Zooarchaeology of South America 9781841716480, 9781407327211

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BAR S1298 2004 MENGONI GOÑALONS (Ed)

Zooarchaeology of South America Edited by

Guillermo Luis Mengoni Goñalons ZOOARCHAEOLOGY OF SOUTH AMERICA

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BAR International Series 1298 2004

19/07/2011 15:03:32

Zooarchaeology of South America Edited by

Guillermo Luis Mengoni Goñalons

BAR International Series 1298 2004

ISBN 9781841716480 paperback ISBN 9781407327211 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841716480 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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Contents page no. Guillermo L. Mengoni Goñalons (Editor) 1. Introduction: An overview of South American zooarchaeology. ..............................................................................1 Mariana E. De Nigris 2. Guanaco and huemul in Patagonian hunter-gatherers diet. ...................................................................................11 Daniel M. Loponte and Alejandro A. Acosta 3. Late Holocene hunter-gatherers from the Pampean Wetlands, Argentina. ..........................................................39 Celina M. Madero 4. Arqueofaunas en sociedades complejas: la ganadería prehispánica de camélidos en los Andes (Noroeste Argentino).......................................................................................................................................................59 Gustavo Martínez and María A. Gutiérrez 5. Tendencias en la explotación humana de la fauna durante el Pleistoceno final y Holoceno en la Región Pampeana (Argentina)....................................................................................................................................................81 Francisco Mena, Héctor Velásquez, Valentina Trejo and Juan C. Torres-Mura 6. Aproximaciones zooarqueológicas al pasado de Aisén continental (Patagonia Central Chilena)........................99 A. Sebastián Muñoz 7. Mammal exploitation in the insular environments of southern South America..................................................123 Denise Pozzi-Escot 8. Los camélidos en el antiguo Perú, un balance desde la arqueozoología ...............................................................139 Albérico Nogueira de Queiroz 9. Étude des vertébrés du site archéologique Rs-Tq-58, Montenegro, RS, Brésil: aspects archéozoologiques et taphonomiques ..............................................................................................................................................................153 Elizabeth J. Reitz and María Masucci 10. Vertebrate fauna from El Azúcar 30, Ecuador ....................................................................................................177 Amelia M. Sánchez Mosquera 11. El desarrollo de la zooarqueología en Ecuador: situación actual y perspectivas ..............................................191 Peter W. Stahl 12. Neotropical zooarchaeology in Ecuador................................................................................................................203

1. Introduction: An overview of South American zooarchaeology Guillermo Luis Mengoni Goñalons * * Sección Arqueología, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 25 de mayo 217 piso 3, (1002) Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: [email protected] million years of “splendid isolation” (Simpson, 1980) followed by the “Great American Interchange” of the Cenozoic (e.g., Pascual et al., 1996), which radically contributed to its present composition. During the Cenozoic, several episodes of extinctions also occurred (e.g., Politis et al., 1995) causing the disappearance of several taxa. According to Martin and Steadman (1999), 3 orders (Litopterna, Notoungulata, Proboscidea) and 51 genera vanished. The expansion of modern humans into South America put them in contact with some faunal elements with which they had never interacted before. The scenario envisaged is quite remarkable. From the long list of Late Pleistocene fauna only some species were actually contemporary with humans. Of them a much smaller number have appeared in stratigraphic association with archaeological remains, with only few in clear interactive context: horse, mastodon, an extinct camelid and an extinct canid (see Miotti, 2003, for a recent summary; see also Fiedel and Haynes, 2003).

This volume proposes a journey through a vast continent. A journey that starts at the Equator and reaches its southern tip. One in which humans and other animals have participated together in a variety of processes and particular histories. South America (SA) offered the arena for outstanding biological and cultural phenomena of continental and global significance. These included the human peopling of a large and diverse continent, the extinction of the Late Pleistocene fauna, the early human occupation of the highlands, lowlands and seashores, the subsequent development of social complexity and economic intensification, the appearance of domesticated plants and animals, the emergence of early urban complexes, the expansion of state societies, and the impact produced by the European conquest and settlement, among other relevant subjects. These events not only summarize what occurred over several millennia in this part of New World but also provide a guide for understanding the environmental transformations that took place throughout the process.

The Quaternary glaciations had a great effect on the distribution of the faunas, specially due to the decreasing land area as we move to the south (Eisenberg and Redford, 1992). The climatic changes that occurred towards the end of the Pleistocene during the LGM (Clapperton, 1993) and the subsequent retreat of the glaciers were partly coincidental with the first human peopling of the whole continent. Humans rapidly occupied the tropics and lowlands, as well as the highlands and the southern tip of SA. This early human dispersion (ca. 13-10,000 B.P.) established a platform for the divergent trajectories that were manifested in the native American cultural diversity the Europeans encountered 500 years ago.

South America is characterized by a diverse and contrasted biogeography (e.g., Cabrera and Willink, 1989; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992), that can be appreciated at different spatial and temporal scales. In South America, there are more than 800 species of land mammals, of which nearly 50% are rodents and 20% are bats (Lacher 1982; see also Eisenberg, 1999). Birds total 3,300 species (Monroe and Sibley, 1993) in addition to a variety of reptiles, amphibians and fishes. The Andes constitute a major physical feature that, in combination with the prevailing winds and oceanic currents, produces a rain shadow effect, therefore strongly conditioning the distribution of species and biomass. Important rivers run across the continent and drain into the Caribbean sea and Atlantic ocean. The main water courses are the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay rivers which form the Río de la Plata basin. The Orinoco, Amazon and Paraguay rivers act as natural demarcations and therefore have influence on mammal distributions (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). Both latitudinal and altitudinal gradients are notorious and generally correlate with changes in species richness. For example, as we move south, from the tropics to Patagonia, species richness for mammals declines particularly (Eisenberg, 1999).

During this long segment of time many processes took place. The human occupational history of the different regions of SA is associated with distinct landscape transformations. In some cases with substantial modification of certain environments due to the extensive use of fire, hunting pressure, the development of agriculture systems, and architectural constructions (e.g., Stahl, 1996), thus challenging in many aspects the idea of pre-European pristine environments (see also Grayson, 2001). The last five centuries stand out from a biological point of view as one of the most dramatic periods of South American natural history. The conquest and establishment of the Europeans caused irreversible changes in the native human populations they interacted

The peculiarity of SA fauna is the result of several

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Introduction development of the discipline. Her opinion is also shared by Peter Stahl, as you will also learn when reading his paper.

with, transforming their political, religious, economic and social way of life. The introduction of exotic fauna, both domesticated and wild species, also had severe consequences on the local faunas and native people. Several authors have discussed the nature and tempo of this disruption and displacement (e.g., Crosby, 1994). Although the biological exchange took place in both directions, from the Americas to Europe and vice versa, if we compare the process that occurred in North, Central and South America, different scenarios may be portrayed (Melville, 1999).

Peter Stahl presents an elegant and updated overview of zooarchaeological studies in Ecuador (see references therein). He highlights the contrast between the remarkable biodiversity of this country and the relatively limited number of sites available for study. He stresses that this situation is tied to research interests but also to problems in the accessibility of sites and preservation of faunas in the neotropics. Then he provides a synthesis of what is known for the different cultural time contexts starting with the early occupations up to late ceramic periods from the sierra and coast.

In recent times, the production of alternative resources, the globalization of the economy and other factors have contributed to the wide spread of many SA native animals. As an example, SA domesticated species have certainly a prevalent role: the guinea pig has been used as a pet and laboratory animal worldwide, camelids (alpaca and llama) have been exported almost everywhere as companions, pack animals and for fibre production, and the muscovy duck appears in some renowned international recipe books. All are South American biocultural contributions to our present world.

Both, Sánchez Mosquera and Stahl, emphasize the importance of controlling recovery techniques and dealing with preservation, identification and quantification issues. In this sense, Betsy Reitz and María Masucci´s paper is an excellent example of the array of methods and techniques that can be instrumented to generate a solid faunal database. Their detailed study of El Azúcar site allow them to discuss different cultural aspects associated with the role of marine resources for inland populations, and particularly the link between subsistence and trade networks.

*** All the papers included in this volume summarize and illustrate some of the above mentioned processes with data from different regions and periods. The authors address different problems and subject matters, each from her or his own personal perspective. Nevertheless, in order to understand the meaning of all these original papers it is appropriate to consider them in the wider context of their own countries trajectory. As has been recently highlighted, the growth of zooarchaeological studies is closely tied to the general development of Archaeology in Latin America, to which it has contributed largely from a theoretical and methodological point of view (Politis, 2003).

Additionally, Sánchez Mosquera gives special attention to canid remains devoting a section of her paper for summarizing the evidence and problems associated with the study this kind of materials, basically the nature of the data necessary for identifying the presence of domesticated canids, the potential of this information for interpretations that consider cultural aspects beyond subsistence, mainly the human attitudes towards animals and their significance, and finally the changes induced by the Europeans. In Peru, archaeological excavations in the coast, valleys and puna regions have yielded large collections of animals bones, basically due to the excellent preservation derived from the dryness of the climate, specially in the highland and coastal sites.

Three papers included in this volume refer to the zooarchaeology of Ecuador. Each has been written by leading researchers who have devoted great efforts to expand the knowledge we have of this particular country and have, therefore, also been pivotal for the development of the discipline in SA.

Elizabeth Wing and Jane Wheeler have pioneered zooarchaeological studies in this country, contributing with a great number of publications that are both classic and seminal (e.g., Wheeler, 1985, 1995; Wheeler et al. 1976; Wing, 1986). During the 70s and 80s the origins of animal domestication was a research subject that attracted great attention among Andean researchers. This partly explains why camelid remains occupied a centre stage in faunal analysis undertaken at sites located in the highlands and upper valleys. Nonetheless, other animals have been studied, particularly mammals, and among them deer, dog and cuy were central (e.g., Wing, 1989; Sandweiss and Wing, 1997). The other domesticate, the muscovy duck has also received some attention (e.g., Angulo C., 1998; see also Stahl, this volume).

Amelia Sánchez Mosquera expresses her serious concerns about the factors that have limited the progress of these studies in her native country, particularly stressing some methodological issues that are of primary importance: how archaeofaunal materials are obtained, the availability of reference collections, and the accessibility of bibliography. She proposes several strategies to counteract these difficulties when present. The potential research agenda should include promoting the participation and training of local researchers in interdisciplinary projects and the inclusion of zooarchaeologists in the excavations from the start. These aspects are certainly imperative for the future

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Zooarchaeology of South America period characterized by a great scientific production, that a modern perspective approach was gradually established, and when effort and attention was focused on subsistence analysis and related subjects (Andrade Lima, 1989; Queiroz, 1999). Hopefully, the thematic sessions, symposiums and courses on zooarchaeology that have been organized at the recent scientific meetings of the Sociedade de Arqueologia Brasileira (e.g., Recife, 1999, and Rio de Janeiro, 2001) mark an important change and inaugurate an irreversible process towards its expansion and development.

Also very important and influential were the analyses by Jonathan Kent (e.g., 1982, 1987), George Miller (e.g., Miller, 1979; Miller and Burger, 1995) and Katherine Moore (e.g., 1989; 1998). Other researchers, such as S. Pozorski (1979), E. Sandefur (1988), and M. Shimada (Shimada and Shimada, 1985) also contributed significantly with publications or thesis. Denise Pozzi-Escot and Carmen R. Cardoza were the first local researchers to undertake this kind of studies. D. Pozzi-Escot collaborated with Luis Lumbreras in some of his projects but also participated actively in international projects with foreign researchers (see references in PozziEscot, this volume).

In his contribution, Albérico Nogueira de Queiroz presents the information from Afonso Garivaldino Rodrigues, a rockshelter located in Rio Grande do Sul (Southern Brazil). The fauna is diverse (deer, pecarí, rodents, edentates, felids, primates, reptiles, and fish) showing the predominance of mammals, particularly small ones. The taphonomic approach developed allowed him to differentiate those bones and traces left by humans from those produced by other agents, such as other nonhuman predators. His analysis includes a detailed study of fracturing patterns, butchering marks, weathering, abrasion, animal inflicted marks, burning, and other traces. As stated before, this approach is completely pioneer in Brazilian archaeofaunal studies, and will certainly establish an important precedent for future research.

The 90s saw a new generation get started in studying faunal remains. Juan Rofes has studied cuy mummies (Rofes, 2000), Victor Vásquez Sánchez and Teresa Rosales Than (e.g., Vásquez Sánchez et al., 2001) and Rodríguez-Loredo (2001) have analyzed bone materials found in domestic and ceremonial contexts. In several cases, camelid remains outnumber other species and have therefore received special attention in several publications. Parallel to these studies, faunal assemblages from coastal sites began to be analyzed. It was Betsy Reitz who lead the way studying and comparing the fauna from several sites along the Peruvian coast (for a synthesis see Reitz, 2001). Recently Philippe Béarez (2000) also started to analyze fish remains from the Southern Peruvian coast.

In Chile archaeologists have been interested in faunal materials ever since the late ‘60s (see references in Simonetti and Cornejo, 1987) and particularly during the 70s (Becker, 2000) as a means for supporting interpretations provided by other types of evidence. Animal bones of extinct species coming from early man sites were identified at different localities in central and southern Chile. In the highland region of northern Chile, several collections of bones were studied by foreign researchers for discussing the presence of domesticated camelids (e.g., Hesse, 1984). However, it was during the mid 80s that the first systematic zooarchaeological analysis were carried on by local archaeologists: Francisco Mena L, María A. Benavente, and Fernanda Fallabella were the initiators of this trend, offering a renovated anthropological approach that emphasized cultural aspects. Besides mammals, particularly camelids (e.g., Mena, 1986; Mena and Jackson, 1991; Benavente, 1997-98; Benavente et al, 1993), other animals were also analyzed, specially fishes and molluscs (e.g., Falabella et. al., 1995). As a result, all these contributions offered a wide thematic coverage that ranged from maritime to hinterland adaptations and from hunter-gatherers to pastoralists.

In this volume, Denise Pozzi-Escot stresses several related aspects. She remarks on the importance of camelids in Andean prehistory and their significance for indigenous people. She also presents information from different areas of her country, summarizing the data available from different sites, some of which she has personally studied. In this sense, her outline offers a different view compared to other processual synthesis more concentrated on the findings of a type site. Brazil has a long tradition of collecting faunal remains from palaeontological and archaeological sites. At open air sites (e.g., sambaquís), rock-shelters and caves thousands of bones have been retrieved exposing the richness and diversity of its fauna (e.g., Andrade Lima et al., 1986; Figuti, 1993, 1997; Jacobus, 1985, 1999; Toledo et al., 1999; Rosa, 1999; Queiroz and Chaix, 1999). Nevertheless, it has been rather recently that faunal studies started to be carried on from a zooarchaeological perspective (Queiroz, 1999), taking taphonomic aspects in consideration (Queiroz, 2001).

During the 90s two active researchers appeared into scene, Isabel Cartajena and Cristian Becker. Both have had a prevalent role during this last decade, participating in several research projects and analyzing materials from North and Central Chile (e.g., Cartajena, 1994, 1997; Becker, see web reports on line).

Until recently, most of these studies resulted in species lists appended to articles and research reports (Andrade Lima, 1989). The limitations of this perspective have been pointed out by Brazilian researchers (Andrade Lima, 1989; Queiroz, 2001). Though it is during the 70s that zooarchaeological studies were initiated (e.g., Schorr, 1976) it was not until the end of the 80s and early 90s, a 3

Introduction accompanied by a permanent and active presence of our colleagues at ICAZ and other international meetings. Several symposia, workshops, seminars and courses on zooarchaeology have been organized and taken place at different national universities and research centres, stimulating these kinds of studies and contributing to the formation of researchers. As a result there is now an increasing number of people who are dedicated partially or fulltime to zooarchaeological research (Mengoni Goñalons, 2004).

In parallel, Javier Simonetti and more recently Bárbara Saavedra, both biologists, developed a palaeoecological perspective in their studies using small terrestrial vertebrate samples retrieved from archaeological sites and on several occasions have worked in close collaboration or jointly with archaeologists (e.g., Simonetti and Cornejo, 1991; Saavedra et al., 2003). Their work exemplifies clearly how archaeologists and ecologists may cooperate together, specially when palaeoenvironmental considerations about changes through time are tied to landscape transformations induced by pre-Hispanic and historic cultural activities (e.g., Simonetti, 1989; Saavedra and Simonetti, 2003).

It is not simple to summarize several decades of intensive research in which a great number of actors have participated, and elsewhere I have explored in detail the historical, theoretical and thematic trends accompanied by a lengthy bibliographical analysis (Mengoni Goñalons, 2004). The subjects studied have been wide and varied: patterns and trends in faunal utilization along time and space, the extinction of megafauna in the Pampas and Patagonia, the importance of camelids in hunter-gatherers subsistence, the advent of camelid domestication, the role of marine resources and shell midden analysis, methodological issues concerning bone modifications, and the taphonomy of ungulates, birds, and sea mammals, among many other relevant themes.

Recently, new actors have appeared on the zooarchaeological scene. While some have become interested in the subject while working on other general aspects of archaeology, others have concentrated on faunal analysis as their main research interest. As a consequence, an important number of researchers are now conducting faunal analysis from different areas and sites besides those already mentioned above: Daniel Quiroz, Rafael Labarca, Valentina Trejo, Héctor Velásquez, Lino Contreras, Cristian García, Patricio López, Jimena Torres, Alfredo Prieto, and Manuel San Román. The organization of two symposia on bioarchaeology and zooarchaeology at the last national congresses (Arica 2000, and Tomé 2003, respectively) provides a clear marker of the needs and interests that motivate a whole research community. This influx of new energy is certainly promising, and suggests that the discipline will surely have an important development in the coming years in Chile.

During the late 70s and 80s several archaeologists initiated faunal analysis. The lead was taken by Luis Borrero (e.g., Borrero, 1990, 1997), María J. Figuerero Torres (e.g., Figuerero Torres, 1986), José L. Lanata (e.g., Lanata, 1993), Laura Miotti (e.g., Miotti, 1998), Gustavo Politis (e.g., Politis and Salemme, 1990), Mónica Salemme (e.g., Miotti and Salemme, 1999), Mario Silveira (Silveira, 1995), Hugo Yacobaccio (Yacobaccio, 2001; Yacobaccio et al. 1997), and myself (e.g., Mengoni Goñalons, 1988, 1999; Mengoni Goñalons et al., 2001). During the 90s they were joined by Alejandro Acosta, Ana Aguerre, Florencia Borella, Isabel Cruz, Mariana De Nigris, Dolores Elkin, Pablo Fernández, María Gutiérrez, Daniel Loponte, Celina Madero, Mariana Mondini, Sebastián Muñoz, Atilio Nasti, Daniel Olivera, María Inés Pagano, Cecilia Rodriguez Loredo, Florencia Savanti, Vivian Scheinsohn (for full references see Mengoni Goñalons, 2004). In rather recent times other researchers have focused on faunal analysis: Adolfo Gil, Cristian Kaufmann, Lorena L’Hereux, Andrés Izeta, Jorge García Llorca, Fabiana Martín, Pablo Messineo, Eduardo Moreno, Gustavo Neme, Manuel Quintana, Silvana Rosenfeld, Federico Valverde, among others (for full references see Mengoni Goñalons, 2004).

In this volume, Francisco Mena and colleagues offer the results of ongoing research at three cave and rock-shelter sites (Baño Nuevo, Alero Fontana and Alero El Toro) along a transect that runs east-west across different environments in South-Central Chile. This study allowed them to assess the influence of local environment on faunal assemblages recorded at these localities which are characterized by different taxonomic profiles. By using this data and taphonomic information they explore site function and seasonality. During the last 30 years, in Argentina, archaeofaunal studies have gradually occupied a prevalent role in archaeology. One of the factors that triggered and strengthened the recent growth of zooarchaeology has been the ongoing change in paradigm from a culturehistorical to a processual perspective (Politis, 2003). An additional factor has been the dynamic interaction with foreign colleagues from USA and Europe (Mengoni Goñalons, 2004).

Eduardo Tonni and Alberto Cione, both palaeontologists, were fundamental for the direction that the analysis of archaeofaunas took in the late 70s and early 80s. At that time they encouraged young archaeologists to study archaeofaunas and contributed widely to establishing an awareness that animal bones constituted an important source of cultural and biological information. Ever since they have cooperated with archaeologists, analyzing materials from different sites (e.g., Tonni and Laza, 1976;

This is clearly evident in the important role that these studies have had for most of the research projects on a national scale. Also in the increasing amount of papers published on this subject and the great number of graduate and doctorate thesis that deal with different aspects of zooarchaeology. This trend has been 4

Zooarchaeology of South America In his paper, Sebastián Muñoz uses the environmental features of southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego as a frame for understanding the characteristics of the mammal archaeofaunal record retrieved at sites located at the Northern Isla Grande of Tierra del Fuego. His study is centred on two important resources for the area: pinnipeds and guanaco. Based on this data he challenges former ideas about the exploitation strategies adopted by the hunter-gatherer groups that occupied that insular area.

Cione et al. 1979), and particularly the Pampas (e.g., Fidalgo et al. 1986). Their studies have also emphasized a biological perspective, using fauna as palaeoenvironmental marker (e.g., Tonni, 1992; Tonni et al., 1999). More recently, Ulises Pardiñas (e.g., Pardiñas, 1998) and José Prado (e.g., Alberdi et al. 2001), both paleontologist, have worked in close contact with archaeologists. The authors that participate in this volume all belong to the second generation of zooarchaeologists. Some have recently finished their doctoral dissertations and others are in the final stages of their doctoral research. The subjects they examine are diverse and the geographical settings are quite varied, starting in the NW Andean region, down through the Pampas to Patagonia and ending in the Fueguian area. The time frame is also extensive, in some cases starting at the Pleistocene / Holocene boundary and reaching relatively recent times.

*** As we have briefly seen, the course that archaeofaunal studies have taken and their role has been quite variable. Part of this variability is due to the particular history of each country and their own archaeological interests and research agendas. Nevertheless, archaeofaunal studies in SA can be considered at present as a firmly established field of inquiry and form part of the analytical domain of contemporary archaeology.

Celina Madero discusses camelid husbandry practices during the Late Ceramic and Inca Period based on the comparison of several bone samples from different urban sites from North-western Argentina where camelid remains are the dominant fauna. A model of pre-Hispanic husbandry is proposed in order to see if the Inca expansion induced any changes in camelid management strategies and evaluate its effects on the domestic economy of local communities.

A factor that triggered and strengthened this development was the interaction between foreign colleagues and Latin American researchers. This relationship has not always been straightforward. In some cases it stimulated the study of what were then non-traditional materials and led to the formation of self-reliant analysts. In other cases the lasting effect was a reduced protagonism of local groups, therefore, limiting the possibility of further professional growth or responding to national research interests.

In their paper, Daniel Loponte and Alejandro Acosta offer a synthesis of the zooarchaeology in the wetlands of Central-Eastern Pampean Region. Based on this information they discuss different aspects of huntergatherer subsistence and mobility, comparing the role of ungulates and fish in the economy, and also discuss the emergence of social complexity in the area.

Cooperation between foreign and local researchers is essential. Nevertheless, in the future more symmetry in this relations is needed, particularly in the need to expand training programmes for local researchers by more active collaboration beyond the traditional research scenario. Comparative collections are hard to build and organize which is certainly a limitation for future research. We need competent professionals who can not only study archaeofaunal assemblages but also supervise the curation of reference and zooarchaeological collections. The same is relevant for other methodological aspects inherent to zooarchaeological research, such as data base management, recording procedures, quantification issues, and keeping pace with new publications. We are now at a point where projects of mutual support and assistance can be established between South American countries to favour exchange and integration. Those who have more resources, facilities, and people could act as hosts providing assistance and advice to other SA colleagues.

Gustavo Martínez and María Gutiérrez summarize the archaeofaunal data available from the Pampean area as a whole in order to review existing models of faunal exploitation. The time frame covers the Late Pleistocene through the Holocene and the spatial coverage is regional. Exploitation patterns are analyzed based on species lists, character of association and nature of interactive contexts. As a result they propose three different successive strategies for explaining the main changes observed in the archaeofaunal record. In her chapter, Mariana De Nigris focuses on processing and consumption practices based on a case study from western Central Patagonia where ungulates, basically guanaco and deer, predominate along a stratigraphical sequence that starts at the Pleistocene / Holocene boundary and encompasses several millennia. She uses the economic anatomy of these animals as a frame of reference for analyzing body part frequencies in conjunction with processing marks while discussing trends through time in the exploitation of these two ungulates.

To illustrate my point I can give the example of a recent project of international collaboration (ZARSUD, Zooarqueología Sudamericana,) that was initiated in 2002 in which several colleagues of Argentina, Brazil and Chile have participated. Several visits were organized during which reference and zooarchaeological collections were examined, discussion sessions on methodological issues were held and several conferences and courses were organized. The outcome has been extremely promising and there are great expectations on the prospects of research cooperation. 5

Introduction Béarez, P. (2000) Archaic fishing at Quebrada de los Burros, Southern coast of Peru: reconstruction of fish size by using otolith. Archaeofauna, 9, 29-34.

The role of international organizations such as the International Council for Archaeozoology (ICAZ) is fundamental. The ICAZ offers a podium where those studying the interactions between humans and other animals over time can share their research problems, experience, and knowledge in pursue of a common goal. The zooarchaeology of SA can contribute to establish the timing, nature and consequences of singular processes that took place in this continent that are of global significance. The working groups that are fostered by the ICAZ (e.g., Grupo Zooarqueología de Camélidos, GZC) are also a key element for the future expansion of zooarchaeological studies in SA. In addition, the recent creation of the Ibero-American Network of Archaeozoology (RIA, www.rediris.es/list/info/ riarqzoo.es.html) has been a very important step towards integration by promoting interdisciplinary discussions on zooarchaeological issues. Networks can easily facilitate communication, provide assistance, and favor exchange by getting people closer in a different way, as ZOOARCH (www.jiscmail.ac.uk/archives/zooarch.html) has successfully proved since its establishment.

Becker, C. (2000) Animales que cuentan historias. Trabajo presentado en el XV Congreso Nacional de Arqueología Chilena, Arica. M.S. Benavente, A. (1997-1998) Determinación de especies animales en la Arqueología: un enfoque zooarqueológico. Revista Chilena de Antropología, 14, 105-112. Benavente, M. A., Adaro A., L., Gecele C., P., Cunazza P., C. (1993) Contribución a la determinación de especies animales en arqueología: familia camelidae y taruca del norte. Santiago, Universidad de ChileDepartamento Técnico de Investigación. Borrero, L. A. (1990) Taphonomy of guanaco bones in Tierra del Fuego. Quaternary Research, 34, 361-371. Borrero, L. A. (1997). La extinción de la megafauna en la Patagonia. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia, Serie Ciencias Humanas, 25, 89-102.

In summary, South America offers an outstanding biodiversity, an excellent preservation in some particular areas and taphonomic challenges in others, a relatively long temporal depth, and a great variety of bio-cultural themes to investigate, among other important considerations.

Cabrera, A. and A. Willink (1980) Biogeografía de América Latina. OEA, Washington D.C. Cartajena, I. (1994) Determinación de restos óseos de camélidos en dos yacimientos del Loa Medio (II Región). Estudios Atacameños, 11, 25-52.

Acknowledgements Cartajena, I. and Concha, I. (1997) Una contribución a la determinación taxonómica de la familia Camelidae en sitios Formativos del Loa Medio. Estudios Atacameños, 14, 71-84.

I sincerely appreciate the great interest and enduring support offered by all participants of the volume. I also want to thank to all those colleagues who provided me with bibliography and encouraged me to undertake this volume. My wife and colleague, María José Figuerero, was extremely patient and supportive, generous with help and advice.

Cione, A. L., Lorandi, A. M., Tonni, E.P. (1979) Patrón de subsistencia y adaptación ecológica en la aldea prehispánica "El Veinte", Santiago del Estero. Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología, 13(NS), 103116.

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Politis, G.G., and Salemme, M. (1990) Prehispanic mammal exploitation and hunting strategies in the eastern Pampa subregion of Argentina. In: L. Davis and B. Reeves (eds) Hunters of the recent past. London, Unwin Hyman. p. 353-372.

Sandweiss, D.H. and Wing, E.S. (1997) Ritual rodents: the guinea pigs of Chincha, Peru. Journal of Field Archaeology, 24, 47-58.

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Shimada, M. and Shimada, I. (1985) Prehistoric llama breeding and herding on the North coast of Peru. American Antiquity, 50(1), 3–26.

Queiroz, A. N. (1999) Panorama de l'archéozoologie au Brésil. In: A. Chevalier, L. Velarde and I. ChenalVelarde (eds), L'Amérique du Sud: des chasseurscueilleurs à l'Empire Inca. BAR International Series, 746, 23-29. Oxford, BAR Publishing.

Silveira, M. J. (1995) Análisis de restos faunísticos en sitios históricos de la ciudad de Buenos Aires (República Argentina). Historical Archaeology in Latin America, 8. Simonetti (1989) Small mammals as paleoenvironmental indicators: validation for species of central Chile. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 62, 109-114.

Queiroz, A. N. (2001) Contribution à l’étude archéozoologique des vertébres de cinq sites préhistoriques de trois régions du Brésil. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Université de Genève.

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Queiroz, A. N. and Chaix, L. (1999) Os vestígios faunísticos provenientes dos sítios arqueológicos : Uma visão geral – A fauna arqueológica do sítio Justino. In : C. Simon, O. A. Carvalho, A. N. Queiroz, L. Chaix. Enterramentos na Necrópole do Justino – Xingó, Projeto de Xingó, Convênio Arqueológico Petrobras/CHESF/UFS, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Aracaju. p. 49-55.

Simonetti, J.A. and Cornejo, L. (1991) Archaeological evidence of rodent consumption in Central Chile. Latin American Antiquity, 2(1), 92-96. Simpson, G.G. (1980) Splendid isolation. New Haven and London, Yale University Press. Schorr, M.H.A. (1976) Análise dos restos de alimentação das grutas do Projeto Paranaíba. Arqueologia de Goiás em 1976, 95-102.

Pardiñas, U. F. J. (1998). Tafonomía de microvertebrados en yacimientos arqueológicos de Patagonia (Argentina). Arqueología, 9, 265-340.

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Redford, K.H. and J.F. Eisenberg (1992) Mammals of the Neotropics: Southern Cone, 2: Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay. Chicago and London, The University of Chicago Press.

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Zooarchaeology of South America Tonni, E.P. (1992) Mamíferos y clima del Holoceno en la Provincia de Buenos Aires. In: M. Iriondo (ed) El Holoceno en la Argentina. CADINQUA 1, 64-78. Tonni, E.P., Cione, A.L. and Figini, A.J., 1999. Predominance of arid climates indicated by mammals in the pampas of Argentina during the late Pleistocene and Holocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 147, 257–281. Tonni, E. P. and Laza, J. H. (1976) Paleoetnozoología del área de la Quebrada del Toro, provincia de Salta. Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología, 10, 131 140. Vásquez Sánchez, V. F., Rosales Than, T.E., Coronado Tello, L. (2001). Evidencias arqueológicas de crianza de camélidos en los siglos V y VI en la costa norte de Perú. In: G. L. Mengoni Goñalons, D. E. Olivera and H. D. Yacobaccio (eds) El uso de los camélidos a través del tiempo. Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Tridente. p. 241260. Wheeler, J.C. (1985) De la chasse a l'elevage. In : D. Lavallée, M. Julien, J. C. Wheeler and C. Karlin (eds) Telarmachay. Chasseurs et pasteurs préhistoriques des Andes, 1, 61-79. Paris, Éditions Recherches sur les Civilisations, ADPF. Wheeler, J.C. (1995) Evolution and present situation of the South American Camelidae. Biological Journal of the Linnean Sociey, 54, 271-295. Wheeler Pires-Ferreira, J. C.; E. Pires-Ferreira; and P. Kaulicke (1976) Preceramic animal utilization in the Central Peruvian Andes. Science, 194, 483-490. Wing, E.S. (1986) Domestication of andean mammals. In: F. Viulleumier and M. Monasterio (eds) High altitude tropical biogeography. New York, Oxford University Press. p. 246-264. Wing, E.S. (1989) Human use of canids in the Central Andes. In: J. Eisenberg and K. Redford (eds) Advances in Neotropical Mammalogy. Gainesville, Sandhill Crane Press,. p. 265-278 Yacobaccio, H. D. (2001a) La domesticación de camélidos en el noroeste argentino. In: E. E. Berberían and A. E. Nielsen (eds) Historia Argentina Prehispánica. Córdoba, Editorial Brujas. p. 7-40. Yacobaccio, H. D., Madero, C. M. Malmierca, M. P. and Reigadas M. C. (1997-98) Caza, domesticación y pastoreo de camélidos en la Puna Argentina. Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología, 22-3, 389429.

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2. Guanaco and huemul in Patagonian hunter-gatherers diet Mariana E. De Nigris * * Sección Arqueología, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 25 de mayo 217 piso 3, (1002) Buenos Aires, Argentina. E: mail: [email protected] Abstract The aim of this paper is to examine guanaco and huemul processing and consumption practices. During the Holocene, guanaco and huemul were the main food resources providing most of the consumed food for inland Patagonia huntergatherers. Economic anatomy studies provide the starting point for analyzing the different animal products consumed (meat, fat, marrow and bone grease). According to available utility indices, both guanaco and huemul meat is extremely lean; therefore the lipids present in marrow would have represented an essential resource for hunter-gatherer populations. Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo es examinar las prácticas de procesamiento y consumo del guanaco y huemul. Durante el Holoceno, el guanaco y el huemul fueron los principales recursos alimenticios para los cazadores-recolectores del interior de Patagonia, proveyéndoles la mayor parte de los alimentos consumidos. Los estudios de anatomía económica brindan un punto de partida para analizar los diferentes productos consumidos (carne, grasa, médula y grasa ósea). De acuerdo con los índices de utilidad disponibles, la carne del guanaco y el huemul es extremadamente magra, por lo cual los lípidos presentes en la médula serían una fuente esencial de grasas para las poblaciones de cazadores-recolectores. of this region (e.g., Aschero, 1981-82; Aschero et al., 1992; Aschero et al., 1992-93; Cassiodoro et al., 2000; Mena, 1983, 1986; Mena and Jackson, 1991; Silveira, 1979).

Introduction The prevailing role of guanaco (Lama guanicoe) in inland Patagonia hunter-gatherer’s diet during most of the Holocene is unquestionable. Guanaco has satisfied the protein and fat requirements of these human communities, supplying also basic raw materials for the manufacture of diverse artifacts, clothing, and housing. Its importance is evident in many archaeological localities of northwest Santa Cruz, Argentina, where guanaco bones clearly outnumber other exploited animals (Cassiodoro et al., 2000; Gradin and Aguerre, 1994; Mengoni Goñalons, 1999; De Nigris, 2000; De Nigris and Mengoni Goñalons, 2000; Silveira, 1979; among others).

Therefore, guanaco and huemul became the main food resources of inland Patagonian hunter-gatherers, especially owing to the scarcity of edible plants that could supply an alternative source of calories. Consequently, this paper will focus on the ways guanaco and huemul were processed and consumed through time, keeping in mind Holocene environmental changes. Our aim here is to reach a better understanding of the exploitation of the different resources -meat, fat, marrow and bone grease.

Explorers, travelers and naturalist’s chronicles likewise reveal the importance of this prey for the Tehuelches in historic times. Thus, for example, Bourne (1998 [1860]: 42) points out that “…el guanaco les provee la mayor parte de la comida y toda su ropa…”. In the same way, Prichard (1911: 103) remarks that “….they /the tehuelches/ are, of course, also largely influenced in their movements by the wanderings of the guanaco herds, which form their principal quarry…”

The different skeletal elements of a carcass have a variable nutritional attractiveness that depends on the nature of resources they offer. Measurements of these food resources based on economic anatomy studies can be used to create a ranking for these elements, which are generally known as utility indices (e.g., Binford 1978; Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998; Borrero, 1990; Emerson, 1993; Jones and Metcalfe, 1988; Lupo, 1998; Madrigal and Capaldo, 1999; Mengoni Goñalons, 1991, 1996, 2001; Metcalfe and Jones, 1988; Olivera, 2001).

Nevertheless, another wild ungulate, the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), has also been part of the diet of these populations, especially of those who lived at the edge of the subantartic beech forest along the Southern Andes. Although, in general, it seems to be less important as economic resource than the guanaco, huemul bones have been recovered in several archaeological localities

These studies have been traditionally employed as general models to predict which parts will be transported from kill sites to consumption places. Thus, higher ranked elements, that are those with higher relative nutritional value, will have more chances of being transported to residential camps. However, ethnoarchaeological data suggests that reality is much

11

Mariana E. De Nigris studies specific to the study area, we will also employ information coming from adjacent geographic regions. However, they reveal some discrepancies regarding the extension of the ice during glacial advances, the time span of the different events, and their chronology.

more complex and even though utility indices should be heeded, other considerations are involved in transport decisions (e.g., Bunn, 1993; Bunn et al., 1988; O’Connell et al., 1988, 1990, 1992). Although we are not denying the importance of economic anatomy studies to explain anatomic profiles in terms of selective transport, we propose that they are also useful for analyzing the processing and consumption practices of animal food products.

Mercer’s (1976) already classic regional palaeoclimatic model accounts for the existence of three different Neoglacial events during the Holocene. The first and most important would have occurred between 4,6004,200 B.P., the second between 2,700 and 2,000 B.P. and the last one was dated between 800 B.P. and XIX century. Although these Neoglacial advances were observed in diverse areas of Patagonia their importance varies regionally (Clapperton, 1993).

In this paper we present the results reached through the analysis of several archaeozoological assemblages coming from Cerro Casa de Piedra 7, an archaeological site located in the Northwest of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina, and occupied most of the Holocene. In this sense, the long occupational sequence of the site, ca. 3,500-9,700 B.P., constitutes an excellent starting point to observe long term trends in assemblage variability.

Nevertheless, a more recent study carried out in the Lago Viedma and Lago Argentino glaciers (Wenzens, 1999) in southern Santa Cruz, points to the existence of a greater number of glacial episodes than those previously identified. At least eight advances were detected in three Precordilleran glacial valleys, although the number, position and extension do not seem to correspond exactly.

Cerro Casa de Piedra 7 site and its environment The study area placed in the southern portion of the Andes (47° 40’ Lat. S and 72° 30’ Long. W), covers 115,000 ha, comprising eight glacial lakes (Figure 1). The climate is mild to cold in summer with temperatures not often exceeding 15°C, and cold during the winter with minimum temperatures even down to –30°C. Summers are short and influenced by cold winds laden with humidity from the west. The rainshadow effect of the Andes creates a gradient of vegetation changes from the dense Sub-Antarctic forest at or near to the mountains to the steppe further to the east. Severe climate and high average altitude (830 m) generates a low diversity of tree species. The treeline lies at 1,000-1,250 m, changing locally with slope orientation (Serret and Borghiniani, 1998).

Another valuable source of information concerning climatic variations recorded in southern Patagonia during the Holocene is supplied by studies on the evolution of lake coast lines (Clapperton, 1993). In the Lago Cardiel basin (Central Plateau of Santa Cruz) changes in rainfall and temperature patterns were identified, with drier periods related to regressions and wetter episodes associated to transgressions (Stine and Stine, 1990).

Cerro Casa de Piedra 7 (CCP7) archaeological site is a large cave placed on the north side of a volcanic hill, located in the south edge of Roble river (900 m), in a transitional area between the forest and the shrubby Patagonian steppe within the Perito Moreno National Park, Argentina (Aschero, 1996; Aschero et al., 1992; Aschero et al., 1992-93).

This lake would have reached high levels between 10,000 and 7,000 years B.P. and again between 5,500 and 4,500 years B.P., although this last transgression was smaller in magnitude. Later, there were alternating drier and wetter periods and around 2,200 years B.P. there was a rise in coastlines that was also visible at the Belgrano, Burmeister, Azara and Nansen in our study area. This rise was of enough magnitude that they would have formed a single paleolake (González, 1992; Goñi et al., 1999). This was followed by a steady descent of water levels, with a severe drought spell near 900 years B.P. (Stine and Stine, 1990).

A long occupational sequence formed by 18 stratigraphic layers radiocarbon dated between ca. 3,400 and 9,700 B.P., a clear redundancy in the occupations, a marked arrangement of the space, and strong evidences of multiple activities together with rock art paintings are among the most salient characteristics of CCP7 (Aschero, 1981-82, 1996; Aschero et al., 1992; Aschero et al., 1992-93; Aschero et al., 2000). After a rockfall episode dated around 3,400 B.P. that divided the cave in two compartments the location was abandoned (Aschero, 1995; Aschero et al., 2000).

Palinological records also indicate changes in environmental conditions. In the study area Mancini et al. (1997) recognized the presence of patches of vegetation between grass and shrub steppe before 6,500 BP. Later, they observed a noticeable expansion of the shrub steppe, since then the conditions for the last 3,500 years would have been very similar to the present-day, except for a short wetter period between 2,800 and 2,500 years, which caused the forest expansion, coincident with the rising level of the Lago Belgrano palaeolake already mentioned (González, 1992; Goñi et al., 1999).

Paleoenvironmental information

At the same time research on rodents species present in Cerro Casa de Piedra 5 archaeological site (Pardiñas, 1996-98), an adjacent cave to CCP7, is consistent with

Given that there are only a few paleoenvironmental 12

Zooarchaeology of South America immature and non territorial males, whereas the solitary males are mature individuals that have no established territory or are looking for females (Cajal, 1982; Franklin, 1983; Garrido et al., 1980; 1983; Oporto, 1983; Raedeke, 1978).

palinological analysis, since none of the examined samples indicate a precipitation increase of such proportions to allow dense forest growth. Consequently, climatic and environmental conditions fluctuated in northwest Santa Cruz during the Holocene. The studied area repeatedly suffered the advance and retrocession of glaciers, as well as changes in moisture and temperature conditions. Palinological records show oscillations between steppe and forest as long term trends. These recorded variations might have led to changes in forest and steppe limits. Nevertheless, the investigations performed in Perito Moreno National Park point out that any increase in wet conditions was never so important as to allow dense forest growth (Mancini et al., 1994; Pardiñas, 1996-98).

Huemul distribution is more spatially restricted as it inhabits the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina. Previously, the huemul lived between 33° and 54° of South latitude but at present it occupies less than a half of the aforementioned area. It is considered as a vulnerable species in danger of extinction (Povilitis, 1978; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; Serret, 1990; Serret and Borghiani, 1998). The huemul is a stout deer with short legs and regular size, its body weight fluctuates between 40 and 100 kg. Males are larger and heavier. In addition, they have antlers and a dark fringe of hair that runs along the top of the snout and frequently bifurcated above the eyes. The pelage is dense, thick, brittle and relatively long. During spring and autumn the hair is dark brown turning lighter – grayish-yellow - in winter (Povilitis, 1978; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; Smith-Flueck, 2000; Texera, 1974).

At this point, we should ask ourselves what repercussions all this may have had on animal availability, essentially taking into account large sized species such as guanaco and huemul. The variations in wet conditions in the forest-steppe ecotone do not seem to be of such magnitude as to implicate drastic variations in the availability of both ungulates.

This deer inhabits steep mountainous terrain where the forest prevails, at the ecotone zone between forest and steppe, and probably at some steppe areas. The huemul makes altitudinal displacements according to the seasons of the year, seeking shelter, protection and food. Its feeding habits are characterized by browsing, even though it may also graze (Povilitis, 1978; 1983a and b; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; Serret, 1990; SmithFlueck, 2000).

Guanaco and huemul: general characteristics The guanaco is a highly versatile camelid that has inhabited vast territories of South America, ranging from Argentina to Peru. It is a relatively large ungulate with a slender neck and long legs, whose adult body weight ranges between 100 and 120 kg. This body weight corresponds to the Patagonian guanaco, as it has been observed that body size diminishes with decreasing latitude. Its pelage is long and thick, reddish-brown, rather more grayish on the head with patches of white hair, especially in the belly (Cajal, 1982; Cunazza et al., 1995; Franklin, 1983; Raedeke, 1978; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992).

Regarding social organization, the huemul is found generally alone or in groups of two or three individuals. Solitary individuals are more frequently observed than groups of two (male and female couples; female with fawn) and three individuals. Nevertheless, on some occasions groups of up to seven deer can be seen. Smaller groups tend to occupy the denser forested areas (Povilitis, 1978, 1983a, 1985; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; SmithFlueck, 2000).

Besides, the guanaco has ductile feeding habits that include grazing on grasses as well as browsing on shrubs and trees, allowing it to inhabit spots as diverse as the steppe or forests. The guanaco can also spend long periods without drinking water when moisture content of the vegetables consumed is adequately high (Franklin, 1983; de Lamo, 1995; Garrido et al., 1980; Larrieu et al., 1979; Raedeke, 1978).

Size and anatomy of the prey exploited by huntergatherers are aspects that must be taken into account when processing and consumption practices of animal resources are studied, given that these activities are modified according to the products offered by each animal (Gifford-González, 1989; Oliver, 1993; Yellen, 1977, 1991).

Guanaco behavior and social organization are likewise distinguished by their flexibility. Some populations are sedentary while others are migratory. Three basic social structures have been observed within guanaco populations: family groups, male groups and solitary males (Cajal, 1982; Franklin, 1983; Garrido et al., 1980; Oporto, 1983; Raedeke, 1978).

Therefore, it is indispensable to consider the distribution of different consumable resources -meat, fat, marrow or bone grease- in guanaco and huemul anatomy, since each body part reflects variable proportions of lipids and proteins. In this way, the relative abundance of the different skeletal elements may be interpreted as a function of variable attractiveness for different anatomical units (Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998;

Family groups include an adult male, several females and their offspring. Their size is variable depending on the season, since they are generally larger in summer and smaller in winter. Male groups are composed by 13

Mariana E. De Nigris elements that a carcass has and the MAU or minimal anatomic units obtained by dividing the MNE of each anatomical unit by the number of times this unit is present in a complete carcass (Binford, 1984).

Binford, 1978; Borrero, 1990; Emerson, 1994; Jones and Metcalfe, 1988; Mengoni Goñalons, 1996; Metcalfe and Jones, 1988; Wandsnider, 1997). The studies carried out by Belardi and Gómez Otero (1998) point out a high correlation between huemul and guanaco (Borrero, 1990) meat utility indices (MUI). These indices consider the flesh attached to each skeletal element as well as the marrow and the bone grease. They have also observed some differences, particularly related to the sternum and rib muscles. However, these could be explained by the butchering techniques employed and not by the existence of substantial differences between both species. The other perceived discrepancies are related to the thoracic vertebrae and the tibia that have higher MUI values in the huemul (Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998).

The second stage of our analysis centered on the presence of processing and consumption marks. The marks were detected macroscopically with the aid of a hand-held magnifying glass (8x). Basically, two kinds of marks were considered: cutmarks (Behrensmeyer et al., 1986; Binford, 1981; Blumenschine et al., 1996; Lyman, 1987, 1994; Shipman, 1981) and percussion marks. The last category includes both percussion pits and grooves as well as those marks classified in the literature as chopping marks, given that all of them are produced by the impact of a heavy artifact (Blumenschine and Selvaggio, 1988; Blumenschine et al., 1996; GiffordGonzalez, 1989; Johnson, 1985; Shipman, 1981; White, 1992).

In relation to long bones marrow, there is also a strong correlation between guanaco and huemul. Again, the principal difference among these two ungulates lies in the tibia which has higher proportions of marrow in the guanaco (Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998; Mengoni Goñalons, 1996).

We also considered some modifications of non-human origin, fundamentally the action of rodents (Fiorillo, 1989; Shipman, 1981), carnivores (Binford, 1981; Blumenschine and Marean, 1993; Gifford-González, 1989; Shipman, 1981) and weathering (Behrensmeyer, 1978).

The lack of fat tissues in huemul meat is a clear fact. The meat is extremely lean with high protein values. On the other hand, the lipids of a sample extracted from long bone marrow reached 79.5% (Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998), and is in agreement with other analysis from several huemul individuals, ranging from 88 to 98% (Smith-Flueck, 2000). In spite of lacking comparable data for guanaco, a study carried out by Parodi (1976) suggests that the amounts of muscular fat are very low (less than 2%), and we may suppose that lipids are concentrated in the marrow.

Results Bone specimens of guanaco and huemul have been identified in almost all the sequence, with a clear predominance of guanaco bones. The huemul is present in roughly all the examined stratigraphic units, except in the lower ones (layers 17 and 18), not exceeding in any case 6% of the sample (Table 1 and Figure 2). Different hypotheses have been put forward as regards the low representation of huemul in Patagonian archaeological sites. The location of sites in marginal areas in relation to huemul territories, the meager quality of its skin, the lean meat, a low predictability, a low demographic density and a smaller body size in comparison with the guanaco, are some the reasons brought to light for explaining its limited use in the past (Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998; Mena, 1991; Mena and Jackson, 1991).

Materials and methods Anatomical and taxonomic identification of bone specimens recovered in CCP7 excavations was the first stage of analysis. All stratigraphic units were considered at this stage. Given that huemul samples were small (Table 1), in order to compare with guanaco samples for this paper five layers (1, 4, 6, 11 and 13) were selected since they included more huemul bones. The selected layers range from ca. 3,400 B.P. to 8,300 years B.P.

Although it is evident that huemul distribution has been more spatially restricted than the guanaco, there is no agreement between investigators about the areas effectively inhabited by this deer in the past. Thus, for example, Díaz (1993, 2000) points out that in accordance to historic and archaeological data the huemul seems to have lived in more open areas like the steppe, and the social groups must have been larger. On the other hand, Povilitis (1978) argues, based on historic information that the huemul has always lived in mountainous terrain, frequently in small groups.

Two measures were utilized to quantify taxonomic abundance: NISP or number of identified specimens per taxon, and MNI or minimum number of individuals (Grayson, 1984). The first measure was calculated adding up all bones or teeth (complete or fragments) assigned to a particular species. While the second was obtained considering the more frequent anatomical unit in the sample, keeping in mind the side and the fusion stage of the specimens (Mengoni Goñalons, 1999). In relation to anatomical abundance of the skeletal units we have also employed two measures: the MNE or minimum number of elements (Binford, 1984), calculated by taking into account the frequencies of the different

CCP7 bone assemblages show the effective presence of huemul along the entire sequence in spite of the climatic 14

Zooarchaeology of South America calculated by Elkin (1995) and with the meat utility index (MUI) obtained by Borrero (1990).

variations observed during the Holocene. The guanaco and huemul relationship remains relatively constant through time, disclosing that the possible variations of forest and steppe boundary were not so drastic as to imply changes in the availability of these two ungulates. On the other hand, the analyzed evidence suggests that huemul always inhabited areas with more dense vegetation.

The results of the correlations between bone density and the %MAU were moderate, being higher in some of the stratigraphic units (Table 3). It is important to say that some bones showed modifications produced by rodents, carnivores or as result of weathering (Table 4). As Table 4 shows weathering do not seem to be relevant in any of the stratigraphic units. On the other hand, the amount of rodent and carnivore marks is higher. We have observed that those units with higher % MAU and bone density correlation values also have higher percentages of carnivore marks (layers 4, 11 and 13) that are principally concentrated on axial elements.

Moreover, it is possible, that the low fat utility of huemul meat during most of its annual cycle explains the preference for guanaco by Patagonian human populations. Several studies have emphasized the importance of fat in human diet, especially in extreme climates or with marked seasonal variations, and the fat preference of hunter-gatherers communities (e.g., Cachel, 2000; Jochim, 1976; Speth, 1983, 1989; Stiner, 1994).

Axial elements generally have a complex shape and are difficult to clean. They tend to retain more meat after initial butchering than appendicular elements (Lupo and Schmitt, 1997). In the absence of boiling, as a rendering technique, allowing a better extraction of the attached meat and processing of bone grease, axial elements would have retained their attractiveness especially for carnivores (e.g., Lupo, 1995). Moreover, CCP7 appendicular elements are generally found more complete than the axial elements.

Other species are also present, characterized by some varieties of birds and mammals (Table 1 and Figure 2). Their NISP is very low, particularly in the upper stratigraphic units, in which they represent only 1% of the sample. Nevertheless, they show an increase in the lower units. We should emphasize that some of the bird and mammalian specimens showed clear evidence of processing activities, especially cutmaks. In spite of the observed increment, the guanaco continues to preponderate, especially if we take into account all quantification measurements (Table 2). Regarding the representation of guanaco anatomical regions (Figure 3) we observe that the appendicular region dominates all units analyzed, although there are some variations in their proportions. All anatomical units are present but long bones and especially shafts stand out.

There was no correlation between %MAU and guanaco MUI in any of all analyzed units (Table 3). The results were non significant, showing no selectivity in relation to the amount of meat they carried. This fact, together with the presence of all skeletal parts, leads us to think that the entire guanaco carcass was exploited. This has also been observed in other archaeozoological assemblages of Northwest Santa Cruz (e.g., De Nigris and Mengoni Goñalons, 2000; Mengoni Goñalons, 1999).

At this point, we must stress, in agreement with numerous studies, the advantage of including shafts in MNE calculations since they give a better estimation of original bone number due to their high potential of survival, especially in assemblages affected by carnivores activity (e.g., Bartram and Marean, 1999; Lam et al., 1998; Marean, 1995, 1998; Marean and Spencer, 1991; Mengoni Goñalons, 1999; Mengoni Goñalons y De Nigris, 1999).

As we lack specific bone density studies for huemul we used white tailed deer (Odocoileus sp.) values calculated by Lyman (1994) as a proxy measure. The results show no correlation between bone density and %MAU (Table 5). On the other hand, the correlation between %MAU and MUI (Belardi and Gómez Otero, 1998) shows in general very low values except in unit 11 where they are moderate and positive (Table 5). Nevertheless, the values again indicate an absence of selectiveness.

For the huemul anatomical unit representation is extremely variable (Figure 4), since in some stratigraphic layers axial bones prevail whereas in others the appendicular elements are the only ones present. The smaller huemul sample size would account for this fact (Table 1), even though, as stated above, for comparative purposes we present the results from those layers (1, 4, 6, 11 and 13) with more abundant bones.

In order to explore the different ways of exploitation of animal resources in more detail we have divided the animals in distinct portions taking into account the primary product offered by each (De Nigris, 2000; Mengoni Goñalons and De Nigris, 1999). In this way, the anatomical units that comprise a carcass can be separated into the following categories: (1) bones with meat only (vertebrae, ribs, innominate and scapula); (2) bones with abundant meat and marrow (humerus and femur); (3) bones with little meat and marrow (radius-ulna and tibia); (4) bones with moderate marrow proportions (metapodials); and (5) bones with low marrow proportions (calcaneum and phalanges). An additional category would comprise the cranium, which contains organs that are rich in fats.

In order to examine if the observed guanaco skeletal part representation patterns were the result of selective transport or whether they resulted from differential survival of the anatomical parts, due to bone density processes (Lyman, 1992), we correlated the %MAU obtained for each skeletal part with bone density values 15

Mariana E. De Nigris Another aspect that was taken into account was the incidence of processing and consumption marks. Frequencies were calculated bearing in mind the two principal anatomical regions (axial and appendicular). Processing mark frequencies (cut and percussion marks) are very similar in both guanaco regions (Figure 7). In the huemul these frequencies turned out to be extremely variable (Figure 8) possibly due to reduced size samples.

This division is justified as these anatomical regions must undergo different processing episodes in consonance with the products they offer. So, for example, long bone exploitation not only involves meat stripping but also bone fracturing in order to access to the marrow cavity. The relationship between the observed MNE (Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10) and expected MNE for guanaco and huemul (Table 6) allowed us to standarize the frequencies of the anatomical regions. Figure 5 presents the results for guanaco.

Evidently, processing and consumption marks are very high in both species, ranging from 39.4% to 52.2%, although they are higher in guanaco samples, especially cutmarks (Table 4). These elevated frequencies are reflecting a notable intensity in prey processing, distinctive of consumption situations.

As mentioned above, although all skeletal parts of guanaco are present, appendicular elements predominate, particularly long bones. There are, however, differences in long bone representation in the selected stratigraphic units, since in some middle or lower limbs prevail, while in others they present very similar distributions.

Ethnoarchaeological evidence suggests that cutmarks are present in very variable percentages. There are numerous factors influencing this, of which the size and anatomy of the prey seem to be the most relevant (Bunn, 1983; Gifford-Gonzalez, 1989; Jones, 1993).

These differences may be related to seasonal marrow fat depletion sequences. Ungulates store fat in the body when food is abundant but when food is scarce they begin to consume those accumulated reserves. In long bones, the sequence starts at the proximal elements (humerus and femur) followed by the more distal ones (Speth, 1983). Therefore, throughout the year long bones have a variable attractiveness in relation to their marrow contents, as well as calcaneum and phalanges. Phalanges and calcaneum are also present in all the units, although always in low frequencies. On the other hand, the girdles are in an intermediate position between the head and the vertebral spine.

The frequencies observed in these ethnoarchaeological studies turn out to be generally lower than those recorded in CCP7 bone assemblages. It is worthwhile to say, that the groups studied currently utilize metal knives to butcher animals, and they usually boil the bones prior to consumption. Possibly the use of these technologies may have produced a lower incidence of marks in the processed specimens. It is important to notice that the most abundant anatomical regions not necessarily show higher proportion of processing marks, although long bones in general tend to show more marks, especially percussion marks.

The head is the best represented portion of the axial skeleton followed by the vertebral spine. Ribs are present in all stratigraphic but in low proportions. Only a few sternebrae have been identified along the sequence. This pattern might be explained by the fact that they are not very dense bones (Elkin, 1995).

In order to evaluate in what extent the observed cutmark frequencies are dependent of sample size, especially in the huemul case, given that the reduced amount of specimens unequivocally identified as huemul, we correlated the proportion of specimen with cutmarks with the corresponding anatomical category to examine the possible connection between both variables (Lyman, 1994; Mengoni Goñalons, 1999). The results showed no correlation between the NISP and cutmarks frequencies.

On the other hand, rib density would not seem to account for their low frequencies. Although these bones are not particularly dense, neither are they extremely fragile (Elkin, 1995). Moreover, other elements with similar or lower densities are present in higher proportions (e.g., vertebrae, scapula).

Percussion marks are less abundant than cutmarks. They are present along almost all the carcass of both species, although they prevail in the appendicular region, particularly in the guanaco case. Since percussion marks are tied to bone fracture and, in general, they relate to marrow exploitation, it is not surprising to find them mainly associated to those bones that have marrow cavity, such as mandibles, long bones, calcaneum and phalanges.

All huemul anatomical regions are present (except in unit 11) although the long bones have higher frequencies. Again, ribs show the lowest proportions whereas the head has the highest frequencies of the whole axial skeleton (Figure 6) The patterns of representation of the carcass regions in both species thus suggest that those portions richer in fat (head and long bones) are the most abundant. Given that the meat of both species is meager in fat, the biggest concentration of lipids is to be found in long bone marrow and in the fatty rich organs of the head. Therefore, there seems to be a preference for those anatomical units that have this essential resource.

Nevertheless, they have also been observed in bones with no marrow as, for example, vertebrae or ribs; in these bones percussion marks can be linked with disarticulation activities. 16

Zooarchaeology of South America Aschero, C.A. (1996) El área Río Belgrano-Lago Posadas (Santa Cruz): problemas y estado de problemas. In: Arqueología solo Patagonia, J. Gómez Otero (ed). Puerto Madryn, CENPAT. p. 17-26.

Conclusions In this paper we focused on guanaco and huemul exploitation from a temporal perspective. Although the huemul is always a secondary resource in relation to the guanaco, it is present in all the sequence in spite of the climatic variations recorded in the Holocene. Both guanaco and huemul bones show high processing marks percentages, suggesting an intensive use and consumption of the resources associated with the different bone elements.

Aschero, C.A., Bellelli, C. and Goñi, R.A. (1992) Avances en las investigaciones arqueológicas del Parque Nacional Perito Moreno, Provincia de Santa Cruz, Patagonia Argentina. Cuadernos del Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano, 14, 143-170. Aschero, C.A., Bellelli, C., Civalero de Biset, M.T., Goñi, R.A., Guráieb, A.M. and Molinari, R. (1992-93) Cronología y tecnología en el Parque Nacional Perito Moreno (PNPM): ¿Continuidad o reemplazos? Arqueología, 2, 107-134.

Anatomical profiles for guanaco and huemul reveal the presence of all anatomical parts, and although significant differences exist between the different body parts their representation that do not seem to be related to bone density. The results of the correlations between meat utility index (MUI) and the %MAU for both preys show the absence of meat selective transportation. On the contrary, anatomical patterns show that those elements with marrow cavity (e.g., long bones) or with fatty rich organs (e.g., cranium) have the highest standardized MNE values. Given that both species have limited amounts of fats, the lipids contained in the marrow cavity of mandibles, long bones, calcaneum and phalanges together with the organs included in the head became crucial resources for Patagonian hunter-gatherers.

Aschero, C.A., Goñi, R.A., Civalero, M.T., Molinari, R., Espinosa, S.L., Guráieb, A.M. and Bellelli, C (2000) Holocenic Park: arqueología del Parque Nacional Perito Moreno (PNPM). Anales de la Administración de Parques Nacionales, 17. In press. Bartram, L.E. and Marean,C.W. (1999) Explaining the “Klasies Pattern”: Kua Ethnoarchaeology, the Die Kelders Middle Stone Age archaeofauna, long bone fragmentation and carnivore ravaging. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 9-29.

However, the relative scarcity of axial elements does not necessarily imply that these anatomical parts would not have been exploited. Their lower representation could be related to different consumption strategies.

Behrensmeyer, A.K. (1978) Taphonomic and ecologic information from bone weathering. Paleobiology, 4, 150162.

Moreover, in the absence of boiling techniques, fat grease from long bone joints and the vertebrae could not be retrieved, turning them particularly attractive to carnivores. The evidence of CCP7 shows that these bone elements were the principal target for carnivores.

Behrensmeyer A.K., Gordon K.D., &. Yanagi G.T (1986), Trampling as a cause of bone surface damage and pseudo-cutmarks. Nature, 319 (6056), 768-771. Belardi, J.B. and Gómez Otero, J. (1998) Anatomía económica del huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus): una contribución a la interpretación de las evidencias arqueológicas de su aprovechamiento en Patagonia. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia, 26, 195-207.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by a grant from Fundación Antorchas. I thank Teresa Civalero for her generosity with CCP7 collections. Finally, I thank María José Figuerero Torres for assisting me with the translation of this paper.

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Povilitis, A. (1978) The Chilean huemul project – A case history (1975-76). Threatened Deer. IUCN Programme. p.109-128.

Mengoni Goñalons, G.L. (2001) Variabilidad de la anatomía económica en la llama. In: G.L. Mengoni Goñalons, D.E. Olivera and H.D. Yacobaccio (eds) El uso de los camélidos a través del tiempo. Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Tridente. p. 145-153.

Povilitis, A. (1983a) Social organization and mating strategy of the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus). Journal of Mammology, 64(1), 156-158

Mengoni Goñalons, G.L. and De Nigris, M.E. (1999) Procesamiento de huesos largos de guanaco en Cerro de los Indios 1 (Santa Cruz). In: Soplando en el viento. Actas de las Terceras Jornadas de Arqueología de la Patagonia. Neuquén, Universidad del Comahue. p. 461475.

Povilitis, A. (1983b) The huemul in Chile: national symbol in jeopardy? Oryx, 17(1), 34-40.

Mercer, J.H. (1976) Glacial history of southernmost South America. Quaternary Research, 6, 125-166.

Prichard, H.H. (1911) Through the heart of Patagonia. London, Thomas Nelson and Sons.

Metcalfe, D. and Jones, K.T. (1988) A reconsideration of animal body-part utility indices. American Antiquity, 53(3), 486-504.

Raedeke, K.J. (1978) El guanaco de Magallanes, Chile. Su distribución y biología. Publicación Técnica 4. Ministerio de Agricultura de Chile, CONAF.

O’Connell, J.F., Hawkes, K. and Jones, N.B. (1988) Hadza hunting, butchering, and bone transport and their archaeological implications. Journal of Anthropological Research, 44(2), 113-161.

Redford, K. H. and Eisenberg, J. F. (1990) Mammals of the Neotropics. The Southern Cone, 2, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

O’Connell, J.F., Hawkes, K. and Jones, N.B. (1990) Reanalysis of large mammal body part transport among the Hadza. Journal of Archaeological Science, 17, 301316.

Serret, A. (1990) En busca del huemul patagónico. Ciencia Hoy, 2(8), 59-63.

Povilitis, A. (1985) Social behavior of the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) during the breeding season. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 68, 261-286.

Serret, A. and Borghiani, F. P. (1998) Situación comparada del estado de conservación del huemul –entre 1988 y 1998- en los lagos Nansen y Azara, Parque Nacional Perito Moreno, Provincia de Santa Cruz. Boletín Técnico 45. Buenos Aires, Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Shipman, P. (1981) Applications of scanning electron microscopy to taphonomic problems. In: A.M.E Cantwell, J.B. Griffin and N.A. Rothschild (eds) The research potential of anthropological museums collections, 376. New York, New York Academy of Sciences. p. 357-385.

O’Connell, J.F., Hawkes, K. and Jones, N.B. (1992) Patterns in the distribution, site structure and assemblage composition of Hadza kill-butchering sites. Journal of Archaeological Science, 19, 319-345. Oliver, J.S. (1993) Carcass processing by the Hadza: bone breakage from butchery to consumption. In: J. Hudson (ed) From bones to behavior: ethnoarchaeological and experimental contributions to the interpretation of faunal remains. Carbondale, Center for Archaeological Investigations. p. 200-227.

Silveira, M.J. (1979) Análisis e interpretación de los restos faunísticos de la Cueva Grande de Arroyo Feo (Provincia de Santa Cruz). Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología, XIII (N.S.), 229-247.

Olivera D.E. (2001) Perfil etario y rendimiento económico de Lama glama. In: G.L Mengoni Goñalons, D.E. Olivera and H.D. Yacobaccio (eds) El uso de los 20

Zooarchaeology of South America Smith-Flueck, J. (2000) La situación actual del huemul patagónico. In: N.I. Díaz and J. Smith-Flueck (eds), El huemul patagónico: un misterioso cérvido al borde de la extinción. Buenos Aires, L.O.L.A. p. 67-154. Speth, J. D. (1983) Bison kills and bone counts. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Speth, J. D. (1989) Early hominid hunting and scavenging: The role of meat as an energy source. Journal of Human Evolution, 18, 329-343. Stine, S. and Stine, M. (1990) A record from Lake Cardiel of climate change in sothern South America. Nature, 345(6277), 705-708. Stiner, M.C. (1993) The place of hominids among predators: interspecific comparisons of food procurement and transport. In: J. Hudson (ed) From bones to behavior: ethnoarchaeological and experimental contributions to the interpretation of faunal remains. Carbondale, Center for Archaeological Investigations. p. 38-61. Stiner, M.C. (1994) Honor among thieves: a zooarchaeological study of Neandertal ecology. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Texera, W.A. (1974) Algunos aspectos de la biología del huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) (Mammalia: Artiodactyla, Cervidae) en cautividad. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia 5(1-2), 155-188. Wandsnider, L. (1997) The roasted and the boiled: food composition and heat treatment with special emphasis on pit-hearth cooking. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 16, 1-48. Wenzens, G. (1999) Fluctuations of outlet and valley glaciers in the Southern Andes (Argentina) during the past 13,000 years. Quaternary Research, 51, 238-247. White, T.D. (1992) Prehistoric cannibalism at Mancos 5MTURMR-2346. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Yellen, J. (1977) Cultural pattern in faunal remains: evidence from the !Kung Bushman. In: D. Ingersoll, J.

Yellen, J. and W. Macdonald (eds) Experimental Archaeology. New York, Columbia University Press. p. 271-331. Yellen, J. (1991) Small mammals: !Kung San utilization and the production of faunal assemblages. Journal of Anthropological Research, 10, 1-26.

21

Mariana E. De Nigris

Figure 1: Location of Cerro Casa de Piedra 7 site.

22

Zooarchaeology of South America 100.0 90.0 80.0

Percentage

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Stratigraphic units Guanaco

Huemul

Birds

Other (indeterminate)

Figure 2: Number of identified specimens per taxon (in percentage). 100.0 90.0 80.0

Percentage

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Stratigraphic Unit

Appendicular

Axial

Figure 3: NISP axial and appendicular relationship in the guanaco.

100.0 90.0 80.0

Porcentage

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Stratigraphic Unit

Appendicular

Axial

Figure 4: NISP axial and appendicular relationship in the huemul. 23

15

16

Mariana E. De Nigris

Layer 1

Layer 4 Head

Head

Vertebral spine

Vertebral spine

Ribs

Ribs

Girdles

Girdles

Upper limbs

Upper limbs

Middle limbs

Middle limbs

Lower limbs

Lower limbs

Calcaneum and phalanges

Calcaneum and phalanges 0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

0.0

10.0

2.0

MNE (observed/expected)

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

MNE (observed/expected)

Layer 6

Layer 11

Head

Head

Vertebral spine

Vertebral spine

Ribs

Ribs

Girdles

Girdles

Upper limbs

Upper limbs

Middle limbs

Middle limbs

Lower limbs

Lower limbs

Calcaneum and phalanges

Calcaneum and phalanges

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

0.0

10.0

2.0

4.0

8.0

MNE (observed/expected)

MNE (observed/expected)

Layer 13 Head Vertebral spine Ribs Girdles Upper limbs Middle limbs Lower limbs Calcaneum and phalanges 0.0

6.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

MNE (observed/expected)

Figure 5: Anatomical representation patterns for guanaco in CCP7.

24

10.0

Zooarchaeology of South America

Layer 1

Layer 4

Head

Head

Vertebral spine

Vertebral spine

Ribs

Ribs

Girdles

Girdles

Upper limbs

Upper limbs

Middle limbs

Middle limbs

Lower limbs

Lower limbs

Calcaneum and phalanges

Calcaneum and phalanges

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

0.00

2.00

0.50

Head

Head

Vertebral spine

Vertebral spine

Ribs

Ribs

Girdles

Girdles

Upper limbs

Upper limbs

Middle limbs

Middle limbs

Lower limbs

Lower limbs

Calcaneum and phalanges

Calcaneum and phalanges 1.00

2.00

Layer 11

Layer 6

0.50

1.50

MNE (observed/expected)

MNE (observed/expected)

0.00

1.00

1.50

0.00

2.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

MNE (observed/expected)

MNE (observed/expected)

Layer 13 Head Vertebral spine Ribs Girdles Upper limbs Middle limbs Lower limbs Calcaneum and phalanges 0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

MNE (observed/expected)

Figure 6: Anatomical representation patterns for huemul in CCP7.

25

2.00

Mariana E. De Nigris 100 90 80

Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Stratigraphic Units

Axial

Appendicular

Figure 7: Processing marks in axial and appendicular elements of guanaco. 100 90 80

Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Stratigraphic Units Axial

Appendicular

Figure 8: Processing marks in axial and appendicular elements of huemul.

26

17

18

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

1078

Chinchilla (Chinchillidae)

Piche (Zaedyus pichii)

Indeterminate birds

Passerines

Anatinae

Condor (Vultur gryphus)

Cauquen (Chloephaga sp.)

Rheidae

NISP total

-

Skunk (Mustelidae)

-

-

-

Fox (Dusicyon sp.)

31

33

Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) Puma (Felis concolor)

27 1046

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

400

297

Guanaco (Lama guanicoe)

335

1

455

-

Medium mammals

-

278

Layer 2

Artiodactyla

-

291

Layer 1

Small mammals

Indeterminate mammals

Taxon

2645

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

71

984

812

-

-

775

Layer 4

571

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

-

-

13

278

211

-

-

67

Layer 5

871

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

-

30

415

309

2

-

111

Layer 6

Table 1: Number of identifed specimens per taxon at CCP7

649

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

6

184

155

1

-

302

Layer 3

NISP by stratigraphic unit

378

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

9

159

139

-

2

69

Layer 7

414

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

13

142

152

1

-

104

Layer 8

228

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

4

95

96

-

-

32

Layer 9

Zooarchaeology of South America

1

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

758

Chinchillidae

Piche (Zaedyus pichii)

Indeterminate birds

Passerines

Anatinae

Condor (Vultur gryphus)

Cauquen (Chloephaga sp.)

Rheidae

NISP total

-

Skunk (Mustelidae)

-

1

-

Fox (Dusicyon sp.)

54

27

28 915

-

2

-

3

-

18

4

-

1

1

-

26

361

306

2

5

186

Layer 12

1005

1

-

-

6

-

15

1

-

-

-

2

31

424

355

3

3

164

Layer 13

388

1

4

-

1

-

13

-

-

1

-

-

5

117

152

-

2

92

Layer 14

232

-

3

-

-

1

9

-

-

-

-

-

1

66

93

3

2

54

Layer 15

NISP by stratigraphic unit

Table 1: Number of identified specimens per taxon at CCP7 (continued)

1193

1

-

-

-

1

9

1

-

5

-

431

296

Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) Puma (Felis concolor)

442

1

291

2

Medium mammals

-

247

Layer 11

Artiodactyla

-

139

Layer 10

Small mammals

Indeterminate mammals

Taxon

163

1

-

-

-

-

15

1

-

-

-

-

1

42

67

-

5

31

Layer 16

227

-

2

-

1

-

12

-

-

-

-

-

-

57

93

-

10

52

Layer 17

68

-

-

-

-

-

3

-

-

-

-

-

-

18

28

-

1

18

Layer 18

Mariana E. De Nigris

-

-

-

9

Cauquen (Chloephaga sp.)

Rheidae

MNI total

-

Piche (Zaedyus pichii)

Condor (Vultur gryphus)

-

Chinchillidae

-

-

Fox (Dusicyon sp.)

Anatinae

-

Skunk (Mustelidae)

-

-

-

Passerines

2

2

29

15

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

12

2

7

1

Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) Puma (Felis concolor)

Taxon

6

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

4

3

19

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

15

4

11

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

1

7

6

4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

7

3

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

8

4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

2

9

9

-

-

-

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

2

4

10

Table 2: Minimum number of individuals at CCP7

6

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

4

5

11

1

-

-

-

1

1

-

1

-

1

2

4

11

MNI by stratigraphic unit

9

-

1

-

1

-

1

-

1

1

-

1

3

12

9

1

-

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

2

4

13

7

1

1

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

2

14

4

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

15

4

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

16

3

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

17

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

18

Zooarchaeology of South America

Mariana E. De Nigris

Stratigraphic Unit

Bone Density

Meat Utility

Layer 1

rs= 0.56 p