A Constraints-Led Approach to Swim Coaching 0367724790, 9780367724795

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A CONSTRAINTS-LED APPROACH TO SWIM COACHING

Motor skill acquisition and athlete development practices are rapidly evolving. Positioned at the forefront of this evolution, the constraints-led approach encourages practitioners to consider the athlete as a whole person, with unique traits, abilities, and capacities. Accordingly, an athlete’s competitive success lies in the practitioner’s ability to adapt their programming to the unique needs of each athlete and to develop an understanding of the athlete-environment relationship. A Constraints-Led Approach to Swim Coaching applies contemporary motor skill acquisition and athlete development practices to swimming. This book encourages coaches to reconsider how they approach skill development in a sport that requires considerable physical training and highly efficiency movement. It presents a framework for identifying the various constraints that determine the ability to perform at a high level. It then offers coaches practical examples to navigate the manipulation of constraints to support the development of physical capacities and the ability to effectively utilize those capacities through efficient movement. These frameworks are broadly inclusive to the global sports programming market. This book is written through a “conversive” voice and is accessible to a broad audience interested in athlete development and programming such as coaches, sport scientists, support staff, athletes, and parents. At the same time, academics and students in the areas of sport coaching, biomechanics, motor skill acquisition, strength and conditioning, and related disciplines will find interest in the insights provided from this underrepresented niche in sports. Andrew Sheaff served as an assistant swimming coach at the University of Virginia for 6 years. In his time at UVA, he helped the team achieve multiple national team championships and multiple individual champions, as well as break multiple NCAA and American records. Internationally, team members have represented the United States, winning Olympic and World Championship medals. Sheaff has also made coaching stops at Northwestern University, Bucknell University, and the ­University of  Maryland, working with championship winning athletes at the conference, NCAA, and international level. Originally from Philadelphia, PA, Sheaff swam collegiately at the University of Pittsburgh, where he was a senior athlete of distinction.

Routledge Studies in Constraints-Based Methodologies in Sport Series Editors: Ian Renshaw, Queensland University of  Technology, Australia Keith Davids, Sheffield Hallam University, UK Daniel Newcombe, Oxford Brookes University, UK Will Roberts, University of Waikato, New Zealand

A constraints-led framework has informed the way that many sport scientists seek to understand performance, learning design and development of expertise and talent in sport, but its translation from theory to everyday coaching practice has proven challenging. Routledge Studies in Constraints-Based Methodologies in Sport provides practitioners and academics with material relating to the full breadth of the application of a constraints-based methodology in sport in order to bridge this gap. Introduced by a foundational text which sets out a practical design framework, and including concise books on sport-specific studies written by expert coaches, the series includes content on motor learning, skill acquisition and talent development for undergraduate and postgraduate students, and specialist knowledge on different constraints-led models for coaches, physical education teachers, sport scientists, and performance analysts. The series provides the most comprehensive, theoretically sound and practically relevant guide to understanding and implementing constraints-led approaches to skill acquisition and talent development. A Constraints-Led Approach to Baseball Coaching Rob Gray and Randy Sullivan A Constraints-Led Approach to Swim Coaching Andrew Sheaff

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/ sport/book-series/RSCBMS

A CONSTRAINTS-LED APPROACH TO SWIM COACHING

Andrew Sheaff

Designed cover image: Stephen Frink / Getty Images First published 2024 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 Andrew Sheaff The right of Andrew Sheaff to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. ISBN: 978-0-367-72479-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-72478-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-15494-5 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945 Typeset in Bembo by codeMantra

CONTENTS

List of Figures vii Foreword xii Acknowledgments xiv 1 Introduction—Searching the Landscape for a New Way

1

SECTION 1

Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

13

2 Task Design

15

3 Advanced Set Construction—Adding Constraints to Influence Skill

30

4 The Role of Language

47

SECTION 2

Manipulating Individual Constraints

65

5 Manipulating Physiology for Technical Development

68

6 Training Aids—Theoretical Considerations

92

7 Training Aids—Practical Applications

106

vi Contents

SECTION 3

Coaching Principles for Effecting Change

135

8 Theoretical Principles for Skill Adaptation

136

9 Principles for Skilled Swimming

155

10 A Systematic Approach to Change

165

11 Strategies for Increasing Variability in Practice

179

12 Solving Complex Movement Problems with Constraints

205

SECTION 4

Constraints in Action: Practical Examples for Coaching

223

13 Freestyle

225

14 Backstroke

243

15 Breaststroke

258

16 Butterfly

280

17 Underwater Kicking

294

18 Final Thoughts

309

Index 311

FIGURES

1.1 Physical size as a constraint 2.1 Individual and task constraint interactions 2.2 Progressively increasing repetition distance while maintaining constant velocity 2.3 Progressively reducing the recovery interval while maintaining constant velocity 2.4 Progressively increasing the total volume while maintaining constant velocity 3.1 Improving aerobic efficiency 3.2 Sustaining stroke length 3.3 Length at speed 3.4 External metronomes and stroke frequency 3.5 Improving effective stroke frequency at maximal velocity 3.6 Sustaining stroke frequency 3.7 Improving stroke length 3.8 Underwater dolphin kicking—endurance and repetition focus 3.9 Underwater dolphin kicking—race focus 3.10 Stroke length and velocity-descending efforts 3.11 Improving technical efficiency at pace 4.1 Language as a constraint on action 4.2 Communication and creating change S2.1 Individual constraints found in swimming S2.2 Understanding individual constraints in practice 5.1 Aquatic, leg-focused localized fatigue—kicking and speed endurance 5.2 Terrestrial, leg-focused localized fatigue—jump squats and speed endurance 5.3 Terrestrial, arm-focused localized fatigue—butterfly

10 18 26 27 27 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 40 41 43 44 52 57 66 67 73 74 75

viii Figures



5.4 Systemic fatigue—distance freestyle 5.5 Aquatic, arm-focused muscular fatigue—breaststroke 5.6 Terrestrial, arm-focused muscular fatigue—breaststroke 5.7 Aquatic cardio-respiratory fatigue—butterfly 5.8 Terrestrial cardio-respiratory fatigue—butterfly 5.9 Terrestrial-based global potentiation—pull-ups or deadlifts 5.10 Terrestrial local potentiation—breaststroke 5.11 Terrestrial local potentiation—butterfly 5.12 Aquatic global potentiation—distance freestyle 5.13 Aquatic global potentiation—middle distance 5.14 Aquatic global potentiation—sprint 5.15 Aquatic local potentiation—middle distance freestyle 5.16 Aquatic local potentiation—breaststroke kicking 5.17 Aquatic local potentiation—underwater kicking and backstroke 6.1 Anatomy, floating signatures, and event specialization 7.1 Maximizing propulsion—stroke count and resistance 7.2 Maximizing propulsion—middle distance freestyle 7.3 Maximizing propulsion—speed and resistance 7.4 Maximizing propulsion—backstroke 7.5 Minimizing drag—butterfly 7.6 Minimizing drag—breaststroke 7.7 Altering center of mass—aerobic freestyle 7.8 Altering center of mass—underwater kicking 7.9 Tools for adding mass 7.10 Altering limb mass and torque—backstroke 7.11 Altering limb mass and torque—freestyle 7.12 Altering limb mass and torque—breaststroke speed 7.13 Altering limb mass and torque—breaststroke endurance 7.14 Altering limb mass and torque—underwater kicking 7.15 Altering limb mass and torque-training progression over ten weeks 7.16 Twelve-week progression of altering limb mass and torque to develop backstroke “shoulder drive” 7.17 Reduced propulsive surface area of the hand 7.18 Increased propulsive surface area of the hand 7.19 Propulsive surfaces manipulations 7.20 Altering propulsive surface area—endurance freestyle 7.21 Altering propulsive surface area—middle distance freestyle 7.22 Altering propulsive surface area—breaststroke kicking 7.23 Altering propulsive surface area—underwater kicking 8.1 Representative learning dial 8.2 The influence of task design on breaststroke kicking 8.3 A paddle as a physical constraint 8.4 Molding instructional constraints 9.1 Effective propulsive positions

76 77 78 79 80 83 84 85 86 87 87 88 89 90 95 108 109 110 111 112 113 115 116 117 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 127 128 130 131 132 139 140 143 153 159

Figures  ix

10.1 Case study #l destabilization sets 10.2 Case study #l redirection sets 10.3 Case study #l stabilization sets 10.4 Breathing action in breaststroke 10.5 Case study #2 destabilization sets 10.6 Case study #2 redirection sets 10.7 Case study #2 stabilization sets 11.1 Optimizing training targets 11.2 Weekly plan—aerobic endurance focus 11.3 Weekly plan—race specific endurance focus 11.4 Weekly plan—speed focus 11.5 Manipulating variability across a training cycle 11.6 Short course swimming and underwater kicking 11.7 Long course—sustaining stroke length 11.8 Short course—repeating pace 11.9 Short course—repeating stroke rates 11.10 Long course-sustaining swimming velocity 11.11 Long course—sustaining stroke rate 11.12 “Super” short course—turns 11.13 “Super” short course—starts 11.14 Combined progression for sustaining velocity 12.1 Moving and changing the direction of water 12.2 Hand position and sensory information 12.3 Improving the feel for the water—altered propulsive surface area 12.4 Improving the feel for the water—speed 12.5 Improving the feel for the water—sculling and resistance cord 12.6 Improving the feel for the water—pulling and stroke count 12.7 Improving the feel for the water—backstroke 13.1 Breathing and alternating arms actions 13.2 Improving the arm pull—stroke count, altered propulsive surface area, and endurance 13.3 Improving the arm pull—stroke count, altered propulsive surface area, and speed 13.4 Breathing technique and alignment in freestyle 13.5 Improving the kicking action while swimming 13.6 Improving alignment during the breath 13.7 Improving horizontal alignment of the body 13.8 Improving the timing of the rotation—stroke count and descending speed 13.9 Improving the timing of the rotation—resistance and speed 13.10 Freestyle—analogy versus internal cues 13.11 Freestyle—positive versus negative cues 13.12 Freestyle—external versus internal cues 14.1 Backstroke swimming and constraints

170 172 173 174 175 176 177 186 187 188 189 191 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 211 212 217 218 218 219 220 226 229 230 231 232 233 234 236 238 239 240 241 244

x Figures

14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5

Improving the arm pull—stroke count, speed, and resistance 247 Improving the arm pull—band, stroke count, and descending speed 248 Alignment and spinal stability in backstroke 249 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—resisted kicking and endurance 250 14.6 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—resisted kicking and speed 251 14.7 Improving timing of the arm action and the rotation of the body—speed and skill 253 14.8 Improving timing of the arm action and the rotation of the body—endurance and skill 254 14.9 Backstroke—analogy versus internal cues 255 14.10 Backstroke—positive versus negative cues 256 14.11 Backstroke—external versus internal cues 256 15.1 Breaststroke and the constraint of limb recovery 259 15.2 Improving the arm pull—stroke count, resistance, and propulsive surface area 262 15.3 Improving the arm pull—stroke count and descending efforts 263 15.4 Improving the leg kick—vertical kicking and speed 264 15.5 Improving the leg kick—kick count and descending efforts 265 15.6 Breathing action and alignment in breaststroke 266 15.7 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—weight belt and altered kicking style 267 15.8 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—fins and drag minimization 268 15.9 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—weight belt and altered breathing patterns 269 15.10 Improving the timing of breaststroke 271 15.11 Improving the pullout—parachute and propulsive surface area 272 15.12 Improving the pullout—consecutive pullouts 273 15.13 Improving the pullout—short cord pullouts 274 15.14 Improving the pullout—parachute and stroke count 275 15.15 Breaststroke—analogy versus internal cues 276 15.16 Breaststroke—positive versus negative cues 277 15.17 Breaststroke—external versus internal cues 278 16.1 Butterfly and the constraint of simultaneous limb actions 281 16.2 Improving the arm pull—stroke count and speed 284 16.3 Improving the arm pull—resistance and speed 285 16.4 Breathing and alignment in butterfly 286 16.5 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—modified breathing patterns 287 16.6 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—butterfly with flutter kick 288 16.7 Improving the timing of the arms and the legs—speed 290

Figures  xi

16.8 Improving the timing of the arms and the legs—endurance 290 16.9 Butterfly—analogy versus internal cues 291 16.10 Butterfly—positive versus negative cues 292 16.11 Butterfly—external versus internal cues 293 17.1 The constraint of underwater travel 296 17.2 Maintaining a stable platform—wall kicking and freestyle 298 17.3 Maintaining a stable platform—vertical kicking and underwater kicking 299 17.4 Creating as much propulsion as possible—DragSox and underwater kicking 300 17.5 Creating as much propulsion as possible—flipper kick and backstroke 301 17.6 Maintaining a symmetrical kick—vertical kicking and aerobic freestyle 302 17.7 Maintaining a symmetrical kick—side underwater kicking and butterfly 303 17.8 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—range of motion variation 304 17.9 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—weight belt and backstroke 305 17.10 Underwater kicking—analogy versus internal cues 306 17.11 Underwater kicking—positive versus negative cues 306 17.12 Underwater kicking—external versus internal cues 307

FOREWORD

In the 1980s, I published a book on competitive swimming titled Swimming Faster (Human Kinetics, 2003). The timing of the book’s release was fortuitous, and it was well received by the competitive swimming community. As a result, it was common for me to receive requests for advice from coaches, swimmers, and parents of competitive swimmers. One such communication that stood out from the rest came from the author of this book, Andrew Sheaff. His comments and questions were always accompanied by a knowledgeable review of the scientific literature and his present understanding of the complexity of the topics he wanted to discuss. I was so impressed by his knowledge that during our first conversation, I was compelled to ask about his background. I learned that he was a former competitive swimmer and honors student from the University of Pittsburgh who had served as an assistant with some of the top swimming programs in the NCAA. At the time of our first conversation, he was working at Northwestern University and has since moved on to the University of Virginia where he has contributed to their rapid rise to the top of women’s NCAA swimming programs as well as a top ten ranking in the men’s program. I consider Andrew one of the most knowledgeable and well-read young coaches in the United States, and I was deeply honored when he asked me to write the forward for this book. He has tackled one of the most complex issues in sport, how do we effectively improve the skills of experienced and already successful athletes. In this book, he has provided the reader with the latest and most valuable information on this subject. He has done so in a thorough and comprehensible manner. This book is full of practical suggestions on how to construct and implement training sets to improve swimming efficiency while also increasing aerobic, anaerobic endurance, strength, and power.

Foreword  xiii

My favorite chapters are Chapters 6 and 7 where Andrew discusses when and how to use training aids to improve both physiological functions and competitive swimming efficiency. His approach to this topic is unique, and readers will gain a much broader understanding concerning the effective use of training aids for this purpose than they had before reading these chapters. Other gems are found in Chapter 8. He begins by describing one of the most difficult and yet rewarding aspects of coaching, correcting stroke techniques. He begins by indicating what most coaches already know, that it is very difficult to do so because many of the common drills used to improve swimming mechanics are not effective because they fail to include the elements of rhythm and timing. For example, breaststroke kicking with a board is really a “drill” that improves physiological capacity without necessarily improving the mechanics of the kick. He suggests swimming breaststroke with two kicks following each pull as a better way to improve kicking endurance and teach swimmers to integrate the kick with the arm stroke because of the greater similarity to actual breaststroke swimming. He then goes on to describe a unique approach he has developed for training both the endurance of the kick while also encouraging transfer to actual breaststroke swimming. To quote Andrew, “…with this approach coupled with effective coaching that focused on each swimmer’s perceptual experience, it became possible to consistently shape skills.” He also cites the importance of variability in training as an important teaching tool because it enhances learning by allowing swimmers to practice variations of the “ideal” movement in order to find what works best for them. For example, swimming with variations in hand position and arm path is recommended to improve sensory awareness or what works and what doesn’t for each individual swimmer. Chapter 12 is one of the most important chapters in this book. In it, Andrew presents an approach to coaching “feel for the water,” something that can’t be taught but, as he states, “can be learned.” Using the principle of variability, he recommends training at different velocities, using paddles, swim fins, and exaggerations of proper mechanics to “find” better ways to improve propulsion intuitively. Drills for improving techniques in the four competitive strokes are found in Chapters 13–17. The drills he describes are not the common one used by most of us. They are unique and well worth including in your training program because they encourage athletes to learn the most important aspects of each stroke intuitively with a minimum of instruction. This is in keeping with his goal for writing this book. He believes the skills athletes learn intuitively will more readily transfer to competition, which is what we all seek. Get ready for an interesting and exciting read. Ernest W. Maglischo Ph.D., Retired swim coach and author of the Swimming Fastest series of textbooks, Prescott, AZ, September 2022.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my parents, Ken Sheaff and Liz Young, for providing me with the freedom to pursue my interests, and the support to make it happen. I would like to thank everyone who has ever taken the time to answer my questions.

1 INTRODUCTION—SEARCHING THE LANDSCAPE FOR A NEW WAY

Once a swimmer has become a senior competitor, there’s not much you can do to change their stroke.

The rejection of this idea is the central premise of this book. Unfortunately, this saying represents a commonly held belief in the culture of swimming coaching. While some coaches will openly support this claim, many others will implicitly support this belief through the training practices they implement, which place little to no emphasis on modifying skills or adapting to new ones. My own experiences tell me the premise is incorrect as I am aware of at least one postadolescent swimmer who has made significant improvements in performance through skill adaptation, independent of changes in fitness. You might argue that one example doesn’t provide very strong evidence. However, for me, it is not the exception that proves the rule; it is that the exception proves the rule is not true. If these performance improvements can occur in one individual, they can occur in others. The question then becomes, how? With the conviction that improvement was possible, I set out to learn how to help swimmers adapt their skills. This journey has its roots in my own frustrations as an athlete, a deep curiosity coupled with a need to solve problems through understanding, and a desire to help individuals discover what is possible. With the belief that technical change is central to improved performance, I became determined to discover how to help any swimmer learn any skill in any context. Through anecdotal evidence from coaches across many sports, lessons from effective teachers in education, research into motor learning theory, and constant reflection on my own practice, I began to synthesize an approach that complemented my natural style.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-1

2  Searching the Landscape for a New Way

This chapter will explore that journey from its humblest beginnings to my current thought processes about skill adaptation. Importantly, it will outline how I conceptualize the skill adaptation process, the theoretical frameworks that served to inspire many of my practices, as well as the practices themselves. It will not only describe the strategies I employ, but how and why I do so. The hope is that it affords the reader the opportunity to understand the thought process behind each idea, enabling them to appropriately apply any idea to their own context. If this text is successful, the reader will be able to adapt this information and carry it forward in their own coaching practice. While this text is not necessarily directed toward senior-level swimmers, some of these ideas may especially apply to this group as the challenge of adapting new skills is so great for these individuals. At the same time, novice swimmers can and will benefit from the application of these same strategies. But first, I’d like to explore the key experiences and insights that have led me to my current approach. They are many and varied.

1.1  Growing Frustration Very early in my coaching career, I became convinced of the importance of technique. One of my early influences was a research study which compared the degree to which velocity could be improved through equivalent improvements in swimming economy and metabolic power. Based on the physics of energy production and fluid dynamics, improvement in swimming economy clearly yielded the greatest improvements in performance (Capelli 1999). It wasn’t even close. This information, summarizing my own experiences and observations in the sport, set me on the path toward helping swimmers achieve skilled performances. I was convinced that swimmers able to race with superior skills would ultimately be the most successful. With this orientation, I sought to understand what technical models were most successful, as well as what strategies were most effective to teach them. I investigated what the world’s best swimmers were doing and sought to apply these lessons to the swimmers I coached. In addition, I sought the technical drills and coaching strategies world leaders in coaching were using to teach their swimmers these skills. Clearly, my orientation was directed toward my role in the process, as opposed to the swimmers’. My focus was on what I could teach instead of what each swimmer could learn. In retrospect, I was embracing a coach-centered pedagogical approach, rather than adopting an athlete-centered perspective. Rather than focusing on what each athlete needed to be successful, I was focused on the information and the tools I could provide to them. As I eagerly set down this path with answers and enthusiasm, I began the process of changing swimmers’ skills. However, I noticed that these changes were typically not retained, especially in the absence of constant reminders. Moreover, these changes failed to transfer to competitive situations, even high-intensity efforts in training. Looking back, my early pedagogical methods lacked “far

Searching the Landscape for a New Way  3

transfer” (from practice to competition) and were not able to perturb the stability of deeply engrained movement coordination patterns. This is at the heart of skill adaptation as discussed later in this text. After making a series of observations incongruent with my current framework, I realized I had many more questions than answers.

1.2  Individual Differences Questions also began to mount when I noticed that relatively successful swimmers were executing skills in a manner that was not in accordance with the technical model I had conceived, or others espoused. When I attempted to modify these mechanics to bring them in line with the ideal movement model, the swimmer would often insist that the change would not work. While it would have been easy to conclude that their success was despite these “flaws,” I began to wonder if these individuals were successful because of these “errors.” I came to realize that each swimmer was operating within their own constraints. Some swimmers did not conform to the models because they couldn’t. They were working with a different set of tools, and that required them to find different solutions to the task of swimming fast. This individuality is a key tenet of the constraints-led approach, and one that really drew me to it. I also noticed that swimmers could achieve very similar performance levels with very different technical strategies. The same outcome was accomplished with different strategies and technical solutions. If there was a “right” way and a “wrong” way to swim, how could two swimmers get the same result with different approaches? While it is intuitively obvious that individuals with different physical characteristics will exhibit different technical skills, this issue is never explicitly addressed by idealized technical models. While certain biomechanical principles and physical laws must be respected, I began to question if models were just that, theoretical models that failed to fully represent reality. How did the role of the individual fit into skill adaptation paradigms? With the implementation of a constraints-led approach, I could begin to coach toward the underlying principles of performance in the water, letting individual athletes determine the strategies that ultimately suit them best.

1.3  How Real Is Your Practice? While pursuing coaching knowledge in other areas, I encountered the concept of transfer of training. While related to the concept of specificity, it deals with determining whether improvement in a given training activity will improve competitive performance. As a simple example, if a 50 m freestyler improves their 25 m time by 1 second, we can feel confident that their 50 m time will improve. However, if the same individual improves their 5,000 m time by 30 seconds, we have no idea if their 50 m time will improve. There is significant positive transfer in the former case and none in the latter. This concept applies to the entire

4  Searching the Landscape for a New Way

spectrum of training activities, from those aimed at physiological development to those aimed at improving skills. While every coach intuitively understands that improvement in certain tasks improves competitive performance more than others, I began to consider the concept much more directly. For improved skills to transfer to racing performance, what characteristics must they contain? Are drills sufficient? If so, what type of drills? If not, what do they lack? It has been said that every drill has a cost, meaning that there is a loss of specificity in one aspect of the stroke to allow for an emphasis in another. However, I began to wonder if some drills have a cost that you can never pay back. What type of learning does each drill really facilitate? Does this learning have anything to do with what is required during racing performance? These are the questions I began to ask. Answering them required a different framework about how learning occurs. As we will see in later sections of this book, there is a very significant difference between simplifying a task to enhance learning and reducing it to its constituent parts, which often leads to learning skills that don’t transfer to competitive situations. How can learning opportunities be designed in a way that learning occurs in a context that represents and transfers to the competitive environment?

1.4  Insurmountable Errors As I learned more and more, my list of opportunities for technical improvement continued to expand. I had countless skills that I believed swimmers would need to master to improve their swimming, each requiring time and energy for change to be realized. As I looked at my list of skills to teach with this thought in mind, I realized I was faced with an insurmountable challenge. How could I possibly teach so many skills? Rather than solve that problem, I decided to skip it. I became very interested in the idea of teaching many skills at the same time without the swimmer needing to consciously attend to these changes. I needed a way for as many skills as possible to develop, all at the same time. I had no idea how to do so. I also noticed that occasionally a swimmer would make a change after one or two repetitions and then never revert to the old pattern. Clearly, the need for an extreme number of repetitions to facilitate change was also untrue. I began to wonder what could account for this discrepancy. If retained improvement could happen so fast, clearly the organization of motor skills must derive from some process other than “programming a computer” or “building myelin.” How could these changes be occurring?

1.5  A Negative and Corrective Orientation As I continued coaching, I also became dissatisfied with the overall tone and orientation of my coaching. Providing critical feedback and correction is necessarily a negative process. The coach is typically engaged with the task of informing the swimmer what is wrong (from the coach’s perspective). While the swimmer may understand that feedback is well intentioned and ultimately beneficial for their

Searching the Landscape for a New Way  5

performance, it is still a negative interaction. I was once told by a swimmer that I “never have anything nice to say.” While she certainly wasn’t insinuating that I was mean or that the feedback I gave was ever personal, it was very clear what message the coach sends when focused on correcting errors. This orientation and framework were negatively impacting swimmer motivation and engagement. There are very few individuals who have the psychological constitution to remain immune to such feedback. Sport should be a positive experience where athletes learn what is possible, not where they are educated about their shortcomings. Likewise, athletes should learn what needs to be adapted or improved (and how), rather than being provided information on what is “wrong” or “not working.” I found myself looking for what was wrong as opposed to helping swimmers find success. Upon realizing this, I began to wonder how I could facilitate change while minimizing the use of critical feedback. How could I create change without criticism?

1.6  Coaching Fatigue and Searching for Alternatives I was at the center of the process and taking complete responsibility for each swimmer’s skill development. I was constantly providing feedback, often offering the same suggestions day after day. Coupled with the negative orientation of this process, it was exhausting, and progress was limited with these methods. My focus was on teaching skills and imparting knowledge, instead of facilitating each swimmer’s learning process. This had negative implications for everyone involved. While any commitment to excellence will necessarily coexist with a significant amount of effort, I asked myself should learning and coaching really be so exhausting and frustrating for everyone involved? With questions abound, I began searching for answers. One of my favorite aspects of education is that the more you learn, the more you realize there is much more to know, as you are continually exposed to more and more ideas. As described previously, my growing disenchantment with my current coaching practices moved me to search for alternative approaches in the attempt to answer the questions I began to formulate. At each step, new questions arose, and new ideas would appear to answer these same questions, often by happenstance. One thing I have learned is that when you continually look for answers, you eventually find them, even if in the most unexpected of locations. At several points, I was exposed to new paradigms which did not supplant, but instead expanded upon my current coaching practices. Each framework was complementary in that it added a new dimension to my coaching practice.

1.7  Constraints: A New Dawn for Me In my search for new ways of facilitating skill development, the first pedagogical framework I encountered was the constraints-led approach. This theory described how the adaptation of skills is dependent on the interaction of task,

6  Searching the Landscape for a New Way

individual, and environmental constraints. These constraints act as boundaries within which learners can search for solutions. In other words, constraints prevent swimmers from accessing certain ways of moving. For instance, a sprint swimmer with a very high percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers will be constrained during longer endurance sets, unable to optimally execute their skills or perform to the same standard as when completing shorter sets. The swimmer’s physiology constrains their movement options (i.e., successful endurance swimming), and the task itself (endurance swimming) prevents the swimmer from accessing movements options that a shorter task would not. Skilled performance emerges based upon how these different constraints interact. In the examples above, an individual athlete with a profile of muscle fibers favoring power performance also needs the constraints of an endurance training environment to result in impaired performance. If the training task was different, or the individual’s physiology was different, a different outcome would emerge as only their interaction results in the noted outcome. Because both task constraints and individual constraints determine performance, by systematically manipulating constraints, coaches can work to remove undesired movement options, thereby enhancing the probability that desired patterns will be discovered. This text will explore how to manipulate specific tasks in the context of swimming. To make these concepts more concrete, consider how a task of 10 × 200 m swims affords very different movement possibilities as compared to 10 × 25 m. When swimming 10 × 200 m, swimmers will be constrained in their ability to produce high levels of speed and stroke frequency as compared to when swimming 10 × 25 m. The body simply can’t produce energy fast enough for that amount of time, which necessarily removes movement options from swimmers. It would also be impossible to swim 10 × 200 m without breathing, whereas this could be accomplished with relative ease when swimming 10 × 25 m. The assigned task constraints the potential options for movement. Different anatomical structures allow for and encourage different ways of interacting with the water. Swimmers with long arms, very large hands, and very large feet will be able to move more water with each stroke and each kick due to the enlarged surface areas, allowing them to achieve speed through either high stroke length or high stroke frequency. Those without these advantages will be constrained to achieving these same outputs via stroke frequency alone, as they lack the same anatomical tools to move large amounts of water with each stroke. Beyond the size of the limbs, the shape of the bones and the structure of the joints impact the possibilities for movement. Breaststrokers with hip and knee ranges of motion that afford the ability to move large amounts of water backward with each leg will have different options for organizing and executing the stroke than a swimmer that does not have these ranges of motion. Many coaches are familiar with the phrase “breaststrokers are born, not made,” and those that have coached enough athletes will understand this reality.

Searching the Landscape for a New Way  7

Likewise, a 2.0 m tall swimmer faces very different constraints, and thus movement options, as compared to a 1.60 m tall swimmer. The shorter swimmer will be constrained from achieving very high stroke lengths and very high speeds over short distances. In contrast, the taller swimmer will also likely be constrained from achieving very high stroke rates, and it may be difficult for them to control and hold their body in a way that minimizes drag. Further differences exist as well. Both swimmers face different constraints, which while these constraints don’t necessarily inform about what their ultimate performance level might be, they do inform about the strategies that may need to be utilized to achieve their ultimate performance level. Finally, the environment of an open water race affords different movement opportunities when compared to a 25 m competition course race. What is important to understand is that these boundaries interact to further constrain movement possibilities. The change from a 25 m competition course to an open water race will affect the 2.0 m swimmer very differently than the 1.60 m swimmer. These ideas will be explored in further detail in upcoming chapters, and readers interested in a deeper understanding of this theoretical framework can find more information in the foundational book of this series (Renshaw et al. 2019). More detailed examples of different constraints operating in swimming will be discussed in Section 1.8. I found this framework compelling as it began to answer many of the questions that had arisen over the course of my coaching journey. It explained how different individuals could accomplish the same task with different strategies. For a given task, each swimmer was constrained differently due to their individual characteristics. Not only was it possible that swimmers would find different strategies, in fact they must do because they do not have the same physical resources to move the same way. Not only was a generalized model not ideal for some individuals, it was not even a physical possibility. Individuals solved tasks due to their own capabilities, and they will find a solution with the tools they have. My ability to effect change with each swimmer was enhanced by my ability to finally appreciate their individuality and what limits their performance. A further challenge I had experienced throughout my coaching journey was managing the disconnect between improving skilled movement and the physical training process. Traditionally, “technique work” has been performed at slow speeds in the absence of fatigue, whereas “training” has been performed at high intensity with large amounts of fatigue with little consideration to skill beyond providing swimmers with the instruction to “think about your stroke.” In the first case, these tasks are often decomposed to the point where the essence of the stroke is lost, and they are performed in environments that poorly represent competition (see Chapter 8 for more detail). In the latter case, many training tasks are so poorly constrained that a wide spectrum of movement solutions allow for the successful completion of the task, and many of these solutions have little

8  Searching the Landscape for a New Way

relevance to competitive performance. Without the proper constraints in place, swimmers may select movement solutions that allow for the completion of the training task, yet fail to enhance competitive performance. “Technique work” and “training” functioned as distinct processes, both disconnected from competitive realities, and while I was aware of the shortcomings of this disjunction, I struggled to truly integrate these two aspects of performance development. However, when implementing a constraints-led approach, it became evident that training tasks could simultaneously enhance skilled movement and development physiological systems, as they become nearly indistinguishable components of the same process. Traditional training sets could be created, then constraints could be added to each set to guide swimmers toward solutions that would be effective in competitive situations by eliminating ineffective solutions, all while developing the desired physiological adaptations. Further, the use of constraints guides learners, yet provides enough freedom for swimmers to find solutions that best aligned with their individual abilities. They can learn to meet competition-relevant task demands within the constraints of their individual dynamics. As will be evident in the sets that are provided throughout this book, each set provides swimmers with the opportunities to explore new ways of moving while also experiencing significant physiological challenge. Because task design provides the learning opportunities, it focuses athletes on new ways to move through the water, all in the context of physically demanding work.

1.8  Constraints in Swimming The remainder of this book will explore how constraints influence skilled swimming, how constraints interact to influence skilled swimming, and how coaches can manipulate constraints to influence how swimmers move through the water. This basic overview will explore the different constraints at a high level, creating a foundation to build upon for the remainder of the text. Constraints operate through the task swimmers intend to accomplish, the individual characteristics within themselves, and the environment they are working in. Constraints serve to limit solutions. If a task is assigned, there are only certain solutions that will allow for the successful completion of that task. Each swimmer is different, and they are limited in different ways in their ability to accomplish the given task. They accomplish the task within the solutions that are available to them. The environment the task is completed in will also constrain or limit the solutions that are available. The appeal of the constraints-led approach is that many of these ideas are intuitive, and constraints are easily observed by coaches. However, it’s only when these observations are organized into a comprehensive strategy for promoting change that they become truly powerful. With an understanding of how different constraints influence performance, coaches can understand how to manipulate these constraints to create change.

Searching the Landscape for a New Way  9

1.8.1  Task Constraints How a swimmer moves will be dictated by the task that the swimmer intends to complete. Swimmers’ movements will naturally self-organize around the goals they are trying to achieve. In other words, swimmers naturally select movement solutions that will allow them to accomplish their goal with as little effort as possible. As a result, when assigned different tasks, swimmers will swim differently. Consider how swimmers will choose to execute 10 × 400 m as fast as possible as compared to 10 × 25 m as fast as possible. In the latter set, swimmers will select much higher strokes rates, much higher velocities, oppositional arm timing, and they’ll likely minimize their breathing. In contrast, the former set will see swimmers swimming using slower stroke rates, slower speeds, more patient arm timing, and much higher breathing frequencies. Importantly, they make these choices instinctively. It happens naturally as performance self-organizes, meaning that swimmers tend to direct their attention toward accomplishing a goal, and solutions emerge organically. While the example above is extreme, it illustrates the point. The goal of any set will influence how swimmers will choose to perform it. As we’ll see throughout the remainder of this book, every aspect of every set will influence how a swimmer moves. Consider the following parameters and alter one of them at a time, imagining how a swimmer will choose to swim a set simply, even slightly: • • • • • • • • • •

Speed Repetition distance Volume Rest interval Stroke count Stroke frequency Breathing pattern Training aids used Surfacing requirements What you tell the swimmer to focus on

All these different task parameters will constrain how swimmers move. Each parameter limits the movement options that will allow for successful completion of the task. The more constraints that are in place, the fewer solutions available. As will be demonstrated throughout this book, by imposing task constraints, coaches can steer swimmers toward solutions that allow for faster swimming over time (Figure 1.1).

1.8.2  Individual Constraints For a given task, different swimmers will solve the task differently. An adult male sprinter will move through the water very differently than an adolescent

10  Searching the Landscape for a New Way

FIGURE 1.1 Physical

size as a constraint. Physical size, the length and shapes of the bones, is a fundamental constraint on movement, allowing for and preventing different ways of moving through the water based upon the structure each swimmer possesses. Swimmers comes in all shapes and sizes, both of which will influence how they accomplish the task of swimming as fast as possible.

female distance swimmer. This is intuitive, yet the implications are profound. Consider the incomplete list of attributes below. Now consider how a swimmer would perform a 400 m freestyle as fast as possible, while changing each of the attributes below: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Height Weight Body composition Distribution of body fat Limb length Foot size Hand size Bone density Size of the heart and lungs Strength of different muscles Range of motion of different joints Fiber type of different muscles Training history Current level of metabolic fitness Psychological factors Competitiveness

For the same task, the performance would be very different when comparing individuals at either extreme of any single variable. When you start to consider the variation that would be present when all the attributes are included, the possibilities are endless. If it’s obvious that swimmers will perform the same task

Searching the Landscape for a New Way  11

differently based upon their individual characteristics, then that observation must be integrated into coaching practice. Rather than prescribing skills based upon a model that applies to all, coaches should strive to help swimmers find individual appropriate solutions to the tasks that they are assigned. Further, we must be aware that the individual response to a standard training task will be very different. An assigned task may be in perfect alignment with one individual’s needs and completely out of alignment with another’s. By understanding the impact of individual constraints, coaches can design tasks that are better aligned with what athletes are capable of and what they need.

1.8.3  Environmental Constraints While the swimming environment is highly standardized as compared to other sports, variations that affect performance do exist. The most common environmental constraint is the competition course. As compared to long-course swimming, short-course races over the same distance will tend to have longer stroke length, higher speeds, rates, and lower measures of fatigue (Keskinen et al. 1996, 2007; Wolfrum et al. 2013). In this way, the longer pool constrains performance relative to the shorter pool, because longer periods of swimming prevent swimmers from sustaining higher speeds. The simple observation that some swimmers are more successful in short-course swimming than long-course swimming, and vice versa, lends credence to the concept that the competition course influences how swimmers accomplish a given task. Where the pool is located can also influence performance. If a pool is located at elevated altitude, swimmers will be unable to perform to the same standard as sea level due to a lack of oxygen availability. When swimming in lakes, rivers, and oceans, the environment becomes much influential. Waves, currents, and temperature can all have a significant impact on performance. With the absence of lane lines, swimmers are free to interact with each other, and a much more loosely defined course requires swimmers to navigate as well as swim. These are all examples of how the environment can impact how swimmers move through the water.

1.9 Conclusion Having found a framework upon which I could build a systematic approach to enhance swimming performance, I then began the process of understanding how all these different constraints influence movement. Beyond understanding each separate constraint, it became critical to understand how these constraints interacted. Then it became possible to manipulate each of these constraints to achieve the outcomes I desired. The results of this undertaking will be explored throughout the remainder of this book. The first section will explore how task design and task instructions influence movement, as well as how to manipulate

12  Searching the Landscape for a New Way

these constraints to move swimmers toward movement solutions that improve performance. In the next section, the focus moves to the individual, and how to manipulate constraints within the individual in the short and long term through physiological training, as well as through the use of training aids. Once coaches understand how constraints are operating in swimming, a system must be created to optimize the learning that occurs because of manipulating these constraints, all of which will be explored in the third section. In the final section of this book, the key skills of each stroke will be laid out, as well as practical examples of how constraints can be manipulated to allow for swimmers to explore these skills. Each section builds upon the previous one, equipping coaches with a new set of tools that can be used to revolutionize the skill sets of the swimmers they coach. Throughout the text, I will provide citations that support the influence and interaction of specific constraints on skilled performance. These references are not provided as “proof ” of what I have written; rather, they serve to provide quantification and support for what many coaches intuit to be true through their experiences working with swimmers. All of the relationships I will describe in the text become evident when working with a spectrum of athletes over time, as well as carefully examining how successful swimmers expertly move through the water, with the supporting research serving to crystallize these observations.

References Capelli, C. 1999. Physiological determinants of best performances in human locomotion. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 80(4):298–307. Keskinen, K., Keskinen, O., and Mero, A. 1996. Effect of pool length on biomechanical performance in front crawl swimming. In: Troup, J., Hollander, A., Strasse, D., Trappe, S., Cappaert, J., Trappe, T., editors. Biomechanics and medicine in swimming VII. London: E & FN Spon, Chapman & Hall, pp. 216–20. Keskinen, O., Keskinen, K., and Mero, A. 2007. Effect of pool length on blood lactate, heart rate, and velocity in swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine. May;28(5):407–13. Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Newcombe, D., and Roberts, W. 2019. The Constraints-Led Approach: Principles for Sports Coaching and Practice Design. Abington, Oxfordshire: Routledge. Wolfrum, M., Knechtle, B., Rüst, C., Rosemann, T., Lepers, R. 2013. The effects of course length on freestyle swimming speed in elite female and male swimmers – a comparison of swimmers at national and international level. Springerplus. Dec 1;2:643.

SECTION 1

Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints Swimming performance emerges through the interaction of different constraints. According to Newell’s theoretical framework, these constraints can be classified into three main categories—task, individual (or organism), and environmental. While much of the discussion in the upcoming chapters will surround the manipulation of constraints, it’s important to understand that not all constraints are able to be manipulated. For instance, the height of a mature swimmer, the physical properties of water, and the standard competition distances are all examples of constraints that do not change. Understanding how to effectively manipulate each constraint, as well as manage the interaction between different constraints, is critical to creating appropriate learning and training opportunities for each swimmer. The upcoming chapters will explore the different types of constraints as they relate to swimming, the potential benefit of manipulating various constraints, as well as the potential problems that can arise from improper manipulation. The intent is to provide a theoretical structure for understanding how task assignment and coaching behavior can influence performance, as well as examples that demonstrate the practical application of these ideas. In this section, it is hoped that the reader will learn to appreciate critical importance of task design in facilitating learning. Traditionally, the learning process has consisted of swimmers receiving verbal instruction and verbal feedback about how their current performance relates to an idealized model. Not only does this fail to consider the suitability of a given model for each swimmer, but it also places a premium on coaching instruction, as opposed to focusing on how learners can discover new ways to move. The constraints-led approach challenges this paradigm by encouraging coaches to support swimmers to explore movement solutions as opposed to attempting to mimic a predetermined model. Coaches need to move from the role of providers of verbal instruction and feedback to designers of environments that move swimmers toward more functional DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-2

14  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

movement solutions. The many ways to manipulate constraints to facilitate change will be examined in the text, as well as how these constraints can influence skill adaptation by affecting the learning environments swimmers are exposed to. It is critical for the coach to understand how constraints interact to make performances possible, as well as appreciate how these relationships change over time for each swimmer. While many of these relationships are intuitive, a greater understanding of how each training decision affects performance possibilities allows for greater potential for change. This understanding creates the ability for coaches to positively influence performance and provide each swimmer with the opportunity to improve. Having introduced the three types of constraints, this initial section will focus on task constraints in detail, examining how task constraints can be manipulated to facilitate learning.

2 TASK DESIGN

2.1  The Structure of a Task Sets the Stage for Change Creating the basic structure of a training set is the foundation of any training intervention. It creates the platform for the implementation of all other interventions that will be explored throughout the remainder of this book. This chapter will examine the basic considerations for the construction of a training set. When coaches go about designing their training sessions, they start by creating a set, or a task to be completed. As described at the end of the previous chapter, every aspect of a set design acts as a constraint on performance. The speed swimmers are asked to perform, the number of repetitions, the repetition distance, and the recovery period all influence how swimmers choose to swim. The parameters of the set constrain the options for movement, and as a result, the task assigned and the goal of the task greatly affect the swimming movements that emerge as a result. When a swimmer is assigned a task to complete, movement possibilities are necessarily reduced or constrained. For example, a 1,500 m swim cannot be effectively swum at a stroke rate of 70 cycles per second. Likewise, few swimmers would be able to swim as fast as possible over 50 m if they were limited to a stroke rate of 30 cycles per second. The constraints of a task, therefore, act as the boundaries that shape swimming actions. Because the basic structure of a set influences how swimmers move through the water, by appropriately creating tasks, the coach can create the necessary environment for accomplishing the goals of a given training session. If coaches want swimmers to swim in certain ways or at certain speeds, the set structure must accommodate this. This chapter will explore the constraints of velocity, repetition distance, and recovery intervals, and the impact of these constraints is intuitively understood

DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-3

16  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

by any successful coach. These parameters are also vital for the development of physical conditioning. However, it is important to explicitly outline how task design specifically influences the adaptation of skilled performance as well as physiological development. There are always trade-offs, and with awareness, coaches can make educated choices that best support their goals. Small changes in one task constraint can have significant effects on the impact of other task constraints. This is an example of the complexity of movement, where a small change in one parameter can produce very large changes in another. While most coaches will understand the role these factors play in physical conditioning, the intention here is to help coaches understand that these three constraints also have a direct effect on movement outcomes, and that both processes are occurring simultaneously. As a set design influences both movement outcomes and the physiological response, understanding the relationship between the processes becomes critical. Not only are movement responses and physiological responses influenced by the same factors, but they also directly impact each other.

2.2  Physiology Impacts Skilled Performance Physiological abilities and the ability to express skilled movement are closely linked (Barbosa et al. 2010), and altering the physiological challenge will affect the opportunities for skilled adaptation. As an example, when a swimmer crosses the physiological threshold associated with the maximal lactate steady state or its surrogates, there is a distinct reorganization of the stroke rate and stroke length relationship (Carvalho et al. 2020; Figueiredo et al. 2013), with marked increases in stroke rate (Barden and Kell 2009; Barden et al. 2011) and loss of stroke length (Barden et al. 2009; Dekerle et al. 2005). This response is spontaneous and predictable. Thus, training design will determine the physiological response of the session, which will influence how swimmers display their skills. Increasing physiological demands will constrain options for movement because as a swimmer fatigues, it will become more difficult to achieve higher speeds, maintain high stroke rates, and maintain high stroke length. As a result, understanding the acute physiological effect of training sets is the first step to creating a training session. Each set should be built around ensuring the primary task goal which can be achieved by guaranteeing that it is physically possible to do so. For example, if achieving a high velocity is the primary objective, physiological stress needs to be controlled, requiring repetition distance to be short, recovery durations to be long, and total volume to be low. If these constraints are not configured to support the main task goal, it will be impossible to achieve that goal. As we will see in Chapter 3, additional constraints (stroke length, stroke frequency, surfacing requirements) can be added to sets to further shape skills. However, these constraints are only effective if integrated into a set that is designed to allow for the primary goal to be achieved.

Task Design  17

2.3  Ensuring Individual Alignment As referenced in Chapter 1 and explored in further detail in Section 1.2, each swimmer brings their own constraints to a given task. It is critical to ensure the interaction between the constraints of the individual and the constraints of the task allow for swimmers to be successful. In other words, whatever the task demands, the swimmer should be capable of achieving it. The challenge for coaches is that the nature of this interaction constantly changes as tasks change and individuals change over time, as constraints are dynamic. Coaches must constantly observe whether there is alignment between the individual and the task they are asked to complete. At its simplest, alignment occurs when the task must meet the learning needs of the individual and the task can be accomplished successfully by the individual. It is most important to ensure alignment early in the training design process. If the structure of a set does not allow a swimmer to successfully complete the basic task goals, they certainly won’t be successful if more advanced constraints are added. The problem coaches face is designing training tasks that meet the needs of all athletes at the same time, in one training environment. It is logistically challenging to run practices that are appropriate for all individuals, as coaches are often limited by lane space and the availability of assistant coaches. Beyond these logistical issues, it is also challenging to identify what constitutes appropriate training design for each swimmer. It takes time to understand each swimmer’s response to training, their ability to handle work, and their ability to execute skills. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the response to a given task can be affected by any of the following factors: • • • • • • • • • •

Training experience Age Gender Anthropometry (height, limb length, etc.) Muscle strength Muscle size Flexibility Stroke specialty Stress tolerance Lifestyle factors (sleep, nutrition, academic schedule, etc.)

Beyond the challenge of identifying an individual’s general response to training, the coach must also consider that individual’s day-to-day response to a training session, which may vary significantly for athletes of all ability levels. Because novice training programs are less likely to challenge the limits of swimmers’ abilities, short-term drops in performance capacity are less likely to render these swimmers incapable of completing training sets. Additionally, as novice swimmers tend to respond better to all training stimuli and have much greater room for

18  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

FIGURE 2.1 

I ndividual and task constraint interactions. Each individual brings their own constraints to a given task, and the exact impact of any task constraint explored in this chapter will differ from swimmer to swimmer. Further, those constraints can change as time changes the body due to the natural ageing process as well as changes in training status.

improvement, task design does not need to be “perfect” in terms of content and challenge to create an effective session. Thus, the coach can prescribe tasks conservatively, further enhancing the likelihood that all swimmers can be successful. However, in expert swimmers, daily readiness may fluctuate significantly due to prior training loads or outside stressors. Training loads are often precisely determined, as training challenges must be significant enough to create change, yet not quite significant enough to overwhelm their performance and recovery capabilities, with the difference between the two often incredibly small. As a result, slight fluctuations in readiness can have major effects on the ability to achieve task goals. A set that could normally be completed easily can quickly become a difficult one. Thus, the coach must be attuned to whether swimmers are ready to accomplish predetermined objectives on any given day. If the athletes are not, it is then up to the coach to decide whether to deviate from these objectives. The time, thought, and energy necessary to manage this entire process is significant (Figure 2.1).

2.4  Structuring Sets Using Task Constraints With the considerations above in mind, coaches can start the process of creating sets. The backbone of every training program is basic set design, and any skill

Task Design  19

adaptation process must be built upon this backbone. How swimmers coordinate their limb actions is directly related to the context they are performing in, as determined by the established task constraints that will be explored in this chapter (Silva et al. 2022). If the basic components of a set are not understood with reference to how they influence skill development opportunities, as well as how they interact with each component, coaches will find themselves working against training sets of their own design. While the relationships between speed, repetition distance, recover intervals, and volume are intuitive, the intention is to frame basic set design in terms of task constraints and create a common language that can be built upon in future chapters. Whenever a set is created, movement options are constrained, as certain ways of swimming are no longer possible if the set is to be completed successfully. When sets are designed well, targeted movements solutions are still possible, whereas undesirable solutions are not. It is only when sets are constructed in an appropriate manner relative to the desired outcome that more advanced strategies can be applied.

2.4.1  Velocity Determines Movement and Physiological Outcomes Swimming velocity is intricately related to all aspects of swimming performance, including stroke frequency, stroke length, stroke timing, the energetic cost of swimming, and the relative contributions of the metabolic systems (Barbosa et al. 2010). Because velocity directly impacts every aspect of swimming, it’s critical for coaches to understand how choosing a target velocity influences how swimmers will move through the water, and then appropriately designing sets to allow for that velocity to be achieved. Because constraints are constantly interacting, the impact of velocity on changes in skilled movement differ from swimmer to swimmer. For instance, while swimmers tend to ride higher in the water with increasing velocity, how this change manifests itself can differ considerably from individual to individual, as some swimmers will experience a much faster change in position than others (Washino et al. 2022). From a mechanical perspective, velocity is determined by the product of stroke frequency and stroke length. If swimmers can take faster strokes, longer strokes, or both, they will swim faster. Increases in velocity will almost always require increases in stroke frequency, and in many cases, a change in the timing of the strokes (Schnitzler et al. 2021; Seifert and Carmigniani 2021; Silva et al. 2022). For example, as swimmers approach 200-m racing velocity in freestyle, there is a shift in the timing of the stroke away from a “catch-up” coordination where there are gaps in propulsion between strokes and toward an opposition coordination where there is continuity in propulsion from arm stroke to arm stroke (Pelayo et al. 2007, Seifert et al. 2007). Once swimmers achieve 100-m race velocities, they typically achieve opposition coordination (Seifert et al. 2004), and some swimmers will achieve superposition coordination while swimming at 50-m race velocities (Seifert et al. 2004), where both arms are creating propulsion at the same time, if only briefly. As velocity changes, swimmers change

20  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

the relative timing of their arm actions to meet the task constraint of achieving a given velocity, and consequently, coaches can facilitate the emergence of these coordination patterns by asking swimmers to perform at designated velocities. Relatedly, swimmers are often able to sustain their stroke length until they reach the speed associated with the anaerobic threshold (Carvalho et al. 2020; Figueiredo et al. 2013). Beyond that point, increasing speed is accompanied by a progressive loss of stroke length (Barden et al. 2009; Dekerle et al. 2005), another example of how swimmers will change their stroking parameters to meet the constraints of the task they are given. For these reasons, velocity becomes a critical task constraint for coaches to manage, as it will affect how swimmers swim. Thus, the first decision in designing any set is to determine how fast the swimmers need to be swimming to accomplish the intended outcomes of the set. If the objective is to work on stroke length at aerobic intensities, the speed does not need to be high. However, if the focus is on improving limb timing at race speed, velocities will need to be high. Once coaches decide how faster swimmers should be swimming, they can then design the rest of the set to ensure that the desired velocities can be achieved. Velocity can be manipulated to achieve a spectrum of outcomes. Because limb timing, stroke length, and stroke frequency change in concert with velocity, variation in velocity will force swimmers to master a range of technical profiles. This allows the swimmer to explore the nuances of technique that occur with changes in velocity. By asking swimmers to quickly shift from one speed to another, and consequently shift from one way of swimming to another, we are requiring them to develop the ability to flexibly control their skills. By learning to control speed and manage the consequences of changing speed, the swimmer can learn to control how they swim. They flexibly adapt to different tasks, a characteristic of elite swimmers (Schnitzler et al. 2021). This command over skill, and the ability to make rapid adjustments in the organization of the stroke, can help the process of developing robust technical profiles. As an example, consider a set where the swimmer is asked to complete a series of 50 m swims and achieve a constantly varying performance time. The first repetition should be performed in 30 seconds, the next in 32 seconds, the next in 27 seconds, and so on. The swimmer doesn’t know what the expected time will be until just before beginning each repetition. To successfully accomplish this set, the swimmer will need to use the information that is available to them. That information might be visual information, or kinesthetic information related to water pressure, effort, or rhythm. If the swimmer simply performed all the repetitions at the same speed, they would not be challenged in the same way to use the available sensory information. This type of set is an example of how using constraints can facilitate movement exploration and the discovery of functional skills. From a physiological perspective, by deliberately and systematically varying training velocities, the coach can better control the spectrum of metabolic adaptations that must be developed in a training program. Broadly speaking, aerobic

Task Design  21

energy systems are best trained at low and moderate velocities, whereas anaerobic energy systems are best trained at high velocities. To target both aspects of metabolic fitness, coaches must require swimmers to perform different sets at different speeds. By varying the speeds at which swimmers perform their sets, they’ll be able to train all aspects of their physiology. Consistently varying velocities across multiple timescales (within a training day, week, month, or year) can also modulate the physiological stress swimmers experience. Doing so can prevent impaired recovery, which can arise due to excessive exposure to any one type of training. Coaches should manipulate velocity enough to get a spectrum of technical and physiological adaptations, while ensuring there is enough repeated exposure to create stable adaptations. It is a balancing act. At one extreme, the monotony and strain of consistently unvarying training programs have been demonstrated to lead to competitive under-performance and staleness (Foster 1998). Conversely, too much variability may fail to send a clear signal as to what physiological and skill adaptations are needed. As a result, nothing really changes. Determining just how much variability to include is part of the art of coaching.

2.4.2  Repetition Distance as a Constraint on Velocity The repetition distance is a critical aspect of set design because it acts as a direct constraint on the velocities that can be achieved. The repetition distance chosen will have an inverse relationship with the velocities possible as higher repetition distances limit the possibility for higher speeds, whereas shorter repetition distances allow for it. This task constraint also interacts with the constraints of the individual swimmer. As the repetition distance goes up, sprint swimmers will notice a larger drop in velocities as compared to distance swimmers. As the repetition distance goes down, sprinters tend to be able to increase their velocity more so than distance swimmers. As the effect of repetition distance on swimming velocity can vary widely depending on the individual swimmer, this is a critical example of how individual constraints interact with task constraints. By dictating training distance, the coach indirectly dictates the potential swimming velocities a swimmer can use to effectively complete the training task. For instance, if longer distances are assigned, it will necessarily limit the speeds swimmers can use, which will necessarily limit the intensity of the exercise. If coaches want to target aerobic intensities and focus on longer stroke lengths, they can assign longer distances to ensure that work is aerobic in nature. If the distances were too short, it is possible that swimmers could complete the set by going beyond an aerobic effort and by relying on stroke frequency rather than stroke length to create speed. The longer distances constrain swimmers from doing so. As coaches often want to focus on aerobic training and stroke length early in the season, this could be a strategy employed at that time to accomplish that objective. Conversely, the coach can assign shorted training distances to remove constraints on intensity and allow for high velocities, high stroke rates, and glycolytic intensities.

22  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

Manipulating repetition distance can also be used to move swimmers to their edge of their skill capabilities, as swimmers will often be able to maintain a certain skill for a given distance. For example, if a swimmer is able to comfortably swim 75 m with 12 strokes per 25 m, a coach could then have the swimmer perform 100 m or 125 m repetitions to challenge their ability to sustain 12 strokes per 25 m. When a coach understands an individual’s ability to sustain a skill for a given distance, they can design training at or just under that distance to expand the swimmer’s ability to execute a given task under duress. This is yet another example of how constraints interact, in this case between the individual and the task they are completing. The same task may be challenging for one individual yet provide little challenge for another. Regardless of the purpose of a given set, coaches should know how repetition distance affects each swimmer, and how manipulating repetition distance affects their ability to achieve task goals. If the length of a repetition is not sufficiently long, it will not encourage adaptive change, whether the desired change is physiological or technical. In contrast, if swimmers are asked to swim too long relative to task goals, it will cause degradation of technical skills, an inappropriate physical stimulus, and a reduction in confidence. Coaches are tasked with aligning task goals with the capabilities of each swimmer. In this instance, coaches should strive to extend the distance over which swimmers can execute a given task goals. When managing repetition distances, it is important to include variety of repetition distances to stress a spectrum of technical and physiological abilities. Doing so will allow for adaptive change and prevent a monotonous training load. As with variability in velocity, too much variability in repetition distance will discourage the adaptive process and prevent the development of the technical stability and physiological readiness critical for competitive success. If a certain repetition distance is desired, then training volume, recovery interval, and training velocity must all be constrained to allow for the volume to be achieved. If the swimmer performs too many repetitions, too fast, or with too little rest, fatigue will accumulate prior to achieving the desire training volume. Repetition distance can be important when working to sustain a series of technical skills for an extended period without respite, as swimmers must learn to manage a given physiological state for an extended duration without a break.

2.4.3  Recovery Periods as Physiological Dials As with the training distance, the recovery period directly constrains velocity. The recovery time allowed between repetitions, training sets, and training sessions all have significant impact on skill adaptation and physiological development because of this relationship. Increased recovery between repetitions will reduce metabolic stress, thereby allowing for increased metabolic output on subsequent repetitions. As metabolic output is closely tied with velocity and thus technical skill, increasing recovery periods allows for the metabolic outputs necessary to achieve high velocities. As the coordination between the limbs changes with

Task Design  23

increasing velocity (Schnitzler et al. 2021; Silva et al. 2022), specific velocities must be achieved if swimmers are to practice specific coordination patterns. At the same time, reducing the recovery periods can be used to replicate the fatigue seen during racing, thus creating the opportunity to learn and sustain skills in the context of racing. This concept will be explored in detail in Chapter 5. As described above, physical capacities and technical expression and adaptation are closely linked. When designing training schemes, it is critical to optimize skill-learning opportunities while also developing physical abilities. The paradox is that unfatigued swimmers best learn and express skills, while inducing fatigue is critical for the further development of the physical capacities required for continued increases in technical skill expression. Thus, the coach must carefully balance the process of stimulus and recovery by assigning recovery periods. Generally, the higher the velocity required, the more recovery is needed to achieve that velocity, both within and between training sessions. Sprinters often require extended periods between high-speed repetitions, whereas distance swimmers often require much less rest between their lower speed repetitions. Again, the different constraints within individuals interact with a standard task constraint to produce different outcomes. While increasing rest periods can be used to allow for higher velocities, reducing recovery between training bouts can help swimmers stabilize their skills under increased levels of physical stress. The most important aspect of determining the length of recovery intervals is to understand why they are being chosen. If technical adaptation at high velocity is the priority, rest is important. If physiological overload is the desired outcome, rest is less important. If technical adaptation is always prioritized over physiological adaptation, swimmers are usually able to perform the required training tasks. However, technical adaptation in the absence of physiological stress is not representative of competitive situations. If coaches over-emphasize recovery and avoid physiologically challenging training, swimmers may develop effective skills yet lack the ability to sustain these skills when physiologically stressed in competitive environments. In contrast, consistent exposure to insufficient recovery periods will not allow swimmers the opportunity to adapt their skills due to excessive fatigue. As skills and fitness increase over time, coaches can gradually reduce the recovery periods they use to increase the challenges swimmers face.

2.4.4  The Importance of Sufficient Volumes for Successful Adaptation If a certain volume must be achieved to allow for sufficient practice or certain physical adaptations, then the repetition distance, recovery interval, and training velocity must all be constrained to allow for the volume to be achieved. If the swimming is performed for too long, too fast, or with too little rest, fatigue will accumulate prior to achieving the desired training volume. Volume may be a primary consideration when attempting to ensure that many repetitions are performed to provide more opportunities for learning. As volume is a potent stimulus for physiological change, achieving specific volumes is often a target of

24  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

training design. Coaches simply need to be patient enough to allow for adaptation to take place at the current volume.

2.5  Velocity-Driven Decision Making With the perspective that velocity is a key constraint to manage, coaches must understand how to adjust set design based upon whether the desired velocities are achieved. When achieving velocity is the target of the session, the session must be designed so that the velocity can be achieved for every swimmer. There must be alignment between the task and the individual. However, there are often situations where swimmer struggle to achieve the intended velocity. To illustrate which adjustments are effective, we will consider the following set: 10*50@1 Swimming at Anticipated Racing Velocity during the Second, Third, and Fourth 50 Seconds of the 200 Freestyle This is a training session that most swimmers can successfully complete in the middle of a training cycle without too much trouble. However, if performance is constrained through task design errors or because the swimmers are fatigued, swimmers will be unable to achieve the desired velocities and the task is no longer aligned with the constraints of the individual. Failure to meet the demands of a training exercise could be due to any of the following reasons: • • • • •

The repetition distance is too long. The swimmer is unable to sustain the target velocity. The recovery interval is too short. The swimmer is unable to recover physiological resources between repetitions. The total volume is too high. Fatigue mounts across repetitions to the point where velocity cannot be sustained. The velocity is too high. The swimmer is simply not prepared to achieve the target time they wish to swim. A combination of the above.

These design errors mistakenly increase the physiological load to the point where swimmers cannot sustain performance. This physiological load also initiates losses in technical skill which decreases swimming economy, further increasing the physiological load. The constraints of the set impose a physical and technical demand that the swimmer cannot meet. The coach must then decide what to manipulate to achieve a successful, if compromised, outcome. • •

If the coach wants to continue to use 50 m repetitions, the recovery interval must be raised, or the volume reduced. If the coach wants to retain the recovery interval, the total volume must be lowered.

Task Design  25

• • • •

If the coach wants to retain the work: rest ratio 20*25@30 could be employed. If the coach wants to retain the total volume, repetition distance must be lowered, or recovery interval increased. A combination of the above could be used to allow the target velocity to be achieved. If the coach wants to maintain the structural integrity of the set, the constraint on velocity must be reduced.

What is important to consider is how each aspect of training design constrains what is possible for the swimmer to achieve by constraining physiological recovery in some way. As physiological load is closely tied to the ability to express technical skill, high levels of physiological load will impair skilled performance. With this understanding in mind, the coach can then manipulate these constraints to achieve the desired outcome of the training session. Now assume that a swimmer was successful in completing the same training session with relative ease. To ensure that the training session, or future training sessions, continue to provide a challenge to the swimmer, the coach must then alter the task constraints of the set to increase that challenge. They could: • • • •

Increase the repetition distance. Decrease the recovery interval. Increase the total volume. A combination of the above.

As the long-term goal is to perform four consecutive 50 seconds at 200 m velocity with no rest, reducing the rest interval and increasing the repetition distance are the preferred methods of altering constraints in this case. A linear progression of reducing recovery interval is described in Figure 2.2. Any swimmer who can complete the final training set should be able to complete the 200 m race at target velocity without too much trouble in competition. When considering repetition duration, the coach is looking to expand the distance that racing velocity can be sustained and repeated in a training environment. A sample progression to extend repetition distance is provided in Figure 2.3. Volume is a less specific strategy but can be useful for creating physiological overload that can be part of a longer-term approach. Once that overload is created, the volume can be reduced, then training repetitions should be able to be completed with a tighter recovery interval. The volume can then be increased again, and the process repeated. A sample progression is included in Figure 2.4. Figure 2.4 is also an example of a mixed progression where both the volume and recovery interval are being manipulated in concert to create a novel and progressive stimulus. This decision-making process is an example of how to manipulate various constraints to ensure the satisfaction of a task goal. In this case, achieving a given

26  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

FIGURE 2.2 Progressively

increasing the repetition distance while maintaining con-

stant velocity.

velocity was the task goal, and the other constraints were altered to ensure that the necessary velocities were achieved. There are many ways to manipulate these parameters to move the process forward. The task goals must be in alignment with each swimmer’s capacities, and they must be adjusted over time to allow for long-term success. As swimmers improve, these constraints must be increased to ensure that the challenge remains appropriate. It is also important to note that the examples are for illustrative purposes only. For a given swimmer, there may need to be intermediate steps in the progressions described. The art of coaching also involves determining the timing of such sets, how often they occur, and the time between increases in challenge. The above is a very black-and-white example for simplicity’s sake, used to clearly illustrate the concept of how training design constrains physiological systems, which

FIGURE 2.3 Progressively

reducing the recovery interval while maintaining constant

velocity.

FIGURE 2.4 Progressively

velocity.

increasing the total volume while maintaining constant

28  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

constrains how swimmer will express their skills. Many other options are possible, and combining different progression methods is not only possible but often warranted and necessary. It is often required to manipulate volume, recovery interval, and repetition distance simultaneously to create novel and progressive training stimuli. The key concept is to manipulate the task constraints to ensure appropriate challenges over time and that the most important task constraint can be satisfied, in this case velocity.

2.6  Conclusion The first step in implementing any training intervention is appropriately creating the basic structure of a set. How swimmers move through the water is directly impacted by the speed at which they swim. In all cases, they change the timing of their limbs, and they change how they move their limbs through the water. Further, velocity impacts the metabolic cost of swimming, which has a tremendous impact on the physical changes that occur because of training. Thus, coaches must design sets where the appropriate speeds are achieved. To do so, they must understand how repetition distances, recovery intervals, and training volumes interact to allow for certain speeds to be achieved. Velocity drives the changes we want to create, and these different task constraints greatly impact whether the appropriate changes can be achieved and sustained. Once this framework is in place, more advanced constraints can be placed to facilitate change, which will be discussed in the following chapter. Upon the backbone of an effective set structure, coaches can manipulate stroke length, stroke frequency, and the underwater travel requirements to further shape skills. However, these interventions are possible only when swimmers can achieve the appropriate velocities, which becomes possible by implementing the considerations discussed here.

References Barbosa, T., Bragada, J., Reis, V., Marinho, D., Carvalho, C., and Silva, A. 2010. Energetics and biomechanics as determining factors of swimming performance: Updating the state of the art. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. Mar;13(2):262–9. Barden, J., and Kell, R. 2009. Relationships between stroke parameters and critical swimming speed in a sprint interval training set. Journal of Sports Science. Feb 1;27(3):227–35. Barden, J., Kell, R., and Kobsar, D. 2011. The effect of critical speed and exercise intensity on stroke phase duration and bilateral asymmetry in 200-m front crawl swimming. Journal of Sports Science. Mar;29(5):517–26. Carvalho, D., Soares, S., Zacca, R., Sousa, J., Marinho, D., Silva, A., Vilas-Boas, J., and Fernandes, R. 2020. Anaerobic threshold biophysical characterisation of the four swimming techniques. International Journal of Sports Medicine. May;41(5):318–27. Dekerle, J., Nesi, X., Lefevre, T., Depretz, S., Sidney, M., Huot Marchand, F., and Pelayo, P. 2005 Stroking parameters in front crawl swimming and maximal lactate steady state speed. International Journal of Sports Medicine. Jan–Feb;26(1):53–8.

Task Design  29

Figueiredo, P., Morais, P., Vilas-Boas, J., and Fernandes, R. 2013. Changes in arm coordination and stroke parameters on transition through the lactate threshold. European Journal of Applied Physiology. Aug;113(8):1957–64. Foster, C. 1998. Monitoring training in athletes with reference to overtraining syndrome. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise. Jul;30(7):1164–8. Pelayo, P., Alberty, M., Sidney, M., Potdevin, F., and Dekerle, J. 2007. Aerobic potential, stroke parameters, and coordination in swimming front-crawl performance. International Journal of Sports and Physiology Performance. Dec;2(4):347–59. Schnitzler, C., Seifert, L., and Button, B. 2021. Adaptability in swimming pattern: How propulsive action is modified as a function of speed and skill. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Apr 7;3:618990. Seifert, L., and Carmigniani, R. 2021. Coordination and stroking parameters in the four swimming techniques: A narrative review. Sports Biomechanics. Aug 9;1–17. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Bardy, B. 2004. Effect of swimming velocity on arm coordination in the front crawl: A dynamic analysis. Journal of Sports Science. Jul;22(7):651–60. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Rouard, A. 2007. Swimming constraints and arm coordination. Human Movement Science. Feb;26(1):68–86. Silva, A., Seifert, S., Fernandes, R., Vilas Boas, J., and Figueiredo, P. 2022. Front crawl swimming coordination: A systematic review. Sports Biomechanics. Oct;12:1–20. Washino, S., Yoshitake, Y., Mankyu, H., and Murai, A. 2022. Vertical body position during front crawl increases linearly with swimming velocity and the rate of its increase depends on individual swimmers. Sports Biomechanics. May;16:1–13.

3 ADVANCED SET CONSTRUCTION— ADDING CONSTRAINTS TO INFLUENCE SKILL

3.1  Adding Constraints to Influence Skill The previous chapter described the importance of velocity in determining how swimmers organize their movement through the water, and the physiological changes that occur as a result. Appropriately designed sets ensure that the desired velocities are achieved. This chapter will explore how coaches can influence how these velocities are achieved using additional constraints. The value of a constraint is that it prevents swimmers from using specific solutions to achieve task goals. By removing movement options, most swimmers find new movement solutions. With a basic set structure in place, coaches can layer constraints to encourage swimmers to change how they accomplish the goals of a set. This chapter will explore three different constraints that can be added to any set. As discussed in the previous chapter, there is a direct relationship between speed, stroke length, and stroke frequency. As will be demonstrated below, when two of these variables are constrained, swimmers are forced to create a change in the third variable. As a result, coaches can facilitate changes in stroke length and stroke rate by constraining either variable, creating a learning environment where swimmers must explore new ways of swimming that still lead to accomplishing the objectives of the set. Further, with more and more swimmers taking advantage of the opportunity to utilize 15 m of underwater swimming each wall, finding speed under the surface is becoming a competitive requirement. By setting task constraints that limit a swimmer’s ability to travel on the surface, swimmers must learn to create speed under the surface. The power of constraining tasks is that these interventions create a significant shift in how swimmers create speed, without the need to provide any specific instructions as to how they should do so. Facilitating change through task design is the essence of the constraints-led approach. DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-4

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  31

3.2  Requiring Efficiency through Stroke Counts As velocity increases while swimming a given stroke, stroke length tends to remain stable, or increase slightly during slow speeds (Schnitzler et al. 2021). However, once the swimmer reaches a specific velocity, typically around the anaerobic threshold (Carvalho et al. 2020; Figueiredo et al. 2013), stroke length tends to decrease as speed increases further. Stroke length is also inversely related to stroke frequency. When stroke frequency goes up, stroke length tends to go down and vice versa. The product of these two metrics is equal to stroke velocity. Furthermore, for a given velocity, a greater length is associated with a reduced energetic cost (Barbosa et al. 2010), and stroke length in competition has been consistently related to competitive swimming performance (Craig et al. 1985; Hellard et al. 2008). Stroke length tends to decrease during sprint (Seifert et al. 2007) and middle-distance events (Alberty et al. 2009; Lafitte et al. 2004), and faster swimmers have been shown to demonstrate more stable stroke length while racing (Seifert et al. 2007). For these reasons, implementing constraints to help swimmers achieve and sustain greater stroke lengths can enable swimmers to increase their performance. Coaches can manipulate stroke length by placing limitations on the number of strokes a swimmer can take per length or repetition. This is known as requiring a stroke count, where swimmers are allowed to take only a certain number of strokes each lap. Stroke counts can be implemented across the spectrum of velocities, with the degree of restriction possible being dependent on the velocity targeted. For example, slower speeds afford lower stroke counts relative to higher speeds. With diligence and time, coaches can improve stroke length at competition velocities through the effective manipulation of stroke counts in training. Due to the positive relationship between stroke length and competitive swimming performance, it is imperative that coaches learn to do so. Importantly, this constraint can be used at almost any speed, in almost any set. By limiting stroke counts, swimmers are forced to find technical solutions that differ from those they would typically choose. To achieve a reduced stroke count, swimmers must find a way to enhance the propulsion created by each stroke, reduce the amount of drag they create, or both. Stroke counts are particularly effective when combined with a velocity constraint, as adding a velocity constraint to a stroke count constraint forces swimmers to achieve relevant velocities with greater efficiency. Stroke counts are effective in any situation where coaches would like to ensure efficient swimming, regardless of the primary goal of the set. For instance, stroke counts can be added to aerobic conditioning sets, sets using training aids (see Chapter 7), or sets where swimming are racing with localized fatigue (see Chapter 5). The latter is particularly effective as the loss of stroke length is attributed to a loss of power production, and the appropriate use of constraints can help swimmers learn to mitigate the consequences of a loss of power production. By placing swimmers in situations where they must maintain stroke length despite compromised physiology, they are provided the

32  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

opportunity to find movement solutions that allow to meet these challenging constraints. The variation of stroke count requirements on a repetition-to-repetition basis can allow swimmers to explore different coordination patterns within a single training set (see Figure 3.1). Consistently varying stroke count requirements within sets can help swimmers learn to gain control of the stroke length they choose to utilize. This control over their coordination profile can greatly serve them in racing environments where adjustments within races are often necessary. Applying stroke count limitations forces swimmers to explore novel ways of moving, as satisfying this constraint requires swimmers to increase propulsion or reduce drag within each stroke cycle. Stroke count restrictions require swimmers to manage the relationship between stroke length, stroke rate, and swimming velocity. As such, sets with stroke count restrictions can be structured to require swimmers to explore ways to swim more efficiently at a variety of paces and in various states of fatigue. Sets can be designed to help learn new skills by pushing

FIGURE 3.1 

Improving aerobic efficiency.

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  33

them toward new movements solutions, or they can be designed to help swimmers learn to maintain efficient skills while fatigued (see Figure 3.2). To achieve the highest velocities, swimmers must raise stroke rate and compromise stroke length. Learning to achieve high velocities with low stroke counts is key for long-term performance development (see Figure 3.2). As a result, using stroke count as a task constraint limits the velocity which swimmers can achieve, which directly influences the metabolic cost of swimming. As the energetic cost is related to velocity (Barbosa et al. 2010), if velocity is limited, high rates of energy creation are limited as well. Using stroke counts provides an opportunity

FIGURE 3.2 

Sustaining stroke length.

34  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

to reduce intensity if the coach desires. At the same time, while increased stroke length can lead to better swimming economy, excessively low stroke counts can prevent swimmers from achieving the training intensities necessary to create physiological adaptation. To meet the stroke count constraint, they must lower their velocity to the point where there is insufficient physiological challenge. Similarly, if stroke counts limits do not allow for swimmers to achieve competition velocities, they will struggle to learn or modify competition technique. Further, it is important to remember that there is an optimal stroke count range for each swimmer for each training task that allows them to successfully achieve the intended goals of the set. Excessive limitations will distort the stroke to the point where rhythm is lost, and aberrant stroking patterns are introduced. To illustrate how to practically apply stroke count constraints, several sets are provided here to demonstrate these possibilities for a variety of objectives in Figures 3.1–3.3.

FIGURE 3.3 

Length at speed.

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  35

3.3  Learning to Achieve and Sustain High Stroke Frequencies Stroke frequency differs from stroke count in that stroke frequency is measured relative to time, whereas stroke count is relative to distance. Stroke frequency is the number of strokes taken per minute, and stroke count is the number of strokes taken per lap. Stroke frequency measures how fast a swimmer is taking strokes, while stroke count reflects how far a swimmer goes with each stroke. Stroke frequency, also referred to as stroke rate, is directly related to velocity as increases in stroke frequency lead to increases in velocity, assuming a consistent stroke length. Stroke frequency is also directly related to the metabolic cost of swimming (Wakayoshi et al. 1995). For any given velocity, higher stroke rates result in a higher metabolic cost (Barbosa et al. 2010). Because of the relationship between stroke frequency, stroke length, and velocity, manipulating stroke frequency can result in direct changes in the other two metrics (see Figure 3.4). The coach who understands these relationships can effectively assign training and technical tasks that serve to shape and develop skills (see Figures 3.5–3.7).

FIGURE 3.4 External

metronome can be a valuable tool for constraining swimmers to certain stroke frequencies, either to limit them to a set frequency or to push them to achieve or sustain high stroke frequencies.

36  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

If swimmers are expected to achieve higher velocities at the same stroke frequency, they can only do so by improving their stroke length. This type of intervention can be implemented across a spectrum of velocities from recovery swimming to race pace swimming. During challenging endurance training sets, swimmers often increase stroke rate and decrease stroke length as they fatigue to maintain swimming velocity, which can be avoided when swimmers are required to maintain a given stroke rate (Alberty et al. 2008). Coaches can constrain swimmers further by requiring they swim with a stroke rate that is slower than their preferred stroke rate for a given velocity. Coaches can also require swimmers to

FIGURE 3.5 

Improving effective stroke frequency at maximal velocity.

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  37

swim at their preferred average stroke rate for a given distance but prevent them from increasing their stroke rate as they fatigue. Doing so will force a reorganization of the stroke, where preference is given to more efficient propulsive actions and more streamlined body positions (Alberty et al. 2011). Although swimmers may fatigue sooner initially, it provides novel physical and technical stimulus which can promote adaptation. While the outcome may be similar to using stroke count limitations, the process of solving the task problem is different. In a different context, for swimmers who struggle with achieving or maintaining high stroke frequency, externally dictating stroke frequency through a metronome can help these swimmers achieve and sustain stroke frequency over the course of training repetitions (see Figure 3.4). This is particularly relevant in a long-course competition format, where stroke frequencies tend to decrease across repetitions, as faster swimmers tend to display more stable stroke rates over the full racing distance (Hellard et al. 2008). Because swimming at a high stroke frequency for a given velocity is less economical, and as economy of motion is critical in distance swimming, learning to reduce stroke frequencies can be a viable option for some swimmers. For sprint swimmers, external pacers or

FIGURE 3.6 

Sustaining stroke frequency.

38  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

metronomes can help swimmers achieve maximal stroke rates in practice with greater ease. At these race-relevant stroke rates, swimmers can learn to increase stroke length. However, once stroke frequency reaches a critical point, velocity will decrease due to a proportionally greater decline in stroke length. As a result, the assigned stroke frequencies must be appropriate to the individual. If they are not, requiring high stroke rates can decrease performance and prevent the opportunity for swimmers to learn to sustain high stroke rates or improve stroke length. Further, the individual ability to efficiently achieve high strokes can fluctuate

FIGURE 3.7 

Improving stroke length.

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  39

based upon fatigue levels. Over-prescribing high stroke rates relative to the individual’s ability to successfully accomplish the task can cause a slow erosion of stroke length over time. Swimmers may be able to achieve the intended stroke frequency, but they do so by compromising stroke length and, thus, velocity. When this happens repeatedly, skilled performance will deteriorate. Coaches must be consistently attuned to the alignment between the individual swimmer and the assigned task. Constraining stroke frequency can be useful for achieving maximal stroke rates, learning to sustain racing stroke rates, and improving distance per stroke over a range of velocities. Over the course of swimming races, stroke frequency often drops over the course of a race (Kjendlie et al. 2006), particularly in events 200 m or shorter, likely the result of an impaired power production (Toussaint et al. 2006). This is particularly true of long-course races where stroke frequency often falls during a given lap. By providing swimmers with the requirement that both stroke rate and swimming velocity be sustained over the course of a given repetition, the swimmer can be conditioned technically and physically to sustain these parameters. By using both constraints, coaches can further shape swimmers’ skills as opposed to if only one constraint was used. These sets can be performed using an external metronome that provides rapid feedback to the swimmer, or the coach can provide feedback at any interval between repetitions. As the swimmer becomes more effective at sustaining stroke rates, feedback should be less frequent so that the swimmer learns to monitor their own internal feedback as to whether they are moving effectively. This is a skill that will ultimately be necessary in competitions.

3.4  Learning to Navigate Underwater Swimming Underwater dolphin kicking has become a critical skill for swimmers to develop, particularly when competing in short-course competitions. Similarly, breaststroke pullouts can be a difference-maker in races, with greater importance in a short-course format. While these skills can be developed to some extent on the surface of the water, the appropriate environment for learning these skills is under the surface. By placing surfacing requirements on swimmers and dictating the distance that must be achieved underwater, swimmers will be forced to explore movement possibilities and do so in an environment that is representative of competition. When learning occurs in situations that closely resemble competition, there is a much greater likelihood that what is being learned will be transferred to competitive performance. While spending time underwater is not sufficient for developing these skills, it is a necessary requirement. As most swimmers will not choose to engage in that environment of their own accord, placing task constraints that require underwater travel forces that engagement. By requiring swimmers to extend their subsurface travel, they can learn to improve this aspect of racing performance. This includes effective turning

40  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

mechanics, streamlined body positions, dolphin kicking or breaststroke pullouts, and transitioning to surface swimming. All these skills must be performed effectively to maximize performance (see Figures 3.8–3.9). From a physical perspective, swimmers are exposed to reduced oxygen availability, and consistent exposure to these conditions in training can allow swimmer to adjust to this demand physiologically and psychologically, in line with competition demands. Effective set design allows for swimmers to explore new skills while developing the physical qualities needed to execute those skills. As swimmers explore underwater travel, they are developing the physiology to explore underwater travel. When velocity is added as a task constraint, swimmers must not only effectively achieve the required distance under the surface, but they must also do with speed. This combination forces swimmers to explore their movement options underwater and search for progressive solutions.

FIGURE 3.8 

Underwater dolphin-kicking endurance and repetition focus.

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  41

As there is a hypoxic demand to extending underwater travel, the coach must be aware of the physiological capacity and psychological ability to handle varying degrees of hypoxia. Excessive requirements will shift a swimmer’s focus from problem-solving to survival. The surfacing requirement must also take into consideration each swimmer’s capacity for subsurface travel. The surfacing distance should be similar or slightly beyond the swimmer’s ability to effectively navigate underwater travel. As with most training approaches, quality of movement should be prioritized over quantity of movement. Underwater travel distances should only be extended provided swimmers can traverse those distances while meeting an established standard of execution. Align the task with the individual’s ability to successful interact with it. Surfacing restrictions can enhance performance during the underwater portion of races, whether swimmers are accomplishing this objective through improved gliding, kicking, or pullout skills. Coaches can stretch a cord across the

FIGURE 3.9 

Underwater dolphin-kicking race focus.

42  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

pool at the midpoint to ensure swimmers complete at least 12.5 m underwater, or coaches can also place a cone on the bottom at any distance and require that swimmers surface when they pass the cone. These targets can ensure compliance with the task goal by using an external target. Figures 3.8 and 3.9 are examples of sets that demonstrate these same principles in two separate contexts, the first with a lower intensity and higher volume approach, and the latter with a higher intensity and lower volume approach.

3.5 Pushing Swimmers toward Change by Combining Constraints While all the different task constraints described above and in Chapter 2 have been examined in isolation, an effective coach will find that skills and physiology are most effectively developed when multiple task goals are provided for a given training set, allowing the coach to further constrain movement possibilities. By combining multiple task constraints, the coach can further move swimmers toward new technical solutions and appropriate physiological challenges. By adding additional constraints, the coach can remove movement solutions that may be undesirable and steer swimmers toward adaptive solutions. When done with great intention, coaches can help swimmers learn skills that win races, by removing the possibility of using less functional ones. When swimmers can improve the functionality of their skills through effective task design as opposed to instructions from the coach, these skills are much more likely to be compatible with their individual characteristics. Because swimmers are meeting task goals within the limitations of their own individual constraints, they can find success in a way that suits them best. In Figures 3.10–3.11, examples of sets that use multiple task goals can be found. There are two potential issues that coaches can run into when combining task goals. First, coaches should be aware of the cognitive load required for each training set. The swimmers’ focus should be on effectively accomplishing the task, not trying to remember all the requirements of the set. Imagine swimmers are asked to complete 4 × 100 m. However, they must: • • • • •

Taking one less stroke per lap within each 100. Taking 4/5/6/7 dolphin kicks per lap. Breathing every 3/7/5/9 strokes per lap. Negative split each 100 m. Each swim should be faster.

There are a lot of tasks required during this set. While the coach may be “effectively” manipulating constraints, such a set places a large cognitive burden on the swimmers, to the point where they may spend more energy ensuring that they are “doing it right” versus finding more productive ways to accomplish the

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  43

FIGURE 3.10 

Stroke length and velocity-descending efforts.

objective of the set. Set can become “over-constrained” in that they’re too complicated to execute effectively. The second potential issue is that as a training set becomes more constrained, fewer solutions are available to each swimmer. While this is the idea behind the constraints-led approach, removing preferred solutions so that swimmers are forced to find more functional ones, coaches need to be sure that they don’t “constraint away” all potential solutions. If coaches place too many constraints too soon, or inappropriately apply constraints, swimmers may be unable to find any solution at all. As individual constraints interact with the designated task, the coach must be aware of their swimmers’ movement and performance capabilities prior to implementing multiple constraints. Coaches can recognize an overly constrained task when swimmers consistently fail to achieve the objectives of the set. At that point, some of the

44  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

FIGURE 3.11 

Improving technical efficiency at pace.

constraints should be removed to allow for swimmers to experience success. Once swimmers are consistently demonstrating success, the initial constraints can be reintroduced. Asking for the impossible is not a successful coaching strategy.

3.6 Conclusion To design sets effectively, coaches must identify the key goals of a training set, and then deliberately manipulate the available constraints to support the accomplishment of those goals in an individually appropriate manner. As velocity determines many of the technical and physiological outcomes (Barbosa et al. 2010), sets must be designed to allow for the appropriate velocities to be achieved, as

Adding Constraints to Influence Skill  45

described in the previous chapter. Once the basic set structure is created that allows for these velocities to be achieved, coaches can add further constraints to influence how these velocities are achieved. They can require swimmers to swim with certain stroke frequencies. They can require swimmers to swim with certain stroke counts. They can require swimmers to travel underwater for certain distances. In this way, coaches can significantly change how swimmers move through the water, all without instructing them on how to do so. With the ability to change how swimmers move through the water, coaches can then design sets that move swimmers in an individually appropriate manner toward movement solutions that facilitate faster swimming. Effective set design reduces the need to verbally instruct, as much of the “coaching” is done through set design. However, instructions are still powerful tools. With appropriately designed sets that place swimmer in an environment that are ripe for change, they become even more powerful. In the following chapter, we’ll explore different ways of providing instructions and feedback that move swimmers toward better solutions, while still allowing them to find a way of moving through the water that best suit them.

References Alberty, M., Potdevin, F., Dekerle, J., Pelayo, P., Gorce, P., and Sidney, M. 2008. Changes in swimming technique during time to exhaustion at freely chosen and controlled stroke rates. Journal of Sports Science. Sep;26(11):1191–200. Alberty, M., Potdevin, F., Dekerle, J., Pelayo, P., and Sidney, M. 2011. Effect of stroke rate reduction on swimming technique during paced exercise. Journal of Strength and Condition Research. Feb;25(2):392–7. Alberty, M., Sidney, M., Pelayo, P., and Toussaint, H. 2009. Stroking characteristics during time to exhaustion tests. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Mar;41(3):637–44. Barbosa, T., Bragada, J., Reis, V., Marinho, D., Carvalho, C., and Silva, A. 2010. Energetics and biomechanics as determining factors of swimming performance: Updating the state of the art. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. Mar;13(2):262–9. Carvalho, D., Soares, S., Zacca, R., Sousa, J., Marinho, D., Silva, A., Vilas-Boas, J., and Fernandes, R. 2020. Anaerobic threshold biophysical characterisation of the four swimming techniques. International Journal of Sports Medicine. May;41(5):318–27. Craig, A., Skehan, P., Pawelczyk, J., and Boomer, W. 1985. Velocity, stroke rate, and distance per stroke during elite swimming competition. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Dec;17(6):625–34. Figueiredo, P., Morais, P., Vilas-Boas, J., and Fernandes, R. 2013. Changes in arm coordination and stroke parameters on transition through the lactate threshold. European Journal of Applied Physiology. Aug;113(8):1957–64. Hellard, P., Dekerle, J., Avalos, M., Caudal, N., Knopp, M., and Hausswirth, C. 2008. Kinematic measures and stroke rate variability in elite female 200-m swimmers in the four swimming techniques: Athens 2004 Olympic semi-finalists and French National 2004 Championship semi-finalists. Journal of Sports Science. Jan 1;26(1):35–46. Kjendlie, P., Haljand, R., Fjørtoft, O., and Stallman, R. 2006. Stroke frequency strategies of international and national swimmers in 100m races. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming. 10:52–4.

46  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

Lafitte, L., Vilas-Boas, J., Demarle, A., Silva, S., Fernandes, R., and Billat, V. 2004. Changes in physiological and stroke parameters during a maximal 400-m free swimming test in elite swimmers. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology. 29:S17–31. Schnitzler, C., Seifert, L., and Button, B. 2021. Adaptability in swimming pattern: How propulsive action is modified as a function of speed and skill. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Apr 7;3:618990. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Chatard, J. 2007. Kinematic changes during a 100-m front crawl: Effects of performance level and gender. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Oct;39(10):1784–93. Toussaint, H., Carol, A., Kranenborg, H., and Martin J Truijens, M. 2006. Effect of fatigue on stroking characteristics in an arms-only 100-m front-crawl race. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Sep;38(9):1635–42. Wakayoshi, K., D’Acquisto, L., Cappaert, J., and Troup, J. 1995. Relationship between oxygen uptake, stroke rate and swimming velocity in competitive swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine. Jan;16(1):19–23.

4 THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE

4.1  Encouraging Exploration Through Language When using the strategies described in the previous two chapters, coaches can begin to change how swimmers move through the water, encouraging them to find novel performance solutions, without the instructions that typify traditional coaching. However, task design is not always sufficient to help swimmers realize and adapt to the movement opportunities that are available to them. Swimmers may not be sufficiently aware of the movement opportunities that are available to them as they can’t perceive them, and without perception, there is no opportunity for action. It is at this point when swimmers need further guidance that task instructions become a valuable coaching tool, as they can serve to directly influence movement outcomes (Papic et al. 2021). However, it must be stressed that the power of language is amplified when it is used during sets that are designed to move swimmers closer to more functional solutions, as compared to using language as a stand-alone coaching strategy. The goal of providing any instruction or feedback is to help swimmers more effectively explore movement solutions without strictly requiring a given solution, as effective coaching language guides action, rather than prescribes it. Appropriately implemented instructions and feedback provide a nudge in the right direction, while still allowing swimmers to find solutions that best align with their own individual constraint. For instance, rather than instructing a swimmer to perform a pulling action in a specified way, the coach could use an analogy to describe the overall intention of the movement, guiding the swimmer toward an effective movement strategy while allowing the swimmer the freedom to accomplish this task in a manner that aligns with the mobility and strength of their shoulder girdle. Thus, language should act as a constraint on movement rather than a movement prescription, guiding action rather than requiring it, and this chapter will explore DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-5

48  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

several strategies on how to use language to accomplish this objective through instruction and feedback.

4.2  A Different Role for Language How coaches communicate, the degree to which they communicate, and the specific words they choose, all impact the learning experience and the effectiveness of any coaching intervention. At one extreme, there are coaches that rely exclusively on their instructions to facilitate learning. As words become their only tool, these coaches are often very prescriptive in their communications, providing very detailed instructions and constant feedback. At the other extreme, there are coaches that manipulate constraints to facilitate learning yet are under the impression that using constraints is wholly sufficient to cause change, with no verbal interactions necessary. These coaches believe that designing effective tasks is their sole responsibility, and by using task design strategies like the ones described in this book, once the tasks are set in motion, the role of the coach shifts to that of an observer, while the task becomes the teacher. Both approaches have shortcomings as communication is made more effective in the context of appropriate task selection, and effectively designed tasks promote productive learning when accompanied by appropriate feedback and instruction. For instance, it’s much easier to communicate with a swimmer about establishing an effective pulling pattern when performing activities that promote effective pulling patterns (see Chapter 7). Likewise, while these activities can promote changes in pulling patterns, effective communication can further enhance the learning experience by providing extra and more directed guidance. Coaches must carefully choose their words as small changes in instructions can create significant changes in a swimmer’s performance, just as a small change in task design can yield large changes in movement outcomes. How and where a coach focuses a swimmer’s attention, the use of analogies, and the type of information that is communicated will all influence skill adaptation. Just as task design guides movement, so too does language. While the accuracy of the information communicated is critical to the success of any intervention, how that information is conveyed and received will greatly impact learning and performance. The information coaches communicate acts as a constraint as it limits the possible movement solutions a swimmer will strive to attain. If a coach asks a swimmer to “swim with their head down,” the swimmer will eliminate any actions where they perceive their head to be up. With any instruction, the goal of the coach is to use words to move a swimmer closer to a desired way of moving, and the coach is doing so by eliminating or constraining movement options with their words. If a coach is too vague in their instructions, an insufficient number of movement solutions will be eliminated—the constraint is too weak. For example, when a coach instructs a swimmer to “recover the arm forward,” there are a nearly unlimited number of solutions that meet this criterion, and it insufficiently guides the swimmer by failing to eliminate ineffective movements.

The Role of Language  49

There is too little information in the instruction and the constraint is too “loose” as a result. In contrast, if the coach is too prescriptive or too specific, the swimmer may be forced to choose a less-than-ideal motion. When a coach asks a swimmer to recover the arm with a 78-degree bend in the elbow with the hand pitched out and traveling 6 inches above the surface of the water, there are very few solutions to this movement problem, and none of them may be optimal. The coach has provided an informational constraint that is too “tight” and eliminated effective solutions. The key is to provide just enough information to move swimmers toward a better solution, without providing an exact solution. The discussion that follows is centered around how coaches communicate and not specifics of what a coach is communicating, as it is not about which instructions are “correct” but how different types of instructions act as task constraints. It assumes the content of the coach’s communication reflects sound swimming knowledge. Clearly, if coaches are giving instructions or providing feedback that encourages ineffective movement strategies, regardless of how it is presented, using any of the strategies discussed below will be ineffective. Coaches must have a clear understanding what results in fast swimming and clear idea of what they wish to communicate. Effective strategies for fast swimming will be discussed further in Chapter 9, as well as in the stroke-specific chapters during the final sections of this book. For specific examples of each type of communication described below, please view the stroke-specific chapters for that content. The idea is not to describe the most effective phrases to use but to provide the coach with examples of these tools that can be used in practice. Once the nature of the tool is understood, the coach is encouraged to determine which specific descriptions are most aligned with their understanding of technique and the needs of their swimmers. With a clear concept of effective movement strategies in the pool, coaches can then learn how to leverage the nuances of effective verbal communication to provide the relevant information to appropriately constrain movement options.

4.3  Guiding Learning through the Use of Comparisons Using precise technical descriptions can excessively limit the movement options available to a swimmer as a rigid instruction constrains swimmers from sampling all the relevant movement options. By requiring a swimmer to pull their arm through the water with precisely a 120-degree bend in the elbow, a coach is preventing swimmers from exploring other pulling options that may be better suited to their anatomy, mobility, or strength. As an alternative to overly prescribing movement, the coach can use analogy to constrain a swimmer’s actions while still providing opportunity for each swimmer to find the appropriate solution of their physical characteristics (Lam et al. 2009). Rather than asking for a very specific solution, an effective analogy can move a swimmer closer to the desired skills while still allowing for the swimmer to search for an individually effective

50  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

solution. The analogy communicates the principle that swimmers should aim to adhere to, while leaving the swimmer free to apply that principle in an individually appropriate manner. There can be a problem with prescribing a 120-degree bend in the elbow, or any other rigid task goal, because this position may or may not be the most effective solution for any given swimmer. Based upon limb lengths, muscular strength profiles, and joint mobility, each swimmer may or may not be suited for this particular movement solution. Due to these differences, performance will be enhanced in some athletes by pulling with a more acute angle and in others by pulling with a more obtuse angle. Further, the swimmer may not even understand what 120 degrees look or feel like, and if they are relying primarily on vision to determine that angle, they will be challenged to achieve this position once the arm is no longer in view. Conversely, rather than prescribing a precise movement, the coach could suggest the swimmer “create a hook to pull through the water with,” and the coach could then build upon the application of this analogy by having swimmers explore swimming with larger and smaller “hooks” to create more awareness of their movement options. This promotes searching for effective movements while still adhering to the fundamental mechanical principle, and without specifying precise positions, the coach has guided the swimmer to explore an appropriate range of solutions. This narrows the search for effective technique without overly constraining it as an effective analogy gets swimmers close to the goal but not too close. What is pertinent for a coach to remember is that every analogy must have a context for the swimmer. Not only should the swimmer understand the comparison the analogy is creating, it should also be memorable. The more a coach can connect the analogy to something the athlete can relate to deeply, the more it will resonate with them. For instance, consider a freestyle swimmer with an excessively tense recovery action. If that swimmer also has a background in violin, the coach could suggest that swimmer relax their arm as if they were holding their violin bow. This image would have much more meaning and greater retention as compared to pretending the arm was hanging from a marionette string, yet it would be meaningless for most swimmers, as they lack experience with the violin. Beyond the personal context a given analogy may have, the applicability of an analogy will also be age-dependent. Younger individuals may have a harder understanding of the comparison an analogy implies. They will struggle to understand more nuanced comparisons, as their general understanding of the physical world is limited, further reducing the spectrum of effective analogies. While age and skill level are often intertwined in swimming, coaches will also encounter older, yet novice, swimmers. As novice swimmers, regardless of age, have a much less rich understanding of their skills and the nuances they present, the coach must predicate their use of analogy on these realities. To best effect change, analogies should be clear, concise, and simple. When they are, analogy is an effective way to communicate technical ideas while allowing for technical

The Role of Language  51

exploration because the analogy chosen constrains the opportunity for movement action while also allowing enough latitude for individual solutions to be discovered.

4.4  Emphasizing Opportunities for Action While simple and intuitively obvious, emphasizing opportunities for action can positively impact skill adaptation and athlete motivation. With every communication, the coach can focus a swimmer’s attention on more functional solutions, or the coach can focus a swimmer’s attention on what they should stop doing. By emphasizing opportunities for action, there is explicit and direct communication about what is important, creating a framework for action, whereas by focusing on errors and instructing an athlete what not to do, coaches are directing attention away from effective exploration. Beyond the opportunity costs that arise when coaches fail to emphasize opportunities for action, when swimmers are informed of their movement errors, their behavior is being criticized. While an environment void of criticism is not required, it is important to understand that any change process is inherently critical, and the act of seeking coaching implies that the swimmer has faults that they desire to address. Communicating movement errors makes this process explicit, and this can have the effect of slowly chipping away at self-confidence. When trying to affect change, coaches should consider how they can emphasize where swimmers want to go, as opposed to directing attention toward what needs to be avoided. While the distinction between emphasizing errors and emphasizing opportunities may seem obvious, many coaches fail to communicate this way. Coaches will tell their swimmers what not to do, as opposed to guiding them toward more effective solutions, and by shifting toward a communication style emphasizing opportunities for action, coaches are more likely to see their swimmers effect positive change.

4.4.1  Directing Attentions toward Achieving Outcomes When directing attention, coaches can direct swimmers’ attention inward with a focus on how they are moving, or they can direct attention externally with a focus on what is trying to be achieved. As a concrete example, consider the swimmer on the starting block, aiming to maximize force output upon hearing the starting signal. A swimmer would be focused internally when trying to “push as hard as possible with the legs” and the swimmer would be focused externally when trying to “push into the block as hard possible.” While these two thought processes may appear similar, one is focused on the movement (using the legs) and one is focused on the outcome (pushing the block), a distinction that can impact performance (Figure 4.1). Across a spectrum of activities, research has demonstrated enhanced performance when performers focus their attention externally (Wulf et al. 2010).

52  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

Specific to swimming, externally focused attention has been shown to positively impact swimming performance (Freudenheim et al. 2010), whereas internally focused attention has been shown to negatively impact swimming performance (Stoate and Wulf 2011). When swimmers are provided with feedback about the achievement of their movement outcomes, they tend to have better learning outcomes (Doma et al. 2022). Considering this evidence, it can be easy to suppose that an external focus of attention is always superior, yet this may not be true in all cases. For young and novice swimmers that have little sense of what to do or how to perform a given activity, it has been my experience that providing instructions referring to how movement occurs may move inexperienced swimmers toward an overall understanding of the basic skills more quickly and efficiently. Especially at the beginning stages of acquiring a new skill, internally focused attention can help a swimmer understand what needs to happen, as the novice might simply need to know what to do with their limbs. Describing movement skills in these terms can help these individuals get the basic structure down. However, once the basic components are in place, the coach can move toward an external focus of attention. In the context of the constraint-led approach, there is a large focus on designing tasks with clear outcome goals and allowing swimmers to search for solutions rather than prescribing those solution. When swimmers are focusing their

FIGURE 4.1 Language

acts as a powerful constraint on action. When coaches better understand the impact their words have on performance and are equipped with tools to communicate effectively, they can more precisely move swimmers toward functional movement solutions.

The Role of Language  53

attention internally, they are more concerned with how they are moving rather than whether their movements accomplish the assigned task. In contrast, when focused externally, swimmers are concerned with achieving specific outcomes and are less concerned with the process they take to achieve those outcomes. By communicating with athletes from an external perspective, coaches can better harmonize with the goals of the constraints-led approach, emphasizing movement outcomes while providing swimmers with the opportunity to discover individually appropriate solutions that achieve the assigned target outcomes, rather than focusing on how these movements occur (Figure 4.1).

4.5  Capturing the Essence of Movement with Holistic Cues Beyond the distinction between an internal and external focus of attention, coaches can also communicate with athletes about the essence of movement through what are known as holistic cues (Abedanzadeh et al. 2022; Mullen et al. 2015). When using either an internal and external focus of attention, there is typically an emphasis on one area of the body, or an emphasis on the movement effects created by one area of the body. However, in repeated cyclic movements such as swimming, no one movement exists in isolation, and any action is influenced by prior movements, and each action subsequently influences successive movements. Each action is part of a complex system that is interrelated and an emphasis on any one component of a constantly repeated movement pattern can disrupt the entire coordination pattern of the swimming stroke. Rather than emphasizing isolated actions, coaches can focus swimmers on the global organization of these actions, how these actions flow together, and the overall sensations these actions create. When looking at cyclic motions, no one action can be given too much priority as each action exists as a critical link in the entire chain. They are connected and swimmers must complete many successive strokes to race successfully. More so than focusing on any one action, to allow for successful linkage between stroke cycles, swimmers must focus on the flow between actions and the global sensations created. When considering the path of the arm, it flows seamlessly from the recovery to the entry to a repositioning phase to the main propulsive phase and back to the recovery. Overly focusing on any one aspect of the arm action will disrupt the flow between these different aspects. When performing repeated, cyclical movements like swimming, particularly at high velocities, a focus on the individual components of the stroke can disrupt the rhythm of the stroke, even when that focus is directed externally. As most swimmers will tend to focus on something while they execute their skills, providing swimmers with an alternative to typical external cues can be effective. Learning to link the various stroking components and swim with rhythm and coordination is a fundamental task of swimming, a learning process where swimmers can learn which holistic or global cues are most appropriate for them. As different phrases will resonate with specific individuals, it’s important to have

54  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

a spectrum of options available. When looking to generate holistic cues, consider the following areas: • • • • • •

Focus on the use of momentum Focus on the critical timing points between limbs Focus on the critical timing points between the limbs and torso Focus on the global sense of rhythm kinesthetically Focus on the rhythm of the torso Determine where the global rhythm is driven from

The focus here is on retaining the interrelatedness between different actions within a stroke, allowing them to function synergistically where each action magnifies the impact of subsequent actions, and coaches can use these ideas as a starting point for the creation of their own holistic cues. Some will be effective for any one individual, and much of the skill of coaching is determining which attentional phrases are best suited for which swimmers, and whether effectiveness of that phrase changes over time, as each swimmer will perceive a given phrase differently, and the outcomes achieved will determine whether a given phrase is functional for a swimmer. In most cases, these cues will not help a swimmer improve a component of the entire action, a task better suited for directed analogies or externally focused instructions. However, they can help swimmers learn to integrate any localized changes in their movements into the whole pattern, as well as provide the best opportunity for swimmers to perform at a high level.

4.6 Prioritizing Language Tools to Align with Movement Objectives Having explored several different strategies for communication, it’s important to know when to implement these different strategies. When choosing to focus attention externally or holistically, it’s critical to determine the intended outcome of the communication, particularly in the context of repeated, cyclical movements such as swimming the strokes. The strategies promoted here may not necessarily apply to one-off movements which are not repeated cyclically, such as performing a start or a turn. Focusing attention externally is very valuable when helping swimmers learn a specific component of the stroke, and as such, phrases that direct attention externally can be considered learning cues. These phrases are particularly useful for facilitating change within isolated actions of the entire swimming stroke, such as when working on the propulsive arm action, or components of it. In contrast, holistic or global cues are more effective for integrating these isolated actions into a rhythmic, coordinative structure, helping swimmers adapt the component parts into the entire movement structure. Because these phrases can optimally facilitate performances, cues that direct attention holistically can be considered performance cues in the swimming context. Both

The Role of Language  55

approaches have merit given an appropriate context, and swimmers and coaches must learn to determine which strategy makes sense for context at hand. Once the learning context has been established, focusing attention externally or using analogy is effective when learning or changing a component of the swimming stroke. When the focus shifts to performance, using holistic cues can become more appropriate as they better integrate the component parts and facilitate rhythmic performance. Important to consider is the time frame for switching between instructional strategies. While there may be a shift toward more global approaches over the course of a competitive season as peak competitions draw near, it can be very valuable to switch approaches on much shorter timescales so that swimmers have time to adapt to these verbal task constraints. This can occur within a training week, within a training day, or within a training set so that swimmers can learn to understand and effectively implement both types of communication. As importantly, they must be able to shift their focus back and forth as required by the training task, a process coaches can facilitate by continually shifting their instructions in a strategic manner that aligns with task goals. When learning is a priority, so too will be learning cues, and when performance is a priority in training during tasks involving elements of racing, performance cues are most appropriate.

4.7  Shaping Movement with Language—An Example To demonstrate how to apply these communication concepts in practice, let’s consider a sprint freestyle swimmer that swims with a very tight, controlled arm recovery. The swimmer struggles to ballistically recover the arms at a high speed in a manner that facilitates rotational timing and a quick repositioning of the arm into the initial phases of the stroke. The intention of the coaching intervention is to open up the arm recovery to allow the athlete to use the momentum of the limb to achieve these aims.

4.7.1  Facilitating Isolated Change The first goal is to create a change in a specific component of the cyclic action, and in this case, the arm recovery must be addressed. Initially, how the change is coordinated within the global structure is a secondary concern compared to an appropriate execution of the component action, and for this reason, focusing attention externally on movement outcomes is most appropriate. If the swimmer is using in a recovery that is perceived to be too low, instruct them to reach for the ceiling which will increase the vertical component, whereas if the resulting recovery is perceived to be too high, swimmers can be instructed to reach for the wall to add a more lateral component to the arm swing. By setting a task constraint of reaching for an external point, the swimmer must unfold the elbow and swing the arm much straighter, and where the swimmer will be instructed to reach toward will modulate the angle the arm has to the water. There isn’t a “right” orientation as this will depend on individual constraints. An example phrase is below:

56  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

“During the recovery, reach as if you want to touch the wall/ceiling.” Rather than focusing attention on achieving a specific movement outcome, a coach could use an analogy to help guide the swimmer toward a more functional solution. Rather than providing specific instructions of how to move, the analogy creates a general concept that the swimmer can explore, as well as providing kinesthetic guideposts to help direct their exploration, as the analogy provides a starting point from which the athlete can search for solutions. This specific analogy below is one example of several that could be used, and coaches should be guided by what is effective and helps to achieve the desired outcome. Based upon the stated goals of the intervention, the following represents a potential instruction: “Recover your arm as if your elbow is in a cast.”

4.7.2  Integrating Change into Complex Movements Once a change has been made within a component structure of the entire swimming stroke, that change still must be effectively integrated into the global movement structure. As the isolated change has been stabilized to some degree, swimmers can then shift their focus to the global structure of the stroke. Considering the example above, the sensation of rotation is intricately tied to central sensation of rhythm in sprint swimming (see Chapter 9 for more), and rotational rhythm is typically facilitated by the recovering action of the arms, which become more ballistic as speed increases (see Chapter 13 for more). Having opened up the arm recovery of our swimmer, the lever of the arms will be longer, which will create more torque to facilitate rotation of the shoulders. By tying the change in the arm recovery with the central rotational rhythm, coaches can integrate the isolated change into the global movement patterns (Figure 4.2). Below are several holistic cues that can take advantage of the increased torque of the arms recovery to facilitate better rhythm, without disrupting any of the flow of the stroke: • • •

“Swing with the rhythm of the stroke” “Swing to front” “Drive the rotation”

These cues retain a focus on the arm recoveries while also referring to the overall sensation of the movement, and the central rhythm present in the stroke, as it encompasses a global focus of action, rather than a specific focus of action. Importantly, the points of focus do not refer to specific areas of the body or the movement effects of any one body area, and rather than trying to specifically influence an aspect of the stroke, it is more about tuning into the sensation of rhythm. When looking to perform, swimmers should be focused on letting it happen as opposed to making it happen, and this approach can work to avoid many of the issues that can come with too much cognitive investment. These

The Role of Language  57

FIGURE 4.2 Creating

a change in the arm recovery of a swimmer is more complicated than a simple instruction. Consideration must be given to the most effective communication to facilitate a change in the isolated area, in this case the arm recovery, as well as how to integrate this change within the entire stroke cycle. By understanding the impact of various communication tools, coaches will more consistently achieve the desired performance outcomes.

cues constrain attention to relevant points of action, all without overly constraining attention to the minute details that will negatively impact performance if over-emphasized.

4.8  Shifting Attention through Rhetorical Questioning Effective communication directs the swimmer’s attention toward the task at hand, and while most coaching communication is focused on providing instructions and feedback, other methods of communication can be very useful. Maintaining task-specific focus under duress, whether physiological or psychological, is one of the most important skills a swimmer can possess. Confidence comes from knowing what to do in any situation and knowing what to do in any situation comes from learning what to do in challenging situations, with effective training sets creating the challenging situations that provide the opportunity for swimmers to learn these skills. Questions are a powerful tool for focusing attention without providing either feedback or instructions. Coaches will often provide feedback such as “Make sure you sustain your stroke rate over the last 15 m.” In contrast, I will ask, “How are you

58  Making Waves—An Introduction to Swimming and Task Constraints

going to sustain your stroke rate?” Swimmers understand this phrase to be a rhetorical question and they also understand that it is their problem to solve, and they must come up with a solution and work to execute it. Similarly, coaches will often provide motivation by making encouraging statement such as, “One more. You can do it!” In contrast, I simply ask, “One more. Can you do it? How are you going to make it happen?” This is done in an encouraging manner, and it requires the swimmer to actively consider if they can accomplish the task, then decide how they’re going to make it happen. Further, let’s say a swimmer is executing their breathing action below an established standard of performance. A coach could point out to the swimmer, “Your breathing is slow/late/off/wrong/etc.” or they could ask, “How was your breathing on that last repetition?” In the former case, swimmers are provided direct criticism, where in contrast, the questioning approach serves a similar function of drawing attention to the breathing action, while not passing any judgment on the action itself. Once presented with the question, it is up to the swimmer to evaluate what is happening, tune into their own intrinsic feedback, and find a solution that aligns with their abilities. Even if the swimmer responds, “it’s good,” you can be assured that they will be paying attention to their breathing over subsequent repetitions. This use of questioning is very much in line with the constraints-led approach in that it serves to steer individuals toward solutions without dictating what those solutions should be. While the purpose of traditional feedback is to guide swimmers toward better movement, the implicit message is that the swimmer’s current ways of moving are wrong and need to be changed. Using questioning as an indirect form of feedback is particularly valuable as attention can be guided without providing criticism. Questioning directs attention in a way that requires swimmers to search for performance solutions rather than passively experience their training. It helps focus attention on the problem at hand and requires each swimmer to engage in solving the movement problems that the assigned task has created for them, rather than providing a solution for the swimmer to implement. It is through this process that swimmers learn to develop the ability to solve problems under pressure, which ultimately leads to the development of confidence. While the process is guided by the coach, it is ultimately the athlete that must do the work, and effective questioning allows coaches to move swimmers closer to finding solutions by highlighting the problems, without strictly prescribing the solutions.

4.9  Facilitating Movement Exploration through Questioning While using questioning to direct attention is a very valuable tool, its greatest value is in facilitating long-term changes in autonomy, focus and engagement, and self-efficacy. Requiring swimmers to explore their perception of how to move through the water allows them to learn tools to better manage their own skill adaptation process. As their ability to perceive how they’re moving is enhanced, so too is their ability to find novel opportunities for action because

The Role of Language  59

rather than relying exclusively on the coach, they’re learning to trust their own feedback. Skillful questions constrain attention appropriately, directing it toward opportunities for action without becoming overly focused on a single solution, allowing coaches to steer attention and help swimmers learn how to manage their thought processes and attentional focus in more productive ways. A shocking number of swimmers will be completely unable to answer the questions directed at them, implying that they are simply not engaged in the learning process, or their engagement is not as deep as it could be. By using questions aimed at facilitating changes in engagement, coaches can facilitate those changes, using questions to require engagement in a manner that they otherwise could not. While coaches can’t “tell” swimmers to be engaged and they can’t “tell” swimmers what to think, they can ask questions that are only answerable by the engaged swimmers. If one asks appropriate questions often enough, swimmers are going to start making sure that they have appropriate answers. Questioning can be profoundly impactful at many levels, as there are many benefits to questioning. In the short-term, questioning is valuable for: •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Reducing the provision of criticism. Rather than providing feedback to swimmers, coaches are encouraging swimmers to become their own sources of feedback. Facilitating autonomy. Questions place responsibility on the swimmers, and they can choose where they place their focus, and what to do with it. They are only accountable to engagement. Engagement. Swimmers cannot effectively answer questions if they are not engaged in the process. The answers come from within, and they only become available if swimmers are paying attention. Attunement. Swimmers are constantly receiving feedback from their sensory systems, yet this feedback is often ignored. Consistent questioning can help swimmers become aware of this rich source of information. Evaluation skills. Once swimmers are aware of the feedback they are receiving, they can learn to evaluate that feedback, for the purpose of guiding the training process. Reinforcing the positive. Most individuals respond to positive feedback. Effective questioning can help to steer swimmers’ attention in a positive direction, creating all the impacts associated with positive outlooks. Short-term rewards. The training process is a long and hard one, with limited positive reinforcement coming with the infrequent achievement of personal bests. Questioning can help create awareness of daily progress on a repetition-to-repetition basis. Facilitating action. Implicit in effective questioning is a call to action. Not only does questioning steer attention, but it also compels swimmers to act upon that information.

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Likewise, questioning is equally effective in the long term for: •

•

•

•

•

Confidence. Confidence comes from success, and it comes from knowing that success was achieved due to personal choices and actions. Confidence comes from knowing what to do in each situation. Questioning helps swimmers learn to find solutions to performance problems. Autonomy. Questioning shows swimmers that they can control their improvement process as it is giving them the tools to identify problems and then develop strategies to create solutions. This results in enhanced autonomy, personal control, and personal responsibility. All these traits support an effective training process. Enhanced problem-solving. The questioning process draws attention to opportunities for improvement and stimulates the process of solving those problems. With time, swimmers learn how to solve movement and training problems, developing their ability to better solve more complex problems in the future. Self-efficacy. As swimmers overcome challenges, their belief in their ability to overcome challenges is supported. This impact on self-efficacy extends beyond that developed by expanding swimming-specific capabilities. Turning around practices and competitions. Swimmers will struggle in training and competition and the ability to improve short-term performance through problem-solving is a skill that can be facilitated through effective questioning. The more consistently swimmers can improve the quality of their training sessions, the more overall performance will progress, and the more swimmers can overcome challenges in competition, the more consistently representative performances will be achieved in competition.

To facilitate movement exploration, lines of questioning don’t need to be extensive, and they don’t need to be complicated, they simply need to be effective.

4.9.1  Was It the Same? Was It Better? Was It Worse? With this line of questioning, rather than providing feedback to swimmers, swimmers are expected to tune into their own intrinsic feedback. They must attune to the information that resides within their body and they must determine how well they executed a prior repetition based solely on how it felt. Further, they must be confident that their interpretation is valid, accurate, and useful. Initially, many swimmers will demonstrate hesitancy when answering these questions, and some of that hesitancy comes from the unfamiliarity of the information they are now becoming attuned to. Its novelty is confusing, and swimmers don’t trust the actionability of that information. They may know what they’re feeling, yet still not trust the utility of that information. A primary role for coaches is to not only ask these questions but reinforce the validity and utility of the responses. It’s not that coaches are looking for

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“right” answers; it’s more about accepting the responses offered and encouraging swimmers to continue to explore the implications of their answers. In this way, coaches can help swimmers learn how to access and process the invaluable kinesthetic information that is constantly present in the environment, and they can then use this information to move more effectively. This simple series of questions creates a foundation for learning that is driven by swimmers while still facilitated by coaches. Without this foundation, simply expecting swimmers to become independent learners will be fraught with failure.

4.9.2  What Was Done Well? What Can Be Done Better? What’s Next? Once a foundation of awareness and confidence has been established, coaches can begin to help swimmers learn how to manage their training and practice experience on a repetition-by-repetition basis. Questions acts as constraints on thought processes, coaches can focus attention on information that swimmers can use to improve their performance. By asking what was done well, and what can be done better, the swimmer must now evaluate their actions. Their awareness must now be used to facilitate improvement by building upon previously successful skilled execution or addressing opportunities for improved execution. The questions are ordered with a specific intent as it is critical to first ask what was done well, and then look for opportunities for improvement. Often, swimmers will focus on their shortcoming rather than their successes, and by consistently asking for the positive, and consistently requiring legitimate responses, coaches can help to build self-efficacy. More successful swimmers and more confident swimmers are almost uniformly better able to assess quickly and confidently what they were successful at. They know what they are good at, they know what their strengths are, and they do not need external acknowledgment of their assessment. This is a skill that swimmers can learn, and it is a skill coaches can facilitate by requiring swimmers to make that assessment. While a realistic focus on the positive can take swimmers a long way, a failure to address shortcomings will ultimately limit performance. In attempt to retain a positive lens on the improvement process, these shortcomings should overtly be labeled as “opportunities” rather than “mistakes” or “errors.” This can prevent swimmers from becoming frustrated with their efforts, instead of continuing to search for opportunities for improvement. This framing further implies action, with the expectation that swimmers can and will do something about any opportunity for improvement. “What can be done better?” implies what should be done better on subsequent repetitions, creating a context of action rather than simply accepting mistakes. Implicit in the question, and implicit in the response, is that swimmers believe they can make the change as it’s asking what can be done. If a swimmer can state that a given skill could be performed better, they can only do so if they believe that they could perform better, and by ensuring that there is confidence in action, there is greater commitment to that action as compared to when

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confidence is lacking. Swimmers can choose where to put their focus—they can either continue to build upon the successes they’ve achieved by continuing to develop their successes, or they can address the opportunities they perceive as ripe for improvement. While this assessment should occur quickly and intuitively, swimmers are asking themselves the following questions, particularly when their goals are oriented toward maximizing performance. • • •

Where is the best opportunity for success? What is the greatest likelihood of success? What is the greatest reward for success?

If swimmers believe that a given course of action maximizes the outcomes of these questions, they will be committed to that course of action. Further, when they are successful based upon their choices, they will be further empowered by their success. This contrasts with when coaches dictate where swimmers should place their focus as there is often misalignment between what the coach believes is possible and what the swimmer believes is possible. This disjunction will undermine motivation, effort, and, in the long-term, performance. Effective questioning does not diminish the role of the coach, it simply changes it. By asking better questions, coaches can constrain swimmers’ thought process, ultimately steering their attention toward opportunities for action that are more likely to result in finding novel and functional movement solutions.

4.10 Conclusion—Appropriately Constraining Movement through Language When using during appropriately designed sets, language is a powerful tool for shaping movement by constraining movement options. Effective language functions to further constrain attention and action during well-designed sets, rather than serving as the primary means of constraining movement. When used in this context, coaches should avoid language that rigidly prescribe movement solutions, instead opting for communication that guides swimmers toward more effective solutions while still allowing swimmers to explore various options. Being intentional with communication styles allows coaches to best foster skill adaptation and the search for more functional movement solutions. By focusing attention appropriately, skillfully employing analogies, and asking insightful questions, the coach can increase the effectiveness of any training task by guiding swimmers toward solutions while allowing swimmers to find the solutions that will work best for them. Task goals and verbal instructions create further constraints on movement opportunities, which can move them toward performance solutions, amplifying the impact of an appropriately assigned task. By observing swimmer behavior and reflecting on word choice, coaches can become more and more effective at appropriately communicating swimmers, helping them move closer to individualized optimized skill sets.

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References Abedanzadeh, R., Becker, K., and Mousavi, S. 2022. Both a holistic and external focus of attention enhance the learning of a badminton short serve. Psychological Research. 86:141–49. Doma, K., Engel, A., Connor, J., and Gahreman, D. 2022. Effects of knowledge of results and change-oriented feedback on swimming performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology Performance. Apr 1;17(4):556–61. Freudenheim, A., Wulf, G., Madureira, F., Pasetto, S., and Corrêa, U. 2010. An external focus of attention results in greater swimming speed. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 5(4):533–42. Lam, W. K., Maxwell, J., and Masters, R. 2009. Analogy learning and the performance of motor skills under pressure. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Jun;31(3):337–57. Mullen, R., Faull, A., Jones, E., and Kingston, K. 2015. Evidence for the effectiveness of holistic process goals for learning and performance under pressure. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 17:40–4. Papic, C., Andersen, J., Naemi, R., Hodierne, R., and Sanders, R. 2021. Augmented feedback can change body shape to improve glide efficiency in swimming. Sports Biomechanics. Apr;6:1–20. Stoate, I., and Wulf, G. 2011. Does the attentional focus adopted by swimmers affect their performance? International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 6(1):99–108. Wulf, G., Shea, C., and Lewthwaite, R. 2010. Motor skill learning and performance: A review of influential factors. Medical Education. Jan;44(1):75–84.

SECTION 2

Manipulating Individual Constraints

Introduction Each swimmer brings a different set of individual characteristics and capabilities to each training task and the learning environment. Differences exist between individuals in physical size, joint range of motion, muscular strength, psychological aggressiveness, and more. These differences can be both subtle and substantial. An incomplete list can be found in Figure S2.1, as there are countless ways in which swimmers can differ from each other. Further, these differences interact with task and environmental constraints, and these interactions will act to determine the most functional effective solution for each swimmer in any situation. While many unique characteristics are unalterable, such as bone length in mature athletes, there are many that can be changed, such as muscle strength. However, it is important to note that these individual differences may be very subtle as in the examples provided in Figure S2.2. The individual characteristics of each swimmer affects performance for a given task. To understand the impact of these differences, it is important to observe how each swimmer reacts to a given task and assess how the actual outcomes align with the desired outcomes. There must be congruency between the task and the individual for successful outcomes to occur. This is further complicated by the process of maturity, as swimmers will be experiencing various physical changes resulting from the growth process, thus changing their relationship to the task they are assigned in training. In this section, the discussion will center around how coaches manipulate individual constraints to affect opportunities for skill acquisition and developing physiological capacities. Tasks goals and verbal instruction manipulations are often the primary means through which coaches plan training, whether consciously applying a constraints-led approach or not. Often overlooked is the DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-6

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FIGURE S2.1 

Individual constraints found in swimming.

ability to intentionally alter the individual constraints of an individual. While strategically altering limb length, muscle attachment sites, and height is not possible, other physiological and biomechanical traits can be acutely altered to influence skill development. By changing what each swimmer brings to that given task, it will allow them to explore new ways of moving through the water effectively. Coaches can affect the physical readiness of the individual, either by introducing fatigue or by creating a potentiated state. By doing so strategically, coaches can force their swimmers to find novel solutions to the same movement problems. Likewise, coaches can also “alter” the physical structure of their swimmers through the use of training aids. Coaches can temporarily change the physical structure of an individual, which will change how that individual accomplishes the assigned training task. In every case, these interventions have unique and distinct impacts on swimmer performance and the learning opportunities they create. Each of these strategies and their specific utility will be addressed. Building upon the previous chapters, these interventions are most effective when implemented on the backbone of effective task design, effective task goals, and

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FIGURE S2.2 

Understanding individual constraints in practice.

task instructions. This section will focus on how to manipulate individual constraints with short-term and long-term training interventions, as well as how to manipulate individual constraints by temporarily altering a swimmer’s physical dimensions through the use of training aids.

5 MANIPULATING PHYSIOLOGY FOR TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT

5.1  Physiology as a Constraint on Action As discussed in the previous section, a well-designed task has clear intentions with clear outcomes that are to be achieved. Coaches should know exactly what they’re trying to achieve when designing a set, and this clarity should be communicated to swimmers so that every swimmer approaches each task with strong intentions, enhancing the likelihood that a set will change how a swimmer moves through the water. However, the outcomes achieved during a given task are not determined by the task alone as they are also influenced by the individual, as discussed in Chapter 1. In particular, the short-term physiological state of the individual, the presence or absence of various types of fatigue, acts as an individual constraint on performance. This chapter will examine how changes in physiology, one subsystem of the body, can influence the expression of skill. Constraints can differ between individuals (inter-individual variability) and within individuals (intra-individual variability). As any coach will recognize, different individuals will achieve different outcomes for the same task due to the various factors described in Chapter 1, an example of how task constraints and individual constraints interact. Just as important, the same individual can experience different outcomes in the short term and the long term. In the short term, variable outcomes can be determined by fatigue, both the nature of the fatigue and the degree of the fatigue. For instance, the fatigue from a set of push-ups to muscular failure will differentially impact performance compared to a rigorous kick set. Likewise, so too will a kick set of moderate challenge. In the long term, performance outcomes can be dictated by a gain or loss of physical capacities, as different outcomes will be achieved by the same swimmer performing the same set when at peak fitness as compared to when they are coming off a four-week break from training. DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-7

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Because individuals are always changing, the individual response to a training set can be manipulated by altering the physiological state of the swimmer. This relationship between the individual and the task can be exploited to further constrain how a swimmer achieves task goals, thus allowing coaches to strategically move swimmers closer to optimal movements solutions. Importantly, by structuring sets in this way, coaches are helping swimmers move toward optimal solutions for them, as opposed to moving them closer to an idealized model, a concept that will be discussed further in Chapter 9. This chapter will explore the theoretical rationale for manipulating the individual response to a training set and demonstrate how to practically apply that rationale to create sets that help swimmers solve movement problems.

5.2  Altering Physiological Constraints to Force Adaptive Change As technical swimming parameters are closely tied to physiological outputs (see Chapter 2 for more), the physical capabilities a swimmer possesses will directly affect stroke performance. For example, if a swimmer can create large amounts of force, they will have more movement options as compared to a swimmer that cannot. The stronger athlete has the potential to move more water with each stroke, thereby increasing propulsion of the body through the water. Similarly, the swimmer with a highly trained cardiovascular system is going to be better able to continue to hold that same amount of water for a 15-minute race as compared to a swimmer that does not have the same level of fitness because they have the capacity to create the necessary energy to sustain movement. In this way, the particular traits of an individual influence their options for moving through the water. Because of the relationship between physiology and skilled performance, if coaches change physiological abilities, they can help the swimmer change performance possibilities. While it is obvious that coaches can enhance this relationship over time through training by increasing these abilities, coaches can also alter this relationship in the short term if the coach acutely manipulates physical readiness. It’s intuitively evident that a swimmer is not going to be physically ready to race following a two-hour weightlifting session or a three-hour swimming session, as the swimmer’s physiological readiness will be depressed due to short-term fatigue. This short-term change in performance capabilities due to short-term fatigue can be leveraged to influence skills. By strategically introducing fatigue and altering physical readiness, coaches can manipulate constraints within an individual to induce the exploration of new skills or enhance the stability of current skills. The body is a complex system composed of many highly interactive parts that self-organize to achieve goals. The purpose of these interventions is to reduce the functional capacity of some component of the physical system, so that other components must compensate to successfully accomplish the task. As one part compensates and adjusts for changes in other component parts, short-term change in one system will require adaptive change in another, which can lead to

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new performance possibilities. When attempting to enhance the stability of current skills, fatigue creation should be significant enough to challenge the ability to sustain skilled performance. This provides an opportunity to enhance the stability of existing skills in the fatiguing contexts that will be experienced in races. In contrast to the approach of engineering learning opportunities in fatigued situations, physical capacities can be temporarily enhanced through a process known as post-activation potentiation (Neale and Bishop 2009; Wilson et al. 2013). This phenomenon is characterized by a temporary increase in muscle force due to the influence of prior high-force muscle contractions. This enhanced physical output can be useful for helping swimmers explore new movement possibilities that were previously inaccessible, particularly at high velocity. These same strategies can improve subsequent performance by directly affecting physical and technical components in a synergistic way, leading to much larger changes in outcomes than if they were explored separately. Thus, coaches have two primary strategies when seeking to manipulate individual constraints in the short term. They can choose to introduce fatigue, or they can temporarily improve force production capacities with brief, high-force stimuli. When taking either approach, it is critical for the coach to understand that different interventions will have different effects dependent on the intended outcome and the strategy implemented. The positive effects of these interventions allow swimmers to: • • • • • • •

Build technical resiliency and robustness under fatigue. Create novel opportunities for skill adaptation by manipulating various links in the kinetic chain. Learn to adopt different technical and tactical approaches under varying states of fatigue. Discover how to retain technical efficiency in a variety of physical contexts. Explore the critical aspects of skilled swimming under pressure when exposed to a variety of fatigue states. Help swimmers learn to find a path to success, no matter how compromised the circumstances. Discover novel technical skills available only in situations of greater physical stress.

In this chapter, I will describe the practical options available to coaches, as well as which considerations the coach should make when choosing a particular approach. As informed by the constraints-led approach, each intervention is creating or removing constraints at the individual level by altering the physical resources available to each swimmer. When the swimmer is then required to perform race-specific tasks in an “altered” state, they must find novel solutions because their physical resources differ as compared to those that are typically available. By carefully targeting how coaches alter physical readiness, they can alter the type of performance solution the swimmer is more likely to select. This

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provides the opportunity for the coach to facilitate specific changes that would be otherwise unavailable when using traditional training tasks. For instance, very different strategies are required when approaching race simulations with fatigued arms versus fatigued legs, and robust swimmers must be able to manage all potential racing environments.

5.3  Manipulating Fatigue to Remove Movement Options If certain physical systems or areas of the body are fatigued, the swimmer must use other resources to accomplish the goal at hand. As an example, if the legs are compromised, the upper body must compensate so that a given task goal is achieved. By removing a movement solution (relying on the legs), the swimmers must find a new one (relying on the arms) that still accomplishes the objective set forth by the task at hand. When introducing fatigue to create technical and psychological learning, I ask myself a simple question with broad implications: How can I create situations where swimmers must manage compromised physical abilities in race-representative contexts, so that they must learn to struggle effectively, aggressively, and efficiently? Creating a variety of appropriate, race-relevant challenges will best prepare swimmers psychologically, technically, and physiologically to handle the unpredictability of the competitive environment. For example, as referenced in Chapter 3, fatigue reduces the ability to produce power, resulting in a progressive loss of stroke length and a reorganization of stroking parameters (Alberty et al. 2009). By introducing various types of fatigue while requiring swimmers to maintain their stroke length, swimmers must learn to find movement solutions that counteract the negative impact of fatigue on stroke length. When considering the various strategies described below, understand that the categorization of these strategies is somewhat artificial and there is overlap between different constructs. When viewed from a theoretical perspective, each intervention is impacting a specific aspect of physical readiness, constraining performance in some specific way, and the swimmer must learn to find new functional solutions to satisfy the intended task constraint while working with the “newly acquired” individual constraint. For certain contexts, imposing specific types of fatigue is more relevant, although any intervention will create a novel environment in which learning can be enhanced. In this respect, they can all have value in any context.

5.3.1  How Terrestrial versus Aquatic Fatigue Impacts Movement Options As a starting point, the coach has the choice as to whether to pre-fatigue swimmers through aquatic, water-based activities, or terrestrial, land-based activities, with each providing unique benefits. With terrestrial fatigue, large amount

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of fatigue can be generated without inducing any technical breakdown of the swimming stroke, and the downside of such an approach is that there is much less physiological benefit from the fatigue protocol itself, as it will not be specific to swimming. However, for some swimmers, it may be psychologically easier to induce fatigue out of the water versus in the water. This can allow them to consolidate their psychological energy for the main stimulus, the post-fatigue swimming effort. Due to their psychological make-up and the nature of their events, sprinters benefit from being able to consolidate their psychological effort and focus into one or two swims after the fatigue-inducing effort and may particularly benefit from land-based fatigue interventions. In contrast, when creating fatigue in the water, swimmers are using movements and metabolic systems that are highly specific to swimming competition, and these movements will be producing a positive training adaptation while also creating the necessary fatigue for learning. It is important to appreciate how the individual characteristics of each swimmer will determine the utility of the intervention. A different psychological or physiological make-up will affect whether a given intervention is appropriate. There is a consistent interaction between the individual and the task that result in performance emerging, which can be functional or not. Some individuals will respond very well to a given intervention and other swimmers will respond poorly due to the interaction between the task and the constraints each swimmer brings to the task. As an example of this interaction, consider that aquatic fatigue tends to work best for overloading athlete metabolic systems, whereas terrestrial interventions prove superior when the training goal is stressing the muscular systems. Without on-deck cardiovascular equipment, it is very hard to simulate the sustained cardiovascular response that distance swimmers require, without creating impact loading of the legs that swimmers are often unprepared for. Further, as extensive training volumes are required for distance training success, it makes little sense to include extra nonspecific work on land at the expense of the necessary training volume. Unless there is an injury situation where training volumes in the pool must be severely limited, it is hard to provide justification for such training design, particularly for the distance swimmer. The individual constraints common to this group of athletes makes certain interventions more appropriate than others.

5.3.2 Altering Movement by Strategically Introducing Fatigue in Localized Areas Beyond the issue of how fatigue is introduced, coaches should consider where fatigue is introduced. Localized fatigue can be distinguished from systemic fatigue in that it affects a specific region of the body whereas systemic fatigue affects the entire body. By introducing fatigue to one specific area of the body, other areas are forced to compensate to achieve the assigned performance outcomes (see Figures 5.1–5.4). As an example, consider performing 50 m swims at

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200 m race velocity in two conditions. In one case, these repetitions are preceded by a challenging segment of kicking and in the other case they are not. By reducing the physical capacities of one area of the body, the legs in this example, other areas must compensate to accomplish the 200 m race efforts. By altering how local systems operate within the individual, the coach is altering key intrinsic feedback information that the swimmer receives for a given training task, and the swimmer must now adapt by using this new information to find new solutions, which have the potential to result in functional change. The swimmer can only become attuned to these specific variables by altering what is happening internally. When performing 50 m swims at 200 m velocity under normal conditions, the swimmer is used to experiencing a certain amount of relative fatigue

FIGURE 5.1 

Aquatic, leg-focused localized fatigue—kicking and speed endurance.

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in the legs and in the arms. In our example, that relationship is now altered as the legs are now experiencing a disproportionately large amount of fatigue, yet the swimmer is still expected to accomplish the task at hand, facilitating the discovery of a new performance solution. Beyond the discovery of novel performance solutions, local fatigue can be useful for helping swimmers learn to stabilize movement patterns while facing the physical stress experienced in the racing environment. To race effectively, swimmers must execute their skills with a high level of proficiency while experiencing high amounts of fatigue, a skill that should be practiced if coaches expect swimmers to demonstrate this proficiency when it matters in races. Sets designed to create localized fatigue in targeted muscular systems will require swimmers to consistently execute their skills despite this loss of function. As one

FIGURE 5.2 Terrestrial,

endurance.

leg-focused localized fatigue—jump squats and speed

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example, by fatiguing the latissimus, deltoid, and pectoral muscles of the upper body through strenuous pulling tasks, and then immediately moving into a race simulation environment, swimmers are required to learn how to effectively create propulsion despite compromised upper body force capabilities. This strategy can be applied to any number of skills through any number of training tasks. In contrast to localized fatigue, systemic fatigue occurs when the entire neuromuscular and cardiovascular system is fatigued prior to race-specific efforts. This type of intervention is particularly appropriate for middle distance and distance swimmers due to the sustained output that racing these events demands. In these events, the failure to maintain skilled performance is often due to the inability to meet whole body energy demands, as opposed to localized muscle fatigue,

FIGURE 5.3 

Terrestrial, arm-focused localized fatigue—butterfly.

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and introducing systemic fatigue is critical for stabilizing skills under a variety of physiological conditions. However, to benefit from these practices from a technical perspective, it is imperative that the coach instill technical parameters that must be adhered to during these training tasks. For instance, coaches could add task constraints explored in Chapter 3, such as specific stroke counts or stroke frequencies following the introduction of fatigue. These constraints serve to reinforce skilled performance, making it more robust to the challenges presented by the racing environment.

FIGURE 5.4 

Systemic fatigue—distance freestyle.

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5.3.3 The Impact of Fatiguing Muscles as Opposed to Metabolic Systems on Skilled Movement When introducing fatigue, the coach can introduce fatigue that is muscular or cardiovascular and metabolic in nature (see Figures 5.5–5.8). While muscular fatigue tends to be local in nature and cardiovascular fatigue tends to be more systemic, this is not always the case. Overloading the muscular system will typically consist of strength-focused exercises which compromise the swimmer’s ability to create force, and after a brief rest, the swimmer would be asked to swim at any number of race-specific efforts. The challenge for the swimmer is to create high-force outputs and achieve designated performance objectives when force production capabilities are impaired. This type of training is most conducive for sprinters learning how to effectively finish races, as well as distance swimmers learning to develop a finishing kick. By placing a large load on the

FIGURE 5.5 

Aquatic, arm-focused muscular fatigue—breaststroke.

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neuromuscular system prior to race-specific training, swimmers must learn to produce race-specific velocities when force production is significantly compromised. A constraint is placed on individual capabilities for action, and swimmers must still accomplish the intended task goals by finding new movement solutions. In contrast, pre-fatiguing the cardiorespiratory and metabolic systems prior to race-specific tasks challenges the swimmer to continue to produce energy at high rates while executing race-specific skills. This strategy typically consists of a series of swims that raise the heart rate, following repetitions that require race-specific velocities. The swimmer is forced to manage skilled performance at race intensities while experiencing metabolic fatigue that is similar to the racing environment. This type of training is particularly valuable for those swimmers that compete in races requiring a large aerobic component as swimmers can learn

FIGURE 5.6 

Terrestrial, arm-focused muscular fatigue—breaststroke.

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to perceive and utilize the key information sources that they must be aware of under fatigue. By exposing these swimmers to tasks that represent the competitive environments through the manipulation of individual constraints, we are creating the opportunity for them to use these key information variables to regulate their actions. By overloading the metabolic systems prior to race-specific efforts, swimmers must then find a way to meet the energy demands necessary for fast swimming and move in ways that reduce the energy demand of swimming through short-term and long-term technical changes, as well as chronic physical adaptation.

FIGURE 5.7 

Aquatic cardio-respiratory fatigue—butterfly.

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FIGURE 5.8 

Terrestrial cardio-respiratory fatigue—butterfly.

5.4  Using Post-Activation Potentiation to “Remove” Constraints While introducing fatigue is a powerful tool for temporarily altering the constraints within a swimmer, other opportunities for altering exist as well. Postactivation potentiation (PAP) occurs when a previous muscular contraction enhances the magnitude of subsequent muscular contractions, a process like that can result in temporary increases in physical output (Robbins 2005). In contrast to introducing fatigue, where individual movement opportunities become

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more constrained, potentiation results in the temporary removal of individual constraints. As technical skill and physical capacities are related, a concept discussed in Chapter 2, these increased outputs can create unique opportunities for increased skill adaptation. Rather than simply lacking “skill,” individuals may not possess the physical qualities needed to execute certain skills, as they cannot achieve the necessary force, they cannot achieve the necessary range of motion, or they cannot achieve some combination of the two to accomplish a given task. Thus, their physical abilities constrain their movement options. However, interventions that can temporarily increase force production or range of motion allow individuals to access skilled movements that would otherwise be impossible for them to perform, as a brief window is opened where constraints are removed, and movement options are enhanced. By creating new possibilities for action, new possibilities for perception are created. As this relationship is reciprocal, this will allow for swimmers to better explore their options for skilled movement as well, and they can gain a better understanding of which sources of information from the external or internal environment are most relevant to skilled performance. One strategy is to provide a local conditioning (PAP) stimulus to a given muscle group or muscle system to a component action of the whole stroke. An example would be to perform some sort of “activation” exercise for the muscles of the upper body prior to performing sprints in the pool, allowing the swimmer to better engage these muscles in their swimming. PAP can also be used globally during resisted or assisted swimming activities to facilitate performance adaptation, allowing the swimmer to achieve a velocity they would otherwise be unable to attain without the intervention. Not only will the swimmer learn the feeling of moving through the water at higher velocities, but the swimmer can also learn how to manage resistive drag, create propulsion, and appropriately coordinate the limbs at higher speeds. Many coaches have seen swimmers “look great” after performing a short block of resisted swimming, a practical example of post-activation that most coaches are familiar with. As force production is lower in the water as compared to land-based activities, aquatic potentiation protocols will tend to be longer in duration and require shorter recovery periods. Even if “true” potentiation is not occurring from a physiological perspective, these strategies tend to create greater proprioceptive awareness of the muscles utilized, which can give swimmers better “perceptual awareness” of these body regions. This heightened awareness serves remove constraints within the sensory systems, providing swimmers with access to previously unavailable sensory information, which can lead swimmers to explore movement opportunities they were previously unaware of. In many cases, swimmers have these movement options available, but they have not had the sensory experience that allows these options to become discoverable. Once swimmers are attuned to these sensations, they can then attempt to recreate these same sensations in the water.

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From a biomechanical perspective, and further supported by the actions of elite swimmers, effective pulling actions in all four strokes are accomplished by the adductors and extensors of the shoulder, as will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 9 (Adams 2001). Unfortunately, this pulling action is counterintuitive to many swimmers, and it can be difficult to create awareness of what this movement should feel like. Pairing relevant kinesthetically rich movements outside of the pool with high-velocity swimming in the pool can help swimmers learn to perceive these opportunities for action. By providing appropriate kinesthetic feedback in a foreign environment, swimmers can learn what effective action feels like, and then aim to these sensations in the pool. When helping swimmers explore these muscular patterns outside of the pool, an environmental constraint on coaching is removed and coaches can more effectively provide feedback and adjustments during the movement, communication that would be otherwise impossible due to the barriers created by the water. Manageable amounts of fatigue can also act as a “potentiating” stimulus by helping swimmers “feel” how they are moving as fatigue creates greater sensory awareness at the location of fatigue. Even if fatigue is constraining force potential, it may be potentiating movement by increasing sensation in the targeted area. The amount of fatigue introduced must be appropriate to the individual and the goals of the intervention. If fatigue is excessive, performance will be compromised, and the swimmer will not be able to effectively execute their skills. While it should be very challenging to successfully execute skills, there should be some degree of success, which serves as an indicator as to whether an intervention is a potentiating one versus a fatiguing one.

5.4.1  Terrestrial-Based Global Potentiation with High-Force Overloads High-load resistance training movements have been demonstrated to positively impact force outputs when performed immediately before swimming starts (Cuenca-Fernández et al. 2019; Waddingham et al. 2021). When considering the importance of the starting action during elite sprint competitions, this can be an important avenue for improved performance with certain populations. While the high-load exercises may be logistically challenging to implement in major competitions with ready rooms where athletes must wait to perform, other highforce options are available for coaches to test out (i.e., jump-based strategies), with the most important consideration being whether the chosen program is safe and repeatable. Clearly, an injury ten minutes before a major race is unacceptable, and the intervention must be able to be implemented regardless of the venue. Coaches must bear these considerations in mind if choosing to move forward with such strategies. For those with facilities that can accommodate these ideas in practice, heavily loaded potentiation methods can be used to enable improved

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FIGURE 5.9 

Terrestrial-based global potentiation—pull-ups or deadlifts.

performances in training. Another option is to heavily load the upper body in the training environment to create a similar effect, and as most pools have access to pull-up bars, this is a more feasible option for many coaches. See Figure 5.9 for examples of these options.

5.4.2 Terrestrial-Based Local Potentiation to Increase Kinesthetic Awareness Land-based potentiation can be a terrific way to influence skill adaptation by improving kinesthetic awareness. An individual’s lack of sensory awareness will constrain their ability to change how they move, and interventions that enhance awareness can serve to temporarily remove these constraints. As effective

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propulsive actions in swimming are counterintuitive for most humans, many swimmers struggle to conceptualize what these movements should feel like. Rather than coaches trying to describe what these movements should look and feel like, it can be more effective to put swimmers in positions where they can explore and perceive aspects of what effective movement feels like. Land-based exercises that represent similar components of effective swimming actions can serve this purpose, and when these exercises are paired with swimming efforts, transfer can be facilitated. Important to note is that the activation exercises do not necessarily require movement, as isometric contractions in key positions can be very effective. Example sets that illustrate these concepts can be found in Figures 5.10 and 5.11.

FIGURE 5.10 

Terrestrial local potentiation—breaststroke.

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FIGURE 5.11 

Terrestrial local potentiation—butterfly.

5.4.3 Aquatic-Based Global Potentiation to Improve Force Production and Application Aquatic-based global potentiation consists of using training aids in the water to create force and velocity overloads, which will be discussed in much greater detail in Chapters 6 and 7. These strategies can partially remove constraints on force production and allow swimmers to practice swimming fast without these constraints. As described above, potentiation protocols performed in the water are more extensive, less intensive, and require less recovery between repetitions as compared to effective strategies on land. This is reflected in the sets selected described in Figures ­5.12–5.14. As much as physiological potentiation is occurring through enhanced force production, this strategy also creates “technical potentiation” in that the stimulus can help guide swimmers toward more effective movement patterns, a concept that will be explored in further detail in the next section. These types of interventions can enhance the ability to

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FIGURE 5.12 

Aquatic global potentiation—distance freestyle.

create force, while simultaneously increasing ability to skillfully apply force. For instance, swimming crawl with a parachute has been shown to improve the timing of force application between the arms, while also creating a physical overload (Schnitzler et al. 2010; Telles et al. 2011). All three sets serve to potentiate high-velocity performance physically and technically. The nature of the potentiation methods is reflective of the nature of the racing efforts, with shorter potentiation efforts being paired with short racing efforts, and longer potentiation efforts paired with longer racing efforts to ensure congruency between each component of the set.

FIGURE 5.13 

Aquatic global potentiation—middle distance.

FIGURE 5.14 

Aquatic global potentiation—sprint.

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5.4.4 Aquatic-Based Local Potentiation for Targeted Skill Development While potentiation during full stroke swimming is a powerful tool to create change, potentiation can also be used in the water to influence specific components of the swimming stroke. By specifically targeting certain areas of the body, those areas can be preferentially influenced, either enhancing force production or creating sensory awareness. This is particularly useful when there is a technical or physical deficiency that originates within a component part of the whole stroke. In the examples in Figures 5.15–5.17, specific aspects of the stroke are targeted to create physical and technical changes in these specific areas, which is particularly useful for addressing technical challenges over time.

FIGURE 5.15 

Aquatic local potentiation—middle distance freestyle.

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FIGURE 5.16 

Aquatic local potentiation—breaststroke kicking.

When considering the concept of potentiation, most research has investigated the physiological changes that result from these interventions, with little research investigating the potential for technical potentiation to arise from these interventions. Not only can potentiation affect physical outputs, but it can also positively influence the efficient application of these outputs. In my estimation, most acute changes that arise from the sets below are a result of technical potentiation, more so than physical potentiation, as swimmers learn how to create, sustain, and apply force more effectively. In the short term, swimmers are learning to apply force more effectively, more so than they are learning to create larger forces. While I see the distinction between physiological and technical potentiation as somewhat artificial due to the close relationship between physical readiness and technical application, it is very useful for coaches to understand how loading can facilitate changes in skilled performance as well. Traditionally, coaches would aim to solve localized technical problems by isolating components of the stroke. By using effective task constraints and influencing individual constraints, coaches can shape skills through targeted interventions that occur within the

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FIGURE 5.17 

Aquatic local potentiation—underwater kicking and backstroke.

context of normal swimming movements, thereby maintaining the integrity of the whole stroke, without decomposing it into its constituent parts (see Chapter 8 for more). The more similar the learning environment is to the competitive one, the more likely what is being learned will positively impact competitive performance. Thus, potentiation becomes a technical process as much as a physical process, facilitating skill adaptation in addition to developing the relevant musculature.

5.5 Conclusion How can you modify an individual’s readiness to complete a task? How can you do so strategically to facilitate learning in some manner? When considering these questions from a constraints-based perspective, new possibilities exist for developing swimmers and for solving stubborn problems of performance. In many cases, attempting to apply theoretical approaches does not change practice, yet effective ideas stimulate new opportunities to solve technical, psychological, and tactical problems. All it requires is an assessment of the problem, an understanding of the individual, and evaluation of the options that exist. While some

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ideas in this chapter may be immediately applicable, others may not; it is all about having options for when they are necessary. By manipulating constraints to alter the current state of the swimmer, either by perturbing or enhancing physical capacities, the coach has a unique opportunity to influence the coordination tendencies that emerge. By deliberately impacting specific muscular or bodily systems, the coach can force the swimmer to compensate, adjust, and adapt as swimmers will need to find alternative movement strategies or more efficiently use the resources that remain to accomplish a set task goal. By constraining how swimmers can move through the water by introducing fatigue, they are forced to explore and discover new ways of accomplishing the goals of a given set. Powerful, short-term modifications of individual capacities through the introduction of fatigue and potentiation is not the only way to modify the constraints that each individual brings to a training set. As will be demonstrated in the next chapter, coaches can create short-term manipulations of the structure and anatomy of individual swimmers to create new opportunities for moving through the water in effective and efficient ways.

References Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Alberty, M., Sidney, M., Pelayo, P., and Toussaint, H. 2009. Stroking characteristics during time to exhaustion tests. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Mar;41(3):637–44. Cuenca-Fernández, F., López-Contreras, G., Mourão, L., de Jesus, K., de Jesus, K., Zacca, R., Vilas-Boas, P., Fernandes, R., and Arellano, R. 2019. Eccentric flywheel post-activation potentiation influences swimming start performance kinetics. Journal of Sports Science. Feb;37(4):443–451. Neale, A., and Bishop, D. 2009. Factors modulating post-activation potentiation and its effect on performance of subsequent explosive activities. Sports Medicine. 39(2):147–66. Robbins, D. 2005. Postactivation potentiation and its practical applicability: A brief review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. May;19(2):453–8. Schnitzler, C., Brazier, T., Button, C., Seifert, L., and Chollet, D. 2011. Effect of velocity and added resistance on selected coordination and force parameters in front crawl. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Oct;25(10):2681–90. Telles, T., Barbosa, A., Campos, M., Andries Junior, O. 2011. Effect of hand paddles and parachute on the index of coordination of competitive crawl-strokers. Journal of Sports Science. Feb;29(4):431–8. Waddingham, D., Millyard, A., Patterson, S., and Hill, J. 2021. Effect of ballistic potentiation protocols on elite sprint swimming: Optimizing performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Oct 1;35(10):2833–8. Wilson, J., Duncan, N., Marin, P., Brown, L., Loenneke, J., Wilson, S., Jo, E., Lowery, R., and Ugrinowitsch, C. 2013. Meta-analysis of postactivation potentiation and power: Effects of conditioning activity, volume, gender, rest periods, and training status. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Mar;27(3):854–9.

6 TRAINING AIDS—THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

6.1  Structure as an Individual Constraint As initially discussed in Chapter 1, the outcome of each training task will be influenced by the individual characteristics of the swimmers performing the task, as the constraints imposed by the task interact with the constraints intrinsic to each swimmer. As described in the last chapter, the presence of fatigue directly influences these outcomes, and manipulating individual constraints at the physiological level can create a platform for effective skill adaptation and physiological development. While an individual’s physiology will impact the outcomes experienced, so too will their physical structure. In contrast to manipulating physiological constraints, this chapter will look at practical strategies to influence skill adaptation through the manipulation of structural constraints with training aids. The length and density of the bones, the surface area of the body moving through the water, the size of the lungs, the position of the center of mass, and joint structure all impact performance, constraints unique to each swimmer. Barring extreme surgical intervention, these anatomical traits are relatively static, being shaped over timescales of maturation, growth, development, ageing, as well as (de)training. However, that doesn’t mean they cannot be altered over much shorter timescales, if only temporarily, by using training aids. With training aids, the dimensions of the hands and feet can be changed, the amount of drag the body creates can be altered, and the center of mass can be moved. These interventions allow coaches to manipulate the physical traits of the swimmers they work with and the dynamical properties of the swimmer–water system (the properties of each swimmer interacting with properties of the aquatic environment) during training, which allows swimmers the opportunity to be exposed to new ways of moving through the water. Prior to getting into the practical aspects of manipulating structural constraints with training aids, I will outline the rationale for doing so, as well as the DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-8

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thought process behind the origin of these ideas. The major purpose for using training aids is to encourage the exploration of technical skills to facilitate skill adaptation by providing unique opportunities to interact with the aquatic environment. Manipulating structural constraints can create unique learning environments otherwise inaccessible without the application of a variety of training aids. Using training aids is an active process, as coaches must be vigilant in assessing whether a given task aligns with a given individuals needs and capabilities, as there may be unintended consequences of use of training aids as swimmers explore the adapted task constraints. Beyond the technical learning opportunities, training aids can help to concurrently develop the physical adaptations that support skilled performance, specific strength, and specific strength endurance, by taking a progressive and systematic approach to overloading physical and technical abilities. This chapter will examine the theoretical framework for implementing training aids to manipulate individual constraints, and these ideas will be practically applied in the chapter that follows.

6.2  How Anatomy Influences Swimming Success Different individuals bring different characteristics to the learning environment, and they are constrained by these characteristics. While several constraints such as joint range of motion or muscle strength can be manipulated at an individual level over time, anthropometric characteristics such as height or limb length cannot. When considered from a constraints-led perspective, what is often considered “talent” can reconsidered as “functionality.” Functionality is simply the alignment of individual constraints with task and environmental constraints. These individuals are suited for the sports they pursue due to their unique characteristics, and they function at higher performance levels as a result. From a purely visual perspective, it’s easy to see why an elite basketball player or gymnast excel at their chosen sports, where one is tall and lanky, the other short and compact. Both sports have their own requirements for success, and those individuals with more appropriate physical resources will have more opportunities to be more successful in their respective sport. The higher the level of competition, the more all individuals tend to align with the operating constraints, as individual-task alignment tends to be a competitive advantage. However, because alignment can operate at many different levels, there is often variability of characteristic properties of successful performers, with each person possessing a unique suite of traits that effectively aligns with the task at hand. As an example, while possessing extremely dense bones might be useful for an individual navigating terrestrial life, it is a decided disadvantage in the pool as compared to someone with much less dense bones. The latter individual will have a lower body density and a correspondingly higher level of buoyancy, thus able to use more of their energy to create forward motion rather than dedicating that energy to staying afloat. The latter individual is more aligned with the combined task and environmental constraints of fast swimming. However, if the less

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buoyant swimmer can compensate through the creation of large amounts of propulsion, they can be very successful over shorter distances as performance is less predicated on energy efficiency. The more alignment there is between the task and environment across all individual constraints that influence performance, the more likely an individual is to be able to display their functionality. When looking at the individual constraints that influence performance in the pool, it’s relatively straightforward to determine which characteristics would be ideal for a fast swimmer, and why they are advantages. Refer back to the list of individual constraints in Chapter 1 and consider how each influences functionality for different strokes and event distances (Figure 6.1). Various anthropometric and morphological characteristics directly influence the drag that swimmers create, and their ability to glide through the water. The breadth of the shoulders, the circumference of the chest, the diameter of the trunk, body composition (Cortesi et al. 2020), as well as the chest to waist taper, chest to hip cross-section, and waist to hip taper (Naemi et al. 2012) all impact the amount of drag that swimmers create as they move through the water. Beyond those that immediately jump to mind, there are also constraints that operate in a subtler manner. Tall stature, large appendages, and great metabolic capacities are clearly important, yet less obvious individual constraints seem to be uniformly present in fast swimmers and may be foundational to functionality in the pool. For example, the ability to straighten the spine as much as possible and perform all the required actions of the arms and legs while maintaining this straightened position serves to allow swimmers to move through the water with reduced resistance, a critical component of fast swimming (see Chapter 9 for more). Functionality is not only about creating a large amount of propulsion, as creating a streamlined vessel that requires less propulsion to go fast may be even more important. While bones cannot be altered in mature athletes and facilitating any potential modifications during pre-adolescence is ethically dubious, distortions in alignment that result from muscular activity can be changed. While outside the scope of this book, alterations in mobility limitations are possible when those limitations are the result of soft tissue restrictions rather than the shape and size of bones, and altering posture is an example of how changing individual constraints can result in enabling new ways of moving that are more in line with the task and environmental constraints associated with competitive swimming. While many structural traits are important components of functionality and are difficult or impossible to change, there are opportunities to acutely manipulate anthropometric traits with training aids. By changing the size of the limbs, the drag on the body, and the center of the mass, coaches can greatly change how swimmers interface with the water. The value of this strategy lies in exposing swimmers to new streams of sensory information that would otherwise be impossible to experience without training aids. As the ability to act is influenced by the ability to perceive, coaches can create new opportunities for perception and new opportunities for sensory experiences, thus creating new

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FIGURE 6.1 Anatomy,

floating signatures, and event specialization. Because of their anatomy, different swimmers will have different floating signatures in the water. As a result, they will necessarily require different movement strategies to accomplish any given task. While these structures change minimally, their impact can be altered through the strategic use of training aids. These examples also highlight the alignment of structure and event specialty. The top image is of 50 m specialist. While his musculature hinders his alignment in the water, it is critical for creating the necessary force production to achieve high speeds, and because energy conservation is not required for performance, the impaired alignment can be compensated for with muscular effort without compromising performance. The image below is of a 400 m individual medley specialist. She possesses a much more horizontal alignment in the water that requires little effort to maintain, which aligns with the requirements of the event, where energy conservation is critical and muscular power is much less important.

opportunities for action. This can allow swimmers to detect key informational variables and create the opportunity to alter their movement to account for these variables.

6.3  Creating Unique Learning Environments with Training Aids When implementing training aids, I tend to view the process from two distinct yet complementary perspectives, a constraint-led approach and differential learning. When applying the constraints-led approach, I am designing tasks that move

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swimmers toward previously unexplored solutions by removing less functional solutions, attempting to create tasks where only the desired solutions allow for the successful completion of the task (for more, see Chapter 8). As an example, resisting the swimming action tends to create more effective pulling patterns in a way that verbal instruction never can, for if swimmers don’t effectively apply force to the water while swimming against resistance, they simply don’t go anywhere. In this way, ineffective pulling patterns are no longer viable options for accomplishing the goal of the task, and this is particularly true if swimmers are further constrained by the number of strokes they can take. Using training aids is particularly valuable because it allows for the retention of the critical elements of swimming and swimmers can be pushed toward different solutions while still swimming their strokes, rather than performing drills that decompose the stroke into segments. Because the swimming stroke is not “decomposed” into its constituent parts, the learned skills have a greater likelihood of transferring to competitive performance. By putting a swimmer in an optimal environment to help them learn a specific skill, defined here as personally challenging the functionality of an individual at one moment in time, the coach can more easily guide swimmers toward effective solutions. The involved communication should consist of clearly explaining the intention of each set and the challenges presented, as well as soliciting feedback from the swimmer (see Chapter 4 for more). When viewed from a differential learning perspective (Schollhorn et al. 2012), where there is an emphasis on performing many different variations of the same activity, training aids provide the opportunity to introduce many novel variants. These variants create novel sensory information that is otherwise unavailable to a swimmer, and novel perception can create the foundation for the emergence of novel action. To act, a swimmer must be able to perceive an opportunity to act, defined as the affordances of a training landscape (aquascape in swimming). Novel sensation can create an expanded awareness of the opportunities to act, and with varying combinations of training aids, the spectrum of novel sensory information is essentially limitless. As with the advantages of a constraint-led approach, these novel stimuli occur in the context of full swimming skills, which facilitates better transfer to competitive performance. When designing training sets, I am using training aids to push swimmers toward effective solutions and to create novel stimuli. Practically, creating novelty often involves the use of added aids where the swimmer will try to swim as “normally” as possible. The training aids create novel sensory information that can inform the swimmer about novel possibilities for movement, and the “struggle” to retain normal mechanics can help swimmers develop robust skill sets. While there is a specific intent of each intervention that I am looking to influence, I am not always looking for the training aid to deliver a specific impact. The goal is not necessarily to move a swimmer toward a given solution, but simply to “move” them. In contrast to the constraints-led approach where the intend effect is quite specific, any effect that is created will do when searching for novelty, and the swimmer must learn to manage it.

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In practice, I am often combining by using training aids to push swimmers to new solutions while concurrently using training aids to create novelty. The use of training aids provides me a lot of flexibility to create specific environments to target skills using a constraints-led approach, and training aids are then further valuable in creating novel stimuli inspired by differential learning to further enhance learning through a two-layered approach. For more on the theoretical concepts discussed in this section, refer to Chapter 8.

6.4  Using Training Aids to “Strengthen” Skills Many of the training aids that coaches implement make swimming more difficult in some way. While resistance overloads clearly develop the neuromuscular system, they also facilitate the learning and retention of skills in the pool. By using resistance, the coach can stress components within the context of the full stroke swimming and targeting critical swimming skills with resistance that will make those skills more robust to the stress of high-intensity exertion. For instance, swimming against resistance with only the arms will “strengthen” the skill of moving water backward with the arm. Swimming with a weight belt to challenge spinal alignment will “strengthen” the ability to maintain a streamlined position in the water. Whether these benefits arise from the improved feedback and sensory awareness, or from enhanced physical “reinforcement” stemming from improved strength, I am not sure. However, I believe that both aspects are contributing to improvements in skilled performance. A swimmer with increased physical resources will be better able to execute the skills with greater intensity, and a swimmer that has practiced swimming skillfully in challenging situations will be better able to sustain these skills under duress. Even when designed to facilitate skill adaptation, the implementation of most training aids is a form of strength training. As higher forces are moving through the torso when swimming against resistance as compared to free swimming, many of the exercises described in the following chapter require significant postural control to maintain body position. Long-term plans to effectively develop the torso on land should be in place to optimize the benefit of many of these activities. Further, a basic strength development program consisting of bodyweight exercises will also be of great benefit, as strengthening of the whole body on land will prepare swimmers for resisted activities in the water. As overloads are being applied with training aids, they must be done so in a systematic and progressive manner. Perceptual adaptation is emerging as swimmers pick up perceptual information from their attempts to adapt to the training constraints. Cognitive adaptations emerge in the form of focused intentionality on performance, as swimmers are constantly focused on how to accomplish a given task within the parameters allowed by a novel constraint (i.e., a weight belt). Not only must time be given for a swimmer to learn novel movement solutions, but there must also be patience for the requisite muscular systems to adapt to the loading regimen. As the swimmer adapts, their intrinsic constraints

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are changing to better align with the constraints imposed by the overloads. Once this adaptation is complete, swimmers will not only know how to move in new ways, but they will also have the physical resources to do so effectively. In many cases, physical abilities are being developed concurrently, which enhances the ability to execute the skills at speed and with endurance.

6.5  Considerations for Effectively Implementing Training Aids Due to the potential novelty of these interventions, as well as a change in the intended outcomes of familiar interventions, several considerations should be made when aiming to implement these ideas, as the hope is to make this information as practical and actionable as possible. It is important to note that not all coaches will have access to some or all the training aids outlined below and in Chapter 7. However, many of these outcomes can be achieved with a little creativity. When teaching skills and implementing a constraint-led approach, task design emerges out of the fundamental questions of intent: • • •

What am I trying to teach? How can I create a novel sensory experience to facilitate learning? How can I create a muscular overload to “strengthen” the ability to execute the desired skills?

When considering how to implement training aids, the following questions that arise determine what you choose to implement: • • • • •

What am I trying to accomplish? What context provides the swimmers the best opportunity to accomplish that objective? What equipment can facilitate this process? What equipment do I have? What equipment can I create?

When considering the sets described in Chapter 7, if the training aid described is unavailable, determine the intended outcome of the set, then determine how the intended outcome can be recreated with alternative training aids, or without any training aids at all. Any substitutions and omissions are appropriate if the desired effect is achieved. If concerned about access to training aids, many of these interventions with minimal equipment, and most of my interventions have consisted of the following equipment: • • • •

Tennis balls Hand paddles Fins $35 parachutes

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• • • • •

$35 weight belts Ankle weights found in a closet $50 stretch cords Old dumbbells A small number of DragSox

Despite access to $2,000 power towers and power racks, these were the tools that were given preference as there is no magic equipment, only the effective use of what is available. With careful planning, even a small quantity of equipment can be utilized by an entire team over the course of a training week to provide a variety of novel experiences, and if there is a clear goal and an orientation toward solutions, solutions will be found.

6.5.1  Ensuring Individual-Task Alignment To effectively implement training aids, it is critical to understand the effect each training aid has on each swimmer. Training aids can create changes in velocity, spatio-temporal organization of movements, stroke rate/stroke length relationships, and rate of fatigue development. While the nature of these changes will be similar across swimmers, the magnitude of these changes will be likely different for across swimmer given the same intervention, due to different constraints operating within each swimmer. It is crucial for the coach to appreciate whether these changes are acute or chronic, as well as the impact of short-term and long-term uses of each type of training aid. Unfortunately, unintended consequences can result from the improper use of training aids, and if left unchecked, these consequences can lead to negative transfer in performance. For instance, excessive use of resistance loading can negatively impact pulling patterns and alignment in the water, as swimmers do not have the strength to overcome the resistance and maintain their position in the water. When using most training aids, there is both a positive and negative effect on overall performance. For instance, using paddles and a parachute may allow for swimmers to create large forces, yet favor the use of the hand to create those forces, at the expense of the forearm. Thus, it is the coach’s role to understand these effects and incorporate training aids in a way that maximizes the positive impact and minimizes the negative impact. It must be appreciated that these effects may operate on different timescales. For instance, the use of a resistance device such as a parachute can acutely promote greater continuity of propulsion between the two arms (Schnitzler et al. 2011), whereas the chronic use of a parachute can promote positive changes in the strength of the shoulder and elbow extensors responsible for creating propulsion. While using a parachute can enhance both technical and physical adaptations, these adaptations occur on different timescales. The skill of the coach is to understand that these training aids should be implemented long enough to help athletes search for functional performance solutions and adapt their actions

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to achieve their intended task goals. Once achieved, it’s important to reduce the use of training and allow the athlete to implement the more functional performance solutions discovered while using the training aid. Patience is needed since this transfer may not emerge immediately. As will be demonstrated in the examples sets, this process can be initiated by swimming with and without training aids within each set. The practicing coach is encouraged to experiment with different aids with great intention. The coach must be clear about what goal is to be accomplished, while also being attuned to the potential negative influence of each intervention, paying careful attention to how each swimmers’ performance is impacted using training aids. Different training aids will provide varying levels of intensity, and different uses of the same training equipment will also provide varying levels of intensity. To effectively take advantage of these different levels of intensity, the coach must construct a sequential system of implementing each training aid. The scaled use of training aids allows for the scaling of interventions to align with an individual’s current state.

6.5.2  Event Specialization Modifications Event specialization is an example where individual constraints and task constraints both dictate appropriate training design and the implementation of training aids, as not only do the competitive demands of different events influence training design, so do differences in the individuals that typically perform different events. Those specializing in endurance events tend to adapt better to higher volumes and lower intensity as compared to sprinters, who generally respond to lower volumes and higher intensities. The impact of resistance loads and training aids, as well as how these aids are implemented into the training, is dependent on the events swimmers are preparing for as well as the training needs of each individual swimmer. A brief overview of some general differences is discussed in the following paragraphs, although all swimmers will benefit from the implementation of training aids during low-intensity training sessions. While these interventions will be of low intensity, they can still facilitate skill adaptation by providing novel stimuli to facilitate discovery, exploration, and implementation of potential performance solutions. The sprint events are much less forgiving in terms of technical errors and the higher forces required for competitive success are conducive to the use of resistive loads. When focus is on speed development, sets using training aids are often characterized by short, explosive bursts repeated with relatively highrest periods. To maximize learning effects, these repetitions are often paired with un-resisted, high-velocity swims of relatively short distances. This type of training is conducive for all swimmers looking to improve swimming velocity, and considering this is a primary need for sprint swimmers, swimming with training aids can form a relatively high percentage of the entire training load. Multiple sessions per week can be dedicated to resistive training with the

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use of training aids. A former athlete represents a practical example of these considerations: Chris is a sprint-based swimmer whose primary focus is the 50 m freestyle. He is very explosive and struggles with any prolonged, “traditional” swimming interventions. Not only does this affect his ability to physically recover from training, but it also often results in significant technical degradation. To work around this problem, about 75% of his training volume uses some form of training aids. The equipment provides him with a lot of immediate feedback, quickly informing him of any technical degradation. By using equipment for most of his training, Chris can enhance his strength and power, while developing the critical skills required to swim fast. For Chris, the use of training aids is the primary focus of his training. Success in distance swimming requires sustained rhythm coupled with optimal as opposed to maximal force production. As a result, the use of training aids, resisted or otherwise, then takes a different form for the distance swimmer and the use of training aids will be characterized by reduced resistance loading. Further, there must be an effort to retain the rhythmic and timing skills appropriate for these event groups. Using training aids for extended durations compared to sprinters is compatible with the required physiological development as well as the rhythmic qualities distance swimmers must express to be successful. I have found distance swimmers to respond well to short interventions using training aids, coupled with longer, traditional swimming. Swimmers can receive brief reminders of the technical skills they’re exploring, which can then be transferred to full stroke aerobic swimming. Beyond the technical benefits, this approach can facilitate the utilization of the full spectrum of muscle fibers when short bursts of speed are coupled with extended aerobic efforts. For distance swimmers, an alternative approach is to include a 15–20-minute training aid set that is conducted prior to the focus of the day. Prior to the main work, swimmers can explore novel swimming skills, and prime their physiological systems with higher intensity work, with these skills then referred to during the subsequent swimming segment. Training sets employing training aids occur with less frequency and a smaller time commitment for distance swimmers, although it should be noted that even distance swimmers have speed development needs. These needs can be addressed in very small doses across the training season, with the following athlete exemplifies these concepts: Steve is an aerobic-based swimmer whose initial success was in the distance freestyle events. As an age group swimmer, he performed high volumes of aerobically based freestyle swimming. Steve is extremely mobile throughout his entire body. While this has proven to be a great asset, it is also a liability resulting in multiple shoulder injuries during his age group career. When Steve came to me, he was limited in his ability to train with large volumes.

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However, he still requires a significant aerobic stimulus to be successful. Due to these constraints, we must be very targeted and selected with the work we choose to do. Very small portions of skill-based constraints are used to enhance technique and build strength through his shoulders, without risking injury. These brief, yet consistent, exposures allow for technical changes without taking away from the focus of his training, which consists of a spectrum of training components to build his physiological capacities. “Middle-distance swimmers” are those whose performance improvement requires an approach that falls somewhere between the two extremes described above, requiring high levels of speed and endurance, with most middle-distance swimmers having either speed or endurance orientation. This orientation can inform the relative frequency of exposure to training aids, as well as the nature of that implementation. Some will be more successful with a more distance-based orientation while others will benefit from a more sprint-based program. Regardless, as all swimmers need to improve skill adaptation and speed development, what is important to distinguish is how these attributes are to be developed, and the time commitment that will be allocated.

6.5.3  Integrating Training Aids into a Weekly Plan Just as who performs what training is an important consideration, when that training occurs is also critically important. Training aids can be used during sessions focused exclusively on skill adaptation, with minimal concern for physiological development. The major focus of the session consists of the exploration of technical skills to facilitate skill adaptation and intensity should be scaled to facilitate learning without compromising physical recovery. Due to the lowered physical cost, this type of session can take place at any point in the training week. For sets with multiple rounds or extended durations, short “potentiation” sets can be inserted to enhance skill adaptation during the primary focus of the day. For instance, a short series of swims using training aids can be performed prior to multiple series of pace work. A similar intervention can be performed between series of predominantly aerobic swimming. This type of set has the most latitude as many options are possible to meet the needs of the individual swimmer in a way that compliments the main body of work that represents the focus of a given training session. Speed and power skill development sessions will involve higher intensity and higher volume of training aids. These sessions are targeted toward the development of technical skill at high velocity levels and high-power outputs. This type of training session is typically appropriate for mature swimmers targeting improvements in speed and power. Most of the work will be conducted at high velocity and effort, potentially with high-resistance loads. These are high quality, physically demanding training sessions and sufficient recovery should be placed before and after these training sessions.

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For those swimmers with multiple training demands, training aids can be used in small sets to finalize the warm-up. This is a way to accumulate skill adaptation and speed development opportunities over the course of the training week without negatively affecting the time and energy required for developing endurance training adaptations. These 15–20-minute sets can technically and physically prepare the swimmer for the subsequent work. For more information about how to structure variable training demands over the course of a week, please see Chapter 11.

6.5.4  Intentionality and Communication—The Keys to Change Once the intended outcome is clear in the coach’s mind, the intention of each exercise must be clearly communicated to each swimmer. Swimmers must understand the effects of the training aids, the problems that need to be solved, as well as a general sense of how the problem can be solved. Once the intention and the task goal have been set, the coach’s role shifts to facilitating problemsolving, soliciting feedback, and helping swimmers attune to the different learning opportunities that each set provides, as described in Chapter 4. Prior to communicating with the swimmer, the coach themselves must be clear on the intention of the set. Any training aid can create many effects, and the coach must observe what the training aid does for the present swimmers, and how it affects their swimming. After observation, a decision must be made as to how these effects can best be harnessed to facilitate learning. The coach must be clear as to what skills are to be learned and how coaching communication can shape that process. In many cases, the swimmers will be unsuccessful in their first attempts at accomplishing the assigned task, particularly when the task is novel. What must be reinforced is that the learning occurs not so much in the successful completion of the task but the exploration of the task, especially at first. The benefits of training aids are not always seen until they are removed and the swimmer returns to free swimming. This is a critical part of the process, and without intention and engagement, many of the benefits are lost when swimmers disengage from the challenge. By being clear about the intention of the set and knowing what to look for, the coach can direct each swimmer’s attention toward specific opportunities for change. Knowing what to say, when to say it, how to say it, and when to say nothing is a skill set that makes coaching effective. If multiple opportunities for improved execution exist, the coach must reflect on which opportunity is most important to address and start from there. Often the facilitation of the most important improvement opportunity results in the achievement of others. Reinforce the positive and constructively draw attention to opportunities for further improvement. While short-term performance can often be improved by providing feedback to the swimmer, this may come at a long-term cost of inhibiting a swimmer’s own search for solutions. As discussed in Chapter 4, coaches can best serve

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athletes by strategically directing their attention using questioning. For instance, if you believe there is an issue with a swimmer’s head position, it is more valuable to ask, “how was your head position?” This provides the same information; the swimmer likely realizes it is a problem, but they then must figure out what the problem might be and reconcile that with their kinesthetic feedback. Coaches can provide swimmers with the opportunity to discover knowledge of the environment through exploration, rather than providing knowledge about the environment through instructions. Swimmers must solve the problem and they develop the kinesthetic awareness which further enhances the ability to learn over time. How effective this communication process is, and how patient the coach is in allowing for learning as opposed to teaching, will determine the ultimate effectiveness of the whole process.

6.5 Conclusion The anatomical constraints of a swimmer will directly impact how that swimmer moves through the water, as intrinsic constraints interact with the constraints of the task. As any coach has experienced, two different swimmers can have dramatically different ways of interacting with the water, yet the same outcome by finding solutions that are individually appropriate for them. While this can be the result of each swimmers’ skill level, it is also the direct result of the anatomical tools these swimmers possess. While coaches cannot change the shape, size, or density of bones, they can create temporary changes in the anatomical traits each swimmer brings to the water by using training aids. This chapter has explored the direct impact of individual constraints on how swimmers move through the water, as well as the considerations for the manipulation of these constraints in various contexts. The use of training aids to constrain swimmers is a powerful tool to add variability to training tasks, move swimmers toward more functional solutions, as well as create novel sensory experiences. With this framework, we can push swimmers into positions otherwise unachievable and create new opportunities for technical problem-solving. Doing so allows coaches to use constraints to create environments where they are better able to use their skill sets and knowledge to facilitate learning outcomes. Training aids influence how swimmers move and coaches can use those effects to shape technique by communicating a clear problem, providing a learning environment, and setting the intention to solve it. Whenever using training aids to manipulate constraints, both positive and negative effects are occurring, effects that I have identified and those that I am unaware of. By carefully observing what is happening with each athlete, the coach can gain valuable experiential knowledge which can help determine whether each intervention is accomplishing what is intended, and whether adjustments need to be made, always looking to move swimmers toward more functional solutions. The next chapter will explore how coaches can manipulate individual constraints by using training aids, how to facilitate specific outcomes, and give

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coaches the tools to provide their swimmers with novel opportunities to interact with the water.

References Cortesi, M., Gatta, G., Michielon, G., Di Michele, R., Bartolomei, S., and Raffaele Scurati, R. 2020. Passive drag in young swimmers: Effects of body composition, morphology and gliding position. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Mar;17(6):2002. Naemi, R., Psycharakis, S., McCabe, C., Connaboy, C., and Sanders, R. 2012. Relationships between glide efficiency and swimmers’ size and shape characteristics. Journal of Applied Biomechanics. Aug;28(4):400–11. Schnitzler, C., Brazier, T., Button, C., Seifert, L., and Chollet, D. 2011. Effect of velocity and added resistance on selected coordination and force parameters in front crawl. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Oct;25(10):2681–90. Schollhorn, W., Hegen, P., and Davids, K. 2012. The nonlinear nature of learning: A differential learning approach. The Open Sports Sciences Journal. 5:100–12.

7 TRAINING AIDS—PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

7.1  Using Training Aids with Intention to Solve Specific Problems Having discussed the value of using training aids to manipulate intrinsic constraints and create novel learning environments for athletes in Chapter 6, this chapter will address the specific strategies coaches can employ to make the most out of these training aids. Rather than examining the value of any single training aid, each section of this chapter will focus on the outcomes coaches can facilitate with training aids by altering the structure of the swimmer. This chapter will explore how to manipulate the drag that swimmers experience while moving through the water, how to change the location of the center of mass, how to add mass to the limbs, and how to alter the size of propulsive surface areas. By using training aids, coaches can temporarily modify the structural constraints present in each swimmer, creating new opportunities for swimmers to explore their skills. The value of each intervention will be discussed, as well as the training aids that are most conducive for facilitating each intervention. The focus is on recognizing the value of manipulating each constraint, then finding the best tool for the job, rather than the other way around, as a given training aid is only as useful as the rationale for its use and implementation. For all of the sets described below, refer to Chapter 9 and the individual stroke chapters for further details about the specific skills that are being addressed through the use of training aids, and the outcome they are intended to create.

7.1.1 Manipulating Drag for Increased Propulsion and Better Alignment The greater the surface area of the body that the swimmer exposes to the flow of the water, the more drag they create (Gatta et al. 2015; Zamparo et al. 2008, 2009), DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-9

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and the larger the drag profile they create, the slower they will swim, all else being equal. Swimmers should strive to reduce the drag profile as it greatly affects many aspects of swimming performance including velocity, metabolic cost, the power, and force required to achieve a given velocity, as well as stroke rate and stroke length relationships at a given speed (Zamparo et al. 2011). However, training aids such as parachutes, T-shirts, and drag suits can all be used to increase the drag profile of a swimmer, making swimming more difficult. As the total amount of drag experienced by a swimmer is directly related to the velocity a swimmer achieves (Gatta et al. 2015), swimming faster magnifies the amount of drag swimmers will create as they move through the water when implementing these training aids. Due to the added resistance that must be overcome, training aids can encourage swimmers to find a more effective pulling pattern. This is particularly true when stroking parameters are constrained as well, such as when swimmers are limited in the number of strokes they are permitted to take. As more force is required when swimming against high resistance, a loss of force will cause a greater slowing of velocity, and this magnified loss of velocity provides swimmers with clearer feedback about the effectiveness of their pulling patterns. Thus, swimmers are better able to perceive opportunities for swimming faster and can then act on those opportunities when swimming with an increased drag profile. Swimming against increased resistance has also been demonstrated to encourage crawl swimmers to ensure continuity of propulsion so that one arm is always creating propulsion, a key skill in elite sprinting (Schnitzler 2010; Telles et al. 2011). As this is a key characteristic of the stroking patterns of elite sprinters (Seifert et al. 2007), encouraging this coordination pattern can produce faster swimming. As the drag increases, the power necessary to overcome drag to create forward motion increases as well (Zamparo et al. 2011). By increasing the drag profile using training aids, swimmers are afforded an opportunity to achieve force outputs higher than those experienced during free swimming. Swimming against a parachute has been shown to increase the duration of the pull (Telles et al. 2011), which may afford swimmers the opportunity to learn to produce more force, as they will have more time to do so. Additionally, these higher force outputs are occurring at slower velocities and slower stroke frequencies. Slower stroke frequencies may provide swimmers with more time to utilize the enhanced feedback that resisted training can create as they have more time to act on what they perceive. In line with the principle of specificity, regularly training at higher power outputs should provide a physiological stimulus for improved power output. As multiple measures of in-water power output have been related to maximal speed qualities (Mourouco et al. 2014; Sharp et al. 1982; Soncin et al. 2017), increases in power output are critical for improved performance, particularly in shorter events. To alter the drag profile for the purpose of enhancing propulsion, the same biomechanical principles apply across all strokes as upper body force application is remarkably similar during the main propulsive portion of the pull pattern (Adams 2021). In this way, similar constraint manipulation strategies can

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be implemented for all strokes, using various resistance tools for improving the magnitude and the application of force to enhance swimming performance. To enhance propulsion, the following strategies can be employed, and sets that use these strategies are found in Figures 7.1–7.4: • •

Increase propulsive surface area (i.e., holding paddles and wearing fins) to allow for the creation of higher forces. Decrease propulsive surface area (i.e., holding tennis balls) to increase the efficiency of force application.

FIGURE 7.1 

Maximizing propulsion—stroke count and resistance.

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FIGURE 7.2 

• • •

Maximizing propulsion—middle distance freestyle.

Use greater resistive loads to create more force and further challenge stroking mechanics. Alter the type of resistance as each type of resistance has a different type of proprioceptive and haptic “feel” during movement. Combine different resistive methods to further constrain movement opportunities.

Artificially increasing drag has benefits beyond improving the effectiveness of propulsive actions. By artificially increasing drag on certain areas of the body, the swimmer can become attuned to these areas of the body creating drag. For instance, when wearing a sufficiently resistive drag suit, the swimmer experiences a magnification of sensory information about how hip position affects the amount of resistance that is created when moving through the water. When the drag suit is removed, the swimmer will also have a heightened sense of awareness

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FIGURE 7.3 

Maximizing propulsion—speed and resistance.

of the impact of hip position due to the contrasting reduction in drag around the hip. This effect can be even more dramatic when wearing a T-shirt, and while the swimmer can receive similar information about body posture of the upper body, the T-shirt also has the added benefit of removing the sensory feedback of the flow of the water over the torso. In both examples above, swimmers experience heightened awareness of how position impacts the drag they create. Likewise, swimmers also experience a diminished awareness of the flow of water over the skin. These effects create a novel sensory environment, which can inform novel opportunities for action. When focusing on minimizing the drag profile, there should be an emphasis on creating extra resistance across the body and creating contrast between

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FIGURE 7.4 

Maximizing propulsion—backstroke.

swimming with and without altered resistance. Strategies for progressing the challenge of sets aiming to reduce drag are as follows: • • •

Increase the drag profile through greater levels of resistance. Change the location or nature of the extra resistance. Increase the drag profile in specific locations that each swimmer struggles with.

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• •

Increase the velocity at which repetitions are performed to magnify drag (i.e., overspeed towing or the use of fins). Reduce the propulsive surface area to limit the ability to use the limbs to compensate for loss of body position.

Sets that use these strategies are found in Figures 7.5 and 7.6. Increasing drag profiles results in the swimmer creating greater forces to overcome the increased drag, and greater forces, especially when applied without caution, carry a greater risk of injury. The coach needs to be cautious when prescribing such training, as it is important to alter the drag profile to match the

FIGURE 7.5 

Minimizing drag—butterfly.

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FIGURE 7.6 

Minimizing drag—breaststroke.

strength levels of the individual athlete. If the increased resistance is excessive, the athlete will not be able to generate enough power to effectively execute the appropriate mechanics. If the velocity of butterfly and breaststroke swimmers is slowed too much, the swimmer will be moving slower than the wave generated by added mass effects, greatly impairing the timing and rhythm so critical to these strokes, and these swimmers will get “swamped” by their own waves. The take-home message for coaching with these constraints is that resistance must be applied with thought and consideration.

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7.2  Altering Center of Mass to Influence Hip Control The coach can shift the swimmer’s center of mass toward the feet with weight belts, with heavier belts creating a stronger effect. As the center of mass moves toward the feet, it moves further away from the center of buoyancy, which is determined primarily by air trapped in the lungs. Because the ability to maintain horizontal alignment in the water, particularly at slow speeds, is influenced by the relative locations of the center of buoyancy and the center of mass, manipulating this relationship can provide learning opportunities that would otherwise be impossible. Swimmers are challenged to control their body orientation by managing their source of buoyancy, as well as through secondary sources such as the limbs. By wearing a weight belt, it becomes much more difficult in “strengthening” this skill. When the belt is removed, swimmers are much more adept at controlling their position. Added weight to the hips can also create greater awareness of the motion of the hips throughout the stroke cycle. Due to this greater awareness, swimmers are afforded more opportunities for action. This is particularly relevant in strokes involving significant undulation such as butterfly, breaststroke, and underwater kicking. In these strokes, the center of mass moves up and down in an undulating manner. With greater mass around the hips, the momentum associated with each undulation will be exaggerated and swimmers will receive enhanced feedback about their position. With this enhanced feedback, the swimmer can better learn to time the undulation of their stroke as well as modulate the degree of undulation present. Moving the center of mass toward the feet will also increase the underwater torque which will have negative impact body position, drag profile, and the energy cost of swimming (Zamparo et al. 1996). By artificially increasing the underwater torque, swimmers must work hard to find strategies to balance the body in the water. Especially at higher velocities, the swimmers become aware of the need to maintain body posture and alignment, when additional forces are actively working to disrupt it, and they must work hard to overcome these challenges to maintain their alignment in the water. Once the added resistance is removed, swimmers will be more aware of how their body is positioned, as well as what they can do to dictate those positions. If loading is sufficient and sustained, postural strength can improve as well. This strategy can be progressed using the concepts below: • • • •

Use greater resistive loads. Move the center of mass further toward the feet. Reduce the propulsive surface area to limit the ability to use the limbs to compensate for loss of body position. Combine center of mass alterations with other constraints.

When altering the center of mass, the swimmer is also moved out of spinal alignment, as well as horizontal alignment in the water, effects that lead to increases in body drag. While this would appear to be a negative situation, there may

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be benefits in allowing the swimmer to actively feel these changes and work to correct them. The added challenge provides the opportunity to strengthen the skill sets responsible for maintaining position. As swimmers will often sit lower in the water with a belt, the limbs must also be used to balance these effects, and they must be more effective in creating leverage to maintain position and propulsion. These skills can only be learned in this novel environment, and the novel-augmented information in these environments provides the information swimmers need to change how they swim. The following sets found in Figures 7.7–7.8 illustrate the applications altering the center of mass. The biggest concern is that excessive loading can make it impossible for swimmers to maintain body positions appropriate for effective swimming, often resulting in excessive inclination of the body, as the center of mass has moved

FIGURE 7.7 

Altering center of mass—aerobic freestyle.

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FIGURE 7.8 

Altering center of mass—underwater kicking.

too far for swimmers to control. The loading should be aligned with the capabilities of the individual so that it challenges body position without overwhelming it. While there will necessarily be a loss of body position when altering the center of mass, indeed this is the intention, there is an appropriate bandwidth that represents an effective learning environment. Moving beyond this bandwidth will place swimmers in contexts where effective learning is no longer possible, and this bandwidth will be individual depending on several characteristics, including body weight, where the center of buoyancy is located and how much buoyant force there is, the current location of the center of mass, as well as the individual’s capacity to solve novel problems. It is about proving an optimal learning environment, and the challenge is to optimize the learning environment for each individual based on an interaction of personal and task constraints ­(Figure  7.9). Certainly, the coach cannot calculate the appropriate loading for

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FIGURE 7.9 Tools

for adding mass. Adding external mass to the body can create new opportunities for exploring movement. By placing loads on the limbs (above) or around the torso (below), coaches can alter the physical structure of the body through training aids to provide novel learning experiences.

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each individual (by using a universal formula) since it can only be achieved by trial and error. As such, they must observe how individual swimmers interact with the environment.

7.3  Altering Limb Mass and Torque to Emphasize Momentum By using ankle, wrist, elbow, knee, or hand weights, the coach can effectively alter limb mass, which results in altered torque around the shoulder, hip, knee, or elbow joints. As swimming is a cyclic motion where movements are repeated over and over, and the limbs never stop moving, effective swimming movements rely heavily on the use of momentum to create high forces and maintain movement efficiency. Swimmers that move smoothly and effortlessly use momentum to create speed, rather than relying solely on the use of muscular force. This momentum is created primarily during the recovery phases where the limbs are swung ballistically. To help swimmers better understand how momentum affects their swimming, we can add mass to alter the momentum that is present during the recovery phases. As momentum is a product of mass and velocity, adding mass will increase momentum. In addition, as the recoveries contain rotational elements, this will generate more torque which can be used to assist the ­rotational torques of the body that determine the primary source of rhythm during s­ wimming. For more about rhythm in the individual strokes, see ­Chapters 13–16. Adding mass to the upper extremity increases the momentum of the recovering arm, which can clarify the importance of the timing between the arm recoveries and rotational undulatory actions of the torso. The added mass allows swimmers to learn the impact of torque on performance, remove inefficiencies in the path of arm recovery, couple the opposing recovery and propulsive phases of the stroke, and minimize hesitation during the transition from the entry to the catch in the front of the stroke. Because more momentum is moving through the limb and into the torso due to the added mass, a loss of momentum due to poor timing will become more obvious, as will a poor transfer of momentum from the swinging limb to the torso. This heightened awareness of appropriate timing between recovery and the motion of the torso can then be used when swimming under normal conditions. As with many of the interventions discussed in this chapter, the novel sensory environment created by training aids allows for swimmers to become aware of new opportunities for action. When weights are used on the ankles, swimmers have a much greater incentive to work the upkick during prone dolphin and flutter kicking due to the added torque pulling the foot toward the bottom of the pool. Swimmers are often lazy during this portion of the kick and the extra feedback can create better awareness of a loss of focus. When used at high intensities and/or high volumes, this strategy can be employed to influence physiological adaptations such as increased muscular strength, muscular endurance, or muscular power, with the

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resultant changes depending on the loading parameters used. As these overloads are applied during actual swimming in environments that represent competition, the physiological adaptations are quite specific to performance. Figures 7.10–7.14 elaborate a series of sets demonstrating these principles.

FIGURE 7.10 

Altering limb mass and torque—backstroke.

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FIGURE 7.11 

Altering limb mass and torque—freestyle.

As greater torque is occurring at the shoulder by design, an inherent risk of shoulder injury exists when excessive loads, volumes, or intensities are used relative to an individual athlete’s capabilities. Excessive loading can also cause a degradation of skill beyond acceptable boundaries. Signs that excessive loading is being used include a loss of rhythm or timing, as well as the inability to smoothly recover the arms. In swimming, the arm recoveries are ballistic in nature, and

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FIGURE 7.12 

Altering limb mass and torque—breaststroke speed.

like a rocket launch, a substantial initial impulse is needed to “launch” the recoveries. If the added weight requires an initial impulse that the swimmer cannot generate, the recovery will not be initiated effectively, and the swimmer is overly constrained. Optimal loads are determined by the strength of the swimmer, the limb lengths of the swimmer, and the swimmer’s skill at managing momentum. As these optimal loads will not be able to be calculated preemptively, it’s prudent

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FIGURE 7.13 

Altering limb mass and torque—breaststroke endurance.

to start light and add weight as appropriate and necessary. The following strategies can be used to progress in these sets: • • •

Increase the resistance of the load on the limb. Move the load further down the limb to create a greater torque. Perform repetitions without active kicking to require intrinsic torso stabilization.

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FIGURE 7.14 

• •

Altering limb mass and torque—underwater kicking.

Add a resistive component to require greater forces to sustain rhythm, as well as ensure effective propulsive actions. Asymmetrically load the limbs to increase challenges to rhythmic stability.

I primarily alter limb mass using weights that can be strapped to the arms or the legs. When using these weights, I focus on how to use the momentum of the recovering arms to facilitate stroking rhythm, as well as couple arm recoveries

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with the rotation or undulation of the body. In freestyle and backstroke, I focus on using the arm swing to “drive” the stroking rhythm and couple the arm recovery with the action of the propulsive pull through the timing of the body rotation. It is a timing issue, not one of magnitude. In butterfly and breaststroke, I am focused on using the recovery to drive the stroke forward and facilitate the coupling of the arm recovery with the undulation of the body in an attempt to improve the timing between the two, and not necessarily the magnitude of undulation. With added mass in the front of the body, it is easier to shift the weight forward and move into horizontal alignment during these two strokes. In terms of long-term development, consider the progression of the set described in Figure 7.15, where two sets are performed ten weeks apart. The level of skill and strength required to perform the second set is indicative of the progress realized over the ten weeks. A sample 12-week progression of how to develop skill and strength through progressive overload and consistent variation is described in Figure 7.16, demonstrating how constraints are manipulated over time to facilitate progress.

FIGURE 7.15 

Altering limb mass and torque training progression over ten weeks.

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FIGURE 7.16 Twelve-week

progression of altering limb mass and torque to develop backstroke “shoulder drive.”

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7.4 Learning to Create More Propulsion by Altering Propulsive Surface Area The hands are the key sensory tool in swimming, as speed is created primarily by propulsion from the upper body, and much of that propulsion is produced by the hands. However, the forearms can also create a substantial amount of force, yet many swimmers fail to use the forearms optimally. As the hand is much more attuned to proprioceptive information than the forearm due to a much richer density of sensory receptors, stroking actions tend to be driven by the information received by hands as opposed to the forearms, which guides movement accordingly. Further, using the forearm for propulsion is a counterintuitive motion for humans as it requires joint positions that are foreign to every terrestrial application of force through the upper body. However, if the size of the hand is reduced, the swimmer must alter the arm action to better utilize the forearm to continue to effectively create propulsion. By using a wide spectrum of hand positions and hand sizes, swimmers can learn to effectively manipulate the hand/forearm complex to create propulsion effectively. This can be done by using hand paddles of different sizes to increase surface area, as well as swimming with different hand configurations to reduce surface area. By requiring swimmers to employ many different hand configurations, swimmers can learn to perceive and act upon the common opportunities for action. Possible configurations are shown in Figures 7.17 and 7.18, and potential surface area manipulations can be found in Figure 7.19. The use of different paddles can create different inputs and force the swimmer to interact with the water in different ways. In general, paddles can increase the propulsive efficiency of the stroking action (Gourgoulis et al. 2008; Tsunokawa et al. 2019). This can provide the swimmer with the feeling of what it is like to move water with greater efficiency, and when returning to regular swimming, the swimmer can attempt to recreate these feelings. Paddles can also be held in certain configurations to force the wrist to remain stiff, encouraging use of the forearm while pulling, by holding the paddles upside down and pinching the paddles working well here.

FIGURE 7.17 

Reduced propulsive surface area of the hand.

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FIGURE 7.18 

Increased propulsive surface area of the hand.

FIGURE 7.19 

Propulsive surface manipulations.

In contrast to using paddles, swimming with a reduced propulsive surface area will reduce propulsive efficiency as the hand contributes greatly to propulsion. However, many swimmers overutilize the hand to create propulsion and underutilize the forearm as propulsive surface area. When the hand is no longer available to create propulsion, the swimmer must learn to manipulate the forearm

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if they wish to do so. Additionally, there is less interaction between the water flow and the sensory rich fingers when clenching the fist or holding a tennis ball. Once the hands are reopened, the contrast in input provides enhanced sensory feedback to the hands, which can then be used to engage with the water more effectively, as the swimmer is better able to perceive the opportunities for action. Improving stroking mechanics can also be facilitated by contrasting the surface area of each limb (see Figure 7.20). By using different types of paddles, holding paddles in different ways, or using tennis balls, there are endless ways to create contrast across the limbs. When each arm has a different surface area, swimmers will receive a lot of novel input, and they will receive that

FIGURE 7.20 

Altering propulsive surface area—endurance freestyle.

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different input at the same time. The swimmer can be tasked with attempting to make both limbs feel like they are moving the same amount of water, and because one limb will be working with a smaller surface area, the swimmer must search for new solutions. This strategy works particularly well because there is instant feedback. Further, by altering the propulsive surface area of the hands (paddles) or feet (fins), swimmers can also achieve supramaximal velocities with greater regularity in practice. As velocity increase, resistive drag also increases. With exposure to higher velocities, swimmers can improve their mechanics by learning how to best position the body in the water to minimize drag at high velocity. As with all intervention involving higher forces, the use of paddles, especially when combined with resistance training, can facilitate injury to the upper extremity, particularly if loading is not conservative and progressive. From a technical perspective, excessive manipulations coupled with insufficient time spent in normal conditions could compromise technical effectiveness. If strategies to minimize the use of the hand are used continuously, the swimmer may lose the ability to effectively use the hand because they don’t spend sufficient time working with the competitive skills. While it is important to learn to use the forearm, the hand is also a critical part of the propulsive action. Due to smaller surface area, the forces required at the wrist when swimming with closed fists are lower, and if insufficient time is spent free swimming, the swimmer may not develop the critical wrist strength to retain a stable hand while pulling. For the opposite reason, excessive use of hand paddles may allow the swimmer to regularly overload force production capabilities, yet compromise the ability to skillfully apply force with the hand. When using a paddle, a blunt surface is being utilized and the hand is not interacting with the water to the same degree. As opposed to patiently manipulating the water, the swimmer may learn to power through it. Due to the increased effectiveness of the paddle, the swimmer may also begin to use the forearm less over time, which could compromise propulsive efficiency. In my experience, it is probably hard to overuse tennis balls or clenched fists. However, large volumes of swimming or pulling with paddles can cause problems and it is important to understand the potential negative effects of such choices, in addition to the benefits these same strategies bring. All strokes require the effective application of propulsive surface areas to optimize the creation of propulsive forces. By artificially increasing or decreasing the surface area available for creating propulsion, swimmers are forced to discover how to optimize propulsion under that constraint. By creating a different manipulation for opposing limbs, swimmers can perceive these differences simultaneously. To enhance the effects of manipulating propulsive surface area, I often combine these interventions with a source of resistance. Stroke count

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FIGURE 7.21 

Altering propulsive surface area—middle distance freestyle.

constraints are also commonly employed to ensure that swimmers are effectively controlling distance per stroke while using different propelling surface areas (see Figure 7.21). By changing velocity, swimmers must effectively adapt force application to this constraint as well. These are all examples of using multiple constraints to further shape skills. The various possibilities are listed in Figure 7.19. To progress the challenge of these sets, the following options are effective: • • •

Further reduce the available surface area. Further increase the available surface area. Create a contrast of the propulsive surface area between opposing limbs.

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• • • • • • • •

Magnify the degree of contrast. Alter propulsive surface area at very high speeds. Alter propulsive surface area at very low speeds. Create contrast between speed requirements. Create contrast between stroke count requirements. Pull instead of swim to remove the possibility of compensating with the legs. Increase the frequency with which constraints are changed within a set. Increase the magnitude with which constraints are changed within a set.

For examples involving modification of the surface area of the legs, see Figures 7.22–7.23.

FIGURE 7.22 

Altering propulsive surface area—breaststroke kicking.

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FIGURE 7.23 

Altering propulsive surface area—underwater kicking.

7.5 Conclusion For decades, coaches have been using training aids to influence how swimmers move through the water. However, these tools have typically been used to facilitate the physical training of swimmers, rather than considering how different training aids can impact how swimmers move through the water. Once coaches understand the manner in which training aids impact how swimmers move, they can then create strategies for swimmers to explore the use of training aids for enhancing functionality of movement solutions that support faster swimming performance. Doing so provides a strategy for creating change that is clearly facilitated by use of training aids to enhance exploration of actions in the pool. Having explored the impact of task constraints and individual constraints, and

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how to manipulate these constraints, coaches must be equipped with a big picture framework for implementing these strategies for creating change. To do so effectively, coaches must have a clear vision of what they are attempting to accomplish, as a strategy for implementing the tools that have been discussed so far. Section 7.3 will address this topic.

References Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Gatta, G., Cortesi, M., Fantozzi, S., and Zamparo, P. 2015. Planimetric frontal area in the four swimming strokes: Implications for drag, energetics and speed. Human Movement Science. Feb;39:41–54. Gourgoulis, V., Aggeloussis, N., Vezos, N., Kasimatis, P., Antoniou, P., and Mavromatis, G. 2008. Estimation of hand forces and propelling efficiency during front crawl swimming with hand paddles. Journal of Biomechanics. 41(1):208–15. Mourouço, P., Marinho, M., Keskinen, K., Badillo, J., and Marques, M. 2014. Tethered swimming can be used to evaluate force contribution for short-distance swimming performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Nov;28(11):3093–9. Schnitzler, C., Brazier, T., Button, C., Seifert, L., and Chollet, D. 2010. Effect of velocity and added resistance on selected coordination and force parameters in front crawl. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Oct;25(10):2681–90. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Rouard, A. 2007. Swimming constraints and arm coordination. Human Movement Science. Feb;26(1):68–86. Sharp, R., Troup, J., and Costill, D. 1982. Relationship between power and sprint freestyle swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 14(1):53–6. Soncin, R., Mezêncio, B., Ferreira, J., Andrade Rodrigues, S., Rudolf Huebner, R., Serrão, J., and Szmuchrowski, L. 2017. Determination of a quantitative parameter to evaluate swimming technique based on the maximal tethered swimming test. Sports Biomechanics. Jun;16(2):248–57. Telles, T., Barbosa, A., Campos, M., Andries Junior, O. 2011. Effect of hand paddles and parachute on the index of coordination of competitive crawl-strokers. Journal of Sports Science. Feb;29(4):431–8. Tsunokawa, T., Mankyu, H., Takagi, H. and Ogita, F. 2019. The effect of using paddles on hand propulsive forces and Froude efficiency in arm-stroke-only front-crawl swimming at various velocities. Human Movement Sciences. Apr;64:378–88. Zamparo, P., Capelli, C., and Pendergast, D. 2011. Energetics of swimming: A historical perspective. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 111:367–78. Zamparo, P., Capelli, C., Termin, B., Pendergast, D., and Prampero, P. 1996. Effect of the underwater torque on the energy cost, drag and efficiency of front crawl swimming. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 73(3–4):195–201. Zamparo, P., Gatta, G., Pendergast, D., and Capelli, C. 2009. Active and passive drag: The role of trunk incline. European Journal of Applied Physiology. May;106(2):195–205. Zamparo, P., Lazzer, S., Antoniazzi, C., Cedolin, S., Avon, R., Lesa, P. 2008. The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to 19-year-old swimmers. European Journal of Applied Physiology. Nov;104(4):689–99.

SECTION 3

Coaching Principles for Effecting Change

Introduction Having examined constraints in action, this section will examine the principles that guide the application of constraints to improve performance. The topics explored in this section include the strategies for effecting technical change, the principles of fast swimming, and the framework for creating a system that allows for impactful change to be repeatable. Effecting technical change is made possible by strategically understanding motor learning theory, and how to apply these theories in the training environment. These theories then suggest several practical strategies that effectively support change. With these strategies in hand, coaches can then begin to shape skills based upon the mechanical principles that allow for fast swimming. The principles underlying fast swimming are both simple and profound, applying equally, yet differently to each of the competitive strokes. Implementing these learning strategies to help swimmers individually optimize their expression of the mechanical principles of fast swimming proves to be most effective when integrated with a systematic approach toward change through a multistage process. One possible system that achieves this outcome will be discussed. Within any system, facilitating change is supported by varying tasks over multiple time frames, such as within a practice, over the course of a training week, over the course of a training cycle, and over the course of a competitive career. The impact of this variability on physiology, technique, and psychology will be described.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-10

8 THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES FOR SKILL ADAPTATION

8.1  The Challenge of Change As any coach will attest, the process of creating significant and lasting change in skilled performance is a substantial one. The traditional coaching approach, consisting primarily of verbal instruction and error correction, can certainly be successful with highly motivated individuals, as well as those with the ability to access and act upon the sensory information provided in the environment. However, many athletes do not possess the same obsessive determination, nor are they keenly and precisely attuned to their environment. Consequently, most athletes struggle to successfully explore and select the most effective movement solutions. After becoming frustrated with the extensive effort and lack of results stemming from this approach, I began searching for alternative solutions. I have been strongly influenced by several theoretical constructs that have informed the practical approach I employ to help swimmers better adapt their skills to the competitive environment, which I will describe in this chapter. By creating tasks that mirrored the competitive environment in part or in whole, by adjusting constraints to push swimmers toward functional solutions within that environment, and by adding variability to enhance perception, I developed a framework for facilitating change that was much more effective. Coupled with effective coaching that focused on each swimmers’ perceptual experience, it became possible to consistently shape skills. This chapter will explore each of these concepts in detail, as well as their application to coaching.

8.2 Designing Learning Environments That Represent Competition Psychologist James Gibson (Gibson 1977) first drew attention to the relationship between living beings and their environment. One of his key insights was that perception affect action and in turn our movements affect what we perceive, DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-11

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which affects our subsequent actions. Living beings perceive affordances, or “opportunities for action,” in the environment, and they can only act on these opportunities if they are aware of them. In swimming, a good example of an affordance is using the forearm to create propulsion. Due to the effectiveness of the hand as a propulsive surface, it’s difficult to perceive the opportunity to use the forearm as well, and many swimmers are not aware of this affordance, preferring to create propulsion primarily with their hand. However, if the swimmer swims with closed fists, the influence of the hand is diminished, and swimmers can then begin to perceive that the forearm is a propulsive surface as well. Because the hand is no longer a viable option for creating propulsion, forward movement will stop unless swimmers find an alternative solution. Sooner than later, they will realize that they can create propulsion with the forearm, an opportunity that would otherwise be imperceivable if they had access to the hand. This forearm action becomes possible when perception is altered when the preferred movement solution is no longer possible. The ability to perceive affordances is very much dependent on an individual’s experience in that environment, so to improve the ability to perceive affordances coaches must improve the design of their training experience in a manner that promotes opportunities to learn new ways of moving, such as swimming with a closed fist to promote the use of the forearm. Possessing broader and more attuned experience, expert performers across a variety of disciplines perceive the environment differently, and act accordingly, a process coaches can influence through strategic design of training tasks. A critical consequence of this framework is the need for task representativeness. The tasks that swimmers perform must represent those that they undertake in competition if swimmers are to become aware of the opportunities for effective action in the competitive context. Assigned tasks shape perception–action coupling, and these interactions are further influenced by what each swimmer brings to the task, as each individual’s opportunities for action differ depending on their intrinsic constraints. For example, the mobility of the shoulder joints will influence the arm actions that are available to a given swimmer, as will the ability to create force with the muscles of the upper body. For a set task, different swimmers will be able to perceive different opportunities due to the movement options their physical structure affords. To improve a swimmer’s ability to perceive competitive affordances, they must be working with relevant training tasks that ensure the pertinent information is present in the training environment. For transfer from practice to competitive performance to occur, training tasks should represent the key aspects of the competitive context in one or more ways (Issurin 2013; Pinder et al. 2011; Verkhosansky 2011), and to fulfill this requirement, coaches must thoroughly analyze assigned training tasks to determine if they represent competitive tasks. As an example, training tasks performed at competition speeds would more closely represent the competitive environment than those performed slowly, whereas performing reductionist drills at slow speeds would poorly represent competitive situations. While these activities can

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perhaps be useful during the initial stages of learning or to provide a novel sensory experience, they tend to be of limited value to experienced athletes because the information a swimmer would perceive is so far removed from the information they would receive in competition. Many factors beyond speed are relevant to the discussion. There are many different aspects that must be considered when designing such tasks (Bosch 2010). •

•

•

•

•

•

Kinematics—the motions of body in terms of range of motion and velocity. What motions are occurring? Do the motions of the designed task closely mirror the movements that occur during competitive racing? Are the limbs moving in similar ways over similar ranges of motion? Kinetics—the forces involved in motion of the body. What type of forces are created? Are the forces created by the limbs of similar magnitude to those experienced during racing? Do they occur in similar time frames? Are these forces created at the same joints by the same muscles? Physiology—the biological activation of the body. What type of metabolic demand exists? Are there similar rates of energy production? Are those rates of energy production sustained for similar periods of time? Are the same muscles producing this metabolic demand? Rhythm—the relative timing and smoothness of different motions. How do the kinetic and kinematic factors work together? Are the limbs moving in relation to each other similar to full stroke swimming? Are the same forces being produced over the same range of motion at the same time as while racing? Kinesthesia—the sensation of movement. What does the task feel like? What type of sensory information is present? Does the task feel similar to racing? Do the limbs feel like they are moving in similar ways at similar times? Is the overall sense of rhythm and action similar? Intention—the goal of movement. What is the swimmer trying to do? What is the overall intention of their action? What is their primary goal?

Representative learning has been proposed as a concept that is not “on” or “off” but a spectrum that can be amplified or dampened depending on your training goals. To that end, Renshaw et al. suggested coaches might think of representative learning as a dial, whereby a given task is rated on a scale which starts at one and can be increased to ten. Tasks rated “one” are least representative of competitive performance, whereas tasks rated “ten” are most representative. When considering the six criteria described above for how well a task represents competition, tasks rated “one” would yield no answers to all the questions, whereas tasks rated “ten” would yield yes answers. It is worth considering where any task would reside on the dial when deciding whether to implement it. It’s not quite as important whether a given task is exactly a “six” or a “seven.” What’s more important is considering the degree to which the tasks designed and implemented are going to be effective in promoting learning that will transfer to competition (Figure 8.1).

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FIGURE 8.1 Representative

learning dial. Representative learning is not a binary concept but one that can be dialed up or dialed down across different factors, dependent on the intended outcome of each training activity. The closer the proximity a given activity is to competitive racing, the more representative it is.

While the first three factors listed above are considered more frequently, the latter three are often overlooked. To ensure positive transfer, the task must not only look like but also feel similar and have similar intentions to the competitive event. Representative task design must take all these factors into consideration. While it may not be possible to match every criterion as racing is the only way do so, it’s important to match as many factors as possible when designing appropriate tasks. In some situations, full stroke swimming may be too challenging to enhance skilled performance in a desired manner. For instance, swimming butterfly with a single arm can be useful for helping a swimmer understand the central rhythm of butterfly, and it can be more effective than learning that rhythm during full stroke butterfly because the physical demands are so high when swimming the full stroke. Obviously, one-arm butterfly does not fully represent butterfly swimming, yet it can be useful for teaching a critical component of butterfly because it still represents the competitive action in many key respects. When combined with full stroke butterfly practice, it is an effective tool that allows for positive transfer. For coaches, the important takeaway is to aim to keep as many of the important aspects of swimming skills intact when designing interventions. If swimmers perform these tasks and positively impact their skills, key information is likely present during the activity. If not, then some important aspect of the task has been removed and must be present if learning is to occur. While it may be impossible to know for sure if a task is appropriate, coaches can determine whether a task was designed appropriately by evaluating whether the intended outcomes are achieved. Understandably, it can be challenging for swimmers to learn new skills during activities performed at competition intensity. Tasks need to be scaled for effective learning to take place so that they are appropriate for each individual, and how that scaling takes place is critical. When done poorly, tasks are often decomposed into their constituent components, often losing emergent elements that arise due to the interaction between these components, such as rhythm or timing. An example of task decomposition is the use of a kickboard to improve breaststroke kicking, previously described by Seifert et al. (2010), which will be replicated

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and expanded upon here to demonstrate how the value of any given exercise will depend on the outcome it is intended to achieve. While such an activity may improve the kick in isolation, swimming breaststroke requires kicking within the timing and rhythm of the stroke, with ever-changing body position, and kicking on a board fails to incorporate many of these key skills. Because they decompose full stroke swimming, many commonly used technical drills fail to represent the critical components of competitive tasks, and improvement observed in isolated technical drills often fail to transfer to competitive performance (Figure 8.2). Conversely, simplified tasks are altered to make successful completion of the activity more easily attainable, while still retaining the emergent properties of the entire skill. This ensures that the critical action–perception relationships are

FIGURE 8.2 The influence of task design on breaststroke kicking. A. Breaststroke kick-

ing on a board. B. Breaststroke swimming. C. One pull plus 2 kicks (1st kick). D. One pull plus 2 kicks (2nd kick). Breast- stroke kicking on a board fails to fully represent the competitive action in some respects such as alignment of the body, which in turns affects the available range of motion through the hips and the subsequent kicking action. These alignment issues are not present in the other three kicking styles. Further, the opportunity to integrate the kicking action into the timing of the full stroke is absent (see Chapter 15 for more). However, while kicking on a board may lack some aspects of skilled execution and be insufficient for learning to execute breaststroke kicks within the full stroke, it is useful for developing the physical capacity to execute the skill, thereby allowing for new movement options by reducing the constraining effects of poor conditioning.

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maintained and increases the likelihood that learning can transfer to competitive contexts. The stroke is simplified, yet the essential essence is retained. Using the example of breaststroke kicking, a simplified version of the task could be the use of a training activity where two or three kicks follow each breaststroke pull. While more time and effort can now be spent improving the kick, many of the essential elements of breaststroke swimming are retained, whereas many are lost when kicking with a board. As the danger of decomposing tasks lies in losing the essential elements of the stroke, coaches should aim to simplify tasks while retaining these essential elements to allow for learning to become possible, while still ensuring that the learning transfers to performance. Regarding task decomposition versus task simplification, it is important to differentiate between tasks aimed at improving skilled movement versus those aimed at improving physiological capacity. Returning to the breaststroke kicking example above, although kicking with a kick board may not be the best choice for improving technical ability, it can be a viable and even superior option for developing the physiological traits needed for competition. This training task can be used to improve physical qualities by overloading the muscles of the legs during the same basic motions that are performed in competition. As a result, this activity is relevant to competition when considered from the perspective of developing the necessary force capabilities and physiological capacities. Here, implementing this task could make sense even though task is decomposed version of breaststroke from a skill perspective because other aspects of performance are being addressed, namely the physical component. In contrast, an exercise such as one-arm freestyle would be an example of task decomposition as the essential rhythmic elements of freestyle would be lost, yet such an exercise also provides no additional value through the enhancement of physiological development. As a result, the inclusion of such an activity becomes more difficult to justify as compared to breaststroke kicking. As illustrated by these concepts, representative learning is not a binary concept, but one rich with nuance. Training activities can be representative in some contexts and not in others, and it is the context-appropriate implementation of these activities that determine their effectiveness. Consequently, it is important for coaches to reflect on the intention behind each activity and what each training task is designed to accomplish, and then be critical as to whether the assigned tasks are meeting the requirement to represent competition in one form or another and achieving the intended outcome.

8.3  Pushing Swimmers toward Functional Solutions Even against the background of highly representative learning environments, some swimmers will struggle to pick up affordances that would allow them to swim faster and more easily as they are unable to perceive these opportunities, or they’re unable to convert perception of these opportunities into action. As described earlier, many swimmers struggle to learn that they can use their forearm to create propulsion despite spending countless hours engaging in representative

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learning environments. It is the role of the coach to help these athletes become better attuned to the affordances in the competitive environment, and this often requires a stronger push to shift their skills. To learn to use the forearm more effectively, the simple task constraint of closing the fist may be all that swimmers require to attune to this affordance. By understanding how constraints operate in complex systems, coaches can learn how to create this push. Complex systems are characterized by many working parts with many different interactions and degrees of stability (Pol et al. 2020). When considering swimming as a complex system, different components interact to produce the result that shows up in race. For example, a swimmer’s performance on any given day is going to be influenced by their recent training, how much sleep they got over the prior three evenings, whether they ate breakfast, their psychological outlook, and many other factors, with the relative impact of these factors being somewhat unpredictable. Complex systems are also characterized by their relative state of stability. Some systems are very stable and resistant to perturbations, whereas others are very unstable and easily altered. One only needs to reflect on the consistency of day-to-day performances in swimmers to appreciate how stability can vary from person to person. Changes in any one factor can cause changes in the entire system, and the impact of those changes can be relatively unpredictable. Stable performance levels or movement solutions emerge based upon existing constraints, as different constraints can limit or enable the behavior of a system. Unchanging constraints such as height or bone structure create more stability whereas a constraint such as muscle fatigue is temporary and thus provides less stability. The movement solutions available to a swimmer will always be limited by their structure, yet fatigue only has a temporary influence on those movement solutions. When working to facilitate technical change, coaches leverage the components of a complex system that are more temporary in nature to move from a state of stability to one of instability whereby change is possible. As the information swimmers can perceive is temporary based upon their movement experiences, coaches can modify or manipulate constraints to accomplish that goal by creating novel movement and sensory experiences, providing the push that allows for a more effective search for functional opportunities. Consider the swimmer that consistently breathes in a manner that disrupts alignment in the water (see Chapter 9 for more on alignment), a stable skill that resists change because the swimmer cannot perceive a more effective way of accomplishing the task of breathing. If a coach wants to create change, they need to reduce the stability of the skill by providing novel input that allows the swimmer to perceive new movement options, a process that can be facilitated by using constraints take away preferred movement options and move swimmers away from these established skills. Thus, when change is desired and coaches want to create instability, constraints can be used to take away movement options, or they can be used to

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push swimmers toward new options. Going back to the swimmer with breathing actions that disrupt alignment in the water, by placing a paddle on the crown of the swimmer’s head and making them swim, movement options are removed. Only those movement solutions that allow for the paddle to remain in place allow for successful completion of the task. Using another example, by limiting or constraining the number of strokes a swimmer can take, you force the swimmer to find solutions that allow for more distance to be achieved with each arm stroke. By providing swimmers with a representative training environment, and then adding constraints that move swimmers toward different solution, coaches will find their attempts at creating change to be much more successful, as swimmers are pushed toward different solutions, all with an environment that mirrors the competitive one. Further, newly learned skills tend to be relatively unstable, and constraints can be used to stabilize those new skills by repeatedly moving swimmers toward more functional movement solutions (Figure 8.3).

FIGURE 8.3 A

paddle as a physical constraint. Paddle cap freestyle places a physical constraint on the swimmer’s head, which limits the number of effective solutions to those that achieve a tight, controlled breathing action. This is an example of an exercise, that helps swimmers learn through the strategic use of constraints, rather than through the traditional methods of instruction and feedback.

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8.4  Creating Novel Learning Environments through Variability Changing constraints can be a powerful tool for change, so powerful that coaches will find themselves consistently manipulating the same constraints that “work” best. Part of the value of using a constraints-led approach is that it requires the swimmer to explore novel ways of moving and interacting with the environment, and as discussed earlier, novel action becomes possible due to novel perception, and vice versa. However, when the same tasks are repeatedly prescribed using the same constraints, the same movement solutions will often be repeated, and learning becomes static. While this can be advantageous when looking to stabilize skills (see Chapter 10 for more), this becomes problematic when swimmers have yet to discover more effective movement solutions. Eventually, swimmers will no longer be challenged by the same training exercises—they have solved the movement problems they are presented with and will cease to explore new movement opportunities. While simply performing other activities would solve this problem, options for effective learning opportunities are bound by the concepts of representative learning design, transfer, and specificity, and only a narrow band of activities can produce learning outcomes relevant to competition. Novel stimuli are necessary, yet the search for novelty is limited by a narrow range of movement tasks that effectively move swimmers closer to skilled movement that is relevant to the competitive environment. Novel activities have no use if they don’t help swimmers attune to the relevant affordances present in the competitive environment. This problem can be solved through the effective use of variability.

8.4.1  Repetition without Repetition Traditionally, the learning of skills has been characterized by a large emphasis on repetition, and most readers will be familiar with the concept of “practice makes perfect,” which embodies this philosophy. Coaches have traditionally designed practice sessions with a focus on verbal instructions and feedback, repeating “perfect” movements, and limiting the amount of movement variability swimmers experience by performing the same activities continually. It is important to understand that despite coaches’ demands for “repeatable” performance, no two movements are ever the same (Schollhorn et al. 2012). There is always noise (variation) relative to the signal (intended movement). Rather than something to be actively avoided, the inclusion of variability can enhance learning outcomes by helping individuals understand the impact of small or significant changes in a movement pattern. For instance, rather than attempting to swim repetition after repetition in precisely the same speed, some repetitions can be performed slightly faster and some slightly slower. Doing so will provide more information to the swimmer about how they are moving through the water and the impact of their effort and their skill on the performances they achieve. Instead of simply rehearsing the same movements repeatedly, there is value in deliberately practicing variations of the “ideal” or “perfect” movement.

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As anyone has experienced, when first learning any skill, movement errors are high and there are large differences in outcome between each attempt. Rather than something to be avoided, it is part of the process that can be exploited as these differences allow swimmers to learn by detecting the differences in outcomes and discover the strategies that produce the desired outcomes, and not coincidentally, this period is also characterized by rapid growth in skill. Then, as performance levels improve, inter-repetition variability decreases and so does the rate of improvement, and while the expert performer does exhibit inter-repetition variability, the degree is much smaller as compared to the novice. Because there is much less variation between each performance, there is much less available novel information on a trial-to-trial basis, and as novel information is needed to perceive new opportunities of action, the expert has fewer opportunities to change their actions. By adding variability to the task design, coaches can reintroduce novel information from which swimmers attune to new movement options. When the swimmer can feel and perceive differences in movement affordances, they can then choose to act on them. As an example, if a swimmer is first learning to adjust their stroke count to meet an assigned task demand, they will struggle to do so. Once they’ve stabilized this skill, the coach can then require the swimmers to change their stroke count on a repetition-to-repetition basis, or even within the same repetition. Once swimmers can accomplish this task consistently, the coach can then have the swimmers perform the same task with various types of training gear to further increase the challenge. In all cases, variations of the same basic task are used to further enhance learning, even if these variations are not specifically relevant to the competitive environment. For instance, swimmers will not be expected to vary their stroke counts in competition, yet the act of doing so provides variability that will enhance their ability to learn to execute the basic skill in question. When considering how trial-to-trial differences impact learning, it is not only the degree to which these differences occur, but the contrast between them that can facilitate learning. For instance, grossly exaggerating a fault can help swimmers better appreciate the difference between their current way of moving and a more optimal one, whereas the swimmer may not be able to perceive subtle differences in execution, thereby impeding their ability to change. If a swimmer is swimming with an excessively high head position, rather than simply instructing them to lower their head, a coach can have them swim with an extremely high head position and an extremely low head position. This variability in sensation can help them feel the impact of their positioning, which will enhance their ability to use that information to create change. By clearly experiencing what is “wrong,” swimmers can better detect what is “right,” and without this contrast perception, it’s more difficult to detect the nuance that defines more functional movement solutions as compared to current ones. Variability can be systematic or non-systematic in that it can be included for a very specific purpose, or it can be included simply for the purpose of providing variation. In the learning context, systematic variability would consist of variability that was included for a specific purpose. As an example, systematic variability

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would be using a specific type of paddle to facilitate a specific change in a swimmer’s pulling pattern, as the intent of the intervention is to use a novel task to create a specific change. If swimmers hold their paddles upside down as described in Chapter 7, the position of the paddle will force the swimmers to pull with the hand and the forearm as unit, increasing the use of the forearm as a propelling surface. In contrast, non-systematic variability would be adding variability that without the intent to create a specific outcome. Using a similar example, non-systematic variability could be randomly changing between different types of paddles throughout the course of a training set, without the intent to facilitate a specific change in the pulling pattern, as in the example above. In this case, the intention is to expose swimmers to a broader spectrum of sensory information by using multiple types of paddles, yet the nature of that information is less important than its breadth. The key here is the intention, as the same intervention can be considered to introduce either systematic or non-systematic variation depending on the outcomes the coach intends to achieve, and both can be included in any training task. Including more variability in practice is not always done to specifically influence technique but to provide the novelty that allows for the swimmer to better perceive the opportunities for action in the environment. Slight and often random deviations from a specific task can better facilitate learning, as compared to simply repeating the task incessantly. By comparing different sensory information that form varying practicing condition, learning can occur. When repeating the same task, the variety of sensory information is too small. Perhaps “imperfect practice makes perfect” is a more appropriate conceptualization of practice because it is through “errors” and differences in execution that swimmers learn which information in the environment is critical for action. The role of the coach is to create as much contrast and differentiation as possible within a narrow band of specificity to facilitate learning outcomes. By thinking through this lens, the nature of learning process changes drastically. When considering the example above using multiple types of paddles, this intervention could be used during a set where swimmers were swimming against resistance (see Chapter 7) and with strict stroke count restrictions (see Chapter 3). The basic set is intended to facilitate change in propulsive arm actions as the combination of resisted swimming and low-stroke counts will require more propulsion to be created with each stroke. By performing aspects of the same set with different types of paddles, swimmers will be required to solve the same problem in slightly different ways, introducing variability that will enhance learning. This extra variability can be non-systematic in that it creates fluctuations that are not necessarily purposeful as it doesn’t matter which type of paddles are used, just that they are different. This contrasts with the attempt to purposefully manipulate constraints by swimming against resistance and implementing stroke counts, both of which will have a very targeted impact on how swimmers move through the water. To provide another instance of layering further variability, recall the example from Figure 8.3 of placing a paddle on the crown of a swimmer to constrain their breathing action. This is an example of introducing systematic variability through purposeful constraint as the paddle will have a direct impact on the

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number of breathing actions that will allow for the successful completion of the task. A coach can then add non-systematic variability to that process by having the swimmer breathe to different sides, breathe with different frequencies, or perform the task at different speeds. While one of these variations directly impact how a swimmer will breathe, it will force the swimmers to solve the same basic problem in many different contexts. By combining these two strategies, the coach can effectively manipulate constraints to achieve the desired outcome, then further introduce variability to allow for continued learning to take place. Part of the coach’s role is to optimize the level of variability, as more established movement patterns, as in the expert performer, require more added variability to facilitate learning and less established movements patterns will need less variability as the system is already inherently noisy due to more frequent errors. With the example above, simply placing the paddle on the swimmer’s head will be sufficient to promote change at first and introducing more variability may impede learning as the task would become too challenging. However, once the basic task has been learned, more variations will be required to further enhance learning, including those described above as well as others that the creative coach can implement. It is important to note that this approach is context-specific. When introducing a new “signal,” there may be enough variability already present in the system, even to the expert performer. It is only when the swimmer begins to gain mastery over the task that more non-systematic variability may be necessary to continue the learning curve. As coaches eventually run out of new signals to provide, or constraints to manipulate, this approach can allow coaches to retain representative learning design, while also allowing for the variability necessary to encourage further learning.

8.5  Establishing a Design Checklist for Change Based upon what we have covered so far, there are major implications from these theoretical constructs that inform applied practice: •

•

• •

If swimmers are going to learn to swim more effectively in competitive situations, they must be consistently exposed to relevant training environments that are reflective of the performance environment. There are many factors (or constraints) that interact in complex ways to create individualized performances. With an appreciation of these factors and their interactions, we can better understand how to intervene via our practice design, influencing those factors that are modifiable. We can manipulate task, organism, and environmental constraints to push swimmers toward change and more functional solutions. Creating a variety of experiences is critical to learning, and variation can be used deliberately through various strategies to facilitate change.

With these concepts in mind, coaches can create strategies that prove to be consistently successful in facilitating the search for more effective performance

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solutions. More important, these changes will transfer to competition performance because they take place in learning environment that represents the competitive environment. One of the great values of this approach is that the introduction of variability allows swimmers to explore a much greater spectrum of movement options, while staying within the specific parameters relevant to competition. Coaches can manipulate constraints to design tasks that achieve the main objective of the training session and then create variability within those tasks to ensure a full exploration of the movement solutions relevant for those tasks. When these main tasks are chosen effectively, these movement solutions will transfer to competitive situations. Through the effective use of constraints and variability, swimmers are placed into novel environments, allowing novel solutions will emerge through novel perception–action couplings. Because of the nature of constraints, these are solutions that often emerge due to the elimination of preferred strategies, and as a result, these are often solutions that cannot be taught through verbal instruction, they must be felt and experienced. This process is further enhanced when swimmers have learned how to understand and appreciate their internal sensory feedback, a process that coaches can facilitate, as will be discussed in the following section.

8.6 Enhancing Sensory Perception to Access New Opportunities for Action When swimmers are placed in a representative learning environment, constraints are used to push them toward solutions and they are provided with novel problems to solve, coaches can help them learn to attune to the affordances and opportunities that are continually presented to them. As discussed earlier, ecological psychology has drawn attention to the reciprocal relationship between individuals and their environment. Expert learners can better perceive opportunities for movement that exist in the aquatic environment, and swimmers must be able to act on an affordance for it to be of value, yet swimmers are often limited by their ability to interact with the water and perceive effective ways to move through it. When optimized, this ability is often associated with “talented” swimmers or those with “great feel for the water,” the implication being that these abilities are innate and untrainable, and while there is certainly a spectrum of natural ability, these skills can be improved through a series of training tasks and effective communication. If a coach can help improve a swimmer’s ability to perceive the information present in the water and within themselves, they can help improve the swimmer’s ability to act. These skills are trainable, and with time and focus, they can be improved significantly.

8.5.1  Designing Tasks That Enhance Sensory Awareness While being aware and engaged is a critical component of improving the ability to perceive, certain tasks are more suitable for enhancing this process, namely

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those that provide varied, relevant, and clear sensory information. The basic premise is to include a wide variety of relevant sensory experiences, thereby creating a wide spectrum of relevant kinesthetic information, preferably in a manner that varies on a repetition-to-repetition basis, as consistently contrasting the information a swimmer receives helps them begin to perceive different opportunities for action. For example, sensory awareness of the hands is critical for the effective creation of propulsion as the swimmer must sense changes in water flow and water pressure to effectively move water backward (see Chapter 12 for more information). As swimmers are receiving the same basic information with each arm stroke in normal circumstances, coaches could help swimmers experience contrasting sensory information and heighten awareness, by having swimmers swim successive laps with different hand positions as described in Chapter 7, with the first lap swum with a closed fist, the second with only the index finger extended, the third with only the pinky finger extended, and the fourth with a normal hand position. By performing this task, the sensory information perceived by the hands will be very different compared to normal swimming, and the swimmer will be much more aware of the subtle sensations coming from their hands. By creating novel and variable sensory inputs while still using tasks that represent competitive environments, swimmers can learn to understand how to effectively use their body to solve competitive tasks. Introducing a wide variety of rich kinesthetic experiences creates the variability required for swimmers to experience different sensory information and enhance kinesthetic awareness. Kinesthetic awareness is ultimately a process of differentiation, so creating experiences that provide unique feedback can enhance this awareness. As alluded to above, the hands and forearms are two critical body areas that should be focused on. As the lower arm is responsible for most of the propulsion created, it is critical for the swimmer to be able to effectively process information sensed by the hand. As discussed in depth in Chapter 7 and briefly during the beginning of the current chapter, the surface area of the hand and forearm can be manipulated by using of training aids, thereby providing a variety of kinesthetic experiences. Further variation can be included by performing all these activities across a range of velocities, or with various types of resisted swimming. All these experiences can create information about the swimmer–water relationship and can help swimmers learn how to effectively use the hand and the forearm to create propulsion. Beyond enhancing sensory awareness to improve the creation of propulsion, coaches should work to enhance sensory awareness of the torso as it moves through the water as the position of the hips and the torso is critical for minimizing the active drag profile, and a poorly aligned body will decrease swimming velocity and increase the energetic cost of swimming (see Chapter 9). As described in Chapter 7, coaches can manipulate the center of mass to change the default position of the hips and torso. This intervention will provide enhanced sensory feedback about how the torso moves through the water and what it feels like to reestablish effective body position, feedback that would otherwise be

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impossible for swimmers to receive. These exaggerations can help swimmers better understand how small changes in position impact the amount of drag that is created, and importantly, it allows them to feel the impact. Using the concept of variability introduced earlier, assigning these tasks across many velocities will further expose swimmers to novel situations that can build awareness. Throughout this process, athletes will be learning to perceive changes in hip position and the impact of these effects, and over time, they can use this enhanced perception to create action that improves performance. From a global perspective, slight variations of competitive strokes can help develop a total body appreciation of kinesthetic information received during competitive tasks by providing novel experiences. For instance, butterfly can be performed with flutter kick, freestyle can be performed with butterfly kick, breaststroke can be performed with dolphin kick, and all of the strokes can be performed with the head out of the water. By performing slight variations of the competitive strokes, swimmers can develop a broader sensory awareness of how different modifications affect the rhythm, timing, and ease of movement. Not only does this type of exploration enhance sensory awareness, but it can also help swimmers search for new solutions as we will see in subsequent chapters.

8.5.2  Directing the Search for Attuned Self-Perception In the training and competitive environment, the swimmers will often value what a coach values, and what a coach values will be demonstrated by their actions. Thus, if coaches wish for swimmers to engage with their kinesthetic feedback, coaches must focus their coaching efforts on encouraging this engagement. As discussed in Chapter 4, this process can be facilitated by directing swimmers’ attention by questioning about what they are feeling and experiencing. Instead of telling a swimmer, “Your head is too low,” the coach could instead ask, “Where was your head positioned?” Initially, the typical response will be, “I don’t know.” Rather than getting frustrated by such a response, understand that this is not simply an issue of focus, as the swimmer most likely doesn’t know how to interpret their own feedback about the whereabouts of their body parts in space. This is problematic because of the relationship between perception and action, as when the ability to perceive is compromised, so too will be the ability to act. As this process is continued and repeated across a spectrum of training tasks, swimmers will become better at understanding what their body is doing and what they are feeling, and they will be able to identify deviations from “normal” ways of moving and assess whether these deviations are functional or not. Instead of providing corrective feedback, the coach could simply ask the swimmer how successful they were in accomplishing the set task or skill, as not only will this effectively direct attention toward the area of concern without being critical, it will also help the swimmer learn to manage their own intrinsic feedback. This is what “talented” swimmers do. Following the coach’s lead, over time, swimmers will learn to ask these same questions of themselves. As training loads become higher to simulate competitive

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performances, technical integrity will be stressed due to the fatigue experienced during challenging training sets. Engaged swimmers who are aware of their intrinsic feedback can better monitor and manipulate their skills to maintain technical integrity as they begin to fatigue. As they become more skilled in doing so, the swimmer will not only be able to be aware of potential errors that are being made, but they will also be able to better perceive new opportunities for movement, even in the face of fatigue. This is critical because new opportunities for movement are ripe for discovery during moments of fatigue as discussed in Chapter 8. When combined with the introduction of novel tasks, this ability to perceive and utilize sensory information creates a significant platform for change, and it all starts with the coach’s choice to direct attention to each swimmer’s kinesthetic feedback.

8.5.3  Leading Exploration through Perception-Based Communication Coaches often complain that a given swimmer has no “feel for the water” or insufficient coordination to make changes, and while this may seem to be a reality for some swimmers, it is not a permanent state. As described above, these abilities can be improved, and this process starts with the dialogue a coach has with each swimmer. As described in Chapter 4, coaching communication acts as a task constraint on how swimmers interact with the performance tasks they are assigned. Coaches can use their communication to effectively constrain swimmers’ exploration through perception-based communication. In building upon the effective use of questioning, coaches can more effectively solicit feedback from swimmers by asking, “What did you feel?,” rather than “What did you think?” This orients swimmers’ feedback toward their sensory experience, rather than an analysis of that experience. Further, by developing a swimmer’s awareness, coaches can co-create through a discussion of what needs to be done. If swimmers can conclude that what they are doing isn’t optimal, it will be more powerful. When coaches do choose to provide instructions or feedback, the coach must choose what to describe and how they choose to describe it. Coaches often communicate technical feedback by telling the swimmer what the optimal position or movement should be. They tell a swimmer what needs to happen without instructing an athlete what they need to do or feel to make that change. I would suggest that coaches are better served by focusing on what a swimmer needs to do to make a change and what they must feel to know they’ve been successful. When focusing on what swimmers need to do rather than the desired movement outcomes to orient coaching interactions, an important implication arises. The coach now has much more latitude as to how they can frame their instructions as the content of the instruction now becomes secondary to the outcome the instruction achieves. Instead of focusing on what is “right,” coaches can focus on what happens as a result. If a given instruction elicits the desired change, the instruction is right, even if it violates biomechanical principles, and similarly, if a

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textbook instruction consistently fails to produce the desired change, it is wrong as it is inappropriate for the learner in some way. To make this concept practical, consider two crawl swimmers who are having a problem with an “incorrect” position of the hand when it enters the water. One swimmer is entering the left hand to the right of the head, crossing over across the head and the body prior to entry. A second swimmer is entering the left hand 18 inches outside of the left shoulder, well wide of the body. For both swimmers, a coach could instruct them to enter the left hand just inside of the left shoulder, an instruction that most coaches would consider to be appropriate. However, what each swimmer will have to do to achieve this position will be completely different, as they will be moving to the instructed position from very different initial positions. To make that change, the first swimmer will have to feel like they are entering 18 inches outside of the shoulder whereas the second swimmer will have to feel like they are crossing over and entering their hand to the right of the head, two completely different sensory experiences that ultimately yield the same outcome. Consequently, the instructions each swimmer should receive will be different as well, based upon what they must do to achieve the desired outcomes (Figure 8.4). While coaches establish task constraints by using verbal instructions about movement solutions, they rarely consider providing sensations as task goals. A common example would be to instruct a swimmer to “swim so that it feels like you’re swimming downhill” when a swimmer is swimming with the head high and the hips low. When done with the appropriate focus of attention and the use of analogy as described in Chapter 4, these instructions become even more effective. Information is provided in the context of how swimmers best learn— through their own kinesthetic feedback, as kinesthetic information is their main source of internal feedback, and rather than setting a visual task objective (“make sure your head is in line with your body”), coaches can provide them with a sensory one (“swim so that it feels you are moving downhill”). By communicating with swimmers about what they need to feel as they swim, rather than communicating with swimmers about the idealized movements and positions they should achieve, coaches have the freedom to suggest a change, observe the effect, and then adjust as necessary. It is no longer necessary to be the expert, and this is particularly the case when swimmers understand that it is a search for solutions, and that some, if not many, interventions will not work initially or at all. Coaches must first know what they want to happen, then must consider what they have to say to make it happen, adjusting based upon the outcomes of their interventions. There are no rules as to what is “right” to say, beyond whether the intended change occurs. Communicating in this manner encourages swimmers to engage with their kinesthetic feedback. Through this process, swimmers can begin to develop a kinesthetic awareness and kinesthetic language surrounding their swimming, and as the swimmer learns to leverage their own intrinsic feedback, they can begin to discover new ways of swimming, monitor their skilled performance, and become their own best coach.

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FIGURE 8.4 Molding

instructional constraints. Depending on what a swimmer is doing, different communication will be required. If the desired outcome is for the arm to enter relatively straight, the swimmer on the left will require a different instructional constraint than the swimmer on the right. Further, the desired action will feel very different to the swimmer in both cases.

When learning to make changes through “feel,” swimmers can identify opportunities that a coach may otherwise be unable to recognize. When swimmers become skilled enough at perceiving opportunities, their kinesthetic awareness can become more important than the eyes of the coach, a trait often recognized in the most “talented” swimmers. This process can be further enhanced by using language that strengthens the link between perception and action when providing feedback, keying in on the kinesthetic information swimmers perceive when they are swimming well. The more consistently and exclusively coaches can communicate in this language, the more effectively they will constrain how swimmers process movement, the more opportunities are created for swimmer to learn to extract and value internal sources of information. Learning to process this information stream goes beyond learning, as focusing on kinesthetic information allows swimmers to race on autopilot, feeling their way through performance opposed to cognitively assessing what they are doing, reducing the level of conscious self-monitoring of performance, a process that is often associated with an increased risk of choking, thereby building resiliency against

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the pressures of performance. This is the culmination of a learning process that is ultimately driven by how coaches design training tasks and then further constrain the learning process by how they choose to communicate with swimmers.

8.7 Conclusion Having a strong theoretical framework for facilitating change is critical for being able to effectively solve the novel problems that inevitably arise when coaching, and this is particularly true when learning to implement new strategies, such as the constraints-led approach. If one understands the principles that underpin the desired interventions, one can adapt in any situation that presents itself. By working in a learning environment that represents the competitive environment, by designing tasks that push swimmers toward different solutions, and by varying tasks to ensure a broader learning experience, coaches will be more effective in accomplishing their objectives. These strategies serve to provide a rich sensory environment which allows swimmers to better attune to the opportunities that allow for fast swimming, a process that is better facilitated when coaching interactions are entered on sensory experiences. With these principles in mind, it then becomes possible to construct training programs designed to leverage ideas. However, it is not enough to know strategies for facilitating learning. There must be a clear conception of what is to be learned if swimmers are going to improve their performance. The next chapter will dive into the principles of fast swimming, examining what objectives swimmers must accomplish if they wish to move through the water quickly, regardless of the stroke they’re using.

References Bosch, F. 2010. Strength Training and Coordination. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Uitgevers. Gibson, J. 1977. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Issurin, V. 2013. Training transfer: Scientific background and insights for practical application. Sports Medicine. Aug;43(8):675–94. Pinder, R., Davids, K., Renshaw, I., and Araújo, D. 2011. Representative learning design and functionality of research and practice in sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Feb;33(1):146–55. Pol, R., Balagué, N., Ric, A., Torrents, C., Kiely, J., and Hristovski, R. 2020. Training or synergizing? Complex systems principles change the understanding of sport processes. Sports Medicine Open. Jul 13;6(1):28. Schollhorn, W., Hegen, P., and Davids, K. 2012. The nonlinear nature of learning: A differential learning approach. The Open Sports Sciences Journal. 5:100–12. Seifert, L., Button, C., and Brazier, T. 2010. Interacting constraints and inter-limb co-ordination in swimming. In: Eds- Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Savelsbergh, G., editors. Motor Learning in Practice: A Constraints-Led Approach. Abington, Oxfordshire: Routledge. Verkhosansky, V. 2011. Special Strength Training: Manual for Coaches. Rome, Italy: Verkhoshansky SSTM.

9 PRINCIPLES FOR SKILLED SWIMMING

9.1 Introduction While it’s critical to possess a theoretical framework designed to facilitate movement exploration, it is all for naught if coaches are striving to help swimmers learn the wrong ideas about swimming fast. As the previous chapter examined the strategies that form a framework which can be used to help swimmers adapt their skills, this chapter will explore the critical skills that swimmers need to learn. Rather than discussing the specific skills of specific strokes, which will be addressed in the final section of this book, this chapter will describe the principles that underly fast swimming. It is through the application of these foundational principles that swimmers can find the solutions that work best for them.

9.2  The Value of Coaching with Principles Rather than Models When instructing and teaching are the primary tasks of the coach, it is implied that the coach has knowledge of an ideal technical model that can be applied to any given swimmer, as there must be something that is taught. In contrast, when viewing the skill adaptation process as centered on swimmers’ learning, the coach can focus on designing tasks that allow each swimmer to explore the possibilities for movement within the constraints each individual swimmer possesses. This represents a shift from applying a fixed model to each swimmer to helping swimmers explore movement solutions that apply the principles required for fast swimming, resulting in the development of uniquely functional solutions for each swimmer. As swimmers bring their own constraints to each task, different solutions will be necessary to satisfy those unique constraints. While there are differences in what can be considered optimized skilled performance for each individual swimmer, there are biomechanical principles that DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-12

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must be adhered to, principles based upon the laws of physics. These principles are distinct from a biomechanical model, which is based upon an idealized application of the laws of physics to the swimming stroke, or simply exists as a replication of how the champions of the day are swimming. That latter approach falls short, as unfortunately, most swimmers are unable to conform to the ideal. A learner-centered skill adaptation process recognizes this discrepancy, focusing on biomechanical principles rather than biomechanical models. When swimmers are no longer constrained by an idealized way of moving, they are free to employ movement solutions that suit them best, while still respecting physical laws. Further, idealized models are overly constraining, as engaged and motivated swimmers are often able to develop movement solutions that are innovative and superior to those that would otherwise be dictated by the coach, which can only be taken advantage of if swimmers are allowed to explore. With an understanding of the theoretical and practical principles for facilitating adaptive change, it’s critical to have sound principles for how fast swimming occurs. As opposed to learning specific “optimal” technical models, coaches are best served to create an understanding of the underlying biomechanical principles that explain the effectiveness of the technical actions that have been repeatedly shown to be successful in competition. With that understanding, it’s possible to build training tasks which allow for the creation of an exploratory environment where swimmers can discover how to best apply these principles in alignment with their own individual constraints. Three major biomechanical principles inform what I look for in skilled swimming, principles that are conserved across the strokes (Adams 2001). These principles greatly influence how I design training exercises, direct attention, and provide feedback. To swim fast: Swimmers are tasked with creating propulsion, minimizing resistance, and effectively coordinating movement to achieve these tasks simultaneously. By extension, great swimmers can create high levels of propulsion and minimize their drag profile in a coordinated manner that maximizes efficiency (Barbosa et al. 2010; Zamparo et al. 2011). The value in considering skilled movement through these principles as opposed to specific technical models is that it allows swimmers much greater flexibility in discovering effective solutions. The coach and the swimmer can determine which movement strategies will be most appropriate for that individual while preventing a focus on minor details, with every action must be judged by whether improvements in the three major aspects of effective movement are achieved (i.e., propulsion, resistance, and coordination). To effectively make these determinations, there must be a strong understanding of how each action affects the entire stroke cycle. The deceptive simplicity of this approach requires the coach and the swimmer to have a deep understanding of what matters, the trade-offs that exist, and how to determine the most effective strategy to positively influence performance.

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There are specific strategies that are often employed by elite swimmers which satisfy these biomechanical principles within the constraints of human anatomy. For example, as the beginning of the pulling action is very similar across all four strokes, clearly, there are commonalities in effective strategies for creating propulsion (Adams 2001). However, I have chosen to focus my coaching not on the specific actions that satisfy these principles but on the principles that underly these actions, as the specific actions are informed by the principles. This approach is taken because although elite swimmers use similar movements to create propulsion, there are subtle yet significant differences between these swimmers. It is my opinion that these differences do not necessarily exemplify varying levels of expertise, but instead arise due to individual differences in limb length, flexibility, or strength of the limbs involved. Different swimmers are finding different solutions because these solutions are better aligned with their own constraints. Thus, I believe it is best to provide swimmers with the principles, and then provide the environment that allows for swimmers to search for the optimal individual expression of these principles. For a coach working with principles rather than models, it is still critical to understand the specific strategies that successful swimmers tend to use; actions are specific expressions of these principles. What is important is to allow for swimmers to explore these actions so that they can find variations of the basic strategy that work best for them, and with an understanding of the foundational principles, coaches can use the knowledge of specific strategies to reverse engineer training tasks that best allow swimmers to explore these strategies. The coach can also use their knowledge to focus attention and guide swimmers toward generally effective solutions through communication that effectively constrains the search process, as described in Chapter 4. This approach has many advantages: • •

• • • •

• •

Swimmers take ownership of their learning. This intensifies the motivation to learn which enhances learning outcomes in a feedforward cycle. Coaches are required to possess a deep understanding of technical skill. The knowledge required to operate with this framework will enhance a coach’s ability to facilitate learning. There is flexibility in learning approaches. There are no rules, just results. The focus is on outcomes. Does the change work? Individual adaptation to the task can be made. Swimmers can find biomechanically sound solutions that work for them and their current state. As the swimmers’ technical and physical state will change over time, it allows for continuous exploration and updating of current skill levels. There is no “end point,” no “perfect” technique. All potential changes are possible. In many cases, novel and superior solutions can emerge that were not previously conceived by the coach. The coach can still teach toward modeled actions if so desired. This takes the form of directed attention. Ironically, these actions are often easier to teach when operating from a principle-based framework because the subsequent learning environment is more effective.

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With an appreciation for why working with principles is a superior approach as compared to working with models, the following sections will explore the basic principles in further detail. To develop a deeper understanding of these principles, the main objectives are outlined, as well as effective strategies for exploring these learning tasks.

9.3  Creating Forward Motion through Propulsion If swimmers are unable to create sufficient propulsion, they will be unable to create sufficient forward speed, with the main goal in creating propulsion is to move water backward (Soh et al. 2021). To do so, swimmers are tasked with three objectives, and if the swimmer can accomplish the following tasks, they will demonstrate the skills that are effective for fast swimming. To create large amounts of propulsion, swimmers must: • • •

Maximize the effective surface area of the propelling limb Maximize water pressure on effective surface area of the propelling limb Optimize the duration that the surface area and pressure on the propelling limb can be maximized

These are objectives that swimmers must achieve to create large amounts of propulsion, which are conserved across the four competitive strokes (Adams 2001), with the precise manifestation of these objectives differing depending on the constraints established by the rules of each stroke and the constraints present within each swimmer. As opposed to the encouragement of specific movement solutions, learning to create more propulsion is more effectively facilitated by providing swimmers with broad task goals that allow and require swimmers find the solutions themselves, although the coach can certainly steer attention toward specific solutions if it is warranted. However, the solutions that swimmers discover for themselves are often better retained and better suited for that individual, provided assigned tasks are appropriately designed. Strategies that are particularly effective for helping swimmers learn to optimize propulsion include (Figure 9.1): • • • • • •

Manipulate surface area of limbs/hands to help swimmers learn to use their limbs effectively (see Chapter 7). Create asymmetrical conditions so that swimmers can simultaneously perceive differences in propulsion (see Chapter 7). Manipulate the resistance felt on the propulsive limbs using resistive devices (see Chapter 7). Manipulate swimming velocity (see Chapter 2). Manipulate stroke count requirements (see Chapter 3). Perform all these strategies concurrently.

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FIGURE 9.1 Effective

propulsive positions. These are two different positions that achieve the objective laid out for maximizing propulsion, with evident differences in the depth of the hand, angle of the elbow, and width of the pull. This is but two examples, and the appropriate positions for other swimmers will differ depending on their own constraints, such as muscle strength, joint range of motion, and the shapes of their bones. Other strokes will achieve similar positions, adapted to the task constraints associated with the rules of those strokes.

9.4  Minimizing Speed Loss through Drag Reduction As drag increases, so does its retarding effect on speed and its direct contribution to the energetic cost of swimming (Zamparo et al. 2011). It’s not enough to create propulsion, as swimmers must minimize drag to ensure that the propulsion they create is actualized into speed in an economical fashion. As coaches often understand intuitively, a major component of the energetic cost of swimming and active drag is the amount of body surface area that directly interacts with the water as the swimmer moves forward (Gatta et al. 2015; Zamparo et al. 2008, 2009). While this surface area will be dictated by the structural constraints of each swimmer (i.e., body shape, breadth, height, mass, etc.) (Cortesi et al. 2020; Naemi et al. 2012) as seen in Chapter 6, it can be modified by the postures and positions a swimmer assumes (Papic et al. 2021). Importantly, the frontal

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surface is constantly changing throughout each stroke cycle, with corresponding changes in the creation drag (Morais et al. 2020). This presents swimmers with the opportunity to manage these changes in surface area to reduce the drag they create as they move through the water. As a result, equally important to creating propulsion, swimmers are tasked with finding body positions and postures that minimize the amount of surface area they present, drag they create, and resistance their body produces when moving through the water. Drag can be minimized by: • • • • • •

Ensuring the torso is as straight as possible. Minimizing vertical deviations of the torso. Minimizing lateral deviations of the torso. Minimizing disruption of vertical and lateral integrity when breathing. Minimizing motion of the limbs outside of the frame of the torso. Any of the above principles should be violated if doing so results in propulsion that is proportionally greater than the drag that is induced.

These postures are not static and unchanging throughout the stroke cycle (Gatta et al. 2015; Morais et al. 2020), and swimmers will need to be able to make these adjustments within the stroke cycle in a manner that minimizes drag. This is a difficult task to accomplish, and as these positions and postures are constantly changing throughout a stroke cycle, it is best to equip swimmers with the ability to feel their way through appropriate postures and positions. Coaches may not be able to visually detect subtle changes in alignment, emphasizing the need to equip swimmers with the capabilities to sense opportunities to achieve and sustain better alignment (see Chapters 7 and 8 for more). Strategies that are particularly effective for helping swimmers learn to optimize the drag profile include: • • • • • •

Manipulating stroke count requirements (see Chapter 3). Using training equipment that directly affects active drag profile (see Chapter 7). Exposing swimmers to supramaximal velocities where active drag is exaggerated. Using training equipment that alters the center of mass (see Chapter 7). Using training equipment that forces the body out of alignment. Creating training exercises that allow swimmers to experience artificially low drag (i.e., swimming breaststroke without breathing).

9.5 Rhythm and Coordination Ensure the Right Thing Happens at the Right Time While swimming fast is a matter of increasing propulsion and reducing drag, a critical aspect of swimming performance is effectively timing propulsive actions and the manipulation of body posture. Propulsive actions tend to disrupt alignment and maintaining alignment tends to reduce opportunities to create propulsion.

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To maximize these trade-offs, timing is critical, and effective rhythm and coordination are the result of efficiently managing these trade-offs. The coordination patterns swimmers exhibit are a direct result of the environmental constraints the water presents, the task constraints explored in Chapters 2–4, and the individual constraints explored in Chapters 5–7 (Silva et al. 2022). With changes in velocity, fatigue, and expertise, changes in coordination emerge. Any action in a cyclic motion can affect any other actions throughout the cycle, and effective timing can facilitate these transitions in a positive way, particularly when the use of momentum is optimized. The ability to maximize propulsion and minimize drag must always be subservient to the ability to do so in a rhythmic and efficient manner. To optimize rhythm and coordination, swimmers must learn to: • • • • •

Use momentum of the recovering arms to efficiently facilitate changes in position or maintenance of velocity. Use momentum of the undulating torso to efficiently facilitate changes in position or maintenance of velocity. Appropriately time motion of the limbs relative to the rotational motion of the body. Appropriately time motion of the limbs relative to ipsilateral or contralateral limbs. Learn to optimize the trade-offs between creating propulsion and minimizing drag at various points in the stroke cycle to maintain velocity.

Within each stroke cycle, the speed of the swimmer changes based upon the balance between propulsion and drag. Quantitative measures of swimming efficiency include intra-cyclic velocity variation, a measure of velocity changes within a stroking cycle (Barbosa et al. 2010; Matsuda et al. 2014). When propulsion is high relative to drag, swimmers speed up, and vice versa. Expert swimmers tend to have reduced velocity variation within their swimming stroke so that their speed tends to fluctuate less, and this reduced variation has been related to a reduced energy cost of swimming (Barbosa et al. 2010). Just like “stop and go” driving is inefficient, so it is in swimming. Reduced velocity fluctuations are often the result of an appropriate timing of propulsive actions and drag-reducing postures, both of which serve to minimize changes in velocity. Expert swimmers employ different coordination patterns, or the timing of the limbs relative to each other, than less successful swimmers, and this timing differs across levels of expertise (Seifert and Carmigniani 2021; Seifert et al. 2007, 2008; Silva et al. 2022). The importance of timing is independent of the effectiveness of the propulsive action and body postures exhibited, as when these actions and postures occur, it is a critical aspect of performance. It is also important to consider that coordination and timing change with increases in velocity (Guignard et al. 2019; Nicol et al. 2022; Seifert et al. 2008). At slower velocities, there are many ways to time the arms and legs and still accomplish the task. However, as velocity

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increases, it acts as a constraint on how swimmers coordinate their actions, as certain patterns of coordination allow for the attainment of progressively higher velocities whereas others do not. Swimmers must discover these timing patterns through practice, and they can learn to do so by consistently experimenting with different timing patterns brought about by effective task design. They must learn what component of the stroke to focus on to modulate velocity, rhythm, and timing. In the final section of this book, examples will be presented as to how these coordination and rhythm skills can be explored in specific strokes. This aspect of skill is poorly understood and I believe facilitating positive changes in timing represents the next frontier in performance and coaching expertise. Coaches can use the following strategies to facilitate this process: • • •

•

• •

• •

Alter limb mass to help learners understand the impact of momentum (see Chapter 7). Use training equipment that forces changes in coordination (see Chapter 7). Learn to determine the technical action which limits rhythm and stroke rate. When found, it can be the focal point for increasing stroke frequency that allows for the retention of appropriate timing and skill execution. Add variations to each stroke that require changes in coordination (i.e., butterfly swimming with flutter kicking prevents swimmers from hesitating in the beginning phase of the arm stroke). By experiencing a wide variety of options for timing the limbs, swimmers can learn which option will work best for them at different speeds. Use resistive devices that require swimmers to immediately apply force, a characteristic of high-velocity swimming. This allows swimmers to learn to work in situations requiring high velocity without having to move the limbs at high speeds (see Chapter 7). Manipulate body position to require swimmers to move through stroking phase transitions quickly. Coaches must clearly understand the coordination pattern they are looking for, and how the limbs should move relative to each other. Coaches can design intervention that “force” swimmers close to desired timing patterns, or they can magnify the kinesthetic sensations that are associated with a given coordination timing.

9.6  Learning to Intervene Cautiously When employing these principles, coaches should also be aware that with any change in action there will be a related reaction, as swimming is a cyclic sport. Every change in action will have consequences later in the stroke cycle, whether positive or negative. Hence, the coach needs to ask, “Do I know what those changes are? Am I ensuring they are positive, or at least not negative?” There

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are trade-offs as some actions may benefit one aspect of performance (i.e., propulsion) but lead to detrimental effects in others (i.e., drag creation or coordination). The key question for a coach, “Will the time spent in training and the potential negative impact on performance during this time be worth it?” Interventions must be conducted with a global awareness and vigilance toward unintended consequences. If a coach is witnessing an opportunity for improvement, it is important to understand if the opportunity is the downstream effect of a different issue, or a primary point of intervention. If the targeting opportunity is the result of a previous error, the initial mistake must be addressed first, or change efforts will be futile. When the coach has a sound understanding of the critical principles necessary for fast swimming, as well as an understanding of the interrelated nature of all cyclic movement, they are best equipped to effectively facilitate adaptive change. Clarity in navigating these coaching challenges comes from a deeper understanding of how the basic biomechanical principles operate.

9.7 Conclusion Historically, coaches have used idealized models to teach correct technique to swimmers. There was a “right way” and a “wrong way” to swim, and swimmers are expected to conform to this model, regardless of the individual constraints they bring to the water. This chapter has deviated from that approach by describing the underlying principles that allow for fast swimming. Rather than conforming to models, swimmers are expected to learn to execute on these principles within the constraints of the individual attributes they possess. What is powerful about these principles is that they allow more options for exploration, while guaranteeing that fast swimming will result if the principles are followed. If swimmers create large amounts of propulsion, minimize drag, and perform these actions in concert, they will swim fast. With these principles in mind, in conjunction with the strategies for facilitating change discussed in the last chapter, the next chapter will discuss how to use these concepts to create a systematic approach to change.

References Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Barbosa, T., Bragada, J., Reis, V., Marinho, D., Carvalho, C., and Silva, A. 2010. Energetics and biomechanics as determining factors of swimming performance: Updating the state of the art. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. Mar;13(2):262–9. Cortesi, M., Gatta, G., Michielon, G., Di Michele, R., Bartolomei, S., and Raffaele Scurati, R. 2020. Passive drag in young swimmers: Effects of body composition, morphology and gliding position. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Mar;17(6):2002.

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Gatta, G., Cortesi, M., Fantozzi, S., and Zamparo, P. 2015. Planimetric frontal area in the four swimming strokes: Implications for drag, energetics and speed. Human Movement Science. Feb;39:41–54. Guignard, B., Rouard, A., Chollet, D., Bonifazi, M., Vedova, D., Hart, J., and Seifert, L. 2019. Upper to lower limb coordination dynamics in swimming depending on swimming speed and aquatic environment manipulations. Motor Control. Jul 1;23(3):418–42. Matsuda, Y., Yamada, Y., Ikuta, Y., Nomura, T., and Oda, S. 2014. Intracyclic velocity variation and arm coordination for different skilled swimmers in the front crawl. Journal of Human Kinetics. Dec 9;44:67–74. Morais, J., Sanders, R., Papic, C., Barbosa, T., and Marinho, D. 2020. The influence of the frontal surface area and swim velocity variation in front crawl active drag. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Nov;52(11):2357–64. Naemi, R., Psycharakis, S., McCabe, C., Connaboy, C., and Sanders, R. 2012. Relationships between glide efficiency and swimmers’ size and shape characteristics. Journal of Applied Biomechanics. Aug;28(4):400–11. Nicol, E., Pearson, S., Saxby, D., Minahan, C., and Tor, E. 2022. Stroke kinematics, temporal patterns, neuromuscular activity, pacing and kinetics in elite breaststroke swimming: A systematic review. Sports Medicine. 8:75. Papic, C., Andersen, J., Naemi, R., Hodierne, R., and Sanders, R. 2021. Augmented feedback can change body shape to improve glide efficiency in swimming. Sports Biomechanics. 6:1–20. Seifert, L., Boulesteix, L., Chollet, D., and Vilas-Boas, J. 2008. Differences in spatialtemporal parameters and arm–leg coordination in butterfly stroke as a function of race pace, skill and gender. Human Movement Science. 27:96–111. Seifert, L., and Carmigniani, R. 2021. Coordination and stroking parameters in the four swimming techniques: A narrative review. Sports Biomechanics. 9:1–17. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Rouard, A. 2007. Swimming constraints and arm coordination. Human Movement Science. 26:68–86. Silva, A., Seifert, S., Fernandes, R., Vilas Boas, J., and Figueiredo, P. 2022. Front crawl swimming coordination: A systematic review. Sports Biomechanics. 12:1–20. Soh, J., and Sanders, R. 2021. The clues are in the flow: how swim propulsion should be interpreted. Sports Biomechanics. 20(7):798–814. Zamparo, P., Capelli, C., and Pendergast, D. 2011. Energetics of swimming: A historical perspective. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 111:367–78. Zamparo, P., Gatta, G., Pendergast, D., and Capelli, C. 2009. Active and passive drag: The role of trunk incline. European Journal of Applied Physiology. May;106(2):195–205. Zamparo, P., Lazzer, S., Antoniazzi, C., Cedolin, S., Avon, R., and Lesa, P. 2008. The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to 19-year-old swimmers. European Journal of Applied Physiology. Nov;104(4):689–99.

10 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO CHANGE

10.1 Introduction The goal of any skill adaptation program is promoting positive change that can be expressed in competition, as creating change that shows up in competition is what really matters. It is also one of the most challenging tasks for the coach, particularly when working with senior swimmers with deeply established movement patterns. In contrast, novice swimmers often respond well to appropriately assigned tasks and verbal guidance because their skills are less ingrained. For swimmers with established skills, such an approach is often insufficient to create lasting and meaningful change. To fully leverage an understanding of the principles for how fast swimming occurs (see Chapter 9), and the strategies for helping swimmers learn these principles (see Chapter 8), these ideas should be integrated in a systematic approach that is directed toward shaping skills. This chapter will focus on establishing a strategic framework for creating lasting change in those swimmers with movement patterns that are particularly resistant to change, leveraging all of the previously described strategies in an organized manner.

10.2  A Repeatable Framework for Facilitating Change To create a sustained change, the coach must reduce the influence of established skills, facilitate adaptation to new skills, and stabilize these new skills to withstand the pressure of competition, with each step of this process requiring a different approach. By using different types of variability, namely systematic and non-systematic variability as discussed in Chapter 8, coaches can make movement patterns more malleable. Destabilizing established patterns requires a high degree of variability to help create awareness of a broader spectrum of available movement options. Once swimmers have explored multiple movement DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-13

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solutions, coaches can use targeted, systematic variability to steer a swimmer toward improved skills. This process is facilitated by using targeted task constraints which allow swimmers to explore new affordances that encourage the desired skills to develop. Finally, these skills must be stabilized through a variety of high-pressure tasks to ensure skilled performance is repeatable under a variety of high-stress environments. At this point, the coach is seeking to make the skills “bulletproof,” more stable, and more robust against competitive pressures. Very specific task constraints are used to ensure that this stability will remain in environments that represent the competitive one. These phases do not exist as distinct stages as there are smooth transitions between them, based upon observing an individual swimmer’s progress through each stage, with adjustments made as necessary.

10.2.1  Destabilizing Established Skills The coach is not only tasked with providing learning opportunities for skill adaptation but must also manage the influence of previously developed skill sets, as swimmers will default to these skills sets whenever challenged. By weakening the influence of previously ingrained ways of moving, the coach can set the stage for establishing more effective ways of moving through the water. Once previous skills are destabilized, it is at this junction that the swimmer can search for new, functionally superior alternatives. This process is facilitated by adding nonsystematic variability to training tasks, as discussed in Chapter 8, which can create novel affordances in the environment for the swimmer to explore, allowing for a broader understanding of movement options and increasing the possibility for new skills to develop. Skill destabilization is most important for those swimmers who have deeply established ways of moving through the water. As opposed to attempting to introduce new skills, the coach may be better served to start the change process by destabilizing these existing skills. Over time, swimmers acquire a sense of what “normal” feels like, and to counter this influence, swimmers should be exposed to a wide variety of kinesthetic experiences so that their perception of “normal” can shift over time. As the perception of normal is altered, they will be more able to differentiate between the effective execution of different skills, setting the stage for change. It is critical to expose the swimmer to a very wide variety of relevant movement experiences, as a common error is exploring too narrow a range of new movements. Doing so may fail to help swimmers understand the range of options that are available to them. These experiences can be provided through a range of deliberate “overcorrections,” the use of training aids, changes in velocity, and more. Beyond the introduction of novel experiences, it is valuable to create a high degree of contrast between repetitions as well to enhance sensory awareness. Instead of repeating a single task, several novel tasks can be paired together, and the swimmer can rotate between them. This use of non-systematic

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variability will create a greater library of movement options which can be drawn upon when moving toward a long-term solution. A fundamental aspect of this process is that the coach doesn’t necessarily know which constraints will move a swimmer toward a more functional solution. When providing a wide variety of movement experiences, the coach is also searching for the tasks that will facilitate the desired change, as some tasks may immediately move swimmers toward functional solutions, whereas others may not. It is important for the coach to remember which task constraints successfully move swimmers toward more skilled swimming, as these tasks will be used with greater frequency later during the process. While certain tasks may have relatively reliable effects on movement skill, there will always be swimmers who react differently, so observation is critical at this juncture. The introduction to a large degree of variability to destabilize existing skills and encourage exploration should take place early in the competitive season to ensure that new skills can be learned and stabilized prior to the most important competitions. Training sets will be characterized by a high degree of variability across training tasks as well as a high level of contrast between training repetitions. It is important to provide as many opportunities as possible for swimmers to explore the potential technical solutions available. In contrast to latter stages, some of the variability will be specifically directed at effecting the desire change, while additional general variability will be less specific in nature. It will still be included to ensure variance across training tasks.

10.2.2  Moving Swimmers toward Functional Solutions After effectively destabilizing established skills, the skill adaptation process can begin focus on pushing swimmers toward a more functional skill set. The strategy will now shift toward emphasizing more systematic variability to direct movement patterns toward the solutions that will be more effective, through the targeted use of specific task constraints that require swimmers to find functional solutions to relevant tasks. With the careful manipulation of task constraints and effective communication, coaches can help swimmers become aware of new opportunities afforded by these tasks. When destabilizing skills, the “correctness” of each execution is less relevant, second to the more important goal of exploration. Now, it becomes important that the swimmer consistently accomplishes the carefully selected task goals, which are chosen based on whether they move swimmers toward more functional solutions or not. Throughout this process, the swimmer should become more consistent with identifying the correct or incorrect completion of the task, and as they learn to make this differentiation through improved sensory awareness, they’ll be better able to adjust their skills. The coach can facilitate this process by asking the swimmer to describe what effective execution feels like, leaning on the sensory-based communication strategies described in Chapter 8.

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As the coach and swimmer explored a wide variety of movements in the previous phase, they should have been able to identify the tasks that most effectively moved the swimmer toward more effective movement solutions, tasks that should now form the basis of the current training program. Minimally constrained swimming tasks should be paired with constrained tasks to help the swimmer transition the new skills into swimming in unconstrained conditions. Likewise, there should be a greater emphasis on tasks that test the swimmer’s ability to execute the new skills in situations that are closer and closer to those that represent competition. This process should begin early enough in the season to ensure that time exists for these skills to stabilize prior to important competitions. At this point, it is less important that the swimmer can execute the skills under fatigue or high-velocity pressure, with a focus on execution with reduced pressure demands.

10.2.3  Stabilizing Skills to Withstand Competitive Pressure The final aspect of the skill adaptation process consists of stabilizing skills to withstand the pressure of competition. Movement skills must become resistant to perturbations, such as those that arise from the high physical and psychological stressors of competition. Most coaches have worked with swimmers who are unable to sustain skilled performance when fatigued, as well as those who do so very successfully. This is a trait that is trainable, and by executing appropriately scaled training tasks, swimmer can make their skills more robust. This final phase of the skill adaptation process requires that swimmers learn to stabilize their new skills under competitive pressure. This is the most challenging phase as it requires great levels of physical effort and psychological focus. To create stability in skilled movement, swimmers should be exposed to gradually escalating levels of technical, psychological, and physiological stress, while being mindful of the retention of skilled performance. It is important to note that these training exercises greatly resemble traditional training tasks, although intention behind each training exercise differs. For a skill adaptation perspective, the focus is on technical resiliency during challenging training tasks, whereas the focus is traditionally on physiological development. Throughout this process, there is a move toward the exclusive use of systematic variability, as coaches should include very specific training tasks to move a swimmer toward specific outcomes. Due to the high levels of challenge present throughout this phase, the coach must be diligent to monitoring the intersection of task and individual constraints to ensure they remain aligned. If they fall excessively out of line with the task being too easy to create challenge or too difficult to be performed effectively, the coach must readjust the training session, scaling it up or down to ensure realignment between what the task requires and what the swimmer can achieve. When swimmers can consistently execute training tasks that are representative of competitive environments, they can be considered “race ready.”

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10.3  Case Studies To illustrate these concepts, the following case studies bring all the ideas discussed in this chapter to life. These examples show how to practically apply the principles of fast swimming, implement constraints, manipulate variability, and enhance sensory awareness to create change.

10.3.1  Case Study #1—Altering Arm Recoveries Susan is an 18-year-old middle-distance crawl swimmer who recovers her arms very low to the water. This action is causing excessive lateral motion of the torso, greatly increasing the drag she creates as she moves through the water, as well as accelerating fatigue of the shoulders. The negative impact of her arm recoveries become more and more prominent over the duration of a race. As the lower arm recoveries tend to be more physically demanding, this becomes a cycle that reinforces itself, with fatigue worsening the expression of skill, which increases fatigue. Repeated attempts to instruct Susan about how to modify her recoveries have failed to result in any demonstrable change, particularly at racerelevant intensities. Below are several options for introducing both systematic and non-systematic variability that can be used to help Susan shift her skills toward those that may allow for improved performance. Systematic Variability • • • • •

Recover the arms completely straight, completely bent, or with the arms like hooks Recover with extremely low and extremely high recoveries Alternate and contrast the various recovery positions Use wrist weights Wear a T-shirt to constrain shoulder motion

Non-Systematic Variability • • •

Vary the speed of different swims Swim the head out of the water Swim with tennis balls

Phase #1 Two sample sets can be found in Figure 10.1 to begin the process of destabilizing Susan’s existing movement patterns. The purpose of these two sets is to maximize the number of variants the swimmer experiences with different arm recoveries. The focus is on manipulating the path of the recovery to help Susan explore alternative recovery options, and more variability is included in each round by

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FIGURE 10.1 

Case study #l destabilization sets.

adding a novel task constraint. The purpose is not to move Susan toward a specific solution but to create a greater variety of experiences so that Susan can explore how different recovery patterns affect and are affected by different contexts. The first set is more representative of a skill-oriented exploration set, as it is more technical in nature with a much higher degree of variability, and much less physiological stress. It is purely an exploratory set. In the second set, physiological development is a priority, while still introducing elements that serve to destabilize skills. This set is designed to introduce variability into a training set without

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compromising the physiological load. It is an example of how variability can be introduced during any part of the training process and how “skill adaptation” can coexist with physiological development. Phase #2 The training sets for phase #3 are listed in Figure 10.2. These sets are characterized by an attempt to move Susan toward more optimal arm recoveries. The first set described in Figure 10.2 has transitioned to becoming more of a high-velocity session with a skill focus. In the previous phase, Susan found that high, straight arm recoveries best helped her change her arm recovery. While she did not swim with this recovery during regular crawl, it helped create the kinesthetic feeling she desired, and very light wrist weights helped facilitate an awareness of her recoveries. She also felt that the mid-pool transition between straight and normal recoveries helped her understand and control the difference between the two. Lastly, the number of constraints was greatly reduced to minimize extraneous variability while still retaining the elements that most positively affected her skills. This is an example of where observing how different task constraints interact with each swimmer, a coach can more effectively utilize constraints to shape behavior, implementing the tasks that prove most effective. All three rounds are conducted without the use of paddles. In terms of design for set #2, Susan and her coach found that high, straight arm recoveries were most effective in helping her move toward recoveries that optimized the height of the arms relative to the surface. High, bent arm recoveries were removed from the training set. The use of paddles did not contribute toward improving her recovery, so they were removed as well to create more opportunities for free swimming. The percentage of swimming with an altered recovery has been reduced to require Susan to explore her news skills without constraints for a greater portion of the training set. However, there are still portions that do include these exaggerations to remind her of her intention. Lastly, training distance has been extended and the percentage of the set conducted at a higher intensity has increased to begin to put these skills under a little more pressure to test their resilience, and begin the process of further building resiliency. Phase #3 The training sets for phase #3 are listed in Figure 10.3. As compared to the work in Figure 10.2, this training exercises have now fully transitioned into ones that stresses Susan’s ability to execute her newly acquired skills at high velocity and under a degree of physiological stress. Once Susan demonstrates that she can successfully complete this training set, it can be made more challenging by increasing the repetition number or the repetition distance, as well as reducing the recovery interval. A small volume of straight arm swimming is retained to reinforce Susan’s skills during the recovery portion of the set; however, wrist

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FIGURE 10.2 

Case study #l redirection sets.

weights are no longer used. Throughout the set, the coach should be paying close attention to the execution of the arm recoveries to ensure that they remain within an acceptable bandwidth. Similarly, Susan also needs to be aware of her kinesthetic feedback to ensure that she is properly executing her skills. If either Susan or the coach believes that her skills have degraded, an adjustment must be made to realign individual and task constraints. This may take the form of reduced repetitions, increased recovery, or a combination of the two. This second training set is now a fully challenging endurance training task where Susan will experience high levels of physiological stress. As with the training set above, both the coach and Susan monitor the technical execution of each repetition to ensure that the appropriate skills are being trained. It is important to note that errors are to be expected, and they present the opportunity to learn how to reestablish technical execution following mistakes, and if no errors are present, the training set will not be sufficiently challenging to create greater stability of the new skills. The challenge can be modulated by altering repetition distance, repetition number, or recovery durations.

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FIGURE 10.3 

Case study #l stabilization sets.

10.3.2  Case Study #2—Optimizing the Breathing Action John is a senior level breaststroker who rises high out of the water when taking his breath (Figure 10.4). He and his coach have identified that this aspect of his stroke is creating excessive resistive drag, as the higher he comes out of the water, the lower his hips drop. The extra motion he takes during the breath also slows the recovery of his arms, limiting his stroke frequency. Because of this error, John is limiting both his stroke frequency and stroke length, leading to significant losses in speed. Traditional attempts at verbal instruction and isolated stroke drills have been unsuccessful at resolving the issue. Some potential options to introduce variability for the purpose of addressing John’s excessive breathing range of motion are listed below: Systematic Variability • • • • •

Swim with a snorkel Manipulate breathing frequency Swim with tennis balls Swim with paddles Swim with a weight belt

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Non-Systematic Variability • • •

Swim with fins Pull flutter kicking Pull with dolphin kicking

Phase #1 The first set (see Figure 10.5) is designed to explore the effect of the height of the breath, starting without any breathing and then gradually introducing more breaths. The swimmer’s task is to minimize the positional differences between breathing and non-breathing strokes. By using both pulling and full stroke swimming, the swimmer can focus on the impact of the arm pull on breathing height. By removing the need to effectively time the kick, the swimmer can also focus more on the height of the breath without coordinating the arms and the legs. The height of the breath can be influenced by an excessively downward press during the arm pull, and by using both hand paddles and tennis balls while restricting breathing, the swimmer can begin to understand how the pulling action affects the breath. Lastly, the weight belt can serve to exaggerate any loss of hip height that results from excessively elevated breathing. The constantly

FIGURE 10.4 Breathing

action in breaststroke. Breaststrokers are highly variable in how they execute the breathing action. As the breathing action is a primary source of drag, executing this skill effectively is critical for fast swimming. Because of the varied individual constraints swimmers bring to the water, prescribing a particular breathing solution is problematic. Rather, taking an exploratory approach that allows swimmers the opportunity to discover an individually appropriate solution is more fruitful.

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shifting task requirements and the use of training aids both serve to introduce high levels of variability to the system in hopes of creating more movement options. By manipulating the repetition distance, recovery duration, total volume, or velocity requirement, this set could also serve as a very effective upper strength endurance training session. In the second set described in Figure 10.5, the same principles are applied as the first set. In this case, John will be traveling at much faster velocities while exploring the effect of breathing patterns on body position and recovery tempo. As more and more breaths are introduced across each round, John will be attempting to keep the low position he experienced during the first 25 without breathing. During the last 25, John will attempt to retain a low position even though his head never drops below the surface. This can also help him feel the negative consequences of an excessive or prolonged breathing pattern. Using a weight belt

FIGURE 10.5 

Case study #2 destabilization sets.

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will exaggerate changes in body position. The use of the fins will also impact body position as the effect of drag will be easier to feel at the higher velocities the fins allow. By continually changing the task and the equipment used, John will be exposed to a richer variety of learning experiences. This manipulation of task constraints results in different perceptual environments where he can explore the affordances for action. Phase #2 In the first set described in Figure 10.6, the emphasis shifts slightly compared to Figure 10.5. John found that the contrast between breathing and not breathing was sufficient to help him understand the impact of the breath, while still retaining the rhythm of the stroke. He felt that he lost the rhythm of the stroke while swimming with a snorkel, although the use of the weight belt really helped him feel the effect of the breath, so it was retained. A greater proportion of regular

FIGURE 10.6 

Case study #2 redirection sets.

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swimming is now included to ensure that the skills are being transferred to competitive tasks. By including a greater portion of the set at higher intensities, John must also swim at velocities that allow for a better representation of the competitive environment. In the second, a move away from non-systematic variability is seen while targeting those constraints that effect positive change in John’s stroke. The no breath and head-up breaststroke have been removed, as well as the use of the fins. John is now targeting the specific change he would like to make and only using the constraints that most effectively facilitate this change. A greater proportion of the set is conducted without the use of any equipment so that John can practice in a representative environment. Phase #3 In the first set in Figure 10.7, John must now execute his skills with full stroke swimming at a high level of effort for an extended period. Equipment and non-competitive stroke variants are no longer included. The focus is entirely on executing competition skills under pressure. Some variance in velocity is included to not only provide some physiological relief but also to ensure that he can manage his technique across a range of velocities and efforts levels. However, the range is relatively small to keep the task representative of competitive contexts. The coach’s role remains monitoring whether John retains an appropriate level of technical excellence, understanding that there will be some degradation, which can be desirable as it provides John with the opportunity to learn how to manage his skills. If the task proves to be incongruent with John’s abilities, task

FIGURE 10.7 

Case study #2 stabilization sets.

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constraints such as repetition distance or number, as well as recovery durations can be modified. As seen in the second set, the current training exercise no longer uses a weight belt or alters breathing frequency, and the recovery durations are also much shorter. Both changes were made to ensure that John can execute his new skills under fully representative conditions. John must now not only manage the velocity constraint but also the increased physiological stress that arises because of the recovery constraint. As with Susan, John and his coach must monitor technical integrity to ensure that each task is appropriately challenging his ability to retain his skills. The challenge can be modulated by altering repetition distance, repetition number, or recovery durations. As John becomes more successful with achieving the task requirements, the stability of his technical skills will be increased.

10.4 Conclusion Knowing how to manipulate constraints, having powerful strategies for creating change, and understanding the fundamental principles for fast swimming are all required to help swimmers improve. However, these concepts must be integrated into a systematic approach if coaches desire to facilitate change consistently and reliably. In this chapter, a plan was described that shows how coaches can shift their approach over the course of a training season to ensure that swimmers are continuing to perform activities that allow to improve their skills. One of the key traits of this plan is the variation that occurs over time, as the training activities must change to provide a continued stimulus for adaptation. Variability is critical for continued improvement, and the next chapter will explore the concept of variability in depth, explaining the value and demonstrating how to apply variability in a variety of different contexts.

11 STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING VARIABILITY IN PRACTICE

11.1 Introduction Up to this point, this book has covered how task and individual constraints impact skilled movement, as well as how to manipulate these constraints to move swimmers toward more functional movement solutions. A critical component of this process is the use of variability to provide swimmers with an array of novel movement experiences that amplify the impact of constraint manipulation and promote a wider search for skilled solutions. Given the scope of the tools discussed so far, the options available for increasing variability are extensive, and organizing these options requires some deliberation. This chapter will examine the application of variability in a tactical sense. Variability can positively impact physiological adaptation, psychological skills, and performance. The first half of this chapter will explore the theoretical rationale for increasing variability in the practice and training environment. The integration of these three benefits then creates the platform for further innovation. Having a sound theoretical basis for implementing variability allows for more attuned observation, better planning, and more informed decision making. The following sections will explore the practical strategies for increasing variability in practice.

11.2  Using Variability to Enhance Outcomes Beyond the value of increasing variability for promoting skill adaptation, as discussed in Chapter 8, variability can positively impact every aspect of performance. From enhancing physiological adaptation to reducing the physical strain of performance workloads, variability improves the physical response to training. Just as importantly, it enhances the psychological experience, promoting better DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-14

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focus and engagement while preparing swimmers to handle the challenges of competing, which always brings unexpected challenges.

11.2.1  Using Variability to Enhance Physiological Adaptation The creation of force and energy production allows for the expression and maintenance of all skilled movements, and without the necessary underlying physiological support, the most skilled swimmer will be unable to realize these skills in competition. The inclusion of variability can enhance physiological development through novel adaptations, reducing training monotony, and by enhancing recovery processes. Positive adaptation is the result of activation of allostatic processes that directly result from a disturbance in homeostasis due to training efforts. By consistently changing tasks, speeds, and physiological states within a practice session, this disturbance in homeostasis is prolonged. As soon as the body begins to adjust to a given output, a shift in task or intensity requires further adjustment due to the changing task constraints. Beyond the benefits of disturbed homeostasis, because highly variable training sessions require the body to constantly adjust, the body has more opportunities to tune physiological systems to be able to respond to change efficiently. The more opportunities to adjust to physiological stress, the better the swimmers become at doing so due to having to repeatedly mobilize bio-energetic systems under time constraints. This adaptation process is critical because it changes the physical constraints within each swimmer over time, with expanded physical resources affording more opportunities for skilled movement. Varied training can also prevent the staleness that results from monotonous training. Training monotony is a manifestation of volume/intensity-loading interactions, characterized by high training loads that do not vary in content. It is a measure that includes the average difficulty of training, as well as how much that difficulty varies on a daily basis. High training loads are not necessarily problematic; it is the combination of high training loads and low training load variability that tends to result in performance problems over time. Stagnant training sets and training loads have been consistently linked to overtraining and underperformance issues (Foster 1998). By including daily variation in the training program, these issues can be mitigated without reducing the overall training load. Training load is distinct from training monotony, and it is when both are high that problems begin to arise, as described below. •

Training load. The amount of training stress imposed by a training session. It is a function of the interaction between volume and intensity. Training load is often quantified by multiplying training load with training intensity, with training intensity scaled in a nonlinear manner. While it can be challenging to quantify training load as it is not always clear how to best measure intensity, the understanding that “more” and “harder” both serve to increase training load is important for coaches to appreciate.

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•

•

Training monotony. A measure of the fluctuation in training stress. It is calculated by dividing the average training load by the standard deviation of the training load over a given time. Unchanging training loads will yield higher measures of training monotony. Training strain. Is a measure of the total training stress for a given period. It is calculated by multiplying the total training load and training monotony for a given period. High training loads that do not fluctuate are highly stressful.

Physical recovery is a process required for biological adaptation, and varied training can facilitate physical recovery. While acute recovery allows for the restoration of homeostasis and acute work capacity, chronic recovery allows for the physical restructuring of the body and an increase in chronic work capacity. When periods of high training stress and low training stress are both present, there is greater opportunity for recovery within and between training sessions. While increased variability can allow for recovery in a general sense, it can also allow for recovery by shifting the physiological or muscular systems that are stressed on a given day, as a given training session will preferentially overload, and thus fatigue, specific physiological systems. If the legs are taxed one day and the upper body the next, swimmers are more likely to be able to recover than if the same areas are targeted on consecutive days. By varying the type of work, recovery can be enhanced, and workloads can be maintained or increased, all of which allow for more opportunities for practicing skilled movement, as well as a change in intrinsic constraints due to enhanced physical adaptation.

11.2.2  Building Psychological Skills through Variable Tasks Beyond the physiological benefits, variability in the training program can enhance mental focus, improve psychological resilience and resolve, enhance motivation, and increase engagement. Success in sport is not only the result of physical prowess and skill as successful swimmers must have the psychological skill sets to maximize improvements in training, as well as optimally express these improvements under pressure in the competitive environment. Task-specific focus is a defining psychological trait for the competitive swimmer. They must know what to do to accomplish their goals and be able to stay focused on accomplishing those tasks, regardless of any distractions that present themselves. A constraints-led approach necessitates that focus as swimmers are constantly working to discover a narrow band of solutions that are possible during well-constrained tasks. However, this effect can be enhanced by increasing variability within the practice context. With constantly alternating constraints, swimmers must learn to quickly switch focus between changing tasks, which is accomplished by gaining attentional control and learning to eliminate distractions. These distractions can take the form

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of physiological distress, an awareness of how performance is proceeding, and environmental cues, all of which will be present during competitive events. The ability to flexibly shift focus is not only useful for situations where focus must be redirected but also when recognizing that focus is lost. The faster attention can be redirected, the faster swimmers can return to appropriately engaging in tasks. Likewise, success in sport is not the result of brief periods of effort and commitment. It is a long-term process requiring long-term focus, characterized by many challenges that result in both successes and failures, and individuals who possess the resilience and resolve to consistently overcome challenges and failures will ultimately achieve their potential. When required to achieve stringent and tightly constrained task demands across varied contexts, swimmers will continually struggle to find the appropriate solutions. To do so successfully, they must learn to develop the resolve to overcome challenges and the resilience to bounce back from failures. With varying task demands within individual training sessions, swimmers must learn to repeatedly adjust their approach to continue to discover solutions. Developing task-specific focus is a critical component of success in all sports, and the ability to focus on the task at hand while physically distressed is what separates successful athletes in training and competition. The following brief case study exemplifies how athletes can improve their psychological resilience by using variable training tasks: Jeremy was a university swimmer who came to me as a successful swimmer with a solid technical and physical foundation. However, when he was exposed to physically challenging situations, he would shut down. I knew that for him to take the next step, we would have to improve his focus in training, understanding this would eventually translate to competitive performance. Below are the skills we chose to focus on daily: • • • • •

Learning to focus on one repetition at a time. Learning to problem-solve poor repetitions. Learning to develop a singular goal prior to each repetition. Learning to focus on potential actions to take as opposed to feelings of distressed. Learning to attune to intrinsic feedback to problem-solve.

All these skills were focused on during demanding training elements. Over time, Jeremy’s psychological skills became much more consistent in training, and this translated to enhanced confidence and stability during competitive situations. Confidence comes from success and that success must be demonstrated in the training environment first. Many swimmers struggle to maintain focus, and different swimmers have different tolerances to the repetition of training sets and training formats. Some swimmers lose motivation when training becomes repetitive. At the same time,

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some swimmers also lose motivation when training is altered too frequently as they feel that they never have an opportunity to develop mastery over their training tasks. Unfortunately, coaches will work with swimmers whose attention spans range from the inability to repeat training exercises to the preference for unaltered training schedules. The challenge of the coach is to match these tolerances to the training program for individual swimmers or groups of swimmers. By scaling the variability for different groups so that everyone receives novel exposure to tasks, as well as the opportunity to master these tasks, the coach can ensure that motivation levels remain high for all. As constraints reduce the number of successful solutions a training task affords, these solutions become more challenging to discover, and the inclusion of very specific and challenging task constraints ensures that only engaged swimmers will be able to discover these solutions. By varying these constraints within and across practice sessions, swimmers must remain engaged to consistently search for and discover new solutions, as well as rediscover previously successful solutions. This constant search process does not allow for swimmers to disengage or “go through the motions.”

11.2.3  Preparing for the Unpredictability of Competition As discussed throughout the text, executing challenging task demands (i.e., stroke count, stroke frequency, instructional constraints) in ever-changing physiological environments enhance skill adaptation. Further, when these skills are learned under conditions that represent the competitive environment, these skills become more robust and resistant to the stresses of competition. Races are dynamic and unpredictable events characterized by varied pacing strategies, especially as event duration extends. Swimmers who experience high levels of physiological and functional movement variability in the training environment have a distinct advantage as compared to those who do not. Because these swimmers are consistently required to react to change, they learn to do so more effectively, and they learn to perform in a variety of contexts. While these task changes require physiological flexibility, they also require movement flexibility, particularly when task constraints are regularly altered. Many swimmers train to remain in a very specific “groove,” and if moving out of that groove is required, they often are unable to adjust, especially when change is unexpected. Swimmers must have the ability to alter and reestablish their skill sets, whether this is required due to errors or unexpected events. With consistent exposure to varying task demands, swimmers will be thrown off and forced to recalibrate repeatedly. This skill is also valuable in competition settings prior to racing. Swimmers who are consistently required to “find” their stroke in training will be able to do so in competition settings when their skills feel off. Lastly, tactics play a role in all events beyond 50 m, with the role becoming more decisive during longer events. An athlete with the ability to race with and

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respond to many different strategies will be best prepared to win, regardless of how competitors behave. By consistently varying task constraints that require swimmers to complete repetitions in different ways, swimmers are learning to accomplish the same task with multiple solutions. When performed under race-relevant conditions, these skills transfer to competitive performance.

11.3 Increasing Variability in Coaching Practice across Different Time Scales Having discussed why increased variability is so valuable, this section will explore how to increase variability in coaching practice. The inclusion of variability can occur across multiple time scales, from daily training sets to training weeks to competitive seasons to competitive careers. While many principles are consistent across different time periods, there are some important distinctions about how these concepts are applied.

11.3.1  Designing Highly Variable Training Sessions There are multiple opportunities to introduce variability in training sessions through the appropriate design of training sessions. For each training set, coaches will have to decide how much variability to include, where to include the ­variability, and what type of variability will be included. In the latter case, coaches have the choice to include movement variability with wide-ranging task requirements as well as physiological variability, which is characterized by large fluctuations in physiological outputs. Incorporating variability for skill adaptation has been explored thoroughly in the text so far, and this section will focus on how to increase physiological variability in training sessions, which will ­u ltimately be driven by the goal of the training session. With steady state training, the training goal is to create a consistent, submaximal aerobic stimulus. For all interventions, it is important to create variations that do not compromise the training goal by creating significant homeostatic disturbances. Variability can enhance the training stimulus by: • • • • •

Moving slightly above and below targeted pace. Varying pace across swims. Varying pace within swims. Altering technical parameters (stroke frequency, stroke count) while keeping velocity stable (see Chapter 3). Incorporating very short sprints throughout submaximal swims.

With nonsteady state training, the training goal is to train in highly variable physiological states, many of which cannot be sustained. Variability can enhance the training stimulus by:

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• • • • • •

Including controlled, active recoveries, thus enhancing the ability to recover from high physiological loads quickly. Altering paces under significant physiological stress. Following maximal efforts with submaximal swimming with strict task goals can enhance the ability to execute skills under duress. Inserting maximal efforts directly after submaximal swims can teach athletes how to provide maximal effort while already fatigued. Altered pacing at high effort levels can improve the ability to control pace under high pressure. Fatiguing specific systems prior to maximal efforts can enhance training adaptation in specific systems and improve learning outcomes (see Chapter 5).

With sprint training, the training goal is to create a high-speed and high-power stimulus. Variability can enhance the training stimulus by: • • • •

Altering task constraints and organism constraints with training aids to put stress on different muscular systems (see Chapter 7). Varying tasks to take advantage of potentiation effects (see Chapter 5). Including dryland exercises to excite or fatigue-specific muscle groups (see Chapter 5). Including aquatic resistance exercises to excite or fatigue-specific muscle groups (see Chapter 7).

11.3.2  Incorporating Variability within a Training Week It is a challenging task to design a training week that facilitates the achievement of short-term training goals while simultaneously preparing swimmers for training that will take place in the future weeks, months, or years. As many coaches have discovered intuitively, varying training loads and content across a training week increases the amount and quality of work that can be accomplished. A successful training week begins with the identification of what matters most. Within every training week and training cycle, there will be primary training goals, as well as secondary and tertiary training goals. Secondary and tertiary training goals serve to prepare the swimmer for future training cycles, as well as support the achievement of the primary goal. The presence of multiple training goals will necessarily result in variability built into the training program, and how that variability is organized determines whether those goals are successfully achieved. Managing physiological stress and achieving designated training goals will require the appropriate assignment of the relevant workloads. With multiple training targets being pursued, the layout of the week will be determined

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FIGURE 11.1 

Optimizing training targets.

by two primary factors, workload compatibility and load variance. While the concept of workload compatibility has been explored in training theory (Issurin 2008; Olbrecht 1997) and molecular biology research (Coffey and Hawley 2007), the concept has been understood intuitively by coaches as well. Certain types of training work well together, both acutely and during the process of long-term adaptation. To effectively incorporate variability within the training week, workload compatibility considerations must be made. Please see Figure 11.1 for an overview of compatible training goals (adapted from Issurin 2008). By including compatible workloads within the same training session, we can maximize the training effect while accomplishing multiple goals concurrently. Beyond ensuring compatible content in the training load, the magnitude of training load must be varied as well. Physiological adaptation results from structural changes that are stimulated by physical stress. Stimulus recovery is a complementary process and recovery must be present following stimulus for adaptation to take place. For any given training exercise, different bodily systems are stressed more than others. As a result, some systems can be stressed while others are recovering. By varying which bodily systems are stressed, coaches can achieve greater training volumes, and potentially greater adaptations (see Figures 11.2–11.4).

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FIGURE 11.2 

Weekly plan—aerobic endurance focus.

The load can be varied locally by changing which muscles or movement patterns are used, by focusing on the upper versus lower body for example. The load can be varied systemically by varying the intensity of the work performed, using low-­ intensity aerobic training versus sprint training. Finally, the total load can be varied by performing more or less work. However, it is important to remember that all physical work is achieved through the muscular system, regardless of which physiological systems are stressed, so the total load matters, regardless of how

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FIGURE 11.3 

Weekly plan—race-specific endurance focus.

well that load is dispersed throughout the week. At some point during the week, lower loads must be included to facilitate recovery. With the concepts of workload compatibility and load variance in mind, three sample training weeks are included (Figures 11.2–11.4). Please note the presence of compatible workloads, as well as daily load variance, with “load” indicating an approximation of how much stress a given training session would cause. By varying training load and training type across a week, more work can be accomplished at a higher quality, while simultaneously accomplishing multiple training goals.

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FIGURE 11.4 

Weekly plan—speed focus.

11.3.3  Varying Training Content across a Season All periodization concepts, from simple to complex, have one commonality— they all vary training content over time (Kiely 2012), emphasizing the idea behind this chapter, the need for variability in planning. How the coach chooses to incorporate variability is secondary to the planned presence of variability. In this section, I will outline the process that I have found to be successful, from both a skill adaptation and physiological development standpoint.

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To facilitate meaningful change in skilled performance, there must be an intentional and planned effort to do so, as it is not sufficient to provide sporadic feedback or direction. Movement objectives must be determined prior to starting a training season, and some sort of plan or framework must be created to facilitate these intended changes. As outlined in Chapter 10, skilled movements must be destabilized, learned, and then restabilized to be effectively realized under pressure in championship competition, and each stage of the process requires different training content to achieve its objectives. When considering how to vary skill adaptation content over the course of a training season, we must consider both the type of variability as well as the amount of variability in the training program. Early in the season, variability should take the form of non-systematic variability, to provide exposure to a wide array of movement opportunities. As the season progresses, technical interventions should become more and more directed toward achieving specific technical parameters. This process is accomplished with systematic variability, and the transition toward increased systematic variability is a gradual one. In contrast to the initial stages of the season, the final training phase will include the use of a narrow band of variability that serves to stabilize the desired technical changes under the pressure of competitive stress. All variability will be specifically directed to facilitate and stabilize targeted technical changes. Not only will the nature of the variability change with time but also the amount. Early in the season, skill adaptation training early will be characterized by large amounts of variability to expose swimmers to a broad spectrum of learning environments and movement options. In addition to the type of variability, higher volumes of variable movement patterns can facilitate the destabilization of highly ordered skill sets. Throughout the course of the training season, the amount of variability will decrease, a function of the removal of extraneous sources of variability, as well as a growing volume of highly specific work that serves to stabilize movement patterns. Over the course of a season, skill adaptation goals move from the learning of novel movements to enhancing the stabilization of these movement patterns. In ­Figure 11.5, a potential strategy for manipulating variability over a training cycle is proposed. When it comes to the physical loads imposed on swimmers, the initial stages of the season consist of a focus on the extremes ends of the intensity continuum. Very short, maximal speed activities are paired with longer, aerobic conditioning activities and developed first, as these abilities form the foundation for the necessary race-specific work. At this point, there is less variability in the training plan. Over time, more training elements are included to “fill in the middle” between the extremes in training content, working toward race-specific training elements. As fitness levels continue to improve, novel stimuli and intensity levels are required to sustain fitness improvements, a process characterized by higher

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FIGURE 11.5 

Manipulating variability across a training cycle.

levels of variability. Not only is this process required to continue to enhance fitness levels, but the greater variability also serves to reduce training monotony as the total training load continues to grow. The training process culminates with the reduction or removal of less specific training elements heading into the final competition period. While this training content may remain in the program, it is performed at a level that is no longer developmental but instead serves to preserve previously established training effects, with most adaptive resources directed toward enhancing race-specific fitness for the upcoming major competitions. While other training content is still present, the training process is driven forward by a small bandwidth of training types, with relatively small amounts of variability.

11.3.4 Ensuring Individual-Task Alignment over a Competitive Career As with a training season, training content must vary over the course of a competitive career to facilitate sustained and optimized improvements. In some respects,

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training is an iterative process, and the same processes unfold over different time scales. When considered from a physiological perspective, training content changes mirror the process that describes a training season. However, when considering skill adaptation, the process differs in significant ways. As discussed in Chapter 8, the learning process is not necessarily facilitated by the repetition of the correct movement patterns. Instead, learning can arise through the continual comparison between expected and actual results, as well as the comparison of trial-to-trial differences. In this way, learning is enhanced when the degree of variability between trials is optimized. To what extent should variability be modulated through training content? When considered novice learners, trialto-trial variability is quite high due to novelty of the skills being practiced, and this high level of variability intrinsic to the task is sufficient to facilitate learning. Anyone learning a novel skill can attest to the rapid improvements often experienced. In novices, increased pedagogical variability can decrease learning rates as the amount of variability can become excessive. During the novice stage of skill instruction, variability introduced through pedagogical means should remain low as variability is already present due to the unstable skill sets these learners possess. As swimmers become more skilled, and skills become more stable, variability must be increased through pedagogical means to facilitate the continued adaptation to increasing task demands. As movement solutions continue to improve, they will also become more stable and resistant to change. Thus, pedagogical variability must continue to increase with increasing expertise to ensure that adequate variability exists with the learning environment. Eventually, elite swimmers will be nearing their physical and skilled potential, where further improvements become much more difficult to come by. At the same time, even a slight loss of form can result in significant changes in competitive status. These swimmers are faced with the choice of including more variability to find new solutions or to stabilize technique and look for improvements in other ways, as attempts to create change may result in the loss of skill stability and performance outcomes. The use of variability at this stage will depend on the approach taken by the coach and swimmer. An aggressive approach will consist of large amounts of variability to change technical skills, whereas a conservative approach will focus on stabilizing skills. In contrast to skill adaptation, the content of physical training varies over time and mirrors the approach taken during a competitive season. Novice athletes will spend most of their training time working on aerobic endurance and speed development. Speed is foundational to performance and due to the challenges in improving speed, this ability must be developed from the beginning of a training period. In contrast, aerobic abilities are highly trainable, yet require large volumes and consistent exposures to maximize development. Both training elements are less stressful than more intensive, race-specific training means, making them appropriate for developmental swimmers.

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As importantly, both training elements create the appropriate environment for the development of skilled performance. Aerobic development sessions allow for relatively high volumes of skill practice at intensities that prevent the development of fatigue. Swimmers can focus on their skills without fatigue interfering with technical execution. Similarly, speed development work allows for swimmers to practice their skills at high velocity without significant fatigue. Both prepare swimmers for the next stage of physical development. As swimmers continue to develop, the “middle” is filled in with more intensive aerobic swimming, as well as race-specific work. This process is gradual, and these training components are introduced to allow for continued development. As swimmers reach and move through physical maturity, the full spectrum of training elements is incorporated and trained. These elements are included as swimmers cultivate the psychological and physical ability to benefit. In the final stages of a swimmer’s career, furthering race-specific fitness is the most important element of the training program. The requisite speed and endurance development have already been maximized, and further race improvements will result from the improvement in race-specific training components. It is important to appreciate that all training elements will still be a part of the training program. However, it is the race-specific work that must advance for continued progress. The outline of a season will still resemble that which was described in the previous section, the difference being a shift toward more race-specific preparation, even if this shift is subtle. This pathway will differ in terms of timing and specific content dependent on the individual involved, and the constraints they bring to the training process. Swimmers progress along the continuum as it becomes necessary for them to do so to improve performance, always appreciating that is easy to move forward but very difficult to move backward. Varying training content over time allows for the optimal development of swimmers throughout their competitive career.

11.4  Variability in the Environment Variability can also be introduced in the environment in which competition and training take place. The most significant environmental constraint in swimming is the length of the competition course, as distinct differences exist between short course and long course swimming. For coaches who can manipulate the course distance by using bulkheads or swimming across the width of the pool, even shorter course formats are possible. For a given distance, long course swimming has been demonstrated to have a greater physiological cost than short course swimming for the same event distance (Keskinen et al. 2007; Wolfrum et al. 2013). Average stroke length also tends to be lower in the longer format, and in many cases, there is evident stroke rate and velocity erosion over the course of each length. This environment is conducive to creating greater physiological

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overload as well as learning to sustain stroking characteristics over the course of an entire length. In contrast, short course swimming rewards turning and underwater ­dolphin-kicking performance, and for a given distance, short course provides greater opportunity to improve these skills. In addition, the increasing turning and kicking requirement places greater stress on controlling breathing, which can be improved in a short course environment. For those struggling to appreciate the difference between the environments, take the following set. 10*50 on a One-Minute Interval, Completed as Fast as Possible Now imagine that this set is completing in two different pools, a short course (25 m) and a long course (50 m) pool. • • • •

How would the performance times differ? How would underwater dolphin-kicking opportunities be influenced? What would happen to average stroke rate or stroke length, and how would these metrics change over the course of pool length? How would the physiological stress differ?

Course format can also be utilized to take advantages of the respective “weaknesses” of the format in question. As an example, while short course swimming may have less potential for physiological adaptation due to the frequent breaks, the reduced physiological cost allows for higher average speeds, and a swimmer can then spend a greater proportion of their training time at higher velocities. While long course has fewer opportunities to improve turns, it affords more opportunities to improve free swimming performance. By utilizing pool distances that are shorter than 25 m or longer than 50 m (if possible), the coach can further exaggerate these differences. However, swimmers must ultimately prepare for the competition course that they will be competing in. While using a different course format can be advantageous for the reasons described below, this must ultimately be done to enhance performance in the competition format. As an example, the emphasis on short course swimming in the United States has helped to develop international swimmers with superior turning performances. Consistent exposure to this the short course environment has allowed for American swimmers to better perceive affordances during the execution of these skills. Historically, this has led to a consistent advantage during turns for American swimmers, although this advantage has diminished as the rest of the world has caught on. If coaches are required to train in course formats that differ from competition courses, they must design training strategies to overcome these limitations (Figure 11.6).

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FIGURE 11.6 

S hort course swimming and underwater kicking. Due to higher turning frequencies, short course swimming affords more opportunities to optimize underwater kicking skill.

Multiple approaches exist to balance short course and long course training during competition preparation. When considering race performance, short course pools allow for the achievement of higher stroke rates, higher stroke lengths, and higher swimming velocities as compared to long course pools. Because stroke velocity, stroke length, and stroke frequencies all interact to influence in performance as discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, constraining one or more of these variables creates the opportunity to improve the remaining variable(s). When considering long course versus short course swimming, it becomes a question of which environment is better suited to influencing these relationships, and when. The advantages of short course swimming are: • • •

Perform a higher volume of race-specific training. Maintain higher velocities, stroke frequencies, and stroke lengths. More exposure to turning and underwater skills.

The disadvantages of short course swimming are: • •

Frequent interruptions reduce the ability to sustain high velocities, stroke frequencies, and stroke length. Lower metabolic and muscular endurance stimuli.

The advantages of long course swimming are: • •

Swimmers are required to learn to sustain velocity, stroke frequency, and stroke length over the course of each 50 m repetition. Training sets can create greater metabolic and muscular endurance stimuli.

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The disadvantages of long course swimming are: • • •

Limited volumes at a given velocity. Lower average velocities for given repetition distances. Fewer opportunities to work on turning and underwater skills.

Due to the relative merits of both course formats, it makes sense to best utilize the attributes of each course to develop performance (see Figures ­11.7–11.13). Short course swimming presents the opportunity to learn to swim with enhanced stroke length–frequency relationships. Because breaks are more frequent, “rest” is built into each swim, allowing for faster swimming, higher stroke rates, and

FIGURE 11.7 

Long course—sustaining stroke length.

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longer stroke lengths. Long course swimming is useful for improving the useable outputs of performance and the ability to sustain stroke length–frequency relationships over the course of each lap. In other words, coaches can use short course to train at the limits of race-specific skill and use long course to train at the limits of race-specific physiology. In one setting, coaches can help swimmers expand their abilities, and in the other, swimmers can learn to use a higher percentage of those abilities. By understanding how the environment constrains performance and development opportunities, training sessions can be better organized to improve performance. An additional option is available to many coaches. With adjustable bulkheads, or by swimming across 25 m pools, coaches can create a unique

FIGURE 11.8 

Short course—repeating pace.

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FIGURE 11.9 

Short course—repeating stroke rates.

environment in which to train. Performance in these pools puts a premium on starting and turning performance, which is especially evident when racing teammates. Further, the proximity of the walls allows for better maintenance of speed into each wall, which better simulates race velocity turning performance. Importantly, swimmers are exposed to these conditions with higher frequency. The sets found in Figures 11.7–11.13 have been designed to take advantage of the specific attributes of each competition format. All these sets can and

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FIGURE 11.10 

Long course-sustaining swimming velocity.

should be further modified to enhance variability through any of the means discussed so far in this book. As has been argued previously, incorporating variability will enhance skill adaptation. With all sets, the volumes, intensities, repetition distances, and recovery intervals may need to be modified for the abilities of individual swimmers, as well as the timing within the training process. One strategy I use is develop the ability to sustain skilled performance to combine high-speed repetitions with relatively short rest in a short course setting in conjunction with learning to sustain a performance in a long course setting. These two training interventions are complementary and can be consistently rotated to improve performance. Figure 11.14 presents a progression for a swimmer looking to sustain and repeat a 50 m swim in 27.5 seconds. This is one possible example of how to use both competition formats to approach the target. As progress may be faster or slower for a given swimmer, some intermediate steps could be removed, or more intermediate steps could be included.

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FIGURE 11.11 

Long course—sustaining stroke rate.

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FIGURE 11.12 

“Super” short course—turns.

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FIGURE 11.13 

“Super” short course—starts.

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FIGURE 11.14 

Combined progression for sustaining velocity.

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11.5 Conclusion Actively planning variability into training content has physiological, psychological, technical, and performance benefits. By appropriately incorporating variability across different time scales, different aspects of the training process can be presented to swimmers when they are most able to benefit from these opportunities. This ensures not only a more productive swimming experience but a more positive one. Variability can be introduced through different types of training, different training loads, different types of movement challenges, and different training environments. In the next chapter, all the ideas in the text so far will be integrated to demonstrate how coaches can solve complex technical problems by using these concepts. Importantly, they can solve problems that would be otherwise impossible to address using traditional instruction and feedback alone.

References Coffey, V., and Hawley, A. 2007. The molecular bases of training adaptation. Sports Medicine. 37(9):737–63. Foster, C. 1998. Monitoring training in athletes with reference to overtraining syndrome. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise. Jul;30(7):1164–8. Issurin, V. 2008. Block Periodization – Breakthrough in Sport Training. Michigan: Ultimate Athlete Concepts. Keskinen, O., Keskinen, K., and Mero, A. 2007. Effect of pool length on blood lactate, heart rate, and velocity in swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine. May;28(5):407–13. Kiely, J. 2012. Periodization paradigms in the 21st century: Evidence-led or ­traditiondriven? International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. Sep;7(3):242–50. Olbrecht, J. 1997. The Science of Winning. Antwerp, Belgium: F&G Partners. Wolfrum, M., Knechtle, B., Rüst, C., Rosemann, T., and Lepers, R. 2013. The effects of course length on freestyle swimming speed in elite female and male swimmers: A comparison of swimmers at national and international level. Springerplus. Dec 1;2:643.

12 SOLVING COMPLEX MOVEMENT PROBLEMS WITH CONSTRAINTS

12.1 Introduction Coaches are often faced with challenging performance problems, and this chapter will demonstrate the power of using constraints to solving complex problems. Many of the concepts explored so far will be applied to the process identifying and solving complex performance problems, the type of problems coaches typically face. With any attempt to improve performance, the skills critical for success must be clearly identified, and once these fundamental skills are clear, the key constraints influencing those skills must be determined. With the constraints identified, strategies can then be created to manipulate those constraints, strategically introduce variability, and implement appropriate methods of communication to facilitate the problem-solving process. While the previous chapters have explored many of these concepts in isolation, this chapter seeks to organize many of these ideas into a structured approach, with the goal being the demonstration of how complex problem-solving becomes possible when these strategies are directed toward a singular goal.

12.2  Coaching What Can’t Be Coached While most skills can be developed, I would agree that you can’t “coach” a lot of the skills required for success in swimming. By “coach,” I am referring to the traditional teaching approach of having swimmers perform reductionist drills while providing large amounts of verbal instruction and feedback. However, just because this approach might fall short, it doesn’t mean swimmers can’t learn just about anything. For that to happen, a different approach is required, one focused on facilitating learning rather than the act of teaching. As simple instructions are not particularly effective at helping swimmers learn extremely subtle and DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-15

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nuanced sensory-based skills, coaches need to work to remove obstacles that prevent swimmers from effective movement execution, while simultaneously placing them in environments where they can learn more effective ways of moving. This is a very different conceptualization of “coaching,” one characterized by the careful and strategic use of constraints in representative learning environments. Utilizing the notion of coach as environment designer (Renshaw et al. 2019), this chapter will explore how to design training sets that create learning environment that allow swimmers to attune to the affordances associated with manipulating water to create propulsion, and thus, speed. It will illustrate how the ideas examined throughout this book can be applied to a specific problem, one that has been deemed “unsolvable” with traditional coaching strategies. The intent is to demonstrate how facilitating skilled performance goes much deeper than the strategies coaches tend to employ, as well as to show how skill adaptation must be embedded in the physical development process, as the two are inextricable. While there are skills that can’t be “coached” effectively, at least with the traditional coaching strategies of instruction and the imparting of knowledge, these same skills can be learned.

12.3  A Practical Example—The Feel for the Water Coaches of all sports have heard variations of the expression “you can’t coach speed” or “you can’t coach tough.” In the swimming context, a common one is, “you can’t coach the feel for the water.” Discussed with great reverence by coaches around the world, the idea of the feel for the water is as central to fast swimming as it is difficult to describe, much less develop. • • •

How exactly does one go about teaching a swimmer a great feel for the water? How would one describe that process? What would one have a swimmer do?

Answering these questions is particularly difficult, which demonstrates the challenge of using words to facilitate the learning process. There are no words that even come close to describing everything that goes into possessing a great feel for the water, let alone words that help swimmers learn how to actualize these skills in improving their feel for the water. Fortunately, just because coaches can’t teach a great feel for the water, it doesn’t mean that swimmers can’t learn a great feel for the water. As most coaches have experienced, certain skills resist change created through verbal communication. Likewise, most coaches intuitively understand the futility of telling an athlete to “feel the water” better, whether they’ve actually tried to do so or not. However, such an experience simply illustrates the limitation of the strategy being used, not that the skill can’t be learned. In contrast, designing engaging learning environment is a distinct approach that does provide

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productive opportunities for swimmers to learn a complex skill such as interacting with the water. The role of the coach is still substantial and centers on facilitating learning. It simply changes from one of teacher to one of learning environment designer.

12.3.1  What Is “Feel for the Water”? From an outcome-based perspective, in terms of what it produces, the feel for the water is the ability to manipulate the water to create propulsion. Swimmers with a better feel for the water can create more propulsion, which ultimately helps them move through the water faster. From a sensory-based perspective, it’s likely related to the ability to sense pressure differences across the hand, ideas have been explored throughout the relevant biomechanical research (Koga et al. 2022). When large pressure differences across the hand are created, water will flow at different rates to equalize those pressure differences, and these changes in water flow can result in the creation of force. When done skillfully, these pressure differences can be manipulated in a way to create propulsion which produces fast swimming, and some swimmers are more attuned to the opportunities that are provided by the water, and by perceiving these opportunities, they can act on them.

12.3.2  The Critical Skills of Feeling the Water To create change, coaches must understand the basic movement concepts involved with the ability to feel the water. With an understanding of the key skills involved, coach can then examine the underlying constraints affecting the skilled expression of those skills, with an eye toward manipulating those constraints. Unfortunately, the idea of pressure differences is a bit nebulous, as is the concept of creating propulsion. While both may make sense abstractly, coaches can’t really see either phenomenon; they can only see the outcomes that they produce. To move toward creating specific solutions, a more concrete framework is needed. As such, there are two main practical skills that comprise “the feel for the water.” 1. Getting water moving with the arm, and then change the direction of the water to a backward one 2. Direct force application to move and keep water backward Swimming coach Cecil Colwin has discussed the concept of “wrapping the water” in his books (Colwin 2002), and related ideas have been described in biomechanical research (Toussaint et al. 2002), both discussing the rotational component of the initial stages of the stroke. This concept is a sensory correlate of the first skill—the swimmer must gradually change the direction that the water is moving as the hand changes direction, moving forward, then downward, and

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finally backward. This involves a literal wrapping motion that is synonymous with “the catch.” Traditionally, the catch was thought of as a repositioning of the limbs to allow for direct force application backward (see Chapter 9). While it does serve this function, the catch also involves a redirection of the flow of the water so that more water can be moved backward when force is ultimately directed in that direction (Soh and Sanders 2021). As a result, movement into the catch is as much about redirecting the flow of the water as it is about biomechanical preparation for the main propulsive phases. The challenge with redirecting the flow of the water is that it requires great subtlety and patience. If the swimmer moves too fast, a swimmer will lose control of the water they are moving, ultimately compromising the latter propulsive phases. In contrast, if the swimmer moves too slowly, enough pressure won’t be created, and no flow will be established. There is a bandwidth of effective movement, a bandwidth which changes depending on the constraints of the swimmers and the functional characteristics of their upper limbs. To satisfy the basic requirements of the task, swimmers must be aggressive enough to maintain a connection with the flow, yet patient enough not to lose control of it, a subtlety that can only be learned by exploring one’s capabilities through consistent exposure to appropriate learning contexts. To effectively interact with the water, a patient yet deliberate repositioning during the initiation is demonstrated in elite swimmers, even at very fast speeds, with deviation in the specific movements expressed to allow for alignment with the constraints of each swimmer. If this action was only about repositioning, swimmers would use a much more abrupt action as anything else would be a waste of time. Yet, this doesn’t happen because there are other constraints at play, namely the need to manipulate the flow of the water. Conversely, this abrupt action is often demonstrated in novice swimmers. If this wrapping action is executed effectively and swimmers are moving water backward, they need to make sure it continues to move backward, as abrupt lateral motions will lose the flow. There’s less nuance here, as it’s more about maintaining pressure backward on the palm of the hand (Koga et al. 2022), and failure to do so can lead to “dead spots” in the stroke. The challenge is doing so through changing joint angles, leverage points, and muscular involvement due to the anatomical constraints of the human arm. It’s more than just a “straight back” action, even if it can feel that way. It’s important to consider these actions in the context of the theories of ecological dynamics. While I have described the overall concept of what needs to be accomplished, as well as the basic strategies for how to do so as informed by physical laws, there is very little prescriptive information as to how swimmers should move their limbs through the water. There are no specific joint angles, there is no specific timing, and there are no specific movement patterns. The actions described represent fluid concepts that can be uniquely applied by different individuals. Just as every terrestrial athlete must work with the realities of gravity, they will do so differently within the limitations of their own

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constraints. Different intrinsic constraints such as strength, range of motion, and anthropometrics will dictate the specific solutions individuals employ to achieve the desired outcomes. However, all swimmers are still bound by the environmental constraints determined by the physical properties of the water, and they must work within the opportunities the water affords. Thus, specific execution of these actions will be similar, yet differences will arise, even dramatic ones on occasion. With this in mind, coaches must shift their focus to determining contexts where swimmers can learn how to effectively employ these concepts, moving toward individual solutions that can be applied in racing environments.

12.3.3  A Strategic Framework for Change To improve a swimmer’s feel for the water, coaches can use two main, complementary approaches, both which can be facilitated through manipulation of the appropriate constraints. The first approach is to focus on learning to manipulate the water and improving the ability to attune to subtle differences in pressure (see Chapter 8). By providing a series of activities that provide a wide variety of sensory experiences, the coach can help swimmers learn to sense these subtle pressure differences that can be exploited to improve propulsion. When viewed from the perspective of perception-action coupling, coaches should look to influence the ability to perceive, doing so by expanding sensory awareness. This approach is more effective when a large contrast in the sensory information is experienced. In the second case, the focus is on actions and outcomes. If there is a consistent focus on improving how fast swimmers are going and how effectively they are swimming across a variety of tasks, there will likely be improvement in their ability to manipulate the water (see Chapter 3). By focusing on these two outcomes alone, the process of manipulating water must improve to allow for these outcomes to be achieved. By measuring performance, coaches can ensure that swimmers are using any heightened awareness of the movement opportunities to facilitate improvement, as better sensory perception is a means to a performance end. With this strategy, the focus is on the action side of perception-action coupling, using enhanced perception to achieve a quantified action. The separation of these two strategies is somewhat artificial as the ability to perceive and the ability to act are inextricably linked. While they can’t exist separately, it can be helpful to understand how to place more emphasis on one aspect as compared to the other. When using both strategies concurrently, the coach can work to emphasize both aspects of the process at the same time in a complementary manner, just as perception and action are complementary processes.

12.4  Facilitating Movement Exploration Having performed countless repetitions in the pool, swimmers aren’t feeling anything particularly exciting anymore as there is little novelty during typical swimming activities. The same actions are not going to get their attention, and

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it’s going to be difficult for them to pick up on nuance because the sensations are so familiar. Novel sensations must be created so that swimmers are forced to pay attention, and ultimately forced to find new solutions. By providing novel opportunities to perceive, swimmers can become aware of novel opportunities to act. However, to create novel environments, constraints must be used to take away preferred ways of moving and to expose swimmers to new ways of interacting with the water. When swimmers first started the sport, everything was new and there was a lot to explore, and learning occurred as a result, an environment that must be constructed again.

12.4.1  Learn to Manipulate and Redirect the Water A simple strategy for helping swimmers learn to redirect the water is to perform basic sculling actions while standing in medium height water. Swimmers can simply practice moving the arms out with the palms turned out, reversing the motion while turning the palms in, and then sweeping the arm back toward the midline, and repeat. Strive for rounded, gradual transitions in direction as opposed to abrupt changes in hand path. In contrast to normal sculling actions, the focus is on moving large amounts of water and feeling large amounts of pressure on the hands and forearms, paying particular attention to ensuring the whole forearm is involved in the action. What is critical is retaining the same amount of pressure on the arm during transitions in direction of hand path. This is large, patient sculling action. Coaches should communicate that these actions will feel more like “pulling” with directional changes than “sculling,” with a focus on wrapping and redirecting the water. The key skill is getting the water moving, and then changing the direction of the moving water, and it should involve the whole arm, not just the hands. As swimmers gain some skill in this action, coaches can start to change body positions and start to include locomotion. However, swimmers must retain the ability to maintain large amounts of pressure while changing the direction of the arm (Figure 12.1).

12.4.2 Change How the Hands Interact with the Water to Alter Sensation The hands are the main source of propulsion, as well as the main source of sensory information. A simple way to enhance the ability to use this information is to change the input the hands are receiving. Swimmers are used to experiencing the same sensations every day in the pool, and because of this consistent input, there is little stimulus for different output, and the same perception will lead to the same action. To move differently, swimmers need exposure to different sensations. Simply asking swimmers to pay closer attention is much less effective than changing what they are paying attention to, as novel movements will get them to pay attention, whether they want to or not.

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FIGURE 12.1 Moving

and changing the direction of water. By learning to move large amounts of water, and change the direction of the water, swimmers can form a basis for improving their feel for the water. Large sweeping actions, performed outside of the context of swimming, can help them learn to create large amounts of pressure, a sensory experience they can bring with them to other activities.

The “size” of the hand is a constraint that can be altered using different hand positions and hand paddles, as described in Chapter 7. This will change the sensory information that is experienced during each arm pull. By manipulating the hands, the forearm must be used differently as the forearm becomes the primary source of propulsion when the hands are taken away. When swimmers become over-reliant on the hands, the forearms can become “deaf,” and by removing the hands, the forearms can be “awakened” as there is less competing sensory information, and swimmers will learn how to feel and manipulate water with the forearm. When the hands are reintroduced, swimmers will have access to all sources of propulsion due to better perceptive abilities. Further, swimmers can use different types of paddles, even paddles that they don’t “like,” and they can hold these paddles in different ways. Novel hand positions must be introduced, preferably with contrast between these hand positions. Swimmers can swim with different hand postures such as closed fists, an OK sign, #1 sign, swimming with a tennis ball, or any other combination one can think of. It’s equally valuable to use different paddles and hand postures on

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FIGURE 12.2 Hand position and sensory information. Swimming with different hand

positions changes the sensory information the hands receive with each repetition. Hand position can be varied across repetitions by changing positions, or contrasted within repetitions by using two different positions at the same time.

opposite limbs. For instance, a swimmer could have a large paddle on one hand and hold a tennis ball in the other. The contrast in sensation between the limbs will get their attention, and perception about flow management will be altered. There aren’t better or worse ways to create variety; initially, it is the variety itself that is valuable. Performing these activities across a spectrum of training activities is critical to developing a skilled ability to use the hands and forearm to sense pressure differences and create propulsion (Figure 12.2).

12.4.3  Swim against Resistance to Amplify Feedback As explained in Chapter 7, adding extra resistance to swimmers has many benefits. In this context, added resistance serves to magnify feedback about pressure. Whatever information a swimmer is perceiving without the use of resistance, that information becomes much “louder” when resistance is used. For those swimmers that fail to adequately tune in to what they are feeling, resistance is a terrific solution. It makes sensation clear, and this clarity can help to bring about change. Further, using resistance makes the consequences of poor force application much more evident as not only is it easier to sense pressure differences, but the effect of poor force

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application is also much more evident as swimmers simply won’t move forward! Even if they are able to create forward progress, they’ll move much slower than their peers, and that will certainly get their attention. The type of resistance is of secondary importance, as any of the options described in Chapter 7 will be effective.

12.4.4  Use All the Strokes to Broaden Movement Experience By regularly changing the strokes swimmers perform, coaches can manipulate task constraints to expose swimmers to similar, yet different, ways of interacting with the water. The strokes all result in swimmers engaging with the water similarly; yet, each stroke engages the water differently at the beginning of the stroke, and water is moved backward in a slightly different manner. While this is visually obvious, it’s useful to examine how these differences manifest themselves. While freestyle and butterfly both include a full stroke backward, freestyle involves a significant rotational element during each pull whereas butterfly does not, and that difference must be managed. While the main propulsive phase of butterfly and breaststroke are very similar, how the water is engaged prior to this phase and how the water is released after this phase are quite different. Freestyle and backstroke both require full arm paths, yet one is performed on the back, and the other is performed on the front, resulting in very different ways of engaging and moving water backward from a mechanical perspective. Because all the strokes are both similar and different, by practicing all the strokes with the intent to improve the ability to manipulate water, swimmers can learn both the commonalities and the differences. Understanding the commonalities will lead to strategies that are applicable to all the strokes, namely the wrapping nature and relatively direct movement of water backward. The differences exist when appreciating flat body positions versus rotating positions, moving on the stomach versus the back, as well as the length of the arm pull. By learning to move water well in multiple contexts, swimmers can broaden and deepen their ability to interact with the water.

12.4.5  Implement Contrast to Create Comparative Feedback Swimmers learn via comparison, and they learn due to differences in execution on a repetition-to-repetition basis. By repeating the same task over and over, swimmers experience less and less novelty, which slows learning, and all the tools described above become more valuable when performed in conjunction and when they’re performed in a manner that creates contrast. Intentionally creating contrast does not only occur through changing different constraints, but it also occurs through the novelty of the same constraints. Consistently changing strokes, types and magnitudes of resistance, task goals, and hand surface area creates an environment characterized by exposure to multiple types of sensation, and constant contrast in sensation. With exposure to a spectrum of everchanging movement experiences, swimmers will learn the commonalities of

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great force application that apply across all contexts. They learn the nuances, and they learn how to apply the nuances regardless of the situation. As there are a limited number of activities swimmers can perform, coaches can retain novelty by consistently changing how these activities are sequenced and contrasted, which can greatly extend the learning curve.

12.5  Measure Performance to Create Clear Outcome Goals Swimming competitions are about racing, and the individual with the best performance is the winner, regardless of what it took to make it happen. With a focus on performance, swimmers will focus their effort and orient their improved sensory inputs toward specific outcomes, namely speed. Implementing performancebased task goals create a constraint on action, and only solutions that produce the required speed will be successful. With a focus on clear task goals, coaches can help to ensure that the swimmers’ efforts to improve the feel for the water are directed toward performance. By intentionally designing tasks that require performance that can only be possible through effectively “feeling the water,” coaches can ensure that improving those skills will lead to faster swimming.

12.5.1  Take Away the Legs to Focus on the Arms If the goal is to help swimmers learn to better apply force with the upper limbs, a sound strategy is to remove other options for creating propulsion. By constraining the use of the legs, coaches ensure that the upper body must be used to achieve the assigned task goals. For instance, the coach may ask a swimmer to swim with tennis balls to reduce the hand size, and the swimmer simply exaggerates their kick to compensate for a lack of propulsion from the hand. While this can be an effective strategy to accomplish the task, it’s not a strategy that will promote the desired learning effect. Although the task was constrained, it was not sufficiently constrained to remove undesirable solutions. However, if a buoy and a band are used so that the swimmer can’t kick, the only remaining solution is to learn to manipulate water more effectively with the arms. If resistance is added and a stroke count restriction is put in place, the swimmer will be further encouraged to use the whole arm more effectively. Through the effective use of constraints, all other undesirable movement options have been removed, and swimmers are in a position where the required performance must be achieved with better arm actions. Constraints have been used to move swimmers toward different solutions.

12.5.2  Use Stroke Counts to Encourage Efficiency Once the basic structure of a training task is set, coaches can begin to further manipulate constraints to facilitate a better feel for the water. Simply placing a stroke count limit on a swimmer is going to require them to change how they are interacting with the water (see Chapter 3), and when faced with an efficiency

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challenge, most swimmers focus on improving propulsion through more effective pulling patterns, rather than limiting drag. The value of using stroke counts is that it makes efficiency concrete, as what swimmers are feeling is nebulous and ambiguous, compared to objectively defined number of strokes taken per lap. This helps swimmers “keep score” and evaluate their swimming during each repetition. Constraining stroke count is effective as a stand-alone task constraint, and when used in conjunction with other strategies, it becomes a very powerful strategy for helping swimmers improve their feel for the water.

12.5.3  Track Speed to Require Effective Force Application Having a great “feel for the water” and displaying an aesthetic stroke are wonderful. Unfortunately, no one is concerned about a swimmer’s feel for the water when awarding medals at the Olympics, or at any other competition as all that matters is how fast someone swims. As such, by measuring speed, and working toward constantly improving speed, the practical value of improved feel for the water will be realized, and movement solutions that do not produce speed are discouraged. In the context of improving one’s feel for the water, it is important not to require speed performances as an end but as a means to improve feel for the water through the achievement of clear task goals. By placing speed constraints on many of the activities swimmers perform, coaches can ensure that swimmers are learning to feel the water in situations that require them to use that skill to produce speed. For instance, by asking swimmers to scull for speed, they are required to manipulate the water effectively, and to use that skill to produce the ultimate outcome, speed. Likewise, having a swimmer pull with a small parachute will require swimmers to create propulsion with the arms, or they simply won’t move, and by requiring them to do it fast, they now must adapt that skill to achieve a specific performance outcome.

12.6 Applying Constraints to Create Effective Learning Environments To improve the ability to “feel the water,” several options have been described to facilitate movement exploration in the context of performance. Various constraints can be manipulated to place swimmers in situations where learning is promoted, and when these constraints are changed in conjunction with each other, coaches can more powerfully move swimmers toward more functional solutions. With an awareness of the impact each constraint has, and awareness of the interactive effects when constraints are manipulated together, coaches can design more effective tasks through strategies where multiple constraints are altered together. •

Measure often. Regardless of the context, when coaches measure stroke count and speed while raising expectations, these values will improve. Placing a

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•

•

•

performance requirement on a task creates clear feedback as to whether a task is being accomplished successfully. Use resistance and manipulate the hands. Resistance enhances feedback and increases the requirement to produce propulsion and manipulating the hands forces swimmers to create propulsion through different means. By combining the two, swimmers can quickly learn how to move more water with the entire propelling surface. Use resistance and stroke counts. Using resistance requires swimmers to create more force to move forward, yet using resistance alone allows for multiple possible solutions. One solution is simply to increase the stroke rate excessively, resulting in more strokes being taken and less water moved per stroke, but by limiting the number of strokes a swimmer can take, this option is removed. Now, the only way to accomplish this task is to move more water with each stroke and this will require an enhanced ability to manipulate the water or feel the water. Pull while manipulating the hands. If the legs are no longer able to create force, this constraint forces swimmers to create propulsion with the arms alone. Once coaches start to manipulate the propulsive surface area swimmers have access to, there is nowhere to hide. Swimmers must learn to feel the water and create propulsion, regardless of the propelling surface they must work with, and if speed is required as well, it puts swimmers in a position where they are left with no option but to learn. The effective use of constraints has eliminated preferred movement solutions.

To demonstrate how to implement these concepts, I’ve included five relatively simple sets that use the principles described above. There are an infinite number of sets that can be created using various combinations of distances, types of work, and changes in velocity within a set, targeting any physiological system. The purpose of simplicity is to make the intent more obvious, and to demonstrate how the relevant constraints are manipulated. It’s possible to include this type of work in all aspects of training, as it facilitates movement exploration without compromising physiological training. In the set found in Figure 12.3, swimmers are tasked with maintaining efficiency and effectiveness while experiencing a loss of propulsive surface area, and they must learn to manipulate the water more effectively to do so. When facing the challenge of maintaining distance per stroke, speed, and then both, swimmers must solve different problems which can lead to different learning outcomes. Initially, this set can be used with conservative velocities. As swimmers improve, they can be required to swim faster. While swimmers may not be able to completely prevent a loss of efficiency or effectiveness as they reduce surface area of the hands, the goal is to minimize that loss. Improvements in maintaining these attributes over time is indicative of learning, as progress is an indicator of success rather than perfection.

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FIGURE 12.3 

Improving the feel for the water—altered propulsive surface area.

Several different constraints are altered in the set described in Figure 12.4. Swimmers are swimming with and without resistance, they are swimming with different hand positions, the legs cannot create propulsion during the first half of the set, and they are tasked with swimming fast. The resistance will enhance the pressure feedback swimmers feel on their limbs, and it will also increase the performance penalty on those that interact with the water poorly. The use of different hand positions forces swimmers to use the entire propulsive surface of the arm, and it heightens their awareness of pressure changes. Changing resistance changes these inputs as well. Performing the entire set fast increases the relevance to racing performance, while providing a clear goal around which swimmers can orient their efforts. Taking away the legs ensures that the accomplishment of these goals occurs through changes in upper body force application, whereas giving the legs back affords swimmers the opportunity to incorporate those changes into full stroke swimming. One of the key tasks is to try to feel equal pressure on both arms, regardless of the equipment that is being used. This will obviously present a challenge when swimming with a tennis ball and a paddle. While equality might not be possible, learning will occur with the intent of equality. For some individuals, it will be a struggle to go fast when their hands are taken away and when resistance is added. Over time, performances in similar sets should improve. This indicates an improved ability to manipulate the water to increase speed. By creating so many different situations where swimmers must effectively hold water, they learn the important strategies that are universal to force application. Any type of resistance can be used for the set described in Figure 12.5. The use of the cord uniquely manipulates the drag profile as the resistance changes over time, thus giving the swimmers different feedback due to the changing resistance. The outline of the set builds upon each prior task. The vertical scull section is simply to expose or reorient swimmers toward manipulating and wrapping the water without the pressure to create forward motion or speed. The focus

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FIGURE 12.4 

Improving the feel for the water—speed.

FIGURE 12.5 

Improving the feel for the water—sculling and resistance cord.

is simply on redirecting as much water as possible with large, deliberate motions that move large volumes of water. Next, the swimmer needs to apply this sculling skill to create forward motion while sculling with the chute. Redirecting water must now have a purpose. The parachute creates some added resistance, which should enhance the feedback swimmers feel. When there is a loss of effective action, it’s more likely to be felt as a loss of speed of the body, or a loss of pressure on the limb. Finally, the focus on the cord is setting up the front of the stroke by “wrapping” through the catch, by redirecting the water backward. As the tension in

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the cord increases, and the resistive constraint changes, swimmers must be more effective in setting up the stroke to maintain speed, and they are under pressure to quickly set up the stroke. In this set, swimmers work on manipulating water in a variety of contexts with a variety of feedback mechanisms, ultimately working toward higher speeds and greater specificity. This should increase the likelihood that these skills show up in competition, which is what ultimately matters. Figure 12.6 showcases a simple aerobic pull set with added sensory and skill components. This is an example of enriching a standard training set to enhance learning and physiological development, rather than just the latter. The training intervals can reflect the ability level of the swimmers, or the challenge the coach wants to create, as this set can be executed across a range of aerobic intensities. It is an example of a set where technical skills and physiological capacities are developed in concert. While a standard set of 20x100@1:30 would accomplish a similar physiological outcome, it would be relatively absent of opportunities for skill adaptation. In this present set, swimmers can learn how to manipulate the water more effectively while still experiencing the same physiological stimulus. The idea is to require swimmers to change speeds within the same stroke counts or hold speed while reducing stroke counts. The primary way to achieve this outcome is to learn how to move more water backward with each stroke. By taking away the legs for much of the set, the legs are no longer an option for creating propulsion, and the arms must do the job. Throughout the set, there are modifications to the surface area of the hand, and those modifications are contrasted. This increases the sensory input and requires slightly different solutions during each swim. To simplify the set, this manipulation could be removed and

FIGURE 12.6 

Improving the feel for the water—pulling and stroke count.

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added at a later point as a progression. The set starts with a short wrap scull repetition to help reacquaint swimmers with an idea of what to feel. As with the prior sets, multiple constraints are being manipulated over the course of the set found in Figure 12.7. Pulling work, resistance work, and different hand positions are combined to require swimmers to work on creating propulsion in different conditions. Then, swimmers move right into race velocity swimming where they are expected to execute their swims with the precise number of dolphin kicks and stroke cycles they intend to execute in a race. Backstroke pulling with a band uniquely constraints swimmers as there is not much a swimmer can do other than move water effectively to keep moving. It is an unforgiving teacher, and incorporating closed fists makes this more so. Any hand configuration (OK sign/using a limited number of fingers/#1/tennis balls) will create a similar effect. The temporary alteration of across the hands helps swimmers once they return to a regular hand position. As much of the set is performed with speed, swimmers are required to direct these skills toward performance. As swimmers become more familiar with backstroke pulling with a band, stroke counts can be included as a further constraint. The resistance work serves the purpose of creating more feedback on the arms. By using a single paddle, swimmers will be experiencing a contrast in sensation from stroke to stroke. The goal is to make the strokes feel the same, regardless of the different surface area. Symmetry is required. Finally, swimmers will put it all together with some racing efforts. The prior work will create some fatigue and swimmers must then manage to execute under that pressure. They will also be

FIGURE 12.7 

Improving the feel for the water—backstroke.

Solving Complex Movement Problems  221

operating under the influence of the previous work, and the sensations that were created. The whole set should be performed at a high level of speed and effort. In this manner, skill adaptation opportunities are presented along with stimuli for physiological adaptation.

12.7 Conclusion Improving a swimmer’s ability to feel the water is a complex problem. Its ambiguous nature leads to an inability to concretely describe what it is, and as coaches traditionally rely heavily on words to facilitate change, they are at a loss as to how to influence a swimmer’s feel for the water. Fortunately, swimmers can improve this ability when provided with systematic and structured exposure to the right learning environment and the appropriate tasks. Coaches do play a central role in this process; it’s simply a role they are typically unfamiliar with. While they design performance puzzles and then guide swimmers through the problem-solving process by asking questions rather providing answers, they do not necessarily instruct in a traditional sense, yet they are still coaching. By using constraints to create a variety of novel sensory experiences, and combining those sensory experiences with concrete performance objectives, swimmers can learn to better manipulate the water in pursuit of performance. The last part is key, as manipulating the water is a means not an end. With a consistent orientation toward performance, coaches and swimmers achieve what they seek—performance. By harnessing the power of a deep understanding of the critical skills required for performance, the constraints that influence performance, as well as how to effectively manipulate constraints, coaches can learn how to solve complex technical problems. In the final section of this book, these ideas will be applied to each stroke to demonstrate how coaches can use all of the concepts described to facilitate change.

References Colwin, C. 2002. Breakthrough Swimming. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Koga, D., Tsunokawa, T., Sengoku, Y., Homoto, K., Nakazono, Y., and Takagi, H. 2022. Relationship between hand kinematics, hand hydrodynamic pressure distribution and hand propulsive force in sprint front crawl swimming. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Feb 15;4:786459. Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Newcombe, D., and Roberts, W. (2019). The Constraints-Led Approach: Principles for Sports Coaching and Practice Design. Abington, Oxfordshire: Routledge. Soh, J., and Sanders, R. 2021. The clues are in the flow: How swim propulsion should be interpreted. Sports Biomechanics. 20(7):798–814. Toussaint, H., Van den Berg, C., and Beek, W. 2002. “Pumped-up propulsion” during front crawl swimming. Medical Science Sports Exercise. Feb;34(2):314–9.

SECTION 4

Constraints in Action Practical Examples for Coaching

Each stroke represents a complex problem. When considering the multitude of possible technical changes, the coach is challenged in finding a system through which to effect these changes. When viewed from a constraints-led approach, the coach must balance the need to channel or constrain movement with the need to allow for individuals to explore movement patterns that may be able to satisfy their individual constraints. Certain biomechanical principles must be adhered to, yet exactly how those principles are expressed will differ from swimmer to swimmer based upon their individual constraints. To solve this dilemma, I have attempted to identify the critical technical elements around which effective strokes are built. In my coaching, I then problematize these elements for swimmers so that they can understand the technical task they must solve. Because meaningful change is difficult to achieve, I needed to identify the critical skills that, if executed effectively, would allow for fast swimming. I have distilled the strokes to the basic, fundamental tasks that must be accomplished for fast swimming to occur. Guided by these fundamental objectives, I can then add nuance to each concept as necessary when communicating with specific swimmers. By constraining the breadth of the technical problems, these fundamental constructs provide latitude for exploration while staying focused on what is most important. This serves to make the process manageable by working on the critical components without allowing for skills to be decomposed into smaller parts. These skills do not exist in isolation as they influence each other, and the successful execution of each skill has synergistic as opposed to additive effects. Effective execution of each skill facilitates the execution of the subsequent skill. When applying the three basic biomechanical concepts described in Chapter 9, in concert with analyzing the strategies consistently used by elite swimmers, I have chosen to focus on the key aspects of technical performance for each stroke, DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-16

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as described in each chapter. I then design technical interventions that create environments that allow swimmers to explore these critical components. These components will be explored for each stroke, examining how I work to teach these skills. Coaches are free to disagree with what I have chosen to emphasize. Each coach must decide what skills they believe are most critical, and how they can teach them. The result of improved performance is what matters most. If a system can produce repeatable change that leads to faster swimming, it has merit. The important concept is for coaches to identify what they believe to be the critical technical components, and then develop a system to allow for the development of these components. This system should be applicable across a range of skill levels.

13 FREESTYLE

13.1 Introduction As with all strokes, great freestyle is the result of the same principles for fast swimming as discussed in Chapter 9: increased propulsion, reduced resistance, and great timing. To swim fast freestyle, one must reduce drag as much as possible and create a lot of propulsion, while optimally timing all movements to balance the trade-offs created by these two main objectives. As humans are constrained by their anatomy (strength, range of motions, limb lengths, etc.) and physiology (the ability to create large amounts of energy), certain strategies emerge as more successful than others for facilitating fast freestyle.

13.2  The Critical Skills of Freestyle The primary strategies for successful freestyle include: 1. Moving water backward with the arms and the legs 2. Maintaining a streamlined body posture 3. Optimally timing the rotation to allow for more water to be moved backward while maintaining alignment These three skills all interact to some extent, and any problems with timing will influence the execution of any action (see Figure 13.1). There are a lot of other aspects of the stroke that can be considered, and there are entire books devoted to these details. However, in almost all cases, the details can be categorized as a failure in one of these primary strategies. By understanding these errors in the context of the overall outcomes that must be achieved, we can avoid focusing on details that are unlikely to make a large impact on performance. DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-17

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FIGURE 13.1 Breathing

and alternating arms actions. Freestyle swimming creates unique challenges for swimmers due to challenge of breathing during alternating arm actions.

For instance, the position of the thumb during the arm pull varies between swimmers. Some leave it close to the hand, whereas others leave it out. Some coaches have strong opinions as to where it should be placed. Yet, this is a detail that is part of a strategy for moving water backward with the upper limb. By focusing on the overall goal (move water backward) rather than the specific solution (thumb position), coaches and swimmers are more likely to emphasize areas that provide the greatest opportunity for improvement. Other aspects of skilled performance can be important, but only in the context of the impact that aspect has on the three priorities listed above. If a movement is not negatively affecting the main priorities, it’s best left alone, as it’s likely not contributing to performance in a significant way. While these concepts may seem basic, they ensure that swimmers and coaches are focused on what really matters. Rather than restricting options, focusing on these basic concepts allows for great flexibility in terms of how fast swimming is achieved. Despite the basic nature strategies, there is a large degree of variation within individual application of these principles, due to the constraints that differ from person to person. When coaching with constraints, the goal is to provide swimmers with opportunities to explore these strategies and find variations that best align with their abilities, rather than prescribing specific solutions. My understanding of effective swimming has been derived from many sources. Primarily, I have read, watched, and listened to as much as I could find from different coaches to understand how they conceptualized fast swimming. To evaluate what they were describing, I watched countless frame-by-frame videos of swimmers winning major championships, looking for the commonalities of fast swimming, as well as the subtle differences elite athletes were displaying. While I have included scientific references as appropriate, these serve as quantitative evidence of my ideas for those individuals that wish to explore in greater detail, not as proof. I have read the whole of the swimming literature looking for confirmation of what coaches are experiencing daily, as well as for alternative perspectives that these same coaches may be missing, not for answers. All of these sources of information have been interpreted and synthesized through the lens of the

Freestyle  227

underlying principles described in Chapter 9, which are founded in basic physics, striving to keep my ideas as simple as possible, yet no simpler (Figure 13.1).

13.3 Facilitating Skill Adaptation through Manipulating Constraints Each of these key strategies will be explored in further detail. For each section, practical examples will be provided for how to use constraints to help swimmers learn these skills. By designing tasks that manipulate constraints to prevent the use of less effective movement solutions and make it easier to perceive key affordances for action, coaches can help swimmers move closer to more effective ways of moving through the water. By understanding the underlying principles of what creates fast swimming, as well as the specific strategies that satisfy these principles for freestyle, coaches can go about designing tasks that help swimmer explore these principles in environments that represent competition. Well-designed tasks constrain swimmers from using their preferred movement strategies while necessitating that they explore more effective strategies, allowing coaches to move swimmers toward more functional solutions, while minimizing the need for overt instruction. Traditionally, instructions have served as the primary task constraint used by coaches, as described in Chapter 4. As language often describes information about the learning environment and not of the learning environment, it lacks precision. However, when verbal constraints are used during a task that is already appropriately constrained, the impact of words can be much more precise and effective. Because these tasks place swimmers in learning environments where they can attune to the key opportunities for action, communication that does take place becomes even more effective. As described in Section 13.2, individuals can differ on many levels, leading to the variety of successful movement solutions we see every time we watch the best swimmers in the world. By creating tasks that allow swimmers to explore performance principles rather than mimic specific motions, this individuality is allowed to emerge. As described in Chapter 1, swimmers will differ in their height, arm span, center of mass, physiology, muscle fiber composition, body fat distribution, and more that all impact how they move through the water. Coaches can further enhance skill adaptation through proper task instruction, as words can act as a further constraint on action. Later in Sections 13.3.1, 13.3.2, and 13.3.3, I provide some exemplar sets. They are not supposed to be copied and pasted but may provide an example of how to use constraints to help swimmers adapt their skills to the key affordances in representative environments. These sets are specifically designed to help swimmers adapt their skills while creating physiological adaptation. By using various constraints, movement solutions that satisfy the principles for fast swimming are rewarded. Through the establishment of clear outcomes, sets can be created that allow swimmers to focus on accomplishing objectives, rather than copying movement patterns. Individual constraints can then be manipulated

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through the introduction of fatigue, potentiation, and training aids. For each of the sample sets that follow, I’ll explain what it is intended to accomplish as well as how each component of the set serves that intention. Further, I will describe the key tasks that swimmers should be attempting to successfully navigate. Use this information to understand the thought process behind each set, so that the specific application of these ideas can be adapted to the unique environment that each coach encounters.

13.3.1  Moving Water Backward Swimmers effect great freestyle pulling actions when they orient their forearm and hand backward to create a large surface area to move water with over a large range of motion (Adams 2000, 2001). This typically results in an arm position with the hand beneath the elbow, and the hand inside the elbow. Once created, this position should be maintained for as long as possible while pulling straight back, almost all effective swimmers pull with a pattern that is predominantly backward (Adams 2000, 2001). While there is some side-to-side motion to accommodate the rotation of the body and the anatomy of the arm, the intention is to pull backward, which is true regardless of the competition distance. Determining the appropriate pulling depth for a swimmer is dependent on their individual constraints, namely their strength levels, limb lengths, available range of motion, and current skill sets. Further, deeper pulling patterns require larger amounts of force due to the longer lever arm, they tend to work more effectively for shorter distances whereas shallower pulling actions tend to be more effective over longer distances as lower force requirements are necessary to execute them successfully. As demonstrated below, by effectively manipulating task constraints, coach can help swimmers determine the depth of pull that will be most effective, while still respecting the basic principles for fast freestyle swimming. In the past, sprinters have utilized a significant kicking action, whereas distance swimmers have employed a much more subdued kicking action. This is no longer the case as the fastest distance swimmers have used a significant kicking action throughout their races. Watch the leg action of Ian Thorpe during his 100 m and 400 m freestyle races. It is very similar. While Ian Thorpe may be an atypical swimmer, his ability to medal at 100 m, 200 m, and 400 m at the same Olympic Games speaks about the range of his abilities. Effective freestyle is characterized by a sustained kicking action. Coaches can implement and combine several different constraints to help swimmers learn to creative functional pulling patterns that best align with their individual attributes. By implementing velocity and stroke count constraints, as described in Chapter 3, swimmers are challenged with creating speed with a set number of strokes, a task which can be accomplished only through more effective force application, as shown in Figures 13.2–13.4. This is particularly true when a band is placed on the legs and only the arms can create propulsion. These tasks become further constrained by adding resistance and changing the surface

Freestyle  229

area of the hand, as described in Chapter 7, which will require more effective force application. The added resistance requires increased force production to create forward motion, and the changes in surface area of the hand require better positioning of the forearm to move water backward. Further, resisted swimming can increase the duration and the length of the pulling pattern, helping swimmers learn to create more effective pulling patterns and affording swimmers more time to create high levels of force (Gourgoulis et al. 2010). By using these strategies in various combinations, the satisfaction of the task constraints requires swimmers to create more propulsion with each stroke, primarily by moving more water backward. Further, the feedback swimmers receive on a repetition-to-repetition basis will be amplified, both in terms of the sensory

FIGURE 13.2 Improving

the arm pull—stroke count, altered propulsive surface area, and endurance.

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FIGURE 13.3 Improving

the arm pull—stroke count, altered propulsive surface area,

and speed.

information they receive as well as the objective performance information. Both provide context as to whether the chosen movement solution is a functional one, and to what degree.

13.3.2  Maintaining a Streamlined Body Posture The maintenance of effective body posture throughout the freestyle stroke is characterized by less movement, not more. To establish effective body posture, swimmers typically need to learn to remove undesirable, extraneous movements rather than focusing on the addition of new movements.

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FIGURE 13.4 Breathing

technique and alignment in freestyle. To minimize any increases in drag, swimmer must strive to breathe straight and low to maintain alignment in the water.

A loss of effective body posture typically occurs due to a loss of horizontal or lateral alignment, as more frontal surface area is projected through the water, increasing drag and reducing swimming economy (Zamparo et al. 2008). In other words, poorly streamlined body posture arises when the spine is angled or distorted such that torso does not travel straight through the water due to inclination of the spine, an arch in the spine, or excessive lateral motion of the spine. Swimmers can distort their horizontal alignment by swimming with the head up and the feet low, a position characterized by increased resistance through the water (Zamparo et al. 1996). Swimmers can learn to reduce this effect by keeping the head down and creating a sensation of swimming “downhill,” a strategy that is more effective when the torso remains relatively rigid. This will allow the chest to lower and the feet to rise, creating a more horizontal position in the water. It’s possible to be level in the water, yet “sagging” in the middle of the torso, which will create unnecessary drag. Swimmers must learn to bring the

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spine into alignment when moving through the water by maintaining tension in the torso. As rotation is present throughout the stroke cycle, swimmers must learn to maintain this horizontal position even while rotating. Beyond issues of horizontal alignment, swimmers must concern themselves with lateral alignment, which is lost due to lateral deviation of the torso. Issues with lateral alignment are typically caused by asymmetric arm recoveries or excessively low and wide arm recoveries. As the arms are moving one at a time, the asymmetrical torque of these recoveries can pull the body out of alignment, causing the hips and the shoulders move side to side, resulting in the creation of excessive drag which slows the swimmer down. Swimmers must strive to find recoveries that minimize this effect. Assuming a swimmer can maintain horizontal and lateral alignment, they must also do while executing asymmetrical breathing actions, as there is typically greater rotation to the breathing side duration all strokes, and more shoulder roll when taking a breath (Psycharakis and McCabe 2011). Any movement of the head outside of the alignment of the body will create a compensatory action somewhere else in the body. If the head is lifted too high, the hips will sink. If the head is pulled to the side, the hips will shift laterally to compensate. These compensations typically take the form of arm and leg actions required to act to correct errors in breathing. These compensations not only create more drag but also prevent the limbs from performing their primary job, creating propulsion. Timing of the breath is critical as swimmers who consistently breathe late, or return the breath late, will be disrupting the body line in doing so, a skill particularly important for sprint freestyle as there is less time for the breath to occur (Figure 13.5).

FIGURE 13.5 Breathing

technique and alignment in freestyle.

Freestyle  233

Sets that manipulate constraints with the intention of helping swimmers improve their alignment can be found in Figures 13.6 and 13.7. To help swimmers learn how to create horizontal position in the water, sensory exercises are used that help swimmers attune to the opportunity to use the lungs as a point of leverage to create a horizontal position. By pressing the head and chest into the water, the natural buoyancy of the lungs will resist that pressure, lifting the legs to the surface. Swimming exercises are then included which

FIGURE 13.6 

Improving alignment during the breath.

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FIGURE 13.7 

Improving horizontal alignment of the body.

require swimmers to move through a spectrum of head and body positions, allowing them to pick on affordances for using the position of the head and chest to manage alignment in the water. To improve the breathing action, a physical constraint is place on the head, which will stay in place only if aligned breathing actions are used. The successful execution of this exercise eliminates undesirable movement patterns, and if those patterns remain, the swimmer will

Freestyle  235

receive clear feedback that the repetition was performed poorly. To add further variability to tasks, various breathing patterns are required, and swimmers must perform all the above activities at various speeds, adding further information that swimmers can use to help determine which movement solutions will be most functional for them.

13.3.3  Timing Freestyle timing is dictated by the relative position of the upper limbs (Seifert et al. 2007; Silva et al. 2022), and the relationship between the body rotation and arm actions. Rotation is critical because it allows for “extra” range of motion through the shoulders. To pull effectively and recover arms over the water at opposite times, a large range of motion is necessary, and the required range of motion is beyond the anatomy of shoulders. However, this lack of range of motion can be compensated for as rotating the torso places the shoulders in more advantageous positions, allowing swimmers to gain access to more effective pulling actions and recovery paths. Yet, more rotation is not necessarily better as more rotation will slow the stroke frequency, and this is supported by the observation that faster swimmers tended to roll their shoulders less than slower swimmers (Psycharakis and Sanders 2008). To take advantage of rotation of the body without rotating excessively, the arms need to be in the right place at the right point of rotation so the available extra range of motion can be taken advantage of. Rotation should be at its greatest when the pulling arm is reaching forward and down in anticipation of pulling. This creates a more effective position for orienting the arm backward in preparation for moving a large mass of water backward over a large range of motion. Indeed, effective rotation of the trunk contributes significantly to the generation of higher hand speeds (Kudo et al. 2021), thereby increasing propulsion. Likewise, rotation should be at its greatest when the recovering arm is furthest behind the body to allow for the arm to recover smoothly over the surface of the water without disrupting lateral alignment. Fortunately, these two actions tend to happen at the same time, so it is a matter of switching these positions back and forth. Thus, to create strong pulls and to recover the arms without disrupting alignment, swimmers need to rotate, and they need to rotate at the right time so that both objectives are achieved in concert. By timing these rotations correctly, swimmers can reduce the amount of rotation that is needed, reducing the amount of time each stroke cycle takes, which will increase velocity. As velocity increases, there tends to be a relatively small reduction in shoulder roll as compared to much large reductions in hip rotation (Yanai 2003), an adaptation to the task constraint that allows swimmers to retain the increased range of motion of the shoulders while reducing the total movement of the torso (see Figure 13.8).

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FIGURE 13.8 Improving

the timing of the rotation—stroke count and descending

speed.

As velocity increases, the overall strategy remains similar, yet important differences in timing emerge as swimmers begin to move closer to their maximal velocity (Carmigniani et al. 2020; Schnitzler et al. 2021). As swimmers begin to move faster, any delays in the repositioning of the arm upon entry into the water begin to fade. Whereas there tends to be a delay between propulsive actions at slower speeds, and the delay disappears at higher velocities, particularly in expert swimmers. A “catch-up” coordination tends to predominate in at slower speeds including 400 m races, with shifts in timing begin to emerge at speeds similar to

Freestyle  237

the 200-m racing velocity (Palayo et al. 2007; Schnitzler et al. 2011; Seifert et al. 2007). Once swimmers are achieving speeds consistent with 100-m racing velocity, they now begin to time the arms in opposition, with one arm beginning to create propulsion as soon as the opposite arm ceases to do so (Seifert et al. 2004). These shifts in timing indicate how the relative positioning of the limbs tends to reorganize based upon the task constraints that are set, primarily velocity (Bideault et al. 2013). Further, as intuited by most coaches, as velocity increases, there tends to be a transition from a two-beat kick pattern to a six-beat kick pattern (Guignard et al. 2019), and expert swimmers more uniformly display a six-beat kick pattern (Mezêncio et al. 2020). Due to the shorter duration of each stroke cycle, rotational timing must be more precise at faster speeds to ensure that both an effective arm recovery and an effective arm pull can be realized. Regardless of how fast a swimmer is swimming, the momentum of the recovering arm can be used to accelerate the rotation of the shoulders. As the arm drops down into the water with increasing speed due to gravity, it will aid with the rotational switch from one side of the body to the other. Accurately timing this action to coincide with the strongest phase of the pull will improve the timing of the stroke, making transitions between sides faster and more economical. The faster the arms are recovering, the more dramatic the effect. Improving freestyle timing is challenging because it is a skill characterized by subtlety. Timing must be extremely precise to be effective, and that precision resists description, as understanding comes not from knowledge but experience. Further, timing is appropriate to the task and the velocity that must be attained, changing as the task changes. As the timing and coordination of the arms change with increasing velocity, swimmers must become skilled at doing so effectively. By establishing task constraints that require swimmers to recover one or both arms under the water, the resistance of the water forces swimmers to recover the arm at the appropriate time, as the recovery will be weak and ineffectual if rotational timing is poor. Within this learning environment, coaches can place velocity constraints, stroke count constraints, and implement resistive training aids to further assist swimmers in exploring various solutions (see Figure 13.9). These varied tasks help swimmers understand how timing changes dependent on the context, and it helps them in learning to adapt their timing to the context at hand. Swimming against resistance has been shown to increase the index of coordination (Schnitzler et al. 2010; Telles et al. 2011), indicating that the implementation of this training aid acts as a constraint on limb timing, making it a powerful tool for shifting how swimmers time their limbs. Throughout these sets, swimmers will also perform swimming that is minimally constrained, with the intention that they will use the information they have experienced to determine a functional strategy for timing their stroke in the given context.

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FIGURE 13.9 

Improving the timing of the rotation—resistance and speed.

Freestyle  239

13.4  Communicating Technical Concepts In the constraints-led approach, task design plays a central role in facilitating change. A well-designed task will do most of the “coaching” by placing swimmers in positions where they can learn different ways of moving throughout the water. However, this does not imply that coaching is a passive process where one just sits back and watches it all unfold. In many cases, coaches can use task instructions as further constraints on action by guiding swimmers toward different solutions. Examples of appropriate language can be found in Figures 13.10–13.12.

FIGURE 13.10 

Freestyle—analogy versus internal cues.

240  Constraints in Action: Practical Examples for Coaching

FIGURE 13.11 

Freestyle—positive versus negative cues.

As explored in Chapter 4, different ways of communication have different impacts on the outcomes coaches are aiming to achieve. By manipulating task instructions, coaches can enhance the ability for swimmers to positively adapt to the tasks they have set forth. By using analogy, emphasizing opportunities for improvement, focusing attention externally, and emphasizing the essence of skilled performance, coaches can further constrain movement beyond what is possible through effective task design alone. The following charts demonstrate the application of these principles, specific to the stroke of freestyle. When paired with the appropriate task goals, they are very effective in facilitating change. The following are effective holistic cues for freestyle: • • • • • •

Swing the recoveries Drive the recovery into the entry Drive the shoulders Skate from side to side Send the recoveries forward Let rotation drive the rhythm

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FIGURE 13.12 

Freestyle—external versus internal cues.

13.5 Conclusion As the fastest stroke, freestyle is the most common and the most often analyzed. It is very easy to slip into the minutiae of the skills that comprise effective freestyle. However, focusing on the fundamental skills will be the most effective option for most. Fortunately, due to the relative ease of swimming freestyle, it responds best to the use of constraints and simplified tasks. By staying focused on the critical skills, swimmers will be able to find the freestyle that will allow them to perform at their best.

References Adams, M. 2000. Thoughts on the crawl stroke. Swimming Technique. 7:17–23. Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Bideault, G., Herault, R., and Seifert, L. 2013. Data modelling reveals interindividual variability of front crawl swimming. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. May;16(3):281–5.

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Carmigniani, R., Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Clanet, C. 2020. Coordination changes in front-crawl swimming. Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 476(2237):20200071. Gourgoulis, V., Antoniou, P., Aggeloussis, N., Mavridis, G., Kasimatis, P., Vezos, N., Boli, A., and Mavromatis, G. 2010. Kinematic characteristics of the stroke and orientation of the hand during front crawl resisted swimming. Journal of Sports Science. Sep;28(11):1165–73. Guignard, B., Rouard, A., Chollet, D., Bonifazi. M., Vedova, D., Hart, J., and Seifert, L. 2019. Upper to lower limb coordination dynamics in swimming depending on swimming speed and aquatic environment manipulations. Motor Control. Jul 1;23(3):418–42. Kudo, S., Mastuda, Y., Yanai, T., and Sakurai, Y. 2021. Forwards-backwards hand velocity induced by the upper trunk rotation in front crawl strokes and its association with the stroke frequency. Journal of Sports Science. Aug;39(15):1669–76. Mezêncio, B., Pinho, J., Huebner, R., Vilas-Boas, J., Amadio, A., and Cerca Serrão, J. 2020. Overall indexes of coordination in front crawl swimming. Journal of Sports Science. Apr;38(8):910–7. Palayo, P., Alberty, M., Sidney, M., Potdevin, F., and Dekerle, J. 2007. Aerobic potential, stroke parameters, and coordination in swimming front-crawl performance. International Journal of Sports and Physiology Performance. Dec;2(4):347–59. Psycharakis, S., and McCabe, C. 2011. Shoulder and hip roll differences between breathing and non-breathing conditions in front crawl swimming. Journal of Biomechanics. Jun 3;44(9):1752–6. Psycharakis, S., and Sanders, R. 2008. Shoulder and hip roll changes during 200-m front crawl swimming. Medicine in and Science in Sports and Exercise. Dec;40(12):2129–36. Schnitzler, C., Brazier, T., Button, C., Seifert, L., and Chollet, D. 2010. Effect of velocity and added resistance on selected coordination and force parameters in front crawl. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Oct;25(10):2681–90. Schnitzler, C., Seifert, L., and Button, C. 2021. Adaptability in swimming pattern: How propulsive action is modified as a function of speed and skill. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Apr 7;3:618990. Schnitzler, C., Seifert, L., and Chollet, D. 2011. Arm coordination and performance level in the 400-m front crawl. Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport. Mar;82(1):1–8. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Bardy, B. 2004. Effect of swimming velocity on arm coordination in the front crawl: a dynamic analysis. Journal of Sports Science. Jul;22(7):651–60. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., and Rouard, A. 2007. Swimming constraints and arm coordination. Human Movement Science. Feb;26(1):68–86. Silva, A., Seifert, S., Fernandes, R., Vilas Boas, J., and Figueiredo, P. 2022. Front crawl swimming coordination: a systematic review. Sports Biomechanics. 12:1–20. Telles, T., Barbosa, A., Campos, M., and Andries Junior, O. 2011. Effect of hand paddles and parachute on the index of coordination of competitive crawl-strokers. Journal of Sports Science. Feb;29(4):431–8. Yanai, T. 2003. Stroke frequency in front crawl: its mechanical link to the fluid forces required in non-propulsive directions. Journal of Biomechanics. Jan;36(1):53–62. Zamparo, P., Capelli, C., Termin, B., Pendergast, D., and Prampero, P. 1996. Effect of the underwater torque on the energy cost, drag and efficiency of front crawl swimming. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 73(3–4):195–201. Zamparo, P., Lazzer, S., Antoniazzi, C., Cedolin, S., Avon, R., and Lesa, P. 2008. The interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front crawl in 8 to 19-year-old swimmers. European Journal of Applied Physiology. Nov;104(4):689–99.

14 BACKSTROKE

14.1 Introduction As with all strokes, great backstroke is the result of the same principles for fast swimming as discussed in Chapter 9: increased propulsion, reduced resistance, and great timing. To swim fast backstroke, one must reduce drag as much as possible and create a lot of propulsion, while optimally timing all movements to balance the trade-offs created by these two main objectives. As humans are constrained by their anatomy (strength, range of motions, limb lengths, etc.) and physiology (the ability to create large amounts of energy), certain strategies emerge as more successful than others for facilitating fast backstroke.

14.2  The Critical Skills The primary strategies for successful backstroke include: 1. Moving water backward with the arms and legs 2. Maintaining body alignment and posture 3. Accurately timing body rotation and arm action These three skills all interact to some extent, and any problems with timing will influence the execution of any action (Figure 14.1). There are a lot of other aspects of the stroke that can be considered, and there are entire books devoted to these details. However, in almost all cases, the details can be categorized as a failure in one of these primary strategies. By understanding these errors in the context of the overall outcomes that must be achieved, we can avoid focusing on details that are unlikely to make a large impact on performance.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-18

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FIGURE 14.1 Backstroke

swimming and constraints. Backstroke creates unique challenges for swimmers as it is the only stroke performed on the back, requiring different movement strategies because of the different constraints that are placed on the upper body.

For instance, the position of the thumb during the arm pull varies between swimmers. Some leave it close to the hand, whereas others leave it out. Some coaches have strong opinions as to where it should be placed. Yet, this is a detail that is part of a strategy for moving water backward with the upper limb. By focusing on the overall goal (move water backward) rather than the specific solution (thumb position), coaches and swimmers are more likely to emphasize areas that provide the greatest opportunity for improvement. Other aspects of skilled performance can be important, but only in the context of the impact that aspect has on the three priorities listed above. If a movement is not negatively affecting the main priorities, it’s best left alone, as it’s likely not contributing to performance in a significant way. While these concepts may seem basic, they ensure that swimmers and coaches are focused on what really matters. Rather than restricting options, focusing on these basic concepts allows for great flexibility in terms of how fast swimming is achieved. Despite the basic nature strategies, there is a large degree of variation within individual application of these principles, due to the constraints that differ from person to person. When coaching with constraints, the goal is to provide swimmers with opportunities to explore these strategies and find variations that best align with their abilities, rather than prescribing specific solutions (Figure 14.1). My understanding of effective swimming has been derived from many sources. Primarily, I have read, watched, and listened to as much as I could find

Backstroke  245

from different coaches to understand how they conceptualized fast swimming. To evaluate what they were describing, I watched countless frame-by-frame videos of swimmers winning major championships, looking for the commonalities of fast swimming, as well as the subtle differences elite athletes were displaying. While I have included scientific references as appropriate, these serve as quantitative evidence of my ideas for those individuals that wish to explore in greater detail, not as proof. I have read the whole of the swimming literature looking for confirmation of what coaches are experiencing daily, as well as for alternative perspectives that these same coaches may be missing, not for answers. All of these sources of information have been interpreted and synthesized through the lens of the underlying principles described in Chapter 9, which are founded in basic physics, striving to keep my ideas as simple as possible, yet no simpler.

14.3 Facilitating Skill Adaptation through Manipulating Constraints Each of these key strategies will be explored in further detail. For each section, practical examples will be provided for how to use constraints to help swimmers learn these skills. By designing tasks that manipulate constraints to prevent the use of less effective movement solutions and make it easier to perceive key affordances for action, coaches can help swimmers move closer to more effective ways of moving through the water. By understanding the underlying principles of what creates fast swimming, as well as of the specific strategies that satisfy these principles for backstroke, coaches can go about designing tasks that help swimmer explore these principles in environments that represent competition. Well-designed tasks constrain swimmers from using their preferred movement strategies while necessitating that they explore more effective strategies, allowing coaches to move swimmers toward more functional solutions, while minimizing the need for overt instruction. Traditionally, instructions have served as the primary task constraint used by coaches, as described in Chapter 4. As language often describes information about the learning environment and not of the learning environment, it lacks precision. However, when verbal constraints are used during a task that is already appropriately constrained, the impact of words can be much more precise and effective. Because these tasks place swimmers in learning environments where they can attune to the key opportunities for action, communication that does take place becomes even more effective. As described in Section 14.2, individuals can differ on many levels, leading to the variety of successful movement solutions we see every time we watch the best swimmers in the world. By creating tasks that allow swimmers to explore performance principles rather than mimic specific motions, this individuality is allowed to emerge. As described in Chapter 1, swimmers will differ in their height, arm span, center of mass, physiology, muscle fiber composition, body fat distribution, and more that all impact how they move through the water.

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Coaches can further enhance skill adaptation through proper task instruction, as words can act as a further constraint on action. Later in Sections 14.3.1, 14.3.2, and 14.3.3, I provide some exemplar sets. They are not supposed to be copied and pasted but may provide an example of how to use constraints to help swimmer adapt their skills to the key affordances in representative environments. These sets are specifically designed to help swimmers adapt their skills while creating physiological adaptation. By using various constraints, movement solutions that satisfy the principles for fast swimming are rewarded. Through the establishment of clear outcomes, sets can be created that allow swimmers to focus on accomplishing objectives, rather than copying movement patterns. Individual constraints can then be manipulated through the introduction of fatigue, potentiation, and training aids. For each of the sample sets that follow, I’ll explain what it is intended to accomplish as well as how each component of the set serves that intention. Further, I will describe the key tasks that swimmers should be attempting to successfully navigate. Use this information to understand the thought process behind each set, so that the specific application of these ideas can be adapted to the unique environment that each coach encounters.

14.3.1  Moving Water Backward In the past, backstrokers were instructed to consciously focus on various upsweeps and downsweeps during the pulling pattern, where the hands moved up and down as they traveled toward the feet. Backstrokers have moved toward a direct backward application of force that greatly resembles the pulling mechanics of the other strokes, only inverted due to the position on the back (Adams 2001). The initial focus is on bending the elbow and rotating the forearm into a backwardoriented position so that force can be applied directly toward the feet. Once this repositioning occurs, the entire hand and forearm are oriented backward for as long as possible, with the elbow and hand wide of the body to ensure that the strongest muscles of the upper body are involved in the pulling action. While the general action above allows swimmers to maximize the amount of whatever that can be moved backward with the constraints of the upper body anatomy, individual difference will emerge based upon the specific anatomy of each individual. During the backward pulling action, different swimmers may exhibit different amounts of elbow bend. As with sprint freestyle, a straighter arm action may be advantageous for stronger individuals swimming shorter distances, whereas more elbow bend reduces the required force and may be a better option for some individuals. Further, the degree to which the entire forearm is oriented backward will also depend on the range of motion that each swimmer’s shoulder affords. What is important is that the propelling surface retains a backward orientation for as long as possible. As with freestyle, backstroke is characterized by a strong, sustained kicking action. Kicking helps create propulsion and facilitate shifts in body rotation.

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To help swimmers apply these principles and adapt to movement solutions that align with the physical constraints they possess, sets that strategically employ multiple task constraints can be designed, examples of which can be found in Figures 14.2 and 14.3. A particularly effective strategy is to eliminate the kick by placing a band around the legs, which ensures that all propulsion comes from upper body actions. In this context, swimmers are tasked with achieving velocity and stroke count performances, which requires pulling actions be reorganized to meet these performance standards. To make these constraints even more effective in moving swimmers toward functional solutions, both resistance devices and altered propulsive surface areas can be implemented, as described in Chapter 7. Swimming backstroke against a parachute has been shown to improve

FIGURE 14.2 

Improving the arm pull—stroke count, speed, and resistance.

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FIGURE 14.3 

Improving the arm pull—band, stroke count, and descending speed.

propulsive continuity (Telles et al. 2017), and using these tools magnifies the feedback swimmers receive while executing the prescribed tasks and makes the consequences of poor performance more evident. If ineffective pulling actions are using while swimming against resistance, it will be incredibly difficult to satisfy the velocity and stroke count task constraints. Likewise, if swimmers fail to utilize the forearm while swimming with altered hand size, they won’t be nearly as effective.

14.3.2  Maintaining Body Alignment and Posture While backstrokers do not have to be concerned with disrupting body alignment when breathing, lying on the back presents unique challenges for maintaining horizontal and lateral alignment. There is approximately 4% more underwater body volume when swimming on the back as compared to the front (Gonjo et al. 2020), which will create more drag that swimmers must overcome as they move through the water. The more backstrokers can maintain alignment as they move through the water, the less drag they will create, and the more velocity

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they will maintain. In terms of horizontal alignment, swimming backstroke with the head raised out of the water will cause the hips to sink, and while this can be compensated to some degree by increasing the effort used by the legs, this comes at a significant energetic cost. In contrast, the head can be kept too low in the water, causing the swimmer to plow through the water. When swimmers use this head position, they also tend to arch the upper spine, lower spine, or both, and an arched spine will force the legs lower in the water, resulting in the same problems described earlier. Beyond the impact of the legs lowered in the water, an arched body position will also greatly increase drag due to the poor alignment of the body. As compared to the rounded hull of a boat, which is shaped as such to reduce drag, an arched spine creates the opposite position, creating a correspondingly large amount of drag. For all these reasons, maintaining a straight if not rounded body position will enable the backstrokers to move through the water more efficiently and effectively by reducing the drag that is created. Whereas horizontal alignment is impaired due to issues with how the spine is positioned in the vertical plane, lateral alignment is impaired when the spine moves excessively from side to side, often as a consequence of problematic arm recoveries. Lateral alignment is often compromised when swimmers enter the hand behind the head, creating a lateral torque that shifts the shoulders to the side and the hips to the opposite side. This creates a bend in the spine which increases the drag the swimmer will experience. Arm recoveries that are low to the water

FIGURE 14.4 Alignment

and spinal stability in backstroke. To maintain effective alignment, backstroke swimming requires a stable head and spine position to minimize increase in drag.

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and wide of the body create a similar impact where a large torque moves through the body, shifting the shoulders to the side, following by compensatory actions in the hips. By simplifying the arm recoveries to eliminate lateral torque on the torso, swimmers can ensure that they maintain alignment of the spine, thereby reducing drag and increasing velocity. Improving alignment results from establishing a posture in the water that reduces drag and learning to maintain that posture while swimming backstroke at higher intensities. While establishing effective posture is not particularly difficult, maintaining that posture at high speeds and while fatigued is much more challenging. The sets found in Figures 14.5 and 14.6 are designed to help

FIGURE 14.5 Improving

endurance.

horizontal alignment of the body—resisted kicking and

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FIGURE 14.6 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—resisted kicking and speed.

swimmers achieve an aligned posture, then work to maintain that posture while under pressure. As described in Chapters 6 and 7, using training aids is a powerful strategy for stressing technical skills. These employ various resistive tool that work to move swimmers out of ideal alignment, which the swimmers must work to prevent. By working to maintain alignment despite the resistive loads, swimmers can begin to attune to the movement solutions and strategies that effectively keep the body in alignment. Following these challenges, swimmers are tasked with implementing these solutions during backstroke swimming at various speeds. In contrast to other strategies discussed in this chapter, training aids are implemented to move swimmers away from the desired solutions, rather than toward them. In this circumstance, learning occurs when swimmer search for movement solutions that prevent this from occurring, and they are able to attune to the affordances for doing so.

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14.3.3  Accurately Timed Body Rotation and Arm Action Fast and fluid backstroke results from accurate timing of the arm actions and the rotation of the body. Regardless of the distance, backstroke timing remains similar across event distances. While there is a slight shift toward more continuity of propulsion, these changes are quite small as backstrokers are constrained by the accessible range of motion of shoulder joint (Chollet et al. 2008). The coordination remains similar even as there is a reduction in the amplitude of rotation as the velocity increases (Gonjo et al. 2021). What is often overlooked is that the rotation of torso is not constant throughout the stroke cycle but is characterized by rapid changes in position during key transition points. There is a rapid shift from side to side as one hand enters the water and the other hand exits the water, with the torso remained relatively static during most of the arm pull and arm recovery. Great timing in backstroke can be facilitated by employing aggressive arm recovery and entry actions to initiate immediate repositioning of the forearm upon entry. The straight arm recoveries used by all backstrokers create a high degree of angular momentum. This momentum can be used to facilitate a swift rotation at the top of the stroke that helps quickly reposition the arm upon entry. The driving of the shoulders back and forth, aided by the torque created by the arm recoveries, helps to set the rotational rhythm of the stroke. The more this process can be aided by the momentum of the arms rather than muscular effort, the more fluid and rhythmic the stroke will become. A critical component of backstroke timing is a delay of torso rotation during the pull until just before the phase of the pulling. This action allows swimmers to maximize the amount of time the entire forearm and hand can be oriented backward during a pull with the strong muscles of the upper body. Once rotation begins in the opposite direction, backstrokers will lose this position and propulsive effectiveness will be compromised. Thus, rotation timing is optimized when rotation is delayed until the moment the hand approaches the hips, where a quick rotation then occurs. This rotation coincides with the aggressive rotation that occurs when the opposite hand enters the water. Learning to couple the momentum of the recovery arm with this final propulsive action of the pulling arm assists with rotating from one side of the body to the other. The most common error that disrupts effective backstroke timing when swimmers enter the hand behind the head and the torso doesn’t rotate until after the hand has entered, in contrast to the timing described above. Not only does this error disrupt a sense of rhythm, but it also places the arms in ineffective positions for creating propulsion. These errors almost always occur together, and it can be challenging to determine which error is causing the other. Due to the subtlety and nuance of great timing, prescriptive approaches tend to fall short as it is difficult to describe the sequence of events with the necessary precision. However, great timing can be learned when athletes are provided the opportunity to experience variations in rhythm and timing. By changing key task constraints, coaches can help place swimmers in situations where they are

Backstroke  253

more likely to pick up on the key affordances related to the timing of the different components of the stroke. Sets that utilize these principles can be found in Figures 14.7 and 14.8. As described above, the key timing event is the occurrence of a rapid rotation when one hand enters the water and the other hand exits the water. To help swimmers learn to perceive when these events should occur, exaggerated versions of backstroke are included. These tasks exaggerate the key timing points while retaining all the essential elements of the stroke, avoiding the decomposition of the stroke into its component parts, as described in Chapter 8. This ensures that swimmers are exposed to sensory information that is relevant to full stroke swimming. These tasks are performed at various speeds to help swimmers understand the subtle differences in timing at different speeds, as well as provide a broader spectrum of sensory information. Swimmers can then practice using this information during regular backstroke swimming, with a focus on executing effective timing.

FIGURE 14.7 Improving

timing of the arm action and the rotation of the body— speed and skill.

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FIGURE 14.8 

Improving timing of the arm action and the rotation of the body— endurance and skill.

14.4  Communicating Technical Concepts In the constraints-led approach, task design plays a central role in facilitating change. A well-designed task will do most of the “coaching” by placing swimmers in positions where they can learn different ways of moving throughout the water. However, this does not imply that coaching is a passive process where one just sits back and watches it all unfold. In many cases, coaches can use task instructions as further constraints on action by guiding swimmers toward different solutions. As explored in Chapter 4, different ways of communication have different impacts on the outcomes coaches are aiming to achieve. By manipulating task instructions, coaches can enhance the ability for swimmers to positively

Backstroke  255

adapt to the tasks they have set forth. By using analogy, emphasizing opportunities for improvement, focusing attention externally, and emphasizing the essence of skilled performance, coaches can further constrain movement beyond what is possible through effective task design alone. The following charts demonstrate the application of these principles, specific to the stroke of backstroke. When paired with the appropriate task goals, they are very effective in facilitating change. Examples of appropriate language can be found in Figures 14.9–14.11. The following are effective holistic cues for backstroke: • • • • • • •

Drive the recovery into the entry Swing the recoveries Drive the shoulders Control the side-to-side rock Let rotation drive the rhythm Drive the recovery into the rotation Let rotation drive the rhythm

FIGURE 14.9 

Backstroke—analogy versus internal cues.

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FIGURE 14.10 

Backstroke—positive versus negative cues.

FIGURE 14.11 

Backstroke—external versus internal cues.

Backstroke  257

14.5 Conclusion Taking place on the back, backstroke places unique challenges on swimmers. They must contend with a different body position, and they must learn to move water without being able to see what they are doing. As with the other strokes, simplifying task will prove to be more effective than decomposing them. By staying focused on the fundamental skills and the foundational principles, swimmers are more likely to find a backstroke that best suits them.

References Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Chollet, D., Seifert, L., and Carter, M. 2008. Arm coordination in elite backstroke swimmers. Journal of Sports Science. May;26(7):675–82. Gonjo, T., Fernandes, R., Vilas-Boas, J., and Sanders, R. 2021. Body roll amplitude and timing in backstroke swimming and their differences from front crawl at the same swimming intensities. Scientific Reports. Jan 12;11(1):824. Gonjo, T., Kenzo Narita, K., McCabe, C., Fernandes, R., Vilas-Boas, J., Takagi, H., and Sanders, R. 2020. Front crawl is more efficient and has smaller active drag than backstroke swimming: kinematic and kinetic comparison between the two techniques at the same swimming speeds. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. Sep 24;8:570657. Telles, T., Renato Barroso, R., Figueiredo, P., Fortes de Souza Salgueiro, D., João Paulo Vilas-Boas, J., and Andries Junior, O. 2017. Effect of hand paddles and parachute on backstroke coordination and stroke parameters. Journal of Sports Science. May;35(9):906–11.

15 BREASTSTROKE

15.1 Introduction As with all strokes, great breaststroke is the result of the same principles for fast swimming as described in Chapter 9: increased propulsion, reduced resistance, and great timing. To swim fast breaststroke, one must reduce drag as much as possible and create a lot of propulsion, while optimally timing all movements to balance the trade-offs created by these two main objectives. As humans are constrained by their anatomy (strength, range of motions, limb lengths, etc.) and physiology (the ability to create large amounts of energy), certain strategies emerge as more successful than others for facilitating fast breaststroke.

15.2  The Critical Skills The major components of successful breaststroke include: 1. Moving water backward with the hands and legs 2. Maintaining a streamlined body posture 3. Timing the arms and legs to maximize propulsion at times of minimal resistance These three skills all interact to some extent, and any problems with timing will influence the execution of any action (Figure 15.1). There are a lot of other aspects of the stroke that can be considered, and there are entire books devoted to these details. However, in almost all cases, the details can be categorized as a failure in one of these primary strategies. By understanding these errors in the context of the overall outcomes that must be achieved, we can avoid focusing on details that are unlikely to make a large impact on the performance. DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-19

Breaststroke  259

FIGURE 15.1 Breaststroke

and the constraint of limb recovery. Breaststroke creates unique challenges for swimmers due to the under- water arm recovery and the leg kick which differs significantly from the other strokes.

For instance, the position of the thumb during the arm pull varies between swimmers. Some leave it close to the hand, whereas others leave it out. Some coaches have strong opinions as to where it should be placed. Yet, this is a detail that is part of a strategy for moving water backward with the upper limb. By focusing on the overall goal (move water backward) rather than the specific solution (thumb position), coaches and swimmers are more likely to emphasize areas that provide the greatest opportunity for improvement. Other aspects of skilled performance can be important but only in the context of the impact that aspect has on the three priorities listed above. If a movement is not negatively affecting the main priorities, it’s best left alone, as it’s likely not contributing to performance in a significant way. While these concepts may seem basic, they ensure that swimmers and coaches are focused on what really matters. Rather than restricting options, focusing on these basic concepts allows for great flexibility in terms of how fast swimming is achieved. Despite the basic nature strategies, there is a large degree of variation within individual application of these principles, due to the constraints that differ from person to person. When coaching with constraints, the goal is to provide swimmers with opportunities to explore these strategies and find variations that best align with their abilities, rather than prescribing specific solutions.

260  Constraints in Action: Practical Examples for Coaching

My understanding of effective swimming has been derived from many sources. Primarily, I have read, watched, and listened to as much as I could find from different coaches to understand how they conceptualized fast swimming. To evaluate what they were describing, I watched countless frame-by-frame videos of swimmers winning major championships, looking for the commonalities of fast swimming, as well as the subtle differences elite athletes were displaying. While I have included scientific references as appropriate, these serve as quantitative evidence of my ideas for those individuals that wish to explore in greater detail, not as proof. I have read the whole of the swimming literature looking for confirmation of what coaches are experiencing daily, as well as for alternative perspectives that these same coaches may be missing, not for answers. All of these sources of information have been interpreted and synthesized through the lens of the underlying principles described in Chapter 9, which are founded in basic physics, striving to keep my ideas as simple as possible, yet no simpler.

15.3 Facilitating Skill Adaptation through Manipulating Constraints Each of these key strategies will be explored in further detail. For each section, practical examples will be provided for how to use constraints to help swimmers learn these skills. By designing tasks that manipulate constraints to prevent the use of less effective movement solutions and make it easier to perceive key affordances for action, coaches can help swimmers move closer to more effective ways of moving through the water. By understanding the underlying principles of what creates fast swimming, as well as of the specific strategies that satisfy these principles for breaststroke, coaches can go about designing tasks that help swimmers explore these principles in environments that represent competition. Well-designed tasks constrain swimmers from using their preferred movement strategies while necessitating that they explore more effective strategies, allowing coaches to move swimmers toward more functional solutions, while minimizing the need for overt instruction. Traditionally, instructions have ­ hapter 4. served as the primary task constraint used by coaches, as described in C As ­language often describes information about the learning environment and not of the learning environment, it lacks precision. However, when verbal constraints are used during a task that is already appropriately constrained, the impact of words can be much more precise and effective. Because these tasks place swimmers in learning environments where they can attune to the key opportunities for action, communication that does take place becomes even more effective. As described in Section 15.2, individuals can differ on many levels, leading to the variety of successful movement solutions we see every time we watch the best swimmers in the world. By creating tasks that allow swimmers to explore

Breaststroke  261

performance principles rather than mimic specific motions, this individuality is allowed to emerge. As described in Chapter 1, swimmers will differ in their height, arm span, center of mass, physiology, muscle fiber composition, body fat distribution, and more that all impact how they move through the water. Coaches can further enhance skill adaptation through proper task instruction, as words can act as a further constraint on action. Later in Sections 15.3.1, 15.3.2, 15.3.3, and 15.3.4, I provide some exemplar sets. They are not supposed to be copied and pasted but may provide an example of how to use constraints to help swimmers adapt their skills to the key affordances in representative environments. These sets are specifically designed to help swimmers adapt their skills while creating physiological adaptation. By using various constraints, movement solutions that satisfy the principles for fast swimming are rewarded. Through the establishment of clear outcomes, sets can be created that allow swimmers to focus on accomplishing objectives, rather than copying movement patterns. Individual constraints can then be manipulated through the introduction of fatigue, potentiation, and training aids. For each of the sample sets that follow, I’ll explain what it is intended to accomplish as well as how each component of the set serves that intention. Further, I will describe the key tasks that swimmers should be attempting to successfully navigate. Use this information to understand the thought process behind each set, so that the specific application of these ideas can be adapted to the unique environment that each coach encounters.

15.3.1  Move Water Backward with the Arms and Legs As with the other strokes, an effective upper body pull consists of using as much surface area of the arm as possible to move water backward over a large range of motion (Adams 2001). Creating a large impulse with the upper body action is directly related to sprint speed (Strzała et al. 2016), and this outcome is accomplished by creating a backward orientation of the forearm and hand and utilizing the strongest muscle of the upper body during a backward-­oriented pull. In contrast to the other strokes, breaststrokers do not bring the hands past the breast during the pull, instead recovering the arms forward once the hands reach the chest. However, the breaststroke pull does require complete adduction of the shoulder, making full use of the strongest portion of the pulling action. The separation of the hands during the initial aspect of the stroke is a repositioning of the arm into an effective pulling position and does not serve a propulsive purpose. The purpose is to patiently reposition the arm so that as much surface area as possible is facing backward prior to pulling. This action is then followed by a directly backward pull as the elbow are pulled strongly into the torso. At this point, the hands do not move toward the midline but simply follow the path of the elbow. If the hands move inward ahead of the elbow, it is an indication that the swimmer is not focused on moving water backward for as long as possible (see Figure 15.2).

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Effective breaststroke kicking is similar to the arm action in that the swimmer’s goal is to orient as much surface area as possible backward, move that surface area backward with as much force as possible (Tsunokawa et al. 2015), and maintain that backward orientation for as long as possible. Creating these positions is influenced by structural capabilities as effective kicking has been related to the ability to externally rotate the knee ( Jagomaji and Jürimäe 2005; Strzala et al. 2012) and supinate the ankle ( Jagomaji and Jürimäe 2005). Due to differences in anatomy, mobility, and strength, different solutions for effective kicking

FIGURE 15.2 Improving

face area.

the arm pull—stroke count, resistance, and propulsive sur-

Breaststroke  263

will be demonstrated by different individuals. However, although these individual differences exist, effective kicking actions will always satisfy the constraints of sound mechanical principles. While varying knee widths can be appropriate, the foot should always be outside of the knee to ensure a large surface area is oriented backward, creating the opportunity for swimmers to use the shin as a propulsive surface, in addition to the foot. Further, a wide foot position also creates the opportunity for swimmers to turn the feet out as much as possible, creating a greater surface area with the foot. Once the kicking action commences, the knees should not move outward because this will reduce the backward orientation of the leg, as well as the mechanical leverage of the strongest muscles of the lower body. While kicking, the intent should be to kick directly backward, as opposed to a circular or downward motion to prevent the foot from slipping backward, thus allowing swimmers to move as much water backward as possible and create forward propulsion (Strzala et al. 2012). With both the arms and the legs, the main objective is to move water ­backward, and swimmers should be focused on identifying solutions that maximize this outcome, rather than modeling prescribed movement patterns (see ­Figures ­15.2–15.5). To help swimmers appreciate the opportunities that are

FIGURE 15.3 

Improving the arm pull—stroke count and descending efforts.

264  Constraints in Action: Practical Examples for Coaching

FIGURE 15.4 

Improving the leg kick—vertical kicking and speed.

afforded to move water backward, several strategies are used. A variety of different tasks are used that emphasize performance of the upper body or lower body propulsive actions, respectively. This includes using the arms or legs only, adding extra kicks per stroke cycle, or kicking in novel positions. With all of these tasks, velocity and stroke count constraints are added, both in isolation and in combination. This serves to ensure that swimmers are orienting their movement solutions toward those that achieve higher velocities or move more water per pull or kick. Using resistance magnifies the feedback swimmers receive and also reinforces the need to increase propulsion, as described in Chapter 7. By varying the propulsive surface area used during these activities, also described in Chapter 7, variability is added to the training tasks while athletes continue to focus on the same movement problems.

Breaststroke  265

FIGURE 15.5 

Improving the leg kick—kick count and descending efforts.

15.3.2  Maintaining a Streamlined Body Posture As the creation of drag will result in the slowing of horizontal velocity, swimmers must work to maintain a streamlined posture, which is characterized by returning to an aligned horizontal position between each stroke cycle. Adopting a low-resistance posture is critical for optimizing non-propulsive aspects of the stroke cycle (Takagi et al. 2004). A key difference between the timing demonstrated in 100 m and 200 m races is the duration for which this streamlined position is held between stroke cycles, with a prolonged streamline position seen in the longer distance (Nicol et al. 2022). How long and how effectively this position can be sustained also appears to be related to floating characteristics intrinsic to the individual (LeBlanc et al. 2010). However, it is

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important to appreciate that this position is achieved in both circumstances, if only momentarily over the shorter distance. Swimmers should aim to deviate from this position as little as necessary during the stroke cycle itself, as body undulation should be optimized by eliminating excessive lifting during the breath, and unnecessary diving of the head and chest upon returning the head should be eliminated. While the breathing action necessarily disturbs horizontal alignment, how the swimmer recovers from the breath can help to mitigate the negative effects on body position, as well as maintain velocity (see Figures 15.6 and 15.7). When recovering the head, arms, and torso, it is critical that this motion be forceful and directed forward, incorporating the entire torso so that the entire upper body is moving forward aggressively. All motion should be directed forward toward the other end of the pool, not down, with no disturbance of horizontal alignment by diving under the water. These actions may potentially assist in the creation of propulsion (Colman et al. 1998; Strzała et al. 2016). By aggressively recovering the arms and head forward, it helps to ensure little time is spent with the body out of alignment and it ensures that the hips and torso quickly move back into the streamlined position described above. This is particularly important in the sprint events where high-stroke frequencies constrain the amount of time swimmers are permitted to return to an aligned position before the next stroke must

FIGURE 15.6 Breathing action and alignment in breaststroke. One of the major chal-

lenges in swimming effective breaststroke is navigating the breathing action, which can significantly disrupt horizontal alignment.

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FIGURE 15.7 Improving

horizontal alignment of the body—weight belt and altered kicking style.

begin. Swimmers of lesser qualification often struggle to return to a streamlined position, especially at high speeds. Rather than conforming to a specific series of movements, swimmers should reduce the amount of drag they create by returning to aligned positions and minimizing the amount of time they spend straying from these positions (see Figure 15.8). However, providing opportunities for swimmers to understand how to improve their alignment is challenging. As compared to increasing

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FIGURE 15.8 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—fins and drag minimization.

propulsive actions, enhancing alignment is more about what must be taken away rather than what must be added. To help swimmers navigate this challenge, task constraints can be employed. By using various breathing patterns and kicking patterns, swimmers are exposed to activities that create much more drag than normal and much less drag than normal, thus providing swimmers with a full spectrum of movement options from which they can select the solutions that are most effective for them. With the implementation of a weight belt, the impact of these different movement patterns on body alignment is magnified as the extra mass will move swimmers further out of alignment. This helps swimmers become more aware of how their actions impact their alignment. By requiring that swimmers achieve high velocities, coaches will ensure that swimmers select movement solutions that are conducive to high velocities (see Figure 15.9).

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FIGURE 15.9 Improving

horizontal alignment of the body—weight belt and altered breathing patterns.

15.3.3 Timing the Arms and Legs to Maximize Propulsion at Times of Minimal Resistance As the arms and legs are recovered under water over a large range of motion, breaststrokers are subject to higher levels of drag as compared to recovering the arms over the water or during the tightly confined flutter kick. To prevent increased exposure to drag and loss of propulsive force, the arm and leg recoveries are performed very quickly. Because the upper and lower limbs

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are creating both propulsion and drag, how swimmers choose to time the actions of the arms and legs can greatly affect much velocity they can create. Successful breaststrokers tend to perform the arm and leg actions in a relatively independent manner, which allows the propulsive action of the arms to be performed while the legs are streamlined and vice versa. As a result, high levels of propulsion are created during periods of low resistance, leading to the achievement of high velocities. In contrast, lower-level swimmers often overlap propulsive phases with recovery of the other limb, impairing velocity (Seifert et al. 2010). Specifically, elite breaststrokers demonstrate excellent horizontal lower body alignment while executing the highly propulsive arm action. Initiation of the recovery of the legs is delayed until the arm pull has been completed to allow for the highest possible velocity to be achieved. The same concepts are applied when the lower body is applying force, and the best breaststrokers achieve a streamlined position with the arms immediately prior to initiating the propulsive portion of the kick, and the streamlined position is maintained until the kick is completed. While the legs are recovered prior to achieving a full streamline, the propulsive aspect of the kick is not begun until the swimmer has reached an aligned position. As mentioned above, the arm and leg recoveries are performed very quickly, which serves to compensate for the delayed initiation of the recoveries and beginning of the next kicking or pulling action. At the highest velocities, the propulsive phases of the arms and the legs do begin to overlap (Nicol et al. 2022), as the initiation of the arm pull takes place prior to the completion of the leg kick. However, this position still creates minimal drag as compared to initiating the kick when the arms are still recovering. In sum, great timing in breaststroke can be accomplished by: • •

Learning to separate propulsive arm action from recovery of the legs and propulsive leg action from the recovery of the arms. Utilizing an aggressive and forward recovery of the arms and torso to facilitate body undulation.

While the concept of maximizing propulsion during periods of reducing drag is simple, applying it is difficult. As with any sports skills, it can be incredibly challenging for athletes as to how to effectively time the various actions that make up the entire skill, and breaststroke swimming is no different. With timing in particular, knowledge about effective timing is not particularly relevant whereas knowledge of effective timing is incredibly valuable. Rather than possessing an intellectual understanding of what should happen, great timing must be experienced and felt. The set found in Figure 15.10 uses various constraints to help swimmers experience effective breaststroke timing and allow them to discover the precise timing that best aligns with their individual constraints. By adding the task constraint of extra pulls and extra kicks to the normal breaststroke action, swimmers experience a separation of the kick and pull, learning

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FIGURE 15.10 

Improving the timing of breaststroke.

to feel what it’s like to create propulsion while the body is aligned. Swimmers then explore this novel task across a range of velocities, learning how the timing changes as speed is increased. With these concepts and experiences in mind, swimmers are expected to achieve both low stroke counts and high velocities while swimming breaststroke. By assigning tasks that expose swimmers to the experience of separate arm and leg actions, then requiring them to put the pieces back together in various tasks, coaches can help swimmers attune to opportunities for better timing.

15.3.4 Pullouts A key aspect of breaststroke racing is the execution of the breaststroke pullout. As with breaststroke, effective pullouts are the result of simple skills performed expertly (see Figures 15.11–15.14). Expert pullouts consist of:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

Maintaining a streamline body posture Moving water backward with the arms Well-timed initiation of the dolphin kick and pullout Surfacing gradually

As with breaststroke in general, maintenance of body alignment is critical during the pullout. This is true of the gliding phases but also when executing the dolphin kick. Many swimmers attempt to create a large amount of propulsion with the dolphin kick and in doing so, create large amounts of drag, similar to the issues of undulation explored in Chapter 16. The dolphin kick should be “hidden” as much as possible within the body line, and undulation should be minimized. Throughout the entire pullout action, rigidity of the torso should be present when these actions are performed, which will minimize any loss of horizontal alignment. While recovering the limbs in preparation for returning to the surface, the breaststroker must work to minimize the exposed surface area

FIGURE 15.11 

Improving the pullout—parachute and propulsive surface area.

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of the recovering limbs, recover the limbs as quickly as possible to avoid resistive positions. To further reduce velocity losses due to drag, the pullout itself should set the swimmers on an upward trajectory so that they can smoothly surface as horizontally as possible. Not only will this maintain speed, but it will also allow swimmers to enter their swimming rhythm from the first stroke as they are already aligned horizontally. As with the breaststroke pulling action, the pullout should consist of setting up orienting as much of the arm as possible for as long as possible, while executing a direct pulling action that is as powerful as possible. As with all swimming actions, timing is critical. The arm and leg recoveries and the pullout itself should be timed to occur just as body velocity begins to slow to swimming velocity, which will differ depending on the race distance, with longer race distances affording longer glide times (Olstad et al. 2022). If the swimmer slows beyond that point, they’re moving slower than they would on the surface, negating the benefit of performing a pullout. This will vary from swimmer to swimmer, and each swimmer must learn to be aware of where this point is for

FIGURE 15.12 

Improving the pullout—consecutive pullouts.

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them. The dolphin kick can be placed at the beginning of the pullout or the end, and while there is no demonstrated superiority in using strategy over the other (McCabe et al. 2022), initiating the dolphin kick before the pullout may be preferred (Seifert et al. 2021). As even when the kick is initiated before the pullout case, multiple coordination strategies emerge (Seifert et al. 2021), indicating that the appropriate timing of the dolphin kick will ultimately be determined by which option allows for faster performances for a given individual, which can be determined through guided exploration. As with breaststroke swimming, great pullouts are about maximizing propulsion and minimizing resistance. The specifics of how these principles are implemented will vary on an individual basis. For learning to take place, skills must be practiced with a sufficient number of repetitions in environments that invite

FIGURE 15.13 

Improving the pullout—short cord pullouts.

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swimmers to attune to the relevant opportunities for movement. This is particularly challenging when working to enhance pullout performance as it is difficult to create environments that represent competitive situations, while also providing many learning experiences. To do so, coaches must be creative in implementing constraints that help swimmers attune to the important affordances for action. The key strategies for doing so are the use of resistance and different propulsive surface areas, strategies described in Chapter 7. These strategies strongly move swimmers toward effective propulsive actions by greatly enhancing the feedback swimmers receive as to whether their actions are effective. When combined with various velocity and stroke count task constraints, swimmers are required to perform while moving against resistance and with different hand orientations. This creates a powerful learning environment rich with varied sensory feedback and objective performance metrics around which swimmers can orient their movement solutions. Sets that employ these strategies can be found in Figures 15.11–15.14.

FIGURE 15.14 

Improving the pullout—parachute and stroke count.

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15.4  Communicating Technical Concepts In the constraints-led approach, task design plays a central role in facilitating change. A well-designed task will do most of the “coaching” by placing swimmers in positions where they can learn different ways of moving throughout the water. However, this does not imply that coaching is a passive process where one just sits back and watches it all unfold. In many cases, coaches can use task instructions as further constraints on action by guiding swimmers toward different solutions (see Figures 15.15–15.17). As explored in Chapter 4, different ways of communication have different impacts on the outcomes coaches are aiming to achieve. By manipulating task instructions, coaches can enhance the ability for swimmers to positively adapt to the tasks they have set forth. By using analogy, emphasizing opportunities for improvement, focusing attention externally, and emphasizing the essence of skilled performance, coaches can further constrain movement beyond what is

FIGURE 15.15 

Breaststroke—analogy versus internal cues.

Breaststroke  277

possible through effective task design alone. The following charts demonstrate the application of these principles, specific to the stroke of breaststroke. When paired with the appropriate task goals, they are very effective in facilitating change. Examples of appropriate language can be found in Figures 15.14–15.17. The following are effective holistic cues for breaststroke: • • • • • • •

Stay separate Delay the kick 1+1 (arms then legs) Keep everything moving forward Stay close to the surface Get back to your line Snap back down to the line

FIGURE 15.16 

Breaststroke—positive versus negative cues.

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FIGURE 15.17 

Breaststroke—external versus internal cues.

15.5 Conclusion More than any other stroke, breaststroke challenges swimmers. Due to the nature of the kick, the challenge of the timing, and the physical demands of the stroke, many struggle. More so than other strokes, breaststroke responds well to simplified tasks and a focus on the fundamental skills. There is a tremendous amount of variance between different breaststrokers. Rather than prescribing a rigid model, use constraints to let swimmers discover the breaststroke that is best for them.

References Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Colman, V., Persyn, P., Daly, D., and Stijnen, V. 1998. A comparison of the intra-cyclic velocity variation in breaststroke swimmers with flat and undulating styles. Journal of Sports Science. 16(7):653–65.

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Jagomaji, G., and Jürimäe, T. 2005. The influence of anthropometrical and flexibility parameters on the results of breaststroke swimming. Anthropologischer Anzeiger. Jun;63(2):213–9. Leblanc, H., Seifert, L., and Chollet, D. 2010. Does floatation influence breaststroke technique? Journal of Applied Biomechanics. May;26(2):150–8. McCabe, C., Mosscrop, E., Hodierne, R., and Tor, E. 2022. The characteristics of the breaststroke pullout in elite swimming. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Aug 23;4:963578. Nicol, E., Pearson, S., Saxby, D., Minahan, C., and Tor, E. 2022. Stroke kinematics, temporal patterns, neuromuscular activity, pacing and kinetics in elite breaststroke swimming: A systematic review. Sports Medicine. 8:75. Olstad, B., Gonjo, T., Conceição, A., Šťastný, J., and Seifert, L. 2022. Arm-leg coordination during the underwater pull-out sequence in the 50, 100 and 200 m breaststroke start. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. Jan;25(1):95–100. Seifert, L., Conceição, A., Gonjo, T., Stastny, J., and Olstad, B. 2021. Arm–leg coordination profiling during the dolphin kick and the arm pull-out in elite breaststrokers. Journal of Sports Science. Dec;39(23):2665–73. Seifert, L., Leblanc, H., Chollet, D., and Delignières., D. 2010. Inter-limb coordination in swimming: effect of speed and skill level. Human Movement Science. Feb;29(1):103–13. Strzala, M., Krężałek, P., Kaca, M., Głąb, G., Ostrowski, A., Stanula, A., and Tyka, A. 2012. Swimming speed of the breaststroke kick. Journal of Human Kinetics. Dec;35:133–9. Strzala, M., Stanula, A., Ostrowski, A., Marcin Kaca, M., Krężałek, P., and Głodzik, J. 2016. Propulsive limb coordination and body acceleration in sprint breaststroke swimming. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. Dec;57(12):1564–71. Takagi, T., Sugimoto, S., Nishijima, N., and Wilson, W. 2004. Differences in stroke phases, arm-leg coordination and velocity fluctuation due to event, gender and performance level in breaststroke. Sports Biomechanics. Jan;3(1):15–27. Tsunokawa, T., Nakashima, M., and Takagi, H. 2015. Use of pressure distribution analysis to estimate fluid forces around a foot during breaststroke kicking. Sports Engineering. 18:149–56.

16 BUTTERFLY

16.1 Introduction As with all strokes, great butterfly is the result of the same principles for fast swimming as described in Chapter 9: increased propulsion, reduced resistance, and great timing. To swim fast butterfly, one must reduce drag as much as possible and create a lot of propulsion, while optimally timing all movements to balance the trade-offs created by these two main objectives. As humans are constrained by their anatomy (strength, range of motions, limb lengths, etc.) and physiology (the ability to create large amounts of energy), certain strategies emerge as more successful than others for facilitating fast butterfly.

16.2  The Critical Skills The major components of successful butterfly include: 1. Moving water backward with the arms 2. Maintaining horizontal alignment of the body 3. Timing the leg and arm actions within the stroke cycle These three skills all interact to some extent, and any problems with timing will influence the execution of any action (Figure 16.1). There are a lot of other aspects of the stroke that can be considered, and there are entire books devoted to these details. However, in almost all cases, the details can be categorized as a failure in one of these primary strategies. By understanding these errors in the context of the overall outcomes that must be achieved, we can avoid focusing on details that are unlikely to make a large impact on performance. For instance, the position of the thumb during the arm pull varies between swimmers. Some leave it close to the hand, whereas others leave it out. Some DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-20

Butterfly  281

FIGURE 16.1 Butterfly and the constraint of simultaneous limb actions. Butterfly cre-

ates unique challenges for swimmers due to the double arm overwater recovery, as well as the double leg kick.

coaches have strong opinions as to where it should be placed. Yet, this is a detail that is part of a strategy for moving water backward with the upper limb. By focusing on the overall goal (move water backward) rather than the specific solution (thumb position), coaches and swimmers are more likely to emphasize areas that provide the greatest opportunity for improvement. Other aspects of skilled performance can be important, but only in the context of the impact that aspect has on the three priorities listed above. If a movement is not negatively affecting the main priorities, it’s best left alone, as it’s likely not contributing to performance in a significant way. While these concepts may seem basic, they ensure that swimmers and coaches are focused on what really matters. Rather than restricting options, focusing on these basic concepts allows for great flexibility in terms of how fast swimming is achieved. Despite the basic nature strategies, there is a large degree of variation within individual application of these principles, due to the constraints that differ from person to person. When coaching with constraints, the goal is to provide swimmers with opportunities to explore these strategies and find variations that best align with their abilities, rather than prescribing specific solutions. My understanding of effective swimming has been derived from many sources. Primarily, I have read, watched, and listened to as much as I could find from different coaches to understand how they conceptualized fast swimming. To evaluate what they were describing, I watched countless frame-by-frame videos of swimmers winning major championships, looking for the commonalities of fast swimming, as well as the subtle differences elite athletes were displaying. While I

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have included scientific references as appropriate, these serve as quantitative evidence of my ideas for those individuals that wish to explore in greater detail, not as proof. I have read the whole of the swimming literature looking for confirmation of what coaches are experiencing daily, as well as for alternative perspectives that these same coaches may be missing, not for answers. All of these sources of information have been interpreted and synthesized through the lens of the underlying principles described in Chapter 9, which are founded in basic physics, striving to keep my ideas as simple as possible, yet no simpler (Figure 16.1).

16.3 Facilitating Skill Adaptation through Manipulating Constraints Each of these key strategies will be explored in further detail. For each section, practical examples will be provided for how to use constraints to help swimmers learn these skills. By designing tasks that manipulate constraints to prevent the use of less effective movement solutions and make it easier to perceive key affordances for action, coaches can help swimmers move closer to more effective ways of moving through the water. By understanding the underlying principles of what creates fast swimming, as well as of the specific strategies that satisfy these principles for butterfly, coaches can go about designing tasks that help swimmers explore these principles in environments that represent competition. Well-designed tasks constrain swimmers from using their preferred movement strategies while necessitating that they explore more effective strategies, allowing coaches to move swimmers toward more functional solutions, while minimizing the need for overt instruction. Traditionally, instructions have served as the primary task constraint used by coaches, as described in Chapter 4. As language often describes information about the learning environment and not of the learning environment, it lacks precision. However, when verbal constraints are used during a task that is already appropriately constrained, the impact of words can be much more precise and effective. Because these tasks place swimmers in learning environments where they can attune to the key opportunities for action, communication that does take place becomes even more effective. As described in Section 16.2, individuals can differ on many levels, leading to the variety of successful movement solutions we see every time we watch the best swimmers in the world. By creating tasks that allow swimmers to explore performance principles rather than mimic specific motions, this individuality is allowed to emerge. As described in Chapter 1, swimmers will differ in their height, arm span, center of mass, physiology, muscle fiber composition, body fat distribution, and more that all impact how they move through the water. Coaches can further enhance skill adaptation through proper task instruction, as words can act as a further constraint on action. Later in Sections 16.3.1, 16.3.2, and 16.3.3, I provide some exemplar sets. They are not supposed to be copied and pasted but may provide an example of how to use constraints to help swimmers adapt their skills to the key affordances

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in representative environments. These sets are specifically designed to help swimmers adapt their skills while creating physiological adaptation. By using various constraints, movement solutions that satisfy the principles for fast swimming are rewarded. Through the establishment of clear outcomes, sets can be created that allow swimmers to focus on accomplishing objectives, rather than copying movement patterns. Individual constraints can then be manipulated through the introduction of fatigue, potentiation, and training aids. For each of the sample sets that follows, I’ll explain what it is intended to accomplish as well as how each component of the set serves that intention. Further, I will describe the key tasks that swimmers should be attempting to successfully navigate. Use this information to understand the thought process behind each set, so that the specific application of these ideas can be adapted to the unique environment that each coach encounters.

16.3.1  Move Water Backward with the Arms As with the other strokes, butterflyers pull effectively by using as surface area of the arm as possible to move a large amount of water over a long distance (Adams 2001). To accomplish this task, the arms are repositioned as the elbow bends and the shoulder rotates so that the hand and forearm are oriented backward. By positioning the arm in this way, the entire hand and forearm can be used to move water backward with a pull that is straight back. While differences in this basic positioning can exist between different butterfly swimmers due to the constraints they bring to the task, the basic principles remain the same. Because some swimmers have shorter or longer limbs, more or less range of motion through the shoulders, and more or less strength in the upper body, they will exhibit different pulling actions while still moving large amounts of water backward. For those butterflyers specializing in the 50 m and 100 m events, the repositioning of the arms is initiated almost immediately upon entry, and there is minimal lateral movement on the arms in the front of the stroke, and a directly backward pull follows soon after. This pattern of movement emerges because the high velocities needed to race over these distances constrain the swimmer, forcing them to eliminate any pauses in the stroke (Seifert et al. 2007). This faster, more direct positioning minimizes any hesitation in the front of the stroke and allows for a deeper and more immediate direct application of force, both of which allow for higher speeds to be obtained. At the very extreme, 50 m specialists exhibit a very direct, straight arm pulling action. As this action is quite powerful, it necessarily requires the ability to produce very high levels of force. However, the greater force requirements limit sustainability of this style of butterfly, as indicated by the inability of these swimmers to compete successfully past 50 m. In contrast, to ensure race velocities be sustained over longer distances, butterflyers racing over 200 m typically enter the water wider and then slide the hands outside the shoulders. From this wider position, the swimmer pulls straight back,

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and the hands will move inward toward the waist as the pull progresses. As the wider, shallower pull requires less force than the deeper, narrower option, it is more conducive to individuals racing over 200 m. The specific pulling pattern swimmers use will be dependent on both the task constraints and their individual constraints. The racing distance will influence how swimmers choose to pull, favoring either force application or sustainability. Likewise, how they achieve these patterns will be influenced by the constraints within each swimmer. Differences in the ability to produce force throughout different ranges of motion will result in different patterns. Rather than prescribing a set pulling pattern to all swimmers, swimmers are better served by learning how to find solutions for the task at hand that are best aligned with their own constraints. In Figures 16.2 and 16.3, sets are described that help to facilitate this exploration. Different task constraints are manipulated to achieve this outcome. In both cases, there is a strong focus on performance while swimming against resistance. Swimmers are tasked with moving large amounts of water quickly as measured by time goals, stroke counts, and the distances they cover over a set number of

FIGURE 16.2 

Improving the arm pull—stroke count and speed.

Butterfly  285

FIGURE 16.3 

Improving the arm pull—resistance and speed.

strokes. The use of resistance magnifies the feedback they receive and requires effective force application if the goals of the set are to be accomplished. Different types of resistance are used to increase the variability experienced within a given task.

16.3.2  Maintain Horizontal Alignment of the Body Effective undulation is critical to help swimmers navigate the challenge of bilaterally recovering the arms without rotation of the torso, all while operating within the constraints of human anatomy. In particular, as the shoulders are limited in their range of motion, lifting the chest during the body undulation can allow for an easier arm recovery. Effective undulation can also help swimmers generate the power required to swim fast butterfly. By slightly depressing the chest and keeping the arms at the surface prior to pulling, swimmers can then raise the chest while pulling down and back, providing a mechanical advantage for the muscles responsible for propulsion. In contrast, a flat trajectory of the torso during the pull will impair the application of force.

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FIGURE 16.4 Breathing

and alignment in butterfly. Because both arms are recovered over the surface at the same time, in conjunction with the breathing action, swimmers are challenged in maintaining their alignment to reduce drag as both actions will drive the hips lower in the water.

The downside of undulation is that it moves the body out of streamline, increasing the drag experienced by the swimmer. As a result, more undulation is not necessarily better. Undulation is also tightly coupled with the magnitude of breathing action as the body will follow the head, and a high, slow breathing action will magnify the amount of undulation and increase the drag experienced by the swimmer (Figure 16.4). As what goes up comes down, a high breath can also lead to driving the head deeper when re-entering the water, further magnifying the drag created by bringing the body out of the horizontal alignment. Thus, swimmers are tasked with balancing the benefits of undulation with the drawbacks, and they are constrained in their action as favoring either the creation of propulsion or the reduction in drag will compromise the achievement of the other objective. In general, more swimmers are adopting a tighter, flatter, and snappier interpretation of the body undulation, particularly in the short events, with more undulation remaining in the 200 m event. The swimmer must learn how to maximize the benefits of undulation to create large amounts of propulsion and allow for effective recoveries, while also minimizing the impact of drag due to excessive undulation. Regardless of the degree of undulation, swimmers must return to a horizontal, streamlined position in between stroke cycles to minimize drag, right when the hands enter the water. As the hands enter the water, it is important for the swimmer to get the body back into streamline, achieve full extension of

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the arms, and set up the torso to create leverage on the water with hips higher than the chest as described in the previous section. The forward momentum of the ballistically recovering arms can be used to swing the arms to full extension, and the rotational momentum of the arms will help to depress the chest to set up the pull. Finally, the kick can help to lift the hips as well. If all these actions are timed appropriately, the swimmer can achieve all the required positions with minimal effort and little chance of error, which greatly assists in the achievement of horizontal alignment, minimizing the drag that is experienced. The specific amount of undulation that optimizes speed in the water will differ on an individual basis dependent on many factors such body proportions and the range of motions available through the hips, spine, and shoulders. In Figures 16.5 and 16.6, sets are described that help swimmers learn to optimize the amount of undulation they include in their stroke. In the first case, swimmers experience moving through the water with minimal undulation and drag. Swimmers then progressively add more breathing actions, striving to influence

FIGURE 16.5 Improving

patterns.

horizontal alignment of the body—modified breathing

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FIGURE 16.6 Improving

horizontal alignment of the body—butterfly with flutter

kick.

the impact of the breath on undulation and the create of drag. Training aids are used to heighten the sensory information they experience. In the second case, the amount of undulation is artificially constrained by changing the traditional dolphin kick to a flutter kick. This greatly limits the undulation that swimmers experience. Swimmers are then required to achieve speed in different training tasks, learning how to create propulsion with less undulation. By forcing swimmers to move through the water differently, they begin to perceive new opportunities for action.

16.3.3  Time the Leg and Arm Actions within the Stroke Cycle Swimmers racing successfully over 100 m have traditionally utilized a strong kicking action, kicking twice per stroke cycle. As the sport has progressed, the majority of successful 200 m butterflyers have begun to exhibit a strong, consistent kicking action throughout the entire 200 m distance. This includes a strong kick as the hands enter the water and as the hands exit the water. While there are exceptions, this kicking rhythm is exhibited by most current

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champions. As described above, the undulation of the body is critical for optimal arm actions, including both the arm pull and the recovery. The kicking action creates torque on the water which helps to facilitate undulation by elevating the hips in the water. As a results, it then becomes critical to optimally time the arm and leg actions so that the body is undulating at the right time to aid the actions of the arms. If these movements are out of sync, it will become much more difficult to move water backward and recover the arms, impairing rhythm and efficiency. Great timing in butterfly can be accomplished by: •

•

Appropriately timing the leg and arm actions within the stroke cycle, timing the entry of the arms into the water with one dolphin kick, and timing the finish of the propulsive arm action with the finish of the other dolphin kick. Using the momentum of the recovering arms to help drive the chest down which lifts the hips up at the start of the stroke, in time with the dolphin kick as the hands enter.

The simplest way to focus on the timing of the kick is to couple the one kick with the entry of the arms and the other kick with the exit of the arms. Kicking upon entry helps to maintain forward speed when the arms are not acting on the water, as well as to elevate the hips into a streamlined position. This action reduces drag and facilitates the initiation of the pull as described in a previous section. By kicking as the hands exit the water, the hips and torso will be elevated in the water, allowing for the arms to maintain the momentum created during the pull, and recover over the water ballistically. Otherwise, the arms would have to be lifted out of the water, slowing stroke rate, and accelerating fatigue. As velocity increases, there tends to be greater synchronicity between leg and arm actions, particularly in skilled swimmers (Chollet et al. 2004; Seifert et al. 2007, 2008). Executing great timing is a nuanced skill, one that must be felt. Sets designed to help swimmers experience effective timing are described in Figures 16.7 and 16.8. Single arm butterfly retains the essential rhythm of the stroke, while reducing the need for high levels of force production and the accompanying fatigue, allowing swimmers to focus on timing their kicking and stroking actions without the presence of fatigue. It simplifies the task without decomposing it, as described in Chapter 8. By introducing different tasks with different expected velocities, swimmers can learn how to modulate their speed while retaining the critical timing. Swimming butterfly with the head up is a task constraint that artificially lowers the hips in the water. To compensate, swimmers must kick harder, and they must kick at the appropriate time, or they will be unable to lift the hips sufficiently to recover the arms over the surface. These tasks provide a rich learning environment to optimize the timing of the arms and legs, a key skill in butterfly swimming.

FIGURE 16.7 

Improving the timing of the arms and the legs—speed.

FIGURE 16.8 

Improving the timing of the arms and the legs—endurance.

Butterfly  291

16.4  Communicating Technical Concepts In the constraints-led approach, task design plays a central role in facilitating change. A well-designed task will do most of the “coaching” by placing swimmers in positions where they can learn different ways of moving throughout the water. However, this does not imply that coaching is a passive process where one just sits back and watches it all unfold. In many cases, coaches can use task instructions as further constraints on action by guiding swimmers toward different solutions. As explored in Chapter 4, different ways of communication have different impacts on the outcomes coaches are aiming to achieve. By manipulating task instructions, coaches can enhance the ability for swimmers to positively adapt to the tasks they have set forth. By using analogy, emphasizing opportunities for improvement, focusing attention externally, and emphasizing the essence of skilled performance, coaches can further constrain movement, beyond what is possible through effective task design alone. The following charts demonstrate the application of these principles, specific to the stroke of butterfly. When paired with the appropriate task goals, they are very effective in facilitating change. Examples of appropriate language can be found in Figures 16.9–16.11. The following are effective holistic cues for butterfly:

FIGURE 16.9 

Butterfly—analogy versus internal cues.

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FIGURE 16.10 

• • • • • • • •

Butterfly—positive versus negative cues.

Kick when you enter the water Kick when you exit the water Drive the recovery into the entry Stay level through the stroke Work right at the surface Pop the exit forward Drive the recovery forward Kick forward upon entry

16.5 Conclusion Butterfly is one of the most physically demanding strokes, proving to be particularly difficult for novice swimmers to learn. It requires large amounts of strength and impeccable timing. Due to the difficulty in helping novice swimmers learn butterfly, there is a tendency to decompose butterfly during different drills, rather than simplifying the stroke to allow for learning. By focusing on

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FIGURE 16.11 

Butterfly—external versus internal cues.

what really matters in butterfly and effectively using constraints, rather than superfluous components, coaches can help swimmers learn and excel in even the most difficult of strokes.

References Adams, M. 2001. Common threads of successful swimming technique. Swimming in Australia. 7:65–74. Chollet, D., Seifert, L., Boulesteix, L., and Carter, M. 2004. Arm to leg coordination in elite butterfly swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine. Apr;27(4):322–9. Seifert, L., Boulesteix, L., Chollet, D., and Vilas-Boas, J. 2008. Differences in spatial-temporal parameters and arm-leg coordination in butterfly stroke as a function of race pace, skill and gender. Human Movement Science. Feb;27(1):96–111. Seifert, L., Delignieres, D., Boulesteix, L., and Chollet, D. 2007. Effect of expertise on butterfly stroke coordination. Journal of Sports Science. Jan 15;25(2):131–41.

17 UNDERWATER KICKING

17.1 Introduction As with all strokes, great underwater kicking is the result of the same principles for fast swimming as described in Chapter 9: increased propulsion, reduced resistance, and great timing. To swim fast underwater kicking, one must reduce drag as much as possible and create a lot of propulsion, while optimally timing all movements to balance the trade-offs created by these two main objectives. As humans are constrained by their anatomy (strength, range of motions, limb lengths, etc.) and physiology (the ability to create large amounts of energy), certain strategies emerge as more successful than others for facilitating fast underwater kicking.

17.2  The Critical Skills The major components of successful underwater kicking include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Maintaining a stable platform Creating as much propulsion as possible Maintaining equal propulsion and tempo in both directions Maintaining a posture that reduces drag

These four skills all interact to some extent, and any problems with timing will influence the execution of any action. There are a lot of other aspects of the stroke that can be considered, and there are entire books devoted to these details. However, in almost all cases, the details can be categorized as a failure in one of these primary strategies. By understanding these errors in the context of the

DOI: 10.4324/9781003154945-21

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overall outcomes that must be achieved, we can avoid focusing on details that are unlikely to make a large impact on performance. For instance, the position of the thumb during the arm pull varies between swimmers. Some leave it close to the hand, whereas others leave it out. Some coaches have strong opinions as to where it should be placed. Yet, this is a detail that is part of a strategy for moving water backward with the upper limb. By focusing on the overall goal (move water backward) rather than the specific solution (thumb position), coaches and swimmers are more likely to emphasize areas that provide the greatest opportunity for improvement. As discussed in Chapter 9, swimming speed is determined by the ability to create propulsion by moving water backward, maintain an alignment that reduces the amount of drag created, and effectively coordinate these actions. As such movement skills that allow for more water to be moved backward, better alignment, or better timing are opportunities that should be emphasized. By understanding the ideas described in Chapter 9, coaches can gain an understanding of how to better identify these opportunities. Other aspects of skilled performance can be important, but only in the context of whether they influence the three priorities listed above. If a given movement is not impacting the ability to navigate one of these key task constraints, it’s best left alone, as it’s not likely to limit performance in a significant way, and swimmers are better off spending their time learning to perceive the key affordances for action. While these concepts may seem basic, they ensure that swimmers and coaches are focused on what really matters. Rather than restricting options, focusing on these basic concepts allows for great flexibility in terms of how fast swimming is achieved. Despite the basic nature strategies, there is a large degree of variation within individual application of these principles, due to the constraints that differ from person to person. When coaching with constraints, the goal is to provide swimmers with opportunities to explore these strategies and find variations that best align with their abilities, rather than prescribing specific solutions. My understanding of effective swimming has been derived from many sources. Primarily, I have read, watched, and listened to as much as I could find from different coaches to understand how they conceptualized fast swimming. To evaluate what they were describing, I watched countless frame-by-frame videos of swimmers winning major championships, looking for the commonalities of fast swimming, as well as the subtle differences elite athletes were displaying. While I have included scientific references as appropriate, these serve as quantitative evidence of my ideas for those individuals that wish to explore in greater detail, not as proof. I have read the whole of the swimming literature looking for confirmation of what coaches are experiencing daily, as well as for alternative perspectives that these same coaches may be missing, not for answers. All of these sources of information have been interpreted and synthesized through the lens of the underlying principles described in Chapter 9, which are founded in basic physics, striving to keep my ideas as simple as possible, yet no simpler (Figure 17.1).

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FIGURE 17.1 The

constraint of underwater travel. While extremely fast, underwater kicking differs dramatically from the other swimming motions due to the underwater travel and the absence of arm actions.

17.3 Facilitating Skill Adaptation through Manipulating Constraints Each of these key strategies will be explored in further detail. For each section, practical examples will be provided for how to use constraints to help swimmers learn these skills. By designing tasks that manipulate constraints to prevent the use of less effective movement solutions and make it easier to perceive key affordances for action, coaches can help swimmers move closer to more effective ways of moving through the water. By understanding the underlying principles of what creates fast swimming, as well as of the specific strategies that satisfy these principles for underwater kicking, coaches can go about designing tasks that help swimmers explore these principles in environments that represent competition. Well-designed tasks constrain swimmers from using their preferred movement strategies while necessitating that they explore more effective strategies, allowing coaches to move swimmers toward more functional solutions, while minimizing the need for overt instruction. Traditionally, instructions have served as the primary task constraint used by coaches, as described in Chapter 4. As language often describes information about the learning environment and not of the learning environment, it lacks precision. However, when verbal constraints are used during a task that is already appropriately constrained, the impact of words can be much more precise and effective. Because these tasks place swimmers in

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learning environments where they can attune to the key opportunities for action, communication that does take place becomes even more effective. As described in Section 17.2, individuals can differ on many levels, leading to the variety of successful movement solutions we see every time we watch the best swimmers in the world. By creating tasks that allow swimmers to explore performance principles rather than mimic specific motions, this individuality is allowed to emerge. As described in Chapter 1, swimmers will differ in their height, arm span, center of mass, physiology, muscle fiber composition, body fat distribution, and more that all impact how they move through the water. Coaches can further enhance skill adaptation through proper task instruction, as words can act as a further constraint on action. Later in Sections 17.3.1, 17.3.2, and 17.3.3, I provide some exemplar sets. They are not supposed to be copied and pasted but may provide an example of how to use constraints to help swimmer adapt their skills to the key affordances in representative environments. These sets are specifically designed to help swimmers adapt their skills while creating physiological adaptation. By using various constraints, movement solutions that satisfy the principles for fast swimming are rewarded. Through the establishment of clear outcomes, sets can be created that allow swimmers to focus on accomplishing objectives, rather than copying movement patterns. Individual constraints can then be manipulated through the introduction of fatigue, potentiation, and training aids. For each of the sample sets that follow, I’ll explain what it is intended to accomplish as well as how each component of the set serves that intention. Further, I will describe the key tasks that swimmers should be attempting to successfully navigate. Use this information to understand the thought process behind each set, so that the specific application of these ideas can be adapted to the unique environment that each coach encounters.

17.3.1  Maintain a Stable Platform Swimmers must establish a stable platform at the top of the body from which they can create effective undulation (Gavilan et al. 2006; Nakashima 2009). Once swimmers can reduce movement of the hands, effective undulation of the lower trunk can occur, allowing transfer of force down through the body, which ultimately functions to create propulsion (Ikeda et al. 2021). This allows for swimmers to harness the power of undulation as opposed to relying exclusively on the strength of the legs. Swimmers with excessive action of the arms and head will struggle to find the stability required to create power through the legs. While the platform originates in the upper chest and arms, different swimmers have different degrees of rigidity in their platform. Some are incredibly stable, while others undulate modestly, based upon the structural constraints they bring to the task. Sets that develop and train these actions can be found in Figures 17.2 and 17.3. These sets employ task constraints where swimmers are forced to perform dolphin kicks with a stable platform by holding immovable objects or by holding

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FIGURE 17.2 

Maintaining a stable platform—wall kicking and freestyle.

objects they must keep still. They are then expected to accomplish performance objectives in these positions. As a result, swimmers are constrained from pursuing strategies that allow the upper body to move, and they must accomplish the designated objectives with a stable upper body.

17.3.2  Create as Much Propulsion as Possible Effective propulsion starts from a point of stability which allows for force transfer to the legs. From the legs, that force is transmitted to the water through the shins and feet. Swimmers must focus on maintaining effective propelling surfaces for as long as possible through a large range of motion, as kick amplitude is critical for achieving high velocities (West et al. 2022). In addition, they should strive

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FIGURE 17.3 Maintaining

a stable platform—vertical kicking and underwater kicking.

to create as much pressure on the shins and feet as possible in both directions through high-foot speed and knee angular velocity, which have been shown to be related to underwater traveling speed (Connaboy et al. 2015; Higgs et al. 2017). This process is aided by loose, strong ankles, and restricted ankles will act as a constraint on dolphin kicking performance (Kuhn and Legerlotz 2022; Shimojo et al. 2019; Willems et al. 2014). When observing world class swimmers in competition, many kick through a full range of motion so that the feet end up well in front of the torso. Sets that develop and train these actions can be found in Figures 17.4 and 17.5. These sets manipulate key task constraints and use training aids to alter the perceptual environment that swimmers experience. These tasks, combined with clear objective outcomes, help swimmers learn to alter their movement solutions to meet the task demands that prevent swimmers from utilizing less effective ways of moving through the water.

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FIGURE 17.4 Creating as much propulsion as possible—DragSox and underwater kicking.

17.3.3  Maintain Equal Propulsion and Tempo in Both Directions While the anatomy of the human leg is not conducive to truly symmetrical underwater kicking, elite underwater kickers are more effective at creating propulsion in both directions, and kick symmetry improves as velocity increases (Yamakawa et al. 2022). Improving the execution of the kick behind the body, which is typically weaker, has been shown to improve underwater kicking performance (Ruiz-Navarro et al. 2021). Beyond the potential to create propulsion, the backward kick behind the body also plays a crucial role in facilitating the effectiveness of the forward kick. The backward kick moves a volume of water backward which can then be kicked against when moving the legs forward. Because the feet are moving forward against water that is moving backward, there will be more pressure on the front side of the feet, which will create more propulsion during the subsequent forward kick and the creation of propulsion-generating vortices (Chen et al. 2022; Cohen et al. 2012; Hochstein and Blickhan 2011). An effective backward kick will tend to be straighter during the recovery until the end of the kick where the knee finally bends, which can be observed when watching elite swimmers kicking in slow motion. This action creates

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FIGURE 17.5 

Creating as much propulsion as possible—flipper kick and backstroke.

the potential for a whip-like reversal during the down kick. For most swimmers, this backward kick will feel very stiff. In addition, elite kickers maintain higher foot speed while kicking back behind the body (Atkison et al. 2014). A high-velocity reversal of the kicking action may facilitate the creation of propulsive vortices. To take advantage of these effects, swimmers need to make sure foot speed is high in both directions. As a quick note, foot speed is not synonymous with kick frequency. Foot speed is how fast the feet are moving, whereas kick frequency is how long it takes to complete a full kicking action. For instance, if it takes one second for the feet to move through the entire range of motion of the kick, the kick frequency is one kick per second. If two swimmers have the same kick frequency of one kick per second, but

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the second swimmer moves their feet over twice the range of motion, their foot speed must be twice as fast if they are to cover twice the distance in the same amount of time. Likewise, swimmers can have the same foot speed but a different kick frequency if they are covering a different range of motion with each kick. Swimmers with a high-foot speed and large amplitude of the feet will be able to create high frequency without compromising the propulsive action. By using various constraints, sets can be developed to train these actions, examples of which can be found in Figures 17.6 and 17.7. To enhance the ability to kick in both directions, swimmers are placed in positions where they are better able to perceive equal kicking actions, namely vertically in the water and on the side. These positions allow swimmers to move the feet back and forth in the same plane of water, allowing for more symmetry, which is not possible when kicking on the stomach or the back. By using training aids to enhance the feedback swimmers receive in these positions, they can become more attuned to the ability to kick effectively in both directions. The resistance also forces swimmers to be effective with their kicks or they won’t stay above water when kicking vertically and continue to move forward when kicking horizontally. These skills are then practiced in the context of full stroke swimming.

FIGURE 17.6 

Maintaining a symmetrical kick—vertical kicking and aerobic freestyle.

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FIGURE 17.7 

Maintaining a symmetrical kick—side underwater kicking and butterfly.

17.3.4  Maintain a Posture That Reduces Drag Undulation is critical for creating propulsion (Chen et al. 2022; Higgs et al. 2017), as decreasing undulation in favor of increasing kick frequency can reduce propelling efficiency and alter muscle activation (Yamakawa et al. 2017). At the same time, increases in undulation will distort streamline and increase drag, reductions in drag during underwater kicking have been shown to improve underwater kicking performance (Ruiz-Navarro et al. 2021). Swimmers should strive to use the amount of undulation that allows for the maximization of propulsion while also minimizing drag (Cohen et al. 2012). Independent of undulation, maintaining spinal alignment is also required to minimize drag, as moving through the water with an arched spine will unnecessarily increase drag, even if undulation in minimized. Further, an arched spine will also prevent swimmers from fully kicking through the center line, limiting the ability to maximize propulsion with each kick. Sets that develop and train these actions can be found in Figures 17.8 and 17.9. The sets utilize the principles of a CLA, by implementing tasks that force swimmers to explore a wide variety of undulation patterns,

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FIGURE 17.8 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—range of motion variation.

which allow them to perceive novel opportunities for action. The constraints of the task require swimmers to explore different ranges of motion while attempting to travel at high velocity, allowing them to attune to the ranges of motion that result in the fastest velocities. By using training aids such as fins and weight belts, the feedback that swimmers receive is heightened, enhancing awareness of the opportunities for action.

17.4  Communicating Technical Concepts In the constraints-led approach, task design plays a central role in facilitating change. A well-designed task will do most of the “coaching” by placing swimmers in positions where they can learn different ways of moving throughout the water. However, this does not imply that coaching is a passive process where one just sits back and watches it all unfold. In many cases, coaches can use task

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FIGURE 17.9 Improving horizontal alignment of the body—weight belt and backstroke.

instructions as further constraints on action by guiding swimmers toward different solutions. As explored in Chapter 4, different ways of communication have different impacts on the outcomes coaches are aiming to achieve. By manipulating task instructions, coaches can enhance the ability for swimmers to positively adapt to the tasks they have set forth. By using analogy, emphasizing opportunities for improvement, focusing attention externally, and emphasizing the essence of skilled performance, coaches can further constrain movement beyond what is possible through effective task design alone. The following charts demonstrate the application of these principles, specific to underwater kicking. When paired with the appropriate task goals, they are very effective in facilitating change. Examples of appropriate language can be found in Figures 17.10–17.12. The following are effective holistic cues underwater kicking: • • • •

Flow like wave Kick like cracking a whip Aggressively change kick directions Point a laser beam forward

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FIGURE 17.10 

Underwater kicking—analogy versus internal cues.

FIGURE 17.11 

Underwater kicking—positive versus negative cues.

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FIGURE 17.12 

Underwater kicking—external versus internal cues.

17.5 Conclusion Over the last 35 years, underwater kicking has revolutionized swimming. More and more swimmers are staying underwater for longer periods of time, particularly in short course swimming. Due to its nature, underwater kicking requires a different set of skills as compared to surface swimming. As a result, many swimmers to not have nearly as much expertise or exposure underwater. For swimmers to improve, they must begin to spend significant amounts of time working underwater to create the speed necessary to compete with their peers. By focusing on the skills described here, coaches can shorten the learning curve and provide their swimmers with a significant advantage.

References Atkison, R., Dickey, J., Dragunas, A., and Nolte, V. 2014. Importance of sagittal kick symmetry for underwater dolphin kick performance. Human Movement Science. Feb;33:298–311. Chen, Z., Li, T., Yang, J., and Zuo, C. 2022. The effect of the swimmer’s trunk oscillation on dolphin kick performance using a computational method with multi-body motion: A case study. International Journal Environmental Research and Public Health. Apr 19;19(9):49–69.

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Cohen, R., Cleary, P, and Mason, B. 2012. Simulations of dolphin kick swimming using smoothed particle hydrodynamics. Human Movement Science. Jun;31(3):604–19. Connaboy, C., Naemi, R., Brown, B., Psycharakis, S., McCabe, C., Coleman, S., and Sanders, R. 2015. The key kinematic determinants of undulatory underwater swimming at maximal velocity. Journal of Sports Science. 2016;34(11):1036–43. Gavilán, A., Arellano, R., and Sanders, R. 2006. Underwater undulatory swimming: Study of frequency, amplitude and phase characteristics of the ‘body wave’. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming. 10:35–9. Ikeda, Y., Ichikawa, H., Shimojo, H., Nara, R., Baba, Y., and Shimoyama, Y. 2021. Relationship between dolphin kick movement in humans and velocity during undulatory underwater swimming. Journal of Sports Science. Jul;39(13):1497–1503. Higgs, A., Pease, D., and Sanders, R. 2017. Relationships between kinematics and undulatory underwater swimming performance. Journal of Sports Science. May;35(10): 995–1003. Hochstein, S., and Blickhan, R. 2011. Vortex re-capturing and kinematics in human underwater undulatory swimming. Human Movement Science. Oct;30(5):998–1007. Kuhn, J., and Legerlotz, K. 2022. Ankle joint flexibility affects undulatory underwater swimming speed. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Aug 10;4:948034. Nakashima, M. 2009. Analysis of the effect of trunk undulation on swimming performance in underwater dolphin kick of human. Journal of Biomechanical Science and Engineering. 4(1):94–104. Ruiz-Navarro, J., Cano-Adamuz, M., Andersen, J., Cuenca-Fernández, F., LópezContreras, G., Vanrenterghem, J., and Arellano, R. 2021. Understanding the effects of training on underwater undulatory swimming performance and kinematics. Sports Biomechanics. 4:1–16. Shimojo, H., Nara, R., Baba, Y., Ichikawa, H., Ikeda, Y., and Shimoyama, Y. 2019. Does ankle joint flexibility affect underwater kicking efficiency and three-dimensional kinematics? Journal of Sports Science. Oct;37(20):2339–46. Willems, T. C., De Deurwaerder, L., Roelandt, F., and De Mits, S. 2014. The effect of ankle muscle strength and flexibility on dolphin kick performance in competitive swimmers. Human Movement Science. Aug;36:167–76. West, R., Lorimer, A., Pearson, S., and Keogh, J. 2022. The relationship between undulatory underwater kick performance determinants and underwater velocity in competitive swimmers: A systematic review. Sports Medicine Open. Jul 28;8(1):95. Yamakawa, K., Shimojo, H., Takagi, H., and Sengoku, Y. 2022. Changes in kinematics and muscle activity with increasing velocity during underwater undulatory swimming. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. Apr 15;4:829618. Yamakawa, K., Shimojo, H., Takagi, H., Tsubakimoto, S., and Sengoku, Y. 2017. Effect of increased kick frequency on propelling efficiency and muscular co-activation during underwater dolphin kick. Human Movement Science. Aug;54:276–286.

18 FINAL THOUGHTS

Most coaches will agree that faster swimmers are better swimmers. That is, success in the sport of swimming is determined primarily via skillfully moving through the water, with physical ability contributing a significant yet supportive role in performance. However, when looking at most coaching programs, you will see coaches institute training in a systematic manner, and while the methods may vary, a systematic approach to training is commonplace at all levels of sport. In fact, many would argue that it is coaching negligence if one does not take some sort of organized approach to developing the physical capacities of the swimmers under one’s charge. In contrast, the process of adapting skills serves a secondary or tertiary role. It’s layered into programs as an afterthought, or simply left to chance. I have always questioned the discrepancy between what determines success in the water and the long-term planning of training session content, at all levels of the sport. As a result, I have sought to develop a system for developing skills over time that coincided with the training systems that have been proven to enhance physical abilities. Effective physical training increases the opportunities for action as a fitter, more mobile, more powerful swimmer has access to better ways of swimming, and swimmers must learn to adapt their skills over time to take advantage of these opportunities. These processes must be integrated, not segregated, an idea that can be made reality due to the unique aspects of the constraints-led approach. In this text, it has been my intention to show that a systematic approach to skill development is not only possible, but that it should be encouraged if coaches intend to facilitate lasting change. Through the ­constraints-led approach, designing such a system became possible for me, and this is the information I have shared with you throughout this book. Hopefully, you will find it useful in your own practice, as I have.

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At its core, implementing a constraints-led approach is simple. Coaches must first learn to identify the key constraints that are operating in swimming as discussed in the first seven chapters of this book and learn to see them in action. We might want to ask: • • •

How do different task constraints affect the movements that swimmers express? How are individual constraints influencing a given swimmer’s movement through the water? As the constraints within the environment change, how does skilled performance change?

With an understanding of which constraints are present, coaches must learn to observe what happens when these constraints are altered. • • •

What happens to skilled performance when you change the task constraints? What happens to skilled performance when individual constraints are altered in the short term and the long term? What happens to skilled performance when the environment is different?

Finally, by appreciating how all the constraints are operating, and what happens when each constraint is influenced, you can begin to harness that understanding to create meaningful change. For the greatest impact, coaches can design a repeatable system to leverage this understanding, allows coaches to consistently help swimmers learn skills that win races. This book began with an idea, often discussed in coaching circles: Once a swimmer has become a senior competitor, there’s not much you can do to change their stroke. When coaching with the traditional strategies of mechanical training drills, rigid technical models, and verbal instructions, this may very well be true. However, the constraints-led approach makes it possible to create a system for developing skilled performance in any swimmer. While it may or may not be the final answer, it is a powerful step forward for coaches that want to help swimmers reliably and consistently adapt their skills to the realities of the competitive environment. I trust the ideas described in this book will provide practical solutions to the problems faced every day on the pool deck. More important, I trust that it will inspire to build upon the ideas I have described to create something that moves the sport of swimming forward.

INDEX

affordances: and constraints 246, 253, 260–1, 275, 282, 297; exploration of 166, 176, 206, 234, 251; and novelty 144–5; perception of 96, 137, 194, 295; and sensory awareness 148; and task design 141–2, 206, 227 altitude 11 analogy 47, 49–51, 55–6, 63, 152; examples of 239–40, 255, 276, 291, 305 anatomy: and biomechanical principles 157; as a constraint 6, 49, 142, 225, 243, 258, 280, 294; individual differences 10, 137, 246, 263; manipulating 66, 91, 106, 117; and performance 93–5; and shoulder movement 228, 235; and underwater kicking 300 attentional focus 54, 59, 63, 181 backstroke: and added limb mass 119; and feel for the water 213, 220; and maximizing propulsion 111; and potentiation 90; and underwater kicking 301, 305; see also chapter 14 biomechanics principles 3, 163, 223; acute change in 66; and instruction 151; versus models 155–7, 163, 207, 223; and propulsion 82, 107, 207 body alignment: and added limb mass 122; in backstroke 248–51; in breaststroke 139–41, 266–70, 272; and breathing 141–3; in butterfly 285–8; and center of mass 114; enhancing 106, 160; in freestyle 230–5; and structure 95; in underwater kicking 295, 304, 305

body position: and altered center of mass 114–16, 149; in backstroke 249; in breaststroke 140, 175–6, 266; in freestyle 234; strategies for improving 112, 160; and stroke rate 37; and stroke timing 162; and training aids 97; in underwater travel 40; and velocity 130 body posture: and altered center of mass 114; in backstroke 248, 250–1; in breaststroke 265–9; changing 94; in freestyle 230–1; improving 159–61, and sensory information 109; in underwater kicking 303–4 body surface area 92, 106, 159–60 bones 6, 10, 65–6, 92–4, 104, 142, 159 breaststroke: and altered center of mass 114; and altered limb mass 121–2; arm pull 77–8; breathing 160, 164, 173–8; and dolphin kick 150; kick 6, 89, 130, 139–41; pullouts 39–42, 271–5; training aid considerations 113; see also chapter 15 breathing: and alignment 160; attentional focus 58; in breaststroke 173–8, 266–9; in butterfly 286–8; as a constraint 6, 9, 42, 142–3, 146–7, 194; in freestyle 226, 232–5 buoyancy 93, 114, 116, 233 butterfly: and altered center of mass 114; and altered limb mass 122–3; arm pull 75, 85; and cardio-respiratory fatigue 79–80; with flutter kick 150; training aid considerations 112–13; single arm 139; and underwater kicking 303; see also chapter 16

312 Index

communication: enhancing effectiveness of 227, 245, 260, 282, 297; and feel for the water 206; impact of differing styles 240, 245, 254, 276, 291, 305; and intention 96, 103–4; removal of barriers 82; sensory based 148, 151–4, 167; see also chapter 4 compensation of movement: fatigueinduced 69, 71–3, 91; and individual constraints 94, 235; prior causes 232, 249, 250; and task constraints 112, 117, 133, 289 competition course: as an environmental constraint 7, 112, 193–9; and stroke frequency 37, 39 constraints: interaction between 6–7, 12–13, 17, 65, 72 continuity of propulsion 19, 99, 107, 248, 252 coordination: challenges in changing 3; and holistic cues 53; influencing 91, 107, 160–2; lack of 14; pullouts 274; and stroke count 32; and velocity 19–20, 22–3, 236, 237 cues: backstroke 255–6; breaststroke 276–8; butterfly 291–3; freestyle 239–41; holistic 53–7; underwater kicking 306–7 cyclical movement 53–5, 118, 161–4, 279 destabilization of skill 165–7, 169–70, 175, 190 differential learning 95–7, 105, 154 directing attention 51, 59, 104, 150 drag: and anatomy 7, 94; in backstroke 248, 250–1; in breaststroke 174, 265–73; in butterfly 285–8; and expertise 156; in freestyle 230–2; manipulation of 92, 106–14, 217; minimization of 7, 159–63, 173–6; and potentiation 81; and sensory awareness 150–9; stroke count 31–2; in underwater kicking 303–4; and velocity 130 ecological dynamics 148, 154 economy 2, 24, 37, 231 efficiency: in butterfly 289; and expertise 156; of force application 108, 126–31; improving 44, 70, 214–16; and individual constraints 94; measurements of 161; and momentum 118; and stroke count 31–2 emergence 20, 98 error: exploitation of 146–7, 151 environment constraints 6, 11, 65, 82, 93–4, 147, 161 event specialization 100–2

fatigue: absence of 7; and competitive pressure 168–9; as a constraint 66–71, 142, 161; and feedback 151; manipulating 71, 250; metabolic versus muscular 77–80; and movement options 16; and potentiation 82; and stroke count 31–3, 36; and stroke frequency 37–9; systemic versus local 72–6; and variability 184–5; and velocity 22–4 feedback: and altered propulsive surface area 129, 275; enhanced by training aids 96–7, 107, 156, 212–13, 248, 264; and task design 216–20, 229, 248, 264, 275, 285; verbal 156; see also chapter 4 fins 98, 108, 112, 129, 174, 176–7, 268, 304 force application: in backstroke 246; in butterfly 283–5; and feel for the water 207–8, 212–17; in freestyle 228–9, improving 108; and potentiation 85–90; and propulsive surface area 126–32 freestyle: and altered center of mass 115; and altered limb mass 120–1; and altered propulsive surface area 128–30; and analogy 50; coordination 19; and event specialization 101–2; and individual constraints 10; and language 55; maximizing propulsion in 109; potentiation sets 86–8; systemic fatigue set 76; and task constraints 143; and task decomposition 141; and underwater kicking 298, 302; see also chapter 13 functionality 42, 93–6, 132 hypoxia 41 individual constraints 6–12, 17; and career planning 193; and range of solutions 208–9; and set structure 21–3, 42–5; and technical principles 157–8, 226–8, 244–6, 259–61, 281–3, 295–7; and technique prescription 174; see also chapters 5–7 internal feedback: altering 73; enhancing 82, 149–52; evaluating 58, 60, 172, 182 individual-task alignment: attuning to 39; designing 156; ensuring 17, 24, 26, 168; and functionality 93–4; individual differences 11; over a career 191–3; and training aids 99–100 instruction: alternatives to 30, 42, 96, 104, 148, 205–6; in backstroke 254–6; in breaststroke 290–2; in butterfly 291–3; in freestyle 239–41; sensory based 151–3; as a task constraint 227; traditional role

Index  313

of 7, 13, 136, 143–4, 173; in underwater swimming 304–7; see also chapter 4 intention 138–9, 190; communicating 66, 96–7, 103–4, 171; and task design 141, 146, 168, 213; training aids 100, 103–4, 106 kicking 118; in backstroke 90, 250–1, 301; in breaststroke 6, 89, 139–41, 145, 261–5, 270–2; in butterfly 150, 281, 287; in freestyle 73, 124, 228, 231 kinesthetic information see sensation language see chapter 4 learning environment: and breaststroke 275; and butterfly 289; and constraints 14, 215; designing of 30, 136–42, 206–7; and freestyle 237; individual experience of 65, 93, 116; novel 144–8; relevance to competition 90, 154; and training aids 95–7, 104, 106; variable 190, 192 mass: added limb mass 106, 118–24; altered center of mass 92, 94, 106, 114–18, 149, 160 metabolism: and drag 107; and fatigue 72, 77–9; as an individual constraint 10, 94; and performance 2; and short-course swimming 195; and specificity 138; and stroke frequency 35; and velocity 19–22, 28 metronome 35–9 momentum: and added mass 114, 118, 120, 122; and holistic cues 54–5; and skill 161–2, 237, 252, 287, 289 novelty 60, 97–8, 144–6, 192, 209, 213 overload: force 82, 85, 83, 131; muscular 77, 79, 141; physiological 23, 25, 72, 79, 118, 181, 193; with training aids 93, 97–8, 118; progressive 124 paddles 98; as a constraint 143, 147; and force production 99; and propulsive surface area 108, 126–31; and variability 146, 171, 173–4, 211–12, 217, 220 parachute: cost of 98; and feedback 218, 272, 275; and pull duration 107; and stroke timing 86, 99, 248 perception: and action 81, 140, 148, 154, 209–10; exploration of 58, 151; of movement opportunities 47, 94, 137, 141, 145, 150; and novelty 96, 136, 144, 166, 212

physiology: as a constraint 16–17 (see also chapter 5); and variability 180–1, 184–93; and velocity 19–28 post-activation potentiation see chapter 5 progression 25–8, 124–5, 199, 203, 220 proprioceptive information 81, 109, 126 propulsion: backstroke 246–8; and breaststroke 261–5; and butterfly 283–5; and feel for the water (see chapter 12); and freestyle 228–31; learning to maximize 106–13; principles 158–9; and underwater kicking 298–300 psychology: as a constraint 10, 65; and fatigue 71–2; and feedback 5; and hypoxia 40–1; and performance 142, 193; and stress 168; and task-specific focus 57; and variability 135, 179, 181–2, 204 propulsive surface area: altering 126–32, 149; and backstroke 247; and breaststroke 263–72; and feel for the water 216–20; and freestyle 228–9; and maximizing propulsion 108, 158–9 questioning 57–62, 104, 150–1 range of motion: altering joint 93; in backstroke 246, 252; in breaststroke 6, 140, 173, 261, 269; in butterfly 283–5, 287; in freestyle 228, 235; as an individual constraint 10, 65, 81, 159, 209, 225, 243, 258, 280, 294; and specificity 138, 140; in underwater kicking 298–9, 301–4 recovery interval: as a constraint 22–3 representative learning: and competitive performance 168; and constraints 206, 283; and task design 71, 137–44, 147–8; and velocity 177–8 repetition distance: as a constraint 21–2 resistance equipment: and feel for the water 212–13, 216, 218–19; see also training aids rhythm: and added limb mass 118, 121–2; in backstroke 252, 255; in breaststroke 176, 273; in butterfly 288–9; and event specialization 101–2; and holistic cues 53–4, 56; and sensory awareness 150; and skilled swimming 160–2; and stroke count 34; and task representativeness 138–41; and velocity 113 robustness 20, 70–1, 76, 96–7, 166, 168, 183 rotation: and added limb mass 118, 122; in backstroke 246, 252–5; and cuing 55–6; and feel for the water 207; in freestyle 228, 232, 235–8; and skilled swimming 161

314 Index

self-organization 6, 69 sensation: attuning to 20, 126, 136; and feel for the water 209–13, 220–1; and holistic cues 53, 56; improving 59, 146–52; magnification of 109, 288; and novelty 94–7, 142, 145; and potentiation 81–2; and task representativeness 138, 253 stability of skills 3, 22, 142; and fatigue 69–70; influencing 166–8, 178, 182, 192; and training aids 121; in underwater kicking 297–8 streamline see alignment strength: in breaststroke 262; in butterfly 283; developing 93, 99, 102, 118, 124; in freestyle 159, 228; as an individual constraint 10, 17, 47, 49, 50, 65, 157, 209; of skills 97–8, 114–15 stress: competitive 183–4, 190; and learning skills 70; muscular 72, 185; physiological 16–18, 21–3, 170–2, 178, 180–1, 185, 186–7, 194; psychological 181–3; and stabilizing skills 74, 97, 151, 166, 168, 172, 251 stroke count: in backstroke 247–8; in breaststroke 262–4, 271, 275; in butterfly 284; and fatigue 76; and feel for the water 214–16, 219–20; in freestyle 228–30, 236, 237; manipulating 31–5, 45; and maximizing propulsion 108, 131–2, 146, 158; and minimizing drag 160; as a task constraint 9; and variability 145, 183–4 stroke frequency: in breaststroke 173, 266; and competition course 11, 193–7, 199; and competition distance 15; as a constraint 6, 7, 9, 30; cuing example 57–8; and fatigue 76; in freestyle 235; manipulating 35–9, 45; and physiology 16; relationship to stroke count and length 31–3, 107; and rhythm 162; and training aids 99; and variability 183–4; and velocity 19–21, 28 stroke length: in breaststroke 173; and competition course 11, 193–7; and fatigue 71; and individual constraints 6–7; manipulating 28, 30–6, 38–9, 43; and physiology 16; and training aids 99; and velocity 19–21

stroke rate see stroke frequency stroke timing: and added limb mass 118, 124; in backstroke 243, 252–4, 257; in breaststroke 265, 269–73, 278, 280; in butterfly 113, 289–90, 292, 294–5; and event specialization 101; and feel for the water 208; in freestyle 86, 225, 232, 236–7; and holistic cues 54–5; principles of 160–2; and sensory awareness 150; and set design 9; and task representativeness 138–40; and velocity 19–20, 28 stroke organization 4, 16, 20, 53, 71, 99 structure of the body see anatomy surfacing restrictions 9, 16, 39–41 task: constraints (see section 1); decomposition 7, 96, 139–41, 223, 253; parameters 9, 15–16, 26, 39, 97, 148; simplification 4, 140–1, 241, 257, 289 technical models 2–3, 155–7, 310 torque 56, 114, 118–25, 232, 249–50, 252, 289 trade-offs 16, 156, 161, 163, 225, 243, 258, 280, 294 training aids: in backstroke 251; in butterfly 288; and destabilization of skills 166; in freestyle 237; and variability 175, 185; in underwater swimming 299, 302, 304; see also chapters 6, 7 transfer of training 2–4, 39, 177; and landbased exercises 84; negative 99–100; and representative task design 137–41, 148, 184; and training aids 96 underwater kicking 39–41, 90, 114, 116, 123, 195; see also chapter 17 undulation: added limb mass 124–5; altered center of mass 114; in breaststroke 266, 270, 272; in butterfly 285–9, 297; in underwater kicking 297, 303 variability: inter-individual vs. intraindividual 68; systematic vs. nonsystematic 145–7, 165–78; see also chapter 11 weight belt 97, 99, 114, 173–5, 267–9, 305