A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance


387 48 91MB

English Pages [665] Year 1961

Report DMCA / Copyright

DOWNLOAD PDF FILE

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Table of Contents
Section 1 (Page 1)
Section 2 (Page 38)
Section 3 (Page 71)
Section 4 (Page 111)
Section 5 (Page 156)
Section 6 (Page 201)
Section 7 (Page 250)
Section 8 (Page 297)
Section 9 (Page 349)
Section 10 (Page 424)
Section 11 (Page 478)
Section 12 (Page 564)
Section 13 (Page 584)
Recommend Papers

A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance

  • 0 0 0
  • Like this paper and download? You can publish your own PDF file online for free in a few minutes! Sign Up
File loading please wait...
Citation preview

A history of literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance. Weinberg, Bernard, 1909-1973. [Chicago] University of Chicago Press [1961] https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c081044511

Public Domain in the United States, Google-digitized http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-us-google We have determined this work to be in the public domain in the United States of America. It may not be in the public domain in other countries. Copies are provided as a preservation service. Particularly outside of the United States, persons receiving copies should make appropriate efforts to determine the copyright status of the work in their country and use the work accordingly. It is possible that current copyright holders, heirs or the estate of the authors of individual portions of the work, such as illustrations or photographs, assert copyrights over these portions. Depending on the nature of subsequent use that is made, additional rights may need to be obtained independently of anything we can address. The digital images and OCR of this work were produced by Google, Inc. (indicated by a watermark on each page in the PageTurner). Google requests that the images and OCR not be re-hosted, redistributed or used commercially. The images are provided for educational, scholarly, non-commercial purposes.

Further unauthorized

book

publishing service

UMI

“ .

Demand

of

.

prohibited

a

Books

on

copying

the original

is

of

copy

facsimile made from the master .

an authorized

is

... is

This

print

Demand

is

on

Books

academic

resource materials originally presses academic societies

,

university

,

and trade book publishers

worldwide

.

by

and professional

of

The primary focus

published

no

more than 152,000 books that are .

longer

in

reprints

of

,

The program offers digitally scanned xerographic

UMI® Books on Demand

ProQuest

:

From

COMPANY

process

acid free paper

.

xerographic

-

by

in

2006

www.umi.com

on

734.761.4700

800.521.0600

Printed

,

,

300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor Michigan 48106-1346 USA

A HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

A HISTORY of

LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE VOLUME I

By Bernard

Weinberg

TO

THE UNIVERSITY OF

G

CHICAGO PRESS

MAIN

01436320x

Library of Congress

Repl

Catalog Card Number : 60-5470

The University of Chicago Press , Chicago & London The University of Toronto Press , Toronto 5 , Canada Published 1961 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

425

Second Impression 1963 Printed by The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois , U.S.A.

РP

Q

4031

‫اب‬

196 / a

vil

MAIN

Το

RONALD CRANE RICHARD

MCKEON

ELDER OLSON

PREFACE HE

HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM in the Italian Renaissance has been written several times . It is the subject of a volume by Ciro Trabalza

T:

La Critica letteraria ( Dai primordi dell'Umanesimo all'Età published in Milan ( 1915 ) in the series “ Storia dei generi nostra ) and letterari italiani.” Inside and outside Italy the most widely read and in entitled

fluential treatment of the subject is to be found in Joel Elias Spingarn's History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance (New York : Macmillan , form in 1904. The 1899 ) , published in Italian in a somewhat expanded various works of Marvin T. Herrick have provided much useful informa tion on the development of the theory of the genres during the Renais sance ,

The present attempt to rewrite that history has two justifications . The first of these lies in the limited bibliography upon which the earlier histories were based . Spingarn discussed , in the briefest fashion , only some thirty documents in the original edition , a few more in the Italian translation . Trabalza and Herrick dealt with a considerably larger number of docu ments , but they fell far short of an adequate representation of the numerous texts that actually constitute the vast bibliography of literary criticism in Renaissance . This bibliography comprises, besides the major printed works , a great quantity of manuscript materials preserved in the libraries of Italy ; these were left untouched by the earlier historians . It also includes many texts that are “ minor ” only in the sense that they are short the Italian

or relatively unknown ; they are frequently “ major " because of their ideas or because of the contribution they have made to the development of literary criticism . The second , and more important , justification derives from the way in which Spingarn and Trabalza used their materials . Their methods were those of the literary historians of an earlier generation . They tended rather to summarize texts than to analyze them , rather to disrupt texts ( by isolat ing terms and passages ) than to discover their structures , rather to con struct chronologies than to write histories . What one learns from them , essentially

,

is the order and

the content

of

a certain

number of works ;

but even here one cannot be sure , since the content as they state it is often philosophically unconvincing . One cannot be sure , from the evidence they

others

that

a

will convince

it is

it , his

,

its

is

for

present, that their reading is a proper one . Such cautions , of course , attach to any reading of any text ; the only recourse for the reader is his own reading of the text , and the only hope the historian that reading through consistency and through the citations that support tenable hypothesis about the particular the writing

of

experiment

in

an

have attempted

is

what

I

sense

,

a

In

.

text

viii

PREFACE

intellectual history . What is experimental is not the extension of the bibliography through the addition of hundreds of items not hitherto considered : this is merely the normal effect of the growth of biblio graphical knowledge and the continued pursuit of the subject. It is rather the organization of the materials and the elaboration of the historical statement . I have not sought to follow any author through his career or any term or concept through the century . Instead , I have tried to dis tinguish the main intellectual traditions of the century as they relate to literary criticism and to trace them , year by year and text by text , up through the sixteenth century to the final, arbitrary date of 1600. These traditions were of two kinds : they were ways of regarding the art of poetry ( a theoretical approach ) and ways of judging poetic works (a practical approach ) . This distinction accounts for the two major divisions

of my book . With respect

to the theoretical traditions , it has seemed to me useful to distinguish and identify them as developments and continuations of three great critical positions of the classical past : those of Plato , Aristotle , and Horace . These were the positions that provided Italians of the Renais sance with the greater part of their ideas on the art course , that any one of them appears , purely and

of poetry . It

is rare ,

of

of

those tendencies

be

one

of its

to

at

or

bear some resemblance

the major is

It

,

.

is a

it

completely eclectic work the texts indeed that we discover the existence unless

.

only through the reading

;

of

expected

the century

,

tendencies

of — to

or

of

be

may

dencies

,

its

simply , in any single text ; the Renaissance was not a period of intellectual purity and order entirety should liness . But any individual text , taken in classifiable major ten under one another the major traditions least

of of

,

at

is ,

,

in

.

It

its

a

or

,

;

of

to

I

.

its

it

,

, to

of

of

in

of

of

A

of

entirety should constitute consideration each the texts my approach the experimental aspects least one the first principles that approach have attempted the reading each work discover essential position discern what basically particular poetry about was saying about the art and peculiarly another

its

to

I

to

to

,

its

,

.

or

,

discover the method a

,

,

of

.

I

to

I

have frequently found

it

the texts themselves

,

Given the nature

of

.

a

conclusions and

have not undertaken conclusions guide any reading text but instead for the

passed from premises

which provide substitute that reading it

its

its

of

premises and

to to by an to to its

to

to

no

;

I

,

epitome

of

.

I

I

in

terms

of

methodological

the

is

define

in its

determine to

statements

;

;

to

and the logical bases for terms the whole complex relation should point out that what have said the work and concepts present represent the totality not intended about any individual text every report have tried idea than tried more have contents My inconsistency rather has been every aim failure account for give position economy possible greatest central state with the poem

PREFACE

ix

to discuss certain of them at two or three or four points in my commentary on Aristotle's Poetics , for example , might also make A significant contribution to the study of Horace's Ars poetica, another to a development of Platonic ideas , still another to the criticism of a con the temporary author . For the most part , though , each work is given major necessary study .

-

consideration only once . In a few cases I have had to deal with texts whose broad philo main subjects were not directly pertinent to my inquiry sophical treatises , works on other arts -- but which did contain useful materials . Here I have been obliged , contrary to my general practice , 10 isolate passages or sections rather than to study entire texts . I have limited my inquiry to literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance .

The temptation was present , constantly , to associate with literary criti cism such related fields as rhetorical theory and the criticism of the other arts, for the problems are the same or nearly so , and the documents them from one discipline to another . But I have had to sternly . The materials on literary criticism are them temptation resist this selves so abundant that to add others to them would have made the subject completely unmanageable . Moreover , the virtues of limitation to a

selves readily lead

of inquiry seemed to me obvious . Hence , the reader will find history here no of the important rhetorical documents of the century , even though there is much discussion of rhetorical ideas which appear in the treatises on poetry . Nor will he find any discussion of the quarrel over the

single line

Italian language , of the theory of painting or sculpture or architecture , in of the many resemblances of this theory to literary theory . I have taken " Italian " in a fairly broad sense , including the works not only of Italians publishing in Italy but of foreigners publishing there and

spite

century , except

those few cases

in

have limited it to the sixteenth

the

I

for

of Italians publishing abroad ; the criterion for inclusion is the direct relationship of any given document to the Italian tradition . On the other hand , I have given to the term “ Renaissance " a highly restricted meaning :

the

of

of

movement

by

a

to

trace

,

necessary

.

.

I

have found Here again

it

back into Quattro cento the decision was determined the nature the major development and full materials The Cinquecento was the century which

criticism had run

its

the renaissance

in

of

,

of

in

of

;

in

in

1600

,

century

.

preceding

By

,

a

,

its

all

,

in

poetic theory and practical criticism realization both Quattro overwhelming importance for other phases the Renais literary criticism sance provided only minor impetus the domain and the Seicento did little more than repeat and reorder the ideas the cento

full

sixteenth

to

.

all

In

to

of

.

.

century usage many terms had multiple meanings

-

Because

in

a

.

,

I

in

or

a

as

as

A

in

I

,

at

course and that date have ended my investigation my text provide word about the translations included order possible continuous text nearly one language have translated quoted passages from Latin make the Italian into English The effort translations both accurate and literate has been task full difficulties

and

PREFACE

х

because syntax and construction , in both the Italian and the Latin texts , are frequently loose and inaccurate , it has been necessary at every point to decide upon the particular meaning intended . I present these transla

tions with the usual reservations of the translator , urging the reader — if he thinks that I may have gone astray or if he wishes to follow the terminology in the original languages — to check them against the original texts , given in the footnotes . Among other technical matters , I have sometimes pro within the chapters for authors or subjects ; but this is consistently not done for every text - merely from time to time in order to help with the chronology and to call attention to the most important documents . I have regularly reproduced original texts exactly , in spite of vided subheadings

I

thought it necessary to make emenda all

obvious errors ; only rarely have tions .

materials are concerned , I have attempted in cases consult the best manuscripts and the earliest printed editions single Bibliography arranged alphabetically All documents are listed

As far

of

by

a

,

in

.

to

as the source

,

I

is

I

all

.

of

,

a

),

in

in of

.

of I

by

in

as

as

is

to

a

of

as

sulted freely such bibliographical

C.

I

tries show how those ideas are Renaissance thought have con

of . R.

to

.

,

writer obtained his ideas Rather related the developing currents

of it

,

in

. It

,

,

( to or of a at

a

of of

fresh history the subject lay the rereading pertinent many single the materials least could find My according analysis history reader and constant method therefore excludes some the approaches common the writing intellectual and literary history not concerned with sources and given fluences the usual sense with the discovery where and how

of

only possibility

on

on

to

by

,

I

of

of

.

no

.

;

a

is

given work author where more than one edition described study virtually have indicated the edition used for and citation There secondary bibliography Except for light bibliography itself and the dating works have chosen discuss works themselves rather than interpretations the those works others was convinced that the

;

I

of

of

.

of

,

in -

,

L.

instruments the lists Williams Bullock the Cooper Gudeman bibliography Aristotle's Poetics the bibliographies found earlier histories the subject and have also made use various biographies and separate studies concerning the authors themselves and W.

-

of

to

.

I

to

a

,

I

to

discharge those institutions which have both have many debts subsidized and furthered my work over period some twenty five years and those individuals who have counseled and helped me can dis

of

to

to

,

to

its

,

,

to

at

of

.

;

of

;

of

in

,

to

them

University

:

of

only through the simplest kind Washington thanks Chicago Northwestern University and the University my research for grants aid the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and the administrators the Fulbright Program for generous fellowships Princeton for the Institute for Advanced Study and hospitality Many friends have been unsparing time wisdom charge

PREFACE

I

of

all

material assistance ; would thank especially Donald Bryant , Ronald Phillip , DeLacy , Crane Edward Kaufmann , Paul Kristeller , and Peter Riesenberg for their reading of parts or the manuscript and for

.

of

,

of in

at

,

to

;

of

,

;

useful suggestions Mrs. Anne McDonnell Heisler for help the prepara Chicago too the manuscript and colleagues the University their erudition and advice name for the generous giving numerous tion

,

-o

,

,

in

,

of

,

all

;

in

,

at

all

I

to

co

peration should wish also thank many librarians for their kind University Chicago Newberry above those The Libraries the Library the Harvard University Library the British Museum the Biblio Italy but mostly thèque Nationale Paris the Biblioteche Nazionali ;

.

all

;

in

that Florence the other great Florentine libraries and the Vatican provincial libraries over Italy

and

CONTENTS PART ONE

POETIC

:

THEORY

I. The Classification of Poetics among the Sciences / The Methodology of the Theorists / 38

1

The Confusion with

/

I.

II .

Ars poetica

:

Horace's

The Earliest Commentaries

Aris

The Application

Practical

to

201

:

II .

Aristotle's Poetics

and Exegesis

/

/

Discovery

I.

Aristotle's Poetics

:

The Tradition tions 424 The Tradition

/

IV .

of

of of

The Tradition

Theory

/

of

:

of

II .

I.

Platonism

Horace's Ars poetica The Return Poetry The Defence 250 Christianity 297 The Triumph

349

Applica

The First Theoretical

of

Aristotle's Poetics

:

IV .

The Effect

V.

Theory

/

819 /

|

/

)

991

/

)

/

(

1113

/

on

1159

/

:

of

CRITICISM

Quarrel over Ariosto and Tasso Concluded The Quarrel over Guarini's Pastor Fido 1074 Conclusions Practical Criticism 1106 /

.

.

.

/

Index

the Genres

The Quarrel over Dante Concluded 877 The Quarrel over Speroni's Canace and Dramatic Poetry The Quarrel over Ariosto and Tasso 954

Bibliography

the Literary

797

PRACTICAL

(

. .

. .

The Quarrel over Dante

XX The

XXI XXII

Commen

715

Poetic Theory

PART TWO

XIX

/

Poetry

:

. .

Aristotle's Poetics

of

564

XIV The New Arts XV Conclusions on

XVI XVII XVIII

.

The Vernacular

:

III

/

The Tradition

/

XIII

.

The Tradition

.

Aristotle's Poetics

478

XII

Quarrels

of

taries

of of

.

XI

/

/

X. IX . .

VIII

The Tradition Platonism

:

.

VII

:

VI .

/

:

of

The Tradition Horace's Ars poetica Criticism 156

to

111

III .

/

IV .

totle

:

of

The Tradition

71

V.

Horace's Ars poetica

The Tradition

of

III .

II .

912

635

PART ONE POETIC THEORY

CHAPTER ONE . THE CLASSIFICATION OF POETICS AMONG THE SCIENCES

A

beginning a series of lessons on a topic or a text , almost invariably devoted the first lecture — the prolusio explaining his subject's place in the whole scheme of arts and

RENAISSANCE

,

PROFESSOR

-to

sciences . This was not merely an academic

by

to

its

by

of

of

of

the mind

possibilities belonged

,

means and

what faculty

it

ends and

its

;

neighboring sciences determining

were discovered

to its

from

by

its

it

.

or

as a

to

or

.

, it on

his

It fulfilled an intellectual expectation of auditors which had been passed them their medieval and humanist forebears For some centuries had been custom ary part regard each art science the great complex Phil osophy The individual science was defined distinguishing delimited gesture .

of

of

,

of

.

of

by

,

be

.

.

it

to

be it

what human need served under which the major branches human activity All subsequent thinking about the science subsumed was flowed from these initial and fundamental presuppositions To sure the time the Cinquecento the logical tightness these systematic attitudes had been considerably weakened The stern syllogistic ,

in

byan

by

,

of

of

.

,

as

-



to

of

it

in

the Schools had some cases been openly attacked others degenerate had been allowed almost imperceptibly into the rhe they did torical loquacity the universities The academies attracting great numbers aristocrats and bourgeois and providing them with essentially lay instruction frequently replaced the old severity method

of

discipline

a ,

,

to

of

.

of

to

,

,

a

of

fostering enthusiasm for new fields study and questioning even disparaging approach thought Nevertheless the traditional modes supply the usual points the old framework continued reference and

of

of

its

of

at a

a

to

to to

no

to of

to

.

it

be to

of

philo thinking continued inform the major part sophical discussion Perhaps say that the habit would correct systematic approach time when the the sciences was still cultivated analysis were longer adequate pursuing instruments the task the old habits

. as

a

,

,

an

.



of

-

of

an

.

it

,

of

,

of

by

last consequences

as , a

the science

of

For

its

and distinction final implications poetics one the old sciences made new fresh practical need and the rediscovery interest ancient texts this was true for other sciences Perhaps was especially true For poetics formerly considered auxiliary grammar and rhetoric auxiliary speech whose particular concern was with versification and figures but classification

of

,

,

.

a



of of

to



as a

,

on

.

of

of

guide now given new dignity the greatest the arts had special justification poesy need Witness the defenses which from the literary expression One fourteenth century were standard form

( 1 )

.

all

or

in



of

,

,

,

of

a

in

science

to

of

supplying that justification was place the means position dignity honor and utility among the others But even where justification was not the motive the theorists followed the exposition and somewhere traditional pattern the prolusio later the most effective

POETIC

-provided for poetics

THEORY

,

or

,

a

of

to

of of

or

of

of

it

"

"

or



to

example

were

classify

his

,

for

he

it .

it of

of

say about poetics would necessity great importance Hence the

.

in

a

to

Much what theorist was later derive from his original classification this initial step the critical process

If , of

of

.

,



.

of

,

or

to

be

.

its

proper place among the other sciences The family large which poetics was assigned might small incomplete complete depending upon the cast mind the theorist the neces sities his argument But always was sufficient magnitude throw upon the science light which for man the art the kind the Cinquecento could come only from classification and distinction

,

in

,

a

he

;

if

,

of

of

an

he

-

-

in

of

.

,

to

be

as

if in of

tendency would with rhetoric one the instrumental disciplines then poems consider terms their probable specific effects upon specific poems audiences He would were Aristotelian rhetorician think poet relationships poem terms audience were Ciceronian

,

.

,

of

an

or

as a

he

of

,

,

of

or his by do of to

,

of

invention disposition and elocution and what the poet must gain the acclaim begin his listeners On the other hand should defining poetry philosophy branch instrument moral then

terms

to

in

-

.

in

of

all

its

,

of

to

,

or

or

.

of

a

in

of

.

it to

of

be

produce whole theory must oriented toward the ability the poet Any judge change the critic the desired ethical effect classifica consequent shift tion brings with the whole conception the poetic beauty art The relationship the parts within the poem the criteria for hierarchy goodness poetic genres success the the various poetics these varied with the place assigned the total family sciences

.

.

of

its

all

, as

as to

,

,

its

we

a

of

THE ARTS OF DISCOURSE The Cinquecento inherited from the immediate past method classi may characterize fying poetry which the traditional system Poetics place according discourse this method among the arts took

.

or to

.

to (

to

on

,

a

in

),

of

all



,

it

,

of

as

,

,



belonged with Since poetry used words medium the logical disciplines with logic dialectic rhetoric and sophistic and with such grammar and history which also used words This meant that arts poetry was joined on the one hand Aristotle's group the trivium history instrumental sciences the other hand Renaissance theorists sense never abandoned this classification although the

in

different groupings and combina with poetry appear tions Throughout the sixteenth century find systems modeled this essentially medieval pattern on

.

.

we

sciences associated

to

),

,

In

of

on

hierarchy

their the basis definitely among the discursive

a

,

and sophistic and arranged with them relationship the truth.1 This placed

it in

,

,

.

so

(

as

For some Renaissance theorists such Bartolomeo Lombardi the classifying poetry was Averroës Averroës source and authority for they found poetry grouped with demonstrative logic dialectic rhetoric

[ 2 ]

.

,

,

se of

in

”,

;

so

in in

: "

,

Pt .

), 1,

,

(



in

.

I

of 1

no

single passage Averroës making this complete association and hierarchy have found combined various scattered places individual arts are the various arts mentioned But Aristotle trans Mantinus the Venice edition libros posteriorum cf. the Prooemium IIA 9-9v Ad reliquas vero quinque artes habet verè veluti dominus luntas 1574

AMONG

POETICS

SCIENCES

THE

sciences . Such early humanists as Coluccio Salutati had also , in passing , placed it among these sciences ; in his De laboribus Herculis , begun between 1383 and 1391 and left unfinished at his death in 1406 , Salutati character

ized poetics as a “ sermocinalis philosophie pars ,” a part of the branch of philosophy concerned with words.2 By the time we come to the later humanists , this particular branch has been fitted into more comprehensive views of the whole of philosophy . Thus Angelo Poliziano in the Panepiste , sets out to find a general scheme for doctrine into three the sciences treated in Aristotle's works . He divides philosophy and the mixed the invented kinds the inspired theology Philosophy the following way then subdivided divination Spectativa

De Anima Mathematicae

all

:

).

is

in (

(

,

(

1498

),

of

),

mon , printed in the Opera

Actualis

Rationalis

Mores Ethica

Grammatica

Historia Dialectica

Economica

Arithmetica Musica

Rhetorica

Politica Agricultura

Geometria Sphaerica

Poetica

Pastio Venatio

Calculatoria Geodesia Canonice

Architectura Grafice

Astrologia

Coquinaria

Optica

Teatricae

Mecanica

Etc.

to

is

" )

is

)

"

("

("

is

.”

as

. "

it is



,

to

:

be

is

is

)

"

,

,

,

to

as

,

music which comes under mathematics and graphics which belong the practical sciences and

,

)

);

(

"

to

such

architecture and

(

arts

"

"

creative

"

,

"

"

or

res

,

as

"

"

,



to

"

a

(“

,

In

spectativa one which science this system the contemplative given considers materia the practical actualis one which leads useful activity and the rational rationalis one which iudicat narrat demonstrat suadet oblectat Apparently one take referring specifically poetics the oblectat Poetica Insofar dissociated from other first noted two things need concerned

II,

" ; :

:

:

in

,

sit

,

,

, & 13 : “

, , .p

.

,

,

ad

, ac in

I

.

&

,

in

sic

,

& &

"

est

,

In

."

on ,

,

vt

,

&

ad

proportio illius cui subministratur ipsum seruum adinuentae enim suos subiectos quam hçc pars nobis tradit nempe sunt illae artes inseruiant scientiae demonstratiuae quod per persuasionem dialecticam vel rhetoricam persuadetur aut per fictionem poeticam fingitur Also the commentary Bk the same edition Potest tamen haec genera definitionum partes definitionum enuntiatio complecti quinque artes logicas and the libros rhetoricorum Aristotelis paraphrases trans Balmes same edition 73v quòd vnoquoque istorum generum orationis species rhetorica species manifestum topica species demonstratiua species sophistica qui sicut reperiuntur his artibus de

), is “

to a

.

by a '

". A

& :

( ,

by

[ 3 ]

.

viii

-

vii

.pp

also Introduction

,

17 ;

Ullman

, I,

B.

ed .

26 ).

De laboribus Herculis

,

2

” ( .p

,

)

(

to of

,

'

of

of

of in

syllogismus enthymema rhetorica reperiuntur exemplum 1522 volume logical works Averroës paraphrases Aristotle containing also Abram Balmes translation the Averroës paraphrase the Poetics Venice De Sabio followed separate section dated 1523 devoted the Epithoma Auerroys omnium librorum logice After treating other logical works the Epithoma passes section entitled De orationibus poeticis inductio

POETIC

THEORY

with the three members of the medieval trivium logic , grammar , and rhetoric — and with history . In a later passage , Poliziano places the poet close to the orator : " For the poet is very close to second , it is associated

Mathematica

Astrologia

Analytica Topica

Perspectiva

Sophistica [

Rhetorica

thus

aut organicae

]

,

Grammatica

,

),

Partes subministrae

Physica

Nifo

similar classi

into two sections

Partes principes

Musica Theologia

Of

1531

intellect

a

vivere

contemplative



solitudine

,

in

divided the

proposed

(

Poetica

auxiliary

)

He

iis

fication

qui apte possunt

.

( De

later date another formal philosopher , Agostino

a somewhat



At

in rhythms , so is he

:

the orator ( as Cicero says ) ; just as he is more restricted freer in the choice of words . " 3

:

he

on

Moreover

.

to

as

in of

discourse

express ourselves before listeners which are accustomed poetry was invented Aristotle suggested the book which

,

as

analytics

of

all

of

in

it

,

we

moral philosophy useful forms

is

the instrument

nevertheless

is

of

,

rhetoric natural philosophy

is

Though



is

of

)

or

(



,

,

is

.

In

of



,

analytics logic and instrumental parts the instru philosophy ment natural and rhetoric the instrument moral phil osophy the text however the connection between rhetoric and poetics completely not clear and the place the latter left ambiguous the

,

.” 4

of



of

is

we

is

.

,

)

as

in

of

(

wrote pleasure and utility for purposes both Here again with Poliziano music and poetry retain their essentially medieval positions merely one The implication that poetry those forms discourse poetics

of

",

to

by

so

far have not been specifically

which

concerned with the a

in

find the same basis classification lecture which must have been one the first public expositions Aristotle's Poetics Around 1541 according the testimony Vincenzo Maggi Bartolomeo

,

of

to

,

.

of

of

But

of

we

poetry

.

art

distin

.

pursues The documents cited

of

it

in

express ourselves before listeners which are accustomed utility and pleasure guished from the others the combined ends

at

the

;

est ( ut

Lombardi took Averroës

,

ut

,

de

,

eo

quibus dicere solemus Libro quem

: estin in

.”

I,

De

sit

" (q

est ( ut

conferendum [ 4 ]

est in

ad

&

delectandum

,

poetica scripsit

,

ita

.

89 : "

) & . ad

:

ed .) , .p

4 (

).

Sicut numeris astrictior 1535 Rhetorica naturalis philosophię tamen utilis omnibus dicendi generibus coram auditoribus Poetica autem inuenta Aristoteles auctor

).

Quippe finitimus oratori poeta Cicero uoted from Cicero uerbis licentior Oratore xvi Analytica licet moralis philosophie instrumentum : “

-

.

),

1498 fols Yix Yixy and Zvi

inquit

as de

In

.

ij )

(

;

1550

.p *

to

as a

(

In

3

poetica communes explanationes Opera

;

lectures

by on

of

series

,

a

of

addressed

to

Accademia degl'Infiammati Padua the the Poetics Lombardi died soon there Maggi but the first lecture was printed after and the series was given preface by Maggi Aristotelis librum his and Lombardi's Lombardi exordium

POETICS

AMONG

THE SCIENCES

his authority for placing poetry among the logical and rational sciences ; it logic , dialectic , sophistic , and rhetoric certain shares with demonstrative

common qualities :

...

,

,

,

its

.

all .

neither do they have a specific thing as their subject matter , but only words and discourse , nor do they consist in one specific genus but introduce themselves into These are their common characteristics As for the particular and distinct ones demonstration and two companions dialectic and sophistic are called

in

as

a

in

of

so ,

,

on

. . . .

,

,

if I

to

do

by

,

is

logical faculties since their major and more common use arguments and they effect what they set out means certain concise points and brief may say they exist exclusively syllogistic and strict fashion and forms Rhetoric and poetic the other hand are not called logical faculties ,

.

,

to

so

,

of

,

,

of

,

as

of ,

,

a

in

true and proper sense and hardly ever use the syllogism but they use rather example popular devices Their speak the and the enthymeme which are products insofar they are this kind are orations and poems and for the most part they are concerned with political subject matters.S

.

a

a

The use words and discourse and the cultivation universal rather particular classifying poetics subject than matter are thus the bases for along with these other sciences (

,

)

( or

as

he

,

,

.

is

of

)

,

,

a

In

much less systematic document Sperone Speroni Dialogo della rhetorica 1542 again conjoins poetry and rhetoric but for entirely dif Speroni ferent reasons not concerned with the whole system the sciences but only with the arts which classifies useful mechanical

:

;

and pleasurable the latter are subdivided into the arts which delight the body and those which delight the spirit Body

Spirit

Painting

Rhetoric

)

(

eyes

Cooking

of

? )

,

a

,

a

.

to

:

to

,

by

he

,

,

pp

.

(

words

.)

more difficult structure 138 154-54v is

of

which are the instruments the please their ends poetry aims only please and persuade As result the orator's since must produce much tighter rhythmic

to

.

art

rhetoric wishes both

)

( (

taste

touch

Poetry and rhetoric are arts They are distinguished

mind

)

nose

(

Perfumery Heating

Poetry

)

(

Music ears

ita

& .

in

&

.

...

,

&

:

&

,

&

;

:

in

:

), .p 8 : “

(

.

in

5

quòd neque materiae loco res habeant uerba tantum 1550 certo uno genere uersentur sed omnia insinuant sese haec communia Sophistica illa propria atque distincta quòd Demonstratiua eius duae comites Dialectica logicae ipsae appellantur quòd harum maior quidam usus communior dissertationibus quibusdam quasi punctis concisa breuiter admodum atque strictim quod proposuerunt Explanationes neque

orationem

[ 5 ]

,

:

. "

,

in

:

,

,

,

.

,

ac

ut

,

,

&

,

loquar syllogisticae prorsus existunt Poeticaque contra efficiunt Rhetorica quòd non adeò uerè propriè Logicae appellantur neque syllogismo ferè sed exemplo atque enthymemate rationibus quasi popularibus atque harum quà huiusmodi utuntur sunt politicis occupantur argumentis extant opera orationes atque poemata plurimumque

POETIC

THEORY

Robortello's In librum Aristotelis de arte poetica ( 1548 ) we return to the position of Lombardi ( whose preface was published two years later ) ; the classification is the same , although some of the reasons are different . Robortello's point of view is stated in his own preface , before the commentary on Aristotle actually begins :

With Francesco

is

,

it

material

all

Discourse is placed under the poetic faculty as

as

its

explicationes

placed under , ,

,

,

it

of

. .

.

to as

.

in

,

prove something for that different some way The most express what Insofar true degree that same moves nearer

forth

is

of

or

, to , is in to to set be a

it

treats and from the person who uses necessary that every discourse reason proper and genuine function discourse it is

;

as

),

to

is

. . .

a .

,

(

so it

.

in

the others which concern themselves with discourse These are five number proper demonstrative for call apodeictic discourse dialectic rhetoric sophistic poetic All these have discourse their matter indeed since dis things which course assumes different force and form both from the kind

it

the apparently

true

,

From among

(

seu probabile quod videtur

or

(

),

in

be

,

of

το

),

,

το

;

that which

these each separate faculty seizes upon one

kind

:

apparens verum seems probable

).

(

as

,

το

.

is

of

any kind departs from truth discourse what false Between truth and falseness kind interval between the two expressed are placed ένδοξον πιθανόν φαινόμενον which may Latin the probabile the probable the suasorium the persuasive and the

,

medium

,

words

as a

the use

of

.

or

of

in

,

of ;

,

on

the basis

.

The traditional classification still prevails here

,

,

;

,

of ;

;

,

demonstration upon the true dialectic upon the probable rhetoric upon the persuasive sophistic upon that which has the appearance probability but poetics upon the false the sense verisimilitude the fabulous

of be

to

VI .

.

all

of

as

of

,

his point

the soul gives the following

schema

:

His division

poetics among the sciences the more general the arts among human activities He admittedly departure the Nicomachean Ethics especially Book

of

the place

of

as

took

of

the place

of

lem

problem

to so

of

"

,

in



is a

.

as

,

to

,

by

in

be

to

an

to

a

is

,

.

if

A

of

approach seems present different kind the thinking original statement Varchi But Varchi which ante dates Robortello added later one his ultimate position turns out essentially the same Lezzione Robortello's The first document della maggioranza dell'arti delivered before the Florentine Academy the spring 1546. Varchi here addressed himself not much the prob Benedetto

,

. . .

.

ad

eo ,

ab

,

.

,

.

)

;

;

,

ex

& ,

&

,

,

), .p 1 : "

&

( sic

,

et

(

6

Explicationes 1548 Subiicitur tanquàm materies poëticę facultati oratio sicuti aliis omnibus quae circa orationem uersantur Eae autem sunt quinque numero Demon stratoria enim TTOSEIKTIKDV licet appellare dialectice rhetorice sophistice poëtice Omnes hae subiectam sibi habent orationem Verùm quoniam oratio diuersam accipit uim aliquid edisse qui ipsa vtitur genere rerum quas tractat tùm formam tùm

;

.

;

to

, est

ad , id , TÒ

, TÓ

&

,

...

[6]

.

,

.

,

;

&

;

id ,

.

seu fabulos

."

,

Poëtice falsum

[u ]m

.

.

,

;

apparens verum seu probabile quod libet Latinè proferre probabile suasorium his quaelibet facultas vnum arripit genus Demonstratoria verum Dialectice quod probabilis sed verisimilis habet speciem Rhetorice suasorium Sophistice

videtur probabile

Ex

sic

quę

.

id ,

,

,

à

,

&

,

;

probandum ideò diuersam quoque omnium oportet esse orationem Orationis genuinum munus est proferre quod verum est maximè proprium Quantum autem quod orationis quodque genus vero recedit tantò propius accedit falsum Inter pavóuevov verum sanè falsum medio quodam interuallo posita sunt Evdofov Miðavóv rendum

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

Anima

Ragione particolare intenzioni individuali cose particolari, gene

Ragione

universale intenzioni uniuersali cose private d'ogni materia , spogliate da tutte le pas

rabili , & corruttibili - cogitativa

sioni , teriali

ma

& accidenti

cose ingenerate , et incorru

tibili Ragione inferiore intelletto pratico ,

Ragione superiore specolativo , intelletto contemplativo

attivo fare , operare

= conoscere , intendere

Habiti pratichi

Habiti contemplativi intelletto

agibile

sapienza

fattibile

scienza

All

of the “ practical habits . " 7 Varchi gives of the kinds of arts included under each category : horsemanship , dancing , singing, playing musical instruments under the “ attiva ; " archi tecture , painting , and sculpture ( and “ infinite others ” ) under the “ fattiva . ” Presumably , poetry is one of the " infinite others ” ; although poetry is not specifically mentioned here , the last section of the lecture is devoted to a detailed comparison of poetry and painting ( pp. 68 , 72 ) . The major purpose of the lecture is to establish a hierarchy among the arts according to their nobility ; and since the dignity of the end is the criterion and since the arts fall under the second

the

.

be

,

to

,

,

and architecture occupy the highest positions warfare medicine relatively humble poetry will hierarchy the place assigned

in

,

up

as

set

examples

,

-

,

in

(

parole

)

(

cose

Contemplativa

Pratica

Specolativa

Attiva Agibile

Fisica

Etica

Matematiche 58–59

.

pp

.

549

),

7



philosophy

Loica giudiziale Dialettica Topica

Metafisica

Due lezzioni

real

Rationale

Reale

In

a

dividing philosophy into



by

He begins philosophy

)

"

rational

:

.

the sciences

and



of



,

to

,

in

be

to

a

in

to

,

by

of

supplemented These views Varchi's are and perhaps corrected way expressed another lecture careful and more fuller those delivered the Florentine Academy October 1553. This time refer ring again the Aristotelian system but including the Poetics which had been absent from the earlier materials Varchi does offer complete system

]

17

Sofistica Tentativa

POETIC

THEORY

Reale

Rationale

( cose )

( parole )

Aritmetica Musica

Economica

Rettorica

Politica Fattibile Arti meccaniche

Geometria

Astrologia

Poetica Storica Gramatica

In the commentary on this scheme , Varchi specifically states that poetry , coming as it does in the group of disciplines dealing with words , cannot be considered either an art or a science but merely a faculty . If it is sometimes called an art , this is only because it has been reduced to precepts and rules . 8

it

all

,

In

a to

.

,

"

:

It is

;

to

is

it it in is

to

its

position

in

fourth place among the instrumental sciences nobility shows rank according inferior not only the sciences but also the disciplines above the same group sense indistinguishable from those disciplines indeed true that dialectic its

Moreover ,

,

of

these faculties which Varchi assigns each corresponding instrument among the instruments

a

to

is

in

. " 9

of

of

,

,

a

subject matter and

in

another classification

of

is

to

at

be

,

in

,

logic and poetics are almost the same thing not being different substan tially but only accidents and thus the dialectician the rhetorician and nobility and placed honor the same level the poet may poetics How related the other rational faculties indicated

vero

demonstrative syllogism topical syllogism

favoloso

enthymeme example

)

finto

)

poetica

]

(

persuasivo

,

)

sophistical syllogism

retorica

is

,

of

,

,

of

,

, he

,

;

:

,

of

of

,

a

in

,

it

its to .

,

whose

is

is

,



placed

of

instrument the least worthy the very position.10 others inferior says later take into But this not Varchi's final word One must poetry first the host consideration two things with respect wonderful things which become the objects imitation second the magnificent making men good virtuous and happy that end which serves that Once again



poetics

ma

è

non

all

,

pare probabile

(

,

[

probabile

[

dimostrativa topica

dialetica sofistica

Discourse )

loica

Part [

Subject

,

Rational Faculty

of

:

discourse

so

, as

as

:

all

,

the sciences

poetica sono quasi vna medesima retore

,

,

il

."

, e

di

( 8 )

, e

,

vn

in

.

., si .p

,

il

e

il

loica

, e la

dialettica

cosa non essendo differenti sostanzialmente ma per accidente così dialettico poeta posson mettere medesimo grado nobiltà d'honore Ibid 573 10

,

of

,

,

itself necessarily

all

in

contain

.

),

571–72 Ben'è vero che

to in

, of

it

comes

, la

572

things divine well human sublime the most beautiful useful and delightful

and

la

1590

.pp

it

language

,

., .p

Ibid

(

Lezzioni

: “

In

9 8

,

way because

is

,

an

,

,

Since poetics then treats desirable and worthy end

all

as

of

.

,

perfecting the human soul When these qualities are taken into account human activities the greatest

poetry emerges

THE SCIENCES

AMONG

all

all

POETICS

,

of

,

arts and sciences

. 11

,

as

an

it is

in

,

it

; is

,

at

a

science than all the other faculties

,

greater honor

,

as a

as

of

,

of

,

the arts and the faculties once whence more noble more delight deserving without perfect itself thus them than each one ful and more any doubt greater marvel faculty and greater praise art and

to

its

, a

to

.

by

.

a

of

,

)

(

his

to

In

as

of

of

,

by

in

,

of

the desire break out the argument this last phase systematic restrictions imposed the system elevate poetry above the rational faculties the lowest rank one Dialogi della inventione poetica 1554 Alessandro the dedication Lionardi allies poetics once more with rhetoric and history although there stating are no traces more complete philosophical system He begins

One senses

...

be

:

that the two most necessary and useful human activities are speaking and doing

in in

in

,

in

us

,

...

.

as

is of

,

of

,

of to

,

,

of to

do ,

be ,

to

is of

to

us a

of

of

completely and properly neither the one nor the other these actions can knowledge history poems orations and those things say and required which teach deliberate what this life age and every manner actions and condition showing state discourse what imitated and what avoided done without

to

in

. 12

to

in

an

to

an

is

,

of

,

be

,

of

.

It

of

,

is

Poetry contains the other two within itself and hence the most worthy study again will noted that here there effort ennoble the assigning poetry poetry and that part art the process consists teaching men how important function live

it

,

;

so

to

subject

fix

,

on

:

no

logic have had

as

...



no

of

its

of

to

( I

,

is ) ,

For Giovanni Battista Pigna romanzi 1554 the reason for classifying poetry with rhetoric and dialectic under logic permit the explanation universality subject matter like the other instrumental sciences just has fixed subject rhetoric and dialectic since they are under ,

to

to

is

it

13

by

,

as

Ibid 592 Trattando dunque degno fine tanto sublime desiderato

is

).

all

in

,

somewhat different basis offered Antonio his De poeta 1559 He groups sciences under poetica tutte nel piu bello vtile

di

11

Sebastiano Minturno

(

which proceeds

a

on

A

of

."

in

.

of

,

,

poetry

be

,

matter which themselves any specific which falls under the same will not restricted say that the poet branch human activity Whence common every science participates division the sciences which again presents itself traditional but definite

,

,

le

e

&

,

, si di ,

di

,

de '

&

,

in

à

à

poemi come quelli ogni maniera stato parlamenti quel che

ne '

,

dell'orationi

questa uita nelle operationi

&

;

, di

. "

, , e e

di

,



la

), da si , su .p à 19 : . si " ” ,

a

di

ha età , da & ci

di

, e

le

di

, e



: di “

,

),

(

12

cognitione dell'istoria conueneuolmente fare senza insegnano fare dire deliberare cioche

che

, e le

la

e

se

è

à

in

, e

: “

., .p

cose così diuine come humane diletteuole modo per esser prosa viene contenere necessariamente tutte scienze tutte l'arti tutte facultà insieme più nobile piu piaceuole piu perfetta perse dunque merita donde ciascuna loro maggior lode come arte maggiore senza alcun dubbio maggior merauiglia come facultà honore come scienza tutte quante l'altre facultà arti scienze Dialogi 1554 p.3 queste due attioni potersi compiutamente l'una l'altra

la

la , è

si

dir

,

la

il

&

,

.

[ 9 ]

. "

La

;

,

la

&

la

,

&

ad

,

(

I

13

,

,

conditione richiede mostrandoci fuggire imitare Logica romanzi 1554 come Rhetorica Dialettica perche sono sotto alcun certo soggetto che fermino hauuto non hanno cosi Poesia che cade sotto poeta medesima alcuna certa professione non sarà astretta onde suole che d'ogni scienza partecipe

POETIC THEORY four major

headings : ( 1) those which are concerned

with



knowing the

things " and with a "contemplation

nature and the causes of

of divine

things ” ; ( 2 ) those concerned with “ instructions for good living ” ; ( 3) those

his

belonging to the “ faculty of discussing and speaking ” ; ( 4) mathematics. 14 Poetics , of course , belongs in the third category , along with grammar , rhetoric , logic, and history . Minturno introduces this distinction at a point where he is estimating the contribution of each of the other sciences to

his of

,

. 15

as a

of

an

poetry ; but the fact that it is fundamental in thinking about poetry analysis emerges from whole his work Alessandro Piccolomini who wrote commentaries both on the Rhetoric ,

Aristotle

considered himself an Aristotelian and found

on

and the Poetics

in

he

):

,

(

to

he

he is

he

;

as

.

of

of

justification for poetics views the philosophical position the works Aristotle themselves Thus defends the affiliation between explaining why expects rhetoric and poetics follows work on the Poetics after finishes his labors on the Rhetoric Piena parafrase nel terzo libro della Retorica d'Aristotele 1572 so

,

he ,

)

(

in .

it

is

of

to

in

,

in

be

a

in

,

..

closely for the reason that these two faculties rhetoric and poetics are kinship that great many linked together the subjects they treat can and equally useful should the one and the other faculty Thus that Aristotle knowing this repeat the same things order not both treatises when a

,

it ;

,

in

,

to

as

to it in

the first when necessary.16 ), on

to

he

In

referred

of

was writing about the one and the other made choice the aforementioned put common materials such wise one faculty those considerations which were closest and most conjoined with then writing about the other

its

as



at

,

he

,

;



life

.

to

by





,

faculty work the other Annotationi nel libro della Poetica d'Aristotile 1575 Piccolomini indicates his basic position referring directly says aim the Ethics All arts some honest utility and convenience for human hence poetry will also seek

(

the subsequent

it of

is

, all

to

The notion that civil science will gain

architectonic

"

the

"

) is

subordinated

."

in

all

which others are paraphrase for politics 87 : "

(a to

14

that art prudence

a

is

,

be

is

it

,

an to

of

be



,

end some such usefulness since poetry also habit the practical things may conse intellect relevant which can made and since quently among called art and since most honored the other nobility very close habits this kind and civil prudence which

,

of

.pp

in

in

",

.”

in

;

St.

, “

of

,

ac

in

cf.

., W. .p , 92 ;

15

in ,

in

), .p

ea

(

partem cognoscendo rerum naturam causasque posuerunt De poeta 1559 partem atque cum bene uiuendi institu rerum diuinarum perspicientiam coniunxerunt loquendi ratione partem tione uersari partem disserendi Mathematicis uoluerunt my article Ibid The Poetic Theories Mintumo Studies Honor ,

, & & la .

]) ,

la

,

a

,

&

,

;

in

, si

,

in

,

,

10 )

(

, le è

: di

,

&

in ,

di

,

rimetteua

.”

, si

&

,

'

' in

,

&

dell'altra

,

" (



di * 2v :

), ( " .p

(

16

Parafrase

,

Washington University Studies Louis Mo. 1942 101–29 1572 Percioche essendo queste due facultà Retorica parentela insieme che moltissime lor considerationi possono Poetica tanto congiunte qui che debbon communemente seruir all'una all'altra come Aristotele conoscendo questo per non replicar scriuer dell'una dell'altra stesse cose amendue fece delle dette communi considerationi vna scelta modo che quelle ch'alquanto fusser più vicine congiunte all'una ch'all'altra quella poneua quella scriuendo dette facultà Shipley

Frederick

AMONG

POETICS

THE SCIENCES

currency later in the century , and poetry will with increasing frequency be subsumed under it.17 Piccolomini's approach presupposes a purview of the Aristotelian system which extends beyond poetics and rhetoric and includes at least one other science in a different category , politics . A system which extends still farther beyond, and which really returns to the universal classifications of the first part of the century , is proposed by Federico Ceruti in a work which he presents as anonymous but which is probably his own , the De re poetica libellus incerti auctoris of 1588. Indeed , Ceruti outlines two possible com plete schemata

the sciences . The first would be divided as follows :

of

Practice

Logice

theologia

ethice

rhetorice

lanificium

mathematica arithmetice

oiconomice

grammatice

res militares navigatio

Theoretice

politice

Mecanice

historia poetice

musice geometria

agricultura venatio

astronomia physice

medicina pictura tectonica architectonica

fabrilis

A

and somewhat different division would proceed as follows

second

Theoretice mathematice metaphysice phisice etc.

Practice

Poietice

:

Instrumentales

de moribus

ars militaris

logice

de ciuili gubernatione

nautica

grammatice

pictura

rhetorice

de legibus etc.

musica

poetice

etc.

historia

,



vt "

of

a

by is

.

is

all

on

Whichever of these systems one adopts , says Ceruti , the place of poetics is clear. In both , in fact, it is linked with the same cognate disciplines, although in the first it is subsumed under grammar , which in turn is subsumed under logic , whereas in the second five instrumental sciences are the same plane What why group poetical arts which for the not clear ),

his

Il

-

,

commodo

dell'humana ;

intorno cose fattibili cosi fatti habiti honora vicinissima

."

&

,

( 11 )

.

10–11

gli

&

;

,

.pp

),

(

chap

. ix ,

re & in

poetica 1588

di trà

: "

), .p

(

la

.

,

&

18

De

Gabriele

the sciences

in

of

another such system

of

to



)

presents

qualche honesto giouamento 1575 ft6v poesia anch'ella vn'habito dell'intelletto prattico vita essendo por conseguente potendosi chiamar'arte essendo tutti altri tissima nobiltà alla ciuil prudentia architetonica tutte l'arti Annotationi

...

"

"

.

"

of

Ginani

à

17

the terms does not raise any questions for him.18 years later and very close the end the century

( or

Two Zinano

so "

is

of

proximity

(

part make things plurimum fiunt quae manibus hand poetics Apparently should not include itself for Ceruti the traditional poetry firmly established that even the close etymological place most

POETIC

THEORY

sogno , overo della poesia ( 1590 ). Zinano claims that the one he offers

is

Aristotelian : SCIENCES

Practical

Speculative

Internal

Metaphysics Physics

External Operations

Operations

Mathematics Geometry

(words, deeds )

( mind )

will : moral philosophy

Arithmetic Astrology Music

ethics

grammar

military art

economics

rhetoric

politics

poetry

agriculture navigation wool -making

intellect : dialectic

history

memory :

etc.

art of remembering

it

all

so

is

;

all

a

all its

Grammar , among the practical sciences dealing with words , is concerned with “ il ben dire " ; rhetoric , with “l'ornato dire . " As for poetry , it soon assigned compartment and becomes breaks out of universal science encompassing the others this because the others furnish with ,

it

or

or

,

on

to

,

is

an

is a

, in

).

(

to

sequel Della poesia romanzesca 1596 This earlier dialogue 1589 Della nuova poesia which Malatesta had not raised the question

testa's

of of

,

,

of

,

. 19

of



its

,

it

of

subject matter because teaches the lessons the others and because through allegory moral natural divine- contains the essential doctrines all the others The last important document among those examined insist the Gioseppe Mala grouping poetics with logic grammar and rhetoric

,

a

he

,

of ,

:

,

In

.

;

.

,

.

.

all of

poetry general the present one does hazard He divides the sciences into five groups the natural sciences the metaphysical sciences the rational faculties the liberal arts and the mechanical arts The rational faculties are arts discourse which have no specific subject matter they include logic and grammar They might also the classification

system

.pp

no

nature treat

specific

as

to

,

,

is

of

this group and this kind also poetry which subject matter was given but which rather remained free

of

by

to its

In

:

include poetics

many ,

,

,

le

,

scienze

gli enti

si in ,

La

la

le

il

si

.

,

de le

, ò

,

&

,

il

:

in

è

si

in

&

,

in

&

, la

,

di

,

da

origine hanno Non Peripatetico d'hauer cosi nel primo contenta qualità l'arti diuise che ancora considerando scienze esser varie secondo

cose le &

lui &

il

,

le

la

in

,

&

,

: “

),

(

Il

19

sogno 1590 prattica speculativa 19–21 Le scienze l'arti diuidono questa divisione presa dal fine perciò come vuole Aristotile nel primo della Metafisica speculatiua consiste contemplatione prattica operatione l'vna contempla tutto che cose dell'vniuerso l'altra quelle che sono soggette all'arti l'vna considera vero l'altra qui hanno origine l'intelletto speculatiuo prattico più tosto sopradette buono

&

,

,

in

in

.

.

." .

in di

& & .

,

12 ]

,

,

,

, in ,

(

, in di

si

di

&

,

,

.

la

&

,

).

of

. . . .

(

speculatiua subdiuide nel sesto the Metaphysics Metafisica Fisica Matematica subdiuide La prattica versando circa l'operationi secondo l'operationi diuide Del'operationi altre sono esterne altre interne L'operationi interne prouengono dalla mente sono tre sorti uolontà d'intelletto memoria Nella volontà consiste filosofia morale che diuide Etica Economia Politica Cf. also pp 21-31

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

...

POETICS

,

to

to

he

,

,

be

in by

,

or

a

in

,

as a

it

things as it might wish and to enter everywhere . And therefore would have compared rhetoric been very proper for Aristotle when dialectic have added third poetics which no less than the other two occupies itself with things which can anyone which does not certain sense understood ,

on

is

classification

.

uniquely the subject matter

,

is

the basis

since the initial assumption

of

by

of

a

this analysis

,

In

in

recognize any definite limited subject matter and which every subject finds some way participant the goodness Nature

itself

that sciences are differentiated one from

-

,

is

it



in

of

subject matter.20 another solely the basis differences Beginning with the humanistic period which had inherited from the Middle Ages and extending throughout the sixteenth century there

,



is

,

of

to

, of

( or

it

of

.

" )

as

its

as a

the discursive

.

or

as

one with the others

,

,

strong tradition that associates poetry with logic

and history

of

a

grammar rhetoric instrumental sciences Poetry belongs discursive science because uses words dis that the this association means One consequence course emphasize problems language the special resultant theories will tend poetry from the other discursive kind diction which differentiates thus

or

of

by

to

on

,

is

for

to

,

is

,

.

as

to

the matter

of

rhythm and rhyme the figures and tropes which are peculiar poetic expression Another consequence that since words are symbols for things and represent meanings person the whom signification intended theories this kind will hesitate oscillate between emphasis the things themselves and attention the sciences

regarded

instrument

,

.

poetry

,

of

it

the end

of

it

of

.

of

,

,

conceptions an

as on

philosophy i.e.

of

theories based specifically especially those which consider

set

is

its

on

of

.

,

;

it

of

its

of

no

.

to

is

,

to

it

an

meanings as

of

Poetry associated with the words the readers thought instrumental science because have fixed subject matter and hence resemble logic grammar and rhetoric Result ing theories will stress on the one hand the universality subject and compile long things will lists the kinds treats the other hand quality qua instrument and the ends which they will consider achieves This latter activity will bring such theories into close contact with another kinds regarded

moral and civil

ethics and politics

HISTORY

or .

of as

of

be

,

.pp

it

,

20

.

,

to

it or

be

A

place must made for those classifications which include among the discursive poetry instrumental sciences related thought History may serving ethical too uses words and political ends But comparison with also presents other possibilities special

history

dal

si ,

che la

Et

,

, è

di

....

,

,

di

da

&

,

la

,

[ 13 ]

Natura

&

In

la

in

per

in se

ne

di fù ),

(

&

,

che

,

se

di

, a

la

è

". ,

: “

questo numero questa conditione 27-28 dalla natura sua prescritto niun soggetto particolare anzi quante cose volesse ingerirsi per tutto per tanto non saria stato non molto conueniente che quando Aristotele proportionò Rethorica quale non meno alla Dialettica hauesse aggiunta terza Poesia l'altre due ponno essercita sopra cose certo modo capirsi ciascuno non riconosce materia ognuna qualche modo partecipe definita limitata troua benefitio della Poesia romanzesca 1596 ancora Poesia cui non poter trattare venne libera

POETIC THEORY poetry ; these may be boiled down to the essential fact that history , like so many forms of poetry , presents a " narration . " One may thus apply to it ( albeit equivocally ) such common terms of the critical vocabulary as action , character, thought , episode, and so forth ; one may discover in it such common features as descriptions of places and persons, speeches , great deeds of kings and heroes . These further possibilities of comparison led another group of theorists to set up a separate classification of poetry as a kind of history ; they constitute in a sense a cognate strain of classification , beginning again with the humanists and continuing - although much less century . It is appropriate at this — throughout the sixteenth point , in order to picture out the this kind classification group examine the position theorists representing this cognate strain

,

to

of

of

a

.

of

of

fill

frequently

de

,

a

in

,

,

:

of

.

,

;

is

,

as

to

to

et

of

)

or

(

dialogue entitled Actius Giovanni Gioviano Pontano numeris poeticis lege historiae and written toward the end the fifteenth century prophecy history attempted relate poetry such divers activities oratory and painting but the comparison developed most extensively similarity are discovered the one with history The following bases both

;

,

as

,

of

;

;

of ,

relate ancient and remote deeds both describe places peoples nations both condemn vices and praise virtues both partake the demonstrative oratory and deliberative types shown by the orations which they

is

in

,

in

.

common characteristics

21

.

,

a

of of

.

by in

so

;

introduce both treat the unexpected and accidental events which happen frequently life The comparison continues these terms then supplemented series contrasts demonstrating what ways the two Finally arts differ sets criteria for both arts are derived from their

,

at

.

.

in is

.

In

on

is

in

an

to

pair poetry with history developed The same tendency some History found anonymous Dialogue length MS Vat Lat 6528 probably around 1560-65 whose date this dialogue the main exposi to

of

a

,

chiasmus

"



four way -

a

of

.

of

,

of

,

existence

be

presenting tor Hieronimo Zabbarella claims and defending the Pomponazzi on history He starts with the assertion theory the

division

narration into four

of a

of

a

the action narrated language

Both

and the whole

in

,

14 )

.

193–227

(

.pp

Previtera

,

ed .

,

Dialoghi

/

In

21

of

).

,

.

(

essentially analogical quality fols 142v 151 discussion has Julius Caesar Scaliger's point view the Poetices libri septem

of

very broad senses

.

of

kind

,

in

are used

special

of

of

the character

verse and

a

,

of ,



history

first

in

of

and

the use

an



poetry



,

,

second

in

Poetry differs from history “

single man many persons

of

:

Sermone

and

of

a

single action single action

many sayings and actions single man narration many and various actions many men narration

:

Vita

of a

:

:

Poema narration Historia narration

of

:

subordinate parts

POETICS

AMONG

THE SCIENCES

puts him into both categories of critics , those who classified poetry of “ oratio " and those who considered it a form of narration . He begins with a general division of “ oratio ” according to follows ends 1561 ,

Type

vtilitas

cives

voluptas

delectatio

theatra

,



by

narra

uses the common form

delectatio

. , It "

of

necessitas

expression

:

,

philosophi

veritas prudentia

The third type

as

Audience

Expression

of

End

of

its

as a part

,

is

a

is to

of in

another which

is is

intermediate

to

imitation

is

,

,

of

by

"



,

simpler thread poetry which either adds any case true things means false but poetry the case for history the final end )

This end

: “

teach

(

to

.”

with greater splendor also

a

in

imitates

As

or

discourse

truth

,

to

spinning fiction

of is

its

:



,

subdivided into history and ornate language tion accompanied by history which poetry sure belief professes and produces truth

a

of

,

on

22

."

a

,

.

a

in

of

a

is

In ,

final and which teach with pleasure history the De ratione essentially work which treatise scribendae historiae 1574 Uberto Foglietta spends certain amount drawing comparison between history and epic poetry Both are time it

In

.

,

of

by

of

in

it

it,

as

.

is

as

(

),

narrations the essential basis for the comparison both treat events which depends upon have actually happened But history different insofar may dispense with the truth and cannot exist without and insofar poetry various ornaments and decorations which are required his history Foglietta indicates that these discussion the component graces a

,

.

of

its

,

history

.

poetry

to

,

Il

as

means

the relationship

of .

instruction

raises the whole issue he

),

1584

of

,

so

common end

,

a (

serve

Lasca

theorists the two arts are narration because they pleasure His dialogue

by

of

the last this group much because they are forms

For Lionardo Salviati related not

of of of

. 23

its

of

is

this

as

document the poet Indeed such assumption that the internal procedures more interesting for history and poetry are the same than for the two arts theoretical statements about them

are the ones commonly cultivated

of

is to ,

the

of

a

is

it

if

,

to

Its

.

&

,

o

leggono

s'ella

sia ,

la

,

il

,

,

case

."

, e

medesimi

.

vtile cioè faccia prudente quei che guerra sappiano ben gouernare comune lor

8 : “

pace

947–48 963 ,

.pp

1576

Ch'ella

[ 15 ]

privata

lorin .p

che

with Bodin

( , in e le sia ),

, ed e ), .

,

:

pubblica

,

l'ascoltano

1584

si (

Lasca

se

Il

24 23

”.

,

ad

est

,

,

is

.

,

&

delectatione De ratione

private

pleasure inherent

profitetur Differunt autem quòd alterius fides certa verum altera aut addit ficta veris aut fictis vera imitatur medius illum vltimum qui docendi cum

prodit simpliciore filo texens orationem maiore sanè apparatu ... Hic enim finis

: est

1581

and themselves and their houses

achieved through the means

ed .) , .p 2 : “

;

this end

(

Poetice

24

,

public history

"

history 22

so be

it,

or

it is a

if it

is

,

history which tells not Unlike earlier theorists admits the possibility commonly believed and which may even tell lies when the truth but what these would useful usefulness render prudent those who read govern the community well hear that ... they may know how

che

storia

THEORY

POETIC

in the reading. Such views, of course , bring history very close to the com mon conception of poetry , and Salviati sees between them the following differences (pp . 11-13 ) : Poetry

History

forma : imitazione soggetto : verisimile fine : purgar gli animi

forma : narrazione soggetto : quel che si crede fine : prudenza

renderci ben costumati stromento : verso , melodia , ballo

stromento : favellare sciolto

For which reasons , ” he goes on to say , “ poetry may in a way be made subordinate to the philosophy of conduct , and history to that of govern ment ; nevertheless , as far as the end is concerned there might be occasion to argue to the contrary , that is , that it is the same both in history and in poetry ." 25 As the dialogue continues , however , Salviati argues that poetry “

achieves these ends less well than history , since it is not believed and has as a result no lasting moral effect , and hence is to be considered

an inferior

these texts , classifying poetry with

of

Most of

all

art .

.

as

to

of

,

a

of

in

it it all , to

to

as

,

.

to

is

,

of

is a

it

its

,

to

of

,

is

an

,

it

,

an

,

a

of

times out the conviction that poetry instrument that serves higher purposes assign more particular way there effort not another position but regarding find some supplementary way which will companion arts This effort make transcend with Varchi results recipient the affirmation that poetry universal science the riches philosophy whose function contribute the highest welfare .

classification might indicate really something more than

At

a

so

,

,

of

in is of all

a

to to

.

do

,

or

of

or

the rest the discursive with history singled out from among them fall the century The few which come later little more than continue tradition dating back the humanist period Not poetry them indeed give role restricted the mere process

instrumental sciences within the first sixty years

or be

is ,

as a

of

,

.

of in

its ,

.

to

an

as

,

to of

During the rest the century while the old classification con appear from time poetics will time the essential position keeping with part one rather more exalted functions that instrument moral philosophy mankind

tinues

MORAL PHILOSOPHY This position first assigned

,

,

to

nella poesia

.

medesimo

da :

de '

la

costumi

sarebbe forse . "

, e

16 )

è

,

nella storia (

, e

cioè che fosse ,

contrario

,

in

disputare

filosofia

fine

, ci

qualche modo sotto

La Storia ridur potrassi sotto quella della città tuttauia quanto

il il

Poesia

in

Per laqual cosa

la

11 : “

Ibid

., .p

25

:

,

.

of

of

,

Il

in

a

is

by

is

poetics among the documents studied Dedalione overo del poeta dialogo dated 1560 essentially The work rebuttal Plato's banishment the poets Ammirato divides philosophy into two main branches the contemplative and the active Scipione Ammirato

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

Active

Contemplative

Natural

"morale

Supernatural

“ domestica , familiare " ( = Economics )

Mathematics

“ civile ”

costumatezza " ( = Ethics )

( = Politics )

in

us

26

."

of

,

of

it

a

Poetics is subsumed “ If civil philosophy concerns good , the of our minds and of our bodies it will really concern both these larger , arts that is , poetics and medicine ; but take the matter equivocally say both the one and the other that concerns sense and medicine that the soul and that the body The poet bears the same let

under civil philosophy :



in it .

of

,

27

,

to

by

of

for

of

the reasons given below an

"

Poetica Ethica

:

The Poetics would fall into the sequence

-

-

-



Dialectica Rhetorica

works

.

Aristotle's

)

(

of

of

contents

is to

of

to

is

is

"

of

as

to

relationship the physician the legislator does the surgeon and the poetry driving end induce virtue into the soul vice out essentially the point This view Antonio Posio whose aim the pertinent section his Thesaurus 1562 summarize the order and the

,

,

to , a

it of

of

in

of

,

all

.

,

In

,

.

of

of it

in

do

to

to

,

be

,

is

of a

justice

of

and the other things that are necessary state To poetics rejected from perfect state what indeed added which must not ever Plato seems want with the eighth book the Republic fact ,

charity

of

of

is

is

in

Rhetoric fact the instrument the moral philosopher instrument with which good laws are proposed and which used the senate for the best deli peace berations about the observance the laws divine worship

,

.

be

is

it

,

,

as

,

,

them were added immediately

the

.

to

,

moral and civil philosophy ethics dedicated Nicomachus

to

.

true Moreover the same

discourse since the poet must arouse anger These books having been placed first hand

an

on

maidens books

to ,

,

poetics serves the state fear hope and the other passions

of

to

decide whether this

art

others as

leave

an

to

I

rhetoric

.

of

.

,

,

a

language purges the soul the poet using certain sweetness evil passions and brings great utility through the action and great pleasure through the imita part tion Those have not been lacking even who have maintained that

it ,

is

it

to

,

of

;

,

to

by





its

as a ,

Poetics remains here associate dialectic and rhetoric maintaining belongs function discursive science but the whole group which ancillary becomes moral and civil philosophy and poetry itself distinguished the pleasure and the utility which affords.28

28 27

la ,

de

&

;

la

&

&

la

il

la

.”

&

&

,

: “

), .p

(

In

26

corpi Opuscoli 1642 386 Se ciuile riguarda bene degli animi nostri poetica veramente ella riguarderà amendue questi cioè medicina ma prendiamo cosa più larga diciamo ch'ella riguarda equiuocamente l'vna l'altra medicina dell'anima del corpo

,

& in

ad

,

."

il

. * :Sv “ è

,

),

., “ il

(

la

Ibid fine della poetica indur nell'anima virtù discacciandone vizio Thesaurus 1562 fol Rhetorica enim est instrumentum moralis philosophi quo bonae proponuntur leges optimaeque fiunt senatu deliberationes obseruandas leges

in

.

.

,

.

.

,

,

,

sit

.

sit ,

,

&

.

,

de

,

ab

,

cultum diuinum Pacem pietatem Iustitiam caetera quae Reipub sunt necessaria Accedit optima Repub non est abiicienda Quicquid videatur velle Plato vero Poetica quae Repub Poeta enim cum quadam sermonis suauitate animum malis affectibus octauo purgat magnamque actione vtilitatem imitatione delectationem affert Non defuerunt

[ 17 ]

ac

,

."

de

.

,

ad ,

,

,

,

id

.

,

autem qui partem Rhetorices eam esse putauerint An verum aliorum nunc iudicium seruit autem ipsa Poetica Reipublicae tanquam sermocinalis facultas cum debeat poeta spem caeterosque affectus His praepositis ciuili commouere iram timorem morali philosophiae ancillis libri Nicomachum moribus statim adiecti sunt

THEORY

POETIC

its

The next statement is neither so systematic nor so explicit , since it relates poetry to moral philosophy without specifying the nature of the relation ship . It is found in Jacopo Mazzoni's Discorso in difesa della Comedia del divino poeta Dante ( 1572 , under the pseudonym of Donato Rofia ), which is

it



to

."

to

...

a

of he

to

I

no

by

we

3 .)

(p .



,

. in .

be

is

moral philosophy The assertion neither developed nor supported later the text nor are told how poetry serves the end moral philosophy have found earlier text Mazzoni which might referring

of

part

is

: “

devoted first chapter the proposition that not improper for philosophers discuss poets Mazzoni here makes only the bald state ment elsewhere we have sufficiently clearly proved that poetry

so

,



,

,

,

of

,

"

:

up ,

.

,

to

seems

.

in

medicine and architecture his final arrangement Giacomini divide letters into two subgroups the first the scienzie contem

,

history

In ,

he

to

be

e

in



in

, in

is

"



a

of as

its of

dignity really the primary characteristic the art work which made public conclusions four years later 1576. Just Varchi 1546 had been concerned with the maggioranza dell'arti Lorenzo Giacomini 1576 proposed the topic Della nobiltà delle lettere delle armi for three lectures read the Florentine Academy Under logic rhetoric poetics letters included moral philosophy the art Concern with the

it

.

.

is

,

to

is

,

to

;

,

so

it

in is

of

,

;

to

of

is



,

plative superior arms the second made moral philosophy knowledge merely supplies and other forms inferior arms since the doctrine which leads action Action itself more noble than doctrine Although not stated poetry presumably falls into the last category

be

to

,

,

of

to

us



,

instruction the literary arts will include rhetoric and poetics which explain moral subjects for our own benefit and furnish with the means that others and music also which like poetry used used for four

his

,

of

to

a

on .

it ,

?

of

.

to

,

,

five years earlier Jacopo Mazzoni had initiated

of

that

remembered

29

."

, an

or

it a

of

a

in

be

It

will

as

of

be

,

is

is

:

;

is

,

By

,

in

,

,

of

ends for formation character for the purgation the passions for rest our studies from our affairs and for recreation poetics this date 1576 the position related moral philosophy firmly established very few dissenters later there will But new question now arises part philosophy instrument moral The distinction sometimes not clear but much debate centers upon especially large group documents relating the quarrel over Dante

MS B.N.

is a

in

,

di

...

,

he

,

,

on

every possible point counter Mazzoni this statement Poetry insisted

take issue with him

.

to

out

on

to

did not fail

29

he

1583. Since Bulgarini

set in

,

of

di

.”



defense

of

in

Dante with the statement that poetry part moral philosophy Sometime between 1573 and 1576-77 Bellisario Bulgarini M. Siena wrote his Alcune considerazioni sopra'l discorso Giacopo Mazzoni fatto difesa della Comedia Dante published only the discussion

, et

18 )

(

la , .

,

et

il

et

la

.” ,

in

: "

i

.

,

la

da i

si

,

,

il

di

,

ci

quali

la

la

et

le

impareremo Paris Fonds italien 982 fols 62-63 Rettorica spiegare suggetti morali danno modo benefizio nostro d'altrui quale Musica ancora come Poesia per quattro fini soleua vsarsi per costume negozij per diporto negli studij per purgazione degli affetti per riposo Poctica

POETICS

THE

AMONG

SCIENCES

could not be considered a part of moral philosophy because it was an art ; Aristotle and Horace should be taken as authorities for this . Moreover , if it were a part of philosophy it would belong to the rational and discursive branches, not to the practical group in which moral philosophy falls . Nor do I see , at best, how one can say anything else about it except that it might be an instrument of moral philosophy, in the way in which ( by those who know best ) logic is held to be an instrument of philosophy in general : and this

also according to the opinion of those who claim that the principal end of this same poetics is not to delight — as is maintained by many and not without reason —but to profit.30 thesis is an attempt to liberate poetry from the

a sense , Bulgarini's

In

be an

as

it

no

a

,

In

).

place

as

an

currently established

:

in

would not

be

...

all

to

retain poetry

wish

its

; (

di

in

his

by

.

to

is

an

;

he

its

place domination of moral philosophy ; to do so , he returns it to implies meanwhile that really should instrumental science but independent art whose end only give pleasure considered The passage cited from Bulgarini was answered directly Orazio Capponi manuscript Risposte alle prime cinque particelle delle con reality there are adequate siderazioni Bellisario Bulgarini 1577 opposition following given reasons for the the text largely illustrates

is

it

of

it

us

,

us ,

it in

as

as

,

,

to

of

is a

it

us

direct

)

to

say that part moral philos along the road which may lead

us

is

to

not improper

on an to

go

.

31

(

it

is

bring about this effect ophy whose only purpose happiness



at

of

of

,

in its

,

to

at

human life

of

us to

it

improper thing say that poetry insofar parts some we see clearly considering which the excess those passions which are found and teaches good modes conduct distinguishing them from the bad and many other such things useful for arriving poetry can human happiness insofar then useful purge

is

Di .sig



at

is

moral philosophy but

the same relationship that logic bears

to

part

of

he

a

not

asserted the same position but

lei , al

.pp

it

to

poetry

so

:

of it,

an at

bearing

30

instrument

it,

1579

( is In

Maggio

somewhat greater length

).

20.

"

di

,

il

Siena

di

,

in

in

.

,

to

,

of

a

to

Capponi does say that even according Aristotle there no objection calling philosophy art part Bulgarini's reply came two years later his Repliche alle Risposte del Capponi published Orazio 1585 but the work dated the end

si

,

,

,

,

il

da

: e

di

."

il

da ' ,

di

;

in

,

fin

;

si

31

,

: “

),

(

sia

,

,

di è

la

se

,

Alcune considerazioni più altro possa 1583 14–15 Ne veder che più intendenti dire non ch'ella istromento della moral filosofia nella maniera che Logica per istromento della filosofia questo anco per l'opinion tenuta vniuersale quelli che voglion ch'il principale essa Poetica sia non dilettare come molti giouare non senza ragion tiene ma ,

il

, a

,

la

19 )

(

, e ci fà

in

si

,

si

e

da

la

fa ,

,

."

,

,

i

rei ,

ci

di

,

si

: "

.

,

.

è

,

la

in

.

MS Bibl Com Siena G.IX.54 fol 14v non sarebbe cosa del tutto sconcia dire che quanto Poesia utile alla vita humana come uede manifesto risguardando nelle sue parti alcuna delle quali purga dal souerchio quelli affetti che trovano noi peruenire conoscere buoni costumi distinguendoli molte delle fatte cose utili poesia pud questo effetto cagionare sia parte alla felicità humana Inquanto dunque che della filosofia morale laquale altro non che indrizzarci per strada che possa condurci alla felicità

POETIC

THEORY

philosophy in general. He would suggest , with respect to logic and poetics , that the one and the other of them should perhaps be placed among the arts , or we might say sciences ( taking science in a broad sense ) which are called rational or discursive ; and that just as logic , agreeing in this with rhetoric , has no fixed subject matter about which it operates , almost the same thing happens with respect to poetics , and particularly with relationship to the human actions that it under takes to imitate ; so that , not being confined to speaking or treating exclusively of such or such human actions , it may have free choice with respect to any and all ,

directing them toward practical happiness the moral philosopher.32

,

,

of

men

the most immediate end

an

is

,

which

so

in

means

by a

to

(

to

it

certain

it )

it

of

,

it ; to

of

with the subject matters these latter whence will come also way their instrument since they use bring profit and form better always carries with the pleasure which the moral characters

of

be ,

to

)

(

its

with one or another kind of poem . Add to this the fact that just as logic was particular instrument invented primarily to serve philosophy in general as poetry perchance was invented serve the moral philosophies occupying itself

of

to

,

,

be

all

if

,

,

,

.

,

It

improper however consider poetry instrument natural compositions treating really poems science since verse the latter are not Bulgarini repeats finally his notion that arts are divided into the would

be

,

to

,

of

at

in

of

be

to

is in

an

;

,

this interchange

of

.

as

;

of

a

poetics

a

of to

of

,

,

the practical and the instrumental logic and rhetoric and belong the last these poetics cannot thus possibly con part practical sidered such science moral philosophy Bulgarini's manuscript this last work came the attention Lelio presumably Marretti who wrote answer the form Avvertimenti around 1579-80 the manuscript found with most the others speculative

.

of

: “

a

an in

,

It



to

,

it

.

,

it

as .

of to of a

it of

of an

an

is

it of

It

33

to

."

;

the moral

da

instrument

, si Ò

:

ad

,

, si , ò o di

,

,

in

)

in

;

,

, ha ò

, e

: la “

la

(p

, e

,

; e

, si

(

27–28 igliando

di

riporsi infra l'arti l'vna l'altra loro sia forse largo modo che razionali Scienza sermocinali Logica conforme chiamano che come ciò alla Retorica non alcuna deter minata materia intorno alla quale s'esserciti quasi che questo medesimo interuiene alla particolarmente prende Poetica intorno alle azzioni vmane ch'ella imitare con ),

Repliche 1585 vogliam dire scienze

.pp

me that one might say that poetry was

32

to to

be

is

a

of

in

the Biblioteca Comunale Siena Marretti's notes are misunderstanding Bulgarini's ideas He confused and show some politics begins with the thesis that poetry subordinate insofar the politician must judge poem the possible moral effects Still would proper does moral philosophy since call instrument not principles only not teach the that science teaches how live well special sense ignorant men instrument only seems

di

'

,

,

,

'

,

e

de

gli ,

di

lei ,

di

.

;

la

,

è

'

di

, ò à

la

;

."

."

à

[ 20 ]

,

, i

il

il è

'

;

: "

.

,

huomini costumi che ella porta tuttauia seco qual fin più propinquo del moral Filosofo gl'huomini rozzi ben viuere ma sol

la

,

per mezzo della dilettazione zandoli alla felicità pratica Avvertimenti fol 438 33

si

,

,

vn

'

in

,

in

.

à

,

à

,

à

queste quelle vmane azzioni dire trattar solamente habbia l'elezzion libera intorno tutte quante con vna con vn'altra sorte questo che Logica Poemi Aggiungasi come stata principalmente trouata per seruire alla Filosofia vniuersale come suo proprio stromento così Poesia per auentura per esse laonde verrà ad esser seruir alle Morali venendo ad essercitarsi intorno alle materie per giouare formar meglio anco certo modo loro stromento seruendosi quelle ciosiacosa che non essendo ristretta

indiriz

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

philosopher , since he uses it to give proper moral character to men , rather than an instrument of moral philosophy , since the latter teaches us man's end in life and how to achieve it, for which teaching neither poetics nor poetry is useful to us . I suspect that there is considerable equivocation about this word ' instrument . ""34 This stand rather leads Marretti to take sides with Capponi : “ The opinion of Capponi seems to me quite probable , that poetry is rather a part than an instrument of moral science , since it to be

of

placed anywhere without doubt could not moral philosophy both because deals with it

,

of

,

it

philosophy

it :

of

,

part

of

a

called

else than under the branch

be If

its

As

own way happiness poetry among the poetry could

for Bulgarini's classification rational disciplines Marretti will have none .” 35

the ordinary man



does exactly what that science does , bringing in

the very same matter and because

36

an

a

as

as -

of

or -

."

it

,

,

concerns the very same end During the years 1573–80 then the Bulgarini Capponi Marretti con troversy revolved about the designation poetry part instru

of

.

,

Francesco Patrizi was concerning himself with the same question

to In ,

same

a

the

,

.

of

to

About

instrumental

the

They hesitated between the practical period formal philosopher

.

science the art

and

of

to

poetry belonged

of

of

of

.

of

ment moral philosophy Some the difficulty decision arose from the inability the theorists decide which the Aristotelian branches

),

"

,

and sections to

The assignment

,

,



of

by .

,

,

,

Economics Poetics Rhetoric

the Problemata

: “

of

,

,

,

is

and

of

,

Ethics Politics 29

:

."

28 ,

(

(“

,

,

,

27 ,

these treatises 18 ,

of

he

” ),

a

I

of of

VIII Volume his Discussiones peripateticae 1571 devoted division Aristotle's works Aristotelicorum librorum extantium per Logi genera distributio first distinguishes eight groups works cum De Ente De Sapientia Mathematicum Naturale Medicum Morale Artificiale Each then subdivided and under the group Morale come Book

the Poetics

the

of

In

.

IX

is

to

in

be

the last book

. 37

Patrizi insists that the Poetics was really meant

to

(“

in

.

of

,

is ,

is

of

of by

at

for several previous theorists poetry ,

,

For Jacopo Zabarella

is

the Politics

as

of

” ,

)

butio

of

justified the Politics Book VIII reference moral sciences and the argument that along with music poetics useful for the instruc support tion the young The authority Plato cited Book singulis generibus distri the same volume Aristotelicorum librorum group

one

,

la

,

à

, al

et

,

il

.

la

ne

,

la

sia

del

fol .

."

,

ne

ci

il gli

,

si

à

: “

,

.

.,

34

potrebbe dire che Ibid fol 438v Più tosto par me Poetica fusse istromento del filosofo morale seruendosi d'essa per render costumati huomini che istrumento della filosofia morale insegnandoci questa fine dell'huomo modo d'acquistarlo che non poetica poesia Dubbito che non s'equiuochi assai intorno questa serue parola istromento

la di si

e

82 .

66-66v

,

.pp

."

(

1571

ed .) ,

'l

la

il

tomi primi

la

fa

la

,

,

."

se

la

: “

se

Discussionum peripateticarum

( 21 )

37

, e

,

.

.,

36

il

,

il

: “

.,

,

35

Capponi che poesia piu Ibid 438v Parmi assai probabile l'oppinion tosto parte che istromento del morale facendo medesimo appunto che scientia inducendo con suo modo felicità nell'huomo ordinario poetica potesse chiamar parte Ibid fols 439-439v Se filosofia senza dubbio perche raggira intorno alla non potrebbe porsi non sotto membro della morale perche riguarda medesima materia medesimo fine

POETIC

THEORY

&

,

; 13 , “

II,

in

to

of

his

and the same time related to the rational sciences and to moral philosophy . It should be noted that the work in which he discusses the problem is a work on logic, De natura logicae libri duo 1578 the specific chapters chapter devoted the discussion are Book De Rhetorica

,

."

&

,

.

by

is

of

do

an

is

at

,

,

to

&

15 , “

,

&

"

;

,

14 , “

” ;

Poetica quòd philosophiae contemplatiuae instrumenta non sint chapter neque Quòd Rhetorica Poetica neque artium moralis phi losophiae instrumenta sint chapter and Quòd Rhetorica Poetica quomodo solius ciuilis disciplinae instrumenta sint The relationship logic the association with rhetoric are thus initial assumptions The point specifically what branch philosophy poetry issue served is

he

action rather than

Next

,

action

con

to

,

related

38

to

)

or

their usefulness

. "

...

they deal with things

in is

;

with action templation

: “

(

.

as

instrument Zabarella argues first that poetry and rhetoric not contemplative philosophy since the latter speculative serve con cerned only with knowledge whereas the two sister faculties are concerned argues that they

, of ' to

its

as



to

.

:

in

.

is to

by

,

to

,

to

moral philosophy which has function improve teach each man how himself but rather the civil discipline improve others Both are thus the tools which each man attempts the politician The distinction made clear the following passage are not instrumental

,

;

to

,

,

in

as

of

it

of

part particular rather logic insofar uses taken the broad sense

a

is

is a

.

,

of

,

of of

In

later chapters Zabarella contends that they are part than universal logic and that poetics Example example logic the one the means

or of

to

,

,

;

uses rhetoric through his own means but

. 39

by

he ,

however that other persons ,

.

with this distinction poetics means

of ,

to

;

to

is

he

The moral man who does right the citizen however causes others do right for the moral man wants make himself good whereas the citizen wants make others good ... Rhetoric and poetics are thus instrumental faculties which the citizen employs for action namely make his fellow citizens good

of

,

on

as in

of

of

as

in

be

, ,

of

.

,

,

to

the audience for imitation actions characters and passions presented rejection view Lionardo the point Some expansion and clarification poetry classifying already appeared with those one Salviati who has history may Aristotle's Poetics written seen his Commentary

he

,

a

a

on

.”

As

,

is

to

.

,

its

,

of



.

,

of to

of

Salviati considers the opinions such other commentators He decides that with respect and Castelvetro relative moral character the operation which the end the poem place for history within moral philosophy the poet will have poetry rejects Castelvetro's theory that presupposes treatise treatise 1585–86

Maggi Piccolomini

ad

,

53 : “

. .p

,

[ 22 ]

."

Poetica uerò per alios

;

,

ad ,

,

. ad . . .

,

,

,

vt

,

,

,

55 : “

., .p

39

."

.

),

(

38

con ad actionem potius quàm De natura logicae 1578 pp 53–57 esp templationem vtilitas ipsarum pertinet alii bene agant moralis moralis ipse est qui bene agit ciuilis verò facit Ibid atque Sunt igitur Rhetorica enim uult seipsum bonum reddere ciuilis autem alios agendum vtitur idest quibus homo ciuilis ciues Poetica facultates instrumentales bonos efficiendos cum hoc tamen discrimine quòd arte Rhetorica per semetipsum vtitur

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

on history . Even though the poet must know something about truth , “ to the knowledge of truth , in what pertains to things that have happened , not a treatise on the writing of history but history itself is required . And without reading histories the truth about things which happen may rather

...

be derived from experience . ” 40 Salviati's approach is not basically syste matic , and these statements show rather a preoccupation with current

.

All

As

41

. "

,

all

branches

of no

its

problems than an orderly attempt at solving them . A much more orderly treatment is seen in Bernardino Baldino's Discorso breve intorno all'utilità delle scienze et arti ( 1586 ) ; but the order here is derived less from philosophical principle than from moral conviction . That conviction is briefly put at the outset : “ ... poetry by essence can and must blame misdeeds less than certain other disciplines and arts

.”

So

,

;

"

"

,

its

If of

:



, “

in



to

.

sciences

in

,

a

of

philosophy are transformed into types moral are divided into speculative and practical The speculative exist theology order heal the soul which presumably provides medicine against our sins belongs for the this group practical the moral disciplines heal the mind vices and medicine result philosophy

is

of

Its ,

. 42

:

,

to

.

,

,

is

"

.”

to

in

gized

of

everything thus the health human bodies analo specifically curative medical terms the medical science involved rather than preventive Poetry along with rhetoric falls within the class curative functions are the soul liberal arts those which pertain stated thus contributes

to

in

is

,

.

it

,

,

it

... also like the other noble arts came into being enrich our spirit with salutary and honorable precepts But different from the other disciplines this that the others come unveiled and bear openly their bitterness and their

with which they freely touch and beat the hearts the harmful and the whereas poetry with masks and with sharp words but covered with

of

,

whip

,

;

vicious

as

of

,

to

its

.

to

,

by

to

to

as

,

,

proposes

do

the other doctrines attack the guilty and scold faults and bring corrupted spots and rottenness just errors and health sick minds the clever doctor sweetens bitter medicines ... And this they do attract young people study teachings and remedies against mis works which are full honey

del

11 ,

40

deeds and crimes.43 , a '

è

il

,

il

vero dell'accadenti

il

storie

la

" ; "

,

al

: “

,

senza legger

le

...

cose dall'esperienzia

eziandio misfatti

;

deue biasimare

i

&

sua ragione può

arti

B4v

.

de ., ., .p pp . B3 : B4 “ -

43

42 Ibid

.” di

poesia

,

non meno ch'alcune altre discipline

&

A2v

: “ la

1586

), .p

Discorso

(

41

."

puo ritrarsi

E

richiesta

.

è

in

,

la

.

II, II,

risguardando poema quale MS BNF fols 13–13v fine intorno costumi l'esercizio del poeta tra moral filosofia harà luogo ... alla cognizion del uero cio che all'auuenute cose appartiene non trattato dello scriuer storia ma essa storia

,

,

;

la

& e

ciò

In

.

& , de & i

,

, e

in

anch'essa come l'altre nobili arti venuta luce per arricchire l'animo precetti salutari questa nostro horreuoli differente dall'altre discipline che portano palese l'amarezza l'altre vengono scoperte sferza conche liberamente toc Ibid

,

.”

a il

i

per, e

delitti

, e

ciò

misfatti

.

,

& &

la

E

i

23 )

i

. &

...

remedij contra (

documenti

, e

le

,

&

le

;

, e

di

i

,

piene

de

studiare l'opere

sue

& ma

&

,

le

,

,

flagellano poesia con maschere cano cuori nocenti vitiosi doue con parole pungenti coperte riprendere mele dissegna come altre dottrine mordere diffettosi magagne come diffalte errori sanare gl’animi amalati corrotti dalle macchie gioueni medico auueduto ch'adolcisce medecine amare fanno allettare

of

, is

the Dante quarrel

poetry

to

the documents

in

of

The last

the latter

.

of

representa

in

certain kind the century

a

tive decades

with extreme moralizing tendency thinking found with some frequency

,

of

of

Baldino's little treatise

THEORY

its

POETIC

concern itself specifically

Jacopo

by

.

in

is

II

,

of

by

.

is

at

I

in

,

a

di

with the classification Mazzoni's Della difesa della Comedia Dante voluminous work two parts completed about 1585 Part was published 1587 Part not until 1688. The argument which very complex He begins with the state Mazzoni arrives his conclusion ment that the arts and sciences are distinguished from one another the

things makable

:

as .” : 44

one might say

by

,

so ,

,

things and

of

.

to

it

interprets as

...

the objects

he in

,



" “

objects

of

which they treat As for the meaning according the opinion the Peripatetics eir sciences and arts derive their true and real distinction from objects not insofar they are knowable these are things but insofar differences

In

-

to

),

(

),

).

of

;

these

Poetics falls among the arts poetry form images kinds and forms

imitation

all

by

of

which deal with the last

is

to —

of the “

to

all

X ,

."

,

to

(

as

(

and Images which are made or

of



to



he —

of

of

,

,

the considerations

of

,



, of ”

,

if

art the Aristote persua rhetoric are directed the philosophy poetics phrase sible the imitable moral untranslatable the beatificabile humano For clarification the idea Republic way imitation turns Plato Book the three distinc objects tion Ideas which are contemplated Works which are made lian system

,

(

,

,

At

).

,

is

,

of

of

a

by ).

or

,

;

.

(

secs 9–10 tiates the species

,

The genus being thus established Mazzoni differen determination the means which are harmony rhythm and meter and the subject matter which the credible rather possible than the false the this point finally comes the classifica Idols

45

be

:

is

. ”

by

;

is



deals with the credible

,

it

since

an

:

poetry placed under must properly faculty sophistic that rational which was called the ancients But this incomplete classification the complete one given shortly afterward tion

it

.

In In

as

is

.

,

in

,

is a

of

is a

,

,

sua vera

,

l'arti prendano

ma inquanto

la

, e :

,

,

), “

",

. 7 : “ le

1587 Proemio Sec scienze oggetti non inquanto che sono cose potesse dire artificiabili

che sono

....



da

,

& ,

.”

se

, e

e

45

,

it in

as

or

,

53 , : si " da Pt . si I gli(

Della Difesa

reale distintione Scibili cosi

produc

Mazzoni can now summarize thus his reasons for placing

54 : "

,

pleasure

.

44

tive

faculty.46

.

of

Since

....

had previously stated that the means were exclusively

,

he

under the rational

an

it is

In it

is

an

I

,

it

be

,

of

be

art

may ... the poetic considered two ways that either considers the rightness the poetic Image makes and forms the latter the first way say that should called poetics and the second poetry the first part art which controls and uses the Image and the civil faculty species the second way art which forms and makes the Image and

,

."

( 24 )

,

.

arte formante

, e

modo

è

.

è

, , e lo , o

lo in

,

, e

... Nel secondo

parte della facoltà Ciuile specie della facoltà rationale .

vsante l'Idolo cante l'Idolo

, si o

.,

, , si & & è è

,

la

46

.”

gli

.,

Ibid Sec deue drittamente collocare sotto quella facoltà rationale che antichi Sophistica nominata può prendere Ibid Sec l'arte poetica due modi cioè secondo ch'ella con sidera drittura dell'Idolo poetico secondo che fabbrica forma Nel primo modo dico ch'ella deue nomare Poetica nel secondo Poesia Nel primo arte imperante

fabbri

THE

AMONG

POETICS

SCIENCES

,

by ,

its

is

is is

,

of

be or

,

it

all .

be

,

.

of ,

of

or

of

of



by

,

a

is a

:

of

serious

,

as a

kind privation

of

game the art poetry cessation activity the most noble may them Thus said that the civil faculty should divided into two highly important activity and was called parts one which considers the proper form politics the civil faculty The other considers the the general name

of of

higher justification

it

by

, 47

. ”

to

,

of

by

,

;

its

is

,

of

its

poetry under the rational faculty : “ Poetry is a sophistic art because of subject proper genus and the credible which imitation , which is being under that genus pleasure and which end since concerning itself with that subject and frequently seeking that end explained constrained admit the false The role the civil faculty

its

,

.

,

he

:

to it

assign

a

to

he

,

;

so

wishes

pedagogic

end

of

In

.

because

all

,

of

'

as

,

is

is

he

does not do an ethical purpose

of

of

or

."

,

be

of

politics or

48

of

proper form activity the cessation the proper form the activity Therefore the Poetics should properly and was called poetics considered the ninth book the Politics This argument for diffuseness remarkable for two points first Mazzoni insists that the end poetry pleasure exclusively places poetry under second even when games

to in

,

. ; ”

,







is

,

to

so

,

as

of

.

of

a

in

by

the types the ideal republic

in of

of

is

explained

Plato

,

a

of

practical useful Aristotle mankind which poetry

is

, il

che

è

per l'imitatione

il ,

in

of

be :

arte Sophistica

, e

Secs 66-67

Poesia

il è

Ibid

: " la

Sec

.

be

is a

if

;

of

of

of

in

lo 60

in

a

. 49

in it ,

is

which they spoke poetry would special kind conformity with the habits terms

Ibid

, e .,

47

of Aristotle

between the two philosophers

divergence

which only government

it

be

be

admitted poets on the side

The

has

moral philosophy and therefore good character will neces poetics way that bad character will not with and such since would destroy moral goodness But the practice the

conjoined

governments

philosophy

regulated and

;

qualified

it

by ,

speak

poetry part Plato for follows that poetic pleasure must

the side

been shown above

sarily

,

,

:

is

Reason

"

good

on

the

"

in

,

as

of

of





to

is

of

II,

poems Part the first book which devoted character poetry politics Mazzoni reopens the discussion the relationship He emphasizes the difference between the positions Aristotle and Plato poems admits both good and bad Aristotle who considers poems poetry whereas Plato whose approach characters ethical admits only

suo genere

è

.”

,

, e

,

lo

a

, e

è

“ la

48

a

al

,

,

proprio per per credibile che suo soggetto diletto che suo fine poiche per quel soggetto per rimirare quel fine viene esser sotto quel genere per esser intorno 99 astretta molte volte dar luogo falso

se la

è è

il

;

.

,

,

25 ]

[

ad

la

o

la

è

di

,

col

,

in



, e

la

), .p 2 : si " .” è a

.”

de

, e

,

(

II

Pt . fù

.

, e ,

'

de

49

si

la :

.

.,

facoltà ciuile deua diuidere due principalissime parti l'vna considera rettitudine dell'operationi nomata nome generale Politica L'altra considera rettitudine della cessatione rettitudine delle operationi giochi nomata Poetica ragione percioche Difesa 1688 Platone fauoreuole Poetica parte della Philosophia come sopra dimostrato segue che diletto Poetico debba per cosi dire qualificato dalla morale Philosophia esser regolato Ma Aristotele fauoreuole I'vso Poeti

delle quali cioè ciuile

...

POETIC THEORY admissible as a form of entertainment . When the two theories are so seen , the contradiction between them disappears ( pp . 3–4 ). Similarly , the diffi culty over the classification of the art is solved if one realizes , again , that there are two ways of looking at it :

to

...

it

so of

by

in ; a

to

or

.

50

,

in

by

,

in

who read them One may the other way consider regulated and ordered operation ... the civil faculty .

them

poetry insofar

it is

to

who listen

as

it

no

in

,

in

its

Poetry may be considered in two ways , that is , in itself insofar as it is an art having the pleasure of man as pleasure aim such wise that means restores the energies grown weary serious occupations and when considered way delight those has other function but imitate human actions

in

he

a

of

;

.

,

of

of

,

to ,

Mazzoni for the most part considers poetry the first way and addresses problems himself structure and artistry but never completely loses sight preoccupation the second and there are constantly evidences with moral problems and values to

,

is

.

an

as

)

, la

,

et

,

,

'

à

.

In

il

,

da '

et

, : & la ,

its

,

of

by

que principii cause accrescimenti che poema heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale governatori delle republiche accordance with this

tragedia

civile

many auxiliary questions and art The first highly 1586 whose title itself

classification

(

,

of

.

of

is a

Giason Denores

Discorso intorno

comedia

&

treatise

to

,

of

Fido The central issue legitimate forms the literary art led poetry and one these was the end document significant

of

this group belong another the great that waged over Battista Guarini's Pastor whether the pastoral and the tragicomedy were in

The remaining documents literary polemics the century

by

of

it

of of

,

51

."

its

to of ,

generate good principles

to

every

is

owes delight

,

their republics and

:

he

;

it

of

.

us

...

its

utility intermediate the more important end should never pursued for own sake Denores concludes where had begun let

be

the state

direct them towards happiness ... since moral and civil philosophy and subordinate The end most regulated productions

conduct poetry

also rhetoric one

to

serve the purposes

, “

wise men

to of

to is as it in is to

.

;

of

to ,

of

phil announced intention Denores throughout seeks the contribution osophers and rulers the invention and development the various kinds poems Poetry sprang from natural causes but was soon directed

is

in

,

it

to

it

of we

.

to of

any other part philosophy except conclude that does not belong everything that such compositions relation have dealt with remains within the province the moral and civil philosopher whose duty

...

politics

Si

. . . .

le

,

di le

se

in

retta

,

è

,

le

in

& e

ha di ,

in

,

& in

quanto ch'ella

ordinata dalla facolta

&

. "

,

la

,

è

( 26 )

;

ciuile

), da .p 2 : la “

.

,

&

morale

Poetica

per generar buoni costumi nelle loro republiche per inuiarle poetica come ancho rhetorica soggetta alla philosophia essa riceuendo ogni sua piu regolata produttione

1586 essendo

&

Discorso

alla felicità

( . "

51

può nell'altro modo considerare ciuile operante

la

le

in

,

è

il

si

, ., .p 6 : “ la

50

può Ibid Poetica due modi considerare cioè stessa inquanto ch'ella quello ella ristori vn'arte che rimira diletto humano accioche per mezo forze affati questo modo ella non assomigliare cate nelle graui occupationi altro officio che leggono attioni humane modo ch'elle dilettino quelli che ascoltano che

SCIENCES public

is

,

that

of

to

utility and benefit Two years later .

doctrines

THE

their true and proper end

to

arts and

AMONG

52

to direct

all

all

POETICS

in

a

to

.

.

;

to

of

of

.

,

is

of

of

,

, &

in

si

,

,

the same discussion Denores returned l'opinion qual genres d'Arist della tratta secondo his Poetica nella tragedia del poema heroico della comedia The second work adds little the theories the first except for certain emphases not formerly present poetry politics poetry One these the claim the superiority 1588

is

It

to it .

of

,

is

It

).

of

,

,

,

of

as

by

(

of

to

is

, in

to

equal

as is

in

part superior equal moral and civil philosophy both attend with every care the two most noble actions already men superior tioned the purgation the passions the inculcation virtue insofar the other proceeds means laws penalties and punishments while this produces the same result with the greatest enjoyment and recreation the part

insofar

spirit.53

,

in ,

,

as

in

.”

a

he

as as is a a to in

be

of

of

of

far be

is a

, or

.

,

is

it

;

in

.

,

he

.

fully instructed insists that the poet must not only politics ethics and but must himself the kind man undertakes praise cry from the early notions works This the poet rhetorician even farther from the more recent conception him sophist Poetry has become one with moral philosophy and the poet stances

his

,

a

of

To each these genres Denores specific circum specific audience

states ordered the common weal assigns special ethical function for

54

to

of

as

to

from the rulers and legislators

,

principles from Moral and Civil Philosophy

Finally

of

. “

as

in

all

art

a

,

he

a

in

of

-

is

the insistence

tragedy

-

in

that Aristotle the Poetics treated only three comedy and epic because these were the three com monly recited public gatherings and hence the only ones capable exerting moral influence the state With the greatest perspicacity philosopher parts accept moral and civil refused the poetic compositions such verse did not receive their rules and their Another such

genres

the

.

identified both with Cicero's ideal orator and with the Philosopher Good Man be

to

.

ha ,

in

,

pastorali

un

, di

,

le

he

Il

le

tragicomedie ad

.pp

52

scritto M. Giason Denores contra

et

of

to in

in

an

,

of

In

of

any controversial neither these works would there seem especially century materials for the last decades the But Battista Guarini saw the first them attack upon his manuscript Pastor Fido reply and quanto this attack wrote Verrato ovvero difesa suo

,

è

le

,

&

,

&

. "

al

,

,

è

&

, a

le

,

di

,

,

,

2v : " è

+

&

(

), , .p

al

53

&

,

..

.

.,

: “

43-43v concluderemo che non aspetti altra parte della philosophia che tutto quel che habbiamo trattato tai componimenti non fuor della profession del philosopho morale ciuile cui aspetta dirizzar tutte arti tutte proprio fine cioe alla utilità dottrine loro uero beneficio publico parte vguale parte superiore alla philosophia Morale Poetica 1588 Ibid alla politica

,

si

,

'da

67 . ,

Ciuile

See also

.p

,

...

"

27 )

Morale

beneficio commune

.

a

(

loro principii dalla Philosophia

delle Republiche

&

,

,

in

,

i

,

&

i

legislatori

. "

& , &

,

"

le

loro regole

da '

&

,

riconosceuano gouernatori

,

,

, in

,

il

tt :

., .p

di

54

&

.

E

.

E

vguale inquanto che ambedue con ogni studio attendono alle predette due nobilis superiore quanto che quella procede con leggi con pene con castigamenti sime attioni questa opera medesimo con sommo godimento ricreation d'animo egli come Philosopho Ibid Morale Ciuile con sommo auedimento non componimenti curò ridur tutti fatti verso come parti dell'arte Poetica che non

Ciuile

POETIC

THEORY

discorso di poesia ( 1588 ) . Guarini's stand on the classification of poetry is directly opposed to Denores ' :

of

is a

of

,

its

How can you hold that poetics , which is an art and therefore a habit of the speculative intellect , can take principles from ethics which habit the

teach them but solely

not

;

is

to it

does

to .

so

of

,

it

I

insist that

imitate them

it or .

...

,

from ethics

it

in

I

to

?

it

active intellect You will tell me that from ethics derives notions character say you that gets them rather from rhetoric which and much different from ethics the definition the virtues But even granted that does get them

,

it

;

is

.

or

a

to

it

as

add further that serves politics insofar the legislator does given poem depending upon whether does not permit the people have demonstrates good bad mores That true but does not follow from that

You will

re

of

do

to

it

,

is it

in

.

.

point

of

by -

point denial

of

,

Guarini passes

argument

a

of

position

general

to

From this

its or

as

,

a

is

;

, it

its

principles from politics ... depending upon the form that takes the public poetry has more placed under less freedom ... And this only the politician but for intrinsic and formal principles has nothing sophistic and rhetoric.ss with politics but member

,

all of or

,

he

an

.

as

he

,

in

.

of

:

a

,



Denores Aristotle's intention the Poetics the status the minor poetic genres the nature the poet But does not completely relationship between poetry and politics rule out ethics the above quotation shows Instead distinguishes for each the dramatic genres

,

of

:

,

of

(

is

(

an

)

of an ,

;

,

is a

of

two separate ends instrumental end which for dramatic genres the imitation action and architectonic end which for each genre purgation for comedy the purgation special kind sadness through pity and fear which are moderated laughter for tragedy the purgation as

).

of

,

be

;

:

the Poetics

of

on

any

of its

he

the repetitions

was not concerned with speaking

its

,

moral and civil philosopher as

a

as

be

by

.

more than reaffirm his earlier convictions The nature Aristotle's intention this passage will indicated

in of

of of

.

an

in

to ,

.

of

is

of

in

.

of

a

in

to

way melancholy induce virtue for tragicomedy the purgation theory developed This Guarini's will and reinforced the polemic with Denores continues Apologia contra l'auttor del Verato Much 1590 Denores replied problems essay specific the devoted the tragicomedy and the poetry pastoral On the matter Denores does little the classification

]

[

,

40 : “

.pp

55

,

of

of

poetry principles from moral and such form did not receive rules and republics designed for the civil philosophy and from the rulers and legislators receiving only good them from these sources which those forms but common

,

il

,

gli

,

è

.

&

,

è

, la

la

io vi

.

&

.

i

,

mi

'

i

,

),

(

II

quale però Verrato 1588 39v Come volete che Poetica arte suoi principi dalla morale ch'è habito dell'attiuo habito dello ntelletto speculatiuo prenda quale Voi direte che dal morale prende costumi dico che anzi dal ritorico prenda dal molto diferente dal morale nelle difinizioni delle virtù ma posto che pur

è di ,

&

ha

,

."

, e

ai

le

,

al

è

lui ,

28 ]

[

.

See also pp 20–27 .

nò ,

al

,

la

,

è

il

la ,



è

.

.

ha

di al

in

,

. vi

, e i

...

&

,

...

&

ma solo per imitargli ... soggiugnerete ancora popolo secondo ch'ella concede buoni cattiui costumi Egli vero ma non per tanto non seguita che dal Politico più quale secondo prenda principi forme delle Republiche della poetica politico ma quanto sottoposta suoi principi intrin E’n questo solo meno licenza della ritorica membro della sofistica ma che fare con esso sechi formali non per insegnargli morale dico che ciò non legislatore quanto politico che serue

POETICS

THE

AMONG

SCIENCES

could generate good principles of conduct or not so receiving them could generate bad principles of conduct in the minds of the citizens in general.56

The general contention is , again , that tragedy , comedy , and the epic have moral influence on the masses assembled to hear as their function to exert them , and that any kind of poem which does not fulfil this function is not

Il

to

,

it

(

or

)

to

(

He entitled

it

).

the title page

,

in

his

worthy of consideration as poetry . Although Guarini finished answer the following year 1591 was according not published until 1592 according the colophon 1593 Verato secondo ovvero replica dell'Attizzato it,

of

.

to

of

:

of

of

,

;

to at

is

of

of

.

in

In

ferrarese difesa del Pastor Fido Guarini first recon question poetry politics sidered the whole the subordination the first the achievement the outset Certain new principles appear politics necessary poetry the end the achievement not end accademico

,

,

,

moral betterment

?

means

.

of

as a

to

,

But what about purgation

of or

of to

,

in

;

?

,

is

moral and civil philosophy it

of

If

none other than public what need does have order make man happy fables Man acquires his happiness through the exercise the virtues which are rational and true operations fictional works for the most part since they are false and lying will rather harm than aid the achievement this end then the end happiness

individual

its

be

to

it

,

;

of

its

.

of

of

...

.

of

to

of

of

, it is

to

in

be ,

I

it

to

morality answer that order subordinate poetry not sufficient that should useful for the purgation the passions but would have necessary end virtue for the superior art cannot obtain the acquisition without the operation the inferior art man can purge the passions tragedy And moral terror and pity through other and better means than that and civil philosophy has own laws and private and public expedients for the this end.57

achievement

an

,

of

.

is

is

to

no

to

of

,

In

poetry auxiliary merely sum whatever moral profit may attach accompaniment pleasurable objects What the contemplation more an

, is

he

;

if

,

to

a

is

or

he :



is

to

.

of

is

to

poetry

in

foundation anywhere Aristotle for the subordination politics The end the poet not utilitarian one but aes thetic one His end then not imitate the good but imitate well whether imitate good bad moral character and imitates what there

di

si

,

, &

ha

è

. , " ò

, e

il

in

de '

,

ad

i

&

&

Se

63 : ne “

(

, ), ò .p

,

,

,

le

,

2v : "

,

da '

,

Il

57

,

&

,

&

di

(

), .p

1590 poesia

di

,

di

56

egli come philosopho morale ciuile non curo fauellar che non riceuea sue regole suoi principii dalla philosophia gouernatori legislatori delle Republiche morale ciuile utilità commune ma quelle che riceuendogli poteuano generar buoni costumi solamente non riceuendogli gli poteuano generar cattiui costumi Cittadini uniuersale animi dunque Verato secondo 1593 fine della morale ciuile Filosofia non Apologia

ogni forma

? ,

,

sia

,

, e

,

,

sia

,

...

,

lo

,

.

,

, di

,

,

la

o

, ' al

e il

,

la

publica priuata che bisogno altro che felicità ella per far felice l'huomo fauole qual huomo acquista sua felicità con l'esercizio della vertù che son opere ragioneuoli qual suo fine possono per più l'opere fauolose come false vere mentite anzi Rispondo che per esser subalternata alla morale non basta che nuocere che giouare

,

le

di

ha

, e

del

.

il

,

, e

."

29 ]

[

gli

'

la

E

, e

.

,

, e le

ha

ed

,

,

,

,

se ,

gioueuole alla purgazion degli affetti ma bisogna che necessaria all'acquisto della vertù perciochè l'arte superiore non può non con l'opera della nferiore ottenere suo fine può ben l'huomo per altra molto miglior maniera purgar affetti terrore della compassione che per quella della Tragedia Filosofia morale ciuile ciò sue leggi per questo fine pubbliche cure sue priuate

...

POETIC THEORY

be

to

:

of

do

,

or

or

,

;

or

get the rules from legislators ,

from whom does

from

? 59

,

which

he

,

of

,

or

,

,

or

,

or

?

of

to

to

or

,

or

as

an ,

or

,

sententious happy ending with respect poets

what does the poet have with the laws the city To whom accounting whether his plots are pathetic ethical complex simple single ridiculous double with poetry with turbulent ending which are the essential parts

to , or

he

Furthermore give

must

in

a

lie

all

good poorly , he will not be a good poet, but he may be called a good poet if he imitates well what is bad . " 58 Indeed , the important questions poem exclusively poetics itself asked about the realm

of

Like

,

the rhetorician

archi

in

or

;

the art

:

to

,

is a

,

a

or

of

;

a

it in or is

.

vigorous kind But primary one still remains the artistic end proper

... the poet that subject

.

uses

he would achieve his

persuasion form different audiences different less violent tragic effects purgation more less secondary one the any event this rhetorical end

tectonic end since times require more ,

he

moral character which his audience

if

the notions

he must consider the nature

of

,

ethics

of

.

,

of

on

to

of

,

Guarini also now develops two points made earlier that touching the poetry relation rhetoric and that the existence the instrumental and architectonic ends The poet derives from rhetoric rather than from



he

,

all

,

a

do

,

a

he

it

a

if

in

-

,

,

;

so

be

is

not concerned with purging more less but with imitating well may even though little useful for purgation which under subject with happy ending takes that will his job well with good imitation with the required unity with artful recognition with judicious to

is

(

of

,

of

its

it

or

or

of

a

or

an

as

66 il :“

58

.

to

by

own special ends is a

its

to

the ethical sciences and achieving following principles which are specifically own There definite philosophical relationship between the large group part texts which classified poetry instrument moral philosophy group placed among and that earlier which the rational discursive

neither

the rational disciplines nor

any his contemporaries come independent art subordinated

an

poetry

as

,

he

or

comes

as

a

Guarini theory

of

close

developing

to

as

as

This

is

)

of

,

,

sententiae with appropriate character and what more proper him than the rest with splendor diction will without doubt avoid being charged with that mediocrity which Horace blames.60

? le ” , o

?

, o

o

, da

A

ha



il

,

, o

di

le

fin , o

le fin

, , o o il

ha ). da

an

be

,

, se 90 : le “

in

, e

,

se di

,

,

la

,

,

,

fuggirà

senza fallo

, la

,

( 30 )

,

lo

.”

,

'l

di

più suo proprio splendor della locuzione tutto resto con quella mediocrità che biasima Orazio di

da '

,

,

, e

di

si

,

la

la

,

la

di

, o

,

ha

da '

, o

,

da

, o

: “ il

...

,

.p

,

poesia

60

., , o

semplici doppie parti essenziali con lieto con turbulento che sono regole legislatori pur poeti delle quali chi prende poeta non riguardo purgar più Ibid 118 meno ma bene imitar quel soggetto quantunque poco purgante che propone per modo che soggetto parte sua con lieto fine farà bene buona imitazione con debita vnità con l'arti prudente sentenza col conueneuol costume quello ch'è fizioso riconoscimento con

di o

piane

,

,

” (

,

e'l

è

:

., .p

, il ., " p .

)

59

(

il

Non dunque suo fine d'imitare buono ma bene imitare buono costume buono male imitando non sarà buon poeta ma imitando bene cattivo buon poeta potrà chiamarsi the original text reads imitando male cattivo but this must error poeta con leggi della città egli Ibid Del resto che fare cui render conto sue fauole son patetiche morate sentenziose ridicole rannodate

Ibid cattivo che sia

nota

SCIENCES

THE

AMONG

POETICS

;

of

,

.

or

an

or

, .

its

If



or

of

,

of ,



its

as

instrumental sciences . If the earlier group insisted upon the character of means poetry as useful for serving some final purpose through argu powers signification variously considered words which have group persuasion powers the later conviction ments which have poetry was discursive usefulness provided insisted upon the kinds political civil discourse concerned itself with moral activity ethical as

.

of

of

a

to to ,

to

or

,

of



of

, it

If

instrument for the achievement poetry was instrumental served good and bad conduct for examples supplying moral ends for inactivity activity persuading administering praise and blame for specification the group kind constitute thus comes The second

in

,

.

in

of

.

is

of

;

a

,

pushing

of

assumptions further conclusions the earlier critics are instrumentality problem the later ones with the ends concerned with the change concern accounts for the used The for which the instrument the art change classification

first

as

at

be

is

.

.

of

its

is

in

;

in

, of

le

his

as a

of

in

few works

equal position Such the case with Agnolo reference are both philosophy and history Ragionamento sopra cose pertinenti alla published revision lectures given 1573 basically Platonic his position which

an

to

in

states the essence

decide

the closest

a

or

,

all

)

in

(

,

for

in

occupy which seem Segni whom the frames The following passage from Poetica written 1576 1581

or

,

of

or

of

It

be

surprising that among these attempts should not logic history rhetoric favor moral philosophy poetry among the sciences there should least relative

to

all

ECLECTIC CLASSIFICATIONS

of

...

we

:

assumptions

, up

,

,

,

as

.

;

in

of

and the former history each the two being separate from the other but the one and the other conjoined generate poetry History residing things past and present expounds and narrates them different from their ,

philosophy

.

in

we

,

,

,

,

of

,

of

history may consider the difference manifest among these three faculties discourse For since there are and poetry and among their forms objects one the things two extreme species our world with their imperfec tions the other their perfect forms which call Ideas the latter make philosophy

of

to

,

or

,

to

,

.

is

,

at

,

to ,

,

,

;

in

as

,

present not they are were but similar their Ideas and show ing the Ideas not things which have been and things which are themselves but Whence history and philosophy which are the pure extremes are each com pletely true poetry which tries combine them since they remain uncombined

in

things past

or

.

in

,

as

.

in

,

as

or

they are Ideas just were themselves Philosophy rises the Ideas things different from the things themselves and these she contemplates they are their perfect nature Poetry joins the one part and the other recounting

,

;

it

in

.

is

,

to

:

in

in

in

part true and part false true for the Ideas which she expresses and false for the things which she puts these Ideas and because she makes things similar these Ideas whereas they are really different And therefore poetry intermediate participates between philosophy and history because these two extremes in

in

31 ]

[

, it is

in

in

its

it

of

;

as

philosophy and participates and insofar her objects better than history but because participation history and the particular sensible

POETIC

THEORY

things which are the objects of history , to this extent it is below philosophy, and the poet is of lesser dignity than the philosopher.61

Another eclectic document , and perhaps a more extreme one , is Torquato Tasso's Discorsi del poema heroico [ 1594 ). Poetry , for Tasso , serves the traditional ends of pleasure and utility ; but utility is foremost , pleasure auxiliary . Hence the role of the moral philosopher : Therefore it is the task of the political philosopher to consider what poetry is to be prohibited and what pleasure , so that the pleasure ... should not produce the effect of an infectious poison , or should not keep the mind occupied in idle reading . ... poetry is a first philosophy which from our earliest years teaches us principles of conduct and the ways of life . 62

to

the

proper

.

his own art the other

to of

is

queen

honest than useful Thus ,

,

is

the two ends which the poet envisages one the superior art.63

is

that art which

,

of

a

to

subordinated

profit and rather that which

of all

,

as he

;

is

his art

will not err far from that goal which political person and part the city

to

,

seeks some

but

,

he

least insofar

others

...

his attention as

all a

If

at

or he

poet pursues this end

as

the poet must direct

:

its

But insofar as poetry achieves political ends it is subordinate to a higher art and is considered in terms of that art ; considered in itself , it seeks only pleasure as end

,

,

. “

is

as

da

, .pp

,

of

is a

61

,

;

to

of

poetry the classifica When one comes consider the subject matter tion again changes abruptly the poet treating the probable and the veri similar kind dialectician the rhetorician Without doubt la

.

le

in se ,

.

la

se :

,

, da

,

,

le

,

&

: , “ & si

&

,

co '

tra

),

&

,

,

la le , (

Ragionamento può contemplare 1581 65-66 noi differenza tra queste poesia tre facultà manifesta historia filosofia tra loro orazioni che essendo due spezie estreme vna cose noi loro difetti l'altra loro perfezzioni che noi chiamiamo quelle l'historia Idee queste fanno filosofia ciascuna delle due parti ma l'vna parte poesia L'historia stando nelle cose nelle passate l'altra congiunte insieme generano ò

&

se ,

,

&

.

La

.

,

,

le

&

,

&

nelle presente l'espone narra dalle loro Idee diuerse così com'elle sono furono quelle contempla com'elle stesse La filosofia s'alza all'Idee delle cose diuerse dalle cose poesia congiugne l'vna parte sono nella natura loro perfette l'altra narrando cose in

&

,

,

,

le

,

di

,

filosofia

&

sotto

&

la

:

in è

&

Et

per questo

&

,

le

:

), . .p ” 7 : “

,

oggetto

la

'

la :

.

di ,

a

, è

,

il

particolari sensibili dell'historia degnità del filosofo poeta 62

la

, le

,

la

.

:

fa

le

de la

&

de

,

:

&

, et , le &

, è

, è

&

&

,

ò

&

,

è

presenti non come sono furono ma simili all'Idee mostrando l'Idee non ma nelle cose state nelle presenti Onde l'historia filosofia che stanno nelle pure poesia che congiugner estremità tutta vera l'vna l'altra vuole non essendo con giunte parte vera parte falsa vera per l'Idee quali ella esprime falsa per cose pone però doue ella cose simili loro essendo diverse mezzana tra filosofia poesia perche participa que due estremi quanto participa della l'historia migliore dell'historia ma per participazione dell'historia filosofia suoi oggetti state

minor

di

,

di

è

.

...

."

da

...

in ,



, e

ne

... ...

la

il

al in

in

., .p 8 : “

63

, la , ò

, gli ci

;

, e

(

Poema heroico 1594 Però Politico s'appartiene considerare quale poesia qual diletto accioche piacere pestifero debba esser prohibita non facesse effetto poesia veleno non tenesse occupati animi vana lettione vna prima Filo qual sin dalla tenera età sofia ammaestra costumi nelle ragioni della vita quanto Poeta questo fine non errerà lontano Ibid Se'l Poeta dunque

,

è

,

."

,

,

.

à

è

32 )

de ,

;

i

è

(

è il

la

in

,

,

il il ,

si

i

, si

ò

e

,

quel segno alquale egli deue dirizzare tutti suoi pensieri quanto ma huomo ciuile parte della Città quanto quella ch'è Regina delle almeno sua Arte sottordinata propone giouamento quale altre honesto più tosto che vtile due fini dunque quali prepone proprio dell'arte sua l'altro dell'arte superiore Poeta l'vno

SCIENCES

THE

AMONG

POETICS

...

the poetry is placed in order under dialectic , along with rhetoric . probable insofar as it is verisimilar belongs to the poet, for the poet uses proofs less effectively than does the dialectician . " 64 Or the poet may be regarded as a kind of logician , if one attends now to the kinds of proofs he uses .

If there of

parts

of logic , so there are three kinds of poetry (or employs different proofs ( p . 28 ) : which of

are three kinds

poetry ), each

Logic

Poetry

Demonstrative

“dimostrando co ’

Filosofi ,

e usando

il

Filosofema ” “ seguendo il verisimile ,

Sophistic

poetic diction

" :

,

use

, a

of

of of a “

;

result

of

it its is to its

it

,

art

an

as a

of

,

grammar and rhetoric

it,

is

,

,

of ,

is a

,

in as

a

to

,

or

to

is

of

is

it

an

..

logic really part subordinated not only because produce pleasure just art grammar pro discourse which seeks poetic diction duces regulated speech and rhetoric persuasion but because frequently which not without imitation there kind tacit proof which is

poetry

a

on "

to

related

of

Poetry is then a part of moral philosophy if one looks at external part according part subject end dialectic matter logic but the basis the arguments uses also part

superior logic

of



its

( or apparent probable )

or

& seruendosi dell'essempio , e dell'enthimema ” "equiuoco , fallaci argomenti "

Probable

in

as

of

to

of

the methods them again

.

.

I

by

of

of

a

as

of

all

of

some the characteristics and the deficiencies thinking used speak the critics shall have occasion the following chapter

demonstrate in

is

they represent Tasso's position are interesting not only epitome they the theories the century but

kind

of of

in

one work

a

These shifts

in

in

,

;

most effective for one cannot imitate without the simile and the example but everything which appears verisimilar there proof.65 the example and kind

of

,

,

of

as

.

in

Aristotelian

from that most theorists the century strikingly absent the one we might call proper sense Of this type there were among

Tasso

classification the strict

is

type

or

one

of

From the thinking

of

ARISTOTELIAN CLASSIFICATIONS

a

,

,

in

,

.

., .p

., .p le

27 : “

64

65

of

:

of

,

, a

,

really only two examples that Lionardo very slight one and that Salviati Francesco Buonamici much more considerable one For Lionardo Salviati his Trattato della poetica the documents examined

il

:

al

la

nel

,

la ,

, è

il

,

[ 33 ]

,

,

in

&

,

:

; e

,

, la

,

, , , e è e la

persuasione ma perche parlar poetico Rhetorica vna tacita proua molte volte efficacissima perche non ogni cosa che paia senza essempio ma nell'essempio

”.

è il

è la

."

[ è ]

fà il

, è

è

regolato parlare Grammatica quale non senza imitatione può imitare senza similitudine proua verisimile

si il

in

è

la

il

la

: "

.

la

poesia senza dubio collocata ordine sotto dialettica insieme con probabile inquanto egli verisimile appertiene Poeta percioche 15 proue men efficacemente che non Poeta vsa dialettico poesia Ibid 129 vn'arte subordinata alla logica veramente vna sua parte laqual cerca non solamente perch'ella arte dell'oratione diletto non altrimente che Ibid rhetorica

THEORY

POETIC

prima ( 1564 ), the problem is less to relate poetry to other arts than

Lezzion

,

it

Salviati

of

66

the latter group

is

in

active inducing perfection

.

)

factitive

of an

in or

in

);

(i

not establishing inquiring into the kind

the intellectual are either

;

are either moral intellectual nducing perfection the operator poetry belongs some external matter habits

(

or

all

to establish the fact that it is an intellectual habit and hence susceptible of cultivation . He is replying to Plato , to the assertion that poetry is merely a furor . The skeleton plan which he suggests is essentially Aristotelian :

in

.

of

.

as

by

of

so

.”



of

of

in

of

of

of

he

an

).

(

it

in

it

by

to

to

set

,

a

in

, is

he is

is

merely Aristotelian system the sciences but activity involved poetry the production This not the case with Francesco Buonamici who wrote treatise which out restore Aristotle's Poetics whatever glory and authority may have been removed from such critics Castelvetro He called Discorsi poetici nella Accademia fiorentina difesa d'Aristotile 1597 He thought that could solve some the difficulties the text poetics presenting elaborate system the sciences which the place would explain some the operations the art But the system clear

(

of

speculative

sciences

),

things

of

seeks truth and contemplates the nature

the

,

is

all

:

is

.

;

I

in

,

,

is

to

examples itself confused difficult follow and lacking offer the following schematic reduction only with reservations The first knowledge step clear enough divided into two kinds one which presented

to

it

of

,

).

follows

:

as

be

(

activity represented may

is

the of

applying which seeks truth for purposes later some practical sciences among the latter which perhaps Poetics

the other

)

(

)

(

)

ποιεϊν

)

Politics

Logic

Poetics

Dialectic Rhetoric

Each

the subgroups under the practical sciences has itself

practical phase

theory

theoretical

of

of

Medicine

a

( (

πράττειν

Sciences

works

activities

)

(

specific subject matters with Instrumental

)

(

with specific subject matters Making Doing

no

Practical Sciences

is its an

of

)

the

(

,

a

of

,

is

,

it

In

.

in

;

is

,

10–12

of

).

(

in

all

.

,

speculative

.pp

or

of

of

,

in

of

in

from which the others derive the contemplative practical metaphysics sciences this the sciences

one master science politics

a

is a

:

a

a

there medicine which affords precepts practice applies theory poetry and which them Poetics and application theory writing poems theory logic and this the every divisions there the main each Moreover other science use and

of to

its

a

( 34 )

.

,

,

29 .

,

as

,

.

MS BNF Magl VII 307 fol ,

66

a

in

is

It

century which considered itself note that poetic very last years Aristotelian matters should have waited until produce showing comprehension text such Buonamici's some perhaps worthy

11

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

Aristotle's general system of the sciences and of the place of poetry among them . Buonamici lists poetry neither among the instrumental sciences nor

among the parts or instruments of moral philosophy . He sees it as speci fically a “ poetic " science whose function is to make poems. Along with the

of his contemporaries , however,

be

be a

to .

to

a

is

its

of

to

,

so

,

,

of

"



It to

he continues to regard it , in a broader larger ; politics intermediate artistic end view , as auxiliary to contributing happiness architectonic end that man's would good regard poetry without ceasing possible course rest

,

in

,

I

.

a

.

the Poetics

in

the text

to

of

;

everything would depend upon how general one interprets relation the other sciences reserve that analysis and that judgment for later chapter Aristotelian

of

to ,

,

us

.

of

to

an

a

of



to

be a

CONCLUSIONS Although there may seem similarity among the certain amount proposed during century might various theories the one even say monot ony the reasons for the predominant classifications close questioning impression diversity Let leads rather take for example the

faculty

;

as

or

,

,

be

(

,

).



"

a

art be "

an "

it

,

may Second made because poetry neither nor science but will belong with the others the family as

.

,



"

discursive sciences along with the others

of

is

they are regarded

,

in ,

, all all ,

of

by

,

is

assigned earliest and most persistent classification where poetry the logic grammar rhetoric with the occasional addition group constituted dialectic sophistic and history This assignment may made first because the arts the group use language their medium material

do

( as

or

of to

on

to

;

it

of

of

)

or

of

in

a

,

,

it

;

of

.

, it

"

of

"

a

the mind hence may third result from rational faculties Or consideration the poetics which deals not with the truth subject matter certain other sciences but with one the variations the probable the false sophistic the verisimilar this will relate the one hand and

,

as

for

or

,

presenting

persuasion the position will

how the reason for the assignment

in

see

to

,

to

,

how

be

,

as

its

the other discursive sciences

its

to of

is

).

is a

If

(

,

theory which the critic will give the poetic art unless contrariwise the classification proceeds from the poetry emphasis discursive science then the important thing qualities language how these differ from the language investigate

of

each case predetermine the emphasis

his

easy

to

is

It

.

,

of

, "

or as "

be

no

in

investigating expounding means materials of some other science

of

,

.

be

composed rhetoric on the other Or fourth the whole group may those disciplines which could classified instrumental sciences since knowledge activity but are useful only themselves they produce

language

will depend

to

to

an

it

If

or .

upon the total

is

,

,

in

,

-

35 ]

[

acceptable

its

as a

,

is a

its it

its

not

it is

whether

or

similar



by

of

of

.

If

,

may made conform rational faculty one will wish operation faculty about what know about the peculiarities special characteristics products the mind are manifested subject matter the false the probable art determined the veri the special norms established

philo

THEORY

POETIC

it is is an

it

If

.

of

all

sophical outlook of the theorist ; moreover , the plots to be used , the traits to be attributed to the characters, the handling of situation and story, will depend upon this conception subject matter instrumental to

be

;

it

to

is

be

broad range

diverging theories

and traditional interpretations and may pro

the poetic art

.

a

simple enough

of of

of

of

whole gamut

to

may seem



,

susceptible

is

it

,

a

duce

poetic

rhetoric

,



logic

enough

.

of

of

it

,

its

,

science finally uses will vary with the sciences which made serve caught inextricably between and the ends which made seek will the principles the architectonic science and the devices required for achieving the purposes that science Thus although the classification

an

or

as a

,

,

.

poetics

if Or

his

in

;

poems produced according

to

reflected

may result from

of

have

in to

to

be

.

in of

as

of

of

,

,

is

of

of

part The same true the classification instrument philosophy may example moral This result for from the observation persons with their conduct that poetry deals with the moral characters just does the science ethics both would then have the same subject matter The principles behavior established the theorist's ethics would

. of

poetry

by

achieved

is

how happiness

or

lost

:

,

,

in

persons

to

to

of

offers examples

various kinds

in of it

a

its

to

as

it

conviction with respect the ends the sciences produce happiness ethics has end the individual and politics produce happiness the state then poetics belongs both since

the of

to

to

as

,

on by

Or

or

.

be

.

is a

a

be

It

.

in

must therefore offer these examples various situations way right taught and the proper such that the moral lessons will effect produced But even within these limits there fair breadth possibilities The poet may completely subservient regarded moral philosopher the politician using his art achieve the ends

of

by

)

,

a

of of

,

be

he

to

.

he

be

(

he

an

.

or of as

may par with the other achieving ethical political ends determined using the resources himself his may completely independent own art Or the other functioning artist who merely happens cross the path the moral philosopher the other

"

as "

,

.

or

as

to

as

or

a

,

,

or

be

.

as

when touches upon character and conduct According this theory being the architectonic considered ethics will varies politics belonging having merely science for poetry the same family slight and accidental resemblance

of

,

.

,

be

of

.

in

be

subsequent chapters Another one and more said classification the method the present discussion would

much will to

,

Of this

germane

or

or

of

,

of

,

.

of

be

of

be

opinion Several explanations might offered for this great divergency poetics The most obvious one over the classification course would the nature the antecedent philosophical tradition and the character paraphrased the texts which were being explained commented upon

, of

of

a

.

of

be

at it ,

in

;

a

it of in

.

,

multiplicity itself Any art may the abstract considered from points from innumerable external positions view one may look large variety discussion contexts But these possibilities consider

if

36 ]

[

of

a

in

its

or

an

as

;

its

phil place need not affect essence art total system osophy these may remain firm and fixed the system itself provides

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

constant principles of classification . For the critics and philosophers of the Cinquecento , two things happened , one dependent upon the other . First , they used each of the many points of view as a basis for classification : if poetry may be considered in the light of the principles of ethics , it is an ;

is a

,

to

of

.

of

the rest

of

to

philosophy the parts for those which The critic might begin with principles which thought satisfactory for the classification might the sciences but might abandon them without realizing pursue them imperfectly

of

relationship

So

its

in

be

.

or

,

on .

so

it

its

if it uses words as means discursive science and Second the philosophical systems into which they fitted poetics were incompletely improperly understood Various systems which claimed widely different conceptions Aristotelian resulted the poetic art and ethical science ;

he

;

it

he

an

,

or

of

.

he

were admittedly Platonic

,

in

of

.

is

.

on be

of

in

be

to of

entirely different context analysis Such insufficiencies Perhaps this found frequently the documents studied literary matters were not because the large majority the men writing philosophers but critics not specialists analysis the formal disciplines and pass into

will

an

or

an

be

in

,

.

,

exculpation

as .

but critics and poets curious about the literary art This was not always explanation however and no event should taken

true

is

in

or

.

be

It

.

to

is

of

,

,

or

progress One may ask also whether any change evolution the perceptible through the century This question classification difficult answer should clear that the major theories exist simul theories

137

in

.

of



in

an

,

do



to

is

of



or

.

the century

)

among the dominant tendencies

of

a



be

to

in

an "

be

at

is

it

,

in

"

as a

of

is

be

;

It

.”

of

more prominent the first part the century whereas relative moral philosophy more frequent the second part the rhetorical approach gradually gives way the ethi may also cal that only the last decades the century we find any insistence that poetry has the right considered art itself that might approached from point artistic aesthetic view very mild insistence and might almost pass unperceived But this best the classification

"

rational faculty

or

as a

.

in

is

to

.

in

taneously throughout the century Perhaps the early years the tendency occupy oneself with complete philosophical systems more prevalent than the later Perhaps also the classification discursive science

CHAPTER TWO . THE METHODOLOGY OF THE THEORISTS

HE

PROBLEM of literary criticism in the Cinquecento was largely a problem in aesthetics . This would , of course , be true of criticism in any place and in any period . But it is true in sixteenth - century Italy

in a very special way and for two special reasons . Perhaps more than in any other time and place , the problem of criticism was essentially a theoretical problem . The major effort of the critics was to develop a theory of the literary art; even when they were engaged in practical criticism , their

of

of

of

a

so

, in

,

so

.

so

as ,

.

of

It to

,

it

,

to

at

all

of

.

a

of

.

,

is

literary theory Moreover and this the second reason literary the aesthetics the Cinquecento did not develop independently free and indigenous flowering Instead was transplanted from Greece and Rome and the European soils the Middle Ages must therefore manifest times two concerns concern with fidelity the borrowed

of

upon problems

,

,

,

of

all

preoccupation was primarily with theory and with the possibilities of applying theory to the judgment of specific works . At times they were aware theoretical cruxes theoretical difficulties theoretical modes approach Perhaps nowhere else the intellectual history the West can centering one find continual abundant and diverse attention

set

.

he

,

,

.

,

-

at a

or

of

,

to ,

.

a

, a

it

pretended tradition which continue and concern with the usefulness this tradition for new age and new literature For the theorist the task was thus extremely complex He must discover first the meaning the ancient text texts which had out interpret and this time when the texts themselves were imperfectly established The texts moreover were difficult ones which are still subject

of

he

,

it

of

.

,

a

it

,

his

to it

he

of

or by

he

,

.

to

of

a

or

of

to

.

,

he

he

by

of

a

it

to

to

of

interpretation Next much uncertainty and diversity must decide satisfactory reading possible whether was reach the text remaining within the données and the arguments the text itself whether must seek assistance reference another the available develop proceeded ancient texts Then when own theory basing upon single must choose between the alternative possibilities Finally upon ancient author conflation several ancient authors grew must see that his theory not only fitted the text out which

all

a

be

,

a

of

;

,

they are merely the problems which theorists developing theory must process the con

.

or

conscious fashion somewhere other sidered and resolved

in

by

in

.

by

it

to

judge more but that accounted for and explained and permitted him countrymen contemporaries recent works his and his We should not assume that these problems were posed and solved deliberate and

the procedure was only slightly less complica

an he

the practical critic

,

For

or

a

of

a

in

be

( 38 )

to

.

or

,

a

,

his

,

.

He too had

developed

to

find theoretical basis for his criticism whether contemporary own theory borrowed one from long and ancient philosopher He had versed the literature ted

OF THE THEORISTS to

he

all ,

THE METHODOLOGY

,

of

of

,

to

,

a

of

,

of

.

he

or

of

,

of

he

convert the had diversified critical tradition . Most important of reading guides for the into started which from theoretical statements poems admis the judging for norms into poems into criteria for the weapons types literary current contro for into new exclusion sion his intellectual reconcile the findings versy Perhaps had also with sensitivity his enthusiasms promptings his explorations with the long acceptances contrary theoretical conclusions his dislikes with the .

tradition

in

to

it

of

:

,

of

,

.

of

its

of

at

,

of

a

in

at

the crucial point Both the theorist and the practical critic stood point classical the doctrines which history that Western criticism antiquity were transformed into something new and different which view modern literary criticism From their point turn became the basis attempted essentially extract backward the critical process looked from classical and medieval traditions the lessons needed for the solution

;

at

,

,

or

of

the light

of

,

in

of

of

'

,

of of

.

of

view the whole contemporary critical problems From our point significance greater process had consequences even for the future specific the exact transformation the nature four centuries remove the considerable import character the new orientations become matters history ance intellectual

given

in

.

of

a

;

a

;

to

,

,

a

of

in

in

is

It

method these last considerations that the matter methodology becomes vital Given Renaissance criticism the history which these ancient texts given medieval tradition limited number certain transmutation texts when not forgotten had already suffered on

a

in

a

find these ancient and medieval materials new critical these materials will what results from this desire operating about large part upon the way depend which theorists and critics the solution their problems the individual theorist comes his problem with one set intellectual habits with one discipline for the desire

go

to

If

,

of

.

of

in

in :

apparatus

an

,

no

.

of

of

he

,

.

be

,

,

of

of

reading and interpretation texts with one attitude toward the procedures theory his predecessors the that himself propounds will one discipline kind Another habit another another attitude might produce entirely different kind theory

no

of

.

of

all

;

to

a

In

such situation there are really constants The basic texts them procedure selves change from reader reader the mode each critic

of

;

. In

,

a

in

of

.

be

in

of

will differ some way from those the others two the resulting exactly identical Hence the tremendous variety and com theories will plexity critical thought the Cinquecento sense the only valid a

as

a

.

of

.

,

a

statements one can make are statements about individual authors and thing general current individual texts Nevertheless there was such discipline through fairly constant intellectual the century There was

of

, a

a

39 ]

-

by

of

.

an

,

treated

[

-

to

of

to

the schools

be in

of

fairly definite tradition about relatively widespread assumption argument This general tendency always with respect the conduct with variations formed the basis the method employed the indi

formation habits mind how certain subjects were

THEORY

POETIC

vidual writer in his theorizing or in his criticism . It is this general method which I wish to describe in the present chapter , as a means to aiding the reader in his understanding of subsequent textual analyses . CLASSIFICATION AMONG THE SCIENCES The first characteristic of this method has already been described : the position to preface discussion of the poetic art by indicating This effort situating poetics

to in a

.

of

forms that

several

classification

at

the other arts and sciences

of

with reference might take one

to

its

tendency

a

of

,

.

of

,

;

a

as

its its

of in

a

of

to

it

of ,

of

a

by

it ,

all

or

;

as

of

art

;

as

of of

the components cognate arts such

of

:

the whole philosophy that relating smaller logic and rhetoric single sister art history that transforming analogy into such kind encompassing philosophy The first universal other branches symptomatic these forms has already been studied general phil osophical approach which essence was systematic the same approach

family group

.

in

.

be

poetics

,

to

the relating

history throughout the cen

to

several examples

of

of

to

,

us

,

to

,

is

in

apparent but reduced the scope intention the second Of the third and fourth something further needs said Let take illustrate how poetics was assimilated another art

,

to

since

of

an

of

.

,

Agricola's De inventione dialectica Here the two arts are compared

,

is

,

,

.

of

in

as

or

to

so

of

,

as

.

is

of

tury The problem here distinguished from that the preceding chapter not much discover the fact the basis classification determine what methodological approaches are involved the coupling Rodolphus the two arts An early case from the fifteenth century

.

in

,

to as in

As

happenings

antecedent

.

later summation



of

is

of

.



a

"

res with

,

in

"



an

"

,

to

both them use words narrate order events which have happened But whereas history bent upon representing the truth gives events the natural order which they actually occurred poetry may permit itself artificial order The typical case that the beginning medias far

method

of

Any other

.

of

in

as a

to

a

in

,

is

seeking concerned Agricola's consists factor common the two using this factor comparison and differentiation arts and means

as

;

he

.

la

de

in

is

of

)

(

la

,

poetry The important .

complete theory

of

which incidentally provides

a

a

of

to

et

de

of

features the arts are left out consideration.1 Dionigi Atanagi eccellentia his Ragionamento The procedure perfettione historia 1559 much more complex Atanagi wishes essentially history adopts characterize the art the best expedient lengthy set likenesses and differences between history and poetry

ad

a

.

:

[ 40 ]

id

:

.)

of : :

:

. (E

. . . .

...

'

.

conuenit

: “

. b

:

in

:

ex

:

.

,

),

,

ad

:

est

ab

:

(

1

De inventione dialectica Louvain Martin 1515 Liber Tertius fol viv Est tamen differentia poetice dispositionis historia vel maxima quod poeta solum quantum ipsius speciem tantum sequitur temporum hoc narrantis personam pertinet rerum gestarum natura plerunque perturbat eas atque ordinem quantum autem est mediis orditur rebus deinde quae primae fuerant earum posterius personae colore alicuius xample Aeneid Sin vero res ipsas respici aut alio quouis commento infert mentionem est mus non personas quibus dat orationem poeta iam videmus contrarium naturali Historie cuius prima laus est veritas naturalis tamen ordo artificialem ordinem esse

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

difference is not between the use of prose and the use of verse ( since some poems are also found in prose ), but between the use , or not , of imitation .

The differences may be summarized thus : History

Poetry

1.

No

2.

Many actions of many men

Imitation

imitation

3. Treats

Single action of one man Treats the universal , the pure Idea of things

the particular , things as

they are 4. Narrates things done as they were done

Narrates

things as they should be done , according to necessity, veri similitude , and probability

5. Presents characters as they were ,

Maintains

constancy of character subordinating

central plot beginning

Artificial order

in

hap

events

as

pened

events

;

Natural order ,

me

"

dias res

8. Limited by the materials , the truth of the facts

by

facts extensive addi produce the marvelous the tions stupendous the delightful

men real art consists dialogues orations

as

they should

speak

,

,

will

Freer

sen

use

words

,

at words

,

use

of

in

11. Restricted

Introduces gods uses personification

uses

of

gods

introduces personifications

in

10. Rarely

or

,

;

Also makes men speak

speeches attributed writing

to

Invents

in

9.

,

,

to

Not limited

;

7.

order ,

Certain



and confused order ,

following events themselves

to

6. Uncertain

all

varied , unstable , etc.

sententiae

tentiae 12.

Allegorical meanings hidden under

Literal meanings only for words

:

deliberative

types

of

invocation

"

but only poetry uses



be

summarized briefly

"

and the

,

"



demonstrative

narration

"

use the

and



Both



use

"

proposition

Both

similarity may also

"

or

likeness

rhetoric

to

;

,

to

,

is ,

,

, to

"

,

to

"

history Both use the judicial type which however more proper Both observe prudence and decorum delight bring profit history especially Both seek teach move and to

5.

4.

3.

2. 1.

The points

of

literal meanings

,

,

,

,

Both use ancient and distant subjects describe places peoples laws customs ,

6.

seeks utility

amplifications

variety

( 41 )

Both use digressions

,

emotions ,

8.

wide variety

a

leading

to

fortune

,

of

,

Both use sudden and unexpected accidents changes of

7.

etc.

POETIC THEORY 9. 10.

Both use numbers , figures of speech , although different ones Both must represent things in so graphic a way as to make them visible to the eye

What was for Agricola the whole basis of comparison becomes for Atanagi only one of many points of contact between the two arts . His method is to multiply such points of juxtaposition as far as his ingenuity will permit . Each additional point further circumscribes the material or the operation

of the art . One ends up with a conception of what poetry is compared not - as to history — and of what it is . What it is is not determined by discovery of a definition ( inductively ) and by derivation of the conse quences of that definition ; rather, it comes from an accumulation of isolated descriptive statements , generated dialectically by considering how it differs from something else . Moreover , the topics which are themselves significant of a method of thinking about poetry . Roughly , the topics are these : the genus , kind of action , relation to truth and probability , character , order , factualness, dia logue, use of the supernatural , diction , literalness , type of rhetoric , decorum , ends, ornaments , nature of plot , figures, numbers, visual quali resembles

and

all

ties . Presumably , a poem which satisfied

by

give rise to these statements

the

it

by or a

,

be

as

to

be a

of

the conditions established good poem consideration these topics would whether not might required conformed such other artistic demands more systematic approach.2

of

, is

to

,

we

to be

I

,

.

.

of

,

of As ,

in

on

,

A

anonymous similar approach but again fairly restricted that Dialogue History MS Vat Lat 6528 which have dated roughly around 1565. however the principal protagonist claims maintain ing the point Pomponazzi the ideas would belong view the early by

a

on of to

of

.

:

,

a

of

a

of

,

of

,

in

,

as

.

of

part the preceding chapter both have seen the century Here history and poetry are species the the genus narration differentiated single action fact that poetry narrates one man whereas history narrates many men The various poetic genres spring from single single action source historical annals these give rise the epic through the selection

;

.

a

he

,

to

,

,

of

to it ;

of

,

of a

"

"

a

to

;

so

one exceptionally great man and one his exceptionally great actions from the epic springs tragedy and for the rest Once the poet has treating the exceptional dedicated himself must find decorum and style and diction appropriate thence come into being the various poems the use poetic diction allegory and modes verse and ,

a

construct

a

a

discovered

whole

42 ]

(

on

,

history the two treatises starting point the genus his

as

in

-

.

34-6 142v 150v 151. ,

.

,

.

,

of

.pp

),

1559

(

Ragionamento

MS Vat Lat 6528 fols .

3 2

De

,

Giovanni Antonio Viperano the first scribenda historia 1569 also uses

of

of

difference

to of

from the single elementary theory the poetic art.3

so



of

.

is

to

prosopopoeia The procedure single common once more select factor the narration an action seek basis differentiation and

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

narration . Within this genus he finds three species , history , poetry , and oratory . (Oratory is included because , according to currently accepted rhetorical doctrines , " narration ” was one of the component parts of any speech : “ Habet quoque Orator narrationes suas . ") Further distinctions sometimes include oratory , sometimes do not . History and poetry differ in

of actions they represent , history using only “res gestas ” and poetry “res fictas .” Each of the three species has a separate end ; indeed , each seems to have several ends , one serving the other . History tries immediately to “ narrate well , ” ultimately to teach proper modes of action the kinds

and to form character ; it is also useful to the other arts, by supplying and materials, and should be accompanied by pleasure . Poetry tries immediately to " invent what is proper to each character ," finally to bring pleasure through narration For oratory the immediate end

to

is

,

.

its

examples

,

by

of

is

as

is

in

.

,

.

to

it

,

to

please through narration Finally blame but too seeks while history guides the mind poetry arouses and calms the passions interesting equivocation What this method the kind which oratory falls into the same genus history and poetry and the multiple praise and

),

in

to

present

all

biography

is

is

is

the main task

of

-

,

.

example

-

,

.

to

as

in a

For

the author's mind

.

of

to

of

,

(

.

to

distinctions applied these arts Viperano's second work De scribendis virorum illustrium vitis 1570 applies the general ideas biography the first the more specific field The general ideas are not repeated Instead biography discussed such way indicate that the trilogy history poetry oratory still present

of

the best poets

.

the best rhetorical tradition and practised

S

in

so

if

be

,

,

;

,

,



by

prescribed

by

-

of

the character the hero this will done properly the topics age sex condition nation and decorum forth are treated the way

as

I

,

;

of

of

he

If

,

of ,

,

.

he

;

).

(

of a

of

,

he

is

to

to

A

:

to in

is

on

to

of

position similar that the anonymous Dialogue History Sperone Speroni's Dialogo dell'historia found which Speroni assign published have not been able date 1596 For also history and poetry are kinds narration poetry narrates one action many men But goes beyond the Dialogue one man history one action when subject matter contrary introduces the question truthfulness commonly believed says both poetry and history treat the what One final example

,

,

.

.

.

,

( 43 )

in

of

845-48

B4v Cv

376 394-403 411–412 ,

is

; it

is

,

it

esp pp

B4 . . ,

it

. ed .pp )., .pp

is , . a it



an

(

ed ( .) , ) esp, .

(

to

be

;

De scribenda historia 1576 De scribendis vitis 1570 esp Dialoghi 1596

In

4 s 6

necessity and probability

this that imitation Thus although poetry like history history unlike since transforms the particular higher and more noble art.6 hence

, it

makes treating the truth into the universal

according

is

should poetry

of

it

as



it

of

is

of

,

is

,

,

.”

is

: "

is

.

truth one takes three such forms the annal history and poetry the following distinctions apply the annal true history true and worthy poetry poetry changed true and worthy and marvelous The truth into something higher and more wonderful through the process treating

POETIC

THEORY

What is involved , essentially , in these multiple comparisons of the art of history to the art of poetry is not classification but delimitation . The critic is faced with the problem of explaining the nature of one art . He finds that it is like another art in some salient respect — the use of language , the narra tion of an action , the treatment of the truth and he proceeds to search for

,

,

or

.

of or

;

of

be

or

or

be

of

be

of

his

other points of agreement or disagreement . The more such points he can comparison find , the more complete will be the two arts and hence satisfactory description the more will his either one For poetry the comparison may with history with rhetoric with painting with logic the resulting delineation the poetic art will more less ade

be

or

an

distinguishing characters

as

Its

the art

apprehended

art may thus never

method may also result merely

of

be

features

.

of

or

,

is

of in

.

of

of

is

as

or

or

ill

of

is

or

is

as

compari the other art well chosen the initial point danger potential inappropriate appropriate the method The son equivalence may that the original basis some aspect the poetic art which not really the essence the art and that the whole resulting discussion may therefore deal with auxiliary incidental accidental quate

systematic

a

in

a

in

to

in

of

no

,

to

,

.

a

Such collection commonplace pros and cons rela traditional statements about the art attempt tive the central topics with examine the art itself

all

a

which poetry becomes

The method and transcending

universal

science

,

by

.

way

containing

;

is

.

,

he

he

of

of

he

If

,

.

a "

.

"

-



:

in

a

;

if

he

in

,

the



a ”

or

-

,



or

of

display Homer's expertness thinking about geography and forth without end This kind poetry which document the such the late Greek world gave rise pseudo Plutarchian De Homeri poesi which made ocean Homer the

"

as

"

of

a

to

,

,

-

all

of

is

.

so

in

;

,

the

Odysseus

;

in of

the military art the wanderings

of

poetry rather the subject matters the broadest sense not human action things character verisimilar but the infinite variety poet may speak speaks poem about which the stars applies his knowledge encompasses astronomy battle describes same one

all

the subject matter Subject matters are here taken

or

a

of

,

is

others not too different Once again the critic always the single aspect selects for consideration the poetic art this

in

to )

,

a

distinguishing authority 339–75

.

.pp

in

of

no

way

degree

,

( 44 )

to

of

is

it

,

a

", is

),

in

is



48 .

( .p

);

have

Alter Tomus Operum Angeli Politiani

.

(

,

ed .

.

, by it

subject matters

the method came

to

How

If ,

.

8

,

.

of

the art

Lyon Gryphius See 1527-28 Orationes 1557 see See pp 3-5 In

9 8 7

de

in

as

.?

in

in

), (

(

singled out for attention feature

its

'

of

make

1557 Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica using this method possible and numerous others poetry poetry universal science because that aspect a

1560

),

(

laudibus poetarum

In

,

In

.

by

of

knowledge the Quattrocento the De Homeri poesi was copied expositione Homeri Angelo Poliziano the his Oratio Cinquecento the same ideas were expressed Varchi's such texts Giacopo Grifoli's Oratio Lezzioni della poetica already referred large part

OF THE THEORISTS

subject

from

others

;

all

it

matter

all

a

single

included

the

of

of

.

be

,

a

,

by

"



of

to

.

in

hence

it

must universal science and the others The ambiguities involved here the use the the definition term subject matter the misconceptions with respect sciences their subject matters the imperfections the systems which logical impossibility will immediately apparent could permit such ;

the other sciences

philosopher , every

the systematic

which separated

,

materials preferable

to of all all

but poetry rather than having

For ,

its

the Renaissance is easily understood . specific subject matter

science had

be a

THE METHODOLOGY

GLOSSES AND COMMENTARIES

All

or

of

of a

.

of

as a

to

to

in

of

poetry classification and assimilation procedures part another art were which came the Renaissance treating the antecedent intellectual tradition The principal method in

the procedures involved

of

,

of

of

to

of it

if

a

it

a

or

of

a

a

.

,

in

of

as

.

, it

of

;

as

,

that

,

the gloss the extended commentary was another such applied from the recent past the chief critical texts anti quity approaching problems constituted one the standard ways criticism during the Cinquecento The method was fairly constant although the century progressed some variants were introduced and some refine ments added One took small section the text short paragraph prose section and printed after verses small number was text

heritage

a

.

it ,

.

If

of

by

,

of

.

at

.

Certain

.

and commentaries

authors chose

to

,

translations

by

vernacular

on to

so

a

a

;

in

,

in

,

a

or

,

of

of

,

or

short Sometimes marginal notation summarized commentary the content the Then the same was done for the next way section the text and the end Sometimes the end summary digest conclusion the comments was given the text usually was Greek Latin translation followed and after this the commentary later the same procedure was followed for the century commentary long

-

be

a

.

is

on ,

,

so

as

-

.

,

provide further enlightenment inserting paraphrase between trans text translation that the order would lation and commentary paraphrase commentary Thus time went the whole apparatus became more complicated and the commentary much longer What in

is

,

A

.

to

.

of

,

of

important for the student criticism course what was said the and how they were conceived few examples should suffice illustrate this method

commentaries

;

to

of on

a



,

of

grammatical gloss

reduces

in

.

that

is all )

he

,

the text

(

of

( 45 )

a

of

a

sections

and these precepts some forty brief final section the commentary There

precepts

in

concise collected together

writing

,

intervals corresponding to

meaning

to to

, in

At

.

ing

Instead

the text Gaurico does continuous prosification distinguish and clarify Horace's mean attempts

he

of

.

were the earlier ones

his

in

of

it is a

as



more

the separate words the epistle which

it

on

of

Pomponio Gaurico's Super Arte poetica Horatii was the earliest the Cinquecento commentaries the Ars poetica was written shortly dedicatory epistle before 1510. Gaurico himself claims Francesco commentary not written grammaticorum Pucci that new kind

are

little

POETIC

THEORY

in the way of explanation , although occasionally examples from ancient art or literature are added . A commentary of this type does little more than extract the barest meaning from the Ars poetica and isolate a given number of critical ideas . It makes no attempt to discover the philosophical structure of the work , the reasons for the order of presentation of ideas , the concep tion of the poetic art contained within it . The later edition of Gaurico , published in 1541, intercalates the commentary among passages of the text , divided into thirty -seven sections ; in this form , both text and com mentary are fragmented , and any semblance of synthesis is destroyed .

Indeed , such fragmentation may prevent the reader from seeing the work if it is badly done , if the points of separation are badly chosen , a totally false conception of the meaning of the text may result. A much more highly developed form of the same method is found in as a whole ; and

Battista Pigna's Poetica Horatiana of 1561. Once the text has been divided into sections — there are eighty in Pigna's division and the "precept ” stated for each fragment, the commentator proceeds to an elaborate exposition of the ideas of the text. He cites supporting or illustra tive passages from innumerable other theorists -- Cicero , Quintilian , , Aristotle Plutarch , Donatus , Plato — from miscellaneous philosophical Giovanni

texts on other sciences , finally from many poets who demonstrate Horace's principles . He goes into lengthy discussions of individual words and phrases , citing the authority of previous expositors of the text and seeking clarification from other texts . Sometimes this leads to the most astonishing

of the Ars poetica are made to refer , for example , to the four genres distinguished by Aristotle , with the “caput humanum " standing for the epic , the “ ceruicem equinam " for tragedy , the " collatas plumas ” for the dithyramb and the lyric, and the " atrum piscem " for comedy. Moreover , certain distinctions from other sciences are made to results : the first four lines

bear upon the text ; in an introduction , Pigna insists that the work must be studied in the light of “ res ” and “ verba " ( an essentially grammatical dis tinction ) and these in turn in their relationship to " invention , disposition , rhetorical distinction ). Thus, in spite of his tight chain the work Horace's precepts are linked expounds orderly becomes more confused and sense development lost procedure are say vices Some the same characteristics not an

of

on



,

in all a

it ,

he

to

of

,

).

is

;

is

(

de

Pietro Vettori's extensive commentary the Poetics his primum librum Aristotelis Commentarii arte poetarum 1560 Here the approach closely much more carefully philological the Greek text in

apparent

in of

is

10

as

of

all

elocution " ( an essentially

and

contention that

,

in

be

all

[ 46 ]

see

.p 3 .

);

1561

At .

.

as a

of

no

:

Poetica Horatiana

(

10

of

,

is

,

,

studied useful emendations are suggested better translations are proposed comprehensive interpretation But there still the text whole best there are certain general notions which determine the interpretation poetry must specific passages the idea that verse the idea that

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

of the poem must be such as to assure the persuasion and of the audience . Unfortunately , these ideas are such as to lead warping to a rather than to a clarification of Aristotle's meaning, and they capable are not of binding into an organized whole the multiple passages the treatment

the pleasure

into which the text has been broken

of

.

of

,

from the linguistic buted considerably

a

to

are

of to or

use

will

be examined in disruptive — sufficient illustrate the effect gloss was frequently helpful the textual gloss Such philological standpoint and the Cinquecento contri the critical the accuracy and the intelligibility

detail in later chapters the consistent

.

as these — and many others

Even so few examples

,

;

as

to

.

a

It

of

be

no

of

matter how different

to

,

result



authorities a

.

frantic search for outside



or

of

a a

general philosophical tendency

As

to

encouraged the total philosophical form the work parallel similar passages from other works and

citing

kind

of

of

of

.

of . It

, it

as

or

paragraph

miscellaneous

it

From the philosophical standpoint was almost always disadvantageous promoted regarding texts inculcated and the habit fragments collections and hence collections isolated precepts beyond any prevented the single line effort see over and contrariwise texts involved

Horace ceased

Horace

,

,

;

vast

.

of

all

a

Aristotle never became Aristotle each grew instead into containing monument the multiform remains the literary past and

SCHOLASTIC APPROACHES a

as

of

of

in

,

a

of

be

his

.

of

.

as

,

.

"



,

be

a

it

I

;

to

I

the textual commentary method Cinquecento which came the from the antecedent literary tradition might have called frankly scholastic method Certain other ap proaches could also loosely described somewhat remains the fairly standard scholastic tradition One such approach would the use any subject After the prolusio formula for the introduction which have characterized this use

to

is ,

(

)

to

"



,

de

."

11

;

is

"

it

its

it .

,

.

),

(

on

to

he

;

it

In it

go

he

be

,

,

he

his

of

In to

of

particular subject among the other might sciences well indicate how meant about treating For many authors the pattern would prefatory the same the materials great commentary Aristotle 1548 for example Francesco Robor says tello that means discuss what the poetic faculty and what proposes for itself what effect has what end the subject matter out product Similarly the Prolegomena which makes Vincenzo Maggi's poetica communes explanationes Aristotelis librum 1550 the author indicated the place

.

of

, in

of

sit

In

. " 12

de

,

11

,

of

its

,



,

be ,

in

,

a

, of

contains program for Maggi's own treatment the Aristotelian text He subject will discuss order the usefulness the title what order the author should read the divisions the text the method instruc practical tion and under what faculty the latter falls the field ,

,

,

,

,

ex

), .p 1 : “

(

;

uia Quamque haec sub facultatem cadat

. "

,

Doctrinae

[ 47 ]

,

,

auctor legi debeat Divisio

13 : "

ed .) , .p

." 9

;

In

(

12

&

poëtica facultas librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes 1548 Qualis quam habeat uim Quem finem propositum qua opus Quam materiem subiectam suum conficiat Explanationes scriptionis Propositum 1550 Vtilitas Inscriptio Quo ordine

THEORY

POETIC

,

,

et

,

of

of

,

a

as

as

, .” 13

the handling

instruction

Such programs these subject providing

of

in

order

the method

author

the

,



,

,

,

of

the name

of

they did

the book semblance

the proportion

of

the division

,

the name made for

praefationes written around the Orationes the topics are respectively the purpose the

;

in

is

the order

1582

of

,

utility

a

,

1550

of

VIII

Preface published

the text

;

he

of

set

criticism , Marcantonio Maioragio applies to the analysis of Book IV of admittedly borrows from Averroës eight topics which the Aeneid a

a

of

.

to

of

of

as a

in ,

,

of

a

kind advance outline for the consecutive discussion important points relevant number the materials They came into assuring the consideration being indeed means these points .

of

order and completeness

theorists and critics on

for

the same advantages

,

of

.

by

,

of

.

of

set

a

replace

as

of

For

But

by

to

the discussion

they tended

of

,

of

the course

as is

the case with many thinking rules thumb active about poetics answering questions parts routine The various the outline were considered isolated topics without the necessary illumination any one the topics the answers found for the others somewhere

It

.

organizing their ideas used another such fixed system the poetic art was one which had very ancient and very firm philosophical bases and

of

a

in

.

and realized An example Maggi's Explanationes 1550 where by imitating human actions poetry ),

be

fully developed

found

(

sometimes

the former type might

in

,

much reduced form

of

,

,

In

."



:

a

to

to

which had contributed the later Middle Ages and the humanistic period mold for their intellectual procedures namely the method the four causes the Cinquecento the mold was sometimes used

of



,

its



to

the

15

"

the

.

the listener

of

,

eloquence

, in

is

which

the end which

is



,

the form

and

in

,

is

in



),

(

in

be

14

:

"

,

"

every oration and speech consists the thing proposed which

matter

is ,

it to

,



is

,

of

he

points out first that the end through pleasant language material and later that ennoble the mind proposes the human mind which refine with the best principles conduct another would Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi della inven passing author remarks that almost where tione poetica 1554

to

he

;

is

in

by

),

(

As

it .

of

a

is

vague reflection obviously only the method and little Here there Filippo Sassetti employed comprehension his marginalia merely Piccolomini's Annotationi 1575 the form still abbreviated

,

is

,

its

of

In

16

,

13

.”

,



of

poetry was the poet says that one might say that the efficient cause himself the formal cause the imitation the material cause the verse and brevity this statement spite the final cause pleasure revela ,

,

."

,

,

, : "

,

sibi expolien è la

che

cosa

pro lo

causa efficiente della Poesia fusse finale diletto . "

uerso

,

nella materia parlamento

, la e & , la

il

,

materiale

moribus

."

:

l'eloquenza

... optimis

il

), .p

13 : "

quem

consiste ogni oratione potrebbe dire che

BNF Postillati formale l'imitatione stesso Poeta la

è



nella forma che

l'uditore

[ 48 ]

nel fine che

16

animus scilicet humanas

la

), .p

1554

and

15 , è 15 .p : “ 65 : “ , si

( . ”1

Dialogi

, et

posta

,

15

excultum reddere dum proponit

" ;

(

14

,

ed .) , , ( .p

et

praefationes 1582 Orationes 178 intentionem utilitatem ordinem diuisionem proportionem uiam doctrinae nomen Libri nomen authoris Explanationes 1550 actiones humanas imitando suaui sermone animum

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

tory of the whole theory of poetics held by Sassetti ; it indicates the useful ness of the method for concentrating the attention on certain central problems of the art and for eliciting definite pronouncements about those problems .

All four of the causes are present in Julius Caesar Scaliger's Poetices libri ( septem 1561 ), but in a strange way ; they are introduced at a point where Scaliger is making the traditional distinction among the terms poesis , poema , and poeta . “ Poema, ” he says , “ is the work itself , the matter ...

to

...

in

;

."

,

to

of

,

,

a

it

a

of

the

I

,

is

or

.

”,

he

In

,

of

e

as

called acting disposition

...

the case may verisimilar expressed

indeed the

is

section entitled interprets the

the poem that cause say which operating through habit poet the be .

the soul

,

of of

cause

the divine spirit

poem

Aristotle's Poetics 1585–86 actually basing upon good

discussion the Poetics forma fine difinizione del poema ,

,

, : by is “

efficient

on

in a

to

,

of

his

The

causes thus moved

his Commentary much fuller extent

preliminary

materia

,



Agente

or or

combine this analysis with the traditional defini

17

)

.

Lionardo Salviati exploits the method

same

or

,

(

to

of

is

of

,

is ,

,

,

,

is

two and the attempt tions

deal

: “

his

which is made . But poesis is the reason and the form of the poem ” ; poeta argument of course the poet. Then he concludes Thus you have three causes the material the formal and the efficient and the preceding commentary the final that the ultimate end instruction imitation poema and poesis strange What the assigning the meanings say nothing the first two causes the interpretations given the other is

The matter through ornamented

disposition The final cause which treated only much later when Salviati finally concerns moral character poetry decides that the special and ultimate final cause to profit and delight imitating with verse major part Since the the work running commentary however Aristotle the method soon aban any sense inform the rest doned and does not the treatment.18 , “

.”

the flawless



is

,

is

,

of

of pp ) .

example Niccolò Rossi's Discorsi intorno Jacopo Mazzoni's Della difesa della

,

-

.p

,

for

in

In

various other texts alla tragedia 1590 21v

(

is

of

."

on

a

,

by

of

,

is

is

The form

, ”

.

speech

and

fit .

as

Poesis autem Efficientem

:

,

,

to

it

as

of

of ,

is

it of

its

to .

,

or

, in

:

,

Formam

...

"

' col

a

è

, o

mossa diuino verisimile espresso quale intorno

il 13 , “ il

fol

.

" ", ;

,

disposta

, si o è

, o

del

( 49 )

da

, la

, , la

,

,

e è la

sia . . . .

si è

.

.

" ;

: “

,

o

quae

contribute

est Imitationem siue vlteriorem finem doctionem cagione del poema cagione dico quale agente La

, " id

9–9v

: “

11 ,

II, II,

Finem , . La è

(

...

uero efficiente chiamata l'anima del poeta habituata spirito ch'ella materia medesimo poema disposizione senza fallo fauellar condito La forma costumi fol 151v Giouare dilettare imitando col uerso

...

fails

Poema est opus ipsum materia and Ita habes causas tres Materiam

...

fols

that

,

" 13 : “

Poetice 1581 forma Poematis superiori commentario

MS BNF

all



)

ff .

as

is

ed .) , .p

a

is

it

,

,

&

18 in

ratio

analysis

total and exhaustive

ac

17

producing

63

;

in

(

di

Comedia Dante 1587 several the causes appear incidentally development the course the Indeed because essen tially the method employed incidental some other frame discus capable sion because never fully exploited own right

POETIC

THEORY

of

of

of it

would

properly on ,

solutions proposed

no

to

,

;

its

something about general nature did not assure that applied the few examples cited here with the variety

be

a

of

of

to

,

,

.

a

of

all

completely as it might to a clarification of critical ideas . The eclectic possible methods approach within tendency , the wish to amalgamate single treatise easily led the best characteristics the nullification the best methods Moreover knowing the existence method and

.

of

full

scale

, it

wished

-

to

be

of

,

Since

it

.

a

of

text

operated

,

,

,

in ;

is

"



a

.

,

its

of

of

in

develop and expound the ideas contained After the poem principal the sonnet and restatement idea the author

paraphrase

a

to

usually

.

of

,

of

,

in

.

as

shorter texts such the sonnet There are throughout the there had been the Quattrocento innumerable lectures Exposition mostly they discourses epistles which take the form the this form Petrarch The intention concern themselves with sonnets

,

most readily Cinquecento

as on

Sposizione



scale



In

of

a

of

to

of

,

in

,

suggest that there was should suffice this century sure grasp logical the instruments that would have been needed make the device the four causes valid basis for discussion the poetic art practical criticism one the field the favorite devices was the full

its

,

of

a

a

or

.

its

,

a

in

,

,

a

to

usually proceeds philosophical back discussion the idea itself validity and usefulness for human conduct grounds and implications provides the text for philosophical The poem sense sermon

.

.

of of

as a to

it

to

philosophy than almost

.

in

be

,

entirely from the materials

some other branch

and have hence omitted them considered the present work

I

to

the history

the Cinquecento

to

in

ments belong rather aesthetics

of

or

of

do

of

disquisition that soon leaves the poem entirely out consideration Rarely these expositions make any reference the artistic structure and attempt qualities art Such docu work evaluate the poem

FOUR CHARACTERISTIC METHODS

All

,

be

to

,

as

of

in

.

of

a

of

its ,

by ,

of

that the Italian sixteenth century did the way method was not imperfect approaches inherited piecemeal however and combination from recent past Writers the century developed the years went

of

as

be

may examine the method

of

the first among these

we

.

ideas

,

As

of

,

,

,

,



a

set characteristic methods that were their own which had many ties with the past which had been practiced before and which have been practiced since but which nevertheless may studied development and presentation representing the predominant modes sure

imitation a

of

as

in a

to

-

of

,

or

,

.

a

of

theory single ancient text Theorists who wished develop antiquity literary genre which had not been satisfactorily treated comedy say chivalry would take the romance their model some

[ 50 ]

,

;

.

in

of

or

of

fit

of

,

as

or

to

.

be

ancient theoretical text The rules for the new genre would merely the subject matter old rules transposed the special circumstances question end manner the genre The ancient text most frequently used the model was course Aristotle's Poetics hence the production

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

of a large number of “Aristotelian ” theories of the minor or the recent literary genres or, in fact, of any genre which Aristotle himself had not completely explored . We may take , as an example of this methodological phenomenon ,

I

Giovanni Battista Pigna's romanzi ( 1554 ) , which is a lengthy study of the “ romance " form as practiced by Italian poets . Pigna himself , at the end of Book I , which is devoted to the general theory of the romance , confesses his indebtedness to Aristotle :

of

on

us

on

he

,

of

.

of

he

to

in

is

of

",

in

.

is





:

how the framework the new form

the subject

used the highest interest The skeleton Argomento del primo libro shows brief part the Poetics transferred the discussion

called

of

I,

Book

is

,

which Aristotle

outline

of in

The way



,

of

so

he

had never seen here has been our guide them had never spoken even though

the duel which romances

as

its .

This is what I have thought proper to say about the romance considering it in general . Although I have never mentioned Aristotle while speaking about it , that does not mean that I have not used the whole of his Poetics , making use of every part of light And just this same Aristotle gave the subject

;

to

is

,up

.

is

First words and subject matters are treated generally And then the epic which considered with respect the plot and thence springs the

taken

of

be

and reversal

;

of

complex type come the recognition kinds the question whether good poets should

be ,

.

,

,

six

,

.

of of

,

be of

,

it

of

;

conclusion that imitation and narration are practically opposites and then the role truth and verisimilitude and how the action may made illustrious may and how made one Similarly we derive the plot one and two plot Under the kinds and the simple complex passionate and ethical types which last contains

of

all

.

;

in

,

to

of

is

of

.

of to

.

to

as

banned from the republic Under the ethical type the four requirements for character are expounded And this discussion concerns the qualitative parts With respect the quantitative parts there composition and the introduction beginnings with the matter giving the reason for this out going back the first origins the story and

"



.

of

,

is

"

ex

,



it

of

.

is

greater than epic And then there we then discuss why tragedy the resolution which brings with the treatment the deus machina and the Fates Next come the episodes both good and bad which are divided into epangelia ),

....

are

of

all

,

" (



[

)

amaprattomena and those actually acted under which fall paladins knights explained the cantos and the errant and the which those narrated

,

at

I,

is

)

(

on

)

15

,

,

to

.

(p

as

of

of

;

1450a4

)

( 51

or

.

.

It

of

all

on

so

;

15 )

.

however

,

,

mean

(p

from 1447a15 and down the line All this does not points that Pigna agrees with Aristotle even that accepts the general body merely means that Aristotelian doctrine

means he

2

.p

,

in

plot from Poetics 1451b5 the definition imitation from object manner and the differentiation imitations according ;

is

.

to

;

is

in

although many other ideas This outline followed fairly closely Book many points not intervene and there are lengthy digressions moreover referred the outline Aristotle called upon for distinctions and clarification Thus the initial distinction between poetry and history

POETIC

THEORY

from the Poetics a relatively complete schematism for the handling of the genre.19 Francesco Robortello appended to his commentary on Aristotle's he borrows

of

in

.

,

,

A

as

and Cicero

Donatus Vitruvius

to of

could find such supple the brief outline

them are added whatever materials Robortello

mentary sources

,

of

.

of

all

Poetics ( 1548 ) , a short treatise on comedy , in which the method is again the imitation of the procedures of the basic text . The treatise is very short (less than ten folio pages ) ; hence it presents a kind of epitome of that comedy Aristotle said about tragedy translated into terms All Aristotle's direct statements about comedy are course included and

byto

of

,

on

its so

of

of

and

imitate

and the time

the types

on

long section

a

For

,

the form

of

on

.

of

;

as

to

a

man's instinct

then the growth and development compared with that tragedy invention forth

of

invention

-

)

,

its in

( as

.

then the causes for

;

genre

in

.

of

,

,

of

.

a

contents will show how the method works Robortello begins with state poetry ment the end He then differentiates imitations according each case which are used means object and manner indicating comedy There follows Aristotle brief history the origins the

,

he

,

.

In

of

;

he

or is

,

of

comedy Aristotle Donatus but his imitation draws heavily para tragedy apparent qualitative parts the discussion the phrases transposes Aristotle making almost identical statements about recognition knot and solution about the four require with some parallels taken from Horace about say about apparatus spectacle sententiae and diction For what has ) ;

;

,

or

to

.

he

(

for character

,

,

,

of

plot the kinds

ments

he

of

.

to

,

however the core

the work

an

is

,

in

is

,

mi

, al

di ho

è

.

Questo

di

&

65 : “

the

itself

;

), .p

(

found

which

comica

quello che intorno Romancio m'è paruto dire quantunque d'Aristotile mai del quale mentre fauellato non stato però che tutta sua Poetica seruito non sia

romanzi 1554 generalmente considerandolo

I

single text

,

19

of

A

clear statement the intention imitate prefatory section Antonio Riccoboni's De

re a

to

of

. 20

,

of

these supplementary borrowings still follows the outline of the Poetics spite

In

to

,

of .

to

,

he

rests upon Vitruvius and for the quantitative parts refers Donatus The final statements about the limitation five acts and the number interlocutors are ascribed Horace and Donatus

however directly

,

:

:

&

& il

.

Et

" la ;

ne ne

,

lui

da la

:

,

.

&

&

&

.

ne

si

è

la

il

in

. ne Et

:

ne

& la in

;

a2 : è “

.p

è

mentione fatto non habbia tutta maneggiandola come tutto Duello non mai veduto lume diede esso parlasse Aristotile cosi quiui Romanzi stato nostra guida benche egli mai non pigliasi l'Epopeia Prima delle parole delle materie generalmente tratta quale quanto alla fauola considerata cosi nasce come l'imitare narrare sieno quasi contrarij parte del uero del uerisimile come l'attione sia illustre come

,

:

la

&

:

il

i

il

&

,

,

il

& il

& lo . . i &

da

.

il

si sei

:

di

&

la

.

se i

.

la de

&

& il è,

si

,

la il

.

genere semplice composto una nasce parimente fauola d'un genere due agnitioni perturbato composto sono peripetia che contiene costumato sotto quistione che poeti quattro una buona republica scaccino sotto costumato espongono comporre decori tutto cio intorno alla qualità Nella quantità euui ,

di

il

la

i

:

&

,

i

in

:

&

i

&

i

i

ui è

:

gli

&

la

la

52 )

(

.

.

),

(

de

"

In

of

II

20

.

.

&

in ,

....

si

&

da

principij senza prima origine cagione l'introducimento nel render cio segue perche piu sia Tragedia che Epopeia sciorre che con seco porta trattare Episodij della machina delle Fate Vengono uitiosi buoni che diuisi sono epangelia amaprattomena sotto quali cadono canti cauaglieri erranti paladini che tutti dichiarano Part the librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes 1548 pp 41-50

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

appendix to his translation of the Poetics ( 1579 ) . The full title is “ De re comica ex Aristotelis doctrina , ” and the purpose is summarized thus :

...

with respect to comedy , on the one hand to collect together everything that is

found in that most authoritative philosopher , on the other hand also , in imitation of those things which have been written down about tragedy and the epic , to devise some precepts which will in no way disagree with the Aristotelian theory , and by means of which comedy may be created in a laudable fashion . We shall do this in such a way as to investigate first the origin of comedy ; then what comedy is ; in the third place what qualitative parts it has ; in the fourth place, what quantitative parts ; finally , what kinds of ridiculous things they are that serve the purposes of comedy .

The program here outlined is virtually a complete listing of the later chapter headings , except for such additions as the chapters for the various "

parts ."21

Such imitative treatises , long or short , constituted a large part of the effort of the century . They will be examined , along with the theories they produced , in later chapters . theoretical

The second of the characteristic methods of the Cinquecento was the systematic comparison or combination of two different texts of classical

, it

the Poetics was clearer

.

in

of

as a

,

,

de

.

on

His statement

demonstrate that those things which ea

de

to

if,

.pp

ed .) ,

have declared the

Aristotle's Poetics matters pertinent

,

in

of

were able

I

...

,

Aristotle

all of we

:

be

of it

the

I

to 21

Latini

Vincenzo Pisones Interpre

more specific

Since indeed those two parts this little book which fundamental ones were written almost entirely imitation believed that would useful after having explained Poetics

kind

view

of

is

.

the point

of ad

If ,

order and ideas were

easily understood

his

to Q.

In

his be

,

could not

then

and

both

was even thought

Horatii Flacci arte poetica librum commentary 1550 the Poetics

appended

tatio

Horace

the Greek Poetics Such indeed

in

zation Maggi

of

,

that the same order was followed generally the same Horace could

.

since the order

be by

,

Moreover

of

if

that the two works said essentially the same things about the poetic that one sought carefully one could find identical statements

art

antiquity . The method was most constantly applied to Horace's Ars poetica, which presented to the commentators grave problems of understanding and interpretation ; therefore , they sought clarification in a point -by - point paralleling of the text with Aristotle's Poetics . The initial assumption was

, ita

ab

,

,

ad

,

de

,

&

de

:

: "

(

In

colligere omnia Aristotelis ars poetica 1579 433–34 tum Comoedia quaecunque apud grauissimum philosophum reperiuntur imitationem eorum tum uero quę Tragoedia Epopoeia tradita sunt praecepta quaedam conformare Aris quibus confici Comoedia laudabiliter possit Quod doctrina non abhorrentia primum originem Comediae inuestigemus faciemus deinde quid Comoedia tertio loco quas partes habeat qualitatis quarto quas quantitatis postremo cuiusmodi sint ridicula illa quae comicae seruiunt The 1587 140 substitutes the following sentence ipsius origine differentijs Poesis genere simili naturam eius inuestigemus quam habet cum alijs Poesibus definitione imitationibus tudine dissimilitudine pulcherrima constitutione partibus quantitatis partibus qualitatis .

:

sit

:

ex

:

ex

:

."

:

&

,

ex

ex

:

,

ed ., .p

:

,

&

( 53 )

ex

ex ,

:

&

,

ex

."

rei

ut ,



:

:

:

vt

,

,

totelica

POETIC

THEORY

are found in Horace are already found in Aristotle , as in a spring from which he made this book flow like a small river .

In the treatise that follows , Maggi's only interest is to demonstrate the conformity between the two texts . The first thirteen lines of Horace , for example, are equivalent to what Aristotle has to say about plot ; no less than five passages in Aristotle — referred to by the numbers earlier assigned by Maggi in his commentary on the Poetics — are adduced as parallels . Lines 14–23 refer to episodes ; compare passages from Aristotle on episodes . The same procedure continues for the whole of the Horatian text . Wherever Maggi is unsuccessful in finding a comparable text in Aristotle , he declares that the passage in the Ars poetica is a digression ; for example , most of the final section on the poet , lines 412 ff. to the end , is so labeled . Besides the indication of the parallels, there is little of interest for the theory of poetry in the Maggi text.22

Sometimes the search for parallels is less dogged and unimaginative . At of the century , for example , in 1599 , Antonio Riccoboni published his De Poetica Aristoteles cum Horatio collatus . In the course of up

all

the very end

of

of

;

of

these headings

.

;

;

;

;

of

:

,

.

to

of ,

the Ars poetica broken into small sections and according his outline That outline itself was the needs very simple containing the following general headings On the nature poetry On the kinds poetry On the causes imitations and poems On the qualitative parts On the quantitative parts On faults and their excuse the work he cited

rearranged

to

.

he

of

as

he

;

of

to a

he

placed prose passage meant sum Aristotle relevant that heading then followed the thought pertinent Riccoboni's approach passages from Horace which Maggi's differs from insofar seeks correspondence only between the

Under each

marize the doctrine

a

of

,

A

of on

.

,

doctrine Aristotle and the passages from Horace not between passage and passage third method this technique which really constitutes variant

,

his

-

In

a

in

so

does

of

,

plot character ,

composed

of

is

decided

to

,

,

diction

,

,

thought

Aristotle's opinion tragedy

spectacle and melody

he

Seeing then that

in

:

he

Aristotle

,

Horace treats the same materials different order

whereas

as

,

in in

).

(

of

.

is

,

a

a

or

.

a

to

,

is

one text with several the conflation the century characteristic limiting others Rather than himself Horace Aristotle comparison the triple quadruple analogy thereby enriching theorist introduces the commentary and making his interpretation more complex This procedure Giacopo Grifoli the Artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio the introduction makes the point that An initial statement 1550

discuss the constitution ,

:

in

,

librum hunc deduxit

. "

,

,

ab

;

quo uelut riuulum [ 54 ]

fonte demonstrarem

, à

uelut

in

,

;

Aristotele

ad

ea ,

, si

ad : “

. .p

),

,

(

22

Quoniam uero partes illae duae libelli huius quas 328 1550 esp praecipuas esse diximus totae ferè Poetices Aristotelis imitationem conscriptae sunt non expli quae postquam Aristotelis Poeticam attinebant inutile futurum existimaui Horatio habentur cauimus cuius ratione omnis mihi fuerat susceptus labor quae hic Interpretatio

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

.

of

,

believed

he

of

(

or

of

by

is ,

,

,

.

in

.

to

so

,

he

no

is

to

of

of

he

speech

Aristotle and omitting

controversy could most conveniently might wish the come And

which

...

means

23

,

all

those points over which there progress those places both spoke place diction second

to is

)

,

ή

by

no

which not treated even changing the order

περί διανοίας περί μύθου discussing speech that in

detail But Horace seeing that although place thought character that

is in



”,

is

a

is

it

diction , and he handled these play said that acted there

in

all of

the plot first since it contains the basis for the imitation of the whole object ; then , since character and thought are expressed through words , he began to elaborate the on style immediately after plot . In this he did not follow either the order plan of Aristotle ; for the latter treated character after plot, then thought, then

an

is

,

-

is

It

.

or

, of

,

,

,

to

.

in

.

in

of

This analysis Horace's attitude toward the text Aristotle prepares the way for the second the fundamental analogies Grifoli's text This implicit one The order suggested plot then diction the passage above -brings pseudo mind the traditional divisions Ciceronian Ciceronian rhetoric i.e. invention disposition and elocution not in

.

of

he

:

at

of

as

long before Grifoli specifically sees these divisions supplying the ordering principle parts least certain Horace's text Thus the passage the commentary on verses 32-45 to

he

is

to

is

of

( a

he

.

,

,

he ,

,

a

-

a

,

at

And the same time touches upon the three points which belong the orator's faculty invention elocution and disposition And because had used thing which turned about order placing elocution before disposition did treating language proper for reason since here the matter and this

To

a

,

..

to

he

,

to

his

),

in

passing about dis the right place for language and then speaking lightly and position nevertheless returning order after having said little about 24 disposition elocution now comes back

he is

a

,

,

.

,

,

-

,

is

six

is

following Aristotle's division into the first assumption that Horace qualitative parts added then following second assumption that the commonplace three way rhetorical distinction Grifoli's commentary will therefore shift back and forth between these two analyses although commentary

the

of

in

a

is

sense reversed .pp

23

The situation

in

.

the comparison with Aristotle remains the dominant one

Giason

,

,

do

,

de

,

,

in

;

:

ea

,

de

;

&

,

,

: "

,

&

est

,

,

rei

,

.

,

,

(

),

Interpretatio 1550 esp 11-12 Videns igitur Aristotelis iudicio Tragoediam constare fabula moribus sententia dictione apparatu melodia primum constitutione fabulae disserendum esse statuit nam totius imitandae rationem continet deinde cum mores sententiae verbis explicentur orationem statim post fabulam coepit expolire quo non secutus nec ordinem nec rationem Aristotelis nam hic post fabulam mores tum sententiam post dictionem explicauit atque his omnibus omnia diligenter executus

.pp

24

,

de

ijs

ac

.

...

"

.

ad

,

,

, h

se

de

,

,

ea

de

,

de

.

,

est Videns autem Horatius quamuis agi fabula dicatur tamen nullum esse locum aut Tepl uứdou qui non tractetur oratione existimauit sententia aut more idest tepl Slavolas quibus disserendo etiam mutata Aristotelis dispositione omissis omnibus posse quàm commodissimè quos vellet vtriusque locos peruenire nulla est controuersia Itaque secundo loco oratione dixit

"

in

...

,

rei

,

.

,

de

,

ad

&

,

,

35 )

(

.

vi

in

Et

de

de Et

vbi

.

sit ,

&

,

.

: & “

,

.,

Atque simul tres partes attigit quae sunt Ibid 24–25 oratoris sitae Inuen dispositionem quia praepostero vsus erat ordine praeponens tionem elocutionem quod tamen cum causa fecit cum elocutionem dispositioni oratione hic apta tractet proprius orationis dispositione casu hic locus obiter loquatur tamen ordi pauca Dispositione dixit nem hçc suum redigens Elocutionem redijt

POETIC

THEORY

Denores , In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica ( 1553 ) . Here the major point of reference is the invention disposition elocution schema, as Denores indicates at the beginning : “ in this same epistle to the Pisos are collected together by Horace , who chose them from various works by many authors, the points which seemed to him to be essential for the

...

judging of the writings of poets or for the formation of our taste with respect to every rule of invention , disposition , and elocution in every type of poetry .” 25 Denores follows this schematism faithfully throughout . The first lines of the Ars poetica , he says , concern invention ; lines 24–31 make distinctions relative to elocution ; lines 32-41 are on disposition , as are lines 42-45 ; lines 46–72 treat certain problems of elocution ; and so forth . How ever , from the very beginning the parallels with Aristotle are presented either implicitly or explicitly . So Denores ' first remark about invention is that it is the “ anima " of poetry : the term comes directly from Aristotle's characterization of plot . Figurative language ( in re lines 46–72) is pleasur able because of the imitation involved , and imitation itself is enjoyable

of knowledge ; compare Aristotle . In a similar way , constantly brings Denores in from the Poetics statements or comparisons which illuminate his essentially rhetorical interpretation . Such a method is among the most dangerous of those used by theorists because it is a source

of

the Cinquecento : dangerous in the sense that it must inevitably result

of the texts involved . The mere fact that it should have been practiced so widely is symptomatic of the philosophical naïveté in hopeless deformation

,

,

,

.

of

do

in

.

to

to

.

or

They discovered

users

;

its

certain obvious parallels similarities between texts this led them seek other less obvious agreements the point where the texts became totally equivalent What they did not realize was that two texts having occasional similarities may their essence present completely different theories the poetic art Aristotle and

of

possibility

of

in

to of

.

at a

ever arriving

of

all

understand

if

as

.

if

as

either text To read Horace

indicate complete failure were Aristotle Aristotle or

the Poetics and the Ars poetica

is he to

to

an

a

a

,

of

is

as ;

of

a

of

touch upon certain number common topics but the one poems concerned with the internal structures these become objects contemplation poems beautiful the other with the making specific upon particular given which will have effect audience time identity To generalize from the accidental similarities doctrine Horace

essentially

he were

to of

a

at

,

de

ad

5v : "

25

.

to

of

,

to

of

on

to

eliminate

.

of

is

proper interpreta tion either This error the part the Cinquecento was course correlative other errors already noted especially the tendency reduce texts series isolated fragments thereby destroying their basic phil osophical integrity Horace

,

,

."

[

56 ]

ex

,

,

ab

ac

,

ad

in

), .p

in

de

(

In

epistolam 1553 poetarum scriptis diiudicandis hac ipsa Pisones uel dispositionisque uel communiter nostris ingenijs omnem inuentionis elocutionis quocunque poematum genere formandis quae praecipua uidebantur uarijs rationem multorum libris excerpta diligentissime Horatio colliguntur

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

A

fourth characteristic approach of critics in this century was the con to reconcile divergent positions . When " authorities ” were recognized as equally valid , differences of opinion between them must be explained away and ultimate agreement must be discovered . Perhaps the stant attempt

central figure in such discussions was Plato , whose attacks upon poetry in the Republic needed to be reconciled on the one hand with his own defences

and on the other hand with the numerous “ apolo authorities ” and with such a position as Aristotle's . The passages in the Republic on the banishment of the poets were at the center through the humanistic period and the of attention and controversy

of

it in other dialogues

by other



XXX

libri

1516

to

)

in

is

of

all ,

):

antiquarum

(

Lectionum

(

as

a

of

.

to

he

, in

One the favorite arguments the attempt reconcile only those poets Plato with himself was insist that banished after whose writings contained undesirable moral teachings That the point view such writer Lodovico Ricchieri Caelius Rhodiginus his .

Cinquecento

of

all

gies ”

he

in

to

he

,

and eloquently

the Dialogues ,

all

their wicked doctrines

:

of

:

),

is

.

,

of

(

de

Plato banished them because

the

said

In

in

poets

in

cite others

which Plato praises poets and poetry Giacopo Grifoli's opinion Oratio laudibus poetarum 1557 similar despite that might

be in

of

to

on

,

After this statement Ricchieri goes

favor

their

to

in

improvement celebrating elegantly their hymns the gods.26

moral heroes

or

,

exhort praises

of to to

be

;

by

)

(

to

But with respect these fables for the young we must note carefully that the poets are not condemned outright Plato since the degree which holds rejected when they disturb the state and invent shameful that they should things that same degree embraces them and kisses them tenderly when they

;

all

he

,

he of

he

go -

or

he

,

of

truth we must believe that that famous philosopher condemned the teach ings poets even though himself had called them the fathers wisdom that banished them because they were harmful even though himself had ,

he

. 27

of

of

of

of

be

of

;

of

declared that they were the betweens the gods and although held that their poems are not human inventions but gifts the gods ordered that they should driven from the territory his state because they were wicked

in

of

is

do

it

.

of

or it

,

it

in

:

analysis This type the various Platonic texts does one two things concludes that good poets remain acceptable the state while bad ones are excluded decides that only poems with undesirable moral tenden cies are the objects Plato's attack What does not discover that different conclusions about poetry are reached different texts because

26

the fact that the problems posed and the contexts established

are themselves

,

,

,

ad

,

si

."

59 : “

), .p

(

In

27

,

,

,

,

iis

in

: “

), .p

,

,

à

(

Lectionum 1516 158 Sed illud impense animaduertendum non damnari prorsum Platone Poetas Siquidem quantum ubi perturbant aut turpia fingunt reiiciendos putat tantundem amplexatur exosculaturque bonam frugem hortentur laudibus heroum aut Deorum hymnis eleganter facundeque concelebratis Orationes 1557 est vero credendum illum philosophum doctrinam damnasse

57 ]

[

,

.”

,

à

,

&

,

,

qui eosdem ipse sapientiae patres appellarit aut tanquam perniciosos exclusisse quos idem interpretes deorum testetur esse quorum poemata non hominum inuenta sed munera coelestia esse ducat hos tanquàm impios arcendos finibus ciuitatis suae statuisse ,

poetarum

POETIC THEORY different . Plato is seeking answers to widely divergent questions in the Symposium and the Republic and the Laws; hence , what he has to say about poetry will in each case be influenced by the special context in which he is considering it . That this was not realized , or was realized rarely, by the critics of the Renaissance is again explained by their general method : fragmentation and the concentration on the isolated passage did not lead to an awareness of the total philosophical meaning of texts and of the relationship of any individual passage to that meaning. At times, of course , this kind of awareness was present. We may take as an example Marcan

XXIV

of :)

ca.

tonio Maioragio's statement in the “ Oratio the Orationes et praefationes ( 1550

De arte poetica

:

of

"

to

a

he all

,

all

.

to at a

is

so

,

all

is

no

,

in

,

of

,

as

in

,

is

The fact that Plato led the poets out his state no argument against them especially since many other places Plato himself praises them the skies with almost divine commendations and admires them most extraordinary degree Indeed just that state where nobody sick but are healthy and body there sound need for doctors Plato since was inventing be

,

,

of no

it ,

,

itself

it

of

,

,

in

for

conduct

to

,

in

things removed the poets from state most blessed and most wise because state which had already achieved the highest end there seemed living for any instructions for any precepts further need for any teachers

for that

was ready for good and blessed living.28

it

, .

to of

so

we

in ,

to

of

explain away Plato's banishment the poets which the most common construction put upon the

large degree

purgation

as a

.

the Cinquecento

to

in

,

of

is

,

a

to

,

was this wish a

is

It

relatively rare

led

or

to

all

,

of

Here Maioragio realizes that within the assumption the Republic that things are considered with reference justice within the achievement unnecessary the state poetry undesirable means that justice But such realization along with the making distinctions that involves

.

to

it all

;

,

in

.

of

,

on

as

in to

of

of

"

an

"

Aristotle's Poetics Here are confronted not attempt reconcile two contradictory texts with the one text the light the other the grounds that both are talking about the same thing Plato had banished the poets because things their undesirable moral effects Aristotle who wished con clause

much with interpretation

.

So

.

of

that whereas

by

Castelvetro argues

be

;

al

in

1570

)

Platone

ca.

comune

(

di

of

"

it " is

in

,

;

tradict Plato said that their moral effect was desirable consisted pre cisely pity and fear the purgation runs the argument One variation found Lodovico Castelvetro's Chiose intorno libro del Plato

poems must their followed found assumes rejected readers Aristotle answers that they may either followed :

or

,

be

in

that the examples

è

.

in

,

& ,

ea

ex

ita sit

,

.

in

: "

), .p ,

ea

,

,

&

in in

, id

est

(

et

28

praefationes Orationes 1582 147v quod autem ciuitate sua Plato poetas quidem nullum eduxerit contra illos argumentum cum praesertim alijs locis plurimis idem Plato propè diuinis celum laudibus eosdem efferat mirandum modum admiretur aegrotus sed omnes bene Verum quemadmodum ciuitate ubi nullus omnino corpore bene constituto nihil medicis opus est ualentes Plato cum omnium beatissi

. "

ad

,

,

ei

,

,

se

[ 58 ]

,

,

,

&

sapientissimam fingeret ciuitatem poetas eduxit quoniam mam ciuitati quae iam optimum finem esset consecuta nullis uitae magistris nullis institutionibus nullis morum praeceptis amplius opus esseuidebatur cum per contenta esset benè beateque uiuendum

Plato supposes that poetry was invented for examples and that whatever found means teach necessity others This followed bad can and must )

.

be

by

is

of

by

of

be it

395

,

or to

( Rep .

other reason than good poetry ,

III ,

In this passage

in no

OF THE THEORISTS

THE METHODOLOGY

it

to

we

what Plato says

29

this passage

.

contradicting

in

to del

listened

by

to it,

,

of

.

,

,

to

,

of



to

,

so ,

is

in

;

as a

is

is of all ,

proposed before we wish that poetry should contained may have examples matter for careful consideration and that frighten the wicked and learn about console the good and kinds men and women And therefore Aristotle said that tragedy through the nature the men who fears and injustices drove out fears and injustices from the heart

for what

false

teach

of

is

,

in

.

of

so

was always eager

so

He does this because

to

he

?

tragedy

its ,

he

, of

).

(

is

presented Another variation Girolamo Frachetta's Dialogo that Aristotle assigns Frachetta's general thesis furore poetico 1581 pleasure never that poetry only the single end instruction Why then pedagogical intent the definition should include purgation with

,

in

of

by

;

in

such passions.30

on

frees our minds

to us

)

he (

of

,

of

]

(

of

fear

it

,

he

,

of

of on

and

in

he

at

so .

do

to

we

contradict Plato much that times went about begging and borrowing the occa sions Wherefore seeing that Plato forbids his Republic the horrible and pitiable subjects the poets which his opinion make fearful pity and consequently and full low and poor heart and wishing correct defining tragedy that pity him this matter Aristotle said means might almost say that

to

is

of

to as an

the

of

utility

in

or

pedagogical device part the is

.

an is

,

,

, in

never questioned

That assumption itself

.pp

to

the Poetics

moral improvement

is

of to

is

the same argument what

these variations

the assumption that catharsis

29

and the special kind

. 31

,

all

In

,

of

performance the circumstances which the genre meant have audience

and

of

of

poets answer Plato's banishment tragedy specifically because the nature

is a

it

.

,

to is ,

,

la

;

of in

theory purgation poetry He ascribes

instrument

in

Lorenzo Giacomini's opinion the matter stated his academic dis purgazione della tragedia delivered the Accademia degli course Sopra again that Aristotle develops his Alterati 1586 his general position

.

, o

da ,

e

, 92 : “

& a

cid fà

), .p ,

30

. "

,

le .

, e

uomini delle donne ingiustizie scacciava quello che dice Platone

,

, e

le gli

de

la

le

gli

de la

i

, e le

,

E

i

ventare consolare buoni conoscere natura perciò diceva Aristotele Tragedia con paure che con paure ingiustizie dal cuore uomini ascoltanti riprovando questo luogo in

lo se

o

sia ,

,

sia

, o

da

da

rei , e

,

, e &

,

;

è

,

, e è

Il

.

da

,

: "

),

si

in la

( ,

In

In

Opere varie critiche 1727 215-16 561. Nihil aliud agere vel imitari oportet questo luogo presuppone Platone che Poesia non trovata per altro non per insegnare per Esempio possa ciò che truova Poesia bene male che altri proposta prima che vogliamo che insegna per debba seguire che falso perciocchè spa materia farvi pensamenti sopra acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni maniera

59 ]

[

.

29–52

,

.

le

,

la

. "

,

in

&

di

;

&

de ,

da

ci

di , & le

&

a

di

fu

lo

&

ci

&

.

1597

.pp ,

e

discorsi

),

la ,

di

,

Orationi

(

In

,

si

31

(

Dialogo 1581 perche egli sempre uago contradire Platone intan può dir per poco ch'egli sia andato alle volte limosinando accattando occasioni poeti horribili La onde ueggendo ch'egli diuieta nella sua Republica cose com passioneuoli perciò che pieni suo parere fanno paurosi misericordia conse pouero cuore guentemente disse definendo cio ripigliare uolendol stremo tragedia che ella per compassione per spauento libera l'animo cotai passioni toche

POETIC THEORY of reading Platonic intentions into Aristotle . For Plato , in the Republic, the “ effect” of poetry is a pedagogical or a moral one ; therefore , in Aristotle , the " effect " of tragedy must also be pedagogical or moral . result

of

as

its

,

,

its

its

if

The two texts are more than reconciled ; the second is read as procedures and premises conclusions were the same those

the

of

a

the imitation

the conflation

for

single text

or the

one text with another

;

of

be

)

:

;

new theories

(2

of

development

four characteristic methods

the

(1

would seem Cinquecento critics

,

of

approaches

)

then

,

These

to

.

first

of

of

of

:

of

of

of

,

be

of

;

( 4 )

of

we

.

If

)

(

3

divergent conflation several texts the reconciliation would explain certain the difficulties Renaissance criticism two auxiliary problems must considered the problem ter minology and the meanings words and the problem the procedure the

positions

.

argumentation

TERMINOLOGY AND MEANINGS to

if

.

a

of

to

to

or

.

of

of





of



is

of

in

a

is

(

epistola

ad as it

Giraldi Cintio's Super imitatione

imita

Ciceronian

model for matters Giovambattista found Coelium Calcagninum dated

the use



This meaning

the case

confusion was the

,

style

.

expression

,

,

language

and

single term

of

of

.”

of

-

meaning confusion associated with tion One sense the word not subject meaning the imitation earlier poets

to a

of

of

;

of

to

,

to

a

in

is

of

terminology and meanings sense related the the attempt reconcile differing texts For one try tried reconcile the major ideas one also had reconcile the terms the discussions the latter attempt was concomitant the former Perhaps the best example meanings the multitude hence the The matter

subject just discussed

re in

or

),

(

is

),

an

recall that there are two kinds

of

:

me reasonable and necessary

.

speech

32

of

,

to

in

in

of

is

,

figures

.

words and

to

of we

treat only the other one which consists

of

.

,

in

One

in

expressing which consists excellent fashion the nature and characters those persons whom undertake imitate And this poetry ... But leaving this type the end imitation Aristotle we shall .

poetic imitation

to

seems

to

...

it

of

.

,

(

),

in

Celio Calcagnini's Super imitatione commentatio 1532 Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica 1560 clear and mains distinct from the others Indeed Parthenio states the difference be imitation tween two major kinds 1532

"



.pp

we

la

.

of

et

de

"

in

as

a

be

,

of



is

It

these which might called rhetorical imitation Ciceronians were talking about and that interested such langue française theorist Du Bellay the Deffence illustration that was free confusion and ambiguity The difficulty arises when wish the second

the type that the

,

,

è

il

Et

.

"

. ad

di

la

ne

, et

[ 60 ]

et

,

ci

di

,

: , “

),

,

di

i

et

di

.

le

. . . .

le

(

32

imitatione poetica 1560 92-94 mi pare ragioneuole douuto ricordar sorti della Imitatione poetica Vna laquale consiste nell'esprimere eccellente quelle persone che proponiamo d'imitare questo mente nature costumi queste sorti cura Aristotele sola imitationi lasciando Ma fine della poesia dire modi mente tratteremo dell'altra laquale consiste nelle parole Della due esser

the

in

or

of

,

)

is

.

.

where which the

392–93

poetry the narrative

in

Steph

(

of

the Republic :

"

three

styles

of

Book

"

in

distinguishes

Socrates

III

in

it

as

to in

,

,

;

.

of ”



,

of

:

was the discussion

And

assigned

meanings

of

,

,

;

"

of

"

,

he

;

in

of

in

which the poet takes the his own person the imitative which the and the mixed imitates thus another whom

poet speaks

person

in

all

imitation

to

difficulty springs the the term superimposition dialogues several Plato and second the various the Poetics used these meanings upon the term Perhaps the single passage Plato which led the greatest uncertainty

of

meaning poetic to consider from two causes first the variety

the

OF THE THEORISTS

THE METHODOLOGY

in

for

the second

or

)

(

second style and Aristotle's TTPÓTTOVTAS KAI Évepyoữvtas

for

(

.

of

an

,

to

an

.

two other styles are combined Now critics the Renaissance saw this imitation Poetics 1448a19 on the manners exact parallel They thus saw also equivalence between Plato's dià uiuñoews the passage



of

he

to of

"

"

or





: Is

of to

"

in

. ”

"

of

,

is

If

on , a

so

?

an

?

it

an

Aristotle

what extent

poetry considered come within the categories Or are tragedy and comedy the only true imitations To the epic imitation narrative poem not imitation

and does

is ?

,

by an

imitation

as

in

he



if

).



of





",

:



reasoning was the basis manner The next step the later equivalent confusion Aristotle here uses dramatic Plato's imitative then when himself uses imitative imitation the interminable discussion This assumption led means dramatic meaning imitation Aristotle and related problems the lyric dramatic

to

be

as

of a

if

in

,

of

is

.

one single thing

the case horse were repre descriptions the painter things which differ from one by

is

the imitation

by

:

as

would

of

,

the first

art means lines and colors the poet The second the imitation ,

).

(

I

:

of of

imitating

imitation

by

by by

..

there are three ways through different kinds sented words

.

?

as

an

as

be

be

in of

it

to

need have unity And into manifold ramifications Echoes these doubts and uncertainties and misunderstandings are Pigna's found such texts romanzi 1554 The following passage example may taken

does

as is

;

in

,

a

of

is to

I

if

.

of in

of

(

.

is

to

,

in

on

,

,

of

in

in

,

,

of

through one kind represent beautiful things imitation were verse alone and ugly things verse alone The last the imitation one single thing through one kind imitation but different manner the case with poetry but the latter intro the epic and the tragic poet who treat heroes persons stage duces action the the former narrates how they accomplish their actions And this epic procedure also appropriate our own writers another

them

,

done

the more the poet

so

is

the more frequently

,

which

the

,

person and another

it

,

,

),

since these relate how matters stand and when the opportunity presents they quote the conversatio that have taken place between one

romance

itself

said that these compositions

come closest

to

it

.

and not merely heard And

is

,

of

.

of

is a

,

imitates since introducing actors themselves that they may speak together way making the action come more directly before our eyes And therefore tragic and comic plots are called dramatic because the events which are seen being

be

in

61 ]

[





as

.

in

,

"



to

,

paintings are truly praised when they really true imitations the same way come close life itself Therefore since the word poet means nothing else but imitator the more we introduce people conversation the more will we

THEORY

POETIC

worthy of that name . Nevertheless it would seem to be better to avoid this kind of imitation and to use narration more continuously.3 .

I

of

of

equivalent to " dramatic " and as opposed to consequences

narrative .

"

all

quote the text at such length because it is important to see how the shift in terminology takes place . Pigna begins with a distinction of the three kinds of imitation (which he calls “ modi " ) , paraphrasing Poetics 1447a16 . The third distinction , that of manner , leads him to use " imitation ” as

Follow



the

.

,

of

it

to

in

I

the manuscript

.

in

follows

poetry once more the ,

:

at a

;

of

,

to

the Poetics

arrive definition merit lengthy quotation

to

in

is

to

,

of

the Republic Plato says that imitate make one and that poetic imitation exists when the poet speaks says the Tenth differentiating imitation whole making images and that the that idols that he

,

as a

of

, of

,

.

,

he be

it

is

he is

,

is

.

of of

of

of

idols with things

he

all is

in

is a

,

follows that poetic imitation fabrication speech which fabricates idols and images But that form it

speech

of

.

speech

is

imitates

.

in to

by

is a

of is , of

of

is a

,

is is a a

it

fabrication images ... whence imitator fabricator and maker idols that led say also that poetic imitation fabrication idols But surely not neces sary speaking fabricate idols only the person another but this can done another way But since the proper instrument the poet with which to

that

In

of

,

the Third book thing resemble another the person another

is a a





,

of

to

is

such

In

is

passage

attempting as

,

whose translation

it

Giacomini Giacomini

of

.

is

"



of

the term

in

this Platonic sense Another document which involves such progression meanings not only fragment but also imitation fable MS Laurenziana anonymous but Ashb 531. The fragment attribute Lorenzo the use

in

,

,

is

.

the Third book divides mythology

mythology

;

to

,

which Plato

of

,

is ,

,

of

is

of

.

,

says that none other than fable and mythology Aristotle therefore when poetry imitation means not that first imitation the Third book Plato but mythology and fable And this this second one the Tenth that clear furthermore because Aristotle himself applies imitation the same division with

for Plato assigns three kinds ,

,

by

.

,

to

in

pp .

33

,

he

is

an

,

to

and Aristotle three kinds imitation and the same ones But when Aristotle says that poetry imitation meaning imitation mythology agrees with Plato who the Third book conjoins poetry with mythology and

di

in

.

in se

di

:

gli

,

in

&

in

.

di

:

le

in

&

,

:

.

le

il

vn

i

: “

(

&

;

I

),

1554 15-16 tre sono modi dell'imitare L'uno vna istessa cosa quale mostrato sarà dal dipintore come nell'esprimere con l'arte cauallo parole l'altro con lineamenti con colori dal poeta con descrittion cose tra diverse d'un genere istesso come s'io versi solo belle cose rappresentar voglia versi solo sozze L'ultimo vna cosa medesima d'un medesimo genere ma diuerso romanzi genere diuersa

su la

in

&

.

ci

da à

.

&

:

la

, è

gli gli

i

tra

le

i

.

il : Et & i

.

de

&

:

,

,

à

si

di

,

i

si

le

:

& à il :

Tragico che poeticamente modo come l'Epico heroi trattano ma questi persone induce negociare quegli narra come scena fatti loro trattino tale tutta quando uia con nostri confà conciosia cosa ch'essi dicono come cose stiano l'opportunità loro s'offre riferiscono parlamenti corsi l'una parte l'altra che quanto proprij piu frequenta essendo che l'introducere fare tanto maggiormente s'imita negociatori insieme venga perciò fauellare far che piu cosa dinanzi occhi :

, di

.

al

,

essere nel narrar piu continouo

]

[

62

.”

.

sia

di

la le

,

&i

sorte d'imitatione

,

le

&

Et ,

,

le

.

si

le

Tragiche Dramatiche chiamano Comiche fauole affari che non vditi ma nel modo dicesi che cotesti componimenti piu alla imitatione s'accostano veduti sono dipinture quali veramente lodate sono quando che viuo veramente s'appressano poeta altro non suona che imitatore Adunque perche tal nome degni tanto piu voce fuggir questa saremo quanto piu parlamenti induceremo Con tutto ciò pare che meglio

OF THE THEORISTS

THE METHODOLOGY

the poet with the mythologist , that is , the teller of fables . If then poetry is an imitation , and the poet an imitator, and to imitate is to feign and compose fables , it follows that the poet can imitate even if he speaks in his own person . There

...

being then two kinds of imitation , these two authors mean now the one , now the other ; but in the definition of poetry Aristotle means that broader one, that is, mythology , that is, fable - telling speech .

,

or

of

.

is

of

a

as

"



it

by

,

in

lie ;

he

Besides , it seems that fable has two meanings according to the aforementioned two authors , because Plato in the Second book of the Republic says that fable lying and tells fables But generally is a for discourse which later takes part tragedy Aristotle the poetic art taking the fable the epic ;

by

,

, of

,

...

certain lying and falseness

or

by

an

.

is ,

,

themselves and with imitates true actions and real things.34

in

narrated discourses not true

a

a

of

,

of

.

we

,

is ,

is is ,

a

means fable the actions themselves feigned and false whence fable has double meaning that say that false discourse and false action When therefore lying dicourse poetry mythology we mean the first kind fable that Poetry feigned and mendacious form speech thus which means

of

in

.

of

ligent

;

of

is

of

careless unintel the errors produced extreme case not handling procedures terms such are common much the critical writing the Cinquecento

This

is

.

also related the even more important shifting and the theorist's use terms

of

argumentation For

of

question

terminology

is

To this matter

if

of

PROCEDURES OF ARGUMENTATION

lo

il

lei

et

lo

et di

a di

è

...

la

de

: “

la

,

et la

ad .

,

.

è è di

,

di di

di X

.

.

in

34

Repa Platone dice 531 fols 39–39v Nel terzo libro imitare poeta parla essere assimigliare una cosa unaltra imitazion poetica essere quando persona d'altri Nel ponendo differenza tutta l'imitazione dico essere fabrica imagini mento cio facimento idoli cio imitatore essere fabricatore facitore imagini idoli cio onde viene dire ancora che l'imitazione poetica sia fabricamento

MS Laur Ashb

,

è

la

di

de le

et le

gli

la

et

è

X ,

la

la

la

à

tre

,

.

il

et

è è

in et

,

il

et

,

,

il

et

è

,

la

,

il

et

al

3

, la et i

,

, la è et

la

.

Se

la

medesima con assegna Platone essere imitazione

,

. et

manifesto ancora perche esso Aristotile divide l'imitaziono con divisiono quale Platone nel mythologia perche mytologia divide modi poesia tre Aristotile imitazione medesimi Ma dicendo Aristotele per imitazione intendendo mytheologia convien con Platone quale favoleg poesia congiunge mithologia mythologo nel terzo con col poeta cio giatore adunque poesia poeta imitatore fingere imitazione l'imitare favola

questo

,

di

.

la

et ,

il

.

la

si

in

questo puo fare ancora quale egli imita l'orazione

è

è

,

che non

in

persona d'altri ma che necessario fabricare idoli parlando proprio instrumento del poeta col altro modo ma essendo seguita poetica imitazione essere fabricamento idoli con quale fabrica imagini orazione ma l'orazione idoli cose altro non che mythologia Aristotile adunque quando dice ogni poesia essere imitazione intendo favola non quella prima del terzo libro Platone ma questa seconda del ciò mythologia

idoli ma certo

.

,

la

.

,

è

,

et

,

la

de

la

è

ne

,

il

propria persona comporre favole seguita che poeta puo imitare parlando ancora essendo adunque due l'imitazioni ora questa ora quella intendono questi due autori poesia Aristotile intende quella piu larga cio mythologia ma diffinitione cio l'orazione fauolosa ,

è

lo

vero azzioni

et

,

la

.

falsità imita

le

,

il

et

]

63

et

mendacio

[

con qualunque

la de

,

et

et

la

è

la

,

narrate

,

la

la

i

la

.

,

è

E

...

et

vere voraci

se

.” da

.

la

la

la

et

la

de

et

la

de

la

Ancora pare che fauola sia doppia secondo due autori predetti perche Platono nel piglia per Republica dice secondo favola generalmente essere mendacio dipoi orazione mendace favolosa Ma Aristotile nel arte poetica pigliando favola per una parte tragedia del epopeia intende favola essere l'azzioni stesse finte false per qual cosa doppia cio favola l'orazion falsa l'azzione falsa quando adunque poesia essere mythologia intendiamo primo genere diciamo favola cio l'orazion adunque poesia orazione finta quale con l'orazioni non mendace mendace cose

POETIC THEORY uncertain , he can with difficulty pursue an orderly argument or achieve a convincing demonstration . Among critics of the Cinquecento the two defi ciencies , of terminology and of argumentation , were sometimes concomit

ant , sometimes separate . That weakness in logical method should appear is not surprising , given the wilful rejection of the Aristotelian logic of the schools , the failure to discover the essence of Plato's method of dialectic,

of

and the unawareness

of considering and analyzing

the art

plete and consistent philosophical documents. The best way to illustrate these deficiencies or peculiarities

texts as com

of argumenta

tion is , of course , to analyze some work or works in entirety . Since I shall be doing that frequently and repeatedly in the later chapters , perhaps it will be sufficient at this point - in order to avoid repetition — to study a section of a work which presents a typical example . Let us take the sections

of Francesco Patrizi's Della poetica : La deca disputata ( 1586 ) in which he attacks Aristotle's proposition that poetry is an imitation . Patrizi is a reputable philosopher ; much of his philosophy was based upon a wish to controvert the theories of Aristotle ; his method in controverting them must have been the best he could find and the object of careful attention and consideration . This particular attack begins with Book III . Starting with the objection that Aristotle had nowhere defined the term imitation , Patrizi collects six passages from Aristotle in which the term uiunois has six different meanings , two from the Rhetoric and four from the Poetics . For several of these passages the meaning is found by consulting texts of

,

cf.

of ,

Hermogenes kai



If

( cf. 2 )

2;

, .

(

XI ,

III

Rhet

,

vivid description

.

be

of

or

enargia



"

all

III

),

Plato . Patrizi concludes that these are six separate meanings , with distinct definitions . Asking , then , whether individually these meanings supply a proper definition for poetry , he concludes that they do not: ( 1) If poetry is , I, 8 ; Cratylus 423 an imitation because words are imitations ( Rhet. poetry then forms discourse would imitation means

in

Book

of

.

IV ,

"

be a

:

;

or

,

or

,

(





these propositions

"

"

,

be a "

),

.

( 3 )

If

,

be

)

,

poetry μέγιστον ποιήσεως μίμησιν εναργή then only some parts would contain imitation which would also found rhetoric and history plot mythology imitation means favola fable propositions necessarily every poem Poetics 1450a3 then two must follow poem Leaving the first will favola and every favola will

)

,

(



:

he

,

.

poem

,

is a

"

an



imitation

favola

accord neither with the first premise nor (

in



conclusion which

is

a

we

obtain

is

an imitation

favola Therefore every

64 )

Every



Every poem

is

to

we

,

if

a

,

in



in

,

is

Patrizi demonstrates that the many second false for the ancients wrote favole here fables which prose and many ancient authorities were not poems because they were made careful distinction between poetry and mythology Moreover says reduce Aristotle's argument the following syllogism

for discussion

OF THE THEORISTS

, as in would

representation ),

394

,

.

cf.

with the facts . ( 4) If by imitation is meant a dramatic Rep III comedy and tragedy ( Poetics 1449b24 ; admit neither epic nor dithyrambic poetry but prose comedy and dialogues imitation does

then

it

THE METHODOLOGY

If

in

be

it to ,

is

by

;

),

25 ,

these are taken

,

if

,

;

then

be

:

,

.

of

;

.

-

of

which some are

And none

them

is

,

all all

sufficient

this argument are immediately apparent Not only .

of

48a9

other writings also and not writers both poetry and non

of

to

,

to

will

have different meanings

others are common others make the compositions poetry and others make them non poetry provide the genus for poems.35 ,

poetry

imitations only when the stage Patrizi summarizes thus

therefore

to

of

these are not forms poetry then they

poetry

The weaknesses

"



If

( 6 )

Poetics 1447a15

of to



,

imitations



six

not appropriate proper poetry

and gnomes

,

they are represented

All

.

,

,

all ,

for

forms on

,

as

is

at

not poetry metaphorically

(

hymns blames

,

,

encomia

of

,

,

in

of in

)

(

he

(

),

.

( 5 )

in

,

it

would include both include the epic and then Aristotle contradicts himself when the dithyramb Poetics 1447a13 very little because imitate later says 1460a5 that many epic poets they speak constantly and imitation consists their own persons auletic speaking constituted another imitation the person equivalent citharistic syringic and orchestic poetry which would

,

in ,

is

,

.

in

,

(

." of

,

of

' is a

'

"

,

;

of

)

is a

as

or

"

by

to

,

by

"

all

imitation plot -given mean Aristotle which are directly excluded that context but these terms and others shift their meaning passes stage Patrizi from stage the argument Moreover there pseudological analysis propositions being attacked which kind the very proposition e.g. itself unsure his treatment the itself incorrectly every poem derived that favola The careful reader working his poetry are the terms from the Poetics— ings which are not justified the context

of

a

to

,

he

is

by

he

of ,

in

to

context and submitted always

searching analysis

on

.

,

redefinition justified and careful distinction

,

by

,

of

;

of

.

no

no

a

of

way through such series arguments feels himself driven point complete confusion where words longer have fixed meanings and validity Perhaps Patrizi felt that demonstration has was following example the the Platonic dialectic instead was violating the very principles meaning accompanied that dialectic which change

I

in

partial explana they were and , ad tra

as

a

as

sei

be

74 : "

.pp

to

of

:

,

reasons first and primarily that they might serve interpreted tion how the ancient theories came 35

,

,

of

to

so

.

I

of in

of

a

to

.

,

to of

These remarks the methodology the critics have been fear fairly damaging They would seem point philosophical incom degree petence both the reading and interpretation earlier texts and the development new theories have ventured make them for two

,

le

, e

.

le

65 )

essere genere alle poesie tutte

. "

ad

.

niuna bastante

(

.

altre del tutto non poesie

E

),

; .v a p . de

, e

non poesic

. e

e

ad ( sic )

.

(

Della poetica 1586 59–74 Tutte adunque imitazioni hanno loro significati differenti De quali altri poesia non conuengono Altre sono communi poeti Altre che fanno composizioni altrui poesie altri scrittori non proprie

POETIC

THEORY

how the new theories came to assume the form that they did ; second , so that the reader might be more acutely aware , as he reads the subsequent chapters , of what is taking place in the individual texts analyzed . He should not , however, conclude from these remarks either that method was univer sally bad or that the theorists never succeeded in making consistent sense in their treatises . There were examples of good method ; there were cases of solid contribution to theory ; there were completely consistent and well developed documents.

.

or

,

,

a

,

let

.

-

on

be to

of

a

to

us

Perhaps we may thus analyze the situation with respect to the procedure best of the theorists . A given critic has developed , say clearly thought out and perfectly self contained poetics He may undertake then commentary write Aristotle's Poetics The peculiarities the defi ciencies his general philosophical method permit him read his own

of the

.

of

set

a

to

of

in or

of

of

an ,

to of

set

he

.

Or

theory into the text Aristotle even though the two may worlds apart may poetry which will expound his own out write art theory The peculiarities the deficiencies his general philosophical support method permit him cite his doctrine whole miscel

,

of

,

his is

as

,

;

it

In

. or it

be

entirely irreconcilable with laneous texts which might taken separately essentially the interpretation either situation the ancient text texts which suffers own theory remains undamaged except insofar

on

.

or

of

.

,

in

,

)

on

I

to

of , to

at

of ,

,

(

of

By

be

inappropriate places inadequate the proofs offered may appear way illustration such procedures wish summarize briefly my Cinque findings published previously four the most prominent cento critics Robortello Scaliger Minturno and Castelvetro Francesco Robortello published 1548 the first extensive commentary

In

his

in

far

of in

;

as it

.

of

a

to

,

he

of

36

.

de

Aristotle's Poetics his librum Aristotelis arte poetica explica tiones But from approaching basic text without prior suppositions interpreting the text only about the poetic art and with the intention brought completely worked out theory and for itself the text poetics He had derived this theory from his reading Horace's Ars poetica and the Greek and Roman rhetoricians hence was essentially

of

if

of

of

of

,

be

an

of

of

.

on of a

of

.

in

poetry character Robortello conceived written for the given utility pleasure and producing certain effects good audience The audience was composed elite wise men persuaded only actions certain kinds moral character who would rhetorical purpose

a

a

;

,

on

.

,

,

as a

.

of of

to

persuasion was necessary ante and characters were presented them cedent both utility and pleasure The work itself would produce variety utilities and pleasures not whole but through different parts and elements For example certain lessons about human destiny

in

on

,

.

319-48

and

:

by

the sententiae

Critics and Criticism

pp , .

),

,

66 )

(

al .

et

S.

R.

in

demonstrated

the Poetics Crane University Chicago Press 1952

of , "

:

Chicago

on

Robortello

Modern

(

36 “

;

poems certain truths would

be

,

of

a

of

be

tragedy develop would learned from watching the action the stage certain lessons about character from the observation characters the

Ancient and

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

basis of these the audience would be moved to undertake action or to refrain from it . With respect to pleasure , again it would be produced by separate parts of the poem : that related to imitation would come from the plot itself, that associated with the difficulté vaincue from successful treat

ment of unpleasant subjects , that ascribable to admiration from certain kinds of episodes , from diction , from various ornaments . Now this is a completely conceived system of poetics , which Robortello could defend upon philosophical or pragmatic grounds . But when he to

.

:

be

his

proceeds to read Aristotle as if this were Aristotle's theory , too , he com pletely deforms the meaning of Aristotle basic text What happens may summarized thus

to of

to a

is

in

a

,

a

in

.

is a

poetic method essentially different from Aristotle's The ... what emerges poetic fundamental alteration comes the passage from rhetorical posi position the achievement which the essential consideration tion from

; in

do

of

to

of

.

I

a

is

no

a

is

in

the internal and structural relationship which will make the poem beautiful one which the main problem the discovery those devices which will upon produce specified desired effect audience not mean that given Aristotle consideration the effect the poem upon the audience as

of

of

.

,

to

of

of

;

of to

its

it to or

likeness hero audience the argument they are funda giving certain kind artistic ”



"

of

of

a

to

"

,

tragedy and their purgation fear the among the requisites character are integral



of

"

,

is

to

in

at

,

every crucial point object indeed the Poetics the relationship con templation contemplator concepts maintained constant Such the pleasure proper given species the pity and derived from imitation the effect

of

a

it .

to

or to

this

no

.

of

of

is

of

is

of

,

merely accompaniment inaction which the pleasure involved composed yielding instrument and the audience men capable persuasion rather than enjoying this pleasure men capable ; in

an or

of

an

,

of

is

of

:

no

is

to

if

mental the work art fulfil function pleasure the men who see hear But herein lies the basic departure longer one Robortello the effect produced artistic pleasure resulting from the formal qualities the work but one moral persuasion action

of

to

is

in of its

a

,

as

of

a

a

in

,

.

or

its be

to

"

.

,

these are not vital On the other hand which diction made ornate assume is

no

of

.

as

;

structure for the work need retained such elements diction and the means great importance

by

be

.

a

a

of

of be :"

,

in

,

of

as

.

of

pleasure This means turn that the artistic unity and plot may part the work disappear the problem removed specific from among the poetic elements work and may transferred ally histrionic functions Only the vaguest notions unifying and ordering tegrity

of

persuasion

by

,

,

separate pleasure The bases for the inclusion any given part highly specified audience given reaction itself awaken to

a

or ,

capacity

by

utility

a

,

,

,

to

as is

an

longer compound out This means that the problem for the poet the constitutive parts artistic whole which whole will produce the desired aesthetic effect but rather insert into the work such parts will them selves produce multiple utilities and pleasures each part producing separate

,

is

,

is

.

a

of

,

[ 67 ]

or

,

of

,

Moreover since the sense the total poetic structure lost there longer any possibility deriving from such structure the criteria for the appro priateness for the goodness badness individual parts Instead criteria for

POETIC

THEORY

each separate part will be separately derived by a reference to the character of the audience as it specifically affects that part and in the light of the utility or the pleasure which that part should produce . At each step , there will be reference outside the poem . The poem becomes , as a result , a collection rather than a unit. From it the audience derives utility of a moral character and pleasure of a non aesthetic kind, since it is not related to the structure or the form of the work as a whole . 37

Julius Caesar Scaliger, who died in 1558 , left behind him the completed manuscript of his Poetices libri septem , which was published in 1561.38 Unlike Robortello's work , this is an original art of poetry ; it presents in an orderly and highly systematic fashion Scaliger's theory of the art . Indeed , so orderly and systematic is the presentation that this work might well be taken as an example of a " good " method employed by a Renaissance theorist . The theory as a whole might be described as a grammatical one , in the sense that Scaliger is essentially preoccupied with poetry as an art of discourse . Poetry is conceived primarily as language . As language , it must enter into two distinct relationships : ( 1) the relationship with the things which are signified by the words employed and ( 2) the relationship with

for whom

principles of

its

the signification is intended . Scaliger will thus con things cern himself with as they are in nature - or in Vergil's Aeneid , which represents perfectly the norm of nature — and with the effects of pleasure and utility produced in the audience . Both nature and the needs of the audience impose conditions upon poetry , which has no conditions or the audience

a

.

,

,

,

,

,

of

as

, of on

;

of

to

its

.

arguments

as . a

of

,

of

he

,

of

is ,

system own except those that are purely prosodic Such recog d iametrically opposed Scaliger course that Aristotle and points nizes this fact when takes direct issue with Aristotle such tragedy poetry and the the definition constituent parts the end internal economy the poem This does not prevent him however from using the Poetics constantly source definitions distinctions and

),

.

,

as

,

,



, of

,

a

It

39

,

,

,

,

,

.

, is

in

(

of

The De poeta Antonio Sebastiano Minturno 1559 almost exactly achieving contemporary with Scaliger's work much less successful order and system draws heavily upon wide variety works Plato's Republic Laws Ion etc. Aristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric Horace's Ars poetica Quintilian Cicero's Orator De oratore De optimo genere oratorum Topica Such works the Poetics and the Ars poetica are almost completely or

incorporated into Minturno's treatise



his

to

of

,

W.

.

),

(

1942 337-60 Shipley

Frederick 101–29 .

pp .

of

XXXIX

Honor

)) in ,

,

,

Mo. 1942

[ 68 ]

St.

”, (

Studies

,

Modern Philology

The Poetic Theories Minturno Washington University Studies Louis

in

", ",

Poetics

of

on

.

.,

of

. .

.pp

39 38 37 “ “

Ibid 346-47 Scaliger versus Aristotle

( “

,

no

;

others contribute more less exten single central But from these disparate elements apply certain approach emerges Not only does Minturno fail concepts distinctions consistently but there are whole groups the rules sive developments

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

of an

its

its

and precepts for the specific genres , for example — which do not in any way derive from the more general concepts of the work . Even among these more general ideas , a complete ordering to a central problem is lacking . Some of them relate to the poet himself , to his faculties and his character as a good man ; some of them to the audience with desire for pleasure

an

.

is

as

.

to

to

an

is

no

.

in a

is

;

is

, it

of

as

to

of

;

of

and need for moral improvement some them the poem qualitative and quantitative parts But imitation composed one complete each fragmentary form and presented these analyses Minturno passes rapidly from one context another Insofar there ordering ordering rhetorical principles For the various ideas

Aristotle's system

of of

at

is

,

in

,

of

,

or

of

,

is

,

of

,

a

a

or

to

,

.

at a

to

of

in

,

,

system

of

.

the detail the really treatment however Minturno's Ciceronian and most specific passages comes from one the discussion another Cicero's discipline again rhetorical works Here the lack order the lack the impose synthesis failure arrive central organization upon

in

taken into consideration

In

the speech itself must

the Rhetoric which the the orator and the proofs presented

of

the character be

,

the audience

,

at

in

in is

.

reminiscent

of

nature

all

vaguely

of

as a

or

;

of

,

each chain

;

an

is ,

of

relationships established within the work there one end effect upon the audience the other end some faculty producing that effect the poet capable the middle the poem serving arrangement essentially rhetorical and means instrument This chains

of irreconcilable materials are evident Lodovico Castelvetro's Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata sposta 1570 commentary like Robortello's work the Poetics.40 Unlike Robor

)

(

on

Castelvetro sets out

refute Aristotle and

to

however

,

,

tello

to

,

a

is ,

et

.

mass

suggest his

no

in is its

,

,

imagination

to no

no

a

.

own theories instead He begins with the basic assumption that poems are written for specific audience the ignorant multitude which has knowl ,

memory

in

it

,

so

:

so

or

all



. In

,

respected —

be

,

comfort and which demands that please this audience order and pleasure the only end the poet must above seek credibility verisimilitude combina credibility tion with the marvelous that the unimaginative audience will believe the marvelous that will find pleasure the uncommon edge

plots These two factors determine the nature they poetry character the choice materials make kind history which differs from history only the use verse The audience's

of ,

a

of

.

of of a

;

in

,

,

of

.

of

and the extraordinary episodes

to

its

of

it is

(

,

of

of





a

in

which every

349–71

.

,

.pp

as cit

this

.,

.op

system

al .,

a

in

be

S.

in R. .

Cranc

[ 69 ]

, ”

of

Poetics

Such

et

of

40 “

precepts which the poet must follow Castelvetro's Theory

an

as ,

;

of



)

an

,

it .

of

;

of

as by



of

demand for comfort introduces the requirement unity time imagination adds the unity place the unity lack action which Castelvetro does not really consider essential even though the only adjunct one the three required Aristotle comes the unities time and place serves additional ornament and shows the excel lence the poet Moreover the audience will impose upon the work special conditions which will whole set codified the rules and

POBTIC

THEORY

.

the Poetics the commentary

,

in

of

be a

commentary

the course

Castelvetro's own doctrine will result

of

.

but much illumination

of

be

on

its

presentation should that the vehicle for Little light will thrown the Poetics

on

thing results from the necessity of pleasing a specific audience , is rhetorical in a sense ; besides , it is historical to the degree that it concerns itself with credibility . It is , of course , clearly distinct from Aristotle's conception of poetics ; and what is amazing from the point of view of methodology is

of ,

I

the details

of

of

An examination

in

,

,

of

by

this chapter

in

These four documents are representative their general outlines the produced application results the methods that have described

by

all

to

of

the characteristic ways

of

,

lectual approach the major difficulties

,

of

we

.

,

-

,

all

,

We should not ,

work

.

in at

.

discussion would show other course expect find the methods exemplified any single work the faults and failings epitomized any one theorist who would thus become the arch sinner Renaissance critical theory Rather should expect that the various habits intel procedures

solving

,

a

,

in

we

.

If

of

of

in ,

in

varying those difficulties would manifest themselves variously and body combinations the numerous documents which constitute the critical materials the Cinquecento are concerned not only with practical what the theoretical and the critics said their writings but with why they said what they did we should anticipate that constant awareness is to

of

of

of

.

,

to

us

of

methodological factors will enable judge both understand and writings problem reading their The Renaissance critical texts com plex not only because the critical situation itself but the complexities a

in

to

in

.

in

of

( 70 )

.

in

be

we

,

or it in

of

time and intellectual habits By con given vices method are present simplicity document shall without doubt able discover some complexity and some clarity confusion our distance from stantly asking what virtues because

CHAPTER THREE . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS : I. THE EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

POETICA

T

HIS

CHAPTER and the three succeeding ones will be concerned with tracing through the course of the sixteenth century in Italy the intel lectual fortunes of Horace's Ars poetica . Of all theoretical documents relative to the art of poetry in classical antiquity , this was the only one which had some currency during the Middle Ages and which came to the

humanistic period and the Renaissance as a part of their more immediate intellectual heritage.1 Throughout both periods , it continued to be a dominant text in the molding of critical opinion and in the formation of new doctrines . Horace's work represented , in addition to the specific recommendations of the text itself, a general way of thinking about poetry which was highly acceptable to the Renaissance mind and which continued to dominate critical thinking in spite of the emergence of such new points

of view

as that contained in Aristotle's Poetics .

,

an in

in

,

,

of

ticular audience

of

of

be

a

a

by

.

in

to

to

to

of

to

all

Essentially , the Ars poetica regards poems in the context of the society for which they are written . It considers above the dramatic forms please and relation both nature and their capacity instruct given kind that would see them given age under given audience any poem will circumstances What goes into the making determined large part the expectations the requirements the taste this par

its

(

its

of

the

),

of

(

a

),

at

the

,

its

.

Translated into terms the poem these requirements ordering and unification audience disunity certain conventions for super ficial forms the audience expects that plays will have five acts and limited number interlocutors certain recommendations for the decorum certain precepts for dislikes disorder and laughs become

,

of

the

of

of

.

a

to

it

in .)

, of

(

),

(

characters audience has fixed notions both about types and about traditional heroes and certain generalizations about diction audience writing with each associates specific kinds diction and styles the literary genres Moreover since the various age groups and the divers social sectors the audience make different demands upon the poem provide proper combination pleasurable and profitable will have elements

of

,

.

to

his

,

In

of

brings

audience

by

,

of

Horace's theory the internal characteristics the poem not exclusively the external demands the theory very close specifically rhetorical approaches

if

, in

The fact that

are determined largely

in

,

all of

of

be

)

(

71

Poetics

during

the medieval period

,

of

Aristotle's

352

.

.p

an

in

,

an

of

is

,

chap

. ix ,

1

For the scattered appearances

below

of

this kind the determining factor the production the internal principle structural perfection but rather acceptance the those elements are included the assumption that producing upon susceptible work that will the desired effect the theories work not

sco

POETIC THEORY envisaged , arranged in an order calculated to achieve the

audience

maxi

or

it

as

)

( or

:

of

approaches , one essential element - absent from Horace - enters at poet really times into consideration the character the orator

is all

mum degree of that effect. However , in proper and complete rhetorical

).

(

it

If

be

to

is

to

,

For theorists and critics

of

of

.

it

is

is a as it

)

(

appear Quintilian made Aristotle's Rhetoric incomplete rhetoric because Horace's thesis rhetorical one omits this essential aspect

,

.

or

of it

as a

of

I,

in

we

as

its

,

the Renaissance the rhetorical tendency poetica perhaps Horace's Ars was most appealing characteristic Indeed already Chapter have seen their own thinking about poetry frequently considering inclined most toward kinsman rhetoric

.

an

be

to

,

to

in

as

to

instrumental science serving the ends moral philosophy Whatever may they specific passages doubts have had about how Horace's text were interpreted they seem have sensed immediately what extent the ,

.

of

at

to

of

an

in

to

of of

looking poetry whole corresponded their favorite ways the art Perhaps they merely continued the paths their medieval ancestors for adjunct many rhetoric and for whom the Ars whom poetry was to

to by

so

is

it

-

an

in

of be

to

,

of

"

I

,

.

all

in

,

be

;

,

,

of or

.

of



a

of

,

be on

an

predominantly

such

Horatian text the Cinquecento from one which sprang primarily from Cicero Quintilian transmuted into authority poetry The details the art the treatment the specific ideas might different but the basic assumptions the fundamental ways considering the poetic art would the same For this reason shall include the present chapter and the following ones not only those works difficult

distinguish

fact was taken rhetorical approach frequently extent that

taken and essentially

is

as



.

to of

(

)

poetry

Horace's verse epistle may thus Renaissance critics the epitome poetry Indeed this the art true

an

aspects

.

of

of

of

poetica provided occasional ideas for the arts poetry which were other rhyming and for passing allusions wise largely arts the broader

to

of

as

to

I

do

as

,

in

since that

of

,

the rhetorical documents themselves

But treatment cognizance were not a

vast and complex undertaking

if .

in

itself would poetic theory

be a

Cinquecento the history

of

I

.

,

a

in

it

which are commentaries upon Horace but such works are related secondary way insofar approach they represent the kind indicated As stated the Preface not mean trace through the

,

of

,

.

treatment

-

THE LATE CLASSICAL COMMENTATORS

:

for

its

,

of

be

to

the logical place

in

;

of

is

of

in

be

incomplete the period would taken the impact rhetorical theory upon poetics and since this rhetorical theory most closely associated the Renaissance with the interpretation chapters seems Horace's Ars poetica the present series

ACRON AND PORPHYRION

72 )

(

.

be

of

by

to

a

as

to

The Ars poetica did not come the Renaissance naked text for provided which the simplest and most elementary interpretations had printed accompanied The earliest editions were two commentaries the

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

Roman period , that attributed to Helenius Acron ( second century of Porphyrion ( third century A.D. ). Moreover , these printed editions continued an ancient manuscript tradition ( extant manuscripts late

A.D. ) and that

date back to the ninth and tenth centuries ) in which the same commentaries

accompanied the Horatian text.3 To these were added , before 1500 , the commentary of Cristoforo Landino , and , around 1500, the commentary of Iodocus Badius Ascensius ; and although Badius ' annotations were for a

a

all

number of years printed only in Paris editions , they ultimately were added to the earlier commentaries in Italian editions . By the time, then , that the major Cinquecento studies of the text were made , four glosses were

.

,

is

,

of

is

in

.

;

of

,

.

a

He provides classifications for the various Horace cites parallels from other poets explains

paraphrase

speech used

,

of

,

gives

by

he ,

obscure figures

in

or

to

of

as a

of

,

of

standard part the available editions and critics and theorists took them point departure for their own interpretations say Much essentially gram what Acron has his commentary explanatory explains meanings matical character He the words particularly syntax word order matters sometimes when the sense

of a

-

an

in

of



or

.

in , a

he

a

,

to

grammatical and histori legends and allusions brings the text kind explication passages cal However for numerous makes remarks single word interpretation sentence sometimes which suggest

he

.

to it in do it

as

of ,

a

fairly com the basic work and these remarks taken together constitute poetry thing plete theory Acron discovers Horace One that

)

in

,

as

et

,

of

et

de

est

.

Et :



his

of

tia

at

a

a

was the first

precepts

,

that

of

I

presume

.

is to

(

and

distinguish

he

for this particular text definitely series labeled such the Ars poetica He prefaces these indications with statement the very beginning commentary De inaequalitate operis loquitur dat praecepta poema primum praeceptum dispositione scribendi conuenien does

set

.

It

.

is

"



as

he

,



in

is

of

a

of

to

to

a

a

for reducing the text fixed rules for the writing precedent which Renaissance commentators were follow

precedent

poetry

,

of

lishes

to

,

he

,

a

"

a

.

At

.” 's

he

or

some dozen more precepts this kind few other places although does not specifically praeceptum call his remark uses some such word docet thinking essentially the same terms This procedure show that not without importance for the subsequent history Horace's text estab Subsequently

carminis

are pointed out

.

;

, "

Guldin

.

, et

,

,

II,

iii ;

,

Porphy Ferdinand Hauthal Acronis 1864 also 574 648 649 and 665 ), I,

,

of (

Bartholomew forth

by

,

;

"

,

Q.

in

,

of

a

3

For list the manuscripts see the edition rionis commentarii Horatium Flaccum Berlin

so by

,

called editio Romana printed Milan 1474 of Venice 1481 and

-

,

;

,

2

B.g. the editio princeps the beck around 1475 the edition

of so

,

.

constantly More important still however was the general orientation which Acron

in

);

as

:

be

Acron will

be

.

,

by

( 73 )

.

to

85 ,

II,

is

,

3

in

,

;

to

Ed .

the Badius commentary Item Milan 1518 Hauthal cited note above 575. All subsequent references page will this volume comments not specifically located found number indicated s

containing

,

,

,

(

*

,

See the Index s.v. Badius Ascensius Quintus Horatius Flaccus Editions the United States and Canada Mills College California 1938 the earliest Italian edition listed here

under the line

POETIC

THEORY

gave to the Ars poetica in his reading

of it . This

was an essentially rhetorical any if it did not introduce new ideas, emphasized and exaggerated tendencies latent in the Horatian text . One such tendency is to consider poetry in terms of the conventional rhetorical distinction of invention , disposition , and elocution . The passage previously cited ( " pri already shows this intention The dispositione mum praeceptum trilogy appear other two terms the the commentary line subject matter which fulfilling neither capable one selects : "

if

40 .

on

dispositio



The term



,

of

him . " .

lacking

the gloss on the following

line But the .

in

inventions nor eloquence can appears close conjunction

in be

a

he in to is

of

)

"

de

est

orientation which ,

a .

of .

to

all

to

is

,

of

be a

to

it

,

of

If

to

of

-

is

three way distinction little more than suggested and does not constitute the major effort the commentary attempt guiding principle for Acron's whole one were find reading principle appropriateness the text would probably Everywhere the attempt questions made reduce matters est



it :

of ,

on ,

:

).

So

is

.

(p

"

on

31

in

is

the commentaries

...

of

27

the

ne si

(“ ,

a

.

a

in in

fit ,

of

Ars poetica

the

rule the

prin

,

in all .

;

the Horatian text itself the only operating many places where the imply For example lines 125–

it at

sees

Horace seems not

,

fit

,

that Acron

was to as

original text

is it it

is

difference

more vague than

of

is

ciple

no

,

of

,

of

fit

diction must the characters the conception characters must notion decorum the end must the beginning one has made whose application depends almost exclusively upon the sensitivity right given relationship But the poet upon his sense what

of

.

fit

,

is in

"

);

so

" ),

ita

(“

),



ab

in

et ,

.

is

...

(“

"

et

,

et

in

,

hic

),

line Docet quis non esse indulgendum eloquentiae quae careat arte ratione opinionem superflui inepti incidat lines 35–37 enitor omni parte tota parte poeta uideri nulla lines 47–48 alia discrepans through ponantur proprie innumerable on opportune and uerba passages The principle itself vague since no criterion for appropriate presented the subject the When one has said that the style must ness ,

line

de ,

is

.

et

,

"

of

The same organizing concept invoked Ita ergo qui scribit nisi opportune scribat

577

20 (“ ).

(

.p



,

of

it

;

.

of

.”

et

,



, to

of





,

fittingness

in



"

of

apparent this that This attempt precept already primum praeceptum the first cited dispositione conuenientia carminis From then one hardly ever loses sight principle Praecipit precept the central The second restates poetam conuenientiam seruare debere here Acron's summation the meaning the first three lines the text 576 does the third Docet non inportune inducendam esse parabolam aut descriptionem propriety

again

,

et

,

ab

,

ad

et

Siquid inexpertum scaenae committis audes personam formare novam imum servetur qualis incepto processerit sibi constet

( 74 )

,

,

,

a

: “

deesse possunt

."

eloquentia

.p

.,

-

6

be

undoubtedly contain kept constant recommendation that character qui eligit quam possit inplere Ibid 581 materiam huic nec inuentiones nec

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

or consistent throughout a work ; but Acron's gloss on “ sibi constet " is as follows : “Let the material finish within itself , nor should it pass on to something else . Do not pass to anything else before you have finished it. " 7 The idea is generalized and is made into another expression of the notion of " fittingness " or " belongingness . " That central notion itself provides in effect a rhetorical rather poetic basis of organizing and constructing a work . I do not mean norm of “ appropriateness ” does not or could not apply to poetic

central than a that a

works . But in such a document as Aristotle's Poetics , the relationship between one part and another of the poem is stated in other terms : in terms of the hierarchical interdependence of such component parts as plot, character , thought , and diction , or in terms of the specifically poetic devices which link the parts together, necessity and probability . That is, a given element ( a word or an action or a passion ) is “ appropriate ” to the whole work in a special way determined by the total unity and the total order of the given work itself . But for Acron ( following and simplifying Horace ), the ;

thus unspecified

,

it is

If

to

of

it

of

as

character historical personages the last analysis appropriateness

.

traits

to

and

in of

of

of

,

all

principle of appropriateness is general rather than specific ; it applies in the same way to works regardless their particular natures involves appropriateness subject matters such diverse kinds that meters

by

is

,

all

,

.

its

In

.

all

is at

,

,

it

is

not determined from within the work but times judged from without the particular peculiarly rhetorical quality audience this resides As Acron interprets Horace the constant search for the appropriateness because

” ;

,

ac

a

,

,

to

,



:

...

of

"

;

to

"

,

,

a

.



,

all

it

to

of

is a

a

of

is ,

This

it

.

of

poem part please the the constant search course Horatian principle but Acron extends and states much more explicitly For example the commendare line 225 clearly means to render acceptable the public Acron expands the applied originally general statement statement satiric drama into poetry about nam omnia quae dicimus placere desideramus elements within

audience

,

, id





of of

on



ad

,

.

explaining the in the good poet “

In

: "

to

."

the work goes say

on

to )

(



of

:

the end

beginning line 148 medias leads his listener immediately

he

hastens

to

he

the reader

res ,

.

, ut ,

,

by a

is

up

."

In

a

,

is ut

ita ,

per hoc uidentur conmendare quae dicimus auribus auditorum Omnia quae dicuntur poetis enim debent dici conmendari uideantur est libenter adspiciantur similar way Horace's emphasis the audience everywhere pointed semper Acron The euentum festinat Considering the possible distaste line 148 the occasion for the gloss

...

." 9

aliam

,

ad

.

nec

ad

,

finiatur materia

ante

."





ad

,

in

)

ea

,

75 )

(

,

(

."

Cogitans fastidium lectoris 601 exitum operis properat 602 adducit bonus poeta auditorem suum quasi nota and bonus poeta quae placere non possunt hoc est praeterit quae tractatu ingrata sunt : : “ "

., ., ea .p .p ,

9 8

Ibid Ibid relinquit

ad

."

: “

., .p

In

se

in

,

is ,

,

Ne transeas

"

aliud transeat

...

Ibid 598 quam illam finias 7

;

he



,

known things and then for the next line the good poet excludes those things which cannot please that passes over those things which are not agreeable the treatment

THEORY

POETIC

...

"

"

"

a

11

."

a

in

:

of

]

[

” 10

he all

153 is

in

elucidated thus : “ what I and the people might desire , that would willingly listen to .... For omne tulit punctum provides this explanation He alone obtains the votes and the line 343 poem favorable judgment the people who writes useful and pleasant fashion and who can both profit and delight Line

is , what

"

by

be

it

of

: “

of

no

:

of

;

so

on

,

,

.

:

,

is

of

of

,

be

an

,

12 : "

in

."



in

is

in

The general thesis stated connection with the phrase Ut pictura poesis poem pleases line 361 indeed excellent even when fre quently repeated Within this audience various segments must pleased special ways Acron again emphasizes Horace's ideas Part special pleased the audience low ignorant and wicked and must poetic commentary kinds fare the lines 213–14 He indicates the cause for the increase licence because the ignorance the

of :

: "

is

be

,

on

,

;

by

13

."



",

people and because there was difference between the good and the bad and because the people was uneducated Another segment consists anything grave persons officials and noblemen offended who will dishonorable the commentary line 248 reads The meaning this

of ,

if

,

The Roman Knights and senate fathers who have great wealth and hence anything shame are noble and enjoy honorable reputation are offended

by

(

its

to

,

do

:

is

of

15

is ."

of

):

"

on

,

in

is

." 14

expressed before them ful Some the audience are young and will light things some are old and want serious materials com find delight mentary line 342 The meaning this Old men are pleased the gravity weight the verse and the the diction young men not like the same gloss shows that The introduction austere and grave things : 16

. "

it

it

its

,

so

,

its



be

of

poetry profit for the old the pleasure intended for the young poem properly through tempered pleasure The must that will satisfy severity through younger the older will men and serve the

,

those

, is





dulcia sunto

poems which are morally

...

et

.

,

id

est quid libenter audiant omncs iudicium populi tulit qui utile dulce poema scripsit

."

,

: “

Ibid 632 Solus suffragia qui prodest delectare potest et

let

populus desideret

,

ego

esse poemata

Therefore

et

quid

et

602

: "

Ibid

after the gloss

., ., .p .p

11 10 et

Ibid

13 12

,

-when



Non satis est pulchra

:

%

put on line

99

.

to





of

,

,

Apparently the insistence upon moral precepts philosophical arguments grave and the arousing the passions because these are matters especially intended for the older men The effort find everywhere both pleasure and utility may account for the somewhat startling construction

. ”

,

, , si

."

,

;

et "

est et :

. "

,

et

pondere delectantur

( 76 )

seniorum

ut

,

et

. "

:

et : “

: ." “

satisfaciat

dictionis

seruiat iuniorum

,

., .p ., .p

Ibid 631 Sensus est Senes grauitate carminis grauia non amant iuuencs austera uoluptati Poema debet temperari Ibid 631

et

15

16

honestum fuerit prolatum

"

,

: : “ “ : “

et

., ., .p .p

,

14

et

., ac p .

probum uero poema placet etiam saepe repetitum 634 Ibid 611 Dicit autem causam per quam creuit licentia propter inperitiam populi quia nulla erat differentia inter bonos malos and quia indoctus erat populus Equites Romani patres senatores quibus sunt substantiae Ibid 619 Sensus aliquid coram cis in per hoc nobiles magnae honestate gaudentes offenduntur

seueritati

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

recommendable have beauty as well and carry the mind of the auditor wherever they will , either to pity or to indignation , " the phrase " dulcia sunto " is translated by the formula “ Ethica sint, ” which I take to mean “ having moral implications . " 17 In any case , the pleasure - profit distinction

of

,

,

,

be of

it

,

of a

is

of

important the consideration what extent customs saying story through the suitableness the persons introduced and may without art without beauty the mores even though pleases sounding verses which are high sententiae more than

to

He shows only that sometimes the expression

:

cf.

on

comes to be crossed with another grammatical and rhetorical one , the “ res verba " juxtaposition ; the gloss line 320

-

of

.

in

of ,

without gravity lacking the observation the mores Things without ornament can please more than poems adorned with words without substance.18

is

nature

Acron

.

of

his notion

ut

25 , is

of

"



."

,

"

,

:

a

."

is on

"

"



.

the same connection The

have

all

is

of





20

)



(

.”

we

.

:

he

of

"

ad

,

we

,

as

."

ad

,

,

ad

,

, et ,

Habeant ergo haec quae sunt probata etiam uenustatem quocumque indignationem siue siue misericordiam Ostendit modo quantum prodest consideratio consuetudinis dicens ,

593

: “

, ., .p

it

us

"

19

. "

is we

"

17

Ibid

uoluerint animum auditoris trahant 18

in

We

follows

: “

glossed

as ff .

108

108

,

line

lines

interesting

intus passions within our souls nature and they are moved singly whenever they see their own images says this others For the iuvat aut impellit iram line 109 charmingly presented For through Nature delights when we see nature become angry feel pleasure have pity The angit explained meaning that Nature herself troubles the spec line 110 in byof

comments

as et

sit

unum

of

quod vis simplex dumtaxat

highly significant phrase Quiduis scribe simplex Similarly interpreted specie ueri simile the recte line imagine boni dum praeferimus imaginem ueritatis The whole series adds

is



a

of

is

is

a

.

in be

course true

Thus for line 23— et

.

does This

the first lines indicates that

,

sit

Denique

,

is

of

does not conform

sees

merely states the idea more explicitly

-he

to

of

he

,

in

,

not count but what the audience thinks the spectator Horace and the laughter the monster

certain conception what nature does

;

as

it its to

.

it

,

of

is

nature The audience the custodian nature and uses this conception criterion

reference

if



at

,

to

.

of in

it

"

as

of

nature

a

in



of

his

of

the audience the role Acron's conception figures Horace's work Clearly for appropriateness judging poem the precise way many things possible through not made apparent for some least the judgment

One special aspect interpretation

,

,

,

, et

ex

in

natura

singuli mouen

(

uidemus

Nam natura irascimur

,

cum delicata

.

,

nos natura

."

,

: “

594 Delectat miseremur

., .p

Ibid delectamur

animis nostris

."

in

: "

.,

Ibid 594 adfectus omnes habemus aliis tur cum imagines suas uiderint

77 )

.p

20 , 19

."

.

,

,

,

,

,

sit

ot

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 629 quod interdum fabula opportunitate personarum inductarum expressione morum quamuis sine arte sine uenustate sine grauitate sententiarum plus placet quam uersus bene quidem sonantes sed morum obseruatione carentes Magis possunt delectare res sine ornatu quam ornata poemata uerbis sine rebus

POBTIC

THEORY

tator . " 21 The commentary on line 111 is essentially the same in intent.22 Finally , the distinction between historical and newly invented subjects is transformed by Acron into a distinction between the true and the veri similar ; for line 119 he says : “Si ergo certam scribis, famam sequere , aut

,

verisimilitude



the term

all

Aliud prae In these upon

the insistence

the interaction between nature and the spectator

,

of

an

,

,

the introduction

the indication



passages nature

of

si fingis, habeat artem et uerisimilitudinem figmentum tuum . ceptum : aut notam historiam scribe , aut uerisimilia finge ."

.

of



"

"

,

.23



,

he

"

,

or

be

by

"



it to

.”



to

is

of

in

,

.

to

In

an

in

to

of

approach poetry are signs which the role the audience even Horace himself more emphatically stressed than approach the goal pursued such the poet must also related laughter applause the audience Acron begins with the the something very close the audience and extends mean fame glory victory the Ciceronian Whoever writes unless write appropri to

as

20 )

,

"

"

by

) is (

of in

” (

,

"

"

"



finis

on

will not obtain glory for himself line The single word referring line 406 which Acron apparently mistakes the poetry end translated laudatio and several comments on line 412– ately

ad

...

,

"

gloriam uenire studet quia finis istiusmodi uitae



:

Qui

dicit gloriam

parit

a

,

.

to

.

, ,

in

mind authority for their own ideas Finally

of

or

of

the text have these remarks constantly

cite them when they need support

,

of

their orientation

large measure determine

.

in

-

of

,

to



precepts Acron's commentary the reduction the upon rhetorical elements the attention the role later critics about the Horatian enter bodily into the thinking

the salient tendencies the emphasis text and

.

,

all

in

if

as

it

Renaissance students

audience

,

in as

,

of

,

of

a

so

.”

,

Id





at

it is

have insisted

;

propositi finem gloriam such length on ancient commentator Acron because his remarks for readers the Cinquecento are sense contemporary both with the text Horace and with themselves They scholarly and critical editions are read along accompany that text they with almost had been written by Horace himself Moreover

If I

gloriam sempiternam

glory

is

that the goal Optatam ergo metam

est ,

"

-insist

;

Qui studet optatam cursu contingere metam

is

or

a

of

.

of

Only

the basis

a

,

.

,

.

precepts

few points are worthy

for judging appropriate ,

."

."

,

78 ]

[

."

ad

,

,

:

: “

ad Id

: "

pp

,

Ibid

series

As with Acron

Ipsa natura spectatorem 594 est natura quae me deiecit rerum miseratione extollit 594–95 iracundiam humanitatem modo modo deducit 578 qui scribit nisi opportune scribat non sibi conparat gloriam

, ., ., ., et .p .p .

23

Ibid Ibid peritate

: "

22 21

special mention here

of

to of a

,

of

the work

of

reduction

of

,

is

;

of

,

,

. It

the commentary

of

Porphyrion Acron that repeats certain amount brief pedestrian and relatively unimportant usually material material from Acron but this the grammatical Porphyrion's contribution explanatory type which constitutes the bulk The major emphases Acron are lacking save perhaps that upon the

As compared with

pros

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

approval — is by reference to , laughs says Porphyrion , is “quod nature . The reason that the audience contra naturam omnia faciat . " 24 Poets should choose subjects equal to their strength not ( as we presume Horace to have meant ) so that they can

for assuring

In

).

.p

(

"

,

ut

the work properly

so

but that they may please the eligant qua possint placere eam materiam 651 the

: "

audience

parts

the audience's

,

complete

of

all

ness — and hence

gloss on line 119

Aut famam sequere aut sibi conuenientia finge

,

,

an or



-



in

as

of

,

of

.

,

Acron

1482

)

CRISTOFORO LANDINO

(

.

its

to

addendum that the Cinquecento

of

res verba terms very

they corroborate These few ideas insofar Porphyrion made the commentary Acron which was not without influence upon critics

Acron

of of

to

of

in

.

a

but between known history and some other known fact The distinction again appears connection with lines 319–20 similar those insist upon those

as

to

: “

25

a

in

.”

a

is in

a

to

he

if

,

or

is he

,

it

of

is

to

-

a

of

precept different from that Porphyrion states For the poet Acron going write must either describe something according the handle dry history does not wish men common opinion proper way were must introduce known things The distinc tion here not between history and what invented verisimilar way

who

in

in

by

is

.

,

at

.

century

sixteenth

Cristoforo

Landino

and

Badius

commentary

as

on

.

the

Both groups enter the Horatian tradi two commentators who stand the ,

of

of

humanists the fifteenth century tion through the intermediary threshold Ascensius

:

,

is a

,

of

-

by

of

,

,

Acron second century Porphyrion third century between them and long gap This gap part the critics the Cinquecento there filled part the late classical grammarians Donatus and Diomedes the

in

I

as

his

he

a

,

in , of

of

;

he

,

,

,

of

by

he

of

of

, Byin

the edition

in ,

the Ars poetica appeared first far published Horace's Opera which Florence way incorporating into 1482. remarks typical medieval thinking poetic lengthy quotations from Diomedes about matters introduced way taking cognizance quoted the humanist contribution Plato cited Aristotle called frequently upon Cicero and long pre

Landino's

know

of .

in

on

in

of

to a

he

;

no

by

,

the Hauthal edition

which

,

is

in

a

high esteem

kings

cited throughout

Nam

.

for Acron

poeta scripturus

historiam

aut secundum hominum consensum debet aliquid tamquam tritam non vult adtingere debet conucnicnter notam ,

655

aut

649

of

, .p

has always been held

[ 79 ]

."

,

si : as “

., .p

Ibid

describere inducore

he by

;

a

,

religion

the comment on the first line

for Porphyrion 25

of in

instrument

In

an

24

is

:

is

.

,

fatory section presented poesy defence the fashion Boccaccio poetry Moreover referred his own dialogue his edition Vergil Landino's defence comprises the arguments which were already traditional the poet creator inspired the divine furor other writer equals him civilizing influence wisdom and eloquence exerts

THEORY

POETIC

and rulers . Great philosophers have always praised him , especially Plato in the lon and Aristotle- " et ipse de facultate poetica duos : de poetis

its

:

its

autem tres libros elegantissime scripserit . " One passage in this preface indi cates clearly how Landino conceives of the art of poetry and of allegorical uses

,

by

in

,

by

;

of

by

[ is ]

,

of

all

Indeed matter much more divine than that other writings for embrac ing them and bound together varied rhythms and circumscribed separated measures and adorned short various ornaments and various

be

of

it

be

For when

us ,

by

;

a

,

,

,

it

embellishes with admirable fictions whatever men have heretofore done whatever they have accomplished whatever they have known and contem plated with divine genius and for fear that they cannot understood except through allegories perceived transposes completely into things flowers

it

at all ,

by

of

is

in

of

,

it

a

be

a or . to

to to

narrating something most humble most appears singing delight little fable idle ears that very time writing rather secret way the most excellent things and which are drawn forth from the fountain the gods.26 different kinds and ignoble

of

in

.

,

,

,

is

: "

as ,

be

he

at

invention and disposition

In

relate

.”

to

,

a

to

of

of

in

of

,

In

way the commentary itself Landino goes far beyond Acron interpreting Horace disposition terms invention and elocution His gloss on the first words the text reads follows Because the writing poem the first thing investigated invention disposition and explains immediately those things which elocution the very beginning this regard Landino points out how to

to

to

on to

in

of

:

.

to in

;

to ),

cf.

(

is to

close poetry rhetoric the precepts for elocution are common both Cicero whereas the differences occur the other two parts He then proceeds subdivide the text according these distinctions after the lines which the relationship the subject matter nature and

in

')

"

.

46 , “

, ”

27

41 ,

(

"

is

low

high

)

.

selves into three groups

In

(

If

,

of

(

"

an A

"

),

to

,

is

disposition beginning with line decorum treated Horace passes lucidus ordo then elocution beginning with line verbis cognate rhetorical distinction that three styles introduced the interesting fashion subject matters which are invented divide them ,

"

to

of



,



"

,

develop

.pp

as

,

Verum rem esse multo illis diuiniorem quç illas distinctisque pedibus circumscripta numeris colligata uarias denique luminibus uariisque floribus illustrata quçcunque hactenus homines fecerint ingenii diuinitate contemplati fuerint admi quecunque egerint quecunque cognouerint

clviv_clvii

et

:

ad .

nobis perceptis intelligi

possint

in

:

ne

:

randis figmentis exornat nisi allegoriis omnino species traducit Nam cum ostendat

se a ac

;

ac

uariisque

:

(

1482 amplectens

:

omnes

: "

Opera

ed .) ,

26

.

,

,

,

.

to

"

the

,

of

poems used

"

the middle and the then diction used them and the kinds express them must also fall into the same three groups Vergil's three major poems the Aeneid the Georgics and the Bucolics may serve examples proper adaptation the types

diversas

aliud quippiam longe humilius ignobiliusque

in

ad

a in

( 80 )

.

clviii clviii -

also

.pp

exequitur

" ;

:

: “

., .p

27

. ”

et a

narrare aut fabellam ociosas aures oblectandas canere tunc res omnino egregias diuinitatis fonte exhaustas occultius scribit poemate scribendo inuentio dispositioque atque elocutio Ibid clvii Quoniam primis inuestiganda est statim principio quę inuentionem dispositionemque spectant

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

As far as Horace is concerned , the principle is intimated in lines 86 ff ., Descriptas servare vices , etc. ” Elocution thus fits invention , always within the framework of one of the three " figures , " and a mixing of styles becomes as impossible as a mixing of matters : “ neither may we write a tragedy “

about comic matters nor a comedy about tragic ones .

" 28 This fittingness of matter is expressed in the general term decorum , which for Landino is one of the concerns most “ proper " to poets . As for invention itself, subjects must be natural , verisimilar , but “ feigned " or created ; this is because the end of poetry is to please or delight— “Nos enim delectare uult ” —and there is no delight without belief . The false , the

style to genre to subject

ridiculous , the monstrous will cause laughter or disdain because they are not representations of nature, and one of the fundamental notions about poetics is that every art imitates nature— “ omnis ars naturam imitetur . "29 The same end of delight necessitates the cultivation of variety : “The major

be

,

is

to

a

to

be

of

It

.”

all

virtue is to distinguish the poem by much variety ; for by variety we delight the soul of the listener, and render him attentive , and remove him from boredom will noted what extent these remarks depend upon conception given pleasure rhetorical the audience which either

, to is

in

,

.

of

,

he

on

” ;

in

ut



or to

be

quemcunque affectum mouere possit moved— auditores although and Landino makes the appropriate comments Horace's emphasizes much more demands for moral utility his commentary pleasure and feeling The audience itself however superior elements

a

,

,

of

fashion

invention

and

disposi of

the three styles

in

to

is

the elements we

,

or

this same consistent

, or in

circles close

whether we start with the audience

it at is

,

to

-

A

.

of

or

all

,

end with some other these totally self consistent rhetorical system factors with them imposed bodily upon the Horatian poetic and made coincide with

,

tion and elocution

,

,

, in

,

all

Landino

,

one

In

. 30

an

.

of

,

to

engage that for rhetoric being more erudite and having more time reading and rereading disposition example the work Hence for the poet may use natural restricted artificial order whereas the orator

point

.

every

1500

)

(

BADIUS ASCENSIUS

in

.

of

of

aut

tragica comediam

in

so

:

comica tragediam

de

,

re

de

ne

: “

clxv and clxi

importantly

the

scri

clxii and

clviii

" ;

ab

et

:

et

:

.

est

.

.p

clxiiv poema multa varietate distinguere Animum enim Virtus maxima uarietate delectamus attentum reddimus omni fastidio remouemus ;

see also

clviiiv

( 81 )

.p

auditoris

clviiv

: “

Ibid

.

Ibid

., ., ex .p .p p .

30 29

."

bamus

. in

of

a

,

are added the grammarians who figured .pp

Ibid

.,

28

To them

of

by

is

.

,

it

'

is

,

of of

With the publication the commentary Iodocus Badius Ascensius 1500 the interpretation the Ars poetica takes another step forward Not only Badius discussion much longer and more complete than any the earlier ones but enriched vast quantity materials brought from new sources Acron Porphyrion and Landino are course quoted

POETIC

THEORY

conceptions of poetry , Diomedes , Donatus , and Priscian . There to Plato.31 But most significant of Badius calls constantly upon the Institutes Quintilian and upon the various rhetorical works Cicero for explanations clarifications and examples Horace's ideas sense then the commentary Badius once bridges the gap between the late classical period and the Renaissance incorporating the all ,

medieval

of

,

,

relates Horace specifically

the chief

of

of

.



"

sources and

to

principal medieval Latin rhetoricians

it

-

by

at

of

,

,

a

,

In of

.

of

are also references

in

to

he

a

&

In

diligentem castigationem cohor Badius sees almost everywhere

the work

,

the ideas

ad

:

&

.

&

in

quinta

of

).

In

Ilv

"

tatur

( .fol

.

consummata fuit docet

Et In

.

&

.

. In

: "

is

.

a

in

is a

Badius lover divisions and maker distinctions almost the prologue scholastic fashion Hence his commentary indicates that the Ars poetica divided into five sections Item quarum prima inquiunt poeta vitia extirpat secunda verbi decorum instituit tertia rerum qualitatum personarum decora discrimina Item poematos genera quarta actores formam agendi quomodo inuentores demonstrat

Pro descriptione poetice subnotandum est tripli triplicem stylum triplex potissimum materiam scribentium triplicem triplicem qualitatem decorum finem similia ibid The distinguished are the true which supplies the facts for three matters history the verisimilar which supplies the arguments for comedy and the fictional which neither true nor verisimilar and which supplies the

(

.) .



(

,

is

(

),

(

so

"

),

"

,

,

&

,

esse

his ,

-

: “

three way distinctions

cem

as a

is

"

in

or or



to

on





;

,

of

,

,

of

.

to

is

it

38

of

, ,

-

is

,

at



ad

be

should ”

).

It

gloss noted that the distinction made Rhetorica from the derived and that line materiam say Herennium that time ascribed Cicero But Badius goes way sublime into the division matters three that there another elevated which involves gods heroes and kings the mediocre middling which consists didactic the scientific information exploited

for poetry

fables

upon the



of ) -

,

a

:

,

of

'

32

."

of

"

in

"

,

a

of

.

,

a or

low

style and

of (

is

of

adapted

,

.

of

"

humble

is



and the

of

;

containing pastoral and trivial subjects To each these form verse result three way styles also called distinction characteres figurae genera dicendi and commonplace the division rhetorical the course This meters Vergil decorums Ages epitomized The three wheel the Middle poetry





;

at ;

or to

,

to

,

of

of

,

,

du

Faral Les Arts poétiques ,

E.

cf.

87 ). ",

), .p

[ 82 ]

,

"

of

.

to

on

(

:

-

(

.



Gerlier 1500 the earliest edition that ,

of

,

to

is

It

31 ° 32 I et ; . du ,

in

,

,

,

trilogies should come significant that the first statement this set commentary preface second expanded that the and his the author's

Paris quote Badius passages from the edition this edition know all references are Vergil wheel the Ibid fols VIII VIIIy XIII siècle Paris Champion 1923 XII

I

,

;

of

,

to

VIIIv

).

.

(

same time fol

,

of of to , of

of

qualities persons the three things verse words and are the styles the low correspond and the middle elevated the the three poems the mixed and the are the narrative the dramatic three kinds please bring profit the do both the poet are three ends

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

should appear very early in his remarks on the text . For the interpretation is in every sense prior to Horace His key standard procedure will wait for some point the text where gives him the opportunity word such the materiam line exploit one fully develop distinctions and then connection .

in

to

a

in

46

X ).

(

"

oratore

fol .

the has



becomes

de

re

And

est

,

a

of

to

characters their age

,

and their

indeed central

the whole conception

of

decorum

it is

This matter

to

of

(

).

various kinds

,

life

XIXv

of

condition country fol.

of

or

of

"

,

id



-

of

to

persons prefaced the decorum the personarum imprimis remark Quia decorum obseruandum ostendit quo pacto the fortune the discussion and continuing seruabitur leads

long development

by

dicentis erunt fortunis absona dicta

on

Si

line

for citing what Cicero

in

style and

of it

to )38

of

low



ita “

on



verbis etiam tenuis

the

De hac dicit Cicero beginning with line 112— “

say about

In

it :

to

.

with that word Thus the occasion for expatiating the passage

to





his

of

(

as

be

schematism

of

his

statement

the

if

is

,

,

he

.

in

is

of

on

,

so

work even more than Horace For Badius separates his ideas poetry into small groups three must find some device for collecting precisely the them together again into larger units and that device

:

Styles

Middle

Low

gods heroes kings sublime

information

shepherds

mediocre

humile

pentameter

iambic comedy

,

Elevated

altisonum

tenue

hexameter epic tragedy

didactic

:

,

Genres

,

:

Meters

,

to

a

."

to

as

follows

:



,

"

"

,

a

rough tabular form

,

:

Matters

in

"



relationships

of we

is

, in

all

'

,

of

principle

.

in

he

of as

.

of

really little Decorum accepted this broader sense appropriateness similar that which have major group seen Acron Once again Badius ideas fall into three things dividing themselves according sees the major distinction the the elevated middle and the low One may represent these decorum

more than

a

principle

pastoral

it

of of

),

of

,

"

: a "

a

(

of in

in

a

them hence the decorum general rhythmic patterns and them both sounds Moreover these persons will engage .

of

of to its

the structure

style fitted

, its to (

of

of to in

or

in

),

in

spoken

verse suited

.

to

of

or

as

speaking words

'

in

the ideas necessitate

a

of

,

is

inexact and incomplete since certain subsequent refinements crossing over from column column But does represent the fundamental concept thinking high genre Badius tragedy will present persons such the epic certain kind each persons whom has the proper traits character hence the decorum The table

.

of

(

of (

83 ]

[

in

)

of

).

actions appropriate their characters and stations hence the decorum things All but two representation and the smaller trilogies manner major relationships end the poet are combined this set

POETIC THEORY The Ars poetica is thus read as if it were part of the classical -medieval rhetorical tradition , which culminated in the rigorous hierarchy of the literary types as it is symbolized in the " wheel of Vergil . " What is more , Badius introduces other essentially rhetorical distinctions which complete

of the Horatian text . As the above table shows, the " res verba " division is made to apply in a very real way , “ matters " being the “ res ” and “ styles ” the “ verba .” Such a statement as the following , the transformation

offered as explanation of lines

310-11

Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae : Verbaque provisam rem non invita sequentur

-may

no

,

of

,

, ,

to

of

in

,

at

.

is ,

).

, of

a

,

of

art

fol .

be cited in corroboration : “ Poema enim constat ex re & oratione . Res autem ex philosophia originem trahit vt praecepta contineat . Oratio in grammatica & rhetorica dicitur " ( XXXVIv There thus poetry merely combination philosophy grammar and separate rhetoric The rhetorical categories invention disposition and elocution very are introduced the outset the conclusion the first set :

or

be

;

an

be

to

)

of

33

."

"

"

(

;

a

in ,

a

in

in

of

: “

at

remarks Three things are therefore necessary first The careful con economy sideration and invention disposition the whole matter placed other fitted with deliberation for the events narrated will poem than history and their embellishment wise exornatio accordance with their arrangement As for the rhetorical ideas

of

,

: "

in

( ex 23 .fol

in .

,

a

Cicero and Quintilian they are introduced whenever Badius can find plausible reason for bringing them For example the requirement unity stated Apta autem digressio line elicits the following remark

of

;

"

de

ita

...

ideas incorporated into the commentary

those

,

the medieval

of

).

( .

in

As for

de

),

(

: “

in

is

).

V

of

"

;

quarto Quintiliani colligitur tribus modis fieri and Quintilian's falling enumeration follows Where Horace speaks the danger sought lines 25–26 into obscurity when brevity Badius finds the anti qua Cicero dote Cicero De apta tamen breuitate non nihil dicemus inquit rhetorice veteri enarratione loquens and the quota tion follows fol VII ”



in

de

arte

listen

of

, "

us

Pisones

say

let

ad

on of to

",

he

"

;

he



,

,

"

goes

of

a is

.

Horatii Flacci

Quinti matters among them the title poetica institutio to understand this to

no

),

of

(

I

which call medieval since they were the standard sources ideas about poetry throughout the Middle Ages they frequently come into the discussion even when there justification general the Horatian text itself Badius opens his prologue with number Diomedes and Donatus

,

or

a

is

,

in

,

.

,

says Diomedes Poetics metrical structure narration true proper rhythm meter suitable for pleasure and false things composed

:

in

. "

: in 84 ]

[

&

& in

.

.

: “

.

.,

.

33

Ibid fol IIIly Tria ergo primum sunt necessaria Materiae totius excogitatio atque poemate aliter historia aliter enim inucntio Excogitate apta oeconomia seu dispositio qua elegantic disposite exornatio decori habenda est ratio locabuntur res narrande

ARS POETICA

BARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

pages collecting together

he

,

'

he

,

of

,

. 35

do

on

lines 275

to

have nothing

ff .,

,

on

,

remarks

a

set

Diomedes dicta about the dramatic forms Similarly after his with Horace treating the history tragedy and comedy

,

which essentially

of

all



,

;

us

let

or utility . " 34 Much later, after he has finished his gloss on lines 189–201 , he adds : “ Since we have promised to speak of the decorum of comedies and tragedies a little later , now forth few things about their description and parts taken from Diomedes and writes over three full

to



:

is

no

a

us

let

of

a

it

.

so

,

to

of

as a

or

,

to

,

"

to

.

...

36

,

,

of

in

,

to

say the same subject With respect the invention satires tragedies and comedies recite few things found Obviously the intention longer the grammarian Donatus provide elucidation for Horace's text but merely use the commentary repository for everything that Badius knew could find about the art poetry transform into vade mecum the kind which the Renais useful sance found adds what Donatus has

its

to

in

found

is

of

precepts

the text

the addition Horace was

to

to

The net result taries

six

.

Badius

'

epitome

-

the twenty

which they interpretations in

of

-

of in

complete

five

the order

these four pre Cinquecento commen that text something very special

-

of of .

of

,

one would have the Ars poetica

the first twenty

assemble them

make

of

are given

a

.

the text Were one

of

of

portions

to

five such rules corresponding

to

of

a

",

of



at

"

"

as

.

to a

set

:

The tendency

to

Acron and Porphyrion here carried inevitable conclu sion For whereas the earlier commentators had only occasionally labeled precepts their remarks Badius constantly and invariably supplies regula the end each section the commentary There are twenty One final remark reduce Horace

its

.

as

of

by

.

of

for Cinquecento readers The latent rhetorical characteristics the Ars poetica had been made explicit and stated overtly the two earlier com mentators The two later ones had produced further evidence ,

,

of

all

of

a

no

.

all

,

of

so

of

,

of

.

a

of

parallel quotations from classical rhetori rhetorical character number cians and had completed the rhetorical distinctions Moreover they had knowledge about the made their commentaries compendiums poetic art longer theory poetry but the that Horace's work was theory poetry the summum useful ideas about the art Text and be

,

let it

,



to

a

of

an

.

est

34

,

an

,

as

they always were provided for the commentaries taken together Cinquecento reader poetics which was initiation not very special kind forgotten initiation

tragoediarum decoro paulo post loqui Dyo partibus pauca praemittemus ex

& &

de

de

Quia comoediarum ipsarum descriptione

"

....

Nunc

"

...

[ 85 ]

.

: “

.

ex

.,

Ibid fol XXXIIIv Circa inuentionem satyrarum 19 pauca Donato grammatico recitabimus

tragoediarum

&

36

mede

.

polliciti sumus

: “

fol XXVv .

Ibid

.,

35

."

:

ad

.

: "

.

.,

Ibid fol Ilv Pro quo intelligendo audiamus Diomedem Poetica inquit ficte vereque narrationis congruenti rythmo vel pede composita metrica structura vtilitatem voluptatemque accommodata

comoediarum

THEORY

POETIC QUATTROCENTO THEORISTS

During the Quattrocento , evidences that this Horatian - rhetorical mode of thinking about poetry was common are found in various documents . I

shall cite here only a few cases , which are not in themselves directly related to the Horatian text but which show the continuation , into the humanistic period , of the standard medieval distinctions about the art of poetry . A brief example is found in the In errores Antonii Raudensis adnotationes of Lorenzo Valla ( d. 1457 ). Antonio had provided the following definition : * Clamare , deinde mouere tragoedias , est mouere exclamationes & excla mare . " To which Lorenzo objects thus : And he cites the example of Quintilian ; but neither in Quintilian nor in Cicero is it found in this sense . Rather , [ it means ] to make things more terrible and shameful by the use of the right words , which is the function of the writers of tragedy , who always speak of sad and terrible things ; just as , on the contrary , to make comedies or comoediari is used by Aristophanes "to speak ridiculously or bitingly . "

and certain other Greeks

to mean

To Antonio's remarks on comedy

he offers these corrections :

The author seems not to know that the " toga ” is the dress of the Romans just as the " pallium " is the dress of the Greeks ; and that the " togatae ” were comedies which were not translated from the Greek but composed by Romans of

of



,

since they themselves

.

"



,

called inventors than Caecilius invented and did not translate

,

,



;

,

all

and Terence

,

,

,

Plautus

or

all

nearly ... Indeed , the works the best comic writers Caecilius Plautus and Terence were translated from the Greek and therefore Antonio should not have have said that Plautus was the greatest inventor comedies ... for certainly Afranius and others like him are much more properly and Latins .

,

to

of ,

of

37

."

,

et

of

of

In

"

to

,

is

is

significant here What the reference Quintilian and Cicero the simple distinction between tragedy and comedy and the meaning attached the rhetorical term invention regno regis the De institutione libri IX Francesco Patrizi Bishop

ed .) , .p

37

II,

IX ,

,

is

of

in of

.

to

its

.

of

.

(d

1494

),

poetry Horatian notions the pleasure and utility utility comedy are crossed with Platonic ideas moral criteria The comprise also made usefulness for teaching the language another conception pertinent chapter passage occurs medieval The Book Gaeta

.

ac

,

,

,

,

de

est

,

& ,

e

:

,

: in “

(

&

,

, In

Opera 1543 Affertque exemplum Quintiliani sed neque apud Quinti 399 lianum neque apud Ciceronem hanc significationem inuenitur Imò rem uerbis atrocem magis indignam efficere quale opus tragicorum rebus atrocibus semper moestisque loquentium pro ridicule sicut contrario comoedias agere siue comoediari dicaciter

."

86 )

(

,

Et

: “ .

. . . , .

Plautus

,

quàm Caecilius

,

,

&

,

,

torem nam certe Afranius similes magis inuentores Terentius dicendi sunt qui ipsi inuenerunt non transtulerunt ,

,

,

è

...

alij

,

,

:

.p

" ;

,

,

à

,

è

,

ut

,

loqui apud Aristophanem alios nonnullos Graecorum and 400 Autor uidetur pallium togatas esse nescire togam esse vestem Romanorum uestem Graecorum Latinisque compositas comoedias non Graeco traductas sed Romanis Etenim Graeco traducti sunt Caecilij Plauti omnes aut ferè omnes summorum comicorum libri Terentij eoque non fuit Raudensi dicendum fuisse Plautum maximum fabularum inuen

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES “

Qui Scriptores Legendi Discendique sint , quíue negli

Rege

Futuro

A

gendi ” :

without utility that one may also read tragedies , if morality is respected ; in them for they carry weight , and have elegance of expression and gravity of thought , especially Euripides. ... In the same way the writers of comedy are also to be read . For they nourish everyday conversation , and by the propriety and the elegance of their words they make the art of speaking more polished and

It is not

.

, of a

be

to

all

richer . But to conclude briefly , individual poets , even if they are read with a certain pleasure , have certain virtues of their own , and a certain wonderful grace king which is not at unsuitable the dignity wh

,

to

us

.

38

if

to

.

let

absolutely rejected because they corrupt good mores Obscene poets must orders and imbue the soul with wickedness ... But listen Plato write those things which will make men good and will teach them the poets they are rich and that the good are happy and the bad are unhappy even lucky -

,

,

in

.

of

as is

of

A

of

this Horatian rhetorical point much more complete representation view contained Giovanni Pontano's dialogue Actius already men tioned one those documents which classified poetry with history On to ,

,

,

its

as

of

;

of

;



,

ut

:

,

is

of

the one hand the dialogue full rhetorical distinctions applied poetry both history and poetry fall within the deliberative and demonstra oratory each proposes tive categories ends doceat delectet moveat the functions both are divided into invention disposition and

to

is

,



is in

:

in

or

in

,

in

no

,

to

.pp

De

,

a

?

that both men give

it

attention

to

to

.

is to

move and carry away the listener Indeed carry directed this capacity move and to

away and the extraordinary

is

what end

:

,

;

of .

"

,

I

ask

to

both orater and poet

what end

is

res

medias

of

a

; "

in

,

, of

of to

The end to

of

,

natural order narration while poetry beginning The language the orator special the forum and the senate that the poet must display magnificence elevation and excellence

cultivates the kind

”,

probabilia ficta history follows

veri similia

fitted

is in

;

"

well

vocabulary and rhythms especially the the truth whereas poetry treats and sometimes things which are wise restricted

"



as

of

more studied and elegant use new words history

its in

of

or

.





or





of



;

of

victory very similar elocution the personal goal for the orator glory for the poet On the other hand differences that fame between poetry and either history rhetoric are usually explained terms distinctions found Horace his commentators poetry

The orator in

,

,

.

,

, si

.

,

&

, si

ac 57 : “

,

ed .) ,

(

, . . &. vt .

,

38

regno 1567 56v Non sine vtilitate etiam leguntur Tragoedi mores tuto fuerint habent enim pondus nitorem verborum sententiarum grauitatem precipue Euripides Eodem etiam modo Comici legendi sunt Alunt siquidem quotidianum proprietate elegantiáque verborum eloquentiam nitidiorem uberiorémque sermonem reddunt Sed breuiter concludam singuli poëtae cùm delectu quodam leguntur proprias

,

,

,

ea

,

,

87 ]

[

." ,

ac

si , &

à

,

&

,

...

. . . .

.

quasdam virtutes habent regia dignitate nequaquam mirificam quandam gratiam quae aliena est Obscoeni poëtae omnino negligendi sunt bonos enim mores corrumpunt poëtas scribere iubet animum nequitiis imbuunt Nos autem Platonem audiamus qui quae viros bonos efficiant doceantque bonos beatos esse malos verò miseros etiam fortunati diuites essent

THEORY

POETIC

of

he

by

,

the reader

means

.

he

in

of

and impressed admiration the soul the listener which will acquire fame and reverence

or his

clearly wishes to persuade the judge , the poet wishes to obtain the admiration of the listener and the reader , since the first strives for victory , the second for fame and glory .... The poet will be completely cheated of end unless has aroused

;

to in

. 39

of

to

)

us ,

for

is a

'

some ancient

it , in is

their works all

,

their characters lists has any interest

of

,

,

,

, on

.

in

)

(

,

of

,

of

series notices place and time which they practiced opinions about them

offer

the way

theoretical poetis Latinis 1505 was very slight His work the Latin poets containing brief remarks the poets birth family studies protectors and friends the genres

Libri on

statements

had

Petrus Crinitus de

in

his

What Pietro Ricci

(

of

,

it

of

is

a

as

passage Such this almost completely Ciceronian tone taken together with the other ideas the text demonstrates what extent rhetoric and poetics were combined under the aegis Horace

,

at of

at

In

amplum

" ;

&

"

ac ,

he

I

,

,

.

as

of

,

of

.

or

of

his

it

If

.

because for work are offered usually the form formulas these occasional attempts practical criticism judgment remain essentially the same the standards those the Middle Ages reflecting the tradition which am here dis cussing says elegantia Plautus excelled scribendi salibus each poet passing estimates epithets concise critical

"

"

,

a

in



de

to

of

is

to

, .” "

& of

&

"

,

of

he to

,

"

elegantia

sermonis



was perfect

;

sonorum dicendi genus Terence proprietate and moreover according the opinion Donatus he controlled the emotions such way that tragedy nor descends neither swells the magnitude the level praised for his senarii simple history officio Sextus Turpilius Pacuvius cultivated the

:

ut

."

be ,

they may

state thinking about century older ,

into the sixteenth

of

of

Brief though

the current ways

.

of

: "

to

. "

, of

quam delectare

this kind are indicative poetic works and the persistence orientations toward the art ments

40

,

as

a

uideatur

:

docere

of

ac

in

"

&



(

a

),



grauitatem atque ratione uiuendi Publius Syrius for his sententiarum singularem elegantiam standard formula used also for other writers gratiae Horace because plenus est iucunditatis The Horatian ends magis instruere phrase appear Manilius this applied such

1510

on

)

(

POMPONIO GAURICO

et pp .

,

in

of

,

to

I

as

, ed .

39

as

The earliest formal commentary the Ars poetica the Cinquecento Pomponio Gaurico far have been able discover was that

,

in

,

ac

ut ,

,

,

?

in

ex

[ 88 ]

,

neque

ad

ut

Bv ,

D2

Avi

.

temperauit affectus

historicam

",

: ad "

,

,

,

:

),

(

De poetis Latinis 1505 Alii Aiv Av Avv tragicam magnitudinem intumescat neque abiciatur

ita

.pp

40

."

,

sit

. . . .

et

ac

,

: “

.p

;

;

,

,

),

(

est

et

ut

et

,

et

ac

I

In

Dialoghi Utriusque etiam Previtera 1943 193-94 202 232 and 233 poetae officium oratoris movere flectere auditorem verum quonam quo inquam haec commotio flexio maximum utriusque hoc ipso studium Oratoris scilicet persuadeat iudici poetae legente comparet admirationem sibi audiente cum ille gloria poeta fine omnino defraudabitur suo nisi pro victoria nitatur hic pro fama legentis animo pepererit infixeritque admirationem per quam audientis famam venera tionemque assecuturus

of

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES in

on

to

he

in

to

an

to

in

as

,

).

ca.

1541 under the title Horace Published with the text ( 1482-1530 Pomponius Gauricus super Arte poetica Horatii the commentary alone had undated edition which the De Arte poetica been previously printed his dedication about 1510.41 Gaurico declares must go back -

of

.”

,

be

to

be

.

In

a

is

as

of

set )

to

he a

42



(

,

of

,

of

or

to

is

-

to

,

he

.

,

he

to

in

of

does not wish

a

give word for word gloss the grammarians text the fashion the but collect together the precepts themselves and tell what himself Horace had warned against precepts Nevertheless does not reduce the text certain predecessors gives his had done Instead what little more than running paraphrase prosification the original text that paraphrase little added the ideas the text little that might said the

Francesco Pucci that

"

De

be





,

.

of

,

” “

,

De Dispositione

” “



ff . , ,

Inuentione

indicating that Gaurico

De

once again effecting the conflation

is

38

as

,

” “

of

a

De

the marginalia read

Elocutione

,

in

De

,

” “

."



lines

to

he

he

by

.

in

.

of

contribution Gaurico What does contribute follows the lines pre viously indicated chapter this He emphasizes what thinks the putting brief formulas most important ideas the margin such speciebus concipiendis totius operis aequabilitate De proposito provide reading De stilo These kind outline for his Horace For

Horace and the standard rhetorical approach Other significant remarks are found such formulas Numeros materiam accomo dandos De Comoediae Tragoediaeque decoro De optima Ratione

,

Comoedia Tragoediaque necessarium

In

in



Quid



and

,

compositionis

.”

” “

” “

,



in

as

ad

.

between



is is is

a

to

,

be 43

to

. "

,

A

38 ,

.” :

of

of

:

of

"



44



materiam uestris line further circumscribes this and indicates the essential orientations the commentary

Sumite

"

nature

as

: “

do

,

.: do

of

to

24 ff

to

on

"

on the

"

,

on

of

reduce

;

a

to

of

appropriateness

all

,

versal principle

.

to

Horace's suggestions uni Frequently this appropriateness norm nature thus the comment the first lines for what said about poets and painters that they may what they please this valid the extent that they not depart from nature Or the remarks style relevant lines That style turns out the best which will imitate the nature the thing treated somewhat longer passage the text itself Gaurico tends

,

to

by

is

to

it

of

,

of ,

:

on

,

is

it

De

41

.

If

it

in be

,

,

a

to

You will have find subject matter this kind not absurd not difficult not far removed from daily usage but appropriate susceptible ornament and thoroughly and capable sustaining such that you will know the very end such you will understand better what manner the disposition

,

be

"

a “

,

II;

,

page Bivv given Pope The Arte poetica the first edition prints Sanctio Julius since Julius was Pope between 1503 and 1513 this would presumably the ten

&

eatenus licet

:

Poetis licere quod uelint

:

praecepta ipsa colligerem

:

quod aiunt Pictoribus

ac

"

A :

.p

ed . .),

( :

: “

., a .p

Nam

Av

sed tantummodo

[ 89 ]

qui eius

de

illum uideri stilum

rei

optimum

:

"

-

Av

Aii :

."

natura non recedant

.,

Ibid imitabitur

1510 cnarrarem

."

44

Ibid quatenus

.pp

43

De Arte poetica quid ille commonuerit

ca.

42

.

year period during which the edition was printed

qua agitur naturam

POETIC

THEORY

be treated and you will be able to express the matter in words much more appropriately.45

At other

" merely means following the norms of of comic verse for a tragic subject would be like an impropriety of dress ( p. Aiiv ). A few isolated passages are worthy of attention : ( 1) the " prodesse " of line 333 is explained as meaning “ ad

times , “ appropriateness

decorum ; for example , the use

institutiones uitaeque praecepta referamus , " thus putting the emphasis upon moral teaching ( p. Bv ) ; ( 2) the pendant “ delectare ” is made to depend upon verisimilitude , “ we invent things which make for pleasure, the things invented must appear as similar to the truth as possible ; lest by

if

chance you may suppose

that you must invent things which cannot be in any way believed to have happened " ; 46 ( 3) the end of the lyric is also made one of utility , in the following terms : "ut hominibus uiam ad uirtutem

significaremus : Regum gratiam aucuparemur ” ( p. Biji ). The main direc tions of Gaurico's development of the Horatian text would thus seem to be toward a pointing up of the rhetorical tendencies of the Ars poetica and their association with Ciceronian rhetorical principles , toward an extension

of

or even exaggeration

of appropriateness, and toward an insist of nature held by the audience addressed .

the idea

De

his

ence upon the conception

an

be

it

it

).

,

(

During the same years , Vittore Fausto published brief comoedia expansion upon Donatus and libellus 1511 He declares that will Diomedes and soon becomes clear that this expansion will take the form .

of



,

is

,

in

"

is

in

.

of

,

a

to

of

few references Aristotle and some crossing with the rhetorical mode The Ars poetica does not enter directly into cause but some the positions approximated example the earlier commentators are For the res present verba distinction the following statement which Fausto to

: “

of

....

,

of

said

in

what require great

discussed

to

.

is

poetry

The poet

poesy

is

,

another defence

of

In

.

the first one the art

of

a

) is

(

of

,

. 47

,

of

to

of

on

45

is

sundry matters

essentially

,

.

of

"

is

treatise

to

plot For the rest Fausto's types The two ways refer concerned with the seven kinds words which cause laughter stage action and apparatus with the appropriate with the importance action and with historical matters ness intonation Le selvette Niccolò Liburnio 1513 collection short dialogues so

doing

of ,

to

of

be

telling how the goals comedy may try achieved Since poets used bring this about with things and with words they will have two ways

:

:

:

:

.

:

ea

:

uoluptatem faciunt confingemus hec que confingentur ueri que facta fuisse nullo modo forte putetis fingenda uobis

"

.

[

primis poetae rebus

&

illud

,

...

in

Quandoquidem

bifariam 90 ]

1511 AA3 ipsa quidem

re : “

uerbis efficere conabantur

), .p

comoedia libellus

, (

De

47

."

:

: "

., .p

que Ibid Büi simillima uideri debebunt credi possunt

:

ne ad

."

poteritis

si

46

cloqui

: et

sit

et

et

:

a

:

: “

., .p

Ibid Aii Inuenienda uero uobis scribendi materia erit non absurda non aspera non longius cotidiana consuetudine remota sed que conueniat que ornamenta suscipiat quam constanter substinere ualeatis Sic enim uos pulcherrime cognitam habeatis quemadmodum dispositio tractanda rem ipsam multo conuenientius melius intelligetis

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES erudition , especially in Greek literature ; he must be adept in language ( acquired through art ) and in subject matters ( acquired through extensive reading ). To achieve perfection in a work he must combine art , nature , and

. Horace's precepts for the comportment of the poet are cited , and various models for the writer are proposed , including Dante , Petrarch , Antonio Tibaldeo , Sannazaro , and Bembo . Follows at last a long series of the conventional arguments in defence of the art. The “ Selvetta terza " urges the poet to imitate earlier models , as Dante imitated Vergil and Vergil diligence

of to it

."

quindecim annotationes appeared centum about although this time the exact date unknown Bonfini's annotations the Ars poetica are however disappointing since they are exclusively grammatical and lexicographical light upon the character and throw interpretation theoretical document the text

on

.

no

of

.

as a

of

in

,

,

,

,

is

at

et

Horatianis operibus

In

be

,

it

record

is to

is

a

it a

,

of

matter

with the eyes the mind may derive from way which will teach good and happy living pointed out that Matteo Bonfini's should

48

to

,

, ... it a

in

,

Horace are

from such profit and

of of

;

necessary

, it in is



so

these

for

tricked into assaying and utility a

may benefit

great mass read necessary the second whatever you write garland lovely and elegant varied flowers that whoever the first

pleasure

As

“ stile ”

as

The ends of

ancient authors weave

of all

.

for

:

please

in

imitation

” and poetic writing

“ materia

to

imitated Homer . Both

a

of in

, ,

,

his

of

comedies Terence not have sufficient so

the seams and

so

all

do

:

construction Horace

Plautus often gape

of of

a

on

.

These are the standard terms

at

of

.

all

The comedies

limatior

the general

rhetorical criticism the requirements

satisfies

." . In

" "

,

cultior

In

"

,

is "

a

"

elegantia

is

by

it

an

is

It

.

of

in

in

of of

49

"

,

In

to

"

In

the 1517 Aldine edition Terence there appeared for the first time prefatory letter entitled which has since been Terentium epistola Navagero interesting attributed Andrea letter because judges Terence terms the criteria supplied Horace and thus practical Horatian criticism The author proceeds essay kind the comparison between Terence and Plautus indicating throughout basis language the reasons for Terence's superiority first Terence excels

,

be

is

in

to

is

.

be

tu 33 ~

it

if

.pp

,

in

.pp

Le

all

if

-

so

any others For that decorum which not observed dramatic compositions

, be

be

,

all

in

the greatest art indeed there carefully observed things 48

.

,

,

of

.

a

all

Those Terence are well woven within themselves make unity out the elements that nothing could more completely precisely the realized than those compositions nothing more perfect And this thing poets and writers must principally excel and which demands which cohesion complete

...

[ 91 ]

si

l'Hellénisme

,

-

à

:

(

."

&

,

&

di

fa

Alde Manuce

et

,

Didot

.

see Firmin 465–66

-

A.

,

,

gli

al co

,

ed pp. . ,

,

-

:

(

),

427. On the 1917 Firmin Didot 1875

), .p

1718 Paris

de

, "

,

in

; ),

of

49

&

;

(

selvette 1513 9–14v and —34: alla prima mestieri leggere uaga selue d'authori antichi alla seconda cio iscriui bisogna fiori uarii tessere pulita ghirlanda posse che chiunque s'inueschi d'assagiarla occhi dello'ntelletto dillettatione utilita sciugharne con modo maestreuole buono beato viuere Opera omnia Padua Volpi Camino For the basis the attribution see Navagero

Venise

THEORY

POETIC

to each personage , then

of

of

50

.

is

appropriately

of

all

where everything must be contrived nothing at accomplished

.

audience

To

1518

)

(

GIOVANNI BRITANNICO DA BRESCIA

(

of

,

of

da

approximately the same period belongs another extensive commen the Ars poetica that Giovanni Britannico Brescia Ioannes

on

tary

a

to

,

,

of

,

Furthermore the two possible types humor that actions and that superior words Terence cultivates the former and hence appeals

26 ,

by

,

as

of

;

).

Britannicus Brixianus Britannico flourished toward the end the fifteenth century and produced commentaries on various Latin authors the standard biographical dictionaries give the date his death 1510 but Tiraboschi

. It

is a

I

),

is

to

or

on

I

Q.

at

(

,

of

a

)

.,

,

,

I

do

;

(

,

ed

VI3 992 cites document him dated November not know when the commentary Horace was written first but since the first edition that have been able discover that Horatij Flacci poemata Milan Scinzenzeler 1518 am discussing the commentary conventional commentary this chronological position Venice 1796

1518. appeared

of

,

,

of

no

to

of

It

.

its

, of

glosses

It

,

as

be

.

,

,

,

in

every respect frequently calling did others the time upon Acron Porphyrion Diomedes and Donatus Badius and mention makes may possibly goes beyond most other early earlier than his exegesis

,

.

,

,

a

,

,

;

,

,

, in

however the extent references multitude classical writers Plato Cicero Quintilian Pliny Valerius Flaccus Vitruvius Vergil and Homer are called upon frequently for examples and explanations One

to

a

in

is

.

to

of

to

,

are

.

of

is

of

being brought humanistic erudition upon explanation poetica emerges bear the the Ars What sense disappointing since few new critical orientations discovered Britannico realizes that the whole richness

a

,

,

of

"



to

:

on at

in

of

to

.

he

,

,

of

of

a

,

of

continues make systematic reduction the Horatian text series precepts and most these precepts repeat the traditional rhetorical thinking admonitions The undercurrent terms invention disposi proper places tion and elocution rises the surface the when for provide example wishes remarks the Rem line 310—

says

Thus

to of

-he

in he

Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae

of

is

of



of

of

)

in

is

a



.”

in

)

as

(

: "

"



."

is

be

of to

is ”



(

Or

indicates

: "

he

42

all

: “

that the invention the materials neces respect poet line the ordinis with else the defines for order the disposition and distribution the materials put which shows what each place The verba line 311 provides following the definition the occasion for line 310 rem elocution for elocution Cicero teaches the Rhetorica the fitting sary above

."

,

.

ab

ut in

&

:

,

,

:

92 ]

[

:

, si

,

id

ac

.

:

in

,

.

,

ex

ita

:

ad

ab

&

,

,

a2 se : “

ed .) , .p

50 (

Hyant nonnunquam neque satis cohaerent Plauti Comoediae ita 1517 omnia Terentij inter nexa omnibus unum quoddam conficitur nihil aptius illius unguem possit atqui hoc fabulis nihil magis fieri est quod praecipue praestari poetis scriptoribus omnibus debeat maximam aliud quippiam artem exigat iam decorum illud quod omnibus tantopere custudiendum rebus est fabulis uero ubi congrua unicuique personae effingenda sunt omnia nisi seruetur nihil prorsus fiat

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

ARS POETICA :

sententiae to the invention . ” 51 What Britannico says in the sentences immediately following shows that he is also making

of proper words and of of

the usual association “

For

,"

every poem

with the

these elements

" res - verba " distinction

of words and things. The things

he says , “ consists

:

are

these same moral precepts , and the words are the diction itself .”: 52

What is perhaps a more distinctive contribution on Britannico's part is his development of a dichotomy between the parts of poems providing pleasure and utility to the audience . Pleasure is a product of both “ verba " and "res " : of “ verba ," insofar as pleasantness and elegance of language are delightful in themselves (of the " dulci " in line 343 he says : " iucundi intelligit : quae multum delectat , ” after expression which he states that it is another of the “ delectare ” in line 333 ) ; tatem , elegantiamque

sermonis

“ res, ” insofar as a " natural " and " verisimilar ” objects is pleasurable. The conditions here imposed are Horace's monster is ridiculous rather than pleasurable, “ contra naturam , " and however fictional and imaginary

of

representation of important ; for if

-

to

be

"



,

by

be

by

to

is a

,

.

it

if

It

.





in to

.

nature Both the real and the fictional must impress the audience Utility however they are product give pleasure only consists the lessons learned the audience from

being true res

by

is

;



as



like

of

in or a

be

,

to

is

res ”

it is because it is the ornaments of a poem may be , they must nevertheless be like the truth . Another principle is really involved here : that part of “ which imitated from nature e.g. the characters assigned people according decorum must actually faithfully copied from nature consistent and appropriate way whereas that part which feigned created the poet must

.

he

as

in sit

"



.



;

to ”



of

"

to

sit as of

it is

,

and the moral examples presented the poet Hence not sufficient for the poet imitate the mores men must limit good himself the imitation mores Britannico interprets morataque meaning having correct mores but meaning recte line 319 not

of

the moral precepts

no

53

of .

of

,

).

In

a

a

by

of

merely

be

would not

by

be

the same kind are assorted

ed .) , .p

as

of

31

transposition into literary nature and put together nature must not

is

appropriateness

the notion that things

that such things

-

(v .

of

is .pp

of

of

of

or

versal principle terms

. "

quae

a

instructa

:



turpitudine aliena difficulty fitting the stand Into this central scheme Britannico has ard elements Horatian theory and the traditional interpretations Simplicity unity plot merely reflection the natural oneness the materials imitated CXIIIv CXIV the same way the uni quae bonis moribus

in

sit

: “

, "

cf. .p

:

&

: “

in

."

:

&

."

:

ut

,

ad : "

: “

especially

CXXXVI

( 93 )

the last page

debet enim fictio

: "

CXVv

,

CXIV

-

Ibid CXXXVIIv artificiosa naturam imitari

.

; ” ; pp .p .

" ., ; .p & ., : .p

.p

52

53

&

:

: sit “

" ; .p

rei

(

,

sicque ostendit poeta necessariam imprimis Poemata Milan 1518 CXXXVI esse inuentionem CXVIv Est autem ordo dispositio distributio rerum qui CXXXIy Per seriem igitur demonstrat quid quibusque locis collocandum and intellige ordinem quae distribuit quid quibusque locis rerum dispositionem collo candum and CXXXVI est enim elocutio docet Cicero rhetoricis idoneorum uerborum sententiarum inuentionem accommodatio Ibid CXXXVI omne enim poema rebus uerbis constat res enim sunt ipsa praecepta uerba uero ipsa oratio

POETIC THEORY combined by art . Therefore the three styles , each of which assembles coherent and consonant elements , and the interdiction against crossing or mixing them : literary " species " are as distinct and discrete as natural species . The theory

of the literary genres is rounded out by prescription of subject the matters and of the meters for each . Thus, as compared with earlier or with contemporary commentators , Britannico would seem to place greater emphasis on the relationships between poetry and nature , although he by no means decreases the time and attention devoted to rhetorical matters.

:

its

,

,

as

a

in

;

it

.

to is

his

The Epistola of Andrea Navagero , cited a few pages back , had been dedicated to Pietro Bembo . In 1525 , Bembo himself published Prose linguistic document essentially della volgar lingua This title belongs indicates but the present inquiry two ways first because

be ,

to

in

of of

so he

for

example

Bembo discusses the

for any

used

given

subject

matter

the three styles

be

be

:

referring

to

by

of

.

current Horatian tradition Book choice and disposition words

,

II

In

,

,

in

,

it

in

was the earliest important document the quarrel over Dante which century speaks later the and second because when the relationship between language and poetry Bembo does terms the

raged

a

of

;

if

,

a

;

,

,

,

,

,

or

of

in

as

as

, .

of

in

,

of

,

in

is

.

, a

by

to

,

,

little

to

all

is

move necessary

possible

the direction the one the other extreme these rules the observance use discretion nevertheless varying occasionally both grave words with and above avoid satiety temperate ones and temperate words with light ones Nevertheless most general and universal rule that each one these manners and styles we

It

tend

to

,

,

if of

,

a

,

be

,

to

of

is

If

speaking high subject matter the words one chosen should grave elevated sonorous clear luminous low and vulgar subject matter light plain humble popular quiet they should subject midway between these two one should speak with middling and temperate words and ones which

,

.

54

to

,

,

must choose the purest the cleanest the clearest the most beautiful and agree able words possible and bring them our compositions -

in

on

to

of

of

se di

in

an

of

de

de

.

, in

an

ed .) , .p

54

as

,

be

.

of

,

to

an

,

In

self determined Bembo's linguistic theory styles and words exist categories with the only reference external context being the subject matters which they express As for his dicta general types Dante they will treated the appropriate chapter Like Navagero's Epistola Mario Equicola's Libro natura amore practical criticism application example the 1525 may serve

si ,

,

,

di

È

.

la

et in le

, et

si

di

et

:

et

,

;

;

et li

di

,

: se

: “

,

: , se , di

et

,

;

(

Prose 1525 xxiiiv Da scieglerc adunque sono uoci materia grande ragiona graui alte sonanti apparenti luminose uolgare lieui piane dimesse bassa popolari chete temperate mezzana tra queste due medesimamente con uoci mezzane lequali meno all'uno questi due termini che puo all'altro pieghino mestiero queste medesime regole seruar modo nondimeno schifare sopra tutto satieta uariando

...

94 )

(

."

si

le .

et

di

et

le

et

, le

et

è

et

,

, le

, le

in ,

temperate con alcuna leggiera uoci graui con alcuna temperata queste maniere piu Tuttafiata generalissima uniuersale regola ciascuna stili piu chiare sempre pure piu monde piu belle piu grate uoci scieglere arrecaro possa alle nostre compositioni che alle uolte

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES Horatian and rhetorical principles which are here occupying us . The occa sion for such an application comes in the first book , where Equicola is discussing the poets who have treated of love . In his remarks on Guittone d'Arezzo he speaks of the pleasure afforded by poets through the use of music and rhythms , and Guido Cavalcanti is praised for the everyday flavor of his diction . Petrarch seems to occupy his high position in Italian poetry largely because he added to Tuscan many words from other regions of Italy , and Boccaccio because ( like Lucian and Apuleius ) he wrote poeti cally in prose and “ embraced delightful poetry and beautiful materials .” Most of Equicola's critical remarks , though , concern the work of Jacopo Calandra of Mantua , in connection with whom he states a number of critical principles . He speaks of the difficult task of the poet who must “ delight and move with ornamented language " and of the remarkable talent required to “ discover , and to take care to dispose and order well , whatever he invents . ” Even if invention and disposition are provided by nature , the poet will fail to delight and move unless he be a master of diction ; and this requires erudition , study , labor , art. “The invention may be as beautiful as you please ; without ornament it is a mass of gold that does not shine ." To achieve ornament , the poet must know many things, cultivate exquisite sententiae , tend to the propriety of words ; above all, he must choose words in common usage and those which will please the ear .

All

as all

he is

,

of

to

of

these qualities are found in Calandra . In his Aura he observes the decorum of persons throughout ; above all, his style displays great virtues : words purely and properly derived from Latin , well - chosen diction , a great impression of naturalness and perfect rhythms . 55 In the last analysis, Equicola's criteria reduce language matters and almost

of

is

.

as

"

materials in

art versus nature

Pro Archia

on



so

fitted

the commentators

,

of

Of

the side

,

-

-

,

he

of

he

oratory which distinguishes invention the five parts memory elocution and pronunciation accords most time ,

.

,

disposition

as is

length

of

at

He debates

to

a

,

.

for the orator language

frequently done the question the poet citing Plato's Ion and Cicero's

Horace had

the work

of

poet

the three styles

the basis

nature

for the

of

the effect that

as

,

,

on on to

,

of

tre

in

"

exclusively concerned with the volgar lingua was Bembo Another work essentially linguistic character Niccolò Liburnio's Le fontane the following year 1526. Liburnio studies the language preliminary statement Dante Petrarch and Boccaccio after having made

95 )

(

."

is

inuentione

the best as

well

quanto uoi bella

,

39 : “ la

3v 5v ,

.pp

),

(

natura amore 1525 una massa d'oro che non risplende

all

cultivate as

to

.

to

as

is , is

,

,

Tuscan words and

,

de

Libro

omamento

learn thoroughly

the past who will provide them with invention

e de

55

authors

all

is

writers

of to

;

of

.

,

is

in

.

to

elocution The reasons are clear for this the part which most admirable which involved the three styles and which demands the greatest application Of the three styles Vergil cited the consummate young master the opinion the Middle Ages endures The advice with senza

POETIC THEORY elocution . Cicero and Quintilian and Horace are cited as authorities for this opinion . 56 In the light of these last documents , it is perhaps not fortuitous that Giovan Giorgio Trissino should have published his Italian translation of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia in 1529. Clearly , we are in a period of intense interest in problems

of language and

the problem

especially

of

the

Italian

language . Dante's De la volgare eloquenzia comes appropriately just a few years after Bembo's Prose della volgar lingua . Moreover , for readers of

,

at

did not fall Dante's treatment

of it

of of in

.

contemporaries The basis

",

of

,

to

,

be





,

"



language into three levels the illustre division the subject and the humile which conform three kinds

is a

of "

poetry

,

these years were saying that

much like what writers strangely upon the ears mediocre

to

.

to

his

all so by

the time , it was a contemporary document . Many of them believed that Trissino himself had written it - no version of Dante's text had previously been printed — and was merely trying to gain authority for ideas assigning them say besides sounded Dante What Dante had

,

:

,

,

to

is

,

.

to

,

It

.

,

,

of

,

,

matter the tragic the comic and the elegiac should noted that these are kinds materials not literary genres and that the meanings attached the terms are different from the conventional ones The tragic style for poems about war about love and about virtue example adapted

...

the sententiae and the excel

has already and this style

,

,

but because the highest

it

;

be

we

to

of

the words are assorted one another been proved that the highest things are worthy

lence

of of

all

of

It

of

appears certain that we use the tragic style when the gravity and the loftiness the verse and the elevation of the constructions

;

"

to



set “

)

in

in

to

.

of

as a

to

,

which rhetoric whose course sound very familiar kind

)

(

1531

46 ,

be

,

Q.

of

should probably attributed Aulo Horatii Flacci Artem poeticam commentaria pub the twenties

.pp * iiv ,

la tre

Giano Parrasio's

In

the same decade

Le

the subject matters

.

of

AULO GIANO PARRASIO

57 56

of it

to

regard poetry

problems are essentially linguistic would the reader the 1520's

To

or

,

,

the three styles and

this tendency

of

terms

to

,

of

thinking

they belong

music

regulated

the best and that composed the vulgar tongues the degree which imitates the other This way

to

is

achieve excellence

in

of

will

(

“ a

in

it

be

is

as

Poetry itself defined rhetorical fiction invention may any composed language written but that the

classical languages

in

be

to ,

,

,

is ,

:

in

be

as

,

to

call the tragic seems the highest the styles therefore those things which we have already distinguished demanding sung the highest manner must sung safety love and virtue.57 this style only that

which

[ 96 ]

, e ,

;

de i

si , e cv la : “ , e

,

). lo

,

la

by;

,

,

de le

c

), de i de .pp le b

(

in

da

I

;

,

(

"

.

de i

la

il

,

le , e

,

e la

.

,

),

(

è de il le ,

...

, e la

la

fontane 1526 64v volgare eloquenzia trans Trissino 1529 Appare certamente De viii and gravità superbia che noi usiamo stilo tragico quando sentenzie versi elevazione construzioni excellenzia vocabuli concordano insieme ma perche gia provato che questo stilo cho cose somme sono degne somme stili però quelle cose che havemo gia distinte sommo kiamiamo tragico pare essere questo solo stilo cantate cioè doversi sommamente cantare sono essere salute spelling modified conventional o's have replaced Trissino's omegas amore virtù

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

lished posthumously by Bernardino Martirano in 1531. This is another full scale commentary that was to be incorporated frequently into later editions the Horatian text . 58 Parrasio's position is essentially the same as that of his predecessors , but there are certain notable departures that show some forward movement in the thinking about Horace's epistle . Before beginning

of

his study of the text , Parrasio writes a lengthy introduction , which is in itself a kind of miniature ars poetica. He develops , on the basis of Plato , the theory of the divine origin of poetry , of the divine furor , of the poet as prophet . He may be alluding indirectly to Averroës ' paraphrase of the Poetics when he insists that harmony and rhythm are natural or instinctive in man , that poetry was used originally for purposes of praising virtue and attacking vice, that the poet must form in advance a complete conception of the poem before beginning to write it . 59 From Quintilian he derives not only the idea that the poet must be a good man , but also that he must be “ peritus " in an infinity of subjects . Both of these ideas are developed in because they are so frequently re - echoed in he

First

unless

the virtues

he ,

in

all

able



understand do

,

wisdom unless so

he

" :

,

is

all

,

an

of

he

he .

poetry that infinite knowledge

the whole

be “

And

of

,

.”

vices

on

have absorbed 60

all

unless

his

he

he

be a

a

to

good man This will not what things are proper good man himself unless himself abound lack

of the poet :

wise man that

to

“ goodness ”

be a

is

all it

later critical writing of the century . On the of essential that the poet himself

be

passages which are interesting

,

in

be

,

,

,

,

let

,

of

,

,

.

to

He

is

of be

It

necessary then that every poet expert on may matters that speak copiously everything able about must know well the customs the various peoples the usages the laws the details about maritime and places agriculture the military art the sayings land cities the descriptions

in

,

in

as

of

necessary and ,

myths

is

of

of

histories and

.

of

.

of

,

,

of

,

of in

every

grammar.61 list

to

a

knowledge

related

58

thing that

is

But above

all

as

,

in

;

of

expert with the stylus erudite and the acts illustrious men him geometry learned architecture and music experienced well natural and writing not ignorant moral science the art medicine He must remem lawyers have certain knowledge astrology and astronomy ber the opinions

-

to

ed .) , .p

.

cf.

6v ; as

.pp 1, to

,

;

to

is

of

,

.

,

),

by in

59

,

as

(

4

to

of

For references some these editions see the Index the Mills College check commonly given note above s.v. Parrhasius Aulus Janus The date Parrasio's death 1534 the standard biographical dictionaries but note that the dedication the 1531 already dead edition Martirano refers him (“

,

,

,

,

,

X.

ch .

Bk . I,

, ut

I.

ch . ,

,

,

[ 97 ]

,

cf.

" ;

,

.

,

,

,

&

,

sit ,

,

,

,

.

,

,

,

,

,

in

,

Bk .

,

cf.

" ;

,

sit

,

,

f

" ), .p , , p .gv.

(

2,

(

: “

re 2v 3 : “

.pp

., &

, . ., id pp .

60

de

61

),

Commentaria 1531 Averroës 1481 f2v Omne itaque poema omnis oratio poetica aut est uituperatio aut est laudatio Ibid 3–3v Ante omnia oportet ipsum poetam esse sapientem quae boni uiri sint intelligat quod non faciet nisi ipse bonus nisi omnibus abundet uirtutibus nisi poeticam omnem est sapientiam imbiberit careat uitijs Quintilian XII Quemcunque autem poetam rerum omnium peritum esse oportet Ibid possit copiose dicere Mores populorum una quaque consuetudines iura terrestrium maritimarumque cognitiones urbium locorumque descriptiones agriculturam rem mili geometriae eruditus tarem clarorum uirorum dicta factaque pernoscat graphidos peritus architecturam edoctus musicam sciat scientiam cum naturae morum tum disserendi responsa teneat astrologiam coelique calleat medicinae non ignaris iurisconsultorum fabularumque cognitio quaeque grammaticae rationes compertas habeat Nam historiarum copulantur primis sunt necessaria Quintilian

POETIC THEORY Parrasio's introduction contains , moreover , other elements that reveal his attitudes toward poetry . He conceives of the end of poetry as being both rhetorical and moral : rhetorical insofar as it must "inflame the souls

of men , extinguish wrath ,

arouse hate and sorrow , or lead them away from passions gentleness these same to and pity " ; moral insofar as it must good living by " invite men to means of examples and reasoning , teach

character and the passions, prescribe in a pleasant way what things are to be done . ” 62 The insistence , in the above paragraph concerning knowledge, on a mastery of grammar and , in this last citation , on the pleasant way " is explained by Parrasio's stand on diction . For whereas most of his remarks so far have pertained to the poet and the effect of the poem upon the audience, when he actually does speak about the poem itself , he speaks of it largely in terms of diction . “ Nothing , " he says , “ is as poetic as the diction . " This emphasis will be apparent in the commentary itself ; it is also prominent in the concluding section of the introduction , where he outlines Horace's general procedure . This procedure consists in dividing the work into two parts , the function of the first being to show what things are to be avoided ( “ uitanda ostendere " ) and of the second to prescribe what things are to be done ( “ sequenda praecipere " ). Five precepts contain the essence of the first : ( 1) admit nothing inappropriate , lest there be discrepancies in the invention and a lack of total harmony ; ( 2) avoid placing things where

they do not belong, or introducing digressions

or superfluous ornaments ; style pursue ( “ dicendi figuras " ) to the point the various kinds of ( 3) do not falling opposite ; of into the vices ( 4) in the search for variety , so important poet , to the refrain from the excessive cultivation of mythology , the exces

for eloquence , for superfluous and inappropriate ornament ; ( 5 ) depart never from the most important matters . For the second , there seem to be seven brief precepts : ( 1) know how to provide a fitting order for the whole work ; ( 2) narrate elegantly ; ( 3) write beautifully ; ( 4) cultivate variety constantly ; ( 5) attend to the perfection of the whole ; ( 6 ) start from an advance idea of the structure of the total poem ; ( 7) achieve a tight cor respondence of beginning , middle , and end. It is in the set of negative sive desire

on style is found . 63 In the commentary itself , Parrasio develops and expands the notions epitomized in his precepts. As he does so , certain of the distinctions now so familiar - invention , disposition , and elocution , “ and verba the to

,



all



-

in

(

dolorem incen bene uiuen gerendas cum

:4y res " ,

,

.p

.

";

,

" ;

.pp

,

&

,

98 ]

[

,

est

,

&

ad

”.

., .p 3 : “

to

;

to



,

is



to

., ab .p 3 : “

,

becomes

belong elocution the three styles verba invention poetis maiori obser which more important than invention

extinguere iram odium Ibid inflammare animos hominum and misericordiam reuocare lenitatem dere aut his ijsdem exemplisque inuitare dum rationibus mores affectionesque docere iocunditate praecipere poeticum quam eloquutio Ibid Nihil tam 6-6v 63

light and are

res

ad

62

elocution

,

equivalent

the poet come interesting ways

: “

.

in

,

,

,

three styles nature art and practice exploited These cross one another



res ”

precepts especially that the emphasis

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES uanda diligentia , ” p . 12 ) since it depends more completely upon genius (or nature ) than upon art, which is sufficient for invention and disposition . The further distinction of pleasure and utility is also related , because in a general way utility comes from the " res " and pleasure from the “verba . " One might reduce his argument in connection with Horace's line 333 as follows

:

voluptas

necessitas 1

modus ( = verba )

res

1

1

elocutio

inventio 1

1

iucunde scribere

fabula morata 1

delectet elegantia

prosit doctrina

to

. "



in

in a

,

"

"

it

res ”

Furthermore , a kind of distinction among genres seems to be made on the same basis : tragedy aims primarily at utility , comedy at pleasure.64 The principle of decorum applies to both “ and verba With respect things correspondence the work imitated between the res involves

to

is

...

so

,

we

is

in

;

is

to

. “

in

of

art and things nature this the most important thing for the poet only speech nothing observe Not our lives but also more difficult proper perceive what than what the Greeks call Tapétrov and call

,

." 65

of



a

an

,

67 )

in

in

to

78 ),

man

(p

.

"

ut

to .

"

to

the

On

,

and and move through credibility

se

in

,

,

autem cum morata recto prosit doctrina delectet est

,

ut

.

est

.

,

38 .

...

,

&

.

ad

,

in

,

,

7 : “ .p

., " . ; .p

instinctive

they involve verisimilitude and decorum

constituta delectatio uero modo quo docemus Prosumus fabula delectamus cum iucunde scribimus Laus poetae elegantia and 65

66

is (

,

of

"

of

,

as

of as

that imitation

habent inter nonnullam similitudinem uescentes scribentes uoluptatem quibusdam necessitatem Docendi necessitas rebus

,

69v utantur

not only connection poetry there are again strong

imitatio naturae the genius matters res are referred criteria

they must persuade

ad 72 : “

.,

.pp

64

estest

Ibid quibusdam

as

a

.

In

general way

of of to

the poet

nature insofar audience insofar

the origins

the statement

poetry

the definition

."

of

in to

related

in

Averroës

the commentary

all an “

of

with decorum but echoes

its

do

of

be

all

enter prominently as

nature

"

"

to

to

of



; ",

to

in

.

to

appropriateness We must pay due attention that we really happens imitate what nature and not disturb order appropriate With respect verba the principle decorum involves things way ness words words must chosen and placed in fitting and proper Considerations the things the dignity decorum

&

in

."

cf.

" ;

. "

a

est

a

homini respectu ceterorum animalium

( 99 )

in

istud proprium

,

&

. "

&

est

&

...

...

,

.

,

,

in

ad in

rem

:

assimilatio

ut

ed .) ., ., , , p p , p . . rei . ut ad : : : , “ “ “

(

67 66

Ibid non solum omni uita sed etiam oratione nihil difficilius quam uidere quid deceat TrpétrovGraeci uocant nostri decorum Est suus conuenientiae labor quae adhibendus naturam cadunt fingantur illius ordo non perturbetur rerumque dignitatem apte Ibid 12v decore poesis nisi imitatio uitae Ibid 68v Nihil enim aliud morum quae hominis propria est facitque uel hac una differat caeteris animalibus with which Averroès prima sua natiuitate 1481 f2v Prima quidem quum homine existit naturaliter

are referred

to

of

the three styles according

the

.

in

art which consists ,

verba

essentially the proper exploitation usual rhetorical precepts

to

THEORY "

matters



the other hand ,

of

all

POETIC

a .

as

to

,

as

.

as

on

in

of

of

in

of

These interrelationships distinctions perhaps indicate Parrasio poetry than was present more tightly knit conception the art earlier many disconnected remarks commentators He provides just isolated many different authorities passages did his predecessors refers in

a

by

art ;

as

;

of

:

his

,

in

But over and above these one senses some fairly definite orientations thinking toward seeing system what had hitherto been independent sets distinctions toward emphasizing diction the really poetic element ,

to

to

a

est

.

,

to

of

a

as

of

special talent furthered special and the product toward analyzing more searchingly the relationships the poem nature the poet and the audience

on

,





followed

of

the model

be

as

Vergil 20 ).

three styles

( .pp

all

had previously recommended

unfailingly for

to

as

of

"

he

models

;

"

,

of

,

...

of

In

proprie connection with line 128 the Ars poetica Difficile communia dicere Parrasio had developed his ideas another kind imitation that other writers whom the poet might take his ,

on

by

tradition

the

Ars

state

poetica

.

the commentaries

I

has the Horatian

on

to

of

,

,

ad

lenitatem

,

uegetior

?

,

,

uel dolorem incitandos ad

odium

amorem

:

in

in

is

in

uel ad

,

iram animos uel ijsdem permotionibus

ad

ad

it

time

the rhetoricians that Giraldi's

praising Cicero which Giraldi the compared with similar ones the commentators

passage

may

ad

quis ab

...

that

,

following

original

be

cite the

so

ments bear close resemblance

this

,

by

so

it

of

,

to

, is

by

. of

;

completely imitation but assimilated the standard language

quis

of by

.

is

,

in

,

,

These were not course conjunction with the new ideas and they had before this appeared Horatian text But their timeliness here indicated the fact that they the appear almost contemporaneously with the writing two letters subject Celio Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio and imitation Calcagnini dated 1532 Calcagnini Giraldi's letter concerned exclu sively with the art oratory and with what may gain from proper 43–43v

misericordiam

. 68

in

?

?

?

?

?

?

quis uerborum copia locupletior quis sententiarum pondere reuocandos aptior quis totius grauior quis figuris iucundior quis trallationibus magnificentior quis dicendo candidior orationis serie magis elaboratus

of

,

.

-

100 ]

[

of

he

202–3

.

.pp

ed .) ,

in

,

be

1540

(

In

in

68

Poematia

,

of

the single model who

the components Cicero and for Latin must long the Horatian rhetorical tradition familiar terms speaks

of

of

favor

,

of

.

a

Giraldi decides

in

rhythms and harmonies

.

:

is

"



by

be

is

occupied with the debate between those who insist that Giraldi's letter many different authors should imitated and those who maintain that single model The subject imitating this the best results are obtained exclusively figures speech imitation diction choice words imitation

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES Celio Calcagnini , to whom the letter had been addressed , answered in the same year in another letter entitled Super imitatione commentatio . In it , he defended the necessity of practicing imitation , especially for modern Italians who wished to rise out of barbarism . Then , basing his discussion on the three elements of invention , disposition , and elocution , he pointed out that the first of these is inherent in the material itself, the second is within the power of the writer , the third comes entirely from without . That

by

is to

” ),

as

of

,

of

).

(p .

of

of

of an

a

is

rei

uerba inuenire

of

"

of

proper imitation things the proper fitting words propositae accommodata phrase which almost the battle cry the Horatians 217 poetry Two other favorite ideas the Horatians the interpretation allegory concealing moral lessons and the insistence upon the necessity

(

lesson taught

.

its

is , the ability to handle language in an excellent manner is learned from the part The greatest teacher or the models ; it is here that imitation plays

to

a

in

tre tiranni

.

of

respect

comedy

to

of

joyous and pleasant

With

is ,

Agostino Ricchi's

I

to

as a ,

preface

the first Vellutello argues that the principal requirement

,

to

readers printed

is

,

emphasis short critical document verse are the main points the following year 1533. This Alessandro Vellutello's letter the



or

is

as

a

is

or

,

.

is

of

,

in

...

, of

on

of

.”



:

or to

of

of

.

of



,

He

"

discourse hide always some then interprets the allegory senso mistico Ricchi's play He defends Ricchi's use verse the basis comedy the usage the whole history the Greeks and the Romans the authority Aristotle the Poetics Poetry verse and such opposed everything that prose true history rhetorical under the veil

useful and appropriate morality

In

of

;

to

an

to

of

,

in

as

in

,



al

uero —and goes far modern subject alive

69

a

et

,

imitation

with . "

al

naturale

comedies



no in



be

of

contra

accept the use prose themselves and necessitating

to

as

to

be

it



."

which would

to

as

verse

to

do

or we

,

of

do .

,

any part belongs prose but the fictional fables oration them the poets never Since not believe that the same things one can equally well adapt verse prose we think that when this write them happens judgment than must rather attributed lack over sight He admits blank verse everyday speech than rhymed closer

in

of

of

a

by

it

;

,

to of

Lodovico Dolce published his translation the Ars poetica into Italian verse was accompanied dedication Pietro Aretino which Dolce raises the practical question the usefulness Horace's 1535

69

.

is

;

of

by

he

be

,

of

.

in

precepts the present day His first argument itself Horatian Starting from the premiss that the poet depends both upon nature and upon art for suggests that the mediocrity against which the excellence his work Horace had warned may avoided only the practice art and the

de i

le

,

è

, ot

di

; .p

)

101

a

ci

".

(

a ,

,

in

,

a : la “

, o

le

A

.

di

,

et

di " : ; " .p ,

(

et

, o

al

), .p

I

,

In

Aijv sotto uclo tre tiranni 1533 piaceuole discorso sempro lieto Aiij Aiijv tutto quello che accomodata moralità fidele Hi parte prosa ma storia ucro Oration rethorica loro appartiene finte fauole quali cose non considerando potendosi nel medesimo modo adattaro Poeti non mai uerso scriuere Prosa pensiamo che sempre questo saria piu tosto attribuito giuditio che trascuraggine mancamento Ricchi

nascondere utile

of

all

He

THEORY

POETIC

. “

in

a

of is

,

a

,

." 70

a

a

in

he

phases Ars poetica is the best source of wisdom on the art com book which collected together wonderfully small space everything that good poet needs Dolce feels that such work posed

the basic elements

:

,

of

especially needed today when poets are ignorant their art

,

,

it )

in

a

or

,

all of

,

spent

their time not without ,

all

all

,

,

our language

.

, in

71

a

to

little splendor has come studies labor

do

, we

in

.

of

,

we

(

up

,

to

in

pass because writing today for the most part the vulgar since we are born and grow we think that having studied Petrarch can with little effort write some verse sonnet that will give off perfect odor poetry And not understand that this same Petrarch and our own century Sannazaro Bembo and also Ariosto from whom not

And this comes

tongue

his

concerned with the more philosophical

"



It

as

(

) is a

1541

Horatian

the ingredient

of

a

in

a

to

be

.

in

.

,

in

,

is

Bartolomeo Ricci imitation models but more complete and way than they had been His De imitatione libri tres justifies document several respects imitation

of

, in

he

.

poetry

Giraldi and Calcagnini

ike

of

art

,

brief defence

.

all

of

of

make

a



to his

in

,

of

his

,

of

the century

,

his

writers

, of , of

to

include Aretino himself among the distinguished praising him for the purity and appropriateness disposition diction for the felicity invention for the observing decorum for the pleasantness and gravity for his judgment thoughts passing them Horatian qualities Nor does fail Dolce does not fail

a

it

no

a

a

of

(

).

of

.

of of

of

precepts

it

the genres that they represent and ;

provides certain important genres number for each the more Ricci recognizes the existence two theories imitation and current debate over their respective merits The first proposes that any writer imitate only his own to

models according

; it

,

,

of

;

art that must added nature maintains that writer imitates the disposition and elocution selects and classifies his model

invention

he

to ,

,

.

of

;

all

at

.

of

I

. “

is

che

a

,

in

tutto quello

."

cui

,

;

-

),

in

, (

Poetica d'Horatio 1535 A2v vn Libro compose breue campo mirabilmente racolse buon Poeta necessario questo auiene che scriuendosi hoggidi per Ibid A3 .p è

in

,

of

in a

of

to

other matters artifice artifice and that each one needs

A3 : “

is

in

imitation

nature

.pp

as

that

nature

70

to

:

therefore believe this great benefit

as

to it

by

in

,

to a

,

to

,

help devote from outside the second proposes that nature with exclusively positions himself the imitation another Both thinks Ricci are extreme for the first neglects the contribution that art can make single model nature while the second unnecessarily restricts the writer supplementing nature with art correcting The best solution consists variety experience adding other authors genius the one's

]

(

102

; :

di

il

,

, e

il

,

il

;

gli studi

.”

consumato

ne

i

;

,

senza fatica

la

il

,

,

, e

;

e

; ci

o

si

;

e

in

;

: " E

.,

71

maggior parte nella pare che hauendo Petrarcha studiato per esser noi nati cresciuti essa Poesia possa dettare alcun verso Sonetto che renda perfetto odore con poca fatica l'Ariosto Bembo Sannazaro nel secol nostro che esso Petrarcha non comprendemo lor tempo non anchora da quali n'è vscito non poco splendore alla lingua hanno tutto lingua volgare

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES entirely the help of the other .”

By this process , the deficiencies of the individual's talent will be compensated by the experience of his predeces 72

sors .

? ”

of

,

so to

73

do

,

of

to

of

is a

as

to

all

art

Such a procedure, says Ricci, merely follows the normal patterns of nature . All the arts derive ultimately from nature ; one may take rhetoric as speaking what else an example : “ Indeed , in the universal the propose adapt precepts rhetoricians than their Nature herself any art any precepts Just reduction nature the activity

to

,

his

if

by

he

...

he

. “

is

he

;

be

, do :

of

in

to

reducing his own nature artist should consist the satisfactory modes artistry and for this purpose the best device imitation Thus will my imitator will preserve carefully the many natural gifts with which any then are lacking may obtain will have but endowed

I,

of

his

.

in

,

of

,

74

. "

of

study through the imitation from elsewhere the good selecting the best models writers The problem then becomes one those which will best complement one's native genius Late Book them

of

.

to

he

;

of

Ricci indicates that criteria for the choice models are essentially their invention and elocution but some his discussions the narrative and dramatic genres reveal that also accords some importance disposition

in of

,

of

endings sufficiently makes enacted on the stage following (

of

words

he

or ,

the latter

his

,

of

be

;

in to

in

its

denouement with respect whether they related

,

sad

in .

is

),

of

triviality one must beware Terence for seriousness and decorum Seneca the only model for tragedy He satisfies the requirements suspense excellence the arousing the conduct the action and

.

(

;

is

.

,

,

of

,

.

in

in

of

as

of

,

is

Since his greatest concern with Latin eloquence Ricci surveys the whole field Latin poetry and selects those poets who may best serve necessity criteria for the models each the genres This involves only Plautus and Terence genre and for poetry general For comedy are acceptable Plautus better for continuous comedy and laughter but

to

in

as

,

a



,

he

:

The

is

in

,

greater applause for himself from the spectator the elicit obtain for himself merited esteem this discussion .pp

of

In

75

.”

a

,

a

more will more will

he he

,

in

of

,

in

).

Horace's distinction His whole conduct the tragedy the serious the royal personages the grave words such achieve applause for the poet the desired goal more tragic writer arouses pity the spectator the more makes the subject cruel and terrible the action

&

,

,

&

,

ut

. "

75

,

id

? "

."

,

...

ca

,

14 : , “ si ita

.p

,

sic

, – sic 13 : in “

ed .) ,

in

ut (

In

ad

., .p

.,

,

73

74

1545

4v : “

72

Ego igitur 12x sentio naturao artificium caeteris rebus imitatione plurimum prodesse atque alterum alterius auxilio omnino indigere Ibid uniucrsa ucro dicendi arte quid aliud Rhetores attendunt quàm cius praecepta omnia naturam ipsam accommodentur Ibid meus faciat imitator cui naturae bonum plurimum affuerit dili genter conseruabit quae uero desiderabuntur suo studio aliunde bonorum imita tione comparare debebit De imitatione naturam

artificio

."

)

103

ab

,

ac

(

,

,

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 22v Quanto tragoediae scriptor magis misericordiam auditori commouebit quanto rem crudeliorem magis atrocem facict tanto hoc maiorem sibi plausum excitabit tanto eius gratiam inibit aequiorem

POETIC THEORY tragedy, Ricci's sources and orientations become apparent. Horace is accompanied by some allusions to Aristotle ; Cicero provides the general rhetorical goal ; moreover , the old medieval conception of the genre still serves as a basis . Similar recommendations are made for the other forms: Tibullus is first among the elegiac poets , Horace for the lyric and hexa meter ,

, Vergil for the epic . of the De imitatione treat the practical rules for imita , Ricci declares that one may imitate the invention and

Martial for

the epigram

II and III

Books

tion . Once again disposition of a work as well as elocution . He authorizes the copying or translation of whole passages and points to the great achievements of modern imitators . Yet there are important theoretical statements . In his insistence that the moderns can equal the ancients, that Nature has been

a all

,

as

.

of

a

to

,

language consideration Ricci's treatise bridge between works rhetorical theory and works time when the latter were just beginning come into

a

,

of

of

to

devoted

whole represents poetic theory

at a

III

Book

is

as generous to us as to men of the classical past, he presents an idea that was soon to be exploited by Sperone Speroni and then by Du Bellay . He distinguishes natural from artificial order in the development of a plot , discerns a rhetorical order of parts ( demonstration , narration , and so forth ) in the poems and cantos of Vergil . On the purely practical side,

of

,

is

is

-

on

mally called

again the subject the Giraldi Calcagnini sense Giulio Camillo Delminio although only one them in

by

Imitation treatises

of

.

prominence

two

for

in

of

is

its

no

it

exclusively linguistic and upon language

in ,

is

,

on

, :

lo

of

is

more remote from Horace than the letters largely because approach almost higher rationale evinces terms the ,

on

.

than from Horace The second imitation already studied

:

is

.

treatise

che possono

in

,

a

imitation The work his Due trattati l'uno delle uenir sotto stile dell'eloquente l'altro della imitatione published strictly rhetorical eloquence 1544. The first these character and derives its materials and its basic theses rather from Cicero materie



as ,

up

of

.

it , at is

,

, "

as

or

or in

,

.

a

as

or

,

in

language

as

of

potential audience Camillo distinguishes figurative topically figurative literal and con cludes that one author may borrow the first two types from another without engaging either plagiarism imitation The third provides the occa sion for true imitation and hence the special prerogative the poet effects

,

as

in is ,

)

of its

of of its

of

occasion

discuss

a

finds

to

a

to

Giraldi

104

of

by

genres

,

practicing the separate

the course the ten dia mere biographical account

. In

the expositors

which are devoted

(

of

the ideas added

certain

by

to

,

,

of

many logues poets

.

.

,

In

be

in

although the orator may also use times Cicero usual held the sole model for imitation Latin and the ways which proper imita achieved are outlined tion may 1545 Lilio Gregorio Giraldi published his long Historiae poetarum dialogi which belongs the Horatian tradition virtue not only reflection numerous borrowings from the Ars poetica itself but also

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES The first dialogue, especially , is a full - scale principles defence of the art and a statement of finds useful the standard commentators but also call not only upon the witness upon such ancient authorities Tyre and Plato Strabo Maximus number of theoretical matters

it

he

,

of

,

,

In

certain sections closely after Aris subsequent chapter connection

.

a

he

patterns

shall indicate

in

I

,

,

Moreover

totle's Poetics

.

Theophrastus

as

as

to

of

it ,

. In

its

.

in

of

,

hidden meanings literal statements upon generally the art and that the meaning an

is

in

,

is

: "

is

it

,

its

,

connection with these Giraldi insists upon the poetry upon the mysteries concealed beneath essentially allegorical nature seems that poetry one thing said whereas another meant its

of . all In

as a

;

its

its in

;

:

of

.

,

of

he

,

,

,

of

poetry with his defence cites the recent apologies Petrarch Boccaccio Budé and Pontano The defence itself follows the traditional lines the early esteem which poetry was held kind first theology civilizing function and first philosophy uses sacred writings

to

Eratosthenes and

that poetry need only

must be

that

to

Horace

it

need only instruct

(

(

that

),

Strabo

it

discusses the arguments

of (

of

),

of

delight

,

second

he

.

;

he

.

,



of

a

to

of

." 76

a

,

to

,

so

to

speak under veil The defence also requires answer topics long Plato's ban and demonstration the usefulness the art familiar the Horatians For the first Giraldi declares that Plato had quotes Petrarch exiled only poets who lied about the gods the effect that only scenic poets had been excluded from the Republic For the hidden

.

the poets

in

of

an

by

in

us it

,

Indeed these things have been feigned

: we "

daily lives

,

" ).





as

is



both prodesse and delectare His own conclusion would seem necessary and that that instruction takes several forms For one thing image Cicero pointed out poetry offers fictional guise our

such

,

in

;

,

77

"

as .

in

in

of

in

wise that see our own characters represented other persons and we daily life see expressed them our image For another specific tragedy and comedy moral lessons are contained such genres

:

tragedy

...

in

,

of all

,

;

,

to

.

to

of

all

is

of

tragedy are this the opinion the comic poet Timocles who says that found the models and the teachings for life and for every human condi tion ... thus from some writers you will learn bear with equanimity certain things and from other writers how things bear other indeed the sum ,

to

,

is

greater than those which any one person suffers and the man who misfortunes has observed that they have befallen others has become accustomed bear his

...

dici uidetur

,

poëtica enim unum plerunque dicam uelamine occultatur

from the aliud

."

, 9 : ut “

), .p

10 : “

72 ,

., .pp ., .p

81 , ,

77

78

&

(

Historiae poetarum 1545 uerò significatur sensus quodam

and comedy are derived

tragedy

,

76

Giraldi's general notions

ita in

of

own more easily and more imperturbably.78

in

ut

,

)

105

& : ,

ab ait ,

. "

,

sic

...

&

,

.

(

,

: “

ex

."

,

à

Ibid Haec enim conficta sunt Poëtis effictos nostros mores alienis personis expressamgue imaginem nostram uitae quotidianae uideamus idque qui apud Tragoediam totius uitae Ibid 676 Timocle Comico alijs alia aequo animo ferre disces conditionis esse exempla atque documenta qui alijs accidisse contemplatus omnia enim maiora quàm quiuis patitur infortunia suas ipsius calamitates aequius faciliusque ferre consueuit

POETIC THEORY medieval - Horatian school , and this in spite of the fact that he cites defini tions and discussions from Aristotle . Dialogue VI is devoted to tragedy . He defines the genre thus : “ Tragoedia est heroicae fortunae in aduersis com

, ut nostri definiunt ” (“ nostri ” being critics writing in Latin , such as Diomedes ); then , after citing Theophrastus ' definition in Greek , he is

in

.”

&

,

est

.” I

cite these

of

,

by

&



,

plena

molestiae

Giraldi

traditional ideas and ,

he

compare tragedy and comedy Donatus and Diomedes

again

:

readers

of

in

so

comes

terms familiar

In

does

to

When

formulas.79

turbulenta

the continued use

to

samples

he

as

passages

re

the antiquity

bium Tragoedia exiuit

,

fortunę heroicae calamitas seu enim propria tristia luctus Aristotle prouer tragedy and then Giraldi remarks that

of , of

cited

: “ Tragoedia

de

tragoediae

.

it in Latin

on

paraphrases infortunium

est

prehensio

,

in

.

;

at

In

is

In

.

,

,

,

at

:

,

,

of

,

of

comedy indeed the ordinary fortunes men the minor shocks and perils tragedy everything are represented and the ends the actions are happy imposing personages great fears calamitous outcomes the opposite the former unsettled events the beginning calm ones the end whereas

it .

us

,

be

is a

of

, to

as

,

by

a

an

as in

,

to of in

In

" 81

in is



the

of it .

be

to to

of

.

If

of

,

as a

to

if

he

: "

,

of

composite his definition the poet himself elements accepted Perhaps wrong derived from various sources one would not poet were define the man who moved the divine afflatus speaks nobly and appropriately great things such way arouse equal element every admiration this definition verse added thing will seem plainly included his treatment the details poetic composition handling the three styles the five acts

of

Similarly

to

so

by as

is

in

.

it, in

to

us

,

is

to

as

a

in

in

tragedy things transpire tragedy life represented the opposite order Then way comedy such make wish flee make desire Finally every comedy derived from subjects invented the poet but tragedy frequently springs from historical truth.80

,

by

.



"

of

,



to

,

of

,

its

comedy and various kinds the histories the genres the definitions the minor types Giraldi refers directly and specifically Horace and the various expositors who the Renaissance commentators were inte grated into the corpus ideas Horatian

of

CONCLUSIONS

of

in

., ., .p , pp .

79

to

Aristotle's Poetics and the references The gradual emergence Gregorio formal definitions and discussions Giraldi Lilio

appearance

,

vii ;

,

,

,

Tragoedia

saepe

de

,

,

fictis argumentis

in

,

,

,

1 .

V.

,

,

, ed .

,

de

postremò omnis Comoedia

."

106 )

(

si

,

hominem esse qui cui definitioni

. . . .

,

is

,

., .p

Ibid non malè fortasse dixerit qui poëtam ita definierit spiritu afflatus magna egregiè appositeque cum admiratione loquatur par carmen addatur omnia planè comprehensa uidebuntur

,

86 : “

81

."

capessenda exprimitur historica fide petitur

,

.

in

, at

& in

:

,

in

,

; cf.

,

I,

ed .

In

,

,

;

2;

IV .

: "

,

80

ed .

Etymologiae 671-74 for the formulas Isidore VIII Evanthius Diomedes Keil 487 Donatus Wessner parui impetus Ibid 681 Comoedia quidem mediocres fortunae hominum periculaque laetique sunt exitus actionum Tragoedia omnia contraria ingentes per sonae magni timores exitus funesti habentur illic turbulenta prima tranquilla ultima Tragoedia contrario ordine res aguntur tum Tragoedia fugienda uita Comoedia Ibid Wessner

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES derived from Aristotle indicate the arrival at a turning point in the Horatian tradition . The next text to be studied will be the first in a long series of texts which effect an intermingling of Horace's theories with those of Aristotle , and which produce in the end a complete confusion of Horace

with Aristotle . Before proceeding to that study , however , it will be well to estimate the effects of the growth of the Horatian tradition in Italy up to about the year 1545 . In the first place , there is what we might call the material growth of the

tradition . By that I mean the gradual accretion to the text of Horace of a host of other texts , which first become attached to it and then become inseparably identified with it . The earliest of these would be the ancient commentators , who persist with the text throughout the Middle Ages and bring to it an initial interpretation . Next would come the commentators of the fifteenth century , who add not only their own glosses and their own ideas but who incorporate as well relevant materials from the the end

of

grammarians and from the Latin rhetoricians . To some degree , also , these writers bring into the tradition the growing humanist knowledge of ancient texts , including both theoretical documents and

late - classical

various kinds of poems . Finally , the commentators of the first half of the sixteenth century expand the number of Greek and Latin theorists who are considered to have said things relevant to the interpretation of the Ars poetica . Plato , Aristotle , and Averroës are called upon increasingly, as well as many minor writers on poetic and rhetorical theory. There is another sense in which we may perceive a material growth

of the tradition : to formal , commentaries on the Horatian text are added first , independent theoretical statements in other contexts or in separate works , and , second , essays in practical criticism in which principles belonging to the tradition are applied to poems of one kind or another . Not only are more things added to the text

In

the Ars poetica , but it is constantly applied to more things. the second place , we discern what might be called a methodological

of

growth of the tradition . The earliest form of commentary is essentially a grammatical commentary , in which the exegesis of the text as a linguistic document is the primary problem . To be sure , philosophical interpretation is already present, but it is present in a secondary way . This type of gram matical commentary will continue throughout the later phases , but will gradually be subordinated to other types. To it is added , in the fifteenth century , more and more interpretation of a philosophical and literary character . At the outset, this kind of interpretation is applied to separate lines or passages in the text , for which analogues or explanations are found

in other texts and for which illustrations are found in the poets . But already , because of the character of the documents which are cited as analogues, a totality of interpretation ( which , as we have seen , is a rhetori cal one ) is present . In the sixteenth - century commentaries , the large body of disparate distinctions brought into the tradition in connection with one ( 107)

THEORY set

POETIC

of

,

.

of

by

, .

of

of

is a

of

,

is

of

systematic

In

of

or another is organized into a related distinctions and interpretations Horace appear with some frequency None gloss the earlier forms abandoned and the increasing length and complexity the commentaries reflection the greater number things done with the text and their greater diversity passage

it

.

,

of

all

-

in

be



at

.

"

to

,

,

of

evidences

of

and far the most important the tradition presents considerable doctrinal growth Two words caution are growth necessary about the meaning given this point For one thought that during the period under consideration there was should not any notable change understanding the over the Horatian epistle the third place

of

as a

be

by

by

or

of

,

.

to

of

any appreciable shift from one way regarding the text another Throughout these years the Ars poetica was read kind rhetoric that utility pleasure could brought about indicated how certain effects

.

of

,

or as

.

,

in

to

of

a

or

"



be

of

a

in

specific audience making treating nature certain ways and adaptations subject matter For another certain kinds words meaning necessarily that the later growth should not understood documents were more sophisticated more complicated philosophically larger and richer body that they contained ideas What doctrinal

be

as

of of

see

we

If

a

of

.

is

.

in

,

as a

as

of

as in

be

growth there was must sought the tradition whole the sum compared with the sum during the doctrine during the later years compared with the sum during the early years Here there middle years development substantial progress the general process consisting Horace with the more and more complete identification to

in

At

is

to

-

.

as

-

of

,

present rhetorical tradition then the first stages would the simplest assimilation the invention disposition elocution analysis Horace's correspond statements This assimilation will grow the division made

-

of of of

.

all

,

in its

or of

at

of

of

more and more completely with parts the Ars poetica the same time looking main point being the the text another way poetic matters appropriateness emphasis upon the necessity appears

,

,

to

of

.

so

,

genre

of to

type

to

of .

as

of

,

of

,

or

,

to

be

to

or

to

to

historical conceptions genre social station appropriateness will genre and verse material forth The canon enlarged and expanded likewise the tradition grows Consonant with the text critics the rhetorical associations the increasing complexity character traits character subject matter style diction

.

an

;

all

times each

The constantly this manner

of

.

of

of

or

At

.

part

these

times

108

)

(

back again

to

needs

go

,

For certain other relevant distinctions one

to

.

greater attention moral considerations considering the ends

the audience

is a

of

of

as

(

to

sought for some special segment

at ); at

to

,

to

be

to

times one

pleasure with Landino the only one the work achieved through separate parts as

is

,

is

are said one

clarified

emphasized

is

or

both

ends

of

to

by

explanations and examples

of

its

to

will tend orient their thinking more definitely toward the audience and develop theories fitting orientation The requirements and such instructing pleasing poetry with respect the audience that end

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES the earliest commentators and from them trace a widening and diversified of ramifications . This would be the case for the insistence , with respect be

discourse

It

the arts

grammatical

essentially

.

to

belong

of

an

dichotomy



verba

,

to Horace , upon the “ distinction which comes

all

to res -

set

would

of all ,

in

a

of

;

is

questions

diction

;

reduced

of

to

then they may also

be

all

if

.

be

of ,

the three styles

.

an

,

diction and to

with the text To them also related the matter interesting way For poetic concerns may reduced

the ideas connected

in

of

to

,

,

the case again for the three styles especially the postmedieval years upon provide organization styles these are called basis for nearly

its

of

it

in

of

,

to

be

.

a

If

or

as a res .”

,

or

,

of

considering poetry which will never lose popularity one during the Renaissance will exclusively consider terms words expression style there are thus several separate approaches verbal character there are also several which spring from preoccupations the ways

in

is

of

,

of

a

,

"

to

'

the theorists attention

facet

res ."

to

, of in

,

is a

.

of

and verisimilitude

One special

in

.

is be

,

to



."

a

to

a

of

as

of

of

is

it

or

he

be

,

this the insistence certain writers that when the poet deals with historical matters must true whereas when his subjects are feigned invented sufficient for him verisimilar Still another direction doctrinal growth discerned what we may transforming poetica characterize the the Ars into total poetics pertinent large number Horace himself had treated matters the art is

phase

a

of

an

to

.

in

a

of

is

of



The most prominent these the reading Horace essen principle reading document centered about decorum complete interpretation expression which reaches Badius Such course related those which were insistent upon appropriateness but specialized way Similarly the persistent return considerations nature with tially

,

of

,

or

,

of

.

in

,

of

,

of

so

by

,

of

of

:

of

poetry the internal order poems the appropriateness diction the history and the materials certain genres the behavior the poet the function great the critic and forth All these matters are developed examples detail the commentators either through the addition

At

constitutes no

,

times this actually basis ).

dogmas for which there

is

as

(

for Badius

a

is

of

or

.

,

of

regula





)

(

for Acron the discovery

a

as

the declaration that every statement

of or

effort results



praeceptum

in



solid and substantial

by

.

of

be

of

a .

of

through the expansion the ideas Moreover other developments occur precepts would probably The transformation the text into set rules one these Horace's fairly fluid organization materials made more

it

a

in

109

the commentators

of

,

to

.

Finally

,

prophet

.

seer and

:

the poet essential goodness the universality the character

a

as , a (

his

,

of

his inspiration through divine furor capacities his knowledge

ideas

relevant

his

concepts

]



Horatian

"

a

a

evalism enter into the sum introduce large number

of of

,

of

.

A

of

to

a

,

to

of

of

to

it

.

in

poetry the Horatian text itself The aggregation the defence the Horatian tradition expands and enriches notable degree since soon involves the crossing with other traditions and the appeal other part authorities this defence consists the allegorical interpretation poetry where again both continued medi renewed Platonism and

Through such

its

POETIC THEORY

.

to

,

In

up to

in

a



accretions as these , the Ars poetica — with attendant glosses becomes repository for everything that was being thought about poetry the humanistic period and during the Renaissance about 1545 the following years another impulsion material and methodological a

in

,

110

)

(

.

of

.

to

as

is

to

given and doctrinal growth the Horatian tradition and such way merit separate and detailed study This impulsion comes from the Aristotle's Poetics text and the interpretation

CHAPTER FOUR . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S POETICA : II. THE CONFUSION WITH ARISTOTLE

ARS

BE ERRONEOUS to believe that in the years before 1545 work on Horace's Ars poetica had been done exclusively by persons who

' T WOULD

did

Poetics . The passing allusions and refer chapter would disprove such a belief. A more correct statement would be that although these scholars knew Aristotle's treatise or knew of it , such knowledge did not fundamentally affect their general reading and interpretation of the not know

Aristotle's

ences to the Poetics mentioned in the preceding

Horatian text. They read it in the same way as did their colleagues

who

lacked this knowledge ; and allusion and reference were incidental to an interpretation which had nothing to do with the Poetics . In the years that we shall now be studying , however , a number

of theorists brought Horace's work into clear juxtaposition to and explicit comparison with Aristotle's , and in some cases at least , a new analysis of Horace resulted . What hap pened to Aristotle will be treated in a later section.1 Nor should it be thought that the comparison with Aristotle produced a revolution in the interpretation of Horace . We shall increasingly discover commentators and theorists who make the assimilation of the Greek to more fre - writers who persist in the earlier tradition . Both in theory and in practical criticism , it may be that the “ un - Aristotelians ” or the “ non Aristotelians " constitute the dominant element in the Horatian tradition of the later years as they did in the earlier . To determine the proportion , the Roman ; but we shall also continue to meet - and perhaps

quently

to weigh the importance of the two trends, will be one of the problems of this and the succeeding chapters. FRANCESCO FILIPPI PEDEMONTE ( 1546) The first of the Cinquecento commentaries on the Ars poetica to make use of Aristotle was Francesco Filippi Pedemonte's Ecphrasis in Horatii Flacci Artem poeticam , published by his pupil Puresius in 1546. In some respects this is a conventional commentary , but in others it presents extensive

notable innovations . For example , Pedemonte follows the usual routine of dividing Horace's text into small sections , with a commentary for each section ; but he varies the technique by giving a heading to each section .

Thus lines 1-13 are preceded by “De Idea Concipienda , " lines 14-23 by Non esse à materia discedendum , " and so on . These headings themselves indicate the direction of the interpretation . But the great innovation con “

1 The samo subject with respect to Horace is treated by Marvin T. Herrick in The Fusion Horatian and Aristotelian Literary Criticism , 1531–1555 (Urbana : University of Illinois Press , 1946); but since Herrick proceeds by a fragmentation of texts and an arrangement according to critical ideas , he does not achieve the kind of historical statement of the develop ment which I am here seeking .

of

( 111 )

POETIC THEORY of Aristotle

sists in the use made

Let us

.

how this is done in several

see

typical passages . In the first passage , lines 1-13 , Pedemonte sees an expres sion of Plato's theory that Ideas precede forms ; from this theory he derives Horace's contention that “ it is necessary that the artist have a preconceived notion of the things which are made by him before putting his hand to them , and that he see in advance in his mind's eye the Form according to This is the procedure , painting the arts molding and sculpturing which indeed seem proceed Aristotle the same way imitation does poetry Thus Aristotle's theory imitation made equivalent Plato's theory the imitation Forms ."

of

to

of

.”

as

to

,

is

of in ,

of

work

especially

to

,



the arts and

of

,

he goes on to say , in

in

all

he may give form to every

of which

the model

in

.

of

no

,

( as

: “

a

an as

,

of

fit ,

,

passage

of

he is

in

to

Horace's initial statements the Ars poetica Later the same speaking unity when disparate when the impossibility elements are combined Pedemonte again quotes Aristotle the first parts the poem will not with the last and the poem whole which and

in

on

the reference

to

of

"

a

In

by .

be

)

his

lie "

by

he

,

of

shed upon the Horatian passage

is

,

is

of

,

to

as

be

a

,

be

.

be be

(

new light Aristotle.2 cases

,

a

,

,

of .”

be

)

a

of

beginning way Aristotle says consists middle and end will complete Here Aristotle's principle unity identified with Horace's principle appropriateness Finally Horace's recommendations that nature must followed are said corroborated Aristotle's insistence that Homer taken the best model since best taught how something out which would nature should told each these

,

ad

.

by

the Horatian passage goes

on to



(I

to to

of

an

he



As

TTPÉTTOV

.



),

,

. ”



,

is

in

commentary Pedemonte's procedure similar lines 92–107 De decoro atque affectibus exprimendis quae res actionem pertinere uidetur After initial sentence about the importance quotes Aristotle observing decorum locate the have been unable passage quid deceat equivalent thus making Horace's Aristotle's headed

the effects produced

the

poem

et

Non satis est pulchra

:

,

esse poemata dulcia sunto quocumque volent animum auditoris agunto

to

of

;

he is

,

est

.

to

is

to

to

on

to

of

-Pedemonte first cites Cicero on the closeness the poet the orator sway their audiences then both Cicero and and the necessity for both portraying Aristotle the need for the poet feel the passions that the reference Aristotle Poetics 1455a31 At the end the com ,

se

à

,

" ;

,

,

,

in

sic

]

[

,

I

, by 4v

.pp

" ;

up

to

of

since was called Pedemonte scholars and including

).

112

he ,

ac



Filippi rather than the whole tradition 235



,

ex

,

ed , .,

,

(

,

''

the name Pedemonte pupil Puresius and Venice 1796 VIII

by "

)

;

4 : “

( .p ut

;

.

,

;

3v : “

,

), .p

(

2

Ecphrasis 1546 necesse enim artificem earum rerum quae fiunt prius quam manum admoueat precognitam habere notitiam animoque praeuidere formam cuius exemplo opus quodque informet itaque omni arte pingendi maxime fingendi atque sculpendi quae quidem eodem imitationis tramite cum poesi Aristoteli incedere uidentur poematis primę partes cum postremis non conuenient miniméue totum ipsum quod inquit Aristoteles principio medio fine constat absoluetur also 16. use his own Tiraboschi

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION

WITH ARISTOTLE

mentary

- and for reasons difficult to discern - he quotes Aristotle on the beautiful animal and on the proper magnitude of a poem ( 1450635 ). These passages in the Ecphrasis are typical . For an indication of the extent to which Pedemonte seeks parallels in Aristotle , a simple list of the texts involved will suffice :

Ars poetica

Poetics 1447a18 , 1450627 , 1460a18

1-13 42-45

1459631

46–72

1458631

73-88 89-91

1459631 , 1448632 , 1459a11 144969 , 1448a16

92–107

1455a31 , 1450635 1448635 , 1460616

128–34 149_52

1451a32

179_88

1448a36 , 1449b21 , 1448a30 , 144964 , 1449a31 , 1451a16 , 145363 ,

189–92

1451a9

193-95 202-19

1456a25

220-24

1449a21

234-39

1458631 , 1456a20

1453619

1455632

275-80

144999

281-84

1449a36

338

40

1451a36

457-69

1447619

As compared with earlier commentators , the extent of these references is considerable ; but the study of later commentators will show that we have here only the beginning of an important tendency . What is important , however, is not the fact of reference , but the degree to which such reference causes a change in the interpretation of the text of Horace . A careful reading of Pedemonte's commentary shows that while several new ideas are added to the Horatian tradition as the result of the parallel with Aristotle , none of the old ideas is in any way modified ; the process is one of accretion rather than change . I have already referred to several of these new ideas : Aristotle's theories of imitation and of the magnitude of beautiful poems compared to that of beautiful animals . Other added elements are the notion of necessary order , in which no part of a poem may be moved or removed without destroying the total struc the explanation of the various compo ; that definition the insistence that unity of plot is not provided by

ture ; the definition

of

its

nents

of tragedy and

of

(

113

the statement that the

they should

be ,

;

of

things

as

the presentation

of

poetry

plot and

four kinds

)

domain

is

the distinction

of

,

spectacle

of ;

in

unity of hero ; the declaration that tragedy should attain effect even the reading through the constitution the plot rather than through stage according

POETIC THEORY

on

Acron

;

,

to

of

)

in

the first

group

in

and Parrasio the second Pedemonte's contribution consists ing them together and adding necessity them the notion

he

had appeared in earlier commentators (

be "

cf.

should

on

to necessity and probability . In connection with this last , it should be noted that both the idea of the “ verisimile " and the idea of " things as they

which

of

.

does not explain



,



on to

he

compositione

” “



,

,

of

.

,

,

,

,

of

or

of

,

.

is

in

of

,

,

The addition these Aristotelian concepts does not mean however that any the old components the Horatian theory are lost dimin ished The work still read the light Cicero Quintilian Acron and Donatus and the essentially rhetorical interpretation still obtains Thus lines 38–72 the Ars poetica are divided into three sections entitled respectively De Inventione De Dispositione and De Vocabulorum

:

is

,

it

,

of

he

to ,

.” 3

is

It

: “

of



,

,

"

;

as

passes the next section Pedemonte remarks and abundantly discoursed about poetic invention disposition Similarly when speaks comedy and the artistry elocution Pedemonte insists not sufficient have invention but also

So far we have

to





by



"



,



.” 4

to

a

in

res -

to

understand disposition and elocution and fashion the poem itself according the rules The related verba distinction appears rhythmi somewhat special form since the verba are replaced necessary

).

of

,

to

(





,

own colors

of

his

on

.

on

is he

of

he

he

,

he

,

so ” in ),

,

." .

to

(“

,

'

,

obliged

variety the necessity means produce admiration

insists

aim Much later however when Aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae the text itself consider the dual end and does these

line 333

by

discusses

will

no



,

otherwise and pleasure which are the poets

by

,

the Ars poetica

for

it

line

the poetic work

of

29

of

in "

variare



6

be

,

by

,

respect

to

poetry Pedemonte seems the ends remain unde pre cided between the two rival positions most commonly held decessors that which maintained that the end was pleasure and that which mingled with utility Commenting declared that pleasure must the

to

With

."

distinct

its

by

is

of

by

,

in

So

: “

is





in

contrary and these turn are called colores the usual practice speech which reserved the term colores for figures The distinction poetry two principal things are considered formulated thus namely the material the things which are taken the poet for treatment and the numbers from which this material receives its form and made

dispositione

elocutionisque

to in

give pleasure and was entirely alien

artificio

uerum etiam dispositionem

ac

,

poetica

est

inuentione

,

,

of

be

: ." “

.

.,

3

Ibid 12v Hactenus abunde disseruimus

de

p

to

to

in

part Yet since poetry seems have been invented part also utility lest someone might think that

it to

:

terms

,

,

."

)

114

qui poetarum est scopus

,

,

oblectationemque

praebeat

(

,

;

,

admirationem

,

, à

ac

;

,

cum alioquin

6 : "

Ibid

nequaquam

."

in

: “

., .p

., . " .p

6

à

s

;

: “

., .p

*

Ibid 40v Non enim satis inuentionem habere elocutionem callere oportet ipsumque poema rite intexere poesi duo praecipua considerantur Ibid 14v Ita rerum uidelicet quae tractandę poeta sumuntur quibus informatur efficiturque suis coloribus materia numeri distincta

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

of

in

. [

,

,

,

of

of

.]

I

,

all

pleasure he (Horace ) felt it necessary to remove such a concern from men's minds by making a universal distinction among poets The three kinds poets dis tinguished say who communicate Those provide utility verse the precepts the disciplines and the arts especially the precepts which are called moral ,

[E

.

of

in

a

In

,

:

,

of

as

,

a

By

the wrappings life.7

of in

envelop way

to

to

fiction fact those very ancient poets have set for themselves that same purpose fables doctrinal mysteries and moral instructions

seem

and

of

they include under the appearance

who first invented poetic lies

.

)

to to

,

in

of

,

,

of

proper living ... These poets mpedocles Lucre and who teach the norm tius Aratus etc. seem have created many things their poems for purposes pleasure sculptured image addition moral portraits and life which

an

in

as

in

of

by

of

of

.

,

is he

of

,

a

such statement the last one Pedemonte allies himself with those poetry residing theorists who had seen the chief utility alle gorical function Moreover indicates the passage that his whole con ception poetry the ends unaffected his study and his citation be

to

it

of

seems

brought about

In

by

proverbs

or

utility

,

the actual production entirely almost the introduction

for

of

As

.

Aristotle

to

,

of

"

among

,

lines 309–22 where

all

the commentary

on

).

(

present

in

sententiae

is

to

by

"

,

in

be ,

to

."

of



,

.

sententiae connection with lines 202–19 Pedemonte insists that ethical philosophy filled tragedy right and comedy with most weighty sententiae apposite the teaching living appears passage There the same some connection plot between poems offering such sententiae and the moral type distinguished position respect Aristotle Poetics 1456al The same with

,

: “

,

of

a

we

? ” 9

a

,

to

,

other related things Pedemonte says this Indeed unless comedies and tragedies derived their seriousness from precepts and sententiae pertaining dry discourse everyday life what would say they were other than commentary and sterile matter At the end the same Pedemonte A

a

,

of

ad

or

no

if

ad

.pp

or

or

: “

,

, or

of

,

of

,

it

is

if

,

to

of

utility over pleasure itself gives priority poem faithfully this kind reflecting mores adorned with philosophical passages containing useful grandeur beauty matter even without the seduction words delight cleverness construction will better and hold the public than poem with the most highly embellished verses knowledge wisdom ,

: "

...

carmini

,

tum praesertim quç moralia uocantur

...

ab

,

praecepta artiumúe ,

inquam qui disciplinarum

.

ex

,

à

ne

,

.,

7

Ibid 51-51v cum tamen poesis oblectandum partim partim uero iuuandum aliquis existimaret omnino uoluptate eam esse alienam uatum omnium inuenta uideatur uniuersali distinctione eiusmodi scrupulum euellere animis necessarium duxit Prosunt

,

,

,

ab

illi ,

inuoluerent

,

ad

quae tragoedias comoediasque grauissimis sententijs

&

."

modum

., .p

recte uiuendum

repleuit

."

8

Ibid appositis

36 : "

uiuendique

ut

;

&

.

,

,

.

,

bus tradunt recteque uiuendi normam edocent multa enim illis oblectationis causa alioquin expressos mores insculptamquo uitae imaginem sub falsitatis efficta uidentur qui umbra continent Nam uetustissimi initio poetica mendacia excogitarunt illud sub fabularum inuolucris doctrinarum mysteria mores sibi scopum proposuisse uidentur

,

,

ac

à

,

,

,

)

(

? "

115

ni

,

: “

., .p

ad

9

sententijs praeceptis pondus Ibid 49v comoedias omnes tragoediasque quottidianam uitam spectantibus accepissent quid aliud esse quàm iciunum sermonum sterilemguc materiam diceremus

POETIC THEORY supports it . ” The position is of course that of Acron and later commenta tors ; 10 it would not be that of Aristotle at any point in the Poetics . A little later , Horace's dictum on brevity ( 1. 335 ) is expanded to refer specifically to these moral precepts : “He advises us to make every possible effort

toward brevity, which indeed is held to be particularly suitable for teaching the mind , and to stray as little as possible from the line of profiting and teaching ; so that the learners may more easily grasp the precepts and may

keep them as long as possible locked within the storehouse of the memory ." 11 We have already examined the tenor of Pedemonte's discussion of decorum in connection with Ars poetica 92–107 ; as in the Horatian text , decorum will be throughout one of the commentator's primary concerns . It should be pointed out further , relative to the above passage , that

;

, to

of to of

to

be

,

,

so

let is

,

let

Pedemonte tends to make a proper observance of decorum one of the con ditions both of sound teaching and of audience attention . Two sentences show this : " All of those who have undertaken the task of writing poetry , according judgment them pay attention especially their powers what decorous that the proper qualities attributed each person and them observe decorum itself through ignorance which offense ”

;

in

in

of

or

to

no to

12

;

. "

of

is in

by

"

,

,

in

poetry and speeches results not only life but most frequently and give Furthermore the writer who fails each personage speech that keeping with character will means obtain the attentive minds the open ears his listeners Decorum also provides one the bases for distinguishing poetry from history for whereas the historian treats

no

to to

"

", "

"

locisque philosophicis

ornatum

,

"

, "

of of

.

his

:

,

50 : “

poema bene moratum

Ibid

., .p

10

is

in

by

,

what Pedemonte adds the text predecessors The basic principle Horace had already been added unity stated simplex congruens the conventional terms unum



to

.

."

work The treatment significant additions Aside from these major emphases

of

13

of

,

or

treated with decorum

be

only those things which can which seem likely confer splendor upon the ages follows Horace with the decorum

true the poet pays attention ,

is

what

utilemúe continens ,

,

sit

,

: “

II,

,

ed .

,

,

,

,

cf.

,

" ;

,

,

materiam sine tamen uenustatis lenocinio aut uerborum maiestate aut constructionis quàm exornatissimis uersibus artificio melius spectantem populum oblectat detinetque nulla subiecta sententia neque scientia Acron Hauthal 629 dicens quod ,

,

ut ,

ac

à ad

: "

pp .

,

11

,

.”

,

,

et

expressione morum quamuis interdum fabula opportunitate personarum inductarum sine arte sine uenustate sine grauitate sententiarum plus placet quam uersus bene quidem sonantes sed morum obseruatione carentes Ecphrasis quae quidem 512-52 docendos animos admodum idonea habetur

12

;

.”

,

;

praecipiendi linea errandum maxime studendum esse monet minimeque iuuandi discentes praecepta facilius comprehendant memoriaeque thesauro recondita quamdiutissime seruent

in

&

,

;

in

.”

,

,

13

,

16 : “

.p

" ;

;

in

,

ut

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 15v Omnes qui poeticam prouinciam susceperint pro suo iudicio maxime quid deceat animaduertant unicuique persone suę partes tribuantur ipsumque decorum poemate obseruent cuius ignoratione non modo uita sed sepissime oratione peccatur and Praeterea qui personae cuique congruentem orationem nequaquam tribuet nullo pacto attentos animos patentesúe aures habebit

."

,

ea

,

116

]

[

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 24v sic Poeta non omnia sed tantummodo attendere debet quae tractari cum decoro possint quaeúe splendorem operi allatura uideantur

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION ( p.

5).

For

each

of

WITH ARISTOTLE

the “ simple " styles , Vergil may be taken as the model

5v) . But lest simplicity cloy, one introduces variety into the poem always keeping appropriateness in mind — and in so doing one follows the example of nature ; “for poetry and numerous noble arts follow nature as

( p.

their guide, and nature , indeed , rejoices to an astonishing degree in variety . " 14 The " following of nature " is one of the kinds of imitation ; but in addition to the Platonic and Aristotelian meanings assigned to the term , the text also uses it to mean the adaptation of old plots and the following the commentary on lines 128 ff.

of

,

he a

model and

sort

,

to

;

to

he is

if

: “

a

good man

castum decet

).

.p

(



,

a

must himself

be

,

,

proper moral influence pium poetam 56v

exert esse

15

.”

,

I

,

whose likeness everyone should execute his own work should say make the sum total and not merely separate parts conform this Finally the poet who executes such works image excel and in

image

as in a

to

be



is

,

tendis fabulis and the general thesis stated poem which we undertake imitate must

: “

( “ Difficile imitatione atque conver this way Finally the

De



entitled

is

of

the section

proprie communia dicere

" )

est

of models. Hence

.

,

at

.

to

of

to

in

in

it

to

of of

a

of

on

,

,

its

In

main lines then Pedemonte's Ecphrasis 1546 adds the tradi commentary the Poetics reference Horace sizable amount interpretation and This reference adds some new ideas the corpus changes times results that interpretation But for the most part the tion

in

is

found

a

.

similar alliance of Aristotelian and rhetorical elements by

A

a

to

by

,

construction put upon the Ars poetica remains unaltered and Pedemonte merely adds another document the series which this time had estab lished standard reading for the text

. in

),

is

of

(

to

),

(

in

I

: “

remember

,

to

praises

on

;



This insistence

Aristotle Poetics 1458a18 although directly from Aristotle the the discussion

reference is

what

finds that clarity which

what Aristotle says the Poetics 1459631 greatly the hexameter verse appropriate the heroic style

hexameter

14

so ,

not necessarily

of

,

its

is

itself

be a

in

derives both from the words and from their ordering.16

he

,

in

"

of

lovely through their varied ornamentation distinguished clarity the kind by

,

,

in

,

selected words

the translation

clarity may

,

of

of

is

he

in

;

1 ,

,

,

in

to

letter Claudio Tolomei Marcantonio Cinuzzi dated July 1543 but published 1547. Once more the rhetorical elements are predominant discussing Cinuzzi's translation Tolomei Claudian's Rape Proser pine ingenious praises the three books the work because they are disposition elevated invention clear their great sentiments terse

who

since

&

,

,

;

ad

;

)

.p 9 .

,

";

,

8 : "

), .p

117

(

,

(

Delle lettere 1547 son ingegnosi per inuenzione chiari per disposizione per gran sentimenti tersi per iscelte parole uaghi per uario ornamento also

,

."

&

,

16

."

6 : “

21 : “

., .p

., ; .p

15

in &

Nam poetica artes quamplurimae nobiles naturam tanquam ducem quae quidem mirum modum uarietate gaudet Ibid Poema denique quod imitandum suscipimus debet esse exemplar imago quasi quaedam cuius similitudinem opus suum quisque effingat totum inquam corpus non partes singulas conformet Ibid sequuntur

alti

, all

POETIC THEORY

as

)

)

(

readjustments

1550

(

AND MAGGI

1548

a

,

to

,

of

Pedemonte although lesser degree Francesco Robortello seeks establish parallels between Horace and Aristotle his Paraphrasis librum Horatii qui vulgo arte poetica Pisones inscribitur in

ad

on

de

,

is in

to

Continuing the lead

systematic

.

sembled from various sources with

ROBORTELLO

17

. "

;

no

of

all

-

do

as

that kind of verse does not as easily happen in the speech of men at times six syllable verses and other similar forms Here again critical elements kinds are slight and commonplace they are

is

it

all ,

at

is

is

if

to

he

a

.

If , ,

to

of

As

in

.

(

);

1548 this one the appendices Robortello's commentary the Poetics his title promises limits himself almost exclusively paraphrasing Horace's epistle and there any doctrinal value little paraphrase necessary Robortello's statements

be

"

.

of In to

all is

,

.

a "

of all ,

at

"

in of

"

an

is

of



he

so



says because the order Horace's treatise obscure and many points need expansion and clarification Indeed Horace's work not poetry art but merely sermo touching upon current poetry The expositor's function will therefore errors the writing

42-45

1460a5

73–74

1459631

79

101-13

iambic definite passage 1454a16 mores

125-27

1453a17

(

Homer's narration

1454a37

193–201

1456a25

.

as

(

ex

Trapahoyiouós

deus

machina

1456al

)

)

(

)

)

(

(

(

of ,

of

,

,

in

was interested

,

decorum

of

subject matters juxtaposing the two texts metrics certain rules for the handling narration and ,

of

A

and

ethical plot

the comparisons shows first the kinds

for which Robortello ethics

(

317-20

ff .

281-88

chorus tragedy from satire 1449a19 1449a2 old comedy

mere listing

)

)

1460a18

191-92

)

(

151-52

( (

dualiav

)

)

few families

1451611

1454a25

meter

)

,

(

;

necessity

of

)

(

no

(

)

(

hexameter for epic

1449a23

82

)

Aristotle

Horace

220

a

to

)

he

opinions These are the parallels established

:

does and thus corroborate

.

his

(

,

his

of

is

to

distinguish what order perceptible and expand and clarify the text paraphrase the course Robortello finds occasion cite number passages from the Poetics which claims say the same things Horace

,

to ,

.

)

these historical considerations and second the miscellaneous character problems Robortello goes Aristotle for scattered details which resemble

]

[

118

, e

i

il

,

di

,

ne la

.”

,

fa a

:

lo

a

di

8v : “

., .p

17

qvel che dice Aristotile poetica ilqval loda molto Ibid mi souuiene percio che qvella sorte uerso non cade cosi stile Heroico uerso Hesametro atto alcvne altre simili ageuolmente nel parlar che l'hvom tutte l'hore come uersi senarii forme

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

isolated remarks in Horace , not for any consistent

or particularized theory

of poetry . In this series of

de

Q.

In

an

I

).

(

,

ad

on

his

the early “ comparers " of Horace to Aristotle , the first to read Horace in the light of the Aristotelian text was Vincenzo Maggi , commentary who appended to the Poetics Horatii Flacci arte poetica librum Pisones Interpretatio 1550 have already referred

. "

in

.

18

to



in ”



in

of

II

in

of

to

Chapter and quoted Maggi's assumption that the important Horace's work were written almost entirely imitation Aristotle's Poetics and his intention demonstrate that those things which are found Horace are already found Aristotle But the text Maggi discovers three merits more complete and more intensive study this text

sections

,

all

,

to

)

(

;

treat

3

to

(1 )

:

in

Horace teach the laws for the proper making poetry itself criticize satirize and render

of

to

poems

; . 19 ( 2 )

of

separate purposes

is

,

be

is

;

of

,

to

on

.

,

to

is

is

."

is



of

of

,

he .

of

parallels This clearly stated Maggi the introduction where declares that will not repeat the explanations quae huic nostro others but merely treat those things cum Aristotele communia sunt The procedure not novel course Maggi's parti pris begin with Aristotle and work but what new forward Horace rather than following the usual inverse process in

satisfied with the discovery and adducing

by

lla

is

,

a

of

,

in

of

.

a

;

to

to

Only the first two are essential the work and materials them derive from Aristotle anything concerning the third digression and promptly dismissed Since labeled fundamental parts the work have their source Aristotle their meaning can clarified citation the parallel Aristotelian text and Maggi for the most part ridiculous belonging

in

.

on

:

to

he

.

be

all

to

of

to

all

,

,

of

is

of

of

reading example this method found the commentary very the first section the Horatian text lines 1-13 Maggi quotes five relating separate texts from the Poetics the distinction between plot plot itself Then goes say and episode and the importance

An

to

at

is

,

is ,

is ,

,

is

of

of of so all , it to

,

it

,

may clearly concluded that Aristotle Therefore since from these texts plot and episodes and himself divided Homer's poetry into two parts that speak the soul poetry that that plot the thing which most important seems me reasonable that Horace should have given the so

is ,

and

Ars

,

to

,

,

is

in

no

is

of

on

that

the

53 .

19 18

of

,

;

in

at

he

of

this work the precepts for the proper making the plot evidently treats very once and the threshold his work what first poetry especially since there foremost other place Horace's poetica except this one which explicitly deals with the plot that say composition events.20 beginning

ac

,

: "

; , &

in

."

)

119

,

sit ,

in

ex

(

in

&

,

,

: &

,

,

,

,

,

in

ut

,

: est

,

, id

de

, ), .p

(

de

ex

.

,

in

: “

pp .

., ut

20

,

In

de

, .p

See above poetica communes explanationes Aristotelis librum 1550 328 partim leges partim criminari rectè Poesim conficiendi docere partim Poesi ipsa tractare perinde satyricum mordere irridereque Ibid 329–30 Quare cùm omnibus his locis plane colligi possit Aristotelem ipsum Homeri Poesim episodia duas diuisisse partes fabulam inquam fabulam esse ueluti Poeseos animam hoc est quiddam omnium maximum rationi consentaneum praecepta quibus posset operis esse mihi uidetur Horatium recte fabula confici huius quod potissimum est ipso statim libri limine initio tradidisse Poesi primum praesertim excepto tractare uideretur cùm nullus tota Horatii arte Poetica locus hoc qui fabula rerum constitutione instituto pertractet

POETIC THEORY He then asks whether the precepts for plot suggested by the two theorists are the same and concludes that they are , with Aristotle's requirements of and probability corresponding to Horace's insistence upon the properly constituted animal . Plainly , the argument runs this way : Horace is imitating Aristotle ; he finds in Aristotle precepts for the proper constitu necessity

as

own

say

:

to

his

to of

of

as as

.

on

.

...

;

in

.

as a

be

.

of

to



particulae the the Poetics are the commentary preceding He has this “

in to

of

ff .,

example his treatment

Maggi's references divisions the text

as

can possibly discover We may take lines 312 the general subject decorum

Aristotle

of

in

many equivalents an

he is

,

In

of

,

is

of

set

tion of the plot , the most important part of any poem ; he introduces at the beginning of his treatise an equivalent precepts As far the interpre tation Horace concerned this means that lines 1-13 will read poetic plot section on the proper organization general Maggi's procedure seek for each passage Horace

.

et

.

Aristotle quoted

).

translation

]

=

(

of

.

ex

[

, :ait

ibi

:

:

siquidem

Pars uero

:

sumptum uidetur illa

.

in

):

[

,

=

.

. II .

ex

,

mihi uidetur Horatius intelligere poetam oportere rectè actiones exprimere personis congruas quae pars desumpta esse uidetur VIII .IX particulis quibus dicitur Poesim necessario imitari Illud 1447a13 1447613–24 Respicere exemplar uitae autem .LXXX particula 1454b8 Aristotelis

, .

:

in

,

in

:

,

Interdum speciosa iocis morataque rectè ubi Horatius uerba cum rebus confert docetque multo maiorem rebus ipsis quàm particulae Poetices Aristotelis .XLI uerbis curam esse adhibendam eo

ac

translation

).

.

]

(p

.

. (

Verba autem Aristotelis sunt haec

of

primas sibi uendicare asserit Aristotle quoted 360

,

,

,

.

in

,

, et

.

]

(

=

proportione respondere uidetur fabulam enim 1450a29 loco cum praecipuum locum moribus dictionibus sententiis conferens principatum Poesi obtinere docuit ita Horatius illum imitatus res uerbis comparans ipsas

to

a

is

in

,

at

to

.

to

,

on

A

,

a

of

It

be

can readily seen how such determination will lead times the discovery parallels that are very farfetched indeed point case subject the remark lines 38-41 where Horace advises the poet select ,

all

of

of

,

.

of

,

as

to

it

or

Horace's departures

is

).

justify finds possible clever imitations from the order the doctrine the Aristotelian text

he

Indeed

,

.

crepancies

(p .

or

of

in

"

"

to

"



,

to

;

"



to in

his own genius order achieve facundia and correspond ordo for Maggi this seems Poetics 1450a35 treating plot than which Aristotle insists upon the greater difficulty any such dis character diction 334 But Maggi unaware matter suited



factam

120

it

Aristotele

,

communemýue

nec uerbum uerbo reddens

of

." 21

treating epic first instead ." ab

,

,

by

it

iam

]

nam uulgatam

Poeticam effecit alio eam ordine tradens

[





his borrowings ,

345

: “

Ibid

dissimulated

., .p

21

Horace

,

by

,

he

,



) ;

1.

In

in a

(



/

Horace follows his own precept Nec uerbum uerbo curabis reddere fidus Interpres 133 fact made the Poetics his own which had already been made generally known and public Aristotle handing down different order and not translating word for word Thus

propriam

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION

WITH ARISTOTLE

(

,

38-41

genius subject

1450a33

42-45

epic

1460a1 1459a29 1458631–1459a16

)

,

)

).

,

1449a21

1459631

digression

)

,

old comedy

1448a29

,

(

260_74

)

)

(

,

)

(

)

(

)

;

;

( )

( (

satire

(

1458631

1449a19 145146 no equivalent

rustic audience iamb

(

but

)

)

digression

satire and tragedy

cf.

3

(

(

,

)

(

)

1456a25

chorus

tragedy

1461626

1452614

201-19

1449a14

146066

)

121

ff .

)

,

1450a29

1453611

also Rhetoric

on

,

,

1449621 1453al brevity

(

)

(

defences

145468

(

( pleasure

)

(

,

utility

,

1447b13-24

digression

)

,

equivalent

1447a13

)

)

9

no

( (

)

(

imitation

)

(

wisdom

)

(

digression

295–308

347–60

)

;

1449a14

interlocutors

also Rhetoric 145361

,

192

(

1460all

333-46

,

,

,

(

)

1454a33

)

of

age

179–88 incredible 189-92 plot

275–84 285-94

but cf. 146263

1460a18-33

)

true and false

decorum

317-22 323–32

1448634

no equivalent

)

151-52

309-16

1454a15

,

,

1456a7

)

of

,

)

)

old

( (

( ( (

1453b21

1459a29

153–78

193–201

1456a33

1454a15 146169

plot

epic

1449a21

1448a14

,

)

)

( ( (

(

,

)

,

1455a31 145668

new characters poets 128-35 imitation 136 45 epic beginning 146-50

1448628

digression

diction

decorum

244-50 251-59

:

)

( (

)

(

1460al

tragic comic verse passions pity

(

89-95

234-43

,

,

)

( )

)

digression

96-103

220-33

(

)

)

:

)

(

new words

73–85 meters 86-88

119–27

last two above

digression

46–59 60_72

112–18

,

1451633 1458a18

,

episodes

diction

( (

14-23 24-31 32-37

1450a38

1451a36 )

,

1456a25

1450a15

,

,

1450a3

1451a23

,

1455b12 1451627

(

)

(

1-13 plot

104-11

complete listing follows

Aristotle

Horace 1

of

satirical digressions

A

characterizes

.

which

as

he

all

tragedy, as Aristotle had done ( p. 335 ) , and by introducing his counsels on new words in connection with the epic rather than with tragedy, since the epic demands high - sounding speech ( p. 336 ). This generous conception of parallelism leads Maggi to find equivalent passages in Aristotle for almost sections the Ars poetica except those

POETIC THEORY Horace

Aristotle

361-65 (poetry and painting ) 366_78

145468

379-90

(digression (

) )

391-407 ( natural origins)

144864

408–11 ( nature vs. art ) 412-18

( digression )

419-44

(

445-52 (meter and poetry ) 453–76

1456624

1461626

)

( digression )

of

all

Maggi's initial thesis that Horace was versifying Aristotle and his demon stration of the parallelism of the two texts did not fail to produce changes in the interpretation of the Ars poetica . Not only are traces the late in

"

.

of

read

of .

necessity

,

"

,

,

of

to "

of



of

of

be



.

is

of to

as

is

prodesse Aristotle's pity similarly pity the arousal fear and

an

,

audience's passions now related exemplification taken

;

),

99

(

1.

of

by by

to

by

.

of

and probability episodes digressions Horace's are identified with Aristotle's The vices diction pointed out the Roman are found the opposites the virtues diction extolled the Greek The dulcia sunto Horace long since identified the commentators with the arousing the to

principles

plot and diction The

the poem cohere

as

parts

is

admonition make equivalent the organizing

of

general

all

becomes the much more specific division

to

"

verba

"

.

"

.

of

),

in

(

classical and the humanistic commentators removed this had already been accomplished Robortello's Paraphrasis but certain new orientations the reading the text are introduced And these concern really important poetic matters Horace's somewhat vague distinction between res and

a

to

by

.

is

of



by

,

of

to

.

by



,

qidávopwtrov while delectare becomes synonymous with the pleasure produced traced truth with falsehood mixture Horace's imitation trapaloyiouós impossible probable back Aristotle's and the Notions imitation which had already been related earlier commentators in

'

,

,

on

.

of

,

,

of

Maggi more definitely connected with Aristotles copying nature are conception Finally Maggi follows his predecessors associating action

of

.

in

a

of

is

,

)

1550

of (

GRIFOLI

,

of

.

in

Horace's precepts decorum with Aristotle's recommendations for character All all this not an inconsiderable reorientation the reading pioneer Horace and Maggi becomes kind this respect

he

early

or

was published

,

:

it

to

as

whether

of

in

.

it

122

]

[

in

,

,

,

I

,

.

is

the Grifoli volume

true for the Maggi volume But since the dedication the latter am assuming that was published fairly early 1550 and hence

is

indication

the year the same dated September 1549 antedated Grifoli

late

in

.

; no

There

is

22

of

in

In

of

in

,

to

be

Giacopo the same credit for pioneering may also accorded Grifoli who the same year 1550 published his Artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio.22 For Grifoli also rereads the Ars poetica the light the Poetics Two factors however decrease his originality first Some

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION

WITH ARISTOTLE

came after Maggi and probably knew his Interpretatio ; second , in certain senses , his "rereading ” reverts to a much earlier tradition .

Grifoli's

com

in Its

is for -

for -

mentary is long and complete ; it follows the usual pattern of citing a passage of the text, giving a general interpretation of the passage , and then a

is

is

.

do

I

in

as

: "

,

of

is

.

to to

,

,

.

-

or

providing a line very line word word gloss total position assumption Epistle imitating curious one The basic that Horace the Aristotle and adopting paraphrasing and reorganizing Aristotle's central ideas This clear from such statements the one found the dedication Fabio Mignanelli Bishop Lucera This certainly not hesitate in

",

of

,

,

in

,

,

to

,

he

,

of

: “

of

of

I

,

in

that have expounded the passages Horace and that this work Poetry was culled almost entirely from Aristotle's Art and others body proper Seeing the the text then that Aristotle's opinion plot characters thought diction spectacle tragedy consists and melody thing decided that the first discuss was the construction affirm

plot nor does follow any the less here than elsewhere Starting way Aristotle from this assumption seeks

the teaching

he



of



;

the

of

,

he

,

, a

in

,

,

to

,

,

of

.

to of 45 ,

he

as .

it

he

,

(

.p

11 ).

as

,

is

in

of

,

.” 23

explaining organization Horace's terms the Poetics He finds first that Horace concerned essentially with tragedy just Aristotle was and that treats the epic only insofar has characteristics common with tragedy Second believes that Horace has ordered his work tragedy altering however the sequence around the six qualitative parts plot lines 114-18 and 319–22 treatment Thus lines 1-23 are devoted to

,

,

to

,

,

of

as

,

to ,

.

is

,

,

thought lines 24–31 32 character lines 93-113 114-18 and 319-22 spectacle 114-18 and 319–22 diction and lines 179–83 and 275–80 uncertainty overlappings melody and But there much the and repeti

of

to

,

of of

,

II

of

I

in

.

by

;

is a

tions indicate this result the corruption the original assumption positions systems other derived from other Chapter have already pointed out how Grifoli adds the system just outlined the set disposition rhetorical distinctions invention and a

of

,

is

a

of of

-

of

to

as , to a

In

.

.

of

,

read

it

is

says

.

thereby introducing meanings What Horace third layer preconceptions about the not only under the influence representation Poetics but also well known rhetorical topics This possible given passages variety makes attach associated mean ings speaking lines 32–45 for example Horace the necessity elocution

on

,

"

he in

;

is

if

."

,

.

a

a

to

choosing subject fitted one's genius this done eloquent words proper things more and order will ensue Grifoli sees the lines abstruse than most people suspect paraphrases First and quotes to

."

)

(

123

; he a

" ; .p

&

,

, " ; .p

,

de

,

;

primum melodia constitutione fabulae disserendum esse statuit minus quàm vnquam alias praeceptionem Aristotelis secutum

11 : 39 : , “ "

,

certe affirmare non dubito ostendisse me locos Horati Aristotelis Arte poetica decerptum Videns igitur constare fabula moribus sententia dictione apparatu ,

(

ac

,

Illud

), .p 7 : “

Interpretatio 1550 anos totum ferè hoc opus Aristotelis iudicio Tragoediam

ex

23

in

)

(

to

,

in

of

poems those ascribable Aristotle the two types errors the poetic art and those ascribable some other art Poetics 1460015 craftsman like the one Horace mentions sins the poetic art when

neque nunc

THEORY 11.

POETIC

:

of

a

is

),

undertakes a task superior to his capacities . Next ( for 38-41 Grifoli here beginning new section the work after having

states that Horace

he

,

:

,

.

to

Grifoli

leads

the proper choice

of

ordo

"



a



Horace's statement about facundia and parallel between the poet and the orator equivalent matter invention ordo



is

in

.

be

of

expounded the proper composition the plot now indicates how beauty may achieved through diction We shall see that this division between plot and diction fundamental the commentary Finally

draw subject

understand

his

In

Grifoli's commentary

to

.

of

order

in

however

,

,

,

in on is in

A



by

II ).

in

of

to

,

necessary

further distinction completely what going



,

to

"

,



see

(

to

is

to

disposition and facundia Chapter elocution the passage quoted above The general rhetorical preoccupations the work are confirmed Grifoli's frequent references Cicero Quintilian and other masters the art

est : ,

to

).

In

12

(p .



ea

, of

ex

ijs

&



)

11

.

(p

in



,

ad

),



,

.

(

,

is

introduction speaking tragedy incidentally Grifoli twice insists that about and the epic Horace was concerned essentially with the matter appropriateness diligenter quaecunque rerum congruentiam decorum attinent igitur praecipuè persecutus and Constat hic libellus rebus quibus maxime quid deceat apparet his effort reconcile in

,

,

a

,

in

of



",

or

"

"

fabula

.

on

of

",

and Régis

oratio and the time between these two parts Thus lines 1–23 commentary but the section lines 24–31 begins

on ad

"

fabula

or

.

are uïdos

Ars poetica thus divides concern

six

:

to

two most important

its

the

of

is

at

he

this emphasis with the Aristotelian system that sees the work Grifoli appropriateness poetic arrives this solution The major form things Of Aristotle's qualitative parts therefore work words

eis

to

a

in as

?

of

&

:

.

17 ),

(p



.

ad

:

by

of

is

the translator

the mind and

its

since speech

is or

, “

;

diction moreover

,

in

.

no

is

of

means

.

.

Already the introduction Grifoli has declared that point concerning sententiae mores that not treated

lapsed with diction there



,

82 )

p

,

of

:

is



(



with Transit alteram partem quae nominatur and the commentary line 280 starts thus léxiv redit supra quoque tulit eloquium insolitum But what the other four parts The fairly melody belonging simple spectacle answer and are dismissed thought poetry the instruments and character and are sense col

).

,

The same idea

is

(

or ,



if

requisities for character περί της λέξεως

,

Although the subject discussed

is

made even more explicit later

:

terms are hidden Aristotle's

it

, of

of

." 24

in

,

of

to

of

"

be

of

is

of

speaking this the indicator character decorum one has also spoken language the decorum the rest Without consideration hardly possible proprietas would know the officium similitudo constantia character are properly observed not under these four

nevertheless nature

normally

and

it

.

we

de

haec est morum index

,

,

."

124

&

in

be

he

quoniam oratio est interpres mentis reliquorum quoque decoro dixit )

., .p

Ibid decoro dicendo

(

12 : de “

24

,

,

be

,

character are here treated from which diction derives Otherwise appropriate and from the beginning will not have warned that whenever speaking the poet spoke about diction would the proper places about

illius

)

119–135 and

what follows.25

six

sententia and character , as he does here ( A.p.,

in

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

11.

ARS POETICA

to

of

to .

as

,

to

,

,

.

as

his as

to

97 ),

, ( p

,

,

,

to

qualitative parts assign the these reasons when Grifoli comes object manner and means object the three belonging imita tion are identified diction thought and character the two belonging plot spectacle and melody and the one belonging means manner

For

to

he

is

in

."

26

in

be







:

of

let it

a

in

in

,



of



imitation

, it is

of

explanation apparent that gives this last assignment representation the meaning Since plot the composite tragedy the events imitated both that way and that sequence which the plot itself has been composed

From

.

if

,

of

all

if



to

"



to

,

of

,

is

it

in

,

in

of

"



,

,

Horace thus the last analysis reduces Aristotle the old res verba dichotomy and then turn reduces verba alone For the object imitation character thought and diction and diction

I

is ,

:

is

Unity

to

corresponds

of

Horace's natural sary and probable

"

1451a16

Aristotle's



Aristotle

1-23

"

Horace

.

shall indicate for the most signifi

,

of

parallel passages following the list passages true how this cant

In

.

to

of

a

,

in

of

,

contains the essence the other two then one treats the essential problems poetry when one speaks about language Grifoli's analysis linguistic problems fact largely reduction Horace's poetics

neces

,

.

Of

as

language

,

In

.

is

.

spectacle and melody

vices exist which imitate virtues

character

,

in

passing

,

MÉEis

;

none

)

(

24-31

in

,

of

.

,

a

.

"

action which does not single hero cannot possibly even result from having come from mixed subjects Unity and simplicity are re quired mixture styles and genres condemned the

in in

.

to

.

to

of

.

,

of

of

;

disposition

in

or

of

"

"

"

of

"

;

.

,

; in

tragedy produces admiration Lamb and daily speech quod decet Diction adapted the color the persons tragedy iamb adapted the quality to

)

(

none

avoid artistic error diction after beauty and elocution

subject

beauty

to

1449a23

86-92

,

plot Invention Epic verse

Rexis

.

1459632

the monster

.

return

to

proper choice

Then

.

73–85

monster comparable

First

,

1460616

,

32-45

11.

diction creates 1-23

plot of

a

.

to

,

is

treating the middle Cross three styles Horace here references rhetorical works Excess of ornament

,

In

etc.

cf.

,

situation

.

;

the audience the orator tragedy metus misericordia ,

pleasure

;

,

comedy

characters

passions

,

Arousal

,

1455a31

"

Language adapted

of

1449627

in in to

.

comedy 93-113

à

,

&

& , &

,

,

de

,

&

,

eo

&

in

."

)

(

125

,

."

sit

sit ,

.

ea

"

Quamuis enim tepi tñs AEEEwsdisputetur tamen natura mores expri principio emanare solet alioqui decorum suum non habebit nos Oratione dissereret poëta Sententia Moribus suis locis eum dic sequentibus cum dicit compositio rerum omnium tragoedia cum fabula modo quo composita ipsa fabula

97 : & “ in de

ab

,

.p

26

,

,

.

., ., vt , & p

Ibid muntur his monuimus cum turum hic Ibid ordine imitandum

sit

41 :

25

.'

horror

POETIC Horace

Aristotle

114-18

1454a16

THEORY

Language appropriate

to persons : Aristotle's TÓ ÓHolov , equivalents Horace's for Aristotle's four requisites of character : line 312 for Tà Xenota ; line 156 for to đPUÓTTOVTA ; line 114 for tò ouoiov ; line 119 for to

1454a33

duałóv . Differences in a &is from differences in character . new characters , TÒ duałóv .

In

119–35

Epic characters insofar as they resemble tragic ; mixture

153–78

179-83

1452619

of the

true and the false .

Decorum of age ; τα αρμόττοντα . tage action Parts of tragedy ; on- and off -s

1460a20

]

(

1448a25

.

136-52

1455624 145361

ex

1449627

189-201

1454a37

Deus

202–19

1447a22

220_43

145662

Spectacle and melody Horace's primitive audience The diction satire Cicero against the mixing genres Sententiae and appropriate verba

275-80

1450a13

to of

.

.

as





.

the rhetoricians as

.

to

.

reference

,

of

"

.

2 )

of of

"

(

,

delectatio

;

.

.

precepts Horace's double intention precepts for the end poetry i.e. for and utilitas

.

nature

,

poem

(1 )

for

:

Art

vs.

in

.

of

Spectacle and melody instruments imitation action and memory rhetoric XÉEis again

öyrs

cf. )

(

none

.

of

"

" ;

res

295–308

machina

145468

Imitation

319-22

1450a7

Six parts

1454a16

sion above

1450a25

tion

1451627

ingless without Pleasure from the fabula morata tragedy For affecting the audience from pity and fear necessity properly constituted plot and decorum

as

.

in

(

meaning from character

,

and mean

,

"

.

in



it .

deriving

,

its

).

as

discus indicated distributed Diction from character and thought Dic

tragedy

.

great Nature and Both diction and materials must art Utility and pleasure need brevitas for the first quae and natura verosimilia for the second Utility Appeal doceant corrigant moueant the young through pleasure the old through utility

Grifoli's

leading





:

of

to

source

utility

.

.

of

general interpretation

to

Pleasure

Imitation

utility

.

)

(

none

as

As

391-407

poetry

turn leads

of

which

to

pleasure

in

Two natural causes ,

144864

as

366–78

as . a

."

to ,

,

,

"

.

"

;

,



)

none

(

333-60

of

.

)

be

none

(

323–32

.

of

1453611

Platonic Ideas and Forms

.

309-18

of is

, it

is

.

its

all

,

of

126

)

(

.

of

an

as

,

is

to

to

to an

attempt

,

a

to is its

a

of

concerned then Horace imitator Horace read combination approaches Aristotle and reversion the rhetorical earlier years subject itself and rhetoric the rhetoricians made soon Aristotle study language problems reduced minimal term the and

far

strange

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

That these were the ideas about poetry still most current is indicated by such a work as Lodovico Dolce's Osservationi nella volgar lingua ( 1550 ),

all

whose first three books are exclusively linguistic and grammatical but whose fourth book deals with poetry. Here again , a few ideas are borrowed from

.

: "

,

of

to

,

,

of

,

an

is

to

of

is

of

.

of

-

in

is

of

Aristotle : poetry is an imitation ; not writers verse are poets But the body main doctrine the old Horatian rhetorical tradition Imme diately after the statement that poetry imitation Dolce says for the poet function the imitate the actions men and his end under lovely veils delight the soul useful and moral inventions him who ,

,

is

,

of

:

not too distant from that of

so

make

it ,

of

by

his invention

the poet

marvelous

he

to

of

since verses and words are the brush and the paints

shades and colors the canvas

of

he

,

Nevertheless

with which portrait

to

to

in

in

is

of

. ,

passions The whole position Dolce which Grifoli contained the following passage

of

by

.

,

of

of

;

"

, "

is

,

,

,

27

. "

reads The poet must possess not only wisdom but also invention order artifice and words these the most important are the last two expressing the invented materials The real poetic gift that means delight the reader beauties and ornaments order arouse his

so

;

all

,

,

he in

of

poëtis nostrorum

temporum

1551

of . )

duo

(

Lilio Gregorio Giraldi's Dialogi

de

vain.28

of its

in

exerted and consumed

be

, to

so

to

a

nature that the minds men are ravished must devote his greatest attention and industry composing them this way and with words appropriate beautiful and the matter which treats that that end sought and desired by him who reads will achieved without which his labors are

an

to

,

.

is

is a

is

in

poetics even more backward looking few passages relevant Essentially the work catalogue contemporary poets recent and summary providing merely various European countries The listing

to of

.

So

at

,



;

"

gli

de

le

. "

,

29

"

. "

chi legge

& di i

di

e

da & ; un

de

gli

, e

darno

."

in

consumata

,

il

e le

)

attioni

colori del tauola della sua inuentione per fare glihuomini stupiscano intelletti comporgli tali con uoci cosi belle riesca quel fine ricercato desiderato

ne in

e

,

è

(

40 .

127

imitare

inuentioni dilettar l'animo parole sono pennello

ne la

i

,

e

e

di

,

),

.pp

,

; e

(

16–20

è



&

di

,

di

ua

diligenza dec porre ogni suo principale studio appartinenti alla materia che egli tratta che posta chi legge senza ilquale ogni sua fatica

Dialogi duo 1551

del Poeta

: “

), .p

(

: "

,

28

., : e .p il

huomini

29

,

",

,

,

,

is



"

,

percioche l'ufficio 1550 87v fine sotto leggiadri ueli morali utili Ibid 88v Non meno perche uersi dipingendo Poeta con che egli adombrando ritratto cotanto marauiglioso della natura che Osservationi

",

,

"

;

,

,



27

ingenium

elegans



as



doctus

,

praised

Pontano

is

;

"

is

doctrina for his facilitas absolutus enucleatus exquisitus grauitas Sadoleto has his qualities modestia Bembo's poems are ingenij exquisita dulcia mollia delicata Sannazaro has created Calcagnini noteworthy monumenta and for eruditio doctrina Mirandola

affectus

for his

in

in

;

or in

all

to by

he

.

,

,

,

, a

occasional fact and for each poet conventional bouquet complimentary phrases The that Giraldi accords the poets admires sound for the world like those used Pietro Ricci the beginning the century the epithets applied 1505 Latin poets are now applied writing vulgar poets tongues modern Latin the Pico della names

POETIC

THEORY

These epithets indicate no more than certain kinds of knowledge on the part of the poet and certain qualities of style in his writing ; they do not presuppose any poetic theory beyond the simplest rhetorical preconcep tions . DENORES ( 1553)

After Grifoli's fairly complex and experimental commentary , that of Giason Denores in his In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica Interpretatio (

1553 ) seems

like a return to the patterns and the procedures

. Indeed , Denores takes frequent issue with the interpretations of both Maggi and Grifoli , claiming that he is reflecting instead the lectures of Trifon Gabriele on Horace , as he had heard them of an earlier

generation

.

to

and

Horace's aims

the

"

affirms that one

is

when

, of of

,

the Ars poetica

he

is

in

.

of —

states

to

-

of he

that lines

the precepts

he

returns also the preceptive are concerned with one the three terms The initial statement intends follow this pattern found connection with the first

Almost form

he

all

his

and as he had summarized them even before Gabriele's death in 1549 . Gabriele's ideas , if they are accurately represented here , are very close to those of Giovanni Britannico and Parrasio . For Denores organizes the whole of the Horatian text around the invention -disposition - elocution predecessors distinction , and in a way even more systematic than that of

,

,

.

,

he

30

of

"



of

or

the

in

in

,

"



of

,

, in

natural versus artificial order figures verba lines 46–72 lines 73–88 Lines 89-98 make special

32–41

.

, of

and the more particular problem lines 42-45 The second part elocution

).

"

(

"

" of or (

or

"

"

."

,

"

, "

"

or

"



of

),

of

: "

,

he

,

is

in

of

.” to

of

every rule formation our taste with respect invention disposition poetry every type says are concerned and elocution Lines 1-23 poetry To explain the subsequent with invention which the soul passages calls upon the rhetorical division into three parts elocution qua particular kind genus itself ratio dicendi character lity style verba and numeri meters verses Lines 24–31 treat disposition appear lines the first these character General notions

to

.

to





.

its

,

to

,

it

is

,



on “

,

in , on

.

in



,



of

,

and the third part numeri applications tragedy and comedy therules for character and verba Then after long sections other matters Horace returns the distinc disposition and elocution rather tion lines 220–50 pointing out that commonplace materials Lines 251– than invention that give quality

for the full text

.

25

and

n .

;

56

.p

II,

128

)

(

.

,

see above chap

of

fit

to

is

of is

to

of

"

of ( "





he

,

,

to

3v ;

), .p

1553

(

In

,

of

as

30

epistolam

of , of it

a

all ,

.

In

.

in

).

,

,

of

of

74 ,

tragedy and comedy treat rounding out numeri sapere and lines 89-98 Finally when Horace speaks returning Socratic philosophy lines 309–32 the problem invention somewhat over third the text made into this general scheme As for the rest Denores sees the long central section arousing the audience's emotions problems devoted primarily conventions for the stage but even here the major dis decorum and the verse

the materials

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

)

he ;

,

,

to

,

in

.

of

to

of

be

to

as

of

)

of

the poet seems interest Denores mostly for the utility and pleasure poetry discussion the ends Throughout the Ars poetica although comparatively small number the behavior

11.

is

to

),

(

or ,

as ,

of

"

of

or

of

-

11.

of



to



as

of

,

no

.

Denores finds analogies the Aristotelian poetics Sometimes these are merely implied with direct reference Aristotle for example the poetry characterization invention the anima 1-23 the suggestion that the five act magnitude dramas related the proper ,

"



on

).

11.

"



:

on

poetry and history and veri

( by11.

in on

;

on

between

)

11.

(

the difference gestae 73–88 ”



,

to

(

words and figures 46–72 history relevant Horace's

res );

in 11.

of

,

is

(

by

to

(

be ),

size animals 189–90 the inclusion timor and misericordia among the passions poet aroused the 99–113 Elsewhere the references are explicit and the text cited Aristotle the pleasure derived from imitation connection with Horace's remarks on the choice

);

,

)

;

on

11.

)

;

11.

(



of , on

11.

"

(

-

of

as a

,

on

the necessity

of

,

of

by

of

apropos Horace's three types narrative 131-52 producing pity and fear plot rather than spectacle purga connection with Horace's precept off stage action 179-88 producing prodesse tion means Horace's 333-46 and similitude

of

For Denores reading

is

.

of

,

it

be

an

is

of

).

(

parallels artistic and nonartistic errors 347-60 The list not long readily seen that they merely indicate and will association Aristotle's text with Horace's without any important influence upon the interpretation the latter .

to

to

in

is

to

to

of

.

of

,

of

-d

a in

so

-

to

of

'

Horace remains essentially rhetorical This isposi applying the invention his persistence portion large tion elocution terminology the text but also because other rhetorical tendencies are evident The whole conception poet the relationship audience work and the Ciceronian tradi true not only because

of

of

of

,

a

).

,

as

to

a

in it

to

,

he ) as

11.

by

a

to

(

in

its is

so ,

do

,

To

of .)

(

(

11. in

:

his ,

admiration induce the audience tion the poet like the orator seeks part for passions own genius and awaken wide variety 46–113 must pay particularly close attention the persons just decorum the orator does and just Aristotle recom mends the Rhetoric 114-18 153–78 Such arousing the passions correcting and directing itself merely means further end that in

is

rhetorical devices

of

.

by

)

129

means

of

by

of

audiences (

produce stated effects

on

of

(

,

mind and the two together produce the desired moral effects 333-46 Many details poems are determined the construction this desire

to .)

11.

as

its

a

is

"





of

;

on



"

to

.

It

providing moral precepts and examples interesting lives this connection note that Denores insists that delectare does not mean oblectare but rather movere and that pleasure itself thus form utility concerns utility pleasure operates the audience the will

"

i

he

,

(

of

,

).

11.

(

if

he

11.

tinction is sometimes applicable . For example , if the poet wishes to arouse the passions, he must attend to “ ornaments " and " figures ” ( 99-113 uses old traditional characters exercises no invention but makes these characters his own through proper disposition and elocution 119-30 The last part the text aside from the recommendations for

POETIC

THEORY

LOVISINI ( 1554) As compared with Denores , the Aristotelian flavor of Francesco Lovisini's In librum Q. Horatii Flacci de arte poetica commentarius ( 1554 ) is much more considerable . This results in part from the generous citation of the Poetics to explain passages in the Ars poetica , in part from the numerous to various other works of Aristotle , especially the Nicomachean Ethics and the Rhetoric . Indeed , the whole impression of erudition is much greater ; Lovisini brings into his commentary on Horace every possible quotation from Greek and Latin literature that seems to him to have some

of

the

references

,

,

,

to

.



of to



of

.

in

of

in

to

of

an

as at

,

of

be or

question to words the lines Much this erudition turns out historical content very like that the expositors the beginning the century and adds little the meaning poetry For Lovisini's interpretation the text art Horace the most significant references are those rhetorical treatises primarily relevance

however

,

,

new words

)

)

(

)

diction

)

(

)

none

(

)

130

)

)

(

none

of

)

)

(

)

epic meter )

iamb

tragedy

daily speech

)

(

iamb

)

(

iamb

in in

1449a26

meters

poetic genres

1459634

1449a21

poetic styles

mixture

1447a15

(

1460al

(

(

meters for genres

)

none

usage

(

)

)

(

(

)

)

1456620

1448631

86-88

)

)

(

) )

of of

)

(

)

( ( (

(

none

elocution

(

73-85

none

epic

)

60_72

none

subject

)

52-59

(

46-51

order

(

42-45

choice

nity not from hero

none

total excellence

(

38-41

vices

style

(

32-37

in

1451a19

24-31

as

(

(p

1451633

soul

)

unity

)

(

,

simplicity

lot

poetry and painting episodic plot

( (

144804

14-23

poet from imitation

1447613 1450a38

(u

)

(

congruous subject

)

Aristotle

as

of

of

Horace 1-13

the texts cited from the Poetics

which follows

:

of

,

.

the majority

list

a

also true Horace

to is

text This parallels

of

of

;

,

,

as

as

,

he

,

all

,

,

.

to ,

Demetrius Hermogenes invokes enable him contest and correct the older commentators such Acron and Porphyrion Maggi Grifoli and Denores but these and the more recent ones such corrections concern points detail rather than any general reading the Aristotle's Rhetoric but also Cicero Quintilian and others These sources plus the others

ARS POETICA

:

93-95

WITH ARISTOTLE

Aristotle

Horace 89-92

CONFUSION

( trag . and comedy )

( style

com . )

of tr . ,

96-103 ( speech of tragedy )

( audience emotion

)

( trag .

1453a18

( Thyestes

145361 1453a21

( pity and fear ) ( tragic families )

145361

(pity and fear )

1455a30

( emotion of poet ) ( sources of emotion

145224 speech )

( none )

of speech

( none )

104-13

(action and

114-18

(decorum

119-27

(old , new heroes )

( improbabilities

1453622

( Từ đouỚTTOVTG )

1454a22

( TÓ Suolov )

14S4a25

( Tò đuaAO

(Homeric subjects )

1448b38

( epic beginning )

( none )

(

( none )

)

( “in medias res " )

( true ,

1451a36

( decorum

158-60

( child )

of

age )

(none

)

161-65

( youth )

(none )

(adult )

( none )

169–74

( old man )

175–78

( traits for

179-88

( on-, off - stage )

189–90

( five acts )

(none ) each )

( none ) 145361

( emotions from spectacle )

1450635

(magnitude ) ( time of tragedy , epic )

1449612 deus ex machina " )

193-201 ( chorus ) 202–7

( necessary , probable )

( none )

166-68

(“

)

false )

153-57

191-92

in Odyssey )

144a20

( old subjects )

)

plots )

(traditional

136–39 140-45

)

1460a35

128–35

146-52

and comedy )

1448a16

(melody , music )

1452a15

( “ deus ex machina ( parts of tragedy )

1456a29

(choral

1450a7

( qualitative parts ) (melody ) ( harmony , rhythm

145462

1450618 1447a23

208-19

( licence , vulgarity )

1447a26

220-24

( satyrs in tragedy

1449627

songs )

)

) and fear )

1451637

( satyric tragedy ) (dramatic contests

1462b11

( tr. superior to epic )

1449a19

225–33

( decorum of satyrs )

( none )

234–39

( satyric diction

(none )

240-43

( satyric invention )

)

( (pity

")

( none ) ( 131 )

)

THEORY

POETIC

Aristotle

)

,

) )

) )

of

'

" )

)



)

) )

)

of

,

( (

)

)

»

)

of

,

(

)

(

)

(

)

)

(

)

(

(

)

)

(

)

)

(

)

(

)

)

(

)

)

( ( (

)

) )

none

)

(

none

)

)

of

all

)

(

(

none

of

)

)

none

)

)

none

(

of

„ „

music and poetry

none

)

(

( (

(

463–69 470–76

(

453-63

none

none

critic mad poet role

painting

none

true critic

445–52

oetry

none

)

( (

434–37

(p

)

) )

)

poet

friends

438-44

1450a38

none

)

,

(

flatterers

426-33

145469

1447a24

art

to

(

419-25

advice

(

412–18

errors

Homer

none

)

of

(

nature

errors

none

correction civilizing role raise poetry

(p

408-11

two kinds

probable

none

ignorant poets

391-99

necessary

none

poetry for delight

386-90 400-7

,

( (

no mediocrity

(

379–85

painting

(

374–78

as

(

)

(

)

1460b15

)

poet

(

366-73

poetry

,

)

none

1451a36

1454a29

361-65

imitation

)

of

(

(

errors

oetry

qualitative parts

poetry

of

347–60

(p

( )

1447a15

Roman avarice ends

as

)

)

model

(

333-46

officium

none

144967

323-32

imitation

(

as

(

life

(

309-16 317–22

talent poetic furor

(

1447a13

knowledge

comedy

comedy

)

( )

)

(

1455a33

poetic problems

(

art and nature

(

301-8

definition chorus

additions

none

Latin poets

295–301

tragedy

)

1449a37

origins

Aeschylus

in

)

(

1449a31

of

)

(

)

1448a29

)

of

(

tragedy

old comedy

285–94

errors

none

1449a15

281–84

Euripides

'

1454a28

)

.

(

history

275–80

φθαρτικόν

)

(

Lat poets

Plautus censured

270–74

αισχρόν

none

( (

(Gk .

1449a35

(

260-69

satyrs )

(

( amb and spondee )

(

(speech of vs.

244-50 251-59

(

Horace

to

,

to

,

,

-

]

[

132

.

of

as

-

is

.

,

an

it is

I

in

Lovisini's divisions such detail respecting have given this list interesting what see the Horatian text for several reasons First sixty number divisions now subdivided Lovisini's extent the text each division the subject matter eight and what topics are indicated are brought passages many the Poetics from Second the list shows how

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

into association with the text , and to what ideas in Horace they are said to be parallel . It is easy to see how commentators and critics , finding so many recurrences of ideas in the two documents, might be strengthened in their conviction that Horace was merely imitating or paraphrasing Aristotle and that the two theorists were saying essentially the same things . But a close study of the parallels in the above list shows that the resemblances are largely topical ; in some cases they concern purely historical matters , such as the identity of Thyestes or Aeschylus ' additions to the tragic form ; in others they show that the two theorists were writing about the same topics,

us , ,

; in

as

as

he

,

the soul

or

is

imitation and not because tragedy the third

of

of

that plot

or

the second

,

;

verse

in

writes

in

states that the poet is a poet by reason

his

but do not indicate conclusions by any means similar . For example , to take a case of “ multiple reference ,” three passages from Aristotle are cited as parallel to lines 1-13 of the Ars poetica. In the first of these Aristotle

,

,



;

at

to

,

of

in

is

, is

of it

,

"

,



,

;

to

in

to

as

do .

that poets represent characters better worse than we like just painters support Now the first cited the general idea attributed these lines Horace that the poet follows fantasy rather opinion proper for Horace than the second show that treat very beginning the the constitution the argument and the plot the pictoribus atque third because Horace had drawn the comparison

....

,

,

of

a

on

of

it

Or

,

of

or

of

of

"

of

passages neither indicates This juxtaposition clear con plot nor Aristotle's theory imitation his definition any light comprehension for that matter does throw additional the

poetis ception

:

be

to

,

be

in

be

in

,

to

.

Horace's lines for another such example five passages from Aristotle lines 119–27 which Horace says that when traditional keeping with the tradi characters are introduced they must handled tion and that when new ones are used they must made self are fitted

of

,

is

to

&



,

;

as

...

;

"

of

of

"

the honoratum Achillem consistency identical with that they may for Lovisini's interpre be

.

,

Horace These parallels interesting

as

a

,

traditional character such dualov states principle

,

historical fifth that

,

;

to or

"



to

be

be ;

no

,

be

.

is

to

consistent Aristotle first quoted show that traditional materials must followed exactly matter how improbable they may second that equiv puÓTTOVTA traditional plots must not modified third that alent sibi conuenientia fourth that to ouoiov means similarity

be

it



.

as

,

be

,

of

to ,

poets which Aristotle's theoretical position

all

of

this elaborate commentary and this extensive juxtaposition called Lovisini's interpretation Erudition and the conventional explanations have taken the 133

)

(

Horace

.

of

,

texts there emerges very little that might

be

Out

of

.

and certain practical counsels did not admit

it

at

.

of

,

in

I

,

to

a

of

,

to

of

tation Aristotle add little the interpretation Horace unless certain number irrelevant and inappropriate considerations Finally have produced the complete list above demonstrate what scholarship were still regarded passages Horace this stage independent Aristotle These will seen largely concern Latin poetry

POETIC

THEORY

of independent reading. Lovisini assigns the usual passages to inven tion , disposition , and elocution , makes the usual comparisons between place

and rhetoric , insists as did his predecessors on the decisive role of in determining the nature of poems. A few points that he makes are , however, original enough to deserve special mention . For one , he seems to be more of a Platonist than many of his forerunners ; in the poetry

all

the audience

on



)



all (

1.

,



as he

;

a

in

first section of commentary , he quotes the Symposium to the effect that artisans and artificers are poets sense and the Apology the divine furor identifies Horace's exemplar vitae 317 with the Idea ,

,

as

of

:

,

he

in

at in

"

is

,

he

it

is

on

.

.

,

in

in

.”

the Parmenides contains

31

,

Plato says

separate from them

is

particular things and Moreover many passages are quoted from Plato connection with incidental matters For another Lovisini emphasizes certain ideas about the relationship between poetry and nature From his probability comments lines 14–23 clear that thinks natural probability for defends the Dido episode the Aeneid this way that episode not completely inconsistent with the matter hand but which

in

,

." 32

;

a

as

at

is

,

to

he

.

of

,

us in as



",

of



ut

,

of

,

ut

us

is

,

in

to

life

as

ut

,

of

,

24v

in of

of

).

( .p

in





to

,



33

us

.

mity

in

the Odyssey exhort bear adverse fortune with equani resulting from allegory plots He sees the prodesse which repre wisely thoroughly teach and what best and from the sentation character which teaches our duty.34 Utility and pleasure moueret delectaret doceret are expanded into the triple Cicero with the third member the trilogy making the other two effective

,

justice

:

on

by

.

a

in

a

in

,

by

of

rather produces pleasure through the variety materials frequently the outermost lands storms have arrived fact voyagers driven justification for The fact that thing may happen nature taken particular happening Lastly Lovisini expands Horace's specific poem poetry He quotes Theon notions about utility and pleasure the ends might inspire men the ends proposed Homer the Iliad that

in

of

'

,

,

1554. The next such formal discussion will not

be

Lovisini's

in

,

1553

in

:

in

of

a

of

five formal series 1554 was the last Lovisini's commentary space appeared poetica expositions six short the which the Ars Maggi's 1550 Denores years and Grifoli's 1548 Robortello's

pub "

.

Parmenide

,

Plato

no

by

in

ait

,

,

), à .p re est ." : “

res

(

., , & .p ab 7v : “ ijs

32

Idaea quae

ut

,

31

63v

Commentarius 1554 continet seiuncta

"

in

.

,

,

in

,

in

1561 when Pigna produces his Poetica Horatiana lished for many documents years intervening the Horatian mode But the published means interrupted and the tradition was were written and

seven years

singularia

omnia

,

."

)

(

134

prudenter

edocent

"

uita

sit ,

,

,

in

66 : “

., .p

Ibid fabularum allegoria quibus quid optimum officium poetae boni inflammant moribus etiam nos ad

and



34

."

, in

ad

. "

in

ad

ut :

4v : "

., .p

33

proposita non penitus abhorret quin potius rerum uarietate Ibid illa delectationem affert nauigantes enim saepe ultimas terras tempestate appulsi peruenerunt Odyssaea ferendam aequo animo iustitiam inflammct homines Ibid aduersam fortunam nos cohortatur

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

six

:

In fact, during

the last two of these were being published Benedetto

,

he

a

In

.



(“

dal

of

he

,



as

to

in

of

;

of

but most the Lezzioni della poetica the direction Horace sense speaks ascribes the same movement Horace himself since the quale Poetics the text from which Horace drew his own art

of

specifically the text the Poetics move rapidly away from Aristotle

,

at a

,

of

,

we

As

.

,

, in

to

of

,

,

years while the formal com Varchi was delivering series part lectures the Accademia Fiorentina which reflected least the same Horatian ideas The lectures dated 1553 and 1554 were not published until 1590. departure was shall see later Varchi's point mentaries

.

,

of of

be is

or

,

; of to ,

of

a

in

close contact with that

.

of

,

Cicero whom Varchi cites and brings Varchi's position into the rhetoricians ,

in

authority

).

.p

,

of

",

la

cauò Horazio sua 677 With Horace also Varchi insists that the knowledge poetry ancient the art derived from arts modern insufficient without the poet's natural gifts both art and nature must added firm knowledge several languages and the poets who have written them This emphasis upon knowledge various kinds finds

.

he

,

an

As

,

be

,

to

.

if

of

:

in ,

as

,

is

Cicero the authority well for Varchi's declaration that the qualities requisite for the poet are three number eloquence goodness and know poetry are ledge All three are required the ends achieved produces Varchi explains the relationship between qualities and ends to

an

,

a

,

, of

,

is

It

,

or

of

we ,

,

are soon

the sensual kind which comes from the harmonies

of

a

kind combining the two

source

pleasure

for

the

:

.

,

be a

poetry but also the intellectual kind and utility itself will others For this reason soul ,

But pleasure

35

things

."

knowledge

of

,

behavior not only

of

, is

told

of of

ness

or

of

of

;



:

...

,

be

,

,

in

.

, in ,

.

as

,

in

extremely interesting statement one degree certain dis which tinctions are lost The ends Horace would wish them are utility and pleasure We discover the following sentence initial dependence ends from qualities which utility springs from goodness and knowledge and pleasure from eloquence therefore necessary that good and eloquent virtuous and erudite otherwise we could perfect poets should good never derive and learn from them either delightfulness words

,

all ),

),

in

or

in

so

of , ... or

(

in

all

of

(

of

,

of

(

of

),

is

... because pleasure three sorts the mind which we shall call intellectual pleasure the body which we shall call sensual pleasure and the soul and the body together which we shall call mixed common pleasure we must know surely more that the poets alone the poets than other writers pleasures are found together

)

,

si

, e

i

, o

poeti buoni perfetti siano imparare non potrebbe

."

cose

it be

of

.

;

be ;

ne scienza

135

che

loro trarre di

,

costumi

(

ne bontà

. . .

da

: “

Bisogna dunque

di

di

630

dottrinati altramente mai ,

, e

(

,

ne

1

od .) , .p

. . .

are

35

Lezzioni 1590 eloquenti virtuosi leggiadria

of

For the harmony the delights properly body words which heard the and the utility the things which are understood delights properly the mind but because words cannot separated from things expressed without words and things cannot these three kinds

THEORY

POETIC

comes to pass that the soul as well as the body , at the very same time , are delighted by words through things and by things through words.36 these passages , an additional distinction has been introduced . It is the distinction between " res " and " verba , " taken both as components of the poem and as causes of effects All some such schematism the following results as

all ,

in

Parts

or

the poet

Qualities

of

of

:

.

its

In

Ends

the poem

effects

pleasure

knowledge eloquence

things

utility

pleasure

words

pleasure

to

Much

to

utility

,

,

things

of

goodness

to is ,

or

of

,

of

:

all of of of

all

,

.

a

of

,

in

,

as

he

is

,

of

say what Varchi has this Horatian context relates the utility essentially teaching What end which sees form taught primarily lessons for ethics secondarily information pertaining knowledge the rewards branches virtue the punishments for vice

or to

be

to

: “

or

as

or

as

do

,

in

).

the sciences

this kind alone merit

(p .

576 On the basis their success failure teaching one will classify poets good bad Those praise who remove men from the vices and inspire them

the elements

or

,

,

to or

:

(

)

1

be

do

. "

all



,

37

,

, in

;

.

,

they then the others this more less are more praised less and held esteem Those who the opposite should punished Among them Varchi distinguishes four separate classes The plebeian poets judgment knowledge those who without art the virtues

.”

2 )

.

Examples

3

,

or

in

,

or

or be )

(

.

,

;

"

,

38 . ”

banished

.

be ill

of

,

or

(

, of it ,

mendation should .pp

,

:

as

4 )

,

The obscene poets such

.

,

Burchiello Antonio Alamanni Berni Ovid and Catullus these especially should through their wicked nature punished The satirical poets who through hatred paid merely for because they have been besought joy keeping with Plato's recom speak the others These

.”

words

of

all

,



on

of

plays

(

of

to

please the common people and write only make the crowd laugh Examples are the authors Morgante the and the Girone Cortese The ridiculous poets those poets who write for the sake nonsense and

,

o

ne i

,

il

, di il

di

...

, e

il

e

,

da '

gli

,

ė,

,

le ;

le

parole non l'animo ma perche parole sprimersi quinci senza medesimo tempo cosi l'animo come ,

vn

e le

, e

., ."

il

à

,

possono separarsi dalle cose che l'vne per l'altre l'altre per l'vne dilettano corpo quegli soli meritano tutte Ibid 585 37

ne '

; e ,

,

,

diletta propiamente cose non possono

l'vtilità delle cose che s'intendono

...

, e

,

è di

il

: “

, , si

,

in

gli

,

,

il

.,

;

di

36

perchè quale chiamaremo intel 631–32 diletto tre ragioni d'animo corpo quale chiamaremo sensuale corpo insieme quale lettuale d'anima poeti soli chiamaremo misto ouero comune deuemo sapere che certamente piu poeti che tutti altri scrittori ritrouano tutte tre queste maniere diletti insieme corpo mente percioche l'armonia delle parole che s'odono diletta propriamente Ibid

)

136

, o

, o

da

, e

, o

,

o

,

."

male d'Altrui

(

,

, o

i

,

o

,

, o ”; “

,

il

,

le

." ,

in

,

, e

: far “

" o

"

;

, e

.

,

.,

38

scriuono

gli

: "

.p

gl'accendono

o pp

,

o

lodi quali rimuouono huomini alle virtù altri poi12secondo che piu meno cio fanno deono pregio tenuti meno lodati essere piu giudizio Ibid 585–87 tutti quegli che senza arte dottrina scriuono solo per Volgo piacere alla Plebe ridere tutti quei poeti che scrivono per ciancia motteggio per loro cattiva Natura per odio per preghi per danari per sollazzo vizij

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

There are , in Varchi's lengthy Lezzioni , a number of miscellaneous borrow for the proper use of specifically from Horace , as is the demand decorum ( p. 583 ) are derived ings from the Ars poetica . The recommendations

for the hexameter as the correct epic verse ( p. 616 ). But these , by 1553 , are completely commonplace and make very little contribution to the develop ment of the Horatian mode. The " Horatian mode ” is clearly present Dialogi della inventione poetica of 1554. The

of

,

of



to

its

of

in

is

.

a

,

a

of

it of a

of

set

in Alessandro Lionardi's two dialogues represents preceding years for instead kind converse the commentaries the introducing rhetorical distinctions into basically Horatian exposition basically rhetorical treatise The introduces Horatian elements into poetical spite treatise rhetorical the fact that title refers —

is

as

,

.

to

to

of

,

of

,

. "

a

of

Lionardi begins with consideration three associated arts rhetoric history and poetry which belong together not only because they are arts discourse but also because they serve the same practical ends teaching men how speak and act Of these arts poetry the most invention

it

:

in

of

is

it

;

is

;

If

all an

.

,

in

he

so

,

a

(

in

he

,

in

)

as or

historian

.

imposes

in , of

language ,

special kind

,

is

,

by

a

predominant

the historian

of

expresses them

in

,

an

artificial order

the historian and

here that invention

the poet takes the true materials provided

upon them

of

includes the arts

is

It ,

his information

the orator and goes beyond them

.

well

as

,

.

the orator

His art For

by

of

.

be

of

to

of

to

order

to

order describe nature and contrive plots write speeches and deliberations for his personages and may know the that historian his audience move the passions great men and the pertinent facts about virtuous and vicious actions astrology pre countries and peoples Moreover must erudite sumably because the relationships between the constellations and the myths about the gods and numerous other arts not needed the orator

in

and moral philosopher

of

,

be be ). a

to

be

of

a

else

it

of

which Aristotle had given primacy over other elements these above true about poetry and invention then the poet must knowledge He must man possessed various kinds natural

(

poetry things

,

is

,

of

,

it

.

of

,

it

because embraces the other two which serve auxiliaries and instruments All three make use invention disposition and elocu tion which invention the most important for various reasons requires the greatest and most special talent most directly responsible speaking and action imitation the equivalent for the teaching excellent

,

the passions

,

, of of

obtains his knowledge

to

necessity and probability

in of

.

.

in

and treats them verse His inventive powers are manifested besides the transformation of truth into verisimilitude From the rhetorician he actions and their causes

]

of

he

;

,

,

by

of

he

of

137

[

.

is

of

as

of

.

to

all

argue how various circumstances these are matters which pertain invention From the rhetorician also disposition and elocution learns such aspects the proper ordering speeches and the many figures speech various kinds which language made more ornate From both these obtains the means for achieving

POETIC

THEORY

his ends of teaching

men how to live and speak properly ; he will argue provide him , persuade with the truth , move with the they with the reasons passions, and delight with the eloquent diction . Into this context , many Horatian ideas are readily incorporated . This is done not so much by way of the citation of corroborating arguments as by the casual use of formulas borrowed directly from the Ars poetica . Thus at

of Dialogue I , Lionardi says that one of the main tasks poetic of the art is so to operate “ that common materials become one's p ; own ” ( . 7) later in the same dialogue he treats decorum and natural

the very beginning

( pp .

versus artificial order in terms which suggest Horace's

of

.

In

67 )

(p .

of

is

res ”

line 333 of the Ars poetica. In Dialogue II , the passing discussion of the “ beginning again reminiscent spite medias Horace

in

of

end

16–18 ); at the

it , the phrase “ it is proper to the poet to delight and profit ” reflects

of

on on

imita

plot without

on

,

51 )

of

as

on

15 ),

.p ( .p

(

on

,

,

tion

and harmony the possibility impossible probable the and

14 14 ), ),

.

( (p .p .

its

as

poetry deriving essence not from verse but from imitation the source on Nature the necessary and the probable rhythm

.

an

the direct textual reference

is

of of

on

of

cites the Poetics

of

perhaps current trends that there even larger the Poetics and other Aristotelian works Lionardi the distinction between poetry and history

is

It

in

,

the Horatian text than because

also significant number citations

of

attached

its ,

to of

such allusions however Lionardi's work belongs the present series rather because associations with the rhetorical tradition now currently

.

76 )

62 ),

:

of

of

( .p

of

of

)

80

to

of

.

I

of

by

as

an

of

a

in

.

(p

as

, "

imitation also for the division between the passions banned and those permitted —all this poetry connection with defence the utility cite these various borrowings not for their own sake but the extent indication “

and for the distinction between narration and

(p . on on

67 ),

( .p

(p .

58 ),

other subjects upon support He also calls various Platonic texts for his ideas the Republic and the Phaedo for the requisites the poet the Republic for the condemnation the arousing certain passions character

;

e

II

in

similar mixture found Book

a

of of

basically rhetorical analysis other elements into Matteo San Martino's Osservationi grammaticali

A is

.

to

of

a

of

,

is a

.

which the divers intellectual traditions are this time mixed and confused For Lionardi the essential approach rhetorical one but poetic elements formal character from Aristotle and moral elements from Plato are intermingled the discussion serve the purposes

II

an

.

is

in

a

of

is

),

(

It

:

an

by

.

of

,

of

;

it

that contains the Book for della lingua italiana 1555 poesy begins with the standard poetical observations defence expanded present here Then comes interest fashion nothing poetry which merits quotation definition

poetiche

to

so

to

)

(

,

138

;

,

as

so

be

I

...

,

.

of

is a on is

of

nothing else but human actions accompanied imitation say that might perhaps part bold the listener the wonder lovely fiction which restricted within harmonized rhythms imitating poetics that him who listens human actions brings profit along with delight Poetry

an

is

it

. . .

.

certain

that

he

is

do

he is

he of

(

in ,

he

;

a

be

as

,

be

,

is

they should such discord with the middle nor the middle

. 39

,

they were but

in

as so

),

of

of

in

,

profit and delight else such wise that they really not filling poet constantly the reader with joy and with the name may delight mixing ever feigning new things that with such novelty

wonder true things with false that not way that neither the beginning will with the end ,

part

principal

in

.

,

should tend and delight and

I

not

pre made unless the invention with which one imitates the poet and the end toward which for the function say that the poems must investigate things which can profit

imitation cannot pared first And

worthy

its

secondary

,

is

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

as be

imitation

its

ARS POETICA

One begins

, .

of

-

in

in

on

.

of

a

in

all

,

,

,

,

a

in

on to ,

such definition with Aristotle continues with Cicero Horace encounters nameless rhetoricians and concludes with final statement which are lumped together the most helter skelter fashion The same kind confusion prevails other parts the work passes

,

,

(p .

the imitation

” .

"

"

is "

.p in or

"

to

the poets

, or

or

,

; a

In

.

final intention

the



to

be e

of

farther



);

133

on , of

of

is to ; " all

,

,

There are for example five statements the role the function the main concern the poet are different the passage just quoted the giovar function and end are dilettare few pages later the poetry principal part fittione inventione the said

,

in

,

of



to

a

,

);

(

or to

to

he

,

to

;

is , to in

of

is

in

of

in

almost direct contradiction the passage above 135 still later longer text considerable interest which the poet said need per suasion which consists the principal strength the intent the poet acquire belief for his incitements which for which purpose order profit through delight placate others under the strives move

As

an of .)



(

at

.p

,

clear subordination

of

;

is at

a

,

a

to

make

any one source document

.

another

)



all

,

is as ,



unwillingness to

;

, ( .p

of

finally his activities are directed toward veil his fictions 178 teaching delighting and profiting readers the same time 180 through There these texts certain concentration upon the end poetry instructing and giving pleasure but there the same time

1555

, is ,

is

pp

San Martino provides the usual suggestions

129–31

: “ la

Osservationi

However

,

133

).

.

,

.

no

;

of

39

(p

them

be of

he

in

the making

rhetorician

,

a

he

poems the poet for San Martino provided with precepts for invention must disposition and elocution precepts for the first But really there are subjects since the number infinite and the poet has free choice among operates

essentially

Poesia altro non

for

la

,

a

,

.

si

de

,

,

e

e

o

,

)

(

139

ne ,

le

;

."

,

si

la

si

in

di

, le

che con simil nouita diletti cose uere con false mescolando per maniera che ne'l principio dal mezzo

furono ma quali esser deucano discordino

, e

è

la

, di

, si

, al e il si

,

e

& ,

Si

far

;

a

a

lo

è

Et

è di

fingendo

... .

... temerario

,

.

chi l'ascolta

è

.

di ),

(

che imitatione delle humane forse mi mouero dire che Poetica sia una uaga fittione che fra harmonizzati numeri ristretta imitando l'humane attioni con diletto gioui chi l'ascolta che imitatione sua parte secondaria non principale prepari certo non potersi imitatione che prima non inuentione con cui imitti quanto inuestigar officio del Pocta fine oue tender debbia dico che nei Poemi cose che giouar possano dilettare che effecto giovino dilettino che degno non giocondita merauiglia nuoue cose sempre tal nome continuo riempiendo lettor

attioni con merauiglia

cioè non quali questo dal fine

POETIC what he calls

THEORY

parts of invention , " i.e.

“ the six

, exordium

, narration , divi

sion , confirmation , confutation , and conclusion ; the poet's invention is thus the same as the orator's ( p. 159 ). Disposition , or the “ ordinatione " the materials , largely concerns words ; Horace is called upon for many

,

and occasional borrowings from Aristotle and

-

the long quoted passage

in

-

in

.

of

in

be

all

of of the precepts here . As for elocution , the largest part of San Martino's treat ment is devoted to it ; for words constitute the “ materia " of poetry ( p. 159 ) and if they are properly chosen and arranged , “from them will result in the minds of the readers a most sweet harmony adorned with inconceivable loveliness " ( p . 179 ) . For these elements the counsels are those which might any found the standard rhetorics To them are added gener incorporated ous materials from the Ars poetica the way exemplified ,

in

,

.

in

,

,

is

in

his

:

it

is

,

10 ,

to

,

is

by

as

.

,

Plato These remain however auxiliary and subsidiary and they are intro they furnish additional authority for points duced only the rhetorical unchanged system their accretion which Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio's Letter Bernardo Tasso dated October scope 1557 more limited than the preceding document two ways first only poetry defending his epic deals with since Giraldi

"



is ;

of

is a as



.

is

in

it ,

of

if

.

,

,

it

to

it

to

to

so ,

,

of

be

me that this must

to

of

to

wit was granted me see that the whole the light the useful and the honest since seemed the end the poet and not pleasure alone For we

in

work was composed

do

as

:

strove insofar ,

I

passage

of

is

, it

.

of

;

no



,

of by of in

Ercole

the ends

in

and second Horatian almost solely the con departure the poetry Giraldi takes his point thesis means original that poetry kind first philosophy utility proposed utility pleasure hence the two ends and for indisputably the more important The theory expounded the following practice ception

to a we

,

chartae.40

41

,

usai quanto meglio

mi fu

ed .) , .p

."

of



to

,

di

In

Lettere XIII huomini illustri 1565 871 l'ingegno perche l'opera tutta fusse composta all'utile 40

to

.

to

is

represent

to

assigned goal

thus exclusively moral The poet must seek appropriate behavior which honest and honorable living praiseworthy actions and social procedures the whole scale is

The utility proposed

an

to

,

Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere

said

:



as

us

;

from the fountain that philosophy which life must direct our actions Horace showed when

he as

to a

of

of

,

of

a

us

,

is

it ,

to

say about poetry nothing else but believe what the ancient writers have working philosophy secretly proposes first which like schoolmistress life under poetic covering the image civilized and praiseworthy life drawn

,

le

,

a

,

&

,

gli

ne

,

,

,

:

& "

,

la

di

la

a

,

, ci

,

mostrò Horatio quando disse Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae

140

)

(

."

attioni

&

alle lodeuoli

,

honorata

,

,

si

: “

., .p

Ibid 872 che conuiene alla uita honesta alla uarietà delle cose ciuili

et

41

."

.

,

che

ci

il

, di

,

attioni

.

il

,

&

,

è

La

;

il

,

.

(

concesso all'honesto parendomi che questo debba essere fine del Poeta non diletto solo Però che per quanto dicono auttori quale quasi occulta maestra della antichi Poesia non altro che una prima filosofia imagine propone lodeuole uita tratta dal una ciuile uita sotto uelame poetico proposto segno habbiamo drizzare nostre fonte essa filosofia alla qual uita quasi

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

Applying this theory in his own poem , Giraldi has depicted the life of a man who was an example of praiseworthy and honorable actions ( p. 868 ) ; he has universalized the illustrious actions , making sure that honesty was respected ( p. 874 ) ; he has tried to arouse compassion and move morality by praising his audience ( ibid . ) ; above has attended condemning the vices and giving wherever necessary the the virtues instruct order the latter rewards the former and the punishments praiseworthy according persons the station their ranks various

,

"

to

, in in

,

to

42

.”

life

,

of to

to

,

,

to

he

all ,

everywhere

,

I

in



.

as



to

.

).

(p

it

to

I

,

by

at

is

to byI

,

to

43

a

by.”

by

, "

is ,

it

to

of

be

, to a

of

is a

to

of

means the achievement this utility saw that the reader with greater make this utility enter into the mind sought pleasure whence very wide pathway could efficacy made companion make the profit and did not wish take my primary object produced writing the work poetica Pleasure given places stopping intercalate ornaments and mente that devising entertaining digressions the These add beauty 873

Pleasure

order

an

,

in

it

of ,

.

an

)

as

(

be

of

is

it

if

.

it

composition and make the reader follow with greater attention Even the Aristotle and Horace have pointed out rendered beautiful treated with the proper decorum and then becomes additional Similarly the use pleasure source the pagan gods acceptable

ugly may

is

, an

of

,

).

(p .

of

,

it is

).

.

(p

its

,

as

ancient subject such the Ercole may increase the marvelous the poem possibilities for delight Finally verse itself and hence 882 additional ornament which when allied with appropriate diction 888 both utility and pleasure serves the purposes

,

by

it



is

of

).

(

.p

of

of

.

of

to

to

,

of

he

,

no of

Giraldi's conception the poem made conform these require clearly unity ments involves notion the artistic structure Indeed specifically rejects the need for unity unity action and replaces only unifying hero 868 The life Hercules the element unless

in of

of

.

,

or

one take into consideration the general moralizing intent the prevailing many gathered concern with decorum Around this life Giraldi has

of

of

( .pp

as

it

he

,

to

an

he

,

.

)

hold the interest his readers please and insists calculated is

order

does

,

he in

from one canto another Everything that 879–80

he to

to

,

of ,

is



.

by



,

actions some them taken from ancient poets some them invented himself Since the subject ancient has treated the manner the ancients except for the addition such modern devices transitions

, a

la

,

“ to

of

in

è

secondo

dare oue uarie qualità

&

di

,

i

,

stato bisogno

,



of it

or

,

le

,

. la "

, a : "

., .p

il

42

uitij Ibid 881 con lodare uirtù biasimare quelle premio queste pena per formare persone conditione alla lodeuole uita 43

is

.

in

of

"



to

of

instruct the specific audience that has mind This not audience vulgo praise ever wrote give the -10 poet worthy order pleasure this vulgar crowd made his judges but the best

loro

al

il

)

(

&

141

." ,

,

: "

, ui

., .p

,

a

Ibid 872 uidi ch'a fare che con maggiore efficacia questo utile entrasse nell'animo poteua fare assai ampia strada giouamento chi leggeua diletto onde cercai ch'egli fussi compagno no'l uolli prendere per primo oggetto

POETIC

THEORY

its

.pp

judges , " those who know why the poem pleases them and are capable

evaluating

of

in it

of

a

of

again falls into broadly the goal proposed patterns rhetorical But much the detailed treatment diction the figures and the styles present the more ambitious treatises absent here ,

of

,

is

an

of to of

of

in

is ,

,



in

to

de '

in

,

at

.

are the numerous cross references ancient theorists Similar ideas about the poetic art are work even briefer compass poeti illustri Girolamo Ruscelli's dedication his Fiori delle rime 1558 similar that the general application rhetorical criteria

,

as

to

,

in

.

of

as

effect upon that audience

is to

).

of

.

, of it

,

to

its

In

.

to

to

of

,

In

(

artistic excellences 876–78 poetry comes these ways the Horatian conception the ends poetic everything inform Giraldi's whole theory the art Almost subordinated the wish instruct and even the devices for pleasure are ancillary general supposition this the work and certain

in

of

,

in

of

,

of

,

in

.

a

poetry Ruscelli starts out with poetry general but defence not spite Italian poetry declaring that the prejudice favor Greek and

.

in

.



in

,

in

in

a

is

,

in



to

possibility that Italian will soon come equal Latin literature there profit Ariosto has already proved this delight and both the epic and Petrarch elegiac verse One may judge for the lyric others them

of of of

,

of

,

all

,

of of La

,

of

in

in

,

, in

in

to

be

: “

to be

oneself This may easily discovered by those who having the art and the judgment able know entirely the degrees and the places perfection disposition style and invention the other parts elocution will consider those compositions Bembo Guidiccioni be

,

a

,

in

of

,

of

, of

of

all

spiritual things

the sciences

are able

to ,

is

, of

of

philosophy

as

as

history and cases many other subjects

.”

to

and almost poetry furnish

45

of

there are subjects

in

.” : 44

,

a

of

,

of

"

,

,

all

of in

of

Molza Pescara The proof word will found poetry Ruscelli's anthology which one may see the true portrait poetry where one finds the examples every splendor the beauties capable receiving and where every ornament that language and Sannazaro

of

on

)

,

of

(

in

Although the passages Cristoforo Rufo's Antexegemata 1559 which interest for poetic theory largely concern the Poetics there are

are

;

, a

of

The work

he

,

as

13 ).

.p

(

the plot

is to a

,

of

refers rather

to

it

that 44

is

.

in

is

to

a

several commentaries lines Horace and few places where rhetorical interpretation applied Aristotle This not true everywhere however connection with Poetics 1452b11 for example takes issue with referring Robortello's interpretation Trátos the audience and insists

collection

isolated

...

,

,

si gli

.

,

,

,

,

di

e i

i

, & in

" is

,

,

, &

La

., .p * .” “ :vij "

45

: "

), .p * da

(

jijv possono ageuolmente conoscer coloro che 1558 Ilche giudicio poter conoscere interamente gradi luoghi perfettione nella dispositione nello stile tutte l'altre parti della clocutione haue ranno considerati quei componimenti del Bembo del Guidiccioni del Sannazaro del Molza della Pescara Pescara Vittoria Colonna

Fiori delle rime

hauendo arte nella inucntione

." , &

di

le

)

(

142

&

di ,

,

le

di

,

,

di

,

ne

,

&

&

il

si

Ibid oue vede vero ritratto tutte bellezze della Poesia oue sono essempi d'ogni candidezza d'ogni omamento che vna lingua possa riceuere oue quasi hanno soggetti occasioni d'istorie filosofia cose spirituali tanti altri possono somministrar tutte soggetti quanti alla Poesia scienze

ARS POETICA

ARISTOTLE

WITH

CONFUSION

:

remarks on passages selected by Rufo because he disagrees with previous commentators . On Poetics 1456b8 , disagreeing with Maggi's reading, he maintains that the writer of tragedy may derive arguments from the same topics as does the rhetorician , since both seek to arouse the emotions ; but the poet must do so in a hidden way , whereas the orator's devices are apparent . On 1456b3 , adding to “pity and fear ” the additional effects of " amplification , proof , and persuasion , ” he again points out that these must be sought in the appropriate topics . For the Ars poetica , he provides commentary on two lines , on line 1 (where he disagrees with Maggi's gloss )

three short Origine the first della satira comedy emphasizing above a

dis all he

of

, and Ars poetica of Horace of of

the satires , epistles

set

to insist that the initial passage does not refer to plot alone but to the combination of plot and episodes, and on line 132 ( rejecting Maggi again ) to clarify the proper manner of adapting borrowed materials. 46 On the whole , however, the document is more interesting as it relates to the history of the Poetics , and I shall discuss it again later in that context . In the same year , 1559, Lodovico Dolce appended to his translation of

of

In

. "

to

le

,

In ,

epistole Discorso sopra had complementary functions second

47

is

"

"

,

"

of

:

to

,

of

,

In

said that the satires and the epistles

,

.

traced

he to

,

one for each the works tragedy and also the origins purposes the moral for which they were invented tragedy demonstrate how much the condition human frailty different from that divine felicity and beatitude comedy scold men for their vices the courses

to

to

:

its

in

art

on

be

it

I

,

by

be

is

,

of

by

)

it

la

(

in

,

a

of

;

it

,

48

. ”

of

: "

was his intention remove plant epistles the vices from the breast men and these the there poetica the virtues The third the Discorso sopra far the most important since gives brief summa what Dolce considered the points entirety salient Horace's text translate below almost the satires

he

in

;

he

on

in

,

of

In

he

,

of

on

.

in

in

be

;

he

.

of

he

,

all

it,

be in to

;

or

.

in

it

anything dis such form that there will not conformity everything but that will and appropriate be

give

it

to ,

or

cordant

and contrary

it

order

to , to

of

.

of us

in

to

is

to

submitting them correct diligently their compositions the judgment those who know The reader will thus learn from the notes that Horace gives this brief but most useful work his consider first very carefully the dispose material that these poets have proposed write about then that to

poets

of

poetry may This little book composed Horace the divided into five parts For demonstrates first the vices that the poet must flee then speaks the appropriateness that must observed words the third place touches the quality materials and persons and the differences that are present them the fourth treats actions and the fifth counsels

)

(

143

to

humana ,

.”

huomini huomini

gli

uitij dal petto

gli

uitij

de

i

della fragilità de

leuare

i

di

"

fu la

."

: “

le

di

sua intentione

conditione

per riprendere

"

: "

(

e

In

1

., .p

in 48

&

316 Nelle Satire piantarui uirtù

la

.

and H8 respectively

dilettevoli sermoni 1559 313 quanto fosse differente dalla felicità beatitudine Diuina and Ibid queste

to

or

,

H ,

,

G6 GS GSv ), , .p -

.pp

1559

),

Antexegemata

(

47 46

,

to

it

promised From this results that when poets have begun write serious things they should not descend low ones describe others that are lovely

POETIC THEORY and delightful but not pertinent , to show that they are clever . And in this , as in every other aspect , Ariosto merits infinite praise . Also , when we need to pass from one subject to another , we should do it in such a way that the composition

will not resemble a monster . Nor, fleeing one vice , should we fall into another ; but taking upon ourselves a burden equal to our strength , we should see to it

,

,

,

as

,

as

49

our Ariosto

of

or

.

its

that the end corresponds to the beginning and the middle ; and although we may treat divers things , and although the parts be varied , it should be a single body parts And which is not discordant in any of for the order they should begin from the middle after the middle the subject Homer Vergil and

.

did

, to

It

.

it

in

as

be

in

of

be

of

,

to

a

a

as

Such summary this indicates what points the Ars poetica seemed vulgarizer like Dolce worthy emphasis will noted that invention and disposition are clearly intimated and that the dominant principle appropriateness appears again had the earliest Horatian .

exegesis

,

Girolamo Ruscelli who only the year before had published his Fiori delle :

a

;

is

all

.

of

. of its , of

problems the superiority poetry over other forms superiority verse over prose He regards forms persuading delighting and moving the function

expression speech

and the having

as

,

of on

, . In of

a in

di

a

of

a

,

a

;

,

in

comporre rime published 1559 work called Del modo versi nella lingua italiana this was really combination two works treatise on verse comprising also fairly complete poetics and very lengthy rhyming dictionary poetics Ruscelli the section most concerned with two

its

of

.

on ”

da

,

is )

it is



,

to be

.

a

as

.

in

as a

(

If

.

.pp

It

of it of is be a

be

it

so ,

if

;

of

49

by of

is of to

to

to

if

contemporaries eternal life and bring glory

.



,

appeal only

-

it to

,

But whereas other poetry has added author Hence respect the basic dichotomy excellence These beauties one his analysis are both material and words For the subject matter poetry must itself may well special kind false invented produce belief the poet must handled such way the part the reader true historical subject rendered more forms are written beauties which give

:

:

,

ui

da i

,

le .

i

, e

,

,

di :

lei

darle una cotal forma che non u'habbia corrispondente conforme Onde hauendo

,

Il

di

,

.

,

di

al

coloro che sanno lettore adunque apparerà ricordi che questa sua brieue ma utilissima fatica considerar primieramente molto materia che essi hanno proposto scriuere poi disponerla cioè ordinarla in

giudicio

,

bene tutta

la

Horatio

,

,

, si e a le

i

.

; e

, e

la

da

ci

rimettendole

il

: “ Si

in

.,

puo diuidere questo libricciolo composto Ibid 317–18 Horatio sopra l'arte uitij che dee fuggire cinque parti Percioche egli prima dimostra della Poetica Poeta dipoi fauella della conueneuolezza che conuien serbare nelle parole nel terzo luogo tocca qualità delle materie delle persone differenze che entrano Nel quarto tratta corregger diligentemente dell'attioni nel quinto conforta Poeti lor compositioni

,

in

, , ci

,

,

e

in

,

in

.

di ,

, e

, o

in

i

a

Et in

,

.

,

,

.

e

,

cosa discordante contraria ma tutto sia promesso Poeti cominciato scriuer cose graui non discendano alle basse ouero discriuere alcune uaghe diletteuoli ma imperti questa come ogni altra parte merita infinita lode nenti per dimostrarsi ingeniosi guisa che'l componi l'Ariosto Douendo anco passar d'uno altro soggetto facciano al

&

."

,

e'l ,

,

,

un

al

le

. E ,

]

[

il

;

144

:

in

un

,

.

,

se

, o

, : e

,

un

a

mento non sia simile Mostro Ne schifando uitio incorriamo un'altro ma pren principio dendo peso eguale alle nostre forze procuriamo che'l fine corrisponda solo membra siano diverse sia mezo ben trattiamo diverse cose quantunque quanto all'ordine debbono cominciar corpo ilquale punto nelle sue parti non discordi dopo nostro Ariosto mezo della materia come fece Homero Virgilio dal mezo

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

In

.

,

,

or

,

,

beautiful dress

which all

of

, is



is

,

it of

to

, be

in

to

be

.

of

,

or

of

.

is

clothed Great attention must the purity lan style organizing guage the placing the words the qualities things which constitute the virtues elocution Disposition clear poet closely by words with both connection the watched element an

paid

in

,

,

The words are the



the same time

the subject



.” 50

at

delight

or ,

or “

is

be

in

it

,

of

all

perfect by the kind of selection and rearrangement which are the preroga reality are removed either the imperfections of the poet , and something lovely pleasing gay grave pleasant case must that profit and that the end will delight better still that will profit and

tive

all

in

,

,

of

as

of

of

of

.

of is

,

be

perfection followed however the ultimate harmony achieved unless verse added For verse adds and persuasion and additional source arousal the pas these precepts

an

will not harmony

is be

Even

if .

and things

:

is

of

,

.

is

is

,

in

as

;

of its

so

of in

;

of

a

;

to

of

all

to

verse

,

of

.

beauty

in

follows the the reader the soul events poetry gives increased added the other beauties delight this delight leads the reader higher estimate have the poet's genius the work thereby becomes more credible and more capable producing utilitarian effects the profit that results hence greater As many argument developed these texts the end term the that sions The sequence

:

be

...

" 51

,

of





a

to

is

.

in

is

of

the declaration that Italian

verse and that Petrarch and more

models

recent years

in in

the literati whose names had appeared

in

number

)

(

1560

of

A

which

.

be

is

for as

to

all

,

kind one feature

other languages recent Italian poets may used

PARTHENIO

a

if

a

of

of

of

most extravagant superior

by

,

of

by



, to

.

,

is

utility Indeed the same true for the argument about subject matter say nothing much greater utility the pleasure will obtained poet than from the same event narrated told historian and reality the point about the perfecting made substantiation This poetry and exaltation verse leads Ruscelli write defence the

.

of

,

,

,

,

,

as

connection with Horatian criticism appear again interlocutors Bernardino Parthenio's lengthy dialogue Della imitatione poetica 1560 Trifon Gabriele Giovan Giorgio Trissino Paolo Manuzio Francesco

,

,

be

in

of

.p

broader since they will treat

un

."

,

, ò

,

...

di da

,

et

,

,

:

,

, ò (

piaceuole 1559) xix cosa grata uaga leggiadra graue gioui ma molto più che ella gioui diletti unitamente ,

;

diletti

un xii : “

so

.

of

be

to

of

di

da xi -

.pp

their own concern will

comporre

o

Del modo

che finalmente

In

to

it

,

&

So

with those genres

51

, of

Lovisini and Parthenio himself gather together discuss the matter poetic imitation and how doing differs from rhetorical imitation supplementing the work they pretend Aristotle and Horace who plot and character spoke only tragedy and the epic and connection

il

.

,

)

145

&

,

(

, ò in

in

,

si , si

la

,

da

o

,

.”

,

& lo

lo

, è

.,

Ibid molto più utilità per tacer dilettatione trarrà fatto poeta che stesso narrato uno istorico percioche all'istorico conuiene narrarlo parte Là oue ucramento come sia seguito poeta bene male che sia stato tutto finge forma nelle parti non buone quale douerebbe essere stato per esser buono perfetto nell'esser suo

of words ,

speech , and sententiae

of

figures

THEORY all

POETIC

. is

of

(

as

a

of

by

such general subjects

by

In

)

and

as

, of

( which are common to invention and the universal topics adducing the custom his preface Parthenio defends poetry not only ary arguments but pointing out the multitude knowledge kinds poet which one may derive from such Homer the De Homeri poesi genres

,

"

, ,

,

he

,

,

,

,

us

,

,

,

,

?

in

,



in

morality—

in us

Besides

).

here

lessons

he

imparts Homer teaches the knowledge that What philosopher teaches better what prudence every slightest action what fortitude what discretion we should use than his poems He makes wise prudent modest strong patient constant just good religious and holy 52_and shows orators how echoed

so

he

.

of

to

is

by

It

he



,

,

to of

.

all ,

be

to .

us

of

6 ).

.p

he

(



of

of

our soul that they representing the ,

that we bear

in

to

of

faculty

,

or

that certain force

,

"

Horace

his title On Poetic Imitation the art not already who seems have kept his feet

the precepts

that same Aristotle But soon limits excluding one dis imitation which the two types will not here treat that kind imitation which seeks

by

tinguished represent

;

his scope

by

by

Aristotle and

the very footsteps

misled

present

he

fixed

means

33

in

exhausted

to

he

Parthenio does not wish and insists that

,

,

,

in

if

he

,

,

.

be

,

to

write expositions beginnings confirmations amplifications and These then will the ends that the poet must pursue But will not achieve them does not pay attention the delight that comes from excellence verse and elocution the latter these that consti tutes Parthenio's central subject forth

in

in

on

,

poetry which intends

to he

the end

,

of

and this

is

;

represent

"

undertakes

to

,

of

.

of

A

he

is

he

,

a

In

.

.

as

,

of

of

"

,

call Idea but rather that other kind which consists Ideas and the Forms others word interested the imitation poets appears other taken models further restriction when poetic imitation The poet may makes still another subdivision the one hand imitate the natures and the characters the persons whom

by

is

of

54

to

the poet may imitate the words other poets and the problem

the other hand

speech already used

,

On

by ,

of

.

Aristotle

and the figures

. "

its

is

to

,

Parthenio

its

,

to

express human actions and with that expression instruct and inform the subject soul which and matter Imitation this kind left

him

in

a

,

to

to

is

of ,

by

of

.

is

of

properly accomplished Parthenio addresses himself The how this major part suggestions about how the poet the dialogue devoted long practice may ultimately come way very express himself

quale portiamo

,

che

suoi

religiosi

nell'animo

,

,

buoni

,

,

giusti

,

costanti

ne i

,

ci



;

or

"

uero facultà

la

,

forti patienti

,

de '

insegna qual prudenza

ciascuna minima attione

,

,

quella certa forza

o

,

modesti

Filosofi meglio

in

Qual usare

,

), .p 3 : “ ,

,

fa

93 . : " 11 : " "

. ., " .p

Ibid chiamano

che

idea

."

,

le

,

,

)

è

;

(

146

&

il

è

,

&

., .p

Ibid Et questo fine della poesia laquale intende esprimer attioni humane materia informare bene l'animo che suo soggetto con quello amaestrare

54

&

saggi prudenti

Santi

53

&

?

pocmi Questo

ci

,

(

Della imitatione poetica 1560 qual fortezza qual discritione habbiamo

da

52

to

of

to

plagiarizing similar that the model without actually copying analysis distinguished topics and detailed the numerous rhetorical

ARS POETICA

WITH

CONFUSION

:

ARISTOTLE

by Giulio Camillo Delminio , proposed as devices to guide the poet in his imitation . Throughout Parthenio's treatise , the assumption is implicit that the really important thing about poetry is the diction that it uses . Poetic diction , in fact , is different from that of oratory in several respects . The words used

by the orator “must be such that they may be understood by the people and must be drawn from common usage , from that usage which the writers of comedy and the orators have established . Those ( used by the poets) must be highly ingenious — I almost said ' bizarre ' - and completely alien from

They must be selected for their qualities of sound as well as of sense ( full - sounding words containing " a " and " o " are to be pre ferred ), and compound or complicated words are better than simple ones ( p. 80 ) . As he proceeds with this analysis, Parthenio comes closer and closer to the kind of teaching that would be found in the section on diction habitual use . "

55

in

to

to

on

in

At

.

on

,

of

a

...

.

"

,

to

a

of

be

,

to

of

to

I

is

he

.

: “

,

agrees

,

pass judgment certain recent Italian poets now says about Sannazaro what have always prized him and has always seemed me grave and sonorous have had fine great and truly poetic nature selection words And

This

dead

he to

living poets

is

in

,

of

II

he

its

in almost any standard rhetoric . It is interesting to note that, in spite of the elaborateness of such a theory engage as the one just outlined , when author called upon practical criticism commonplaces talks ancient one point Book the dialogue Trifon Gabriele after having refused comment

as

,

."

of in

: “

of

;



,

,

on

( of

Petrus Crinitus

or

the poet they hark

Pietro Ricci

)

the days

of

,

a

the genius

characterize

.

of

to ;

in

but their effort much earlier time Lilio Gregorio Giraldi

to

diction back

to

as

. ”

56

,

"

,

is

is

: “

is

Pontano Pontano also very sublime and Fracastoro Most imagining fables ornate and most polished Fracastoro and excellent Navagero charming elegant and full light poetic polished new thoughts varied and versatile Such comments these are consistent they bear almost exclusively with the theory behind them insofar

of

is

(

in

of

,

,

,

of

'

., .p

., .p

34 : “

55 56

a

,

is a

It

di

)

its

its

A

to

document closely related the preceding one through the person author and through rhetorical associations Giulio Camillo Hermogene Delminio's Discorso sopra l'idee published posthumously 1560. brief treatise which after comparison Cicero's three styles oratory- the judicial the deliberative and the with Hermogenes types da

, . & .. .

,

Fracastoro eccellente pieno pensieri poetici

di

è

& il

,

&

,

."

.

&

&

,

)

,

&

,

(

&

politissimo Ornatissimo polito uago elegante

147

&

,

& , & gli

di ,

,

Nauaicro uersatile

."

uario

86 : “

.p

87 , : “ & Il ";

Pontano

, "; .p

&

,

è

il

sublime altresi nel finger fauole leggiadri noui

&

i

,

,

di

, 85 & : “ ,

,

Ibid Questi deono esser tali che dal popolo possano esser intesi esser tratti quello che Comici dalla communanza Oratori hanno fatto Quelli hanno essere ingeniosissimi quasi che non dissi bizarri del tutto estratti dalla consuetudine Ibid l'ho sempre prezzato emmi sempre paruto graue sonoro hauer parole esser havuta bella elettione natura grande ueramente poetica Molto

POETIC THEORY panegyric - goes on to a brief summation of the various “ senses " found in Hermogenes . Only one short section is of interest for poetic theory , a section entitled “ Panegirica in Metro , " which discusses poetry as a versi

it

. of

of

it of

of

,

Its ”,

.

it

,

Its ,

.

in

of all

fied type of panegyric oratory ; the classification itself is significant . Camillo's notions of poetry are simple and , at the same time , somewhat things that confused ; he says that it is an “ imitation of contains proper materials pleasure and greatness that involves the use verse are myths about the gods the supernatural and the superhuman impossible procedures are the narration and incredible actions events simply and

,

he ,

),

(

in

he ,

;

as

of

in

;

,

,

of

the muses and the use

57

special kinds words panegyric oratory general shares with Francesco Patrizi would have disagreed with Camillo's classification poetry panegyric for although his Della historia 1560 too

detail the invocation figures the latter and

of of

poetry but

in

of he

kind

,

these views history

,

to

According

prose

of

he is

,

history

.

to

is on a

.

,

it

,

to

poetry under oratory assigns the demonstrative and deliberative branches His dialogue concerns history and when classi expounding Pontano's views poetry fies poetry the relationship classifies

praise and blame their ,

,

,

do

of

.

,

to ,

."

,

,

,

: “

,



."

,

of

,

as

;

,

,

to

.

Both arts treat the same kind materials oratory parts oratory they actors belong the same branches employ similar procedures they arouse the passions they things with decorum Their ends are the same Both teach delight move profit adorn elevate lower Their differences are those between truth and probability prose and verse natural order and artificial order Patrizi does to

to

)

of

to

links

of

specific literary genre materia della satira

are

1560

).

Francesco Sansovino's Discorso

,

to in a

applied

. 58

the necessary

the same principles

(

, all

.

the two arts provide

Some operative

in of

ends

of

in

;

he

( or

identify his sources what kind indicate Pontano's not need belongs traces intellectual tradition both Horace and the rhetoricians are manifest his statements The verbs collected together define the

: “

;

;

it

is

to

of ,

in

,

an

,

,

so

a

it

is

of

of

in a

poetry then this statement The dedication presents brief defence the poetry consists nothing else than withdrawing men from vice gift whence God directing them according the good orders that that they will know their own minds hence nature His servant

end

of

,

119–21

.

) le , .pp

1560

(

M. Giulio Camillo Delminio gli

.pp

di

secondo tomo dell'opere

Il

In

58 57

:

-

.

,

59

. ”

it of

,

a

is

,

to

certain poets wishing achieve such end have written precepts human life under various forms verse Of these divers genres satire always scolds men for their evil doing The favored one since Discorso proper differentiates satire from the other forms on several bases

" ;

(

,

in

).

,

."

,

of

.

II

he

,

,

: “

,

),

è ), .p * 3 : la di “ il

(

59

,



,

,

(

Della historia 1560 5–5v muouono affetti fanno cose con decoro giouano Patrizi un abbassano insignano dilettano adornano inalzano muouono doubtedly knew Camillo's work since Camillo's Opere 1560 edited Vol altro ch'in ritrar gli huomini fin della Poesia non consiste Discorso 1560

148

)

(

. "

di

, ,

a è i

di

,

,

,

dal vitio ond'ella dono Dio indirizzandoli buoni ordini della natura sua ministra qui ch'alcuni volendo conseguir cotal fine mente loro accio ch'essi riconoschino versi hanno scritto precetti della vita humana sotto varie forme

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

style ( satire uses the humble , low style , rather than the high or the middle ) , subject matter (which is humble and low , not high and magnificent ), the kinds of persons depicted ( who are humble , such as servants and sinners , not great ), the nature of the imitation ( in satire , nature is imitated directly, without adornment or artifice ). It will be readily seen that the opposite

of

subject matter

,

style

,

its

a literary genre by

its

its

of describing and delimiting

its

term in each case is tragedy or the epic , and Sansovino points up the contrast wherever possible. Once again , the insistence is upon diction ; this must not differ from the language of prose , must contain neither ornament nor grace , must be instead simple , sharp , witty, and direct . Such a method

( .pp

of

,

a

in

).

*

* 7

as

an

I

,

)

a

(

of

,

in

special sense falls imitation taken the tradition that have been tracing and epitome many tendencies Sansovino's little Discourse serves 6vAs final sample the present chapter we may examine those few

characters and form readily within the context

of

it

In

.

of

,

be

,

of

of

.p

he

a

In

,

),

( .pp

by

.

;

all

of

(

."



),

51 ),

( .p

notes

are verse

"

"

"

poeteggiare

in



he

that the two components language and certain kind present remarks 123 the second fauellare poeticamente eloquence that whereas other writers practice only one form the poet practices forms hence his divinity The third 219-20 more exten poetare

or

pertinent paragraphs

"

in

;

in

by

is

to

-

.

,

it



in

of

, is

,

,

of

.

in

paragraphs Benedetto Varchi's Hercolano which concern poetry The dialogue one question the important documents the the language almost wholly linguistic content although was published only 1570 posthumously was written around 1560 during the years anticipated Varchi's the Caro Castelvetro controversy As might approach poetics here colored this specific concern one the

( .p

,

:

is

in

.

,

to is

to

in

),

is

;

of

,

ticed them

it

of

distinguishes seven kinds poetry naming the authors who prac the basis the distinction not clear but would seem that classifying according merely Varchi verse forms The last passage declaring again necessary 269 poetry con addition that verse tains the following passage sive

,

,

if

,

,

a

uses

special kind

.

a

best they display

,

at

;

of

it

:

is

a

,

,

of

for imitation and

most natural for man.60

it

the Poetics

)

Aristotle shows

poetry These passages hardly constitute theory preconceptions poetry few common current verse language and seeks ethical and rhetorical ends 60

a

,

,

those who are naturally disposed

in

all

as

is (

,

noble and gentle and consequently poetry

in

in

of

,

,

-

to

in

a

,

The poet addition well composed and sententious verse has greatness majesty more divine than human and not only teaches delights and moves they are but engenders admiration and wonder the minds the listeners

]

149

e

in

e

il ,

,

all'huomo

."

naturalissimo

[

)

mostra Aristotile nella Poetica

, e

, e

, o

, e

,

ne

, o

,

, e

,

,

, e

il

: “ Il

, e

), .p

(

ha

come

(

,

Hercolano Florence 1570 269 Poeta oltra verso ben composto sentenzioso vna grandezza maestà più tosto diuina che humana non solo insegna diletta stupore negli animi generosi gentili muoue ma ingenera ammirazione tutti conseguentemente coloro che sono naturalmente disposti perche l'imitare poetare

POETIC

THEORY

CONCLUSIONS

of

, in .

on

, a

on

six

The materials contained in this chapter have covered a span of approxi mately fifteen years , from 1546 to 1560 , and have included , besides formal commentaries the Ars poetica wide variety shorter docu ments miscellaneous literary subjects The common basis for their inclu

By this period

,

a

to

or

,

.

,

;

to it

.

-

of

of

or

a

it

is

of

I

of

sion was the fact that they belonged one way another tradition poetic theory that have called the Horatian rhetorical tradition The center this tradition the text the Ars poetica but allied and mingled with are multitude ideas derived for the most part from classical treatises on oratory on style do

.

I

of

of

,

in

a

be

,

at

midcentury critics and theorists and commentators had might what termed standard reading Horace not everybody precisely mean that read him the same way but merely that certain interpretations recur with great frequency and that from the maze developed

a

,

no

is

all

of

be

"

"

to

of

be

its

.

,

to

in

suggestions and theories and precepts contained the Ars poetica certain number seem the favorites readers and cited most constantly Of these perhaps the most signally Horatian the is

in

of of

,

is

" )

(

as

"

or

be

,

, at

.

so .

is



as

(

to



of

a

it

"

delectare so

"

and

becomes

no

statement

"

poetry constitute the ends Indeed the probably has much commonplace that times really direct connections with the text Horace itself This may one readily expanded reason why the formula aut prodesse aut delectare include additional goals such the Ciceronian admiratio crossed with similar statements from other theorists such Cicero's

"

prodesse

,

of

as

of

.

to

as

profit and delight There notion that poetry has dual ends major commentator who does not emphasize this one the charac many cases shorter texts are teristic features the Horatian system and identified with this tradition basically because their insistence that

,

to is to the to

,

.

of

,

of

" ).

,

,

,

in

in



delectare mouere Such expansion and augmentation accounts part for the conflation Horace with the purely rhetorical treatises part explains the confusion attaching and the purposes the poetic regard the really import art Nevertheless the predominant tendency docere

by is

,

,

By

is

.

a

its

,

as to a or

to

he

and episodes retains full status utility but more usually reduced for the achievement that utility As it

of

a

or

of or

resulting from the imitation

the pleasure

of

, . or

Sometimes

from diction from ornaments accompaniment partner the the role means instrument device for stirring the emotions

;

proper living

,

,

all

by

,

to

of

.

be a

to

as

of

bringing some profit ant purpose that reader and that profit invariably said using sententiae and aphorisms moral one demonstrating the common fate man and the rewards and punishments presenting charming allegories which hide attached virtues and vices eternal truths the poem teaches man the lessons needs know for

)

150

are

according

to

poems

,

of

.

the internal components

(

Certain

of

of

,

to

of

the reader and persuading him through examples pleasure makes him amenable the moral teachings that are the real end the poet

this

ARS POETICA

ARISTOTLE

WITIL

CONFUSION

:

reading of Horace , in direct relationship to the ends proposed . The whole matter of decorum is extremely important if moral lessons are to be conveyed ; in fact, the observance of decorum is itself a form of teaching, since the proper behavior for persons of kinds should

be

all

standard

.

of

pleasure

; it



decorum for moral elements correctly accon but only recognized true

.

,

to

for artistic elements

,

sine qua non for the production

is a

-

the Horatians

the counterpart

,

is

of

.

,

,

of

the achievement

.

for

of

to

able

is a

positive contribu from the characters and their actions This the ends Most the components though operate indirectly through the pleasure which they afford Thus the central unity and appropriateness the two elements are indistinguish principle deducible

tion

."

,

"

"

,

in

of

,

of

of

"

be

is

if

in to it

is ,

of

is ,

as

of

.

,

.

of

a

of

by of

if

as

,

is a

of

Similarly imitation pleasure source represented plished and the object reading Horace consist The other habitual ways the application midcentury universally associated with the number distinctions text First and foremost these course the trilogy invention disposition and elocution Certain sections the Ars poetica are now regularly identified parts treatments these three and when ,

,

A

is

It

.

of

,

is

of

.

a

is

practical criticism singled out for comment that comment will work almost always revolve about the same three parts second trilogy that styles equally prominent the three almost connected with what

a

is ,

is

of

.

to to

"

"

as

to

,

of

,

Horace says about the vices diction becomes the main device for assuring the integrity the separate literary genres and often regarded auxiliary both appropriateness That given decorum and proper style speech persons given will entail the social status and in

to

,

.

of

its

of

seen some

con

the Ciceronian ends

of

for

if

;

.

have already ends

, of

in

or to

of

the criticism rhetorical doctrine that was

kind

to

an

be

,

the earliest Horatian criticism

for understanding

of

as

be

A



.

all

to

it to

,

as



to

applied just had been parallel inquiry equal usefulness inquiry into the the period would ordinarily associated with Horace We stituents especially with respect the tinues

,

it

of

,

to

their actions and characters and will require figures and ornaments keeping with the general nature the subject matter Finally the res according poetry verba distinction which considerations relevant belonging are classified the subject matter the expression con

,

of

in

,

be

It

.

of

a

,

"

"

"

"

admiratio directed toward the orator himself and docere delectare and mouere directed toward the audience are the ones proposed then special brand rhetoric results can seen strictly terms the

151

, in

is

the ends

often

, a

.

In

an

as "

(

of

is

of

all

of

of

him of .

of

frequently the basis for calling

primary reason for developing extended )

the

the ends

the specific nature

(

,

critics

,

of

the

of of

so

the conception

document Horatian

so

just

as

)

"

in

to

,

of

moral bias Horace's interpreters and the construction which they put upon his text why this type rhetoric rather than variant possibilities Cognate ends are the arousing should have been related the passions found many the critics sometimes intermediate end and the imparting kinds miscellaneous information fact the minds

rhetorical

POETIC

THEORY

parallels. As for the rest of the rhetorical system involved , it is usually of a linguistic character , with the main stress on diction , on figures and styles , and on the “ topics ” which are curiously transformed into stylistic pro cedures . Thus of the three traditional parts , elocution is the one accorded the greatest amount of attention and importance - a tendency also notable in the late - classical rhetoricians . When one compares the set of ideas belonging to the reading of Horace with those composing the rhetorical tradition , one finds very close resemblances if not complete identity ; one

may begin within the text of Horace , as critics of this period did , and end within the context of a standard rhetoric ; or one may reverse the process and pass from the Rhetorica ad Herennium or from the De oratore or from the Institutes into the Ars poetica. The two traditions are in many very real senses indistinguishable .

But what of Aristotle ? This is the period , as I have indicated , when the first persistent attempts are made to connect the Ars poetica with the Poetics . Especially in the formal commentaries , Aristotle tends to replace

of illumination and elucidation of the

the older authorities as a source

text .

The belief becomes current that Horace knew Aristotle's work , used it as his source and guide , meant to do no more than paraphrase it in verse . Of necessity , the ideas in the two works must be the same . This is the basis for the increasing vogue of citing parallels between the two texts ; from modest

we

in

,

of

By

we

.

If

of

,

by

or

of

of

art

in

.

,

,

as

its

beginnings in Pedemonte , this fashion attains full expression such Maggi commentators Grifoli and Lovisini the time Lovisini parallels are available for almost every passage Horace that specifically poetry composition poems compare the concerns the the parallel passages suggested various lists the successive commentators in

.

to

of

as

, in ,

.

to

a

of

revealing facts First certain passages discover number Aristotle permanently given lines assigned become Horace each expounder borrows from his predecessors For example the opening lines the

,

to

);

),

of

of

(

),

on

)

of

as

on

(

(

( Il .

1-23 three passages from the Poetics are equated 1450a38 Ars poetica plot episodic plots and 1451a19 the soul the poem 1451633 unity plot on the fact that does not result from unity hero lines

of

of

a

in

of

,

to

;

be a

to

of

.

;

in

.

on

,

in on

,

suggesting

1459631

,

styles and meters for various genres three passages again epic meter and 1448631 and 1449a21 iambic verse The same lines Horace will sometimes suggest other parallels Aristotle but large number the the glosses certain basic comparisons recur body writers There thus comes traditional cross references for each section the Horatian text this body each commentator adds 73–88

as

,

.

of

,

,

as

his ingenuity can devise and indeed one has the such other parallels impression occasionally that the parallels have their only merit this display ingenuity in of

to

as a

an

,

of

we

.

If

in

of

152

)

(

of

.

of

of

parallelism certain advantages accrue From this cultivation the interpretation enrichment the form Horace These are mostly the understanding isolated sections the text take case

WITH ARISTOTLE )

1-13

of

point , the first section of Horace's text (

and compare the glosses may estimate what we

CONFUSION

:

11.

ARS POETICA

,

,

.

as -y

in

,

Badius Ascensius and Francesco Lovisini interpretation has been made during the fifty ear period separating the two commentaries Badius takes the passage being first

advance

is ,



,

"

,

"

:



regula



to

the following

so

be

.

Badius reduces the meaning

,



"

,

,

,

of

each genre

,

is ,

",

it

. ”

"

,

of “



a

of

mala accumulatione warning against the errors that soresmos vitiosa communicatione coinismos that and Positively seu commixtione sermonis recommends symmetry measure and the integrity economy decorum insistence upon the proper color seu aggregatione

,

is

be

all

,

or

,

is

a

be

,

it

in

so

is

so

or

composed invent the any work that written the poet must dispose what disposed that invented decorate what things will incongruous but similar like monster

For

whole subject nothing will

in to

be

in

elegance and decorum.61

the text the problem

limiting the free play

of

to

be

had

of

in

which regard must

,

,

;

seeing

:

to

,

in in a

Lovisini

a

arrangement

be

or

an

;

of

at

.

in

agreement among themselves first The careful consideration and inven Three things thus are necessary economy disposition fitted with deliberation tion the whole matter placed differently the materials invented for the things narrated will history poem and accordance with their and their embellishment

and

the )

,

62

to

of

. "

in

,

of

"

,

he

as

,

,

he

on to

,

of

of

,

;

,

( in

imagination begins with Aristotle's distinction the De anima fantasy opinion poet says fantasy between and the follows for the poet not because poets adopt for themselves the name the verse but because the plot and the fiction Aristotle testified the Poetics goes say permits the use figments only Horace the extent

poet's

all

. “



a

is

to

,

let

;

,

be

in let

a ”



on

of

to

a

,

63

of

a

.

in

all

is

;

,

a

it

"

,

so

;



is

;

is

"

"

prudence

in

all to

observed the monstrous never tolerated Let poem therefore harmonize agree correspond them nothing regard the aim and the end inconsistent nothing unsuit unfitting able that nothing the Aeneid summus Imperator things and the Iliad and the Odyssey serve the moral purposes envisaged Then after referring Quintilian coinismos comparison between and drawing mixture Greek dialects and

which things

Ed .

61

as

,

be , he

by

is it

of

:



as

,

mixture sublime and humble styles Lovisini compliments Horace for having chosen this taught his first precept Nor chance that first what the construction the argument and the plot should for

sic

se )

,

,

sed

."

scopum

,

respondeant

,

consentiant

, sit . ”

153

)

(

,

,

poemate sibi conueniant Ibid omnia igitur finem omnia spectent nihil abhorreat nihil alienum ., .p

in

.”

&

decori habenda est ratio

quia poetae nomen sibi asciscunt non propter carmen poetice testatum relinquit Aristoteles ,

fictionem

qua elegantie

:

in

.

.

(

,

.

1554

& (

:4v “ ,

Commentarius propter fabulum 63

), .p , 4 in ut ": : . in in

&

disposite exornatio

62

narrande

ac

vt

: “

, .p

sit

eo



in

,

,

,

Compositurus seu cumscripturus quodlibet opus Paris Gerlier 1500 IIllv rem omnem excogitabit excogitatam disponet dispositam ornabit nihil monstri simile quadrantia aut repugnans sed omnia sui similia atque inter Tria ergo primum sunt necessaria Materiae totius excogitatio atque inuentio Excogitate apta oeconomia seu dispositio poemate aliter aliter enim historia locabuntur res

POETIC

THEORY

is

.

It

of

is for -

Aristotle established in the Poetics , the plot is the soul of the poem ." 64 He then proceeds to the word word explanation the passage clear ,

in

,

of

on

.

of

of

of

we

the total poetic structure

As

in to

of

'

,

purely linguistic and rhetorical that whereas Badius gloss character speaking only matters diction and invention Lovisini's passes beyond considerations the poetic imagination and plot the importance

of

of

it

to is

of

of

a

is

ages

so

personages

,

,

,

a .

of

;

be

to in

may juxtapose the readings another case Badius and Grifoli Ars poetica 114–18 Badius largely concerned with textual problems sees these lines only formulation the principle decorum and how solely question fitting the proper speech observed this .

.

to

in

).

.p

"

;

in

be

.

is

of

or

over

the

necessity and probability

be of

of

of

all

the passage carries with

it

Grifoli's remarks

one who reads the Horatian passage

Aristotle's theories character and and hence whether not these associations tones

is (

as

of

For ,

by

.

cites Poetics 1454a32

accompanied

as

,

to

in

in all by

,

,

them

he

of

respect

all

cites the passages he to

,

which Horace treats the Ars poetica which each the four adumbrated With says necessity and verisimilitude must observed

Grifoli

-and

as ac

,

,

of

he

for character

requisites

,

,

,

brief

: “

,

different

the rule

is

of

stations countries sexes and forth The Seruandum est igitur studiose decorum personarum pro sua cuiusque fortuna aetate patria XXv Grifoli always starts with this point stating that Horace here interested the fitting things persons people decorum and words well But bringing into consideration Aristotle's four expands these ideas statement

.

to

,

of

a

a

of

to

be

it

) is

(

correct for the text here richer and more suggestive than was for Badius exemplify the claim that through the cited Other passages might parallelism with the Poetics cultivation Aristotle critics gave those passages more complex meaning than they had had more extensive and studied

at

it

is

, to

of

I

,

,

be

It

the

to

in

.

of

.

of

for commentators the preceding generation But the enrichment stops possible the level the individual passage would not believe any interpretation general change state that Horace takes place any different from what that the total approach the Ars poetica was

later approach ,

of

.

the

as

,

the earliest commentators and the fundamental nature text itself prevented any such change from taking place Moreover the text

of

by

,

of

.

,

of

previously The close ties with the rhetorical tradition the persistence basically rhetorical distinctions the survival the construction put upon

to

,

)

154

:

intima

the fact that ,

qualis esse debeat argumenti fabula poematis anima est

&

no

slightest

these two texts

.

poetice auctor est Aristoteles

,

,

nec temere primum docuit

(

quia

there was

to

of

, 4v ut 5 : in "

.pp

.,

Ibid

constitutio

,

the Poetics and the Ars poetica affairs with respect the true state

,

64

tion

of

,

all

.

of

of

of

equation

of

certain modes this study will demonstrate problems habits method practically assured the and certain intellectual approaches These same modes and habits were the older continuation responsible for the fact that throughout this extensive comparison and chapters

fabulae

ARS POETICA

:

CONFUSION

WITII

ARISTOTLE

different problems , that they use produce statements of a completely different nature about poetry . For theorists of this period , only the acci dental — and sometimes the forced - resemblances between the two were discovered ; their real opposition was not even suspected . So it was that they address

themselves

widely different methods

to essentially

, and that they

of

his

text could be identified with Aristotle , and at the same time the whole

of

Horace could

be said to be an

imitator of Aristotle

the text could be read much as it had been before

into the discussion .

( 155 )

, that many

lines

Aristotle was brought

CHAPTER FIVE . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS POETICA : III . THE APPLICATION TO PRACTICAL CRITI CISM FIRMLY ENTRENCHED

O

SH

an intellectual tradition as the tradition of

Horace's would not be apt to change with the change of the decades . The habits of interpretation were by 1560 so firmly estab lished that little modification could be expected . Even the way of coupling Aristotle's text with Horace's was a fairly unimaginative procedure . Yet Ars poetica

we are not to suppose that the succeeding decades add nothing and modify nothing , nor that the remaining documents to be considered are merely repetitions of the earlier ones . For one thing , the major effort of the

century to provide formal commentaries to the Ars poetica seems , from this date on , to taper off; and although there will still be some important glosses to the text, they will occur less frequently from now until 1600 than they had in the decade of the fifties. In their place , we shall have to deal

usually with shorter treatises , many of which will apply Horatian principles to literary works of current interest . As a matter of fact , the first two works to be discussed in this chapter on the Ars poetica . One of them is undated , and include it at this point merely because author's literary activity fell approximately around 1560. unpublished manuscript MS BNF Quintij Horatij II.IV.192 fols 1532–161v entitled Petri Angelii arte poetica librum annotationes author was Pietro Angeli who also called are formal commentaries

in

1456a9 1460615

42

1451a34

82

1449a27

105

1455a23

146

1459a33

150

1451a36

179

1460all

259

1460al

333

1449626

338

145161

347

1460616

465 156

)

(

be ,

complete ,

these notations

Angeli

had done

:

his predecessors

to

pretends a

it

is

,

1451a22

38

number

of

a

In

just

Aristotle

34

de

,

an

is

it .

of

,

14 1

Horace

exactly what

Horace's work rather than as

miscellaneous notations and thoroughgoing treatment indicates parallels with Aristotle

a

on

The manuscript

of

set

.

himself Petrus Bargaeus

its

,

;

.

,

It

its

I

ARS POETICA

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

The briefness of the list is explained not only by the fragmentary character of Angeli's notes , but also by the fact that he seeks such parallels only incidentally , not as a major intention . In fact, he takes pains to point out how Aristotle differs from Horace on such matters as the history of to

as

(

on

,

,

is

,

,

as

an

to

of

;

is

)

1.

(

.

by

,

by

is

drama

audience He also declares

on a

,

-

we ")

, or to

ex



a

.



)

and Daữua five act division

produced

what shown the stage and his insistence that the what narrated means the resting and refreshing the 318 that the poet imitator must

Trádos

produced

of

re TÒ 1.

in

(

between

179

sim

,

of up

,

to

or

of

).

fol .

tragedy and comedy and how superior Aristotle is on such subjects as para verisimilitude ( 160 For the rest his annotations are limited unity major pointing phrasing the text and ideas such the deriving the denouement from internal plot plicity the necessity emphasizing certain elements rather than from deus machina might note his distinction original interpretations Among these latter

of



of

.

. ” 1

is

1561

)

(

PIGNA

by )

(

1.

a

of

to

direct his attention the general rather than the particular and that this profit involves close observance decorum He equates Horace's ends delight mitigating perturbations and 333 with Aristotle's end the violently affected which the soul and movements

,

of

is

;

it

such

as

those who had

disposition and elocution

invention

(

fact

,

In

, it .

of

a

of

Its

them had found

one

,

used the rhetorical terms

of

the Horatian text

,

for

no

of

his .

of

-

a

is

,

of

The second work Giovanni Battista Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561 not only full scale commentary one the lengthiest and most detailed the century author apparently starts from the premise that although various organization predecessors had sought principle

of

:

on

of

,

),

.

(

(

the matter belong invention the composition belong the

2

...

..

the poet

ac

fol .

To

.

of .

to

,

of

MS BNF II.IV.192

To

to

).

compositionem

(

the two

and disposition and the same two also words whole form the poem and the entire power

remas ),

,

of

,

;

be

of

,

it

and the combination

to

it ,

to

a

in

;

to as

,

be its ,

to

it of

poetry

as

way expound first the whole Horace was written such treated still unknown then continue with after having divided species into the point where the necessary parts these same species completely analyzed finally collecting together these separate elements would fully known As poetry but treated now touch again upon the whole not yet known must considered according matter words verba

of

The poetics

as

.

of

,

to

-

)

had explained successfully the first seventy two lines the Ars poetica but then had been obliged start again with some other organized system Pigna sees the whole the work another basis Pedemonte

: "

,

,

vt

,

ex

,

Vt

.

)

(

157

&

:

&

,

dispositio Rei sunt inuentio integra forma poetae integrae ,

compositionem sunt poematis

.

,

,

rem verba compositionis

"

....

est secundum idem pariter

.

sideranda verborum vires

&

,

:

:

in

eo

,

1 : “

), .p

,

(

2

."

,

1

poëticae finem uidetur statuisse perturbationum motuum quibus animi uehementer afficiuntur mitigationem Poetica Horatiana 1561 poesim totam Poetica Horatij ita est conscripta prout est ignota primo suscipiat deinde illam vsque perducat sua genera partitam quousque ipsorum generum necessariae particulae sint absolutae postremò singulis collectis totam rursus poesim perstringat sed prout iam cognoscitur tota ignota con 159v

POETIC

THEORY



,

,

II .

the second

.

divisions has each section

(

of of

.

"

-

inventio

;

the

rei ”

in

a

)

concerns

summary

14

to

of

” )

;

ac

,

,

),

( II .

the third 25–28 the invention and disposition disponendo uerbis agit eodem modo inueniendo ” ;

de

(“

the words

the number



( 11.



to

a

it

1-13

dispositio rei



,

of 24 )

the



"

of of

,

to it .

;

of

as

divides into sections few lines each eighty precept now grown and states

The first precept

.

( as

all

of

an

)

,



fit a

of

The first half of the preceding paragraph gives the general outline of the Ars poetica as Pigna analyzes it ; the second half establishes the methodo logical framework into which he will large part the text The res verba distinction which had been for commentators for Horace himself incidental aspect the total structure becomes for Pigna the methodology central element Horace's even invention and disposition quotation the shows are made subordinate Pigna organizes most the text around this res verba distinction He

all

.

-

),

)

(e

in to

so

as

(

of

a

,

is

It

.

of

to

to





of

)

11.

est

it

,

we

(

a

of

set

).

to

prudence The analysis continues equivalent this fashion consistent application the same terms not until the composition twelfth precept 73-76 that the element enters into play and any discover then that refers metrical form rather than with

(

disposition

cf.

;

an

of

of

on

-

of

"

),

(

the



),

1l .

32–37

,

the same with respect

29–31

( ll .

fifth precept

on

styles The the mixture poematis forma integra combines things and words these elements invention and disposition and pro analogy with life just ceeds the basis the happy life results from the proper admixture reason and prudence the Ethics the perfect poem effects proper combination quivalent invention reason and the fourth

;

on

"



res ”



11.

to

),

,

of



.

do “

(

fifty four 309–10 moral poetry obviously belongs the -

satyric drama Precept supplying the materia

to as

.

to

-

to

-

,

set

with respect philosophy

ab

32 )

( .p



of

,

est

" : "



of

composition quae non other kind elocutio Oratore con sideranda sed carmen this element accounts for Horace's treatment the verse forms appropriate the various genres For lines precepts forty forty and verba treat both f ifth first 220–50 the

.

is

of

If

of

.

of

to a

,

be

to

,

,

as

of

of

all

of

,

of

many other precepts throughout the analysis distinctions Pigna's One result consistent application this method the reduc theory tion almost Horace's poetics the genres material fittingness must words and verse are fitted together some principle same

of

it



,

be

,

as to

.

,

as



of

.

of

the vague notion

or

be

;

this may

in

many

of

so

by be

appropriateness employed appro the more restricted notion the commentators appropriateness Pigna priateness involved genre uses the latter early principle This becomes apparent the first precept which insists poetry should not joined together that the different forms and established

of to a

in

)

(

."

("

'

"

and

ad

,

debeant

"



by





,

2 : "

., .p

vt

158

non



3

."

it

diuersę poeseos formae simul coniungi Ibid poescos genus eligendum refertur 3

to

the second

,

in

length

,

at

of

is

single the choice which refers make Pigna order text poetry forces the Horatian genus Indeed caput distinguished humanum Aristotle include the four genres tragedy equinam representing collatas plumas ceruicem the epic developed

solum

ARS POETICA

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

to

in

the individual tragedy and

77 ,

to so

to

42 ,

to

:

. " 4

in to of

,

first lines genres

treatment his epistle and then passes rapidly the lyric with line the epic with line

of

it is ,

he

all

of

dithyrambic and lyric poetry, and “ atrum piscem ” comedy ) and to justify this statement of principle : “ it is to be understood that those four kinds of poetry can never be brought together in one poem and , in fact, that there Hence them is no different method that would be appropriate to general the says that Horace lays the groundwork for poetry

in

),

ll .

(

-

at

.

of

of

of

A

,

all .

"

in

"



in

,

to





and

be a

89 res , ”

satyric drama with line 220 and each forth invention and their relationships verba compositio disposition and then connection with theory necessity this general approach will concomitant Pigna makes and precept twenty one Arriving 114-18 decorum

comedy with line case considering

we

:

explains the transition

;

-

,

so

,

so

in

,

.

as

is

...

to

,

I

,

to

Up this point think have discussed plot and diction now comes make the plot one order which not expressed for itself but character which has character And just mores are derived from the plot are the passions because when the diction contains character and passion too does the subject matter.5

be a

in

,

of

,

it is et a

in

be

to )

to

(

,

of

be

reasoning may not very clear here but Pigna apparently thought means that character and the Aristotelian qualitative parts are the plot and that when referred here must depend upon the nature sign that they are correct proper they are seen the diction The line

."

he

res



"

"



,

of

.

he

,

a

-



et “

.

"

of

tion

is ,

perturbata oratio morata will reflec perturbata fabula morata verba When fairly original and interesting theory discusses character Pigna develops

the material itself That

,

"

,

"

he

,

-

to

)

: (1

of

),

is

(

it

,

is

.

of

a

of to

,

proceeds He starts with Aristotle's four requisites for character which system requisites says rebuild into his own All four are forms easy the verisimilar which itself two types the verisimilar applicable easily believed because well known persons and for

"



by

be

:

,

to

;

a

,

or in .

is

,

of





;

( 2 )

,



-

to



quod decet

is

sufficient the difficult verisimilar applicable persons less well known and for which some kind similitudo may required personage Under each type considered him comparison with others and the four resulting kinds correspond self the four requisites thus which

verisimile

facile τα

χρηστά

difficile

per se

collatione

in

in

per se

το ομαλόν

τα αρμόττοντα

collatione

το όμοιον in

)

(

159

:

est morata

&

oratio

,

quia

vt

,

."

ita

ita etiam perturbationes

:

vt

....

ipsa suscepti sunt mores quoque materia

& . & de

de

: "

.pp

,

modum perturbata

,

.”

,

., .p 3 : " .,

ex

de

s

:

4

Ibid sciendum est quatuor illa Poeseos genera nunquam vnum poema posse reduci etenim nulla esset diuersa ratio illis consentanea Ibid 42-45 Mea est interpretatio hucusque actum esse fabula dictione qui non absolute traduntur sed quemad nunc moribus fabulam moratam efficiunt

THEORY

POETIC

show that Tà Xpnotá is merely a theoretical type of

Further statements

mores and is never really considered in a poem , since no person's actions are of interest of and by themselves ; that tà áp ÓTTOVTA refers to type

characteristics , differentiating persons according to station , age , profession , nation ; that TÒ dualov or “ conuenientia ” is essentially a principle of self

completely faithful to

for

mores

theory

literary genres when

of

,

separate kinds

the separate genres

.

conceives

of

of

he

Pigna is , of course

his

consistency and is useful especially in comedy ; that TÒ Õuolov is a matter of opinion or " fama , " demanding that known persons be presented in keeping with their reputations , and is proper to both epic and tragedy.

the

( on

a

to

,

is

on ,

of

of

philosophy poetry had approved poetry rests upon mores But he

of

.

,

of

)

(

of

closely allied for To the question mores character and decorum Pigna the question poetry and this leads him the moral ends seemingly contradictory position Commenting lines 311-18 the uses

of “

,

he

,

of

,

a

is

in of

,

of

,

,

be is

of

I

,

is

.

is

no



if

,

in

of

In

.

be

is

by



.”

.

pleasure

it of

,

, of

,

to

poetry prove contrariwise that the real end The reconciliation this conflict found believe the notion poetry pleasure the verisimile For Pigna the primary end but accompanied utility pleasure order that there may the audience must convinced the credibility the persons and actions assured by moral verisimilitude and this credibility involved the poem things were treated which were completely alien from truth and For

a

long argument

he a

."

of

is



"

"



.

of

),

in

Horace's insistence that little later speaking the prodesse argues against the frequent and delectare line 333 assumption that delight merely handmaiden utility and presents whole

is

of

in to

" ;?

.

74 ).

.p

fabula morata

(

the



guaranteed



by

is

on

be

by

,

credibility would attach which could not really happen them nor support would they followed that pleasurable remembrance which Aristotle cited the impossible probable Such credibility

:

I

;

of

.

,

of in

is ,

an .

,

as

to

,

, in

in of

various places Pigna calls upon the authority general Aristotle's role That sustain his arguments Aristotle inspirer the whole Horatian theory his commentary rather than citing parallels give the But Pigna does not resist the current fashion list for the record We have seen that

Aristotle 1447al4

Aristotelis poetica illis competunt tum subiecta materia consistant tum nexu congruenti con ,

,

,

ex

Duo sunt quae

ex

vt .: “

(

gen



,

iungantur

vt

,

1448a4

14-23

5. ]

1-13

.p

Horace

ab

Aristo

:

."

]

[

160

,

&. "

:

si à

in

poesim totam positam moribus quae accidere non possint tractarentur Quòd uerò prorsus aliena fides adhiberetur neque subsequeretur iucunda illa recordatio

eis ., ., .p .p

7 6

Ibid Ibid nulla

72 79 : : “ “

,

, "

tele reponitur 1453a12 1451b15

8. ]

"

neque enim Hesiodus sub aliquo poeseos genere .p

gen

.:

[

1456a30

ARS POETICA Horace

:

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM

Aristotle

24-28

1458a18

29-31

146063 , 1458a18 , 1458a21

32–37

1450b34 , 1460b17 , 1456a18

38-41

( gen .: “Homerum ab Aristotele 146062

excusatum

42-45

1447a14 , 1449b23 , 1448a19 ( ?), 1454a26 ( ?)

46-50

145761

52-59

145762

73-76

1449a21 , 1448a21

79-82

1449a25

83-85

1447a15

89-92

1448a16 , 1453a20

93-98

1455625 , 1453a12

104-13

1462a4

114-18

1450a8

119-27

1454a16

,

128–30

1454a16

136-45

1451a22

149-50

1451a24 1454a21 , 1453a33

179–88

1452b12 , 145362

189–90

1450637

191

1452b17 , 1454b19 , 145462

192

1449a16

202–19 220-24

144967 1449a19

244-50

[ ? : “ Aristoteles

vulgarium prudentum 1458620

p . 18 )

1454a16

153-60

260_74

,”

enim Agathonem hominum ," p . 67 )

reprehendit , quòd eius fabulae potius satisfacerent , quam

sententiae

275-80

1448a29 , 1449a16

295–301

1455a34

333-34 338-42

1449b26 , 145165 , 146066 , 1460a18 1460a26 , 1451a38

347–50

1460616

351-60 361-65

[ ? : A. on Homer : many virtues , few faults , pp . 80–81 ) 1448a4

453-69

1455a34

Although

of Aristotle is considerable (less considerable , might it seem , since many of the passages are quoted several times ), it has little effect upon the total view of the Ars poetica . Pigna seems rather to build his interpretation about the “ verba distinction about theory the genres and about the standard rhetorical notion the the presence

, of

"

-

of

to

,

(

161

)

,

,

."

,

another rhetorical approach via discovering the order means

as a

he

,

of

a "

objects verisimile However invention disposition and elocution

,

, than

res

perhaps

POETIC

THEORY

text . His own proposed order is more consistent

of Horace's

with his own

does not prevent him , nevertheless , from effecting a fragmenta tion of the text into a number of passages and precepts even greater than that proposed by earlier commentators .

It

system .

BARTOLOMEO MARANTA ( 1561)

in of

)

of

.8

R.

precepts

,



Horace the materials discussion and one Maranta admits that did and

its

it

very extended give

a

obviously

which could not help but bore listeners that has rewritten the last two lectures In he

in

, six

A

.

the first two

to

1-24

;

lines

a “

to

lectures

-

in his

,

R.

(

in

,

in

to

a

of

in

of

six

all

contained

by

These positions of Pigna and the even more traditional ones of Robor tello and Maggi are attacked openly in a set of lectures delivered Bartolomeo Maranta the Accademia Napoletana meeting the con vent San Pietro Maiella 1561. Latin summary the first lecture and the actual notes for the other five Italian are now the Ambrosian Library Sup Sup Milan MSS 118. and 126. Maranta devotes

presenta

more succinct

,

,

,

is

its

-

of

of

by

. " 9

or

to

be

it

necessary that who proper basis division which science He finds this proper

believe

a

to

.

, "

brought into consideration Instead analyze poetics should seek wishes applicable any other art would not

he

we

be

on

to by

no

in so

,

is

,

:

of

.

,

.

long winded and repetitious but tion fact the discourses they are not without merit Their initial premiss itself noteworthy for time Maranta declares that the distinction invention disposition and universally applied elocution earlier commentators the Ars poetica wise appropriate the poetic art and should not are hopelessly

poems are differentiated Aristotle's Poetics where kinds poem their means imitation and where each divided into qualitative parts quantitative others had before him believes Moreover and he

and especially those which are

of

,

the precepts

"

,

a

)

( as is

six

qualitative parts that Aristotle had borrowed from different order and that

treat the same

greatest

10

Aristotle almost

to

out albeit all

,

that Horace distinguished

in

set

.

he

,

of

,

in

division

,

of

of

:

to

his

as

he

to

.”

importance These distinctions from Aristotle enable Maranta make the point original contribution regards which Horatian exegesis the first plot and the second plot and the unifying precept concerns the choice

:

,

a

of

,

to

of of

,

,

of in of

,

as

(

.

,

of

so

),

is

of to

precept episodes Just devoted Aristotle according Maranta had person unity named three kinds false unity unity time unity single war false unity the three kinds Horace gives examples multiplex monster the vision fevered sleep and the mixture the man

,

.

(

),

di

a

to

of

II,

,

)

162

et

fere omnia

,

ipsa tamen praecepta est

mutuatus

(

Aristotele

."

: "

fol 118v .

.,

Ibid momentj

ab

10

,

."

: "

.

.,

et

9

R.

",

di

:



,

of

.

8

general The manuscripts are anonymous For my attribution them Maranta and Critica Lette Nuovi Manoscritti discussion the problem see Bartolomeo Maranta XXIV 1955 115-25 Pisa Serie raria Annali della Scuola Norinale Superiore MS 118. Sup fol 117v Oportere autem eum qui poeticam partiri cupiat propriam quae nulli praeterea arti aut scientiae conueniat diuisionem quaerere existimauimus praesertim quae maioris

sunt

ARS POETICA

of wild

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

and tame beasts . The first

these corresponds to the manifold

of

actions of a single man , which do not constitute unity ; the second , to successive but disconnected events , which do not constitute unity ; the third , to contemporary but unrelated events , equally without unity . in Horace ( fols . 120 The second precept , on episodes , demands the major part of the treat ment after the first lecture . Maranta decides , on the basis of Aristotle , that the episode must be a quantitative part whose function is to give greater volume to the poem . It is thus never a part of the unified plot , but some Aristotle's three kinds are thus found exemplified 23 ) .

thing added to it and integrated with it . Certain difficult problems arise as How can a quantitative part be integrated with a “ formal ” or qualitative part ? Can extraneous elements appear in the prologue and a result :

How

as well as in the “ episodes ” ?

from plot itself in

of

these Maranta devoted most

To such considerations as his time before the Accademia Napoletana .

seem that the debate is trivial , and it is certain that the discussion

all

for Maranta the subject warranted the time and reflec any theory could give since was the central problem in

it

tion that

it,

he

is too long . But

of

It may

does one distinguish episode

genres as the epic ?

such

-

exode

in

to it .

of

,

, an he in

.

of

he

to

,

he

to

if



of

:

of

poetics the constitution the central unifying element the poem the and the relationship other parts the action Maranta apparently believed that could decipher Horace's meaning with respect this problem would have the key the rest the text The way

plot

of

,

do a

,

to

be

as

unpublished manuscript

of

I

de

at

is

,

,

,

a

as

of

;

it

of

,

.

of

is

.

It

to

an

of

as

)

an

it

(

is

in

is

,

this one undated well has both practical perhaps pertinence theoretical and the Horatian mode early Torquato greater even interest estimate Tasso's Rinaldo Perugia and This MS 985 M.8 the Biblioteca Comunale have approximate date assigned tragoedia 1561 entitled Tractatus dialogue involving such celebrated interlocutors and the form Cardinal Ranuzio Farnese Jacopo Sadoleto Pietro Bembo Bernardo ,

Another

.

a

of

a

to

.

it ,

he

as

;

he

,

, to he

a

,

is in

in

he

seeking the solution which uses Aristotle sense original for does not merely cite parallel passages does not merely call upon apply the method attempts rather additional authority Aristotle understood the Horatian text and this constitutes considerable innovation The recognition that rhetorical distinctions not supply poetic questions and that specifically poetic method must answers used marks notable departure from the thinking his contemporaries

11

,

:

in

,

. 11

Tasso and Annibale Caro On the theoretical side the prologue and the dialogue itself touch upon four points connection with tragedy the :

.

of

)

(

163

at of a

,

by

.

,

at

in

in

of

The list names raises some question about anachronism the text both Sadoleto and Bembo died 1547 which time Torquato Tasso was only three years old Such anachronism suggests the possibility that the treatise may have been written much later somebody whose knowledge date than that assigned the earlier years the century was very imperfect

POETIC

THEORY

effect produced , the ends , the pleasure

derived from imitation , and the following passage demonstrates the atti educative function of poets . The tude with respect to the effect and , to some extent , with respect to the ends :

For what

of the fact that we very willingly give applause to a mournful ? that we follow with a pleasant sense of grief the horrible des truction of the most prosperous of princes ? that we behold without satiety their unexpected vicissitudes and reversals of fortune ? that we are reduced to pity by the pretended complaint of the actors , very pleasurably albeit with pain ? that we fill up our eyes with gloomy images ? that we cannot satisfy our grief with else are we to say

poem

weeping ? that , lastly , we are so regaled by fictional deaths , bereavements , grief , wailing , ruin ? if not that we have already accustomed ourselves to wretched ness and failings in the most catastrophic way in the natural course of events , and we have grown so hardened to the sensation of our own calamity , after the pain has healed , that to have the wound now aggravated by one's own hand when it is rough to the touch produces a very agreeable sensation , ameliorated by habit itself . Last of all, so you may not fail to be aware of the ultimate state of the most calamitous exile , there is great pleasure in weeping when a moral man has been overwhelmed by misfortunes that inspire tears . 12

The effect is here a pleasurable participation in the woes of others ( a thesis , incidentally , that explains much of the characteristic quality of Renaissance tragedy ), the end is to harden the soul to misfortune and suffering. But the pleasure results also from the artifice of the poet and even more from the fact that the poem is an imitation ; things which are disagreeable in life through imitation ( fols . 103y - 104v ). “Quanto sunt illa quam iucundiora ficta facta ? ” (fol. 104v ). Because of the presence of such pleasure , the lessons taught by poetry are willingly received compare the sugar - coated pill - and the utility results , in an almost automatic fashion . become

agreeable

Hence the author of the Tractatus takes issue with Plato's banishment of the poets and with the severe condemnations of Proclus and of Maximus of Tyre and prefers to adopt instead the opinion of Plato in Book II of the Laws. His arguments on the role of poets as educators are the ones commonly used in the defences of poetry . On the practical side , the author gives extravagant praise to the adoles cent Torquato Tasso's Rinaldo , of which he has heard a reading. His 12 Perugia , Bibl . com . , MS 985 ( M.8 .) , fol . 96v : “Quid enim aliud dicamus esse, quod lamentabili carmini libentissime plausum damus . quod horribiles exitus Principum florentis rerumque simorum iucunda conquestione prosequimur ? quod inopinatas uicissitudines conuersiones sine satietate spectamus ? quod ad misericordiam actorum ficta querimonia

ob

sit ,

, ,

this MS after that

,

99 " ;

"

In

at “

,

164

)

(

.

I I

...

referring flebilibus aerumnis obruto flere magna uoluptas use the new folio numbers penciled into the codex which numbers stop have supplied numbers myself

mortali

to

est .

vt

?

ut

,

sic

iucundissime quamuis dolenter incondimur ? quod oculos moestis imaginibus explere ? quod dolorem lacrymis satiare non possumus ? Quod denique simulatis funeribus , orbitatibus , luctibus , eiulationibus , vastitatibus tantopere delectamur ? nisi quod aerumnosissime natura miserijs ac uitijs iam insueuimus , et ad sensum nostrae calamitatis obducto dolore ipsa con sua manu vulnus asperum tactu iam exulcerari iucundissimum duruimus exilij calamitosissimi conditionem ultimam non ignores Demum suetudine mitigatum

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM his

:

of

all

he as

;

unhampered

gives

copi



,

and

such epithets and descriptions elegant grave will sententious

Tasso's style

to

what will teach

discerns



he



how acutely

special attention

he

all

his

he

please

,

will

ever

.

,

his

remarks center largely around the genius of the young poet , faculties knowledge familiarity with poetry and and branches philosophy But seeks out what how diligently also comments on

sound tracing have been ,

;



to

.



we

,

,

,

,

in of

to

,

,

free ous varied familiar the reader who knows the tradition that Some modicum the theory the reference the ends for example practical pierces through the criticism but for the most part the latter

di

tre

speak later

of

he

between theory and practice Since

close relationship

,

his case there really

is a

except that

in

(

),

1562

in

Petrarca

to

in

his

a

of

.

in

is

so

satisfied with the facile adjectives for genius and style that had for long been vogue Sebastiano Erizzo likewise effects combination theoretical and practical criticism Espositione nelle canzoni M. Francesco

-

a

be a he

,

is

;

in a

.

,

is

of

of in

of

-

as

his

in all

wishes

having achieved such and such effects

he

.

Petrarch the his poems states theoretical ideas terms the requisites for the poet rather than terms the nature the poem His starting point the statement from poet rather must Horace that mediocrity not sufferable have poet

on

of

;

of

within the latter

,

,

is

It

.

to

no

of

be

in



is

if

to

,

philosophy and

moral

all

...

he

:

the natural sciences and philosophy

to to

,

all

13

of

.”

,

,

.

in

,

a

of

,

of

divine and superhuman genius the components which will natural many things and the ability gift knowledge combine the right words verse These are needed the poet teach and move the him admiration with his listener and then give pleasure and awaken precepts given but poem For the natural gift there are the knowledge Erizzo has much say essentially knowledge score

, of

of

,

,

of

,

of all of of

,

of

,

of all

,

of

in

to

he

,

of

he

,

, of

of all

,

of

of

,

of

of ,

it

of is

necessary that learn the precepts the best arts for since has any subject whatsoever should show himself most well versed that things art which treats the causes the vices men the pleasures pain death the passions and the perturbations the soul the honest the true good the virtues life mores which things are con treat

of

Its

tained under moral science.14

13

Espositione

,

of

.

to



&

,

,

&

&

,

."

)

,

le

tutte

de i

perturba

costumi

, le

,

&

,

,

è le

affetti

della uita

de di i

,

uirtù

gli

,

di

,

,

,

si

(

165

de ,

della morte le

dolore

,

del

si

i

di

.”

"

del ,

,

de i

piaceri

dell'onesto uero bene tutte contengono scientia morale

la

cose tutte sotto

, , in

fa

gli

huomini

tioni dell'animo

lv :

(

., à .p 2 : “

14

de

uitij

), .p

insegnare appresso dilettare 1561 commouere l'uditore marauiglia col suo poema Ibid mestieri che egli apprenda precetti tutte ottime arti perche douendo qualunque cosa trattare quella peritissimo dimostri cio delle cagioni delle cose

indurlo di

.



,

of



is

in

, its ”

all

content moral wisdom makes poetry excellent among the arts capacity and the same excellence give pleasure found also beauty Pleasure results from the various ornaments from the the diction from the harmony verse Nor does Erizzo neglect the standard

quai

POETIC

its

THEORY

of

.

a

,

.

,

is

he

in

of

to

of

a

of

;

be

distinctions in his enumeration of sources the poem must rare delightful words and exquisite invention and must have choice Before passing on theory the discussion Petrarch Erizzo attempts specifically interested lyric poetry Distinguish the genre which

to

of

,

,

of

a

an of

.

,

of

in

Aristotelian ring Of the lyric action and sometimes

he

I

(

,

),

in

in

it

he

,

,

of

ing first three general kinds poetry the expository and narrative take that has didactic poetry mind the fictional and the mixed places lyric poetry the third category He then proceeds definitions general and decidedly the lyric the elegy both which have

,

of ,

of



;

at

it

its

is

“ it

so

,

in

a

is

it

a

times

,

,

of at

.

, “

grave and imitation joyous and light one composed verses which are not bare but adorned with rhythm and harmony that may with sweetness the same time profit and delight the elegy for the most part love poetry which revolves about the passions honest

a

all

.

,

of

.

of

its

of

its

to

be

,

,

or at in

,

a

of

]

is

it

of

is

. "

15

,

in an

complete lamentable action which the soul and imitation feigning the action the poet himself another expresses melan choly effect The Aristotelian ring has times Horatian overtones Lyric poetry said the most pleasing and delightful the types qualities elegance special because the diction and musical Petrarch belongs among the lyric and elegiac poets because his treat

at

,

an

Petrarch's ideas are

style easy and full

of

grave

sentiments

)

his . (1

,

his

,

wisdom

of

noble and full

.

of

,

it

;

,

rhetorical criteria and Horatian elements

of

,

epithets

an

.

of

modest

,

a

of in

style amorous subjects The weeping and lamenting poems elegiac After the tone his the tears and sighs make him many praise classification the and contains once the traditional ment

in ,

is

of

,

,

so

in

,

,

of

so

.

in ( 3 )

,

of

,

in

2 )

(

of

so

, “

so

,

of

of of

,

of

nobility

.

greatness gravity ornate words He equals Pindar spirit choice splendor unique style words and and the imitation the passions love His invention shows the workings nature and art abundant his style was the natural facility figures like gayety and loveliness rich sweet and full rich abundance

of

in

.

( 5 )

is

.

to

,

of

his

(

4 )

.” 16

,

of

precious jewels and poems the most beautiful and most necessary rhythmical and harmonious this kind His verse The moral poems show his mastery sententiae throughout moral philosophy Plato and the natural philosophy shows his indebtedness

.

is

to

,

of

is

as

as

Such practical criticism this shows some progress over the earlier bring into operation the con insofar some attempt made clusions the antecedent theoretical thinking But the progress still not varieties

&

onesta

,

,

attione graue

&

una imitatione

di

alle uolte

è

3v 4 : “

.,

Ibid giocosa

& .pp

15

.

very great

alcune uolte

)

(

166

à sì

necessarie

,

di

&

,

delle più belle

&

,

,

& ."

di

,

,

di

,

&

" è di in

,

,

,

care gioie

&

è

la

di

à

guisa

"

& ,

P.

il

se

in

fu

4v : " è

di

,

figure

."

copiosa

&

,

si

, ., la .p

16

uaghezza poemi

, in

di

si

,

,

di

compone lieue che uersi non nudi ma numero armonia ornati gran parte poesia amorosa accioche colla sua dolcezza gioui parimente diletti and riuolge intorno alle passioni dell'animo perfetta attione lamen che una imitatione fingendola quale effetto ouero altrui esprime malinconioso stesso teuole leggiadria piena larga del suo stile uena ricca dolce Ibid tanto fatti

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

ORAZIO TOSCANELLA ( 1562) In the

of the purely theoretical, again

realm

document of some interest

, a

sopra diverse cose pertinenti alla grammatica , poetica , retorica , historia, loica , et ad altre facoltà ( 1562 ) . And is Orazio Toscanella's Precetti necessarii

he

of

his

the interest does not derive from the author's originality ; quite the con trary. For Toscanella aims only to simplify other works for beginners and

he

for does not much material

,

example

,

For

.

the text that

treating

.

of

,

,

a

,

not completely accurate he is

,

though

is

,

,

;

stick very closely

to so of ,

do

to

His claim

in

poetics therefore gives reductions students of time the field Minturno section paraphrases and Aristotle Horace Donatus and

a

a

,

or

all at

of

.

the time

his ideas about comedy

of

of

,

is

as

a

he .

,

significant for estimating the state criticism the Donatus section Toscanella collects —and comedy taken the broadest sense

In

it

in

is

of

of

of

to

of

.”

,

such



,

not identified

da is

as

incorporated into the section schoolboy's entitled Auertimenti della Comedia Donato Such interesting represents version the classics criticism that kind popularizer vulgate Toscanella critical thinking What such expansion emphasize singles out for quotation chooses what from Horace

.

so



as

such headings

comedy the subject Why they are called acts

of

Toscanella goes comedy What

to

better

become

persons are introduced

on

might

", 17

of

"

a

is

in

dramatic representation comedy was first discovered preliminary statement that that people might moderate their desires through the examples others and After

What

,

” “

of

,

of

he

to

of

the development

sus

he

of



in



beginning and the medias res the spectator When speaking acts

in on

, in

on .

a

note

"

of

. ”

of



in

" "

,

,

is

,

” “

in

” “

),

(

or

On music On vocal sections and these concern the Most each scene How many persons may speak kind mechanics with which Donatus was occupied but there are digres sions and excursions which add considerably the richness the comedy materials For example connection with the subject adds sounds

is

it

,

,

in

,

,

,

with egualità

"

"

, "

18 a

of

in

. "

in

)

is

of

.

A

(

he

as be

to

,

,

is

all

,

.

in

.

observed

imita uno

,

,

innamorato

,

fa la

.”

si

&

,



]

[

167

,

,

Vno che rappresenta

lo

;

;

&

lo

di

: “

(

), .p

del seruo

."

: " gli la

Ibid 15v imita quanto può andamenti che sia ueramente innamorato ., .p

persons

and

12v La Comcdia primieramente ritrouata accioche 91 essempio loro desiderij con altri facessero migliori parte del seruo Comedia consiste nella Imitatione uno che 1562

i

le

17 18

Precetti Necessarii persone moderassero

decorum similitudine

the

narration Here again parallel Clearly very far this obvious that the latter has merely been used

the verisimilitude

several texts from Aristotle are cited

from Donatus's text and

, to

devoted

convenevolezza

" "

is

,

"

-s

on

,

of

to

and another

on

of

Donatus

passages

he

a

as

a

a

,

to

paraphrase extended

,

as in

.

: “

of of

in

gives his con drama Comedy consists ception imitation imitation and one who plays the part servant imitates much can the comportment really love lover imitates man who servant one who represents Like the expositors the Ars poetica cites Aristotle 145361 refer long section still ence Horace's lines off tage action this pense

THEORY

POETIC as a starting point

for the development of a complete collection , poetics ments on with special reference to the dramatic forms.

of state

on poetics in general ( “ Che cosa sia poetica ,” pp . , way which reveals the eclecticism 57v ff .) Toscanella defines the feigned his method Poetics structure art and true narration com fitting rhythm posed rather metric feet Then after the division poems into the narrative the dramatic and the mixed defines

In

he

,

,

,

." 19

,

of a

embracing

of

Tragedy

of

tragedy

an

,

in

, is or a

: “

in

of

of

art in

a later section

a

in



)

."

of



in

'

in

is

is

(

. ”



:

the heroic condition state having difficulty translating Diomedes misfortune Toscanella Tragoedia est heroicae fortunae adversis conprehensio The subject

,

,

,

to

,

,

theory

of

to

pretends

be a

in

What

compendium

the commonplaces on the

in

.

I

a

so

,

of

to :

the poet

is

.

poet

brief and treat only he knows will suffice make the listen

,

er

,

.

things

etc.

168

]

[

.

,

ing treated.21

in

,

persons

delight the young who pleasant take delight ,

.

as

grave

mature men old etc. who take de men light utility

The sweet

So that the poem may

understand what

is

much The useful So that the poem may

profit

his poem must

as be

He who wishes with

to as

:

he

,

a

In

.

of

,

to

delight must not depart too much from the truth but must stand firm within the limits verisimilitude word must mix together

to

Profit

He who wishes

in

he

.

,

"

of

of the

Delight

,

a a

of of

on

of

A

.

,

he



at

poetry Toscanella must discuss the ends of which he was fond and reductions tabular the prominently throughout his little manual reproduce which

The function

delight

to

by

a

as

be

to

.

paragraph style contains Horace's epistle disposition and elocution When

invention

On the functions

such

make

brief statement five the the salient aspects composition contained

:

it

of

so

one which figure part here presents

of

recommendations reaches the point

on of to

all

,

;

the first few lines

preceded

taken principles

the general

refer

merely

is

the section on Horace selected lines from the Ars poetica strung together

fairly continuous exposition This precepts which apparently are text they

in

what Toscanella gives

is

Most

translation

of

of

.

of

be

merely

an

;

.

the other genres

a

So

.

for to

of

the genre

In

20



,

from Diomedes and the subjects listed the medieval descriptions

translated

are those which had appeared traditionally

poetics turns out art

,

,

,

,

of

,

is

comedy

of

,

,

,

,

definition

,

,

of ,

,

tragedy are sufferings and the material tears hate murders poisonings burnings bitternesses poverty heartaches sobbings sighs dismember great houses movements ments small children downfalls madness betrayals arms violence fury wrath etc. identical fashion the

be

ARS POETICA

Aristotle's Poetics

a

I

shall discuss his treatment

in

of

basic text ; he summarizes, codifies, simplifies, outlines , but

later

.

)

that is chapter

be said that here or elsewhere Toscanella offers any interpre

(

all .

It can hardly tation of his

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

practical criticism that involves incidental pronouncements theory was made Sperone Speroni his Discorsi sopra Virgilio most probably which wrote around 1563-64 but which was still incomplete ,

in

by

at

he

in of on

An effort

Speroni’s central inten and was published only posthumously.22 Vergil and prove inferiority attack the reputation comparison with Homer both absolutely and examines Vergil's performance the areas invention disposition and

as he a

,

so ,

do

,

of

.

To

his

to

of

on

in

,

in

to

is

,

1581

tion poet

:

.

he

as

of

,

of

of

on

he

in

,

of of

;

its

in

at

all ,

at

he

,

he

.

elocution Speroni insists first the importance the first these which plot identifies with plot and cites Aristotle the soul the poem Here finds Vergil fault several ways does not invent anything disposition from Homer there but borrows both the plot and plot and character are many errors and insufficiencies the handling he

La

19

In

."

:

of

,

on

"

of

in

of

so

is

.

of

at

length and for some suggests which Speroni points out which slight that one wonders corrections The matter the poem itself whether Vergil might not have foregone imitation entirely favor the cultivation beauties which were essentially extra fabulam this plot connection Speroni proposes his theory the unity

,

;

di

&

,

gli di ,

,

,

,

,

, le

,

,

,

i

,

a

,

,

di

,

in

."

la

,

& ,

,

,

Ibid

De gli uffici del poeta Vfficio del poeta è

.

21

è

:

Il

., ira , .p & c di . , 76 : "

. .

20

di

furore

:

: “ : “

di è

., .p

di

., .p

Ibid 57v Poetica una struttura d'arte finta uera narratione composta piede metrico numero conueneuole ouero Ibid 58v La Tragedia uno abbracciamento della conditione heroica stato soggetto lagrime l'odio disauentura materia della Tragedia sono dolori ammazzamenti ueleni incendij amaritudini pouertà cordogli singulti sospiri sbranamenti figliuoli disgratie pazzia tradimenti membra case mouimenti arme uiolenza

Di

Giouare Bisogna

.

,

& ,

,

.

,

di

ne i

,

che sia breve colui che intenda giouare col suo poema tanto tratti quanto conosca che basti per fare intendere allo ascoltante cio che tratta

,

Il

L'utile

In :

.

si

,

,

Dilettare Bisogna che colui che uuol dilettare non parta troppo dal uero ma stia saldo termini del uerisimile somma bisogna che mescoli insieme .

,

il

i

c .

&

i

,

c .

&

,

che

prendono by

di ca.

22

.

dell'utilità diletto

dilettano

,

fatti

huomini uecchi

persone gli

di

come

poema Accioche giouani diletti che cose dolci si

graui

il

diletti

:

le

.

dolce

Accioche poema

169

)

(

.

IV ,

,

of

in

ed .

V , to ,

),

(O

(

of

,

; a

), .p

,

(

is

,

of

,

e le

).

La

suggested Speroni's biographer Francesco Cammarosano The date 1563–64 opere Sperone Speroni Empoli vita 1920 164 letter 1581 from Speroni pere 1740 Felice Paciotto dated 1581 states that the discourses are still incomplete 280–81 The Discorsi were first published the Venice 1740 419-579

POETIC

TILEORY

Hence it is that the poem must consist of one single action , as Aristotle said , not only because any imitation must imitate one single thing just as any science concerns one subject , but also because if a poem consists essentially in redundant ord and superfluous ornament , if a poet were to undertake to imitate poetically than one action , the poem in order to be complete would grow to infinite size.23

for Vergil, Speroni concludes that

As

Vergil did not possess the poetic



art ; because with respect to invention , in which the art consists , he does

not poetry

is

it

.

an

.

in in

of

: "

even

of ,

by

or

of

in

verse

the art

the restrictions which

it

in

its

,

be be

historians

the sweetness

But

confirmation That poetry figurative modes speech

,

in

orators

or

by

of

is

;

it

which are not used grammar seen

cited

seen

of by

ornament Another passage may ornament may

consists entirely

elocution

places the whole essence in

, we is

,

.

exclusively

have seen

.

in

as

,

Vergil's merit therefore absolute merit Speroni

in

all

not dare to break away from Homer ; for just as the art of oratory resides in invention , so does that of poetry . "24 Without Homer , he says , Vergil plot and disposition would have been nothing at



to

if

no

he he

,

in

of ,

on

a

he

in

.

is

,

:

is

. "

for brevity cannot ornate and consequently not pleasur The comparison between the two poets concluded thus be

26

;

reader able

of to

,



."



, in in



25

premium place This leads him two qualities ornate floridity ness and both which finds Homer both which are Vergil Vergil's error lies lacking the fact that was concerned with brevity delight delight the which the poet should take wishes imposes

,

.

of

of

,

;

so

of

.

,

IV ,

to ,

is

of

to is

23

is

he

does with much brevity and precision and without affectation But from the delightfulness Homer born joyfulness and gaiety from that Vergil born astonishment and melancholy which not proper the poet but the historian.27 rather as

speaking

in

he

,

I

to

of

Vergil and the floridity speak again return the brevity Homer The pleasantly ornamenting and amplifying his subjects latter delights properly always abounds epithets but Vergil delights through the marvelous whence

,

,

,

è

nella invenzione

così

è la

,

.

on .p

is

:

, sia e

.

a

il

di

che come l'arte oratoria

in

."

da

,

. ., ” .p

e

è

,

di

;

a

in

Omero

: "

., .p

24

consiste non osa scostarsi 99 poetica 25

di

di

: "

,

un

,

di

,

(

In

Opere 1740) qui nasce che'l poema dee essere 438–39 una azione sola come disse Aristotile non solo perchè una imitazione debba essere una cosa sola imitata soggetto una scienzia ma anche perchè se'l poema come ornamento redundante superfluo se'l poeta togliesse poema imitar più una azione poeticamente volere repeated esser perfetto cresceria infinito The argument 534 Virgilio però quanto all'invenzione ove l'arte Ibid 571 L'arte poetica non era

di

: si

la

li

, si

."

se

,

è

il

de '

, e

la

,

di

si

."

Fu

: “

;

i

26

., , .p

li

, e

: "

la

poesia Ibid 534 Che tutta ornamento vede per suoi modi figurati dire non usati dalli oratori dalli istorici dall'arte istessa della gramatica vede per soavità suoi obblighi del verso per poeta Ibid 438 studioso brevità della quale non dilettare vuol per conseguente non dilettar lettori perchè brevità non può essere ornata dilettevole .

;

ed

,

è

di

: il

)

(

170

di

, e

;

le

,

la

,

e

fa ,

." di

, e

di

ed

: “

., .p

,

:

di

da

dell'istorico

a

27

Virgilio parlar della brevità 439 Torna foridità Omero Costui amplificando gentilmente diletta ornando cose sue onde sempre abbonde epiteti ma Virgilio diletta con meraviglia parlando con tanta brevità cosi assegnata mente come senza affettazione ma dalla dilettazion Omero nasce allegria ilarità Virgilio nasce stupore quella proprio del poeta ma anzi melanconia che non Ibid propriamente

ARS POETICA

:

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM

So that whereas Vergil may be praised for his brevity and his diction for certain rhetorical effects , these are not qualities which necessarily make of him a great poet. He is likened , indeed , to the “ Asiatic " poets whose decoration is not appropriate to their subject matter . From this process of applying a method of invention , disposition , and elocution there results a fairly consistent poetic. The plot , from invention , must be single and simple ( but not too brief ) so that a proper amount

ornamentation may be added

of

The diction must be ornate , but not too much so , lest it be in excess of what is demanded by the materials . If the poet strikes a proper balance between invention and elocution , as Homer did , then he is a great poet and worthy of the highest praise; if he fails in .

of these aspects , much as he may be admired for other qualities , he ranks as an inferior poet , as Vergil did . Speroni's insistence upon ornament , upon the florid style , shows that his total approach is rhetorical in con tripartite division ception elements well diction

,

.

of

its

his

in

is

near Naples

,

Lucullo

the

the work

we find nothing but the most fulsome praise

,

(

.

of

)

by of

,

villa

,

Caracciolo's

discourses

Vergil's work The interlocutors they include Scipione Cambi Girolamo Colonna Giovanni Villani Gian and other members the Accademia Napoletana talk

Alfonso

Pietro Ciccarello

the five dialogues contained

,

,

every aspect

Ammirato

set )

called after Colantonio

where the dialogues are

Maranta's

For Maranta's position at

,

Speroni's and

Maranta

.

reply

in to we

1564

that Speroni knew Bartolomeo might almost think that

,

so

(

exact opposite

of

on

Lucullianae quaestiones Vergil were written

for

in

as

)

(

any evidence

had

),

we

1564

in (

If

MARANTA

as

of

its

either

is

of

,

to

.

of

,

of

of

Vergil's studied assortments about the beauties produced sounds about the appropriateness certain sounds certain ideas about onomatopoeia Their second major concern effects with figures most

;

,

all

.

as

or

figures

sounds

.

.

,

,

,

in

is

of

of

uses

;

of

on

to

an

is

in

of

general Girolamo Colonna's original and the use words proposal defend Vergil the basis his diction For these matters presented elaborate theory the conversations develop the classical authority especially Cicero Hermogenes rhetoricians are cited and Dionysius Halicarnassus Other classical writers are quoted for parallel speech

so

to to

of

At

.

by

is

to

-

of

,

, ,

of

of

a

is

the five dialogues however

of

In

paid some attention theoreti develop broader import since Maranta apparently wishes though complete theory epic generalized the even much the Vergil material never applied specifically least some the conclu presented are reached comparing the epic with tragedy and sions each

cal matters

,

is

of

as a

171

)

(

times

,

.

upon the comparison between the poet and the orator

At

.

is

in

.

,

comedy and result the theoretical scope the Quaestiones consider ably widened Aristotle and Horace are the main authorities here with large part Plato being used incidentally The theory evolved based Maranta

POETIC

THEORY

states the comparison explicitly , as in Book V : “ We are

not now comparing

oratorical matters with poetic ones ; but observing certain rules in the former , as in the very fountainhead , we then apply them to poetic matters , with due respect to the differences . ” 28 But more usually it is implicit in statements

exclusively about poetics, as in this sentence praising

made

his

Vergil :

he



if

less





as -

all

res verba

such

would

.

a

the

he

as

in we to

,

,

,

all

be

verbs describing the effect upon the audience

,

of

wholly faulty and

praise for the style are distinction the general terms properly belong conventional rhetorical estimate

The poet

ever you

diction.29

of

of

The string

and how also without adapts things that

would

to

,

or

,

or

,

to

expression

both matter and form change add remove anything shall address myself the discussion

I

;

were perfect

content and

it he

neglecting brevity

to

to to

with respect both

so ;

,

he

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

of

;



he

Indeed , to say nothing about the vehemence and the greatness that we see in and how variedly and always wherever wishes draws away men inflames calms teaches impels excites diverts discourages them and how distinctly and clearly and abundantly and luminously writes sententiae the souls

.

to

,

,

.

or

the things which are common

he

as

: “

of of

...

,

both

have

30

achieve the goal

,

Furthermore although this most .”

to

order

of

the same devices

in in

.

,

must thus

them

,

to of

is

as

in

to

to as

... Each recourse

his

in

is

,

III

,

like the orator the ends seeks Maranta principal goal Book also The poet proposes arouse the different passions the soul and whichever ones wishes generate them and the souls those who listen read Therefore far this concerned the poet and the orator are very close together have seen

insists upon this

to

is

,

.

of

to

, is

as

,

Nos nunc non conferimus proprio fonte proportione seruata

364

,

: “

in

."

ad

"

,

of

1564 quasi

,

in

oratoria poeticis sed regulas illis obseruantes res poeticas deinde accommodamus :

to

is

quaestionum libri quinque

Lucullianarum

is



:

it

;

.” 31

delectare

these statements

), .p



and

...

pro the ends the familiar notably are absent Maranta here elsewhere

From

(

28

desse

can “

source

"

he

of

,

to

to

the poet shares with the orator the end admiration properly attributed the epic poet the marvelous more proper the epic than tragedy but nevertheless belongs poems both kinds Among the principal aims arouse admiration from whatever the poet

ac

,

,

,

."

ad

:

,

his

&

ac

,

&

:

:

,

,

&

ut

,

in

& ,

,

sit

., & , .p

,

,

&

,

,

&

,

,

,

&

ac

uideamus

ut

15 : “

., .p

29

magni quantam Nam omittam eius sententijs uehementiam quàm uariè semper quocunque uult animos hominum distrahat quàm distinctè explicatė incendat leniat doceat impellat concitet reflectat deterreat quoque breuitatis haud abundanter illuminatè rebus uerbis scribat cum quicquid aut addideris aut mutaueris aut detraxeris immemor ita res omnes temperet uitiosius deterius omnino futurum orationem meipsum conuertam Ibid

tudinem

&

in . re . . .

,

,

ut

...

." .

ut

,

& in

,

se

,

: “

88 : “ ut

, ., ad ad p .

31

,

30

quas uult affectiones Ibid 179 Poeta precipuum scopum sibi proponit uarias Igitur uel audiunt uel legunt animis eorum qui animi concitet atque generet communi quantum Debet igitur Poeta maximè conueniunt hoc attinet Orator scopum attingant utrisque eadem uterque confugere

)

(

172

:

ut

est ,

...

.”

.

,

Ibid admirabilitas magis Epopoeiae conueniat quàm Tragoediae tametsi admirationem utriusque poematis propria est Inter praecipuos poetae scopos illud undique pariat

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

closer to the rhetoricians themselves than to Horace . For similar ends , similar means . The poet will have to pay particular attention to the “ propo " of his poem , which must be simple and unornate and must stand proper relationship to the plot , just as the orator will use poetic diction in in his exordium ( p . 179 ) . Both must study the proper handling of “

he

res ”

sition

,

"



),



,

:

is

It

he

.

he

in

of

of

,

he is

,

;

of

of

,

in

of

an

in

,

. ”

;

but the words can exist without sententiae primarily interested and these indeed which sacrifices the other parts favor abundant discussion the multiple aspects words any given poem works within the frame Like the orator again the poet work one the three styles chooses the proper style for the genre is

without words

,

that

32

.

"

"

in

res "

"

(

.”

verba

of



may have Maranta equates two rhetorical elements and qualitative parts mind two Aristotle's sententiae and oratio with and verba respectively The words produce the diction and the things themselves the sententiae The latter cannot exist without language

and

,

.

,

of

,

to

96 ).

,

is

we

to

plots proper

as

,

to to

,

in

is

of

germane

in

an

specifically the work however which truth and verisimilitude and the the poet and that relates

one lengthy discussion

to

There

(p .

to

,

,

,

as

a

(

V )

Finally one and then the proper words and figures for that style Book may analyze poet's work one does orator's terms invention disposition and elocution and Maranta does not fail pay passing Vergil's invention and disposition tribute

,

to

to .

is

.

of

to

be

here that

a

is

.

between the marvelous and the verisimilar

It

a

;

,

be

,

of ,



,

of

33

."

is

At by

is

,

of

of

tragedy Maranta assumes the epic and that one the ends the poet stir the reader admira tion and that this done through the use the marvelous The marvelous produced actions which are unheard new and completely unex pected the same time however the poet must sure never tax the credulity his audience delicate balance must maintained

kinds

have seen

difference

arises

it is

by

,

is

be

by

be

by

.

as

between tragedy and the epic For the reader will accept certain things rejected credible which will the spectator and the spectator will sometimes more deeply moved what narrated than what

no

is

in

,

be

,

is

it



in

." 34

of

in

attaches

to

.

,

Therefore certain that the marvelous especially when represented those things which cannot really happen cannot simple discourse where there repre the same way drama and sentation actions The epic poet may thus cultivate the extraordinary enacted



to

Hae sine oratione

."

.”

.

,

35 )

,

,

of

,

: “

, : & at

91 89 : : “ "

90 : "

ac

, ., ., .p .p

., .p

,

34 33 35

.,

Ibid 17–18 Verba orationem conflant res ipsae sententias hoc est sine uerbis esse non possunt uerba sine sententijs possunt praeter expectationem Ibid inaudita noua

,

.pp

32

of

(“

to

,

and incredible more freely than the tragic poet and the latter must take relegate certain violent actions care death itself massacres the cook ing and eating human flesh and others this kind narrative

est

:

in

)

(

173

id

&

,

,

,

."

,

. "

,

in

,

praesertim uerò earum rerum quae fieri Constat igitur admirabilitatem non aequè posse dramatibus effingi atque sermone nudo ubi nulla actionum repraesentatio Ibid Mors ipsa trucidatio membrorum humanorum coctio comestio genus caetera Ibid nequeunt

POETIC

THEORY

of

the explanation



viri

of of

,

be

a

is

of

vulgus

It

the

."

selectissimi

credibility and verisimilitude actions and through whose ears

this audience that sets the standards whose eyes will believe limited number the proper emotions

"

as

be

,

in

,

is

being made defined this connection whose judgment would more discerning than that

"

.

ideas about the nature the rhetorical theories The audience

up

to

involves certain audience which bring the analysis close

of

--but

of

an

is

scaenis aut acta refertur

of

Aut agitur res

in

% .

,

all

,

his

passages ; in these , however , the “ imitative " actions of the messenger or gestures and pronunciation may considerably enhance other narrator , expansion and explanation the emotional effect Clearly this Horace's line 179

.

in

all

in

;

,

e

treatise

all ,

mutamenti at

discorso sopra

really not

of

).

(

con

This

1564

of

of

dell'Ariosto

a

,

eleganti della volgar lingua

diuersi ornamenti

with Ariosto Dolce's Modi affigurati

Lodovico

a

presented

the same principles is un

by

,

is

studied

et

the poet

of

.

to

of

an

of

to

a

, it be

.

,

,

of

the trilogy

to the of

in

of

is

of

is

as

application

even more restricted

voci scelte

In all

,

,

.

to

theory the direction found left without application just such expansion that leads poet name

An

poetic worth and Maranta whatever more complete poetics may Vergil itself Speroni text Vergil's right the denial the

the diction but refused

the other two elements

expansion

e

.

as a its

so

,

general way the merit

quality

of

in to a

of

of

he

,

tragedy may aroused and purged On the whole then Maranta's position remains rhetorical one The Vergil which object the various praise generously bestows has Vergil's diction although compliments are offered passing excellences Speroni also admitted his invention and disposition Curiously enough

"

.

,



he

to

in

be

to

I



in

his

by

, “

A

as

of

"

" )

(“

a

examples but collection selected and elegant words and meta phors modi affigurati cited demonstrations Ariosto's artistry The only theoretical statements appear the preface Lettori where Everybody who wishes compositions Dolce says read willingly judicious and learned men must without fail try write and praised

,



,

,

of

of

,

of

di

i

,

."

&

e

,

,

Ciascuno che disidera che suoi componimenti siano huomini giudiciosi dotti dee senza fallo procacciar scriuer figuratamente artificiosamente 174

)

(

,

e

uolentieri letti lodati regolctamente ornatamente ,

comedy Lodovico Castelvetro's Giuditio delle

), gli .p 1 : “

1564 da

Modi affigurati

(

36

may add two discussions

we

36

.

as

in

.

of

a

,

insists regulated and where ornate figurative and artful manner following the rules He admits that both ornate and upon the necessity figurative writing find their rules rhetoric and cites Bartolomeo Caval providing examples and sugges canti's Retorica and the Modi affigurati tions practical criticism the epic and the romance To these specimens

ARS POETICA

all

in

,

the true and the verisimilar

and

.

of

cases these terms refer

to to

is or

on

of of

.

of

present

his Parere sopra ciascuna comedia di Plauto . 37 , and I have assigned them arbitrarily to 1565 specific words scattered remarks lines Terence Castelvetro's main concern with the He reproaches Terence with having neglected ca.

and

Both of these are undated The Giuditio consists the various comedies problem verisimilitude

CRITICISM

.

di Terentio

comedie

PRACTICAL

:





in

,

,

is

it

38

to

he



as

to

in

,

to

"

is

his

,

.

it is

natural rather than artistic probability For example not verisimile that Pamphilus the Andria should walk from the forum house complete silence and then begin approaches the house shout acceptable since nor the line Ex ara hinc sume verbenas not common find on the public streets altars covered with sacred boughs

of

;

in

-

"

of

.

in ,

set

to

guides

to up

art

-

of

these remarks

and the strict rules

as is

or to

in

as

as

all

The tendency ,

,

nature

).

decorum

( .p

174

three criteria

of

of

spendthrift soldiers -

;

to



at

;

be

,

a

to in is

be

or

or

need

persons

;

committing sconvenevolezze assigning them actions not appropriate situations speeches narrating briefly what should length and vice versa Rarely told proper solution applauded for the his introduction Terence parasite comedy only the Eunuch such persons may used com good family whose fathers are far away panions vain and sons

of

prior explanation

by

to no

,

be

:

to

,

I

be ,

).

.

(p

presume sins against nature the remainder 170 These would Castelvetro's strictures apply sins against art telling the story the completely self contained and have prologue since the comedy should

.

the practicing poet

of ex



.

9 ) ;

:

(p

8 to is );

(p .

.

an

in

much the same

by

is

the Parere concerning the comedies implication Plautus More rules are added actor must not address the audience the stage must not remain empty the deus

The situation

p