X-rays. A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References 1-57806-578-X, 1-57806-579-8

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A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R EFERENCES

J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS

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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright Ó2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright Ó2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1

Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960X-rays: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-597-84246-9 1. X-rays-Popular works. I. Title.

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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.

Copyright Notice If a physician wishes to copy limited passages from this book for patient use, this right is automatically granted without written permission from ICON Group International, Inc. (ICON Group). However, all of ICON Group publications have copyrights. With exception to the above, copying our publications in whole or in part, for whatever reason, is a violation of copyright laws and can lead to penalties and fines. Should you want to copy tables, graphs, or other materials, please contact us to request permission (E-mail: [email protected]). ICON Group often grants permission for very limited reproduction of our publications for internal use, press releases, and academic research. Such reproduction requires confirmed permission from ICON Group International, Inc. The disclaimer above must accompany all reproductions, in whole or in part, of this book.

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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on x-rays. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.

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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications.

Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.

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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes&Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health

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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON X-RAYS ...................................................................................................... 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 The Combined Health Information Database................................................................................. 3 Federally Funded Research on X-rays ......................................................................................... 12 E-Journals: PubMed Central ....................................................................................................... 40 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed ................................................................................ 43 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND X-RAYS ............................................................................................ 59 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 59 Finding Nutrition Studies on X-rays .......................................................................................... 59 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 63 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 63 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND X-RAYS ...................................................................... 65 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 65 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 65 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 67 General References ....................................................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON X-RAYS ........................................................................................ 73 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 73 Dissertations on X-rays ............................................................................................................... 73 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 76 CHAPTER 5. CLINICAL TRIALS AND X-RAYS ................................................................................... 77 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 77 Recent Trials on X-rays ............................................................................................................... 77 Keeping Current on Clinical Trials ............................................................................................. 79 CHAPTER 6. PATENTS ON X-RAYS ................................................................................................... 81 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 81 Patents on X-rays ........................................................................................................................ 81 Patent Applications on X-rays................................................................................................... 118 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 156 CHAPTER 7. BOOKS ON X-RAYS .................................................................................................... 157 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 157 Book Summaries: Federal Agencies............................................................................................ 157 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers ......................................................................................... 161 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ........................................................................... 168 Chapters on X-rays .................................................................................................................... 169 CHAPTER 8. MULTIMEDIA ON X-RAYS.......................................................................................... 171 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 171 Video Recordings ....................................................................................................................... 171 Bibliography: Multimedia on X-rays ......................................................................................... 172 CHAPTER 9. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON X-RAYS ....................................................................... 175 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 175 News Services and Press Releases.............................................................................................. 175 Newsletter Articles .................................................................................................................... 178 Academic Periodicals covering X-rays....................................................................................... 180 CHAPTER 10. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS................................................................................. 181 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 181 U.S. Pharmacopeia..................................................................................................................... 181 Commercial Databases ............................................................................................................... 182 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES .......................................................................................... 187 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 187

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NIH Guidelines.......................................................................................................................... 187 NIH Databases........................................................................................................................... 189 Other Commercial Databases..................................................................................................... 192 The Genome Project and X-rays ................................................................................................ 192 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 197 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 197 Patient Guideline Sources.......................................................................................................... 197 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................. 205 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES ................................................................................ 207 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 207 Preparation................................................................................................................................. 207 Finding a Local Medical Library................................................................................................ 207 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................. 207 ONLINE GLOSSARIES ................................................................................................................ 213 Online Dictionary Directories ................................................................................................... 215 X-RAYS DICTIONARY ................................................................................................................ 217 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 287

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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading." 1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with x-rays is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a nonsystematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about x-rays, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to x-rays, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on x-rays. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to x-rays, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on x-rays. The Editors

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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.

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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on xrays.

The Combined Health Information Database The Combined Health Information Database summarizes studies across numerous federal agencies. To limit your investigation to research studies and x-rays, you will need to use the advanced search options. First, go to http://chid.nih.gov/index.html. From there, select the “Detailed Search” option (or go directly to that page with the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html). The trick in extracting studies is found in the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Journal Article.” At the top of the search form, select the number of records you would like to see (we recommend 100) and check the box to display “whole records.” We recommend that you type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. Consider using the option “anywhere in record” to make your search as broad as possible. If you want to limit the search to only a particular field, such as the title of the journal, then select this option in the “Search in these fields” drop box. The following is what you can expect from this type of search: ·

Treatment Plan for Urinary Stones Source: Patient Care. 29(10): 22-25, 29-33, 37-38. May 30, 1995. Contact: Available from Medical Economics Publishing Company, 5 Paragon Drive, Montvale, NJ 07645. (201) 358-7200. Summary: In this article, the authors outline a treatment plan for urinary stones, focusing on the differential diagnosis for this problem. Topics covered include the clinical presentation; conditions that mimic urinary stone pain; the patient history and examination; diagnostic tests, including x-rays, intravenous pyelography, and ultrasonography; stone complications; the different types of kidney stones, including calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, cystine, struvite, and uric acid; and treatment options, including flushing the stone out, the use of pain medications, extracorporeal

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shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL), and ureteroscopy; preventing recurrence of urinary tract stones, including the use of diet therapy, increased liquid intake, and medication; the indications for posttreatment assessment; and risk factors for stone formation. The author includes a detailed patient care flowchart on diagnosing and treating urinary stones. Sidebars list the drugs mentioned in the article; medications that can promote stone production or growth; and the indications for a referral to a urologist. 1 figure. 4 tables. 10 references. ·

Paraduodenal Hernia: A Treatable Cause of Upper Gastrointestinal Tract Symptoms Source: Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 31(3): 226-229. October 2000. Contact: Available from Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Inc. 12107 Insurance Way, Hagerstown, MD 21740. (800) 638-3030 or (301) 714-2300. Summary: Paraduodenal hernia (PDH) is an unusual condition that is caused by congenital (present at birth) intestinal malrotation and that results in small intestinal obstruction. Noncatastrophic presenting symptoms and their responses to surgery have not been well characterized. This article reports on a study in which barium upper gastrointestinal (UGI) series and small bowel followup x-rays, performed from December 1995 to September 1996, were sequentially reviewed to identify patients with small bowel series compatible with a PDH. Case histories were reviewed for symptomatic presentation, associated evaluation, and treatment. Based on the 294 UGIs and small bowel followthroughs performed during this 10 month period, 6 cases were suspected to have a PDH. A right PDH was confirmed in the three patients who underwent surgical exploration (prevalence 1 percent). Preoperative patient symptoms included nausea, bilious vomiting, and right upper quadrant pain. Repair of the hernia defect resulted in complete resolution of chronic symptoms. Preoperative upper endoscopy, performed in three patients, was not helpful in identifying the disorder. Preoperative computerized tomography obtained in two patients was diagnostic for a right PDH. One symptomatic patient with vomiting and gastric stasis did not have surgery because of a terminal illness. The remaining two patients had no symptoms attributable to PDH. The authors conclude that patients with PDH frequently have chronic UGI symptoms. An upper endoscopy cannot be used to exclude this entity. After surgery, UGI symptoms from PDH are likely to resolve. 5 figures. 18 references.

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IBS: Ruling Out Organic Disease Source: Emergency Medicine. 22(14): 76, 78. August 15, 1990. Summary: The diagnosis of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) requires that other causes of symptoms be ruled out, which may require endoscopy as well as dietary changes, empirical drug treatment, and X-rays. This brief article discusses ruling out organic disease before making a diagnosis of IBS. The author notes that thorough objective evaluation is essential, in part because the history can be undependable in distinguishing organic from functional disease in a person with ongoing gastrointestinal (GI) complaints that have no ready explanation. Lactose intolerance is so common that all patients with GI complaints who do not have an obvious organic problem should try a lactose-free diet for two weeks before undergoing expensive diagnostic procedures. The article summarizes diagnostic procedures and recommended workups for GI complaints.

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Laboratory Tests in End Stage Renal Disease Patients Undergoing Dialysis Source: Health Technology Assessment. Number 2: 1-12. May 1994.

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Contact: Available from Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. AHCPR Publications Clearinghouse, P.O. Box 8547, Silver Spring, MD 20907. (800) 358-9295. PRICE: Single copy free. Order Number: 94-0053. Summary: The Office of Health Technology Assessment (OHTA) evaluates the risks, benefits, and clinical effectiveness of new or unestablished medical technologies. The report is the OHTA report on laboratory tests used in end stage renal disease (ESRD) patients undergoing dialysis. The author reassesses the clinical usefulness, necessity, and frequency requirements for four laboratory tests in this population. The four tests are in a category titled 'other than routinely performed' and comprise nerve conduction velocity tests, electrocardiograms (ECGs), chest x-rays, and tests for hepatitis-associated antigens. The author reviews the literature and information regarding these tests from groups both within and outside the federal government. The author concludes that, although the government allows reimbursement for the routine performance of these tests at specified frequencies, there is no reliable evidence to support the usefulness of such tests. Only in the case of nerve conduction tests (NCT) is there substantial literature that addresses the usefulness of this type of test in a manner specific for ESRD. 4 tables. 42 references. ·

Radiation Proctitis Source: Practical Gastroenterology. 15(1): 15-21. January 1991. Summary: This article discusses radiation proctitis and includes a review of the effects of X-rays on tissue and the evolution of symptomatic intestinal injury, and concludes with an outline of the clinical manifestations and treatment of this disorder. Specific topics include the incidence of radiation proctitis, the effects of ionizing radiation on tissue, additional factors affecting cell survival, acute radiation injury, vascular changes, radiation pathology and the development of symptoms, the clinical presentation and diagnostic evaluation of this condition, rectal bleeding, and future improvements in therapy. The author concludes that the current therapy for advanced radiation injury to the intestine and rectum is generally not satisfactory. 2 figures. 1 table. 18 references.

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Bringing High Technology Down to Earth Source: Access. 10(4): 23-29. April 1995. Contact: Available from American Dental Hygienists' Association (ADHA). 444 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611. (800) 243-2342 or (312) 440-8900; Fax (312) 4408929; E-mail: [email protected]; http://www.adha.org. Summary: This article discusses recent advances in the technology used in the dental care setting. Topics covered include the intraoral camera, as well as the links between the intraoral camera and other electronic and computerized mechanisms, such as voiceactivated charting systems and digital radiography; voice-activated computers in the dental operatory, notably their benefits in time and cost savings, as well as in infection control; advances in computer-generated X-rays, including the use of digital radiography or radiovisiography (RVG) images; the use of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD-CAM) for taking impressions for ceramic inlays, onlays, and veneers; insurance coverage; the computerized, standardized force periodontal probe; and innovations that make oral healthcare visits more comfortable and anxiety-free, including video glasses, and electronic anesthesia. One section covers the various uses of lasers in oral health care. One sidebar explores micro ultrasonic scaling in detail; another lists organizations and publications through which readers can obtain more information about new technologies in the dental field.

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Quick Retrieval of Swallowed Objects Prevent Further Complications Such as Peritonitis Source: RDH. Registered Dental Hygienist. 17(5): 38-42. May 1997. Contact: Available from Registered Dental Hygienist (RDN). P.O. Box 3306, Tulsa, OK 74101. (800) 633-1681 or (609) 730-1717. Summary: This article for dental hygienists describes how quick retrieval of swallowed objects can prevent further complications such as peritonitis. The author first presents two case reports; in the first, the dental hygienist was able to prevent the patient from swallowing an object (the rubber cup from the end of the disposable angle tooth polisher); in the second, the patient swallowed a three-unit bridge. The author emphasizes that in every case, a patient who has swallowed an object during dental hygiene care must get immediate medical care and X-rays to try and locate the foreign object. The author stresses that prevention is the best approach and briefly reviews some of the common equipment problems that can occur and how to prevent them. The article concludes with sections on what to do when an object is dropped into the oral cavity and what to do when the airway is obstructed.

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Foreign Body Aspiration Source: Access. 9(4): 37-41. April 1995. Contact: Available from American Dental Hygienists' Association (ADHA). 444 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611. (800) 243-2342 or (312) 440-8900; Fax (312) 4408929; E-mail: [email protected]; http://www.adha.org. Summary: This article informs the oral health care professional of the signs and symptoms of foreign body aspiration (FBA), a serious situation that may occur during the delivery of health care services. The authors focus on the diagnosis and management of FBA, as well as on preventive measures. Foreign objects of dental origin cited as being aspirated include teeth, endodontic instruments, prosthetic appliances such as crowns, bridges or dentures, rubber prophylaxis, or other dental materials. Specific topics covered include the symptoms of an FBA incident; the utility of X-rays in diagnosing and/or confirming FBA; removal of the foreign object, including endoscopic techniques; emergency treatment protocols; and concerns about litigation arising from FBA. 9 figures. 19 references. (AA-M).

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What You Need to Know About GERD in Children: Is Spitting Up a Sign of a More Serious Problem? Source: Digestive Health and Nutrition. p. 6. May-June 1999. Contact: Available from American Gastroenterological Association. 7910 Woodmont Avenue, 7th Floor, Bethesda, MD 20814. (877) DHN-4YOU or (301) 654-2055, ext. 650. Email: [email protected]. Summary: This article offers parents information about gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in children. The author notes that the symptoms of GERD in children are not always obvious. Acid return, or reflux, is common in children under one year of age; perhaps as many as 40 percent have what is known as simple functional reflux. Most cases cause little concern, but when the baby is not gaining weight, is not eating, vomits blood, or develops frequent pneumonia, the physician must be consulted immediately. Diagnosis is usually made by a doctor based simply on the clinical signs. However, in children with more significant symptoms, tests are important for establishing the

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presence of GERD and ruling out other conditions. Diagnostic tests for children are similar to those used in adults, including acid monitoring of the esophagus and upper GI series (x-rays of the digestive area). Secondary GERD, or GERD that results from an unrelated underlying condition, occurs in a large proportion of young patients. Frequent vomiting is one hint of secondary GERD that should prompt parents to consult a doctor to help uncover the cause. Some of the underlying conditions that may cause secondary GERD include enlarged tonsils, enlarged thyroid, cysts and tumors of the stomach and bowels, infection and certain genetic disorders. ·

Anaesthesia for Dental Conservation in a Patient with Tuberous Sclerosis Source: European Journal of Anaesthesiology. 13(4): 413-415. July 1996. Summary: This article presents a case report of anesthesia for dental conservation in a patient with tuberous sclerosis, complicated by epilepsy. Tuberous sclerosis is an inherited condition characterized by seizures, learning difficulties, and behavioral problems in which adenomatous lesions may occur in the skin, heart, and kidneys. The clinical onset is usually in early childhood. Phenytoin and epanutin required to control seizures can cause gingival hypertrophy, tenderness and bleeding. Routine dental examination and care is often impossible without sedation or general anesthesia. The choice of drugs was related to the patient's seizures and intercurrent therapy. Thiopentone, vecuronium, and nitrous oxide with isoflurane were satisfactory. The procedure lasted 90 minutes and included full examination, dental x-rays, scaling, filling, and extraction of teeth. The authors discuss this case and how their findings can be extrapolated to similar patients.

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Small Bowel Enteroscopy: A How-To Guide Source: Endoscopy Review. 7(8): 36-50. October 1990. Summary: This article presents a how-to guide to small bowel enteroscopy. Endoscopic evaluation of the entire small intestine has long been desired. Design of special endoscopes necessary to reach into the 12-15 feet of the small bowel began in 1974. The work of these early investigators led to the development of the present state-of-the-art instrument. The SIF-SW released this year by Olympus Corporation is the first commercially available endoscope able to transverse the entire small bowel. Experience with this instrument at Mount Sinai Hospital in over 500 patients has also led to the development of a technique of enteroscopy that allows evaluation of most of the small bowel within 8 hours. Numerous figures illustrate the equipment used, each step of the procedure, and X-rays of the enteroscope placement. Eight endoscopic views are included. 11 references. (AA-M).

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Are You on the Kidney Transplant Waiting List? Here Are Some Things You Should Know Source: For Patients Only. 10(6): 30-32. November-December 1997. Contact: Available from For Patients Only. 18 East 41st Street, New York, NY 10017. (818) 704-5555. Fax (818) 704-6500. Summary: This article provides patients with information about the kidney transplant waiting list. The authors note that improvements in immunosuppression and in communications have been made in the last few years. They describe some of these changes and then address common questions that kidney patients or donors may have. Topics include the repercussions of functioning with only one kidney, the short and

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long term risks of being a kidney donor, the psychological consequences of being a kidney donor, the benefits for the kidney transplant recipient, the qualifications for living donors, the diagnostic tests and evaluation required of living donors (including tissue typing, crossmatching and antibody screen, urinalysis, x-rays, and arteriogram), the surgical procedure itself, and cost factors (including health insurance coverage). Readers are encouraged to find out more about any questions they may have regarding kidney donation or the transplant procedure. The article concludes with a brief description of each of the eight contributors to the article. 1 figure. ·

Medical Management of Small Bowel Motility Disorders and Chronic Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction Source: Practical Gastroenterology. 16(8): 25-26, 28, 30, 33-34, 37. September 1992. Summary: This article reviews the practical management of small intestinal motility disorders resulting in either stasis or accelerated transit. The authors stress that the rational management of patients with intestinal motility disorders and chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction requires a thorough clinical and pathophysiologic evaluation. Topics covered include diagnostic tests, including abdominal radiographs, contrast xrays, and upper gastrointestinal manometry; identifying underlying conditions; locating parts that have abnormal motor function; correction of dehydration and electrolyte depletion in these disorders; nutritional support; pharmacologic treatment; the Roux-enY syndrome; and small bowel dysmotility and accelerated transit. 3 figures. 2 tables. 32 references.

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Pregnant Dental Patient Source: CDA Journal. California Dental Association Journal. 23(8): 63-70. August 1995. Contact: Available from California Dental Association (CDA). 120 K Street, Sacramento, CA 95814. (916) 443-0505. Summary: This article summarizes the current scientific literature, draws from interviews with experts, and describes universally-accepted methods of handling the dental needs of pregnant patients. The author offers general guidelines to aid in understanding the medical constraints of pregnant patients and to provide for their care. Topics include diet and dietary counseling, oral complications of pregnancy, the trimester approach to dental care, dental emergencies, radiographs (dental X-rays), and medications, including antibiotics, analgesics, and sedative agents. The author concludes that with careful attention to the special needs of pregnant patients, the dental team can provide high quality dental care while minimizing potential risks to mother and fetus. 1 table. 17 references. (AA-M).

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Diagnostic GI Tests Source: Newsletter For People With Lactose Intolerance and Milk Allergy. p. 3-5. Fall 1991. Contact: Available from Jane Zukin. C/O Commercial Writing and Design, P.O. Box 3129, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-3129. Summary: This article, from a newsletter for people with lactose intolerance and milk allergy, reviews a variety of diagnostic tests used to diagnose gastrointestinal (GI) problems. Tests discussed include X-rays, blood tests, bacterial cultures, endoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, barium enema/lower G.I., barium meal/upper G.I., colonoscopy,

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gastroscopy, proctoscopy, and occult stool examination. Recommendations for screening for those people at risk for certain GI problems are mentioned briefly. ·

Urology: History, Investigations and New Developments Source: Nursing Times. 91(34): 26-29. August 23, 1995. Summary: This article, from a nursing journal, provides an introduction to the speciality of urology, focusing on the diagnostic procedures concerned with urological disorders. Topics include the urological patient; typical urological investigations, including medical history, plain X-rays, intravenous urograms, urodynamics, and cystoscopy; new developments in laparoscopic surgery and reconstructive surgery; and the treatment options for patients with benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). Two sidebars summarize the historical developments in urology and the technique of intravenous urograms. 3 figures. 1 table. 16 references.

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Wrist Injuries: Part 2: Spotting and Treating Troublemakers Source: The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 26(10):62-70. October 1998. Contact: The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 4530 W. 77th St., Minneapolis, MN 55435. (612) 835- 3222. FAX (612) 835-3460. Summary: This article, second in a two-part series, examines the treatment of wrist injuries in the athlete. The author describes methods of examining the joint to determine the extent and type of injury. For each type of possible injury, sample x-rays and anatomical sketches are given, as well as methods of treatment. Injuries discussed include carpal tunnel syndrome, scaphoid fractures, dorsal ganglion cysts, and intersection syndrome. Honing says that accurate diagnosis allows proper treatment and healing, and therefore avoids chronic pain and injury. (12 refs.)

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Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) Source: RN. Volume 53: 53-54. April 1990. Summary: This brief article describes endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, a diagnostic exam that studies the pancreas, the gallbladder, and the biliary tree. During the procedure, the doctor will examine the biliary tree visually, using an endoscope, a long flexible instrument passed through the mouth into the duodenum. Contrast dye will be injected into the bile ducts prior to x-rays being taken. Written for the person about to undergo the diagnostic test, the article includes details about preparing for the test, what will happen during the procedure, and what happens afterward. A line drawing of the pancreas, gallbladder, and other surrounding organs is included.

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Go See a Nephrologist Source: in Shtasel, P. Medical Tests and Diagnostic Procedures: A Patients Guide to Just What the Doctor Ordered. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers. 1990. p. 66-69. Contact: Available from Harper and Row Publishers. 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022. (212) 207-7000, (800) 242-7737 or (800) 982 4377. Summary: This chapter describes diagnostic procedures employed by a nephrologist regarding evaluation of kidney disease. It covers physical examination, laboratory testing, electrocardiogram, nuclear imaging, ultrasound, x-rays, and biopsy. For each procedure it provides information about discomfort, hazard, hospitalization, informed consent requirement, and special preparation, and exam time.

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Common Sports-Related Injuries of the Elbow Source: Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine. 20(7): 324-334. July 2003. Summary: This journal article discusses sports-related elbow injuries associated with overuse and trauma. Trauma of the elbow occurs when the patient falls with an outstretched hand, causing dislocation if the elbow is flexed, or fracture, if the elbow is extended. These injuries are most common in children. Direct impact to the elbow may also cause fractures. Overuse injuries occur when a muscle is elongated during active contraction causing muscle-tendon units to tear. Examples of overuse injuries are tennis elbow and medial tennis elbow. Combined injuries result from tears or ruptures to ligaments weakened by overuse and include little leaguer's elbow, a condition in which tension from a stretched ulnar collateral ligament and flexor-- pronator muscle group can cause a fracture of the medial epicondylar apophysis; chrondomalacia of the olecranon compartment; and common flexor tendon injury due to valgus stress during throwing. It is important to note the appearance of soft tissues, palpate for tenderness, check mobility, and assess stability during the physical examination. X-rays can detect fractures and dislocations. MRIs may be used to evaluate soft tissue or confirm a subtle diagnosis. Initial treatment includes icing, NSAID use, elevation and use of a sling, or bracing for overuse injuries. Traumatic injuries require protective splinting. 5 figures, 1 table, 17 references. (AAM).

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Taking the Mystery Out of Back Pain Source: American Family Physician. 53(2):683-684. February 1, 1996. Contact: American Academy of Family Physicians. 11400 Tomahawk Creek Parkway, Leawood, KS 66211-2672. (800) 274-2237 or (913) 906-6000. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.aafp.org. Summary: This journal article for individuals with back pain uses a question-andanswer format to provide an overview of back pain. Questions deal with the causes of acute back pain, the ineffectiveness of X-rays in diagnosing the cause of back pain, drugs that will relieve back pain, and other approaches to easing back pain. In addition, a list of suggestions for minimizing back pain is presented.

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Arthritis: Types and Diagnosis Source: Women's Health Digest. 2(2):122-125; 1996. Summary: This journal article for the general public and individuals with arthritis describes common rheumatic diseases. Connective tissue diseases include juvenile arthritis, lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, and Sjogren's syndrome. Examples of arthritis associated with spondylitis are ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis. Types of infectious arthritis include Lyme disease and Reiter's syndrome. Metabolic diseases associated with rheumatic states are gout and pseudogout. Extra-articular disorders include bursitis and tendinitis. A common condition that may or may not be a specific disease is fibromyalgia. The major warning signs of arthritis are outlined. Techniques commonly used in the diagnosis of arthritis are discussed, focusing on the physical examination; laboratory tests, such as blood tests and joint aspiration; and radiologic studies, such as conventional x-rays, an arthrogram, radionuclide bone scans, computerized axial tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and arthroscopy. 4 references and 2 figures.

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Rheumatic Disease: Which Diagnostic Tests Are Useful? Source: Patient Care. 33(5): 83-84,87,91-92,94,99-102. March 15, 1999. Summary: This journal article provides health professionals with information on laboratory tests that enhance the process of diagnosing suspected rheumatic disease. The article addresses issues about test selection that apply mainly to common rheumatologic diseases in adults, including osteoarthritis (OA), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjogren's syndrome, psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis, and gout. Plain x-ray films typically suffice for a diagnosis of OA, and no blood or other laboratory tests are available to diagnose it. However, patients with RA frequently have a blood count that indicates the anemia of chronic disease and an acute-phase response indicator. Rheumatoid factor is often present at relatively high levels. X-rays of the involved joints may be useful for suspected RA, and a parvovirus titer may be worthwhile in some patients. Assessing the antinuclear antibody (ANA) titer has become the standard approach for diagnosing suspected SLE, Sjogren's syndrome, mixed connective tissue disease, and other connective tissue diseases. However, a positive test is not specific for these disorders, so ANA test results are most relevant when considered within the context of the patient's history and physical examination. The standard ANA test in the United States is the fluorescent antinuclear antibody test. Follow-up with a specific ANA test may be worthwhile in patients with a positive ANA test whose history and physical examination suggest SLE. Specific tests include the anti-Smith, anti-ribonucleoprotein, anti-SS-A/Ro, and anti-SS-B/La antibody tests. Complement testing may be useful if SLE is suspected. In addition, anticardiolipin antibodies are especially prevalent in patients with SLE. Although identification of the HLA-B27 allele is thought of as a diagnostic test for the spondyloarthropathies, it is not the most reliable source of information for diagnosis. A blood uric acid test is often used when gout is suspected, but it has disadvantages. A more reliable indicator of gout is the identification of urate crystals in a sample of fluid withdrawn from the affected joint or from tophi around the elbow or ear. Although the erythrocyte sedimentation rate test is commonly used as a test for inflammation, some experts question its value in patients with rheumatic disease. However, it is useful for diagnosing polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. 1 figure and 3 tables.

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Drug-Induced Taste and Smell Disorders: Incidence, Mechanisms and Management Related Primarily to Treatment of Sensory Receptor Dysfunction Source: Drug Safety. 11(5): 318-377. November 1994. Summary: This lengthy article describes the incidence, mechanisms, and management of drug-induced taste and smell disorders. The author stresses that drugs in every major pharmacological category can impair both taste and smell function and do so more commonly than presently appreciated. Impairment usually affects sensory function at a molecular level, causing 2 major behavioral changes: loss of acuity (i.e., hypogeusia and hyposmia) or distortion of function (i.e., dysgeusia and dysosmia). These changes can impair appetite and food intake, cause significant lifestyle changes, and may require discontinuation of drug administration. Seventeen sections cover the pathology of taste and smell function; cardiovascular drugs; anti-infectives; anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic and antigout drugs; drugs used in endocrine disorders; vitamins and vitamin derivatives; antiasthmatics, nasal decongestants, and antihistamines; opioids; psychotropic drugs; muscle relaxants; anorectics, anti-Parkinsonian, and anticonvulsant drugs; antineoplastics and immunosuppressives; X-rays; antiemetic, antiulcer, and antispasmodic drugs; antimigraine drugs; antismoking and antialcohol agents; and

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other agents, including radiocontrast agents, heavy metals, vapor phase pollutants, pesticides, and local anesthetics. 4 figures. 15 tables. 682 references. (AA-M). ·

Dental Luxation and Avulsion Source: AJN. American Journal of Nursing. 97(9): 48. September 1997. Summary: Through the case report of a 10 year old who loses a tooth during hockey practice, this article describes the nursing care procedures for dealing with dental luxation (displacement of a tooth from its normal position within the alveolar socket) and avulsion (the tearing of a tooth completely from its socket). The author describes emergency patient assessment, notes typical causes of tooth loss and luxation, reports the management of these conditions, and outlines recommended follow up procedures. The author notes that an avulsed tooth can be saved with rapid implantation. However, chances for success are best if the tooth is reimplanted within two hours. After emergency treatment, patients are referred to their own dentist, who will take X-rays to check tooth placement. If the injured tooth or teeth were replaced appropriately, they will be wired together or splinted to the surrounding teeth for healing. Follow up will continue for up to two years, to ascertain that teeth are realigned properly, the roots are healthy, and no abscesses have formed.

Federally Funded Research on X-rays The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to x-rays. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to x-rays. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use animals or simulated models to explore x-rays. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for x-rays: ·

Project Title: 3D OPTICAL IMAGING AND DIGITAL X-RAY OF BREAST LESIONS Principal Investigator & Institution: Boas, David A.; Assistant Professor; Massachusetts General Hospital 55 Fruit St Boston, Ma 02114 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2007 Summary: X-Ray mammography has contributed to a reduction in mortality due to breast cancer. It is inherently limited, though, as it is incapable of direct observation of physiological information relevant to the "functioning of cancer," which ultimately limits the specificity and prognostic ability of X-Ray mammography. Diffuse optical

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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).

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tomography (or tomographic optical breast imaging) is a promising imaging modality that provides information on the functioning and evolution of cancer - in particular, angiogenesis and hemoglobin oxygen saturation. It suffers, however, from limited spatial resolution relative to X- Ray, and this inhibits structural guidance and interpretation of the images obtained. This obstacle can be overcome by acquiring diffuse optical and X-Ray mammographic images "simultaneously" - that is, by combining the two modalities in a pioneering effort to overcome their respective limitations, mammography limited by specificity and optical limited by resolution, to produce a new multi-modality imaging method with enhanced specificity and prognostic value. We propose to advance the clinical utility of tomographic optical breast imaging by synergistically fusing the diffuse optical technology with state-of-theart digital X-Ray mammographic 3D tomography (known as Tomosynthesis), thus producing a multi-modality imaging method that integrates structural and functional information relevant to the screening and diagnosis of breast cancer. We believe that this combination will ultimately allow better differentiation of tumors through angiogenic and metabolic markers known to have prognostic value. During this grant period we propose to further develop the optical technology and perform a clinical study to explore the optical sensitivity to detecting lesions already indicated by X- Ray, and the optical specificity to identifying malignant lesions as characterized by biopsy. This research project would not be feasible without the clinical research expertise of the Breast Imaging Research Lab, headed by Dr. Kopans. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: A CCD CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC X-RAY DETECTOR WITH LENS OPTICS Principal Investigator & Institution: Westbrook, Edwin M.; Director; Molecular Biology Consortium 835 S Wolcott (M/C 790) Chicago, Il 60612 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 15-MAR-2002; Project End 28-FEB-2005 Summary: We propose to study lens coupling between the phosphor and the CCD sensor in X-ray detectors for macromolecular crystallography. In this project we will develop three technologies: large aperture lenses; high gain phosphors; and backilluminated, large-format CCDs. We have developed a prototype big lens, and we are now characterizing it. We have developed a new phosphor (ZnSe:Cu,Ce,CI) with significantly higher gain and less afterglow than conventional Gd2O2S:Tb. We propose to study and improve on this technology, specifically to find a phosphor that is even faster and brighter, and does not contain selenium. We have begun a program to thin a 61mm CCD for back illumination, thus increasing light conversion efficiency in these large CCDs. We propose to develop ever larger CCDs with faster readout and lower noise, that are back-illuminated. Lens-coupling optics eliminates zingers, dead spaces, and the inherent defects of fiberoptic coupling optics (chickenwire, shear distortion, nonuniform optical transmission). Lens coupling reduces spatial distortions and positional nonuniformities relative to fiberoptic coupling. The point response should be better. With improvements in CCD efficiency and phosphor gain that we expect to realize, and the optical transfer efficiency that these very large lens systems can achieve, the overall system gain (electrons stored in the CCD/incident X ray) should be comparable to or superior to fiberoptic coupling. The detective quantum efficiency (DQE) and dynamic range should also be equivalent or superior to modular mosaic CCD detectors. In production, this technology should be substantially cheaper than mosaic CCDs. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: A DEVICE FOR SELECTING AND REJECTING X-RAY HARMONICS Principal Investigator & Institution: Karanfil, Cahit; Quercus Technologies 838 Highland Ave Oak Park, Il 60304 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 05-MAY-2003; Project End 31-OCT-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): Synchrotron radiation is an important tool for structural biological studies using X-ray diffraction, X-ray scattering, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The quality of data often depends critically on beam spectral quality. The technical limitations (e.g. energy range) of beamlines can make or break experiments. In this application we propose to optimize, design, construct, and test over a wide range of energies a novel, inexpensive, easy to align device ("beam cleaner"). The device has several benefits: improving X-ray beam spectral quality; extending (e.g. tripling) the useful energy range of existing beamlines at third generation synchrotron radiation sources by selecting specific harmonics for experimental use; passively compensating for vertical beam motion as the monochromator angle is changed; and focussing the beam. Beam cleaners offer the potential to simplify new beamline designs by permitting use of channel-cut monochromators in vacuum, followed by a beam cleaner arranged so as to passively compensate for vertical beam motion, without the need for precise in-vacuum mechanics. This device also potentially can be used as a nonbeam-hardening variable attenuator for experiments on radiation sensitive biological samples at intense third generation sources, and the devices also appear to be applicable to laboratory research. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: A PIXEL ARRAY DETECTOR FOR PROTEIN CRYSTALLOGRAPHY Principal Investigator & Institution: Xuong, Nguyen-Huu H.; Professor; Chemistry and Biochemistry; University of California San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, Dept. 0934 La Jolla, Ca 92093 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-JUL-1995; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: In this revised application, funding is requested to design, build and test a modular 50 x 50 pixel array detector that can collect data extremely fast and that can sustain very high radiation level without damage. The Digital Pixel Array Detector will consist of an array of silicon pixel detectors of the size of 150 mu x 150 mu bump bonded to an array of readout circuits also with pixels of the same size. Using microelectronic methods, the readout circuitry, in the form of an ASIC chip, incorporated sophisticated electronics allowing a series of fast readouts in parallel to achieve the desired throughput rate. A 16x16 pixel prototype detector is now working and is being tested exhaustively. Funding is requested to extend this prototype to a modular 50 x 50 pixel detector that can be assembled later on to form a very large detector (up to 2000 x 2000 pixel). Each pixel would collect X-rays at a rate up to10 (6) photons/sec and the throughput rate for the whole detector will be 4x10(11) photons/sec. With almost no readout dead time, it is capable of collecting a complete monochromatic data in 90 seconds. It comes with an electronic shutter that can be timed down to a few microseconds, and is very well suited to time resolved Laue diffraction experiments since it will have enough histogram memory to store up to 8 or 16 successive pictures. For experiments that cannot be repeated, the exposure time would be about 10 ms or longer with enough statistics for a 3% data set. For repeatable experiments, the exposure time can be as small as a few milliseconds. Another property of this detector is that it can select a range of wavelengths of X-ray photons, therefore it can be very helpful in sorting out overlapping reflections in a Laue diffraction experiment.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: A TUNABLE, TABLETOP, SYNCHROTRON LIGHT SOURCE Principal Investigator & Institution: Rifkin, Jeffrey; Lyncean Technologies, Inc. Box 60910 Palo Alto, Ca 94306 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 15-AUG-2002; Project End 14-JUN-2003 Summary: (provided by applicant): Intense x-rays from Synchrotron Radiation sources are having an increasingly revolutionary impact on science and technology, and in particular, macromolecular crystallography. Recent research at Stanford University has led to a new x-ray source that will have a major impact on protein structure determination for health care. The Compact Light Source (CLS) is a breakthrough technology that offers a tunable, tabletop x-ray source that could be used like an x-ray beamline at a large light source. The compact size is achieved through the marriage of a laser and a miniature electron storage ring. The photon flux on a sample will be comparable to many synchrotron beamlines. The overall goals of this proposal are to first engineer, then prototype, and finally demonstrate the performance of the CLS. In Phase I, we will test the laser system and design the electron storage ring. In Phase II, we will build the storage ring, integrate the laser system, and demonstrate x-ray production. The CLS will also provide the foundation for future x-ray applications in the health care field. With the CLS, clinical applications such as non-invasive coronary angiography, diffraction-enhanced imaging, and improved cancer detection could be moved from the laboratory into hospitals throughout the nation. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: ADVAN MICROTOMOGRAPHY

SCINTILLATOR

STRUCTURE

FOR

X-RAY

Principal Investigator & Institution: Nagarkar, Vivek V.; Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. 44 Hunt St Watertown, Ma 02472 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 17-AUG-1998; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: (Provided by Applicant): The availability of synchrotron x-ray radiation advanced micro-focused x-ray generators has sparked new developments in computed tomography (CT), giving rise to a new generation of x-ray microtomography (XMT) instrumentation. XMT carries the CT techniques to their limits in spatial resolution and contrast sensitivity. Thus, the ability to make precise x-ray attenuation measurements on ever-smaller volume elements is made possible by XMT. These advantages have been exploited by scientists in both medical and non-medical applications. Additionally, developments in detectors, computing technology, and 3D visualization have made XMT even more attractive as a research tool. Capabilities of current XMT scanners, however, are severely limited by the existing x-ray sensors. Using conventional sensors, there exists a problematic tradeoff between the thickness and spatial resolution due to lateral light spreading. Persistence of these sensors further limit the scanning speed. To address these issues, we propose to develop a novel scintillator to be incorporated into CCD based XMT systems. The new scintillator will suppress the lateral spread of scintillation light even when the structure is made very thick. For the x-ray energies typically used in XMl, this sensor will provide high resolution, high detection efficiency and fast scanning speed, allowing the full potential of XMT technique to be realized. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: In addition to the application of microtomography, the proposed development of novel pixelized scintillator would find widespread use in instrumentation wherever high-resolution x-ray. imaging is used.

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The technology of micro-machining is adaptable to a wide range of sensors including solid-state detectors, thus opening an access to a wide x-ray imaging market which is currently estimated to be in hundreds of millions of dollars. They may be applied to digital mammography, non-destructive testing, diffraction instruments, and several other medical imaging systems. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: ADVANCED HIGH-RESOLUTION TWO-DIMENSIONAL X-RAY DETECTOR Principal Investigator & Institution: Johnson, Jacqueline A.; Scientist; None; University of Chicago 5801 S Ellis Ave Chicago, Il 60637 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 30-SEP-2003; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): In recent years preventative medicine has proved invaluable to health. In addition, there have been numerous developments in machines and techniques but the "x-ray" is still a staple in medical diagnosis and disease prevention. The proposed new capability will improve the spatial resolution for x-ray detection and allow advances in the diagnosis and treatment of numerous diseases. Improved resolution and ease of read-out can only help in the speed and detail with which a problem can be diagnosed. In combination with complementary imaging methods, the proposed innovation has the potential to increase sensitivity to specific types of tissue damage. A main goal of the research is to develop improved spatial imaging using equal or reduced x-ray fluxes, in this way, the applicability of the technique can be increased. Using, what is in effect a solid-state x-ray detector means that transferring images to computer for analysis or storage is readily accomplished, enabling complementary techniques to be integrated. Current x-ray photon storage materials such as image plates are fundamentally limited in their spatial resolution by scattering in the read-out stage from grain boundaries in the polycrystalline materials, which are used. Imaging with a thin and transparent glass sheet as proposed here minimizes this scattering effect; scattering would therefore no longer be the spatial resolution limiting property of the material. The whole of medicine would benefit from such a detector. Disease could be diagnosed before symptoms develop using improved contrast and targeting. With increased speed of detection and improved image resolution patient comfort is increased and radiation dose decreased. The proposed project will produce experimental glass samples at the University of Paderborn in Germany; initial characterization will be done at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Raman Spectroscopy. The photoluminescence quantum efficiency and spatial resolution of the glasses will be measured at an Advanced Photon Source (APS) beam line and the read-out system will be engineered at Containerless Research Inc. (CRI) in Evanston, IL. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: AN INTRAVASCULAR X-RAY SOURCE FOR RESTENOSIS TREATMENT Principal Investigator & Institution: Shefer, Ruth E.; President; Newton Scientific, Inc. 245 Bent St Cambridge, Ma 02141 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-1999; Project End 31-JAN-2003 Summary: (Applicant's abstract verbatim): The goal of this project is to develop a miniature, catheter-based X-ray source for radiation therapy to prevent restenosis after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty. Restenosis affects 30 percent to 50 percent of

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angioplasty patients within six months of the procedure. Intravascular radiation therapy has been shown to be effective in preventing or significantly delaying restenosis in both coronary and peripheral vessels. Ongoing clinical trials of intravascular brachytherapy for restenosis use gamma or beta-emitting radioisotopes delivered to the angioplasty site via a guide catheter and withdrawn when sufficient dose has been delivered to the arterial segment. These radioactive devices have significant drawbacks, including limited dose rates and fixed dose-depth profiles, safety hazards to patient and medical personnel, and restrictions on transportation, storage and disposal. In Phase I, we evaluated the feasibility of developing a disposable, electrically-powered X-ray source small enough to reach the angioplasty site through a standard guide catheter. Advantages of the proposed source include on-off capability, high radiation dose rate, user-controlled dose-depth profile, and elimination of the regulatory and safety issues that accompany the use of radioactive materials. The Phase I results demonstrate the feasibility of constructing an ultra-miniature X-ray source with the required radiation dose rate and dose-depth characteristics. A fully operational X-ray source and delivery catheter will be developed in Phase II and tested in phantoms. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: Approximately 1,000,000 coronary angioplasty procedures are performed worldwide each year. If radiation therapy for restenosis is proven effective in clinical trials, this represents a large market for catheter-based radiation devices. A flexible, catheter-based X-ray source also has many potential applications in radiation oncology. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: AUTOMATED X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY FOR STRUCTURAL GENOMICS Principal Investigator & Institution: Adams, Paul D.; Structural Biology Division; University of Calif-Lawrenc Berkeley Lab Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley, Ca 94720 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-2001; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: Structural genomics seeks to rapidly expand the database of protein structures to permit the extract8on of much more information from the genomic sequence databases than is currently possible. This requires methods for the rapid determination of macromolecular structures using X-ray crystallography. At present the need for continual manual intervention makes rapid, minimally biased structure solution impossible. Therefore, it is imperative that crystallographic structure determination be automated in the near future. Unfortunately the crystallographic packages currently available, although possessing many powerful features, are collectively too diverse, out-data and lacking in the required functionality to be used as a solution to the problem. Major bottlenecks remain, especially during the process of model building and refinement. Therefore we will build a new system for crystallographic computing that will allow, amongst other things, the creation of new software that combines the powerful automation features of the SOLVE system, the computational flexibility of the Crystallography & NMR System and the automated map interpretation algorithms of the TEXTAL program. This system, named PHENIX, will permit tasks required for the computation of phases, automated map interpretation, model building and refinement, to be integrated with newly developed procedures for automated decision-making. Our ultimate goal is the development of a system that will take x-ray diffraction data and rapidly procedure biased atomic coordinates with little or no human intervention. The advantages of such a system extend beyond the realm of

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structural, genomics, allowing crystallographers to focus on more challenging biological problems. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: CARDIOVASCULAR ANIMAL RESEARCH X-RAY IMAGING SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Kraitchman, Dara L.; Radiology; Johns Hopkins University 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, Md 21218 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-2001; Project End 30-JUN-2003 Summary: This Shared Instrumentation Grant application requests support in purchase of a state of the art digital cardiovascular X-Ray imaging system to replace an existing core research resource unit that is seventeen years old, in need of frequent repair and no longer meets the needs of numerous institutional researchers. The equipment requested consists of a high frequency, 100 KW, single plane, C-Arm mounted X- Ray imaging system that provides high resolution, high magnification digital images at multiple field of view sizes and image acquisition rates consistent with peripheral vascular, neural and cardiac research applications. The system will provide researchers with imaging capabilities consistent with current state of the art clinical systems used for both diagnostic and image guided therapy applications. The system will support, enhance and extend basic and applied research involving twelve investigators with NIH funded research projects that require high resolution digital imaging for vascular catheterization and vascular device employment in animal models, for superselective placement of catheters, electrodes and devices to evaluate organ structure and function, delivery of therapeutic agents and developing new applications of gene and drug therapy. NIH funded projects that demonstrate a need for the equipment to enhance or extend current and future research include four projects that require high resolution cine frame rate digital X-Ray imaging for cardiac catheterization in creating animal models to evaluate MRI indicators of myocardial function, perfusion and ischemia, tissue viability, stress maps of contractility and deformations, electromechanical properties, and in evaluating novel intravascular imaging probes to help guide interventional therapies. Several SCORE grant projects utilize animal models of heart failure which require digital cardiac X-Ray imaging for catheterization procedures, endomyocardial biopsies, LV function studies, superselective intra-coronary artery delivery of gene transfer vectors, and quantitative analysis of heart function using cardiac imaging parameters. Two projects focus on imaging vasculature in rodent tumors and cerebral ischemia models. Additional NIH grant supported work requires digital X-Ray imaging in evaluating a new CCD fluoroscopic system, superselective intravascular delivery of imaging agents in animal models of neurotoxicity, a NIH- Cooperative Research and Development Agreement to evaluate stabilizing agents for intravascular coronary stents, and two NHLBI Research Training Grants. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: COMBINED DIGITAL X-RAY AND ULTRASOUND BREAST IMAGING Principal Investigator & Institution: Carson, Paul L.; Professor; Radiology; University of Michigan at Ann Arbor 3003 South State, Room 1040 Ann Arbor, Mi 481091274 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 27-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2007 Summary: 3D ultrasound will be combined with a full-field digital mammography (DX) system via an automatic scanning mechanism on the DX gantry. It is proposed to take

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full advantage of the many synergisms among an innovative combination of modes of these two modalities for breast cancer diagnosis, and, eventually, detection. The basic and advanced modes implemented and tested in the system are those which should provide relatively independent information about the breast tissues and with which we have extensive, related research experience in the numerous breast imaging groups at the University of Michigan and/or General Electric. Advanced modes include tomosynthesis which, unlike projection imaging, gives x-ray interaction properties of the specific tissues evaluated by the ultrasound methods. Nonlinear elasticity and 3D color flow imaging by ultrasound (UL) provide mechanical and physiological information unavailable from conventional, noncontrast x-ray and ultrasound imaging. Compound and single-view US imaging are complimentary, with the former providing better distal tumor borders and other features helpful to visual and computer-aided diagnosis. In a single positioning, with possible variation in compression, the breast will be imaged by: 1) the basic modes -- projection digital x-ray and full field 3D gray scale ultrasound: 2) the advanced modes -- 3D x-ray tomosynthesis and advanced ultrasound of the mass region (nonlinear elasticity, 3D color flow, and compound imaging). In the main clinical evaluations on 160 women with masses going to biopsy and 40 with simple cysts, the basic and advanced imaging modes will be compared on the same patients and good combinations of modes revealed. The first hypothesis is that the basic combined technique is diagnostically equivalent to the current best practice of high quality mammography plus hand-held ultrasound performed by MQSA-certified radiologists. Linear combinations of the basic and advanced modes will be evaluated for relative diagnostic accuracy. Clinical evaluation of the potential of the combined system for screening of selected populations must follow demonstration of diagnostic equivalence. Developments will be done to objectively illustrate some of the approaches and potential of visual and computer aided diagnosis (CAD) and detection with these multiple modes. In addition to the coregistration inherent in the combined system, image based registration will be applied to correct for modestly differing views, compressions and tissue motions between modalities, modes, UL transducer sweeps, and studies at different times. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: CORE--X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY Principal Investigator & Institution: Pavletich, Nikola P.; Assistant Member; SloanKettering Institute for Cancer Res New York, Ny 10021 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 21-FEB-2003; Project End 31-DEC-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): The goals of the x-ray crystallography facility are: (i) to enable and facilitate the research of MSKCC laboratories that use x-ray crystallography as a tool to address questions in their research programs, and (ii) to provide structural biology and modeling expertise and guidance to non-structural MSKCC laboratories that benefit from the use of available structures in the design and interpretation of experiments. The facility provides, maintains and upgrades the inhouse equipment for data collection, including three Rigaku RU200HB rotating anode xray generators, two using focusing mirrors, and one RAXIS-IIC and two RAXIS-IV image-plate detectors, all equipped with cryo-devices. For data processing, the facility provides and maintains both centralized and distributive computational resources; crystallographic and visualization software packages are maintained on centralized servers, and are upgraded to new versions as they become available. The x-ray facility manager has expertise in the use of the majority of the packages, and has the duty of training new users in the use of the crystallographic hardware and software, and assists

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and troubleshoots when needed. The facility has also set up two collaborations with other institutions in the technological research and development of beamlines at synchrotron facilities. The X9A bending magnet beamline at the Brookhaven National Laboratory was jointly established by MSKCC, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and Rockefeller University, specifically for the application of the MAD method. It employs a full-time beamline scientist responsible for operating the beamline, training and assisting the users. In addition, the facility is part of the Northeastern Collaborative Access Team that has started developing undulator beamlines at the Advanced Photon Source. To enable members of the broader MSKCC scientific community to use x-ray crystallography and other aspects of structural biology in their research, the facility serves as a centralized resource for crystallization expertise and reagents, and for the retrieval and analysis of structures. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: DIGITAL X-RAY IMAGED BASED ON HGL2 POLYCRYSTALLINE FILMS Principal Investigator & Institution: Iwanczyk, Jan S.; Vice President; Photon Imaging, Inc. 19355 Business Center Dr, Ste 8 Northridge, Ca 91324 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2003 Summary: The goal of this proposal is to develop a new detector technology for digital x-ray imaging based on HgI2 polycrystalline films coupled to large area flat panel amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) thin-film transistor (TFT)-addressed readout arrays. This novel imaging detector when optimized will provide order of magnitude improvements in sensitivity to x-rays and superior spatial resolution compared to detectors utilizing scintillating phosphors coupled to a-Si:H readout arrays. The increased sensitivity of the detector will allow for a ten-fold reduction in radiation dose to a patient for an equivalent quality image. The enhancement of the spatial resolution will have a direct impact on the quality of the image, which has paramount importance in many medical diagnostic procedures such as mammography. In addition, digital capabilities will allow for convenient film-less image acquisition, retrieval, and storage. Digital image processing, computer-assisted diagnosis, and the ability to provide real time images have distinct advantages in many medical diagnostics. During Phase I of this proposal we developed techniques for highly controlled growth of polycrystalline HgI2 films in terms of their thickness, sizes of the polycrystalline grains, uniformity of layers and good electrical properties. In the Phase II effort we will finalize the HgI2 film development and construct x-ray imaging detectors using initially small commercial flat panel a-Si:H readouts (approximately 2"x2"). Then we will scale up the film growth equipment and construct large area (approximately 14" x 17") x-ray imaging detector. The film growth process will be optimized for low production cost. This new x- ray imager will be characterized and compared with current commercial detectors in terms of spatial resolution, gain, linearity, noise, uniformity, and detective quantum efficiency. The imaging capabilities will be tested in our laboratory and at UCLA School of Medicine with the use of slits and phantoms. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS: There is a strong interest in application of digital radiographic detectors for medical diagnostic applications, nondestructive evaluation of materials, xray diffraction of biological and other material samples, and astronomical observations. Conservative estimates are that in the medical area alone there are over 600 x-ray images produced per 1000 population per year. The proposed detectors will be highly attractive to this enormous commercial market segment due to the order of magnitude performance improvements that they will offer.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: FLEXIBLE CATHETER FOR THE DELIVERY OF IONIZING RADIATION Principal Investigator & Institution: Cocks, Franklin H.; Mech Engr & Materials Science; Duke University Durham, Nc 27706 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUN-2001; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: (Adapted from the applicant's abstract): The overall goal of this proposed work is to develop a system for delivering therapeutic ionizing xradiation along a flexible, curved path from an extracorporeal x-ray source to an internal body cavity or lumen and depositing this radiation into a desired volume of tissue. Such a device would operate in a manner comparable to the solid optical fiber methods used to transmit laser radiation into interior body cavities. It is indeed based upon similar physical principles, but utilizes reflection along the hollow fiber interior and hence is not affected by any material in contact with the capillary outside surface. A flexible conduit/catheter for transmitting x-rays is possible because of the phenomenon termed total surface specular x-ray reflection, which allows x-ray radiation incident at grazing angles along the interior surface of a hollow capillary to be transmitted without loss of energy. The possibility of using this phenomenon in a medical device does not appear to have been previously recognized. As the interior diameter of the hollow capillaries through which the x-rays are transmitted is reduced, increasingly large bending angles are permitted without loss of the transmitted intensity. Curvatures as sharp as 1 cm are possible using existing lead glasses. Such a conduit/catheter assembly can be used in conjunction with an endoscope or bronchoscope or other flexible assemblies. Radiation could also be delivered via an angiographic catheter or directly via a trochar needle into a lesion. Three specific aims are proposed: 1) to construct such an x-ray carrying conduit/catheter assembly; 2) to measure the deliverable dose rate as a function of x-ray photon energy, capillary diameter, bending radius, and the intensity of the extracorporeal x-ray source; 3) to assess quantitatively the feasibility of this device in clinical practice, particularly with existing endoscopes and bronchoscopes, and as a treatment modality generally. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: HIGH IMAGE QUALITY DIRECT INTRAORAL IMAGING SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Suni, Paul; Suni Imaging Microsystems, Inc. 6840 Via Del Oro. Ste #100 San Jose, Ca 95119 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-1998; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: (provided by the applicant) Scintillator-based CCD-based digital intraoral radiography systems are beginning to replace x-ray film and associated processing equipment in dentists? offices. Foremost on the list of advantages are large reductions in patient x-ray exposure, the ability to perform direct image manipulation, and remote information transmission. However, these systems suffer from a significant reduction in image due to the x-ray light converter that limits the clinician?s ability to diagnose such diseases as periodontitis, caries, and certain oral tumors. This fact is severely limiting acceptance of digital x-ray imaging in dental practices at this time. The Phase I program demonstrated the feasibility of a new concept of producing intraoral digital x-ray sensors. A variety of novel digital imaging arrays were designed, fabricated and tested which exhibited double the dose efficiency and more than double the spatial resolution compared to standard digital x-ray intraoral systems. The results indicated that it will be

22 X-rays

possible to produce intraoral x-ray sensors with over 80 percent detective quantum efficiency for 70 kVp x-rays, and limiting spatial resolution greater than 22 lp/mm. During the Phase II, we shall complete the development of the new intraoral imaging sensor based on a new direct x-ray imaging technology and use it with actual preclinical samples to quantitatively compare results to existing systems. This work will involve CMOS sensor design and x-ray screen converter fabrication to produce the novel sensors required for intraoral imaging procedures. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: The market for digital intraoral imaging systems is estimated to be in excess of $10 billion worldwide. A low-cost, compact intraoral X-ray system with significantly higher image quality than current systems provide will find widespread acceptance in dental operatories. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: HIGH RESOLUTION 3D X-RAY DIFFRACTION MICROSCOPE Principal Investigator & Institution: Kirz, Janos; Physics and Astronomy; State University New York Stony Brook Stony Brook, Ny 11794 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-2001; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: The three dimensional imaging of a small cell by an extended form of X-ray crystallography (or equivalently the development and use of a soft X-ray diffraction microscope for use in cell biology) is proposed. This instrument is designed to provide three-dimensional images of frozen hydrated cellular and sub-cellular structures at better than 20 nm resolution. The instrument does not use optical elements to form the image instead it records the diffraction pattern of the coherently illuminated object, and using techniques borrowed from crystallography, performs the reconstruction using an iterative algorithm. This way the resolution is not limited by the optics, and future developments should improve the resolution limit further. The diffraction pattern from a non-crystalline specimen is a continuous (speckle) pattern. Unlike the case with crystals this pattern contains sufficient information to overcome the phase problem of crystallography by sampling the diffraction pattern at a finer scale. Undulator radiation at the National Synchrotron Light Source is used to provide coherent illumination of the specimen. The diffraction pattern is recorded using a CCD detector. Special care is taken to shield the detector from all but the desired information. A single pattern yields a twodimensional image. To obtain three-dimensional reconstruction the specimen is rotated and a set of diffraction patterns is collected. Frozen hydrated specimens are used to minimize the effects of radiation damage. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: HIGH RESOLUTION CARDIOVASCULAR FLAT-PANEL X-RAY IMAGER Principal Investigator & Institution: Karellas, Andrew; Professor of Radiology, Director of Medi; Radiology; Univ of Massachusetts Med Sch Worcester Office of Research Funding Worcester, Ma 01655 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-2000; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: Recent advances in cardiovascular imaging have contributed to the development of new, widely used lifesaving x-ray interventional procedures. This has prompted concerns about the radiation dose- efficiency of present equipment and techniques. When the equipment is not capable of delivering excellent image quality for visualizing subtle or small vasculature required for challenging diagnostic or therapeutic interventional procedures, physicians have little choice but to prolong

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fluoroscopy or acquire more cine views. This research is aimed at designing, developing and evaluating a new type of high resolution imaging device for cardiac x-ray fluoroscopy and cine imaging. This effort follows the successful research conducted by our group in the past four years to adapt charge-coupled device (CCD) technology to digital mammographic imaging applications. The device will be a CCD-based flat panel detector consisting of four 8 cm x 8 cm CCDs joined in a seamless design to form an area of 16 cm x 16 cm (6.3 x 6.3 inch, 8.9 inch diagonal). The design takes advantage of the low-noise characteristics for which CCDs are known, with a new interline charge transfer design for 30 frame/s or even 60 frames/s fluoroscopic video. The proposed detector and technique circumvents problems due to image lag (smearing), associated with other types of flat panel detectors and is radically different from any other detector of its kind. As far as we know, large scientific grade CCDs have never been developed to operate in the interline transfer mode for video frame rate imaging for x-ray fluoroscopy or any other application. Our system will be x-ray quantum-noise limited and unlike image intensifier systems, it will be free of geometric distortion and veiling glare effects which cause significant loss of contrast. The new system will be able to deliver better detective quantum efficiency (DQE) and spatial resolution in both fluoroscopic and radiographic modes than existing image intensifier-based systems. The improved contrast characteristics would enable better visualization of cardiovascular anatomy and functionality at a reduced radiation dose to the patient. The research will involve the design and manufacturing of the CCD which will be followed by comprehensive adaptation of the device to the fluoroscopic and radiographic tasks. Investigation of the imaging characteristics of the detection system will be conducted through objective and universally accepted metrics such as modulation transfer function (MTF) and frequency dependent detective quantum efficiency (DQE). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: HIGH RESOLUTION X-RAY FLUORESCENCE DETECTOR Principal Investigator & Institution: Zhang, Ke; Hd Technologies, Inc. 3401 Market St, #345 Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 02-MAR-2001; Project End 31-AUG-2002 Summary: (Verbatim from the Applicant's Abstract): It has been demonstrated that multilayer analyzer array detector is advantageous in x-ray fluorescence detection under high flux and dilute metal conditions. With a good rejection rate, about 25 times, and reasonably large solid angle, sub-millimolar concentration can be routinely accessed. However, the performance of the detector is still lagging behind the photon flux and brightness increases at the third or even fourth generation synchrotron sources. With more than 100 to 1000 flux increases at the third generation source, these sources would permit detection of metal concentration in the order of 10 micro-Molar or several ppm range. This will allow the monitoring of some biologically relevant metals in vivo. Thus we propose to develop x-ray fluorescence detector using synthetic multilayer pairs. With two-stage rejection of primary and secondary multilayers, it is anticipated that the rejection rate will exceed 200 times. With a 20 percent throughput, the anticipated gain on the effective count rate can be as high as 40 times on dilute systems. Initial evaluation shows that the detector can be made tunable in a wide energy region and to cover a large solid angle. The major goal for the Phase I project is to design and fabricate a prototype multilayer pair detector. The test and evaluation of the detector performance will aid in the design of a multilayer pair analyzer array detector. Phase II project will develop such a detector to a product. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: The need for a very sensitive and high count rate x-ray fluorescence detector is well justified.

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The instrument will be vital to x-ray spectroscopy and micro fluorescence imaging on biological systems under high flux and dilute situations. With ever increasing photon flux at the new synchrotron sources, the detector will have a better market potential than fluorescence ionization chambers and the solid state detectors which are currently available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: HIGH-THROUGHPUT, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

CAPILLARY-BASED

PROTEIN

Principal Investigator & Institution: Meldrum, Deirdre R.; Associate Professor; Electrical Engineering; University of Washington Grant & Contract Services Seattle, Wa 98105 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-SEP-2003; Project End 31-AUG-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Preparing well-diffracting crystals is the key step in biomacromolecular crystallography and is in particular a challenge for high-throughput structure determination projects of proteins as part of structural genomics and medicinal protein crystallography projects. Another challenge is to freeze the crystals obtained to 100K in such a manner that they remain well-diffracting and with no ice crystals. This is a critical step for X-ray data collection at synchrotron beam lines. The next critical step is to place the crystal in the X-ray beam and center the crystal precisely at the proper position where cryo-stream, X-rays and rotation axes of the goniometer intersect. The aim of our proposal is to obtain a completely automated procedure for all these steps: no manual intervention for crystal growth, cryofreezing and crystal centering. This unique approach can significantly remove all bottlenecks between protein production and the initiation of X-ray data collection for biomacromolecular crystallography. The equipment to be developed would be able to work with very small amounts of protein samples since volumes per experiment are in the low nanoliter range. The aim of the proposed project is to develop, design, and build a complete prototype sample processor that automates all process steps from initial protein sample, through automated detection of crystal growth, though delivery of a completely characterized, cryocooled sample to the synchrotron or other x-ray diffraction facility. Specific performance goals of this prototype system include: 1) A complete pipeline: sample preparation, sample sealing, conditioned storage for crystal growth, automated identification of crystal growth, cryocooling, and characterization of the samples in anticipation of x-ray crystallography. 2) Fully-automated, "hands-free" processing of samples. 3) Throughput of at least 500 samples/hour. 4) In-line image acquisition and processing for automated identification of crystal growth. The proposal has not only potential for a major impact of full automation of all steps between purified protein production and starting the X-ray data collection process in structural genomics projects. In addition, it has the potential to be coupled with combinatorial libraries of chemical compounds, which would allow thousands of compounds to be tested for crystal growth of a drug target protein in the presence of numerous different compounds. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: HYBRID X-RAY/MR SYSTEMS FOR IMAGE-GUIDED PROCEDURES Principal Investigator & Institution: Pelc, Norbert J.; Professor; Radiology; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Image-guided minimally invasive procedures have made a substantial impact in improving patient management, reducing the cost,

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morbidity and mortality of treatments, and malung therapies available to patients who would otherwise have no option. X-ray fluoroscopy and MRI are two powerful tools for guiding interventional procedures, but they have very different strengths and weaknesses. X-ray fluoroscopy offers very high spatial and temporal resolution and is excellent for guiding and deploying devices. However, it offers little in the way of soft tissue contrast. MR offers tomographic imaging with complete freedom of plane orientation, outstanding soft tissue discrimination, and the ability to portray physiology and directly observe the effect of therapies. However, it not ideal for imaging devices and is limited in spatial resolution. As a result of these disparate characteristics, the choice of guidance modality involves a compromise. Our preliminary work has shown that it is feasible to fully integrate an x-ray fluoroscopy system into the bore of an interventional MR scanner. The two systems can have congruent fields of view, enabling the physician to seamlessly and flexibly choose the modality that is best suited to each phase of the procedure. This type of hybrid system could have enormous impact in the diagnosis and treatment of oncologic, cardiovascular, and other disorders. The proposed work will take the system beyond proof of concept and into the clinic. We will develop and implement more powerful and reliable x-ray subsystems, perfect their MR compatibility, develop x-ray tube designs with increased immunity to magnetic field alignment, and more thoroughly integrate the two modalities by implementing graphic prescription of MR slices from x-ray projections. We believe this technology will have significant benefit to a number of important applications, ranging from endovascular procedures to biopsies and diagnostic studies. However, we are using two applications (TIPS placement and chemoembolization) as models with which to develop this technology, and as part of the proposed work we will conduct small clinical trials of these procedures. The hybrid system, once perfected, will remove the compromise involved in choosing a guidance modality, improving and enabling new minimally invasive procedures. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: IMPROVEMENT NANOFABRICATION

OF

X-RAY

IMAGING

STORAGE

BY

Principal Investigator & Institution: Chen, Wei; Nomadics, Inc. 1024 S Innovation Way Stillwater, Ok 74074 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 13-AUG-2002; Project End 12-AUG-2003 Summary: (provided by applicant): Nomadics proposes to improve the luminescence efficiency, sensitivity, and resolution of X-ray storage imaging plates of BaFBr:Eu2+ systems via quantum size confinement and nano-fabrication. The working principle of X-ray storage imaging is photostimulated luminescence (PSL). In this process, trapped charges are released by photons and produce luminescence through recombination. The BaFBr:Eu2+ imaging plate system suffers from low resolution due to the scattering of both the reading laser light and the emission light. The light scattering is due to the phosphor grain size, shape, and boundary as well as surface roughness. The use of nanoparticles will reduce the light scattering and improve image quality and resolution. In addition to medical imaging applications, this technology will be useful in nondestructive testing, security, and other fields that use X-ray systems. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: The proposed technology will result in higherresolution X-ray imaging with lower costs and reduced waste. This capability will be useful in medical applications, testing, industrial inspection, security systems, and other applications involving X-ray systems. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: INTRINSIC FLUORESCENCE FOR PROTEIN CRYSTAL SCORING Principal Investigator & Institution: Asanov, Alexander N.; Bioelectrospec, Inc. 203 Lavender Ln Starkville, Ms 39759 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-2001; Project End 31-MAY-2002 Summary: X-ray crystallography is the main tool for determining protein structure. Since genomics is on the verge of creating a large number of proteins for structure determination, a corresponding large number of X-ray diffraction experiments will have to be performed. However, X-ray analysis is labor intensive so that the question of which protein crystal to choose for X-ray analysis from the vast pool of candidates becomes important from an economics standpoint. Therefore, it is desirable to have a rapid method to score protein crystals regarding their likelihood for being of diffraction quality. We propose to develop a method and apparatus for protein crystal scoring which is based on intrinsic fluorescence of proteins. Preliminary results obtained for three proteins demonstrated correlation between fluorescence spectra of single crystals and their internal order as determined by X-ray crystallography. During Phase I, we suggest to verify the hypothesis of correlation between fluorescence and diffraction properties on a large number of protein crystals. We anticipate that a rapid method for protein crystal scoring will be developed as a result of Phase I. In Phase II, the envisioned scoring method will be used as a core for building a prototype of an automated instrument which can be adapted for a variety of high throughput protein crystal growth technologies. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS: In the coming era of proteomics, the need for rapid assessment of protein crystals with respect to their ability to diffract X-rays will be enormous. At the present time, there is no method for rapid scoring of protein crystals. The envisioned fluorescence assay will fill the gap between high throughput crystallization technologies and labor intensive X-ray diffraction experiments and will provide researchers with a rapid and low cost technique for scoring protein crystals. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: LARGE-AREA, LOW-COST, HIGH-RESOLUTION X-RAY IMAGER Principal Investigator & Institution: Gary, Charles K.; Adelphi Technology, Inc. 2181 Park Blvd Palo Alto, Ca 94306 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 21-SEP-2001; Project End 28-FEB-2003 Summary: The goal of this effort is to develop a large-area, low-cost medical X-ray imager with image quality comparable with state-of-the-art digital medical imagers at a significantly lower X-ray exposure to the patient. The proposed imager will combine two technologies: porous dielectric materials and microwell electronic substrates. The porous dielectric material, such as 1 mm layer of CsI at 2% of nominal density, both converts incident X-rays to electrons and amplifies the electronic signal. This process creates around 100,000 electrons per photon rather than simply hundreds as for conventional detectors. Such a high gain results in a greatly increased signal to noise ratio, and hence better images at a lower dose. Microwell electronic substrates enable two-dimensional readout of the electrons generated in the porous dielectric. A microwell can be described as a two dimensional array of microscopic holes with an anode receptor at the bottom of each hole to detect the signal. Since both microwell substrates and porous dielectrics can be manufactured inexpensively and scale easily to large areas, the resulting detector will be large enough for medical imaging (up to 43cm x 43cm) and inexpensive. Resolutions greater than 10 lp/mm should be possible, enabling applications from general radiography to mammography. PROPOSED

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COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS: The development of the proposed microwell porous dielectric detector would be revolutionary. Since it has better imaging capabilities than current technologies (superior sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio at an equal resolution) and will be cheaper to produce, the microwell porous dielectric detector should find application to almost all areas of X-ray radiography from chest X-rays to mammography. It could also be used in scientific applications, such as X-ray diffraction and microscopy. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: LOW-COST DIGITAL X-RAY DETECTORS USING LIQUID CRYSTALS Principal Investigator & Institution: Rowlands, John A.; Senior Scientist/Professor; Sunnybrook & Women's Coll Hlth Scis Ctr Health Sciences Centre Toronto, Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 19-SEP-2003; Project End 31-JUL-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): The broad, long-term objective of this proposal is to develop low cost direct digital x-ray imaging systems for general application in radiology and radiation therapy. The Specific Aims are (1) to measure the imaging properties of an XLV (x-ray sensitive light valve) based on the use of a-Se (amorphousselenium) and a TN (twisted nematic) and ECB (electrically controlled birefringence) liquid crystal cells and develop a theoretical model that can predict the behavior precisely, (2) to design and construct XLV optimized for specific imaging tasks, (3) to challenge the XLV technology to perform in a quantum limited manner for the three radiographic procedures (chest radiography, mammography, and portal imaging) by independent evaluation of XLV/scanner imaging prototypes. The health relatedness of the project is that it will provide a low cost system for any application in radiology and radiation therapy that will maintain or surpass currently available image quality, produce images quickly while doing so at greatly reduced cost, particularly the capital cost. The system has the potential to be manufactured locally in every country with sufficient infrastructure making this an empowering technology for developing countries as well as a cost effective solution for clinics in North America. The research design is that we will combine three well-established technologies, using a-Se as an xray to image charge transducer, liquid crystal display technology, and digital optical readout to achieve our goal. The concept is that the latent charge image created on the aSe layer by interaction with x-rays is made into visible image by physically coupling it to a liquid crystal display. This visible image is then readout optically by a digital camera. The Methods to be used are linear systems analysis, Monte Carlo simulation, detective quantum efficiency (DQE) measurement, phantom tests, as well as comparison of performance with state of the art flat panel imagers. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: MSC BLUE-3 AND MSC PURPLE-3 CONFOCAL X-RAY OPTICS Principal Investigator & Institution: Ferre-D'amare, Adrian R.; Assistant Member; Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center Box 19024, 1100 Fairview Ave N Seattle, Wa 98109 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-2001; Project End 31-MAR-2002 Summary: This shared instrumentation proposal from the structural biology program at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center requests funding for the acquisition of high-performance, graded multilayer X-ray optics. These will update and maximize the capabilities of an existing macromolecular crystallographic data-collection system employed by five principal investigators and their laboratories. The upgrade of this

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integrated instrument system will greatly facilitate ongoing collaborative efforts both within the center and with a large number of molecular biology and biochemistry laboratories throughout the country. The macromolecular structure program at the Hutchinson Center was established approximately seven years ago as a response to a clear need among the molecular biology laboratories at the Center for collaborative structure/function studies which support their research programs in genetic regulation, developmental biology, signal transduction, cell cycle control, and other basic biological phenomena. In addition, all five principal investigators listed below actively conduct their own original research in such areas as structural enzymology, time-resolved crystallography, viral protein structure, protein-nucleic acid recognition, RNA structure, immune system recognition and response, protein engineering, crystallographic phasing, and protein folding. It is thus necessary to maximize the capabilities of our Xray equipment to satisfy our requirements for efficient and accurate data collection. The goal of this proposal is to update cost-effectively our shared diffraction facility by replacing suboptimal graphite monochromator and Franks-type mirrors with state-ofthe-art graded multilayer X-ray optics. We are requesting funds to purchase MSC/MaxFlux confocal optics that will result in up to 27-fold increase in useable X-ray flux, relative to the current configuration. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: NEW LUBRICANTS FOR ROTATING ANODE X-RAY TUBE BEARINGS Principal Investigator & Institution: Drory, Michael D.; Senior Scientist; Spire Corporation 1 Patriots Park Bedford, Ma 01730 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 15-FEB-2002; Project End 14-FEB-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): This Small Business Innovation Research Phase II project will continue and expand the development of new solid lubricants for bearings that operate at high rotational speed, high temperature, and under vacuum in rotating anode X-ray tubes for CT scanners and other radiography facilities. Phase I identified several promising lubricant systems, based on multi-layer coatings of silver and other metals, which were applied by ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD). Phase II will investigate substrate preparation, optimize parameters in each processing step, and study a wider range of lubricant compositions through surface analysis and laboratory testing. The best lubricant system (or systems) found in rotating-anode tube simulation will undergo full-scale testing in X-ray tubes in a CT scanner facility. Good Phase H results should lead to immediate application in commercial rotating anode X-ray tubes. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: Not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: NOVEL SILICON DETECTORS FOR EXAFT STUDIES Principal Investigator & Institution: Squillante, Michael R.; Vice President of Research; Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. 44 Hunt St Watertown, Ma 02472 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1998; Project End 30-APR-2003 Summary: (Provided by Applicant): The availability of intense sources of synchrotron Xrays has made possible advanced studies of biological materials using the method of Xray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The advances, both in intensity as well as optics of these sources enables exploition of ultra-dilute spectroscopy and fluorescence QuEXAFS techniques [Farrow]. Current biophysical research utilizing these techniques includes studies of enzyme reactions, hemoglobin, and general study of metabolic processes. In

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these biological XAS studies, the experiments are now mostly limited by the X-ray detectors because they are not able to take full advantage of the available X-ray flux. Central to the design of modern XAS instrumentation is a very low noise X-ray detector, which must detect the fluorescence X-rays from the samples. It is important for the detector to operate with very high energy resolution and maintain that resolution at very high count-rates. Currently, germanium and lithium drifted silicon are the most popular detectors for XAS and EXAFS studies. Both these detector systems, while capable of excellent energy resolution, have some limitations. Si(Li) detectors have relatively high capacitance for larger sizes which increases their noise when operated at fast integration times. For High purity germanium (HPGe) detectors, the presence of Ge Ka fluorescence (9.876 keV) and the associated escape peaks in energy range of interest compromises the EXAFS data collection for hard X-ray experiments. In order to overcome these limitations, we propose to investigate a novel low capacitance detector design with high purity silicon as the detector material. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: NOVEL X-RAY TECHNOLOGY FOR DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE Principal Investigator & Institution: Kuettner, Klaus E.; Rush-Presbyterian-St Lukes Medical Ctr Chicago, Il 60612 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUN-2002; Project End 31-MAY-2007 Summary: We propose a program to integrate biomedical (Rush Medical College) with bioengineering (Illinois Institute of Technology and Massachusetts Institute of Technology) approaches to test and refine a novel X-ray technology for the diagnosis of joint pathology, particularly osteoarthritis. This technology may aid in the development of disease modifying agents and treatment strategies for the prevention and treatment of joint diseases. This project utilizes a novel synchrotron x-ray technique called diffraction enhanced imaging (DEI) which derives dramatic gains in contrast over conventional radiographs by exploiting x-ray refraction and scatter rejection (extinction) in addition to the usual absorption of conventional radiography. This technique, originally developed for mammary carcinoma imaging analyzes soft tissue as high contrast images with very high (greater than 0.05mm) spatial resolution. Although the synchrotron is currently used for DE imaging, the technique is not, in principle, tied to it. We have already shown that DEI is capable of imaging normal and degenerated articular cartilage of synovial joints showing features unique to this type of imaging using exposure times comparable to those of ordinary radiography. Beginning in the first year, we will interpret the cartilage and bone data obtained through our DEI methodologies by using the biological profiles of the matrix components as garnered through morphologic, biochemical and biophysical analysis. Some of the features observed in the DE images are not immediately explainable in molecular, chemical or structural terms. By using a unique integrated experimental approach, correlating biochemical and morphological tissue profiles with DE images, we hope to refine the overall DEI system for the detection of joint disease and, potentially, for other pathologies. We will image human and animal synovial joints and begin the refinement of the imaging technique for the optimal identification of early cartilage lesions. Animal models of cartilage degeneration will be used particularly for DE imaging of cartilage prior to visible signs of degeneration. Beginning in year two, we will image human cartilage that has been biomechanically damaged under controlled conditions for observation through DE imaging. We will also begin developing new DEI methodologies to produce images conveying more comprehensive information about the properties of the cartilage tissue,

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first for planar and then for 3D computed tomography. Throughout years one through five of the proposed project, there will be an iterative process of comparing biological analytical data with imaging data for the refinement of the DEI technique for joint tissues. Our long-term goal is to identify and localize initial phases of cartilage degeneration and follow their progression with the ultimate aim of monitoring disease progression and therapeutic interventions. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: PHASE CONTRAST X-RAY IMAGING WITH FIELD-EMISSION SOURCE Principal Investigator & Institution: Liu, Hong; Professor and Charles and Jean Smith Ch; School of Electrical and Computer Engr; University of Oklahoma Norman Office of Research Services Norman, Ok 73019 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 30-SEP-2003; Project End 31-AUG-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Objective: The overall objective is to develop a fieldemission x-ray source with high spatial coherence, and a phase-contrast imaging technique for clinical applications. Challenges: Current phase-contrast x-ray techniques generally require highly monochromatic, synchrotron-based, plane-wave radiation and sophisticated x-ray optics, so their clinical application is limited. Theoretical analysis and experimental studies have demonstrated the clinical feasibility of in-line phasecontrast imaging using a small, yet very bright x-ray source. However, these requirements cannot be met by the conventional sources. A novel field-emission x-ray source is therefore proposed. Methods: Cutting-edge nanotechnology will be applied to fabricate a super tip for the electron gun of the x-ray source. The super tip will be integrated with a miniature vacuum pump and an ion mirror to avoid contamination and the ion bombardment of the electron emitter. The anticipated end product is an xray source with a small focal spot (less than 0.025 mm), and at the same time, a high tube current (greater than 25mA), thus providing high spatial coherence. The fieldemission x-ray source developed in the early phase of this project will be used to facilitate a new phase contrast imaging technique. The innovative system design is based on the in-line holography principle, acquiring phase contrast under large attenuation (a common clinical condition); therefore has the following clinically friendly features: (1) The source-to-detector distance of the system is no more than 1 meter; (2) the relative phase-contrast factor is up to 0.015 at 20 Ip/mm; (3) the detector quantum efficiency, radiation dose, and exposure time of the phase-contrast system are equivalent to that of the current state-of-art systems; and (4) the contrast-detail detectability is significantly improved due to the edge enhancement introduced by phase-contrast. Comprehensive measurements will be conducted to characterize the performance of the proposed system under clinical conditions. That includes objective measurements of resolution, contrast and quantum efficiency, and observer-based subjective measurements. The end product of the proposed research is a prototype phase-contrast imaging system for clinical applications. Summary: The proposed research, with its innovative field emission source and a new in-line x-ray imaging system, overcomes the major technical "roadblocks" in clinical applications of phase-contrast x-ray imaging. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: QUANTITATIVE MICROTOMOGRAPHY OF BONE TRABECULAE Principal Investigator & Institution: Flynn, Michael J.; Bioscience Professor; Radiation Oncology; Case Western Reserve Univ-Henry Ford Hsc Research Administraion Cfp046 Detroit, Mi 48202

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 25-SEP-2001; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): X-ray computed tomography of the spine and hip is an established method for quantitative bone mineral measurement that resolves elements with 1-millimeter size. For bone specimens, high-resolution laboratory computed tomography systems can describe cancellous bone architecture with resolved elements of about 50 micrometers. This is sufficient to describe bone volume, trabecular thickness and orientation, and connectivity. We have recently developed a new innovative method to perform quantitative computed tomography on an individual bone trabecula with resolved elements of 1 micrometer. Whole trabeculae are separated from cancellous bone specimens and scanned in a 250 micrometer diameter saline filled tube. A beam of x-rays from a synchrotron source is focused using a zone plate and used to make numerous measurements of radiation transmission. The measured data is then reconstructed to a 600 x 600 x 540 array of values having a spacing of 1/3 micrometers in the X, Y, and Z direction. High speed scanning devices will be used on this project to enable examination of 16 specimens per day. This method should be extremely valuable for evaluating the microscopic properties of bone tissue with respect to the mineralization of the matrix and porosity associated with osteocyte lacunae. To establish this value, four biomedical experiments are proposed for which genetic, pharmacologic, and biomechanic variables will be used to alter the bone tissue in animals. Prior experience indicates that these models should alter the mineralization and porosity at a microscopic scale. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: QUASI-MONOCHROMATIC MAMMOGRAPHY

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Principal Investigator & Institution: Piestrup, Melvin A.; Adelphi Technology, Inc. 2181 Park Blvd Palo Alto, Ca 94306 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Description (provided by applicant): The objective of the proposed research is to construct a prototype narrow-bandwidth x-ray source for mammography using a thin, efficient hybrid radiator driven by a relativistic electron beam of moderate energy and current. The high x-ray yield (photons/electron) of the source permits the use of modest electron-beam currents, preventing thermal damage to the radiator itself. The radiator is thin, permitting the electron beam to pass through it many times, thereby proportionally increasing the emitted x-ray flux. Since the source is inherently collimated and quasimonochromatic, it will produce higher quality radiographic images while lowering the dose to the patient. Phase I experiments have demonstrated intense quasimonochromatic x-rays in the range optimum for mammography (15 to 25 keV). Calculations of the x-ray yield and the average current passing through the radiator have demonstrated that there is adequate flux for imaging. The research will proceed by improving the design of the thin hybrid radiator and experimentally demonstrating its feasibility by producing images of inanimate phantoms. The potential for successful development of the prototype imaging system is very high because our Phase I research has already experimentally demonstrated, both electron recycling and narrow bandwidth, tunable x-ray generation. These results indicate that a high quality mammogram can be generated in less than 3 seconds. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: SILICON FLUORESCENCE

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Principal Investigator & Institution: Tull, Carolyn R.; Photon Imaging, Inc. 19355 Business Center Dr, Ste 8 Northridge, Ca 91324 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-FEB-2003; Project End 31-JUL-2003 Summary: (provided by applicant): We will develop a new high efficiency silicon x-ray detector, with good energy resolution and high count rate capability for synchrotron xray fluorescence (XRF) applications. We propose to extend the very successful silicon drift detector design, currently fabricated on thin 0.3 mm thick substrates, into the realm of thick detectors (up to 1.5 mm thick). This added thickness is critical in extending the x-ray absorption capability of the detectors up to 40 keV. The current 0.3 mm thick silicon rapidly falls off in efficiency above 10 keV (down to 9% at 30 keV), whereas 1.5 mm is 42 % efficient at 30 keV. Synchrotron XRF techniques are becoming essential tools in the field of bio-medical applications. Several synchrotrons - such as the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory and the National Synchrotron Light Source - have hard x-ray beam lines that are dedicated to XRF analysis. Third generation synchrotrons, such as the Advanced Photon Source (APS), have photon flux brilliances in the 6-40 keV region that allow efficient x-ray fluorescence analysis with probe sizes of a micrometer and below. All of these beamlines require high count rate, good energy resolution energy dispersive x-ray detectors that have efficient absorption up to 40 keV. The new, thicker drift detectors will have the advantages of non-cryogenic cooling, good energy resolution, and an order of magnitude improvement in count rates compared with conventional silicon and germanium XRF detectors, while providing a significant increase in efficiency above 10 keV. The Phase I work will include the design and fabrication of the thick silicon drift detectors, and the characterization of the detectors with respect to noise, energy resolution, efficiency and count rate capability in response to x-rays in the 5-60 keV range. The Phase II work will include development of a thick drift detector array, and the associated low noise readout electronics, for the construction of an XRF spectrometer that will be evaluated in a synchrotron XRF experiment at the APS at Argonne National Laboratory. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: SMALL MOLECULE X-RAY DIFFRACTION INSTRUMENTATION Principal Investigator & Institution: Mesecar, Andrew D.; Assistant Professor; Ctr/Pharmaceutical Biotechnlgy; University of Illinois at Chicago 1737 West Polk Street Chicago, Il 60612 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-APR-2002; Project End 31-MAR-2003 Summary: A state-of-the-art CCD (charge-coupled-device) area detector with sealedtube x-ray generator and low-temperature cooling device will be purchased and used too collect x-ray diffraction data from single crystals with Mo and Cu radiation. This will be will be used to establish a multi- user, small molecule, single-crystal, x-ray diffraction facility in the College of Pharmacy at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). This facility will principally support research in at least 9 major laboratories including two NIH program grants and one NIH center. Approximately 80% of the instrument will be utilized by NIH-funded researchers, and the remaining time will be used by other researchers on the UIC campus and the Chicago area. In addition, the instrument hardware, software, and computing resources will be used to augment courses in Medicinal Chemistry, Pharmacognosy, Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. This instrument will replace the slow, aging, and somewhat unreliable CAD4

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diffractometer that is housed on the eat campus near Chemistry. To date, most of the structures solved for UIC faculty research projects have occurred through off-campus collaborations or through off-campus data collection, when available. This instrument will be located on the west medical campus immediately adjacent to the UIC/RRC MacroMolecular Diffraction Facility; this increases the accessibility of the instrument for both research and training. Access to the instrument by new users on and off campus will be assured through the administrative oversight of an advisory committee and the Research Resources Center (RRC). The RRC is a centralized campus center and instrumentation facility that has been in operation for over fifty years. The RRC will handle maintenance of the instrumentation in collaboration with the director of the facility and the advisory committee. Dr. Santarsiero has been hired as the director of the new facility. His primary function is to oversee operations and maintenance of this service facility through contact with RRC, the Dean of the College of Pharmacy, the advisory committee and the research faculty. The mechanism of sample submission will be established by the advisory committee and will include hands-on use by graduate students and postdoctoral researchers. As outlined, this facility will substantially benefit several research programs and NIH program grants and centers. The much increased need for such instrumentation reflects the growing importance of structural chemistry and structural biology as a component in research and teaching at the University of Illinois at Chicago, as well as several new initiatives in the areas of structural biology and chemistry at UIC. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: SOFT X-RAY AND EXAFS SPECTROSCOPY OF METALLOPROTEINS Principal Investigator & Institution: Cramer, Stephen P.; Professor; Applied Science; University of California Davis Sponsored Programs, 118 Everson Hall Davis, Ca 95616 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1990; Project End 30-NOV-2002 Summary: The primary objective of the proposed research is to gain a better understanding of how important metal containing enzymes work. Three Ni- contain enzymes that catalyze environmentally important processes, hydrogenase, methyl-Com reductase, and CO dehydrogenase have been chosen for investigation. The molecular structures of the first two of these enzymes have been solved by x-ray crystallography. However, important questions remain about the electronic structure of the Ni sites in all three enzymes under different conditions. The catalytic mechanisms are still poorly understood. It is proposed to study the electronic structure of the Ni sites under different conditions using soft x-ray absorption and x-ray magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopy. Analysis of the spectra can provide quantitative information about where the electrons are in transition metal complexes. The molecular structure around the Ni sites will also be studied, using extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis. Although there is a considerable body of literature concerning the EXAFS of these enzymes, much of the work was done with limited signal-to-noise or before there was a full appreciation of sample heterogeneity. New samples with more homogenous Ni sites will be prepared using recently developed biochemistry. Better spectra will be taken by using more concentrated samples and a faster detector. A deeper knowledge of the structure and mechanism of these enzymes will enrich the field of bioinorganic chemistry. Metalloproteins play many roles in normal health and disease states of human beings. A better understanding of how proteins modulate the properties of Ni metal ions will assist our understanding of other metals as well. Further, the spectroscopic being developed are broadly applicable. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: TIME-RESOLVED SMALL ANGLE X-RAY SCATTERING Principal Investigator & Institution: Pollack, Lois; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 06-JUN-2003; Project End 31-MAY-2008 Summary: RNA plays an important role in many biological processes, but its conformational dynamics are not yet understood on the most fundamental level: selfassembly or folding. The long term objective of this Program Project is the complete characterization of folding of a large RNA: the Tetrahymena ribozyme. This proposal presents aseries of studies designed to probe the global conformation of this ribozyme as it proceeds towards folding through an initial rapid collapse, and subsequent significant compaction steps. The use of a demonstrated combination of flow cells, designed for synchrotron small angle x-ray scattering, allows access to structural information on time scales ranging from sub-millisecond to minutes after the initiation of folding. Previous work shows significant changes in the scattering signals throughout this regime, corresponding to large scale structural rearragements associated with compaction and folding. Three specific aims are presented to achieve our long term goal. To realize the first, time resolved small angle x-ray scattering will be used to characterize the rapid collapse that occurs at the onset of folding. Rate constants and transient structural information will be obtained under different solution and sequence conditions to investigate the role of counterions in collapse and to test structural models of compact states. The second specific aim is directed at structural characterization of later intermediates including partially folded states, using small angle x-ray scattering. The reverse process of unfolding will also be studied. The final specific aim probes the global conformations along the preferred folding pathways that are populated in the presence of both monovalent and divalent cations. Solution conditions that more closely resemble physiological will be explored under this aim. Folding will be initiated from discrete sets of unfolded states to determine the characteristics of transients along separate pathways. The global structural information from these small angle scattering experiments will be integrated with detailed, local information acquired from other Project members to achieve the deepest possible understanding of the folding of this molecule. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: ULTRAFAST Z-SCAN X-RAY VOLUME CT Principal Investigator & Institution: Mistretta, Charles A.; Professor; Radiology; University of Wisconsin Madison 750 University Ave Madison, Wi 53706 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-APR-2003; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Present computed tomography systems provide limited temporal resolution. Large spatial coverage requires sequential acquisition of slices as the patient table passes through a narrow region of exposure. This is true for helical CT scanners as well as electron beam CT (EBCT). There are several consequences of this. For contrast enhanced angiographic studies or studies of tumor contrast uptake, there is little dynamic information available at any anatomical location and the timing of the acquisition relative to the contrast arrival can be variable from patient to patient. For coronary artery imaging the need to acquire substantial sectors of angular data during the acquisition of each slice as the table moves past the source leads to coronary artery motion during acquisition times on the order of fifty milliseconds, even when EBCT is used. Failure to properly advance the sector in sequential heartbeats can lead to inadequate angular sampling and technically unacceptable examinations. Recently, several groups have begun to investigate volume CT systems using conventional x-ray

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tubes rotated in a single circular path with an opposed flat panel X-ray detector in conjunction with table motion. Although this increases the useful detection solid angle it does not provide optimal source trajectories for dynamic imaging over large fields of view. We propose to investigate the feasibility of an advanced CT system in which the xray focal spot is rapidly varied along the length (Z dimension) of the patient during gantry rotation (Z-Scan). This will be accomplished by means of a scanning electron beam or a linear array of discrete focal spots producing a flexible distribution of cone beam sources opposed by large detector arrays. Source trajectories can be optimized for particular clinical applications. The availability of arbitrary source trajectories wilt permit large volume dynamic time resolved detection of contrast material dynamics without significant table motion and, for coronary artery imaging, will permit a short exposure times in each cardiac phase. We will investigate the extension to X-ray CT of MRI acquisition schemes that have enabled us to acquire contrast-enhanced MR images with speeds up to a factor of forty faster than with conventional Cartesian MRI. In the R21 phase, the potential performance of systems based on the proposed approach will be studied using simulations. Measurements and image reconstructions wilt be generated using an X-ray test bed in which a conventional source will be moved to simulate the contemplated source trajectories. In the R33 phase a source test bed employing scanned electron beam technology or distributed pulsed sources will be developed. Potential applications of the contemplated scanner include dynamic studies of tumor contrast uptake, time resolved CT angiography, and coronary artery imaging. We will focus on the latter two applications and, based on the proposed studies, will develop a design for an optimized scanner based on the Z-Scan principle. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: X RAY REFRACTIVE INDEX AND TISSUE SPECIFIC IMAGING Principal Investigator & Institution: Clauser, John F.; J. F. Clauser and Associates 817 Hawthorne Dr Walnut Creek, Ca 94596 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-MAR-2001; Project End 28-FEB-2004 Summary: (Verbatim from the Applicant's Abstract): The project applies interferometric and geometric moire methods from geometrical and physical optics principles to x-ray imaging. One application of these methods can be used to obtain ultra-high resolution images with edge enhanced contrast via refractive-index imaging, with further contrast enhancement from x-ray extinction. A second related application can be used to identify tissue type with remarkable specificity. Further, such identification is independent of the x-ray geometric path length through the tissue, and is done by measuring and imaging the tissue-specific ratio of the total attenuation to the coherent small-angle deBye scattering production, that, in turn, sensitively depends on the average atomic number (relative compositions of carbon, oxygen, and higher Z atoms), and also on the average protein-folding length. Both schemes are non-invasive, in-vivo, require no contrast agent, have low dosage, and require only short duration exposures. Both are accomplished using polychromatic x-rays from a conventional medium power x-ray tube, and lead to low-cost clinically-practical devices. Proof-of-principle experiments for both schemes have now been successfully accomplished. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: Not Available Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: X-RAY DETECTORS FOR SYNCHROTRON-BASED STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY Principal Investigator & Institution: Hamlin, Ronald C.; Area Detector Systems Corporation 12550 Stowe Dr Poway, Ca 92064 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAR-2000; Project End 31-MAR-2003 Summary: (Verbatim from the Applicant's Abstract). The development of Integratedcircuit x-ray Pixel Array Detectors (PAD) is proposed to enhance macromolecular crystallographic data collection at synchrotron sources. Data collection time can be reduced by a factor of 40 with improved data quality. Our ultimate aim is to design and fabricate a PAD having 2000 x 2000 pixels of 150 micrometers x 150 micrometers which can: 1) Collect a set of monochromatic data (90 degree rotation) in 18 seconds using a standard method (0.5 degrees per frame, with an exposure of 100 ms per frame). 2) Collect a set of fine slice data in 90 seconds with a rotation of 0.05 degrees per frame and with an exposure of 50 ms per frame. 3) Collect up to 8 successive frames for time resolved protein crystallography using Laue diffraction. Our aim in Phase I is to test prototypes of 16 x 16 pixel PAD, one analog (APAD), the other digital (DPAD), in order to select the best approach to build a large commercial positioned detector in Phase II. Both types will reduce the time loss for the readout process to almost nothing. These 16 x 16 pixel prototypes will be redesigned in a radiation tolerant layout and re-tested. A decision will then be made between APAD and DPAD or mixed approach. Then a medium scale (50 x 50 or 100 x 100 pixel) modular detector will be fabricated. In Phase II we will put the finishing touches to the design of a modular medium scale array and assemble a large 2000 x 2000 pixel array detector for scientific testing. In Phase III we will build a totally commercial version that would meet all the acceptance, UL, and CE testings. Phase III will also include cost and marketing studies. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: NOT AVAILABLE Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: X-RAY IMAGING USING EDGE-ON-MICROCHANNEL PLATE DETECTORS Principal Investigator & Institution: Molloi, Sabee Y.; Associate Professor; Radiological Sciences; University of California Irvine Irvine, Ca 926977600 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUL-2003; Project End 30-APR-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): A diagnostic X-ray imaging system is required to simultaneously have high contrast, high resolution and be fast with low dose to the patient. High contrast and low dose requirements are of a particular interest in mammography, where low contrast tumors and microcalcifications are to be detected at high scatter levels. The limitations of the currently scanning slot systems include the inherently high noise level of the CCD, suboptimal conversion efficiency, limited charge capacity of the CCD and its relatively high scatter fraction (up to 20%) due to its wide scanning slot. The purpose of this project is to develop a scanning multi-slit X-ray imaging system based on an "edge-on" illuminated microchannel plate (MCP) detector for potential application in mammography. The advantages of an "edge-on" MCP detector over other types of X-ray detectors are the possibility to combine high stopping power, superior spatial resolution, direct energy-tocharge conversion, high physical charge amplification and very low noise. More specifically, the aims are: (1) Design and development of a scanning slit X-ray imaging system based on "edge-on" MCP detector and delay line electronics for digital mammography. (2) Investigation of the hypothesis that an X-ray imaging system based on "edge-on" MCP detector can offer substantially

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improved detection quantum efficiency, resolution, noise and scatter fraction as compared to other currently available mammography systems. (3) Design and development of chip level application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) electronics with very highcount rate capability. (4) Development and evaluation of a clinically applicable single slit prototype X-ray imaging system based on "edge-on" MCP detector with ASIC electronics. (5) Design of a clinically applicable multi-slit x-ray imaging system for digital mammography. The proposed multi-slit X-ray imaging system based on an "edge-on" MCP detector will be photon counting, quantum limited and low scatter fraction. It can potentially provide a high-resolution detector with significant reduction in patient dose for digital mammography. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: X-RAY STRUCTURES OF EUKARYOTIC TRANSLATION FACTORS Principal Investigator & Institution: Bonanno, Jeffrey B.; Lab/Molecular Biophysics; Rockefeller University New York, Ny 100216399 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-2000; Project End 29-FEB-2004 Summary: The long-term goal of the proposed research is a detailed structural and mechanistic understanding of the enormously complex macromolecular machine that controls translation initiation in eukaryotes. The proposed work builds on our structural and functional studies of mRNA selection by the cap-binding protein, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E or eIF4E. X-ray crystallography will be combined with chemical methods to study the structures and mechanisms of action of an important subset of the remaining translation initiation factors [eIF4G, eIF4A, eIF2, IF2, eIF3, eIF1A, eIF2B, eIF5, the poly (A)-binding protein (PABP), and a PABP-interacting protein]. These translation factors participate in the following biochemical steps: (a) resolving secondary structural features in the 5' untranslated region of the mRNA, (b) delivering the methionyl initiator tRNA to the 40S subunit, (d) recycling the G protein that loads the methionyl initiator tRNA onto the 40S subunit, (d) recruitment of the 40S subunit, the methionyl initiator tRNA and various accessory factors to the 5' untranslated region of cellular mRNAs bearing 5' 7-methyl-G caps, (e) recruitment of the same components to the 5' untranslated region of an uncapped viral RNA, (f) 60S ribosomal subunit joining, and (g) synergy of transcription initiation via mRNA circularization by the PABP. The specific aims of the research are as follows: Specific Aim 1. Determine X-ray structures of the RNA helicase eIF4A, and its complexes with ADP, a non-hydrolyzable ATP analog, and single-stranded RNA. Specific Aim 2. Determine X-ray structures of eIF2, and its complexes with GDP, a non-hydrolyzable GTP analog, and methionyl initiator tRNA. Specific Aim 3. Determine the X-ray structure of eukaryotic IF2. Specific Aim 4. Determine X-ray structures of a C-terminal fragment of eIF4G, and its complex with a picornavirus internal ribosome entry site. Specific Aim 5. Determine X-ray structures of eIF5 and eIF2Bepsilon, and their complexes with eIF2beta. Specific Aim 6. Determine Xray structures of PABP recognizing poly (A) RNA, and various binary and ternary complexes with a PABP-interacting protein and eIF4G. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: X-RAY STRUCTURES OF SMALL MDR EFFLUX PUMPS Principal Investigator & Institution: Chang, Geoffrey A.; Professor; Scripps Research Institute Tpc7 La Jolla, Ca 92037 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JAN-2003; Project End 31-DEC-2006

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Summary: (provided by applicant): Bacterial multidrug resistance (mdr) is a significant problem in the treatment of most infectious diseases. This multidrug resistance is caused by the over-expression of drug efflux pumps that are located in the lipid bilayer of bacteria. An important class of mdr pumps in bacteria are the Small Multidrug Resistance (SMR) family of transporters. These transporters translocate hydrophobic cations through a coupling mechanism through the cell membrane using energy derived from H+ gradients. Recently, our laboratory has over-expressed, purified, and crystallized a full-length member of the SMR family. Our objective is to discover the molecular structural components that are involved in the translocation of multiple drug molecules through the cell membrane by SMR transporters and to understand the general transport mechanisms that confer the multidrug phenotype. A high-resolution atomic structure of a bacterial multidrug resistance SMR transporter will serve as an excellent model for other 12-TM antiporters that are involved in sugar, ion, amino acid, inorganic, and organic permeation through the membrane. An x-ray crystal structure of an SMR transporter could also provide structural information that will be useful for understanding more complicated yet homologous mammalian transporters. Our objectives are: 1. Over-expression and purification of SMR transporters and their homologs.2. Crystallization and x-ray data collection of SMR transporters.3. X-ray structure determination and refinement of SMR transporters.4. Structural studies of SMR transporters concerning substrate translocation.5. Structural studies of SMR transporters concerning substrate recognition. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: X-RAY STUDIES ON BACTERIAL MDR REGULATORS Principal Investigator & Institution: Brennan, Richard G.; Professor; Biochem and Molecular Biology; Oregon Health & Science University Portland, or 972393098 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-2001; Project End 28-FEB-2005 Summary: (Verbatim from the Applicant's Abstract) The emergence of bacterial multidrug resistance (MDR) poses a serious threat to human health. One key factor underlying MDR is membrane bound transporters that extrude multiple, chemical diverse drugs from the bacterial cell. The structural mechanism by which these proteins recognize dissimilar drugs is completely unknown, primarily because they are integral membrane proteins and thus more difficult to purify. Bacteria also have a second class of multidrug binding proteins that is central to their multidrug resistant phenotypes. These cytosolic proteins are transcription regulators of the multidrug transporter genes. One regulator from Bacillus subtilis is BmrR. BmrR dramatically increases transcription of the multidrug transporter gene, bmr, only after binding drugs that are Bmr substrates but have invaded the cytosol. Thus, BmrR acts as a second line of defence against drugs from reaching their cellular targets. Structures of BmrR-Drug and BmrR-DNA+Drug complexes will also reveal the transcription regulation mechanism of the MerR family member, the class to which BmrR belongs. A second multidrug binding regulatory protein is QacR from Staphylococcus aureus. QacR represses the qacA and multidrug transporter gene and belongs to the TetR/CamR family. Drugs, which are also substrates of the QacA transporter, induce QacR and derepress the qacA gene thereby providing the bacterium with the more transporters to fend off potentially lethal drug doses. Structural studies will unveil the underpinnings of the multidrug binding and transcription repression mechanisms of QacR. Interestingly, QacR and BmrR display overlapping drug binding specificities and structures of their same-drug complexes will reveal the similarities and differences of their multidrug binding mechanisms. This grant proposal has four specific aims. To crystallize and determine the structures of the

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C-terminal, multidrug binding domain of BmrR, the so named BRC, bound to a number of drugs that display a wide range of binding affinities. BRC offers the advantages of high resolution, which will greatly aid the analysis of the drug binding mechanism of BrnrR. To crystallize and determine the x-ray structures of BmrRDrug-DNA and BmrRDNA complexes. To crystallize and determine the x-ray structures of the B. subtilis global MD regulator, MtaN and its DNA complexes. To crystallize and determine the xray structures of QacR-drug and QacR-DNA complexes. The broad goals of this work are to provide a complete understanding of the mechanisms of multidrug binding by BrnrR, MtaN and QacR and gene regulation of these MerR and TetR/CamR family members. These data will be key to the future structure-based drug design of novel drugs against pathogenic bacteria. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen ·

Project Title: X-RAYS INDUCE EXOCYTOSIS OF ENDOTHELIAL P-SELECTIN Principal Investigator & Institution: Hallahan, Dennis E.; Professor and Chairman; Radiation Oncology; Vanderbilt University 3319 West End Ave. Nashville, Tn 372036917 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JAN-1993; Project End 31-DEC-2002 Summary: Preexisting proteins are activated by x-irradiation and contribute to tissue repair and/or tissue injury. These proteins are sequestered in storage reservoirs, and where they are available for rapid dispensing to accomplish hemostasis and leukocyte activation. Weibel Palade bodies (WPB) within the cytoplasm of endothelial cells translocate to the vascular lumen following irradiation of blood vessels. We utilized immunohistochemistry to study the histologic pattern of WPB components and observed that several of these proteins translocate to the vascular lumen in response to ionizing radiation. These proteins included CD62P (P-selectin), CD63, Interleukin-8, and von Willebrand factor (vWF). We have initiated our studies of the biological consequences of WPB exocytosis by use of the P-selectin knockout mouse. We observed two phenotypes in the P-selectin knockout mouse. We observed our studies of the biological consequences of WPB exocytosis by use of the P-selectin knockout mouse. We observed two phenotypes in the P-selectin -/-, which include edema and hemorrhage into the irradiated intestine and lung. Secondly, the absence of absence of platelet aggregation in P-selectin knockouts, whereas aggregation occurred immediately following x- irradiation in wild type mice. We will study physiological mechanisms of these phenotypes in Aims 3 and 4 of this proposal. We will determine whether Pselectin within platelets within platelets is sufficient to selectin -/- mice will revert these phenotypes. We will determine whether bone marrow transplantation from P-selectin within platelets is sufficient to restore the wild type phenotype in these knockouts. We will also transplant bone marrow from P-selectin -/- mice into wild type mice to determine whether platelet P-selectin is required to prevent edema and hemorrhage in irradiated tissues. The mechanisms by which ionizing radiation induces exocytosis of storage reservoirs is through membrane transport. Using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, we observed that P-selectin, CD63, and vWF are translocated to the cell membrane following irradiation of endothelial cells. P-selected remains tethered to the cell membrane, whereas vWF is secreted into medium or vascular lumen. Membrane transport requires motor proteins that move organelles over the cytoskeleton. We observe that microtubule depolymerizing agents inhibit exocytosis, whereas the antagonist of actin (cytochalazin-B) did not prevent x-ray induced exocytosis of WPB. Calcium-dependent signal transduction has been proposed to initiate exocytosis of storage reservoirs. We utilize the intracellular chelator BAPTA to inhibited x-rayinduced translocation of WPB. Calmodulin is a protein that is activated by increased

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intracellular calcium and participates in the activation of membrane transport. The calmodulin inhibitor W13 abrogated the translocation of WPB to the cell membrane following irradiation. We will study the roles of calcium and calmodulin in the activation of motor proteins that are required for microtubule- dependent translocation of WPB to the cell membrane. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

E-Journals: PubMed Central3 PubMed Central (PMC) is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature developed and managed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).4 Access to this growing archive of e-journals is free and unrestricted.5 To search, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Pmc, and type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box. This search gives you access to full-text articles. The following is a sample of items found for x-rays in the PubMed Central database: ·

Conformational landscape of cytochrome c folding studied by microsecond-resolved small-angle x-ray scattering. by Akiyama S, Takahashi S, Kimura T, Ishimori K, Morishima I, Nishikawa Y, Fujisawa T.; 2002 Feb 5; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=122190

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Crystals of a Ternary Complex of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Reverse Transcriptase with a Monoclonal Antibody Fab Fragment and Double- Stranded DNA Diffract X-Rays to 3.5-A Resolution. by Jacobo-Molina A, Clark AD Jr, Williams RL, Nanni RG, Clark P, Ferris AL, Hughes SH, Arnold E.; 1991 Dec 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=53038

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Femtosecond time resolution in x-ray diffraction experiments. by Neutze R, Hajdu J.; 1997 May 27; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=20833

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Gene Frequency Analysis of Chromosomal Initiation Sites in Bacillus subtilis after Ultraviolet Light or X-Ray Exposure. by Billen D, Hellerman G, Carreira L.; 1972 Jan; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=247288

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Genetic and Molecular Characteristics of X-Ray-Sensitive Mutants of Escherichia coli Defective in Repair Synthesis. by Kato T, Kondo S.; 1970 Nov; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=285071

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How Reverse Turns may Mediate the Formation of Helical Segments in Proteins: An X-Ray Model. by Perczel A, Foxman BM, Fasma GD.; 1992 Sep 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=49887

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Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/about/intro.html.

With PubMed Central, NCBI is taking the lead in preservation and maintenance of open access to electronic literature, just as NLM has done for decades with printed biomedical literature. PubMed Central aims to become a world-class library of the digital age. 5 The value of PubMed Central, in addition to its role as an archive, lies in the availability of data from diverse sources stored in a common format in a single repository. Many journals already have online publishing operations, and there is a growing tendency to publish material online only, to the exclusion of print.

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Hypermutability of Mouse Chromosome 2 During the Development of X-RayInduced Murine Myeloid Leukemia. by Rithidech K, Bond VP, Cronkite EP, Thompson MH, Bullis JE.; 1995 Feb 14; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=42656

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Imaging whole Escherichia coli bacteria by using single-particle x-ray diffraction. by Miao J, Hodgson KO, Ishikawa T, Larabell CA, LeGros MA, Nishino Y.; 2003 Jan 7; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=140897

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Internet hand x-rays: A comparison of joint space narrowing and erosion scores (Sharp/Genant) of plain versus digitized x-rays in rheumatoid arthritis patients. by Arbillaga HO, Montgomery GP, Cabarrus LP, Watson MM, Martin L, Edworthy SM.; 2002; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=113251

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Intracellular structures of normal and aberrant Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites imaged by soft x-ray microscopy. by Magowan C, Brown JT, Liang J, Heck J, Coppel RL, Mohandas N, Meyer-Ilse W.; 1997 Jun 10; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=21030

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Isolation of X-Ray-Inducible Transcripts from Radioresistant Human Melanoma Cells. by Boothman DA, Meyers M, Fukunaga N, Lee SW.; 1993 Aug 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=47104

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Ku86 defines the genetic defect and restores X-ray resistance and V(D)J recombination to complementation group 5 hamster cell mutants. by Errami A, Smider V, Rathmell WK, He DM, Hendrickson EA, Zdzienicka MZ, Chu G.; 1996 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=231136

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Lambda bacteriophage gene produces and X-ray sensitivity of Escherichia coli: comparison of red-dependent and gam-dependent radioresistance. by Trogovcevic Z, Rupp WD.; 1975 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=235709

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Location of Calcium Within Bacillus Spores by Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis. by Scherrer R, Gerhardt P.; 1972 Oct; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=251445

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Molecular and biochemical characterization of new X-ray-sensitive hamster cell mutants defective in Ku80. by Errami A, Finnie NJ, Morolli B, Jackson SP, Lohman PH, Zdzienicka MZ.; 1998 Oct 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=147872

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Nucleic acid fragmentation on the millisecond timescale using a conventional X-ray rotating anode source: application to protein --DNA footprinting. by Henn A, Halfon J, Kela I, Orion I, Sagi I.; 2001 Dec 15; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=97631

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Protein folding at the air --water interface studied with x-ray reflectivity. by Gidalevitz D, Huang Z, Rice SA.; 1999 Mar 16; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=15815

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Protein hydration in solution: Experimental observation by x-ray and neutron scattering. by Svergun DI, Richard S, Koch MH, Sayers Z, Kuprin S, Zaccai G.; 1998 Mar 3; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=19315

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Protein Kinase C Mediates X-Ray Inducibility of Nuclear Signal Transducers EGR1 and JUN. by Hallahan DE, Sukhatme VP, Sherman ML, Virudachalam S, Kufe D, Weichselbaum RR.; 1991 Mar 15; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=51188

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Repair of Radiation-Induced Damage in Escherichia coli II. Effect of rec and uvr Mutations on Radiosensitivity, and Repair of X-Ray-Induced Single-Strand Breaks in Deoxyribonucleic Acid. by Kapp DS, Smith KC.; 1970 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=248037

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Repair of x-ray-induced deoxyribonucleic acid single-strand breaks in xth mutants of Escherichia coli. by Seeberg E, Steinum AL.; 1980 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=293841

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Repair of X-Ray-Induced DNA Double-Strand Breaks in Specific Not I Restriction Fragments in Human Fibroblasts: Joining of Correct and Incorrect Ends. by Lobrich M, Rydberg B, Cooper PK.; 1995 Dec 19; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=40294

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Role of deoxyribonucleic acid polymerases and deoxyribonucleic acid ligase in x-rayinduced repair synthesis in toluene-treated Escherichia coli K-12. by Billen D, Hellermann GR.; 1976 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=233214

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Role of exonucleases V and VIII in adenosine 5'-triphosphate- and deoxynucleotide triphosphate-dependent strand break repair in toluenized Escherichia coli cells treated with X-rays. by Waldstein EA.; 1979 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=216819

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Selenol Binds to Iron in Nitrogenase Iron-Molybdenum Cofactor: An Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure Study. by Conradson SD, Burgess BK, Newton WE, Cicco AD, Filipponi A, Wu ZY, Natoli CR, Hedman B, Hodgson KO.; 1994 Feb 15; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=43143

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Severe spatial navigation deficit in the Morris water maze after single high dose of neonatal x-ray irradiation in the rat. by Czurko A, Czeh B, Seress L, Nadel L, Bures J.; 1997 Mar 18; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=20165

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Severed Corticospinal Axons Recover Electrophysiologic Control of Muscle Activity after X-Ray Therapy in Lesioned Adult Spinal Cord. by Kalderon N, Fuks Z.; 1996 Oct 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=38305

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Soft X-Ray Magnetic Circular Dichroism: A Probe for Studying Paramagnetic Bioinorganic Systems. by van Elp J, George SJ, Chen J, Peng G, Chen CT, Tjeng LH, Meigs G, Lin H, Zhou ZH, Adams MW, Searle BG, Cramer SP.; 1993 Oct 15; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=47630

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Subacute Neuropathological Effects of Microplanar Beams of X-Rays from a Synchrotron Wiggler. by Slatkin DN, Spanne P, Dilmanian FA, Gebbers J, Laissue JA.; 1995 Sep 12; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=41051

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Thallium Counterion Distribution in Cubic Insulin Crystals Determined from Anomalous X-ray Diffraction Data. by Badger J, Li Y, Caspar DL.; 1994 Feb 15; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=43129

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The complete optical spectrum of liquid water measured by inelastic x-ray scattering. by Hayashi H, Watanabe N, Udagawa Y, Kao CC.; 2000 Jun 6; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=18590

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The Drosophila melanogaster DmRAD54 Gene Plays a Crucial Role in DoubleStrand Break Repair after P-Element Excision and Acts Synergistically with Ku70 in the Repair of X-Ray Damage. by Kooistra R, Pastink A, Zonneveld JB, Lohman PH, Eeken JC.; 1999 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=84586

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Transformation of the Ionic X-Ray Contrast Agent Diatrizoate and Related Triiodinated Benzoates by Trametes versicolor. by Rode U, Muller R.; 1998 Aug; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=106829

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X-ray emission from clusters and groups of galaxies. by Mushotzky R.; 1998 Jan 6; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=34193

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X-ray-induced mutations in mouse embryonic stem cells. by Thomas JW, LaMantia C, Magnuson T.; 1998 Feb 3; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=18691

The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.6 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals.

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PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.

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To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with x-rays, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for x-rays (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): ·

A model for calculating shielding requirements in diagnostic X-ray facilities. Author(s): Tsalafoutas IA, Yakoumakis E, Sandilos P. Source: The British Journal of Radiology. 2003 October; 76(910): 731-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14512334&dopt=Abstract

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A prospective-controlled study of pregnant veterinary staff exposed to inhaled anesthetics and x-rays. Author(s): Shuhaiber S, Einarson A, Radde IC, Sarkar M, Koren G. Source: International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 2002; 15(4): 363-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12608624&dopt=Abstract

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A retrospective study of 150 patients with lentigo maligna and lentigo maligna melanoma and the efficacy of radiotherapy using Grenz or soft X-rays. Author(s): Farshad A, Burg G, Panizzon R, Dummer R. Source: The British Journal of Dermatology. 2002 June; 146(6): 1042-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12072074&dopt=Abstract

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A single low dose of X-rays induces high frequencies of genetic instability (aneuploidy) and heritable damage (apoptosis), dependent on cell type and p53 status. Author(s): Crompton NE, Shi YQ, Wuergler F, Blattmann H. Source: Mutation Research. 2002 May 27; 517(1-2): 173-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12034319&dopt=Abstract

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An easy-to-use intraoperative digital videography, still photography, and X-raycapture system. Author(s): Ogilvy CS, Ogilvy BW, Sztramski P. Source: Neurosurgery. 2003 September; 53(3): 781-3; Discussion 783-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12943597&dopt=Abstract

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Are prior head injuries or diagnostic X-rays associated with glioma in adults? The effects of control selection bias. Author(s): Wrensch M, Miike R, Lee M, Neuhaus J. Source: Neuroepidemiology. 2000 September-October; 19(5): 234-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10965236&dopt=Abstract

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Are routine chest X-rays for students entering university worthwhile? Author(s): Sebro K, Rolle S, Gray S, Seecharan S, Thompson K, Weerasena-Nedd K, Teelucksingh S. Source: Journal of Quality in Clinical Practice. 2001 December; 21(4): 154-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11856414&dopt=Abstract

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Are routine chest x-rays helpful in the management of febrile neutropenia? Author(s): Collins C, Fenton M, Phillips B. Source: Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2001 September; 85(3): 253. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12035813&dopt=Abstract

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Audit of chest X-rays in general practice--a case for local guidelines? Author(s): McCreath GT, O'Neill KF, Kincaid WC, Hay LA. Source: Health Bull (Edinb). 1999 May; 57(3): 180-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12811893&dopt=Abstract

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C. Edmund Kells, Jr., pioneer in the field of dental X-rays. Author(s): Hubar JS. Source: J Hist Dent. 2000 March; 48(1): 11-5. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11794327&dopt=Abstract

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Can cephalometric x-rays of the cervical column be used instead of hand-wrist x-rays to determine patient's maturational age? Author(s): Fishman LS. Source: American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics : Official Publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, Its Constituent Societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics. 2002 July; 122(1): 18A-9A. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12142889&dopt=Abstract

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Catalytic inhibition of topoisomerase II in Werner's syndrome cell lines enhances chromosomal damage induced by X-rays in the G2 phase of the cell cycle. Author(s): Franchitto A, Pichierri P, Mosesso P, Palitti F. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2000 July; 76(7): 913-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10923615&dopt=Abstract

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Cervical x-rays and the atlanto-axial region: supplementary computed tomography may be required in trauma. Author(s): Choi D. Source: Scott Med J. 2000 October; 45(5): 151. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11130300&dopt=Abstract

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Chest X-rays. Author(s): Blomqvist L, Torkzad M. Source: Acta Radiologica (Stockholm, Sweden : 1987). 2001 July; 42(4): 430. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11499378&dopt=Abstract

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Chest X-rays. Completing the picture. Author(s): Connolly MA. Source: Rn. 2001 June; 64(6): 56-62; Quiz 64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12032933&dopt=Abstract

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Chromosome aberrations induced in human lymphocytes by in vitro and in vivo Xrays. Author(s): Schroder H, Heimers A. Source: Mutation Research. 2002 May 27; 517(1-2): 167-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12034318&dopt=Abstract

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Clinical rib fractures: are follow-up chest X-rays a waste of resources? Author(s): Bansidhar BJ, Lagares-Garcia JA, Miller SL. Source: The American Surgeon. 2002 May; 68(5): 449-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12013289&dopt=Abstract

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Comparison of documented and recalled histories of exposure to diagnostic x-rays in case-control studies of thyroid cancer. Author(s): Berrington de Gonzalez A, Ekbom A, Glass AG, Galanti MR, Grimelius L, Allison MJ, Inskip PD. Source: American Journal of Epidemiology. 2003 April 1; 157(7): 652-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12672685&dopt=Abstract

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Confirming placement of distal locking screws without X-rays. Author(s): Kershaw SA, Rizvi R, Asumu T. Source: Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 2001 November; 83(6): 440. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11777147&dopt=Abstract

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Coordinate late expression of trefoil peptide genes (pS2/TFF1 and ITF/TFF3) in human breast, colon, and gastric tumor cells exposed to X-rays. Author(s): Balcer-Kubiczek EK, Harrison GH, Xu JF, Gutierrez PL. Source: Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 2002 April; 1(6): 405-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12477053&dopt=Abstract

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Cost-effectiveness of screening x-rays at admission to acute rehabilitation after joint replacement surgery: a retrospective chart review. Author(s): Lee AJ, Lim SS, Kong Y, DeLisa JA. Source: American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation / Association of Academic Physiatrists. 2001 April; 80(4): 276-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11277134&dopt=Abstract

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Decreased c-Myc expression and its involvement in X-ray-induced apoptotic cell death of human T-cell leukaemia cell line MOLT-4. Author(s): Enomoto A, Suzuki N, Kang Y, Hirano K, Matsumoto Y, Zhu J, Morita A, Hosoi Y, Sakai K, Koyama H. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2003 August; 79(8): 589-600. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14555342&dopt=Abstract

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Delayed expression of hpS2 and prolonged expression of CIP1/WAF1/SDI1 in human tumour cells irradiated with X-rays, fission neutrons or 1 GeV/nucleon Fe ions. Author(s): Balcer-Kubiczek EK, Zhang XF, Harrison GH, Zhou XJ, Vigneulle RM, Ove R, McCready WA, Xu JF. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 1999 May; 75(5): 529-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10374935&dopt=Abstract

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Delayed lethality, apoptosis and micronucleus formation in human fibroblasts irradiated with X-rays or alpha-particles. Author(s): Belyakov OV, Prise KM, Trott KR, Michael BD. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 1999 August; 75(8): 985-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10465364&dopt=Abstract

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Demographic structure of patients taking dental X-rays in the Lublin region. Author(s): Kalinowski P, Rozylo-Kalinowska I, Rozylo TK. Source: Ann Univ Mariae Curie Sklodowska [med]. 2001; 56: 431-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11977354&dopt=Abstract

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Detection of oxidant-induced slight chromosomal damage in cells by subsequent exposure to X-rays. Author(s): Sugisawa A, Umegaki K. Source: Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2002 June; 25(6): 803-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12081152&dopt=Abstract

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Diagnosis of ambulatory community-acquired pneumonia. Comparison of clinical assessment versus chest X-ray. Author(s): Lieberman D, Shvartzman P, Korsonsky I, Lieberman D. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care. 2003 March; 21(1): 57-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12718463&dopt=Abstract

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Diagnostic x-rays and risk of epithelial ovarian carcinoma in Jews. Author(s): Harlap S, Olson SH, Barakat RR, Caputo TA, Forment S, Jacobs AJ, Nakraseive C, Xue X. Source: Annals of Epidemiology. 2002 August; 12(6): 426-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12160602&dopt=Abstract

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Diagnostic X-rays and ultrasound exposure and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia by immunophenotype. Author(s): Shu XO, Potter JD, Linet MS, Severson RK, Han D, Kersey JH, Neglia JP, Trigg ME, Robison LL. Source: Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention : a Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology. 2002 February; 11(2): 177-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11867505&dopt=Abstract

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Differential involvement of the hMRE11/hRAD50/NBS1 complex, BRCA1 and MLH1 in NF-kappaB activation by camptothecin and X-ray. Author(s): Habraken Y, Jolois O, Piette J. Source: Oncogene. 2003 September 4; 22(38): 6090-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12955088&dopt=Abstract

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Doses near the surface during total-body irradiation with 15 MV X-rays. Author(s): Kassaee A, Xiao Y, Bloch P, Goldwein J, Rosenthal DI, Bjarngard BE. Source: International Journal of Cancer. Journal International Du Cancer. 2001; 96 Suppl: 125-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11992396&dopt=Abstract

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Dual-energy tissue cancellation in mammography with quasi-monochromatic x-rays. Author(s): Marziani M, Taibi A, Tuffanelli A, Gambaccini M. Source: Physics in Medicine and Biology. 2002 January 21; 47(2): 305-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11837619&dopt=Abstract

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Duplication of x-rays by scanning. Author(s): Rogers MB. Source: J Clin Orthod. 2002 April; 36(4): 208-9. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12025356&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of diagnostic X-rays on somatic chromosomes of occupationally exposed workers. Author(s): Yadav JS, Seth N. Source: Indian J Exp Biol. 2000 January; 38(1): 46-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11233084&dopt=Abstract

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Enhanced radio sensitivity with iodinated contrast agents using monochromatic synchrotron X-rays on human cancerous cells. Author(s): Esteve F, Corde S, Elleaume H, Adam JF, Joubert A, Charvet AM, Biston MC, Balosso J, Le Bas JF. Source: Academic Radiology. 2002 August; 9 Suppl 2: S540-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12188332&dopt=Abstract

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Evaluation of Lossy data compression of chest X-rays: a receiver operating characteristic study. Author(s): Kotter E, Roesner A, Torsten Winterer J, Ghanem N, Einert A, Jaeger D, Uhrmeister P, Langer M. Source: Investigative Radiology. 2003 May; 38(5): 243-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12750612&dopt=Abstract

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Exposure to power frequency magnetic fields and X-rays induces GAP-43 gene expression in human glioma MO54 cells. Author(s): Ding GR, Nakahara T, Miyakoshi J. Source: Bioelectromagnetics. 2002 December; 23(8): 586-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12395413&dopt=Abstract

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Expression of phosphorylated histone H2AX in cultured cell lines following exposure to X-rays. Author(s): MacPhail SH, Banath JP, Yu TY, Chu EH, Lambur H, Olive PL. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2003 May; 79(5): 351-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12943243&dopt=Abstract

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From X-rays to radiofrequency waves or the changing practice of diagnostic neuroradiology: imaging, health care and economical aspects. Author(s): Demaerel P. Source: Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg. 2002; 64(5): 339-59. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12647581&dopt=Abstract

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Guidelines reduce x-ray and blood gas utilization in acute asthma. Author(s): Gentile NT, Ufberg J, Barnum M, McHugh M, Karras D. Source: The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2003 October; 21(6): 451-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14574649&dopt=Abstract

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Higher frequency of chromosome aberrations in late-arising first-division metaphases than in early-arising metaphases after exposure of human lymphocytes to X-rays in G0. Author(s): Hoffmann GR, Sayer AM, Littlefield LG. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2002 September; 78(9): 765-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12428917&dopt=Abstract

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How to create digital mosaics and pseudo panoramic x-rays. Author(s): Reisinger GA. Source: Dent Today. 2000 November; 19(11): 94-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12524786&dopt=Abstract

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Identifying and correcting errors for quality panoramic X-rays. Author(s): Gomolka KA. Source: Cds Rev. 2000 May-June; 93(4): 50-1. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11276782&dopt=Abstract

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Illumination of x-rays: the usual lights exposed. Author(s): Blackshaw GR, Gostling JA, Appleton BN, Pearce N, Thomas GV, Lewis WG. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 2003 February; 79(928): 99-100. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12612325&dopt=Abstract

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Image quality of digital chest X-rays: wet versus dry laser printers. Author(s): Zahringer M, Wassmer G, Krug B, Winnekendonk G, Gossmann A, Lackner KJ. Source: Journal of Digital Imaging : the Official Journal of the Society for Computer Applications in Radiology. 2001 September; 14(3): 158-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11720338&dopt=Abstract

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Image-guided surgery: from X-rays to virtual reality. Author(s): Peters TM. Source: Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering. 2000; 4(1): 2757. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11264860&dopt=Abstract

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Imaging of 1.0-mm-diameter radiopaque markers with megavoltage X-rays: an improved online imaging system. Author(s): Pang G, Beachey DJ, O'Brien PF, Rowlands JA. Source: International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2002 February 1; 52(2): 532-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11872301&dopt=Abstract

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Impact of monetary incentives on adherence to referral for screening chest x-rays after syringe exchange-based tuberculin skin testing. Author(s): Perlman DC, Friedmann P, Horn L, Nugent A, Schoeb V, Carey J, Salomon N, Des Jarlais DC. Source: Journal of Urban Health : Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. 2003 September; 80(3): 428-37. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12930881&dopt=Abstract

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Independent checking of the delivered dose for high-energy X-rays using a hand-held PC. Author(s): Knoos T, Johnsson SA, Ceberg CP, Tomaszewicz A, Nilsson P. Source: Radiotherapy and Oncology : Journal of the European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology. 2001 February; 58(2): 201-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11166872&dopt=Abstract

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Isolated palmar dislocation of the fifth carpometacarpal joint diagnosed by stress Xrays. Author(s): Yamakado K, Hashimoto F, Nagata S, Higuchi M. Source: Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery. 2000; 120(9): 529-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11011675&dopt=Abstract

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Low doses of diagnostic energy X-rays protect against neoplastic transformation in vitro. Author(s): Redpath JL, Lu Q, Lao X, Molloi S, Elmore E. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2003 April; 79(4): 235-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12775447&dopt=Abstract

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Measurement of the response of Gd2O2S:Tb phosphor to 6 MV x-rays. Author(s): Glendinning AG, Hunt SG, Bonnett DE. Source: Physics in Medicine and Biology. 2001 February; 46(2): 517-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11229730&dopt=Abstract

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Medium-mediated bystander effects on HSG cells co-cultivated with cells irradiated by X-rays or a 290 MeV/u carbon beam. Author(s): Shao C, Aoki M, Furusawa Y. Source: Journal of Radiation Research. 2001 September; 42(3): 305-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11840647&dopt=Abstract

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Modulation of calmodulin by UV and X-rays in primary human endothelial cell cultures. Author(s): Watson CA, Chang-Liu CM, Woloschak GE. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2000 November; 76(11): 1455-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11098848&dopt=Abstract

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Modulation of X-ray-induced apoptosis in human keratinocytes (HaCaT) by 1,25dihydroxyvitamin D3. Author(s): Meineke V, Pfaffendorf C, Schinn M, Tilgen W, Mayerhofer A, Dimitrijevic N, van Beuningen D, Reichrath J. Source: Recent Results Cancer Res. 2003; 164: 427-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12899540&dopt=Abstract

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Multicolour FISH painting for the analysis of chromosomal aberrations induced by 220 kV X-rays and fission neutrons. Author(s): Knehr S, Huber R, Braselmann H, Schraube H, Bauchinger M. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 1999 April; 75(4): 407-18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10331845&dopt=Abstract

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Mutagenicity of low-filtered 30 kVp X-rays, mammography X-rays and conventional X-rays in cultured mammalian cells. Author(s): Frankenberg-Schwager M, Garg I, Fran-Kenberg D, Greve B, Severin E, Uthe D, Gohde W. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2002 September; 78(9): 781-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12428919&dopt=Abstract

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Oxidative damage of Chinese hamster fibroblasts induced by t-butyl hydroperoxide and by X-rays. Author(s): Bryszewska M, Piasecka A, Zavodnik LB, Distel L, Schussler H. Source: Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 2003 June 11; 1621(3): 285-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12787927&dopt=Abstract

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Phase recovery and lensless imaging by iterative methods in optical, X-ray and electron diffraction. Author(s): Spence JC, Weierstall U, Howells M. Source: Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences. 2002 May 15; 360(1794): 875-95. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12804284&dopt=Abstract

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Postoperative ileus on a gynecologic oncology service--do abdominal X-rays have a role? Author(s): Heinberg EM, Finan MA, Chambers RB, Bazzett LB, Kline RC. Source: Gynecologic Oncology. 2003 July; 90(1): 158-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12821357&dopt=Abstract

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Pregnancy, X-rays and risks--the radiology dilemma. Response to ethical dilemma #41. Author(s): Hasegawa TK Jr, Matthews M Jr, Frederiksen N. Source: Tex Dent J. 2002 October; 119(10): 1049-51. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12483785&dopt=Abstract

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Pulsed tunable monochromatic X-ray beams from a compact source: new opportunities. Author(s): Carroll FE, Mendenhall MH, Traeger RH, Brau C, Waters JW. Source: Ajr. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2003 November; 181(5): 1197-202. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14573403&dopt=Abstract

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RBE and OER variations of mixtures of plutonium alpha particles and X-rays for damage to human kidney cells (T-1). Author(s): Raju MR, Jett JH. Source: Radiation Research. 1974 December; 60(3): 473-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10881724&dopt=Abstract

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Red radioluminescence and radiochemiluminescence: premises for a photodynamic tumour therapy with X-rays and haematoporphyrin derivatives. A working hypothesis. Author(s): Bistolfi F. Source: Panminerva Medica. 2000 March; 42(1): 69-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11019608&dopt=Abstract

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Relationship between aberration yield and mitotic delay in human lymphocytes exposed to 200 MeV/u Fe-ions or X-rays. Author(s): Ritter S, Nasonova E, Furusawa Y, Ando K. Source: Journal of Radiation Research. 2002 December; 43 Suppl: S175-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12793754&dopt=Abstract

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Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of 210Po alpha-particles versus X-rays on lethality in bovine endothelial cells. Author(s): Thomas PA, Tracy BL, Ping T, Wickstrom M, Sidhu N, Hiebert L. Source: International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2003 February; 79(2): 107-18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12569014&dopt=Abstract

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Routine chest X-rays after insertion of implantable long-term venous catheters: necessary or not? Author(s): Guth AA. Source: The American Surgeon. 2001 January; 67(1): 26-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11206891&dopt=Abstract

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Routine chest X-rays have no additional value in the detection of relapse during routine follow-up of patients treated with chemotherapy for disseminated nonseminomatous testicular cancer. Author(s): Gietema JA, Meinardi MT, Sleijfer DT, Hoekstra HJ, van der Graaf WT. Source: Annals of Oncology : Official Journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology / Esmo. 2002 October; 13(10): 1616-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12377651&dopt=Abstract

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Serum paracetamol concentration: an alternative to X-rays to determine feeding tube location in the critically ill. Author(s): Berger MM, Werner D, Revelly JP, Cayeux MC, Tappy L, Bachmann C, Chiolero RL. Source: Jpen. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 2003 March-April; 27(2): 151-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12665172&dopt=Abstract

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Significance of radiation exposure from work-related chest X-rays for epidemiological studies of radiation workers. Author(s): Cardarelli J, Spitz H, Rice C, Buncher R, Elson H, Succop P. Source: American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 2002 December; 42(6): 490-501. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12439872&dopt=Abstract

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Simultaneous exposure of mammalian cells to heavy ions and X-rays. Author(s): Furusawa Y, Aoki M, Durante M. Source: Advances in Space Research : the Official Journal of the Committee on Space Research (Cospar). 2002; 30(4): 877-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12530448&dopt=Abstract

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Structure of an integrin-ligand complex deduced from solution x-ray scattering and site-directed mutagenesis. Author(s): Mould AP, Symonds EJ, Buckley PA, Grossmann JG, McEwan PA, Barton SJ, Askari JA, Craig SE, Bella J, Humphries MJ. Source: The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2003 October 10; 278(41): 39993-9. Epub 2003 July 19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12871973&dopt=Abstract

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Structure of frataxin iron cores: an X-ray absorption spectroscopic study. Author(s): Nichol H, Gakh O, O'Neill HA, Pickering IJ, Isaya G, George GN. Source: Biochemistry. 2003 May 27; 42(20): 5971-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12755598&dopt=Abstract

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Submitting x-rays. Author(s): Dettmer MA. Source: The Journal of the American Dental Association. 2000 September; 131(9): 1238. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10986821&dopt=Abstract

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Survival, differentiation and collagen secretion of human fibroblasts after irradiation with carbon ions and X-rays. Author(s): Fournier C, Kraft-Weyrather W, Kraft G. Source: Phys Med. 1998 July; 14 Suppl 1: 44-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11542640&dopt=Abstract

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Telomeric associations in cigarette smokers exposed to low levels of X-rays. Author(s): Paz-y-Mino C, Perez JC, Davalos V, Sanchez ME, Leone PE. Source: Mutation Research. 2001 January 25; 490(1): 77-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11152974&dopt=Abstract

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The centenary of the discovery of X-rays by Rontgen - 8 November 1895. Author(s): James T. Source: Adler Mus Bull. 1995 March; 21(1): 11-5. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11639732&dopt=Abstract

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The relationship between soft tissue swelling, joint space narrowing and erosive damage in hand X-rays of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Author(s): Rau R, Wassenberg S. Source: Rheumatology (Oxford, England). 2002 March; 41(3): 350-1; Author Reply 351-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11934979&dopt=Abstract

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The relationship between soft tissue swelling, joint space narrowing and erosive damage in hand X-rays of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Author(s): Kirwan J, Byron M, Watt I. Source: Rheumatology (Oxford, England). 2001 March; 40(3): 297-301. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11285377&dopt=Abstract

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The role of intracellular oxidation in death induction (apoptosis and necrosis) in human promonocytic cells treated with stress inducers (cadmium, heat, X-rays). Author(s): Galan A, Garcia-Bermejo L, Troyano A, Vilaboa NE, Fernandez C, de Blas E, Aller P. Source: European Journal of Cell Biology. 2001 April; 80(4): 312-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11370746&dopt=Abstract

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The use of skull X-rays in the accident and emergency department. Author(s): Simon SD, Dodds RD. Source: Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 2003 March; 85(2): 120-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12648345&dopt=Abstract

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Treatment of early and moderately advanced vocal cord carcinoma with 6-MV X-rays. Author(s): Parsons JT, Greene BD, Speer TW, Kirkpatrick SA, Barhorst DB, Yanckowitz T. Source: International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2001 July 15; 50(4): 953-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11429223&dopt=Abstract

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Triage nurses order x-rays for patients with isolated distal limb injuries: A 12-month ED study. Author(s): Fry M. Source: Journal of Emergency Nursing: Jen : Official Publication of the Emergency Department Nurses Association. 2001 February; 27(1): 17-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11174265&dopt=Abstract

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Unnecessary x-rays: occurrence, disadvantages and side effects. Author(s): Dargan SK. Source: Saudi Med J. 2000 February; 21(2): 209-10. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11533787&dopt=Abstract

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Use of computerized tomography and chest x-rays in evaluating efficacy of aerosolized recombinant human DNase in cystic fibrosis patients younger than age 5 years: a preliminary study. Author(s): Nasr SZ, Kuhns LR, Brown RW, Hurwitz ME, Sanders GM, Strouse PJ. Source: Pediatric Pulmonology. 2001 May; 31(5): 377-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11340684&dopt=Abstract

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Use of low-energy X-rays in the treatment of superficial nonmelanomatous skin cancers. Author(s): Bodner WR, Hilaris BS, Alagheband M, Safai B, Mastoras CA, Saraf S. Source: Cancer Investigation. 2003 June; 21(3): 355-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12901281&dopt=Abstract

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Using computed dental radiography or 'filmless X-rays'. Author(s): Fu DC. Source: Hawaii Dent J. 1997 July-August; 28(7): 16, 22. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11851228&dopt=Abstract

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Value of vertebral X-rays in osteoporosis. Author(s): Gordon L, Pope TL, Monen S. Source: J S C Med Assoc. 2001 March; 97(3): 102-5. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11285880&dopt=Abstract

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Variability of G(2) checkpoint sensitivity to low doses of X-rays (2 cGy): correlation with G(2) chromatid aberrations but not with an adaptive response. Author(s): Pretazzoli V, Salone B, Bosi A, Olivieri G. Source: Mutagenesis. 2000 November; 15(6): 531-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11077006&dopt=Abstract

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Variations in 6MV x-ray radiotherapy build-up dose with treatment distance. Author(s): Butson MJ, Cheung T, Yu PK. Source: Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 2003 June; 26(2): 88-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12956192&dopt=Abstract

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Variations in skin dose using 6MV or 18MV x-ray beams. Author(s): Yu PK, Cheung T, Butson MJ. Source: Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 2003 June; 26(2): 79-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12956189&dopt=Abstract

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Visualization and measurement of multiphase flow in porous media using light transmission and synchrotron x-rays. Author(s): Darnault CJ, Dicarlo DA, Bauters TW, Steenhuis TS, Parlange JY, Montemagno CD, Baveye P. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2002 October; 972: 103-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12496004&dopt=Abstract

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Which patients with blunt trauma do not require cervical spine x-rays? Author(s): Brillhart J. Source: The Journal of Family Practice. 2000 October; 49(10): 884-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11052156&dopt=Abstract

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Wortmannin-enhanced X-ray-induced apoptosis of human T-cell leukemia MOLT-4 cells possibly through the JNK/SAPK pathway. Author(s): Tomita M, Suzuki N, Matsumoto Y, Enomoto A, Yin HL, Hosoi Y, Hirano K, Sakai K. Source: Radiation Research. 2003 October; 160(4): 467-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12968928&dopt=Abstract

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X-ray-based attenuation correction for positron emission tomography/computed tomography scanners. Author(s): Kinahan PE, Hasegawa BH, Beyer T. Source: Semin Nucl Med. 2003 July; 33(3): 166-79. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12931319&dopt=Abstract

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X-rays for back pain? Author(s): Little P. Source: The British Journal of General Practice : the Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 2002 July; 52(480): 534-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12120722&dopt=Abstract

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X-rays for monitoring opportunistic infection. Author(s): Pieribone D. Source: Gmhc Treat Issues. 1995 July-August; 9(7/8): 18-9, 24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11362656&dopt=Abstract

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X-rays induce dose-dependent and cell cycle-independent accumulation of p21(sdi1/WAF1). Author(s): Tsuyama N, Ide T, Noda A, Iwamoto KS, Mizuno T, Kyoizumi S, Seyama T. Source: Hiroshima J Med Sci. 2001 March; 50(1): 1-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11314855&dopt=Abstract

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X-rays: from image to energy. Author(s): Dubb A. Source: Adler Mus Bull. 1995 March; 21(1): 2-10. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11639734&dopt=Abstract

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X-rays: laying the foundation of modern radiology, 1896-1930. Author(s): Strickland D, Stranges AN. Source: Med Secoli. 1991; 3(2-3): 207-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11640122&dopt=Abstract

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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and x-rays.

Finding Nutrition Studies on X-rays The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail: [email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.7 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.

7

Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

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The following is a typical result when searching for recently indexed consumer information on x-rays: ·

By the way, doctor. I'm 67 years old and have been taking regular calcium supplements for quite some time. My latest bone-density test was very positive, showing increased BMD in my spine. Yet I was told that the test results aren't reliable because my x-ray showed calcification in my spine. How can this be true? Source: Robb Nicholson, C Harv-Womens-Health-Watch. 2000 December; 8(4): 8 1070910X

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Discriminating glucose tolerance status by regions of interest of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry: clinical implications of body fat distribution. Source: Chang, C.J. Wu, C.H. Lu, F.H. Wu, J.S. Chiu, N.T. Yao, W.J. Diabetes-care. Alexandria, Va. : American Diabetes Association, Inc. December 1999. volume 22 (12) page 1938-1943. 0149-5992

The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “x-rays” (or a synonym): ·

Antioxidant activity and radioprotective effects against chromosomal damage induced in vivo by X-rays of flavan-3-ols (Procyanidins) from grape seeds (Vitis vinifera): comparative study versus other phenolic and organic compounds. Author(s): Research and Development Department of Furfural Espanol S.A., Camino Viejo de Pliego s/n, 80320 Alcantarilla, Murcia, Spain. [email protected] Source: Castillo, J Benavente Garcia, O Lorente, J Alcaraz, M Redondo, A Ortuno, A Del Rio, J A J-Agric-Food-Chem. 2000 May; 48(5): 1738-45 0021-8561

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Apoptosis induced by X-rays and chemical agents in murine fibroblastic cell lines with a defect in repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Author(s): Department of Experimental Radiology, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan. Source: Meng, H Terado, T Kimura, H Int-J-Radiat-Biol. 1998 May; 73(5): 503-10 09553002

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Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of C-phycocyanin from a red alga, Porphyra tenera. Author(s): Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University. Source: Miki, K Ezoe, T Masui, A Yoshisaka, T Mimuro, M Fujiwara Arasaki, T Kasai, N J-Biochem-(Tokyo). 1990 October; 108(4): 646-9 0021-924X

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Detection of oxidant-induced slight chromosomal damage in cells by subsequent exposure to X-rays. Author(s): Department of Food Science Research for Health, National Institute of Health and Nutrition, Tokyo, Japan. Source: Sugisawa, A Umegaki, K Biol-Pharm-Bull. 2002 June; 25(6): 803-5 0918-6158

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Dose distributions using kilovoltage x-rays and dose enhancement from iodine contrast agents. Author(s): Department of Radiation Oncology, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, USA. Source: Mesa, A V Norman, A Solberg, T D Demarco, J J Smathers, J B Phys-Med-Biol. 1999 August; 44(8): 1955-68 0031-9155

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Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence for rapid potassium, calcium, and chloride diagnosis in barley. Source: Miah, M.Y. Wang, M.K. Chino, M. J-plant-nutr. Monticello, N.Y. : Marcel Dekker Inc. 1999. volume 22 (2) page 229-235. 0190-4167

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·

Evidence for mRNA expression of vascular endothelial growth factor by X-ray irradiation in a lung squamous carcinoma cell line. Author(s): Space and Particle Radiation Science Research Group, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Chiba-shi, Chiba, Japan. Source: Ando, S Nojima, K Majima, H Ishihara, H Suzuki, M Furusawa, Y Yamaguchi, H Koike, S Ando, K Yamauchi, M Kuriyama, T Cancer-Lett. 1998 October 23; 132(1-2): 7580 0304-3835

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Immune reaction induced by X-rays and pions and its stimulation by schizophyllan (SPG). Author(s): British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada. Source: Inomata, T Goodman, G B Fryer, C J Chaplin, D J Palcic, B Lam, G K Nishioka, A Ogawa, Y Br-J-Cancer-Suppl. 1996 July; 27S122-5 0306-9443

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In vivo experimental evidence that the nitric oxide pathway is involved in the X-rayinduced antiangiogenicity. Author(s): Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Greece. Source: Hatjikondi, O Ravazoula, P Kardamakis, D Dimopoulos, J Papaioannou, S Br-JCancer. 1996 December; 74(12): 1916-23 0007-0920

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Involvement of tyrosine phosphorylation of p185(c-erbB2/neu) in tumorigenicity induced by X-rays and the neu oncogene in human breast epithelial cells. Author(s): Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824-1317, USA. Source: Kang, K S Sun, W Nomata, K Morita, I Cruz, A Liu, C J Trosko, J E Chang, C C Mol-Carcinog. 1998 April; 21(4): 225-33 0899-1987

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Lack of effect of caffeine post-treatment on X-ray-induced chromosomal aberrations in Werner's syndrome lymphoblastoid cell lines: a preliminary report. Author(s): Universita degli Studi della Tuscia-DABAC, Dipartimento di Agrobiologia ed Agrochimica, Viterbo, Italy. Source: Franchitto, A Proietti De Santis, L Pichierri, P Mosesso, P Palitti, F Int-J-RadiatBiol. 1999 November; 75(11): 1349-55 0955-3002

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Modified multiple drug resistance phenotype of Chinese hamster ovary cells selected with X-rays and vincristine versus X-rays only. Author(s): Cellular Chemotherapy Laboratory, Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London, UK. Source: McClean, S Hill, B T Br-J-Cancer. 1994 April; 69(4): 711-6 0007-0920

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Overexpression of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I receptor enhances inhibition of DNA replication in mouse cells exposed to x-rays. Author(s): Department of Radiation Oncology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA. Source: Wang, Y Cheong, N Miura, M Iliakis, G Radiat-Environ-Biophys. 1997 June; 36(2): 117-23 0301-634X

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Postnatal X-ray irradiation effects on glomerular layer of rat olfactory bulb: quantitative and immunocytochemical analysis. Author(s): Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan. Source: Kosaka, K Taomoto, K Nagatsu, I Heizmann, C W Hunziker, W Kosaka, T ExpBrain-Res. 1992; 90(1): 103-15 0014-4819

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Protective effects of 5,6,7,8-tetrahydroneopterin against X-ray radiation injury in mice. Author(s): Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Aichi Cancer Center, 1-1 Kanokoden, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 4648681, Japan. Source: Yasumura, M Morimoto, T Takagi, M Hirose, H Taguchi, O Biochim-BiophysActa. 1999 March 30; 1453(3): 378-84 0006-3002

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Radiosensitizing effect of nicotinamide and carbogen combined in fractionated pions or x-rays in SCCVII tumors. Author(s): Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan. Source: Ohizumi, Y Lam, G K Pickles, T Fryer, C Chaplin, D J Radiat-Med. 1995 NovDecember; 13(6): 291-5 0288-2043

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Relation between rate of cell proliferation and formation of micronuclei after combined treatment with X-rays and caffeine. Author(s): Institut fur Medizinische Strahlenbiologie, Universitatsklinikum Essen, Germany. Source: Muller, W U Kasper, C Streffer, C Radiat-Environ-Biophys. 1993; 32(3): 239-49 0301-634X

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Repair of X-ray induced DNA damage measured by the comet assay in roots of Vicia faba. Author(s): Flemish Institute of Technological Research, Environmental Toxicology, Mol, Belgium. Source: Koppen, G Angelis, K J Environ-Mol-Mutagen. 1998; 32(3): 281-5 0893-6692

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Soft tissue composition and bone mineral status: evaluation by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Source: Lukaski, H.C. J-nutr. Bethesda, Md. : American Institute of Nutrition. February 1993. volume 123 (2,suppl.) page 438-443. 0022-3166

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Temperature dependence of combined exposure of preimplantation mouse embryos to X-rays and mercury. Author(s): Institut fur Medizinische Strahlenbiologie, Universitatsklinikum Essen, Federal Republic of Germany. Source: Muller, W U Radiat-Environ-Biophys. 1990; 29(2): 109-14 0301-634X

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The lumazine synthase/riboflavin synthase complex of Bacillus subtilis. X-ray structure analysis of hollow reconstituted beta-subunit capsids. Author(s): Center for Structural Biochemistry, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden. Source: Ladenstein, R Ritsert, K Huber, R Richter, G Bacher, A Eur-J-Biochem. 1994 August 1; 223(3): 1007-17 0014-2956

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The race for megavoltage. X-rays versus telegamma. Source: Robison, R F Acta-Oncol. 1995; 34(8): 1055-74 0284-186X

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The role of intracellular oxidation in death induction (apoptosis and necrosis) in human promonocytic cells treated with stress inducers (cadmium, heat, X-rays). Author(s): Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Madrid, Spain. Source: Galan, A Garcia Bermejo, L Troyano, A Vilaboa, N E Fernandez, C de Blas, E Aller, P Eur-J-Cell-Biol. 2001 April; 80(4): 312-20 0171-9335

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Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: ·

healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0

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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov

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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov

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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/

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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/

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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/

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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/

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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: ·

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/

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WebMDÒHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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The following is a specific Web list relating to x-rays; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: ·

Vitamins Vitamin K Alternative names: Menadione, Menaphthone, Menaquinone, Phylloquinone Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

·

Minerals Glucosamine/Chondroitin Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com

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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to x-rays. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to xrays and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “xrays” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to x-rays: ·

(e)-1-(2-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)-2-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)ethene. Author(s): Zhang J, Chen SF, Klausmeyer KK, Kane RR. Source: Acta Crystallographica. Section C, Crystal Structure Communications. 2003 July; 59(Pt 7): O381-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12855863&dopt=Abstract

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A new conformer of 20-hydroxyecdysone from Sesuvium portulacastrum: an x-ray crystallographic study. Author(s): Rele S, Banerji A, Chintalwar G, Kumar V, Yadava V. Source: Natural Product Research. 2003 April; 17(2): 103-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12713122&dopt=Abstract

·

Anti-plasmodial activities and X-ray crystal structures of rotenoids from Millettia usaramensis subspecies usaramensis.

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Author(s): Yenesew A, Derese S, Midiwo JO, Oketch-Rabah HA, Lisgarten J, Palmer R, Heydenreich M, Peter MG, Akala H, Wangui J, Liyala P, Waters NC. Source: Phytochemistry. 2003 October; 64(3): 773-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=13679101&dopt=Abstract ·

Bufalin influences the repair of X-ray-induced DNA breaks in Chinese hamster cells. Author(s): Pastor N, Cortes F. Source: Dna Repair. 2003 December 9; 2(12): 1353-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14642564&dopt=Abstract

·

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of an alkaline serine protease from Nesterenkonia sp. Author(s): Bakhtiar S, Vevodova J, Hatti-Kaul R, Su XD. Source: Acta Crystallographica. Section D, Biological Crystallography. 2003 March; 59(Pt 3): 529-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12595716&dopt=Abstract

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Detection of ligand- and solvent-induced shape alterations of cell-growth-regulatory human lectin galectin-1 in solution by small angle neutron and x-ray scattering. Author(s): He L, Andre S, Siebert HC, Helmholz H, Niemeyer B, Gabius HJ. Source: Biophysical Journal. 2003 July; 85(1): 511-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12829506&dopt=Abstract

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Differential involvement of the hMRE11/hRAD50/NBS1 complex, BRCA1 and MLH1 in NF-kappaB activation by camptothecin and X-ray. Author(s): Habraken Y, Jolois O, Piette J. Source: Oncogene. 2003 September 4; 22(38): 6090-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12955088&dopt=Abstract

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High resolution X-ray structure of potent anti-HIV pokeweed antiviral protein-III. Author(s): Kurinov IV, Uckun FM. Source: Biochemical Pharmacology. 2003 May 15; 65(10): 1709-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12754107&dopt=Abstract

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Inhibition of lipoxygenase by (-)-epigallocatechin gallate: X-ray analysis at 2.1 A reveals degradation of EGCG and shows soybean LOX-3 complex with EGC instead. Author(s): Skrzypczak-Jankun E, Zhou K, Jankun J. Source: International Journal of Molecular Medicine. 2003 October; 12(4): 415-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12964012&dopt=Abstract

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Isolation and X-ray study of an anti-inflammatory active androstene steroid from Acacia nilotica. Author(s): Chaubal R, Mujumdar AM, Puranik VG, Deshpande VH, Deshpande NR.

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Source: Planta Medica. 2003 March; 69(3): 287-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12677540&dopt=Abstract ·

Long-residence-time nano-scale liposomal iohexol for X-ray-based blood pool imaging. Author(s): Kao CY, Hoffman EA, Beck KC, Bellamkonda RV, Annapragada AV. Source: Academic Radiology. 2003 May; 10(5): 475-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12755534&dopt=Abstract

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Probing the role of divalent metal ions in a bacterial psychrophilic metalloprotease: binding studies of an enzyme in the crystalline state by x-ray crystallography. Author(s): Ravaud S, Gouet P, Haser R, Aghajari N. Source: Journal of Bacteriology. 2003 July; 185(14): 4195-203. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12837794&dopt=Abstract

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Solution and solid state 13C NMR and X-ray studies of genistein complexes with amines. Potential biological function of the C-7, C-5, and C4'-OH groups. Author(s): Kozerski L, Kamienski B, Kawecki R, Urbanczyk-Lipkowska Z, Bocian W, Bednarek E, Sitkowski J, Zakrzewska K, Nielsen KT, Hansen PE. Source: Org Biomol Chem. 2003 October 21; 1(20): 3578-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14599021&dopt=Abstract

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X-ray crystallographic studies of protein-ligand interactions. Author(s): Palmer RA, Niwa H. Source: Biochemical Society Transactions. 2003 October; 31(Pt 5): 973-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14505463&dopt=Abstract

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: ·

Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/

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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats

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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/

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drkoop.comÒ: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine

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·

Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/

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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/

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WebMDÒHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/

The following is a specific Web list relating to x-rays; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: ·

General Overview Alopecia Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Amyloidosis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Angina Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Arteriosclerosis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Asthma Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Atherosclerosis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Colorectal Cancer Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Coronary Artery Disease Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Emphysema Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Fever of Unknown Origin Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Gout Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

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Hair Loss Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Intestinal Parasites Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Irritable Bowel Syndrome Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Lung Cancer Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Miscarriage Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Multiple Sclerosis Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Osteoarthritis Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Osteoarthritis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Peptic Ulcer Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Pericarditis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Pulmonary Edema Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Radiation Damage Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Rheumatoid Arthritis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Spastic Colon Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Spontaneous Abortion Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Sprains and Strains Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Tendinitis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

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·

Alternative Therapy Chelation Therapy Source: WholeHealthMD.com, LLC.; www.wholehealthmd.com Hyperlink: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/refshelf/substances_view/0,1525,679,00.html Chiropractic Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Osteopathy Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

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Herbs and Supplements Aloe Alternative names: Aloe vera L. Source: Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.; www.amfoundation.org Antioxidants and Free Radicals Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Greater Celandine Alternative names: Chelidonium majus Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Hydantoin Derivatives Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Menadione Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Menaphthone Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Menaquinone Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Methylsulfonylmethane Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Phylloquinone Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Strontium Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com

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General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.

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CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we will give you a bibliography on recent dissertations relating to x-rays. We will also provide you with information on how to use the Internet to stay current on dissertations. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical dissertations that use the generic term “x-rays” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on x-rays, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical dissertations in this bibliography.

Dissertations on X-rays ProQuest Digital Dissertations, the largest archive of academic dissertations available, is located at the following Web address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations. From this archive, we have compiled the following list covering dissertations devoted to x-rays. You will see that the information provided includes the dissertation’s title, its author, and the institution with which the author is associated. The following covers recent dissertations found when using this search procedure: ·

A Compact Compton Scattering X-ray Source for Cancer Detection, Diagnosis, and Treatment by Landahl, Eric Carl; PhD from University of California, Davis, 2002, 207 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3062234

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A Compact Light Source: Design and Technical Feasibility Study of a Laser-Electron Storage Ring X-ray Source by Loewen, Roderick Jon; PhD from Stanford University, 2003, 105 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3090640

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Balloon Observations of Bremsstrahlung X-rays from Cold Lake, Alberta by Varga, Ludovit; PhD from University of Calgary (Canada), 1986 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NL32772

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·

Basic Research Within a Military Context: the Naval Research Laboratory and the Foundations of Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray Astronomy, 1923--1960 by Hevly, Bruce William, PhD from The Johns Hopkins University, 1987, 382 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8716611

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Charge Dynamics in Low Dimensional Prototype Correlated Systems: a View with High Energy X-rays by Hasan, Md-Zahid; PhD from Stanford University, 2002, 135 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3038097

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Coherent X-ray Production by Cascading Stages of a High-Gain Harmonic Generation Free-electron Laser by Wu, Juhao; PhD from State University of New York at Stony Brook, 2002, 115 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3078564

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Detection and Prevention of Lung Damage in Large Field Irradiation with X-rays by El-khatib, Ellen Elisabeth Grein; PhD from University of Alberta (Canada), 1984 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NK67397

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Early X-ray Research at Physical Laboratories in the United States of America, Circa 1900: A Reappraisal of American Physics (Rowland, Rood, Trowbridge, Pupin, Zeleny) by Fudano, Jun, PhD from The University of Oklahoma, 1990, 592 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9021390

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Effects of Membrane Inclusions on Lipid Bilayer Structure and Dynamics Studied by Elastic and Inelastic X-ray Scattering by Weiss, Thomas Michael; PhD from Rice University, 2003, 134 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3090197

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Evaluation of Bremsstrahlung X-rays When Beta Radiation from Beta-Forbidden Transitions Is Stopped in Thick Targets by Kim, Jeomsoon; PhD from University of Massachusetts Lowell, 2003, 380 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3094877

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Experimental Investigation of the Directional Distribution of Potassium(A) X-rays from Electron Conversion in Thulium-169 by Salie, David Lester; PhD from The University of Manitoba (Canada), 1972 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NK13763

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Focusing Optics for Soft and Hard X-rays: Fabrication, Replication and Simulations by Stein, Aaron Geoffrey; PhD from State University of New York at Stony Brook, 2002, 189 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3088057

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Hard X-ray Observations of the Extragalactic Sky: the High Energy Focusing Telescope and the Serendipitous Extragalactic X-ray Source Identification Survey by Mao, Peter Hsih-Jen; PhD from California Institute of Technology, 2002, 92 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3052838

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Investigations of Bremsstrahlung X-rays at Cold Lake, Alberta and Fort Churchill, Manitoba by Rocket and Balloon-borne Scintillation Detectors by Vij, Kewal Kishore; PhD from University of Calgary (Canada), 1973 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NK17079

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Magnetism and Structure of Thin 3d Transition Metal Films: Xmcd and Exafs Using Polarized Soft X-rays by Hahlin, Anders; PhD from Uppsala Universitet (Sweden), 2003, 63 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f264737

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Pionic X-rays from Liquid /He by Kim, Seung Kon; PhD from University of Victoria (Canada), 1978 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NK37209

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Quasi Laue Neutron and Atomic X-ray Diffraction of Endothiapepsin by Coates, Leighton; PhD from University of Southampton (United Kingdom), 2002 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f487169

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Seeing Sound: Dynamical Effects in Ultrafast X-ray Diffraction by Decamp, Matthew Forbes; PhD from University of Michigan, 2002, 161 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3042061

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Studies of Layer-Structured Materials Using X-ray Scattering and Fluorescence Techniques by Kim, Soonseok; PhD from State University of New York at Buffalo, 2002, 139 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3063137

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The Resolving Power of X-ray Microtomography Systems Used for Evaluating Bone Specimens by Seifert, H. Allen, Iii; PhD from University of Michigan, 2003, 174 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3079525

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The View Through the Wind: X-ray Observations of Broad Absorption Line QuasiStellar Objects by Gallagher, Sarah Connoran; PhD from The Pennsylvania State University, 2002, 123 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3060019

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Understanding the High-resolution X-ray Spectra of Early-Type Stars by Miller, Nathan Andrew; PhD from The University of Wisconsin - Madison, 2002, 153 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3060404

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X-ray Observations of MEV Electron Precipitation with a Balloon-Borne Germanium Spectrometer by Millan, Robyn Margaret; PhD from University of California, Berkeley, 2002, 214 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3063488

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X-ray Single Photon Imaging Detectors Using Superconducting Tunnel Junctions by Li, Liqun; PhD from Yale University, 2002, 144 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3068312

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X-ray Spectroscopic and Timing Studies of Galactic Black Hole Binaries by Miller, Jon Matthew; PhD from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2002 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f964561

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X-ray Studies of Lattice Dynamics by Holt, Martin Victor; PhD from University of Illinois at Urbana-champaign, 2002, 64 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3070007

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X-rays and Buffalo Horns: Culture, Education and Health Behavior in Rural Northern Thailand (Healers) by Kolodin, Susan K., PhD from Stanford University, 1991, 250 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9115797

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Keeping Current Ask the medical librarian at your library if it has full and unlimited access to the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. From the library, you should be able to do more complete searches via http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations.

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CHAPTER 5. CLINICAL TRIALS AND X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to keep informed of the latest clinical trials concerning x-rays.

Recent Trials on X-rays The following is a list of recent trials dedicated to x-rays.8 Further information on a trial is available at the Web site indicated. ·

Breathing Cycle Biofeedback During Computed Tomography Procedures Condition(s): Needle Biopsy; CAT Scan; X-Ray; MEDLINEplus consumer health information Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): Warren G Magnuson Clinical Center (CC) Purpose - Excerpt: This study will evaluate the effectiveness of a flexible belt device in guiding patient breathing during computed tomography (CT)-guided needle biopsy. When patients undergo CT scanning to help guide the physician during a tissue biopsy, they are usually asked to hold their breath while the scan is taken of certain parts of the body. When the first scan is completed, the patients are allowed to breathe, and are then asked to hold their breath again while the needle is advanced towards the tissue to be biopsied. Since body organs and tissues move with breathing, this study will try to stop the patient's breathing at the same place in the breathing cycle to ensure that the biopsy target stays still and in the same place. This study will see if the flexible belt, used with a computer screen that charts the patient's breathing, will improve the patient's ability to stop breathing at the same place in the breathing cycle before and during the biopsy. Patients 18 years of age and older who have a lesion requiring a needle biopsy in the chest or abdominal area may be eligible for this study. The biopsy procedure must require CT scan guidance. Participants will undergo the following procedures: Breathing exercise: A flexible, loose-fitting belt is placed around the patient's abdomen and the patient is asked to stop breathing in the following ways: 1) take a deep breath in

8

These are listed at www.ClinicalTrials.gov.

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and hold; 2) breathe deeply out and hold; and 3) breathe regularly and hold. - Needle biopsy: The patient is positioned in a CT scanner and is asked to hold his or her breath while an initial scan is taken. Then the patient is taken out of the scanner and the place the needle entry site for the biopsy is marked on the skin. A local anesthetic is applied to the site and the patient is asked to hold his or her breath the same way as before. During this breath hold, the patient may or may not be shown a computer screen displaying a graph of the patient's breathing and the point in the cycle of the previous breath hold. The biopsy is then performed with CT guidance. While the CT pictures are being taken, the patient is again asked to breathe and hold his or her breath as before. When the biopsy is completed, the belt device is removed. Study Type: Observational Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00059137 ·

Helical Computed Tomography Compared With Chest X-Ray in Screening Individuals at High Risk for Lung Cancer Condition(s): Small Cell Lung Cancer; Non-small cell lung cancer Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): American College of Radiology Imaging Network; National Cancer Institute (NCI) Purpose - Excerpt: RATIONALE: Screening tests may help doctors detect cancer cells early and plan more effective treatment for lung cancer. It is not yet known whether helical computed tomography is more effective than chest x-ray in reducing death from lung cancer. PURPOSE: Randomized clinical trial to compare the effectiveness of helical computed tomography with that of chest x-ray in screening individuals who are at high risk for lung cancer. Study Type: Observational Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00028808

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Using X-Ray Dye to Locate Hidden Parathyroid Tumors Condition(s): Hyperparathyroidism; Parathyroid Neoplasm Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) Purpose - Excerpt: Occasionally tumors of the parathyroid gland cannot be detected by standard x-ray diagnostic procedures (CT scans, MRIs, and ultrasounds). In order for the tumor to be removed surgically it must first be localized. To do this often requires a procedure known as parathyroid arteriography and parathyroid venous sampling. This procedure begins by placing a catheter through a blood vessel in the groin. The catheter is then guided through blood vessels to reach the area of the neck. The blood vessels in this region flow in and out of the thyroid and parathyroid. An X-ray dye is then injected through the catheter into the arteries of the thyroid/parathyroid (parathyroid arteriography). The alternative is taking a small sample of the veins found in this same region (parathyroid venous sampling). Researchers prefer parathyroid arteriography because it causes less discomfort to the patient and requires less experience to do the procedure. However, parathyroid arteriography provides positive results in only 50% of

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patients undergoing the procedure. Parathyroid venous sampling provides greater amounts of positive results but the readings are often imprecise. Parathyroid tissue secretes a hormone known as PTH (parathyroid hormone). The release of PTH is stimulated by low levels of calcium in the blood. The idea behind the study is to inject a dye into the area of the parathyroid that will cause a release of PTH. Several parathyroid venous samplings will be taken following the abrupt elevation of PTH. This will provide information on the effectiveness of an intraarterial hypocalcemic stimulus (injection of dye into the arteries of the parathyroid when calcium blood levels are low) and venous sampling as techniques to improve localizing parathyroid tumors. Study Type: Observational Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00001394

Keeping Current on Clinical Trials The U.S. National Institutes of Health, through the National Library of Medicine, has developed ClinicalTrials.gov to provide current information about clinical research across the broadest number of diseases and conditions. The site was launched in February 2000 and currently contains approximately 5,700 clinical studies in over 59,000 locations worldwide, with most studies being conducted in the United States. ClinicalTrials.gov receives about 2 million hits per month and hosts approximately 5,400 visitors daily. To access this database, simply go to the Web site at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ and search by “x-rays” (or synonyms). While ClinicalTrials.gov is the most comprehensive listing of NIH-supported clinical trials available, not all trials are in the database. The database is updated regularly, so clinical trials are continually being added. The following is a list of specialty databases affiliated with the National Institutes of Health that offer additional information on trials: ·

For clinical studies at the Warren Grant Magnuson Clinical Center located in Bethesda, Maryland, visit their Web site: http://clinicalstudies.info.nih.gov/

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For clinical studies conducted at the Bayview Campus in Baltimore, Maryland, visit their Web site: http://www.jhbmc.jhu.edu/studies/index.html

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For cancer trials, visit the National Cancer Institute: http://cancertrials.nci.nih.gov/

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For eye-related trials, visit and search the Web page of the National Eye Institute: http://www.nei.nih.gov/neitrials/index.htm

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For heart, lung and blood trials, visit the Web page of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/studies/index.htm

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For trials on aging, visit and search the Web site of the National Institute on Aging: http://www.grc.nia.nih.gov/studies/index.htm

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For rare diseases, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the Office of Rare Diseases: http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/resources/rsch_trials.asp

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For alcoholism, visit the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/intramural/Web_dicbr_hp/particip.htm

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For trials on infectious, immune, and allergic diseases, visit the site of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/clintrials/

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For trials on arthritis, musculoskeletal and skin diseases, visit newly revised site of the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases of the National Institutes of Health: http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/studies/index.htm

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For hearing-related trials, visit the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders: http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/clinical/index.htm

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For trials on diseases of the digestive system and kidneys, and diabetes, visit the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases: http://www.niddk.nih.gov/patient/patient.htm

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For drug abuse trials, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the National Institute on Drug Abuse: http://www.nida.nih.gov/CTN/Index.htm

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For trials on mental disorders, visit and search the Web site of the National Institute of Mental Health: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/studies/index.cfm

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For trials on neurological disorders and stroke, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of the NIH: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/funding_opportunities.htm#Clinical_Trials

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CHAPTER 6. PATENTS ON X-RAYS Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.9 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “x-rays” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on x-rays, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical patents in this bibliography.

Patents on X-rays By performing a patent search focusing on x-rays, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We

9Adapted

from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.

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will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on x-rays: ·

Alignment mark detection method, and alignment method, exposure method and device, and device production method, making use of the alignment mark detection method Inventor(s): Amemiya; Mitsuaki (Utsunomiya, JP), Tsukamoto; Masami (Yokohama, JP) Assignee(s): Canon Kabushiki Kaisha (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,642,528 Date filed: November 9, 2001 Abstract: An apparatus and method for detecting an alignment mark on a substrate using electron beams. The method include the steps of setting an accelerating voltage of the electron beams in accordance with the layer structure of the substrate, irradiating the substrate with the electron beams having the accelerating voltage set in the setting step, and detecting one of radiation and electrons from the substrate after the irradiating step is performed, and determining the position of the alignment mark based on the detecting operation. The apparatus includes a device for setting such an accelerating voltage, a device for irradiating the substrate with the electron beams, and a detector for detecting one of the radiation and the electrons. In one embodiment, fluorescent X-rays are detected, while in another embodiment secondary electrons or backscattered electrons are detected. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method for detecting an alignment mark for performing alignment, suitable for use in an exposure device or the like in producing semiconductor devices or the like. In producing semiconductor devices or the like, the most commonly used type of exposure devices utilize visible light or ultraviolet light in order to transfer a mask or reticle circuit pattern onto a wafer. With more advanced micromachining techniques of forming semiconductor circuit patterns, however, almost no further resolution can be provided, when visible or ultraviolet light is used to expose a pattern of the smallest size. Consequently, exposure using shorter wavelengths such as vacuum ultraviolet light or X-rays, or electron beams is drawing attention. Putting such methods of exposure into practical use has the disadvantage that alignment of the mask and the wafer must be carried out with far greater precision than conventional alignments. In particular, when vacuum ultraviolet rays, X-rays, electron beams or the like are used, exposure must be carried out in a high vacuum, resulting in more severe conditions for alignment. At present, a method of exposure thought to be effective in detecting the position of an alignment mark is one using electron beams that provides high resolution. In general, however, multiple patterns are formed on the wafer by repeating the wafer forming process a plurality of times, causing the layer structure to change every time a cycle of the wafer forming process is repeated. Thus, an alignment mark, being detected using electron beams, is not necessarily detected under the same conditions, so that failure in the detection of an alignment mark may occur. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06642528__

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Apparatus and method for observing sample using electron beam Inventor(s): Fukuda; Muneyuki (Kokubunji, JP), Ishitani; Tohru (Hitachinaka, JP), Koike; Hidemi (Hitachinaka, JP), Ochiai; Isao (Otsuki, JP), Sato; Mitsugu (Hitachinaka, JP), Tomimatsu; Satoshi (Kokubunji, JP) Assignee(s): Hitachi, Ltd. (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,627,889 Date filed: May 22, 2002 Abstract: An apparatus and method for observing a sample that is capable of making observations by irradiating an electron beam to a sample in the form of a thin film, and making elemental analysis accurately and with increased resolution while reducing background noise. A particular portion of the sample is observed by the electron beam by disposing a light element piece having a hole provided immediately behind the thin film sample. According to the present invention, it is possible to reduce the x-rays generated from portions other than the sample and electron beam incident on the sample after being scattered to portions other than the sample when observing the thin film sample by irradiating the electron beam. It is therefore possible to make secondary electron observation and elemental analysis with increased accuracy and sensitivity. Thus, an apparatus and a method for observing samples is provided that allows for the accurate and high-resolution internal observation of LSI devices. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority to Japanese Patent Application No. 2001346849 filed on Nov. 13, 2001. The present invention relates to methods and systems for the observation, analysis, and evaluation of thin film samples or fine particles, and more specifically, the present invention relates to systems and methods for analyzing, at multiple stages driving fabrication, electronic devices and/or micro devices such as semiconductor devices, liquid crystal devices, magnetic head devices, that require observation and analysis of not only surfaces of an observation subject but also inner cross sections near the surface thereof. The improved structure works as follows. Electron beam 8 is irradiated onto a sample 22, which emits x-rays due to the irradiation. An x-ray detector 16 having an x-ray detecting element 161 provided above in a slanting direction of the sample 22, and a collimator 162 for restricting the optical path of x-rays disposed between the x-ray detecting element and the sample, detects the x-rays emitted from the sample. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06627889__

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Catalytic hydrogenation to remove gas from x-ray tube cooling oil Inventor(s): Lyons; Robert J. (Wauwatosa, WI) Assignee(s): General Electric Company (Schenectady, NY) Patent Number: 6,632,970 Date filed: December 29, 1999 Abstract: The present invention deals with the catalytic hydrogenation of fluid used to cool and dielectrically insulate an x-ray generating device within an x-ray system. According to the present invention, a method and apparatus are provided for hydrogenating fluid that has been exposed to x-rays to reduce the amount of H.sub.2 gas, free hydrogen atoms and unsaturated molecules in the fluid. The method comprises exposing the fluid within the x-ray system to a catalytically effective amount of catalyst.

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The catalyst operates in temperatures in the range of about 10-300.degree. C. and pressures in the range of about 0.1-30 atmospheres. The catalyst may comprise a solid, non-soluble catalyst, a soluble catalyst, or a combination of both. A suitable solid, nonsoluble catalyst comprises Group VIII elements and their compounds. Group VIII elements comprise iron, cobalt, nickel, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum. The catalytically effective amount of solid catalyst ranges from about 1-100 cm.sup.2 of surface area of solid catalyst per liter of fluid. Additionally, a suitable soluble catalyst may be added to the fluid and may comprise tris(triphenylphosphine) rhodium (I) chloride, precious metals in solution such as HRu(C.sub.2 H.sub.4)(C.sub.6 H.sub.4 PPh.sub.2)(PPh.sub.3).sub.2), Wilkinson's catalyst which comprises a rhodium, chromium, phosphorus triphenyl chloride compound, and other similar compounds. A catalytically effective amount of soluble catalyst may comprise from about 0.01-1 gram per liter of fluid. The fluid may comprise about 99.7% hydrocarbon, about 0.1% soluble catalyst, and the remainder comprising conditioning additives. The hydrocarbon preferably comprises about 99.7% hydrogenated light naphthenic petroleum distillates. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to dielectric fluid for cooling and electrically insulating x-ray tubes, and more particularly, to a system and method for catalytic hydrogenation of x-ray tube dielectric fluid that is subject to chemical breakdown due to exposure to x-ray radiation. A dielectric oil is typical fluid used to cool and electrically insulate an x-ray tube. The dielectric oil is subject to chemical breakdown, however, upon exposure to x-ray radiation. After exposure to x-rays, the dielectric oil comprises unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules, free hydrogen atoms, and H.sub.2 gas. The formation of the H.sub.2 gas is disadvantageous as it may reduce the electrical insulating characteristics of the dielectric oil and may interfere with the transmission of the x-rays. Thus, it is desirable to reduce and/or eliminate the formation of H.sub.2 gas in the x-ray tube dielectric fluid. Typically, an x-ray beam generating device, referred to as an x-ray tube, comprises dual electrodes of an electrical circuit in a vacuum chamber within a cylindrical vacuum vessel envelope. The vacuum vessel envelope typically comprises a glass tube or a cylinder made of metal. One of the electrodes is a cathode assembly which is positioned in a spaced relationship to a rotating, disc-shaped target that comprises the anode assembly. Upon energization of the electrical circuit connecting the electrodes, the cathode assembly produces a supply of electrons which are accelerated and focused to a thin beam. The thin beam of very high velocity electrons is directed parallel to the axis of the vacuum vessel envelope to strike a section of the rotating target anode. The kinetic energy produced by the beam of electrons striking the surface of the section of the target anode, which comprises a material such as a refractory metal, is converted to electromagnetic waves of very high frequency. These high frequency electromagnetic waves are x-rays. The surface of the target anode is typically angled, which helps to direct the x-rays out the side of the vacuum vessel envelope. After exiting the vacuum vessel envelope, the x-rays are directed to penetrate an object, such as human anatomical parts for medical examination and diagnostic procedures. Further, industrial x-ray tubes may be used, for example, to inspect metal parts for cracks or for inspecting the contents of luggage at airports. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06632970__

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Controlled light source device for reading x-rays Inventor(s): Gustafson; Gregory (16120-46th Ave., Plymouth, MN 55446) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,629,378 Date filed: March 27, 2001 Abstract: A device for reading x-rays including mechanism for transporting a plurality of x-rays to and from a x-ray reading station; the transporting mechanism including a web and mechanism for securing a plurality of x-ray films to the web; the plurality of xray films may be spaced one from another along the web; the device including mechanism for controlling the movement of the web to sequentially transport the x-ray films to the reading station; mechanism for sensing the web and overlying x-ray film to identify the location of each x-ray film; sensing mechanism being disposed upstream of the x-ray reading station; mechanism for activating light sources behind the x-ray film and avoiding activating light sources behind the web portions not having overlying xray film; light activating mechanism disposed at the x-ray reading station whereby light is passed through said x-ray film and light is not passed through the web not having overlying x-ray film. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to devices for assisting in the reading of x-ray films and more particularly to controlling the lighting used to assist in the reading of xray films. Devices for assisting in the reading of x-rays have undergone an evolution over the history of the use of x-rays. Initially x-rays were simply held up to the light as the doctor or the technician read them. This procedure had its problems and drawbacks. The hand held x-rays tended to not be steady and the light tended to be erratic and uneven. Later, light boxes were developed light boxes consisted of a frame that held a frosted glass with a lamp disposed beneath the frosted glass. The x-ray was placed on the frosted glass where it lay in a stable position. The light box overcame the mentioned drawbacks of the hand held x-ray, but never-the-less had its own problems and drawbacks. The light box emitted a bright light in the areas around the perimeter of the x-ray and a lesser light showed through the x-ray itself. This bright light tended to partially desensitize the sight of the doctor or radiologist reviewing the x-ray. Still later, automation came about, including carriages for transporting a series of x-rays passed a reviewing station including a light box. The x-ray transporting carriages had their own problems. One of the problems with the transporting carriages included the partial desensitizing problem previously confronted in the light boxes. Later modifications included the addition of manual or semi-automatic mechanical shutters to mask unwanted light. Such shutters are driven by hand or motorized. The present invention overcomes the partial sight desensitizing problem by only providing lighting behind the x-ray film. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06629378__

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·

Detector with semiconductor for detecting ionizing radiation having a plane conducting structure Inventor(s): Bonnefoy; Jean-Paul (Grenoble, FR), Mestais; Corinne (La Terrasse, FR), Monnet; Olivier (Tullins, FR), Sauvage; Francis (Moirans, FR) Assignee(s): Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique (Paris, FR) Patent Number: 6,657,180 Date filed: November 26, 2001 Abstract: A semiconductor detector including at least one block of detector pixels, each detector pixel being composed of a semiconductor element with a first face covered by a first armature and a second face covered by a second armature. The detector pixels are assembled side by side such that the first armatures define a detector plane. The first armatures are covered by a plane conducting structure that connects them together electrically. The detector does not have any dead area in which detection is impossible. The semiconductor is particularly applicable to detection of ionizing radiation (gamma rays, X-rays, etc.) Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a semiconductor detector for the detection of ionizing radiation (gamma rays, X-rays, etc.). More particularly, the invention relates to a device for supplying the polarization voltage of the semiconductor detector for detection of ionizing radiation (gamma rays, X-rays, etc.). The invention relates particularly to fields in which the detected radiation is high-energy radiation, for example such as astrophysics or nuclear medicine. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06657180__

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Device for measurement of metal sheet thickness and clad layer thickness and method of use thereof Inventor(s): Ghaziary; Hormoz (Los Gatos, CA), Haszler; Alfred Johann Peter (Valendar, DE) Assignee(s): Corus Aluminium Walzprodukte GmbH (Koblenz, DE) Patent Number: 6,631,177 Date filed: August 10, 2000 Abstract: A device for the measurement of the thickness of a first layer, including one or more sublayers, on a second layer of a metal sheet by X-ray fluorescence analysis, includes (a) an X-ray source for generating and directing a beam of polychromatic primary X-rays, the beam being able to penetrate into the first and second layers for converting primary X-rays into chemical element specific fluorescent X-rays by absorption of primary X-rays and re-emission of fluorescent X-rays by the chemical element; and (b) a detector module for detecting element specific fluorescent X-rays and determining an intensity thereof. In the method of using the device, the detector module for detection is placed at an angle with respect to the primary beam of X-rays in dependence of the chemical element from which the fluorescent X-rays are to be detected. The device achieves an improvement in the efficiency of detection, and the measurement time is reduced accordingly. Hence, a device is provided with which alloys with a low concentration of fluorescent elements can now be analyzed, for determining the thickness of a cladding.

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Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a device for measurement of the thickness of a first layer, comprising one or more sublayers, on a second layer of a metal sheet by X-ray fluorescence analysis, and a method of use therefor. In particular, the device comprises means defining a specimen plane for supporting the metal sheet, and further comprises means for generating and directing a beam of polychromatic primary X-rays. The beam is able to penetrate into the first and second layers for converting primary X-rays into chemical element specific fluorescent X-rays by means of absorption of the primary Xrays and re-emission of the fluorescent X-rays by the chemical element. The device further comprises means for detecting element specific fluorescent X-rays and determining an intensity thereof. An X-ray device is known from U.S. Pat. No. 2,711,480. In the known device, the beam of primary X-rays is directed at an arbitrary angle on a sheet material, and relative to the beam of primary X-rays the detection means are aligned at an arbitrary angle to receive fluorescent radiation that emanates in all directions from the sheet. The known device is applicable in a method to determine the thickness of a layer of material on a chemically different base material, by measuring the attenuation of fluorescent radiation of the most abundant element comprised in the base material in passing through the layer. However, in many cases it is not possible to use the fluorescence of the most abundant element, in particular when dealing with metal sheets comprising layers of alloys with mutually very similar compositions. Within the scope of this description, the term "cladding" is used to denote the first layer, and the term "clad layer" is used to indicate a sublayer. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06631177__ ·

Digitizing scanner Inventor(s): Fernald; Mark R. (Amherst, NH), Lehman; Richard F. (Nashua, NH), Renk; Jeffrey D. (Derry, NH), Winey; Calvin M. (Carlisle, MA) Assignee(s): Howtek, Inc. (Hudson, NH) Patent Number: 6,606,171 Date filed: October 9, 1997 Abstract: A digitizing scanner particularly for scanning transparent films such as X-rays provides an improved illuminator for transmitting light through the film. The illuminator defines a line array of a plurality of individually calibrated and controlled LEDs. The LEDs are calibrated by determining their relative points of projection on a CCD camera array. The camera array scans the LEDs and adjusts them individually to produce a predetermined illumination pattern from the group. The adjustment occurs over a plurality of cycles that address cross-talk between LEDs in the array. The camera includes anti-reflection elements to minimize bounce-back of image light and noise suppression circuitry to reduce low-level signal noise. A central processing unit, interconnected with the camera assembly includes a pixel averager to reduce the inherent resolution of the CCD to a desired level and to attenuate further noise. The scanner can include an illuminator for illuminating a scannable opaque bar-code strip and size-measurement circuitry for determining the relative size and location of the scanned image. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to an improved digitizing scanner, and more particularly to a scanner for reading and storing graphical and textual image data from transparent and translucent sheets such as developed X-ray film. Electro-optical digitizing scanners are commonly employed as peripheral devices linked with microcomputers and other data processing and storage devices. Scanners enable

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graphical and text data to be accurately converted into stored digital data for further processing and interpretation by, for example, a microcomputer. Scanners are adapted to read data from a variety of media and formats. Opaque and transparent sheets are two common forms of scanned media. An image on a sheet is defined by light areas ("highlights") and dark areas ("shadows"). To convert the light and dark areas into corresponding image data, the scanner typically illuminates the sheet with a light source. In one form of scanner, a camera assembly moves along the length of the sheet. In another, the sheet moves relative to a stationary camera. As the sheet moves relative to the camera, the camera "scans" the width of the illuminated image, converting the scanned portion of the image into a data signal. This scanned image is said to be "digitized" in that the image is converted into a data file stored in a digital format with information representative of discrete segments or "pixels." The data in the file includes instructions on how to assemble the individual pixels into a cohesive two-dimensional image that reflects the original scanned image. The data file also includes information on the intensity value for each pixel and its color, if applicable, or grayscale shade. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06606171__ ·

Electron spectroscopic analyzer using X-rays Inventor(s): Lee; Jae-cheol (Kyungki-do, KR), Lim; Chang-bin (Seoul, KR), Yuryev; Yury N. (Kyungki-do, KR) Assignee(s): Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. (Kyungki-do, KR) Patent Number: 6,653,628 Date filed: September 25, 2001 Abstract: An electron spectroscopic analyzer using X-rays is provided. The electron spectroscopic analyzer includes an X-ray generator for generating X-rays, an optical system for detecting charged particles emitted from an object irradiated with the X-rays to analyze the object, a vacuum system whose inside is maintained at a low pressure near to vacuum pressure, the vacuum system being provided between the X-ray generator and the optical system, and a blocking unit provided between the X-ray generator and the optical system for preventing elements other than the X-rays emitted from the X-ray generator from flowing into the optical system. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C.sctn.sctn. 119 and/or 365 to 00-56152 filed in Republic of Korea on Sep. 25, 2000; the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference. The present invention relates to an electron spectroscopic analyzer using X-rays and, more particularly, to an electron spectroscopic analyzer capable of increasing X-ray transmission efficiency and a signal to noise (S/N) ratio. Electron spectroscopic analyzers using X-rays have a variety of industrial applications. For instance, they are used for obtaining information about the atomic structures and arrays of electrons in atoms of industrially used materials such as semiconductor materials, catalysts and amorphous materials. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06653628__

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Endodontic sealing compositions and methods for using such compositions Inventor(s): Fischer; Dan E. (Sandy, UT), Jensen; Steven D. (South Jordan, UT) Assignee(s): Ultradent Products, Inc. (South Jordan, UT) Patent Number: 6,652,282 Date filed: April 12, 2002 Abstract: Endodontic sealant compositions and methods for sealing a root canal using sealant or other filling materials. The compositions include one or more resins that promote adhesion to hydrophilic dental tissues. Examples include alkyl methacrylates and derivatives thereof, such as alkylamino methacrylates and oxyphosphoro methacrylates. The compositions include a radio opacifying agent, so that they may be seen using X-rays, and one or more polymerization initiators to effect curing, at least one chemical initiator and, optionally, a photoinitiator, to yield a curable sealant composition. The compositions are introduced into the root canal using a narrow cannula coupled to a high pressure hydraulic delivery device. Additional pressure may be applied to the sealant compositions using a syringe-like plunger introduced within a cylindrical access hole drilled through the crown of the tooth. The chemical initiator causes the mixed composition to harden over time. Hardening of at least a portion of the composition can be accelerated by including a photoinitiator and irratiating the mixed composition with radiant energy (e.g., from a dental curing lamp). Excerpt(s): The invention is in the field of compositions and methods for sealing a root canal during an endodontic procedure. More particularly, the invention involves compositions having enhanced adhesion to hydrophilic dental tissues found within root canals which assists their ability to effectively seal and protect a newly cleaned root canal. Such compositions are preferably radiopaque and are cured more rapidly compared to existing endodontic sealing compositions, thus allowing for quicker placement of a final filling or crown to complete the root canal procedure. Following an endodontic root canal procedure, in which the root canal is cleaned using special root canal tools and irrigation devices, it is important to fill and seal the evacuated root canal in order to preserve the dead tooth from further decay that might compromise the integrity of the tooth and cause infection. In a typical procedure, one or more soft, resilient, needle-like inserts known as "gutta percha" points are inserted in each root canal branch in order at least partially seal and fill the root canal. The term "gutta percha" refers to a rubbery material derived from natural rubber, typically blended with zinc oxide. This particular rubbery material is preferred because it is compressible, flexible and relatively soft so that it can be used to fill voids within the exposed root canal. The gutta percha points are typically impregnated with other materials such as radiopaque solids, zinc oxide, for its medicinal properties, and other passive or active ingredients as desired. It is impossible, however, to completely seal a root canal from all ingress of fluids, which may be laden with bacteria, using gutta percha alone. Conventional techniques require multiple gutta percha cones per canal and laborious "later condensation" techniques. For some, it requires a heating the gutta percha in an attempt to make it flow into the lateral canals. However, this technique, coupled with the properties of gutta percha, make it hard to achieve fine adaptation to canal walls and flow into the dentinal tubules. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06652282__

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Imaging of pixel defects in digital detectors Inventor(s): Aufrichtig; Richard (Mountain View, CA), French; John C. (Wauwatosa, WI), Kwasnick; Robert Forrest (Palo Alto, CA), Lamberty; John R. (Oconomowoc, WI) Assignee(s): General Electric Company (Schenectady, NY) Patent Number: 6,661,456 Date filed: April 30, 1999 Abstract: A method and apparatus for displaying an image generated by at least one detector of an imaging unit are disclosed herein. The method includes creating a pixel map identifying locations of bad pixels in an array of pixels in the image detected by the at least one detector, linking the pixel map to the image, and providing for selective display of the pixel map. Bad pixels behave from a group including pixels which do not respond electrically and pixels which are statistically different from surrounding pixels in the array of pixels. The apparatus includes an imaging unit for generating x-rays which pass through a body of interest, at least one detector unit for detecting the x-rays, and a processing unit for identifying bad pixels within the detected image. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to imaging systems. More particularly, the present invention relates to a digital imaging system equipped to detect and display defects contained within the imaging detector. Imaging systems include systems where images are generated by, x-ray, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, computerized tomography (CT), or such nuclear medicine techniques as positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT). In each system, a source of electromagnetic radiation (e.g., x-rays) emits radiation which passes through a body of interest and is detected by some kind of detector. Various structures of various densities in the body of interest absorb the radiation differently, such that the radiation detected by the detector provides information on the structures. Imaging systems are often used to provide detailed information on structures inside the human body. For example, CT scans of the head are useful for evaluation of head injury and detection of tumor, stroke, or infection. Imaging devices are also useful for the detection of pathologies, or manifestations of diseases such as cancer. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06661456__

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Imaging with digital tomography and a rapidly moving x-ray source Inventor(s): Adler; Richard (9131 Mabry Ave., NE., Albuquerque, NM 87101), Annis; Martin (65 Banks St., Cambridge, MA 02138) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,628,745 Date filed: July 2, 2001 Abstract: A digital tomography system includes an electron source that provides a beam of electrons, and an electromagnet assembly that receives said beam of electrons and is configured and arranged to direct the beam of electrons along a selected path, wherein the assembly provides a redirected beam of electrons. The system also includes a target that is struck by the redirected beam of electrons and generates a cone of x-rays, and a slit collimator that receives the cone of x-rays and generates a fan beam. A first line of detectors is positioned to detect x-rays that pass through the object under inspection,

Patents 91

and provide sensed signals indicative thereof to a controller that receives the sensed signals and forms a displayable image of a selected plane through the object under inspection. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to the field of x-ray imaging systems, and in particular to an x-ray imaging system that employs digital tomography and a rapidly moving xray source. The original tomography systems employed an imaging technique wherein an x-ray source and a film mounted below the object under inspection (typically a person) were moved in opposed directions along prescribed paths so that only one plane of the object under inspection is in focus at all times. The motion of the x-ray source is in a plane parallel to the plane of the film. Structures in a slice parallel to the film plane projected onto the film in the same relative positions throughout the entire examination. All other planes above and below projected in different positions of the film at different times through the motion, and therefore were blurred. This system allowed the production of only a single slice of the object under inspection with each exposure to the cone of x-rays. With the development of scintillating materials, solid state detectors and digital computers, linear digital tomography systems were developed using an x-ray source and collimator emitting a fan beam of x-rays incident on a line of detectors. The fan beam is translated along the line of detectors by physically moving the source, and every detector is sampled as the fan beam translates. It is then possible to later choose the proper set of detectors to read which will focus on a single line, parallel to the line of detectors. Because all of the data is stored, this line can be chosen at any distance between the x-ray source and the line of detectors. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06628745__ ·

Implantable biomarker and method of use Inventor(s): Montegrande; Valentino (1150 Main St., Irvine, CA 92614) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,654,629 Date filed: April 11, 2002 Abstract: The present invention provides an implantable biomarker for finding a location inside a patient while performing minimally invasive or open surgical procedures. The implantable biomarker includes a dielectric base that includes two opposing sides from which extend a plurality of wave-guide rods. The implantable biomarker is preferably mounted upon a surgical instrument or surgical implant and used in conjunction with an image-guided system to enable a surgeon to quickly and easily find the location without requiring extensive x-rays or the use of expensive and cumbersome equipment. Excerpt(s): This invention relates generally to biomarkers, and more particularly to an implantable biomarker that can be used as part of an image guided system that utilizes ultrasound imaging techniques. The first class of prior art biomarkers include materials that have different ultrasound reflective properties and only remain in the body temporarily, eventually being reabsorbed by the body. An example of this technology is shown in Burbank et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,161,034, assigned to SENOREX.RTM., that teaches detectable markers that may be introduced by a cavity created by removal of a biopsy specimen to mark the location of the biopsy site so that it may be located in a subsequent medical/surgical procedure. The marker preferably includes gasses, saline solutions, or similar materials. The markers remain present in sufficient quantity to

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permit detection and location of the biopsy site at the first time point (e.g., 2 weeks) after introduction but clear from the biopsy site or otherwise not interfere with imaging of tissues adjacent the biopsy site at a second time point several months after introduction. Unger, U.S. Pat. No. 5,281,408 teaches a substantially homogeneous aqueous suspensions of low density microspheres which are presented as contrast media for imaging the gastrointestinal tract and other body cavities using computed tomography. In one embodiment, the low density microspheres are gas-filled. With computed tomography, the contrast media serve to change the relative density of certain areas within the gastrointestinal tract and other body cavities, and improve the overall diagnostic efficacy of this imaging method. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06654629__ ·

Light exposure method Inventor(s): Matsuzawa; Nobuyuki (Tokyo, JP), Oizumi; Hiroaki (Tokyo, JP) Assignee(s): Sony Corporation (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,613,497 Date filed: October 27, 2000 Abstract: A light exposure method for ultra-fine processing for a semiconductor in which light transmittance of a resist layer in a wavelength range of the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light is improved to enable ultra-fine processing more elaborate than is possible with conventional methods. In selectively exposing a resist layer to X-rays, a high molecular material obtained by replacing at least a portion of hydrogen atoms of a pre-existing resist material by a substituent containing an alkyl group and/or a substituent containing an aromatic ring is used as a high molecular material of the resist layer. By replacing the hydrogen atoms of the high molecular materials with a substituent containing an alkyl group or a substituent containing an aromatic ring, the proportion of oxygen atoms in an atom of the high molecular materials becomes relatively smaller to suppress optical absorption of the entire high molecular material. The line absorption coefficient in an x-ray wavelength is 3.80.mu.sup.-1 or less. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a light exposure method for ultra-fine processing in the field of a semiconductor. In, for example, the field of a semiconductor, establishment of a new processing technique providing for ultra-fine processing to a size not larger than 0.1.mu.m is incumbent with the tendency towards high integration semiconductor devices. In processing an ultra-fine pattern, the so-called lithographic technique is indispensable. At present, development of a new light exposure technique employing an extreme ultraviolet (EUV) rays in the vicinity of the wavelength of 7 to 16 nm, in addition to the ultraviolet rays by a conventional mercury lamp or excimer laser, is going on briskly in order to improve optical resolution to cope with shorter wavelengths used for light exposure to achieve the ultra-fine processing. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06613497__

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Low angle high speed image tube Inventor(s): Kendall; Charles B. (Brookfield, WI) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Co., LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,639,970 Date filed: October 11, 2002 Abstract: An imaging tube (51) is provided including a cathode (58) and an anode (60). The cathode (58) includes an emission surface (99), which emits a plurality of electrons along an emission axis (56). The anode (60) includes a body (76) having a track (58) on a peripheral section (78) of the body (76). The plurality of electrons are directed to impinge on the track (58) at an impingement angle.alpha. approximately equal to or between 15.degree. and 25.degree. relative to the emission axis (56) and are converted into x-rays. A method of generating x-rays within the imaging tube is also provided. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to multi-slice computed tomography (CT) imaging systems, and more particularly, to an apparatus and method of generating x-rays within an imaging tube. There is a continuous effort to increase computed tomography (CT) imaging system scanning capabilities. This is especially true in CT imaging systems. Customers desire the ability to perform longer scans at high power levels. The increase in scan time at high power levels allows physicians to gather CT images and constructions in a matter of seconds rather than several minutes as with previous CT imaging systems. Although the increase in imaging speed provides improved imaging capability, it causes new constraints and requirements for the functionality of the CT imaging systems. The anode 14, as with other traditional style CT tube anodes, uses a store-now/dissipate-later approach to thermal management. In order to accommodate this approach the anode 14 is required to have a large mass and a large diameter target. The electron beam impacts the target 18, near a rim 20, essentially normal to the target face 22. The target 18 is rotated about a center axis 24 at approximately 180 Hz or 10,000 rpm to distribute load of the electron beam around a track region 26 of the target 18. Thermal energy generated in the track region 26 is transferred through the target 18 to a thermal storage material, such as graphite, which brazed to a back surface of the target 18. As the anode 14 rotates, thermal energy stored on the back surface of the target 18 dissipates during each revolution of the anode 14, thereby cooling the anode 14. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06639970__

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Lutetium yttrium orthosilicate single crystal scintillator detector Inventor(s): Chai; Bruce H. T. (Oviedo, FL), Ji; Yangyang (Orlando, FL) Assignee(s): Crystal Photonics, Inc. (Sanford, FL), University of Central Florida (Orlando, FL) Patent Number: 6,624,420 Date filed: February 17, 2000 Abstract: A single crystal having the general composition, Ce.sub.2x (Lu.sub.1-y Y.sub.y).sub.2(1-x) SiO.sub.5 where x=approximately 0.00001 to approximately 0.05 and y=approximately 0.0001 to approximately 0.9999; preferably where x ranges from approximately 0.0001 to approximately 0.001 and y ranges from approximately 0.3 to approximately 0.8. The crystal is useful as a scintillation detector responsive to gamma

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ray or similar high energy radiation. The crystal as scintillation detector has wide application for the use in the fields of physics, chemistry, medicine, geology and cosmology because of its enhanced scintillation response to gamma rays, x-rays, cosmic rays and similar high energy particle radiation. Excerpt(s): There are a number of ways to detect high energy radiation. Some of the equipment can be quite bulky, such as a cloud chamber, others may not be as sensitive or quantitative. Scintillator is a very simple but also very accurate method to detect high energy radiation such as x-rays, gamma-rays, high energy particles exceeding a few kilo-electron-volts (KeV) in energy. When high energy radiation strikes on a scintillating crystal, it creates a large number of electron-hole pairs inside the crystal. Recombination of these electron-hole pairs will release energy in the range of a few eV. This energy can be emitted directly from the recombination center as light or transferred to a light emitting ion center which then emits a specific wavelength of light. This low energy emission can then be detected by a photomultiplier tube, avalanche photo diode (APD) or other detector systems with sufficient sensitivity. The higher the light emission (or light yield), the easier for the detector design. A The first scintillating crystal is calcium tungstate (CaWo.sub.4) which was used before the turn of this century to detect x-rays. The most significant discovery of a scintillating crystal is Thallium-activated sodium iodide NaI(Tl)) in the mid-40's. Even now, it is still the most widely used scintillating crystal. This is because large size crystals are readily available and quite inexpensive. Moreover, the light yield is the highest among all the known materials and is still the benchmark standard for all other scintillator crystals even after all these years. Even though NaI(Tl)) is widely used, it is not without problems. It is hygroscopic and very soft. Moreover, the density is too low (37 g/cm.sup.3), the effective mass number (Z.sub.eef) of 49 is also too small. It has a large and persistent after glow which interferes with the intensity counting system. Finally, the decay time about of 230 nanoseconds (ns) is too slow for many applications. Since the turn of this century, a large number of crystals have been proposed for potential scintillating applications. Even though they do show scintillating properties, none of them has all the right properties. The common problems are low light yield, physical weakness and difficult to produce large size high quality single crystals. Despite the problems, a number of them have found applications in physics, chemistry, geology and medicine. One common feature of all these usable crystals is that they are the only crystals which can be produced in large size and high quality by an industrial manufacturing process with reasonable cost. This common feature has proven to be the most important factor, more so than the details of scintillating properties, to be considered as a viable scintillator material. The specific examples include bismuth germanate ((BGO) which is Bi.sub.4 Ge.sub.3 O.sub.12), cerium doped gadolinium orthosilicate ((GSO) which is Gd.sub.2 SiO.sub.5) and cerium doped lutetium orthosilicate ((LSO) which Lu.sub.2 SiO.sub.5). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06624420__ ·

Method and apparatus for determination of properties of food or feed Inventor(s): Hansen; Per Waaben (Lyngby, DK) Assignee(s): Foss Electric A/S (Hillerod, DK) Patent Number: 6,600,805 Date filed: April 8, 2002 Abstract: Properties of a medium of food or feed, such as the fat content of meat, are determined by the use of dual X-ray absorptiometry with dual energy levels.

Patents 95

Substantially, the entire medium is scanned by X-ray beams, and the X-rays passing through the medium are detected for a plurality of areas (pixels) of the medium. For each area, values A.sub.low and A.sub.high, representing absorption in the area of the medium at low and high energy levels are calculated. A plurality of values being products of the type A.sub.low.sup.n *A.sub.high.sup.m are generated and used for predicting the properties of the medium in this area. Thereby the accuracy of the property determination is improved considerably. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to X-ray analysis, and more specifically to the determination of properties of food or feed, such as the fat content of meat. X-ray analysis for determining the fat content of meat has been known for several years. Such examples are described in numerous documents. U.S. Pat. No. 4,168,431 (Henriksen) discloses a multiple-level X-ray analysis for determining fat percentage. The apparatus includes at least three X-ray beams at different energy levels. DK PS 172 377 B1 discloses detection means for X-rays as well as a system for determination of properties of an item by use of X-rays. The system operates at a single energy level and applies two detection means separated by a X-ray attenuating material. The percentages of fat in two meat streams are determined by passing a beam of polychromatic X-rays through the streams, measuring both the incident and the attenuated beams. U.S. Pat. No. 4,504,963 discloses an apparatus, system and method for determining the percentage of fat in a meat sample through use of X-ray radiation techniques. An automatic calibration is obtained by use of three incident beams, all at same energy level. Validation of body composition by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry is described in Clinical Physiology (1991) 11, 331341. (J. Haarbo, A. Gotfredsen, C. Hassager and C. Christiansen). Further studies on bodies are reported in Am. J. Clinical Nutrition 1993: 57:605-608. (Ole Lander Svendsen, Jens Haarbo, Christian Hassager, and Claus Christiansen). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06600805__ ·

Method and apparatus for enhancing the contrast of a medical diagnostic image acquired using collimation Inventor(s): Anderton; R. Larry (West Jordon, UT) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Company LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,614,877 Date filed: November 21, 2001 Abstract: An x-ray system that uses an x-ray source to irradiate a subject with x-rays is provided. A collimator is located proximate to the x-ray source and blocks a portion of the x-rays. A detector receives the x-rays and creates subject data indicative of a subject and collimator data indicative of a collimator. A position detector identifies a position of the collimator with respect to a field of view of the x-ray source. A gating module receives the subject and collimator data and passes at least a portion of the subject data. The gating module blocks at least a portion of the collimator data based on the position of the collimator. A display displays an x-ray image based on the portion of the subject data passed by the gating module. Excerpt(s): Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to medical diagnostic systems, and in particular, to techniques and apparatus for adjusting the contrast of displayed diagnostic images acquired while using a collimator. X-ray systems are well known for creating a series of internal images of a patient, such as cardiology, radiology and fluoroscopy systems. The patient is exposed to x-rays which are then detected after

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passing through the patient. The radiation is pulsed to produce a continuous sequence of images which are displayed real-time on a monitor. The x-rays are attenuated as they pass through the patient. The amount of attenuation experienced by the x-rays is represented in the image by the grayscale level of the pixels that are displayed. The contrast between grayscale levels is representative of the amount of attenuation. Bones and different types of tissues attenuate the x-rays by different amounts, and thus are detected and displayed on an image monitor with different contrast levels. For example, bone will attenuate x-ray to a larger degree than muscle and may be displayed darker than surrounding anatomy. A region of anatomy containing only soft tissue may have a smaller range of contrast than a region of anatomy containing both soft tissue and bone. In addition, scattered radiation or using an increased kVp level to image a very large patient may also decrease the contrast range. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06614877__ ·

Method and arrangement relating to x-ray detection Inventor(s): Danielsson; Mats (Taby, SE) Assignee(s): Mamea Imaging AB (Stockholm, SE) Patent Number: 6,621,891 Date filed: July 23, 2002 Abstract: A method an arrangement in an x-ray imaging apparatus (10), includes at least one x-ray source (11), a collimator (42, 52, 62a, 62b, 72) and a detcetor (43, 73); the arrangement is arranged for providing a variable exposure of the dector (43, 73) to x-ray radiation from the x-ray source (10) through slots (45, 55, 65a, 65b, 75) on the collimator (42, 52, 62a, 62b, 72). The arrangement comprises at least one of the collimator (42, 52, 62a, 62b, 72) or registering means (43, 73), which are arranged moveable relative each other to vary number of x-rays registered by the dector. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method and arrangement for varying the exposed surface of an x-ray detection/registering means. The x-ray imaging apparatus comprises at least one x-ray source, a collimator having slots and a registering means. When analysing an object, specially a tissue or a part of human body, through x-ray radiation, the result of the analyse depends highly on the number of x-rays passing through the object and registered by means of a detector or film. The thickness and density of different objects are some parameters that effect the passage of the x-rays. In for example mammography examination the x-ray apparatus must be adjusted for different patients having different bodily characteristics. In case of an x-ray detector, one important parameter is the radiated area, i.e., the surface of the detector, which is exposed to the x-rays. Yet another important parameter is the time of exposure, which in case of living tissues is critical, as the radiation dose corresponding to a long exposure time for x-ray radiation may endanger the tissue by inducing cancer. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06621891__

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Method of calibration for reconstructing three-dimensional models from images obtained by tomograpy Inventor(s): Launay; Laurent (Saint Remy les Chevreuse, FR), Muller; Serge (Guyancourt, FR), Rick; Andreas (Schwerte, DE), Seggar; Sophie (Malakoff, FR) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Company, LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,652,142 Date filed: March 6, 2002 Abstract: A method of calibration for reconstructing three-dimensional models from images obtained by a tomography apparatus comprising a radiation detector and an Xray source which can move with respect to the detector. In the method a set of markers are placed in the field of the X-rays and the positions of the projections of the markers onto the images acquired are processed so as to deduce from this the position of the source at the time of acquisitions, the markers being carried by one and the same support. The markers are fixed with respect to the support and the positions of the projections of the markers onto the images acquired are processed so as to deduce from this the position of the markers in space. Excerpt(s): This application claims the benefit of a priority under 35 USC 119 to French Patent Application No. 0103386 filed Mar. 13, 2001, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The present invention relates to calibration techniques for image reconstruction of three-dimensional models from images obtained by X-ray tomography. Numerous techniques for reconstructing three-dimensional models from tomographic two-dimensional images are known. See, for example, a reconstruction algorithm, in "Image reconstruction from projections: the fundamentals of computerized tomography"--T. Herman--Academic Press--New--T. Herman--Academic Press, New York (1980). Such reconstructions generally entail precise "geometric calibration" of the image-acquisition system, this calibration associating the three-dimensional space with the two-dimensional information supplied by the various two-dimensional projections. If this calibration is coarse, the quality of the three-dimensional model reconstructed will exhibit defects; in particular, small structures will appear fuzzy. In certain cases, this calibration is performed directly from information supplied by the image-acquisition system itself, such as the distance between the source and the means for detection, the angular positions of the source, etc. An alternative to this type of calibration comprises carrying out prior calibration of the image-acquisition geometry (without the patient) and in imposing precalibrated successive positions on the source. For mechanical reasons, these types of calibration do not give satisfactory precision or results. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06652142__

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Method of controlling the formation of metal layers Inventor(s): Besser; Paul R. (Sunnyvale, CA), Kim; Susan (Austin, TX), King; Paul L. (Mountain View, CA) Assignee(s): Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (Austin, TX) Patent Number: 6,610,181 Date filed: April 30, 2001 Abstract: The present invention is directed to a method of controlling the formation of metal layers. In one illustrative embodiment, the method comprises depositing a layer of

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metal above a structure, irradiating at least one area of the layer of metal, and analyzing an x-ray spectrum of x-rays leaving the irradiated area to determine a thickness of the layer of metal. In further embodiments of the present invention, a plurality of areas, and in some cases at least five areas, of the layer of metal are irradiated. The layer of metal may be comprised of, for example, titanium, cobalt, nickel, copper, tantalum, etc. Excerpt(s): The present invention is generally directed to the field of semiconductor manufacturing, and, more particularly, to a method of controlling formation of metal layers. There is a constant drive within the semiconductor industry to increase the operating speed of integrated circuit devices, e.g., microprocessors, memory devices, and the like. This drive is fueled by consumer demands for computers and electronic devices that operate at increasingly greater speeds. This demand for increased speed has resulted in a continual reduction in the size of semiconductor devices, e.g., transistors. That is, many components of a typical field effect transistor (FET), e.g., channel length, junction depths, gate insulation thickness, and the like, are reduced. For example, all other things being equal, the smaller the channel length of the transistor, the faster the transistor will operate. Thus, there is a constant drive to reduce the size, or scale, of the components of a typical transistor to increase the overall speed of the transistor, as well as integrated circuit devices incorporating such transistors. The manufacture of integrated circuit devices involves the formation of many layers of materials and, in some situations, the selective removal of portions of those layers using known photolithographic and etching processes. Such layers may be comprised of a variety of materials, e.g., metal, an insulating material, polysilicon, etc. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06610181__ ·

Method of X-ray analysis in a particle-optical apparatus Inventor(s): Kwakman; Laurens Franz Taemsz (St. Ismier, FR), Troost; Kars Zege (Eindhoven, NL) Assignee(s): FEI Company (Hillsboro, OR) Patent Number: 6,646,263 Date filed: April 16, 2002 Abstract: Samples such as semiconductor wafers may be subjected to an elementary analysis by irradiation by means of electrons and measurement of the X-rays 30 generated in the sample. In order to achieve a high spatial resolution, two adjacent holes 6, 8 are formed in the sample surface, leaving a very thin separating wall 10 between said holes and hence limiting the dimension of the interaction volume 24. However, electrons pass through the wall, thus generating disturbing X-rays in the walls of the hole 8 behind the wall. According to the invention the hole 8 behind the separating wall 10 is provided with a stopping material 12 of an elementary composition which deviates from that of the wall 10. If the wall to be analyzed contains silicon, the stopping material 12 should preferably be platinum or carbon. Excerpt(s): c) said X-rays are detected. A method of this kind is known from a publication called "FOCUSED ION BEAM SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION X-RAY MICROANALYSIS" in Proc. 1995 5th. int. symp. on the physical and failure analysis of integrated circuits (5th IPFA 1995 Singapore), pp. 40-48. In order to determine the elementary composition of a material, a sample of the relevant material can be irradiated by means of charged particles of adequate energy (for example, electrons), in response to which the sample emits X-rays whose wavelength

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distribution is characteristic of the chemical elements occurring in the relevant material. Such a method can be used not only for determining the elementary composition of the material, but also for determining the variation of the concentration of a given element as a function of the depth in the specimen, or for the detection of defects in, for example, integrated circuits. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06646263__ ·

Methods and apparatus for defect localization Inventor(s): Nasser-Ghodsi; Mehran (Hamilton, MA), Reichert; Jeffrey (San Jose, CA) Assignee(s): KLA Tencor Technologies Corporation (Milpitas, CA) Patent Number: 6,664,541 Date filed: November 21, 2001 Abstract: The present invention includes a system for localization of defects in test samples. A sample is scanned using a particle beam. Some particles interact with conductive elements and may cause the emission of x-rays. Other particles can pass through the sample entirely and generate a current that can be measured. A higher current generated indicates less conductive material at the scan target that may mean a void, dishing, or erosion is present. Localization of a defect can be confirmed using an xray emission detector. Excerpt(s): The present invention generally relates to the field of inspection and analysis of specimens and, more particularly, to defect localization in semiconductor integrated circuits. The metallization and thin film layers of conventional integrated circuits contain interconnects such as vias, contacts, and windows. The interconnects are arranged to allow electrical contact between transistors and other circuitry in an integrate circuit. However, a variety of factors may cause defects in the interconnects. Defective interconnects can ultimately lead to failure of the integrated circuit by causing open circuits. One type of defect is a void formed in the via. Voids may be caused by a variety factors such as stress, electromigration, and impurities. As line widths continue to decrease in size, even small voids can prevent an integrated circuit from operating properly. Other types of defects are dishing and erosion that can result from processes such as chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) during the damascene and dual damascene processes. Dishing and erosion often results from polishing of the conductive layer to an extent such that insufficient conductive material is available to connect circuit elements. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06664541__

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Mobile miniature X-ray source Inventor(s): Lines; Michael (Provo, UT), Lund; Mark W. (Orem, UT), Moody; Paul (Sandy, UT), Pew; Hans K. (Acton, MA), Reyes; Arturo (Orem, UT), Turner; Clark (Payson, UT), Voronov; Sergei (Provo, UT) Assignee(s): Moxtek, Inc. (Orem, UT) Patent Number: 6,661,876 Date filed: July 29, 2002

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Abstract: A mobile, miniature x-ray source includes a low-power consumption cathode element for mobility, and an anode optic creating a field free region to prolong the life of the cathode element. An electric field is applied to an anode and a cathode that are disposed on opposite sides of an evacuated tube. The anode includes a target material to produce x-rays in response to impact of electrons. The cathode includes a cathode element to produce electrons that are accelerated towards the anode in response to the electric field between the anode and the cathode. The tube can have a length less than approximately 3 inches, and a diameter or width less than approximately 1 inch. The cathode element can include a low-power consumption cathode element with a low power consumption less than approximately 1 watt. The power source can include a battery power source. A field-free region can be positioned at the anode to resist positive ion acceleration back towards the cathode element. An anode tube can be disposed at the anode between the anode and the cathode, and electrically coupled to the anode so that the anode and the anode tube have the same electrical potential, to form the field-free region. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to the production of an x-ray beam by electron impact on a metal target. More particularly, the present invention relates to a transmission type x-ray source that is mobile, miniature, with a configuration allowing placement of a sample close to the point where X rays are generated, with a configuration allowing close placement of a detector in XRF application, and with an electron optical element configuration that allows the generation of a small diameter spot as the source of X rays. In an X-ray tube, electrons emitted from a cathode source are attracted to an anode by the high bias voltage applied between these two electrodes. The intervening space must be evacuated to avoid electron slowing and scattering, but primarily to prevent ionization of containment gas and acceleration of the resulting ions to the cathode where they erode the filament and limit tube life. Characteristic and Bremsstrahlung X rays are generated by electron impact on the anode target material. Every material is relatively transparent to its own characteristic radiation, so if the target is thin, there may be strong emission from the surface of the target that is opposite the impacted surface. This arrangement is termed a transmission type X-ray tube. By comparison, a side-window tube has a thick anode in the vacuum space; and its X-ray emission passes from the tube via an X-ray transparent window placed in the side of the vacuum chamber. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages, depending upon the intended application. Typical X-ray tubes are bulky and fragile, and must be energized by heavy, high-voltage power supplies that restrict mobility. Thus, samples must be collected and brought to the X-ray unit for analysis. This is very inconvenient for popular X-ray applications. Certain "field applications" include X-ray fluorescence (XRF) of soil, water, metals, ores, well bores, etc., as well as diffraction and plating thickness measurements. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06661876__ ·

Multiple energy x-ray imaging techniques Inventor(s): Hamadah; Mohamed Ali (Waukesha, WI), Rader; Amber E. (New Berlin, WI), Verot; Didier A. (Guyancourt, FR), Zhang; John J. (Waukesha, WI) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Co., LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,636,582 Date filed: November 8, 2001

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Abstract: An x-ray imaging system (10) for generating multiple energy x-ray images is provided. The system (10) includes an exposure switch (32) having an "ON"state. A console (14) is electrically coupled to the exposure switch (32) and contains two or more selected imaging program sets. An x-ray generator (18) generates x-rays. An image detector (28) detects the x-rays and generates two or more electronic signals. An image generation controller (20) is electrically coupled to the image detector (28) and controls the sequencing of the two or more electronic signals. An x-ray controller (12) is electrically coupled to the console (14) and the x-ray generator (18). The x-ray controller signals the image generation controller (20) to generate the two or more electronic signals sequentially when the exposure switch (30) is in the ON state and in response to the two or more selected imaging program sets. A method for performing the same is also provided. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to x-ray systems, and more particularly to an apparatus and method for generating multiple energy x-ray images. X-ray systems are used for various purposes. One such purpose is to generate dual energy images of a portion of a patient. Dual energy images refer to two images consisting of separate types of tissue, an example being bone tissue and soft tissue. Dual energy images can enable a physician to better detect injuries such as broken bones or illnesses such as cancer. Dual energy imaging involves acquiring two x-ray images by generating two exposures at different energy levels. The two images are acquired sequentially through use of an x-ray detector. The two images can be subtracted to create the tissue image and the bone image. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06636582__ ·

Portable electronic device Inventor(s): Horiguchi; Yoshinori (Ome, JP), Iwahara; Hiroki (Tama, JP) Assignee(s): Kabushiki Kaisha Toshiba (Kawasaki, JP) Patent Number: 6,625,475 Date filed: July 7, 2000 Abstract: A portable electronic device includes a transmitting circuit, an X-ray detector, and a controller. The transmitting circuit includes a power amplifier for amplifying radio waves. The detector is arranged to detect X-rays radiated from an installation arranged on a passageway to an area where radiation of electromagnetic waves is restricted. When X-rays with a certain intensity or more are detected by the detector, a controller recognizes that the device is about to enter the area, and reduce the gain of the power amplifier, so that the transmitting circuit is set to be unable to radiate radio waves. Excerpt(s): This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from the prior Japanese Patent Application No. 11-196701, filed Jul. 9, 1999, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The present invention relates to a compact information-processing device, i.e., a portable electronic device, such as a portable terminal device, or a portable computer. More specifically, the present invention relates to a technique of controlling such an electronic device, when the device is carried into an area where radiation of electromagnetic waves is restricted, such as an airplane, air traffic control facilities, or medial treatment facilities. For example, in an airplane and air traffic control facilities, radiation of electromagnetic waves from electronic devices carried therein from outside is strictly restricted to guarantee safe service.

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Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06625475__ ·

Protective layer for multilayers exposed to x-rays Inventor(s): Joensen; Karsten (Copenhagen, DK), Platonov; Yuriy (Troy, MI), Seshardi; Srivatsan (Troy, MI), Verman; Boris (Bloomfield, MI) Assignee(s): Osmic, Inc. (Auburn Hills, MI) Patent Number: 6,643,353 Date filed: January 10, 2002 Abstract: An optical element for diffracting x-rays that includes a substrate, a diffraction structure applied to the substrate, the diffraction structure including an exterior surface facing away from the substrate and the diffraction structure capable of diffracting x-rays and a protective layer applied to the exterior surface. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a multilayer thin film structure for use with soft and hard x-rays, cold and thermal neutrons. Thin film technology has been widely used to control the reflection and transmission of visible light. However, in the wavelength range of x-rays and neutrons the use of thin films has only recently become practicable. Recent advances in the quality control of Layered Synthetic Microstructures (LSM), or multilayers, allows the use of these structures as x-ray and neutron mirrors. The structure of a crystalline solid, a regular three dimensional array of atoms, forms a natural diffraction grating for x-rays. The quantity d in the Bragg equation is the perpendicular distance between the planes of atoms in the crystal. Crystalline structures can now be imitated by thin film multilayers, so x-ray diffraction is no longer limited to structures with naturally occurring d spacings. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06643353__

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Radiation tomographic imaging apparatus and method Inventor(s): Kuroda; Yoshiyasu (Tokyo, JP) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Company, LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,650,727 Date filed: October 20, 2001 Abstract: A radiation tomographic imaging apparatus and method are provided in which the slice thickness can be dynamically switched during scanning, and the emission center of radiation can be arbitrarily moved in a direction of carrying a subject. There are provided an X-ray tube moving section 21 capable of moving the emission center of an X-ray tube 20 in a z-direction; a collimator 22 having an aperture whose openness can be adjusted, for forming the emitted X-rays into an X-ray beam 5 having a certain width and thickness to irradiate a desired region on a detector element array 23 with the X-ray beam 5; a data collecting section 24 for dynamically selecting or adding in varying combination the detected signal input supplied from the detector element rows in the detector element array 23 during scanning in response to a control signal CTL303; and a central processing apparatus 30 for changing the emission center of the X-ray tube 20, the openness of the aperture in the collimator 22, and the data to be collected by the data collecting section 24 corresponding to status information input via an input device 31.

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Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a radiation tomographic imaging apparatus and method, and particularly to a radiation tomographic imaging apparatus and method for producing multi-slice tomographic images of a region through which a radiation beam having a width and a thickness passes. Known radiation tomographic imaging apparatuses include an X-ray CT (computed tomography) apparatus, for example, that employs X-rays for the radiation. In the X-ray CT apparatus, an X-ray tube is used for the X-ray generation. An X-ray emitting apparatus in the X-ray emitting/detecting system emits an X-ray beam having a width that encompasses a region to be imaged and a certain thickness in a direction perpendicular to the width. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06650727__ ·

Rubber-steel cord composite and pneumatic tire for passenger cars Inventor(s): Kobayashi; Kazuomi (Tokyo, JP), Matsuo; Kenji (Tokyo, JP), Nishikawa; Tomohisa (Tokyo, JP) Assignee(s): Bridgestone Corporation (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,630,241 Date filed: April 30, 1999 Abstract: A rubber-steel cord composite comprising a steel cord having, in a planar image of the steel cord formed by X-rays passing through the steel cord, a fraction R of the total area occupied by filaments of from 0.45 or more to 0.95 or less in an arbitrarily selected portion of the steel cord having a length of 15 mm in an axial direction of the cord, is provided. The length of 15 mm in an axial direction of the cord means a length of 15 mm in an axial direction of an actual cord and the fraction R of the total area occupied by the filaments is expressed as R=F/A, wherein A represents the total area of the cord and F represents the area of the cord occupied by the filaments.An object of the present invention is to provide a pneumatic tire for passenger cars that shows no separation of the interface of adhesion during use, particularly during use in the run-flat condition, and exhibits excellent durability. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a rubber-steel cord composite and a pneumatic tire for passenger cars. More particularly, it relates to a rubber-steel cord composite showing excellent adhesion at high temperatures and excellent durability, and a pneumatic tire for passenger cars showing excellent durability without any adverse effect on performance in an inflated condition in which pressure inside the tire (hereinafter referred to as internal pressure) is maintained and which can be safely used under decreased internal pressure. Composites having steel cords embedded in a rubber composition are used in tires, belts and hoses. Stable adhesion between the steel cord and the rubber composition is required to increase durability. To achieve stable adhesion between the steel cord and the rubber composition, heretofore, direct adhesion in which the cord is plated with brass, i.e., an alloy of copper and zinc, and the brassplated cord is reacted with sulfur in the rubber composition is generally conducted. On the other hand, various attempts have been made to achieve stable adhesion by adopting a suitable structure of a steel cord. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06630241__

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System and method for synchronization of the acquisition of images with the cardiac cycle for dual energy imaging Inventor(s): Barber; Michael John (Mequon, WI), Nicolas; Francois Serge (Wauwatosa, WI), Rader; Amber Elaine (Brookfield, WI) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Company, LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,643,536 Date filed: December 29, 2000 Abstract: A system and method for improving the image quality of an X-ray image of a patient in a dual energy X-ray imaging system is provided. The system includes a heart cycle monitor, and X-ray emitter and an X-ray detector. A patient is positioned between the X-ray emitter and the X-ray detector. The heart cycle monitor monitors the cardiac cycle of the patient to detect a cardiac trigger. Once the cardiac trigger has been detected, the X-ray emitter emits high energy and low energy X-rays through the patient and the X-ray detector detects the emissions and forms images. The X-ray detector then performs a number of scrubs. Then the X-ray emitter acquires at least one offset image. The offset and the X-ray images are then combined to form X-ray images that may then be employed for dual energy X-ray processing. Excerpt(s): The preferred embodiments of the present invention generally relate to improvements in a medical X-Ray imaging system. More particularly, the present invention relates to a system and method for synchronizing the acquisition of images with the cardiac phase for dual energy imaging. The usage of X-ray systems in clinical imaging and diagnosis enjoys widespread acceptance. Several types of X-ray imaging methodologies may be employed to image different anatomical areas or to provide differing diagnostic tools. One such X-ray imaging methodology is Dual Energy (DE) imaging. Dual Energy (DE) is a clinical application wherein two x-ray images are acquired at different X-ray energies. The two X-ray images are then combined to provide tissue-subtracted images, e.g., soft tissue and bone images. One clinical application of DE is diagnosis of lung cancer with X-ray. In practice, the soft tissue image improves sensitivity by removing the structured noise due to the bones, and the bone image improves specificity by showing if a nodule is calcified and hence benign. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06643536__

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System for electron and x-ray irradiation of product Inventor(s): Korenev; Sergey Alexandrovich (Mundelein, IL) Assignee(s): Steris Inc. (Temecula, CA) Patent Number: 6,628,750 Date filed: November 9, 2000 Abstract: A rotary accelerator (10) accelerates electrons and discharges them through each of a plurality of discharge ports, electrons discharge from each port having a different energy. The electron beams are channeled to scan horns disposed to irradiate products (14) traveling on conveyers (12). More specifically, some of the scan horns are positioned in pairs with an upper scan horn (18) on one side of the product, and a lower scan horn (20) on an opposite side of the product. A beam splitter splits the electron beam alternately between the two scan horns. Alternately, two scan horns (18, 20) are both disposed on the same side of the product. As yet another alternative, a scan horn

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(60) is disposed horizontally to irradiate the product from the side. Optionally, one or more of the scan horns includes a x-ray target (26) for converting the electrons into xrays. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the irradiation arts. It finds particular application in the field of product sterilization and will be described with particular reference thereto. However, it is to be understood that the present invention is also applicable to other applications and is not limited to the aforementioned application. Xrays and electron beams have been found to be useful in the irradiation of products. This type of high energy radiation, in sufficient doses, destroys most all types of parasitic bacteria and viruses which have the potential of making people ill. This is useful for sterilizing food meant for consumption, as well as other products such as medical instruments. Of course, with x-rays and electron beams the product is free from residual radiation. High energy irradiation is used for numerous other applications including polymer modification, material treatment, and the like. X-rays are high energy photons that are produced as a result of accelerated electrons interacting with a target. Both x-rays and electrons penetrate solid material, depositing energy along the way. In living organisms, these types of radiation interact with the tissue and can destroy it, or destroy its capability to reproduce, effectively destroying it. In polymers, the radiation breaks chemical bonds. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06628750__ ·

System for X-ray irradiation Inventor(s): Kirk; Randol E. (8208 NW. 6th St., Coral Springs, FL 33071) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,614,876 Date filed: September 16, 2002 Abstract: A blood irradiator for providing a uniform dose of X-ray beam irradiation for blood products contained within bags positioned in a cannister. A first X-ray tube is positioned to irradiate said bags from one surface of the bags, and a second X-ray tube is positioned to irradiate said bags from the opposite surface of said bags concurrently with said first tube. A low Z high density material collar mounted around said cannister to reflect X-rays. The X-rays from the two tubes and the reflected X-rays combine to provide a uniform dose of X-rays to said bags. Excerpt(s): The present application is related to, and an improvement on, U.S. Pat. No. 6,212,255 issued to Randol E. Kirk, the inventor herein, which patent is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As stated in the aforesaid patent, X-Ray irradiation of blood product is one of the methods approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for providing a product which diminishes the chance of transfusioninduced diseases. For this purpose, the radiation dose and dose distributions that may occur from X-ray sources must be controlled accurately. X-rays are widely used for such purposes since equipment for providing the X-rays is relatively safe, and also, the equipment for providing the X-rays is comparatively inexpensive as compared to the other types of blood purification. As disclosed in U.S. Pat, No. 6,389,099, it has been established that a low Z (atomic number) high density material such as carbon, graphite, or boron carbide will reflect X-rays, and these reflected X-rays may be utilized to enhance irradiation energy provided to the product, article or material being irradiated. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06614876__

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System for, and method of, irradiating articles particularly articles with variable dimensions Inventor(s): Allen; John Thomas (San Diego, CA), Sullivan; George Michael (San Diego, CA), Williams; Colin Brian (La Jolla, CA) Assignee(s): Surebeam Corporation (San Diego, CA) Patent Number: 6,608,882 Date filed: June 13, 2001 Abstract: Articles move on a conveyor mechanism in a first direction past a radiation source for an irradiation of the articles (by e.g., an electron beam, x-rays or gamma rays) by radiation moving in a second direction substantially perpendicular to the fires direction. The distance between the radiation source and the articles on the conveyor mechanism may be adjusted to provide for the irradiation of each position in the articles and to minimize the amount of the radiation which does not pass into the articles. The adjustment may be made by (1) adjusting the position of the radiation source in a particular direction corresponding to the direction of the radiation source and the articles on the conveyor mechanism, (2) actuating an individual one of a plurality of conveyors for moving the articles past the accelerator, each conveyor being separated from the radiation source by a distance different from the distance of the other conveyors from the radiation source or (3) repositioning the articles on a single conveyor in the particular direction. The distance between the radiation source and the conveyor mechanism may be varied dependent upon changes in the dimension of individual articles relative to the dimension of other articles, in a direction substantially perpendicular to (a) the direction of the radiation source and (b) the path of movement of the articles on the conveyor mechanism. Instead of irradiating a single article at any one time, the system may simultaneously irradiate a batch or stack of articles of the same or different sizes. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to apparatus for, and methods of, irradiating articles such as food, drugs and medical instruments and implements. The invention particularly relates to apparatus for, and methods of, applying radiation to articles of different dimensions or to batches or stacks of articles of the same or different dimensions in a manner such that substantially all of the radiation is used to sterilize the articles and such that all of the positions of the articles receive proper amounts of irradiation. It has been known for some time that drugs and medical instruments and implements have to be sterilized so that they will not cause patients to become ill from harmful bacteria when they are applied to the patients. Systems have accordingly been provided for sterilizing drugs and medical instruments and implements. The drugs and the medical instruments and implements have then been stored in sterilized packages until they have been ready to be used. In recent years, it has been discovered that foods can carry harmful bacteria if they are not processed properly or, even if they are processed properly, that the foods can harbor such harmful bacteria if they are not stored properly or retained under proper environmental conditions such as temperature. Some of these harmful bacteria can even be deadly. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06608882__

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Thermal sensing detector cell for a computed tomography system and method of manufacturing same Inventor(s): Hoffman; David M. (New Berlin, WI) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Co., LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,654,443 Date filed: February 25, 2002 Abstract: The present invention provides a detector cell having an x-ray absorption component and a thermal sensing component configured to detect thermal differentials in the absorption component resulting from the absorption of x-rays. The absorption component comprises high density materials that respond thermally to the reception of x-rays or other HF electromagnetic energy. The thermal sensing component detects the changes in temperature of the absorption component and outputs electrical signals indicative of the number and intensity of the x-rays absorbed. An image reconstructor then processes those electrical signals to reconstruct an image of the subject scanned. A method of manufacturing the detector cell is also provided. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to computed tomography imaging and, more particularly, to a detector cell for sensing thermal changes in response to the absorption of HF electromagnetic energy for use with computed tomography systems. Typically, in computed tomography (CT) imaging systems, an x-ray source emits a fanshaped beam towards a subject or object, such as a patient or a piece of luggage. Hereinafter the terms "subject" and "object" shall include anything capable of being imaged. The beam, after being attenuated by the subject, impinges upon an array of radiation detectors. The intensity of the attenuated beam radiation received at the detector array is typically dependent upon the attenuation of the x-ray beam by the subject. Each detector element of the detector array produces a separate electrical signal indicative of the attenuated beam received by each detector element. The electrical signals are transmitted to a data processing system for analysis which ultimately results in the formation of an image. Generally, the x-ray source and the detector array are rotated about the gantry within an imaging plane and around the subject. X-ray sources typically include x-ray tubes, which emit the x-ray beam at a focal point. X-ray detectors typically include a collimator for collimating x-ray beams received at the detector, a scintillator for converting x-rays to light energy adjacent the collimator, and photodiodes for receiving the light energy from the adjacent scintillator. Each scintillator of a scintillator array converts x-rays to light energy. Each scintillator discharges light energy to a photodiode adjacent thereto. Each photodiode detects the light energy and generates a corresponding electrical signal. The outputs of the photodiodes are then transmitted to a data processing system. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06654443__

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X-ray CT system, gantry apparatus, console terminal, method of controlling them, and storage medium Inventor(s): Horiuchi; Tetsuya (Tokyo, JP) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Company, LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,633,627 Date filed: July 31, 2001

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Abstract: In order to obtain an X-ray tomographic image with high quality while minimizing the exposed dose to a subject by employing the most suitable filter according to the region of the subject to be scanned, a filter unit 6 having filters 6a-6c having different transmission properties are provided below an X-ray tube 4 in a gantry apparatus. To obtain an X-ray tomographic image, upon determining the scan region of the subject, a motor 7 is driven to position one of the filters corresponding to the scan region just below the X-ray tube 4 for employing the filter, and X-rays are applied to the subject through the filter. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray CT system, gantry apparatus, console terminal, method of controlling them, an-d storage medium, for obtaining an Xray tomographic image of a subject by X-ray irradiation. An X-ray CT (computed tomography) system and apparatus comprises, in a broad classification, an apparatus of a toroidal shape having a cavity portion (generally referred to as a gantry apparatus), an operating console for supplying several types of control signals to the gantry apparatus and reconstructing an X-ray tomographic image based on signals (data) obtained from the gantry apparatus for display, and a carrier apparatus for supporting a subject (human subject) fixed within the cavity portion of the gantry apparatus and carrying the subject toward the cavity portion. The gantry apparatus comprises a rotating section incorporating therein an X-ray generating source (X-ray tube) and a detecting section provided across the cavity portion for detecting X-rays emitted from the X-ray generator. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06633627__ ·

X-ray detector and charged-particle apparatus Inventor(s): Kanda; Kimio (Hitachinaka, JP), Ochiai; Isao (Otsuki, JP), Shinada; Hiroyuki (Chofu, JP) Assignee(s): Hitachi, Ltd. (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,653,637 Date filed: December 19, 2001 Abstract: In a high-sensitivity X-ray detector, an image of the secondary electrons is little shifted and deformed by the astigmatism or the like even when it approaches very close to a specimen set on the stage of an electron microscope. When a beam of charged particles strike a specimen, the specimen emits backscattered charged particles along with X-rays. To prevent such undesired charged particles from entering into the X-ray detecting element of the X-ray detector, a means for generating a first magnetic field is applied. Another means for generating a second magnetic field is provided to cancel the magnetic filed leaked from the first means for generating magnetic field at the position of the specimen. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a charged particle trap for X-ray analysis so as to analyze a specimen and its constituent elements by sending a beam of charged particles to strike the specimen and detecting the characteristic X-rays from the specimen with least concern about any undesired charged particles. A method for analyzing a specimen's elements by sending a beam of charged particles to strike the specimen and detecting the characteristic X-rays emitted from the specimen is known. An example of such method is the X-ray spectrometry of a spatial energy dispersive type in which the composition of a specimen is measured by detecting X-rays emitted from the specimen. This method is advantageous in that the characteristic X-rays from

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the specimen have energy equal to the electronic transitional energy of the elements constituting the specimen. The measurement of the volume of X-ray emissions per unit time for each X-ray provides information about how the specimen under examination is composed of elements. A semiconductor detector having semiconductor crystal such as silicon, germanium, etc. is generally used for detecting X-rays. In recent years, as reported in Physics Today, July, 1998, pp. 10-21, an X-ray detector called a microcalorimeter, which operates at ultra-low temperature (below 100 milli-Kelvin), has been developed. As compared with the above semiconductor detector, the micro-calorimeter detects the X-rays at high-energy resolution. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06653637__ ·

X-ray detector monitoring Inventor(s): Aufrichtig; Richard (Mountain View, CA), Brunst; Gerhard (Gross-Umstadt, DE), Granfors; Paul R. (Sunnyvale, CA), Kump; Kenneth S. (Waukesha, WI) Assignee(s): GE Medical Systems Global Technology Company, LLC (Waukesha, WI) Patent Number: 6,663,281 Date filed: September 25, 2001 Abstract: An x-ray system (14) including a source of x-rays (15) and a detector (22) monitors the detector with a control (36) that calibrates the detector during a calibration phase of operation and powers the detector during use phases of operation occurring at different times. A processor (28, 36) reads the data created by the pixel elements, analyzes the data and identifies pixel elements corresponding to data indicating defective pixel elements during the calibration phase of operation and during a predetermined portion of a plurality of the use phases of operation. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to x-ray systems employing a detector and more specifically relates to monitoring and correcting such systems. The introduction of new digital x-ray detectors presents a problem with respect to lost image information at locations containing defects within the detector. Defects are typically caused by bad pixel elements, which are pixel elements that are either not responding electrically or have a behavior that is statistically different from their surrounding pixel elements. During calibration and setup of the digital detector methods exist to identify the location of such defective pixel elements. This is typically done by analyzing flat field images, which contain no structure, and searching for outlier pixel elements. These flat field images are obtained in one of two modes (1) "dark" or offset frames in which the imager is read without using x-rays, and (2) "light" or x-ray frames, in which an x-ray signal is applied prior to the read-out. Pixel elements identified during calibration are typically stored in a bad pixel map. Different methods exist to correct pixel elements identified in a bad pixel map prior to image display. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06663281__

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X-ray detector offering an improved light yield Inventor(s): Rutten; Walter (Linnich/Ederen, DE), Simon; Matthias (Aachen, DE) Assignee(s): Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. (Eindhoven, NL) Patent Number: 6,655,675 Date filed: July 13, 2001 Abstract: The invention relates to an X-ray detector for converting X-rays (27) into electric charges, including a scintillator arrangement (21) and a photosensor arrangement (28) which is situated therebelow; the light that is incident in openings Z between the pixels P is reflected to the photosensor D by means of a reflector arrangement (23) so that it contributes to an increased signal without degrading the spatial resolution of the X-ray detector. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to an X-ray detector for converting X-rays into electric charges, including a photosensor arrangement and a scintillator arrangement that is situated on a first side of the photosensor arrangement. Dynamic X-ray detectors are used in the medical diagnostic field. They are considered to be universal detector components that can be employed in various application-specific X-ray apparatus. An important feature in this respect is the possibility of acquisition of X-ray images and Xray image sequences with low doses. Therefore, the aim is to achieve an as high as possible signal-to-noise ratio for the X-ray detector. X-ray quanta emitted by a radiation source are absorbed in contemporary X-ray detector technology by a scintillator arrangement (for example, CsI) which is arranged on a photosensor matrix consisting of thin-film electronics. The light arising in the scintillator arrangement is detected by a respective photosensor for each matrix cell (pixel). The photodiode does not occupy the entire surface area of the pixel. A part thereof is occupied by a thin-film transistor as well as by signal leads and control leads; moreover, openings of a width of approximately 10.mu.m exist between the pixels and leads for the purpose of insulation. Light going past the photodiodes via said openings does not contribute to the generation of signals. On the basis of the geometrical relationships this light can be estimated to be approximately 10% of the total amount of light applied in the direction of the photosensor arrangement by the scintillator layer. A coarse measurement has revealed a light loss of approximately 8% through the openings. This light penetrates the region underneath the photodiodes via a substrate plate. The uncontrolled scattering of light must be prevented in this region, because light that is detected in pixels that are situated far from its origin has an adverse effect on the resolution. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06655675__

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X-ray diffractometer Inventor(s): Bahr; Detlef (Karlsruhe, DE), Kuhnmuench; Norbert (Karlsruhe, DE) Assignee(s): Bruker Axs GmbH (Karlsruhe, DE) Patent Number: 6,665,372 Date filed: July 26, 2002 Abstract: An X-ray diffractometer comprising an X-ray source (10) from which X-rays are guided to a sample (11) to be investigated, an X-ray detector (12) for receiving X-rays diffracted or scattered from or reflected by the sample (11), and a goniometer for adjustment of sequential relative angular positions between the X-ray source (10), the

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sample (11) and the X-ray detector (12) for detecting X-ray diffraction lines, X-ray scattered signals or X-ray reflectograms of the sample (11) to be investigated, wherein the X-rays can be guided at least sectionally along different optical paths, is characterized in that the X-rays can be guided from a position 1 to a position 2 along n.gtoreq.2 different switchable optical paths, wherein the different optical paths are rigidly disposed relative to each other between position 1 and position 2 and form a unit (13), wherein the sample (11) assumes either position 1 or position 2 and wherein the switching over between the different optical paths can be effected by turning the unit (13) relative to the sample (11) about the sample position. Due to its considerably more compact structure compared to conventional arrangements, the inventive arrangement requires considerably less space while maintaining full relative motion of the parts, wherein the arrangement permits omission of expensive components, in particular detectors and associated measurement electronics. Excerpt(s): This application claims Paris Convention priority of DE 101 41 958.9 filed Aug. 28, 2001 the complete disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. The invention concerns an X-ray diffractometer with an X-ray source from which X-rays are guided to a sample to be investigated, comprising an X-ray detector for receiving X-rays diffracted or scattered from or reflected by the sample, and a goniometer for adjustment of sequential relative angular positions between the X-ray source, the sample and the Xray detector for detecting X-ray diffraction lines, X-ray scattered signals or X-ray reflectograms of the sample to be investigated, wherein the X-rays can be guided, at least in sections, along different optical paths. An X-ray diffractometer arrangement of this type is known e.g. from the company leaflet "X'Pert-MRD" (Philips Analytical X-Ray B.V., Almelo, The Netherlands). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06665372__ ·

X-ray exposure apparatus Inventor(s): Amemiya; Mitsuaki (Saitama, JP), Watanabe; Yutaka (Tochigi, JP) Assignee(s): Canon Kabushiki Kaisha (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,647,086 Date filed: May 17, 2001 Abstract: A proximity X-ray exposure apparatus for irradiating a reticle with X-rays generated from an X-ray source and irradiating a substrate with X-rays that have passed through the reticle. The apparatus includes a plasma X-ray source for generating X-rays by producing plasma, and a control device for controlling X-ray intensity distribution by controlling production of the plasma so that the plasma is produced at a plurality of positions in one irradiating operation of the substrate with the X-rays. The control device controls the X-ray intensity distribution in order to control the plurality of positions so that a required amount of defocusing, which is a size of a projection image corresponding to one point on the reticle formed by irradiating the reticle with X-rays generated at the plurality of positions, can be obtained. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to an X-ray exposure apparatus used in the manufacture of various devices, namely semiconductor chips such as IC and LSI chips, display devices such as liquid crystal panels, detector elements such as magnetic heads and image sensing devices such as CCDs, to a reticle such as a mask and to a device manufacturing method using the reticle. The recent increase in density and operating speed of semiconductor integrated circuits has been accompanied by a decrease in

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pattern-line width of integrated circuits. Semiconductor manufacturing methods also demand much higher performance. For this reason, steppers utilizing shorter and shorter exposure wavelengths, e.g., extreme ultraviolet rays such as KrF lasers (having a wavelength of 248 nm), ArF lasers (having a wavelength of 193 nm) and F.sub.2 lasers (having a wavelength of 157 nm) and X-rays (0.2.about.1.5 nm), have been developed for exposure apparatus used in the formation of a resist pattern in the lithography part of the semiconductor manufacturing process. With exposure using X-rays, an X-ray mask serving as a reticle on which a desired pattern has been formed is brought into close proximity with a wafer serving as a resist-coated substrate, and the X-ray mask is irradiated from above with X-rays to transfer the mask pattern to the wafer. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06647086__ ·

X-ray fluorescence spectrometer Inventor(s): Aoyagi; Kouichi (Takatsuki, JP), Kawahara; Naoki (Takatsuki, JP), Yamada; Yasujiro (Takatsuki, JP) Assignee(s): Rigaku Industrial Corporation (Osaka, JP) Patent Number: 6,647,090 Date filed: April 22, 2002 Abstract: To provide an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer capable of providing a stable fluorescent X-ray intensity regardless of the presence of irregularities or the like on a surface of a sample to be analyzed, the X-ray fluorescence spectrometer includes an Xray source 1 including a primary X-ray limiting diaphragm 3. An aperture 3a of the primary X-ray limiting diaphragm 3 is of a shape effective to allow change in intensity of fluorescent X-rays 7 measured by a detector 8 to be not higher than 1% in the event that a height of the sample surface 5a relative to the X-ray source 1 and the detector 8 changes 1 mm at maximum. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer having an optical system by so-called parallel beam method. In the X-ray fluorescence analysis, for example, a sample is in the form of a disc of a predetermined size, after having been retained by a predetermined sample holder, placed on a sample support table and is then irradiated by primary X-rays emitted from an X-ray source such as an X-ray tube so as to impinge upon a surface of such sample. In general, in order to increase the sensitivity of the spectrometer, the X-ray source is positioned as close to the sample as possible. Considering, however, that it is at the same time necessary for the X-ray source not to disturb and interfere the field of view of the detecting means aimed at the sample surface, the X-ray source such as the X-ray tube is generally disposed slantwise relative to the sample surface. However, it has been found that if the distance between the X-ray source and the sample surface is chosen to be very small, slight change of such distance as a result of the presence of irregularities, warps or deflections up to about 1 mm on the sample surface brings about an unnegligible change in intensity of the fluorescent Xrays emitted from the sample, resulting in insufficient improvement over the analyzing accuracy. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06647090__

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X-ray imaging system with active detector Inventor(s): Kotowski; Andreas F. (Rancho Palos Verdes, CA), Smith; Steven W. (Poway, CA) Assignee(s): Rapiscan Security Products (USA), Inc. (Hawthorne, CA) Patent Number: 6,665,373 Date filed: March 12, 2002 Abstract: The present invention provides for an apparatus and method for use in a system with an x-ray source to produce a pencil beam of x-rays to scan an object and a first detector providing a value representative of the intensity of the x-rays scattered from the object to produce a scattered image having a second detector disposed opposite the first detector to provide a value representative of the intensity of the x-rays passing directly from the x-ray source to the second detector; a processor coupled to the system to receive information specifying a position of the pencil beam of x-rays, the processor also coupled to second detector to produce a shadow image formed of pixels indicating the intensity value measured by the second detector for a plurality of positions of the pencil beam of x-rays; and combining the scattered and shadow image to produce a composite image. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the general field of radiant energy imaging systems, and specifically to systems and techniques for detecting concealed items on or in objects. Security systems are limited in their ability to detect contraband, weapons, explosives, and other dangerous objects concealed under a person's clothing or in an object, such as a box or bag. Metal detectors and chemical sniffers are commonly used for the detection of large metal objects and some kinds of explosives, however, a wide range of dangerous objects exist that cannot be detected with these devices. Plastic and ceramic weapons developed by modem technology increase the types of non-metallic objects that security personnel are required to detect. The alternative of manual searching of subjects is slow, inconvenient, and would not be well tolerated by the general public, especially as a standard procedure in, for example, airports. Radiation exposure is an important consideration in x-ray concealed object detection systems. The United States National Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP), in NCRP Report No. 91, "Recommendations on Limits for Exposure to Ionizing Radiation", 1987, addresses this issue. In this report, the NCRP states that a radiation exposure of less than 1000 microRem per year in excess of environmental levels is negligible, and efforts are not warranted at reducing the level further. Persons employed in high security or secured facilities, or those who frequently travel by airlines, may be subjected to many hundred security examinations per year. A yearly radiation exposure limit of 1000 microRem safely permits a single scan exposure within the range of 1 to 10 microRem for the general public. In accordance with the NCRP recommendations, radiation levels significantly higher than this may present some health risk. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06665373__

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X-ray object positioning apparatus for use in X-ray imaging apparatus and X-ray imaging apparatus provided with the same Inventor(s): Yoshimura; Takahiro (Kyoto, JP) Assignee(s): J. Morita Manufacturing Corporation (Kyoto, JP) Patent Number: 6,619,839 Date filed: February 15, 2002 Abstract: An X-ray object positioning apparatus for use in X-ray imaging apparatus which irradiates X-rays an object to be examined to produce an X-ray absorption coefficient of a desired region of the object by means of X-rays transmitted through the object. The X-ray object positioning apparatus comprises a chair for fixing and holding the object; an imaging position moving apparatus for relatively moving an X-ray imaging target area relative to the fixed object chair; and display for variably showing the relative positional relation between an object model corresponding to the object and an imaging target area index corresponding to the X-ray imaging target area. The position between the object and the imaging target area is set by the moving operation for the position between the object model and the imaging target area index on the display, in a manner that the relative positional relation between the object model and the X-ray imaging target area index, both displayed on the display, conforms with the relative positional relation between the object and the X-ray imaging target area, moved by the imaging position moving apparatus. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray object positioning apparatus for use in an X-ray imaging apparatus which radiates X-rays on an object and produces an image of an X-ray absorption coefficient of a desired region of the object by X-rays transmitted through the object and an X-ray imaging apparatus provided with the same. Some X-ray imaging apparatus for executing panoramic radiography of a dental jaw bone in dental field need accurate radiation of X-rays on a desired region of an object. For this purpose, X-ray positioning means for use in an X-ray imaging apparatus for positioning the object at a desired imaging position is used. One example is an X-ray object positioning means for use in an X-ray imaging apparatus which uses guide beams in X, Y, and Z directions showing X-ray imaging position and sets relative positional relation between the object and an X-ray generator in such a manner that these guide beams are radiated at desired positions of the object. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06619839__

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X-ray shielding system and shielded digital radiographic inspection system and method Inventor(s): Bueno; Clifford (Clifton Park, NY), Mohr; Gregory Alan (Scotia, NY) Assignee(s): General Electric Company (Niskayuna, NY) Patent Number: 6,618,465 Date filed: November 12, 2001 Abstract: An x-ray shielding system includes a beam controller configured to surround an x-ray source and includes a detector shield configured to position behind an x-ray detector. The beam controller includes a source shield and an aperture. The source shield and the detector shield are adapted to block x-rays, and the aperture is adapted to transmit x-rays. A shielded digital radiographic inspection system includes the x-ray

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source and the beam controller surrounding the x-ray source. The beam controller includes the source shield and the aperture. The aperture is configured to rotate around the x-ray source. The inspection system further includes a digital x-ray detector positioned radially outward from the x-ray source and facing the aperture. The digital xray detector is configured to be movable along an orbit around the x-ray source. The inspection system further includes the detector shield configured to be movable with and positioned behind the digital x-ray detector. Excerpt(s): The invention relates generally to an x-ray shielding system for automated digital radiographic inspection and, more particularly, to an x-ray shielding system for automated digital radiographic inspection of aircraft components. Aircraft components, such as aircraft fuselage frames, are repeatedly inspected during the life of an aircraft, to detect potentially damaging defects. Presently, aircraft fuselage frames are inspected visually, which requires that the insulation first be removed from the frame. The exposed fuselage frame is then examined visually, with mirrors being used to inspect portions that are difficult to access. However, visual inspection has several drawbacks. First, only large cracks (at least 5 cm in length) are reliably seen, whereas it would be desirable to detect cracks as small as about 1 cm in length. Second, it is difficult to quantify and record the cracks that are visually detected. Third, visual crack inspection is subject to an inspector fatigue factor. Fourth, improper reinstallation of the insulation can introduce moisture condensation, which can lead to corrosion. Moreover, this procedure is time and labor intensive, with a typical inspection period of about fiveperson days for commercial aircraft, in addition to the labor required to disassemble and reassemble the aircraft interior. X-ray imaging provides a useful tool for avoiding many of the problems associated with the visual inspection of fuselage frames. Presently, certain areas of the fuselage are examined using x-ray film, and an x-ray source is placed in the fuselage to expose the film. This x-ray imaging method is potentially advantageous relative to visual inspection, in that the insulation need not be removed, small cracks (on the order of 1 cm in length) can be detected, the inspector fatigue factor is eliminated, and the inspection time is reduced. However, due to the large size of aircraft components, powerful x-ray sources are employed, for example on the order of one to one hundred Rad per minute (1-100 R/min). Safety considerations usually dictate that the area around the aircraft be cleared of personnel while x-ray inspections are performed, preventing the concurrent performance of other maintenance activities. In addition, the use of x-ray film is cumbersome, producing x-ray images that are difficult to store and to systematically analyze. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06618465__ ·

X-ray source provided with a liquid metal target Inventor(s): Harding; Geoffrey (Hamburg, DE), Schlomka; Jens Peter (Hamburg, DE) Assignee(s): Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. (Eindhoven, NL) Patent Number: 6,647,094 Date filed: June 19, 2002 Abstract: The invention relates to an arrangement for generating X-rays upon incidence of electrons (4), which arrangement includes a liquid metal zone (7) in which a liquid metal (9) is provided as an X-ray target in such a manner that it can flow past a zone of electron incidence (8). In order to allow a pump of reduced capacity to be employed in such a device in order to provide the movement of the liquid metal, in accordance with the invention it is proposed to realize a pressure zone (10) which is separate from the

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liquid metal zone (7) and is provided with a pressure medium (11) in such a manner that the pressure medium (11) can exert a pressure on the liquid metal (9) present in the liquid metal zone (7) in order to force the liquid metal (9) past the zone of electron incidence (8), the pressure zone (10) being provided with a pressure accumulator (R3) which can be replenished in order to apply the pressure. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to an arrangement for generating X-rays upon incidence of electrons, which arrangement includes a liquid metal zone in which a liquid metal is provided as an X-ray target in such a manner that it can flow past a zone of electron incidence. The invention also relates to an X-ray source which includes an electron source for the emission of electrons and such an arrangement for generating Xrays. Finally, the invention also relates to an X-ray device which includes an X-ray detector and such an X-ray source. An arrangement and an X-ray source of this kind are known from U.S. Pat. No. 6,185,277 B1. Therein, the electrons emitted by an electron source penetrate the liquid metal through a thin window and generate X-rays therein. The liquid metal, having a high atomic number, circulates therein under the influence of a pump, so that the heat produced by the interaction with the electrons in the window and in the liquid metal can be dissipated. The heat produced in this zone is carried off by a turbulent flow, thus ensuring effective cooling. A number of different applications is feasible for such an arrangement for generating X-rays. In the case of a computed tomography apparatus, an X-ray source is required which is capable of delivering a high pulsed power of, for example, approximately 80 kW for a brief period of time only, for example, for approximately 20 s. For a different type of application, that is, in an X-ray system for the inspection of luggage, for example, for the presence of explosives or drugs, however, a lower power of only, for example, approximately 30 kW is required, be it that this power has to be delivered continuously, that is, for several hours. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06647094__ ·

X-ray system Inventor(s): Antonell; Michael (Orlando, FL), Houge; Erik Cho (Orlando, FL), McIntosh; John Martin (Orlando, FL), Plew; Larry E. (St. Cloud, FL), Vartuli; Catherine (Windermere, FL) Assignee(s): Agere Systems Inc. (Allentown, PA) Patent Number: 6,606,371 Date filed: December 19, 2000 Abstract: A reflective lens with at least one curved surface formed of polycrystalline material. In one embodiment, a lens structure includes a substrate having a surface of predetermined curvature and a film formed along a surface of the substrate with multiple individual members each having at least one similar orientation relative to the portion of the substrate surface adjacent the member such that collectively the members provide predictable angles for diffraction of x-rays generated from a common source. A system is also provided for performing an operation with x-rays. In one embodiment, a system includes a source for generating the x-rays, a polycrystalline surface region having crystal spacing suitable for reflecting a plurality of x-rays at the same Bragg angle along the region, and transmitting the reflected x-rays to a reference position. An associated method includes providing x-rays to polycrystalline surface region having crystal spacings suitable for reflecting a plurality of x-rays at the same Bragg angle along the region, transmitting the reflected x-rays to a reference position and positioning a

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sample between the surface region and the reference position so that the x-rays are transmitted through the sample. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to X-ray focusing and, more particularly, to reflective lenses and systems which convert X rays from divergent sources into parallel or convergent radiation for a variety of applications. Translation of X-rays from divergent sources into parallel beams and converging rays is subject to well-known limitations relating to Bragg diffraction theory. Focusing optics for x-rays have been based on Johann or Johansson methods applied to curved monolithic crystals. See, for example, Advances in X-Ray Spectroscopy, Eds. C. Bonnelle and C. Mande (Oxford, U.K., 1982). More recently, it has been shown that x-ray diffractors with doubly curved crystals can provide relatively greater throughput. For example, a spherical diffractor with a stepped surface has been designed at constant height conditions to provide a significantly greater solid angle aperture than achievable with a spherically curved crystal. See Witry et al., "Properties of curved x-ray diffractors with stepped surfaces", J. Appl. Phys., 69, pp. 3886-3892, (1991) which discusses problems associated with practical manufacture of high-efficiency x-ray diffractors. A diffractor may also be formed with a few pseudo-spherical curved dispersive elements. See Marcelli et al. "Multistepped x-ray crystal diffractor based on a pseudo-spherical geometry", SPIE Vol. 3448, July 1998. See, also, Mazuritsky et al. "A new stepped spherical x-ray diffractor for microbe analysis", SPIE Vol. 3449, July 1998. Even with these advances, formation of satisfactory lens systems for x-ray optics has been limited by the size of practical crystal surfaces and the extent to which such surfaces can be conformed to a desired curvature. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06606371__ ·

X-ray tube anode cold plate Inventor(s): Bittner; Todd R. (Chicago, IL), Buan; Jose A. (Bolingbrook, IL), Carlson; Gerald J. (Aurora, IL), Kautz; Allan D. (Naperville, IL), Lu; Qing K. (Aurora, IL), McNally; Patrick P. (Geneva, IL), Miller; Thomas R. (St. Charles, IL), Perno; Salvatore G. (Winfield, IL), Xu; Paul M. (Oswego, IL) Assignee(s): Koninklijke Philips Electronics, N.V. (Eindhoven, NL) Patent Number: 6,603,834 Date filed: September 18, 2001 Abstract: An x-ray tube assembly (16) includes a housing (40) and an insert frame (54) supported within the housing (40), such that the insert frame (54) defines a substantially evacuated envelope in which a cathode assembly (60) and a rotating anode assembly (58) operate to produce x-rays. The rotating anode assembly (58) includes an anode target plate (64) coupled to a rotor (66) and bearing shaft (82), which is rotatably supported within a bearing housing (84), by a plurality of ball bearings (86). A heat barrier (90) substantially surrounds the bearing housing (84) and is coupled, along with the bearing housing (84) to an anode cold plate (100). The anode cold plate (100) includes a grooved cover (102), a basin (110), and a plurality of corrugated fins (120) disposed therein. Coupling both the bearing housing (84) and the heat barrier (90) to the anode cold plate (100) provides an effective means for cooling the bearing assembly (80). Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the x-ray tube art. It finds particular application in conjunction with x-ray tubes having straddle bearing anode assemblies for use with CT scanners and the like and will be described with particular reference thereto. It is to be appreciated, however, that the invention will also find application in

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conjunction with other bearing assemblies used in conventional x-ray diagnostic systems and other penetrating radiation systems for medical and non-medical examinations. Typically, a high power x-ray tube includes an evacuated envelope made of metal or glass, which holds a cathode filament through with a heating current is passed. This current heats the filament sufficiently that a cloud of electrons is emitted, i.e., thermionic emission occurs. A high potential, on the order of 100-200 kV, is applied between the cathode and an anode assembly, which is also located within the evacuated envelope. This potential causes electrons to flow from the cathode to the anode assembly through the evacuated region within the interior of the evacuated envelope. The electron beam strikes the anode with sufficient energy that x-rays are generated. A portion of the x-rays generated pass through an x-ray window on the envelope to a beam limiting device or collimator, which is attached to an x-ray tube housing. The beam limiting device regulates the size and shape of the x-ray beam directed toward a patient or subject under examination, thereby allowing images of the patient or subject to be reconstructed. In addition to generating x-rays, the impact of the electrons on the anode generates thermal energy. In order to distribute the thermal loading and reduce the anode temperature, a rotating anode assembly is often used. In this system, the electron beam is focused near a peripheral edge of the anode disk at a focal spot. As the anode rotates, a different portion of a circular path around the peripheral edge of the anode passes through the focal spot where x-rays are generated. The larger the diameter of the anode, the greater the cooling time before the electron beam strikes the same spot. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06603834__

Patent Applications on X-rays As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.10 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to x-rays: ·

3D X-ray system adapted for high speed scanning of large articles Inventor(s): Rosner, S. Jeffrey; (Palo Alto, CA) Correspondence: Agilent Technologies; Legal Department, M/s Dl429; Intellectual Property Administration; P.O. Box 7599; Loveland,; CO; 80537-0599; US Patent Application Number: 20030231739 Date filed: June 12, 2002 Abstract: A system for forming an image of an object. The system includes a first scanning x-ray source for generating x-rays that diverge from a source point along a first scan path, the point being variable and determined by an input signal provided by a controller. A plurality of x-ray detectors are positioned with respect to the first scan path and are readout by the controller. A conveyor moves the object relative to the first scanning x-ray source and the plurality of x-ray detectors. The object is divided into a plurality of voxels, and the x-ray detectors are positioned such that x-rays pass through each voxel and arrive at one of the detectors when the source point is located at a plurality of points along the first scan path. The controller preferably generates a threedimensional representation of the object from the x-ray measurements.

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This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.

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Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to x-ray imaging systems, and more particularly, to x-ray imaging systems for generating three-dimensional views of large objects. The simplest form of x-ray imaging equipment utilizes projection imaging in which an object to be imaged is placed between an x-ray source and a two-dimensional x-ray recorder. Portions of the object that absorb or scatter x-rays are seen as a shadow on the image formed by the recorder. Unfortunately, these devices do not provide any information on the three-dimensional structure of the object. If the object contains a region of dense, x-ray absorbing material, the resultant "shadow" makes it difficult to see any other features that are between the x-ray source and the recorder for which the xrays pass through the absorbing material. This shortcoming of projection imaging is overcome by CT (computed tomography) scanners. CT scanners combine information from a variety of projection viewpoints to overcome the shadowing and generate a 3D (three-dimensional) description of the object. A typical CT system measures the x-ray flux reaching a detector from a source that moves around the object. The object being scanned is modeled by a plurality of voxels having unknown x-ray absorbency. At each point, the measured flux represents the weighted sum of the x-ray absorbencies of each voxel along the path from the x-ray source to the detector. Different paths provide weighted sums involving different sets of voxels. If sufficient points are measured, a data processing system can solve the resulting system of equations for the x-ray absorbency of each voxel. The resulting data can then be analyzed or displayed as a three-dimensional model of the object that can be viewed from different viewpoints. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Article irradiation system with multiple beam paths Inventor(s): Rose, Graham Thomas; (Ottawa, CA) Correspondence: Dorsey & Whitney Llp; 1001 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.; Suite 400 South; Washington; DC; 20004; US Patent Application Number: 20030201400 Date filed: May 6, 2003 Abstract: A system for irradiating articles is disclosed. The system has multiple beam paths and is capable of irradiating articles with x-rays or electron beams (e-beams). The system is comprised of a single radiation source producing multiple beam paths. At least one of the beam paths is configured to irradiate articles with x-rays and at least one other beam path is configured to irradiate articles with e-beams. The beam paths are each positioned to scan product carried on conveyors. The x-ray beam paths and e-beam have separate conveyor systems that operates independently from each other.degree. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to the field of systems for irradiating articles. In particular, the invention relates to article irradiation systems having conveyors. Radiation is used to treat many types of products or articles. The types of radiation used include, for example, X-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, and electron beams. The types of articles treated with radiation are many and varied. For example, radiation is used to treat silicon chips, polymers, medical devices, and more recently food. The Food and Drug Administration and the Center for Disease Control have both supported the irradiation of food products for controlling or eliminating microorganisms responsible for food poisoning such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp. An irradiation system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,396,074 issued to Peck et al. on Mar. 7, 1995. Peck et al. describe a conveyor system that combines an overhead conveyor with a floor mounted conveyor. Article carriers are suspended from the overhead conveyor track. There is a

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stop or escapement on the overhead track which holds back the lead article carriers and accumulates carriers behind the escapement. A floor mounted load conveyor is located in a 90.degree. turn and has "dogs" which grab the bottom of the carriers as they are released by the overhead escapement and convey them toward a process conveyer. The load conveyor accelerates then decelerates the article carriers so that they are mutually spaced upon the process conveyor. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Calibration source for X-ray detectors Inventor(s): Grodzins, Hal; (Bedford, MA) Correspondence: Bromberg & Sunstein Llp; 125 Summer Street; Boston; MA; 02110-1618; US Patent Application Number: 20030215052 Date filed: May 19, 2003 Abstract: A method and device for calibrating the energy response of detectors of photons in the range from about 0.5 keV to at least 100 keV. The device makes use of the inherent property of a polarizable crystal such as a pyroelectric crystal to produce monoenergetic x-rays when the crystal is heated or cooled in a partial vacuum. Specific calibration energies of x-ray emission, may be selected for the application of the user by selection of a coating to the pyroelectric crystal and an external foil. The calibration device may be disposed within the same housing as a penetrating radiation detector. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/381,412, filed May 17, 2002, having the title "A Calibration Source for X-Ray Detectors" and incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The present invention relates to methods and devices for calibrating the energy response of detectors of penetrating radiation using solid-state electron acceleration and x-ray generation means. X-ray based instruments are used in a wide variety of industries for many purposes. In those applications that require that the energy of the x-rays be accurately measured it is necessary to calibrate the energy response of the detector system. In some applications the calibration must be carried out at frequent intervals. The term `x-ray` as used herein and in any appended claims applies to all photons in the range from about 0.5 keV to 100 keV and greater energies as well, encompassing all radiation capable of penetrating solid matter, whether originating from atomic or nuclear transitions in radioisotopes, xray tubes, plasma emitters, or any other source. Such radiation may also be referred to as `penetrating radiation`. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Detectors for x-rays and neutrons Inventor(s): Grodzins, Lee; (Lexington, MA), Rothschild, Peter; (Boston, MA) Correspondence: Bromberg & Sunstein Llp; 125 Summer Street; Boston; MA; 02110-1618; US Patent Application Number: 20030165211 Date filed: May 29, 2002

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Abstract: An apparatus and method for detecting neutrons, particularly, with directional sensitivity. The apparatus is a detector with a scintillator containing high neutron-capture-cross-section atoms for capturing neutrons and emitting electromagnetic radiation, and an optical detector for detecting the emitted electromagnetic radiation and for generating an electrical signal. The high neutroncapture-cross-section atoms may be gadolynium, in particular, and the detector may additionally have a moderator for converting fast neutrons into thermal neutrons that are then captured by the high neutron-capture-cross-section atoms. Excerpt(s): The present application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/360,854, filed Mar. 1, 2002, which is herein incorporated by reference. The present invention relates to devices and methods for detecting neutrons and highenergy photons such as x-rays and gamma rays. An effective means for detecting radioactive sources, "dirty bombs," and fissile, and thus neutron- and gamma-rayemitting, material in baggage at airports or in freight cargo is obviously desirable. Passive detection in conjunction with other inspection protocols would be advantageous. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Device for genrating x-rays Inventor(s): David, Bernd; (Huettblek, DE), Harding, Geoffrey; (Hamburg, DE), Potze, Willem; (Eindhoven, NL), Schlomka, Jens Peter; (Hamburg, DE), Tielemans, Leonardus Petrus Maria; (Eindhoven, NL) Correspondence: Eugene E Clair; Philips Medical Systems Cleveland Inc; 595 Miner Road; Cleveland; OH; 44143; US Patent Application Number: 20030142789 Date filed: October 15, 2002 Abstract: The invention relates to a device (1) for generating X-rays (57). The device comprises a source (7) for emitting electrons (53) and a liquid metal for emitting X-rays as a result of the incidence of electrons. The device further comprises a displacing member (11) for displacing the liquid metal through an impingement position (55) where the electrons emitted by the source impinge upon the liquid metal. As a result of the flow of liquid metal through the impingement position the heat, which is generated in the impingement position as a result of the incidence of the electrons upon the liquid metal, is transported away from the impingement position.According to the invention, the displacing member (11) has a contact surface (61), which is in contact with the liquid metal in the impingement position (55), and a driving member (31) for moving the contact surface in a direction which, in the impingement position, is substantially parallel to the contact surface. Thus the flow of liquid metal in the impingement position is achieved as a result of viscous shear forces in the liquid metal caused by friction forces between the liquid metal and the moving contact surface. As a result, the necessary pressure of the liquid metal is limited. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a device for generating X-rays, which device comprises a source for emitting electrons, a liquid metal for emitting X-rays as a result of the incidence of electrons, and a displacing member for displacing the liquid metal through an impingement position where the electrons emitted by the source impinge upon the liquid metal. A known device for generating X-rays is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,185,277-B1. During operation of the known device, the liquid metal, e.g. mercury,

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flows through a narrow passage which forms part of a closed cyclical channel system. Said narrow passage is bounded by a relatively thin window made from a material which is transparent to X-rays and electrons, e.g. diamond. The window separates the liquid metal from a vacuum space in which the source is accommodated. The source generates an electron beam, which passes through the window and impinges upon the liquid metal in the impingement position behind the window. The X-rays, emitted by the liquid metal as a result of the incidence of the electron beam, emanate through the window and through an X-ray exit window, which is provided in a housing surrounding the vacuum space. The velocity of the liquid metal flow in the narrow passage is relatively high, so that the flow in this passage is highly turbulent. As a result of this turbulent flow, the heat, which is generated in the impingement position as a result of the incidence of the electron beam upon the liquid metal, is transported away from the impingement position in a considerably effective manner, so that an increase of the temperature of the liquid metal in the impingement position is limited. The channel system further comprises a heat exchanger by means of which the liquid metal is cooled down. The displacing member, by means of which the liquid metal is displaced through the narrow passage, the heat exchanger, and the other parts of the channel system, is a pump which is arranged in the channel system between the heat exchanger and the narrow passage. A disadvantage of the known device for generating X-rays is that the pump has to generate a relatively high pressure of the liquid metal in order to obtain flow velocities in the narrow passage which are sufficiently high to obtain a sufficient rate of heat transport away from the impingement position by the liquid metal flow. This is the result of relatively high pressure losses of the liquid metal flow in the narrow passage. As a result, a relatively heavy and robust pump has to be used, and also other parts of the device, which are exposed to the high pressure, have to be constructed in a robust manner. This causes the known device to be less suitable for use in systems where a large weight and large dimensions of the device are not practical or even intolerable, which is particularly the case in medical X-ray examination systems. Furthermore, the relatively thin X-ray and electron transparent window may easily break as a result of the high pressure, causing malfunction of the device. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Element-specific X-ray fluorescence microscope and method of operation Inventor(s): Nill, Kenneth W.; (Lexington, MA), Yun, Wenbing; (Walnut Creek, CA) Correspondence: Houston Eliseeva; 4 Militia Drive, Suite 4; Lexington; MA; 02421; US Patent Application Number: 20030223536 Date filed: May 29, 2002 Abstract: An element-specific imaging technique utilizes the element-specific fluorescence X-rays that are induced by primary ionizing radiation. The fluorescence Xrays from an element of interest are then preferentially imaged onto a detector using an optical train. The preferential imaging of the optical train is achieved using a chromatic lens in a suitably configured imaging system. A zone plate is an example of such a chromatic lens; its focal length is inversely proportional to the X-ray wavelength. Enhancement of preferential imaging of a given element in the test sample can be obtained if the zone plate lens itself is made of a compound containing substantially the same element. For example, when imaging copper using the Cu La spectral line, a copper zone plate lens is used. This enhances the preferential imaging of the zone plate lens because its diffraction efficiency (percent of incident energy diffracted into the

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focus) changes rapidly near an absorption line and can be made to peak at the X-ray fluorescence line of the element from which it is fabricated. In another embodiment, a spectral filter, such as a multilayer optic or crystal, is used in the optical train to achieve preferential imaging in a fluorescence microscope employing either a chromatic or an achromatic lens. Excerpt(s): A number of techniques exist for the elemental analysis of objects using Xrays. Some of these techniques rely on the different X-ray attenuation characteristics of elements, whereas others rely on X-ray fluorescence. An example of an attenuationbased analysis technique utilizes characteristic elemental resonance energies. The attenuation of an X-ray beam of a sufficiently narrow spectral bandwidth increases substantially, when the central energy increases over the resonance energy of a constituent element of a test object. X-ray microscopes taking advantage of this characteristic have been developed for element-specific imaging. The microscopes typically combine a source, such as a synchrotron, a monochromator, a lens, such as a zone plate lens, a detector array, and possibly a scintillator to generate an image of a given test object. Typically, the microscopes are used in transmission. Two images at Xray energies below and above the resonance energy of the element of interest are often required to obtain the necessary contrast between the element of interest and other constituent elements of the test object to thereby yield an image of the element's distribution within the test object. X-ray fluorescence analysis or spectrometry (XRF) is a nondestructive analysis technique, which uses primary radiation, such as X-rays or energetic electrons, to eject inner-shell electrons from the atoms of the test object, yielding electron vacancies in the inner shells. When outer-shell electrons in the atoms fill the vacancies, secondary radiation is emitted with energies equal to the energy difference between the inner- and outer-shell electron states. The fluorescence emissions are characteristic of different elements. Thus, measurement of the spectrum of the secondary X-rays yields a quantitative measure of the relative abundance of each element that is present in the test sample. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

High speed materials sorting using x-ray fluorescence Inventor(s): Parrish, Robert H.; (Nashville, TN), Roos, Charles E.; (Nashville, TN), Sommer, Edward J. JR.; (Nashville, TN), Spencer, David B.; (Bedford, MA) Correspondence: Wolf Greenfield & Sacks, PC; Federal Reserve Plaza; 600 Atlantic Avenue; Boston; MA; 02210-2211; US Patent Application Number: 20030147494 Date filed: February 10, 2003 Abstract: A system and process for classifying a piece of material of unknown composition at high speeds, where the system connected to a power supply. The piece is irradiated with first x-rays from an x-ray source, causing the piece to fluoresce x-rays. The fluoresced x-rays are detected with an x-ray detector, and the piece of material is classified from the detected fluoresced x-rays. Detecting and classifying may be cumulatively performed in less than one second. An x-ray fluorescence spectrum of the piece of material may be determined from the detected fluoresced x-rays, and the detection of the fluoresced x-rays may be conditioned such that accurate determination of the x-ray fluorescence spectrum is not significantly compromised, slowed or complicated by extraneous x-rays. The piece of material may be classified by recognizing the spectral pattern of the determined x-ray fluorescence spectrum. The

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piece of material may be flattened prior to irradiation and detection. The x-ray source may irradiate the first x-rays at a high intensity, and the x-ray source may be an x-ray tube. Excerpt(s): This is a continuation application which claims priority under 35 U.S.C.sctn.120 to commonly-owned, co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/400,491 entitled, "High Speed Materials Sorting Using X-Ray Fluorescence", filed Sep. 21, 1999, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C.sctn.119(e) to U.S. provisional application serial No. 60/101,128 entitled, "Electronics Sortation for Recyling of Post Consumer Non-Ferrous Metals," filed Sep. 21, 1998, where each application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. This invention relates to a system and process for sorting pieces of materials (by composition) in a stream of materials moving along a conveyor belt. Particularly; this invention relates to a system and process for classifying pieces of materials of unknown composition based on the x-ray fluorescence spectrum of each respective piece so as to permit very high speed sorting of the unknown materials. Current worldwide environmental concerns have fueled an increase in efforts to recycle used equipment and articles containing materials that can be reused. Such efforts have produced new and improved processes for sorting materials such as plastics, glass, metals, and metal alloys. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Hydrophilic endodontic sealing compositions and methods for using such compositions Inventor(s): Fischer, Dan E.; (Sandy, UT) Correspondence: Rick D. Nydegger; Workman, Nydegger & Seeley; 1000 Eagle Gate Tower; 60 East South Temple; Salt Lake City; UT; 84111; US Patent Application Number: 20030199605 Date filed: April 23, 2002 Abstract: Endodontic sealant compositions and methods for sealing a root canal using sealant or other filling materials. The compositions include one or more resins that promote adhesion to hydrophilic dental tissues. Examples include alkyl methacrylates and derivatives thereof, such as alkylamino acrylates and methacrylates, oxyphosphoro acrylates and methacrylates, and acrylates and methacrylates substituted with oxysulfur, borate, carboxylic acid, or cyano groups or derivatives. The compositions include a radio opacifying agent, so that they may be seen using X-rays, and one or more polymerization initiators to effect curing, at least one chemical initiator and, optionally, a photoinitiator, to yield a curable sealant composition. The compositions are introduced into the root canal using a narrow cannula coupled to a high pressure hydraulic delivery device. Additional pressure may be applied to the sealant compositions using a syringe-like plunger introduced within a cylindrical access hole drilled through the crown of the tooth. The chemical initiator causes the mixed composition to harden over time. Hardening of at least a portion of the composition can be accelerated by including a photoinitiator and irradiating the mixed composition with radiant energy (e.g., from a dental curing lamp). Excerpt(s): The invention is in the field of compositions and methods for sealing a root canal during an endodontic procedure. More particularly, the invention involves compositions having enhanced adhesion to hydrophilic dental tissues found within root canals which assists their ability to effectively seal and protect a newly cleaned root

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canal. Such compositions are preferably radiopaque and are cured more rapidly compared to conventional endodontic sealing compositions, thus allowing for quicker placement of a final filling or crown to complete the root canal procedure. Following an endodontic root canal procedure, in which the root canal is cleaned using special root canal tools and irrigation devices, it is important to fill and seal the evacuated root canal in order to preserve the dead tooth from further decay that might compromise the integrity of the tooth and cause infection. In a typical procedure, one or more soft, resilient, needle-like inserts known as "gutta percha" points are inserted in each root canal branch in order at least partially seal and fill the root canal. The term "gutta percha" refers to a rubbery material derived from natural rubber, typically blended with zinc oxide. This particular rubbery material is preferred because it is compressible, flexible and relatively soft so that it can be used to fill voids within the exposed root canal. The gutta percha points are typically impregnated with other materials such as radiopaque solids, zinc oxide, for its medicinal properties, and other passive or active ingredients as desired. It is impossible, however, to completely seal a root canal from all ingress of fluids, which may be laden with bacteria, using gutta percha alone. Conventional techniques require multiple gutta percha cones per canal and laborious "later condensation" techniques. For some, it requires a heating the gutta percha in an attempt to make it flow into the lateral canals. However, this technique, coupled with the properties of gutta percha, make it hard to achieve fine adaptation to canal walls and flow into the dentinal tubules. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Integrated scale with underlying x-ray tray Inventor(s): Greway, Leo Henry; (Norwood, PA), Gryn, Felix J.; (Landsdale, PA) Correspondence: Barnes & Thornburg; 11 South Meridian; Indianapolis; IN; 46204 Patent Application Number: 20030153805 Date filed: August 23, 2002 Abstract: An infant support for an incubator or an infant warmer or a combination thereof is disclosed. The support comprises a frame, a mattress tray disposed above the tray, an x-ray tray and one or more weight cells having an actuator supporting the mattress tray above the frame. The x-ray tray is received in a space below the top surface of the mattress tray. The support is configured to be received on a tilt mechanism of the incubator or an infant warmer or a combination thereof to provide an inclination to the mattress tray. The support is configured to permit x-rays to be taken of an infant supported above the mattress tray and to provide an indication of the weight of the infant supported on the mattress tray regardless of its inclination. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to infant supports for incubators or infant warmers or combinations thereof, the support providing an integrated scale for weighing the infant, a tilt mechanism for tilting the infant and a receptor for an x-ray tray below the infant. The above listed exemplary patents show or disclose incubators or baby warmers with weighing scales or with x-ray trays. The references are incorporated herein for purposes of establishing the nature of incubators, warmers, x-ray trays, and weight scales. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,221,211 shows an x-ray tray incorporated into an incubator. U.S. Pat. No. 4,492,279 shows the details of a weight cell or scale for weighing infants. U.S. Pat. No. 5,453,077 discloses how an x-ray cartridge may be inserted underneath a mattress for taking x-rays of an infant. An integrated scale and xray tray for use in a combination radiant heater and incubator of the type shown in U.S.

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Pat. Nos. 5,817,002 and 5,971,914 is described. The integrated scale integrates both a weighing scale feature and an x-ray tray feature for use in an infant support for either an incubator or an infant warmer or a combination incubator and infant warmer. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Light-activated drug delivery method and device Inventor(s): Arouh, Scott; (San Diego, CA), Diamond, Cornelius; (San Diego, CA) Correspondence: Fuess & Davidenas; Suite Ii-g; 10951 Sorrento Valley Road; San Diego; CA; 92121-1613; US Patent Application Number: 20030191458 Date filed: April 3, 2002 Abstract: A capsule, or a matrix, of a substance, most typically a polymer, that is degraded by a photo-acid or, less preferably, by a photo-base, physically contains or incorporates (i) a photo-acid, or a photo-base, or precursors to same, and (ii) one or more molecular agents, normally drugs. Placed in vivo, the photo-acid or photo-base or its precursors is (are) changed into an acid or base, as the case may be, by impinging radiation, most preferably by one or more light beams of green or longer wavelengths to which tissues are transparent, or else x-rays. The preferred light beams are two in number, spatially and temporally intersecting to produce the acid or base in vivo at precise regions and times by process of two-photon absorption. The photogenerated acid or base ruptures or dissolves the containment capsules or matrix, loosing the contained molecular agents (i) at precise subcutaneous tissue locations (ii) at precise rates (iii) over precise time intervals. Excerpt(s): The present invention generally concerns the controlled molecular release of an agent, normally a drug, in vivo. The present invention particularly concerns methods and devices for photodynamically controlled release of molecular agents in vivo with a high degree of (i) spatial and (ii) temporal control. As reported in the article "Targeting tumors: More precise therapies aim to spare the body's healthy tissue" by Rachel K. Sobel appearing in U.S. News and World Report for Oct. 2, 2000, the traditional cancer therapies of chemotherapy and radiation have led to problems. They are thankfully potent, but at times too potent. Not only do they annihilate cancer cells; they wipe out healthy ones, too. This leads to devastating side effects. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Liquid metal heat pipe structure for x-ray target Inventor(s): Lu, Qing K.; (Aurora, IL), Wandke, Norman E.; (Naperville, IL), Xu, Paul M.; (Oswego, IL) Correspondence: Attn: Eugene E. Clair; Philips Medical Systems (cleveland), INC.; 595 Miner Road; Cleveland; OH; 44143; US Patent Application Number: 20030174811 Date filed: March 14, 2002 Abstract: An x-ray tube (10) includes an evacuated envelope (14), a cathode assembly (20) located in the evacuated envelope and a disk shaped anode assembly (18) located in the evacuated envelope in operative relationship with the cathode assembly for

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generating x-rays (40). The anode assembly includes an axis of rotation (26) and a target substrate (28) facing the cathode assembly. A heat pipe (33) is located within the anode assembly (18). The heat pipe is comprised of an evacuated shell (60) and is vacuum sealed at a first end (70) of the shell and at a second end (72). A material (80, 82) within the shell is a working fluid for the heat pipe at x-ray tube operating conditions. A porous wick (62) is located within the shell and the wick has a length extending from the first end (70) of the shell to the second end (72) of the shell. A shield (64) is attached to the wick to reduce working fluid loss out of the wick during x-ray tube operation. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to x-ray tube technology and is particularly related to a rotating anode x-ray tube having a liquid metal heat pipe apparatus that transfers heat from the region of a focal track of the anode and will be described with particular respect thereto. Conventional diagnostic use of x-radiation includes the form of radiography, in which a still shadow image of the patient is produced on x-ray film, fluoroscopy, in which a visible real time shadow light image is produced by low intensity x-rays impinging on a fluorescent screen after passing through the patient, and computed tomography (CT) in which complete patient images are digitally constructed from x-rays produced by a high powered x-ray tube rotated about a patient's body. Typically, an x-ray tube includes an evacuated envelope made of metal or glass which is supported within an x-ray tube housing. The x-ray tube housing provides electrical connections to the envelope and is filled with a fluid such as oil to aid in cooling components housed within the envelope. The envelope and the x-ray tube housing each include an x-ray transmissive window aligned with one another such that x-rays produced within the envelope may be directed to a patient or subject under examination. In order to produce x-rays, the envelope houses a cathode assembly and an anode assembly. The cathode assembly includes a cathode filament through which a heating current is passed. This current heats the filament sufficiently that a cloud of electrons is emitted, i.e. thermionic emission occurs. A high potential, on the order of 100-200 kV, is applied between the cathode assembly and the anode assembly. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Method and apparatus for acquiring and storing multiple offset corrections for amorphous silicon flat panel detector Inventor(s): Aufrichtig, Richard; (Mountain View, CA), Granfors, Paul R.; (Sunnyvale, CA) Correspondence: Mcandrews Held & Malloy, Ltd; 500 West Madison Street; Suite 3400; Chicago; IL; 60661 Patent Application Number: 20030223539 Date filed: May 31, 2002 Abstract: An x-ray system used to acquire successive images is provided. The x-ray system includes an x-ray source for generating x-rays which are detected by a detector. The detector comprises detector elements that store levels of charge and are arranged in rows and columns. An image processor is used to sense the levels of charge stored by the detector elements. First and second offset image memories are included in the image processor. The first offset image memory stores offset image data for a first mode of operation and a second offset image memory stores offset image data for a second mode of operation.

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Excerpt(s): Certain embodiments of the present invention generally relate to x-ray systems utilizing a solid state multiple element x-ray detector for producing an image; and more particularly, to techniques and apparatus for acquiring and storing offset image correction data for more than one mode of operation. Solid state x-ray detectors comprising a two dimensional array of detector elements arranged in rows and columns are known in the art. A scintillator, such as cesium iodide (CsI), is deposited over the detector elements. The CsI absorbs x-rays and converts the x-rays to light. Each detector element comprises a photodiode and a field effect transistor (FET). The photodiode detects light, converts the light to a charge representative of an amount of radiation incident on the detector element and stores the charge. The FET operates as a switch to enable and disable read out of the charge stored on the photodiode. Each detector element is connected to both a row select line and a column signal line. The row select lines and column signal lines are used to activate the FET and read the level of stored charge in the photodiode. The detector may be designed with a split in each signal line at the midpoint, effectively splitting the reading of the detector into two separate operations. After an exposure, the detector is read on a row by row basis. With a detector that has split data lines, two rows may be read at the same time utilizing two sets of read out electronics. The data is then digitized for further image processing, storage, and display. The signal of each detector element (or pixel) may include an offset which is independent of x-ray exposure. This offset has several sources including leakage current in the photodiodes and charge retention in the FET switches. At low signal levels, such as those used in fluoroscopic imaging, the magnitude of the offset may be larger than the x-ray signal. Furthermore, the offset is not uniform, but varies from pixel to pixel. This pixel-dependent offset is subtracted from the x-ray exposed image to produce a corrected image before viewing. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Method and apparatus for destroying microbial contamination of mail Inventor(s): Korenev, Anton S.; (Springfield, NJ), Korenev, Sergey A.; (Mundelein, IL) Correspondence: Thomas E. Kocovsky, JR.; Fay, Sharpe, Fagan, Minnich & Mckee, Llp; Seventh Floor; 1100 Superior Avenue; Cleveland; OH; 44114-2518; US Patent Application Number: 20030174810 Date filed: March 12, 2002 Abstract: A powder of Anthrax spores or other microbial contamination in a series of conveyed envelopes or banknotes (2) are deactivated by pulses of energy. Preferably, the deactivation occurs in the normal processing and sorting of mail or paper currency. The pulsed energy is in the form of low kinetic energy (under 500 keV) e.sup.- beams (12) or x-rays which are pulsed in coordination with the movement of mail in the mail handling equipment or the movement of banknotes into or out of an automatic teller machine. The treatment of either mail or currency is done under nearly adiabatic conditions. Excerpt(s): The present application relates to the destruction of microbes on relatively thin paper or plastic carriers. It finds particular application in conjunction with killing Anthrax spores and other biological contaminants in mail and will be described with particular reference thereto. It will also find application in the treatment of other thin items such as bank notes, tickets, checks, receipts, and the like. Biological terrorism through the mails has become a serious problem. Recent events have shown the ease with which bioterrorists can deliver Anthrax and other biological weapons to targets using the postal system. There are numerous known decontaminating systems. These

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include radiation, x-rays, e.sup.- beams, and ultraviolet light, plasma methods on the basis of etching with glow discharge, gas decontamination, and ozone decontamination. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR OPTIMIZING DOSAGE TO SCAN SUBJECT Inventor(s): Hsieh, Jiang; (Brookfield, WI) Correspondence: Ziolkowski Patent Solutions Group, Llc (gems); 14135 North Cedarburg Road; Mequon; WI; 53097; US Patent Application Number: 20030185345 Date filed: April 2, 2002 Abstract: The present invention is directed to a CT imaging system utilizing a presubject cone-angle dependent filter to optimize dosage applied to the scan subject for data acquisition. The cone angle dependent pre-subject filter is designed to have a shape that is thicker for outer detector rows and thinner for inner detector rows. As a result, xrays corresponding to the outer detector rows undergo greater filtering than the x-rays corresponding to the inner detector rows. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to computed tomography (CT) technology, and more particularly, to a method and apparatus for optimizing the dosage applied to a scan subject to acquire imaging data. Specifically, the present invention is directed to a cone angle dependent pre-subject filter. Typically, in CT imaging systems, an x-ray source emits a fan-shaped beam toward a scan subject, such as a patient. The beam, after being attenuated by the subject, impinges upon an array of radiation detectors. The intensity of the attenuated beam radiation received at the detector array is typically dependent upon the attenuation of the x-ray beam by the subject. Each detector element of the detector array then produces a separate electrical signal indicative of the attenuated beam received by that detector element. The electrical signals are then transmitted to a data processing unit for analysis and ultimately image reconstruction. Generally, the x-ray source and the detector array are rotated with a gantry within an imaging plane and around the scan subject. X-ray sources typically include x-ray tubes, which emit the x-ray beam at a focal point. X-ray detectors typically include a collimator for collimating x-ray beams received at the detector, a scintillator for converting x-rays to light energy adjacent the collimator, and photodiodes for detecting the light energy from an adjacent scintillator. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Method and apparatus for patient-in-place measurement and real-time control of beam-spot position and shape in a scanning electron beam computed tomographic system Inventor(s): Smyth, Brian; (San Francisco, CA) Correspondence: Dean D. Small; Mcandrews, Held & Malloy, Ltd; 34th Floor; 500 W. Madison Street; Chicago; IL; 60661; US Patent Application Number: 20030169849 Date filed: March 8, 2002

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Abstract: A scanning electron beam computed tomographic system is provided with a sub-collimation system that passes X-rays emitted by a beam spot formed by an electron beam that is scanned across an X-ray emitting target, which X-rays would not otherwise reach an object under X-ray examination with the system. The sub-collimation system includes phantom-like objects that cause X-rays to be blocked, or passed, through to Xray detectors depending primarily upon the beam spot position and, secondarily, on the beam-spot shape. Detector output signals may be used in real-time to control at least one characteristic of the electron beam-spot in a closed-loop correction system. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to scanning electron beam systems for X-ray production in a computed tomography X-ray transmission system, and more particularly to reliably controlling the shape and position of an electron beam-spot as it is scanned across target to produce X-rays in such systems. A century ago, mathematician J. Radon demonstrated that a two-dimensional slice of a threedimensional object may be reproduced from the set of all of its projections. Computed tomography (CT) X-ray systems generate a set of X-ray beam projections through an object to be examined. The resultant detected X-ray data are computer processed to reconstruct a tomographic image-slice of the object. Conventional CT systems subject the object under examination to one or more pencil-like X-ray beams from all possible directions in a plane. The X-ray data may be generated in fan beam format (as is the case for the present invention), or in parallel beam format. In a fan beam system, the X-rays radiate from a source and are collected in a fan. By contrast, in a parallel beam system the X-rays are all parallel within a view. In either system, a view is one projection of the object onto the detectors, and a scan is a collection of all of the views. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Method and apparatus to determine bone mineral density utilizing a flat panel detector Inventor(s): Avinash, Gopal; (New Berlin, WI), Eberhard, Jeffrey W.; (Albany, NY), Thomas, Carson; (Brookfield, WI), Unger, Christopher D.; (Delafield, WI), Zhao, Jianguo; (Niskayuna, NY) Correspondence: Mcandrews Held & Malloy, Ltd; 500 West Madison Street; Suite 3400; Chicago; IL; 60661 Patent Application Number: 20030194120 Date filed: April 12, 2002 Abstract: A method and apparatus for using a flat panel detector to determine bone mineral density are provided. The apparatus includes a dual energy X-ray emitter, a flat panel detector for receiving X-rays sent from the X-ray emitter, and may optionally include an image corrector, adapted to emit corrected image information. The apparatus also includes a basis material decomposer that includes a calibration database, the decomposer being adapted to create a bone image and a soft tissue image. The apparatus further includes a bone mineral density calculator that is adapted to compute bone mineral density from the first image, and a display for displaying at least the computed bone mineral density. A method for using a flat panel detector to detect multiple disease states is also provided. The method includes emitting X-rays from a dual energy X-ray source through an area of a patient's body sought to be imaged and receiving X-rays with a flat panel detector. The method also includes generating multiple images, using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, to detect for a first disease state and a second disease state and analyzing the images for the first and second

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disease states. The first disease state includes lung cancer, breast cancer, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, tuberculosis, bone fracture or an abnormally sized or shaped organ and the second disease state comprises osteoporosis. Excerpt(s): Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to the detection of osteoporosis and more particularly relates to the detection of bone mineral density using a flat panel detector. Osteoporosis is a disease of the skeleton in which the amount of calcium present in the bones slowly decreases to the point where the bones become brittle and prone to fracture. In other words, the bone loses density. Osteoporosis is diagnosed when bone density has decreased to the point where fractures occur even under mild stress, also referred to as the fracture threshold. In the United States alone, ten million people have osteoporosis and eighteen million more have low bone mass (80% of whom are women), a condition which indicates an increased risk of developing osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is responsible for one-and-one-half million fractures annually. As a result, statistics indicate that one of every two women over age fifty will have an osteoporosis-related fracture in their lifetime. As a reference, a woman's risk of an osteoporosis-related fracture is equal to her combined risk of acquiring breast, uterine and ovarian cancer. The most common sites of fractures are the hip, spine, wrist and ribs. Perhaps the most devastating of these fractures is the hip fracture. On average, 24% of hip fractures in patients 50 and over lead to death within one year. Osteoporotic fractures such as these cost an estimated $18 billion annually. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Method for circuit protection during radiation sterilization Inventor(s): Fong, Jason; (Pleasant Hill, CA), Karre, Sheana; (Lincoln, NE), Prokop, Adrian; (Woodinville, WA), Rosenberg, James J.; (Monrovia, CA), Stinson, Sara Akiko; (Alameda, CA), Van Antwerp, William P.; (Valencia, CA) Correspondence: Attention: Bradley K. Lortz; Gates & Cooper Llp; Howard Hughes Center; 6701 Center Drive West, Suite 1050; Los Angeles; CA; 90045; US Patent Application Number: 20030169582 Date filed: March 6, 2003 Abstract: A circuit protection device for protection of sensitive components during high energy radiation sterilization that includes a support substrate and a protective housing. The substrate supports the sensitive components. The protective housing is hermetically coupled to the support substrate to seal the sensitive components within the protective housing. Preferably, the protective housing stops high energy used in the high energy sterilization from damaging the sensitive components from a predetermined exposure level of high energy sterilization. The circuit protection device may further include a protective conductor that is coupled to the support substrate on a side which is opposite the protective housing to prevent high energy from entering the opposite side of the support substrate. The circuit protection device can also include an energy absorbing material contained within an area sealed by the protective housing to absorb high energy byproducts produced by the protective housing stopping the high energy used in the high energy sterilization. Preferably, the support substrate is a circuit board, and the sensitive elements are semiconductors. Also, the high energy sterilization is E-beam sterilization and the high energy are electrons, and the high energy byproducts are xrays.

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Excerpt(s): This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/556,227, filed Apr. 24, 2000, and entitled "DEVICE AND METHOD FOR CIRCUIT PROTECTION DURING RADIATION STERILIZATION" which is incorporated herein by reference. This invention relates to circuit protection devices and methods, and in particular embodiments, to circuit protection devices and methods for use during radiation sterilization of devices containing electronic circuits. Over the years, sterilization of medical devices has become more important and difficult. At one time it was possible to sterilize most medical devices at the site of use, since the devices were relatively simple, such as reusable syringes, scalpels, scissors or the like. In addition, the medical devices were often used in a doctor's office, hospital, or the like, that included sophisticated sterilization equipment. Thus, the medical devices could be shipped for use without sterilization. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

METHOD OF COMPENSATION FOR THE THICKNESS OF AN ORGAN Inventor(s): BETTING, FABIENNE; (PARIS, FR), LIENARD, JEAN; (CLAMART, FR), MULLER, SERGE; (GUYANCOURT, FR), NICOLAS, FRANCOIS; (PALAISEAU, FR) Correspondence: Jay L Chaskin; General Electric Company; 3135 Easton Turnpike; Fairfield; CT; 064310001 Patent Application Number: 20030152257 Date filed: November 23, 1999 Abstract: A method of compensation for the thickness of an organ in an X-ray machine of the type comprising an X-ray source and a means of detection of the beam of X-rays after it has passed through the said organ, the detection means being capable of converting the X-ray beam into a digital electronic signal, in which, from a digitized image, an image of the radiologic thicknesses of an organ traversed by the X-ray beam is calculated, a thickness threshold is defined, from this there is derived an algebraic compensation image to bring the pixels of a level below or above the said threshold back to the value of the threshold, and the thickness image and a proportion of the compensation image are summed up, to obtain a compensated thickness image. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the field of radiologic imagery which makes it possible to visualize an organ or an organ part, in general of the human body. Conventionally, X-ray radiography has been performed by means of sensitized films acted upon by X-rays after their passage through the organ to be studied. Radiologists have been trained in the interpretation of such images. Novel imagery technologies-solid state detector and digital acquisition system--must be adapted to current practice and must furnish an equivalent perception of pertinent information that radiologists have to examine. In particular, one of the requirements that digital systems must satisfy consists in an extension of the dynamics of gray level that simulates a conventional film as faithfully as possible. To that end, the digital image is displayed on a screen that the radiologist adjusts in interactive fashion to identify all the clinical signs in perceiving relations among the various components of the image. But the precise perception of density information by means of the image displayed on the screen is limited by the dynamics of the screen. Now one must automatically pass from the high contrast of the image of origin, for example in the region of 30 to 50, to the low contrast offered by a video screen. Currently, physicians apply conformation techniques to patients with the aim of limiting the dynamics of acquired images, for example by compression of thick regions, and/or by addition of absorbent substances to compensate for zones of little

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thickness. In the case of X-ray mammography, the breast is compressed to the smallest and most constant thickness possible. In the field of cardiology, contour filters are used to avoid problems related to poorly absorbent zones of the chest, such as the lungs. These filters consist in plates of a shape complementary to that of the heart, made of materials of given coefficients of X-ray absorption. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Method of performing analysis using propagation rays and apparatus for performing the same Inventor(s): Ito, Yoshiyasu; (Tokyo, JP), Omote, Kazuhiko; (Tokyo, JP), Sasaki, Akito; (Tokyo, JP) Correspondence: Burns, Doane, Swecker & Mathis, L.L.P.; P.O. Box 1404; Alexandria; VA; 22313-1404; US Patent Application Number: 20030231737 Date filed: June 10, 2003 Abstract: Disclosed herein is a sample-analyzing method, in which an incident beam slit is provided between an X-ray source and a sample, a receiving side beam slit is provided between the sample and an X-ray detector, the X-ray detector detects X-rays scattered again from the sample and coming through the receiving side beam slit when the sample is irradiated with the X-rays applied through the incident beam slit, and a value is measured from a value detected by the X-ray detector. In the method, a true value is measured from the value, by using a slit function representing an influence which the incident beam slit and receiving side beam slit impose on the detected value. The slit function is determined from an intensity distribution of the X-rays scattered again from the sample. The method obtains an accurate slit function in accordance with the structure of the optical system employed and can therefore analyze the sample with high precision. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method and an apparatus, both designed to analyze a sample by applying propagation rays, such as X-rays and particle beams, to the sample. A method of analyzing a sample by applying propagation rays, such as Xrays, to the sample is disclosed in, for example, Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2001-349849. In the method disclosed in the publication, an X-ray scattering curve simulated of a thin film is compared with an X-ray scattering curve measured of the thin film, in order to evaluate the non-uniformity of density of the particles contained in the thin film. To simulate the X-ray scattering curve, a scattering function I(q) is set in advance. The scattering function I(q) includes one or more fitting parameters selected from parameters pertaining to the scattering state of particles. Among these parameters are average particle size parameter "R0," distributionbroadening parameter "M," diameter parameter "D," aspect-ratio parameter "a," minimum inter-particle distance parameter "L," inter-particle correlation coefficient parameter ".eta.," particle-content parameter "P," inter-particle distance parameter ".epsilon.", and the like. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Miniature x-ray unit Inventor(s): Chin, Yem; (Burlington, MA), Hoffman, David W.; (Westborough, MA), Pugsley, Charles H. JR.; (Pelham, NH) Correspondence: Fulbright & Jaworski, Llp; 666 Fifth Ave; New York; NY; 10103-3198; US Patent Application Number: 20030149327 Date filed: February 6, 2003 Abstract: A miniaturized x-ray apparatus for delivering x-rays to a selected site within a body cavity includes a catheter having at least one lumen and an x-ray transparent window at a distal end thereof; an x-ray source in the lumen adjacent said x-ray transparent window; a movable x-ray shield positioned to direct x-rays from the source through the x-ray transparent window to the selected site. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a miniaturized x-ray source situated in a catheter that generates x-rays while minimizing risk from exposure to the x-rays. Traditionally, x-rays have been used in the medical industry to view bone, tissue and teeth. X-rays have also been used to treat cancerous and precancerous conditions by exposing a patient to x-rays using an external x-ray source. Treatment of cancer with x-rays may cause well documented side effects, many of which are due to the broad exposure of the patient to the therapeutic x-rays. To improve medical treatment and diagnosis of patients, minimally invasive endoscopic techniques have been developed and are used to treat a variety of conditions. Endoluminal procedures are procedures performed with an endoscope, a tubular device into the lumen of which may be inserted a variety of rigid or flexible tools to treat or diagnose a patient's condition. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Miniature x-ray unit Inventor(s): Banik, Michael S.; (Bolton, MA), Sakal, Marcia McBride; (Bolton, MA) Correspondence: Fulbright & Jaworski, Llp; 666 Fifth Ave; New York; NY; 10103-3198; US Patent Application Number: 20030149400 Date filed: February 14, 2003 Abstract: An x-ray catheter being a tapered head can penetrate tumors and deliver xrays direct from an x-ray source therein to the target tissue, reducing or eliminating irradiation of healthy tissue. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a miniaturized x-ray source situated in a catheter that generates x-rays while minimizing risk of exposure to the x-rays. Traditionally, xrays have been used in the medical industry to view bone, tissue and teeth. X-rays have also been used to treat cancerous and precancerous conditions by exposing a patient to x-rays using an external x-ray source. Treatment of cancer with x-rays presents many well documented side effects, many of which are due to the broad exposure of the patient to the therapeutic x-rays. Minimally invasive endoscopic techniques have been developed and are used to treat a variety of conditions. Endoluminal procedures are procedures performed with an endoscope, a tubular device into the lumen of which may be inserted a variety of rigid or flexible tools to treat or diagnose a patient's condition.

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Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Mirror element for the reflection of x-rays Inventor(s): Michaelsen, Carsten; (Geesthacht, DE) Correspondence: Klaus J. Bach; 4407 Twin Oaks Drive; Murrysville; PA; 15668; US Patent Application Number: 20030185341 Date filed: April 1, 2002 Abstract: A mirror element for the reflection of x-rays, particularly for EUVL exposure systems for the manufacture of semiconductor structures, wherein the x-rays reach the mirrors under a certain incident angle, consists of a substrate with a multilayer structure disposed thereon which multilayer structure comprises at least a first layer of a lanthanum-containing compound and a second layer of a boron-containing compound alternately disposed on the substrate. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a mirror element for the reflection of x-rays particularly for use in EUVL-exposure systems for the manufacture of semiconductors, wherein the x-rays reach the mirror element under a large incident angle. The mirror element comprises essentially a substrate on which multiple layers of, alternately, metal and non-metal materials are disposed. Based on statistical estimates semi-conductor structures become smaller every 2-3 years by a factor 1/2, whereby the density of the transistors on the semiconductor structures are doubled in this time frame. It is therefore envisioned as a target for that industry that in the year 2005 semiconductor structures will become smaller than 100 nm, see for example National Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors in "Soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation", David Attwood, Cambridge University Press, 1999. In order to be still able to manufacture such small structures by lithographic exposure procedures, visible light is unsuitable as the light source. Instead, for future exposure procedures the use of light of shorter wave-length will be necessary for example, in the form of "Extreme Ultraviolet Radiation (EUV) or soft x-rays. Since the optical properties of materials are highly dependent on the wavelength and those materials which reflect light in the visible range will generally not reflect light in the EUV range or in the range of soft x-rays, conventional reflectors are not suitable for this wavelength range. Work in the field of EUVL (Extreme Ultra-Violet Lithography) was concentrated in the past 11/2 decades essentially on the development of molybdenum/silicon--or molybdenum/beryllium multilayers as reflectors for these purposes, specifically mainly for the wavelength range of 11-13 nm. It has been found theoretically that multilayers of this type should have a very high reflectivity of up to 70% in the wavelength range of 11-13 nm. As a result of large worldwide efforts, these high reflectivities could in fact be achieved in the last 11/2 decades in experiments--see David Attwood referred to earlier. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Mixed irradiation evaluation support system Inventor(s): Kato, Chiaki; (Kawasaki, JP), Taguchi, Jun?apos;ichi; (Sagamihara, JP) Correspondence: Mattingly, Stanger & Malur, P.C.; 1800 Diagonal Road; Suite 370; Alexandria; VA; 22314; US Patent Application Number: 20030147495 Date filed: February 4, 2002 Abstract: A mixed irradiation evaluation support system for supporting judgment and determination of allocation of contribution in mixed irradiation using proton beams and X-rays. According to a composition ratio designated by a composition ratio scroll bar 107, a dose distribution by a proton beam and a dose distribution by an X-ray are composed, and the result of the composition is displayed three-dimensionally in a threedimensional display part 104. Further, when a cross section is designated in the threedimensional display part 104, an isodose map 115 in the designated cross section is displayed in a cross section window 114. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to mixed irradiation using proton beams and X rays, and in particular, to a method of supporting treatment planning for effectively applying a certain dose of radiation on a focus (malignant tissue) while suppressing normal tissue's exposure to radiation. In radiotherapy that uses radiation for treatment, it is desired that normal tissues' exposure to radiation is suppressed as much as possible while applying a sufficient therapeutic dose of radiation on a focus such as cancer. Accordingly, treatment planning is required before treatment, in order to judge and determine intensity and a direction of radiation to emit, utilizing image data obtained by a video diagnostic apparatus such as an X-ray CT (Computerized Tomography) unit, and based on results of simulation of a dose distribution or the like. Generally, such treatment planning is carried out by software that runs on a computer system. First, in treatment planning, image data are used in order to set three-dimensional areas of a focus and noteworthy normal tissues around the focus, and their coordinates are stored into a memory. Next, a three-dimensional dose distribution inside a human body is calculated according to a certain physical model and using the image data, based on an irradiation range (called a radiation field), which is determined according to the size of the focus, and a tentatively-determined direction and intensity of irradiation. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Mobile radiant energy sterilizer Inventor(s): Korenev, Sergey A.; (Mundelein, IL) Correspondence: Thomas E. Kocovsky, JR.; Fay, Sharpe, Fagan, Minnich & Mckee, Llp; Seventh Floor; 1100 Superior Avenue; Cleveland; OH; 44114-2518; US Patent Application Number: 20030164285 Date filed: March 4, 2002 Abstract: A portable, radiation-producing apparatus is provided that can produce highly energetic electron beam radiation and X-rays from a low voltage power source., e.g., a battery. The radiation-producing apparatus is comprised of a radiation generating device, a pulsed high voltage generator and a control system. The pulsed high voltage generator is comprised of a power source and a Tesla resonant transformer. The Tesla resonant transformer has at least one first capacitor, a primary coil, a secondary coil and

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at least one second capacitor. The at least one second capacitor is disposed axially within the secondary coil. The pulsed high voltage generator is connected to the radiation generating device for providing electrical energy to the radiation generating device. The control system is connected to the pulsed high voltage generator for selectively controlling the transfer of energy from the pulsed high voltage generator to the radiation generating device. The radiation-producing apparatus generates pulses of electrons and X-rays. Each pulse has a time duration of about 100 nanoseconds or less. The electrons and X-rays produced by the radiation-producing apparatus can be used to deactivate microbial contamination or irradiate various materials. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to methods of producing radiation and to radiation-producing apparatuses and, in particular, to a radiation-producing apparatus used to deactivate microbial contamination. The United States Postal Service has been used as a mode of delivery for anthrax spores. The potential exists for the Postal Service and other courier services to be used for the delivery of other biological agents. Paper envelopes are relatively porous to finely divided spores. In the normal handling and processing of mail, anthrax spores and other biological materials can escape from envelopes contaminating the surfaces of mail handling equipment, adjacent floors and equipment, the exterior of the carrier envelope and the surfaces of other envelopes. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Multi-technique thin film analysis tool Inventor(s): Janik, Gary R.; (Palo Alto, CA), Moore, Jeffrey; (Redwood City, CA) Correspondence: Bever Hoffman & Harms, Llp; Tri-valley Office; 1432 Concannon BLVD., BLDG. G; Livermore; CA; 94550; US Patent Application Number: 20030169846 Date filed: March 7, 2002 Abstract: A thin film analysis system includes multi-technique analysis capability. Grazing incidence x-ray reflectometry (GXR) can be combined with x-ray fluorescence (XRF) using wavelength-dispersive x-ray spectrometry (WDX) detectors to obtain accurate thickness measurements with GXR and high-resolution composition measurements with XRF using WDX detectors. A single x-ray beam can simultaneously provide the reflected x-rays for GXR and excite the thin film to generate characteristic xrays for XRF. XRF can be combined with electron microprobe analysis (EMP), enabling XRF for thicker films while allowing the use of the faster EMP for thinner films. The same x-ray detector(s) can be used for both XRF and EMP to minimize component count. EMP can be combined with GXR to obtain rapid composition analysis and accurate thickness measurements, with the two techniques performed simultaneously to maximize throughput. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the area of thin film analysis. In particular, the present invention relates to a method and apparatus for combining multiple thin film analysis capabilities into a single instrument. As the dimensions of semiconductor devices continue to shrink, accurate and efficient characterization of the components forming those devices becomes more critical. Typically, the manufacturing process for modern semiconductor devices includes the formation of a number of layers or "thin films", such as oxide, nitride, and metal layers. To ensure proper performance of the finished semiconductor devices, the thickness and composition of each film formed during the manufacturing process must be tightly controlled. In the realm of thin film

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analysis, three basic techniques have evolved to measure film thickness and composition. Microfocus x-ray tube 110 directs a source x-ray beam 150 at x-ray reflector 120. Source x-ray beam 150 typically comprises a bundle of diverging x-rays that can have a variety of different wavelengths. X-ray reflector 120 reflects and focuses the diverging x-rays of x-ray beam 150 into a converging x-ray beam 160. Typically, x-ray reflector 120 is a singly- or doubly-curved monochromatizing crystal that ensures that only x-rays of a particular wavelength are included in converging x-ray beam 160, which is directed at thin film layer 142. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Negative resist composition Inventor(s): Kodama, Kunihiko; (Shizuoka, JP), Yasunami, Shoichiro; (Shizuoka, JP) Correspondence: Sughrue Mion, Pllc; 2100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.; Washington; DC; 20037; US Patent Application Number: 20030165776 Date filed: December 30, 2002 Abstract: A negative resist composition comprising (A) an alkali-soluble polymer, (B) a cross-linking agent forming cross-links between molecules of the alkali-soluble polymer (A) under the action of an acid and (C) a specified acid generator, which can satisfy all of performance requirements concerning sensitivity, resolution, pattern profile and lineedge roughness in the pattern formation by irradiation with electron beams or X-rays. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a negative resist composition used suitably in supermicrolithography and other fabrication processes for production of VLSIs and high-capacity microchips. More specifically, the invention is concerned with a negative resist composition capable of forming highly resolved patterns by using electron beams or X-rays in particular. In processes of producing semiconductor devices, such as ICs and LSIs, fine patterning has so far been performed by photoresist composition-utilized lithography. With recent increase in packing densities of chips, there has been a growing demand for formation of superfine patterns having their widths in the region of submicrons or quatermicrons. In line with such a demand, there has been a trend toward exposure light of shorter wavelengths, namely a trend to change exposure light from g-ray to i-ray and further to KrF excimer laser light. At present, development of not only the lithography using excimer lasers but also electron-beam lithography and Xray lithography is progressing. In particular, the electron-beam lithography is placed as pattern-formation technology of next generation or the generation after next, and highsensitivity, high-resolution negative resists are required therefor. Increasing the sensitivity is a very important problem, notably in reducing a wafer processing time. As to negative resists for use in electron-beam lithography, however, the pursuit of increases in their sensitivities gives rise to aggravation of line edge roughness in addition to a drop in resolution and a deterioration of pattern profiles. Therefore, it is strongly desired to develop resists meeting those characteristic requirements all together. The term "line edge roughness" as used herein means that edges are seen rough when patterns are viewed from the direction right above them because irregular undulation in the direction perpendicular to the line direction is caused in the edges of the resist pattern-substrate interface by characteristics of the resist. Transfer of this roughness occurs in the etching process using the resist as a mask, and results in deterioration of electric characteristics and lowering of yields. Particularly in the superfine region of 0.25.mu.m or below, an improvement in the line edge roughness is a

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vitally important problem. As the high sensitivity is in tradeoffs with high resolution, good pattern profiles and favorable line edge roughness, it is of great importance how to achieve satisfactory levels of improvement in all of those properties. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

OPTICAL STRUCTURES AND METHODS FOR X-RAY APPLICATIONS Inventor(s): Houge, Erik Cho; (Orlando, FL) Correspondence: Agere Systems Inc; P O Box 614; Berkeley Heights; NJ; 07922-0614; US Patent Application Number: 20030142786 Date filed: December 19, 2000 Abstract: A reflective lens with at least one curved surface formed of polycrystalline material. In an example embodiment a lens structure includes a substrate having a surface of predetermined curvature and a film formed along a surface of the substrate with multiple individual members each having at least one similar orientation relative to the portion of the substrate surface adjacent the member such that collectively the members provide predictable angles for diffraction of x-rays generated from a common source.A system is also provided for performing an operation with x-rays. In one form of the invention the system includes a source for generating the x-rays and a polycrystalline surface region having crystal spacings suitable for reflecting a plurality of x-rays at the same Bragg angle along the region and transmitting the reflected x-rays to a reference position. An associated method includes providing x-rays to a polycrystalline surface region having crystal spacings suitable for reflecting a plurality of x-rays at the same Bragg angle along the region, transmitting the reflected x-rays to a reference position; and positioning a sample between the surface region and the reference position so that x-rays are transmitted through the sample. Excerpt(s): This is application is a conversion of provisional application Serial No. 60/172,654 filed Dec. 20, 1999 and incorporated herein by reference. This application is also related to Ser No. (Antonell 1-5-14-7-9) filed on even date herewith. The present invention relates generally to X-ray focusing and, more particularly, to reflective lenses and systems which convert X rays from divergent sources into parallel or convergent radiation for a variety of applications. Translation of X-rays from divergent sources into parallel beams and converging rays is subject to well-known limitations relating to Bragg diffraction theory. Focusing optics for x-rays have been based on Johann or Johansson methods applied to curved monolithic crystals. See, for example, Advances in X-Ray Spectroscopy, Eds. C. Bonnelle and C. Mande (Oxford, U.K., 1982). More recently, it has been shown that x-ray diffractors with doubly curved crystals can provide relatively greater throughput. For example, a spherical diffractor with a stepped surface has been designed at constant height conditions to provide a significantly greater solid angle aperture than achievable with a spherically curved crystal. See Witry et al., "Properties of curved x-ray diffractors with stepped surfaces", J. Appl. Phys., 69, pp.3886-3892, (1991) which discusses problems associated with practical manufacture of high-efficiency x-ray diffractors. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Padded x-ray compatible spine board Inventor(s): Crutchfield, John Stuart; (Tyler, TX) Correspondence: Charles W. Alworth; Alworth Law And Engineering; 505(formerly 502) Cumberland Road; Tyler; TX; 75703-9325; US Patent Application Number: 20030200972 Date filed: April 16, 2003 Abstract: A molded plastic spine board having specialized padding strategically located in the board and stiffing members. The specialized padding reduces patient discomfort and aids perfusion in the regions that are in contact with the board while the patient is immobilized on the board thereby helping to prevent tissue ischemia and pressure ulcer formation. The stiffening members strengthen the board eliminating deflection of the board thereby keeping the patient immobilized while eliminating artifacts (shadows and interference) in x-rays thereby ensuring good x-ray examination. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 60/375,956 filed on Apr. 26, 2002. This device relates generally to the medical community and in particular to an extraction, transportation and immobilization board for use by emergency medical personnel that helps prevent injury to the spine of an immobilized patient while allowing treatments and x-rays to be made or taken on the immobilized patient without generating interference patterns on the x-ray results. The device has strategically located padding in the board that improves the patient comfort level and helps to prevent tissue ischemia and pressure ulcer formation. Extraction, transportation and immobilization boards are used in the medical community for transporting trauma victims. Emergency medical personnel will strap the victim to an immobilization board (backboard) whenever they know or suspect that the victim's spine has been injured. This technique is used to minimize the chance of further injury to the spine while the victim is being extracted or transported from the scene. In fact, the victim is often immobilized for hours on the backboard during transportation to the hospital and while awaiting diagnostic studies. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Sentinel lymph node detecting method Inventor(s): Kaneko, Mamoru; (Hanno-shi, JP), Nakano, Tadahiro; (Tokyo, JP), Shizuka, Toshihiro; (Tokyo, JP), Sudo, Masaru; (Tokyo, JP), Ueno, Hitoshi; (Tokyo, JP), Yabe, Hisao; (Tokyo, JP) Correspondence: Scully Scott Murphy & Presser, PC; 400 Garden City Plaza; Garden City; NY; 11530 Patent Application Number: 20030187349 Date filed: March 25, 2003 Abstract: A sentinel lymph node detecting system comprises an inserting portion with a small diameter which can be inserted into the body cavity, an X-ray detecting unit for two-dimensionally detecting X-rays, and an optical imaging unit 3 for taking visiblelight images, which are mounted to the tip of the inserting portion. The X-ray detecting unit and the optical imaging unit are disposed along the longitudinal direction of the inserting portion, and are closely disposed one to another so as to observe in the same direction. A radioactive tracer accumulated in sentinel lymph nodes is detected by the

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X-ray detecting unit. The X-ray detected image is smaller in size than the image taken by the optical imaging unit. Thus, sentinel lymph nodes can be quickly identified in a sure manner, and further, the load placed on a patient, such as the need to perform laparotomy, can be reduced. Excerpt(s): This application claims benefit of Japanese Applications No. 2002-97423 filed in Japan on Mar. 29, 2002 and No. 2002-97422 filed in Japan on Mar. 29, 2002, the contents of which are incorporated by this reference. The present invention relates to a sentinel lymph node detecting method for identifying sentinel lymph nodes near affected portions in the body cavity. Presently, examination for the presence or absence of metastasis or scattering of tumors is a primary decision factor for effective treatment for a patient with cancer. Tumor cells which spread from the primary origin of the tumor, which is an affected portion, to lymphatic vessels first reach sentinel lymph nodes. In the early stage of cancer, it is known that the probability of metastasis to lymph nodes is approximately 20%, and metastasis does not occur in the remaining 80%. In the event that metastasis does not occur, a complete recovery can be expected by excision within the range of the primary origin of the tumor. The sentinel lymph nodes are in the lower portion of the affected portion which is on the surface of the body cavity such as the stomach, large intestine, or the like, so the sentinel lymph nodes cannot be directly observed by external observation. Accordingly, examination is required wherein the sentinel lymph nodes near the affected portion are indirectly detected and accurately identified, and the cells of the sentinel lymph nodes are sampled and sent to a laboratory. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

System and method for x-ray fluoroscopic imaging Inventor(s): Karellas, Andrew; (Auburn, MA), Suryanarayanan, Sankararaman; (Worcester, MA), Vedantham, Srinivasan; (Worcester, MA) Correspondence: Bowditch & Dewey, Llp; 161 Worcester Road; P.O. Box 9320; Framingham; MA; 01701-9320; US Patent Application Number: 20030169847 Date filed: November 21, 2001 Abstract: A system for x-ray fluoroscopic imaging of bodily tissue in which a scintillation screen and a charge coupled device (CCD) is used to accurately image selected tissue. An x-ray source generates x-rays which pass through a region of a subject's body, forming an x-ray image which reaches the scintillation screen. The scintillation screen re-radiates a spatial intensity pattern corresponding to the image, the pattern being detected by the CCD sensor. In a preferred embodiment the imager uses four 8.times.8-cm three-side buttable CCDs coupled to a CsI:T1 scintillator by straight (non-tapering) fiberoptics and tiled to achieve a field of view (FOV) of 16.times.16-cm at the image plane. Larger FOVs can be achieved by tiling more CCDs in a similar manner. The imaging system can be operated in a plurality of pixel pitch modes such as 78, 156 or 234-.mu.m pixel pitch modes. The CCD sensor may also provide multi-resolution imaging. The image is digitized by the sensor and processed by a controller before being stored as an electronic image. Other preferred embodiments may include each image being directed on flat panel imagers made from but not limited to, amorphous silicon and/or amorphous selenium to generate individual electronic representations of the separate images used for diagnostic or therapeutic applications.

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Excerpt(s): The term fluoroscopy refers to the use of x-ray imaging techniques for realtime visualization of internal anatomy and function for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Physiologic functions such as peristalsis and flow, and real-time image feedback for placement of devices, such as catheters or intravascular stents are typical examples of fluoroscopic imaging. However, fluoroscopy at 30 video frames/second alone is of limited use without the capability of switching to a high detail mode. This mode may be activated by a command to produce a spot image `snapshot` and in many applications acquisition of rapid sequences of spot images or high detail images at a higher radiation dose are essential. In this mode, the system operates in a rapid sequence radiographic mode, where the exposure per frame at the entrance of the fluoroscopic imaging system is increased from the typical 1 to 3-.mu.R per video frame (fluoroscopic mode) to about 300-.mu.R per frame (radiographic mode). In fluoroscopy, the ability to change the spatial resolution during the examination enables physicians to focus on a smaller area and visualize with greater detail. Although the traditional role of fluoroscopy provides enough justification of the importance of maintaining and improving image quality at a reduced radiation dose, in the past few years the role of fluoroscopy has greatly expanded to cover many more diagnostic and therapeutic applications. More interventional fluoroscopic procedures are performed today in younger patients as an alternative to surgery. In spite of recent developments in noninvasive procedures such as, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound and computed tomography, x-ray fluoroscopy remains the "gold-standard" for procedures such as diagnostic percutaneous coronary angiography, angioplasty, stent placement, pacemaker placement, electrophysiology, and peripheral vascular procedures. The success of these procedures is making a major impact not only in the survival rate of patients from cardiovascular disease, but also on the overall quality of life. As these procedures become more effective, younger patients are increasingly becoming candidates for such procedures. It is now common for young patients to undergo cardiac radiofrequency ablation procedures. There are also clinical situations such as the evaluation of coronary artery patency following thrombolysis or in the operating room to assess graft patency where compact bedside angiographic equipment can be extremely useful. Video pick-up tube-based image intensifiers for fluoroscopy was invented in about 1940 and has been in use since 1948 when Coltman built the first practical image intensifier. Now, image intensifiers are a standard and essential component of fluoroscopic systems. Although several aspects of this technology have evolved over the years, the basic approach of detection remains the same. Image intensifier technology with video tube-based cameras and more recently charge-coupled devices (CCDs) have made a major impact in the field of x-ray fluoroscopy. In spite of the technical improvements, this technology suffers from several inherent limitations. Veiling glare and contrast loss is one of the more typical problems inherent in the electro-optic design of the image intensifier. After conversion of the light from the scintillator to the photocathode, electrons are accelerated in a field potential of about 30 kV. During this stage, a fraction of the electrons undergo scatter within the tube. At the output stage, after conversion from electrons to photons, the light scatters within the optical elements of the output. S-type distortion is also a well-known phenomenon, which makes imaging of a straight object to appear as having an S-shape due to the influence of the earth's magnetic field on the trajectories of electrons within the imageintensifier tube. Shielding of image intensifiers with "mu-metal" is essential but in many cases a significant amount of S-type distortion is still present. This distortion is not only bothersome during treatment procedures requiring high spatial accuracy, but also changes spatially as the intensifier is moved, making it difficult to correct mathematically. Other types of distortion such as pincushion and barrel type distortions are caused by the inherent limitations of the electron focusing optics. Pincushion and

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barrel distortions are tolerable in many instances but they present a hindrance in the proper visualization of anatomy. Similar effects but for different physical reasons also arise from lens-based optical coupling. The glass input window typically has been the input window of image intensifiers (typically 1 to 3-mm thick), which absorbs useful xrays and produces forward scatter, but has now been replaced with a thickness of 0.7 to 1.2-mm, of aluminum (Al). While this represents a significant improvement, the input window itself absorbs about 20 to 30% of the useful x-ray beam depending on the photon energy. The high vacuum of the intensifier requires a relatively thick metal window for maintaining mechanical integrity of the tube. In addition to this aluminum layer of the input window, x-rays must pass through another 0.5-mm thick aluminum layer, the scintillator substrate, before they reach the scintillator. In addition, the gain of image intensifiers is known to degrade with time due in part to out-gassing of components in the vacuum chamber and degradation of the photocathode. The image quality is noticeably lower after three years of operation and their useful lifetime, if good image quality is to be maintained, is about 3 to 5 years. Also, the relatively large size of image intensifiers may be problematic in biplanar installations. Even in simple fluoroscopic installations the camera tower frequently interferes with the overhead radiographic x-ray tube and other structures. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Thermally conductive formed article and method of manufacturing the same Inventor(s): Kimura, Tsunehisa; (Tokyo, JP), Shimoyama, Naoyuki; (Tokyo, JP), Tateda, Shinya; (Tokyo, JP), Tobita, Masayuki; (Tokyo, JP), Yamato, Masafumi; (Tokyo, JP) Correspondence: David M. Crompton; Crompton, Seager & Tufte, Llc; Suite 800; 1221 Nicollet Avenue; Minneapolis; MN; 55403-2420; US Patent Application Number: 20030194544 Date filed: April 9, 2003 Abstract: A thermally conductive formed article according to the present invention includes a matrix, and short carbon fibers which are present in the matrix. The short carbon fibers are oriented in a fixed direction in the matrix. A ratio I.sub.(002)/I.sub.(110) between an intensity I.sub.(110) of a diffraction peak ascribable to a (110) surface of carbon and an intensity I.sub.(002) of a diffraction peak ascribable to a (002) surface of carbon, occurring when X-rays are irradiated onto the thermally conductive formed article along the direction of orientation of the short carbon fibers, is 10 or less. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a thermally conductive formed article and a method of manufacturing the same. Conventionally, as a thermally conductive formed article, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 5-222620 discloses a formed article in which pitch-based short carbon fibers having a specific cross-sectional structure are dispersed in a matrix. Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 9-283955 discloses a formed article in which short graphitized carbon fibers having a specific aspect ratio are dispersed in a matrix. Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 4-173235, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 10-330502, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 11-46021, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 11-302545, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2000-195998, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2000281802, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2001-139833, and Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2001-353736 disclose formed articles in which short carbon fibers are oriented in a fixed direction in a polymer matrix. Japanese Laid-open Patent

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Publication No. 11-97593, and Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 11-199949 disclose formed articles in which short carbon fibers are oriented in a fixed direction in a metal matrix. The above conventional thermally conductive formed articles are used, for instance, in electronic devices and apparatuses as heat-conducting members for conducting heat generated from electronic components out of the apparatus so as to prevent overheat of the electronic components. In electronic devices and apparatuses, with enhancement of performance thereof, the electronic components thereof generate an increasing amount of heat. Therefore, recently, thermally conductive formed articles used as heat-conducting members have a requirement of having high thermal conductivity. However, the conventional thermally conductive formed articles do not always have thermal conductivity high enough to meet the requirement. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Tomosynthesis X-ray mammogram system and method with automatic drive system Inventor(s): Alexander, James Pellegrino; (Ballston Lake, NY), Wang, Yu; (Clifton Park, NY), Wirth, Reinhold Franz; (Ballston Spa, NY) Correspondence: Foley And Lardner; Suite 500; 3000 K Street NW; Washington; DC; 20007; US Patent Application Number: 20030194051 Date filed: April 15, 2002 Abstract: An imaging system includes an X-ray source adapted to move in an arc shaped path and a stationary electronic X-ray detector. The system also includes a track and a mechanical driving mechanism which is adapted to move the X-ray source in the arc shaped path. A tomosynthesis X-ray imaging method includes mechanically moving an X-ray source in a stepped motion on an arc shaped path around an object using a track and irradiating the object with an X-ray dose from the X-ray source located at a plurality of steps along the arc shaped path. The method also includes detecting the Xrays transmitted through the object with an electronic X-ray detector, and constructing a three dimensional image of the object from a signal output by the electronic X-ray detector. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to an imaging system, and more particularly to an X-ray mammogram tomosynthesis system. Conventional X-ray mammography imaging systems utilize an X-ray source mounted on a supporting frame. The frame is manually rotated by the system operator to a place the X-ray source into desired position adjacent to a patient's breast. The X-ray source emits a first shot of X-rays through the patient's breast and an image is captured on a first an X-ray sensitive film positioned on the opposite side of the patient's breast. The frame is then manually rotated into another position by the operator and a second X-ray sensitive film is exposed by a second shot of X-rays. This procedure can be repeated several times to generate several images on different films. The images on the X-ray sensitive films may then be evaluated by a physician and/or digitized and evaluated by a computer. However, such a system produces a two dimensional image of the patient's breast, which provides insufficient information about the presence of tumors and calcification and often leads to false positive readings. U.S. Pat. No 5,872,828 discloses a tomosynthesis system for breast imaging. This system produces a three dimensional image of the breast being imaged. The tomosynthesis system contains an X-ray source which moves in an arc shaped path over the breast that is being imaged, a stationary digital X-ray detector and an image processor. The detector is mounted on a stationary

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portion of a support structure. The X-ray source is mounted on a movable portion of the support structure. The movable portion of the support structure is an arm whose lower end is rotatably attached to the stationary support structure at a pivot point, and whose upper end supports the X-ray source. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Transmission mode X-ray diffraction screening system Inventor(s): Bollig, Ryan C.; (Marshall, WI), Brugemann, Hans Mathias Lutz; (Durmersheim, DE), He, Bob Baoping; (Madison, WI) Correspondence: Kudirka & Jobse, Llp; One State Street; Suite 1510; Boston; MA; 02109; US Patent Application Number: 20030219099 Date filed: March 20, 2003 Abstract: A transmission mode x-ray diffraction screening system has a sample support that holds a sample tray with multiple samples to be tested. The sample support is connected to a translation stage that is movable in three dimensions, and that it offset from the location of the sample support. An x-ray source is located to one side of the sample support, and a detector is located to the other side, thereby allowing the detection of x-rays that are diffracted by the sample in a transmission mode. A retractable beamstop may be located between the sample and the detector to block at least part of the non-diffracted x-rays from the source. A video camera may also be provided for imaging the sample location, which may be illuminated by a laser. The entire system may be automated such that each sample in the sample tray may be sequentially analyzed. Excerpt(s): This application takes priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/366,417 filed Mar. 21, 2002. This invention relates generally to the field of x-ray diffraction analysis and, more specifically, to a system for x-ray diffraction screening in combinatorial chemistry. Combinatorial chemistry refers to techniques to fabricate, test, and store the resulting data for a material library containing tens, hundreds or even thousands different materials or compounds. Combinatorial investigations require rapid screening techniques to test and evaluate variations of composition, structure and property within a material library. X-ray diffraction is one of the most suitable screening techniques because abundant information can be revealed from the diffraction pattern and X-ray diffraction is fast and non-destructive. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Transmitted X-ray data acquisition system and X-ray computed tomography system Inventor(s): Horiuchi, Tetsuya; (Tokyo, JP) Correspondence: Patrick W. Rasche; Armstrong Teasdale Llp; One Metropolitan SQ., Suite 2600; ST. Louis; MO; 63102; US Patent Application Number: 20030185343 Date filed: March 25, 2003 Abstract: An object of the present invention is to acquire transmitted X-ray data by irradiating X-rays of appropriate doses determined for the portions of a section

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containing the major axis and the portions thereof containing the minor axis respectively. An X-ray irradiating/detecting device consists mainly of an X-ray irradiator that includes an X-ray tube and irradiates a fan-shaped X-ray beam, and an Xray detector that has a plurality of X-ray detecting elements arrayed in a direction in which the fan-shaped X-ray beam spreads and that is opposed to the X-ray irradiator with an object of imaging between them. The X-ray irradiating/detecting device is rotated about the object in order to acquire transmission X-ray data stemming from a plurality of views. At this time, the dose of the X-ray beam is differentiated between predetermined angular ranges of a section of the object shaped like an oval, which extend with the minor axis of the oval section as a centerline, and the other angular ranges. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a transmitted X-ray data acquisition system and an X-ray computed tomography system. More specifically, the present invention relates to a system for acquiring transmitted X-ray data based on which an X-ray tomographic image is produced, and an X-ray computed tomography system for producing the tomographic image on the basis of the acquired transmitted X-ray data. In X-ray computed tomography systems, an X-ray irradiating/detecting device acquires transmitted X-ray data that represents X-rays transmitted by an object of imaging, and a tomographic image of the object is produced (reconstructed) based on the transmitted Xray data. The X-ray irradiator irradiates an X-ray beam that spreads (has a width large enough) to cover a tomographic layer of the object or a radiographic section thereof and has a thickness in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the layer or section. The X-ray detector is a multi-channel X-ray detector that has a plurality of X-ray detecting elements arrayed and detects the X-ray beam. The X-ray irradiating/detecting device is rotated about the object (in order to scan the object) in order to acquire projection data, that is, transmitted X-ray data in a plurality of directions determined for respective views around the object. A tomographic image is then reconstructed based on the acquired transmitted X-ray data items by means of a computer. In order to produce a high-quality tomographic image, the conditions for X-irradiation are adjusted depending on an object. When an object exhibits a larger absorption dose, the object is imaged with X-rays of a larger radiation dose. The radiation dose of X-rays is determined with a product of a tube current by a conduction time, that is, a milliampere-per-second (mAs) value. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

Wireless data transmission in ct-Scanners Inventor(s): Dafni, Ehud; (Caesaria, IL), Green, James W; (South Russell, OH) Correspondence: William H Dippert; Reed Smith; 599 Lexington Avenue; 29th Floor; New York; NY; 10022-7650; US Patent Application Number: 20030185338 Date filed: December 27, 2002 Abstract: A CT-scanner having a gantry comprising a stator and a rotor, wherein an Xray source and array of X-ray detectors are mounted to the rotor for determining absorption of X-rays along paths through the body of a patient imaged by the CTscanner, the CT imager comprising: a processor that processes data comprised in signals generated by the X-ray detectors responsive to intensity of X-rays from the X-ray source incident on the detectors to generate an image of the patient; at least one spread spectrum transmitter that receives data comprised in the signals generated by the X-ray

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detectors and transmits signals encoded with the data in accordance with a spread spectrum coding; and at least one spread spectrum receiver that receives the encoded signals transmitted by the at least one spread spectrum transmitter and forwards the encoded data to the processor. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to computerized tomography (CT) X-ray imaging, and in particular to methods to methods and apparatus for transmitting data generated by X-ray detectors in a CT-scanner to a processor that generates and displays images responsive to the data. In CT X-ray imaging of a patient, X-rays are used to image internal structure and features of a region of the person's body. The imaging is performed by a CT-imaging system, hereinafter referred to as a "CT-scanner" that images internal structure and features of a plurality of contiguous relatively thin planar slices of the body region using X-rays. The CT-scanner generally comprises an X-ray source that provides a planar, fan-shaped X-ray beam and an array of closely spaced Xray detectors that are coplanar with the fan beam and face the X-ray source. The X-ray source and array of detectors are mounted in a gantry so that a person being imaged with the CT-scanner, generally lying on an appropriate support couch, can be positioned within the gantry between the X-ray source and the array of detectors. The gantry and couch are moveable relative to each other so that the X-ray source and detector array can be positioned axially at desired locations along the patient's body. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray analysis apparatus and method Inventor(s): Ohzawa, Sumito; (Kyoto, JP) Correspondence: Snell & Wilmer L.L.P.; Suite 1200; 1920 Main Street; Irvine; CA; 926147230; US Patent Application Number: 20030215060 Date filed: March 25, 2003 Abstract: This invention provides an X-ray analysis apparatus and method capable of simply and accurately determining the position of analysis in a sample from an optical image of it without lowering the sensitivity and/or the spatial resolution in light element analysis. The X-ray analysis apparatus of the present invention irradiates a sample with X-rays narrowed down by means of an X-ray guide member from above the sample in which said sample is directly irradiated with X-rays from said X-ray guide member and an optical image of said sample is obtained in the direction coaxial with said X-ray guide member. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray analysis apparatus and method used for examining samples. More particularly, the invention relates to a method and apparatus for analyzing the kind, amount and distribution state of elements contained in a sample. An X-ray analysis apparatus irradiates a sample mounted on a sample stage with primary X-rays, detects secondary X-rays such as fluorescent X-rays, scattering Xrays and the like generated at that time by means of an X-ray detector, processes properly the detected output, and thereby makes it possible to analyze constituent elements of the sample or its internal structure. Recently a demand for analyzing in more detail a microscopic part of a sample, using the X-ray analysis apparatus as described above, has been increased. To perform this more detailed analysis, a microscopic part of the sample is irradiated with X-rays narrowed down by means of an X-ray guide member such as an X-ray guide tube and the like. In this case it is desirable

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to observe what position of the sample is irradiated with the narrow-diameter X-ray beam by means of an observing means such as a CCD camera and the like, and display the observed image on the display screen of a display device attached to an arithmetic and control device such as a personal computer and the like for controlling the whole apparatus. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray analyzer Inventor(s): Hasegawa, Kiyoshi; (Chiba-shi, JP) Correspondence: Adams & Wilks; 31st Floor; 50 Broadway; New York; NY; 10004; US Patent Application Number: 20030152192 Date filed: January 23, 2003 Abstract: The present invention is intended to achieve an X-ray irradiation region of arbitrary size without enlarging the area of a collimator section. An X-ray analyzer comprises an X-ray generating section for generating primary X-rays, an X-ray detection section for detecting secondary X-rays from a sample, and a collimator section for restricting primary X-rays irradiated to the sample, the collimator section being provided with two X-ray shields having at least one L-shaped edge, the two X-ray shields being aligned so as to form a rectangular or square opening. Mechanisms are provided for moving the two X-ray shields so that the shape and size of the X-ray irradiation region can be changed. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray analyzer for detecting secondary Xrays emitted from a sample when a sample is irradiated with X-rays, and performing analysis of the sample. However, with the conventional method, since the X-ray irradiation region is determined by causing passage through a hole of fixed size formed in advance in the collimator section, it is only possible to obtain a prepared X-ray irradiation region, and there is a problem that it is not possible to carry out fine adjustment to the required size. If there is also likely to be an increase in the number of types of region, then a number of holes will be required according to the number of types of region, which means that there is a problem that it is necessary for the collimator section to take up a large area. The present invention is aimed at realizing Xray irradiation regions of arbitrary shape and size without increasing collimator area. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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X-ray exposure method and semiconductor device manufactured using this X-ray exposure method as well as X-ray mask, X-ray exposure unit and resist material Inventor(s): Itoga, Kenji; (Hyogo, JP), Watanabe, Hiroshi; (Hyogo, JP) Correspondence: Leydig Voit & Mayer, Ltd; 700 Thirteenth ST. NW; Suite 300; Washington; DC; 20005-3960; US Patent Application Number: 20030174805 Date filed: September 11, 2002 Abstract: The pattern dimensions of an X-ray absorber are made approximately 1.5 times (approximately 75 nm) a pattern half pitch (L/2=50 nm). Thereby, a high quality optical image can be obtained since the contrast in regard to X-rays of wavelengths

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shorter than approximately 8.ANG. to 9.ANG. is improved vis--vis the contrast of a 50 nm line and space periodic mask pattern. As a result, it becomes possible to provide an X-ray exposure method which makes possible to obtain a high resolution, a semiconductor device manufactured by means of this X-ray exposure method as well as an X-ray mask, X-ray exposure unit and resist material. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray exposure method using fine pattern formation technology and a semiconductor device manufactured using this X-ray exposure method as well as an X-ray mask, an X-ray exposure unit and a resist material, in particular, to an X-ray exposure method and a semiconductor device manufactured using this X-ray exposure method as well as an X-ray mask, an X-ray unit and a resist material wherein finer pattern transcription is made possible in comparison with a prior art having a primary objective of the use of fine patterns on the surface of a mask in a system wherein a fine pattern manufactured on a mask is transcribed by means of X-ray proximity exposure technology with respect to transcription technology used primarily in semiconductor integrated circuit manufacture. The resolution of X-ray proximity exposure is determined by two different factors. That is to say, the resolution limit of an optical image is determined according to Fresnel diffraction and the resolution limit is determined by so-called secondary electron fuzziness due to the spread of photoelectrons or Auger electrons, generated in a resist due to irradiation with exposure light, to a limited region. The higher the energy of electrons is, the greater the fuzziness of secondary electrons is and the lower the energy of the electrons is, the smaller the fuzziness of secondary electrons is. The shorter the X-ray absorption wavelength becomes, the higher the energy of photoelectrons from among secondary electrons becomes so as to lower the resolution. On the other hand, the absorbed X-ray energy image formed in the resist is determined by the Fresnel diffraction of the X-rays transmitted through the X-ray mask and the resolution limit R thereof is expressed in the following equation. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray fluorescence holography apparatus Inventor(s): Hayashi, Koichi; (Sendai-shi, JP), Matsubara, Eiichiro; (Sendai-shi, JP), Wakoh, Kimio; (Natori-shi, JP) Correspondence: Oblon, Spivak, Mcclelland, Maier & Neustadt, P.C.; 1940 Duke Street; Alexandria; VA; 22314; US Patent Application Number: 20030179850 Date filed: September 19, 2002 Abstract: The X-ray fluorescence holography apparatus includes the X-ray converging element that can irradiate monochrome X-rays onto a sample O set on the rotation table, by which a predetermined count number of the X-ray fluorescence to be collected for the X-ray detector can be achieved in a short period of time. Excerpt(s): This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from the prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2002-79541 filed Mar. 20, 2002, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The present invention relates to an X-ray fluorescence holography apparatus. As an evaluation technique with use of X rays, widely-known examples are an X-ray photography (radiograph), which can examine an internal structure of a substance of a human body or a man-made construction or the like, by utilizing the transmissibility of X rays, an X-ray diffraction which can examine

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an atomic structure by utilizing the diffraction phenomenon, and an X-ray fluorescence chemical (spectral) analysis which can analyze a chemical composition by measuring the X-ray fluorescence of an element, that is unique to it. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray image sensory system Inventor(s): Liao, Kuo-Fu; (Taipei, TW) Correspondence: Rosenberg, Klein & Lee; 3458 Ellicott Center Drive-suite 101; Ellicott City; MD; 21043; US Patent Application Number: 20030227998 Date filed: June 6, 2002 Abstract: An X-ray image sensory system includes an x-ray conversion module for converting input x-rays, an image sensory component connected to the conversion module for detecting the converted signals, a substrate board, a buffer, and an analogto-digital converter. The X-ray conversion module and the image sensory component are on the side of the substrate board facing the input X-ray, and the buffer and the analog-to-digital converter are on the other side of the substrate board. Each of above components is manufactured respectively, thereafter disposed on the substrate board. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray image sensory system, and, more particularly, to an X-ray image sensory system placing its components which are more susceptible to the X-ray on the other side of the substrate board to avoid damages. Prior art X-ray sensory systems employ films to display the X-ray images, and as this result, about tens of minutes have to be taken to obtain a picture. In the process of exposure, transportation, processing and printing, the picture on film is susceptible to damages. If that happens, the whole process has to be repeated again from the beginning. The contemporary X-ray image sensory system is digital-based. The image can be displayed on a screen in a matter of a few seconds. If any mistake occurs during the process, the new image can be taken immediately. Digital X-ray image sensory systems frequently adopt Charge Coupled Device (CCD), or Complementary Metal Oxygen Semiconductor (CMOS) for their image sensory components. In comparison, CCD is more sensitive to the X-ray, but has a lower tolerance to the X-ray damage. On the other hand, CMOS has a higher tolerance to the X-ray, and is easy for mass production as it is the mainstream in semiconductor fabrication. Furthermore, because the CMOS components are usually small in terms of area size, it is possible to manufacture the entire X-ray sensory system on a single chip, namely, the so-called System On Chip (SOC). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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X-ray imaging apparatus with tube side filter for dividing the x-ray beam into multiple beams of differing intensities Inventor(s): Haar, Thomas Von Der; (Nuernberg, DE), Heismann, Bjorn; (Erlangen, DE) Correspondence: Schiff Hardin & Waite; 6600 Sears Tower; 233 S Wacker DR; Chicago; IL; 60606-6473; US Patent Application Number: 20030147502 Date filed: December 11, 2002

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Abstract: An X-ray imaging apparatus for determining image data about the distribution of physical and chemical constituents in examination subjects of a human or animal nature or in materials or security inspection, a tube-side modification of a conventional CT apparatus to allow a two-spectra method to be employed but without an increase in the radiation stress on the subject. A two-part filter is introduced between the X-ray source and the subject to produce X-rays of at least two different intensities for transirradiating the subject. Excerpt(s): The present invention is directed to an X-ray apparatus of the type suitable for determining image data representing the distribution of physical and chemical constituents in human or animal examination subjects as well as in inanimate materials, or for security inspection. The result of all radiographic methods such as, for example, computed tomography, mammography, angiography, X-ray inspection technology and comparable methods is the presentation of the attenuation of an X-ray beam along its path from the X-ray source to the X-ray detector. This attenuation is caused by the transirradiated media or materials along the beam path. The attenuation is usually defined as the logarithm of the intensity of the attenuated to the primary radiation and, when referenced to a path normal, is referred to as the attenuation coefficient of the material. with the CT number C in Hounsfield [HU] units. A value C.sub.H2O=0 HU derives for water and a value C.sub.AIR=-1000 HU derives for air. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray microscope having an X-ray source for soft X-ray Inventor(s): Buijsse, Bart; (Eindhoven, NL) Correspondence: Jack E. Haken; U.S. Philips Corporation; 580 White Plains Road; Tarrytown; NY; 10591; US Patent Application Number: 20030219097 Date filed: December 19, 2000 Abstract: Soft X-rays are very suitable for the examination of biological samples by means of an X-ray microscope. It is known to generate such soft X-rays by means of a laser excited plasma in a fluid jet. According to the invention the X-rays are generated by focusing an electron beam 6 onto a fluid jet 2, thus producing a very small electron focus on the jet and hence a very small monochromatic X-ray spot 8. The electron spot 8 can be obtained by means of a standard electron microscope (a SEM) or by means of a standard electron gun for a cathode ray tube (a CRT gun). The imaging optical elements 18, 34, 40 in the X-ray microscope may be Fresnel zone plates. Excerpt(s): means for forming a focused radiation beam whose focus is situated on the fluid jet. A device for generating soft X-rays is known from the published patent application WO 97/40650 (PCT/SE 97/00697). The means for producing a fluid jet in the known device are formed by a nozzle wherefrom a fluid such as water is ejected under a high pressure. The means for producing a focused radiation beam are formed by a combination of a pulsating laser and a focusing lens which focuses the pulsating radiation beam produced by the laser in such a manner that the focus is situated on the fluid jet. Because of the high power density of the laser pulses, the laser light thus induces a plasma in the fluid jet, thus generating said soft X-rays. The cited patent application describes how these X-rays, notably those of a wavelength of 2.3-4.4 nm, can be used for X-ray microscopy. Generating X-rays by way of pulsed laser plasma emission has a number of drawbacks.

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Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray monochromator and x-ray fluorescence spectrometer using the same Inventor(s): Doi, Makoto; (Osaka, JP), Yamada, Takashi; (Osaka, JP) Correspondence: Birch Stewart Kolasch & Birch; PO Box 747; Falls Church; VA; 220400747; US Patent Application Number: 20030169844 Date filed: February 4, 2003 Abstract: To provide an X-ray monochromator capable of sufficiently removing the harmful X-rays while the intensity of the main reflected line can be sufficiently maintained, an X-ray monochromator 4 is formed by depositing a plurality of layer pairs on a substrate 4c and each being made up of a reflecting layer 4a and a spacer layer 4b, with first and second multilayered films 4e1 and 4e2 including one or a plurality of layer pairs having a predetermined periodic length d, wherein so that of X-rays reflected from the first multilayered film 4e1 adjacent the substrate 4c, the X-rays of a desired energy can be removed by interference with X-rays reflected by the second multilayered film 4e2 remote from the substrate 4c, the predetermined periodic length d2, the material for the reflecting layers 4a or the material for the spacer layers 4b in the second multilayered film 4e2 are different from those in the first multilayered film 4e1 and, also, the second multilayered film 4e2 has a properly chosen number of the layer pairs. Excerpt(s): In detection of a minute quantity of deposits on a sample such as, for example, a silicon wafer by means of a total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis in which primary X-rays are emitted towards the sample at a minute angle of incidence, the primary X-rays to be emitted towards the sample have to be properly monochromated with a high integrated intensity so that the sample when so excited can emit a sufficiently high intensity of fluorescent X-rays with suppressing background noises. In such case, it is often practiced that X-rays emitted from an X-ray tube of a type utilizing tungsten (W) as a target are monochromated by a multilayered X-ray monochromator of W/B.sub.4C (reflecting layer: tungsten/spacer layer: boron carbide) to provide monochromated W-L.beta. line (9,670 eV) that can be used as the primary Xrays. However, with the W/B.sub.4C-based X-ray monochromator, the X-rays are not sufficiently monochromated (with a low resolution) and, accordingly, the primary Xrays tend to contain W-L.alpha. line (8,396 eV) that is an interfering line with the analysis, resulting in failure to accomplish a sufficiently accurate analysis. If two X-ray monochromators are used in order to increase the resolution, and if the X-rays which have been monochromated by the first X-ray monochromator are again monochromated by the second X-ray monochromator, the intensity of W-L.beta. line (main reflected line) obtained by monochromating will attenuate considerably. Thus, the problem associated with difficulty in removing the harmful X-rays sufficiently while the intensity of main reflected line is sufficiently maintained is inherent in the conventional X-ray monochromator of a kind utilizing the multilayered films regardless of whether it is used in X-ray fluorescence analysis for monochromating the primary X-rays. Accordingly, the present invention has been devised to substantially alleviate the foregoing problem and is intended to provide an X-ray monochromator capable of sufficiently removing the harmful X-rays while the intensity of the main reflected line can be sufficiently maintained, and also to provide an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer for irradiating a sample with the primary X-rays which have been monochromated by such X-ray monochromator.

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Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html ·

X-ray projection exposure semiconductor device

device,

x-ray

projection

exposure

method,

and

Inventor(s): Oshino, Tetsuya; (Tokyo, JP) Correspondence: Klarquist Sparkman, Llp; 121 SW Salmon Street; Suite 1600; Portland; OR; 97204; US Patent Application Number: 20030179849 Date filed: August 2, 2002 Abstract: An X-ray projection exposure apparatus capable of overlaying a desirable very fine pattern on a circuit pattern formed on a wafer in high precision to expose the very fine pattern is provided. This X-ray projection exposure apparatus is comprised of: an Xray source; an X-ray illuminating optical system for irradiating X-rays generated from the X-ray source onto a mask having a certain pattern; a mask stage for holding the mask; an X-ray projecting optical system 1 for receiving X-rays derived from the mask to project an image of the pattern onto a wafer on which a resist has been coated; a wafer stage 5 for holding the wafer 4; and a mark position detecting system 6 for detecting a position of a mark 4a which is formed on the wafer 4. Note that a center 36 of an exposure image field of the X-ray projecting optical system 1 is located at a position separated from a center axis 1a of this X-ray projecting optical system 1. Also, a center axis 6a of a mark position detecting system 6 is located on the side of the exposure image field with respect to a center axis 1a of the X-ray projecting optical system 1. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray projection exposure apparatus for transferring, for instance, circuit patterns formed on a photomask (either mask or reticle) onto a substrate such as a wafer via a reflection type imaging optical system by employing X-rays having wavelengths of 1 to 30 nm. Also, the present invention is directed to both an exposure method using the above-described X-ray projection exposure apparatus, and also a semiconductor device manufactured by this X-ray projection exposure apparatus. Exposure apparatus used to manufacture semiconductor devices, which have been employed in industrial fields, project and transfer circuit patterns formed on photomask (will be referred to as "mask" hereinafter) planes as object planes via projecting optical systems onto substrates such as wafers. Both a mask and a focusing element (lens etc.) of the projecting optical system commonly correspond to a transmission system. As an exposure light source, for example, i-lines of a highpressure mercury lamp, a KrF laser light source, and the like may be utilized. This exposure apparatus is constructed by a light source (not shown), an illuminating optical system 50, a projecting optical system 51, a mask stage 53 for holding a mask 52, a wafer stage 55 for holding a wafer 54, a wafer mark position detecting system 56, a mask mark position detecting system (not shown), and the like. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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X-ray protector Inventor(s): Kumano, Mitsuo; (Takefu-City, JP) Correspondence: Wenderoth, Lind & Ponack, L.L.P.; 2033 K Street N. W.; Suite 800; Washington; DC; 20006-1021; US Patent Application Number: 20030197990 Date filed: April 21, 2003 Abstract: The object of the present invention is to provide an X-ray protector that requires no raising a voltage to be impressed to a Braun tube and no complicated control procedure for testing at the time of conducting a test of an X-ray protector's operation. The voltage impressed to the Braun tube 8 of a TV receiver is detected by the detection winding 6c of the flyback transformer 6 and the detection circuit 11, and the input line 15, which conducts the operation of the X-ray protector by inputting a signal based on the detected voltage to the microcomputer 1, is provided with the resistor R1. And, whether the transistor 12 is conductive or unconductive depends on the control by the microcomputer 1. An emitter terminal of the transistor 12 is connected to one terminal of the resistor R1, and a collector terminal is connected to the other terminal of the resistor R1. The transistor 12 becomes conductive by controlling a signal output from the microcomputer 1, and the both ends of the resistor R1 are short-circuited. At that time, the electric voltage of a signal input to the input port 1c of the microcomputer 1 is raised, thereby enabling the testing of the operation of the X-ray protector.Therefore, at the time of conducting the test of the operation of the X-ray protector, there is no need to apply an excessive voltage higher than that of normal operation to a Braun tube, so that an emission of X-rays exceeding a permissible dose will not occur and the Braun tube suffers no damage. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray protector that turns a power supply circuit OFF when a voltage exceeding a preset voltage is applied to a Braun tube of a TV receiver. An electric power output from the power supply 35 is input to a primary winding of a flyback transformer 36, and a voltage in proportion to a voltage applied to the primary winding is induced in a high-voltage winding, and the voltage in highvoltage winding is rectified to be positive potential and pulsed shape and is applied to the Braun tube 38. Furthermore, a voltage in proportion to the voltage applied to the Braun tube 38 is induced in a detection winding. After that, a signal based on the voltage generated in the detection winding is input, via a detection circuit 39, to an input port 3 la of the microcomputer 31 so that the voltage applied to the Braun tube 38 can be determined by the microcomputer 31. In the above-described X-ray protector, when a voltage exceeding a predetermined voltage is applied to the Braun tube 38 for some reason or other, the microcomputer 31 determines that situation through the signal input to the input port 31a and turns the relay circuit 33 OFF, thereby preventing an emission of X-rays exceeding a permissible dose caused by the situation where a voltage higher than a predetermined voltage is continued to be applied to the Braun tube 38. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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X-ray source and method having cathode with curved emission surface Inventor(s): Dunham, Bruce M.; (Mequon, WI), Price, J. Scott; (Wauwatosa, WI), Wilson, Colin R.; (Niskayuna, NY) Correspondence: David G. Luettgen; Foley & Lardner, Firstar Center; 777 East Wisconsin Avenue; Milwaukee; WI; 53202-5367; US Patent Application Number: 20030198318 Date filed: April 17, 2002 Abstract: An X-ray source comprises a cold cathode and an anode. The cold cathode has a curved emission surface capable of emitting electrons. The anode is spaced apart from the cathode. The anode is capable of emitting X-rays in response to being bombarded with electrons emitted from the curved emission surface of the cathode. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to systems and methods that employ X-ray sources. X-ray sources have found widespread application in devices such as imaging systems. X-ray imaging systems utilize an X-ray source in the form of an X-ray tube to emit an X-ray beam which is directed toward an object to be imaged. The X-ray beam and the interposed object interact to produce a response that is received by one or more detectors. The imaging system then processes the detected response signals to generate an image of the object. For example, in typical computed tomography (CT) imaging systems, an X-ray tube projects a fan-shaped beam which is collimated to lie within an X-Y plane of a Cartesian coordinate system and generally referred to as the "imaging plane". The X-ray beam passes through the object being imaged, such as a patient. The beam, after being attenuated by the object, impinges upon an array of radiation detectors. The intensity of the attenuated radiation beam received at the detector array is dependent upon the attenuation of the X-ray beam by the object. Each detector element of the array produces a separate electrical signal that is a measurement of the beam attenuation at the detector location. The attenuation measurements from all the detectors are acquired separately to produce a transmission profile. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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X-ray tube and X-ray generator Inventor(s): Ukita, Masaaki; (Kyoto-shi, JP) Correspondence: Rankin, Hill, Porter & Clark, Llp; 700 Huntington Building; 925 Euclid Avenue, Suite 700; Cleveland; OH; 44115-1405; US Patent Application Number: 20030185344 Date filed: March 28, 2002 Abstract: A multilayer target 5 is composed of a first layer 5a, a second layer 5b and a third layer 5c which are made of different materials. When an electron beam 13 is incident upon the multilayer target 5, the electron beam 13 arrives at the third layer 5c, and X-rays X.sub.a, X.sub.b and X.sub.c, the radiation qualities of which are respectively suitable for the characteristics of the first layer 5a, the second layer 5b and the third layer 5c, are generated. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an X-ray tube such as a transmission type micro-focus X-ray tube, which is used as an X-ray source of an X-ray non-destructive inspection apparatus or X-ray analyzer, and a soft X-ray tube. The present invention also relates to an X-ray generator including those transmission type micro-focus X-ray tube

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and soft X-ray tube. A transmission type X-ray tube used as an X-ray source of an X-ray non-destructive inspection apparatus or X-ray analyzer has a small focus. For example, the transmission type X-ray tube is used for an industrial X-ray apparatus to take X-ray photographs by magnifying the inner structure of LSI. The present invention has been accomplished to solve the above problems of the related art. It is an object of the present invention to provide an X-ray tube and an X-ray generator capable of changing the radiation qualities of generated X-rays according to samples to be inspected so that Xrays appropriate for samples to be inspected can be generated. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with x-rays, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on x-rays. You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning x-rays. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.

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CHAPTER 7. BOOKS ON X-RAYS Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to x-rays. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on x-rays include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.

Book Summaries: Federal Agencies The Combined Health Information Database collects various book abstracts from a variety of healthcare institutions and federal agencies. To access these summaries, go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. You will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. To find book summaries, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer. For the format option, select “Monograph/Book.” Now type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database which is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for books on x-rays: ·

Vanishing Mind: A Practical Guide to Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias Source: New York City, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company. 1991. 191 p. Contact: Available from W. H. Freeman and Company. Order Department, 4419 West 1980 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84104. (800) 877-5351. PRICE: $22.95. ISBN: 0716721317. Summary: Directed primarily toward nonprofessionals and affected family members, this book provides an overview of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias and the care of persons with these disorders. Nine chapters cover the following topics: signs and symptoms of dementia; diseases that produce primary dementia (primary undifferentiated dementias and usually differentiated dementias); diseases and conditions associated with secondary dementia (depression, AIDS, blood vessel disease, other secondary dementias, and drugs); what doctors do and how they can help (specialists and tests/procedures, including psychological testing, electroencephalograms, cerebrospinal fluid exams, x-rays and CAT scans, brain biopsy,

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and autopsy); possible causes of primary dementia (genetic factors, molecular genetics, viruses, neurotransmitters, aluminum, immune system, and hormonal factors); medical treatment and management of dementias (Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, general principles); hospitals, nursing homes, and care alternatives; practical matters (legal responsibility, insurance, disability and retirement plans, social security, ethical decisions); and new technologies (positron emitting tomography and magnetic resonance imaging). ·

The complete guide to better dental care Source: New York, NY: Facts on File. 1997. 288 pp. Contact: Available from Facts on File, Inc, 11 Penn Plaza, 15th Floor, New York, NY 10001. Telephone: (800) 322-8755 or (800) 678-3633 / e-mail: [email protected] / Web site: http://www.factsonfile.com. $12.95, paper; $28.55, cloth. Summary: The purpose of this book is to help foster communication between dental professionals and their patients. Divided into three parts, the book discusses the consumer and the general dentist; the dental specialties; and trends, fears, and issues in dentistry. Topics include how to choose a dentist, preventive care at home, dental xrays, restorative dentistry, endodontics, pathology, surgery, orthodontics, pediatric dentistry, periodontics and prosthodontics. Information on dental insurance, managed care, and cost comparisons of dental services based on regional and national surveys, are provided. A glossary, appendices on dental schools in the US and Canada, national and state dental organizations, and an index conclude the book.

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Keep Your Smile: The Family Book of Dentistry: Prevention, Treatment, Esthetic Dentistry Source: Montreal, Canada: R.M.D. International. 1992. 222 p. Contact: Available from R.M.D. International. P.O. Box 545, Station Montroyal, Montreal, H3P 3C7, Quebec, CANADA. PRICE: $20.00. ISBN: 2980268518. Summary: This book educates readers concerning home oral health procedures and familiarizes them with the methods and goals of treatment in the dental office. The first section describes the teeth and mouth and discusses the causes of dental caries and periodontal disease. The second section covers home preventive procedures including what toothbrush to use, how to floss, good eating habits, and the importance of fluoride. The third section demystifies the dental office, and explains everything from X-rays and fillings to biopsies and bridges. Two controversies in dentistry, amalgam fillings and fluoride, are explained. The final sections cover choosing dental treatment, dental insurance, and the dental professional team. (AA-M).

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Complete Guide to Children's Dental Care: From Prenatal Through Teens Source: Southampton, NY: Health Monitor Press. 1993. 139 p. Contact: Available from Health Monitor Press. P.O. Box 2700, Southampton, NY 11969. (516) 287-3140; Fax (516) 287-3136. PRICE: $14.95 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 0963599801. Summary: This book is designed to provide parents with a comprehensive overview of how to care for their children's teeth, from infancy through adolescence. Twelve chapters cover topics including tooth development, tooth anatomy, pregnancy, teething, primary and permanent teeth, dental plaque, tooth decay and its prevention, the

Books

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importance of oral hygiene, baby bottle tooth decay, dental care, the use of fluoride and sealants, dental radiography (X-rays), food and nutritional concerns, dental emergencies, and orthodontics. Each chapter features answers to common questions and concerns that parents may have. The book concludes with a glossary of terms and a subject index. Numerous black-and-white photographs illustrate the text. ·

No Boring Science Take Care of Your Kids' Mouth Book Source: Chicago, IL: American Society of Dentistry for Children (ASDC). 1993. 158 p. Contact: Available from American Society of Dentistry for Children (ASDC). 875 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 4040, Chicago, IL 60611-1901. (800) 637-ASDC or (312) 943-1244; Fax (312) 943-5341. PRICE: $24.00 plus $5.00 for shipping and handling. Summary: This book provides basic information about dentistry to parents, children, and anyone else interested in children's oral health care. Starting from the birth of a child, key points of interest in dental and oral development are identified, proper home care to prevent oral disease in children is reviewed, and many facets of routine dental care provided in the dental office are demonstrated. Topics include: preventive dental care; treatment of traumatic injuries to the teeth; restoration of decayed, malformed, or fractured teeth; cosmetic dentistry; oral surgery; root canal treatment; and various aspects of orthodontic treatment to prevent and correct abnormal bites in children. Each chapter features extensive color photographs and/or black-and-white X-rays that were selected to address the most common questions that parents and children ask about oral health care for children. A combined glossary and index concludes the volume.

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Case Studies In Urology For The House Officer Source: Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins. 1990. 282 p. Contact: Available from Williams and Wilkins. 428 East Preston Street, Baltimore, MD 21202-3993. (410) 528-4000. PRICE: $19 plus $4 shipping and handling (dependent on weight). Summary: This book, part of a series for the house officer, is designed to teach medicine through a case study approach. The authors have compiled a series of cases that cover the most common urological problems. Eight contributors present 50 case studies. Each case study includes a description of the case, questions for the physician-in-training to answer, detailed answers to these questions, 'pearls' of helpful commentary and hints for diagnosis, and potential 'pitfalls' associated with each case. Pertinent x-rays, ultrasounds, and biopsies are added as clues. References related to each case are provided. (AA-M).

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Everything You Need to Know About Medical Tests Source: Springhouse, PA: Springhouse Corporation. 1996. 691 p. Contact: Available from Springhouse Publishing. Attention: Trade and Textbook Department, 1111 Bethlehem Pike, P.O. Box 908, Springhouse, PA 19477-0908. (800) 3313170 or (215) 646-4670 or (215) 646-4671. Fax (215) 646-8716. PRICE: $24.95 (as of 1995). ISBN: 0874348234. Summary: This consumer reference guide provides information on over 400 diagnostic tests. For each test, the book covers the reasons the test is performed; what patients should know before the test; what to expect during and after the test; risk factors associated with the test; the normal results; and what abnormal results mean. Tests are

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categorized in 16 chapters: x-rays; CT and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans; nuclear medicine scans; ultrasound scans; heart and brain monitoring; endoscopy; biopsies; vision and hearing tests; special function tests; blood cell and clotting tests; blood element tests; hormone tests; immune system tests; urine tests; cultures; and fluid analysis. The book also provides numerous sidebars giving readers insight into anatomy, physiology, preventive measures, and self-care behaviors. A subject index concludes the volume. ·

Children with Disabilities. 4th ed Source: Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company. 1997. 940 p. Contact: Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company. P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. (800) 638-3775 or (410) 337-9580. Fax (410) 337-8539. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.brookespublishing.com. PRICE: $49.95 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1557662932. Summary: This textbook addresses the impact of disabilities on child development and function. Thirty-six chapters, each written by subject specialists, cover chromosomes and genetics; heredity; birth defects, prenatal diagnosis, and fetal therapy; growth before birth; the birth process; the first weeks of life; prematurity and low birth weight infants; substance abuse and the infants of drug-dependent mothers; HIV and AIDS, including transmission from mother to child; nutrition; vision; hearing; language; the brain and nervous system; muscles, bones, and nerves; mental retardation; Down syndrome; fragile X syndrome; PKU and other inborn errors of metabolism; mental retardation and psychiatric disorders; autism and other pervasive developmental disorders; attention deficit or hyperactivity disorder; learning disabilities; cerebral palsy; neural tube defects; seizure disorders; traumatic brain injury (TBI); the feeding process and feeding problems in children with disabilities; dental care; behavior management and promoting adaptive behavior; technological assistance, notably innovations that promote independence; rehabilitation interventions, including physical therapy and occupational therapy; ethical choices; caring and coping and the family of a child with disabilities; adulthood and transition issues; and the changing health care environment. Each chapter begins with a list of learning objectives. Most chapters include one or more stories, or case studies, to illustrate the conditions and issues discussed in the chapter. As medical terms are introduced in the text, they appear in bold type; definitions for these terms are provided in a glossary. More than 200 drawings, photographs, x-rays, and tables reinforce the points of the text. Each chapter closes with a final section that reviews its key elements and abstracts the material covered. A reference list is included with each chapter. There are four appendices to the book: a glossary; a list of syndromes and inborn errors of metabolism (more than 150 inherited disorders causing disabilities); indications and side effects of medications often prescribed for children with disabilities; and a directory of national organizations, specialized hospitals, protection and advocacy programs, and university affiliated programs that can provide assistance to families and professionals. An extensive subject index concludes the volume.

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Development of American Gastroenterology Source: New York, NY: Raven Press, Ltd. 1990. 466 p. Contact: Available from Raven Press. 1185 Avenue of the Americas, Dept. 5B, New York, NY 10036. (800) 777-2836 or (212) 930-9500. Fax (212) 869-3495. PRICE: $69 plus shipping (as of 1995). ISBN: 0881676039.

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Summary: This volume describes the 300-year history of American gastroenterology from mysticism and empiricism to clinical excellence and scientific responsibility and its development to a prominent place in American medicine. Seven chapters cover American beginnings of gastroenterology, the Nineteenth Century, the early Twentieth Century, the blossoming of American gastroenterology in the Twentieth Century, the further growth of American gastroenterology, and the development of gastrointestinal tubes and x-rays, including early observations on appendicitis, peptic ulcer, cholelithiasis, and liver disease. Extensive appendices present conference proceedings, statistical information, and editorials from experts in the field of gastroenterology. A detailed subject index is included. 49 references.

Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in PrintÒ). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “x-rays” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover nonmedical books that use the generic term “x-rays” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “x-rays” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): ·

12-Lead Ecg and X-Ray Interpretation for Primary Care Providers by Wendy L. Wright (2004); ISBN: 0803608136; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0803608136/icongroupinterna

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A Practical Guide for the Preparation of Specimens for X-Ray Fluorescence and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis by Victor E. Buhrke (Editor), et al (1997); ISBN: 0471194581; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471194581/icongroupinterna

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Advances in X-Ray Contrast: Collected Papers by P. Dawson (Editor), W. Clauss (Editor) (1998); ISBN: 0792387414; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0792387414/icongroupinterna

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An Introduction to X-ray Crystallography by Michael M. Woolfson (Author) (1997); ISBN: 0521412714; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0521412714/icongroupinterna

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Billions of Light Years Away 2004 Calendar: The Chandra X-Ray Observatory (2003); ISBN: 0764923145; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0764923145/icongroupinterna

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Coherent Electron-Beam X-Ray Sources: Techniques and Applications: 31 July-1 August 1997, San Diego, California by Andreas K. Freund, et al (1997); ISBN: 0819425761; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819425761/icongroupinterna

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Cora Cohen: Paintings and Altered X-Rays (1983-1996) by Cora Cohen (1996); ISBN: 0964529211; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0964529211/icongroupinterna

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Detachment X-Ray by Jess Parker (2002); ISBN: 1588517454; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1588517454/icongroupinterna

162 X-rays

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Developments in X-Ray Tomography II: 22-23 July, 1999, Denver, Colorado (Proceedings of Spie--The International Society for Optical Engineering, V. 3772.) by U. Bonse (Editor), Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (1999); ISBN: 081943258X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/081943258X/icongroupinterna

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Differential Diagnosis in Chest X-Rays by M. Kormano, Francis A. Burgener (1997); ISBN: 0865776776; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0865776776/icongroupinterna

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Diffraction X-Ray Optics by A. I. Erko, et al (1996); ISBN: 075030359X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/075030359X/icongroupinterna

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Diffuse X-Ray Reflections from Crystals by W. A. Wooster (Author) (1997); ISBN: 0486696413; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0486696413/icongroupinterna

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Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction by Andre Authier (2001); ISBN: 0198559607; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0198559607/icongroupinterna

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Electron Density and Bonding in Crystals: Principles, Theory and X-Ray Diffraction Experiments in Solid State Physics and Chemistry by V. G. Tsirelson, R. P. Ozerov (1996); ISBN: 0750302844; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750302844/icongroupinterna

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Euv, X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Instrumentation for Astronomy IX: 22-24 July 1998, San Diego, California (Proceedings of Spie--The International Society for Optical Engineering, V. 3445.) by Oswald H. Siegmund (Editor), et al (1998); ISBN: 0819429007; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819429007/icongroupinterna

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Exploring the X-Ray Universe by Frederick D. Seward (Author), Philip A. Charles (Author) (1995); ISBN: 0521437121; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0521437121/icongroupinterna

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Field Guide to the Chest X-Ray by Wallace T., Md Miller, Wallace T., Jr., MD Miller (1999); ISBN: 0781720281; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0781720281/icongroupinterna

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Frontiers of X-Ray Astronomy: Volume 0 by Andrew Fabian (Editor), et al (2004); ISBN: 0521534879; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0521534879/icongroupinterna

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Hard X-Ray, Gamma-Ray, and Neutron Detector Physics: Proceedings of Spie 19-23 July 1999 Denver, Colorado (Proceedings of Spie, 3768) by R. B. James (Editor), et al (1999); ISBN: 0819432547; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819432547/icongroupinterna

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Industrial Applications of X-Ray Diffraction by Frank H. Chung (Editor), Deane K. Smith (Editor) (2000); ISBN: 0824719921; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0824719921/icongroupinterna

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In-Situ Spectroscopy at Solid-Electrolyte Interfaces: New Approaches With Infrared, X-Ray and Non-Linear Reflectrometry by Wolfgang Kautek, et al (2004); ISBN: 3527295240; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3527295240/icongroupinterna

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Inventing Modern: Growing up with X-Rays, Skyscrapers, and Tailfins by John H. Lienhard IV (2003); ISBN: 0195160320; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195160320/icongroupinterna

Books

163

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Jessica's X-Ray by Pat Zonta, Clive Dobson (Illustrator) (2002); ISBN: 1552975789; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1552975789/icongroupinterna

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Looking Within: How X-Ray, Ct, Mri, Ultrasound, and Other Medical Images Are Created, and How They Help Physicians Save Lives by Anthony Brinton Wolbarst, Gordon Cook (Illustrator) (1999); ISBN: 0520211820; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0520211820/icongroupinterna

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Manual of Neonatal Emergency X-Ray Interpretation by P. W. D. Meerstadt, Catherine Gyll (Contributor) (1995); ISBN: 0702015679; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0702015679/icongroupinterna

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McGraw-Hill's Pocket Guide to Chest X-Rays by Greg Briggs (2004); ISBN: 0074713361; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0074713361/icongroupinterna

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Methods of X-Ray and Neutron Scattering in Polymer Science by Ryong-Joon Roe (2000); ISBN: 0195113217; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195113217/icongroupinterna

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Multilayer and Grazing Incidence X-Ray/Euv Optics III: 5-6 August, 1996, Denver, Colorado by Richard B. Hoover (1996); ISBN: 0819421936; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819421936/icongroupinterna

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Neck Injury: The Use of X-Rays, CT's, and MRI's to Study Crash-Related Injury Mechanisms [R-268] by Jeffrey A. Pike (2002); ISBN: 0768009057; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0768009057/icongroupinterna

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New Directions in Research With Third-Generation Soft X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation Sources (NATO Asi Series E: Applied Sciences, Vol 254) by F.J. Wuilleumier (Editor), A. Schlachter (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 0792326237; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0792326237/icongroupinterna

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Nonlinear Optics, Quantum Optics, and Ultrafast Phenomena With X-Rays: Physics With X-Ray Free-Electron Lasers by Bernhard W. Adams (Editor) (2003); ISBN: 1402074751; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1402074751/icongroupinterna

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P.P. Ewald and His Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction by N. Kato (Editor), et al (1997); ISBN: 019855379X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/019855379X/icongroupinterna

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Particle Scattering, X-Ray Diffraction, and Microstructure of Solids and Liquids (Lecture Notes in Physics, 610) by Manfred L. Ristig, et al (2003); ISBN: 354044386X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/354044386X/icongroupinterna

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Photomask and X-Ray Mask Technology 5 by Naoaki Aizaki (Editor) (1998); ISBN: 0819428647; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819428647/icongroupinterna

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Principal X-Ray Technician by Jack Rudman (2001); ISBN: 0837309794; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0837309794/icongroupinterna

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Radiation Exposure and Image Quality in X-Ray Diagnostic Radiology: Physical Principles and Clinical Applications by Horst Aichinger (Editor), et al (2003); ISBN: 3540442871; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3540442871/icongroupinterna

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Revealing the Universe: The Making of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory by Wallace H. Tucker, Karen Tucker (2001); ISBN: 0674004973; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0674004973/icongroupinterna

164 X-rays

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Rontgen Centennial: X-Rays in Natural and Life Sciences by A. Haase (Editor), et al (1997); ISBN: 9810230850; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9810230850/icongroupinterna

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Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis by Joseph Goldstein (Editor), et al (2003); ISBN: 0306472929; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0306472929/icongroupinterna

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Signals from Space: The Chandra X-Ray Observatory (Space Explorer) by Robert Naeye (2000); ISBN: 0739822152; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0739822152/icongroupinterna

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Soft X-Ray Lasers and Applications II: 28-29 July, 1997, San Diego, California by Jorge J. Rocca (1997); ISBN: 0819425788; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819425788/icongroupinterna

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Soft X-Ray Lasers and Applications III: Proceedings of Spie 19-20 July 1999 Denver, Colorado (Proceedings of Spie--The International Society for Optical Engineering, V. 3776.) by Jorge J. Rocca (Editor), et al (1999); ISBN: 0819432628; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819432628/icongroupinterna

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Soft X-Ray Optics (Spie Press Vol Pm15) by Eberhard Spiller (1994); ISBN: 0819416541; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819416541/icongroupinterna

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Soft X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet Radiation : Principles and Applications by David Attwood (Author) (1999); ISBN: 0521652146; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0521652146/icongroupinterna

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Spontaneous Current Sheets in Magnetic Fields: With Applications to Stellar X-Rays (International Series on Astronomy and Astrophysics, No 1) by Eugene N. Parker (1994); ISBN: 0195073711; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195073711/icongroupinterna

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Structure Determination by X-Ray Crystallography by M. F. C. Ladd, et al (2003); ISBN: 0306474549; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0306474549/icongroupinterna

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Supersoft X-Ray Sources: Proceedings of the International Workshop Held in Garching, Germany, 28 February-1 March 1996 (Lecture Notes in Physics, 472) by Jochen Greiner (Editor) (1996); ISBN: 3540613900; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3540613900/icongroupinterna

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The Head Bone's Connected To The Neck Bone : The Weird, Wacky, and Wonderful X-Ray by Carla Killough McClafferty (Author) (2001); ISBN: 0374329087; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0374329087/icongroupinterna

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The Invisible Sky: Rosat and the Age of X-Ray Astronomy by Joachim Trumper, et al (1998); ISBN: 0387949283; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0387949283/icongroupinterna

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The Mad Scientist Handbook: How to Make Your Own Disappearing Ink, Exploding Egg, Smoking Fingertips, Flying Potato, Rain Machine, X-Ray Glasses, and Much More by Joey Green (2002); ISBN: 0399527753; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0399527753/icongroupinterna

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The Physics of Radiotherapy X-Rays from Linear Accelerators by Peter Metcalfe, et al (1997); ISBN: 0944838766; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0944838766/icongroupinterna

Books

165

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The Portable Skeletal X-Ray Library by Marshall N. Deltoff, Peter L. Kogon (Contributor) (1997); ISBN: 0815122446; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0815122446/icongroupinterna

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The Q Book: The Physics of Radiotherapy X-Rays Problems & Solutions by Peter Metcalfe, et al (1998); ISBN: 0944838863; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0944838863/icongroupinterna

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The Restless Universe: Understanding X-Ray Astronomy in the Age of Chandra and Newton by Eric M. Schlegel (2002); ISBN: 0195148479; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195148479/icongroupinterna

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The Solar System: Quantum Cosmology-X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Astronomy 7671124Index (Magill's Choice) by Frank Northen Magill (Editor), Roger Smith (Editor) (1998); ISBN: 0893569623; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0893569623/icongroupinterna

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Theory of X-Ray Diffraction in Crystals by William H. Zachariasen (Author) (2004); ISBN: 0486495671; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0486495671/icongroupinterna

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Third-Generation Hard X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation Sources : Source Properties, Optics, and Experimental Techniques by Dennis M. Mills (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 0471314331; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471314331/icongroupinterna

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Time Structure of X-Ray Sources and Its Applications: 23-24 July, 1998, San Diego, California (Proceedings of Spie--The International Society for Optical Engineering, V. 3451.) by Andreas K. Freund (Editor), et al (1998); ISBN: 0819429066; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819429066/icongroupinterna

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Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis by Reinhold Klockenkamper (Author) (1996); ISBN: 0471305243; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471305243/icongroupinterna

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Towards X-Ray Free Electron Lasers: Workshop on Single Pass, High Gain Fels Starting from Noise, Aiming at Coherent X-Rays: Garda Lake, Italy June 1997 (Aip Conference Proceedings, 413) by R. Bonifacio (Editor), W.A. Barletta (Editor) (1998); ISBN: 1563967448; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1563967448/icongroupinterna

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Vuv and Soft X-Ray Photoionization (Physics of Atoms and Molecules) by U. Becker (Editor), David A. Shirley (Editor) (1996); ISBN: 0306450380; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0306450380/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray by Francois Nars (Photographer), Andre Leon-Talley (1999); ISBN: 1576870634; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1576870634/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Analysis and the Structure of Organic Molecules by Jack D. Dunitz (Author) (1997); ISBN: 3906390144; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3906390144/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Instrumentation for Astronomy XII: 31 July and 2 August, 2001, San Diego, [California] USA by Judith Lowder Newton (2002); ISBN: 0819442119; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819442119/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray and Inner Shell Processes: 15 International Conference on X-Ray and InnerShell Processes July 9-13, 1990 (Aip Conference Proceedings, 215) by Steven T. Manson

166 X-rays

(Editor), et al (1997); ISBN: 0883187906; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0883187906/icongroupinterna ·

X-Ray and Inner Shell-Processes (Aip Conference Proceedings, 389) by Robert L. Johnson (Editor), et al (1997); ISBN: 1563965631; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1563965631/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray and Inner-Shell Process: 18th International Conference, Chicago, Illinois August 1999 (Aip Conference Proceedings, 506) by R. W. Dunford (Editor), et al (2000); ISBN: 1563967138; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1563967138/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray and Inner-Shell Processes: 19th International Conference on X-Ray and InnerShell Processes, Rome, Italy 24-28 June 2002 (Aip Conference Proceedings, 652) by Antonio Bianconi, et al (2003); ISBN: 073540111X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/073540111X/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray and Neutron Reflectivity: Principles and Applications (Lecture Notes in Physics. New Series M, Monographs, M58.) by Jean Daillant (Editor), et al (1999); ISBN: 3540661956; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3540661956/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray and Ultraviolet Sensors and Applications: 13-14 July 1995, San Diego, California by Richard B. Hoover (Editor), et al (1995); ISBN: 0819418781; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819418781/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Astronomy: Stellar Endpoints, Agn, and the Diffuse X-Ray Background (Aip Conference Proceedings, 599) by N. E. White (Editor), et al (2001); ISBN: 0735400431; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0735400431/icongroupinterna

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X-ray Binaries by Walter H. G. Lewin (Editor), et al (1995); ISBN: 0521416841; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0521416841/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Charge Densities and Chemical Bonding by Philip Coppens (1997); ISBN: 0195098234; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195098234/icongroupinterna

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X-ray Diagnosis : A Physician's Approach by K. N. Sin Fai Lam (Editor), et al (1998); ISBN: 9813083247; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9813083247/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Ionic Liquids (Molten Salt Forum , Vol 3) by Hideo Ohno, et al (1994); ISBN: 0878496769; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0878496769/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Diffraction Studies on the Deformation and Fracture of Solids (1994); ISBN: 0444816909; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0444816909/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Diffraction: A Practical Approach by C. Suryanarayana, M. Grant Norton (1998); ISBN: 030645744X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/030645744X/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry by Ron Jenkins (Author) (1999); ISBN: 0471299421; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471299421/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Interpretation for the MRCP by B. C. Cramer, P. S. Parfrey (1997); ISBN: 0443025940; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0443025940/icongroupinterna

Books

167

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X-Ray Lasers 1992: Proceedings of the 3rd International Colloquium Held at Schliersee, Germany, 18-22 May 1992 (Institute of Physics Conference, No) by E.E. Fill (Editor) (1997); ISBN: 0854984151; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0854984151/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Lasers 1994: 4th International Colloquium by Dave C. Eder (1995); ISBN: 1563963752; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1563963752/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Lasers 1996: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on X-Ray Lasers Held in Lund, Sweden, 10-14 June, 1996 (Institute of Physics Conference Series , No 151) by Sweden)/ Wahlstrom, C.G. International Conference on X-Ray Lasers 1996 Lund (Editor), et al (1997); ISBN: 0750304065; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750304065/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Lasers 1998: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on X-Ray Lasers Held in Kyoto, Japan, 31 August-4 September 1998 (Institute of Physics Conference Series, No. 159) by International Conference on X-Ray Lasers 1998, et al (1999); ISBN: 0750305924; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750305924/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Lasers 2002: 8th International Conference on X-Ray Lasers: Aspen, Colorado 2731 May 2002 (Aip Conference Proceedings, 641) by Colo.)/ Rocca, J. J. International Conference on X-Ray Lasers 2002 Aspen (Editor), et al (2002); ISBN: 0735400962; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0735400962/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Microanalysis for Biologists by Alice Warley, Audrey M. Slamert (Editor) (1997); ISBN: 1855780550; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1855780550/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Microscopy by Graeme R. Morrison (Editor) (2003); ISBN: 9810224583; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9810224583/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Microscopy: Proceedings of the VI International Conference (Aip Conference Proceedings, 507) by W. Meyer Ilse (Editor), et al (2000); ISBN: 1563969262; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1563969262/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Optics Design, Performance, and Applications: Proceedings of Spie 20-21 July 1999 Denver, Colorado by Ali M. Khounsary (Editor), et al (1999); ISBN: 0819432598; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819432598/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III: 27-29 March 2000, Munich, Germany by Joachim E. Truemper, B. Aschenbach (Editor) (2000); ISBN: 0819436372; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819436372/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Radiation of Highly Charged Ions (Springer Series on Atoms + Plasmas, 19) by H. F. Beyer, et al (1997); ISBN: 3540631852; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3540631852/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Repair: A Comprehensive Guide to the Installation and Servicing of Radiographic Equipment by Joseph J. Panichello (1998); ISBN: 0398068151; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0398068151/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Scattering from Semiconductors by Paul F. Fewster (2003); ISBN: 1860943608; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1860943608/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Spectrometry in Electron Beam Instruments by David B. Williams, et al (1995); ISBN: 0306448580; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0306448580/icongroupinterna

168 X-rays

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X-Ray Spectrometry: Recent Technological Advances by Kouichi Tsuji (Editor), et al (2004); ISBN: 047148640X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/047148640X/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray Tomography in Material Science by Jose Baruchel (Editor), et al (2000); ISBN: 2746201151; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/2746201151/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray/the Unauthorized Autobiography: The Unauthorized Autobiography by Ray Davies (1995); ISBN: 0879516119; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0879516119/icongroupinterna

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X-Ray: Signed, Limited by Francois Nars (Photographer) (2000); ISBN: 1576870367; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1576870367/icongroupinterna

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X-Rays (1997); ISBN: 0383039819; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0383039819/icongroupinterna

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X-Rays (Voyages) by R. G. B. Morrison, Don Black (Illustrator) (1994); ISBN: 0383037891; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0383037891/icongroupinterna

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X-Rays From Laser Plasmas : Generation and Applications by I. C. E. Turcu (Author), J. B. Dance (Author) (1999); ISBN: 0471983977; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471983977/icongroupinterna

The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site, http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books only.” From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:11 ·

A practical manual on the medical and dental use of x-rays with control of radiation hazards, prepared by the American College of Radiology for users of x-rays in the healing arts. [Text by Richard H. Chamberlain, with the assistance of Robert J. Nelsen and the Commission on Units, Standards, and Protection of the American College of Radiology. Author: American College of Radiology.; Year: 1954; Chicago? c1958]

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An introduction to the study of X-rays and radium, by Hector A. Colwell. and Cecil P. G. Wakeley. Author: Colwell, Hector Alfred,; Year: 1959; London [etc.] H. Milford, Oxford university press [1926]

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Applied X-rays. Author: Clark, George Lindenberg,; Year: 1957; New York, McGrawHill, 1940

11

In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.

Books

169

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Chemical analysis by X-rays and its applications, by Georg von Hevesy. Author: Hevesy, Georg von,; Year: 1927; New York, London, McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1932

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Determination of cell mass by direct X-ray absorption. [Tr. from the Swedish]. Author: Rosengren, Bengt Henrik Oskar,; Year: 1926; Stockholm, 1959

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Extract from the United States Army X-ray manual, authorized by the SurgeonGeneral of the Army; prepared under the direction of the Division of Roentgenology. Author: United States. Surgeon-General's Office.; Year: 1943; New York, Hoeber, 1918

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Fundamentals of X-ray, physics and technique. Author: Naval Medical School (U.S.); Year: 1953; Bethesda, 1942

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Fundamentals of X-ray; physics and technique. Author: Naval Medical School (U.S.); Year: 1948; Bethesda, 1944

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Medical X-ray protection up to two million volts. Author: National Committee on Radiation Protection (U.S.); Year: 1922; Washington, 1949

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Pitfalls in X-ray technic and interpretation. Author: Bovard, Paul Grubbs,; Year: 1932; Tarentum, Pa. [1952]

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Radiography; a manual of X-ray technique, interpretation and therapy, by Charles D. Enfield. 194 illustrations. Author: Enfield, Charles Darwin,; Year: 1940; Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's son; co. [c1925]

·

The physics of X-ray therapy, by W. V. Mayneord. With 106 illustrations. Author: Mayneord, W. V. (William Valentine); Year: 1953; London, J.; A. Churchill, 1929

·

X-ray diffraction studies in biology and medicine, by Mona Spiegel-Adolf. and George C. Henny. Author: Spiegel, Anna Simona (Adolf),; Year: 1941; New York, Grune; Stratton, 1947

·

X-Ray protection. [Prepared by the Subcommittee on X-Rays up to Two Million Volts]. Author: National Committee on Radiation Protection (U.S.); Year: 1949; Washington, 1955

·

X-rays in practice. Author: Sproull, Wayne Treber,; Year: 1946; New York, McGraw-Hill, 1946

·

X-rays in theory and experiment, by Arthur H. Compton. and Samuel K. Allison. Author: Compton, Arthur Holly,; Year: 1954; New York, D. Van Nostrand company, inc. [1935]

·

X-rays. Author: Broglie, Maurice,; Year: 1953; London, Methuen [1925]

·

X-rays; their origin, dosage, and practical application. Author: Schall, W. E.; Year: 1943; Bristol, Wright, 1956

Chapters on X-rays In order to find chapters that specifically relate to x-rays, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and x-rays using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for book chapters on x-rays:

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·

X-Rays: Screening for Illness or Injury: Digestive System Source: in Shaw, M., et al., eds. Everything You Need to Know About Medical Tests. Springhouse, PA: Springhouse Corporation. 1996. p. 26-49. Contact: Available from Springhouse Publishing. Attention: Trade and Textbook Department, 1111 Bethlehem Pike, P.O. Box 908, Springhouse, PA 19477-0908. (800) 3313170 or (215) 646-4670 or (215) 646-4671. Fax (215) 646-8716. PRICE: $24.95 (as of 1995). ISBN: 0874348234. Summary: This chapter on diagnostic tests for digestive disorders is from a consumer reference guide to over 400 diagnostic tests. For each test, the book covers the reasons the test is performed; what patients should know before the test and what to expect during and after the test; risk factors associated with the test; the normal results; and what abnormal results mean. Tests in this chapter include the barium swallow; the upper GI and small-bowel series; the barium enema; x-rays of the duodenum; x-rays of the gallbladder; examination of the bile ducts; examination of the pancreatic ducts, liver, and bile ducts; x-rays of the spleen; and angiogram of the abdominal blood vessels.

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CHAPTER 8. MULTIMEDIA ON X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we show you how to keep current on multimedia sources of information on x-rays. We start with sources that have been summarized by federal agencies, and then show you how to find bibliographic information catalogued by the National Library of Medicine.

Video Recordings An excellent source of multimedia information on x-rays is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to “Videorecording” and “x-rays” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find video productions, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Videorecording (videotape, videocassette, etc.).” Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for video recordings on x-rays: ·

Your Family's Dental Health: A Patient's Video Guide to Dentistry Source: Waco, TX: Health EDCO. 199x. (videocassette). Contact: Available from HEALTH EDCO. P.O. Box 21207, Waco, TX 76702-1207. (800) 299-3366 ext. 295 or (817) 776-6461 ext. 295; Fax (817) 751-0221. PRICE: $80.00 plus shipping and handling. Summary: This patient education videotape is designed to improve patient compliance and educate and motivate dental patients. Twelve segments cover the following topics: X-rays, brushing and flossing, fluoride, orthodontics, dentistry for children, emergency care, dental specialties, prenatal care, snacking and nutrition, dental labs, and geriatric care. The videotape is recommended for viewing by patients while they wait in the dentist's office. (AA-M).

·

Preparing for a Lower GI Endoscopy: A Patient's Perspective Source: Research Triangle Park, NC: Glaxo. 1994.

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Contact: Available from Glaxo. Educational Resource Center, Five Moore Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. (800) 334-0032 or (919) 248-2100. PRICE: Single copy free. Available to health professionals only. Summary: This patient education videotape provides information for the person about to undergo a lower gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopic procedure (colonoscopy). After brief definitions of colonoscopy and the role of the gastroenterologist, the video addresses the anatomy and physiology of the large intestine; earlier diagnostic tests including barium enema and x-rays; a description of the colonoscope; indications for colonoscopy, including blood loss, chronic diarrhea, treating active bleeding, screening for cancer, and removing colonic polyps; preoperative considerations, including preparing the colon, the patient consent form, a review of the procedure, and the IV prep, including sedative; the procedure itself, including biopsy; postoperative considerations, including the recovery room and instructions for home; and complications of the procedure. The videotape includes footage of the procedure itself, depictions of the doctor and patient, anatomical drawings, and photographs. ·

Prevention (Ages 6-18) Source: Chicago, IL: American Dental Association (ADA). 1997. (videocassette). Contact: Available from American Dental Association (ADA). Catalog Sales, P.O. Box 776, St. Charles, IL 60174. (800) 947-4746; Fax (630) 443-9970; http://www.ada.org. PRICE: $40.00 each; nonmembers add 50 per cent. Order number X792. Summary: This patient education videotape teaches children about preventive dentistry. Designed for young people aged 6 to 18, the program covers permanent teeth; space maintainers; dental sealants; and x-rays. The program is part of a videotape series designed to help answer patient questions on treatment and hygiene recommendations. (AA-M).

·

Medical Applications of Ultrasound Source: Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities and Sciences. 199x. Contact: Available from Films for the Humanities and Sciences. P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543. (800) 257-5126 or (609) 452-1128. PRICE: $149 (purchase), $75 (rental). Order number TF-2655. Summary: Ultrasound has a multitude of applications, from cleaning jewelry to tracking the weather. This program explores the growing medical uses of ultrasound: in lithotripsy; as a diagnostic tool in obstetrics, cardiology, and orthopedics; and in cleaning burns and other delicate wounds. This videotape examines the benefits and risks of ultrasound and compares them with other diagnostic tools like X-rays. (AA).

Bibliography: Multimedia on X-rays The National Library of Medicine is a rich source of information on healthcare-related multimedia productions including slides, computer software, and databases. To access the multimedia database, go to the following Web site: http://locatorplus.gov/. Select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once in the search area, simply type in x-rays (or synonyms). Then, in the option box provided below the search box, select “Audiovisuals and Computer Files.” From

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there, you can choose to sort results by publication date, author, or relevance. The following multimedia has been indexed on x-rays: ·

An Introduction to x-rays of the cardio-pulmonary system [slide] Source: M. Eleanor Schooley; Year: 1976; Format: Slide; Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, c1976

·

Basic facts about x-rays [slide] Source: REM Productions; Year: 1973; Format: Slide; Carle Place, N. Y.: Nuclear Associates, c1973

·

Equipment for production and control of diagnostic x-rays [slide] Source: American Association of Physicists in Medicine jointly sponsored with the Radiological Society of North America; Year: 1983; Format: Slide; Oak Brook, Ill.: RSNA, c1983

·

Evaluation of x-rays in trauma patients: skull [slide] Source: John Loeser, Laurence Cromwell, John Bolles; Year: 1979; Format: Slide; Seattle: Dept. of Surgery, School of Medicine, Health Sciences Learning Resources Center, Univ. of Washington, c1979

·

Evaluation of x-rays in trauma patients vertebral column [slide] Source: John Loeser, Laurence Cromwell, John Bolles; Year: 1979; Format: Slide; Seattle: Dept. of Surgery, School of Medicine, Health Sciences Learning Resources Center, Univ. of Washington: [for loan or sale by the Center], c1979

·

How x-rays are produced [videorecording] Source: presented by DuPont Medical Products Dept., Diagnostic Imaging; Year: 1989; Format: Videorecording; Wilmington, Del.: Creative Communications, Du Pont External Affairs, [c1989]

·

Introduction to X-ray physics [slide] Source: Kenneth L. Bontrager; Year: 1976; Format: Slide; Denver: Multi-Media Publishing, c1976

·

Moving X-rays [motion picture] Source: produced by Nicholas Kaufmann; Year: 1938; Format: Motion picture; [Babelsburg, Germany]: UFA Films, Inc., c1938

·

Scanners, X-rays, and lasers [videorecording] Source: Chip Taylor Communications; Year: 1999; Format: Videorecording; Derry, NH: Chip Taylor Communications, 1999

·

Taking the x out of x-rays: an excursion in science [motion picture] Source: General Electric; Year: 1969; Format: Motion picture; [Schenectady, N. Y.]: General Electric; [Cincinnati: for loan by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, National Training Center, 196-]

·

There will be greater quality to your full mouth X-rays [videorecording] Source: California Dental Association, 1999 Spring Scientific Session, April 8-11, Anaheim Convention Center; Year: 1999; Format: Videorecording; Chicago, IL: Teach 'em, [1999]

·

X-ray [motion picture]: this is a film about mass radiography Source: made for the National Association for the Prevention of Tuberculosis by the Seven League Unit; Year: 1944; Format: Motion picture; [United Kingdom]: The Association, [1944]

·

X-ray production [slide] Source: Kenneth L. Bontrager; Year: 1975; Format: Slide; Denver: Multi-Media Publishing, c1975

·

X-ray theory [videorecording] Source: [presented by] Lawrence Educational Media; Year: 1995; Format: Videorecording; [Gainsville, Fla.]: Lawrence Educational Media, [c1995]

·

X-rays and other modern hazards [videorecording]: a viewpoint on comparative risks Source: Training Productions Center, Bureau of Radiological Health, U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, & Welfare, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration; Year: 1977; Format: Videorecording; Rockville, Md.: The Center: [for loan by U.S. Bureau of Radiological Health, Training Resources Center, 1977]

·

X-rays-- do I have to? [videorecording] Source: a Veterans Administration film presentation; produced by Learning Resources Services, V.A. Medical Center,

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Washington D.C.; produced for the Dental Education Center, V.A. Medical Center, in cooperation with Will; Year: 1986; Format: Videorecording; [United States: s.n., 1986] ·

You can be safe from X-rays [motion picture] Source: produced by the Communicable Disease Center for the Division of Chronic Disease and Tuberculosis; [presented by] Federal Security Agency, Public Health Service; Year: 1952; Format: Motion picture; [United States]: The Service, [1952]

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CHAPTER 9. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON X-RAYS Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover x-rays.

News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on x-rays is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing.

PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance.

Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to x-rays. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “x-rays” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for x-rays: ·

X-ray not necessary to detect TB in HIV patients Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: November 07, 2003

·

Chest X-ray not necessary to detect active TB in HIV-infected patients Source: Reuters Medical News Date: November 06, 2003

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·

Routine x-rays, sputum cytology not warranted for lung cancer screening Source: Reuters Medical News Date: September 15, 2003

·

MRI no better than x-rays in management of low back pain Source: Reuters Medical News Date: June 04, 2003

·

Rapid MRI no better than X-ray for back pain: study Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: June 03, 2003

·

New X-ray technique images soft tissue Source: Reuters Medical News Date: May 30, 2003

·

Damage lingers from low-dose X-rays -German study Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: April 01, 2003

·

Subtle pulmonary nodules on chest x-ray more often missed in upper lobes Source: Reuters Medical News Date: February 18, 2003

·

Indian doctors tend to rely on x-rays for diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: January 10, 2003

·

Lodox Systems gets FDA approval for low-dosage, digital x-ray Source: Reuters Industry Breifing Date: August 12, 2002

·

German soldiers sue government over cancer after x-ray exposure Source: Reuters Medical News Date: March 26, 2002

·

German soldiers sue government on x-rays, cancer Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: March 26, 2002

·

Germany may cut x-ray dose to patients, staff Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: March 14, 2002

·

German cabinet recommends reduction in X-ray dosage Source: Reuters Industry Breifing Date: March 14, 2002

·

Doctors may miss lung cancer on x-rays: report Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: March 07, 2002

·

Canon gets FDA clearance for first portable X-ray system Source: Reuters Industry Breifing Date: January 22, 2002

·

Initial x-rays, rheumatoid factor predict damage from rheumatoid arthritis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: September 05, 2001

Periodicals and News

·

Dental x-rays may reveal stroke risk in women Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: August 29, 2001

·

Dental x-rays identify carotid artery atherosclerosis in women Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 28, 2001

·

X-rays deemed unnecessary for most low back pain Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: February 16, 2001

·

Patients pressure doctors to use scans and x-rays Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: January 24, 2001

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The NIH Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine.

Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name.

Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests.

Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “xrays” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to x-rays, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the

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company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/.

BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “x-rays” (or synonyms).

Newsletter Articles Use the Combined Health Information Database, and limit your search criteria to “newsletter articles.” Again, you will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. Go to the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language that you prefer. For the format option, select “Newsletter Article.” Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database as it is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for newsletter articles on x-rays: ·

Assessment of the Gastrointestinal Tract Source: Support Line. 19(2): 3-7. April 1997. Contact: Available from Dietitians in Nutrition Support. American Dietetic Association (ADA), 216 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Summary: This article on assessment of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is one in a series designed to enhance registered dietitians' knowledge of physical examination as it relates to their practice in the field of nutrition support. The author stresses that assessment of the GI tract is a critical component of the overall physical assessment of patients. Many decisions that nutrition support practitioners must make in providing and continuing therapy depend on the status of the GI tract. The author discusses obtaining a patient's medical history, and encourages readers to include questions about the patient's prior medical history, family history, and socioeconomic history. The next step in an overall patient assessment is to focus on the main symptoms. The author discusses the etiology and classification of acute and chronic diarrhea, the anatomy of the abdomen, physical assessment beginning with an oral examination, the abdominal exam (inspection, auscultation, percussion, and palpation), diagnostic tests, and laboratory tests. The most common GI diagnostic tests are abdominal x-rays, endoscopy, ultrasound, and computed tomography (CT scan). Laboratory tests most often consist of blood and stool tests. The author stresses that physical assessment and examination cannot be learned solely from reading an article; they must be taught in a formal setting, practiced, and then performed daily to maintain proficiency. 4 tables. 13 references. (AA-M).

·

Know the Truth About Your Teeth Source: Healthy YOUniverse. p. 3. Spring 1997.

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Contact: Available from Healthy YOUniverse. Wellness Council of America, Community Health Plaza, 7101 Newport Avenue, Suite 311, Omaha, NE 68152. (402) 572-3590; Fax (402) 572-3594. Summary: This brief article from a wellness newsletter asks readers to answer a quiz about their oral health. Nine questions ask readers about the relationship between dental disease and other systemic disease, the use of x-rays, the parts of the tooth susceptible to decay, the primary cause of gum disease, dental plaque, and the signs and symptoms of gum disease. The latter half of the article provides brief answers to the quiz. The article concludes by encouraging readers to see a dentist and dental hygienist for a complete examination and to begin a regular program of daily oral hygiene, including flossing. The incidence of dental fear is briefly mentioned. ·

Acute Low Back Pain Source: SLE Newsletter. 24(4): 3-4. Winter 2001/2002. Contact: Available from Bay Area Lupus Foundation. 2635 North First Street, Suite 206, San Jose, CA 95134. (408) 954-8600. Website: www.balf.org. Summary: This newsletter article discusses causes and treatment of low back pain (LBP). LBP affects up to 80 percent of adults and may be caused by injury, degenerative changes in the facet joints of the spine, or disease of abdominal and pelvic organs. If LBP occurs without these causes, any 'red flag' symptoms should be carefully examined: long term pain, pain at rest, and weight loss may indicate cancer; fever may indicate infection; corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, and trauma may indicate spinal fracture; and urinary or rectal sphincter malfunction and weakness or numbness in the legs may indicate cauda equina syndrome. Patients with SLE are more prone to corticosteroidinduced osteoporosis and infection of spinal structures. X-rays, MRIs, and CTs should be used if any of the 'red flag' symptoms are present, although they are not very useful for determining the cause of LBP otherwise. Patients with LBP should limit but not discontinue their activities. NSAIDS, muscle relaxants, and antidepressant medications may be prescribed. Strengthening exercises for the trunk and extremities, ice, or heat may help alleviate pain. Epidural coricosteroids can be used for severe sciatic pain. Lumbar disc surgery may be necessary for patients with long-term disabling sciatica.

·

Irritable Bowel Syndrome Source: Intestinal Fortitude. 10(1): 1-3. 1999. Contact: Available from Intestinal Disease Foundation. 1323 Forbes Avenue, Suite 200, Pittsburgh, PA 15219. (412) 261-5888. Summary: This newsletter article reviews irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a very common functional bowel disorder. The author stresses that IBS is a disorder of function, so the results of x-rays and endoscopic exams in these patients are normal. The symptoms of IBS are due to physiologic changes in the intestine as it responds to diet, stress, and other influences. Under the traditional biomedical model, a physician identifies the physical or chemical cause of an illness or injury and then prescribes the appropriate treatment. In IBS, this approach is not particularly useful and can indeed contribute to stress and an accompanying increase in symptoms in the patient. The author describes the use of an emerging biopsychosocial model which recognizes the interplay among the brain, intestinal tract, and autonomic nervous system, and provides a more integrated approach for evaluating and treating functional gastrointestinal (GI) disorders. The author briefly reviews research on the etiology of IBS, including the role

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of visceral hypersensitivity, long term hyperalgesia, and early physical, emotional, or sexual trauma. When a thorough initial examination is done (to eliminate the presence of other illnesses) and symptoms have not changed or worsened when reassessed in 3 to 6 weeks, both the physician and patient can be confident of the diagnosis and can concentrate on managing the symptoms. Treatment options and strategies are discussed briefly, including the physician patient relationship, the use of a symptom diary, drug therapies, and psychological treatments.

Academic Periodicals covering X-rays Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to x-rays. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering x-rays that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”

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CHAPTER 10. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS Overview While a number of hard copy or CD-ROM resources are available for researching medications, a more flexible method is to use Internet-based databases. Broadly speaking, there are two sources of information on approved medications: public sources and private sources. We will emphasize free-to-use public sources.

U.S. Pharmacopeia Because of historical investments by various organizations and the emergence of the Internet, it has become rather simple to learn about the medications recommended for xrays. One such source is the United States Pharmacopeia. In 1820, eleven physicians met in Washington, D.C. to establish the first compendium of standard drugs for the United States. They called this compendium the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP). Today, the USP is a non-profit organization consisting of 800 volunteer scientists, eleven elected officials, and 400 representatives of state associations and colleges of medicine and pharmacy. The USP is located in Rockville, Maryland, and its home page is located at http://www.usp.org/. The USP currently provides standards for over 3,700 medications. The resulting USP DIÒ Advice for the PatientÒ can be accessed through the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health. The database is partially derived from lists of federally approved medications in the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Drug Approvals database, located at http://www.fda.gov/cder/da/da.htm. While the FDA database is rather large and difficult to navigate, the Phamacopeia is both user-friendly and free to use. It covers more than 9,000 prescription and over-the-counter medications. To access this database, simply type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html. To view examples of a given medication (brand names, category, description, preparation, proper use, precautions, side effects, etc.), simply follow the hyperlinks indicated within the United States Pharmacopeia (USP). Below, we have compiled a list of medications associated with x-rays. If you would like more information on a particular medication, the provided hyperlinks will direct you to ample documentation (e.g. typical dosage, side effects, drug-interaction risks, etc.). The

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following drugs have been mentioned in the Pharmacopeia and other sources as being potentially applicable to x-rays: Albumin Microspheres Sonicated ·

Systemic - U.S. Brands: Optison http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/203714.html

Cholecystographic Agents, Oral ·

Diagnostic - U.S. Brands: Bilivist; Bilopaque; Cholebrine; Oragrafin Calcium; Oragrafin Sodium; Telepaque http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202136.html

Dexrazoxane ·

Systemic - U.S. Brands: Zinecard http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/203662.html

Fentanyl ·

Transdermal-Systemic - U.S. Brands: Duragesic http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202702.html

Mangafodipir ·

Systemic - U.S. Brands: Teslascan http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/203456.html

Samarium Sm 153 Lexidronam ·

Therapeutic - U.S. Brands: Quadramet http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/203683.html

Strontium Chloride Sr 89 ·

Therapeutic - U.S. Brands: Metastron http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202706.html

Commercial Databases In addition to the medications listed in the USP above, a number of commercial sites are available by subscription to physicians and their institutions. Or, you may be able to access these sources from your local medical library.

Mosby’s Drug ConsultÔ Mosby’s Drug ConsultÔ database (also available on CD-ROM and book format) covers 45,000 drug products including generics and international brands. It provides prescribing information, drug interactions, and patient information. Subscription information is available at the following hyperlink: http://www.mosbysdrugconsult.com/.

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PDRhealth The PDRhealth database is a free-to-use, drug information search engine that has been written for the public in layman’s terms. It contains FDA-approved drug information adapted from the Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR) database. PDRhealth can be searched by brand name, generic name, or indication. It features multiple drug interactions reports. Search PDRhealth at http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/index.html.

Other Web Sites Drugs.com (www.drugs.com) reproduces the information in the Pharmacopeia as well as commercial information. You may also want to consider the Web site of the Medical Letter, Inc. (http://www.medletter.com/) which allows users to download articles on various drugs and therapeutics for a nominal fee. If you have any questions about a medical treatment, the FDA may have an office near you. Look for their number in the blue pages of the phone book. You can also contact the FDA through its toll-free number, 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332), or on the World Wide Web at www.fda.gov.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.

NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute12: ·

Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm

·

National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/

·

National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html

·

National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25

·

National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm

·

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm

·

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375

·

National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/

12

These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.

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·

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm

·

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/

·

National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm

·

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm

·

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

·

National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/

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National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm

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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html

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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm

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National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

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National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html

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National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm

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Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp

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National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/

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National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp

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Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm

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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.13 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:14 ·

Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html

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HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html

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NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html

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Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

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Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html

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Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html

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Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/

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Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html

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Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html

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Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html

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MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html

13

Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 14 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.

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Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html

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Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html

The Combined Health Information Database A comprehensive source of information on clinical guidelines written for professionals is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to one of the following: Brochure/Pamphlet, Fact Sheet, or Information Package, and “x-rays” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For the publication date, select “All Years.” Select your preferred language and the format option “Fact Sheet.” Type “xrays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a sample result: ·

Tuberculosis and HIV Disease: A Report of the Special Initiative on AIDS of the American Public Health Association Contact: American Public Health Association, 800 I St NW, Washington, DC, 20001, (301) 893-1894, http://www.apha.org. Summary: This report summarizes the connection between tuberculosis (TB) and HIV infection. It starts out with background information on TB and the incidence of TB infection worldwide. It then turns to clinical symptoms of TB, symptoms of HIV disease, and the connection between the two. Diagnosis of TB infection through chest X-rays and sputum sample testing, TB treatment, and TB prevention are examined. The report concludes with policy issues involving discrimination, availability of medications, access to treatment, and occupational safety.

The NLM Gateway15 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.16 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category.

15 16

Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.

The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

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Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total

Items Found 22625 1044 1243 150 2 25064

HSTAT17 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.18 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.19 Simply search by “x-rays” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.

Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists20 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.21 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.22 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.

17

Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html.

18

The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.

19

Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations. 20 Adapted from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html. 21

The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 22 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.

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Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: ·

CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.

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Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.

The Genome Project and X-rays In the following section, we will discuss databases and references which relate to the Genome Project and x-rays.

Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database is a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders authored and edited by Dr. Victor A. McKusick and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins and elsewhere. OMIM was developed for the World Wide Web by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).23 The database contains textual information, pictures, and reference information. It also contains copious links to NCBI’s Entrez database of MEDLINE articles and sequence information. To search the database, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Omim/searchomim.html. Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Submit Search.” If too many results appear, you can narrow the search by adding the word “clinical.” Each report will have additional links to related research and databases. In particular, the option “Database Links” will search across technical databases that offer an abundance of information. The following is an example of the results you can obtain from the OMIM for x-rays: ·

X-ray Repair, Complementing Defective, in Chinese Hamster, 2 Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?600375

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X-ray Sensitivity Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?194370

Genes and Disease (NCBI - Map) The Genes and Disease database is produced by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health. This Web site categorizes each disorder by system of the body. Go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/, and browse the system pages to have a full view of important conditions linked to human genes. Since this site is regularly updated, you may 23

Adapted from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/. Established in 1988 as a national resource for molecular biology information, NCBI creates public databases, conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information--all for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease.

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wish to revisit it from time to time. The following systems and associated disorders are addressed: ·

Cancer: Uncontrolled cell division. Examples: Breast and ovarian cancer, Burkitt lymphoma, chronic myeloid leukemia, colon cancer, lung cancer, malignant melanoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia, neurofibromatosis, p53 tumor suppressor, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, Ras oncogene, RB: retinoblastoma, von Hippel-Lindau syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Cancer.html

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Immune System: Fights invaders. Examples: Asthma, autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, Crohn’s disease, DiGeorge syndrome, familial Mediterranean fever, immunodeficiency with Hyper-IgM, severe combined immunodeficiency. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Immune.html

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Metabolism: Food and energy. Examples: Adreno-leukodystrophy, atherosclerosis, Best disease, Gaucher disease, glucose galactose malabsorption, gyrate atrophy, juvenile-onset diabetes, obesity, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, phenylketonuria, Refsum disease, Tangier disease, Tay-Sachs disease. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Metabolism.html

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Muscle and Bone: Movement and growth. Examples: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Ellis-van Creveld syndrome, Marfan syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Muscle.html

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Nervous System: Mind and body. Examples: Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Angelman syndrome, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, epilepsy, essential tremor, fragile X syndrome, Friedreich’s ataxia, Huntington disease, Niemann-Pick disease, Parkinson disease, Prader-Willi syndrome, Rett syndrome, spinocerebellar atrophy, Williams syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Brain.html

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Signals: Cellular messages. Examples: Ataxia telangiectasia, Cockayne syndrome, glaucoma, male-patterned baldness, SRY: sex determination, tuberous sclerosis, Waardenburg syndrome, Werner syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Signals.html

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Transporters: Pumps and channels. Examples: Cystic fibrosis, deafness, diastrophic dysplasia, Hemophilia A, long-QT syndrome, Menkes syndrome, Pendred syndrome, polycystic kidney disease, sickle cell anemia, Wilson’s disease, Zellweger syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Transporters.html

Entrez Entrez is a search and retrieval system that integrates several linked databases at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). These databases include nucleotide sequences, protein sequences, macromolecular structures, whole genomes, and MEDLINE through PubMed. Entrez provides access to the following databases:

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3D Domains: Domains from Entrez Structure, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=geo

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Books: Online books, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=books

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Genome: Complete genome assemblies, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Genome

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NCBI’s Protein Sequence Information Survey Results: Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/proteinsurvey/

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Nucleotide Sequence Database (Genbank): Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Nucleotide

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OMIM: Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=OMIM

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PopSet: Population study data sets, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Popset

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ProbeSet: Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=geo

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Protein Sequence Database: Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Protein

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PubMed: Biomedical literature (PubMed), Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed

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Structure: Three-dimensional macromolecular structures, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Structure

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Taxonomy: Organisms in GenBank, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Taxonomy

To access the Entrez system at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=genome, and then select the database that you would like to search. The databases available are listed in the drop box next to “Search.” Enter “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Go.”

Jablonski’s Multiple Congenital Anomaly/Mental Retardation (MCA/MR) Syndromes Database24 This online resource has been developed to facilitate the identification and differentiation of syndromic entities. Special attention is given to the type of information that is usually limited or completely omitted in existing reference sources due to space limitations of the printed form. At http://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/jablonski/syndrome_toc/toc_a.html, you can search across syndromes using an alphabetical index. Search by keywords at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/jablonski/syndrome_db.html.

24

Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/jablonski/about_syndrome.html.

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The Genome Database25 Established at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland in 1990, the Genome Database (GDB) is the official central repository for genomic mapping data resulting from the Human Genome Initiative. In the spring of 1999, the Bioinformatics Supercomputing Centre (BiSC) at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Ontario assumed the management of GDB. The Human Genome Initiative is a worldwide research effort focusing on structural analysis of human DNA to determine the location and sequence of the estimated 100,000 human genes. In support of this project, GDB stores and curates data generated by researchers worldwide who are engaged in the mapping effort of the Human Genome Project (HGP). GDB’s mission is to provide scientists with an encyclopedia of the human genome which is continually revised and updated to reflect the current state of scientific knowledge. Although GDB has historically focused on gene mapping, its focus will broaden as the Genome Project moves from mapping to sequence, and finally, to functional analysis. To access the GDB, simply go to the following hyperlink: http://www.gdb.org/. Search “All Biological Data” by “Keyword.” Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the search box, and review the results. If more than one word is used in the search box, then separate each one with the word “and” or “or” (using “or” might be useful when using synonyms).

25

Adapted from the Genome Database: http://gdbwww.gdb.org/gdb/aboutGDB.html - mission.

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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on x-rays can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.

Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to x-rays. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly.

The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below.

Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to x-rays. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “x-rays”:

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Guides on x-rays Diagnostic Imaging http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/diagnosticimaging.html Epilepsy http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/epilepsy.html Hip Injuries and Disorders http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/hipinjuriesanddisorders.html Prenatal Care http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/prenatalcare.html Radiation Exposure http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/radiationexposure.html Tooth Disorders http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/toothdisorders.html

Within the health topic page dedicated to x-rays, the following was listed: ·

General/Overviews Computerized Tomography (CT, CT Scan, CAT Scan) Source: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=FL00065 CT Scan http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/ctscanloader.html General Nuclear Medicine Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/gen_nuclear_med.htm MRI http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/mriloader.html Nuclear Scan http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/nuclearscanloader.html Picture of Health Source: Food and Drug Administration http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1999/199_xray.html Ultrasound http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/ultrasoundloader.html Ultrasound-General Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/ultrasound-general.htm X-Ray Source: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=FL00064

Patient Resources

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Specific Conditions/Aspects Arthrography Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/arthrography.htm Barium Enema http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/bariumenemaloader.html Bone Radiography Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/bone_radiography.htm Bronchoscopy: Pulmonary Branch Protocols Source: National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/pepubs/bronchoscopy.pdf Cardiac Nuclear Medicine Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/cardiac_nuclear_med.htm Catheter Angiography Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/catheter-angio.htm Computed Tomography (CT)-Head Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/ct_of_the_head.htm Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/ct-angiography.htm Computed Tomography Scan and Magnetic Resonance Imaging http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/108/15/e104.pdf Diagnostic Tests -- Digestive Diseases Source: National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/topics/diagnostic.asp Echocardiogram Source: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=HB00012 Endoscopy: Ensuring Patient Safety http://www.asge.org/gui/patient/ASGEEnsPatSafeBroc.pdf Functional MR Imaging (fMRI) - Brain Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/functional_mr.htm Gallium Scan Source: National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/procdiag/gallium.pdf How Safe Are X-Ray Exams? Source: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=HQ00870

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Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP) Source: National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/procdiag/ivp.pdf Liver-Spleen Scan Source: National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/procdiag/liverspleen.pdf MR Angiography (MRA) Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/mr-angiography.htm MR Imaging (MRI)-Body Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/mr_of_the_body.htm MR Imaging (MRI)-Head Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/mr_of_the_head.htm Octreotide Scan Source: National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/procdiag/octre.pdf Positron Emission Tomography (PET Imaging) Source: Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/petomography.htm Radiography -- Chest (Chest X-ray) Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/chest_radiography.htm SPECT Scan (Single-Photon Emission Computerized Tomography): Can It Detect Cancer? Source: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=AN00617 Understanding Capsule Endoscopy Source: American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy http://www.asge.org/gui/patient/gea_und_cap_endo.asp What You Need to Know about Your Angiography Test Source: Cleveland Clinic Foundation http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/healthinfo/docs/0100/0147.asp?index=4977 Whole Body Scanning Using Computed Tomography (CT) Source: Center for Devices and Radiological Health http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/ct/ ·

Children Consumer Update on Fetal Keepsake Videos Source: Center for Devices and Radiological Health http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/consumer/fetalvideos.html

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Fetal Ultrasound Source: American Medical Association http://www.medem.com/medlb/article_detaillb.cfm?article_ID=ZZZUSI4YU7C&s ub_cat=3 Pediatric Abdominal Ultrasound Imaging Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/ultra-abdomen-pd.htm Pediatric Nuclear Medicine Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/nuclearmed-pd.htm Pediatric Voiding Cystourethrogram Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/content/v-cystourethrogrm-pd.htm X-Ray Use and Safety Source: American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry http://www.aapd.org/publications/brochures/xray.asp ·

Latest News Doppler Ultrasound Predicts Miscarriages Source: 12/03/2003, United Press International http://www.nlm.nih.gov//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_14939 .html More News on Diagnostic Imaging http://www.nlm.nih.gov//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_d.html#D iagnosticImaging New Scanner May Find Cancer Earlier Than Mammogram Source: 12/04/2003, Reuters Health http://www.nlm.nih.gov//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_14976 .html Scans Detail Brain's Inner Workings Source: 12/03/2003, United Press International http://www.nlm.nih.gov//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_14963 .html

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Organizations Radiology Info Source: American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America http://www.radiologyinfo.org/default.htm

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Research New Use for Imaging Test May Spot Heart Disease at Earliest Stages Source: American Heart Association http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3341

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Spiral Scan Sees Stroke Blockage More Clearly Source: American Heart Association http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3001835 You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search.

The Combined Health Information Database (CHID) CHID Online is a reference tool that maintains a database directory of thousands of journal articles and patient education guidelines on x-rays. CHID offers summaries that describe the guidelines available, including contact information and pricing. CHID’s general Web site is http://chid.nih.gov/. To search this database, go to http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. In particular, you can use the advanced search options to look up pamphlets, reports, brochures, and information kits. The following was recently posted in this archive: ·

Barium Enema: An X-Ray Examination of the Large Intestine (Colon) Source: Waco, TX: Health Edco. 1990. 2 p. Contact: Available from Health Edco. P.O. Box 21207, Waco, TX 76702-1207. (800) 2993366, ext. 295. Fax (817) 751-0221. PRICE: $2.00 each for 1-99 copies, $0.43 each for 100199 copies. Summary: This brochure describes the barium enema, a procedure that allows a doctor to examine the colon (large intestine) by x-ray. The medium used to make the colon visible on x-ray film is barium sulfate, a thick, white, chalky liquid. When inserted into the colon, it allows the doctor to study the outline of the colon and its movements. This enables the diagnosis of anything that may be wrong in the colon: blockages, narrowings, enlarged areas, growths, or changes due to inflammation. The brochure outlines recommended preprocedure care strategies, why the barium enema might be indicated, what to expect the day of the procedure, and postprocedure guidelines at home. A barium enema is not dangerous, but most patients find it uncomfortable and tiring. Full color line drawings illustrate the parts of the colon that might be examined. X-rays of a barium-filled and air-filled colon are also provided. 9 figures.

·

Importance of X-Raying Children's Teeth: Beyond Your Child's Smile Source: Chicago, IL: American Society of Dentistry for Children. 1994. [2 p.]. Contact: Available from American Society of Dentistry for Children. 875 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 4040, Chicago, IL 60611-1901. Voice (800) 637-ASDC; Fax (312) 943-5341. PRICE: $40.00 per 100 copies (nonmembers), $28.00 per 100 copies (members), shipping and handling additional. Item Number B0890. Summary: This brochure on the importance of x-rays is one of the American Society of Dentistry for Children's series of 12 brochures on dental health for children. Written in a question-and-answer format, the brochure includes a description of dental x-rays, why children need dental x-rays, risks associated with dental x-rays, when the first x-rays of

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a child's teeth should be taken, the types of dental x-rays and what they are used for, and details about the panoramic type of x-rays. The brochure includes reproductions of the three types of x-rays (extraoral panoramic x-ray, intraoral bitewing x-ray, and intraoral periapical x-ray). A list of the other items (brochures and videotapes) in the series is also included. ·

Ask Your Pediatric Dentist About X-Ray Use and Safety Source: Chicago, IL: American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. 199x. [2 p.]. Contact: Available from American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. 211 East Chicago Avenue, Suite 700, Chicago, IL 60611-2616. (312) 337-2169; Fax (312) 337-6329; http://aapd.org. PRICE: Single copy free; bulk rates available. Summary: This brochure, one in a series from the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry, answers questions parents commonly have about the use of X-rays for children's dental care. Written in a question-and-answer format, the brochure considers how often a child should have dental X-ray films, why X-ray films are important even in children who have not had cavities, the recommended frequency of X-rays, safety issues, and how the child will be protected from X-ray exposure. The brochure stresses that X-ray films help dentists find and treat dental problems early, resulting in dental care that is more comfortable and affordable. Three black-and-white photographs show typical bite-wing and panoramic X-ray results. The brochure concludes with a brief description of the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry.

·

Benefits of X-Rays Source: St. Charles, IL: American Dental Association (ADA). 1996. [2 p.]. Contact: Available from American Dental Association (ADA). Catalog Sales, P.O. Box 776, St. Charles, IL 60174. (800) 947-4746; Fax (630) 443-9970; http://www.ada.org. PRICE: $19.00 per 100 copies; bulk orders available. Order Number W138. Summary: This mini-brochure (which folds to pocket size) provides information on the use of radiography (X-rays) in dental care. Dental radiography is valuable for helping to detect oral diseases of the teeth and surrounding tissues. An X-ray exam may reveal small cavities that cannot be seen by a visual exam, infections in the bone, abscesses, cysts, developmental abnormalities such as extra or impacted teeth, and some types of tumors. The brochure answers common questions about dental radiography, including topics such as their safety, how often dental X-rays are necessary, and what the dentist can do to minimize radiation exposure. One chart provides comparisons of common sources and amounts of radiation, including bitewings (4 films), full-mouth survey (19 films), a lower GI series, the average amount received living in the United States, and occupational exposure. The brochure recommends that readers consult with their dentist if they have any additional questions about dental radiography. 1 table.

·

Upper GI X-Ray: An Examination of the Upper Gastrointestinal Tract Source: Waco, TX: Health Edco. 1990. 2 p. Contact: Available from Health Edco. P.O. Box 21207, Waco, TX 76702. (800) 299-3366. PRICE: $0.49 (bulk prices available). Order number 38025-1091-1290. Summary: This patient education brochure discusses the procedure of upper gastrointestinal (GI) X-ray. This is the most common method of diagnosing abnormalities in the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The study uses barium sulfate

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and X-rays to obtain a picture of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Using numerous illustrations, the author explains why the upper GI series is used, how the exam works, and what to expect before, during, and after this diagnostic procedure.

Healthfinder™ Healthfinder™ is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and offers links to hundreds of other sites that contain healthcare information. This Web site is located at http://www.healthfinder.gov. Again, keyword searches can be used to find guidelines. The following was recently found in this database: ·

Emergency Medicine: Online Medical Reference Summary: This online medical reference is designed for use by medical practitioners and the general public and includes thousands of x-rays, color illustrations, and pictures. Source: Commercial Entity--Follow the Resource URL for More Information http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/recordpass.asp?RecordType=0&RecordID=4580

The NIH Search Utility The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to x-rays. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html.

Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: ·

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats

·

Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm

·

Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

·

Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html

·

Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

·

Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/

·

WebMDÒHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics

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Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to x-rays. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with x-rays.

The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about x-rays. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797.

Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “x-rays” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information.

The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “x-rays”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “x-rays” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months.

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The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “x-rays” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”

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APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.

Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.26

Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.

Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of

26

Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.

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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)27: ·

Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/

·

Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)

·

Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm

·

California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html

·

California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html

·

California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html

·

California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)

·

California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/

·

California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp

·

California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html

·

California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/

·

California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/

·

California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/

·

California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html

·

California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/

·

Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/

·

Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/

·

Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/

27

Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.

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·

Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml

·

Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm

·

Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html

·

Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm

·

Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp

·

Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/

·

Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm

·

Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html

·

Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/

·

Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm

·

Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/

·

Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/

·

Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/

·

Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm

·

Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html

·

Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm

·

Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/

·

Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/

·

Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10

·

Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/

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·

Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html

·

Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp

·

Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp

·

Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/

·

Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html

·

Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm

·

Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp

·

Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/

·

Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html

·

Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/

·

Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm

·

Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/

·

Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html

·

Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm

·

Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330

·

Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)

·

National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html

·

National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/

·

National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/

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·

Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm

·

New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/

·

New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm

·

New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm

·

New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/

·

New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html

·

New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/

·

New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html

·

New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/

·

Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm

·

Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp

·

Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/

·

Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/

·

Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml

·

Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html

·

Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html

·

Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml

·

Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp

·

Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm

·

Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/

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·

South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp

·

Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/

·

Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/

·

Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72

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ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: ·

ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html

·

MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp

·

Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/

·

Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html

·

On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/

·

Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp

·

Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm

Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a). The NIH suggests the following Web sites in the ADAM Medical Encyclopedia when searching for information on x-rays: ·

Basic Guidelines for X-rays X-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003337.htm X-ray - skeleton Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003381.htm

·

Diagnostics and Tests for X-rays Abdominal x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003815.htm Barium x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003817.htm Bone x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003808.htm

214 X-rays

Chest x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003804.htm Dental x-rays Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003801.htm Extremity x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003461.htm Gallbladder x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003821.htm Hands x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003811.htm Joints x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003810.htm Lumbosacral spine x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003807.htm Neck x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003805.htm Pelvis x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003809.htm Sinuses x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003803.htm Skull x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003802.htm Thoracic spine x-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003806.htm X-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003337.htm X-ray of the skeleton Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003381.htm ·

Background Topics for X-rays Fractures Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000001.htm Metastasis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002260.htm

Online Glossaries 215

Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: ·

Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical

·

MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html

·

Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/

·

Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine

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X-RAYS DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abdomen: That portion of the body that lies between the thorax and the pelvis. [NIH] Abdominal: Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs. [NIH] Abdominal Pain: Sensation of discomfort, distress, or agony in the abdominal region. [NIH] Aberrant: Wandering or deviating from the usual or normal course. [EU] Ablation: The removal of an organ by surgery. [NIH] Acceptor: A substance which, while normally not oxidized by oxygen or reduced by hydrogen, can be oxidized or reduced in presence of a substance which is itself undergoing oxidation or reduction. [NIH] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Acrylonitrile: A highly poisonous compound used widely in the manufacture of plastics, adhesives and synthetic rubber. [NIH] Actin: Essential component of the cell skeleton. [NIH] Acuity: Clarity or clearness, especially of the vision. [EU] Acute lymphoblastic leukemia: ALL. A quickly progressing disease in which too many immature white blood cells called lymphoblasts are found in the blood and bone marrow. Also called acute lymphocytic leukemia. [NIH] Acute lymphocytic leukemia: ALL. A quickly progressing disease in which too many immature white blood cells called lymphoblasts are found in the blood and bone marrow. Also called acute lymphoblastic leukemia. [NIH] Adaptability: Ability to develop some form of tolerance to conditions extremely different from those under which a living organism evolved. [NIH] Adaptation: 1. The adjustment of an organism to its environment, or the process by which it enhances such fitness. 2. The normal ability of the eye to adjust itself to variations in the intensity of light; the adjustment to such variations. 3. The decline in the frequency of firing of a neuron, particularly of a receptor, under conditions of constant stimulation. 4. In dentistry, (a) the proper fitting of a denture, (b) the degree of proximity and interlocking of restorative material to a tooth preparation, (c) the exact adjustment of bands to teeth. 5. In microbiology, the adjustment of bacterial physiology to a new environment. [EU] Adenine: A purine base and a fundamental unit of adenine nucleotides. [NIH] Adenosine: A nucleoside that is composed of adenine and d-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Adjustment: The dynamic process wherein the thoughts, feelings, behavior, and

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biophysiological mechanisms of the individual continually change to adjust to the environment. [NIH] Adolescence: The period of life beginning with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and terminating with the cessation of somatic growth. The years usually referred to as adolescence lie between 13 and 18 years of age. [NIH] Adrenal Cortex: The outer layer of the adrenal gland. It secretes mineralocorticoids, androgens, and glucocorticoids. [NIH] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerosol: A solution of a drug which can be atomized into a fine mist for inhalation therapy. [EU]

Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Aggravation: An increasing in seriousness or severity; an act or circumstance that intensifies, or makes worse. [EU] Airway: A device for securing unobstructed passage of air into and out of the lungs during general anesthesia. [NIH] Alertness: A state of readiness to detect and respond to certain specified small changes occurring at random intervals in the environment. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alimentary: Pertaining to food or nutritive material, or to the organs of digestion. [EU] Alkaline: Having the reactions of an alkali. [EU] Alkaloid: A member of a large group of chemicals that are made by plants and have nitrogen in them. Some alkaloids have been shown to work against cancer. [NIH] Allium: A genus of liliaceous herbs containing onions (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), and others; many produce pungent, often bacteriostatic and physiologically active compounds and are used as food, condiment, and medicament, the latter in traditional medicine. [NIH] Allo: A female hormone. [NIH] Alpha Particles: Positively charged particles composed of two protons and two neutrons, i.e., helium nuclei, emitted during disintegration of very heavy isotopes; a beam of alpha particles or an alpha ray has very strong ionizing power, but weak penetrability. [NIH] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH]

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Aluminum: A metallic element that has the atomic number 13, atomic symbol Al, and atomic weight 26.98. [NIH] Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining protein conformation. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amplification: The production of additional copies of a chromosomal DNA sequence, found as either intrachromosomal or extrachromosomal DNA. [NIH] Ampulla: A sac-like enlargement of a canal or duct. [NIH] Anaesthesia: Loss of feeling or sensation. Although the term is used for loss of tactile sensibility, or of any of the other senses, it is applied especially to loss of the sensation of pain, as it is induced to permit performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [EU] Analgesic: An agent that alleviates pain without causing loss of consciousness. [EU] Analog: In chemistry, a substance that is similar, but not identical, to another. [NIH] Analogous: Resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development;. [EU] Anatomical: Pertaining to anatomy, or to the structure of the organism. [EU] Androgens: A class of sex hormones associated with the development and maintenance of the secondary male sex characteristics, sperm induction, and sexual differentiation. In addition to increasing virility and libido, they also increase nitrogen and water retention and stimulate skeletal growth. [NIH] Anemia: A reduction in the number of circulating erythrocytes or in the quantity of hemoglobin. [NIH] Anesthesia: A state characterized by loss of feeling or sensation. This depression of nerve function is usually the result of pharmacologic action and is induced to allow performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [NIH] Anesthetics: Agents that are capable of inducing a total or partial loss of sensation, especially tactile sensation and pain. They may act to induce general anesthesia, in which an unconscious state is achieved, or may act locally to induce numbness or lack of sensation at a targeted site. [NIH] Aneuploidy: The chromosomal constitution of cells which deviate from the normal by the addition or subtraction of chromosomes or chromosome pairs. In a normally diploid cell the loss of a chromosome pair is termed nullisomy (symbol: 2N-2), the loss of a single chromosome is monosomy (symbol: 2N-1), the addition of a chromosome pair is tetrasomy (symbol: 2N+2), the addition of a single chromosome is trisomy (symbol: 2N+1). [NIH] Angiogenesis: Blood vessel formation. Tumor angiogenesis is the growth of blood vessels from surrounding tissue to a solid tumor. This is caused by the release of chemicals by the tumor. [NIH] Angiogram: An x-ray of blood vessels; the person receives an injection of dye to outline the vessels on the x-ray. [NIH] Angiography: Radiography of blood vessels after injection of a contrast medium. [NIH]

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Angioplasty: Endovascular reconstruction of an artery, which may include the removal of atheromatous plaque and/or the endothelial lining as well as simple dilatation. These are procedures performed by catheterization. When reconstruction of an artery is performed surgically, it is called endarterectomy. [NIH] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH] Anions: Negatively charged atoms, radicals or groups of atoms which travel to the anode or positive pole during electrolysis. [NIH] Anode: Electrode held at a positive potential with respect to a cathode. [NIH] Anomalies: Birth defects; abnormalities. [NIH] Antagonism: Interference with, or inhibition of, the growth of a living organism by another living organism, due either to creation of unfavorable conditions (e. g. exhaustion of food supplies) or to production of a specific antibiotic substance (e. g. penicillin). [NIH] Anthrax: An acute bacterial infection caused by ingestion of bacillus organisms. Carnivores may become infected from ingestion of infected carcasses. It is transmitted to humans by contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products. The most common form in humans is cutaneous anthrax. [NIH] Antiallergic: Counteracting allergy or allergic conditions. [EU] Anti-Anxiety Agents: Agents that alleviate anxiety, tension, and neurotic symptoms, promote sedation, and have a calming effect without affecting clarity of consciousness or neurologic conditions. Some are also effective as anticonvulsants, muscle relaxants, or anesthesia adjuvants. Adrenergic beta-antagonists are commonly used in the symptomatic treatment of anxiety but are not included here. [NIH] Antibacterial: A substance that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or reproduction. [EU] Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. [NIH]

Antibodies: Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the antigen that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially plasma cells), or with an antigen closely related to it. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Anticoagulant: A drug that helps prevent blood clots from forming. Also called a blood thinner. [NIH] Anticonvulsant: An agent that prevents or relieves convulsions. [EU] Antidepressant: A drug used to treat depression. [NIH] Antidepressive Agents: Mood-stimulating drugs used primarily in the treatment of affective disorders and related conditions. Several monoamine oxidase inhibitors are useful as antidepressants apparently as a long-term consequence of their modulation of catecholamine levels. The tricyclic compounds useful as antidepressive agents also appear to act through brain catecholamine systems. A third group (antidepressive agents, secondgeneration) is a diverse group of drugs including some that act specifically on serotonergic

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systems. [NIH] Antiemetic: An agent that prevents or alleviates nausea and vomiting. Also antinauseant. [EU]

Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Anti-infective: An agent that so acts. [EU] Anti-inflammatory: Having to do with reducing inflammation. [NIH] Anti-Inflammatory Agents: Substances that reduce or suppress inflammation. [NIH] Antineoplastic: Inhibiting or preventing the development of neoplasms, checking the maturation and proliferation of malignant cells. [EU] Antiporters: Membrane glycoproteins that transport substrates across the membrane in a tightly coupled stoichiometric manner. The stoichiometry of influx of one substrate and the efflux of another is fixed by a single transport catalytic cycle; that is, the membrane is not freely permeable to either substrate. Antiporters mediate secondary active transport, using the electrochemical energy of a primary gradient (mostly for sodium) that is built up by an ATP-consuming transporter (mostly sodium, potassium ATPase) to maintain transmembrane gradients for other electrolytes or metabolic substrates. [NIH] Antiseptic: A substance that inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms without necessarily killing them. [EU] Antispasmodic: An agent that relieves spasm. [EU] Antiviral: Destroying viruses or suppressing their replication. [EU] Anus: The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body. [NIH] Anxiety: Persistent feeling of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster. [NIH] Aperture: A natural hole of perforation, especially one in a bone. [NIH] Aponeurosis: Tendinous expansion consisting of a fibrous or membranous sheath which serves as a fascia to enclose or bind a group of muscles. [NIH] Apoptosis: One of the two mechanisms by which cell death occurs (the other being the pathological process of necrosis). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA (DNA fragmentation) at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth. [NIH] Appendicitis: Acute inflammation of the vermiform appendix. [NIH] Applicability: A list of the commodities to which the candidate method can be applied as presented or with minor modifications. [NIH] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Arachidonate 12-Lipoxygenase: An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of arachidonic acid to yield 12-hydroperoxyarachidonate (12-HPETE) which is itself rapidly converted by a peroxidase to 12-hydroxy-5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoate (12-HETE). The 12-hydroperoxides are

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preferentially formed in platelets. EC 1.13.11.31. [NIH] Arachidonate 15-Lipoxygenase: An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of arachidonic acid to yield 15-hydroperoxyarachidonate (15-HPETE) which is rapidly converted to 15-hydroxy5,8,11,13-eicosatetraenoate (15-HETE). The 15-hydroperoxides are preferentially formed in neutrophils and lymphocytes. EC 1.13.11.33. [NIH] Arachidonate Lipoxygenases: Enzymes catalyzing the oxidation of arachidonic acid to hydroperoxyarachidonates (HPETES). These products are then rapidly converted by a peroxidase to hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETES). The positional specificity of the enzyme reaction varies from tissue to tissue. The final lipoxygenase pathway leads to the leukotrienes. EC 1.13.11.- . [NIH] Arginine: An essential amino acid that is physiologically active in the L-form. [NIH] Aromatic: Having a spicy odour. [EU] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Arteriogram: An x-ray of arteries; the person receives an injection of a dye that outlines the vessels on an x-ray. [NIH] Arteriography: A procedure to x-ray arteries. The arteries can be seen because of an injection of a dye that outlines the vessels on an x-ray. [NIH] Arterioles: The smallest divisions of the arteries located between the muscular arteries and the capillaries. [NIH] Arteritis: Inflammation of an artery. [NIH] Arthritis, Reactive: An abacterial form of arthritis developing after infection at a site distant from the affected joint or joints. The causative bacteria cannot be cultured from synovial specimens but bacterial antigens have been demonstrated in cells from the synovial fluid and membrane. It often follows Yersinia infection. [NIH] Arthrography: Roentgenography of a joint, usually after injection of either positive or negative contrast medium. [NIH] Arthroscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy and surgery of the joint. [NIH] Articular: Of or pertaining to a joint. [EU] Artifacts: Any visible result of a procedure which is caused by the procedure itself and not by the entity being analyzed. Common examples include histological structures introduced by tissue processing, radiographic images of structures that are not naturally present in living tissue, and products of chemical reactions that occur during analysis. [NIH] Asphyxia: A pathological condition caused by lack of oxygen, manifested in impending or actual cessation of life. [NIH] Aspiration: The act of inhaling. [NIH] Assay: Determination of the amount of a particular constituent of a mixture, or of the biological or pharmacological potency of a drug. [EU] Astigmatism: A condition in which the surface of the cornea is not spherical; causes a blurred image to be received at the retina. [NIH] Astringent: Causing contraction, usually locally after topical application. [EU] Ataxia: Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharnyx, larnyx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with

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cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. [NIH] ATP: ATP an abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate, a compound which serves as a carrier of energy for cells. [NIH] Atrophy: Decrease in the size of a cell, tissue, organ, or multiple organs, associated with a variety of pathological conditions such as abnormal cellular changes, ischemia, malnutrition, or hormonal changes. [NIH] Attenuated: Strain with weakened or reduced virulence. [NIH] Attenuation: Reduction of transmitted sound energy or its electrical equivalent. [NIH] Auscultation: Act of listening for sounds within the body. [NIH] Autonomic: Self-controlling; functionally independent. [EU] Autonomic Nervous System: The enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic nervous systems taken together. Generally speaking, the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal environment during both peaceful activity and physical or emotional stress. Autonomic activity is controlled and integrated by the central nervous system, especially the hypothalamus and the solitary nucleus, which receive information relayed from visceral afferents; these and related central and sensory structures are sometimes (but not here) considered to be part of the autonomic nervous system itself. [NIH] Autopsy: Postmortem examination of the body. [NIH] Avulsion: The forcible separation, or tearing away, of a part of an organ. [NIH] Bacillus: A genus of Bacillaceae that are spore-forming, rod-shaped cells. Most species are saprophytic soil forms with only a few species being pathogenic. [NIH] Back Pain: Acute or chronic pain located in the posterior regions of the trunk, including the thoracic, lumbar, sacral, or adjacent regions. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacterial Physiology: Physiological processes and activities of bacteria. [NIH] Bactericidal: Substance lethal to bacteria; substance capable of killing bacteria. [NIH] Bacteriophage: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; A virus that exclusively infects bacteria. It generally has a protein coat surrounding the genome (DNA or RNA). One of the coliphages most extensively studied is the lambda phage, which is also one of the most important. [NIH] Bacteriostatic: 1. Inhibiting the growth or multiplication of bacteria. 2. An agent that inhibits the growth or multiplication of bacteria. [EU] Bacterium: Microscopic organism which may have a spherical, rod-like, or spiral unicellular or non-cellular body. Bacteria usually reproduce through asexual processes. [NIH] Bacteriuria: The presence of bacteria in the urine with or without consequent urinary tract infection. Since bacteriuria is a clinical entity, the term does not preclude the use of urine/microbiology for technical discussions on the isolation and segregation of bacteria in the urine. [NIH] Barium: An element of the alkaline earth group of metals. It has an atomic symbol Ba, atomic number 56, and atomic weight 138. All of its acid-soluble salts are poisonous. [NIH] Barium enema: A procedure in which a liquid with barium in it is put into the rectum and colon by way of the anus. Barium is a silver-white metallic compound that helps to show the

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image of the lower gastrointestinal tract on an x-ray. [NIH] Barium Sulfate: Sulfuric acid, barium salt (1:1). A compound used as an x-ray contrast medium that occurs in nature as the mineral barite. It is also used in various manufacturing applications and mixed into heavy concrete to serve as a radiation shield. [NIH] Barium swallow: A series of x-rays of the esophagus. The x-ray pictures are taken after the person drinks a solution that contains barium. The barium coats and outlines the esophagus on the x-ray. Also called an esophagram. [NIH] Basal cells: Small, round cells found in the lower part (or base) of the epidermis, the outer layer of the skin. [NIH] Basal Ganglia: Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres. [NIH] Basal Ganglia Diseases: Diseases of the basal ganglia including the putamen; globus pallidus; claustrum; amygdala; and caudate nucleus. Dyskinesias (most notably involuntary movements and alterations of the rate of movement) represent the primary clinical manifestations of these disorders. Common etiologies include cerebrovascular disease; neurodegenerative diseases; and craniocerebral trauma. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Benign: Not cancerous; does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. [NIH]

Berylliosis: A lung disease caused by exposure to metallic beryllium or its soluble salts. [NIH]

Beryllium: An element with the atomic symbol Be, atomic number 4, and atomic weight 9.01218. Short exposure to this element can lead to a type of poisoning known as berylliosis. [NIH]

Beta Rays: A stream of positive or negative electrons ejected with high energy from a disintegrating atomic nucleus; most biomedically used isotopes emit negative particles (electrons or negatrons, rather than positrons). Cathode rays are low-energy negative electrons produced in cathode ray tubes, also called television tubes or oscilloscopes. [NIH] Bile: An emulsifying agent produced in the liver and secreted into the duodenum. Its composition includes bile acids and salts, cholesterol, and electrolytes. It aids digestion of fats in the duodenum. [NIH] Bile Acids: Acids made by the liver that work with bile to break down fats. [NIH] Bile Acids and Salts: Steroid acids and salts. The primary bile acids are derived from cholesterol in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. The secondary bile acids are further modified by bacteria in the intestine. They play an important role in the digestion and absorption of fat. They have also been used pharmacologically, especially in the treatment of gallstones. [NIH] Bile Ducts: Tubes that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder for storage and to the small intestine for use in digestion. [NIH] Biliary: Having to do with the liver, bile ducts, and/or gallbladder. [NIH] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biochemical Phenomena: Biochemical functions, activities, and processes at organic and molecular levels in humans, animals, microorganisms, and plants. [NIH]

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Bioengineering: The application of engineering principles to the solution of biological problems, for example, remote-handling devices, life-support systems, controls, and displays. [NIH] Biological Phenomena: Biological functions and activities at the organic and molecular levels in humans, animals, microorganisms, and plants. For biochemical and metabolic processes, biochemical phenomena is available. [NIH] Bioluminescence: The emission of light by living organisms such as the firefly, certain mollusks, beetles, fish, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. [NIH] Biomarkers: Substances sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood, other body fluids, or tissues and that may suggest the presence of some types of cancer. Biomarkers include CA 125 (ovarian cancer), CA 15-3 (breast cancer), CEA (ovarian, lung, breast, pancreas, and GI tract cancers), and PSA (prostate cancer). Also called tumor markers. [NIH] Biopsy: Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body. [NIH] Biopsy specimen: Tissue removed from the body and examined under a microscope to determine whether disease is present. [NIH] Biosynthesis: The building up of a chemical compound in the physiologic processes of a living organism. [EU] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Biotic: Pertaining to living organisms in their ecological rather than their physiological relations. [NIH] Bismuth: A metallic element that has the atomic symbol Bi, atomic number 83 and atomic weight 208.98. [NIH] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH] Bloating: Fullness or swelling in the abdomen that often occurs after meals. [NIH] Blood Coagulation: The process of the interaction of blood coagulation factors that results in an insoluble fibrin clot. [NIH] Blood Glucose: Glucose in blood. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Body Composition: The relative amounts of various components in the body, such as percent body fat. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH] Bone Cements: Adhesives used to fix prosthetic devices to bones and to cement bone to bone in difficult fractures. Synthetic resins are commonly used as cements. A mixture of monocalcium phosphate, monohydrate, alpha-tricalcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate with a sodium phosphate solution is also a useful bone paste. [NIH]

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Bone Density: The amount of mineral per square centimeter of bone. This is the definition used in clinical practice. Actual bone density would be expressed in grams per milliliter. It is most frequently measured by photon absorptiometry or x-ray computed tomography. [NIH] Bone Marrow: The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells. [NIH] Bone Marrow Transplantation: The transference of bone marrow from one human or animal to another. [NIH] Bone scan: A technique to create images of bones on a computer screen or on film. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream; it collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner. [NIH] Boron: A trace element with the atomic symbol B, atomic number 5, and atomic weight 10.81. Boron-10, an isotope of boron, is used as a neutron absorber in boron neutron capture therapy. [NIH] Boron Neutron Capture Therapy: A technique for the treatment of neoplasms, especially gliomas and melanomas in which boron-10, an isotope, is introduced into the target cells followed by irradiation with thermal neutrons. [NIH] Bowel: The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine. [NIH] Bowel Movement: Body wastes passed through the rectum and anus. [NIH] Brachytherapy: A collective term for interstitial, intracavity, and surface radiotherapy. It uses small sealed or partly-sealed sources that may be placed on or near the body surface or within a natural body cavity or implanted directly into the tissues. [NIH] Bradykinin: A nonapeptide messenger that is enzymatically produced from kallidin in the blood where it is a potent but short-lived agent of arteriolar dilation and increased capillary permeability. Bradykinin is also released from mast cells during asthma attacks, from gut walls as a gastrointestinal vasodilator, from damaged tissues as a pain signal, and may be a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Branch: Most commonly used for branches of nerves, but applied also to other structures. [NIH]

Breakdown: A physical, metal, or nervous collapse. [NIH] Bronchi: The larger air passages of the lungs arising from the terminal bifurcation of the trachea. [NIH] Bronchitis: Inflammation (swelling and reddening) of the bronchi. [NIH] Bronchoscope: A thin, lighted tube used to examine the inside of the trachea and bronchi, the air passages that lead into the lungs. [NIH] Bronchoscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the bronchi. [NIH] Buccal: Pertaining to or directed toward the cheek. In dental anatomy, used to refer to the buccal surface of a tooth. [EU] Burns: Injuries to tissues caused by contact with heat, steam, chemicals (burns, chemical), electricity (burns, electric), or the like. [NIH] Burns, Electric: Burns produced by contact with electric current or from a sudden discharge of electricity. [NIH]

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Bursitis: Inflammation of a bursa, occasionally accompanied by a calcific deposit in the underlying supraspinatus tendon; the most common site is the subdeltoid bursa. [EU] Cadmium: An element with atomic symbol Cd, atomic number 48, and atomic weight 114. It is a metal and ingestion will lead to cadmium poisoning. [NIH] Cadmium Poisoning: Poisoning occurring after exposure to cadmium compounds or fumes. It may cause gastrointestinal syndromes, anemia, or pneumonitis. [NIH] Caffeine: A methylxanthine naturally occurring in some beverages and also used as a pharmacological agent. Caffeine's most notable pharmacological effect is as a central nervous system stimulant, increasing alertness and producing agitation. It also relaxes smooth muscle, stimulates cardiac muscle, stimulates diuresis, and appears to be useful in the treatment of some types of headache. Several cellular actions of caffeine have been observed, but it is not entirely clear how each contributes to its pharmacological profile. Among the most important are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, antagonism of adenosine receptors, and modulation of intracellular calcium handling. [NIH] Calcification: Deposits of calcium in the tissues of the breast. Calcification in the breast can be seen on a mammogram, but cannot be detected by touch. There are two types of breast calcification, macrocalcification and microcalcification. Macrocalcifications are large deposits and are usually not related to cancer. Microcalcifications are specks of calcium that may be found in an area of rapidly dividing cells. Many microcalcifications clustered together may be a sign of cancer. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Calcium Oxalate: The calcium salt of oxalic acid, occurring in the urine as crystals and in certain calculi. [NIH] Calculi: An abnormal concretion occurring mostly in the urinary and biliary tracts, usually composed of mineral salts. Also called stones. [NIH] Calmodulin: A heat-stable, low-molecular-weight activator protein found mainly in the brain and heart. The binding of calcium ions to this protein allows this protein to bind to cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases and to adenyl cyclase with subsequent activation. Thereby this protein modulates cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP levels. [NIH] Calorimeter: Measures the amounts of heat absorbed or given off by a solid, a liquid, or a gas. [NIH] Camptothecin: An alkaloid isolated from the stem wood of the Chinese tree, Camptotheca acuminata. This compound selectively inhibits the nuclear enzyme DNA topoisomerase. Several semisynthetic analogs of camptothecin have demonstrated antitumor activity. [NIH] Cannula: A tube for insertion into a duct or cavity; during insertion its lumen is usually occupied by a trocar. [EU] Capillary: Any one of the minute vessels that connect the arterioles and venules, forming a network in nearly all parts of the body. Their walls act as semipermeable membranes for the interchange of various substances, including fluids, between the blood and tissue fluid; called also vas capillare. [EU] Capsules: Hard or soft soluble containers used for the oral administration of medicine. [NIH] Carbogen: An inhalant of oxygen and carbon dioxide that increases the sensitivity of tumor

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cells to the effects of radiation therapy. [NIH] Carbohydrate: An aldehyde or ketone derivative of a polyhydric alcohol, particularly of the pentahydric and hexahydric alcohols. They are so named because the hydrogen and oxygen are usually in the proportion to form water, (CH2O)n. The most important carbohydrates are the starches, sugars, celluloses, and gums. They are classified into mono-, di-, tri-, polyand heterosaccharides. [EU] Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. [NIH] Carcinogenic: Producing carcinoma. [EU] Carcinogens: Substances that increase the risk of neoplasms in humans or animals. Both genotoxic chemicals, which affect DNA directly, and nongenotoxic chemicals, which induce neoplasms by other mechanism, are included. [NIH] Carcinoma: Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. [NIH]

Cardiac: Having to do with the heart. [NIH] Cardiac catheterization: A procedure in which a thin, hollow tube is inserted into a blood vessel. The tube is then advanced through the vessel into the heart, enabling a physician to study the heart and its pumping activity. [NIH] Cardiology: The study of the heart, its physiology, and its functions. [NIH] Cardiovascular: Having to do with the heart and blood vessels. [NIH] Cardiovascular disease: Any abnormal condition characterized by dysfunction of the heart and blood vessels. CVD includes atherosclerosis (especially coronary heart disease, which can lead to heart attacks), cerebrovascular disease (e.g., stroke), and hypertension (high blood pressure). [NIH] Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: A median nerve injury inside the carpal tunnel that results in symptoms of pain, numbness, tingling, clumsiness, and a lack of sweating, which can be caused by work with certain hand and wrist postures. [NIH] Case report: A detailed report of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports also contain some demographic information about the patient (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin). [NIH] Case series: A group or series of case reports involving patients who were given similar treatment. Reports of case series usually contain detailed information about the individual patients. This includes demographic information (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin) and information on diagnosis, treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up after treatment. [NIH] Case-Control Studies: Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group. [NIH] Catheterization: Use or insertion of a tubular device into a duct, blood vessel, hollow organ, or body cavity for injecting or withdrawing fluids for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It differs from intubation in that the tube here is used to restore or maintain patency in obstructions. [NIH] Catheters: A small, flexible tube that may be inserted into various parts of the body to inject or remove liquids. [NIH] Cathode: An electrode, usually an incandescent filament of tungsten, which emits electrons

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in an X-ray tube. [NIH] Cations: Postively charged atoms, radicals or groups of atoms which travel to the cathode or negative pole during electrolysis. [NIH] Cauda Equina: The lower part of the spinal cord consisting of the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal nerve roots. [NIH] Cecum: The beginning of the large intestine. The cecum is connected to the lower part of the small intestine, called the ileum. [NIH] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Cycle: The complex series of phenomena, occurring between the end of one cell division and the end of the next, by which cellular material is divided between daughter cells. [NIH] Cell Death: The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Cell Differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function which takes place during the development of the embryo and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH] Cell membrane: Cell membrane = plasma membrane. The structure enveloping a cell, enclosing the cytoplasm, and forming a selective permeability barrier; it consists of lipids, proteins, and some carbohydrates, the lipids thought to form a bilayer in which integral proteins are embedded to varying degrees. [EU] Cell proliferation: An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division. [NIH] Cell Survival: The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Cellular Structures: Components of a cell. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Cerebellar: Pertaining to the cerebellum. [EU] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebral Palsy: Refers to a motor disability caused by a brain dysfunction. [NIH] Cerebrospinal: Pertaining to the brain and spinal cord. [EU] Cerebrospinal fluid: CSF. The fluid flowing around the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the ventricles in the brain. [NIH] Cerebrovascular: Pertaining to the blood vessels of the cerebrum, or brain. [EU] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Cerium: An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Ce, atomic number 58, and atomic weight 140.12. Cerium is a malleable metal used in industrial applications. [NIH] Cervical: Relating to the neck, or to the neck of any organ or structure. Cervical lymph nodes are located in the neck; cervical cancer refers to cancer of the uterine cervix, which is

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the lower, narrow end (the "neck") of the uterus. [NIH] Cervix: The lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina. [NIH] Cesium: A member of the alkali metals. It has an atomic symbol Cs, atomic number 50, and atomic weight 132.91. Cesium has many industrial applications, including the construction of atomic clocks based on its atomic vibrational frequency. [NIH] Character: In current usage, approximately equivalent to personality. The sum of the relatively fixed personality traits and habitual modes of response of an individual. [NIH] Chemical Warfare: Tactical warfare using incendiary mixtures, smokes, or irritant, burning, or asphyxiating gases. [NIH] Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemicals that are used to cause the disturbance, disease, or death of humans during war. [NIH] Chemoembolization: A procedure in which the blood supply to the tumor is blocked surgically or mechanically, and anticancer drugs are administered directly into the tumor. This permits a higher concentration of drug to be in contact with the tumor for a longer period of time. [NIH] Chemotherapy: Treatment with anticancer drugs. [NIH] Child Development: The continuous sequential physiological and psychological maturing of the child from birth up to but not including adolescence. It includes healthy responses to situations, but does not include growth in stature or size (= growth). [NIH] Cholelithiasis: Presence or formation of gallstones. [NIH] Cholesterol: The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. [NIH] Chromatin: The material of chromosomes. It is a complex of DNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins (chromosomal proteins, non-histone) found within the nucleus of a cell. [NIH] Chromium: A trace element that plays a role in glucose metabolism. It has the atomic symbol Cr, atomic number 24, and atomic weight 52. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP85-002,1985), chromium and some of its compounds have been listed as known carcinogens. [NIH] Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Chromosome Aberrations: Deviations from the normal number or structure of chromosomes, not necessarily associated with disease. [NIH] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Chronic Disease: Disease or ailment of long duration. [NIH] Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Collective term for chronic bronchitis and emphysema. [NIH] Chronic renal: Slow and progressive loss of kidney function over several years, often resulting in end-stage renal disease. People with end-stage renal disease need dialysis or transplantation to replace the work of the kidneys. [NIH] Clinical study: A research study in which patients receive treatment in a clinic or other medical facility. Reports of clinical studies can contain results for single patients (case reports) or many patients (case series or clinical trials). [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other

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interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Coagulation: 1. The process of clot formation. 2. In colloid chemistry, the solidification of a sol into a gelatinous mass; an alteration of a disperse phase or of a dissolved solid which causes the separation of the system into a liquid phase and an insoluble mass called the clot or curd. Coagulation is usually irreversible. 3. In surgery, the disruption of tissue by physical means to form an amorphous residuum, as in electrocoagulation and photocoagulation. [EU] Cobalt: A trace element that is a component of vitamin B12. It has the atomic symbol Co, atomic number 27, and atomic weight 58.93. It is used in nuclear weapons, alloys, and pigments. Deficiency in animals leads to anemia; its excess in humans can lead to erythrocytosis. [NIH] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Coliphages: Viruses whose host is Escherichia coli. [NIH] Colitis: Inflammation of the colon. [NIH] Collagen: A polypeptide substance comprising about one third of the total protein in mammalian organisms. It is the main constituent of skin, connective tissue, and the organic substance of bones and teeth. Different forms of collagen are produced in the body but all consist of three alpha-polypeptide chains arranged in a triple helix. Collagen is differentiated from other fibrous proteins, such as elastin, by the content of proline, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine; by the absence of tryptophan; and particularly by the high content of polar groups which are responsible for its swelling properties. [NIH] Collapse: 1. A state of extreme prostration and depression, with failure of circulation. 2. Abnormal falling in of the walls of any part of organ. [EU] Colloidal: Of the nature of a colloid. [EU] Colonic Polyps: Pedunculated or sessile growths arising from the mucous membrane of the colon. [NIH] Colonoscope: A thin, lighted tube used to examine the inside of the colon. [NIH] Colonoscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the luminal surface of the colon. [NIH] Combinatorial: A cut-and-paste process that churns out thousands of potentially valuable compounds at once. [NIH] Comet Assay: A genotoxicological technique for measuring DNA damage in an individual cell using single-cell gel electrophoresis. Cell DNA fragments assume a "comet with tail" formation on electrophoresis and are detected with an image analysis system. Alkaline assay conditions facilitate sensitive detection of single-strand damage. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and

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C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementation: The production of a wild-type phenotype when two different mutations are combined in a diploid or a heterokaryon and tested in trans-configuration. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Computed tomography: CT scan. A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called computerized tomography and computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan. [NIH] Computer-Aided Design: The use of computers for designing and/or manufacturing of anything, including drugs, surgical procedures, orthotics, and prosthetics. [NIH] Computerized axial tomography: A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computed tomography (CT scan), or computerized tomography. [NIH] Computerized tomography: A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan and computed tomography (CT scan). [NIH] Conception: The onset of pregnancy, marked by implantation of the blastocyst; the formation of a viable zygote. [EU]

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Conduction: The transfer of sound waves, heat, nervous impulses, or electricity. [EU] Cone: One of the special retinal receptor elements which are presumed to be primarily concerned with perception of light and color stimuli when the eye is adapted to light. [NIH] Conjugated: Acting or operating as if joined; simultaneous. [EU] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue Cells: A group of cells that includes fibroblasts, cartilage cells, adipocytes, smooth muscle cells, and bone cells. [NIH] Connective Tissue Diseases: A heterogeneous group of disorders, some hereditary, others acquired, characterized by abnormal structure or function of one or more of the elements of connective tissue, i.e., collagen, elastin, or the mucopolysaccharides. [NIH] Consciousness: Sense of awareness of self and of the environment. [NIH] Constipation: Infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces. [NIH] Constriction: The act of constricting. [NIH] Consumption: Pulmonary tuberculosis. [NIH] Contamination: The soiling or pollution by inferior material, as by the introduction of organisms into a wound, or sewage into a stream. [EU] Contractility: Capacity for becoming short in response to a suitable stimulus. [EU] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Contrast Media: Substances used in radiography that allow visualization of certain tissues. [NIH]

Contrast Sensitivity: The ability to detect sharp boundaries (stimuli) and to detect slight changes in luminance at regions without distinct contours. Psychophysical measurements of this visual function are used to evaluate visual acuity and to detect eye disease. [NIH] Controlled study: An experiment or clinical trial that includes a comparison (control) group. [NIH]

Convulsions: A general term referring to sudden and often violent motor activity of cerebral or brainstem origin. Convulsions may also occur in the absence of an electrical cerebral discharge (e.g., in response to hypotension). [NIH] Coordination: Muscular or motor regulation or the harmonious cooperation of muscles or groups of muscles, in a complex action or series of actions. [NIH] Cornea: The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside. [NIH] Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary Angiography: Radiography of the vascular system of the heart muscle after injection of a contrast medium. [NIH] Coronary heart disease: A type of heart disease caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries that feed the heart, which needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients carried by the blood in the coronary arteries. When the coronary arteries become narrowed or clogged by fat and cholesterol deposits and cannot supply enough blood to the heart, CHD

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results. [NIH] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Corrosion: Irreversible destruction of skin tissue. [NIH] Cortex: The outer layer of an organ or other body structure, as distinguished from the internal substance. [EU] Cortical: Pertaining to or of the nature of a cortex or bark. [EU] Corticosteroid: Any of the steroids elaborated by the adrenal cortex (excluding the sex hormones of adrenal origin) in response to the release of corticotrophin (adrenocorticotropic hormone) by the pituitary gland, to any of the synthetic equivalents of these steroids, or to angiotensin II. They are divided, according to their predominant biological activity, into three major groups: glucocorticoids, chiefly influencing carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism; mineralocorticoids, affecting the regulation of electrolyte and water balance; and C19 androgens. Some corticosteroids exhibit both types of activity in varying degrees, and others exert only one type of effect. The corticosteroids are used clinically for hormonal replacement therapy, for suppression of ACTH secretion by the anterior pituitary, as antineoplastic, antiallergic, and anti-inflammatory agents, and to suppress the immune response. Called also adrenocortical hormone and corticoid. [EU] Cost Savings: Reductions in all or any portion of the costs of providing goods or services. Savings may be incurred by the provider or the consumer. [NIH] Cribriform: Pierced with small holes as in a sieve. Refers to the appearance of a tumor when viewed under a microscope. The tumor appears to have open spaces or small holes inside. [NIH]

Crossing-over: The exchange of corresponding segments between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosia, forming a chiasma. [NIH] Crowns: A prosthetic restoration that reproduces the entire surface anatomy of the visible natural crown of a tooth. It may be partial (covering three or more surfaces of a tooth) or complete (covering all surfaces). It is made of gold or other metal, porcelain, or resin. [NIH] Crystallization: The formation of crystals; conversion to a crystalline form. [EU] Cultured cell line: Cells of a single type that have been grown in the laboratory for several generations (cell divisions). [NIH] Curare: Plant extracts from several species, including Strychnos toxifera, S. castelnaei, S. crevauxii, and Chondodendron tomentosum, that produce paralysis of skeletal muscle and are used adjunctively with general anesthesia. These extracts are toxic and must be used with the administration of artificial respiration. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cutaneous: Having to do with the skin. [NIH] Cyclic: Pertaining to or occurring in a cycle or cycles; the term is applied to chemical compounds that contain a ring of atoms in the nucleus. [EU] Cysteine: A thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized to form cystine. [NIH] Cystine: A covalently linked dimeric nonessential amino acid formed by the oxidation of cysteine. Two molecules of cysteine are joined together by a disulfide bridge to form cystine. [NIH]

Cystoscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the urinary bladder. [NIH] Cytochrome: Any electron transfer hemoprotein having a mode of action in which the transfer of a single electron is effected by a reversible valence change of the central iron atom

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of the heme prosthetic group between the +2 and +3 oxidation states; classified as cytochromes a in which the heme contains a formyl side chain, cytochromes b, which contain protoheme or a closely similar heme that is not covalently bound to the protein, cytochromes c in which protoheme or other heme is covalently bound to the protein, and cytochromes d in which the iron-tetrapyrrole has fewer conjugated double bonds than the hemes have. Well-known cytochromes have been numbered consecutively within groups and are designated by subscripts (beginning with no subscript), e.g. cytochromes c, c1, C2, . New cytochromes are named according to the wavelength in nanometres of the absorption maximum of the a-band of the iron (II) form in pyridine, e.g., c-555. [EU] Cytoplasm: The protoplasm of a cell exclusive of that of the nucleus; it consists of a continuous aqueous solution (cytosol) and the organelles and inclusions suspended in it (phaneroplasm), and is the site of most of the chemical activities of the cell. [EU] Cytoskeleton: The network of filaments, tubules, and interconnecting filamentous bridges which give shape, structure, and organization to the cytoplasm. [NIH] Cytotoxic: Cell-killing. [NIH] Data Collection: Systematic gathering of data for a particular purpose from various sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and electronic devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data. [NIH] Databases, Bibliographic: Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from factual databases which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them. [NIH] Decontamination: The removal of contaminating material, such as radioactive materials, biological materials, or chemical warfare agents, from a person or object. [NIH] Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Dehydration: The condition that results from excessive loss of body water. [NIH] Deletion: A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA (chromosomes), bringing sequences, which are normally separated, into close proximity. [NIH] Delivery of Health Care: The concept concerned with all aspects of providing and distributing health services to a patient population. [NIH] Dementia: An acquired organic mental disorder with loss of intellectual abilities of sufficient severity to interfere with social or occupational functioning. The dysfunction is multifaceted and involves memory, behavior, personality, judgment, attention, spatial relations, language, abstract thought, and other executive functions. The intellectual decline is usually progressive, and initially spares the level of consciousness. [NIH] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH] Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Dental Abutments: Natural teeth or teeth roots used as anchorage for a fixed or removable denture or other prosthesis (such as an implant) serving the same purpose. [NIH] Dental Care: The total of dental diagnostic, preventive, and restorative services provided to meet the needs of a patient (from Illustrated Dictionary of Dentistry, 1982). [NIH] Dental Caries: Localized destruction of the tooth surface initiated by decalcification of the enamel followed by enzymatic lysis of organic structures and leading to cavity formation. If

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left unchecked, the cavity may penetrate the enamel and dentin and reach the pulp. The three most prominent theories used to explain the etiology of the disase are that acids produced by bacteria lead to decalcification; that micro-organisms destroy the enamel protein; or that keratolytic micro-organisms produce chelates that lead to decalcification. [NIH]

Dental Hygienists: Persons trained in an accredited school or dental college and licensed by the state in which they reside to provide dental prophylaxis under the direction of a licensed dentist. [NIH] Dental Materials: Materials used in the production of dental bases, restorations, impressions, prostheses, etc. [NIH] Dental Plaque: A film that attaches to teeth, often causing dental caries and gingivitis. It is composed of mucins, secreted from salivary glands, and microorganisms. [NIH] Dentists: Individuals licensed to practice dentistry. [NIH] Dentures: An appliance used as an artificial or prosthetic replacement for missing teeth and adjacent tissues. It does not include crowns, dental abutments, nor artificial teeth. [NIH] Deoxyribonucleic: A polymer of subunits called deoxyribonucleotides which is the primary genetic material of a cell, the material equivalent to genetic information. [NIH] Deoxyribonucleic acid: A polymer of subunits called deoxyribonucleotides which is the primary genetic material of a cell, the material equivalent to genetic information. [NIH] Deoxyribonucleotides: A purine or pyrimidine base bonded to a deoxyribose containing a bond to a phosphate group. [NIH] Depolarization: The process or act of neutralizing polarity. In neurophysiology, the reversal of the resting potential in excitable cell membranes when stimulated, i.e., the tendency of the cell membrane potential to become positive with respect to the potential outside the cell. [EU] Depressive Disorder: An affective disorder manifested by either a dysphoric mood or loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. The mood disturbance is prominent and relatively persistent. [NIH] Deuterium: Deuterium. The stable isotope of hydrogen. It has one neutron and one proton in the nucleus. [NIH] Developing Countries: Countries in the process of change directed toward economic growth, that is, an increase in production, per capita consumption, and income. The process of economic growth involves better utilization of natural and human resources, which results in a change in the social, political, and economic structures. [NIH] Diabetes Mellitus: A heterogeneous group of disorders that share glucose intolerance in common. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Diaphragm: The musculofibrous partition that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. Contraction of the diaphragm increases the volume of the thoracic cavity aiding inspiration. [NIH] Diarrhea: Passage of excessively liquid or excessively frequent stools. [NIH] Diathermy: The induction of local hyperthermia by either short radio waves or highfrequency sound waves. [NIH] Digestion: The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body. [NIH] Digestive system: The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach,

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liver, pancreas, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Digestive tract: The organs through which food passes when food is eaten. These organs are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Dihydrotestosterone: Anabolic agent. [NIH] Dilatation: The act of dilating. [NIH] Dimethyl: A volatile metabolite of the amino acid methionine. [NIH] Diploid: Having two sets of chromosomes. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Discrimination: The act of qualitative and/or quantitative differentiation between two or more stimuli. [NIH] Disease Progression: The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis. [NIH] Dislocation: The displacement of any part, more especially of a bone. Called also luxation. [EU]

Dissociation: 1. The act of separating or state of being separated. 2. The separation of a molecule into two or more fragments (atoms, molecules, ions, or free radicals) produced by the absorption of light or thermal energy or by solvation. 3. In psychology, a defense mechanism in which a group of mental processes are segregated from the rest of a person's mental activity in order to avoid emotional distress, as in the dissociative disorders (q.v.), or in which an idea or object is segregated from its emotional significance; in the first sense it is roughly equivalent to splitting, in the second, to isolation. 4. A defect of mental integration in which one or more groups of mental processes become separated off from normal consciousness and, thus separated, function as a unitary whole. [EU] Distal: Remote; farther from any point of reference; opposed to proximal. In dentistry, used to designate a position on the dental arch farther from the median line of the jaw. [EU] Diuresis: Increased excretion of urine. [EU] DNA Topoisomerase: An enzyme catalyzing ATP-independent breakage of single-stranded DNA, followed by passage and rejoining of another single-stranded DNA. This enzyme class brings about the conversion of one topological isomer of DNA into another, e.g., the relaxation of superhelical turns in DNA, the interconversion of simple and knotted rings of single-stranded DNA, and the intertwisting of single-stranded rings of complementary sequences. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 5.99.1.2. [NIH] Dorsal: 1. Pertaining to the back or to any dorsum. 2. Denoting a position more toward the back surface than some other object of reference; same as posterior in human anatomy; superior in the anatomy of quadrupeds. [EU] Dorsum: A plate of bone which forms the posterior boundary of the sella turcica. [NIH] Dose-dependent: Refers to the effects of treatment with a drug. If the effects change when the dose of the drug is changed, the effects are said to be dose dependent. [NIH] Drive: A state of internal activity of an organism that is a necessary condition before a given stimulus will elicit a class of responses; e.g., a certain level of hunger (drive) must be present before food will elicit an eating response. [NIH] Drug Design: The molecular designing of drugs for specific purposes (such as DNAbinding, enzyme inhibition, anti-cancer efficacy, etc.) based on knowledge of molecular properties such as activity of functional groups, molecular geometry, and electronic

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structure, and also on information cataloged on analogous molecules. Drug design is generally computer-assisted molecular modeling and does not include pharmacokinetics, dosage analysis, or drug administration analysis. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Drug Resistance: Diminished or failed response of an organism, disease or tissue to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should be differentiated from drug tolerance which is the progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, as a result of continued administration. [NIH] Drug Tolerance: Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from drug resistance wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from maximum tolerated dose and no-observed-adverse-effect level. [NIH] Duct: A tube through which body fluids pass. [NIH] Duodenum: The first part of the small intestine. [NIH] Dysgeusia: A condition characterized by alterations of the sense of taste which may range from mild to severe, including gross distortions of taste quality. [NIH] Dysplasia: Cells that look abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. [NIH] Dystrophy: Any disorder arising from defective or faulty nutrition, especially the muscular dystrophies. [EU] Edema: Excessive amount of watery fluid accumulated in the intercellular spaces, most commonly present in subcutaneous tissue. [NIH] Effector: It is often an enzyme that converts an inactive precursor molecule into an active second messenger. [NIH] Effector cell: A cell that performs a specific function in response to a stimulus; usually used to describe cells in the immune system. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Elasticity: Resistance and recovery from distortion of shape. [NIH] Elastin: The protein that gives flexibility to tissues. [NIH] Electrocardiogram: Measurement of electrical activity during heartbeats. [NIH] Electrode: Component of the pacing system which is at the distal end of the lead. It is the interface with living cardiac tissue across which the stimulus is transmitted. [NIH] Electrolysis: Destruction by passage of a galvanic electric current, as in disintegration of a chemical compound in solution. [NIH] Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electron microscope: A microscope (device used to magnify small objects) that uses electrons (instead of light) to produce an enlarged image. An electron microscopes shows tiny details better than any other type of microscope. [NIH] Electrons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the

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chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called cathode rays or beta rays, the latter being a high-energy biproduct of nuclear decay. [NIH] Electrophoresis: An electrochemical process in which macromolecules or colloidal particles with a net electric charge migrate in a solution under the influence of an electric current. [NIH]

Elementary Particles: Individual components of atoms, usually subatomic; subnuclear particles are usually detected only when the atomic nucleus decays and then only transiently, as most of them are unstable, often yielding pure energy without substance, i.e., radiation. [NIH] Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Emergency Treatment: First aid or other immediate intervention for accidents or medical conditions requiring immediate care and treatment before definitive medical and surgical management can be procured. [NIH] Emphysema: A pathological accumulation of air in tissues or organs. [NIH] Empirical: A treatment based on an assumed diagnosis, prior to receiving confirmatory laboratory test results. [NIH] Emulsion: A preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in-oil emulsion. Pharmaceutical emulsions for which official standards have been promulgated include cod liver oil emulsion, cod liver oil emulsion with malt, liquid petrolatum emulsion, and phenolphthalein in liquid petrolatum emulsion. [EU] Enamel: A very hard whitish substance which covers the dentine of the anatomical crown of a tooth. [NIH] Encapsulated: Confined to a specific, localized area and surrounded by a thin layer of tissue. [NIH]

Encephalocele: Cerebral tissue herniation through a congenital or acquired defect in the skull. The majority of congenital encephaloceles occur in the occipital or frontal regions. Clinical features include a protuberant mass that may be pulsatile. The quantity and location of protruding neural tissue determines the type and degree of neurologic deficit. Visual defects, psychomotor developmental delay, and persistent motor deficits frequently occur. [NIH]

Endarterectomy: Surgical excision, performed under general anesthesia, of the atheromatous tunica intima of an artery. When reconstruction of an artery is performed as an endovascular procedure through a catheter, it is called atherectomy. [NIH] Endemic: Present or usually prevalent in a population or geographical area at all times; said of a disease or agent. Called also endemial. [EU] Endodontics: A dental specialty concerned with the maintenance of the dental pulp in a state of health and the treatment of the pulp cavity (pulp chamber and pulp canal). [NIH] Endoscope: A thin, lighted tube used to look at tissues inside the body. [NIH] Endoscopic: A technique where a lateral-view endoscope is passed orally to the duodenum for visualization of the ampulla of Vater. [NIH] Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: ERCP. A procedure to x-ray the pancreatic duct, hepatic duct, common bile duct, duodenal papilla, and gallbladder. In this

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procedure, a thin, lighted tube (endoscope) is passed through the mouth and down into the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). A smaller tube (catheter) is then inserted through the endoscope into the bile and pancreatic ducts. A dye is injected through the catheter into the ducts, and an x-ray is taken. [NIH] Endoscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery performed on interior parts of the body. [NIH] Endothelial cell: The main type of cell found in the inside lining of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the heart. [NIH] Endothelium: A layer of epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels (endothelium, vascular), lymph vessels (endothelium, lymphatic), and the serous cavities of the body. [NIH] Endothelium-derived: Small molecule that diffuses to the adjacent muscle layer and relaxes it. [NIH] End-stage renal: Total chronic kidney failure. When the kidneys fail, the body retains fluid and harmful wastes build up. A person with ESRD needs treatment to replace the work of the failed kidneys. [NIH] Enema: The injection of a liquid through the anus into the large bowel. [NIH] Energetic: Exhibiting energy : strenuous; operating with force, vigour, or effect. [EU] Enteroscopy: An examination of the small intestine with an endoscope. The endoscope is inserted through the mouth and stomach into the small intestine. [NIH] Environmental Exposure: The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents in the environment or to environmental factors that may include ionizing radiation, pathogenic organisms, or toxic chemicals. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]

Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Epidemiological: Relating to, or involving epidemiology. [EU] Epidermal: Pertaining to or resembling epidermis. Called also epidermic or epidermoid. [EU] Epidermis: Nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers: 1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); 2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); 3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); 4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and 5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis). [NIH] Epigastric: Having to do with the upper middle area of the abdomen. [NIH] Epinephrine: The active sympathomimetic hormone from the adrenal medulla in most species. It stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic vasoconstriction and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the heart, and dilates bronchi and cerebral vessels. It is used in asthma and cardiac failure and to delay absorption of local anesthetics. [NIH] Epithelial: Refers to the cells that line the internal and external surfaces of the body. [NIH] Epithelial Cells: Cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing hemoglobin whose function is to transport oxygen. [NIH] Esophageal: Having to do with the esophagus, the muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach. [NIH]

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Esophagitis: Inflammation, acute or chronic, of the esophagus caused by bacteria, chemicals, or trauma. [NIH] Esophagram: A series of x-rays of the esophagus. The x-ray pictures are taken after the person drinks a solution that contains barium. The barium coats and outlines the esophagus on the x-ray. Also called a barium swallow. [NIH] Esophagus: The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach. [NIH]

Essential Tremor: A rhythmic, involuntary, purposeless, oscillating movement resulting from the alternate contraction and relaxation of opposing groups of muscles. [NIH] Ethmoid: An unpaired cranial bone which helps form the medial walls of the orbits and contains the themoidal air cells which drain into the nose. [NIH] Eukaryotic Cells: Cells of the higher organisms, containing a true nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane. [NIH] Evoke: The electric response recorded from the cerebral cortex after stimulation of a peripheral sense organ. [NIH] Excimer laser: An ultraviolet laser used in refractive surgery to remove corneal tissue. [NIH] Exhaustion: The feeling of weariness of mind and body. [NIH] Exocrine: Secreting outwardly, via a duct. [EU] Exocytosis: Cellular release of material within membrane-limited vesicles by fusion of the vesicles with the cell membrane. [NIH] Exonucleases: Enzymes that catalyze the release of mononucleotides by the hydrolysis of the terminal bond of deoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide chains. EC 3.1.-. [NIH] Expectorant: 1. Promoting the ejection, by spitting, of mucus or other fluids from the lungs and trachea. 2. An agent that promotes the ejection of mucus or exudate from the lungs, bronchi, and trachea; sometimes extended to all remedies that quiet cough (antitussives). [EU]

Extensor: A muscle whose contraction tends to straighten a limb; the antagonist of a flexor. [NIH]

External-beam radiation: Radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer. Also called external radiation. [NIH] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Extracellular Matrix: A meshwork-like substance found within the extracellular space and in association with the basement membrane of the cell surface. It promotes cellular proliferation and provides a supporting structure to which cells or cell lysates in culture dishes adhere. [NIH] Extracorporeal: Situated or occurring outside the body. [EU] Extraction: The process or act of pulling or drawing out. [EU] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Fast Neutrons: Neutrons, the energy of which exceeds some arbitrary level, usually around one million electron volts. [NIH] Fat: Total lipids including phospholipids. [NIH] Fatigue: The state of weariness following a period of exertion, mental or physical, characterized by a decreased capacity for work and reduced efficiency to respond to stimuli. [NIH]

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Fatty acids: A major component of fats that are used by the body for energy and tissue development. [NIH] Febrile: Pertaining to or characterized by fever. [EU] Feces: The excrement discharged from the intestines, consisting of bacteria, cells exfoliated from the intestines, secretions, chiefly of the liver, and a small amount of food residue. [EU] Femoral: Pertaining to the femur, or to the thigh. [EU] Femoral Neck Fractures: Fractures of the short, constricted portion of the thigh bone between the femur head and the trochanters. It excludes intertrochanteric fractures which are hip fractures. [NIH] Femur: The longest and largest bone of the skeleton, it is situated between the hip and the knee. [NIH] Fetal Development: Morphologic and physiologic growth and development of the mammalian embryo or fetus. [NIH] Fetus: The developing offspring from 7 to 8 weeks after conception until birth. [NIH] Fibrin: A protein derived from fibrinogen in the presence of thrombin, which forms part of the blood clot. [NIH] Fibroblasts: Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules. [NIH] Fibrosis: Any pathological condition where fibrous connective tissue invades any organ, usually as a consequence of inflammation or other injury. [NIH] Fine-needle aspiration: The removal of tissue or fluid with a needle for examination under a microscope. Also called needle biopsy. [NIH] Flatus: Gas passed through the rectum. [NIH] Flexor: Muscles which flex a joint. [NIH] Fluid Therapy: Therapy whose basic objective is to restore the volume and composition of the body fluids to normal with respect to water-electrolyte balance. Fluids may be administered intravenously, orally, by intermittent gavage, or by hypodermoclysis. [NIH] Fluorescence: The property of emitting radiation while being irradiated. The radiation emitted is usually of longer wavelength than that incident or absorbed, e.g., a substance can be irradiated with invisible radiation and emit visible light. X-ray fluorescence is used in diagnosis. [NIH] Fluoroscopy: Production of an image when X-rays strike a fluorescent screen. [NIH] Flushing: A transient reddening of the face that may be due to fever, certain drugs, exertion, stress, or a disease process. [NIH] Fold: A plication or doubling of various parts of the body. [NIH] Forearm: The part between the elbow and the wrist. [NIH] Friction: Surface resistance to the relative motion of one body against the rubbing, sliding, rolling, or flowing of another with which it is in contact. [NIH] Fungi: A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live as saprobes or parasites, including mushrooms, yeasts, smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi refer to those that grow as multicelluar colonies (mushrooms and molds). [NIH] Gadolinium: An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Gd, atomic number 64, and atomic weight 157.25. Its oxide is used in the control rods of some nuclear reactors. [NIH]

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Gallate: Antioxidant present in tea. [NIH] Gallbladder: The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is concentrated and stored in the gallbladder. [NIH] Gallium: A rare, metallic element designated by the symbol, Ga, atomic number 31, and atomic weight 69.72. [NIH] Gallstones: The solid masses or stones made of cholesterol or bilirubin that form in the gallbladder or bile ducts. [NIH] Gamma Rays: Very powerful and penetrating, high-energy electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength than that of x-rays. They are emitted by a decaying nucleus, usually between 0.01 and 10 MeV. They are also called nuclear x-rays. [NIH] Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized connective tissue located outside the central nervous system. [NIH] Ganglion: 1. A knot, or knotlike mass. 2. A general term for a group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system; occasionally applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain or spinal cord, e.g. basal ganglia. 3. A benign cystic tumour occurring on a aponeurosis or tendon, as in the wrist or dorsum of the foot; it consists of a thin fibrous capsule enclosing a clear mucinous fluid. [EU] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gastric: Having to do with the stomach. [NIH] Gastric Juices: Liquids produced in the stomach to help break down food and kill bacteria. [NIH]

Gastric Mucosa: Surface epithelium in the stomach that invaginates into the lamina propria, forming gastric pits. Tubular glands, characteristic of each region of the stomach (cardiac, gastric, and pyloric), empty into the gastric pits. The gastric mucosa is made up of several different kinds of cells. [NIH] Gastrin: A hormone released after eating. Gastrin causes the stomach to produce more acid. [NIH]

Gastroenterologist: A doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the digestive system. [NIH] Gastroenterology: A subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the study of the physiology and diseases of the digestive system and related structures (esophagus, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas). [NIH] Gastroesophageal Reflux: Reflux of gastric juice and/or duodenal contents (bile acids, pancreatic juice) into the distal esophagus, commonly due to incompetence of the lower esophageal sphincter. Gastric regurgitation is an extension of this process with entry of fluid into the pharynx or mouth. [NIH] Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: Flow of the stomach's contents back up into the esophagus. Happens when the muscle between the esophagus and the stomach (the lower esophageal sphincter) is weak or relaxes when it shouldn't. May cause esophagitis. Also called esophageal reflux or reflux esophagitis. [NIH] Gastrointestinal: Refers to the stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gastrointestinal tract: The stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gastroscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy, or surgery of the interior of the stomach. [NIH]

Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes

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are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]

Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of gene action. [NIH] Generator: Any system incorporating a fixed parent radionuclide from which is produced a daughter radionuclide which is to be removed by elution or by any other method and used in a radiopharmaceutical. [NIH] Genetic Code: The specifications for how information, stored in nucleic acid sequence (base sequence), is translated into protein sequence (amino acid sequence). The start, stop, and order of amino acids of a protein is specified by consecutive triplets of nucleotides called codons (codon). [NIH] Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genistein: An isoflavonoid derived from soy products. It inhibits protein-tyrosine kinase and topoisomerase-ii (dna topoisomerase (atp-hydrolysing)) activity and is used as an antineoplastic and antitumor agent. Experimentally, it has been shown to induce G2 phase arrest in human and murine cell lines. [NIH] Genital: Pertaining to the genitalia. [EU] Genomics: The systematic study of the complete DNA sequences (genome) of organisms. [NIH]

Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Geriatric: Pertaining to the treatment of the aged. [EU] Germ Cells: The reproductive cells in multicellular organisms. [NIH] Germanium: A rare metal element with a blue-gray appearance and atomic symbol Ge, atomic number 32, and atomic weight 72.59. [NIH] Gingival Hypertrophy: Abnormal enlargement or overgrowth of the gingivae brought about by enlargement of existing cells. [NIH] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glare: Scatter from bright light that decreases vision. [NIH] Glioma: A cancer of the brain that comes from glial, or supportive, cells. [NIH] Glomerular: Pertaining to or of the nature of a glomerulus, especially a renal glomerulus. [EU]

Glomeruli: Plural of glomerulus. [NIH] Glomerulus: A tiny set of looping blood vessels in the nephron where blood is filtered in the kidney. [NIH] Glucocorticoids: A group of corticosteroids that affect carbohydrate metabolism (gluconeogenesis, liver glycogen deposition, elevation of blood sugar), inhibit corticotropin secretion, and possess pronounced anti-inflammatory activity. They also play a role in fat and protein metabolism, maintenance of arterial blood pressure, alteration of the connective tissue response to injury, reduction in the number of circulating lymphocytes, and functioning of the central nervous system. [NIH] Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH]

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Glucose tolerance: The power of the normal liver to absorb and store large quantities of glucose and the effectiveness of intestinal absorption of glucose. The glucose tolerance test is a metabolic test of carbohydrate tolerance that measures active insulin, a hepatic function based on the ability of the liver to absorb glucose. The test consists of ingesting 100 grams of glucose into a fasting stomach; blood sugar should return to normal in 2 to 21 hours after ingestion. [NIH] Glucose Tolerance Test: Determination of whole blood or plasma sugar in a fasting state before and at prescribed intervals (usually 1/2 hr, 1 hr, 3 hr, 4 hr) after taking a specified amount (usually 100 gm orally) of glucose. [NIH] Glutathione Peroxidase: An enzyme catalyzing the oxidation of 2 moles of glutathione in the presence of hydrogen peroxide to yield oxidized glutathione and water. EC 1.11.1.9. [NIH]

Glycine: A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter. [NIH] Gonadal: Pertaining to a gonad. [EU] Goniometer: An instrument for measuring angles, such as those of crystals and prisms. [NIH] Gout: Hereditary metabolic disorder characterized by recurrent acute arthritis, hyperuricemia and deposition of sodium urate in and around the joints, sometimes with formation of uric acid calculi. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Grade: The grade of a tumor depends on how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread. Grading systems are different for each type of cancer. [NIH] Graft: Healthy skin, bone, or other tissue taken from one part of the body and used to replace diseased or injured tissue removed from another part of the body. [NIH] Grafting: The operation of transfer of tissue from one site to another. [NIH] Granule: A small pill made from sucrose. [EU] Granulocytes: Leukocytes with abundant granules in the cytoplasm. They are divided into three groups: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. [NIH] Graphite: An allotropic form of carbon that is used in pencils, as a lubricant, and in matches and explosives. It is obtained by mining and its dust can cause lung irritation. [NIH] Groin: The external junctural region between the lower part of the abdomen and the thigh. [NIH]

Growth: The progressive development of a living being or part of an organism from its earliest stage to maturity. [NIH] Guanylate Cyclase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GTP to 3',5'-cyclic GMP and pyrophosphate. It also acts on ITP and dGTP. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.6.1.2. [NIH] Hallucinogens: Drugs capable of inducing illusions, hallucinations, delusions, paranoid ideations, and other alterations of mood and thinking. Despite the name, the feature that distinguishes these agents from other classes of drugs is their capacity to induce states of altered perception, thought, and feeling that are not experienced otherwise. [NIH] Headache: Pain in the cranial region that may occur as an isolated and benign symptom or as a manifestation of a wide variety of conditions including subarachnoid hemorrhage; craniocerebral trauma; central nervous system infections; intracranial hypertension; and

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other disorders. In general, recurrent headaches that are not associated with a primary disease process are referred to as headache disorders (e.g., migraine). [NIH] Health Services: Services for the diagnosis and treatment of disease and the maintenance of health. [NIH] Heart attack: A seizure of weak or abnormal functioning of the heart. [NIH] Heart failure: Loss of pumping ability by the heart, often accompanied by fatigue, breathlessness, and excess fluid accumulation in body tissues. [NIH] Heavy Ions: Positively-charged atomic nuclei that have been stripped of their electrons. These particles have one or more units of electric charge and a mass exceeding that of the Helium-4 nucleus (alpha particle). [NIH] Heme: The color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins. [NIH] Hemoglobin: One of the fractions of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c. Glycosylated hemoglobin is formed when linkages of glucose and related monosaccharides bind to hemoglobin A and its concentration represents the average blood glucose level over the previous several weeks. HbA1c levels are used as a measure of long-term control of plasma glucose (normal, 4 to 6 percent). In controlled diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases the level may be 3 to 4 times the normal conentration. Generally, complications are substantially lower among patients with Hb levels of 7 percent or less than in patients with HbA1c levels of 9 percent or more. [NIH] Hemoglobinuria: The presence of free hemoglobin in the urine. [NIH] Hemorrhage: Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel. [NIH] Hemostasis: The process which spontaneously arrests the flow of blood from vessels carrying blood under pressure. It is accomplished by contraction of the vessels, adhesion and aggregation of formed blood elements, and the process of blood or plasma coagulation. [NIH]

Hepatic: Refers to the liver. [NIH] Hepatic Duct, Common: Predominantly extrahepatic bile duct which is formed by the junction of the right and left hepatic ducts, which are predominantly intrahepatic, and, in turn, joins the cystic duct to form the common bile duct. [NIH] Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver and liver disease involving degenerative or necrotic alterations of hepatocytes. [NIH] Hepatocytes: The main structural component of the liver. They are specialized epithelial cells that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules. [NIH] Hereditary: Of, relating to, or denoting factors that can be transmitted genetically from one generation to another. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Hernia: Protrusion of a loop or knuckle of an organ or tissue through an abnormal opening. [NIH]

Heterogeneity: The property of one or more samples or populations which implies that they are not identical in respect of some or all of their parameters, e. g. heterogeneity of variance. [NIH]

Hip Fractures: Fractures of the femur head, the femur neck, the trochanters, or the inter- or subtrochanteric region. Excludes fractures of the acetabulum and fractures of the femoral

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shaft below the subtrochanteric region. For the fractures of the femur neck the specific term femoral neck fractures is available. [NIH] Histology: The study of tissues and cells under a microscope. [NIH] Holography: The recording of images in three-dimensional form on a photographic film by exposing it to a laser beam reflected from the object under study. [NIH] Homogeneous: Consisting of or composed of similar elements or ingredients; of a uniform quality throughout. [EU] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Hormonal: Pertaining to or of the nature of a hormone. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Host: Any animal that receives a transplanted graft. [NIH] Humeral: 1. Of, relating to, or situated in the region of the humerus: brachial. 2. Of or belonging to the shoulder. 3. Of, relating to, or being any of several body parts that are analogous in structure, function, or location to the humerus or shoulder. [EU] Hybrid: Cross fertilization between two varieties or, more usually, two species of vines, see also crossing. [NIH] Hydration: Combining with water. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hydrogenase: An enzyme found in bacteria. It catalyzes the reduction of ferredoxin and other substances in the presence of molecular hydrogen and is involved in the electron transport of bacterial photosynthesis. EC 1.18.99.1. [NIH] Hydrolysis: The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water. [NIH] Hydrophilic: Readily absorbing moisture; hygroscopic; having strongly polar groups that readily interact with water. [EU] Hydrophobic: Not readily absorbing water, or being adversely affected by water, as a hydrophobic colloid. [EU] Hydroxylysine: A hydroxylated derivative of the amino acid lysine that is present in certain collagens. [NIH] Hydroxyproline: A hydroxylated form of the imino acid proline. A deficiency in ascorbic acid can result in impaired hydroxyproline formation. [NIH] Hyperalgesia: Excessive sensitiveness or sensibility to pain. [EU] Hyperopia: Farsightedness; ability to see distant objects more clearly than close objects; may be corrected with glasses or contact lenses. [NIH] Hypersensitivity: Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen. [NIH] Hypertension: Persistently high arterial blood pressure. Currently accepted threshold levels are 140 mm Hg systolic and 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure. [NIH]

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Hypertrophy: General increase in bulk of a part or organ, not due to tumor formation, nor to an increase in the number of cells. [NIH] Hyperuricemia: A buildup of uric acid (a byproduct of metabolism) in the blood; a side effect of some anticancer drugs. [NIH] Hypothalamus: Ventral part of the diencephalon extending from the region of the optic chiasm to the caudal border of the mammillary bodies and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the third ventricle. [NIH] Id: The part of the personality structure which harbors the unconscious instinctive desires and strivings of the individual. [NIH] Ileus: Obstruction of the intestines. [EU] Image Processing, Computer-Assisted: A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer. [NIH] Imaging procedures: Methods of producing pictures of areas inside the body. [NIH] Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]

Immune system: The organs, cells, and molecules responsible for the recognition and disposal of foreign ("non-self") material which enters the body. [NIH] Immunity: Nonsusceptibility to the invasive or pathogenic microorganisms or to the toxic effect of antigenic substances. [NIH]

effects

of

foreign

Immunodeficiency: The decreased ability of the body to fight infection and disease. [NIH] Immunofluorescence: A technique for identifying molecules present on the surfaces of cells or in tissues using a highly fluorescent substance coupled to a specific antibody. [NIH] Immunohistochemistry: Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents. [NIH] Immunologic: The ability of the antibody-forming system to recall a previous experience with an antigen and to respond to a second exposure with the prompt production of large amounts of antibody. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] Implant radiation: A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near the tumor. Also called [NIH] Implantation: The insertion or grafting into the body of biological, living, inert, or radioactive material. [EU] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incision: A cut made in the body during surgery. [NIH] Incompetence: Physical or mental inadequacy or insufficiency. [EU] Incubator: Consists of a transparent plastic cubicle, electrical heating equipment, safety and warning devices, and oxygen and air filtering and regulating apparatus; an enclosed transparent boxlike apparatus for housing prematurely born babies under optimum conditions. [NIH] Indicative: That indicates; that points out more or less exactly; that reveals fairly clearly. [EU] Indigestion: Poor digestion. Symptoms include heartburn, nausea, bloating, and gas. Also

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called dyspepsia. [NIH] Induction: The act or process of inducing or causing to occur, especially the production of a specific morphogenetic effect in the developing embryo through the influence of evocators or organizers, or the production of anaesthesia or unconsciousness by use of appropriate agents. [EU] Infancy: The period of complete dependency prior to the acquisition of competence in walking, talking, and self-feeding. [NIH] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins, intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]

Infection Control: Programs of disease surveillance, generally within health care facilities, designed to investigate, prevent, and control the spread of infections and their causative microorganisms. [NIH] Infertility: The diminished or absent ability to conceive or produce an offspring while sterility is the complete inability to conceive or produce an offspring. [NIH] Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Informed Consent: Voluntary authorization, given to the physician by the patient, with full comprehension of the risks involved, for diagnostic or investigative procedures and medical and surgical treatment. [NIH] Infusion: A method of putting fluids, including drugs, into the bloodstream. Also called intravenous infusion. [NIH] Ingestion: Taking into the body by mouth [NIH] Inhalation: The drawing of air or other substances into the lungs. [EU] Initiation: Mutation induced by a chemical reactive substance causing cell changes; being a step in a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Initiator: A chemically reactive substance which may cause cell changes if ingested, inhaled or absorbed into the body; the substance may thus initiate a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Inlay: In dentistry, a filling first made to correspond with the form of a dental cavity and then cemented into the cavity. [NIH] In-line: A sexually-reproducing population derived from a common parentage. [NIH] Inorganic: Pertaining to substances not of organic origin. [EU] Insecticides: Pesticides designed to control insects that are harmful to man. The insects may be directly harmful, as those acting as disease vectors, or indirectly harmful, as destroyers of crops, food products, or textile fabrics. [NIH] Insight: The capacity to understand one's own motives, to be aware of one's own psychodynamics, to appreciate the meaning of symbolic behavior. [NIH]

250 X-rays

Insulin: A protein hormone secreted by beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, generally promoting the cellular utilization of glucose. It is also an important regulator of protein and lipid metabolism. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. [NIH] Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A disease characterized by high levels of blood glucose resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors are involved in the development of type I diabetes. [NIH] Insulin-like: Muscular growth factor. [NIH] Internal Medicine: A medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the internal organ systems of adults. [NIH] Internal radiation: A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near the tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation, or interstitial radiation therapy. [NIH] Interstitial: Pertaining to or situated between parts or in the interspaces of a tissue. [EU] Intervertebral: Situated between two contiguous vertebrae. [EU] Intervertebral Disk Displacement: An intervertebral disk in which the nucleus pulposus has protruded through surrounding fibrocartilage. This occurs most frequently in the lower lumbar region. [NIH] Intestinal: Having to do with the intestines. [NIH] Intestinal Obstruction: Any impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anus. [NIH] Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction: Obstruction of the intestines that is functional, not mechanical. [NIH] Intestine: A long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a large intestine and a small intestine. Also called the bowel. [NIH] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intracellular Membranes: Membranes of subcellular structures. [NIH] Intravascular: Within a vessel or vessels. [EU] Intravenous: IV. Into a vein. [NIH] Intravenous pyelography: IVP. X-ray study of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. The x-rays are taken after a dye is injected into a blood vessel. The dye is concentrated in the urine, which outlines the kidneys, ureters, and bladder on the x-rays. [NIH] Intrinsic: Situated entirely within or pertaining exclusively to a part. [EU] Intubation: Introduction of a tube into a hollow organ to restore or maintain patency if obstructed. It is differentiated from catheterization in that the insertion of a catheter is usually performed for the introducing or withdrawing of fluids from the body. [NIH] Invasive: 1. Having the quality of invasiveness. 2. Involving puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body; said of diagnostic techniques. [EU]

Invertebrates: Animals that have no spinal column. [NIH] Involuntary: Reaction occurring without intention or volition. [NIH] Iodine: A nonmetallic element of the halogen group that is represented by the atomic symbol I, atomic number 53, and atomic weight of 126.90. It is a nutritionally essential element, especially important in thyroid hormone synthesis. In solution, it has anti-infective properties and is used topically. [NIH]

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Iohexol: An effective non-ionic, water-soluble contrast agent which is used in myelography, arthrography, nephroangiography, arteriography, and other radiographic procedures. Its low systemic toxicity is the combined result of low chemotoxicity and low osmolality. [NIH] Ion Channels: Gated, ion-selective glycoproteins that traverse membranes. The stimulus for channel gating can be a membrane potential, drug, transmitter, cytoplasmic messenger, or a mechanical deformation. Ion channels which are integral parts of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors are not included. [NIH] Ionization: 1. Any process by which a neutral atom gains or loses electrons, thus acquiring a net charge, as the dissociation of a substance in solution into ions or ion production by the passage of radioactive particles. 2. Iontophoresis. [EU] Ionizing: Radiation comprising charged particles, e. g. electrons, protons, alpha-particles, etc., having sufficient kinetic energy to produce ionization by collision. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Iridium: A metallic element with the atomic symbol Ir, atomic number 77, and atomic weight 192.22. [NIH] Irradiation: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from materials called radioisotopes. Radioisotopes produce radiation and can be placed in or near the tumor or in the area near cancer cells. This type of radiation treatment is called internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, interstitial radiation, or brachytherapy. Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Irradiation is also called radiation therapy, radiotherapy, and x-ray therapy. [NIH] Irrigation: The washing of a body cavity or surface by flowing solution which is inserted and then removed. Any drug in the irrigation solution may be absorbed. [NIH] Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A disorder that comes and goes. Nerves that control the muscles in the GI tract are too active. The GI tract becomes sensitive to food, stool, gas, and stress. Causes abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation or diarrhea. Also called spastic colon or mucous colitis. [NIH] Ischemia: Deficiency of blood in a part, due to functional constriction or actual obstruction of a blood vessel. [EU] Isoflurane: A stable, non-explosive inhalation anesthetic, relatively free from significant side effects. [NIH] IVP: Intravenous pyelogram or intravenous pyelography (in-tra-VEE-nus PYE-el-o-gram or pye-LAH-gra-fee). A series of x-rays of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. The x-rays are taken after a dye is injected into a blood vessel. The dye is concentrated in the urine, which outlines the kidneys, ureters, and bladder on the x-rays. [NIH] Joint: The point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton with the parts that surround and support it. [NIH] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Keratin: A class of fibrous proteins or scleroproteins important both as structural proteins and as keys to the study of protein conformation. The family represents the principal constituent of epidermis, hair, nails, horny tissues, and the organic matrix of tooth enamel. Two major conformational groups have been characterized, alpha-keratin, whose peptide

252 X-rays

backbone forms an alpha-helix, and beta-keratin, whose backbone forms a zigzag or pleated sheet structure. [NIH] Keratinocytes: Epidermal cells which synthesize keratin and undergo characteristic changes as they move upward from the basal layers of the epidermis to the cornified (horny) layer of the skin. Successive stages of differentiation of the keratinocytes forming the epidermal layers are basal cell, spinous or prickle cell, and the granular cell. [NIH] Keratolytic: An agent that promotes keratolysis. [EU] Kidney Disease: Any one of several chronic conditions that are caused by damage to the cells of the kidney. People who have had diabetes for a long time may have kidney damage. Also called nephropathy. [NIH] Kidney stone: A stone that develops from crystals that form in urine and build up on the inner surfaces of the kidney, in the renal pelvis, or in the ureters. [NIH] Kinetic: Pertaining to or producing motion. [EU] Lactose Intolerance: The disease state resulting from the absence of lactase enzyme in the musocal cells of the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore an inability to break down the disaccharide lactose in milk for absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. It is manifested by indigestion of a mild nature to severe diarrhea. It may be due to inborn defect genetically conditioned or may be acquired. [NIH] Lag: The time elapsing between application of a stimulus and the resulting reaction. [NIH] Lanthanum: The prototypical element in the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol La, atomic number 57, and atomic weight 138.91. Lanthanide ion is used in experimental biology as a calcium antagonist; lanthanum oxide improves the optical properties of glass. [NIH] Laparotomy: A surgical incision made in the wall of the abdomen. [NIH] Large Intestine: The part of the intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water from stool and changes it from a liquid to a solid form. The large intestine is 5 feet long and includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. Also called colon. [NIH] Larynx: An irregularly shaped, musculocartilaginous tubular structure, lined with mucous membrane, located at the top of the trachea and below the root of the tongue and the hyoid bone. It is the essential sphincter guarding the entrance into the trachea and functioning secondarily as the organ of voice. [NIH] Latent: Phoria which occurs at one distance or another and which usually has no troublesome effect. [NIH] Lectin: A complex molecule that has both protein and sugars. Lectins are able to bind to the outside of a cell and cause biochemical changes in it. Lectins are made by both animals and plants. [NIH] Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lentigo: Small circumscribed melanoses resembling, but differing histologically from, freckles. The concept includes senile lentigo ('liver spots') and nevoid lentigo (nevus spilus, lentigo simplex) and may also occur in association with multiple congenital defects or congenital syndromes (e.g., Peutz-Jeghers syndrome). [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Lethal: Deadly, fatal. [EU] Leucocyte: All the white cells of the blood and their precursors (myeloid cell series,

Dictionary 253

lymphoid cell series) but commonly used to indicate granulocytes exclusive of lymphocytes. [NIH]

Leukaemia: An acute or chronic disease of unknown cause in man and other warm-blooded animals that involves the blood-forming organs, is characterized by an abnormal increase in the number of leucocytes in the tissues of the body with or without a corresponding increase of those in the circulating blood, and is classified according of the type leucocyte most prominently involved. [EU] Leukemia: Cancer of blood-forming tissue. [NIH] Leukocytes: White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) as well as non-granular leukocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes). [NIH] Library Services: Services offered to the library user. They include reference and circulation. [NIH]

Ligament: A band of fibrous tissue that connects bones or cartilages, serving to support and strengthen joints. [EU] Ligase: An enzyme that repairs single stranded discontinuities in double-stranded DNA molecules in the cell. Purified DNA ligase is used in gene cloning to join DNA molecules together. [NIH] Linkages: The tendency of two or more genes in the same chromosome to remain together from one generation to the next more frequently than expected according to the law of independent assortment. [NIH] Lipid: Fat. [NIH] Liposomal: A drug preparation that contains the active drug in very tiny fat particles. This fat-encapsulated drug is absorbed better, and its distribution to the tumor site is improved. [NIH]

Lipoxygenase: An enzyme of the oxidoreductase class that catalyzes reactions between linoleate and other fatty acids and oxygen to form hydroperoxy-fatty acid derivatives. Related enzymes in this class include the arachidonate lipoxygenases, arachidonate 5lipoxygenase, arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase, and arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase. EC 1.13.11.12. [NIH] Lithium: An element in the alkali metals family. It has the atomic symbol Li, atomic number 3, and atomic weight 6.94. Salts of lithium are used in treating manic-depressive disorders. [NIH]

Lithotripsy: The destruction of a calculus of the kidney, ureter, bladder, or gallbladder by physical forces, including crushing with a lithotriptor through a catheter. Focused percutaneous ultrasound and focused hydraulic shock waves may be used without surgery. Lithotripsy does not include the dissolving of stones by acids or litholysis. Lithotripsy by laser is laser lithotripsy. [NIH] Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH] Liver scan: An image of the liver created on a computer screen or on film. A radioactive substance is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream. It collects in the liver, especially in abnormal areas, and can be detected by the scanner. [NIH] Localization: The process of determining or marking the location or site of a lesion or disease. May also refer to the process of keeping a lesion or disease in a specific location or site. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Loop: A wire usually of platinum bent at one end into a small loop (usually 4 mm inside

254 X-rays

diameter) and used in transferring microorganisms. [NIH] Low Back Pain: Acute or chronic pain in the lumbar or sacral regions, which may be associated with musculo-ligamentous sprains and strains; intervertebral disk displacement; and other conditions. [NIH] Lower Esophageal Sphincter: The muscle between the esophagus and stomach. When a person swallows, this muscle relaxes to let food pass from the esophagus to the stomach. It stays closed at other times to keep stomach contents from flowing back into the esophagus. [NIH]

Lubricants: Oily or slippery substances. [NIH] Lumbar: Pertaining to the loins, the part of the back between the thorax and the pelvis. [EU] Lumen: The cavity or channel within a tube or tubular organ. [EU] Luminescence: The property of giving off light without emitting a corresponding degree of heat. It includes the luminescence of inorganic matter or the bioluminescence of human matter, invertebrates and other living organisms. For the luminescence of bacteria, bacterial luminescence is available. [NIH] Lupus: A form of cutaneous tuberculosis. It is seen predominantly in women and typically involves the nasal, buccal, and conjunctival mucosa. [NIH] Lutetium: Lutetium. An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Lu, atomic number 71, and atomic weight 175. [NIH] Luxation: The displacement of the particular surface of a bone from its normal joint, without fracture. [NIH] Lymph: The almost colorless fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymph node: A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Also known as a lymph gland. Lymph nodes are spread out along lymphatic vessels and contain many lymphocytes, which filter the lymphatic fluid (lymph). [NIH]

Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphatic system: The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infection and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes and a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells. These tubes branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body. [NIH] Lymphoblastic: One of the most aggressive types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. [NIH] Lymphoblasts: Interferon produced predominantly by leucocyte cells. [NIH] Lymphoid: Referring to lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Also refers to tissue in which lymphocytes develop. [NIH] Lymphoma: A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue. [NIH] Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques. [NIH] Malabsorption: Impaired intestinal absorption of nutrients. [EU] Malaria: A protozoan disease caused in humans by four species of the genus Plasmodium (P. falciparum (malaria, falciparum), P. vivax (malaria, vivax), P. ovale, and P. malariae) and transmitted by the bite of an infected female mosquito of the genus Anopheles. Malaria is

Dictionary 255

endemic in parts of Asia, Africa, Central and South America, Oceania, and certain Caribbean islands. It is characterized by extreme exhaustion associated with paroxysms of high fever, sweating, shaking chills, and anemia. Malaria in animals is caused by other species of plasmodia. [NIH] Malaria, Falciparum: Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum. This is the severest form of malaria and is associated with the highest levels of parasites in the blood. This disease is characterized by irregularly recurring febrile paroxysms that in extreme cases occur with acute cerebral, renal, or gastrointestinal manifestations. [NIH] Malaria, Vivax: Malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax. This form of malaria is less severe than malaria, falciparum, but there is a higher probability for relapses to occur. Febrile paroxysms often occur every other day. [NIH] Malignant: Cancerous; a growth with a tendency to invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body. [NIH] Malnutrition: A condition caused by not eating enough food or not eating a balanced diet. [NIH]

Mammary: Pertaining to the mamma, or breast. [EU] Mammogram: An x-ray of the breast. [NIH] Mammography: Radiographic examination of the breast. [NIH] Manic: Affected with mania. [EU] Man-made: Ionizing radiation emitted by artificial or concentrated natural, radioactive material or resulting from the operation of high voltage apparatus, such as X-ray apparatus or particle accelerators, of nuclear reactors, or from nuclear explosions. [NIH] Manometry: Tests that measure muscle pressure and movements in the GI tract. [NIH] Meat: The edible portions of any animal used for food including domestic mammals (the major ones being cattle, swine, and sheep) along with poultry, fish, shellfish, and game. [NIH]

Medial: Lying near the midsaggital plane of the body; opposed to lateral. [NIH] Median Nerve: A major nerve of the upper extremity. In humans, the fibers of the median nerve originate in the lower cervical and upper thoracic spinal cord (usually C6 to T1), travel via the brachial plexus, and supply sensory and motor innervation to parts of the forearm and hand. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Medical Oncology: A subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the study of neoplasms. [NIH] Medical Records: Recording of pertinent information concerning patient's illness or illnesses. [NIH] Medicament: A medicinal substance or agent. [EU] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Meiosis: A special method of cell division, occurring in maturation of the germ cells, by means of which each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Melanin: The substance that gives the skin its color. [NIH] Melanocytes: Epidermal dendritic pigment cells which control long-term morphological color changes by alteration in their number or in the amount of pigment they produce and

256 X-rays

store in the pigment containing organelles called melanosomes. Melanophores are larger cells which do not exist in mammals. [NIH] Melanoma: A form of skin cancer that arises in melanocytes, the cells that produce pigment. Melanoma usually begins in a mole. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Membrane Proteins: Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors. [NIH] Memory: Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. [NIH] Mental Disorders: Psychiatric illness or diseases manifested by breakdowns in the adaptational process expressed primarily as abnormalities of thought, feeling, and behavior producing either distress or impairment of function. [NIH] Mental Retardation: Refers to sub-average general intellectual functioning which originated during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive behavior. [NIH]

Mercury: A silver metallic element that exists as a liquid at room temperature. It has the atomic symbol Hg (from hydrargyrum, liquid silver), atomic number 80, and atomic weight 200.59. Mercury is used in many industrial applications and its salts have been employed therapeutically as purgatives, antisyphilitics, disinfectants, and astringents. It can be absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes which leads to mercury poisoning. Because of its toxicity, the clinical use of mercury and mercurials is diminishing. [NIH] Metabolic disorder: A condition in which normal metabolic processes are disrupted, usually because of a missing enzyme. [NIH] Metastasis: The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. Tumors formed from cells that have spread are called "secondary tumors" and contain cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural is metastases. [NIH] Methacrylates: Acrylic acids or acrylates which are substituted in the C-2 position with a methyl group. [NIH] Methionine: A sulfur containing essential amino acid that is important in many body functions. It is a chelating agent for heavy metals. [NIH] MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Mice Minute Virus: The type species of parvovirus prevalent in mouse colonies and found as a contaminant of many transplanted tumors or leukemias. [NIH] Microbe: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and viruses. [NIH] Microcalcifications: Tiny deposits of calcium in the breast that cannot be felt but can be detected on a mammogram. A cluster of these very small specks of calcium may indicate that cancer is present. [NIH] Microcomputers: Small computers using LSI (large-scale integration) microprocessor chips

Dictionary 257

as the CPU (central processing unit) and semiconductor memories for compact, inexpensive storage of program instructions and data. They are smaller and less expensive than minicomputers and are usually built into a dedicated system where they are optimized for a particular application. "Microprocessor" may refer to just the CPU or the entire microcomputer. [NIH] Micronuclei: Nuclei, separate from and additional to the main nucleus of a cell, produced during the telophase of mitosis or meiosis by lagging chromosomes or chromosome fragments derived from spontaneous or experimentally induced chromosomal structural changes. This concept also includes the smaller, reproductive nuclei found in multinucleate protozoans. [NIH] Micro-organism: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microscopy: The application of microscope magnification to the study of materials that cannot be properly seen by the unaided eye. [NIH] Microspheres: Small uniformly-sized spherical particles frequently radioisotopes or various reagents acting as tags or markers. [NIH]

labeled

with

Microwaves: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum lying between UHF (ultrahigh frequency) radio waves and heat (infrared) waves. Microwaves are used to generate heat, especially in some types of diathermy. They may cause heat damage to tissues. [NIH] Milliliter: A measure of volume for a liquid. A milliliter is approximately 950-times smaller than a quart and 30-times smaller than a fluid ounce. A milliliter of liquid and a cubic centimeter (cc) of liquid are the same. [NIH] Millimeter: A measure of length. A millimeter is approximately 26-times smaller than an inch. [NIH] Mineralization: The action of mineralizing; the state of being mineralized. [EU] Mineralocorticoids: A group of corticosteroids primarily associated with the regulation of water and electrolyte balance. This is accomplished through the effect on ion transport in renal tubules, resulting in retention of sodium and loss of potassium. Mineralocorticoid secretion is itself regulated by plasma volume, serum potassium, and angiotensin II. [NIH] Minicomputers: Small computers that lack the speed, memory capacity, and instructional capability of the full-size computer but usually retain its programmable flexibility. They are larger, faster, and more flexible, powerful, and expensive than microcomputers. [NIH] Mitochondria: Parts of a cell where aerobic production (also known as cell respiration) takes place. [NIH] Mitochondrial Swelling: Increase in volume of mitochondria due to an influx of fluid; it occurs in hypotonic solutions due to osmotic pressure and in isotonic solutions as a result of altered permeability of the membranes of respiring mitochondria. [NIH] Mitosis: A method of indirect cell division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of chromosomes of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Mitotic: Cell resulting from mitosis. [NIH] Mixed Connective Tissue Disease: A syndrome with overlapping clinical features of systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, polymyositis, and Raynaud's phenomenon. The disease is differentially characterized by high serum titers of antibodies to ribonucleasesensitive extractable (saline soluble) nuclear antigen and a "speckled" epidermal nuclear staining pattern on direct immunofluorescence. [NIH]

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Mobility: Capability of movement, of being moved, or of flowing freely. [EU] Modeling: A treatment procedure whereby the therapist presents the target behavior which the learner is to imitate and make part of his repertoire. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecular Structure: The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds. [NIH] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Monitor: An apparatus which automatically records such physiological signs as respiration, pulse, and blood pressure in an anesthetized patient or one undergoing surgical or other procedures. [NIH] Monoclonal: An antibody produced by culturing a single type of cell. It therefore consists of a single species of immunoglobulin molecules. [NIH] Monosomy: The condition in which one chromosome of a pair is missing. In a normally diploid cell it is represented symbolically as 2N-1. [NIH] Morphological: Relating to the configuration or the structure of live organs. [NIH] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Motion Sickness: Sickness caused by motion, as sea sickness, train sickness, car sickness, and air sickness. [NIH] Motor nerve: An efferent nerve conveying an impulse that excites muscular contraction. [NIH]

Mucinous: Containing or resembling mucin, the main compound in mucus. [NIH] Mucins: A secretion containing mucopolysaccharides and protein that is the chief constituent of mucus. [NIH] Mucosa: A mucous membrane, or tunica mucosa. [EU] Multidrug resistance: Adaptation of tumor cells to anticancer drugs in ways that make the drugs less effective. [NIH] Muscle Fibers: Large single cells, either cylindrical or prismatic in shape, that form the basic unit of muscle tissue. They consist of a soft contractile substance enclosed in a tubular sheath. [NIH] Muscle relaxant: An agent that specifically aids in reducing muscle tension, as those acting at the polysynaptic neurons of motor nerves (e.g. meprobamate) or at the myoneural junction (curare and related compounds). [EU] Muscle tension: A force in a material tending to produce extension; the state of being stretched. [NIH] Muscular Atrophy: Derangement in size and number of muscle fibers occurring with aging, reduction in blood supply, or following immobilization, prolonged weightlessness, malnutrition, and particularly in denervation. [NIH] Muscular Dystrophies: A general term for a group of inherited disorders which are characterized by progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles. [NIH] Mutagenesis: Process of generating genetic mutations. It may occur spontaneously or be

Dictionary 259

induced by mutagens. [NIH] Mutagenic: Inducing genetic mutation. [EU] Mutagens: Chemical agents that increase the rate of genetic mutation by interfering with the function of nucleic acids. A clastogen is a specific mutagen that causes breaks in chromosomes. [NIH] Myelography: X-ray visualization of the spinal cord following injection of contrast medium into the spinal arachnoid space. [NIH] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Myopia: That error of refraction in which rays of light entering the eye parallel to the optic axis are brought to a focus in front of the retina, as a result of the eyeball being too long from front to back (axial m.) or of an increased strength in refractive power of the media of the eye (index m.). Called also nearsightedness, because the near point is less distant than it is in emmetropia with an equal amplitude of accommodation. [EU] Myotonic Dystrophy: A condition presenting muscle weakness and wasting which may be progressive. [NIH] Mysticism: A philosophy based upon spiritual intuition that is believed to transcend ordinary sensory experiences or understanding. [NIH] Narcotic: 1. Pertaining to or producing narcosis. 2. An agent that produces insensibility or stupor, applied especially to the opioids, i.e. to any natural or synthetic drug that has morphine-like actions. [EU] Nausea: An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. [NIH] NCI: National Cancer Institute. NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the federal government's principal agency for cancer research. NCI conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://cancer.gov. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Need: A state of tension or dissatisfaction felt by an individual that impels him to action toward a goal he believes will satisfy the impulse. [NIH] Needle biopsy: The removal of tissue or fluid with a needle for examination under a microscope. Also called fine-needle aspiration. [NIH] Neonatal: Pertaining to the first four weeks after birth. [EU] Neoplasia: Abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth. [NIH] Neoplasm: A new growth of benign or malignant tissue. [NIH] Neoplastic: Pertaining to or like a neoplasm (= any new and abnormal growth); pertaining to neoplasia (= the formation of a neoplasm). [EU] Nephrologist: A doctor who treats patients with kidney problems or hypertension. [NIH] Nephropathy: Disease of the kidneys. [EU] Nerve: A cordlike structure of nervous tissue that connects parts of the nervous system with other tissues of the body and conveys nervous impulses to, or away from, these tissues. [NIH]

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Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Neural: 1. Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves. 2. Situated in the region of the spinal axis, as the neutral arch. [EU] Neural tube defects: These defects include problems stemming from fetal development of the spinal cord, spine, brain, and skull, and include birth defects such as spina bifida, anencephaly, and encephalocele. Neural tube defects occur early in pregnancy at about 4 to 6 weeks, usually before a woman knows she is pregnant. Many babies with neural tube defects have difficulty walking and with bladder and bowel control. [NIH] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neuropathy: A problem in any part of the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord. Neuropathies can be caused by infection, toxic substances, or disease. [NIH] Neurotoxicity: The tendency of some treatments to cause damage to the nervous system. [NIH]

Neurotransmitters: Endogenous signaling molecules that alter the behavior of neurons or effector cells. Neurotransmitter is used here in its most general sense, including not only messengers that act directly to regulate ion channels, but also those that act through second messenger systems, and those that act at a distance from their site of release. Included are neuromodulators, neuroregulators, neuromediators, and neurohumors, whether or not acting at synapses. [NIH] Neutrons: Electrically neutral elementary particles found in all atomic nuclei except light hydrogen; the mass is equal to that of the proton and electron combined and they are unstable when isolated from the nucleus, undergoing beta decay. Slow, thermal, epithermal, and fast neutrons refer to the energy levels with which the neutrons are ejected from heavier nuclei during their decay. [NIH] Neutropenia: An abnormal decrease in the number of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell. [NIH] Neutrophils: Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes. [NIH] Nevus: A benign growth on the skin, such as a mole. A mole is a cluster of melanocytes and surrounding supportive tissue that usually appears as a tan, brown, or flesh-colored spot on the skin. The plural of nevus is nevi (NEE-vye). [NIH] Nickel: A trace element with the atomic symbol Ni, atomic number 28, and atomic weight 58.69. It is a cofactor of the enzyme urease. [NIH] Nitric Oxide: A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells. It is synthesized from arginine by a complex reaction, catalyzed by nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide is endothelium-derived relaxing factor. It is released by the vascular endothelium and mediates the relaxation induced by some vasodilators such as acetylcholine and bradykinin. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic guanylate cyclase and thus elevates intracellular levels of cyclic GMP. [NIH]

Nitrous Oxide: Nitrogen oxide (N2O). A colorless, odorless gas that is used as an anesthetic and analgesic. High concentrations cause a narcotic effect and may replace oxygen, causing death by asphyxia. It is also used as a food aerosol in the preparation of whipping cream.

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[NIH]

Nonmelanomatous: Skin cancer that arises in basal cells or squamous cells but not in melanocytes (pigment-producing cells of the skin). [NIH] Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nuclear Medicine: A specialty field of radiology concerned with diagnostic, therapeutic, and investigative use of radioactive compounds in a pharmaceutical form. [NIH] Nuclei: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nucleic acid: Either of two types of macromolecule (DNA or RNA) formed by polymerization of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and contain the information (genetic code) for the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next. [NIH] Nucleolus: A small dense body (sub organelle) within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, visible by phase contrast and interference microscopy in live cells throughout interphase. Contains RNA and protein and is the site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nursing Care: Care given to patients by nursing service personnel. [NIH] Nutritional Support: The administration of nutrients for assimilation and utilization by a patient by means other than normal eating. It does not include fluid therapy which normalizes body fluids to restore water-electrolyte balance. [NIH] Obstetrics: A medical-surgical specialty concerned with management and care of women during pregnancy, parturition, and the puerperium. [NIH] Occult: Obscure; concealed from observation, difficult to understand. [EU] Occupational Exposure: The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents that occurs as a result of one's occupation. [NIH] Occupational Therapy: The field concerned with utilizing craft or work activities in the rehabilitation of patients. Occupational therapy can also refer to the activities themselves. [NIH]

Odour: A volatile emanation that is perceived by the sense of smell. [EU] Ointments: Semisolid preparations used topically for protective emollient effects or as a vehicle for local administration of medications. Ointment bases are various mixtures of fats, waxes, animal and plant oils and solid and liquid hydrocarbons. [NIH] Olfactory Bulb: Ovoid body resting on the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone where the olfactory nerve terminates. The olfactory bulb contains several types of nerve cells including the mitral cells, on whose dendrites the olfactory nerve synapses, forming the olfactory glomeruli. The accessory olfactory bulb, which receives the projection from the vomeronasal organ via the vomeronasal nerve, is also included here. [NIH] Oncogene: A gene that normally directs cell growth. If altered, an oncogene can promote or allow the uncontrolled growth of cancer. Alterations can be inherited or caused by an environmental exposure to carcinogens. [NIH] Oncology: The study of cancer. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Oral Health: The optimal state of the mouth and normal functioning of the organs of the

262 X-rays

mouth without evidence of disease. [NIH] Oral Hygiene: The practice of personal hygiene of the mouth. It includes the maintenance of oral cleanliness, tissue tone, and general preservation of oral health. [NIH] Orbit: One of the two cavities in the skull which contains an eyeball. Each eye is located in a bony socket or orbit. [NIH] Organelles: Specific particles of membrane-bound organized living substances present in eukaryotic cells, such as the mitochondria; the golgi apparatus; endoplasmic reticulum; lysomomes; plastids; and vacuoles. [NIH] Orthodontics: A dental specialty concerned with the prevention and correction of dental and oral anomalies (malocclusion). [NIH] Orthopedics: A surgical specialty which utilizes medical, surgical, and physical methods to treat and correct deformities, diseases, and injuries to the skeletal system, its articulations, and associated structures. [NIH] Osmolality: The concentration of osmotically active particles in solution expressed in terms of osmoles of solute per kilogram of solvent. The osmolality is directly proportional to the colligative properties of solutions; osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and vapour pressure lowering. [EU] Osteoarthritis: A progressive, degenerative joint disease, the most common form of arthritis, especially in older persons. The disease is thought to result not from the aging process but from biochemical changes and biomechanical stresses affecting articular cartilage. In the foreign literature it is often called osteoarthrosis deformans. [NIH] Osteoporosis: Reduction of bone mass without alteration in the composition of bone, leading to fractures. Primary osteoporosis can be of two major types: postmenopausal osteoporosis and age-related (or senile) osteoporosis. [NIH] Ovary: Either of the paired glands in the female that produce the female germ cells and secrete some of the female sex hormones. [NIH] Oxalic Acid: A strong dicarboxylic acid occurring in many plants and vegetables. It is produced in the body by metabolism of glyoxylic acid or ascorbic acid. It is not metabolized but excreted in the urine. It is used as an analytical reagent and general reducing agent. [NIH] Oxidation: The act of oxidizing or state of being oxidized. Chemically it consists in the increase of positive charges on an atom or the loss of negative charges. Most biological oxidations are accomplished by the removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) from a molecule. Such oxidations must be accompanied by reduction of an acceptor molecule. Univalent o. indicates loss of one electron; divalent o., the loss of two electrons. [EU]

Pacemaker: An object or substance that influences the rate at which a certain phenomenon occurs; often used alone to indicate the natural cardiac pacemaker or an artificial cardiac pacemaker. In biochemistry, a substance whose rate of reaction sets the pace for a series of interrelated reactions. [EU] Palladium: A chemical element having an atomic weight of 106.4, atomic number of 46, and the symbol Pd. It is a white, ductile metal resembling platinum, and following it in abundance and importance of applications. It is used in dentistry in the form of gold, silver, and copper alloys. [NIH] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Palpation: Application of fingers with light pressure to the surface of the body to determine consistence of parts beneath in physical diagnosis; includes palpation for determining the outlines of organs. [NIH]

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Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Pancreatic: Having to do with the pancreas. [NIH] Pancreatic cancer: Cancer of the pancreas, a salivary gland of the abdomen. [NIH] Pancreatic Ducts: Ducts that collect pancreatic juice from the pancreas and supply it to the duodenum. [NIH] Pancreatic Juice: The fluid containing digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas in response to food in the duodenum. [NIH] Papilla: A small nipple-shaped elevation. [NIH] Parasite: An animal or a plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and gets at least some of its nutrition from that other organism. [NIH] Parasitic: Having to do with or being a parasite. A parasite is an animal or a plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and gets at least some of its nutrients from it. [NIH] Parathyroid: 1. Situated beside the thyroid gland. 2. One of the parathyroid glands. 3. A sterile preparation of the water-soluble principle(s) of the parathyroid glands, ad-ministered parenterally as an antihypocalcaemic, especially in the treatment of acute hypoparathyroidism with tetany. [EU] Parathyroid Glands: Two small paired endocrine glands in the region of the thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormone and are concerned with the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. [NIH] Parathyroid hormone: A substance made by the parathyroid gland that helps the body store and use calcium. Also called parathormone, parathyrin, or PTH. [NIH] Paroxysmal: Recurring in paroxysms (= spasms or seizures). [EU] Particle: A tiny mass of material. [EU] Particle Accelerators: Devices which accelerate electrically charged atomic or subatomic particles, such as electrons, protons or ions, to high velocities so they have high kinetic energy. [NIH] Parturition: The act or process of given birth to a child. [EU] Parvovirus: A genus of the family Parvoviridae, subfamily Parvovirinae, infecting a variety of vertebrates including humans. Parvoviruses are responsible for a number of important diseases but also can be non-pathogenic in certain hosts. The type species is mice minute virus. [NIH] Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathologic Processes: The abnormal mechanisms and forms involved in the dysfunctions of tissues and organs. [NIH] Pathologies: The study of abnormality, especially the study of diseases. [NIH] Patient Compliance: Voluntary cooperation of the patient in following a prescribed regimen. [NIH] Patient Education: The teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs. [NIH]

Pediatric Dentistry: The practice of dentistry concerned with the dental problems of

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children, proper maintenance, and treatment. The dental care may include the services provided by dental specialists. [NIH] Pelvic: Pertaining to the pelvis. [EU] Pepsin: An enzyme made in the stomach that breaks down proteins. [NIH] Pepsin A: Formed from pig pepsinogen by cleavage of one peptide bond. The enzyme is a single polypeptide chain and is inhibited by methyl 2-diaazoacetamidohexanoate. It cleaves peptides preferentially at the carbonyl linkages of phenylalanine or leucine and acts as the principal digestive enzyme of gastric juice. [NIH] Peptic: Pertaining to pepsin or to digestion; related to the action of gastric juices. [EU] Peptic Ulcer: Ulcer that occurs in those portions of the alimentary tract which come into contact with gastric juice containing pepsin and acid. It occurs when the amount of acid and pepsin is sufficient to overcome the gastric mucosal barrier. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Perception: The ability quickly and accurately to recognize similarities and differences among presented objects, whether these be pairs of words, pairs of number series, or multiple sets of these or other symbols such as geometric figures. [NIH] Percutaneous: Performed through the skin, as injection of radiopacque material in radiological examination, or the removal of tissue for biopsy accomplished by a needle. [EU] Perforation: 1. The act of boring or piercing through a part. 2. A hole made through a part or substance. [EU] Perfusion: Bathing an organ or tissue with a fluid. In regional perfusion, a specific area of the body (usually an arm or a leg) receives high doses of anticancer drugs through a blood vessel. Such a procedure is performed to treat cancer that has not spread. [NIH] Pericardium: The fibroserous sac surrounding the heart and the roots of the great vessels. [NIH]

Periodontal disease: Disease involving the supporting structures of the teeth (as the gums and periodontal membranes). [NIH] Periodontics: A dental specialty concerned with the histology, physiology, and pathology of the tissues that support, attach, and surround the teeth, and of the treatment and prevention of disease affecting these tissues. [NIH] Periodontitis: Inflammation of the periodontal membrane; also called periodontitis simplex. [NIH]

Peripheral stem cell transplantation: A method of replacing blood-forming cells destroyed by cancer treatment. Immature blood cells (stem cells) in the circulating blood that are similar to those in the bone marrow are given after treatment to help the bone marrow recover and continue producing healthy blood cells. Transplantation may be autologous (an individual's own blood cells saved earlier), allogeneic (blood cells donated by someone else), or syngeneic (blood cells donated by an identical twin). Also called peripheral stem cell support. [NIH] Peristalsis: The rippling motion of muscles in the intestine or other tubular organs characterized by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles that propel the contents onward. [NIH] Peritoneum: Endothelial lining of the abdominal cavity, the parietal peritoneum covering the inside of the abdominal wall and the visceral peritoneum covering the bowel, the mesentery, and certain of the organs. The portion that covers the bowel becomes the serosal layer of the bowel wall. [NIH]

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Peritonitis: Inflammation of the peritoneum; a condition marked by exudations in the peritoneum of serum, fibrin, cells, and pus. It is attended by abdominal pain and tenderness, constipation, vomiting, and moderate fever. [EU] Pesticides: Chemicals used to destroy pests of any sort. The concept includes fungicides (industrial fungicides), insecticides, rodenticides, etc. [NIH] Petroleum: Naturally occurring complex liquid hydrocarbons which, after distillation, yield combustible fuels, petrochemicals, and lubricants. [NIH] PH: The symbol relating the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration or activity of a solution to that of a given standard solution. Numerically the pH is approximately equal to the negative logarithm of H+ concentration expressed in molarity. pH 7 is neutral; above it alkalinity increases and below it acidity increases. [EU] Pharmacokinetics: Dynamic and kinetic mechanisms of exogenous chemical and drug absorption, biotransformation, distribution, release, transport, uptake, and elimination as a function of dosage, and extent and rate of metabolic processes. It includes toxicokinetics, the pharmacokinetic mechanism of the toxic effects of a substance. [NIH] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Pharynx: The hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes to the stomach). [NIH] Phenotype: The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes and between the genotype and the environment. This includes the killer phenotype, characteristic of yeasts. [NIH] Phenylalanine: An aromatic amino acid that is essential in the animal diet. It is a precursor of melanin, dopamine, noradrenalin, and thyroxine. [NIH] Phospholipases: A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoglycerides or glycerophosphatidates. EC 3.1.-. [NIH] Phospholipids: Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides; glycerophospholipids) or sphingosine (sphingolipids). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system. [NIH] Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH] Phosphorylated: Attached to a phosphate group. [NIH] Phosphorylation: The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety. [NIH] Photoreceptors: Cells specialized to detect and transduce light. [NIH] Phycocyanin: The metal-free blue phycobilin pigment in a conjugated chromoprotein of blue-green algae. It functions as light-absorbing substance together with chlorophylls. [NIH] Physical Examination: Systematic and thorough inspection of the patient for physical signs of disease or abnormality. [NIH] Physical Therapy: The restoration of function and the prevention of disability following disease or injury with the use of light, heat, cold, water, electricity, ultrasound, and exercise. [NIH]

Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age.

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[NIH]

Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Picornavirus: Any of a group of tiny RNA-containing viruses including the enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. [NIH] Pigment: A substance that gives color to tissue. Pigments are responsible for the color of skin, eyes, and hair. [NIH] Pitch: The subjective awareness of the frequency or spectral distribution of a sound. [NIH] Pituitary Gland: A small, unpaired gland situated in the sella turcica tissue. It is connected to the hypothalamus by a short stalk. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Plaque: A clear zone in a bacterial culture grown on an agar plate caused by localized destruction of bacterial cells by a bacteriophage. The concentration of infective virus in a fluid can be estimated by applying the fluid to a culture and counting the number of. [NIH] Plasma: The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma. [NIH] Plasma cells: A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. [NIH] Plastids: Self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles of plant and algal cells that contain pigments and may synthesize and accumulate various substances. Plastids are used in phylogenetic studies. [NIH] Platelet Activation: A series of progressive, overlapping events triggered by exposure of the platelets to subendothelial tissue. These events include shape change, adhesiveness, aggregation, and release reactions. When carried through to completion, these events lead to the formation of a stable hemostatic plug. [NIH] Platelet Aggregation: The attachment of platelets to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., thrombin, collagen) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a thrombus. [NIH] Platelets: A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called thrombocytes. [NIH] Platinum: Platinum. A heavy, soft, whitish metal, resembling tin, atomic number 78, atomic weight 195.09, symbol Pt. (From Dorland, 28th ed) It is used in manufacturing equipment for laboratory and industrial use. It occurs as a black powder (platinum black) and as a spongy substance (spongy platinum) and may have been known in Pliny's time as "alutiae". [NIH]

Plutonium: A naturally radioactive element of the actinide metals series. It has the atomic symbol Pu, atomic number 94, and atomic weight 242. Plutonium is used as a nuclear fuel, to produce radioisotopes for research, in radionuclide batteries for pacemakers, and as the agent of fission in nuclear weapons. [NIH] Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection or inhalation of, or exposure to a deleterious agent. [NIH] Polychromatic: Erythrocyte that, on staining, shows various shades of blue combined with tinges of pink. [NIH]

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Polycystic: An inherited disorder characterized by many grape-like clusters of fluid-filled cysts that make both kidneys larger over time. These cysts take over and destroy working kidney tissue. PKD may cause chronic renal failure and end-stage renal disease. [NIH] Polymers: Compounds formed by the joining of smaller, usually repeating, units linked by covalent bonds. These compounds often form large macromolecules (e.g., polypeptides, proteins, plastics). [NIH] Polymyalgia Rheumatica: A syndrome in the elderly characterized by proximal joint and muscle pain, high erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and a self-limiting course. Pain is usually accompanied by evidence of an inflammatory reaction. Women are affected twice as commonly as men and Caucasians more frequently than other groups. The condition is frequently associated with temporal arteritis and some theories pose the possibility that the two diseases arise from a single etiology or even that they are the same entity. [NIH] Polypeptide: A peptide which on hydrolysis yields more than two amino acids; called tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. according to the number of amino acids contained. [EU] Porosity: Condition of having pores or open spaces. This often refers to bones, bone implants, or bone cements, but can refer to the porous state of any solid substance. [NIH] Port: An implanted device through which blood may be withdrawn and drugs may be infused without repeated needle sticks. Also called a port-a-cath. [NIH] Port-a-cath: An implanted device through which blood may be withdrawn and drugs may be infused without repeated needle sticks. Also called a port. [NIH] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postmenopausal: Refers to the time after menopause. Menopause is the time in a woman's life when menstrual periods stop permanently; also called "change of life." [NIH] Postnatal: Occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. [EU] Postoperative: After surgery. [NIH] Postsynaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Potassium: An element that is in the alkali group of metals. It has an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte and it plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the water-electrolyte balance. [NIH] Potentiation: An overall effect of two drugs taken together which is greater than the sum of the effects of each drug taken alone. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Precancerous: A term used to describe a condition that may (or is likely to) become cancer. Also called premalignant. [NIH] Precursor: Something that precedes. In biological processes, a substance from which another, usually more active or mature substance is formed. In clinical medicine, a sign or symptom that heralds another. [EU] Premalignant: A term used to describe a condition that may (or is likely to) become cancer. Also called precancerous. [NIH]

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Prenatal: Existing or occurring before birth, with reference to the fetus. [EU] Prenatal Care: Care provided the pregnant woman in order to prevent complications, and decrease the incidence of maternal and prenatal mortality. [NIH] Prenatal Diagnosis: Determination of the nature of a pathological condition or disease in the postimplantation embryo, fetus, or pregnant female before birth. [NIH] Prevalence: The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. [NIH] Preventive Dentistry: The branch of dentistry concerned with the prevention of disease and the maintenance and promotion of oral health. [NIH] Prickle: Several layers of the epidermis where the individual cells are connected by cell bridges. [NIH] Primary tumor: The original tumor. [NIH] Probe: An instrument used in exploring cavities, or in the detection and dilatation of strictures, or in demonstrating the potency of channels; an elongated instrument for exploring or sounding body cavities. [NIH] Proctoscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the rectum. [NIH] Progesterone: Pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. The principal progestational hormone of the body, secreted by the corpus luteum, adrenal cortex, and placenta. Its chief function is to prepare the uterus for the reception and development of the fertilized ovum. It acts as an antiovulatory agent when administered on days 5-25 of the menstrual cycle. [NIH] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Projection: A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, whereby that which is emotionally unacceptable in the self is rejected and attributed (projected) to others. [NIH] Proline: A non-essential amino acid that is synthesized from glutamic acid. It is an essential component of collagen and is important for proper functioning of joints and tendons. [NIH] Pronator: A muscle which turns a part into the prone position. [NIH] Prone: Having the front portion of the body downwards. [NIH] Prone Position: The posture of an individual lying face down. [NIH] Prophylaxis: An attempt to prevent disease. [NIH] Proportional: Being in proportion : corresponding in size, degree, or intensity, having the same or a constant ratio; of, relating to, or used in determining proportions. [EU] Prostate: A gland in males that surrounds the neck of the bladder and the urethra. It secretes a substance that liquifies coagulated semen. It is situated in the pelvic cavity behind the lower part of the pubic symphysis, above the deep layer of the triangular ligament, and rests upon the rectum. [NIH] Prosthodontics: A dental specialty concerned with the restoration and maintenance of oral function by the replacement of missing teeth and structures by artificial devices or prostheses. [NIH] Protease: Proteinase (= any enzyme that catalyses the splitting of interior peptide bonds in a protein). [EU] Protein C: A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va

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and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation. [NIH] Protein Engineering: Procedures by which nonrandom single-site changes are introduced into structural genes (site-specific mutagenesis) in order to produce mutant genes which can be coupled to promoters that direct the synthesis of a specifically altered protein, which is then analyzed for structural and functional properties and then compared with the predicted and sought-after properties. The design of the protein may be assisted by computer graphic technology and other advanced molecular modeling techniques. [NIH] Protein Folding: A rapid biochemical reaction involved in the formation of proteins. It begins even before a protein has been completely synthesized and proceeds through discrete intermediates (primary, secondary, and tertiary structures) before the final structure (quaternary structure) is developed. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Protein-Tyrosine Kinase: An enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues in proteins with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors. EC 2.7.1.112. [NIH] Protons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion. [NIH] Protozoa: A subkingdom consisting of unicellular organisms that are the simplest in the animal kingdom. Most are free living. They range in size from submicroscopic to macroscopic. Protozoa are divided into seven phyla: Sarcomastigophora, Labyrinthomorpha, Apicomplexa, Microspora, Ascetospora, Myxozoa, and Ciliophora. [NIH] Proximal: Nearest; closer to any point of reference; opposed to distal. [EU] Psychiatric: Pertaining to or within the purview of psychiatry. [EU] Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. [NIH] Psychic: Pertaining to the psyche or to the mind; mental. [EU] Psychotropic: Exerting an effect upon the mind; capable of modifying mental activity; usually applied to drugs that effect the mental state. [EU] Psychotropic Drugs: A loosely defined grouping of drugs that have effects on psychological function. Here the psychotropic agents include the antidepressive agents, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing agents (including the antipsychotics and anti-anxiety agents). [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Publishing: "The business or profession of the commercial production and issuance of literature" (Webster's 3d). It includes the publisher, publication processes, editing and editors. Production may be by conventional printing methods or by electronic publishing. [NIH]

Puerperium: Period from delivery of the placenta until return of the reproductive organs to their normal nonpregnant morphologic state. In humans, the puerperium generally lasts for six to eight weeks. [NIH] Pulmonary: Relating to the lungs. [NIH] Pulse: The rhythmical expansion and contraction of an artery produced by waves of

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pressure caused by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle of the heart as it contracts. [NIH]

Purines: A series of heterocyclic compounds that are variously substituted in nature and are known also as purine bases. They include adenine and guanine, constituents of nucleic acids, as well as many alkaloids such as caffeine and theophylline. Uric acid is the metabolic end product of purine metabolism. [NIH] Quality of Life: A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment. [NIH] Quaternary: 1. Fourth in order. 2. Containing four elements or groups. [EU] Race: A population within a species which exhibits general similarities within itself, but is both discontinuous and distinct from other populations of that species, though not sufficiently so as to achieve the status of a taxon. [NIH] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiation Oncology: A subspecialty of medical oncology and radiology concerned with the radiotherapy of cancer. [NIH] Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body in the area near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy. [NIH] Radiculopathy: Disease involving a spinal nerve root (see spinal nerve roots) which may result from compression related to intervertebral disk displacement; spinal cord injuries; spinal diseases; and other conditions. Clinical manifestations include radicular pain, weakness, and sensory loss referable to structures innervated by the involved nerve root. [NIH]

Radio Waves: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum beyond the microwaves, with wavelengths as high as 30 KM. They are used in communications, including television. Short Wave or HF (high frequency), UHF (ultrahigh frequency) and VHF (very high frequency) waves are used in citizen's band communication. [NIH] Radioactive: Giving off radiation. [NIH] Radiofrequency ablation: The use of electrical current to destroy tissue. [NIH] Radiography: Examination of any part of the body for diagnostic purposes by means of roentgen rays, recording the image on a sensitized surface (such as photographic film). [NIH] Radioimmunotherapy: Radiotherapy where cytotoxic radionuclides are linked to antibodies in order to deliver toxins directly to tumor targets. Therapy with targeted radiation rather than antibody-targeted toxins (immunotoxins) has the advantage that adjacent tumor cells, which lack the appropriate antigenic determinants, can be destroyed by radiation cross-fire. Radioimmunotherapy is sometimes called targeted radiotherapy, but this latter term can also refer to radionuclides linked to non-immune molecules (radiotherapy). [NIH] Radioisotope: An unstable element that releases radiation as it breaks down. Radioisotopes can be used in imaging tests or as a treatment for cancer. [NIH] Radiolabeled: Any compound that has been joined with a radioactive substance. [NIH] Radiological: Pertaining to radiodiagnostic and radiotherapeutic procedures, and

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interventional radiology or other planning and guiding medical radiology. [NIH] Radiologist: A doctor who specializes in creating and interpreting pictures of areas inside the body. The pictures are produced with x-rays, sound waves, or other types of energy. [NIH]

Radiology: A specialty concerned with the use of x-ray and other forms of radiant energy in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. [NIH] Radiopharmaceutical: Any medicinal product which, when ready for use, contains one or more radionuclides (radioactive isotopes) included for a medicinal purpose. [NIH] Radiotherapy: The use of ionizing radiation to treat malignant neoplasms and other benign conditions. The most common forms of ionizing radiation used as therapy are x-rays, gamma rays, and electrons. A special form of radiotherapy, targeted radiotherapy, links a cytotoxic radionuclide to a molecule that targets the tumor. When this molecule is an antibody or other immunologic molecule, the technique is called radioimmunotherapy. [NIH] Radium: A radioactive element symbol Ra, atomic number 88, disintegration of uranium and is is used clinically as a source brachytherapy. [NIH]

of the alkaline earth series of metals. It has the atomic and atomic weight 226. Radium is the product of the present in pitchblende and all ores containing uranium. It of beta and gamma-rays in radiotherapy, particularly

Radius: The lateral bone of the forearm. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Recombinant: A cell or an individual with a new combination of genes not found together in either parent; usually applied to linked genes. [EU] Recombination: The formation of new combinations of genes as a result of segregation in crosses between genetically different parents; also the rearrangement of linked genes due to crossing-over. [NIH] Recovery Room: Hospital unit providing continuous monitoring of the patient following anesthesia. [NIH] Rectal: By or having to do with the rectum. The rectum is the last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine and ends at the anus. [NIH] Rectum: The last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine. [NIH] Recurrence: The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission. [NIH] Red Nucleus: A pinkish-yellow portion of the midbrain situated in the rostral mesencephalic tegmentum. It receives a large projection from the contralateral half of the cerebellum via the superior cerebellar peduncle and a projection from the ipsilateral motor cortex. [NIH] Reductase: Enzyme converting testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Reflective: Capable of throwing back light, images, sound waves : reflecting. [EU] Reflux: The term used when liquid backs up into the esophagus from the stomach. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Refractory: Not readily yielding to treatment. [EU]

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Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Regurgitation: A backward flowing, as the casting up of undigested food, or the backward flowing of blood into the heart, or between the chambers of the heart when a valve is incompetent. [EU] Relapse: The return of signs and symptoms of cancer after a period of improvement. [NIH] Relaxant: 1. Lessening or reducing tension. 2. An agent that lessens tension. [EU] Remission: A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although there still may be cancer in the body. [NIH] Renal pelvis: The area at the center of the kidney. Urine collects here and is funneled into the ureter, the tube that connects the kidney to the bladder. [NIH] Research Design: A plan for collecting and utilizing data so that desired information can be obtained with sufficient precision or so that an hypothesis can be tested properly. [NIH] Resolving: The ability of the eye or of a lens to make small objects that are close together, separately visible; thus revealing the structure of an object. [NIH] Respiration: The act of breathing with the lungs, consisting of inspiration, or the taking into the lungs of the ambient air, and of expiration, or the expelling of the modified air which contains more carbon dioxide than the air taken in (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed.). This does not include tissue respiration (= oxygen consumption) or cell respiration (= cell respiration). [NIH] Restoration: Broad term applied to any inlay, crown, bridge or complete denture which restores or replaces loss of teeth or oral tissues. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinal: 1. Pertaining to the retina. 2. The aldehyde of retinol, derived by the oxidative enzymatic splitting of absorbed dietary carotene, and having vitamin A activity. In the retina, retinal combines with opsins to form visual pigments. One isomer, 11-cis retinal combines with opsin in the rods (scotopsin) to form rhodopsin, or visual purple. Another, all-trans retinal (trans-r.); visual yellow; xanthopsin) results from the bleaching of rhodopsin by light, in which the 11-cis form is converted to the all-trans form. Retinal also combines with opsins in the cones (photopsins) to form the three pigments responsible for colour vision. Called also retinal, and retinene1. [EU] Retinoblastoma: An eye cancer that most often occurs in children younger than 5 years. It occurs in hereditary and nonhereditary (sporadic) forms. [NIH] Retrograde: 1. Moving backward or against the usual direction of flow. 2. Degenerating, deteriorating, or catabolic. [EU] Retrospective: Looking back at events that have already taken place. [NIH] Retrospective study: A study that looks backward in time, usually using medical records and interviews with patients who already have or had a disease. [NIH] Rheumatic Diseases: Disorders of connective tissue, especially the joints and related structures, characterized by inflammation, degeneration, or metabolic derangement. [NIH] Rheumatism: A group of disorders marked by inflammation or pain in the connective tissue

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structures of the body. These structures include bone, cartilage, and fat. [NIH] Rheumatoid: Resembling rheumatism. [EU] Rheumatoid arthritis: A form of arthritis, the cause of which is unknown, although infection, hypersensitivity, hormone imbalance and psychologic stress have been suggested as possible causes. [NIH] Riboflavin: Nutritional factor found in milk, eggs, malted barley, liver, kidney, heart, and leafy vegetables. The richest natural source is yeast. It occurs in the free form only in the retina of the eye, in whey, and in urine; its principal forms in tissues and cells are as FMN and FAD. [NIH] Riboflavin Synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of riboflavin from two molecules of 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine, utilizing a four-carbon fragment from one molecule which is transferred to the second molecule. EC 2.5.1.9. [NIH] Ribonuclease: RNA-digesting enzyme. [NIH] Ribose: A pentose active in biological systems usually in its D-form. [NIH] Ribosome: A granule of protein and RNA, synthesized in the nucleolus and found in the cytoplasm of cells. Ribosomes are the main sites of protein synthesis. Messenger RNA attaches to them and there receives molecules of transfer RNA bearing amino acids. [NIH] Rickets: A condition caused by deficiency of vitamin D, especially in infancy and childhood, with disturbance of normal ossification. The disease is marked by bending and distortion of the bones under muscular action, by the formation of nodular enlargements on the ends and sides of the bones, by delayed closure of the fontanelles, pain in the muscles, and sweating of the head. Vitamin D and sunlight together with an adequate diet are curative, provided that the parathyroid glands are functioning properly. [EU] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. [NIH] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Rodenticides: Substances used to destroy or inhibit the action of rats, mice, or other rodents. [NIH]

Rubber: A high-molecular-weight polymeric elastomer derived from the milk juice (latex) of Hevea brasiliensis and other trees. It is a substance that can be stretched at room temperature to atleast twice its original length and after releasing the stress, retractrapidly, and recover its original dimensions fully. Synthetic rubber is made from many different chemicals, including styrene, acrylonitrile, ethylene, propylene, and isoprene. [NIH] Ruthenium: A hard, brittle, grayish-white rare earth metal with an atomic symbol Ru, atomic number 44, and atomic weight 101.07. It is used as a catalyst and hardener for platinum and palladium. [NIH] Saline: A solution of salt and water. [NIH] Salivary: The duct that convey saliva to the mouth. [NIH] Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva. [NIH] Saponins: Sapogenin glycosides. A type of glycoside widely distributed in plants. Each consists of a sapogenin as the aglycon moiety, and a sugar. The sapogenin may be a steroid or a triterpene and the sugar may be glucose, galactose, a pentose, or a methylpentose. Sapogenins are poisonous towards the lower forms of life and are powerful hemolytics when injected into the blood stream able to dissolve red blood cells at even extreme dilutions. [NIH] Scans: Pictures of structures inside the body. Scans often used in diagnosing, staging, and

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monitoring disease include liver scans, bone scans, and computed tomography (CT) or computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. In liver scanning and bone scanning, radioactive substances that are injected into the bloodstream collect in these organs. A scanner that detects the radiation is used to create pictures. In CT scanning, an x-ray machine linked to a computer is used to produce detailed pictures of organs inside the body. MRI scans use a large magnet connected to a computer to create pictures of areas inside the body. [NIH] Scatter: The extent to which relative success and failure are divergently manifested in qualitatively different tests. [NIH] Sciatica: A condition characterized by pain radiating from the back into the buttock and posterior/lateral aspects of the leg. Sciatica may be a manifestation of sciatic neuropathy; radiculopathy (involving the L4, L5, S1 or S2 spinal nerve roots; often associated with intervertebral disk displacement); or lesions of the cauda equina. [NIH] Scleroderma: A chronic disorder marked by hardening and thickening of the skin. Scleroderma can be localized or it can affect the entire body (systemic). [NIH] Sclerosis: A pathological process consisting of hardening or fibrosis of an anatomical structure, often a vessel or a nerve. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Second Messenger Systems: Systems in which an intracellular signal is generated in response to an intercellular primary messenger such as a hormone or neurotransmitter. They are intermediate signals in cellular processes such as metabolism, secretion, contraction, phototransduction, and cell growth. Examples of second messenger systems are the adenyl cyclase-cyclic AMP system, the phosphatidylinositol diphosphate-inositol triphosphate system, and the cyclic GMP system. [NIH] Secondary tumor: Cancer that has spread from the organ in which it first appeared to another organ. For example, breast cancer cells may spread (metastasize) to the lungs and cause the growth of a new tumor. When this happens, the disease is called metastatic breast cancer, and the tumor in the lungs is called a secondary tumor. Also called secondary cancer. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Sedative: 1. Allaying activity and excitement. 2. An agent that allays excitement. [EU] Sediment: A precipitate, especially one that is formed spontaneously. [EU] Segregation: The separation in meiotic cell division of homologous chromosome pairs and their contained allelomorphic gene pairs. [NIH] Seizures: Clinical or subclinical disturbances of cortical function due to a sudden, abnormal, excessive, and disorganized discharge of brain cells. Clinical manifestations include abnormal motor, sensory and psychic phenomena. Recurrent seizures are usually referred to as epilepsy or "seizure disorder." [NIH] Selection Bias: The introduction of error due to systematic differences in the characteristics between those selected and those not selected for a given study. In sampling bias, error is the result of failure to ensure that all members of the reference population have a known chance of selection in the sample. [NIH] Selenium: An element with the atomic symbol Se, atomic number 34, and atomic weight 78.96. It is an essential micronutrient for mammals and other animals but is toxic in large amounts. Selenium protects intracellular structures against oxidative damage. It is an

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essential component of glutathione peroxidase. [NIH] Semen: The thick, yellowish-white, viscid fluid secretion of male reproductive organs discharged upon ejaculation. In addition to reproductive organ secretions, it contains spermatozoa and their nutrient plasma. [NIH] Semisynthetic: Produced by chemical manipulation of naturally occurring substances. [EU] Senile: Relating or belonging to old age; characteristic of old age; resulting from infirmity of old age. [NIH] Sensibility: The ability to receive, feel and appreciate sensations and impressions; the quality of being sensitive; the extend to which a method gives results that are free from false negatives. [NIH] Sensor: A device designed to respond to physical stimuli such as temperature, light, magnetism or movement and transmit resulting impulses for interpretation, recording, movement, or operating control. [NIH] Sentinel lymph node: The first lymph node that cancer is likely to spread to from the primary tumor. Cancer cells may appear first in the sentinel node before spreading to other lymph nodes. [NIH] Sequencing: The determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA chain. [NIH] Serine: A non-essential amino acid occurring in natural form as the L-isomer. It is synthesized from glycine or threonine. It is involved in the biosynthesis of purines, pyrimidines, and other amino acids. [NIH] Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Sessile: Attached directly by the base, denoting a tumor without penduncle or stalk; in zoology, attached so that it is not possible to move about. [NIH] Sex Characteristics: Those characteristics that distinguish one sex from the other. The primary sex characteristics are the ovaries and testes and their related hormones. Secondary sex characteristics are those which are masculine or feminine but not directly related to reproduction. [NIH] Sex Determination: The biological characteristics which distinguish human beings as female or male. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]

Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Sigmoid: 1. Shaped like the letter S or the letter C. 2. The sigmoid colon. [EU] Sigmoidoscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the sigmoid flexure. [NIH] Signal Transduction: The intercellular or intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GABA-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell

276 X-rays

activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptormediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway. [NIH] Signs and Symptoms: Clinical manifestations that can be either objective when observed by a physician, or subjective when perceived by the patient. [NIH] Silicon: A trace element that constitutes about 27.6% of the earth's crust in the form of silicon dioxide. It does not occur free in nature. Silicon has the atomic symbol Si, atomic number 14, and atomic weight 28.09. [NIH] Silicon Dioxide: Silica. Transparent, tasteless crystals found in nature as agate, amethyst, chalcedony, cristobalite, flint, sand, quartz, and tridymite. The compound is insoluble in water or acids except hydrofluoric acid. [NIH] Skeletal: Having to do with the skeleton (boney part of the body). [NIH] Skeleton: The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage. [NIH] Skull: The skeleton of the head including the bones of the face and the bones enclosing the brain. [NIH] Small cell lung cancer: A type of lung cancer in which the cells appear small and round when viewed under the microscope. Also called oat cell lung cancer. [NIH] Small intestine: The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine. [NIH] Smooth muscle: Muscle that performs automatic tasks, such as constricting blood vessels. [NIH]

Social Environment: The aggregate of social and cultural institutions, forms, patterns, and processes that influence the life of an individual or community. [NIH] Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Sodium Iodide: Sodium iodide (NaI). A compound forming white, odorless deliquescent crystals and used as iodine supplement, expectorant or in its radioactive (I-131) form as an diagnostic aid, particularly for thyroid function determinants. [NIH] Soft tissue: Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body. [NIH] Solid tumor: Cancer of body tissues other than blood, bone marrow, or the lymphatic system. [NIH] Solitary Nucleus: Gray matter located in the dorsomedial part of the medulla oblongata associated with the solitary tract. The solitary nucleus receives inputs from most organ systems including the terminations of the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. It is a major coordinator of autonomic nervous system regulation of cardiovascular, respiratory, gustatory, gastrointestinal, and chemoreceptive aspects of homeostasis. The solitary nucleus is also notable for the large number of neurotransmitters which are found therein. [NIH]

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Solvent: 1. Dissolving; effecting a solution. 2. A liquid that dissolves or that is capable of dissolving; the component of a solution that is present in greater amount. [EU] Soma: The body as distinct from the mind; all the body tissue except the germ cells; all the axial body. [NIH] Somatic: 1. Pertaining to or characteristic of the soma or body. 2. Pertaining to the body wall in contrast to the viscera. [EU] Sound wave: An alteration of properties of an elastic medium, such as pressure, particle displacement, or density, that propagates through the medium, or a superposition of such alterations. [NIH] Spasm: An involuntary contraction of a muscle or group of muscles. Spasms may involve skeletal muscle or smooth muscle. [NIH] Spastic: 1. Of the nature of or characterized by spasms. 2. Hypertonic, so that the muscles are stiff and the movements awkward. 3. A person exhibiting spasticity, such as occurs in spastic paralysis or in cerebral palsy. [EU] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spectrometer: An apparatus for determining spectra; measures quantities such as wavelengths and relative amplitudes of components. [NIH] Spectrum: A charted band of wavelengths of electromagnetic vibrations obtained by refraction and diffraction. By extension, a measurable range of activity, such as the range of bacteria affected by an antibiotic (antibacterial s.) or the complete range of manifestations of a disease. [EU] Sperm: The fecundating fluid of the male. [NIH] Sphincter: A ringlike band of muscle fibres that constricts a passage or closes a natural orifice; called also musculus sphincter. [EU] Spina bifida: A defect in development of the vertebral column in which there is a central deficiency of the vertebral lamina. [NIH] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH] Spinal Nerve Roots: The paired bundles of nerve fibers entering and leaving the spinal cord at each segment. The dorsal and ventral nerve roots join to form the mixed segmental spinal nerves. The dorsal roots are generally afferent, formed by the central projections of the spinal (dorsal root) ganglia sensory cells, and the ventral roots efferent, comprising the axons of spinal motor and autonomic preganglionic neurons. There are, however, some exceptions to this afferent/efferent rule. [NIH] Spinous: Like a spine or thorn in shape; having spines. [NIH] Spleen: An organ that is part of the lymphatic system. The spleen produces lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It is located on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach. [NIH]

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Spondylitis: Inflammation of the vertebrae. [EU] Sporadic: Neither endemic nor epidemic; occurring occasionally in a random or isolated manner. [EU] Spores: The reproductive elements of lower organisms, such as protozoa, fungi, and cryptogamic plants. [NIH] Sprains and Strains: A collective term for muscle and ligament injuries without dislocation or fracture. A sprain is a joint injury in which some of the fibers of a supporting ligament are ruptured but the continuity of the ligament remains intact. A strain is an overstretching or overexertion of some part of the musculature. [NIH] Sputum: The material expelled from the respiratory passages by coughing or clearing the throat. [NIH] Squamous: Scaly, or platelike. [EU] Squamous cells: Flat cells that look like fish scales under a microscope. These cells cover internal and external surfaces of the body. [NIH] Staging: Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. [NIH]

Stasis: A word termination indicating the maintenance of (or maintaining) a constant level; preventing increase or multiplication. [EU] Steel: A tough, malleable, iron-based alloy containing up to, but no more than, two percent carbon and often other metals. It is used in medicine and dentistry in implants and instrumentation. [NIH] Stem Cells: Relatively undifferentiated cells of the same lineage (family type) that retain the ability to divide and cycle throughout postnatal life to provide cells that can become specialized and take the place of those that die or are lost. [NIH] Stent: A device placed in a body structure (such as a blood vessel or the gastrointestinal tract) to provide support and keep the structure open. [NIH] Sterile: Unable to produce children. [NIH] Sterilization: The destroying of all forms of life, especially microorganisms, by heat, chemical, or other means. [NIH] Steroid: A group name for lipids that contain a hydrogenated cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring system. Some of the substances included in this group are progesterone, adrenocortical hormones, the gonadal hormones, cardiac aglycones, bile acids, sterols (such as cholesterol), toad poisons, saponins, and some of the carcinogenic hydrocarbons. [EU] Stimulant: 1. Producing stimulation; especially producing stimulation by causing tension on muscle fibre through the nervous tissue. 2. An agent or remedy that produces stimulation. [EU]

Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stomach: An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the esophagus and the beginning of the duodenum. [NIH] Stool: The waste matter discharged in a bowel movement; feces. [NIH] Stool test: A test to check for hidden blood in the bowel movement. [NIH] Strand: DNA normally exists in the bacterial nucleus in a helix, in which two strands are coiled together. [NIH]

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Stress: Forcibly exerted influence; pressure. Any condition or situation that causes strain or tension. Stress may be either physical or psychologic, or both. [NIH] Stroke: Sudden loss of function of part of the brain because of loss of blood flow. Stroke may be caused by a clot (thrombosis) or rupture (hemorrhage) of a blood vessel to the brain. [NIH] Struvite: A type of kidney stone caused by infection. [NIH] Styrene: A colorless, toxic liquid with a strong aromatic odor. It is used to make rubbers, polymers and copolymers, and polystyrene plastics. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other disease or abnormality. [EU] Subcutaneous: Beneath the skin. [NIH] Subspecies: A category intermediate in rank between species and variety, based on a smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species and generally conditioned by geographical and/or ecological occurrence. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]

Substrate: A substance upon which an enzyme acts. [EU] Subtrochanteric: Below a trochanter. [NIH] Sulfur: An element that is a member of the chalcogen family. It has an atomic symbol S, atomic number 16, and atomic weight 32.066. It is found in the amino acids cysteine and methionine. [NIH] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Survival Rate: The proportion of survivors in a group, e.g., of patients, studied and followed over a period, or the proportion of persons in a specified group alive at the beginning of a time interval who survive to the end of the interval. It is often studied using life table methods. [NIH] Suspensions: Colloids with liquid continuous phase and solid dispersed phase; the term is used loosely also for solid-in-gas (aerosol) and other colloidal systems; water-insoluble drugs may be given as suspensions. [NIH] Sympathetic Nervous System: The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system. [NIH] Symphysis: A secondary cartilaginous joint. [NIH] Symptomatic: Having to do with symptoms, which are signs of a condition or disease. [NIH] Synapses: Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of

280 X-rays

another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate through direct electrical connections which are sometimes called electrical synapses; these are not included here but rather in gap junctions. [NIH] Synaptic: Pertaining to or affecting a synapse (= site of functional apposition between neurons, at which an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another by electrical or chemical means); pertaining to synapsis (= pairing off in point-for-point association of homologous chromosomes from the male and female pronuclei during the early prophase of meiosis). [EU] Synchrotron: An accelerator in which the particles are guided by an increasing magnetic field while they are accelerated several times in an approximately circular path by electric fields produced by a high-frequency generator. [NIH] Synovial: Of pertaining to, or secreting synovia. [EU] Synovial Fluid: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. It contains mucin, albumin, fat, and mineral salts and serves to lubricate joints. [NIH] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Systemic disease: Disease that affects the whole body. [NIH] Systemic lupus erythematosus: SLE. A chronic inflammatory connective tissue disease marked by skin rashes, joint pain and swelling, inflammation of the kidneys, inflammation of the fibrous tissue surrounding the heart (i.e., the pericardium), as well as other problems. Not all affected individuals display all of these problems. May be referred to as lupus. [NIH] Systems Analysis: The analysis of an activity, procedure, method, technique, or business to determine what must be accomplished and how the necessary operations may best be accomplished. [NIH] Telangiectasia: The permanent enlargement of blood vessels, causing redness in the skin or mucous membranes. [NIH] Telophase: The final phase of cell division, in which two daughter nuclei are formed, the cytoplasm divides, and the chromosomes lose their distinctness and are transformed into chromatin networks. [NIH] Temporal: One of the two irregular bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing. [NIH] Tendinitis: Inflammation of tendons and of tendon-muscle attachments. [EU] Tennis Elbow: A condition characterized by pain in or near the lateral humeral epicondyle or in the forearm extensor muscle mass as a result of unusual strain. It occurs in tennis players as well as housewives, artisans, and violinists. [NIH] Testicular: Pertaining to a testis. [EU] Testis: Either of the paired male reproductive glands that produce the male germ cells and the male hormones. [NIH] Testosterone: A hormone that promotes the development and maintenance of male sex characteristics. [NIH] Tetany: 1. Hyperexcitability of nerves and muscles due to decrease in concentration of extracellular ionized calcium, which may be associated with such conditions as parathyroid hypofunction, vitamin D deficiency, and alkalosis or result from ingestion of alkaline salts; it is characterized by carpopedal spasm, muscular twitching and cramps, laryngospasm with inspiratory stridor, hyperreflexia and choreiform movements. 2. Tetanus. [EU] Thalamic: Cell that reaches the lateral nucleus of amygdala. [NIH] Thalamic Diseases: Disorders of the centrally located thalamus, which integrates a wide

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range of cortical and subcortical information. Manifestations include sensory loss, movement disorders; ataxia, pain syndromes, visual disorders, a variety of neuropsychological conditions, and coma. Relatively common etiologies include cerebrovascular disorders; craniocerebral trauma; brain neoplasms; brain hypoxia; intracranial hemorrhages; and infectious processes. [NIH] Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Thermal: Pertaining to or characterized by heat. [EU] Thigh: A leg; in anatomy, any elongated process or part of a structure more or less comparable to a leg. [NIH] Thoracic: Having to do with the chest. [NIH] Thorax: A part of the trunk between the neck and the abdomen; the chest. [NIH] Threonine: An essential amino acid occurring naturally in the L-form, which is the active form. It is found in eggs, milk, gelatin, and other proteins. [NIH] Threshold: For a specified sensory modality (e. g. light, sound, vibration), the lowest level (absolute threshold) or smallest difference (difference threshold, difference limen) or intensity of the stimulus discernible in prescribed conditions of stimulation. [NIH] Thrombin: An enzyme formed from prothrombin that converts fibrinogen to fibrin. (Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.4.21.5. [NIH] Thrombocytes: Blood cells that help prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called platelets. [NIH] Thrombomodulin: A cell surface glycoprotein of endothelial cells that binds thrombin and serves as a cofactor in the activation of protein C and its regulation of blood coagulation. [NIH]

Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Thrombus: An aggregation of blood factors, primarily platelets and fibrin with entrapment of cellular elements, frequently causing vascular obstruction at the point of its formation. Some authorities thus differentiate thrombus formation from simple coagulation or clot formation. [EU] Thymus: An organ that is part of the lymphatic system, in which T lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone. [NIH] Thyroid: A gland located near the windpipe (trachea) that produces thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth and metabolism. [NIH] Thyroid Gland: A highly vascular endocrine gland consisting of two lobes, one on either side of the trachea, joined by a narrow isthmus; it produces the thyroid hormones which are concerned in regulating the metabolic rate of the body. [NIH] Tin: A trace element that is required in bone formation. It has the atomic symbol Sn, atomic number 50, and atomic weight 118.71. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tolerance: 1. The ability to endure unusually large doses of a drug or toxin. 2. Acquired drug tolerance; a decreasing response to repeated constant doses of a drug or the need for increasing doses to maintain a constant response. [EU] Tomography: Imaging methods that result in sharp images of objects located on a chosen plane and blurred images located above or below the plane. [NIH]

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Tonsils: Small masses of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat. [NIH] Tooth Loss: The failure to retain teeth as a result of disease or injury. [NIH] Tooth Preparation: Procedures carried out with regard to the teeth or tooth structures preparatory to specified dental therapeutic and surgical measures. [NIH] Topical: On the surface of the body. [NIH] Total-body irradiation: Radiation therapy to the entire body. Usually followed by bone marrow or peripheral stem cell transplantation. [NIH] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxins: Specific, characterizable, poisonous chemicals, often proteins, with specific biological properties, including immunogenicity, produced by microbes, higher plants, or animals. [NIH] Trace element: Substance or element essential to plant or animal life, but present in extremely small amounts. [NIH] Tracer: A substance (such as a radioisotope) used in imaging procedures. [NIH] Trachea: The cartilaginous and membranous tube descending from the larynx and branching into the right and left main bronchi. [NIH] Tranquilizing Agents: A traditional grouping of drugs said to have a soothing or calming effect on mood, thought, or behavior. Included here are the anti-anxiety agents (minor tranquilizers), antimanic agents, and the antipsychotic agents (major tranquilizers). These drugs act by different mechanisms and are used for different therapeutic purposes. [NIH] Transduction: The transfer of genes from one cell to another by means of a viral (in the case of bacteria, a bacteriophage) vector or a vector which is similar to a virus particle (pseudovirion). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Transfusion: The infusion of components of blood or whole blood into the bloodstream. The blood may be donated from another person, or it may have been taken from the person earlier and stored until needed. [NIH] Translation: The process whereby the genetic information present in the linear sequence of ribonucleotides in mRNA is converted into a corresponding sequence of amino acids in a protein. It occurs on the ribosome and is unidirectional. [NIH] Translocate: The attachment of a fragment of one chromosome to a non-homologous chromosome. [NIH] Translocation: The movement of material in solution inside the body of the plant. [NIH] Transmitter: A chemical substance which effects the passage of nerve impulses from one cell to the other at the synapse. [NIH] Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Trees: Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some

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Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches. [NIH] Trisomy: The possession of a third chromosome of any one type in an otherwise diploid cell. [NIH]

Tryptophan: An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for nitrogen balance in adults. It is a precursor serotonin and niacin. [NIH] Tubercle: A rounded elevation on a bone or other structure. [NIH] Tuberculin: A sterile liquid containing the growth products of, or specific substances extracted from, the tubercle bacillus; used in various forms in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. [NIH]

Tuberculosis: Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of Mycobacterium. [NIH] Tuberous Sclerosis: A rare congenital disease in which the essential pathology is the appearance of multiple tumors in the cerebrum and in other organs, such as the heart or kidneys. [NIH] Tumor marker: A substance sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood, other body fluids, or tissues and which may mean that a certain type of cancer is in the body. Examples of tumor markers include CA 125 (ovarian cancer), CA 15-3 (breast cancer), CEA (ovarian, lung, breast, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract cancers), and PSA (prostate cancer). Also called biomarker. [NIH] Tumour: 1. Swelling, one of the cardinal signs of inflammations; morbid enlargement. 2. A new growth of tissue in which the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled and progressive; called also neoplasm. [EU] Tungsten: A metallic element with the atomic symbol W, atomic number 74, and atomic weight 183.85. It is used in many manufacturing applications, including increasing the hardness, toughness, and tensile strength of steel; manufacture of filaments for incandescent light bulbs; and in contact points for automotive and electrical apparatus. [NIH] Tyrosine: A non-essential amino acid. In animals it is synthesized from phenylalanine. It is also the precursor of epinephrine, thyroid hormones, and melanin. [NIH] Ulcer: A localized necrotic lesion of the skin or a mucous surface. [NIH] Ultrasonography: The visualization of deep structures of the body by recording the reflections of echoes of pulses of ultrasonic waves directed into the tissues. Use of ultrasound for imaging or diagnostic purposes employs frequencies ranging from 1.6 to 10 megahertz. [NIH] Ultraviolet Rays: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately below the visible range and extending into the x-ray frequencies. The longer wavelengths (near-UV or biotic or vital rays) are necessary for the endogenous synthesis of vitamin D and are also called antirachitic rays; the shorter, ionizing wavelengths (far-UV or abiotic or extravital rays) are viricidal, bactericidal, mutagenic, and carcinogenic and are used as disinfectants. [NIH]

Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Uranium: A radioactive element of the actinide series of metals. It has an atomic symbol U, atomic number 92, and atomic weight 238.03. U-235 is used as the fissionable fuel in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear power reactors. [NIH] Ureter: One of a pair of thick-walled tubes that transports urine from the kidney pelvis to the bladder. [NIH] Ureteroscopy: Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the ureter. [NIH]

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Urethra: The tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the bladder. [NIH]

Uric: A kidney stone that may result from a diet high in animal protein. When the body breaks down this protein, uric acid levels rise and can form stones. [NIH] Urinalysis: Examination of urine by chemical, physical, or microscopic means. Routine urinalysis usually includes performing chemical screening tests, determining specific gravity, observing any unusual color or odor, screening for bacteriuria, and examining the sediment microscopically. [NIH] Urinary: Having to do with urine or the organs of the body that produce and get rid of urine. [NIH] Urinary tract: The organs of the body that produce and discharge urine. These include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. [NIH] Urinate: To release urine from the bladder to the outside. [NIH] Urine: Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. [NIH] Urodynamics: The mechanical laws of fluid dynamics as they apply to urine transport. [NIH] Urologist: A doctor who specializes in diseases of the urinary organs in females and the urinary and sex organs in males. [NIH] Urology: A surgical specialty concerned with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the urinary tract in both sexes and the genital tract in the male. It includes the specialty of andrology which addresses both male genital diseases and male infertility. [NIH] Uterus: The small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis. This is the organ in which a fetus develops. Also called the womb. [NIH] Vacuoles: Any spaces or cavities within a cell. They may function in digestion, storage, secretion, or excretion. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vascular endothelial growth factor: VEGF. A substance made by cells that stimulates new blood vessel formation. [NIH] Vasodilators: Any nerve or agent which induces dilatation of the blood vessels. [NIH] Vein: Vessel-carrying blood from various parts of the body to the heart. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Ventricle: One of the two pumping chambers of the heart. The right ventricle receives oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle receives oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the body through the aorta. [NIH] Venules: The minute vessels that collect blood from the capillary plexuses and join together to form veins. [NIH] Vertebrae: A bony unit of the segmented spinal column. [NIH] Vertebral: Of or pertaining to a vertebra. [EU] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Vinca Alkaloids: A class of alkaloids from the genus of apocyanaceous woody herbs including periwinkles. They are some of the most useful antineoplastic agents. [NIH] Vincristine: An anticancer drug that belongs to the family of plant drugs called vinca

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alkaloids. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virulence: The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. [NIH] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Viscera: Any of the large interior organs in any one of the three great cavities of the body, especially in the abdomen. [NIH] Visceral: , from viscus a viscus) pertaining to a viscus. [EU] Visceral Afferents: The sensory fibers innervating the viscera. [NIH] Visual Acuity: Acuteness or clearness of vision, especially of form vision, which is dependent mainly on the sharpness of the retinal focus. [NIH] Vitamin D: The vitamin that mediates intestinal calcium absorption, bone calcium metabolism, and probably muscle activity. It usually acts as a hormone precursor, requiring 2 stages of metabolism before reaching actual hormonal form. It is isolated from fish liver oils and used in the treatment and prevention of rickets. [NIH] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH] Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] Vocal cord: The vocal folds of the larynx. [NIH] Void: To urinate, empty the bladder. [NIH] Vomeronasal Organ: A specialized part of the olfactory system located anteriorly in the nasal cavity within the nasal septum. Chemosensitive cells of the vomeronasal organ project via the vomeronasal nerve to the accessory olfactory bulb. The primary function of this organ appears to be in sensing pheromones which regulate reproductive and other social behaviors. While the structure has been thought absent in higher primate adults, data now suggests it may be present in adult humans. [NIH] White blood cell: A type of cell in the immune system that helps the body fight infection and disease. White blood cells include lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and others. [NIH]

Windpipe: A rigid tube, 10 cm long, extending from the cricoid cartilage to the upper border of the fifth thoracic vertebra. [NIH] Wrist Injuries: Injuries to the wrist or the wrist joint. [NIH] Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] X-ray: High-energy radiation used in low doses to diagnose diseases and in high doses to treat cancer. [NIH] X-Ray Film: A film base coated with an emulsion designed for use with X-rays. [NIH] X-ray therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from materials called radioisotopes. Radioisotopes produce radiation and can be placed in or near the tumor or in the area near cancer cells. This type of radiation treatment is called internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, interstitial radiation, or

286 X-rays

brachytherapy. Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. X-ray therapy is also called radiation therapy, radiotherapy, and irradiation. [NIH] X-ray tube: Evacuated vessel for the production of X-radiation by the bombardment of a target, contained in an anode, with electrons accelerated by an electric field. [NIH] Yeasts: A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is dried yeast. [NIH] Yttrium: An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Y, atomic number 39, and atomic weight 88.91. In conjunction with other rare earths, yttrium is used as a phosphor in television receivers and is a component of the yttrium-aluminum garnet (YAG) lasers. [NIH] Zinc Oxide: A mild astringent and topical protectant with some antiseptic action. It is also used in bandages, pastes, ointments, dental cements, and as a sunblock. [NIH] Zymogen: Inactive form of an enzyme which can then be converted to the active form, usually by excision of a polypeptide, e. g. trypsinogen is the zymogen of trypsin. [NIH]

287

INDEX A Abdomen, 77, 178, 201, 217, 225, 226, 240, 245, 250, 252, 253, 263, 277, 278, 281, 285 Abdominal, 8, 52, 77, 170, 178, 179, 201, 213, 217, 236, 251, 263, 264, 265 Abdominal Pain, 217, 251, 265 Aberrant, 41, 217 Ablation, 217 Acceptor, 217, 262 Acetylcholine, 217, 260 Acrylonitrile, 217, 273 Actin, 39, 217 Acuity, 11, 217 Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, 48, 217 Acute lymphocytic leukemia, 217 Adaptability, 217, 229 Adaptation, 23, 89, 125, 217, 258 Adenine, 217, 270 Adenosine, 42, 217, 223, 227, 265 Adjustment, 87, 106, 110, 111, 148, 217 Adolescence, 158, 218, 230 Adrenal Cortex, 218, 234, 268 Adverse Effect, 103, 110, 218, 275 Aerosol, 218, 260, 279 Affinity, 218, 276 Aggravation, 138, 218 Airway, 6, 218 Alertness, 218, 227 Algorithms, 17, 218, 225 Alimentary, 218, 264 Alkaline, 66, 218, 223, 227, 231, 271, 280 Alkaloid, 218, 227 Allium, 218 Allo, 218, 245 Alpha Particles, 53, 218, 270 Alternative medicine, 177, 218 Aluminum, 143, 158, 219, 286 Amino Acid Sequence, 219, 220, 244 Amino Acids, 219, 244, 264, 267, 269, 273, 275, 279, 282 Amplification, 36, 219 Ampulla, 219, 239 Anaesthesia, 7, 219, 249 Analgesic, 219, 260 Analog, 36, 37, 150, 219 Analogous, 219, 238, 247, 282 Anatomical, 9, 34, 84, 104, 172, 219, 239, 248, 274

Androgens, 218, 219, 234 Anemia, 11, 193, 219, 227, 231, 255 Anesthesia, 5, 7, 218, 219, 220, 234, 239, 271 Anesthetics, 12, 44, 219, 240 Aneuploidy, 44, 219 Angiogenesis, 13, 219 Angiogram, 170, 219 Angiography, 35, 151, 199, 200, 219 Angioplasty, 16, 142, 220 Animal model, 18, 29, 220 Anions, 220, 251 Anode, 19, 26, 28, 41, 84, 93, 100, 117, 126, 127, 155, 220, 286 Anomalies, 220, 262 Antagonism, 220, 227 Anthrax, 128, 137, 220 Antiallergic, 220, 234 Anti-Anxiety Agents, 220, 269, 282 Antibacterial, 220, 277 Antibiotic, 220, 277 Antibodies, 11, 220, 248, 257, 266, 270 Antibody, 8, 11, 40, 218, 220, 221, 231, 247, 248, 249, 251, 258, 270, 271, 277, 286 Anticoagulant, 220, 268 Anticonvulsant, 11, 220 Antidepressant, 179, 220 Antidepressive Agents, 220, 269 Antiemetic, 11, 221 Antigen, 218, 220, 221, 232, 247, 248, 249, 257 Anti-infective, 11, 221, 250 Anti-inflammatory, 11, 66, 221, 234, 244 Anti-Inflammatory Agents, 221, 234 Antineoplastic, 221, 234, 244, 284 Antiporters, 38, 221 Antiseptic, 221, 286 Antispasmodic, 11, 221 Antiviral, 66, 221 Anus, 221, 223, 226, 240, 250, 271 Anxiety, 5, 220, 221 Aperture, 13, 102, 112, 114, 117, 139, 221 Aponeurosis, 221, 243 Apoptosis, 44, 47, 51, 55, 57, 60, 62, 221 Appendicitis, 161, 221 Applicability, 16, 221 Aqueous, 92, 221, 224, 235, 239, 252 Arachidonate 12-Lipoxygenase, 221, 253

288 X-rays

Arachidonate 15-Lipoxygenase, 222, 253 Arachidonate Lipoxygenases, 222, 253 Arginine, 222, 260 Aromatic, 92, 222, 265, 279 Arterial, 17, 222, 244, 247, 269 Arteries, 78, 222, 225, 233, 256 Arteriogram, 8, 222 Arteriography, 78, 222, 251 Arterioles, 222, 225, 227 Arteritis, 11, 222, 267 Arthritis, Reactive, 11, 222 Arthrography, 199, 222, 251 Arthroscopy, 10, 222 Articular, 10, 29, 222, 262 Artifacts, 140, 222 Asphyxia, 222, 260 Aspiration, 6, 10, 222 Assay, 26, 222, 231 Astigmatism, 108, 222, 271 Astringent, 222, 286 Ataxia, 193, 222, 281 ATP, 37, 221, 223, 237, 244, 265, 269 Atrophy, 193, 223 Attenuated, 95, 96, 107, 129, 151, 155, 223 Attenuation, 15, 30, 35, 57, 87, 96, 107, 123, 129, 151, 155, 223 Auscultation, 178, 223 Autonomic, 179, 217, 223, 276, 277, 279 Autonomic Nervous System, 179, 223, 276, 279 Autopsy, 158, 223 Avulsion, 12, 223 B Bacillus, 38, 40, 41, 62, 220, 223, 283 Back Pain, 10, 57, 176, 223 Bacterial Physiology, 217, 223 Bactericidal, 223, 283 Bacteriophage, 41, 223, 266, 282 Bacteriostatic, 218, 223 Bacterium, 38, 223 Bacteriuria, 223, 284 Barium, 4, 8, 170, 172, 199, 202, 203, 213, 223, 224, 241 Barium enema, 8, 170, 172, 202, 223 Barium Sulfate, 202, 203, 224 Barium swallow, 170, 224, 241 Basal cells, 224, 261 Basal Ganglia, 223, 224, 243 Basal Ganglia Diseases, 223, 224 Base, 87, 91, 126, 217, 224, 235, 236, 244, 251, 275, 280, 285 Benign, 9, 104, 224, 243, 245, 259, 260, 271

Berylliosis, 224 Beryllium, 135, 224 Beta Rays, 224, 239 Bile, 9, 170, 224, 239, 243, 246, 253, 278 Bile Acids, 224, 243, 278 Bile Acids and Salts, 224 Bile Ducts, 9, 170, 224, 243 Biliary, 9, 224, 227 Biochemical, 29, 37, 41, 66, 67, 224, 225, 252, 262, 269 Biochemical Phenomena, 224, 225 Bioengineering, 29, 188, 225 Biological Phenomena, 28, 225 Bioluminescence, 225, 254 Biomarkers, 48, 91, 225 Biopsy, 9, 13, 19, 77, 91, 157, 172, 225, 264 Biopsy specimen, 91, 225 Biosynthesis, 225, 275 Biotechnology, 32, 40, 43, 168, 177, 189, 192, 193, 194, 225 Biotic, 225, 283 Bismuth, 94, 225 Bladder, 225, 234, 250, 251, 253, 260, 268, 272, 283, 284, 285 Bloating, 225, 248, 251 Blood Coagulation, 225, 227, 281 Blood Glucose, 225, 246, 250 Blood pressure, 225, 228, 244, 247, 258, 276 Body Composition, 95, 225 Body Fluids, 225, 238, 242, 261, 276, 283 Bone Cements, 225, 267 Bone Density, 131, 226 Bone Marrow, 39, 217, 226, 254, 264, 276, 282 Bone Marrow Transplantation, 39, 226 Bone scan, 10, 226, 274 Boron, 105, 135, 152, 226 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy, 226 Bowel, 4, 7, 8, 170, 179, 226, 236, 240, 250, 260, 264, 278 Bowel Movement, 226, 236, 278 Brachytherapy, 17, 226, 250, 251, 270, 271, 286 Bradykinin, 226, 260 Branch, 89, 125, 199, 211, 226, 254, 263, 268, 277, 281 Breakdown, 84, 226, 236, 243 Bronchi, 226, 240, 241, 282 Bronchitis, 226, 230 Bronchoscope, 21, 226 Bronchoscopy, 199, 226 Buccal, 226, 254

Index 289

Burns, 172, 226 Burns, Electric, 226 Bursitis, 10, 227 C Cadmium, 55, 62, 227 Cadmium Poisoning, 227 Caffeine, 61, 62, 227, 270 Calcification, 60, 144, 227 Calcium, 3, 39, 41, 60, 79, 94, 131, 182, 225, 227, 231, 252, 256, 263, 275, 280, 285 Calcium Oxalate, 3, 227 Calculi, 227, 245 Calmodulin, 39, 51, 227 Calorimeter, 109, 227 Camptothecin, 48, 66, 227 Cannula, 89, 124, 227 Capillary, 21, 226, 227, 284 Capsules, 126, 227 Carbogen, 62, 227 Carbohydrate, 228, 234, 244, 245 Carbon Dioxide, 227, 228, 272 Carcinogenic, 228, 249, 278, 283 Carcinogens, 228, 230, 261 Carcinoma, 29, 48, 55, 61, 228 Cardiac, 18, 23, 35, 104, 142, 199, 227, 228, 238, 240, 243, 259, 262, 278 Cardiac catheterization, 18, 228 Cardiology, 95, 133, 172, 228 Cardiovascular, 11, 18, 22, 25, 142, 228, 276 Cardiovascular disease, 142, 228 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, 9, 228 Case report, 6, 7, 12, 228, 230 Case series, 228, 230 Case-Control Studies, 46, 228 Catheterization, 18, 220, 228, 250 Catheters, 18, 53, 142, 228, 248, 250 Cathode, 84, 93, 100, 117, 118, 126, 127, 151, 155, 220, 224, 228, 229, 239 Cations, 34, 38, 229, 251 Cauda Equina, 179, 229, 274 Cecum, 229, 252 Cell Cycle, 28, 45, 58, 229 Cell Death, 47, 221, 229, 259 Cell Differentiation, 229, 275 Cell Division, 193, 223, 229, 234, 255, 257, 266, 274, 280 Cell membrane, 38, 39, 229, 236, 241, 265 Cell proliferation, 62, 229, 275 Cell Survival, 5, 229 Cellular Structures, 22, 229

Central Nervous System, 217, 223, 227, 229, 243, 244, 245 Cerebellar, 223, 229, 271 Cerebral, 18, 160, 223, 224, 229, 233, 239, 240, 241, 255, 277 Cerebral Palsy, 160, 229, 277 Cerebrospinal, 157, 229 Cerebrospinal fluid, 157, 229 Cerebrovascular, 224, 228, 229, 281 Cerebrum, 229, 283 Cerium, 94, 229 Cervical, 45, 57, 229, 255 Cervix, 229, 230 Cesium, 128, 230 Character, 230, 235 Chemical Warfare, 230, 235 Chemical Warfare Agents, 230, 235 Chemoembolization, 25, 230 Chemotherapy, 53, 61, 126, 230 Child Development, 160, 230 Cholelithiasis, 161, 230 Cholesterol, 224, 230, 233, 243, 278 Chromatin, 221, 230, 260, 280 Chromium, 84, 230 Chromosomal, 40, 45, 47, 52, 60, 61, 219, 230, 257 Chromosome, 41, 46, 49, 219, 230, 253, 257, 258, 274, 282, 283 Chromosome Aberrations, 49, 230 Chronic Disease, 11, 174, 230, 253 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 68, 131, 230 Chronic renal, 230, 267 Clinical study, 13, 230 Clinical trial, 12, 17, 25, 77, 78, 79, 189, 230, 233, 271 Cloning, 225, 231, 253 Coagulation, 225, 231, 246, 281 Cobalt, 84, 98, 231 Cofactor, 42, 231, 260, 269, 281 Coliphages, 223, 231 Colitis, 231, 251 Collagen, 54, 231, 233, 242, 266, 268 Collapse, 34, 226, 231 Colloidal, 231, 239, 279 Colonic Polyps, 172, 231 Colonoscope, 172, 231 Colonoscopy, 8, 172, 231 Combinatorial, 24, 145, 231 Comet Assay, 62, 231 Complement, 11, 231, 232

290 X-rays

Complementary and alternative medicine, 65, 71, 232 Complementary medicine, 65, 232 Complementation, 41, 232 Computational Biology, 189, 192, 232 Computer-Aided Design, 5, 232 Computerized axial tomography, 10, 232, 274 Computerized tomography, 4, 56, 90, 97, 147, 232 Conception, 232, 242 Conduction, 5, 146, 233 Cone, 35, 90, 91, 129, 233 Conjugated, 224, 233, 235, 265 Connective Tissue, 11, 226, 231, 233, 242, 243, 244, 254, 272, 280 Connective Tissue Cells, 233 Connective Tissue Diseases, 11, 233 Consciousness, 219, 220, 233, 235, 237 Constipation, 233, 251, 265 Constriction, 233, 251 Consumption, 100, 105, 233, 236, 272 Contamination, 30, 128, 137, 233 Contractility, 18, 233 Contraindications, ii, 233 Contrast Media, 92, 233 Contrast Sensitivity, 15, 233 Controlled study, 44, 233 Convulsions, 220, 233 Coordination, 128, 233 Cornea, 222, 233 Coronary, 15, 17, 18, 34, 68, 142, 228, 233, 234, 256 Coronary Angiography, 15, 142, 233 Coronary heart disease, 228, 233 Coronary Thrombosis, 234, 256 Corrosion, 115, 234 Cortex, 223, 234, 241, 271 Cortical, 234, 274, 281 Corticosteroid, 179, 234 Cost Savings, 5, 234 Cribriform, 234, 261 Crossing-over, 234, 271 Crowns, 6, 234, 236 Crystallization, 20, 26, 38, 60, 66, 234 Cultured cell line, 49, 234 Curare, 234, 258 Curative, 234, 273, 281 Cutaneous, 220, 234, 254 Cyclic, 227, 234, 245, 260, 274 Cysteine, 234, 279 Cystine, 3, 234

Cystoscopy, 9, 234 Cytochrome, 40, 234 Cytoplasm, 39, 221, 229, 235, 245, 260, 273, 280 Cytoskeleton, 39, 235 Cytotoxic, 235, 270, 271, 276 D Data Collection, 19, 24, 28, 29, 33, 36, 38, 235 Databases, Bibliographic, 189, 235 Decontamination, 129, 235 Degenerative, 179, 235, 246, 262 Dehydration, 8, 235 Deletion, 221, 235 Delivery of Health Care, 6, 235 Dementia, 157, 235 Dendrites, 235, 260, 261 Density, 26, 60, 92, 94, 96, 105, 107, 111, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 151, 162, 226, 235, 261, 277 Dental Abutments, 235, 236 Dental Care, 5, 8, 158, 159, 160, 203, 235, 264 Dental Caries, 158, 235, 236 Dental Hygienists, 5, 6, 236 Dental Materials, 6, 236 Dental Plaque, 158, 179, 236 Dentists, 21, 203, 236 Dentures, 6, 236 Deoxyribonucleic, 42, 236 Deoxyribonucleic acid, 42, 236 Deoxyribonucleotides, 236 Depolarization, 236, 276 Depressive Disorder, 236, 253 Deuterium, 236, 247 Developing Countries, 27, 236 Diabetes Mellitus, 236, 246 Diagnostic procedure, 4, 9, 20, 78, 81, 84, 177, 204, 236 Diaphragm, 112, 236 Diarrhea, 172, 178, 236, 251, 252 Diathermy, 236, 257 Digestion, 218, 224, 226, 236, 248, 250, 253, 264, 278, 284 Digestive system, 80, 236, 243 Digestive tract, 237, 276 Dihydrotestosterone, 237, 271 Dilatation, 220, 237, 268, 284 Dimethyl, 237, 273 Diploid, 219, 232, 237, 258, 266, 283 Direct, iii, 10, 12, 20, 21, 27, 36, 84, 90, 103, 134, 169, 181, 237, 257, 269, 271, 280

Index 291

Discrimination, 25, 190, 237 Disease Progression, 30, 237 Dislocation, 10, 51, 237, 278 Dissociation, 218, 237, 251 Distal, 19, 46, 56, 134, 237, 238, 243, 269 Diuresis, 227, 237 DNA Topoisomerase, 237, 244 Dorsal, 9, 237, 267, 277 Dorsum, 237, 243 Dose-dependent, 58, 237 Drive, ii, vi, 3, 59, 98, 144, 172, 237 Drug Design, 39, 237 Drug Interactions, 182, 183, 238 Drug Resistance, 61, 238 Drug Tolerance, 238, 281 Duct, 219, 227, 228, 238, 239, 241, 246, 262, 273 Duodenum, 9, 170, 203, 224, 238, 239, 240, 263, 278 Dysgeusia, 11, 238 Dysplasia, 193, 238 Dystrophy, 193, 238 E Edema, 39, 69, 238 Effector, 217, 231, 238, 260 Effector cell, 238, 260 Efficacy, 44, 56, 92, 237, 238 Elasticity, 19, 238 Elastin, 231, 233, 238 Electrocardiogram, 9, 238 Electrode, 220, 228, 238 Electrolysis, 220, 229, 238 Electrolyte, 8, 162, 234, 238, 242, 257, 261, 267, 276 Electron microscope, 108, 151, 238 Electrophoresis, 231, 239 Elementary Particles, 238, 239, 260, 269 Embryo, 229, 239, 242, 249, 268 Emergency Treatment, 6, 12, 239 Emphysema, 68, 230, 239 Empirical, 4, 239 Emulsion, 239, 285 Enamel, 235, 239, 251 Encapsulated, 239, 253 Encephalocele, 239, 260 Endarterectomy, 220, 239 Endemic, 239, 255, 278 Endodontics, 158, 239 Endoscope, 7, 9, 21, 134, 239, 240 Endoscopic, 6, 7, 9, 134, 172, 179, 222, 226, 231, 234, 239, 240, 243, 268, 275, 283

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, 9, 239 Endoscopy, 4, 7, 8, 160, 171, 178, 199, 200, 240 Endothelial cell, 39, 51, 53, 240, 281 Endothelium, 240, 260 Endothelium-derived, 240, 260 End-stage renal, 230, 240, 267 Enema, 199, 202, 240 Energetic, 123, 136, 240 Enteroscopy, 7, 240 Environmental Exposure, 240, 261 Environmental Health, 44, 188, 190, 240 Enzymatic, 227, 232, 235, 240, 272 Epidemiological, 54, 240 Epidermal, 240, 252, 255, 257 Epidermis, 224, 240, 251, 252, 268 Epigastric, 240, 263 Epinephrine, 240, 283 Epithelial, 48, 61, 240, 246 Epithelial Cells, 61, 240, 246 Erythrocytes, 219, 226, 240 Esophageal, 240, 243 Esophagitis, 241, 243 Esophagram, 224, 241 Esophagus, 7, 203, 224, 236, 237, 240, 241, 243, 254, 265, 271, 278 Essential Tremor, 193, 241 Ethmoid, 241, 261 Eukaryotic Cells, 241, 261, 262 Evoke, 241, 278 Excimer laser, 92, 138, 241 Exhaustion, 220, 241, 255 Exocrine, 241, 263 Exocytosis, 39, 241 Exonucleases, 42, 241 Expectorant, 241, 276 Extensor, 241, 280 External-beam radiation, 241, 251, 270, 285 Extracellular, 233, 241, 242, 276, 280 Extracellular Matrix, 233, 241, 242 Extracorporeal, 3, 21, 241 Extraction, 7, 140, 241 F Family Planning, 189, 241 Fast Neutrons, 121, 241, 260 Fat, 60, 94, 95, 224, 225, 226, 233, 234, 241, 244, 253, 273, 276, 280 Fatigue, 115, 241, 246 Fatty acids, 242, 253 Febrile, 45, 242, 255

292 X-rays

Feces, 233, 242, 278 Femoral, 242, 246 Femoral Neck Fractures, 242, 247 Femur, 242, 246 Fetal Development, 242, 260 Fetus, 8, 242, 268, 284 Fibrin, 225, 242, 265, 281 Fibroblasts, 42, 47, 52, 54, 233, 242 Fibrosis, 56, 193, 242, 274 Fine-needle aspiration, 242, 259 Flatus, 242, 243 Flexor, 10, 241, 242 Fluid Therapy, 242, 261 Fluoroscopy, 23, 25, 95, 127, 142, 242 Flushing, 3, 242 Fold, 20, 28, 242 Forearm, 225, 242, 255, 271, 280 Friction, 121, 242 Fungi, 225, 242, 256, 257, 278, 286 G Gadolinium, 94, 242 Gallate, 66, 243 Gallbladder, 9, 170, 214, 217, 224, 237, 239, 243, 253 Gallium, 199, 243 Gallstones, 224, 230, 243 Gamma Rays, 86, 94, 106, 119, 121, 243, 270, 271 Ganglia, 217, 224, 243, 260, 277, 279 Ganglion, 9, 243 Gas, 49, 83, 84, 92, 100, 129, 227, 228, 242, 243, 247, 248, 251, 260, 279 Gastric, 4, 46, 243, 264 Gastric Juices, 243, 264 Gastric Mucosa, 243, 264 Gastrin, 243, 247 Gastroenterologist, 172, 243 Gastroenterology, 4, 5, 8, 160, 161, 243 Gastroesophageal Reflux, 6, 243 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease, 6, 243 Gastrointestinal tract, 92, 204, 224, 243, 252, 278, 283 Gastroscopy, 9, 243 Gene, 18, 38, 40, 41, 43, 49, 168, 194, 195, 225, 243, 244, 253, 261, 274 Gene Expression, 49, 194, 244 Generator, 32, 88, 101, 108, 114, 136, 138, 155, 244, 280 Genetic Code, 244, 261 Genetics, 158, 160, 244 Genistein, 67, 244 Genital, 244, 284

Genomics, 17, 24, 26, 244 Genotype, 244, 265 Geriatric, 171, 244 Germ Cells, 244, 255, 262, 277, 280 Germanium, 29, 32, 75, 109, 244 Gingival Hypertrophy, 7, 244 Gland, 78, 218, 244, 254, 263, 266, 268, 274, 278, 281 Glare, 23, 142, 244 Glioma, 44, 49, 244 Glomerular, 61, 244 Glomeruli, 244, 261 Glomerulus, 244 Glucocorticoids, 218, 234, 244 Glucose, 60, 193, 225, 230, 236, 244, 245, 246, 250, 273 Glucose tolerance, 60, 245 Glucose Tolerance Test, 245 Glutathione Peroxidase, 245, 275 Glycine, 224, 245, 275 Gonadal, 245, 278 Goniometer, 24, 110, 111, 245 Gout, 10, 11, 68, 245 Governing Board, 245, 267 Grade, 23, 245 Graft, 142, 245, 247 Grafting, 245, 248 Granule, 245, 273 Granulocytes, 245, 253, 276, 285 Graphite, 28, 93, 105, 245 Groin, 78, 245 Guanylate Cyclase, 245, 260 H Hallucinogens, 245, 269 Headache, 227, 245 Health Services, iv, 12, 191, 235, 246 Heart attack, 228, 246 Heart failure, 18, 246 Heavy Ions, 54, 246 Heme, 235, 246 Hemoglobin, 13, 28, 219, 240, 246 Hemoglobinuria, 193, 246 Hemorrhage, 39, 245, 246, 279 Hemostasis, 39, 246 Hepatic, 239, 245, 246 Hepatic Duct, Common, 239, 246 Hepatitis, 5, 246 Hepatocytes, 246 Hereditary, 233, 245, 246, 272 Heredity, 160, 243, 244, 246 Hernia, 4, 246 Heterogeneity, 33, 218, 246

Index 293

Hip Fractures, 131, 242, 246 Histology, 247, 264 Holography, 30, 149, 247 Homogeneous, 92, 247 Homologous, 38, 234, 247, 274, 280, 282 Hormonal, 158, 223, 234, 247, 285 Hormone, 79, 160, 218, 234, 240, 243, 247, 250, 256, 268, 273, 274, 275, 280, 281, 285 Host, 223, 231, 247, 285 Humeral, 247, 280 Hybrid, 25, 31, 247 Hydration, 42, 247 Hydrogen, 83, 84, 92, 217, 224, 228, 236, 245, 247, 258, 260, 262, 265, 269 Hydrogenase, 33, 247 Hydrolysis, 241, 247, 265, 267 Hydrophilic, 89, 124, 247 Hydrophobic, 38, 247 Hydroxylysine, 231, 247 Hydroxyproline, 231, 247 Hyperalgesia, 180, 247 Hyperopia, 247, 271 Hypersensitivity, 180, 247, 273 Hypertension, 228, 245, 247, 259 Hypertrophy, 9, 248 Hyperuricemia, 245, 248 Hypothalamus, 223, 248, 266 I Id, 63, 67, 198, 199, 200, 204, 210, 212, 248 Ileus, 52, 248 Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, 20, 248 Imaging procedures, 22, 248, 282 Immune response, 221, 234, 248, 279, 285 Immune system, 28, 158, 160, 238, 248, 285 Immunity, 25, 248 Immunodeficiency, 40, 193, 248 Immunofluorescence, 39, 248, 257 Immunohistochemistry, 39, 248 Immunologic, 248, 271 Impairment, 11, 222, 248, 250, 256 Implant radiation, 248, 250, 251, 270, 285 Implantation, 12, 232, 248 In vitro, 46, 51, 248 In vivo, 23, 46, 60, 61, 126, 248 Incision, 248, 250, 252 Incompetence, 243, 248 Incubator, 125, 248 Indicative, 91, 95, 107, 129, 161, 248, 263, 284 Indigestion, 248, 252 Induction, 55, 62, 219, 236, 249

Infancy, 158, 249, 273 Infarction, 234, 249, 256 Infection, 5, 7, 58, 89, 90, 125, 179, 190, 220, 222, 223, 248, 249, 254, 260, 273, 279, 285 Infection Control, 5, 249 Infertility, 249, 284 Inflammation, 11, 202, 221, 222, 226, 227, 231, 241, 242, 246, 249, 264, 265, 272, 278, 280 Informed Consent, 9, 249 Infusion, 249, 282 Ingestion, 220, 227, 245, 249, 266, 280 Inhalation, 218, 249, 251, 266 Initiation, 24, 34, 37, 40, 249 Initiator, 37, 89, 124, 249 Inlay, 249, 272 In-line, 24, 30, 249 Inorganic, 38, 249, 254 Insecticides, 249, 265 Insight, 160, 249 Insulin, 43, 61, 245, 250 Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 250 Insulin-like, 61, 250 Internal Medicine, 243, 250, 255 Internal radiation, 250, 251, 270, 285 Interstitial, 226, 250, 251, 285 Intervertebral, 250, 254, 270, 274 Intervertebral Disk Displacement, 250, 254, 270, 274 Intestinal, 4, 5, 8, 69, 179, 245, 250, 254, 285 Intestinal Obstruction, 4, 250 Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction, 8, 250 Intestine, 5, 39, 179, 224, 226, 240, 250, 252, 264 Intracellular, 39, 41, 55, 62, 227, 249, 250, 256, 260, 267, 274, 275 Intracellular Membranes, 250, 256 Intravascular, 17, 18, 142, 250 Intravenous, 3, 9, 200, 249, 250, 251 Intravenous pyelography, 3, 250, 251 Intrinsic, 26, 218, 250 Intubation, 228, 250 Invasive, 15, 24, 35, 91, 134, 142, 248, 250, 254 Invertebrates, 250, 254 Involuntary, 224, 241, 250, 259, 277 Iodine, 60, 250, 276 Iohexol, 67, 251 Ion Channels, 251, 260 Ionization, 24, 100, 251 Ionizing, 5, 21, 39, 86, 113, 122, 218, 240, 251, 255, 271, 283

294 X-rays

Ions, 33, 47, 53, 54, 67, 100, 167, 224, 227, 237, 238, 247, 251, 258, 263 Iridium, 84, 251 Irrigation, 89, 125, 251 Irritable Bowel Syndrome, 4, 69, 179, 251 Ischemia, 18, 140, 223, 251 Isoflurane, 7, 251 IVP, 200, 250, 251 J Joint, 9, 10, 11, 29, 41, 47, 51, 55, 222, 242, 251, 254, 262, 267, 278, 279, 280, 285 K Kb, 188, 251 Keratin, 251, 252 Keratinocytes, 51, 252 Keratolytic, 236, 252 Kidney Disease, 9, 78, 80, 188, 193, 252 Kidney stone, 3, 252, 279, 284 Kinetic, 84, 128, 251, 252, 263, 265 L Lactose Intolerance, 8, 252 Lag, 23, 252 Lanthanum, 135, 252 Laparotomy, 141, 252 Large Intestine, 141, 172, 202, 229, 237, 250, 252, 271, 276 Larynx, 252, 282, 285 Latent, 27, 252 Lectin, 66, 252, 256 Lens, 13, 116, 117, 122, 123, 139, 143, 151, 153, 252, 272 Lentigo, 44, 252 Lesion, 21, 77, 252, 253, 283 Lethal, 38, 223, 252 Leucocyte, 252, 253, 254 Leukaemia, 47, 253 Leukemia, 41, 57, 193, 253 Leukocytes, 226, 245, 253, 260 Library Services, 210, 253 Ligament, 10, 253, 268, 278 Ligase, 42, 253 Linkages, 246, 253, 264 Lipid, 38, 74, 250, 253 Liposomal, 67, 253 Lipoxygenase, 66, 222, 253 Lithium, 29, 253 Lithotripsy, 4, 172, 253 Liver, 161, 170, 200, 217, 224, 237, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 252, 253, 273, 274, 285 Liver scan, 253, 274 Localization, 99, 248, 253

Localized, 78, 235, 239, 249, 253, 266, 274, 283 Loop, 130, 246, 253 Low Back Pain, 176, 177, 179, 254 Lower Esophageal Sphincter, 243, 254 Lubricants, 28, 254, 265 Lumbar, 179, 223, 229, 250, 254 Lumen, 21, 39, 134, 227, 254 Luminescence, 25, 254 Lupus, 10, 179, 254, 280 Lutetium, 93, 94, 254 Luxation, 12, 237, 254 Lymph, 140, 141, 229, 240, 254, 275 Lymph node, 140, 141, 229, 254, 275 Lymphatic, 141, 240, 249, 254, 276, 277, 281 Lymphatic system, 254, 276, 277, 281 Lymphoblastic, 254 Lymphoblasts, 217, 254 Lymphoid, 220, 253, 254, 282 Lymphoma, 193, 254 M Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 10, 90, 142, 158, 160, 199, 254, 274 Malabsorption, 193, 254 Malaria, 41, 254, 255 Malaria, Falciparum, 254, 255 Malaria, Vivax, 254, 255 Malignant, 13, 136, 193, 221, 255, 259, 271 Malnutrition, 223, 255, 258 Mammary, 29, 255 Mammogram, 31, 144, 201, 227, 255, 256 Mammography, 12, 16, 18, 20, 26, 27, 31, 36, 48, 52, 96, 133, 144, 151, 255 Manic, 253, 255 Man-made, 149, 255 Manometry, 8, 255 Meat, 94, 95, 255 Medial, 10, 101, 241, 255 Median Nerve, 228, 255 Mediate, 40, 221, 255 Medical Oncology, 53, 255, 270 Medical Records, 255, 272 Medicament, 218, 255 MEDLINE, 189, 192, 193, 255 Meiosis, 255, 257, 280 Melanin, 255, 265, 283 Melanocytes, 255, 256, 260, 261 Melanoma, 41, 44, 193, 226, 256 Membrane Proteins, 38, 256 Memory, 14, 98, 127, 136, 235, 256, 257 Mental Disorders, 80, 256, 269

Index 295

Mental Retardation, 160, 194, 256 Mercury, 62, 92, 121, 153, 256 Metabolic disorder, 245, 256 Metastasis, 141, 214, 256 Methacrylates, 89, 124, 256 Methionine, 237, 256, 279 MI, 8, 102, 215, 256 Mice Minute Virus, 256, 263 Microbe, 117, 256, 282 Microbiology, 217, 223, 256 Microcalcifications, 36, 227, 256 Microcomputers, 87, 256, 257 Micronuclei, 62, 257 Micro-organism, 236, 257 Microscopy, 27, 39, 41, 151, 164, 167, 257, 261 Microspheres, 92, 182, 257 Microwaves, 119, 257, 270 Milliliter, 226, 257 Millimeter, 31, 257 Mineralization, 31, 257 Mineralocorticoids, 218, 234, 257 Minicomputers, 257 Mitochondria, 257, 262 Mitochondrial Swelling, 257, 259 Mitosis, 221, 257 Mitotic, 53, 257 Mixed Connective Tissue Disease, 11, 257 Mobility, 10, 100, 258 Modeling, 19, 238, 258, 269 Modification, 105, 151, 258, 270 Molecular Structure, 33, 258 Molecule, 32, 34, 221, 224, 232, 237, 238, 240, 247, 252, 258, 262, 271, 273, 275 Monitor, 96, 104, 158, 258, 261 Monoclonal, 40, 251, 258, 270, 286 Monosomy, 219, 258 Morphological, 29, 239, 255, 258 Motility, 8, 258 Motion Sickness, 258, 259 Motor nerve, 258 Mucinous, 243, 258 Mucins, 236, 258 Mucosa, 243, 254, 258 Multidrug resistance, 38, 258 Muscle Fibers, 258 Muscle relaxant, 11, 179, 220, 258 Muscle tension, 258 Muscular Atrophy, 193, 258 Muscular Dystrophies, 238, 258 Mutagenesis, 54, 56, 258, 269 Mutagenic, 259, 283

Mutagens, 259 Myelography, 251, 259 Myocardium, 256, 259 Myopia, 259, 271 Myotonic Dystrophy, 193, 259 Mysticism, 161, 259 N Narcotic, 259, 260 Nausea, 4, 221, 248, 259 NCI, 1, 78, 79, 187, 259 Necrosis, 55, 62, 221, 249, 256, 259 Need, 3, 6, 14, 17, 18, 23, 26, 28, 33, 34, 114, 115, 141, 154, 157, 159, 169, 170, 171, 178, 190, 200, 202, 205, 230, 259, 281 Needle biopsy, 77, 242, 259 Neonatal, 42, 163, 259 Neoplasia, 193, 259 Neoplasm, 78, 259, 283 Neoplastic, 51, 254, 259 Nephrologist, 9, 259 Nephropathy, 252, 259 Nervous System, 160, 193, 223, 229, 259, 260, 279 Neural, 18, 160, 239, 260 Neural tube defects, 160, 260 Neurons, 235, 243, 258, 260, 277, 279, 280 Neuropathy, 260, 274 Neurotoxicity, 18, 260 Neurotransmitters, 158, 260, 276 Neutrons, 47, 52, 102, 120, 121, 218, 226, 241, 251, 260, 270 Neutropenia, 45, 260 Neutrophils, 222, 245, 253, 260 Nevus, 252, 260 Nickel, 84, 98, 260 Nitric Oxide, 61, 260 Nitrous Oxide, 7, 260 Nonmelanomatous, 56, 261 Nuclear Medicine, 86, 90, 160, 198, 199, 201, 261 Nuclei, 218, 238, 246, 254, 257, 260, 261, 269, 280 Nucleic acid, 28, 41, 244, 259, 261, 270 Nucleolus, 261, 273 Nursing Care, 12, 261 Nutritional Support, 8, 261 O Obstetrics, 172, 261 Occult, 9, 261 Occupational Exposure, 203, 261 Occupational Therapy, 160, 261 Odour, 222, 261

296 X-rays

Ointments, 261, 286 Olfactory Bulb, 61, 261, 285 Oncogene, 48, 61, 66, 193, 261 Oncology, 48, 51, 52, 53, 261 Opacity, 235, 261 Oral Health, 5, 6, 158, 159, 179, 261, 262, 268 Oral Hygiene, 159, 179, 262 Orbit, 115, 262 Organelles, 39, 235, 256, 262, 266 Orthodontics, 45, 158, 159, 171, 262 Orthopedics, 45, 172, 262 Osmolality, 251, 262 Osteoarthritis, 11, 29, 69, 262 Osteoporosis, 56, 131, 179, 262 Ovary, 61, 262 Oxalic Acid, 227, 262 Oxidation, 55, 62, 217, 221, 222, 234, 235, 245, 262 P Pacemaker, 142, 262 Palladium, 84, 262, 273 Palliative, 262, 281 Palpation, 178, 262 Pancreas, 9, 217, 225, 237, 243, 250, 263, 283 Pancreatic, 170, 193, 239, 243, 263 Pancreatic cancer, 193, 263 Pancreatic Ducts, 170, 240, 263 Pancreatic Juice, 243, 263 Papilla, 239, 263 Parasite, 263 Parasitic, 105, 263 Parathyroid, 78, 263, 273, 280 Parathyroid Glands, 263, 273 Parathyroid hormone, 79, 263 Paroxysmal, 193, 263 Particle, 41, 61, 94, 98, 99, 108, 133, 163, 246, 255, 263, 277, 282 Particle Accelerators, 255, 263 Parturition, 261, 263 Parvovirus, 11, 256, 263 Pathologic, 221, 225, 233, 247, 263 Pathologic Processes, 221, 263 Pathologies, 29, 90, 263 Patient Compliance, 171, 263 Patient Education, 171, 172, 202, 203, 208, 210, 215, 263 Pediatric Dentistry, 158, 201, 203, 263 Pelvic, 179, 264, 268 Pepsin, 264 Pepsin A, 264

Peptic, 69, 161, 264 Peptic Ulcer, 69, 161, 264 Peptide, 46, 251, 264, 267, 268, 269 Perception, 132, 233, 245, 264 Percutaneous, 16, 142, 253, 264 Perforation, 221, 264 Perfusion, 18, 140, 264 Pericardium, 264, 280 Periodontal disease, 158, 264 Periodontics, 158, 264 Periodontitis, 21, 264 Peripheral stem cell transplantation, 264, 282 Peristalsis, 142, 264 Peritoneum, 264, 265 Peritonitis, 6, 265 Pesticides, 12, 249, 265 Petroleum, 84, 265 PH, 15, 16, 21, 23, 26, 32, 37, 41, 43, 90, 126, 143, 226, 265 Pharmacokinetics, 238, 265 Pharmacologic, 8, 31, 219, 265, 282 Pharynx, 243, 265 Phenotype, 38, 39, 61, 232, 265 Phenylalanine, 264, 265, 283 Phospholipases, 265, 276 Phospholipids, 241, 265 Phosphorus, 84, 227, 263, 265 Phosphorylated, 49, 265 Phosphorylation, 61, 265, 269 Photoreceptors, 265 Phycocyanin, 60, 265 Physical Examination, 9, 10, 11, 178, 265 Physical Therapy, 160, 265 Physiologic, 142, 179, 225, 242, 265, 271 Physiology, 25, 95, 160, 172, 228, 243, 264, 266 Picornavirus, 37, 266 Pigment, 255, 256, 261, 265, 266 Pitch, 141, 143, 148, 266 Pituitary Gland, 234, 266 Plants, 218, 224, 225, 228, 244, 252, 262, 266, 273, 278, 282 Plaque, 220, 266 Plasma, 111, 120, 129, 151, 220, 229, 245, 246, 257, 266, 275 Plasma cells, 220, 266 Plastids, 262, 266 Platelet Activation, 266, 276 Platelet Aggregation, 39, 260, 266 Platelets, 39, 222, 260, 266, 281 Platinum, 84, 98, 253, 262, 266, 273

Index 297

Plutonium, 53, 266 Poisoning, 119, 224, 227, 256, 259, 266 Polychromatic, 35, 86, 87, 95, 266 Polycystic, 193, 267 Polymers, 105, 119, 267, 269, 279 Polymyalgia Rheumatica, 11, 267 Polypeptide, 219, 231, 264, 267, 286 Porosity, 31, 267 Port, 104, 154, 267 Port-a-cath, 267 Posterior, 222, 223, 237, 263, 267, 274 Postmenopausal, 262, 267 Postnatal, 61, 267, 278 Postoperative, 52, 172, 267 Postsynaptic, 267, 275, 279 Potassium, 60, 74, 221, 257, 267 Potentiation, 267, 276 Practice Guidelines, 191, 267 Precancerous, 134, 267 Precursor, 238, 240, 265, 267, 283, 285 Premalignant, 267 Prenatal, 158, 160, 171, 198, 239, 268 Prenatal Care, 171, 198, 268 Prenatal Diagnosis, 160, 268 Prevalence, 4, 268 Preventive Dentistry, 172, 268 Prickle, 252, 268 Primary tumor, 268, 275 Probe, 5, 32, 34, 41, 43, 268 Proctoscopy, 9, 268 Progesterone, 268, 278 Progression, 30, 220, 268 Progressive, 229, 230, 235, 238, 245, 258, 259, 262, 266, 268, 283 Projection, 19, 87, 111, 119, 130, 146, 153, 261, 268, 271 Proline, 231, 247, 268 Pronator, 10, 268 Prone, 131, 179, 268 Prone Position, 268 Prophylaxis, 6, 236, 268 Proportional, 122, 262, 268 Prostate, 193, 225, 268, 283 Prosthodontics, 158, 268 Protease, 66, 268 Protein C, 24, 26, 36, 219, 223, 251, 268 Protein Engineering, 28, 269 Protein Folding, 28, 269 Protein S, 15, 17, 24, 26, 28, 168, 193, 194, 225, 244, 269, 273 Protein-Tyrosine Kinase, 244, 269 Protons, 218, 247, 251, 263, 269, 270

Protozoa, 225, 269, 278 Proximal, 237, 267, 269 Psychiatric, 160, 256, 269 Psychiatry, 269 Psychic, 269, 274 Psychotropic, 11, 269 Psychotropic Drugs, 11, 269 Public Policy, 189, 269 Publishing, 3, 40, 159, 160, 170, 173, 269 Puerperium, 261, 269 Pulmonary, 69, 173, 176, 199, 225, 233, 269, 284 Pulse, 137, 258, 269 Purines, 270, 275 Q Quality of Life, 142, 270 Quaternary, 269, 270 R Race, 62, 270 Radiation Oncology, 17, 30, 39, 50, 55, 60, 61, 62, 270 Radiation therapy, 16, 27, 228, 241, 250, 251, 270, 282, 286 Radiculopathy, 270, 274 Radio Waves, 101, 236, 257, 270 Radiofrequency ablation, 142, 270 Radioimmunotherapy, 270, 271 Radioisotope, 270, 282 Radiolabeled, 251, 270, 286 Radiological, 36, 61, 173, 198, 199, 200, 201, 264, 270 Radiologist, 85, 132, 271 Radiopharmaceutical, 244, 271 Radiotherapy, 44, 51, 57, 136, 164, 165, 226, 251, 270, 271, 286 Radium, 168, 271 Radius, 21, 271 Randomized, 78, 238, 271 Receptor, 11, 26, 61, 125, 217, 221, 233, 271, 275 Recombinant, 56, 271 Recombination, 25, 41, 94, 271 Recovery Room, 172, 271 Rectal, 5, 179, 271 Rectum, 5, 221, 223, 226, 237, 242, 243, 252, 268, 271 Recurrence, 4, 271 Red Nucleus, 223, 271 Reductase, 33, 271 Refer, 1, 101, 226, 231, 242, 253, 257, 260, 261, 267, 270, 271 Reflective, 91, 116, 117, 139, 271

298 X-rays

Reflux, 6, 243, 271 Refraction, 29, 259, 271, 277 Refractory, 84, 271 Regimen, 238, 263, 272 Regurgitation, 243, 272 Relapse, 53, 272 Relaxant, 272 Remission, 271, 272 Renal pelvis, 252, 272 Research Design, 27, 272 Resolving, 37, 75, 272 Respiration, 228, 234, 257, 258, 272 Restoration, 159, 234, 265, 268, 272 Retina, 222, 252, 259, 272, 273 Retinal, 233, 272, 285 Retinoblastoma, 193, 272 Retrograde, 9, 272 Retrospective, 44, 47, 272 Retrospective study, 44, 272 Rheumatic Diseases, 10, 272 Rheumatism, 272, 273 Rheumatoid, 11, 41, 55, 69, 176, 273 Rheumatoid arthritis, 11, 41, 55, 176, 273 Riboflavin, 62, 273 Riboflavin Synthase, 62, 273 Ribonuclease, 257, 273 Ribose, 217, 273 Ribosome, 37, 273, 282 Rickets, 273, 285 Risk factor, 4, 159, 170, 273 Rod, 223, 273 Rodenticides, 265, 273 Rubber, 6, 89, 103, 125, 217, 273 Ruthenium, 84, 273 S Saline, 31, 91, 257, 273 Salivary, 236, 263, 273 Salivary glands, 236, 273 Saponins, 273, 278 Scans, 78, 87, 88, 90, 93, 157, 160, 177, 201, 273 Scatter, 29, 36, 119, 142, 244, 274 Sciatica, 179, 274 Scleroderma, 10, 257, 274 Sclerosis, 7, 69, 193, 274 Screening, 9, 13, 19, 47, 50, 78, 145, 170, 172, 176, 231, 274, 284 Second Messenger Systems, 260, 274 Secondary tumor, 256, 274 Secretion, 54, 234, 244, 250, 257, 258, 274, 275, 284 Sedative, 8, 172, 274

Sediment, 274, 284 Segregation, 223, 271, 274 Seizures, 7, 263, 274 Selection Bias, 44, 274 Selenium, 13, 27, 141, 274 Semen, 268, 275 Semisynthetic, 227, 275 Senile, 252, 262, 275 Sensibility, 219, 247, 275 Sensor, 13, 15, 22, 141, 275 Sentinel lymph node, 140, 141, 275 Sequencing, 101, 275 Serine, 66, 275 Serum, 54, 231, 257, 265, 275 Sessile, 231, 275 Sex Characteristics, 218, 219, 275, 280 Sex Determination, 193, 275 Shock, 253, 275, 282 Side effect, 56, 126, 134, 160, 181, 218, 248, 251, 275, 282 Sigmoid, 275 Sigmoidoscopy, 8, 275 Signal Transduction, 28, 39, 275 Signs and Symptoms, 6, 157, 179, 272, 276 Silicon, 14, 20, 29, 32, 98, 109, 119, 127, 135, 141, 152, 276 Silicon Dioxide, 276 Skeletal, 165, 219, 234, 258, 262, 276, 277 Skeleton, 131, 213, 214, 217, 242, 251, 276 Skull, 55, 173, 214, 239, 260, 262, 276, 280 Small cell lung cancer, 78, 276 Small intestine, 7, 224, 229, 238, 240, 247, 250, 276 Smooth muscle, 227, 233, 276, 277, 279 Social Environment, 270, 276 Sodium, 94, 182, 221, 225, 245, 257, 276 Sodium Iodide, 94, 276 Soft tissue, 10, 25, 29, 55, 62, 96, 101, 104, 130, 176, 226, 276 Solid tumor, 219, 276 Solitary Nucleus, 223, 276 Solvent, 66, 262, 277 Soma, 277 Somatic, 48, 218, 255, 257, 277 Sound wave, 233, 236, 271, 277 Spasm, 221, 277, 280 Spastic, 69, 251, 277 Specialist, 205, 277 Species, 223, 234, 240, 247, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 263, 270, 277, 279, 283, 285 Specificity, 12, 35, 104, 218, 222, 277 Spectrometer, 32, 75, 112, 152, 277

Index 299

Spectrum, 43, 98, 123, 124, 146, 257, 270, 277, 283 Sperm, 219, 230, 277 Sphincter, 179, 252, 277 Spina bifida, 260, 277 Spinal cord, 229, 230, 243, 255, 259, 260, 270, 277, 279 Spinal Nerve Roots, 270, 274, 277 Spinous, 240, 252, 277 Spleen, 170, 200, 254, 277 Spondylitis, 10, 278 Sporadic, 272, 278 Spores, 41, 128, 137, 278 Sprains and Strains, 69, 254, 278 Sputum, 176, 190, 278 Squamous, 61, 261, 278 Squamous cells, 261, 278 Staging, 273, 278 Stasis, 4, 8, 278 Steel, 103, 278, 283 Stem Cells, 43, 264, 278 Stent, 142, 278 Sterile, 263, 278, 283 Sterilization, 105, 131, 132, 278 Steroid, 66, 224, 273, 278 Stimulant, 227, 278 Stimulus, 79, 233, 237, 238, 251, 252, 278, 281 Stool, 9, 178, 251, 252, 278 Stool test, 178, 278 Strand, 42, 43, 60, 231, 278 Stress, 8, 10, 18, 51, 55, 62, 99, 131, 151, 179, 223, 242, 251, 259, 273, 279 Stroke, 80, 90, 177, 188, 202, 228, 279 Struvite, 3, 279 Styrene, 273, 279 Subacute, 43, 249, 279 Subclinical, 249, 274, 279 Subcutaneous, 126, 238, 279 Subspecies, 65, 277, 279 Substance P, 274, 279 Subtrochanteric, 246, 279 Sulfur, 103, 256, 279 Suppression, 87, 234, 279 Survival Rate, 142, 279 Suspensions, 92, 279 Sympathetic Nervous System, 223, 279 Symphysis, 268, 279 Symptomatic, 4, 5, 220, 279 Synapses, 260, 261, 279 Synaptic, 276, 279, 280

Synchrotron, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 43, 49, 57, 123, 163, 165, 280 Synovial, 29, 222, 280 Synovial Fluid, 222, 280 Systemic, 11, 179, 182, 225, 240, 249, 251, 257, 270, 274, 280, 286 Systemic disease, 179, 280 Systemic lupus erythematosus, 11, 257, 280 Systems Analysis, 27, 280 T Telangiectasia, 193, 280 Telophase, 257, 280 Temporal, 25, 34, 126, 267, 280 Tendinitis, 10, 69, 280 Tennis Elbow, 10, 280 Testicular, 53, 280 Testis, 280 Testosterone, 271, 280 Tetany, 263, 280 Thalamic, 223, 280 Thalamic Diseases, 223, 280 Therapeutics, 46, 183, 281 Thermal, 31, 93, 102, 107, 118, 121, 144, 226, 237, 260, 281 Thigh, 242, 245, 281 Thoracic, 214, 223, 236, 255, 281, 285 Thorax, 217, 254, 281 Threonine, 275, 281 Threshold, 131, 132, 247, 281 Thrombin, 242, 266, 268, 281 Thrombocytes, 266, 281 Thrombomodulin, 268, 281 Thrombosis, 269, 279, 281 Thrombus, 234, 249, 266, 281 Thymus, 254, 281 Thyroid, 7, 46, 78, 250, 263, 276, 281, 283 Thyroid Gland, 263, 281 Tin, 228, 266, 281 Tolerance, 150, 217, 245, 281 Tonsils, 7, 282 Tooth Loss, 12, 282 Tooth Preparation, 217, 282 Topical, 222, 282, 286 Total-body irradiation, 48, 282 Toxic, iv, 234, 240, 248, 260, 265, 274, 279, 282 Toxicity, 238, 251, 256, 282 Toxicology, 62, 190, 282 Toxins, 221, 249, 270, 282

300 X-rays

Trace element, 226, 230, 231, 260, 276, 281, 282 Tracer, 140, 282 Trachea, 226, 241, 252, 265, 281, 282 Tranquilizing Agents, 269, 282 Transduction, 275, 282 Transfection, 225, 282 Transfusion, 105, 282 Translation, 37, 117, 139, 145, 282 Translocate, 38, 39, 282 Translocation, 38, 39, 282 Transmitter, 146, 217, 251, 279, 282 Trauma, 10, 45, 51, 57, 140, 173, 179, 180, 224, 241, 245, 259, 281, 282 Trees, 273, 282 Trisomy, 219, 283 Tryptophan, 231, 283 Tubercle, 283 Tuberculin, 50, 283 Tuberculosis, 131, 173, 174, 176, 190, 233, 254, 283 Tuberous Sclerosis, 7, 193, 283 Tumor marker, 225, 283 Tumour, 47, 53, 243, 283 Tungsten, 152, 228, 283 Tyrosine, 61, 269, 283 U Ulcer, 140, 264, 283 Ultrasonography, 3, 283 Ultraviolet Rays, 82, 92, 112, 283 Unconscious, 219, 248, 283 Uranium, 271, 283 Ureter, 253, 272, 283 Ureteroscopy, 4, 283 Urethra, 268, 284 Uric, 3, 11, 245, 248, 270, 284 Urinalysis, 8, 284 Urinary, 3, 179, 223, 227, 234, 284 Urinary tract, 4, 223, 284 Urinate, 284, 285 Urine, 160, 223, 225, 227, 237, 246, 250, 251, 252, 262, 272, 273, 283, 284 Urodynamics, 9, 284 Urologist, 4, 284 Urology, 9, 159, 284

Uterus, 230, 268, 284 V Vacuoles, 262, 284 Vascular, 5, 18, 39, 61, 142, 233, 240, 249, 260, 281, 284 Vascular endothelial growth factor, 61, 284 Vasodilators, 260, 284 Vein, 250, 261, 284 Venous, 53, 78, 269, 284 Ventricle, 248, 270, 284 Venules, 225, 227, 284 Vertebrae, 250, 277, 278, 284 Vertebral, 56, 173, 277, 284 Veterinary Medicine, 189, 284 Vinca Alkaloids, 284, 285 Vincristine, 61, 284 Viral, 28, 37, 282, 285 Virulence, 223, 282, 285 Virus, 40, 223, 266, 282, 285 Viscera, 277, 285 Visceral, 180, 223, 264, 285 Visceral Afferents, 223, 285 Visual Acuity, 233, 285 Vitamin D, 11, 273, 285 Vitro, 285 Vivo, 35, 126, 285 Vocal cord, 55, 285 Void, 99, 285 Vomeronasal Organ, 261, 285 W White blood cell, 217, 220, 253, 254, 260, 266, 285 Windpipe, 265, 281, 285 Wrist Injuries, 9, 285 X Xenograft, 220, 285 X-Ray Film, 11, 21, 85, 115, 127, 202, 285 X-ray therapy, 169, 251, 285 Y Yeasts, 242, 265, 286 Yttrium, 93, 286 Z Zinc Oxide, 89, 125, 286 Zymogen, 268, 286

Index 301

302 X-rays

Index 303

304 X-rays