practically importance the poem but dis regarding that historical cycle containing what true the plot treated
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
for the poem in those fictitious things called
will seek grandeur and dignity episodes . 50
What is really important , then , is the unreal material added to the basic story by way of amplification and decoration ; this comes from the poet's inventiveness and is a sign of his genius. But if the episodes constitute the " laus Epicae fabulae " ( p . 17 ) , they also introduce the primary danger : for the poet, in his eagerness to provide that delight which episodes afford , may invent too many or ones which are not fitting. The monstrous product
results .
An ornament of another kind
is found in the inverted , unnatural ,
unhistorical order in which the poet narrates his materials ; the " exordium , " especially , consisting of something which should be said much later but is transferred to the beginning, gives light and luster to the order ( p . 18 ) . Still another ornament is contributed by meter and diction . The criterion
examined
,
re
,
if
to
be
proprio cum decoro tractetur ” ( p . 20 ) . these ornaments will found distribute themselves among the three parts
of -
All
for the former is appropriateness to the specific genre for which it is used , and hence to the kind of subject matter typical of the genre ; for the latter, the same appropriateness to genre and subject. Both , in fact, are regulated by a special kind of decorum : “ Materia igitur queque suo carmine , & composi ,
,
on .
is
-
,
plot and episodes under invention artificial order under disposition tion meter and style under elocution This intentional with Ceruti who writes “
,
38 ff .,
its
is
of
to
“
also
,
,
.
“
con ex
be
is
in
In
,
heroes
man some genres the plot itself This may
which was written above for although Ceruti does not specifically
,
also
usefulness
the
in
case with Old Comedy
virtue
since the poet
all
the ideal essence the perfect utility may derive from the development
si
presses
be
to of
perfect
. "
presented
of
the examples
and long
easily learned
some instruction by
(
,
29 ).
Presumably
of
tained
.p
,
in
remembered
be
.
be
of
ones which are brief enough
into the work
its
,
;
-
,
A
."
,
in
of
the margin his remarks lines Inuentio fabulae Dispositio fabulae Elocutio fabulae good poem popular however not one which merely pleases utility must audience the other end served simultaneously Ceruti leading men believes that the utilitarian purpose virtue will most directly achieved through the introduction the right kind sententiae
,
,
.
to
or
of
-c
in ,
is
22 ; :“ in si
50
,
in
,
of
of
.
he
52
of
, "
correcting mores identify the instrumentality moral correction Nor does indicate with precision unity self onsistency whether the primordial qualities verisimilitude credibility and each which treated connection with the usual pas poetica sage the Ars are related either both these ends He seems
;
,
in
."
."
)
(
227
,
,
."
quaesierit
in
:
,
&
,
poematis dignitatem
perfecti hominis ideam exprimere mores emendandos adprime utilem ad
27 29 : : “ “
amplitudinem
., , .p
Ibid Ibid
., .p
52 51
uocantur
rei
,
), .p
,
(
Paraphrasis 1588 Materies epica quae quasi res omnium usui exposita est Epicus poeta non immorabitur propria propositae effici propria scribentis poterit poemate dignitatem sed circulo illo historiae continente historia quae nullam ferè habet quod uerum est tractandae fabulae tamquàm uili neglecto rebus fictis quae Episodia
TIIEORY
POETIC
rather to accept them as a part of the standard doctrine , without attempting to integrate them with his own notions on good poetry . In the same way he accepts the dogma of the decorum of character and the idea that plot is primary in a work as concepts necessarily present in any Horatian com mentary, regardless of their pertinence to the commentator's own philos ophy of poetry .
Like Massini's
on the madrigal earlier in the same decade
lecture
,
Il
by
(
a
of
“
an
.
by ,
to
he
”
,
his
is all a
Vicenzo Toralto's La Veronica , o del sonetto of 1589 deals with one of the shorter , lyric genres . But Toralto would be the last to admit that he was discussing a minor form ; rather , he declares that the sonnet is the most difficult of forms write surpassing even the tragedy The occasion for treatise sonnet academician whose pseudonym was Risvegliato portion spends and his time and the whole center ,
is
,
is
.
of
it
,
in
be
.
to ,
in
)
of
interpreting this sonnet and others his work the same author The practical criticism involved however concerned exclusively with expounding the hidden meanings found the sonnets and the treatise remains interesting only for the theoretical positions which important for Toralto espouses The matter hidden meanings section
),
,
of
).
restric of
.
so
,
"
of
.
in
be
no
"
of
an
,
to
,
to
Toralto would include the verisimilitude such the person speaking might as
he
by
,
to
which
,
is
to
,
in
:
other criteria for the sonnet language
the prosodic
fourteen lines fixed rhyme schemes and forth choosing subject necessity easy the since the aim pleasure please and there can grave matters Among
tions limitation The third poetry
The second one consists
in
.
haps the major difficulty
,
a
in
of
(
a
(
an
as
he
having two sets meanings one regards every good sonnet person superficial easy for the addressed this and one another for the learned and wise reader this secret and recondite one The necessity combining the two single brief sonnet constitutes the first and per since
means language .
,
"
it
to
“
.
,
, ,
a
of
its
in
a
way
soul
;
of
states
in
to ,
in
to
and
)
[
228
fece doloroso
,
il
stile hora ,
hora abbassò
lo
:
,
19 : "
or
a
,
on
), .p
hora egli inalzó
."
(
is
La
1589
it
to it ,
,
of
,
.
53
Veronica hora piaceuole
sorrowful poet
presence demonstrates represents which different
One prosodic matter comes for special attention which illustrates curious effort relate versification enjambment this the run line style
be
of
, it is
,
53
as a
"
individual sonnet and Toralto citing selected sonnets each
by
an
to
.”
:
in
not Petrarch
now made
the total work
a
he
to
to
of
,
In
linguistic fact most Toralto's preoccupations seem praise variety metes out Petrarch because his and this
now raised his style then lowered pleasant Variety then criterion applies
is
style
a
in
;
,
in
his
,
in
to
When
he
.
speech
a
express the emotion involved
is ,
very sorrowful man should That proper terms not figurative ones since the latter would not grave occur him sorrow but sonnet would require meta phorical language precisely order differentiate from everyday use
speak only
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
THEORY
TO
our nature abhors corruption , and on the contrary loves and desires eternity . a sonnet in which every verse represents for us an end [ by
Thus when we read
,
it
54
of
.
of
of
the plot and
;
the invention
other kinds Mostly they concern disposition from the extent the treat
the tragedy are
to its
of
The difficulties
by
of
,
it
an
its
on
being end - stopped ), that is , corruption , our intellect suffers ; and on the contrary , when we read another which has verses running into one another takes pleasure for from them eternity derives indefinable promise
it
.
in ,
of
his
be
,
be
.
to ;
do .
so
be in
be
is
by
,
the former would seem
be
far the more important Invention many factors The plot must circumscribed true and must origin but the history must itself incomplete therefore historical that the poet may free add episodes own contriving and ment
is
It
.
.
its
to
be
be
he
only must without contradicting the history itself this more difficult than the sonnet said one respect that tragedy might this
,
an
a
in
”
“
— ”
,
its
.
a
its
“
in
"
"
"
of of
"
,
,
be
magnificent and royal personages The plot again should sorrowful and fearful effect the latter apparently counter part impres tragedy must achieve Aristotle's pity and fear Finally
of
.
He
.
,
of
finding his
discusses Tasso's works
since they
as
,
,
passing
do
to
.
In
knowledge for the poet
;
in
, is
of
,
is
on
)
(
in
).
(
his
,
,
55
.
of
in
not imitate
to in
well Tasso's heroic poem the principal qualities are the diction used express the borrowed materials Another the shorter lyric genres the elegy the object Tommaso Correa's inquiry De elegia 1590 His approach here however broader and more general than his earlier treatise on the epigram 1569 the Gerusalemme ,
sonnets inferior
he
,
of
as
”
“
to
,
extreme gravity and this too has difficulties say about more general poetic matters Toralto has little uses the only for the imitation term imitation models sees the use meta phors and other figures poetry from the feature which distinguishes prose and insists upon the necessity both divine inspiration and acquired
sion
Before actually beginning the generalizations about number and these concern almost equally the poet the poem and the of
a
in
.
a
basis
,
of
so
,
,
poetry
somewhat different indulges the elegy he
discussion
,
of
and proceeds
to
:
in
its
set
of
,
,
-
,
,
in
Since this
,
its
.
in
.
its
praise and admiration
relation
."
i
,
il
78 .
,
37 , di
sò
.pp
,
)
on
be si
to
(
229
è la
, e
lo
; e
ci
,
ed
,
da
in ,
55
,
,
;
vn
la
la
per natura nostra abborrisce corruttione contrario ama desi rappresenti dera l'eternità leggendo adunque sonetto ch'in ogni verso fine ciò leggendone vn'altro c'habbia corruttione l'intelletto nostro patisce all'incontro versi quelli promette non entranti l'vno nell'altro gode perche che eternità The principal passages Toralto are found 10–30 and ., .p
Ibid
23 : “
54
will accord
all .
,
to
-
by
.
,
in
.
is
to a
it
the poet
is
at
to
.
,
is
passage from one Indeed there free another these topics that being treated times difficult discover which One might state the nearly circular relationship this way The poet seeks admiration and praise He must have obtain them qualities supplied both art and nature genius and judgment precepts and prudence These qualities will manifest themselves the poem both over structure and the details And the poem when properly constructed will produce the proper effect upon erudite and elite audience which audience
THEORY
all
may be discussed
on
example
alternately
the good poet may serve
:
.
simultaneously The following passage
in itself or with
three
,
reference to the poet or the audience . Correa does
an or
obtains , any aspect of a poem
ships
as
POETIC
;
,
is
,
,
it
,
,
imperita
,
the ignorant crowd
of
the direct opposite
of
,
turba
up
plebecula
is
,
this analysis
in
The audience
. 56
of
,
a
in
,
of
may words and rhythms extols the wit whatever features thoughts expressed proper admires the and harmonious manner appreciate fully the greatness and excellence the artifice
to
;
his
,
he
it,
he
set
mends the joining forth and learns
to it
,
is
to
he
Since indeed the poet seeks admiration and that praise which derives from poem must certainly strive see that admirable extraordinary the composition elegant and praiseworthy and approves the devices praises the invention com when the reader examines admiration itself that the artifice
is
be
,
It
.”
in et
,
In
.
is
,
in
,
57
made according
to
, to it is be
the poem itself
Horace's prescrip
successfully
,
”
"
,
it
: “
It
"
on -
in
words
of of
“
."
is
to
the necessity
and on the other
everywhere
insists
,
,
actions
in
he
”
,
in
in
-
the one hand
character
58
,
,
is
of
“
on
”
.
For
decorum
by
is
,
"
"
poetry
",
combined are res verba taught and numeri and their correct handling art teaches appropriate what words what rhythms and what subject matter sees appro required what connection words and rhythms The terms priate and connection give the key Correa's whole conception .
tions The three elements
be
to
."
a
,
“
:
of
in
of
men who would
As for
inscia
be
“
,
the
"
“
made rather like the ancients sound judgment like the poet him knowledge composed self the art fact the best audience would poets That man cannot judge appropriately nor react properly who poetry and who does not have genius art practice and familiarity not himself good poet the
rhythms
of
,
be in
”
of
but only part
-
part
—
of
“
is
action
”
no "
"
“
lamentable
he
a
to
a
59
. "
"
,
The
“
clause
.pp .
"
to
no
)
(
,
“
or
De
56
(
effect
he
,
a
In
of
an
is
: "
he
.
.
,
of
by
emphasizes
by
he
conjoining things which are com the importance achieving uniform tone their combination nature and and effect When after these preliminary matters comes the elegy applies the principles enunciated earlier definition which apes Aristotle says The elegy imitation lamentable action expressed But the definition would verses with unequal rhythmic intervals incomplete for Aristotle since only object and means are touched equivalent upon with reference manner and the purgation
hand patible
,
,
,
,
,
."
]
[
230
sit
in
,
,
."
sit
."
,
,
,
,
&
,
is ,
."
,
&
,
&
,
,
,
,
sit
vt
,
;
;
22 : & "
,
,
., & ., , .p .p 6 : 25 : " , “
., .p
57 58
59
&
; : “
,
,
&
ex
),
elegia 1590 20-21 Cum enim poeta admirationem quaerat laudem quae ipsa admiratione comparatur eniti certe debet admirabile eius carmen singulare quam cum introspicit lector probat consilia artificium laudabilis ornata coagmentatio laudat inuentionem commendat connexionem verborum numerorum extollit acumen quaecumque lineamenta praedicat sententias apte concinne conclusas admiratur artificij magnitudinem praestantiam penitus cognoscit quo non Ibid Iudicare congrue non potest neque honeste sentire ingenium non ars non exercitatio poetica vsus non bonus ipse poeta quae verba qui numeri quae ver Ibid Docet quod argumentum conueniat videt borum numerorum coagmentatio requiratur Elegia quidem est querebundae actionis imitatio Ibid versibus numerorum disparibus interuallis expressa
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
TO THEORY
their characteristics
and nonpersonal
and attributes
—
the actions — with
all
the “ res ” ; it comprises such things as the commiserations of lovers , funeral lamentations, and letters . “ Res ” includes as well the persons concerned in it
of
.
, a
,
of
of
style
decorum
.
,
,
simple
its
,
divers kinds
,
or
"
low
the rustic
life the urbane
diction must
"
"
,
to
“
Since the elegy belongs the be most tender and delicate
knowledge
a
essentially
,
of
of of
to
the various kinds
to
attributed
This
of
on
be so
to ,
.
the military
is ,
to
be
of
activities
he
,
of
by
I
;
or as
suspect that divine providence and fate also includes thoughts uttered the sententiae the characters Correct development knowledge these matters demands the part the poet eco politics may distinguish public private nomics and that from affairs assigned persons and the characters various types the elements such
of
. 60
the readers
all
of
which will flow easily into the souls
,
,
be
,
,
,
,
,
of
by
a
fit
be
we
,
,
In
.
set
,
so
... that the reader may take delight and admire and may judge that the most may caught essential feelings have been forth and that bright and pure simplicity propriety the words one must strive for sure and dic arousing tion and the words themselves should varied and elegant capable grave magnificent noble distinguished new and agreeable feelings and ones in
a
,
of
it
of
,
be
is
all
his
.
its
of
,
it
to
; it
is
it
,
, is
an
poetry and Verse for Correa essential accompaniment the necessary elegy endows the poem with than elsewhere even more special essence makes admirable and worthy read gives honor glory Rhythm poetry and the assurance for author the soul
of
,
rectam
concinnam ingenuam
,
,
:
,
venustam perfectam
“
of
of
,
puram
,
lepidam
mollem perspicuam ,
tersam
,
,
,
dulcem
,
,
,
,
“
:
of
;
”
,
an
rotundam
aequabilem
,
plenam
laeuem
,
, be
elegantem ,
dam
,
,
a
,
.
54 )
(
in .p
poetry and for the elegy requirements for Correa summarizes particular with string nouns Varietas Perspicuitas Cultus Proprietas Venustas Numerus the what the effect and his estimate elegy should adjectives with even more formidable string candi
approach
,
of
.
.
of
or
its
in an
is
it to "
as
,
so
,
,
be
et
,
43 ).
29 , ,
a
.pp
(
floridam
filo
simplicissimo tenui ... ... combined Matter diction and versification must produce work answering these requirements From both sets terms really more concerned with the poem itself than would seem that Correa with effect upon audience with the faculties the poet His variam
on
,
.
of
is
the broadest sense with the rhetoricians called Horatian styles and for their teachings upon mostly for their distinction diction and versification )
(
the first
,
them concerned Horace's Ars poetica
In
three separate works dealing with
.
two
of
poetry
.pp
60
the art
1597
Antonio Riccoboni published ;
,
1591
of
In
RICCOBONI
]
[
231
,
In
in
,
,
& , & .
,
,
,
,
.”
,
,
&
&
&
,
&
: " vt
& ,
,
,
.,
simplicissime exposita sensa Ibid 29–30 oblectetur lector admiretur mentis esse iudicet atque illa simplicitate candida munda capiatur verbis spectetur legitima proprietas atque verba ipsa sint varia dictionis secura ornata quae sensus gignant graues magnificos qui facile influant nobiles praeclaros nouos suaues 32 animos lectorum
POETIC
THEORY
Dissensio de epistola Horatii ad Pisones, Riccoboni takes issue with an anonymous “vir doctus ” who had declared that Horace's work displayed a complete confusion of subject matters, with no organization or order . Riccoboni counters with the thesis that although the epistle may not show a clear order (it need not , since the epistolary form permits of passage in a random way from one topic to another ), it does have a method and
Its
entitled
...
a
:
as .
,
,
of
art
,
on if
complete and rearranged ideas would compose thoroughgoing dissertation poetry Ideally Riccoboni believes the that such art should have been organized follows an
an organization .
is
an
.
of
be
be
,
to
be
,
or
at ,
or
by ;
be
,
;
in ,
,
in
of
,
be
it
,
.
the poem
excel
be
to
to
to
Next
must made clear that the work the poet and his poetry something excellent and that the poet himself should not must one single part the poem but the whole work and that excellence
counted
or
as
,
as
its
to
be
praised just first poetry had Aristotle praised rhetoric before giving precepts and many others have similarly done And since praise for the poet can derive either from nature art from both this the reason why such inquiry had reproved who broached and the same time those should wish seem struck madness among whom Horace did not wish
be
in
of
,
,
of
,
in
.
.
of of
,
be
to
in
,
;
in
in
of
poetic decorum must sought this kind invention elocution and achieving from philosophy moreover that the Greeks were more capable poetic matters than the Romans Further the end excellence the poet had poems having explained revealed the kinds listed After these latter
if
,
,
to
,
it
all in of
at
,
,
general following the lead Aristotle was necessary not for each and every poetic genre least for some the major ones examine carefully now the ,
.
at
,
,
as
,
.
all
,
,
all
,
to
:
of
of
to
for
the censures brought against poets and the excuses would have been necessary show which errors the
his book treated
so be at
the end
of
,
to
:
in
,
,
,
,
constituent parts which are six number plot characters sententia diction melody spectacle even though poetic genres Next the are not proper quantitative parts which are four number prologue episode exode choral song which similarly are not appropriate genres And just Aristotle
of
be
by
a
in
it
,
Etenim primum Poetica erat laudanda quoniamque aliis multis
ab
61
be
,
them the end poets should pardoned and which not and what way sincere judgment poetic works should sought and how the bad poets should avoided the wise ones.61
.
:
, in
:
in
,
&
,
:
in
,
,
.
in ,
,
,
sexat ,
.
in
,
si
ad
:
.
,
à
in
,
,
in
rc
in
excellentiam
in
philosophia inuentione elocutione decoro poctico quam Romanos excellere potuisse autem poetica magis Graecos practerea erat aperiendus finis poetae enumerandaque poematum genera Quibus uniuerse explicatis singulis poematum generibus imitationem Aristotelis non certe praecipuis quibusdam oportebat perpendere tum partes conformantes quae sunt fabula :
atque huiusmodi petcndam esse
ut
,
,
ab
:
ab
fit
,
& :
ab
similiter
illi ,
,
à
,
(
), .p
1591 D4v ante praecepta
“
Arist laudatur laus poetae potest utraque idcirco talis quaestio erat aperienda aut natura aut arte aut simulque reprehendendi qui uolunt uideri furore perciti quorum esse numero Horatius poesim seu poema rem quandam excellentem nolebat Deinde ostendendum poetae opus toto opere excellere debere una parte poematis sed esse oportere ipsumque poetam non Dissensio
Rhetorica prouenire
:
,
,
.
,
ac
." de
à
]
232
[
,
,
&
,
quibus non ignoscendum quomodo esset ignoscendum requirendum malique poetae prudentibus fugiantur iudicium sit
de
,
sui
,
in
sic
,
&
;
&
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
mores sententia dictio melopoeia apparatus quamuis non omnes omnibus conuenientes episodium prologus quae sunt quattuor non exodus choricum tum partes quantitatis quemadmodum reprehensioni omnibus itidem congruentes fine libri Arist egit denique ostendendum erat quibus poetarum erroribus bus excusationibus poetarum poematibus
syncerum
ARS POETICA : RETURN
TO THEORY
This program for an art of poetry in part follows Aristotle's order in the Poetics , in part adds sections from other works and from the popular defences of poetry . Riccoboni then proceeds to cut the Horatian text into small pieces and to rearrange the pieces according to the topics outlined in the above plan . For each topic , he indicates parallels with Aristotle wherever warranted .
By the time he finishes , every line of the Horatian epistle has been accounted and the parallelism with Aristotle is complete. Since this rearrange
for,
ment itself constitutes outline form :
a valuable interpretation
, I
Horace
I.
The praise of poetry
39
418
295–308
art and nature
give it below in brief Aristotle 1455a33 , 144864 , 1451a22
divinity of poet natural causes
II .
The necessity of excellence
361-385
moral philosophy
32-41
1456a3 , 1456a9 , 145468
309_332 285–294
III .
The ends of poetry “ delectare ” primarily
333-334
1448a25
341-346 73-85
" prodesse ” accidentally
the genres
IV .
The plot in various genres
275-280 220-233 281-284
Aristotle's requirements for plot
:
42-45
( 1) order
146-152
( 2) magnitude ( 3) unity
1-13
( 4) possible
338-340
(General ) 1460a26
128-135 14-23
( 5 ) not episodic (6 ) admirable , marvelous ( 7 ) simple or complex
( none )
(8 ) pathetic
( none )
136-145 1452a12 1452630
V.
119–127
Character
1453622
114-118 153-178
VI .
333-337
Sententia
96–113 [ 233 ]
1456a34
POETIC
THEORY Horace
VII .
Diction
Aristotle
86-95 270–274 234-250 251-269 24-31 46_72
VIII . IX .
Melody
202-219
Spectacle
179-188
X.
Quantitative
XI .
Errors of the poets
parts
189–201
1452619
347–360
( 146066 ]
386–390 419-476
Aside from the mechanical redistribution of segments , little of interest to offer on the Ars poetica . In a preliminary poetry , he controverts Aristotle's assertion that tragedy is epic , maintaining instead that since the epic plot is longer
Riccoboni
has
section on epic
superior to the and more diffi
of
by
or
wish infrequently entertained
exploited
the
.
parallels with Horace Horatian critics
— a
set
cult , it may be considered preferable ( p . D2 ) . His insistence that the primary end of poetry is to give pleasure is exceptional , especially in this last decade of the century . So , too , is his wish to find in Aristotle a basis for the organization of ideas about poetry , rather than merely a isolated
,
he
in
to
. In
,
.
of at
his
.
a
he
of
The dialogue does little more than reiterate the positions brief and general way Riccoboni states stand thus
of in
);
(
or
ad
of
,
in
,
de
his
he
of
it
to
is a
to
de
,
of
July Riccoboni's second work 1591 published three months later reply Nicola Colonio's Methodus Arte poetica 1587 had only after publishing the first preferred either come know with hold his rebuttal Colonio until after had stated his own position Horatij epistola Defensor seu pro eius opinione Pisones discusses dialogue form the question with Colonio the order the Ars poetica the Dissensio
the beginning
as
all ),
Horace
(
have demonstrated that from him all
I
:
the dialogue
from the inexhaustible foun ,
to
I
.
in
,
it
general but ,
in
plot
, ex
eo ac ,
ex
.pp
62
Colonio's contention that Horace had not treated
of
. 62
,
..
if
,
in a
is
in
,
at
is
so to in a
of
poetry doctrine one may draw not the things that pertain say that not which are transmitted methodical fashion everything contained the Epistle the Pisos part for part but that everything present there general sense that seems that Horace some way touched upon everything that Aristotle treated tainhead least many
in
,
,
,
ut
ad
: "
ad
,
234
)
(
."
,
. . . .
, si
, ) ,
(
tamquam Defensor 1591 11-12 ostendi uberrimo omnis doctrinae non omnia quae attinent Poeticam certe multa quae Methodice traduntur Epistola hauriri posse dico non omnia quidem comprehendi Pisones secundum partem scd omnia contineri vniuersè omnia quaecunque egerit Aristoteles quodammodo altigisse Horatius videatur fonte
ARS POETICA : RETURN TO THEORY
by
only of the plot in specific genres , leads episodes and their interrelationship , in are cited . A long section near the end interpretation of line 128 , “ Difficile Riccoboni recommends that the poet
of
est
the Defensor
is devoted
to an
",
proprie communia dicere and should not only prefer materials a
of
,
in
he
,
in
in
,
so
on
by
).
.pp
.
(
to
--
be
—
that
in
he
way others but that should treat them such their universal applications causes effects modalities doing action will manifest By will give the greatest possible pleasure the audience 31-32 ,
already exploited
to a long argument over plots and which the opinions of Castelvetro
,
of
.
,
,
,
e
.
in
)
(
or
of
;
in
,
i
),
(
all
, a
literary problems Five short treatises Giulio Cortese Neapolitan poet and academician were published 1591 and 1592 they are now usually found with the 1588 1592 editions his Rime Two them the Regole per fuggire vitii dell'elocutione 1592 and the Regole per formare epitafii 1591 are exclusively rhetorical content But the other three Avertimenti nel poetare Dell'imitatione dell'inventione and Delle figure
a
,
." 63
write about the general is
—
of
poetry
permit expression
In
to
as
way
of
the soul
whereas the this subject
in ,
means
the subject
,
,
a
such
as in
,
in
,
its
so
,
"
it
" ;
to
"
as
“
,
cogitation
the conceit
in
or
what
arms love beauty madness some particular aspect
, of
-
is a
of
to it,
is
"
”
So
through meditation words
"
,
of
is
of
in
.
“ *
development
concetto the words and the that meditation which the spirit
subject
from
thus different
material chosen for treatment concetto
be
to
,
.
of
important any kind poetry the sounds The first these defined makes upon some object offered Concetto
in
is ,
prominent and euphuism which were the century Cortese distinguishes three elements
gongorism
these last years
us
of it
.
a
,
,
of
Marinism
to
of
.
of
),
of
(
poetry and advice for their application contain theories the art The Avertimenti nel poetare own way very significant document For affords our first encounter the theory present tradition with the literary conceit and with the notions 1591
the practice
,
.
”
“
or
as
,
,
2 ).
(p .
in
But two dangers understood
of
be
to
.
enrich and embellish his poetry making his conceit too obscure
be
,
by
:
by
order
that
,
.
narratives
to
erudite
of
in
be
must
attend him here
of
such
as
,
at
be
do to
,
is
,
not contain conceits
be
genres which
all ,
do
.
fact certain verse events should not called poetry but rather historical casual verse Even some lyrics are denied the title such Petrarch's second and third Basically sonnets which not engender any conceit the mind the materials for conceits are furnished the sciences and hence the poet considered
so
to
.
,
as
]
spirito
fa
to
."
[
235
che
lo
it
quella meditatione scriuere
, ), .p 1 : " da
(
di
c'ha
at
to
,
of
so
be
in
of
),
, “
or
63
gli
se
Avertimenti 1591 quello offerisce
, it it
(
examples Giulio Camillo's cabalistic poems would such presenting scientific materials and that bare proper terms Rather the conceit will drawn from the sciences not obfuscate confuse the eye the soul but instruct and illuminate that the guess reader will know what said and not have what was trying the reader
obscurity
sopra alcuno obietto che
POETIC
THEORY
to say . " 64 The principle for the other two elements is a simple one . The words must be appropriate to the conceit and the sounds to both . The poet must take particular care to see that the words are adapted to the style in which he is writing and that the sounds are at once fitting to the thought and harmonious among themselves .
In the second treatise , Dell'imitatione e dell'inventione , the conceit comes to be, by implication at least , synonymous with imitation . Cortese dis tinguishes in general two ways of writing , by words which signify directly meaning and by phrases or paraphrases which describe , the intended instead , the action . The first of these he calls simple narration (note the parallelism with the distinction concerning “ concetti ” ) and the second , imitation . It is imitation in the sense that the description of an action follows , somehow , the procedure of nature herself in establishing the law governing the action . Simple narration may be used to signify an action which is not
immediate to the end of the poet ; imitation will be used for one which is proximate to that end . Invention , also , has two meanings , since it refers on the one hand to the discovery of new things, new ways, new usages , on the
to
,
For
",
.
“
as
(
to ), all
all
other hand to the production of artificial things in semblance of natural things. In the latter category Cortese places epic and dramatic plots lyric discoursings with respect not only which resemble history the subject matter but also episodes and epithets such ornaments
it ,
a
65
."
of
-
a
in
,
and rules for their
to
,
of
a
,
an
or
a
or
a
to
a
, “
he
invest substance with new accident congruous with containing explanation very reason cause will constitute poetic compositions noble invention and herein reside the riches high flown theory figures The very brief Delle figure addition says
makes some statements about the reasons for the invention and use these same figures Cortese believes that they were necessity give pleasure the necessity being invented out and make certain ideas understandable the pleasure being that which the human to
all
,
,
to
of
.
of
,
use
,
In
,
a
in
,
in
,
a
of
of
or
it
to
its of
is a
of
is
.
spirit customarily derives from literary works three treatises what philosophy linguistics that goes far beyond the usual notable theory theories the styles diction the conceit which attempts distinguish general from materials nature and curious
of
.
of
is a
.
of in
to .
in
,
amalgam kind the his definition
,
il
."
,
&
&
,
;
il
., .p 7 : "
, ò
ingar Sarà dunque concetto tirato dalle scienze tale che non offuschi dell'anima ma che l'erudisca l'illumini accioche lettore conosca quello detto non quello c'habbia uoluto dire
Ibid bugli l'occhio c'habbia
that city His lecture others He derives ,
64
materials
earlier developed
by
the Biblioteca Comunale
of
of
his
,
as
of
in
of
wrestling with the problem the difference between objects nature and objects literary expression those same the substance Some time after 1592 Cesare Crispolti delivered the Accademia Perugia manuscript Insensata Lettione del sonetto now found
,
&
,
)
(
236
,
di
), .p 5 : , " ò
,
le
.” ò
(
65
poiche uestire una sostanza Dell'imitatione 1591 accidente nuouo congruente qui stanno esplicatione sarà assai nobile inuentione cagionc che contenga ragione ricchezze delle poesie
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
its
style from Arte poetica Thoscana , his ideas on fitting style Bernardino Tomitano notions on the matter from Aristotle's Rhetoric Bembo's Prose and Patrizi's Retorica He also lyric poetry under the low considers and rejects Dante's classification
to
of
on
of
.
,
general ,
,
sonnet from Minturno's
no
:
is
.
-
be its
,
a
in
In
—
as
;
its
,
.
of
, in
is
a
,
a
maintaining that sonnet grave matter would demand the grave the most beautiful and the most difficult The sonnet for Crispolti difficulty results primarily from the Tuscan poetic genres small painting every slightest defect can size which small seen long poems the situation otherwise style
style
be ,
if if
as ,
of
a
,
,
of
If
,
moves arouses and ravishes the reader with secret other compositions must have many parts this one seeks clarity join together gravity and pleasantness diction.66
to
.
miracle style and
In
,
happily developed
, it
is
.
,
,
In
long compositions the poets usually matter how mediocre they may put many things which with their beauty and their grace compensate for other things which are less beautiful and less grave this composition the thought
It
.
to
,
digressions
and ornaments which give the the other lyric genres
shares the subject matter
as
-gods
the absence
epic majesty
an
latter
of
the canzone
of
in
in
.
of
This description the effect upon the reader has Longinian overtones The sonnet differs from the epigram the general tone achieved and from
to
of
of
.
is
as ,
be all
to
is
,
is
an
.
.
of
to
of
of
,
matter and the styles ,
in
subject traditional He thinks the sonnet terms prosodic form and the ends with respect the reader diction and sounds His solutions for many these problems come from the rhetoricians .
thus essentially
.
to
,
as
as
,
to
his
,
to
—
,
pray
,
,
to
,
heroes
:
and loves and has the same ends the canzone praise and matters For blame comfort internal construction well external effects Petrarch taken usage everywhere marvelous Crispolti's approach the model for narrate
is
).
(
de
definition and the distinc
a
he
,
plot will then imitate )
the
(
It
: “
, fol .
10 ),
N.
la Ne i
.
a
of
,
,
is
,
to
,
he
of
comic protagonist and the comic action 66
,
,
of
.
, .
of
, is
dramatic
of
a
borrowed
and mixed manners His use Aristotle quali however some interest From him Ceruti takes the division tative and quantitative parts and although desists from full treatment the former does point out that not only the poet concerned with supplying them the poem but also the actor the musician and the architect Aristotle also furnishes model for Ceruti's description the ,
narrative
of
to
he
Donatus From him .
,
the genre
tion
of
on
,
to
to
in
his
,
of
again For Frederico Ceruti the problem the available sources important one Dialogus comoedia 1593 Since Horace had had say specifically about comedy and since Aristotle gave only sug little gestions Ceruti was obliged turn the perennial source information
)
(
237
,
,
, i
,
grauità
, e
,
che siano insieme accoppiate
la
. , e Se
chiarezza dello stile
, e
: “
il
se
In
.
." la
la
.
hauere Questo ricerca piaceuolezza del dire
è
(
.
,
e
, e
,
.
longhi componimenti MS Bibl Com Perugia 1058 64v Poeti per vaghezza gratia loro l'altre men mezzani che siano sogliono porre molte cose che con graui ricompensano questo belle concetto felicemente spiegato muoue risueglia rapisce altrui quasi con occulto miracolo gl'altri componimenti deuono molte parti
POETIC
THEORY
only a single action , very agreeable in tone , suitably amusing, concerning private citizens who are neither entirely good nor entirely bad , but who through some imprudence or error ( such as happen to men in private life ) not unproductive of laughter , pass from a troublesome situation into one they achieve
where
happiness . " 67 Other passages , such as a hint on the
of
the ridiculous ( p. 27) and a reference to the dance as a form of imitation ( p . 33 ) , may also be traced to Aristotle . For the rest , such recent nature
writers as Pontano , Maggi , and Riccoboni are called upon to authorize and illustrate an essentially rhetorical point of view . The tastes and the pleasure of the audience and the effect which the comedy will have upon it are paramount for Ceruti . He states as the end “ to profit through delight and laughter ” ( p . 15 ) and sees comedy as a great school for providing examples of ways of life to be followed or to be eschewed . With those who
hold that comedy might exert a corrupting influence on the young he dis agrees heartily , especially since he sees in his century actors capable of expurgating obscene passages and of pointing up the moral . Many struc
The handling of
aspects
the plot must make
it
.
of
spoil the suspense
all
tural features of comedy are determined by the audience . The prologue , peculiar to comedy , exists as a means of obtaining the attention and the good will of the spectators ; yet it must not reveal the denouement lest it
to
.
by
,
it
seem credible even though the audience knows that has been invented help the playgoer's memory the poet Comedies are divided into acts
so
in
of
of
,
be
-
,
on no
of
-
,
to
naturally adapted
be
to
to
provide intervening periods
.
seems
of
relaxation and the five act length the faculties and the capabilities the Songs and dances are provided audience the entr'actes that spectator even the most ignorant who would not understand the goings during the deprived on the stage will some form entertainment and
of
by
.
be
to
as
tion
"
of
the epic
in
general and
of
in
,
by
in
had indicated the marvelous
solve
a
problem that had long poetic theory Many them produced one the effects the art particular and had spoken the admira
1597 Giovanni Talentoni attempted been puzzling his predecessors the field
of to
In
.
performance
.
of
at
only incidentally by in
poetry
“
initial statement that the end
of
one the passions constantly present is
so
the rhetorical tradition
After
is
The approach
analyze the effect
as
.
to
seeks
of
.
67
to it of
belongs
.pp
,
it
;
of
the soul
the Cinquecento
the Purgatorio
an
but insofar
of
its
;
it
IV
of
Horatian
as
beginning
Canto
its
as a
,
of
,
la
”
in
which the poem must arouse audience Talentoni's Discorso maraviglia delivered lecture before the Accademia degli Inquieti Milan inquired into the nature the marvelous and the con point departure was the passage ditions for achieving the sopra
,
,
238
)
(
."
)
( vt
&
,
: "
),
ex
,
;
,
&
(
In
Dialogi duo 1593 imitabiturque duntaxat actionem vnam perplacidam 24–25 eorumdem.que nec prorsus bonorum risu dignam hominum priuatorum nec prorsus malorum sed eorum qui imprudentia aliqua errore hominibus priuatis solet accidere non sine risu molestia aliqua foelicem statum consequuntur
ARS POETICA
of
means
living
RETURN
:
TO THEORY
to lead them into ways of good do this ( according to Strabo ) solely by the use of Talentoni indicates that his treatment of the subject will
pleasure
to attract men and
" and that the poets
the marvelous , 68 have three parts ,
of
;
we
,
we
on its
,
its
it is
,
it
,
its
.. in the first of which we shall show that admiration is a passion , and to what kind of passion and appetite it should be reduced ; in the second , coming much closer to nature we shall discover form and the subject and the cause from springs and from these things we shall assemble which definition shall show that the species into which divided are five and the occasion the
a
is ,
,
its
it
in its
it .
its
,
to to
of
in
in
it
or
a
...
,
in
,
be
it
good
of
.
of
of
of
laughter and third we shall treat ridiculous things Since shall classify Having astonishment under some these species we shall also speak sufficiently explained this way the aforesaid two parts nature and speak produces essence the third we shall come the effects which inquire into qualities that those who receive and finally whether bad thing.69
its ,
of no its
,
,
In
,
of .
.
it : ( 1 )
physiological
,
them
of
some
sees
as
Talentoni
the animate and rational and rational operating with
3 )
the animate
of
, (
,
for the effects
( 4 )
,
and
of
As
.
intent
but nonrational
the animate
operating through chance
but exclude
of
to by ,
be
, (
inanimate
2 )
the marvelous are related
ignorant
tragedy and comedy accidental events for which the reader the spectator The four kinds objects producing the four kinds the is
from whatever the patient sources include peripeteia cause may discovered
or
,
it
,
,
is a
in
passion which After having established the first part that admiration like others dominates and tyrannizes the soul Talentoni examines springs basically from the unexpected the unknown causes finding that
both soul which the functions kind body important poetics and are arrested note for that this sensation accompanied pleasure and that hence the poem capable effecting goal final moral admonition is
of
to
is
It
by
.
un
“
to
Horatian
practical criticism performed this last critics was Pietro Cresci's Discorso sopra in
the few exercises
of
One
generation
"
of
of
its is
by
.
in
helpless amazement
a
especially
,
to
ben viuere
,
tirargli
al
,
a
so
huomini
, e
col piacer allettar
as a by
of in (
di
gli
1597
., . , , .p " e 6 ( , : “ e ), la .p
69
Discorso Sauole sue
5 : "
08
.
in in
.
in
in
lode del celebre
),
luogo Valchiusa 1599 delivered the degli question was Accademia Uranici Venice The sonnet Marco praise genre Cavallo After preliminary remarks the sonnet emphasizing the perfection achieved brief form Cresci proceeds Sonetto
nelle
, & à
è
si da
,
, e
,
, e la
, il
la
:
si
,
la
marauiglia quale Ibid nella prima delle quali mostreremo che affetto specie d'affetto d'appetito debba ridurre nella seconda accostandoci molto più alla soggetto cagione ond'ella nasce queste natura sua scuopriremo forma sua
, de in
le
; e
.
)
à
,
à
à
.
.
,
, le e
lui
&
,
di
,
;
la
...
239
(
,
cioè s'ella sia cosa buona
ria ". ,
, in ò
,
gli
la
,
lo
,
di
cose raccoglieremo sua diffinitione mostreremo che sue specie nelle quali ella diuide per cagion della terza tratteremo del riso son cinque delle cose ridicolose Ad alcune quelle perche ridurremo stupore parimente fauelleremo Spiegata bastanza questa guisa nelle dette due parti parlar natura essenza sua verremo nella terza quei che finalmente ricercar sue qualitadi effetti ch'ella produce riceuono
a full analysis of Cavallo's
in order by
he
What
means
these
under each heading Under inven
statements
.
his essential
elocution
.
,
by
,
and
of
...
an
:
made clear tion
sonnet . He does so by discussing its
disposition
its
invention
THEORY is its
POETIC
is
,
.
or
,
,
or
is ,
as
,
of
,
or
—
,
if
its it is
of
of
,
or
,
is
nothing other than imagination things which are invention which either true verisimilar we might say possible and which the main pillar great the structure imitation the base and foundation the whole poetic art since concerned with those same three objects upon which imitation upon proper seat rests imitating nature that art fortune
at , so
all
:
Under disposition
in
in he
of
of
)
of
of
of
its
of (
so
,
,
,
,
]
[
a
,
, of
things appropriately well disposed the right time developed the thoughts beautiful order scattered the ornaments and the figures with moderation and disposition has well observed variety and decorum essential parts that designated end giving pleasure and renewing has certainly achieved the minds the listeners and the readers the graceful memories those The author the sonnet has then placed the words used the attributes
.
delightful places
:
Under elocution
,
,
,
,
, .
on
way
is
about these three topics general commentary the procedure
the sonnet revolves
It
. 70
,
by of
to
The total critique interesting note
of
,
,
at
he
...
,
,
in
he
And has similarly succeeded with much felicity elocution having judici ously chosen words which are sonorous grave clear proper circumscribed and figurative and has the same time elegantly filled the whole sonnet with gravity with clarity with purity and with sweetness
,
, B5 ò
.pp
at
1599
of
an
expositor
very end with
the work may
,
collatus
its
as
prominently again
appears
;
his De Poetica Aristoteles cum Horatio 70
of ,
.
the decade
of
of
had figured
,
,
in
the early years
so
)
Antonio Riccoboni who Horace
be
to
is a
1599
(
RICCOBONI
in
of
.
;
statements only the examples
or
of
set
that might have been made about almost any other changed work the citations would need the judgments would remain the same This the characteristic feature analysis rhetorical method the sixteenth century the same
è,
&
,
si
,
i
....
in
;
di
,
,
la
: “
, e
,
tre
,
, ( ò ),
, ò
di
quale altro non Discorso 1599 B5v l'inuentione ch'vna imaginatione vogliam dir possibili ch'è colonna principale della gran verisimili cose vere machina dell'immitatione base fondamento tutta l'arte Poetica versando ella intorno quei oggetti medesimi sopra quali l'immitatione riposa come suoi proprij seggi
,
)
(
240
tutto
elegantemente
há
...
Sonetto
e
, e
dolcezza
il
,
di ,
,
, e
,
purità
, ,
di di
,
&i il
la
de '
, ò
de
,
è
chiarezza
di
,
di
di
grauità
."
insieme ripieno
,
le
il la
hà
,
gli
&
,
, e le à
ne
Et
. . . .
di
&
,
,
,
le
, ò
, è
, ò
Natura Arte Caso immitando Ha poi cosi ben disposto cose collocato parole vsato tempo conueneuolmente attributi disteso con bell'ordine concetti figure decoro sparso con misura gli ornamenti variatione cosi ben seruata parti essentiali della dispositione dissegnato fine che certamente n'hà conseguito dilet quei gratiosa memoria gli vditori gli animi lettori tare rinouellar hauendo con molta felicità parimente riuscito nell'elocutione diletteuoli luoghi giuditiosamente scelto voci sonore graui chiare proprie circonscritte traslate cioè
ARS POETICA
:
RETURN
TO THEORY
indeed , be contemporary
with the ones already discussed . 71 In these , Riccoboni had suggested the possibility of reordering the Ars poetica according to a more scientific arrangement . In the new work he does just that. Under a number of section headings , which are those of the major divisions of the poetic art , he first places prose passages which are pre sumably summations of Aristotle's positions , then he quotes in extenso the passages from Horace which he deems pertinent. Once again , the whole of the Horatian text passes into the rearrangement. The kind of order which Riccoboni proposes for a scientific treatise on the art of poetry is perhaps of greater significance than the parallelisms between Aristotle and Horace , most of which were by this time completely conventional . I give below the section headings in Latin , a summation of the “ Aristotelian ” doctrine stated in the prose passages , and the numbers of the lines quoted from the Ars poetica : De Natura Poesis
Horace
Poetry as imitation ; object , manner , and means . The poet must excel in all parts of the poem . Poetry and history , the universal and the particular ; tation through embellishment .
361-85
imi
Ends : profit and pleasure ; purgation of pity and fear the proper pleasure of tragedy .
309–32 as 333–34 , 341-46
De Caussis Poesia
Divine cause : the divine furor .
391-407
Human cause : art and nature . Natural cause : imitation and harmony . Historical origins and development of tragedy and comedy
408–18 , 295–308
Origins
of comedy ,
De Generibus Imitationum , & Poesium The arts as imitations ; definitions comedy .
275–80 , 220_33 281-94
of epic, tragedy , 73-85
De Partibus Qualitatis De Fabula . Eight requirements for plot : 32-45
( 1) completeness ( 2) magnitude ( 3) unity
146-52 1-13
( 4) possible ( necessity , verisimilitude ) ( 5 ) non -episodic ( 6) marvelous ( 7) simple , complex
338-40
( 8 ) pathetic
(none )
De fabulis non immutandis , aut conuenienter fingendis . Traditional plots .
119-35
14-23 136-45 (none )
71 R. C. Williams , “ Italian Critical Treatises of the Sixteenth Century , " Modern Language XXXV ( 1920), 506–7 , lists a Praecepta Aristotelis cum praeceptis Horatii collata under the date of 1592, but I have been unable to find a copy of this work . Notes ,
[ 241 ]
POETIC
THEORY Horace
De Partibus Qualitatis De Moribus . Characters for the main genres ; decorum . De Sententia . Cf. the Rhetoric . The parts of thought . Persuasion . De Dictione . Kinds of words ; two qualities
114-18 , 153–78 335–37 , 96_113
of style ; 24-31 , 46–72 , 86-95 , 234-74
words for each genre .
De Melopoeia . De Apparatu . Not part of the poetic
,
art .
202-19 Effect from plot
not apparatus
.
178-88
De Partibus Quantitatis ,
,
tragedy comedy
epic
189–201
,
346-60 386–90 419–76 ,
of
,
of ,
&
De reprehensionibus excusationibus poetaruni Five sources blame three types excuse
.
Of
be
,
.
in
to
to
in
of
theory contained Elements Riccoboni's prose passages are more specifically pertinent Aristotle than Horace and they will treated subsequently the appropriate chapter
,
a
,
,
.
by
,
to
,
,
as
as
In
early perhaps even 1598 Camillo Pellegrino subject which Del concetto poetico returning thus had been treated only recently Giulio Cortese The latter's discussion however seems more philosophical and more sophisticated even though the same year
wrote his treatise
he
.
of
,
a
is
in
of
Pellegrino's dialogue one the interlocutors Giambattista Marino Pellegrino begins with conventional position the distinction the three ;
in
,
.
,
72
."
of
,
“
,
he
of
,
to
'
at
,
styles which equates various places with Hermogenes Ideas the different styles are appropriate different poetic genres Differences style says depend upon subject matter conceits words the disposi tion the latter and the colors the figures Since this might sound
is
“
:
the
, of of
,
is a
of
"
73 )
to
of
(
“ a
to
he
,
a
of
like description diction finds himself obliged first define style quality which results from the putting together the words and the thoughts distinguish between diction and style and former nothing but the choice and the placing the words which are images quality which results from the combination the thoughts the latter it
“
1898
cagiona dalla 328 colori delle figure
."
: " si
da ' ) , .p
,
quelle
e
di
(
be
“
or
"
;
an ,
as
75
."
by
,
,
of
its
in
,
by “
is
,
,
Naples
."
)
(
242
somiglianza
di
imagine
. "
e
dall'Intelletto
."
formato
e
331 un pensamento quelle : "
e
,
è
: "
è
: "
, e
328 una qualità che risalta dalla composizione delle voci dai concetti 329 quella altro non che scelta collocazione delle voci che sono immagini questa una qualità che risulta dal Composto delle voci dai concetti insieme
da
., .p
Ibid reale intesa ,
Cavalier Giovanbattista Marino dalle voci dalla disposizione
concetti
Ibid Ibid Concetti
78
de '
74 73
materia
Il
In
Borzelli
, ., ., da p p ' , . . e
72
a
of
“ a
as
"
“
concetto
74
thought Taken broadest sense synonymous with senso sentimento sentenza may thought image defined formed the intellect resemblance real thing signified these latter The specifically poetic con
."
the words and the thoughts
cosa
ARS POETICA
TO THEORY
RETURN
:
cetto " is defined in significantly altered terms : " a thought of the intellect , an image or resemblance of true things and of things which resemble the truth , formed in the fantasy . " 76 The poetic " concetto " is defined in this way in order to include the
peculiar characteristics of the art . The image produced may be of veri similar things, since verisimilitude is the proper field of operation of the poet , as compared with the orator , whose province is the true . Besides , the fantasy rather than the intellect is the productive faculty since the poet wishes to give pleasure , not to persuade, and the same imaginative powers involved in the invention of plot are concerned with the formation of “ concetti .” Indeed , there is a kind of analogy between plot -making and
-making : just as in tragedy , comedy , and the epic the digres sions must bear a necessary and probable relationship to the plot , so in the preferred genre the lyric (which is roots must have concetto the poem This same imagination differentiates the the main argument
in
its
"
“
.
of
)
its
“ concetto "
in
its ,
;
it
,
it
: “
of
,
of
of
poetry from that prose expressing conceits uses conceit Prose pure forms proper words and when expression uses metaphors and figurative language uses them rarely and with moderation whereas verse 77
superior
to
this respect
is
and
in
ordinary diction
)
the basis
of
at
(
which
is
of
.”
with greater liberty and sometimes with excessive boldness expresses conceits with figures and metaphors distant from literal meanings The faculty inventing such conceits springs from nature rather than from art
to
is is
)
“
,
,
” “
.
;
(
to
respon for prose and continue the same analogy nature sible also for the invention which makes plots Thus Pellegrino able say adapting Aristotle's dictum that the concetti are the soul and the the talent
to to :
of
in
poetry has
images
,
of
maker
by
as a
,
its
as
the civil faculty will have any case must make itself felt
it
;
as
in
no
“
he
;
in
an
as
a
itself imitation and delight qualified other end than but utility profit besides end and which considered
is
of
78
at
.
he
,
, .”
a
of
composition form poetry We have seen earlier Pellegrino's statement that the end give pleasure This reiterates various points but does not fail make concession which was current these last years the century
Ibid cose simili
of
,
In
.
,
a
, ”
, a in
." 79
“
it
if
as
un
76
or
is
by
of
through the intermediary pleasure the pleasure The immediate end best served depict the diction and the poem concetti which practical way the object the action were before our eyes
di
e
di
e
,
un
i
e
il
,
la di
,
e
fa
il
ed i
,
di
de
."
: '
: “ la
., ., p le . al .p
., ., p .p . ".
79 78
ed
ed
77
pensamento dell'Intelletto imagine simiglianza 332 cose vere vero formato nella fantasia prosa nello esprimer Ibid 336 concetti usa modi dir puri voci proprie usando metafore traslati con riguardo rado dove verso con più libertà alle volte con troppo ardire spiega suoi concetti con traslati metafore lontane dal proprio e
".
se
)
(
243
del
si
in
,
,
di
e
, il
."
e il
il
: “ la
: “
componimento 340 sono anima forma Ibid 340 Poesia considerata per stessa come Imitazione facitrice degli Idoli non abbia altro fine che diletto ma qualificata dalla Civile facoltà avrà eziandio per giovamento quale ogni modo converrà che suo fine l'utile senta per mezzo diletto Ibid
POETIC
THEORY
these “ concetti ” seem to be no more than figures of speech ; in a series of examples taken from Petrarch , Pellegrino points out how they belong to the general argument of the sonnet, how appropriate they are and how in
keeping with decorum , how they correspond to the various Ideas of Hermo genes , and to what extent they contribute beautiful and splendid orna mentation to the poem . The concluding year of the century presents two works pertinent to the Horation tradition , one of them on a general topic and the other more specific , and both of them by the same writer , Paolo Beni . The first , his De with the broad problem of literary only incidentally studies and discusses the work and the role of the poet . In addition to a conventional praise of the art , he indicates that useful studiis oratio , is concerned
ness resides
the various precepts and meanings
hidden under the fictional
.
about how
the greatest
,
of
be
to is be to
.
he
says nothing about the nature veil But these precepts the fiction containing them constructed For Beni
or
in
its
humanitatis
to
—
—
of
,
of
, is
of
he
,
—
be
:
.
to of it
so
of
problem for the poet seems provide the just style that how style measure ornamentation that the neither unadorned nor over wrought Three arts history poetry are involved here rhetoric poet and the must see that cultivates his own proper style and not those of the other two
is
,
it
of
of
at
be
one
of
,
of
in
. 80
of
,
1600
he
sustain
it
such that prose
its
order
in
,
of
and
in to
.
for the dramatic genres fully realized theory poetry
is
the quarrel over verse which achieved
better than verse
develops
also
the century Beni's contention
the last years
praestare
qua ostenditur
vinculis soluere
of
in
Beni's Disputatio metrorum
in
the principal documents is
,
of
is
treatise atque tragoediam
prominence
of
in
that the poem does not reproduce the popular exuberance history and the speech will not the restraint colored times stylistic the colors and pigments the poets
The less general comoediam
all
a
,
by or ,
so
a
to
and vigilance the orators excessively
in
Since indeed many things must frequently taken over into poetry from history and oratory and not certainly few fact from poetry into oratory difficult retain just measure them without the utmost degree care
,
as
.
a
of
a
in
it
it
,
to
of
,
it
to
a
is
of
,
This theory broadest aspects Horatian the extent that insists upon pleasure and utility determining position poetry that places the audience the ends with respect works art and that establishes central principle
Of
.
decorum
ad
ex
to
is
ad
.
“
of
.
of
,
as
he
,
80
is
the two Horatian ends Beni declares that the really important one utility and consisting sees utility moral instruction The statements unequivocal prescribe for man certain are The function the poets
)
(
244
,
&
est
ac
,
ita ut
,
."
,
,
in
;
5 : “
), ex .p
&
(
eloquentia 1600 Cum enim multa saepè Poesim historia verò Poesi non pauca sint referenda difficile profecto sine summa quadam vigilantia modum seruare industria omnibus nec popularem Oratorum vbertatem pigmentis siue etiam historiae verecundiam referat poema nec Poetarum coloribus nimis interdum coloretur oratio Oratio eloquentiam
1 ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
TO THEORY
ideal forms and models in relation to the variety of life itself and in a sense place them before his eyes , from which he may regulate his behavior and arrange
again : " In fact, this is the end proposed by tragedy
life . "81 Or
his
may leave them more circumspect, and , learning thoroughly the duties of life , may order their own conduct and may be capable of rendering themselves useful to themselves , to their friends, and finally to the whole country . " 82 To such instruction , pleasure serves only as an instrument , the honeyed glass with which the skilful physician makes the bitter potion palatable ( p . 4v ) . In order that the end and comedy , that the spectators
,
no
;
be ,
credible
,
,
decorum
if
the laws
certain and verisimilar does not the audience will
completely clear no
be
must
of
must observe
it
and
be achieved , the poem must possess
may
it
all ,
of moral instruction qualities. Above
.
in
an
of
.
its
is .
as
it in
to
he ,
of
of
do
,
,
a
,
: "
),
his
.
(
or
(
is
),
,
is
:
so to
.
if
of
in
,
in
,
them
,
.
in
to
,
it
,
or
&
,
&
Poetarum munus homini pro vitae varietate certas quasdam tanquam ante oculos ponere vnde mores componere
. "
), .p
(
does not even
est ac ,
., .p ., .p
but
3v : "
82
83
1600 formas praescribere vitam instituere
the reversal
est
fictitious characters 1v : , "
even
its
or
in
of
of
is
,
its
of
to
be
so
of be ,
Disputatio
& ac
hearing
then the audience
the drama
: “
the use
readily
the plot
which
which they appear Moreover verse will obscure the meaning that the proper lessons will not very difficult learned since verse may understand both unfamiliarity and because the result course that the not only does not take the total structure and composition
converse will deny credence
itself
to
of
speaking among themselves
audience
reality
external
utility and pleasure that Beni makes comedy We have already tragedy and utility the score verse unnatural
both ends
of
of
the light
nature
and verisimilitude significant nature
poem
),
of
internal features the comparison the poem
case against the use verse seen the essential argument people
to
of
.
in
do
The close relationship
a
or
,
guide they not observe the law decorum and they depart from nature and disturb both decorum and but
of
;
is
in
(
decorum results from
Ideas possit
,
is
of
as a
verse would
verisimilitude.'83
It
naturally speak poet who made them prose departing from nature These therefore not
since people
follow nature verisimilitude
in
create
be
speak
on
a
example
an as
opposite effect The question related for Beni the peculiar nature imitations human actions This takes narrowest really direct and unaltered representation life For
as
in , of
poems
sense
81
to an
or to
to his
of of
overshadow the utility even credibility and verisimilitude
, of , to
is
of
to
or
,
and where there
of
persuasion belief there can presented pleasure avoidance the actions On the side pleasurable poet aspects the must make sure that attractiveness the poem does not grow such extent constitute end itself not believe emulation
)
(
245
,
,
ut
:
ac
."
ac
:
2v : "
:
a
."
,
,
ac
,
propositus ille Ibid Finis enim Tragoediae Comocdiacyue Auditores inde euadant cautiores vitae officia perdiscentes componant mores sibi amicis Patriae deniquc vniucrsae prodesse valeant Ibid non Naturam Ducem sequantur isti non decorum verisimile tueantur scd Natura discedant decorum perturbent verisimile
POETIC
THEORY
so its
it
of
;
rhythm and song and
of
he
Republic
of
in
,
to
these ideas
.
the audience that they become immoral and effeminate Beni comes very close Plato certain passages the
softens the souls
In
of
ignorant audience through the constant use
,
of
all
understand the thought and the diction . ”84 On the score of pleasure , verse thought utility swaying is undesirable in two ways : it dispels
is
it
to
,
in
in
of
a
.pit as
to
of
.
as
of
because
— is
to
,
he is
If
,
of
to ,
which indeed cites The whole condemnation verse with poetry conception the ends related the audience ignorant weak and uncouth the audience the vulgar crowd the willing Beni admit verse precisely the nondramatic genres
respect
different audience The epic for himself and the Muses for those who have been exceptionally well educated the liberal arts 11v For such these the verse not only source refined enjoyment but also helps the reader remember the poem The case the lyric similar Composed not for the crowd tumultuous performance but resulting may without violating either decorum rather from careful meditation .
,
,
or
,
.
is
of
.
an it or
it
,
"
a
of
a
is
,
as
).
addressed
( or .p "
them
writes essentially
in
,
says
a
conceives
he
,
poet
.
of of
.
:
of
All
of
by
an
is
,
,
...
as
verisimilitude cultivate such additional grace verse But for the dramatic genres given the nature the audience and the circumstances performance only prose acceptable medium the best features the dramatic art are enhanced prose the use .
of
an
is
,
as
an
in
comedy and tragedy through
imitation
will understand the events and the thoughts appropriate will derive the lessons from them and will experi pleasure suitable and moderate Beni's position the dispute over entirely thus determined broader considerations the poetic art ,
in
.
a
.
of
by
verse
the audience
is a
ence
used
,
is
prose
presented
,
If
.
neither which can achieved bound down by verse 85
or
,
,
of
be
as
...
of
by
—
,
be
to -
is
,
in
in
comedy and tragedy we imitate human actions properly with prose less nay even absurdly when bound the limits verse Therefore prose practiced verse rejected since poetry imitation human they actually were done they should have been done actions either properly
by
CONCLUSIONS
of “
ad
sit
.
in be
by
in
.
se
., .p
., ." .p
in
84 85
,
of
,
of
,
to
in
-
"
It
be
way concluding this chapter the futile reiterate which the theorists and the practicing critics the last generation the their writings the standard features manifested Horatian rhetorical tradition These features should now clear and pointed case appearance out each been writers has the individual their would various ways
&
,
,
ne
&
2 : “ in
,
vt
,
fit 4 : “
intelligendum cum enim carmen tum per tum propter insolentiam populus non modò vniuersam fabulae structuram constitutionem sanè aut etiam effictos mores peripetiamue non percipiat animo sed sententiam quidem atque dictionem Tragoedia humanas actiones oratione soluta rectè car Ibid Comoedia Ibid perdifficile
,
.
,
in
."
:
,
. . . .
,
minibus adstricta minùs rectè immo praeposterè imitamur Soluta itaque oratio retinenda Siquidem Poesis est imitatio humanarum actionum vel prout adstricta repudianda est gestae sunt vel certè prout geri debuerunt quorum neutrum Comoedia aut Tragoedia efficere potest imitatio adstricta numeris )
(
246
ARS POETICA
RETURN
:
TO THEORY
It would perhaps be more useful to study in what ways these last years of the century differ from earlier periods, what new directions and what new tendencies may be discerned , what innovations seem to bear the promise of of critical thinking . The existence , in this period , of so many new treatises on individual genres - Pino and Ceruti on comedy , Tasso on the epic , Massini on the madrigal , Correa on the elegy , Talentoni , Toralto , and Crispolti on the a reorientation
sonnet - would seem to indicate the nature of one of these new tendencies . Theorists apparently now feel that what needed to be said about the text of Horace had already been said by earlier generations , that the exegesis and explication of the Ars poetica had reached a satisfactory stage ; hence
of such formal commentaries during these years . But what now needed to be done was to discover how the general principles of poetics contained in Horace could be applied to other genres not treated the very limited number
If poetics
was to be made practical ,
be
its
by him or treated only incompletely .
at a
,
be
of
,
so
be
.
of
theoretical basis must transformed into clear precepts for the compo sition the currently popular genres To sure not only Horatian principles would transferred and we shall see later time that many strongly Aristotelian treatises were written during this part the
of
.
century
of
.
in
,
of
Under the stimulus this necessity the conception the various genres grows and develops considerably Thinking about literature the terms a
of it
its
,
of
in
"
,
of
"
as
,
,
it
of
in
.
in
,
precepts
is
or
for specific genres had course long been standard already found Horace tendencies are accentu produces ated the earliest commentators and during the Middle Ages Vergil such schematizations the wheel which each the genres rules
approach Some
of
as it a
of
,
of of
-
in
to
and the ends which to
intended
If
say the epic
by
"
all
a
“
it to
as
a
theorist thinks
.
hark back earlier and exploited the
the tendencies
-
it
is
is
for which again
,
.
to
Here
theorizing about the genres the last the attempt relate the rules for the
but they are now more fully realized type grave audience addressed
of
;
is
it
approaches
the audience
serve
,
to
of
What particularly characterizes quarter the sixteenth century meant
theories
the age old
.
to
be a
.
in
notion central the whole Horatian doctrine Development the genres along these lines will thus natural outcome approaches the Horatian text
specific genre
a a
,
.
of of
,
of
,
a
to
of
it of
,
as
,
in
is ,
of
in
all
a
of
style subject matter type personage and involved specific kind style Such way with the ramifications inherent the conception thinking course closely related the notion decorum not types personages compared with their counter concerns the behavior parts reality but involves internal relationships within the poem
(
)
(
247
of
a
of
as
.
"
,
,
of
,
,
“
he
-
of
or
will associate with the multiple qualities now automatically grave style they linked almost with the And will consist subject matter persons and style but not only well host rules prosodic recommendations the late medieval prescrip and conventions the sonnet
THEORY
POETIC
tions for verse are now aggregated to the other rules for the genre ) , of descriptions of the general effect to be achieved , and of statements of the
For the ends , also , will be adapted to the character of the audience . major The ends of pleasure and instruction are still predominant in the minds of the theorists, with persuasion sometimes added as an auxiliary or ends .
That
both
,
delight
or
or
demand utility
acceptable
is ,
of of
these will
either
to as it .
as
such
is
audience
to
its
and what brand
be
decide whether
of
a means . Perhaps in these later years the preoccupation with moral instruc tion is greater than previously . For each genre , now , the problem will be to the general
,
the
as a
.
in
is
,
-
we
If
”
of
“
as
.
comedy
the
"
art
of
“
the
of
becomes
so
poetry are particularized poetry the art and forth Insofar the internal workings the poem are thus brought into relationship with audience and with audience oriented ends this Horatianism the best tradition consider theorizing about the genres refinement upon ante theories about the ends
,
be
cedent approaches then other new directions during these years will
seen
,
in
of
to it ,
"
"
of
.
a
of
a
of
,
to it .
be
of
of
to
closely related Throughout the century for example the prob style and language had been lem central one this rhetorical mode genre involved extensive treat criticism Not only had each theory appropriate style ment the particular but whole theories
of
of
of
all
,
,
, in
,
.
or of
to .
of
or
in
as
or
poetry had been constructed about differentiations among the three four they had been found Cicero the analogous rhetorical treatises Hermogenes Now Demetrius these late years further refine ments take place We have already seen for example how Giason Denores styles
his
of
its
as
of , in
;
, do
to
poetics would transfer the realm those aspects rhetoric which specifically with diction had this resulted from conviction that differing language this from the other rhetorical elements whose func peculiar domain the arousing tion was persuasion had the passions
of
to
to
res ”
an of
of
as
be
it
say that ,
”
“
to
“
,
that concern themselves with linguistic aspects verba
in
"
soul
of a
plot
or
the
"
as
from the Aristotelian
"
it
of
.
of
conceives
of
he
"
as as
.
Insofar
the emphasis
displaces
is
of
this tendency
as a
"
discernible the preoccupa peculiarly poetic form expression Giulio concetto the central organizing element
the best example he
is
,
”
“
of
"
tion with the concetto Cortese's theory the poem
exaggeration
art
special manifestation
poetry
to
tend more and more
the poetic
as a
a
is
of
Perhaps would not during this period from
.
theorists
of
.
fit an to
,
.
to
.
of to to
style being cultivated the emphasis shifts
A
of
symptomatic growing tendency pleasure This and the providing regard the distinctive features poetry special kind verse and language Thus Correa saw style reverse the usual subordination adaptation materials and see instead materials the kind
the
to ,
.
,
in
]
[
248
their approach
,
,
But others less philosophical
in
all
as a .
idea
of
”
“
a
is
or
of
”
,
given feeling
or of it
a
,
be
“
thought character the moralists the the pure rhetoricians To poetry and Cortese sure the conceit not purely linguistic element for one thinks device for organizing the materials pertinent see
ARS POETICA it only
:
RETURN
TO THEORY
of speech and consider it frankly at the level of diction . of the stress upon matters of diction may spring from the fact believe that the larger matters of poetic form have been satis
as a figure
Indeed , some
that theorists factorily solved
- or on the other hand that they are insoluble , and hence the poet can do no better than to attend to the virtuoso handling of his medium . I should point out that there is no single statement to this effect
and that the tendency is not even implicit in very many documents . But directions and occasional signs in critical thinking lead one to believe that such a hypothesis is tenable . Such thinking may account for the raising of the question , this time overtly, as to whether the poetic genres are " regulated " or " free .” The thesis of regulation , predominant in the early years of the century , when critics were eager to discover exact rules for the composition of each literary type , seems now to be under attack , in part because of the current literary quarrels , which had introduced doubts about such major forms as the epic and tragedy , in part because contemporary poets were practicing successfully a large variety of kinds sometimes in violation and frequently in variation
of
the accepted
rules . Hence , some theorists are willing
to
propose a doctrine in which genres are broadly characterized by a category
of subject matter and a general effect , and to permit great liberty in the working out both of internal poetic structure and prosodic detail . Here , again , the tendencies are little more than incipient , and it should not be thought that Italian critics are about to abandon a “ classical ” position in favor of the freedoms and excesses of “ romanticism .” They might, indeed , have done so , had not the influence of French classicism in the following century brought about a reversal of trends. On the whole , these last years the century mark a broadening , within the Horatian tradition , of the scope of critical inquiry , some loosening of tight systematic distinctions , and occasional prying into the psychological and linguistic factors that underlie a theory of diction .
of
[ 249 ]
CHAPTER SEVEN OF POETRY
NLIKE
PLATONISM
.
THOSE RENAISSANCE
THE DEFENCE
I.
:
who attached
CRITICS
to
themselves
Horace's Ars poetica or to Aristotle's Poetics as the basis for their critical thinking , the Platonic critic was essentially a man without a text . I mean by this that he was unable , as were his compeers , to derive his critical doctrine point by point from a central text , to concentrate his efforts of exegesis and commentary and interpretation upon that text , to discover within it the answers host artistic and technical ques Poetry tions For there no Art Plato no single treatise the notion
of
(
,
to
in
)
its
all
to
of
its
all
find collected specific art
to
itself alien the Platonic approach which one might the total theory the philosopher with respect this
is
”
“
of
is
.
of
treatise
by a
all
U
.
.
in
of
set
an
all -
,
of
in
a
to
his
,
of
,
a
in
ramifications and ultimate deductions Lacking document the Platonic critic the sixteenth century was obliged upon base Platonism scattered dicta various dialogues These dicta provided principles about literature they general were such that implications without examining detail their for the practice the art and the critic who used them possessed rather inclusive attitude such
in
.
and
of
the needs
inspiration
.
of
or
to it
by
,
contracted
—
poetry
,
or
Plato's ideas expanded
truth
the divine forces
on
or to
it
,
art
to
in
or
,
the
was related
ideal society
changed
these contexts
total evaluation
how
on -
,
but
real
, of
As
a
education
in
poem
or
beautiful
an in
in
of
it .
to
of
in
a
of of
precepts and rules toward poetry than firm body poetry not relationship Plato himself had seen the art itself but required various contexts which consideration He was interested not the practice the art the means which achieved the
his
sometimes
became more positive ,
a
of
in
all
an
at
to
he
,
to
of
,
.
.
his
in or
more negative took new orientations This was course entirely keeping with separation general method Rather than establishing among the sciences and treating each one terms the principles proper only preserve itself chose times the manifold relationships as
at
or
:
of
)
is is
it he
,
by
,
in
(
,
the Phaedrus 245A 265B and other dialogues Plato had declared but divine inspiration that he
to
by
that the poet produces not
of art
lesser way
of
,
of
in
several passages
by
and
a
),
(
534
. in In
The divine furor the lon
.
of
to
on
as
of
within
,
undifferentiated and unanalyzed reality least the moment his inquiry were pertinent them poetry the critics Of Plato's various dicta the art the Renais sance were interested primarily the following ones present
many
,
)
”
,
of his
he , is
250
able
to
a
is
of
or
for this reason that (
is
It
534
).
lon ,
(
"
,
or
.
of
a
frenzy and that when speaks moved the Muses state really the voice the gods and not his own voice that speaks within him really more than man and possessed The poet thus mad works God man but divine and the work the work are not human
bestow immortality upon
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
the various ways
by .
Of
in
a
of
),
;
a
,
he
,
of
,
in in
is
this sense
the
of
;
imitation
,
of
.
of
in
or
of
of
between the two procedures Otherwise stated
equivalent Republic 595
ff .
,
,
in
,
he
,
in
.
In
,
(
of
,
in
.
III
,
to
be
in
which the term imitation was used eminently useful Renaissance Plato two especially were found criticism First Book the Republic 394 Plato had divided narration into three types simple narration imitation and mixture story the two the first the poet spoke only his own voice telling person the second assumed the one another his characters and spoke through the voice that character the third alternated .
Imitation
to
art is
those whose deeds he sings . The poet who lacks such inspiration and who failure doomed to write merely according to the rules of
attempts
an
as
X
,
is
imitation by
that hence
,
he
his
, he
of
imitates
These ideas were used the describe the relationship between imitation 602
).
” (
or
the one hand
to
Renaissance
on on
a
of
of
he ,
at
is
right opinion the object which merely play sport kind
“
,
.
a ff .) ,
of (
presentation dramatic form Second Book the Plato had developed the argument that the poet appearances rather than calls Ideas those realities which imitator several removes from the truth that has neither knowledge nor
to
of
in .
of
as
or
an
,
he
of
be
had concluded that since poetry teaches false tales about the gods since
,
He
of
in
.
to
.
of
,
and reality the other hand discredit the imitative process poets The banishment the Since the Republic Plato was primarily relationships poetry concerned with the the education the future citizens and guardians the State had examined the various ways which the art might harmful beneficial instrument instruction
of
its
its
granted
admission the ideal State Rather should the poets except those who write hymns the gods and praises famous men banished Books III The point specifically pedagogical considering view and moral does the
X )
it
as
.
,
.
the young These ideas )
the Middle Ages
all
times
in
of
,
at
the Renaissance
they had been
on
of
poems upon the moral fiber ( as
in
ultimate effects became
II,
(
be
,
is
of
of
.
,
, it
should not
to to
of
occasion for their expression
be
it
,
by
at
is
it
to
an
as
,
it
render the soul effeminate through use soft strains and rhythms since many removes from the truth through very nature providing the imitation since feeds the passions the soul tends
of
by
in
of
.
of
-
-
or
it
of
bare juxtaposition
to
to of
and placed
to
.
to
in do
to
.
to
largely reply Plato What the Renaissance frequently failed realize about Plato's varied positions with respect poetry was that they not necessarily represent spent inconsistencies Hence much effort was the attempt reconcile only they ideas that are irreconcilable when are torn from their context a
Cinquecento
is on by
it
,
to
of
,
of
of
poetry and one the principal sources the attack Renaissance theorists felt themselves obliged deal with Plato's banishment the way way poets either accepting much more frequently rejecting poetry the basis other criteria The defence the
.
)
(
251
,
,
of
in
in
,
,
one another Returned their contexts seen the light the presuppositions and the conditions which surround them they are perfectly understandable consistent and reference
POETIC “
THEORY
true. ” But it was not in the spirit of Renaissance
see ideas in this way , and critics proceeded
fragmentation , separation , and isolation
intellectual method to by way
here as elsewhere
of
They were content with the
.
all
individual dictum - sometimes merely derived from the oral tradition with out any reference to the original texts —and with an acceptance or rejection of the dictum by itself . This fact, added to the absence of a central basic text, accounts for the extreme fluidity of the Platonic position in Renais
,
;
an
it
or
an
a
it
of
,
as
sance criticism . The position is found joined and combined with other possible attitudes introduced accompaniment addendum when provides the point departure for given theorist trails off into some a
In
.
,
.
of
.
of in
to
,
or
in of
,
as
to
of
generalization gives way other mode the details the poetic art very real sense there are hardly any true Platonists among literary theori practising critics cians the sixteenth century And when they are found they are Platonist their total philosophical outlook and this poetry reflects itself their total approach a
, by
,
on
.
,
-
in
,
In
the case Horace Renaissance critics inherited tradition inter pretation which had begun the late classical period and had persisted with some additions through the Middle Ages For Plato this was not
As
in
.
is a
an
by
,
,
of
of
,
of
.
of
poetry true Whereas there had been some use made his strictures churchmen the medieval period for the most part his writings became significant documents for literary discussion only with the rise the great Platonic commentators and philosophers the Quattrocento com pared with Horatianism then Platonism relatively new force literary
of
free the
not the
to
in
position related
.
in
of
a
tradition only because they manifest critical mode the central problems Platonism literature
or
.
,
in
.
of
,
,
relatively unencumbered ancient reading and relatively for the inquiring lucubrations the Renaissance mind Many theorists and critics who will appear the following discussion were truly Platonists nor was Plato their immediate source They belong theory
QUATTROCENTO DOCUMENTS is
of
to
be
so
,
of
ex
6,
II,
,
&
of on
is
its
in ,
to
,
.”
he
.
in
of in
the Republic possible moral effects general the framework the state disagree young But about the banishment Plato with tends
sint
a
chapter Book dis qui legendi quique theatris Patrizi here considering poetry
the work contains
eorum virtutibus
Like Plato
,
, of in
this kind had advanced before 1500. The first Francesco Patrizi Bishop ,
Poetis
1494
;
in
cussion
De
who died
,
Gaeta
exigendi
of
which thinking
the De institutione reipublicae et
these
“
of
the state
is to
of
, it
in
in
Although our concern exclusively with Platonism the present study the Cinquecento would perhaps instructive examine two typical documents the Quattrocento that we may have some appreciation
the the
to
]
[
252
to
he
,
,
,
a
in
:
,
of
of
.
a
of
Citing Cicero and Strabo support points out the his thesis multiple utilities poet philosopher the art The like first leads men know about the proper way life teaches them what they need poets
PLATONISM passions and customs
men . He provides the grammarian with the best
of
all
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
is
,
to
of
and hence
able
combine human and to
of
.
in
,
and upon divine inspiration divine matters his works
he is
,
,
.
,
,
of
especially that which language elegant and kinds disciplines ornate and beautiful Unlike other which derive from art doctrine and precepts the functioning the poet depends upon nature
of
examples
a
:
for
.
,
,
of
poetry Patrizi passes From this general defence consideration genres separate First the drama usefulness their relative and the
,
be
The story
of
[
their meaning
.
virtue much more readily
,
to
,
led
by
selves
to
to
be
of
,
.
be ,
to
by
no
means
,
utility but partly also for pleasure which exist partly repudiated Children must taught and those things which otherwise they could with difficulty conceive they accept through the enticements fictions and they easily bring them mind and they allow them
Fictional inventions
are
to
be
,
all
of
to
do
.
...
It of
all
,
I
...
of
.
to
.)
of
Hercules Stories this kind instruct the young and make them more disposed desire praise However not wish assume the defence fictions praising types tragedy should the extent them Indeed almost ex
be
a
it
to
;
it
is
.
cluded from the best city not without reason that tragedy should hissed off the stage from every civil spectacle for has within certain exces sive violence mixed with despair which readily changes stupid men into madmen frenzy.1 and drives the unstable
off much
better
:
does comedy come
Nor
in
,
of
,
to
,
of
.
.
it
of
It
be
performed public spec does not please me either that comedy should corrupts the mores tacles For men and makes them effeminate and drives comedy for the most part them towards lust and dissipation ... For the plots seeing them affords concern adultery and rapes and the habit the spectator
by
the license for changing for the worst.2
specifically
,
it
.
;
the scabrous and even obscene
each case
the criterion
to
it
praises virtue and blames vices
,
In
uses
an .
which the & ad
.
ethical one .pp
referred
sometimes
ed .) ,
it
which
is
genre
is
language
in
be
generally desirable since found expressed regard caution must
to
,
,
,
, all is
to of , be on
is
but
a
it
.
—
of
in
be
Comedy may read scholars the privacy their studies and essentially for the linguistic interest rather than for the actions represented Epic poetry highly recommended presents the other hand since great heroes with the figures the virtues they represent As for satire
.
in
&
,
.
,
-
: “
...
.
, &
ad
,
ad
,
,
ad
i
(
De institutione reipublicae 1534 xxviv xxvii Fabularum inuentio partim delectationem neu uam repudienda est Docendi sunt pueri vtilitatem partim autem quę vix alioqui cogitare possent fabularum illecebris accipiunt facile memoriam redigunt earumque sensu virtutem longe magis diriguntur Eiusmodi fabulae adoles promptiores optandam laudem reddunt centes instituunt Non tamen fabularum
...
ex
.
,
ex
,
se
.
in
. . . .
ab
vt
vsque adeo patrocinium suscipere volo omnes laude afficere velim Nam tragoedia pene optima ciuitate omnis extrudenda est Nec immerito explodenda est omni ciuili spectaculo tragoedia Habet enim violentiam quandam nimiam mistam desperationi
...
"
.
in
&
,
,
,
ad
&
.”
)
(
253
&
,
ex ,
.
in
,
: “
,
...
...
lo ,
.
2
.,
.p
quae facile stultis insanos reddat leues furorem compellat spectaculis etiam recitari non placet Corrumpit Ibid xxvii Comoediam nanque hominum mores eosque effoeminatos reddit luxuriamque libidinem com pellit parte adulteria stupra continent Comoediarum nanque argumenta magna quocirca spectandi con mutandi etiam licentiam facit
POETIC
THEORY
One peculiar feature of Patrizi's remarks is his defence of the ancient against their banishment by Plato and against their exclusion by
poets
,
."
is 3
Moreover
of
of
,
making they ridiculed the pagans the very stupid opinions the people about
the gods and their vain and foolish superstitions the Christian apologist
by
...
, of
false gods their stories
of
humiliating sport them
: “
in the
Christian apologists. From the point of view of the Christian , the ancient poets rendered a real service to the cause of the true religion by deriding and
the wish
to
of
of
,
of
be
.
of
,
,
as
to
in
be
we
As
is .
to
his
.
to
literary problems similar approach century the fifteenth Antonio Mancinelli
a
represents
to
,
as
of as
of
heretical unfounded for before the coming Christ God was unknown all men and the philosophers ignorance erred much the poets their Him For these reasons the antiquity should forgiven their errors and men should poets allowed read them shall discover later the point view the apologist frequently very close Christian that the Platonist and exclude them
is
.
is
Strabo
-
Theophrastus
,
mores
and
against Catholic accusations
by
:
it
then defends
the betterment
—
poetry
of
role
in
of
.
on
a
in
of
of
a
all ,
at
,
.
a
on
,
et
ad
,
in
published Also De poetica virtute really not impellente studio humanitatis bonum This poetry quotations from Greek and treatise but collection poets arrangement Latin Yet the order and these quotations itself significant and the prefatory materials state typical attitude toward the art The dedicatory epistle quotes the customary ancient authorities the
.
it
;
in
also
of it
the civilizing
:
to
,
so
,
in
If
the contribution
;
held
the esteem which certain poets antiquity they were regarded
,
,
of
ac
de
.
of
.
us ,
of
a
is
is a
fact say that poetry ,
,
a in
us
to in
kind first philosophy which brings living which teaches the mores and the passions the art pleasant way teaches our duty Later writers declare that only the wise man For these reasons the cities the Greeks from the very earliest
The ancients from youth
which poet
the divine
be
insists
which they should
that they had made philosophy poetry man was the first was because
on
"
Laus
.
all
by
,
of
were held
of in
“
the Poetarum examples
the time honored
especially Homer
,
4
section
poets and the reverence -
repeats
of
subsequent
spiration
....
on
the finest things
,
in
of
of
by
be
to
I
.
of
A
,
be
to
on
,
,
wrongfully damned seem therefore certain people espe the grounds that they draw away from the Catholic faith those who are unwary shall truly show this false the words the selfsame poets For we shall find them the ten commandments the law and we shall see that they damn and prohibit the seven deadly sins and that they likewise teach many
The poets
cially
:
in . Id a
,
,
eis : “
,
.
)
(
254
;
ipsis reperiemus septem quoque Decem nanque legis praecepta prohibere videbimus Plurima item quam optima edocere
damnare
&
mortalia uitia illos
&
.
poetarum uerbis ostendam
-
.pp ."
a
),
( ca.
: “
., .p
De
*
3
dijs opiniones vanasque Ibid xxv stultissimas gentium fatuas superstitiones fabularum ludibrio contempserunt poetica virtute quibusdam damnari videntur 1490 aliv aiii Iniuria igitur praesertim quod inuigilantes equidem ego falsum eorundem catholica fide remoucant
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
its
PLATONISM
times instructed their children in poetry , assuredly not for
gross pleasure but
for its chaste moderation.s
it
on
.
of
be
It
(
of
.
is
at
of
is
”
. he )
he
“
of
its
,
is
in
of
poetry are adduced support Other uses the argument Mancinelli's position essentially moralistic placing whatever emphasis can the pleasure utility poetry rather than on will noted that the inextricably mingled with the thinking Horatian utile dulci the Platonists When arrives the anthology which the main purpose (
—
,
,
.
)
—
,
he a
of
provides series headings religious and ethical for the most his work part under which gives brief prose introductions themselves quotations from ancient authors and then pertinent selections from the ancient poets The ten commandments the seven deadly sins and other similar categories
.
,
of
.
.
of
,
to
as a
is
,
it
.
to
of
is
of
”
“
of
organization for the passages quoted Clearly furnish the basis the quality poetry that alone sententious concern the editor Two distinguished humanists whose lives span the turn the century may serve transition the criticism the Cinquecento proper They are Giovanni Francesco Pico della Mirandola and Battista Mantovano
of
-
et in
,
works which date from the late Quattrocento expresses violently antipoetic view which the best neo Platonic is is
a
pair
of
a
,
in
Pico point
followed
,
,
,
,
in
of
a
satiety and complete
rejection
so
by
,
:
of
.
,
to
,
to
of
he
VI ,
.
I,
In
manhood
, of .
The first work his De studio divinae humanae philosophiae chapter Book discusses the relationship the various kinds ancient writings divine philosophy and finds that whereas physics logic geometry and metaphysics have some affinity divine scripture arith metic and poetry have much less He cites his own experience which parallels that many others poetry love childlıood and early tradition
of
I
I
I
is
is
,
.
by
be
to
in
of
I
to
philosophy and sacred letters completely But after had devoted myself poetry that scarcely opened the books renounced the delights the poets three times five years because was drawn away from them and felt my soul softened them But what more detestable that most poets mixed
by
their plots they
.
of
,
of
to
of
for which reason Isidore writes that Christians are forbidden
read the fancies the poets because through the delights excite the mind the provocations lust to
him .
,
,
;
ness and obscenities
by
be
to
by a
be
to
,
into their verses the greatest wickednesses and impurities which are not only not utterly expelled touched Christian but are You will not easily find many poems otherwise beautiful which are not made foul filthi
: :
:
in
." :
&
ad
:
:
&&
ut : “
fi
pp . fy -
),
ab
:
(
In
255
]
[
."
:
.
6
:
.
ab
.
:
ad
: “
.p
.,
ab
s
Antiqui uerò poeticam primam philosophiam quandam esse perhibent Ibid aivv quae ineunte nos aetate uiuendi rationes adducit que mores que affectiones edoceat quae res gerendas cum iucunditate precipiat Posteriores uero solum poetam ipsum sapien ipso primordio eorum liberos tem esse asseruerunt Quamobrem graecorum ciuitates poetica erudierunt non nude utique uoluptatis sed caste moderationis gratia philosophiam De rerum praenotione 1506–7 Sed postquam sacras litteras me contuli adeo illis remisi nuncium nec poetarum libros toto quinquennio ter forte aperuerim quandoquidem illis trahi animum emolliri sentiebam Sed quod est detestabilius plerique poetarum turpitudines maximas obscenitates suis uersibus immis cuerunt Quae christiano homini non modo attrectanda sed prorsus eliminanda Nec temerè multos inuenies qui pulchra alioquin poemata spurcitijs libidinibusque non foedauerint Quare scribit Isidorus ideo christianis prohiberi legere figmenta poetarum quia per oblecta menta fabularum excitant mentem ad incentiua libidinum
POETIC THEORY
to
its
Pico sees in this same corrupting influence of poetry the reason why Plato banished the poets from his republic . In the following chapter, Pico explains why in the early days of Christianity certain very holy men not only made use of pagan literature themselves but recommended use ,
,
in
its
he
-
of
;
on
.
,
others The circumstances however are not now the same and one should prefer Christian poetry religious themes this will have the greatest possible superiority over pagan poetry the superiority subject matter
believes
.
&
,
premisses
its
its
in
"
“
is
,
is
,
,
,
false
and
:
.
to
happiness The statement conclusions
,
, a
in
of
III
,
.
In
in
,
is
be
equally eloquent language and may question again The same examined but somewhat different light disciplinae Pico's Examen vanitatis doctrinae gentium veritatis chapter Christianae Book III this work Pico answers the claim useful for life and leads that poetry along with history and grammar
... for men
to
is
as
at
or
more inclined
to
be
to
;
be
and another may
,
in
,
in
in at
,
of
,
,
than another vices.7
let
derive from the poets occasions for evil not less significant for vice since the poets wrote different ways and one time they easy loose the reins the vices another they held them check see for anyone who takes them hand although one may more prone virtue than for virtue
narrating
praising the
is
he
,
of of
,
the past
:
is
, in
either What does know that the poets have frequently provided examples for undesirable activity .
is
of
art
In for
to
no
he it is
,
to he
of .
to
,
so
to
,
to
In
distinguish poet from poet and passage from passage the reader order poetics must appeal the philosopher that Pico the whole specifically subordinated philosophy the statement that chal utility and lenging Pico finds happiness and hence clear definitions impossible judge properly poetry's contribution believes that
to
,
in
of
of
to
in
on
a
;
it
,
of
to
in
,
in
many believe that Epicurus drew from Homer his idea that the greatest good pleasure that many found the excuse for irreligion Euripides that many lies sought impure and lewd loves and Alcaeus and Anacreon instigation lives anger were imbibed drunkenness and there are some who hold that precepts from Archilochus and Hipponax and would take long time enumerate the particular cases which some foolhardy men have fallen account those
Pico's judgments ex
ed .) ,
Ethical and religious criteria are inextricably mingled
in
. 8
things which they had falsely learned from the poets
,
&
,
in
,
si
sit
&
:
ab , in
ab
Impuri
obscoeni amoris
."
&
,
,
:
&
Alcaeo Anacreonte multos petisse Iracundiae praecepta longum esset percensere singula quibus bibisse sunt qui uelint quae apud Poëtas perperam didicissent ea
)
256
(
&
&
aliqui praecipites inierunt
in
,
&
ex
&
,
: "
Euripide multos impietatis habuisse occasionem
ebriosae uitę fomenta Hipponacte Archilocho
ob
,
est
,
ut
,
ad
,
II .” ex ,
.,
8
uoluptate
ut
: "
II,
ad
(
In
ad 7
Opera omnia 1573 938 non minores enim malorum occasiones Poëtis qui uitia quam uirtutes trahunt homines uariè scripserunt modò uitijs habenas quis eos laxarunt modò eas compescuerunt facilè uidere manus sumpserit tametsi alio alius uirtutem propensior alius alio inclinatior uitia uel narranda uel extollenda Ibid 939 multi existiment Epicurum Homero traxisse summum bonum esse
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
of the art of poetry , and , hence , those judgments bear almost solely upon the implications of subject matter for the lives of the reader . About
1505 , Battista Mantovano wrote a letter to Pico in praise of one poems ; the terms of praise show a clear critical position : of his
Since you have written a poem in a scrupulous , eloquent , and learned fashion , can neither praise nor admire it sufficiently . For it has wit and charm without effeminacy and lewdness , and it gives pleasure not as Flora does, but as Diana ; not as Venus, but as Minerva ; combining, in the way prescribed by Horace , utility
I
and beauty with pleasure . Obscene and lewd poems , in my opinion , bear the same relationship to true poems as do wanton prostitutes to honest matrons . I , indeed , do not deem a poem to be a true poem and one capable of withstanding every
...
censure unless it be serious , pure , and holy . Nor should we listen to the soft and effeminate poets , for whom nothing is savoury if it is not base , impure , cor
rupt, and malodorous
. . . . This poem of yours is like a river which grows as it along , flows and which the more it advances the more beautiful , the more pleasant , the more grand it appears , which is a sign of a very great talent . It is, say , the sign of a very great talent , such as does not weaken with exercise , but gathers
I
strength from effort.9
Moral and religious considerations are uppermost ; but there is also respect for the pleasure to be combined with utility and for the artistic strength of the work , which represents the poet's genius . It is significant that in one of the passages not quoted here Battista cites the verse of Horace ( Ars poetica 310 : “rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae " ) that indicates that the poet is to use the philosopher as his source .
CINQUECENTO HUMANISTS
, G. F.
,
he
of
this long line ;
device a
:
to
of
In
once
to
pedagogical
insistence upon allegorical interpretation relates him medieval expositors and his fellow Platonists
at
allegory
as a
length the power
of
at
develops
to
his
In contrast with Pico's passionate abuse of the art of poetry , Lodovico Ricchieri (Caelius Rhodiginus ) presents a moderate estimate in his Lectionum antiquarum libri XXX of 1516. Book IV of the work is devoted to a defence and discussion of poetry . The defence is made in terms almost identical with those used by Mancinelli: poetry as a first philosophy , as a teacher to youth of a way of life . But Ricchieri also insists on the character of the poet as a good and wise man and makes a case for the priority of verse over prose . In effort discern the major usefulness the art
ut :
,
ut
, , ac
.
."
)
(
257
, .
&
...
,
.
sit
est
,
,
,
,
.
&
,
,
, &
...
: “
), .p
&
,
,
,
.
&
,
ut
,
ac
,
,
(
,
&
,
ac
:
ut
&
9
Epistolarum libri quattuor 1506–7 Pico della Mirandola Fvv Poema quod religiose eloquenter neque laudare neque admirari satis possum docte conscripsisti leporem impudicitia Habet enim sine mollitie salem delectat non Flora sed Diana non Venus sed Minerua miscens quemadmodum praecipit Horatius dulcedini pulchritudinem impudica sunt iudicio meo inter uera utilitatem Poëmata obscoena poemata quales inter probas matronas fornicariae meretrices Ego enim poema uerum Nec quod omne punctum ferre possit esse non puto nisi graue castum sanctum purulen audiendi sunt poetae molles effoeminati quibus nihil sapit nisi turpe impurum tum olidum Poema hoc tuum simile fluuio qui currendo crescit quo magis procedit uidetur uenustius dulcius grandius quod indicium fortioris ingenij Fortioris inquam ingenij quod exercitio non flacescat sed laborando uires acquirat
POETIC
THEORY
But if profound matters are veiled and concealed in the outward covering of the fictions , and hidden as in the most secret sanctuaries , you must know that this is invention proper to poetry and among the ancients also that habit of fanci ful invention has long since grown strong . ... With such fictions as these, it seems to me , we should from the start form and , so to speak, “ delineate " our youth
of
is
all
it
as
is
,
most sweet and
in
,
is
experienced are most avid for what new which pleasant and not lacking the marvelous.10
in
of
by by a
us
on to it
us ,
all of
from tenderest childhood . For this animal , prudent and wise and possessed of reason , whom we call man , wishes , through a kind of internal drive , to know , and is hungry for knowledge ; and the poetic fiction is the first stimulus to such learn ing, especially since it remains unexpressed and vague and seems always to sug gest some other matter . Thus spurred kind natural force
all
to
of
be
to
on
an
by us
it
in a
Ricchieri
.
course apparent
to
poetry are
of
use
of
such
a
The dangers
of
.
,
of
.
,
,
us ,
ready and delightful answer thus poetry provides this knowledge especially youth may give thirst for and the roots giving arts and disciplines Ricchieri demonstrates his point alle gorical interpretation insisting the Aeneid the lessons learned from this way
For
to if
,
a
,
it
,
be
?
,
to an
to
is
,
he be
.
to it ,
,
,
or
If
or
reprehensible actions and the penetrate within ignorance spectator through youth the unable allegorical meanings what will Obviously the result undesirable says care must moral conclusion To prevent taken see that only plots young presented virtuous are the and was such concern that the fictional envelope contains wicked
a
:
a
for
.
of
lay behind Plato's banishment the poets But here Ricchieri makes commonplace among the apologists poetry distinction that became
,
their praises
of
celebrating elegantly and eloquently
to
heroes
in
,
moral improvement their hymns
or
to
he
to
he
in
to
be
;
by
to
these we must note carefully that the poets are not con outright demned Plato since the degree which holds that they rejected when they disturb the state and invent shameful things should that same degree embraces them and kisses then tenderly when they exhort
But with respect
the gods.11
of
of
res
10
.
of
it
to
of
,
is a
poetry Plato's ban thus limited one affecting not the whole the art only practices consequences but those which would lead undesirable for the state With these restrictions upon the activity the poet Ricchieri ,
. . . .
,
,
,
eo
,
,
,
,
iis
,
,
,
ut
,
,
ac
,
&
,
id
si
: “
), .p
Et , ( &
.
profundae conuelantur Lectionum 1516 156 Quod fabularum inuolucris obtegunturque scire conuenit esse poetices ferè Sanctariis secretioribus reconduntur uero germanum Veteribus quoque illum irroborasse pridem confingendi morem delineandague imprimis tenerior aetas formanda sic dicam uidetur Quoniam animal sagax intimo quodam rationis compos quem uocamus hominem hoc prouidum impetu scire desyderat estğue cognationis auidum Cuius fomentum primum fabula est
&
id
ad
,
,
concelebratis 258
, à
,
,
,
ad
." 1
facundeque
)
,
hymnis eleganter
(
,
, și
,
Deorum
,
."
iis
: “
in
,
., .p
11
,
ui ,
.
,
imprimis argumento quod indicta inscitaque alias profert Sumus autem nos proue nouitatis omnes perauidi quod praedulcis haec sentiatur hente naturali quadam iucunda nec admiratione careat Ibid 158 Sed illud impense animaduertendum non damnari prorsum aut turpia fingunt reiiciendos putat Platone Poetas Siquidem quantum ubi perturbant bonam frugem hortentur laudibus heroum aut tantundem amplexatur exosculaturque
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
sacrifice
stimu
becomes
the demons
”
“
made
to
to
a
since through them
sense
is
,
the poets
and
,
of
seek pleasure
in
lated
,
to
frequently the fictions
he
,
,
its
would agree , and he sees two agencies as capable of exercising the control, the church and the philosopher . The church , through canonical decrees for example has declared that the good Christian should not read too
of
:
of
be
,
a
In
).
(
of .p
160 more general way the writing the poet and the interpreting his works should under the watchful supervision the philosopher ,
in
by
as
by
at
)
if
by a
of
( as
by
,
—
. 12
its
in
be a
succeeds
forces itself upon the very reason and after extending dominion even farther
it,
is
living example placed before
having trod upon
it
a
of
of
,
of
,
by
to
an ...
philosophy who administer those who are skilled one must have recourse allegory the outer cloaks the fables and hav antidote having explained ing used the curative powers their precepts which means brake the enticements the pleasures are restrained and the same time the violence reading the passions diminished which excited for the most part
one
on
.
in
,
of
philosophy and poetry The ideal solution would combination which poets were philosophers and philosophers were poets
in
.
be a
by is
of
; a
of
no
is
is
in
is
:
in
.
of
,
be
to
of
,
poetry moreover extend beyond the simple con Ricchieri's ideas sideration the moral ends served He attacks the problem imitation and discovers that there are really two types one which every thing representation invented and there truth second which represented the truth the garb fictional narrative The second ,
of
of
,
.
by
or
on
in
”
“
called narratio fabulosa and may treated either two ways treating profound subjects completely acceptable philosophical and religious grounds admitting reprehensible matters Once again the ,
of
the pleasure which
to
to ).
Ricchieri does not fail call attention representations ugly objects accurate even ,
connection with imitation we
In
-
( .p
is
subject matter and obviously the distinction that between two kinds philosopher critic will tolerate only the first kind 158
he
us
to
of
to art
.
in
we
his
to
,
a
we
),
( he is
in
find apparently following Aristotle here statement which adds the warning that must not allow this kind admiration deceive poems He follows Aristotle again into accepting everything that find
of
in
;
of
,
.
of
of
he
, of of
of of or in
art
,
in
solution the problem versus nature the poet and the poets according differentiation their characters Ricchieri believes divine inspiration but also believes that the characters men good poetry they will write He reduces questions bad determine what kind ,
,
to
he
in
In
.
to
to
of
rhythms used the types various genres and the elements poetry style proper the latter connection cites Horace Cicero and
... decurrendumque
,
.
ad
12
is
of
as
of
Dionysius such rhetoricians Halicarnassus On the whole Ricchieri's position much more eclectic than that the other Platonists whom we Philosophiae
,
,
, ,
,
259
]
[
.”
&
,
,
,
: “
., p .
160
,
non ignaros Qui antipharmacum uelaminibus adhibitaque praeceptorum salubritate quibus Voluptatum adlubentia quodam uelut sufflamine reprimatur atque item impetus qui lectione tanquam exemplo proposito deferuescat perturbationum plerunque concitatior ingerit sese rationi illa exculcata latius affectat dominari Ibid
propinent explicatas per allegorias fabulamentorum
THEORY
POETIC
have studied thus far . He goes beyond the usual praise or blame
—
,
of
all
of poetry ; but when he does so he finds himself largely outside the Platonic context and is obliged to appeal to other masters . In his De incantationibus ( 1520) , Pietro Pomponazzi displays a much more restricted view of the whole problem of poetics , but one which is essentially favorable to the art . His concern is with two questions , that of the divine furor and that of allegory . For the first , he accepts fully the ancient statements about the divine inspiration the poet about the essential opposition between reason and poetry the poet really does not as
he
-
,
“
un
:
of
of
Plato
is
,
“
(
”
The rhetorical bias
of ad
).
the Horatians
.
.p
to
of
,
297
or
be
to
It
of
is
to
animos demulcendum the usual theory ”
&
“
it
.
of
its as a
,
dum
here very close
in
Poetry has the particular virtue instructing abstract through may quoted images matters the use material thus used supplementary device whenever persuade because necessary capacity fortify and caress the minds the listeners firman ." 13
punishment
of of
byto
as
,
be
so
to
us
to
of
.
of
he is
writing about the poets know what instruments and interpreters gods the For the second starts from the assumption that there are important truths hidden under the fables the poets ... they invent those fables lead the truth and that we may instruct the educated masses who must led the good and drawn away from evil just children are led and drawn the hope reward and the fear
to
be
incapable
is
.
of . It
resisting
these influences
,
,
the young reader
of of
he is
,
will Hence .
he
to ,
is
in
in
of of
is
(
)
is
to
,
a
to
which belongs roughly this concerned with the role that bishop should assign poetry the education the young And the very churchman finds that the rhetorical attractions which Pomponazzi spoken dangers greatest poetry had constitute the resident because divinely inspired because his works are full charms and the poet sway the souls enticements that able his readers whichever way its
Gasparo Contarini's De officio episcopi period although exact date unknown
of
by
be
,
of
:
to
in
of
to
on ,
)
(
"
of
.
in
allowed read him Contarini finds that especially his allowing youth full access own time men err the works the poets he the bishop should absolutely not permit the minds the young corrupted writings poets and from childhood the lascivious should not
In
In
,
it
." 14
be
men
to
better for
,
of
deems
all
the whole
it
he
but
on
in
13
14
,
Vergil
to
,
,
in
;
to
in
if
;
to
be
in in
this kind for they drink them their tender years impossible age will next for them their mature called back better moral behavior which matter our own time ... sins greatly Contarini can see some profit the reading certain poets especially other writers
read Christian &
&
,
meliorem frugem reuocentur
,
ad
:
260
si à
ab
."
maturiori ętate peccatur
)
... magnopere
(
vt in
,
ut
,
in
à ut
,
ad
: "
,
&
,
,
re
in
;
imbiberint impossibile prope erit nostris temporibus
." & ,
), .p
, ) , .p
: "
(
(
Opera 1567 201 nam illa fingunt ueritatem ueniamus rude uulgus quod inducere oportet pueri inducuntur instruamus bonum malo retrahere retrahuntur scilicet spe premij timore poenae Opera 1571 425 non permittat statim ineunte aetate puerorum animos quas coeterorumque huiusmodi auctorum lasciuiis corrumpi poetarum teneris annis
qua
PLATONISM
:
DEFENCE OF POETRY
writings . Presumably , as so frequently with these antagonists of the art , the term “ poet ” refers specifically , if not exclusively , to the pagan poets of antiquity , and some , at least , of the objection to them is on theological grounds . The Libro de natura de amore of Mario Equicola ( 1525 ) has been studied in connection with Horace's Ars poetica . It should be mentioned again , briefly , because of several passing references to Plato's ban on the poets and to exceptions that Equicola would make to the general interdict . Dante , for one , fits the category of those poets who , according to Plato , the ignorant multitude to a knowledge of high matters ” ( p . 5v ). The high matters taught by Dante in his hendecasyllables are " what punishment follows the guilt of those confirmed in vice , how one ascends purged to the true glory of beatitude, then the perfect life " ( ibid .). Another “ draw
is
its
the essential features
in
a
.
)
of in
(
i
1526
one
criticism then Francesco Berni's Dialogo contra strange some way fits into the tradition This may seem
the Platonic tradition
poeti
defence
,
of
Horace ( p. 37v ). If the attack upon poetry and
of
poet whom Plato would have admitted to his republic is Battista Manto vano , who represents the divine nature of the poet required by such theorists as Cicero and Democritus , combined with art as demanded by
of
;
,
in
of .
to
-s
.
of
-
,
by
it
.
,
in at
of
madness
of
be
The interlocutors make fun the self tyled overbearing inspiration They their claim divine
called reverse Platonism the poets
be
classification the joking and satirical dialogue But will less strange part upholding the when we realize that Berni proceeds least contrary the arguments usually used the defence perhaps this might
of ,
it is
as
"
,
of
be
.
"
;
of
;
,
,
,
be
charged with heresy uselessness complete lack should rather sub solidity they are venal and obsequious malicious and immoral stance and punishment rather than unashamed plagiarists they are worthy praise Only when they are good for something other than the writing verses should they tolerated and even then their quality men
.
be
to
, , of is
grounds not
.
,
certain serious animus against poets and the unjesting writers evident
of
a
but nevertheless
too dissimilar from those
on
;
,
, in
in
.
to
as
is
as
poets that appreciated and not Berni suggests such punishments making the poets themselves undergo the adventures which they attri reading the Dialogo the bute their heroes One should bear mind jocular tone and the satirical intent and make compensatory allowances
was really
an
its
,
of
poetica facolta
,
oratoria
et
De
of
be
of
to
treatise
la
His short
,
.
origins
in
to
as
of
poetry Rather than emphasize the moral consequences the reading contemporaries doing most his seemed Giovanni Bernardino indulge Fuscano chose elaborate praise the art because divine
to
.
)
261
to
its
of
a di
,
of
is a
confer life upon the dead past When [
to
upon the soul and
,
of
in
la
to
Napoli and was published introduction the Stanze sovra bellezza general description with the Stanze 1531. Fuscano begins with the part poetry extolling capacity eloquence which virtues seize eloquence
poetry , especially
verse , it achieves
most eloquence other forms divine rather than human
all
because poetry
,
is
This
unlike
all
form
,
,
;
all
:
in
whom and the poet
is
in
an
of
is
by
.
is
.
is
and indeed unlike other arts and sciences inspiration The poet like unconscious instrument through whom speaks the voice God without this voice mute Poetry defined Fuscano this way in
its
of
the beauties
marvelous
.
are added
THEORY
of
POETIC
all
,
to
not without delighting the ears and bringing profit
,
at
by
,
,
by ,
,
,
,
is
Poetry that art which embracing other arts marvelously expresses through definite rhythms through measured feet and through grave maxims that men have done all that they have ever said and known under marvelous veils illu variegated flowers minated clear ornaments and the same time adorned the mind.15
,
is
in
:
is a
all
of
he
of
he
is
it
all
.
is
.
an
,
a
In
treats the relationship between the poet implying specifically and God that the Christian poet that analogy God Himself speaks He begins with poet and creation poet poem His Of creatures the most like God his powers and separate development
all
,
all
,
he :
,
in all
of
, in
all
at
of
:
a
to
-
,
his
of
carries with
given powers
it
responsibility the poet must devote glory God the service and honor God tempering his voices with the harmony the corporeal senses must hymns and times give Him thanks verses and the gifts which this resemblance
. ”
as
at
of
16 is
in
all
be
;
of
in
is
it
,
,
he
in
of
of
to
him from His bounty must use spend and consume the cult glory His and the honor His majesty for that time which thinking spent otherwise than Him must accounted lost Thus that the poet always invokes God the beginning his compo come
it
of
of
,
is
.
to
,
to
is
to
or
,
he
closely akin sitions that the prophet and that his name itself means make create Fuscano's approach still Platonic and although emphasizes another the Plato's ideas rather than the idea .
of
in
of
the divine inspiration
to
by
.
a
in
of to
is
,
of
on
,
of
of
he
,
a
it
of
poetry moral utility concludes with Christianization the doctrine employs Since the form the dialogue his De liberis recte insti lively way both present tuendis liber 1533 Jacopo Sadoleto able argument poets sides the the banishment the Sadoleto himself using proofs that upholds the affirmative now have become fairly ,
he
,
by if
the other cannot imagine any
answered
da
,
,
,
”.
& ,
,
è
: et “ la
,
,
,
et
,
-
(
),
1531
con misurati
di
et
,
16
.pp ,
.
,
la
is
fatto quanto
Biij Biijv piedi
necessary
quella che abbracciando tutte Poesia con graui sententie quanto l'homini han han mai detto conosciuto sotto meravigliosi uelamenti chiari lumi uarij fiori parimente ornati non senza dilettar l'orecchi giouar l'animo exprime
poetica facolta
l'arti con diffiniti numeri illustrati mirabilmente
;
the state and
banished from walls On these points Sadoleto interlocutor Paolo Sadoleto who declares that De
;
or of
by
supervised
is
its
,
therefore that they should
be
to
in
operate
an
:
the poets which causes their works upon irresistible fashion the souls the listeners their resultant capacity orient the soul toward good evil the necessity standard
."
,
di
li
&
se
,
,
262
]
(
,
fia
lo
di
da
,
di
,
&
: “
di
a &
,
,
&
in
., .p
Biijv temprando sue voci con l'Harmonia Ibid tutti corporali sensi darli ogn'hor gratie versi Cantici tutti doni che sua larga bontà ueneno deue per colto per l'honore sua gloria sua Maestà usarli spenderli consumarli peròche tutto quel può tener perduto speso indubitatamente tempo che lui non pensar
PLATONISM
:
DEFENCE OF POETRY
.
,
of
,
a
is
all
.
on
;
of
.
as "
be
to
is
an 17
,
of
:
of “
do
mistress
is
say that comedy the school private life and social behavior makes me believe that you model for not only Terence not repudiate these poets either good judgment itself example diction and language but may serve solely linguistic grounds Paolo whereas Plautus recommended
Terence
What you yourself frequently
all
,
be
a
to
of
as
to
all
reading more useful or more delightful than that of Homer and of Vergil ; other found and wisdom and doctrine are in Homer , especially , poets have derived from him fountainhead He extends this rivers from comedy especially toleration the poets include even writers
be
if
no ,
,
is
.
write trivial corrupt
or
and those who prefer
by
,
be
to
to
is
in
every poet and that concludes that there some good should ad they are mitted the educative process Jacopo's own conclusion that admitted the poets must observe faithfully the proper ethical code
in
,
poets may
addition
a
of
a
to
defence
single
Nicolò Franco's dialogue
,
of
poetry
the substance
to
1539
on ).
Petrarchista
In
one finds essentially
,
Il
of
one reduces the general defence
author
(
If
.
,
good
,
,
to
The
”
tolerated
.
to
be
scurrilous verse are along with musicians and those who cultivate the other liberal arts participate the education and indoctrination of the young means
much biographical and anecdotic
man
:
as a
to
be
in
as
is
a
is a
so
he
for his style and indeed for his character be
well
substance
,
as
.
as in
;
it
is
.
be
,
passage presenting the reasons detail the dialogue Petrarch contains why Petrarch should imitated What said about language and style well have occurred could just not especially pertinent here document the Horatian mode But Petrarch admired for his
he
.
in
in
,
all
always And should much the more our hands that contains knowledge that every science has some place within him his verses And
in
?
he is
to In a
?
in
?
!
)
( oh ,
?
?
in
?
of
?
in
of
who can say how many and how great thoughts divine and human philosophy are hidden his rhymes how modest immortal God how clean and pure of every stain lowness how gay without lewdness how religious his thoughts how chaste his mind how Platonic his love ... word there ,
,
to
,
to
,
."
to
,
to
is
in
to
nothing him which does not belong the divine virtues the celestial angelic mores beauties the most honest love the highest humanity and 18 ineffable courtesy
;
,
is
,
:
in a
De
17
been found
in
nothing there this praise that might not also have typically Horatian document second the qualities singled
Two remarks first
&
,
ut
,
."
,
: “
(
), .p
liberis 1533 108 Nam quòd comoediam saepe affirmas priuatae uitae ego arbitror hos quoque poëtas non ciuilis consuetudinis esse magistram speciem habet repudiantis
cortesia
263
sia ne
di la ? ? e in
e
e
lui ;
di
che non amore somma ,
in
ne , in i e
somma
costumi d'honestissimo ,
e ? ?
,
Niente
e ?
si
ne le
E
.
,
si
le
ha
: de “ la ne E i
...
)
d'incffabile
(
, e
humanitate
Platonico nel suo amore celesti bellezze d'angelici
."
,
?
mente Quanto diuine uirtuti
di e
?
)
, e
), .p
la
( o
e
de
;
lui
(
Il
18
poi Petrarchista 1539 12v tanto piu per mani deue hauere quanto qualche luogo tanta dottrina che ogni scienza suoi uersi chi puo dire quanti quali sentimenti diuina humana philosophia stieno ascosi sue rime egli Quanto Dio immortale modesto quanto terso netto d'ogni lasciua ruggine religioso pensieri Quanto senza lasciuia leggiadro Quanto Quanto casto
THEORY
POETIC
his
out , breadth of knowledge , godliness , and morality , are precisely the same ones that would make a poet acceptable even in Plato's republic . Mario Equicola presents us , in his Institutioni al comporre in ogni sorte di rima della lingua volgare , with a much more completely Platonic work
of of of
,
all
In
of
, a
a
it
,
of
,
in
.
de
to it all
as , a
.
da
is
treatise
de
Libro natura amore Published 1541 the posthumous concerned above with prosodic recommendations for the various lyric forms for which leans heavily on the old treatise Antonio Tempo But prelude develops the history such discussion poetry lengthy comparison between poetry and painting defence than
to
,
(
),
:
,
,
,
,
of
.
is
So
a
,
.
praise phases both Dante and Petrarch almost prelude this the source Plato for the distinction made close the beginning among the various kinds verse the active under which Equicola classifies tragedy comedy bucolic and satire the narrative
the art and
,
(
),
,
.
,
,
.
of
a it
in
,
of
of
).
So
,
,
(
,
history maxims philosophy and mathematics and the mixed heroic lyric and elegiac poetry also for the insistence upon divine inspiration On the matter the banishment the poets however Equicola disagrees declaring that only came about the Republic and only because that entirely designed work state outside the bounds human possibility
in
“
,
.
to
to
of
,
in
,
by to
,
B )
.p
(
”
"
us ,
:
,
,
he
says Plato praised the poets and Equicola joins the praise delight bring way they here for the which our ears for the which praiseworthy from our earliest years they invite means fables and great actions for their incitement virtue Poetry teaches
Elsewhere
us it
,
of
,
of
a
in
;
to in
to
is
it
as
to
us
adorn ourselves with good mores and hold our passions check upon giving pleasure and enjoyment and utility intent men many things setting before makes accessible for our use the examples most diligent fashion and with delight the glory the ancient ;
a
be
,
in
no
,
to
no
is
or
in it in it
of
us
specifically
,
More
,
. "
19
poetry shows kings and the fortunes may passions temper our heroes indicates how we thus the fact that uses myths fictions more condemned than similar use religious mysteries and parables and the bad moral examples which sometimes provides are worse than those found constantly life virtues
,
”
"
its
.
)
of
(
insegna
.
affetti
ne
rifrenar
gli
in
1545
the present series gli
&
,
”
Bernardino Tomitano
poetry
buon costumi
)
264
."
à
la
ne
,
mortali
di
essempij molte cose nostro propone gloria delle antiche virtù
a '
&
,
of
“
di
B : “
), & .p
of
)
(
Ornarne
(
,
vso riduce
1541
far piacere dar volutta vtile diligentissimamente con giocondità ,
di
19
Institutioni
to to is in
of
in
.
The Ragionamenti della lingua toscana the first nearly complete art
represents studiosa
or
:
its
products are less subject and Dante and Petrarch employs the terms Horatian criticism
1545
(
TOMITANO
.
on
the body
destruction The brief discussion and the attitudes commonplace
of ,
the mind rather than
to
is
to
so
of
"
“
.
, in
poetry with painting points history the laws Equicola's comparison provided that feign out that both arts may legitimately invent doing they observe the laws decorum His conclusion that poetry superior painting appeal based two reasons poetry makes
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
Platonic treatises ; it also represents
If
far.
thus
the most eclectic
and in a sense the
of
one were to read the three books
the
all
most typical studied
, a
of
.
,
on
of
the detailed Ragionamenti in reverse order , one would find in the third treatment the more particular aspects the art treatment resting largely Horace's Ars poetica and on the rhetoricians but deriving certain essential ideas from Aristotle The second book deals largely with oratory
poetry
are taken from poets
is
to
of
oratorical principles
the examples
con
once again
the
,
stantly traced and
;
all
but even here the application
.
a
on
to
is
it
of
For rather than begin with one
of
by
.
is
,
of
,
to
all
.
in
rhetoricians provide the distinctions and the rules But the first lay the philosophical foundations for book where Tomitano wishes writing his source the art Plato And Plato appealed much broader basis than was done most Tomitano's contemporaries classical
I
his
;
or
...
"
in
of
.
,
as
he
),
of
of
at
to
(
the favorite dicta which have outlined starting point Plato's this chapter takes Ideas Like the painter the poet and the orator attempt represent the medium their arts some perfect concept Idea Ideas are those simple and spiritual forms which mean nothing else the beginning general concept
as
to
be
to
he
,
as a
poet must therefore may know the truths which
is be
a
succeed
that
he
of
philosopher
he
so to
the poet
is
If
be
,
to
going
20
. ”
mutation
something
all
or
of
but examples and norms those things which are born naturally made artificially which are absolutely eternal and durable just others are subject born perishable and mortal and may said constant
its
in
of
.
of
;
of
.
a
is
of
its
it
,
Of all
is
of
is
of
of
to
.
imitate poetry philosophy complicated one The relationship indeed philosophy discovery poetry The business the truth the business the imitation truth through the medium fictions But poetry does every part not imitate truth nor does serve ultimate ends ,
is
in
is
it
,
,
in
;
or
,
to
wise through some intellectual habit
contemplative just
as
merely render
us
us
: “
,
,
to
In
.
is
it
.
.
its
the latter which involves two ends pleasure and utility utility For the both moral and intellectual character and found moral and intellectual precepts scattered throughout the work order write such precepts properly Tomitano insists the poet philosophical must know the truths from which they spring These pre cepts then will either teach how live well and happily else they will
imitation philosophy
the latter ones are ,
?
,
of
he
Or
of all
." 21
a
necessary part
the former are called moral
of
and both kinds philosophy are Does this mean that the poet must have exact and complete knowledge matters both human and divine knowledge speak does without and run the risk Platonic con called
&
."
si
ci
de
gli
&
,
)
(
265
gli
:
,
."
necessaria della philosophia
:
, ò
si
,
&
, si
,
di ) , .p di 8 & : “
: “
.pp & a
ci
,
, si ò . ,
21
&
&
(
20
Ragionamenti 1545 quelle semplici spiritali forme ... che altro non importano quelle cose che nascono naturalmente che essempi norme artificiosamente fanno lequali sempiterne del tutto dureuoli sono come tutte l'altre cose nascenti mancheuoli possono addomandare mortali mutatione continouo soggiacenti insegneranno uiuer bene Ibid 42-43 Questi precetti adunque ouero beata mente che renderanno solamente per alcun habito intellettuale saputi liquali contem platiui quali sono parte addomanderanno come quegli altri morali uni altri
POETIC THEORY demnation on that score ? Tomitano takes a middle position : The poet must have knowledge , and the more he knows the more successfully will he write ; but it need not be profound and thorough knowledge . “ I tell you that the orator and the poet must possess so pure and simple a knowledge of things pertaining to philosophy , that when he remains silent about them
." 22
thereby
his
,
on
.
a
,
if
to
Indeed the poet cultivates philosophy excessive degree poet Tomitano's remarks becomes less good Dante clarify
he
an
a
or
he
all
he will show that he knows them ; and aside from this they will be a guide and norm to him from which he may derive more pleasant and more solid speaks greater splendor maxims and may give to that writes
whole
:
position
.
.
,
a
be
he
,
a
in
it
is
to
or
he
,
to
be
I
is a
of
hold therefore that that man better and graver poet who with the aid philosophy will able render his compositions more beautiful and more grave but not that should for this reason dispute talk about philosophy And there you that Dante although may fore not conceded better philosopher being greater poet than Petrarch For Petrarch understood that succeeds to
To
,
. 23
,
of
in
;
to
of
philosophy which was sufficient give spirit and solidity minimum amount his rhymes whereas the matter beautiful diction from which the poet derives his name he was better than Dante
.
of
of
.
,
he
a
a
.
of
'
al
of
by
the truths within
“
portava insegna the poet
, he as . a ”
must penetrate
the fable interpreting the myth done Parnassus Perch viso d'amor Petrarch's madrigal
,
an
of
Tomitano shows how this analysis and giving
to
allegorical interpretation is
of
by If
the reader would derive full benefit from the poem means
or
of
,
of , is
in
he
a
,
of
philosophy also allegory this matter related the problem expounding The poet knows basic collection truths but instead myth them directly dresses them the outward fashion fiction
at
of
:
,
of
.
,
to
be
,
in
be
, so
34
(
be
a
—
.pp , of
of
.
of
or
no
,
).
.pp
22
a
the poet must both
be , a
second
be
knowledge possessed the high poet truth and must man moral character From such reprehensible works need supervised harmful feared practice for which Plato blamed the 141-42 He may even tell lies ;
osophers
to
be
all
by
If
disguise can philosopher men useful the lives expelled from any state Tomitano meets should not Plato's ban two counterproposals first the works the poet should censorship subjected times the examination and the the phil
then clearly
." &
ò
,
sia ,
à
&
gli
& di
,
,
., ne & .p
,
di &
& il
,
: “
.,
poeta douer una cognitione cosi schietta Ibid 94–95 dicoui l'oratore semplice ritenere delle cose alla philosophia appartenenti lequali egli tacendole mostrera saperle questo oltre seranno una guida norma onde egli piu uaghe sode sen maggior splendore doni parla tentie diriui tutto quello onde egli scriue ,
&
,
il
,
ui si
: ui la
à
il
)
(
266
,
et
si
a
."
di
fu
,
,
di
quel tanto philosophia intese che fermezza alle sue rime bastaua recar spirito che poi nella bella elocutione dallaquale denomina Poeta come piu basso Dante migliore
doue dirò
,
Et
.
;
ad
.
ò i
et
: “
di
23
Voglio adunque che miglior poeta quello piu graue che con l'aiuto Ibid 240 piu graui ma non per questo della philosophia sapra render suoi componimenti piu belli parli philosophia tenzoni per questo non che egli concede che Dante quantunque uenga Petrarca esser piu gran poeta del Petrarca Percioche sia maggior philosopho
OF POETRY
DEFENCE
lie ,
:
no
PLATONISM
of
an
as
he
it
,
In
.
;
in
its
.
a
lie , ”
“
in in it ,
”
virtue which has poets - provided that he avoid the “ fraudulent hidden truth Only which masks and practice only the artful manifesta passing does Tomitano mention the divine furor and regarded this incidental aspect tions the poet apparently theory Tomitano frequently associates these various remarks on poetry
,
,
as
as
,
as
a
as
of
of
,
,
of
in
,
as
to
.
of
.
as
they were for with oratory The two arts are very closely allied for him having theorists the rhetorical school He sees them both similar pleasure and profit seeking the same ends relationship Ideas finding their utility largely sharing the the inclusion moral precepts using invention disposition and elocution and same qualitative parts
the poet alone makes
;
in
,
his
;
to
:
in
,
,
of
,
of
;
in
as
his
,
to
.
of
They differ however speech identical figures various respects oratory tends emphasize utility poetry gives more attention pleasure achieving the orator uses persuasion means ends the poet uses prose the other writes imitation whereas the one writes verse and
he
,
;
,
he
all
this point
Horatian
the
.
he
.
in
and important feature the language which they use that comes into closest contact with certain theorists rhetorical school
It of is
,
a
to
at
.
all
in
, to in he
all
in
of
as
do
.
use fables and fictions These theoretical differ not prevent Tomitano from citing passages from poems fact tends discusses the rhetorical devices which his demonstrative find more and more throughout the treatise materials Petrarch alone This means that the last analysis reduces single one and finds their most interesting the arts using language ences examples
CA. 1550
)
'
(
ANTONIO MARIA DE CONTI
to
et
in in of of
,
in
in he
,
de '
.
at
in as
of
,
,
by
of
a
be
assigned the century must group works Antonio Maria Conti who called himself pro fessionally Marcantonio Maioragio Since died 1555 and the major part professor his career Milan fell the preceding ten years the praefationes works published the Orationes 1582 would seem
of
same period roughly the middle
To this
of
"
a
of
,
"
at in byall ,
art
an
to
of
of a
"
"
a
,
to
to
belong poetry Conti has two the period around 1550. On the subject contributions make theoretical statement the form De arte poetica and practical applications prefaces number the which praelectiones were really courses academic interpretation vari
of
of
as
;
of
of
all
of
or
, of it
is a
Its
.
,
it
.
is ;
is
it
no
.
is
poetry ous texts Conti's oration De arte poetica not since inquiry into the nature makes the art into the devices which poetic excellence poetry fairly achieved instead offers praise conventional terms Poetry the most excellent and the most divine provides man with knowledge things both human and the arts since supernatural prime function Tyre and educative Maximus
]
[
267
in
,
of
,
of
us
“
it is a
an
to
,
us
,
Strabo have pointed out first philosophy which from earliest good childhood leads honest way life which instructs mores which calms and rules the disturbed movements the soul which
POETIC THEORY
.
The terms of praise are old and familiar there are two great arguments against First
for
the Platonic eviction
,
As
all
teaches , in the most pleasurable fashion , what things are to be done . " 24
,
the most saintly moral maxims
in
,
it :
every poet one may find since good poets are also good men and , .
:
of
(
in
of
of of
in
,
do
we
.
it to
)
he ,
,
,
he is By
"
it as
of
,
.
of
religion Augustine are the preceptors life Second such great pillars poetry and cited constantly Jerome and Ambrose were great readers Moreover even Plato argues against himself since other works where not concerned with the perfect state insists upon the divinity poetry and praises the skies Follows Conti's own extravagant praise the immortal gods what sweetness not find the language
?
,
of
is
so
?
of
,
?
25
? ”
of
here given resolves
to set
.
to
be
,
itself into matters diction and sound and what more distinctly poetic qualities are not even
might considered intimated
be
in
all
?
of
?
?
poetry what harmony what charm what loveliness what cleverness composition invention what proportion what gravity maxims style frequently the case the praise what majesty kinds As
.”
“
,
of
in
,
all
of
.
all
.
is ,
is
of
,
to
be
all
A
principles praelectiones similar found applied the The two prefaces Homer are typical Homer course the ocean from knowledge and literary skill have been derived He has taught which kings how kings has given the foundations the arts and sciences
. , by In "
“
and the
imperitos
,
so
of ;
teaching them
the
greatest
he
,
so
"
of
by
,
in
the guise
of
doing frivolous myths uses the method frequently use parables and similes for divine the theologians who
mysteries
of
rudes
"
the
“
vates
by
of
,
of
a
.
, as
be
to
is
.
of
in
and has surpassed even the historians those lessons which are the proper history His use mythological tales blamed many contribution defended device for the presentation serious materials properly interpreted these tales contain within themselves all kinds hidden knowledge They are the means which Homer attracts and capti
to
in
,
in
as
of
he
,
,
so
In
26
by
. ”
to
,
matters means which untutored minds are easily raised from known things which are apparent the senses those which are unknown doing also poetry and sublime serves the ends estab lished Horace providing useful instruction mores and the good
to
to
(
the
and
Iliad teaches
ad
it
;
the effect that the ab
24
),
also quotes Plutarch
learned
to
the first had been from the work about eloquence
about
the arts
as
the Odyssey
stresses what
is
be
devoted
Iliad
all
,
The second preface
to
.
life
,
ac
,
?
?
?
?
?
,
?
?
: "
., .p ?
25
."
,
: "
), .p
(
, et
praefationes 1582 quae nos Orationes 145 ineunte aetate honestas uiuendi regit rationes adducit quae bonis moribus instruit quae motus animi turbidos placat quae res gerendas summa cum iucunditate praecipit quae concinitas Ibid 148 Proh Dij immortales quę suauitas poeticae locutionis qui lepos quae uenustas quod inuentionis acumen quae compositionis harmonia qui quae sententiarum grauitas quae denique generum omnium dicendi uerborum splendor
]
[
268
in
similitudinibus rebus diuinis sub sensum cadentibus rebus
ad
&
à
, :“
.”
&
Ibid 154v sicut etiam Theologi nostri parabolis cognitis frequenter utuntur quo rudes animi facilius incognitas sublimes extollantur
ac
., ? " .p
26
maiestas
all
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
In
ad
"
"
,
of
.pp
158v 162
)
-
Vergil one the Georgics compared with Hesiod and to
prefaces are devoted
to
lengthy
,
Two fairly
to
(
).
( .p
of
,
,
on
strength
remarks
by
his
of
body and the Odyssey strength soul 157v Hesiod's Works and Days Conti rests upon the praise given the poet the greatest philosophers and rhetoricians sharing their middle style the miration for the precepts and for the apt handling above
is
of as
,
a
.
of
a
all
a
of
,
is
,
,
In
,
its
in
it .
,
of
,
of
we
so
,
a
in
of
to
to
IV as
of
Aeneas Book
it is
to
piety and fortitude the particular show the evil power love the errors and may avoid catastrophes which leads that For the rest one may see highest form presented the life Aeneas every virtue living example and through action rather than description more praised for his incredible erudition for his admirable general way Vergil poetic rather than natural order style and versification for his use present
function
the exemplar
is
,
if
of
.
its
,
of
.
.
on
its
of
,
be
to
is
and the other the Aeneid The first work superior largely because found the elegance and the clearness diction but also because erudition For the Aeneid Conti concen trates the fourth book He finds that the general aim the poem
.
on
,
178–183v
of
,
on
).
)
(p .
by in
of
(
.p
of
on
to
"
"
.
(p
),
,
In
his works his tres Aristotelis libros arte rhetorica osthumous 1572 Conti reflects other aspects the current Platonic doctrine He explains the special sense which Plato uses things imitation describe the representation words 347A poets and cites the lon the divinity 381A These remarks are found explanationes
,
another
de
of
).
,
177v
In
.pp
(
his
to
of
as
of
on
,
as
,
of
the rhetorical devices treatment and for his proper exploitation subject matter Once again soon Conti passes from general remarks poetry particular consideration poetic techniques and the end text becomes the Ars poetica and his method Horatian 173–
a
he
.
to
of of
.
a
a
in
of
commentary context Aristotle and are frequently coupled with similar remarks from Horace They demonstrate once more the eclectic nature Conti's approach and the extent which uses Plato for number purposes
...
all
is
),
.
of
:
a
of
on
in
of
(
in
,
in
Sperone Speroni his Discorso lode della pittura undated inci dentally concerned with the broader meaning imitation and with Plato's poetry He also distinction between narrative and dramatic imitation hierarchy nobility subjects establishes the basis the imitated and the prosodic means to
to
is
.
if
all
,
all
to
or
for as
,
as
of
is
,
which
or
less noble not only according the thing common arts and sciences but also according the imitating Thus means and the manner the epic and tragedy and comedy imitate far the thing imitated concerned the first two are nobler than the
the imitative arts are more
imitated
)
269
a
,
imitates with the hexameter (
deed different from these because
it
in
.
is
,
of
as
;
third but the mode instrument imitation tragedy and comedy are not unlike since the one and the other imitates with the iamb But the epic most noble
POETIC
THEORY
It is quite true that the epic does not imitate as well, speaking absolutely about imitation , as do the other two which are dramatic.27 verse .
In
as this , of course , there are strong echoes of the dis by tinctions made Aristotle in chapter 3 of the Poetics ; but perhaps the assigning of “ nobility ” on various scores is more specifically Platonic in implications decidedly secondary The Platonic element the Aristotelis librum
In
is
in
.
its
such a statement
is ,
).
,
of
as
an
as a
on .
in
in
be
,
of
(
of
it of de
poetica communes explanationes Maggi and Lombardi 1550 This major course one the Aristotelian commentaries the century and will appears treated detail later But Plato both source for certain ideas the commentary and earlier theorist whose ideas is
so
of
"
at
,
;
of
in
.
or
developed The latter position Aristotle either combatted stated clearly connection with the distinction between narrative and dramatic imita length tion Maggi cites Book III the Republic that we may more easily discover how wisely Aristotle using the precepts his teacher
Aristotle's ideas are seen
as
,
Occasionally
of
to
as
,
.” 28
Plato has improved upon them being opposition those
on
in
(
,
of
in
,
be
to
.
of
is
of
.pp
,
he
is
to
be
II
in
)
is
in
Plato when connection with answering Plato's attacks Poetics 1460b33 Aristotle said Homer Books and III the Republic Again the last lines his treatise using Plato's argument that the end poetry Aristotle said pleasure although elsewhere Aristotle goes beyond when states that the
,
.
In
).
,
,
as
,
of
the education
as
is
an ,
,
a
is
”
“
.
,
be
;
of to
tion
voluptas
youth.29 Plato's condemna
thus limited one applying youth general corrupt his conclusion like that bad poets who would Aristotle and Horace would that poetry useful educative instrument
of
the poets who seek only
of
he
,
”
its
,
as is
,
human actions and through pleasurable language spanning the tradition both Plato and
ennoble the soul Plutarch who saw end to
.
of
by imitating
“
is ,
the end
is
of
,
to
,
to
(
is
end rather utility through purgation 277 299 Most frequently though the commentators wish parallels Maggi's find and influences Prolegomena which treats the standard topics relative any work one point investigation poetry Insofar the end Aristotle holds that
,
a
(“
III ,
o
, , e al la
e
le
se è la
: "
, a e le la
443-44 tutte arti imitative sono più men nobili non scienzie ma quanto allo instru tutte arti che comune però epopeja tragedia imitano commedia quanto
) , ,
,
(
In
Opere Venice 1740 solo quanto alla cosa imitata
il
27
of
.
),
(p
of
In
of
connection with specific passages the Poetics the commentators beauty they establish parallel between cite Plato's definition 123 Poetics 1454b13 and Plato's Ideas siue natura secun the Trapádeiyua
,
o
,
. le è
,
:
e
,
,
67 : " "
,
)
270
."
."
, ea
(
in ut
,
(
facilius deprehendi possit quàm doctè placitis Platonis melius reformet Aristoteles utens actiones humanas imitando suaui sermone animum excultum reddere
13 : "
Ibid
., .p
29
sui praeceptoris
...
), . .p
quali sono drammatiche Explanationes 1550
28
le
,
si è
la
da
la
;
le
.
e
mento modo dello imitare alla cosa imitata due prime sono più nobili della terza ma quanto modo istrumento tragedia della commedia imitando l'una l'altra col jambo dello imitare non son diverse epopeja ma diversa esse perchè imita collo esametro nobilissimo verso ben vero che non imita così bene assolutamente della imitazione parlando come imitano altre due
PLATONISM
In
be
to
ideas on the sources of poetic inspiration ( p. 187 ) . distinguish anything that might very difficult
be
consyderata , non ut in hoc , aut in illo reperta , ” p . 175 ) , and of they refer to Plato on the divine furor as antecedent to Aristotle's would underlying assumption that this
an , it
se
course
all
dum
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
termed its
,
of
a
it
(I
much shorter text
the decade 1550–1560
),
in in
is
A
.
refutation his master's poetic theories distinctly Platonic position indeed visible approximately the same time roughly date
a
or
a
of ,
is
is
as a
.
is
of
interesting because Platonic position The text present frequently source for Aristotle's ideas and that Plato frequently concerned with development contrariwise Aristotle
.
la
è
the great
:
is
,
to
of
this conception might well incite men imitate the errors directly opposed Leonardi's own opinion
.
.
,
to it
is
è
al
sia
:
in
several manuscripts Giovanni Giacomo Leonardi's Discorso piu utile poesia Leonardi takes issue with mondo l'historia the usual assumption that poetry more useful than history because presents ideal models rather than imperfect realities History according
found qual
...
an
a
in
all
of
is
it
to
of
.
...
the impossible and one does not heed them with the large part the true Besides the poet who desirous pays forgets much attention this end that times utility pursue that which has proposed his end that and results that men those who not understand the secret whether what the poet say was trying found the verse the surface and the pleasure
to of
he
at
it
,
in
or
,
or
,
on
,
,
discover
...
is ,
to
as
do
to in
is
things difficult whether the poetry.30
in
is
in
,
.
so
as
to
,
he
,
same attention giving pleasure
,
of
impression as
beginning
an
do
as
,
to
it
to
,
it a
,
to
I
of
always was and still am the opinion that History much greater use things truth the world than Poetry since seems me that impression upon gives carries with certain admiration men which them much greater desire imitate than fiction and lies this does not come pass with invented things since fables they give themselves from the very fulness
leave aside the intention hidden within
to is
1 )
(
:
on
; ( 3 )
to
be
to
be ; (
is
2 )
of
as a
to
preferable Three essentially Platonic ideas are present here truth teaching men fiction means the poet tends seek pleasure rather than utility and hence condemned the meanings con readily apparent tained under the allegorical exterior may not the
Io
of
.
a
,
be
to
III
,
la
in
et
,
la
,
: “
-
.
,
384 fols 133v 134 opinione nondimeno sempre fui sono Mondo utile molto maggiore che Poesia parendomi che verità un'impression negli huomini che doni loro cose una certa admiratione
che l'Historia torni
al .
MS BNF
II .
30
he
to
.
say that only good and rare intellects will reader Leonardi goes the hidden meanings and concludes with summation the various lessons learned from history perceive
un ,
ne
,
lascia
da
nascosa nella poesia
la
,
et
,
)
(
271
, in et
,
il ,
di
si
saper l'intention
a
è
Il
.
le
...
gli
à se ne
il fà
cose difficili
"
....
di
è
oueramente come lato
...
.
, et la
,
la
se
,
di
,
le
in
habbia tutte bugia molto maggiore studio d'imitarla che fittione cosi non auuiene nelle cose finte percioche come fauole danno nel principio un'impressione dell'impossibile non s'attendono con quella attentione come uere Poeta poiche uolto dilettare proseguir quello che s'hà posto buona parte mira tanto questo che scorda alle uolte per fine che l'utile quel che huomini come quelli che non intendono secreto chc habbia uoluto dire Poeta stia nel uerso nella superficie nella dilettatione
POETIC
A
THEORY
letter written by Girolamo
,
point
appre
showing
cites his own works
,
case
he
,
be
he
“
to
the mechanical arts nor can
to
in to
excellent
,
.
As
he
their beauty
ciate
in
be
.”
31
man cannot indeed
a
a
of
of
,
to
his
Fracastoro to Girolamo Amalteo in 1551 indicates that at that date it was still necessary to protest against a common opinion that poetry was a “ madness ” ( “ una pazzia ”) and that poetic genius was inconsistent with disciplined intellectual activity . Fracastoro declares that , had he been able to live according to own wishes would have chosen only these know only philosophy and poetry since knowledge with their related materials seem two fields worthy me man He quotes Navagero the effect that without poetic genius
necessary
the art against
defend
it
-
of
to
to
of
.
how they combine both scientific and poetic compositions Fracastoro's argument belongs the larger position the anti Platonists who felt the charge
irresponsi
madness and
.
bility
1553
)
(
PATRIZI
of
the Discorso della diversità dei furori poetici Francesco Patrizi 1553 lies entirely within framework Platonic pre suppositions The problem which Patrizi poses discover why different inquires into the various poets excel different genres To answer
of
the poet must
it
achieve
,
.”
"
in
Ingegno
to
''
'
“
to :
of
an
"
to
”
"
an
"
32
. "
in
the beautiful images and eloquent man For ingenium two definitions are given properly used for attitude and readiness our mind
in
in
and the Platonic furor Art will not help make the poet rich the perfections which can exist
“
little use since ,
of
concluding that
ingenium
all
,
is
these matters
to he is to
a
it ,
.
poetic excellence
possess both the Horatian
all it
sources
,
of
in .
)
(
,
On the other hand
a
us
as
,
in
us ,
or ,
Plato teaches the Phaedrus we might say human and divine
is
,
,
”
. “
'
...
,
mi
suoi annessi perfettioni
,
tutte
le
di
&
concetti
,
bei
: "
di
tutti
con
che
.”
( : in “ ),
queste due cognizioni
li
solo
i
263
Discorso 1553 45-45v ricco possano cadere huomo eloquente ingegno propriamente Ibid 45v ritrouare nostra mente all'imparare 33
,
at
that the soul may take certain impressions : "
,
.pp . "
II,
ed .
to
,
."
,
of
on
the possibility
Calogerà Raccolta degne dell'uomo
32
parono
,
In
31
discourses
33
is
divine descends from Heaven and raises above the human and almost semiangels After having developed some length the relationship planets God the and the muses human genius Patrizi makes
us
what
Furor
supernatural
;
or
natural elements either natural
: “ '
a
in
.”
is
a
is
in
'
is
a
'
,
at
.
In
is
learn and ingegno discover ... still another way taken for certain dis position and inclination which given man and which times found makes him incline toward one thing rather than toward another This apparently natural gift man Furor however contains certain super
(
,
fa
lo
."
il ci
,
.
,
...
ad ,
&
in
'
ci
,
et
,
&
...
,
“ Il
ci
272
)
, "; ò
,
si
, si
,
un , '
si
dice
In
.
al
& , &
&
,
,
è ò
, ò
ad
,
., .p
una attitudine una prontezza della prende l'ingegno altro modo ancora per una certa affettione alcun huomo che troua che tal'hora inclinatione insegna una cosa piu che un'altra inchinato and furore secondo che Platone uogliamo dire humano sopranaturale diuino diuino nel Fedro naturale quasi semiangeli sopra all'esser humano rende inalza descende da Cielo
...
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
on
to by
,
is
of
or
,
it of is
it
as
or
. 34
of
of
or of
by
.
,
in
,
,
poetry then rather one subject than another results from descending through the other heavens takes which the soul more from this planet than from that And according more illuminated Mercury the rays Phoebus Venus than Mars more given sing amorous matters and the liberal arts than either war the
of
the writing the disposition
on
...
from the planets and that the poetic faculty may be one of the impressions so derived . This assumption leads to the solution of the specific problem :
mechanical arts
a
of
A
of
of
of
or
In its
...
a
: “
it to
.
as or
,
of
.
by
,
of
"
. “
,
the source
”
,
is
,
then
subject matter
is of a “
special ingegno the inclination toward developed state Furor the same whose copious ness and abundance results from additional gifts the muses final problem remains that the relationship between these natural divine acquired powers learning and practice gifts and the purely artificial relieving the soul earthly darkness and the art These are regarded permitting see the divine light each hour they purify the soul
This
is
to
be
to
;
( .p
)
"
“
be a
a
his inspiration
.
to
as
)
pp .
analyze Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi Chapter above 137-38 and ,
of
I
( cf. to
have already had occasion della inventione poetica 1554
IV
of
of
by
;
by
of
function
,
,
be 35
to .”
is
if
it
earthly shadow and cause exposed that general then for Patrizi the divine furor necessary anything but cold and stupid the poem 50v the particular poem practised kind the poet will depend upon his special gifts and given matter will even the kind verse used him for treating little more from heavenly light
as
,
76 ).
,
of
the poet which are ,
(
and the Ion for the qualities copiousness diction readiness ,
consist
"
said
in
to
,
Republic the Phaedo
to of
”
as
.
.p
enuntiatione
Thus Lionardi calls upon Plato for the against imitatione dramatic representation narrative representation He calls upon the the period
"
"
Plato are typical special meaning
.
or of of to “ an
suggest how both Aristotelian and Platonic elements exist incidental accompaniments essentially rhetorical theory The borrowings from
discover knowledge at
“ a
as
.
82 )
.
knowledge that the poet must have
(p
to
he
36
,
of
to a
discuss the kinds
un '
34
comes
of
" ]. "
,
to
(
" ),
perfect erudition and wisdom
to
[
as “
judg and art defined ment reduced rules for knowing how invent and imitate well and the same time adorn and enrich the matter Since this definition knowledge Lionardi also refers involves conception Plato when defined
,
Et
et à
'
,
."
à
, . è
da
,
in
, ò ò di
,
è
di
, da
,
in
, ò di
."
,
( : ) un , la “ ). .p " 62 : "
., .p
&
di
da i
è
et
(p
&
,
&
)
273
(
) la ,
di ,
erfetta eruditione uena del dire prontezza del ritrouare dottrina regolato giudicio saper ben fingere arte imitare insieme adornare materia
(
35 36
Dialogi 1554
scienza arricchire
&
,
gli
: " il
., .p
Ibid 48v Poetare poi piu una materia che altra uiene dall'affettione questo Pianeta che quello che nel discendere per altri Cieli prende piu secondo raggi piu data che illuminata piu Febo Venere che Marte Mercurio cantare delle cose amorose dell'arti liberali che della guerra delle mecanice Ibid 50v ogni hora uanno piu disgombrando l'anima dall ombra terrena quel celeste lume fanno esposta
THEORY
POETIC
by
of
to
is
:
is
76 ),
( .p
of
III
Finally , he makes the usual references to Plato when moral questions or questions of the lessons taught by poetry are at issue ; Book the Republic poetry cited for the opposition the moving the passions interpreted thus and Plato's real meaning
of
the good and praiseworthy
37
as
to
ones
by
.
as
deeds and blameworthy
of
is
it
,
to
be
is
.
,
Plato does not condemn those passions from which come honest and virtuous desires and effects but only those which induce vicious longings and activities This does not mean that the poet should not narrate that which harmful and necessary for him avoided since relate well the causes wicked
of
a
is
of
of
in
.
of
-
of
is a
.
to
,
-
,
of It
theory would seem here that the Platonic criticism right poet the even the moral duty the treat the whole gamut poetry against Plato the passions This kind defence Platonic elements are again secondary Giovanni Battista Pigna's tempered
a
of “
he is
16 ),
(
obviously
when religious pre classical mythology and
Likewise
is re
,
.
tradition
.p
as
presents men conversing
the current Platonic
"
of
,
it as
he
imitator when
following
of
,
,
"
of
"
to
.
of
,
a
as
his role
its
theory for 1554. The work has aim the development new genre the romanzo and founds this theory essentially upon the pattern the Poetics But when for example Pigna speaks imitatione equivalent parlamenti and fulfilling most completely the poet Iromanzi
he
,
of
of
an
(
At
)
of
”
of
“ a
at
a
of
to
of
occupations lead him condemn the use commend instead moderate application the Christian marvelous once reflecting the Platonic concern with true and proper presentation outgrowth the gods and the later Christian prejudice itself thought against representation Platonic modes the pagan gods
to
in
of
as
,
by
lie
So
...
I
of
,
or
.
,
as is
to
of
is
to
:
“
of
is
on
a
38
of
of
as it a
truth
. "
of
every form
within rather
a
good poet carries buried told explained Plato's ban the poets condemnation certain audiences than certain poets everybody but only believe that the reading the poets not forbidden people who are not capable perceiving their meanings under standing their secrets such the common and ignorant people For that
: “
that they may conceal
of
be
”
“
of
,
,
,
,
in
,
,
.
of
).
.pp
(
opposition 40-41 other times however Pigna places himself Plato His discussion the true the false and the verisimilar results the conclusion that the poet may feign untrue things such the passions the gods that certain genres indeed are based upon untrue materials and may even that the use lies recommended because the truths
...
of
,
."
ne
-
the ignorant and the material minded
;
“
,
in
by
”
completely incredible 80 : “
be
37
to
“
of
of
this reason the poets are sent out the city since the greater part poetry the people are not apt for the understanding After explaining poetry Pigna concludes that these are held the four lies contained and
&
;
274
]
[
. "
."
,
& ,
,
de '
,
&
,
il
& ,
à
,
da
,
22 : "
, .p
(
I
38
le
de '
&
,
,
. & , è .p
uengono desiderij Ibid Platone non riprende quegli affetti onde effetti operationi inducono honesti uirtuosi ma quelli che uitiose uoglie non però che fuggirsi quello che poeta narrar non debba essendoli necessario riferir noceuole uitupereuoli come buoni laudeuoli cause così fatti maluagi romanzi 1554) Tal che vna bugia d'un buon poeta ogni verità sepellisce
PLATONISM
DEFENCE
:
OF POETRY
among those who are judicious they pass as being beautiful and good . ” 39 To his essentially Horatian and rhetorical approach Matteo San Martino adds, in his Osservationi grammaticali e poetiche della lingua italiana ( 1555 ) , two arguments springing from Platonic sources . These concern the
of poetry and the character of the poet . Aside from the usual praise poetry englobing civilizing , based on of other arts and sciences antiquity and religious uses San Martino singles function out to
God and
the
as
of of
it
,
,
to
be
of
the worship
its
its
all
of
its
its of to ,
.pp
,
its
the one art devoted part political life
of all
defence
betterment
in
,
of
,
).
in
by
,
( .pp of
a
he
.
of
).
At
it
of
,
sure
he
is
of
of
(
is
— .
A
consists the fact that requires the presence poetry alone sciences divine origin since poetry and the the divine furor 124–25 this point the defence description poet the character the are identical For the distinguishing poet upon depends special kind feature the that divine inspiration without which possibly cannot excel his art 128–29 praise
, in
a
a
as ,
: "
to
,
a
to
to
of
at
it , or
40
."
perfection
such
perhaps nobody
could
ever
)
(
1557
its
As
is
in
,
by
observing achieve GRIFOLI
be
basically Platonic aim Indeed San Martino himself seems moved purpose writing present simple since his future poets perfect poet tellectual form Idea the and solid norm for arriving
.
art is is is
all
of
a
it
de
.
a
of
,
it
as
a
is
)
(
Giacopo Grifoli's Oratio title indicates laudibus poetarum again special praise poetry 1557 and defence But has imposing character insofar concludes with the Platonic necessity philosophical restrictions upon poetry Grifoli's first premiss that arts
divided into those which
be ,
to
.
of
,
By
it in
it
all
.
it
as
judged great must provide both utility and pleasure and that any according poetry satisfies both ends this standard the greatest poetry are since excels others these respects The utilities is
;
it
(
:
us
so
...
be
to
)
a
of
in
claimed the past this the commonplace civilizing function and those which may still serve the largely political and ethical latter would seem
allegation
of
to
us in
to
of
no
,
all
of
,
,
no
;
by
of
to
of
,
of
taught private citizens and those since the poets not only the duties magis the general condition men but also the functions military leaders kings that part trates human life seems have been neglected many them since moreover they bring profit the human race
common
sia
,
or
in
.
,
,
of
in
,
in
of in
or
,
a
of
ways and through multiplicity way did they ever offer actions more ample service than preventing either the virtues distinguished ex men ploits any way the deeds the brave from dying now fact the poets la
&
,
da piu i
&
i
in
è la :
;
:
i
."
in
i
" le
&
" ;
i
il
de i
...
)
(
275
,
a
,
: "
o
127–28 una simplice spirital forma Idea del sommo Poeta enir osseruandola tal perfettione alla qual forse non fia mai
."
di ) ,
(
.pp
&
:
40
Osservationi 1555 una salda norma chi arriui
&
ne
si
,
è
ad
mi
de 31 : "
., ne .p .
...
sensi loro
La i
39
poeti ma solo alla penso che ognuno non leggere vietato capace plebeia intendente loro secreti quale poeti della città onde mandano fuori essendo esso non atti all'intelligenza della poesia quali and tutto per incredibili tenute sono rozzi passano per belle materiali buone tra giudiciosi lbid gente che ignorante
POETIC
THEORY
not only write of the exploits virtuously
accomplished by others , but they also teach the offices of virtue and instruct men to do those things which will be the ornaments of the centuries . 41
This conception of the aim of poetry may also serve as a means of dis tinguishing among poets ; Horace , for example , would be second only to Vergil and would be preferred to Lucretius “ because he attends to what is true and proper and is entirely concerned with leading men to a proper life and to true virtue . " 42
If these utilities be present in poetry , why then should Plato have ex cluded the poets from his perfect state ? Grifoli recognizes that for Plato himself there would seem to be contradictions : Indeed we must believe that that philosopher condemned the teachings of the poets although he himself had called them the fathers of wisdom , or else that he had excluded them as dangerous although he himself affirms that they are the go betweens of the gods , and while he holds that their poems are not the inventions
of men but the gifts of heaven , he nevertheless legislated that they were to be kept, as wicked men , outside the borders of his State.43
Grifoli further maintains that , far from
of corruption for pedagogical device for the
being a source
youth , poems may be used to advantage
as a
imparting of knowledge that would be otherwise inaccessible . The danger lies in the fact that at an early age , readers may be insufficiently wise to interpret the hidden meanings of poetry and may hence be led into error by the trumperies of the superficial statements . The solution lies in the joining of philosophy , which would provide correct interpretations , to the poetry itself : Thus poetry brings us many sweets by means of which our native abilities may be nourished , but no fewer which — if the best training were not ready at hand would disturb the mind and would lead it away from proper modes of thinking . Therefore poetry united to philosophy gives pleasure and profit like wine diluted
...
.pp
,
so
all
with water . Let this then be the function of the poets , to charm the minds of men with pleasant fables ; for it is their business to make known the most famous exploits and to imitate convincingly the characters of men that whoever &
ea ad
,
,
,
ita ,
vt
,
,
,
occupatus
,
est
eo
totus
in
,
." , &
& ."
,
rectam
de
,
“
" ;
56 : "
atque homines instituunt
59 : "
&
., ., ad p .p .
42
,
gestis scribunt sed etiam docent officia virtutum 99 quae sint ornamenta saeculorum qui verum Ibid decens curat vitam veram virtutem homines perducat 43
faciant
vt
in
re
,
se hi
,
,
: "
53 ,
,
),
,
vt
ijs
(
1557 ab
In
41
54–55 quoniam non modo priuatorum officia omnium hominum sed magistratuum ducum regumque munera docuerunt neglecta esse videatur cum autem multis rebus multiplicique industria iuuent humanum genus nulla tamen commodiores nobis praebuerunt quàm quod neque virtutes hominum neque praeclaros labores neque fortium gesta vllo pacto mori patiuntur and iam vero poetae non rebus aliorum modo cum virtute Orationes
communis conditionis nulla pars vitae
,
)
(
276
.”
à
,
&
,
,
,
,
Ibid est vero credendum illum philosophum doctrinam damnasse poetarum qui eosdem ipse sapientiae patres appellarit aut tanquam perniciosos exclusisse quos idem interpretes deorum testetur esse quorum poemata non hominum inuenta sed munera coelestia esse ducat hos tanquàm impios arcendos finibus ciuitatis suae statuisse
PLATONISM
DEFENCE
:
OF POETRY
reads or hears them will not only know with the greatest clarity what things are to be done and what ones avoided , but will also be filled with a most joyful feeling of pleasure.44
All
difficulties thus disappear if the teacher or the philosopher be present to extract the lesson from the poet ; the poets are readmitted to the state , where they serve a special purpose because of the pleasurable elements which accompany their art . The problem of truth , sometimes
in Platonic discussions of
central
poetry , is treated in passing by Annibale Caro in his Apologia degli Acade
( 1558 ) —his
famous reply to Castelvetro's famous argument attack . In both documents the is largely linguistic ; but at one point in his reply, Caro has Predella speak thus on the subject of poetic mici di Banchi di Roma
license :
Don't you know , nevertheless , that where opposite opinions exist the poets may attach themselves to one of them , whether it be the better or the worse ? and that in different places they may use now the one , now the other ? Don't you know , further , that they may follow not only the opinion of the wise but also the errors of the common people , as when they say that the rainbow drinks ? ... The license
of the poets is such that they may use not only opposite opinions , but those which are clearly false and ridiculous, without being blamed for so doing.45 Two things are notable here : first , that the poet is not held to logical con or to philosophical soundness ; second , that the criterion of truth
sistency
applied to his works .
is not necessarily
AMMIRATO ( 1560)
A still more complete examination of the same questions - of truth , of knowledge, of the ban - forms the subject of Scipione Ammirato's dialogue , Il Dedalione overo del poeta dialogo . The dialogue was written in 1560 and presents two interlocutors , Dedalione ( identified in the manuscript as Francesco Maria Giordano ) and Tiresia (Marino Cosentino ) ; both were of the Accademia dei Trasformati , which Ammirato founded at ita
members
,
& , res&
à
,
,
,
vt
,
gli
in ,
,
&
, è
?
, ò
di
sia ?
,
83 à : " & ,
), .p
."
]
277
;
de le ,
?
;
,
si
(
,
,
de le ;
;
& è
de '
dotti ma errori ancora del uolgo come dicendo che l'Arcobaleno poeti possono ualere non pur licenza tale che diuerse openioni espressamente false ridicole senza meritarne riprensione
... le
de .
beua ma
la
seguir l'openione
de di i
i
si
(
45
."
,
,
,
gestas illustrare atque verisimili poemate cuiusvis mores imitari quicunque legit aut audit eos non modo quae sequenda quaeque fugienda sint apertissime cognoscat sed iucundissima quoque voluptate capiatur Apologia 1558 Non sapete uoi nondimeno che doue sono diuerse openioni poeti possono attaccare migliore peggiore ch'ella una d'esse seruirsi anco questa quella Non sapete ancora che non solamente possono diuersi lochi hora hora ,
praeclarae
&
,
,
ita
,
sit
,
vt
.
...
sit
.
,
at
poesis dulcia quidem multa tradit quibus vegetentur ingenia 14 Ibid ., pp . 60, 62-63 : " quae nisi praesto optima institutio perturbent animum non pauciora recta poesis cum philosophia prodest ratione deducant quare vinum aqua temperatum igitur poetarum iucundis fabulis mentes hominum delinire quorum est delectat
THEORY
POETIC
be
, it
of
,
As
.
,
all
Lecce in 1558–59.46 There are several sections in the dialogue , correspond ing to the various aspects of the problem of poetry ; them will noted concern the generalities about poetry with which Platonic discussion was exclusively occupied Grifoli had done Ammirato starts from the as
its
it of is
is
to
,
of
in
in
.
in of
,
of
.
of
in
of
apparent contradiction poetry and the Plato between the praise depending upon two banishment the poets He sees the banishment poets the special things the incapacity listeners rather than the vice conditions the Republic For the latter work the aim consider poetry not general but rather effects upon the education the at
“
in
be
is
appreciated
contrast with the absolute all
all
:
on
character Plato's ban sophists ban
to
of
.
”
to
.
of
youths who will ultimately become the leaders the state Now this early age that men are especially unqualified understand and penetrate the lessons concealed beneath poetic expression The relative
not penetrate the allegorical meaning
of
,
,
,
,
.
of
ances and who
do
is
in
an
go
;
Truly Plato drives out the sophists and from every place not the poets but only those who feign ugly things about the gods and who about imitating intense way disturbed minds And not from every place but from the city that from the mass the ignorant and the young who easily fall into disturb the poets.47
of of
,
, in
to
“
is
is
,
;
should not itself
the audience
.
in it
of
be
of
entirely condemned for accounts for the fact that the Bible God and the angels are spoken entirely ways acceptable certain This because our small high things capacity which more readily moved the knowledge This weakness
of
is
,
,
. " 48
through material and common examples than through abstract and subtle poetry are The assumption here apparently that the devices
ones
;
or
by
,
or
,
led
.
is
of
.
be
,
so
be
to
of
for the communication certain ideas men young old but some safeguards must offered that men young old will put astray the proper construction upon poems and will not false interpretations knowledge Plato had included among his The second problem that charges against poetry the fact that poets really did not know the subjects necessary
.
: "
,
at
about which they wrote that their poems were several removes from the truth Ammirato answers thus the poets know nothing about the
...
(N
di
,
, dei
12
,
.
,
.
III , .
,
),
.
in
(
, in
in
46
manuscript The dialogue exists MS Bibl Naz Florence Magl VII and was published Ammirato's Opuscoli Florence 1642 353-94 On the Accademia aples Napoli Trasformati see Eustachi d'Afflitto Memorie degli Scrittori del Regno 308. On Ammirato's later associations with the Accademia degli Alterati Florence Argomenti degli Alterati discussione letteraria nell'Accademia 1570–1600 Giornale Storico della Letteratura Italiana CXXXI 1954 177–78 Opuscoli ogni luogo 359 Veramente discaccia Platone sofisti tutti poeti non tutti ma coloro che degli Dij brutte cose fingono animi perturbati intensa giouani igno mente vanno imitando Nè da ogni luogo ma dalla città cioè dalla turba
,
"
),
; i
da
&
gli
&
de e
de
.
,
,
,
,
i
,
.
),
(
: “
III ,
,
In
47
,
(
di
see ), p “ .
in
1782 my
,
di
]
[
."
&
si
,
,
gli
278
& la
la
: "
., .p
48
.”
, i
&
l'allegorico sentimento quali leggieri nelle perturbazioni discorrano Poeti non penetrano quale più ageuolmente picciola capacità nostra muoue alla Ibid 361 esempi materiali sottili cognizione delle cose alte con comuni che con gli astratti ranti
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
about which they write , and still they (are ] full of knowledge and wisdom . ... speaking in terms of the art , he ( the poet ) really knows nothing as a poet , writing and developing materials under the influence of the divine furor . ”49 This divine furor itself, however , constitutes a kind of knowledge , and one which , in the long run , is superior to that obtained through science . That is to say , God and the muses , speaking through the things
the poet , infuse into his works a kind
of superhuman truth which incapable the mind of man alone would be of discovering . problem The third is that of the ends of poetry . The Horatian assump tion of the "utile dulci " is at the basis of the discussion , which revolves of
voice
about the specific character of the usefulness . Ammirato sees both the body and the soul as suffering ills and as needing remedies . Those of the body are provided by the doctor . Those of the soul are supplied by the
to it
to is
he
concerned with the minister with
... Whence
as
us
.
be
to
;
do
of
for the
without the
. 50
of
as , a
it
he
a
is
it
to ,
he
cannot
com
would
the first
his
do ,
to
to
to
he he be
to
,
: “
in
to
a
thus
a
philosopher who uses special instrument attain the profit same end The philosopher who uses poetry order able does not thereby alter and change his end even though takes another means and other ways necessary and appropriate what intends is
The poet
,
of
profit but since poet wishes first and absolutely accompaniment pleasure uses servant
which the profit so
to
a
,
to
be
truly
the profit making two ends for the poet according profit and delight but consequence held
to
panion
is
it is
to
,
poet distinguished from the other cures sweetness becomes point out that the delight necessary not considered here
he as a
,
he
let
it
in
general was said above that the philosopher say that when health of the bul condescends as
of of
-
:
to
,
is
It
.
,
of
the
legislator, the orator , and the poet. For both body and soul , some device sugar coating is necessary to make the remedy palatable — the pills examples doctor's the the orator the fables and the verse the poet poetry this that gives the special quality
49
si
to
to
is
,
.
of
on
on
."
to
is
,
he
principal end which profit but still follows classify These various considerations lead Ammirato the one hand poetry under philosophy and distinguish the specific uses the other the various poetic genres Philosophy divided into the contemplative and the active which subdivide respectively into the natural and the super dl
så
,
&
,
.
: “ i
."
,
50
...
&
& ., .p di
poeti delle cose che scriuono nulla sanno pur tuttauia esser pieni Ibid 364 sapienza inquanto dottrina secondo l'arte parlando egli veramente niuna cosa poeta scriuendo trattando da diuino furore commosso à
la
;
il e
di
sia
da
hà
si
,
& ,
non per questo altera proporzionate quel à
la .
)
279
."
di
,
(
il
e
: , “ il se ,
di
.,
il p .
&
poesia 378 filosofo che per poter giouare prende suo fine ben piglia altro mezzo altre vie necessarie giouare che intende fare ma segue principal suo ch'è Ibid cangia
,
la
in
il
on
.p
,
."
51
il
à
,
à
in
và
il
,
&
si
di
: “
...
,
.
., .p
sopra genere riguarda Ibid 377 come disse filosofo sanità dell'anima diciamo che quando egli discende curarla con dolcezza diventa poeta differenza dell'altre porre qui per compagno del curazioni Que bisogna auuertire che diletto non giouamento onde s'habbiano giouaro far due fini del poeta ch'egli veramente tenuto egli conseguenza del giouamento percioche vuole primieramente dilettare ma poeta giouare ma non potendo farlo senza congiunzione del diletto assolutamente prende per ministro del primo Cf. 383 fable and verse
POETIC
THEORY
of
).
,
of
it If
us
let
,
of
: “
of
for
natural sciences and mathematics ( for the contemplative ) and into ethics, Poetry domestic or family economy , and civil philosophy ( the active belongs under the last these civil philosophy concerns the good our minds and our bodies truly will concern both these arts poetry
to
53
is
is
“
”
This
done
the public person
For comedy
the individual
.
the private person
of
genres
to of it .
by
,
to
to
society comedy
driving vice out Tragedy ministers
.
the separate
,
of
separately
of
in
52
introduce virtue into the soul by
to
as
."
of
,
of
a
it
in
;
and medicine but take the matter broader sense and say that equivocally concerns the one and the other medicine that the soul and that the body The poet here stands the same relationship the physician poetics the legislator does the surgeon and the end
economics and perhaps even politics Such final poetry statements these constitute Ammirato's ultimate defence doing significant that they remain against the Platonic ban within the essential presuppositions Plato's approach although they contrasting find answer is
,
we
.
a
of
,
it
so
.
In
as
of
,
,
ethics
.
alone teaches
as
,
of
of
of to
in
"
,
"
,
it
(C
a
.p
IV ,
of
Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica 1560 was have hapter 145 document belonging primarily the Horatian tradition since took imitation the specific sense imitation models and developed the techniques for the approximation another seen
to
of
of
it
of
,
.
If
an
,
,
;
,
of
a
a
is
.
of
by
its
by
all
all
...
the heavens
:
at
look
to
,
,
of of
of
,
art .
modes praise
It
contains incidentally two passages related Platonic thought about poetry The first sequel the extravagant Homer and the other poets and constitutes formal defence preceded poetry the Parthenio speaks the antiquity how prose invention the gods the poets moreover are beloved the gods and inspired them we wish additional proof we need only .
poet's style
of
it
we
or
,
,
,
,
,
to
if
know that God wise above others and prudent above may understand loves poetry either from the harmony those most holy celestial choirs which with that ineffable sweetness make sweet the heavens and the divine mind from the harmony which we know arises from we wish
others
us
,
as
de
."
,
il
. "
&
la ,
&
la
la ), .p 5 : , “
(
è
.: " il
54 53
&
;
la
&
il
la
,
: “
., .p
la
corpi veramente ella 386 Se ciuile riguarda bene degli animi nostri poetica amendue questi cioè medicina ma prendiamo cosa più larga diciamo ch'ella riguarda equiuocamente l'vna l'altra medicina dell'anima del corpo Ibid fine della poetica indur nell'anima virtù discacciandone vizio Della imitatione poetica 1560 se vogliamo conoscere che Dio solo sapientis
Ibid riguarderà
&
,
of
54
.
hearing
52
of
to
to
be
of
the most orderly movement the spheres heaven which the divine wisdom tempered wished with numbers and with poetic arrangement joining to gether might calm within form among themselves such harmony the power
&
,
la
&
di
]
[
280
,
il
."
addormenta
la
in
in
,
la
,
le
;
,
, i
,
&
poesia comprendiamolo quelli solo prudentissimo ama dalla harmonia ouero quali con quella ineffabile dolcezza addolciscono beatissimi chori celesti cielo mouimento delle mente diuina ouero dal concento che sappiamo nascer dal ordinatissimo quali sapienza diuina uolle che con numeri sfere del cielo con ragione poetica temperate fossero tra loro accordandosi noi uirtù del sentire creare tal harmonia che simo
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
,
.
as
of
all
,
,
of
own from Plato's ban Plato's imitation perils and hence involved kinds
says
as ,
so that he may exempt was that the passions
he
his
Such a passage as this is doubly significant ; it shows the persistence of a habit of regarding poetry in the vaguest analogical terms, as a kind of superior harmony , and at the same time it limits the essence of poetry to rhythm and to musical qualities . In a second passage , Parthenio distin guishes the imitation of which he is speaking from that considered by Plato , far
us is
).
,
Il
in
,
(
.pp
in
.
it
in
of of
,
to
in
,
to
,
of
,
,
truth religion and moral education were concerned His own merely that other poets and far from being blameworthy satisfies our natural instinct imitate and the delight we take the process 15-16 Two years after the writing his Dedalione Scipione Ammirato poetry returned 1562 the subject Rota overo delle imprese in
a
of
,
of
an
:
);
is
by
(
”
“
a
of
.
.
of
dialogo The particular circumstances part the the dialogue explain orientation toward poetry For poetry enters into the discussion because imprese basic similarity with heraldic devices containing hidden meaning this explained the Bishop Potenza one the inter locutors
,
all
by
,
.
by
be
to
so
,
,
to
all
to
It
keep with every care and ancient usage among all the wise men persons the most important doctrines and sciences from revealing profaned that they would not come the vulgar crowd And this was the reason why the imaginary fables were invented under whose outer surface was
device
of
,
of
of
all
,
In
.
to
of
of
,
were hidden those ancient wise men the secrets the speculative sciences knowledge and the things nature and the useful and necessary forms which pertain man this way the ignorant man had the pleasure the fable as
,
so
to
,
to
it .
at
,
,
and the wise man penetrating farther within gathered the fruit contained within And since poetry and painting are sisters both born one delivery just poetry began explain these fictions with words also afterwards painting began depict many things which seemed monstrous but which under these
on to
the development
of
In
fictions contained many fine secrets.55 ,
30 )
( .p
“
as
,
),
"
(“
,
the abbreviated
the extended
,
(“
while
uses the figurative the
,
,
the improper
for
it
vice than ordinary men have
the rhetoricians
-in
it
.
in
by
In
”
,
to
,
the foreign
,
the old
form
justified .pp
new
,
that
is
bad with greater virtue
of
or
good
or
of
its
to
is
of
.
to
,
these ideas however Ammirato passes other He finds that both arts need seek the marvelous— what rarely happens and outside the nature other ordinary things proper appeal poetry the marvelous order make the their audience subject matter has justification Aristotle for presents men sources
and
281
]
[
. "
di
, à
la
Et
le .
di
à
,
la la il
vn
in
; à si
la
,
& , la & il
,
&
i
i
si
in
le i
à di
,
la
le
, &
Di
,
: le
;
da fù
.
si
le
&
.
,
:
ne
&
le : Et “
di ed .) ,
à
si
&
(
Il
55
Rota 1562 14–15 Fu antica osseruanza tutti saui guardarsi con ogni ingegno persone guisa ch'elle studio non palesar belle dottrine scienze tutte questa cagione che fingimenti delle venissero profanare dal volgo ritrouassero ricopriuano quelli antichi saui tutti segreti delle scienze fauole sotto cui scorze speculatiue delle cose della natura tutte vtili necessarie cognitioni che apparten gono all'huomo piaceuolezza della fauola modo che all'ignorante restaua sauio raccoglieua penetrando più perche poesia pittura dentro frutto essa parto poesia con parole cominciò spiegare queste sono sorelle tutte nate come pittura pigner fintioni così cominciò susseguentemente molte cose che pareuano quali però sotto esse rinchiudeuano molti belli segreti mostruose
POETIC
THEORY
other figures in greater number than does ordinary speech " ) .56 Horace supplies the basis for the warning against excess in any particular style ( p . 31 ) . A final comparison between the " impresa " and poetry concerns their audiences
both must be accessible to the ignorant and pleasurable
;
33 ).
.p
impresa
(
the
"
closest
"
to
all
to the wise , and they must thus be based on common materials which will poetic genres the one be readily intelligible . In this sense , comedy is of
to
)
of
as .
or
of
as
of
in
to
,
,
in
,
],
985 M.8 [
(
MS
de
tragoedia connection with the Tractatus Biblioteca Comunale Perugia about 1562 how the author's poetry led him reject convictions with respect the utility present the condemnations such philosophers Plato He insists upon the impropriety regarding either pleasure utility poetry the sole end
I
have already mentioned
, ,
pleasure as
as is a
it
is or
at
next this function least
of of
57
It ,
as
it
to
were mingled with the perfect
."
it
employed
of
,
as
perfect and
as
,
is a
it
,
,
those for whom
the poets has been brought into use delight the mind either contemplate perfect
and that the technique
to to
agreeable
is
Aristotle and Plato hold
to
:
“
it
as
serving the and considers that both Plato and Aristotle saw the pleasure utility From which follows that poetry since diversion both
,
In
,
,
of
sheer ignorance
by
,
by
,
of
,
a
. 58
of
maggior numero
, , fa lo o
,
in
l'altre figure
, , il
in
il
, o
il
o
&
l'allungato
,
,
;
; e
fa
30 : “
. gli , .p
l'accorciato
che non
che
Ex
57
."
pedestre Perugia
vitio
straniero l'oratione
,
.
is
medicine
,
gli
wicked doctor gives poison instead
percioche maggior uirtù huomini buoni cattiui ordinarij nelle parole percioche vsa traslato nuouo vecchio
Ibid
non son l'improprio
a
,
the poet who like
,
56
but
of
of
,
of
of
to
of
,
of ,
of
means
in
general but particular those poets who the harmony and sweetness their verses aroused and inflamed the young people tender souls lascivious and voluptuous actions and means example the and imitation rendered them soft effeminate and entirely use poetry less for the good and the improvement the republic Nor this fault in
He does not exclude poetry
this
:
;
as
having banished the poets
is
.
It
to
,
all
is a
in
a
in of
is
.
.
II
it in
in
of
,
is
,
of
as
to
utility that constitutes the main defence intermediary poetry and even Plato himself admits Book the Laws essence poets are educators and that their main justification One the interlocutors the preceding dialogue Bernardo Tasso Ragionamento della poesia delivered before the Accademia the author fairly Veneziana 1560 and published 1562. The Ragionamento complete Platonic document touching upon the main points current interest does not fail answer those Platonists who interpret the master pleasure
)
(
282
il
da
la
de
repu essaltatione maluagio medico
di
, et a la a
guisa
infiammauano con l'imitatione
i
, , e et
: e
al
:
,
, e
."
de la
,
è
la
in
.” ,
in
loro uersi commoueuano uoluttuose con l'essempio
rendeuano molli effeminati del tutto inutili benifitio blica Ne questo difetto Poesia ma del poeta ilquale uece de medicina ueleno in
,
ut
,
,
: “
,
, e
a
de
, i
gli
de
), .p ,
(
58
quali con l'armonia esclude dolcezza giouenetti teneri animi cose lasciue .
et
,
la
.
),
et
(
.,
.
Bibl Com
, 10 e : “
,
ut ,
quo conscquitur poesim siquidem MS 985 M.8 fol 103v Aristoteli placet Platoni iucundam esse quibus adhibeatur oblectandis animis artificium poetarum accersitum uoluptatem uel intueri semper ultimum uel certe tamquam ultimo proximum quasique cum ultimo temperatum Ragionamento particolare que Poeti 1562 non Poesia uniuersale ma
ludus est
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
The proper function of the poet is indeed the opposite : " by imitating human actions through the delightfulness of plots , through the sweetness
of the words arranged in a most beautiful order , through the harmony of the verse , to adorn human souls with good and gentle characters , and with various virtues . ”59 This moral and social usefulness is the main element in the defence of poetry , and Tasso finds it both in times past and in times present . He makes the usual statements about the contributions of the
of civilization and their
poets to the advance
In
present favors .
summary ,
he asks : “ Oh venerable science , which brings pleasure and profit to every kind of person , to every age , to every sex , to every nation , and in every
,
other men through two qualities his
of all
season and in every time, who could ever praise you properly and to the extent to which you merit praise ? ”60 According to Tasso , the poet excels
.
indis
:
of
is
is
knowledge The first the divine furor and the universality pensable and the sign the poet's dependence upon God
to
he
be
he
;
be
it
no ;
of
a of
he a
,
;
of
of
all
of
without this extraordinary gift nature even though man may have know ledge may have learned the doctrines even though through long study perfect writing even though may have long experience law and the art impossible that the things the world still will should turn out be
of
it
on
. 61
it,
.
is
good poet There doubt whatsoever but that the perfection this science placed has something divine about and that for this same reason should before all others
.
.
of
--
.
, in
in as
—
all
at
of
,
,
does not mean
of
the necessity divine inspiration This however that the poet may rely upon his natural gifts knowledge which the poet must length the kinds Tasso develops possess and cites the cases arts and sciences are his prerogative Homer and Vergil the most extraordinary this respect This erudition
Both Plato and Cicero are cited
is
)
a
of to
in
an
(e
,
an
(
of
is
it
a
,
of
).
to
be
be
may also especially example Petrarch found the Italian poets and appreciated when allegorical exterior xample hidden under part Dante Probably because this wisdom consists understand ing produce great emotional effect the passions the poets are able
de le
in 12 : “
,
of
).
.
as
is
( pp
is as
59
It
,
in
their readers and this the source their power both entertainers and teachers 7–8 perhaps interesting that the separate elements Tasso's theory la
di
,
età , ;
ad
e
."
, e
a di ;
la
le
di
? "
ti
, la
de le
]
[
da
sia ,
è
.
di
: e
283
,
di
in ad
."
,
di
: “ ;
;
,
gli
la
,
:
tu
, , e et in
ad
: “
.pp
,
.,
., .p
fie
61
, O e di
., .p
le
60
, e
de
piaceuolezza Ibid imitando l'humanc attioni con fauole con soauità parole bellissimo ordine congiunte con l'armonia del uerso humani animi gentili costumi buoni uarie uirtù adornare ogni qualità persone ogni Ibid 15-15v uenerabile scienza che ad ogni sesso ogni natione ogni stagione ogni tempo porti piacere benefitio giamai che degnamente quanto possa chi ben meriti lodar Ibid 12v senza questo singolar dono natura ancor che altri tutte dottrine legge habbia cognitione ancor che con lungo studio habbia imparata l'arte del perfetta mente scriuere ancor che lunga esperienza habbia cose del mondo impossibil tuttauia perfettione questa scienza non sarà che riesca buon poeta non dubbio alcuno che partecipi diuinità che per questo anco non essere antiposta tutte l'altre
THEORY
POETIC
taken one by one , are almost identical with the essential doctrines of the Horatian - rhetorical creed : the ends of poetry as pleasure and utility ; the complicity of art and nature ; the importance of erudition ; the moving of the passions . This does not mean eclecticism , but merely current modes
of
thinking about poetry that are so deeply imbedded that they tend to deter mine the interpretation put upon any doctrinal source . There is , to be sure ,
in
of
to
to
, .
as a
of
,
5 .)
.p
(
tragedy are cited
pre
complete the
.
of
arguments for the superiority
;
its
in
,
imitation
the Poetics
"
of
of
the word
.
its
its
,
special use about this fragment first attack upon Aristotle and the intention
"
.
Dialogo sopra
wrote Virgilio
on
,
the century
,
called
it
frequent participator the literary short fragment imitation editor Fragmento Two things are noteworthy a
Sperone Speroni
of
,
1564
a
Around quarrels
:
sentation
to
to
of
,
,
to
sources
to
,
,
he
he
all
Tasso : his definitions
the classical and medieval
in
the various genres , derived may serve point case argue the superiority tragedy When however wishes the epic returns Plato declaring that tragedy appeals only the people and merely gives delight whereas the epic gives both pleasure and virtuous instruction men mature judgment and dignity Aristotle's some eclecticism
from
second
After reviewing let be
it
,
an of
in
a
,
:
,
in
it .
,
as
.
as
,
a
to
of of
,
is
us
in
an
to
may the various meanings assigned the word Speroni indicates that applied extraordinary way such work the Poetics Nature say the first object imitation and such poems the Iliad and the Odyssey are imitations These poems themselves become objects philosopher may imitate them imitation but two ways for one
in
,
;
is
be
,
).
,
",
.p
(
a
“
he
of
to
,
,
.
,
is
,
is
is
, "
“
in
art and this what Aristotle has done the Poetics for the other another poet may imitate them and this what Vergil has done the praised than the Aeneid The first process says Speroni much less incapable second which produces true poetic effects whereas Aristotle practising what practical matter then the poet teaches 358 As
is
,
he
,
.
be
these two the 62
. "
is
it
;
for evil must made good which not On Platonic position here Speroni ,
and must not
of
,
was the one who made his inferno worse be
,
made evil just
if he
a
—
to
now and always has been my judgment that
...
to
: “
This better poet
as he it is ,
say
is
a
to
of
:
is
is
“
to
.” of
should devote himself the study other poets his models and should Speroni also furnishes criterion for not concern himself with the rules imitation that imitation best which most like Nature Thus voyage choose between two depictions the Underworld will
-
a
us ,
to
is a
.
far
si
'l
:
il
)
(
284
,
il
fu
e
è
è ."
...
fe
: “
II,
),
(
sempre 1740 360 Questo ora mio giudicio quello esser stato questi due piggiore che suo inferno perciocchè male dee non far bene come non
di
è, e
It is a is
: “
to
it
;
,
is
so
is .
as as
,
to
it
—
is
to
In
62
Opere
miglior poeta male come
a
whole and comes close disdains imitation and ranks inferior art clear fact that always conjoined imitation not proper man art Therefore art thing not proper with reason and imitation not always monkeys but rooks and ... One can see with single eye how much the
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
worthy art is than either usage or imitation . ”63 This last passage indicates that the Platonic opposition to imitation is accompanied by a specific attack on Aristotle's notion that imitation is proper to man . Lionardo Salviati , who in his abundant critical activity included a trans
more
of
,
in
as
to
fill
to
it
,
,
of
by
by to
.
is
It
.
of
to
of
In
64
.”
a
in is
to
its
).
(
“
his
,
,
,
to
is
by
,
his
lation and commentary of the Poetics , shows a strong anti - Platonic bias in Trattato della poetica Lezzion Prima 1564 Plato's whole philosophy attacked Salviati since doctrine does not have end his works teach about Nature ... but referring God the major part our minds with tries our important actions and the most noble tendency poetry specific pure religion leads Plato this realm the deny that the poetic propose the doctrine the divine furor and faculty this denial which Salviati wishes habit the mind refute his lecture before the Florentine Academy He discusses one
of do
all
;
do
.
,
the Platonists First they claim that the one the arguments offered poets write about things which they not really understand but men
,
of
a
;
,
;
—
of
affect the individual's food and drink any given time these conclusion
to
In
.
at
-
,
weather general
or
,
as a
,
in ,
humors the planets poet capacities
all
in
,
as
-
of
.
or
of
,
of
a
a
or
.
of
is
,
it
particularly excusable for the poets because this and the brevity expression their and because the licenses accorded them Second they poet argue that occasionally single bad bad painter may produce good work thus demonstrating the power inspiration but this may merely show the operation chance accident Third they contend that frequently incapable writing verse but just the best trained minds are any case frequently they are and other influences the kinds
so
it
I
,
by
,
a
." 65
,
in
,
is a
: “ I
rebuttals Salviati says think that have sufficiently shown far that having poetry derive certain operations demonstrated that from habit which usually are regulated and ordered and which could not this way being what they are derive from anything but habit
of is an
in
of
.
66
” ,
“ a
no as
of
a
to
,
a ,
as it
,
is
or
,
.
of
of
developed further The affirmative aspect Salviati's argument general classification the habits Of the two kinds moral and intellectual operates the latter subdivides into active and productive according acting person series matter This within some external within the poetry operating distinctions leads definition habit external subject through the reason other definition than this
la
:
da
,
lo
."
a ."
)
285
,
...
"
.
subietto esteriore con ragione
(
,
la
,
, e
in
da
le
io
da
habito d'operare
in
29 : “
fol
.
.,
66
Ibid
,
la
,
. si
.
da
è
, e ha le o
e
23 : “
.
,
,
,
la
.
mi
piu nobili delle azzioni principali
credo infino hora hauer mostro Poesia essere habito piu uolte sono regolate essa derivano alcune operazioni che altro che habito cotal guisa cosi fatte deriuare non potreb ,
, e
che
maggior parte Dio pura relligione
."
e
con ordine bono
Assai che
da
28 : , “
gli
;
.
.,
Ibid fol hauendo dimostrato
di a
...
ma riducendo riempiere animi
.
65
'
è la , la
,
da
,
Natura
studia
di
la
64
,
è
da
è
,
è
.,
: “
II,
63
Ibid 365-66 chiara cosa imitazione non esser propria dell uomo siccome sempremai con ragione congiunta l'arte però l'arte non già sempre imitazione può discernere quale cosa non pur scimie cornacchie noi ma ciascuno occhio tanto esser l'arte più gentil cosa che non l'uso l'imitazione per fine nelle sue opere insegnare Trattato MS BNF Magl VII 307 fol non
POETIC
THEORY
needed to classify poetry as an art . If further proof be required, Salviati finds it in the exhaustive enumeration of all human actions as resulting
his
of
be
he
,
an
-
of
essentially ,
be
to
it
of
I
,
is
of
(
of
;
is in
by
i
its
,
,
to
,
in
or
its
by
,
of
so
67
to
,
in
of
;
of
or
,
or
to
its
by
,
In
: “
in a
in
the Muses and
have merely used
as a
poets themselves
it
in
the divine furor and that the impose themselves upon fraud beginning the public truth Poetry never had middle Apollo end divine furor infused the Muses the poets except the opinion the vulgar crowd ... but the poets render themselves marvelous and worthy attention the eyes men helped and augmented this opinion calling upon that divine aid and pretending believed
the fiction
ex ).
below
see
.pp
considers
view toward poetry and the poet
XI ,
be
to
,
he
to
Aristotelian point Chapter 494–97 An amusing attitude toward the whole idea the poetic furor pressed Lodovico Castelvetro his Parere sopra l'ajuto che domandano poeti alle Muse the fragment presume undated but from around 1565. Castelvetro states frankly that the philosophers have never ment
adopt what
as
,
of
.
all
from nature , art , violence , intellect , fortune , or chance (the source of the enumeration is said to be Aristotle's Metaphysics, Book VIII ) . He eli minates these sources except art which must thus the origin poetry The anti Platonic position thus leads him pursues argu
(
a
to
.
be
by
in
),
to
its
in
”
it .
have obtained Given this basic fact about the divine furor contrary assumptions Plato's central theory Castelvetro adopts realistic attitude toward the conditions and circumstances which the Muses may properly invoked the poet This leads him several
,
:
as
of as
as
,
is
,
the Muses far the form helping the writer make such verses would productions simply human the masses
byin
,
be
,
concerned consists only thought impossible
to
the miraculous favor
as
of
in
be
.
: “
in
...
verse
,
.
to
interesting distinctions with respect the poetic art He first divides pairs written works into three verse and prose long and short narrative long narrative poems and dramatic The Muses will called upon only
of
of
or
of
,
,
-
A
68
By
.
,
:
."
,
of
effort either because the power their meaning because their way beauty subject matters provides these similar three division couples historical and argumentative invented and observed difficult and easy The poet will invoke the Muses only for historical invented and “
of
us
to
Poesia non ebbe mai principio
, o
”
,
”
", da la
veramente
"
"
."
of
or
on ,
of
), .p
(
1727
90 : “
“
Opere varie critiche
, In o
67
we
”
“
,
,
by
it
to
.
difficult materials historical Castelvetro means that material give the appearance which we believe have occurred which believing that occurred merely the basis the words presented proof any materials are those Invented other without the author and difficult materials the writer from the mind which come se
,
,
, e
i
&
in
,
.”
, o
,
)
286
(
farli
,
miracoloso favore delle Muse quanto alla forma consiste solamente far versi tali che l'umana industria non sia creduta dal Volgo atta per Scrittore per efficacia della significazione per riguardo della vaghezza
, lo ., o .p
se a
Ibid ajutare
88 : " a il
68
."
,
,
, o ne '
, o
...
; la
da
Apollo mezo fine Furore divino infuso dalle Muse Poeti non secondo l'opinione del Volgo quale Pocti per rendersi maravigliosi riguardevoli nel cospetto quel divino soccorso degli uomini ajutavano facendo accrescevano domandando sembiante d'averlo impetrato
PLATONISM
DEFENCE
:
OF POETRY
contain things which , either because of their past time or for some other reason , it is not verisimilar that the writer could know or understand . " 69 In summary , then , the poet may be expected to use the those which
device of the Muses whenever either his form or his subject matter is so extraordinary as to tax the credulity of his audience ; invocation of divine assistance will then presumably create a kind of verisimilitude . Such in vocation must be used only in a limited way , by poets and for poems that merit it .
GRASSO AND GIRALDI ( 1566) the case of so many other theorists of this period, it is difficult to Benedetto Grasso between the Horatian and the Platonic
his
V , gli
in
ish
As in
at
I
(
on
,
,
,
of
is
, is
,
,
he
in
by
a
...
,
to
be
.
“
of , He
is
to
poetry and Grasso's objections are exclusively moral declares that Terence carries with him the schools since read publicly not worthy poisonous plague tender youths bewitched which the minds to
the objection
.
of
the
the utilitarian end
or
of
specific poets for unsatisfactory specifically Platonic This means really that moral grounds taken have Platonic origins
whereas the condemnation
serving
art
is
of
,
of
be
)
far
as
:
as
(
in in
.
).
of in .p
of
strains have already spoken some length Oratione contra Terentiani 1566 connection with the Horatian tradition Chapter properly made Perhaps the present case the distinction could 177 poetry are concerned the simple assigning this way the ends pleasing and instructing essentially Horatian the dual function
of
as
70
.”
dominate the souls
men
of
its
to
of
,
),
an
is
madness
poetry
inspiration and the communication the Platonic chain present here and second the wilful appeal poets the
of
(
something
to
.
of of
first the inherent capacity ,
them
,
of
in
of
become infected and poisoned the sewer the vices Such results are poetry Grasso sees two factors producing not necessary concomitants
. "
to
71 ,
a
in
as
,
to
.
to
“
to
,
of
,
In
.
vulgar crowd earlier more noble age the poets used their art for highest purposes addressing themselves priests and philosophers the wise men the community But later reflecting decadence the art they tried only give amusement the crowd and licentious ears ,
lewd picture
:
,
certainly fall under the ban are like those accompanying
a
.
by ,
This tendency accounts for Plato's ban which Grasso endorses whole heartedly For the effects produced Terence's poetry which should
89 sia : “
69
it
it
so
,
it is ,
to
,
as
..just painting the more close delights the specta nature the more represents for them lasci tors and holds them bound with marvel each time
, " o ;
."
, o
o
, le
“
lo
" ;
,
), .p è 5 : "
70
."
&
)
al
,
(
287
,
si
,
."
'
33 : "
ed
. . .
., .p
71
de
(
legge portante Oratione 1566 non essere degno publicamente nelle Scuole vnà venenosa peste dalla quale l'animi teneri fanciulli affascinati nella sentina vitij s'infettano auelleneno per dar spasso volgo Ibid alle licentiose orecchie
seco de
, o
, la
le
., .p
“
,
di
quella Materia quale noi crediamo essere avvenuta Ibid facciamo vista parole sole rappresentateci dallo Scrittore senz'altra prova credere che avvenuta per dall'ingegno dello Scrittore and quali per tempo passato and checontiene cose per altro rispetto non comprendere verisimile che Scrittore possa sapere
POETIC
THEORY
vious acts , obscene objects , dirty and ugly actions , it moves in us an honest blushing and arouses an unwillingness to look at them . And even if we do look at them , it is rather because we are moved by the artifice of the painter than by the beauty or the novelty of the painting . 72
Poets and painters, then , will fall into two categories : those who use their art for the proper ends of honest instruction and those who corrupt it to the improper ends of dishonest pleasure . The former are to be accepted and praised , the latter are to be rejected and banished . Grasso's attack was answered immediately by Lucio Olimpio Giraldi in a Ragionamento in difesa di Terentio ( 1566) . I shall not here go into the whole of Grasso's argument , already treated in Chapter V , but shall discuss only the materials pertinent to the present discussion . Giraldi regards Terence as the greatest of comic poets , especially because he is “ so excellent a demonstrator of customs and of daily life that nowhere else may one have a more useful and a clearer image of the ordinary way of life, both civil and popular . " 73 This general statement provides Giraldi , later , with the basis for his refutation of Grasso's moral strictures . He admits that a poet offering obscene and lewd images would be a dangerous influence upon the young ; but he denies that Terence ever does so :
I deny that Terence should be excluded from the schools for having proposed anything less than what was useful for private life ; for he was never anything but the most modest writer and representative of every kind of person , and he was so careful that no clever sailor ever avoided the rocks as carefully , while sailing , as he fled from lascivious and obscene words - even though he had before him Plautus, who was very licentious
. 74
Giraldi cites the authority of Sadoleto , who also praised Terence for his avoidance of improper language. Apparently , the critic here is considering only the dangers of language . As for the actions themselves , he believes that even when they seem to be vicious , they contain hidden lessons and precepts and are hence acceptable : " in the comedies of Terence we find
of honest behavior and of honorable citizens , which teach the reader what is proper to the praiseworthy life and through whose example examples
gli
may be known how much blame is deserved by those who have given them
,
,
,
&
,
gli
un '
de
.pp
73
."
'
,
le
,
in
:
gli
Et , se &
è
:
di
un '
,
,
e
72 Ibid ., p . 31 : " si come la pittura quanto piu s'acosta al naturale , tanto piu diletta riguardanti r'apresenta atti lasciui tiene legati con marauiglia Cosi ogni volta figure inhoneste sporche genera laide attioni muoue noi honesta erubescentia sdegno pur mirarle mirano piu presto mossi dal artificio del pittore che dalla vaghezza nouità della pittura
,
, et
,
,
ne
: lei “
,
,
&
,
." )
288
il
fù
,
(
ha
dishoneste
(
&
parole lasciue
,
) le
molto licentioso
da
,
fù ,
&
,
di
,
,
."
55 : "
., .p ,
lo
di ,
74
&
.
si
di
(
),
Ragionamento 1566 2–3 così vago dimostratore costumi della vita ciuile puo hauere piu vtile piu espressa imagine del viuere commune che altronde non popolaresco ciuile niego che Terentio sia Ibid scacciar delle schuole perche egli proponga rappre più modesto scrittore cosa meno che utile alla uita ciuile perche non mai ogni qualita gente sentatore cosi schifo che non schiuò mai tanto accorto nocchiero fuggito quantunque hauesse hauuto Plauto inanzi scoglio nel nauicare quanto questi
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
selves over to a vicious way
of life . "75 Indeed , it is of the essence of comedy provide to lessons of this kind ; and , rather than being dangerous to youth , indispensable part of early education . Plato's ban on the poets is it is an only thus to be considered as applying to those who displayed wicked acts and words and who created an improper image of the gods ; other poets were exempted from it . Examining Terence's plays , Giraldi finds in them numerous examples of both kinds of actions , wicked ones to be avoided , good ones to be imitated : Terence's intention was to show the ugliness of foul things so that men would abstain from them , not so that they would follow them ; and to propose to them that they might embrace them the praiseworthy and virtuous and honest and adorn themselves with them . Just as tragedy purges men's minds , through terror and pity , and induces men to abstain from acting wickedly , so comedy , by means of laughter and jokes , calls men to an honest private life.76
In sum , then , Terence may serve as a teacher of the living. It should be pointed out that , for Giraldi,
of good
very essence
the position remains definitely Platonic , insofar as the same moral criteria continue to be applied to comedy. He differs from his opponent only in the conclusions which he derives from application of these criteria to Terence . But the difference itself is significant ; it shows a much broader moral outlook and an initial tendency to justify rather than to condemn poetic works .
The Osservazioni sopra Virgilio of Orazio Toscanella ( 1566) has little to offer except a conventional defence of poetry in the usual terms ; such defences continued to be produced throughout the century and were especially frequent in the works of vulgarizers and popularizers such as
in
in
,
as
is
. "
77
,
;
is
of
all
58 : "
75
alone
of
all
:
and offers two reasons one which that from her from the other sciences issued forth ... and the other that she the rest the arts learned through the divine furor
,
mother
of
a
dignity
"
all
Toscanella . The present little treatise is nothing more than a list of the subject matters treated by Vergil , in alphabetical order , with examples of each subject and appropriate citations . In the dedication , he proposes first goodness and to indicate why poetry " surpasses other disciplines
,
di
à
,
,
&
di
,
,
,
di
,
à
, si
di
,
come
huomini huomini
ad la
,
...
,
...
induce chiama
gli gli &
adornino
, le
hà
,
brutezza delle cose sozze proposto loro lode
&
si ,
:
di
&
il
&
,
&
le
&
,
,
il
colla commiseratione beffe nelle Comedie
...
alla
)
(
289
da
lei ,
come madre quasi rimanente dell'arti per ,
,
è,
l'una delle quali che l'altra che essa sola fra tutto
il
da
:ijv “
),
...
."
(
Osservazioni 1566 tutte l'altre scienze uscirono diuin furore s'apprende
ij; *
.pp *
77
. "
,
le ,
le
,
è
di
animi col terrore astenersi dal mal operare cosi riso honesta vita ciuile
la
."
ne
,
,
intentione Terentio stata far uedere astengano non perche seguitino honeste perche abbraccino esse
gli &
&
,
huomini uoli virtuose Tragedia purga
se
, 65 : si "
gli.,
Ibid perche
.p
76
di
'
si
,
., .p
Ibid nelle Comedie Terentio hanno essempi honesti costumi honorate persone ciuili lequali dittano lettori quello che conuiene alla lodeuole vita quanto biasimo siano degni quelle che coll essempio delle quali conoscano vitioso modo vita son date
THEORY all
POETIC
in
be
to
is
a
in is
,
“ it
. "
of
its ,
all
of
poetry
all
,
,
is
“
,
it
it
,
,
.
, As
“
incredible
of
the
”
affords and because power moving the human passions for poetics itself that art which teaches the decorum the characters the style the way the passions because
which
part
necessary
of
pleasure
be of a
to
,
considered
is
Verse
.
,
a
year the same Toscanella published treatise on the concerned with problems metrics and extolling the art
Arte metrica writing verse
of in
to
to
,
In
the following
of
to
78 be ,
to
.
in
;
of
,
—
knowledge Follow the well - known arguments : found Homer and Vergil not only fine doctrines but the most practical suggestions for the conduct life and for mechanical operations poetry had early reli gious uses and was highly honored antiquity Consequently very thing poetry every fine that elevated mind should devote itself order acquire the most noble and precious doctrine that may obtained everlasting fame among mortals and the level ascend
,
in
.
is
,
in
to ,
is
It
of
.” 79
to
and the order which the poet must observe and sum the artifice that belongs the best poet hard see this anything but the traditional definition the poetic art and the emphasis upon decorum passions and the technical rather than moralistic ragiona nella quale universale del fine poetica type della we encounter text which will become increasingly prominent during the last third the sixteenth century text combining traditional Platonism with official Christian ethics The Letione commen tary Petrarch's sonnet Lasciato hai morte senza sole mondo was ",
il
,
,
“
on
.
, a
,
of
a
of
a
,
in
si
With Frosino Lapini's Letione
,
be
as
of
,
as be
“
is
its
or to
to
So
.
its
.
of
all
.
,
1 ,
on
May delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina 1567 and the precede theoretical considerations the commentary proper Lapini starts from the principle that the arts and faculties have their end the per they depend fection man But since from man's free will they may contrary the destruction used either achieve this end achieve delightful and verisimilar poetry proper end with the man with us
it
by
,
us
it
if
us
,
.”
“
be
-
,
&
;
,
,
costumi stile tutto quello che ,
, , i
lo
fra i
,
il
in
;
&
decoro somma
."
il
,
è
essa studio ponga per mortali
, o
à
e
in : “
con sue diletteuoli uerisimili fintioni noi rappresentate raccontando come Historico amonendo come moral Filosofo le
), .p
), , .p
(
quella che insegna Poetica poeta che deue osseruare poeta
290
)
(
."
si
&
(
,
gli
,
80
Bivy
che
,
,
1v , : “
di
à
79
la
Arte metrica 1567 strada affetti l'ordine d'artificioso pertiene all'ottimo Letione 1567 molto meglio giouare ſarebbe non
." &
: "
., .p *
iiijv Ibid ottimamente che ciascuno ingegno eleuato per fare acquisto della più nobile pregiata dottrina che s'acquisti poggiare grado nome sempiterno
in
.
of
so
that the divine furor was given the poets that they things many useful for their lives men the attention stà ,
78
might bring
VI ,
Book to
,
mated
in its
;
.
of
all
.” 80
if
as
or
to
to
us ,
profit done much more than would fictions presented narrated does the historian warned and advised the moral philosopher does Tragedy for example benefits purging our souls passions Thus Sophocles and Euripides always ended their tragedies with useful warnings about human life thus Aristotle insisted that good among And Vergil inti other requisites character must
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
Such artists and philosophers as these shared a proper conception of the poetic art . On the other hand , there have always been those artists whose only aim has been " to give pleasure to people , not without damage and harm not only for public and private life , but also for the reverence that is due religion , since they frequently make fun of the things they should revere and
exalt .” 81 These artists are sometimes read for the elegance of the treatment and the pleasure which men take in imitation ( Aristotle is cited as autho rity here ), sometimes for their sensuous appeal. A work of the latter kind
...
will please and delight , indeed , not because of the power or the art of the poetry , but because of the delight it gives to the appetite eager for such sensuality ; by which such appetite is not only not removed and regulated and dominated , be done by the good poet who writes to benefit men , but by means of examples such it is called to life and inflamed and invited to do evil and to plunge into vice through imitation and through the evil example observed in others . 82 as would
Nor is
to
be
,
of
.
the latter
:
for
the conditions
be
to
,
,
permitted and establishes
of as as
a
is
It
It
, is
.
,
,
,
to
.
,
or
,
his
the private life of the poet , which presumably may be purer than his power spoken works , any justification ; words written have influence and expansion that renders them dangerous such poets these whom Plato wished banish and justifiably such poetry this also that notable Christian writers have condemned Saint Paul and Saint Augustine and Savonarola among others The last these for example distinguishes between the poetry prohibited and that
,
its
he
to ) ,
,
its
it
its ,
(
he ,
..
of
having damned and driven out the Christian republic such ruin and pesti lential vanity i.e. poetry intended for pleasure alone nevertheless leaves place nor does take away from due praises that poetry which follow .
is
If
its
he
.
see )
we
as
( as ,
he
its
it
if
it
,
,
to
of
ing true end attends only the profit readers this profit concerned with human and moral matters shows that the poetry cannot properly use graceful and pleasing ornament and other poetic colors which would render But treats high and sublime and divine matters such the Christian religion in
,
83
81
., .p
82
., .p
.
a
in
,
of
,
mysteries appear puerile affirms that such ornaments truth and ridiculous since high subjects this kind cannot stand such ornamentation itself weak and vain thing and
,
, e
."
,
,
è
,
&
.rep
,
il
."
in
à
ne
&
il
,
,
si
et
...
ha
, et
, la
,
di
pp , .
e
il &
,
ne , e
la
la
e
,
'
le
e
: “ in
e , in , e
: “
è
Ibid Dv altro fine non che dar piacere alla gente non senza nocumento danno non solo del uiuer politico ciuile ma della reuerentia che alla Religione debbe pigliandosi eglino bene spesso gioco scherzo cose che reuerire esaltar douerebbero Dijv piacerà pure per l'arte della Poesia ma Ibid diletterà non per virtù per delettatione dell'appetito vago tali sensualità dalle quali non solo non rimosso regolato ribattuto come uero Poeta farebbe che per giouare scritto ma con tali esempli inanimisce ne.infiamma inuita comettere male attuffarsi nel vitio per per imitatione malo esempio scorto altrui
)
(
291
, , la e
a
,
, e )
si
,
se in
,
si
(
, e
, e
se è
; , il le et
à
di
se si
de
, e
ne
all '
,
, 'de lo ,
,
e
.
e
scacciata dalla Christiana toglie quella Poesia suo luogo utile solo attende suoi lettori mostra egli non disconuenirglisi l'ornato
: , il “
-
et
il
., e
dannata
;
83
pesti tale rouina quale sue douute lodi qual utile intorno cose morali humane altri colori Poetici che gratiato piaceuole rendino ma tratta cose alte sublimi diuine come della Christiana legge suoi misterij afferma tali ornamenti apparire come verità vede per cose puerili ridicole non patendo tali soggetti alti fatt'ornamento cosa debile uana Ibid Div Divv lentiale uanità lascia pur seguendo suo uero fine
POETIC
THEORY
the fact that part, at least, of the blame for the success pleasurable poetry of “ " lies with the audience , which is more prone to pleasure than the hard way follow the easy way of the utility that might possibly derive The end thus comes outside the poet himself depend upon those and whom his poem addressed the
all
: “
to
be
is
in
all
to
do
,
of
considera
undertakes
it
it
in it as
.
to
of
of
and when
the audience .
,
the poet's life and character Moreover these elements are compli essentially Christian severity towards poetic ornament and
by
all
an
by
of
mixed one Platonic insofar poetry moral principles places the effectiveness poetry
a
rhetorical when
the natural dispositions cated
to
thus curious and subordination the art
strangely
becomes
per those who not allow themselves good teaching their wicked disposition which of a
."
a
it
starts with
...
84
,
because
completely lost Lapini's position
tion
is lie
to
.
of
suaded
assigned
is
be
to
blame must
it
of
its
Lapini recognizes
a
a
in of
Castel
.
be
of
be
,
be
pleasurable and preference for artistic elements which might poetry subject might kind whose matter divine and whose uses would essentially religious Lodovico
,
is
)
Horatian
ascribe
:
to
(
be
tendency which might also moral values and social usefulness the arts a
dentally displays
to
its
,
,
o
la
of
.
a
of
,
of
at
in
vetro left death and published the Opere varie critiche 1727 contain certain materials Platonic character These treatises were probably written between 1565 and 1571. One them generally entitled Che cosa abbia scienza comune differente con l'arte interesting for distinction between the sciences and the arts and inci ,
manuscript
his
The miscellaneous short treatises on critical matters
in
of
,
it
to as
.
be
in
,
in
.
of
by in
of
.
It
in
Science has two things common with art and two which are different has common first the solidity the proofs because the one and the other proceed means demonstrative proofs Next has common the order the teach ings which complete and perfect On the the one and the other must ,
,
do
,
or
,
is
or
or
,
;
,
is
,
,
,
it
whether decent useful dishonest the world but art does not tolerate any subject which not decent the world.85
to
to
84
harmful and useful
be
science tolerates every material
It
.
to
;
its
its
be
,
is
other hand science has this which different from art first that science takes subject things which although they may known not necessarily lead subject things which when they are known action but Art does not take for cannot much more easily lead action has also this that different that
di
la
." si
,
, e
ha
de
,
, e
di
la : “ la
(
.
), .p
si
è
la
, E : “
., .p
In
85
colpa quelli che persuader non Ibid tutta lasciano per mala spositione loro nella quale perde ogni buono ammaestramento Opere varie critiche 1727 124 Scienza due cose comuni con l'Arte due differenti Ha comune premieramente fermezza delle prove perciocchè l'una l'altra
si
si
; la
." ,
Mondo
sia al
:
le
,
)
292
al
, o
.
utile
(
,
&
, o
, o
o
cosa che non sia onesta ,
tollera
di
si
non
, il
la
le
.
, e
;
si
si
la
:
,
, e
.
procede con prove dimostrative gl'insegnamenti quale dee Ha poi comune l'ordine perfetto Ha dall'altra parte nell'una nell'altra essere compiuto Scienza questo differente prende per soggetto cose quali per sapersi non possono dall'Arte prima Che Scienza prende cose per soggetto quali non possano molto far venire all'atto ma l'Arte non più agevolmente risapendosi venire all'atto Ha ancora differente questo Che Scienza tollera d'ogni cosa onesta utile disonesta dannosa ch'ella Mondo ma l'Arte
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
on
or
is ”
,
a "
of
in
we
:
“
is
.
,
as
his
The notion of the arts as necessarily “ honest ” and “ useful ” is a first step in the direction of a Platonic subordination of poetry to politics . A more direct consideration of questions raised by Plato himself is found in the Chiose intorno al libro del Comune di Platone , which Castel vetro states to be posterior to redaction the commentary Aris totle's Poetics Here again the following statement usefulness assumed for poetry Here see that the utility the harm that
In
is ,
,
to
is
a
in
,
is
is
87
;
.”
,
vel is
."
“
86
is
derived from the epic the same one that derived from history that argued But the whole question later passage and rejected Plato's own solution the reference the passage beginning Nihil aliud agere imitari oportet the example
by
,
in
is
of
be
or
be
or by
to
this passage Plato presupposes that poetry was not invented for any other way example and that what poetry whether found
reason than teach good evil can
,
;
is
.
it,
of of
,
of
men who heard
reject
. 88
in
,
by
of
us :
of
to
,
to
.
injustices drove fears and injustices from the hearts ing what Plato says this passage
to
it
,
it
,
it
must followed the reader This false for we wish should teach but that should present matters that we can think every kind before frighten the about and that we may have examples give knowledge wicked and console the good and the nature men and women And for this reason Aristotle said that tragedy means fears and not that
by
to
all
;
,
,
,
to
Thus for Castelvetro Plato's theory would seem demand that the reader follow unwittingly and unwillingly the examples presented him the poet whereas Aristotle's theory would permit the reader choice and .
;
as
.
a
of
a
as a
,
, in
of
,
or
rather choice following upon reflection The basic principle moral instruction remains both the same but Castelvetro sees the reader more independent and more intelligent man and the poet having greater scope activity reflection
To
CONCLUSIONS
elements 86
at
”
of
to
“
is
the one hand
,
But
by
.
both attack
on ,
.
does the attack
of
;
ments
so
in
,
,
of
interrupt this analysis Poetry the Defence the present chronological point about 1570 imply not that there was any such interruption thinking writing upon the and the subject The defence throughout using continues the century for the most part the same argu this date the essential and amply
and defence have been established
,
, è
)
293
, o
, e
paure con riprovando ,
uomini ascoltanti
,
ingiustizie quello che ,
la
le
le de gli
,
è
con
o
la
in
,
si
, e
,
da &
;
de
(
."
, e le
Tragedia
gli
la
i
,
E
.
in
le
,
, e
è
Il
da
, da e
i
.
, o
da ,
perciò diceva Aristotele che delle donne paure ingiustizie dal cuore scacciava questo luogo dice Platone
e
si
,
o il
.
." ,
,
: "
In
(
.pp
.
e
to
,
se
.,
), .p
,
si
88 87
sia ,
: “
.,
quella stessa Ibid 209 Ecco che l'utilità danno che trae dell'Epopea trae dell'Istoria cioè l'essempio Trans Ficino Basel 1546 561 questo luogo presuppone Platone che Ibid 215-16 Poesia non sia trovata per altro non per insegnare per Esempio ciò che truova Poesia bene male che possa proposta prima che vogliamo altri debba seguire che falso perciochè che insegna per materia farvi pensamenti sopra acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni spaventare rei maniera consolare buoni conoscere natura uomini che
POETIC
THEORY
illustrated ; on the other hand , after 1570 an increasing number of docu ments adopt an antipoetic attitude because of their strong Christian bias. This means that while the problem remains the same during the last years the century , some
of
of
the solutions become
more extreme
and more
violent . This identity of the problem constitutes the principal unifying element the numerous texts that I have examined so far. Let me state it , briefly , in this way : Should the art of poetry be admitted to society because products contribute proscribed the good the state should because works are essentially harmful Whether the critics take the be
it
or
,
its
?
its
to
of
its
for
to
is
it
,
of
.
in
,
of
to
or
position favorable poetry opposite they remain within the same proper framework discussion within the basic assumption that consider poetry this light poetry start from certain premisses which are not always The opponents it
is
,
a
of
.
of
In
.
,
of
of
his
a
or
is
.
clearly stated and which are sometimes mutually contradictory They dangerous assume that one reason why poetry that exercises upon power superior the reader hearer kind irresistible rhetorical force passions and imposes upon him the teachings which sways the poem partly partly power terms the human divine this are The causes
,
his by
his
,
in
.
he
;
a
or in
of
,
of
pagan times the divine cause lies within the gods and the ancient poetic Muses terms modern Christian theory within God and the natural inspirations with which talents endows certain men As for the human causes they consist almost entirely those pleasurable adornments to
to
it
.
.
a
,
to
”
or "
of
,
of
,
or
.
all
audience
an
of
poem and makes which the poet beautifies attractive assumption irresistibility would seem Such indicate young prey equally that men old wise foolish should fall the blandishments the poetic art Yet second basic assumption denies this means
is
,
to
for
,
,
it
—
,
It
dangerous holds that poetry written under the conditions indicated only for certain groups young the men and women whose education might contribute for the ignorant masses for those men who are morally by ,
of
of
-
all
,
a
of
.
to
predisposed resisting wickedness and vice Others are quite capable danger mature and adult persons already formed and hence are out sound education the sages the city who have extraordinary faculties to
;
,
its
by
of
.
is
,
of
goodness and discrimination those men who are morally disposed differentiating young intelligence virtue The factor here the and the ignorant cannot understand the true meanings poetry and are led astray false appearances whereas the old and the wise pierce beneath the a
-
is
.
of
,
is
to
-
all
an in
a
of
294
)
duped
by
be
to
,
refuse
;
it
.
blessed with intelligence
(
,
the wise
but ”
by
cannot
is
imperfect representation hidden truth perceptible only the surface and young see the foolish and the intellect The pleasurable presents resist the enticements which the old and
the ear
only
“
to
, to
illusory surface This involves the salutary teachings contained within poetry assumption essen Terence even the comedies that third tially allegorical the eye and audible visible that what character
appearances
and
PLATONISM
DEFENCE OF POETRY
:
extract from the core of poetry the most abstruse and recondite teachings . Because of the dangers presented by the art of poetry to the young and the foolish , several alternatives for combatting these dangers are suggested by critics and philosophers . The most obvious is to forbid , to banish , to condemn poetry entirely . This is Plato's extreme solution in the Republic, and it has adherents throughout the years we have been studying. A second solution is to make a choice among poets and poems, admitting some and rejecting others according as they do or do not satisfy accepted standards of a pedagogical, ethical , political , or religious nature . This involves a
,
on
;
or
of
its
third possibility , that of placing the whole art under the jurisdiction of a body of arbiters . These might be the elders of the city, and they would then apply political standards ; or philosophers , who would see poetry in relationships with the totality priests whose judg human behavior an
of
is
of ,
,
-
.
of
of
of
of
.
of
of
it is
of
or
;
be
be
theological principles involving also ments would based ethical capable code those the citizens themselves who would the philoso proper kind groups probably discrimination Of these the phers who enjoy the greatest favor with Cinquecento theorists and this undoubtedly because the Platonic origins this point view and philosopher king vogue because the the notion the
of
is
to
is
a
,
of
.
,
I
of
,
of
of
to
Whatever the particular group chosen hold sway over poets and the principle subordination the art another discipline throughout distinguishing constant and constitutes one the features the Platonic approach during this century have already pointed out pedagogical potential very however that the central assumption poetry
of
of .
as a
,
of
.
A
of
special
,
as
Lapini
the light
of
,
poetry regards
.
-
both the pleasurable firm theological premisses
in
be
carefully limited and circumscribed ornaments and the doctrines taught
-
to
,
.
of
be
of
provided that these
of
directing the application ness the pleasure and the utility case must made for the extreme Christian apologists such for they tend admit certain religious uses for certain kinds
as
,
of
or
be
of
,
as a
of
is
”
“
of
,
to
of
utility whereas the recognition the Horatian notion the corrupting force sweet ornament takes into account Horace's pleasure The utile dulci thus present for both lines critics statement dangers for the Platonists And ends for the Horatians statement predominant while the former debated which the ends should how might sought reducing one serve the other the latter means the effective close
,
in of
,
,
be
.
,
295
)
(
,
by
,
of ,
as
to
encouraged every society The testimony historians and philosophers alike convinces them that
able and should ancients
.
a
in
as
As
.
to
to
-
-
,
The critics who defend poetry not the anti Platonists but rather the opposite conclusions Platonists who come are concerned with the same basic problem But they tend see the circumstances different way through they far can discover their historical researches through appeal their other authorities such Cicero Plutarch and Strabo through their own observations the teachings poetry are highly desir the the
POETIC
THEORY
by
on
all
remote ages of mankind the first contributions to civilization were made by the poets ; as a result, poetry became the first of the arts and the sciences
,
in
—
of
all
softening
the
and They
refinements .
sensibility
its
of
in
in
to
in
of
of
demands
to
of
fluences
of
.
as an a its —
a
special
known
on
of
to
as by a
,
of
and perhaps their own characters art that appeals men through kinds subtlety spirit and audience both
thus argue
have
.
and mother of the rest They support this opinion the one hand citing restricted number historical and philosophical texts the other pointing knowledge found hand the wealth and diversity such poets recognize Homer and Vergil They themselves seem men they
be
,
.
as
as
,
,
all of
,
of
an -
the basis
the same general
men who
system
of
,
between two groups
of
explain these differences
approach the same problem
of
shall
on
How
we
to
,
corollary that the pleasures poetry deriving from use language verse kind and the ornaments should sought rather than avoided for their own sake well for the contri bution that they make ultimate utility
and still come forth with contradictory conclusions One answer the attitude each group toward the men who constitute poetry tend less than their poets the audiences the The defenders opponents upon corrupt look mankind and corruptible They are
of
.
to
.
there may
hidden meanings
whatever
enough moral stability
of
be ,
or
the spectator has enough intelligence
by
be
perceive
as
to
willing
,
?
of
admit that the reader
of
believe
in
,
lies
to
I
,
reference
on
to
,
to
,
I
it
less definitely ethical their opponents Although they argue the matter consent the grounds proposed the Platonists they really not put much stock the moral mission the poet poetry They affirm but without conviction the educative function enthusiasm Primarily they are interested the work art work art a
,
or , or in
of
in of
as
of
,
.
in
its , by
its
of
.
so
of
in
do
to
:
art
to
of
the usual suppositions Christian theology and greater extent within the context the arguments
of
or a
, to
;
,
be
of
a
.
of of
position the church ethics They remain .
it of is
If
.
by
do
it
to
ulterior ends are driven
,
technique and perfection rather than the might serve they argue about these ends because they the vehemence and the persistence the attacks affirming the contrary and they argue largely what their opponents had declared Perhaps third answer should also intimated the de poetry are much less prone adopt toward their fenders the official in
the problems
,
by .
do
,
the whole
on
to
is
of
poetry have that the defenders poetry than and political approach
.
to
of
a
of
it
.
all )
of (
of
a
in
of
,
to
or
moved to
to
examples amused vice without necessarily under recognize imitate them immediately enough common sense poetry are after that the works fictions Perhaps they recognize thus enjoy the audience measure artistic sensitivity which enables the pleasure the work without becoming victim and discern suggest what parts the work are valid guides life Another answer
taking
,
a
in
,
of
296
)
(
.
of
of
of
classical antiquity and their loud proclaimings the beauties and the delights and the educative virtues poetry constitute way the triumph paganism
-
CHAPTER EIGHT . PLATONISM : II . THE TRIUMPH
OF CHRISTIANITY
URING THE LAST THIRTY YEARS of the Cinquecento , the principal Platonic ideas on poetry, pro and contra , continue as before . There D is little contraction or expansion of the arguments , little diversifica tion of the standard approaches to the problem . At best , one may note an increase in the number of critics and theorists who display an ultra - Catholic
attitude toward questions of literature
of
. Some
they undoubtedly reflect the conclusions
of
, and
these are churchmen
of
the successive meetings
the
Council of Trent - conclusions which tended to place stringent limitations on the practice and uses of poetry . One may perhaps note this as a general development in the century , a repentance over the pagan excesses of the earlier years and a wish to rival ,
if not
overtake , the strait - laced Puritanism literary of the reformed churches . In the world itself , some such turnabout may be detected in the case of Tasso — there was modicum of madness connected with it — who first imposed an allegorical interpretation upon
of
”
of
.
of
in
.
be
1570
)
(
I
VIPERANO
a
“
to
,
his
then proceeded the disastrous purification the purifica Liberata into the Gerusalemme Conquistata Such complete keeping with the wishes tion was those few theorists whom speaking shall masterpiece
Gerusalemme
all
of “
art
,
he ) is a
(
.
of
,
in
be
",
of
,
,
to
to
of
The first the theorists considered this chapter Giovanni Viperano poetry Or more belongs Antonio rather the defenders specifically his De scribendis virorum illustrium vitis 1570 kind biography biographer praises which the because serves the same . “
to
in
at
,
" 1
peoples
.
all
of
of
of
;
an
of
, “
”
be
to
the techniques
says Viperano
the
the poet and describes
to ,
as
common both Of study the arts which teach the historians and the poets seems me divine and admirable for with almost heavenly great men from oblivion and from the power they rescue the deeds damage time and the same time sow them far and wide the memory ends
,
is
,
.
,
be
it
;
be
in
to of
of
history and biography for Viperano The major pedagogical value princes but the instruction will remembered that this was frequently assumed the case for certain poetic genres For both the
of
.
:
a
of
to
to
in
to
,
of
to
glorious actions result from the education virtue and the stimulation biography proper depiction character and practically the whole art knowing ingredients present consists how characters The such presentation are the ones familiar the rhetoricians and the Horatians
]
[
297
in vi
,
:
&
,
."
ab
, &
: "
), .p
&
(
1
De scribendis vitis 1570 A3v inter cetera doctrinarum genera historicorum prae cipue studium poëtarum mihi diuinum qui coelesti quadam admirabile videtur simulque clarorum hominum res gestas obliuione uetustatis iniuria vindicant omnium gentium memoriam disseminant
POETIC THEORY .
be
the others They must
the painter
,
as
And just
: “
;
ut
all
age , sex , fortune , profession , place of birth , pictura historia presented clearly and vividly
of
in
,
least
of
poetry to of
,
at
of
history
be in or
by
.”
2
It
,
is
of in
of
all
,
,
,
however that the actions accomplished the hero are also important for the ends are stated partially
,
,
so
,
of
of
,
all
a
in
of
shaping the features thought shine face which the movements expressing the charac the good writer his powers out uses teristics perceived the soul from which the way life the person put expression diligence will into such his care and would seem terms
to
by
,
be
no
to
or
by in
of
: “
be
be
a
of
to
to
taught learned from deeds and acts Men should constancy spirit every vicissitude maintain fortune not allow good fortune depressed themselves carried away mis the lessons
,
. " 3
.
tell the truth whereas poetry expansion and ,
to
occasions
and rhetoric may indulge
in
in
is
of
,
,
of
all
arts and the crediting
of in
,
a
in
a
to
of
).
of
(
fictions Viperano The whole point view Platonic not only pedagogical assignment the function the various arts discussed but more subtle way the breaking down the barriers among these invents
exaggeration
kinds
all
on
,
in
,
obliged
of
is
it
that
all
poetry
in
be
of
;
is
fortune that there dishonor that does not come from wickedness nor any praise that does not flow from the springs honor Such lessons may also learned both arts from apothegms History differs from
.
an
di
et
,
of ,
)
V
to
to
as
).
added
It
is
(
little
be
with common ends and common means what has already been said in Chapter about Andrea Menechini's oration Delle lodi della poesia d'Omero Virgilio 1572 may serve admirably example the close com There
of
,
in He
we
us
it
:“ ,
our souls monstrous
,
it
be
,
in
)
constitutes the
it
to
Thus
it
and the
particular
se
ab ac
in
.”
&
, e
in
sic
,
: “
-
in .pp
.,
3
, in
conformandis
,
in
vt
: “
., .p
Cv
,
2
quo motus animorum lineamentis oris exprimendis animi moribus elucent summam operam consumit bonus scriptor quibus vitae ratio perspicitur omne studium suum diligentiam ponet Dijv Diij Doceanturgue Ibid homines omni fortuna constantem animum Ibid
pictor
singular and
the general
.
universal and frees them from
the of
the contemplation the
men
,
its
is
It
. "' 4
us
of
with the image those things which desire passion through this capacity possess the that poetry achieves usefulness that works
arouses
Itaque
remembered
of of
of
...
to
,
of
listeners
miracles that
it
its
with every warmth
poetry
excites the movements our minds frightening with examples
things and delighting
of
(
of
.
takes possession
of
is
that this major effectiveness
souls
.
of
of
will imitative capacity Imitation itself and one the central concepts the Platonists
of
in
,
power
of
, in of
to
as a
.”
on
"
of
,
of
panionship between the Horatian and the Platonic attitudes toward the ends poetry and also witness the continuation the vogue the poetry Menechini cites Plato frequently praise poetry defences emphasizes the divine furor and the prophetic gift the poets harmony especially the superiority prose persuasive verse over
."
)
,
." di
,
& de
,
i
(
298
gli
:
in
,
,
: di “
-
iv a
a
), .p
,
,
(
4
a
,
tenere nec secundis rebus efferre nec aduersis demittere nullam esse ignominiam quae turpitudine non proficiscatur nec laudem vllam quae non honestatis fonte emanet Delle lodi 1572 ivv eccita movimenti animi s'insignorisce delle rallegrandoci menti spauentandoci con essempij cose monstruose con l'imagine quelle che noi desideriamo con ogni caldo affetto
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
of all
:
OF
CHRISTIANITY
These various powers are the con poetry poetry The divinity sequences understood the divinity from this fact that nobody can achieve success without celestial breath inspiration From the poet the divine spirit passes the reader the listener making him person closer the gods his perfection
of
is
or
to
of
us
purging
every
its
for
:
in
by
!
divine inspirations
,
its
in
to
it
,
.
it
,
of
is
a
as
its
,
pure and simple you make our soul shine with own splendor proper and natural strength intelligence which also through the chief and pilot that same soul you cause obtain from the angels single moment whatever desires ,
stain making and through
to
a
of
oh
highest
us
Oh holy Poetry
!
,
of
.”
,
5
or
,
in it
:
“
of
.
the sciences
of
becomes the mistress
to
in ,
.
— a
of
,
in
The praise continues this tone now general now applied Homer and Vergil tone which recalls that Plato the dialogues dealing with inspiration and enthusiasm a
of
.
of
I
,
it
a
is
; it
of
by
,
of
is
,
of
The same problem imitation but approached from more intellectual standpoint subject the brief fragment Lorenzo Giacomini Tebal ducci Malespini without title and shall call on the Definition Imitation The fragment follows Giacomini's translation Aristotle's in
of of by is
,
X
in
of
.
, by to
,
Its
is
,
of
be
it to
I
of
is
to ,
.
in
Poetics MS Laurenziana Ashb 531 and likewise the hand Giorgio Bartoli and presume the same date 1573. content also related the text the Poetics since Giacomini here trying distinguish between the definitions imitation offered Plato and Aristotle By combining the definitions Books III and the Republic ;
I
62
at
or
).
.
(p
II
be
.
in ", he
.
to
, to
of of
"
“
"
or
in
of a
"
be
to
“
of
,
it
belongs
can
equate imitation with fable
a
of
leads him
a
single one This combined into mythology raise the question whether fable need told the person another decide that poetry need not and concoct curious definition which various senses imitation and fable are hopelessly confused Giacomini
to
and hence that various meanings
in in
"
“
of
in
a
Giacomini produces somewhat strange interpretation Plato have already cited the passage Chapter extenso He assumes that all the uses the term imitation Plato are identical least similar
or by
in
of
a
on
In
)
1573
(
AGNOLO SEGNI
.
of
of
he
of
of
in
the Platonic tradition the sense that continues the discussion one the main ideas associated with that tradition contemporary theorists and that commentary presents kind interpretation Plato the text
:ijv "
)
by
to
be
it
( if
of
of
is a
.
of
to
be
,
fact Giacomini's little passage imitation indeed his may more closely indebted another work 1573 than his own transla Agnolo Segni tion the Poetics That work set lectures delivered
)
da
di
&
,
."
&
,
è
,
,
la fai gli
da
fai
299
(
la
,
,
&
;
, ò
."
,
la
si
, ò
Et di
:iijv “ O
,
, , in & ,
un
., .p
., .p b
b
s
la
6
qui comprende Ibid diuinità della Poesia imperò che alcun non può conseguirla senza fiato inspiration celeste poiche purgandoci Ibid santa Poesia ben somma inspiration diuina ogni macchia rendendone casti semplici rilucer per l'anima col proprio splendore propria diligenza sua come ancor per capo auriga natural sua mente che Angeli ciò che ella disidera conseguir essa anima subito momento
POETIC
THEORY
in their original form they were six in number , although Segni reduced them to four in 1576. The original lectures are now to be found in the Biblioteca Laurenziana , MS Ashb . 531 ( the one which contains Giacomini's works ) ; the published form appeared post the Accademia
to
Fiorentina
;
humously in 1581.7 In keeping with the traditions of the Accademia , Segni must limit himself to a discussion of Petrarch , and he chooses to speak of the canzone ( No. CXXVII ) beginning " In quella parte dove Amor mi sprona .” But only a few paragraphs of the lengthy Lezioni are devoted to the poem ; the rest is an essay on imitation , on Platonic principles , meant to serve as prolegomena to the analysis of Petrarch . In itself, the essay is
an
of
knowledge for in ,
of it
,
in
in in
,
"
general Platonic
is
a
.
involving the need for the search any field discovering that highest good most disciplines ,
is to
a
it
,
all
,
of
,
in ,
that Segni addresses himself The first lezione establishes system “
.
as a
complete theory broadest sense this justification requires imitation and the literary genres and that theory
But poetry
the
as
be
of
as a
of its to
,
its
one of the most extensive , most thoroughgoing , and most valuable Platonic documents of the century . Seen in narrowest sense Segni's group lectures may taken attempt justify lyric poetry proper genre and Petrarch poet
found
the
,
,
is
it
” )
(“
to
.
to
its of
is in
poetry intellect but that found the divine furor asserting that the poetry genus imitation The second lezione defines imitation estab relationships lishes false discourse orazione falsa and fable
at
,
of
discover
to
,
In
(
a
after
(
in
,
he
.
the sixth
reaches the discussion
an
Finally
,
poetry
to
assigned
the preceding five lezioni
),
of
preliminary
seeking
the various kinds arts with respect which they are addressed and the various
to
the faculties
which might lengthy summary
the fifth
Segni examines be
their ends
ends
verse and arrives
.
,
,
,
poetry ),
to
the ends
of
of
,
tion including the necessary instrument poetry poetics and poem definitions
of
.
of
in
he
,
,
of
.
of
” ),
("
an
favola and inquires into the objects such imitative fable The third studies the kinds imitation both without and within poetry and explains what sense Plato found imitation bad and why banished the poets from the Republic The fourth investigates the instruments imita
in to
letteraria
,
a
imitation
del Cinquecento
, "
critica
by
,
.
di
of
,
of A
"
of 8
art ."
this definition will reveal
He means
]
300
de
le
divine con purgare animi
gli
fine
di et
,
88 : “ à
le
cose humane
and fol
.
" ;
il
Immitazione
furor divino
de
.
manoscritti
,
, in
-
on
is
of
(
“
) is :
in
.
in
is
by
poetry
."
orazione favolosa versi secondo humani da loro affetti
: "
.
,
(
),
III
in .
, “
Nuove Attribuzioni 1952 247–49 MS Laur Ashb 531 fol 74v .
7
gloss
In
main ideas about the
See my Rinascimento 8
their emotions di
Segni's
[
human minds
of
by
."
to
,
of
of
,
if
;
of of
elementary theory Petrarch but since this immediately involves him anything question the lyric little said about the poem Segni's first definition poetry the fourth lecture An imitation things making human and divine means fable discourse verse according expanded the divine furor the last lecture this definition purging and completed the addition the formula the end
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
a
is
-
an
an
to
"
essempio
its or
imma
“
, "
idolo "
another which
its
an "
is “
of
likeness
is
,
of
one thing
fabricate
-
"
, to
to
,
-in
"
fantasma
54 )
In
of
of
It
fol .
an
.
(
it
"
,
"
a
gine
its
,
.
another
resemble
53 ) ;
fol .
number of things. He does not exclude the simplest Platonic meaning of " to speak in the person of another ” ( but this too limited meaning and would eliminate most the writings the lyric poets for poetry not example Petrarch indicates accident essential differentia most general meaning imitate make one thing
an of
of
.
As
,
of
a
an
"
is “
”
its
,
of
,
.
“
appearance essemplare representation The idolo gives object and poetry concerned with the making such images art imitation imitation poetry enters into the whole broader schematism
of
,
).
fol .
(
its
as
.
it
which Segni borrows from Plato Since uses discourse words imitate concepts just concepts imitate things 86v The general process in
byor
a
.
-
is
to
or
of
—
of to of
,
,
:
,
a
In
).
.
(
(
),
of
is
in
imitation found everywhere the world God imitates himself man Scripture nature imitates the world ideas art imitates nature men imitate each other fols 32–33 word the whole Platonic chain relationships particular concepts objects from universal Ideas objects representations series constituted those concepts imitations see
,
”
of
(
of
poetry
:
)
“
(
it is
poetry
attributing
"
himself states
is a
,
Of
by
.
,
he
.
As
,
their expression ),
to
false
"
“
,
of
truth These are called mythology the "
or
by a
"
likeness
the Italians
Plato the language the orazione and hence poetry false imitation
the distinction
,
of
Its
it
"
a
,
favola
this analysis apparently collapses the materials
with the instrument is
semblance
of
, in
.
;
"
create
the Latins
Greeks Segni
which
of
go
"
by
,
"
as
in "
themselves
fabula
.
to
of
poetry involves imitations special kinds and The particular realm many cautions with respect things them materials are not true history and science and the arts such those which into the making but rather false things for imitates things which without being true
to of
of
or
to
to
or
,
as ,
or
,
it or is
:
.
,
,
to
or
as
of
language the true which narrates the truth things these two kinds exactly they were done they are does not belong poetic are done poetry but proper either history imitation one another the sciences Hence the other part remains for poetic imitation and for poetry ;
of
.
by ,
is
is ,
by to ,
us
"
“
;
is
,
it
:
he
is
“
,
,
distinguishes false plot from false speech another context however fable thus always lying and falseness but divided into two one
The
56 : “
In
by
in
by
-
is to
of
make images out false language and out fable and consequently poetry this false language which makes images that which makes false things and things invented itself resemblance the true which language called mythology the Greeks and favola and the Latins
)
(
à la de le
è
è la la
,
fa
la
et et
:
ò
la
,
, la
à le
301
la
, la
la
et à
",
da
et lei
, et
e
la
la
;
;
et et
fa le
, ò , il , il
è
ò
è
,
ne à la
,
ò si
la
Di
.
.,
9
queste due orazioni quale narra Ibid fol vera verità cose appunto poetica immita come sono state fatte fanno come elle sono questa non appartiene poesia ma propria zione del istoria d'una d'un altra scienzia adunque l'altra parte resta al'immitazione poetica poesia far idoli con l'orazione falsa con favola diremo immitazione poetica essere far idoli con orazione falsa con conseguentemente poesia essere questo orazione falsa quale favola idoli cio somiglianti quale orazione mithologica cose false finte vere chiamata da Greci da noi favola da Latini
POETIC
THEORY
is the false language , as Plato says ... , which contains within itself false things, whatever they may be ; the other is those false things themselves and particularly false actions , not true but invented . ” 10 Segni thinks that herein - or one of the differences between Aristotle and Plato on imitation : Aristotle considered the actions themselves , not the words , 99 as the plot or " favola ."
lies the difference
way , Segni attributes to Aristotle the same meanings for imitation as to Plato . He argues that because Aristotle divided imitation into three manners - narrative , dramatic, and mixed — and because these
In
a general
were the three manners which Plato had given to “ mythology ,” then
imita
tion and mythology must be the same thing . Aristotle is made the authority for the statement that the objects of imitation are not restricted to human actions but include characters, passions , and thoughts as well ( fol. 59 ) , while Plato indicates that the gods also may be treated . Segni feels that are necessary , first to justify the inclusion
of lyric poetry kind of loose description of divine things . ” In that same
these statements
( which has no actions ), second to permit the the object , in his definition , as “ human and definition , the means of imitation are said to be “ fable -making discourse " ( a concept which we have already examined ) and verse . Verse is demanded by the common conception of poetry , by Plato ( explicitly ) and by Aristotle ( implicitly ) ; it is the
matter ” for the realization of the
“ necessary
form ” :
“
to
be
a
is
as
it
as :
,
to , a
,
in
a
,
its
a
to
to
,
,
,
is
to it ; as
its
Thus poetry is a composite of imitation and of verse , in which the imitation is poetry without essence and not the verse but not for this reason can necessary proper matter just body necessary verse which just any body particular body particular man and not but and matter but poetry the imitation just the soul and the form corresponds the or
,
of
is ,
according
to
Segni's original definition—
of
The last member
"
to of
. 11
in
,
to
language corresponds body and not any the body and certain kind language whatsoever but this fixed one that language metrical language made verse the divine
,
is
.
it is
of
of or
is
is
,
, it
.
in
,
;
”
poetry Nature and furor —is meant indicate the main efficient cause art are also efficient causes but nature the Platonic system identifi secondary because powerless able with divine inspiration and art without nature For Segni the presence absence the divine furor
“
in
is
he
,
et
”
,
,
si
se ,
in
la
."
stesse cose false poesia composto
et à la in
,
,
il
la
."
, 9et
)
302
et
il il
,
di
e
al
, è
è
al
,
, si
, et
è
(
, , al et
un
di
,
è
la
il
lei
, si
la
,
ne la
,
à
è
è
di : “ lei , et
.
.,
immitazione verso dove immita quale non verso ma non pero puo essere poesia senza verso corpo come propria sua materia come huomo necessario non corpo tale forma risponde qualunque corpo ma anima una materia tale ma poesia corpo immitazione come tale corpo risponde l’orazione non qualun versi fatta que orazione ma questa determinata ciò l'orazione metrica zione l'essenza necessario
Cosi
to
.
,
of
la
•
et
è le
l'altra
fol 72v
favola falsità ma divide due quale contiene cose false qualunque particolarmente l'azzioni false non vere ma finte
• .. •
57 : “ È
.,
sieno
Ibid
adunque sempre menzogna
orazione falsa come dice Platone
il ,
11
elle
lbid
:
una
si è la
10
,
of in fol .
to
or
poetry which accounts for the goodness badness complete his definition Segni adds the formula When order purging human minds providing his the end their passions
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
statement of the final cause . This may seem to be a nod to Aristotle ; but the formula is much more than a paraphrase of the purgation clause in
to
,
a
In
.
its
Aristotle's definition of tragedy. For Segni , working in a Platonic context , the ends of poetry are varied and complex . As an imitative art, it appeals to the senses , which are both deceived and satisfied by it ; it does not appeal to the reason . If there is another part of the soul to which imitation is germane, it is the appetitive faculty , for the appetite transforms itself into the irrational word poetry addresses itself desire the object of , of
,
,
of
of
,
of
a
“
is
.
of
,
of
by
,
if
.
, of
in
it
of
in
to ; to
fill it .
to
to ,
.
:
is
be
to
is
of
and hence the inferior parts the soul According Plato the end poetry these are good with passions alter the appetite and according good and vice versa But Aristotle the end the poem will just the opposite remove the passions from the soul means purgation After lengthy examination this effect Segni the nature pity and fear themselves concludes that consists the removal not opposites takes place but their opposites and that similar purgation poetry the other genres He states that the end the purgation from
da
la
“
to
,
,
82 ).
.
à
",
et
(
”
of
,
of
various noisome and blameworthy passions brought about through the means purgazione del animo other better passions diversi affetti noiosi biasimevoli col mezzo d'altri affetti migliori con dotta fine fol He does not however fail take into account other the mind
.
:
of
is
to
,
;
is
it
,
it
to ' ,
a
of
to
all
,
he
;
is
it
a
In
the possible
:
of
ends Aristotle's that the plot Horace's similarity pleasure and utility Proclus that that the original distinguish among these rival ends attempts final summation and admit poetry them into total conception suggestions
accident
the end
is
an
.
Pleasure
as
as
made
of
,
as
of
;
they are works which remain , an
as
of
:
of
:
as
We have explained several ends for poetry the plot the form and soul and opera the end the other parts the moving the passions and purgation tions the whole the passions that are moved and the purgation ends insofar
by
of
of
.
is
and because also the works made the operations end the passions previously aroused follows
our
mean the
in
is
.
of to
of
I
is
of
we
as
the patient and
the subject purged.12 de la
12
,
agent but that
of
of ,
byof
of
poetry and that the true and ultimate end the poem the purgation passions according minds their said above Aristotle And always purgation not the operation purging which this name
of
, it
of
is
,
the thing proposed end and purgation
an
of
an
parts are
is
placed among the ends But because when one speaks also called end and about the end one means that end which the end the whole and not the
:
gliet
, la
,
:
:
gli
et
e ' si
del
: il
la
de
lo et è è
de
de . le
et et tra la '
et si
,
, de la
de le
è
di
,
e '
et il
gli
:
il
.
et la
,
et .,
: “
poesia fols 83–83v Habbiamo esplicati piu fini favola come forma purgare come operazioni del tutto fine del altre parti mover affetti purgazione fini come opere che rimangano fatte piacere come accidente affetti mossi pone ragiona del fine ancora egli fine s'appella fini Ma perche quando fine quello che s'intende parti fine del tutto non perche cosa proposta operazioni sono fine purgazione ancora l'opere fine affetti mossi inanzi Ibid
anima
)
(
303
et
,
ne
la
et
è
la
il
et
."
,
da
seguita che poesia purgazione degli animi nostri del poema fine vero ultimo loro affetti come noi dicevamo disopra secondo Ar.e intendo sempre per questo nome purgazione non l'operazione del purgare quale agente ma quella del paziente del suggetto purgato
POETIC THEORY
inci
The seeming duality of approach , involving an admixture of an
Aristotelianism to a basic Platonism , is present throughout the work . We have seen it in the concept of imitation , in the insistence on verse , in the idea of purgation . At times , Segni thinks that the two ancient philosophers are in precise agreement ; at others, when they disagree , he finds the means of reconciling them by a more inclusive theory which embraces both . Occasionally , where Aristotle fails to define a term , Segni assumes that he adopts and shares Plato's use of it . When Aristotle says dental
fol .
( Poetics 1454b11 ) that the tragic poet's portrayals must represent men as more remarkable than they really are , Segni interprets this as calling for a .
63 )
is
of
,
,
,
,
of
lyric poetry that permits Petrarch writer as a
of of
,
,
it
is
a
is
(
.
of
to
It
narrative further division discover the proper classification
is
the lyric Segni
:
of
,
in
,
of
representation of Platonic Ideas of character and the passions ( poetry into four species epic tragic comic and lyric The distinction philosophers depends upon the division found both and the three manners imitation the epic mixed tragedy and comedy are dramatic
of
of
the general structure
,
ideas and the framework
poetry exists
a
be
he
:
of
the latter
as
,
the former
it is
a
subordinate
,
,
single man through repentance their natural order our particular arts to
to
of
much better connect with that general art the state and proper For from the preservation
the art
of
purge the errors
undoubtedly
of to in
to
a
is
it
If
pointing out the political usefulness good thing
.
in
a
to
,
to
in
of
.
,
it
of
in
:
of
of
of ,
At
a
by
it is in
Platonic world pursues imitations made possible the presence the divine furor goal moral betterment for the spectator poetry the beginning his discussion the utility his Apologia espous dei dialogi written around 1574–75,13 Sperone Speroni seems ing position opposite For answers Plato by the Republic Plato's reference
are Platonic
of
Segni
its
;
it is
to
the whole
,
.
(
of
On
90 ).
fol
is
it
is
to
.)
encomia and threnes From Aristotle Segni borrows the notion that history because poetry superior more universal from Plato the judgment that philosophy very particularity inferior because
in
to
to
. 14
of
,
...
,
no
or
do .
of
to
to
is
that order arises the determination not only evil but refrain from any actions which might appear legi opposition timate this that individual but which are the best behavior the whole body the citizenry
.
of
art of to
in
in
to
he
,
14 13
,
to
,
a
of
to
is
It
Speroni which led social usefulness according purgation tragedy We Aristotle include the clause the definition although Speroni poetry note here that sees virtues the use for social instruction nevertheless wishes subordinate the the higher art this notion
.
in
sia
...
ma son diverse
al
.
di
quello
,
questo
e
a
,
304
)
(
,
è
,
che pajon lecite
."
di
ma astenersi d'alcune vili operazioni decoro della adunanza cittadinesca
,
il
da
a
, e
è
le
;
un
di
gli
,
,
,
è
V ,
: “ ) ,
(
), I,
(
In
,
dating the Apologia See Speroni Opere 1740 209 364 365 for letters useful Opere 1740 355 se egli bene purgar errori uomo solo per penitenza senza dubbio assai meglio tener congiunte nel loro ordine naturale nostre arti particolari quelle questa come ragione subordinare con ciò colla comune della repubblica consiglio non solamente questo ordine conservato nasce non far male cosa che
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
:
of politics . When he goes on to discuss specific genres , especially comedy , he discovers that such forms may do as much harm as good — that they may be “ schools of vice " as well as " schools of virtue .” He must therefore or
:
a
all
conclude that the state should restrict the kinds of poetry that it allows public political men to write and to publish , and that essentially religious intention poetry should have
,
...
If
in
.
,
or
or
,
be
to
it
as
,
as
of
of
;
to
to
...
its
it
so , ;
it
,
all in of
to
-
of
is
It
every well ordered city portray elegantly the duty verse knows how and without admitting any other fables the favors that God praise the deeds just has granted the citizens who were victorious wars and sorrow over the death those who did not merit death poems will not turn out tragedies epics but does comedies
If
of
in
of
,
,
...
,
,
.
by ,
,
,
or
is
no
in
,
,
,
canticles and psalms useful decent and religious these poems are accompanied artistically the presentation music song and dance there woman child who having heard them one single time will not retain his life.15 the memory for the rest them pleasurably hymns
for
as a
in
;
it
I
of
.
is
.
of
,
a
of
is
The conclusion that Plato reflects the general circumstances and Apologia youthful age repentance tone the work written old sins Perhaps some the religious afterthought which have been already present here speaking 1576
)
(
LORENZO GAMBARA
.
:
“
,
of
de
in
is
its is
,
sit à
(
);
of
The next two documents are definite examples such public repentance perfectae poëseos ratione The first the Tractatio Lorenzo Gambara 1576 subtitle itself significant tum ostenditur cur abstinendum scriptione poëmatum turpium aut falsorum Deorum fabulas con
of
is
(
of
St.
,
of
.
of
of
of
:
of
in
.
of to
he
. ”
he
.
ad
pulcherrima alia poëmata Ac quàm late pateat campus Gambara admits that had spent his youth the writing profane poetry and that burning was now determined the necessity the two ends legitimate these same poems For they had served neither man's soul the glory God and the salvation for poetry the singing Instead they had merely been manifestations his own desire for worldly Augustine and fame one reminded the conversations between tinentium
edenda
15
he
by
)
,
,
of
thus agrees with the banishing the poets Plato Dio Suetonius and Plutarch are cited ,
to
is
The misguided Gambara here like the only and never able see
semblances
is
,
He
of
sophers
who represents
Plato
(
.
Truth
to
had not yet been apparent
poet
him .
,
,
,
In
).
in
writing them Petrarch the Secretum meum had been pursuing false gods and lying muses because the only real truth false appearances
the pagan
philo
and with the con
de
,
,
,
o
memoria
.”
abbia sempre
in
,
.
li
,
; e
)
...
li
al
, ed e li
,
305
...
;
le
le
,
...
volentieri tutta sua vita non
(
,
che quelli uditi una sola volta
, , al ,
al
, e
,
.
,
...
,
in
di
è
in
di le
de '
,
: "
., .p
egli ogni cittade bene ordinata ritrarre Ibid 357 officio versi quanto più sappia elegantemente senza altre favole tutte grazie che son fatte dal Signor Dio geste guerre giuste vittoriosi lodar cittadini condolersi alla morte chi era degno non morire ciò facendo riusciranno suoi poemi non commedie non tragedie religiosi quai poemi accompagnandosi non epopeje ma inni cantici salmi utili onesti con bella arte nelli spettacoli suono canto ballo non sarà donna fanciullo
POETIC
THEORY
demnation by the church fathers ( Clement of Alexandria and Basil , for example ) of any works which introduced heresy , magic , or moral wicked ness .
a
as
a
to
:
in
at ,
be
to
a
,
be
a
Christian neck filthy wantonness
is a
to a
laughed horse's neck ought hydra's head poem that the greatly lamented for his salva many others deplored either already
human head
to
form
who joins
of
certainly
of to a
he he
who joined
if
But
Christian poem either improper moral actions creates work Horace's monster
of as
ridiculous
the poet who adds
Moreover antiquity
,
of
the myths
or ,
the habit
sin .
Gambara himself will base the whole discussion of the art of poetry on the foundation of Christian theology. Seen in this light , the obscene and wicked fables of the poets and the licentious images of the painters are the work of Satan , designed to make men revolt against reason and develop
,
so
or
,
,
so
us
by
.
be
to
it
all
no ,
to
if
be
to
is
,
,
is
is
of
a
vile conflux along with the salvation deplored And indeed the fast approaching the point where will have hydra's head and according other prodigies and chimeras were invented many monstrosities that even our powers since we filled our writings with peril for our honor and decency there certainly would derive from there were tion
to
as
of
is
we have
to
if
of
full
them
or
vice
,
,
are excited
to
,
the reading
to
already sinned
we
reprehensible
our senses are depraved we
:
such works
is
the writing
dangers
of
If
of
,
in
a
long them considerable peril for our faith our minds were darkened when submerged these shadows and distracted completely from heavenly things vanities.16 the constant pursuit
,
of
to
of
.
in
them
no
is
,
.
all
.
is
repent our former are moved sin again rather than heresy Hence there doubt that errors The ultimate consequence antiquity the Christian reader should avoid the literary monuments spite the fact that certain church fathers may seem have authorized
,
a
the Christian a
,
these monuments
,
.
is
to
;
to
of
of
be
.
on
a
of
poet will provide works representing not only new new ethic but also new theology and poetics For Aristotle's Poetics based Homer and Horace's Ars poetica they merely provide rules for the based on Vergil can no use him willing unacceptable imitation models Gambara admit with St.
In
place
.
to
;
in
of
to
is
as
,
of
Augustine certain beauties style art and the ancient poets but their content such render them inadmissible the Christian state
of
If
of
poetry based them upon the wise ancient philosophers who wrote arts only because they had not yet had the privilege seeing , it is
these works
:
Truth
.pp
16
of
the light
...
,
,
,
tot
.
Et
,
sit
."
)
(
306
ad
à
,
,
,
à
(e )
ac
vt
,
oppleremus
&
pro viribus effingebantur chimera nobis cum scripta monstris pudicitię fuisset certe fidei non leuis erat iactura nisi honestati periculum dum mens nostra his tenebris offusa cecabatur atque celestibus inania celebranda curuabatur omnino ,
ceteraque portenta
,
sit ,
,
,
est
si
: “
,
(
),
qui humano capiti ceruicem equinam adiun Tractatio 1576 11-12 Quod geret ridendus esset sane qui Christianę ceruici hoc poëmati caput hydrę faedarum nempe libidinum colluuiem apponit magnopere defiendus est cuius salus cum salute pluri deploranda hydrę quidem caput morum aut deplorata aut non procul est cum
PLATONISM
:
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
...
but although they have understood that poetry has been instilled in us by of truth , still , when once the fountain of nature had been troubled and their vision was overcast by a cloud of nature , and that it therefore resides in the imitation
error , because they had not achieved the greatest virtue in poetry , they chose finally what seemed right to themselves . 17 The Truth that was lacking to them was of course that of Christian revela tion , and without it they could not possibly discover the truth about poetry :
Now , since they were neither enlightened by the light of faith , nor so lived by the light of nature as to give glory to God ; and since , moreover , sin had intro duced into the world the errors of the false gods and the many common ideas about them ; and since indeed they had neither read nor understood the holy Scriptures , nor had they read or understood something in them would they have believed them , or even had they believed something in them would they have dared to make it public out of fear ; and finally , since they did not see among their countrymen absolutely anybody endowed with those virtues which even the light of nature requires in the formation of a perfect man , they themselves invented certain men for whom descendance from the gods or their exploits or the suppo sition that they were numbered among the gods won a certain esteem , stimulating others to imitate them . But we have already indicated with what manifold error !18
its
The new poetry , the Christian poetry , must have principles essentially different from the old . Perhaps, in a sense , the ends will be the same , since it too will seek to delight and profit ; “ imitation ” and “ doctrine ” are the two ends proposed for poetry , and it is the function of the poetic faculty " to see whatever is appropriate to the imitation of each action , passion , character , by means of beautiful language , in order to improve life and to
.
of
ac
,
22 : "
17
in
,
,
.
of
),
les
,
(
live well and happily .” 19 But whereas the old poetry was content, for subject matter with the necessary and the probable following Aristotle's recommendation the new poetry must content itself with nothing than the truth Whereas the old pagan poets derived their model the perfect man from error through invention and fiction the new poets will theology find theirs truth through pious meditation and the teachings in
,
,
;
in ;
vt
,
."
,
,
,
&
,
si , à
&
,
22 : "
,
ita ., .p
de
18
in
,
., .p
quod proinde Ibid natura Poësim nobis inditam veritatis imita caligine errorum oculis offusa tione sitam esse intellexerunt naturę tamen fonte turbato quod Poesi rectissimum erat non assequuti quod sibi tandem rectum visum est elegerunt Ibid Cum enim nec fidei lumine illustrarentur neque pro naturalis luminis ratione viuerent Deo gloriam tribuerent falsorum autem Deorum errores promiscu asque illis opiniones peccatum inuexisset Mundum nec vero Diuinas scripturas legis
,
si
in
:
ijs
,
,
si
,
:
,
quid legerant aut intellexerant credidissent aut tamen quid sent aut intellexissent nec denique cum apud suos neminem crederent auderent propter metum pronunciare omnino virtutibus preditum cernerent quas ipsum etiam naturę lumen requirit homine perfecto in
,
]
[
307
ad
ad
&
,
ad
sit
."
,
,
,
."
,
sit
24 : " vt .
., ad .p
19
,
,
ex
:
se
,
Dijs vel res gestę vel ipsi per aliquos effinxere quibus vel ortus Deorum numerum conficta relatio illis quidem existimationem conciliarent ceteris autem adderent calcar imitandum Sed quam multiplici errore iam diximus poëtica facultas Ibid videndi quodcunque accommodatum imita tionem cuiusque actionis affectionis moris suaui sermone vitam corrigendam beno beateque viuendum efformando
POETIC
THEORY
Thus the old criteria of "prudentia , varietas , efficacia , suavitas , " will be replaced by two only , " modestia " and "veritas , " sufficient in themselves
of
of the word of God will be more efficacious than the rhetorical devices and the prodigies poets the ancient and their modern imitators The lives and deeds the martyrs will supply materials having the required characteristics using the ends . The strength
of
;
all
.
of
all
all
to assure the achievement
one may write
,
them
;
of ,
all
.
is
A
to
,
;
of
to
... the epic without adulation and without damage the truth tragedy present ing the praise the Christian religion satire without bitterness permitting the poets inveigh against heresy and against the vices with the greatest sincerity but without violating charity vast field thus opened for writing kinds ,
without
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
poems without falsehood without ineptitudes without causticness foulness but with faith majesty graveness penetration charity.20
admitted
,
to to
be
,
of
to
found acceptable and will
will
the
on
.
,
of
conquest Jerusalem Christian Republic
be ,
to
of
.
,
;
in
to
to .
a
degree the new poetry has already been attempted But Gambara condemns those who have chosen sacred subjects only mix them with profane matters and profane meters treat them Marot Beza Buchanan come under the ban for this reason Only those poems devoted holy crusades the spreading the faith the publishing the
To
:
of
of
length
some
,
they represent the complete Christianization
of
is
to
or
of in
of
.
,
First
at
I
Gambara's theories for two reasons the Platonic point view The Republic having been transformed into the Christian Republic everything that Plato had said about poetry relation the former have dwelt
,
of
.
of of
,
a
in
all
in an
at
,
as
,
in
,
in
,
be
in
,
in
to
.
,
truth
to
.
the latter
or
terms
to
in
The treatment the gods God the Truth the role education these come early statement for consideration Second these theories are developed length doctrine which was some the following century only Italy not but France well the doctrine the Christian epic Gambara adumbrates 1576 the characteristics that new literary restated
relationship
.
genre
in
,
to
to
a
a
of
It
its
publication that Cardinal Sirleto sent must have been shortly after copy Gambara's treatise Francesco Panicarola for 1576 Pani carola wrote letter Sirleto thanking him for the work and adding his .
"
of
et
a
,
in
to
as
of
he
;
epopeia sine assentatione
27 : “
20
.
in
is
.
di
;
Di
an
“
is
to
preserved own remarks the discussion the letter MS Vat Lat Bologna 6531 and dated li.8 Settembre 1576. Panicarola reveals interesting filiation among writers sharing the same point view toward poetry speaks Gambara his friend and states that his master was pictura Antonio Possevino who 1593 was write treatise De poësi
,
,
in
,
)
(
308
,
,
,
,
,
."
,
,
,
,
.
commendatione
;
., .p
;
aut veritatis damno Tragica cum Christianae satyrae sine amarulentia dum haeresim vitiaque Poetę sin cerissimi salua charitate inuehuntur Ad cetera denique Poemata scribenda latissimus patet campus sine falsitate sine ineptijs sine mordacitate sine faeditate sed cum fide maiestate grauitate acumine charitate Ibid religionis
PLATONISM All
ethnica .
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
:
the teaching
were Jesuits and reflected
three writers
of
the
to the decree of the twenty fifth session of the Council of Trent, 1563 , condemning obscene works of art. He is enthusiastic over Gambara's burning of his own poetry and hopes that other poets — and especially painters and sculptors —will destroy order ; Panicarola makes
specific
reference
their works . The whole tenor of his letter is that he wishes to see Gambara's principles for poetry applied to the other arts ; it is especially important that painting and sculpture should be subjected to control and censorship since the images they present affect the senses even more violently than do those of poetry . On the thesis of the close similarity between poetry and painting , which he finds stated by the best philosophers , he proposes that just as an Index has been established for books , so also one should be set up for works in the other arts . What he is most eager to insure is the limitation of any works which might be obscene or libidinous in their
of being an
exhaustive
of
treatment
subject
;
the letter has no pretentions
its
materials . The principles upon which such restriction would rest are sug gested by Panicarola , who calls upon the authority of the ancient saints and upon the suggestions made in the Decree of the Council of Trent . Clearly ,
.
necessary
made those excisions
to of
set
he
,
re an
,
as a as
is
.
a
of It
-
of
of
,
in
the Accademia Fiorentina six
to
,
of of
it
to
merely extends Gambara's arguments the other arts useful illustration the spreading this ultra Christian point view presentation thinking current within certain restricted milieu the kind Agnolo Segni revised for publication his When 1576 lectures reduce
,
“
of
of
,
by of
poetry
the words
“
be
At
.
the definition
of
of to
;
of
an
Thus the addition
—
of
of
a
of
its
in
.
In a
as
of
)
of
it
is
.
stressed
spirit
in
no
.
as .
at (
.
”
he
A
in
of le to
four lectures He died the same year and the Ragionamento sopra cose pertinenti alla poetica was not published until comparison really essential differences 1581. the two texts21 shows poetic theory Although cuts out some the basic philosophical general material such the outlines Platonic theory the summo beginning bene the the first lecture the general position does not change Nor does differ result curtailment some passages presenting specific arguments view toward broad lines the point chapter points the art the one outlined earlier this certain there are significant alterations the text but their importance should not over the series from
and
”
of in
, of
of
,
)
309
a
delle diuine con
dalle passioni nociue
. "
&
loro affetti
,
da '
."
&
,
(
animi humani
stress
Cinquecento
",
di
è
di
purgare
gli il
44 . : “
), .p di
., .p
58 : " à
in (
(
),
“
,
22
23
fine
del
to
intended only
&
,
be
of
at a
"
may
See my Nuove Attribuzioni manoscritti critica letteraria Rinascimento III 1952 247–49 Ragionamento 1581 ella imitazione delle cose humane spirito diuino orazione fauolosa versi secondo furore Ibid
of
,
to
,
harmful passions
" 23
of
emotions and 21
it
so
.
,
in
of
,
in
is
it
“
”
human and divine things means fable making discourse verse according the divine furor and spirit 22_ merely brings another the terms which had been frequently used original expansion the version The later place the final clause purging human minds this definition that reads to the end their imitation
POETIC
THEORY
utilitarian end which had always been recognized . In any case , the gloss upon the total definition need not be revised , nor was it by Segni, in the light of these alterations . His general vision of poetry as an art inter mediate between philosophy and history24 still obtains , and Plato remains the dominant master , who explains and complements the terse and elliptical Aristotle . Some of Segni's ideas were certainly known to Lorenzo Giacomini by 1576 , for he had a copy made of the original lectures of 1573. Yet it is difficult to see any direct reflection of them in his own lectures Della nobiltà delle lettere e delle arme , read to the Accademia Fiorentina in 1576 . His problem in the three lectures is to discover the relative worth of letters
in the first lecture he outlines his procedure : “... it will to discuss virtue in general , both active and contempla tive, and , since the virtues are habits of the soul , to discuss the soul and capabilities and moreover happiness for the virtues are the causes happiness This outline describes the general character the discussion
and of arms ; early
,
of
;
25
.”
, of its
...
be necessary
”
by
to
arms whereas ,
of . to " I
of
superior
of
constitute the contemplative sciences would
be
:
its
I
in
of
which throughout remains vague and abstract and only occasionally ap proaches the specific problem poetry literature and have indicated Chapter general conclusions those branches letters which
is
.
to
be
the ones which merely lead the kind action represented arms would inferior them The general supposition that philosophical disci —
,
,
in
of
.
of
it ,
—
of
plines which determine the ends and the modes action take precedence including poetry which merely serve over whereas ancillary sciences the ends action are less meritorious Giacomini remaining within his generalizations and considering poetry only terms the ends served ,
of
all
...
in
,
his
,
to
.
an
as
,
61 .
,
he 26 is
and
n .
. i, .p
chap
31
MS Ricc 1539 fol 132v
,
25 24
See above
26
in
. ”
of
.
is
a
,
introduces third person who speaks nobody who does not know that this relating partially the form and the character and the action any also classify person whatsoever These preliminary distinctions allow him prosopopeia the figure which interested imitation Along there
in is ,
speech
any representation
his when anybody own person imitation One imitates
an in “
in
in
a
sees imitation the broader sense object the more specific sense
;
He or
.
imitation person
as
.
)
in
.
(
I
,
its , in
.
of
the typical Platonic attitudes toward the art one The Accademia Fiorentina also heard two years later 1578 Francesco Bonciani's Lettione della prosopopea have analyzed Horatian elements Chapter VI From Plato Bonciani borrowed above certain ideas on represents
...
, in
un
.
an
;
le
:
; n . et 29 ,
18
. i, .p
)
310
."
di
:
,
quando altri nel suo ragionamento introduce terzo che'n Imitasi ancora nel che non sappia questa essere imitatione che che sia l'attione l'abito
(
niuno forma
, e
la
...
, : e è “
, et .
,
sua persona fauelli riferire partitamente
et
,
, et
,
, et
.”
.
. 2 : "
ragionare della virtù Fonds italien 982 fol sarà necessario poiche virtù sono habiti dell'anima della contemplatiua vniuersale della attiua ragionare dell'anima delle sue potenzie della felicità ancora poiche sono cause della earlier discussion and for felicità See also above chap
MS B.N. Paris
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
by
he
is
.
,
institu
the Uniuersales
Filippo Mocenigo considered briefly
the , ,
.
II,
V ,
of
by
,
,
."
a
of
,
de
,
ac is
in
.
the arts
“
,
in
The work was first published 1581 question Contemplatio Cap XIIII and the passage Pars Magistratuum qui artibus praeficiun entitled De artium omnium Starting tur fontibus from division the arts into the perfect ones and imperfect being the ones the former those which create means the
of
the regulation
it .
of
a
,
to fit
very considerable work
hominum perfectionem
of
problem
the audience
of
short passage ad
a
In
a
serious lesson useful
tiones
ideally the requirements for poetry since concealed under which imitation
exterioran
,
a
him
pleasurable
to
This form seems presents
a
to
,
to
of
of
by
;
in
its
civilizing func with other Platonists , he defends poetry on the basis of antiquity but insisting that one tion makes the argument specific early times the devices used the wise men educate and domesti prosopopeia cate primitive peoples was the animal apologue form
to
of
to
be
to or
,
no
as
be
as
.
of
or
to ,
an
,
,
a
product which remains the latter being limited only artistic activity having the activity Mocenigo sees the imperfect arts their sole end appeal They productive may one several the senses applicable they may effect beyond that upon the senses some or
,
, in
in
as
to
a
in
,
In
.
pleasure further use some cases the appeal the senses may result spectator person engaging for rather than for the the activity
to its
,
of
,
.
of
of
be
.
to
,
of a
,
,
to
.
addition the latter's pleasure Such arts the dance choral singing singing and instrumental playing belong the latter category whereas tragedy comedy and other poetical works combine such pleasure the spectator with higher function This would seem the building character and moral strength Both the pleasurable aspects art and
. "
.
27 as
,
by
in
an
be
as
in
,
of
)
1581
(
GIROLAMO FRACHETTA
as
“
it ;
of
educative possibilities demand that the magistrates the city intervene they must drive out the useless and indecent arts control well the indecent uses the arts according will established the laws Plato's suggestions the Republic are here echoed incidental way
a
,
,
,
,
;
I
,
,
In
the same year 1581 Girolamo Frachetta published work which enters much more fully into the Platonic current than the last few which have been discussing this was his Dialogo del furore poetico whose inter locutors were Frachetta himself Giovan Battista Pona Prospero Bernardo
to
:
is
to
is ,
all
in
of
.
is
to of
.
of
and Luigi Prato The problem the dialogue double discover whether Plato's theory the divine furor reconcilable with other things say about poetry and which Plato himself has ask whether the theory interpretations presented itself tenable Two Plato are connection to
is
it
inhonestas artes necnon inhonestos ,
,
)
311
(
), .p
: "
."
,
(
expellere inutiles Institutiones 1581 529 artium vsus prout legibus sancitum erit
ac
27
at
of
,
of
,
with the first problem one asserting that Plato's statements about the poetry are consistent impossible art the other insisting that accept the same time the doctrine the divine furor and the banishment
POETIC
THEORY
the poets . Pona is the champion of the affirmative , and his argument may be summarized in this way : Plato does believe completely the theory of the divine furor ; the poet writes not through natural causes but through a divine inspiration coming to him from God via the muses . If at the same time he banishes the poets from his Republic , it is because of the special conditions of the Republic and because of certain characteristics of poetry .
of
When the poet speaks under the influence of the furor he can speak only the truth , and this should be desirable in any state ; but he may speak this truth in the guise of an allegory which , because it is not intelligible to the
young and the ignorant , would thus not be desirable . The Republic , accepting only what is perfect and wishing to use poetry for pedagogical purposes , could not admit poetry of this kind . But poets also speak , at times , for themselves , on the basis of their purely human capacities ; and at such times they may err and may introduce lies into their poems. They may seek the pleasure of their audience , especially through such forms as tragedy and comedy , and in so doing they may depart from the mission assigned to them by the state . Any of these contingencies would disqualify them all
.
is
it
,
of
a
in
of in
in
it
,
all
from participation in the labors of the Republic . Pona insists that Plato's poets and statements are to be taken absolutely : the ban affects entirely poetry the Republic and the conception was necessary defensible the light belief the divine furor
,
.
in
.
to
,
of
Through most the Dialogo Frachetta himself takes the negative posi tion He cites Castelvetro and other scholars the effect that Plato could not really have believed divine inspiration For divine inspiration would mean truth and truth would mean good poetry and good poetry could to
,
.
at
as
,
,
;
be
,
,
.
be
not possibly excluded The ban however applies only bad poets and certain fictions and lies that must considered bad poetry these things were not only not true they were not even verisimilar and neither Plato nor his readers accepted them such the time Being bad and false is
,
of
of
in
of
,
he
by
the conversation
,
in
of
.
)
a
.
(
I
a
of
in
to
of
stating and they conclude poetry not only are more acceptable the keeping with Christian theology and the reason but are also more views Christian reader shall treat these discussions Aristotle later chapter that Aristotle's theories
of
carry the major part
,
of
,
of
.
In
.
.
a
is
or
;
they could not result from the divine furor hence either the ban un justified the divine furor itself fiction Frachetta chooses the latter alternative Throughout this argument contrasts the position Aris support totle with that Plato using the former his own points the dialogue other interlocutors intervene and view the later pages
,
.
is
(
) of
a
,
312
)
(
of
of
Il
,
of
its
15 ), to
.p
I,
its
(C
In
comparison poetry and history already studied interesting Lionardo Salviati's dialogue Lasca 1584 poetry from view The Platonic point for attack upon the art comparison ends the two disciplines which begins innocently enough addition hapter
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
CHRISTIANITY
OF
all
:
,
.
of to
,
28
.”
is
have
epic poetry
,
is
which com equally prudence and the
is
,
to
be
to
admit that the proper end the most magnificent form
of
:
its
as
"
“
It
,
by
.
of
by
....
it of
by
or
or
,
...
it
to
purging passions and correcting manners makes itself useful but accidentally and not through primary concern.29
an
in
of
the epic
,
in
an
,
is
of
The essence the argument here that the special case poetry serves accidentally the domain end which falls
of
,
the city
the
of
it
"
I
;
in “
by
the arts
is a
in as
...
the state and
all
just
of
poetry said the proper end because the other forms are governed some way other the needs the city secondary But such cases derivative end Whereas seems that primary intention the work the epic poet concerns the good the republic
of
good
But there
goal
seems necessary
monly conceded
prudence
for the epic poem seems also
some doubt about this difference
prudence
history
“
that
is
of
“
proper
" ;
our behavior will
of
to
is
be
:
of
,
on
in
of
,
;
with a condemnation of poetry on scores the attack indeed springs principles from stated the first stages the argument Among other poetry history their the basis are differentiated and distinctions poetry purge passions ends that our souls the and assure that
ethics and
or :
it
be
,
is
.
,
?
Is
of
its
,
be
in
of
essentially politics The important end which falls the domain question and the one upon which the attack will later founded this properly serving poetry capable ethical end whether political
on us is
As
.
its
so
: "
, it as
of
is
of
,
is
,
Il
responsible for presenting the argument Deti the interlocutor who incapable compared with serving that poetry end history has the weakness not carrying conviction For history believes
.
be a
,
it
is
be
corrupting influence
.
of
,
, is
in
on
character and
a
it
a
by
,
as
so
us
in
As
in
,
it
is
accompanied
we
no
:
,
still havior
,
a
,
.” 30
a
by
it
us
by
.
,
,
is
to
believed true and poetry held fiction ... the poem moves more than history does but the emotion ends with the reading History any means arouse poetry does but the contrary does not much thing which my personal belief persuaded leaves not brought poem poetry about for the pleasure involved brief passing and costly the sense that involves great loss time Worse
;
renderci ben costumati
. "
";
animi dagli affetti
, e
gli
.
do
we
,
( , “ il ), .p
.pp
purgar fine prudenza il
Il
Ibid
Lasca 1584 and for history fine
11 del la : “ il
28
29
as
,
quickly When poetry puts forward the virtues benefit results for since recognize them false not found our actions upon those good examples
, e
.
,
di
...
...
.
, di si è
,
ho ,
si
il
, si , ed
ed
31 : “
....
il
di
. . . .
, si fa
i
, e il
de '
:
le
primo riguardo 30
lo
sia la ,
:
il "
,
il da
.,
poema eroico che per piu magnifico reputa comunemente 11-12 prudenza altresì concedere che diritto fine ben esser del comune impercioche anche l'altre guise poesia detto diritto come tutte l'arti sono ordinate per alcuna delle maniere beni della città Ma cotale fine conseguente Ma l'opera dell'Eroico prima intenzione col ben della repubblica par che riguardi purgarsi passioni col dirizarsi costumi vtile alla città ma per conseguente non par
]
:
,
il
La .
:
si
il
la
.”
la
il
313
(
:
,
si
la
,
la io , a
,
ci
lo
ci . , .p
poema Ibid Perchè Storia crede cosa vera tien per finzione poema commuoue piu che Storia ma commouimento cessa con lettura Storia per gran pezza quanto contrario non sollieua Poesia ma lasciaci persuasi cosa che dal poema secondo che credo non s'adopera
POETIC THEORY
of
is
);
(
of
.
or to
by
it is
,
its
On the contrary , by showing us vice the poet frequently does us much harm . For vice is completely the prey of the passions , and these passions constitute properly the power of the poem : it excites them , it works upon them , it exercises force damage over them with respect them that poetry excels Nor this punishment kind compensated blame vice within the poem for our , it
,
of
31
,
the verse the sweet these are sulphur and pitch
to
all
harm
.
;
of
;
,
of
the song the excitement the dance augment which the fire and the flame are ready ness
of
the beauty all
the imitation
,
The pleasure
,
,
? ”
about them
is “ in
;
it
to
it
,
to
desire without wishing hear out the argument seizes suddenly upon what pleases and accepts for true but when unpleasant things are involved has thinking recourse reason and says These are mere stories what's the use
its
it
;
it
by is
,
.
to
be
of to
,
of
by
its
its
in
is
of
of
if
of
is
of
It
be
will noted that the presentation the virtues inefficacious while capable producing undesirable effects that the vices because appe inherent weaknesses the audience which tends led tites rather than reason Another weakness this same audience inability consists reason about what sees hence the relationship ,
a
to
common among the complete lead
is to
way
as is
such
a
but Salviati generalizes
–
.
a
,
of
it
the young and the ignorant
it in
,
—
the audience
Platonists
to
of
of
it,
of
poetry through verisimilitude reality the false objects truths conception escapes and does not learn the intended lessons Such
(
,
of
, .
Il In
to
of
—
of of
of
in
as
.
a
-
as
the art
of
it is of in
poetry The state such not involved the special kind commonwealth with the Republic specific functions reserved for poetry but the governing disciplines politics and ethics are brought bear upon the judgment the art through disciplines light poetry his inter Salviati decides these the condemnation same way
VI ,
he
,
(
an
to
of
to
of
, in
.
of
)
in
of
locutor Deti that one should completely abandon poetry favor the history superior art Since Torquato Tasso himself had indicated the Allegoria del poema affixed the 1581 edition his Gerusalemme Liberata that meant the Chapter poem allegorical aspects s ee educative function have his a
re
in
,
,
la
ne
:
I
on
his
of
,
a
As
La
.pp
31
of
).
(
di
in
.
of to
),
.p
applying such 206 his critics and commentators were not long criteria his epic One commentator Scipione Gentili made few marks this character his Annotationi sopra Gierusalemme Liberata Torquato Tasso 1586 commentary result stanza presents poetry the following theory the ends
del
:
,
la
.
lo il
ci
,
: e il
in
,
lo
in
è
il
.
,
: “
.,
puo lasciare Ibid 39–40 Poesia del metterne auanti virtù niun guadagno conciosia che per falsa riconoscendola noi prestamente sopra quei buoni esempli non facciam fondamento Per contrario col dimostrarne vizio spesse fiate nuoce assai Poeta preda agli affetti questi affetti sono propriamente Perocchè vizio tutto sforzo
:
vampa
:
, la e la
,
:
,
]
,
,
: e
gli[n
in
si
,
si
,
pece che crescono lo'ncendio ,
, e )
(
314
la
Il
?
son tutti zolfo
."
,
,
la
in
,
,
il ne ,
lo
.
:
il
solleuamento del ballo tutti stanno per nuocere ,
canto
il il
fa
e
la
:
,
poema quelli eccita quiui s'adopera quelli esercita questa parte sua possanza puo ricompe sormonta Poesia Ne col biasimo col gastigo fatto danno sare poscia che l'appetito senza voler vdire piace discorso subitamente prende quel che spiaceuole ricorre alla ragione come vero riceue ma verso dice queste son fauole luogo pensarci piacere della imitazione vaghezza del verso che dolcezza del
PLATONISM But what
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
:
is more important
is the fact that the true and proper end of the poet
no other that to profit by introducing the virtues and extirpating the vices from the souls of the citizens . He brings this about by purging them of those passions from which a great proportion of adverse events are born and depend . This purgation was indeed known and praised by Plato , who called it Kadapuov ; to say nothing of Aristotle , who put it in his definition of tragedy as the proper final is
of the
cause
latter . 32
The conflation of Plato and Aristotle , so familiar in the century, is here presented in a highly abbreviated form . The whole theory of purgation is developed at great length by Lorenzo Giacomini in his Sopra la purgazione della tragedia ( 1586 ) ; but since much
of the text concerns the interpretation of Aristotle , I shall treat it at a later time. There is , however, one sense in which the discussion is pertinent in the present context, and that is insofar as purgation , for Giacomini, is related to the utilitarian ends of poetry . Indeed , he sees the introduction of the purgation clause in Aristotle's definition of tragedy as a direct answer to Plato , an attempt to counteract the banishment of tragedy and distinguishes two ends for poetry : one , which we might call Aristotelian , is the making of the poem according to the the tragic poets . Giacomini
principles of the art ; the second , which is “ Platonic " in a vague way , is the of the poem for other purposes , “ whose consideration with respect to their causes belongs to the politician who forms the state or who governs use
it . " 33 When , therefore , he forms his own definition of poetry , he includes in it two phrases which state these ends, " made according to the poetic art ” and “ proper for purging , for teaching, for giving recreation or noble
And when
he seeks to identify the four causes of poetry , he according sees the final cause ( to Aristotle ) as including “ purgation , teaching, rest from the cares and from the affairs of life, and finally the diversion of the mind in the intelligent man , which is found in the perfect and joyous knowledge of the excellence of the work . " 35 ( The same ends diversion
. " 34
are also applicable to painting and sculpture .)
32
:
a
used not for one single end but for many
,
be
we say that poetry should
is
his
These distinctions provide Giacomini with a satisfactory solution to the compromise position and utility ;
debate about pleasure
e
il
.
de '
gli
,
,
e
da
,
quali
per
le
considerazione
de
la
,
la
33 : "
,
), . " .p
1597
loro cagioni
."
e
Orationi discorsi politico 33 : "
34
pertiene
(
, In o . , al .p
33
di
.
di
il fu
La
.
e
Il
di
, e
le
di (
,
è
), .p 3 : “
1586 Ma cio che piu importa s'è che vero dritto fine del poeta giouare inserendo sterpando vitij dagli animi non altro che virtu cittadini quelle passioni che gran parte dalle cose auuerse nascono che conseguisce col purgargli dipendono quale purgatione etiandio cognosciuta lodata Platone dimandandola Kadapudv per tacere quale Aristotile mise nella definitione della Tragedia come per causa finale essa propriamente Annotationi
,
, a
, , e e da
è
da le
,
,
)
(
315
ad
a
il
"
"
,
."
: “ il la . "
, ., e .pp
de la 35
Ibid fatta secondo l'arte poetica and atta purgare ammaestrare dar riposo nobile diporto purgatione l'ammaestramento riposo Ibid negotii 33–34 molestie diporto del animo nel huomo intendente che gioconda vita perfetta finalmente cognitione del eccellenza del opera
of all of
its we
POETIC THEORY to the different kinds of poems and of listeners , which ends profit for the rest and relaxation the mind from affairs and labors and the noble diversion the mind through the knowledge we
,
of
include under the name
;
of
according
,
all as
,
to
of
,
to of
.
to
—
of
of
classify these profit the exquisiteness the work along with Aristotle along with purgation and teaching Those first two ends are common kinds poetry but one intelligent men the other indeterminately them belongs ,
is
it
to ,
to
do
.
to
of
everybody The last two are proper special kinds poetry since purgation takes place only where strong passions are expressed and certain that some poems improve character.36 not have the power benefit virtue and
of
46 ).
all
of
.
(
p
be
at ,
is
were used too frequently
would purgation that was
of
a
would bring about
it
if
to
for
it
,
or
else
it
;
, in
moderation
not effect purgation
it
the right time and
if
“
as
,
he
is
lot
to to ,
in
,
,
in is
we
in
of
utility are the specific ways which the last kinds found later the discourse where Giacomini points out that poetry how calamity falls see the even the great and that we learn wherein true happiness found For these reasons concludes that the politician far from exiling the poets profitable should accept tragedy the city used properly and Some indication
effected
to
to
he
be
at ,
37
.
of
,
of
,
."
neither useful nor necessary Once again within the framework Platonic presuppositions Giacomini arrives conclusions divergent from integral the considers those his opponents conclusions that philosophy Aristotle 1586
)
(
GIASON DENORES
'
à
its
of
is
to
&
de '
,
il
et
la
'
.
of
in
:
, of
...
we comedy
,
,
vn
of
tragedy
la
e'l
,
,
di
,
da le
, e
da
, i
de la
si de la
his point clear
the parts
the case
diciamo essa douersi vsare non per fine solo ma per molti secondo quali fini tutti comprendiamo sotto nome giouamento deli vditori negozij l'allentamento del animo fatiche nobile diporto
, , e e
34 : “
poemi riposo
., il de p .
Ibid
&
36
have already clearly shown that most
diuersità poiche
,
of
every part and every feature each these ends
of
them
the service utilitarian ends make general statements about these
for the achievement His final summary makes
device .
determined
in &
,
la
,
by
a
,
specific
to
reduced
Whereas most theorists are content ends Denores insists upon seeing
in to
.38
is
)
of
poetry
(
the whole art
poem
or
,
of
,
,
et
is
,
,
of
rather their fusion and con Plato and Aristotle The juxtaposition again characteristic que fusion Giason Denores Discorso intorno principii cause poema tragedia accrescimenti che comedia governatori delle heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale civile striking republiche which this text the extent still But more 1586
,
;
giouare alla virtù
,
ha
di
certo non hauer forza
se a
a
le
,
. al
,
la
,
è
&
,
alcuni poemi
, o se
."
51 il : "
,
a a
,
gli
e si
esprimono gagliardi affetti migliorare costume
37 di
.
, gli e
la
la
esquisitezza del opera con Arist giouamento riduciamo mente per conoscenza purgatione quei due primi fini sono poesie come anco l'ammaestramento tutte comuni ma vno pertiene huomini intelligenti l'altro indeterminatamente ciascuno speziali poesie poiche purgatione non luogo altri due s'appropriano non doue
)
(
316
il
.
."
:
of
ne
,
a
26 ,
,
la
a
la
è
il
, e
a
. i, .p
,
38
, o
,
&
., .p
Tragedia come gioueuole Ibid douere Politico accettare Città tempo adoperata perche troppo frequente vso conueneuolmente con misura non purgherebbe farebbe purgatione non vtile necessaria See above chap for brief discussion this text
PLATONISM
OF
CHRISTIANITY
39
in of
is
of It
.
in
in of
to
,
to
"
to
,
of
its
of
,
of
of to of
,
,
of in
by
...
definition modeled
men who lead civilized lives the poetry Present necessarily the definition tragedy and containing Aristotle's definition
40
in on
directed
. ”
cities must a
,
is ,
of it
the arts and the professions be
,
to
all
wise
course
takes various forms
,
—
and
-
present almost every page present various contexts high genius poetry where certain men the discussion the origins directed the art after natural beginnings the public benefit and utility which according reason and according the sayings the statement
the work
present
on
of
general
.”
no
of the heroic poem - change of fortune , reversals , recognitions , charac thought practically serve The other purpose than this utility
-
ter ,
and
TRIUMPH
:
),
to
,
of
in
,
,
by
,
,
a
in
.
of
,
a
to
a
of
.
of
of
its
of as
a
.” : 41
Present
,
virtuous men and the conservation modified way the definitions the poetry various kinds The modification comes about through the assignment specific audience special kind each genre state particular kind and needing indoctrination Thus comedy will have good republics
in
the imitation
to
to
good living
of
, , of
of
(
to
: “
purge them the listeners this final clause order means pleasure direct them the soul and the most important passions
,
,
of
,
,
,
of
of in
“
to
purge the spectators pleasure and the ridiculous end means those troubles which disturb their peace and their tranquillity through the falling love wives daughters and sons through the deceit and
to
;
of
to
43
to
. "
,
of
"
42
-r
to
,
of of . "
,
of
of
,
by
in
to
,
to
,
servants pimps nurses and others their kind and cause preserve that well egulated love private life and wish popular republic Tragedy will seek purge the which they live pity and pleasure spectators make them terror and means abhor the life the tyrants and the most powerful men And the treachery
them
to
to
“
& 43 :
to
wish
44
. "
-
in
,
to
tyrants and live under their state and abhor the dominion preserve that well regulated monarchy which they live 39
to to
to
of
,
of
of
to
as
its
goal heroic poem will have inflame the listeners the love and great the desire imitate the magnanimous and glorious exploits good and legitimate princes and persons and make them content
le
,
le
,
&
&
,
,
.”
, le
,
di
,
, ad
&
di
&
tal
,
'
, da
,
,
&
,
de '
&
,
da '
,
de '
a
di
,
le
& , &
]
[
317
.'
&
di
a
,
al
de '
&
,
&
,
de '
la
,
si
&
,
,
&
il de '
."
de '
&
,
gli
la
de '
."
gli si
,
: “
37 : "
&
., & ., di , .p .p
,
la
,
"
,
,
la
,
&
,
de '
,
,
gli
."
,
al
: "
., .p
42
43 44
&
( " al , ), la la , .p
lv :
36 : " ."
&
., .p
41
de '
40
., , , .p il
gia habbiamo apertamente fatto uedere piu parti della Discorso 1586 tragedia della comedia peripetie del poema heroico tramutation fortuna agnitioni costume sentenza non tender quasi altro che alla utilità per sentenza Ibid beneficio alla vtilità publica alla quale per ragione profession d'huomini sauii deono hauer mira tutte arti che uiuono accostumata mente nelle città per purgargli col mezzo del diletto piu importanti affetti dell'animo Ibid per indrizzargli ben viuere alla imitation degli huomini virtuosi alla conseruation delle buone republiche per purgar spettatori que Ibid 36v col mezzo del diletto del ridicolo trauagli che turbano tranquilità per gl'inamoramenti loro quiete delle mogli delle figlioli per gl'inganni figliole tradimenti seruitori ruffiani delle nutrici per fargli inamorar della vita priuata quella altri simili conseruation ben regolata republica populare nella quale troueranno per purgar spettatori per mezzo del diletto dal terrore Ibid 36v dalla miseri per fargli abhorrir piu potenti cordia uita tiranni per accender Ibid ascoltanti all'amor desiderio d'imitar l'imprese magnanime gloriose gran personaggi legitimi principi per fargli buoni Signoria contentar viuere sotto loro stato abhorrir tiranni conseruation 91 quella tal ben regolata monarchia nellaquale troueranno
POETIC
of
THEORY
the genres has a special message for a separate
of
as
as
,
in
at
the materials
in
be
,
.
absolute badness would defeat the poetry must presented
of
or
.
,
poetry Similarly
of
be ;
to
be
,
to
,
goodness
these characters absolute purposes
.
by
be
in
be ,
,
be
to
construction will
of
content and ,
its
,
its
group of determined that message For example the heroes the epic because they are presented models perfect every respect but those admired and imitated must punished tragedy and comedy because their vices and failings are warnings midway between the absolutely good the spectator should length the reasons why and the absolutely bad Denores develops Since each
people
of
of
the poet The rapidity .
allotted
:
of in
)
(
of
the brief period time twelve hours the change itself provides lessons
to
is
of
,
In
.
is
of
,
to
a
as
way engender the marvelous for this brings about pleasure and such utility tragedy and comedy the marvelous pleasure the instrument achieved through the accomplishment the change fortune within
a
of
,
a
to
so be
be
an
of
in
eye may
turned into
? 45
,
,
the blinking and murder
their greatness almost
into exile
death
,
of
every form
extreme ruin
,
of
?
be
of
in
in
Who then the spectators would not inflamed desire for private living seeing many times these plays that brief period time every trouble private citizens may changed into the greatest happiness and who would not hate the tyrannical life the more powerful seeing and considering that
of a
be
to
,
all
in
,
So
.
a
is
,
in
.
,
;
to
is
of
of
The more leisurely adventures the epic hero show that even the life desired than full uncertainties and hence less private existence they also serve illustrate even more vividly his numerous virtues Thus the episode the particular form which the mar velous takes the epic itself pedagogical device also forms
the perfect man
by
(
to
a
in
all
a
A
as
of
of
to
.
to
.
:
as
of
plot Aristotle distinguishes them recogni produce the marvelous and both enable the tion and reversal Both help poet bring about the reward the good and the punishment the way perfect plot will combine wicked these elements such simple and intelligible moral and political lesson Denores communicate are the other constituents
,
be
(p .
on to
).
"
of
poetry
,
to he
,
.
all
,
in
"
of
to
...
la
).
,
be
or
showing how excellent epics tragedies could illustrates his meaning drawn from Boccaccio's tales about the Conte d'Anversa Gismonda and Rosciglione One requisite for perfection will always the capacity the materials riceuere moralità 29v Following Aristotle's order the Poetics Denores then passes the was associates decorum other qualitative parts Character with which
to
,
to
is
of
to of
in
"
de '
17 : “
45
all
.
it
the listeners
a
of
forms
of
or
especially generate the minds knowledge and experience human him under not also useful actions ... for who will ever say that distinguish the good stand these qualities and conditions men and
introduced into the spectators
vn
la
? ”
in
,
, in
,
in
,
in
&
,
di
al
,
in
si
,
318
)
in ,
in
(
si
,
&
de '
si
de '
,
in
è
., .p
spettatori che non dunque desiderio della vita accenda Chi Ibid queste rappresentationi priuata riguardando spessissime volte cosi breue giro che riuolga priuati vita tempo ogni trauaglio che non abhorisca somma letitia piu potenti vedendo tirannica considerando che ogni loro grandezza quasi possa riuolger vccisioni essilio morte estrema ruina batter d'occhio
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
from the bad , in order to know himself and the ways of human life ? ”: 46 This is a separate end , served by a separate part of the poem . Thought , which he translates by “ sententia ” and “ discorso ,” has ( curiously enough ) a utility of a different kind , insofar as it may be of service to those of the citizenry who devote themselves to the study of eloquence . Diction and verse , finally, contribute to the production of the marvelous ; besides , when
they are properly adapted to the character and the station of the per sonages , they enhance the verisimilitude and hence the power of persuasion of the work . Every part of a good poem will therefore be included in the poem ;
.
to
All
.
of
or
be
be to
as it
or
,
of
to by
to
or
of
it
its
utility may serve either the general moral instruction some particular end peculiar itself More judged proper over the handling each part the poet will correspond corresponds improper the lesson the needs fails because it makes a contribution to
end
,
,
as
.
"
of
.
,
a
the criteria for the poem will necessarily linked ethical and political considerations Indeed Denores insists that was good moral and political philosopher Aristotle treated only those forms poetry which derived their principles from moral and civil philosophy He himself applying the same principles declares that such forms the tragicomedy
its
of
of ,
be
it to
the
so
of
.
of
by a
he
,
,
in
of
:
of
,
he
.
,
is
;
does
Platonization the latter document problem the usefulness poetry the state 1586-87
)
(
TOMMASO CORREA
prin
within the skeleton complete achieves kind limited only the limits the
and since Aristotle's Poetics
the poem
of
the arrangement
no of of
answer those who had raised doubts about The every aspect defence needed He applies
axiomatic art and every part is
it it . to
,
of
to
of
.
never seeking
ciple
to
a
,
profit they are like sophists who pursue false and deceptive form Throughout this analysis Denores holds tenaciously his poetry never doubting the social usefulness true
their art principle
of
.
of
,
at
;
of
,
,
as
of
and the pastoral are not worthy attention since they are monstrous artistic compositions and more damaging still they cannot possibly teach poetry Their authors are not the kinds lessons which are the province poets their audience and not best since they seek only the pleasure
of
its
,
is
its
It
all
.
of
a
at
(
),
,
'
& to
In
Denores work Tommaso Correa's De antiquitate digni entirely conscious poetarum differentia 1586 position that will Platonism and seeks once explain Plato's favorable begins statements about poetry and justify his banishment the poets contrast
tateque poesis
:
,
as a
.
to
,
its
.”
)
(
319
degli ascol anchora buone dalle sia
,
de '
,
,
.
&
,
la
&
,
...
&
: “
&
se
, il
,
.pp
.,
46
spettatori Ibid 30–30v per generar specialmente negli animi esperienza delle attioni humane tanti cognition chi dira mai che non comprender tutte queste qualità distinguer utile condition d'huomini prattica del uiuer nostro cattiue per cognoscer stesso
le gli&
of
its
,
a
of
poetry composed the traditional elements noble rank among the arts status first philo sophy bringing wisdom and manners uncouth peoples But immediately with defence ancient dignity
THEORY
all
POETIC
To
to
by ”
to
be
“
of
It
.
of
belongs only poets are worthy a distinction : not such praise those poets whom Plato called the ministers and interpreters the gods and should denied those who sing vacuous verses appreciated only in
these celestial and divine representing the existence corruption removed from the senses and the body The middle level the peculiarly human one representing combination the highest and the lowest things man's nature the divine and the knowledge The lowest bestial the realm the mind reason level the dark region the body and the senses where man close the
.
of
,
to
is .
,
a
a
of
.
,
of
the expression
which Plato spoke
the great deeds
of
of
is
or in
afflatus
as
all
.
is
It
of
is
first and most excellent class man and
. his of
.
poet responsible for the The divine furor poetry denotes the presence God highest capacities This that furor From comes such poetry celebrates .
of
,
,
by
appearances visions phantasies To corresponds category poetry and
says Correa
,
,
,
of of
dominated
it is
;
of of
kind
these levels
of in
,
is
is
it
is
;
of
lower animals each
a
all
by ,
is
man
,
God
in
of
.
of
soul The highest
of
of
to a
,
explain these differences among poets Correa appeals metaphysical principle the three levels existence the human .
the vulgar crowd
in
this category
of
.
,
of
all
In
belongs
:
,
to
us
it
our ancestors and serves render and our progeny more perfect The poetry the prophets and the seers that sacred letters and religious writings
, in
to , in
by
, .
in
this first kind
to
are referred
of
,
by a
to
, in ,
to
,
in
in
of
poetry were active almost those holy prophets whose works part predicted many future things part revealed sacred letters who part cele mortals many things about God and about heavenly matters part exhorted men religion and brated excellent deeds divine warnings part deterred them from vices All these things those men the other virtues heavenly spirit and deservedly these things have done inspired and impelled this kind
we have
poetry.47
of
It
.”
,
by
of it
;
,
48
,
of
is
,
,
of
to
is a
,
it
...
to
many ways
reason
in
of
,
inferior
: in “
the first the product things and knows the nature delight things sayings takes honest deeds and and concerns finite philosophical and moral poetry providing knowledge admoni kind tions virtue warnings against vice examples are furnished
The second species
the human faculties
.
his
of
.
in
its
,
:
divided into two kinds
illi
47
is
to
as
all ,
Imitation itself
.
it
,
his ,
the lowest form
poetica
,
Theognis
,
To
,
Empedocles Nicander and Lucretius springs from opinion dark and ignoble because and visions belongs such poetry has basis imitation Aristotle devoted Poetics exclusively this type and Horace most Ars
Tyrtaeus
,
;
: " In
in
,
,
& ,
,
320
res
in
&
dictis delectatur
,
&
honeste factis
,
,
cognoscit naturam rerum 11
]
includit
[
682
: ." "
., .p
Ibid numerum
&
."
,
.
&
;
ad
:
,
de
,
à
ad
48
), .p
(
De antiquitate 1586 679 hoc genere poeticae versati sunt omnes fere sacri sacris litteris habemus qui partim futura multa prędixerunt vates quorum monumenta partim partim excellentia facta Deo rebusque celestibus multa mortalibus aperuerunt partim monitis diuinis religionem caeterasque virtutes adhortati sunt partim exornarunt vitijs deterruerunt Quae omnia illi afflati instincti caelesti numine fecerunt merito hoc primum poeticae genus referuntur
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
kind of true and exact imitation which renders each and every thing exactly
a
as it is ; the second , contrived and invented , expresses
each thing , not as it actually From this there arises one form of poetry which has rested upon opinions about true things , and , by putting forth a likeness very close to those ( things ] and distinct , is completely is , but as it appears to be , or else can appear to the many .
adapted to the imitation of the truth . The second form , which , by following only that which seems and appears to be , sets before their eyes not the true likeness , but a kind of simulated appearance of the likeness , is completely adapted to pleasure . The former alters nothing by imitation , the latter inflates slight defects to huge dimensions , restores the listeners by the kind of language and the variety of harmony , completely changes the feelings of men and the nature of things , because it renders them by imitation not as they actually are but as they can seem to be , since it is a kind of sketchy outline , not a finely wrought conception of things.49
them
instruction
;
is
its its
in
,
see
accept these distinc adequate explanation
to an
Correa seems in
is
in
he
as
of
contradictions The same Correa published 1587 his librum arte poetica Horatij Flacci explanationes already analyzed Chapter 215 Since purpose here obviously was provide commentary Horace the problems poetry are seen from special point view Plato enters only incidentally and illustrative capacity There are however several
Q.
de
).
,
,
,
;
of
a
on p .
VI ,
in In
,
to
of
various
Indeed Plato also
: “
kind
that the poets are not permitted
teaches that they must observe the law
in
of
is
,
. ”
Platonic
"
“
is a
“
sees above
of to
,
but
is
.
on
or
Ars poetica 1-23 where Correa This propriety
conuenientia
the Republic affirms
whatever they wish priety There exist
he
Book
of
IV
,
a
of
all
connection with the remarks principle propriety kinds and among them there
in
,
interest with respect Plato and perhaps even one modification the theory presented the De antiquitate Plato first called upon
in
of
points
.
in
an
a
of
to
his
(
,
in
."
“
Plato's
the first two categories
.
.
of
the end
pleasure but the end the third tions sees them Plato and
to
For
subdivision
second
of
,
is
Correa goes on to say that the first two types are not only approved but are highly recommended by Plato ; whereas the third is accepted insofar as rejected and excluded and banned first subdivision concerned
say
pro
49
of
to
be
in
,
.
fact certain circumscribed limits beyond which they may not pass lest things said contrary the accepted norms life and &
id
, , &
.
)
321
,
,
naturam rerum quia non quales sunt sed adumbratio quaedam non subtilis rerum ,
,
(
. "
,
,
varietate recreat commutat animos hominum quales videri possunt effingit imitando cum cognitio
sit &
,
&
.
,
-
,
ad
ac
ad
,
,
.
ad
&
,
,
&
&
,
,
,
est ,
: “ ;
.
de
,
,
.,
pp 682–83 Ibid Imitatio quaedam vera recta quę talem vnamquamque rem effingit qualis ipsa est altera simulata ficta vnamquamque rem exprimit non qualis ipsa est sed qualis videtur aut multitudini videri potest Hinc existit vna forma poeticę quae veris germanam illarum expressam similitudinem rebus opinionibus nixa proponens tota quae sequens imitationem veritatis accommodatur Altera tantum quod videtur apparet non similitudinem veram sed quamdam simulatam speciem simili voluptatem comparatur tudinis ante oculos ponit tota Illa nihil immutat imitando ingentem magnitudinem extollit exigua mala auditores verborum genere hęc concentus
POETIC
THEORY
of mores . ”50 Correa seems to imply that in the Horatian context the preoccupations of Plato , largely religious and ethical , are reduced to a political and social level . So in his statement of the ends of poetry the Platonic elements of instruction of the young and formation of character
to the traditional rhetorical “vt admoneatur , delectetur, p doceatur ” ( . 93) . But he passes from attenuation to denial when he dis cusses the subject of the poetic furor . It will be remembered that in the De are attenuated
Correa had situated the operation of the poetic furor in the reaches of poetic activity , as a manifestation of the presence of in those poets who wrote religious and prophetic poetry . In the present
antiquitate highest
of
all
God
.
of
is
:
according
the opinion
of of
had touched upon the argument that
to
Since
,
he
,
,
on
work , however, he but denies the existence such divine intervention Commenting speaking lines 309–10 where Horace the necessity for knowledge Correa writes
so
,
a
.
of
,
it is
as
, , is
he
, he
of all
.
in
,
,
a
poet through nature and through Democritus the poet became kind furor this twentieth precept declares whence springs every praiseworthy Knowledge poem having decorum says just the mother the fountain things meriting praise poetry And and the origin also the nurse far
of
"
.
51
of
is
it
a
.
In
“
,
is
he is it
from the truth that the poet furious that nobody can write well unless has knowledge fact essential that every good and proper form writing should derive from knowledge things
of
he
of
.
is
.
a
;
an
as
commentary
1587
)
is
to
,
oration Del furor poetico 1587 also devoted the reaches the same practical
, it in
a
in
.
of
,
title indicates Lorenzo Giacomini's delivered before the Accademia degli Alterati problem poetic inspiration And sense
,
its
As
LORENZO GIACOMINI
he is
of
providing the purely theoretical essentially practical treatise
(
in
the realm regards what he
on
longer
in
be
of
in
of
in
by
is
ex
undoubtedly The difference between this text and his own treatise plained the fact that the latter had denied the existence the furor poetry the second and third levels and had asserted that Horace himself was concerned only with the lowest these levels But part the explanation may also here no the circumstance that Correa found
.
to
,
it
if
de
,
.iiij
50
;
it
if
:
of
as
in
conclusion had Correa the Explanationes and for the same reasons For Giacomini recognizes immediately the practical consequences as suming that the divine furor exists does then art and principles and his practice are useless does not then the poet must address himself
&
,
à
ne
,
ex
&
.
sic
,
vt
est ".
322
nisi sapiens
.
,
,
sit ,
bene scribere nemo possit rerum promanet necesse
)
(
,
furiosus poeta apta cognitione ex
,
verò abest
vt
Tantum
&
.
altrix
Omnis enim oratio bona
&
, vt
&
xx .
,
: “
.pp
.,
si
."
,
,
.
.
in
6 : “
,
,
(
), .p
Explanationes Rep negat permitti poetis 1587 Nam etiam Plato dicere quicquid voluerint sed spectandam esse conuenientiam docet Nam quidam sunt circunscripti termini vltra quos egredi fas non est moribus aliena vitae institutis dicantur quasi quodam furore poetam fieri attigerat Ibid 101–2 Quia natura sen precepto declarat vnde effiorescat laudabile tentia Democriti hoc decorum carmen origo Est inquit sapientia omnium laudandarum rerum mater fons etiam est poetae
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
,
.
,
"
by
If
.
is
;
.
?
all
,
or
or
:
of
not simple
the humors
of ,
of
in
to
,
,
,
...
;
of
to
to
of
an
,
he
to
in
order operations
merit and praise for the poet Giacomini's answer
poetry eloquence rise the heights temperate spirits inclining rather towards the cold ones has need think investigate discourse and judge continue such
The man who wishes philosophy
,
" a
be
,
theory
a
it
involves instead
art
are poems produced
furor how then
the
all
divinity destroys
cept
in
as
be
)
of (
or
,
he
.
no
,
all
art with greater seriousness and application . After presenting the conven tional arguments for the divinity of poetry, Giacomini points out that this theory involves a separation of poetry from the other arts ; for, whereas the other arts would have particular principles and fixed subjects poetry would have neither He sees reason for making this distinction Poetry says may verse and both fable expressed defined simply plot and verse may produced separately Moreover the con fable
;
,
of
abundance
. 52
be
,
in
so
he
in
to
,
,
humors neither weak nor easily dissipated but stable and firm which move through vigorous and powerful imaginations conformity with the idea conceived within himself but order execute well needs warmth that the expression may effective seeks
“
,
of
,
by
,
,
“
is
it
;
”
of
”
.” 53
is
it
doing what Such concentration furor and divine
the poet may
the soul upon the Idea to
of
individual
if
we denote reasoning and
,
born not
,
of
of
furor we mean that fixation
that internal incitement and movement judgment but the natural disposition
or
:
of
called
a
be
by
if
...
sense
or
itself
a
remember
in
an
,
,
“
spirits are the ones that give the effect These latter heated estasi rapimento furore smania because them that the soul fixed and operation forgets every other object and does not even intent upon
,
it is
inspiration
and only the
(
of
given men
that
on
,
of
a
subject having
individual act to
an
be
an
to
with
.
natural one for Giacomini , de e la
a
is
thus essentially
.pp
poetry
.
their lives
of
The mechanism
with
special favor accorded
in
,
God with
a
given moments
at
poets
)
of
But this furor has nothing the part
soul combined
do
:
I
lent Nature mean the human temperament.54
52
it
is
,
it
,
in
be
the instrument which united then there will furor the poet and will called divine not without reason proceeds from Nature which since the daughter God and from excel
,
in
ha
,
,
in , e se
;
,
ad . ”
, o
,
a
ne
,
,
ha
, al
: “
,
...
,
di
61 60 : di : " " se
., , e, .p
di
53
),
(
la
di , o
de
e
In
Orationi discorsi 1597 59–60 l'huomo che altezza Poesia del Eloquenza giudicare Filosofia dee salire per pensare inuestigare discorrere bisogno spiriti temperati che inclinino nel freddo per continuare queste operationi spiriti non deboli ricerca copia facili risoluersi ma stabili fermi che muouon con vigorosi potenti fantasmi ma per bene eseguire secondo l'idea conceputa bisogno calore accioche con efficacia esprima ,
ne
se
, , e o
da
,
di
è
, e
il
."
a
)
(
323
,
,
da
è
al
di la , tal
,
, e
da
da
e
si
di
."
,
affisata
se
ricorda ., .p
54
si
Ibid
& ne
ogni altro oggetto intenta vna operatione scorda quello che faccia stessa per furore intendiamo quel affisamento del anima del Idea Ibid vero proprio discorso giudizio denotiamo quel incitamento mouimento interno nato non quale ma naturale proprietà del instrumento vnita harà luogo furore nel poeta figliuola sarà non senza ragione detto Diuino poiche procede Natura che Dio soggetto Natura eccellente dico dal anima humana temperamento congiunta pure
THEORY by its
spectators
by
.
listeners
is
not two natural causes One which men identify themselves
to
by
an
He explains the power that the art has over supernatural intervention but appeal
or
POETIC
is ,
a
to
)
(
of
.
,
,
to
,
of
In
.
a
by
of
,
of
sympathy that movement the soul poetry with the passions others the case this identification favored and augmented second cause the delight which comes men through their senses from imitation The poet wishing produce these principles the ends proposed effects operates on the basis and upon
all
of
;
of
of
(
is a
the poem
).
of
in
subject matter the words and ideas employed the construction His work art rather than nature the poet possessing completely the principles his art will succeed better than one who has special
is
it .
in of be
,
In
.
of
,
to
I
of
a
an
to
In
.
).
be a
(
by
in
is a
of
,
a
arts
a
a
of or
natural inclination instinct toward This true for the poet rather than some and the fact that man talent becomes thing else result various circumstances and accidents some cases and only for short poems the minor genres precept and principle may replaced imitation which take mean imitation the works achieving perfection others But this can never sufficient means the major poetic forms order become excellent poet man must merely
,
of
.
sees
in
he
.
effects usually attributed
,
be
he
in
in .
of
a
in it ;
there were others who did not But
to
to of
believe
,
all
,
,
,
of
a
of
he
besides
,
;
"
55
“
those natural virtues
and memory
of
the soul intelligence judgment docility subjects and must know everything about long expert presents Giacomini list the sciences which must including the whole range disciplines arts and very special place Giacomini thus occupies the ranks those who discussed the inevitable Platonic question the divine furor He does not possess
poetry the kinds
he
by
,
by
,
in
of
.
is a
a
in
such furor and investigates them order completely natural find some other explanation That explanation one which the innate qualities the poet supplemented what has learned about his own art and about others and taking into account the
the accidents
of all is
It
to
it
the poet rather than
to
the art
of in
causes and their effects
to
”
“
an
.
,
be
to
of
poetic means produce the natural capacity the audience moved pleasurable excitement and enthusiasm which result from poetry explanation also artistic the sense that tends ascribe .
divine intervention
)
1587
Jacopo Mazzoni's Della difesa della Comedia Dante written around 1585 and published respectively 1587 and 1688 are their Platonic Giacomini's oration insofar sense complementary elements are concerned For whereas Giacomini had centered his attention upon the question the other two interested the divine furor Mazzoni major Platonic problems the definition poetry imitation and the ends involving already the latter the banishment have discussed some length
, a
in
in
,
)
(
324
Giudicio Docilità
Memoria
his ."
quelle naturali virtù del anima Ingegno
work that relate , e
Mazzoni's
,
those aspects
to
at
I
.
of
)
pp
.
24–26
70 : "
Ibid
., .p
ss
(
I,
Chapter
,
of
is
:
of
,
of
.
to
as
,
in
di
of
The two parts
(
JACOPO MAZZONI
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
i.e. ,
classification of poetry . It springs in part from a distinction which he finds in Book X of the Republic, concerning the three kinds of objects that lend themselves to the activity of the arts . These are Ideas (which are contem plated ) , Works ( which are made ) , and Images ( which are made by imita tion ) . In this connection , Mazzoni finds it necessary to define imitation , and the first attempt produces this statement :
is
)
its
to
.
56
,
in
no
therefore they were properly called imitative
by
;
resemble
,
its as
,
.
an
],
to ”
(“
represent and
bit -
or bit of
as
be
,
an
those which Since , then , we see that the artifice of the arts of making ( produce object such the the maker directed toward something other than mere representation mere resemblance therefore we shall say that they cannot called imitative But those arts which have their object the Image object that has idolo have other end artifice than
in
"
of
of
of
is
57
as ,
Mazzoni of representation
.
a
,
imitation
”
term
to
mean only dramatic representation analysis also admitted other forms that Plato after due concludes
the
“
. "
of
use
or
of
poetry has origin image The kind idol imitated our artifice and born our fancy and our intellect through our choice and our will This statement immediately raises the question Plato's seeming
of ..
an
it is is
,
at
a
to
of
is
:
,
of in
is
A
in
to
or
it
as
represents things exactly they are and way any poetic other with dissimi art imitate them error the larity.58 later introduced further restriction upon the imitative arts unity object point the that leads the the and this the discussion unity the work
of
rect and proper when
:
a
.
;
is
to
he
,
to
all ity of
wished indicate the superior imitations but that representation dramatic narrative imitation thus the genus for poetry To Plato also Mazzoni ascribes correlative principle imitation cor
;
is
is
in
is
59
to
it
as .
...
10 : al “
to
of
Pt .
" )
['
of
be
....
it is
of
of
or
it
of
all
be
56
of
of
the Image idolo which the object one thing and only one thing this not true either the Work the Idea The Image which their object represents better that one thing will the more worthy and excellent They limit themselves only imitation which made the representation the unity the thing which they wish resemble is
the proper nature and the excellence the imitative arts that should
, e , la la ."
di
, e
,
di
,
, & al
,
.
ha
hà
in
."
. 1
15 : "
;
.
.pp
.
.
., .,
Ibid secs 20–28 58 of Book III
quale suol nascere dalla nostra voluntà nostra chaps also secs 45–46 The same ideas are discussed again and .
58 59
.
l'origine dall'artificio sec nostro dal nostro intelletto mediante l'elettione
, ., e
Ibid phantasia
,
sic )
a (
,
si ad
,
,
57
,
,
.
),
(
I
,
Della difesa 1587 sec Perche adunque veggiamo che l'artificio dell'arti rappresentare facitrici viene indirizzato altro che solo solo rassomigliare però diremo ch'elle non potean nomare imitatrici Ma quell'arti c'hanno per oggetto rappresentare l'Idolo hanno vn'oggetto che non altro fine nel suo artificio che rassomigliare però furo debitamente imitatrici appellate
)
a
325
.
ne
,
,
si
(
.
...
."
è
, a
, e
,
è,
il
, e
la
: "
propria natura Ibid 644_45 l'eccellenza dell'idolo oggetto dell'arti imitanti ch'egli sia d'una cosa sola d'vno l'Idolo che non auuiene dell'opera dell'idea oggetto loro sia tanto più degno più eccellente quanto che rappresenterà meglio quella ristringono solamente rappresentare l'vnità cosa sola imitatione della quale fatto della cosa che vogliono rassomigliare
...
POETIC
THEORY
These notions with respect to imitation stand in close relationship , for ideas about the ends of poetry . If, ideally , poetry should
Mazzoni, to Plato's
.
its to
is
is
it
,
in
,
or
as
of
an
to to
, ,
is
it
,
,
,
is
.
in
of
to
no
a
of
,
no
its
is
;
it
60
. ”
is
to
"
to
"
,
of
its
is
pleasure
,
because
,
of
,
its
subject and and because the credible which which end since being under that genus and concerning that subject and because frequently con seeks that end distinguish strained admit what false One should however this relationship sophistic from another one which has the truth and true philosophy and which deliberately engages the telling lies poetry which To this latter kind belongs species not real poetry and is
proper genus
,
:
“
is a
of
is
It
of
.
to
,
the possible
,
,
its
object only the truth practically also required imitate the false and the credible and the latter indeed best object For poetry appeals audience common and ignorant men and can hope present not them the same materials would the sciences the same way thus that Mazzoni classifies the art under the rational faculty sophistic art because sophistics Poetry imitation which have as
in ,
it
of
:
as
In
the philosopher has the right
considering poetic pleasure
.
to
,
is
improperly satisfied When this second end expel poetry from the state The two ways follows are distinguished
.
it
of
;
of
,
.
;
, ,
to
its
of in
place
is
the state this the kind that Plato banished For pleasure springing from good and perfect imitation addition end poetry also serves another end that relaxation from labor since does faculty jurisdiction politics also falls under the civil and under the
which has
to
by
to
of
.
a
by
is ,
. 61
as
,
its
,
as to
placed under the praiseworthy type and subordinates appetite reason the civil faculty has utility end
...
virtuous living But qualified the say that that kind poetry which was sophistic that under that which orders game authorized and considered ,
,
at
ing the same time harm and danger civil faculty we shall necessarily have
as
it for of in it is of to to
,
,
of
,
is
the first way pleasure the end that poetry which was placed under the blameworthy type sophistic brings disorder such the appetite through excessive delight making every way rebellious reason and bring
princes and magistrates
,
,
and men
of
,
60 : “ la
;
60
which presents
tragedy
heroes
to
to
of
:
to
of
as
of
,
in
,
we
this
as
,
,
recognizes
of
utility the Laws and kind distinguishing may interpret the Republic three kinds indeed poetry bringing separate utilities people epic poetry three classes great which teaches virtue and glory soldiers through the examples
Mazzoni
says
Plato
il
,
,
,
è
,
il
è
,
fù
e , e
,
è
sia
danno qualificato
al
,
di
, è e ) , è
Ma
,
viuere virtuoso
se si
in
tutto ribcllo dalla ragione recando insieme nocumento considera questo diletto inquanto ch'egli regolato
diletto rendendolo
....
,
di
(
: “
il
."
al
.
.,
a
61
, lo , e e
a
, e
il
,
è
.
Pocsia
,
e
lo
.,
sec
è
per l'imitatione arte Sophistica che suo genere proprio per per credibile che suo soggetto diletto che suo fine poiche per esser sotto per rimirare quel fine viene astretta molte quel soggetto quel genere per esser intorno falso volte dar luogo quella Poesia che collocata diletto fine Nel primo modo Ibid secs 73–74 tale che disordina l'appetito con smoderato biasmo poich'ella sotto alla Sophistica degna Ibid
326
)
(
."
,
, , e
la
fù
,
di
, e
,
,
,
, ci
bisognerà necessariamente dire ch'egli dalla facoltà ciuile indirizzato all'vtile con Sophistica lodeuole cioè riposta sotto seguentemente che quella specie Poesia che sottopone l'appetito alla ragione considerata come gioco qualificato sotto quella ch'ordina dalla facoltà ciuile habbia per fine i'vtilc
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
:
all as
to
various types
These
,
the passions
legitimate
utility are
of
62
80 ).
of
actions which end happily ( achieved through the arousing
sec .
power the terrible cases of the fallen great , so that they may seek modera tion and remain submissive to the laws ; and comedy , which consoles the middle and lower classes for their mediocre fortune by showing them and hence the further ques
proceed
as
.
,
of
he
is
;
.
in
of
.
them
,
,
ex .
is
an
to
he
or ,
.
).
at
in ,
,
of
of
( .pp
is
,
he is
up
,
in
of
,
an
if
—
does present whenever is
is
his own voice
it
inferior degree But imitation nevertheless events are related that did not really happen since verisimilitude imitation the truth 133-34 great Mazzoni treats the question the passions virtue and vice length discussing mores and character Book IV where Dante's in
speaks
:
.
,
to
, of
apply them practically and seeks the defence the Divina Commedia argument reopened and The whole over imitation for example poet panded New distinctions are added The does not imitate when
he
of
is
in
of
support the Laws cited the latter contention the Difesa repeats many these ideas develops some
to of of
II
Book VII Part
be
to
to
of
,
be
.
of
II
III in
to
in
of
it
is
tion arises whether this fashion Plato condemns arousal the passions Books and the Republic poetry accept does Proclus But Mazzoni contends that the method provided proper properly passions able here that the moved and says that Plato's true intention was condemn the stimulation certain passions while allowing others exploited the proper circumstances
to
to
by be of
,
,
of
of
or
of
.
a
of
Plato who does not contrast between the position He sets any representation admit wickedness bad character and that poem
I
an
of
to
in
learned
by
its
citizens
to
As
.
of
the basis
allegorical
:
,
to
those critics who attempt defend poetry interpretations Mazzoni rejects their argument
on
a
of
”
a
it .
63
,
in
to
of
him
,
and pleasure moreover lived with the obstinate wish not allow any kind enter into that Republic knowing that pleasures are linked together such way that one necessarily draws another after Whereas Aristotle's practical one following the common practice state was men for in
the civil education instituted
as
( of
since
a
for
.
25 by
is is p .
I,
need for the poets
everything that was necessary
"
is
see
(
no
republic where there
is by
)
).
of
the
"
"
;
of
,
passions Both seem Aristotle who admits the whole range him right point supported for Plato's view reason and Aristotle's Chapter poets the practice translation the explainable passage The difference between the two Mazzoni speaking have already noted the fact that Plato terms ideal
...
is
at
,
Bk .
to
.
in
be
to
its
by
,
,
63 62
,
a
as
be
good one since there this defence should not admitted too great danger that honest things will come expressed ugly and dishonest words Without doubt appetite nature inclined evil would stop the outer
327
]
(
",
i
,
di
. 9 .
II,
,
in
da i
si
di lui , e
is
5 : "
(
II
), .p
ati ,
di
in
Pt .
,
of
tragedy and comedy chap discussed later Della difesa 1688 essendoche suoi Cittadini imparauano tutto quello ch'era necessario nella educatione ciuile instituita nel resto viueuano ostinati non quella Republica sorte alcuna piacere sapendo che diletti song voler lasciar entrare modo insieme conca che vno tira dietro l'altro necessariamente
The usefulness
THEORY
its
POETIC
to
of
.
a
that defence
.
I
of
the appropriate time
.
,
of
indicate the particular character
Dante And his appeals part his determination defending Dante shall at
to
in
,
of
a
,
the critics
of
some
of
of
the art
Plato for answers some these questions are any source whatsoever the means seek to
it
,
Mazzoni's lengthy work consciousness the poetry undoubtedly because these were of
by in
everywhere
by
is
There
moral problems raised the problems raised
in
covering as at a thing adapted to pleasure and this way would rather receive harm from the apparent meaning than benefit from the hidden one.64
I
to
re
in
is
11 ).
.p
(
I,
(
),
”
“
of
topics The range Platonic somewhat extended the De poetica libellus incerti auctoris 1588 Federico have attributed which Ceruti see Chapter For not only does Ceruti touch upon such
of
his
, of
of is
so . ,
do
to ,
,
of
in
to
poetry
verse
all
,
it is
as
divine
countries cities mores proper and possible
we
,
and
very vast
human and
. 65
,
it
of
,
of
the stars
,
of of
,
of
,
,
all
,
in ; a
the constellations animate beings
things human insofar conclude readily that the material and extends everywhere and that undertakes treat divine matters
word From which division laws
God
the former treats
;
the other TTPAKTIKń
of
,
calls Dewpikń
the celestial creatures heaven things the latter instead men
,
one which
of , of
he
.
:
of
in
of
,
,
of
,
the defence
also appeals
of to
;
,
furor
the
is he
as
poetry the ban and the kinds the his classification Plato for assistance art which indeed one the most interesting contributions little treatise He declares that Plato divides poetry into two kinds matters
imitation
an
he is a
:
of
his
to
of
accept the inclusion Ceruti's willingness divine matters among the poetry indicates general position defender and
subjects
De
, “
in
,
of
as
on
he
its
,
is
66
art
to
è 22 : "
."
to as
so
,
64
“
interpreters and cites the Minos the poets the they use poetry chastely and modestly long direct the minds every virtue the young The itself divine and Ceruti traces ",
necessary
gods
of
.
he
“
to
be
”
,
ac
of
,
he
apologist and selects from Plato those texts and passages which provide poetry Thus praise for the art poetices vtilitate his first chapter dignitate among includes Plato the writers who have declared poetry not only pleasant and useful for young people but indeed
di .
, e ,
, e in
che giouamento
."
dall'occulto 9-10 vna quae Dewpikn altera syderibus astris rebusque diuinis
.pp
65
,
mento dal senso manifesto poetica 1588 De
si
al ( sic )
,
al
,
in
E
., .p
si
Ma questa difesa non deue ammettere per buona essendoche troppo dell'honesta ch'ella venga dichiarta con brutte dishoneste parole senza dubbio l'appetito inclinato per sua natura male fermarebbe nella scorza questo modo più tosto riceuerebbe nocu fuori come cosa appropriata suo diletto
Ibid gran pericolo
,
,
de
;
,
,
de
, &
res
&
;
de
,
,
,
,
;
,
: "
,
.
,
,
,
,
&
,
."
tradant
]
328
ad
&
,
;
,
,
iuuenibus
[
,
omnem honestatem
&
non modo iuuenibus iucundam vtilem sed etiam necessariam esse interpretes deorum appellat modo poeticen castè pudicè formandos
1 : "
"
., . " .p
"
animos
and ad
66
Ibid
ducant
),
(
,
&
,
,
,
de re
de
quae TTPAKTIKTvocatur illa coelitibus coelo haec autem homine regionibus ciuitatibus animantibus moribus legibus denique rebus omnibus humanis quoad licet fieri potest pertractat Ex qua diuisione facile colligimus poetices materiam amplissimam esse per omnia vagari quae diuinas humanas carmine tractandas suscipiat Deo
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
:
of
( v .
by
art
origins to Moses , Noah , Abraham , and other holy men who used it for religious purposes . In fact , the term “ divine ” appears in almost every description of the poet or of the content of the offered Ceruti
precepts
drive the shadows
its
to
he
",
,
and instructions ignorance from the minds ,
of
et
by sit
means
of
to
teach men
wisdom
,
to
bring them
of
his
It
, “
: “
the ends thus
to
.
In
,
be
).
6
.p
for several examples follows almost necessarily that the ends useful ends and Ceruti multiplies statements utility Chapter VII quis finis poetae officium Quod states the art will
by
):
on
it
:
poetry those who are taught the soul and teaches that no man
to
of
by
it
,
Two extremely important things happen for first indeed serves that restraint ,
“
I
”
so
(
is
in
XI ,
is a
of
men
ex
.”
industry
67
difficult and sublime thing which requires labor and Chapter The formulation more specific Quantum poetices facultate emolumentum percipiatur give the chapter titles because they reveal much about the general approach and souls
,
it
.
68
,
be
or
so
,
of
by
of
by
or
,
all
,
to
-;
should accuse his own fortune harshly and boldly and the other hand opens the way magnanimity prepare your means which you may per dejected mind against the accidents fortune that you will not excessively moved anything turbed
a
in
to
16 ). he
is
.
,
it in
If
)
of
is
he
II
be
,
(
v .
it in
.
,
,
its
in
of
to to
of
poetry Earlier the same chapter Ceruti points the special efficacy pleasurable aspects have this kind ready appeal instruction since eminently useful the young For these reasons believes that poetry the state Plato Book the Laws and that far from being encouraged and cultivated banned from the state should one ask why Plato should have condemned the Republic the answer that .p
(
a
its ,
,
,
of
,
to
In
,
as
condemned only evil and wicked poets not the art whole escape such blame the poet must praise virtue decry vice order follow decorum and provide the kinds instruction which will serve
notable
Poeta the divine
of
(“
in
of
.
a
of
" ),
,
,
VI is
fairly perfunctory manner Chapter that when Ceruti discusses the nature the poet he makes no mention naturane an arte an vtraque fiat furor putting the question rather terms the Horatian in
The other topics are treated
It
.
ends
he is a
ad
,
In
.
its
he
he
but
does
the ancient
,
be
,
of he ,
a
., ex p . 8 : "
., .p
in
67
68
such
or ;
in
he
,
of As
.
narrative dramatic and mixed representation way that might easily reflecting Aristotle anonymous tradition general the rhetoricians distinction so
-
of
.
to
it
IX ,
in
,
in
art versus Chapter He mentions the divine afflatus only where uses explain the powerful effect which poetry has upon the minds audience for imitation reflects the Platonic tradition only the nature
theorist who
,
& ,
,
ac
ea
:
,
17 : “
,
.”
,
,
&
&
,
,
pręceptis sapientiam erudire ignorantiae Ibid institutis homines docere tenebras hominum mentibus atque animis depellere arduum quiddam sublime est quod magnum requirit studium atque industriam Ibid Duo preclara illis contingunt qui poetica instituuntur primum enim
."
)
(
329
; ,
ita
,
ad
,
,
,
ac
,
vt
ad
,
docetque nulli moleste moderatione animi famulatur temere fortunam exprobandam magnanimitatem qua componas animum alterum viam struit omnes fortunę casus non deijciaris conturberis nihilque commouearis
POETIC
THEORY
has Plato's writings fairly constantly in mind , but who selects from them those dicta that would seem to rank him with the anti - Platonist defenders
of poetry rather than with
the Platonic objectors . a
,
he
of
"
his
"
,
in
il
in
Se
Strozzi (
subject
)
the
Younger concerns himself with much paper more restricted his sia bene servirsi delle favole delli antichi delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina 1588. For the speaks are the ancient myths concerning the gods favole which Giovambattista
to
.
of
a
of
.
in
'
to
or
of
inquiry centers about the possibility the desirability Christian using these myths modern times The work thus belongs the religious point literature that considers poetry from view Strozzi's and
poets
,
be
,
.
,
,
a
,
to
by
all
to
its ,
he
.
of
deny the use
,
,
of
,
is
therefore summarize the arguments those who would says argue that no religion that mythology These men myths contrary can permit the publication own beliefs that the religion especially Christian outlaws fables that these fables cannot possibly produce the effects desired poetry because they are known false and incredible and that they cannot but have harmful effect upon the ignorant multitude But such arguments Strozzi insists do not carry first care
and critics like Castelvetro have already refuted them He him says the Christian religion does not self proceeds counter them First specifically ban the use fables and even admits such mythical personages nymphs and fates Second even though these myths are recognized ,
,
he
as
,
.
as
of
.
to
.
,
conviction
no
no
.
,
in
,
of
.
of
,
a
,
in
,
be
being entirely false they may still poetry and not only effective they may arouse give pleasure they because but also because whole variety emotions This comes about because the actions represented are what move the audience not the names the persons performing the danger from contact with these actions Third the multitude remains
them
all , .
by
be
exclude
Hence
.
to
to
try
to
as
so
ridiculous and impossible
be
it
would
,
be
,
,
,
to
be
;
pagan tales for Christian however simple will ever take the pagan gods imperiled true and real and hence his religious beliefs will not widely disseminated Since these myths are now known
.
to
...
us by
,
in
;
or
be
be
it
Strozzi finds establish norms for their proper use They should introduced only into nonreligious poems whether their subject religious poems they are presumably replaced ancient modern expedient
let
to
,
us
;
in
,
of to
,
let to
in
as
,
as
to
in
,
,
in
to
,
of
as
as
.
,
,
the angels
: “
and other supernatural beings He concludes myths principal subjects for use the and the mythical personages not passing poems but the reference ornament intercalation descriptions comparisons delight examples times order always give recreation the minds cause men marvel and God
a
is
69
. ”
to
de
69
It
to
others our own profit and that direct the whole point perhaps stretching include within the Platonic tradition , e
]
330
,
,
nostro
altrui
.”
giouamento
, e
,
,
,
sempre
[
tutto indrizziamo
à
,
,
e'l
,
,
de
marauiglia
: "
.
),
(
et
In
fauolosi non servianci delle fauole Orazioni altre prose 1635 pp 137–38 per passaggio nelle descrittioni per suggetto principale ma per framesso per condimento tempi nelle comparationi negl'esempli per dilettare per recrear gl'animi per eccitar
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
Giovanni Mario Verdizzotti's treatise Della narratione poetica ( 1588 ) . It might perhaps have been just as well classified among the rhetorical documents studied in Chapter VI . I have placed it here since it belong about the kinds of ( vaguely perhaps ) in the long series of discussions imitation and their subdivisions . Verdizzotti is not interested , as were Plato and so many others , in the major classification of narrative, dramatic , and mixed modes of representation ; he is concerned exclusively with narration .
In direct narration
the poet himself relates events with
their accom
he
paniments
all
This he divides into four kinds : the direct ( “retta " ), the semidirect ( " quasi retta " ) , the oblique ( “obliqua ") , and the semioblique ( " quasi obliqua ") .
.
,
is
all
at
in no
a
is
as a
speaker And said third person who not himself introduced semioblique narration person introduced but stories are told
byin
,
to
in
his
,
,
In
.
by
II
of
,
as ,
;
in
introduces another person who story example relates such events for when Aeneas tells Books oblique narration things are said and III the Aeneid have been narration
semidirect
...
of
.
so
of ,
.
of
;
or
is
of
of
,
a
,
,
of
depictions painting sculpture embroidery and forth Alongside this classification Verdizzotti makes number remarks which poetry The method indicate clearly his conception the art direct narration that the historian orator but poetry differs from these means
of
an
an
in
of
all
in
of
a
is
of
,
of
,
in
is
in
of
as
,
as
of
he
;
in
,
of
of
in
greater and freer abund the manner discourse which verse with figures thought ance well words than found either the other quality two and the excess the virtues and the vices and the explains and demonstrates other things which the actions the persons
or of
of
all
,
,
,
to ,
of
,
an
as
,
an
,
,
in
his poem for example excessive strength excessive wicked places excessive prudence excessive madness love beauty persons and other things this kind meant arouse the marvelous which accompanies the particulars.70 introduced
ness
“
"
is
it
,
...
what was
is
.
at
,
of
Vergil's summary
the
begin
take place
:
,
the Aeneid
to
Verdizzotti cites the case
of
of
special charm
ning
.
as
,
it is
It
.
or
be
it
so
is
by in
quality since peculiarly poetic Semidirect narration imitation so much that may not used the historian the orator So also for the semioblique form purely poetic since imitative such narra tives these that give the poet his particular character and his works their
it
of
to
in , .pp sl
;
.
of
,
he
If
.
an
as to
,
as
a he
;
he is
is
of
is to a
by
is be
is
completely poetic since kind artistic narration and one which pass beyond the limits the poet alone for not allowed the single action which proposes treat observes this rule the action will poet not proceeding treated him historian For this manner the only thing which distinguishes him from the historian and the orator and this
proper
lo ,
,
di
ha
in
è
,
,
& ,
, :
di
, e
)
& ,
,
(
331
altre cose
de di i
di
la
,
di : "
persone
.” di
, ò
,
luoghi particolari
de di i
,
,
furore amore bellezza merauiglia accessoria la
),
di
,
&
:
,
à
di
, e ò , di e
(
70
per Della narratione poetica 1588 5–6 maniera dire che verso con piu licentiosa copia maggior figure parole che non sentenze come stile vitij questo quello per l'eccesso qualità delle virtù tutte l'altre cose che egli spiega dimostra nelle attioni delle persone introdotte nel suo poema come sarebbe dire vna eccessiua fortezza una eccessiua viltà vna eccessiua prudenza vno eccessiuo questa sorte per far nascer
POETIC
THEORY
art
through this way of proceeding we may learn how to constitute the true definition of the poetic art . 71 ? :
,
in
of
I
,
as
as
of
all
of
an
,
or
.
a
a
to
1589
to
primarily
belongs
it
Although
)
GIOSEPPE MALATESTA
(
.
is
,
(
) by ,
,
a
of
,
to
The poetic would thus seem consist for Verdizzotti four qualities single action figures and imitation the representation abundance superior ornaments including verse and excessive degree the characteristics represented the poet Such definition this have already intimated very close the formulations the rhetoricians and of the Horatian theorists
concerning the dispute
the documents
Gioseppe Malatesta's
is
)
(
,
,
to
of
of
,
all .
is
so
of
.
of
in
,
over Ariosto Della nuova poesia 1589 suffi ciently involved poetry the discussion the ends merit treatment here Through much the dialogue the main interlocutor Sperone Speroni constantly that the end poetry delight alone that one wonders insists
all
”
at
...
a
:
“
in
all
"
"
“
as
of
be
whether other possible ends will considered He defines the subject poetry pleasurable through things matter treated imitation and explains the dilettabili although Poetry with generous this way
,
,
by
.
as
)
(1
:
its
),
(p
of
,
is
of
of ,
,
of
-
a
to
all to
or
to
72
.”
to
we
if
,
73
."
"
of
of
to
or
,
of
things nevertheless these are useful her not the they extent which are pleasurable not Art must direct dogmas and precepts toward the achieving .110 this pleasure and nothing poetry speak the end are the truth else but de light Monsignor Dandino however raises the question utility and poetry Speroni this leads full scale consideration recog the ends possibility utility nizes the three solutions the end served hand takes
an
be
;
,
of
he
To
.
of
,
of
,
of
;
3 )
(
;
”
be
by
"
he
it
to
.
as
;
( 2 )
as
utility and pleasure joint and equal ends pleasure alone objects giovare the end To the first that would not end peculiar poetry since would shared other arts that this would poetry without delight whereas no such presuppose the possibility poetry presence exists and that the imitation the form and soul objects necessarily involves the presence pleasure the second that pleasure
,
.
,
,
of
all
.
he to
.
all
support this theory
.pp
,
says
71
he
to
of
,
is
a
it is
impossible for single thing have more than one end The third proper poetry solution thus the one and contends that the means proportioned pleasure are the end Aristotle Quintilian and Cicero
:
.
lui
la
di
' :
si
&
.
,
i
,
in
, "
la
,
è
,
,
il
332
)
(
150
." le
le
da
: “
,
, ò
la
See also
.p : lei “ , il . fin
."
., .p
“
73
tione
),
(
Della nuova poesia 1589 109–10 tutte cose dilettabili trattate con imitatione se ben Poesia con ampia mano piglia tutte cose nondimeno elle tanto fanno quanto sono delettabili non fanno per non sono Ibid 119 della Poesia secondo vero parlando non altro che diletta
and ò
.pp
72
.”
arte poetica
da &
,
di
lui
,
si
&
di
è
di
da
è
è
: ; "
.,
questa Ibid 11-12 vna specie narratione artificiosa tutta poetica come proposta attione solo propria del Poeta alquale non lecito passar termini dell'vnica Laquale esso così facendo vien trattata come poeta non come historico Percioche questa maniera distingue dall'historico fare quella sola per laquale egli dall'Oratore procedere per questa via vera diffinitione dell constituire viene conoscimento
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
Does this mean that the end of utility is to be completely denied to the art ? In the course of the discussion , Malatesta admits not only that useful ends may be served , but also that they are desirable . He first admits
of poetry
" or " documento ” may be an accidental concomitant poet may the while insisting that harm and still
be a
do
pleasure ,
a
“ giovamento
all
that
of the
to
,
,
,
;
is so
,
;
,
a
,
,
in
to
"
he
at
:
.
is
good poet The second admission says arts more serious times may have two ends one intrinsic and the other extrinsic for poetry proper end which imitate which proposes for itself indeed delight but frequently another extrinsic end follows elegantly order
to
,
to
,
,
,
in
of
,
is
Whence Poetry which not the least among the arts wished have along with the others this happiness ours and therefore resolved
a
:
to
to
in
by
.” 74
is ,
,
all
;
he
,
of
profit this one namely that The poet achieves his proper end through pleasure only but may also participate the general end proposed help men Aristotle for the arts that achieve human happiness part
bring
,
us ,
;
to
,
mystical and allegorical meanings
all
of
as
us a
,
of
,
of
us ,
...
in
of
.
to
of
by of
as
to
profit the human species insofar that was possible she conceived the idea directing that pleasure hers some way our utility and profit and thus means imitation fiction and verse which naturally delight she might bring tried unroll before such things and subjects considerable utility under the outer bark the fables are hidden and covered many directed toward our good and instruction.7s ,
to
Scipione Gonzaga undertakes
,
of
in
is
." 76
,
as is
his
: “
be
in to
he
to ,
presents After examining the usual arguments own conclusion about Plato ... intention not wish that the poets poets but only with respect should exiled and driven out absolutely the guardians The fault thus the weakness the audience not .
the explanation
his
in
asked why Plato should have banished the
the ways indicated
.
is
,
they are useful
,
.
to
is
,
the dialogue the question
poets
if
of
,
a
—
a
of
poetry with Follows conventional praise caution however that poet should not allow such concerns take precedence over his primary end which Inevitably before the conclusion give pleasure the
in is to
.
of
in a
un un ' le fin
to .
of
),
at
of
be a
,
by
,
to
is ( as
74
in
;
of
no
be
long defence the poetic art and the passage ends with the latter Malatesta's position thus develops from one which there would seem through one evidence Platonism which the Horatian thesis interpreted essentially approved certain theorists least one which Plato himself made defender the utility the art
,
, in
lei si
,
,
."
è
;
di
è
,
,
è
di
,
&
,
si
la
: a : “ " la
., .p
, in ., .p ,
le
75
qual propon bene proprio che Ibid 189 imitare acconciamente per dilettare ma questo segue molte uolte altro fine estrinsico che del giouamento Ibid 190 Onde Poesia che pur trà Arti non infima volle auer parte come questa beatitudine nostra perciò risoluta giouare quanto per potesse altre
,
,
&
,
." ,
."
&
,
&
i
,
&
,
,
& la
,
,
la
di &
..
333
)
,
animo suo non uoler che Poeti siano fuggiti ma solo per rispetto delli custodi
(
256
mente come Poeti
è a di
Ibid
: "
, ., & .p
76
.
, si
,
ci &
,
in
qualche modo quella sua dilettatione all'vtilità alla specie humana imaginossi d'indrizzare giouamento nostro così con imitatione con fintione col verso che naturalmente soggetti tali che potessero apportarci dilettano sforzò andarci spiegando cose coperti molti sensi non picciola utilità sotto alla scorza delle fauole stanno uelati allegorici tutti indrizzati mistici nostro prò ammaestramento discacciati
assoluta
POETIC
THEORY
of
all
”
.
,
in
,
"
is
of
,
all
“
an De
,
VI
his
Unlike his fellow Jesuits , Gambara and Panicarola , Francesco Benci spoke out in praise of poetry in two of Orationes published 1990 Numbers and VII both entitled laudibus poëticae He does not understand how anybody can attack art which mother the virtues and the arts sole parent and mistress our duties and our in
;
;
it
to
,
,
of
...
”
all
of
;
to
its
it
he
to to
77
it
"
. "
praise Rather would for service mankind the past taught men moderate their passions restrain their desires control their impulses hate the vices and embrace the virtues have know ledge and wisdom things -and for the ends which still pursues for the poets mores
,
of
by
of
,
in
;
of
,
to
of
;
of
by
to
good deeds and the blame are totally dedicated the praise bad ones any glory and infamy whatsoever and doing these the magnification things they both introduce the virtues into the souls men and draw out them greed and the vices their very roots and they produce men wholly lacking wholly deserving every honor and praise.78
,
all
to
.
as —
as
,
so
is
,
in
its
to
is
by
it
to
,
of
pleasurable accompaniments poetry ascribable The effectiveness and the ease with which remembered enhanced certain cases the knowledge that the events recounted are true for the Old and the New Testaments which have religious well ethical uses For these reasons Benci believes that Plato's ban was meant affect only false as a
disguise for their wickedness and that Plato recognized himself and recommended the pedagogical possibilities the
of
poets who used the art
, , its
on
In
.
art
of
of
As
a
.
,
,
the sound
the actions presented
its
well
of
,
as
as
men
,
,
words and counsels
of
,
to
:
is
,
,
a
,
of
to
comparison poetry with VII Benci passes painting music and divination compared with the first things poetry definitely superior painting merely gives visual image poetry disposition which adds character attitudes and the deeds the Oratio
sister arts
,
to
of
,
so
;
“
).
(
.p
better since 110 Music moves the passions but poetry does every kind virtue deter verses not only move the soul but impel men
,
its
Platonic
.
of
its
that quality which religion
service
88 : “ in
ed .) , .p
it,
it
for is
he .
of
as
of
a
is
of
,
of in
,
79
. "
warmly and indeed commends opponents most frequently denied 77
as
exercising and sharpening their and are very efficacious Poetry minds thus itself kind divine force useful for the piety and religious observance our for the direction inculcation mundane lives Benci's praise the art thus complete and unreserved them from vice
in
,
&
“
in
,
."
&
in
&
,
:
."
)
(
334
à
."
ac
,
in
&
ad
: "
., .p
79
,
&
:
,
quod cum faciunt vitia radicitus extrahunt virtutes animis inserunt laude dignissimos efficiunt homines omni carentes cupiditate omni honore vitio omne virtutum genus impellunt deterrent Ibid 112 homines excitandis acuendisque ingenijs nimium quantum valent
amplificatione
:
,
,
" ;
ac
,
,
94 : "
89 ,
.pp
.,
...
,
78
&
(
procreatricem illam virtutum omnium artium Orationes 1590 magistram contumeliose inuehuntur vnicam officiorum morumque parentem impetus frangere detestari vitia amplexari Ibid coërcere cupiditates cognitionem and Toti sunt scientiam tenere virtutes rerum denique omnium gloriae cuiuslibet atque infamiae maleficiorum vituperatione benefactorum commendatione
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
ANTONIO POSSEVINO ( 1593)
With Antonio Possevino's Tractatio
de poësi et pictura ethnica , humana ,
, et sacra , we rejoin the ultra - Catholic , et fabulosa collata Jesuit tradition of Gambara and Panicarola , and we encounter one of those Cinquecento documents which , if they do not dominate last years special character The treatise published least give them 1593 also reply sense Benci whom mentions And while contradicts ,
the
is
,
the
it in
of
,
.
(
as
poetry
.
Possevino's potential
the art because
its
of of
of
whole art
of
so
” ),
Greek and Latin poets ones not far Gambara and
a
he
(
to
to
.
their means
:
in
their ends different ,
in
says are alike ,
he
,
The two arts
poetry
painting
of
six
),
in
the title Possevino devotes himself almost exclusively only the last chapters bearing upon the ends and techniques
also
,
of
.
is
;
all
in
is
;
of
,
glorification Christianity but this must manifested always only poetry acceptable which means that Christian thus the poetry pagan antiquity begins with condemned and discarded Although statement his intention treat both poetry and painting announced be
utility
he
:
is
in
“
,
to
accept his praise Benci refusing the whom Possevino calls ethnic does Panicarola their condemnation the position simply stated approves
go
,
of it of it
.
a
to
a
a
in at
the
cum vera , honesta
,
[
]
be , by
,
,
and
,
,
,
it
by
,
colors catches the ideas from things themselves else these should which ideas imitates lines light dark and background.80
Of
,
,
to
of
as
or
,
,
,
;
by is
of
of
poetry and painting The whole effect reduced two things teaching episodes and delighting and what poetry achieves means narrations eulogies tropes and other such means painting also achieves which using
to it
,
.
is
:
;
all
,
is
these two ends the primary one instruction and the poet should secondary bend his effort pleasure The specific lessons taught are variously stated a
be
of ,
,
. 81
heresies
on
the Catholic religion against
all ,
in
of
in
of
...
to
in
,
the virtues ;
,
of
knowledge
of
a
natural things and mores and through demon greater and men are made some unknown way greatness more excellent and from both these things are derived against adversity against soul and the weaknesses inherent human affairs strength against the fear temperance against lustful desires constancy death
of
through
stration
."
(
,
&
,
eiusmodi deberent numbers
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
docendo
:3v , “ è
81
.)
,
ex
;
,
,
,
,
;
&
(
Tractatio 1593 tota vis Poeseos atque Picturae duobus absoluitur episodijs encomijs tropis delectando quodque Poesis efficit narrationibus alijs idem Pictura facit quae coloribus vtens ipsis rebus aut quales hae esse capessit notiones quibus lineamenta lucem vmbram recessus imitatur Page represent my own counting ;
on
,
on
,
;
1v : "
ed .) , .p
80
of
,
on
,
“
From Lucretius one may leam lessons the contempt for death avoiding love controlling the desires calming the emotions and achieving tranquillity the soul about sleep about the rising and setting
,
)
(
335
re
...
ex
ac
, &
,
:
,
,
,
."
,
,
., .p
morumque Ibid rerum naturalium cognitione virtutum explicatione homines efficiantur nescio quo modo maiores atque elatiores vtraque animi magnitudo contra aduersa rerumque humanarum imbecillitatem fortitudo contra mortis temperantia contra libidinem timorem constantia Catholicae Religionis contra haereses paretur
POETIC
THEORY
of the stars , about the eclipses of the sun and the moon " _and so forth.82 Man will therefore learn from poetry divers lessons which fall into the general categories of ethical, religious, and scientific . The fact that the lessons are of so many kinds leads Possevino to a conception and a classification of poetry that are not conventional for his century . In the first place , he rejects the idea that imitation is necessary for poetry . Rather than accepting the authority of Aristotle , he turns to Lambin , who declares that the distinguishing features of poetry are not only imita tion , but also rhythm , figures , certain kinds of extraordinary words , and the divine genius of the poet . The purpose of Possevino’s rejection of imitation is to permit the inclusion , among the kinds of poetry , of com .
by
a
,
of
,
he
his
positions in verse which are not necessarily imitations but which serve the ends already noted . Possevino proceeds to classification two steps poetry into true and false the true poetry First cites Plato's division being that which delights by teaching decent things and which has
,
of
(p . ,
)
:
3 ).
,
is
It
.
its
(1
is
to
of
by
,
laudable subject matter the false being that which insinuates obscene and wicked things means attractions this latter kind incidentally which Plato said have banished from his Republic True poetry following categories then subdivides into the divine which Moses
by
,
3
,
; ( 2 ) )
(
;
noted that this
,
to
,
,
to
mixed classification based partly upon ,
will
is a
be
It
(
3 .)
.p
to
,
as
all
.
,
,
by
as
be
proposed the best examples natural represented Empedocles Lucretius and Fracastoro and moral exemplified Phocylides and Pythagoras The last category also includes economic and political poetry and tragedy comedy the epic the lyric such genres epigram they and the when are made lead virtue and exclude vice and David may
.
subject matter and partly upon effect
the only poetry which Possevino cares condone the true category preferred and his the religious Sacred poetry the best
of all : ,
is
is
fanciful wrappings
are fables rather poetry great and
the Psalmists
is
spoke true who called
it
that
he
so
of , of
,
.
its
every honest form
of
,
of
the other poems which consist only
than poems ... Moreover the utility great advantage for learning things
,
.
David
,
,
Moses
.
is
,
to
Obviously
the
,
so
it
,
,
its
so
.
it
,
of
of
nurse and the teacher the minds the young Certainly the very movement impresses itself upon the and rhythm the verses since attracts the soul memory making the mind receptive through diversified charm that causes ,
it
.
is a
of
to
83
de
de
de
11 : “
82
.
cares
it
to
forget what the mind almost never has perceived well Moreover also great solace for setting aside one's the praise God's work and
incites
, ,
de
,
,
de
,
...
ex
.
vt
"
,
de
,
,
&
de
3v : " ,
83
de
., .p
Ibid morte contemnenda amore fugiendo coercendis cupiditatibus comparanda sedandis animorum motibus mentis tranquillitate somno ortu obituque syderum Solis Lunae defectu ,
,
&
,
,
vt
,
,
(
336
)
:
.
& ,
. . . .
ad
vt
., .p ,
,
reliqua Poemata quae tantum fabulosis inuolucris constant fabulae quàm Poemata Ceterum honestae omnis Poeseos ingens vtilitas est atque res ediscendas percommoda vera dixerit qui eam adolescentis animi nutricem alumnam vocauit Certè ipse carminum flexus numerus animum allicit sic memoriae Ibid potius sint
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
an
as
in
,
he
,
of
,
of
in be to
future poets
or , .
example
in
in he
all
Possevino is hard put to it to find modern examples of the kind of poetry which he recommends ; but he nevertheless cites and quotes a number of sacred poems, songs , epigrams, elegies , and epics written in recent times . epics the Triumphus Christi Above admires the category reprints ascendentis caelum Macarius Mutius which toto
.
be
is
is
to
to
he
,
,
”
in to
“
is
It
remembered
in
however that Possevino's primary interest this inquire pagan poetry and hence treatise ethnic does not fail acceptable and useful what extent that poetry Christians He finds only one God and the ancient poets certain passages stating that there will
it
to
.
by
.
of
of
",
which contain the kind
approves by
which
—
speeches
centones
he
“
a
of
a
or
of
he
all , of , an
proverbs
moral instruction
by
passages
-
.
of
to
in
of
,
,
;
rejecting the numerous pagan gods these would useful He finds possible through allegorical and Christological interpretations discover the Greeks and Romans certain adumbrations the Christian mysteries song Sappho into religious and transform ode Pindar antiquity innumerable poem Most extracts from the works
of ,
,
be
:
,
it
.
è
be
ac to
,
,
“
,
IV
he
In
”
,
.
In
,
interpretation exemplifies This procedure selection extraction what Possevino states theoretically the proper use the ancient Chapter poets Usus qualis fructus poetis ethnicis Adduntur cautiones outlines that theory introducing thus to
be
.
of
or
,
of
of
.
of
to
of
of
truth we must say first that from most the pagan poets may learned many things which pertain the investigation natural phenomena and the forming character Similarly from them may derived the style and the correct use words either Greek and Latin the other languages But by
.
to
,
to to
)
(1
:
be
a
; to (2 )
their errors
turn them
our own
rather than translate the obscene poets and surround them apparatus with critical one should expurgate them and publish selections only good poets one should select passages from the such useful descriptions matters wars comparisons honest and grave sententiae general way the criteria are religious orthodoxy and moral accept ability whatever would seem praise even recognize the pagan gods
.
,
,
ne
is
or
:
to
,
a
In
as
of
)
(
;
4
on
,
;
( 3 )
purposes
precepts number one must choose carefully prepared one must resist the false teachings remove
,
of
be
to is
in
The theory stated the authors read the pagan poets
of
,
to
,
by
to
one must know how choose and apply generally cautions which were taught the pagans themselves but still more profoundly and solidly the church 84 fathers with respect this matter
ea ,
)
,
."
ijs
;
ex
:
,
est , è
, , ac &
ad
cautiones omnino adhibendas docuerunt
337
(
,
,
ad
,
ad
&
Id ."
ad 3v : “
delectum tamen eorum habendum
Ethnici sed altius atque solidius Patres hac
, de & re
comparari
:
ac
,
., .p
84
.
,
,
,
penè vnquam haeret variaque iucunditate mentem permulcens facit quae rectè per cipit obliuiscatur Quin incitat laudanda Dei opera magnoque est remissionem curarum leuamento plerisque Poetis Ethnicis multa intelligi Ibid vero ante omnia fatendum posse quae rerum naturas vestigandas mores efformandos pertinent Stylum item verborum proprietatem siue Graecae posse Latinae siue aliarum linguarum quas ipsimet
POETIC THEORY might seem to prophesy Christianity
to be excluded , whatever
may be
retained ; whatever is lewd , obscene , demoralizing must go , whatever
tends
to inculcate the proper moral lessons may remain . Two lesser criteria are also present: we may read those parts of ancient works which contain useful linguistic and stylistic models and those which impart information about the natural world . In terms of these criteria , Possevino makes a rapid
.”
all
of
be
examination of the principal writers of antiquity and provides for each a criticism and a commentary . These latter ideas demand a modification of my original statement that pagan antiquity will “ the poetry condemned and discarded
to
,
or
,
.
be
of
of
is a
to
trinal ethical scientific and stylistic principles
of
,
of
,
a
. In
.
by
,
be
totally conserved but only when surrounded few works may proper the commentaries which will assure correct interpretation word those remnants ancient literature which correspond the doc
A
writings
or
or
lly
be
as
to
Condemnation and discard will apply only the poems wholes salvaged certain poets from whom nothing may For most works care selected sections lines will salvable and what Possevino pro anthology poses kind morceaux choisis Greek and Roman
—
.
is
he
he
or
in
.
to in
by
be
of
by
,
10
D.
,
in
in
in
his
is
of
by
.
to
of
Possevino for religious poetry judged reasons and other defenders for other reasons entirely inexcusable Sopra l'allegoria Fabrizio Beltrami del poeta manuscript nella sua favola The treatise found MS VII the the kind suggested
by
Allegorical interpretation
,
of It
.
of
on
on
the basis
of
also apparent his review ancient poetry itself which lauds con their conformity his own standards
to
demns theorists
,
, in in a
is of of
;
is
of
at
of
sionally refers the divine furor writings and modern the art
,
—
be
,
,
a
is
,
the Christian critic who permitted the modern reader The also Christian theologian will apparent indeed this fundamental way basic Platonism the approach looking poetry theological and ethical standards context much more significant the case Possevino then the fact that occa
22
, is
all
of
is
:
an
of
be
,
by
by
.
of
to
on an
is
,
a
of
Siena and accompanied letter dated June Francesco Patrizi and Jacopo statements made 1594 answer allegory allegory The denial Mazzoni the subject Beltrami upon simple poetry premisses based several written specifically for the incapable penetrating beneath the sur common people who would Biblioteca Comunale
)
of
as
is
be
of to
,
II
the
,
fictions not only will
the form :
of
.
The reasons are clear
in
.
X
Book
things said
338
(
In
and similar statements are
the Republic
all
in
or
,
the Phaedo and
,
; of ", in
.
is
Poesia est res popularis
Book latter moreover Plato prohibited nonallegorically either allegorically ,
found
that
in
declared
“
of
,
a
of
;
of
,
of
;
seek out hidden meanings allegory supposes a
to
impossible external poetry action and possible internal action whereas the general theory allegory involves permission admits only the possible the admission plurality against the poetic art Plato actions which cited the authority for the first premisses these the Gorgias says Beltrami Plato face
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY the
:
should us
,
allegorical meaning
an
in
we
:
poetry as it is
if
of
seek this credibility
to
we were
of as be
...
a
to
be
,
a
of
given work but no two men ever come to same interpretation rarely will anybody necessary found who will have the intellectual qualities find proper meaning to
be
so
.
to
,
,
,
,
of
,
,
in
. 85
is
by
?
;
to
in
by
,
of or
to is
of
II
it
men having these qualities how much more will not those who are moderately educated those who are completely ignorant And that these latter are the audience the poets confirmed Plato Book the first Book Strabo the Republic and to
fatiguing even
, a
fit
to
in ,
of
;
as
,
a
to
forced confess that poetry insofar imitation was not given pastime Plato said since allegory demands acuteness mind profundity learning variety knowledge happy memory most and finally exquisite judgment order the allegorical sense the literal sense And this effort
an
as
,
so
, is
as a
is
If
its
in
,
be
.
is
is
,
in
on
, .
,
—
,
allegorical writing that that something which appears the surface being impossible and untrue should within both possible and true
.
,
be ,
is ,
of as
its
,
an
of
the second
of
of
poetry Aristotle necessary imitation action one conditions that this action probable credible only meaning and not the intrinsic but also superficial expression We cannot therefore accept the basic assumption
For
the premisses the authority
an
.
as
an
art
or
of
frequently alleged Thus the ignorance the incapacity the audience argument against the whole here adduced specifically allegory against argument
partly Aristotle but mainly the reason the third premiss the authority thus completing the trilogy Plato Aristotle and the reason invoked
of
action required
of
.
secondary
But
second action
,
a
amounts
to or
—
in
the other
on at
,
,
,
principal
the episodes
Eustathius
plot which constitutes
the main
, , it
the one
in
it
and the commentary
by
the poem
occurs and thus the unity
say some
present either
or
may
or in in
Allegory
be ,
cited
-
the soul whether
is
Iliad
of
the
),
).
the beginning
(
(
of
is
For
TORQUATO TASSO
in
by a
to ,
in
as
10 ,
,
,
by
of
a
is
which many the period are
of in
of
on
)
(
1594
epic poetry Tasso himself the author treatise the problems debated Possevino Beltrami and others 85
in it
.
of
all
)
is
of
of
.
to
,
by
as
(
of
,
on
it .
by
,
on
is
destroyed reason Hence was allegory did not even mention the possibility the his silence condemned Plato on the audience Aristotle unity and the reason action unite outlaw interpretation and perhaps writing that upheld system vain such critics Patrizi and Mazzoni such poets Tasso the Allegoria appended the Gerusalemme Liberata
that Aristotle Poetics and credibility
]
[
ci ne
,
,
,
nel
della rep
. e
Plat
.
Poeti
2 °.
, e ne '
; e
al
,
, e
.
da
."
339
de '
la
il
che questi sieno gl'ascoltatori confermano
e
lo ?
è
la
si
di
,
;
in
'
o
negl idioti afatto Strabone nel primo
si
65 : "
,
.
,
in
,
di
, si
,
.
.
quando MS Bibl Com Siena D.VII fols 64v ricercasse questo credibile poesia inquanto senso allegorico saremmo forzati confessare che immitatione non fusse stata data per passatempo come diceua Plat ricercando l'Allegoria acutezza d'ingegno profondità dottrina uarietà scienze felicissima memoria finalmente giuditio esquisito saper accomodare questo ricerca senso allegorico senso letterale anco fatica cosi fatti huomini quanto maggiore ricercherà mediocremente letterati
POETIC
THEORY was not published
treated in some detail. The Discorsi del poema heroico
until 1594 , but it was probably written between 1575 and 1580 ; it repeats , in many respects , the materials included in the Discorsi dell'arte poetica of 1587. The Platonic reference is perhaps most distinct in Tasso's considera tion of the ends of poetry . I have already pointed out in Chapter I ( p. 32 ) that in classifying poetry among the arts he subordinated it to politics because he regarded utility as the primary end , pleasure as auxiliary . In a general way , the highest end of poetry is “ to benefit men through the
of human actions , ” and Tasso would therefore define poetry as an imitation of human actions made for the instruction of life . ” 86 More particularly , epic poetry instructs great men , who seek to conform to prudence examples strength temperance forms justice piety and religion every other virtue faith and example
It of
. "
great and power ,
,
illustrious
87
,
of
of
,
of
an
of
“
of ,
, as
,
of
of the
an imitation
defined
by
should thus ful
“
be
,
, of ,
in
its
"
to
in
,
in .
to
;
to
:
be
of
by
,
." 88
in
to
,
made
of
narrating with the highest form verse order bring profit minds through the marvelous and this way differently stated for each genre tragedy Indeed the end will will purge means terror and pity comedy will use laughter make ugly things men ashamed do action
move men's
.
of
of
-
of
a
of
of
a
of is
;
of of of
,
he
of
or
,
,
is a
There sense however which the functions the poet are more demonstrating examples noble than the mere providing actions images presented for the contempla Like the theologian maker theologian tion men this makes him kind rather the mystical
,
of
in
.” 89
be
is
of
a
do ,
of
by
as
by
, is in of
: “
of
tion
to
the scholastic strain ... the act leading men the contempla arousing them images divine things and this way means the mystical theologian and the poet much more noble operation than teaching means demonstrations which the function the high scholastic theologian For this reason the poet should held
than
,
.ity
of
by
.
he ,
.
he
in
in
.
,
as
by
to it
,
St. a
and his art should occupy more elevated position than that such divines Thomas His high calling imposes certain obligations For one must treat only the truth seeking novelty form and detail rather than matter For another must avoid the use the pagan marvelous and employ only that authorized Christian esteem
assigned
.pp
,
the most excellent form
of
proper only
to
the most excellent poem
govern
gli
...
is
:
,
,
Here again the close relationships between the poet the theologian and the legislator are apparent
à
,
,
,
in
,
& il ."
la
,
; , e e di
.”
, e
,
."
: "
),
(
., , ., " .p .p .ppdi 1 " 14 : : “ " le : , " & il gli .,
87 88
,
89
in
86
giouare huomini con l'essempio dell'attioni humane fatta per ammaestramento della vita Ibid forme della fortezza della temperanza della prudenza della giustitia d'ogni altra virtù della fede della pietà della Religione perfetta fatta narrando con altissimo Ibid imitatore d'attione illustre grande marauiglia giouare questa guisa verso affine muouere animi con Ibid 29–30 conducere alla contemplatione delle cose diuine destare Poema heroico 1594 6–7 humane and imitatione dell'attioni
340
)
(
."
è
& il
,
le
,
il
fà
questa guisa con l'imagini come Theologo mistico Poeta molto più nobile opera tione che l'ammaestrar con demostrationi com'è officio del Theologo scolastico
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
ment . This is the monarchy ; but the monarchy cannot be properly governed with The true religion is therefore proper to the best monarchy , and where there is false piety or false worship of God there can be no perfection in the prince or in the principality . Therefore poems must also participate in this a false religion .
same imperfection , but the fault is not that of the poetic art but of politics, not of the poet but of the legislator . We conclude , therefore , that no poem is to be praised which is excessively full of prodigies . 90
The only marvelous that is really acceptable is the Christian marvelous , since actions attributed to God and his ministers — even though they are improbable or impossible — become verisimilar through faith . The opinion of the multitude , to whom poetry is addressed , will accept such actions as true : “ One and the same action may therefore be both marvelous and verisimilar : marvelous if one consider it in itself and hemmed in by natural
of
.” 91
.
Christian subject He must not All other conditions this theorizing .
of he
In
.
,
.
Idea which the poet matter and form ,
Sperone Speroni's Dialogo dell'historia
treatise
which
an
of
a
of
the extent
poem
imitate through the happy combination
Like Tasso's
published
it ,
.
.
of
,
,
:
)
truth not falsehood from annals is
of in
does history
of
be
as
(
materials lie ,
derives
.
in
,
to
,
he
poetry
insists that the subject its
all ,
of
it
and that
...
, of of
in
is
,
as
it
important
to it .
an
I
;
a
to
,
in
have been much earlier date 1596 probably goes back any grounds assigning approximate unable find for date The Dialogo also has certain points doctrine common with Tasso One similarity along the classification the art for Speroni too places logic grammar philosophy with and rhetoric under rational He also sees politics Most essentially useful the state and the service
to
only
hidden Platonism
every part
,
seeks
to
sees behind every poem
to
,
,
is ,
moreover
or a
of
Tasso there
to
choose
use the most sacred these nor those recent times subject matter derive from these original bases
all
preference
a
should
of
of by
—
an
is
—
credibility
of
is a
to
,
its
limitations , verisimilar if one consider it separated from such limitations supernatural force capable with respect to cause which and producing such marvels accustomed This credibility the Christian marvelous additional reason why the epic poet who seeks always
to
,
it
as
a
35 : “
90
,
a
is
fable thus not would seem from the meaning the word itself but without any doubt the truth not merely natural and pure and simple è
poema
'
, i
è
:
,
il
,
,
de '
, e
, ò &
la
,
il
il
l'eccellentissimo Regno ma
è
., .p .
questa
.
di
proprio solamente della eccellentissima forma Regno non può esser ottimamente gouernato con falsa religione Conuiene adunque all'ottimo Regno vera religione oue sia falsa pietà però falso culto d'Iddio non può essere alcuna perfettione nel Principe nel Principato poemi ancora participano dell'istessa imperfettione ma difetto non dell'arte poetica Ibid gouerno
si
,
,
,
è
,
]
(
341
,
, e
, à i e
se
e
."
à
da
in
37 : “
., .p
,
&
91
. "
,
,
legislatori conchiudiamo dunque che non ma della politica non del poeta ma debba lodare alcun poema souerchiamente prodigioso merauigliosa Ibid Puo esser dunque vna medesima attione verisimile merauigliosa riguardandola stessa circonscritta dentro termini naturali verisimile questi termini nella sua cagione laquale considerandola diuisa vna virtù sopranaturale possente far simili merauiglie vsata
or by
its
POETIC THOERY
of
,
in
of
92
.
to
be
to
or
as
be
of
or
of
of
but the truth adorned and decorated truth , standing on own certain images which are marvelous imitators the behavior the reason the ways saying believing things common some part the world which impious reputed impossible other parts would held
of
,
a
,
,
or
of
.
is
;
of
is
,
.
to
it
in
of
is
of
is
of
;
is
in
Simple truth found history the annals noteworthy truth the matter subject poetry and noteworthy and marvelous truth the What more this marvelous aspect less the product the action itself the persons involved than the product the words metaphors epithets present them Poetry rapidly becomes and other decorations used
;
or
,
of ,
,
—
-
at
.
,
rhetoric
,
We should note however that Speroni encounters the political usefulness Platonic tradition several points ends truth specifically calling upon fulness without the authority Plato dis cussing his text rather the definite references and borrowings involve form
.
Aristotle's Poetics
of
in
gli
a
as
his
as
of
in
so
to
”
“
of
-
is
so
the century
—
of
the end
us
at
healthy the tradition Diomede example extravagant with another the defenses frequent poesy which had been the early years the Cinquecento and which were continue favorite literary exercise the Seicento
Almost
Borghesi supplies
on ,
e
et a '
,
of
a
of
,
of
by
,
“
is
,
.
is
It
all
is a
of
.
of is
pregi della poesia Oratione intorno onori della Borghesi poetry primarily praise 1596. bases his the fact gift that the poetic art nature and that natural objects are more excellent than others the divine furor without which no amount industry will avail the poet that constitutes the natural foundation the art the divine furor which breathed into our souls miraculously well This
eloquenza
in
in
.
,
,
is
of
of
, or
,
,
A
93
of
."
eulogy infinite providence second source found the witness philosophers kings generals innumerable and others who have either practised the art themselves praised those who did For poetry spite may ignorant exterior sound the beautiful think contains under what the
of
,
all
an
;
it
of
a
.
to
of
,
of
.
a
in
counsels and useful instructions Both poetry and eloquence are joined appreciation the superiority third form their language and reasoning Borghesi believes those the common people For these reasons upon poet that Plato's ban the was restricted one and that the whole art badly these was not blamed for the misdeeds those who practised
92
as by
of
be ,
of
by .
,
: “
at
of
is a
of
,
of
.
of
by
latter are the wicked and unscrupulous versifiers who wilfully corrupt poets innocent citizenry The citation Christians even the church proof that poetry may fathers and the many religious uses taken proper interpretation this Plato's meaning Borghesi's paean Poetry praise comes the end his oration means which the
, ,
. . .,
se
,
,
in
animi nostri dall'infinita prouidenza
(
."
&
,
è
,
&
&
,
gli
ne
, ò &
10 : “ il
, .p
qual
342
]
."
(
Oratione 1596) spira samente si
: "
, ) , .p
, ò
93
( di )sic ,
,
&
(
In
Dialoghi 1596 394 fauola adunque non menzogna come ella par nel uocabulo pura semplice per ma uerità senza fallo non natural solamente stante ma intagliata uerità lauorata alcune imagini imitatrice merauigliose del decoro della ragione del usanza del dirsse credere uolgarmente alcuna parte del mondo cose riputate impossibili che altroue sarebbono empie tenute
miracolo
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
CHRISTIANITY
OF
all
:
, ,
,
immortal
the
of
,
and
of
-
of
of
,
,
honor
conservator
the
94
of
guardian
of
,
the
memories
other men
. "
praise
of of
things mover of the stars is duly celebrated , is the unique imitator of high minded behavior unbridled passions the teacher the producer noble actions the arouser virtue the dispenser the moderator
in
be
of
the sense that Beni maintains throughout
1600
),
soluere
It
is a
typical docu fundamentally Platonic
the context
)
as
is
in
:
A
,
in
as
( at
.
be
an
in
-
-while
of
ethical and political criteria opposite assumption the ethical and political effects will purely personal note desirable added the theory that these effects are desirable least for tragedy and comedy long prose but that undesirable consequences the poems are written attitude
considering poetry starting always from
vinculis 244
).
(p .
Chapter
(
metrorum
VI
in
at
some length
a
in
ment
atque tragoediam
comoediam
already studied
in
is
.
praestare
to
of
so
of
is
It
analyzed perhaps fortunate that the last the texts this chapter should represent typically one Cinque the dominant forms qua ostenditur cento Platonism The text Paolo Beni's Disputatio
is
It
.
is .
on be
is
I
to of
.
of
in
of
result from the writing the same forms verse this latter note that constitutes the originality the work poetry have already indicated that Beni assumes that the real end utility through moral instruction and that pleasure ancillary this end added others which clarify and To the passages already cited may
:
to
of
.
specify the position The statement the relationship between pleasure and utility also reveals Beni's conception the audience which tragedy comedy are addressed and
...
in
, is
in , as
,
of ,
of
if
of
a
...
of
.
be
by
:
,
.
or
of
tragic not pleasure the common and proper end tragedy and comic imitation Pleasure indeed was sought and obtained comedy with this purpose that since naked precepts for living joined with philo sophical severity are received and borne with difficulty the people they should tempered pleasure agreeableness seasoned and with kind and with comedy and tragedy salt Thus certainly the good writers imitation
,
For honest utility
in
by
–
,
, in of
—
of
as it
to
be
a
of
the expert medic who tempers with sweetness the bitterness medicine which would otherwise distasteful the palate the patient season and mix fooling the with pleasure the regulations and precepts for life order that palate they may give them useful lessons the masses were revolted
20 : “ la
94
.'
95 an agreeable way
,
,
di
."
,
& est
in
.
eo
, di di è
il
si
,
di
: "
.pp , e
,
),
...
ac
(
95 ,
di
,
di
., .p
imitatrice
la
qual degnamente Poesia con celebra mouitor delle Stelle qualunque cosa moderatrice trasandanti affetti insegnatrice generosi costumi producitrice nobili operationi solleuatrice virtù dispensatrice lodi albergatrice d'onore dell'altrui memorie immortal conseruatrice Disputatio germanus 1600 44v Etenim honesta vtilitas non voluptas proprius Comicae aut Tragicae imitationis Voluptas enim Tragoedia finis Comoedia Ibid singolare
vt
,
." ac
)
(
,
,
343
ac
&
...
,
.
ac
,
ac
vt
,
a
&
comparata est quoniam nuda vitae praecepta philosophicae consilio quaesita popularibus aut sustinentur voluptate quadam seueritati admista difficilè excipiuntur temperentur Tragicus iucunditate tanquam sale condiantur Sic sanè bonus Comicus periti instar Medici qui Pharmaci amaritudinem dulci temperat fastidiosum aegroti palatum fallit vitae officia atque praecepta voluptate condit temperat vulgi palatum quasi nauseantem fallens vtilitatem illi cum suauitate propinet
THEORY
POETIC
, in
;
of
all
For such an audience as this, an excess of pleasure can only be dangerous, and Beni takes a stand very close to that of Plato : “ They ( verses and song ] finally soften our souls and destroy the sinews manliness the guise
a
of
disapproves Beni
not hostile the imitation especially the gods He might he
.
,
of of
to
to
be
or to
by
,
If
one read him more carefully will understand that lyric poets any others who are not bound the law adapted singing the praises since their verses seem
to
he is
he
:
in
of
will find that
sum his argument authorizes that
of
read Plato well
only certain genres and that himself
he
of
we
a
to
.
on
we
believes that
if
He
.
poets
,
.” 96
be
to
of
is
as
us
of
liberal education they can bring much harm and evil Thus the question raised whether the whole art should condemned because these potential dangers Beni cites Cicero's Pro Archia for moderate position and then passes discussion Plato's banishment the
,
to
in
be
so
he
In
to
,
on
to
easily have restored his favor Homer and the epic poets whom indeed praises many scores wherever they had both used imitation more moderately opposition decency and and had corrected certain things which seemed to
to
if
as
he
he
,
in
of
so
,
.
indignant against the tragic and comic writers because virtue fact became they put that constant imitation through verses and songs completely the voluptuousness and brutality that use the end both repudiated the poems put and ordered that the poets themselves leave his state intended
all
,
so to
,
;
to
in
of
, .
them completely beyond the pale And this was because they lulled the ear with rhythm and verse and harmony and delighted the senses deprived reason finally exciting admiration the mob gathered the theater but not only did they not direct men's minds towards prudence and temperance but with such direct them.97 means they were not even capable
of
comedy
a
by
,
of
,
in
,
of
a
is
96
. .p .,
its
.
.
in
an
to
,
of
prose and which thus bends the texts Plato own purposes any means infrequent situation the Cinquecento
was not
97
This
by
poetry
in
in
.
of
;
a
,
, in
to
of
apparent
,
above
all in
,
in is
variety where meters and claptrap machinery melodies combination with the and the stage leads ethical results that are directly the opposite those sought the long soliloquy confesses her sins and art Comedy herself essence thus kind Platonism which verse Beni's blames them upon the use holds one attitude toward poetry verse and the opposite attitude toward This vice
si
:
."
,
: “ si
.pp
&
: "
,
Ibid 15v sed tamen mollire animos nostros neruos omnes virtutis elidere denique per speciem liberalis eruditionis multa nobis afferre mala detrimenta quis attentiùs eum perlegat intelliget non lyricis infensum esse Ibid 16–16v qui sunt alii qui imitationi haud astricti sint cum praesertim horum carmina diuinis aut :
...
,
&
&
ad .
,
ac
.
si
&
&
vt
,
sic
,
, é
&
,
vsi
.
in
,
&
in & in
,
in
poetis laudibus canendis accommodata uideantur Cum Homero etiam Heroicisque quos etiam gratiam vbi temperatiore imitatione multis laudat facilè rediisset primis nonnulla quae cum honestate essent virtute pugnare viderentur emendassent Tragicos verùm Comicos quoniam perpetuam illam imitationem metris cantibus lasciuiam seuitiamue inflecterent totam exarsit tandem illorum poemata repudi igni interdictum aqua illis poetas ipsos sua Rep excedere iusserit tanquam auerit ;
ea
,
)
(
."
344
ne ad
&
,
in
& ,
:
,
&
idque quia versu rythmo expertem rationis harmonia mulcerent quidem aures sensum delectarent confluentibus denique theatrum turbis admirationem mouerent prudentiam verò temperantiam non modò non informarent animos sed ratione informare quidem possent vellet
PLATONISM
TRIUMPH
:
CHRISTIANITY
OF
CONCLUSIONS During the last thirty years of the Cinquecento , the documents of literary belonging to the Platonic tradition show in certain respects striking similarities with those of the preceding years , in other respects innovations theory
and departures. Perhaps the most constant element is the praise or defence of poetry , usually couched in the most general terms and originating in a vague enthusiasm for the art . Such writers as Menechini , Correa , Benci , and Borghesi add little in the way of arguments to those that had been adduced by a Boccaccio two centuries earlier . One might even say that their orations or treatises reflect little of the critical sophistication which had , never
of
a
little
The
.
the divine furor
,
,
very
imitation
of
,
interests
(p
of
.
in
of
-
under the influence
change
these
much the same terms But perhaps here there robably for the question imitation the abundant discussions Aristotle's definition and
the balance be of
in
a
is
shift
defence
the great issues
,
the Platonic
critics continue discuss ethical and political ends
-
Platonic attack
to or
all
theless , developed during the intervening years . In spite of the great erudi tion resulting from the innumerable commentaries, debates , and discussions of the sixteenth century , their own writings display a kind of charming naïveté —which has the one disadvantage of sounding , always, somewhat trite and unoriginal . part As for the particular questions that at times formed the
all
to
poetry
of
,
.
the consideration
in
of
is
a
to
its
of
of
operation Contrariwise relationships the state and
his modes
of or of
to
it
as
,
of
as
to
)
its
exciting uses ceases had been earlier generations theorists and the question the divine furor either taken for granted gives way before more naturalistic conception the poet's talents and
terms
ethical instruction increases rather it is
a
of
to
and
is
Platonic
it
of
by in
,
of
to
.
to
,
of to
,
By this late date there comes origin Koivń present universally but unspecifically the minds men
geneous ideas
be a
or
he
a
,
to
.
of
to
the texts
is
For these problems there much less direct reference Plato themselves the point that sometimes difficult distinguish whether critic actually has Platonic basis for his point view whether starts from vague and anonymous positions hetero than decreases
of
a
is ,
.
of
,
as
.
,
is
this common fund that reference made the critics rather than the dialogues themselves Such references remain fragmentary and scattered just the literary citations before them had been because the funda mentally unsystematic attitude the critics That Plato remains col a
in
-
to
of
of .
on
a
rather
If
of
of
passages concerning the poetic art passages extracted from lection many dialogues philosopher having than total system the light poetry were developed which his various ideas poetry tend the ethical and political connotations the art
to
)
(
345
,
in
is
It
of
I
,
.
of
is
a it
,
the critics
of
of in
these years the
sciousnesses
be
may present because there the con stronger idea the state true that beginning with earliest writings that have considered there were sug poetry was subordinate politics and gestions that the art the art predominate
POETIC
THEORY
that the politician should exercise a role of direction and censure with respect to the poet . But these were theoretical in tone and showed always the direct impact of the Platonic texts . In such writers as Denores , now , the whole problem has an air of immediacy and of reality not earlier sensible . I hesitate to say that this phenomenon results either from a broader aware ness on the part of critics of the contemporary developments in political theory or from their observations of current politics . But the critical treatises themselves , unless I am mistaken , give increasing prominence to
the practice
of poetry
only
or
of
to
art of is
of
in be
to
,
a
body politic
.
as a whole or of certain of forms rather surprising corollary theorists are now less prone banish expel the poet from the state and more prone seek ways which the practice his art can controlled and turned the advantage the the art
in to
of
As
of
its
political implications and a lesser role to ethical instruction ; the emphasis is less on “ character building " and more on the consequences to the state
.
it
,
,
by by
I
its
to
.
,
as
of
in
of
is
to
. It
the cases the extreme Christian theorists that expressed with increased vigor condemn and exile the position already The Platonic have remarked carried with from the start admirable possibilities for exploitation Christian theorists and the first steps such exploitation were taken writers earlier years This application Platonic methods and ideas the Christian attack the wish
in
,
, is
of
of
It
be
pro must either purposes salvaged for
.
be
of
pleasure
as
of
all
the very presence such parts
as
poetry combining pleasure art utility immediately instrument
.
of
of
be
of
in
, of
be
by
.
or
or
or
of
be
,
it
toto cannot put under the ban This may mean the Christian indoctrination must exclusion poems certain genres certain poets whole ranges teaching undesirable lessons An having unacceptable subject matters especially reprehensible body poetry will poets who that produced were themselves not Christians since their works will found not only
in
hibited
or
because
as
using pleasure
an
.
the severest terms Such
of
suspect
an
a
of
,
with utility
or
in
pleasure
of of ,
in
upon poetry reaches culmination the years after 1570. Gambara Panicarola Possevino see the whole art the theological context Catholicism and brand Catholicism that condemns all forms
.
a
.
is
of
vicious moral incitements but also the praises and the beauties religions All pagan antiquity such condemnation the object
false
Even
of
.
I
to
.
is
or
is
of
,
of
of
of
a
of
.
of
as
in
an its
to
it
It ;
.
is
of
an
is
,
whose
the desirability
,
,
in
point view not specifically that the reading consulting citing the Greek and brought into question Giovambattista Strozzi's lecture Roman poets example thinking emphasize again that such this kind wish thinking far from setting the tone for late Renaissance attitudes toward poetry sectarian small number maximum degree exists theorists but has influence upon others well and helps determine theory the general orientations less rabid theorists
church
)
(
346
,
a
in
of
of
political reference and the school Christian inter Both the school departure pretation were joined their contempt for common point
CHRISTIANITY
OF
For if poetry or hear it are
the public to which they assumed that poetry was addressed . is politically dangerous, it is because the men who
will
read
or to
it
.
it
if
its
, it to is
disposed rather to act upon malevolent insinuations than salutary lessons And religion dangers carries with
follow
because
of
as
by
In
.
to
it
in
affects are too weak their faith too susceptible blandishments of other beliefs remain Christians unscathed
the men whom
its
TRIUMPH
:
to
PLATONISM
the
both
is
to
,
it
in
,
of
to
,
to
it
of
.
to
to
it
to
It
.
of
by
,
of
,
,
the lowest classes hence the critics ignorant and morally weak hence under the domination their senses uncontrolled reason Far from being the art the élite poetry the poems art the masses writes the kind does and the ways pander appeal sway them uses because wishes these masses cases these men are presented
a
is
-
,
of
,
of
a
to
as
of all ,
,
the whole art comes very close
.
of
Here the Platonic tradition poetry the considerations Horace and the the tradition probably such writer Mazzoni
education
subjects
to of
audience
it
specific
of
be
to
is
intellect and their lack
insofar
as
of
,
.
ness
,
to to
.
it
if
,
,
their low tastes instruct them can But this instruction itself doubtful thing granted the recalcitrance supposed characterize these indirectly through appealed men Even the possibility that they may allegory again because now subjected serious doubt their weak
,
a
in
a
.
,
be
to
to
a
by
,
,
It
.
rhetoricians comes closest who diversifies his audience into various classes establishes for each class sought special utility given poetic the poet and then assigns genre each such utility ,
.
,
as
of
,
of
in
,
There are fact many other points contact between the Platonic tradition and those Horace and Aristotle The Platonic ends these critics see them are practically indistinguishable from those that they find
,
or
,
of
of
the theory
to
reference
is
of
.
of
means
by
by
greater frequency answered
by
;
an
to
its
,
is
is
to
,
is
.
in a
;
is
,
in
.
of
.
or in
unequal dominant Horace's Ars poetica Utility and pleasure equal subordinate The tendency the Platonists declare that the two importance that utility are unequal dominant that pleasure instrument and this true even for those who believe that the art serves satisfactory way With Aristotle the rapprochements desirable ends become increasingly numerous and distinct The theory imitation moves utility closer Aristotelian solution the question with greater and
purga of in
;
of
of
an
in
,
in
it is
,
of
an
is
.
of
.
it is
If
of
on
.
tion Doubts raised Plato are solved Aristotle attacks made the Dialogues produce authority name the defences based the the Poetics this the general position the Platonists because from the very outset intermediate position both philosophically and point time The position grew and developed intellectual milieu that had already fully accepted Horace's dicta on many the problems
of
re -
by a
a
to
]
(
347
—
a
in
of
I
.
to ,
it
be
or It
of
,
.
the poetic art raises questions which had already been answered certain extent for which answers might found examination the Horatian text Moreover questions raises only limited number —those which have sought trace the last two chapters and leaves accepted doctrine that the Horatians had de untouched the vast body
be
of
,
,
a
.
in .
is
of all ,
as
,
comes
theoretical
matters
the art This doctrine will not century advances younger text Aris vie with Plato's dialogues for domination poetry least insofar the theory concerned
the sixteenth
to
.
Poetics
totle's
As
the practical aspects
at
for
easily displaced
-
veloped
all
POETIC THEORY
,
its his
by
to
is
to
,
his
it
.
of
in
of
,
in
in of
,
to
,
is
,
practical uses and This text like Horace's seen have above applications suggestions for the poet the practice art for the profession for the public reading and critic the practice understanding supply answers many poetry But also seen
)
348
of
of
Aristotle's Poetics
.
of of
a
the growing authority
(
doctrine and
of
is
.
in
,
in
—
problems which had been raised fundamental and abstruse problems Plato answers which some few cases confirm Plato's own findings but which most cases contradict and deny them The weakening the Platonic tradition concomitant the solidification Horatian
CHAPTER NINE . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S : I. DISCOVERY AND EXEGESIS
POETICS
HERE IS NO DOUBT but that the signal event in the history of literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance was the discovery of Aristotle's incorporation into the critical tradition Whereas Poetics and poetica Horace's Ars had continued influence critical thinking through to
.
its
T
of ,
it
.
,
of
a
a
at
of
at
of
,
of
,
out the Middle Ages and whereas Plato's miscellaneous ideas had entered into consideration with the coming humanism the text the Poetics became available only the very end the fifteenth century and became generally known only toward the middle appeared the sixteenth Thus way thinking literary time when about matters derived from the texts known earlier and from the whole rhetorical tradition associated
with it
of
,
in
its
It
.
of
By
. .
.
,
of
in
Italy had painting sculpture and
was full blown
of
”
of
"
,
spirit hand 1500 the the Renaissance produced remarkable masterpieces the fields
,
,
several mutations had taken place which throw the appear that precise moment into peculiar relief On the one
the Poetics
by
of
,
of
in
of
the century
ance
of
are fundamentally important the states mind the successive periods are even greater significance the turn
the dates themselves
current
at
If
.
a
of
in
be a .
of
in
,
in
of of
Horace was firmly established the minds men was necessarily read interpreted keeping way thinking and with that and turn changed and modified the body existing attitudes The history the Aristotelian tradition the Cinquecento will thus narrative the give thought and and take between habitual modes fresh text presenting extraordinary and surprising ideas
or of ,
by a
,
,
:
or to
of
of
,
in
,
.
of
the study
all
,
in in
of
,
.
in
of in
the special
active production both
in
and
in
;
domain literature she was engaged Latin and the vulgar tongue These works ble original artistry had been accompanied since around 1450 activity theory and criticism the fields universities academies scholars their studies had addressed themselves the problem ascertaining whence these works acquired their beauty their quality Naturally the answers were first sought their worth the ancients and architecture
in
(
in
time when Aristotle's repute the scholarly world was regarded too severe and too scholastic
of
"
“
as
His method to
.
)
Greek the highest
,
of in
then not
at a
,
of
.
,
,
a
.
Horace and Plato was renewed and extended The arrival Aristotle among the company with text previously unexplored and unex ploited promised new possibilities for solving the remaining problems On the other hand the text the Poetics was published first Latin and
,
,
of
of
In
he
of
,
Aristotle's treatises was neither understood nor esteemed and analyzing the Italian Renaissance would have been capable 349
)
(
few men
).
as
(
and logic
of of
in
and too closely linked the medieval tradition the church had been abandoned favor the more attractive and more facile discoursings any case the rigorous construction Plato was then interpreted
POETIC
THEORY
no
he
.
all
or applying it . To be sure, the vogue of Aristotle ( especially of such works as the Ethics , the Politics , the De Anima , the Rhetoric , and the treatises on natural history ) continued throughout the sixteenth century : witness the large number of editions and commentaries, of university courses devoted longer the to interpreting him , of discussions of kinds But was as
he
of
,
by
.
,
,
,
as
Master the Philosopher the tyrant who imposed method well doctrine His authority was frequently questioned was openly attacked some and the methods and conclusions his rivals were upheld against
,
,
correctly
in of
.
it
read and understand
in
,
,
is
it
it ,
we
easy
.
not
the Renaissance reader
to
not
is
defence
of
a
of
in
its
of
said
-
the Poetics was
, in
that the text understand Incomplete the form highly condensed and the subtlety and rigorousness which have structure become apparent only after the most searching study and the light method discoverable only through analysis the whole
It
should
of
be
to
least prepared
at
to
of
:
an
.
of
,
,
,
II )
in
of
(
I
of
.
Even more serious was the fact that his best expositors and champions insufficient training and improper intellectual habits Chapter have spoken them and hence the interpretations that they offered were woefully insufficient Thus the appearance the Poetics was essentially anachronism the newest most exciting and most pro mising text light precisely the time when men were Aristotle came him
were often men
a
,
or to
a
its
to
as
, its
.
, it
in
, a
of in
a
by
.
.
,
Aristotelian corpus For the Renaissance reader the procedure was even many places corrupt more difficult He had before him text text which has been much improved the labors modern scholarship but which conjecture and uncertainty are still present Moreover was text which examples and borrowed illustrations from literature still very imper fectly known either content form and these examples must have
to
of
be
of
an
,
to
I
,
in
.
,
of
.
,
, it
be
to
of
.
If
provided little clarification for him these circumstances are added the badly printed texts and inadequate translations hazards will seen that his difficulties were indeed almost insuperable Hence the necessity exegesis after discovery for the tremendous effort which the Cinque cento dedicated itself propose interpretation hesitate even our time the text against which the problems and the solutions the Renaissance may ,
a
,
guide
to
the Poetics
in
.
If
.
as a
interest
the theory and practice
a
)
(
350
to
poem
,
to
of
by
.
to
analyze audiences nor study nature He wishes discover how produced imitation and representing some aspect natural
a
is
.
of
in
of
or
of
no
at
is
is
in
.
it
of
,
of
its
of
is
in
its
in it ,
because critics have seen a
is
it
,
any more than other theoretical document treatise which concentrates attention upon those qualities the work art itself which make beautiful and produc proper effect Aristotle the time neglectful either tive produced audience whom this proper effect the natural reality represented neither art But his aim the artificial work which
of
literary criticism
in be
recrudescence
of
;
is
in
great dispute reflected the matter still But perhaps the following general statement would acceptable there has been recent years
object
so
of
His points aesthetics which com .
,
in
achieve perfection
in
,
general conception
of
ope
are two
a
departure
:
its
of
poetry may
the artificial medium
the medium that the desired aesthetic effect results
form
that form
of
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
,
of
it )
as
he
;
,
of
,
is
.
of
,
in
,
to
as
he
to
of
to
in
of
(
of
a
or he
,
its
, to
of
relationship
the end
,
such elements
of
as
poetry the nature imitation the artificial natural objects the relationship between the contemplator and the general criteria for artistic achievement work and body the other materials the literature Greece knew which analyzes the light this aesthetic discover how poets have achieved capable have failed achieve the perfection which their art and past suggestions from which obtains how the the various forms and genres have been successfully practised The analysis the works thus prises
as
of
to
,
,
or .
a
of
verification the aesthetic just the aesthetic had provided the initial means for the analysis The suggestions with respect the past are dogmas and hence the critic never solidified into rules the future becomes
,
I
it :
as
all
as ,
be
to
in
.
to ,
as
of
In
to
in
of
may find them guides and indications for the analysis other poems differently conceived and executed but nevertheless relatable the same they belong aesthetic insofar the same art anticipation the ways which the Renaissance was read the things Poetics two should noted about the theory have outlined
is
of
,
or
,
,
is a
of
,
,
;
a
it
in
.
,
or
an
of
is
. all It
In
be
.
or
I
of
"
"
a
of
in
in
,
of
,
at
mind the times bears concerns the audience Aristotle contemplator who sees presence reads and appreciates the poem Statements about the effect which have spoken may made either terms the kind reaction within audience the structural particularities within the work which produce that reaction either case general way general and universal one the audience considered personal idio and never particularized through race time place class syncracies composed sharing men the common feelings and exper First
,
by
,
of
,
of
iences mankind having the common conviction that actions spring from character and that events spring from causes susceptible enjoying the pleasures afforded the imitative arts and capable through their sensi
is
to
.
as
an
.
of
of
”
a
of
“
all
the poem
.
,
structural element
in
a
to
,
a
in is
is
;
as a
enter
it
be
of
, it
no
of
tivity and their habits reading distinguishing good works from bad Otherwise has distinctive qualities audience Hence the position the Poetics not rhetorical one because nowhere the poem made particular effect what persuasion upon order have particular audience moreover nowhere does the character the poet
a
at
,
)
(
of or
the former
resemblance
,
of ”
”
or
conforms not one
.
narrowest sense This means probability are not derived which things usually happen
in
"
“
“
of ”,
“
,
faithfulness realism imitation necessity that the requirements and from natural verisimilitude from the way 351
.
in as its is it “
of
.
to
so
of
it
as
is
good this does not mean that the latter bad fails conform The criterion
to
is
of
of
,
as
concerns natural reality Aristotle times maintains relationship sense the between the natural object which lies behind the imitation and the artificial object which the product the imitation But Second
THEORY
POETIC
in an ordered universe . Rather , they are expressions of relationships of a strictly structural character, which assure the proper integration and order of the component parts of the work . Since they are , in a way , like the laws of nature — wherein actions spring from character and events spring from the imitative relationship between
in
to
of
and
of
?
,
to
of
of
of
what was the nature
,
of
,
commentaries were first available them interpretations their these documents
,
translations what kind do
?
of
with the text
,
of
,
then
its
How
object
of
the work
to
its
nature and the other assure the intelligibility capacity the audience and feel the desired effect.1 did the men the Renaissance first coming into contact the Poetics read that text What kind text what kind
,
of
the poem and
on
causes -- they on the one hand establish
to
since these display merely
the humanists
the way
to
to
the existence
of
the work without any indication pass immediately was understood Instead wish
of
in a
the writings
of of
in
Poetics found knowledge
, 3
is it
to
.
as
as
a
,
, 2
to
it
of
I
speak not think useful here the existence medieval trans published since recently lation the Poetics into Latin far we can discover that translation was completely unknown during the Renaissance necessary Nor retail the first fragmentary and passing allusions the
a
of
in
in
the Aldine Greek text the
Aristotle's text
.
the content
of
of
apprehension
or
of
by
several times
which the scholars
of
Renaissance could gain
1498
means
of
an
1508 and was the first instrument
and
1515
commentary was made available
was thus that Averroës
before Giorgio Valla's Latin translation
of
in in
.
by
It
was reprinted '
It
.
thereafter
.
it
in
,
, in
poetria Aristotilis
minatio
in
,
I
on
.
'
of
it
which discus sion Averroës commentary the Poetics Written Arabic the twelfth century translated into Latin Hermannus Alemanus the Deter Venice 1481 under the title thirteenth was first published
THE AVERROËS PARAPHRASE by
of
,
,
is
It
.
,
be
to
of
to
It
be
would difficult for any writer classical antiquity less well for his presentation the modern world than was Aristotle Averroës and Hermannus clear from the printed version their text served
of
of
.
he
of
he
a
it ,
as
garbled version not only that Averroës had before him understanding completely himself was incapable the materials with which was working He did not know the Greek we have
the Poetics but that
),
to
be
to
this interpretation
of
For fuller statements
of
,
,
(
to
works which Aristotle refers for his examples only the names Homer among Greek poets seem Aesop and the illus him familiar and in
",
:
-
(
.
E. .
in
.
,
of
,
,
,
ed ), .
,
]
[
352
.pp
),
of
,
Le
:
of
,
1928
).
Press
,
Yale University
A
(
,
:
:
(C
S.
P.
R.
,
:
Il
).
,
de
,
de
:
(
,
3
;
New Haven
(
the Poetics hicago
Crane
Its
,
of S.
R.
of
:
),
, “
2
R.
ed .
1
see various articles Critics University Chicago Press McKeon and Elder Olson See also Elder English Institute Olson The Poetic Method Aristotle Powers and Limitations Essays 1951 New York Columbia University Press 1952 pp 70-94 Valgimigli Bruges Paris De arte poetica Guillelmo Moerbeke interprete Desclée Brouwer 1953 Cf. Remigio Sabbadini Metodo degli Umanisti Florence Monnier 1922 Bibliography 71-74 also Lane Cooper and Alfred Gudeman the Poetics Aristotle and Criticism Ancient and Modern 1952 especially those Crane
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
trations were meaningless to him . He did not have any idea of the literary forms of which Aristotle speaks , with the possible exception of the epic , and the whole of the treatise must have seemed to him to exist in a kind of vacuum . He did know certain kinds of Arabic poetry , and he saw in them certain similarities to the works which Aristotle was describing. Moreover , he was aware of a rhetorical tradition in his own literature, concerned largely with tropes and figures and rhetorical devices , and these too he
Indeed , his intention as stated at the to
is
in
this edition
own how much
)
the Greeks they are found
Greek other
in in
of
or
[
,
i.e. ,
in
is
this book either consists
on
an
4
in
." or
,
to
;
nations most for most what found rules proper their poetry and their usage they are not found poems Arabic poetry languages
determine
concerned with universal rules common
of
or to
is
Our intention Aristotle's book On Poetry : “
literature
of all of
.
his
of Aristotle
to the text
outset is to discover to what extent the Poetics is applicable to
to
assimilated
to
,
the Poetics.5
Herman
The gaps will
:
'
in
have numbered the passages
nus translation and given the equivalents speak for themselves
in
to
it
I
so ,
do .I
;
are actually translated
to
of
,
,
it
In
'
.
on
in
"
“
to
The cross between misunderstanding the one hand and intention Arabize the other brings about several immediately visible conse omit quences leads him the first place Averroës Determinatio many passages sometimes fairly long ones from the translation that forms the basis the commentary think useful indicate here which passages
16
24-27
12-13
17
1449a21-28
15-16
18
18–28
19
31-36
20
24-28
21
31-34
7 ( ?
144969–13
16-23
22
8
4 3 2N 1
1447a8
23-29
23
36–1450a7 1450a7-14
5
28–144768 )
6 ( ? )
144769–13
9
1448a1-5
15-23
24
23–37
14
26
12
24-25
27
13
144864-12 12-19
28
8-13
14
29
13-16
15
20–24
30
16-21
ed de .),
11
25 ( ? )
11-12
10
37–145064 145064-8
in
in
in
in
so
the
."
in
&
in
est
.p f: "
(
4
Determinatio 1481 Intentio nostra est hac editione determinare quod libro poetrie aristotilis canonibus uniuersalibus comunibus omnibus nationibus aut pluribus cum plurimum eius quod hoc libro aut sunt canones proprii poematibus ipsorum ipsis aut non sunt reperta consuetudini ipsorum sermone arabum aut sunt reperta aliis idiomatibus
.
)
353
of
,
to
a
; a
is
of
(
to
as
S
A
question mark after passage indicates that the parallelism vague number make exact identification impossible after reference the Poetics that the limits the passage being paraphrased are unclear
POETIC
THEORY
31
22–24
70
17-22
32
25-32
71
23–26 31-25
33
35-40 ( ?)
72
34
1451a6-15
73
35
16-19
74
36
23–24
75
37
30_35
76
36–1451611
77
38
1455612- ( ?) 24-29 33–1456a3 1456a3-7 25- ?) 33-34
39
1451615-19
78
40
27-33
79
41
33–39
80
42
1452a12-18
81
8-19
43
22-23
82
44
29-33
83
20_21 22-34
45 46
33–36
84
35-38
36-145263
85
47
145269–13
86
48
1418
87
49
25–27
88
50
30-32 ( ?)
89
1453a7-12
90
52
22–23
91
53
23-26
92
51
54
55
30_36
93
145361-8
94
56
8-15
95
57
15–22
96
58 59
27–31 ( ?) 1454a13-15
10-14 145701418 18-23 23-30 31–145766 145766-12 ( ?) 33–35 1458a1-3 ( ?) 18–26 ( ?)
145861-11 11-15
98
1459a15-30 145968–12
16-27
99
61
33–36
100
1454b1–2 ( ?) 8-14
38–1457a6 1457a610
97
60 62
35–145662 145662-8
101
( ?)
17-21 ( ?) 146062–5
102
6–7 ( ?)
15–18
103
13–17 ( ?)
65
19-21
104
66
30–31
105 ( ? )
67
1454636–145524
63
64
68 69
1455a4-6
23–25 ( ?) 1461616-17
106 ( ?)
1461a16 ( ?)
107
1461622–25
108
( no equiv .)
12-15
A study of the passages in Aristotle omitted by Averroës -Hermannus shows both misunderstanding and " Arabizing " at work . Many of them (more than in any other category ) are passages in which Aristotle had cited or analyzed specific works by Greek authors , and these were , of course , incomprehensible to Averroës , especially when Aristotle had spoken of specific details of plot or character ( e.g. , 6 , 7 , 9-10 , 10–11 , 11-12 , 16–17 , 35–36 , 36–37 , 38–39 , 39-40 , 53-54 , 54–55 , etc. ). In another group are pas sages in which Aristotle had spoken
of such specifically dramatic
( 354)
elements
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
as the constitution of the plot , the tragic hero , recognition , , reversal the “ deus ex machina ,” the quantitative parts ; since Averroës had no notions of dramatic poetry , these sections were completely meaningless for him ( e.g., 1-2, 17-18 , 32–33 , 41-42 , 46–47, 48–49 , 49–50 , 50 , 62 , 72–73 , passages comprised which Aristotle had treated the etc. ). A third
of
,
he '
;
as
of
)
of
no of
in
imitation since Averroës conception entirely different one could have
of
an
as
as
(
of
poetry very essence art poetry we shall see later was comprehension such ideas
an
is
of
tragedy
set
of
by
,
the second place
is
him
the Poetics translated
of
,
in
,
at
,
,
,
(
,
by
and the most continuous
in
of of
).
,
,
as
of
, ,
,
that represented
passages
the replacing
of
to
,
,
by
is
"
leads
examples
It
Arabize
“
The intention
to
79
diction and rhetorical figures
91 .
to
discussions single part
to ,
necessity and that imitation itself the related imitation truth and historical truth among object e.g. distinctions manner and means 3-4 11-12 20–21 42-43 102 103–4 104–7 Contrariwise Averroës felt quite home
probability
of
to
.
in
of
excludes the
Koran from of )gii
he
clear that
the general classification
in
is
,
: “
in
"
in
to
,
he
,
is ,
”
of
: is in
“
It
,
(p .
liber
“
the
“
from poetry poetry but .” 6
is
it
;
carefully differentiated sanctus and hyperbolical figures Arabic this kind are found Most High the book the Most that the Koran none such are found also clear that excludes certain religious writings called the Sermones Legales and apparently very close content the Old Testament You will find several stories of the kind mentioned here
of
poetry
to
,
.
,
.
of
is
. It
gories
,
from Arabic poetry Besides many fresh examples are added discover difficult from the bare translation poetry what kinds Arabic Averroës has mind But some the names mentioned and some the descriptions help establish the general cate Aristotle's examples
."
of ,
as
all
;
of
in an
,
is
of
;
to
,
of
Laws since this kind are the laudatory tales which incite praiseworthy actions for instance Joseph and his brethren example history examples from and there are other similar incidents accounts the past these are called hortatory exempla Once again the the Books
all
the Arabs
:
of of
;
If
writing are excluded merely because dramatic genres and
:gy "
not exist among the writings in ed
do
,
are excluded specifically other kinds
they
.” of in
in
be
in
)
to
in
of
: “
is
them
,
of
all
[
,
kind
of
carefully made And you will find many examples this praise the Scriptures the Laws since poems virtue i.e. tragedies are not found among the poems the Arabs they and are not found our times except the legal writings these distinction
in
in ."
( sic )
in
id
.) , .p
(
vii : “
f
., .p
7
6
Determinatio 1481 tales iperbolici sermones quamplurimi inueniuntur poematibus arabum sed libro altissimi est alkoratio nihil Ibid tu reperies plures representationum incidentium sermonibus legalibus
ad
tu .
of
f
.p
."
&
et
de
ut
:
de ad
secundum hunc modum cuius fecit mentionem cum talia sint sermones laudatiui instigantes opera laudabilia quidem inducitur historia ioseph fratrum suorum alia similia viiy narrationibus gestorum preteritorum que nominantur exempla exortatiua Cf. on the story Abraham
&
in
."
)
355
(
in
in
in
Et
: "
f
., .p
8
reperies multa scripturis legalibus Ibid viiv modum omnium istorum poematibus arabum cum carmina laudatiua uirtutum non inueniantur non inueniuntur legibus scriptis hoc nostro tempore nisi
POETIC
THEORY
such lengthy narrative poems as the epic . The poetry which Averroës knew consisted therefore exclusively of shorter works , narrative or lyric in general form and embracing such matters as encomia or eulogies, satires , elegiac and songs of joy . Within this body of known of the literary phenomena which he thought Aristotle was describing and discussing , with greater or less success according as parallelisms did or did not exist between Arabic and Greek or love themes
, laments
materials , he tried to find examples
poetry .
In a positive way , we may say that the theory of poetry found in the Determinatio differs from that found in the Poetics in three striking ways : ( 1) Averroës conceives of poetry as a representation or manifestation of the truth , in which the notion of “ imitation " is essentially lacking ; ( 2 ) he thinks of the end of poetry as exclusively ethical, seeking to inculcate virtue or to discourage vice in the reader ; ( 3 ) he sees this end as achieved ally through the affective devices of rhetoric — the figures , mainly
specific - rather
than through the total effect of a poetic form . I shall expand somewhat on each of these points in order to indicate the precise nature of Averroës ' position . Perhaps the simplest approach to Averroës ' general conception of poetry is through his initial statement that “sermones poetici sermones sunt imaginatiui ” ( p . f ) . From what follows , it is clear that “ imaginatiui ” means something like " composed of or productive of images , " something like “ figurative . " The next sentence , “ Modi autem imaginationis & assimila tionis tres sunt, ” confirms this through the establishment of the equivalence between " imaginatio " and "assimilatio " ; moreover , it indicates without a
rei
ad
doubt that these formulas are meant to translate Poetics 1447a15–16 and that " imaginatio " and " assimilatio " are translations of uiungis . But whereas Aristotle had gone on to distinguish three kinds of differences among imitations , according to object, manner , and means , Averroës ”,
”
of
a
is
“
in
a
of
or
”
“
”
an
2 )
“
(
”
“
a
is
(
;
a
on
a
of
of figures : ( 1) an
or
“ assimilatio rem which may using quasi metaphor take the form either simile sicut proportional relationship based assimilatio conuersa comparison you say that the sun which reversed like woman
discerns three kinds
“
to
”,
a
( 3 ) “
”
);
,
of
"
“
”
,
.
“
a
is
rather than that woman like the sun and combination the other two Since synonyms for assimilatio are transumptio trans latio and similitudo and since Averroës refers the reader Aristotle's
]
356
'
“
,
diction
pon
and
an
),
armony
to (h
equivalent
"
of
a
to
sonus
"
"
is
the last
as
,
a
.
,
assimilatio
;
“
),
in
of
. (
”
and
gives them
”
dus
rhythm
[
When Averroës comes poetry imitation
,
means
he
,
as a
given
"
"
.
be
pointed out that imitatio should meaning consistent with that already listing shortly afterward the three
are apparent throughout the work but always term does appear
in It
to
of of
, it is
Rhetoric for further information clear that the notion imitation has figurative expression been reduced that imitation this construction put upon the term The consequences
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
in diction is said to be “ in sermonibus repre When he wishes to state the natural causes of poetry , he gives the first as man's natural practice of “assimilatio per rem evidence the useful representatio cites and imitation or representation
as
he
"
rei
&
rem :
ad
rei
” ( p . fv ).
seu imaginatiuis
sentatiuis
"
circulatio
be
“
,
by
"
“
by
to
(
and
no
in
found together poet called Abyraibi
a
,
speech
a
,
translated
both may the one cited from
of
f
as
.
" )
.pp
“
(
“
are both figures brief narrative passage such res
is a
he
of is (
of
),
to
Reversal and recognition
conceptions directio
he " is as
“
of
a
).
he
(
of .p
teaching
f2v
In
in
examples and comparisons such assimilationes confronted with the necessity more important way when plot which treating the parts much larger imitative form than any obliged replace translation paraphrase could conceive substitute for the ideas the original those which agree with his own ness
a
or
,
;
at
is
as a
of
."
9
which has offered itself for praise
the matter
giito by
long the praises Similarly the notions
of
of
on
]
[
,
,
, of
in
is
"
"
“
or
,
).
or vi -
of
”
f
plot itself has viv Action more specific meaning than subject matter although the word actio times used unity praise for example when action violated certain Arabic poems praise presents itself such fast horse some matter worthy precious sword and they digress from the main theme and they linger too
to
,
).
.p
cf.
(
of
insistence that poetry must
of
, in
found
his
,
of
Aristotelian meaning
is
its
thing but
treat only what
“
(
)
"
by "
or
"
be
”
“
,
knot and denouement translated carmen pertain and dissolutio disiunctio are made lyric poetry and may short citations illustrated Further evidence that the concept imitation has for Averroës any consecutiuum
,
:
is
.
he
;
he
ff .,
is
an
on
on .
is
true There are echoes here course Aristotle's ideas probability and historical truth but essentially the ideas are reversed opposite conclusion translating presented and Thus when Poetics 1451a35 makes this categorical statement
in
as
of
a
to
.
:
et
:
,
to
tragedy
aliquis equus strenuus laudibus materie que
vv
10
. "
a
: "
., .p
aliqua materia laudandi Ibid fv quando occurrerit proposito aut ensis preciosus digrediuntur immorantur nimis optulit ad laudandum
ut
or
"
carmen laudatiuum
eis
the
” :
specifically with respect
more
in
ars laudatiua
“
is
developed
“
he
The same thesis which calls the 9
no exist things which
10
....
he
of
proverbs and fables invents fabricates entities that simply gives them names But the poets give names fact and
matter exist
do of
to
or
.
or
.
it
to
,
in
of
.
representations which are made through untrue and extraordinary figments are not the poet's business And these are the ones which are called proverbs and Aesop and exempla and they are those which are found similar the book writings belong poet speak anything except fabulous For does not the things which exist extraordinary which can possibly exist ... For the maker
)
(
&
re :
in
."
.
357
eis
et in in
ea
ut
.
:
:
&
ea
Et :“
et
.
de
f
., .p
representationes que fiunt per figmenta mendosa adinuenticia non sunt Ibid que sunt exempla que nominantur prouerbia libro opere poete sunt Isopi similibus fabulosis conscriptionibus ideo quod poete non pertinet loqui nisi rebus que sunt aut quas possibile est esse fabu fictor ergo prouerbiorum adinuentiuorum ponit larum adinuenit seu fingit indiuidua que penitus non habent existentiam nomina Poete uero ponunt nomina rebus existentibus
POETIC
THEORY
...
the things from which the imitative representation is selected must be things existing in nature , not things invented or imaginary , for which terms are fabri cated . For the songs of praise [i.e. , tragedies ) have as their intention the improv ing of those actions which spring from the will; when therefore they are possible and almost real , they contain a greater capacity for persuasion or poetic credi bility , which moves the soul to follow something or to reject it . In actions , however , which do not exist in nature , [ this capacity ] is not present . 11
to
;
is
if
in
is
,
its
Imitation is no longer the process of presenting something that is like nature ; it is the process of presenting nature . greater The reason for this , the greater credibility of that which is and persuasiveness paragraph quoted poem contained the last the
of
.
,
'
of
as a
if
be
,
its
,
,
is
.
to
a
of
of
produce ethical action through persuasion audience and persuasion only depends upon conviction truth then true subjects will admitted poetry The end persuasion action the means the materials truth We may take this statement Averroës other two fundamental concepts
and
prevent
:
of
of
certain other actions
;
will
to
the
to
to
“
by
.
,
he
,
of
to
.
of
poetry With respect the end moral action his statements Paraphrasing Poetics 1448al are once again unequivocal writes Those who represent and those who imitate intend means their instigate imitations certain actions which spring from the activity the art
whence
those things which ." 12
in
in
he
of
be
they seek through their imitations will necessity virtues and vices rephrases passage such formulas the intention Later the same
&
be
(“ to
.
of
.”
of
in
"
",
et
“
&
”
,
“
" "
,
as
propter ostentationem decentis aut indecentis assecutio decentis uituperatio malorum approbatio refutatio turpis laus bonorum decentis detestatio turpis The various literary genres come named and judged the light their service these ends Tragedy ars lau be
)
an
It is
;
: "
to
in
is
,
,
I
,
,
of
to
of
”
(“
”
)
acceptable forms since and comedy ars uituperandi will praise both and blame contribute the end virtuous action the defini tragedy for example tion modified contain this clause say which generates imitation men's souls certain passions which
dandi
as
of be
It
(
13
.”
it
it
11
,
to
them toward pitying and fearing and other similar passions promotes through which induces and what makes virtuous men imagine honesty about and moral cleanliness should remembered that Averroës knew no dramatic literature and conceived these two forms temper
in
ad
in
ad
.
....
.pp ' fv 12 : "
12
ponuntur
ad
:
&
.
a
ut
"
.:
quibus sumitur imitatiua representatio res existentes Ibid sint res natura non res adinuenticie siue figmentales quibus ficta sint nomina Carmina namque laudatiua inten quando ergo fuerint possibiles quasi tionem habent promouendi actiones uoluntarias reales amplius incidit per eas sufficientia persuasiua seu credulitas poetica motiua anime assequendum aliquid aut refutandum ipsum Rebus autem non existentibus natura non
f3 -
.pp
13
ea
."
a
et
et
.,
representatores quas Ibid assimilatores per haec intendunt instigare quibusdam erunt necessario dam actiones que circa uoluntaria consistunt retrahere que intendunt per suas representationes aut uirtutes aut uicia in
."
&
de
ad
358
)
(
&
in
ad
: "
.,
Representatio inquam que generat Ibid f3v animabus passiones quasdam temperatiuas ipsarum miserendum aut timendum aut ceteras consimiles passiones quas munditia honestate promouet per hoc quod imaginari facit uirtuosis inducit
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
short poems resembling eulogies and satires .) But love poems , since they lead only to vice , will not be acceptable : But the species of poetry which they call elegy is nothing but an incitement to acts of copulation which they conceal and adorn with the name of love . And therefore it is necessary that children should be restrained from the reading of such poems and that they should be instructed and exercised in poems which incite and incline to fortitude and liberality.14
in for
After pointing out what virtues are pursued by Arabic poetry, Averroës insists that the Greeks always seek to teach in their poetry and that didactic materials are included in it " insofar as they intend by them ( their poems ) to convey didactic illustrations and precepts for the following of the virtues and the rejecting of the vices , or for any other good things which may be
of be
.
,
consisting
as
of of “
poetry
of
be
is
the rhetorical means which such moral instruction figurative we have already seen that the principal one will we
,
by
With respect achieved
it is
to
.
of
,
be
done or known . " 15The end of poetry is thus instruction what may especially may learned but for the actions that taken the light learning Because essentially emphasis this moral instruction
in
to be ,
It
.
of
of
to
he
in
of
,
of
.
of
,
in
be
or
think
process
"
If
.
as
essentially
a
imitation imitation and metaphor assimilatio then whatever power the art has must found the rhetorical effectiveness such metaphors fairly clearly deforming again Averroës states the case the text Aristotle recognition and reversal connection with his treatment will language
;
Aristotle's tragedies
(
),
praise
,
...
the reception
the
ad
82 : "
est
of
to .
men's souls and make them quick
of
as
is .
of
to
,
16
.
14
up
to
people without relationship the soul the reception
through
representations bringing sadness
such the misfortunes falling upon good their merits Through these indeed the exciting Certainly these the virtues made powerful
from which follows some emotion
representations stir virtues
be
,
of
of
of
to
which one seeks the instigation virtues should made representations things causing fear the virtues and
or up of
songs
of
is
that
the
proper that odes
,
For
it is
:
be
,
he
figures speech remembered that had reduced both the status explain their effectiveness says this after pointing out how they should mixed within the individual poem
ut a
in
ad
.
&
."
&
ea
.,
., .p
12 -
15
16
.pp &
&
&
., .p
Species uero poetrie quam elegiam nominant non Ibid nisi incitatio actus cohituales quos amoris nomine obtegunt decorant Ideoque oportet talium carminum lectione abstrahantur filii instruantur exerceantur carminibus que actus largitatis incitant fortitudinis inclinant
. "
ad
&
ad
ut
fit
."
&
...
ex
:
ex
:
&
)
359
(
.
ad
&
ex
id
ut
vii : “
ad
f
aut
: "
inquantum intendunt per Ibid precepta f2v tradere documenta sequendas uirtutes aut respuenda uicia quaslibet alias bonitates operabiles aut scientiales Oportet enim Ibid ode est carmina laudum per que intenditur instigatio representationibus uirtutum representationibus rerum uirtutes composite sint quibus sequitur perturbatio incutientium pauorem contristantium sunt infortunia per haec enim uehemens incidentia bonis praeter merita ipsorum incitatio anime receptionem uirtutum He nempe representationes exacuunt animas festinas reddunt receptionem uirtutum eas
POETIC
this basically rhetorical attitude are seen
of
Further consequences out the work .
THEORY
through
We may take as a striking example
of
parts
tragedy
.
the handling of the six qualitative These are the terms which he uses as equivalent to Aris
totle's : plot
fabulares representatiui "
“ sermones
character
* consuetudines "
thought
“ credulitas "
diction
“ metrum
spectacle
“ consideratio
song
“ tonus " 17
” "
I have
already pointed out , there is in Averroës no conception of plot or ; thus “sermones fabulares representatiui " really refers to the whole of the poem rather than to a specific part . The next two parts are for Averroës the most important : " the major parts of laudatory songs are ' consuetudines ' and ' credulitates . ' ”' 18 He states the reasons for this judg
As
action as such
tragedy is not a part which represents men themselves as they are individuals present to the senses ; but it is representative of their honest
For
ment : “
represent
a
to
capacity
explain
:
goes
. ”
as
as
or
rhetorical implications . Averroës defines it as “ thing being thus not being thus Then
on to
he the
ways of living and of their praiseworthy actions and of their beliefs which render them happy. And ' consuetudines'include actions and characters . " 19 It is the third of these parts, “ credulitas," which has the most specific
.
an
a
do
to
in
in
is
;
a
or
is
to
attempted And this similar that which rhetoric the declaration that thing exists does not exist except that rhetoric seeks this through persuasive composition and poetry through imitative composition And
...
; to
is
to
,
is
or
but the
not
the
of
is
else
not
f3y
beatificantium
."
eorum honestarum comprehendunt
&
consuetudinum
Et
sed est representatiua
credulitatum
.
&
:
sensum
consuetudines
".
in
: “
laudabilium mores
.: & "
cadentia
actionum actiones
et
fiiii partes maiores carminis laudatiui sunt consuetudines credulitates Tragedia enim non est pars representatiua ipsorummet hominum prout sunt
Ibid Ibid indiuidua
20
nothing
.
Ibid
.: ., ., “ .p p .
19 18 17
or
or
of
a
to
composition which incites whereas belief incites acceptance the rejection the notion that something refusal the thing itself.20 active seeking out
to
to
or
a
to
of
a
to
preceptive poetic composition which incites the difference between beliefs living preceptive one which incites ways and that the latter incites accomplishing and doing something renouncing and avoiding something
in
&
&
ad
est
ad
ad &
ad
Et
ad
ad
.
ad
&
operandum agendum aliquid aut consuetudines instigat fugiendum Sermo uero qui instigat credulitatem non instigat nisi cre fugiendum aliquid esse aut non esse sed non inquirendum ipsum aut respu
360
)
(
."
dendum endum
&
recedendum
&
ille qui instigat
ad
ad
. . &. .
ad
ei
Et
quod conatur rethorica Ibid hoc est simile declarationc quod res existat aut poetria per non existat nisi quod rethorica conatur hoc per sermonem persuasiuum sermonem representatiuum differentia inter sermonem poeticum preceptiuum instigatiuum preceptiuum instigatiuum quoniam credulitates consuetudines
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
; (
2 )
of
all ,
There are many curious things about these statements , but perhaps the most significant aspects are these : ( 1) " plot, " " character , " and " thought " are poetic compositions but separate kinds not parts of poems at
of
,
.
be to
by
early should now clear what the reader the late fifteenth century would learn about Aristotle's Poetics from reading or
of
It
which produce knowing to
which leads
but one
of
both
ethical ends through rhetorical means doing while the other leads
,
these kinds are divided into two larger classes
Hermannus Alemanus
.
the translation
in
Determinatio
'
Averroës
of
sixteenth
He
to
be
to
,
of
to ),
,
.
of
,
as be a as
),
of
:
it
(
as
.
(
of
only the vaguest notions about the text some the main terms but often misused and misapplied some the central ideas frequently the most general theoretical distinc not deformed but tions He would led contrary the intention Aristotle himself poetry moral instruction didactic instrument proceeding think through rhetorical devices Of these the most important would the would derive from
be
to
,
in
,
of
to
.
of
.
,
of
.
of
speech and other ornaments Poetry this view comes identical with rhetoric and with the kind limitation diction and figures associated with the Alexandrian rhetoricians None the distinctively poetry remains clear and discernible Aristotelian concepts figures
1498
)
(
THE VALLA TRANSLATION
E.
to
of
of
According
to
.
translation into Latin
,
,
in
in
of
Aristotle's Poetics the presentation The first great step forward Giorgio Valla's the modern reader came with the publication 1498 Greek Manuscripts
Lobel's
in
.
.gr ,
is
an
a
no
of
the Greek original
by
to
it
,
.
consult the few available manuscripts
of
able
to
a
,
of
,
at
25 ),
in ( .p
as
Valla used the basis for his translation the the Biblioteca Estense Modena Estensis 100 The translation which preceded any publication the Greek text good one For the first time larger public than was general gave Aristotle's Poetics manuscript now
a
,
a
of
a
,
or
no
.
at
of
, it
; (
2 )
it : in all , (1 ) a
to
of
of
,
as a
of
of
it it
to to
,
to
,
I
it .
,
is a
,
.
it
;
of
these are undoubtedly the responsibility the printer rather good translation and above than Valla himself But still notable advance over everything that had preceded should like the following pages emphasize the following points with respect the degree which rendered properly the key terms the Poetics the degree which rendered correctly most the text including certain
of
punctuation
it
on
is
It
.
of
be ,
of
it
;
in
perfect what was contained the text means given the state translation could not the manuscript which was based and the state Greek scholarship the time For the modern reader offers the additional difficulties solid presentation with paragraphing completely capricious division into chapters and accurate idea
it
4 )
of
.
a
of )
(
361
,
(
;
,
to of
be
of
;
( 3 )
central passages the kinds errors which made result the imperfections the Greek manuscripts and those errors which were actually errors translation and the reasons behind them Again my purpose will general idea indicate what kind reader this trans
POETIC
THEORY
.” its
lation might have of Aristotle's Poetics during the years from
to 1536
1498
to
of
.
it )
,
a
the transla
in
,
in
,
.
"
“
λόγω και αρμονία
are
means
,
the distinction
of
harmonia
" ;
"
&
oratione
of &
by
,
the three means ρυθμό και :
“
rendered
be
by
imitantur rhythmo
becomes
used
and the later commentators Thus with respect poetry uíungis becomes imitatio and uiuoŨNTAI
of
of
successors the general nature
” ;
to
tions
the Latin terms that were
his
lished the tradition
to
of
.
,
is
of
“
of
place beside (when Pazzi's translation took The key terms the Poetics The satisfactory character Valla's rendering only apparent striking key the terms not but even one who estab has read the Averroës version Not only that but Valla sense
in ή
,
)
(
. ”
"
for
"
(
fabula
for
for thought
dictio
, “
"
"
With
imitantur
the terms used are
sententiae
kai
and actions kai ñen
actiones
“
&
,
&
,
ή
... ,
is
"
"
, of
;
"
:
“
as
(
in ,
by
,
of
tragedy
for character animi conspectus for spectacle
mores
"
"
,
the qualitative parts
affectus ,
respect
mores
of
to
)
TÁOn kai Tpáfeis
plot
characters passions
and the imitation
”
“
as
vis
),
“
,
,
is
and manner
ÉTÉPW5
εν
imitation τώ ετέροις τώ έτερα τα genere translated alienis there some ambiguity the poetry Suvauis appears translation here aliena aliter the effect object
(I
”
as
"
is
,
,
." ),
(
,
"
"
”
of
"
"
“
."
:
;
"
“
=
;
"
;
decorum
"
"
=
"
TTPÉTTOV
passiva
=
...
TNV OÚOtaOW
DavudoTÓV miri pictores simulacro ”
TÒ
;
”
;
”
ex
elkovoy pápous
= ”;
,
agentes
rerum complexum
ratiocinatione and Tradntikń
"
=
"
"
=
= “
)
affectus
implexa
peragentes
"
Tas
=
of
“
= (
tráOn
or
of
“
“
”
as
”
“
Tà
;
”
” ; £ K
miscellaneous terms are equally well translated
1450b23
OUMoylouoŨ
TTETTAnyuévn
“
in
of
of
).
"
"
“
TÕV Tepayuátwv
rum
melopoeia
of
,
"
of
, “
“ "
A
certain number TTPÁTTOVTAS and Spõ ficum
and
“
for song shall the difficulties involved the use animi sententiae and plot ávaryvápiois conspectus expressed One the parts recognitio pity resulting and the effects and fear from tragedy poßepà Kai Recivá and formido commiseratio miseratio complication and the plot Ségis aúois For the denouement and solutio Valla uses ligatio diction speak later
qırávopwtrov
.” =
;
of
.
in
”
;
= “
"
“
= “
=
TÓ
;
”
;
"
to so
"
“
Ávároyov eúquias KATà iuxta proportionem 91 äloya SinynuatiKÚv ingenii expositricem rationis expertes this And on for many other felicitous solutions To have presented humanum
a
,
of
a
of
in
to
of
,
large number way the Cinquecento the beginning the reader the Latin terms that were become standard the translations and com for considerable achievement mentaries the Poetics was already .
Giorgio Valla
—
of
by
.
.
an
by
to
a
,
I
.
of
In
362
)
(
.
.
to
compare the translation with the original text spite these excellences Errors resulting from the text
in
of
is
except This difficult demonstrate extensive can only invite the reader the original and the translation
.
the right sense
comparison
general But Valla's achievement was more extensive syntax presented solved correctly the problems the and result text which for the most part made sense
as he a in
,
,
In
The translation most cases original giving
Valla's
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
translation of 1498 , there were a large number of errors and inadequacies. These were of two kinds , those occasioned by the corruptness of the manu scripts which he was using and those resulting from his own misunder standings . With respect to the manuscripts, they presented many lacunae , haplographies , misreadings , and these were reproduced in the later editio princeps ( 1508 ) ; hence we are able to discover the state of Valla's manu scripts through the edition of 1508 as well as through our modern editions .
For in many
cases , and in spite
of the brilliant
and emendations
conjectures
of modern scholars, the text remains imperfect. Indeed , in almost every where major difficulties are found , one may explanation imperfection original text find the in some of Epopoeia 1447a28 Valla orationibus tenuibus aut metris Hisque siue inuicem inter miscendo siue uno aliquo genere utendo metrorum hoc the MS usque tempus come from the presence difficulties Valla's the word ÉTrottolia after and from the absence after métowy the
ad
.
:
by
Bernays confirmed
of
'
H
Sé
conjecture
the
as
.
is a
which
,
word åvávuuos Arabic version
of
."
in
of
:
se
.
: “
.
his
of Valla's translation
passage
.
.
&
in
.
."
in
&
finis actio after eudaipovías
δε
,
,
actione est
&
"
in
&
infelicitas
Valla's text lacked
...
-ή
uitae
.
quaedam
&
felicitatis qualitas est non
&
actionis
“
.
:
.
: "
is a
of
.
.
:
."
.
:
“
1448a15 Valla circa leges pergas 1508 reads TOUS VÓMous Trépyas The passage gave infinite trouble throughout the sixteenth century conjecture Vahlen ώσπερ γάρ quibus quo modo lacking 1448a25 Valla kai the text namque Tragoedia imitatio non hominum sed est 1450al6 Valla
."
)
;
,
:
The MSS lacked
,
infortunium
by
est
.”
unde transitus
Valla
: “
.
1455b27
ad
.
(
as
.
: “
.
, a
ευδαιμονία Vahlen conjecture quibus partes tragoediae Antea diximus utendum 1452b25 Valla lacking they The words tideoi were from 1508 and from Pazzi 1536 supplied subsequently have been from other MSS the words και κακοδαιμονίας
a
,
εις
is a
,
was lacking from Valla's text
SÈ
TÒ
is
,
"
;
still
,
translating kai Étri
excluded from the text
by
which now
medio
sit
in
363
)
: “
duplex error
:
unus non recte praeoccupare sed partem prouoluere quod qualibet utramlibet arte pecca Valla
(
in
.
1460b15 aequum
est .
.
,
των άκρων και επί του μέσου editors
quam
”
extremis
is in
tam
Valla
: “
.
1457a2
in
.
corrupt
his kinds
.”
simple porro aequabilis
Valla Quarta since 1508 reads rather than the modern conjectural reading the passage “
.
1456a2 TÉTAPTOV
.
in
...
Sé
Stañ
Since
tragedies did not include the :
of
.
1455b35
“
in
.
: “
." &
.
ή
,
εις
supplied ευτυχίαν the words συμβαίνει άτυχίαν Vahlen conjecture and from other MSS ligatio quidem quae prius gesta pusionis acceptio 1455b31 Valla usque apetita quod ipsorum lacuna There adfinem morte est rursus longer our text which was still Valla's after
POETIC
THEORY
est
tum . ” Valla's translation is garbled for two reasons : because certain words now conjectured for the text were lacking and because his text included , after μη ορθώς , a repetition of κατά συμβεβηκός , thus leading to a hap lography .
,
in
were inverted
by
.
TETTOINTai
no
,
as
."
in
:
&
1461a27 . Valla : “ unde factum crus nuper fabrefacti stanni aereas ferro elaboratas unde dicitur ganymedes ioui uinum miscere non bibenti bus uinum The garbled translation results from the fact that Valla's MS 1508 the two phrases beginning with odev cipntai and odev
,
).
,
,
of ,
,
at
, of
be
17 ,
as
of
,
,
11 ,
(
an
to
imperfect translations ascribable These are means the only cases imperfect text others may 1454b2 and 614 found for example -55b15 and 633 -56a10 and -5668 -57a7 -60all -61628 But examples they may serve difficulties which the Greek the kinds .
of
of
in
of
text presented and the kinds confusion and misunderstanding which the the Valla translation For the reader were necessarily reflected
Some
.
translation
of
Actual errors
these are
the simplest
kind and
the terms signified objects which Valla did not know
no :
are easily explained
of
of
.
a
,
to
time they merely served make more difficult and enigmatic document whose philosophical difficulties were already almost insuperable
”
”
as
“
“
;
as
gives the proper equivalent as
or
as
consistently
for
mistranslates
;
,
preceded and
“
",
“
is
)
(
by
).
In
;
him
,
(
"
“
)
”
(
-55a27
(
:
,
”
, ”
“
kapkívą
thus
Náros -60a30 iolaus giving the completely misleading
cancrum
darium
“
) )
is
in (
becomes
-61b35
,
&
“
it
proper names gave him trouble 1508
he
he
,
(
”
petulantia
”
).
"
as
just
recognitio
e.g. -52a17 procacitas e.g. duaptia surprising not that should have troubled flagicium scelus -53a16 other cases “
is as
It
translates
consistently
Whereas
as
he
-59b11
).
TTEPITTEteia
at .
of
as
-52617
(
”
"
statiua
åvayvápiois
.
in
to
as
of
he
and hence had idea their proper rendering Latin These are mostly technical terms the poetic art He did not know what gnomic poetry was and translated Tõv vouwv Tápodos legum 1447b26 parts and otáOINOV the chorus are given accessus and
TØ
livsápou
talis fuit erga
In
. ”
darium opinio
,
is ,
.
by
he at
,
he
,
of
meaning required
so
:
.
is
it
rendered
, ”
"
, "
is
“
.”
modify change neos person having character and or
“
also
pathetic
event and usually correctly given
”
.”
be
“ a
Nuev
but
is to
” ;
“
be
364
)
needs
to
should
(
-60a10
pain
actual
it
“ ,
at
-53b22 , it
at
,
;
character but
but
of
its
a
he
equivalent
,
;
soluere
where one needs ”
-53b18
at
he
,
of
,
its
affectus
as
is
a
,
;
of
usually properly rendered
-52610 where one needs something
“
as at at
Tráðos
.
the context This came fully about for two reasons one because did not understand the text specific points two because knowledge lacked the possible range implications meanings for word nuances and For example seize the shade :
failed
to
in
he
,
a
another category and far more extensive one come those terms whose general meaning understood clearly enough but for which given places gave unacceptable equivalents the text That
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
the total phrase
" uirum aut foeminam aut morem aliquem ” becomes ambiguous . oi ypapeis may mean “ scriptores ” ; but at 48a5 it means
."
" painters
Other cases are more serious , since they involve terms whose understand ing is essential for the total interpretation of the Poetics . Such terms as “ necessity ” and “ probability , ” for example , are fundamental . Valla regu larly gives
” for åvarykatov ; but he just as regularly gives aequitas ” or even “ modestia ” for elkós ( -51a27 probability Aris and these not render the notion
),
,
-51a36 -5168 totle's four terms for the four requisites
.
of
do
“
,
or
cf.
“ necessarium
“ aequum ”
,
I
,
,
,
of
”
“
“
"
“
”
of
"
"
.”
.
of
"
"
in
,
character are xpnotóv åpuÓTTOV Õudiov oualov The third and fourth find satisfactory equivalents think aequabile frugalem simile and But and concinnum were goodness and like hardly capable giving the reader the notions
is
of
,
“
;
“
as
)
(
)
cernentes
be :
.”
-53637
(
Elbotas eldóras Numerous other examples
translates
cernentes
the same kind might
of
un
he
, "
;
as
,
of
,
In
).
in
,
in
”
(I
passing that the exact sense ness should point out the terms discussing the types dispute still action Aristotle uses the phrase eidotas kai yivớOKOVTAS Valla interprets the first epithet idiotas planeque uulgares shortly afterward thus deforming the sense -53628 aut
non
cited.21 be
.
,
”
of
.
do
“
of
For another category mistranslations Valla should perhaps not For they not constitute errors translation Rather they
blamed
in
—
.
he
to
to
in
of
consist the choice unfortunate Latin equivalents unfortunate the sense that they had associations and implications which might lead the assign reader Aristotle meanings that did not intend Thus for ”, ,
of
.
is of
,
to
of
.
... .
”
)
(
kadódou
get across the notion generality which fails needed example the first above Valla's translation for tpaywdías
cf.
in
by At “
totum
49b8 and -50613 the rendering
-
At
towards actions and persons 49b17
At
:
“
”
“
&
of
Ñ
at
paulous probos aut improbos Otroudaious 48a2 Valla gives restricting unnecessarily the distinction moral character 48625 speciosas speciosorum emphasizes excessively the attitude others
21
,
,
At
at at
"
“
of
,
.
to
"
"
a
it
.
be
,
of
the translation
Si '
of
introduces
”
an
.
of
an
to
unfortunate distinction moral merit -55a18 Eikótwv by per decorem not only loses the meaning verisimilitude but makes dangerous allusion current theory which should not confused with Aristotle's text it
-50a19
of &
“
is
tragedia honesta Otroudaias kai paýans uili which again over insignes the moral implications The use the word inappropriate element and -50a5 adds the definition character emphasizes
)
; )
;
passiones
;
sunt
)
( (
) =
.
) =
(
) =
(
365
) =
veu(
(
;
; &
) =
(
) =
;
) =
;
(
;
SES (
;
[
(
;
;
) =
Trapaloyiouos -60a20 absonum Táon tñs AÉFECOS -60612 dictionis huaptñota -60629 hallucinari duiuntws -60632 sine imitatione
(
) = ;
) = in
(
) =
). (
;
(
) =
) tò ex =
;
(
) ( =
;
os
(
tr .
,
) =
;
= 81 ' = &
(
poaptikń Poetica Valla 1498 Cf. virouetpiav -48a11 carminis tenuitate corruptiua tanquam speciebus -52b11 eldeci -52614 ÉTTIEIKETS -52634 modestos aequos pinávopwtrov -52b38 homini amicabile humanumque xopnyias SEÓLEVOV-5368 egetque adminiculo uerum uiapov -53639 TEPATW -5369 monstrosum scelestum arropiav -54b21 ambiguitate onuciov -56a15 coniectura 518aokarias -5665 kúpiov -58a23 proprium bywĖOTATOV turgidissimum citra doctrinam -59635
POETIC
THEORY
Finally , one must consider , in addition to the isolated terms already longer passages which present unsatisfactory translations . There are many of these . They are explained by the presence of the types of words just examined , but also and particularly by deficiencies in Valla's studied , those
;
”
&
ad
est of
est
”
:
;
”
, “
of
quidem mos -54a21 sed nec dum mulieri congruus fortem ipsam aut grauem esse
fortis
;
siue posterius recognoscendo amiciciam
est
.
"
,
;
”
&
est
, “
-
of
of
est
comprehension of construction and of syntactical difficulties . The result is a passage which fails to give a clear and precise meaning . Some of these are fairly short ; so the version of -5064 , “ id autem uerbis complecti posse agitantia concinnantia -50635 item honestum animal 53b30 sane agere quidem ignorantes sed ignorantes agere quiduis
,
So
&
.
in
&
:
ut
: “
.
them are longer
& .
of
Some
”
“
,
quia iuxta dictam
.
hallucinationem licet namque non nihil for -59b26–30 collapsed into the following sentences quae seiuncta diuiduntur Haec sunt Quantitate quae constructas fabulas uereri oporteat uero oportet coniectare -54634 ingerere
id
&
of
all ,
in
,
.”
&
ad
.
“
.:
ff
.”
erit
sit
post haec quae nunc dicta sunt nobis dicendum quod expositio est partes multas facere also for -59626 terminatas quibus suis eius aceruus poematis augetur Proinde habet magnificentiam agressus bonum mutare auditorem admittere inaequalibus episodiis There are some twenty passages this kind throughout the translation.22 So
unde fuerit opus tragoediae
.
of
he
be
,
of
I
'
“
to
in
in
In
a
by be
the fact that
the
22 )
—
further enhanced in
in
at
it
The reader's difficulties would distance from the original text increased on
his
and
all .
to
understand
.”
"
"
of or
,
or
“
as
of I
to
point out that should not fail addition these actual errors Valla which should characterize translation there are many passages ambiguities questionable doubtful these because meaning led unclear constructions the reader might easily because way which was not intended Or might not understand the text
.)
, in
to
,
of
.
of
to
he
.
a
in
a
in it
of ff
(
to
in
on
(
diction chapter the textual examples are omitted and replies that the section criticism roughly -61a12 the Greek spite examples are given without translation Therefore Valla's really considerable contribution and the many qualities his translation his perfectly satisfactory introduction Aris reader would not find reasonably accurate totle's Poetics He had the Poetics for the first time whole section
a
by
of
-59a21
,
-58612
,
-56633
,
,
,
a
by
in
,
)
366
.
,
,
,
,
-53635 -55a35 -5663 -5669 -62a6 -62a9 -62a17
-61613
(
-60636
,
-60632
,
,
,
-6063
,
Cf. also the translations
-60a26
the
Aldus and entitled listing the followed
Venice
hi ,
hoc volumine habentur
the first Greek text
of
)
a
volume published
of
simply Rhetores
in
,
Poetics appeared 22
1508
ten years after the Valla translation
in
1508
,
In
THE ALDUS TEXT
(
.
to
,
the form which could easily lead also had before him but many problems and discussions and insurmountable difficulties that were plague the exegetes throughout the sixteenth century form
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
texts included . There is no prefatory or explanatory material . The text , based on manuscripts then in Italy , is a reasonably good one , and it was long to remain the basic text for the Poetics ; it was copied or adapted or corrected by most of the sixteenth - century editors . It is possible that the editor of the text may have been Joannes Lascaris ; such , at least , was the
of Margoliouth
, who credited Lascaris with the greatest single editing contribution to the of the Poetics.23 If one compares this text with a modern edition , one finds many errors of spelling, many lacunae , and of
thesis
course the same difficulties which have led to the conjectures and the ex clusions of recent editors . But these are largely imperfections of the manu scripts and not failures of the editor of the printed text . Essentially, Aristotle's text is presented in a usable form , and to the growing group of humanists and scholars it offered the possibility of controlling Valla's translation , of preparing generally more satisfactory translations , and of proceeding to better editions and to intelligent exegeses .
For
the next thirty years, there is practically no activity in the tradition
of
In
.24
Aristotle's Poetics . Such texts as are found treat the Poetics in passing, alluding or referring to it in connection with other problems . It is hardly an exaggeration to say that study of the document , if we are to go by the extant works , was at a standstill for almost a third of a century. An example of the passing references to the Poetics may be found in Pomponio Gaurico's in is so
all ,
at
to
refers Aristotle does hearsay rather the result merely
of
it
, an be if
).
"
( .p
commouere Aiii The phrase only the vaguest way and might
of in
a
ad
we
,
:
“
on
a
of
commentary on Horace , De arte poetica (ca. 1510 ) work which paraphrase suddenly come upon this phrase essentially Horace tragedy praecipue quum uult spectatores the section misericordiam
,
In
in
on
of ;
.p
,
"
)
(
of
it
)
he :ait
and cites the origins poeticis quoniam Epicharmus Sicily esset oriundus AA4
23
libri
XXX
the most part Ricchieri D.
For
1516
(
Ricchieri's Lectionum antiquarum
is
Lodovico
references are still more extensive.25
),
).
to
In
,
AA3 in
"
,
.p
comoediam imitare quemadmodum Aristoteles comicorum antiquissimus poeta illinc this refers Poetics 1448a33
(“
ridiculum comedy
est
(“
,
.
),
.
(
a
of
knowledge than the text almost contemporary work Vittore Fausto's De comoedia libellus 1511 the citations are more specific Fausto takes directly from the Poetics the assertion that comedy imitates the ridicu turpitudine lous Hoc etiam Aristoteles comprobauit inquens quod
the
working
)
367
.
.
.
its
of
a
41
(
,
n .
97 ).
.
"
is
(p
the text the greatest which any one scholar has made study 88–90 and for this text and for date for this work ,
, ),
(L
of
it is
is
; in
, :
to (
an
as
so
,
of
S.
;
, xv ,
.pp
),
,
. . be ii, iii , p . to .pp 57
,
contribution Lascaris See above chap See above chap 25 24
of
,
of
,
.
, of
...
E.
.p on xi it a : , ; “ : .
Margoliouth's For indications the basic manuscripts see edition the Poetics eipzig 1885 London Hodder and Stoughton 1911 95-97 also Vahlen's edition and Lobel Greck Manuscripts Aristotle's Poetics London Oxford Univ Press 1933 pp 31–32 Margoliouth who ascribes the Aldine text Lascaris makes this judgment important epoch Lascaris's emendations constitute the history the Poetics long probable that the number will retained the Poetics studied and
POETIC
THEORY
in the Platonic tradition . But when he speaks of the origins of poetry , he gives as equivalent to the Latin “ ex rudi principio ” the Greek ÉK TÕV autooXEDICO LÁTWV, which may derive from Poetics 1449a9 , and then he gives the following explanation , translating fairly closely Poetics 1448624 ff .: ,
to
.
in
to
as
an
its
origin art was dis Indeed , from this basis of imitation , whence poetry had engaged and art was subdivided and issued several component parts For the inclination imitate was revealed according the nature and the to
on
.
;
as
of
,
.
of
character each writer The more worthy ones proposed imitate fine and honorable actions but the lower and baser ones chose conformably vile and ignoble actions just some from the start undertook poems blame while others sang hymns and praises ,
art
:
, in
of
is
of
There also possibly some reflection Poetics 144869 the pleasure ugly objects derived from the imitation the following passage In
be
to
-
in
.
of
to
a
in
the Opera
paraphrase
the Averroës instrument education
:
(
poetry
first published
of
defence
an
of
.
is a a
,
contains
the Poetics
1520
short passage which cites
of It
of of
Pietro Pomponazzi's De incantationibus 1567
be in
or ,
the resemblance.26 ),
but because
as
,
animals
of
,
of
a
we
,
,
of
of
coherently For that work arouses admiration whose portrayal seems things handled for the representation and depiction the images the same way indeed praise monkey depicted conformity with the lizard truth not because their beauty which we know non existent such
,
,
,
is
,
in
do ,
,
as
as
,
so
.
be
which must
,
crowd
at
so
,
as
to
of
;
to
by
in
expression For the mode the laws Averroës says his Poetry they invent fables which similar that used the poets for just the poets according the literal meaning the words are nor possible but within they contain the truth Plato and Aristotle frequently point out For they tell un truths that we may arrive the truth and that we may instruct the vulgar led toward good action and away from wicked action.27
as 2
.
,
&
,
,
,
&
,
,
.
&
,
.
,
in
: ac “
(
&
,
,
diuulsa
,
hac uero imitandi ratione unde Poesis ortum ducit abiit quodammodo membra plura Nam pro cuiusque natura moribus imitandi studium proferebatur honestiores enim pulchras honestasque actiones sibi imitandas proponebant Tenuiores autem humilioresque Viles itidem ignobiles primo quidem uituperationem complexi Sicuti hymnos alii Laudes con ), .p
Lectionum 1516 162 disparataque Ars est
Ex
26
to
it
of
,
,
it
:
, is in
to
a
as
especially interesting for several reasons shows this Such passage what extent Aristotle these years was still read through Averroës and demonstrates with what ease Plato and Aristotle were spoken assigning the same pedagogical role poetry
27
ex
&
,
."
ob
.
,
in
,
ad
.
,
,
: “
" ;
.p
quo expressio congruenter cinnarunt and 160 Verum Artificium parere admirationem informandisque uidetur pertractata adumbrandis rerum imaginibus Nam eodem ferè pul modo Lacertam aut Simiam commode Veritatem pictam laudamus non utique quam esse nullam chritudine eiusmodi animalibus scimus Sed similitudinem ,
,
ad
:
,
in
&
ut
,
,
ut
&
,
,
,
ut
: "
), .p
in
retrahere
368
)
(
had been reprinted together
1515
.
The Averroës paraphrase and the Valla translation
in
malo
."
à
&
,
28
,
bonum
ut
,
,
(
In
Opera 1567 inquit Auerrois 201 Sermo enim legum sua poësi est similis sermoni poëtarum nam quanquam poëtę fingunt fabulas quę uerba sonant non sunt possibles intus tamen ueritatem continent multotiens Plato Aristoteles referunt nam illa fingunt ueritatem ueniamus rude uulgus instruamus quod inducere oportet
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
Apropos of Averroës , it should be mentioned that a new Latin transla tion of his paraphrase of the Poetics , that of Abram de Balmes , was published in 1523. Balmes ' translation was based , however , on the fourteenth century Hebrew translation of Todros Todrosi , and there is not much evidence to indicate that it was used extensively by Italian commentators . The earliest extensive exploitation of the Poetics in Italian among the is found in Giovanni Giorgio Trissino's Pope to Leo X , dated 1524. Trissino first calls
documents we shall examine
dedication of upon the text of Aristotle for a general comedy :
also that tragedy , according to Aristotle, is to be preferred to by
knowing
distinction between tragedy and all
his Sophonisba
,
a
.
defective and ugly But tragedy along with other teachings
— it
and
is
of
to
—
,
is
ridiculous
with which
fear
is
,
dulci
utile
an
,
the Horatian
”
inevitably
the passage
“
the listeners and utility for human living.29
to
the very end
an
,
as
a
of
,
since what
and
of
At
it
,
pity moves brings pleasure
is
ugliness
to to
related
as
.
,
,
so
,
in
,
;
,
it
other poems since imitates means harmonious language virtuous and perfect action which should have magnitude and just Polygnotus ancient painter imitating his works made the bodies better than they were and tragedy Pauson worse imitates makes the forms behavior better and comedy worse And therefore this comedy moves laughter thing which
;
is
six
:
.
in
of
of
.
is
... of
of
to
apology for his use introduced Trissino Italian unrhymed verse and for both the justi rather than Latin and his use fication found Aristotle The defence curious and the interpretation Aristotle garbled then proceeds
,
of it
if
in
(
,
in
,
,
,
be
,
to
is ,
by ,
all
,
is
it
.
)
be ,
,
plot characters words discourse necessary parts that since tragedy has representation and verse having presented Italy clear that the Sophonisba could not understood the people were composed another language than Italian And furthermore the ways behavior the sen
29
of if
of
is
)
it
to
in
,
as .
(
, è ,
, e
,
,
: “
,
gli(
), .p
1524
fa e
, e
, et
al ,
la
,
,
, e
,
di
la
,
, e
è
,
, e
la
le
,
e
,
, di e
; e
e la
tutti
la
aijv sapendo etiandio che Tragedia secondo Aristotele perfetta actione altri poemi per imitare con soave sermone una virtuosa quale habbia grandeza come Polygnoto antico pictore nele opere sue imitando faceua corpi quello che erano migliori Tragedia imitando Pauson peggiori cosi costumi migliori per ciò essa Comedia muove riso cosa che partecipa Comedia peggiori Tragedia muove compassione brutteza essendo ciò che ridiculo difettoso brutto Ma quali tema con con altri amaestramenti arreca diletto agli ascoltatori utilitate preposta
a
Sophonisba
it in
to
,
of
...
I
,
of
by
,
tentiae and the discourse would not provide universal utility and pleasure they were not understood deprive the listeners Hence order not representation which the possibility Aristotle says the first the parts tragedy chose write this language.30
. "
vivere bumano
, le
, e
,
la
le
,
in
a
è,
il ,
)
(
369
. de Si , la
;
) è il la da , gli et
le da
,
,
sei
il
, et
se
,
." (
, la
e
&
,
;
, e
di la
la
, : la “
in il ., .p
,
30
Aiij Tragedia parti necessarie cioè Ibid hauendo favola costumi rappre parole rappresentatione discorso verso Manifesta cosa che hauendosi popolo s'ella fosse sentare Italia non potrebbe essere intesa tutto altra lingua che appresso Italiana composta costumi sententie discorso non arrecherebbono universale utilitate diletto non fossero intese ascoltanti che per non torre rappresentatione quale come dice Aristotile prima parte Tragedia elessi 19 questo Idioma scriverla
...
POETIC
THEORY
Trissino's confusion springs either from his identification of " plot " with “ representation , ” or more probably from a faulty reading of Poetics 1450a14 , where “ spectacle ” is listed first among the qualitative parts . He
of
of the Poetics , declaring that speeches which move to pity must themselves be expressions of suffering, and that such expressions are spontaneous and intolerant of such restrictions as that provided by rhyme ( p . Alijv ). Parts I to IV of the Poetica of the same Trissino , published in 1529 , defends
the absence
rhyme , also on the basis
occupy a remarkable position in the history of Aristotle's Poetics (Parts V and VI , based entirely upon the Poetics , were published posthumously in they will be treated
in a later chapter ) . What is remarkable is , knowing that Trissino the Poetics as he did , should have proceeded almost without reference to it in the composition of own Poetica prosody His sources are instead the rhetoricians and such writers Tempo passage Antonio cites the Poetics twice first
.
on
means
in
a
of
the ac ,
,
,
made
imitation
words rhymes and design and colors
of
) is
by
means
to by
made
is
,
as
,
is
tions man and since this imitation harmony just the painter's imitation
of an
:
,
He
,
.
of
diction
Aristotle said before me
as
to
his study
say then that poetry
of
I
preliminary
(
as
da
,
his
1563 , and
or
,
.
31
by
be
to
.
of
by
occasioned his treatment foreign words These are especially languages where variety Aristotle says probably Poetics 1459a10 indeed
, is
as
of
speaks
: “
,
,
words when
of
in
these four parts treats only diction and rhyme
Aristotle he
in of
be
the choice is to
Trissino
second reference
to
on ,
From then
His
of
of
,
of
of
,
is
to
is be
,
it
well before coming this imitation treat that with which this rhymes leaving harmony song imitation made that words and producing the imitation without song and aside since the others are capable since the poet considers these two and leaves song considered the singer
would
,
,
.
to
In
of
),
I
( as
have already pointed out33
most
cases the statement
of
,
and
in
In
.
this case
number
in
are few
we
to )
,
(
on
and the Poetics
Q.
is
32
In
.”
,
heroic poetry The allusion Aulo Giano Parrasio's Horatii Flacci arteni poeticam commen taria 1531 posthumous have the first those numerous commentaries develop the parallelisms between the Ars poetica Horace which were used
sought
the parallels
the Aristotelian
of
&
“
,
in
iiv de : “
) , è
quale
la
,
lo
ne
heroico
nel
, e
il
,
;
da
il
il
ad
usarsi
,
,
, e
fa
,
si
di
." )
(
.
370
si fia , fà ,
(
la
,
; e
, si
: " e .pp
. iii , ,
33
adunque
queste specialmente stanno bene iiiiv lingue come dice Aristotele ricerca Cf. chap 96-100 Ibid
varietà
di ., .p
32
ponno fare considerare
l'homo
di
de le
harmonia inanzi che parole
Dico
che Poesia come prima disse Aristotele facendosi questa cotale imitazione con parole rime come imitazione del dipintore con disegno con colori buono vegna trattare quello con che essa imitazione essa imitazione cioè parte perciò che quelle rime lasciando harmonia overo canto queste due imitazione senza esso Poeta considera lascia canto Cantore 1529 azioni
, la , e
et
una imitazione
si
poetica
, , al la e ad si ( de de le le ), ." la .p ;
31
La
,
So ,
.
is
of
position such that one thinks immediately Averroës rather than the Poetics itself Parrasio's introduction for the statement Obser rythmus natura nobis tributa uauerunt eam mortales quod harmonia
POETICS : DISCOVERY ( p.lv ) ,
AND EXEGESIS
which refers to Averroës , p . f2v, and for another ,
“ Erit ergo quod periti & quasi imaginem , operis faciunt architecti breui tabella totius ante oculos proponere " ( p . 6v ) , which may refer to Averroës , p . gy . In the same intro
sunt ”
boni poctae ante omnia ideam futuri sibi poematis
statuere ,
,
,
as
on
to
in
,
in
-
.
on .p
are closer Parrasio says Nihil enim aliud facitque quae hominis propria est ,
,
,
, “
:
&
68v
with which compare Averroës homini respectu ceterorum animalium quum homo inter cetera animalia delectatur assimila .
in
Et
,
”,
est
earum representatione seu poetica nihil aliud quam
other contem only slightly
;
in
reflected
.
to
,
of
”
,
, is .p fv .
imitatio naturae with which compare Averroës porary documents the text the Poetics itself Averroës continues dominate the scene
As
,
est
in
&
...
Si
“
in
sensu percepit says enim he
on .p
.
”
78
est
: “
in
narrative from the
caeteris animalibus
istud proprium
hoc tione rerum quas iam imitatione And causa
In
.
to
no
poesis nisi imitatio uitae a
est
ut .p
morum
the Poetics
vel hac una differt
f2v
into his works poems.334
there are two brief passages which again
318 and 408
to ,
.
references
Averroës than
which did not
tradition the line line commentary Horace Aristotle But late the text connection with
current Horatian vss
imita
-by
" 35 —
of
a
or
,
“
The next statement however— All poems are either dramatic mixture these could come well from Plato there are
gave
that no
,
kinds
dispersed
of
all
,
and
of
he be
at
be
is
,
.
,
comedies tragedies dithyrambs ,
of
a
have the subjects
in
a
-
tion
to
that was previously single and definitive body and marveled might not even dramatic representation contrived counterpart his work With his own might introduced
poetry
a
to
The latter (Homer ), having put together
or or
it all
duction , however , there is at least one passage which seems to go back directlyto the Poetics . Beginning with a rapid history of poetry before Homer , Parrasio continues :
)
(
1530
be
PAZZI'S TEXT AND TRANSLATION
in
of
of
de '
,
,
changed however after the publication The general situation will Alessandro Pazzi's Greek text and Latin translation the
1536
in
,
is
.
,
)
or
(
,
;
in
in
.
in
he
Poetics Pazzi's own statements the dedication indicate that had pre pared the volume Rome 1524 the dedication itself dated 1527 and the publication was posthumous Pazzi Paccius having died the intervening years For the contemporary reader Pazzi's volume must have it
a
of ,
ne
his mista
."
aut
ex
,
)
(
, ."
ui
,
,
2v : “
., .p
,
371
,
ut
,
“
& :
admirandum
matico effingi possit quę non borum omniumque poematum argumenta suis operibus inseruit Ibid Poemata omnia aut actiua sunt aut enarratiua 35
earlier
Hic complexus quicquid antea diuisum fuerat unum nulla imitatio ritu quidem drag dythiram tragoediarum illo cluceat sua comediarum
2–2v
fecit
in ,
),
(
Commentaria 1531 poeticae corpus perfectum
.pp
34
,
,
portable inexpensive format contrasting with the sizable tomes
,
in
it
;
,
.
,
had two especially attractive features For the first time offered text and translation together separated from the other works with which both had previously been printed and for the first time presented them small
POETIC
THEORY
editions . These reasons probably explain why the volume was rapidly reprinted in Basel, in 1527 , and in Paris , in 1538. As for the text and trans both represent advances over their predecessors . The less notable in the case of the Greek text , where there , was little to add on the basis of available manuscripts , to Lascaris ' distinguished contributions in the Aldine edition . Pazzi used three manu scripts, one of them in the Vatican ( now Vat . gr . 1400 ), and from them he lation themselves progress
,
is perhaps
of
a certain number
derived
emendations to Lascaris ' text . But it
useful
was the translation which really rendered
the greatest service to Pazzi's contemporaries . It is , generally , far superior to Giorgio Valla's . I should not say that it is always and unfailingly better ; some of Valla's errors are repeated , some of his correct solutions are spoiled , and the basic difficulties of the available Greek manuscripts still continue to be reflected in the
Poetics
1449b24
the kind
)
in
the crucial passage
:
defined
(
is
which tragedy
improvement
of
of
an
.
we
,
of
making sense out example the Poetics may compare achieved the two translations
of
As
in
its
translation . But for the most part , Pazzi's work is more accurate and more readable ; it has a much greater clarity of construction and is less dense and elliptical , and sentence divisions and punctuation assist the reader
Est igitur tragoedia imitatio actionis probae atque consumatae magni particulis tudinem iucunda oratione obtimentis citra quamlibet speciem agentium nec pauore terminans comissorum pronuntiatu miseratione
&
ac de
de
in
:
Valla
in
fa
sit
uisus
siquidem
imi
his
&
.
in
tragoediae aliqua
compositionem est
si
est
.
particula
ornamentum esse necesse inde melopoeiam dictionem tationem conficiunt Dictionem uero ipsam uoco metrorum
ut
primo quidem
id
&
ciunt agentes imitationem
.
&
.
quam orationem talium disciplinarum purgationem suauem oblectabilem per habentem rhythmum harmoniam melos quod autem citra species metra quaedam dumtaxat perficitur sicut porro alia per melos Verum quia
.
.
,
ab
at
melopoeiam uim omnem habet manifestam quia actionis imitatio agitur aliquibus agentibus quos qualitate aliqua insignes esse necesse est autem moribus atque animi sententia propter haec enim quod actiones qualitate in est
.
&
uero actionis fabula imitatio
).
,
illustris absolutae magnitudinem haben generibus partibus agentibus non per atque terrorem perturbationes huiusmodi quo numerus harmonia melos inest ,
:
&
,
,
in
.
,
,
,
tis ,
:
est imitatio actionis sermone suaui separatim singulis enarrationem per misericordiam uerò purgans sermonem suauem appello
in
Pazzi Tragoedia
,
r
(
uoti impotes fiunt
iiv
morem unde assecuntur
.p
&
signes esse dicamus uis tulit naturae actionum binas esse causas animi sententiam
,
,
,
imitationem
conficiant dictionem uis
quibus
:
utpote
ex
dictionem
;
&
melodiam
,
,
.
in
:
id
uerò separatim genere dictinctum cum metro tantum quaedam absoluantur quaedam rursum melodia Quoniam uerò tota imitatio actione uersatur primum quidem apparatum ipsum partem Tragoediae ponere necesse est mox
ab
,
.
se
:
,
appello illam quidem metrorum compositionem melodiam cuius omnino agenti per ipsa satis apparet Scd quoniam actionis imitatio est agiturque
,
:
)
(
372
est
,
&
,
quos tum moribus tum sententia tales esse omnino oportet bus quibusdam sicuti quoque actiones aliquas esse tales dicimus manifestum harum actio
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
num duas esse causas , sententiam , & mores : per quas planè uel uoti compotes , uel minime compotes omnes fiunt. Ad haec actionis imitatio fabula est ( p . 9v ).
Pazzi's translation immediately became standard for the Poetics ; not only was it reprinted at least a dozen times during the century , in Italy , France , and Switzerland , but it was taken as the basis for such important commentaries as those of Robortello and Maggi. LOMBARDI AND MAGGI
( 1541)
The next event in the history of Aristotle's Poetics in the Cinquecento involves three men and two important documents . The event is the first public lectures on the Poetics of which we have accurate records ; the three
Maggi, and Alessandro Sardi ; , and the documents first Sardi's notes on Maggi's lectures , dated 1546 , and the Explanationes published by Maggi , himself and Lombardi 1550. The story rather complex reconstruct the chronology roughly follows men are Bartolomeo Lombardi , Vincenzo
on
as in
,
the c
)
and
(
”
Padua
;
“
; ( b ) a
Praefatio
to
,
he
of
the Poetics degli Infiammati
the Accademia
of
addressed
,
,
text and translation to
a ) a
:
papers
work
Bartolomeo Lombardi began the public exposition Padua But shortly afterward died leaving among his 1541
.
at ,
December
the Poetics
(
of
In
:
I
;
is
for
are ,
later incorporated into the Explanationes.36 Maggi and apparently with considerable The lectures were continued may consult the letter which Benedetto Varchi success As witness ,
1541
,
as
to
of is
as
if
as
of
37
he
.
at at
again
Ferrara
Ferrara was the young
,
where
.
,
of
philosophy 1543 Maggi became professor expounded the Poetics Among those who heard Maggi's lectures
In
,
,
I
I
a
In
a
to
,
as
.
I
;
be
,
to
.
,
If
as
to
;
I
to
possible
be ,
copy get you don't have them try them from some friend yours and then send them me word desire greatly have them such although they may have heard that they are divine
of
having those lectures few many they may am greatly desirous pray you you have them which Maggi gave on Aristotle's Poetics wherefore you possibly can and carefully written send them me soon
as
or
received from Cosimo Rucellai on December
:
17 ,
we
.
by
,
the work
,
extensive notes
of
the same volume
,
in
printed
on
.p
;
by
is
Praefatio
"
,
The
“
.
the volume
27 to
to
of
, "
V.
F.
,
),
(
on
to
contributions
.
. , Di 37
Lombardi's pp 1-11
), .p * , ij
(
",
in
of
,
of
36
For the date Lombardi's lectures see Cerreta An Account the Early Life the Accademia degli Infiammati the Letters Alessandro Piccolomini Benedetto Varchi Romanic Review XLVIII 1957 253 264. See also Maggi's introduction the Explanationes 1550 Lombardi's lectures interrupted his death and
),
,
(
I
se
,
se
In ;
le
.
."
sia ,
vi
,
.
,
, o
la
IV ,
( Pt . in
to
,
)
ho
,
si
373
(
di
, e
da
,
, e
;
il
o
di ",
in
)
(
la 42 : “ 17. io di
), .p
le
“
of
Bologna Cosimo Rucellai from Florence Benedetto Varchi dated Firenze adi Dicembre 1541 printed the Prose Fiorentine Vol Flor poche ence 1734 desidero assai avere quelle assai lezioni che elle fussero Maggio per qual cosa prego che che fece sopra Poetica d'Aristotile l'avete me più diligentemente scritte che possibile mandiate quanto prima potete non qualche vostro Amico averne copia dipoi me l'avete cerchiate mandiate somma grandemente desidero averle quali elle siano benchè inteso son divine Letter
POETIC
THEORY
Alessandro Sardi, who was later to become the author of several erudite His notes on these lectures are dated “ 15 Cal . Februarj MDXLVI ”
works.38
and are preserved in the Biblioteca Estense at Modena as MS.a.Q.6.14 . In spite of the late date of these notes , I see no reason for believing that they
do not represent the lectures substantially as Maggi began to give them in 1541 , since in them Maggi declares that his interpretation is still based on that of Lombardi . Even with their date of 1546 , however , Sardi's notes constitute the earliest extant commentary on Aristotle's Poetics . In 1548 , before Maggi was able to publish the Explanationes on which he had been working , Francesco Robortello published his own Explicationes , which thus became the first published commentary . Maggi was of course
furious , and he took occasion to attack Robortello in a section of his manuscript entitled “ Obiectiones quaedam aduersus Robortelli explica tionem in primum Aristotelis contextum , " stating his objections and indicating Robortello's errors and omissions . Finally , in 1550 , the joint work of Lombardi and Maggi appeared under
In Aristotelis librum
the title assuming
de poetica
that this text represents
I
and hence
explanationes .
communes
I
am
of Maggi's thinking
a much later state
,
shall discuss it under the date 1550 .
Meanwhile , we may suppose that Lombardi's “ Praefatio " was published as he wrote it and analyze it at this point. As a preface to a commentary on Aristotle's Poetics , these pages are remarkable above for the fact that they have nothing with the text the ideas the Poetics Except for
of
or
brief passage near the end
10
to
do
all
essentially
on
",
its
)
.p
(
“
an
as
to
its
as
art ”
“
,
all
on
,
of
”
“
a
.
where Lombardi subject divides the Poetics into prooemium and narratio indicates upon superiority matter and exclaims the excellence the work and might just poetics the others Praefatio well serve intro
.
of
:
all
of
by
he
,
of
.
of
is
he
,
,
in to to
.
pletely
in
to
any other work poetry Lombardi's ideas are com the traditional He interested two problems the relationship poetry disciplines poetry With the other arts and and the defence disciplines upon respect are other the fact that insists the first the other poetry and present one how the materials shows one duction
is
as
rhetorical topoi just
of
are full
,
example
,
,
for
of
of
,
Homer and Vergil
of
;
devices
.
of
poetry sciences are also the materials This done for grammar and especially for rhetoric which treats subjects the same and uses the same
.
of
,
by
,
his
in
of
all
by
.
,
,
.
,
Girolamo Ferri and published with Sardi's Numinum
374
)
(
).
,
,
On Sardi see the life written Heroum Origines Rome 1775 (
ei
38
,
,
,
,
is a
, of
.
in
of
,
examples from the poets the works the rhetoricians are full Similarly for logic whose parts are found the exposition the poet including the syllogism and paralo personages and the speeches philosophy gism All natural the poets and indeed has been treated poet appanage necessary The demonstration con the philosophy geography theology astrology tinues for music the prophetic arts physiognomics moral philosophy painting and medicine
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
In another development, Lombardi adopts Averroës ' classification of Demonstrativa , Dialectica , Sophistica , Rhetorica , Poetica " and seeks the distinctions to be made between poetry and each of sister disciplines The five arts are divided into two groups The first containing Logic
,
.
,
.
-
its
"
of
;
,
as
,
.
,
its
;
it
to
"
,
The second containing Rhetoric and Poetics does not really logic the example and the uses more popular devices such enthymeme and materials are largely political Having accepted this
.”
logic belong
all
of
by
,
,
to
Dialectic and Sophistic produces dissertations which attempt convince argumentation and the use three are branches the syllogism
not surprising that Lombardi should propose definition poetry which rhetoric than Aristotle's definition much closer anything found Poetry says the Poetics the faculty discover ing whatever appropriate any action passion the imitation correcting character means harmonious discourse for the purpose good and happy life.39 leading living and our way a
,
,
of
on
,
is to a
of of
to
is
Its
.p 6 ).
us
by
,
it
to in
”
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",
(“
uirtutes hate the vices These considerations lead Lom
love the virtues and
auersemur
ut
to
”
,
ad
(“
,
to
us
teaching
amplexemur uitia
ut
by
)
.p 9
to a
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,
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to
.
of
an
in
this definition
is
part the moral utility indi philosophy since proposes through the imitation pleasurable action correct moral behavior purpose means morum cum uoluptate correctione lead good and happy life bene beateque uiuendum comparatam Lombardi's defence
cated
poetry based Poetry superior
or
of
to
of
is
of
, “
”
,
he
to
.
to “
of
of
,
by
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classification
.
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to
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,
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).
cites Aristotle
in of
.
in
so
he
,
springs from two natural causes mention that general the whole argument related the the Platonic tradition the conception the ends
does Lombardi
he
(
and
of
passing
it -
—
of
of
of in
as of a
to
insisting that bardi answer Plato's ban the poets and does Homer Plato had mind not the art whole but only certain passages subject matter The rest the defence derives from the universality antiquity Only poetry and the poet's knowledge and from
to
in
-
,
of
its
its
—
is
;
on
.
of
its
to
.
a
,
of
by
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set
,
it
in
a
.
of
,
to
,
in
as
by
in
current discussions proposed Horace and the ideas the classical rhetoricians Aristotle figures only the most incidental way commonplace say Later the sixteenth century became explanation the deficiencies the Poetics that the text represented merely incompleteness lecture notes Aristotle hence really true inconsistencies lack order The same those notes a
of
at
of
he
.
,
of ,
,
,
."
)
(
&
9 : “
), .p
(
,
ad
,
ad
375
accommodatum ad
of
,
abridgment the numerous the source material many inade
est
much
an
reading them
1550 Poetica facultas uidendi quodcunque imitationem cuiusque actionis affectionis moris suaui sermone gendam benè beateque uiuendum comparata est
Explanationes
elimination
of
,
.
an
,
quotations
in
,
of
was speaking One senses
39
,
in
of of
Maggi's exposition which Alessandro Sardi took the Poetics the University Ferrara 1546 except that these are the notes student rather than the lecturer They must represent only imperfectly the spoken word the master still less satisfactorily the written notes from which
uitam
corri
POETIC
language . Nevertheless , these notes are a completely remark
of the
quacies
THEORY
in
.
to
its
to
by
by
its
at
of
as
we
.
,
,
on
;
in
,
to
all
by
in
:
as
of modern literary criticism . Remarkable , pointed date was out the lectures given 1546 probably Maggi giving very began were close content the ones that 1541 hence odds the earliest extant commentary Aristotle's Poetics approaches Remarkable also the Poetics and solutions the problems raised first, by
its
able document in the history
be
,
or
is
,
to
of
a
on
it in
it
or
,
at
" ).
“
(
;
is
The text have MS.a.Q.6.14 the Biblioteca Estense Modena incomplete provides commentary the Poetics from the beginning through 1453611 Maggi's seventy i.e. the end what would later particella third Whether this because the lectures themselves stopped point that because Sardi did not hear the rest because the remain a
to
as
,
of
,
of is
no
,
of
be .
At
of
of
by
-
us ,
a
by
to
ing notes have not come down we can only surmise.40 The word by Maggi gloss preceded general word was introduction devoted poetry general discussion the art the nature Aristotle's treatise point complete and and the latter's title the treatment
;
,
)
in (
;
as on a
in
.
be
we
an
at
to
as
to
,
an
in
to
was
it
as
Maggi’s later published Explanationes 1550 first because Italian student taking notes Latin lecture Latin possible second was bound abbreviate and condense much because Maggi's thought and his erudition were undoubtedly much less fully developed this point than they were almost ten years later As extended
of
in
”
of
the gloss occupies
about one small
:
of
,
,
the notes folios 80–9 the whole give here the whole the text
;
page
I
In
(
1447al4
).
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,
of
example may take Maggi's statements about the the differences Dithyrambica word Pazzi's translation Aristotle's second sentence
.
id
.
.
de
.
et
,
est .
.
.
in
Dithyrambica graeco habetur 810upaußotointiin est dithirambopoe tica uno uerbo Ideo interpres non est fidelis Aristoteles autem miro artificio hoc quia dithyrambi maxime gaudent nominibus compo uerbo composito usus ipsis loquens usus est sitis nominibus longis Ideo etiam philosophus
40
et .
,
,
an
de
.
de
Ita
de
et
7.
.
,
L.
composito Horatius enim tum loqueretur quo pacto nomine nomine longo nouo uti debemus utitur ipse nouo nomine Inuideo cum loquatur nouitate philosophus hic loquens Dithyrambicis nominauit nomine composito longo Plato legibus dicit ambiguum esse saltatio Bacchica quae est
, , e di to
).
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, .p
di of
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of
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.
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et
of
in
in
tre
,
: " le
of
In
of
his edition Sardi's Numinum Heroum Origines Girolamo Ferri prints two docu unpublished works ments interest for the history these notes One them list Sardi includes the following passage Lezioni manoscritte del Maggio del Guarino quarto altri miei precettori Volumi Ferri xlviii The other from which the first
)
(
376
di
,
.
,
is
give
based
on
I
,
.
and the analysis
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the MS
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portion
of is
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at
only
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in
transcribing transcription
di
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re
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passage had been quoted Gio Francesco testament bequeathing the same works Serragli Sig Gio Francesco Serragli Medico l'opere d'Ippocrate Oribasio Plinio Medicinali l'Istoria Naturale Plinio appostillata me Commento sopra Detti Stefano Aqueo Lezioni manoscritte del Maggio del Guarino altri miei Precettori quarto legati alla Romana notorious Sardi's handwriting Ferri tre Volumi practically undecipherable have succeeded among scholars To this date the Estense
that partial
fol .
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS ,
in
,
in
.
3.
.
L.
.
,
et
.
demonstratiuis
est libera quae
nihil cum
re
Diony
id
ueniant
de ,
in
Dithyrambis
esse similia
et
:
Et
.
,
In
de
.
et
ad
,
8v ]
in [
:
sit
duplici differentia quae imi ista , saltatio quia saltationes erant quibus ostendebatur agilitas etiam saltationes urbanae tabantur res bellicas quia saltationes istae honorem Bacchi erant modestae bonos mores propter uinum nec urbanae nec militares ideo inter saltationes eas non rediget dithyrambis loquitur Phaedro autem Arist Rhet ubi dicit proemia
con
.
et
in
,
Nebulis quo
.
Aristopha
,
aliam musicam
.
una musica
.
istis transitur
fl .
.
in Et
:
, et
:
,
ab
In ad
,
.
et
Halicarnasseus ubi mutatione ubi modos saltandi esse Phrigios quandoque graciles etiam quandoque dicit tres Doricos lyricos imitationem dithyramborum idem 167 examinat dithyrambicum Pindari
de
et
fol .
9
non utimur
in ).
honorem Bacchi nunc nos
( :
de
in
iis
in
)
.
(
.
et ,
in
et
, et
et
As
quia erant
de
poetas Vbi multa illis agit commentator etiam alibi ornithiis deridet eos Aristophanes quod sint multa uerborum nullum sententiarum habeant Inde uerba Dithyrambicorum diuersa absque sententia De his illegible poetis libro nomine eorum .
pacto nubes alant aliquos deridet Dithyrambicos
the commentary the 1550 work closely printed fills one and one third folio pages Many the same Maggi now repeats the materials appear but different order 34–35
of
).
.pp
to
"
he .
in
,
.
to
is
"
,
of
,
so
, a
(o
56 );
genre
of
compound noun appropriate Aristotle's use the mitting signifies inuideor the citation however which from Ars poetica this much expanded and other examples are very similar terms offered Next follows the allusion Rhetoric III it of
explanation
(
,
in a
.
-
,
against this relatively short passage
, in
",
de
of ,
.
,
,
dithyrambic
between
poetry and Bacchus Plato's Laws The purpose this
,
relationship
the
he
,
on
,
,
discusses
of
,
to
,
III ,
.
In
the brief
"
of
In
dithyrambis loquitur Phaedro autem rapid quotes two separate passages from the Phaedrus He then gives passages from Rhetoric and Politics VIII the Problemata succession Lycophron Dionysius and references Halicarnassus Demetrius Aristophanes Finally Phaleron Menander and the commentator place
he
.
as
of
it
,
it
of
has been able
perhaps remarkably
so to
the erudition that
he
,
to
is
.
all
that merits remark
,
phrase
to
of
to
in to
,
on
or his
as
is
of
at
length
.
of
from Book VII display erudition define the name the genre describe opinions fully possible and from ancient authors about collect Maggi's procedure typical this passage what does throughout spoken commentary brings the Poetics He bear upon each word quoting
so
as
a
In
of
,
of
;
—
to .
of
of
date
it
.
in
a
is
His erudition for the century covers the whole range both Greek and Latin writers and includes many texts which had been made available only generation since the beginning the century the space the first accumulate
early
very extensive
,
of
as
as
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
(
,
),
of
,
,
),
,
,
on
(
:
as
,
,
the notes
,
authors for example Sardi records references following diversified the Plato Laws Phaedrus Cratylus Sophist Phaedo Timaeus Aristotle Prior Analytics both Rhetorics Posterior Analytics De Anima Physics Problemata Ethics well commentators Hermogenes Dionysius several these texts Plutarch Halicar ten pages
]
[
377
for
list
.
,
,
,
),
,
,
De
,
,
De
(
,
Diomedes Simplicius Suidas Cicero nassus Ammonius Aphthonius Oratore Finibus Tusculan Orations and Quintilian The
POETIC
THEORY
the whole of the set of notes would be much longer . In using these ancient authors for the exposition of his text , Maggi was merely applying the familiar technique of the scholarly gloss ; more specifically , he was adapting
,
to
we on
: “
and
shall say how Aristotle
shall observe this order
:
...
continues
we
;
he
,
poetica is completely explicit . In opening sentence Maggi declares rely intentions after stating that means Lombardi's notes
he his
his
to the Poetics the devices of elucidation which had been for so long used in connection with the Ars poetica . Throughout , the consideration of the Poetics in the light of the Ars
. " 41
to
)
an
;
to
,
of
of
(
,
or
,
and Horace agree between them and what Aristotle said that Horace omitted what Horace said that Aristotle omitted and who did better He passes immediately according the canonical order examina tion the titles the two works asking why Aristotle should have called
a
is
.
of
at
of
,
his merely De poetica whereas Horace called his De arte poetica and these considerations lead him far into the discovery the basic difference parallel between the two works The same done other points where Horace seems appropriate
of
of ,
,
he
to it
,
the end
of
establishing the tradition
Aristotle and Horace which will last
to
he is
;
.
is
to
a
in
is
he
he ; is
,
making history
. of
the confronting
is
.
his
as a
he
his
:
doing however
,
so
of In
is
doing really What Maggi literary takes basis for discussion that work compares pari passu audience knows best and another work which himself sense introducing into the canon public literary discussion the reference from the known the unknown
examination very simple theory which
the
century and beyond
.
of
is
, as it a
." 42
of
in
of
a
in
to
of
all
]
De
at
(
“
the
.
,
his
of
This does not mean that Maggi conceives the two works identical Instead initial opposition their titles leads him discover funda mental difference between them Stated succinct formula that thing philosopher Aristotle treats itself and Horace the precepts and almost nothing Thus Aristotle calls his the thing
he
,
, to
,
little were
to of
if
as
',
de
'
he a
,
,
: “
,
is a
,
]
(
he
is
“
,
it
43
a
of to
)
(
,
poesis quia
."
re
de
,
quales quia Aristotelis intentio erat agere cognitione quia secundum natura praecedit inscripsit librum ista 378
re ."
ut
,
de
."
Et
de
,
se ; et
de
de
...
de ad re in
.
,
.
. : 1 : et " et
et
,
,
.
,
a
. re : , et et : "
3 : “
Ibid Ibid partes quantas ,
clear
and rules that would
Horace who writes only write poem justly gave the art the title arte
fol .
: ., .,
cordent inter 43 42
De arte poetica
include those precepts
Bibl Estense a.Q.6.14 fol hunc ordinem seruabimus quid con quid dixerit Aristoteles quod omisserit Aristoteles Horatius dicemus quis melius fecerit uel quid dixerit Horatius quod omisserit Aristoteles philosophus praeceptis agit Horatius quasi nihil respiciens cognitionem poesis dixit poetica cognoscamus fols 3–3v
MS Modena se
41
the thing and more
But Horace's title
to
."
of
teach the poet how
ars sumitur
its
, we “
so
to of
.
”
In
of
of
for that very same thing recognition his intention
Horatius
of
poetica because considering the knowledge poetry poetics may parts quantitative that know both and qualitative other words because Aristotle's intention was treat poetry the knowledge since the art taken from the thing and according thing precedes because nature the entitled his book treatise speaks
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
laws which the poet must observe . ”44 The philosopher , in sum , a “ method ” whereas the poet writes an “ art .” Maggi repeats this opposition , very briefly , when he glosses the first two words of Pazzi's
of the
speak
writes
translation ( fol.
5).
As a result of the difference in intention , the content of the two works is also different . The Ars poetica , adding precept to knowledge and art to method , will comprise a larger variety of materials than the Poetics . Maggi divides it into three sections , points out how it treats both poetry and the of poetry , distinguishes it from the Poetics :
art
Whence with respect to his book you will see that it is divided into three parts . he writes of what poet [ ? ] ; in the second , of poetry ; in the third he teaches the precepts of poetry . At the beginning he speaks to him who wishes to be a good poet ; Aristotle says nothing about this . Horace , when he says
In the first
"Pictoribus atque poetis quidlibet audendi semper fuit aequa potestas , " is speaking of poetry ; because like Plutarch in the book Quomodo pueri debeant uidere poetas , he says that poets are like painters . On the other hand , [he speaks ) of precepts in “ Humano capiti , ” etc.45
The Poetics , being a methodical treatise will have another kind of order . Maggi
will be differently composed and sees it as having two parts , which
,
may
be designated as the " proemium ” and the “ tractatus ” or as the principium " " and the “ narratio . ” The “ proemium , ” brief as it is is
it
made up
of only
the first sentence ) , has many functions to perform and is
subdivided into many parts :
A.
Genera et partes 1. Genera 2. Partes
a . De poesi in se b . De generibus c . De fabula d . De partibus qualibus et quantis De omnis quae pertinent ad hanc materiam
,
et
aliarum
7v ) de
de
fol .
,
(
kinds
)
the individual
in
,
of
[
Treatment
...
Tragoediae Comoediae hoc quod sint imitationes
3v : “
44
B.
3. 2.
artium quae conueniunt Differentia tria inter has De inuentione poesis
et
:
subdivided into only two parts
De poesi De conuenientia Epopeiae
1.
A.
“
is
The tractatus
(
5 )
B. Modum quae uult seruare in tractandis propositis
fol .
e.
)
de
in
ut
In
.
de
.
:
, .
de
"
(
379
.
in
.'
: in 3.
. : in 2.
)
. :3 “ (
,
re ,
de
.
., .,
de in
45 ,
plura Ibid fol Horatius qui modicum arte scribit merito inscripsit legibus quas seruare poeta debet arte quasi diceret scripta ipsius ipsa Ibid fol Vnde circa prima uidebitis diuisa tres partes quem poetam illegible scribit poesim principio loquitur tradit praecepta poesis qui poeta eum uult esse bonus Aristoteles nihil hac dicit Horatius quando dicit pictoribus atque poetis quidlibet audendi semper fuit acqua potestas loquitur plu poesi quia quomodo pueri poetas tarchus libro debeant uidere dicit poetae esse similes pictoribus agit praeceptis capiti autem Humano etc.
POETIC
THEORY
Clearly , and in spite of his designations , Maggi philosophical rather than a rhetorical order .
in the Poetics a
sees
be
his
This establishment of differences between Aristotle and Horace and this distinction of Aristotle's method do not , however , prevent Maggi from assigning to poetic theory the same ends for poetry that might found
,
to
,
of
art
to be ,
,
is
of
.
:
“
in an
art
in led
of
is
in
of
in
of
philosophers widely different approaches The naming the ends Maggi's definition poetry found first We say consequently upon Aristotle's principles that poetry imitation the actions passions pleasant speech and characters men themselves the end that "
of
”
of
to
equivalent
“
he "
as
"
"
as
"
denoue
and comedy may seem
to
taken
matter how much tragedy
of
in
4 ).
.
3y
be
,
"
is
end
”
,
First
“
.
... for
no
” : “
ment
a
of
he
,
of
.
As
,
a
of
commonplaces
medieval
“
. ” : 46
ad
“
a
such
ut
"
(
to
be
proper conduct making The will the way that men will proper conduct enticed Although each homines alliciantur bonos mores fols the genres may have specific end they have common end the production Maggi distinguishes the tragedy from moral improvement end comedy repeats various those uses two meanings end men may the imitation
a
.”
.
do
: "
;
so
at
so
.
to
,
in
by
,
a
,
in
differ they agree nevertheless the end Comedy may have sad begin ning and happy ending and tragedy just the opposite The passage distinguishing the other ends they differ continues Yet not for this proper conduct through divers ways end because they bring men Comedy laughs bad and wicked men that we may flee them Tragedy
lessons
.” : 47
a
is
poetry acceptable
.
of
of
extols illustrious men and the best characters that we may follow them language Sweetness considered rhetorical device which makes the
:
say that poetics must
classified under moral pholosophy ,
for Plutarch says that the poet teaches proper conduct But what way can classified under the moral
and Cicero also says
so . ;
Nevertheless
be
we
to
.
a
,
a
:
.
to
of
is
It
the moral end that enables Maggi classify poetry under moral philosophy Antecedent traditions had pro vided him with two major alternatives for the classification the medieval logicians and Averroës suggested subsuming under logic Plato and subsuming under moral philosophy Maggi accepts Plutarch and Cicero both suggestions and tries reconcile them this same identification
3v : “
of
it
to in ) by do if
ad
is
it
,
.
is
,
,
,
of it
be
If
,
?
it
.,
.,
, it
46 47
to (
be
it
in
philosophy Averroës poetics goes under logic considered according the way which about imitating actions characters and passions because has with lan guage and depicts actions characters and the passions men means language concerned with logic Because concerned with words and puts
ut
ad
, et
.
)
(
380
.
, et .
ad
, e
:
et
et ,
eis
ab
,
ut
."
,
,
ut
et ,
in
,
in
. 4 : “
."
ad
,
.
principia Aristotelis quod poesis est Ibid fol Nos dicimus consequenter imitatio actionum passionum morum ipsorum hominum sermone suaui hoc homines trahantur bonos mores quia quamuis tragoedia Ibid fol comoedia uideantur differre conueniunt tum fine licet comocdia principium triste laetum finem habere contra autem tragoedia non tamen fine differunt quia redducunt homines mores bonos per diuersos modos effugiamus Tragoedia uiros extollit claros Comoedia deridet malos uiles mores optimos eos sequamur
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
as
on
is
,
it
;
as
its
hóyos, it is language . But it is under the moral because of this reason , because it being conduct for this reason end classified moral.48
considers
to
Aut pro
Horace's
“
reflected
.
aut delectare poetae The Platonic and Horatian traditions poetry are thus allowed the end direct the reading Aristotle exactly similar way this first commentary the Poetics reads into
.
of
on
,
In
an
to
of
,
.”
desse uolunt
of
is
of
good conduct
and should not that Plato's and Cicero's in
,
"
("
be
;
for the teaching
demand
cacopoetae
4v ); “
that poets who treat wicked matters are read nec legendi sed cohorrendi fol
love
"
is a
he
,
as
Regarding both classifications justifiable Maggi goes point out that Petrarch moral philosopher because teaches how lovers should
is .
in
be
So ,
in
.
"
4 ).
,
,
,
“
we "
“
,
is
in to
uti
of
"
(
If
of
,
it ,
from earlier critical positions the requirement that poetry verse the object imitation actions passions characters the means sweet language and verse sermo suauis and carmen fol The laws poetry are reduced composing verses those which must use .
,
. 5 ).
,
"
,
,
" :
“
to
by
is
he
,
of
,
by
“
to
fabula
is
debemus
”
"
(
componendis carminibus fol too the traditional and rhetorical Discarding the meanings suggested Terence Horace and Cicero Maggi adopts the assuming that what whole Aristotle's argument from the Problemata poetic applicable says there fabula the quibus
meaning assigned
of
a
in
(
in
.
in
”
in a
)
. 3
18 ,
,
is
“
But now we understand fable that which stands the place true example which like certain exemplum Aristotle the Problemata particula probl examples asks why their orations orators take greater pleasure he
us ,
;
,
.
.
,
,
in
enthymemes and reasonings and and fables than advances these three reasons Because examples are more familiar and pleasant they are quickly learned and on that account they are more acceptable Also because fables are particular things but reasonings are universal things which are more remote but ,
we
is
,
,
to
by
we
an .
is
of
a
,
a
is
example fable like thus here understand fable picture some thing and thence fables are like the thing which ,
image
of
an
says expressly that
.
,
.
in
us ,
by .
be
is
,
by
is
to
to
therefore we learn more speedily And the second reason said more readily believed which confirmed present examples The third reason because learn more readily things that are similar and because examples and fables are similar Therefore we enjoy the things more With respect this when Aristotle there fables are closer because that thing judgment which
48
being treated.49
.
( a )
:
,
ea
. 3 .
in
.
.
,
id
."
“
,
:
et :
et
,
."
de
)
381
(
rei
.
.
ibi
,
,
a
:
,
.
.3 .
.
.
,
.
, . et
et
in
et
.2 .
et in
,
.
et
Si
.
,
. et
eaet
:
.
.,
.
in
et
49
, et
?
si
ut
:
( ? )
.
:
: "
.
.,
lbid fols 4-4v tamen dicimus quod poetica debet redduci sub philosophia morali quia Plutarchus dicit poetam docere bonos mores quod etiam Cicero dicit quo pacto autem poetica consideretur debetur redduci sub morali Auerrois eam sub logica ponit passiones quia uersatur circa sermonem ratione qua uersatur imitetur actiones mores pingit sermone actiones mores passiones hominum uersatur circa logicam qui Aoyos est sermo sub morali autem est quia uersatur uerbis ratione quia respicit finem mores esse ratione ad moralem redducitur quod est loco exempli ueri Ibid fols 50–6 Fabulam autem nunc intelligimus quod est ueluti quoddam exemplum Aristotel problematibus particula 18. probl magis quaerit quare orationibus oratores delectentur exemplis fabulis quam Entime exempla magis matibus rationibus has tres rationes affert Quia sunt familiaria iucun dia cito addiscuntur ideo gratiora sunt Etiam quia fabulae sunt res particulares rationes autem uniuersales quae sunt magis remotae uiciniores autem fabulae ideo magis discemus cito ratio quia haec res dicitur magis credi nobis quae est existimatio confirmata quod exemplis est quia exempla ratio quia nos addiscimus libentius similia exprese dicit fabulae sunt similes Ideo res magis gaudemus Quo circa cum Aristoteles quod fabula est uelut exemplum Ideo hic per fabulam intelligimus imaginem alicuius rei qua agitur ideo fabulae sunt ueluti pictura
POETIC
In
THEORY
of these cases , the meaning is derived from old ways of thinking poetry ; in the second , from old ways of talking about rhetoric . about Maggi's developments are , indeed , apt to be more extensive on such traditional matters as these than on ideas which are new because they are particularly germane to Aristotle's Poetics . For some of the latter , the treatment is brief to the point of being disappointing ; topics which later the first
of Aristotelian discussion are here passed over flurry may without a . We take as an example the definition of tragedy. Maggi states that Aristotle defines tragedy first , before the other genres , qualitative and because it is the most excellent of that includes quantitative parts promised proemium the and that the definition its
,
on
”
“
in
by
all
as
all ,
he
the great cruxes
became
to
,
,
,
he “
quia
merely remarks
to on is
“
.
."
“
.
,
a
”
For sermone suaui commentary later Enarrationem epopeis The only extensive notes are
to in
"
"
"
”
“
"
“
inagnitudinem
since action
perfectae
”
of
refers
the phrase
On
actionis
means
the action the imitation
vt
by
he
separatim
and clarified “
the magnitude ”
is
debet esse una tota actio integra
"
on
is
(
.” .)
.”
“
gloss differentiam uulgarium There previously had been discussed Absolutae
that this
is
"
. "
no
ad
,
of
. "
requirements
.
stating genus and differentiae His glosses the extremely individual words are short Imitatio said indicate the genus the rest the definition the differentiae Illustris means merely meets
: “
in
of of
.
,
of of
in
of ",
of
"
pity and fear where Maggi compares the purgation purgation speaks that which Aristotle Book VIII the Politics the purgation passions from the soul through music The pleasurable aspects the effect are indicated the sentence And purgations are exaltations misericordiam
et
constantes
fol
ita
expurgantur
,
of
:“
et
,
a
, in
at
be
.
is
44 )
an
at
he
.
It
.
,
,
of
redduntur fortes
"
( et “
liberantur talibus affectibus Maggi thinks that this the best might several suggested interpretations noted this point that the 1550 Explanationes studies the whole matter much more thoroughly ”
and constant
...
,
of
,
,
of
as
of
44 .)
fol .
, "
”
(“
Et
expurgationes sunt sublationes animae the soul along with pleasure Maggi interprets the effect purgation cum uoluptate the driving out from the soul through the spectacle strong passions those they same passions leaving the soul provided with more desirable ones are purged and liberated such passions and thus they are made strong
to
he
of
of
it
.
to
,
it in
by
.
of
of
on
.
essentially different conclusion partial Maggi will serve analysis Even this Sardi's notes show Maggi long explicating the begins the their distinctive features tradition placing two contexts Horace's Ars poetica and the rhetorical Poetics brings tradition He the same kind erudition that had long been
and arrives
of
he is
and conclusions scrupulous
course
,
.
)
382
He
is ,
if
,
discover Aristotle's own system
other times
he
of ,
a
,
definitions
at
,
times distinctions other systems even
(
about trying
to
.
in to it
Poetics He sees which belong rather
at
is
to
to
of
.
does other classical texts But because called upon for the elucidation considering poetic problems use old methods and refers old ways bound miss much that might have been new for fresh reader the
faced with
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
insuperable difficulties : a difficult text , philosophically , in poor philological shape , in an only moderately satisfactory translation , full of terms and
conceptions that had not previously attracted the attention of the scholars . His great merit , in this situation , was having tackled the problem , pursued
of
on
an
set
his
it with great diligence through at least a decade , and produced a number of valid conclusions . What he did in lectures the pattern for Aristotelian commentary throughout the century and provided for later theorists initial interpretation the basis which they might elaborate their own
unpublished
his
in ,
in
"
"
make
of
(
was
preface
a
”
“
Lombardi's Praefatio had been delivered the Accademia degli Infiammati Robortello
1541 the date under public the sense that opening lecture before
an
.
But they were
to
course
which they have been treated
as "
these materials were
“
All
of
.
studies
similar use )
.
in
a
of
,
in
recited before the Accademia Fiorentina 154850 and that publication Lombardi's and then Maggi's lectures were actually form Between this date and 1548 the uses of the Poetics critical documents are
.
sparse and incidental
an
it
of
,
on
di
I
he
:
,
in
uses
tragedy
;
of
so
doing
which are borrowed from Aristotle's definition give the text Italian italicizing the significant phrases terms
.
,
to
in
structure and ,
of
,
In I
;
he
in
,
praises the unity
of
all .
Comedy First
by
to
or
in
a
on
of
,
is a
It
.
of
is
of
early especial interest since One these documents constitutes application principles terminology practical Aristotelian and criti speech cism set notes conversation about Dante Girolamo Benivieni preserved the Biblioteca Marucelliana MS A.137 assign them without proof The notes are undated circa 1540 since Benivieni died 1542. them Benivieni passes judgment the Divine
,
,
,
altrui
,
di
,
,
se
di
narrano
con
, e
,
, o,
,
,
et
,
di
,
fu
, e
’
,
un
,
,
la
un
quello che alcune altre fauole finito narrando profitteuole alli ascoltanti.si ornato parlare
e
la
e,
..
quanto all'anima questa compositione che senza dubbio inuentione chi punto sottilmente bada ageuolmente scorge hauere Dante imitato sogno anzi uno desto sol fatto non dico auueduto uiaggio che egli questo altra uolta hauea trapassato conueneuole grandezza proportionato fauola
"
"
, "
),
138v
,
in
to
”
per uia d'Imitatione
( .fol
.
passa
,
"
egli tutto Poeticamente
may have
.
See MS BNF II.IV.192
A.
31 50
to
by
“
an of
to
a
"
"
as
of
Despite such traditional elements the identification favola with profitable inventione and the final the listeners the description apply Aristotle's has note freshness supplied the intention definition actual critical judgment One other phrase the notes
MS Marucelliana
at
of
as
;
of
a
a
,
I
at he a do
,
: "
In
."
to
,
[
383
]
.
,
or .
he
,
,
,
,
,
a
undoubtedly
,
is ,
137 fol 134v translation for the soul this composition the invention the plot who looks all carefully will easily single action voyage discover that Dante has imitated not say dream but rather previous time and this was made while awake and aware which proper had taken magnitude proportioned and complete narrating about himself what certain other plots narrate about others with embellished language and profitable the listeners which
POETIC
THEORY
Aristotelian origins . For the rest , Benivieni insists on the utility of Dante's
of
poem , which , like those
ancient poets
the best and most
...
, “
under a
impresses upon those who veil , with the beauty of Poetry , enjoy his poem the highest mysteries of Christian philosophy . " 52 He praises the variety and multiplicity of ideas in Dante , his treatment of the pleasant
sciences and the liberal arts , and his many wise sayings , pointing out finally how both Petrarch and Boccaccio had imitated him .
Another contemporary piece in Italian , Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio's dedication to his Orbecche ( written in 1541 but published in 1543) , com plains of the impossibility of using the Poetics rather than doing so . It may well reflect the attitude of readers in general before the publication of the great commentaries . Giraldi is speaking of the difficulty of writing tragedy in his time : And although Aristotle gives us the method for composing them , aside from his native obscurity , which , as you know , is extreme , he remains so obscure and full of so many shadows because we do not have the authors from whom he derives his authority and the examples for confirmation of the orders and the laws that he imposes on writers of tragedies , that one understands with difficulty I will not say the art that he teaches but the very definition that he gives of tragedy.53
Bernardino Tomitano's Ragionamenti della lingua toscana of 1545 makes use of the Poetics , but withal it is not an Aristotelian treatise ; everything see Chapter , rather as has been pointed out , it is a little develop individual sections his VII 264–67 Tomitano tends (
of
of
by
by
to
).
pp
.
,
bit
extensive
is a
in
III
,
,
.
,
so
;
as
or
dialogue paraphrasing earlier works translating from them directly and Plato Horace and various rhetoricians pass through his long section hands also does Aristotle There Book which
,
of a
an
"
"
, it ; all is
is
and since
reces
human
...
ne
,
(
a
in
of
is
,
52
di
."
, et ,
gli & ,
di
,
il
ci
) è
, de de la
& gli (
,
."
di
."
dà
,
gli
à
,
gli
384
)
,
(
: "
), .p
,
,
de
,
(
,
54
gli
quali egli adduce l'auttoritadi essempi essere auttori ordini delle leggi ch'egli impone scrittori d'esse ch'affatica intesa non dirò l'arte ch'egli insegna ma diffinitione ch'egli della tragedia Ragionamenti 1945 227 imitatore atti humani con merauiglia chi l'ascolta ,
tante tenebre per non per confirmatione
Et
), , .p ui la 2 : "
(
, i
,
la
,
: "
.
., ,
in
imitation
shadow bodies good and bad since
uaghezza della Poesia imprime fol 136 sotto piaceuole uelame con piu rileuanti misterij della Cristiana filosofia che sono del suo Poema uaghi comporle egli oltre Orbecche 1543 anchora ch'Aristotile dia modo quale pieno sua natia oscuritade come sapete somma riman tanto oscuro Ibid
coloro 53
la
is an to
as
understand that poetry
imitation related him who acts life sary that actions themselves being two kinds
imitator 54_obviously
:
by
this statement
to
are led
to
followed
,
of of
,
is
the listener
in
).
( .p
is
It
we
this definition
an
In
.
mixed definition
defined
as
his
It
.
of
of
as
and means imitation 226 The poet human actions who arouses admiration
è
it
It
as a
.
develops the difference between orator and follows the Poetics closely poet persuasion difference between and imitation but then adds the poetry approxi further differential verse and rhyme lists the kinds object manner mately Aristotle had done and repeats distinction
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
actions prove to be distinguished on the basis of vice and of virtue ) , similarly every imitation should turn out to be like a real action , or better, or worse.55
This ethical distinction is what leads to the difference between tragedy and comedy . But when Tomitano wishes to develop the difference , he does so in terms which go back to the rhetorical classification of the literary genres according to subject matters
or passions
:
This imitation is based on our common human passions , on the events of fortune, on the qualities of the mind and of the body . As for the passions , tragedy imitates hopes , desires , despair , weepings , memories of deaths , and deaths ; comedy , suspicions , fears , sudden passages from good to evil and from evil to good , rescues , happy human lives and human beings . Sapphic poetry brings forth tender thoughts and magnificent eulogies ; the hendecasyllable , humble and low concerns ; the elegy , tears and signs ; odes , precepts , customs , memories , loves , and praise of others ; sermons , discourses necessary for happy living ; satire , condemnations of vicious living and rewards heroic style , illustrious and magnanimous feats . 56
by he
.
of
on
his
Similar distinctions are made for the Italian genres
for virtues ; the
,
”
all
" : "
“
at
he
,
of
he
of
;
he
“
When Tomitano develops ideas the manner imitation expands the passage follows Poetics 1448a25 fairly closely but when adding examples the has not understood shows that his own implications Michelangelo narrative and dramatic manner Thus
,
on
of
of
on
is
he
.
its
of
.
, of
the natural causes
reveals how
a
interest since
it
of of in
a
poetry The whole section scholar 1545 used the letter the text spirit and how sought elucidation Aristotle without understanding more familiar texts and traditions
cludes with
passage
in
be
,
"
. " 57
and
;
in in
”
,
he
might possibly imitate the same thing but neverthe says different ways which difference may equally well seen Petrarch Dante The section the Ragionamenti based Aristotle con
and Titian less
in
to
a
of
in
to
a
,
of
is
of
apparent The same kind eclecticism Liliɔ Gregorio Giraldi's set ten dialogues variously dated from 1541 Historiae poetarum dialogi 1545 and published 1545. Giraldi wishes primarily list the Greek biographical compendium and Latin poets and provide the known ;
le
o
gli
)
." &
(
o
è
:
la
à i
,
,
à
in
, ò
, ò
ad ,
56
da à
si
: “
è
è &
., .p
55
comprendere che poesia sia imitatione Ibid 227 Nellaqual diffinitione corpi per questo perche l'imitatione tale rispetto colui che opera quale l'ombra necessario che operandosi due maniere bene male come che tutte attioni humane uengono esser differenti per conto del uitio della uirtu similmente ogni imitatione migliore piggiore dell'effetto simile adiviene
la ,
, & & le
:
La ,
gli
, le ,
le à
,
al
&
.
il
.
&
,
, i
& ]al
al , i &
i
, le
, i
i
,
le
gli ,
&
i
le
i
,
: “ E
., .p
questa imitatione fondata sopra Ibid 228 affetti della nostra humanita sopra casi della fortuna sopra beni dell'animo del corpo Quanto affetti imita pianti morſt Tragedia speranze disperationi desii ricordi morti Comedia sospetti paure subiti mouimenti dal bene male dal male bene saluezze magnifiche lodi Saphico humili uite humani contenti Dolci pensieri partorisce ,
,
,
.
"
i
...
:
laqual differenza comprender
385
)
(
."
dissomigliantemente Dante
si
&
:
&
:
,
:
la
&
al
le
:
e in
,
cosa nondimeno nel Petrarca
: "
., & .p
57
,
le
:
lo
lagrime sospiri Elegia precetti costumi ricordi amori basse cure Endecasillabo lode d'altrui Ode discorsi uiuere beatamente necessari sermoni uituperi del uitioso premi delle uirtu generosi l'heroico stile uiuere Satire gesti illustri Ibid 229 cosi Michel'agnolo Titiano potranno per auentura imitare l'istessa puo medesimamente
POETIC
THEORY
facts relating to them . He includes as well the standard defence
of poetry ,
a discussion of the poetic furor, and a certain amount of theoretical material . Plato , Horace , Cicero , Donatus are freely drawn upon , and almost neces
sarily
84 .) est
— at this date — there are a number of references to Aristotle . At the outset, Giraldi lists Aristotle first among the writers " qui de poëtis scripse runt " ; he cites him on the origins of poetry ( p . 6 ) and for his insistence that
he ex
III ,
,
, he in
,
of
his
on
'
'
.
,
,
It ,
of
in is
In
”
of
,
of
he
to
he
,
VI ,
( .p
sententia poëtam Dialogue fabulis potius esse quàm carminibus deplores the loss the original two books the Poetics.58 not how tragedy and comedy Dialogue ever until comes the discussion that makes any substantial borrowings from Aristotle's text There tragedy after giving Diomedes and Theophrastus definitions cites ex
the plot , not verse , makes the poet : “ Aristotelis
a
,
& in
,
:
&
,
ab
"
&
:
or
be
to
of
of
the antiquity the genre and then gives definition any translation that does not correspond those published before 1541 may represent some manuscript version and hence may his own perfectae actionis magnitudinem Est ergo Tragoedia imitatio studiosae unaquaque specierum agentium suaui oratione habentis separatim particularis non per annunciationem sed misericordia quadam
Aristotle
).
(p .
a
a
:
of
,
est
,
of
,
to
he
.
of
of
”
timore perficiens talim affectionum purgationem 672 There are short quotations from Aristotle's explanation the definition and discussion the qualitative and quantitative parts comedy Giraldi again cites first traditional Greek When comes definition then those Donatus and Cicero finally that Aristotle );
”
,
he
.
is
,
of
( .p
ad
,
“
Comoedia imitatio improbioris quidem non omnem tamen malitiam sed turpitudinis quaedam est ridicula particula 677 the again unknown Ultimately after citing Aristotle's definition translation
of
an
,
"
is
.
by
on
.
"
tation
to
.
;
borrowed from other works neither changing them nor nothing even vaguely suggesting interpre them There of Aristotle
other pieces changed
.
by
to of no
of
,
is
as
” 59 — a
by
to
is
It
: “
,
the ridiculous concludes seen from these words that the philosopher implies that comedy was invented give pleasure the people conclusion means justified the text Giraldi's method many the same that his contemporaries He takes pieces out his own work they there stand alongside the Poetics transports them
it
as a
ea
de
.
in
.
of
,
-
of
(p
,
,
in
of
of
to
of
)
by
in
of
.
to
In
Parrasio's commentary Horace 1531 there had been some intro ductory allusions the Poetics Fifteen years later 1546 the Ecphrasis Horatii Flacci artem poeticam Francesco Pedemonte ublished post humously the Poetics Puresius made the first full scale use parallels Moreover the Ars poetica and explanations source gave fairly extensive quotations Greek There are some thirty the text
,
,
: "
), .p
9
.
.”
)
(
386
innuere
,
ex
., .p
: “
."
ad
Ibid
in
studiosorum manibus habetur nunc Videtur his uerbis Philosophus 677 oblectandos populos
59
imperfectumque
,
ut
,
(
58
facultate uolumina composuit 313 duo primùm Historine poetarum 1545 quae temporum uidemus iniuria periere Mox alterum uolumen edidit quod dimidiatum Comoediam
inuentam esse
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
I have indicated in Chapter IV ) . They are drawn from widely separated sections of the Poetics and demonstrate a fairly complete knowledge of the text . Pedemonte achieves a better fusion of his borrowed materials than was the case with his immediate predecessors . For example , he assigns to the first thirteen lines of the Ars poetica the subtitle “ De idea concipienda , ” suggesting that Horace means to demand that the poet have a conception of the one hand this conception
to
his
such parallel passages ( as
,
;
,
)
in
in
by
,
a
on
"
“
to
of
is
it is
,
in
[
” : “
,
“
of
,
on
total form before setting work likened Platonic Idea and the representing the term Aristotle described other the process imitation This also the preconception the Form comes about painting molding and sculpturing which indeed every art especially .”
60
(
ut ,
4 )
,
.p
to
as
be
Pedemonte attempts him related ideas to
this
,
case
studying what seem
to
a
such
as
In
4v .
in of
by )
( .p
nature
on on
he
categories
of
,
.
a
text Horace Plato and Aristotle general the passages from Aristotle which Pedemonte uses fall into
In
in
clarify
”
,
ac
,
,
,
(“
,
ex
)
he
resembling
as
of
in
to
,
to
proceed seem Aristotle the same way imitation does poetry This same requirement explains why Aristotle demands the complete form having beginning middle and end miniméue totum ipsum quod inquit Aristoteles principio medio fine constat absoluetur and why should have proposed Homer the model most closely
:
,
to to
to
of
;
16 a )
and the idea
the presence and place
,
57 );
);
( .pp
beautiful animal
the
convey
Horace's proper magni
related
having
the poet's
36v
of
a
to
the poem
hopes
( .p
as
of
,
of
appropriateness
the work's structure
each
of
is
,
,
its
of
on
of
of
to
;
."
,
,
,
in
omni arte pingendi maxime fingendi atque tramite cum poesi Aristoteli incedere uidentur 387
)
(
of
sic
3v : "
on
,
on
), .p
on
;
a
of
;
of
on
on
;
;
(
Ecphrasis itaque 1546 culpendi quae dem eodem imitationis
;
to
.
a
to
,
.
by
;
01
of
a
of
.
(
.p
third classification come those passages which pertain the handling the separate genres Most these pertain tragedy and comedy although there are fair number for the epic and say about tragedy some for satire What Horace has for example elucidated citations from the Poetics definition and explanations that definition the comparison between tragedy and comedy and unity through action tragedy and the epic the use iambic verse through single rather than the choice hero the creation the tragic spectacle and stage effect through reading only without recourse plot and presentation tragedy with the kinds the mixture to
parts
resemblance
25 )
its
of of
the inevitability
of
of
.
tude and thus
its ) ;
(p
15v
In
16 );
.p
(
”
“
decorum
the conception
he
necessity that the poet should himself first feel what the requirement
.
as
,
.pp
of
a
of
,
52-53
kind
(
the differences between poetry and history philosophical need for knowledge especially and
others
an
,
of
of
:
of
.
for
of
on
of
.
,
First those historical interest cites numerous texts the origins and development comedy somewhat fewer tragedy and the origins epic poet These the epic and the excellence Homer are the most part without critical interest Second those which concern general principles necessity and probability the poetic art the notions
THEORY all
POETIC
a
is
or
of of
any interpretation whether there theory the special character
of
.
it
of
of
undoubtedly satire ( mostly , pp . 29–32 ) . What results from this con ception tragedy much richer and much more detailed than the the art reader might obtain from Horace alone But still remains doubtful
be
.
on
of
,
to
a
,
.
of
at
to
,
,
his
in
of
is
any awareness Aristotle's text tragedy singled out for the finally should Pedemonte Several passages witness they give the position that Aristotle's Poetics was attaining part this state The first them the commentary Ars poetica 179–88 asserts that Aristotle's notions were inferior Horace's since : “
a
)
(
,
by
]
(
he
at a
Horace came later date and represented more refined taste Since Aristotle handed down the norms for the poetic art without departing from the models supplied ancient poetry whereas this poet Horace
of
-
we in
”,
,
;
as
be “
to
or
”
“
or
”
60 ).
.p
”
,
to
,
in
in
be
to
it be
"
“
,
of
(“
qui
"
of
as
“
to
,
." 61
,
is a
of
assessing the poems -and this matter the greatest importance his predecessors and contemporaries accepts certain things while rejecting others Nevertheless Aristotle's dicta are taken laws and inquit addition the usual asserit autore Aristotele find such formulas statuisse and the final categorical statement that Horace Aristotle and found only the art are the precepts taught possible transgress who the rules which would never regulas docuerunt quas transgredi nequaquam licitum foret ,
—
of
to
,
a
of
,
Before the time the great commentaries then the Poetics had achieved position authority equal that the Ars poetica and this was no small feat considering the reverence for the latter document throughout Ages and the humanistic period )
1548
of (
ROBORTELLO
.
the late Middle
of
to
”
,
a
, of He
.
;
by
it
of of
it ,
,
he
in
of
of
of
as a
de
the
his
,
great commentaries
In
"
the
Francesco Robortello
be
published was that librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes apparently prepared 1548. Robortello own Greek text using consulting manuscripts basis the Aldine text 1508 but correcting two these were the possession the Medici family and Robortello frequently argues for the superiority their readings used the Pazzi translation but again corrected and collation the two Latin The first
of
.
in an
which determined the future tendencies
ab
61
in
of
many ways made new suggestions the reading the text.62
; it
of
. It
be
to
,
of
,
in
,
in
in
literary versions shows many slight variations detail For the history criticism the Renaissance however Robortello's great importance lies printed his commentary the first extensive one not only was epitome the earlier scattered interpretations the Poetics also
on
. "
an
an
62 I
,
,
,
: “
;
., .p
Quippc ille antiqua poesi non discedens artis poeticae normas tra Ibid 31v didit hic autem uates quod quidem permultam interest cum maiorum tum iuniorum poemata perpendens quaedam admittit quaedam uero non probat is
“
its
, I
)
(
388
of ,
,
in
of
In
.
.pp
:
in
. ii,
.
,
",
have given extensive analysis the commentary article Robortello the Poetics Critics and Criticism Ancient and Modern the argument which summarized above chap 66-68 the following pages extract from the article essential points
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
it
of we
,
as
,
of
by
is
is
of
: “
of ,
its
is
,
or
.”
63
all
The essential direction of Robortello's analysis of the Poetics results from his conception of the ends of poetry . There seem to be three ends : First , the dual Horatian end of pleasure and utility : “ Poetry, if we consider it carefully , bends efforts toward delighting although also does profit And since imitation the Aristotelian end Besides there representation produced this imitation means discourse language which imitates just poetry may say that the end that 64
. ”
as
an
;
to
is
is
65
in a
specified
passage
...
of
a
man refine frequently
; it
thought
as
in
as
long they are men nature and represented some in
,
of
their own nature once they are taken out form resembling nature give great pleasure
by
by
,
is
perceived ment than that which the mind and happens that things which arouse horror and terror in
of
greater pleasure truly worthy ,
no
indeed for men ,
There
is ,
:
The nature the pleasure derived from poetry from Robortello's prologue
is
.
."
to
,
of
): "
(
as
of of
,
to
is
a
a
in
is
language which persuades rhetoric All the ends are brought together Poetry thus commenting following passage on 144864 the such prior the other the prior end sets double end for itself one which delight unexpressed imitate the other Profit here included delight concomitant
,
,
;
first the pleasure intermediate end
in ;
,
an
of
emphasized salient features this passage must achieved through imitation which thus becomes
is
,
,
,
be
Two
,
to .
? of 66
as
as ,
,
What other end therefore can delight through the representation we say that the poetic faculty has than description every human action every emotion every thing and imitation animate well inanimate
( as
so
,
)
( or
,
,
,
.” ,
hęc per orationem dicimus 19 rhetorice sermonem persuadentem
.”
poëtice
alterum
altero
."
,
Ibid Finem enim duplicem habet sibi propositum priorem Prior est imitari Alter vero est oblectare .
omnem suam
fit ;
representatio sicut
,
,
,
siquis diligenter attendat
in
,
, .p 2 : “
&
,
si
),
Et
30 : , “
: . , .p
sit , . , .p
2 : "
65
., .p
quoniam imitatio Ibid poëtice finem esse sermonem imitantem
in
64
ad
(
Explicationes 1548 Prologue Poëtice vim confert prodest quoque oblectandum
66
of
of
,
If ,
.
on
; if, in
virtue
63
to
they bring various kinds performance and the one hand the reading the virtue and the praise some excellent man people are the other hand vices are represented people are strongly on
poetic readings and imitations are
multiple utility
imitation consist incited
of
;
:
in
,
just a
to
men
as
is
For
,
.
as
of
all
is
)
of
,
is
of
second the imitation not only human actions and passions objects Aristotle but kinds well The nature the utility derived from poetry much more explicitly indicated once again the key passage found the prologue
.
in
,
, vt
omnium
,
,
)
389
motionum
;
omnium
rerum
&
. . . .
;
humanarum
(
omnium actionum tùm inanimatarum
? "
imitationem animatarum
,
,
,
;
,
in
;
&
,
&
,
,
2 : “
lbid Nulla verò inter homines maior voluptas quae quidem liberali homine digna quàm quae mente cogitatione percipitur imò saepè contingit quae horrorem propria natura sunt extrà naturam posita terrorem incutiunt hominibus dum qua piam similitudine dum repraesentantur multum oblectent Quem igitur alium finem poëtices facultatis esse dicemus quàm oblectare per repraesentationem descriptionem
tùm
POETIC
THEORY
deterred from those vices , and they are driven away from them with much greater force than if you were to use any other form of persuasion.67
From this and other passages68 it is clear that the utility is essentially an one , achieved through rhetorical means ; men discover through poetry man's common fate , they learn what characters and events are ethical
worthy of dread and commiseration , and they achieve moderate their own passions when adversity strikes .
In
the capacity to
of poetry , it becomes clear that the end , producing beyond itself either
these passages on the various ends
of imitation
end
is an intermediate
or utility of the moral kind so completely outlined . It is soon clear not only that the different ends of pleasure and utility are achieved by different means but that they result from different parts of the poem itself . separate poetic Moreover , each separate kind of utility has source a
in
its
pleasure
is
,
,
.
of
an
of
by a
of
a
is
the pleasure
of
.
Neither
a
utility
of
concomitant the utility nor the poem resultant the total structure the Rather Robortello fragmentation proceeds analysis the work and what each element
is
.
us
.
or
,
.
of
,
of
:
of
.
to
of
fragment contributes toward one especially the separate ends The case utility respect clear with Moral betterment derives from three separate sources there are lessons from the fortunes men there are lessons from the characters men there are lessons from maxims sententiae Let take the fortunes men first The conclusion that fate strikes all men
, in a
on
is
or of
,
to
is
plot such the stage representation very powerful a
the play The representation .
of
;
of it
a
of
,
in
"
“
fabula
is
to
unhappiness that men pass quickly from happiness deduced study not from men's characters but from the contemplation the actions which they are involved hence related the plot the equally
on
,
to
in
to
,
to
it
if
as
effect
were the
is a
.
Hence fundamental con The problem ita
.
the poem
upon the
full
its “
is
as a
it
.p 3 ),
the actions
of
to
the imitation
,
,
if
;
to
life
",
"
truth any discussion
of
however
will produce credibility life and enters
"
(
the imitation
quasi rem ipsam
in
sideration
representation depends
the
of
resemblance
thing itself the criterion
67
, to
in
to
,
of
The effectiveness
of
."
joy
69
,
or ,
on
of
: “
is
powerful moral instrument This moving and rousing the souls anger and rage men the one hand calling softening gentleness and the other hand them back exciting laughter pity them now them sorrow and tears now and
,
ab
&
si
,
.
,
)
390
& ad
;
&
ad
,
in
laetitiam
ad
,
;
&
,
,
ad
ad
,
emolliendis
autem habet vim huiusmodi representatio commouendis animis tum iram furorem tum mansuetudinem reuo lacrymas tum tum concitandis commiserationem fletum
(
,
Magnam
hominum
."
,
& &
candis
,
102 165–66 211
Ibid
Ibid inflammandis risum
fit , ,
vt
vtaris
., ., .p pp . 3 : 53 “ , ."
69 68
hortatione
Si
:
ui
;
his
;
ad
,
si
&
;
,
., .p 3 : "
Ibid Recitationes autem imitationes poëticae sunt multiplices multi plicem afferunt hominibus vtilitatem Nam recitatio atque imitatio virtutum laudum praeclari alicuius viri incitantur homines virtutem rursus vitia repraesentantur maioréque quadam repelluntur quàm homines multum deterrentur alia quauis
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
real one and a difficult one ; for , essentially
:
its
,
its
.
to
,
,
true and from
an
. 70
In
by
;
other art the lies used the poetic art false elements are taken them true conclusions are derived
...
as
to in a
no
to
is
,
,
it is
untruth
subject matter fictitious and fictional discourse proper way invent fiction and intermingle lies more fitting than this one
poetics
clear that the function
the other
subject matter things which are not true to
poetics has
Since then its
in taking for
discourse
is of as it its
of
arts
, poetry differs from
, do
,
be
to
or
,
or
: “
of
is
of
,
of
to
If
impression from these fictional elements truth obtained the plot itself must contain actions belonging one three kinds For poetics speaks only those actions which exist which can exist
all
at ,
is
it
if
,
as
,
in
.
as in
he
:
is
73
.”
, to
an
he is
of
we shall
accordance plot well his Robortello
creates
byof
.
If
;
a
of
is
or
he
,
a
with probability then inventor the level possibilities summarized The whole range commentary on Poetics 146067
,
.,
"
to
.” 72
we
his true poetic activity
historian
bears upon elements other than the plot
on
,
: "
.
to
,
,
“
as , a if
the activity
resembles see
is
to
which exist according what men used think 71_i.e the true the possible the traditional The true the best we should try possible probable treat true actions The possible next best but not should invent new ones according the probable Inso poet uses does not invent and hence his work true plot far
or as
or
If
,
in
,
he or
as
,
in
.
it
as
or ,
be
,
to
,
or
a
or
,
If
.
.
,
If
,
poet imitates are either true The things actions and persons which they are living invented true they either exist now did exist died long they exist and are living the poet imitates them ago two ways either they are commonly said appears they are they are neither living nor exist but died long ago they are still imitated these two ways either
as
If
.
it
as
as
set
be "
to
.
is
they are This not and seem rather "
"
said
things be
of
imitation
equated with
to
”
True
. “
accidental
the notion
“
distinctions
of
,
noted that Robortello omits from this apparently exhaustive
,
of It
will
is
be
it
is
,
by
to
general opinion reports them appears they were have been the persons are invented the poet himself imitates and expresses them being what fitting and proper that they should be.74
70
is ,
of
he
,
as
he
.
If
all ,
"
“
than with are for the simple reason that the realm the poet after they are then the fictitious trespasses upon the treats things
,
,
."
,
."
,
ac
.
,
,
.
Si
,
."
,
;
,
,
nouas
&
res ,
: “
: "
., .p
, . , .p
,
Sin minus
: “
danda
219
., .p
219
Ibid
, vt ex si
fieri possit circa veras actiones versemur verisimili confingamus persone quas imitatur poëta aut verae sunt aut fictae Ibid 290 actiones verae aut sunt aut fuerunt vel enim viuunt vel iamdiu interierunt sunt viuunt Ibid
opera
.'
ex
,
...
in
;
&
,
ut
jis ,
de
est
.
74 73 72 Si
; ,
ad
,
2 : “
:2 “
., .p
71
;
&
., .p
Ibid Cum igitur poëtice subiectam sibi habeat pro materie orationem fictam patet poëticen pertinere fabulosam fabulam mendacium aptè confingat nul liúsque alterius artis proprium magis esse mendacia comminisci quàm huius poëticis mendaciis principia falsa pro veris assumuntur atque his verae eliciuntur conclusiones Ibid Nam poëtice loquitur tantum rebus aut quę sunt aut quae esse possunt aut quas uetus est apud homines opinio esse
)
(
391
,
. Si
;
,
;
,
."
ab
Si ,
.
&
,
,
,
;
,
duplici modo has imitatur poëta aut quales aiunt vulgò esse aut videntur esse non viuunt neque sunt sed iamdiu interierunt imitatur etiam has duplici modo aut quales rumor est expri personae fictae sunt ipso poëta eas imitatur fuisse aut quales videntur fuisse mitque quales esse conuenit oportet
POETIC
THEORY
of
,
,
as
;
at
of of
his
domain of the historian . It is by this line of reasoning that Robortello arrives at his interpretation of Aristotle's τα δυνατά κατά το είκός ή το åvaykaſov ( 1451a38 ) ; at own theory the possible the probable and credibility determining the the necessary and his central doctrine ;
, :
its
is
in
.
it
is
as
.
is
moral effect the action The true credible hence moving the veri moving only similar insofar resembles the true The whole argument presented the passage expounding 1451b15
soul
of
.
to
is
It
.
to
be
,
,
;
to
,
,
as
of
to of
to
,
a
by
in
.
it is
as
Tragedy has purpose arouse two the major passions the pity and fear Now much more difficult arouse these than others which agitate hope laughter and others more pleasant way such this kind pleasant things but averse For men their very nature are prone un pleasant ones they cannot therefore easily impelled sorrow thus an
in
,
it in , all
us
be
if
.
,
,
it
of
,
by
a
if
.
a
to
in
necessary for them first know that the thing actually happened such and way Thus tragic plot contained such action which did not really take place and was not true but was represented the poet himself accordance with verisimilitude would perhaps move the souls the auditors but certainly pleasure less For verisimilar things give the pleasure derives from the to
to
,
in
.
us
to
,
;
.
to
This passage relates credibility
to
is
its
it
in
that did come about the way specified Whatever virtue thus contained relationship verisimilitude derived totally from truth.75
in
is us
.
in
it
to
us ,
of
us
If
...
to
.
to
present general fact that we know these things the truth and the extent that the verisimilar partakes truth has the power move and persuade verisimilar things move the true will move much more Verisimilar things move because we believe have been possible for the event come about the way specified True things move because we know
.
,
in
as
must then
,
of
,
;
critical
it
is
or
as as is a
to
." 76
term
true else verisimilar impossible and completely the true consisting those
93 : "
75
or
“
necessarily
express something which and instead tries unbelievable The necessary the same things which had happened been done
,
preserve what
is
imitation and fails
to
its
" ;
:
“
.
a
in
to
to
truth verisimilitude and verisimilitude poem Other terms relevant the action are treated elsewhere The false and the impossible are never acceptable The poetic faculty rejects poetry errs those things which are absolutely false and as often
,
,
si
;
ab ita
si
;
in
est
,
vis
,
si
&
.
,
,
.
,
ita
.
,
ita
ac
in
,
,
oblectant
ea
,
commouebit
at
;
sit
;
ad
.
,
&
,
,
;
ab
,
sit , , vt ;
, ad
,
fortasse animos audientium minus certè nam verisimilia nos oblectatio omnis inde prouenit quòd veris inesse scimus omnino quatenus persuadendi nos verisimilia verisimile veritatis est particeps vim habet mouendi mouent multo magis vera mouebunt Verisimilia nos mouent quia fieri potuisse credimus rem accidisse Vera nos mouent quia scimus accidisse quicquid igitur veri ;
simile
, &
., .p
Ibid Habet sibi propositum tragoedia mouere duas maximas perturbationes animi commiserationem metum multò verò difficilius est has mouere quàm reliquas quae iucundius perturbant qualis est spes risus huiusmodi sunt enim suapte natura homines iucundas res proni iniucundis autem alieni non facilè igitur luctum pos sunt impelli necesse est igitur sciant prius rem cecidisse quod fabula tragica actionem ipso poëta fuerit efficta secundum veri neque vera sed contineat quae non acta
ac " ;
."
,
sit ;
(
,
ea ,
;
in
392
)
à
."
,
: "
...
: "
,
76
Ibid
,
.p
., id .p
totum arripit vero quae prorsus sunt falsa 284 patet poëticen facultatem reiicere quotiescunque poëtica 292 imitatione peccat neque seruat necessarium praeterque omnem fidem simile conaturgue exprimere aliquid quod impossibile
simili
and
veri
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
have the same meaning as the “ true " and refer not to real existence but to possibility and opinion . The possible consists of those things which can be done ( Tà Suvatá ) and subdivides into the necessary and the probable . If to this subdivision we add another one , that affecting unnatural and incredible
objects ( for these in certain circumstances are admissible into certain poems ), we get another exhaustive distinction as follows : Duplici modo fingere , & mentiri poëtas : 1. in rebus secundum naturam ( the possible ) ( the necessary )
( a ) TÒ ávarykaſov
( b) Tò
elkós
( the probable
)
in rebus praeter naturam ( the impossible
2.
)
( a ) quae receptae iam sunt in opinionem vulgi ( the traditional) ( b) non antè unquam auditis , aut narratis ab alio (the newly invented )
The impossible or the false , because it is incredible , has no place in poetry , no persuasive power , no possible moral effect . But it is occasionally admitted when the poet can succeed in giving it a semblance of credibility
art
( p. 87 ). In many of the passages in which Robortello speaks of the utility springing from the actions of poems, he speaks of representation or per formance ( rather than merely of imitation ) and of the effect upon spectators ( rather than upon readers ). This is because he considers the art of imitation really two arts , a poetic art concerned with the writing of poems and a
.
functions
be
:
in
is
of
histrionic concerned with their performance The division his commentary on Poetics 1449631 clear
in
of
as
or
it in
be
in
by
is to
of
it
of
If
.
is
he as it , is
,
in
as
,
we
is
by
,
It
tragedy may should noted fact that the imitation considered insofar acted the actors scenic and two ways either insofar you think made the poet writes terms the poet who may say that the principal end tragedy writes then imitate the nature ,
to
be
.
If
or
,
as
,
or
as
he
,
of
in
on
;
if
.
,
of
In
58 : “
:
this way
77
in
happiness
the writing and the imitation the poets some such order the you follow nature established character from which comes unhappiness But the action the stage the actor recites unhappiness.77 action from which comes happiness
or is .
following
of
as , a
as
he
to
unhappy
is
to
to
is
it
or
it
of
of
souls and the characters men through written words through which descrip possible unhappy you assume discern whether men are happy refer the actor acts then we may say that the greatest and most powerful end happy that very action result which men are judged tion
...
an
.
, Si ;
fit
à
ex
&
an ,
,
; in
,
ab
&
à
,
.,
.p
tragoediae imitationem duplici modo considerari Ibid Notandum verò poëta aut quatenus scenica est histrionibus agitur aut quatenus scribente quatenus tragoedia finem esse imitari scribente poëta intelligas dicimus primarium qua descriptione homines habitum animi mores hominum per orationem scriptam
...
,
In
, .
si
,
393
)
(
."
TAS
ex
,
.
.
, ex
&
ex
,
. Si
ac
, In
.
.
,
,
,
quatenus histrio agens eam refert sumas cerni possunt felices verò infelices sint potissimum finem esse ipsam actionem qua homines diiudicantur dicimus maximum scriptione aut felices aut infelices imitatione poëtarum talis ordo constituitur quibus FELICITAS aut INFELICITAS naturam sequaris MORES actione verò qua FELICITAS aut INFELICI scenica recitantium histrionum huiusmodi ACTIO
POETIC THEORY
,
,
,
in of of
to
to
the object two
in to it ,
be
(
of
six
)
poetry
,
of these ideas, one of Robortello's most puzzling statements poetics about becomes significant . In Poetics 1450a10 , Aristotle indicated parts plot character thought diction song and tragedy that the might spectacle distributed thus among the constitutive elements ,
the light
In
on is to
of
,
is
)
of ,
;
of
of
,
or
to
is
is
belonging
(
,
of a
,
be
.
:
the means and one the manner plot which imitation Robortello provides such distribution and the Aristotelian text must one the objects imitation becomes the one part belonging the manner imitation the manner dramatic plot hence the plot part what acted the action tragedy the three
.
all -
to
of
78 in
a
is
In
.
of
,
,
of of
of
.
—
or
of
to
the manner imitation He even goes demonstrate how part especially germane stage presentation spectacle that the means apparatus tragedy and contains sense the end the other parts within itself The second kind moral utility the lessons learned from the characters men comes specifically from the depiction character the distribution
be
as
no
,
;
to
.
as
to
,
, ,
of
as
to in
(
of
.
to
,
"
to
"
,
"
"
"
as
"
the heroes
of
of
”
,
of
He takes
distinction better worse and meaning superior better those who epic and gnomic poetry and the kings and
"
he
characters
our times
Aristotle's
does .
like
live
in "
"
)
must present wicked persons except when one means expose them ridicule These considerations lead him as to
,
chosen
comedy interpret
of
parts already mentioned Robortello assigns the object imitation parts thought the three character and diction The characters depicted serve moral examples mankind hence they must well
of
to
of
be
).
20 ,
.pp
( if
be or is
so
of
no
to
in
of
to
in
is
of
.
be
,
is
. “
in
it
;
all
,
.
in
as
"
to
in
”
.
tragedy
“
Like refers characters who resemble men our dialogues and epic poems own times and who appear Worse means may also mean those who are those who are morally base but low along station life Indeed the line the distinction tends become especially clear social rather than moral The process the case the tragic hero who must high station his fall from happiness unhappiness produce the desired effect 132–33 Just the case action moral utility can achieved unless the heroes
a
is
"
,
in
of
of
ff .
.
of
as
is
"
;
“
.
to
will accept readily only those persons Appropriateness interpreted the theory
the audience
57 : in “
78
who conform
type
“
to
,
to
type characteristics
in
,
,
all
.
in
;
is
it
of
is
action itself credible made credible the case character credibility problem perhaps basis must established The more com plicated than with action indeed four the requirements for character that Aristotle indicated 1454a15 become the hands credibility separate Robortello means Goodness becomes conformity
)
(
394
.
Ex
.
SEN
.
MORES
,
DICTIO
,
tres partes
.
;
tertia
,
, in
,
Ex
FABVLA
.
.
vna pars tantum
& .
.
ex
,
& cs ;
Ex
.
TENTIA
."
secunda
as .
,
ols .
,
.
&
,
ols ,
,
., .p
Ibid Probat verò alia quadam ratione esse sex per tres videlicet notas illas principio libri appositae fuerunt differentias quae declaratae Sunt autem hae quae instrumentum significat velut quoddam Per primam differentiam scilicet Per quae modum significat quo imitatio diuersitatem sumit secundam differentiam scilicet quae subiectam materiem significat qua versatur imitatio Per tertiam differentiam scilicet tragoediae prima differentia duae existunt partes APPARATVS MELODIA
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
decorum , according to which a complex
of
was assigned
to each person in accordance with the circumstances surrounding him . Here again , the audience holds these expectations with respect to the person and will find him credible when they are realized . “ Likeness " is taken to mean the observance, for traditional or historical persons, of the conception of character established for them . They must conform to the accepted opinion traits
held by the audience . “ Consistency ” refers especially to persons newly invented by the poet ; these must be constant throughout if the audience is to believe in them ( pp . 167–69 ) . This distinction between new and traditional characters is fundamental . We have already seen a similar distinction at work with respect to action : “ true " actions , as they should be or seemed to be ( note the traditional element ), fall into the category of the necessary ; " invented " actions into that of the probable or verisimilar . So for character
:
If, therefore , the persons are real and the actions in themselves and the out come of the deeds related are true , then the characters of the persons must be expressed by the poet according to the necessary , that is (as Averroës correctly explains it ) , according to truth . If the persons are fictitious , their characters will have to be expressed according to the verisimilar , that is ( as the same Averroës interprets it ) , according to the opinion of the majority.79
These various statements about action and character assume that both truth and verisimilitude are within the jurisdiction of the audience , that the individual character or action is submitted to the judgment of the spectator or the auditor . The assumption is made more specific in connec tion with Robortello's treatment of the passages on the epic . He says :
.
hearers
to
of
or
,
do
in
of
is
or
,
80
,
or
or
.
is fit
In epic poetry , just as in the others , this is the first thing that must be attended to : that the words used should have nothing about them that is incongruous or contradictory , but that they should in every respect agree among themselves and properly together For whenever either the period time which the action done the place the person the manner not congruous these things the the readers the mind not satisfy reason nor are they acceptable
in
is
of
vt Si à ab
79
——
-
is
a
as
passage Such this indicates that the really important consideration any poem relationship among words the rather than among characters and actions that the goodness the relationship determined essenti ,
,
.
,
)
res
&
se ,
ne
,
ab
.
in
in
,
,
In
: “
., .p
80
.”
.
(
.
)
,
,
&
: “ Si ;
( , vt
., .p
igitur personae verae sunt ipsis euentaque rerum quae Ibid 175 facta poëta secundum necessarium narrantur vera sunt debent tunc personarum mores exprimi aptè declarat Auerroës hoc est secundum veritatem nouae sint personae illarum mores exprimendi erunt secundum verisimile hoc est idem interpretatur Auerroës secundum plurimorum opinionem poësi Epica sicuti etiam primis videndum Ibid 286 aliis illud sermones habiti absonum aliquid habeant aut repugnans Sed omni parte consentiant inter
)
(
395
,
,
;
,
,
;
,
.'
,
;
quadrent Quotiescunque enim aut spatium temporis quo gesta fuit aut locus aut persona aut modus non constat non quadrant rationi neque cum legentium aut audientium mente conueniunt
POETIC
THEORY
in
all
ally by the reactions of the audience , and that the only internal criterion is one of a vague “ fittingness ” or “ congruity ” of the words the is .
poem
as ,
is
]”
( .pp
.
;
to of
to
an
)
by
or
an
is
;
of
in
of
)
an of it (
(
"
as
be
of
,
in
this sense that diction along with sententiae and character just becomes for Robortello one the objects imitation this assigned remarkable that plot should the manner The poetic faculty produces ethical discourse conficitque orationem moratam 291-92 and both character and thought sententiae contribute the production object rather this discourse this sense end
It
perhaps
a
,
,
of
,
in
,
of
a
, it
of ,
A
.
an
the persuasive
speeches will depend upon the credibility closely resemble true speeches made
by
of
,
they
As for action and character also
of
emotional qualities speeches
is
, of
198
).
.p
the emotions
(
.
As
a
in in
a
special form than means imitation diction the speech made object poem character even more clearly imitation for Robor produces special kind tello the cases action and character persuasion which effect upon the audience effect addition arouses
and these
:
of
"
or
,
of
;
or
of
,
of
,
,
In
.
"
"
"
.
;
real people Verisimilitude will bring about credibility utility which men derive from summary then the various kinds poetry come separately from various parts poems from plot the unhappiness springing from his actions spectacle man's happiness unhappiness springing from character the example man's happiness must
of
,
.
,
of
.
the
utility will result only is
in
,
,
the audience the truthfulness the poem and that depend upon the degree which the poem made probable
in
belief
will
cases
to
,
turn
of
a
from
the final expression
become
all
since the sententiae
In
,
entirely separate
lessons from both action and character
,
it ,
or
to
to
to
or
,
;
from his character from sententiae the statements which will persuade the spectator which will demonstrate truths dissuade him from action him and move him imitation revulsion These are not perhaps
the sense that specific
of
effects
pleasure will
treatment
a
subdivided into number distinguished providing
by
of
of
,
of
kinds but separate parts the poem will voluptas produced different aspects the
be
.
,
may expect that result from separate causes follow the same pattern Pleasure itself will not
as
analytical
be his
system
we is
Robortello's
Since
in
.
and verisimilar
,
or
of
2 )
(
);
militate against the achievement
of
3 )
; (
to
utility essentially
.
of
to
of
:
(
( 1) in it
be
.
of
by
in
the achievement pleasure
be be
.
”
be
“
poetry Moreover these parts providing utility special different from the will compli problem parts pleasure these The whole will cated several considerations must derived from subjects which tragedy are themselves not pleasurable the case the audience prefer inartistic will tend artistic pleasures the things done for
will usually subdivisions
be
,
an
byis
"
in
"
be
.
,
)
( as it is
) ;
396
,
of
poetry pleasure will truth itself lies outside the domain with the credible However credibility itself not enough readily subjects utility audience believed will some for (
Since
associated
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
but they will not as readily be “ liked . ” Hence there arises a distinction between genres such as comedy , where the subject matter itself is pleasur able , and tragedy , where it is not pleasurable ; men will naturally prefer the former to the latter . Hence , also , bad poets will make concessions to the mob in the form of such devices as the happy ending for tragedy ( p. 142 ) . The distinction between the pleasure of tragedy and the pleasure of comedy is found in the following passage :
...
the pleasure which is obtained from tragedy is that which imitation provides . has in delighting our souls may be sufficiently recognized from the fact that even horrible things , if they present themselves in
The power that this imitation
some imitative expression , attract us to them and bring us delight and pleasure . ... Such is therefore the pleasure that is derived from tragedy . Nor is that which comes from comedy unlike it , insofar as comedy contains imitation . The latter , therefore , pleases because it imitates in a joyous fashion the ridiculous actions of men ; the former because it imitates in an artistic fashion the sorrow , the
lamenta
tion , and the calamity of mortal men . Now if you should ask which is the greater pleasure of the two , I should dare to affirm that the one deriving from tragedy is much greater , for it pervades our souls more deeply and touches us in a more
unusual way , and that imitation is accomplished with somewhat greater effort . Therefore , to the extent that we know it to be more difficult to express that imi tation , to that extent - if it be successful - we regard it with greater admiration , and we obtain from it a greater pleasure .81
I
have cited this passage at length because
it contains an elaboration of what are , essentially , the three bases of pleasure for Robortello : imitation , the difficulté vaincue , and admiration . of these three bases , perhaps the most important is admiration , that feeling of wonder and amazement which comes from the spectacle of the unexpected , the extraordinary , the marvelous . If this is an essential ingre dient of pleasure , then a crucial question is raised : Is not the marvelous the exact contradictory
of the credible , and would not the pleasure arising possibility from it exclude the of utility ? Robortello works out the diffi culty in a way entirely consistent with the previous données of his system . The marvelous is indeed in conflict with the credible . Hence it must be kept to a minimum in those genres where credibility is most essential ( e.g., comedy ) and may attain a maximum in other genres , where , because they 81 Ibid ., p . 146: “ Sed respondeo ; voluptatem , quae capitur ex tragoedia , esse eam , quam animos , vel inde satis cognosci
parit imitatio . quantum verò habeat haec vim ad oblectandos
.
ex
,
.
ex
,
.
397
maioremģue capimus
voluptatem
."
;
;
fit
admiramur
(
vi
exacta fuerit
,
, si
tantò magis
,
si
.
,
;
,
,
posse scimus
tragoedia percipitur
imitationem continet Haec illa quòd artificiosè imitatur
quaeras vtra maior voluptas ausim calamitatemģue mortalium Quòd tragoedia prouenit maiorem multò altius enim peruadit animos rariusque maioregue quadam imitatio illa quantò igitur difficilius exprimi eam
luctum
affirmare quae nobis contingit
ex
,
moerorem
igitur voluptas quae
prouenit quatenus huic quòd festiuè imitatur ridiculas actiones hominum
)
,
Nec dissimilis igitur oblectat
aliqua expressa sese nobis obtulerint ; delecta
afferunt . . . . Talis quae comoedia
est ,
tionem , voluptatemque
est
potest . quòd etiam horribilia , si imitatione
POETIC
THEORY
).
45 ,
,
all
,
.pp
cf.
(
a
of
of
is
to
for the poet reconcile the credible with the marvelous and this specific devices does through the use number 328 121 lem
he
,
as
a
In
.
87 )
.p
cf.
are narrative rather than dramatic , credibility is of lesser importance . This genre tragedy the prob is especially true of the epic ( such
to
is
it .
of
all
to
in
,
In
virtually permitted the poet discard concern for exploit achieving the order the available means marvelous and the pleasure connected with the last analysis
credibility
,
of
of
,
of
;
,
to
of
,
The pleasures arising from imitation the difficulté vaincue and admira parts tion are largely attached the poem different from those which produce utility they come from episodes from recognition and reversal rather than from the principal action the plot from secondary characters .
to
by as
of
to
,
as
. It
do
of
"
in
,
"
,
,
rather than from the hero from elements diction independent the ethical speeches from gratuitous descriptions This does not mean that the parts merely means other essential the poem not give pleasure keeping analytical tendency that with his Robortello seeks often possible find separate causes for the pleasure and the utility derived
by
)
.
accompanied
moral betterment
by
one
The constant conclusion
any individual discussion
, in
of
.
be
upon the audience will pleasurable sensations
of
as a
to
(
a
if
of
.
Pleasure will contribute the achievement the ultimate utilitarian goal the work such subordination indeed exists only making the poem whole enjoyable the audience The total effect the audience
the preceding
a
in
of
,
a
is
It
as
move the audience
an
as
in
with the
purgation and
length
in
idea
at
Robortello develops man like ourselves
audience
of
experiencing the effects
“ a
those found ,
is ,
It
).
.pp
audience
an .
. It
rough and ignorant
moreover which will sympathize
his
capable
145-46
is
a
in
an
as the
“
"
-not
com
the
" :
,
be .
,
moral betterment mentary on 1453a5
an (
of
of
of
tragic hero and will
vulgus
separate way
ingredient
such cheap satisfactions
"
crowd men that demands tragedies the double ending up good men only made
is
not the
thus involved
"
the elite
,
of
of
audience
the poem
the audience
of
the parts
of
each
The character
of
of
of
a
to
.
of
" "
”
,
,
to
” “
,
,
“
,
persuasion
” “
as
with such terms moral betterment effect upon pleasurable point clearly the audience sensations should the essential character Robortello's system rhetorical system persuasion seeking specific effect which Robortello sees the poem upon specified audience and obtaining that effect through the potentiality pages
,
.
of
he
or
;
be
.
to
it all is of
,
,
is
Fear aroused indeed when we behold someone like ourselves who has fallen into misery Aristotle means like the auditors themselves almost good speaks only whom are judged else the good ones For to
to
he is
398
)
(
,
he
he
,
,
,
.
-
,
of
of
be
is
of
their souls that the rule for writing tragedy derived nor must any poet mindful the wicked but must adapt everything writes the good men Good men then when they see evil things happen nature some good man fear like themselves and that they since they understand that out
ever
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
are like him — lest a like thing at some time befall them , since they live in equiv alent circumstances . 82
to
,
by
-
all
,
is
of
,
is
is
:
of
,
to
we
a
do
is
its
by of of
all
Finally , we know that the audience is possessed of a large amount of knowledge and a large number of expectations, which contribute credibility what true what traditional canon the constitution probable and verisimilar opinion what these matter what consulting the are known only reference the audience and only ),
is
.
a
of
.
to
.pp
(
II
an
to
,
in
have already pointed out a
of I
.
know whether they have been achieved Chapter 66-68 the consequences poetical system this shift from almost completely rhetorical methodological order The reader system and the implications referred that discussion audience
ex
&
of
,
, of
so
“
,
in on ” a
iis
in
to
to
hold latter group especially would seem approach applied genres not treated scribendis Aristotelis declares that Libello arte Poetica principia sumpsit "
an :
,
of
.
containing the Explicationes The great promise Aristotelian fully by Aristotle for Robortello ipsius methodum seruauit
de
,
;
a
of
to
be ,
on
)
(
THE ROBORTELLO TREATISES 1548 that nothing Aristotle Robortello added— To his commentary lacking —a paraphrase belonging Horace's the poetic art might satire the epigram comedy short treatises Ars poetica and group separate part the volume humor and the elegy these were published
).
to
-
(
.
,
he is
of
,
that these materials
it
;
guarantee
they merely supplement
with
Satire
by ,
the pattern
.
,
the group establishes
so
of
all
,
The treatise De satyra first
in
.
of
a
of
,
no
of
,
in
.
is ,
Aristotle There course any way develop Aristotle's thesis will miscellany information in
found
in
to
.
lar
to
of
,
is
”
omnium suarum explicationum half title page the separate part not however fulfilled Robortello does indeed cite from the The promise translation the Poetics those passages which are pertinent the particu usually genre being treated But for the development the theory antiquity the materials not content seek elsewhere other writers
its
is
.
to
on
,
it
,
be a
.
in
a
in
;
,
,
,
,
of
,
poetry imitates human actions and other kinds does rhythm means diction and harmony Imitation not verse distin guishing feature for history Paraphras history verse would still ing Aristotle this way Robortello goes the distinction between
like
82
ff .) ,
28
in ,
,
(
$$
no Bk .
(
of
"
“
,
cites his subdivisions
Athenaeus Deipnosophistae XIV lyric and scenic poetry and finds satire
of
shifts
to
he to
he
the Poetics
),
in
,
.
,
actions which have happened and actions which might happen But when soon wishes treat the manner satire finding direct indication
the latter
.
, in
ex
;
,
: “
,
,
."
)
(
399
ne
,
,
,
,
.
ad
,
;
,
de .
., .p
Ibid 128 Metus verò concitatur cum intuemur aliquem nobis similem miseriam qui ferè omnes boni censendi esse lapsum Similem auditoribus ipsis intelligit Aristoteles sunt vel bonis tantum loquitur nam eorum animis norma sumitur scribendę tra goediae neque vllus debet poëta improbos vnquam respicere sed totam suam scriptionem accommodare bonorum naturam Viri igitur boni cum immerenti alicui viro bono aliquid mali vident accidisse metuunt quòd similem illum sibi segue illi esse intelligunt idem sibi aliquando accidat quia pari viuunt conditione
POETIC
THEORY
group . Various authorities are then cited on the antiquity of the form . Satyrs , fauns, and sileni are distinguished , again on the basis of many authorities . Robortello next attacks the problem of the personages of satire ; he finds information on satyrs in Julius Pollux and Dionysius of Halicarnassus
As for
the subject
of this
genre , Robortello returns pitiable , decides that satire , like to Aristotle the terrible and the comedy , must treat the ridiculous . The people at whom it pokes laughter ingratos prodigos periuros rapaces are ambitiosos auaros adulteros adulatores loquaces stolidos amatores ineptos irreligiosos parricidas qui huiusmodi sunt desides inertes parasitos the list resembles .
matter
,
,
30 );
,
,
,
,
.p
(
”
&
on
"
“
why Horace called
a
to
fundamental way
,
to
in
,
to
is
.
occasional
the sister genre
which
a
of
and
an
of
is
,
there
to
In
this
;
on
;
on or
and
occasional quotation the Poetics extend what Aristotle said about comedy apply satire But nowhere there any intention principles underlying genre the Aristotle's treatment attempt
,
-
as he
of
it ;
of
satirical blame
.
“
proper use
sermones
he
all
,
.
a
a
83
.”
by
of
on
gained
his satires
,
: "
,
be
be he
,
discussions
he
by ,
of
he
:
of be
be
to
of
comedy Next the qualifications must versatile skillful keen sharp witted eloquent good and honest for seeing that examines the possess way may vices others himself must such life not justly anybody long criticized There follows section maledicentia antiquity who have used badly and the poets well the good the satiric poet but must also
in
those traditionally cited
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
"
,
its
, excludes
had not
.
treated
The procedure Libro Poetica
:
.
is
ex
(“
,
, to (
so
an
of
,
,
,
,
,
,
a
is a
or
.
In of no
be
a
of
no
of
,
.
a
,
it
of
be
to
in
So
appropriate the genre which passage where the tragic epigram
400
)
(
."
vitia perspiciat
.
: "
qui cum optimè aliorum 30–31 quae nullo iurè reprehendi possit
to
:
treat serious matters that have about them much
,
,
),
(
Paraphrasis 1548 talem ineat vitae rationem
”
.
proper for tragedy
for
the epigram will
reflected indirectly to
the Poetics
part is
“
a
states that the matter
one that would
smaller
à
is
Robortello
.pp
83
It
the text
be
,
section
each case
would
of be
in
the second
So
. ”
of
“
“
"
or
.
of
of
any these forms The genres may further having divided into those imitation direct speech and those having imitation but only narration The first section ends with discussion Aristotle far word the epigram the origins and etymology is a
small part
,
.
a
,
in
)
or
”
;
as ) a .
,
“
epigram
.
avoided
the order given
(
to
followed
,
jects are then treated
or
writing them These sub For the first poetic genres are groups longer comedy epic dithyramb tragedy divided into two the forms and legum poesis divine poetry and the shorter forms satire epistle and sylva strange way may belong The epigram either epic comedy tragedy group for just the small part in be
what practices are
in ,
to
of
at
he " ),
ex
,
in
;
de
Aristotelis which follows the De epigrammate magna parte desumpta somewhat different Robortello announces the beginning that will treat three subjects poetry epigrams belong the kind which their subject matter and
ipse tamen
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
they happen
,
,
as
,
these same things
to a
produced
if
pity
is
;
murders
by
all
evoke pain , pity , and no little wonder , as Aristotle abundantly explains in the floggings wounds Poetics . Sorrow is produced by horrible things such man who does a
,
.
or
.
of
,
,
at
of
as
,
as
if
or
they come about between relatives not deserve them between mother and her son between brothers Events arousing admiration are those involving Mitys Argos falling down killed him accident such when the statue who had killed Mitys All these things are susceptible the most beautiful
on
descriptions.84
of to
.
in
;
“
)
”
(p .
37
for the purpose the epigram differ from
ridicula Nor does
it & .
at
materia conuitiosa
vice and condemning
)
(
,
anything except
“
comedy
it
will use laughing
a
,
Epigrams written deaths and funerals will belong this category For comedy also Robortello cites Aristotle 1449a31 the epigram related
is
of
,
words
to
of
the kinds
of
,
as
,
well
Robortello condemns
be as
. of In
to
.”
and acuteness
,
used while negatively
as
suauitas
"
"
venustas
, "
“
,
to
85
in
of
a
by
is
by in
als ;
in
treating the materi the form and the way dialogue the former shorter more diffuse and proceeds simple narration kind Similar comparisons are provided for epigrams related amatory verse and the epic the third style section the positive recommendations concern such elements the latter and proceeds
acrostics and Greek
the use
of
A
.
to
outwardly
to
seem
,
would
more nearly
of
all
comoedia
,
The treatise
be
.
De
,
to
,
to
,
in
or
,
,
.
in
Things the epigram should not become the servants the superfluity words and the poet should never indulge excess final read the ancient follow Robortello's method sentence urges the poet practise writing poets and words
it is
or is to in
in
,
.
of
,
or
“
”
than the others for almost the materials which paraphrases made are direct quotations the Poetics But with few exceptions they are passages from that text dealing with tragedy which Aristotelian
”
.
be as
to
,
a
of
on
.
of it , of its
"
”
“
comedy tragedy has been substituted for the word equally applicable which the passage has been taken over unchanged made The treatise course had both genres Some adjustments most interesting for the light throws Robortello's conception the word
.
of
its
,
“
in
it ;
those this
it
:
;
res
and
se
,
its
,
in
it
imitates
.
in
,
serias quae multum sicuti copiosè explicat Arist ;
,
,
,
à
)
401
forma
at et
,
;
."
vt
,
,
."
(
praeterquàm
Hoc autem breuius
differt comoedia per collocutionem
ac
in
neque vlla epigramma Ibid ratione tractandarum rerum Illa enim fusius que simplici quadam narratione ,
,
si
,
;
re ;
.
,
37 : "
,
., .p ,
85
&
, si
.
,
vulnera caedes Commiserationem vtpotè inter inter consanguineos Argis statua Mityi collapsa matrem filium vel inter fratres Admirabilia sunt fortuita eum peremit qui Mityum peremerat Recipiunt enim haec omnia pulcherrimas descriptiones in
Poët Dolorem afferunt omnia atrocia verbera afferunt eadem ipsa viro immerenti accidant aut
,
of
,
est
tractare habeant neque parum admirationis vt
36 : "
Tragoediae quidem proprium
commiserationis
,
,
.p
Ibid
doloris
& .,
84
actions
a
.
the subject matter which treats for men which are more lowly and more common
from the others
in
,
its
to
of
,
by
of
interpretations dramatic genre and for some the text Aristotle reporting from the Poetics Robortello begins brief form the funda poetry mental distinctions with respect the end three means objects and manners For the objects first difference comedy differs
POETIC
THEORY
from tragedy , which imitates those which are more excellent . ”' 86 From Aristotle come also the developments on the natural origins of comedy , history and improvement supplemented however Plutarch
of of
and Donatus
discussion
by
,
,
the distinctions between Old and New Comedy
For
.
on
,
its
differs
the
the qualitative parts
or
,
as
in
is
it
(
,
.
;
ne
iis
,
;
,
in
,
in
vt
,
)
; &
apparatus
si
non adhibeatur Melodia quia obtinuit tanquàm vsus res scena vrbe aut oppido aliquo geri erò ultò videatur Ergo necessariae sunt hae partes Melodia Apparatus magis necessariae aliae quia sine scribi quidem potest comoedia Nam ,
Non potest recitari comoedia vlla
ita
:
to
"
“
of
(
),
ff .
a
In
.
in
,
Robortello again merely adapts the tragedy treatment the Poetics such passage the following for paraphrasing Poetics 1449631 only the substitution example the addition the word any way comoedia which makes the text especially pertinent comedy
, .
,
;
est
.
.
,
"
.
,
;
.
.
,
Dialecticorum Verùm quia necesse animi sensa exprimi per quae est Sententia Sed quia ideò necesse alteram addere partem sententia verbis constat ideò necessariò additur etiam alia quae est DICTIO orationem
;
Physiologorum
&
;
;
&
;
.
,
comoediam
,
est
prius necesse excogitare rem quae scribenda est Ea oportet quia imitatur esse moratam continetur fabula sed rursus fabulam exprimere exactè diuersorum hominum mores ideò necessaria altera pars MORES nam non omnis oratio Morata qualis est Mathematicorum Medicorum scripturo
by
an
).
.
(
pp 44-45
of
on
of
on a
is
Donatus the authority comedy into five acts
on on
of
.
to
,
"
”
“
"
"
the quantitative parts
and
the
.
division
De of
.
theater
as his
in ,
a
of
"
,
"
,
"
the
is
of
occupied orderly discussion the treatise rules and conditions the qualitative parts discussion which commentary leans heavily upon Robortello's own interpretations the Poetics but which also appeals later sources such Horace For the parts sententia and dictio most the materials are drawn from Aristides and for apparatus from whole series Latin writers the The central section
of
of
a
a
to
,
of
,
of
a
.
be
in a
is
The comoedia sense the most disappointing the supple mentary treatises We would curious discover how theorist 1548 theory comedy but we find instead merely would have constructed transfer familiar ideas and passages with only the most passing and the .
no
it
,
is
its
, its
As
.
;
to
De
to
of of
comedy most perfunctory adaptations the special conditions Aristotle's Rhetoric and Cicero provide the majority the materials for particular the short treatise salibus title suggests has any poetic genre indeed rhetorical rather than interest reference
at
,
of
at
is ,
:
)
402
;
,
à
&
;
,
imitatur
(
,
of
at a
, ab
aliis materie rerum subiectarum quas tractat tragoedia quae viliores ideò differt
&
,
differt etiam comoedia actiones hominum humiliores
."
., .p
praestantiores
41 : “
;
86
Ibid nam imitatur
us
to
it
be
to
,
: “
in
as
, ,
poetic Robortello indicates his first sentence Of the rhetorical faculty which has many and ample parts seems that hardly any thing remains explained except these two matters first what aims delighting and lightening the souls wit and clever the listeners that sayings then those things that aim the embel form discourse and
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
lishment of speech .” 87 The treatment is thus exclusively rhetorical , except for such kinds of wit as may be used in certain poetic types , and the whole document is unrelated to the fortunes of the Poetics in the Renaissance . Indeed , the work seems to be a fragment of a larger treatise on rhetoric . In the last of the short treatises , De elegia , the Poetics appears again only in a most incidental way ; since Aristotle had not treated the elegy specific ally , Robortello was obliged to turn to other sources . Unable to adapt Aristotle's theory to this genre , he took refuge in a conventional treatment of the “origo , finis , materies, artificium " of the elegy . For each topic , he solutions in a variety of ancient authors ( Athenaeus, Proclus , , Cicero Horace are prominent among them ) . He sees the elegy as a poem which may treat almost any subject matter and whose kind and category vary with variations in subject matter . A funeral elegy belongs to auletic sought
laws belongs to the “ poesis legum " ; others philosophy are of doubtful classification . In a which treat of elegies are related general way , imitation the epic since their containing dialogue They mixed both narration and are neither too high nor too low variety style use devices create effect which poetry ; one which describes
is
”
in
an
,
of
by a
an
to
is
"
as
"
de
ad
in
).
.p
of
,
a
in
:
the
the treatment
of
latter connection
,
In
).
by
the
to
be
to
.
to
others refer
still others
),
,
,
(
,
(
of
haphazard Several
1449a23
),
1459b31
tragedy and comedy 1449a2 -19 character 1453a17 1451b1l 1454a16
of
history
The choices seem
metrics
,
statements
the texts concern matters
(
corroborates
of .
his
it
in
of or
so
,
(
,
IV ,
,
in
it is
—
his of
of
.
of
accompanied antiquity air We may conclude our discussion the addenda Robortello's Explica actually supplementary tiones 1548 the first item the volume Paraphrasis with librum Horatii qui vulgo arte poetica Pisones paraphrase inscribitur see above Chapter 118 Just the little more than that the uses Aristotle's Poetics are the traditional period ones for the Robortello cites the Poetics about dozen passages says the same things that Horace had said each case showing how is
the pathetic
,
in
.
"
“
,
“
to
all
war , mores ,
).
(
(
),
1460a18
of
In
ex
lies and paralogism
;
is
88
as
of
it ,
of
.
is
,
is
of
).
as
,
of
In
“
of
to
is a
" (
machina 1454a37 none this there equiva Aristotle except insofar the allegation reading lence kind the text one passage the Paraphrasis interpret the Poetics saying the opposite Robortello seems what says insisting that meter necessary for poetry but this consonant with deus
of
the interdict the any interpretation
the uses
of
),
1460a5
(
narrative form on
epic
is a
:
is
”
“
Horace's sibi constet the dualov Aristotle 1454a25 Some random distinctions are borrowed from the Poetics the fact that explained
ad
,
,
."
.
,
ea
& .
;
et
,
:
&
vt ,
., .p 6 : "
88
ad
,
&
,
,
51 : "
., .p
87
amplas partes habet nihil iam Ibid Ex Rhetorica facultate quae multas quae ferè nobis videtur reliquum quod explicemus praeter duo haec Primum oblec tandos releuandos animos auditorum spectat Sales scilicet acutè dicta Deinde quae locutionis genus ornamentum sermonis spectant Ibid enim poëma aliquod dicatur non tantum imitationc opus est sed etiam
.”
&
;
)
403
.
in
,
(
sit
,
ne
;
ipsum metro non quidem quòd metrum absque imitatione poëtam vllum efficiat Sed requiritur tamen nimium soluta oratio sicut etiam Poët innuere videtur Aristoteles
THEORY
of
poetry
.p
).90
that the best kind
1549
)
(
THE SEGNI TRANSLATION
cf.
(
of
,
in
theory expressed the Explicationes composite imitation and verse ,
is a his
POETIC
et
,
, in
in
,
have based his Italian translation
any case
it is 6v , in ,
seems
Latin translation rather than on the Greek
In
since
the text itself Robortello's the latter was probably more consider to
to
,
debt he
of
.
His
.
on
admitted
Robortello's
Pazzi's work
the text
,
he
text and commentary
on
in
.
the understanding able than
to
-
a
in
of
of
publishing Bernardo Segni had the distinction 1549 the first trans lation poetica the Poetics modern vernacular his Rettorica d'Aristotile He paid tribute his introduction the recent advances
, .p
of
;
,
,
is p . a
,
no
correct errors he
.
within the limitations the available supply lacunae and hence or to
it in to is
accurate
He made effort the really garbled spots
texts
cf.
(
,
20 ).
and
no
clear and readable
,
.p
,
in
,
in
Pazzi was not his source because passages present Pazzi and lacking Segni's version Segni Robortello are also lacking 278 Pazzi good one Robortello On the whole Segni's translation
of
at
the text makes better sense than had his But for the unlettered public his day his contribution must have been most welcome giving them for the first time the opportunity read the Poetics Italian The volume was reprinted Venice 1551 and again the series the Autori del ben parlare 1643 Besides the translation Segni provided brief explanatory introduction
is
But
Segni finds the two
using language
which
“
.
that they achieve their ends
the volume
.
part
by
alike
in
faculties
,
of
of
the larger
nothing Aristotelian about the comparison ”
“
is
because Aristotle's Rhetoric occupies
The introduction rhetoric probably
.
of
a
and set commentaries the individual chapters poetry and concerned with comparing the arts there
in
at
.
in
a
,
of
on
,
, in
of
.
in
,
to
.
predecessors
of
means greater use
proof
of
of
as
-
,
to
,
and demonstration
89
example and amplification although poetry tends make
enthymeme
,
-
arguments
. ”
of
,
,
has spoken discourse and character and the other desirable features rendering the diction beautiful capable Both use the same kinds
the
as
;
on
“
to ",
to
“
"
”
).
( .p
"
”
,
.
of
treating any subject although poetry Both are capable imitates more worthy persons and more celebrated actions than does oratory 273 The ends are the same for both they are the traditional delight them to move men's minds and otherwise stated to example
,
in
“
to
us
, is
its
of
,
;
."
to to
,
”
a
,
.
"
"
profit and give pleasure Segni attempts evaluate the two arts definitely give pleasure poetry because beauty their capacity superior here This beauty results from imitation represented action from special diction and figurative speech from meter and verse
)
(
404
,
in
of
its
&
to all
costume
;
,
discorso
&
it is
,
As
che habbia
. "
: “
), .p
1549 272 locutione
(
poetica
far bella
la
et
Rettorica uenienze atte
à
89
.
is
,
in
from great and delightful materials from universality virtue and vice goodness and from the general fact that the art divine and derives judge from nature rather than from art for utility difficult the l'altre
con
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
be
to
),
.p
brief paraphrases
first
“
all of ,
that those who are less learned may understand 280
to
of
in
.
is
in it .
” 90
no
"
,
,
(
.p
it "
if
,
.
the text
in
He will then expound difficult points found here seems again come largely from Robortello who declares Segni has such wise made this work obscurity now remains clear that But Segni's total theory poetry less complete and less systematic than Robortello's He frequently not Such interpretation
as is ) .
some part
so
to
In
.
(
”
“
to
its
comparative effectiveness of poetry and of rhetoric since , in modern times, we do not see either of them in public performance. Poetry is even less frequently performed than oratory , which may be heard in the pulpit . capacity bring Hence the effectiveness of purgation , our minds tranquillity and freedom from every perturbation 275 cannot properly measured the commentaries on the individual chapters Segni proposes give
to
to
,
he is
citing Horace and not averse theories expounded thus Boccaccio's
illustrate the
(
works
in
seeks explanations and parallels
Italian
.
of It
] ).
.p
an [
is
of
to
of
-
of
examples
in
of
as
poems written prose 281 His twenty improvement chapters division the Poetics into two sizable over the unbroken texts Pazzi and Robortello's 270 fragments are given
stories
is to
a
of
go
because
Following the text chapter
separate interpretations which are number originality their because they counter the
or
of
,
interest
the Poetics
.
scheme
of
the general
mines
chapter Segni presents
of by
of
of
he
he
a
,
,
he
.
a
get the reader much clearer idea the general order Aristotle's text As for that order Segni believes that when Aristotle declares that will things give treat first first means that will definitions the individual poetry and that this deter general definition genres before attempting enables
to
I,
he
,
he
on
.
to
.
as a
to
of
”
“
,
of
of
(
of of
,
in
He states
of
give
a
to
.
tradition
).
possible
it
connection with chapter that not poetry for the same reasons that universal definition defining the state referring Aristotle adduced for the impossibility the question meaning Xóyois yiaois Politics On the moot the offers prose the correct reading whereas many Renaissance commentators possibility prose refused admit the medium for poetry Yet adopts Robortello's conclusion that the best poetry joins verse imitation accepted
as
of
of
purga
:
moral and
a
.
The effect psychological one
we
of
,
be a
to
is
said
the natural sources
we
(
tion
)
chapter
V
who insisted that meter was one
he
II,
on
,
he
he .
,
of
in
,
to
Still relative the same chapter makes significant remarks the ways chapter distinguishes which painting may imitate mores When poetry again lists them correctly the two natural sources imitation and the pleasure derived from imitation unlike many his contemporaries
405
)
(
."
resti
in
of
.
che nessuna oscurità più
ci
,
,
to
to
or
tal ’
sorte
,
to
;
ha
fatto aperta questa opera
or
we
280
: “ di
Ibid
., .p
90
if
support When see similar cases which have happened excellent people our own calamities more easily rather we learn how bear them And this way intemperate we come purge our souls are wrathful such
POETIC
THEORY
passions , considering those perils and those evils which befall him who is wrapped up in vice and him who is involved in the passions ; from which consideration it is inevitable that very great pleasure results.91
as to
is
,
,
,
,
,
be
It
.
,
to
the
As he passes on to the qualitative parts of tragedy, he adopts for them Robortello's division , assigning " apparatus ” and “ music ” to instru mental parts plot the material and language thought and character the final will noted however that whereas the division the same
,
.
to
fit
is
of
,
,
,
,
Robortello's the categories are different instrumental replacing means replacing manner and final replacing object By the same token the division Aristotle altered another Aristotelian form of material
.
in
,
on
his
,
.
,
,
to
his
In
of
,
but not the one being employed
at
this point the Poetics commentary those sections which relate Aristotle's specific Segni leans more heavily than elsewhere remarks about the tragic form upon parallels from Horace and upon traditional materials inherited from commentary the Middle Ages Thus for example Poetics 145361 analysis
,
"
191 ). ex
in
his
,
,
he
(
1.
“
on
“
of
a
),
(
”
1.
,
ÉK
Tñs õnews includes citation Horace's Nec pueros coram populo Medea trucidet 185 and Aristotle's remarks the deus machina bring forth the obvious quotation from the Ars poetica Similarly when discusses the tragic hero Segni distinguishes him conventional ”
of
;
of
large
.
a
it
public
in his
be
to
it
as
of
as
,
.
the text than did the glosses was written because well
must have shed considerable light upon the Poetics for
Italian
reading
,
;
di
”
“
,
more directly with the meaning contemporaries For this reason
of
“
"
,
).
1550
)
(
LOMBARDI AND MAGGI
of
( its .p
be
“
as a
,
principe excellent and great for fashion beni fortuna tragic heroes would thus privati separated from the other genres 308 On the whole however such references are rare and because brevity and conciseness Segni's commentary seems dealing much
the great published commentaries was that
a
an
.
of
asterisk
is a
The text and translation to
."
Annotatio
but where the commentators wish
emend
and when they
before the doubtful passage
,
;
Pazzi
"
)
an
the text they place
of
and then the usual those
of
de
,
at
of
,
in
is
"
(
"
Explanatio
are essentially
91
As
in ) .
is its
, in
,
(
,
In
of
Bartolomeo poetica communes Lombardi and Vincenzo Maggi Aristotelis librum explanationes work has already been pointed out this was 1550 early date and long elaboration Lombardi ceased which the role for which final form Maggi was undoubtedly largely responsible The text and trans special arrangement the sense that after each section paragraph entitled divided into 157 sections there lation the Poetics The second
."
è
;
se
in
.
à
&
,
di
'
Et
,
in
à
'
ne ne '
406 )
è
(
è
,
à
à
; ò
, le ò : "
,
,
:
&
., .p
persone eccellenti più ageuolmente ueggendo noi simili casi auuenuti Ibid 294 sopportarle noi tal modo comportiamo uero impariamo calamità nostru purgar l'animo tali affetti considerando quei intemperati uenghiamo siamo iracundi uitij rinuolto fitto nelle pertur quei mali che incontrano chi pericoli chi risulti piacer grandissimo forza che bationi dalla qual considerationc
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
wish to propose an alteration of the translation they inark both text and translation with a dagger . The same symbols are then used in the annotations to explain the changes that they propose . The “ Explanationes " are given as the work of Lombardi and Maggi ; they contain first a kind of paraphrase text , then a first commentary of a textual
”
In
“
,
prepared Annotationes both explanations and
.
of of
;
translation bulk large for commentary provided problems involved
in
thorough
a
.
,
the Poetics
poetry
of
on
of
very extended treatment
and literary
Moreover since Maggi had the other works currently consulted the art
of
the interpretation
knowledge
is
,
there
is a
Nevertheless
,
,
,
of
.
a
in
,
by
character . This commentary is continued in Maggi usually much expanded form linguistic matters and questions annotations many sections indeed this the only kind
all
the preceding
the
of
of
completely consistent theory
poetry
-
we
-d
of
art ,
,
a
annotations but his own
not
his
.
,
in
find Aristotle's
his
he ,
,
Horace Plato Aristotle's Rhetoric the other Greek and Roman rhetoricians —and since himself had some well eveloped conceptions the
.
an :
.
,
13 ).
.p
”
,
in
actiones
,
est
reddere
the same
“
in
'
,
delightful discourse Poesis
("
"
,
is a
: “
(
"
by
to
is ,
of
poetry itself imitating human actions render the soul refined Finis autem ipsius humanas imitando suaui sermone animum excultum utilitarian end moral one variously described end
of
is
be ,
as
,
)
of
“
in
, a
of
of
conception The cornerstone this theory needs must the poetry end dual end borrowed from Horace teaching and pleasure Prolegomena important section for The earliest statements the emphasize Maggi's discovery The the utilitarian end Thus views the
The
Prolego "
to
”
,
-
animi perturbationibus expurgari
,
.) .
”
"
(
of
,
.
In
,
;
" )
of
, (
men for comedy
to
great
of
" );
of
“
praise the animis auferendo for the epic praeclara illustrium uirorum gesta uersibus exor nando make fun the vices uitia irridendo ibid the course the commentary these ideas are considerably expanded and clarified The restatements bring with them the use terms long and
deeds
perturbationes
to . .)
,
ab
illa
“
(
passions
ex
the soul
its
of
is
"
ut
nos
“
(
to
("
)
" :
to
poetry attempts mena embellish the human soul with the best possible optimis moribus sibi expoliendum proponit and moral dispositions produce proper moral action ibid The bonos mores inducant variously stated for the various genres moral end purge for tragedy
be ,
“
),
( .p
:
in he
407
action are useful
to
and those examples
,
@
to
neither
all
is
it
to
he
if
as
say that
terror And the poets attempt above of
humankind
says oŬTE ydp qidáv pwtrov
were
.
bring pity
is
Thus when Aristotle
έστι
)
.
...
(
bring profit
to
profitable nor does
φοβερόν
,
ούτε
or it
ελεεινόν
means that which expresses good character and which leads
society
,
ούτε
in
proper living
connection with Aristotle's TÒ Qiávopatrov
it
pwtrov
@
is
qilav
"
defined
,
to
By
desse
of
in
is
”
to
.
“
with other critical traditions Horace's Aut prodesse uolunt quoted aut delectare poetae connection with the pleasure derived from recognition and reversal pro 111 and the meaning associated
the society
POETIC
THEORY
of men in which the worst men fall from happiness into unhappiness , since through for
these the human race is taught and abstains from wicked deeds . 92
,
is
,
is
in
,
all
,
of
,
:
be
.
In
its
discussing operation Maggi the genre issue that was beginning much debated whether to
an
takes sides
as
by
.
utility produced on
kind
in
is ,
to
of
ful
Having established the end of moral utility poetry Maggi care tragedy seek the various parts the particular ways which Purgation that end achieved we have already seen the particular
through purgation
,
so by
:
if
be
.
,
,
it
or ,
souls
,
actually removes pity and fear from men's through their intermediation other less whether removes desirable passions Maggi argues for the latter interpretation holding that pity and fear were expelled from their souls men would worse off tragedy
to
,
;
of
,
to
I
of
to
,
,
,
is
.
...
through which removal the soul driven out for example
For once wrath
,
at a
94
;
of
. "
;
,
of
utility
Good
"
pedagogic
. “
a
has
in
he
." 95
so
to
be
,
of
might admonish character that especially attentive their expression
goodness
to
to
accorded the first place the poets most strongly 92
of
to
"
we
in
of
improvement tragedy will lead the personages character judge that spectators this section Aristotle For this reason :
its
of
is a
,
,
Maggi concludes that the first goodness character in
he
;
of
to
is
in
,
at
the
“
tragedy
.
position concludes later purge the human soul disorders peace and essentially better The once these are expelled men emerge purgation plot other kinds moral utility contained function derive from the handling mores Of the four requisites character ,
support
of in
Maggi cites the Politics purpose
point that
of
.
kindness
;
,
other disorders from the soul
adorned with the virtues 93 place takes its
comes
be
to
the removal
his
of
of
to
no
.
be
,
of
;
of
of
of
an
,
is
, it
is of
much better through which
of
pity and terror purge the the intervention many violent deaths come about avarice infinity which the cause almost ills lust thanks which the most harmful wicked deeds must frequently suffered For these reasons have doubt whatever that Aristotle was unwilling make the purgation terror tragedy but rather and pity from the human soul the end use these for Therefore soul wrath
, ,
pw
,
,
si
ac
,
,
quoniam
;
miseriam labuntur
."
in
ex
à
98 : "
,
&
, in
quibus pessimi uiri humanae societati exempla felicitate genus humanum sceleribus abstinet longè igitur melius est misericordiae
his instruitur Ibid 93
,
,
: “
,
in
.
at
,
. . . .
ad
(
), .p
Explanationes 1550 153 Per qindvopwtrov intelliget idem quod moratum quodque societatem humanam conducit Aristoteles igitur cùm dicit oŰte yap pináv trov OÛTE EEIVÓV OŰTE poßepov loti idem est diceret nec prodest nec misericordiam primis humano generi poetae prodesse student Prosunt autem timoremúe habet
:
,
,
,
.
;
ab
ad
uti
his
;
est
., .p . ., : .p
...
"
94
95
mansuetudo
ex ,
à
.
,
:
,
neces fiunt gratia nefandissima
est
&
ab
tot
Ira qua
,
à
. , ab , .p
terroris interuentu expurgare Auaritia quae infinitorum penè malorum causa Luxuria cuius scelera saepissime patrantur His itaque rationibus haudquaquam dubito Aristotelem nolle Tragoediae finem esse animam humanam terrore misericordiaúe expurgare sed alias perturbationes animo remouendas quarum remotione animus uirtutibus exornatur nam ira uerbi gratia depulsa succedit animum
à
de
ut
408
)
(
."
,
: "
in
."
ac
,
. . .
: "
perturbationibus 110 Officium uerò Tragoediae humanum animum seipsis meliores homines euadunt quibus extrusis tranquilli parte primum locum bonis Ibid 170 hac ratione arbitramur Aristotelem hac poetas potissimùm admoneret moribus concessisse illis exprimendis magis esse sollicitos oportere Ibid expurgare
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
a
in
(“
as
),
of
on
.p
.p a
in
cf.
Goodness consists in the highest possible degree of manifestation of the way that the painters virtues ( 175 the procedure such tragedy may serve debent exemplar models for the audience actors
of
in
of
to
,
exact
the term
an
”
moral action according accepted to
“
good
an
assign
by
to
it
,
,
of
as “
or
it
”
“
;
In
.
“
to
a
,
disposition
the
action itself judged
form
difficult
seems clear that Maggi means
”
character
these passages
but
is
rather than the
all ”
);
qiráv pwtrov meaning mores Aristotle
&
,
"
",
.p
(
"
,
to
“
) is
to
,
a
In
(
).
",
tragedy which facere 175 similar way that particular kind imitating and expres Aristotle calls ňoikń 1456al taken mean one sing good mores and those which contribute proper living human exprimensgue society humanae societati conferentes bonos imitans Maggi derives the interpretation from the earlier 195 mores
,
to
is
I
,
is
an
is
by.
,
,
clear statement comes near the end
the commentary
is
of
.
of
to
be
it
be
...
,
of
of
he
,
be
in
to
of
say that the function But these words Aristotle seems the poet give pleasure and that this should poetry Yet since considered the end tragedy purges the disorder the definition had said that the soul pity purgation means and terror and not pleasure must considered
be by in to
:
.
this effect Such Poetics 146263
in
,
the moral utility although there are few specific statements a
achievement
to to
of
"
"
of
respect
that the
by
set
Maggi with distinctions and developments offered the other end pleasure The assumption throughout believe voluptas afforded poetry intermediate end the
similar to
A
.
ethical code
. 96
,
in a
to
.
as
by to
is
of
,
in
as
.
many ends regarded the end such matters there may which one greater than another We thus concede that the poets have their end produce pleasure bring profit but that they wish more important way
to its
adorning men with the virtues
as
:
.
is
is
on
is
,
be a
.
of
a
of
poetic work which give pleasure The elements audience are mostly tragedy should the plot and the diction Hence the necessity that the plot known plot based the argument that what known gives greater explaining Poetics 1457b19 pleasure than what unknown Maggi
the imitation
that action
.
of
is
learn and reason that this
...
thus
he
,
so
,
to
a
to
of
thing gives greater pleasure Just the image one who knows the thing previously than one who does not since one who knows the thing learns and reasons one who knows previously that action which the poet imitates will who knows
(
is
of
a
an
for
...
it .
]
of
it,
he
is
of
greater pleasure than the action which the plot imitation experiences incapable deducing the identifica who does not know since the latter tion the action from those plots which give the greatest pleasure
,
:
...
rei
.
&
.
,
.
in
,
in
,
: “
., .p
96
Ibid 299 his enim uerbis Aristoteles dicere uidetur poetae munus esse uolup Tragoediae definitione dicatur tatem afferre eamque poeticae finem statuere uerum cùm quòd interuentu misericordiae igitur huius terroris animum perturbationibus expurgat modi expurgatio finis non autem uoluptas statuenda erit eiusdem multi possunt esse
409
]
[
,
."
.
;
fines quorum alter altero magis intenditur concedimus enim poetas scopum habere uolup uelle tatem inducere magis tamen uirtutibus exornando prode
POETIC
THEORY
( other things being equal ) are to be preferred to others which are less enjoyable.97
Maggi himself recognizes
the contradiction that exists between this state
ment ( pleasure from knowledge ) and the earlier statement and reversal, as parts of plot , produced pleasure out
that recognition the unknown
of
( pleasure from ignorance ). In this latter connection , he is led to examine the whole question of the derivation of pleasure from the essentially painful events of tragedy . Rejecting the explanation of Alexander of Aphrodisias
its
that we rejoice at seeing ourselves exempt from the sufferings of others — he proposes rather that the “ pleasure ” of tragedy results from the fact that it is natural and human for men to feel pity : normal state
ſat
we
We feel sorrow by reason of the heart , which contracts beyond
it is
...
be a
be
;
to
.
be
.
...
]
do
in
to ,
,
it
to
it
is
at
of
piteous events but the spectacle fact the same time feel joy because human and natural have pity Since therefore human and pleasurable and most delightful natural for men feel pity will also pleasure For pleasure and pain concern different objects pain sure will to
is
is a
of
is a
it
it
;
is
,
to
the heart since movement contrary nature precisely towards that which constrictive whereas pleasure movement the soul towards that which and born with it.98 natural for
of
to
37 ),
against such attackers
as
art
poetry Assuming from the start that .
of
an
as in
”
aspects
.p
(
,
of
is a
”
“
of
in
, "
cf. “
(
).
.p
13
of
of
to
of
an
,
as a
of
by
cf.
defence the Plato Maggi asserts that the cultivation voluptas fault certain poets specifically not the art whole and that Aristotle answers the objec pleasure tragedy intermediary assigning tion the role the Prolegomena purgation and hence achievement moral utility is a
the Poetics
voluptuous
of
.
the
“
of
tion
,
as
,
of
,
of
of
The pleasure associated with tragedy will thus come from certain kinds plots from certain parts plot such recognition and reversal and from the emotion the spectator involved his sympathy for the fate the Maggi takes this last kind personages Plato's condemna answer
(“
.
of
a
it .
of
of
As
,
).
of
as
it is
149
rei
97
fact
,
of
be
considered
matter
.p
From the episodes which are plot ornaments the rather than parts desirability because the such ornamentation that
relaxandos animos audientium
to ”,
to ad
,
of
,
,
well from other features the poetic work From provides possibility the chorus which the relaxation cantus choricos as
Pleasure may come
,
ita
,
,
. . . .
,
,
.
, &
:
,
,
ea
,
de ,
,
:
is ,
is ,
...
&
: "
., .p
magis eum delectat qui rem prius nouit quàm qui non Ibid 134 sicut imago quoniam qui rem nouit addiscit quoque qui prius eam actionem ratiocinatur ratiocinabitur hanc actionis illius imitationem existere nouit quam imitatur poeta discet utique qui actionem nouit cuius fabula imitatio est maiori uoluptate afficietur quàm qui eam ignorat quoniam ratiocinari non potest nam fabulac quae magis nouit
sit , ac
est
est :
ad
.
rei
,
ac
. . . .
,
. . . ac .
,
:
,
,
)
: "
.pp
., (
98
à ".
caeteris paribus aliis minus gratis sunt praeferendae specie 112-13 Dolemus itaque ratione cordis quod miserabilis uisae ultra naturam suam constringitur laetamur uerò quoniam humanum naturale atque hominibus naturale uoluptuosum miserere Cum igitur misereri humanum periucundum Voluptas itaque etiam erit dolor diuersa respicient nempe dolor delectant Ibid
)
410
(
,
id
.”
ei
ad id ,
,
;
gratia cordis erit quoniam motus praeter naturam est scilicet quod angustum uoluptas uerò erit animae motus quod naturale connatumque est
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
the poet —as compared with the historian
a relatively meager
- chooses
plot , which he then proceeds to magnify and adorn with episodes
.
Since it is the poet's aim to amplify the action and to strengthen it with every ornament , he will adorn the subject most wonderfully with digressions , and he will separate and rejoin one thing with another in such a way that the action , through the episodes, will appear more beautiful and clear . For it is not the poet's end to express the action in an arid and meager way , but to place it before our eyes in an ornate and elegant fashion.99
The total conception of the plot
-
brief in tragedy so as to avoid satiety parit , ” p . 257 ) , extensive and varied in epic for the pleasures
( "satietatem
to
in
by
to
be
)
[
is
be
,
as a
provided minor cause pleasure will poetry One the principal differences between
of
the diction
.
,
means
of
but
the language
no
,
by
."
separately
Finally
It
“
100
:
—
of or
all
of magnificence ( “ ad oblectandum varietate accommodatur ,” ibid .) — is itself determined by this end of pleasure . Furthermore , in different genres persons the plot will end differently - happily or unhappily , similarly for diversely for the wicked and the good order create different kinds voluptates which come pleasure necessary that the pleasures from tragedy and from comedy should different and appropriate each
of
(“
).
.p
is
of
”
,
,
in
of
,
poetry and rhetoric aside from the fact that the latter persuades while the poeti poetic diction former imitates resides the superior ornateness cam elocutionem esse pluribus illustratam ornatibus 237 One the Maggi's insistence that main consequences this demand for ornament
of
to
is
,
.
Of these
“
"
74 ),
.p
of
"
,
&
(
of
of ex
by 57 )
(
.p
,
not imitate
.
in
)
(
3
and who are called the first are the only real poets Maggi reinforces his theory declaring that meter one poetry with the assertion that the natural causes cùm ... Poetica imitatione carmine constet and that the phrase suauem ;
those who poets merely because they write verse
do
and who are also poets
,
;
( 2 )
,
: ( 1 )
a
to
is .
.
of
,
of
is
verse essential for poetry Since this runs counter certain clear affirma obliged develop complicated theory tions Aristotle Maggi the ingredients true poetry He distinguishes three degrees the true poets who both imitate and use verse those who imitate without using verse
is
a
101
of
form
of
a
in
written
in sit ,
be
subject matter Each genre will .
to
it
of
. ”
its
in
of
99
verse
an
a
is
in
the definition
From
: “
of
verse
"
tragedy again demand for the inclusion this text one concludes most clearly that verse inti poetry and included very nature mate part Such conception almost necessarily brings with the further theory the appropriateness sermonem
verse light
à , re
,
sed ornatè
ac
ac
,
&
,
exprimcre
,
ieiunè
res
ac
aridè
expolite
ex
."
.
appareret non enim poetae munus eas ob oculos ponere
est
,
ut
, : "
,
ac
., .p
quam amplectitur actionem omnibus eam Ibid 251 cùm poetae propositum ornamentis fulcire egressionibus uerò mirum modum rem exornet rem disterminet seiungat iure factum fuit perspicua magis actio episodiorum interuentu pulchrior
,
)
(
411
ac
,
,
,
.”
, in
."
: "
: "
,
., .p ., .p
uoluptates quae Tragoedia 100Ibid Comoediaque proueniunt 160 diuersas unicuique accommodatas esse oportere 101Ibid 100 Ex hoc contextu colligitur manifestissimè carmen esse quid intimum eiusque natura claudi oesi
POETIC
THEORY
,
by
of
its
a
to
Having adapted poetry
of
."
so 102
,
it
is
to
be
the
or grave according to the nature of the materials treated . In the epic , for proportioned verse must the subject treated and since grave and magnificent requires very nature heroic matter meter stable and ample example , “
to
is
as
,
specifically with of
103 he or
to
be
in
in
.
he
,
if
,
no of
a
is
,
in
.
of
general tators because the poet has mind the people might give them great pleasure those few even to
so
.”
states
performed for the pleasure this the fact that tragedy the populace general and moreover that such multitude does not know For even they may known one another the spec
the crowd plots that sort
if
of
to
Add and
vulgus
:
to
,
“
but the many not the élite but the tragedy respect
He
,
is
.
it
,
of
,
in
,
of
much Aristotle's Poetics his own notion the Maggi inevitably led instruction and pleasure considerable detail two further matters the nature the audience and the demands which will make on the poetic work For Maggi later for Castelvetro and other theorists the poct's audience not the few dual end develop
will pay
attention
a
a
.
be is
by ,
to
its
”
”
If
:
of of
“
"
,
a
In
generality curious way this the audience becomes basis and justification for the universality poetic subject matters proper effect especially The argument runs thus the poem have
"
"
,
he
in
he
,
a
poet cannot accomplish this purpose unless obtains the belief audience follows common opinion this respect.104
his
But
.
into
fulfilled
of
by
true narratives
is
introduced
his desire
,
be
teach proper conduct whether this or
to
is
end
false narratives
by
... because his men's souls since
in .
its
,
on
1460a27
):
(
Poetics
”
“
as
it
on
,
as
public accepted concerns moral instruction must true Maggi insists upon this several occasions and most particularly impossible probable connection with Aristotle's remarks the
, "
"
by
:
a
in
so
he
... falsehoods
;
is
,
"
“
,
to
Acceptability the criterion common opinion rather than truth for the poet may invent things which are essentially untrue provided way which makes them seem probable that does
to a
if
be
.
to
be
respondere
.
,
proportione
,
sui natura stabile
&
as
it
,
agit
ex
,
&
qua
iccirco
quoniam
atque amplum metrum
ac
103
.”
,
: “
., .p
Ibid 259 carmen debere magnifica heroica materia grauis est requirit
de
rei ,
.
of
102
as
,
be
to
,
to
in
of of
they are received the kind that are told the poets insofar the opinion the crowd are held verisimilar and true Therefore imagine something new acceptable certain poet were will said the opinion the crowd Since the crowd admits true similar things and things
,
,
,
si
,
,
in
de .
,
: “
,
est ,
.pp
."
, 104
,
., .p
populi Ibid 135 Adde Tragoediam uniuersae turbae gratiam fieri eiusmodi Quanquam igitur unus aut alter eas optime autem multitudinem fabulas eas ignorare paucis illis etiam magis eos delectet non erit calleat poeta tamen populum respiciens sollicitus
)
(
:
."
,
,
ei
412
.
ei
in
.,
: "
,
id
quòd propositus finis Ibid 267–68 bonos mores instituere quos siue ueris siue falsis narrationibus hominum animos inducat uoti compos efficitur sed quoniam poeta praestare non posset nisi fides adhiberetur iccirco uulgi opinionem sequitur
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
which for a long time cannot have been done , then it will accept as true what is but recently invented.105
It is thus not necessary that the materials of poetry be " true " ; the only requirement is that they be acceptable as such to the common crowd which the audience of poetry . Moreover , acceptability may result from various qualities of the materials : ( 1) From what is “ natural . ” Maggi seems to mean by this those aspects of any action or character which seem to be inherently present in it : “To express things according to verisimilitude and necessity is nothing else but to express them taking into account the nature of those things. Nature 106
constitutes
.”
,
is
to
to
is
it
,
. “
to
to
(
“
2 )
is
of universal . ” From what verisimilar This does always correspond everyday not truth but nevertheless acceptable the mind For many things happen customarily mortals which are contrary not verisimilar and every day the senses experience what the indeed is a kind
it
—
of
to
;
an
is
of
.”
(
“
)
3
is
”
.
“
”
“
in
is
as
107 is
. "
to
,
in ;
to
,
.
And still this
is
reasonable for since verisimilar things are not pass verisimilar that some other way and may come certain things should happen contrary verisimilitude The distinction apparently constituting here between what reason would demand normal action and what actually does happen life between the rational and the probable necessary From what This internal factor according reason
necessary
,
108 ,
ex
in
to
.
is “
is
,
of of
,
necessity certain circumstances action and character presented among the données expected consequences the poem must lead the positione later development the work This called the necessary
be
we
He
by
”
to
,
is
a
of
. "
, it
necessary that another should follow when one thing being posited universality present since the consequences But even here criterion resulting from the given circumstances are the ones most usually
105
,
109
.
by
."
or
us
:
“
the poet warns that should contrive those conclusions for our plots which follow upon the actions necessarily for the most part not those which follow rarely These somewhat vague distinctions are clarified slightly the example which Maggi develops He assumes that used
in
,
&
,
:
,
,
&
., .p
.
107
Exprimere autem Ibid secundum uerisimile necessarium aliud quàm eas exprimere habita ratione illarum rerum naturae natura uero quidpiam uniuersale
est ." est ,
nil
res
131 : “
106
."
,
,
si
.
si
,
à
id
,
ac
,
: " id
., .p
genus falsa quae poetis dicuntur quoniam uulgi opinionem sunt Ibid 131 recepta pro uerisimilibus quispiam poeta nouum aliquid finxerit ueris habentur Quòd quae longè minus fieri etiam uulgi opinione receptum dicetur quoniam similia nequeunt tanquam uera uulgus admittit etiam quòd recenter est fictum tanquam uerum recipiet
.
,
cùm uno posito
necesse
est
necessarium dicitur
,
positione
,
autem
ex
Id
126
. "
)
(
413
qui aut necessario
aut
in
,
ut
,
,
., .p
Ibid nos admonet fines eos fabulis faciamus plurimis non autem qui rarò huiuscemodi actiones sequuntur
,
121 : "
109
."
., .p
Ibid aliud sequi
: “
108
."
:
est ,
.
,
in ., .p
: “
201 nam multa mortalibus usu uenire non uerisimilia praeterque rationem idque rationi consonum est nam cùm uerisimilia dies ipso sensu comprobatur praeter uerisimile non necessaria non sint aliter quoque fieri possunt igitur uerisimile nulla fieri Ibid omnem
THEORY
POETIC
we are given certain characters for a father and a son and a proposal the marriage of the son ; certain reactions will have to follow :
for
We say that
such -and - such actions must necessarily follow ; for these things preceded having been established , the poet must see to it that others come which about. Otherwise the comedy will not be properly made . ... if the father proposes a marriage
see
to the son , it is verisimilar that the son should consult a household servant or a friend concerning the way to avoid his father's proposal. If, there fore , the poet introduces the son consulting a servant , he will then rest on veri similitude . . . . But if the poet introduces a father , who , in order to bring about the marriage of his son , tries to use the offices of the servant , it will immediately result from necessity that the servant should , for example , necessarily deceive the old man .110 in
to
on
:
Poetics 1460a27
no
fairly close paraphrase
of
in
is a
)
(4
.
Maggi's commentary
He
.
reason
a
in
of
an
But the distinction is still not very useful ; at best we verisimilitude approximation development necessity what traditionally happens Acceptability depends part conformity from stated données the be
of
,
to
is
or
.
of
as
if
as
to
a
be
all
to
or
in
“
enjoins that the total composition the poem there should part which might seem anything contrary contain absurd reason but that should made with maximum reason This the same say that everything should present itself one were verisimilar by
111
.' "
necessary
to
if
:
.
derive from the poem the proper utility
of
, is do it to
of
of
,
(
5 )
Most clearly and most convincingly acceptability the audience according type characters will result from the presentation the requirements decorum The relationships are fairly simple here the ,
in
"
they must express the highest probity 112
that
is ,
it ,
of
must make exemplars
of
,
: “
of
.
,
to
“
as
to
if
so
]
(
in
it
be
the form moral willing accept instruction must true the characters presented recognizable traditional types The and will these correspond good behavior poems are exemplars people presented Since they people poets they present the imitate the best when their behavior they audience
in
or
to
. "'
to
as
)
(
at
in
“
,
,
of
in
of
Maggi those whom they undertake imitate Trapádelyua point relates the his text this 1454b13 Platonic Ideas character Nature considered itself and not manifested this character
persons
,
,
.
ut ,
.
,
,
necessarium
ut
,
ad
,
à
hoc statim exoritur
ut
,
Si
,
...
scilicet seruus necessariò senem sit
111 ."
,
serui opera uti uelit cludat
ut
:
.
si
.
,
de
,
., .p
: id “ id
sequatur constitutis enim illis quae 110Ibid 126 sanè dicitur esse necessarium praecessere poeta pater efficere cogitur alioqui Comoedia probe facta non esset nuptiis tentarit uerisimile sanè est filium consulere seruum domesticum uel amicum filium quomodo possit patrem eludere igitur poeta filium consulentem seruum inducit ueri pater inducatur poeta qui simili tunc innititur ... Quòd exitum nuptias filii deducat
,
,
,
,
)
414
illius personae
,
summum probitatis
(
." in
,
exemplar facere hoc moribus dam proponunt exprimere ,
in
ac si
,
: " est
.p
.
., ."
112
ut
,
: , “ ac
., .p
Praecipit quoque pars Ibid 267 uniuersa Poesis constitutione nulla praeter rationem continere uideatur sed omnia summa cum ratione quae aliquid absurdi facta sint hoc autem perinde est diceret omnia praeseferre uerisimile aut necessarium oportere quoniam praestantiores imitantur Ibid 175 cùm mores exprimunt debent
quam sibi imitan
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
that particular object " ( " natura secundum se consyderata , non ut in hoc , aut in illo reperta , " p . 175 ) . These Ideas , however, rapidly become the collections of traits habitually associated with certain types ; a servant will be gluttonous and will think only of food ; his master will think only of honor and glory ( p. king ( this constitutes
king must do and say those things proper to a another kind of “universal ”) . “The meaning is that the poet deals with the universal. For if he introduces a king as saying or doing a given thing , what he says or does must belong to those things which 113
115 ) ; a
be
a
of
(
.p
an
).
of ,
,
(
a
),
as
,
In
attributed to kings . " still more general man must not have feminine characteristics Ulysses should not weeping and presented soul woman should not show virility example Menalippe 171 a
are usually or necessarily
way
of
be
,
a
word the field the the plot itself must
in to
.
,
-
diction Contrariwise
to
or
of
to
of
the plot and through ornateness pleasurable elements the poem
in
a
of
.
of
in
of
,
,
of
to
is to
be
,
,
of
in
be
pleasure and utility must essentially Because the ends achieved common audience and because this audience provides certain criteria universality generality writing the and truth the activity the poet liberty remaining fairly well restricted The great field poem comes open variety episodes added him that ornamentation through
an
;
.
is
of
,
of of
in
,
as
,
At
.
be
,
acceptable one known the audience the characters must conform kept constantly traditional types and the needs instruction must necessity mind times the case internal and structural criterion results from these demands the audience but more frequently imposed from without Thus Aristotle's remark on the the criterion
93 )
.p
"
for credibility
demands
...
as
audience
.
the basis
,
,
of
(“
on
a
is
of
tragedies usual time transformed into rule for both tragedy and comedy unico solis circuitu uel paulò longiore exprimere debet
.
[
,
a
is
if
a
is
or
a
in
is
as
to
of
to
of
an
he
an
a
in
,
in
to
at
or
,
if
we
attempt approach Since then tragedy and comedy close truth possible were hear things done the space month presented two tragedy comedy most three hours which time certainly acted incredibility messenger the thing will absolutely produce effect Thus
if
in
all
,
on
an
114
the poet
?
by
is
113
contrived
,
:)
to
Egypt and returns within hour what spectator indeed after one hour this man returning here seen introduced the stage will not whistle and hiss the actor off the stage and judge that action lacking reason was
sent
,
.
,
id
re ,
in
."
ad
,
res
...
rem
in
,
,
,
,
)
(
415
&
, , si
,
explodetgue
? "
,
carentem
...
uideat non exibilabit factam praedicabit
,
.
scenam introduci
à
,
,
,
gestas mensis unius spatio duabus tribusúe accedere conentur summum horis quanto nimirum tempore Tragoedia uel Comoedia agitur factas audiremus res prorsus quis profectò spectator post horam hunc redeuntem illinc incredibilis efficeretur , si
potest
,
si
. . .
in
,
,
, à
.p
.,
ut
,
iis
ex
id
,
: “
.p
."
,
...
si 94 : " ab co
.
si
.
de
.
,
: "
,
., .p
regem quidpiam Ibid 131 sensus est poetam circa uniuersale uersari quoniam aut dicentem aut facientem inducit debet plurimum esse quae regibus aut necessariò contingunt Cf. 272 exprimere Poeticae enim scopus est rerum ideas regem exprimit regis ideam referre quantumque ueluti rege desyderari posset omne illi tribuere rectitudo enim Poeticae est quae fieri possunt sectari quacunque qua propria sua rectitudine recedet agit quòd quod fieri potest recedat propè ueritatem quoad fieri 114 Ibid Cùm igitur Tragoedia atque Comoedia
poeta omni prorsus ratione
POETIC
THEORY
an
,
by
;
of is
“
as
just
.
Aristotle does tragedy object
,
to
assigns the various qualitative parts
some
neces the term
as
of
conceives
it
since
the poem
at
of
,
to
.
The interpretation ,
,
,
in
an
when
example
the first Maggi
of
,
Again
cited
internal relationship
he
"
may again
designating
predecessors
as
be
points more successful than sity
,
,
-
decidedly
in
,
at
Aristotelian cast With respect
to
un
a
reference
own intellectual structure second almost inevit complete the explanations give the whole the theory
this period criticism other documents and hence
to to
own order and
able tendency
an his .
its
of
its
The system of ideas encountered in Maggi's Explanationes shows two complementary tendencies : first , a wish to explain Aristotle's text in terms
).
.
(
p
”
"
,
;
,
,
Aristotle's basic meaning
.
of
much keener apprehension
,
, “
“
,
"
shows here
a
"
;
:
,
,
a
more correct distribution than manner and means Maggi makes melopoeia Robortello had done for the means dictio for the manner apparatus and for the object fabula mores sententia 104 He
of
to
he
,
,
and from the long borrows the theory decorum
of
of
,
with him
he
,
From Horace also
.
rhetorical tradition associated
of
he
his authority
as
and cites Horace
as
, So ,
.
of
in
of
,
he
On the other hand cannot resist the temptation other ideas current the thinking his time we have seen ascribes the Poetics utility and pleasure with which the ends was familiar through Horace
a
of
on
.
the types character and human behavior The same rhetorical tragedy and comedy tradition provides him with number remarks which come ultimately from Donatus and Diomedes rather than from
and
"
“
”
,
,
)
as "
,
,
"
64
(p .
”
).
,
Musica
,
:
Moribus morata
:
,
:
à
,
101 .)
.p
(
, à
: “
ornata
The conventional association
the long argument justifying verse that
to
,
à
perplexa Fabula simplex between poetry and verse leads
”
,
,
, à
,
:
Dictione metrica elegans euidens grauis affectibus referta
so
ab be
of
on
of
a
uel sumptuosa Sententia
uel
,
à
:
(p .
of
of
a
he
in
,
uel regia
suauis
,
by
,
id
,
“
of
)
77
.p
(
,
against humiliores puta rusticos seruos genus homines —and the two genres are further differentiated the unhappy ending the one and the happy ending the other 160 Indeed when Maggi presents summary Aristotle's ideas the qualitative parts group tragedy collects terms which might easily found any standard rhetorical treatise Apparatu assembled Dicitur igitur "
potentibus
,
is
"
”
‘
& of .
“
Aristotle Thus the moral distinction between better and worse forms character turned into the familiar social distinction between reges heroas for tragedy and uiles moriones seruos ancillas atque scurras for comedy otherwise stated uenerandis
416
have
theory
,
does
a
).
( .p
Maggi
of
in
of on
so
.
"
of
eclecticism )
pure
explain away Plato's banishment beauty 123 .
to
,
the nature
(
however
on
does not fail
,
,
79 ).
.
he
(
youth
certain ideas
not
-
“
,
or
.
of
as
is ) ,
This
to
is
(p
.
,
,
education the poets
of
praised for his proper handling Homer inven tion disposition and elocution The answers critical objections are organized around the old res verba distinction And for other rhetorical ideas From Plato Maggi derives the conception character trapadeiyuata types Ideas the theory that poetry may serve the we have already noted
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
about his notion of the dual end of poetry ; and most of what he of interpretation tends to orient the Poetics in the direction of that theory . He is not led , however , to a total deformation of Aristotle's text , and in at least a few respects his commentary presents the best light on the Poetics to date . centering
offers in the way
In the same volume as the Explanationes, Maggi published two other works , his commentary on Horace's Ars poetica , called an Interpretatio ( treated in Chapter IV , pp . 119–22 ), and his treatise on comedy entitled De ridiculis . I have already pointed out that his main interest in the first of of parallels between the texts of Aristotle and of Horace and that his array of such parallels was the most extensive yet prepared . Naturally , some of the theory elaborated in the Explanationes is these was the establishment
,
to
”
—
“
of
of
"
"
—
in "
-
res
repeated in connection with Horace's text , which Maggi regards as stemming directly from Aristotle . The “ verba distinction figures prominently identify and Maggi tends perhaps more than the Explanationes plot and with the end utility and res with elements verba with
those episodes which are meant
give
he
Maggi again
the poem
,
of
.
in
.
of
,
of
is
decorum
the parts
a
digressions
once more found
interconnection
to
regards
character
necessity as
interprets
as
The essence
all an
of
to
.
of
pleasure Hence the ends distinguished are also diction and with the end the same and they are similarly related the various parts the poem
and variety
.
to
and magnitude the plot All these matters are stated more succinctly with less philosophical justification the Interpretatio which essentially appendix must considered the commentary Aristotle similar judgment may made the little treatise De ridiculis which
on
,
to
an
,
A
be
on
.
as
be
in
-and
he
of
.
,
of
,
of
,
of
,
a
of
,
to
.
as , a
it
in
the 1550 volume comes between the Explanationes and the Interpretatio Maggi means supplement Aristotle for notes that comedy plot structure and the ingredient requires two elements certain kind the ridiculous and that Aristotle treats only the first these Before offering his own theory the ridiculous Maggi examines those Cicero is
,
,
, & of
by
,
“
to
.
,
to
,
it
.
,
very unsatis Quintilian and Pontano His own theory unfortunately factory since does little more than collect the passages from the Poetics explain them which refer the ridiculous and attempt citation other authors Thus after quoting Aristotle's definition peccatum
”
in
“
in
the need
tragedy à
Risus 307
).
insists
( .p
.
“
sees
he
”
,
]
417
[
,
."
“
”
Maggi
admiration which had required part through variety and novelty
and the epic achieved turpitudine citra dolorem cum admiratione dependet in
he
of
a
“
are cited
he .
in of
)
the distinction
comedy for the same kind
he "
,
of
or
of
A
is
.
note the persistence
of
(
of
" .)
ex
("
of
be
,
ac
turpitudinem points out deformitatem quandam esse sine dolore that the ridiculous may the body the mind and cites examples the latter from Cicero third kind may come from circumstances turpitudo rebus Plato's Sophist consulted for definition Various examples the ridiculous springing from res and from verba
POETIC
THEORY
And
as for the various genres treated by Horace , comedy as well requires gifts the of nature and the skills of art on the part of the poet.
GIACOPO GRIFOLI ( 1550 ) The middle year of the century was also marked by the publication of another extensive commentary on Horace , Giacopo Grifoli's In artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio ( see above , Chapter IV , pp . 122–27 ). Unlike Maggi, Grifoli is primarily interested in the text of Horace , and he uses Aristotle as a means of clarifying and expounding the Ars poetica . In a few places — and a considerable number of Aristotelian passages are used by Grifoli - his remarks and applications constitute an interpretation of the Poetics and are hence of interest to us here . Generally , there is the tacit assumption that Aristotle and Horace are not only talking about the same things, but that they are saying the same things. Hence, it is just as proper to read Aristotle in terms of Horace as it is to read Horace in terms of the second place, since Grifoli seeks in Aristotle primarily a discovering means of the order and sense of Horace's text , he is most by attracted those sections of the Poetics which present neat categories and
Aristotle
In
.
of .
consist
two
instruments
the
of
of
to
,
and
or
verba
"
of
in
of
in
he
be
to
"
the materials and
the work
“
or
the whole
:
the other five parts are then distributed thus
on
;
,
elements
expression
fabula
res “ "
takes "
Grifoli
,
of
.
he
of
six
numerical divisions . Two such sets of distinctions appeal to him most forcefully : the qualitative parts tragedy and the four requisites only character Not does see the six parts the essential ordering principle interprets them Horace's text but the light that text
All
of
,
to
is it a
we
,
In
res )
.
of
,
in
.
in
,
these things indeed happen the stage whose external presentation does any way clash with the materials themselves Rather kind instru ment since imitation occurs also the spectacle and the melody according plot the laws truth diction and character and thought are the materials not
res -
it
in
of
,
a
if
.
of
no
(
tragedy spectacle and which are proposed for imitation Now read melody are more parts than delivery and memory the orations the ancients when they are read.115
in
”
,
,
82 : "
,
plot character ,
:
of
tragedy
]
[
418
,
& & ad
&
,
,
,
,
,
ex ,
in
,
in si
,
.
.
,
:
), .p
omnia enim haec versantur
vt
(
1550 rebus nihil abhorrentem
."
à
scena quae quidem speciem apparatu est enim velut instrumentum nam melodia sunt imitationes fabulae ratio postulat dictio verò mores sententiae res sunt quae tragoediam ipsam legamus non magis apparatus imitandum sunt propositae verum antiquorum quae leguntur melodia sunt illius partes quàm orationibus actio memoria habet
Interpretatio
perhaps more clearly
:
Ars poetica
the
“
is )
(
repeated
We said from the beginning that there are six parts 115
”
“
,
connection with lines 319-22
is
The same division
of
Robortello
).
by
(
of as
,
of
We should note here the crossing imitation with the verba distinction the parallelism with rhetoric and the strange division which puts melody considered means and actual singing among the diction among the objects imitation this the same division suggested
AND EXEGESIS
POETICS : DISCOVERY
in a
in
that order
the plot itself has been
which
set
character
Grifoli
begins
generalizing
...
“
,
):
"
(“
of
,
to
.
on
."
", "
"
, "
at ",
117
to
“
in
:
he
Greek terms and then proceeds
Aristotle's
cites
define
we
:
,
verba
,
,
."
or
of
114-18 them
"
a
, it
be of
without language indeed will difficult determine whether the moral quality the appropriateness character have been the similarity and the constancy observed not The very terms used indicate Grifoli's understanding proprietas the requisites officium similitudo constantia He explains them full several later points Commenting lines them into
criteria for language
by
the four requisites
,
As for
of
.
in
made that manner and composed 116
in
be
all
diction , thought , spectacle , and melody . Of these the last two are as it were the instruments of imitation , the middle three are the subjects proposed for imita tion . The first , then , contains in itself the manner of imitation , since the plot tragedy and since the imitation must is a composition of the things
,
,
he of ,
.
be
In
,
—
to
,
—
,
be
,
be
to it in
be
should see the first place that there should char appropriate are good then that they should then that they should similar finally that they should uniform These qualities are different speak briefly from one another for the first concerns the moral quality the second appropriateness the third similarity and the fourth constancy
This means that
acters which
,
.
118
;
he
,
to
,
he
;
in
,
in
;
to
.
in
the first nobody errs except through wickedness the second goes errs who counter his own dignity the third who departs from his proper kind himself who does not remain constant the fourth character
to (1 to )
,
or
a
by
he
),
.pp
(
,
.
, to
TÒ
of ,
,
by
he
of
so
.
-
(
,
3
) a
of
decorum self consistency
of
his
( 4 ) a
of
,
(
2
) a
thus reduces Aristotle's four requisites
rule
of
rule moral good conformity type rule tradition and By doing brings them into harmony rule interpretation especi with the Ars poetica Moreover 42–43 ally assigns the fourth quality dualov characters newly invented traditional characters will have been well the poet since the nature
Grifoli
ness
to .
,
, ”
“
;
of
97 : “
”
116
“
res
of
.
earlier poets These matters character and the rules associated with them belong poetry they affect the verba however since they are the established
,
,
&
eo
,
in
."
& .
ad
&
sit
,
:
&
,
à
,
sit
ne , 118 117
., , .p sit , 12 :
in se
,
,
., .p
principio sex esse partes tragoediae fabulam Ibid Diximus morem dic quarum postremae duae sunt tanquam instru tionem sententiam apparatum melodiam propositae menta imitationis tres mediae subiectae sunt imitandum Prima verò continet compositio rerum omnium tragoedia modum cum fabula modo ordine quo composita ipsa fabula imitandum ,
,
in
TÒ SĖ
40 : "
,
.p
,
."
dissimilis
,
sit
:
."
,
, vt
)
(
419
ut
, se ,
,
est.
in
,
: vt
sua conditione seruus seruo non omni actione sibi constet
vt à in
non discrepet Oualov
,
,
vt
,
,
est
, in
agat ouorov mercator mercatori .
vt
,
39 : “ id
in ,
6è , . vt TÒ SĖ
TÒ
, vt à :
,
., .p
.”
"
,
Ibid officium porro proprietas similitudo constantia morum seruetur nec sine oratione vix constare poterit Ibid est videamus mores primum sint qui boni sunt tum qui con quod sentanei deinde qui similes postremo qui aequabiles differunt enim haec inter officij secundum paucis agamus primum genus quartum decori tertium similitudinis primo nemo peccat sine scelere constantiae secundo qui contra dignitatem suam quarto qui sibi non constat tertio qui suo genere discrepat Cf. ÅPNÓTTOV postulat naturae quisque suae consentiat vir quae sunt viri mulier quę sunt mulieris neque
POETIC
THEORY
material for which words are used . Grifoli justifies his insistence on the primacy of “ res ” by quoting Aristotle to the effect that the poet is a poet through imitation , not through the use of verse . But imitation becomes invention and this in turn becomes plot and character , which are more important than verse because they make a greater appeal to the audience . The whole nature of the transformation of Aristotle's thesis is seen in such a passage as the following : " The poet indeed , as Aristotle himself affirms , insofar as he imitates is a poet of actions , not of meters . Therefore , an
of
a
,
up
119
excellent invention —and a structure of the plot in which character is diligently observed - holds the audience much more than would verses poor in content and presented on the stage with great solemnity . " single criterion Moreover Grifoli sets Nature for these subject it :
,
be
to
as
.
or
, of or
of
a
in
120
,
to
is
of
is
to
,
it
“
making probability and necessity dependent upon Tragedy support anything appropriate cannot which not Nature And even though comedy tragedy not the function the writer things actually happened Aristotle says relate those which nevertheless way that they might probably they must relate them necessarily matters
to
a
is
or
;
of
on
,
the Idea
the purgation
and
such
37 ).
96 ,
.pp
a
the Form
parallelism between them
pity and fear in all
is as ,
indicates
-
—
,
single object for the poet's study
(
Grifoli also
a
.
to
as
providing
passions
,
as
,
as
of
;
.”
have come about Nevertheless the Nature imitated not Maggi does Grifoli refers commonplace and visible one just the poet painter Ideas Plato the norms which the like the should attempt represent Once again Plato and Aristotle are brought together
as
,
on It
.
of
in ,
is
it
the laws the poet but ,
and
of
by
the poets
proposed
to
beauty
”
“
of
an
is ,
ideal verisimilitude which prevents any wild flights Everything that does reduced rule and precept
.
to
is
he
,
of
by
.
of
ideal
an
.
practice
the traditional
That accompanied the imagination
is
to
on
by
,
represented decorum
of as of to a a
of
a
,
this
to
a
in
kind total interpretation the Poetics poetry appears becomes text which natural object seeking present the perfection the one hand the highest forms Nature the Ideas and the other hand conform more commonplace Nature There
,
Lodovico
In
a
at
.
to
est
in
of
,
of of
., .p
., .p
98 : “
119
120
of
of
by
of
,
also
;
,
In
Dolce published his Osservationi nella volgar lingua which the first three books are exclusively linguistic and gram poetry only way introducing lengthy matical the fourth treats prosodic questions relevant discussion the various genres the poetry treatment one might say that Dolce begins each step with Aristotle but rapidly moves the direction the current rhetorical 1550
)
(
420
."
,
.
.
,
,
,
sit
sit , ea
,
,
vt
sit ,
,
15 : “
,
&
in
&
.
ea Et
, .) in
( , vt
poëta non Ibid Poëta enim idem testatur Arist quatenus fingit rerum qua ratio morum diligens habeatur metrorum Inuentio igitur insignis fabulę constitutio magis capit spectatores quàm versus inopes rerum magno cum pondere missi scenam Atqui Tragoedia ferre nihil potest quod non Ibid naturae consentaneum inquit Aristoteles nec item comici quamuis tragici non dicere quę gesta fuerint aut etiam necessarium tamen illi dicenda sunt omnino quae fieri potuisse verisimile
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
of the art : " That Poetry , a heavenly gift, is nothing else but imitation is taught to us by Aristotle in a single and proper theory . So for the definition
for the
to
idea that imitation not verse makes ,
,
also
let
all
:
.
So
sible pleasure and utility the poet
"
to is
a
of
as "
121
definition ; for the function of the poet is to imitate the actions of men ; and the end is to delight the soul of the reader under pleasant veils of moral and slipping useful inventions , " Here the from imitation invention and from notion imitation the end the more readily comprehen
,
by
-
;
so
in
to is
,
is
of
necessary that they are acquired only with difficult and lacking the dignity large part them the Poet so
one
of
in
of
,
,
so
are
if
,
—
together and great sweat and
of
all
,
to
in
.
it of
nobody think that But those who write verse are worthy this title knowledge which this faculty requires Poet For addition the variety needs invention order artifice and words which things each one itself
a
to
to
given
few
;
the Poet
and these few are the good
.
to
of
proper the function Poets 122
,
it it is is
;
to
.
.
is
But none more than imitation which does more make him poet than artifice and words For possible for any mediocre mind find some display noble invention but with those ornaments and beauties which are decreased
, he
of
,
of
at
to
,
of
is
-
is
;
of
on
his
in
of
he
,
In
.
of
of
,
,
.
).
(
Todros Todrosi 1337 Both translations enjoy some circulation during the coming decade
of ,
to
from the Hebrew were
Balmes Like the latter Mantino's was based
of
de to
Abram
the Hebrew translation
'
of
to
in
,
,
Alemanus and
of
on
he
is
-
by
of
.
up
devoting poetry composition book such matters finally 1550 Jacob Mantino's translation Averroës commentary already the Poetics was added the two available those Hermannus
In
thus justified
on
to
all
,
(
slightly disguised
);
In
his ideas terms invention disposition although and elocution and seems first mean that imitation invention poetry the most important ingredient really the crux poetic saying that imitation elocution ends increasingly passages emphasizes excellence later the fact that the real art the poet lies his handling words and verse and Dolce this passage Dolce reduces
121
omit most
Averroës materials based upon Arabic '
to
that the latter tend
of
in
in
'
in
Balmes being reprinted 1560 and Mantino's 1562. The significance the shift away from Hermannus and toward the new versions lies the fact
&
di
:
,
,
da
."
88 di : “ di
,
,
,
,
:
,
, e di
:
la
,
Ma non pensi alcuno che tutti coloro che uersi scriuono siano Poeta percioche oltre diuersità delle dottrine che questa faculta parole lequali cose ciascuna inuentione ordine d'artificio , di
ha
Ibid 87v degni questo titolo ricerca ella mestiero : e se , di , ., e
,
: e
il
dee
di
le
.pp
122
: “
), .p
(
c'è
è di
,
Osservationi 1550 87v La Poetica celeste dono niente altro essere che imita percioche l'ufficio del Poeta tione con propria una difinitione insegnato Aristotele gli huomini imitare attioni fine sotto leggiadri ueli morali utili inuentioni dilettar l'animo chi legge
)
(
421
che all'ufficio
del Poeta conuengono
; . ,
le
e
fa
:
la
di
il
,
. "
i
: e
a
e
ma quella spiegar con quegli ornamenti bellezze pochi questi pochi sono buoni Poeti dato
è
è
,
e
lo è
, è
in
,
ad
,
da
per tutte insieme sono tanto difficili necessarie che non senza molti sudori s'acqui gran parte dignità del Poeta ma niuna stano mancandone l’una scemata oltre quello che alla imitatione parole che maggiormente faccia Poeta l'artificio ogni mediocre intelletto poter trouare alcuna nobile inuentione Percioche conceduto
THEORY
literature , and the work seems therefore
its
POETIC
to be closer to
Greek
distant
original.123
CONCLUSIONS
a
,
all ,
as
of
.
in
in
a
of
of
of of
or
-
is
in
-
slightly more The first half century the history Aristotle's period Poetics modern times thus tremendous progress the knowledge and the interpretation the text We must constantly bear only few mind the fact that the end the fifteenth century approached or
' ;
in
a
of
a
in
A
it
,
.
of of
at
having read humanists knew the text consulted the available manu somewhat larger group scholars might have read Averroës commentary extant manuscripts and printed number 1481 they would have obtained very imperfect idea indeed but from the scripts
) at ,
,
,
of
of
'
of
of .
a
,
(
of of
in
:
to
,
in
of
Beginning with Valla's content and orientations Aristotle's theory translation into Latin 1498 whole series documents soon became available the Renaissance reader the Greek text 1508 the reprint Valla and Averroës 1515 Erasmus Greek text 1532 Pazzi's text and translation 1536 reprinted 1537 and 1538 and finally Segni’s translation
to
it
,
in
-
of
to
of
of
by
by
as
;
of
,
1549. With these documents hand was soon possible undertake the serious study and exegesis the Poetics especially after the appearance increase this kind seem the Pazzi volume does activity witnessed the public lectures Lombardi Maggi beginning 1541
into Italian
in
of
on
of in
to
to
became necessary
,
;
a
to
of
.
in
in
no
we
it
to
of
.
(
of
as it ,
of
,
,
poetry just
as to
consider and cite the dicta Aristotle the had long been necessary reckon with the opinions Horace Plato and such rhetoricians Cicero and Quintilian Such consideration Aristotle was usually brief and fragmentary tending limit itself few passages which the writers found eminently useful general statements about the way from can derive which the the diffusion was this early period The second result Poetics was read
of art of . It
kinds
of
.
in
of of
-
1548
,
of
the first two the great published commentaries Robortello's and Lombardi Maggi's 1550 The first result this diffusion texts and commentaries was the increasing number many passing references the Poetics works and
,
it
an
in
”
“
be
to
ofIf
.
to :
in
on
authority undoubtedly more significant Aristotle came considered poetry equal equality was possible prestige Horace such Aristotle's the time found was because the cumulative wisdom
to
have spoken
;
which
I
of
.
of
in
,
123
the passing references
it
at ,
a
a
,
separate passages
of
we
it
of
,
in
of
.
to
of
had come the poetic art which Poetics essentially the same theory have been the period which attribute Horace's Ars poetica Thus procedure studying we discover the growth that habit and first for establishing parallelism between the two texts This was done was
by
,
",
.
.pp ,
,
,
)
(
422
.
),
(
:
,
, “
.
,
a
For modern edition the Mantino translation see Friedrich Heidenhain Jahrbücher 354–82 See also the discussion für class Philologie Supplementband XVII 1889 Jaroslav Tkač Über den arabischen Kommentar des Averroes zur Poetik des Aristoteles Wiener Studien Zeitschrift für klassische Philologie XXIV 1902 70-98
POETICS : DISCOVERY
AND EXEGESIS
or
in
,
of in
.
on
,
the epistle
As of
the general organization
earlier chapters the effects
of to
,
be to
is
,
,
all
of
, in
to
they
whether
have studied
be
or to
passages
I
In
of
:
of
its
later done, and in a constantly more elaborate way , for the totality of the the successive most complete form two texts . Naturally , it appears in commentaries on Horace Parrasio's 1531 Pedemonte's 1546 Maggi's and Grifoli's 1550. these the procedure search Aristotle single lines for clues the meaning Horace whether they this search
under
the
in its
.
to
.
it
—
,
in
of
standing and the elucidation the Ars poetica has already been obvious the present chapter the partnership with Horace was not without dangers for Aristotle specialists For meant that many readers
It
.”
“
of
of to
of to
in
,
be
of
,
of
.
to
in it
Horace and others came the Poetics determined find the doctrine which they had long associated with the Ars poetica This they did without difficulty for there are sufficient similarities subject matter and enough parallels accidental likeness detail facilitate the discovery exculpation should said those who yielded too easily the tempta
in to
,
as
to
a
by
to
.
,
a
of
so
all
of
.
,
tion that the temptation was very great indeed The first half the Cinque problems poetic theory and the was deeply concerned with discovery new treatise revered writer Aristotle was bound elicit much attention Naturally the first impulse was find the known cento
,
.
),
(
as
"
.
in a
of
for
on
”
or
,
the unknown read Horace into Aristotle On the other hand this impulse prevented long time the discovery delayed what Aristotle was actually doing and saying the Poetics Even the great commen taries the Poetics published during this period and later well
.
,
of
,
of
;
to
.
of
its
directly concerned though they were with the text and exegesis show this tendency They may not specifically seek identity theory they may even attempt read Aristotle for his own sake But the results
.
to
is
to of
)
423
(
in
,
is
and what
,
the old habits mind and the old accepted ideas are there produced theory the way much closer the standard any distinctively Aristotelian analysis Horatian rhetorical tradition than nevertheless
CHAPTER TEN . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S : II . THE FIRST THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS
following the middle of the century , the tendencies in the first half are continued and accelerated . This is generally true in branches criticism for the documents accumulated more new materials became available the partisan spirit grew there multiplication pamphlets was discussions treatises one were ,
as
,
.
If
, of
,
of
,
of
a
as
of
all
as
YEARS
observed
,
THE
'N
a
.
no
.
of
on
”
,
to
“
no
is
on
in
curve
,
of
one would note
a
a
statistical
,
to
Cinquecento criticism purely quanti sharp rise the years following 1550. The writings relative exception Aristotle's Poetics would provide There great commentary until 1560 when Vettori's appeared Neverthe prepare
tative basis
.
,
,
of
a
on
,
,
the editions and commentaries Horace short independent variety poetic matters and miscellaneous materials become constantly more numerous and with them the Aristotelian tradi tion expands and develops less
treatises
CONTI AND SPERONI
)
(
CA. 1550
"
as
of I
,
of
et
in
),
in
.
of
“
as
(
de '
byat
of
I
I
shall discuss first three documents which are not dated and which place roughly the middle the century for want better evidence The first two are Antonio Maria Conti called Maioragio who died 1555. His very brief De arte poetica appeared Oratio XXIV the praefationes collected Orationes 1582. The oration have pointed
a
to
to
.
his
it
-
of
of
as to a a
it
is
),
;
of
(
,
.p
primarily devoted poetry and out Chapter VII 267 defence rejection part Plato's ban but uses the Poetics this defence and statements about imitation and -more important still derives from history poetry about the Conti refers Poetics 1447b1 confirm is
“
,
a
In
.
),
it
"
"
(
or
"
a "
to as
a
of
. " 1
, in
of
,
he
“
as
poetry
:
of
Aristotle himself intimates that poetry the same philosophy wisdom and when numbers among poems the most learned and most elegant dialogues Plato which are treated the most important matters both divine and human later passage Conti collapses together early history poetry brief He begins with imita coupling immediately origin cause with meter pro defence
thing
divergent
products.2
Conti thus chooses some
of
of
),
of
,
,
,
,
(
the division
of
poetry into species comic tragic epic melic and high concludes with the differentiation between poets moral character and those low moral character and between their ceeds
dithyrambic
the ideas from the Poetics sit
ex
,
&
ab
,
,
&
: “
), .p ,
: sit “
2
., . " .p
&
in
,
(
et
In
1
praefationes 1582 Orationes 143 quod autem poetica eadem quae sapientia elegantissimos Platonis dialogos seu philosophia innuit etiam Aristoteles qui doctissimos quibus maximae quaeque res diuinae humanae tractantur inter poemata con 19 numerat Ibid 146. The full text reads thus Aristoteles poesim imitatione primo natam
ait ,
ac ,
,
)
(
424
ex
ad
ex
,
.
re à
in
,
fuisse censet quoniam imitandi studium ineunte aetate cunctis hominibus innatum qua belluis homo differat qui igitur metrum natura procliues fuerunt eos poesim primo protulisse quodam imperito rudique principio atque subita fortuita
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
tres Aristotelis libros
,
his
de
.
Aristotle and imitation
in
Conti returns
In
to
its
most frequently cited by his predecessors , those which might throw light on the beginnings of the art and earliest history
published posthumously arte rhetorica explanationes few scattered passages the commentary Book
a
of of
by on
to
he ,
his
,
an it
;
:
words were born many arts such
as
in
poetry
,
,
,
Whence from the imitation contained
of
the brief history
again
man Then .
natural
is
tion
to
to
it is
.
In
in
on
,
III in
1572. There are that are interest poetry for poetic theory the first one Conti argues for the antiquity argument preceded oratory basing and for the fact that Aristotle's support citing the proceeds statement that imitation this Cratylus the effect that words themselves are imitations and that imita
;
all
,
but when
the medieval
In
to
,
Plato on of
he
Aristotle
the direction
of
theory
moves
is
(
he
);
he
&
(“
is
of
a
, .p
in
of
of
he
later passages
.
literature based above decorum important states that one the differences between oratory and poetry lies because the latter this the ornate language poetry comes from repeats his assertion that divine furor 381A poetry the essence imitation Horatius egregium poetam uocat a
definitions and
in
,
Conti assimilates
the literary types
of
speaks
,
of
of
had done previously
of
he
he As
words the
,
,
satires and mimes and which represents through the medium every age class and condition.3 characters and the lives men
,
of ,
,
;
,
,
in
of
kings the epic which expresses hexametric verse the wars and the deeds generals and leaders and the histrionic art which includes comedies tragedies
no
)
;
.p
all on
"
,
distinguishes doctum imitatorem 406A and those poets who please only the stage from those who also please when they are read he
to
his
a
in
as
.
be
to
is
his
,
to di
art as
, is
It
,
,
,
,
&
,
salibusque
inuadere
.
,
illum irridere
unde postea
."
,
actiones canere coeperunt atque hunc comoedia atque Satyra nata est
&
.
&
ad
,
ut
,
&
,
&
&
,
,
&
.
in
.
res
.
,
,
in
in
plura membra diuisa poesis multas hac imitandi ratione quasi poetę dicti sunt alij Comici alij Tragici alij Epici alij Melici alij Dithyrambici alij alio nomine nam pro cuiusque natura moribus imitandi studium pro egregias praestantes ferebatur honestiores enim poctae laudabiles actiones sibi itaque regum canendas proponebant deorum conuiuijs uirorum excellentium laudes resque praeclarè gestas heroicis carminibus concinebant eas imitandas iuuenes excita rentur alacriores redderentur qui uerò abiectiori essent animo uiles etiam humiles .
dictione sed deinceps species abijt atque
ita ex
is
or
.
, e
,
dell'arte
in
of
also concerned with the problem imitation della natura Dio but much broader and more philosophical way primarily say whether difficult doctrine intermingled Platonic Aristotelian elements from both seem Speroni's premiss that imitates Nature just Nature imitates God Sperone
Discorso
is
Speroni
.
of
a
be
;
in ,
In
of
).
(
.p
415B these statements about imitation Conti shows under standing the peculiar meaning given the term the Poetics chooses applied passages separated rather Platonic meaning and one that can from the whole the text
,
."
)
(
425
,
, &
,
,
&
,
,
&
,
à
: “
), .p
(
,
,
,
,
& ut
3
quare De arte rhetorica 1572 347A uocis imitatione natae sunt artes plurimae epica quae regum imperatorum ducum res gestas bella carminibus exametris exprimit quae comoedias tragoedias Satyras mimos amplectitur histrionica cuiuslibet aetatis ordinis conditionis hominum mores uitas uoce repraesentat
Nature and possible
not the
an
.
is
resemblance
imitates
Nature much not possible since the object art resemble
of
But complete real object
is
,
,
finds first that art always seeks
.
to
in operation . He seeks the conditions under which
as
art
THEORY
as
POETIC
to
so
it ,
as
Nature and art leads decide that
,
,
,
,
as
,
speak
was before
to
:
it
follows
for
to
in
the order
in
of
the triple relationship among God inquire into their relative nobility and which they have been named
Consideration Speroni
in
it is
as
and insofar action and must remain action just after the form which the artifex will have impressed upon it.4
much
as
it,
be
accident which resembles the substance therefore has for subject the being action
it
.
Art
in
is
that added possibly can
an
to it is
;
no
is
actually And this comes about because the subject upon which art operates true thing therefore substantial form can introduced into but everything
be ,
a is
in
to
;
be
to
it
,
,
it
is
in —
,
in
is
all ,
,
if
at
it of is a
a
,
a
of
posed
examines .
byhe
when
clearly inquiring into metaphysical and aesthetic problem problem imitation far different order than that present present only Conti The text the Poetics
is
Speroni
to
;
is
is
it,
by
,
a
not Nature herself
—
the painting operates but imitates her since this subject art and Nature are joined already made and Nature the latter making the former presupposing more noble than art since the less noble always seeks resemble the more said about Nature and God.5 noble the same
Thus since art imitates Nature but not man but his image and imitation subject which was made Nature and
le , .
in
of
( it
of
is
The lecture praise for Giotto
as
of
a
in
of
to
.
in
lettioni But
in
once again the subject discussion the Lettione decima volume entitled Tutte 1551 Giovanni Battista Gelli Gelli we encounter the same kind discussion Conti painting poetry devoted the arts and ends with
is
by
Imitation published
in of
.
a
remote way
is .
“
,
by
)
by
III.I
(
to
)
on
),
,
,
to
(
,
which are arts imitation Dante and Petrarch both Gelli cites Aristotle Poetics 144864 the reasons why imitation pleasurable these arguments the notion from Rhetoric man adding speaking using his voice that man imitates words and since ,
of
an
concepts and since the voice serves words are nothing but imitation better than for demonstrating the passions the soul He
III ,
ed .) ,
."
of
for nothing
si
al
,
,
in
è
in
ed
, si
in
,
dir ,
,
in
,
lo
ha
Ici ,
;
in la ".
vi
è
,
la
,
,
e
si
,
; ed e in la
;
ed
la
,
,
,
già è
,
il
in
,
: " E ;
, è
vi si
in
, è (
: “ de '
non
subietto
è
s
rimanere come era prima dopo forma che arà impressa l'artefice Dunque come l'arte imita natura ma non essa natura perciocchè perciocchè ella opera uomo ma sua imagine imitazione ma imita quale aggiungono arte fatto dalla natura esso natura questa
atto 366
Ibid dipintura un
,
...
il
,
atto
ed ., in .p
.
4
quale Discorso 1740 365 ciò avviene perche subietto intorno adopra l'arte cosa vera effetto però essa non può introdursi alcuna forma sustanziale aggiunge quanto puote ma ogni cosa che accidente che alla sostanza rassimi glia per subietto quanto egli L'arte adunque ente atto per cosi
)
426
l'animo
."
de
affetti
." ;
de e di
da
,
gli
i
a
dimostrare
;
è
è
:
di
: "
), il .p
cosa alcuna meglio che (
voce
a
(
le
seruendo
la
nc
o
al
,
ſacendolo quella fatto presupponendolo natura dell'arte più nobile perciocchè assimigliarsi sempre più nobile cerca Dio così dire della natura men nobile Tutte lettioni 1551 358 Non essendo altro nomi che imitation concetti
POETICS :
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
.
).
IV , in pp
,
see
then returns to direct translation or paraphrase of Aristotle on the pleasure derived from learning and on the pleasure derived from contemplating representations of essentially unpleasant objects. Two years later, in 1553 , Giason Denores published his In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica ( above Chapter 128–29 Denores
of
of
, is
( .p
,
34 ), he
a
to
.
he
.p
(
of
).
125v
common speech
the iamb
example
69v artistic and nonartistic errors poetic theory for which But there are several major questions ),
( .p on
the resemblance the proper size animals
on
cites Aristotle
Thus for
his commentary
of
the course
on
in
cross references
of
of
,
is
of
less interested than were some his predecessors the mere listing parallels between Horace and Aristotle although there small number
to
recurrently appeals
a
:
"
“
of
.
of
is
an
,
&
de
est
,
de
'
it in
of
.
his
,
the Poetics and they are the same ones that were troubling contemporaries One was the problem imitation We see poetry first reflection his statement that invention the soul 66 ipsa quasi inuentione hoc anima constitutione poematis
to
is
;
all
:
on the question
is
it
.
his discussion
be
to
reflected again
, in
see
it
We
of
,
5v in ).
(
.p
extraordinary what may seem figurative language Denores wonders why meta phors and similes are pleasurable and discovers that because they are imitations which teach Aristotle's whole argument then brought bear way
,
of
by ,
,
.
all
...
,
.
all
,
is ,
I
in
should hold then that metaphors produce men greater admiration and pleasure than do proper terms for the same reason for which we judge that poetry delights more than history that because poetry imitates Imitation moreover affects and delights men equally For since receive learning easily
us
by
.?
of
us
,
in
,
in
is
of
,
it
,
of
means imitation and resemblance matters from the knowledge which they then derive the greatest pleasure certain that metaphors are most pleasurable not only because they generate knowledge via resemblance and imitation but also because they produce pleasure out that knowledge are not basically different from those
.
,
,
as
in , to ut
(“
32 ), as
.
in
,
of
of
,
in
ideas
,
expressed certain Maggi chapter notably writers studied the last Grifoli and Dolce The passage just quoted introduces the second the problems for which Denores consulted Aristotle that the relationship between poetry and history they He sees one difference the distinction between things actually happened and things they might happen gestae Non sunt These
.
-
is
: “
it
& ea
.pp
be
is
be
.p
”
,
ut
geri potuerunt and quotes Aristotle corroboration pro Another distinction between truth and what may added truth vided that verisimilitude observed For not simply that the his torian differs from the poet only because one uses verse and the other sed
,
,
&
,
.
,
ex
in
:
)
(
427
&
,
."
ex
;
:
,
ex
. . . .
,
,
,
: "
),
(
In
7
epistolam 1553 Ego autem uel potissimum ratione existimarem 23–23v uoluptatem translata maiorem afferre apud omnes admirationem quàm propria qua etiam magis oblectare poesis historia iudicatur hoc est quia imitatur imitatio autem omnes pariter afficit atque delectat Quare cum imitatione similitudine facile omnes disciplinas percipiant quarum postea cognitione summam capiant iucunditatem certum est translationes esse gratissimas tum quia per similitudinem imitationem pariunt cognitione pariunt uoluptatem nobis cognitionem tum quia
POETIC
THEORY
prose , but also in this , that the historian adds nothing to the truth and takes nothing away from it ; the poet adds and removes many things, but what he presents is verisimilar . " 8 Aristotle is again cited on history and on
verisimilitude . Denores ' third problem is that of the end of tragedy and the purgation and fear . It is significant that his problem arises in connection with Ars poetica 333 , in the gloss on “ prodesse ." He quotes the definition and then comments :
of pity
.
...
as all
poets
to
to
it
proper
treat above
so
on , a of a
On this subject when Aristotle says that
is
his
For , since the end of tragedy relates to softening and as it were purifying the passions of the soul, because it aims, apparently , at inculcation of the right way of living and ( thus ) at a practical effect , we must say that it is not only proper for the poet to express things relevant to living , but that this is main object
he
in
?
is
to
of to
9
living
.
express things relevant
to
other than
to
be
,
as
,
those matters universal kind that they will present them not such particular occasion but they should have been does events were not perhaps openly say that this end should assigned them embrace their poems the various species and the various functions daily life This nothing
to
As
in
11.
,
on
.
to
in
,
of
,
.
is
,
of of
to
,
is
pity and fear easy for Denores from the purgation proper living which constitutes for moral usefulness the instruction poetry Aristotle readily reduced him the end Horace for the achievement this end the question arises partially connection with
The transition
).
ff .
or
: "
,
or
,
).
64
(
.p
to
be
-
(
Horace's remarks off stage action 179 Denores identifies those actions which should not shown on the stage with those which bring pity and fear the spectator which are incredible miraculous which are wicked He summarizes Tria igitur sunt tantummodo refe
in
of
is
to ).
(
to
to
to
it
as a
;
).
.
&
,
(
”
of
by
be
p
,
&
;
,
in
renda non autem agenda scaena quae terribilia sunt miserabilia quae obscaena sunt quae fieri non possunt Rather should 64v pity and terror produced the composition the plot Poetics 1453b1 superior This consideration leads Denores conclude that the epic requires less genre since tragedy external machinery the way
).
is
'
of ( .pp
,
,
of
a
;
ac
,
;
ac
,
à
soluta oratione plura detrahat
&
quasi expiandos uidetur spectare
&
,
, ad
est
,
ad
: “
.pp
.,
9
."
,
: “
., .p
8
poeta historicus carmine uel Ibid 56v Neque enim solum differt sed quòd alter ueritati nihil addat nihil detrahat alter plura addat uerisimilia tamen Ibid 117–17v Quare cum finis tragoediae referatur leniendos animorum motus quod recte degendae uitae institutionem utilitatem
,
.
is
of
to
of
,
is
and appeals the ear rather than the eye and that those tragedies are most perfect which most closely approach the epic form 65–67 What most striking perhaps about Denores use Aristotle his wresting the texts from their original reference and their application widely different materials This respect evidence not only lack
... ,
)
(
428
."
,
,
in
ut
,
,
indicat munus hoc esse illis assignatum uarias eorum poematis ciuilis uitae species quod nihil quicquam esse putandum est quàm idonea uitae dicere officia complectantur
&
,
his
ab
,
ut
in
.
,
poetis etiam esse proprium idonea uitae afferre sed hoc maxime non solum dicendum Ad haec cum Aristoteles rebus uniuersi generis maxime uersari proprium poetis esse dicat non quales aliqui fuerint sed quales esse debuerint referantur nonne aperte
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
of the Poetics , but of a complete indifference to careful thinking proper is enough for distinctions . A modicum of similarity - a word or to only parallels , Denores not to establish but to elaborate arguments and reach definite conclusions for
.
to
set
up
the text
BENEDETTO VARCHI
)
a
com
is
the lectures
say that the principal
of
exaggeration
,
of in
,
it
I
,
but think organization found
The philosophical derivation a to
poetry
.
art
plex
in no
of in
of
kind
(
Varchi's Lezzioni della poetica delivered before the Accademia late 1553 and early 1554 and published 1590 constitutes
Benedetto
Fiorentina
1553–54
basis
;
, it
but We find
)
574 .
function
)
1,
.
to
, “
.p
",
e
to ,
and
felice
achieve this end
The
end
of
end
"
"
distinction between
.pp
,
see
as
perfetto
uses imitation "
it
”
in
that
the is
,
,
to
,
is
is
to
thus make the human soul perfect and happy and his function imitate that invent and represent things which render men good
to
poet
, a
therefore
of
of
as to
fare l'huomo
(“
of
perfect and happy differs from others
" : “
In
all
art (
.
by
is
preliminary lecture Varchi con Chapter cerns himself first with the classification the 7-9 poetry Varchi sees and then proceeds such general matters the end poetry the end that shared arts and sciences make man the Poetics
(
. is
,
it
"
, art it
"
;
of
to
"
of
in
in
of an "
),
.p
of
,
be
,
by
,
." 10
and virtuous and consequently happy The particular objects imitated the poet are the actions passions and moral characters men 574 poet thoroughly politics and hence the must versed ethics and Although we begin here with Aristotelian principle imitation rapidly reduced from the role end that function and since
as
its
),
of (
cf.
.
of
an
of
a
, ,
,
to of
;
of
is
of
to
as
so
its
. ” ' 11
of
,
to
in
all
,
, in by
or be
is
, : or “
passion
in
faculty which teaches what ways any action rhythm character should imitated means discourse harmony together separately and order remove men from vice and incite them the virtues order that they may achieve their perfection and beatitude Again the framework the definition vaguely Poetics
a
pounds
is
,
of
becomes one
of
"
end
"
moral improvement the soon identified efficacy branch moral and civil philosophy Nevertheless obtains from the power imitation over men's souls Aristotle and imitation poetry which Varchi com becomes essential part the definition the
on
in
“
of
,
.
be
poets
unless
fine del Poeta far perfetta felice l'anima rappresentare cose che rendono huomini , e
'gl
, e
: " è
,
for
sufficient
il
ed .) , .p
quai modi
si
quale insegna
& in
, la
".
debbe imitare
."
]
[
429
,
,
,
,
.
&
,
con numero sermone armonia mescolatamente vizij accendergli alle virtù affine che conseguano ,
;
, e
,
, e
se ,
la o di
azzione affetto costume per rimuouere gli huomini perfezzione beatitudine loro
da '
578
è
Ibid qualunche per
, e
., & , e .p
,
11
l'vffizio virtuosi
that genius would not
adunque 576 suo imitare cioè fingere per conseguente felici La poetica vna facultà
1590
(
Lezzioni
humana buoni
declares
: “
10
,
genius
he
it
“
"
of
.
an
;
changed Aristotelian but content has been make the art poetry entirely different one from what Aristotle intended Even the meaning imitation becomes fluid and his gloss the above definition Varchi soon gives another sense Speaking art and
POETIC
THEORY
they were to make use of imitation , that is , in their own compositions to go about imitating the compositions of good poets, for in that way it
would be like using art ; indeed
,
nothing can be done of greater usefulness
its
than to consider the works of the perfect masters . " 12 This is imitation in the meaning so frequently given to it in the Renaissance . Nevertheless ,
),
.pp
,
(
to
,
his
,
,
,
as
of
the kinds
,
of of
,
in
this way does not prevent Varchi almost immediately from speaking imitation narrative dramatic and mixed 579–80 object manner and means and from quoting Aristotle the effect that
use
:
be
of
,
as
”
,
,
as "
as
“
"
,
in
.
,
,
of
,
imitation not verse makes the poet One sees distinction the poets the same ideas that Maggi had expressed the poet may kinds considered most narrowly one who practises both imitation and properly verse one who uses imitation only without verse and
,
so
.
so
he
,
of
.
,
an
it
;
of
,
in
of
,
with the content other texts and other traditions patent contradictions .
freely combined leading sometimes
to it
he
,
of In
on as
to
is a
”
commonly one who uses verse only without imitation Varchi necessary ingredient himself believes that verse poetry and argument for his position construes Poetics 1448620 make many these multifarious ideas imitation we note that Varchi like his contemporaries had clearly mind the content the Poetics but
to
he
of
(
,
.
to
in
,
)
of
:
,
as , a
of
,
on
(
to
of
,
In
.
in
The ideas presented thus far are contained the introductory lecture Varchi's series the Lezzione prima December 1553 returns again point departure the discussion imitation this time taking develop his theory Poetics 1448al the objects imitation order that the poet imitates three objects actions passions characters pp 602 to
,
their choices
:
Here again the utilitarian end directs the poets
.
or
,
,
,
is
in of
3 ).
,
in
epic poetry raises the The Lezzione seconda devoted specifically question the relationship between imitation and object and the answer found the demand for the necessary the possible the probable
or
so to
or
,
,
in
,
be
,
in or
,
in
in to
.
be
in
by
it of
They are not write human actions the way which they were done necessary that but that way which was either possible verisimilar they might done ... Poets must not consider the main how things are done men but how they should done although many things are permitted
vtilità
,
Vergil
componimenti
seruissero dell'arte l'opere maestri
,
è
in
si
cioè andassero
caso come che andar considerando
ne '
on
Homer and
de '
maggiore
tal ,
to ,
de ' si
seruissero dell'imitazione poeti buoni perche ,
può far cosa
di
i
già non 579 componimenti
judgments
in .pp
13
."
anzi non perfetti
si
loro imitando
considerations lead
: " se
Ibid
., .p
12
These general
.
to
,
them even outside nature and even outside the reasonable the verisimilar that they may bring not only greater utility for this mortal life but also greater 13 delight and admiration men
)
(
430
.
si ,
,
,
."
, e
a
,
,
gli
da
,
, o
si
, le o
si
; o
,
, del
lo o
à
: , “
.,
,
si
i
...
in
quel modo che fatte scriuere l'azzioni humane possibile verisimile necessario che facessero piu come cose fanno huomini ma come fare douerebbono ancora che conceda loro molte cose eziandio fuori della natura ragioneuole non che uerisimile accioche possano arrecarne non solo piu vtilità alla gli huomini ammirazione vita mortale ma ancora maggior diletto Ibid 616-17 non hanno quel modo nel quale era furono ma poeti non deono considerare per
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS judgments in which the theoretical positions are almost entirely absent. Homer is great because of his extensive knowledge and because of the good characters and customs he presents ; Vergil is great because of his erudition , his eloquence, his gravity ( pp. 617-20 ). The Lezzione quarta , on tragedy , quotes Aristotle's definition in extenso ( reflecting still the imperfect state of text and translations in the transition to the last clause , “ non per modo di
narrazione , ma mediante la misericordia , e il terrore ,” p . 657 ) . His com mentary on the definition is of interest in many ways . He interprets “ graue ” as referring to great and illustrious persons— “ Kings , Generals , and other such persons " ( p. 658 )—whose actions are grave , high , worthy , and of moment , and as distinguishing tragedy from the low persons and ordinary actions of comedy . He gives to “perfetta ” the function of dis tinguishing good tragedies from the earlier imperfect ones and from the many episodes action of the epic , which because of less perfect To
he
;
indicates
their per referring not to
"
it
.
is
gives the meaning already noted leading men through virtue
as ,
,
of
that
,
he
of
course
tragedy
,
the end
”
,
purgazione
of
“
its
great
to
.
a
of
by
he
to
to
.
of
to
to
thus apparent that while Varchi organizes his set
of
to
be
of
,
he
in
by
.
of
.
to
)
all
to
be
to
"
;
(p .
fection and beatitude 660 but takes the clause only pity and fear but passions the The commonplace lessons learned from tragedy are then retailed The rest the lecture treats the qualitative parts the order listed Aristotle With respect says way commentary character does not fail add what complete treatment the various types and the characteristics which need attributed them according the laws decorum
he
of
is
.
It
a
up
his
by
,
of
in
he is
on
or
.
,
in
be
.
,
he
is
of
in
its ,
is
It
lectures around many order the detailed developments constantly led away from the position knowledge the Poetics other texts More frequently than not ends with theory whose real support would found Horace not Aristotle for this reason that his lectures are significant Unlike the official commentaries on Horace the Poetics and follows
of
an
he he is is
,
,
it
to
.
at is
,
.
of
Varchi from Pietro Angeli
, of
letters
to
in
Two
.
by
is
of
,
Aristotle not seeking parallel passages not looking for attempting corroboration one text the other Rather original treatment whose basic source Aristotle But the weight the every juncture established tradition too heavy and causes him accepted positions veer away the direction
)
(
431
the
81 ).
580–82
[ =
.pp
ed .) ,
1590
(
in
the Lezzioni
.
(
),
1553 printed 66-68 68–70 ,
,
Prose Fiorentine
I,
,
Cf. Varchi Della Poetica In
1514
is
of
Pietro Vettori also his opinion and that Vettori's interpretation Poetics will confirm their agreement.15
of
.
so to
is
a
be
to
, ,
,
he
.
to
as
in
to
of
of
as a of
the question
,
,
to
November and December imitation and challenge particularly Varchi's belief that the dialogue form imitation was considered interpret genre poetry.14 Angeli believes that hold this view badly the passage says the ends are the Poetics Rather different separate the dialogue completely from poetic forms He declares that 1553 return
POETIC
THEORY
Like Varchi's Lezzioni , Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi della inventione poetica ( 1554 ) are an attempt at an original formulation of certain theories with respect to the art of poetry . But whereas Varchi begins with Aristotle , Lionardi begins with Horace and the rhetorical tradition . I have indicated in Chapter IV the kind of theory which he develops . His use of Aristotle is incidental and in most cases reflects the thinking of his contemporaries ; it revolves largely about the question of imitation and verisimilitude . As
for others, imitation for Lionardi
is identified with the " invention " of the rhetorical scheme: “ [ The poet] is not a poet because of verse , but because of the plot , that is , because of the quality of the invention and imitation . " 16 But the meaning of imitation is not clear, especially in such a sentence as
. "
18
to
in ,
,
of
]
[
all
,
of
,
...
this : “ It is true that the most perfect poem is the one which is made up of fiction , of imitation , and of verse . "' 17 Nor is the meaning helped by this statement : “ this the poet's varied knowledge belongs the imita persons operations and accidents tion feigning and description it
”
, ”
favole
Lionardo
:
is
,
defines the second kind which
to
after distinguishing three kinds proper poetry
apparent when
“
of
"
."
“
or by
“
”
is
, ”
19
"
,
it
is
The text Aristotle more accurately represented the assertion that the since carries with the plot may stand without the characters actions but this too obscured the discovery that favola means This becomes even falsehoods fables not only plot but also
.
it is
to
by
.
of as
of
to
be
to
:
imitate some other is
,
la
la
fintione
di ,
di
Poeta non
qualità fauola cioè per scriuere poeticamente null'altro questa guisa servisse ancora si fa di
ma per
essendo
d'imitatione
,
che
,
,
è
."
inuentione imitatione quello uero che piu perfetto poema la
tries
lo
,
uersi
si
,
huomini
poet
the
best which decorated and enriched with many veri
poeta per
See also
require
But that imitation will
, se p è il . 30 : “ li
gli
."
il
15 : “ È
., .p
Ibid,
descrittione
delle persone
,
&
,
,
fintione
."
&
Eroico
gli
è
Et il
poetica de
...
.
di
è
di
i
,
.”
fauola puo stare senza costumi apportando seco l'attioni imagine quella fauola che uero poi chiamata ispositione poema Tragico cose verisimili
Ombra cioè narratione
& &
,
tutto ciò appartiene all'imitatione
accidenti
., ., .p .p
Ibid
Ibid imitatione
23 63 58 : : & : " " " la
Ibid dell'operationi 20 19
imi
uerso
., .p .
&
18 di 17
le
che imitare attioni parlare sarebbe imperfetta
è
,
14 : “
non
imitatione de
&
), .p
1554
be .
in
by
)
(
on
and which will
...
things
,
all
—
of
at a
,
[
16
Dialogi
dell'inuentione
depart from
fable.20
Tragedy follows verisimilitude past action described somebody else the truth
to
is
...
also improper for the poet
Yet later point Lionardi does not hesitate especially the tragic poet the use true materials
founded
...
of it or
is a
of
of
it of
,
of
so
tell fables false things tation and from the use
.
of
up
or
,
by
,
is
”
which
is is a
“
favola
of
called poetic imitation shadow and image the exposition truth that narration and verisimilar things And the tragic heroic poem made truth and verisimilitude together And thus comes about that the poet relates the causes events sometimes means just history sometimes vicious for the historian means fable
That
)
(
432
le
il
."
il
et
il
...
è
E
si
.
,
.
di
al
,
ò
&
uero
,
di
perciò auiene che poeta racconta uerisimile insieme cause auenimenti hora per istoria hora per fauola come uitioso all'istorico narrar fauole partirsi dalla imitatione poeta dalla fauola disconuiene cose false cosi ancora fassi
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
its
similar things . . . . And just as art succeeds best when it is aided by nature , so the verisimilar is worth much more every time that it has for assistance and basis the truth.21
). , 67
(
.p
to
of
as a
be
to
is
to
Aristotle's preference for the impossible probable the improbable pos seriously poetic composition guide sible taken is
is
as
”
“
he ,
if
,
err of
is
,
.
to
he
GIRALDI AND PIGNA
is
,
,
frequently distorted and obscured
.
just
as
sense
is
,
its
frequently cited
or
),
, of
a
of
.
its
(
be
--
his
—
be in ;
stays especially The closer the truth such serious genres tragedy and the epic the better work will and where the truth strictly observed historical and actual truth the verisimilar cannot place Such theory the probable should take course has only sur although face similarities with the doctrine the Poetics and the latter
.
freely
.
a
of
,
is
of
,
it
;
as as it
The sequence ideas associated with imitation and verisimilitude con may sound does have fused certain consistency Imitation inven tion such the invention what not true fables and this the proper domain poet poet the However the will invents too
)
(
1554
,
I
is
to
his
.
its
,
and the accompanying Discorso intorno
"
“
Aprile
had seen fact
dei romanzi
al
,
XXIX
adi
di
MDXLIX
ideas
,
,
that Pigna who had been his pupil
declared
,
which
Giraldi's treatise many years before and had plagiarized comporre Giraldi dates his treatise Discorso intorno
In
;
he
,
in ,
own
by
.
A
of
important documents belonging whole group the year 1554 concerned with the controversy between Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio Pigna's treatise and Giovanni Battista Pigna over the romance form publishing romanzi was published first but Giraldi Cintio answered
il
of
to
of
.)
,
,
is
it
,
(
le
.
di
.
di
a
In
“
et
A
,
delle Comedie
.”
al
Aprile XX Ferrara delle tragedie companion sopra MDXLIII treatise Lettera ovvero discorso com porre satire atte alle scene also dated 1554 although was not pub lished until the nineteenth century There followed letters and denials accusations and counteraccusations.22 Without prejudice either side comporre
.
a
in on
,
...
.
of
,
of
it ;
be in
to
64 : “
21
),
(
of
.
,
to
of
-
be
,
I
shall treat Giraldi's discourses first because the earlier dates which they bear even though these may falsified dates Giraldi's discourses belong the history Aristotle's Poetics rather curious way Basically they are modeled upon the Poetics taking their departure tragedy essential points one them the discourse dated 1543 even claims the first exposition Aristotle's text Yet the case
be
,
).
-
,
(
in a
to
.
.
.
to
of
)
433
[
,
, .p
.
by
,
third letter Giraldi dated 1554 and gives the reasons for publishing the others pamphlet was apparently prepared Giraldi substantiate his case against Pigna the first two letters 957 on the dates below chap xix ,
,
il
ha
Et
is to
,
. . . .
il
, di
."
il
, , is or
by
,
A
of
22
di
, si
fia
il
in
&
,
&
è
&
fia
.
., & p .
segue Ibid tutto verisimile sforza imitare qualche altra d'altrui passata attione Ma miglior quella imitatione che sara fondata sopra descritta uero che ornata arricchita molti uerisimili come l'arte riesce meglio quando per suo ella aiutata insieme dalla natura così uerisimile assai piu uale qualunque uolta aiuto fondamento uero group letters relevant the controversy found sixteen page brochure without date title page other identifying information British Museum 11826.d.42 The
The See
POETIC
THEORY
the theory that Giraldi develops with respect to the romance finds itself at every point in overt opposition to Aristotle , and he presents it in three
to invention , disposition , and elocution . Moreover conclusions which he reaches on such matters as the end of poetry are constantly those of the Horatian tradition . Perhaps the funda mental reason for a difference of theory between the Poetics and the sections
respectively
devoted , the
Discorso intorno al comporre dei romanzi is Giraldi's contention that there are two kinds of poems , those in which there is a single unified action ( the kind treated by Aristotle ) and those in which there is a multiple action unaffected by requirements of unity ( as exemplified by the romance ). This conception leads to a rephrasing of the definition of plot - and incidentally
of poetry -- so
plot should be based appro poet on one or several illustrious actions , which he ( the ) imitates priately by means of pleasant discourse in order to teach men honest living and good character, for this is the end that every good poet must seek " ; 23 and “since Heroic Poetry is nothing else than the imitation of illustrious as to
account for the two types :
“ The
actions , the subject of such compositions will be one or more illustrious actions of one or more famous and excellent men , which the poet will imitate by means of words accompanied by rhythm and by sweet lan " 24
guage .
The opposition to Aristotle inherent in these definitions is explicitly stated later in the text : “ The laws given by Aristotle apply only to the poetic composi forms of poetry which are of one single action ; and tions which contain deeds heroes are not included within the limits that single action Aristotle has for poets who write poems having
25
. "
he
to
be
a
:
as
would not admissible for the poet may relate many long lifetime without those included
and these are such multiplicity action
of
is
.
of
The first
all
,
ments and conditions the epic
of
of
.
separate the romance from the epic Once means has require the way clear for the establishment whole new set is
so ,
Giraldi clearly done
all
a
set
of
...
of
of
,
21 .) —
.p
: “
of
to
a
,
that
is ,
add episodes
,
pleasure and gives wide enjoyable digressions and
the condiment
,
it
the writer
which
.pp
23
field
variety
to ,
to
brings with
is
of
of
(
a
in
-
,
actions one hero indeed making the poem too long for the audience's pleasure see Rather the multiplication actions and ornaments will increase the variety the poem and hence the delight the audience This diversity actions
: " la
(
si
è
,
, et i
,
. la "
: “
il .pp
.,
24
),
a o al gli
comporre dei romanzi 1554 quale fauola uuole essere 8–9 piu attioni illustri lequali egli imiti conueneuolmente con parlare fondata soura una soaue per insegnare huomini l'honesta uita buoni costumi che questo dee preporre per fine qualunque buono Poeta perche Ibid 10–11 Poesia Heroica non altro che imitatione delle attioni Discorso intorno
o di
la
di
& ,
,
,
le
, o
di
,
., ." & .p
)
434
che scrivono
Poema
,
di
che sono Heroi non
di
Poeti
di ,
,
c'ha messo Aristotile
(
,
si
stendono senon alle Poesio Poetiche che contengono fatti ,
,
termini
Aristotile non
compositioni
a
da
leggi date tutte
...
."
sono chiuse tra attione
i
Ibid una sola attione
le
22 ; :" & le
Poeta 25
il
,
,
piu huomini piu attioni illustri illustri sarà soggetto tali componimenti una uno chiari eccellenti che con uoci accompagnate col numero con dolcezza imiterà
una sola
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
introduce therein events which can never happen ( without some suspicion of blame ) in poems which are made up of a single action . ” 26 Another way of obtaining multiplicity of action is by recounting many deeds of many heroes .
As a second general new requirement, the poet will add to the action or actions a large number of ornaments or “ fillers " ( " riempimenti ” ). Giraldi gives several lists
of such ornaments : on
page 26 :
amori , odij, pianti , risa , giuochi, cose graui , discordie , paci , bruttezze , bellezze , descrittioni di luochi, di tempi , di persone , fauole finte da se , & tolte da gliantichi, nauigationi , errori, mostri ; improuisi auenimenti , morti , essequie, lamentationi , recognitioni, cose terribili & compassioneuoli , nozze , nascimenti , uittorie , triomphi, singolari battaglie , giostre , torneamenti , cataloghi , ordinanze , & altre simili cose . page
On
improuisi
43 : “amori , auenimenti
cortesie ,
,
giustitie , torti ,
liberalità , uitij, uirtù , offensioni , difese , inganni, insidie , fede, lealtà , for tezze , dapocaggini , speranze , timori , utili , danni ” —and the passage con tinues : “ and other such episodes or digressions which are most numerous and which can introduce , along with the linking together and the disposi tion of the work , so much variety and so much pleasure that the poem will become most lovely and most delightful . ” 27 A third general requirement is that the poet interrupt the flow
of
the
up
of
of
this end
of
Any Aristotelian conception
of
means
.
to
be
natural order will
.
as
as
,
a
in
his
action as a means of obtaining suspense and of removing satiety ( “ leuare story la satietà , ” p . 42 ) from the reader . Whereas the epic poet may tell continuous fashion the writer romances should break the narra possible tive much The many digressions and disturbances the ”
“
action has thus been com But Giraldi realizes that some way must discovered for proposes two devices verisimilitude holding the poem together and disposition general principle and decorum There also order proposition invocation and narration stated the rhetorical terms disposition verisimilitude Giraldi means credibility means believ unity
.
statement
as
a
he
a
such
By ,
:
or
of
,
by ,
the two are closely linked
in
events
;
able order
of
,
in
of
a
.
is
,
he
.
be
pletely rejected
the
all
:
following
is
of
as
,
be
,
of
lei la
25 : “
26
of
he
,
to
,
as
is
And because poetry imitation and alone imitation and verse make the poet and because this imitation far the subject the poem concerned extremely careful that the actions which relates the actions the poet must takes for subject and foundation the structure his work carry with them ,
è
(
."
)
(
435
,
tanto diletto
,
, &
tanta uarietà
&
,
la , o
."
di
dispositione dell'opera con piaceuolissimo
&
, , &
il
legatura indurre insieme con che diuerrà Poema uaghissimo
,
di
da
,
43 : " la &
., ) .p
,
si
,
&
,
di
27
&
è
il
., .p
Ibid Però che porta questa diuersità delle attioni con esso uarietà laquale largo campo allo Scrittore condimento del diletto fare Episodij cio digressioni grate introdurui auenimenti che non possono mai99 auenire senon con qualche sospetto biasimo nelle Poesie che sono una sola attione digressioni iquali sono piu che molti Ibid altri tali Episodij possono
POETIC
THEORY
both in the disposition and in the other parts , so much verisimilitude that it will not be incredible , and that one part of the work will depend from another in such wise that one will come after the other either necessarily or probably.28
The same principles of disposition and verisimilitude apply to the digressions as well as to the main subject of the poem : And in these digressions the poet must be very watchful to treat them in such way a that one will depend from the other , and that they will be well joined with the parts of the subject which he has undertaken to relate with a continuous chain , and that they
thread and a continuous
will bear verisimilitude with them
For if
( insofar as this is possible in poetic fictions ).
these digressions were made any way poem faulty , in other the would become and displeasing , whereas it delights and pleases when they are seen to come about in a way that they appear to be born along with the subject itself.29
no
is
all
of
to
]
a
in
.
it
[
...
,
:
as
all
There are, of course , no specific recommendations for the achievement of disposition The principle this order , this linking , this over more obviously reflects precise than the Horatian dogma which such this statement giving with these digressions the parts the proper size and the appropriate ornament with such proportion that out be 30
so a to
.
of
,
of
of
.”
by
,
to
.
in
;
in
to );
( .pp
be
,
be
or by
by
,
order work
his
of
by
:
,
essential
a
is
an
untrue and incredible ingredient
the fact that the poet must relate
please his audience
the marvelous Giraldi resolves the difficulty several ways first distinction between major subject and digressions major subject -the must true the digressions may false 50-51 admitting second that certain false stories and episodes have come
is
what
complicated however ,
The problem
is
of
.
as
to , a it
of
-
a
As all
it
regulated and well composed body will come principle for the verisimilitude will also related that proper order leads credibility proper decorum Just kind handling credibility characters and situations produces another kind
in
;
as
: “
is
,
In it
a
is
of
be a
54 : “
.
28
of
as
55 .)
.
(p
be
verisimilar through their exploitation earlier poets plot essentially Verisimilitude thus matter action decorum may also plot although primarily matter concerns character and thought Giraldi's description very broad these things the accepted
fa
,
si il si di
il
, , & se il . "
...
&
,
le
& &
,
a
in
. "
, o
in
o
Et
25 : “ ,
,
., .p
29
dall'altra dipenda che necessariamente uerisimilmente l'una uenga dietro l'altra queste digressioni esser molto aueduto Ibid deue Poeta trattarle parti della materia che modo che una dipenda dall'altra siano bene aggiunte con preso dire con continuo filo con continua catena che portino con esso loro ha
&
,
&
, &
,
di
,
,
si
& ,
& il
,
, è la
&
,
,
,
il
le
al
,
è
la
Et
,
il
., & p .
perche Ibid Poesia tutta imitatione solo imitatione uerso perche essa imitatione quanto soggetto del Poema Poeta intorno alle attioni deue piglia per soggetto per hauere grandissimo riguardo Poeta che attioni ch'egli fondamento della fabrica della opera sua portino con esso loro nella dispositione nelle altre parti tanto del verisimile che non rimanga priua fede che una parte cosi
&
,
,
corpo
."
ben composto
,
la
)
(
436
regolato
&
ueda riuscire
,
un
la
le
a
ne
che
se
,
&
, il
,
26 : “
si
., .p
30
con tale proportione
).
,
(
quanto s'appertiene alle fittioni Poetiche queste digressioni Perche piace facessero altrimenti diuerrebbe Poema uitioso increscieuole come diletta quando elle ueggono nascere tali che paiano nate con cosa istessa parti Ibid dando con esse tutte debita misura diceuole ornamento uerisimile
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS others , the poet must always keep an eye on decorum , which is nothing else but what is proper to places , times , and persons . decorum is merely the grace and the appropriateness of things , and it must be considered not so much with respect to actions as to the speeches and the responses that men make to one another . " 31 As such , decorum once again approaches
...
Horatian principle of appropriateness . Insofar as it relates to of character, decorum has a peculiarly normative function . It shows people not as they are , but as they should be ; and it provides object lessons by displaying the necessary accompaniments, fair or foul, of virtue and vice : the general
his
the depiction
fictions and visualizing them not and accompanying appropriately the things which vice carries with with honor and pity this belongs less the purges our souls heroic poet than the tragic poet when the matter justifies similar passions and arouses virtue we see the definition that they should
to
no
for
to in
,
as
,
it )
,
,
addition verisimilitude what considered everywhere the work.32
in
honest must
on
is
that be
.
of
tragedy And thus
praiseworthy and what
In
is
Aristotle gives
in
of
us it to is
,
to
(
it
be ,
they are but
as
as
The poet , imitating illustrious actions in
.
(
as
an
,
is
)
,
,
this passage two Aristotelian ideas take new forms The notion that the poet unlike the historian relates such events could happen Poetics requirement 145165 transformed here into ethical that the poet in
.
of
by
to
of
all
in
of
-a
an
of
a
of
us
by
of
to
of
be .
purgation indicated what should And the effect the last tragedy clause the definition becomes statement ethical end demonstrating the results make better vice principle appropriateness The involved decorum raises the question present
63 : "
:
of
a
satisfy
As
of ,
the same time a
."
in
to
example here
because they wish 33 at
is
it
,
an
as
serve
to
in
of
"
,
is
If
(p .
a
or
or
may
the general rule for poets
this contemporary audience profit and delight order satisfying the men age that which they are writing 31
of
as
-
,
.
of
Vergil's practice
;
depicting
58 .)
which
is
he
,
of
,
a
is
.
,
.
is
in
constant one theories decorum the criterion which Usually the expectations judged appropriateness the demands given audience are involved Here Giraldi does not hesitate the audience contemporary one and Italian The poet follows the customs and man ners his own time not those his model even those the period
matter
...
gli
,
si
.
,
, a ;
& i
,
al
&
,
al
,
, 59 : "
. ., " .p
32
, a il i
& il ,
la ,
,
in
Et
, è
( e )
;
il al
., .p
queste cose come nell'altre Ibid Poeta dee sempre hauere l'occhio tempi alle persone decoro ilquale non altro che quello che conuiene luochi gratia decoro non altro che conueneuole delle cose dee egli considerare parlare rispondere che fanno non pur quanto alle attioni ma quanto huomini tra loro
&
,
le
,
,
è
da
da gli
(
)
il
&
,
il
in
,
uede nella difinitione che Aristotile della considerare tutta l'opera lodeuole da
è si la
&
le
&
,
,
desta alla uirtù come che oltre uerisimile
il
ci
qui
è,
di ,
., . . " .p Et
simili passioni Tragedia
&
,
il
, si
,
il
proponendolesi Ibid imitando Poeta col suo fingere attioni illustri accompagnando conueneuolemente non quali sono ma quali esser debbono cose che portano con esso loro uitio con l'horribile col miserabile che ciò non meno del Poeta Heroica che sia del Tragico quando materia richiede purga animi nostri
)
(
437
quella età
,
huomini
di
gli
a
,
dilettare insieme sodisfacendo
. "
,
58 : “
33
per giouare Ibid nella quale scriuono
&
l'honesto
POETIC
THEORY
fact, the whole difference between Aristotle and the theory of the romance may be stated as a difference of time : Aristotle's Poetics is based on the practice of the poets of his time and of earlier centuries ; Giraldi's is simi larly derived . The rules for the romance
...
should be left within those limits established by those poets who have , among and reputation to that kind of poetry . And just as the Greeks
us , given authority
and the Latins have derived the art of which they have written from their poets , so also we must derive it from our own , and follow that form which the best writers of romances have given us .34
.
its
thus prefer
of
all
The poet who writes a romance is thus independent of the rules of Aristotle and of Horace and needs to consider only the practices of his predecessors in the same genre — whom are relatively recent The audience will it
of .
of
its its
is
of
its ,
a
as .
,
it
if
to it,
form which close within which will recognize Moreover that form will achieve ends with special efficacy contemporary audience uses one means the religion Giraldi praises Boiardo and Ariosto for having added the embellishment Christianity own mores
be
is ,
he
to
joyous over and be
be
to
as
of
,
a
... which arouses marvelous attention and causes the reader the fortunate adventures those who are of the same faith
,
of
a
in
he
in
we
pleasure
the ends
utility and
by
.
which Giraldi proposes for the poet These are Horace's ends
not
writes
of
,
which there are indications
of
men the learned but the passages previously cited most
every age
,
,
that language
another affirma ." 36
as
be
must
these
pleasing
in
of
“
a
of
poem
all
to
the subject
in
in
is
is a
.
reconcile with such statements ,
to
Giraldi
:
difficult
of
In
tion only
to of
is
It
of
. 35 ,
to
at
of
to
,
to
always suspense sorrowful when the contrary happens and state waiting for his God provide relief from the difficulties and the harms which they suffer thing which the hands the unfaithful This also well adapted importance the terrible and the pitiful which two things are not the least compositions this kind
to in
it
to
;
of
gli
tra
tra
as
: "
of
of
of
is a
of
to
Giraldi
.
in
,
Aristotle's text the same method that have There kind division labor among the overtly parts these ends Giraldi states the poem for the service utility belongs just his discussion elocution the sententiae and assimilated
seen elsewhere
ha
et i ,
i
si il
de de
."
ci
si
&
,
de fa i
,
la
.
&
,
di
i
a
& ,
,
da i
a
45 : "
11 : , “
,
., .p
., da i .p
& si
34
35
que termini quali Ibid ma deuono lasciare hanno posti chi queste specie riputatione Latini come Greci Poesia data tra noi auttorità debbiamo anco noi loro Poeti cosi hanno tratta l'arte dellaquale hanno scritto quella forma che migliori Poeti hanno data Romanzi attenersi trarre nostri allegri laqual cosa desta marauigliosa attentione lettore che Ibid
&
è :
,
in
,
." )
(
438
a
,
a i
,
in
nella quale egli scriue
gli
le
in
.
,
,
a i
&
al
15 : “ si
quella fauella
,
huomini
., di .p
36
."
al
&
,
&
i
,
i
di
dolga felici auenimenti coloro che sono della medesima fede della quale egli contrarij aspettando che dal suo Iddio uenga proui stia tuttauia con l'animo sospeso danni che patiscono da gli infedeli Cosa ch'è anco molto sione alle inconuenienze compassioneuole lequali due cose non tengono atta terribile ultime parti simili 92 compositioni ogni tempo non pure tutti dotti ma che possa piacere Ibid
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
-
in addition to the expression the things which are treated , so the words delightfulness pleasure entirely . "37 In terms of and serve of the idea
Aristotle's qualitative parts , utility would come from plot , character, and thought , and pleasure from diction ; in terms of the rhetorical division of invention , disposition , and elocution (around which he organizes his own treatise ), utility would derive essentially
from the first two , pleasure from really also the “ res -verba " distinc involves latter division the third . The tion . Following the total line of relationships , we see that the utilitarian is achieved by the arousing of pity and fear depends for , effectiveness on verisimilitude ) which romance (even in the general upon proper disposition subject the parts and upon
of moral improvement
a
,
of
,
of
its
end
of ,
,
.
,
of
Giraldi regards
.
160–61 On the whole the work which begins with certain ,
see
a
the physiognomy
upon variety resulting
upon diction .)
;
the poem
of
soul
of
the
presents
treatise
"
elocution
“
as
,
from innumerable ornaments and above
,
digressions .pp
means
all
of
by
,
the marvelous introduced
(
,
on
of
of
of
credibility springing from the audience's sense contemporaneity common interest with the heroes the poem Pleasure the other hand depends upon the total composition the work upon
decorum and
in
it
it
tragedy
and that thus far the Aristotle's Poetics Aprile MDXLIII XX
If
38
and
the exposition
that this
is e
Cintio declares
Giraldi
comedy
. "
on in
1554
of
his hand
gives
to
has
at
set
,
"
nobody
",
.
as
of
at
in
as
at
,
,
of
.
a
is
we
as
,
,
di
.
a di
In
,
In
,
, “
the end
in
.
,
his
Ferrara justified published treatises authentic claims are least insofar any case the treatise follows very closely the order are concerned the many places Poetics and little more than translation The com mentary however every point finds should now expect Aris theory poetry totle Giraldi's own which becomes clear the exposition is
date which
he
the first
,
also published vernacular treatise
delle tragedie
,
al
of
At
.
,
of
,
of
Aristotelian conceptions the tragedy and the epic which treats the mould the habitual rhetorical distinctions and from which derives conclusions which are primarily Horatian comporre delle comedie the beginning his Discorso intorno
.
of
be
to
, of
of
an
of
It
.
application develops consists little more than the principles already discovered for the romance tragedy and comedy the genres Giraldi's remarks may divided into two categories those which concern
of
of
ad
“
the audience's
of
,
;
by
).
the moving
this end are two verse both passions and from this
,
The means the achievement action and language accompanied
207
of
"
to (
"
99 : "
these contribute 37
to an .p
of ”
,
buoni costumi the imitation
;
to
all
in
is
to
;
it
is
.
,
the common characteristics the two dramatic genres and those which concern their differences Of the common characteristics the most salient the end pursued cases teach good behavior both them intend introduce good manners amendue intendono introdurre
]
le
;
: "
ne
si
), ." .p
(
."
di
la
439
(
ad
, et
al
38
et
,
, et
è
il
., .p
uoci giouare trattano cosi Ibid come delle sentenze delle cose che oltre l'espressione del concetto sono tutte del piacere della uaghezza comporre delle comedie Discorso intorno delle tragedie 1554 202 alcuno isporre habbia ancora messo mano Poetica Aristotile
THEORY is the
POETIC
,
of
in
,
power moving the movement comes the desired moral effect , “ since tragic passions rests only upon imitation which separated not from verisimilitude and since things themselves cannot move the passions
it
.
by
,
its
of
in
." 39
Apparently without words which are properly put together and verse sympathy the moral lesson results from the which the audience feels for justice and humanity But the actors from sense also results from us
,
,
an
,
let
in
,
to
much harm
in
a
of
as
I
if
,
'
?
to
now see what would happen me were commit this sin voluntarily and this thought makes him
I
suffered
perchance
40
as
: '
,
If
:
“
to of
,
a
reasoning process which the spectator puts himself the place say Oedipus the King The spectator unexpressed deduction says himself this man because fault committed unwittingly has
as
in
,
they are
their
of
in as
.
But
226
—
and universal aspects
is
in
,
in
they appropriately come about ( .p
most general
).
they should
as
be ,
as
of
is
to
. "
abstain from mistakes necessary Imitation thus equivalent verisimilitude and this turn participation poet presents for the the audience the action The actions the case
the
or
In
to
“
:
to
is
it
is
in
the decorum
,
the reasonings the mores ." , 41
,
to
verisimilitude with respect
,
as
,
-
is
selecting romance verisimilitude local and contemporaneous forming for himself these illustrious actions ... good have them writing desire them according such the times which the poet
and
a
verisimilar to
is
)
.
(p .
fashion 245 what would happen
underhanded
verisimilitude
probable that )
, ( or
is
:
an
in
rather than
matters
an it
,
insult and
of
in
open
:
life
Be
in
will The ultimate appeal everyday
an
avenge ,
so
he
do
seek
in
necessarily
an to
is
by
to
persons the other circumstances relative The difference between veri necessity example courageous man will similitude and indicated
be
in
or
do
,
to
of
;
at
or
be
an
imitatione
,
su le la
le
terms
uoci accon
affetti senza se
da ,
fia di
fa
,
il
&
,
questi per errore seco dice quanto uedo hora che me questo pensiero astenere
41
., .p
42
., .p
."
?
se
,
commesso non uolontariamente tanto male sofferto forse uolontariamente commettessi questo peccato 17 gli errori
io ,
ha
."
gli
se
,
affetti Tragici senon da
gli
verisimilitude and decorum
forza del mouere
of
in
to
of
verisimilitude.42
non mouendo cose insieme giunte spettatore con tacita consequenza ,
: " lo
217–18
...
.
: “
numerosamente
& la
thinks
,
at
if
on
be
course
,
,
lbid
.,
40
che non ciamente
done according
209 non stando parta dal uerisimile
, si ., .p
Ibid
&
39
Giraldi
of
they would
.pp
as is
be
do
on
do
public say sure that the persons introduced the stage not things that they would not verisimilarly say home and certain that blameworthy what would done home according honest rules action things must composed and represented also blameworthy the stage
,
,
&
casa che casa sia anco
in
,
,
&
a
)
in
, o
, &
(
440
, ; o
,
."
a i
,
il
ne
,
in
si
...
."
.
,
si
, è
,
da
&
i
,
: "
nel publico che verisimilemente non farebbono non direbbono teniate certo che quello che honesta attione sarebbe uituperoso fare uituperoso nella Scena comporre rappresentare cosi debbono mente farebbono ,
quello
le ,
, al
, a i
,
le
,
, o
: "
, o
Ibid 218 nello eleggersi formarsi queste attioni illustri cosi dette non perche grandissimi personaggi non siano lodeuoli uirtuose ma perche vengono senon bene tempi iquali scriue hauerle tali quali ricercano uerisimilmente Poeta quanto ragionamenti costumi decoro alle altre circonstanze della persona persone introdutte nella Scena non facciano Ibid 284 auertiate che dicano
come uerisimil
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS audience ; he excludes
obscene
matters , which please only
plebeian
and
“sausage - makers and
in
;
,
of
all
similar kinds of people " ( p . 219 ) , and insists that the poet must try to please only “ the good judges ” ( p. 285) . But please the audience he must , since this is one of the fundamental requisites for poetry the action the audience without pleasure the participation .
in
,
to
.
he
to
a
( of .pp
a
suggest
to
be
,
it
necessary
that will
he
moral instruction are both impossible When deems recommending goes devices Aristotle counter Giraldi more pleasurable the audience Thus does not hesitate happy ending tragedy designed for pre diluted form with
and the consequent
)
of ( "
"
;
in
.
a
of
)
"
(
be
of
to
).
to
his audience 221-22 The other precepts relevant common characteristics are largely close reflections the Aristotelian text Plot both tragedy and comedy must complete proper magnitude perfetta and debita grandezza sentation
(d
is
no
).
.pp
(
-
be
),
of
is
quickly translated into length performance espite but proper size Aristotle's warning with minima three hours for comedy and four for disappointed required tragedy lest the audience 203-4 Verse an
).
In
) .pp .
as
ex
be
as
to
“
"
"
;
to
is
a
a
—
).
.pp
addi
the audience
of
to
”
and their rewards and punishments will provide .
(
,
"
is
without recourse such artificial means the deus 211-13 For both and here the departure from Aristotle preferable single one the good double plot and
bad characters tional enjoyment
“
(
is
of
,
)
;
( .p
contrived machina radical
to a
of
(p .
of
be
,
to
discrepancy for both forms and Giraldi seems conscious between this requirement and Aristotle's theory 205 Both imitate single day action and limit the time that action 205–6 both dramatic genres the plot the end toward which the other parts contribute carefully 207 and such parts the plot knot and solution must
the treatment
.
,
he
as
as
,
of
by
.
of
to
is
of
.
the antecedent
to
in
is
of
It
the difference between the two genres that the tradition makes itself most clearly felt Joined this the concern for the pleasure the contemporary audience We have already seen that Giraldi ascribes tragedy and comedy the common end moral instruction He derives from Aristotle well can the
force
The kinds
).
of
.
life
:
everyday
actions
:
,
horrible events comedy the activities themselves have moral implications
of of
by
,
(p .
;
different emotional effects means which they proceed tragedy works through terror and pity comedy through pleasure and merry jokes 208 These are produced different kinds action tragedy presents death and
through horror and compassion
43
in
of
a
,
.
,
,
us
by
us to
,
,
.
,
purges
of
us
,
in
showing what we should avoid the disturbances which the tragic characters have become setting before involved But comedy what we should imitate through passions through temperate feelings mixed with play with laughter with derisive jests calls proper way living 43 life ,
Tragedy
. "
di
,
al
ne
,
441
)
(
.
le
,
,
,
si
,
&
,
,
&
la
, : ci "
la
., .p
Tragedia coll'horrore Ibid 219 colla compassione mostrando quello che purga dalle perturbationi persone Tragiche debbiam fuggire nelle quali sono incorse Ma Comedia col proporci quello che dee imitare con passioni con affetti temperati mescolati con giuochi con risa con scherneuoli motti chiama buon modo uiuere
POETIC
THEORY
But if in Aristotle tragedy and comedy involved particular kinds of plot structure, in Giraldi the differences between those kinds tend to be dimin ished . Thus the happy ending is recommended for both forms , and Giraldi proudly declares that he has used no other type in his own tragedies . He admits that this goes against Aristotle and that it favors the audience ; he has used the happy ending make them ( the the usage of our
of it
the ignorance have thought
I
of its
. . . exclusively to serve the needs of the spectators , and to tragedies ) more pleasing on the stage , and to conform better to times . For even if Aristotle says that this is a way of catering to spectators , since the other side nevertheless has partisans
(
be
be it
.
on
),
a
at
is
in ful of to
be
as ,
to
satisfy him who must listen better the risk lesser excellence supposing accepted that Aristotle's opinion the better than with little more grandeur displease those for whose pleasure the plot put the stage For would to
it
if
of
if
(
a
;
made into
better and distinction between higher and “
to
a
is
moral characters
.
to
,
as
-
it
he
as
gives way expediency understands rapidly and wittingly the distinction between
"
on
be
to
in
as —
worse
”
Just
. in 44
be
.
)
when acted
Principle
“
a
compose on
to
slightly more praiseworthy plot were distaste perhaps the minds people the stage Those terrible plots happy the theater abhor them may used written works and those with ending works acted the stage little use
an
of
,
“
to
of
;
,
,
,
"
,
of
a
.
to
;
is ,
lower classes that similar transformation takes place with respect plot and tragedy fitted character The personages illustrious comedy participating and royal action are kings heroes nobles those
if
is
as
,
it
;
, he
"
;
,
"
"
a
in
action are men and women the people and Aristotle said that comedy imitated worse actions not that meant that imitated the wicked and the guilty but the less illustrious nobility they are compared with who are worse insofar concerned plebeian and civil
therefore
to
.
be ,
,
,
,
be
If
to
in
all
in
" 46 —
,
,
of
“
;
the average
,
45
.”
of
comedy are even less dignified than The personages citizenry they are parasites prostitutes cooks servants pimps soldiers and finally almost every kind plebeian folk who are found the city those who had long figured the traditional lists these differences are found among the objects imitated there will
royal persons
as .
)
(
gli
)
(
of
be
corresponding differences among the means imitation Tragedy may still use rhythm bodily motion and melody choral song means supple ho
,
i
a
:
.
,
le
of
.
)
(
442
&
,
pp , .
."
be
V.
,
,
."
,
le
le
&
la
le
:
di
.
)
,
un ,
(q
di
un
in
a
le si
da
,
si
,
se si
,
to ,
,
, è &
, in
,
.
,
,
)
si
."
fu
: " & : “
&
a
de i
ad gli
&
gli ,
de
la
de
di .p
.,
46
,
., ci p .
( fin se 45
la
a
ha de
: "
., .p
44
spettatori Ibid 221 solo per seruire farle riuscire piu grate Scena piu con l'uso conformarmi nostri tempi Che anchora che Aristotile dica che cio spettatori hauendo pero l'altra parte difensori suoi seruire alla ignoranza tenuto meglio sodisfare uando fusse accettata chi ascoltare con qualche minore eccellenza per migliore l'openione d'Aristotile che con poco piu grandezza dispiacere coloro per piacere quali fauola conduce Scena che poco giouerebbe compor fauola poco piu lodeuole poi rappresentare che ella hauesse odiosamente Quelle terribili gli animi spettatori forse possono essere delle scritture queste abhoriscono lieto delle rappresentationi però Ibid 203 detto Aristotile che Comedia imitaua attioni peggiori Non che uolesse significare che imitasse uitiose ree ma meno illustri lequali conferiscono colle reali sono peggiori quanto alla nobilità Ibid 215 serui parasiti meretrici cuochi ruffiani soldati finalmente quas ogni sorte gente popolaresca che 271-75 for other listings troui nelle città persons and for the characters associated with various types
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS mentary to verse ; but comedy now uses neither ( p . 205 ) . If verse is the universal accompaniment of diction , it is not used in the same way in the two genres . Comedy admits of no rhyme , whereas tragedy should mix rhymed with unrhymed sections , rhyme being useful especially in the choruses and in those " moral " parts where a lesson is specifically stated , “ so that they may be more easily received in the mind of the listener ” ( " accioche piu ageuolmente siano riceuute nell'animo di chi ascolta , " p . 234 ) . The diction itself will necessarily be appropriate to the actions and
or
which require more less noble diction than that employed for the rest One senses throughout the discussion the presence decorum character and the styles and also the rules the theory they were applied diction the examination Terence's comedies The third Giraldi's treatises bearing the date 1554 but published much ,
,
.
to
of
in
of
,
of
of
as
in of
.
,
a
special circumstances
on
his
the persons depicted . “ The speech of tragedy should be great , royal , and magnificent, and figurative ; that of comedy simple , pure , familiar , and appropriate to men of the people . "'47 Giraldi develops ideas the
,
,
to
its
.
of
of its
in
of
,
is
il
entitled
to le
is
.
,
It
comporre Lettera ovvero discorso sopra satire atte alle relatively short and perceive even shortness permits one clearly previous more than the case the treatise the extent which organization depends upon the outline the Poetics Giraldi conceives
later
scene
,
.
of
of
on
to
in on
an
—
in
he
"
"
,
both tragedy
it
of
as a
proper for the stage genre combining the comedy characteristics and Thus the definition which gives for and the detailed remarks the definition attempt combine the materials found Aristotle and his own treatise the other two the dramatic satire
imitation poetry
.
other kinds
an ,
,
on all
the remarks made
those
of
on
to
,
to
in
a
as
Of on
."
And the gloss
the complete action are the same
;
appropriate terror and pity and
in
,
a
,
in
to
in
on
in
of
,
: “
is
complete action dramatic genres Satire imitation suitable length combining the mirthful with the grave pleasant language the components part divided part combined single place which are laughter and presented the stage order move men's souls
much
as " do
as
In , of
"
.
it
favors verse just
the
&
magnifico alle persone del ,
,
,
,
,
&
La
48
,
:
." : .,
“
.p
quel parlare della Tragedia uuole esser grande reale Ibid 264 figurato quello della Comedia semplice puro famigliare conueneuole popolo
&
47
.
,
in
prose for divides from works written 48 other two types already mentioned
is "
at
,
it
...
be
,
to
.
...
“
"
,
be
it to its
,
as
“
suitable length _separates from complete works which are short such epigrams odes elegies Mirthful and grave the same time —this shows difference from comedy and from tragedy which the first com posed pleasing the other pleasant language —this serious
,
...
."
.
la ,
,
,
la
il
Di
,
.
,
e
di
443
)
(
,
...
di
è
ed : al “
II,
,
il
.
— la al fa
,
e
,
al
in
è
e , e
al ,
ed a
,
la
a
a le
...
al ),
(
in
di
,
Lettera ovvero discorso Scritti estetici 1864 134–35 satira imitazione giocoso azione perfetta grave con parlar soave dicevole grandezza composta per parte divise rappresentata membro della quale sono insieme suo luogo per parte compassione commovere gli animi riso convenevole terrore dicevole grandezza separa dalle cose perfette ma che sono picciole come epigrammi ode elegie grave prima Insieme giocosa diversa dalla comedia dalla tragedia delle quali composta piacevole l'altra grave parlar soave quale divide dalle cose prosa perchè ella così ama scritte verso come l'amano l'altre due già dette
POETIC
THEORY
The remainder of the gloss explains the appearance of “ numero , armonia , canto " together or separately ; the dramatic character of the genre ; and the " appropriate " terror and pity , to be distinguished from the stronger pas
of
For the satire , Giraldi demands the unhappy ending which he had not deemed necessary for tragedy, an action limited to one day and having the same quantitative and qualitative parts as the other dramatic forms . The qualitative parts are treated in this order : ( 1) “l'ap sions
tragedy .
," or spectacle ; ( 2 ) “ il ragionare " ( language , including necessarily ; verse ) ( 3 ) " melodia , " or the music of the choruses ; ( 4 ) “ sentenza " (the parato
of concepts ) ;
expression
( 5 ) “ costume , ” or character ; and (6 ) favola . " There is very little here that goes beyond the text of Aristotle , although some of the points of view noted in the other treatises reappear interpretation here in verbal
.
its
"
of
.
he
,
in
of
is
of
highly representative Giraldi Cintio's group treatises the activity around the Poetics these middle years the Cinquecento They are original treatises rather than commentaries treating three dramatic genres its
.
,
on
.
be
to
as
which Giraldi regards traditional and one narrative genre which con general new They are patterned the Poetics following outline and repeating many passages and many principles For the tradi
siders
;
led
,
,
is
his
by
,
-
sometimes
is
of
set
—
to
to
ence
is
of
only superficial constantly Aristotle the theorist drastically Aristotle's principles own adher principles which essentially Horatian and rhe another
acceptance alter
for
.
,
of
of
,
of
tional genres they accept without question much Aristotle's theory for independence they the rules modern forms declare the the new one being Throughout established before such forms came into however the
.
torical
to
,
in
as
is
does not follow the order
of
he
65 ),
( .p
the romanzo
everything that
he
.
a
.
It
of
;
is
an or
.
he
of
in
said
on
Pigna declares that Aristotle has been his guide
in
I
on ,
of
Giovanni Battista Pigna also published 1954 belongs original treatises based Aristotle did Giraldi Cintio's three discourses Whether Pigna learned what knew about the romance from Giraldi whether Giraldi plagiarized Pigna indifferent Pigna's essentially independent theory work presents the romance based on Aristotle somewhat different way from the others For although romanzi
the group
has
the Poetics
,
genres
finding by
the
by
He proceeds
another
He
one
of
this statement
.
reflects
romance
or
the
to
to in
His method everywhere similarities transferring
?
of
,
,
,
of
in
be
his
of
:
to
.
as
Giraldi had done He seems state the problem this way Given the fact that Aristotle does not treat the genre the romance what may one history tragedy comedy and the epic that will derive from theories defining the conditions and the excellences useful the new genre and
)
444
the rule will
is
,
to
be
position
: “
his
of
fundamental tenet (
This
is a
.
68 )
( .p
,
do
,
.
the romance the apposite statements must use this method since the only genre closely resembling the romance the epic nevertheless considerably different and the same rules not apply both
dis
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
one will be required to write in a way proper to the
covered whereby
”) ; and that this kind of writing has a form part agreeing with the others Greek and Latin epics of own part not and that given this foundation blamed for the fact not many respects that different from the other forms
in
),
49
."
be
to
it
is
;
it
in is (
,
in
( “Romanzeuolmente
its
romance
in
on
is
as of
i.e. ,
of
(
or
a
;
)
(
.
to
be
I
in
or
.
By
of
as
,
a ) is is
that the basis their imitation the not the same that the epic for the epic uses true event the probable one true mean derived either from history from actuality supposed true true These others romances
is ,
that
have
no
basis for fable
."
“
:
this single difference
There
romances
to
concern whatever with the truth.so
In
,
not
is
and the romance
;
to
of
,
of
be
The principal differences between the romance and the epic will the The general imitazione imitation which Pigna calls merely rules imitation apply equally both but the epic based the truth object
any case must make
its a
,
—
It
.
in
falsehood with the true and
.pp
of
large ingredient
”
.
its
“
,
is
-
this respect and here the cross reference other genres appears the romance like comedy which invents own subjects But not entirely may mix since the romance does treat known and true subjects is a
,
by “ (
It
double be
great
of
a
each romance will
a
be
,
"
.”
"
“
”
.
,
).
accompanied necessarily such through
action
of
, of
;
,
"
a
will thus have mixed ending like the Odyssey variety infinite fortunes
"
)
,
,
“
,
in
of
(
as
difference 20–21 Next there for treatment Here the romance will high royal and rather resemble the Odyssey which mixes and low high pastoral personages than the Iliad which represents only the
verisimilar aterials acceptable persons selected the kinds
it
be
. " 51
be
its
of of
,
of
it
,
in
and the rank the persons will also will tend toward the highest rather than toward the two kinds but illustrious actions will lowest and almost every one
of
,
”
:
"
is
it
,
a
be
it in of
of
.
of
the action will also
,
different for whereas the one man the romance will relate many actions unity action the poem without unity one man The problem way which may not thoroughly necessarily arises and Pigna solves satisfactory since impressionistic essentially
The general structure epic presents one action
15 : " la
49
,
.
in
so
,
a
in
be
all
to
of
The romances readily devote themselves several deeds several men but they concern especially one man who should celebrated over the others taking single person but not And thus they agree with the epic poets
& si
in
,
di
se
,
se ,
sia
lo
.'
s'allontana .pp
50
dall'altre
&
nò : :
&
da
,
si
), .p
(
I
regola scoprirà con cui Romanzeuolmente romanzi 1554 scriuer per parte con l'altre conueniente richieda come tale scrittura habbia vna forma parte posto fondamento non degno come per biasimo molte cose
il
.
, ò
in
è ò
& ne
che all'infime
:
,
445
)
(
.
,
due sorti ma piu alle sopreme mirerà
." di
gradi delle persone sarà etiandio quasi ogni sua attione sarà illustre
il
di
24 : "
., .p
si
."
:
, ò
o
:
vn '
: “
è
.,
&
.
;
19-20 Euui questa sola differenza che fondamento della costoro imita con l'Epico istesso percioche l'Epico sopra vna cosa vera fonda vna veri per historie per fauole cio simile vera intendo effetto vera vera sopposta Questi altri alla verità risguardo alcuno non hanno quale Ibid tale per molta varietà casi infiniti sarà ciascun Romancio Ibid tione non
POETIC
take as many of them as seem to be sufficient . all
taking a single action ; for they
THEORY
“ sufficient " when they have put the heroes in
The number is
final difference
;
a
as
. of
,
in
of of
;
all
,
at
. . . .
to
in
all
as in
in
those honorable perils and perfect knight and those major actions which are sought this way endless adventures are avoided And finish the poem soon we have arrived that goal which we have selected the order nature will 52 help for when the attributes are present matter motion ceases subject
to
,
as
an
of
as
to
he is
please much more apt antiquated pagan mythology
which
,
of
his audience
the introduction
41 .)
( .p
connection with the problem
important
unity
of
these
Pigna notes other
.
materials
of
I
have already touched upon the handling and organization
in
in
by
agree with the beliefs
this way than
,
,
,
14 ).
in
on
( . .p to
A
matter between the romance and the classical religion the use The gentiles were permitted invent fables based their religion and use them ornaments for their poems whereas Christians are not Nevertheless the Christian poet may they use saints and devils miracles and other supernatural acts insofar epic lies
,
of
,
to
14 ).
:
its
,
of
( .p
his
-
its
does not observe the epic order
it
it
a
of
,
in
to
its
plot need for excessive length than
to be
no by
is
.
to
by ,
in
...
suspense and from
pleasure.53
longer There err better
it is
be
Similarly the romance will perceptible one glance and ,
source
of
desire which
is a
a
,
When the time does not present itself the mind remains this there arises
.
he
,
or
It
...
in ,
at
he
it off
,
:
is
an ,
,
,
of
rule
its
of
it
if
this does not mean that does not own which the following breaks the narrative either interruption presents itself when the time for when does not When does the mind the reader remains rest from which derives contentment presence completed action and therefore pleasure since remains have
a
Even
,
,
be
to
it in of
his
.
a
differences The epic poet presents continuous narrative pre story from time whereas the poet romance interrupts time tending portions before sing hosts Thus the narrative straightforward and direct while that the epic will the romance will just like the knights who are steps heroes wander digress retrace
in a
by
to
.
be
is
or
.
disappoint the reader excessive shortness One may even consider that single sing may proper length hear what one for each canto the sitting The cantos should connected one another moral dis
...
vn
.pp
52
.
courses
in
:
è
gli
.
sol
vn
& ,
di
si
vn
,
il à
è,
al
...
&
.
si
il
in
in
gli
.
Et
,
nel
: il
gli
à
: " i
nelsi
,
.,
&
&
.
, ne
si
piu fatti piu huomini ma 25–26 Romanzi dan bene huomo Epici quale sia soura tutti propongono cosi con altri celebrato pigliare vna sola persona ma prendere concorrono fatto non cosi percioche ogni volta che tutti quegli honorati assai tanti trattano quanto lor pare essere assai pericoli perfetto cauagliere tutte quelle maggiori attioni posto hanno che toglie quanto poema tosto che arriuati ricercano cosi gire infinito finire
Ibid specialmente
.
)
(
446
ne
.
resta sospeso
&
:
&
, ò
l'animo
,
ha
dà ,
nol
dà . :
è
dà
,
.
... Quando
."
fa
.
restando egli con vna cosa compiuta perciò diletto desiderio che vn
."
il
, è
...
di
dà ,
.
45 : “
., .p il è
la
53
il
;
, à
à
quel segno siamo che mirauamo seruasi l'ordine della natura percioche presenti che moto sono gli habiti nella materia cessa Ibid se bene l'ordine Epico non osserua non che vna sua regola non habbia quale questa quando tempo quando nol Tralascia che s'interponga perciò piacere Quando l'animo chi legge quieto rimane dal che contentezza
nasce
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
to
us
to
is
,
its
And this discourse will be moral so that by means of virtue it will invite us to praise purpose which will serve inflame
be better , and so that it
,
of
we
,
us
;
a
worthy action through pleasure whence arises certain affection which makes absorbing the material attentive and through attention become capable and ultimately benevolent toward the poet.54
will use more numerous descriptions and and although both are necessarily written verse the verse form not the same their totality these differences between the romance and the epic the same two sister genres not represent merely the adaptation set
of
to
we
of do
( .p
15 ).
51 ),
is
,
In
,
in
( .p
,
,
The romance generally freer comparisons than the epic
in to
of
to
for
a
of
of
.
,
as
principles Rather Pigna's pass from Aristotle's theory the epic theory the epic and the romance we see certain major changes orienta theory directed toward the beauty tion from the work itself one
;
,
,
on
in
of
is
in
a
in
to
.
of
to
of
a
of
of
its
,
a
;
particular kind pleasure and given moral instruction from one concerned with the structural unity the poem another recommending variety multiplicity diversity discontinuity from one deriving criteria from within another seeking criteria miscel lany external factors The movement these directions even clearer theory when one considers the broad context which Pigna places his seeking
audience
.
of a
of
an
as
dual end lengthy
The profit arises from learning about the tenor
of
:
a
,
sad and
pleasure
in
of
we
of
be
.
of
the romance The development his thought the utility and pleasure may example taken He gives explanation why derive pleasure from the representation tearful events and this explanation Aristotle's remark about the accompanying knowledge plays only minor part treatment
.
to
,
to
.
its ,
is it a is a
it
;
,
is
prosperity
us
human life and about how especially about the opposite fortune and teaches perfection and since there This nevertheless gives pleasure since knowledge proper form And fore the soul rejoices finding natural thing wish uncertain
by
.
so
in
.
is
physico physiological theory -
,
a
.
is
explain pleasure from painful events
offered
:
To
to
of
on
,
,
is
us
pleasure And for the know and that which natural and which occurs gives being same reason we have another delight which consists moved these great changes fortune that we take pity those who suffer them For pity therefore natural comes man of itself and
of
is
us .
it is
If
, .
us
,
,
as
dilatation produces joy then pleasure since how can pity ever give the opposite direction nevertheless
sadness results
joy comes about through dilatation
it
,
of
compressed
,
when the heart
is a
us
is
pity which The consideration diverse since the natural movement delights and movement the heart that not natural which saddens For
is
It
?
;
in
)
at
46 : "
54
us ;
(
in
of
produces the shrinking the heart necessary that these humors spiriti should expand otherwise they will not com fort and this will come about the very same time which they are being
."
]
447
[
il
,
& .
à
&
:
,
ne
,
è
;
Et
;
& .,
.p
Ibid sura questo discorso morale accioche per mezzo della virtù meglio c'inuiti accioche stia nel suo proponimento chc con diletto lodeuoli cose infiammarne dal che nasce vna certa affettione che attenti rende d'attenti capaci della materia poeta finalmente beneuoli verso
,
partly
have pity
to
to
human thing
is
us
they will give
free
us a
on
.
,
compressed . For in part restricted and in part pleasure and partly uneasiness Pleasure because
set
THEORY
it
POETIC
us , to
to
,
,
of
A
,
it 20 ).
it is
is
at
,
of
( .p
24 ).
of
knowledge
Those plots which teach most about human pleasurable because the delight accompanying required Verse once because more enjoyable
the most
( .p
life will
be
recognition
pleasure
,
,
17 .)
.
(p
an
,
.
of
,
he
In
pleasure
aesthetic
.
of
a
kind
compendium
on
of of
,
current thinking the other passages studies the artistic devices which may produce that pleasure The ornateness the narrative style for example produces novelty hence the marvelous hence presenting intense pleasure strict observance decorum the audience types which knows and recognizes makes possible the here
causes and nature
of
Pigna presents
it .
is
,
by
,
to
is
of
,
in
,
it
the afflicted aside from the fact that consoles see that we ourselves are free from the evil which there still another pleasure Uneasiness because feeling sorrow outside nature aside from the fact that disturbs trans fer ourselves the imagination the suffering others.55
it
,
).
in
So
.
;
in
be
to
he
,
of
(
.pp
,
of
in
than prose being more artistic and because assists the communication the moral lesson 53-54 Very few Pigna's statements take issue with Aristotle since for the agreement most part believes himself the differences consist added ideas which essentially alter Aristotle's thought for the distinc :
tion between poetry and history
,
,
;
,
a
.
of
,
of
And although both them not without some profit are delightful they are unequal value For the historian remains always nevertheless different and perpetual similarity rarely changed and the poet with the particular pursuing removing monotony through constant variety And there are many other things which make notable difference between them that the poet charms and teaches more than the historian .pp
55
so
. 56
,
a
.
,
seeks the universal
.
dà
ne il
da ,
è
&
&
&
:
;
.
&
,
il
&
:
la sia la : " è il il
.
& :
fa
.,
giouamento nasce dall'apparare Ibid 28–29 tenore della vita humana quanto instabile prosperità dal contrario massimamente c'insegna Ciò tutta uia rallegrandosi perciò l'anima che suo sugello diletto essendo scienza vna perfettione quello che piacere ritroui natural cosa voler sapere naturale che viene
;
.
è si
è
.
? ci
& in
,
è
lo
ha
,
;
ne
& il è,
;
ci
Se
la
.
:
ci
è,
...
il
ci
è
&
da se ,
,
il la
di
,
&
per questa istessa ragione vn'altro diletto habbiamo questi grandi che nell'essere venga mutamenti talmente commossi che pietà chi loro sottoposto troua percioche perciò per natura rispetto misericordia viene all'huomo diuerso essendo moto naturale della misericordia quello che diletta moto del cuore che naturale quello che non attrista percioche compresso ch'egli contristatione nasce come allegrezza dalla dilatatione adunque l'allegrezza per mezzo della dilatatione come porgerà mai diletto poscia ch'ella stringimento del cuore opposito misericordia
56
,
.
,
.
è
, in è &
ne
.
di
il
, :
.
il
. "
in
è
il .
gli
à
&
ne ne
in
:
ci
Bisogna tutta uia che essi spiriti s'allarghino altramente non conforteranno ciò auerrà quel tempo istesso che comprimeransi percioche parte ristretti parte slargati parte piacere parte noia daranno Piacere quanto che humana cosa l'hauer compassione afflitti senza che consola vedere che siamo ſuor del male che vn'altro Noia quanto che rincrescimento fuor natura senza che disturba trasferire con l'imagina tione noi stessi l'altrui dolore ;
)
,
: &
vi
il in
all '
vi
&
:
."
448
(
.
&
&
di
.
di
, &
&
2 : “ la
., .p
quantunque ambe non senza qualche giouamento sien diletteuoli Ibid sono pregio disuguale percioche l'historico stà nondimeno diverse sul particolare con poeta togliendo col vna perpetua similitudine alterata rado uniuersale mira sempre variare satietà molte altre cose sono che differenza notabile fanno tale insegna piu che quello che questo alletta
POETICS :
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
From the particular and the universal
the passage
, and thence to grcater pleasure perhaps, is found in the treatment of
case ,
to monotony more striking
is made
and instruction . A the four requisites for character .
and variety
Pigna assumes immediately that characters are either traditional or new ( i.e. , invented ) and that Aristotle's four requisites are divided between these two types . All four are forms of verisimilitude , but some are natural and others are “ by reference ." These distinctions give the following schema : Verisimilitude
New characters
Traditional characters
( finta )
( tolta ) Similarity
Appropriateness
( simile )
( convenevole )
By nature
By reference
Christón
Armótton
The terms
"
by nature
By nature Ómalon
By reference Omion
explained thus
” and “ by reference " are
:
By reference : referring the one whom I am treating to the opinion in which he or in fables , I will depict him primarily as fierce or pleasant , as prudent or bold , as deceitful or just . . . . By nature : considering the habits as confirmed dispositions of the soul , I will make any person throughout the work is held in histories
and to the very end such as I have established him to be from the beginning . 57
Verisimilitude is thus defined in terms of consistency of character (“ by a tradition (" by reference " ), and Aristotle's
nature ") or of faithfulness to
that the
is
to
perhaps
select group
-
— a
this
.
of on
A
.
between those who admire ingeniousness
difference
the pleasure
passages point
the difficulté vaincue number not always appreciated and that there
But Pigna notes that a
insistence
it is
audience takes
I romanzi is
of
special feature
in
A
its
four requisites are reduced to these terms .
and
,
2 )
be
,
”
in
,
.
A
.
be
of
,
be
of
,
be
in
,
of
.p “
So
.
di
“
to
”
(
of
is
tragedies will the popular taste which less discriminating demon maggior greater ingegno strative wit dimonstratrici but popular taste than the romance Still even will appeal less the romance form the difficult solution will the best new subject involving new characters will less admirable than the traditional ones since the poet handling them will not under the constraint the accepted story
, is
it
,
;
is
is
a
“
:
...
,
se
ò :34 “
is
in
57
As
." , 58 “
the
the decorum
of
to
do ,
known personages which because less easy always shows greater virtuosity general thing pleasure poet's triumphs comes from the spectacle the more narrow genius the field which our restricted the more difficulty seen there and
in
of
di
il gli
, ò
,
, à ò
di
;
se
a
449
)
(
."
si fa ,
20 : "
., .p
58
of
,
.
da
...
, .p
,
."
, ò
ò
;
, ò
il
ò è
., .p
Ibid Per relatione referendo colui ch'io tratto all'opinione che egli piaceuole circonspetto nelle historie nelle fauole fiero temerario insidiatore giusto principalmente dipingerò Per natura mirando habiti che sono spositioni confirmate tale qual principio haurò stabilito alcuno farò essere per tutta l'opera infino alla fine See below 468 for similar schema resulting from the text Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561. Ibid che perche disagiosamente mostra tutta uia piu virtù
and
...
and
of
POETIC
THEORY
59
."
its
of
an
:
to
be
is
all
its
it
of
an
to
by
;
to we
,
—
-
is
It
difficult things happen rarely and they are therefore more beautiful opposition contrary since this grows may again see adaptation for this reason and Aristotelian principles that tragedy considered superior the epic greater efficacy
,
its
or
by a ,
its
in
of
of
;
(
to
,
the
and Ariosto’s comedies he
,
:
a
is
admitted from the start
the best romance ever written
is
an
by
is
,
,
the judgment
is
).
In
as
II as
.
,
of
.
of
by
.
his be
all
of as
of
in
he
for
is or
A
So
to
be
of
,
it
is
.
,
I;
in
,
are the best
,
the language Rather wishes authority precepts given discover the Orlando the the has Book indirectly praise will fall upon the Orlando the source the best Pigna's material may examples and precedents certain amount biographical neglected since deals with Ariosto's fame But indication that the form the plot determined the works Boiardo the Cassaria
in
especially
about more easily
for the extensive sections devoted occupied examination the Orlando Furioso although Pigna not really seeking
III
All
works for
the
Orlando Furioso
of
;
,
be
,
,
is
significant finally
Books and Ariosto's works the comedies well primarily the latter this examination judgment
in in
it is
,
,
brought
element
,
a
Pigna's treatise practical criticism
of to
important
chorus
of
deprived
narrator than by
. 60
a
in
a
which
is
in
;
be
to ,
it
or
a
in
of
Restriction gives excellence since limited action not dis posing plot digres which great events come together and the matter sions since cannot permit itself many varied ones lest the composition turn disproportionate out and time having only the space one day day and half which the whole action must pleasure concluded and
in
do a
it is
He
;
it
,
to
by
.
and Homer needs noted also the fact that the digressions are glorify the Este family for part explained the wish also justifi cation and Pigna takes for granted that such external reasons consti
is
an
,
,
we
in
in
.
of
of
tute justifications the form the plot declares that Ariosto supreme both earlier and from the accidents the essence and
in
is
of or
of
in
,
—
of of
that while the machinery ,
è
;
che piu
."
&
,
di
,
,
& dà .
le il
:
in
,
ne
in
è il
le
&
:
,
ui : si "
...
37 : “ la
vn
., di .p
60
&
.,
quanto piu stretto campo Ibid 36–37 che l'ingegno nostro ridotto tanta piu difficoltà vede cose difficili rado auengono sono perciò maggior virtù accrescendo ella contra belle suo contrario Ibid strettezza tutta l'eccellenza essendo ella angusta nell'attione non hauere fatto cui gran fatti concorrano nelle digressioni percioche non
of
is
So
."
the romance
.
plot
in
of
a "
of
up
is
It
.
as
"
.pp
59
of
"
Orlando Furioso actions multiplicity the
all
clear from the analysis that Pigna thinks the many whole plots and that each made the plot constitutes This consonant with his theory
knot and denouement separate
be
of to .
of
15 ),
in of
(p .
know that the essence substance the plot and the digressions analysis plot asking which accidents are the The consists plot Pigna types the four are found here and finds them examining the treatment studying the use the quantitative parts statement
per
può ,
la &
:
,
in
&
,
)
(
450
la
, ò
."
,
nel
,
&
:
lo
,
il
pigliarne molte componimento varie accioche sproportionato non venga nel tempo spatio d'un giorno hauendo ella solo d'un giorno mezzo cui tutta cosa con piacere che d'una gran parte manca quale dal narratore piu commoda chiuda mente nasce che dal choro
POETICS :
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
the Aristotelian text is applied , the theoretical basis is fundamentally dif ferent in Pigna . He applies a criterion of unity to the poem — but only insofar as it is possible or desirable in the romance : " in the end everything is properly conducted with beautiful unity , to the extent that this kind of poetry admits of unity .” 61 The problem of unity involves the problem of digressions , and Pigna praises Ariosto for the use of episodes which properly mix the grave and the light , the calm and the disturbed , the active
correctly observed , in the of contemporary events , and in the expression . Finally , events and episodes are accompanied by moral overtones and by possibilities of allegorical interpretation which serve the end of utility . and the passionate . Decorum is everywhere transfer to the Orlando of traditional materials
In
this discussion
of
, in the use
the Orlando Furioso , Pigna uses the term “
imita
tion " in three separate senses which demonstrate with especial clarity his habits in the use of terminology . Since the plot depends upon Homer and
Vergil , it contains “ imitations " of them . A second kind of imitation occurs when men are presented “ as they should be , " either through narration or through dialogue . Dialogue itself is a kind of imitation , in the Platonic sense which distinguishes imitation from narration ( p . 80 ). The Aristotelian sense appears earlier in the text : “ The plot is an imitation of an action " ( “ Favola è imitatione d'una attione , " p . 15 ) ; but in the definition which
follows , Pigna clearly gives it a restricted meaning : “ To imitate is to use the verisimilar according to that form which is most proper in the matter undertaken . ”62 Imitation as direct or dramatic representation is also fully treated in the early sections of the text ( p. 16 ) . Although he assigns so many meanings to the word , Pigna makes no attempt to define or dis tinguish , and the reader must derive the proper meaning from the context. A similar case , although not nearly so extensive , is found with respect to the word "favola " (pp . 15 , 92 ) . The examination of Ariosto's comedies ( pp . 105 ff .) presents interesting solutions to the question of why one comedy , the Cassaria , is superior to another , the Suppositi. Seven reasons are offered : ( 1) the denouement derives more successfully from the preceding action ; ( 2 ) the denouement does not depend upon external signs ; ( 3 ) the Cassaria is more verisimilar ;
; ( 7 )
,
its
( 4) the comedy succeeds in conducting a more difficult plot ; ( 5 ) it has more pleasantness in it and less of sadness ; ( 6 ) devices are newer causing increased admiration and greater pleasure the episodes are more
of
, è
verisimile secondo quella forma
,
il
pigliare
."
Ibid Imitare materia piu conuiene
)
451
(
., .p
in
,
his
: “
."
., .p
101 alla fine ogni cosa con vaga vnità per quanto questa poesia patisce guidata è
62
Ibid debitamente
15 : "
61
,
.
In
to
immediately derived from the knot and solution and more closely linked these seven points Pigna once again raises questions found the applications and conclusions are not necessarily Poetics although them
che nella proposta
POETIC
THEORY
Aristotelian . But he does more : judging that works may be evaluated by comparison with their contraries , he compares the Cassaria with the "best tragedy that one might read . " This is the result : In this ( tragedy ), we will see royal life expressed , in the Cassaria , the life of the people ; the one excellent in long discourses , the other in brief repartees ; on the one hand , the operation of fortune , on the other , of cunning ; in the former ,
the
grave teachings and majesty and sorrows and infinite anguish , in the latter , delight and joy and playfulness and many warnings about private life.63
. A
of
juxtaposition Here , Aristotle is absent, and we return once again to tragedy and comedy familiar throughout the Middle Ages final ,
of
of
a
to
I
new and prophetic He takes one hundred .
is
.
Orlando Furioso His method
).
(p .
its
of
,
is
in
to
reason for preferring the Cassaria the Suppositi and one which should superior morality not surprise the context 107 Pigna devotes the third book study romanzi the style the
In
this study phonetics
he
to ,
is
.
.
of
,
to
,
,
,
of
,
,
as
grammar
,
variants the comments concern such matters sound proportion and symmetry prosody clarity ease construction ambiguity appropriateness matter and nature and ornament The point view thus almost entirely gram matical and rhetorical .
last version
, or of
,
in
;
of
in
passages from the romance and shows the successive stages the composi gives the reason why Ariosto preferred the tion the text each case
1554
on
of in
the poetic
It
,
,
de
Q.
a
of
on
.
another the stamp Aristotle's Poetics also publication major commentary Horace Francesco librum Horatii Flacci arte poetica commentarius which
of in
In
short works
or
one way
that bore was the year
Lovisini's
extraordinarily rich
1554 was thus
art
The year
)
(
LOVISINI
,
in
to
of
.
in
made the customary comparisons between Aristotle and Horace But regard the history Aristotle's Poetics the Cinquecento Lovisini's it
.
it
,
the
to
mere examination
of
from
a
be
learned be
to of
,
traditional not much juxtaposed passages
is
by
a
it .
of
),
.pp
(
see
IV ,
of
an
is
its
contemporaries Although work much less rewarding than discovers extraordinarily large number parallels between Horace and Aristotle Chapter 130–32 above for the most part does little else than cite the selected text from the Poetics and give translation Moreover since this time many the parallels have become commonplace and
,
said about
a
of
which what
is
few points
at
.
.pp
63
There are
a
so
texts was the same
."
)
(
452
.
.
: di la
&
in
là la :
Di &
;
.
&
&
&
si
in la
in
: “
:
.,
popolaresca Ibid 106–7 essa vita reale espressa vedrà nella Cassaria lunghi discorsi l'una l'altra prontezze strette eccellente qua l'astutia fortuna quella documenti graui angoscie infinite questa diletto gioia maestà dolori piaceuolezze auertimenti domestici assai
&
& In In
it
in
as
,
he
It
of
.
say what Lovisini's general would difficult interpretation found the Poetics was aside from the fact that many passages that conveyed the same meaning Horace's Ars poetica many that one might insist that the total meaning perhaps the two
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
passage in Aristotle reveals the construction which Lovisini put upon it . So for the early commentary on lines 1-13 of the Ars poetica , where we find how Lovisini understands imitation :
do
,
as
,
in
The sense imitation plus meaning Plato
.
64
of
by
,
,
of
of
things many sculptors and the appearance means art through the are poets Plato's Socrates affirms the Symposium things fact that they give pleasure their invention and imitation painters
as
image
by
or
all
Poets follow the imagination , not opinion , since they call themselves poets not because they write in verse but because of the plot and the fiction , as Aristotle has set it down for us in the Poetics . And therefore those who imitate the
:
its
of
,
:
a
all
is
in
.
,
in
its
of
on
is
”
we
)
in
of
to
be ,
“
(
,
in
its
“
of
meaning here composed the Poetics with emphasis the latter Furthermore the Platonic and Horatian element further emphasized the next sentence poetic figments Indeed these matters must establish rule not approved are but only those which derive rather from prudence than
.
by
,
lines 119-27
:
“
:
to
Lovisini necessarily refers Aristotle's four requisites then following distinction between oudiov and ouahov There
character
,
For
is a he on
34v
,
cites Poetics 1451a36
).
when
(p .
he
52 ,
in
,
.” 65
prudence with from freedom creation The presence moral and political connotations indicates the direction taken the interpreter Lovisini again expresses the same ideas connection with Ars poetica 146 makes the difference
similar and uniform for similarity refers those about whom others had written previously and uniformity those about whom alone are writing We must observe constant personage whom we are ourselves introducing uniformity that ;
,
so
,
the distinction between
traditional and by
is
This
we
.”
himself
66
a
be
will always
he
.
in
to
we
,
to
,
is ,
oudiov kai oualov that
between
by
,
.
in
"
of
).
40
to
to
)
(
.p
he
,
at
(
"
“
a
In
,
an
.
of
accepts Robortello's demonstration the tragic action Here artificial day i.e. twelve hours was intended oppose some point few places least Lovisini seems wish
duration that
"
,
of
to
of
in
of
newly invented characters which Pigna but have just seen developed with differences the understanding the requisites Lovisini also attempts the questions about the Poetics which was answer one already much debated the meaning one day the remark on the
64
,
In
an
be
to
to
.
of
,
to
a
of
.
theory offered Aristotle Poetics 1454a28 Aristotle had given examples number characters who were improperly treated Lovisini takes exception several claiming that Menelaus seems him in
,
ut
&
in
,
,
,
."
,
&
,
.,
., .p ut
.pp
65
66
persona
&
,
:
,
&
, ut
.
,
(
), .p 4 : “
Commentarius 1554 Poetae phantasiam non opinionem sequuntur quia poetae poetice nomen sibi asciscunt non propter carmen sed propter fabulam fictionem testatum relinquit Aristoteles iccirco quicunque rerum effigiem simulacra arte imitan symposio Platonis tur mechanici plerique artifices faciunt poetae sunt quemadmodum Socrates affirmat propterea quòd fictione rerum imitatione delectantur
."
sit sibi constans
)
(
453
,
de
,
,
&
,
ea ,
in
,
ad
,
,
,
,
."
à
,
se
,
de
“
ad
:
,
à
:
: "
Ibid 4–5 Verum his modus statuendus est neque enim omnia poetarum figmenta probanda sunt sed quae prudentia potius quàm sola fingendi libertate proficiscuntur discrepant inter ovojov kal dualov idest simile aequale nam Ibid 29v quibus alij etiam scripserunt aequalitas quibus similitudo eos refertur eos quam inducimus nos tantum scribimus perpetuam aequalitatem seruare debemus
THEORY
of
uniformity
and that Iphigenia docs display judgment might Such differences
necessary
of
of admirable probity
example
the
POETIC
of
a
in
he
or
of
to
,
to
,
for Aristotle and
”
“
or
“
finis
of by or
the Poetics
.
says
"
“
.
Aristotle
to
,
officium
are different The
in
since troinois toti uiunois profit and delight.68 instead
as
"
officium
”
“
)
and the
"
finis
"
so .
These two words may either signify the same thing distinguished that munus means the end sought
,
to
finis
" is
“
is
.
“
tue poet Indeed the the poet imitate But the
munus
poetry finally Lovisini hides Wishing reconcile Aristotle
:
"
Munus and officium different things
(
tv
“
,
with Horace uses the term officium for Horace
”
he
.
a
of
for the important matter the end his disagreement under verbal distinction
of
As
.
is
of
in
be
is
it
noted that Lovisini sense regards opinion preferred that
an
It
me that
no
be
to
67
to
is ,
of
,
.
of
necessity that sometimes
. "
seems
far are poets from they invent things which are
Indeed
better
not even verisimilar authority whose Aristotle Horace as
But so
our author understood the matter the law
the poet only the law
well
.
necessity
to
of
: “
,
.
events Hence verisimilitude Aristotle that expressing
the inevitable realization
,
natural necessity that Horace required
says
as
he to
of
believes necessity
be
,
).
( .p
in
.
character result from the fact that Lovisini had different texts interpreted mind that necessity and different way Aristotle's requisites 54v On the subject probability the disagreement apparently springs from the fact that Lovisini
,
with
.
as
of
is
or
clearly between function operation and end The distinction providing the real definition Horace the latter
of
to
,
,
of
e
poetiche della lingua Matteo San Martino's Osservationi grammaticali italiana the following year 1555 belongs primarily the history
although certain passages are relevant the fortunes Only Plato's ideas above Chapters and VII 138 275 cidentally does concern Aristotle's Poetics and then almost exclusively for highly heterogeneous the interpretation imitation definition ).
in
to
,
.pp
of
his
In
.
of
,
,
IV
see ,
it
(
of
Horace's Ars poetica
.,
., .p
is a
;
an
as
: “
do
In
attributes
to
shows the importance
he
.”
to
,
however
65 ): “
67
68 ,
.pp
,
immediately follows
he
of
by
,
,
to
,
of
poetry San Martino course includes imitation element the times Poetry would not have permitted him otherwise beautiful fiction which restricted within harmonized rhythms and imitating human pleasure brings profit what the listener means actions
,
.
n [ o ]
,
ea
ut at
."
)
(
454
uero
prodesse
,
finis
& est:
.
,
Aristoteles
uel
,
poetice
.
in
ait
ut
toti uiunois
,
,
imitari nam toinois delectare
&
se
.
et
,
.
ut
: “
."
,
ut
,
.
(
66-67 the latter page misnumbered Horatius uerisimile tantum etiam necessarium poetis proposuit melius sensisse uidetur hic ster nam poetae necessarium exprimant aliquando quae uerisimilia etiam non tantum abest sunt comminisci uideantur Ibid 61v Munus officium duae hae dictiones uel idem significant diuersa munus finem poetae innuat differunt enim inter finis officium officium poetae Ibid Aristoteles
APPLICATIONS
POETICS : THEORETICAL
69
."
”
,
,
at a
the poets consists
all
of
.
by
is ,
70
the doctrine
,
of
,
in
imitation and must Aristotle and Cicero that and harmony Here again there uncer of
to
according
of it
“
it
as
of
a
the final intention
"
be
that
practice
its
its
principal part secondary and not : “ So that imitation is From such passage this would seem that the principal part would pleasure and utility Yet later point the writer insists the pursuit imitation
is
of
in
of
in of
:
an
by
of
.
71
,
to
diction
,
to
it is
or
,
,
as be ,
,
or
,
is
imitator another designer they were three things either things proper for them provided
as
said
or of
be ,
imitate one
according imitations what was said separately together either
and harmony
,
,
number
“
by .”
of
]
he
(
,
all
as
or of
that
that since the poet
says also must always they appear and are poets make their
to
He Aristotle images
to on
is
,
it is
In
on
.
.”
of
,
is
,
,
means diction number tainty since one wonders what meant the doctrine Aristotle and poetry are Horatian fairly clear that the ends any case Cicero and that imitation has some intermediary function the achievement those ends Further light thrown the problem San Martino's reality poetry statement the relationship
“
.p
“
or
"
“
to
”,
“
”
by or
).
“
”
do
“
”
(
of
”
is
,
I
,
In
com the original diction have translated both these passages ponimento which stated mean something like the disposition arrangement As San Martino uses this and the 158 ornate speech accompanying terms numero and concento harmonia not ,
,
be
on
.
.
is
in
on
of
only they signify the means imitation indicated Aristotle but they prosody which will also carry with them the stress rhetoric and his principal concern the treatise Aside from these passages the Poetics used only rarely 1557
)
(
SIGONIO
,
, in
we
,
of
.
by
is
of
activity affecting Aristotle's text represented Another kind 1557 Carlo Sigonio's Emendationum libri duo For besides the editions and frequently find philological and philosophical commentaries the text to
to .
of
his
;
of
,
of
or
to
to
his
; Si fra
sia
:
of
an
69
is
miscellanies
the Poetics
in
on
shorter critical
The sections by
.
in
largely devoted textual Sigonio's book are answers open disagreement with him suggestions Robortello statements Before proceeding the study individual passages Sigonio expresses opposition dividing the text Robortello's way own suggestion interesting one for the total conception Aristotle's plan discussions
exegesis
la
a
,
,
la
de
.”
, si , ., di .p , , o di : & “ tre
71
di
la
, de e i
."
, e
,
a
la
: “
), .p
: “
., .p
70
è
,
(
Osservationi 1355 130 Poetica una uaga fittione che harmonizzati numcri ristretta imitando l'humane attioni con diletto gioui chi l'ascolta che imita tione sua parte secondaria non principale Ibid 146 consistendo final intentione Poeti nella imitatione che tutti exercitarla conujene secondo dottrina d'Aristotele Cicerone cioè con Componi mento Numero Concento
. "
o
)
(
455
o
la
, o
, o le
, o
il
&
,
gli
,
è e
Ibid 184 Dice ancor che essendo Poeta imitatore come aitro disignator imagini che una cose conuien che sempre imiti cose come furono come appaiono che dicono come esser conuiene pur che tutti fanno loro imitatione secondo che Componimento detto separatamente congiuntamente umero Harmonia
THEORY six .
POETIC
its
,
to
.
the definition There the epic The fifth part .
all
on
not belong tragedy the other ,
,
follow then two other parts one
at
But origin and growth on
.
growth
do
he
in
its
of
In my judgment this book is to be divided not into three parts , but into poetry but also origin and For the first treats not only the definition
In
.
on
tragedy and the epic.72
of
the
:
”
offer his opinion some contemporaries
to
,
“
For the rest Sigonio's emendations texts which gave the greatest difficulty
his
detached from the discussion
a
be
of
cause
it is
;
he
it
is a
,
in
concerns questions and answers about poetry which comes afterwards his separate subject from tragedy and the epic division since the last book compares tragedy with the epic this may properly called sixth part be
of .
”
&
,
2 )
(
all ;
at
of
;
( 3 )
,
– 50 ).
148v
,
.
do
to
in
to
it
is
,
or ,
counterpart
to
dithyramb
is a ?
"
in
-
”
"
"
by
.”
comoediae nomen
is
.
“
Quid Poesis Nomorum Persas non esse iocosum The text presents two difficulties First what meant gnomic poetry more properly how should one interpret vóuos the text Sigonio's suggestion that has nothing with counterpart comedy laws but rather the same way that the ,
On 1447624–28
sit
( .pp
as
of
)
(
do
:
( 1 )
“
,
sit
kidapiotikń Sigonio draws three On 1447a15 Quid aŭantikń conclusions from the text there are some kinds auletic and citharistic poetry which they use harmony and rhythm not imitate dance only for their imitation excluding speech and meter Aristotle poetry which imitate without speech examples meant them kinds
of "
at
as
in
"
).
Ểv -
.pp
synonymous with vóuos and
149v 50v
sit
the text
(
Sigonio uses the term
offers no emendation
to
.
the paragraph
“
;
is
.
as
of of it
"
be a
.
of
.
”
great
“
a
the last two ,
,
is
tragedy The first two express little form matters The vóuos would thus ancient authors who condemned comic poetry and Sigonio cites the texts such The second difficulty comes from Robortello's reading 1448a15 tépoas hence the statement about Persas vouous the heading matters
to
.”
,
equivalent
to
as
,
it
saltum
"
uses the word
“
,
of
.
he
Aris
.
-
150v
51 )
before
( ff ., pp “ .
as
as
.
dance Here totle's puouós
be
£ v
,
“
Sigonio rejects On 1448a20 Quid uiueio dai Tois aŭtois Robortello's explanation that the phrase Tois autois referred the men whose actions were imitated He declares that should rather inter signifying the means preted imitation discourse harmony and the
72
as
.
of ."
.
in
he
”
“
On 144864 De causis naturalibus poeseos Another moot point poetry Robortello had seen the two natural causes the instinct derives from imitation man and the pleasure which toward imitation
in
,
,
in
.
de
.
ad
,
de
,
in
eo
sit . ab
.
)
(
456
sit ,
&
,
de
à
."
.
,
epopoeia separata materia extremo libro tragoediam cum epopoeia com epopoeia auulsa tragoedia disputatione cum
quae sexta pars appellari merito potest
parat
&
,
de
, .
,
&
,
&
tragoedia
,
à
&
de
.
de
: “
(
), .p
Emendationum libri duo 1557 148v Meo enim iudicio liber hic non tres sed sex partes distribuendus est primum enim non solum definitione poeseos agit sed etiam origine eius incremento origo autem incrementum nihil definitionem pertinent quacs Sequuntur deinde aliae partes una tragoedia epopoeia altera Quinta est tionibus dissolutionibus poeticis quae sua diuisione praeterita est cum tamen
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
Aristotle's arguments
of
his
Sigonio chooses rather to adopt the position of Averroës that the two causes are ( 1) imitation and ( 2 ) rhythm plus harmony ; one cause would thus be imitation , the other the means of imitation . Rhythm itself is dual , being composed of meter and the dance . Sigonio gives version :
thus
;
of
,
,
he
,
.”
,
" )
“
(
,
Sigonio
and that
considers having the
At
-
54 ).
of of
.”
a
in
”
,
he ”
to
,
.”
“
.pp
153v
“
Quid
believes
,
modum
xwpis Tõv elõv non esse intellectum this using melos broader sense Aristotle is
point Sigonio
intellectum
sit
“
,
On 1449b25
meter
esse
He
sense
non
Rationem
modo suauitatis pleno The means rhythm with music melos
and
,
,
of
special
(
be
to
harmony
music
by sit
be
'
“
,
On 1449625 HEUOUÉVW Móyw quid thinks that loyw should translated the whole phrase means
us.73
natural
“
be
to
he
because tation are natural that had proved imitation itself
,
,
.
He ,
thought this sufficiently clear from the fact
he
to
. us ,
of
is
,
in
The means indeed are three number comprising harmony and rhythm for says are consti divided into two dance and meters Meters then rhythms tuent parts does not offer proof though that the means imi rhythm
a
.pp
is
to
of
in
.
harmony and rhythm thinks that the whole passage the definition tragedy meant indicate that there were certain parts
tragedy
the six qualitative parts
).
tragedy among object Sigonio proposes his own division which
:
,
,
imitation
of
tello's distribution manner and means he defends thus
,
of of
“
.”
,
(
,
recited with music and dance certain others without them 154–54v Rejecting Robor On 1450a10 Partes tragoediae intellectas non esse
,
of
;
of
.
74
and thought
,
;
,
.
...
,
,
;
,
three plot character ,
,
objects
as
,
,
is as
,
.
,
,
For the tragic poets imitate plot character and thought their subject matter they imitate with diction and song means and song includes harmony and rhythm The third element manner the stage onto which the actors are intro duced which Aristotle calls ornatus aspectus the means imitation are two diction and song the manner one embellishment visual spectacle the
of
,
,
difficult
to
be
of
of
of
;
-
.
advance over Robortello
all
an
It
affirm that on the whole Sigonio's emendations for the interpretation the passages discussed His over division the text and his distribution the qualitative parts are superior but some the individual exegeses move would
represent
73
., .p
., .p
role which
it
a
in
,
1559 the Poetics appears
ex 74 eo ,
In
.
backward rather than forward
frequently played during in
.
,
&
& ,
ut
,
&
, . "
,
: “
,
.
,
, ,
.
&
,
: "
in
,
rhythmus nam rhythmus Ibid 152v instrumenta uero tria sunt harmonia duo diuiditur saltum metra metra enim inquit particulae sunt rhythmorum Non probat autem instrumenta imitationis esse nobis naturalia quia satis perspicuum putauit quod imitationem ipsam nobis esse naturalem probauit Ibid 155 Nam tragici imitantur fabulam mores sententiam materiam
]
457
,
.
&
,
."
&
,
,
,
,
,
,
in
,
,
est
,
ut
...
[
:
,
,
.
.
,
&
melopoeia melopoeia uero harmoniam instrumentis qua agentes inducunt quem Modus autem tertius scena quibus imitantur duo sunt dictio melopoeia Aristoteles uocat ornatum aspectus quomodo unum aspectus ornatus quae tria fabula mores sententia imitantur autem dictione rhythmum comprehendit
POETIC
THEORY
the Cinquecento , that
of a source of theory on the art ment in question is Dionigi Atanagi's Ragionamento
of history . The docu de la eccellentia
de la historia . Atanagi's theoretical treatment
perfettione
et
of history follows
two separate lines, one emphasizing the differences between poetry and history and one displaying their similarities . It is for the first of these that Aristotle is the principal source ; for the second , Atanagi refers largely to
of Horace and of the rhetoricians . After a defence of the art as to Platonic elevation of the soul , Atanagi defines history as " a narrative of things done as they were done , with praise or with blame , according to person , places , and times , and including the deliberations , the the tradition
a means
causes , and the events . ”75 Then he proceeds to the comparison with poetry , from which I cite the salient passages :
History different from poetry , not because the latter is written in verse and the former in prose , as is commonly believed by those who think that everything that is written in verse is poetry . For although verse is proper to the poetic faculty , nevertheless it is not verse but imitation that makes poetry ; and that this is true is shown by the fact that there are also poems which are composed in prose . . . Therefore the true difference and divergence between them lies in this , that poetry
all
imitates and history does not .
... Poetry
takes a single action of a single man and ;
of
,
a
at
.
is
to
is
its it
.
its
other actions are accidental History takes several actions several men and although not denied that history also times treats single action ... proper function nevertheless treat several and diverse actions The poet
as as
or ,
,
as
he
;
be as
be
.
a
,
;
,
to
of
concerns himself with the universal attending the simple and pure idea things the historian deals with the particular representing things they are like painter who draws from nature The historian thus relates things done they they should they were done the poet relates them done necessarily
to
,
or
he
as
as
or
he
,
.
,
and linked since because many one toward which
of
by
,
connected
makes one out
,
on
its
.
all
of
certain
actions
,
of as of
poetry
and varied The order the interrelationship
is
,
he
.
...
it
,
might verisimilarly and probably done The poet once has undertaken imitate somebody keeps him always and everywhere exactly the same was when first introduced The historian keeps men constant varies them takes them from life depending whether finds them constant unstable
neither does
a
to
)
(
458
,
&
,
in
uerso in
la
, de le , ,
,
&
è in
sia
, de si la ,
;
si
è
La
,
&
, il
la fa se la
.
la
nò . . . .
.
la
,
,
si
, sia
il
,
è
in
stimando
le
,
,
co i
non perche questa ciò ,
,
poesia
che tutto che uerso proprio poesia Percioche poetica facoltà nondimeno scritto bene verso poesia poesie anco non uerso ma imitatione che ciò uero ritruouano poesia questo che Adunque prosa tessute diuersità loro vera differenza poesia prende una sola attione d'un'huomo solo l'altre tutte imita historia
...
crede
cose fatte come elle son tempi consigli con
di
, e i
, i
historia differente come uolgarmente
la
de
La
è
le
,
historia una narration persone luoghi
secondo è
: “
Ibid 4_4v quella prosa scriua in . ,
3v : “
), .p
.” 9
, gliò
.pp
&
,
,
76
1559
con uitupero avenimenti La
Ragionamento
(
75
do
;
since actions are not similar and linked but separate and diverse depend they relate single end.76 one from another nor
fatte con laude cagioni con
.
,
,
its
,
is
of
as it
is
of
,
;
a
by
,
of
it
directs the others servants and domestics serve mistress and this means the episodes which their nature and property always concern the plot which the substantial part and were the form and soul the poem history The order for the most part uncertain disjoined and fortuitous
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS Back of each one of these comparisons there lies some principle derived from the Poetics . If one were to abstract from the passage the sections relevant to poetry alone , one would have a fairly complete statement of Aristotle's basic theory . But in some cases at least , this theory will have taken on a flavor peculiar to Atanagi's text, as in the indication that “ necessity ” to things as they " should be ” and probability to things as they might be . " As the process of opposition continues , Atanagi breaks away from the Aristotelian text, and the basic principles become more exclusively Horatian . refers
"
It
lengthy study of the of poetry and history - Horace aug
is also Horace who presides over the somewhat
resemblances
the two arts
between
mented by general notions derived from the rhetoricians . Both are narrative , but poetry alone uses invocation . Both practise the demonstrative and the deliberative types of rhetoric , and therefore both praise the virtues and blame the vices and both introduce consultations and speeches .
Nor is the type excluded , although history uses it more frequently . Both
judicial
,
he of
is
true
in
,
whatever
-
to
poetry
7v )
prior
its
,
,
for the times
in
.
.
all
extraordinary
of
is
it
to
in
in
history agree seeing poetry comes from history Atanagi's Ragionamento not to
of
.
of
of
an
( at pp art
of
a
it
it
as
on to
so
,
with Robortello part make
,
,
,
a
Both must attempt visual representation what they Although disagrees make live for the audience history and would the matter the classification moral philosophy rather than rhetoric Atanagi seems
.
rhetorical devices are saying
4v
,
produce utility They describe many peoples places customs great variations fortune practise digressions and many
of
present
laws
.
to
all
observe prudence and decorum , both wish to teach , delight , and move — and above
in
is
It
.
La
,
on
collection
of
,
1559
a
in
Padua
in
lished
is
,
.
a
is
in
it
in
to
perhaps unusual facile combination various theoretical traditions keeps them separate for separate purposes and the extent which represented the completeness with which each small compass Like Sigonio's Emendationes pub Cristoforo Rufo's Antexegemata commentaries
isolated
, a
di
gli
certo
de la ,
è
, ò
,
, ne & fa
de gli la
ò
,
.
,
&
de le
,
,
è la
la
,
Il
.
& gli
in
&
,
, ò
, ò
,
,
L '
,
, le le ò
a
al
.
, è
& le
il ,
,
gli . . . .
un
ad
)
,
,
è è la
,
, il
",
, de nè la a la
.
in
:
ne
459
(
,
le &
,
&
di
la
a &
,
i
:
diuerse
poesia
una molte cio col mezzo
quali proprietà sempre riguardano parte loro natura fauola che quasi piú forma l'anima del poema L'ordine historia incerto congiunte ma separate caso percioche attioni essa non sono simili risguardano l'una dipende l'altra medesimo fine
ne
,
,
,
&
a &
,
gli
episodij
a , la
il
. . .
Il
.
,
.
Il
,
&
de le
.
&
,
di
,
da
,
uaria secondo che truoua costanti instabili uariati L'ordine congiunto concatenato percioche ella per l'affinità attioni quale come donna indirizza tutte l'altre come ministre seruenti sostantiale disgiunto
,
si
;
&
di
&
,
,
.
piu huomini nieghi che sono per accidente historia piu come che non proprio officio suo historia anch'ella tratti alcuna uolta una attion sola nondimeno poeta opera intorno trattar piu diuerse attioni l'uniuersale attendendo sem plice pura idea particolare rappresentando cose L'historico intorno cose come elle sono quasi pittor che ritragga dal naturale rico adunque narra cose fatte poeta come elle son fatte narra come elle dourebbono necessariamente come elle potrebbono uerisimilmente probabilmente esser fatte poeta poi che s'ha proposto per tutto quel modo stesso che egli l'ha imitatione d'alcuno egli mantien sempre prima introdotto L'historico come prende huomini cosi mantiene
POETIC
THEORY
passages . They are largely linguistic and philological in character , although some do represent interpretations of texts . As they relate to the Poetics , they state disagreements with such earlier commentators as Robortello and
Maggi .
attāv
The initial difficulty at this point results from which is still defective . For the reading which he had , Rufo disagreed with Robortello's version , “ad naturam rerum , ” and pro posed instead “ ex iisdem earum rerum propriis locis . " His whole interpre On 1456b3 , STIÒ Tāv
eidāv
.
the text ,
tation
of the passage
follows:
think that he meant that , whenever and comedies for compassion to be aroused or a certain horror produced or for something to be amplified or proved or made acceptable to the mind , these things should derived from the very situations proper these actions pavoīto ñSéa Again difficulties On 1456b8 text and Rufo reads as
“ I
...
itself in tragedies
be
,
of
." 77
of , to
.
,
el
all
the occasion presents
be a
.
as
)
.
of
both arts
of
conceptions
:
throws light
of
on
his
of
(
Maggi He interprets the passage supports his own reading against that meaning that there must which still gives difficulty difference tragedy and that oratory His commentary between the language ,
is
it
;
be
.
be a
in
in
to
in
,
,
It
has been said indeed that order arouse the emotions the soul the tragic poet may seek his arguments which the orator seeks the same places indispens them But there should certain difference between them for is
be
.
,
of
by
a
in
a
is
be
it
in
.
in
,
he
of
be or of
of
the tragic poet should most secret and that his words precepts proper that the should not reek doctrine But the orator oratory way that art and the teaching should clear such the force says has manifest luster and what set out clear light Indeed what able that the art
? 78 ,
to
if
his
if
to
of
be
is
to
judged function will the orator have served some things seem pleasantly and agreeably expressed and delivered but speech nevertheless productive not judged this pleasure
On
.
of
of
The comparison the two arts and the notion that tragedy secretly works toward the same moral ends are interest here
ăpa ovußñ
.
he
).
G7
ex
.
, in
vt
,
, si
ex
,
ex
: “
ad
,
." &
.
sit ,
: "
(
&
., .p
78
-
quando contingat G5 GSv voluisse censeo tra misericordia mouenda aut horror quidam incutiendus aut amplificandum aut probandum suadendum aliquid iisdem earum rerum propriis locis eae res omnes comparandae erunt Ibid 66 Dictum quidem est ciendas animi motiones iisdem locis peti argu ),
Antexegemata 1559 goediis comoedis
.pp
77
probability
(p .
,
of
.
a
of
on
,
,
is
again Yevóueva TroieTV The disagreement question poet may with Robortello the whether the imitate events which have actually happened and still remain poet Rufo judges that may providing that such events satisfy his criteria verisimilitude and 1451629 käv
,
vi
vt
,
.
,
? "
)
(
460
expressa elatağue
fuisse appareant
,
&
si
censebitur orator suauiter aliqua iucundè tamen suauitatis non iudicetur effectrix oratio ,
ita
,
.
a
&
in
At
ea ,
.
sit
,
a
quibus menta posse tragico rhetorico petuntur ceterùm inter vtrunque debet interesse quòd tragici ars occultissima oportet nec praecepta aut doctrinam aliquam redoleant denique eius dicta oratore artem doctrinam conspicuam esse decet constet quae dicat splendescere atque illuminari Etenim quodnam munus praestitisse orationis
cius
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS On 1453a32 , και τελευτώσα εξ εναντίας τοίς βελτίοσι και χείρoσιν . Rufo interprets the passage as meaning that the great and praiseworthy men in the Odyssey undergo a fate opposite to that of the wicked ( p . G7v ).
of
sure
Tipáyuaoiv
ŠUTTOINTÉov.
Rufo
insists that the plea tragedy must come from the action itself and not from the spectacle
On 1453b13 ,
¿v TOTS
( p . G8 ) .
On 1461b23 , ñ ws Blaßepá . Robortello is again rejected , since Rufo believes that Aristotle meant by Baßepá those things which are harmful to morality ( p . Hv ) . 1462b13 , pavepov ŐTI KPEITTwv av ein
and
to
to
some extreme
to
of
ill
the tragedy
the spectators refer the
that they might suffer
13 .)
.p
personages
" and reference the passage Rufo declares instead that Aristotle meant
to
of
are contested
.
“ perturbatio
Tábos as
(
his
uārlov . This time it is with Maggi that Rufo disagrees , denying that Aristotle wished to indicate a superiority of tragedy over epic in the achievement of the end proposed ( p . H2) . On 1452b11 , tráðos d'ļoti Tpãeis peapTiKń . Robortello's translation of On
εν
"
,
in
qui
be
15 ).
.p
"
,
&
”
a
as
(“ of
.
,
,
,
δι '
On 1453a9 αλλά αμαρτίαν τινά των μεγάλη δόξη όντων και EÚtuxią Disagreeing again with Robortello Rufo interprets the passage meaning that the tragic hero must those who enjoy great fame prosperous magna sunt opinione and and abundant fortune lautaque secunda fortuna ,
of
VETTORI
,
certain
.
of
in
distinction
a
his predecessors and this alone gives him than those the elaboration the process
acceptable
"
in de
"
"
"
in
,
(
.
great commentaries the primum librum Aristotelis arte appeared traditionally librum such
in
,
the Poetics the Commentarii primum poetarum The phrase
of
)
(
1560
1560 Pietro Vettori published the third
on
In
.
,
by
of
to
Rufo's work belongs the long and slow process concerned with improving the text passage the Poetics and especially with suggesting passage better interpretations His suggestions are sometimes more
of
Vettori's by
them
in
,
of
there are two hundred and twelve
by
small fragments
—
:
.)
of
,
,
of
titles because the assumption that additional books now lost had once comedy and existed and had contained Aristotle's theory the other genres Vettori's work followed the usual plan the Greek text divided into ,
a
.gr
his
an
.
on ,
it
as
,
to
—
division was given first followed translation into Latin followed Vettori's commentary each fragment Vettori's Greek text was the best date based was upon the available editions and upon ancient
)
(
461
) ;
his
in
he
by ,
a
In
.
viii
.
1885
ed . ), .p
Vahlen
(
9
his
(
it
manuscript Vahlen believes that was the Parisinus 174179 Latin general way translation was also own was more interested prede the philological and textual questions raised the Poetics than
POETIC cessors had been , less interested
in imposing a poetic theory
consequently
of Aristotle . Much of the commentary is exclusively linguistic ; certain of his questions and suggestions have been taken up by modern editors . For example , doubts about the position and subsequent
of
in of
,
,
a
of
30 )
by
)
(p .
71
.
of
of
)
( 2
to
imitate and
34 ),
.p
(
the Poetics than were his
connection with 1448619
summarizes these two natural sources the pleasure which men derive from rhythm and harmony He makes the naturalness third whereas Maggi had insisted that this was one the
the instinct
imitation cause
poetry
scholars
the text that
he
.
of in
is
to
is
It
as on ( 1 )
the natural origins
attention
.
1452b14–31 were later shared Ritter perhaps because this close philological frequently more faithful Vettori the spirit contemporaries Early the text for example the text
to
of
in
his
the reading
by
of his own upon
THEORY
of
,
"
of
“
of
as
80 the
,
of
47 )
.p
(
,
At
).
in
,
he
(
[ .p
two sources indicated Aristotle Robortello had earlier rejected this last interpretation which had found Averroës 1449a30 Vettori insists that both comedy and tragedy imitate the actions men departing from the positions Lombardi and Maggi who defined “
an
,
,
,
A of
of
of
).
fv
fol .
be
1450a8 correctly distributes diction and song
to to
commenting
,
,
,
on
,
,
It
.
,
to
, is
in
"
(
of
",
“
expression imitation the actions characters and passions human beings and Averroës who held that poetry was imita really significant difference from Robortello and tion Nature Maggi tragedy found Vettori's assignment the qualitative parts object manner and means will remembered that the two earlier commentators had placed plot under manner spectacle and song under means and diction character and thought under the objects.81 Vettori
,
by
in
of
,
he
,
,
:
of
of
he
,
)
“
to
'
(
in
;
(p in .
of
56 )
he
of
,
"
"
,
,
In
62 ).
.p
(
the manner
,
to
the means the objects and plot character and thought other less extensive developments shows proper insights into tragedy the meaning the text connection with the definition Aristotle constitutes sees clearly that the purgation included 1449623 tragedy the connection with Aristotle's criticism the end Euripides Orestes 1454a29 character Menelaus shows correctly conclusion without the that the plot could very well have been brought spectacle
in
"
,
.
these the
of
).
as
,
of .p
ed . ),
(
of
Such passages orientations
the basic
), .p
In
.
as
,
these
à
, vt
sine tanta nanque clari viri turpitudine fabula neque enim principio res ita constitutae fuerant
)
(
462
ad
.
146 : “
(
1550
."
.
), .p
(
1560 Commentarii commodè perduci poterat sequi necesse foret
.
. ix ,
,
Maggi and Lombardi Explanationes pp 394 and 416 See above chap
fortunate
34 .
,
of
Vettori's interpretations are not however ,
82 81 80
All
so
.
a
327
as
;
to
it
cf.
frequently did Castelvetro 1576 comprehension some demonstrate Poetics
(
he
is
as
is
a
be
;
a
so
in
of
great dishonoring hero ... indeed the plot was not established 82 the beginning such way that this would the necessary consequence interesting here What that Vettori understands clearly Aristotle's does not criticize the based on structural considerations criticism character because failed follow the traditional portrayal later critics
exitum hoc inde
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
fit
many cases , the force of the tradition as already established is irresistible , and he makes repeated and ingenious attempts to Aristotle's text into of
that tradition The most notable example remarks throughout the commentary
in
is
is
,
on
in
,
at
of
is
:
;
at
.
to
,
he
his
.
is
,
on
.
found Vettori's relationship the between poetry necessary for and verse His basic and immutable contention that verse poetry and interpretation bends the Poetics numerous places justify that contention This done for the first time the remarks Wóyois virois 1447a29 Vettori states his position ,
this effort
.
he
if
of
,
he
,
of
in
an
in
a
he
of
I
,
is
of
I
to
In
order declare completely how feel about this matter hold that one those elements which make true poets some men metrical discourse Nobody poet can call himself the proper sense the word even imitates and expresses what uses this form wishes excellent fashion unless discourse.83
of
.
of
,
as
)
, in
55 ).
”
( .p
&
"
implying meter 1449b25 He argues again connection
(
of
dvouévq tragedy the definition numerum concentum metrum
ñ
of
,
to
,
,
12 ).
( in .p he
:
in
it
be ,
for Vettori three indispensable elements this On the basis imitation verse and excellent expression assumption comedy who have written condemns those modern writers prose Consonant with the same position Vettori interprets the There would thus seem
poetry
(
.p
77 ).
,
with 1450613 that the passage confirms his earlier thesis that poetic diction necessarily involves verse
of
if
.
its
“
purge
where
of
the Poetics
to
us ,
the first sentence poetry were invented
the
in
is
,
he
The statement becomes more distinctly rhetorical tragedy states that purgation achieved
of
”
the definition
on
to
:
of
an
to
is
,
be
"
putting before our eyes misfortunes which necessarily move our Specifically purgation said answer Plato's banish the poets for their moving the passions
.
to
as
a
in
a
.
This
is
advance and takes away from
quantity and dangerous de
is
12 : “
excessive
in
found when somebody purges them
them what
in
, it is
to
,
at
,
,
.
is
remedy
83
if
they are the contrary judges that these feelings are useful way Nevertheless since times they could spill over such completely irrepressible necessary provide remedy for this evil The
Aristotle moderated be
84
us .
to
in
of
.”
ment
delight
by
souls
,
when tragedy
85
vices and
of
to
commentary
the
Vettori says that the species
in
be
.
of
of on
occurs
in
of
,
be
a
to
reduce poetics
to
of
second example
to
A
Vettori's yielding tradition may found his kind rhetoric There are many examples sufficiently clear we examine those this but perhaps the position may poetry with respect The first passages treating the end audience wish
done most conspicu
" ;
, .
,
,
re ,
,
:
18 : "
cf. .p
,
,
,
,
Vt
., .p
Ibid autem penitus quod sentio hac testificer arbitror alterum eorum quae reddunt aliquos propriè poetas esse orationem metricam nec posse quempiam vere vocari poëtam quamuis imitetur eximiegue exprimat quod vult nisi vtatur hac oratione
."
52 .
:
is , id
."
."
,
463
]
[
.p
,
à
., ., .p .p 2 : 56 : " "
84
"
ab
23 ,
.p
" ;
primo ipsum Nóyov cum dixit poeticam orationem est certis mensuris illigatam intellexisse and where Vettori claims that prose not acceptable for the poet remotamgue ipsam penitus existimo officio poëtae Also vitijs purgandis atque oblectandis Ibid cum inuentae sint nobis ponens ante oculos casus qui necessario moueant animos nostros Ibid
the passions and teaches how
this end and heals the violence ,
,
it
of
of
arouses means
. 86
of
it
of
and the outbreak the passions means two them which presents on the stage i.e. and moderates through the actions which pity and fear
by
by
all ,
In
far
.go
ously indeed by tragedy , which sets bounds to one may fact tragedy devotes itself
all
THEORY
to
POETIC
ad ad
,
);
So
"
( .p
”
& &
,
ad
ad
in
" "
,
: “
in
,
in
of
Moreover the verbs used later repetitions these formulas are ones constantly found rhetorical treatises timorem iniiciendum misericordiam mouendam accommodatos metum iniiciendum misericordiam timoremque animis spectatorum excitandam 101
.
of
ad
78 ). se
( .p
”
of
97 96 )
;
( (p .p .
” ,
ad
in
this passage
"
persuadendum
and
"
ad
persuadendum
again to
...
comedy must sumere materiam aptam their actions are those which magis aptae sint Vettori states the whole position very clearly
in ).
"
69 ) ;
(p .
"
capere sine dubio animos spectatorum dictated the fact that both tragedy
by
“
”
to
animos and has power The need for verisimilitude
is
,
ac
“
).
”
(p .
magnum incutere animis eorum tragedy 134 for the parts Recognition and reversal make for tragedies which vehementer capiant spectacle animos hominum ducant ipsos quò velint allicit
is
,
87
.”
to
to
;
of
: “
In
connection with verisimilitude fact the end the poets obtain the belief the listeners for which reason poets must adapt themselves persuade their judgment and express those things which are apt
of
.
its
of
of “
to up
is of
in
of
These rhetorical orientations are apparent Vettori's theory the expectations The audience nature the poet's audience and
of to
in
]. ” 88 to
, in
is
all ,
he
art
“
:
the poetic
attempts
for
the
avoid monotony will use probable
to
he
;
89 "
"
Above
For
to
).
.
it
,
the listeners and
use episodes
)
.
(p (p
to
of
in
the beliefs
will
244 and especially
subjection
insinuate itself with every
56 : “
to
).
,
he
;
it [ in
of
elegance and pleasure
and tedium for the spectator 251 gain credibility materials order
86
.p
of
to
to
.
those who hear this marveling and this fear sake
be ” (
I
“
go
it :
in
tragedy made the multitude seated the theater 183 The poet must strive brought upon please say that nothing must the stage which would counter the wish and the desires the specta very opposite poets please tors Since the seek them the effect would result from any such unacceptable materials The poet must strive provoke the minds will use surprise move various ways
:
)
464
,
."
&
pauorem
."
hanc admirationem
ac
,
,
in
,
ad
:
.'
&
, id ea
& est
,
animis eorum qui audiunt
(
efficere
in
:
163
: “
Ibid
,
ad
: “
: “
., .p
., . .p ”
89
sit
88
se
., .p
,
scenam inducit excitat moderaturgue est misericordiae metus adipisci assensum eorum qui audiunt quare Ibid 260 finis enim poëtarum proferre quae sint apta persuadendum accommodare debent eorum iudicia Ibid 122 nihil inquam afferri debere scenam quod contra voluntatem desi spectatorum deria cum enim poëtae placere studeant ipsis contrarium inde penitus sequeretur 87
quae
,
,
& in
rei ,
:
sit :
.
,
, ac ,
,
:
,
in
est
ui
, si vt
ita
., .p
Ibid contra vero Aristoteles iudicat motus hos temperatos esse utiles verun reprimi possent opus esse huic malo tamen quia aliquando effunderentur nulla quis antea ipsos purget quod nimium impor remedium adhibere remedium autem esse tunumque illis tollat Hoc verò praeclare facere tragoediam quae modum adhibet docetque quatenus progrediendum ipsa enim incumbit huic omnibus perturbationibus curat impetum exultantiamque perturbationum omnium ope duarum quas factis
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
as
in is of of a
his
on of
as
.
he
,
, in
90
."
all
means possible , into their minds , seizing upon means useful for this purpose and rejecting their opposites The rhetorical bent expresses itself finally Vettori's emphasis upon special poetic diction We have seen earlier that regards this one necessarily involving the use the distinguishing features the art and
all
,
he
“
...
, to it
of
the poet's genius the poetic faculty
of
it is
to
, "
all to
terms
proper bring
since
as to
a
its
reduced
is
special diction for verse and becomes distinctive quality
to
,
in
." 91
;
to
:
In
.
commentary specifically states that diction verse 1450613 not the same for prose and for poetry not words are proper the same way both kinds for the poets have certain words which are properly their own which are only little used prose When this demand
,
it
.
of
”
,
“
,
of
”
on
“
In
92
. "
embellish diction with words and the beauties this kind certain parts the poem then Aristotle suggests the poet will cultivate all the flowers and beauties diction toward rhetorical inter Vettori interprets result the prevalent critical tradition For one thing meaning better than men Aristotle's better like worse our times nostra aetate worse similar nunc
as
In be
:
;
24 )
(
.p
of
or in
...
is
of
of
,
,
tragedy are said connection with character again the personages middling condition highest birth while comic persons are those the nature the tragic hero clarified this later passage
22 to ).
of
he in
on .p
"
“
(
.p
of cf.
20 ; “
as
"
,
or
"
or
,
.
,
miscellaneous
or
,
(
),
"
a
elements appear
of
,
verse and the tendency
certain number
of
a
Besides the insistence
pretation
of
by
,
,
he
he
.
an
)
(
to
in
to
his
be
is
.
all
a
of
he
be a
of
should not man the people some lowly person but one the number those who have great name and are rich and favored fortune with advantages This opposition not the fact that Aristotle does not provided with extraordinary virtue For wish this same person
of
in
of
is
he
,
,
in
.
,
of
of
in
approves being excellent praise and esteem even though honor and glory are usually the companions speaking virtue Indeed terms the judgment the multitudes who admire the appearance virtue more than virtue itself and false more than true glory.93
see these
qualities praised
in is
when they
,
,
." ,
ad
:
studetguo seruit enim ars poëtarum opinionibus eorum qui audiunt qua potest animos ipsorum captans quidquid hoc aptum
insinuare omni ratione est reiiciensque contraria 91 ,
(“
"
"
,
291
: “
Ibid
for those who watch
in
life
., se p .
90
useful
,
to
:
.
,
on
,
Vettori's distinctions among characters are social whereas Aristotle's had been moral Similarly Aristotle's four requisites for character take the good morally good contemporary meaning this f or becomes
."
:
sit
sit ."
,
è
à
,
&
,
ut
: "
: e
,
aliquis
: “
., .p
123 non vnus populo obscura aliqua persona sed numero eorum quorum magnum nomen est quique opulenti sint atque fortuna omnibus commodis Non repugnat autem quod ipsum uirtute aliqua praestanti praeditum esse non vult
Ibid
., .p
93
92
,
in
:
77 : "
., .p
quamuis non omnia verba eodem pacto conueniant vtrique generi habent Ibid prosa enim poëtae sua quaedam propriaque verba quae non magnopere vsurpantur Ibid 264 Cum facultatis poëtarum ornare verbis orationem omnesque huiusce modi concinnitates adhibere
,
,
."
)
(
,
,
sit :
ex
465
ac :
,
&
.
ornati eundem tamen laude existimatione excellentem probat quamuis uirtutis comes honor loquitur enim gloria plerunque opinione multitudinis quae admiratur magis imaginem uirtutis atquc inanem quàm veram gloriam
POETIC
THEORY
the plot and accepted with approval , are impelled to imitate those deeds which spring from these characters, and they try to become just such persons " 94) ; " appropriate ” refers to decorum and such considerations as the sex
of
the century
of
the personage ; “ like ” means like the characters
being depicted ; and “ constant ” means self -consistent ( pp . 144-45 ). For matters other than character, also , Vettori calls upon traditional
interpretations . The meanings assigned by Aristotle to “ imitation ” are crossed with those found in Plato , and true imitation is identified with the dramatic manner ( p. 26 ) . Tragedy is said to “ purge ” other passions besides pity and fear ( p . 57 ), and thus the notion of an effect proper to a given genre is lost . All statements concerning necessity and probability reveal that these are understood
in
the context
of nature ; thus
a man wounded in the
heart " necessarily ” dies ( p. 81 ) and things which could “ probably ” happen are those which common opinion admits to be such ( p . 94 ).
On the whole , while it cannot be said that Vettori presents a general theory of poetics at variance with that of Aristotle — I think indeed that there is no general theory contained in his commentary - it is nevertheless
perhaps
a
own
.pp
.
of
does not impose upon Aristotle a total theory of distinguishing quality his work
is
his
true that many individual interpretations derive from current thinking about poetry rather than from insights into the Poetics itself. However , Vettori makes many contributions to the text and to the translation , his remarks are sometimes original and acceptable , and the very fact that he
,
V
as
,
.
of
)
(
it in
on
,
to
)
57
In
de
(
to
be
added what has already been said Chapter 156– Quintij Horatij about Pietro Angeli's arte poetica librum annota put chronological place around 1560 among the com tiones except mentaries Horace which made use the Poetics Angeli his references
Little need
;
of
of
of
it
of
to a
.
,
be
to
)
1561
(
PIGNA
to
us
V it
If
of
in
or
of
do
,
to
Aristotle indicate used one the editions Vettori's commentary but permit exactly these references not determine whether was that 1560 that 1573. were the latter then course our treatment Chapter moved later date would have him here and
is a
of
on
,
we
pp
.
a
-
a
it in is
"
"
;
on
,
of
commentary Like Angeli's work Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561 each one the full scale one presenting but the Ars poetica lengthy explanatory remark eighty precepts The Horace found correspondences which Pigna found between Horace and Aristotle have at
);
.
,
at
.
be
at
(
V ,
already been summarized Chapter 160–61 the present time may look more closely the particular construction which Pigna puts expected there are many points which his upon the Poetics As might
,
:
in
,
)
466
ab
,
(
ad
ea
."
&
,
: “
., .p
94
fabulis laudari Ibid 143 hoc enim uitae prodest nam qui spectant cum haec plausugue excipi vident illis moribus proueniunt facta imitanda excitantur quae ipsi tales euadere conantúrque
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS to Aristotle give no hint as to how he understood him . Such , for
references
,
( pp . 10 , 12 , 23 ) and on meter ( p . 32 ) and his distinction between artistic and nonartistic errors ( p . 16 ) . But there are three broad subjects on which Pigna offers a rather extensive interpre tation of the Poetics : ( 1) imitation , ( 2 ) necessity and probability , and ( 3 ) example
are his remarks on language
character . on
.
.
2 )
in is
the reason
;
one man
do in
one action poem
(
,
,
as
of
is
of
the like and the worse
treat the better
we of
beauty
as
seeking
,
,
that both
The object imitation defined that we must judge the case which our understanding embraces
.p
,
of
of
six
The passages on imitation concern everything from the nature of imitation qualitative parts tragedy Commenting the first lines Horace Pigna avers that poetry and painting are both imitations and
itself to the
is
,
a
( .p
of
to
to
to
as
as
—
to
—
56 )
a
to
it is
. " a 95
“
in
human affairs single action more readily than when poem directed towards several ends The magnitude similarly related our capacity for understanding the whole must not surpass our ability attend our willingness well remember for
,
a
In
repress the pride that spectacle
in
,
)
96
terms
to
.
these topics related
of
so
Aristotle
effects upon the
to
as
is
a
a
to
an
is a
“
poemate statuendum rebus humanis amplectitur quàm plures fines ,
nostra commodius
,
si
uerò
, vt in
Ita
), .p 8 : "
(
76 : “
in
., ." .p
he
( Il .
),
.
"
Poetica Horatiana 1561 quibus vna actio contemplatione posceret
coherent whenever they are necessary vague current generali allusion the matter concerns Horace's sixtieth finds Horace saying that verisimilitude
of
]
digressions will little more than
zation His main treatment precept 338-40 where 95
be ,
97 — the is
(
"
or
“
one— They probable
the Poetics what Pigna has although such reference the first
the text
of
related
say about necessity and probability
in
Much more closely
to
.
,
than
, so be it in in is
is
its
,
,
in
;
so
,
by
Whatever Aristotelian elements there might
96
human life and
our individual lives but rather because while we are attracted our wearied mind refreshed and ceases burdensome purified the soul throws off every care and
imitation are stated more audience
consequence more
of
us
)
(
in
tragedy does not purge for the reason that we become and that those emotions teach the tragedy
circumspect
thoughts
;
is
)
them
:
purified
”
"
are
of
.
its is a
(
of
the spectators
(
...
on
.
of
:
of to ,
,
of
-
it
.
be
negligibly small general way different whole must not imitation produce different effects and this gives the basis the distinction among the genres tragedy produces horror comedy wit and proper the epic admiration The effect each genre itself but some commentary tragedy becomes how since this Horace the effect identified with utilitarian end Pity and terror are aroused and the minds the
objects
&
467
vt
aut verisimilia
."
necessaria
,
quoties
ar
:
à
herentia
ita
.
:
,
& ,
autem
)
Erunt
(
Ibid
,
., .p 3 : : “
97
,
." , &
,
permotiones illae nos humanae Ibid non purgat quia cautiores euadamus superbiam nostrae premant Sed quia dum illo attrahimur vitae calamitatem edoceant spectaculo aegra mens reficitur cessat duris cogitationibus animus omni solici tudine exuatur itaque purgetur
POETIC
of our
THEORY
as spectators . This accounts for Aristotle's impossible statement that the verisimilar is preferable to the incredible Pigna true . identifies Aristotle's necessity with Horace's verisimilitude ; thinking gloss but Poetics 1451a37 shows that himself necessary and contingent actions be
το
Indeed those words και
το
τα
:
is
he
of
pleasure
on
his
condition
ή
it
at
,
in
,
times verisimilitude
as
,
at
in
as
history
.
,
of
necessary
,
is
at
For times the truth poetry.98
.
or
it
is
:
is
,
is
is
this sense
to ;
in
δυνατά κατά εικός αναγκαίον must under that elkós used for the contingent and avayxaiov for the necessary and elkos not distinguished because verisimilar but because proper things which may either happen not happen Indeed SUVatd that point are verisimilar things and these some are contingent others necessary stood
at of
of
of
be
,
to
It
.
,
,
of
.
,
:
to
to
,
in
of
in
of
The terms the Poetics are thus interpreted the light other theories might appropriate Aristotle not the light his poetic theory this point indicate that Pigna frequently refers other works the Aristotelian corpus the Rhetoric the Ethics the Politics the Posterior Analytics the Meteorologica
for things which
are easily believed
,
,
,
to
for things which
the other
,
divided into two kinds one ,
is
First verisimilitude ,
poetic genres
.
separate
to
of
.
is
A
in
of
;
.
in
is
,
The most extensive and detailed treatment materials from the Poetics given however connection with character Following Aristotle Pigna states that both character and passions are derived from plot but Aris totle's four requisites for character are justified terms verisimilitude special schematism provided consistent with Pigna's general position the verisimilitude and the four requisites for the relationship are believed
it
,
.
by
or
,
, ; in
by
:
is
it or
,
in .
is
with difficulty The former includes known things and the requisite for propriety comparison the latter includes unknown things itself comparison Thus the and the requisite for resemblance itself following diagram results Verisimile
)
pinione
(o
όμοιον
similes
)
in
collatione
ομαλόν (
)
(
se (
per
collatione
αρμόττον personarum qualitas
χρηστόν
)
in
se
per
difficile similitudo ignotius
)
(
facile quod decet notioris
be a
of
a
& , TÒ :
TÒ
& kai eis ,
as
of
,
as a
of to
It
be
then follows that Aristotle's XPNOTÓv would the appropriateness woman's character her nature woman and his åpuÓTTOV would compared with that appropriateness child the same character the
."
)
(
,
ut in
468
;
ita
.
, À
de
,
sit
de ,
tà
79 : “
:
vt in
,
.
ibi
,
sit
vt
de
., .p
98
pam verba illa dvaykalov Ibid SUVATI KOTÓ ELKÒS sunt intelligenda contingenti ávayxaiov elkos dicatur necessario atque elkos non distinguitur quae possint accidere quia non accidere Siquidem SUVATà uerisimile sed quia quorum alia contingentia alia necessaria est enim necessarium modo sunt uerisimilia poesi historia modo verisimile uerum
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
to
as a
a
,
is
,
we
,
to
since the heroes are traditional
and the epic
ÕUOIov
,
tragedy
but this
not true for hence only oualov is
such poems
;
observed
In
.
genres
all ,
must
99
. "
by
serving different
as
to
him Pigna believes that the first quality XPNOTóv mentioned for never consider any person oualov and ouolov Pigna sees them
make the distinction exhaustive action himself With respect be
as in
only
, “
ascribes
.
to
of
his
or of a woman from another country . Aristotle's oualov is consistency of character with itself throughout the work , whereas õudiov demands the prince personage resemblance such the character which opinion
by
its
all
,
of
is be
,
on
,
,
,
a
of
to
,
.
At
).
( , .pp
comedy where persons are invented and where applies 46–47 Both qualities moreover are needed the orator and the historian later point finally commenting Horace lines 153–60 Pigna affirms that ápuÓTTOV must considered especially with age respect this the most difficult characters and that the
in
,
of
a
to
.
of
,
on
is a
as
its ;
in
of
(
.p
53 ).
applications Many Pigna's Gli heroici also published the same principles appear 1561 indeed the second work constitutes clarification the first insofar dealing with concrete cases provides examples the principles Gli explain Pigna's own heroici short treatise meant introduce and
an
or
,
he
;
to
,
,
,
, an a
“
in
:
”
So
of
,
to
,
,
epic this work will possess some heroic poem poetry some features peculiar the epic and some ,
to
a
,
As all a
).
a
it
all
9–10
qualities common
a
in
of
of
.
in
by ,
(
.pp an
of
,
an
end
da
heroic poem the fall Alfonso Este tournament the poem subject follows the same volume His choice the was dictated says the fact that contained their proper form the seven circum person great stances civil operations action relationship place persons the action and mode for and occasion instrument
of .
"
“
Similarly the particular ,
11 ).
,
.
among the serious genres
:
to
“
truth classes
it (p
to
of
tragedy and the epic
Heroico
...
its it
is
"
specifically
relationship
his
it
relates
in
it
tragedy characteristics which will share with the related form for the part single most the statement that contains one action one illus application except that the general illustrious trious person
In
...
his
a
to
,
it is
in
of
.
is
be
.
a
it a no is " a
if
to
is
it
in
,
a
in
in
“
in
coloring this imitation consists verisimilar thing upon true one comedy and certain other poems sufficient that the thing should said verisimilar way even there truth present But heroic poetry tragedy necessary and have foundation some true thing since not reasonable that great event should have occurred some great and famous gentleman without being widely known.100 ;
,
,
by
of
is
.
la è
."
in
nunquam tamen personam vllam actionibus solam consideramus questo imitare sopra una cosa uera colorire una uerisimile
1561
11 : "
heroici
(
Gli
), .p
., .p
Ibid
45 : "
10099
is
,
In
Pigna's poem the true event the fall Alfonso from horse the verisimilar consequence that the guardian angels headed Mars
)
(
469
sia . "
si
,
è
&
,
si
,
di
il
ui
di
è
un
un
in
in
.
ui
&
nella comedia certi altri Poemi basta che cosa dica uerisimilmente ancora che non sia uerità alcuna ma nella Poesia Heroica che sol nome detta Epopeia nella tragedia necessario che sia fondamento cosa uera non essendo ragioneuole che sia gran fatto qualche gran Signore segnalato che diuolgato non occorso
POETIC
THEORY
with God for his life. This latter action constitutes
should have interceded
imitation ." It will be noted that the action as described contains elements both of tragedy and of the epic : first , there is a mutation of fortune which relates it to tragedy ; second , there is a perfecting of the actual events which relate them to the epic . The emotional effects are equally mixed : pity the
"
101
and terror accompanied by the desire for honor (on the part of common men ) and the desire for magnanimity ( on the part of the great ). “ And thus in addition to the emulation of illustrious actions , which will be the princi pal passion , pity and fear will touch our hearts every time we read a heroic is
,
;
( .pp
.
to
,
to of
poem having tragic elements . ” Finally the action combines elements the active and the contemplative lives the active life more proper private citizens Thus Pigna's poem leans illustrious persons the other
this world may the space one
in
of
of
of
be
,
so
,
).
in
:
,
to of
longer than tragedy since the accidents things may easily sudden that these contained
a
all of is
... the epic change
of
by
in
,
is
more towards the active which both heroic and tragic 65–66 Tragedy differs from epic the limits time and these turn are imposed believe the audience the willingness
be
,
a
an
of
to
is
in
fit
or
its
presentation
to
to
this way
made
of
102
a
,
by a
to
so
of
in
he is in
,
a
a
,
in
,
of
of
the action itself and the circumstances
an
,
is
to .
The nature
one single day give account required set forth the life
composition not too long since waiting spectator listened
This
not
read
be
of
great prince
be
is
he
has something divine him nor can his greatness soul not less than month
that a
.
in
it
of
.
an ,
day And they thus become useful for the stage which does not admit too much passage many days should time since not proper that action represented four hours ... And since man may not short time show
.
the
of
is
in
in
.
, all
as to
,
of
in
,
to
to
contained
Gli heroici that provide the basis the
the three books
serve two purposes
,
il
gli
76 .
.p
V.
,
ci
,
& Et lo
cosi ancora oltre alla emulatione delle attioni illustri che sarà l'affetto spauento cuore ogni volta che leggiamo una toccheranno c'habbia del tragico
pietà
."
Poesia Heroica
14 : “
, ., la .p
Ibid principale
,
101
able
clear from what Pigna says
theory has been made
102
comprehend what
to
these must
: “
of
be
to
is ."
It
103as
insofar poem
,
;
,
,
,
to
,
of
it is
audience will thus determine whether for epic for tragedy Regardless the genre the poet uses certain devices common also the the present his materials these are such rhetorical means orator enthymeme the example the deduction the conclusion These are adapted general the capacities the audience One considers men
un
.
in
...
Et
,
di
si
ne
il
di
un
a in
:
14 : " è
&
:
., .p
piu lunga l'Epopeia della tragedia perche accidenti delle cose del Ibid rinchiudono facilmente nello spatio modo che essi subito mondo possono variare uengono d'un giorno seruire alla scena che non comporta troppo tempo per non essere quattro hore perche douere che una attione molte giornate sia rappresentata .
&
,
)
(
da
: in
gli
."
de
."
470
ad il
di
in
la
ui
23 : si " si
a
di ,
di
103
è
., .p
,
puo non cosi tosto l'huomo dimostra hauer del diuino solo dar conto del suo grand'animo uita d'un sopremo Principe dichiarare uuol meno d'un mese non troppo lunghezza douendosi leggere cosi fatto componimento non stare che non udirlo come spettatore quanto che cssi hanno riguarda l'uniuersale esser huomini Ibid capaci contiene nel Poema cio che
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
POETICS :
poem itself and to justify , after the fact , certain features of that same poem . In this way the " theoretical applications of Aristotle's Poetics is two - edged . But it is at best a vague and general application , since most of the Aristo telian principles taken over are now hardly recognizable. One is aware of their presence in certain formulas , and one realizes that they are there because one has seen them earlier in the Poetica Horatiana .
especially
MARANTA ( 1561 )
In 1561 also , but some time after the publication of the Poetica Horatiana , Bartolomeo Maranta undertook to expound the Ars poetica to the members of the Accademia Napoletana ; the lectures are now found in MS R.126.Sup . of
If
the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.104
have a place in the
these discourses
present chapter , it is because Maranta seeks to cast some fresher light on the interpretation
of Horace by referring at length to the Poetics. He con himself only with the first two " precepts " of Horace , which he interprets as treating the relationship between plot and episodes . The inter pretations of Robortello , Maggi , Vettori, and Pigna are rejected ,
he
,
first
...
all
,
Aristotle
."
"
" )
"
meanings
Maranta suggests that we must define carefully the episode says has three favola and Plot
" ; ( " it is ,
in of .
,
inadequate Instead meanings plot
as
all
cerns
at
,
,
.
of or
or
...
.
;
of
all
in
to
is ,
...
in
of
,
is
to
plot
is
the
of
the universal and the episodes The third that which concerns the action proper this meaning plot restricted solely the true episodes that that part the poem which begins from the first chorus and ends the last chorus.105 that way
the whole aggregate
...
or In
,
,
it
;
all
as
is , is
of in
of
. . . .
from the universal does not differ one formal part among the six except the addition names for the universal the plot and the principal action the whole poem are one and the same thing the second way plot any other poem the same thing the tragedy the comedy the epic
no
of
he
,
is
he
:
of
”,
Annali
these discourses the article in
is
,
),
(
II,
.
,
di
epi
29 : "
sei
.
105
sum
critica letteraria
VI
nuovi manoscritti
della Scuola Normale Pisa Serie XXIV 1955 115-25 for the dates and the attendant circumstances The MS now being discussed No. mentioned
of
Maranta
di
Bartolomeo
a
in
”
.
“
to
can say that the universal contains within itself :
See my article
he
;
we
,
this way
, “
104
In
to
to
as
to
external the unifying plot The distinction makes belong episodes story between which the general and those which are integral say about plot and episodes the plot has this the Aeneid
of
the poem
to
as
in
Maranta's disagreement with his predecessors consists the fact that they regard episodes part external the action whereas can admit
...
, e la
28
la
o
o
La
la
...
la . . . .
.
de
-
.
la
o
è
la
il
di
se
.
.,
MS Ambr R.126.Sup fols 128v una parte formale delle non differisce nomj perche l'vniuersale punto dall'vniuersale aggiuntione non per fauola principal attione poema sono tutte una cosa medesima tutto Nella maniera quello medesimo che Tragedia epopeia Fauola uero comedia altro poema
e
et
si
la
.
in
...
."
in la
e
cioè tutto l'aggregato della vniuersale delli episodij terza maniera della Fauola quella che uersa circa questo significato ristrigne solo attione propria fauola nelli ueri episodij cioè tutta quella parte del poema che comincia dal primo coro finisce nell'ultimo coro
)
(
471
POETIC
THEORY
sodes , considering , however , those episodes which truly belong to the principal action of the whole poem , but not to the plot which the poet has undertaken principally to write . And these episodes are the most appropriate when taken from within the action for they are like a part of the principal action and they
are truly necessary ; the others are indeed drawn from within , but they are not considered as parts of the principal action.106
In these passages , Maranta seems to be distinguishing one kind of plot which contains the whole of a story in general terms and the episodes proper to it ; a second kind which specifies this story in terms of a single action and named characters, and the episodes proper to it ; and , finally , plot as a qualitative part of a tragedy or an epic . In the last sense , the " episodes " are the sections between the choruses of a tragedy , for example . The preceding remarks constitute the substance of Maranta's second discourse . In the third , he repeats Aristotle's recommendation that the poet find the universal plot , the “ modello , ” then add names to it , then supply the episodes. The dominant principle of construction is unity and the plot must be so knit that the removal of any episode would spoil the whole structure . Unity must exist independently of episodes . There seems to be some wavering and inconsistency when , later in the same discourse , Maranta declares that the episode is a quantitative part ( adding " volume " a
,
.
of
he
,
In
on
.
of
to
its
plot constitutes combining to the poem ) and that as such addition quantitative formal and elements the fourth discourse Maranta gives further details episodes The episode the definition and use
does nothing else but extend and augment the plot and the universal telling how what summarized the universal has come about ... nature and end none other than tell the way which the complica
its
.
107
in
to
is
its
is
in
, “
by
says
is
.”
is
,
of
is
,
.
It
"
to ,
successive poets
In do
treatment
.
by
in
of
a
“
,
of
tion and the solution the plot are brought about The plot thus story episodes the immutable invariable eternal the are the variations poet can bring which that story clear that Maranta here speaking terms traditional accepted stories and their particular
in
,
its
the poetic
art ,
it
the most important aspect
of
be
.
its
to
considers
and
30 : “ A
he is
what 106
to
.
a
.
of
The fifth and sixth discourses little more than repeat and expand the totality the manuscript belabors discussion the same materials repetitious and monotonous way Maranta's ideas about plot and episode perhaps gives very extended consideration But this chief worth For
;
Et
a
da
da
gli
il
di
-
.
se
di
di
.,
questo modo noi potremo dire che l'uniuersale contenghi Ibid fols 129v Episodij pigliando pero quelli episodij che sono ben del fatto princi dentro somma pale poema ma non della fauola presa principalmente scriuersi dal poeta tutto questi episodij sono più proprij presi dentro l'attione perche sono como parte della
la
...
et sia et la
.
la
fa
si
)
(
472
la
sia et
."
el
il
dj
si
fa
: “
. "
il
et
si
: li
di
.
.,
il 107
; et
attione principale sono ueri necessarij altri ducono bene dentro ma non hanno parti della principale attione consideratione Ibid fol 146v non altro che dilatare accrescere fauola l'universale con dire modo che quello che nell'universale dice accaduto non altro sua natura quale solutione della connessione modo con dire suo ufficio senon fauola
of
of its
POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS .
,
the
.
At
is
it
',
reading
in
solutions for this aspect the text the Poetics Maranta's frequently closer and more adequate than were his Aristotle although has some notable failings any rate his presen predecessors it seeks
, in a
,
to
all
.
.
. ,
;
in
of
, is
of
of
.
if
--
to
of
tation the lectures Accademia Napoletana must have seemed new boring and informative During the same months 1561 Maranta wrote for Giovanni Villani clarification some the points made his lectures the manuscript his Latin now Ambrosianus R.118.Sup fols 117–24v The additions
in
by
is
of
.
to
he
,
“
:
is
on
it
to
the usual way
,
of
of
.
of
theory are significant Most important his rejection dividing and interpreting the Ars poetica seeking invention disposition and elocution His the parts corresponding rejection who wishes We believe that Aristotelian grounds
statement
,
its
,
In
.
.
to
the variety means having enumerated
of
to
indeed
,
for the imitation
,
is
...
made
As
divide the Poetics itself according
which the imitation poems the kinds
.
seems
it
of
to
to
)
by (
Aristotle
108
. "
of
be
,
to
to
or
a
to
divide poetics must seek division proper and which does not belong any other science any other art The distinction rejected belong ing any possible use for poetics place rhetoric cannot apply the divisions Maranta will try the Poetics the Ars poetica
...
,
,
of
of
of
in
,
in
,
or
in it
in
,
be
:
of
. . . .
a
by
to
the latter three
.
it
of
and omitted the last three these we may easily using similarity derived from the first kind three types He divides the first three very carefully into parts Then there are species are present parts some like ideal forms the whole two kinds actuality whence potentiality than rather revealed the poem and can adapt
...
.
by
"
“
is
of
of
be
to
;
”
by
“
"
I
, ” if
they are properly called potentials may use that term The others are the parts which Aristotle calls quantitative because they divide the same poems actually existing these have also come integrating into parts called parts since brought together and made means them the body the poem
...
A 109
is
.
,
in
,
all
by
.
of
an
of
as
of
,
a
into whole just the body animal means the members perfect master poets must reveal these six parts one one which what Horace indeed accomplishes albeit not the same order that Aristotle used
of
,
”,
,
"
of
,
he
.
: “
.
,
." , et
propriam mauimus 109
Oportere autem eum qui poeticam partiri cupiat fol 117v quae nulli praeterca arti aut scientiae conueniat diuisionem quaerere existi .,
MS Ambr R.118.Sup .
108
,
of
:
to
of
The consideration the first qualitative part plot brings Maranta back his constant theme the discussion fabula the conditions for unity and episodes Here makes another important remark too
a
: "
...
.
in
;
...
ex
:
.
.,
poeticam ipsam quibus imitatio Ibid fols 118-18v uarietate instrumentorum perficitur partiri uidetur imitationem uerò enumeratis poematum speciebus omissis uero tribus posterioribus tribus prioribus per similitudinem quandam acceptam facile ipsis accommodare possumus tria priora diligentius partes scindit Sunt autem partium
...
ut
fit .
et
ex
.”
)
(
473
...
ex
,
in
in
...
et si
.
:
in
duo genera aliae quidem ueluti formae siue species sunt toto poemate quae potentia potius quam actu ipso ostendi possunt quam obrem potentiales hoc verbo utar merito appellantur partes actu Aliae sunt partes quas quantas appellat Aristoteles quia existentes eadem poemata diuidunt has etiam integrantes appellare consueuerunt quia ipsis ueluti corpus animalis optimus membris poematis corpus coalescit totum autem poetarum institutor has omnes sex partes sigillatim ostendere debet quod quidem exequitur Ho tius tam non eodem ordine quo Aristoteles usus est
POETIC
THEORY
frequently missed by his contemporaries : the plot is an imitation not of men but of human actions , of the fortune and misfortune that is found in such actions (fol. 118v) . Again , the principle for choice and exploitation of ).
fol .
of
(
a
of
,
the original argument concern episodes ,
.
return
to
,
to
relationship
of
, of
precepts
to
of
its "
Horace's first two unity plot and
”
as
by
,
its
unity and Maranta summarizes the three kinds a plot is false unity person single war listed Aristotle that time and 120
by
CONCLUSIONS in
in
;
To
us .
to
in
the century
the present period
although perhaps to
imagination
played
,
be
to
the game continues
of
to
of
as
”
“
.
)
(3
it ,
its
to
)
:
2 )
game discovered early
a
as
it
Some within poetica was
the range
(
,
of to
tionship
if
.
the uses which the Poetics was put during problems connected with and rela other critical modes the uses the Poetics are already familiar seek many passages parallel the text one could find the Ars
of (1
consider three questions
these years
be
,
of
on
.
we
to
of
,
of
.
of
to
The years 1550 1561 are marked several developments the history Aristotle's Poetics Not many these are new since critics and com mentators early established the main lines discussion with respect the text But some the emphases are marked and significant and the tradi tion takes new general lines These may perhaps more clearly seen
with less vigor and accumulate increasingly large
or
of
in
is
.
as
.
the ban put upon
some slackening
of
of
an
.
be
the latter for the perennial question
the Republic Here again there seems
the poets activity
to
imitation
,
or in of as , at "
"
of
an
of
to
of .
is
The tendency now less parallels and more investigate detail the similarities plot and episodes theory between selected points Maranta's study example here Another favorite use may serve for confirmation refutation Plato's ideas the former for such problems the meaning numbers
a
,
be
in
,
of
,
a
,
a
in
:
be
,
an
as
a
is
in
,
he is
as a
is an ,
of
be
to
.
on
-
if
—
of
,
a
,
in
the art
of
only occasionally original treatments the Poetics poetry themselves based essentially other principles When starting Benedetto Varchi his Lezzioni della poetica takes Aristotle point for theory which turns out entirely different kind
of
the exploitation
,
,
to
.
,
of
;
of
all
of
to
.
,
is
in
—
least the texts studied this incidental rather than may generalized dominant preoccupation The procedure indeed critics continue use Aristotle incidental authority the exposition fragment there will passage here kinds theories used for miscellany specific points systems rhetorical the illustration poetical and historical Something newer something that really gives the tone this decade
of
474
)
(
which they
do
.
,
satire take their suppositions from the Aristotelian text frankly admit that they are modeled Both Giraldi and Pigna
,
,
on
on
a
an
to .
.
of in
of
making just such use activity which him Newer still the type using the Poetics provide order and framework for new tragedy comedy and theories the genres Thus Giraldi's treatises consists
the same
POETICS : TIIEORETICAL APPLICATIONS thing when they develop
their theories of a genre unknown to Aristotle , of procedure, since they
the romance . But here there is a basic difference
must start with the admission that only a part of Aristotle's theory will be applicable . The extent to which each will depart from the dogma will depend first upon the way in which he reads the Poetics , second upon the which he is willing to accord to the new genre dissimilarity fundamental similarity
- an
the
arguments be
constitute
in
or
which were later
taken into and the moderns -must here any case the Poetics becomes more immediate and more ”
the ancients
In
to
“
quarrel
of
the
some
—
.
Many factors of
epic
its
involving
independence
to
of independence
degree
is
.
of
as a
on of
,
to
as ,
as
,
of
.
of
.
These statements
such matters
are
the identification
of at
,
to
the Poetics
as
.
,
tions and the general approaches first largely descriptive They relate
of to of
be
by
;
is
is
in
of
,
of
to , be
,
,
In
all
For the century wears and abstract commonplace thought theories become modes kinds works both old and new come examined and judged the light those theories perhaps distinctly the 1550's the effort more toward examination than toward judgment for the problem discover what kinds state employing the terminology the distinc ments can made about works .
basis for practical criticism
.
or
of
,
a
to
it
,
in
.
consideration contemporary when used contri true whenever this way The same theory though genre may butes the new even the contribution take the form only isolated precepts miscellaneous remarks One should give special attention finally the use the Poetics
of
to
at
,
the
,
I
”
,
,
of
.
of
,
"
with the Poetics mean distinguished from the subjects just discussed the kinds treatment which the text itself was actually subjected With some these again
we to as
of
.
,
long difficult and subtle process problems connected the range By ,
on
attempted
criteria from principles
is a
,
of
some time before evaluations will
the same text since the derivation
be
of
be
a
In
.
of
will
be in
It
of .
criticism basis
of
,
a
of
episodes
.
its
poem
,
the plot the summation character the discovery They unity respect and make affirmations with the the plot and the decorum the characters word critics are work testing the ways which the text the Poetics may useful for practical
the parts
,
all
by
as it,
in
,
of
.
are already familiar There was only one major commentary during these years that Vettori 1560. Aside from however there were the partial
In
.
:
475
be
one
witness
(
,
,
distinguished amateurs seems also from the universities
this period
to in
in
(
of
of
an
academy
emphases
]
newer
[
of
the
literature was his hobby rather than his correcting interpretations and restoring the handling the text public The latter way
of
tradition
.
interested
Aristotelian
lectures before
,
,
an
popular expositor
)
profession
in
other
as a
as
.
at
,
of
,
to
,
the text
be
to
of
Sigonio and Rufo such writers these philological linguistic there seems increased attention and textual problems and many useful suggestions are made for the improvement the text Both Vettori and Maranta work with the text close range the primarily professor one erudite concerned with the text itself the examinations
POETIC
THEORY
Maggi in the 1540's ) the Poetics passes to the academies ( witness Maranta and Varchi in the ' 50's and '60's ), thus to a wider and less specifically professional audience . Lombardi
and
of
.
be
be
is
is
in
,
of .
to
its
,
is
,
.
or be to
to
to
it
a
a
as
.
of
,
to its
its
But while attention on the text becomes fixed more closely and while universality seems audience grows contested This results largely apply from the attempt new genres the new exploitation old ones The scope the Poetics for example narrowed specifically applicability when such theorist Giraldi doubts the romance Such limitation may have serious consequences for the authority suggested Aristotle matters literary contested and the probability may sought elsewhere that there forms for which rules must Like
.
be
he
,
by
,
be
It
as
.
of
a
in
.
to
its
,
to
in .
be
of
—
to
to
as
of
no
to
,
,
is
, in
preferable when the same Giraldi declares that the double plot implies that modern tragedy the single one demanded Aristotle principles may longer applicable changes art the Aristotle Hence linked with certain works and certain the principles themselves come principles Despite such restrictions the influence times and cease grow the Poetics continues certain ways still remains the source theory poetic genres and for much new about new such writer Atanagi history main orientations are applied the art One should wise
a
,
,
to
in be
It
.
to
In of
by
is
in
in of
the former are solved
reference
some cases the procedure
exaggeration
to
an of
be
to
.
be
of
,
to
of
.
of
As
is to
the statements the Ars poetica would not say that read with Horace most cases Aristotle
uncertainties the latter
of
complication thus not see diminution during these years but rather attitudes and the raising some healthy doubts for the relationship Aristotle's theories other critical modes few changes are noted Horace continues the dominant authority Aristotle's text on poetic questions and the most frequent assimilation mind and that the
the relative certainties
—
.
,
,
is
of
by
as
is
to
an
.
its
us
of
,
,
,
,
of of
in
of
in of
of
art
.
of
I
,
;
-
is
.
and difficult passages Horace are illuminated citation the Poetics As usual we find that coupled with Horace and sometimes not distinguishable from the rhetorical tradition mean course his bearing upon the interpreta tion Aristotle One still thinks invention disposition and elocution poetry and Maranta's vehement protest the essential divisions the thinking assures currency Perhaps this against this kind the most striking way which the Middle Ages continue exert influence reversed
,
,
of
precepts
of
medieval
of
of
the whole collection
of
the addition
of
by
completed
"
“
,
in
.
is
of
.
of
upon the interpretation the Poetics Almost equally prominent though the medieval conception the literary genres For many the com Aristotle are mentators the abstract and partial statements found
to
,
an
to
,
all
.
,
an
us
.
)
476
(
of
is
.
,
,
:
,
for the genres subject matter kinds characters type action and example here Related ending style tone Pigna provides the with the insistence upon decorum which perhaps combines same tendency emphasis the influences already mentioned This leads increasingly upon social distinctions when Aristotle had made ethical distinctions and
POETICS :
THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
upon ethical distinctions which derive rather from tradition than from the of a particular poem . Among critical modes which had more recently become current , the one
needs
most usually associated
with the Poetics is that of Plato's ideas on imitation . of the central doctrines of the work , it was only natural that Plato's texts should be called upon for elucidations and for supplementary ideas . Otherwise , little influence of Plato is felt in the inter pretations of Aristotle . Aristotle himself becomes one of the main sources of light on the Poetics ; the other works , especially the Rhetoric , are studied Since imitation was one
more and more intensively , and some of the theorists present complete sets of cross references to the whole of the Aristotelian corpus . These are not always happy or useful ; but they indicate a realization of the usefulness , for an understanding of any one work of Aristotle , of studying his other writings . Finally , during the years under examination , there is an increasing desire to ask questions about the relationship of Aristotle's theory to Christian subject matters and Christian attitudes toward the art of poetry. No polemic is as yet engaged . In the years to come , however, when practical criticism becomes more diversified and when the great literary quarrels develop , these considerations will have significant effects in the whole development
of Cinquecento
criticism .
(477 )
CHAPTER ELEVEN . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S POETICS : III . THE VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES TENDENCIES just outlined , those that gained the prominence in the years now to be studied were the newer
F THE VARIOUS greatest
O
rather than the older ones . The Poetics becomes , in a sense , a more “ popular " document ; formal and erudite commentaries in Latin , search ing linguistic analyses , tend to give way to treatments which will be acces sible to a larger and less professional audience . Again , within limits , the older modes will continue to be practised . But there will be more numerous academic discourses , many practical applications , a certain number of vulgarizations . These will culminate in the two great vernacular commen taries , Castelvetro's in 1570 and Piccolomini's in 1575 Italian translation coming in the intervening years , in
TOSCANELLA
with Piccolomini's
,
1572 .
( 1562)
In
.
its
of
simplifications
and students
the printer
,
is
merely presenting
beginners
;
certain basic texts for the benefit
ho
Toscanella states that
of
,
his preface
of he
all
Given these general trends, it is perhaps significant that the first work in the present group should be Orazio Toscanella's Precetti necessari of 1562 . This is a frank work of vulgarization , as were those author
a
.
,
pages 80–89
La
.
:
of to
on
,
the
occupies
,
of
:
:
"
:
Toscanella prepares text mentioning topics and then summarizing say what Aristotle has those topics The tech the treatment these opening lines
in — for
sia be
in
kind catechism shorthand form nique may seen
* 4 ).
" ( .p
del
no
is
...
more than that
of
for
it
del
.
,
a
Avanzo makes similar statement fatto imprimere l'arte poetica d'Oratio Flacco L'arte poetica d'Aristotile L'arte breue del Lullio Vna parte poeta Minturno The digest Aristotle's Poetics
.
.
.
no
,
.
cose
che
might not
fully under
On the whole
,
form
.
tabular
be
).
statement
a
simplified
Nelle
80v
to to
imita
( . .p
si
in
digest
:
è
in
ha
when even
Nel Modo dell'imitare
tre termini
Toscanella reduces the ideas
of
,
differente
Nelle cose con che so
,
Moreover stood
è .
Imitatione
imitano
.
si
La
la
,
la
.
poesia considerata poesia Che cosa uniuersale IMITATIONE hor con questa hor con quella cosa secondo diuersità delle poesie Che cosa habbia per per genere l'imitatione Differenza della imitatione genere poesia La poesia
the
it is
;
of
of
see
for
.
an
as
must have been value the serious Aristotelian but highly interesting 1562 would what the schoolmaster indication have told his pupils about the Poetics a
in it
of
of
by
.
is a
of
.
to of
,
a
subdivisions which Toscanella un ,
make progressive )
478
(
and differentia and
to
to all
,
a
of
is
interesting typical The digest other reasons We can reading period compendium the Poetics for this the solutions which had been reached for the difficult problems the text There kind way proceed genus scholastic undertone the treatment wish
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
doubtedly thought appropriate to the handling of an Aristotelian text . If we merely take the text in the order of presentation , we find some of the typical solutions of which I have spoken . The means of poetry , as exempli fied by the epic , may be verse ( of one kind or several kinds in the epic ) or the genre , at times do not ; thus men
prose . The objects at times determine
“ better than others ” are found in tragedy
our
and the epic , men “ like
contemporary uncertainty resulting especially ,
from the imperfect
of
all
selves ” are found in comedy , and the “ worst ” men in any one of the three ( p . 81v ) . On the natural bases of imitation , Toscanella gives the correct reading : "Imitation , which is most natural . The deriving of pleasure from imitation . " 1 His translation of the definition of tragedy displays the state
an
:
the text
,
,
of
,
as
,
,
of
in
,
is
by
.
pity fear.2 six
means
,
,
of
.
by
he
but
does
its
in
of
.
a
of
,
is
Tragedy imitation virtuous perfect action Which has magnitude species with pleasant speech separately each one the parts those performing speech who are actions Pleasant that which has number harmony Conducting the PASSIONS not sweetness means narration the epic poem
,
,
,
;
"
.
of
,
if
,
“
,
,
comes
of
to
distributing the parts tragedy among object man adopts imperfectly ner and means Toscanella the system Robortello Apparatus and music are the instrumental parts character elocution When
the
of
of
,
he
.
of
“
“
is
or
:
is
composition elocution the the everything which shows does not show some
83 ).
.p
”
'
'
(
”
and discourse
sentenza
,
Its
.”
of
the other parts are equally strange verses
“
it
).
,
(
”
;
it
—
no
,
or
the “
final parts i.e. those which are imitated The plot should represent subject means but Toscanella calls rather part parts gives says material since the invention are reversal and recognition mention knot and solution Definitions some and discourse are the
of
to
,
So
or to to
;
: "
a
of
,
,
The pleasure derived from tragedy through pity and fear results from tragedy results from pity the learning moral lesson The pleasure and from fear for when the spectators see such terrible misfortunes hap pening such great persons they learn suffer patiently their own cala it
as as
,
naturalissima
Il
, la
qualc
è
the
a
82 : "
Imitationc
an
of of ,
is
of
in
), .p
(
1562
pigliarsi piacere
La
."
I
.
of
to
Precetti necessari dalla imitatione
.
.
of
,
bear them
.” 3
that the pleasure springs from the LEARNING plot highly instructive showing episodes The treatment and does tendency the think terms theme rather than action consti Vergil whose single tuting the unity plot Toscanella uses example mities
gli
,
Misericordia
.
ma per uia
di
:
poema heroico
.
,
.
.
,
come
di
.
è
Narratione
fà ha in il
non per uia
,
AFFETTI
di
.
è
,
: “
,
2
., .p
Tragedia Ibid 82v Vna imitatione d'attione uirtuosa perfetta Che habbia grandezza con parlar soaue separatamente ciascuna sua spetie nelle parti coloro che quello che uan negotiando Parlar soaue Numero Armonia Dolcezza Conducendo ., ." li p .
Timore
:
."
a
,
il
;
in
.
)
(
, ò a
,
479
&
: “ Il
le
3
piacere della Tragedia risulta dalla misericordia Ibid 83v dal timore perche spettatori casi cosi terribili successi persone cosi grandi imparano uedendo comportar patientemente supportarle Tanto che piacere nasce dallo IMPARARE calamità sue
POETIC action is constituted by
THEORY
exploits of Aeneas after he came to Italy ” (p . 83v ) ; the other matters are said to fall outside the poet's intention and to constitute digressions. These are “ those things which the poet treats departs from the matter undertaken when which digressions however entirely unrelated must not the matter proposed but must have part appropriateness Toscanella's translations the passages on pity and fear both show basically the tragic hero and on the nature
in ,
,
,
a
of
” 4
of
to it .
an
to
be
,
he
all
“ the
.)
(I
,
by ;
or
: “
.
of
sound understanding the text italicize significant words On the tragic hero Those pass into misery who are not excellent either for virtue for justice not for their vice nor for any iniquity but for some error is is
."
of
,
is
in
. " 6
to
.
to
a
us ;
we
,
so
:
“
of
;
in
glory and prosperity committed them who are placed fortune tragedy Pity concerns him who On the effects not worthy that him who should not fall into misery and forth Fear concerns him who like for fear lest similar thing should happen our own selves
of
,
"
“
(" to (“
in
to
“
of
which must always express
,
)
"
;
to
of
)
”
concerns the passions
tudine
”
)
"
(“
”
;
to
of
.
“
.
in
to
The solutions with respect the four requisites for character are less distinguish felicitous The principal difficulty lies Toscanella's inability among them He says that goodness bontà consists the assigning good characters good people that appropriateness conue speech nienza involves assigning the proper kind men and women according the characteristics their sex that resemblance simili the
basic
” )
(“
”
p
).
.
(
of
).
(
.p
to
.
of
is
,
,
,
a
we
of
At
of
“
;
constancy ugualità requires character the person and that uniform presentation the person's desires throughout the play 85v the end the digest find number miscellaneous precepts for tragedy and the epic some which reveal essential interpretations The epic poem 87v The contain numerous plots said for example
(
of
as
far
So
—
.
be
is
,
of
,
by
,
of
no
,
is
.
All
.
—
he
), a
of
.
is
of
be
tragedy must varied since satiety would result from too stability swollenness much similarity Epic verse characterized but variety languages and the use not the blameworthy kind meta phors Narrative imitation and here opposes Aristotle the most speech must excellent kind forms based upon reason doctrine concerned these remarks are no more miscellaneous than the episodes
of
or
It
volume ;
il
."
)
(
480
degno
&:
,
in
,
il
,
a
cioè chi non douerebbe perche dubitiamo che somi ;
simile
;
ci è
a
chi non
chi
.”
, è
a
intorno
Paura intorno noi medesimi
è
da
ne
,
ne
,
." ; in
La
à
, & c .
cadere miseria gliante non interuenga
è
: , “ o
Misericordia
85 : “
in ., .p
Ibid
per uirtù per giustitia sono eccellenti miseria iquali gloria loro che ma per qualche errore commesso
La
di
., .p
5
Ibid 84v Quei passino per iniquità non per uitio loro prosperità fortuna posti sono 6
;
in
,
4
., .p
poeta partendosi dalla materia incominciata Ibid tutte quelle cose che tratta quai digressi però non uogliono essere tutto lontani dalla materia propostasi ma hauere parte conuenienza seco
in
i
84 : "
While Toscanella's thumbnail summary presents the Poetics
in a
.
of
;
.
of
organized presents systematic interpretation rest the work Aristotle's Poetics but isolated translations and commentaries reveal important interpretations the passages involved
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES which
contained
the other essential treatises , Bernardo Tasso's della poesia ( published in 1562 , but probably delivered be
also
Ragionamento
fore the Accademia Veneziana in 1560 ) attempts to combine Aristotle's theory with various others in order to make an elaborate defence of the art . Essentially , Bernardo's sources are these three : the elements of the
Boccaccian defence of poesy
, the
allegations of universal knowledge found
in such texts as the Vita Homeri , and Plato's ideas on the divine furor ( see above , Chapter VII , pp . 282–84 ). In this context , Aristotle plays only a
the
art
minor role . He is corrected and clarified with respect to the distinction be tween poetry and poetics ; poetry , says Tasso , is “ the universal material of
be
actors
is
...
laboriously
:
to
of
be
,
in
,
art
,
its
.
of
deduced
of
suffer from the inadequacies
pre
regarded limitations for his own purposes the Poetics eminently useful for the practising poet especially this
poetry had discovery Before the from the reading the poets themselves
generation
the matter to
,
,
;
writer never has
its
as
to
of its
In
(
,
is
.
of
Tasso
5 ).
by .p
spite
con
,
'
,
,
statements about is on
,
,
of ,
these types and descriptive
them come from elsewhere Aristotle contradicted again his preference for the tragedy over epic for Tasso the epic ferred because
as
of
is
in
a
”
(“
six de le
,
,
:
.
rambic But the definitions
,
an
4 ).
of
"
.p
. " 7
in
to
to
the whole poem , ” while poetics is “ which teaches the poet how arrange well and according itself rule this material which Strictly poetry passing fused Aristotle provides definition imitation human actions una imitatione attioni humane poetic genres which He provides much more extensively the Tasso distinguishes comedy tragedy epic auletic citharistic and dithy
of
in
by
by by
,
of
in
, , so
of
now the poetics that most famous philosopher which teaches the art writing poetry with such orderliness and long buried such detail the dark shadows the world's ignorance and happily translated into the Latin language ,
of
a
us
and perfectly expounded and interpreted the erudite Robortello and our most judicious M. Vincentio Maggio and the excellent M. Pier Vittorio con poetry.8 ducts like sure and dependable escort along the difficult roads as
,
, in
,
its
is
as
far
As
)
.p
. (
,
: e la
di
il
di
se
V , .p
,
de
,
fidata scorta per
)
(
481
et
difficili strade
de la
, e
,
quasi sicura
conducendo
le
,
, e
ne la
ne
la
: "
interpretata
, ." et
ua
,
, e
.,
et si 8
del mondo Robortello Vittorio isposta
di
poetica quel famosissimo filosofo laqual con tanto ordine hora insegna l'arte del poetare tanto tempo l'ignoranza l'oscure tenebre sepolta perfettamente dal Erudito felicemente latina fauella tradotta dal nostro giuditiosissimo M. Vincentio Maggio dal Eccellente M. Pier
Ibid 9-9v particolarmente
ci
an
at
è
da
,
.pp
."
al
poesia poema materia uniuersale tutto regolatamente essa materia disporre insegna confusa
1562 bene
a (
7
Ragionamento poetica l'arte che Poeta
his son Torquato On the treatise and date see and Chapter VII 282. Aristotle
163
) , , p et . 3v : “ la
,
Chapter
la
poetic achievements above
of
as a
to
of
.
8 )
M.
(
de
in ,
on
as
The same Bernardo Tasso figures interlocutor the principal authority tragedy and subject praise the anonymous Tractatus Perugia Biblioteca Comunale 985 tragoedia found the manuscript The praise accrues him through the character and the recent
poesia
POETIC
THEORY
concerned , the main problems of the treatise are two : How does it happen that we find pleasure in the artistic representation of objects which are themselves distasteful ? And how can we justify the practice was condemned by Plato ? Aristotle
of an art which to both questions . It
gives answers
a
of
)
to
[
]
,
[
of
the
should be noted at the outset that , in general, the appeal to Aristotle is understood to be a departure from an earlier way of solving problems about poetry . Trissino ( author of the Sophonisba ) and Bernardo Tasso are assigned the opposing points of view : " one Trissino urges narrower poetry definition one scrupulously subjected the injunctions be
it
is
of
.
in
is
of
,
of
,
its
to
,
,
so
we
is
!
of
things the imitation nature's principles
by
,
a
in
all
we
is
present For who does not know how much delight drink with our minds certain joyfulness that
in
:
no
is
to in
. " 9
by
to
of
,
;
Aristotle while the other thinks more liberally that should defined according perceptions the judgment the multitude nature and poets the examples supplied With respect the first the questions the answer found the pleasure which men take imitation There essentially that direct reference the Poetics but the position Aristotle
,
,
a
play
life are
? 10
by
on
—
,
if
is it,
pleasure treme not this that vices bring when presented and produced the stage vices however that the very truth rejected the most discriminating minds and eyes and ears
of in
.
of
of
...
in us
of it
as
of
of
,
intimately involved with our faculties that with incredible pleasure see the representations things and the semblances persons and images the truth and were the forms actions copied through imitation For what ex
,
.
it
of
do
of
by
.
of
as to
to it
as
to
Imitation supplies the answer the second question well for the plea objects contemplation and actions makes the assures sure that possible coats the pill One instruction Imitation devices use them emphasizing may thus contradict the strictures Plato and Proclus to
a
of by
be
in
the ways
the system
, et
alter angustiorem
,
.
it
a
: "
.
fol 100
,
a
literary form not treated him the reading Thus the Poetics reveals implies reading discover what kind
of of a
to
another
considers
to
to It
.
MS 985 M.8
ceptionibus
it
is
of
Aristotelian
necessarily it is
,
Com
1562
applies what
Aristotle
discussing
.
Bibl
.
,
in so
In
.
9
Perugia
doing
(
and the principles
dialogue our problem
chapter
it
the preceding
of
in
Carlo Sigonio's De dialogo noted
),
pedagogy
.
to
,
to
,
of
,
.
in
of
poetry education This course has nothing although anonymous with the Poetics the author seems make direct transition from Aristotle's views on imitation these other views on the usefulness
religiosa cogit prae ,
,
,
, et
et
, et
e
ut !
in
: "
.
.,
10
."
,
Aristotelis deuinctam alter dissolutius iudicio multitudinis naturae sensibus poetarum exemplis definiendam putat rerum imitatione suauitas Quis autcm ignorat quanta insit Ibid fols 1034–4 naturae principijs implicitam sensibus animo imbibimus omnes iucunditatem quamdam exempla rerum ueritatis simulacra personarum cum incredibili uoluptate spectemus
...
,
!
? "
)
(
482
in
.
et
,
in et
,
,
imagines Quid enim est illud nisi hoc actionum quasi ſiguras imitatione simulatas scenam prolata uitia tantum oblectationis afferunt quae tamen ludum est quod ipsa uitae ueritate fastidiosissimis animis oculis auribus respuuntur
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
of the precepts for dialogue ostensibly Having derived from Aristotle . no basic text to work with , Sigonio must proceed by analogy , and he starts from a supposition that the dialogue is like three other forms : poetry , oratory , and dialectic . It is like poetry in and to summarize
the character
" "
several meanings
un -
,
.
is
',";
11
“
its
res ,
that it is an imitation ; like oratory in that it uses prose rather than verse ; like dialectic in that those things which demand reason and inquiry the same Before we can proceed with the analysis we must point out that Sigonio .
,
a
it of be
to ,
a
of
.
in
of
,
in
is
,
.
It
.
"
the poet and the orator
of
is
to
“
imitation
in
The first Aristotelian Imitation copying the common consists basically style merely another writer When this consists the imitation lan way guage and figures and speech may serve writer's own ends uses
in
.
as
as
history
in
indicate arts
of
to is
,
of
,
but
.
,
or
feigning
or
to
.
,
At
represented and actions are presented imitation takes place the same time the term
equivalent
be
of is to
of .
of
it
;
is
.
This would seem
persons
that wherever discourse
other forms such
imitation
come under the same genus
,
and the epistle
not clearly defined
the Poetics The genus
in
.
to
oratory and the dialogue ,
,
be
to
it
poetry
related
the sense given
is
The third meaning
the narrative and the mixed seems
, a it
,
.
is
,
of
in
to
Platonic
it
is
Empedocles own person and Aristotle's rejection The second this kind imitation favor distinguished refers the dramatic manner from
arguments ;
poet
meaning
in
speaks as
as a
always
his
,
it is
be
to
as
it is
an
improper pursuit and condemned When instead makes the writer assume the personality his model and write such properly done and way praised mistaken for the model Amazingly enough Sigonio cites Plato's condemnation the poet who but
roughly
.”
by
,
as
at
good
the laws handed down treating the actions
of
all
a to
of
events
is
good poetry
to
by
counter
for example
of
The test
,
going
gay narratives
elsewhere 12
by of
13 --
”
us
by
;
if
imitation the poet fails great the master
seeking
places
."
and
"
men
descriptions
and pleasant
by
and discourse
,
of
of
.
by
“
classified
as
"
"
"
as
be
invention Thus Silius Italicus and Lucan poets not poets because they described these wars feigning they episodes historians And achieved this will and interweaving the deliberations the gods and goddesses with the meetings may
,
,
,
...
.
a
is
, ”
"
“
instrumentum
narrative dramatic and mixed
as
dialectic the
“
"
( .p
Aristotle had con The res 10 ).
as
,
as
those
modis ;
of
,
a
same differentiae
instrumentis
be
he
-
a
the
ab
,
ca ,
combines 13 : “
,
modus
“
; De
12 11
the
”
are the same
we have seen
prose
rebus
as
it
examining
, " a
by
of
definition
sidered for poetry as
a
to
a
of
single man whole war rather than single action will bad poet dialogue Sigonio belongs genus poetry Since the the same will seek
one may
.
&
,
."
)
(
483
Id
."
&
&
,
,
&
a
., .p 4 : “
13
."
,
,
,
), .p
3v : ( “
., .p
ilialogo 1562 quae disquisitione egent ratione quod Ibid bella haec non historicorum sed poetarum more descripserint episodiis pro arbitratu fingendis deum dearumque consiliis hominum concionibus intexendis atquc festiuis rerum narrationibus iucundis locorum descriptionibus aliunde petendis conscquuti sunt Ibid contra leges summo doctore traditas
POETIC see
that
THEORY
in Plato's dialogues. The definition thus has but few resemblances of poetry , which Sigonio gives as follows :
to
.
,
he
of
in
,
by
of
,
,
is
]
of
,
by
an to ,
as
performing the action
Aristotle came
(
,
thus when
in
he
)
when they use both manners And tragedy turn the treatment concluded from these principles that tragedy imitation those actions which are grave men using verse harmony and rhythm undertaken conducted the persons presentation only action.14 (
personages
or
the
The matters which the poets represent by imitating he finds to be the actions of men of grave or of light character or of those in between ; the instruments which contribute to the imitation are speech , harmony , and rhythm ; the manners of undertaking the imitation : when they use continuous narration , or introduce
of
to
, to
of ,
of
"
in
decorum
.
theory
a
really
of
.
.
(p
is iii )
the dialogue
of
his total theory
,
he
,
,
"
is
or
14 ),
.p
(
Indeed
by
it
to
his
,
as
he
,
it .
.
he
a
In
such statement this Sigonio remains fairly close the text the adapts Poetics When own purposes does not attempt declaring for example deform Indeed soon departs from Aristotle style the rhetori the middle that the proper style for the dialogue cians that the fundamental problems the handling the dialogue are decorum and verisimilitude
of
,
in
is
be
of
of
it
as
praised
18 ). “
( .p
of
be
, is to
obeys the laws insofar verisimilitude and through the observation imitation which every form decorum prescribed with respect made perfect For fact what else need The form
of
? " 15
to 16
men
;
of
the arts than
the most learned
. "
of
in
,
the judgment
to
in of all all
all
,
"
there was never anything more difficult these ends even
in
at
it in is
,
,
in
,
,
to
per this form besides the fact that based once observation keeping one's attention on them times places and causes and Even his dedication Sigonio insists that matters relative the dia logue must obey above else the laws decorum and verisimilitude sons
accomplish Essentially
of
as
:
of
.
to
seem
Rather will that
seem
is
nature that when
a so .
invented not
to
is
is of
such power and such
causes the thing which 10 : "
14
it
This poetic verisimilitude present
it
:
,
of
in
he
.
is
of
,
,
to
which reduce one have their end convincing the reader being said They concern two elements the truth what the dialogue speaks For the man speak the man speaking and the language which ing verisimilitude poetic requirements gives the character according assurance of truth these laws
,
,
ad
,
;
.
his
ex
,
,
;
&
,
,
,
,
in
,
,
est
."
,
,
a
de
&
,
18 ac : “
iii : "
,
., .p ,
."
,
)
,
&
484
(
in
quae decoro primis uerisimilitudini seruiant quibus tuendis officiis omnibus artibus ſuit unquam uel doctissimorum hominum iudicio difficilius
Ibid in
16
Ibid personarum positum nihil
principiis tragoediam imitationem tractationem tragoediae descendisset grauibus susciperentur hominibus earum actionum quae uersu concentu sola personarum inductione initam genere praecipiendum Quid igitur hoc aliud nisi utrunque atque animaduersione esse temporum locorum caussarum consideratione
., ? " , .p
15
esse conclusit rhythmogue
,
deinceps
ad
,
,
,
, ., .p
,
Res quas poetae imitando simularent aut grauiorum aut leuiorum aut qui his interiecti essent actiones esse inuenit instrumenta quae imitandum rhythmum afferrent orationem esse concentum modos ineundae imitationis cum iidem aut perpetua uterentur narratione aut quasi agentes inducerent aut utrunque Itaque cum Ibid hominum
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES invented which is in strong contrast to the true and which achieves no resem blance to truth , that is , whatever is in disagreement with persons , times , and places and either contains no causes why it should be done as it is or contains improbable causes .
The same passage contains the explanation of verisimilitude ( or decorum ) in language : “ Just as in fact not every man can do every thing , so it is not verisimilar that any one man should speak in every kind of discourse . And for the reason that there is no action except in time and in place , it is be also expressed
is the case in given circumstances
necessary that whatever
in the manner of speech . ” 17 The whole position is later summarized in a single formula : “Poetic decorum is involved both in the imitation of the characters of men and in the creation of appropriate speech . ” '18 This statement is followed immediately by a reference to Aristotle's four re
for character . In the remainder of the treatise Sigonio seems to ” —a natural transi
quisites
pass imperceptibly from “ mores ” to “morata oratio
tion since the same basic law applies to both . What starts as an attempt to apply Aristotelian distinctions to a new genre thus becomes little more than an expression of the current theory of decorum in literature. Clearly , Sigonio still writes at a time when the impli
of
.
all
cations of Aristotle's method are not clear , when it is easy to pass from one methodological critical context to another , when there is no notion at rigor
.
his
in
an
.
to
is a
It
).
“
,
.
.
is a
,
,
of
19 ,
(
,
”
on
,
in
.
IO
to
,
of
in
The next document our chronology however displays rigorous method another kind the method the philologists This letter from Pietro Vettori Bartolomeo Maranta dated Florent XIIII Kal reply Ianuar CIO LXII i.e. December 1562 earlier praising letter which Maranta after Vettori for his achievement in
,
in
,
.
on
commentary the Poetics expressed disagreement and asked clarification points chap several The passages involved the discussion found ”
“
considered
or
do
why does Aristotle include them
Hoc
at
arts
,
poetic
"
“
.
they are not
est
17
If
discourse
,
by
,
?
"
“
arts They should not since although they use one several poetry they the means used not use the distinguishing means poetic
of of
-p
as ,
:
as
1447a13-28
be
Poetics
),
sculpture
(
painting
,
dance
,
the
,
by
all
"
”
;
I
II,
as
ters and concern the distinctions among the arts mimetic and poetic here are Maranta's questions and Vettori's answers laying Should not the arts mentioned Aristotle such flute
this ,
ut
,
&
,
)
(
485
in
,
."
in
,
in
.
,
, Vt &
,
a
,
,
,
,
in
uersatur
."
conuenienti affingenda oratione
estest
et
.
in ., re p . est , 20 : id “
18
,
ita
, sic sit ,
.
sic
,
,
&
ne ., .p , ui : est“
,
18v
,
potestatis atque naturae autem poeticum eius cum adest efficiat res ficta uideatur ficta autem uidebitur quae uero longe abhorrebit nec ueritatis ullam similitudinem consequetur idest quae cum personis temporibus locis discrepabit caussas nullas cur factum aut certe non probabiles continebit enim non quicunque homo quancunque rem agit non uerisimile quencunque hominem quocunque sermone uersari quoniam actio nulla tempore nisi loco propterea quod etiam oratione exprimatur necesse est Ibid lam ucro decorum poeticum cum imitandis moribus hominum tum Ibid
POETIC
THEORY
point ? He does so because , like poetry, they are mimetic arts
of
spite
of one of
the fact that the more use
constitute imitation .
and this in
;
the means does not necessarily
Is not the use of any one of the means of poetry in a given work a suffi cient reason for classifying it as “ poetry " ? No ; the presence of discourse ( " oratio " ) is absolutely essential . Indeed , if diction is present (accom , adds Vettori , by verse ) in a work which imitates, we will have a poem . The crux of the whole matter, says Vettori, is the distinction between μίμησις and ποίησις , between the arts one side and the poetic arts
sages
Once we understand the basic difference the disputed pas philological distinction provides ,
the other
.
on
all
on
panied
a
;
in
Aristotle become clear thus the basis for important philosophical 1563-64
)
(
MARANTA
developments.19
of to
in
,
a
,
of
on
is
to
of
;
)
a
,
(
of
.
in of
.
of
a
chronological arrangement fols 125–32v purports
to .
in
I
.
to
discover and observe
discover Aristotle's central intention but soon drifts into other related problems Aristotle's purpose says Maranta reduce method the rules and precepts the poetic art means which the poet may become perfect This attempts for two reasons because recognizes the importance poetry badly practised human life and sees the extent which the art complete his philosophical system and because wishes Such reflec study tions these bring Maranta the relationship between the )
.
;
is
of
a
as
to
.
to
he
in
to
:
he
of
.
” 20
of
to
“
a
.
it
,
is
,
he
,
by
,
of
(
the discourses
to
The first
or as
pendant the Accademia Napoletana the series Horace's Ars poetica Four the lectures sketches for them are pre they date from the years served MS R.118.Sup the Ambrosiana generality rather than attempt 1563–64 shall treat these their order to
for delivery
. It
he
a
as
a
in
he
a
at
Bartolomeo Maranta raised these questions with Vettori time when study was himself engaged Aristotle's Poetics not order publish commentary Vettori had done but apparently for series quite possible that these were meant lectures which was preparing
"
of .
, of
all
: “
—
... they
ruling cities and justice fortitude
,
,
, of
art
of
of
the prudence
manner
.
et
ad
,
]
[
486
ad
,
,
ad
."
;
. "
: et “
.
.,
21
,
: "
),
.
.,
.
fol
,
R.118.Sup
(
107-9 praecepta artis 125 methodum redigere regulas poeticae quibus optimus fieri poeta possit praecepta morum pertinet quod Ibid fol 126 nihil omittunt quod artem regendarum urbium plena sunt omnia praeceptorum prudentiae iustitiae forti domuum tudinis temperantiae
MS Ambr
1586
.pp
21
libri
X
Epistolarum
and teaches
the moral sciences
of to
to is
,
."
;
In
and temperance 20 19
,
).
,
,
The poet like the philosopher treats and this especially true omit nothing pertaining moral precepts houses their works are full the precepts 125v
arts and sciences
—
(“
et
:
to
.
he
;
philosopher and the poet finds that they are one and the same thing The same definition applies both their pursuits the science divine and human things scientiam rerum diuinarum humanarum fol
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
If there is a difference between the two , it is one which redounds to the credit of the poet and makes him superior to the teacher . Since he uses examples rather than naked propositions , his works appeal to the senses rather than to the mind ; they are therefore more apt to move the passions and to affect the reader. Maranta summarizes his argument thus :
.. not only do they (the poets ) teach things as do the others (the philosophers ), but they make them more powerful through examples . Indeed , the poets teach them better because more clearly , since , as they move the passions and display
to a
of
or
of is
,
it
him who does not wish makes itself accessible whereas unadorned philosophy reaches few men.22 it,
,
diction into the soul even greater number men
;
of
,
by
.
,
it
understand whence comes about that they drive their listeners their readers away from knowledge Therefore the ancient sages said that poetry penetrating through the sweetness much more useful for this reason that to
city
,
its
the habits , they place the things themselves before our eyes in such a way that we seem to see them and to touch them . But the pure philosophers , when they treat a discipline by abstracting it from matter weary the mind and the capa
an
—
of
,
it
of
to
In
.
.
and imitation considerably from his original The next step the argument
pro
in at
(
.
)
is
.
of
to
.
in
discussing Aristotle's purpose the same time brings him back Aristotle and removes him farther the direction Plato The new argument reflects Aristotle's statement Poetics 145165 that poetry more philosophical than history The poet treats
of
ject
examples
this time Maranta has departed ,
By
readily understandable devices
as
of
is
we of
by
is
as
Maranta bolsters his argument that poetry more useful instrument citing many ancient authors teaching the discussion the course simple men since especially apt for appealing learn that poetry philosophy uses instead the definitions and demonstrations such
But Maranta has some difficulty reconciling this statement with the notion that poetry works through examples which are always particular He resolves the difficulty declar ing that the poet really depicts the Idea the perfect and complete expres by
an
any virtue
by
of
—
.
,
in
.
,
the universal the historian the particular
—
,
is
of
of
of a
,
,
the double
He decides
illi
res
fol .
22
.
and that
.
of
delighting through diction Clearly Horatian end has been influencing his thinking throughout
examples
,
,
he
a
In
of
.
,
so
In
.
;
all
,
or
presenting vice for example individual mani possible aspects strength and forti festation thus Achilles displays doing the poet serves the greatest end poetry which tude the inculcation of the virtues final step his argument Maranta recognizes conflict between teaching through two ends which has distinguished for the art that
sion
.
ut
]
487
ut
,
fit
At ob
communis
in
at
hominibus
."
pluribus
fit :
multo
,
nolentium illabatur paucorum est hominum
[
uel
ob
:
a
à
et
.
ac
ut
ob
ita
in
: "
.,
Ibid 126v cum non solùm doceant sed exemplis corroborent Melius etiam quia significantius cum mouendis affectibus explicandisque habitibus poetae res ipsas oculos ponant intueri tractare illas uideamur nudi philosophj cum disci plinam tradant intelligendi uim fatigant unde materia abstrahendo mentem audientes uel legentes rerum scientia auersos reddant quare hanc rationem multo utili orem poeticam esse antiqui sapientes dixerunt quia cum dictionis suauitatem animos simplex philosophia
POETIC
THEORY
of
.
as
to
by
:
audience
by
be
to , it
of
all
ultimately , that distinguish traces contradiction can removed ing between poetry and the poet between the art and the artist The art and the precepts appropriate have their aim the pleasure the
it
to
so
be
.
to all
we
,
of
from philosophy
as
in
of ,
it is
In
Aristotle's purpose this little book set down the rules which simple and clear philosophy may adorned make seem most pleasurable men Whence we have concluded that we should not expect from the art the poets philosophical teachings since these are obtained fact
means
,
of
;
is
in
lie is , ,
may compose itself but instead the rules through which using the probable little fables which philosophy itself hidden for which the art.23 the end reason pleasure itself
he
(“
,
,
is
,
.
of
,
,
then
In
.
to
of
of
of
it
in
of
to
its
to
109-14v
he
.
(
fols
close Plato
is
Poetics close
Bartolomeo Maranta finds that the Horace the ends which establishes for poetry and conception the object imitation the second addresses himself the problem Aristotle's philoso
these discourses
in
the first
)
In
.
to
to
tranquillity and led the passions returned happiness The poet's goal completely
of
be
purged that they may thus the highest degree utilitarian
so by
to
,
).
fol .
as
"
,
in
,
to
.
to
profit men But the poet seeks something else He wishes teach them impress philosophical precepts upon their minds imprimere virtue philosophica praecepta hominum animis 132 This does employing pleasurable devices instruments for moving their souls
.
an
, all
in
,
to
as
of
phical method and the general organization the Poetics He finds that philosophical orderly passage from the may one describe the method universal the particular and that this turn determines the organiza
.
of
,
to
.
is
",
"
"
of
:
,
“
of
poetry Aristotle will treat first those things common forms peculiar Again terminology genres then the features the individual the propria vaguely reminiscent used communia and Horace
tion
in
,
in
,
of
to
"
all
“
in
of
“
“
)
.” (3
of
)
(2
.
of
.
is
.”
“
: (1 )
...
be
may Maranta thinks that the communia reduced four general headings ways poems species what are alike and what ways they differ From these come genus and differentia which turn give poems and the definitions The genus imitation On the origin why different kinds growth them were invented On the these
,
In
4 ) "
the treat
.
Aristotle passes
to
After these general statements the individual genres
24
of
. "
other ment
on
or
."
(
,
,
a
poems and how from formless state they reached perfection tragedy way how they differ from each and the epic are alike what
.
,
ac
se
.
)
(
.
in
&
ad
ex
488
in ac
et
de in
...
.
.
ut
: “
, et in
.
:
.'
,
in à
Ex
in
ut
ita
,
: “
...
ab
et
., .,
.
23 24
Ibid fol 131v Est enim Aristotelis mens hoc libello tradere regulas quibus philo sophia simplex aperta quo exornari possit iucundissima omnibus uidcatur colligimus arte poetarum nos non expectare debere philosophica documenta quia haec habentur nuda philosophia sed tamen regulas quibus uerisimili mendacio fabellas com quare finis artis est ipsa oblectatio quibus lateat ipsa philosophia ponamus quibus omncs pocmatum Ibid fols 113–13v Ac primum eorum est doceat origine poematum species conueniant quibus differant quam Secundum agit Tertium de incremento horum poematum ob rem diuersa eorum inuenta sint genera perfectionem postremum docet quomodo informibus deuencrint Quartum quoúc discrepent inter epopocia conueniant quo tragoedia
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
As
this general
he develops
scheme
of for
the Poetics , Maranta
makes
several distinctions which are of interest the interpretation of that text . by Súvauis ( 1447a9 ), and early obliged very what is meant to decide He is excluding any poetry after reference to the end of ( “which is to purge the
minds of men of the vices
" 25) he argues
that it means
...
,
of
,
of
in
is so
of
vis ),
the formal and , so to speak , the specific nature of each poem , by which one differs from another ; indeed , when we know the definition of each , we know virtue which essence for example wherein consists their proper essence ( poem would not any other kind tragedy distinctly tragedy that the name be
fitting for it.26
he
to
an
by
a
,
their simplest
,
to
on
Maranta's ten precepts topics concern these
reduced
form
:
.
,
the Poetics
,
,
.
,
of
.
of
of
set in a
a
to
It
of
on
of
.
of
on
,
,
to
I
a
is ,
Shortly after fairly keen understanding the term This believe importance plot subsequent says that ward remarks the tragic plot precepts attempt Aristotle treats series ten The reduce Aristotle's discussion numbered precepts recalls similar effort this time effort the Ars poetica the commentators the part currency among gained yet commonplace the students however had not
;
,
.
to a
.
to
;
a
;
Unity
.
of
3. 2. 1.
easy remember without excessive brevity single end single action directed Universality verisimilar actions but not particular ones since these are the object history
Proper magnitude
.
of
by
,
.
of
.
Complex rather than simple plot tragedy Quantitative parts
.
bad fortune
.
to
a
of
.
The proper character for tragic personages single person from good Simple plot the passage Rules for the pitiable and the terrible :
the whole poem.27
are essential since its
handling will the manuscript
,
to ;
',
be as “
to
,
.”
ad
25
“
" "
,
he
.
of
a a
final section Maranta makes distinction with respect the genus poetry He had earlier declared that the genus was imitation but now realizes that poems are also classified under such terms effictio poesia poetica separated Of these the term which most needs ,
mean the ruin separate from the rest
In
is
of of
,
,
These careful recommendations for plot says Maranta plot tragedy and since the slightest error the soul
of in
10. 9. 8. 7. 6.
.
5. 4.
episodes Necessary and verisimilar connection produced incredible events since these excite greater admiration
Pity and terror
ob
ita
;
in
ac
sic
ut ."
: "
: "
.
ab .
a .,
.,
26
fol 110
ut
Súvauiv hoc loco non puto referri finem poeticae artis qui est uitijs animos hominum specificam naturam cuiusque poematis Ibid fol 110 formalem dixerim qua alterum quo uis pro altero differt nam cognita uniuscuiusque diffinitione scimus
Ibid expurget
110v
489
)
(
I
;
ei
as
vis ut "
"
to
of
of
11 .
fols
.
Ibid
.,
27
.
of
it
."
so
be
pria eorum consistat quam uim uerbi gratia tragoedia poematis est tragoedia aliud possible nomen conucnire nequeat Note that would translate effect have reflecting the spirit avoided doing because the danger certain modern trans lations
POETIC
THEORY
" effictio , " and Maranta separates them on the basis of their generality ; every imitation is a " making " but not every “ making " is an imitation . Imitation is thus the more “ proximate " genus and the one
from imitation is
of
to
by
in
,
.
Contra
of
is
the discussion
fol .
of
(
-
to
are
deprived
of
we
,
and
of
of to
of
in
included the second discourse seem interest for their interpretation the method and order
be
.
on
,
—
).
fol .
(
script ends abruptly shortly after this point Maranta's particular views these genres The fragments
”
“
of
,
of
,
to at
.
of
at
on
) ;
to
the correspondence with Vettori already Aristotle's reasons for listing various arts the beginning the Poetics Maranta contends that two poetry the kinds enumer poetry ated 1447a13 auletic and citharistic really belong rather than the more general category imitations but that they use rhythm and harmony alone without discourse 114 Unfortunately the manu 112
studied
)
the third refers directly
(
,
on to
to
,
.”
The first his
P.
Victor
);
fol .
“
Súvauis already noted quoiv 110 the second contention that Katà refers the method exposition beginning with universals and passing particulars
of
(
is
his
in terms of which kinds of poems are to be defined . Finally , it should be noted that in several of the marginalia to this manuscript Maranta indicates that position opposed that Vettori There are three such places marked the margin the phrase
especial ,
in
respect
,
to
Aristotle's text several terms and for the way which they reflect the philological and philosophical disagreements between two
for their distinctions with
),
of
of of
.
we .
,
is
he
a
to
he
(
of
At
.
contemporary humanists the beginning the third discourse fols 100-107 Maranta an summary give nounces that means brief the contents the precisely what Poetics and that does Most the interesting ideas a
in
on
,
:
of
,
of
-
a
of
on
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
from the discourses which have already analyzed There significant attitude passages occasionally which reveal however are speculating probable toward the text After the contents the missing part third book Maranta sees five division the first book poetry objections and the relative merits general tragedy the epic resolution are repeated
in :
;
he is
in
of
to he is
,
, in
in
"
of
is
of
.
of
tragedy and the epic Somewhat later Maranta remarks the way tragedy which the definition constituted and how the genre treated part tragedy said puts together what had out the definition He say things general part poetry and that about from the about
,
is
to of
of
the poem his
if
,
de
his
.
et
in
ex
: "
ipsa definitione
requisites
quae genere poesi dixerat partim quae mox rursusque explicatis partibus differentijs definitionem uenatur partes Tragoediae praecipue illas quas formales
."
ex
.
fol 101 partim colligit Tragoediac
is
”
"
.
,
.,
)
490
(
28 est
Ibid
the
ex
Maranta provides revealing explanations necessary character Goodness moral goodness
of
poraries
dicturus definitionis appellat
,
of of
is
28 he
. ' ”
‘
he
the definition be after having explained the parts and the differentiae ginning with the definition itself parts tragedy especially seeks out the those which calls formal As the case with most his contem
may refer
”
;
to fol . a
or
to
to
“
ethical improvement likeness the persons introduced
of
utilitarian end
the nature and habits
of
achieve
either
of
its
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
resem ).
be
to
to
is
(
in
blance the customs the times involved the action 103v Among the features differentiating tragedy from epic the fact that the
on
. , on "
do
the priority
29
to
;
the five proofs
of
,
poetry
of
on
the genus
on
, of
as
,
as
to
"
be ,
,
,
former appeals the eye the latter the ear hence tragedy must more verisimilar less marvelous for the eyes consent less readily those things which are said against the reason than the ears Other wise Maranta repeats such ideas those already expressed imitation plot
unity ),
as
(
the Poetics
in .
It
the text
.
as
it in
in
is
of it
,
it
.
to
as
on .
—
—
of
,
of
the Aeneid
it
But does Aristotelian terms repeating many the ideas found the other frag developing ments and clarifying some them One may consider Aristotle's and Maranta's ideas the epic just the other discourses tragedy Perhaps because had discussed fully problems relevant Italian perhaps because takes into consideration some forms con
in
the form and the excellences
.
of
being related
(
is in of
;
claim
so
of
to
no
and makes
treats largely
of to it
as
to
is
)
Latin
.
to of
on
of
poetry compared with history and magnitude the universality purgation and the pedagogical uses There some question whether the last the discourses fols belongs really Italian rather than the same series for 133–39v
or
and princes and kings and such low condition intermediate ;
men and
of
,
... very inconspicuous
of
of
.
or
;
like
great leaders
illustrious men
: “
classes
on
,
temporary Italian literature this little treatise strays somewhat farther from Aristotle and displays strong leanings toward the current Horatian tradition The objects imitation are distinguished the basis social
as
.
of
30
, in in
,
as
be
. "
ones between these two extremes All these are presented rather they they are should than accordance with an Idea human action :
of
to in
all
,
perhaps its
is
.
"
,
"
“
in
,
by
,
of
,
,
,
in
,
in
as
is
the epic itself Maranta thinks that Aristotle
,
respect
his
With
as
"
"
to ,
"
"
;
.
In
,
antiquity poets those The three objects gave rise three groups who wrote tragedies and epics those who wrote comedies and those who Naples itself wrote mimes modern times the Kingdom three recognized authors levels are found tragedies and comedies are written while the low kind found farces the Gianni Venetiani and Mattoccini well macaronic prose narratives
in
,
.
is
,
,
dicuntur
similj
ò
et
,
)
491
."
prencipi tra questi duo estremi mezzani
(
O ,
.
illustri gran maestri
bassa conditione
et
his quae praeter rationem Re
assentiuntur
et
ita
.
non
huominj
,
,
In ,
.
in
in
: "
133–33v et di
: "
fols
.
is
, it
.
all
quia oculi
uilissimi
.,
Ibid
huomini
fol 106 .
." . ,
Ibid aures
30
ut
29
of
of to
is
its
its
in
,
tragedy
on
for
preference
its
in
The epic being more varied episodes and digressions recognitions being reversals and longer and more pleasant and more marvelous the whole more perhaps better any case Vergil difficult achieve Hence the any language and any form greatest poets with the possible exception the Prophets Within the epic form Maranta sees the same mistaken
...
POETIC
THEORY
by
.
,
,
Its
its
qualitative parts that Aristotle had discerned ; quantitative parts are pedagogical ends are achieved invocation and narration
proposition
is
“
.
of
on
,
by
,
to
”
on
,
is
he ,
is
of a
in
on the one hand the action— from those heroic deeds one fired way that such too incited become like their doer and thus the poetry gathered fruit 31— the other hand the characters since given virtues Maranta's general these represent the perfect expression
171-74
,
to its ,
,
an
,
,
of
literary criticism the the unpublished
bulk than
rhetorical and Horatian as
is
orientation
and such Aristotelian elements stylistics and long winded discussion
of
-
a
there are appear incidentally
all to
),
,
is
greater
all
Its of
.pp
.
,
V
see
(
general
1564
in
one published work
Bartolomeo Maranta's Lucullianae Quaestiones writings taken together above Chapter
be
to
70's
.
the
'
literary quarrels
of of
of
a
to
.
a
,
in
, of ,
it
a
in
engaged
is
the Aeneid that has one plot one man one time beginning one action with middle and end that separate parts are irremovable and unchangeable These would seem single work and they are pro constitute Aristotelian criteria applied phetic some the arguments which were adduced during the
conclusion
to
to
to
,
of
on
in
he
he
;
,
.
;
of
:
of
,
is
his
.
of
.
in
of is
,
of
;
its
,
.
,
metrics They reduce almost them considerations relative the tragic plot conditions and effects but there are some applications Vergil engaged the epic form since Maranta the study and praise Again the interpretations the Aristotle echo those found earlier manuscript discourses But since problem Vergil concentrates tragedy and the epic the three essential questions the comparison sources the tragic effect and the bases verisimilitude On the first
all
is
to
to
.
of
88 ,
.pp
to
,
is by all
be
,
he
,
of
by
,
he
,
in
"
”
;
, it
,
it
all
as at a
);
( to
to
by
.
is
,
to
,
,
compares the two genres with respect their qualitative and quantitative parts length their their manner dramatic versus narrative for these Aristotle the source On the subject the marvelous which more properly produced goes considerably the epic than the tragedy beyond the Poetics says must produced poets admiratio especially epic times but falls the domain the This because appeals narrative form the ear rather than the eye and may
as
In
).
he
he
, on
.
of
of
.
all , of )
,
on
(
.p
of
at
on
,
of
(
thus treat more incredible matters 133 The need astonish the tragedy audience necessarily involves consideration the effects compared with those the epic and above verisimilitude Maranta pity and fear and various times cites Aristotle elaborates the nature the tragic plot and the tragic hero 125 this connection
of to
”
“
of
."
)
492
si
,
,
,
sex
or
of
on
us
:
di si
si
il
fortune age
accende fatta sorte che frutto della poesia
(
si
quelle prodezze coglie cosi
et
da
: "
.
a
.”
“
of
to
as
is a
.
of
the elements which constitute decorum
Ibid fol 135v quello diuenire simile .,
he
is
of
.
;
a
31
several
),
(
TÒ
Starting from makes some important remarks the nature fear Aristotle's Õuorov Poetics 1453a5 sees two kinds likeness the tragic hero The first our common humanity with the persons subject tragedy the same calamities and the ourselves we think among same death The second resemblance the basis one
pro
incita anco egli
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
fession , character , and so forth ( p. 124 ). Here again the transition from the Poetics to the rhetoricians is almost imperceptible.
fit
Maranta's study of the tragic hero is important to him insofar as he Aristotle's descrip
wishes to discover whether Aeneas does or does not
,
,
of
;
A
126 number distinction between which may not
.p
).
of
of
auctoritate introduces
recognizes
other than the
an
he
persons a " (
,
,
.
&
:
be
in
his own which
that
;
,
in
no
he
a
,
would
wise
of
.
perfect and cannot err
,
all
by
it
.
,
,
,
,
he
as
,
“
,
to
is
the audience
believes
,
if
cited
:
Aristotle
is
,
,
be
however only
aroused
achieved
.
if
These passions will only verisimilitude
is
.
18 .)
"
fear
(p of
. In
,
;
,
,
to
,
—
by
,
-
be
is
tragedy Maranta's thesis that the effects plot the and character but the lesser elements diction sententiae melody chorus setting For Aristotle these would contribute the effect for Maranta they may produce almost keeping with his rhetorical bent independently asserts that the func anger terror pity tion sententiae arouse the passions such
,
Un Aristotelian again may achieved not only
As for Aeneas
he is
as a
“
considered intermediate qualify tragic hero because
."
as
be
,
,
,
which may wicked and the intention good hero who commits unwittingly wicked deed may thus
,
the action essentially
proof Besides
be
;
magna sunt existimatione
tragedies are cited
he
he
.
an )
(
he
an
-
qui
in
hero
of
''
“
error but adds idea being non Aristotelian the error may "
as as
involving
he
to
to
,
he
of
be
.
If
.
it in
attempts analyze more closely the conditions tion With mind pity and fear are for the tragic action attend the tragic personage high station and enjoy great esteem otherwise his misfortunes must will not produce the proper effect Maranta accepts Aristotle's notion properly interprets auapria the intermediate situation 1453a7 and
of
,
of to
of
. 32 to
it
,
is a
to
of
to
to
to
they try with
all
: “
marvelous
on
explain that verisimilitude matter opinion and that the difficulty lies reconciling this with the The poets seek nothing else but the assent the listeners and
the interlocutors goes
audience
in
of
One
of
an
,
,
if
to
Aristotle wrote that two actions were offer themselves the poet one which indeed could happen but was not verisimilar the other which could not really happen but was nevertheless credible the poet would accept and choose apparent truth even though belonged the one which had the number those which cannot naturally happen under any circumstances
of
33
in
,
89 : "
32
,
as it
to
.
."
give credence their energies force men marvelous actions And herein lies the greatest difficulty for the poet The solution the problem lies partly did for Aristotle the choice extra
."
]
[
in
:
:
ut
."
493
si
ut
sit : ,
,
:
, sit
ex
si
,
89 : "
., , .p
33
,
,
(
), .p
Lucullianarum quaestionum libri quinque 1564 Aristoteles tradit duao res sese poetae obferant altera quae fieri quidem possit sed uerisimilis non altera quao fieri reuerà nequeat credibilis tamen capiat atque eligat poeta eam quae apparentem habet quae naturaliter fieri nullo modo possit ueritatem etiam eorum numero poetae nihil venantur praeter assensum eorum qui audiunt atque omnibus Ibid neruis contendunt assentiri homines cogant admirabilibus rebus atque hoc uersatur maior poetae difficultas
POETIC ordinary events
THEORY
really occurred , those
that
catastrophes
upon
visited
certain great and noble families ( p. 133 ) . Maranta's total contribution to literary theory is about equally divided between Horatian and Aristotelian elements . It is Horatian in the lectures devoted to the Ars poetica and in the Quaestiones; it is Aristotelian espe cially in the other set of lectures, but also in the Quaestiones . Throughout , and reaffirms the parallelism between the two theorists ; or , any , in case he introduces the one into a context primarily reflecting the other . He frequently shows a good understanding of his texts , and his inter pretations are sometimes superior to those of most of his contemporaries . he establishes
on
his
SALVIATI (1564 )
as
,
,
be
to ,
of
a
of
.
of
While Maranta was preparing ( and perhaps giving ) lectures Aristotle for the Accademia Napoletana Lionardo Salviati was writing the First Lecture series three known collectively the prima poetica Trattato della The Lezzion was delivered before the Acca
...
,
,
,
of
is
in
It
,
of
in
he be
to
to
he
as
of
,
in
.
to
—
of
,
,
to
of in
heavily Aristotelian demia Fiorentina December 1564.34 tone only multiple not because the reference other works the Stagirite the Metaphysics the Ethics the Topica the Posterior Analytics the Physica the De caelo but also because the method which Salviati everywhere attempts apply Salviati believes that answers his questions are only early history found Aristotle and traces the the arts sees the beginnings order and clarity Aristotle's works ,
;
to to a by an
,
if
as
,
an
,
in
poetics
the realm
rigor
equally
of
.
If
such answers are reached ous method must be used
of
be
to
.
to
,
it
an as
,
so
of
I
,
—
by us
a
, in
at
in
to at
until last Aristotle descended upon earth believe through divine pity long ignorance order liberate from the fog reduced the truths pronounced first those first philosophers not indeed chance but con fusedly scattered way and were stammeringly marvelous order and reduced divers members incredible clarity artful body pro portioned with ineffable mastery 35
A
of
:
,
be
.
,
of
,
not about the word but about the essence of
of
,
whoever was asked
34
by
(
"
) is
.
be
of
of
,
as
involving basically two procedures this method definitions and the application the device the four definition defined including definition itself causes Everything must given see the Metaphysics and the Organon that reply which would Salviati conceives
the careful use
some
”,
,
a
so -
.
,
of
.
I a
), . 4;
(
II, ,
of as
as
,
in ,
,
, a
.
of
di
al
,
la
I
“ Il
35
MS BNF Magl VII
to
for the indication the whereabouts this MS Peter Brown's Ginnastica degli Antichi attribuito Cav Lionardo Salviati Annali complete della Scuola Normale Superiore Pisa Serie XXVI 1957 Brown gives description the MS The second lecture far know was never written The called part Third Lecture was merely copy made 1566 this First Lecture am indebted Discorso sopra
in
,
da
,
)
494
le
,
. "
diuerse membre ridusse
un
,
in
, e
, e di
in
,
, et in
artifizioso
(
maestria
et
in
zionato con indicibile
. 7 : “
,
307 fol
liberarne
a
.
a
pietà
,
,
infino che Aristotile finalmente disceso credo quci dalla nebbia cosi lunga ignoranza uerità primi filosofi non pure sparsamente quasi balbettando prima caso ma confuso pronunziate quasi corpo propor ordine marauiglioso chiarezza incredibile terra per diuina
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
,
an
of to
of ,
is
in
"
a
The latter definition requires kinds habits and among their
of
of
full differentiation among the possible
38
"
.
the reason
of
is a
it
,
of
means
a
“
...
;
)
37
.
by "
in
ternal subject
as
it
see
...
be
(
art
Universal and of some universal substance , completely properly , but in such a way that there be no part in it which is not operant , nor any part lacking that might operate in it . ” 36 The first term of which we need a itself and Salviati definition , as we approach the subject of poetry , is operation the Metaphysics defines an external Principle principle differentiated from Nature because nature operating action itself Otherwise stated habit ex
intel Salviati see the Ethics derives the habits from two kinds lect the higher intellect and the reasoning power and classifies them under art prudence and science ,
all
the
:
,
,
he
...
he
)
,
.
(
sources
. 39
,
in
(
the
]
of
from one another because prudence treats the agent matter
.
;
,
on
all
,
)
,
(
)
(
higher intellect Aristotle derives from the former the habits which concern themselves with necessary and eternal things from the latter contingent things To this group reason those which exert themselves only belong without any doubt prudence and art which two habits are different those actions whose effect remains but art directs those whose effects pass over into some foreign
to
.
of
an
it is
—
a
,
an
,
he
,
.
a
is
by
he
of
of
.
of
,
,
in
All the arts and poetry among them induce perfection some object outside the agent himself pursue two The introduction the concept habit obliges Salviati further arguments First must answer the Platonists who maintain inspiration product that poetry not habit but the divine furor presenting various rebuttals philosophically wrong This does
,
fail
or
he is
,
we
:
“
...
;
in
of
,
;
is
in
,
a
—
by
,
is
,
to
think that God completely perfect would operate individual present judgment lacking the claims where furor the poets are not insisting that seeking reliable and accordance with his method surer and more predictable origin are looking for the cause
chi
ne
, in
40
.”
,
:
.”
a
in
be
da
.
,
36
a
is
of
“
,
,
of
rather the principle which most the time does not And again But we are seeking for the principle which not once while but most principle And this must definitely the time habit Furor
ui la
;
la ,
.
,
,
ed
,
)
is
." (
in
;
gli
15
in ,
,
,
a
;
...
."
se
in
14
: "
., , la et fa .
39
da
,
si
13 : “
: “
.
.,
38
è
.
. ., "
37
,
ui
, , sia e
: " la
.
.,
risposta che Ibid fol 11v darebbe fosse richiesto non del uocabolo ma dell'essenza d'alcuno Vniuersale d'alcuna uniuersal sostanza proprijssimamente ma tal guisa che parte alcuna non che non operi alcuna uene manchi che operare potesse Principio esteriore d'operare Ibid fol differenza della Natura percioche natura principio d'azzione stesso Ibid fol 14v2 Habito d'operare subbietto esteriore con ragione There are two folios bearing the numbers and each this the second 14. quello Ibid fol 142 da tutti habiti che sono dietro alle cose necessarie eterne questo uenire tutti quelli che nelle contingenti s'adoperano solamente Ciò sono
I
'
,
si
è
,
. "
)
(
le
,
, ò ,
,
495
le
."
in
, i
“ 18 : “
.
si
.
in
;
.,
" E ;
.
40
,
quali due habiti perciò sono tra loro differenti Prudenza l'Arte senza dubbio ueruno percioche quelle delle azzioni raggira l'effetto delle quali Prudenza rimane nell agente ma l'Arte dirizza quelle cui effetti alcuna materia forestiera trapassano uogliam dir principio piu uolte Ibid fol noi cerchiamo della cagione che piu uolte non falla and Ma noi cerchiamo del principio che non alcuna uolta ma principio ciò conuiene che sia l'habito fermamente
POETIC
THEORY
of be
to
of
it
.
capable
of
poetry acquired
29 )
fol is .
a word , cannot be accepted into the category of universal causes , whereas habit can . Second, he must discover what kind of habit is present in poetry . To do so , he divides the habits into moral and intellectual , the intellectual into habits of doing and of making , and classifies poetry under the last of possible for him these ( This makes declare that the art
,
,
of
, all
"
.
to 41
,
an
,
be
or in
its
,
,
to
.
to
.
is
to
,
to
.
in
,
itself whereas
to
,
to
.
these except
all
of
principle art Not nature since nature has poems have their source the poet Not fortune design Not chance since the poet makes his poem according violence always contrary since this the will Not the mind alone since this to
any
to
;
he
,
.
as be
A
an
by
“
precepts and and can very well mind through human industry related argument considers the various other sources which poetry might oper attributed Salviati makes exhaustive classification coming from nature art violence mind alone fortune and ations assigned chance then sets out show that poetry cannot properly counsels
excellent
,
of
:
of
.
be a
it
an
art is , it
;
As all
42
is
.
Its
,
. "
of in
it
: "
contingent and corruptible matter respect that other Aristotelian device .
to
With
the analysis
of
in
;
:
is
an
is
of
only rarely the source poetry hence principle Thus cannot poetry art has itself the qualities which are universally re quired for the existence art contains the three necessary operations speculation before anything done the operation the artist and the work itself matter the matter art consisting solely
he
,
so
In
(
"
,
gli he
,
a
.
is
to
"
is to
" il
of
his
,
at
.
of
,
the four doing Salviati makes his own assignment causes reveals presuppositions come from sources other than once how many says Aristotle and how uncertain his own method The final cause bring profit giouare our minds through pleasure animi causes
in
);
fol
,
Vettori
is as
”
.
For
finds difficulties
.
he
di
have considered
he
,
other critics such
l'intelletto
the material cause that
as
as
comes
,
“
is
; “
the art
to
of
,
when
is
(
It
he
the habit
i.e.
34 ). "
to
questo habito riuestito
is
34
.
, "
say con diletto fol this identical with what Horace has lines 333 and 343. The efficient cause the intellect invested with this habit
instruments those ele language harmony the matter that indisputably the most important not to
:
"
,
,
is ,
,
.
of
no
,
of of
to
con humano studio
da
, e
capace
.
,
as è
precetti
now material now instrument
eccellente
qualità
che all'essere
dell'Arte
in
tutte
lc
se
in
ha
fol 31v
: “
., ." .,
43
Ibid richieste
.
42
.”
.
, e
Ibid fol d'auertimenti ingegno puo molto bene conseguirsi .,
43
.”
single element di
of
a all
in
considering 29 : “
41
priety
,
...
,
to
,
,
.
,
ments which himself regards and rhythm Of these language rhythm and music but significant words both according the truth and according poems Aristotle's opinion are firmly the essence according Words then the authority Aristotle are the most poetry philosophical impro general material Salviati finds
uniuersale
sono
. "
.
la
di
)
(
496
,
la
, e
le
,
, e
il
: “
.
la
,
...
,
le e
parole significanti Ibid fol 34y non rimmo musica ma secondo uerità secondo l'opinione d'Aristotile sono della essenza delle poesie fermamente Sono dunque parole Poesia tutta secondo l'autorità d'Aristotile materia generalissima
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
Finally,
the formal cause consists
in the
in
invention
"
” ; he takes
the
Iliad
that greatest poem , the form is that invention which makes it different from every other poem which is not this very same one . "44
he
important
them
but
of
Salviati merely
,
the causes
on
of
he
to
findings with respect he recapitulates repeats what had said earlier for three
As
;
his
as his example : “
the subject
,
,
I
,
45
”
The Physica and the De caelo
un
by
.
.
of
as
the ultimate end the poet the basis for this distinction
an
of
are cited
"
. “
do
;
I
...
is
speaking
he
.
a
an
it
an
to
in
is
, “
to
make further distinction This con ultimate from immediate end The end profit with pleasure proximate says say not the most end because this without doubt the form and the work itself but am final cause finds differentiating
sists
,
,
of
:
.
of
,
be
of
,
if
, in
;
or
art :
).
,
is
its
of
fol .
(
poetry would
matter
it
supreme
moreover
the health and the well being
,
,
end
-
serves the highest
is ,
9 ).
Poetry
.
of
to
,
to
is
,
fol .
among the arts because the mind Once more Aristotle confirms the conclusion his belief that tragedy purges the mind disturbances shows that poetry concerned only with the mind 35v On his own Salviati raises some further interesting ques tions about the whether poetry can exist the poet's mind without put into words whether being written down this were true the real (
ophy
of
,
.
to
of
,
of
-
Salviati's ties with Aristotelian critical past are further attested repetition poetry his the standard conventional defence He traces society the civilizing role the beginnings the arts their relation ship the sciences Among the arts poetry appeals the highest faculty philos the intellect and hence close the contemplative operations
the feelings expressed rather than the words used
,
of
,
of
on
,
, in to
of
set
.
,
,
on
a
,
.
,
prudence
the subsequent
a
for
of
are promised
of
a
But the answers rather than being given here lectures Vergil and Sperone Speroni one Two treatises discourses dialogue Vergil probably belong the other this same year 1564.46 become
part
to
of
,
;
to
following the same line argument poetry express them whether making doing and ultimately would not pass from the arts the arts
,
in
:
“
of
...
47
...
it
"
by
art
to
by
its
of
“
its
.
to
to
to
of
,
is
as
Speroni finds Aristotle concerned the Poetics useful sug plot plot and the unity general with regard imitation and verisimilitude Speroni declares that the Discorsi sopra Virgilio will subject taught according treat the Aristotle and Plato teachings establishes the primacy plot and that the first
As far
gestions
;
in
,
a
in
be a
it in
be
;
in it
in
35 35 : : “ è “ la il ,
44
see
on
is
the first thing made the poet and this must woven such way that the events follow one another almost natural order and one should not the poet's will that should made this way
."
,
), II , .p
. ”
.
.
,
,
( of
o
]
[
497
lo
il
;
,
è
siala ."
di of
e le
. .
il
, bye
La
IV , ,
),
...
; "
., .,
(
In
47
Fr ,
46
45
da
quel sommo poema quella inuenzione che forma fanno diuerso che esso stesso non giouare con diletto non dico Ibid fol percioche fine fine piu propinquo questo senza fallo l'opera medesima forma ma parlo dell'ultimo fine del poeta See the reasons offered the editor the 1740 edition the Opere 419 and 356 opere Sperone Speroni Empoli 1920 Also Cammarosano Vita 164 Opere 1740 425 secondo l'arte da Aristotilo da Platone insegnata Ibid fol ogni altro poema
POETIC
THEORY
.
or
to
all
for if one does , the poem becomes affected rather than verisimilar . " 48 Verisimilitude is thus a product , in part at least , of a seemingly natural order of the events . Although we are not so told , we may perhaps assume that it is this “ natural order ” itself which guarantees the imitative quality of poetry . Poetry is an imitation , it is the plot which imitates human actions ; parts not belonging Speroni's the plot are digressions accidents ,
of
be ,
a
,
,
is
to
."
is
"
of
is
,
as . a
is ,
of
plot are not however thoroughly reasons for insisting upon the unity Aristotelian The first for an imitation must one single imitated thing just subject science one The second not since Speroni requiring unity provide through argues that the main reason for
to
be
to
to
,
in
to
if
“
,
if
,
, to of
,
highly simple and reduced plot the occasion for much amplification and unnecessary and superfluous ornamentation for the poem consists poet ornament the were undertake imitate poetically more than grow perfect would have one action the poem order infinite be
”
it
some
of
,
argument
as
an
In
,
they are less ornate and more obscure and this removes
the beauty
S0
for
as
“
:
.
-
“
to
it be
or
;
are
it
of
its
A of ,
49
in
.
”
poem constituted possible length more than one action would completely but imperfect for the poet would not able decorate parts without making over long and tedious Hence the every one preference for the simple over the complex plot Thence arises that triple comedies and tragedies are not beautiful simple ones double ,
of
,
an
imitation
"
is
The Poetics itself its
.
farther removed from Aristotle's
“
of
,
is a
;
it is
.
;
.
”
this Aristotelian loci and terms are present but the whole tendency and conclusion are different Imitation the topic once again the fragmentary Dialogo sopra Virgilio but strange kind imitation which becomes farther and such
of his
of
;
as
"
he as
a
as
A
."
“
is
as
of so
, to
to
to
,
is
, it
is
vi sia si in
...
,
of to
,
.
of
,
,
.
is
to
monkeys and more proper children than properly the province man for the thinking here reason Clearly Speroni
the other hand disciple rather than the enemy 48
.
of
is is
.
on
Art
It it
in
, ”
"
a
human activity
man
on
to
is
“
, it ",
be
.
on
on
his
,
philosopher Homer's two epic poems which thus become nature writing poetics bases poems just poet writing poems work bases them nature But the poet may also use other poems praised for imitating nature and Vergil should Homer did indeed better imitate other poets than heed the instructions philosophers poetry Speroni goes suggest that their arts far imitation since not based on the activity the mind not really
di , un 49
e
;
è la
, , e
:
di
li
il
: “
."
,
,
le
., .p
prima cosa fatta dal poeta questa bisogna che Ibid 425 Però modo tessuta che cose succedano quasi per ordine naturale l'una dall'altra non veda paja volontà del poeta che cosi fare perchè diventa non verisimile ma affettato poema e
a
, il
di
."
)
(
498
,
,
."
;
, e
il
, o
e
le
di
: “
le
qua viene che tragedie doppie triple non son belle 534 commedie più oscure semplici perchè son meno ornate che lieva della bellezza ,
Ibid
come
., .p
So
in
a
” ; “
è
,
di
: “
.
.,
perchè Ibid pp 438–39 una imitazione debba essere una cosa sola imitata como super soggetto una scienza ma anche perchè se'l poema ornamento redundante poema fluo se'l poeta togliesse imitar più una azione poeticamente volere esser perfetto cresceria infinito
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
of imitation as a kind of copying or physical mimicry , rather than as the of the artistic process . In the following year, 1565 , Speroni discussed another Aristotelian prob lem
essence
,
26
,
ut
:
“
,
explaining
the definition
that
by
this opinion
,
he
gives his reasons
by
of
must
be
.
,
the Aristotelians
and
"
facinoribus
ab it
,
of
of
it
hujuscemodi
of us
letter
a
,
to
purgation
in
of
,
Alvise Mocenigo dated February purgation one insisting 1565. He recognizes two current interpretations pity and fear the other that that concerns only the two passions admits other similar passions He adopts the latter liberemur that
;
to
is
,
of
in
to
of
he
in
his
of
,
so
.
he
,
of
of it in
using the words spoken Aristotle gives the Poetics Plato Book VIII the Laws where fact talked the tragedy Canace and says that those dishonest acts and the death Macareo And him who com truly the mits them are shown that one will learn avoid them and this understanding Aristotle.si proper way
.
a
in
be
;
a
He
it
to
;
,
as
to its
opposition holding that purgation achieves through forming effect the habits thus would accustom people pity and fear through repeated exposure them believes that the latter theory also implies limited usefulness for tragedy and comedy acceptable only both would state where the government was popu
of
Speroni interprets
,
"
by “
in .
,
.
an
, ;
is
in
of
lar rather than monarchical Tragedy showing the misfortunes the great people gods would convince the that their rulers are not and that their own comedy would teach other popular lessons preferable station life —
, . in
is
.
Like
its
,
V
,
179–83
).
.pp
see
(
in
1566 above Chapter made numerous comparisons between
Italian appeared ,
on
da
,
,
of
, in
analysis Both such become instruments used the governors an indirect and hidden way for the good the governed Throughout the forgotten discussion Platonic overtones are apparent and Aristotle Fighine's commentary Giovanni Fabrini Horace's Ars poetica
pre ;
an
.
,
“
as
by
in
of .
al
la
ne
to
“
(
"
or
lvi , ”
poetica nel testo secondo Aristotile cxxxi Maggi's divisions references throughout are the edition
Aristotile testo
,
in
be
to
is
to
,
of
,
of
.
of
,
it
,
it
Horace and Aristotle like them also assumed that Horace was following Aristotle and that the content and order the two treatises were essentially the same But whereas some the other commentaries revealed incidentally inter pretation Aristotle there seems none discernible Fabrini His merely constant practice cite similar passages prefacing each quota questo medesimo dice tion from the Poetics by some such formula decessors
in
of
fre
.
in
;
he
to
a
of is
).
quest 1550 Nor one any more rewarded the topics Aristotle especial interest everything that were Fabrini was interested Perhaps the more detailed and practical topics appear with greater
)
(
'
a
,
; si e
e
."
da
di le
di
, si
le
di
la
499
,
li
di
: “
dà ,
V ,
la
è
, e
;
,
ne
,
: e
In
Opere letter
de la
51
questa opinione deono esser CCXLII 175 Aristotelici espo parole detteci definizion che Aristotile nella poetica con Platone nell legibus ove appunto egli parla della tragedia ottavo Canace Macareo dice che queste cose disoneste rappresentano perchè impari morte chi commette questa lasciarle stare veramente bona intelligenzia Aristotile nendo
POETIC
THEORY
of Horace's work than , also , because
quency , merely because they are closer to the stuff
the more abstract and theoretical considerations — perhaps
Fabrini's Italian commentary was addressed to a more popular and less erudite audience . At times his translations are interesting, since the terminology reveals the extent to which he is thinking of Horace rather than of Aristotle . Thus , for example , he translates 1451b27 with the formula “ i poeti sono denominati piu da l'inuentione , e da la perfetta narratione de
para
le fauole , che dal comporre in uersi ” ( p. 355 , italics mine ); and he
1455623 thus : “ diuide la poesia d'Omero in due parti , in fauola ,
phrases
all ,
& episodi . cioè, in digressioni ” ( p. 355v ; italics mine ). Again , 1448a16 is translated : "la comedia , e la tragedia sono differenti tra loro ; perche questa imita cose piu eccellenti , & quella piu humili ” ( p. 364 ; italics mine ).
All in
(
to of
,
.
of
it
an in as
by
it
,
in
Fabrini's commentary has little significance for the history except the Renaissance another document relating essentially the Ars poetica and seeing terms the later work anonymous manuscript Siena To about the same period belongs the Poetics
, as '
“
to
de
'
,
in
its
,
to
)
Biblioteca Comunale K.IV.36 ascribed another hand Lottino dedicated Giovan Francesco Stella and Dionigi Atanagi and having poeti general theme the one indicated the title Intorno alli episodij
it
to
of
in
his
of
it
.
I
it
nelle poesie have placed circa 1566 because treats the general relationship between plot and episodes that Maranta had discussed lectures and because seems share the preoccupations those authors
...
.
of
:
be
of
to
by
a
in
so
,
to
in .
...
.
is
)
in , it (
things
her compounds
by
as
all
fact
nature
of
nothing else but the substantial part the poem But just way that the substantial parts are works such served those which are accidental the poet causes his plot served pass because the number principles from which the episodes This came
in
plot
as
to
, in
to he
,
,
who around 1566 were debating the merits and demerits Terence Lottino starts from Aristotle whose works finds authority for stating plot that the episodes are accidents are substance
it
,
its
as
,
if
be
by
,
by all
of
)
to
by
.
be
( so
the world had their origin was small that was necessary that not only the principles but things themselves resemblance the principles should mixed and intermingled with one another None these things could ever have been truly distinguished from another nor called one thing the ,
to
from —
in
it
to
in
is
it
,
a
by
divide
the matter
è
la
che
si
quelli
è
de
500
)
(
simiglianza
di
;
, è
,
è
Il
cose stesse
a
le
principij ma ,
i
non pure
.
gli epissodij seruita principij che auuenuto percio ch'il numero ch'egli cose del mondo hanno hauuto origine stato cosi piccolo stato
siano
sua fauola sia
quali tutte
bisogno
,
cosi
parte sustantiale
parti sustantiali
siano infra loro mescolate
che
, et
accidentali
altro che
che poeta
fa le ,
ritrouano
sempre
,
in
: "
somma non
la di , da
...
elle
suoi composti
il
esso
1-1v
ne .
natura
; fa
che
la
come
si
,
quelle seruite
,
,
Siena K.IV.36 fols in
Ma
si
.
.,
Bibl Com
poema
.
le da da del
52
it
-
or
them and derived from them such way that not possible except them effectively even those who are very expert distinguish from the plot.52
to is
is
no
,
in
in ,
of
.
In
other parts were not regulated and commanded one single part form ... this same way the good poets have proceeded the linking episode the episodes with their plots which found that not united
principal
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
, it
of of
.”
a
to
ma
which will give beauty Such “
or
”
,
singular clarity
be
admiration
”
“ “
.
,
he
to
of
the poem included this that the poet back Aristotle again Lottino declares tragedy more feasible the epic than
to
is
It
.
the basic materials meagerness
in
,
a
of
a
process means reduction and the possible danger
and
”
excellent
, ”
“
”
those elements which are efficacy the poem and “
traditional
the poet selects
but rather the whole complex given story From these says
“
with
,
by
he
to
the individual poem
terials associated
,
his
Lottino seems here to be seeking metaphysical justification for the close connection of episodes with plot ; at the same time, he states an evaluative principle for that connection . As argument continues however be plot not the assemblage comes clear that means events peculiar
prevent
“
of
,
in
in
,
in
is
of .
to
introduces episodes Harking episodes that the addition and comedy since the dramatic forms are more restricted time— into time than those few hours their operation they cannot put more space ;
of
,
”
.
to
the action
of of
parts
These principles are carefully applied
.
the drama which recount the completed
of
at
of
“
,
by
is
,
it
”
"
of
is
.
A
” 53
to
be
presented during which they must final theoretical the people again derived from Aristotle consideration regarding plot concerns plot complication represented the division the into and solution For Lottino this plot itself preceded another the narrated one which apparently consists those expository parts the beginning the discussion
Terence's
,
,
the plot pleasantly through probable actions
they augment
( on .fol of
beauty
;
.
to
,
is
interspersed with the theoretical sections Eunuch which the short treatise Episodes were added the central plot says Lottino because without them the comedy would have had insufficient size and insufficient
no
,
of
all
“
:
.
3v )
Several dicta from the Poetics are compounded into this conclusion the episodes they are substantial parts the plot one
.
, is
of
respected
times
Hence
or
,
for Lottino
54
. ”
be
all
in
,
is
of to
,
so
of
,
of
all
is
all
at
are
;
to
—
of
be
transposed which nor the others like them could removed through without causing damage the plot and the poet makes them necessarily follow one from the other always observing verisimilitude persons that nothing the decorum left desired Decorum clearly respected personages and the itself the presentation ordering parts the plot such that verisimilitude and propriety the Poetics becomes
the
ciascuna delle quali non haurebbe mai potuto uera distintione dall'altra haucre una sola parte come sua forma principale non fusse stato comandato cotal modo sono buoni poeti proceduti nel col legamento epissodij con fauole loro nelle quali troua alcuno per fatta si
ne
se
ui
:
le
i
,
da
,
In
.
da
...
ne da
ad
de
gli
, et ;
una esser chiamata dato regola all'altre
se
ne
:
,
trapposte
si
;
."
la
;
,
,
lor
."
al
2v : “
.
., .,
,
53
54
;
da
, et
puo maniera esse unito esse deriuato che non che con effetto diuiderlo ma non quelli che pure senon sono ben pratichi conoscerne differenza queste nella operation loro non posson mettere più spatio che quelle Ibid fol poche hore nelle quali elle debbono essere popolo rappresentate à
,
et
501
)
(
."
si
;
;
il
:
ne
,
, à
:
. 4 si : “ fa
le
il
et
,
Ibid fol son tutte parti sustantiali della fauola delle quali delle altre simiglianti non potrebbe trasporre leuar alcuna che non uenisse danno alla fauola poeta con uerisimili cosi necessariamente seguitar l'una dall'altra decoro delle puo piu oltre desiderare persone sempre seruando che non
POETIC
THEORY
for both theoretical and practical
statements in criticism and a source from which he makes relatively few departures. source
,
in
to
he
,
1 ,
.
) is
(
del
The place of Aristotle in Frosino Lapini's Letione nella quale si ragiona quite different For in universale fine della poesia 1567 this lecture delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina on May 1567 the dominant a
,
:
of
,
of
.
to
in
to of
is
).
.
,
,
in
to
(
,
pp
of
is
;
is
Plato
it
who gives the essential orientation work poetry which declares that the end the inculcation virtue man see Chapter VII 290–92 There are some references Aristotle but rather the Physics and the Ethics than the Poetics From the Aris approach Lapini derives his identification general totelian the poetry material formal and final causes influence
the poet the plot under the subjects taken him for explanation and since the form the imitation follows that the end must different from these very great Nor this pleasure alone which felt accidental the outer ,
is
in
,
as
,
as
.
be
,
by
all
is
,
is
,
it
is
of
We conclude therefore that since the material
which are veiled and enclosed
the Poetics wherein
,
Aristotelian
the conclusions
are
the causes are differently defined
.
of of
,
may
all
the approach
whereas
,
Here
surely not those
be
in
. SS
in
,
by
,
of
of
shell and surface the beautiful invention the plot but mainly the utility en closed within the meaningful and moral subject veiled the plot the same way that the mysteries were hidden and covered the sacred ceremonies
is
goodness
necessary
if
the better living Lapini cites Vettori's
containing
as
utile dulci
of
corroborating his own and Horace's
"
for
exemplars
"
understands ,
to
how
mean honor and virtue
.
serve
he
is
as
as
are
also determines
takes
"
as
gloss
to
,
character which
personages
It
he
C ).
;
passions
(p .
its
of of
of
The conception moral utility the end determines Lapini's interpre purged tation catharsis moral betterment achieved when the soul
,
and the ends
of ,
is
as
-
moral perfection
the
.
be
to
a
be .
-
a
or
,
by
.
of
is
.
by
be
to
it
heightening will bring him near completely realized 1570
)
CASTELVETRO
(
poem will
is
The need for heightened goodness character always emphasized itself Imitation the nature imitation further pleasant and beautiful and these effects are achieved re meant presenting any object even low person nearly perfect action more than would normally When virtuous person concerned the the same conclusion
of
of
in ,
in
,
a
in
,
ac
:
il a
da
la
da
i
&
ne
,
-
: “
, e
,
.pp
in
,
forma sendo solo piacere
sposta
Basel
Eij Eijv materia del Poeta Conchiudiamo adunque che sendo soggetti presi quale sono velati dichiararsi lui racchiusi tutti queste conuien che sia segue che diverso fine ciò imitatione superficie della vaga inuentione della che per accidente nella scorza
) la la ,
1567
(
sia & la ss il la
Letione
Fauola sotto
, in
This was Lodovico Castelvetro's Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata printed first revised edition 1570 and later Vienna
et
.
in
in
"
by
the great the first the publication The year 1570 was marked any European vernacular commentaries Italian and hence the first
. "
,
, e
, e
502
)
(
i
,
,
si
fauola sente grandissimo ma l'Utile principalmente racchiuso nel sensato morale soggetto coperti velato dalla fauola non altrimenti che misterij erano nelle sacre cerimonie ascosi
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES his
POETICS :
is
of
”,
we
for
“
is
work
of
Castelvetro follows the usual pattern for such commentaries ; which divided into Parti each divided into six major
1576.56
a
.
,
his
in
whereas
;
of
the Poetics
his doubts about the
it of
says
,
he
it ,
of
as
,
.
his
to
declares
we
subservient develop own The Poetics have imperfect and unpolished poetry the art
and
theory and proposes first rough form
he
his attitude toward Aristotle and the text
they were respectful
"
, a “
or
”
“
all .
in in
six
,
in
,
also
or
”
“
of
"
,
"
,
or
,
a
“
“
and each Particella are given section the Greek Vulgarizzamento brief statement the Contenenza content commentary The pas translation and then the long Spositione sages themselves are fewer number and longer than Castelvetro's pre predecessors decessors totaling fifty Castelvetro differs from Particelle
text
is
...
at a
as
,
. "
57
in
to
,
,
of
His own purpose
to
to
he
of
it
is
so
“ a
,
is
which probable that the author preserved might serve him that collection notations and brief reminders order have them might wish compile and compose the complete art hand when :
more ambitious
do
go
to
to an
. 58
to
do
correctly and how one should judge properly whether those already written not have what they ought have
or
of all
be
or
,
of
by
,
of
in
us
to
I
poetry clear showing and displaying not have tried render the art only what was handed down these few pages that greatest philosophers but also whatever should could written for the full benefit those who might wish know how one should about composing poems
as
.
of
,
the Poetics
rather than
as
to
of (
works art characteristics
the world
in
of
art
that Aristotle
of
of
poems considers the special qualities analyzes those natural objects that
,
of
,
to
in of
,
is
to
as a
,
explanation
,
,
the analysis from the world
way
as
the whole say Let us
.
reality
of
transposes
by of
It
be
in
.
of ,
,
be
point departure partly Aristotle will used therefore partly opponent Our immediate problem here discover what happens theory adaptation process Aristotle's the and refutation general Castelvetro say that would perhaps not too bold
),
(
of
art
of
by
56
he
in
),
he
objects which usability affect their works rather than their natural qualities only that takes into consideration those capacities men which affect it
of
.
on
.
of I
as
.
, è .ed as ), a & .p of di ) O (3 on , : "
.
;
is
,
of
57
to
,
in
on
died
the basis
in
posthumous 1571 and the second edition was prepared the author's manuscripts There are numerous variations between the texts even the direct translations Aristotle Questions arise about the authenticity probably the changes and which text use basis for study have used the 1576 edition representing Castelvetro's final thinking poetic theory the text Aristotle and Castelvetro
friends
,
far
.
"
of of ,
:
(
di ,
,
in
,
,
,
, “
(3 : "
)O
ed .) , .p
(
ho is R. , in S.
, ".
ed .
(
,
;
,
pp .
: &
di
),
,
58
...
&
vna prima forma rozza imperfetta non verisimile che l'autore conseruasse perche seruisse bricui memorie per poterle hauere preste quando volesse compilare ordinare l'arte intera See my article Castelvetro's Theory Poetics Chicago University Chicago Critics and Criticism Ancient and Modern Crane large part abstracted from the article Press 1952 349–71 the present treatment Poetica d'Aristotele 1576 tentato manifesta l'arte poetica Poetica d'Aristotele 1576 polita dell'arto poetica laquale Juogo raccolta d'insegnamenti
in
,
"
no .
, o
,
)
(
503
a , o
è
si ,
,
,
, , se i
di
a
&
,
&
da
,
aprendo quello che queste poche non solamente mostrando stato lasciato scritto quel sommo philosopho poteua essere scritto carte ma quello anchora che doucua per vtilita piena comporre bene poemi coloro che volessero sapere come debba fare giudicare dirittamente composti habbiano quello che deono hauere
POETIC
”
as
.
un
.
,
of
remain
,
if
as
poetry
lost works ;
of
the art
to
the special conditions special conditions tends
be
to
of works ( rather than works and objects and men are
they were natural objects objects themselves they pass into the work and men are men
are treated
changed
“
,
Castelvetro
That
).
as
always with respect any idea
of
all
men
their characteristics
viewed
In
the appreciation , and the evaluation
is ,
,
the intelligence
THEORY
a to
.
is or
in
of
all
to
in
of
Perhaps the crux the matter lies Castelvetro's determination remove the principal emphasis from the poem the audience Such poetry are considered not aspects transformation means that terms
of
in
of
.
of
“
of of
be
to
it
of
,
...
"
:
"
a
of
of
the poem itself but terms the needs specifically demands characterized audience Castelvetro's audience composed thus limited and restricted and comes the common poetry was invented for the pleasure people the ignorant the artistic exigencies
,
to
...
:
of
. "
59
,
multitude and the common people and not for the pleasure the educated Since the élite and the educated are thus rigorously excluded certain qualities mind are denied the audience
--
imagination and will
possible
to
in
is it
: “
of
of
in
,
it
Nor
senses
or
,
,
,
establishing the rules the when someone speaks
must
almost completely lacking
believe only the evidence
its
This audience will
of
be
,
them
or
of
I
,
of to
of
things and artists
since does not understand them feel annoyance and displeasure.60
it
;
investigating the truth
and
,
use arts
of
in
— ,
to
]
(
poetry was invented exclusively delight and give recreation say delight and give recreation the minds the rough crowd and the common people which does not understand the reasons the distinctions the argu ments subtle and distant from the usage the ignorant which philosophers
make them
In
. ” 61
it an
,
a
as
is
select
35 : “ la
to
It
62
audience would have 59
deception can take
matters not reducible
of
be
it
,
. "
to
action
since
incapable going beyond what historical fact will king who did not exist nor attribute any We cannot imagine immediately clear that any poet writing for such him
the senses
knows—
“
to
in
as
a
,
their senses that only few hours have passed place them which the senses recognize such
no
believe that several days and nights have passed when they know through
his objects such actions and characters
il ,
,
&
gli
& , &
,
&
,
gli
,
ne
,
no gli le
,
&
,
,
I
."
.
by
“ la
le
,
ne
,
in
di , &
,
,
)
(
504
,
).
ne
sia
vn re ,
" (
è
ci ,
25 : "
."
, 1.
il
,
a
ad
30 .
25 , 1.
ne
la
in
i
è .p
27 : "
., .p
, 1. ."
&
,
&
., .p in
62
,
61
le ,
quali adoperano philosophi inuestigare verita delle cose artisti ordinare arti non gli'ntendendo conuiene quando altri fauella che egli senta dispiacere noia See also Ibid 109 Ne possibile dargli intendere che sieno passati piu notti quando essi sensibilmente sanno che non sono passate senon poche hore non potendo lo'nganno quale loro hauere luogo tuttauia riconosciuto dal senso italics mine possiamo imaginare attribuirgli Ibid 188 non che non stato alcuna attionc ,
degl'idioti
fu
&
& 36 ;
29 , 1.
., , .p
io
60
,
., .p
, 1.
poesia Ibid 679 trouata per diletto della moltitudine ignorante del popolo commune give pago and line non per diletto degli scientiati For this text numbers since the lines are numbered the publisher poesia sia stata trouata solamente per dilettare per ricreare Ibid dico per dilettare ricreare animi della rozza moltitudine del commune popolo ragioni quale non intende argomenti sottili divisioni lontani dall'vso
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
to the audience , that the choice of the objects would be determined to a degree by the audience , and that the objects would be chosen on the basis of their natural characteristics. But that is not The physical comfort and the convenience the
...
53 ,
of
a
.
its
be
we must not ask
would not certain limit
worth physical
of
;
short that remain beyond
it
.
,
(p
says Castelvetro
crowd
assembled
:
,
endurance
poem
so an
to
assemble for while nor must we expect the crowd
We are speaking
before
to
to
considered
poems presented
it a
27 ),
1.
need
of
audience
be
all .
as would be acceptable
that during which the spectators can comfortably remain the theater which far can see cannot exceed the revolution the sun Aristotle says that twelve hours for because the necessities eating drinking excreting the superfluous burdens the body such the belly and the bladder sleeping and because other necessities the people cannot
of of
of
;
of
,
I
,
of
,
displeased
be
to
its
of
characteristics the capacity by
to
be
one
time.63
of
,
this audience has certain things and
by ,
pleased
as
is ,
,
as
,
the theater beyond the aforementioned as
Finally
stay
in
continue
,
, as
its
,
,
as
,
in
is
the restricted time
seated
in
.
;
"
553
9 ).
, 1.
(
by
to
satiety
pleased
events which
do
of by
is
the audience wishes displeased
):
volontà
its "
"
hopes
(
in is
Another happen
its
which present commonplace events and rapidly lead
.p
,
it
, it
"
,
it
:
is
others One the bases knowledge the audience takes pleasure for pleasure and displeasure learning thought could not come about especially those things which contrariwise dislikes stories from which cannot learn anything those
its
to
it to
of
;
it
its
, of
a
,
.) .
(
,
accordance with those which not Finally the audience will relate the events poem the for tunes own life will enjoy seeing the good happy and the wicked unhappy since the case expect happiness from the former will lead ibid
of
to
;
,
it
objects
;
of
These additional characteristics
audience not only restrict further the poet's choice
of
be
,
,
of
21 ).
1.
122
,
;
l.
,
121
34
.pp
(
able
-
of
be
,
if
.
,
it
, a
it
if of
security own goodness and the case the latter will give sense justice good unhappy experience and On the other hand the are will fear and pity and the wicked are happy will feel envy and scorn but only temporary displeasures since they will give way these will feel ings justice which will ultimately pleasur righteousness self and the they also limit
it
.
of
in
of
his
,
,
to
,
he
his art for must now make plots and conceive characters certain ways conform length ordering certain wishes for the and his work Throughout the above passages Castelvetro has taken for granted is
.
on
as a
it )
as
, , 1. il 21 : " il
(
of
.
63
he
in
is
of
poetry This that pleasure alone explicit position every the end agreement with him and sees the utilitarian He finds Aristotle purgation interprets notion contradiction Aristotle's where
)
(
."
,
,
&
,
in
il
11 .
505
, è si
a
il
i
le
,
&
,
i
il 1.
,
è
,
io
.
, in ., .p
,
57 ,
.p
é
tempo stretto quello che veditori possono 109 suo agio dimorare quale giro del sole theatro non veggo che possa passare come dice cio hore dodici conciosia cosa che per mangiare necessita del corpo come superflui pesi del ventre per altre necesstia non bere diporre della vesica dormire possa popolo continuare oltre predetto termino cosi fatta dimora theatro See also Ibid sedendo Aristotele
POETIC
THEORY
" For if poetry was invented principally for pleasure , and not for utility , as he demonstrated in the passage where he spoke of the origin of poetry in general, why should he now insist that tragedy , which is a part of poetry, should seek utility above else Why should not seek mainly pleasure without paying attention utility He explains purgation
it
of
on
as
64
? "
to
by
an
to
?
all
part :
,
).
12
,
1.
1. 4 ;
9,
16 ;
to
it is
,
,
(
.pp
in
or
as a
1.
, is a
13 ).
,
in
is
if
pleasure
or of to
:
of
1.
15 ;
,
;
, 1.
24 ;
insists Aristotle
here
of
1.
Aristotle
( of .pp
Plato's banishment the poets moral moral use for poetry 116 272 697 The utility lies the diminution the passions pity and fear the audience their expulsion 117 299 purgation utility only incidental But admitted the real end answer
grounds
of
means
, ,
it
of
by he
of
pity
tragedy.65
be
of by of
,
,
,
is
It
66
"
us .
of to
with
external
force
certain charac be
is
to to
.
,
of
its
of
of
operating upon the composition the poem pleasure are related and achievement the end teristics the audience the means by which the end
poetry
an
a
is
—
a
in in
in
the natural love
of
because
great pleasure that have for ourselves source significant that places this discussion Castelvetro the end the audience such way that the end too becomes
If
be
it
the unhappiness are good since
ourselves
of
that
at
feeling displeasure
recognize
which recognition
we
us , ,
we
,
comes about when
another unjustly suffered unjust things displease
we
,
he
on to
)
of
“
he
,
;
of
,
“ v [
”
...
it
able
:“
the word pity from
source
n
sidered
fear and
fact Castelvetro believes that purgation itself may con pleasure thus affirms that Aristotle meant Sov 1453611 the purgation and the expulsion fear and explain how pleasur goes uman souls and can
matter
as a
a
the case with the purgation
of
,
he
]
to it, to
let
,
(
if,
is it;
as to
As
,
to
profit profit and Those who insist that poetry was invented mainly delight together them beware lest they oppose the authority Aristotle assign nothing but pleasure who here Poetics 1459a21 and elsewhere seems accidentally and indeed concedes some utility concedes
achieved
are
is
:
as
,
, se la
30 : “
64
it
if
.
In
.
of
on
of
similarly related Here the main consideration imagination the lack part argument the the audience sum the runs follows the audience will derive pleasure only identifies itself with the characters &
,
in
? ”
, si
di
,
è
è
la
il
,
,
si , 38 : , & “
, 1.
., .p
65
?
,
, la
la ,
ha
,
., .p
, 1.
poesia Ibid 275 Percioche stata trouata principalmente per diletto generale doue parlò dell'origine della poesia mostrato non per vtilita come egli perche vuole egli che nella tragedia quale poesia vna parte cerchi principalmente diletto senza hauer cura dell'vtilita cerca principalmente l'vtilita Perche non poesia sia trouata principalmente per lbid 505 Coloro che vogliono che
, le
se
,
, lo
è
,
la
&
è la ,
,
...
& ,
,
le
,
,
la ."
12 : “
,
& 1.
,
., .p
66
&
, il
, &
, o
giouare per giouare per dilettare insieme veggano che non s'oppongano all'autorita quale qui assegni altro che diletto pure d'Aristotele altroue non par che purgatione dello spauento concede alcuno giouamento gliele concede per accidente come della compassione per mezzo della tragedia purgatione lbid 299 Aristotele intese per voce novu scacciamento quando noi sentendo dis della compassione dagli animi humani dello spauento
)
(
506
,
,
to
. "
on
,
, la
.
ci è di ci
a le
, ci
piacere della miseria altrui ingiustamente auenutagli riconosciamo essere buoni poi che dispiacciono quale riconoscenza per l'amore naturale che noi portiamo cose ingiuste piacere grandissimo noi stessi The passage goes discuss additional secondary pleasures
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
, it ;
of
,
prob
):
ff .
39
,
II .
.p
(
of on
he
.
to
"
“
to it to
is
.”
as “
It
"
“
be
to
,
to
,
necessity
possible actions
i.c. monstrous
or
nature
nature
,
to
to
the course
the course
(
,
A. Natural According Contrary
of of
which have actually happened
Possible actions 2. 1.
be
"
,
it
"
is
it
its
interpret Castelvetro does Aristotle's remarks ability and verisimilitude He divides the whole realm according 184 the following schema see I.
in of
If
of
.
is
.
It
of
in
its
and the events ; this identification is possible only if the audience believes in their reality ; belief their reality will depend upon the credibility the verisimilitude the presentation here that imagination enters imagination the audience were endowed with great capacities things far removed from the conditions real life would believe the realm will believe only what seems since not this general argument which leads true own experience
hap
miraculous
of or
Accidental Resulting from chance Resulting from the will
fortune
,
men Possible actions which have not yet happened A. and above as
B.
II .
2. 1.
B.
)
penings
of
is
be ; a no
be is
,
.
by
a
,
is
Td ,
to
,
in
,
to
; it
of
since
it
essentially the includes accomplished actions corresponds history province Yevóueva and Aristotle's particular actions performed specific persons Actions limited this tragedy and epic which since they deal with royal kind are essential incapable persons cannot dispense with historical basis the audience
I,
Now Category
it is
SUVATA
;
TS
coequal with Aristotle's the other hand the universal since the actions are possible , is
II,
Category the realm
,
of on
.
,
of
no
,
a
it
,
, of
all .
its at
of
,
of
imagining kings who did not exist etc. But poem may composed entirely history and not poem such actions since then would Comedy component course needs historical events since persons and their actions are private and obscure
for many
poetry All poems must possess some thus the realm actions which have not actually happened But whereas credibility does not arise the first category the question the second primary importance order that credibility and hence veri similitude may assured and that the ingredient the marvelous also any pleasure necessary present the following three occur may requisites are established for possible actions in
,
(
,
of
,
be
to to
.
those actions which have actually happened
similar
of
those actions which had the least probability but which did actually happen parcels The parts such actions must individually similar those parts actions which happened various cases various people similar
]
507
to
several means
first
,
assured
:
be
in
may
[
,
it
credibility then
,
respect
to
With
.
be
.
of
or
of
(
c )
,
happening
by to
(
be be
a )
They must
(
They must
b )
:
,
to
is
if
)
be
.
In of
.
in
.
of
it of is
of
it is
;
persons component
POETIC
THEORY
of a historical basis for the action in certain genres ; second , by adherence , in invented actions, to the conditions of “ real ” or " true " actions . At this point , the expectations of the audience again im by the use
a close
of its
in
its
,
In
.
of
pinge upon the poet in a very important way , for the audience is the touch stone of natural probability , and it will believe whatever conforms to conceptions reality part conceptions are formulated terms
,
of
at
to
be
to
as
of
.
of
.
of
,
of
given types assigned traditional traits characters conventional actions Castelvetro equates these once with the αρμόττοντα Aristotle and the Horatian decorum probability All degrees Castelvetro conceives them are natural decorum
and
to
or
a
of is,
;
of he
in
is
on
is
a
he .
,
If
.
.
of
,
by
to
by
is
to
in
probability rather than aesthetic probability that probability work established not reference the conditions the work itself preliminary statements within the work but reference outside the work especially clear the operations nature This the example uses for distinguishing between necessity and verisimilitude Actions both kinds are possible hence admissible into poetry man wounded
or of
is
an in
,
"
"
poetry and indirect way
of
the problems connected
in
of
nature with the making
so —
with the objects represented
are largely problems
audience
of
are
is
of
,
.
to
of
of
of
its
the problems connected
with
;
,
it
.p
(
of
all
,
all
In
40 ).
or
1.
,
.p
(
the audience
If
of
, 1. 1 ).
is
in
or
”
a
;
he
.
If
“
is
,
it
probable that verisimilar will die hence the poet may represent his death necessary man wounded the heart Similarly that die hence the poet may represent his death 188 for actions springing from character which are really matters decorum 330 such considerations historical truth necessity and verisimilitude the primary aim natural probability not making the poem resemble nature the imitation nature for the sake obtaining the credence but rather the resemblance nature for the sake the head
.
.
it
of to
is
.
,
As we have seen the first means the proper selection and assorting
, ;
of
by
,
is
of .
,
found
the poet
place time and the comparison
:
to
With respect time the clearest statement tragedy and the epic
in of
taken into account the unities
is
,
respectively
to be
in
imagination have
these two factors lead
, to
lack
of of
A
to
convincing and amusing the audience second means the these materials accordance with the unities time place We have already noted that the physical comforts the audience
of
its
and action
.
disposition and
this end
of
.
materials
of
achievement
to
a
tween the probable and the marvelous the
of
of
of
it
of
is ,
,
is
)
( or of
he
is
,
it
.
is
a
an
all
of
not the parts
to to
the work art The produce beautiful work art through the ordering artistically perfect structure beauty Questions rarely concern Castelvetro Rather the task the poet find some keeps way entertaining the audience while convinced that what striking proper balance be sees reads true that some way challenge
its
of
508
]
[
,
of
as
,
tragedy has found proper compass Now just the perceptible end within the revolution the sun over the earth without going beyond this limit
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
in
it .
on
67
of
,
be
or
to
its
in order to put an end to the discomfort of the audience and the expense of the proper compass being actors , so the perceptible end of the epic has found able extended over several days since neither the discomfort the listener expense connected with the reciter took this possibility away from nor harm
.
,
is ,
an
,
of
,
a
is
of
of
,
of
.
to
be
;
,
a
of no
. ”
or in
68
a
in
of
: “
in in
a
in
its
...
..
,
,
in in
as a
its
eyes will take place single spot the stage the action before subject tragedy Hence two unities action must have accomplished place space small area and small time that that place and that time where and when the actors remain engaged acting and not any other place any other time Ideally the invented action should occupy more time than real action and this performance the place should remain time should not exceed the time unchanged and person who contained within the space visible himself did not move As for the unity action which for Aristotle the only important one Besides
,
.
—
of
,
he
in
—
so
as
;
in a
it
be
a
in
history one may relate single narrative poetry possible single plot will
...
in
,
in
if
,
no doubt that single person a
there
several actions
of
For
is
:
a
he
to , is a
of
is
and which for him the very essence the work art Castelvetro's highly revelatory treatment his general attitude toward poetics To things for limiting begin with denies any necessity the nature frequently single action poem takes issue sharply with Aristotle here
of
,
in
a
it
,
do
multiple plot would more poet the ha
:
a
a
to
to
,
I
even
by
of
of
,
or
it
if
or of
. . .
.
poetry were conceded relate many many peoples not see that any blame should
And even
Moreover the presentation double readily serve the end pleasure sought 67
,
a
be
of
. . .
.
for
,
to it of of a a
people
many persons for this reason.69
actions come
,
a
in
a
actions
as
of
it
to
single person just narrate without being blamed for several actions similarly poetry one may relate without being blamed for single action history does this with much praise poetry whole people And indeed single action not only whole people may narrated but even several
la de
la
il
ha
,
,
ne
,
."
in in ,
,
non altroue
ne
&
in
,
è in
operatione
,
occupati
&
dimorano
,
di
17 : , “ & la in
rappresentatori
in
i
di , 1.
...
vn
se
ha
si
si
fa
,
,
se le , si si
Et ,
Et
. . . . si
. si
,
raccontamento
,
,
, 1.
178 Perche non dubbio niuno che nell'historia narra sotto piu attioni d'una persona sola potra sotto vna fauola nella poesia narrare senza biasimo piu attioni d'vna persona sola come parimente nella poesia senza potra narrare vna attione sola d'vna gente percioche l'historia biasimo cio con molta potra narrare vna attione d'vna gente ma lode non solamente pure nella poesia ., .p
Ibid
23 : “
69
."
&
quando doue altro tempo ,
il
in
,
de
& di la
., .p
68
, o
ne
,
la
il
, si
., .p
, 1. 1 : “
Ibid 534 Hora come termine sensibile della tragedia trouata sua misura d'vn giro del sole sopra terra senza passare piu oltre per cessare disconcio spesa rappresentatori veditori cosi termine sensibile dell'epopea trouata potere essere tirato lungo per piu giornate poi che disagio d'ascoltatore sua misura spesa del recitatore non gliele toglieua danno tragedia Ibid 109 conuiene hauere per soggetto vn'attione auenuta picciolo spatio luogo picciolo spatio tempo cio quel luogo quel tempo
509
)
(
.
di at
.”
di
le
la
, . . . .
an
di
, o
anchora piu attioni d'vna gente concedera narratione molte attioni molte persone molte genti non pero veggo che biasimo alcuno debba seguire The argument rests upon analogy between poetry and history which Castelvetro develops great length
or
THEORY
all
POETIC
the people
,
of
persons and
of
to a
of
,
of us
us
,
,
,
a
it,
of
or
if
of
we should not marvel at several actions one person one action people several actions several persons delight and make attentive plot carries with through the multitude listen since such the actions through the variety through the new events and through the multitude both pleasure and greatness and magnificence.70
,
of
.
a
of
of
is a
to
; it
be
,
of
?
is
it
,
,
Why then does Aristotle insist upon unity and why does Castelvetro recommend The reason different for the different genres For tragedy comedy unity consequence and action the unities time and place possible would not crowd into restricted space and into
”
,
:
to
,
.pp
”
,
29 )
23 )
, 1.
16 ;
, 1.
16 ,
is
on
.
,
1.
a
in
,
,
or
of
of
of
poetry
"
of
since poetry
is
Aristotle's work upon adequate an
it
,
Indeed
did not base
Their art
adequate ,
72
history
.
the
of
an art
a
to
A
.
to
art
.
of to
by
the fact that
an
,
,
be
extent vitiated
conception the art first major difference
possessed
"
we
this art
of
,
if of
he
says
intimate that unnecessary would write light from the light history
art to of an
derives
point
different from Aristotle's
Castelvetro's assimilation
,
kinship history
fact
he
appears
,
of
of
argument
these lines
poetry essentially all it is in so its
of
Many
in
.
of
its
its
is
as
1.
1.
,
see 179 179 and 504 What commentary about this position especially the any concern with the structural abandonment formal the work and insistence upon two such nonartistic consider the comfort and character the audience and the glory the
of
,
beauties
ations poet
24 ;
(
of
different things see 179 514 plot demonstrates the ingenuity and the excel
symptomatic Poetics
“
,
is
“
is
a
an
the poet
(
lence
abundance
because such
.pp
,
second
of
,
and
,
;
an
of of
a
,
a
spectator with
of
hours more than one action indeed sometimes one these plays only part epic necessity will contain action.71 For the where this sought for two other reasons does not exist unity action first because such unified plot more beautiful less likely satiate the twelve
.
of
art
an
be .pp
see
,
:
in
in
,
of
he
history and most presents would have been the precepts which adequately appropriately history developed more and more only history respects presents The two arts differ two events which actually happened poetry those which have not occurred but which might
,
41
as ;
, 1.
o
(“
”
of so
or
,
1. 1 ).
a
"
,
,
(
occur and poetry uses verse whereas history uses prose 115 190 Otherwise they are much alike that poetry may defined history rassomiglianza resemblance imitation similitudine it is
.
se
da
, , 1. o 18 : "
70
,
in
is
19 .)
28 , 1.
,
” .p
certainly more like history than Poetry like d'historia making the latter comparison painting and Aristotle errs with others
,
of
as
. "
.
of "
"
of
)
(
510
gli ad
, o
,
,
&
,
&
&
,
31 .
of
la as
la
,
la
, 1.
36 ;
, 1.
& ci
ci
di
la
,
, . 1.
,
."
, 1. 4; 21 : "
1.
., ., .p or . 5,
&
71
72
&
,
la
., .p
marauigliarsi piu attioni d'vna persona Ibid 179 non sia punto vna piu persone piu attioni rendessono intenti dilettassono attione d'vna gente ascoltarlo portando seco fauola per moltitudine dell'attioni per varieta per per piacere grandezza nuoui auenimenti moltitudine delle persone della gente magnificenza 692 See also pp 504 the pp 179 the whole the action 19. Castelvetro thinks 504 Ibid art the plot thei ndividual work traditional historical story not poesia ogni sua luce dalla luce dell'historia prendendo Ibid
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
of
of
;
.
is
of
,
of
.
is
,
in
art and the art which most readily words history the one which provides ,
by
“
"
nature means all the essential distinctions treats
in
is
art
of
a
also the object
of
nature
is
object
of in
of
in
as
as
an
.
his
Castelvetro was so completely dedicated to the analogy between poetry and history that he failed to construct , as most of his contemporaries were doing , a parallelism between poetry and rhetoric —and this in spite of the essentially rhetorical character of own system Aristotle's notion introducing differences between object imitation nature and that object completely absent none represented work the implications present For the the Aristotelian concept imitation
in
to
all
so
of
“
at
.
,
we
to
is
its
it
,
its
of
or
by
.
to of
of
of
we
in
,
if
a
,
of
al
di
,
briefly Some these matters are further discussed Castelvetro's Chiose intorno libro del Comune Platone work which dates from the period the Poetica73 but which was first published the Opere varie critiche 1727. The sections the Republic which deal with poetics are naturally unusual interest Castelvetro He finds that Aristotle con example and tradicts Plato's statement that poetry meant teach liberty necessity follow examples Rather that must are through materials about teachings accept reject since teaches
of
,
to
,
in
... ,
.
,
:
of
of
by
“
is
.
,
,
is
in
,
to
,
to
to
,
which we may think and that we may have examples kinds both frighten the wicked and console the good and learn the nature men and of women The aim still teach this context but the audience may react against the examples rather than follow them blindly purgation This essence the meaning therefore Aristotle said that tragedy means fears and injustices drove out fears and
in
by "
,
as
of
of
a
,
of
.
of
to
author variously referred attack upon Dante entitled
as
an
1572
Ridolfo Castravilla wrote
Plato
an
1570 and
an
between
understanding
as
." 75
a
an
Aristotle depend upon
on .p
73
or
Somewhere
a
:
explanations
Anselmo
...
that the perils proposed are fire for man Castelvetro's understanding Plato depend upon Aristotle his
of of
...
explanations
as
relates
an
,
,
on
74
in
."
of
injustices from the hearts refuting what Plato says the men listening Again purgation Castelvetro proposes this passage alternative theory Perhaps Aristotle which like would purge like said that tragedy purged those same passions means those same passions purification and proving because they constituted man just Plato
is
of
, , e &
la i
to
is
,
in de
gli
da
rei , da e
. , E e le
i
da ":
."
,
in
le
, e
gli
de
le
of
., of
,
le
, e la
da
e
.pp
),
(
In
74
.
to
A
passage posterior 215 the Opere varie critiche indicates that the commentary that on the Poetics Opere varie critiche 1727 per materia 215-16 farvi pensamenti sopra spaventare acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni maniera consolare buoni perciò diceva Aristotele che Tragedia conoscere natura uomini delle donne paure ingiustizie scacciava paure ingiustizie dal cuore con con uomini questo luogo ascoltanti riprovando quello che dice Platone The reference Plato .
)
(
511
,
."
il
i
,
,
, e
,
la
in
...
: “
.pp
75
.p
the Ficino translation the Basel edition 1546 Tragedia purgava quelle medesime Ibid 226–27 Forse Aristotele disse che poichè erano affinamento paragone dell'uomo affezioni con quelle medesime affezioni siccome racconta Platone che pericoli proposti sono fuoco dell'uomo 561
POETIC
THEORY
Discorso nel quale si mostra l'imperfettione della Comedia
.
This
I
shall
di Dante
was the work which started the great controversy over Dante , and
treat it in detail in a later chapter . But since the attack is based upon prin ciples which claim to be Aristotelian , it is of interest here to see how Castra villa ( who has never been successfully identified ) understood the text of is important to note that this is a
full - scale examination of
approach and the earliest practical studies
a
criteria do
of
to its
It
its
the Poetics .
great modern work , an examination that takes
so .
,
( in
.
a
an
-
an
a
is
of
is a
at
all ,
)
to
in
of
,
it is
from Aristotle and that one Castravilla writes rebuttal Benedetto Varchi's claim the Hercolano 1570 that Dante's poem was superior Homer's He first asks whether poem establishing the principle that poem the Divina Commedia plot which must contain the imitation action Aristotelian
in
in
,
in ,
of
of
states that
he
,
several places and especially poems are imitations kinds
all
the beginning that book where and the passage below where
of
Poetry
Art
he
in
Aristotle declares this
his
:
principle
,
is
of its
,
a
.
an
of
an
is
,
in is a
...
in
of
.
has been expressed
For this reason Aristotle said that the plot was like the soul
imitation making
it
,
second
,
a
as
first plot
poem
” ;
of
:
here
in
to
Two interesting comments are included prior any expression the form
exists
an
tragedy.76
“
of it
an
it is
an
is
a
is
a
:
he
in
adds that those who imitate imitate persons says that the plot action and farther below imitation action From plot poem except for the fact that this passage one concludes that poem poem until expressed not meter which outer garment and that the plot imitation action even the mind the poet and before
;
:
to he of
an
the Commedia
,
of
"
be
,
an
.
as
an
of
a
digest
analysis
good plot these are attributed parts the Poetics a
for
its
be
Aristotle and constitute
to
an
proceeds
requisites
of
he
Before
of
).
77v
set
a
(
”
heroes
establishes
fol .
-
it
to
be
a
of
poem involves necessarily the use into verse Castravilla next asks epic poem applying whether Dante's work may properly classed epic poem must Aristotle's yard stick that imitation
,
of
be
it
is ,
;
,
a
is ,
the end
;
to
,
be
in a
of
,
be
, it
at a
, it
is
from the beginning
76
that
;
of all
:
It
should verisimilar for without this the poem would fall short end and would remain deprived force and vigor Second should clear and easily remembered that such that can glance and remembered single turn seen the memory Thirdly must one that include one single action and that whole one
,
: "
in
e
la
...
.
et
di
.
;
.
,
, . e
di
,
è : et
,
le
in
.
I
quote this treatise from MS Vat Lat 6528 fols 76–84 see fol 76v Ilche declara piu luoghi quel libro doue pone Aristotele nella sua arte poetica maxime nell'exordio sperie delle poesie sono imitatione quello che poi sogiugnie che quelli che che tutte più imitano immitano persone agenti sotto dice che fauola imitatione d'attione e
il
;
la
è
, e la
.
e sia la
,
512
)
(
.
."
, e
del
è
si
poema non poema sinòche non dal qual luogo ritrae che poema fauola senonche espresso col metro che sua veste fauola imitatione d'attione etiam nella mente poeta prima ch'ella espressa Pero dicea Aristotele che fauola era quasi l'anima della tragedia There are numerous Latin words and expressions throughout the text
POETICS :
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
Plots will be beautiful if they are dramatic , that is if the persons introduced act and are in continuous action ; if they are simple , that is if they contain actions of a single thread ;
if they if they
have body and a proper size , for beauty cannot exist in little subjects ; have recognition and reversal which break forth from the subject prob ably or necessarily , in some marvelous fashion ; if they contain within the argument itself the marvelous , the terrible , the piti able , and the moral;
if they
do not have too many episodes , and if these are connected in such a way argument with the that they seem to be members born along with the body , not that were added to it .
if it has a beautiful knotting and action itself.77
beautiful solution which comes out of the
Castravilla's idea of plot seems to be a proper one - surely more correct than that of Castelvetro — and his digest of the requisites shows an under standing of the essential problems as Aristotle raises them . NERONI (CA.
1577)
all
To approximately the same period ( I have assigned them roughly to by Baccio Neroni , probably prepared for 157178 ) belong three discourses delivery to the Accademia degli Alterati. They deal with matters dis .
,
at
of
times present interpretations that text One necessario nella poesia and Neroni's answer
to
.
un
in
quella tutta cioe dal principio
fine
[i ] ne ,
,
se
,
persone indotte s'opereranno cioe conteneranno actioni dun piccoli argumenti non puo esser
,
necessariamente
misericordieuole
el
terribile
,
stesso l'admirabile
et il
nell argumento
,
haranno
uerisimilmente
il
"
Se
che erumpino
.
in
“
et
agnitione Se haranno peripetia dalla cosa alcun modo amirabile
, o
.
;
e
se
e
in
se
,
fauole saranno belle saranno dramatiche cioè saranno continua operatione saranno semplic grandezza giusta perche sol filo haranno corpo beltà
se le
se
.
Le al
:
of
, e
,
"
girare
.
di
e
e
in
"
Item debbe essere una cioe comprendere una sola actione
“
as
,
possa uedere
.
e
poema caderebbe dal suo
si
.
la
il
79 : "
-
.
.,
fine
sino
,
,
; it
by
,
is a
“
, 77 e
fols 78y Che sia uerisimile che senza questo uigore resteria spogliato d'ogni forza Secondo uuol essere conspicua ramemorabile cioe tale che d'un guardo ricordarsene una uolutione memoria Ibid
to
to
his
in
of
in
: ( 1 )
in
)
(
a
of
;
is
to
.
is
strong affirmative This opposition course prove position and the Poetics the author therefore obliged find suitable interpretation certain passages Aristotle He presents arguments twelve distinct and numbered Verse gives importance subjects which are unimportant themselves adds majesty greatness delighting poetry the marvelous and the audience achieves the end sign poets necessarily This manifest that must use verse men who is a
the question
verso
è
entitled
il
in
the Poetics and
is
them
Se
to of
cussed
.
morale
(
]
513
178
.
),
1954
(
CXXXI
[
,
Giornale Storico della Letteratura Italiana
), "
.”
di
“
78
“
e
.
“
e
quelli saranno connexi talmente con largumento che Se non haranno troppi episodij pareranno membri nati col corpo non sutiui apposti Se hara bello nexo bella solutione che erumpa dalla cosa Argomenti See my discussione letteraria nell'Accademia degli Alterati 1570-1600
POETIC treat mostly
of vain things
and
need to help them by means
of
THEORY
of little importance , and such that they the style , a thing which they cannot better achieve in any way than through verse . " 79 ( 2 ) Even in poems treating im )
(
is
I
,
a
of
,
;
in
,
is
because
the
true things
prose
( 3 )
80
in we
interested
in
be
a ”
all .
fact and am positive without verse they The situation different for histories learning the facts but poems which
read
“
,
(
4 )
. ” 81
by
as
all
...
)
verse
(5
into
Even
verse
:
of
Aristotle argues for the necessity
;
in
tations explains why Bernardo Tasso put this work
this
.
,
of
of
simple narration
need sweetness and the pleasantness which the readers are most highly attracted Such imi history prose the Amadigi were neglected because they were
are imitations verse
is
the reader
of
where
at
no
a
will remain cold thing and that such works will never pleasure would give
it
: “
;
of
all
portant subjects, such as tragedy and the epic , verse is needed , along with style without them the ornaments clear that these poems
in
in
to
is a
it
,
in
is
.
in
he
in
,
in
as is
,
as
,
.
be
to
is
82 a
be
to
)
if
to
somebody were prose and Aristotle said that write probability required poems imitate some action according should poet poetry verse not for that reason called one who understood that necessarily required . . . .
poems
to in be is
he (
if
be
is
in
a
...
,
to
at
compose any matter when Aristotle says that verse does not make poet the writer become clear sign that the proper poetic style prose that which contained verses Nor are works that are written called poetry even there imitation them which most important
,
be .
of
is
8 .it ) (
(
.
9 )
,
a
in
.
those who write
yaois
connection
in
only
Noyois
to
poet
When Aristotle uses the phrase
"
it
are always more highly praised
“
;
)
.
(
11
10 )
in (
79
in
of
,
pense with verse but comedies having Universal usage has given the name verse
is
it
be
,
is
,
in
. ( 7 )
a
,
,
,
a
of
( 6 )
,
This represents course considerable twisting Aristotle's meaning Were this not true Boccaccio who imitates most excellently would poetry and Tragedy poet needed Verse verse called lyric poetry which would uninteresting without One might think that comedy which treats low matters low style might dis
i
di
et
I
,
,
.
,
è
,
in
è
,
il
...
ne in
et è .
è
fa
in
il
...
, è
2v : “
.
.,
comporre qualsi uoglia cosa Ibid fol dicendo Aristotele che uersi non che proprio stile poetico componitore diuenti poeta segno manifesto che quello che prosa poesia douersi chiamare ancorche quelle versi contenuto Ne l'opere scritte
sia da il
. 2 : " la
fol
in , et
,
." .,
Ibid lettori
, et . "
. mi 2 : “
chiaro che esse rimarranno una cosa fredda una semplice narratione prosa per che senza uerso rendo sicuro che tali opere mai saranno lette piacere alcuno piaceuolezza del uerso dalla quale sono sommamente alletati suauita
et
.,
fol
di ,
è of lo lo
"
of
to
a
81
i
lv :
di
."
il
,
80
Ibid
d'un fatto non darebbono
82
.
,
.
,
il .
segno manifesto poeti MS Laur Ashb 559 fol Ilche che necessariamente piu trattano poca impor deuono usare verso come coloro che per cose uane tanza talche hanno bisogno aiutarle con stile ilche per altra uia meglio conseguire non possono che mediante uerso The folios the MS are unnumbered and have merely given separate pagination each the discourses
514
)
(
.
il
,
,
so
ne
si
il
in
ne
.
poemi importantissima non per questo disse che alcuno com poemi egli imitassi qualche attione secondo uerisimile come ricerca douesse essere chiamato poeta come quegli che intese necessariamente nelle poesie ricer carsj uerso l'imitatione che ponessi prosa
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES with the epic ( Poetics 1447a29 ) , 83 he does not mean prose but rather lan guage without rhythm and harmony . ( 12) In his definition of tragedy , again , in which were present argument insist
,
also
demanded
.
it is
in
is
if
in
by
“ that language
be
Móyw denotes
harmony , rhythm , and verse . " 84 Neroni concludes tragedy and the epic required ing that verse all other poetic genres
to
ń SUOuévq
his
the phrase
of
,
,
of
,
be
to
,
is
if
is
It
clear that the principles behind Neroni's argument include the poetry necessity pleasurable certain stylistic and prosodic poetry with verse and the con ornaments the traditional identification
of
debated
he
,
in
to
.
.
in
a
his
in
of
.
is
viction that Aristotle the final authority This last being true must giving every doubtful passage follow the lead his predecessors meaning that fits the Poetics own theoretical position The two pas sages studied arguments the last two were among those most frequently
im .
is
di
è
,
it
of
,
-
or ,
;
is
.
i
is
la
maggiore Another Neroni's discourses entitled Che fauola portanza nella poesia che costumi Once again the argument very sys tematically pursued and Aristotle but this time the main authority Neroni agrees throughout with his source rather his use does not
,
qualities
]
.:
the other things
var
in
of
is of
:
. .
a
upon which
the substance
(
poems
all
as
in is
of
.
of
:
.
is
repetitive involve any extensive deformation The discussion but one may distinguish these essential points Plot and character are the most philosophical defence poetry Neroni presents important parts his plot plot important contention that the more the two poems than character because the plot exists greater importance in
."
85
is
all
is
of
,
as
any not resident the fact being that the substance rest accidents subject subject Aristotle As the accidents itself the other but
:
is
it
,
of
in
is
.
in
;
of
,
points out plot can exist without character but character cannot exist Iphigenia without plot the plots Tauris and the Aeneid are analyzed poetry plot the substance proof Not only also the end
.
is is
of
,
,
consists
of
in
,
it
is
as
,
in
because
accidents
. 86
,
and
be
,
the Ethics and this excludes character which qualities cannot the end
of
of
a
of
,
is
of
every poem for the end poetry The plot the end and the purpose imitation but actions are imitated primarily thus the plot Besides the end quality action and not action said the Poetics and the first book
.
."
il
, et
, il
,
.
uerso
su ne '
at
this point
quella oratione nella quale era l'Armonia fol ritmo maggiore importanza MS Laur Ashb 559 fols 1-1v fauola Ibid
of its of
is
—
to
it is
,
363 for the difficulties with the text
, 3v : .p "
See above .,
85 84 83
-
as
is
It
plot which gives form any poem the form which the end any maker and such the most noble and the most important
i
è
;
la
à di
è
;
la
le
e
il
."
è il di
)
)
515
."
il
e
dice nella Poetica nel primo dell'Etica che perche sono qualità non possono esser fine
e
si
,
e
si
(
i
non qualità d'attione come
costumi iquali perche sono accidenti ,
è
li
.:
(
attione
è
.,
il
in
86
fine
esclude
: è “ la ne '
.
.
1v 2 : è “ lei
la
.
.
,
Poemi che guisa della sustanza laquale sono costumi non sono peroche fauola Poemi appogiate tutte l'altre cose var qualità come accidenti sendo che posta sustanza non suggetto altro suggetto ma tutti gl'Accidenti Ibid fols La fauola fine l'intendimento d'ogni Poema peroche fine della Poesia l'imitatione ma imitano principalmente attioni adunche fauola oltreche
POETIC
THEORY
parts . Poems are praised or blamed for the success or failure of their plots , by citations from Aristotle , by references to the demonstrates condemnation of the Canace , to Aristotle's praise of Homer , to the high esteem for Vergil and the contempt in which many critics hold the Orlando unity brings Furioso . Whereas character is multiple , plot is one and
be it
its
as Neroni
.
be
,
or
its
in it
of ,
a
in
is
is
It
in
its
;
it
beauty and perfection may these qualities result from the fact that totality may single glance easily seen and that remembered pleasure hence the principal source reader audience and this because actions are more pleasing than their accompanying circum to it its
a
the degree
which
has
a
end
particular
poem achieves
to
poem achieves
to
.
:
... the
through the plot that its
Besides
, it is
stances effects
plot
,
in
of or
or
of
by ;
all
87
)
is
as
in
no
(
it
is a
for
be
88 ,
,
same proposition presented the request the Reggente
might well
it
no
it
la
et
,
la
title
by
of
ha
,
of
to
. "
all
,
all
,
in
of
of
: "
to
the other arts and sciences than does politics over The last the Neroni lectures although bears peripetia recognitione called Che ogni fauola negative
.
a
,
of
,
of
plot over character and over other parts the poem striking analogy between his Neroni's conclusion presents suddenly plot and his conception poetry consideration the place sub politics among plot ordinate the sciences this case the architectonic part and that which commands the others wise less
of
the superiority
.”
,
,
is
in
is
by
to
pity receiving well adapted and proper the moving terror other thing desired the author for the moving the passions brought about properly every poem the plot since this consists recognition perturbation reversal and Other reasons are suggested for whatever
response
.
of
.
all
If
a
if
,
of on
all
of
,
of
a
,
he
a
at
,
,
.
Carlo
to
he
is
at
the
of
Rucellai Neroni's reply made the academy What say about recognition and reversal again represents has not dis very loose understanding tortion least Aristotle the subject poetry neces says means change reversal status then forms the
a ,
of
far
.
its
Of
a
in
utilitarian end not even as
:
sense continue those
a
.
is
he
.
in
plot which now emphasizes ,
are Neroni's remarks the preceding discourse But suggested the other writings ficance
on
in
or
to
or
of
it ,
sarily will have represent since tragedy and comedy and the epic unhappiness contrary Likewise fortune from happiness something every poem somebody recognized greater signi
change
a
,
to it;
ha la
fin
and
to on
,
of
all
in
,
they use those means which best lead them ha
achieve
it
or
.
to
,
of to
or
to
be or
to it is a
To fol .
87
.
this end
,
sure thing that poets when they compose plots have their end great effort for no other profit delight and that they spend reason than some utility men Wherefore when they compose either tragedies comedies heroic poems them they have their eye
And
either
)
(
516
."
e
'
si
à
."
a
e
la
questo caso quella che comanda Architettonica ciuile tutte l'altre arti scienze a
faccia
la
.
.,
Ibid fol niente meno che
in
4v si : " è
88
,
e
il
in o à
od il il
la
à
conueniente
il
in
e .,
3 : “
tanto Poema conseguito suo quanto fauola ben acco uoglia altra muouer misericordia terrore riceuere qual ogni Poema propriamente cosa desiderata dall'Autore percioche muouer degli affetti cagionato dalla fauola consistendo cio nella Peripetia Recognitione perturbatione Ibid modata
tutte l'altre
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
,
,
to
or
to
compassion
,
of
.
,
moving them contempt then being represented.89
depending upon
is
his
delighting them the action which
or
,
to
:
all
do this , of the parts which are found in such poems certain ones are powerful over others reversal and recognition These are the ones which are apt more persons than anything else move the passions and they seize the minds
to
to
,
exemplary
.
for his time
TRANSLATION
1572
of (
, a
of
of
),
he
;
as a
us ,
by a
his
to
,
to
( on
his .
,
It
.
Il
)
to
be
the Poetics into Italian and independently commentary This was Alessandro Piccolomini's libro della Poetica part prepared d'Aristotele had been Piccolomini tells the already completed work annotations the same text but fearing appear until 1575 delays and indeed the Annotationi were not
(
the translations issued separately
of
In
1572 appeared the third the second after Segni's
)
PICCOLOMINI'S
of
he
.
,
is
in
;
Poetics
on
,
of
theory Like verse this passage shows Neroni's adherence the essentially Aristotelian Horatian tradition But even here insists general his faithfulness ideas and the text and the principles the
an he
"
if
be no
,
it
.
,
as in
it it ;
“
of
a
of
,
prefatory epistle translation alone accompanied only theory containing direct mention translation Piccolomini makes although surprising Castelvetro's vulgarizzamento would did not know fact one may detect throughout his translation publishes
his
of
,
possible
as
=
(
)
”
Particella Terza
.
a
“
Castelvetro's
Poetics
)
:
1447a26
in
with the last sentence
he
(
5 ”
“
,
his
,
,
he is
a
is
different When one compares
:
.
make
as
to
from that immediate pre following decessor the two one finds the essential always differences Piccolomini's translation little longer and more diffuse than Castelvetro's since more intent upon making the mean ing clear through translation alone without relying upon commentary example Maggi's compared For Particella uses divisions effort
,
15 ).
.
di
'
,
89
a
as
,
,
a
passage Whereas Castelvetro such this preserves the denseness the original Piccolomini substitutes phrases for words and achieves
of
10 ).
.
(p
huomini
,
.
da
, in de gli
attioni
i
:
'
le
&
affetti
,
gli
mezo
poi disgiunto dalla melodia imitan alcuni che son instrutti nell'arte del saltare conciosia cosa che questi tali col figurati mouimenti cerchino d'imitare ritmi accompagnati costumi
di ,
coloro
attioni Col ritmo stesso
(p
,
&
tormenti Piccolomini
&
,
&
:
lo
Castelvetro Ma con stesso numero rassomigliano senza harmonia certi ballatori percioche questi per figurati numeri rassomigliano anchora costumi
le
, ò
in
si
le
recognitione come quelle che sono piu che altro animi delle persone dilettando mouendo rappresenta che allora )
(
517
.”
si
à
, ò
, ò
,
et la
.
gli
,
, se
ad
, ò
si
il
,
,
la
,
et
il
, d à
gli
pocmi sono potentissime Peripetia pigliano atte muouere affetti sdegno compassione secondo fatto à
tal
,
à
in
,
ò
i
,
et
,
, o
Et è
. 1 : "
,
di
di
, o
.
.
poeti nel comporre MS Laur Ashb 559 fol cosa per certa che fauole giouare hanno per fine dilettare che per altro non muouono affaticarsi qualche utilita agli huomini Onde componendo essi tragedie non per essere comedie poemi Heroici quale conseguire adoperano que tutti hanno l'occhio fine per parti che mezzi che meglio uegli conducono alche fare sopra tutte trouano tali
POETIC
THEORY
clearer final meaning . Moreover , he frequently uses words (“ imitare " rather than “ rassomigliano ," " affetti " rather than “ tormenti ” ) that seem to convey a meaning closer to the original . For another example , we may compare his “ Particella 11 " with Castelvetro's “ Particella Sesta " ( Poetics 1448al ) : Castelvetro : Hora , poi che i rassomiglianti rassomigliano coloro , che fanno , & buoni, o rei, percioche i costumi quasi sempre accompagnano questi soli , conciosia cosa che tutti huomini sieno differenti
di
gli
i
Et
,
Poli
che qualche
,
,
migliori
certo 34 ).
.
i
&
,
i
,
tai
, : a &
i
,
&
i
,
, o
,
o i
i
necessita rassomigliare
piggiori dipintori che noi cosi fatti secondo che fanno Dionigi simili gnoto effigiaua migliori piggiori Pausone Piccolomini Hor perche coloro che imitano imitan persone
( .p
di
egli
è
per bonta
,
,
costumi per maluagita
o
è di necessita , che questi sieno o
:
,
persone migliori
di ,
,
: è
è
il
&
,
;
la
,
dir , ) ò
,
(
si
,
&
gli
&
buone può
è
persone
si
queste
fa di
ree mestieri che siano con queste due sole qualità del buono ciosia cosa che del reo ogni per costume dell'huomo segua riferisca come che per virtù vitio huomini nei lor costumi differiscan tutti necessario per questo che cosa facciano
di
;
ò
to
.
,
(p
11 ).
&
;
,
.
li
di
,
&
ad
le
di
;
si
si
,
di
di
, è
peggiori quali communemente noi siamo cosi faccia l'imitatione come vsan fare Pittori ancora posciache Polignoto più belle persone quello ch'ordinariamente sono Pausone più brutte Dionisio simili esse soleuano depingendo rappresentare fatte
by
,
, to
.
,
, in
i.e. passages which gave century more trouble than the rest the text Nóyois the debate over because critical vinoīs 1447a29 the prose and verse con parlari nudi Castelvetro translated Piccolomini sciolta misure versi the latter permits
17 ),
;
10 )
(
.p
“
”
(
.p
of
as
.
“
)
41
)
in
"
di
of
11 );
.p
(
"
to
se ”
the solitariamente preso explain the meaning
attempts
it
,
da
,
of
( to .p
be
(
a
&
a
,
,
&
,
a
Castelvetro and Piccolomini intorno
"
is
prose
the same problem
.
63 )
.
(p
on
,
”
tutti
which accompanies imitation Castelvetro ralegrano delle rassomiglianze
si
&
translates
the pleasure "
badly
by
1448b18
,
At
.
nudi
per
but
allo stesso verso paraphrase kind
:
of
so
by
"
da
written
1448all for viouempiav related nudi versi intorno parlari
“
At to
al
conclude that poetry may
parlare
latter “
as is
us by
)
(
,
At
the sixteenth
gives
,
the two men for certain crucial passages
,
posed
.
to
a
it
,
at
It
is
to
is
It
certain that the second makes better sense than the first the reader puzzle over terms and constructions obliged lesser degree may also certain points represent the Greek text more accurately juxtapose the solutions pro We should find useful this connection who
”
).
.p
translated by Castelvetro
to
by
“
as
(
13
,
è
)
& is
is
, "
to
il
,
(
“
to
poi l'esser parimente naturale L'altra cagion Piccolomini expands The first piacere dell'imitatione diletto sentir all’huomo natural the second find another factor version allows Castelvetro inter correct more the his committed whereas Piccolomini cause
)
518
”
di
“
de
"
Piccolomini
nobili as
;
permitting the sociological interpretation (
107
Otroudaiwv
as
,
1449b10
),
(p .
At
by
.
pretation
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES graui, & illustri persone ” ( p .
16 ) ,
in which ethical as well
as social elements
are present .
.p
"
di
ne
)
.
,
di
discussed term
to
the much
-
,
ne
"
(
ne
,
better rendering
of
“
ne , 27 ), di ne a
1452b38 ,
.p
(
gli
qıáv @pwtrov gives Castelvetro's " non è gratiosa a huo spauenteuole compassioneuole 265 and Piccolomini's compassioneuole commouimento humano temibile
At mini
to
,
on
a
to
These few examples show what extent Piccolomini's translation may greater fidelity claim the original than Castelvetro's which frequently
of
)
of
as a
(
,
,
to
.
is
allowed take that form most useful for Castelvetro's private theories his wish about poetry At times however Piccolomini perhaps because repeat Castelvetro for less satisfactory solution will adopt not , it
10 ),
, .p
.
.p
(
)
to
,
an
17 25 ), ;
;
, .p .p
(
10 ),
.p
(
CA. 1572
In
( to
be
of
)
18
( .p
ELLEBODIUS
10
be
”
“
of
“
uiuoi
mimi
.”
of
,
in
his translation
the more simple
,
in
instead passing
(p .
ridicolose imitationi Both translators should noted imperfect text and here are still faced with the problems they are almost equally unsuccessful one may examine their attempts deal with Poetics 1447a28 Castelvetro Piccolomini 1447622 and several others 113 and 1449b26 and example
”
de
.
.,
on
,
a
in
of “
set
).
.
(
a
by
)
in
of
de
is
assigned The date 1572 the most exact one that can the Aristotelis librum Poetica paraphrasis Nicasius Ellebodius Nicaise Van Ellebode contained Ambrosian MS R.123.Sup fols 68-91v and primum Aristotelis librum accompanied Poetica Notae fols 92–110 The date results from letter apparently accompanying the
to
It
,
many good
derives
be
1560
it
and Vettori's Commentarii the Poetics from
;
of
1508
it
;
he
.
in
of
of
of
,
its
intel de
,
to
a
origins
,
its
through
its
,
to
be
.
,
,
of
to
the Italian tradition the Cinquecento lectual ties and ultimate destination.90 90
by
'
, to
in
in
,
there and
;
Ellebodius connections are Paduan himself had studied Sophianos his literary relationships seem addition have Belgian been closest with Vettori Riccoboni and Pinelli This work probably written may thus properly belong Pressburg considered ,
Indeed most
in
old codex said the possession Giovanni Vincenzo Pinelli and calls upon the authority Michael Sophianos Chios who had studied and later taught Padua
of
for the text
to
readings
an
edition
of
of
in
.
'
.
to
,
22 ,
to
,
to
,
manuscript sent from Pressburg February 1572 asking the correspon show the manuscript Riccoboni and Paulo Manuzio Through manuscript out the shows Ellebodius Italian connections refers printed Italy especially the Aldine earlier texts and commentaries dent
.
,
,
-
to
,
,
,
II,
),
,
519
]
[
,
), I,
,
:
(
)
°
659. On Michael Sophianos whose main De anima see Emile Legrand Bibliographie 1885 168–76 and the various indices
.
et
a
of
:
(
.pp
,
S.
à
,
Bas Louvain Imprimerie Académique 1765 published work was translation Aristotle's hellénique XV XVI siècles Paris Leroux Legrand's volumes (
),
in
, ) ,
; (
,
:
(
,
On Ellebode also written Ellebaudt see the article the Biographie Nationale Belgique VII 554 also Adolfo Rivolta Catalogo dei Codici Pinelliani dell'Ambrosiana Giuseppe 1933 Milano Tipografia Pontificia Arcivescovile xxiv xlv Ixxxviii Also Jean Noël Paquot Mémoires pour servir l'histoire littéraire des dix sept provinces des Pays
POETIC
THEORY
Ellebodius ' work is remarkable in several ways . In the “ Notae ” he suggests numerous improvements of the Greek text , either from the Pinelli manuscript or from suggestions by Sophianos , some of which have found their way into the modern text through the conjectures of recent scholars ( see , for example , in the edition of J. Hardy , the variants on pages 33 , 43 , and 53 ) . These are frequently supported by citation of other texts which show a considerable erudition in Greek and Latin sources . The paraphrase itself, which is sometimes merely a running translation , sometimes an ex pansion and development of the original work , is reasonably accurate and faithful to the intentions of the original . Ellebodius sees these intentions as contained in the following program : “ so that we may understand , conception placed poetry genus we should have of it , what is under what its
...
" 91
.
,
of to
seeking clarification for both text and ideas
he
in as
of
to
as ,
its
both how it differs from other arts in the same genus and how forms beginnings and development differ among themselves what were closely Aristotelian He attempts remain can even the extent
,
to
,
-
:
in
.
corrobo
1447a28
of
,
or
.
of
be
it
;
no
absent from the epic
in be
by
language limited poetic numbers cannot surely poem kind without this poetry can
of
is
,
in
imitating only bare language that verse without modulated and dancing and either mixes with one another several kinds verse alone uses one form that conceded now this must uses
it ,
,
verse
or
sound
the Poetics connection with
to
passages
rate this view The initial statement comes
The epic
in of
so
apposite
.
in
of
,
as
;
,
he
interprets
all
is
on
.
of
of
is
were doing
be on
to
,
he
.
of
he
do
other works Aristotle frequently predecessors and refers much less than his the rival critical school the Horatians Nonetheless there are two major points departs quite markedly from what we must now consider which the Poetics the meaning poetry For Ellebodius poetry The first these the use verse impossible without verse and many his fellow commentators
from any ,
.
in it ,
of
,
or
of ,
be
in
it;
of
so
,
it is
;
wise imitate Moreover imita poetry chiefly resides essential that the very name nor indeed can subsist without the light which remarks neither can verse without any imitation nor imitation without verse made into epic into poetry
tion
sort.92 he
,
68 : "
Even the most sit
,
se
,
ut
."
,
,
.
est
.,
a
;
se
,
,
in
in .
est ,
...
sit ,
, .
...
hoc uersus sine modulato plura uersuum genera siue una nunc hoc concessum orationem quae poeticis numeris adstricta neq ullo poematis genere abesse posse quippe sine qua imitari .
: "
ab
.
carminis forma utatur neq epopoeia
sit ,
.
in
,
in a
,
sono
.
Epopoeia nudam tantum orationem fol 68v saltatione adhibet imitando siue misceat inter
.,
Ibid
, et
92 ,
rant
finds authority
R.123.Sup fol cui generi subijciatur poesis quae eius quo modo cum ipsa ceteris quę sunt eiusdem generis tum eius formę inter diffe quae initia progressusque poeseos sint intelligatur
MS Ambrosianus
,
notio
any crucial phrase appears meaning keeping with this position the text
ab
91
to it
,
Whenever later for giving
of
is ,
ea
ut
.
."
.
of
)
520
(
at
.
,
.
ea
,
sit
.
ita
poesis nullo modo potest imitatio porrò potissimum poescos necessaria positum nec sine nomen cohaerere sanè possit quocirca neq carmen sine imitatione neq imitatio sine carmine epopoeiam aut omnino poesin efficitur The text Aristotle corrupt this point through the presence the word ÉTrotolia
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES cautious and faithful of Aristotelians were thus unable to shake off the traditional association between poetry and verse . The second point of distortion ( if we may call it that ) is Ellebodius ' in sistence that purgation produces moral instruction , which in turn serves the political ends of those who govern the state . Again , he is far from being alone in this contention , and the effects of both Platonic and Horatian ways of thinking are abundantly apparent. This meaning is first read into the Poetics at the point at which the Paraphrasis is dealing with the explana tion of the definition of tragedy The last part of the definition
:
is formulated
in such a way that the usefulness
of tragedy
is made clear : tragedy brings to the state a utility which indeed is the very greatest , even for those who rule over citizens , and is to be sought out at all
costs . For the error must be refuted by those who believe that tragedy was devised for no useful role for the citizenry , but merely for the worthless pleasure eyes and the ears .
it is the duty
After arguing that , in general,
of
the rulers to make
the
especially
check the turbulent
of
hold
in
effect
to
of
Virtue moreover , since
to
its
morally better , Ellebodius continues :
citizens
is
of the
.
is
,
be
by
be
to
the lessons learned are
texts
:
of
done and the character
long line on
a
those consecrated
is
which this by
in
The way
of
.
a
it
toward womanish weakness precise moderation
—
which draw the soul away from strength and turn regulated and governed the soul with
—
,
some passions pity and fear
it
,
it
,
to
,
movements the soul and restrain them within the bounds moderation granted and since tragedy more than that curbs these emotions must surely extraordinary that tragedy's usefulness the state For causes two trouble
we
,
to
in
,
by to
, it
it
in
.
is
,
of of
( ? )
of
kings and For when we see repeatedly the stage the most bitter sorrows princes and blameless men and other most cruel misfortunes observe the fickleness human affairs and we are taught how bear with moderation every change fortune And thus the soul hardened habituation and those things which formerly feared begins almost the highest degree hold est
93
contempt.93
ad
.
,
;
ut
,
ijs
,
, et ,
est ad , et
: “
.
.
.,
posita Ibid fols 72–72v Extrema definitionis pars usus tragoediae ostendatur quem affert reip qui quidem maximus qui ciuitates regunt uehementer expetendus coarguendus enim error eorum est qui nullam partem utilem ciuitatibus qui inanem
...
,
.
,
,
et
,
,
ut
,
, et
, ut
.
.
in
,
id
dumtaxat uoluptatem oculorum aurium tragoediam comparatum putant uirtus autem agat cum potissimum animi motus turbidos ratione coerceat mediocritatis regionibus includat tragoedia porrò hos motus comprimat concedatur profecto singularem eius esse rep utilitatem facit enim duae affectiones importunae misericordia timor quae et
in
et
,
ad
et
, et
.
,
.
et
et
,
)
521
ut
." ita
(
.
ex
.
: “
. "
, et
, ,
...
animum gubernentur ad
fortitudine
animi moderatione
et
à
muliebrem ignauiam abjiciunt temperentur definita principum nam spectandis scena identidem regum alijs asperrimis casibus perspicitur inconstantia uirorum inte bus acerbissimis doloribus rerum humanarum omnem fortunae commutationem moderate ferendam erudimur itaque duratur consuetudine animus quae antea summe metuerat incipit penè contemnere Cf. fols 77–77v est autem munus tragoediae per miserationem timorem has ipsas affectiones animo abstergere quare fabula facienda est res formidabiles miserabiles inducantur nam hoc tragoediae est proprium auocant
POETIC
THEORY
Ellebodius concludes , therefore , that the Platonic exiling of tragic writers from the city was a mistake, for the pedagogical usefulness of purgation is he
in
or
( fol .
of
of
pináv
.
'
he
:
it
." 94
at
of
,
;
sensu
is )
by
“
of
to
be
others
the effects
77v and glosses thus which the soul affected through the for nature causes man from the mere fact that
communis humanitatis
generally means the sorrow
misfortunes
character and
catharsis He translates ”
as
...
it
Opwtrov
Ellebodius view both upon conception
of
depends
his
.
which they treat tragedy
of
or
as
A
of
.
to
to
used
to
,
to
accustom young men blood and wounds and incite military valor number miscellaneous translations notes the Paraphrasis are they confirm thinking interest contradict current about the matters
tacles them
of
96 ),
fol .
an answer to any charge of moral harmfulness . Later , in the notes to the develops the analogy with the gladiatorial spec same passage (
82 ).
( it .fol
be
to
of
(
as ),
'
in
,
as
a
or
,
,
(“
is
it
of
;
to
.
”
is
of
).
, in
is
of
“
.”
by
of
.
he as
,
of
,
is a
sorrowful the troubles men Demosthenes Cicero Horace and Hermogenes are cited authorities The accompanying effect fear gives the usual difficulty believes that takes place when the tragic hero qui uulgo similar virtue the mass men cum hominum uirtute par est fol 77v similarity again involved The matter Ellebodius understanding requisites the third the for character TÒ UoIov 1454a23 translated actually similes This implies representation character either man
,
of
it
“
:
do
be
,
be
,
to
is
be
to
is
,
an
.
If
an
a
as
In ,
.” 95
critical bent
these various statements
its
the general
we of
lation
this the last part the trans interpretation which shows author now we work backward through credibility find that will make possible iden
credible sentence such Aristotle while the first part adds ,
seem
of
to
be
;
if of
be
be
is
to
in
was the person imitated tradition has made out The requisite thus closely related the general problem verisimilitude respected since here too opinion and current conceptions must One unacceptable must take care lest anything related which the opinion preferred which cannot men wherefore those things should done only they are probable those which can indeed done but not
we
,
as
.
,
to
us
,
is
tification with the tragic hero who like ourselves that this will enable feel the tragic emotions and that these latter are purged will become morally better '
he
.
,
in
of
on
of
readings Another concatenation the same kind occurs Ellebodius the passages dealing with character Initially uses the terms
work probi
.
ob
in
of
in
"
,
",
,
at
of
to
”
is
,
,
ob
ut
,
,
: “
.
fol 100 communiter dolorem significat quo afficitur animus alterius res hoc ipsum quod homo est incommodis homo hominis nam natura fert ab
ne
est ,
88 : "
95
."
.
aduersas doleat
to
he “
”
”
Ibid
.,
94
“
,
"
1448a2 imitation differentiate the objects and improbi Then when comes the four requisites for character the same term probi good spite used for the first requisite the difference
,
,
."
522
)
(
,
ijs ,
,
.
.
.,
quid afferatur quod Ibid fols 87v Danda etiam opera hominum opinione abhorreat quamobrem praeoptanda sunt quae fieri nequeunt modo probabilia quae fieri quidem possunt sed tamen credibilia non uidentur sint
be
to
necessary
a
taken
positive way in
goodness
tragedy and the epic
,
Moral
is
the original Greek terms (
)82 .
fol .
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS .
,
a
.
It
of
is
is :
Although
a
in
,
to
of
.
or
”
“
of
, in
because the hero teaches virtue through the excellence way his own character He becomes exemplar specimen for this reason that the commentator adds portrayal the reason already given Aristotle's idea the heightening
it
an
96
"
.
(
GIACOMINI
,
the work
,
,
of
the which unfortunately the vigor misreadings and misunderstandings
.
perpetuation
concerned
the correction and commentary
1573
)
tradition led
a
to
,
of in
the text along with some cases
Aristotelianism
of
some remarkable features
is
As far
in
linked
as
they remained presents
to it .
of
it
:
its
of
of
,
of
as
of
,
so its
,
in
,
as
to
...
or
,
,
to
to
characters
“
be
portrayed are similar nevertheless painters own them each add something like the good good poet kind whether the imitates less characters that examples the virtues and the vices they may appear extraordinary On the whole the Paraphrasis Ellebodius constitutes vigor example Italian critical the kind shows with what works imposed upon tradition itself writers other countries and how closely necessary
,
.
.
in
by
It
in
,
by
in
,
of
Another translation the Poetics into Italian following closely upon Castelvetro's and Piccolomini's and emphasizing the growing activity the vernacular was prepared Lorenzo Giacomini Tebalducci Malespini 1573. was never published and exists today MS Laur Ashb 531
at
,
of
,
of
97
"
28
a
di
; he à
Di
a
, “
a
A
,
.
written
Fine
the end
,
Giacomini's secretary Giorgio Bartoli and dated d'Agº 1573. Laude Dio Giacomini was professor distinguished neither scholar nor was amateur most whose literary activity centered about the meetings and the chores the fols 1-38
of
of
—
,
.
of
.
of
This fact may account
thc present
in
part for the principal merits translation Giacomini does not copy any the carlier vernacular translations although borrowings from both Castel Accademia degli Alterati
,
of
—
in
closer
to
be
the modern ear
to
to
.
of
(
)
terse and direct and his words seem
of
is to
of
.
he
in
phrase and vetro and Piccolomini turn choice words are frequent One might say that combines the best features both the conciseness Castelvetro which also brings Giacomini's text closer again original the and the superior terminology Piccolomini His language
be
It
it .
: "
lo
Ma con
:
Castelvetro 96
.
:
,
,
he
'.
to is
always common speech than were his predecessors His main aim simplicity and frequently achieves might instructive com pare him with Castelvetro using the same passages that were quoted for the comparison with Piccolomini On Poetics 1447a26 those
stesso
numero
rassomigliano
senza harmonia
certi
di
.
),
ut
; “
,
]
(
523
(
,
of
."
,
...
, "
.
.
in .,
,
a
97
di
.
fol 104 Etsi mores affingendi sunt similes tamen instar pictorum addere illis suo cuiq genere oportet siue bonos siue minus bonos mores poeta imitetur uirtutis uitijq specimen appareant For more complete account this MS sce my Nuove Attribuzioni manoscritti critica letteraria del Cinquecento Rinascimento III 1952 245-46 Ibid aliquid
POETIC
THEORY
1v ).
fol .
ballatori, percioche questi per figurati numeri rassomigliano anchora & costumi, & tormenti, & attioni ( p. 15) . Giacomini : et il ritmo solo senza armonia usano i ballatori ; perche questi mediante i figurati ritmi imitano et i costumi et le passioni et le azzioni ( :
On Poetics 1448al
Hora poi che
. .pp
dipintori
Et
,
,
i
di
è
,
o
i
,
cosi fatti secondo che fanno ,
piggiori migliori
oi
,
che noi effigiaua
& oi
,
,
di
i
rei ,
, o
i
o
,
:
,
di
è
&
necessita
,
rassomiglianti rassomigliano coloro che fanno percioche costumi quasi sempre che questi sieno buoni accompagnano questi soli conciosia cosa che tutti gli huomini sieno differenti migliori per bonta egli costumi per maluagita necessita rassomigliare Castelvetro
certo Polignoto ).
(
i
i
,
,
è
,
et
,
&
i
gli
,
,
, ò
è
:
i
piggiori Dionigi simili Pausone 33–34 questi essere Giacomini Ma perche imitanti imitano agenti necessario buoni cattivi perche costumi quasi sempre questi accompagnano soli
migliori costumi tutti sono differenti pittori ancora tali necessario imitare come Polignoto migliori Pausone peggiori Dionisio simili ritraeva fols 2-2v vizio quanto
ò
à
i
).
(
,
et
:
è
, ò
peggiori
.
per
il
et
virtu
è
la
perche per
che secondo noi
,
of
,
of
;
in
to
of
brevity and the choice The first these passages shows the return words which are almost every case more current the second along with the confusion which might have been avoided the same qualities some
he
,
of
his
:
of
7 ;
fol .
(
la
di
:
et
,
di à
,
ne le
che habbia
;
in .:
(
la
tragedia imitazione d'azzione virtuosa vars studiosa grandezza con orazione condita disparte parti specie negozianti non per narrazione ma per purgazione terrore conducente fine cotali passioni ,
et
the text
is
The translation
still confused and unclear and on the whole inferior
to
).
misericordia italics mine
,
at
adunque
et le
ciascuna
the major problems
perfetta
de
]
Giacomini spudea
:
clarifies one
È of
a
of
.
in
as
.
if
Piccolomini's suggested versions had been adopted did his Giacomini experiences the same difficulties with the text itself supplies predecessors tragedy But least one case the definition predecessors had included and which immediately word which none
,
”
,
in '
in
is
be
to
is
'
'
: "
is ,
of
a
or he
is a
on et
”
,
di
“
"
a
. In
to
;
but the inclusion first time the proper opposition improvement marginal gloss
of
negozianti furnishing for the non per narrazione notable the same passage Giacomini also clarifying statement about the meaning makes otroudaias for which had offered three variant translations An action which studiosa play distinguished from that action which spudea done Piccolomini's
its
)
(
524
&
,
di
verisimilitudine
contradistingue
da la
studiosa spudea
si
Azzione vita
quello che
è
,
ne
costumi come anchora nella constitutione
necessita
, o
di
è
,
. de 7 : la “
,
.
531 fol per gioco nel riposo .
fa
che
MS Laur Ashb
si
98
delle cose cercare
bisogno cosi
quello che
.”
Hora o
:
Castelvetro
fa
:
is
of
(
its ),
in
,
In
of
." 98
of
the reposeful moments life another passage the best the necessity and probability Poetics for the understanding 1454a34 superior because completeness and Giacomini's translation clarity
azzione
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES che si faccia questo dopo questo o per necessita , o per verisimilitudine ( p. 320 ). Piccolomini: Hor ' egli fa di bisogno , che nei costumi, si com'ancor nella fauola ,
be
of
, ò
, è
et
,
as
as
.
(
ò
20 sia ).
& nel connettimento delle cose , si cerchi sempre , ò il necessario , ò il verisimile , & che l'vna cosa segua doppo l'altra è necessariamente , è verisimilmente ( p . 31 ) . Giacomini : Ancora bisogna ne ' costumi, si come ne la constituzione de fatti sempre cercare , ò il necessario , ò il verisimile , si che il tale tali cose dire ò fare , questo dopo questo farsi ò necessario verisimile necessario verisi mile sia fol in
to
,
has
as
contribution whatso addition
he
alter
all .
of
.
:
.
in
in
is
which
in
objects
are
on
;
is
learning there pleasure The second the
pleasure
.”
is
in
c .
,
is
images
from
seeing the images
learning
images there
of
deriving
of
images there
pleasure
is
the passion learning
the seeing
therefore
in
seeing
,
in
b .
of
a .
In
of
to a
Cause
pleasure
Subject
of
Passion
"
at
we
,
3v ,
on
is
first
note about the natural causes imitation Giacomini syllogistic form two reduce the arguments the text The presented general and pleasure tabular form
to
On folio tries
;
notes which tell how understood the text there may look briefly are only four such places and them ,
native translations
to
,
gives
in
folios Giacomini
several
us
On the margins
,
of
.
to
)
Piccolomini was better than Castelvetro make
ever
no (
he
of
;
on
.
,
I
is ,
in
far
,
know the best translation the passage found century the sixteenth One should not however exaggerate Gia many comini's merits the difficult passages such those wherein This Italy
themselves
Effect and sign images ugly things
of
b .
Subject and cause things made with imitation
predicate pleasure
c .
a .
Passion
or
:
distasteful
de la
passione Causa Imparare
imagini
veder
immagini
ė
le
veder
le
adunque
nel
c .
diletto
.
imparare
è
nel
,
è
l'imparare
le
et
Effetto segno immagini
de
c .
causa Cose fatte con imitazione
b .
Subietto
et
predicato
a .
cose
et Le
brutte de le
Passione Diletto
è
.
Nel veder l'imagini diletto
subietto
b .
“ a .
.
.,
Ibid fol Passione Diletto
3v :
99
us
;
of
is ,
:
as ,
of
pleasure the images ugly things are things made with imitation pleasure.99 therefore things made with imitation give
of
things give
is
a
us
, .
;
us
of
Things made with imitation are the cause why the images ugly things give pleasure and these are sign their cause that the things made with ugly imitation give pleasure This demonstrated follows The images
;
ci
ci
)
(
525
. "
, le
de le
.
ci è le
,
le
de , de la le
Le
le
immagini cose fatte con imitazione sono causa che cose brutte danno diletto queste sono segno loro causa cio cose fatte con imitazione danno diletto dimo immagini immagini strasi cosi cose brutte danno diletto cose brutte sono cose fatte con imitazione Adunque cose fatte con imitazione danno diletto
POETIC
THEORY
On folio 4 , continuing the same discussion , Giacomini analyzes the syl logistic form of the deduction by which we recognize objects as they are represented by images . After reducing the argument to a syllogism , he says : “ It is in the second figure, and good because it can be converted , the major
...
saying “Whoever has these properties is this example ' or without converting as follows : ' This example alone has these properties .' The middle term will thus be the properties common to the image and to the time were accustomed
as
Such passages to
100
them
these reveal practice textual
on
we
.
in
of
the way which men analysis and commentary
."
the example which alone has
of
all
premiss
as
is
of
,
as he
of
he
.
“
its
).
its
,
of
(
a
4v ,
lengthy discussion On folio find the passage Homer genres the model for the dramatic 1448634 Giacomini here concerned implications When with clarifying the meaning the text terms and dramatically says things Aristotle first that Homer imitated virtuous in
"
if if
simple
if
la
le
is
,
the end fortuneand
the same
of
mutation
affairs
to of
,
it
if
has
a
from the beginning
of
fortune and the state
,
ne
ne
fol .
the agents are on one side
the plot there are two sides contrary and opposed
,
3
,
double
to
)
is
in
one
reversed 100
which
many
simple the agents
fortune
the ways
in
the action
Plot divided according
tabular form
:
reduces
all
to
Giacomini
constituted
{
be
Ou folio plot may
17 ,
. "
102
to
is ,
“
,
byto
is
is
”
101 “ in
.”
"
of
be
his imitations virtuous actions showed the design for Dramatically meaning thus taken the way explained drama and further the formula that introduce persons who act among themselves and who talk with one another means that tragedy
state103
la
à la
,
."
ha
.
l[ e )
il
ò si
et
è
4 : “ ha E
...
la
de
il
le
de
le
4v : “
.
le
101 et à ., lo
ha
.,
puo convertire maggior Ibid seconda figura buono perche queste proprietà quello essemplare dicendo Chiunque senza convertire cosi Quello essemplare solo queste proprietà proprieta comuni mezzo adunque sarà imma essemplare che solo gine tutte Ibid fol Dicendo Aristotile prima che Omero imitò cose virtuose dramatica disegno mente vuole dire che sue imitazioni virtuose azzioni mostrò introdur
persone che
negozino
et
cio
se
...
tra
drama
è
uso
di
fol
a
:4y
102Ibid
.
. ., "
tragedia
parlino
una agenti sono una parte sola favola sono due parti contrarie
et
-se
doppia
)
526
fine stato
uno
. "
lo
cose
è
et
de et à le di la
-se
piegata
stato fortuna medesimo dal principio fortuna mutazione di
fortuna
(
da
-
nimiche semplice la
divide
o
favola
si
" la
-
semplice da gli agenti
ne gli la
molte se
da l'azzione
et se il la ha
fol
.
.,
103Ibid
." 17 :
l'uno con l'altro
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
This is interesting as a synthesis of fairly widely separated passages , and again as an indication of the total approach to the text . In a general way, Giacomini's translation is symptomatic of the lively interest in getting the Poetics into Italian and of the resultant tendencies in
— tendencies toward greater conciseness , toward simpler lan guage , and toward the use of terms more like those of common speech technique
than like those of the philosophers or the Latinists . In a sense , it is unfor tunate that the work was not published , for such later Italian translations as the reprint
on
it
) ;
II,
,
see
of Piccolomini's ( 1575 ) and even such Latin versions as Riccoboni's ( 1579 ) might have been better for having known it . The same manuscript contains a folio ( 39–39v ) immediately following the translation of the Poetics which discusses the meaning of imitation and pages 62–63 may readily the definition of poetry ( above Chapter of
it,
In
.
“
his
to
in
of
.
necessary element
IX ,
a
are
, ”
of
an
in
,
in
.
"
least
—
speech
at
in
falseness
-
,
a
“
of he
of for
to
.
his
a
as
the text
to
of
be
Giacomini displays some literary method He assimilates Aristotle's imitation Plato's mythology and fable and extends the parallel the interpretation three forms indicated each Similarly favola lying found interpretation allows the meaning Plato color poetry Aristotle producing thus definition which lying and taken further note the less admirable aspects
,
of
.
by
of
is
plot
of
is
;
a
is
plot Dante's Commedia not Therefore Dante's Commedia not
a
is a
Every poem
which for present purposes
;
in
to
is
the Discorso
form
:
Castravilla's first argument reduced the following
,
.
of
to
his
is
.
the activities the same Accademia degli Alterati Parere intorno alla risposta del primo argomento del Castravilla.104 Here again the materials are purely theoretical and relate directly the interpretation the Poetics For Bonciani intent upon disproving
It to
the same year and
to a
,
,
Another Florentine manuscript Magl 125 the Biblioteca Nazionale folios 23-26 contains document Francesco Bonciani which belongs
poem.los ,
as
of
in
),
(
1952
253–54
.
fauola
."
Poema
of
the poem not predicated
as ,
it is
)
but
.
III
,
è
)
...
è
as
or di
Dante non
(
be
(1 ) :
.”
is as a its
or
",
Comedia
527
predicated
terms predicated
form
Rinascimento
fauola Dante non
Plot cannot
di
la
La Commedia Adunque
to
(
...
form
use the proper
material è 23 :
.
,
“
,
“
See my Nuove Attribuzioni 105MS BNF Magl IX 125 fol Ogni Poema .
,
,
.
or as
”
“
be its
as to
material
be
is
If
the plot said predicated either must 104
plot
Every poem
a
“
the statement
poem either
it
of
of
,
in
a
The rebuttal involves close analysis they both terms poem and plot appear Aristotle and hence some fundamental questions about the total meaning the Poetics Bonciani offers three arguments refutation
POETIC
THEORY
material because then the comparison of Aristotle ( who says that the plot is the soul of tragedy ) , derived from a substituted proportion , would be bad . The soul is not the material of the animal, hence neither is the plot the material of
...
the poem . [ Nor can it be predicated as the form :) because the form is not predi cated substantively but rather by denomination . . . . Just as we cannot say that the animal is a soul , so we cannot say that the poem is a plot.106
is
if
, “
the
”
Bonciani
poems which are not
plot whence
is
and there imitation there the following argument every plot
imitations
greater part
some kinds
,
of
no
“
the phrase
From this use
deduces that there are some parts
an is no of
are imitations . "
of
107
In this argument , the same kind of logical analysis used by Giacomini is again applied . (2) The second argument depends upon a translation of 1447a13 — a bad translation — which Bonciani renders thus : “ The epic , tragedy , comedy , dithyrambic poetry , and the greater part ( la maggior parte ] of the poetry fitted to zithers and to flutes agree in this , that they
con
It
called poets
“
,
meaning that those who use verse alone without .
be as
,
,
)
may also
imitation
seems then that Aristotle admits
,
)
is
it
;
110
.
of
,
(
by
to
he
In
be
to
.”
109
;
he
if
di
a
to
,
a
,
to
a
be
poet even called does not imitate therefore not plot contrary the last two argu the proposition shaky and ments especially Bonciani's Aristotelianism seems surely does not contribute better understanding the text Bongianni Gratarolo's Difesa Dante undated but ca. 1573 relates again the controversy started Castravilla but more concerned is
that one may every poem
,
to
3
(
.
interprets
he
which
or
,
;
of
is
108
."
is a
,
:
is
imitation some poems are not imitations therefore some poems are not plots rather not plot every poem This the contradictory Castravilla's original proposition For his third argument Bonciani refers Poetics 1447613 stituted
.
of
contemptu
he
)
.
.
6528
per parlare
refers
co '
Se la
MS Vat Lat
(
in
the manuscript
, . ò la si 25 : “
106
Fairly early
a
in
,
,
of
its
of
.
a
than was Bonciani's Parere with answering specific objections and making detailed defence Some answers involve denying the authority Aristotle upon which Castravilla had based his attack and Gratarolo general question about the worth finds his best denial the Poetics
termini proprij predi )
la
,
si
la
'
è
,
si
è
si
.
la
.
,
in
et la
la
, et la
dithyrambica maggior commedia questo che sono alle tibie conuengono
"
.
.,
...
è se
.
108
epopeia tragedia Ibid fol parte della poesia accomodata alle cithare imitatione
,
è
...
, la ."
25 : “ la
il
è
,
la
)
ne
,
in
107 si
...
...
...
(
, à ò (
si
la
,
.,
Ibid fols 24v fauola debbe dire predica care del Poema debbe predicare come materia come forma ma non comparatione d'Aristotele come materia perche cattiua sarebbe che dice fauola essere l'anima della tragedia cauata dalla proportione commutata l'anima non materia dell perche predica animale adunque anco fauola materia del Poema forma non puo dire l'animale sustantivo ma denominatiuamente come non anima cosi puo dire Fauola Poema non
)
(
528
,
.
,
77 , n . 4;
."
si
,
."
,
è
è
.
.
pp 841-42
), .p
, è
di
,
(
, et
,
26 : “ , o
.
è
,
: " e
.
.,
.,
,
109
ogni
si
non u'è imitatione non u'è fauola perche constituisce questo qualche Poema non adunque qualche fauola imitatione imitatione uogliam dire Non ogni Poema Poema non fauola fauola possa chiamare Ibid fol Pare adunque che Aristotele ammetta che uno pero non ogni Poema Pceta ancorche non imiti fauola contra alla Propositione 110See M. Rossi Filippo Sasserti Città Castello 1899 also below chap xvi
fol 25v
Ibid argomento
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES paper - spoiler of Aristotle's 90 ).
fol .
: “
a
this
is
that
of
confess
,
its
by
,
Later Aristotelians not work in
of
the many poetical matters
literally
on
,
because
it
it
,
in
leaves doubt we cannot follow those that does He himself makes only one important theoretical statement which reducing poetry consists two basic types tragic and comic the perfectly clear says would possessed the whole reduction
it
that
the Poetics and asserts that
of
.”
of
ness
in
)
in
,
,
to
ili
( in
he
as
reduced
all to a
author but merely notes which put down things they came him order treat them fully later with surpasses his usual orderliness which others some perfect book Gratarolo offers historical and literary proofs the incomplete to
perfection
set
his
in
your Castelvetro
and especially
also
Poetics " he
note - taker and
little
" that
( “ quel Notaiolo , o sfogliaccio della poetica d'Arist. ,” complete statement defends remark Other universal
a
ously to
he
POETICS :
;
to of
if
we
,
to
be
,
he
,
in
all
.
,
treat
as
of
.
of
Aristotle's treatise The raising one's voice against Aristotle was increasingly frequent become the great literary quarrels the century
1573
Still related same period
to
excitement
the is
the initial flush
–
these were the years
of of
the same controversy and belonging approximately
of
—
)
(
SASSETTI CA.
to
.
developed
found MS VII 1028 the Biblioteca Aristotelian document several ways first because essential organization follows the order Aristotle's qualitative parts second because beginning long dis presents the ,
of
,
in
an
,
is
Florence.112
a
of
of
,
it
at
its
,
in
Sopra Dante
Sassetti's
Nazionale
It
Filippo
be
of
the circumstances
to
,
of
,
be
adapted
present time and what modifications must
to of
a
.
,
it
in
how Aristotle's theories may
see
a
.
in
cussion theoretical matters found the Poetics The examination the Divina Commedia comes only later Moreover the discussion has remark practical point attempts from able feature that kind view the
made when one passes from is
;
a
in
.
he
,
of
of
in
. In
,
of
his
of
,
is
at
all
.
-
;
is
his
-
to
fifth century Greece sixteenth century Italy Aristotle the master although teaching not correctly understood times Plato called upon for certain ideas but Horace has disappeared poetry which results particular Sassetti really has own theory interpretation many places general the Poetics believes that
it
poetry because ultimately
:
to
is
—
is
—
end within the art
of
an
say
111
I
“
—
,
the art has two ends one them internal this the imitation human actions the other external this the moral usefulness the audience seeks the profit
.
. "
57
)
.
,
n .
di ;
see above Opuscoli Danteschi the date see Rossi Filippo ,
On
37–118
.
pp .
in
le
529
)
(
),
1897
the 1576 edition the Collezione
(3 in
, .p )
by
,
-
Vols XL XLI
, o .p , 19 , n . .6 .
rari
in
to
112
inediti Sassetti
gli
à
è
( ne
is
(
co '
to
Florence
The reference Castelvetro the Poetica The treatise was published Mario Rossi
il
, e
: “
.
,
, .
un
.
specialmente MS Vat Lat 6528 fol 92v anco degli altri Aristotelici catolici opera ridotta perfettione dall'Authore uostro casteluetro confessano ch'ella non ma solamente memoriale nel quale esso metteua giu cose secondo che soueniuano per quali soprauanzaua tutti distenderle poi suoi ordini soliti alcun libro perfetto
POETIC
THEORY
the human species and this is , we might say , the ultimate end which terminates, as in a thing outside the poet's work , in the soul of the readers or of the listeners who are the end to which this utility is ordered . " The poet's end thus succinctly stated imitation for profit imitare
a
lo
(“
”
not the Horatian end
In
is
noted that this
to to
should
be
be
It
.
.
fol
2v )
“
is ”, is
giouamento
-pleasure
as
113
of
.
.
at
of
to
114 “
“
,
,
.
of
of
by
of
,
,
so , at
on
;
,
he
—
omitted but one which seems Sassetti's own this connection Sassetti makes his first adaptation modern times The utili says will vary according tarian end the needs different peoples different times carnival comedies and masquerades are presented holy days one sees representations and the Passion The poet then serves different ends the choice different objects now grave actions "
."
,
of
it
is
in
”
“
light
,
,
of
high marvelousness now light ones worthy jests Grave are not absolute qualities the object however since Sassetti magnified thinks that each the direction that takes away from the and full
and
grave actions are made more grave low ones more humble and This sense constitutes one kind imitation the second kind residing day Sassetti believes that every such actions one sees done Italy practised the former kind still and cites Alamanni's Avarchide example example better actions and Pulci's Morgante any the worse unable however discover case imitations the finally Sassetti thinks that one like With respect the better
,
.
of
of
of
as
an
he
,
, ”
,
of of
“
,
in
us
his
,
and celebrated a
115 —
century
”
the present
whose ancient times more virtuous than those interpretation passage which gives
seek such characters as
of
,
necessity must almost always magnified men are
“
to
,
, to
“
"
of
he is
.”
"
;
as
an
is
in
in
as
a
in
.
of
,
;
middle
abject
of
.
Poetics 1448a18
of
of
in
a
to
.
,
as
,
,
we
so
;
is
so
,
fol .
,
but rather
all
,
in
be
,
to
of
us
let
in
in
,
a
In
,
.
di
e
le
di
."
o
il
il
si
de
è
e
all
2v : “
,
e
fol
1028 profitto
è in il
. 3 a : “
si
il
.,
Ibid
war
dico fine dentro arte della poesia percioche egli ulti questo fine vltimo come dice del genere humano degli ascoltanti lettori cosa fuori dell opera del poeta nell anima 55 ordinata quella vtilità degne leggieri piene alta marauiglia hora hora attioni graui
,
MS BNF VII
ricerca mamente quale termina come cuj che sono fine 115. 114 "
...
the heroes there come now only men valorous
instead 113
,
is
of
of to
superior
...
the mind that today the place the heroes should not illustrious lineage who are renowned war but wishing take the change generally those who through their virtue are far and away led into thinking that not word virtuous men
of of
put those cognizance
,
is
if
disposition
in
perfection exceeds heroic virtue virtue generally considered which commonly found we must believe that just extraordinary strength extraordinary prudence and the same for every other heroic virtue also
Now
that which is a
we
of or of
;
is to
Similar considerations lead Sassetti's redefinition the epic hero for modern times and since this done terms virtue rather than position military prowess proper are suddenly brought back reading tragic Aristotle on the hero
sono sempre magnificati
530
)
(
."
quali
e
de '
gl
.
fol huomini quegli del secolo presente
di .,
Ibid
uirtuosi
3v : "
beffe
celebrati come piu
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES those who through their virtue , whatever it may be , are greatly admired by other virtuous men .116
The same may
for the epic action
be said
For
.
tragedy presents
whereas
(
such heroes
as to ,
;
to
have been done
117
). "
,
,
,
those which the ancients supposed Achilles Ulysses Hector Aeneas
by
to
"
to
in
no
4 ),
of
fol .
actions " which happen every day to the human race " ( " che auuengono tutto giorno al genere humano , ” the epic seems treat only war longer occur but since heroic deeds the kind treated ancient epics we need find men who could properly accomplish actions similar
its
in
is
,
a
proper pleasurable effects
.
Two
of
of
show how plot may achieve predominant that be
to
tend
of
of
to
say about action and plot Almost everything that Sassetti has commentary on Aristotle and most the clarifications
the nature
an
on
it
is
is at
it
to it ,
118
. "
is
he
,
;
of
so
:
probable proposition
to
in
or of
or of
of all
.
of
,
is
verisimilar that order know the nature the know that the probable Those things are probable agreement with the opinion men most the wisest
necessary
to
latter
it is
to
A
be obtained
in
to
: “ if
.
is
:
to
verisimilitude and that the mar velous The first essential one were recount simply action which any did not bear credence with those who listened would not poetry's effect way move their soul which this Sassetti insists explains what verisimilitude and how various places ultimately ideas seem
...
,
,
in
.
is
It
of
,
in
in
of
is
so
in
which are that truth no concern this matter verisimilitude indeed true that probability and consequently false things are lacking verisimilitude when is
.
these change
,
se
4v a 5 : "
,
as
necessary that
it is
di
,
il
da
; si e
.
si
,
di
di
in
...
la
e
sia in la si
,
è
.
.,
il
,
Hora virtu eroica uirtu generalmente considerata che quella che uulgarmente ritroua stimar dee che sicome soura dogni altro habito eroica uirtu cosi ancora sourastante prudenza luogo degli heroj non maniera tale che hoggi douranno porre sangue illustre sono nome nella guerra ma uolendo rendere cambio
Ibid fols perfettione sourasta stantc fortezza somigliante noj coloro che
119 the probable should also change.1
la
116
of
,
,
.
by
is
to
accompany them ever impossibility made The probable not determined the possible because there are many possible things which are not probable absolutely Since then verisimilitude depends upon the opinions men
...
gl
.
sia
da
4v : "
fol .
118 117
."
si
la
in
ci
ad
la
di
generalmente coloro che per gran lunga uirtu loro sourastanno agl huominj virtuosi luogo degli eroi succedano solamente ensomma non lasciamo dare intendere che huominj nella guerra ualorosi ma tutti coloro che per uirtu loro qualunque ella sono dagl'altri uirtuosi grandemente ammirati
119 ."
.'
'
da
di
gl
à
di
"
. 5 :
.,
a
.,
percio habbiamo bisogno quali stieno bene Ibid trouare huominj quelle somiglianti che que tali essere adoperate attioni antichi fingeuano essere fatte Ibid fol chi raccontasse semplicemente una cosa laquale non hauesse credenza appresso coloro che lascoltano ella niente mouerebbe lanimo loro che leffetto della poesia
è
le
la
in
de
di
si
...
in
e
.
de
o
di
.
le
la
di
è
: “
.
.,
Ibid fol 10v Verisimile una propositione probabile maniera che per sapere quali sono natura desso bisogna sapere quella del probabile probabili sono quelle cose piu.o piu saggi questo affare secondo l'oppenione tutti maniera che uerita del uerisimile non adopera cosa nessuna egli ben vero che cose false mancano del proba compagnia loro aggiunga limpossi bile conseguentemente del verisimile ogni uolta che
. "
il
si
il
si
531
)
di
...
(
si
è al
le
.
bilità non determina giail probabile dal possibile conciosia cosa che molte cose sieno possibili quali probabili non sono stando adunque uerisimile con loppenione degl probabile huomini egli tutto mestieri che secondo che esse mutano muti ancora
POETIC
THEORY
The last sentence transports us again into modern times ; just as the super stitions of antiquity have been replaced by the teachings and precepts of Christianity , so the notion of what will be probable and verisimilar in poetry is affected by this change . Again , if what is verisimilar lies within the bounds of credibility , the marvelous lies beyond them . Sassetti dis latter largely in connection with the complex plot , which , because it contains recognition and reversal , is more apt than the simple plot to make the audience marvel . Simple plots place before our eyes only such things as anyone might readily imagine to have happened ; in complex plots , the human intellect is led to expect one event , but another happens cusses
the
of pleasure , “because marvelous things as such pleasing ” ( perche le cose marauigliose come tali sono gioconde , ”
instead . This is a source are
fol.
The need for these features of plot is more urgent in tragedy than in of the epic are such as to facilitate
6 ).
the epic , since the general conditions the achievement of the marvelous :
For
to a small action and to one place where it
[ tragedies ) are limited
these
must happen , whereas the epic plot is longer and spreads out over more territory and embraces various sites and places where it occurs ; and since it must be nar rated and not acted it carries with it greater possibility of moving the passions ,
us
that circumstances which permit the credibility that the verisi the kind
of
to
be
to
The conclusion would seem disguised give marvelous
it
to
be
-
as
of it
is
—
in it it is
its
and of appearing marvelous , because what has really happened , even a thing power when in itself , will lose none of recounted whereas when acted since the imitation cannot take place without great likeli being recognized hood false clearly the deed will leave cold.120 marvelous
is
,
it
(e
is
of in of
.
of
”
xcept
of
,
Aristotle's
e
et
si
e a
e
a
dessere falso
ognosciuto
manifestamente
:
euidenza
."
tano
)
1532
un
da
circonscriue dalla continouatione dun medesimo negotio come qualunche cosa opure una guerra tratta fine valoroso capi a
acquisto
un
."
fol
Sv : “ di si
Ibid viaggio
.
121 ) , il . , un
,
limitatione senon con grandissima fatto cadra nel freddo added
(c
;
se
e
e
e
, “ la
. 6 :
.,
ha si la
piccola attione luogo doue determinano piu per costa sua fauola piu lunga distende luoghi doue ella accaggia abbraccia diuersi siti douendo essere raccontata non rappre mostrarsi marauigliosa conciosia cosa sentata apporta seco maggior facilita nel muouere marauigliosa nell essere raccontato non che quello che ueramente sara accaduto cosa per perdera niente della sua forza doue che nell essere rappresentato per non hauerui luogo Ibid fol ella debba seguire
auuenga che esse doue lepopeia
."
conclusion
some thing
121
acquisition valorous captain
voyage
of
...
by
of
: “
he
its ,
a
war carried
unities
un
120
even
stated
the extent that Castelvetro had loose after excluding the actions the continuation circumscribed
them
action
one and the same affair such
to
or of
,
.
of
unity done His notion one person clarifies thus
call them
an
nor does
emphasize
time
;
),
action
he
.
Aristotle's terms But nowhere does
unity
of
the
“
place
,
of
unity
as a it is is ; by to he a
include
to
action
a
,
In
as
;
it
be
presented forthright milar has but when must best presented through such acceptable devices recognition and reversal the last passage cited Sassetti extends the principle the unity
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
and of inner determination are lacking , as they are in contemporaries . He has some difficulty in deciding to what Sassetti's poem plot are consubstantial — this was an issue much and the extent the
of
ideas
causality
5 ).
fol .
debated in the current controversy over Dante — and he concludes that they are not ; plot is argument , the bare action summarized in a few words , to which must be added the episodes if one is to have the whole poem (
of
a
.
:
,
all
,
,
is
of
insists
the plot and that this
he
is
,
such looseness
he
of
In
firmly that the important part tragedy As result particularly true forget condemns those who like Seneca that they are poets and become rhetoricians the danger that threatens epic poets above others spite
any poem
up
,
of
its
as
122
).
to
,
by
to or
— .
of
on
in
a
in
to
.
what those judgments were
see
later
.
shall
,
,
of
Aristotle
we
.
dramatic manner This leads some confusion the however the major guide the judgments
Elsewhere ;
he
,
of
the term is
is
the matter imitation He imitation with the Aristotelian concept replaces the latter the former and imitation here comes
have the meaning
Dante context
to
at
is
Sassetti's one extensive call upon Plato
use
,
in
these sententiae
on
after the truth
conflates Plato's notion rather
,
of
of
it
,
a
in
the mind running
(
object
as
,
if
do
a
in
all
... since their affair consists work words they come resemble orators they have fine actions more than dramatic poets who hand spend their time uttering many sententiae Seneca did his tragedies and they cover proper the main action such way that disappears and not considered
1574
)
(
DEL BENE
,
:
on
,
,
of
,
IX ,
.
.
in
in
is
,
,
è
to
passions.123 imitate actions rather than characters One the discourses Giulio Del Bene's Che egli necessario l'esser poeta preserved imitare actioni MS Magl 137 folios 69-80r the Biblioteca Nazionale Florence The debate arose for two reasons first
of
the need for the poet
to à or a
,
,
of
in
in
Early 1574 the Accademia degli Alterati which figures prominently the literary life these years devoted several sessions debate over
,
;
of
it
if
by
is
as
or
,
as
:
is
to
all
in
is
it
at he
.
of
,
is
.
or
a
be a
,
,
,
,
Aristotle declared that the three objects passion action character and were equally important second because might poem poem even others declared that still imitated only passion Del Bene's stand character clear the only essential object imitation action and essential forms lyric well narrative say and dramatic Most paraphrase what has direct quotation because some commentators
122
to
.
on
,
of
interpretative remarks His wil the Poetics accompanied times lingness rely the Poetics stems from his admiration for Aristotle and ad
e
533
]
[
."
letteraria
",
discussione
.
),
(
“
di
Argomenti See my Italiana CXXXI 1954 180 ,
è
e
al
di
123
se e
i
di
in
il
in
e
in
i
: "
.
.,
opera Ibid fol 24v parole uengono consistendo tutto caso loro assomi gliarsi piu agl oratori che rappresentatiuj poeti non fanno quali hanno belle attionj s'occupano proferire molte sentenze come Seneca fece nelle sue tragedie alle mani ricuoprono lattione principale guisa che ella sparisce non considerata correndo l'intel quelle sentenze come letto dietro alla verita proprio oggetto suo Giornale
Storico
della Letteratura
POETIC
THEORY
his conception
,
124 of ]
his time
less good
."
in
.
-
be
]
as a
philosopher Aristotle was The double reference poet increasingly important the model will the later
[
a
to as
to he
poet than nature and Renaissance
[
of
it
in
principally sidered the poems that had been written the best and the most perfect which were those Homer
,
all
,
its
up no to he
of his method , "since he not only drew the precepts of the nature , as an admirable observer of secrets but also con
of
art out
to
to
(
“
e
,
as
,
of ,
is
to
.
of
is
simple and for the most part remains close Del Bene's argument poetry that pleasure but limited the Poetics He sees the end the special pleasure which proper poem quella delettatione quale each
“
:
a
in , is it
;
“
”
of
his
,
byall
and the delights and the purgations which poems produce upon the plot and the actions which are contained and which the poet achieves end The marvelous most
beauties depend means
,
is
as
,
to
,
—
).
.
it
-
, to ”
propria del poema fol 71v Three elements beauty purgation and the pleasure although this marvelous seem contribute not clearly stated and we must derive from such passages the following All the
in it
at
is
,
it
action and actions and
plot
126 be :
of
of of ;
it
. "
125
at
in
an
of
is
be a
in
“
Hence the inevitability nothing but the imitation poet only order
be
pleasure and poem Poetry truth will necessary for the poet
.
no
,
,
of
,
to
;
of
,
of
beyond the ex beautiful part the poem when something happens pectations things the listener for men marvel new and those con trary their opinion and they take pleasure them The main source pleasure however the imitation action without there no will
we
Plato and ;
72v
)
(
and the kinds thing but
of of fol .
,
in
it
as
"
,
fiction
had
this way
of
are consequently restricted
"
the overtones
in
,
he
of
some
of
be
a
of
takes
dramatic representation imitating only when writes
mean
to
on
plot
”
“
is
former comes the poet said
to
.
,
,
."
to
,
to
of
,
in
imitate actions These statements lose some their clarity however when discover what meanings Del Bene associates both with imitation and with plot The
action in
,
';
essa tratti
principal
piu perfetti
."
, et i
purga
et
(
in to " le si
si
et
i
,
,
al
et li
,
et i
,
le
71 : “
.
.,
125i
fu
i
in
,
.
,
.
quale hauendo non solo precetti 137 fol come speculatore mirabile suoi secreti ma anchora hauendo migliori mente considerato tutti poemi che furono fino suo tempo fra quali homero non meno buono poeta che egli filosofo fosse purgamenti Ibid fol tutte bellezze diletti corrected poesie tutte dependono dalla fauola dalle actioni che tioni che fanno dalla natura
cio di
.”
,
,
71 : " de il
MS BNF Magl
IX ,
is
'
,
,
no
or
124
of
;
: “
every kind Not those actions which are not true but verisimilar and because these are made favola and therefore this way being feigned they merit the name poetic little difference found between imitation fiction and plot 127
al
;
et
.
.
."
di le
la
di
si
et
di
chi
in
di
73 : “
.
";
il
il
le
.
70 : " . "
70 : "
127
.,
ne
et
,
gli
è
lo
,
et
'' )
le
con poeta consegue quali Bellissima parte suo fine and fol mediante della poesia ammirabile quando essa qualcosa fuori della espettatione lascolta marauigliono fuori della loro opinione huomini delle cose nuoue adiuiene perche pigliono diletto poesia che imitatione actioni altro ueramente non sara 126Ibid fol poeta sara necessario solo per esser poeta actioni Cf. fol 69v imitare tengono
essa
)
(
534
, et
."
il
et la
la
, la
,
,
,
Et
.
et
si
a
;
.,
quelle actioni che uere non sono ma Ibid fol non dogni sorte cosa ma però questa per esser cosi fatte sendo finte meritono nome della fauola uerisimili fauola poca fintione imitatione poetica ritroua fra nulla differentia
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
re
the
;
in
"
"
are
the
the
,
all
We find thus that a poem is an imitation , an invitation is a dramatic representation of a plot , a plot is an unreal but probable action . This goes poenis including the less perfect ones found for the lyric genres (
”
...
at
necessity
as it he
as
“
dithyrambthe kind
the
required
:
restricted
which springs from character will
of -
in
of
in
be
”
“
“
is
),
to
made
be
the statement
is
as
;
“
." of
is
exclusively poet difference that latter narrative counting the actions men whereas the epic mixed and tragedy and comedy are dramatic All are alike that their actions must once although marvelous and verisimilar we may suppose that all them feigns and describes
,
128
. "
of
be ,
by
)
(
they were but and imitates them actions not was necessary that being done they should Del Bene shows how ancient such men pastoral eclogues really did imitate actions and lyric poets and writers
all
,
,
a
.
all
.
in
so
,
of
)
is
in
(
a
in
of
In
).
he
(
of
)
of
incidental defence and acting and
(
of
an
Dante who constantly introduced people multiple Ariosto even though his action way genre and Petrarch who imitated actions different each that practised the light these convictions Del Bene contradicts certain general Not only are poets necessarily common notions about the arts painter for say imitators actions but are other artists To that makes
speaking
be
,
,
is
1574
, a
,
fols 47-58
lecture
et
non contenere mali .129 The subject being what
)
.
137
,
.
the Alterati
before
comedia vuole esser honesta
IX ,
favola
MS BNF Magl
he (
costumi
Bene also delivered
la
Che
v
Giulio Del entitled
in
.
the poet imitates them de la
depicts them
,
.
,
or
example imitates characters passions nonsense for the latter can only through imitated action The historian narrates actions the painter
he
,
of
As
,
,
as
as
(
.
to
.
of
on
of
on
by
)
be
to its
of
by
,
in
was led much farther afield than
of
,
it
the other lecture not only into proposed poetry consideration the ends for Horace and Plato but also into reflections poetry and the nature man both the object audience and the nature art Throughout however matters seem decided reference poetry man pro the Poetics the object was
and the epic
,
of
.
,
,
is
to
of
is
.
is
of
,
vides more actions and characters for comedy than does for tragedy and the epic for low and ordinary men are more numerous than exalted and extraordinary ones This the way nature which creates more frequently what commonplace than what rare and excellent Hence comedy study many fewer there are many more examples tragedy
if
“
dis
."
, et le
et
,
non quali furono ma quale era necessario che elle fussero sendo finge descriue imita .
129See note 123 above
)
(
535
di
,
no to
to of
he
because for the most part men are ashamed
of
is
,
to
;
.
,
.
is
to
,
74 : "
.
fol
cotali huomini
le
Ibid
.,
128
,
accusation and shame
,
,
of
).
.
is
(
is
,
is to
poetry however man seems fols 47-47v As the audience demand what rare and excellent He prefers what beautiful what ugly what honest what plea dishonest Indeed can derive comedy sure from the morally ugly and reprehensible the actions laughter but rather they were dishonest would not move disdain and
POETIC
dis
“ a
,
again 131
honest things as badly done and by vicious persons . "
Or
1.30
THEORY
action does not produce joy but hatred and shame Our first please their conclusion then that morally dishonest actions will fail specifically because audience nature audience Similar generalizations result from Del Bene's thoughts the nature perfected art He sees first device which nature device imitate nature and render quella more perfect imitare natura piu perfetta rendere fol this means that whatever the subject superior degree For the matter humble exalted art will depict
of to
“
a
,
et
"
la
is
, on
.
an
as
its
it
be
.
it
in a
;
,
is
,
he
,
do
so
all
:
.
does
55 ).
.
(
in
”
it
he
what
in
dom choice historian
pre
fol Moreover the artist this way for has complete free This distinguishes the poet from the
exquisite
et
,
,
in
he
means that even common objects will
does not treat nature
of
if
blame
48 )
.
, "
or
,
“
sented
to
hand comedy estremo grado
at
subject
("
as a
it
.
by
,
of
is
.
to "
,
honest
,
to
,
to
he is
by
is
by
,
his
striving for perfection its
so
:
in
,
in
The free choice the poet connection with further emphasized this passage
is
is
as
is
to
of
,
,
honest and virtue most delightful thing
in to
,
has the choice and art and nature driven what follow always what best the most useful and the achieve his end.132 order best
to
whence
it
as as
or
to
he
as
,
;
been
is
And the more must the poet this than the historian that the latter really constrained they happened according recount actions just the truth they should have been the former verisimilar that they must have
a
freedom
to
,
its
to
,
is
of
133
the
?
take the one and the other
,
is
as
of
,
so an
,
we
,
of
poetry subject not through And since this art excellent operates upon necessity but through choice shall believe that artist being able select honest subject and one which concerns honest actions will choose among great subjects comedy rather one which multitude are those dishonest and dishonorable than one which honest and gentle having the
of
he
,
he :
;
si
lo
,
a
,
,
da ,
il
,
il
lo
."
et
.”
,
ha
pur costretto
le
fol
persone uitiose come cose mal fatte uergogna dishonesta non partorisce allegrezza ma odio poeta che tanto maggiormente debbe far questo Historico che raccontare actioni qualli elleno sono state secondo uero quelli
55v 54v
e
uergognino
da
.
if
he
its
, , et . å 53 : "
se fussero dishoneste non mouerieno riso ma uergogna auuenga che delle cose dishoneste per piu
137 fol riprensione
: : " “ à E la ò
., .,
è
questi
Ibid Ibid
.
huomini
et a
sdegno
IX ,
MS BNF Magl si fol .
gli 132131
bene
a
130
,
to
,
by
.
of
of
is
ultimately preferred will depend upon poet's concep What subject tion the end his art Here has two alternatives He may think the ends proposed Horace pleasure and utility does will have subject opposite would neither teach the right choose the honest for
, et
la
il
."
il
, a
e
,
, è et
un
Et
: “
.
133
., et
a
et
quali doueuono essere quali uerisimile che esser debbino onde egli eletione spinto seguire sempre meglio come cosa larte dalla natura l'honesto alla uirtu piu utile piu diletteuole per meglio conseguire suo fine questa arte tanto excellente della poesia non per necessita ma per Ibid fol 48v
? ”
)
(
536
et
)
(
, et
in
sia
)
et
di
in
(
di
et
,
di
eletione operando nel suggetto crederremo noi che potendo eleggersi lartefice essa suggetto honesto per scerne honeste ationi egli cosi gran multitudine come son quelli della comedia piutosto uituperoso che uno honesto gentile uno dishonesto pigliare luno sendo suo arbitrio laltro
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
.
,
.
for the audience will find an
by
.
is
in
,
of
by
,
by
, to
by
of
to
only the honest subject will achieve these ends basically immoral pleasure what no
Or
to
,
to
of
,
is
of
).
fol .
moral lessons nor ( given the nature of man ) afford any real pleasure teaching ( 51v The end show men good mores and induce emu constantly repeated through Del Bene's pages lation them the poet may think the audience Aristotle the moving the ends proposed pity and fear tragedy laughter and contentment comedy Again
,
,
we
. he
;
of
.
,
,
in
of
Difficulties and doubts about these matters are solved artistic consideration the way which the poet interprets Aristotle's grouping moral characters There are three groups the high the middle and the comedy But low the low contains the personages would err gravely it,
in
to
be
. "
of
'
'
in
,
of
, “
;
,
be in
since
of
of
tragedy are actions
,
of
with vice
"
lowness
"
equate
ing that the actions
of
to
say himself interprets comedy illustrious men those family and not vicious men but men who are humble and low intellectual capacity not meaning the worst through some vice that might them but through the low and base concepts their mind 134 were we
in
) ;
,
—
to
”
“ 56 )
”
fol .
“
in
(
to
be
”
of
;
;
comedy must end happily produce the desired effect properly complicated and fol .
of be to
to
he
if
,
a
but
:
be
on
in
the audience the action happy ending for wicked people fails hence the poet wishes his plot and contentment
.
(
,
by
,
,
.
of
,
vice dishonesty wickedness Such characters are plot and moreover the artistic demands for the handling plot may character The argument stated thus To produce joy ,
ugliness
excluded
,
of
of
“
of
of
he
appealed Another passage from Aristotle may also here the one distinguishes the four requisites which character Poetics 1454a15 the requisite goodness every must taken mean moral goodness honesty including comedy— poem the exclusion and virtue kind
to is
If of
is
on an
.
as 50 )
fol .
(
to
,
in
,
do
in
is
54 ).
(
be
55 ).
(
fol .
),
to
'
,
(
,
of
must avoid the inclusion wicked people this un avoidable e.g. Aeneas Dido such persons must admitted only the episodes and not the central plot Corroboration this thesis found the fact that when poets actually introduce bad characters they always punish them the denouement thus creating effect differ comedy ent from that proper The argument character resolved
of
of
in
)55 .
.
of
is
It
(
an
,
of
:
as
all
poets imitate men not they are but they should be Since Ulysses prudence strength Achilles represents the perfect Idea improvement upon nature character must show the direction virtue and honesty fol only when these artistic conditions are met that dramatic works
similar
order
to
the listeners
, in
of
in
the breasts
lui
49 : "
arouses fear and pity fol .
134
... tragedy
pos
:
of
.
,
purgation achieve the end which they seek Del Bene offers several this effect sible interpretations
liber
)
di et
di
i
et
;
,
di
,
i
."
537
(
.,
,
.
di
et
,
interpretandolo queste della Tragedia ationi stesso dicendo quelle della comedia non sangue huomini uitiosi ma humili bassi peggiori per alcuno uitio ch'in loro sia ma per intelletto non intendendo bassi uili concetti d'animo Ibid huomini illustri
POETIC
THEORY
...
ate and purge them
of these same passions of fear and pity . it seems that the the comic poet is to delight and to move to laughter and gaiety in
of
end
...
order to purge them of the pleasure that they take in similar low actions and of the laughter that necessarily arises from them ; or perhaps in order to purge them through the laughter and the pleasure that they feel in comic actions , so that when later they see or hear other real ones of the same kind , they will no longer be moved to laughter or take delight in them.135
of
of
the Poetics
in
Bene's theory goes beyond that
of
,
,
its
The poet who violates these moral and artistic requirements by treating wicked persons - especially if he treat them publicly on the stage - should by Plato . In totality then Del suffer the banishment recommended
in the
seeking elsewhere
)
.
to
as
to
,
to it
;
in
to an in
the Poetics
terms
treat
a
to
an attempt
the same critical system
.
genre not mentioned Bonciani proceeds
of
which we have already seen several examples
,
.
of
the same year the same academy heard Francesco Bonciani's Lezione comporre delle novelle This was the kind Aristotelian exercise
il
In of
sopra
in
nature man the nature art the principles upon which the poet works but returns Aristotle for such artistic recommendations will enable him make poems conforming those same principles
of of
of
,
in
.
a
, in
.
he
in
so
as
his
as
.
,
to
he
as
in
orderly fashion following Aristotle's text quite closely attempts discover the particular rules and precepts the novella And just Aristotle had appealed constantly the practice principal model Certain Homer Bonciani uses Boccaccio general color the way Bonciani's presuppositions about poetry which treats the short story He turns Aristotle's statement about the delight found imitation into statement that imitation removes the pain from to
be
,
distinguish
162
This view will later determine
man's life and allows him
pleasures
false
).
and
( .p
true
of
learning relieves the ills tween
of
"
"
).
I
.pp
(
to by
it
to
,
as
as
so
is
;
of
annoy purgation since man's life Bonciani's understanding full literary their end works the novella will have ances and troubles such joy say literary works drive out sorrow and replace 183-84 ;
in
as
be
,
is
to
he
,
.
in
"
an
to
it
which verse
is
poetry
definition
in (
he
of of its
at a
arrive
,
as a
,
is
,
we
Hence
perhaps
ne
135
” ).
ment
he
its of
in
.
of
of
it is
,
classify the novella poetry for the advisedly since Bonciani refuses simple reason that prose All poetry says must verse the best interpreters Aristotle give the word Nóyos the exclusive meaning the verse Furthermore far from accepting the theory that imitation part resid poetry genus declares that poetry contains imitation argu ing plot which the summation action likens
)
di
ne le di
,
et
,
a
...
.
a di
et et
si
,
il
ò
è
(
,
si
, il
il
)
538
da , et
la
et
et
in
,
. o
et
rallegrino
."
,
si
da
,
la
: "
.
.,
...
il
.
petti delli auditori tragedia muoue timore misericordia Ibid fol 55v questi medesimi affetti purgarli miseri timore per questi medesimi liberare allegrezza pare che riso dilettare mouere fine del poeta comico sia cordia piglia esse necessaria del riso che per purgarli del diletto che similſi ationi uili piacere che essi sentono per per ationi riso forse perche purghino per mente nasce esse riso mouino udendo non piu altre poi ueramente ueggendone comiche
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
he
of
,
he its
as ,
of
another and the refined distinctions which makes literary works the novella human actions But the men who perform these actions are either virtuous vicious and virtue depicted either supreme degree vice may
of
,
or
.
,
a
:
a
or in
is
seen that people usually maintain
certain middle ground
, ( in SO in
well
vice and that nevertheless our mind can conceive the Idea ,
as
But because virtue
as it in is
as it
be
or
,
is of
,
,
as
of
.
obscure the issue The general object well the epic tragedy and comedy
tend as
novella
,
kind
or
to of
.
its
its
a more essential element than imitation , although this he specifically denies ( p . 174 ) . objects The novella will differ from other genres in manner and objects changes means Bonciani's definition the thinks one
of
or
difference
or
better
”
“
to
thus transformed into
called
of
is
Aristotle's ethical distinction
be
,
as
136
a
.
“
"
or
,
it
we
them considerably
worse
,
exceed
in
or
,
)
who for this reason come
to
of
speak goodness never found wickedness their supreme degree any one person hence comes about that not only may imitate men endowed with that virtue that vice we see them every day but moreover those who
de
to
or
to
.
, .
of
of
),
(
"
“
.
.p
,
on
,
no
of
,
by
,
,
in
be
its
,
"
in
”
“
,
"
”
applying either better with worse virtue vice and meaning way everyday like the which these manifest themselves The novella especially since Boccaccio imitates any one these objects But they tragedy because actions when resemble those and the epic may handled the ways indicated Aristotle Bonciani finds need for discussing them and instead concentrates his attention those stories light and foolish which are like comedy These present actions 176
gree
of
).
.p
(
,
be
at
be
all :
.
of
,
of
.
we
;
in
as
as
be
ones which fall into the general category the ridiculous 169 Another division must made here for anybody may ridiculous the great and the poor well those between Since should not laugh the great proper and should pity the poor only men the middle station will objects for this kind novella But not
to
136My references
in
(
,
all
,
of
,
of
.
of
,
...
all
.
be
by
,
,
of
)
of
,
persons then who without being completely crazy smack rather That sort folly will more than less imitated novelle One should imitate vulgar stripe not their ordinary actions since these men theirs are foolish but those which are completely out kilter ... One may say that those who thinking themselves possessed great wisdom and sagacity lay themselves open
ne
;
si
di è, ) si
o il
...
di
;
,
, i
gli
o
si
di in
,
in
,
di
gli
,
o
(
.
, v , .
1727
: "
in
to
are
,
Florence
).
Bonciani
: e
I
.
II,
Vol
(
, , . le Pt
e ' by si
the edition published the Prose fiorentine founded pp 164–65 For the present passage Ma perchè persone ordinariamente osservare una certa mezzanità così nella virtù come nel veda vizio nondimeno può l'intelletto nostro immaginarsi l'idea per dir così della malvagità della bontà che qui niuno così supremo grado ritruovano che non solo possano imitare quella virtù uomini vizio dotati come tutto veggiono ma quegli ancora che gran lunga trapassano quali perciò migliori peggiori vengono
Dati
, o
,
da
: o
." .
)
539
(
di
di
,
si
in
: “
, i .p
. 'da "
,
o
da '
e o a
essere chiamati See also 178 Le azioni sono due maniere d'uomini adoperate malvagi quali virtuosi possono considerare due modi con quella bontà cattività che sono per l'ordinario onde simili da Aristotile sono chiamati veramente questi abiti nel supremo grado ciascuno
behavior
and
137
.
to
of
in
as
to
be
of in by of
As
is
,
as
,
,
of .pp a
acceptable
The hesitation results from doubts story such Lucian's should properly considered be purely dramatic manner the genre and hence whether
a .
to
which tell longing
favor among the whether dialogues
the manner resolved speeches and dialogues as
"
“
personages
by
,
After some hesitation the question mixed -narrative interrupted
the
when they
.
,
bad
is
the end sought
these
they bring sorrow men and hence they can never produce the
excluded
of
laughter that
is
of
Wickedness and vice must also give examples
the more
;
be
,
to deception , should be imitated by our novelle ; and have greater wit for the marvelous appears even more
so
THEORY in all
POETIC
;
it
).
in
,
,
in
is
,
all
recommendations for the handling their admitted source Definitions
to of
as
The specific the Poetics
of
138
.
"
.
of
by
“
as is
Verse
(
.
,
,
,
,
a
:
is
,
,
his answer
is
.
it
Bonciani decides that not 165–70 for the means unequivocal None the three means proposed Aristotle rhythm harmony and verse appears the novella uses stead fourth means prose and thus falls outside the general category poetry prose For the novelle use discourse which unmetered and known the authority writers whereas poems always employ imitation
the form also have the qualitative parts
,
by
in
of
).
be
:
of
is
,
at
we
is
It
,
“ è
(
of
”
,
.pp
”
: “
except that Bonciani adds
of
plot the definition summary this short clarification that brief which find written quel brieve raccolto che nella fronte loro scritto tro the beginning Magnitude plot viamo 184–85 the novella contrasted with tragedy and comedy the latter determined that considerations which Castelvetro echo closely those follow the text closely
be
be
do
to to
;
it
to
in
in
an
in at all
,
at a
it
,
to
part adapt itself But because tragedy has acted must the specta tors who cannot remain for several days time the theater nor would represented verisimilar that action which took many days should
137
.
tragedies
be
139
it
since these use the same means
as
,
comedies
;
of
.
just one For these reasons tragic poets are obliged include the whole action within one revolution the sun and seems that the same must said about
,
,
;
'
;
,
: “ si
.p
,
" ;
di
,
le
. . . .
in
,
di
,
le
."
,
e ' n
si
le
un
in
,
di
poichè esse adoprano
lo
,
)
(
540
si ne ' in
."
di
un
,
debba dire delle commedie
."
,
: e 'l
in in
un
a
medesimo pare che modo delle tragedie
quanta
si
i
;
,
nè
:
, i
, e
si
il
la le
,
è
: “
.
di
poesie adoperano sempre tutti noto laddove verso bisogna ch'ella tragedia dee rappresentare Ma perchè 186–87 quali non possono stare parecchi giorni per volta parte s'accomodi agli aspettatori opera solo molti condotta teatri manco averebbe del verisimile che girare Sole l'azione tutta tragici sono costretti chiudere rappresentasse onde .,
per l'autorità pp 139Ibid
: "
., p .
in
la
,
di
,
,
: e e al ,
di
,
nò ,
: “
., .p
persone che non essendo però pazze affatto Ibid 206 Quella sorte adunque questi sentiranno anzi che dello scemo sarà dalle novelle imitata Deesi adunque grossa pasta imitare non loro sieno loro ordinarie azioni comecchè tutte uomini può dire che tutti squadra and 208 tutto fuor sciocche ma quelle che sono sagacità stimandosi fanno luogo allo nganno dalle nostre coloro che molta saviezza novelle debbono essere imitati allora viepiù che essi maggiore ingegno avranno imperocchè maraviglia apparisce questi maggiormente prosa siccome imperocchè servono dell'orazione sciolta novelle 138 Ibid 173
stesso
COMMENTARIES
POETICS : VERNACULAR
The frank admission , on the one hand that the needs of the spectator must be considered , on the other hand of the poet's “ obligations , " should be noted . Like the epic , the novella is unlimited in time and hence achieves
of the dramatic forms ; at the same time , readily it more admits the marvelous since it is addressed to the ear ( p . 188 ) . freely invented popular actions may restrict the storyteller who only the laws decorum and verisimilitude and the admonition Aristotle
he
by
in
Bonciani finds
all
.
which are necessary listing plots basis for nine different kinds
of
use only those episodes
of of
is
by ,
by
of
of
by
be
to ed Its
greater verisimilitude than either
in
,
be
,
“
”
As
of
,
by
“
,
or
.
a
which illustrates examples from Boccaccio The style the short story will the loxvós prose and containing humble and minute because novelle being ordinary persons who are somewhat ridiculous they actions done clearly cannot use appropriately that grandness speech which tragedy
”
“
”
(“
,
) :
.
or
on
;
an
“
;
an
or
)
"
)
"
(
a
,
. ”
(
in
be
140 for the quantitative parts they will three combining prologue number various suggestions from Aristotle embroiling presenting the characters and the circumstances scom knotting which complicates the action and unfolding piglio unknotting which brings sviluppo the conclusion
and the epic would use
,
in
of
i
.
all
in
to
of
,
to
,
a
Giovambattista Strozzi delivered similar lecture also 1574 before apply the principles Accademia Fiorentina attempting the madrigali Poetics the lesser form the madrigal His Lettione sopra 1635. The definitions and the descriptions was published posthumously the
as
in
an
of
an
he
),
.p
, ”
be
.
of
”
(“
in
as “
of
a
.
to
we
,
an
he
develops are which within Aristotelian framework although they frequently record conclusions which should have consider hetero poetry general definition dox After imitation action inquires into the kinds verse Imitatione d'Attione versi 160 proper may subjects actions which constitute the for the madrigal
.
or
a
,
if
by
he
is
it
),
necessary others but certain extent depart from da
...
a
will
to
he is
(
to ,
of
for
proper
fact this way that such a
as
in are in
is
;
they describe things for him imitate them the truth , Ibid ., . to 141 .p
of
be
,
speech
140
,
of
representation and description those things which even they are lacking may nevertheless put before the eyes assigning action others them and this the proper function the poet for must not merely
a to in
;
be
—
,
,
as
-
,
,
,
to
:
,
There will two kinds human actions especially those revealing charac passions ter and and actions attributed nonhuman inanimate things really important genres Since human actions are the more the which treat epic tragedy comedy them will the great poetic genres such form the madrigal however may permit itself
e
, e
di
."
e
:
(
), , p si .
,
la
;
è,
,
in
le
: " et
In
se
141
prosa persone 210 essendo novelle contenendo azioni fatte ordinarie che abbiano del ridicolo chiara cosa che elle non potranno usare acconciata tragedia l'epopeja userebbono mente quella grandezza del favellare che quelle Orazioni altre prose 1635 161 vna rassomiglianza descrittione à
541
lui
fà à
,
partirsi dal vero
."
qualche parte
à
in
venga
)
(
che
e '
,
ad
,
è
fatta maniera imitarle
,
mestiero per
si
di
le
,
il
,
possono tuttauia mettere altrui dauanti gl'occhi cose che bene mancano del discorso col dargli operatione che proprio offitio del Poeta perciòche egli non dee semplicemente descriuere cose come elle stanno appunto perche questo altri appartiene ma
POETIC
THEORY
The apologue and the descriptive poem come to
be ,
of “things
in a strange way , the
as they are." Lyric poems in general may treat every thing in the world ; but they tend to leave the grand subjects to the grand opposites
and small , " such
genres and to exploit rather those which are " pleasant as love . This will be the case of the madrigal .
Poetry needs verse as well as imitation ; the two are indispensable . Therefore , according to Strozzi , Aristotle requires verse in his definitions of tragedy and the epic . Differences among kinds will relate to subject matter, manner , and the type of verse . On the basis of such differences we may constitute a definition of the madrigal : “ The madrigal is an imitation
to
, it
be
if
(
a
,
to
of
.
of
as
be
Its
.
if
,
be
for first place for he who would place lan plot would perhaps not depart from the truth Choice before words and texture verse may thus Strozzi's opinion legitimately the primary concern the madrigal poet especially since the form prosodic and rhetorical brief that every word must made count So
.
to
be
,
is
,
143
. "
(
“
in
of
,
of
)
(
it
)
;
between plot and language guage
so be of
a
,
)
”
“
)
for
(
of
it
In
any case plot will have that the correct translation for favola here and hence necessarily character and parts will thus discourse Giávoia and language the same grand genres those the reduced and less perfect But their order importance will introducing rivalry disturbed even the extent
.
metaphorical description
it
142
of a pleasant, small action , made by way of narration , with verses in rhyme which are not restricted in their number and kind of rhymes . " When objects through does not imitate human actions attributes action
pp we
versification
.
-
a
his
.
to
of ,
demand close attention and Strozzi offers specific advice with theory shows them The totality reorientation away from Aristotle and toward the old fashioned rules for language and matters respect
to
in
),
a
,
to
is
is ,
The problem
the correct
of
of
:
of
very imperfect instrument for the purpose behavior the whole citizenry
.
;
it
is
in
to
to
as .
of
of
.
,
see
(
is
It
to
perhaps the years 1574–75 that should assign Sperone Speroni's Chapter VIII Apologia dei dialogi addition which 304–5 defending his dialogues expresses his ideas the moral and political utility poetry These relate inter that the purgation clause Aristotle referring according Speroni preted such moral utility but
to
to
, ,
, a
on
“
be
it
,
. "
di
via
,
di
,
)
542
non
have something political
gentile picciola fatta per rimare maniera dipartirebbe forse dal vero
nè si à
,
antiponesse
to
if
à
è
chi ancora glie
citizens that purge two such
."
.
ab
,
of
Aristotle wished
Madrigale imitatione d'attione numero rima non sottoposti
(
: " e
173
But
passions which seem
le
: “
., .p
Ibid
., .p
143
Ibid 172 narratione con versi
tragedy
,
means
in Il
142
passions
...
two passions which are not very useful . . . .
of
ut
purged
horror and commiseration by
is ,
tragedy man
is
:
as
,
in
he
to
in
tragedy that behavior when the definition pleasurable proper besides certain other circumstances which are that poem might opposition that useful component whence called civil added seeing purgemur saying This means that huiuscemodi follows
Aristotle was well aware
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES about them and which are without doubt human , his suggestion was not so good as it should have been.144
Speroni objects because he believes that such spectacles as the death of gladiators would serve the same purpose more effectively . He thinks that by
it
he
:
to
,
,
to
to
to
145 lot —
.
by
,
in
of
”
of
on
in fact tragedy was invented for another purpose— “ to teach citizens to be bring quietly content with their humble try and not elevate ing mention and that Aristotle failed their fatherland the ruin distinguishes tragedy this end his definition For comedy too political criteria desirable and undesirable ends reference always
to
,
is
indecorous labor and
is
it
is
in
to
,
or
I
;
it
;
146
an
is
latter
an
on
to
in
an
I
it,
is
to
I
If
in
of
comedy the wearied mind rested and the laughter once said that say that such repose useful now again and say again that one thing laugh the theater for hour two another write order purpose the former gives repose and necessary the make people laugh antisocial activity.14
is
.
(
COMMENTARY
of
PICCOLOMINI'S
1575
)
at
of
of
.
he is
the latter category
, it
that
in
it
I
Speroni would include satirical and poetry Throughout carrying humorous and obscene clear that prejudices general over into discussion Aristotle the Platonic that inform his thinking this point his career take
as at it
late
the text
or
all
on
of .
an
)
,
(
as
that the annotations were already complete Coming does his commentary reflects advanced state work 1572
,
in
of ,
,
in
"
"
its
,
in
great commentaries The second the the vernacular Alessandro Piccolomini's Annotationi nel libro della Poetica d'Aristotile was published 1575 although author had declared the preface his translation
he
he
.
of
it
in
reject the sense that can discuss and accept the multitude interpretations that had already been suggested Piccolomini announces that will say nothing about those passages for which finds the remarks least
,
he
;
of
is
a
.
he
tal
144
or
.
of
of
,
does with Robortello
.
as
he
frequently disagrees with Vettori satisfactory but and Scaliger and Castelvetro Indeed revealing original pages some his most and were written under the stimulus such disagreement This does not mean that his approach personal inter essentially controversial fragmentary For does have
of
Maggi and
them
ut di
si
,
se
.
e
,
,
a ' il
fu si
...
...
.
di
per
."
543
)
(
."
è
un
;
in
e
è
è
.
a
a
; e
,
,
io
;
far
è
un : " tal
la
: “
356
ed
Ibid
gli , è ., , ., ed .p e .p
146
o e
,
non buono come dovea insegnare alli cittadini star contenti quietamente alla loro umile condizione non tentar d'innalzarla con ruina della lor patria già dissi che nelle risa della commedia riposa l'animo affaticato Ibid 357 se riposo torno anche che utile dirlo ridico che altro ridere teatro una due ore altro scrivere per ridere bello studio quello ozio necessità questo fatica indecora incivile operazione 148
umani son senza dubbio
:
,
,
si
,
,
di
si
: “
), I , ,
...
di
.
ab ,
(
In
Opere 1740 quando nella 355–56 Ben accorse decoro Aristotile difinizione della tragedia oltre alcune altre sue dilettevoli condizioni che sono proprie quel poema soggiunse contra quella dell'utile onde civile nominasse così dicendo purgemur qual vuol dire che nell'aspetto della tragedia purgò l'uomo huiuscemodi due affetti non molto utili cittadini ciò sono orrore commiserazione Ma Ari stotile purgar volendo colla tragedia due tali affetti che assai par che abbiano del civile
POETIC
THEORY
pretation of the Poetics — one might say , even , his own theory of poetry which determines how individual passages and their commentators will be considered . Some of this theory is explicitly stated in the “ Proemio , ”
in
.
of
a
of
;
it
or
all
which precedes the main body of the work ; much of it is found in the individual glosses . For these , Piccolomini uses the numbers and the text of Maggi's Explanationes . Unlike Maggi and the earlier scholars , however , philological his interest is almost not at textual lies rather the production consistent and complete reading Aristotle as is
"
as
“
he
;
importance
The relative
of
147
,
its
the world
. "
,
,
“
brings
it
which
to its
of
.
of
is in
of
of
of
One the cornerstones the theory expressed the Proemio conception poetry This early Piccolomini's the ends stated program general his announcement his for the work will treat poetry's form end and material and the profit and the pleasure
profit and is
: “
of be
-
—
to
."
148
to
in
,
,
by
,
or
of ,
to
,
of
by of
,
of
,
an
is
in
included the definition which comes soon after Poetry nothing but things either natural imitation not only artificial but mainly human actions characters and passions done mostly means language and give pleasure and diction taken universally order giving pleasure ultimately These ends benefit human life pleasure and utility with the pleasure made serve the utility will pleasure
so
,
its
“
as
149
by
to
by
,
or
no
,
a
be
of
be
.
explained and developed repeatedly throughout the text Good poems distinguished from those which merit the Platonic charge will effemi nacy and corruption made made that they would those imitations for single end either voluptuous and vain pleasure which was own end purpose and termination and served instead such pleasure would rendering bring damage our manners effeminate and cor our lives
...
be
,
so
)
in
to
. "
to
:
it
,
of
(
or
,
rupt doing poetry must some other means Rather than subordinated according Aristotle the Ethics the architectonic art politics and must serve these various specific ends ,
of
be
to
, in
if
,
to
be
.
to
of
through the imitation virtuous men and the expression their praise we aroused and excited virtue order like those whom we hear celebrated On the other hand we hear vices and wicked actions expressed come
,
by
be
,
to ,
to
,
by
so to
&
giouamento
our
,
il
&
, a
materia sua
,
la
&
,
, il
fine
of
.
la
: “
forma
great part
."
la al ) , .p
,
(
Annotationi 1575 7f4v mondo diletto ch'ella reca 148
il
do
to
if
,
no matter how effective we see horrible tragic events acted on the stage
147
,
admonition Similarly
as
through poetic imitation and they are expressed reviled and vituperated we dispose ourselves immediately begin hate vicious actions much flee and more incited such imitations than we would direct and personal
, ò
&
,
di
:
, ò
di
'
, à
,
&
,
di
."
149
, ò
;
,
: "
., .p
Ibid 115 Poesia non sia altro che imitatione non solo cose naturali fatta col mezo d'affetti humani costumi d'attioni artifitiose ma principalmente principalmente del parlare ver della locutione nel lor vniuersale fine dilettare dilettando finalmente giouare alla vita humana
)
(
,
; , ò ò di
di
,
in
, ò
i
544
si
à
à
ò si
,
' &
.”
,
,
se
,
: “
&
è
,
,
&
., .p
Ibid ft5v quelle così fatte imitationi che facessero solo fine voluttuoso vano diletto ch'in stesso finisse terminasse non seruisse nulla ver diletto corromper qual voglia altra maniera tale che con effeminare costumi nostri fusse alla nostra vita per recar danno
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES insolence , our temerity , our arrogance , our audacity , our pride disappears in us through this means ; and seeing the miseries and the perils to which are subject not only men of middle and low condition but even those who through their
tempered within us.150
for
He
these come
be
,
to
all
worldly things all
the fragility of
the
all
power and greatness are used to being happy , . . . we come to moderate our sorrow over the misfortunes which do happen and which can happen every day . Likewise the wrath , the envy , and the other passions which usually are fomented in us through the fact that we do not know well the inconstancy of fortune and
.
his
,
a
,
.
in
of
,
of
.
of
.
, it
it
If
we
a
to
;
tragedy Piccolomini here collects uses previously proposed degree will frequently make such compendia and work presents summation ideas about poetry current his time through utility follow the commentary this guiding principle interpretation we shall see how affects the various separate passages Primarily determines how Piccolomini will understand purgation He
what
,
in
connection with Poetics 1449b24 after repeating had said about the priority usefulness :
of
he
states his theory
...
his
be
on
no
be
,
of
,
;
of
since man cannot enjoy and obtain any more useful thing than the possession separated true tranquillity the spirit from which cannot virtuous liv ing and moreover since this tranquillity cannot spoiled except through the on
,
to
as
it
.
to
it of
,
in
,
of
so
of
fault the passions the soul hence arises that other thing have the philosophers exerted themselves order make the soul peaceful purge those passions the attempt
by
...
he
,
of ,
on to of
of
by
the
,
all
all
)
(
,
,
Developing then the theories the Stoics and the Peripatetics and re peating from the Rhetoric Aristotle's classification the eleven passions goes natural and moderated reason the specific uses purgation which profits men
is
so we to
it
.
,
of
,
,
these hopes we temper also our joys considering how fra Although tragedy takes into account the nature the
it ,
to
bring
to
intends
to
profit which
it
for
,
has undertaken
the
. . . .
is
, 150
,
it
crowd
to
as
...
vanity that we see gile their basis
in
,
it
of
compassion and the terror and the fear which brings means represents For when others with those events and those misfortunes which see the bitter misfortunes and the unhappy accidents with which the world full we come we see these things moderate our hopes and through the
purge
,
a
la
&
;
,
ad
,
&
, '
da
a
da
;
&
,
le
&
,
se ad i : “
& .
,
'
., .p
spressione delle lodi Ibid 177 con l'imitation degli huomini virtuosi con quelli che cele loro veniamo infiammarci escitarci alla virtù per diuenir simili vitij brar vdiamo scelleratezze dall'altra banda sentiamo con poetica imitation esprimere esprimendo vilipendere vituperare subito cominciamo disporsi alla fuga ,
à
.
gli ,
,
,
& li ,
,
in
in
'
à
“
se
'
&
,
;
si &
questo quanto all'odio delle vitiose attioni molto più incitati cotali imitationi che voglia efficace aperta particolar ammonitione Medesimamente recitarsi scena veggiamo horribili auuenimenti tragici vien per questo mancar noi gran parte dell'insolentia della temerità dell'arrogantia dell'audacia
gli
,
,
&
,
à il
a
,
la
,
, à
;
,
le
, & ò di
...
;
'
,
di
.
&
pericoli superbia nostra vedendo miserie che son sottoposti non solo huomini mediocre potentia bassa conditione gran ma quegli ancora che per dezza soglion esser felici veniamo moderare dolore negli infortunij ch'accascano
,
&
,
,
la
,
)
(
545
&
.
. "
,
'l
ò
giorno possono Vien parimente mitigarsi l'ira l'inuidia accascar tutto altri fragilità delle cose mondane affetti che dal non ben conoscere l'instabilità della fortuna fomento riceuer sogliono
POETIC
THEORY
all
. 1
,
all
the souls mainly of the excess of those passions which have as their object evil and fear , more than the others since these more than others disturb our lives 151
to
of
it
is
.
(
,
of
On
on
is
( .pp
);
,
of
:
be
is
in
on
in
,
is
of
in ,
.
in
)
to
(
of
such purgation which more useful when relates pity fear than thus multiple line with the multiple usefulness poetry general The theory completed the glosses other passages pity On Poetics 1453611 two new ideas are offered must not the pity spectators the participants reaffirming the action but the thus the orientation toward the audience and pleasure accompanies these passions because we learn about man's fate and such learning delightful 208
The function
to
“
is
”
to
;
its
,
,
us
to
“
is
be ,
to
,
a
is
. "
152
in
"
" ;
).
,
1449631 Piccolomini disagrees with Maggi the meaning tragedy any poem entirely ethical for him costumato which composed way honesty instructive and excite and virtue On 1459a27 Piccolomini tells that any pleasure connected with poetry extrinsic intrinsic end being profit indeed pleasure 211
he
so
153
,
,
as a
: “
is
merely serves this ultimate end To this utility pleasure given for com pany companion may servant and that man more willingly allow ,
we
,
of
of
(
"
a
“
as
to
a
it
,
,
of
.
),
the
.pp
benefit and
give pleasure to
virtue taught and benefited ,
be
order
to
, in
do
not need
of
to
,
.
tragedies are written mainly
to
:
referred
For people who are educated and judicious and friends
knowledge
of
all
to
the multitude 151
of
of
is
.
to
... like epic poems forms
definite conception
the nature multitude are ultimately told why poetry appeals
course
We have already seen
term used repeatedly and especially the crowd
and
Throughout the conviction that poetry determines the reading single
cited
.
be
.
in
such idea involves
the audience
be
,
is
;
Other passages might moral instruction the real end passages the Poetics together
Any
in
be
.”
to
disagrees with Castel himself receive that usefulness On 1450b24 produced separately vetro's statement that pity and fear may separate tragedies when the drama properly constituted produced both will
; in
,
'
&
,
i
,
.
,
,
gli
gli
&
.
da si
...
,
, in
di
è,
&
,
,
&
, di
&
, se
la
da
,
: "
'
.,
conseguir maggior vtilità che Ibid 101-3 non potendo l'huomo gustare posseder vna vera tranquillità dell'animo cui non può star separata virtuosa vita sua d'altronde non potendo riceuer macchia questa tranquillità non per colpa delle passioni qui dell'animo ch'in cosa alcuna non son tanto affatigati Filosofi per render tran quillo l'animo quanto purgarlo quegli affetti cercar col mezo della compassione del terrore timore che reca altrui con quegli auuenimenti casi che rappresenta ;
in
gli gli
,
& il
di
à
il
,
all '
&
,
à
ad
sia
. " ,
escitare
)
(
546
compagno
,
,
&
,
."
à
è
si
: "
il
."
: "
., & ., p . .p
,
153
in
107 tutto composto modo che atto instruire alla virtù alquale vtile dato per compagnia Ibid 372 diletto come ministro ponga accioche più voluntieri l'huom riceuer quel giouamento Ibid honesto
&
è
,
la
,
le
, à
le
,
in
,
,
la
di
152, si
di
,
in
;
...
,
.
,
la
il
...
&
ripieno vedendo noi acerbi casi infelici accidenti dei quali per talmente mondo veniamo veder queste cose moderar nostre speranze allegrezze considerando quanta vanità che veggiamo esse temperiamo ancor tragedia alla natura della moltitu quantunque hauendo riguardo fragilità sian poste purgar principalmente dinc habbia ella nel giouamento che recarle intende preso quegli affetti che han per oggetto animi dal souerchio male timor più tutti tutti inquieta vita nostra altri come più Conciosiacosache
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES 154
have the teachings and recommendations which are given to them seasoned with pleasure , as must necessarily be done in order to teach the multitude .
of
,
as
of
of
Castelvetro's and indeed we find Picco
of
,
this audience and how they affect the terms almost identical with those the earlier Tragedy must confined within artificial day since the needs
tragedy
“
.
commentator
an
be
,
in
of
lomini speaking conditions
thus the same
is
The audience
to
155
"
.
if
all
of
,
in
a
of
to
or
four hours which are allowed the imitation and the per represent day formance must the time whole order free the spectators the tedium and the boredom and also the discomfort which day would result for them the performance lasted The division those three
the actors are made possible
of
of
in
to
of
182
).
.p ,
for
(
rest
,
is
,
;
is a
of
performance into acts device for adjusting the time the time the action with the intermissions accounting for the difference this way settings and periods verisimilitude saved and incidentally change
:
is
.
an .
of
to
...
is
it
is
an
to
be
It
an
.
it
,
in
unlike Castelvetro's But one important way Piccolomini's audience imagination has knows that imitation not reality and that perhaps expect should not imitation identical with reality This theory poetry Piccolomini's most original contribution the
,
or
we
of
...
do
on
of
as
of
I
suppose tragedies and comedies have that the spectators awareness and knowledge the fact that the things that are done and said the stage not happen there and then true things and without any feigning but that they things which have already happened are imitations which could happen
of
is
be
of
,
,
on
,
it be
,
;
but these things
do
,
by
other actors
in
.
as
,
they walk and talk cover less space than people
not
do
do
... these
all ,
matter
the stage
asides are not heard
:
;
Actors real life
on
of
;
a
as
of
.
differently Therefore must not imagine that the cause that might dimin ish the pleasure the spectators would the happening the stage some thing that would make them realize that was not really taking place there but only fiction but the cause would rather the lack resemblance which required the imitation
at
by
is
,
... just
is
gli
.
of
,
,
an
be ,
it
so
is
as
if
in
so
(
.
imitation not truth itself but lacking lacking were not would not imitation necessary that imitating certain things should not accord completely with the truth the things imitated
do ),
done which 154
be
in
of
dered necessary art itself some part truth for but the real thing also
it is it
by
go
.
in
they and other similar things not offend the spectators nor any way disturb their pleasure This explained simply the fact that although these things really beyond verisimilitude nevertheless they are ren
,
,
è
;
,
spettatori dal giorno
tutto
'l
gli
se
per liberare be loro ,
,
giorno che seg
&
,
&
si
si
,
vn
,
)
,
di
(
547
&
, si
glidi
,
tre , ò
il
."
&
,
&
la
,
rappresentar tempo tutto dal fastidio ancor dall'incommodità rappresentatione
'
rappresentatione tedio durasse
". &
,
la
; 97 : "
155
., .p di
gli
,
&
.
: “
,
.p
di &
,
& .,
le
tragedie come epici poemi compongon principalmente per 415 cosi dar diletto alla moltitudine giuditiose Conciosiacosache alle persone perite per giouar loro amiche delle virtù delle scientie non faccia mestieri per instruirle condire col diletto ammaestramenti che auuertimenti dian loro come necessario farlo per instruire moltitudine quattro hore che Ibid douendo quelle concedono all'imitatione Ibid giouare
POETIC THEORY 156
The spectators ... grant and concede to the imitators everything far from the truth that the art of imitation necessarily brings and requires .
;
it
of
; it
is
of
it
;
a
thus
it
describes
in
do
to .
.
Piccolomini
by
the
...
by
:
which most commentators emphasized another context
is
in
of
poet the license
of
grants the certain unreal things works art and introducing such things There concept thus present artistic necessity which has nothing with the natural necessity
the necessity
of
of it
of
:
We should distinguish several important ideas here the audience never thinking that seeing reality recognizes import makes the mistake reality and the world ant differences between the world art admits
of
of
be
he
to
),
of
i.e. ,
[
to
if
at
plot and times the poet should forced the course some legitimate consideration not observe completely some one the aforemen being unable escape such tioned conditions the requisites character
An
,
an
as
be
it
in
to
be
violation order achieve something which might more important will deserve pardon and excuse and will not counted against him error.157
to
it
a
in
.
,
,
its
.
to
of of its
convinced the probability
, it it , is is in
to
,
not important important that truth but the action Resemblance truth
representation
ensue from
( .pp
in
the audience believe
;
to of
is
to
pleasure
If
please
that the audience should
be
all .
be
a
of
as
of
so
be
ready accept the endowed with imagination will the true the proper subject for poetry Poetry be comes kind leveler differences among men for whereas life thing may poetry pleasant some unpleasant others will audience
verisimilar instead
).
is a
of
is a
,
to in
be
,
of
.
in
if
,
is
not truth itself the real criterion 68-71 But there are certain diffi this principle For we accept the proposition that pleasure credibility and that credibility turn function closeness
culties function
is
.
the
led to
spettatori delle tragedie
delle commedie
,
che
,
suppongo
&
io
: "
.,
23–24
gli
156 Ibid
le .
.pp
,
he is
.
be
,
to
the truth then we shall soon driven the conclusion that true sub jects will ultimately those which are most effective This indeed the argument that Piccolomini pursues and inevitable deduction
il
,
,
,
sia La
. . . .
da
, ò si
; si
,
,
&
,
,
ò
,
&
habbian notitia conoscentia che cose che fanno dicon nelle scene non accaschin quiui allhora come vere senza fintione alcuna ma che siano imitationi delle già accaduto piacere che accascar potessero altrimenti causa dunque che possa offuscare la la
,
il .
ne
quale causa altre
Il o
:
,
in
,
,
gli
di
la
'
,
,
degli spettatori non s'ha stimar che l'accader qualche cosa scena per eglin possin accorgersi che ella quiui non veramente ma fintamente accaschi ma questo sarà queste mancanza della somiglianza necessaria all'imitatione
,
il
.
da
fà se di
.
;
; da
...
si
,
,
in
,
lo
è
;
,
,
spettatori piacer loro cosi fatte cose non offendon punto conturban punto che non d'altronde procede senon perche quantunque queste cose trapassin veramente veris simile nondimeno son recate necessariamente dall'arte stessa come l'imitatione non qualche parte mancante punto quel non stesso vero ma esso posciache
)
(
548
,
&
da
&
,
;
tal '
,
,
."
,
,
la
,
, ' il , à &
&
,
,
per errore
."
, : à “
., .p
gli
sarà attribuito
le
...
,
gli si
,
.
157
&
non
...
la
non sarebbe l'imitatione ma cosa vera cosi parimente mestieri ch'alcune quali con facciano verità delle cose imitate pienamente non con spettatori cordino tutto quello che lontan dal vero reca richiede necessaria mente l'arte dell'imitare donano concedono agli imitatori poeta sarà sforzato dal corso della fauola qualcho Ibid 222 se alle volte legittimo rispetto punto alcuna delle dette conditioni non osseruar non potendo per saluar qualche cosa ch'importi più fuggir inosseruantia meriterà egli perdono scusa mancasse
cose imitando
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES the discussion occurs apropos
of of
Much subjects
of Poetics 1451619 , on the of Aristotle's suggestions . the degree of our belief and
tragedy , and is a development
Piccolomini establishes a proportion between when the actions of others are offered of our passions: “ to our soul and to our knowledge, they are apt to awaken in us passions
...
the intensity
on
;
"
:
, of
a
by
it ,
of
we
is "
158
proportionate to their quality . ... Hence it is that the degree of vehemence of the passions will correspond to the degree of certainty of such offerings certainty and cognitions . " The essential ratio vehemence the increasing credibility accompanied may suppose basis scale .
or
a
of
us
,
of
as
of
of
.
to
be
as
; a
to
,
of
a
we
of
increasing violence increasing delight Picco the passions hence only during the lomini explains that case know false will affect reading time result the force the poet's words his appeal the imagination intellectual examination will soon banish the impres deeper and more lasting sion One which we know true will produce So for tragedy
:
.
effect
we
of
of
;
of
a
at
so
,
it be
on
,
in
tragedy above
.
,
of
perfection and would consequently merit the absolute name others 159
all of
be at
)
it
is
its
,
persons known with clear and definite certainty were based this subject matter concerned would the highest level
as
it
if
as
far
(
whereas case
on
be
to
or
a
if
of
tragedy were persons ... some image based whom not only had no certain knowledge even belief but held the opinion that they were entirely invented this tragedy would placed perfection that low level only with the greatest difficulty could legitimately retain the name tragedy
"
or
is ,
a
,
or
its
.p
as a
of
of at
).
(
it
knowledge and beliefs about 392 These considerations lead Piccolomini
of
as a
Piccolomini distinguishes carefully between possibility function the audience's
the action itself and credibility
to
;
.
of
"
of
in
is
its
.
,
a
of
the audience
quality
"
leans toward the known rather than the new spite the fact that the intrinsic truth for tragedy This subject possibility impossibility are not proper con falseness credibility sideration for the poetic art But and this depends upon "
Piccolomini therefore
subject
is
in
a
gli
158
in
to
.
to
an
is
.
be
,
at
to
reject the theories times accept some his predecessors times the most traditional explana tions He rejects Castelvetro's notion that tragic subjects must historical wrong poetry He thinks that Scaliger and that history art prior maintaining that the epic poet sets out depict hero perfect some
di
se
,
il
,
, ò
,
,
,
in
è,
; di
,
." &
...
,
,
,
in
di
...
di ,
' :
: "
“
, di à ., .p ., .p
,
;
il
159
di ò
150 suegliar
&
nell'offerirsi all'anima nostra alla nostra cognitione altrui fatti quelli qui noi affetti proportionati alla qualità che secondo grado cognitioni nella certezza loro sarà parimente grado cosi fatti offerimenti degli affetti nella vehementia d'essi Ibid 152 se sopra persone delle quali non solo non s'habbia notitia creduta certa ma s'habbia opinione che sian totalmente finte sarà formata qualche immagin tragedia perfettione ch'à gran fatiga potrà ella così basso grado sarà ella collocata Ibid
son'atti
)
(
549
,
&
il
&
... è
si
,
.
tal
in
;
."
di
,
di
,
;
il
di
tragedia doue che sopra persone per chiara per ritener legittimamente nome risoluta certezza note sarà fondata caso trouerà per quanto appartiene alla materia sopra tutte l'altre sua nel suppremo grado 12 perfettione meriterà conseguenteme tragedia nome assoluto
POETIC
THEORY
or other , since this would imply the use of action to demonstrate " an opinion that is not very Aristotelian "-whereas character really exists for the purposes of the action ( p . 96 ) . One is thus surprised to find that his ideas of verisimilitude involve an expectation on the part of the audience that characters will always behave according to type ; the virtue
character—
imitation will be lacking in resemblance
if indications of
“
generosity
of
160
appear in an old man , or signs of temperance in a very low servant, or of shame in a prostitute, or of great knowledge in a maidservant, and so
of
to
to he
,
In
is
to
as
not
in
good
.
of
of
.
of
forth . " The old laws decorum are made equivalent the audience's conceptions probability fact Piccolomini's explanation the four requisites character derives from what believes about verisimilitude point out that characters are poetry He and about the ends careful so
,
,
or
,
,
: "
of
to
,
sesso
ò
conditione
, il
la
altra circon refers the characteristics commonly distinguished from appropriateness
,
;
known personage
decorum
to
“
for the same good the type which rank calling sex
it is
”
la
(
Similarity
“
”
).
a
the laws
qualità
“
,
to .p
,
219
to
according
other circumstance ”
appropriateness
means that their good qualities are proper
they represent
this way
to if a
,
,
to a
,
say that
man that that particular person the singular represent Achilles
or ,
to is of so
to
as
appropriateness concerns the universal prince that one subject this one
to a
...
the requirement this character belongs
of
:
in
But
,
of
"
;
. "
those misfortunes
characters
stantia assigned
161
,
of
worthy
”
to
”
“
order serve moral examples the spectators but pity and fear they are endowed with virtue and with praiseworthy qualities and deserving happiness and consequently un they may arouse
to ;
if
, as
of
,
to in
to
to
to
or
,
to
...
,
of
a
is
he ,
to
;
to
vn
vilissimo seruo gran dottrina
, o
in
,
di
, ò
liberalità vna ancilla
in
; ò
di
.
vecchio inditij pudicitia
,
vna meretrice
di
vn
in
in
the new ones whom the poet might invent
this theory
appariranno
temperantia
in
Ibid
inditij
;
of
difficulties , se ò
sees
23 : “
160
but
constancy
., .p
he
,
earlier poets
di
by
between them
by
another aspect
separate requisite not but merely similarity possibility distinguishing considers the saying that similarity applies characters already treated
for Piccolomini
,
Constancy
”
“
.
,
to
it
,
to a
one woman and forth without considering this similarity concerns the particular and the requirement say what character proper give one who has seeking qualify the persons form and the plot similar the character those who are being represented according the knowledge and the reputation associated with them 162
&
felicità
,
meriteuoli
di
,
&
di
&
,
: “
., .p
qualità dotate
virtù lodeuoli quelli infortunij
per
."
162
Ibid 218 conseguente indegne
la di di
161 ."
simili
)
,
di
la
la
le
,
&
la
,
,
&
di
,
...
,
' à
;
;
&
, , ò
,
vn
ad
si
,
550
(
' à
.
,
vn
' ' il à
...
."
di
da
, è
il ,
, ,
,
in
&
ad
: “
., .p
Ibid 220 conditione del conueneuole riguarda l'vniuersale com dire che quel costume conuenga principe quello suddito quello all'huomo quello alla questa particolar persona quella donna simili senza considerar condition del particolare singolare com porre simile riguarda ver dire qual costume conuenga per rappresentar Achille qualificar vno che habbia cercando formare quelle che rappresentano sone nella fauola simili costume secondo notitia fama che sene tiene
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
A similar persuasion about character produces Piccolomini's stand to ward the factors which differentiate literary forms one from another . He takes issue , first, with the commentators who have held that " better " and “ worse , " relating to the objects of poetry, mean of higher or of lower social station ; the distinction is an ethical one : " Aristotle is obviously speaking of goodness and badness with respect to virtue and to vice , whence man obtains absolutely the quality of being good or bad . "163 This differ ence would in itself be insufficient to constitute two species of poems. Nor would it be adequate to bring into play such factors as age , wealth , health ( these are components of decorum ), for genres must be differentiated by factors still ; the only one capable of doing so is social rank or qualities are sufficient to do it which diversify man's life and
greater
station
: “ Those
of
the reading
a
of
to
as
far
so
it
at
.
is He
to
;
agrees with his predecessors
of
Poetics 1448al Piccolomini dis finding basis for dis but the necessity adopt their essential tinguishing among genres ultimately leads him position comedy goes declare that Aristotle's definition incomplete and imperfect because 1449a31 includes only one differ
Thus
,
from comedy . "
on
164
his status from the very foundations , such as the difference between persons of illustrious and dominating station and persons of middling station and of private and subordinate condition , this diversity makes tragedy different
A
,
,
in
, &
,
&
("
90 ).
.p
"
,
poste
"
a
in
“
of
.
”
“
,
,
proper definition the worse and that not the essential one would call for the imitation civil and private persons and ones placed middling station persone ciuili priuate mediocre stato
entia
of
to
in
to
of ,
,
a
of
it
is ,
...
:
of
to
of
.
,
it
as
to
of
,
These distinctions are directly related for Piccolomini the ends purgation and problem credibility the whole and the effect upon the passions The audience composed will not believe the happi the high estate does not seem ness heroes unless they are person private and low condition no mass and the multitude that
;
,
be
is he
do
to
165 be
if
,
what wants and credibility Such essential hence the sharp line drawn between able
45 : "
draw from our soul the two tragic passions will
& lo
, &
&
,
la
."
, ò
,
&
ò
; la ,
soggetta conditione
qual diuersità rende diffe
.”
)
551
di
lo ,
,
&
&
,
;
,
di
,
&
, si
essi che sia nei principi
(
che stiman
ch'vna priuata bassa persona debbi domandar felice ponendo lor frå poter fare ciò facultà nominare
alla moltitudine
felice sia potentia
, & , la
,
vuole
'
che l'huom
&
,
' al
."
,
& ,
à
,
di
&
,
a
: “
voglia che virtuosa principalissime parti della felicità ; il
quanto
si . , .p
165 la
Ibid stato suo persone priuata stato mediocre tragedia dalla commedia rente volgo Ibid 195 non par
la
lo
,
euidentemente parla Aristotele della bontà malitia rispetto alla virtù qualità donde prende assolutamente huomo del buono del reo quelle qualità che posson dai fondamenti diuersificar vita sua signoreggiante stato son bastanti farlo come dir trà persone d'illustre 45 : "
Ibid vitio
di ; ., , ., .p .p
&
those actions which have
164al 163
...
to
:
to
be
in
found produced
the proper effects are tragic and comic subjects
to
and princes
determine
."
to
man
be
a
this they believe
to
the capacity
of
of
he
be ,
may matter how virtuous and happy should called happy since they include among the most important parts happiness the power and
POETIC
THEORY
have need of greater credibility than will those which must elicit such agreeable passions ( as those of comedy ) and ones which are so close to nature and to our sensibility . . . . since the circumstances and the actions which are imitated in
...
no sooner have comedies are based on persons of civil and middling status , the spectators understood the argument of the plot than they readily believe that it could have taken place . It is necessary , in order to bring credibility to the plots of tragedies, to attribute those imaginary actions to real persons , and the names should be used in order to cause in the minds of the spectators that form
...
of false deduction which we have
For comedy,
seen.166
there is a parallelism here to the decorum of will be credible because they are commonplace ; in fact, they will be most credible when they are such actions as have frequently been used by poets , " the avarice of old men , the tricks of prostitutes , the prodigality of young men , the cheating of servants , the madnesses of lovers ,
characters
then - and
167
— actions
of
,
to
of
is
-
is a
-
of
.
by .
in
of
be
,
of
a
, in
of soldiers, the lies of pimps, and so forth " ; the world word Plautus and Terence For tragedy the lack the commonplace quality will compensated the knowledge that the persons were real Another the cornerstones Piccolomini's theory and this again fixes him firmly the current tradition his insistence that verse the boastings
by of
he
of
on
.
of
the part the letter He remains closer the perfect poem Noyous text than did many his contemporaries the interpretation necessary
,
"
,
in
of
,
.
,
in
be
of its
21
) be .
.p
, “
,
il
”
(“
in
).
(
says speech not measured Vinois 1447a28 This means verse parlare non misurato dal verso ma fatto prosa prose but made Poetry may thus prose and the presence written imitation distinguishing characteristic will But Piccolomini introduces the
a
of
as a
is
“
becomes
not that
the true poet but da
,
to
the making
of
"
be
;
he
as a
,
).
consequence
,
“
...
("
20
"
,
.pp
,
166
element
facesse
...
that imitation which would made with speech quella imitatione che col parlar misurato dal
Verse which contributes essentially
si
verso
mean
verse
.p
perly taken measured
by to
,
he
.
,
to
be
,
it
in
in he
is
of
.
is
to (
.p
If
20 ).
we
;
in
of
of
poetry establishing matter the two natural causes means hierarchy perfection One these causes the pleasure which man takes naturally finds rhythm imitation the other the pleasure which way interpret song then becomes this the Poetics and possible say that the poem which adds verse imitation will more perfect than one which does not Piccolomini takes this position after Maggi and Vettori whom cites declares that troinois most pro
,
le
&
;
i
,
,
...
,
fà
si
,
& .
da
di
in
...
,
...
, si
)
(
352
di
,
."
."
di
&
,
,
di
,
di
,
si
& li
,
di di
,
di
,
di
., .p
90 : "
,
,
167
à
,
di
fà
bisogno che per recar credibilità alle fauole delle tragedie essere stato persone vere prendin attribuischin quelle immaginate attioni nomi esse per far paralogismo nascer negli animi degli Spettatori quelle forma che hauiam veduto vecchij inganni gioueni fraudi Ibid auaritia meretrici prodigalità serui pazzie d'innamorati vantamenti soldati bugie ruffiani simili
.
possa
,
al
, &
&
si
gli
,
,
,
: " di
.,
maggior crcdibilità haran bisogno quelle attioni che han Ibid 142–43 trar dal nostro animo quei due tragici affetti che non n'han bisogno quelle che così piaceuoli affetti amici alla natura senso nostro n'han cauare essendo casi attioni fingon nelle commedie fondate persone che ciuile mediocre stato non prima Spettatori comprendono l'argomento della fauola che facilmente lor credibile che
168
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
on
of ,
.
in
of
to
,
it
as tic his
general position
as
only to making him perfectly so . " The question arises immediately increasing prominence during the latter years was arise with the comedy Piccolomini's answer contradicts century about the use verse
in
to is
is
(
in
.pp
he
,
be
,
as
as
it .
;
to
,
in a
on
of
).
,
;
so
,
no
25-28
,
of ,
.
;
as
)
in
(
verse He thinks that the comic poet and the drama general can make himself heard via the actor through prose through verse that the example Greek and Latin drama well conclusive since ancient verse was different from Italian that there comedy that Italian audiences prefer prose Italian verse adapted greater pleasure from believes that ulti Hence verse deriving comedy mately tragedy prose Italian well will written poet
,
of
of
in
a
is
it
,
of
of
in
of
to
taking 1447a16 He shows how wrong Castelvetro was really listing poetry whereas the species the
8 ).
(p .
indication
( .pp
an
poetry
be
to
by
of
)
(
as
not
.
of
,
as
,
a
passages such prose There are number the one which Piccolomini presents better readings than those his fellows He solves correctly the difficulty with respect the flute and the zither the arts pointing examples 1447a15 out that these are meant imitation
all
it to
,
).
(
.p
of
,
;
as
of
at
be
,
in
).
, in
as he as
of
to
,
9–10 He declares connection with 1450a15 that maintaining that character might Robortello erred the principal part play plot play the read the acted instead one must times regard plot the essential form the imitation 115 With reference properly distributes the qualitative parts among the cate 1450a12 differentiae
is
).
(
.pp
it
,
).
(
of .p
of in
of
,
,
of
object manner and means task taken 120 Castelvetro conception unity plot holding for his whole the both for that was depend upon the auxiliary not necessary the epic and for making considerations time and place 132–36 gories
makes his own mistakes His great part from ambiguities difficulties with the manner imitation spring use the term imitation 52–57 He offers debatable ideas about episodes removable without damage the work 156 and about ignorance the relationship hamartia 197 But the whole makes improvements his predecessors the reading the text ,
,
of
he
)
.
,
the Accademia degli Alterati
asked
di
,
Piccolomini's Annotationi Eleonora
of
a
.
of
,
)
of on
,
,
a
judgment
the
,
to
)
553
vero poeta
;
far
' il
å
che essentialmente concorre
"
“
by
quello
(
farlo perfettamente tale
,
non
." è
., .p
72 : "
;
of
168 à
Ibid
.
the new commentary The request was August 1575 and the judgment was presented made early the meeting August 16th although signed the Accademici Alterati the Dis
in
prepare
.
it is
,
, is
(
1575
Not long after the publication Toledo Medici member de to '
to
Castelvetro whom was most eager controvert His although independent and frequently far from less extreme than that Castelvetro
SASSETTI ON PICCOLOMINI
academy
(p
in
he
poetry
,
.
on
on
theory Aristotle
of
especially
).
(p
to
of
to
).
in
in
( .pp
”
“
of
his
of
,
.
Piccolomini
side
on
On the negative
ma solo
THEORY
of Filippo
corso containing it was the work
169
POETIC
Sassetti .
Sassetti charges
to
to
I
is
.
of
.
if
” : “
...
to
,
an
170
”
.
'
'
,
,
to
if
';
or
we
'
,
in
which see them every day without inventing anything beyond we will imitate the like but we add perfection the good ness that find commonly most frequently and imperfection the vices we will imitate the better and the worse There are thus only in
the way
we “
, ”
” “
“
,
of
on
;
,
as
is
of
.
as
,
most original with Piccolomini First Sassetti rejects the hypothesis that the distinction among the genres essentially one social establishing the difference status rather one must understand Aristotle the basis virtue and vice But Sassetti has his own way interpreting better like and worse we imitate the good and the bad to
pointed
of It
in
of
,
of
,
of
explain cer Piccolomini with imperfections translation with failure interesting tain difficult passages and with errors statement note theory that that the last category fall some those items have
in
be
,
.
on
of on
,
he
,
”
“
all
he
,
of of in
in
( .p
63 ).
Finally disagrees completely this conviction comedy prose citing the practice the ancients and
the matter
,
the light
of of
in
is
”
“
of
is
.
a
;
,
or in of
character good and bad but either may imitated superlative degree Second Sassetti discards Piccolomini's opinion that verse not necessary for poetry and that one may admit the perfect imperfect poetry distinguished existence and this basis indispensable and He himself thinks that verse reads Poetics 1447a28 two kinds ordinary
on
.
— be is
,
.
a
,
few
,
A
it
,
of
a
at
in
of
.
of
,
18 ,
29
Piccolomini between August and September 1575 just preparation judgment few weeks after the the for the Alterati but not many the marginalia concern matters translation for example way which would make 145165 Piccolomini has translated seem
of
reading
of
on
of
at
in
in
to
his
on
as
as
—
A
poetic forms Ariosto and insisting that Aristotle demanded verse much more complete and revealing expression Sassetti's ideas poetry Piccolomini well Aristotle and the theory marginal copy found the notes the Annotationi which may consulted the Biblioteca Nazionale Florence He himself dated the
,
,
is
comparing universal things with particular things rather that Aristotle poetry than with history and Sassetti claims that the text will not permit
do in on
.
of
,
by
be
to
,
,
).
to
For the most part however Sassetti objects what seem misunderstandings Piccolomini and his objections spring reading the Poetics The central ques essentially different way
139
an
( to .p
this him from tion
"
“
as a
he
,
).
182–83
,
1954
),
,
(
( .p
“
a
”
CXXXI
; rei
.
.pp
,
,
di
Giornale Storico
61 : "
Ed .
170
Argomenti See discussione letteraria and M. Rossi Filippo Sassetti 98-100
”
my , “
169
it
be
,
a
.
it
to
on
.
of
is
He has certain disagreements with Piccolomini poetic faculty and the nature the what Aristotle was trying the Poetics Whereas Piccolomini had classified habit which gives precepts for the poet Sassetti insists that habit does not give precepts Again and that hence should rather called method 777v Aristotelianism
,
i
,
si
lo
."
e
e ' )
1554
e '
i
, si
, .p
-
,
si
i
, si
a i
e
se
'l
in
, in
F.-L. Polidori the Nozze Riccomanni Fineschi imitando buoni veggono senza fingere più oltre giorno quella guisa che tutto imiteranno simili per più aggiugneremo alla bontà che comunemente suole ritrovare perfezione ma imperfezione migliori peggiori vizii imiteranno
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES is wrong in setting out ( p. 115) to treat poetry
that Piccolomini
believes
its
...
of
universally : in
no
“
it is
,
28
,
its of .)
(v .
its
of
his
,
as
of
,
,
in
in
own
cause
"
“
in
,
;
he
,
of
at
no
vita
:
of
”
,
alla
to
of
not belong the poetry his
”
,
which
of
do
"
"
to
“
passions
&
,
).
“
,
his
...
objects
.
of
it
;
”
and
As
“
characters
definition 775 for Piccolomini's statement the end definition dilettare dilettando finalmente giouare objection humana Sassetti raises this point but later poetry statement the four causes limits the final pleasure
.p ),
.p
(
”
,
of
disapprove
to
,
of of
its
it
it
( of or .p
;
:
,
,
of
)
in
the same general way
manners imitation Several things are wrong with the mentions only one the means language and omits the includes accidental differences such the imitation artificial objects adds human actions the unessential
and definition other two natural
poems
doubts about method lead Sassetti poetry and conception definition
Piccolomini's
elements
term but rather when does not say that
he
so , to
(
,
the Poetics
These general means
”
,
,
171
,
,
apparently conceived
of
he
speak
Piccolomini's statement that Aristotle however leggi precetti regole 777v and ammaestramenti
exception
give
“
to
He takes meant
Aristotle never used that
&
no
,
.
he
.
own And therefore wishes name the genus poetry but imitation nature
to
of
to its
be
species turn the from each which it is nothing unless considered in poetry precepts must which has derived and not from that general
considering
pleasure also with respect
,
With
it is
I
,
to
he
of
;
,
;
challenges Piccolomini's assertion although not without falling into am biguity himself nothing but because the imitation action tragedy the plot which Aristotle said was the soul and the end The problem the end remains unresolved Disagreement the objects imitation centers about Piccolomini's repeated stand that better and worse were not differentiating factor ,
these same causes
,
171
173
."
a
"
“
”
“
of
on
.
of
,
of
is
an
"
...
matter
of
“
;
that the actions are the
“
to
respect
,
;
it,
in
...
he
pleasure.172
,
final
is
say that
it
he to
the imitator think that neces the final cause for who imitates imitates for the pleasure doing that takes whence one might say that the efficient cause poetry was the poet himself the formal imitation the material verse and the sary
,
se ,
da
è
,
,
la
sia ne
,
,
se
i
, e
: "
.p in
si ,
,
la
lo
."
)
555
,
la
è
."
(
,
...
,
il
,
il
;
, e la
la
e'l
., .p
: “
,
si
173 la
, à e
)
(
considerato anche diletto quanto all'Imitante credo che sia necessario auuengache chi imita imita per diletto che prende onde efficiente della Poesia fusse stesso Poeta formale l'imita finale diletto l'Imitatione d'attione non altro che fauola laquale Ari fine della Tragedia
dire che egli causa finale potrebbe dire che causa tione materiale uerso perche Ibid ff5v stotile disse essere l'anima
il
., .p
Ibid
, sia 65 : " il
172. "
il
,
ha
,
à
to
of
All references are the copy the Annotationi the Biblioteca Nazionale Florence call number Postillati 15. For the present passage see 113 ella non nulla non con siderata nelle sue spetie dalle quali una questa una debbono cauare procetti non però Aristotile non comune Poesia che non natura propria serui mai anzi quando genere per dir cosi delle Poesie non dice che uuole nominare Poesia ma l'imita tione
POETIC THEORY among the genres and that to them must be added the element of social status . This Sassetti denies emphatically , stating that the position of Castelvetro and Piccolomini is completely false ( p. 44 ). In his note to the commentary on 1448624 , he says :
It appears that we may conclude from this text that the difference of characters is an essential difference , and not an accidental one as Piccolomini wishes . Not only does Aristotle hold this to be an essential difference , but the one which is more important than the others Nor can said that here the station
of
be
of it
be
.
all
...
as
,
;
be
to
to
is
the persons understood for the words the text are clear and Piccolo mini makes them even clearer through his explanation.174
to
,
in
in
;
to
of
”
“
of
45 ).
(p .
,
he
,
in
,
Moreover these are taken differences character virtue and degree vice rather than when Aristotle compares the poets the painters means that both groups make similar ethical distinctions among their objects goodness On the related question the
;
to as
all
,
,
as
,
, in
be
“
at
),
”
as “
be
.
of
(
it
good people character Piccolomini had limited Sassetti offers artistically unsound the notion some distinctions his own He rejects that the wicked may introduced provided that they are punished speaks 1454a15 Aristotle universals requiring that the persons who good are imitated should each one however only much his rank
a
,
,
in
175 ;
to
to
of
to
he
of
.
to
of
,
of
in on
all ,
in
).
(
.p
in
a
by
"
be
he
be
is “
"
,
,
it
if
permits with this reservation however that were necessary invent tragedy bad person should not made good and where accompanied goodness must fall misfortune the personage given only average goodness the action which the tragedy imitates 218 All the objects imitation Sassetti tries restore place clarify some the ethical distinction the social one and the misunderstandings about character
...
a
is
,
in
is
a
in
,
on
denied
method
passage
:
of
or
absence verse general remarks
its
is
depending upon the presence which also interesting for
or
of
.
of
:
is
,
passes over Piccolomini and returns On the means imitation the necessary com earlier commentators his general thesis that verse ponent poetry The possibility poetry greater less perfection
,
if
if
,
by
,
a
of
;
of
poets into perfect and imperfect seems completely useless and this division they belong outside Aristotle's intentions first because the imperfect poets species poetry should have been mentioned they under Aristotle and
if
,
,
of
;
it
,
de
74 : “
174
is
of
;
it
,
are not results that we should not mention them either next art never con finally siders any but the perfect form that thing which treats this same poetry are Piccolomini's explanation correct that the two universal causes
,
)
556
;
la
.
,
tuttauia
che
se
.p
le
."
,
grado suo con questo riguardo faccia buono
(
si il
buone ciascuna però quanto comporta fusse necessario fingere vno cattiuo non
le
,
."
la
in
il
: "
175 si , e ., .p le ,
,
....
le
il
,
si
,
,
e
è
,
., .p
possa cauare che Ibid Da questo testo pare che diuersita Costumi differentia essentiale non accidentale come vuole Piccolomini non solo Aristotile stima questa essere una essentiale differenza ma quella che piu uaglia che tutte altre puo dire che qui s'intenda dello stato delle persone perche parole del testo son Ne più chiare chiarisce Piccolomini con sua spositione See also 203 parla persone che s'imitano Ibid 221 uniuersale uolendo che tutte sieno
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
POETICS :
and verse , it follows that no poetry can ever exist without because no effect can ever come into being without causes
verse ,
176
.
its
all
imitation
,
in is
,
is
as
,
72 ).
.p is
(
of
a
by
;
:
,
all
,
The argument runs thus the means are three language rhythm and har mony and rhythm includes verse Poetics 1448620 cited the authority although Aristotle's meaning stretched the implication that verse rhythm part necessarily Sassetti would thus demand verse is
le .
,
his
,
on ,
,
;
,
he
,
(
.p
26 )
,
;
he
quotes Castelvetro and Horace against including comedy admitting Piccolomini however that reason sufficient without authority the authorities says are side beginning with Aristotle genres
is
all
,
a
in
it ,
69 ).
He does not instruction
.
.p
(
additional end
of
that there
to
in
on
to
indicate specifically
objects
pleasing
he an
anywhere
the representation
is
found
of
in of
,
be
;
poetry argues for Sassetti's definition roundabout maintaining that Aristotle's remarks the the pleasure found unpleasant objects are meant imitation stress the greater pleasure
way
by
belongs
he
to
of
.
of
to
of
(
.p
39 ).
;
be
as
“
As is
52 ).
.p
(
be
all
no
,
its
a
in
"
a
,
He rejects Piccolomini's statement that the imitation made con long attioni since this would make action means three poem fulfilled there basic conditions will means are present requirement that they used simultaneously poetry concern two subjects The marginalia relevant the ends purgation and credibility We have already seen that the end pleasure
of
as
it
as
on
.
,
an
)
is
if
.
it
by its
;
to
,
(p .
,
of
to
he
purgation speak But when comes characterizes the end tragedy meanwhile correcting Piccolomini 103 habituation giving moral effectiveness really tragedy purgation intrinsic end produce through quality then must effect and not through quantity tragedy are pity and fear But Sassetti contradicts The passions purged ;
in
to
The whole argument
like
on
:
.”
,
in
"
“
“
only the
the better whereas fear concerns given this passage
is
is
of
be
,
he
,
it is a
;
is
,
-
.
un
is
of
Piccolomini's contention that the more important the two fear this says frequently speaks pity without Aristotelian For Aristotle mentioning fear implying that the former may produced alone any passion proper given tragedy feelings this because our about
,
.
it
of
be
,
...
whereas compassion can fall upon those who are feeling compassion for the misfor we
because
,
,
is us .
Lastly
while de
176
for those like
20 : "
because fear are not like
us
,
do
a
.
,
,
,
to
us
us it to is
this text that not always true that those things which compassion also move fear and this for many reasons First because many times we have compassion for one who may have lost thing which losing we not possess whence we cannot afraid ourselves And another
We should note
move
questa diuisione Ibid Poeti fuor della mente d'Aristotile prima perche
la
,
, di e
di
se
e'l
,
se
se
,
al
et
,
in
e
,
."
le
la
ne
la
se è
In
le
:
,
; di
,
da
i
.
., .p
perfetti imperfetti pare tutto uana Poeti imperfetti sono sotto una spetie Poesia doueuano essere mentouati Aristotile non sono resta che anche noi non poi l'arte non considera mai perfetta forma quella debbiamo farne mentione non spositione del medesimo Piccolomini che vuole cosa che ella tratta ultimo buona che due cagioni uniuersali della Poesia sieno l'imitare segue che non possa uerso mai trouarsi Poesia senza'l uerso perche niuno effetto puo mai nascere senza tutte sue cause
)
(
557
POETIC
THEORY
tunes of someone , we do not have time to think about our own , but we continue to think about that evil which he is suffering . Therefore , since tragedy must always move compassion , as it seems that Aristotle supposes when he constitutes the personage fitted for tragedy , and since it is not always necessary that fear should follow compassion , one must conclude that tragedy principally arouses and purges compassion.177 Sassetti clearly sees factors tragedy .
of personal involvement as influencing
the effect
of
On the other hand , credibility depends rather on the quality of the poem itself than on the knowledge of the audience, and Sassetti attacks Picco lomini's subtle differentiation between comedy and tragedy on this score . His is an interesting position . He sees the situation as distinct from that in painting , where our pleasure is related to the knowledge of the subject , "whereas poetry makes us entirely capable of the things which it recounts , nor is it necessary that we worry our brain to ascribe this action to that given person ; for poetry tells us sufficiently who the person is who does to to ,
,
a
-
art
, ,
in .
its
in
178
that action , whence we derive a universal pleasure not dependent upon individuals . " This would make the more self sufficient less rhetorical general operation However Sassetti still finds need for the poet
of
is
to
is
,
).
(p .
to to
of
,
he
;
to
in
he
”
as
,
in
“
is of
;
to
credibility tragedy attend must use known names order make the marvelous actions better heroes acceptable the audience comedy where credibility just important avoids the use known personal criticism which keep from falling into the kind names proper two essential related this matter Indeed 143 satire be
his
)
in of
do
he
...
:
to
?
of
?
to
to
:
( or
history considerations about art How much should nature allowed supply particularities the poet And how much the audience marginal affect the work the poet Sassetti tackles these problems note Piccolomini on Poetics 1454a10
da
177
as
be
.
to
it
a
those terrible misfortunes which are demanded
in
,
to a
so ,
of
do
to
of
, is
,
it
says that the poets derived the plots for their seems that Aristotle when tragedies not from their own art but from fortune scolding them men who are not willing use the power their art but have recourse fortune When they they submit very uncertain thing because might that none tragedy have ever happened
,
.
de
è
il
,
a ' in
, di in e
ne
." il
, e
tal
fa
ci
la
,
la
la
si
la la ,
,
: “ la
la ne ci 178 fa , a di ., e , p .
,
,
a '
poter pensare casi d'uno non habbiamo tempo nostri ma perseueriamo tragedia muouer considerare quel male che colui patisce perloche douendo sempre compassione come pare che supponga Aristotele quando constituisce persona atta alla tragedia non essendo sempre necessario che alla compassione seguiti timore debbe tragedia ecciti purghi compassione conchiudere che principalmente Ibid 147 doue Poesia interamente capaci delle cose che ella racconta in
compassione
,
è
, la
à
,
ci in
la
la
di
,
à : “ E
ci
., .p
questo discorso che non sempre Ibid 105 notare uero che quelle cose compassione muouono muouano timore per molti rispetti vno perche molte quale noi non habbiamo uolte noi habbiamo compassione che uno habbia perso una cosa perderla noi onde non possiamo hauer paura l'altro perche timore simili compassione puo cadere doue non simili ultimo perche mentre che noi habbiamo che
)
(
558
il
si
,
è
."
ci
à
,
,
à
quella persona percho mestiere d'applicare col nostro ceruello questa attione bastanza dice chi colui che faccia quell'attione onde caua diletto uniuer indiuiduj sale non applicato Poesia
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
,
to
to
all
to those men whom a people consider to be famous . Hence poets , if they wished to follow things which have actually happened , could not compose tragedies . Moreover, it might well not be proper for the poets of nations use with equal opportuneness the misfortunes which happened those ancient Greeks
.
he
,
so ,
he
rather than
takes into account the characteristics and the beliefs own potential audience number the remaining marginalia Sassetti corrects Piccolomini interpretation These concern largely plot what specific points plot simple plot meant 166 unity the epic 377 invention .
his
is
(
of
,
;
.p
in
;
,
.
,
pp
,
(
is
and character what meant ethical 114 115 116 "
.p
,
175
tragedy may
“
;
a
, .p
the stage
how
104
be )
the tragic act
Otroudaias
of
on ;
.p
,
;
250
,
by
.
of
by
.p
plot
does
of
a
on
In
of
,
and that when
179
of
in
that the poet makes his plots
legend
of
is a
as
,
in
,
so
of
The answer would seem taking them from history
be
a
or to
,
of
of of
not only because the great disparity time which reason why the customs greatly but and the opinions men vary well because the diversity very great difference places and humors laws also cause
between the third and fourth requisites for character These contribute less than the others an original Sassettian theory poetry and Aristotle Neverthe individual interpretation less theory and interpretation exist even these scattered fragments
,
.
of
.
used
the
approach
,
of
strict Aristotelianism
of
a
method that should
by
be
in a
providing
the fullest extent He believes .
to
in
do
as
,
Sassetti sees the Poetics
poet
to
do
an
of
220
).
.p
the real difference
he
of
by
.
,
;
to
of
but one contained within the text the Poetics and not dependent upon other works the corpus thus frequently reproaches Piccolomini with erroneous reading For the art itself pleasure rather than reference
is
(
discover whether these same ten own commentary the Poetics
.
on
to
Sassetti's
.
of
or
,
is
it
later date
,
under
dencies manifest themselves
in
,
opportunity
a
fit
or
)
,
an
,
is
instruction the end and achieved artistic devices verse one which themselves produce pleasure which operate upon the passions which the particular needs the audience We shall have them
CONCLUSIONS
on
to
of
a
in
in by
.
of
a
to
fairly distinct character The period from 1562 1575 thus presents the Aristotelian tradition during the Renaissance These are growing activity years marked the translation and commentary the student
179
,
of
;
the Poetics Italian the major documents are Castelvetro's and Picco lomini's extensive works and the vernacular translation Giacomini ,
si
,
,
si
,
à
si
,
si
,
in
,
;
se
i
di
,
,
, al
le
gli
i
,
: le “
., .p
Ibid 216 pare che Aristotile dicendo che Poeti non dalla propia arte ma dalla riprenda come quegli che non fortuna cauauano fauole per uoglion loro tragedie ualere della forza dell'arte ma ricorrono alla fortuna sottopongono che fare una cosa quegli huomini che uno popolo stima famosi non ben certa perche potrebbe essere che questi casi non fusse mai accaduto alcuno terribili che n'una tragedia ricercano onde Poeti uolesson andar dietro alle cose accadute non potrebbon comporre tragedie auuenga si
)
,
.”
la
,
si
la
di si
;
559
(
le
di
i
è
, à e
,
i
,
, e
de
è
de
,
che possa molto bene non conuenirsi che Poeti tutte nationi seruano cosi acconcia quegli antichi greci non solo per disparità dell'età lunga che mente casi auuenuti cagione che costumi pareri degl'huomini uarijno tanto ma ancora per diucrsità luoghi grandissima differenza d'humori delle leggi che anco questa causa
POETIC
THEORY
brings the number to three . Besides , the continued effort toward vulgariza tion is apparent . Orazio Toscanella presents a digest in his Precetti neces sari of 1562 and Giovanni Fabrini is much concerned with the Poetics in his Italian commentary on Horace . This was in keeping with — and indeed was partly stimulated by — the heightened intellectual life of the Italian cities , these groups
In various
academies .
of
gentleman - critics
and
of
of
the
amateur literati worked very seriously with literary problems, one
most prominent of which was the discussion of the Poetics . The Accademia degli Alterati stands out among them for the number and the intensity of these discussions, as well as for the quantity of manuscripts which have survived ; but one should not overlook the contributions of Maranta to the Accademia Napoletana , of Lapini and Strozzi to the Accademia Fioren tina, of Bernardo Tasso to the Accademia Veneziana . The removal of the
Poetics from the scholar's study and the university lecture -hall to the open disputes of the academies was a considerable factor in the growth of know ledge about it . One direct consequence translation .
is such a work as Giacomini's
Bonciani wrote his discourse on the novella and Strozzi lecture for presentation academies did Maranta his reflec epic Sigonio's Latin treatise the Aeneid the dialogue
as to is is
on
,
to
.
an
as
tions
as
:
the madrigal
on
on
works
his
There are other consequences . One of them is the repeated attempt to adapt Aristotle's principles to genres which he had not treated or to later
,
,
its
is
,
,
.
,
.
.
to
in
as
-
, to
is
century
.
,
a
,
in
,
;
Furthermore there into the interpretation documents
poems are subjected analysis contemporaneity occasional attempt introduce the Poetics itself Sassetti did several
sixteenth
of
certain number
early years frequently gives the growing polemic speeches Petrarch and Boccaccio are examined and an
academic
of
to
Divina Commedia rise
of
as
or
of
of
.
,
of
but was not intended for public presentation Another many the fact that the documents coming within this period tend include consideration Italian works and even contemporary ones examples theory The most striking case perhaps sources the the same kind
is a
,
in
.
in
,
is
or
in
of
in
activity Concomitant with this growth the vernacular there being decline the amount work done Latin No single new Latin commentary published during these years although translation
lec
.
we
on
.
no
,
of
,
,
,
a
to
in
Vettori's compendious volume was republished 1573. Nicasius Elle attempt paraphrase and commentary and bodius was the only writer this perhaps significantly remained unpublished So did Maranta's tures treating both the general content the Poetics and certain specific problems This does not mean that the scholars were longer working have traces
in
,
for
of
correspondence and controversy the between Maranta and Vettori and between Ellebodius and Sophianos but these did not bear fruit they had the past Perhaps this turn toward the present toward Italian literature toward Aristotle
]
(
560
in
.
,
,
;
as
exchanges
POETICS :
VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES
the amateur academies , accounts in part for the fact that Plato and Horace
tend less to dominate conversation about Aristotle than they had in pre vious years . This tendency should not be exaggerated . For our study has shown that comparison among ancient authorities continues to be a favorite form of elucidation , that both Horace and Plato are still called upon constantly for solution of the most difficult problems in the Poetics . But the favorite game of parallelism seems to be played less vigorously , and there is a growing desire to find solutions to Aristotle within Aristotle , either within the one central text or by reference to the rest of the corpus . There are , as there had always been , attempts to discover and apply an Aristotelian method, to speak in terms of the four causes and to insist on syllogistic analysis — these not always with great success . One has , how ever , the sense of a fairly fresh approach , probably because the gentlemen of the academies were less limited by the tradition of the universities than their predecessors had been . As for the interpretation of the Poetics itself , certain problems persist , others tend to disappear, new emphases make themselves felt . Of the old problems , the most perennial is the text , and we may ask whether any forward steps were made by a group of men who were not primarily philo
I
(
the excellent
).
;
,
,
,
of
of
,
to
of
his
think that the answer is affirmative, especially if we recall some conjectures of Ellebodius and friend Sophianos un fortunately not published and hence unavailable the reading public These men were course philologists connected with universities but some their contemporaries also made on occasion useful suggestions logists.
,
,
. , In
as
we .
,
I
,
if
in
of
.
of
for the improvement the text More important still they made definite the translation the Poetics The three successive versions are believe successive ameliorations take our criteria clarity con
progress
,
of In
.
at
.
of
in
of
,
,
of
,
as a
is
of
language which cision and the use neither cant nor jargon the Latin well we find good solutions although these are Ellebodius frequently lost the context the paraphrase interpretation remains very much alive The issue least two cases
, to
,
we
.
of
,
of
those Castelvetro and Gratarolo the authority Aristotle and the general validity the Poetics are challenged Do need they ask take
as
,
a
is
of
.
of
he
he
in
to
on
,
of as
.
to
?
as
necessarily infallible this man and this document And they proceed quite complete rejection But this from there not general tendency explicit and without being Aristotle's defence was Giulio Del Bene most critics the period still assumed that was infallible and discovering what went the important business meant Part
in
in
,
as
it
.
,
of
in
that discovery consisted the reiterated controversy over given words and public phrases much now conducted Italian and discussed sessions Such stock passages those containing the words uiunois
by
to
,
as
it
so ,
)
if
do (
561
is
of
,
,
:
,
,
,
purgation veri ποίησις αμαρτία λόγοις ψιλοίς such central notions similitude plot and the four requisites character continue arouse they interest and debate and because they are regarded
POETIC
THEORY
of this period as the fundamental issues of the Poetics . I think that it is possible to generalize with respect to their findings, admitting always
men
-
a
of
.
-
in ,
its
that there was never any unanimity and that the generalization represents no single theorist. Poetry comes to be distinguished from imitation as a species from genus and the poetic imitations are separated from non spite poetic But poetry remains few dissenters and subtilizers
,
by
in
.
,
of
,
is
all
of
is
as
,
,
all
in
is
to
.
of an
as
,
and instruction
in ,
of
poetry remain what they have been throughout the century sometimes with pleasure standing end
The ends pleasure
to
inextricably linked with verse and the argument whether verse usually decided genres especially comedy required the affirm ative There some clouding these terms especially imitation reference Plato
it
as
,
is
It
.
-it
-
to
of
.
,
,
to
itself more usually with pleasure subordinated the utility moral exemplification and preachment Here purgation enters for taken was mean the expulsion undesirable passions pity and fear and others provides the most effective means for achieving usefulness still
to
an
to
of
be
is
to
of
if
.
to
of
.
in
on
;
,
to
Plato but less prominently than before discussion centers more directly the passions concerned and the ways plot and which purgation works Questions character are made poetry For unruly pleasure given relate the ends the answer which Aristotle gave
of
of
.
no
is
artistic necessity
at
is
in
this connection that there
,
)
of
least one
which would demand to
”
“
absent for artistic rather than for and the marvelous are also related ends the first establishing the condi hence moral effect the audience the second creating strong effect upon the emotions and hence pleasure
.
of
,
in
-
,
its
of to
,
a
of
tions belief the possibility
–
of
of
.
"
,
of
in
(
"
there
or of
be of a
But we should note
Piccolomini notion plot present that elements natural reasons Verisimilitude plot the capacities achieve
spite individual theorists organic conception poem from which nothing can
"
,
of
“
,
.
as
removed
In
be
to -
on
of or be of
removable depending the decision quotations about the soul tragedy plot the organizing element the
trace
as a
of
is
It
of
be
.
”
,
”
in “
or
and organized
of
the
“
of
vulgus plot must made certain known materials thought largely certain convenient ways kind argument scenario which episodes are added for purposes amplification and adornment episodes which may considered integral audience
although
,
"
“
So
.
of
in
to
,
Similar considerations affect ideas about character and Aristotle's four are studied over and over again the desire make them serve credibility and moral instruction better are his the purposes requisites
or
,
is
in
]
[
562
of
precepts
for
the multitude
.
set
of
a
it
audience
make
of
who would amuse and instruct
the Poetics
an
to
the poet
in
fests itself
is
the twisting
of
in
an
so .
,
in
a
to
;
the decision
as
,
worse
”
“
and to
,
”
“
this case there more controversy whether these involve an ethical social opt many distinction most critics for the latter but there are nuances their reasons for doing enduring Horatianism mani Perhaps the most subtle way which
like
relevant
POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES Castelvetro is , of course , the prime example of this , since his theory is so completely directed to the masses . But he is not alone ; in almost every theo rist , one may ultimately see the audience as the primary determinant of poem's content and form . Audiences differ . Piccolomini's is more imaginative and intelligent than Castelvetro's . But are ever resent system that continues rhetorical essential workings Once this basic position has been taken less necessary than had been not long poetry compare since rise the defence and merits
Utility
has
and now the job
in
-p
to
it
—
its
—
(
it
.
its
in
or to
this time been established for each specific see how art may serve this utility The
.
.
,
audience
its
to
to
to
)
a
the other arts
be is by of , it to is
all
the
One has the impression
on
no
, ,
.
as
to
,
of
of
.
of ,
,
,
is
to
of
,
;
is
,
of
superior appeal accessibility poetry because the senses and the passions often stressed but the defensive even apologetic tone longer needed From Horace and the rhetoricians again stem the com plex and numerous components the theory decorum which still informs much the thinking about character about plot and about credibility both related
,
be
to
It
563
]
[
.
Aristotle
of .
by
is
of
of
on
the interpretation
, of
,
less
,
is
these years
in
it
in
,
the whole that the total interpretation rigid and more fluid perhaps more vigorous than had been the years immediately preceding remains seen justified whether this impression the events the following years when the influence the current literary polemics made itself strongly felt
Aristotle
CHAPTER TWELVE . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S : IV . THE EFFECT OF THE LITERARY QUARRELS
POETICS
T:
THE EFFECT
of
the current literary quarrels upon the interpretation
of
to be perceptible in the materials studied in the last chapter . Only one quarrel had been involved , that over Dante's Divina Commedia . In the years to come , this polemic will continue to influence the thinking of the theorists, and to it will be added two other major literary debates : that over Tasso and Ariosto ( implicating the whole theory of epic poetry ) and that over Guarini's Pastor Fido (neces sitating a re - examination of the whole theory of dramatic poetry ). Im mediately after 1575 , the most prominent is still , of course , the quarrel over the Poetics had already begun
to
other academies and other cities begin
an
.
,
of
in
fact some the first documents that we shall chapter will echo the sounds earlier philologists Latin with rather more interest
the present
by
generation
of
offered
study
In
old problems are not forgotten and traditional solutions
be ,
be
to
continue have
sure
to
To
.
,
as
the dialogue ranges outward participate
.
of
its
Dante ; the others enter the picture at broadly spaced intervals . All this activity reflects increasingly the successive “ vulgarization " of the Poetics , spread into constantly broader circles discussion From Florence
in
,
,
in
is
by
.
,
of
we
it ,
in
.
in
is
,
it
.
of
—
in
-
works Horace than Aristotle and such works will appear constantly throughout years only major published commentary these The the decade Riccoboni's and Latin Alongside shall find several manu script translations and commentaries Italian manifestations the growing excitement within the academies
his
commentaries
In
, his
'
,
the early Horatian
of
,
returning
to
Portus
is
in
,
by
is
clearly represented The old tradition Franciscus Portus omnes Sophoclis tragoedias Mponeyoueva published posthumously son Aemilius 1584 probably written around 1575. One feels indeed that the beginning
an by
of
,
in
of
;
of
of
,
in
of
frequent citation spite the century Aristotle some the passages the Poetics but they the Prolegomena are direct translations
:
.
of In
he
.
a
of
by
some
them apply at
to
of
)
564
.
to
by
(
to
,
to
the former others the latter according the difference express them their talents tried means imitation This came about first ,
ing themselves
of
.
,
fortunate and unfortunate events And thus those first men
of
.
I
,
.
or
,
in
as
to it,
is
is
,
to
of
be
In
.
,
its
it
from
of
comedy and indeed every form poetry derived from nature and origin receives fact man born for imitation and adapted can immediately and easily seen children themselves who learn means imitation do whatever they do Now men imitate either happy sad things For human life revolves almost entirely about these two pivots mean ,
Tragedy
of
of
as
explanations which have distinctly medieval flavor We are followed may take example his treatment the Ajax one paragraph collapses much the content the early chapters Aristotle
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS by chance , as even Aristotle affirms . Then , the matter having come to the attention of those who were more skilled and more capable through the sharpness of their
.
its
genius , both comedy and tragedy gradually grew and made progress , first modest , origin springs from divine things then considerable . It is believed that
:
of
an
its
of
,
is
,
on
is
.
so
of
entirely out Except for the last sentence the paragraph Aristotle and quantitative tragedy and the following section the origins parts But then Portus continues with array distinctions that recalls Donatus and Diomedes and Badius
,
.
,
In
; in
on
,
of
in
,
,
,
:
,
is
While there are other differences between tragedy and comedy this the prin cipal distinction comedy the circumstances men are middling the fears tragedy small small the perils the endings happy the other hand the per mighty great endings sons are the fears the mournful the one the first events
historical
its of
is
,
.
truth
up a
,
in
subjects tragedy often seeks them
.
to
be
.
in
in
in
,
to
be ,
;
,
tragedy instead the beginnings are happy and are disturbed the last are serene peaceful the endings are violent and sad And tragedy portrayed the kind comedy the kind sought Lastly comedy invents life avoided
to
is
.
to
of
to
of
it ,
,
,
an
is in
.
;
,
In
comparison between Euripides the same prologue Portus draws Sophocles and rhetorical criteria alternate with references Aris praised for being more accessible totle Euripides the ears the inducing people more like action This orator more capable
", ad
“
as
“
as
in
his
for
is
It
he
but poetry
.
severity with the sweetness
.
;
always tempers gravity This gives pleasure But pity and wonder ranslating Olktos "
grandiloquus
of
,
"
",
sublimis
", "
tragicus with gaiety
"
."
To
,
.
skill
he
the many sententiae
in
because
his
of of
and commonplaces which uses and disputation moving the passions skill meaning aptissimus that Aristotle calls him tpayIKÁTOTOs taken Sophocles are applied such epithets mouendos affectus grauis because
its
in
of
)
by his ,
of
(t
for
,
,
at
"
(
&
13 ).
,
(p .
"
of
)
in
of
he
also arouses the tragic emotions kai dažua and these vie with pleasure the general effectiveness tragedies The use the Greek phrase and translation misericordia admiratio the two tragic emotions makes one wonder how clearly Portus this point had the text the Poetics .
mind
: à id ,
,
,
illi in
.
.
vel
,
iis ,
,
,
:
re
ab
,
,
, )
,
&
,
vt
,
(
,
,
imitantur autem homines laetas vel tristes Vita enim hominum his quasi duobus vertitur cardinibus secundis inquam rebus aduersis Primi itaque homines alij has alij illas pro diuersitate ingeniorum sequuti eas imitando exprimere sunt conati casu primùm hoc accidit qui erant Aristoteles etiam testatur deinde notata ingenij acumine valebant vtraque res Comoedia Tragoediáque paulatim solertiores ,
agunt
vel
res
,
,
ad
,
11 : "
), .p
(
ea
ab
:
in &
1
Tragcedia Comoedia atque adeò omnis poësis Prolegomena 1584 natura quod fluxit suum ortum accepit homo enim imitandum natus aptusque est ipsis statim infantibus facilè cerni potest qui imitatione discunt agere quaecunque etiam
,
)
565
,
&
:
,
,
historica fide petit
.”
saepe
ab
Tragoedia
in
,
.
fingit argumenta
,
,
,
,
: in
in
&
:
in
à
.
,
&
In . :12 in “ ,
&
.p
Denique Comoedia
(
exprimitur
.
,
,
in
.
est "; &
,
,
progressus primùm modicos deinde magnos fecit Ortus eius rebus diuinis manasse and Inter Tragoediam Comoediam cum alia intersunt tum illud discrimen Comoedia mediocres fortunae hominum parui metus parua pericula Tragoedia contrà ingentes personae magni metus funesti sunt exitus exitus laeti sunt Tragoedia contrà principia laeta illa turbulenta prima tranquilla postrema pacata Tragoedia vita fugienda exitus turbulenti funesti Comoedia vita expetenda creuit creditur primis
THEORY
POETIC
In 1576 , the In Q. Horatii Flacci librum de arte poetica commentarius of Aldo Manuzio the Younger was added to the long list of such studies . It made the customary allegations of parallelism between Horace and
.
After
initial definition
of
does draw upon the Poetics
an he
and here poetry harmony
an
the
Aristotle , but in surprisingly modest number ( see Chapter V , p . 194 ). In the commentary itself there is very little of interest for the study of Aristotle . Manuzio prefaced it , however, by prolegomena in which he considers relationship between imitation and poetry essentially one problem —
He
by
.
in
he
,
of
be
may thus
called poetry
;
,
,
.
of an
:
of
;
of
or
,
,
he
a
as
to
,
.
He finds five genres enumerated Aristotle the epic tragedy comedy the dithyramb and the gnome and the question arises whether the last two contain imitation Manuzio derives the answer from series distinctions about the dithyramb the dithyramb says sings the praises Bacchus ,
logues
,
his or
—
,
,
as
rhythm imitation using language and the additional means singly together poetry may and meter states that exist position without verse thus taking the current quarrel thinks that Aristotle admits poetry with and without verse and that Plato's dia
of
as
,
.
be it is a
,
;
if
,
?
A
;
if
..
they are true history and not now praises are either true false they are false what imitation can there without the image truth double answer suggests itself For first concerns that part imita imitation
,
I
be
,
.
,
is
as
or
I
in
”
;
no
is
, “
is
which made through Nóyos concede that when true things are nar there imitation about the false things do not feel the same way they are such For false things are either verisimilar cannot happen Every imitation drawn from the verisimilar ones nobody imitates those which can tion
rated
, it
,
is
in
it
.
of
of
it
is a
,
no
to
.
as
,
of
,
.
of
place for the true but verisimilar things are more numerous poem because therefore believe that the dithyramb Bacchus some which are true but the majority which
I
...
than true ones praises consists
of
the epic there
is
, it
its
to
be
to
.
if
not done But with verisimilar things true ones are occasionally intermingled the imitation ceases exist insofar true things are being narrated Still does poetry because treat verisimilar that but since continues not cease things tragedy and takes name from the imitation The fact not that
are verisimilar.2
.
is
and harmony
to
the definition are satisfied
,
rhythm
, : ) , si .pp
.
,
of
because the dithyramb also argument then applied same The uses meter gnomic poetry Manuzio reiterates the same ideas on truth and verisimili
Other demands
fit ; in ,
:
,
in ob
ab
; ca ,
.
,
de
,
ad
;
ex
.
si
;
.
,
,
,
.
,
? si
** v : “
_
**
,
,
,
,
.
,
(
2
Commentarius 1576 nam laudes aut uerae sunt aut falsac uerae Duplex falsae quae potest esse sine imaginc ueritatis imitatio historia est non imitatio quae Aoyo occurrit responsio nam quod attinet primum eam partem imitationis falsis non idem sentio sunt enim imitationem non esse concedo cum uera narrantur falsa aut uerisimilia aut quae fieri non possunt uerisimilibus omnis ducitur imitatio quae fieri non possunt imitatur nemo quod uerisimilibus admiscentur interdum uera desinit esse imitatio quatenus uera narrantur nec tamen poesis non est eam caussam sed
...
,
.
)
(
566
,
.
,
ex
,
. "
,
:
,
quia uerisimilia persequitur tragoedijs aut imitatione nomen capit non enim aut Opinor igitur Poema epopoeia nihil ueri locum habet sed uerisimilia plura quam uera quia constet Bacchi laudibus nonnullis fortasse ueris plerisque tamen esse dithyrambum uerisimilibus
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS tude in connection with lines 1-23 of the Ars poetica , on imitation as the distinguishing mark of the poet in connection with line 151 ( pp . 2 and 35) . Throughout , Manuzio reflects the concern of his contemporaries with the problem of truth ; but he differs from many of them in admitting the pos sibility of poetry without verse . Plato rather than Horace provides the point of departure for Lorenzo
he
of
.
his
Gambara's Tractatio de perfectę poëseos ratione ( 1576 ). As has already been pointed out ( Chapter VIII , pp . 305–8 ) , it is a document which Christianizes Plato in order to make an appeal for a new Christian poetry . Aristotle enters the argument in several capacities. First , he is the authority for the preference for what is verisimilar and necessary to what is true , and this preference is turned by Gambara to own purposes Whoever portrays in
,
of
to
is
A
as
to
of
—
of of
,
,
:
“
as
of
be .
,
says departs from the truth and moves the perfect model man the direction what might The poetic art becomes one meditation and pious and Christian episodes opened actions are used vast field writers not for inventing but for meditating piously many things and for drawing them from the springs theology things which are most useful and pleasant for the persuasion human minds and well adapted more 3
."
,
of
of
to
poetry
...
they
,
to
in
if
,
be
men gloriously accomplished
,
actions
of
and
in
,
the actions
and
.
in
to
poetry are deliberately Here Aristotle's distinctions with respect favor of rules which would further its didactic ends
aside
set
.
of
,
...
the very truth solid virtues in
,
,
.
a
of
of
good and happy life But life and for the promotion imitation must have regard for what we imitate and why and with what means and sought what manner certainly the rule for every proper imitation must
in in we
,
in
,
,
in
be
,
a
,
tion
down double end for poetry the one imitation the other instruc seeing whatever may adapted that the poetic power lies the imita any action passion character pleasant language for the amendment
of so
,
tion
set
:
of
a
.
of
of ,
Gambara uses these demonstrations the precedence Biblical writings over those the Gentiles Finally Aristotelian elements enter prominently into rather complex statement the ends and workings ;
rhythm
as
as
of
.
is
of
receiving the narration episodes over events inserted Aristotle's conception poetry thus completely reversed Second the Poetics gives poetry the desire the natural causes imitate and harmony and
ad
,
,
."
)
ad
, ad
,
,
,
, &
&
,
567
(
si
.
. . .
,
ex
beateque viuendum quid quare quo imitatione spectandum ipsa rerum veritate imitemur sane rebus hominum praeclarè gestis virtutibus petenda erit omnis rectissimae imitationis ratio
&
sit
,
,
in ,
At
est ad
sit
,
."
24 : “ ,
vt
., .p :
*
,
,
,
&
ex
&
23 : “
,
,
), .p
(
3
pijs Tractatio 1576 christianis scriptoribus latissimum patere campum theologię fontibus haurienda quae vtilis multa non confingenda sed piè meditanda sima iucundissimaque sint permouendis humanis ingenijs rerum autem narrationi inter positis illis tanquam episodijs valde commoda Duplicem porro finem Poëtices statuunt imitationis alterum alterum Ibid poëtica facultas Doctrinae videndi quodcunque accommodatum imitationem cuiusque actionis affectionis moris suaui sermone vitam corrigendam bene quomodo solidisque
POETIC
THEORY
ORAZIO CAPPONI AND TORQUATO TASSO ( 1576 ) The next set of documents to be examined returns specifically to the Poetics . It consists in a set of remarks on Piccolomini and on Castelvetro by two writers , Orazio Capponi and Torquato Tasso , who were engaged in 1576 in a correspondence about these very questions . Of the two manu scripts by Orazio Capponi, the first , his Censure sopra le annotationi della Poetica d'Aristotele del Rever , mo Monsig.re Alessandro Piccolomini , is found in the Biblioteca Comunale of Siena , MS C.VI.9 , folios 50–53v ; I have
to it the date of 1576.5 It contains a series of separate paragraphs on passages in Piccolomini which Capponi refers to by “ particella " and page numbers ; the general method is similar to that of Sassetti's Discorso . Capponi usually rejects Piccolomini's ideas in the particular passages assigned
:
rather with those of Maggi , Vettori , or Robortello , or own solutions Two major topics preoccupy him whether .
his
studied , agreeing
proposing
(
be
,
.
by
1448a16
,
He refers
on
to
50v
Why then did Aristotle include
he
:
(
a
to
specific differentia meant establish tragedy and comedy
).
fol .
by
.
to
of
)
”
“
,
”
“
good and bad for persons imitated constitute specific differences tragedy need among genres and whether the plots and characters previously known Both were discussed Sassetti On the first Capponi states firmly that the distinction between good and bad objects Aristotle
it
,
at
of
do ,
of
to
and not
of
them for
all
we shall reprove Aristotle
character
us , ,
of
one who enumerated only three
to
the worse with respect
those that
he as
in
,
if
is
?
... And
if
here
or it
the better
?
tween them which consisted
in
And there were another specific difference be the things imitated why would Aristotle not have imitating there another which does not consist
these two poems specifically mentioned
,
of
we
.
is
no
?
is
it
this place where seems indeed that treating the specific differences which exist between these imitations And things and there doubt that these differences instruments the man say that they ner are specific Why then should want not differentiate
to
or
The question
of
. 6
should have
,
he
,
a
.
.
to
a
in
of
is
how such goodness badness made known the audience involves Capponi discussion new and traditional plots and characters He tries steer middle course between the conflicting views previously expressed When both plot and persons are known says the
or
of
,
,
be
.
in
to
poet must conform every way the accepted opinions about them appear they lest his imitations false When are newly invented their good apparent only through ness badness character must made not their
, e
?
:
fra
si
di
,
è
ce
se fra
."
)
568
Arist come quello che n'habbia :
E
?
...
costumi riprenderemo non tutte quelle che deueua (
annouerate solamente
quanto
a
peggiori
in tre , e
migliori
o
i
:
se
? e
.
e
in
.
),
(
,
Rinascimento
51 : “
.
.
,
“
..
Nuove Attribuzioni MS Bibl Com Siena C.VI.9 fol .
6 5
III 1952 257-59 questo Perche dunque l'ha numerata Arist Juogo doue par pur che tratti delle differenze specifiche che queste imitationi ritrouano non dubbio che queste differenze d'istromenti cose imitate del modo non sieno specifiche per qual cagione dunque voliam dire che non diuersifichino specificamente questi due poemi altra differenza specifica fusse loro che consistessi nelle cose imitate perche non harebbe fatto qui Aris mentione altra n'è che non consista nell'imitar See my
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS own choices and actions within the tragedy but also by expository reference ,
if
.
known through history He thinks that Aristotle tragedy declared that 1451619
no
a
,
at
he
their actions must also
was arguing inconsistently when
,
be
.
is
53 )
fol .
to their past actions . Here the various devices of the dramatist's art must Capponi's general position be used ( that characters are known
be
).
.
.
is
on
,
of
(
a
it ;
in
might exist with known personages such tragedy would less perfect than one presenting known persons fols 52-52v plot He argues Throughout one Capponi's main preoccupations ,
(
or
'
....
,
it
,
not present
the
.
his
for
observation
of
)
his
of
.
a
shrewd
somewhat enlarged
in
discussion
Capponi's
letter
to
.
145361
is
The area
fol .
(
"
“
of at
on spectacle
So is
?
.”
is
On other passages agreement with Maggi and views are less acceptable early tragedy must have been the one who Vettori that the one actor misunderstanding expounded the plot Aristotle 51v and for his
This
is
a
it
,
fell from how see they will also purge and diminish the other passions true that will move and purge very little since the interweaving
of It
on
hearing Oedipus happy state into
misery
whole action
fol .
be a
to
to
of
of
is
to
compassion he
“
to
through
at
“ a
of
to it .
a
a
If they are moved
:
a
than whole plot weeping coming
,
.
,
52 )
of
,
all
"
of
single for Robortello and against Piccolomini the interpretation relationship episodes action and on the Aristotle's statement single thing seems cogent 1451a30 that arts imitate him plot refutation those who would argue for multiplicity action necessity less moving He points out further that single episode
in
in
he
to
he
his
is
, .
for .,
)
his
(
of
;
on
a
by
,
,
27 ,
Lionardo Salviati dated September 1576 and now found the Ambro apparently answer sian Library MSQ.113.Sup folios 155–58 Capponi ing might use request Salviati remarks which own commentary the Poetics hence remains less closely attached Piccolomini although some the comments are repeated and expresses .
So
in
).
,
a
it
in
in
of
( as
)
in
as
(
on
ff .
in
of
is
more clearly own opinions about Aristotle He also more directly concerned with textual matters his notes on 1453626 and 1448637 parts and with general questions the order the Poetics his doubts whether 1454a3 should appear where does the text Some the problems the Censure reappear approached now from different
is to ;
of
a
,
.
1459b22
)
.
in
of
).
in of
"
Aristotle's statement
(
.
of fol “
(
as
”
of
“
of
,
all
of
of
to it
,
.
requisite angle goodness for the question character Capponi believes after comparison passages that Aristotle means require characters not only the one upon whom pity falls He willing admit bad characters when they are necessary for the conduct unity plot tragedy involves the tragedy 156 His discussion place interesting way Challenging considerations both time and an that the difference between tragedy and the
a
il
ui
si
, e
in
si
569
)
(
."
.
di
...
è
li
di
a
si
52 : “
.
.,
, e
7
compassione nel sentir pianto d'Edippo venendo Ibid fol Se moueranno veder per questo com'egli stato felice sia caduto miseria purgheranno ancora gl'altri poco affetti purgherà per non diminuiranno ben uero che poco moucrà tutta l'azzione essere l'intessimento
POETIC THEORY epic in length and complexity of plot results from the difference between a dramatic and a narrative form , he maintains that the tragic plot may be just as complicated , that events which occur off stage may readily be narrated , and that such events are just as much " imitations " as those
actually represented . The real difference , he says , is in the length of time involved , and he expresses surprise that Aristotle did not emphasize it further . Moreover , it is probable that the difference in place is also important : Perhaps it could be said that, while the epic can contain actions which are done in very remote places , and tragedy on the other hand can contain only those nearby , it would not be verisimilar to receive , within a matter of hours, informa tion about other deeds . Therefore the epic may contain a greater diversity of episodes because in very remote places more diverse actions may take place than in those nearby . 8
Capponi thus seems to be moving toward Castelvetro's position , if for different reasons . He disagrees with Aristotle , again , on the difficulty of perceiving a very small plot ( 1450b39 ) . The smaller the better, in fact, for a small plot ( unlike a small animal ) would have fewer parts and their
of
to
as
as
its
relationship would be easily perceptible. Finally , he thinks that at 1451a36 Aristotle is begging the question which he sets out to prove . We should interpretation note in this letter the serious attention paid to the text and question the authority and the method well the willingness
on
to
of
having written Torquato Salviati Capponi speaks Perhaps the subject was again Aristotle for we ,
this letter
,
the same day
.
Tasso
to
In
.
Aristotle
in a of
to he
of
it
to
.
di
.
on
of
,
,
;
or
of
of
,
of
his
,
in in a
us
,
of
is
at
.
to
in
he ,
,
,
to
a
to
Capponi dated 1576 speaks letter from Tasso which planned his objections Castelvetro objections which state projected treatise Tasso's jottings have come down manuscript published which also the Ambrosiana and which was 1875 under the title Estratti dalla Poetica Lodovico Castelvetro Using his copy the 1570 edition Castelvetro Tasso makes extracts from and them approval disapproval Most appends expressions these are brief some are quite pungent some also concern themselves with Aris have
of
If
,
.
,
.
a
directly From them emerge Tasso's ideas number central poetic questions He rejects first Castelvetro's thesis that the materials
totle
it
no
,
be
57 :
!
‘
.'
be
, it
of
: "
of
poetry and history are the same the material the poem were that history very thing would the same and therefore would not praise for similar Answer that one Besides the poet would deserve
.
uicinis
195-96
570
)
(
.
Guasti
, I,
,
Lettere
ed ." .
in
in
.
in
In
9
quam
,
“
.
in .,
8
MS Ambrosiana Q.113.Sup fols 156v Fortasse dici posset quod cum epopeia continere possit actiones quae remotissimis locis gestę sunt Tragedia autem eas tantum quae uicinis alias non esset uerisimile spatio horarum resciri Idcirco maiorem dissimilitu dinem episodiorum potest continere cum remotissimis locis magis diuersac fiant actiones
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS it , since he would have made no effort to invent it . This is a better reason . " 10 If one thinks correctly about imitation , one will have the answer about the materials, for “ the imitation required of poetry cannot be called imitation directly ; but it can be called a rivalry of the poet with the arrangements of fortune or with the course of mundane affairs . "
11 As
for the end of such
imitation , Tasso believes that it is restricted to pleasure (without utility ) and that Aristotle meant to treat only such poems as are performed in the public square “for the pleasure of the people ” ( “per diletto del popolo ,” p . 285 ). Hence he quarrels with Aristotle for having introduced the whole question of purgation and for having treated it as he did , without proof and without cogent arguments .
,
tragedies which ,
the other kinds
be
all
at
of
all
it
much that because
of
;
of
no
,
he
,
is
of its
himself ; for having said earlier , where he is seeking the pleasure end now directs tragedy toward utility souls which utility account must taken
of be
so
least not
at
or
is ,
Aristotle contradicts origin of poetry , that that the purgation
to
in
.
so ,
to
as
?
of if
.
of
,
it,
rejected do not have will And indeed we are have some consideration utility for utility why not another kind those tragedies which contain good men from misery happiness which confirm the opinion the passage people providence that the has about God's And forth.12 : an “
is
;
is
13
Castelvetro
."
.
in of
of
a
is
in
quickly summarized you will The whole argument later passage pleasure and that poetry see that the end the poet not imitation history Read the text and the commentary you will find inconsistency
,
:
“
of
to
is
"
all a
"
.
,
of
,
of 14
, "
is
,
of
it
of
he
of
unity especi Tasso finds Castelvetro most unsatisfactory on matters ally when unity other than that plot advocates kinds Note that seems that Castelvetro holds that several actions may become one through place person the unity time not merely through dependency applied This most false The same epithet falsissimo Castel
of
a
.
of
a
,
ed .
,
10
;
tragedies and comedies have double plots this vetro's contention that variety personages from false supposition that multiplicity plots He believes that the whole
comes says Tasso necessarily means
il
di
."
è
.
.
della fortuna
,
della disposizione
è a 'l se
.pp
12
."
o
si
può appellare gareggiamento del poeta imitazione ma del corso delle mondane cose
e
si
la
a
a
si
.
tu a
,
la
: “
, I,
,
: “
. ; , .p
11
ne
, e
,
In
Prose diverse Guasti 280 Se materia del poema fosse quella dell'istoria perciò non sarebbe simile Rispondi questa Oltre poeta sarebbe quell'istessa ciò miglior ragione non meritarebbe lode perché non sarebbe faticato trovarla Questa poesia non può chiamare direttamente Ibid 284 La imitazione richiesta
,
in
,
di
,
.ec "
; de '
la
di
di
, , o
si
lei si
il
ha
,
,
,
di
a
la
,
o
'l
,
se
,
ne
E
di .
se
;
la
a
13 ; ne le ? ., .p
,
: “
là
.,
Ibid 283–84 sopra Aristotile contraddice stesso perchè avendo detto Tragedia dove cerca l'origine della poesia che suo fine diletto ora drizza l'utilità purgazione degli animi della quale utilità cioè non deve tenere conto alcuno Tragedie almeno non deve tener tanto che per rifiutino tutte l'altre maniere pur dell'utilità s'ha d'aver considerazione perchè non d'altra sorto che son prive quelle Tragedie che contengono d'utilità come mutazion buoni miseria feli quali confermano l'opinione popolo della provvidenza cità che Dio
."
è
la
, e
e 'l
)
(
571
."
.
la
,
'l
,
,
,
:
e 'l
'l
:
: "
., . .p
14
290 Leggi
il "
poesia non vedrai che fine del poeta diletto che imitazion testo comento troverai contrarietà nel Castelvetro Ibid 282 Nota che par che Castelvetro voglia che più azioni possano divenir dipendenza Falsissimo una per l'unità del tempo del luogo della persona non solo per Ibid dell'istoria
POETIC
THEORY
difficulty may be solved by admitting the possibility of greater or less simplicity within unity and that this will explain why the epic , while still unified , is more complex than other forms ( p. 294 ). On the epic specifically
form which interested him most personally ), he states that it is capable magnificence , of a more marvelous quality , than other forms of by ; p ( . 289 ) “ magnificence ” he means essentially the ornaments of lan peculiar conditions Vergil guage , justified in the epic by several of superior epic poet would thus seem Homer Homer particularizing was concerned with what proper poetry general proper that imitation Vergil universalizing had mind what the ( the
,
.
is
to
,
in
“
:
an
is
,
15
,
."
is ,
1576
us
of
)
BALDINO
the magnificent
(
,
that
in
,
;
is ,
epic
to
as
to
to
be
its
greater
to
.
of
is
de
a
,
it
as
The most curious document the year 1576 returns Aristotle himself presenting does translation the Poetics into Latin verse This Bernardino Baldino's Liber arte poetica Aristotelis versibus
is
.
a
, to of at
as
to
to
a
of
,
of
an
;
de
“
.
a in
in
us ,
,
in
,
of
an art
of
arte poetica
”
,
et
latine expressus published Milan The phrase Liber way prepares the title for the general form and tone the translation for Baldino makes the Poetics kind Horatian complete with poetry invocation the muses and not without occasional anachronism such reference Roman actor At times the original text followed fairly closely others there are rapid sum
fideliter
be
of
A
Et
,
,
:
,
.
or
complete gaps general idea Baldino's technique may had from the following lines corresponding the beginning Aristotle's text Plura loqui nobis opus est artemque poesis maries
Et
;
,
;
&
,
genera uires quo gratas texere pacto Fabellas deceat uatem qui ducitur arte
ac
.
;
;
,
quae membra sibi quas culta poetica dotes Vendicet ars cuncta tuo natura tenore notumque prius caput eloquar artis Educam
Vt
aliique poetae
.
,
Sunt imitatores alijque
;
,
usu
Vt
,
in
Atque alij quibus est plectrum queis tibia propriis Helenes expressa coloribus ora
.
, &
,
,
qui cantat epos tenui nec uoce tragoedus Comicus tenuis dithrambique inclytus author
.
,
ab
.
ut
à
;
Sunt Zeusi caput Veneris depinxit Apelles Hique uel ritu docti uel arte magistra ,
.
,
se ,
,
,
,
,
&
,
ut
&
,
in
Roscius scenis uerbis gestibus ore gestus effinxit Voces ora uirorum Sic rhythmis sic harmonia sic uoce canora Assimilant aliis alij ceu citharoedus Tibicenque aliique uelut queis tibia cordi
)
(
572
,
è
al
a
,
,
,
.
,
"
, : “
.
al
in . , .p
15
proprio della quel che Ibid 291 Omero particolareggiando ebbe riguardo proprio dell'Epopeia generale cioè l'imitare Virgilio universaleggiando Poesia mirò magnifico cioè
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
It
is clear that while the meaning
an
as
:
.
of
all
of the text is given fairly accurately now , and then the exigencies of the verse and the desire to create a given poetic tone preclude the possibility of any careful distinctions of meanings. Sometimes, instead, the translation reflects the current misconceptions example the verses presenting about the sense the text We may take the distinction between tragedy and epic ,
,
,
;
Inter epos tragicumque poema hoc conuenit ambo Reges magnanimosque duces genus atque Deorum epos metris sed pergit eisdem uariique pedes numerique cothurnis Aptantur tragicosque dies amplectitur una ,
:
:
calcem
;
Complectuntur
Ad
sed plures aeneis tenditur annos
:
:
Actus
quamuis extenderet ante poesis omneis Sed quas coepit epos sublime recepit Insuper alias inflata tragoedia partes
the definition
tragedy
,
for 144967
)
;
-
.Pp
B2v
:
those which translate
B2
de
Or
of
(
.
ac
,
&
.
se
Vtraque
,
,
fines porrecta
breui neque margine pressa
:
Ad
,
, , et
.
tragicis est rebus sermo futurus Nunc mihi Nobilis nitido spectanda tragoedia cultu Est grauis egregiique actus imitatio certos
;
B2v
for
1449624
)
;
,
( . P.
&
,
ut
,
;
,
Cui musaea mele cui mixta locutio rhytmis Addita quaeque metu pietateque pectora flectit Fluctibus uariis animos exoluat aestu
Filippo
,
or to
the text
.
of
to
no
to
of
a
,
1576
)
(
the exegesis
SASSETTI
as a
be
Baldino's translation may taken curious and unique exercise reflecting kind accumulated popular tradition with respect the Poetics but making serious contribution either the translation
earlier work with the Poetics both on Piccolomini's Annotationi for the Accademia degli Alterati and his marginalia the preparation for his own translation and same book may considered work
this
1575 and probably
,
(
untitled
.
25–26
)
573
(
.pp
Filippo Sassetti
,
See M. Rossi
,
16
.
as
a
of
and constitutes clarification and expansion what Sassetti had said writings his earlier Rather than taking the early commentators
its in
on
of to
-
of
as we
to
,
in
is
it is
as it is ,
.
a
of
,
a
a
)
;
but commonly called the Sposizione della Poetica the Biblioteca Riccardiana MS beginning on what was 1539.16 Sassetti made little more than have been compendious volume for the fragment forty five pages which have goes only from the beginning the Poetics 1449a2 and includes well fairly long preface Such original ideas full the Poetics it
the manuscript
in
He began
the following year
on
to
as
Aristotle
.
commentary interrupted
of
,
be
in
to
,
Sassetti's
POETIC
THEORY
occasional reference goes instead
Sassetti
,
to
the Poetics
elucidate
and the Rhetoric
.
by
to
the Politics
,
the Ethics
,
to
of
an
to
had been content
others
is
of
.
its
point of departure , it develops an independent analysis, discussing predecessors only when necessary Perhaps the distinguishing feature Sassetti's approach his determina tion find Aristotelian method for the analysis Aristotle Whereas the
,
)
,
to
,
he
,
of
of
.
of
of
as (
to
Organon and even the De partibus animalium for statements on such matters the constitution definitions the inductive method and the syllogistic structure Hence while others had been content with criticism discovering the order the parts the text wishes rather determine a
of
all
his hope
of
by
by
.
in
the philosophical reason for their presence the treatise Such wish may have been prompted his dissatisfaction with the method Piccolomini
improving upon
to
,
).
,
fol . ;
.
in
;
of
to
in
severely chided
be a (
his
for
is
example
,
his predecessors Castelvetro for logical deficiencies 115v This does every respect not mean that Sassetti proves sound Aristotelian for some his solutions are doubtful but his attention method does many excellent interpretations result and
a .
,
of
or
.
each one
may
these kinds
no of
of
,
of
,
of
representing
men that character from which perfect teachings
be
,
the true king and lord
in ,
of
“
us :
So
be
of
,
or
the middle state between the two badness high enterprise one poem will imitate valorous men the idea the proper knight the true captain and the
goodness
for goodness placing before
of
to
of
at
of
,
he
of
of by
paradigms
form
he
to
of
.
he
us
preface This attention allows understand why wrote the kind did for his commentary For the preface seems first reading poetry kind Platonic statement the didactic and political ends says but poems within each genre are dis Not only different genres tinguished persons they imitate and these persons are the kinds
,
17
,
;
,
.
the country
:
happiness
in
in
of
that this depends upon the general state
all
.
us
all
at
all
,
us
of
all
we
. "
of
with learning any ugly thing from that work Sassetti maintains poetry for the pleasure which they afford but that read kinds laugh weep some make others make We must wonder then places Sassetti answers whether kinds are good times and possibility
derived
in
,
in
be
,
of
if
be
,
17
so
to
might well not good show pleasurable spectacles which considerably from believing that that good fortune every well prepared heart should do.18
would distract their minds might some time change
as
these
it
such
as
to
in
of
,
.
if
in
to
be
This matter must decided according the various conditions which men great happiness whence the find themselves For some country abounds citizens derive the highest joy and the souls the good men must such joys they realize that they can fall into misery wise habituated that the midst
e
;
e
, e la
: “
.
)
574
no
si
gl
ne
."
felicita donde cittadini buoni che nelle allegrezze
de
gl
di
grandissima alcuna terra talmente assuefare animi (
e
;
peroche abbondando ritruouano somma letitia deriua douendosi
i
in
82 : "
.
.,
18
;
in
in
di
,
,
MS Riccardiana 1539 fol 81v luno imitera huomini valorosi dalto affare proponen doci l'idea del propio caualiere del vero capitano forma del uero Re signore fingendo queste maniere dhuomini quel costume onde perfetti ammaestramenti possano ciascuna quell opera appararsi trarsi senza che cosa laida possa varij stati quali Ibid fol ma cio debbe deliberarsi secondo huomini
for
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS is
it
he
.
be
or
to
of
and the Poetics
contains nothing but
on
to ,
third category
poetics who will tell him how and the preceptor exactly the correct degree Aristotle falls into the
.
the effects
the precepts and the
“
—
the reigning achieve
in
art
—
:
to
.
to
he
by
,
to
of
unhappy states Now while The opposite would hold true the produce the desired effects function the poet neither decides which effects are wanted nor does know what precepts they may achieved He therefore needs receive advice from two experts whose decisions are prior his own the magistrate the prince who will tell good contemporaries politics thus becomes him what effects are for his
19
in
to
of
."
20
in
;
be
,
be
it
be
;
as
be
: "
a
.”
to
compose their poems well poets how Sassetti hierarchy among the three arts the order among these three arts will such that politics will the noblest and the most important poetry and the one that commands after will the third place put that faculty which shows poets will what way they must compose their poems instructions
establishes
preface separate the determina thus writing poems tion the ends from the the one hand and from the precepts on the other hand setting down dis second function writing light cover what method Aristotle uses the Poetics and for on is
to
Galen
.
,
by in
Its
a
:
,
,
of
; a
(
an
its
by
of
,
of
which he finds
methods method defini object analyses the definition into parts and then composition the opposite the successive parts method which division discovers each the component parts
tion which defines treats each
methods
three possible
,
,
Galen
of
the distinction
says had described
of by
he
this Sassetti turns
to
in
.
of
of
on
is
Sassetti's
of
The first function
a
;
or
of
(
of
to
an
of
;
of
of
a
:
to
of
is
a
,
on
to
of
)
is
by
to
I
,
resolution
in
the method
their
explain the things which are necessary showed that this found clear that this treatise the precepts will
poems and since , it ) is ,
of
means
i.e.
of
other purpose than [
has
for their composition
of
no
it
.
necessary components The case
the logical treatises which move from
study demonstration thus clear for the Poetics
of
,
art Aristotle's Ethics and certain knowledge the syllogism and
... since
an
.
its
,
)
or
of , (
;
synthetic
(
or
order Aristotle's treatises natural objects and syllogisms which moves from nouns and verbs and demon the third resolutive order Galen's writings the curative
the second his Organon
strations
on on
)
,
to
of
,
by
a
),
the first object and then combines them into conception the whole and proceeds method resolution which from the knowledge end the discovery example the means achievement As the first analytical order Sassetti cites Galen's own works the medical art
i
il
a
e
."
83 : "
si
la
."
;
le
)
.
.,
la
la
lei
a
in
;
575
(
a
riporrà
piu nobile tale adunque sara lordine tra queste arti che Politica sara come uella che comanda dopo nel terzo luogo sara Poesia quella faculta che dimostra poeti che maniera deono comporsi Poesie ,
e
le
si
: “ in
.,
Ibid fol princi
.
19
la 20
.'
i
a
di
potere cadere nelle miserie stimino costoro facilmente non istara bene mostrare piaceuoli spettacoli quali tanto maggiormente distrarrebbono lanimo loro dal riputare che possa quella fortuna per alcun tempo cangiarsi come pensare dourebbe ogni bene preparato petto Ibid fol 82v esso altro non contiene che precetti ammaestramenti Poeti per che bene compongano loro Poesie
POETIC
THEORY
be given through the method of resolution , insofar as the principal purpose is concerned . But because it is necessary , if we wish to write this or that poem , to know what it is and what it is good for , the demonstration of which is a result of
definition , it was therefore necessary in the first part of this book to use the method of definition , which is itself necessarily preceded by the divisive method ; for no definition can be obtained without
the latter.21
is
in
e
to di ,
of
,
its
up to “
(
,
”
in
it
",
“
fol
in
of
“
per
.
of
its
by
,
of of
;
of
its
As Sassetti sees the Poetics , main problem the early chapters giving precepts that definition before the for the correct composition poems precepts which constitute the must seek the definition art poetry inquiring first into matter and form then into the tragedy combination the two The initial section the definition poetry poesia general will treat and itself della insomma it
),
the same method
to a
Categories essentially
the
as
,
says Sassetti
,
in
followed
This
,
.
each kind
is
.
of
,
.
"
,
se
after which will discuss the species with respect omitting their natures for the time being their subject matter and other differentiating factors Afterward will come the detailed treatment 87v
for
search
that which Aristotle the genus through ,
.
of
on
of
indication
the
as
the second
is
;
the work
it at
he
)
(
to
,
,
to
on
follows
is
the imitation
action
in
the dance harmony
all
language
the above things and through them
either
together
time separately
at
similar
at
of the
worse
all
of the
better
of
of the
in in in
:
as
),
(
,
he
.
of
of
;
differentiae the fourth 1447a18 distinguishes the three means poetry makes possible the later defini tions the separate species When comes the point 1448a24 digresses from his which Aristotle summarizes the three differentiae passages and reduces the materials orderly commentary tabular form ;
the third lists the three
an
is
to
he
as
,
.
of
proposition
general
genus
”
“
of
in
a
of
,
induction passing from less universal more universal considerations discovery then the differentiae and the constitution the species plan constantly keeps Sassetti this mind comments the successive contain the said passages Thus the first sentence the treatise
one
different
times the poet
maintain
those
narrating
ing his Own
who are
person
as agents action
22
always
himself
imitated
in
and trans forming
and not
si
576
)
dimostro che cio
a
le
lo
spianare che cose che comporle ritroua per mezzo della resolutiua disposizione
non hauendo altro intendimento
hauendo
(
fol 84v
io
ricercano
: "
Ibid
., ; et .
si
21
changing
11
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS Sassetti maintains that the definition of every poetic species may be derived from this table , and he offers some examples . But he qualifies Aristotle's treatment by insisting that it covered only the “ perfect " species : “ it
...
as
a
”
“
a
his
.
he
,
,
all
the others
,
;
method
does The elements
into the definition provide two the causes the material and the will come along later and we shall thus have four of
entering
all four causes Sassetti believes that .
consideration formal
in
treat poetry completely Aristotle must include
of
to
If
he is
.
so
to
his
should be clearly noted that since in this book the precepts of true and perfect poems are given , only those things are considered in it which belong to these poems, and the precepts for them are given . " 23 Thus Aristotle imperfect should not be blamed for failure treat form the pastoral
because poems are inventions
our intellect which imitates nature
)
which
(
...
of
causes
of
,
of
kinds and the
dif
matter and form are
in
as
all
matter and that which
to
,
in
...
,
to
,
proportion corresponds have that element which corresponds form which are the imitation common poetry just ferences these are causes which are
to
)
:
in
be
.
in [
all
of
as
be
four just the causes natural things are four which are composed matter and form and have the efficient cause which made them and the end poems ... since these also for which they were made These will found will
natural things.24
;
la
a
il
è
o
è et a ;
e
i
in
questo trattato precetti saranno dati con manifesta cosa che resolutiua dispositione quanto appartiene allo intendimento principale bisogna ma perche voler comporre quello che egli questo quel poema sapere quello che egli buono che dimostrare di
de
sopradette e
cose queste
e
non
i
co
si
i
."
in
questo libro precetti delle che dandosi appar queste esso considerano che a
si
: “
et .
.,
., &
loro che simi tano
Ibid fol 108v egli dee bene auuertire poesie uere perfette quelle cose solamente tengono precetti sene danno Ibid fol 118v lequali percioche sono imita natura saranno quattro sicome quattro 24
come adoperanti enfaccendati
persona
sempre mutando
tempo
separatamente en diuersi tempi
in ."
23
poeta
per
si
il
sua
la
conseruando
si
tra
e
narrando
mutandosi
tutte insieme vno stesso
in
le
attione
e o
d
l'imitatione
nell oratione tutte in
de
: "
.
.,
.”
si
la
ua
e
la è
effetto della diffinitione però stato mestieri nella prima parte d'esso libro adoperare potendo diffinitiua dispositione alla quale necessariamente innanzi diuisiua non senza essa procacciare alcuna diffinitione peggiori Ibid fol 115 de migliori simili nel ballo nella armonia
]
[
577
e la
la
si
a
il
, el
; e le
la
le
. le
le
le
et
,
e
di
;
.
di
e
...
."
...
(
: "
.
)
la
poesie inuentioni dello intelletto nostro che cagioni delle cose naturali quali sono sono composte materia forma hanno causa efficiente che fece fine per quale esse furono fatte hauendo esse ancora quello che proportionatamente risponde alla quello che alla forma che sono l'imitatione comune materia tutte quante differenze lequali sono cagioni che sono nella poesia come materia forma sono nelle cose naturali
POETIC THEORY As for
the efficient and the final causes , Sassetti finds them in the paragraph
on the natural origins of poetry ( 144864 ). To distinguish them , he must divide the paragraph differently from Maggi (whose divisions he normally follows ), breaking it after the parenthetical section ending with Tpctas . In this way the natural disposition to imitation becomes the efficient cause the pleasure derived from imitation becomes the final cause relationship between the two is stated by Sassetti as follows : and
The
.
of
, it
in
.
to
)
(
it
all
Since this power ( of imitation ) is one of the cognitive ones , which operate for pleasure or for utility or for what is honest , it follows that one or several or generate poetry But because Aristotle these things moved the human mind things which imitate says that the cause was the joy that every man finds
,
a
in
be
to
us
to be
the last parts
of
by In
us
.
...
it
be
is
to
follows that pleasure the end which moved the human mind create poetry even though this pleasure may such that can include the useful and the poems must way that they honest used which are composed such delight honestly.25 and bring profit
be
,
In of
.
the
to
or
is
obliged
,
is
.
is
,
”
"
the text
poems the genus whether another genus interposed between imitation and the individual species He
decide whether imitation poetry
of
it ,
of
,
to
us
Poetics Sassetti discovers own interpretation light what earlier commentators had done with
he
his
of to
.
at
his
of
his
,
this passage Sassetti allows himself influenced theory produced may preface the which and there some doubt about the solidity own method this point Applying these various methodological distinctions the text the
is ,
art
,
,
on
" :
“
in
and these are the same ones which ,
is
of
it
is
that one may say that the three differen through which one kind poem different from another are ,
,
25
Sassetti
is
by
which they are composed
divide the generic nature hence
them
their function the which one species different from another ,
of
“
but because those things
tiae named
as
be
,
26
In
. "
.
connection with
makes the following philosophical statement are those
;
or
a
in
of
is it ;
of
the differentiae which divide the genus
...
is
its
“ a
to
be
and affirms that the genus
its
,
his predecessors
it
imitation for single species considered altogether will name given having any proper differentia any proper nature which without species way distinct from each one these that they would possess one differentia more than and imitation will the true genus whence Object species the essence the derived manner and means are rejects
poetry
il
sia
sia
il
in
le
si
.
o
o
si
tre
di
;
e
la
a
el
e el ci
e
...
."
ci
dilettino
.”
si
578
)
(
il
lei e
di
o
da
: “
.
.,
giouino honestamente Ibid fol 89v uno nome posto alle spetie singolari dessa tutte insieme considerate una propia natura laquale sia diuersa senza che ella habbia una propia differenza ciascuna desse spetie perche elleno abbondino duna differenza piu limitatione sara piglia vero genere donde lessenza delle spetie 26
disposte che elle
ne
la
1
1 o
ne
: "
.
1
il
e
o
il
.,
Ibid fol 119v essendo questa potenza una delle cognoscitiue lequali muouono per piu tutte per utile per honesto egli seguita che una queste diletto cose poesia ma perche Aristotile dice che siano state quelle che hanno mossa allo ingenerare questa rallegrarsi ciascuno delle cose che imitano seguiterà che stata diletto poesia auuenga che questo diletto fine che mosse l'intelletto humano creare tale poesie adoperare maniera possa comprendere deono honesto utile che
POETICS : EFFECT
LITERARY QUARRELS
OF
In
the ones which divide the imitation . " 27
such judgments as these the
methodological concern is paramount . When he comes to the actual discussion of the differentiae , Sassetti finds himself on much more controversial ground . Means , object, and manner had been interpreted in many ways, and he must decide among them ; and
of
óyos especially
which are not to the means. nell oratione ; The meaning
.
all
almost everywhere he makes decisions of a partisan nature justified by the Poetics itself . So , for example , with respect He translates the terms for the three means as “ nel ballo ; e nell armonia " and provides a lengthy discussion of three
no ,
;
)
.
in
all
-
),
is
to
know what
."
,
"
",
,
worse and like Sassetti this point insisting that these
" on "
"
imitation
is
of
.
by
",
“
”
do
a
“
by
to
as
to
corroborate his thesis the objects The difficulty with respect good and bad meant better strong position against takes Piccolomini
a
at a
,
. , fol
(
.
"
-
,
,
“
way
( of
of
,
it
is
he
troubles him and after examination his predecessors that must include the concept verse fols 94–94v poetry possible without verse Hence later point the translation becomes ballo melodia verso 100 and the passages which traditionally aroused dispute 1447a28 1448all are interpreted such decides
of
,
to
,
" 28
or
.'
fortune
of
by “
as
a
to
in
which men have been placed any theory which ascribes them distinction the condition
be
or ,
and not Therefore
to
,
.
be his
,
a
capable distinguish distinctions constitute substantial differentia ing one genre from another He proposes theory own that however one interprets the terms themselves they must referring taken actions status
a
to
he
,
messer Agnolo Segni who believes ,
of
find much more probable the opinion by
or
he
.
,
of
,
)
publication
:
its
(
in
I
version before
in
,
station condition will false and Sassetti disagrees both with Piccolo mini and with the earlier commentators He finds solution rather his contemporary Agnolo Segni whose lectures read must have heard their original form 1573 -unless course had access the revised
”
“
,
it
it
—
of
of of
in
be
91 : "
27
,
to
be
to
in
in
-
of
,
”
“
that the better Aristotle here meant the heroes who are not called better because they were masters the others but because since was thought that they descended some way from those false and lying gods was probable body joined with that them were found greater vigor both mind and greater prudence than were found men Aristotle's time.29 è
e
.
in
e
e
i
di
sia
;
(
"
)
(
579
III )
la ,
: "
(
Pt .
of
letter 1573 MS Riccardiana 2438 bis egli stesso studia Segni's lectures
in of a fol . 2 ).
."
,
il
gli
."
da io
; e
e
da
;
e
di
si e
in
dAristotile non ritrouaua Note that Lorenzo Giacomini Sassetti speaks leggentela segni con bella frequenza to
la
le
e
le
si si
." ha
: “
: “
.
.,
.,
.
28 29
i
il
;
è
di
.
.,
Ibid fols 90v ma perche quelle cose per lequali una specie dall altra diuersa compongono questo sono sono quelle delle quali elle medesime che dividono natura generica qui possa che dire tre nominate differenze per lequali luna poesia diffe rente dall altra sono quelle che diuidono l'imitatione riguardo alle attioni Ibid fol 107v non allo stato nel quale sono huomini stati posti dalla fortuna loppinione Ibid fol 103v molto piu uerisimile giudico che ms Agnolo Segni quale per migliori crede che fussono intesi qui quali non sono chia Aristotele gl'eroi mati migliori perche fossono signori degl'altri ma perche stimandosi che discendessono bugiardi uerisimile era che qualunque maniera quegli Dij falsi loro fusse maggior uigore d'animo corpo aggiunta con maggiore prudenza che negl huominj del secolo Poetica
POETIC THEORY
runs afoul
Sassetti
).
103v
the old Platonic
his
(
actions
fol of .
in
,
In
considered ,
of
must
the manner
all
of
On the subject
be )
that these differences
.
fol .
Social station here seems to be replaced by qualities of body and of soul rather than by the accident of divine descent , although Sassetti does not go so far as to make of it an ethical distinction . “ Likeness ” would differ from the other two terms by referring to the present century ; for it is possible to imitate virtuous and good actions as well as wicked and bad any case Sassetti reiterates his insistence ones in our own time ( 104
,
to
in
poem can
an
how
see
be
cannot
the poet speaks constantly
his
.
But
a
as
,
he
,
on
the mixed manner
imitation
own person
.
,
.
a
as as
its
in
an
).
as
Others such ,
tradition
.
own method and from the pressures
the lengthy wonderings over the use
of
cies
of
of
his
of
.
(
as
or
,
,
by ,
it
;
if
poem
—
The pure narration other becomes imitation only because work such two means harmony and the dance are added And Vergil's Moretum spoken entirely the poet cannot rank either epic fols 107-112v poem deriving from the deficien We must regard some Sassetti's failures is a
and hence dithyramb
he
"
“
is a
.
to
”
“
imitation
to
mean dramatic representation and care for untangle the knot He discards Castelvetro's method does not enable him notion that there modo similitudinario addition the three discards Piccolomini's refinements manners usually distinguished use
of
,
in
of
,
at
,
,
.
of
—
of
of
as
be
to of
an
to
as
ĚTrotolia 1447a29 are ascrib scholarship able erroneous reading the text which the state his time did not permit him correct On the whole however his com regarded mentary must the period one the most remarkable especially because his careful study method and we can only
.
of
in
an
in
as
to
it
he
beyond the first few chapters did not push the Poetics His promises treat utility end connection with purgation and the pure narrative form connection with the dithyramb remain unful regret that
In
.
filled
in
, .
in
a
,
in
of
.
a
to
of
of
of
a
of
,
),
be
.
,
to
for this figure Imitation according objects the true the verisimilar the false
,
virtue
connections with Horace and Plato 310 this lecture belongs the development theory imitation four classes Bonciani may
VIII
.p
its its
Aristotelian tradition
by
.p
VI ,
see
.
of
,
as
,
,
called prosopopoeia Aside from Chapter 201 and Chapter
(
its
in
,
his
,
1578 Francesco Bonciani delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina the Biblio three manuscripts Lettione della prosopopea now found treating teca Riccardiana This differs from other works kind literary genre rather than rhetorical figure used various genres Orators poets and philosophers alike represent inanimate objects and animals human beings and such representations constitute the figure
,
of
to
-
)
(
580
is
—
;
,
,
we
us
.
:
,
and the impossible these prosopopoeia imitates impossible things and those false things which are not verisimilar Since this imitation generates pleasure the marvelous things teaches did not previously know Bonciani able con
An
his
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
.”
30
,
by
of it
by
to
,
,
or to
or to
to
or
of
“
:
in
,
is
to
, in
, , or in
an
of
prosopopoeia impossible definition imitation appropriate way made the simple narrative mode the delight persuade mixed the dramatic order teach point out that imitation here does not mean dramatic He careful representation but has rather that broader sense given elsewhere stitute thus
things
: " a
the Rhetoric
of
an
by
an
,
an
of
a
it
of
in
,
especially
." 31
person means words repre thing gives sents the form and the nature and motion The imita tion the impossible itself becomes possible through the workings the imagination which combines known parts into unknown and unnatural
Aristotle
is
of
,
be
to
.
or to
decorum
within the figure and they seem verisimilitude Of the three ends mentioned ,
are demanded
to
related either
.
as
,
appropriateness
in
,
”
In
:
. “
in
appropriate way explained the definition objects one must not animate which their natures are too far distant from animate things Petrarch did with his sighs Other kinds whole
example
is
it
of
,
of
( by
,
kind
“
of
as
is
,
Bonciani thus constructs
.
the orators
little .
at
,
&
is
1 ,
of
,
of
,
,
Il
of
”
to
he
speech which around the figure has chosen elucidate All the preliminary materials accompanying the editions Sforza d'Oddo's comedy L'Erofilomachia ouero duello d'amore d'amicitia August bear the date 1572 and the exact date 1572 found the
of
poetics
a
by
is
course
)
of
by
,
in
the definition pleasure the servant instruction although some persuasion prosopopoeia times used alone the poets means
al
of
I
it
of
I
it .
is
,
,
at
,
de '
of
da
Cagli's Discorso intorno componimento della Bernardo Pino printed treating tempi comedia nostri which with am the Discorso earlier have found no edition the present place however because end
is
a
,
its
he
,
wicked
,
of
:
and
or
their subjects
men who are more unfortunate
by
the imitation
be
Comedy must not
be in
in
the two dramatic genres lies the social status interprets Aristotle this light
of
,
.
of
,
in
, in
essentially than 1578. The Discorso the midst discussion which Horatian sources and theory calls upon Aristotle for enlightenment on two matters the distinction between tragedy and comedy and the limita tion the comic subject For Bernardo Pino the basic difference between
in
d'una cosa
,
, o
in
l'abito
, e
la
forma
maniera conueneuole fatta fine d'insegnare dilettare mouimento
de
ed .) , .p
con parole ritragga
a
cose impossibili nel rappresentatiuo , e
misto
of
of
in
Imitatione , o
: o "
.
altri
: “
fol . ."
134v
In ."
.,
Ibid dia
32
le
31
o
.
MS Ricc 1539. fol 134 nel modo narratiuo semplice persuadere
...
di
;
as
,
30
in
of to
in
,
as
would seem indicated the word paudotépwv which means viler and persons low and abject comparison with those who are in lower men but tragedy for tragedy princes and kings and other persons troduced highest station are introduced comedy men and humble condition are gentlemen and private citizens.32 introduced such
la
,
di
,
)
(
."
&
581
&
,
&
,
,
di
in
in
, &
...
,
la
: “
,
,
di
,
,
&
,
,
de
,
&
, o
(
L'Erofilomachia 1578 A9 non debbe esser Comedia imitatione piu ribaldi come par che noti parola paulotépwv che vuol dire huomini huomini piu tristi piu vili piu bassi ma persone comparatione quelle che sonno introdotte nella Regi Tragedia Prencipi bassi abietti essendo essa Tragedia introdotti altre persone grandissimi stati nella Comedia introducendosi huomini humile con 17 ditione come sono Gentilhuomini Cittadini priuati
POETIC THEORY
...
The point is restated later ( p. b ), and Pino adds the judgment that the actions of tragedy are , in the last analysis, more wicked than those of comedy, whose heroes are not necessarily characterized by greater vices , greater crimes , or worse actions ; they are merely of inferior station . The question thus arises with respect to the kind of “ badness " to be attributed to comic characters , and again Pino gives Aristotle's answer : is
is ,
by
,
.
its
,
of
(
),
by ,
,
comedy are developed more
of
a
or
this ugliness and
...
pleasure.33
definition
the following passage
by
Nor
fruitful
:
in of
generate any praiseworthy
The nature specifically
or
is ,
,
to
is
as a
is
of
if
in
even Aristotle the Poetics says almost openly that the subject upon which comedy rests the whole argument vice called him kakia such vice not result totally that which the contrary virtue but rather that which opposed beauty that ugliness deformity vice cannot nature
,
an
as
to in
is
to
.
of in
its
”
as
to
it of
...
. 34
,
terror
its
to
pity and
“
”
is
to
“
in a
;
of
as
by
"
“
ugly are we always understand what dishonest and obscene always have the themselves such words obscene and dishonest meaning ugly that which does not have parts evil but we must take proportion and proper relationship Comedy therefore imitation persons and actions lower and more abject than those which are described tragedy and laughter and pleasure just tragedy moves must move
for
in
in
its
is
.
, it is
of
;
it
is
fairly correct understanding Pino's Aristotelianism thus mixed wrong the ridiculous and the ugly affirmation that the differ ences between tragic and comic characters are exclusively social differences RICCO BONI
constituting appear
its
the Poetics
in
work
to ,
Antonio Riccoboni's
on
)
(
1579
totality
of ,
at ,
of
a
;
sit
:
by set a
to
a
to
in
,
in
in
in
"
the Cinquecento
.
,
resembles
it
in
“
of
the Latin Piccolomini's that was published two stages translation professed Padua and the Poetics first then commentary Riccoboni had 1579 he added volume which also contained his translation the following prefatory Rhetoric the items related the Poetics notice pars logicae entitled Quomodo ars poetica brief Variae quaedam the last
great commentaries
33
to
of
.
a
re
,
a
;
;
marginal topical lectiones translation into Latin accompanied headings and treatise De comica The lengthy commentary was not appear until 1585. But the preliminary notice 1579 examines the argu
il
,
,
,
( sic )
tal
lui
da
di
,
è
. . . .
, ò
la
,
è in
è'l
,
: “
., .p
Ibid A11 se bene Aristotile nella Poetica quasi alla scoperta dice che'l soggetto vitio non detto kanda vitio cui s'appoggia tutto l'argomento della Comedia perciò totalmente quello che contrario alla virtù ma quel che s'appone alla bellezza cioè brutezza deformità vitio non puo sua natura generare piacere alcuno
)
(
582
.
,
la
of
and full
:
di
,
&
piu
&
,
,
piu
al
di
e
&
al
very bad throughout
&
,
ha le
da
The text
is
."
&
,
,
a
il
di si
,
,
da
la
&
l'errore
.
alla misericordia errors
&
Ne
."
: “
,
.pp
,
. se ,
34
si E
...
&
fruttuoso per brutto Ibid A9v A10v dee sempre intendere dishonesto l'osceno che per stesse tali parole d'osceno dishonesto hanno sempre significato male prendere quel che non corrispondenti ma per brutto l'ha sue parti proportionate adunque persone Comedia vna imitatione cose vile abiette che piacere come Tragedia non descrivono nella Tragedia debbe muouere riso lodeuole
typographical
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS those who had previously studied the relationship
of
ments
of poetry to
logic : Bartolomeo Lombardi, who had maintained that poetry uses both the enthymeme and the example , just as rhetoric does ; and Iacopo Zaba
authority
so
he
all
,
at
is
his
he
.
to
art
rella , who , in his Logic , had held that poetry teaches by using examples of things or actions ( rather than words ) and that any belongs which does logic Riccoboni astonished the latter argument since believes —
.
in
delimit further the role common with rhetoric
to
“
is
A
poetry
:
35
. "
of
in to
in
its
by
-
on
he
of
—
rhetoric helps him has certain things
Poetry indeed
“
cites Aristotle
the words which express
He
in
as
argumentation takes place that things rather than the things themselves agrees with Zabarella poetry uses syllogism and para one point purpose saying that logism but would revise the position reasoning powers comparison with teach the use imitation and
;
is
of
a
in
.
.
,
its
is
to
;
,
to is
of
,
as
,
to
of
,
of ,
of
to
". 36
is .
itself
to
proper The common ones are sententiae character and diction the proper plot present arguments one One the functions sententiae part but according the Poetics this function more properly aug appealing rhetoric are the other tasks the passions and menting and diminishing The only way which poetry will properly belong logic through one distinctive element plot Now Aristotle certain others
of
to
:
.
it is is
as
,
to
logic nevertheless called logic just also ;
be
may
to of
,
, .
in to be a
it is
;
of of to
,
it is
it of
over language and the order logic because one device
not belong
contains not only the demonstrative discourse logic but also character and passions and more parts nevertheless part said Similarly poetry demonstration addition
the case with rhetoric which through which assigned
its
in
it
has many things which some outstanding aspect
it do
a
of
is
of
a
is
art
;
For although sufficient that
,
of
that recognition and reversal are beautiful parts the plot that recognition involves syllogism which proper kind the art part logic Riccoboni concludes consequently poetry this indicates
is of
in of
,
,
;
ter
,
is
in
sententia which has common with rhetoric treats not only plot whose most important part which called recognition needs the syllogism but also charac and diction and harmony and spectacle nevertheless because one form
36 35
of to
,
,
it
a
be
it
to
to
in
is
in
plot construction and instruction reasoning which employed whose use pertinent the extreme the plot itself seemed the great philosopher part logic.37 Averroës and others that should called ."
in
: "
), .p
."
:
ad
.
&
,
,
: re “
,
,
:
Ac
: “
in .pp
ut .,
37
.
., .p
(
Aristotelis ars poetica 1579 378 docere vsum ratiocinandi imitatione Ibid 378 Poetica quidem habet quaedam sibi communia cum Rhetorica quaedam propria Communia sunt sententia mores dictio propria est fabula Logicam Ibid 382–83 Nam tametsi multa habeat quae non pertinent tamen
,
ac
,
;
&
,
&
,
.
:
,
ad
,
,
aliqua praecipua appellari Logica possit quemadmodum etiam euenit sufficit quae non solam continet oratoriam demonstrationem propter quam reducitur Rhetoricae Logicam praeterea elocutionem partium disposi sed simul mores affectus tionem tamen dicitur pars Logicae propter unum artificium demonstrationis Sic Poetica praeter sententiam quam ipsa habet cum Rhetorica communem cuius praecipua pars quae dicitur agnitio indiget syllogismo
, ,
&
,
,
)
ab
,
."
(
583
fit in ,
,
;
,
:
,
&
ad &
ab
&
,
,
,
non unam fabulam tractat sed mores quoque dic apparatum tamen propter unam ratiocinationem quae tionem harmoniam fabula cuiusque usum docere ipsam potissimum spectat videtur Auerroe maximo philosopho aliis fuisse pars Logicae appellata
POETIC THEORY The reference to Averroës indicates his continued influence , even late in the century , on the interpretation of the Poetics . The " variae lectiones" are few in number and not of any great originality .
of
justifies his choice, at various difficult points in the the solutions proposed by his predecessors , and he does so
merely
Riccoboni text ,
of
one
).
is
.
”
(p
in
of
;
as at
at
alij
of
to
to
a
of
.
it
,
of
“
is it by
,
as
he
cos
largely to explain why he translated as he did . Sometimes his decisions are good, as when he discards the troublesome Trépo 1448a15 elsewhere adopts đupotépois they are bad place when 1447a20 dià Tñs owvñs and translates autem vtrisque 386 Their total effect upon the translation small Riccoboni's translation itself charac vulgarization teristic his times for constitutes kind the Latin
of
of
of
.
.
He makes every effort render his version accessible the reader Marginal notations summarize the content passages the adjacent the kind notations that readers earlier translations and commentaries text
.
of
)
at
,
”
,
vel
(
,
,
”
,
“
,
.
"
;
by
,
a
—
in
to
running index had write for themselves and provide sort Moreover they frequently raise the problems which were most discussed the commentators for example opposite the sentence 1447a28 Epopoeia vero solum sermonib metris Riccoboni writes nudis Quidam exponunt uel pro Idest thus raising the moot question about
Immediately afterward the margin bears this query An Epopoeia possit fieri soluta oratione making the same question even more specific the times conveniently numbered lists are added 386 margins and wherever feasible Riccoboni inserts references works cited up
: “
.
,
to
to
At
.
).
(p
",
.
,
prose and verse
to
tragedy appears
as an
of
,
of
the definition
Est igitur Tragedia imitatio
.
):
(
.p
.
,
almost tabular effect For example follows 392
,
&
,
actionis probae perfectae
habentis
,
magnitudinem
in of
Many
.
.
agentib
&
,
metum inducens talium perturbationum
purga
.
tionem
were dropped when the text was
these mechanical devices
re
,
.
of
but some them were expanded and exploited may think that we state thus Riccoboni's principles for the translation To achieve Latin version simpler and more readable than those hereto adopt fore available means the translation itself firm stand on 1587
)
584
(
render apparent
The first
of
.
to ,
;
possible
the original work
of
,
as
the text
the order the parts and the method
,
a
of
by
disputed questions
of
the
,
;
of
as
many
to
a
:
I
printed
in
&
sed per misericordiam
partib
,
7. 6.
,
suaui sermone separatim singulis formis non per enarrationem
8.
5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
to
,
,
so
up
.
,
is
The text broken into major sections according Riccoboni's own division unnumbered but clearly titled Paragraphs and sentences are also produce broken sometimes with the addition numbers
these
1 POETICS : EFFECT
OF LITERARY QUARRELS
words
farfetched
bybe
a
as it is
)
(
Vt
& in
ita
sermone
.
& ,
Vt
;
.
,
,
dictis artibus accidit etenim omnes imitationem exercent numero dico harmonia hisque uel separatim uel promiscue
,
:
illi ,
,
,
imitantur
enim coloribus atque figuris pleraque quidam aemulantes quidem arte consuetudine quoque nonnulli etiam uoce 39 :
, , p hi .
Maggi
:
by
a
in
of
.
of
;
at
adopts
,
style
all
all
flourishes
uniform terminology ambiguity which eliminates and doubt The results this effort may passage following comparison handled 1447a18 the seen Maggi and Riccoboni useless attempts
variety and sonority
,
word order ; he eliminates
he of
of devices . Riccoboni simplifies Latin way word order in such a as to make it almost as straightforward as Italian all
ends is obtained through a number
figuris multa imitantur aliqui effi partim vero per consuetudinem alij autem vtrisque sic dictis artibus omnes quidem faciunt imitationem aut mixtis harmonia atq his separatim oratione numero
in ;
,
&
,
,
.
,
to
but something more palatable
the Italian reader
we
,
Latinity has suffered
.
;
&
&
,
:
in
,
:
,
.p
Riccoboni 386 enim coloribus giem exprimentes partim quidem per artem
of
”
"
at
“
and
"
meliores
humiliores
by
"
and
"
by .
,
praestantiores
"
Maggi translates
1448a4 and -a17
the first place
"
”
“
worse
deteriores
"
"
and
at at
,
.
,
of
terminology may take the case For consistency the crucial words Betiovas and xeipovas which Aristotle uses for better has been achieved
prejudicing the interpretation whereas Riccoboni throughout peiores As for the second the main objectives make the translation kind interpretation have seen that Riccoboni times obliged resort his marginalia for clarifications Thus 1448a4 having trans
(
to
is
,
,
of
).
,
.p
(
”
,
:
in
,
"
“
nos
id
'
nuãts
secundum
,
“
...
ñ
explains nos the margin est quàm homines praesentis aetatis uel quàm homines communes quales nos sumus 387 This course leaves lated
quàm secundum
he
by
.
at
—
to
kal
at
a
to
—
.
”
of “
and
we
”
“
meliores
of
uses
);
thereby
the second
ad :
"
,
:
-
,
on
,
,
.
,
vt
quam duplicem
,
.
magis
,
esse
quidam
& , &
.
&
,
&
,
simplicem
fabulam
dicunt
by
).
.
( p
habentem 401
ex
&
,
in
in
,
,
Est autem talis qui neque virtute praestat iustitia Neque propter vitium prauitatem mutatur aduersam fortunam sed propter errorem aliquem Eorum qui sunt magna existimatione fortunae prosperitate cuiusmodi Oedipus Thyestes qui talibus familijs illustres uiri sunt Necesse enim est egregie
se
as
a
in
I
;
.”
In
"
,
de
in
.
is
at
de
,
“
ad
,
405
;
of to
the reader other points the stand much clearer On page two the requisites for character are explained the margin quibus alij scripserunt Aequalitas Similitudo refertur eos quibus nos primum scribimus eos the text itself the renderings may seem unremarkable but such passage that the tragic hero the words that have italicized constitute decisions on much debated issues the choice
of
is
)
(
585
.
,
,
of
up
is
of
,
,
largely reached The third objective concerning order and method already means the mechanical devices mentioned the main one which the breaking the text into short numbered sentences
POETIC
THEORY
re comica ( expanded and republished in 1585 as the Ars , comica ) Riccoboni had before him the example of Robortello's De comoedia , printed as an adjunct to the 1548 commentary on the Poetics ; he could also consult , on a more limited subject, the De ridiculis which
For his De
a
to
on
it
.
in a
of
,
a
,
in
of to
of
in
,
to
its
Maggi added to his own volume in 1550. But whereas Robortello spends most of his time in a paraphrase of the Poetics , making a few alterations principles comedy and retailing to adapt the traditional saws Maggi about the form and whereas leaves these things aside order write treatise on laughter Riccoboni addresses himself the task constructing comedy He bases new art Aristotle's statements
is ,
,
the method are less well developed
1579 than they
in
,
,
of
of )
will
1585
his
be
qualitative parts quantitative parts and pointed out here that the conception and the
.
in
.
,
definition should
53
.p
its
:
,
II,
of
.
to in
of is
to
application
comedy
be its
it
,
as
of
his
the ridiculous
It
its
a
to
(
to
he
of
as
general about poetry well about tragedy and the epic and springs conception from his total Aristotle's method the Poetics That apply Aristotle's basic distinctions attempts the treatment the quoted above Chapter comic genre statement intentions single chapter and devote each the major subjects the origin
"
:
“
,
to
,
by
of
,
language
means
the dance
,
of
by
made
,
a
on of
of
action
.
,
,
a
;
, “
it is is its
poem
defective
to
an
in
,
the theater
prose
instrument and fails
com
.
,
,
mand an audience assembled
all
in
is
He holds that any poem too weak
for comedy moreover prose
in is
39
vestment
."
or
of
,
he
,
.
is
in
,
of
38
his
."
to
he
of
,
on As of
matter consisting that Riccoboni elaborates his gloss this one the current debates concerning comedy the means imitation He states that prose not acceptable Distinguishing between usage which authorizes prose and reason which poetic genres argues that verse necessary does not not because proper instrument poetry but because verse constitutes the nature
,
and harmony
: “
in
is
is
, It
.
an
as
"
“
a
in
."
of
"
is
imitation which through the mode laughter vice which moves position definition reveals defined
of
as
,
,
of
to
point departure the laus vituperatio Riccoboni seems take classify hymns and encomia distinction Averroës which permits him then tragedy and the epic under laus iambic songs and comedy under subcategory Comedy belongs vituperatio forms which blame fairly rudimentary terms Comedy means the ridiculous defined
38
,
).
.p
:
he
,
",
” “
,
of
of
the
"
as
is
”
(“
of
Riccoboni's discussion the qualitative parts revolves largely about plot composition fabula defined the materials which imitates actions performed outside the stage Fabula est rerum com positio quae actiones extra scenam habitas imitatur 442 And for plot establishes eight requisites
sit
."
,
)
(
. "
586
,
,
fit
,
,
sit
vt
,
,
in
: "
: “
, . , .p
39
,
., .p
quae Ibid 438 Definitur Comoedia imitatio sermone saltatione har materia eius vitij quod mouet risum monia per modum actiuum proprium instru Ibid 439 non quòd versus constituat naturam poesis sed quia mentum uel uestimentum eius
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS 1. Debet esse tota ;
habere ;
2. Debet congruentem magnitudinem 3. Debet esse una ; 4. Debet esse verisimilis ; 5. Non debet esse episodica ; 6. Debet esse admirabilis ;
7. Debet esse implexa ; 8. Debet esse affecta , vt moueat laetitiam , & molestiam
(pp .
442-45 ).
of
all
The list of requisites recalls the lists of criteria for plot currently being applied in the literary quarrels. For Riccoboni , the oneness and the whole ness are among the primary considerations , and they are conceived of in a way which shows his indebtedness to Castelvetro . A comic action may be many thought of, he says , as a larger one which contains the events .
of
)
is
).
It
.p
(
be
:
(
we
,
an
"
“
,
a
a
is
is
to
as a
,
or
days smaller one which contains only the events the last day The comic plot restricted this totum parvum -which nevertheless complete and has beginning middle and end 443 arguments essentially the audience recognize and here Castelvetro's which imposes these restrictions upon the plot to
,
of
.
,
or
of
is
en
we
.
it
their human needs And thus one the comic plot one two hours nor
hours because
must maintain that the time proper should exceed twelve hours
to
number
of
the theater after
a
of
.
in
to
,
in
a
It
must have suitable magnitude order neither too small nor too large but adapted viewing that time which the spectators can easily support For one must take into account the ease the public and the people must leave
so
of
of of
.
be
”
a
:
of
40
."
in
of
It
: “
“
of
Riccoboni then provides the most succinct statement have far countered the three unities -one which makes unity action depend upon the other two must one ... Moreover the time twelve place does not permit hours and the narrowness multitude actions comedy He distinguishes three kinds verisimilitude universal
),
in
a
of
",
“
at
,
of
at
.
by
).
.
fall into purgation
,
ad
,
ut
Debet congruentem magnitudinem habere nec perexigua nec per eius temporis prospectum quod fert commodum specta commodi popularis habeatur necesse habeat populus post aliquot
sed accommodata
&
actionum
)
587
(
multitudinem
&
,
,
. .
..
...
Comedia
."
in
.
,
.
de
,
cum ratio horas theatro propter humanas necessitates discedere Itaque tempus fabulae comicae accommodatum necesse vnius aut duarum horarum nec duodecimam praeterire censendum Tempus autem duodecim horarum angustia loci non permittit cst Debet esseuna ,
torum
(p
of
,
443
445
: “
. sit , , .p
40
Ibid
magna
wickedness
to
us
;
of
of
,
our marveling
wickedness teaches not The dual poetic ends and moral instruction are thus both served the marvelous similar forms
on
”
a
,
on
;
of
or
in
“
.
of
a
the other hand
),
a
in
be
(
lar
(
to
many persons particu those things which might happen verisimilitude which must nevertheless treated universal way and verisimilitude which consists the giving names befitting the qualities quality usually character The admirabilis marvelous peculiar function associated with tragedy and the epic has Riccoboni's conception comedy the one hand through our marveling some deception ridiculous deception we are purged that same kind verisimilitude
of
charac
,
as
a
,
goodness
”
thinks
the four
obsequiousness
“
of
harshness
"
. “
apparent that Riccoboni
in
-
to
a
as
.
of
:
in
—
—
term for the virtues The second requisite appropriateness the usual components decorum And the third likeness meaning conformity understood two ways either the
all be
cludes may
qualities
—such
.
general
is
.
It
boastfulness
badness
as
“
ter becomes
"
to
,
Just as the requisites for plot are drawn from the Poetics comedy Goodness requirements for character are adapted
so
all
POETIC THEORY
for
(
as
of
or
,
( .pp
”
. “
is a
to
a
,
,
)
-
a
literary tradition associated with given character implying present day personages conformity the conventions comic types Consistency warning against any Pantaleone Gianni Graziano ).
.
he
,
is
to
He begins
of
of
it .
.
he
, a
,
its
all
,
of
in
of
character throughout the course the play 446-47 Ricco average position for the boni represents regarding character kind period with says about the remain doubts and hesitations What ing qualitative parts and about the quantitative parts repeats the Poetics without interpreting On the subject the ridiculous Riccoboni somewhat more original change
is a a
it
"
as
,
of
,
a
41
be
no
of
of
:
.”
of
,
of
of
a
” : “
,
,
of
,
course with Aristotle's statement which adds laughter derived from very learned man ... joy which the soul makes through the dilatation sign the heart coming spirits longer from the liberation the which can contained the happy things triumphs image Such definition course departs
definition
of
.
,
,
a
know
;
:
of
of
those things that people ordinarily
turning
events against
of
from
a
or
,
;
456
).
from accident
.
another
(p
of
one that comes from the trickery
or
their author 4.
of in
,
a
One that comes from ignorance
one that comes from false opinion one that comes from misunderstanding ;
3. 2. 1.
;
in
,
it
to
,
on
,
from the materials the Poetics and Riccoboni admits that his sources the ridiculous are Aristotle's Rhetoric Cicero Maggi and Castiglione way not unlike that He finds useful enumerate Aristotle treating the tragic plot the kinds wickedness that will arouse laughter comedy each springs from deception kind
,
on as
.
on
,
so
be
first attempt and just the full commentary by
be
was merely
supplemented
the transla
to
.
a
;
of
at
of
a
re
so
the Poetics benefit from the same time comica was the De few years later his broader understanding his basic text the Ars comica 1585 becomes much more learned document
,
1579 was
to
of
,
, it
Riccoboni however tion
a
to
of
"
“
of
,
as
In
of
spite such adventures these into other topics and other sources Riccoboni follows closely the text his model creating thereby the first closely ars comica the century based Aristotle For
CA. 1580
)
(
DELLA POETICA
on
its
in
,
.”
rei
)
(
588
cordis
ex
of
an
,
: "
signum laetitiae quod facit animus per dilatationem 453 qui vincente imagine laetae contineri non possunt
., .p
Ibid
resolutione
,
41
,
in
manuscript The Biblioteca Nazionale Florence possesses anonymous translation Magliabechi VII 437 and commentary spirituum
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
of the Poetics , entitled simply Della poetica. I have not yet been able to assign even an approximate date to the work , although its
or of to its
the first part
,
an
by
a
is
unfair
there are
to
be
say
no
,
he
its as
have are clumsy and confused and would not author usually does less well than his predecessors decidedly superior suggestion passages makes which
tion
that
;
it .
of
)
is
it
(
we
,
to
,
to
.
or
of
it
It
of
procedure and method central preoccupations would lead me place giving either parts essentially paraphrase around 1580. the Greek text sections Italian translation followed more less extensive explanatory remarks The fragment covers the text from the beginning apparently one folio missing 1450a7 then since there from 1450a18 145064 where ends abruptly Such parts the transla
.
a
fair proportion
,
of
,
the commentary
.
of
a
occupy
, of
—
of
.
if
—
;
in
,
all
is a
his
in
On the other commentary very typical one for the period wrestling with many cases his arguments and analyses the current problems and are original not always completely convincing punctuation Linguistic matters meaning questions syntax and hand
The author's speculations
.
and
)
11v
if if
of
.
fol .
(
istrioni
33v
”
“
mean
”
mimi
),
said
( fol .
to
1448a23
1449631 means
“
at
MIMOUHÉVOUS
TTPÓTTOVTES
is
at
of
,
of
,
of of
words reflect the uncertainty which still prevailed even the century over the sense the text Many the meanings assigned affect directly the interpretation the Poetics Thus
about meanings toward the end
one will necessarily think
of
if
at
,
,
be a
to
in
“
,
at
.
fol .
'
21 ”; ),
co
,
"
at
so ).
depend upon syntactical matters copulative with the force tive
“
(
”
byis "
as a
“
.
"
(
in
se
un
in
“
by
of
"
is
as
.
be
as
as
of of
acted rather than written and the nature the object imitation may misunderstood Similarly aŭtooXEDICOUÓTwv meaning in rude verses 1448623 taken versi rozzi the author specifically rejects allo improviso translation then the poetry with verse identification further stressed The author's purely lexical difficulties are exemplified the word deukoy papnoas 145062 dipingesse translated bianco and glossed with come dipingere muro bianco fols 20–20v Elsewhere the work interpretations the tragedy
at “
is
Ñ
,
;
in
."
of “
is
At
;
it
in
a
,
"
taken correc length The author insists citing passage from the Nicomachean Ethics upon this meaning cor depends large part his thesis that verse roboration for upon indis 1447a29
or rather
di in
go
“
in
"
;
in
,
an
at
, of
.
,
of
is
suggestion for poetry least one excellent made for punctuation that separating OpcóVtWv 1449625 from the rest the independent phrase sentence making possible the translation coloro che negotiono scena but the author does not far enough pensable
arte poetica
",
"
and
"
poesia
,
" "
589
)
(
poema
,
, of
.
the old distinction among
"
,
a
In
to
,
of
in
32 ).
,
di
.
(
"
“
et la
,
of
reorganizing the sentence and the last part the definition still reads purgatione et facendo tali passioni non per narratione ma per paura misericordia fol The imperfect readings the Greek text many still account for hesitations and long passages the paraphrase are devoted their explanation prologue brief the author the paraphrase tackles two problems and
POETIC
THEORY
content and organization of the Poetics . The
the essential
poetica ,"
“ arte
as a treatise on the art , will have to offer a definition of poetry , one which will define the species by giving the genus and the differentiae ; it will also have to analyze completely the differences. The author believes is accomplished in the first part
of definition
task
of
that the
the Poetics, which is
to be taken rather as a “ propositione ” than as a “ proemio , ” since it does not attempt to gain the reader's attention . Because the work fails to define " imitation , ” an integral part of the later definitions , the author does so himself (relying , he says , upon Plato ) :
of one thing to another and of
“
Imitation then is an assimilating
a false one to a true . ” 42 In the paraphrase
itself , the author ( who here resembles Sassetti) is very sensitive to the kind of methodological questions raised in the prologue . He divides the work
into a proposition ( extending
to 1447a28 ) and a narration and finds that
the first part indicates
to
2v )
The universals are ones which are most known men but men already know the particulars from Thus Aristotle begins from universals assumes tragedies the epic the Poetics already knows comedies .
he
,
if
,
,
that the reader
,
of
: “
,
nature least known which they derive
;
(
to
the Physics
fol .
that Aristotle will treat of poetry - rather than of the “art ”—and that the whole of the Poetics will offer precepts for the poet . It will pass from the universal to the particular , which is the proper order of science as Aristotle himself distinguishes it in the Posterior Analytics and
;
of
43
,
to
."
is
it
of
and dithyrambs and the other species imitations whence one concludes necessary that have heard and read the poets otherwise one cannot approach this study .
,
of
).
4,
.
on
(
is
of
-
much
,
its
is
in
especially interested definitions He the constitution The author points out carefully how Aristotle first establishes the genus poetry tragedy then differentiae and later how the definition derived from preceding universals about genus and differentiae fols comedy 30v He warns the reader against taking Aristotle's statements
...
At
he
he
be
;
its
: “
at
as a
1449a31 definition this can seen because many things are lacking which should enter into does not do this when definition
to its
to
us
,
he
a
” 45
is .
,
it
: "
...
it
of
of
to
.”
,
he
to
44
but rather does not omit any single thing 1449631 calls the attention the reader the passage from definition discus sion the component parts and the reason why Aristotle now proceeds whole when we know all for we then know well the latter parts which parts make what Contrariwise warns not defines tragedy
si
,
e
de
e
,
et
,
ad
un
, ,
'
,
, le
sia
,
le
si
la
,
." un
)
590
(
fa
ci
,
31 .
sa
, . il
la
si
, le
."
si
: “
: “
fol .
."
, le
è
. 1 : “ :
. se "
ne (
à
.
) le
,
,
se
.,
. 3 : “
., .,
.
43 44
45
et
.
42
assimigliare una cosa MS Magl VII 437 fol L'imitazione dunque un'altra una falsa ad una vera Ibid fol cosi Arist incomincia dagl uniuersali presuppone che allo auditore tragedie l'epopeia dithirambicj della Poetica gia siano note comedie l'altre specie Poetj altrimenti non bisogno hauere udito d'imitatione onde caua che letto questa lettione puo accostare puo uedere perche quali douer Ibid fols 26–26v questo mancono molte cose tragedia non rebbono entrare nella sua diffinitione che quando diffinisce cosi anzi Cf. fol non lascia cosa ueruna indietro perche all'hora Ibid 33v bene tutto quando conoscono tutte sue parti quali parti sono quelle che fanno quale
fol .
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
a
to
do
.
is
of
a
19 ),
fol .
,
a
parts something which is not (
(
method
he
to
respect
36 .)
Finally with priori and distinguishes between Aristotle's keeping his reader again with posteriori arguments view organized and presented constantly aware how the text
of
take as a treatment
,
,
as
,
it
;
of
its
to
he
"
of
.
of
as
,
,
As was the case with Sassetti however these scruples about method not prevent the author from reading the Poetics pretty much his pre decessors had done The definition imitation was we have seen one the universals most needed for the understanding Aristotle's text yet does not hesitate take over directly from Plato without inquiry
.
,
is
"
”
or
)
(
,
1 ,
of
as
margin
).
”
( fol .
dramatic manner
of
a
totle's use the designation
“
of of
,
,
in
."
“
to
to
,
he
to
of
appropriateness into the particular circumstances the Poetics necessary for imitation Moreover declares that wūdos favola identify poetry with mythology following Plato and this permits him and find this identification the reason for Aristotle's insistence upon fiction He does not however fall into the usual confusion over the excluding from Aris various possible meanings the word imitation He
sees ,
;
The case
is
14 ).
(
of fol .
,
,
called efficient causes
he
)
of
.
in
be
them must
up
him : "
that both
of
of
(
in
,
is
,
he
poetry imitation one the two natural causes but the other one says rhythm not the pleasure found imitation Taking issue with the position found also Sassetti's manuscript Sposizione that one poetry the other the efficient argues these constitutes the final cause
clear
of
is
is a
,
in
is
46
of
."
;
of
in
us
these two natural causes are made
of ,
imitation and rhythm composed because imitation and rhythm are natural and poetry rhythm part poetry imitation and for rhythm verse which along with imitation for
so
as
,
in
is
by in
;
in
is
The last the preceding assertions line with the author's constant every relevant passage affirmation that poetry and verse are inseparable frequently been interpreted they had the Poetics this sense ,
: “
we
,
is
a
in '
“
;
3v )
is fol .
(
”
to
.
,
If
.
5v )
.fol
(
"
of
his contemporaries From the very beginning when the means imita imply verse quando dice oratione tion are identified language said parlar intende sempre metrica the phrase later becomes general statement may find one metrico needed
is
which poetry
47
distinguished
46
is
he
,
the
.
a
somewhat conventional way objects imitation These are
of
his
in
the author treats the means more original treatment
of in
If
.
Metrical language thus becomes the means from kindred imitations
by
.'
"
his
of
it is
,
be a
: “
connection with 1447b14 But we must not think therefore that the poet poet without verse because can one differences through which he becomes different from those who imitate without verse
da
'l
il
si
]
[
di ,
." et
et
è
la
, et
è
è
,
la
591
fa
: "
Tv : il “ rh [i ]
è
.,
. "
'I
,
47
,
in
. .
.,
queste due cagioni naturali siano fatte dall'imitatione Ibid fol 14v dal rhithmo perche l'imitatione e'l rhithmo sono poesia composta d'imitatione noi naturali rhithmo perche thmo nel uerso che parte della poesia insieme con l'imitatione Ibid poeta possa essere poeta senza fol Ma non bisogna però pensare che quale quelli che imitano senza uerso perche una sua differenza per differente uerso
.
set
order that examples
:
,
identified as “ passions , characters , and actions " ( we may know what these are the author gives
of In
THEORY us .fol a 3v )
POETIC
,
;
,
:
as
of
is
;
9 )
of
( fol .
“
or
“
of
,
he
,
"
:
is
to
"
of
by
.
.
as
of
the end
,
is
of
as
tragedy such comedy statement made about the ridiculous the end On both them the author makes fairly extensive remarks Having said that purga putting pity and fear into the souls tion operates the listeners obliged explain his meaning is
specifically identified
no
us .
"
"
"
or
"
“
” ;
.” : 48
,
of
an
of
,
of
,
,
;
,
,
,
,
,
”
-
,
to
an
,
“
“
While purgation
,
are fear hope love and the like the characters strong generous audacious just unjust prodigal temperate intemperate the perform timidity and the like actions act fortitude act interpreted Aristotle's three way division the objects follows men better than ourselves are heroes and sons the gods and semi gods men worse than ourselves are the very avaricious the very stupid comedy the very unfortunate men but we are not told who are like The passions
of
,
if
to
,
;
of
,
we
being
of
In
,
us ,
so to
by
.
us
how
we have formed the habit
much fear the second book the remove bad passions from our breast
to
Aristotle teaches
in ,
Rhetoric putting
us
,
so
do
terrible and horrible things happen they afraid and not give
by
,
In
us
.
to
,
,
;
so
,
.
by
it is a
to
,
be
... pity can good and bad and also fear for we are afraid certain things which virtue fear Tragedy therefore puts into our breasts the good pity which we drive out pitilessness cruelty and other similar passions which are contrary driving out from our breasts the good pity the same way get used being afraid whence certain passions which make insolent
.
good ones5.49
of
.
is
ff .
also derived from
of
in
.)
.
in
( of
spirit from that the body The latter opposition Plato the Laws fol 27v Perhaps the most elaborate set distinctions ,
—
of
.
is
,
of
—
its
at
by
of
-
in in
of
purgation are thus indirect and they make permanent changes the moral well being the spectator The ridiculous not considered laughter but the except terms effects for the general one author concerns himself rather with distinctions among the terms used Aristotle 1449a33 and with separating the ridiculousness the The effects
this anonymous
of
,
on
of
we
of if
,
:
: i
et
similj speranza l'amore costumi l'ationj operare temperato intemperato ,
timore prodigo
,
, il
di ,
,
5v : “
, .
,
.,
48
Ibid fol Le passioni sono forte liberale audace giusto ingiusto timidità un'atto fortezza uno atto
." , , la
,
a
of
.
be
to
of
paraphrase the Poetics relates the qualitative parts character and thought The initial distinctions will clearest assume the part separation between the world reality and the world the author
,
nel
)
(
592
,
.
ci
,
se ci
'
ci
buone
."
le
doci
' , le et
[ z ]
, ci
,
et ci
,
,
, et
la
ci
la
,
'
,
la
è
'
,
, le
et
&
,
– 33 : “ la
.
.,
ha 49
la si
di
simili paura perche Ibid fols 32v misericordia puo esser buona cattiua cosi qual temendo paura d'alcune cose tragedia adunque petto uirtù mette misericordia buona con laquale noi scacciamo l'impietà crudeltà simili altre passioni lequali sono contrarie alla misericordia buona cosi scacciando dal petto alcune passioni che sopraggiungono cose terribili fanno essere insolenti aue ziamo hauer paura onde spauenteuoli habbiamo fatto l'uso nell'hauer paura cosi non danno tanto spauento insegna cauar Nel secondo della Rethorica Aristotile cattiue passioni del petto metten
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
art ,
art , which becomes later a separation between things and words . The true actions of reality are represented by the feigned actions of a tragedy. Actions are performed by agents , and insofar as agents have habits of the soul which determine their actions, they have character ; in the work of
of
“
is
”
"
of
35
( of
,
,
.
in
,
is
it
,
ignorant
that these two ,
,
,
prudent imprudent sagacious
as “
in
agent will
necessary
the
is
is
,
of
is
in
An
tragedy be
or ."
be
there
malicious stupid
as
are actions
there
.
principles
the composite the actions intelligence speaking and taking counsel character
or
If
appetite
,
of
The plot
the intellect
50
action
act
: "
to
" )
“
). in to
-
.
to
,
of
is
to
(
of
tragedy
"
“
or
making fols 34v Another way thought appetitive the distinction refer character and the and the any intellective principles the soul which combine the production action These principles give respectively character and thought now intelligenza called and the author summarizes thus their relationship dianea
marginalia
,
in
,
.
of
”
“
”
or
,
be
character will manifested through language and this the char tragedy Agents also have habits acter orazione morata the soul which account for their reasoning and their speech and when these thought are expressed through language the work they become the
these qualities are present
in
a
of
.
,
”
in
"
“
,
his and manifest his actions Throughout the discussion the philosophical kind which author makes underlying assumptions intelligence
wise
his attitudes toward art and nature and toward the specific the Poetics
determine
.
of
problems
is
in
;
re
,
to
as a
of
is
of
study Plato rather than Aristotle the main topic Girolamo Dialogo poetico Frachetta's del furore 1581 but since Aristotle used rebuttal Plato's various charges against the poets some general
of
of
.
,
ideas about the Poetics emerge Moreover Frachetta examines and jects certain interpretations Castelvetro and Maggi and otherwise shows
no
.
;
to
its
,
of
,
is
.
in
himself touch with the Aristotelian tradition Unlike most those who pitted Aristotle against Plato Frachetta's principal concern not with poetry for moral education but rather with relationship the uses the truth Plato had condemned poetry for not representing the truth
as is as a
",
is
,
"
all ,
we
in
to
“
as
.
on be ,
to
“
as
,
if
“
in
as
to
it
supposed Aristotle says that has business with the truth For the poet things they they use his material should not are and rely thus we can no wise we want Aristotle designate good poet one who undertakes describe verse true things exactly a
a
is
,
in
.
,
." si
at
poet Indeed should not call him since truth apparently only different from probability and possibility This tenta tive position the dialogue for later the interlocutors argue that Aristotle they are
)
593
(
è
Se
ad
le
in
se ci
,
a
si
in
.”
.
è
Il
."
,
), .p
(
,
29 : “ ci
.
,
, è
le
51
,
è
il
35 : “
.
.,
50
componimento dell'ationi l'intelligenza fol La fauola l'atto dello come discorrere consigliarsi costume nello appetito nella tragedia sono ationi necessario che siano questi duoi principij Dialogo 1581 uogliamo appoggiare noi non potiamo modo niuno appellar buon poeta colui che prende Aristotele descriuere uersi cose uere per l'appunto come elle sono Ibid
intelletto
POETIC THEORY does permit the use
of known
events and real people in poetry . They go completely so far as to admit that the or even the partially invented plot , , epic tragedy in or in would be less desirable than that which was based on the truth : “ since the material of tragedy is things which can come
far a
...
the epic lead
"
;
by
or
to up
us
on
about , things which have already happened will be by more suitable imagined material than those thought the poet Aristotle's “
,
52
in
it :
of
in
of
. "
if
if
better
they are true than
it is
conclude that without doubt much they are not Thus the difference between poetry and history resides less the nature the matter than the way handling statements
of
...
it in
;
in or
in
and much more noteworthy
he
make
it
and
as
eliminations
to
means
as
of
,
by
polish
up
must strive
and otherwise
it
but
to
he
,
it
happened
additions
of
bit
,
,
an
or
of
which
in
in
things which happened the historian must write that exact manner any detail no matter how small which they happened without altering them without inserting the slightest his own invention whereas the tragic the epic poet taking event which occurred must not recount the way
can.53
opposition
he
,
of
of
rhetoric
by
in as
of
.
,
,
he
,
is
of to
a
in
of
poetry superior art The art this way becomes kind augment whose main function adorn and upon the ends necessity poetry Frachetta touches Plato and Aristotle and here finds the two authorities
seen
distinct
says proposes only one end for poetry and that
is he
us ,
in
)
of
(
54
."
if
as
by if
,
of
by
,
to
to
,
"
so
of
,
.
,
Aristotle everybody and give delight and recreation the minds poet people the common and the sometimes benefits supererogation and does accident He points out with insight acute historical that those who have found the double end pleasure and utility Aristotle have merely been concerned with making pleasure especially
,
Aristotle
:
by
,
?
of
be
.
,
us
do
to
do
,
us
,
,
be
it
of
86 : "
52
as
if
Nevertheless
recommended
say that horrible and pitiful things not only not make Plato thinks but rather bring about the exact opposite must understood that they this accidentally since through this kind which are placed before we become accustomed and
wished fearful and pitying the events
to to
which Plato had attacked seem he
as
passions
in
is
:
is
in
he
.
is
If
pleasure him agree with Horace the only end for Aristotle why then purgation tragedy does include the definition Frachetta's answer the standard one this done order contradict Plato and the very
,
" ;
o
sia ; o
in
,
da
le
in
,
di
le le
."
,
se
,
se le
88 : “
,
., .p
53
"
è
., .p
gran uantaggio piu Ibid essendo materia della tragedia cose aueneuoli pensate immaginate dal poeta conueneuol materia saranno cose già state che and senza fallo molto meglio son uere che non sono quella istessa guisa per l'ap Ibid l'historiſclo dee scriuere cose accadute punto che elle accaddettero senza uariare quanto che ella alcuna cosa senza tra
Et
.
quasi per accidente
. "
&
,
)
594
di ; , o
,
&
&
,
di
di
,
,
gli
ciò faccia per sopra derrata (
,
gioua
&
'
,
&
,
ci
che se'l poeta alcuna uolta
il
. la
di
,
&
90 : ." “
., .p
,
54
il
,
,
un
un
puntino poeta tragico l'epopeico pigliando metterci entro pur suo trouato oue ma dee sforzarsi con fatto auenuto non nel modo che succedette dec raccontarlo ripulirlo renderlo ragguardeuole con altro assai piu con aggiunte isminuimenti piu ch'ei può spetialmente del uulgo ciascuno animi dilettare ricrear Ibid
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS little by little we free ourselves of such passions . And Aristotle's mind was so intent upon this matter , and he was so preoccupied with it , that he did not take care to include pleasure in that definition , even though he held it to be the prin cipal and almost the only end.55 the light
as ridiculous Maggi's purgation notion that Aristotle wishes to include the of anger , avarice , debauchery , and so forth . When he comes , finally to consider whether
In
of this interpretation , Frachetta brands
would or would not admit the presence of the divine furor in the poet, Frachetta expounds Aristotle's metaphysics to show that he would necessarily think of the poet's operations as natural , linked to the body and to the humors , and susceptible of a “divine " influence only in so far as the heavenly bodies which cause alterations in the humors Aristotle
may be said to be divine . CARRIERO AND BULGARINI ( 1582) contra l'opera di Dante
of Alessandro , Carriero ( 1582) is divided into two distinct sections the first entirely theoretical in nature , the second devoted to a discussion of the Divina Commedia . In the first , the Poetics supplies not only the essential theoretical basis but also the general plan of organization . However , Plato is frequently The Breve et ingenioso discorso
In
general
successively
examines
of
on
.
to
.
of
;
;
;
;
of
;
;
,
:
treatise
the narrative and dramatic manners
,
,
poetry
;
of
these matters divided respec tively into three and four kinds the qualitative parts the comparison comedy and tragedy the mixed poetry with history the use verse tragedy and epic manner divided into eight kinds and the comparison comparison history place The with serves and delimit the art the ends
outlines
his
its
consulted on points of detail and the doctrine shows many similarities to the current Horatian mode . Carriero is a lover of distinctions , and he tries everywhere to refine upon the divisions suggested by his authorities .
by
is
;
by
.
of
by
a
in
of
on
Carriero starts from Aristotle's differentiation between truth the one accompanied hand and verisimilitude and necessity the other this presentation difference order the events The second major
92 :
55
to
as ;
"
:
,
a
in
,
of
so
for
-
one should pass
the individual
,
of
stances and the minute particularities
;
he
as
be
he
of
,
of
he
in
of
he
if
poet
.
many actions lies the treatment the historian the one only This does not prevent the poet from being universal for way recounts the actions one man does such emphasize the general qualities example Ulysses that man nor indeed should considered was but leaving aside the circum difference
ci da
i il
,
ci
,
guisa sollecito hauesse per princi
fu in
&
,
.
il
)
595
(
di a
in
."
&
,
si
.
questo hebbe tanto Aristotile l'animo inteso cotai passioni ch'ei non curò mettere detta definitione diletto tutto che egli pale quasi per solo fine
lo
a
,
&
ci
,
,
,
ne a in
;
,
&
le
,
,
ci
Et
,
di
.
si
Il
,
& “
., .p
compassioneuoli Ibid Quasi dir uolendo che cose horribili non che faccino tementi misericordiosi come uuole Platone ma adoprano innanzi tutto con quanto che per casi trario che non dimeno dee intendere che faccin per accidente questa fatta che poco poco son porti dauanti noi auuezziamo liberiamo
THEORY
POETIC
on to the universal , in order to make this man prudent and shrewd as he is wont to be perfectly described by the philosophers . "56 The third difference ( supplied by Lucian ) lies in the writer's attitude toward his subjects ; the historian must not indulge in excessive praise , since this would be a depar ture from the truth , whereas the poet may make any changes he wishes in words or in deeds . Finally , the historian has many actions and hence he
is
genius
here that his admirable
is
It
poem
displayed
12–18
).
.pp
(
and adorn
.
his
fill
does not need to resort to the use of episodes ; but the poet , restricted to a single action , must invent and imagine many episodes in order to out
,
:
"
"
;
of
a
to
in
as
,
a
in
way for The distinction between truth and verisimilitude accounts poetry for the poet depicts things they should be ... whence we under order exert moral influence on his audience
the primary end
a
,
to
,
to
,
,
to
to
.
to
;
in
of
is
of
stand clearly that this the function the poets i.e. treat various and divers forms civil life their poems this brings not little profit those who read and consider them with care Indeed poems are not only public ones and profitable private persons but also cities them
: “
of it
to
to
to
, in ,
the readers and auditors poetic ornament The audience designation the vulgo
of
is
their not
52 ).
.p
“
otherwise specified than poems are determined jointly for Carriero Kinds
by ” (
as
. ” 58
of
its
by
every grace
means
is
aim all
give pleasure
of
by
first endeavor
to as
. In
of
,
of
. "
,
,
easily
poems
of
Tragedy may prevent
57
civil wars through the example the wicked persons comedy maintains the calm and the happiness the citizenry this pleasure the instrument Thus the poets having utility their order lead men obtain more selves
miserable end
famous deeds
,
.
,
illustrious ancients
;
of
,
,
.
,
their audiences and their subject matter and their ends He divides narrative poetry into three kinds called historical moral and dogmatic The historical sings the the moral treats subjects
which have
or
"
"
of
;
.
the instruction
of
to
the citizenry and the dogmatic teaches both the divine and the natural mysteries Of the four kinds active reference
, it is ,
,
its
;
of
,
to
to
in
sià
;
But comedy imitates pleasant things
16 : “
56
.
generate hatred for these same vices
nè
-
—
.
a
in
to
be
of
,
,
dramatic poetry the first the mime imitates the thoughts the actions any person whatsoever because obscenity and the gestures republic Satire scolds wicked people and their not tolerated essentially unpleasant things vices order arouse laughter and
,
,
,
si
si
), .p
&
,
,
de
il
:
i
,
ne
si
da
2 : “
& 1v
.pp
.,
di
57
i
."
,
&
le
(
et
ingenioso discorso 1582 già quale egli Breve stato considerar deue ma tralasciate circostanze minute particolarità dell'indiuiduo passar deue all'uniuer sale per formar quest'huomo prudente accorto quale egli suole esser descritto perfetta Filosofi mente da comprende questo esser l'ufficio Ibid che chiaramente Poeti cioè trattar uarie diuerse guise della vita ciuile lor poemi che apporta non mediocre le
di
' à
,
."
&
:
&
, li
,
i
.”
)
596
(
i
&
,
2v : “ ,
., p
gli.
à
58
,
à
li
giouamento legge chi con diligenza considera Anzi Poesie non solamente giouano alle Cittadi stesse alle persone priuate ma anco alle publiche conseguirlo più Ibid Cosi Poeti hauendo per suo scopo l'utile per indur porger facilmente huomini prima s'ingegnano con ogni uaghezza d'ornamenti Poetici Auditori de lor Poemi diletto Lettori
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS “
as
be
it
of
Its
;
,
,
of
.
or
by
,
city dwellers peasants soldiers they are never illus heroic The latter characteristics are reserved for tragedy defined ,
ordinary condition trious
59
."
in
,
by
;
to
its
of
is
an imitation defined make people laugh and may uglinesses discovering obscenities and their their which the worst men subjects are common people induces laughter the spectators purpose
,
(
60
."
still baffled those who were to
he
how completely
the definition illustrates
it of
of
by
,
of
in , it ,
its
“
a
as
great and illustrious action made com Aristotle the imitation parts separate and distinct setting and sweetly written with forth and calming the troublesome accidents which happen not through narration but pity and despair means The translation pletely
,
:
as
,
;
through the variety prevents
the
bore
50 ).
, it
its
(p of .
of
,
it , in
Its
and complexity digressions
length
episodes and the pleasantness
,
,
,
at
.
of
,
is
its
to
its
it
he
.)
,
is
,
,
Of
.
,
of
,
it
compared with tragedy
of
,
not expert Aristotelian scholars When much later comes the subdivisions the mixed manner finds that contains eight kinds hymn and epithala epic melopoeia elegy dithyramb iamb epigram length and that for two reasons mium these only the epic treated because Carriero could find much material on Aristotle and because was pertinent his discussion Dante essential characteristic
in
.
in
of
;
— a
of
in
( in pp .
an
is
to
be
is
—
of if
all
to
he
,
of
dom and the lassitude the reader For the handling the qualitative and the quantitative parts Carriero suggest besides what has little had found the Poetics He does poetry commonplace necessary insist that verse forms his perfection poems which imitate without verse day achieved as is
to
.
of
fill
“
,
to of in it
).
are inferior order 18-19 The general rhetorical turn his theory becomes apparent poetry Plot the handling the parts belong such elements more important than character because recognition and reversal which are wont the highest degree move
.pp
of
,
if of
)
,
,
loro brutture
,
che co'l iscoprir
le
,
The poet must therefore
."
il
ne
., .p 9 : "
peggiori
.
of
the audience
gli
of
of
in
is
"
depends upon the belief
Ibid una imitatione huomini gli Spettatori oscenità s'induca riso
60
,
of
;
;
, "
decorum needed character the plot require verisimilitude because the achievement good manners and poetry the teaching refined charac de
62
”
ter ,
the ends
comedy sententiae concern one's possessions and one's poetry forms and
the government
,
parts
of of
all
.
family
59
, If of “
economy
matters
, it ( of . is in In all
and these are handled rhetorically
the subject
et
in
to
of
,
to
. ” 61
at
to
,
to
within our souls various and divers passions and them with wonder carry them away any direction and times affect them violently and whatsoever Sententiae are two kinds some them relate directly the central subject and these follow political precepts others are outside
, e
di
i
&
,
,
gli
ne
."
,
, e
si
.”
, o di
597
animi uarii diuersi affetti qual uoglia parte costumi gentili
rapirli
in
,
&
buone crcanze ]
di
muouer
uiolentarli
(
tall’hora documento , e
51-52
,
, , &
di
, e
ui
.”
10 : “ i
quali massimamente sogliono
ingombrarli : “ il
Ibid
.pp
Ibid merauiglia .,
e
62 di 61
, e
., di .p
,
le
'
: “ è
.,
Ibid 27–28 imitatione d'un attione grande illustre compitamente fatta acquetando dolcemente descritta con sue parti separate distinte dichiarando trauagliosi accidenti che concorrono non per via narratione ma per mezzo miseri sgomento cordia
the statement
THEORY ,
this way Carriero's theory poetry the ends
as
the achievement those ends
of
of
. In
of of
the people
theory
et .
in
Horatian
of its
as
all
times follow the opinions
in
just is
at
it is
POETIC
to
to
.
of
of to
have two purposes
it
;
of
in
to
he
,
is
in
of
of
ingenioso discorso which belonged The copy Carriero's Breve Bellisario Bulgarini now the library Harvard University con tains Bulgarini's marginal notations some them expressing ideas that develop was later his attack on Carriero His marginalia seem
.
of
to
,
“
”
be
,
”
his
10 )
(
the poet
p to .
the orator than
to
“
,
to
(
a
to
, ”
.p 3 ).
la
: e
of
appropriate
of
to
)2 .
he
“
,
(p .
of
to
:
condemn some Carriero's theoretical conclusions Bulgarini's own positions He blames Carriero for and state some not considering Plato's banishment the poets and for trying reconcile Referring Plato with Aristotle Carriero's three subdivisions poet any versifier narrative poetry believes that they tend make against Aristotle's opinion and against reason contra l'opinion ragione d'Aristo contra Carriero's statements about the effects recognition and reversal which carry the soul away would more and
distinction between is a
a
to
if
to ,
of
he
on
.
of
praise the poet and the historian with respect the expression false one For the poet were reveal his own feelings about character would the one hand destroy the verisimilitude his poem on the
"
of
28 ),
.
p
(
9 ).
is
it of
,
specific
of (.p of
).
16
(p . “
worse
would speak
On more
in
he
his own person and would thus cease imitate matters Carriero completely mistranslates and tragedy misunderstands Aristotle's definition and his own comedy definition false because misconstrues the meaning other
,
,
10 ).
,
,
of
to
(p .
on
a
to
do
.
,
he is
,
in ,
,
as
A
Bulgarini's own suggestions refer poetic general matters few theory such his insistence that certain poetic genres like the lyric the plot elegy the epigram not need have But for the most part correcting Carriero interested the three major forms tragedy comedy and the epic He agrees that the poet should not invent new plots
is
be
.
to
,
.
.p
:
of
do
(
34 ).
,
of to
39 ).
( .p
it
;
a
as
”
“
to
of
,
of
for tragedy out whole cloth truth being necessary ingredient but plots possible those which are true but which the think new tragic poets have not previously treated These are permitted the poet When old plots are used the complication and denouement must altered Bulgarini admits the according Aristotle's recommendation exist tragedies with happy endings and says that some possibility the unified plot He has doubts about Aristotle's requirement ;
of
.
in
,
of
an
be
,
let
in
be
prevented from including his poem several and divers Nor must the poet Ovid's actions provided that they are well interconnected and interdependent many and example Metamorphoses this which although they are divers actions are still praised But Aristotle approves principally the poem
Poeta
si
it
Ne
al
), .p
15 : "
as
)
398
1582
(
ingenioso discorso
(
Breve
he
of
,
to is a
Carriero
et
copy
,
Harvard
of
63
it
a
to
is
the poet who has undertaken found because the genius which the single plot perhaps demonstrated more fully and plot varies imitate such pleasurably proper size.63 conducts
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS of plot is especially desirable in comedy, where the double plot is to be preferred to the single ; example , Terence's Andria . Carriero errs when he uses Plautus ' Amphytrion as an example of a double comedy ; Bulgarini cites the opinion of those who regard this play as a monster be cause it combines tragic and comic characters and actions , and of those Multiplicity
of
;
4 ).
(p .
to
.
its
,
,
to
its
who think it is a tragedy ( p . 21 ) . His main concern with comedy centers object He would distinguish comedy which moves about end and laughter from satire which moves indignation The objects
be
,
of
be
of
,
"
comedy will
much
of
the
).
the marvelous than
a
in
not necessarily better adapted tragedy 50-51 ( .pp
of
the fact that
it is is
and
production
to
it
be
,
( .p
,
of
of
,
audience
an
is
grave disturbances
22 ).
it
if
and not merely Concerning the epic Bulgarini speaks only ridiculous events may greater length which results from the fact that recited sittings and does not depend upon the comfort number assembled its
preceded
the best interpreters
of by
by
.
more pleasurable
this
He thinks that the happy ending
9 )
(p .
the Poetics
says
is
he
,
least
of
,
of
;
of
the opinion
as
at
or
-
mind
“
,
of
,
as
comedy are not Carriero wishes obscene and wicked persons but middling good should worse condition Aristotle's rather men meaning the condition understood fortune not the quality the
.
of
to
not spring from the rules does not follow them
,
talent art and Poetry does
."
,
,
in
of
,
he , is he
,
teach others who could well different equal similar and greater diverse genius
64
be
or
of
to
Bruno holds that those rules were meant only epic poetry like Homer's Homer's poetry
to
,
‘
an
of
"
a
of
.
the rules Aristotle representation give
and not inspiration
of in
a
is
it
an
to
to
of
“
di
in
his
to
(
),
is
to
There little pertinent the present discussion Giordano Bruno's gl'heroici essentially dialogues devoted De furori 1585 since set amatory analysis poets the and the various passions love Dialogue digress But the first interlocutors make attack upon regolisti the Poesia who examine and reject the great poets according
says but rather the rules from poetry
;
,
,
is
It
all . (
a
of
both
at in
or
criteria this singing
se
or
but rather through delight profit
to his do
setting
up
not
by )
."
“
It
.
comes
is
no
which
to ,
we
means
he
,
verse
of
by
kind that
at "
"
by
to
set
to
individual genius recognize the true poet
those who have
of
,
.
of
,
,
Homer Moreover such rules are good only for those who are more capable imitating than inventing poet interesting they and were down one who was not They are useful only for see this meaning given the verb imitate their source
."
,
599
)
(
,
ad
presa
non per instituir altri che potrebbero maggiori diuersi geni de
: , " et
et
che una tal fauola
s'è
a
del Poeta
,
,
), .p
(
A.2.v
,
,
1585
più l'ingegno
furori equali simili ;
, et
gl'heroici furori
con altre vene arti
, e
.
il
:
di
,
le
;
,
dimostra perauentura
De ."
64
grandezza imitare
la
, , si e si
di
, e
il
, e
comprender nel suo poema più dee uetare diuerse azzioni purche sieno infra loro dependenti siancene essempio ben colligate Trasformazioni d'Ouidio che pur essendo molte diuerse azzioni uengon lodate Ma Aristotile approua maggiormente Poema nel qual troua fauola una perche nel uariarlo condurlo con delettazione conueneuol
essere
POETIC
A.3 ) .
once ( p .
There follows an attack upon the
time who exclude
certain
have failed to observe
anti - Aristotelian tian influences. course
PATRIZI AND
THEORY poor pedants
“
of
”
the
writers from the ranks of the poets because they one of the prescribed rules . Bruno's stand is of
Hora
and it has traces both of Platonic and of
,
TASSO ( 1585)
Another anti-Aristotelian document of the same year ( 1585 ) is Francesco Patrizi's Parere in difesa dell'Ariosto ; but this time the attack upon Aristotle is the direct result of the publication of the first work in a new literary polemic , Camillo Pellegrino's Carrafa . We can thus see the immediate impact upon Aristotelian theory of one of the great literary quarrels. If it is a negative impact , it is because Pellegrino had used Aristotle's rules to
attack Ariosto's Orlando Furioso ; now , rather than interpreting the rules in another way in order to defend and justify Ariosto , Patrizi says that the rules themselves are without value . His conclusion involves a general reappraisal of the Poetics — and , incidentally , of Horace . The point of view is unequivocally stated ; Pellegrino was wrong
...
in taking the poetical teachings of Aristotle as comparable , in this matter , to the clear , proper , and firm principles of the sciences ; for those of Aristotle are neither proper , nor true , nor sufficient to constitute a scientific art of poetry , nor to form any poem whatsoever , nor to judge it ; nor are they made according the practice of either the Greek or the Latin poets.65
to
in
, to "
to to
which and Plato assign the term amount four more and his first task should have been discover the meaning pretend proper poetry have how can did not Since developed useful and scientific approach the art L8v Another to
he
-
M ) ?
.pp
;
an
is no , a of di
ne à
Latini
."
,
nè
Greci
,
de '
]
(
poetici d'Aristotele pari non essendo questi poetica formar
;
, e
, e
ne
,
,
, a i ,
à
600
can make imitator the
of
,
insegnamenti
propri chiari fermi delle scienze ueri bastanti constituire arte scienziale giudicarlo poeti sono fatti secondo l'uso
nè di
prendere
gli
: “
in
The epic poet was
we
.
of
of
-
L6
as LSv
: “
), .p
,
1585 principi
this
nè
,
nè à
(
,
ne
in
definition
ne
a
of
the heroic poem have not been supplied
Parere Ferrara questo affare propri Aristotele poema alcuno
.pp
(
of
of
,
of
65
sense
and such
his
is a
L7 .) he
it,
is
of
of
poetry
to
designate epic poetry nothing sign knowledge Aristotle does about and this both that Greek was imperfect and that did not actually know the whole Greek epic literature The inadequacy definitions corollary the lack distinctions Since the prior definitions imitation example
the confusion among the terms used
(
a
to
so ,
do
he
.
to
,
or
because the meanings
his
,
of
of
“
his failure
Aristotle's insufficiencies the adequately treat the term imitation
he
distinctions
is
of
field
to
The best example
.
with lesser emphasis
.
of
his
,
to
to
his
Having made this comprehensive statement , Patrizi proceeds to attack Aristotle on three grounds : failure make proper distinctions produce proper definitions and the lack conformity between failure precepts and the practice poets the best Other arguments appear
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS actions of illustrious persons nor what an imitation is .
( p. M ) ; for
”
we know neither what a poet is
is
of
,
of
be
to
,
is
of
is
It
(
of
in
imitation
.
,
,
and indeed none were found before the advent clear that Patrizi and the other dramatic genres
comedy
,
using
of
of
.
no imitations tragedy
;
all
Patrizi sees Aristotle as having formed for himself an Idea of epic poetry ; unfortunately , it is one which is in no way related to the epics obviously poems are imitations but this that we know . He says that Orpheus contained and Hesiod Homer not true For the works
the Platonic senses that
;
,
of
,
,
"
we
to
,
single action
should get very strange
by
,
,
,
it
,
a
of ,
the shells and shellfish that were
or
all
,
formation trumpets and shouted that they should gather in
as
to
says but one single action take for imitation not actions Emperor most illustrious person who having led his army the shore the ocean had the signal for battle given the the
poet were
Caligula to
...
of if a
...
:
to
along with the restriction results indeed
a
,
if
of
.
In
M )
(p .
no
is
it
.)
,
“
dramatic representa plot tion Moreover Aristotle asserts that not verse makes the poet practice poets whereas clear from the the themselves that there are many poems which have plots and many plots which are not poems apply the definition just given the case the epic we were one
,
I
,
do
;
66
I
ad
. "
“
be
to
be
up in a
;
on the shore when Domitian caused the flies that were going through the air captured and shut paper prison say whether these not know heroic poets and poems should called as a
as
,
all
of
.
,
-
in
,
in
of
of
,
of
in
no
is
—
;
of all
.
a
,
bya
of
is
of
is ,
of
misunderstanding This course reductio absurdum well single action Patrizi challenges the necessity for what meant unity plot and even the requirement that poems must cases have plots the practice Vergil Lucretius the Georgics Lucan support epic poets his thesis More damagingly still Homer's cited
a
,
,
.
,
up all
set to
In
,
to
.
of
great epics have central unified action but are composed rather episodes Similarly Patrizi calls into question everything that multitude say about the requisites for character Aristotle has the first place poetic genres but they are even the these are not only common
He
,
his is
of
,
.
?
.
, is
,
,
,
.
for
in all ?
those they are false
.
,
In
as
the historian and the panegyrist Goodness But Homer the perfect gods and heroes only example presents many wicked people and absolutely good many places the demand one Nestor also violates for appropriateness Likeness The precept which both Aristotelian and same requirements the second place
66
is
so
,
to
to
of
it
of
in
or
;
is
,
very shaky for requires the likeness persons Horatian their history reputation counterparts establish the and how are we character the counterparts when history uncertain and public ,
,
.”
da
]
[
,
601
, e
carta
;
vna prigion
di
in
chiuderle chiamarsi
, e a
le
, e
, se
a
prendere facea mosche che per l'aria andauano poemi sariano Eroici questi poeti dico sò ,
. ò di
,
in
, e
le
,
in
,
il il
,
a
: "
. M di -
si in
.
..
.,
poetare non azioni come ella dice ma azione Ibid pp Mv s'un poeta togliesse Caligola Imperadore quale condotto l'essercito vna sola illustrissima persona segno battaglia gridare suo sul lito dell'Oceano ordinanza fece dar nelle trombe raccogliessero tutte conchiglie calcinegli ch'erano quando Domiziano che sù'l lito non
POETIC
THEORY
,
,
of
,
,
).
.
il
(
.
of
-
a
his own
up
,
his
in
di
in
,
to in
objected
,
objections were answered point for point and with great Torquato Tasso Discorso sopra Parere fatto dal Sig Patricio difesa Lodouico Ariosto 1585 What Tasso most Patrizi was the general anti Aristotelian position and hence Discorso becomes serious defence Aristotle Starting with by
,
Francesco
be
;
later date
Patrizi's firmness
prepares
and
standard for later way the develop
.
his own theories
it
it
at a is
is
.
,
of
ment
the reason
as in a a
will not stand the examination
hence there reason why should epic poets Patrizi's rejection complete
set
.
existing before
It
no him
opinion so variable ? Finally , the demand for constancy (Horace's “ sibi constet " ) is belied by our common human nature and is everywhere violated by Homer , from whom Aristotle derived his theory ( pp . M7 M8v ). Aristotle's Idea of the epic poem is thus without basis in any such poems
.”
to us is
in to
in
to
,
in to
us
,
as as
(
such
discourse such
by
,
the other arts
(
to
or
)
). “
the other imitative arts
of
of
painting and dialectic and Besides this they have those conditions which are appropriate
sculpture
of
to
”
"
“
,
. ” 67
he to
of
,
"
"
,
),
(
: “
any
any
are not common rhetoric
he
Patrizi's initial statement quoted above affirms that the opposite principles proper true Aristotle's are and true and sufficient teach poetry and the art form poems and show the way which judge them proceeds Then show what ways the principles are proper They true and sufficient are proper the sense that they
be
;
or
on
,
of
of
all
by
,
to
proper ones since they are the first nature and the clearest and they propositions poetry may are those which the other demonstra separating poetry they capable ted and are from every other species ,
, it
;
),
or
(
is
.
" is
“
is
of
,
imitation
.” 68
of
says The argument truth less cogent Poetry distinguishing Tasso not concerned with true from false this the field rather imitates verisimili dialectic but rather with imitating truth genus
no
',
“
.
As
.
of
a
is
tude which itself kind truth Aristotle's principles are not false since they consider verisimilitude and truth for their being sufficient
of
is
,
in
of
69
us .
he
be
be
“
is
good other one needed nor there any species discovered through the differentiae that Aristotle given sets down and for which correct judgment cannot the way that
Tasso insists that poetry which cannot
.pp
"
,
to
to
,
to
,
of
by
is
it
his
,
,
to
of
"
teaches He insists moreover that not the business the precepts from usage but rather preceptor derive the art considering the reasons why some the things used merit praise and others separate choose teach how the ones from the others and blame
ad .
,
."
, e a '
si
ciascuna altra specie
,
Poesia
da
la
possono separar
di
, e
, co si ' la
,
a
E
.
, e
della Poesia
c'è
ne
69
ò
."
tutte l'altre propositioni genere d'imitatione
&
,
i
à : di " i
&
, e
: "
., .p
68
,
),
(
67
principij d'Aristotele sono proprij Discorso 1585 100-101 veri bastanti poemi insegnarci l'arte della Poesia giudicarne formar mostrarci maniera proprij per conuengono Ibid 101 hanno oltre ciò quelle conditioni che quali posson dimostrare cioche sono primi per natura sono piu chiari son quelli
)
,
di
, e
, le
602
(
." le
,
ce
: "
., .p
,
in
Ibid 102 non n'è necessario alcuno altro alcuna specie buona poesia quali pone Aristotele darsene dritto giudicio differenze che non possa ritrouarsi con quel modo ch'egli c'insegna
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
his
of
do
removing poetry from the genus music where because use verse But verse not adequate basis for distinction among genres the poet poet through imitation and even both genera were possible places classification should
be ,
,
one
.
significant way his attitu
his
...
.
Iliad
Patrizi's attacks
and the Odyssey incorrect
a
the
Homer reveals all
,
Tasso's own final estimate art
defends Homer's epics
his readings
in
,
Aristotle and
him unjustified
of
he
,
finds
of
he
.
seem
more necessary
the more noble and the
the rest Tasso defends both the definitions and the distinctions
in
,
For
to
which
of
if
,
as
imitation chosen
an
,
is
is a
.
of
,
its
of
to
it in
argument here consists put others might wish
A
.”
“
”
,
“
of
,
its
all
the good from the bad in the same way that this has come about in medicine . ” 70 As for the principles themselves , Tasso re - establishes poetry under the species imitate even those which genus imitation , for not have plots and the name part poet itself means imitator
a
is
." 71
;
of
“
: to
of
he
,
of
poetry nothing else but des toward the according testimony praise great virtue the the Basil himself whence has risen above death and above envy poetry
1585
)
(
RICCOBONI
, in
.
),
.
a
(
,
,
on ”
on to
as a
of
-
a
on
of
to
a
re
a
in
“
of
I
it ,
as
of
The skirmish between Patrizi and Tasso over the position Aristotle may serve prelude have just outlined the publication great commentary 1585 Antonio Riccoboni's the Poetics After having published 1579 first set materials the Poetics including translation into Latin and the De comica see above pp 582-88 Riccoboni added these full scale commentary and revised version .
ex
,
&
a
in
,
,
comedy These appeared separately without the transla volume entitled Poetica Antonii Riccoboni poeticam Aristotelis per paraphrasim explicans nonnullas Ludouici Casteluetrij captiones the treatise
tion
in
.
,
of
”
he
) a
in of
a
.
a
dedication and
De
,
, “
a
.
to
Eivsdem
the works only
, in
Aristotele ars comica The volume contained addition very brief index After short introduc tory section fifty natura poeticae the commentary itself presented numbered paragraphs much briefer analysis the Poetics than those refellens
he
as
of
of
,
in
of
is
,
so
a
the general
.
to
;
Riccoboni's immediate predecessors wished treat Aristotle's ideas rather than philological questions the text degree Riccoboni's commentary polemical To tone since interpretation reacts not against much against Castelvetro's errors general
disparagement
,
,
in
il
le
&
in
of all
in
an
is
.
le
quali alcune delle cose vsate meritano lode sceglier quel modo buono dal cattiuo
."
la
)
603
, e
,
è,
sua poesia altro non ch'una lode della virtù per testi superata onde morte l'inuidia
(
: la la
: "
.,
Ibid 116-17 tutta monio del gran Basilio istesso
hà
.pp
71
."
,
: “
,
., .p
cagioni per Ibid 102 considerando insegnar altre biasimo separar l'vne dall'altre ch'è auenuto nella medicina
à
.
His own commentary
of
to
70
text
of
with which Castelvetro had treated written the spirit one who believes that the text provides the ultimate answers on matters poetry Before embarking on analysis related the art the tone
the Aristotelian
his
of
of
of
,
the genus
an
the general
end may organic habit
In
;
and
an
discipline
the
organic habit in
a
an or
):
"
or
art an
he
.
is an a
,
“
to
it is
as
instrumental
it as it
as a
,
in
it
faculty
the causes through which
it
,
.
its
its
is
of
of
,
,
.
of
in
;
as
he
,
.
is
,
:
in
,
he
,
in
its .
the art are four number end matter and the way which the subject treated discusses the differentiae the reason for the multiple genus becomes apparent and other works especially with the end the solutions philosophers are rejected Aristotle's favor Surveying the various ends proposed for poetry Riccoboni concludes subject
function
As
The differentiae
,
,
its to it
of
syllogism
of ,
or
faculty insofar serves something else
art
ideas
for the most art making
instrument the last sense rhetoric both because makes use sententiae and because produced by enthymeme most beautiful devices recognition
because belongs
one
seeks
either equivalent given matter
; a
be
achieved
.
is
taken
” ”
organic
sense that
an
he
says that
,
poetics
("
“
of
,
to do
"
“
to ),
general dividual passages , however , Riccoboni presents art in the section called De natura poeticae and these part have nothing with Aristotle He means treat the poems themselves poems rather than For when seeks
on
THEORY
POETIC
;
,
in
,
in
;
in
)
3
, (
( 2 )
.
,
of
as a
of
by
,
)
:
of
an
in
of
)
, ( 5 )
, (4
(1
in
utility utility and pleasure pleasure that they are five number imitation the plot The first three are found Horace support arguments Zabarella who makes the first are found utility and pleasure instrument those critics who interpret utility common opinion corroborated Aristotle's purgation form
jointly
is
is
by
,
in
of
it
fly in
to
as ,
,
, an
is
.
is
it
to
,
as
on
;
is
,
,
.
;
by
,
argued most Cicero approves the second The fourth Scaliger but Aristotle and which the fifth which Riccoboni adopts Against the other positions Riccoboni maintains that proper sought the first utility the philosopher end and pleasure per poet only such extremes leads second that the accidens the may good mores and Plato's ban the poets since the face statements
effectively
;
to
,
,
,
is
;
,
may justify wickedness and obscenity that the third utility and pleasure impossible because the two ends are mutually exclusive that the fourth imitation fails account for many poems which have no imita
jointly
,
an
is
;
to
. or
4 ).
( .p
.
to
however Riccoboni attempts show how the fifth end agrees lose their sharpness his distinctions the others with each plot may agreement with the first insofar useful through the be
,
of
,
as
There
is
disagrees
"
"
fabulosa delectatio
,
When
,
as a
,
is
as
end
is
,
all
to
.
,
fully acceptable tion Only the fifth plot for this internal end poems having necessary consequence the pleasure common and always attributed poetry which Hence one may properly state the
,
an
is
in
.
he
of
.
a
, is
,
In
.
)
604
the very structure
of
by
fear and ,
to
pity and (
itself leads men
to
For tragedy
in
following reasons
:
is
is
,
in
be
;
its
utility per accidens Good moral lessons disagreement because this poetry need not studies the question this connection useful interesting purgation His general conclusion results Aristotle with some per accidens for the purgation end useful that whatever
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS the events it causes the spectators , who feel discomfort as they see misery unjustly visited upon others , to recognize that they themselves are good , and they learn that no hope is to be placed in the course of human affairs ; and we shall under stand that this is the pleasure appropriate to tragedy . But at the same time, through frequent example and by placing before their eyes many cases of mis fortunes , it causes the spectators to become strong and magnanimous , and in this way they also derive utility . Indeed , by habituation to pity and terror, they purge pity and terror , that is , they temper and moderate them . And in this way they become , not excessively pitying and timid as Plato believed , but rather magnanimous and strong.72
...
The construction of the plot has , per se , pleasurable consequences ; the utilitarian results are accidental . Riccoboni's thesis agrees with the second proposal for the end , since the plot is followed by pleasure ; but rather than expressing the end of pleasure overtly, it includes it tacitly . Moreover , since other things beside poetry give pleasure , to say that pleasure is the end is not sufficiently specific and proper . On the third proposal , agreement insofar as plot gives both utility and pleasure , the one per accidens , the other per se ; disagreement , because Riccoboni's thesis makes a distinction between them . On imitation , finally , a similar acceptance of plot as an imitation , but again he distinguishes , saying that imitation is a genus which includes many other species besides poetry , whereas plot is a single species . The other three differentiae are treated summarily . The “ munus " or function is to imitate in verse , the subject matter is human actions , and these are handled in such a way as to become useful for the plot . Having made these various distinctions , Riccoboni is now in a position to define poetics as an art , as a faculty , and as an organic habit : “ Poetics is the art
of
executing
habit of
plot ."
plots ; or the faculty
of imitating in
verses ; or the organic
seeing , in human actions, whatever is suitable for fashioning a
73
Most of the significant passages in the commentary itself are develop ments of the principles stated in this introductory section . If we take the
of “ fabulosa delectatio ,” we find important glosses concerning both origins the of poetry and the nature of plot. In connection with second chapter 144864 poetry into divine Riccoboni separates the origins
,
se
,
&
ex
in vt
se
& ,
), .p 5 : “
per adducit homines misericordiam spectatores alterius miseria iniuste exorta rebus humanis spem ponendam non esse con voluptatem Tragoediae intelligemus sed simul frequenti
,
(
Poetica 1585 Etenim Tragoedia metum atque ipsa rerum constitutione efficit molestiam percipientes bonos agnoscant
ad
).,
ff
(
72
of
his
end
vt
, . in "
,
&
fit ,
,
&
,
ars fabularum
)
(
605
ad
,
humanis
:
;
vel facultas versibus imitandi conficiendarum quod appositum est fabulam con
actionibus
. ”
Ibid Poetica vel habitus organicus videndi formandam
in
sit
.
;
,
of
& .
,
&
...
to
,
,
,
id
&
, vt
., .p , to , 7 : is & “ vt
73
,
.
,
,
&
:
;
discant quam esse propriam exemplo crebra miseriarum ante oculos subiectione spectatores magnanimi fortes efficiantur atque hoc modo adiuuentur Nam per consuetudinem misericordiae terroris perpurgant misericordiam Itaque non nimis terrorem est temperant moderantur misericordes timidi Plato existimabat sed potius magnanimi fortes efficiuntur References the commentary are the second pagination the volume the first smaller type used for the translation
THEORY
POETIC natural
and
( or
human ) , and
give
further subdivisions
the
following
schema :
Origins Divine
Human
all
in
Now
this schema
ars ”
harmonia
ars poetica
"
" “
imitatio
" "
Plato
"
(
“ natura ”
)
cf.
“furor divinus "
the elements under human origins are productive
,
is
it
74
. "
so
of
,
“
),
a
In
.
"
( as
it
“
by
to
is
it
”
,
:
", “
of ,
"
of
imitatio because the genus under which plot found supplies verse and the other pleasurable accom harmonia because paniments and the ars poetica we have seen because furnishes way making plot correctly way harmony general the the was given men nature that they might bear the labors human life pleasure
of
be
a
delectatio
. "
,
much for the end
“
poetry
of
So
from the pleasure
.
,
accidens
of
of .
of
,
,
is
suggestion We may even ask therefore whether there not here one perfectly the utilities springing from artistic pleasure This would utility naturally but per consistent with Riccoboni's usual derivation
is he he
as
;
,
,
by
of
-
of
is ,
,
on
.
be
,
is
,
”
“
,
is
fabulosa
of
and since the plot the internal end the plot among qualitative parts pre poem the excellence and eminence the must established This course done Aristotle Riccoboni comments 1450a15 multiplies the arguments and among others But since this
we remember
that the same elements are
at
If
recognition and reversal
.
of
.
it
a
of
poem which most vigorously attracts our minds insists that that part the most excellent Plot satisfies this criterion since contains the elements once the most beautiful and the most pleasurable
of
on of
.
of , (
:
as
of
,
),
as
of
,
we may then establish plot recognition some such series effects the because gripping producing effectively and reversal the soul most hence the greatest pleasure hence achieving the proper end the art plot always involves consideration Consideration the objects the following
,
or ,
.
,
of
verisimilitude
:
a
by
)
(
in
elaborate system various passages constructs schema which we may again represent
,
be
of
is a
an
(
.p
52 ).
; it is
he
.
be his
of
he
of
.
,
imitated insofar these are human actions Riccoboni this matter departures thinking contemporaries makes several from the First tragedy need not declares that the action based upon history upon legend sufficient that some similar example found among events which have occurred This sort verisimilitude Next
of
Objects
common opinion to ad
est
natura
)
606
(
hominibus
common opinion
humanae vitae labores tolerandos
."
”
verisimilitude à
necessity data
Supernatural according
to
contrary
according
to
)
19 : "
., .p
74
fieri
potuerint according
Ibid
ut
“
"
=
history
(
“
Natural facta
to
Imitation
POETICS : EFFECT
LITERARY QUARRELS
OF
In each major category , one of the alternatives is eliminated ; history , not poetry , treats those events which have actually happened ; and supernatural events which have no acceptance in public opinion are not usable . Of natural objects , those " which could come about " are the proper province the art; they are divided , in turn , into necessary objects and verisimilar objects, and Riccoboni explains the distinction by examples . A man wounded in the heart must die : the cause - and - effect relationship is , in nature , necessary and inescapable . A man wounded in the head may die : there is a probability , but no necesssity , that the effect will follow on the cause . Of actions which run counter to nature , the poet will choose only
of
be noted that belief in poet must main ingredient For great heroes present the characters and actions tradition has brought them down his public otherwise sins against verisimilitude Finally the poet treats them universally and thus the objects with respect
.
its
verisimilitude
or
:
of
,
.
,
as
he
;
to
to
another kind
achieves
a
It should
.
of
those which most men would believe cludes traditional belief, perhaps as
in as
a
as ,
he
of
,
.
in
it
;
is ,
Poetry treats universal things that considers single facts universally they might have come about through many causes and many ways For partic stance the deed Orestes when killed his mother Clytemnestra was is
it
,
as
of
, in
to
at
.
in
;
,
a
it in
might have ular deed nevertheless the poet considers universal way happened through numerous causes and numerous ways And poetics con cerned precisely with this universality order invent causes and ways dis they seem capable providing greater pleasure.75 cretion according is
,
a
.
.
,
of
in
Section
singularia
in
est ,
"
44 : “
"
75
the phrase
(
of
to
an
why the poet must have eye the beauty the characters appears de spectanda morum pulchritudine the title
,
;
.
in
;
,
ex
&
in
. id
&
,
&
." vt
,
,
]
607
[
ex
Tragoedia oportere voluptatem quaerere sed pro metu per imitationem poetam efficere oportet volup
in
66 : "
quoniam
." , &
tatem
videantur
Non enim omnem misericordia rebus efficiendum esse
, ; id & . , , in .p
Ibid priam
, de
,
,
à
76
delectationem
vt
id
&
,
de
,
Poesim tractare vniuersalia vniuersum considerare plurimis modis euenire potuerunt singulare scilicet plurimis caussis factum fuit Orestis cum Clytemnestram matrem interfecit tamen vniuersum considera poeta quatenus plurimis plurimis modis potuit euenire tur caussis hoc vniuer sali versatur poetica caussas modos arbitrio fingat prout affere posse maiorem ., .p
Ibid quatenus
is to
,
." 76
of
,
be
by
,
of
;
:
, of
In
, in
,
of
accompaniment fear and pity itself the correct pleasure tragedy one must not seek every pleasure but the proper one pity and since the poet must bring about pleasure through imitation out and fear this must achieved the actions However utility seems spring more directly from another part the object character That
“
purgation fact
an
all ,
.
,
of
.
its
of
to
in
by
;
is
as
all
,
,
in
.
its
of
,
of
It
as a
Consistently with the general position universality itself regarded operation pleasure and the end pleasure directs source would seem then that the actions chosen and represented poem are above such will contribute the pleasure audience But plot this not exclusively true for Riccoboni's view the pleasures are always followed some utility Various moral lessons are learned Above actions which are terrible and pitiable will bring about the
POETIC
THEORY
XVIII ),
,
to as or
to its
is
is
of
.
is
in ", it is
.
,
"
of of is
actually written for the purpose character more important than
tragedy the morata the kinds presenting good characters and action ,
.
of of
,
a
.
to
of by
of
no
,
Of
.
( .p
80 )
it,
an
,
or
which means that each passion must be represented in best complete supreme manifestation For each passion most serve example for the men who witness and the role imitation embellish and enhance the four requisites for character Ricco boni singles out propriety for special recommendations which are more than the standard rules decorum Presumably kind verisimilitude giving obtained each personage the characteristics his type One
is
says
,
,
.
verisimilitude
:
contributes
to
poetry because
is of
he
,
he
proclaims the necessity
reasons are somewhat different Verse
it
;
in
but the proper instrument verse
his contemporaries
of
most
poetry
his
With
of
it
.
utility
.
to
he
,
of
of
Although the greater part Riccoboni's commentary centers about the objects say about the means imitation does have some things appear pleasure Here would that his concern with rather than with
in
is
in
,
of
so is
be
to
or
be
as
so
it
(
in a
in
to
it
:
an
of
poetry That this has the greatest importance for the verisimilitude seen ample and elevated tone this fact since poetry itself requires voice order readily because scarcely probable that men that the audience may hear prose high and ample should speak one another tone
,
to
is
,
of
of
it
be
to
us
it
”
the three genres
;
in
Of
( all or
13 ).
.p
“
)
,
in
(
all
,
he
of
;
choral
others
of
the dance
the same ones
will appear
poetry
will appear some harmonia
metrical language .
(
”
oratio
or
as
“
the proper instrument
or ) in
in
)
”
saltatio
( or
,
it
authorizes means only “
in
”
,
a
of
“
is
tragedy because verisimilar lends itself the loud recita public performance Riccoboni does not tell would how merely calls upon Aristotle who other more intimate genres
in
tion justified
music
of
is
is
,
,
If
verse
),
it to
—
to
intelligible stupid the spectators unless those who speak either deaf particularly adapted and thus obliged raise their voices verse then this purpose because proffered with elevation and amplitude the voice almost prose.77 half sung and the opposite the low and humble tone
of
In
its
on up
of
It
all is
it
:
.
of
a
certain amount restraint into Riccoboni's commentary reintroduces the Poetics the shortest the great commentaries for the historical the philological and most two reasons eliminates the study
it
,
a
a
of
,
.
to it
on
by
is
,
,
to , it
.
on
be ,
.
predecessors way this makes which had cluttered removing Secondly Castel oversubtleties the insists less useful directly fairly simply reading returning and the text and vetro frequently done referring To sure this outside sources especially materials
608
eo
ex
.est " 9
&
&
,
,
illi ,
,
,
à
,
vt
ad
ac
:
,
oppositus
)
solutae orationis
(
que humilitati
&
,
,
missioni
ad ,
,
,
vt à
se
,
,
,
, vt &
: "
.pp
.,
77
perspici quodque valere plurimum verisimilitudinem Poesis Ibid 13-14 populo audiri amplitudinem commode tur quia cum ipsa vocis postulet elationem ample queat quemadmodum parum verisimile est homines soluta oratione tam elate colloquantur spectatoribus intelligantur qui loquuntur aut surdi aut inter nisi eam rem maxime accommodatus est stulti sint qui vocem extollere necesse habeant sic amplitudine vocis sub dimidio quodam cantu profertur versus qui cum elatione
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS Horace , for clarification . But in certain notable aspects it does return to Aristotle . The most striking of these is the attempt to re - establish the plot
of
,
of
.
own position typical the
.
of
)
(
1586
of
on
In
SALVIATI
a
with the others Such thinkers his century
is ,
by Riccoboni's eagerness to reconcile preoccupation course
all
spoiled somewhat
his
as the end of the poem , according to Aristotle's own statement , and to com bat the specious arguments of those who argued otherwise . This attempt is
Salviati completed his work the first four parts major translation and commentary the Poetics Italian He had been engaged the project for least ten years this time The manu script some two copies drafts the Biblioteca Nazionale
in
.
by
.
in
of
we
in
, is
or at
in
Of
,
it
of
on
a
of
,
1586 Lionardo
it
as
is a
,
seems that little
it
the best—
“
thinks that Vettori's
” 78 is —
.
these
on
Of
taries
be he
of
,
.
'
,
it
in
,
to
on
a
of
;
di
.
Florence the sections for which have two copies one short note questo libro della Poeticha entitled Delli interpetri we may regard prolegomenon kind the rest since Salviati examines the earlier scholarship the Poetics Beginning with Averroës commentary which suffers from the differences between Greek and Arab customs he reviews the translations Valla and Pazzi and then the later commen
he
.
,
,
of
,
to
.
he
,
he
is
more light can desired this work and that Castelvetro's not entirely acceptable although does credit Castelvetro with the best translation into Italian Throughout his own commentary finds many reject Castelvetro's solutions whereas frequently praises occasions those Robortello Maggi and Vettori it
-
of
all
)
,
in
,
the extant
manu
translation into
an
”
comento
. ”
”
parafrasi
gives the Greek text then
a
only the first fifty are covered
particella
he
all ;
in “
.
numbering 320 script For each
.
its
,
of
.
of
,
of
e
( a
Salviati's translation and commentary title page added later calls Poetica d'Aristotile parafrasata comentata extends from the beginning the text through 144969 thus treating most but not the first five chapters modern editions All the initial definitions and distinctions are handled but unfortunately the commentary stops before the definition tragedy and development Salviati divides the text into short sections
,
."
)
609
(
is
It
.
be
to
its
,
,
to
.
of
lume
a
poco piu auanti pare che
desiderarsi
di
372
find more current and more clearer version We may compare comedy both the object
on
a
to ,
achieve
: "
fol
.
of
general
Aristotle's statement 11 ,
II,
MS BNF
II,
their versions
in
starting point attempts
accurate terms and
to
.
of
as a
in
Castelvetro
78
,
to
to
.
in is
,
of
“
“
in
is
a
,
,
which extended and expanded translation Index reference numbers are generously inter spersed the translation providing the link with sections the com mentary bearing the same numbers The translation Salviati's own closer Castelvetro than Piccolomini especially conciseness and using the use certain constructions But Salviati who seems Italian then and finally the
questo libro possa
THEORY
POETIC
indicate how Salviati works and to show what difficulties were still be setting the translators . The passage is Poetics 1449a31 : Castelvetro : Hora la comedia è , come dicemmo , rassomiglianza de piggiori, non gia secondo ogni vitio . Ma il rideuole è particella della turpitudine . Percioche il rideuole è vn certo difetto , & turpitudine senza dolore , & senza guastamento , come , per non andare lontano per essempio , Rideuole è alcuna faccia turpe , & storta senza dolore ( 1576 ed . , p . 91 ) . Salviati: Ma la commedia è si come habbiam detto imitazione di piu cattiui certamente non gia secondo ogni cattiuità , ma del brutto è il ridicolo parte , per cioche il ridicolo è una certa fallenza , et bruttezza senza dolore et non corruttiua , come di fatto il ridicolo uiso brutto alcuno , e trauolto senza dolore ( fol. 350 ). Since he has tried to be brief in the translation and to remain as close as possible to the Greek text , Salviati uses the paraphrase as a means to clarification ; thus the above passage is expanded as follows :
Parafrasi : Ma la commedia , come addietro dicemmo è imitazione di persone piu cattiue che le moderne comunali non sono . Cattiue dico non però in ogni maniera di cattiuità : percioche non ogni maniera di cattiuità è ridicola , come
ridicolo alcun uiso brutto , a trauolto
(
, che sia senza dolore
350v
).
è
fol .
uuole essere quella della commedia : ma solamente alcuna parte della bruttezza , o uogliam dir la cattiuità è ridicola : percio che il ridicolo tra le cose , che stanno male , e tra le cose brutte è solamente quell'errore , e quella bruttezza , che non arrecano , ne dolore , ne graue danno a chi l'ha , come, per darne pronto esempio ,
as
as
to
to
as
well
provide
is a
. of It
be
to
he
,
his
.. of
.
reveals
is
he
,
in
as
well the commentary itself Salviati fully his attitude toward the text on which writing curious and complicated one Rather than sharing the skepticism some contemporaries judges the Poetics
In
the preliminary materials
the Poetics
as .
on
of
the major divisions and subdivisions glosses individual words and phrases
as
,
,
of
.
, it
,
is
quite extensive perhaps The commentary itself extensive Castel vetro's Frequently calls upon examples from contemporary Italian point out literature discusses the opinions earlier scholars attempts
to
—
so ,
;
in
,
in
for
limited both not writing
the fact that Aristotle
is
book
is
perfect
method
it
day.79 ,
up to
our
by
to
be , a
.
-6v in
But one must not take content method and 79
all
the volumes which have been written about this art
the moderns
In it
by
than from or
-
,
so
ill -
by so
treated
the ancients
as
in it
;
to
,
a
precious book and not only most useful but necessary anyone who there are most wonderful teachings and write poetry properly for Maggi most subtle considerations compressed marvelous brevity whence small and says well one may derive greater benefit from this book alone wishes
si
,
i
."
,
a
)
a
(
610
da ,
il
,
, e .
, e
ci
.
in
, o
da
,
,
e
7 : “
.
.,
fols poetare
a
prezioso libro chiunque uoglia non solo utilissimo ma necessario sottilissime considera Peroche hanno bellissimi ammaestramenti marauigliosa breuità Onde come ben dice Maggio maggior profitto zioni ristretti uolumi che questo cosi picciolo tutti puo ritrarre mal trattato libro solo che hoggi sono stati composti questa arte infino d'antichi moderni dietro Ibid
dirittamente
POETICS : EFFECT
LITERARY QUARRELS
OF
dithyramb and auletic applicable not be
. to to of fol
comedy
,
tragedy
His principles would therefore the
the
.
and citharistic poetry
,
epic
,
genres
:
which pertain to
,
six
about a science and hence does not need to observe the same rigor of exposition that would be required in a scientific treatise . Thus in the very first sentence he speaks of the composition of the plot , which is only one part of a poem , whereas a “ proem " of this type should treat only general matters ( fols. 30v – 32 ). In content , by the fact that Aristotle does not mean to treat the whole of the art of poetry but only those parts of it
,
(
he
two kinds ,
of
to
investigate
the epic and tragedy the low
as
by
,
as
wanted
we
make
the Poetics
a
we are
of
to
these restrictions mean that
if
.
by
,
he
of
for
represented
;
in
.
a
to
he
,
that literature
the magnificent comedy represented
All
,
all
he
).
part
a
only
poetry
,
,
,
as
as
parody the satire and mask the epithalamium Petrarch's Trionfi and Boccaccio's Amorosa Visione 252 This means that did not consider the possible differentiae partial one Moreover Aristotle based imitations and his art remains say upon the literature available what had his time studied such kinds such poems
useful to
be
it
of
of
as
is
all
.”
of
have been interpolated
,
.
of
if of
it
of
of
,
include
it of in
be
to
be
”
“
reasonable
the
to
Salviati occasionally points
incompleteness
.
,
).
345v
by its a "
reservation
the text and
in ;
is
( it .fol
,
;
way
would not
of
by
a
of
of
,
Finally
it
,
of
which are not sung hence spoken parts tragedy state
it
, ”
us
.
an
is
:
of
,
"
of
is
poetry Authority forms this same statement two kinds the practice the poets and undoubtedly the writers poetry the theory the wise men arts rhyme and the critics Reason tells what reasonable for example accompaniment poetry song must not used those parts
is in
justifications for the insistence upon verse
is in 80
it is
if
by a
,
it
,
,
.
in
it
a .
“
to
,
by
,
as
,
,
to
of
poetry must supplement various ways We must appeal authority and usage Usage again when reason does not cause any harm brings with itself not little authority and must revered very long period and observed law especially confirmed Usage time and the authority wise men invoked one the art
the corrupt
He thinks that some passages .g. 1448al that others are not ),
,
in
" (e
),
to
,
,
of
in
,
presume
that
he
:
it
discourse
(I
two special kinds
of
;
general
80
in
as
.
,
,
or
in
.
by
,
or
in
.
he he
of
,
(e
in
corrector .g. 144864 their proper place that still others the disagreements among the manuscripts make the determination the proper text impos sible The text used was course less satisfactory than our own and many cases problems which have since devotes lengthy discussions been solved eliminated better readings Salviati distinguishes three major divisions the Poetics the prologue proposition the treatise itself and the epilogue The treatise turn subdivides into four major sections examines four problems poetry means
the
se
e
]
."
, e
de '
611
[
, e
da
, e si
,
,
: “
.
.,
Ibid fols 137–37v L'usanza ancora quando alcun male non cagioni porta seco medesima non picciola autorità dee riuerirla come legge osseruarla massimamente molto lungo spazio dall'autorità saui huomini confermata
POETIC
THEORY
wishes
derive so ,
to
;
rules since poems
the species
do
these rules from the definitions
of
of
teach how to make the poem and to give
he
its
magnificent and the low ) ; criticisms and defences of the poet ; the priority of tragedy over the epic ( fol. 15 ) . The end of Aristotle in this work is “to —
he
-
of
,
,
of
", " “
;
of
81
In
,
it
as
)
.”
as [
in
be
and will clearly seen the course the work will give the latter definitions first the achievement this end one may distinguish qualitative parts presentation were Aristotle's these are demon
will
,
,
be
" "
,
" "
.”
“
, ”
;
of
in
he "
, "
or
strative declarative narrative definitive instructive dubita tive and confirmative For example the narrative parts will those which traces the origins and development the divers species the ”,
in
“
;
"
in
”
of
an
of
, an
82
."
of
“
,
“
;
;
, ”
as
,
all
"
“
of
tragedy the definitive such sections the definition instructive parts containing precepts the the dubitative those which accusa tions and defences are offered the confirmative ones which the tragedy with heroic precepts are reinforced through the comparison parts implies analysis poetry Such enumeration Aristotle's
of
83
a
to
( .pp
),
his
of
Robortello
II .
'
;
the interpretation
These
decade
4-5 who attributes them Analytics Posterior the Poetics Salviati brings three basic supposi
on in
earlier they appear early Philoponus commentary
in
of
.”
so
exerts himself much without advantage for the present work are the same distinctions method that we discovered Sassetti
To
a
in
,
,
,
,
of
: “
is
be
a
in
general way method and order which Salviati approves the fol lowing statement required And this the order which may philosophy not only the resolu book which does not treat the secrets compositive tive definitive and divisive methods over which Robortello
.
in
to
, ;
in
an ,
is
.
of
of
.
( 2 )
of
Its
in It
of
;
of
an
a
in
( 1 )
is
,
he
commentary say tions and these color everything that has Poetry imitation verisimilar objects this supposition involves lengthy debate over the nature him imitation over verisimilitude and over the identification the objects imitation verse the reading Aristotle hand this supposition requires much sleight
to in
of
to
,
his attempt
use them
81
of
imitazione del uerisimile espresso col easy not matter
,
define imitation
a
“
the verisimilar expressed so
an
“
is
imitation
is
10 ).
.
"
,
through ornamented language fauellar condito fol But
”
poem
to (
)
For Salviati
a
.
in
extent Salviati departs from Aristotle basis for understanding the Poetics
(1
as a
what
an
.
in
of
;
to
to
( 3 )
profit and please this supposition introduces many extraneous elements into the consideration both matter and form poetry turn we shall discover As we examine these suppositions ends are
paragone
le
,
, si
della tragedia per rispetto
un
da
."
]
[
612
Filo
,
, e
i
,
,
,
,
è
: " E
i
di
il
,
.
.,
83
questo libro che non tratti segreti della l'ordine che Ibid fol 42v diuisiui cotanti metodi risolutiui diffinitiui compositiui sofia puo richiedere non questa opera cotanto s'affatica quali Rubertello senza pro
all '
fortificano
ne '
col
."
ne
precetti
si
,
: “ i
42v
."
.,
Ibid heroico
fol .
82
si
, e
le
di
, e
il
: “
.
.,
d'insegnarne poema regole quali regole Ibid fols 41-41v fare darne percioche dalle difinizioni delle spezij del poema uuol ritrarre farallo come nel processo dell'opera uedrà manifesto prima quelle darà
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS since he finds many meanings
confusion both in Plato and in
and much
,
,
the
or
or
,
;
an
is
he
,
or
,
,
imitation
present
The second kind
is
here
.
for
is
making speeches
no
, is
to
is
.” 84
;
,
or
,
or
or
,
or
or
first attaches
is ,
in Aristotle reduce to two . The poet imitates that to simple narration , wherein “ represents continuously anything whatsoever either actions expresses tempests places persons battles seasons characters anything else that can fall under imitation and does this without introducing anybody who speaks acceptable form This what giving judgments and for the poet intervene himself not acceptable Aristotle . He thinks that the meanings
is
by
an is
is
;
of
it .
is
it
,
an
.
in
;
as
imita actors and speakers this light tion the Platonic sense Further thrown upon the term the comparison which Salviati makes between poetry and history History things listed but represents the kinds less imitation for are introduced
present when persons
,
of
.
),
is
(
:
in
is
of
a
in
,
,
of
it
so
imitation than poetry because does less vividly We may thus distin which imitation one within poetry itself between two kinds general way this represents the principal action universal the other particular parts which found guish
of
in
;
we
by
in
of
or
or
or
or
in ,
;
by
,
or
or it
,
in
Then receives particular imitations especially the parts which either these other things compounded times movements bodies sounds thoughts are feigned the poet which either characters the mind passions which are not true but verisimilar are depicted this special way wher ,
,
,
in
to
to
by
,
,
augmentation distinct narration comparison diminution are made ever almost touch with our hands the things invented the poet and they almost appear visibly their verisimilar form.85 :
,
by
,
by
,
by
consist the enhancing rhetorical devices
of
in
to
imitation seems by
or
,
by
by
,
,
,
,
the latter contexts
of
.
narration
of
In by
by
by
in
of
partial imitation are found separately These kinds different poets descriptions Petrarch Dante imitates character Euripides and Vergil thoughts passions Homer comparison the mind Vergil augmentation Ariosto Terence diminution Lucan distinct
of
it
to
it
,
;
,
or
in
on
by
no
is
.
.
the use the materials the heightening This impression confirmed Salviati's remarks imitation the lyric Since the lyric has plot action will not display that kind imitation which accompanies narration hence will not conform the
or
is
a
,
,
68 : " il
84
as a
.
be
"
is “
"
,
a
requirement that poem imitative throughout But that not neces sary for poetry present whenever one makes with verse any poetic part imitation whatsoever no matter how brief and compressed
,
, o
, o
."
'
a
, o
, o
, o
,
, o
E
.
, o
.
, o
o
.,
poeta imiti cioè esprima rappresenti sempre mai che che sia Ibid fol azzioni persone luoghi stagioni tempeste battaglie cheunque altro cader costumi possa sotto l'imitazione questo faccia senza indurr alcuno parlare
,
."
]
[
in
,
,
,
,
:
,
o
di
, o
di
, o
, o
è
le
613
un
, " o
:
.
, , o .,
corpi
, ci si si
si
fols
, o
89
Appresso particolari imitazioni riceue spezialmente nelle parti 70––71 tempi queste mescolate dal poeta suoni mouimenti altre cose ouunque passioni non uere ma uerisimili costumi concetti mente dipingono ouunque comparando cotal modo diminuendo accrescendo partitamente recitando fanno cose trouate dal poeta quasi toccar con mano quasi nella lor forma uerisimile uisibilmente apparire Ibid ouunque fingono
POETIC
THEORY
,
parcel of a composition which may not be a poem .” 86 It will thus be possible to find imitation , and hence poetry , even in the minute sections words or phrases - of works which are not imitations in the more general sense . Salviati here comes close to the position of Averroës , who saw imitation essentially in the rhetorical figure ; and he departs radically from the position of Aristotle . He expresses the same idea in a modified way when he says that “ imitation is thus only of appearances , of appearances I
of those same senses to which imitation has as show itself we compare poetry with nature then we find nature the cause and effect relationship follows
The objects may
[
,
:
as
]
>
pleasure
senses
).
> [
imitation
>
>
pleasure
:
> or
it is
appearances
>
objects
follows
senses
it be
in
poetry
as
objects whereas
is
,
If
-
-
that
. ” 87
to
end
in
its
say which are the objects
,
.
of
But imitation itself
not
statement that imitation makes the take that statement absolutely would follow poet and every imitation poem that every imitator should called Similarly painters and monkeys would poets and statues masks and ,
.
a
,
,
,
be be
a
be
,
to
if
“
:
it
Aristotle's
.
sufficient He discusses poet For one had
imitation
is
or
the other kind
.
of
we have one
or
is
as
of
,
on .
in
,
be
of
is
;
a
, in
actions which case the imitation informs the whole poem things they may work and makes which case the fragmentary and partial and produces poetry only occasionally imitation There are two further consequences this theory imitation First relationship general the between imitation and poetry Salviati holds that parts imitation poems according essential and that we have poems
in
,
is
;
of
:
to
,
is
is
in
,
in
its
,
88
be .”
is
in
)
(
of
be
“
to is it
to
is a
in
.”
be
puppets would poems What must added verse which does not necessary adjunct itself make the poet but which imitation enough say that imitation Nor the form the poem for order make the composite form itself not sufficient but there must also the matter and not every matter but the proper matter which poetry any con speaking the extrinsic one verse Second
86
in
to
he
as
it :
to
of
.
,
,
of
of
ception poetry imitation must proper the ends reduced importance Salviati finds that there are four ends for poetry stated ways which come closer and closer the definition the art sees
un
,
o
da
si
sia .”
,
si
.
la
la
da
...
,
.
è la
,
ma
ne
,
."
il
, e i
materia propria
il
, a le
."
)
,
si , e è'l [
614
]
la
:
, e
le
et
,
, se a i
: “ di È : “
è la , e le ui
non ogni 15 materia uerso
stessa sofficiente ma uuol materia qual parlando dell'estrinseca nella poesia
(
,
, e
si
.
.
i
se il
,
: “
sia .
.,
.,
,
87
88 ,
,
.,
fols
si
ogni hora poeti che 244-45 faccia col uerso qualunque poetica uoglia breue pur quanto compresa come parte come particella che poema non adunque l'imitazione Ibid fol 276 solamente dell'apparenze delle apparenze quali ell’ha per fine mostrarsi quei sensj dico che oggetti sono Ibid fol 131v Percioche assolutamente douesse prendersi quella sentenzia seguirebbe che ogni imitatore poeta ogni imitazione poema dir douesse Cosi poeti poemi dipintori Ne uale fraccurradi statue maschere scimie sarebbono composto non per dire l'imitazione forma del poema percioche fare forma Ibid
imitazione componimento
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS Artists have two ends : one of them proximate , and that is the work itself ; the other ultimate , and that is what follows upon it . The proximate end of the poet is truly to imitate , the ultimate to bring profit and pleasure , which is the same as
...
saying to offer utility and enjoyment by imitating . The poem , therefore , has mainly four ends : To imitate ; to imitate with verse ; to profit and delight by imi tating ; to profit and delight by imitating with verse . The first is the proximate general end , the second the proximate special , the third the ultimate general , the fourth the ultimate special . 89
In this analysis, imitation
an element in a composite of ends
becomes
fol .
of
,
of
a
.
,
,
or
Its
rather than a simple end in itself . Poetry is an imitation , but of verisimilar objects. objects we have large variety characters but also seen are not merely actions things animate and inanimate We have seen what some these things ,
. or
to
,
to
,
is
It
,
in
or
.
a
(
).
classify them and compare also possible moreover 202v Salviati's classification gives first answer the relationship between objects and imitations The poet may imitate objects which are true improbable false and the latter category those which are probable are
.
is
of
by
be
;
90
."
to
“
,
is
,
;
be a
,
to
poetry since they come from nature and poet without invention not demand invention the poet cannot Those which are false and improbable are also excluded because they prevent the poet from achieving his end which move the passions along with profit and delight this cannot achieved the imitation the improbable The assumption that emotion depends upon belief do
But true objects are improper
or
,
be
.
77 )
( . It fol
it , is or
,
or in
:
“
of
in
of
is
(
,
is
,
.
)
is
it
of
and belief upon probability Hence the third category false in objects which are probable the only one left for the poet and this one which Aristotle considers exclusively Salviati also suggests the sources our notions the probable cannot denied that the probable found either nature the sempiternal Idea vented
he
;
the
(
in
).
,
,
:
-
...
or
,
to
.
the poet inventing what formed equal that which exists un
is
way that
it
such
a
in
,
89
—
his work makes everything himself
does not exist and
gli
in
the poet
is
he
elements
all
;
a
of
in
expresses them proper order and rhetorical words invention disposition and elocution are clearly present Of these things unlike the historian maker and creator
them
...
he
a
of
. " 91
by
,
or in
,
be
it
in
of
the mind the poet the universal and being found there taking clear that can imitated The poet invents his subject probable materials and fashioning them into likeness disposes truth
Giouare
,
è
, e
, e
:
è
.
.
,
,
a
.
il
.
. , . e . .
il
,
, e
,
è
ne
.
.,
: “
arteficj hanno due fini fols 151-51v l'opera stessa uno vicino cio segue Prossimo fine del poeta che cio che ueramente l'imitare ultimo l'arrecar giouamento piacere che medesimo uiene dire che porgere utilità dilettazione imi poema quattro fini massimamente Imitare tando Ha adunque Imitar col uerso Ibid
ultimo
si è
."
il
,
, e
,
il
,
di
]
[
615
nell'Idea
mani
.
è
, e
si
, o
, o
,
si
, o
: “
."
,
festo che
negar non puo che'l uerisimile uogliam dir nella natura ritruouj nella mente del poeta nell'uniuersale non ritrouandosi puo imitare
fol 76v
si , o
sempiterna
.
Ibid
.,
91
."
è
76 : “ il
,
il
.
, , e
.
il
.
.,
90
Il
dilettare imitando Giouare primo prossimo dilettare imitando col uerso quarto ultimo speziale fine generale secondo prossimo speziale terzo ultimo generale quale Ibid fol commuovere con profitto diletto che l'imitazione del non uerisimile non puo adoperare
POETIC
THEORY
even better , by himself makes the matter , by himself disposes it ; and not content with this , since he must make it appear as it were in the mantle of speech , he does not wish to borrow the latter , either , from somebody else ; but he forms a new and excellent one by himself , so that no part shall find a place in his work that he himself has not made . 92
Verisimilitude is the resemblance of what the poet produces to the world of reality ; insofar as it is “ better," it resembles the world of Ideas ; and the process of creating or inventing such resemblance is called imitation . ( 2 ) Poetry is an imitation in verse . Salviati has established , in passages already examined , the necessity for verse as the proper matter of poetry ( and he has called this the
“ extrinsic ” matter to separate it from the intrinsic ” matter or “subject matter ” or the objects as imitated ). He recognizes the philosophical (and Aristotelian ) principles concerning form and matter in imitation : “
... the imitation is of the form alone ; so long as this is expressed by the imitator , it is of no importance through what matter or with what instrument he presents it to us . And since the matter of the thing imitated and the matter of that which imitates must be different , this difference ought to be , as the logicians say , not specific but of number .
For it
guage , but that the san
would be important not that the same sort of lan words arranged in the same way , should not be used .93
But his argument for verse is not based on principle ; it consists in a triple appeal to artifice, to pleasure, and to usage . By " artifice " he means the skilful use of the potentialities of language ; this is pleasurable because it the greatness of the poet's genius, and moreover it serves to " magnify " the poem . Pleasure itself is a part of the end - or one of the
reveals
insofar as verse adds an element of pleasure to the poem it is desirable . The usage of the best poets in the past should convince the poet that verse is indispensable . These arguments are not without their difficulties . On the one hand there ends
— and
are such works as Sannazaro's Arcadia , which is to be blamed for not
being entirely in verse rather than for mixing verse with prose . On the other hand , Boccaccio's Decameron , although it is a plot and should require verse , is so good in prose that one would not wish it otherwise : perchance no composition either of the moderns or of the ancients poeta fingendo quel da se
il
...
,
se ,
,
in
da
da , ne
,
formato medesimo contento cio quella douendo fare presto anche quella vuol altrui torre per acciò niuna parte nella sua fabbrica non
."
forma
ogni cosa ancor meglio
,
la
apparire ne
se
, et
,
lui
da
,
al
,
se
da
,
fabbrica quasi col manto della locuzione ma una nuoua eccellente fatta habbia luogo 93
di
: " il
poeta nella sua fabbrica 167 quel ch'è par maniera che dispone materia medesimo
di è .
è la , et fol . in
92 Ibid ., che non
, fa o da ne se
...
ce
,
, o di ,
616
)
(
. di "
locuzione
ma
:
di
,
le
i
,
,
, e di
,
a
la
importerebbe non che stessa maniera modo ordinate non douessero adoperare si
la
e
di
: "
la
si
.
E
,
.
.,
qual pur che dall'imitatore Ibid fol 136v l'imitazione della forma solamente l'appre uenga espressa nulla rilieua per uia qual materia quale strumento auanti posto che quella che imita esser douesse differente senti materia della cosa imitata fatta differenza harebbe essere come dicono loici non ispecifica ma numero che medesime parole nel medesimo
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
if
and so beautiful : and woe to the author
was ever made so graceful
he
had made it in verse ! ” 94 Salviati solves the dilemma by stating
the
, in
:
its
.
for
all
:
it
the
.
.
,
to
it
if
,
of
deprived
praise and
of
,
be
,
if
:
it is
;
on
is
in
the
the way that has been indicated the the mind the ears and
it
,
to
if
to in
of
all
lest the author
,
neglected
no
will bring
use
given comedy not made measured language any other and the reason which the aforementioned languages this artifice which even did not only the listener did not bring harm and damage
title And one makes verse unpleasantness and harm .
of
his
should not no
,
be
is
is
law based common afford utility and profit him
a
,
or
it
must the Greek language
privilege
of
a
,
thorough case and Salviati develops comedy Italian He summarizes thus be
Italian verse
is
of
.
of
,
it
,
needs
to to
to
poets have invented kind verse particu always appears and this Piccolomini's arguments
prose are rejected
The law that
to
homespun conversations would demand the
but instead
in
of
prose
,
medium larly suited
comedy and to
of of of
actions
is a
.
it
If
thorny
passage
its ;
dictates
for
ascendency taste and preference over principle and argument The problem especially comedy poem permits any must have verse Aristotle never popular might prose that the think One the Poetics the use
of
nevertheless , one senses
of
the
that the fault is with respect to the species , but that the particular work is excellent ;
spectator.95
mind not only his principle about verse but also another context that Art one and has certain removed must not firm essence from which form its own and perfectly consistent way maintains that verse does not necessarily justification for rhyme involve rhyme There Italian tragedy and . "
is
an ,
,
in
to he to
,
.
be
In
),
49
è
(“
II,
.p ”
see
.
—
(
”
gli
da
, se da '
ne
a
.
in
be
found the various genres Two cor pleasure resulting from given literary ne
the kind
of to
to
talk largely about the pleasure siderations relate
intorno
he
is
,
)13 .
"
neglect
concerned with mores
neither subordinates pleasure present Instead insist that utility must always the concern with mores almost completely and Nevertheless
he
.
, ”
to
a '
seems
“
Salviati declares that the final cause
94
in
of
its
).
—
his ( )3
(
of .
,
rhyme any spoken verse indeed reason tells that the use improbability fol 345v poetry The ends ultimate ends are utility and pleasure Chapter initial statement about the four causes above costumi fol utility nor does
96
a
be
it
us is
no
,
he
a
a
In
.
is
“
)
in
(
stated
of
in
Salviati obviously has
his conviction
, e si
si
."
in
è
, o
a
è
la
,
, gli il
la
: e la
si è
:
,
in
: e
,
La
ad
: , “ o
è
le
.
.,
95
fu
.
.,
Ibid
: "
grazioso fol 140v niun componimento moderni antichi guai all'Autore uersj fatto per auuentura l'hauesse fatto legge che legata locuzione debba farsi Ibid fol 189v data alla commedia ragione sopra quale predetta legge non alla greca lingua altra fondata lingue quale come che utile giouamento all'uditore tutte comune cio l'artifizio bello
, e
.”
una ferma essenza onde ,
et
,
)
617
,
il
E
una sua certa forma
(
ha
et
una
,
.
.,
Ibid fol L'arte trarla non conuiene
è
, e
69 : . " "
,
96
, et
.
,
, o
,
,
non recasse solo che noia disutile non arrechi per non ispogliar l'autore della lode del priuilegio del suo titolo non douerrebbe trascurarsi chi farà uerso nella guisa che njun danno all'orecchia s'è detto niun fastidio all'animo dello spettatore porterà
POETIC form
for which it
: the audience
THEORY
is written and the objects which it repre
sents . The end of comedy , for example , is pleasure alone — the pleasure which comes from laughter ( fols . 146 , 200 ). It has nothing to do with teaching, with using other people's lives to better our own , although this has sometimes been ascribed to it as an end ; at best , it avoids presenting positively harmful examples ( fol. 355 ) . Its audience is of two kinds : some men (the common people ) care only about their laughter and their pleasure ; others (the educated men ) are more discriminating :
... since pleasure is sufficient for men , they care about nothing else , nor are they bothered by the obscenities , or the lack of verisimilitude , or the other errors of the art , or the improprieties and the impertinences of which these plots [ in the " commedie di zanni " ) are everywhere full , so long as the laughter and the plea sure last continuously . Grave men also find extreme pleasure in them , because of their admirable imitation ; but on the other hand , they feel greater annoyance at the absurdities and the other defects than if this were not so . From the striving
for pleasure nothing but praise can come to these plots , because pleasure must be said without any doubt to be the end of comedy.97 The same is true for certain
“
joyous writers
whose works give even greater pleasure
”
to the
...
“
in Italian , such as Berni , giudiziosi ” and the “
di
they are heard with greater screti ” than they do to ordinary men : “ pleasure by men of merit because they recognize in them , better than the
multitude , the beauty of the sayings , the grace of the witticisms , the sharp of the conceits, and the appropriateness of the language . " 98
ness
In order to achieve this effect , to please this audience , comedy must treat men of low social station . Salviati insists throughout that the difference between comedy and tragedy is not a difference badness
goodness , but uniquely
and
between vice and virtue , or
common and illustrious
between
people . This is the “ specific ” difference :
For the fact that the persons are good or bad in a given tragedy or comedy will make them more or less commendable , indeed , or more or less perfect ; but it will not make them change species. For if popular subjects were taken , no
diletto
niente altro
hanno
cura ne
bastando loro
il
huomini
, ne , di gli
lor
fa
il le ne
97 Ibid ., fols . 145v_46 : "
gli
matter how much “ better " the persons of such a story were made to be , we should not have a tragedy ; and on the contrary , if kings were taken for the imitation , even if their actions were as abominable and as wicked as possible , from such a
,
,
i
ui
:
di
,
,
a
,
il
)
la
, e
,
." 618
de
,
il
il
, ' la
de ' da '
riconoscono
(
proprietà della fauella dentro
, et
,
:
se
...
ui
: la “
.
." .,
,
è
98 da
:
,
di
degli altri difetti imitazione coloro ma degli assurdi all'incontro quelle questo non fosse del cercare diletto altro che lode noia che fauole non potrebbe uenire impercioche diletto fine della commedia senza alcun fallo dire Ibid fol 298 sono ualent huomini con piu diletto ascoltate quanto eglino meglio che'l uolgo mottj grazia degli scherzi l'acutezza concettj bellezza la
per l'ammirabile senton maggior
il
e'l
,
, e le
,
le
noia sconce cose ne'l mancamento del uerisimile altri errori dell'arte sconueneuolezze scede che per tutto ripiene sono quelle fauole pur che continuo piacere quale eziandio gustano oltr'à misura riso duri seueri huominj grande
no
other poem
distinction
ethical
do in
are interpreted
such
we
or
in
,
Aristotle that make the passages Hence between goodness and badness are explained away
—
dramatic representation
an
all
it were forth tragedy would ever result.99
as a
- provided
set
plot than
a
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
re
"
is
of on ,
his
,
of
.
"
in
it
,
a
his
of
as
,
of
of
to
by
of
).
168v We result from the spectacle laughter are produced (
on
,
highly noble subject magnifies every extraordinary audience marvelous and compassion and terror know that the effects the misfortunes illustrious men just those
chooses
doing gives
of do
,
,
therefore so
that way and ones
pleasure
be
fol . by he
;
he to
on
.
to
as
a
justify Salviati's basic contention Unfortunately not purgation tragedy specific have his remarks the effect and the judgment pleasure obtained from that form But Dante vealing holds that Dante writes for wise men rather than ordinary way
).
,
”
“
as
,
of
its
,
"
of
of
in be
.
of
,
to
is
of
as
;
of
a
10 ).
(
.
of
.
of
its
of
”
(“
of la
the spectacle
" . his fol
ridiculous men who are per ridicoli loro condizione 209 poetry and kinds reflect attitudes objects toward the use verse and toward the pleasure essential end We have already seen poetry defined an imitation the verisimilar expressed through ornamented language language both fol The presence verisimilitude and the use relationship between poetry and rhetoric since rhetoric treats establish poetry both some knowledge rhetoric thus prior the practice through their condition Salviati's definitions toward imitation and
a
is
of
is
lie
is
of
,
of
,
it .
of
,
of
;
of
,
its
:
.
a
to
,
if
an
is a
of
.
to
"
“
,
,
insofar costumi are involved there will also link with establishing moral philosophy But Salviati refuses follow Castelvetro priority history over poetry The reasons are clear although history object the true and also imitation lesser degree than poetry not the verisimilar neither the imitation prose the truth nor the use poetry and hence history would satisfy the basic conditions essen tially different from The notion fiction falsehood the Besides
of
is a
“
:
.
of to
,
is
,
, is
It
. "
giving
100
,
with the ornaments sometimes separated laughter and witticisms
means
of
the soul
of
by ,
recreation
a
,
a
to
with ornamented language
99
,
).
,
of
is
on
to
.
to
(
in
as
contained such terms uïdos and Nóyos and these inevitably accom pany poetry fols 70–70v 76v By definition then poetry more closely history The definition akin rhetoric and moral philosophy than comedy tragedy Comedy modeled Aristotle's definition representation happy ending and magnitude low subject having
tra
, ò
,
, o
, o
le
,
,
si
,
, e
si
di
auuenimento disparte per ,
in
,
."
]
619
[
, e
di
è
La
: “
, e
, e .
.,
.”
tragedia non uscirà giamai rappresentazione Ibid fol 351 commedia basso sollazzeuole grandezza con fauellar condito coi condimenti alcuna uolta hauente fine uia del riso delle piaceuolezze l'animo ricreante 100
et
,
si
se
,
,
se ,
le
di
.
, di
ad
si
i
, o
, : le “
.
.,
, o
, o
personaggi fol 200v Percioche l'essere buoni cattiui d'una qualche piu commedia farà bene piu meno commendabili men perfette ma can giare spezie non gia Conciosia cosa che soggetti prendano popolareschi facciansi quanto persone uuol migliori cotale argomento tragedia mai non s'haurà all'in uogliano abbomineuoli contro tolgansi Re imitare sien pur quanto scelerate loro operazioni per maniera rappresentazione cotal fauola distenda altro poema che Ibid
gedia
POETIC
THEORY
it ,
we
.
of
a
It
.
;
its
It
It
of
on
as
.
of
,
Aristotle's text and
a
clarification
as
is
—
,
as
of
a
nevertheless
-
,
is
of on or
,
as
it of to
,
,
as
.
.
in
is
,
;
language
of
the concern for the audience and for certain problems but not completely oriented these directions discards the contemporary supposition that poetry has moral instruction end hence the Platonic the Horatian element much reduced remains close Aristotle some points but frequently the matter verse imitation the objects far distant from him One can only highly eclectic perhaps not fully achieved but regard seeking
it as
theory such
.
or
,
is
to
in
of
of
of
as
his
notable that no ethical end is here stated for comedy , as was so frequently done in this period ; but otherwise the definition shows many incompre hensions of the Poetics . Throughout commentary have Salviati indicates his inde pendence the earlier students the text He examines their positions accepting rejecting accordingly That the light his own theory theory difficult describe succinctly has some elements rhetorical
removal
accumulated
.
error
a
,
a
is
.
Its
.
-
be
,
,
by in
a
),
(
to it
represented One should not conclude from Salviati's position that tendency the period For the next document studied pamphlet Parigiuolo short Lorenzo entitled Questione della poesia clearly anti Aristotelian stand 1586 takes central thesis that verse general
of
is
,
,
in
.
,
.
,
,
of
an
.
of
makes the poet We have seen most the apologists recent years main taining that verse was poetry along with imita essential ingredient precisely tion but we have not seen them discarding imitation That Parigiuolo proposition rejects what does He Aristotle's that imitation not verse makes the poet and this constitutes the first point his program :
for the work
to
it
,
a
he
in by
:
) : is “ I
be
I
,
.pp
is
,
of is
,
;
by
...
101
merely
do
,
of
all
by
of
is
(
rapidly
.
in
is
,
,
,
disposed
it
no it .
”
saying that proof for and that antiquity only Plutarch offered the writers accepted Cicero's oratory For the rest the basic distinction only Parigiuolo not one condition prose poetry states verse say though that the poet made mean the good poet which good verse which can written only through but verse alone
“
Aristotle's proposition
poet.101
by
another
is
he
is
to
shall remove the accessory that made this that when the poet and that one who speaks through his own person not is a
the mouth
of in ,
.
tion Finally poet speaks
all to
we
,
of
.
,
.
In
We shall therefore first deny Aristotle's proposition addition this we shall will follow that the prove that verse makes poetry not imitation From this writers verses without imitation are true poets contrary Aristotle's deduc
A
)
in
.
la
di
.
la
il
.”
fa ,
vi si (
620
.
la
fa : la “ Si
il ), ,
la
, e
si
i
di
.
si
(
neghera dunque prima proposta d'Ari Questione della poesia 1586 6–7 prouera che poesia non questo seguitara stotele Oltre accio verso imitatione consequenza che compositori versi senza imitatione sono veri poeti contra Aristotele giunta che poeta fauellando persona sua non Vltimamente torra via che sia quello che per bocca d'altri fauella sia poeta
OF LITERARY QUARRELS
POETICS : EFFECT
not without art , and eloquence , and a knowledge of Imitation may also included the poetic faculty but accidental use depending upon the ends sought the poet composers poetry have directed their The ends are simply stated profiting others but along different routes according road the end their minds and their and appropriate certain things were pleasant to
,
as
“
.
by
;
in
be
of
all
103
to
to
of
:
,
102
,
its
is
it
miracles of nature universal things . ”
is on
art
of
he
.
of
of
In
to
."
powers many other ways Parigiuolo returns the beginning the tradition Etymologizing the principal terms connected with the the century
of
,
to a
a
in
to
'
to
,
be '
,
of
for
...
:
“
in
on “
"
“
”
;
to
of
"
"
,
fingo finds that one them and that this means both and form hence the question fiction which brings allegory poetry feign consideration the poet this will and simulate parables and stories and other similar things order de light and profit others with those fictions under which are always hidden feign
,
,
into religious Christian poetry
,
.
of
of
no
in
of
. "
,
thousand fine secrets about nature and about customs 104 This course repeats one poetry But the essential arguments the early defences Parigiuolo adds the caution that one must introduce such fictions with which fables
the pagan gods must
,
a
of to
,
is
be rei , as a
19 .)
( .p
to
”
.
is
in
as
,
of
it
of
1586
que
'
à
il
comedia
et
tragedia
,
che
poema
(
he
the Poetics
,
producing pleasure are defined and described
in
.
, is he as is he a
.
,
.
by
of
of
we
,
is
),
.
.
a
) is
(
pp
,
102
capable
civile
da '
governatori delle already have seen Chapter primarily concerned with the relationship VIII 316–19 Denores between poetry and moral and civil philosophy and with the various peda gogical ends served poetry To this extent Platonist He believes pleasure everywhere present auxiliary and accessory that the end that instruction follows upon pleasure Insofar holds that the devices As &
heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale republiche 1586 indeed curious one
Discorso intorno
, ' , la &
accrescimenti
la
Giason Denores
in
Aristotle
,
et
,
,
The position principii cause
of
)
(
DENORES
of
as
Aristotle and consideration
in
,
est by
“
these arguments
,
is .
,
cuiuslibet versibus comprehensa dictio should noted are offered contradictions proofs that the concept any unnecessary imitation poetry the art
Poesis
,
formula
All
to
.
of
:
be
intermingled Horace not his Ars poetica forbids such monstrous compositions Many others the standard arguments for poetry are intro retrogressing duced Indeed the extent which Parigiuolo distant time indicated his final use definition for poetry the Latin
il
a
,
di
se
,
di
."
le
.”
&
, e
.'
, e si
, e
, e di
di
]
[
621
,
al
,
,
&
il
gli
a
e
la le
si
,
il
, il e
...
&
13 : “
., .p
,
., , p . & 9 : "
...
il
., .p 8 : “
poeta intendendo Ibid Non dico pero che semplicemente verso basti fare quale far non puo del buon poeta ma buon verso non per miracoli natura eloquenza cognitione delle cose vniuersali senza arte giouare altrui ma per diuersa 103 Ibid hanno drizzato lor camino fine strada secondo che piu cose animi alle forze loro aggradano confanno per parte del poeta sara fingere 104Ibid simulare parabole nouelle giouare altrui con quelle fittioni sotto altre simili cose per dilettare quali stanno sempre coperti mille bei secreti ammaestramenti natura costumi
POETIC
THEORY
is an Aristotelian . This means that he goes to Plato for a statement as as its
of
ends of poetry , to Aristotle for information about themselves work two ways some them such
.
means
of
the
The means ,
.
;
or
to
, .
all .
of
be
in an
or to
, of
an
to
,
)
of in to
).
is
1v
by .p
(
of
(
;
)
of
.
at
(
to
be
was the wish
be
,
to it is of
one
was the wish
he
best intermediate end matters fully discussed according the Poetics For poetry the two bases and the earliest for the origin give pleasure through imitation the other coming later useful the public Art itself the reduction the means
will
to to
,
,
;
as
, to
,
pleasure
pertaining Aristotle
:
in
,
he ,
it
If
,
:
in
character and sen produce instruction directly others such plot and diction produce pleasure directly and instruction ultimately One may sum marize the total situation this way The poet himself wishing benefit mankind seeks his goal instruction about ethics about nature hence turns Plato for indication the proper ends But realizing that his audience which seeks only pleasure must moved and delighted before precepts will learn turns Aristotle for the art tentiae
."
on
of
be
“
,
la
as
,
.
in to
all
,
of
he
method and precept those devices which poets have succeeded pleasing their audiences For Denores considers the sources marauiglia pleasure reduce one word the marvelous— Each poem capable causing the devices used the must wonder and is
,
it ,
achieve
he in
in
familiar commonplace
.
those matters which are well worn
, to
;
the poet ,
must avoid
The marvelous depends
for
of , all
,
of
.”
that pleasure which the audience desires part upon the selection the materials
by 105
it
.
if
so ,
“
.
in
admiration the audience Therefore every poem founded the marvelous For this were not would not engender our minds
of
as
,
as
.
of
to
an
be
(
of
is
,
,
-
of
.
as
,
a
in
of
its
,
of
a
,
in
: “
it
in
of in , it;
;
in
unexpected and extra and this change must contrived comedy example way this that man ordinary consists for ),
adversity
of
,
,
in
it
depends greater part upon how they are handled therein lies artistry the the poet First and foremost course the handling plot and Denores sees each element plot construction well the Every arousing contributing totality admiration the form plot consists change fortune the two poles being prosperity and
But
he
it
,
of
grows
Wonder
even
if
,
the conditions are almost identical
,
.
is
reversed
tragedy
as
at ,
,
a
106 in
."
he is in
,
,
in
most happy conclusion
these things accomplished within the limited time
16 : “
105
sees
For
hours tion
of
,
achieves
the twelve
the situa
:
ever
audience
a
he
, -
of
low estate finds himself some predicament and does not seem that the poets following the orders nevertheless can ever get himself out way through their poem such the law givers arrange this kind beginning although the end how trouble the inventions that
in
."
.
,
di
i
."
,
si
le
,
]
622
[
è in
, un si
,
da
,
in
,
: “ ,
,
de '
gli
se
è
), .p
(
,
.pp
.,
è
106
se
1586 Pertanto fondato ogni poema nella marauiglia Percioche propone l'auditore tale non partorisce negli animi nostri quel diletto che questo che trouandosi bassa fortuna huomo consiste 16–16v Ibid poeti seguendo quella nondimeno vna qualche molestia non pare che possa mai rileuarsi legislatori fattamente questa tal poesia loro inuentioni acconciano con ordini disturbo all'vltimo tuttauia sortisce felicissimo fine che ben nel principio egli Discorso
non
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
...
while some powerful man is in a state of the highest happiness , it does not seem , because of his great power and authority , that he can ever fall into misery . Nevertheless , the poets , through their most skilful plots , weave the tragedy in such a way that although in the beginning he is in a state of extreme contentment and prosperity , at the end , however , he falls into many misadventures . Such marvelousness is rendered even greater by the very brevity and shortness of time , since it is necessary that the poet bring about this great transmutation from good to bad fortune within one revolution of the sun.107 the epic , similarly , a great prince is returned to a state
fill
to
be
in
at
,
of
;
.
in
at
of
us
of good fortune . , plot kinds of “ revolution " if to the A will be still more marvelous already indicated , it adds the devices of recognition and reversal. For both of these go counter to our expectations , surprise us , with wonder not only the turn events itself but the poet's skill putting them together this way The episode may also added the list marvelous devices for the poet displays both his genius and his In
,
a
, in
21 ).
”
of ,
of
as
“
as to
.
is
it
in
of
be
+
(
.pp
”
“
its
plot
to
a
extend
he
finds those episodes which verisimilar way correct proportions 17v Verisimilitude and the proper handling time are two considerations which must everywhere Vergil observed these matters From such passages his discussion apparent that Denores gives meaning verisimilitude the when
inventiveness
,
"
"
“
to
, of
.
of
"
as "
“
;
per natura natural probability such phrases and contraria alla ragione are used criteria for actions As for time not only does the limitation for tragedy and comedy permit the display the poet's powers epic gives scope while the freedom the his invention but somehow the a
in
for
is
a
on
be
on
of
a
;
9 )
it
,
,
of
be
combining means and end may exempli tragedy the usefulness for Boccaccio's novella plot Decameron has
IV ,
(
fied his remarks Rosciglione's wife
,
.
his
it
plot Denores way on '
ness
.
by of
,
to
an
of
;
it
.
to
varying lengths are adapted the differing moral lessons The king long time tragedy may quickly fall into misery but will take the epic regain position hero lost Indeed since the moral lesson the ultimate end will never omitted from judgments the effective
...
punishment last and receive desperation and death .
by ,
;
,
,
& la
i
,
in
, in ,
in
tal
,
in le
,
&
,
-
.,
la
,
provi
essendo qualche potente huomo vna somma felicità non pare signoria che possa mai trabocar poeti miseria nondimeno tragedia mira alle cose predette tessono con loro prudentissime fauole prosperità che quantunque nel principio egli sia vna supprema contentezza
16v sua gran potenza
hauendo tal guisa
through these secret ways from eternal
17 : “
Ibid
per
.pp
la 107
,
dence
108
,
as
at
it is
,
of
,
of
which can equally well receive both the change fortune and the reversal and the recognition and the revolution one single day and the morality which demonstrated that these furtive and illegitimate loves are discovered
il
si
,
la
.”
di
di
&
,
morte
,
si
la
quale dimostra questi riceuer per queste occulte vie
.”
,
,
per
& & , la
&
)
vn
in
la
&
la ,
sol
di
,
& il
,
la
623
(
,
furtiui
&
&
l'agnitione
vn
: "
., .p
108
giro giorno moralità non legitimi essere finalmente discoperti desperatione dalla prouidentia eterna per castigamento ,
petia amori
,
, e
di
.
in
marauiglia molte disauenture Vna rende ancho maggiore tempo essendo necessario che poeta faccia risultar dalla medesima breuità strettezza questa gran tramutatione dalla buona fortuna alla cattiva giro Sole peri Jaquale parimente puo riceuer Ibid 29v tramutation fortuna
all'vltimo nondimeno cade
POETIC
THEORY
The devices of the marvelous contribute to the achievement gogical ends .
of
peda
the
Diction and verse constitute another qualitative part capable of pro ducing the marvelous . In comedy and tragedy the audience is astonished by the fact that verse can so completely resemble prose and that it can so well be adapted
to the conditions of the personages . In any genre , the use of speech will in itself be pleasurable . Denores thinks of diction in terms of the “ figures ,” or the traditional styles , each of which is adapted to particular kinds of subject matters .
of
all
figures
in
,
of
so
by
,
a
in
of of
to
of
of
,
of
,
in
The marvelous of words in these poems but especially the heroic and poetic figures and forms the tragic consists this that they are accompanied speech and raised above the way speaking private persons that the language appropriate the condition their illustrious persons has itself certain royal dignity and grandeur which stems from the choice the words and
,
,
of
of
.
of
to
of
on
plot Denores appeals attaches himself the
.
,
of to
is
to
It
interesting note that whereas matters questions style the authority Aristotle medieval tradition
he
on
is
it
,
. be
of
from the artful ordering and succession the same The figure lowness next private must used for comedy since the imitation the actions citizens 109
order that his which will
each
language is
it
.
.”
“
is
be
to
in
delineated accordance with the laws decorum The special used for this delineation called oration morata Here
be
the various types
in
specifically
of
He does
of
may obtain knowledge
,
.
the imaginable types and nationalities and so
in
each
of
,
,
via imitation
all
as
.
in
,
"
of
"
poet presents
the good and the bad audience
an
,
The two remaining qualitative parts character and what Denores calls present their moral lessons even more direct way He affording great delight because the speaks character and decorum sententia
another to
is
.
,
of
so
no
to
32v
. & , , & .pp
109
a
in
is
)
if
“
.
(
”
)
(
di
,
,
&
il
continuation delle alla comedia essendo ,
&
,
et
."
de '
La
.
,
che deriua dalla eletion delle parole dalla prudente ordination figura poscia dell'humilta douera essere accommodata medesime priuati ella imitation delle attion 624
&
se
, a
tal
,
,
in
,
in
in
,
di
,
: “
35–35v nel tragico
La
marauiglia delle parole tutti questi poemi ma sopratutto questo che siano con figure consiste con maniere dir ragionar delle persone private parlar secondo inalzate dal modo che grandezza conditione delle sue persone illustri habbia una certa dignità regia Ibid
nell'heroico poetiche la
be
to
all
or
no
is
,
,
as
such
as
plot and diction are marvelous and hence produce delight and such others character and thought achieve moral end directly would deter which structural criterion formal there more parts among relationship one wishes the these Aristotle's mine the poetic composition any beautiful 1447a10 not represented
If
parts
).
.
(p
in
eloquence
is
—
of
he
'
in
a
of
—
the rules
of
decorum the rhetoricians that called upon procedure poet basis for the The rhetorician also upper utility most Denores mind when considers the sententiae for these many lessons arguments and appeals the emotions are more than tradition provide
LITERARY QUARRELS
POETICS : EFFECT OF
an
,
,
.
a
of of
,
on
its
way , and there is no substitute for it . The only general conception that would permit one to see a given poem as a totality is the conception of moral lesson and indeed genres themselves are distinguished the basis conception Tragedy for example must teach such ethical lesson
, .
it
In
.
;
in
the social station necessary
but
,
sure to
to
enters
be
to
Moral character
,
.
accompaniment
to
an
:
be
be
of
of
be
, is
he
,
is
it
be
of
, its
,
—
,
its an
,
,
of
the unhappy denouement
cause
its
,
a
specific kind having the required social and political implications plot might Hence whatever the particular form revolution recognition reversal general form must always the same must unhappy ending else the lesson will not taught have the same public figures way personages must illustrious rank social posi tion not character the only basis distinction which Denores finds imply the necessity Aristotle and believes that Aristotle also meant
be
arouse the
,
of
,
in
at
;
a
of
.
,
proper passions Moderately good men high station who fall rapidly pity into misery and final state misfortune will arouse the passions and terror and these were the only ones useful and necessary for Greek preparing the citizens for military life and for the tragedy which aimed as a
,
of
we
.
of
-
)
of
(
of
.
by ,
).
.pp
in
we
of ,
(
of
peda defence their country 10–14v Hence purgation itself gogical instrument takes the form required the lesson poetry itself and The definitions the various genres some which Chapter VIII are little more than combinations have already seen although they have the various elements that produce the moral lesson the external form Aristotelian definitions One need only compare them
is
of
:
,
by
to
,
,
of , in to
or , in
to
marvelous complete and fortune either from prosperous adverse presented the listeners through language
some human action
a
,
of in or
to
in
.
in
imitation
sizeable which has itself change from adverse prosperous which
is of
of
in an of
,
,
then
is
Poetry
'
is
as
with such definitions have the Poetics discover how basically poetry different Denores total orientation His general definition tragedy found modeled on that the Poetics
to
to
,
,
of
,
of
of
,
in
purge them verse either narration dramatic form order means pleasure the most important passions the soul and direct them to ward good living toward the imitation virtuous men and toward the con good republics.110 servation
,
.
:
on
,
of
of
of
;
of
a
be
pleasant action private therefore will the representation between the good and the bad which through some human error 36 : & “ E
,
110
an
of
to
Comedy persons
by of
,
on
of
he
is
in
By the comedy The same general pattern followed the definition very abundance elements which includes and their specificity Denores shows the one hand the eclecticism his sources the other grasp the essence Aristotelian definition his failure
.
,
,
)
[
&
da '
,
."
625
;
in
'
; ò
di
si
in
,
al
,
;
& è
,
è
se
la
,
,
dunque
grande
; ò
,
., .p
Ibid compita
di
poesia rassomiglianza vna qualche attion humana maraui che habbia tramutation fortuna dalla prospera nell propone agli ascoltanti con parlar auuersa dall'auuersa nella prospera che versi piu importanti affetti rappresentando per purgargli col mezzo del diletto narrando per indrizzargli dell'animo ben viuere alla imitation degli huomini virtuosi alla conseruation delle buone republiche gliosa
POETIC
THEORY
stupidity , beginning from hardship , ends in laughter and happiness ; in the space of one revolution of the sun ; composed in short verses and with low words ; in order to purge the spectators , by means of pleasure and of the ridiculous, of
which they will find themselves .
111
those hardships which disturb their calm and tranquillity , through the love affairs of wives and daughters and sons , through the deceits and treacheries of servants , pimps , nurses , and others of that kind ; in order to make them become enamoured of private life ; for the conservation of that well - regulated popular republic in
re ,
,
to
of
of
of
,
as
a
,
of In
definition this one may work back from the Platonic statement through subjects the ends the medieval enumeration the kinds through rhetorical elements style verse and certain Aristotelian such
,
a
:
,
to
of all
through means whose
.
in
,
ends whose statement derives from Plato conditions are outlined Aristotle's Poetics ment
in of
;
In
of
.
by
of
quirements for the constitution the poem but even these latter are warped extraneous considerations this sense the definitions generous eclecticism Denores are symptomatic his total method ingredients general which other are made serve two aims the achieve
in la
his
himself states
it
(
Platonic instruction
Giacomini
on
of
an
in
of
,
315–16
).
,
.pp
ultimate end
the
this
:
,
latter way
and pleasure and see Chapter VIII
an
is a
,
beauty
of
,
in
of
'
of
departure There are striking affinities between Denores general point Sopra purgazione della and that Lorenzo Giacomini lecture tragedia delivered before the Accademia degli Alterati 1586. For Giaco duality mini also there ends consisting immediate end
to
to
the poem itself
”
which
,
“
,
as
;
a
,
of
.
to
.pp
in
111
it
.p
”,
is
lo
it
è
(
“ il
further Giacomini indicates that also the formal end He defines poetry an imitation figurative language reduced verse human action made istesso
deals with
is
,
, “
he
112
to be
to
the art
as
poema
of
the proper end
to ,
the
is
,
is to
a
of as
it .
these
33 ) ;
quale
or
The first
is
of
,
—
of
,
,
of
poet The end the poet construct the poem correctly according the rules and the end the tragic poet form the tragedy according the general idea tragedy the art which like any poem may used for many ends whose consideration with respect their causes belongs the politician who forms the city who governs
...
di
,
&
,
,
di
un
gli
di
di
la
,
in ,
&
: “
&
, & la in ,
da
,
,
da
di
fra
.,
Ibid 36-36v Sara per tanto comedia rappresentation una attion piaceuole persone priuate sempietà comin buone cattiue che per qualche errore humano trauaglio finisce allegrezza nello spacio giro ciando riso Sole composta spettatori col mezzo del diletto con uersi corti con parole humili per purgar del ,
."
33 : " il
,
si
a
di
de '
,
de '
&
,
,
&
&
,
,
de '
,
'
di
&
,
112
,
,
que trauagli che turbano tranquilità per gl'inamoramenti delle ridicolo loro quiete figlioli per gl'inganni mogli delle figliole tradimenti seruitori ruffiani delle per fargli inamorar della vita priuata quella nutrici altri simili conseruation tal ben regolata republica populare nella quale troueranno la il
, è
il
in
)
[
."
,
la
,
al
626
la , la
è
.p
& il ) ,
si
le
de
, la
,
(
e
quanto poeta Orazioni discorsi 1597 fine del poeta fabricare poema con retta ragione fine del poeta Tragico secondo l'idea del arte formare Tragedia quale considerazione come ogni poema per molti fini può essere adoperata quali per politico che forma gouerna loro cagioni pertiene Città overo
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
, in
,
in
is
be
,
is
,
,
of
efficient cause
part
is
language the the formal cause the material cause poetic the last that indicated the art the final cause
the four causes
is
of
113
according to the poetic art ; proper for purging , for teaching , for giving recreation or noble diversion . " Now the human action imitated terms
or
to of “
the diction with strange and wonderful forms
he
,
114
,
uses chosen words
of
,
forms the verse which flatters our ear
he
of
he
“
,
of
.
is
it
it
."
,
he
,
The form itself must beautiful and pleasurable directly and indeed achieves one the ends that recreation noble diversion Hence that the poet always aims make the work de lightful and therefore invents the plot out marvelous things ... the definition
speech
adorns ,
is
of
-
of
art ."
by of .
his
of
is
,
is ,
to is in
of
.
to
is
—
,
a
of
an
thus proper area for the operation poetry for Giacomini based the beautiful the creation on the Poetics we may assume and this according the rules form But Aristotle also provides for him the best statement the pedagogical purgation subject ends and this the clause which the lecture ,
There
be
all
.
,
,
,
to
its
in
,
,
of ,
to
-
of
.
,
,
of
.
it
of at
of
length because the many difficulties the three alternative meanings proposed earlier commentators The first theory holds that tragedy purges only the pity passions less audience and fear causing the men two oppo pitying theory fearful and less The second holds instead that the joy confidence envy hate wrath sites these passions are purged According theory tragedy through passions the third moderates the He moved consider interpretation and because
us
that the passions are purged any given passion within his man who suffers general way
for
, of an is ,
of
,
or
to
.
its
A
.
of ,
a
by
less
it
example outward expression lightening purgation Moreover this the soul accompanied feeling pleasure tragedy presents just such opportunity for exteriorization Giacomini likens effect that medicinal purgatives which drive out certain humors from the body
soul will suffer through weeping
gives
as ,
he
a
that
as
. it ,
exteriorization
a
.
, in
these He believes
,
of
none
by
is
.
,
of
it
gives the spectacle that the instability human affairs makes accept our own misfortunes with greater equanimity Giacomini's theory
To of
,
is
,
in
sympathy with others the same time the spectacle ,
At
).
ff .
36
feel these passions
moral teachings
.
full
them
( .pp
of
.
Hence our souls are relieved
we
compassionate
as
,
;
.
.
of
to
provided that the purgatives have some natural appropriateness the humors Tragedy presents vividly before our eyes the spectacle terrible and pitiable events As we see misfortunes impending over men like our selves we fear for their safety when misfortune actually occurs we are
,
a
,
a
33 : "
35 , :"
,
., .p ., .p
114 113
of
pleasure this seemingly divided poetics divided between two ends and utility between formal cause and final cause Giacomini gives
." )
,
,
ci
(
il
,
e
627
di
. di "
, e
la
, o
.
di
, a in
ad
,
a
,
il
...
di
di
la
Ibid imitazione con parlare fauoloso ridotto versi azzione humana purgare fatta secondo l'arte poetica atta ammaestrare dar riposo nobile diporto poeta intende sempre far l'opera dilettevole perciò finge Ibid favola lusinga l'orecchio usa sceltezza parole adorna cose maravigliose forma verso che favella maniere dire pellegrine mirabili
POETIC THEORY unity by making pleasure a necessary condition of purgation . That is , the form of the poem itself produces not only the pleasure but also the utility . He expresses this notion elaborately in a passage which offers at once a psychology of aesthetic pleasure and a statement of utilitarian ends :
...
his
the spectator of the tragic act , although he knows as long as he has recourse to his intelligence for assistance that what is represented is not true , nevertheless fooled by the artful imitation accompanied by flattering sweetness , especially
he
of
to
in
he his
,
it ,
of
imagination phantasms when present objects strike his view and create within capable moving feels within himself fear and compassion and weeping and spirit which addition the pleasure coming from the lightening ,
to
,
;
it
is
by
.
,
by
is
it
operating according achieves while these passions feels still other pleasures First tragedy pleases teaching the action represented since learning among the things which are joyful pleases through the mar their nature ;
it we is us of
,
,
by
he on
.
...
115
do it
of
is
us
.joy
,
.
is ,
this respect The second that informs that we indeed are free from such grave misfortunes which cannot otherwise pleasure and salutary lessons than give The last the learning in
tragedy can bring delight also
... its of
is
is an
,
it is
...
or
to
.
is in
.
,
a
to
thing not believed can readily come pass velous demonstrating that delightful through the imitation To these delights not improper that should add order three others even though they are somewhat external and remote One that since compassion act virtue and since every operation according resembling virtue virtue nature joyful the compassion
,
of
to ,
be
it
of
an
.
of
al of
the questions raised
,
his
in
its
a
it
,
of
of
.
to
115
in
that occupies ,
,
is
Aristotle the Poetics that Torquato Risposta truth and verisimilitude Tasso Discorso del Sig Oratio Lombardelli also 1586. And although this work sets out contradict Lombardelli essentially develops thesis own
It
another
by
(
1586-87
of
TASSO
)
of
,
to
.
a
,
of
to to a
;
refers also
in
on
,
purgation are not derived exclusively will clear the Politics on the effects music general and theory the passions and their effects upon the soul These elements are welded into doctrine which uses Aristotle defend the poet against Plato and which achieves almost complete identification poetry the pleasures and the utilities Giacomini's ideas from the Poetics poetry Plato
si
,
se
ad
,
da
,
,
: " lo
.pp
,
.,
rap spettatore dell'atto tragico benchè conosca quello che Ibid 240-41 presenta non esser vero mentre all'intelletto ricorre per aiuto nondimeno ingannato dall'arti lusinghevole dolcezza accompagnata fiziosa imitazione massimamente quando oggetti in
,
è .
,
il
è
è,
.
,
la
, e
. . . .
è
.
)
(
628
,
, o
,
da la si
,
, e
fa
ne
,
"
....
è ci ,
.
il
...
la
virtù essendo ogni operazione secondo virtù alla virtù somigliante per può anche per questo riguardo compassione della tragedia apportar diletto L'altro che conoscere che pur fiere disavventure siamo liberi noi l'apprendere documenti salute gioia L'ultimo porgere piacere che non può non voli , di
compatire atto natura gioconda
A
,
; in è
,
,
lo
tragedia insegnando l'azione rappresentata poichè imparare tralle cose per natura gioconde aggrada colla maraviglia proponendo cosa non creduta poter agevol questi diletti non mente avvenire dilettevole per l'imitazione disdicevole che accompagniamo che essendo remoti Uno ischiera tre altri benchè alquanto esterni la
piace
,
la
,
,
ed
, e
, e
, e
la
presenti feriscon vista crean nella fantasia fantasmi possenti alterarla sente compassione pianto compiacenza dell'alleggerimento dell'animo che timore oltre mentre secondo questi affetti opera egli consegue prova ancora altri diletti Primieramente
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS with respect to necessity , probability , credibility , and the marvelous . Much of what Tasso has to say is of course influenced by his intention to defend his own poem , and the thesis becomes a justification of his own practice . Throughout his argument, he uses the art of history as a point of com parison with the art of poetry ( answering Lombardelli's views ), and the following
conclusions result from the comparison : History and poetry differ essentially in the absence and presence of imitation . Tasso has some difficulty with the term , since , at times , he tends to use it as meaning dramatic representation . But in a broader sense it seems to mean the vivid placing of things and actions before our eyes , and this occurs in poetry ; whereas history gives merely a simple narrative of events . One consequence of this distinction is that the customary statement to the effect that history treats the truth and poetry treats verisimilitude is not valid . For Tasso , both arts are equally concerned with the truth . In fact, he sees truth as a genre , and the hierarchy which
necessary foundation for poems in whatever
descends from genres which are based entirely on the truth to those which represent it only slightly . He puts it this way :
all
...
he establishes
is
to
,
,
its
so
.
,
,
of
in
it
,
be
.
to
to
be
as
is or
truth some more and some less according perfection We must nevertheless note that just perchance the whole action the whole structure not the foundation part does not need true but must leave the verisimilar which proper the poem 116 as
poems have some foundation they participate more less
,
be
of
;
)
as
;
of
of
.
of
)
or
,
”
.
9 )
(
.p
distinguishes
117
is
to
a
is
"
:
.
a
he
which things and events are not well composed together We what necessity and probability consist But know that the poet must add something the truth otherwise there would opportunity for his necessary and that the marvelous invention
of
perfection when these
poemi habbiano qualche fondamento meno participano della perfettione
)
629
(
,
. gli '
, e
le
è
,
,
, il
la
, ." à
è
al
la
è
la
;
, i e
si
,
10 : "
., .p
117
,
,
(
), .p
della uerità chi dee nondimeno hauersi auertenza che come tutta fabrica non fondamento cosi per aventura tutta quale proprio del poema l'attione non dee esser uera ma lasciarsi sua parte uerisimile quello non poema Ibid cui manchi forma nel quale cose auenimenti non siano ben composti insieme piu
1586 tutti chi meno secondo che piu
no
be
is a
(
to
" )
"
poem reaches the highest degree 18 : “
“
.
, 116 e
Risposta
do
The
we
ingredient
.
are not told
of
."
in
lacking
to
, of
;
,
to
,
“
he
elements
says
.
—
“
other
”,
added The mode and not the poetry history matter from For one thing necessity and proba the poet must organize his materials according bility for another must give them proper form Perhaps Tasso reduces poem both these one procedure That not which form them
must
or a
-
of
a
be
of
is
.
in
(
is a
( or
in
no
;
on
the epic
and
the truth
,
would the highest genres being wholly comedy and the pastoral would the lowest since they have poems whose only foundation truth Tasso thinks little reality truth truth cities and countries somewhat more those which present true real persons well and most those whose actions are true the sense that they are historically verifiable retailing falsification historical facts Since poetry not merely Thus tragedy
founded
POETIC THEORY
?
in
,
.
is
.
to
be
,
of
:
of
,
is . in
do
be
of
,
,
of
...
as
of
118
two things [ the marvelous and verisimilitude ) are joined together, and they may be conjoined in various ways ." ' He thinks the marvelous con sisting those events which not enter into natural probability How then can they credible and acceptable the poem The answer the beliefs even the faith the audience For Christians believe the miracles the Bible know them true even though they are improbable This credibility which the poet seeks the only kind from Cicero we may deduce that the credible belongs rather
,
he
so
he ,
lie ,
at he
;
so
if in
be
,
119
.
it
se
,
,
is
it
,
if
and
it in
color
; to
at
as
I
believe that
many ways that even known least the poet ever takes the credible into consideration per does not consider but per accidens
least
blamed he
it or
be
it to
hide
will not
to
to
,
he
;
,
to
if
part
of
a
it
is
the orator the probable but the verisimilar belongs the poet who persuade only does not seek can please nor does care whether things are believed but that they should give pleasure nor does much avoid lying the inappropriateness which may the and seeks because frequently
a
to
.
”
“
of
,
at in
by:
,
in
it
it in
”
.
be
be
as in
of ,
"
is
as
"
by
.
to
be ,
an
to
spite
,
of
,
the poetic form
of
acceptable and hence give pleasure they will belief the audience Tasso's protestations the element important factor and may seems remain truth well some thing which the audience believes something true for which there historical evidence
In
beauty
to
;
to
be “
to
.
.
we
to
be
There seems much confusion these terms and the general posi Perhaps clarify way poet tion can this The his best takes historically true subject He develops elements that the addition probably given necessarily seem flow and from the materials These may inconsistent with natural probability and with normal credibility but the extent which they contribute the totality and the
in
It
'
,
of
In
,
,
in
to
.
is
of
given Some further clarification these points Tasso his little pamphlet entitled Delle differenze poetiche was written sometime after response Orazio Ariosto's Difese dell'Orlando Furioso dell 1585 published the work until 1587. the final pages Ariosto but was not
,
.
no
be all
in
in
i.e. ,
,
,
A
.,
.,
:
is
it
.p , pp e . 19 : si “
118 119
,
.
a
in
to
to
is
in
to
an
by
"
“
so
he
on
of
he is
plot Tasso throws discussing the relationship episodes necessity meanings and verisimilitude attaches which the analogy proposing which there are nature He does episodes but necessary which everything which the parts have fixed order and interdependency similar order would desirable impossible poetry but where light
,
è
;
."
il
,
; e
:
;
,
)
(
630
pur conosciuta
non sia almeno ch'egli no'l consideri per ,
stimo
,
, è io
,
al
."
: e
há
, ò
se ,
:
in
molti modi accioche s'ella almeno colorirla credibile mai consideratione biasimata se'l poeta ma per accidente
tarla
ne
,
è
,
le
il
nè , si
la
,
;
la ,
di
è
si
da
in
:"
il
14–15 all'hora poema nella somma perfettione che queste cose insieme piu modi congiungere possono può raccorre che'l credibile appartenga piu all'Oratore lbid Cicerone quale molte uolte non cerca perche egli parte del probabile ma del poeta uerisimile persuadere pur che diletti cose sian credute ma che elle piacciano cura che cerca d'occul menzogna quanto sconueneuolezza ch'è nella menzogna tanto fugge Ibid s'accoppiano
its
its
POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS
120
.
it
to
do
, it
in a
sometimes does necessarily
verisimilar way that which
not permitted
to
perfection
it is
.
to
to
an
to
all
of
art also would like to demonstrate conclusively riches and ornaments and reduce the parts the poem almost certain order and give each attain such one the necessary disposition and dependency But not being able
of
.
of .
in
is
here
;
of
all
)
"
“
to
of
any
the three finest
this one We must not .
in
of
,
on
, in
any work which has been written we not have languages any greater light poetry than the art
in
do
Orazio Ariosto's assertions
:
of
.
,
ones On the first score denies his total estimate the Poetics
...
so
be
a
to
it
;
justify the value and the usefulness the distinguishing insist that Aristotle's ways differenze poetiche are the only proper
he
(
between
,
a
in
general way and genres these are the
of
:
twofold
is
main problem Poetics
to
is
of
be by
,
in
,
imply Verisimilitude this context appears looser connection necessity parts than that required loose that must not but removal the part could effected without spoiling the whole structure Tasso's concern with these matters incidental the pamphlet His
121
is be
,
is
rank
persons
,
bases
-
of
number
which they are intermingled
-
in a
is or
the way
of
to
,
on
.
be
distinguished
their moral character
,
or
that objects may
,
of of
,
-
.
of
,
of of
,
he
similarity speaks are the definitions the bases which primarily the distinction and the differentiae the species the object imitation manner and means usually more rigorist On the interpretation this distinction Tasso than his contemporaries For whereas they are frequently willing admit
of
The principles
the ground
.
,
to
Thus Aristotle's principles remain sound and not thrown
.
,
go
;
by
as
,
in
or
by
,
to
take poetic teachings more willingly from any other nor allow ourselves apparent reasons for every little error that false persuasions beyond becomes very great toward the end the principles we
deceived committed
and
,
if
,
it of
,
A7 :
a
or
be
,
; .
it
of
a
120
in
be a
tragedy The dramatic take part will still only two genres tragedy and comedy any mixture manner will admit tragicomedy comitragedy would impossible since the two in it ,
popular persons
a
.
,
as
of or
an
,
,
is
of
as
,
of
:
a
of
possible within each manner Tasso reduces genres number characterizing objects the severely the possibilities the only valid basis popular and hence general nature the total action illustrious only two genres are possible under each manner imitation As conse quence for example tragedy will present illustrious action and even that
à
"
;
le
di
,
l'è
à
,
fà
.pp
da
;
.,
è
121 .”
, .p
(
& ; &
gli
&
,
à
& le
proua Delle differenze poetiche 1587) l'arte vorrebbe anch'ella dimostrar parti del Poema sott'ordine quasi certo sue ricchezze ornamenti ridurre tutte dependenza necessaria ma non potendo peruenir dare ciascuna dispositione tanta perfettione verisimilmente alcuna volta quel che non conceduto fare necessaria mente
)
(
gli
ne ' da
i
si
,
:
,
."
631
:
il
:
,
in
ne
,
'
da
,
in
,
in
: "
-
,
&
,
;
in
opera che sia stata composta non habbiamo alcuna delle tre questa non debbiamo prendere luce dell'arte Poetica che ammaestramenti Poetici più volentieri alcun altro lasciarsi ingannare false per ragioni apparenti imperocho ogni piccolo errore che suasioni principij commette procedendo oltre diuiene grandissimo verso principij d'Ari fine rimangano dunque stotele saldi non gettati terra Ibid A4r A5 lingue più belle maggior
POETIC
THEORY
would violate the essential nature of either action . The narrative manner will also give two forms, serious epics like the Iliad , the Odyssey , and the Aeneid , and comic epics like the Margites and the Moretum ; again , mix tures of the two are unthinkable in Aristotelian terms . This integrity of the essential action is a condition of and product of the unity of plot . But Tasso insists that unity does not mean singleness of action ; rather, unity implies a
of things to be unified , and in a poem this multiplicity is by constituted the various elements which contribute the realization the central action Tasso's view represents return aside some the irrelevant subtleties which proclaims the primacy unity plot and the object manner and distinctions with respect other ways less sound methodologically For
It
it
,
.
.
In
of
Tasso admits his use
of to
of
of
in
music
.
of
is
of
.
,
, of
of
to
certain ideas
actions
and the notion harmony Plotinus on
of
;
styles
of
,
of
is
,
it
of
different kinds
of
ture
purity
Aristotelianism sets others were insisting adequacy Aristotle's means imitation the dictum against mix little more than Cicero's principle the unity out multiplicity goes back on a
some ways
to
In
.
of
to
all
multiplicity
these external
.
he is ,
of
sources which are basically irreconcilable with the advocating stern Aristotelianism that some
we
CONCLUSIONS
, re of an
.
I
no
a
if
in
,
of
During the years have been discussing the effect the literary quarrels made itself felt upon the Aristotelian tradition only real way growing body occasional mean that there was continuous and by
as
in
;
art
of
.
a
in
of
to
do
,
.
fact these
of
to
of of
what Aristotle had said
contribution the study Aristotle than they literary the debates the estimates the polemic spirit manifested itself
works make more the furthering Something
of
fresh and significant appraisals
In
,
,
of
polemical materials whose vital arguments involved interpretation and interpretation Bulgarini the Poetics yet such works those literary quarrels brought Carriero Patrizi and Tasso the current about
Salviati The importance decade the question his
of
of
,
.
a
Tasso
the preceding
of
by
,
in
of
,
.
.
or
a
in of
as
,
that
to
procedure
is
the vigorous defences
a
,
of
,
at
, as it
of
.
of
or
to
in
of
as a
on
poetry Once Aristotelian argu Aristotle's worth writer the ments had been used defence Dante Ariosto was natural that part those who wished attack these Italian poets should least their attack deny the validity Aristotle's principles Such was the case with writers like Patrizi and Lombardelli They were answered turn the whole Aristotle's
in
,
,
,
its
,
of
)
632
we
Aristotle's method
(
the attention (
,
.
the text now result First
to
.
to
-
placed principles arguments the over view the text relationship poetical realities Two broad orientations with respect
re to its
be
its -
to
—
in
to
all
by
of
.
of
a
merits leads much more searching analysis text the broadest terms The minute exegeses earlier times which had already accomp lished most what they were achieve this century tend
have seen
POETICS : EFFECT
LITERARY QUARRELS
OF
of it in Chapter XI ) continues to provide some of the most original As it motivates Riccoboni, Sassetti , or the anonymous writer of the Magliabechi MS VII , 437 , it leads to fruitful discoveries of principle and useful interpretations of detail . Second , a new criterion appears with frequency : How useful is the Poetics as a guide to the poet who wishes to examples
ideas .
write today ? The theoretical approach, perhaps under the impact of the quarrels, gives way to a much more practical attitude. Should Ariosto , one asks, have followed the demands of Aristotle in the Poetics ? To what be
well
of ,
the level
actual
the quarrels
).
and
the later chapters
on
a
on on
?
recent pages
)
in
?
we have seen shall see
Will Tasso
And what about man who The questions are put two levels the on
performance
tragicomedy
as
write theory
( as
of
wishes level
these principles
respect
in
to
advised
we
ill -
or
( a to
extent ? Are ancient principles valid for modern times ?
.
of ,
in
of
be
to
;
,
enthusiasm
go
or
and
off into other
.
So
is ,
a
In
.
in
much less often encountered
is
lecture
a
to
publish the only universitarian Latin trans new one appears Italian similar way the
or
discourse
on
academic
the
,
is a
in .
,
of of
,
of
.
do
I
is
in
a
of
of
in
,
Horace which discussion Aristotle might play think only Aldo Manuzio the Younger whose work highly very secondary indeed Aristotle's part What we have miscellaneous group works some them connected with the polemics highly varied subjects others presenting independent views ;
commentary secondary part
These seem the result the great but not only has public interest waned the
70's
no is
.
Riccoboni the Poetics ;
of
lation
the
lose courage
authors themselves adventures
them never continued beyond the early
.
is
of
activity
academic
two
published '
Italian
but none
—
chapters
in
are written
-
of
;
is
in
.
of
in
of
part for the nature These diversified orientations may account the documents written during these years Certain types work are con spicuously absent there only one major commentary Latin among the printed volumes the period none Italian Three lesser commentaries
,
of ,
be
to
,
In
.
but some new suggestions are have great difficulty with the notion
still the same text
—
is
after
all , it
—
same ones
for interpretation Theorists still .
made
.
is
on
in
,
of
in
Since the great commentaries are few number we find this period rather than total analyses the text discussions detailed points isolated from their context the Poetics this sense Lorenzo Giacomini's lecture purgation typical The main problems discussed continue the
of
as
,
of
.
to
to
a
of
.
so
,
;
of
imitation but although many meanings are given the term Aristotle's often confused with Plato's Increasingly writers see one heightened and vivid the necessary components imitation kind portrayal which appeals the senses rather than the intellect The are not
]
[
633
,
of a
to
artistic quality
of
indicating
an
as
,
or
nature
a
is
as
,
to
is
.
-
in
.
-
if
be a
cause and effect sequence -
,
of
of
complicated matter the inter relationship truth verisimilitude and draws much attention Most critics believe that the object must credibility true one result that verisimilitude kind referring second best truth But they interpret necessity variously necessity
POETIC THEORY poems which justifies the way in which certain devices are handled . Aris totle is sometimes challenged on his requirement that plots be unified ; but more usually the problem is how they should be unified —to what extent “ double ” and “ multiple ” plots are permissible , in what way episodes may be integrated into the whole . Such theorists as Tasso , in their insistence on of the period . a high degree of unity, are perhaps most representative , recognizes by , the existence which Riccoboni There is at least one statement
of three unities.
his story
,
gives
the dicta which constitute the sententiae
.
to
he
.
in of ,
of
in
,
in
,
or in
the characters
the general form which
realized presents
he
the poet may
be
or all
On some major issues there is relative unanimity of attitude . Almost everybody thinks that verse is inseparable from poetry , and (just as before ) many ingenious interpretations of the Poetics are offered to prove it . In the poetry agreement that the ends same way , almost the critics are immediately ultimately either are utilitarian The moral intention
of
to
as
.
.
was
For
in
he
to
be
More generally Plato seems less omnipresent than former times So do Horace and Cicero and the rhetoricians ,
of on is
to
“
",
of
, in
is
;
.
of
.
of
in is a of
,
of
.
an
;
or at
of
,
,
This theory determines for the most part the way which the four requi goodness sites character are understood least the first that generally given meaning juxtaposed ethical Aristotle Plato this matter moral instruction and both the statements the ends poetry and the discussions purgation are seen answers Plato's banishment None these new idea all echo the earliest expressions the Aristotelian tradition the sixteenth century the
in
The question now
agreement
or
.
of
, in
of
.
in
,
of
,
to
documents studied here while they make the customary references other authorities are more closely concerned with the problem inter preting Aristotle part from the fact and for himself This may result comparison and conflation has long since been done that the work part from the concentration upon specific passages the Poetics itself
of
,
he is
.
is
—
)
(
634
is
in
of
of
,
is
.
to
of .
It
of
.
of
in
.
of
in
be
of
disagreement
disagreement
as
the element
is
with Aristotle's principles should not overlooked such Capponi and Parigiuolo writers for the purpose discovering the poetry Aristotle truth about the art the guide But not infallible and writers now feel justified setting up their own theories against those the master The commentary on commentaries much less conspicuous the study perhaps this kind Aristotle himself more direct spirit which gives rise the last great defences Aristotle the closing years the century
--and
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