William J. Gedney’s Comparative Tai Source Book 9780824865610

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William J. Gedney's Comparative Tai Source Book

OCEANIC LINGUISTICS SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS Numbers 1 through 25 are no longer available. 1. English in Hawaii: An Annotated Bibliography. Stanley M. Tsuzaki and John E. Reinecke. 1966. 2. An Ivatan Syntax. Lawrence Andrew Rcid. 1966. 3. Manobo-English Dictionary. Richard E. Elkins. 1968. 4. Nguna Texts. Albcrt 1. Schutz. 1969. 5. Nguna Grammar. Albert 1. Schlitz. 1969. 6. A Grammar of Kaliai-Kove. David R. Counts. 1969. 7. Chrau Grammar. David D. Thomas. 1971. 8. Philippine Minor Languages: Word Lists and Phonologies. Edited by Lawrence A. Reid. 1971. 9. Japanese Pidgin English in Hawaii: A Bilingual Description. Susumu Nagara. 1972. 10. Kapampangan Syntax. Leatrice T. Mirikitani. 1972. 11. Isneg-English Vocabulary. Morice Vanoverbergh. 1972. 12. Outline of Sre Structure. Timothy M. Manley. 1972. 13. Austroasiatic Studies, Parts I and II. Edited by Philip N. Jenner, Laurence C. Thompson, and Stanley Starosta. 1976. 14. A Bibliography of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Compiled by John E. Reinecke, Stanley M. Tsuzaki, David DeCamp, Ian F. Hancock, and Richard E. Wood. 1975. 15. A Handbook of Comparative Tai. Fang Kuei Li. 1977. 16. Syntactic Derivation of Tagalog Verbs. Videa P. De Guzman. 1978. 17. The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. James Patrie. 1982. 18. A Grammar of Manam. Frantisek Liehtenberk. 1983. 19. The History of the Fijian Languages. PaulA. Geraghty. 1983. 20. For Gordon H. Fairbanks. Edited by Veneeta Z. Acson and Richard L. Leed. 1985. 21. The Causativcs of Malagasy. Charles Randriamasimanana. 1986. 22. Echo of a Culture: A Grammar of Rennell and Bellona. Samuel H. Elbert. 1988. 23. A Guide to Austroasiatic Speakers and Their Languages. Robert Parkin. 1991. 24. Tonality in Austronesian Languages. Edited by Jerold A. Edmondson and Kenneth 1. Gregerson. 1993. 25. Tinrin Grammar. Midori Osumi. 1995. 26. Toward a Reference Grammar ofTok Pisin: An Experiment in Corpus Linguistics. John W. M. Verhaar. 1995. 27. An Erromangan (Sye) Grammar. Terry Crowley. 1998. 28. From Ancient Cham to Modem Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change. Graham Thurgood. 1999. 29. Grammatical Analysis: Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics: Studies in Honor of Stanley Starosta. Edited by Videa P. De Guzman and Byron W. Bender. 2000. 30. Nhanda: An Aboriginal Language of Western Australia. Juliette Blevins. 2001. 31. Bislama Reference Grammar. Ten), Crowley. 2004. 32. Otto DempwoltT's Grammar olthe Jabem Language in New Guinea. Translated and edited by Joel Bradshaw and Francisc Czobor. 2005. 33. A Grammar of South Efate: An Oceanic Language of Vanuatu. Nicholas Thieberger. 2006. 34. William 1. Gedney's Comparative Tai Souree Book. Thomas John Hudak. 2007. Publications may be ordered electronically from www.uhpress.hawaii.edu or by mail from University of Hawai'i Press, 2840 Kolowalu Street, Honolulu, Hawai'i 96822, USA.

Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No. 34

William J. Gedney's Comparative Tai Source Book

Thomas John Hudak

University of Hawai'i Press Honolulu

© 2008 University of Hawai 'i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

13 12 11 10 09 08

6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hudak, Thomas 1. William 1. Gedney's comparative Tai source book / Thomas John Hudak. p. cm. - (Oceanic linguistics special publication; no. 34) ISBN 978-0-8248-3190-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) I. Tai languages-Phonology, Comparative. 2. Proto-Tai language-Phonology. 1. Gedney, William 1. II. Title. PL4l13.H832008 49S.9'I-dc22 2007041673

Camera-ready copy for this book was prepared under the supervision of the series editor. University of Hawai 'i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources Printed by lET Global

CONTENTS Ackno\vledgments .................................. vii Abbreviations ....................................... ix Map 1: Tai-speaking Areas in Southeast Asia and Southern China ............................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ............................... 1 Chapter 2: Southwestern Tai Dialects .................... 5 Siamese (Standard Thai) .......................... 5 White Tai (Tai Khaw) ............................ 8 Black Tai (Tai Dam) ............................ 11 Shan ......................................... 14 The Tai Dialect ofNong Khai ..................... 17 Lue .......................................... 19 The Tai Dialect of Chiengmai ..................... 23 Chapter 3: Central Tai Dialects ........................ 27 The Tai Dialect of Lei Ping ....................... 27 The Tai Dialect of Lungming ...................... 30 The Tai Dialect of Western Nung .................. 34 The Tai Dialect ofBac Va ........................ 37 The Tai Dialect of Lungchow ..................... 39 The Tai Dialect of Ping Siang ..................... 42 The Tai Dialect ofNing Ming ..................... 45 Chapter 4: Northern Tai Dialects ....................... 49 yay .......................................... 49 Saek ......................................... 53 The Tai Dialect of Wuming ....................... 58 The Tai Dialect ofPo-ai .......................... 61

v

Comparative Tai Source Book

Chapter 5: Cognates ................................. 65 Southwestern, Central, and Northern Tai Cognates ..... 65 References ......................................... 195 Index ............................................. 203

vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This volume could not have been produced without the generous assistance and good humor of numerous individuals. Much of the early work, creating formats and proofreading, for example, benefitted from the expertise of Chelle Brookes, Aloysius Canete, Alberto Perez-Pereiro, Joseph Maranville, and Michael Zier. References and encouragement were kindly provided by Karen L. Adams, Dawn Bates, Anthony Diller, Jerold A. Edmondson, Thomas Gething, Yongxian Luo, and Christopher Miller. At Arizona State University, two individuals contributed large amounts of their time and energy: Barbara Stark took time from her own research and created the map for this volume, and Marsha Schweitzer was always there to explain the mysteries ofthe software and to rescue me from never-ending computer errors. And at the University of Hawai'i Press, one could not ask for a more efficient and knowledgeable editor than Keith Leber. To all of these people, I extend my heartfelt gratitude and thanks.

vii

ABBREVIATIONS

The Proto-Tai category of each cognate follows its gloss or the lexical item in question. Languages and dialects represented by the same set of symbols are separated by commas: S, W, B, Sh 7aw l ; otherwise, semi-colons are used: LP 7aw; LM 7aw4 • In the Saek section (p.53), OG refers to the older generation and YG to the younger. For the Tai dialect of Lungchow (LC), 'current in the countryside' refers to the 1930s and 1940s when Li did his research.

SW

Southwestern Tai Dialects Siamese (Standard Thai) S White Tai (Tai Khaw) W B Black Tai (Tai Dam) Shan Sh LNK the Tai dialect ofNong Khai LCH Lue of Chieng Hung LMY Lue of Muong Yong the Tai dialect of Chiengmai CM

CN

Central Tai Dialects LP the Tai dialect of Lei Ping LM the Tai dialect of Lungming the Tai dialect of Western Nung WN BV the Tai dialect ofBac Va LC the Tai dialect of Lungchow PS the Tai dialect of Ping Siang NM the Tai dialect ofNing Ming

N

Northern Tai Dialects Y Yay Sk Saek WM the Tai dialect ofWuming P the Tai dialect of Po-ai

IX

N

01L....._ _ _----11500 km

KEY 1-Siamese. 2-White Tai. 3-Black Tai. 4-Shan. 5-Nong Khai TaL 6-Chieng Hung Lue. 7-Muong Yong Lue. 8-Chiengmai Tai. 9-Lei Ping Tai. 10-Lungming Tai. 11-Western Nung. 12-Bac Va TaL 13-Lungchow TaL 14-Ping Siang Tai. 15-Ning Ming Tai. 16-Yay. 17-Saek. 18-Wuming Tai. 19-Po-ai Tai.

Map 1. Taj-speaking areas in Southeast Asia and Southern China.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The Tai language family extends from Assam in the west to northern Vietnam in the east, from southern China in the north to the Malay peninsula in the south. At the far western end of this area, in Assam, the related, but extinct, literary language Ahom can be found. In adjacent Myanmar (Burma), the main representatives of the Tai family include Shan and a variety of dialects on the border of Assam and Yunnan. The Lue inhabit the Sipsongpanna region of southern Yunnan, northern Thailand, and Laos. Further south, the whole of Thailand is covered by Siamese and Tai local and regional dialects. A similar situation occurs in Laos where Lao dialects extend throughout the country as well as into northeastern Thailand. Unlike the other Tai languages which are spoken by minority groups, those in Thailand and Laos are socially and politically dominant. Moving into northern Vietnam, White, Black, and Red Tai appear in the northwest and varieties ofTay (formerly identified as Tho) and Nung in the northeast. Yay is spoken in the extreme northern part of Vietnam in the area of the Hong (Red) River and the Lo River (Riviere Claire). Tai dialects in southern China, related to the Nung of northern Vietnam, have been grouped together by the Chinese under the name Zhuang, although individual linguistic studies identify dialects by localities such as the Tai dialect ofLungming or the Tai dialect of Lungchow. Finally, at the farthest point east on the island of Hainan there also exist a number of dialects closely related to the Tai family. Edmondson and Solnit (1997b: 1) estimate the total Tai population to be greater than 80 million. In two major publications Fang-kuei Li (1959, 1960), using phonological and lexical criteria, divided the Tai family into three main branches: the Southwestern with Siamese, Lao, Shan, White, Black, and Red Tai, etc.; the Central with Tay, the dialects spoken at Lungchow, Lei Ping, Ping Siang, Ning Ming, etc.; and the Northern with Yay, Saek, the dialects spoken at Wuming and Po-ai, etc. For the most part linguists follow this tripartite division, although Gedney(1989:62-66) has proposed that the Central and Southwestern probably represent a single group with gradual transition between the languages within it. Haudricourt (1956), on the other hand, suggests that the Northern and Central branches may very well form a single group. For both Gedney and Haudricourt, then, the Tai family may ultimately consist of two major groups rather than three. Both Luo (1996: 17-18) and Edmondson and Solnit (1997b: 10-12) discuss this tripartite division and the related issues raised by Gedney and Haudricourt. With the exception of loanwords, all of the different varieties ofTai are monosyllabic. Each syllable has a tone, an initial consonant or consonant cluster, a vocalic nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and an optional final consonant. The tones of each of the Tai dialects had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on

Comparative Tai Source Book

open syllables (those ending in a vowel, semivowel, or nasal) and no tonal contrast on checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k). Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. The phonetic nature ofthese initials can be divided into four different tiers: 1) voiceless fricatives such as [s], [fl, [x], [h] and voiceless aspirated stops [ph], [th], [kh]; 2) voiceless unaspirated (plain) stops [p], [t], [k]; 3) glottal sounds, glottal stop [7] and preglottalized consonants [7b], [7d], [7y]; and 4) voiced sounds. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by whether the vowel was short or long. As the following chart demonstrates, this four-way split between initials and tones allows for a possible total of twenty proto-tones for anyone Tai dialect, although no dialect has shown all these possibilities. Most Tai dialects range between five and seven tones. Initial\Tone voiceless friction sounds voiceless unaspirated stops glottal sounds voiced sounds

A

B 5 6 7 8

2 3 4

C

9 10 11 12

D-short D-Iong 13 17 14 18 15 19 16 20

Research on this family oflanguages and dialects began in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; however, most of this research was done by individuals with little or no training in linguistics. The results ofthis lack oftraining were publications filled with errors and inaccuracies. Of course, there were exceptions such as the Siamese and Shan dictionaries, but by and large these early studies must be approached and used with caution. Even so, these early lists are valuable for they give a general idea of the phonological structure of the word and at the same time provide evidence of the word in a particular language or dialect. It was only in the mid-twentieth century that the rigorous scientific investigation of these languages was begun by Fang-kuei Li who worked primarily on the Tai languages in southern China and their relationship to Siamese; Andre-Georges Haudricourt who worked on the Tai languages in northern Vietnam and southern China; and William J. Gedney. William J. Gedney's work with the Tai family began in the 1950s with his investigations into Siamese and then in 1964 with otherTai languages. Emphasizing tonal and phonological systems, Gedney worked with native informants first to determine the tonal system ofthe dialect (Gedney 1972). With the tones described, he then moved on to a more general list arranged according to cultural and semantic spheres (Hudak 2004). In cases where the informant was particularly adept, Gedney was able to elicit every phonologically possible syllable as in his Yay, Saek, and Lue dictionaries (Hudak 1991 a, 1993, 1996). Generally, Gedney would use Siamese, Lao, or Black Tai to elicit the data, and only rarely did he resort to English and an interpreter as in his work with the Tai dialects at Lei Ping, Lungming, Ping Siang, and Ning Ming. Because ofthe close similarity, culturally and linguistically,

2

Introduction between Siamese and the languages being investigated, Gedney was able to arrive at clear and exact one-word translations. Elicitation sessions were taped, replayed, reviewed, and then transcribed with the aid of the informant checking for accuracy. These word lists and texts were recorded in notebooks, indexed word-by-word and syllable-by-syllable on 3x5 slips, and organized into comparative lists. These slips and lists came to play an important part in Gedney's scholarly work: 1) they provided the data for his Tai linguistic research (Bickner et al. 1989); 2) they were the source for his courses on comparative Tai; and 3) they were to form the basis of a book on comparative TaL They were also often borrowed by students and other linguists for their own research. The book, never completed, was to provide accurate and reliable data of a variety of dialects so that additional phonological studies could be made of individual dialects as well as on the entire language family. Gedney was particularly interested in the role these data would play in the reconstruction of the Proto-Tai language family and in determining its wider genetic relationships. A meticulous and cautious investigator, Gedney frequently took a 'wait until we have more data' attitude on the wider genetic affiliations ofthe Tai languages as set forth in the TaiKadai and Kadai hypotheses (Luo 1996: 14-18, Edmondson and Solnit 1997b:2-4). For the proposed book on comparative Tai, Gedney compiled a list of 1159 words, in their cognate forms, that were common to the Tai languages in the three branches of the Tai family. For the Southwestern (SW) branch, he used Siamese (S), White Tai (W), Black Tai (B), Shan (Sh), the Tai or Lao dialect at Nong Khai (LNK) in northeastern Thailand, the Lue dialects at Chieng Hung (LCH) in Yunnan and Muong Yong (LMY) in Myanmar, and the Tai dialect spoken in Chiengmai (CM). For the Central (CN) branch, he included the Tai dialects found in China at Lei Ping (LP), Lungming (LM), Lungchow (LC), Ping Siang (PS), and Ning Ming (NM). He also incorporated the dialect designated as Western Nung (WN) spoken in extreme northern Vietnam and the Tai dialect at Bac Va (BV) in northeastern Vietnam. For the Northern (N) branch, he chose Yay (Y), found in northern Vietnam, Saek (Sk), a linguistic island in northeastern Thailand and across the Mekong in Laos among Southwestern Tai languages, and the Tai dialects in China at Wuming (WM) and Po-ai (P). Data for the dialects at Lungchow, Wuming, and Po-ai came from Li's remarkable individual studies of these dialects (1940, 1944, 1957a, 1957b, 1977). For each of these cognates, he also indicated the ProtoTai tone category to which it potentially belonged. The data reproduced for this source book of comparative Tai were taken from the slips and lists compiled by Gedney over his career. As part of the original plan, an individual phonological description for each dialect or language, which includes the location where it is spoken, has been added. The second part, the comparative section proper, allows the comparison of the sound system (the consonants, vowels, and tones) of the cognate forms in the above languages and dialects. Following this section are the complete references and an index of the 1159 cognates. For ease of comparison to the original sources from which the data have been taken, the original notation system has been retained and explained in each phonological description. Thus, in some dialect descriptions final vowels, which are 3

Comparative Tai Source Book

phonetically long, are written with a single vowel, [a], while in others double vowels are used, [aa]. Throughout the data, however, Gedney consistently treated the syllable-final semivowels as consonants and wrote them with the consonant symbols [w], [y], and [Llj]. In addition, the unrounded mid back vowel [v], characteristic of the Tai languages, has been used throughout this volume rather than the less accurate [a]. Traditional names of the languages used in the literature have also been kept, although variations are noted. A map has been included to show the general location where these languages and dialects are spoken. It is hoped that this volume will make a contribution to Tai language and dialect studies and that it will help to clarity, and perhaps put to rest, a variety of controversies that continue to surround the current historical studies related to the Tai language family.

4

CHAPTER 2: SOUTHWESTERN TAl DIALECTS

The Southwestern branch of the Tai family covers the largest territory and has the largest number of speakers. Probably the most well known languages in this branch are Siamese or Standard Thai in Thailand and Lao in Laos, where both are politically and socially dominant in their respective countries. Other languages and dialects can be found in northern and northeastern Myanmar as well as in Yunnan in southern China. While many of these languages are considered to be mutually intelligible, Luo (1996:81) notes that some are so different, for example, Chinese Shan and Lue, that they must be considered only distantly related even though they are geographically quite close. Following Li, Luo (1996:81-82) lists the following characteristics as the most salient features for distinguishing the Southwestern branch from the other two: I) the original proto-voiced stops *b, *d, and *g have developed into voiceless aspirated stops Iphl, Ithl, and Ikh/; 2) proto-labial clusters *br and *bl have become an aspirated labial stop Iphl and proto-velar clusters *gr and *gl have become an aspirated velar stop Ikh/; 3) the proto-voiceless velar fricative *x has been retained in some dialects such as White Tai; 4) proto *hr and *r have been laryngealized; 5) the proto-initial clusters *thr and *xr have merged into the laryngeal fricative Ihl in most dialects; 5) the proto-voiced velar fricative *'{ has become a voiceless aspirated velar stop Ikh/; 6) there has been a three-way tone split in all three tone categories A, B, and C along with a variety of tone mergers; and 7) there is a set of lexical items different from the other two branches. Cognates used to represent this branch include the following: Siamese or Standard Thai (S), White Tai or Tai Khaw (W), Black Tai or Tai Dam (B), Shan (Sh), the Tai or Lao dialect found at Nong Khai (LNK) on the border of Thailand and Laos in northeast Thailand, the Lue dialects at Chi eng Hung (LCH) in Yunnan and at Muong Yong (LMY) in northeastern Myanmar, and the Tai dialect in Chiengmai (CM) in northern Thailand.

Siamese (Standard Thai) -

S

Belonging to the Southwestern branch ofthe Tai language family, Siamese (Thai), the national language of Thailand, is probably the most recognized of the Tai languages. Significant studies have been made by Haas (1942a, 1942b, 1946, 1956), Gedney (1947, 1961, 1989), Henderson (1949), Abramson (1962), and Noss (1964), to name a few. Two notable dictionaries include McFarland (1944) and Haas (1964). 5

Comparative rai Source Book

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Siamese is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Siamese has five tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - mid level, 33: khaa! - stuck 2 - low level, 22: khaa2 - galangal 3 - falling, from mid-high to low, 41: khaa3 - price 4 - high level, glottalized, 55: khaa4 - to trade 5 - rising, mid-low to mid-high, glottalized, 24: khaa s - leg Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: mae 'flea', mot4 'ant'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 3 of open syllables: 7aap2 'to bathe', luuk 3 'child'. The five tones of Siamese had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Siamese. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Siamese Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

B 2 2 2 3

A 5

1

C 3 3 3 4

D-short D-Iong 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 3

Consonants Siamese has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii! - year, tat2 - to cut, cay! heart, kaw2 - old, 7im 2 - full. 6

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: phoms - hair, tham l chaaT]4 - elephant, khiF - to ride.

-

to do,

Voiced stops. b - d: baa11 I - thin, daam 3 - handle. Nasals. m - n - T]: muu s - pig, nay!- in, T]uu l - snake. Voiceless spirants. f - s - h: faa 4 - sky, sae - animal, huu 5 - ear. Sonorants. 1- r - w - y: lek2 - iron, raw l - we, wan l - day, yaak3 - difficult. Initial clusters consist ofa consonant plus [I], [r], or [w]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [I]. pl- phl- kl- khl: plaal - fish, phluu l - betel, klwa! - salt, khlam 3 - abundant. Clusters with [r]. pr - phr - tr - thr (rare) - kr - khr: praayl - to scatter, phraan l - hunter, tram l - to endure, thri 4sadii! - theory, kraan 3 - coarse, rough, khraam! - indigo. Clusters with [w). kw - khw: kwaaT]! - deer, khwaai - water buffalo. Final consonants include nasals m - n - 11 and voiceless stops p - t - k -7. For final w - y, see Diphthollgs. Nasals. m - n - T]: num 3 - soft, spongy, baan 3 - house, thuT]5 - bag. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: sip2 - ten, phuue - to speak, paak2 - mouth, kE7 2 - sheep. Vowels

Siamese has nine vowels, three high: i - w - u; three mid: e - v - 0; and three low: E - a - 0, all of which may be either short or long. All vowels are phonetically long in final position and written with a double vowel. High. i, ii - w, ww - u, uu: thin 2- place, thiip2 - to kick, nWT]2 - one, thww s - to hold, carry, buk 2 - to invade, th uup 3 - incense. Mid. e, ee - v, vv - 0, 00: ten 3 - to jump, thee! - to pour out, T]vnl - money, chvvn! - to invite, khon! - person, 100k3 - world. Low. E, EE - a, aa - 0, 00: tErn! - full, tEE11! - melon, cae - to arrange, caan! - dish, phro r - because, dook2 - flower.

7

Comparative Tai Source Book

Diphthongs There are three centering diphthongs, ia - wa - ua: thian! - candle, swa5 - tiger, hua 5 - head. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - iaw - ew - eew - yW - YYW - ££w - aw aaw: hiw 5 - hungry, khiaw s - green, rew! - fast, leew! - bad, pay! rew! pal ryw! - go fast!, pal thiaw3 pal thyy~ - to go around, 1££w4 - finished, 7aw! - to take, 7aaw2 - bay, gulf. Diphthongs with final [y]. wy (rare) - wwy (rare) - way - uy - uay - YyYYy - ooy - ay - aay - ooy: hwl - not so!, hwwl - not so!, nway! indifferent, puy! - fluff, sua/ - beautiful, hl- an exclamation, khyy/ son-in-law, 700 l - ouch, may - not, baa! - afternoon, rool- hundred.

White Tai (Tai Khaw) -

W

A member of the Southwestern branch of the Tai language family, White Tai is found in the extreme northwestern part of Vietnam, and possibly over the border in parts of Yunnan. The chief center is the town of Lai Chao (my,,4Ia/), with another center further to the north in Muong Te (my,,4 t£4). The White Tai refer to themselves and their language as tal don 2, probably because of the white blouses worn by the women. The usual word for 'white' in White Tai is d:1l1 2, while the cognate for Siamese khaaw 5 'white' is xaaw!. Excellent studies can be found in Minot (1940, edited and republished in Hudak 2001, 1949a, 1949b), Donaldson (1963), and Donaldson and Edmondson (1997). Gedney (1964) and Fippinger and Fippinger (1970) offer comparative studies. A comprehensive dictionary can be found in Dieu and Donaldson (1972). Hartmann (1985) offers a discussion of the White Tai alphabet. Gedney obtained his data at Tung N ghia, near Dalat, Vietnam, in 1964 and can be found in Hudak (1994). Most of the data come from an informant from Muong Te by the name ofDao van Thuong (thY1l6).

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of White Tai is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

8

Southwestern rai Dialects

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), White Tai has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - level, slightly lower than mid, 22: kaa l - crow 2 - high-rising, 45: kaaz - all the way to 3 - low-rising, glottalized, 24: kaa3 - young rice plant 4 - level, somewhat higher than mid, 44: kaa4 - stuck 5 - level, somewhat higher than mid with a rise and fall, 454: kaas - price 6 - falling, glottalized, 31: kaa6 - to trade

Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: sat2 'animal', mot4 'ant'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: 7aapz 'to bathe', laat4 'to cover'. The six tones of White Tai had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in White TaL Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in White Tai Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

B 2 2 2 5

A 1 1 1 4

C 3 3 3 6

D-short D-long 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4

Consonants White Tai has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pos - father, tu l - door, con6 spoon, kaa,,1 - middle, 7aa"z - basin. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: phaa3 - cloth, thiw l - to whistle, chaf - egg, kh0 3 - to cook. Voiced stops. b - d: bvn l - moon, don z - white.

9

Comparative Tai Source Book

Nasals. m - n - jl - '1']: mW'I']4 - you, naa3 - face, jlU'l']4 - mosquito, "aaleasy. Voiceless spirants. f - s - x - h: faa l - lid, S::>'I']I - two, xa/ - tallow, hy2_ sweat. Sonorants. v - 1- y: vaan l - sweet, 10'1']4 - dragon, y::>l- to drool. In slow, careful speech, initial [y] is often pronounced as [z] through Vietnamese influence. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low level offriction. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [w]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw - 'l']w - xw: kwaa 5 - to visit, khwe 2 - to dig, 'l']waas - fig, xwan4 - smoke. Final consonants include nasals m - n - 'I'] and voiceless stops p - t - k -7. For final w - y - Uj, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - '1']: tem 3 - to write, twn 2 - to wake up, kwaa'l']l - deer. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: hup2 - to smoke, sut4 - to sip, mak 4 - to like, 7w7 2- squash. In close transition, final glottal stop may be deleted and the vowel reduced: maa7 2 'fruit' may be realized as maa2, ma7 2, or ma2 . Vowels

White Tai has nine vowels, with a length distinction only in [a]. All vowels are phonetically long in final position, although written with a single vowel with the exception of [a] which is written with a double vowel. High. i - w - u: thi 2 - closely spaced, tw 4 - to hold, pu 4 - betel. Mid. e - y - 0: le 4 - to lick, m¥T]1 - ditch, 70e - to plug. Low. e - a, aa - ::>: te 6 - truly, kam l - handful, 7aan l - saddle, k::>1 - clump. Diphthongs

In White Tai, the diphthongs ia - wa - ua have been lowered to the monophthongs e - ¥ - 0, respectively: me 4 - wife (Siamese mia l), h¥4 - boat (Siamese rwa l), hoI head (Siamese hua S).

10

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - Uj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - ew - ew - aw - aaw: siw l - pimple, new' tough, sticky, kEW' - to chew, kaw 3 - nine, daaw l - star. Diphthongs with final [y]. uy - ¥y - oy - ay - aay - oy: 7ul- guava, m¥istiff and tired, kol- banana, layl - to flow, laayl - many, hoy' - mollusk. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: baUjI - leaf.

Black Tai (Tai Dam) -

B

Black Tai is a member of the Southwestern branch of the Tai language family with its chief center located at Son La (m¥Yj4 laaS) in northwestern Vietnam. Other locations appear south ofthe White Tai-speaking area and in and around Dien Bien Phu. In Thailand, known as Lao Song (laaw l SOOYj3) by the Siamese, Black Tai speakers can be found in the areas of Ratburi and Phetburi. In the United States, a large group of speakers resides in Iowa. The Black Tai refer to themselves and their language as tal dam l or tallam l, a name generally attributed to the black blouses the women wear or to the fact that they originally lived in the area of the Black River (Riviere Noire) in northern Vietnam. An early dictionary of apparently the Son La dialect was done by Diguet (1895) in a largely impressionistic transcription. More recent dictionaries have been done by Hartmann (1981) and Baccam et al. (1989). Gedney (1964) and Fippinger and Fippinger (1970) have provided comparative studies while Fippinger (1975) has investigated Black Tai syntax. More recently, Hartmann has written on Black Tai scripts (1985,1986) and literary texts (1981,1992,1994). Gedney obtained his Black Tai data in 1964 from two sources: 1) a family from mwaYj4 piaYj\ a town about forty-four kilometers northwest of Son La; and 2) a teacher, bak s kam 4 s J', from baan 3 cia114 di', a village about thirty-five kilometers northwest of Son La. These data can be found in Hudak (1994).

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Black Tai is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

II

Comparative Tai Source Book

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Black Tai has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - level, slightly lower than mid, 22: kaa! - crow 2 - high-rising, 45: paa2 - forest 3 - low-falling, glottalized, 21: 7aa3 - to open 4 - high level, 55: naa4 - rice field 5 - level, somewhat higher than mid, 44: kaa5 - price 6 - falling, glottalized, 3 I: faa 6 - sky Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: sae 'animal', motS 'ant'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: 7aap2 'to bathe', laatS 'market'. The six tones of Black Tai had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table I shows the patterns of these splits in Black Tai. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Black Tai Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 1 1 1 4

B 2 2 2 5

C 3 ~

.)

3 6

D-short D-Iong 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5

Consonants Black Tai has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: paa! - fish, taa 5 caam 4 - indigo, kin! - to eat, 7aa112 - basin.

-

landing,

Voiceless aspirated stops. th - kh: thua2 - bean, khaw3 - rice. Voiced stops. b - d: bwan l - month, daaw! - star. Nasals. m - n - Jl - T}: maa4 - to come, nWT}3 - to steam, Jlen! - civet cat, 11aa4 - tusk. 12

Southwestern rai Dialects

Voiceless spirants. f - s - h: fa/- fire, san 2 - to shake, h8ml - fragrant. Sonorants. v - I - y: vaal'] I - thin, linl - to play, yaaw l - house. In slow, careful speech, initial [y] is often pronounced as [z] through Vietnamese influence: Y8l']2 or Z8l']2 'on tiptoe'. Depending upon the locality, there are also fluctuations between [d] and [I], di l or Iii 'good', as well as [b] and [v], baan] or vaan 1 'sweet'. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low level of friction. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [w]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw -llw: kwaa/- water buffalo, khwaa l - right, l']waa4 - yesterday. Final consonants include nasals m - n - l'] and voiceless stops p - t - k -7. For final w - y - Uj, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - l']: cwm 4 - cool, pan 4 - thousand, bl']6 - gong. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: jlaap2 - coarse, yet S - to do, fak 2 - vegetable, b87 2 - flower.

Vowels Black Tai has nine vowels, with a length distinction only in [a]. All vowels are phonetically long in final position, although written with a single vowel with the exception of[a] which is written with a double vowel. High. i - w - u: bP - comb, mw 4 - hand, thul']4 - pail. Mid. e - v - 0: ten 3 - short, svk 2 - enemy, fon l - rain. Low. &- a, aa - 8:

k&2 -

old, cam] - near, 7aan 2 - to read, n8n 4 - to sleep.

Diphthongs Diphthongs include ia - wa - ua: sial']] - sound, swa3 - shirt, nuarZ - beard. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y -

Uj.

Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - iaw - ew - &W - aw - aaw: siw 1 - pimple, niaw l - tough, sticky, pay! 7ew2 paa 2 - to go hunting, kh&w l - green, ka~­ nine, daaw 1 - star.

13

Comparative rai Source Book

Diphthongs with final [y]. way - uy - uay - vy - oy - ay - aay - :>y: mwai stiff and tired, cuy! kan l - to box, kual- banana, fvl- yard of a house, koy! - hip, layl - to flow, laayl - many, by! - mollusk. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. all.\: baUjl - leaf.

Shan-Sh Shan belongs to the Southwestern branch of the Tai language family. Gedney obtained his Shan data list from Cushing's 1881 Shan-English dictionary (2 nd edition 1914; edited and republished in Hudak 2000) in which Cushing used Burman Shan from the principalities of Laihka and Mongnai as the basis for the dictionary. In their background and history of the dialects known as Shan, Edmondson and Solnit (1997a:339) note that the Shan are believed to be one ofthe first Tai groups to leave China for Southeast Asia and are therefore referred to as Tai Long 'the great Tai'. Those groups leaving later came to be know as Tai Noy 'the lesser Tai' . Additional sources of Shan data include Mix (1920), Egerod (1957, 1960, 1961), and Young (1985). Moeng (1995) has published the original Cushing dictionary with the updated spelling system. Gedney's own work with a variety of Shan dialects can be found in Hudak (1994). These dialects include Hsi Paw Shan, Tai Maaw Shan, Che Fang Shan, Muong Khawn Shan, and Keng Tung Shan. Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Shan is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Shan has five tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale and taken from Li (1977: 15) and Egerod (1957: 121-22). Cushing's descriptions of the tones (1914:9) appear in parentheses. Italics are Cushing's. 1 - rising, 35, (the natural pitch of the voice with a slight rising inflection at the end; may be called the natural tone): taw l - to search for 2 - low level, glottalized, 11 or 21 , (deep bass tone; may be called the grave tone): taw2 - turtle 3 - mid level, 33, (even tone, in pitch, between the first and second tones; may be called the straight forward tone): ta~ - to come

14

Southwestern Tai Dialects

4 - high level, glottalized, 55, (a more elevated pitch than the first tone; may be called the high tone): taw4 - moss 5 - falling, glottalized, 53, (an abrupt, explosive tone; may be called the emphatic tone): tawS - to support with something A sixth tone, which tends to be emphatic and prolonged with a slight drop at the end, is recognized by some speakers. Cushing describes this tone as slightly circumflex with a falling inflection at the end. Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibittones phonetically similar to tones 4 and 5 of open syllables: tap4 'liver', nok 5 'bird'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 3 of open syllables: 7aap2 'to bathe', mit3 'knife'. The five tones of Shan had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Shan. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Shan Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A

B

I 4

2 2 2 3

C 3 3 3 5

D-short D-Iong 4 2 4 2 4 2 5 3

Consonants Shan has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - k - 7: p03 - father, taa4 - to smear, kayZchicken, 7en l - muscle. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - kh: phil - spirit, thaam l - to ask, kheefrog. Nasals. m - n - Jl - Yj: maa I - dog, naa4 - rice field, JlOp4 - to grab, Yjam I - to grasp. Voiceless spirants. s - sh - h: saaYj5 - elephant, shon l - garden, haa3 - five. The [s] is unaspirated and slightly palatalized while the [sh] is aspirated and slightly palatalized (Li 1977: 152, 164).

15

Comparative Tai Source Book

Sonorants. I - r - w - y: laaw l - star, raap3 - place, win 3- broken off, yaak3 difficult. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [r], [w], or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [r]. pr - phr - tr - kr - khr - mr - sr: praae - to slip, phraa3 god, traa4 - law, kraa1l3 - with a body in violent motion, khraa2 - useful, mraae - to exceed, sraaw l - to leap. Clusters with [w]. pw - tw - thw - kw - khw - sw - shw - lw: pwaa1l4 - to open, twaa4 - unable to walk, thwaak 3- to leave the monkhood, kwaa2- to go, khwaa l - right side (not left), swaa l - to have a bad odor, shwaa1l2 - to rejoice, Iwaa1l5 - to run. Clusters with [y]. py - phy - ky - khy - my: py::>2 - happy, phy::>2 - to dilute, kyaa l - to cook rice and things together, khY::>1l2 - to fear, myaa1l5 - in bad condition. Final consonants include nasals m - n - 11 and voiceless stops p - t - k. For final wy -lLf, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n -11: phom l - hair, pun 5- yonder, ph)'11 4 - straw. Voiceless stops. p - t - k: haap2 - to carry on the shoulder, khot 5- to scoop out, hak4 - to break. Vowels

Shan has nine vowels, with a length distinction only in [a]. All vowels are phonetically long in final position, although written with a single vowel except [a] which is written with a double vowel. In the fifth tone, [aa] tends to be somewhat shorter and is therefore written with a single vowel: mas - horse. High. i - w - u: hi4 - long, kwm 4 - firm, lui - rat. Mid. e - )' - 0: khe 2 - to scratch the earth, n)'s - flesh, hoi - head. Edmondson (2000a) reports that with a number of Shan dialects he has studied, [)'] is closer to [a]. Low. e: - a, aa -::>: me: 3- mother, pan l - to give, paan l - birthmark, 11::>nl - to howl.

16

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - Uj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - ew - EW - aw - aaw: niw s - finger, sew 4 quick, thEw l - a row, khawl - rice, phaaw - to scatter.

-

Diphthongs with final [y]. uy - oy - ay - aay - ::>y: hui - to open, woyl - a dipper, pai - to step, khwaai - to turn around, m::>i - body hair. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: kaUjl - near.

The Tai Dialect of Nong Khai - LNK Belonging to the Southwestern branch of the Tai language family, the Tai dialect ofNong Khai, also referred to as a Lao dialect, is spoken in and around the city of Nong Khai on the border of Laos in northeastern Thailand. Gedney obtained his data from a student at the University of Michigan in 1967 and can be found in Hudak (1997). Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Tai dialect ofNong Khai is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Nong Khai has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. I23456-

low-rising, 24: naa 1 - thick low, with a slight drop at the end, II: 7aa2 - father's younger sister mid-high, 44: thaa l - landing mid-low, glottalized, 22: naa4 - face falling, sometimes glottalized, 42: naas - mother's younger sibling high level, 55: naa 6 - field

Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k ) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones I and 3 of open syllables: sipl 'ten', moe 'ant'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: 7aap2 'to bathe', faak s 'bamboo flooring'.

17

Comparative Tai Source Book

The six tones ofNong Khai had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Nong Khai. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Nong Khai Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 1 2 2

B

C

3

4 5 5 5

3 3 3

6

D-short D-long 1 1 1

2 2 2

3

5

Consonants

Nong Khai has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: puak2- white ant, tawl- turtle, con2 - poor, kayl- chicken, taw - to take. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: phaat5 - to lay across, tham4 cave, choo l - part of a name, khaam6 - indigo. Voiced stops. b - d: baae - wound, d¥¥n2 - to walk. Nasals. m - n - p-,,: mww 5 - day, naa l - thick, payl- big, "aayl- easy. Voiceless spirants. f - s - h: fon l - rain, sin4 - skirt, het l - mushroom. Sonorants. 1- w - y: leem l - sharp-pointed, waan l - sweet, yen2 - cool. There are no initial or final clusters. Final consonants include nasals m - n - " and voiceless stops p - t - k - 7. For final w - y, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - ,,: 7um5 - to carry in the arms, 7un3 - warm, kha,,1 - to imprison. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: haap2 - to carry on the shoulders, khut l - to dig, kaak2 - ringworm, khu7 3 - water container.

18

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Vowels N ong Khai has nine vowels, with distinction in length undetermined. All vowels are phonetically long in final position and written with a double vowel. High. i - w - u: bii 2 - gallbladder, fwwn 6 - firewood, fun 3 - dust. Mid. e - " - 0: kep2 - to keep,

k'I"e - to be born, hom3 - shade.

Low. E - a - 8: nEE 6 - to aim, dapl - to extinguish, d88k 2 - flower.

Diphthongs In Nong Khai, the diphthongs include ia - wa - ua: khian l - to write, dwan 2 - month, khua l - bridge. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - iaw - eew - EEW - aw - aaw: ki~ - narrow, 7iaw5 - to turn aside, hccw l - chasm, kEEw5 - glass, khaw4 - rice, khaaw 1 white. Diphthongs with final [y]. uy - uay - ny - oy - ooy - ay - aay - 8y - 88y: khui - reed flute, khual - buffalo, tni - vocative particle, 70l exclamation of annoyance, booyZ- to flog, khai - to open, khaayl - to sell, h8yl - mollusk, kh88l- to wait for.

Lue - LCH and LMY Belonging to the Southwestern branch ofthe Tai language family, Lue, or Tai-Lue, can be found in a number of different regions: 1) in Chieng Hung, the capital city of Sip song panna and throughout southern Yunnan province; 2) in Muong Yong and vicinity in northeastern Burma; 3) in the provinces ofChiengmai and Chiengrai in northern Thailand; 4) in Muong Sing and Luang Prabang in Laos; and 5) in and around Binh Lue in northwest Vietnam. Gedney obtained his data over a period of fifteen years, synthesizing much of it in 1969. This synthesis was published in Hudak (1996). Gedney's data come from Chieng Hung (LCH) and Muong Yong (LMY). In both of these dialects, Gedney was never able to find a contrast between [x] and [kh], the two sounds fluctuating in free variation. Li (1964), however, did find such a contrast at Cheng Tung in southeastern Sipsongpanna. Later research by Gedney uncovered the fact that this dialect is in an area contiguous and continuous with the White Tai area in Vietnam which does preserve this contrast. Other Lue linguistic

19

Comparative rai Source Book

studies can be found in Hartmann (1984) and anthropological studies in Moreman (1965, 1988) and Davis (2005). The origin of the ethnonym Lue, Iww 6 , is unclear. Various sources have suggested it is related to the common Tai word for 'north' (n,!,,!,l in Lue and nwa s in Siamese); however, this appears to be impossible since neither the initial, the vowel, nor the tone agree. The term may simply represent a combination of linguistic, cultural, and political factors. The Lue capital city is named ceT)4 hUT)s and means 'city of the dawn'. Nor was Gedney able to find a clear and accurate explanation for the name of the Lue-speaking area, Sipsongpanna. While sipsong meant 'twelve' and panna 'a type of administrative unit', no accurate listing ofthese units was ever obtained.

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological patterns of the Lue dialects at Chieng Hung and Muong Yong are based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Chieng Hung Lue has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - high level, 55: haa l - to seek 2 - low-rising, 12: haa 2 - rain shower 3 - low level, glottalized, 11: haa 3 - five 4 - low-falling, 21: haa4 - mold 5 - mid level, 33: haas - epidemic 6 - falling, glottalized, 31: haa 6 - to ferment Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 1 and 5 of open syllables: sipl 'ten', motS 'ant'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: 7aap2 'to bathe', faak s 'split bamboo'. The six tones of Chi eng Hung Lue had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the 0 category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Chieng Hung Lue.

20

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Chieng Hung Lue Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

B 2 2 2 5

A

I 4

C 3 3 3

6

O-short D-long 2 1 2 I 2 5 5

The phonetics of Muong Yong tones are slightly different from those at Chieng Hung: 123456-

high-rising, 45: haa l - to seek low-rising, 12: haa2 - rain shower low level, glottalized, 11: haa3 - five mid, with slight rise and fall, 342: haa4 - mold mid level, 33: haaS - epidemic falling, glottalized, 31: haa6 - to ferment

Like those in Chieng Hung Lue, checked syllables with short vowels in Muong Yong Lue have tones phonetically similar to tones 1 and 5 of open syllables: dipl 'raw', fok 5 'swollen'. Tones 2 and 5 appear on the long checked syllables: duuk 2 'bone', h££t 5 'rhinoceros'. In both dialects, short checked syllables ending in a glottal stop frequently have the glottal stop deleted with a corresponding reduction in vowel and neutralization of the tone to tone 5. Thus, the word for door may be pronounced as pa7 1 tuu l or more frequently pa-tuu 1• Syllabic [m] also appears with or without a I tone: m 2 or m 'classifier for fruit'. , Gedney (Hudak 1996:xxii) notes that Muong Yong Lue has tone sandhi, where certain tones are altered when in close juncture with other tones. This involves tone 4 changing to tone 5 when following tone 5; thus kaa5 p£T)4 'price is high' can also be pronounced as kaa5 pn{ As Table 2 demonstrates, the tonal splits in Muong Yong are the same as the Chieng Hung splits except that words with the Proto-Tai A tone and originally preglottalized initials have the same tone as words with originally voiced initials. Table 2 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Muong Yong Lue Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

B 2 2 2 5

A 1 4 4

21

C 3 3 3 6

O-short O-Iong 1 2 2 2 5 5

Comparative Tai Source Book

Consonants The two Lue dialects have the following initial consonants. Frequently, there is an

hlr variation, [h] in the spoken form, hums 'shade', and [r] in the literary, rums. In the data in this volume, Gedney also records literary variants with initial [I], lum s. Unless noted, the examples provided occur in both dialects. Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii 5 - older sibling, taaT]4 road, caal- male, kinl - to eat, 7um3 - to hold in the arms. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch (LMY only): phool - husband, thaw3 - old, su7 1 chit l - to crush. Voiced stops. b - d: baat2 - foot, dam 3 - handle. Nasals. m - n - p (LMY only) - T]: m::>::? - pot, naa3 - face, pw 4 - to clench, T]aayl - face up. In LMY, [r] appears as an allophone of IT]I before [i] and [e]. Voiceless spirants. f - s - x - h: faa 6 - sky, sew4 - sharp, xayZ - egg, hyy2 sweat. Sonorants. 1- r - v - y: luuk s - child, raak 5 - root, val- to keep, yyy2 - bait. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low level of friction. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters occur with a consonant followed by [r] or [w]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [r]. tr - thr: traa l - brand, thrii 4 - solder. Clusters with [w]. kw - tw (LMY only) - thw (LMY only) - xw: kwaan l axe, twi p 5 - continent, thwaayl - to give to royalty, xwaal- buffalo. LMY also records [xl] in xlwk 5 - the sound of bone cracking when turned slowly. Final consonants include nasals m - n - T] and voiceless stops p - t - k -7. For final w - y, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - T]: l1am 6 - water, 11:)114 - to sleep, m~T]4 - gong. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: baap2 - sin, het 5 - to do, paak2 - mouth, ne7 l lean. 22

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Vowels Each of the two Lue dialects has nine vowels, occurring short and long. All vowels are phonetically long in final position and written with a double vowel. High. i, ii - w, ww - u, uu: minI - stink, lii 2 - to squint, thwT]1 - to reach, mwwtS - dark, hum 2 - to cover, puu4 - betel. Mid. e, ee - y, yy - 0, 00: xew 1 - green, veek s - work, lym l - python, lyyS to saw, mons - fun, mook 2 - hat. Low. E, EE - a, aa - 0, 00: nEn J - solid, hEE 5 - ore, san 3 - short, naaw l - cold, hOT]6 - to call, took 2 - bamboo strip.

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - ew - EW - aw - aaw: xiw2 - bad smell, 7ewZ - business, SEW I - bad smell, la~ - liquor, faaw 6 - to hurry. Diphthongs with final [y]. uy - yy - oy - ay - aay - oy: tui - fat, nyj tired, koi - banana, pal- to snare, 7aaj - to lie in wait, hol- to string.

The Tai Dialect of Chiengmai -

CM

Gedney does not list his source for the Chiengmai data in this comparative list. However, since it is close to his own research in 1964 (Hudak 1997), his tone descriptions have been added. The Tai dialect of Chiengmai belongs to the Southwestern branch of the Tai language family and is spoken in and around the city of Chiengmai in northern Thailand. Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Tai dialect of Chiengmai is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

23

Comparative Tai Source Book

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Chiengmai has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - mid-high, 44: pii 1 - fat 2 - low-rising, 14: pii 2 - year 3 - mid-low, 22: sii 3 - four 4 - falling, 41: pii4 - older sibling 5 - high-falling, (glottalized ?), 53: khii 5 - excrement 6 - high-rising-falling (glottalized ?), 454: cii 6 - to point Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k ) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 6 of open syllables: hap2 'to close', sak6 'to wash clothes'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 3 and 4 of open syllables: 7aap 3 'to bathe', Iwak4 'to choose'. The six tones of Chiengmai had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Chiengmai. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Chiengmai

Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 2 2 1

B

".) 3 " 4 .)

C 5 5 5 6

D-short D-long 2 ".) 2 3 2 3 6 4

Consonants Chiengmai has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii4 - older sibling, tuu 5 cupboard, cii 6 - to point, h E 3 - old, 7uu3 - cradle.

-

Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - kh: phua 2 - husband, thie - closely spaced, miserly, khii 3 - to ride. Voiced stops. b - d: baa3 - shoulder, dwa 1 - cockspur. Nasals. m - n - Jl - 11: mww 6 - a turn, naw4 - rotten, Jlwa3 - bait, 11ua1 - ox. 24

Southwestern Tai Dialects

Voiceless spirants. f - s - h: fjj2 - a boil, sia112 - sound, hww s - to give. Sonorants. I - w - y: kK)e - spool, waan 2 - sweet, yaa! - medicine. Initial clusters appear with a consonant followed by [w]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw - 7w: kwaalls - wide, khwaa114 - to throw, 7waai - steam, vapor. Final consonants include nasals m - n - 11 and voiceless stops p - t - k -7. For final w - y, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - 11 - 11: 7im3 - full, khwn s - to go up, ki113 - branch. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: dip 2 - raw, cee - seven, piik3 - wing, p£ 76 goat.

Vowels Chiengmai has nine vowels, with distinction in length undetermined. All vowels are phonetically long in final position and written with a double vowel. High. i - w - u: bie - to twist, cww 4 - name, khun 3 - turbid. Mid. e -

'I - 0:

pen 2 - to be, d'lk 2 - late at night, 70e - to endure.

Low. £ - a - 0: t££11 2 - cucumber, caa116 - elephant, nook4 - outside.

Diphthongs In Chiengmai, the diphthongs include ia - wa - ua: siam 2 - spade, cwak 4 - rope, nuae - beard. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - iaw - ew - ££w - aw - aaw: siw2 - pimple, khiaw2 - green, pew2 - flame, h£w! - waist, 7aw! - to take, naaw 2 - cold. Diphthongs with final [y]. way - uay - '1y - ay - aay - oy - ooy: pway2 accustomed, 7ay! - to cough, taa/- to die, naked, cua/- to help, po/- to release, looi - to float.

hi -

25

CHAPTER 3: CENTRAL TAl DIALECTS

The languages and dialects of the Central branch ofthe Tai family can be found in southern China and in northern Vietnam. Luo (1996:78) delimits the geographical boundaries of this group as follows: from the You River (You Jiang or Yu Jiang), which forms the upper and middle reaches ofthe Xi River, in Guangxi in the north to the Red River in Vietnam in the south; and from the Gulf of Tonkin (Beibu Gulf) off the Vietnamese coast in the east to the Sino-Vietnamese border in Yunnan, China, in the west. As noted in the Introduction, the formation of the Central branch has remained in dispute with some (Gedney) believing it should not be separated from the Southwestern branch and others (Haudricourt) suggesting it belongs with the Northern group. With this line of reasoning, the Central branch would then form an intermediate or transitional group rather than a separate branch. Summarizing Li, Luo (1996:78) lists the following features as the most salient characteristics for distinguishing the Central branch from the other two: 1) the proto-initial clusters *tr and *thr have merged into the voiceless aspirated stop Ith/; 2) traces of proto-initial clusters *pr, *7bllr, and *vl/r have been retained and realized as [phy], [by], and [py] respectively; 3) the proto-voiceless labiodental fricative *fhas developed into a voiceless aspirated labial stop Iph/; 4) the protovoiced velar fricative *y has developed into a voiceless unaspirated velar stop Ik/; 5) there is a set of lexical items different from the other two branches. Cognates used to represent this group are from the dialects spoken in Guangxi at Lei Ping (LP), Lungming (LM), Lungchow (LC), Ping Siang (PS), and Ning Ming (NM). Also included are two other dialects: 1) a varietyofNung similar to those in far northeastern Vietnam but located much farther to the west and designated as Western Nung (WN) by Gedney; and 2) another variety of Nung spoken at Bac Va (BY) near Phu Lang Thuong (Bac Giang) in northeastern Vietnam.

The Tai Dialect of Lei Ping -

LP

Belonging to the Central branch of the Tai language family, the Tai dialect of Lei Ping (la/ phiTj\ Pinyin Leiping) is spoken in Lei Ping in southwest Guangxi, approximately thirty mile southwest of Lungming and twenty-five miles northeast of Lung chow. Gedney obtained the data in Hong Kong in 1966 from a 62-year-old informant by the name of Liang Shao-Iu (lyaaTj4 saaw3 nuu 4 ). Dominic Yip acted as interpreter in the sessions. The informant provided the following sentence to describe his native language: Tj005 caaTj3 poon 3 thii 5 vaa 5 'I speak the native 27

Comparative rai Source Book

language'. References to the Lei Ping dialect can be found in Gedney's individual linguistic studies (1995a, 1995b; Bickner et al. 1989) and in Sarawit (1973). Gedney's complete data appear in Hudak (1995). Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Lei Ping is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Lei Ping has five tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - high rising-falling, 454: maa' - dog 2 - high level, with a final drop before pause, 44: maa2 - to soak 3 - rising, glottalized, 13: maa3 - horse 4 - low-falling, 21: maa4 - to come 5 - low level, 11: taaS- maternal grandfather Checked syllables (those ending in p - t- k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: khap2 'step', lak4 'to steal'. Tone 5 usually appears on syllables that have cognates elsewhere with a long vowel, for example, lopS 'to stroke' (Siamese luup 3). Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: nuuk2 'deaf, byookS 'flower'. The five tones of Lei Ping had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Lei Ping. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Lei Ping lnitial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 1 2 2 4

B 2 5 5 5

28

C 3 3 3 3

D-short D-long 2 2 2 5 2 5 4,5 5

Central Tai Dialects

Consonants

Lei Ping has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii 2- year, tyk 2- to shoot, cet2 - seven, kee 5- old, 7aaT}5 - basin. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: pheek2 - to explode, thYY! - to carry, chim4 - to taste, khap4 - to catch. Voiced stops. b - d: baa3 - crazy, dik 2 - child. The [d] is pronounced with a simultaneous glottal release. Nasals. m - n -T}: mii! - bear, noon4 - to lie down, T}ool- to see. Voiceless spirants. f - 'I- - s - h: fyn 4 - firewood, fyy! - tiger, SY¥k5- rope, ho0 4 - person. Sonorants. v - I - y: vaam 4 - language, laaT}3 - to wash, yiin 2 - tobacco. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw: kwaa2 - melon, khwaa2 - pants. Clusters with [y]. py - phy - ky - khy - by - my - hy - ly: pyaa2 - fish, phyaa3- orphan, kyaaT}2 - middle, khyaf - egg, byook5 - flower, myaak5slippery, hyaaT}2 kaaT}2 - Hong Kong, lyaaT}4 - the informant's name. Final consonants include nasals m - n - 11 and voiceless stops p - t - k - 7. For final w - y - 11I, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n -T}: neem! - to paste, yin4 - to hear, hiT}! - voice. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: ceep5 - chaff, phae - to winnow, hok2 - six, 1007 5- grammatical particle. Vowels

In his elicitation, Gedney (Hudak 1995:119) noted that there was no distinction between [y] and [w], although [y] is a little higher after labials such as [f] and [ph]. Nor is there a contrast between [0] and [u] as in [ok] and [uk], but [u] is very high

29

Comparative Tai Source Book

and there is a definite long [uu] as in nuuk 2 'deaf' and cuuk s 'white ant'. With these points in mind, Gedney posited the foIlowing vowel system: High. i, ii - uu: 7im s - full, ciins - to spin, kuuk s - hoe. Mid. y, yy: CYT]2 - to steam, chn'T]s - elephant Low. e, ee - a, aa - 0, 00: 7ee - one, meeT]4 - insect, 7ai - to cough, 7aaito lean back, fOll4 - to roof, hooks - shell. In the transcription system used, [e] and [0] are phonetically more open, [e] and [0] respectively, Long vowels tend to be more open [k&e 2 'old', kheek 2 'guest', mo0 3 'pot', moot2 'mold'] and short vowels more closed [cet2 'seven', khon l 'body hair']. Vowels in syllable-final position have a pronunciation close to a long vowel and are therefore written with a double vowel.

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - Uj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iiw - eew - aw - aaw: khiiw l - bad-smelling, 7eew3 - to bend, 7aw 2 - to take, haaw l - to yawn. Diphthongs with final [y]. uuy - ay - aay - ooy: vuui - seed, day3 - can, haayl - to die, 700y3 - sugarcane. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: daUj2 - in.

The Tai Dialect of Lungming -

LM

Belonging to the Central branch of the Tai language family, this Tai dialect is spoken in the town and countyofLungming (colloquialloT]4 7iT]\ formalloT]4 milll, Pinyin Longming) in southwestern Guangxi. Gedney obtained his data from 1966 through 1976 from an informant living in Hong Kong. The informant, a42-year-old male named thaalll theen 4 sinI, was born in thiiml tall3 (formal theen 1 tyn l) about forty Chinese miles from Lungming. Born in 1924, he moved to Hong Kong in 1949 where he worked in a Chinese school. Dominic Yip acted as interpreter because the informant spoke only Cantonese. Upon questioning, the informant identified his native language simply as vaam 4 tho0 3 'native language or dialect', with tho0 3 meaning 'local or native' and not a specific ethnic group as various Western scholars and researchers have treated it. Throughout this Tai-speaking region the question of ethnonyms remains a confusing issue. Many of the speakers refer to themselves as thoo\ with kaaT]3 tho0 3 meaning 'to speak the local or native language'. On the other hand, kaaT]3 30

Central Tai Dialects

kheek4 has the specific meaning of 'to speak Mandarin'. Li (1977: 105) notes that the Tai-speakers of Lung chow and Lungming use the term tal 'Tai' to refer to the Tai-speaking people of Vietnam and not to themselves. In contrast, the Central Tai speakers in Vietnam and in some parts of China use the term Nung (from Vietnamese nOT] or n~T], depending on the dialect) for themselves. Western scholars have borrowed this term to refer to the Tai dialects of western Guangxi. Other Tai groups in Vietnam refer to themselves as Tai. In China, however, all of the Tai dialects are officially referred to as Zhuang, which appears in the Lungming expressions kaaT]3 COOT]s 'to speak Zhuang' and hn4 COOT]s 'a Zhuang person'. Specific studies of Lungming have been restricted to Gedney's massive glossary (Hudak 1991 b) and to his various linguistic papers (1995a, 1995b, 1995c; Bickner et al. 1989). Sarawit (1973) has also used Lungming data.

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Lungming dialect is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Lungming has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - high level, 55: laa l - to seek 2 - high-rising, 45: laa2 - a flock 3 - mid level, glottalized, 33: laa3 - cracked 4 - low-falling, from mid-low to low, 21: laa4 - to take one's leave 5 - low level, 11: laas - epidemic 6 - falling, from mid-low to low and then rising to mid-low, glottalized, 212: laa6 - to snatch Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of open syllables: 107 1 'final imperative particle', 107 2 'final imperative particle', phae 'to winnow', kok4 'to simmer', pik s 'crowded'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 1, 2, 3, and 5 of open syllables: teepl 'to drink with pleasure, smacking the lips', kook2 'rice husks', yiip3 'to pickle in brine', laaps 'to dry meat'. Tone 3 on the checked syllable is not glottalized as it is on the open syllable. Note that the checked syllables with short vowels and tones 1,2, or 5, and the checked syllables with long vowels and tones 1 or 3 do not reflect the historical development of the tones. These syllables with their respective tones probably resulted from the secondary shortening of the vowel, or they represent distinctive

31

Comparative Tai Source Book

vocabulary, for example, loanwords and particles or syllables resulting from onomatopoeic processes. The six tones of Lungming had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Lungming. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Lungming Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A

B 2 2 2 5

4 4

C 3 ." " 3 6

D-short D-long 3 2 3 2 3 2 4 5

Consonallts Lungming has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: paak2 - mouth, taam 3 gallbladder, COOl - ancestor, kyn4 - person, 7aa4 - to crow. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: phaaT)5 - to strike, thyn' - to swallow, chuu' - rough, khan' - to crow. Nasals. m - n -T): mitl - to pinch, naa2 - to scold, T)ee 6 - fish barbel. Nasals are often preglottalized before the vowels [ww] and [uu]. Voiceless spirants. f - s - S - h: foon 6 - brown, sij2 - to abandon, SOp3 - to smell, huuT)5 - chief. Sonorants. v -1- w - y -llj: vel- fence, laaT)5 - to unroll, pOOT)' mo0 4-wa4 - a herd of oxen, yiim4 - salt, mallj4_llja4- a leaf. Note that [w] and [llj] only occur initially due to assimilation processes. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist ofa consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw: kwaae - to rake, khwiin' - circle.

32

Central rai Dialects

Clusters with [y]. py - phy - ty - thy - cy - ky - khy - my - ny -Iy - sy - hy: pyom l - to take down, phyaa l - rocky mountain, tyook2 - to chop fine, thyaaw6 7uu l - to dance, cyaa116 vaa4 - to speak, kyau/ - near, khyow4 ball, myook 2 - flower, nyae - very tired, lyan 3 - to play, syow l - pimple, hyaa6 - summer. Final consonants include nasals m - n - 11 and vo iceless stops p - t - k - 7. For final w - y - Uj, see DipflthollgS. Nasals. m - n -11: saam l - three, nan 3 - to itch, S00111 - two. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: pOOp2 - bubble, chooe - to incite, lok s - child. The final glottal stop only occurs in la7 l 'final emphatic particle', le7 l 'sentence-final emphatic particle', 107 1 'final imperative particle', 107 2 'final imperative particle', 107 3 'emphatic clause-final particle', ne 7l 'this, these' . Vowels

Gedney (Hudak 1991 b:xxvi) arrived at the fo llowing vowel inventory for Lungming; however, it was unclear from the data whether or not the absence of short [w] and short [u] was accidental or systematic. High. i, ii - ww - uu: kin I loose, thuu l - head. Mid.

'I, '1'1:

-

to eat, 7iip2 - to step on something, lwwll s -

ph'ln! - rain, yeen 4

S'l'l4 -

color.

Low. e, ee - a, aa - 0, 00: ne 73 - this, these, cheek 2 - to tear, vat4 - to dip, thaa! - eye, tholl1 - to leak, cook2 - cup. The short vowels [e] and [0] are phonetically more open, [e] and [0] respectively. Vowels in open syllables tend to be long except for the short vowels [e] and [a] in the indefinite particle _a4 and in various particles. Single vowels denote a short vowel and double vowels long vowels. Dipflthollgs

Diphthongs analyzed as consisting of a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - Uj also occur. The diphthongs ey - 'IUj - ow, in many cases, reflect the earlier high monophthongs ii - ww - uu, respectively: khweyZ 'to ride' (Siamese khii 2), S'lUj6 'to buy' (Siamese sww 4), mow! 'pig' (Siamese muu S). Diphthongs with final [w]. iiw - eew - aw - aaw - ow: kiiw! - to call, leew6 - completely, law l - liquor, laaw 1 - to fear, yow - to stay.

33

Comparative rai Source Book

Diphthongs with final [y]. uuy - ey - eey - ay - aay - ooy: tuu/- person, pei - to go, 7ee/ - vocative particle, khayl - to open, laa/- striped, nooyZ- little. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. YUj - aUj: SYUj6 - to buy, maUj2 - new.

The Tai Dialect of Western Nung - WN Western Nung, a variety ofNung, belongs to the Central branch of the Tai language family and is spoken at Muong Khuong (mw114 khaallI) in the northern Vietnamese province of Lao Kay and its vicinity. The town of Muong Khuong is located about forty kilometers north and slightly east of Lao Kay. The speakers refer to themselves and their language as n0114 or nUlls, and many of them have the surname Nung. Gedney notes that this dialect clearly belongs to the group ofTai languages spoken in the extreme northeastern part of Vietnam and adjacent parts of China, variously known as Nung and Tho. This dialect, however, is a linguistic isolate located much farther to the west of the main group oflanguages, and for this reason, Gedney decided to refer to the dialect as Western Nung. These linguistic islands are identified on the old French ethnolinguistic map, Carte Ethnolinguistique, 1949 edition, compiled by L'Ecole Franyaise d'Extreme-Orient. Aside from Gedney's extensive glossary (Hudak 1995), there appears to be little published information on this particular dialect, with the exception of Tingsabadh (1976). Tingsabadh examines the speech of two informants, one from Ban Pa Kha, located about sixty kilometers northeast of Lao Kay, and the other from Ban Phak Thung, about seven kilometers north of Lao Kay. Western Nung is of particular interestto students ofTai linguistics because it differs considerably in vocabulary from the other varieties ofNung although it is similar in other respects. The question that arises is which dialect groups made the lexical innovations. Gedney obtained his data in the years 1964 and 1968-69 from Muong Khuong refugees living in Vientiane, Laos. The data collected represents three different localities: Muong Khuong (mw114 khaalll); Ban Lao (baan 3 lawS), located twenty-two kilometers north of Lao Kay, toward Muong Khuong; and Muong Thin Na (mw114 thinS naa4), located across the border in China, an overnight journey or about thirty kilometers from Muong Khuong. The speech found in these three localities is identical in phonological structure and phonetic detail, although differences in vocabulary do occur.

34

Central Tai Dialects

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Western Nung dialect is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Western Nung has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - low-rising, 14: cii l - to strain 2 - low-falling, 21: cii 2 - to borrow 3 - mid-low level, glottalized, 22: cii 3 - how many 4 - mid-high level, 44: cii 4 - flag 5 - mid-falling, 31: cii 5 - to soak 6 - high level, glottalized, 55: cii 6 - to point Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibittones phonetically similar to tones 6 and 4 of open syllables: bak6 'dipnet', cak4 'to level ground'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: dok 2 'flower', luk 5 'child'. The six tones of Western Nung had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Western Nung. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Western Nung Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

B 2 2 2 5

A 1 1 1 4

35

C 3 3 3 6

D-short D-Iong 6 2 6 2 6 2 4 5

Comparative Tai Source Book

Consonallts

Western Nung has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pai - to go, tem l - to light, cin l - to eat, kon 2 - before, 7aan l - saddle. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - eh - kh: phwwl - we, thii 2 - closely spaced, chuT}l - pungent, khawl - rice. Voiced stops. b - d: baanl - village, dWy' - navel. Nasals. m - n - p - T}: mal- to burn, nam 6 - water, pii' - to flee, T}uu4 snake. Voiceless spirants. f - s - S - h: faa6 - sky, siw2 - chisel, ho0 2 - thing.

-

s:>l- to swing,

Sonorants. v - 0 - I - y: viii - a comb, oal- dry field, leT}6 - dry, yiw2 - to be at. Gedney grouped the spirants (fricatives) [v] and [0] with the sonorants because of their sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. The only recorded initial cluster is [kw] in kwaay2- stubborn. Final consonants include nasals m - n - T} and voiceless stops p - t - k - 7. For final w - y - Uj, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - T}: hom 6 - to fence, chonl - to converge, caaT}s - artisan. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: kaap2 - husk, pEe - eight, ch:>k 6 - six. A final glottal stop appears only in the particle b 74 . Vowels

Western Nung has nine vowels, with a length distinction only in a, aa. Final vowels are phonetically long and are therefore written with a double vowel. High. i - w - u: ciT}' - first, nWT}l - to steam, ouu 4 - hole. Mid. e - v - 0: yen4 - tendon, T}Vk2 - gums, ho0 4 - neck. Low. E - a, aa - :>: hEE s - to cut, sak 6 - just, laak s - root, kok6 - base.

36

Central Tai Dialects

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - Uj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - ew - EW - aw - aaw: siw 2 - wrinkle, tew4 to flee, SEW 3 - to embroider, paw2 - to blow, paaw2 - to announce. Diphthongs with final [y]. wy - uy - ay - aay - ::>y: sWT - to wash, tUT kind of nut, 7ayl - to cough, baayl - to clear weeds, 7::>yl - sugarcane. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: naUj3 - light (not heavy).

The Tai Dialect of Bac Va - BV Belonging to the Central branch of the Tai language family, the Tai dialect ofBac Va is one variety of the dialects known as Nung. Bac Va is located near Phu Lang Thuong (Bac Giang) in northeastern Vietnam. Gedney obtained the data from Tran Phuc Ky in Dalat, Vietnam, in 1964. The complete data appear in Hudak (1997). Phonology

As in other dialects and languages ofthe Tai family, the phonological pattern ofthe Tai dialect ofBac Va is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant. Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Bac Va has eight tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - low-rising, 14: ,,"iii - four 2 - high-rising, 45: mii 2 - bear 3 - mid level, 33: mii 3 - to have 4 - low-falling, glottalized, 21: khii4 - to ride 5 - mid-falling, glottalized, 32: pii 5 - older sibling 6 - low level, glottalized, 11: khii 6 - excrement 7 - low level, 11: ,,"::>m7 - sour 8 - high level, 55: Iin s - tongue Checked syllables (those ending in p - t- k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 3 and 8 of open syl1ables: n::>k3 'bird', matS 'flea'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 1 and 5 of open syllables: paakl 'mouth', luk 5 'child'. 37

Comparative Tai Source Book

The eight tones of Bac Va had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Bac Va. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Bae Va Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 1

B 4

2 2 2

I 4

3

5

C 6

7 6 7 8

D-short D-Iong 1 3 1 8 I 8 1 8 3 5

The Tai dialect of Bac Va is unique in that it exhibits a tonal split in the voiceless friction sounds that does not occur in other dialects Gedney has studied. In this case, the proto-initials in the top row include voiceless aspirated stops and voiceless fricatives such as [f] and [h]. In the second row are the preaspirated sonorants and [s]. COllsonants

Bac Va has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii 5 - older sibling, taa 5 - long river, cet8 - seven, kaw l - old, 7et8 - one. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - kh: phon l - rain, thinl - stone, khiT}1 ginger. Voiced stops. b - d: baL4 2 - leaf, dek 8 - child. Nasals. m - n - Jl - T}: mi? - to have, n::>::>n3 - to sleep, Jlii 5 - two, T}aa1 sesame.

-

Spirants. f - 'I- - s - z « Vietnamese?) - h: faa 8 - sky, 'l-iw l - chisel, sim3 - to taste, zuu4 - to be at, h::>k3 - six. Sonorants. I - v - y: laai - stripe, vaan 2 - sweet, yww 1 - cucumber. Gedney grouped the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low level of friction.

38

Central rai Dialects

There are no initial or final clusters in the data. Final consonants include nasals m - n - TJ and voiceless stops p - t - k - 7. For final w - y - ll./, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - TJ: phom! - hair, TJwn3 - silver, piTJ2 - leech. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: thaapl - to carryon a shoulder pole, pEd eight, phuk 3 - to tie, no 75 - outside.

Vowels Bac Va has nine vowels, with distinction in length undetermined. Final vowels are phonetically long and are therefore written with a double vowel. High. i - w - u: pi? - fat, twk 3 - young male, nuu 2 - rat. Mid. e - " - 0: pd - duck, p""k l - peel, p005 - male. Low. E - a - 0: tEm2 - full, thaa l - eye, nok 3 - bird.

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - ll./. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - ew - EW - aw - aaw: siw l - pimple, ce~­ to look, hEw8 - to trap, 7aw 2 - to take, haaw l - to yawn. Diphthongs with final [y]. uy - "y - ""y - oy - ay - aay: khuy1 - mountain stream, m"l - bear, T)\'¥y1 - to send, soi bo0 3 - hammer, dal - good, haayl - moon. Diphthongs with final [ll./]. all./: mall./ 4 - new.

The Tai Dialect of Lungchow - LC Belonging to the Central branch of the Tai family, this dialect is spoken in and around the city of Lunge how (Pinyin Longzhou) located in the southwestern corner of Guangxi province. Li obtained his Lungchow data in 1935 in the city of Lungchow and subsequently published it in 1940 along with folk tales, stories, and poems. Li reevaluated his data for phonemicization in his 1977 A Handbook of Comparative Tai. Gedney acquired the data from Li (1940) and used it in his various linguistic studies (1995a, 1995b; Bickner et al. 1989). Sarawit (1973) also used it in her study of the proto-Tai vowel system. 39

Comparative Tai Source Book

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Tai dialect of Lungchow is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant. TOiles

On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Lungchow has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - mid level, 33: haa l - to seek 2 - high level, 55: haa2 - heavy shower 3 - rising, 24: haa3 - five 4 - mid-falling, 31: naa4 - rice field 5 - low level, 11: naa5 - mother's younger sibling 6 - low-falling, glottalized, 21: maa6 - horse Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: +ip2 'ten', kut 4 'to dig'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: 7aap2 'to bathe', laak 4 'root'. The six tones of Lungchow had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Lungchow. For his own comparative work, Gedney renumbered the tones as indicated below. Li's original numbering follows in parentheses. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Lungchow Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A

1 4 (2)

40

B 2 (5) 2 (5) 2 (5)

5 (6)

C 3 3 3 6 (4)

D-short D-long 2 (5) 2 (5) 2 (5) 2 (5) 2 (5) 2 (5) 4 (2)

4 (2)

Central Tai Dialects

COllsonants Lungchow has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii! - year, taay! - maternal grandmother, cie - seven, ka/- chicken, 7aa3 - to open the mouth. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - kh: phie - spicy hot, thue - to remove, khie - excrement. Nasals. m - n -11: ma/- to burn, nuu! - rat, 11uu4 - snake. Voiceless spirants. f - 'I- - s - h: faa 6 - sky, 'l-aUj! - clear, siik 2 - to tear, haa! eye. Sonorants. v - I - y: vit4 - mushroom, lin 6 - tongue, yiie - to stretch. Li (1977:9) grouped the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw: kwaa2 - to pass, khwif - to ride. Clusters with [y]. py - phy - ky - khy - by - my - hy: pyaw 4 - late meal, phyaw2 - to hunt, kyaa 3 - young rice plant, khyaw! - they, other people, byook2 - flower, myaak 5 - slippery, hyaaw3 - to compare. One [pI] cluster exists. pi: pled - flat and thin. Final consonants include nasals m - n - T] and voiceless stops p - t - k. For final w y - Uj, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n -11: mums - beard, kin! - to eat, liT]4 - monkey. Voiceless stops. p - t - k: khoop2 - to bite, booe - blind, nak2 - heavy.

Vowels Lungchow has the following vowel inventory: High. i, ii - ww - u, uu: bie - fish hook, pii4 - fat, kww! - salt, huk2 - six, nuuk2 - deaf.

41

Comparative Tai Source Book

Mid. e - y, yy - 0 : 7eek2 mook 2 - fog.

-

yoke, phyn l

-

to grind, dyyn l

-

earthworm,

Low. a, aa: mae - flea, khaat2 - torn The mid vowels [e] and [0] are phonetically long and more open, [e] and [0] respectively. Vowels in open syllables tend to be long and are written with a long vowel. Here, [v] is used for Li's [a]. In A Handbook o/Comparative Tai (1977:10-11), Li phonemicized the 1940 data and arrived at the following vowel inventory: High i - w - u; Mid e - 0; Low a. He made the following comments: I) the high and low vowels may be long or short in closed syllables, but are always long in open ones; 2) the mid vowels are always long and between [e] and [e:] and [0] and [0] in quality; 3) Short/il and lui are more open; 4) long Iwl is close to a central vowel in closed syllables; and 5) short Iwl is [y].

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - Uj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iiw - eew - aw - aaw: niiw6 - finger, toe, kheew l - green, ka~ - nine, laaw l - to fear. Diphthongs with final [y]. uuy - ""y - ooy - ay - aay: pyuui - to release, khyyy! - son-in-law, cooyS- to help, lay! - to flow, vaal- water buffalo. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: baUjI - leaf.

The Tai Dialect of Ping Siang - PS Belonging to the Central branch of the Tai family, the dialect referred to as the Tai dialect of Ping Siang (phY114 saa114 following the Mandarin pronunciation; pha114 chYY114 following the Cantonese pronunciation; and daUj I 'l-aa11 4 following the local pronunciation) is spoken in and around the town of Ping Siang (Pinyin Pingxiang) in Guangxi province about twenty-five miles west of Ning Ming near the Vietnamese border. Gedney interviewed the informant, Chiuh Hahn (caaw3 hY114 following the Mandarin), in Hong Kong June 13-19 and July 3-15, 1966. The informant had been educated in the town of Lung chow and had lived there for seven years from about the age of twelve. He left Ping Siang at about the age of twenty. When interviewed, the informant had been living in Hong Kong for about twenty years. He referred to his language as tho0 3 as in 1100 2 kyaa113 tho0 3 vaa5 'I speak Tho'. Dominic Yip acted as interpreter during the interviews.

42

Central Tai Dialects

Gedney's complete data for this dialect can be found in Hudak (1995). Additional references appear in his linguistic studies (1995a, I995b, I995c; Bickner et al. 1989).

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Ping Siang is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Ping Siang has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - mid level, 33: maa l - dog 2 - high level, 55: maa2 - to soak 3 - rising, 24: maa3 - to grow, rise 4 - low-falling, 21: maa 4 - to come 5 - low level, 11: kaa5 - branch 6 - falling, glottalized, 31: maa6 - horse Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 4 of open syllables: dip 2 'raw', myt4 'ant'. Tone 5 often appears on syllables that have cognates elsewhere with a long vowel, for example, lopS 'to stroke' (Siamese luup 3). Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: khuup2 , year', lyyt5 'blood'. The six tones of Ping Siang had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the 0 category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Ping Siang.

Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Ping Siang Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 1

B 2

1

2 2

4

5

43

C 3 3 3 6

D-short D-Iong 2 2 2 2 2 2 4, 5 5

Comparative rai Source Book

Consonants Ping Siang has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii l - year, tuu l - door, caa4 tea, kim 4 - tongs, 7aw l - to take.

-

Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - kh: phyom l - hair, thom l - pond, khiTj I ginger. Voiced stops. b - d: baa3 - crazy, doo l - enough. Nasals. m - n - ,,: maw4 - drunk, naa/- dew, "aa/- morning meal. Voiceless spirants. f - + - s - h: faa 6 - sky, +iiw l - pillar, siin l - thousand, haal - to die. Sonorants. v - I - y: vuuy3- mountain stream, lom4 - to forget, yiml - to borrow. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. kw - khw: kwaa l - melon, khwan l - spirit. Clusters with [y]. py - phy - ky - khy - by - my: pyaa l - fish, phyak2 vegetable, kyaaw3 - hairknot, khyall.j3 - near, byook2 - flower, myaak S slippery. A single [kl] cluster appears in klik2 taa 5 taa5 - sound of a partridge. Final consonants include nasals m - n - " and voiceless stops p - t - k. For final wy - ll.j, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - Tj: liim 4 - sickle, binI - to fly, no"s - to wear. Voiceless stops. p - t - k: cip2 - to fold, bie - to pinch, luuk s - to scald.

Vowels In his elicitation, Gedney recorded seven vowels with a length distinction in each: High. i, ii - w, ww - u, uu: kim! - gold, yiin l - tobacco, nw,,1 - one, kww l salt, kuk2 phyaa! - foot ofa mountain, yuuk2 - banana stem.

44

Central Tai Dialects

Mid. Y, n: 7Yk2 - chest, Cyyk 5 - rope. Low. e, ee - a, aa - 0,00: 7et" - one, ceen 1 - to fry, yap4 - to sew, 7aap2 - to bathe, kon 3 - buttocks, noon l - worm. In the transcription system used, [e] and [0] are phonetically more open, [e] and [8] respectively. Final vowels are phonetically long and are written with a double vowel. Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as consisting of a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - yUj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iiw - eew - aw - aaw: yiiw 1 - waist, keew 4 scissors, 7aw1 - to take, khaaw l - white. Diphthongs with final [y]. uuy - YYy - ay - aay - ooy: thuul- bowl, khyyi - son-in-law, khyaf - egg, kaal- shoes, 700y3 - sugarcane. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: kaUj5 - swollen.

The Tai Dialect of Ning Ming - NM Belonging to the Central branch of the Tai family, the Tai dialect ofNing Ming is spoken in and around the town of Ning Ming (nYT]4 mYT]4, Pinyin Ningming), located about twenty-five miles east of Ping Siang and twenty-five miles southeast of Lungchow in the province of Guangxi. Gedney obtained his data July 8-16, 1966, in Hong Kong, from a 52-year-old informant, Mr. Wong Gong (khwaaT]4 kyaaT]1 in the local dialect), who had come to Hong Kong in 1949. Dominic Yip assisted as interpreter in the interviews. Gedney's complete data can be found in Hudak (1995) with additional references in his linguistic studies (l995a, 1995b, 1995d; Bickner et al. 1989). Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Ning Ming is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

45

Comparative Tai Source Book

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Ning Ming has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - mid level, 33: maa l - dog 2 - high level, 55: maa2 - to soak 3 - rising, glottalized, 25: naa3 - face 4 - low-falling, 21: maa4 - to come 5 - low level, 11: taa 5 - river 6 - low-falling, glottalized, 21: maa6 - horse Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tone 4 of open syllables: kap4 'tight'. Besides tone 4, a few morphemes with short vowels also have tones 1,2, and 5: kopl 'frog', cip2 'to fold', and lok s 'overgrown'. Checked syllables with long vowels have tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: 700k2 'to go out', laak5 'child'. The six tones ofNing Ming had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Ning Ming. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Ning Ming Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

1

B 2 2 2

4

5

A I

C 3 3

3 6

D-short D-Iong 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 5

Consollants Ning Ming has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pel - year, tey5 - place, ca145 it is, kee 2 - old, 7aw l - to take. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: phyaw5 - ashes, thuu 2 - bean, chap2 - to transplant, khyoT)2 - cage. Voiced stops. b - d: baa2 -shoulder, day 3 - can, to get.

46

Central Tai Dialects

Nasals. m - n - p - 11: mal - to burn, neew4 - urine, paUj5 - Indian corn, 11aal- morning meal. Voiceless spirants. f - 'I- - s - h: faa 6 - sky, 'l-aal- sand, saa l - fork, haalshoes. Sonorants. v - I - y: va as - to say, Iww 4 - boat, yoW- - to be in a place. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist of a consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. chw - kw - khw -11W: chwayl - to blow (?), kwiin4 - fist, khwii 2 - to whistle, 11waa6 - tile. Clusters with [y]. py - phy - ky - khy - by - my - 'l-y - hy: pyaa 1 - fish, phyaa 1 - cliff, mountain, kyaw3 - hairknot, khyow 1 - ear, byook2 - flower, myaak S - slippery, 'l-yaw2taaw' - small knife (< Chinese), hyoo11 , - loud « Cantonese). Final consonants include nasals m - n - 11 and voiceless stops p - t - k - 7. For final w - y - Uj, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - 11: hoom' - fragrant, noon 4 - to sleep, nooT]6 - younger sibling. Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: tap4 - liver, kat 4- to bite, nook5- outside, p¥r cu centipede.

r-

Vowels

In his elicitation, Gedney recorded seven vowels with a length distinction in five ([w] and [¥¥] do not appear in the corpus):

High. i, ii - ww - U,UU: cip2 - to fold, yii S - two, T]WW 4 - snake, khup2 - year, lUUT]l - big. Mid. ¥: h¥T] I - ginger. Low. e, ee - a, aa - 0,00: ben l - to fly, peen3 - board, dam' - black, naam l thorn, lom 4 - wind, nooT]5 - calf of the leg.

47

-

Comparative Tai Source Book

In the transcription system used, [e] and [0] are phonetically more open, [e] and [:>] respectively. Final vowels are phonetically long and are written with a double vowel. Diphthongs

Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - ut. In Ning Ming, the high vowels ii - ww - uu have been diphthongized: deyl - good (Siamese dii l), i-autl - writing (Siamese sww 5), kow4 - I (Siamese kuu l). Diphthongs with final [w]. iiw - eew - aw - aaw - ow: diiw 3 - hot, angry, kheew l - green, haw3 - to enter, daaw l - star, low5 - to leak. Diphthongs with final [y]. uuy - ey - ay - aay - ooy: kuul- son-in-law, pel- fat, kay- chicken, laal- saliva, 700y3 - sugarcane. Diphthongs with final [ut]. aut: dallj' - in.

48

CHAPTER 4: NORTHERN TAl DIALECTS

The Northern branch of the Tai family forms the second largest group of Tai speakers. Luo (1996:75) describes its geographical boundaries as extending from southeastern Guizhou in the north to southern Guangxi and northern Vietnam in the south, and from northeastern Guangxi in the east to the border of Yunnan and Guangxi in the west. In addition, another northern language, Saek, forms an isolated island among Southwestern Tai languages on the border of northeastern Thailand in Nakhon Phanom province and Laos in Khammouan province. Following Li, Luo (1966:96) lists the following salient features as characteristic of the Northern branch: 1) no distinction between the original aspirated and unaspirated consonsants; 2) regular split between etymologically voiceless and voiced initials in all tone categories: 3) the proto-voiceless velar fricative *x is realized as [x]/[h]; 4) in some dialects some proto-preglottalized items in the A column follow the voiceless pattern whereas some in the Band C category follow the voiced pattern; 5) proto *ml is realized as IfI; 6) clusters such as *nr, *dr, *thr, *xr, and *t1 merge into liquids and are usually realized as [r] or [I] in modern dialects; 7) proto *tr splits into Irl, Itl, or Ipr/; 8) proto-clusters *thl and *vr develop into sibilants; 9) monothongization of proto-diphthongs and triphthongs occurs; and 10) there is a set oflexical items different from the other two branches. Cognates used to represent the Northern group have been taken from Yay (Y) in the extreme northern part of Vietnam, Saek (Sk), and the dialects spoken at Wuming (WM) in Guangxi province and Po-ai (P) in Yunnan.

Yay-Y The Tai dialect known as Yay belongs to the Northern branch ofthe Tai language family and is spoken in the extreme northern part of Vietnam near the Chinese border in the area ofthe Hong (Red) River and the Lo River (Riviere Claire). Major Yay centers in this area include Muong Hum (mwaT)4 hum l) located to the west of Lao Kay (laaw4 kaal) and Cha Pa (sal pa 2) to the southwest of Lao Kay, both in the province of Phong Tho, which until 1947 belonged to the province of Lao Kay. Other Yay villages near Muong Hum include baan 6 8ew4, seven kilometers from Muong Hum; daL4 1 mwaT)\ nine kilometers from baan 6 8ew4; paak2 8aae, eight kilometers from daL4 1 mwaT)4; and pom 2 8iaT)5, one kilometer from daL4 1 mwaT)4. Also in the vicinity to the west and southwest are mwaT)4 80 1 (Phong Tho), ram 6 8et, baan 6 maw\ na4 kUT)6, na4 vaaT)s, mwaT)4Iw 5, kol la\ caw3 na 4, tOT)5 pan 2, daan 2 haaw l, and ram6 bon I. Northeast of Lao Kay are baan 2 lawS and na4 siT)4. In the 49

Comparative Tai Source Book

village of8aan! thaaT]5, north ofmwaT]4Iw5, Yay is mixed with na 5, the dialect of another group ofTai speakers. In China, Yay speakers can be found in ciw6 faaT]s and 8aan 1 cal ma6 ten 2 . Yay speakers are also said to live in the Vietnamese area of Ha Giang (haS yaaT]I), although this dialect has a different tonal system. Yay speakers refer to themselves as pu 6 yal 'Yay person' and to their language as san 4 yal. In linguistic literature and on linguistic maps, however, the terms used include Nhang or Yang, Nhang deriving from the older Vietnamese term Nh~ng, and Yang from the pronunciation of the official Vietnamese name in other Tai languages, yaT]5 in White Tai, for example. The current official name in Vietnamese is Gfay. Other Vietnamese spellings include Gi~y and Gfay. References to Yay and other cognate northern dialects by early French scholars include Dioi or Dioy (7yol or 7jol) where 'di' was an attempt to reproduce [7y] or [7j]. In Vietnamese, orthographic 'd' has the value of a palatal glide [y] in central and southern Vietnam and [z] in northern Vietnam. This same ethnonym occurs as Jui in the Po-ai dialect recorded by Li (see this volume) and as Yi in the Bouyei material recorded by Chinese scholars in Guizhou. The following description and examples have been taken from Gedney's studies ofYay(1965; Hudak 1991a.; Bickner et at. 1989). Gedney obtained his data between 1964 and 1969 from two informants, nUlls to S faaT]! from Muong Hum living in Vientiane, Laos, and Ius 7a! faaT]! from Cha Pa in Tung Nghia, Vietnam. Other than Gedney's work, studies of Yay are few. Bonifacy (1907) probably has the earliest recording with a list of 146 words in six Tai languages, one of which is labeled Giay. In 1908 Esquirol and Williatte produced a Yay dictionary based on a Pu-Yi dialect in southwestern Guangxi. A 1938 French survey by L'Ecole FranIYaise d'Extreme-Orient lists three dialect points as Giay or Nhang. Part of this survey appears in Haudricourt 1960 and 1972. In a 1952 study, Durand lists about400 topically arranged words in two Tai languages, one identified as Nhang. More recent treatments of Yay can be found in Sarawit (1973), Edmondson (2000b), and Edmondson and Gregerson (2001). Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Yay is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

TOiles On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Yay has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - level, slightly lower than mid, 33: hun! - rain 2 - low level, 22: hun 2 - a tracing copy 3 - rising, 13: hun 3 - hardened, solidified 4 - high, with a slight rise and fall toward the end, 454: hun 4 - person 50

Northern Tai Dialects

5 - falling, 41: hun s - to seek, search 6 - higher than mid, with a slight rise toward the end, 45: hun 6 hungry

-

very

Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibittones phonetically similar to tones 3 and 1 of open syllables: rok l 'six', rok l 'bird'. Those with long vowels are similar to tones 2 and 5 of open syllables: rok2 'a loom', rok s 'outside'. Although infrequent, tones 4 and 6 may also appear on checked syllables: 7aap 4 7aap 4 or 7aap2 7aap2 'sound ofa duck quacking'; fik 6 or fikl 'vacuum bottle' (GedneyI965: 181). The appearance of these two tones on checked syllables has probably resulted from loans or onomatopoeia processes. The six tones of Yay had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the 0 category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Yay. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Yay Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

B

A 1 1 1

2 2 2 5

4

C 3

3 6 6

D-short D-Iong 3 2 3 2 3 2 1 5

Consonants Yay has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pu 6 - person, tu l - door, cal young rice plants, ka l - leg, 7e3 - infant. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: phas - to mate (of animals), th0 2 - rabbit, cha l - to despise, khu l - rotten (of wood). Gedney notes that the aspirated sounds appear far less frequently than the unaspirated ones and that the informants often identify these forms as loanwords. In his 1965 study (pp. 18 I -82), Gedney records variant forms with and without the aspiration: phaaw or paaw5 'to plane wood', thiaws kwn l or tiaws kwn l 'a spoon for eating'. Voiced stops. b - d - g: be 2 - water dipper, di l - good, gallbladder, (g or '() gekl - to draw or sketch a line. In his Yay glossary (Hudak 1991a), Gedney lists [g) only in the Vietnamese loan gekl. 51

Comparative Tai Source Book

Nasals. m - n - J1 - rr m0 5 - grave, nul - rat, mouse, J1u s - to urinate, 110 2 hungry. Voiceless spirants. f - 9 - s - h: fa4 - iron, 9? - four, sa4 - tree, plant, hw l market. Sonorants. v - r - I - y: va2 - trousers, ri s - dry field, law3 - liquor, ya 5 paternal grandmother, wife, woman. Gedney notes that in careful speech and words in isolation, speakers often substitute [z] or [z] for initial [y], a result of Vietnamese influence. He further notes that this substitution also appears among educated speakers of other Tai languages in northern Vietnam (Hudak 1991 :xxiii). More recent research by Edmondson (2000b: 144) and Edmondson and Gregerson (2001) suggests that with some speakers [z] is now an inheritance in the phonological system. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. The most common clusters consist ofa consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]: kw - 7w - 11w - yw - hw: kwe4 - bent, 7wa6 - stupid, 11wayl - to stagger, ywaays or ywuay5 - soft and rotten, hwa2 - to melt. Clusters with [y]. py - by - my: pya l - fish, byan 6 - to grumble, myaak S slippery.

-

Rare clusters include kl - Iw - 9w: kluk l paak 2 - to rinse the mouth vigorously to remove things from the teeth, IwetS - to spread or smear on thinly and lightly, yu 2 9waa112 - comfortable. Final consonants include nasals m - n -11 and voiceless stops p - t - k. For final wy - Uj, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - 11: nuam l - python, tin I - foot, ne114 - insect. Voiceless stops. p - t - k: 7Up 3 - to close, bie - to pinch, twk 3 - to shoot. In Gedney's Yay glossary (Hudak 1991a.), a final glottal stop appears only once in p¥ 73 'nothing left, there isn't any'. Gedney believes that the word is probably a loan from another Tai language, with the native Yay word being 9aUj I •

52

Northern Tai Dialects

Vowels Yay has seven vowels, three high: i - w - u and three low: e - a - 0; the seventh vowel, unrounded mid back ['0], appears in final position but rarely with a final consonant. Distinction in length only appears with the vowel [a] and only before a final consonant. All vowels are phonetically long in final position, although written with a single vowel, and of indeterminate length and duration in medial position. The vowels e - 0 are more open, [e] and [0], respectively. High. i - w - u: mi 4 - to have, fw 6 - a meal, mul - pig. Mid. '0: chyl - car. Low. e - a, aa - 0: cem 3 - cheek, taTJ2 - chair, taaTJ2 - to differ, m0 2 - new.

Diphthongs Three centering diphthongs include ia - wa - ua: Jlia l - river, nwa 3 - crossbow, kua l salt. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - llj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - iaw - ew - aw - aaw: kiw3 - mother's younger brother, yiaw l - to reach, hew4 - to swim, 7aw l - to take, taaw2 to return. Diphthongs with final [y]. way - uy - uay - 'Oy - ay - aay - oy: 8way2 - to wash, luf - to mill rice, 7ua/- dirty, 7'0/- a grammatical particle, caf egg, 7aayl - goiter, col- banana. Diphthongs with final [llj]. allj: balljl - leaf.

Saek-Sk Spoken in Nakhon Ph an om province in Northeastern Thailand and directly across the river in Khammouan province in Laos, Saek is a member of the Northern branch of the Tai language family. Four Saek villages are generally identified in Thailand, all located in Nakhon Phanom province: 1) baan 3 7aat6 saa l maat 5 (or baan 3 khooTJ2), five kilometers north ofthe city ofNakhon Phanom in Nakhon Phanom district on the banks of the Mekong River on the road to Uthen; 2) baan 3 pha/ 100m3 (probably the same as baan 3 saw l law3), located in Nakhon Phanom district one mile inland from Ban At Samat; 3) baan 3 dOT] I sa6 moo 4 in sii l sOT] I khraam 4 district; and 4) baan 3 baa l vaa 3 in kiT]6 naa4 vaa 3 district. Two other Saek villages, apparently abandoned, include baan 3 thaa5 vaal, located between the city ofNakhon Phanom 53

Comparative Tai Source Book

and Ban At Samat, and baan 3 naa4 la7 6 vaal on the road to Sakol Nakhon. In his study of Saek (1988:9), Morev lists the same four villages. In the same study (p. 9), Morev claims that there are about ten Saek villages in Khammouan province in the districts ofNhommarat, Mahaxay, Kham Khet, and Tha Khek. Ethnologue cites the village of Na Kadok in Khamkeut district, Borikhamxay province. These speakers claim to have originated in Phu Quan and Ban Pho Quang in Due Tho district, Ha Tinh province, Vietnam. In texts collected by Gedney, the villages of baan 3 thook S, baan 3 pho04 kham 3, and baan 3 thaaS khEE4 are listed as Saek-speaking. In one of his notebooks, Gedney also lists baanl phaas thuT} , (in Siamese) as having a true Saek population and baan 3 phoon 3 T}aam' with a half-Saek and half-Lao one. In Vietnam, he notes, the villages of baan 1 trYYT}l and baan 1 tu:n 1 are said to have Saek speakers. Two different histories appear in texts collected by Gedney and Morev. Gedney's texts place the Saek in northern Vietnam where, because of the scarcity of food, they killed and ate a white elephant owned by a local ruler. Faced with a heavy fine, they fled to Laos and Thailand. Morev cites a story that describes the Saek as forced by the Thai to the Bangkok region to construct a canal around the city sometime in the nineteenth century. Upon completion of the canal, they settled in the region. Abandoned Saek villages in Vietnam include baan 1 byk4 naa4 tyyl, baan 3 sin4 naa4 mn/, baan 3 trnT} , , baan 3 thruu 1, and the city of SOOT}4. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Saek was noted by French travelers and researchers in Indochina. Some of their largely impressionistic word lists and brief grammars can be found in Aymonier (1895), Riviere (1902), Macy (1905), Maspero (1912), and Bonifacy (1919). Seidenfaden (1930), Creder (1935), Blanchard (1957), and Lebar, Hickey, and Musgrave (1964) all identify Saek as a Mon-Khmer language. In a series of papers in the 1950s and 60s, however, Haudricourt (1958, 1963a, 1963b, 1976) concludes that Saek is a Tai language belonging to the Northern branch. Fraisse (1950:338) also lists Saek as a Tai language. Then in 1970, based on his own field work, Gedney confirms this placement. The most extensive treatment of Saek has been done by Gedney (1970; Hudak 1993) with an extensive glossary and collection of texts. References can be found throughout his linguistic studies (1993a, 1993b, 1997; Bickner et al. 1989) and in Sarawit (1973), Khanitthanan (1975, 1976), Thongkum (1976), and Benedict (1997). Most of his data come from a wide range of informants in a series of interviews that span the years from 1964 to 1976. In the course of the fieldwork, Gedney discovered significant differences between the older and younger generations, differences that have probably disappeared under the hegemony of Lao and Thai. Among the cognates in this volume, lexical items from the older generation are marked as (OG) and those from the younger generation as (YG). Speakers of both generations refer to themselves and their language as thn:Ek 6 (Siamese SEEk2): thai thfEf:k6 'Saek people', cians thrEEk 6 'Saek language'. The following phonological description and examples are based on Gedney's extensive fieldwork.

54

Northern Tai Dialects

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of Saek is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Saek has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale.

I 2 3 4 5 6

- mid level, with rise on the end, 34: pii' - year - low level, II: maa2 - dog - mid, falling to low, with glottal constriction, 31: riP - stream - high rising-falling, 454: naa4 - rice field - high-falling, 52: phii s - older sibling - mid level, with a slight fall, with glottal constriction, 32: nii 6 - this

Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 4 and 6 of open syllables: kap4 'frog', mek6 'ant'. Those with long vowels exhibit tones 6 and 5: riit6 'sunshine', looks 'outside'. Although infrequent, tone 2 may also appear on short checked syllables as well as on long checked syllables: phat2 'and then', muak 2 'hat'. Only in rare occurrences does tone 4 appear on long checked syllables: 7iit4 700yS 'a little'. The six tones of Saek had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Saek.

Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Saek Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 2, I 1 1 4

B 6 6 6 5

C 3 3 3 6

D-short D-long 4 6 4 6 4 6 6 5

Saek exhibits a simple two-way split between proto-voiceless and protovoiced initials; however, there are two tones in the top box of column A, where normally a single tone appears (original tone A with a voiceless friction sound as in Siamese maa s 'dog' and khaa s 'leg'). Gedney (Hudak 1993:xxiv-xxv) explains 55

Comparative rai Source Book

that tone 2 seems to be the normal development, as in Saek maa2 'dog'. In contrast, Saek has tone 1 for kwaa l 'leg'. Gedney further explains that this word along with others lost their aspiration before the time of the tonal splits so that they then fell together with other words having unaspirated initials.

Consonants Saek has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pan l - to divide, tit4 - attached, ca113 - to stop, keell1 - curry, 7ai - to cough. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch (rare) - kh: phiap 5 - full to the brim, thop6 - to fold, chom 4 phuu 4 thii p5- name ofa mythical continent, khwaan 3 - to wind into a coil. Voiced stops. b - d - (g): bwl l - to fly, deem 3 - to taste, gaw6 - rice. The initial voiced velar stop [g] is usually pronounced by the younger generation with the older generation favoring the voiced velar spirant [V]. Nasals. m - n - ]1-11: mwall1 - a ditch, na115 - to sit, ]1£12 - civet cat, llat6 to pry. Voiceless spirants. f - s - h: f00113 - to bring a lawsuit, saak 5 - to wake up, ha113 - fence. The spirant [f] does not appear in native Saek words, but only in loans from Lao or Thai and thus may have either a [f] or [ph] initial: f00113 or pho0113 'to bring a lawsuit'. Voiced spirants. y: yaw6 - rice. The voiced velar spirant [V] is favored by the older generation. Compare the voiced velar stop [g]. Sonorants. v - r - I - w - y: viall I - rice straw, rok 4 - six, luan 4 - to crawl, yaa 5 thaw3 wan 6 - that old lady there, yua116 - a step. Gedney groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its sonority and low friction level. In add ition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial [r] is pronounced by apparently all speakers at all Saek localities with an initial alveolar stop release, [d r]. Initial [w] occurs only as a result of assimilation with the final consonant of the preceding word. Saek exhibits a wide range of initial clusters, some of which appear in no other Tai languages. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]: thw - kw - khw - 7w - llw - sw - hw - Iw: thwaa/- to give, kwai - to stir, khw,/,/6 - daughter-in-law, 7waal- to turn around,

56

Northern rai Dialects

llwaak S - to turn the head to look, swaas - to be famous, hwaall3 - to be worried, IwaatS - overly full. Clusters with [I]. pl- phl- tI - thl - bl- ml: plaa l - fish, phluu 4 - betel, tIua l - salt, thlaa2 - tray, blian l - month, moon, ml:x)s - meat. Clusters with [r]. pr - phr - tr - thr: praa l - eye, phrak4 - vegetable, trEEll4sharp (ofa knife), thruu 4 - similar. Final consonants include nasals m - n - ll, voiceless stops p - t - k - 7, and -I, characteristic of the older generation. For final w - y, see Diphthongs. Nasals. m - n - ll: liam 4 - sickle, keen l Voiceless stops. p - t - k - 7: 7aap 6 happy, khE 76 - tired of.

-

-

arm, saaT]2 - high.

to bathe, vuat 6 - the waist, suk 4

-

Final -I: thual s - forest.

Vowels Saek has nine vowels, three high: i - w - u, three mid: e - v - 0, and three low: E - ao. All nine show distinctions in length. Long vowels frequently reduce to a short vowel in fast speech without any change in tone: hoo/ and ho/ 'to comb'. High. i, ii - w, ww - u, uu: rip4 - raw, kii 3 - how many, bwk 4 - big, mww 4 hand, suk6 - cooked, kuu I - I. Mid. e, ee - v, vv - 0,00: kheT]1 - kind offish, lees - to choose, tvp6 tvp6sound of people walking barefoot, rvv l - in, cok4 - a hoe, 700k6 - snail. Low. E, EE - a, aa - 0, 00: tIElI - to snore, IEEt S - to paint, nan 6 - that, baat6 time, rok 4 - six, 700k 6 - to go out.

Diphthongs Three centering diphthongs include ia - wa - ua: cias - paper, rwa4 - formerly, kua l leg. The diphthong [ua] is characteristic of the speech of the younger generation. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw- iiw - iaw - uaw - eew- EEW- aw- aaw: riw - to carry by hand, as a suitcase, siiw - spoiled (offood), riaw4 - charcoal, ruaw2 - to laugh, heew2 - green, IEEw6 - finished, haw - to enter, haaw white.

57

Comparative Tai Source Book

Diphthongs with final [y]. way - uy - uuy - uay - ""y - ooy - ay - aay - ooy: pwayl - naked, mut - to sneeze, muul- blue, mual - to box, d'lf'lfyl free, idle, rooyZ - bee, yal- fish trap, kwaayl - to sell, hoot - 1.

Notable Sociolinguistic Features During his fieldwork, Gedney found pronunciation differences between the older generation of speakers (OG, aged fifty or more) and the younger (YG). As noted earlier, many of these differences have probably disappeared with the growing hegemony of Lao and Thai. 1) OG speakers keep a clear distinction between final [-I] and final [-n]. YG speakers, on the other hand, have merged the two. OG speakers, thus, distinguish between bwl l 'to fly' and bwn l 'sky' whereas YG speakers have the single form bwn 1 for both meanings. 2) OG speakers retain clear distinctions between clusters such as [pl-] and [pr-], [phl-] and [phr-], [t1-] and [tr-], [thl-] and [thr-]. Thus OG speakers distinguish between plaa 1 'fish' and praa 1 'eye, cockspur' whereas YG speakers use praa 1 for both meanings. 3) OG speakers keep clusters with an initial consonant plus [w] and long [aa]: kwaayl 'to sell'. Through Lao influence, YG speakers, especially those in their twenties and younger, replace the long vowel with the diphthong [ua]: kuayl 'to sell' . 4) OG speakers have a voiced velar spirant as an initial: yavi' 'rice'. YG speakers have replaced this spirant with a voiced velar stop: gaw6 • Most of Gedney's work was done with OG speakers so forms with the spirant rather than with the stop are listed in the cognate section. 5) OG speakers show no contrast between short [-iw] and long [-iiw] or between short [-uy] and long [-uuy], using the phonetically long sequences in both cases: T}iiw3 'kapok', muuy6 'to sneeze'. For the YG speakers, there is a clear contrast between the short and long sequences. This situation suggests that Saek originally had no such distinctions and that the contrasts have arisen from Lao and Thai loanwords. In the cognate section, both forms are listed. 6) OG speakers have relatively few Lao and Thai loanwords.

The Tai Dialect of Wuming -

WM

The Tai dialect of Wuming belongs to the Northern branch of the Tai language family and is spoken in and around the city ofWuming (Pinyin Wuming) in central Guangxi. A notable glossary with texts was produced by Li (1956), and it is from this publication that Gedney obtained his data for this and other research (l995c). Li also discusses the dialect in his 1977 A Handbook o/Comparative Tai. A more recent discussion of Wuming tone sandhi can be found in Snyder and Tianqiao ( 1997).

58

Northern Tai Dialects

Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Tai dialect of Wuming is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Wuming has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - mid level, 33: maa l - dog 2 - low-falling, 31: naa2 - rice field 3 - high level, 55: naa3 - face 4 - high-falling, 51: maa4 - horse 5 - mid-rising, 24: naa 5, arrow of crossbow 6 - low-rising, 13: taa6 - river Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 5 and 6 of open syllables: 7ak5 'chest', mak 6 'ink'. Checked syllables with long vowels also exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 5 and 6 of open syllables: paak5 'mouth', raak6 'root'. The six tones of Wuming had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Wuming. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Wuming Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A

1 2

B 5 5 5

3

6

4

C 3 3

D-short D-long 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6

Consonants Wuming has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - k - 7: pi 2 - fat, tu 6 - bean, ke 3 - to undo, untie, 7aa l - crow. 59

Comparative Tai Source Book

Glottalized. 7b - 7d - 7w - 7y: 7baa 5 7wuan l - bowl, 7ywak 5 - hungry.

-

Nasals. m - n - Jl - T}: me - to have, naw l snake.

shoulder, 7dew l

-

-

single, same,

rat, mouse, JlW l - grass, T}W 2

Voiceless spirants. f - 8 - s - x - h: faa l - wall, lid, 8aawl unmarried woman, saa 2 - tea, xum 2 - to itch, haa l - five.

-

-

young

Sonorants. 1- r - w - y: IUT}2 - uncle, raa l - to seek, wen l - to hang up, yaa6 paternal grandmother. Initial clusters consist ofa consonant plus [I], [w], or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [I]. pi - kl - ml: plaal - thunder, klaa l mlaay2- saliva.

-

young rice plant,

Clusters with [w]. kw - klw - 7dw - nw - T}W - 8w - sw - xw - Iw: kwaa2 right (hand), klwe l - a small frog, 7dwayl - negative, nwaai - tired, T}waa2 - tile, 8waaT}l - comfortable, cool, swi - to blow a musical pipe, xwaay2water buffalo, Iwet6 - to spread, smear. Clusters with [y]. ky: kyaa l

-

home.

There is also one e1user with [r] in prallj2 - who. Final consonants include nasals m - n - T} and voiceless stops p - t - k. For final wy - llj, see Diphthollgs. Nasals. m - n - T}: 8aam l

-

three, tin I

-

foot, 7diT}1 - red.

Voiceless stops. p - t - k: sip 6 - ten, dit 5 - sunshine, kuk 2 - tiger.

Vowels Wuming has seven vowels: three high, i - w - u; three mid, e - v - 0; and one low a,aa. Distinction in length only appears with the vowel [a] and only before a final consonant. All vowels are phonetically long in final position, although written with a single vowel except for [a], and of indeterminate length and duration in medial position. The vowels e - 0 are more open, [e] and [:)], respectively. In his publications Li used [0] (1940) and [0] (1977) for [v]. Mark and Li (1966:167) appear to identify it mistakenly as a front rounded vowel. Here, [v] is used for Li's [0] and [0].

60

Northern Tai Dialects

High. i - w - u: pJiTjI - leech, hwn 3 - to go up, klu l - salt. Mid. e - Y -

0:

he'lll - chopping board, hi - tree, plant, roTj2 - to go down.

Low. a, aa: haw l - to smell bad, haaw l - white.

Diphthongs Three centering diphthongs that occur with a final consonant include ia - wa - ua: kiaTj2 - tripod, hwat 5 - the waist, ruak6 - to vomit. Other diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - 1.4. Diphthongs with final [w]. iw - iaw - ew - aw - aaw: ni~ - scab, riaw l - to laugh, hew l - green, law3 - liquor, 7baaw5 - young unmarried man. Diphthongs with final [y]. wy - uy - vy - oy - ay - aay: mwi - bear, ru/mountain stream, 7dvi - hill, mountain, 7doyl - good, klay2- to desire, plaay3 - to walk. Diphthongs with final [Uj]. aUj: 7baUjI - leaf.

The Tai Dialect of Po-ai -

P

The Tai dialect ofPo-ai belongs to the Northern branch ofthe Tai language family and is spoken in and around the town of Po-ai (Pinyin Bo'ai), located in the southeastern corner of Yunnan province near the Guangxi border. Speakers of the dialect use the term Jui to refer to the dialect. Gedney obtained his data from studies of the dialect made by Li (1944, 1957a, 1957b). Li also uses Po-ai data to illustrate the Northern branch of the Tai language family in his 1977 A Handbook of

Comparative Tai. Phonology As in other dialects and languages of the Tai family, the phonological pattern of the Tai dialect ofPo-ai is based on the syllable. Each syllable has distinctions in tone, initial (consonant or consonant cluster), nucleus (vowel or diphthong), and optional final consonant.

61

Comparative rai Source Book

Tones On open syllables (those ending with vowel, semivowel, or nasal), Po-ai has six tones. Here pitch levels are based on the Chao 5-pitch scale. 1 - rising, from mid-low to mid-high, 24: maa! - dog 2 - high level, 55: maa2 - to soak 3 - mid-high level, 44: maa3 - to increase 4 - mid level, 33: maa4 - horse 5 - mid-low, 22: maas - shoulder 6 - faIling, from mid to low, 31: taa6 - river Checked syllables (those ending in p - t - k) with short vowels exhibit tones phonetically similar to tones 2 and 3 of open syllables: mae 'flea', m::>e 'ant'. Those with long vowels exhibit tones similar to tones 5 and 6: kaatS 'torn', 100k6 'outside'. Tone 4 occurs rarely on checked syllables with short vowels and tone 2 on checked syllables with long vowels (Li 1977: 14). The six tones ofPo-ai had their origin in an earlier system of three tones on open syllables and no tonal contrast on checked syllables. Those tones on open syllables have been conventionally designated as A - B - C and the fourth category, the checked syllables, as D. The tones in each of these categories underwent phonemic splits, conditioned by the phonetic nature of the initial consonant of each syllable. With the D category, the splits were further conditioned by vowel length. Table 1 shows the patterns of these splits in Po-ai. Table 1 Pattern of Tonal Splits in Po-ai Initial\Tone Voiceless friction sounds Voiceless unaspirated stops Glottal sounds Voiced sounds

A 1 1 6

B

5 5 5 6

2

C 3 3 3 4

D-short D-Iong 2 5 2 5 3 5 6 3

Consonants Po-ai has the following initial consonants: Voiceless unaspirated stops. p - t - c - k - 7: pii l - year, tuu! - door, cee3 to undo, untie, ka/- chicken, 7ay6- to cough. Voiceless aspirated stops. ph - th - ch - kh: Aspirated stops have only occurred on recent Chinese loans and are therefore omitted in this study. Nasals. m - n - rr mal- wood, neeT]2 - insect, T]::>n 2 - day.

62

Northern Tai Dialects

Voiceless spirants. f - 'I- - s - h: fwwn 2 - firewood, '1-00,,1 - two, sii,,4 - to tend animals, hue - to dig. Sonorants. v - I - y: vii 3 - mountain stream, lii 2 - to lick, yii' - don't. Li (1977: 12) groups the spirant (fricative) [v] with the sonorants because of its low friction level and sonority, In addition, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [v] appearing initially and [w] after a consonant. Initial clusters consist ofa consonant plus [w] or [y]. There are no final clusters. Clusters with [w]. tw - cw - kw - 7w - nw -"w - 'l-w - sw - hw - lw - yw: kwaa5 - to pass, 7ween 5 - swallow (the bird), nwayl - snow, 'l-wii l - to follow, lwii 2 - track, footprint, ywaay6 - soft and rotten. Li provides no examples for the remaining clusters: tw - cw - T]W - sw. Clusters with [y]. py - cy - ky - my - ny - 'l-y - sy - ly: pyaw l - to burn, kwaf kyaa 6 - helmet and armor, myaak 6 - slippery, lyuu 2 - to laugh. Li provides no examples for the remaining clusters: cy - ny - 'l-y - sy. Final consonants include nasals m - n - " and voiceless stops p - t - k. For final wy - UJ, see Diphthollgs. Nasals. m - n - T]: lam 2 - bran, man 2 - potato, pi,,1 - leech. Voiceless stops. p - t - k: sip3 - ten, pwe - lung, mie - knife. Vowels Po-ai has nine vowels, three high: i - w - u and three low: e - a - 0, all of which may be either short or long. There are also three mid vowels, e - Y - 0, which are always long. All vowels are phonetically long in final position and written with a double vowel. Here, [v] is used for Li's [9]. High. i, ii - w, ww - u, uu: yip3 - to sew, yiik S - hungry, "wk2 - gills, T]WWk5 - palate, tup3 - to beat, nuuT]4 - younger sibling. Mid. e - Y - 0: peetS - eight, khY::K)6 tyy6 - to feel, 700k s - to go out. Low. e, ee - a, aa - 0, 00: nee - seed, mef:,,6 - thin, not thick, tap2 - liver, kaat5 - torn, Iok2 - six, 'l-ooy! - cursed.

63

Comparative Tai Source Book

Diphthongs Diphthongs may be analyzed as a vocalic nucleus plus a final w - y - llj. Diphthongs with final [w]. iiw - eew - ££w - aw - aaw: +iiws - chisel (+iws?), leews - withered, m££w4 - cat, kaw l - horn of an animal, haa~ fishy smell. Diphthongs with final [y]. wwy - uuy - ooy - ay - aay - ooy: kwwl- sonin-law, tuul- bowl, cup (tu/?), 700i - sugarcane, lay6 - to chase, taayl to die, +ooyl - cursed. Diphthongs with final [llj]. allj: mallj6 - leaf.

64

CHAPTER 5: COGNATES The following Tai cognates are listed in the three branches of the Tai family: the Southwestern (SW), the Central (CN), and the Northern (N). Representing the Southwestern branch are Siamese (S), White Tai (W), Black Tai (B), Shan (Sh), the Tai dialect ofNong Khai (LNK), the Lue dialect of Chieng Hung (LCH), the Lue dialect of Muong Yong (LMY), and the Tai dialect of Chiengmai (CM). The Central branch includes the Tai dialects of Lei Ping (LP), Lungming (LM), Western Nung (WN), Bac Ya (BY), Lungchow (LC), Ping Siang (PS), and Ning Ming (NM). Within the Northern branch are Yay (Y), Saek (Sk), the Tai dialect of Wuming (WM), and the Tai dialect of Po-ai (P). Detailed explanations of the phonology and the symbols used for each dialect can be found in the phonological descriptions. The Proto-Tai category for each cognate follows its gloss.

Southwestern, Central, and Northern Tai Cognates 000 I - to bathe, DL3 SW - S, W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY 7aap2; CM 7aap 3 CN - LP 7aap 5; LM, WN, LC, PS 7aap2 N - Y 7aap2; Sk 7aap 6; P 7aap 5 0002 - to take, A3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7aw!; LNK 7awI; LCH 7aw!; LMY 7aw4 ; CM 7aw! CN - LP 7aw2 ; LM 7aw4 ; WN 7aw!, BY 7aw2 ; LC, PS, NM 7aw! N - Y, Sk, WM 7aw!; P 7aw6 0003 - to cough, A3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7ayl; LNK 7al; LCH 7ayl; LMY 7a/; CM 7ay! CN - LP 7al; LM 7ay4; WN, LC, PS, NM 7ayl N - Y, Sk, WM 7ayl; P 7al 0004 - steam, vapor, A3 SW - S 7ayl; W, B, Sh 7aa/; LNK 7aa/; LCH 7aa/; LMY 7aal; CM 7waay! CN - LP yaa/; LM yaa/; WN, LC, PS, NM yaay! N - Y Sway!; Sk sool (AI)

65

Comparative Tai Source Book

0005 - waist, A3, (cf. 0793) SW - S 7ew l ; W, B, Sh 7EW I; LNK hEW2 (modern pron. by some 7ee~); LCH 7EW\ LMY hw4; CM hEW I CN - LP yii~; LM yiiw\ 7iiw4 ; LC yiiw l 'kidney' (Li says < Chinese); PS, NMyiiw l N - Y 7ew l 'narrow waist'; Sk 7EEWI 0006 - yoke, DL3 SW - S 7EEk 2 ; W, B h72; Sh 7Ek 2 ; LNK, LMY hEk2 ; CM hEkl CN - LP 7eek5 ; LM 7eek 2 ; WN hk2 ; LC, PS, NM 7eek 2 N - Y 7ek 2 ; Sk 7EEk6 0007 - full (after eating), B3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7im 2; LNK 7iml ; LCH, LMY 7im2 ; CM 7im l CN - LP 7im s; LM, WN, LC, PS 7im 2; NM 70m 2 N - Y 7im 2 ; Sk 7iim6 ; WM, P 7im s 0008 - the chest, DS3 SW - S 70k2 ; W, B 7¥k 2 ; Sh 70k4 , 7wk4; LNK, LCH, LMY 7Ykl, 70k l ; CM 70k2 CN - LP 7¥k2 ; LM 7ykl ; WN 7ak6 ; LC, PS 7Yk2 ; NM 7wk4 N - Y 7akl ; WM 7ak 5 0009 - to go hungry, DS3, (cf. 0727) SW - S 70t2; w, B 7we; LNK 7wtl ; LCH 7Wpl; LMY 70t l 'to endure'; CM 70t2 'to endure' N - Sk 70t4 0010 - to go out, DL3 SW - S 700k2 ; W, B 707 2; Sh 70k 2 ; LNK, LCH, LMY 700k2 ; CM 700k3 CN - LP 700k5; LM 70ok 2 ; WN 70k 2; LC, PS, NM 7ook 2 N - Y 7ok 2 ; Sk 700k6 ; WM 7yk 5 ; P 70ok 5 0011 - young; soft, B3 SW - S 700n 2 ; W, B, Sh 70n 2 ; LNK 700n 3 ; LCH, LMY 70n 2 ; CM 700nl CN - LP 700n s; LM 700n2 ; WN 70n 2 ; LC, PS, NM 700n 2 N - Y 7un 2 ; Sk 7uun 6 ; WM 7un 5 0012 - sugarcane, C3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 70yl; LNK 700yS; LCH, LMY 70y3; CM 700/ CN - LP, LM 7ooyl; WN 70y\ LC, PS, NM 700yl N - Y 7ol; Sk 700yl; P 700y3 0013 - to carry in the arms, C3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7um 3 ; LNK 7um s; LCH, LMY 7um 3 ; CM 7um 5 CN - LP, LM 70m3; WN, LC 7um3 N - Y 7um6 ; Sk 7uum l ; WM, P 7um 3 66

Cognates

0014 - to plug (a hole), DS3, (cf. 1007) SW - S 7ue; w, B 70t2 ; Sh 7ut4 ; LNK 7ut l; LMY 7wti; eM 7we eN - LP 70t2; LM 70f; WN 70t6 ; Le 7ue; PS 70t2; NM 70t4 N - Sk 70t4 0015 - crazy, e3, (cf. 0877) SW - S, W, B baa}; Sh maa3 ; LNK baas; LeH, LMY baal ; eM baas eN - LP baal ; LM maa 3 ; WN vaal 'dumb' (perhaps not cognate); Le, PS baa 3 N - Sk kwaa l (OG), kua 3 (YG) (probably not cognate) 0016 - not, B3 SW - W, B baw2; Sh maw2 ; LNK bo0 3; LeH, LMY baw2 (but usually syllabic [m] in ordinary speech); eM b::d eN - WN bo0 2 , bo0 2 ; Le baw2, bo0 2 (current in the countryside) N - Y baw2 , b0 2 ; Sk bo0 6 ; WM 7baw3 (e3) 0017 - dumb, mute, e3 SW - S bal; W, B baUl 3 'stupid'; Sh maUl 3 'silly, foolish'; LNK bayS; LeH, LMY bal (also, 'stupid'); eM bal 0018 -leaf, A3 SW - S bayl; W, B baUl I; Sh maUl I; LNK bal; LeH bai; LMY bal; eM baUl I eN - LP balLj2; LM malLj4; WN, Le, PS, NM balLjl N - Y balLjl; Sk byyl; WM 7balLjl; P maUl 6 0019 - fish hook, DS3 SW - S, W, B bee; Sh met\ wet4; LNK, LeH, LMY bee; eM bee eN - LP bie; LM myaf; WN bot6 , bat 6 ; Le, PS bie 0020 - to fly, A3 SW - S, W, B bini; Sh mini; LNK bin2 ; LeH bini; LMY bin\ eM bini eN - LP bin2; LM min4; WN bani; Le, PS bini; NM bent N - Y bini; Sk bwl l (OG), bwn l (YG); WM 7bin l; P min 6 0021 - master, owner; you, e2 SW - S caaw} 'master', caw} 'you'; W, B cawl ; Sh sawl ; LNK caws 'you (polite), royal personage'; LeH, LMY cawl ; eM caws eN - LP, LM, WN, Le, PS cawl N - Y eu 3 ; Sk cawl in many expressions, but phoos suu 3 'owner' 0022 - heart, breath, A2, (cf. 1106) SW - S cai; W, B calLjl; Sh saUlI; LNK cal; LeH, LMY cayl; eM cal eN - LP caUl 2 ; WN, Le caUl I N - Y sw l; Sk cww l; WM saUlI

67

Comparative Tai Source Book

0023 - to hurt, DS2 SW - S, W, B cep2; Sh sep4; LNK, LCH, LMY cep!; CM cep2 CN - LP cip2; LM capl; LC, PS cip2 0024 - seven, DS2 SW - S, W, Bcd; Sh see; LNK, LCH, LMY cd; CM cet2 CN - LP cd (cie?); LM cae; WN cet6 ; LC, PS cit2; NM cd N - Y satl; Sk cet4 ; WM satS; P see 0025 - to lead by the hand, A2 SW - S cuull!; W, B cUll!; Sh SUll!; LNK CUU1l2; LMY cUll!; CM CUU1l2 CN - LP C01l2; LM COll!; WN, LC cUll!; PS, NM COll! N - Sk ciill! 0026 - tea, A4 SW - S chaa!; W, B ce 4; LNK saa6 ; LCH, LMY saa4 (more frequent laa6); CM chaa!, saa l CN - LP chaa4; LM, WN, LC, PS caa\ NM saa4 N - Y sa4; Sk saa4; WM, P saa2 0027 - spider, Al SW - W (chiT'l2) chaaw l (A?); B (si1l2) saaw\ Sh (k01l2) kaaw l; LCH (me1l4 bUlll) kwaaw!; LMY (kOlll) kwaaw l CN - LP -haaw l; LM -laaw l; WN chaaw l; LC (khyaaT]3) khyaaw l; PS -khyaaw! N - Y (ci1l2) caaw!; Sk (thru1l6) thraaw; WM klwaaw l 0028 - morning, C4, (cf. 1038) SW - S chaaw4; W, B caw6; Sh saws 'early'; LNK saws; LCH, LMY, CM caw6 CN - LP chaw), saw3; LM, WN caw6 ; LC caw6 'early'; PS caw6 ; NM saw6 N - Y saw6 'early'; WM saw4 0029 - man, male person, A4 SW - S chaay!; W, B caal; Sh saal; LNK saal; LCH, LMY caal; CM caai CN - LM, WN, LC caal N - Y Saayl; Sk saay2; WM Saayl; P +aayl (AI in N languages) 0030 - to hate, A4 SW - Schall!; W, B ca1l4; Sh sal")4; LNK sa1l 6 ; LCH, LMY cal")4; CM caT]! CN - WN, LC cal")4 N - Y, Sk sa1l4; WM sa1l 2 0031 - skilled; an artisan, B4 SW - S cha1l3; W, B caa1l5; Sh, LNK saa1l 3; LCH, LMY caalls; CM caa1l4 CN - LP ch¥Y1l 5; LM CWWT]s; WN caaT]s; LC CYYlls (Li says < Chinese) N - Y, Sk saalls; WM, P saallo

68

Cognates

0032 - to use, C4, (cf. 1077) SW - S cha/, chaa/; W, B caLlj6 'to employ as a servant, send on an errand'; Sh saLlj5 'to commission, send'; LNK sal; LCH, LMY, CM cal CN - LP chaLlj3 'to serve, wait on'; LM caLlj6 'to serve, wait on'; WN caLlj6 'to wait on a table'; LC caLlj6 'to eat, referring to an honored person' N - Y 8aLlj3; Sk sai (said to be < Lao); P 'i-aLlj3 (Cl in N languages) 0033 - to wipe, DS4 SW - S chd; W cd; BeetS; Sh set5; LNK see; LCH, LMY cet5; CM cd CN - WN cEt4 N - Sk S8t6 0034 - to point, C4 SW - S chii4; W, B d; Sh si 5; LNK sii 5 ; LCH, LMY, CM cii6 CN - LP cii 3; LM cei (C?, cognate with lI20?); WN cii6 ; PS, NM ciP (C?) N - Y yi 6, vi 6 ; Sk Jlii 6 0035 - to tear, DLl SW - S chiik2; W, B ci7 2; Sh shik2; LMY siik2; CM siik3 CN - LP siik2 ; LM cheek 2 ; LC siik 2 ; PS siik 2 ; NM siik 2 N - Sk siik6 ; WM 8iks (Li says < Chinese) 0036 - to taste, A4 SW - S chiml; W, B cim 4; Sh sil11\ LNK sil11 6; LCH, LMY cil114; CM cil11 1 CN - LP chil114; LM, WN, LC, PS cil11 4 N - Y Sil114; WM sim 2 0037 - rope, cord, DL4 SW - S chwak3 ; W Cy4; B cwar; Sh syk3; LNK swak5 ; LCH, LMY cyyk 5; CM cwak4 CN - LP chyyk S; LM cwwk\ WN cik5 ; LC CYYk4; PS cyyk5 ; NM cwwk5 N - Y, Sk saak5; WM, P saak6 0038 - crack, hole, B4, (cf. 0318, 0546) SW - S cho1l3; W, B C01l5; LNK SOO1l3; LCH, LMY C01l5; CM COO1l4 CN - LM coo'l)s; WN COlls N - Y SO'l)5; Sk 500'1)5; WM SY1l6 0039 - to help, B4 SW - S chuai; W, B col; Sh soi; LNK sooi; LCH, LMY col; CM cua/ CN - LP chool; LM cool; WN sal; LC cool N - Sk sool

69

Comparative Tai Source Book

0040 - handle (of a knife), C3 SW - S daam 3 , dam 3 ; W dam 3 ; B dam3 , lam 3 ; Sh laam 3 'an oar, flat wooden spoon'; LNK daam 5; LCH dam 3; LMY dam 3 , daam 3 ; CM daam 5 CN - LM naam3 ; WN dam 3 'handle', daam 3 'wooden paddle'; LC daam 3 ; PS dam 3 N - Y daam6 'wooden ladle'; Sk daam 3 0041 - star, A3 SW - S, W daaw!; B daaw\ laaw!; Sh laaw 1; LNK daaw2 ; LCH daaw!; LMY daaw4 ; CM daaw! CN - LP daaw2 ; LM naaw4; WN, LC, PS daaw! dii 2 ; NM daaw! N - Y daaw 1 di 2 ; Sk traaw!; WM 7daaw! 7doy5; P naaw6 nii 5 0042 - can; to obtain, C3 SW - S daayl; W dayl; B dayl, layl; Sh layl; LNK da/; LCH, LMY day3; CMda/ CN - LP day3; LM nayl; WN, LC, PS, NM dayl N - Y da/; Sk dayl; WM 7dayl; P nayl 0043 - black, A3 SW - S, W dam!; B daml, lam!; Sh lam!; LNK dam 2; LCH dam!; LMY dam\ CM dam! CN - LP dam 2 ; LM nam4; WN, LC, PS, NM dam l N - Sk ram!; WM 7dam! 0044 - stairs, ladder, A3 SW - S (kie) dai; W dai; B dai, lai; Sh lay! a verb 'to slope down, from laylt, as in '[_lay!] stairs'; LNK (kii-) day2; LCH day\ LMY day4; CM day! CN - LP day2; LM nal; WN lay!; LC, PS, NM dai N - Y lay\ Sk rai; WM lol (C4); P lay2 (A2) 0045 - sunshine, DL3 SW - S d£f:e; W dEe; B dEe, lEe; Sh lEe; LNK, LCH, LMY dEEe; CM dEEe CN - LP deet 5 ; LM neee; WN dd; LC, PS, NM deee N - Y die (DS3); Sk riit6 ; WM dit 5 0046 - single, only one, same, A3 SW - S diaw 1; W dew 1; B diaw!, liaw l ; Sh lew!; LNK diaw2 ; LCH dew l ; LMY dew4 ; CM diaw! CN - LP deew5 (B3); LM neew\ WN dew!; LC, PS, NM deew2 (83) N - Y dew l ; Sk diaw l ; WM 7dew!; P neew6

70

Cognates

0047 - month, moon, A3 SW - S dwan l; W bvn l; B bwan l; Sh lvn\ LNK dwan 2; LCH dvn l; LMY dvn 4; CM dwan l CN - LP bvvn 2; LM mwwn4; WN dwn\ LC, PS bvvn l; NM buun l N - Y dwan\ Sk blian l; WM 7dwan l; P nwwn 6 0048 - earthworm, A3 SW - S (say) dwan l; W dvn l ; B dwant, lwan l; LNK (khii4 ka-) dwan 2; LCH dvn l; LMY dvn 4 ; CM dwan l CN - LP dvvn 2; LM nwwn 4 ; WN dwn l; LC, PS d)()(n l; NM dww l N - Y dwan l; Sk trual l (00), truanl (YO); WM 7dwan l 0049 - cockspur, A3 SW - S dwayl; W d)(l; B dwa l; Sh loyl; LNK dwai; LCH dyyl; LMY dyy4 (cf. LCH dvyl 'Job's tears'; LMY d)(/); CM dwa l CN - LP d)()(2; LM nww 4; WN lwyl, dww l; PS dww l N - Y da l; Sk traa l, praa l 0050 - navel, A3, (cf. 0992) SW - S (sa 2) dww l; W (saayl) bi\ B (saai) bw l ; LNK bww 2 , dww 2; LCH bww l; LMY dww 4 ; CM (sa2) dww l CN - WN dwyl; LC dwa l N - Y dwa l; Sk bwwt, dual; WM 7bw l ; P nww 6 0051 - late at night, DS3 SW - S dWk 2; W dVk 2; B dwk 2 , lwk2; Sh Iwk4; LNK, LCH, LMY dvkt, dwk l; CM d)(k 2 CN - WN dvk6 N - Y dakl; Sk dwk4 0052 - flower, DL3 SW - S dook 2 ; W, B bo7 2; Sh mok 2; LNK, LCH, LMY dook 2 ; CM dook 1 CN - LP byook5; LM myook2; WN dok2; LC, PS, NM byook2 N - Y dok2; Sk bbok6 0053 - to pickle, A3, (cf. 0927) SW - S dOO'l"]I; W, B bo'l"]!; Sh mo'l"]!; LNK bOO'l"]2, dOO'l"]2; LCH bO'l"]I; LMY do 'I"] 4, bO'l"]4; CM doo'l"]! CN - WN dOl]! N - Y dOl]I; Sk bOOl]I, dOOl]I; P nool]6 0054 - classifier for round objects, A3 SW - S dual]l; W dOl]l; B dual]l, lual]l; LNK dua'l"]2; LMY dO'l"]4; CM dual] I

71

Comparative Tai Source Book

0055 - bone, DL3 SW - S (ka 2) duuk2; W dUp2; B du7 2; Sh lup2 (also, infrequent luk2); LNK (ka-) duuk2; LCH, LMY duuk2; CM (ka 2) duuk3 CN - LP dok 5 ; LM nok 3 (DS3); WN duk6 (DS3); LC duk 2; PS dok 2; NM duuk 5 N - Y dok2; Sk rook6 ; WM 7d¥k5 ; P nook5 0056 - cloud, CI SW - S faa 3 'cloudy film, as on glass'; W, B faa 3 ; Sh phaa 3; LNK faa4 ; LCH, LMY faa 3 ; CM faa 5 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS phaa3 ; NM phww 3 N - Y vwa3 ; Sk via 3 ; WM fw 3 ; P fww 3 0057 - sky, C4 SW - S faa 4 ; W, B faa 6 ; Sh pha 5 ; LNK faa 5 ; LCH, LMY, CM faa 6 CN - LP faa\ LM, WN, LC, PS, NM faa 6 N - Sk phaa3 (CI?, usual word is bwn!) 0058 - wall; lid, AI, (cf. 0980) SW - S faa 5; W, B faa!; Sh phaa!; LNK, LCH, LMY faa!; CM faa 2 CN - LP, LM, WN, BY, LC, PS, NM phaa! N - Yva!; Sk vaal; WM faa! 0059 - astringent in taste, DLl SW - S, W, B faat2; Sh phaae; LNK, LCH, LMY faat2; CM faae CN - WN phaae N - Y vwae; Sk viat6 0060 - sheath; pod, DS 1 SW - S, W, B fak 2; Sh phak4; LNK, LCH, LMY fak!; CM fak 2 CN - LP phak2; LM phak 3 ; WN phak 6 ; PS phak2; NM phak4 N - Y hok 3 ; Sk vak4 ; P fak 2 0061 - to incubate, DS4 SW - S, W fak 4; B fak 5 ; LNK fak 3 ; CM fak 6 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM fak 4 N - Y fak ' ; P fak 3 0062 - to listen, obey, A4 SW - S faTj'; W, B faTj4; LNK faTj6; LCH, LMY faTj\ CM faTj! CN - LM faTj4 N - Sk pha1']4 (rare, said to be < Lao or Siamese) 0063 - fire, A4 SW - S fay!; W, B fal; Sh pha/; LNK fal; LCH, LMY fa/; CM fay! CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS fal; NM fe/ N - Y fi4; Sk vii 4; WM foy2; P fii2 72

Cognates

0064 - rain, Al SW - S fon\ W fwnl; B fonl; Sh phon l; LNK fon l; LCH, LMY fun l; CM fon 2 CN - LP, LM phyn!; WN phanl; BY phon!; LC, PS phYn\ NM phen l N - Y hun!; Sk vwn 2 ; WM fun l; P hwn l 0065 - heavy shower, B 1

SW - S, W, B, Sh haa2 ; LNK haal; LCH, LMY haa 2 ; CM haal CN - LP haa2 ; LM 1aa2 ; WN chaa2 ; LC, PS haa 2 ; NM khyaa2 N - Y ra2 ; Sk raa6 ; WM raaS; P laas 0066 - five, Cl

SW - S, W, B, Sh haa\ LNK haa4 ; LCH, LMY haal; CM haas CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM haal N - Y hal; Sk, WM, P haal 0067 - to seek, Al

SW - S haas; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY haal; CM haa2 CN - LP haal; LM laa l; WN chaa l; LC, PS haal; NM khyaa l N - Y ral; Sk raa2; WM raal; P laa l 0068 - goose, B 1, (cf. 1056) SW - S, W, B, Sh haan 2; LNK haan\ LCH, LMY haan 2; CM haan l

CN - LM haan 2 'crane'; WN haan 2 N - Y haan 2 ; Sk haan 6 ; WM, P haan s 0069 - tail, Al SW - S haaT)5; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY haaT)[; CM haaT)2

CN - LP haaT)l; LM, WN, BY thaaT)l; LC, PS, NM haaT)1 N - Y rwaT)l; Sk ruaT)2; WM rwaT)l; P IwwT)1 0070 - to carry on two ends of a shoulder pole, DLl

SW - S, W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY haap2; CM haapl CN - LP haap2; LM, WN thaap2; LC, PS, NM haap2 N - Y raap2; Sk raap6; WM raaps; P laaps 0071 - to yawn, Al

SW - S haaw\ W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY haaw[; CM haaw2 CN - LP, LM haaw l ; WN T)aaw l T)aaps, chaaw l T)aaps; BY haaw l; LC haaw l; PS haaw l N - Y raaw l; Sk raaw2, haaw « Siamese) 0072 - to weep, Cl

SW - S haal; W, B, Sh hal; LNK hal; LCH, LMY hal; CM hai CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM hal N - Y, Sk, WM, P tal

73

Comparative raj Source Book

0073 - to break (a stick, etc.) (transitive), OSI, (cf. 0355) SW - S, W, B hak2 ; Sh hak4; LNK, LCH, LMY hak l; CM hak 2 CN - LP tak2 ; LM tak 3; WN thak 6; LC, PS tak2 ; NM thak4 N - Y rak 3; Sk rak4; WM rak s; P lak2 0074 - to bark, BI SW - S, W, B, Sh haw; LNK haw); LCH, LMY haw2 ; CM haw) CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM haw2 N - Y raw2 ; Sk haw 6 ; WM raws; P laws 0075 - to give, CI SW - S hal; W, B, Sh haul; LNK hal; LCH, LMY hww); CM hww S CN - LP hyy); LM h¥l1j3; WN hal1j3; LC, PS hww 3; NM hal1j) N - Y hal1j3; Sk h¥¥); WM, P hal1j3 0076 - to see, Al SW - S hens; W hinl; B hen l; LNK hen l (but han l cal 'to breathe'); LCH, LMY han I; CM han 2 CN - LP, LM han l; WN than l ; LC, PS, NM han l N - Y rani; Sk n:n 2 ; P han l 0077 - civet cat, Al SW - S hens; W hinl; B )lenl; Sh hen l ; LNK henI, heen\ LCH, LMY hinl; CM hen 2 CN - LP, LM hinl; WN han l ; LC hinl 'jungle cat' N - Y )lanl; Sk )lEl 2 (OG), )l8n 2 (YG); WM )lan l 'fox' 0078 - mushroom, OS I SW - S, W, B hee; Sh hep4; LNK, LCH, LMY het l ; CM hee CN - LP viie (OS4); LM vits (OS4); WN hat6 ; LC vit4 (OS4); PS vits (OS4); NM fap4 (OS4) N - Y rat l ; Sk het4 « Lao, usual word is daalll); WM ratS; P l8e 0079 - dried up, CI SW - S h8811l; W, B, Sh h811); LNK h88114; LCH, LMY h811); CM h8811s CN - WN h8113 N - Y rell); Sk h8811) 0080 - withered, B I SW - S hiaw; W, B h8w 2 ; Sh hew; LNK hiaw); LCH, LMY hew2 ; CM hiaw CN - LP, LM heew2 ; WN siw; LC, PS, NM heew N - Y rew2 ; Sk h88W) (CI); WM rew5 ; P leew

74

Cognates

0081 - stone, A I SW - Shins; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY hinl; CM hin 2 CN - LP hinl; LM, BV thinl; LC, PS hinl; NM henl N - Y rinl; Sk riiJZ (OG), riin 2 (YG); WM rinl; P hinl 0082 - six, DSI SW - S, W, B hok2; Sh hok4; LNK, LCH, LMY hokl; CM hok2 CN - LP hok2; LM lok3 ; WN chok 6 ; LC huk2 ; PS hok2; NM hok 4 N - Y rok 3 ; Sk rok4 ; WM rok s; P bk 2 0083 - a spear, DLl SW - S hook2; W, B h07 2 ; Sh hok2; LNK, LCH, LMY hook2; CM hook 3 CN - LM hook2 'to throw a spear'; WN chok2 N - Y rok 2 0084 - fragrant, Al SW - S hoom 5; W, B, Sh hom l; LNK hoom l ; LCH, LMY hom l ; CM hoom 2 CN - LP, LM hoom\ WN hom l ; BV hoom l ; LC, PS, NM hoom l N - Y hom l ; P hoom l 0085 - mollusk, AI, (cf. 1142) SW - S hoi; w, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY hoy!; CM hooyZ CN - LP, LM hooy!; WN hoy!; LC hooyl 'kind of snail'; PS hooy! 'snail'; NM hooi N - Y, WM8 ay i 0086 - head, Al SW - S hua 5; W hOi; B hua l ; Sh ho\ LNK hua l; LCH, LMY hOOI; CM hua2 CN - LP vuu l; LM, WN, BV thuu l ; LC, PS, NM huu l 0087 - mountain stream, Cl SW - S huay3; W hoy3; B huay3; Sh hoy3 'a ravine, gully'; LNK hual; LCH, LMY hoi; CM huays CN - LP khooi; LM luui; WN khuy3; LC vuui, huui; PS vuui; NM khuui N - Y vi 3 ; Sk rii 3 ; WM rui; P vii 3 0088 - nine, C2 SW - S kaaw3 ; W, B, Sh kaw3 ; LNK kaw s; LCH, LMY kaw3; CM kaw 5 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS kaw3 ; NM kow3 N - Y ku 3 ; Sk kuu 3 ; WM kaw'; P kuu 3 0089 - each other, together, A2 SW - S, W, B, Sh kanl; LNK kan 2 ; LCH, LMY kanl; CM kan2 CN - LP kan 2 ; LC, PS kanl N - Sk kinl; WM kanl

75

Comparative Tai Source Book

0090 - chicken, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh kayZ; LNK kay, k¥yl; LCH, LMY kay2; CM kay CN - LP kal; LM kayZ; WN cayZ; LC, PS, NM kay2 N - Y kayZ; Sk kal; WM, P kal 0091 - old (ofliving beings), B2, (cf. 0483, 0712) SW - S kEE2; W, B kE 2 'adult and married'; Sh kE 2 'mature, firm'; LNK kEEl; LCH, LMY kEE2; CM kEE3 CN - LP kee 5 ; LM kee 2; WN cee2; LC, PS, NM kee2 N - Y ce2; Sk kee 6 0092 - cheek, C2 SW - S kEEml; W, B, Sh kEm 3 ; LNK kEEm s; LCH, LMY kEm 3 ; CM kEEm s CN - LP, LM, LC keeml N - Y cem 3 ; Sk keem 3 ; WM kem 3 0093 - how many, C2 SW - S kii 2 (B2); w, B kP; LCH kiF, kii 3 ; LMY kiil, kii 2, kiil (depending upon context); CM kiil, kii4 CN - LP, LM kiP; WN ciP; LC, PS kii 3 ; NM keyZ (B2) N - Y ki\ d; Sk kiil; WM ko/ (A?); P kii 3 0094 - hoof (as ofa horse), DL2 SW - S kiip2; W kip2 'hoof of a pig'; B, Sh kip2; LNK, LCH, LMY kiip2; CM kiipl CN - LP kip2 (DS2) N - Sk liip5 (DL4) 0095 - middle, A2 SW - S klaaT]l; W, B, Sh kaaT]l; LNK kaaT]2; LCH, LMY kaaT]l; CM kaaT]2 CN - LP kyaaT]2; LM kyaaT]l; WN caaT]l; LC, PS, NM kyaaT]l N - Y caa'lll; Sk tJaa'lll COG), traa'lll (YG); WM klaa'lll; P caa'lll 0096 - near, C2 SW - S klay3; W chal.l.jl; B sal.l.jl; Sh kal.l.j3; LNK kal; LCH, LMY kayl; CMkal CN - LP cal.l.j3; LM kyal.l.jl; WN chal.l.jl; Le, PS, NM khyal.l.jl N - Y cal.l.j3; Sk tlyy3 (OG), tryy3 (YG); WM klal.l.jl; P cal.l.jl 0097 - fish scales, DS2 SW - S klet2; W, B ket2; Sh kd; LNK, LCH, LMY ket l; CM ketl CN - LP kip2; LM kip3; WN Cip6; LC kitl N - Y Cipl, capl; Sk tlEk4 COG), trEk4 (YG); WM klips; P cEf

76

Cognates

0098 - chaff, DL2 SW - S klt:ep2; W, B, Sh kep2; LNK keep2; CM keep3 CN - LP ceep5; LM leep5 (DL4); WN oep5 (OL4); LC, PS, NM keep2 N - Y rep5; WM rip6 (DL4 in N languages) 0099 - salt, A2 SW - S klwa 1; W hI; B kwa\ Sh hi; LNK kwa2; LCH, LMY hyl; CM kwa2 CN - LP hy2, Cyy2; LM kyww l; WN kww l; LC, PS, NM kww l N - Y kua l; Sk dual (OG), trua l (YG); WM klu\ P cuu l 0100 - hollow, A2 SW - S kluaTJl; W 1ml) callj4; B (fak2) callj4; LCH (sa-) xal; LMY (ca-) xal; CM (cak6) khai N - Sk (di6) thn(Y\ (di6) phryy4 0159 - utensils, tools, equipment, B4 SW - S khrwaT]\ W CYT]5; B cwaT]5; Sh khYT]3; LNK khwaT]3; LCH, LMY XYT]5; CM khwaT]4 CN - LM IwwT]5 N - Sk thrwaT]5 0160 - mortar, DS4 SW - S khrok 4; W COk4; B cok5; Sh khok 5 ; LNK khok 3 ; LCH, LMY xok 5; CM khok6 CN - LP chok4; LM lok 4 ; WN C:>k4; LC kyuk4 N - Y cok l 0161 - to scrape, DLl SW - S khuut2; W xue; B, Sh khuf; LNK khuue; LCH, LMY xuutz; CM khuue N - Sk hut 4 (DSl), khuut6 (DLl) 0162 - turbid, Bl, (cf. 0954) SW - S, W khun 2; B khun 2 'dust'; Sh khun2 ; LNK khun 3 ; LCH, LMY xun 2; CM khun 3 CN - LP, LM, PS khon 2 'fertilizer'; NM hon 2 'fertilizer' N - Sk khun2 0163 - to dig, DSI SW - S, W, B khutz; Sh khut4; LNK khut l; LCH, LMY xue; CM khut2 CN - LP hotS (DS4); LM khot4 (DS4); WN khut6 ; LC kut4 (DS4); PS kot4 (DS4); NM khot4 N - Y hut l, kue; Sk khut6; P hue (DS4 in N languages) 0164 - right (hand), A 1 SW - S khwaa 5; W xwaa l; B, Sh khwaa l; LNK khua l; LCH kwaa!; LMY kwaa l (rare xwaa l); CM khwaa2 CN - LP faa!; LM, WN saa\ LC, PS faa'; NM kwaa4 (A4) N - Y kwa4; Sk khwaa4 (OG), khua4 (YG); WM kwaa2; P kwaa 2 (A4 in N languages)

84

Cognates

0165 - matter, affair, A4 SW - S khwaam 1; W xaam4 'word, language'; B kwaam 4 'word, language'; Sh kwaam4 'word, language'; LNK khuam 6 ; LCH, LMY kwaam\ xwaam\ CM khwaam 1 CN - LP vaam4 'language'; LM vaam 4 'sentence, word, language'; LC vaam 4 'sentence'; PS, NM vaam4 'language' 0166 - to throw, B4 SW - S khwaaT]3; W xwaaYj5; B kwaaYj5; LNK khuaYj3; LCH, LMY xwaaYj5; CM khwaaYj4 0167 - water buffalo, A4 SW - S khwaayl; W xwaal; B, Sh kwaal; LNK khuay6; LCH kwaay\ xwaal; LMY kwaay4; CM khwaayl CN - LP, LM, WN vaal; BY vaal; LC, PS, NM vaal N - Y, Sk vaal; WM xwaal; P vaal 0168 - to hang up, Al SW - S khwEEn s; W xww l ; B khwEnl; Sh khw l ; LNK khEW I ; LCH kww 1; LMY kww l , xww 1 ; CM khwEEn2 CN - LM khween l ; WN khen 1 N - Y ven l ; Sk veen 2; WM wen 3 (C?) 0169 - (to lie) face down, CI SW - S khwam 3 ; W xam 3; B khwam 3; Sh khwam 3 , bm3; LNK khuam\ LCH, LMY xom 3; CM khuam s CN - LP kham 3; LM khom 3; WN kham 3 ; LC khum 3 'upside down' N - Y ham 3; Sk Yjam 3 ; P hom 3 0170 - smoke, A4 SW - S khwan l ; W xwan\ xon4; B kwan\ Sh kwaan\ bn\ kan 4 ; LNK khuan 6 ; LCH bn\ xon4; LMY kwan 4 ; CM khwan l CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM van 4 N - Sk yon 4 ; WM xon 2 ; P hon 2 0171 - whorl in the hair; spirit, Al sw - S khwan5 ; W xwan l , xon l ; B khwan l ; Sh khwan l , khon\ LNK khuan l ; LCH xwan l ; LMY kwan l ; CM khwan 2 CN - LP, LM khwan l ; WN khon l ; LC, PS khwan l N - Y van l ; Sk hon 2; P hon l 0172 - to pull, drag, DL4 sw - S laak3; W laa4 ; B laar; Sh laak3 ; LNK, LCH, LMY laaks; CM laak4 CN - LP, LM, WN laaks; LC laak4 ; PS, NM laak s N - Y raak s, laak s; WM raak 6 ; P laak6

85

Comparative Tai Source Book

0173 - to destroy, C4 SW - S laaT]4; W, B maaT]6; LNK maaT]s; LMY, CM maaT]6 0174 - stripe, design, mark, A4 SW - S laay!; W, B, Sh laay4; LNK laal; LCH, LMY laal; CM laay! CN - LP, LM, WN, LC laal N - Y raal; Sk laay4; WM raa/; P laa/ 0175 - many, much, Al SW - S laai; W, B laay!; Sh laayl 'how many?'; LNK, LCH, LMY laay!; CM laay2 CN - LP, LM, WN laayl; BV laa/; LC, PS, NM laay! N - Y laayl; Sk laa/; WM, P laayl 0176 - to steal, DS4 SW - S, W lak4; B, Sh laks; LNK lak 3 ; LCH, LMY lak\ CM lak 6 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM lak 4 N - Y rak\ Sk lak 6 ; P lak3 0177 - to close (the eyes), DSI SW - S, W, B lap2; Sh lap4; LNK, LCH, LMY lapl; CM lap2 CN - LP lap2; LM lap3; WN lap6; LC, PS lap\ NM lap4 N - Y lap 3; WM lapS; P lap2 0178 - liquor, Cl SW - S, W, B, Sh law\ LNK law4; LCH, LMY law3 ; CM lawS CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM law3 N - Y, Sk, WM, P law3 0179 - to chase, B4, (cf. 0121) SW - Sial; W, B lai; LNK lal; LCH, LMY lai; CM lay4 CN - LM leys; WN layS 'to inspect (water in ditches)' (cognate?); LC layS 'to put' (cognate?) N - Y, Sk lai; Pial 0180 - to flow, Al SW - S lai; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY lay!; CM la/ CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM layl N - Y Jay! 0181 - great-grandchild, A 1 SW - S leen s; W lin!; B len l; Sh linl; LNK lcen!; LCH, LMY linl; CM leen 2 , len 2 CN - LP, LM lin 3; WN lan 3 ; PS lin 3; NM len3 (Cl in CN languages) N - Sk leen!, leen 2; P lan 3 (Cl?)

86

Cognates

0182 - liquid, soft, Al SW - S leews; W, B lew l ; Sh lew l 'bruised, reduced to particles', le~ 'thin, as a liquid'; LNK leew l ; LCH, LMY lew l ; CM leew2 CN - LP liiw l ; LM niiw\ WN If:w l ; LC liiw ' 'thin (liquid)' N - Sk leew l 0183 - iron (the metal), DS1, (cf. 0847) SW - S, W, B lek2; Sh lek4; LNK, LCH, LMY lekl; CM lek2 CN - LP lik2; LM lyakl; WN lek6; LC, PS lik2; NM lek 4 (1¥k4?) N - P lek2 0184 - to play, C1, (cf. 1090) SW - S len l ; W din 3 ; B lin 3 ; Sh len 3 ; LNK len 4; LCH din 3 ; LMY lin3 ; CM lens 0185 - fingernail, toenail, DS4 SW - S, W lep4; B leps; Sh neps; LNK lepl; LCH, LMY leps; CM lep6 CN - LP lip4; LM Iyapl CDS1, rare lyap4); WN lep4; LC, PS, NM Iip4 N - Y rie; Sk liips CDL4); WM ri p6; P lie 0186 - evening meal, A4 SW - S lee"l; W, B le,,4; LNK lee,,6; LCH, LMY le,,4 'meal at 2 or 3 P.M.'; CM lee,,1 CN - LP, LM lee,,4; WN le,,4; LC, PS, NM lee,,4 ('meal at noon, lunch' for all six languages) N - Y ri,,4; Sk lee,,4; WM ri,,2; P li,,2 0187 - to raise, feed, C4, (cf. 0955) SW - S lia,,4; W le,,6; B lia,,6; Sh le"s; LNK lia"s; LCH, LMY le,,6; CM lia,,6 CN - WN Ii"s (B4?) N - Sk lia,,6 0188 - to dodge, avoid, DLI SW - S liik2; W \i7 2; B ni7 2 ; Sh lik2; LNK liik2; LCH liik2 0189 - tongue, C4 SW - S lin4; W, B lin6 ; Sh, LNK lin s; LCH, LMY, CM lin6 CN - LP Iin 3 ; LM, WN, LC, PS lin 6; NM len 6 N - Y lin 6; Sk liin 6; WM, P lin 4 0190 - to choose, D L4 SW - S Iwak 3; W 1'1'4; B lwa7 s; Sh i¥k 3 ; LNK Iwaks; LCH, LMY lyyk S; CM Iwak4 CN - LP 1¥¥k5 ; LM Iwwk s; WN I¥k s; LC l¥yk4; PS I¥¥k s; NM Iwwk s N - Y le s

87

Comparative Tai Source Book

0191 - blood, DL4 SW - S lwae; W lyt4 ; B Iwat 5 ; Sh lye; LNK Iwat5; LCH, LMY lyyt5; CM Iwat 4 CN - LP IntS; LM IwwtS; WN lytS; LC lyyt4 ; PS lyytS; NM Iwwt5 N - Y IwatS; Sk luatS; WM Iwat 5; P Iwwt5 0192 - a saw, to saw, 84, (0940) SW - S Iway3; W kw s; B kwas; Sh ]y3; LNK lwai; LCH, LMY lyyS; CM Iwal (C4) N - Sk lwal (C4) 0193 - to forget, A4 SW - S Iwwm!; W, B, Sh Iwm4; LNK Iwwm 6 ; LCH, LMY Iwm4 ; CM Iwwm! CN - LP, LM lom\ WN lum\ LC lum 4 N - Y lum 4; WM, P lum 2 0194 - to open (the eyes), A4 SW - S Iwwm!; W, B, Sh mwn 4 ; LNK mwwn 6; LCH, LMY mwn 4 ; CM mwwn! CN - WN men4 N - Sk mbon 4 0195 - slippery, smooth, B4, (cf. 0813) SW - S Iwwn 3; W, B mwn\ Sh mwn 3; LNK mwwn 3; LCH, LMY mwn 5 ; CM mwwn 4 CN - LP InnS; LM Iwwn 2 (8?), Iwwn 3 (C?), IYn s 'to slide'; LC, PS ]yyn2 (B?) N - Sk mlwwl s (OG), mlwwn s (YG), mlwl 5 (OG), mlwn s (YG) 0196 - deep, DS4 SW - S Iwk4; W lyk4 ; B Iwk 5, lyk S; Sh Iwks; LNK lyk 3 (modern Iwk3); LCH, LMY Iwk s; CM ]Yk6 CN - LP dak 2 ; LM nak 3; WN dak 6 ; LC, PS daV NM lak 4 (DS3 in CN languages) N - Y lak!; Sk, WM lak 6 0197 - spool, DLl, (cf. 0896) SW - S boe; W, B bt2; Sh be 'conduit, pipe'; LNK boe 'drinking straw'; LCH, LMY bot2; CM boe CN - LP, LM looe 'shuttle'; WN be; LC, PS looe 'shuttle' N - Sk luut 6 ; WM lutS 0198 - to float, A4, (cf. 0787) SW - S boy!; W, 8 by4 'to swim'; Sh by4 'to rinse'; LNK bol 'to swim'; LMY by4 'to float; to swim'; CM boy!

88

Cognates

0199 - to scald, DL4 SW - S luak 3 ; W 10\ B lua7 s; LNK luak 5 ; LCH, LMY looks; CM luak4 CN - LP, LM luuk 5 ; LC luuk4 ; PS, NM luuk 5 N - Y luk 3 (DS 1); Sk luak 5 (but nam 6 looks 'hot water') 0200 - big, AI, (cf. 0396, 0765) SW - S luaT)5 (also, 'royal'); W 10T)1; B luaT)l; Sh 10T)1; LNK luaT)l; LCH, LMY 10T)1; CM luaT)2 CN - LP looT) I (IuUTjI?); LM luuTjI; BY luuTj2; LC, PS, NM luuT)1 N - Sk luaTj2 0201 - (one's) child, DL4, (cf. 0439) SW - S luuk3 ; W lu 4; B lu7 5 ; Sh luk3 ; LNK, LCH, LMY luuk 5; CM luuk4 CN - LP, LM lok 5 ; WN luk 5; LC luk 4 ; PS loks; NM laak s N - Y lwkl; Sk Iwk6 ; WM Iwk6 ; P Iwk 3 (DS4 in N languages) 0202 - to stroke, DL4 SW - S luup 3; W lup4; B lups; Sh IUp 3; LNK, LMY luups; CM luup4 CN - LP, LM lopS; WN lup 4 (OS4); PS lopS; NM luups N - Y rupl (DS4); Sk luups; P lup 3 (DS4) 0203 - to come, A4 SW - S maa l; W, B, Sh maa4; LNK maa 6 ; LCH, LMY maa4; CM maa l CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM maa4 N - Y mal; Sk maa2 'to return'; WM, P maa l (AI in N languages) 0204 - horse, C4 SW - S maa4 ; W, B maa6 ; Sh mas; LNK maa 5; LCH, LMY, CM maa 6 CN - LP maa3 ; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM maa6 N - Y ma6 ; Sk maa6 ; WM, P maa4 0205 - dog, Al SW - S maa5 ; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY maa l; CM maa2 CN - LP, LM, WN maa l; BY maa 2 ; LC, PS, NM maa l N - Y mal; Sk maa2 ; WM, P maa l 0206 - fruit, DLl SW - S maak2 'areca'; W, B maa7 2; Sh maak 2; LNK, LCH, LMY maak2 (but in Lue usually pronounced as a syllabic [m 2 ] in ordinary speech); CM maak3 'areca' CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM maak 2 N - Y maak2 ; Sk maak 6 ; WM maak s

89

Comparative rai Source Book

0207 - widowed, C1 SW - S, W, B, Sh maay3; LNK maay4; LCH, LMY maa/; CM maal CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM maal N - Y maal; Sk maal; WM maal (B1 in N languages) 0208 - wood, C4 SW - S maay4; W, B mal; Sh, LNK may5; LCH, LMY, CM mal CN - LP ma',J· y " LM WN may6., LC may6 'tree" , PS , NM may6 N - Y, Sk mal; WM fal; P mal 0209 - flea, DS 1 SW - S, W, B mae; Sh mat4; LNK, LCH, LMY mati; CM mae CN - LP mae; LM mat\ WN mat6; LC, PS mae; NM mat4 N - Y mae; Sk mat4; WM mat 5; P mat 2 0210 - to tie up; a bundle, DS4, (cf. 0659, 0839) SW - S, W mat4; B, Sh, LCH, LMY mat 5; CM mat6 CN - WN mat4 0211 - new, B 1 SW - S mal; w, B, Sh maul; LNK mal; LCH, LMY mal; CM mal CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM maul N - Y mo 2; Sk m~~6; WM my5; P moo 5 0212 - to burn (intransitive), C 1, (cf. 0638) SW - S, W, B, Sh mal; LNK mal; LCH, LMY mal; CM mal CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM mal 0213 - a seed, grain, DS4, (cf. 0457, 0943) SW - S md, ma 4 ld; W mit4; B mit 5; Sh met 5; LNK mee; LCH, LMY met 5; CM met6 CN - LM, WN mat4 N - Y nae; Sk ml.:k6 (less frequent mh:t6); WM nat6; P nd 0214 - mother, B4 SW - S m.:&3; W, B m.: s; Sh m.: 3; LNK m.:.: 3; LCH mee s; LMY m.:.: 3; CM m.:&4 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM mee s N - Y me 5; Sk mee 5; WM me s (B7); P mee 6 0215 - insect, A4 SW - S m.:.:"I, ma 4 1&.:,,1; W, B, Sh m.:,,4; LNK m.:.:,,6; LCH, LMY m.:,,4; CM m.:.:,,1 CN - LP, LM mee,,4; WN me,,4; LC, PS, NM mee,,4 N - Y ne,,4 'mosquito'; Sk m££,,4; WM ne,,2; P nee,,2

90

Cognates

0216 - a bear, Al SW - S miis; W, B, Sh mil; LNK miil; LCH, LMY miil, mii l mvyl; CM mie CN - LP miil; LM mei; WN mwyl; BV mii 2; LC, PS miil; NM meyl N - Y mway\ Sk mii 2 (said to be < Lao or Siamese), mwayl, mvvyl; WM mwyl 0217 - wife, A4, (cf. 0737,0876) SW - S mia\ W me\ B mia4 ; Sh me 4 ; LNK mia6; LCH, LMY mee 4 ; eM mia 1 CN - WN mii 4 0218 - knife, DL4 SW - S miie; W mit4; B mit S; Sh mie; LNK, LCH, LMY miit5; CM miit4 CN - LM miitS; WN mit5 'razor' N - Y mitl; WM mit 6 ; P mie (DS4 in N languages) 0219 - hand, A4 SW - S mww l; W, B, Sh mw 4 ; LNK mww 6 ; LCH, LMY mww 4 ; CM mww l CN - LP I11l1V4; LM mllu,t; WN mUT]4; BY mww 3 ; LC, PS mww 4; NM maUJ4 N - Y fW'll4; Sk mww 4; WM faUJ2, fWT]2; P fWT]2 0220 - a meal, C4 SW - S mww 4; W, B mw 6 'day'; Sh mw s 'day, not used alone'; LNK mww s 'day'; LCH, LMY mww 6 'day'; CM mww 6 'a turn' CN - WN mww 6 'a meal, a time' N - Y fw 6 'meal'; Sk mww 6 'day' 0221 - city, a country, A4 SW - S mwa'lll; W mV'll4; B mwa'll4; Sh mV'll4; LNK mwa'll6; LCH, LMY mVT]4; CM mwa'lll CN - WN mWT]4 N - Y pwa'll4 (but mwa'll4 in place names); Sk phia'll4 0222 - stiff and tired, B4 SW - S mwa/; W 1my5; B mwai; Sh 11101; LNK mwa/; LMY mvi; CM mway4 CN - WN mwi N - Y mway5 0223 - dark, DL4 SW - S mwwt\ W mwt4; B mwe; Sh mwt S, mwt4 CDS?); LNK, LCH, LMY mwwt5; CM mwwt4 0224 - ink, DS4 SW - S mwk 2 CDS?); W mwk4; B mwk s; Sh (namS) mwk 5; LNK, LMY mwk l (DS?); CM mwk 3 (DL?) CN - LP, LM mvk4; WN mak\ LC, PS mllk4; NM mak4 N - Y mak l; Sk mwk 6 ; WM mak 6 91

Comparative Tai Source Book

0225 - all, all gone, DS 1, (cf. 1020) SW - S moe; W, B met2; Sh mot4 ; LNK myt' (modern mot'); LCH, LMY motl; CMmot2 C - LM myt4 (DS4) N - Y mwatS (DL4, cognate?); Sk mot 4 'clean' 0226 - ant, DS 4 SW - S, W mot4; S, Sh moe; LNK moe; LCH, LMY motS; CM mot6 CN - LP mot4; LM m¥t4; WN mat4 ; LC, PS myt4; NM md N - Y mat'; Sk mek 6 ; WM mot 6 ; P moe 0227 - cooking pot, Cl, (cf. 1136) SW - S moo 3 ; W, B, Sh mo 3 ; LNK moo4 ; LCH, LMY moo 3 ; CM moos CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM mo0 3 N - Y m0 3 ; Sk moo 3 0228 - fog, DLl SW - S mook 2 ; W, B mo7 2 ; Sh mok2 ; LNK, LCH, LMY mook2 ; CM mook3 CN - LP, LM mook2 ; WN mok2 'cloud'; LC, PS, NM mook 2 N - Y mok2 ; Sk mook 6 0229 - pillow, Al SW - S moons; W, S, Sh mon'; LNK moon'; LCH, LMY mon'; CM moon 2 CN - LP, LM moon'; WN mon'; LC, PS, NM moon l 0230 - to roof, A4 SW - S mUll'; W, B, Sh mUll\ LNK mU116; LCH, LMY mU114; CM mUll' CN - LP, LM fOll4; WN mUll4; LC fU114; PS fOll4 N - Y f0114; SK vooll I (A 1?) 0231 - rice field, A4 SW - S naa'; W, B, Sh naa4; LNK naa6 ; LCH, LMY naa4; CM naa' CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM naa4 N - Y na\ Sk naa4; WM, P naa2 0232 - water, C4 SW - S naam 4; W, S nam 6 ; Sh nam 5 ; LNK naam s; LCH, LMY, CM nam 6 CN - LP nam 3 ; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM nam 6 N - Y ram6 ; Sk nam 6; WM ram 4; P lam 4 0233 - thorn, A 1, (cf. 0757) SW - S naam s; W, S, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY naam'; CM naam2 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM naam'

92

Cognates

0234 - cold, Al SW - S naaw 5 ; W, B naaw l; Sh naaw l 'fever'; LNK, LCH, LMY naaw l; CM naaw CN - LP, LM naaw l 'fever, illness' 0235 - heavy, DS I SW - S, W, B nak 2; Sh nak\ LNK, LCH, LMY nak l; CM nak 2 CN - LP nak2 ; LM nak 3; WN nak6 ; LC, PS nak 2; NM nak4 N - Y nak\ Sk nak4; WM nak 5; P nak 2 0236 - to sit, B4 SW - S na1l3; W, B nalls; Sh, LNK na1l3; LCH, LMY nalls; CM na1l4 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM nalls N - Y, Sk nalls; WM, P na1l6 0237 - to count, DS4 SW - S, W nap4; B, Sh naps; LNK nap3; LCH, LMY naps; CM nap6 CN - WN nap4 N - Sk nap6 0238 - stinger (of a bee), A4 SW - S nay!; W, B lal; LNK la/; LCH, LMY mal; CM may! CN - WN lay4 N - Y, Sk lay4; P layZ 0239 - finger, toe, C4, (cf. 0868) SW - S niw4; W, B niw6 ; Sh, LNK niw s; LCH, LMY, CM niw6 CN - LP niiw\ LM niiw6 ; WN niw 6 ; LC, PS niiw6 0240 - one, B4?, (cf. 0754) SW - S nW1l2 (B?); W, B nWlls (B4); Sh, LNK nW1l3 (B4); LCH, LMY nWlls (B4); CM nW1l4 (B4), nWT]3 CN - LC nYlll used in connected speech, nYlls (B4) used in counting; PS nWlll, nWlls (B4) N - Sk nWlls (B4) 0241 - to steam, C I SW - S, W, B, Sh nW1l3; LNK nW1l4; LCH, LMY nW1l3; CM nWlls CN - LM nYll); WN nWT]3, na1l3; NM naT]3 N - Y na1l3; Sk nWT]3; WM naT]) 0242 - bird, DS4 SW - S, W nok 4 ; B, Sh nok 5 ; LNK nok3; LCH, LMY nok s; CM nok 6 CN - LP, LM, WN nok4 ; LC nuk4; PS, NM nok4 N - Y rok l; Sk n::>k6; WM rok6; P bk3

93

Comparative rai Source Book

0243 - a sprout, shoot, B1, (cf. 0882) SW - S no0 2 ; W, B, Sh n0 2 ; LNK no0 3 ; LCH, LMY no0 2 ; CM no0 3 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM no0 2 0244 - outside, DL4 SW - S nook 3 ; W n0 4 ; B n07 5 ; Sh nok 3 ; LNK, LCH, LMY nooks; eM nook 4 CN - LP, LM nook 5 ; WN nok s; LC nook\ PS, NM nook 5 N - Y rok 5 ; Sk looks; WM ryk6 ; P 100k6 0245 - to lie down, to sleep, A4 SW - S noon l; W, B, Sh non 4 ; LNK noon 6 ; LCH, LMY non 4 ; CM noon l CN - LP, LM noon 4; WN non 4 ; LC, PS, NM noon 4 N -Y nin4; Sk nuun 4 ; WM nin 2, nwn 2 ; P nwn 2 0246 - small, few, C4, (cf. 1119) SW - S nool, no/; W, B noY'; Sh no/; LNK nool (also, in certain phrases nooi, nool); LCH, LMY noY' (both also have no/ in certain expressions); CM nool (C?) CN - LP nool; LM noo/, nooY'; WN noY'; LC nool; PS no0Y' 'little in quantity'; NM nool 'little' N - Y nol (B4); Sk nool (B4); WM m'l 0247 - beard, DLl, (cf. 0857) SW - S nuat2; W noe; B nuarZ; Sh noe; LNK nuarZ; LCH, LMY nooe; CM nuae 0248 - midday meal, A4 SW - S llaayl; W, B llaal; LNK llaaY' 'breakfast'; LCH, LMY llaal 'morning meal'; CM llaai CN - LP, LM llaal 'morning meal'; WN, LC llaal 'breakfast'; PS, NM llaal ('morning meal' in PS, NM) N - Y, Sk llaal; WM, P llaa/ 0249 - easy, B4 SW - S llaal; W, B llaa/; Sh, LNK llaal; LCH, LMY llaal; CM llaal CN - WN llaays N - Y, Sk llaay5 0250 - silver, money, A4, (cf. 0986) SW - S T]yn l ; W T]wn4; B T]"n 4; Sh T]wn4; LNK T]"n 6 ; LCH, LMY T]wn4; CM T]yn l CN - LP, LM T]"n 4 ; WN T]an4; LC, PS T]"n4; NM T]en4 N - Y llan\ Sk J1En 4; WM T]an2

94

Cognates

0251 - kapok tree, C4, (cf. 0613) SW - S 1]iW4; W, B 1]iw6 ; LNK 1]iw 5; LCH niw6 ; LMY 1]iw6 ; CM 1]iw6 'kapok' CN - WN OEW6 N - Y rew6 ; Sk 1]iiwl (OG), 1]iwl (YG) 'kapok' (C?) 0252 - sweat, B 1 SW - S 1]wa2, hwa2 ; W h¥2; B hwa 2 ; Sh h¥2; LNK hwal ; LCH, LMY hn 2 ; CM hwal CN - LP hn 2 ; LM thww 2; WN thwyZ; LC, PS hww 2 ; NM 'fww 2 0253 - the gums, gills, OLl SW - S 1]wak2; W h¥7 2; B hwa7 2; Sh h¥k 2 ; LNK hwak2; LCH, LMY 1]¥¥k2; CM 1]wakl . CN - LP h¥¥k2; LM hwwk2; WN T]¥k 2; LC, PS hnk2 N - Y 1]Wkl (OS 1); P T]wwks 'palate', 1]Wk2 'gills' 0254 - grey-haired, DLl SW - S 1]00k2; W, B h07 2; LNK, LCH, LMY 1]00k2; CM 1]OOkl CN - LM, LC, PS hook2 N - Sk huuk 6 0255 - cockscomb, Al SW - S 1]oons; W, B, Sh honl; LNK hoon l; LCH, LMY honl; CM 1]00n2 CN - LP hoon l; LM khoon\ WN mon l; BV hoon'; LC, PS, NM hoon l N - Sk hoon 1 (more commonly called khial 4 [OG], khian 4 [YG]) 0256 - ox, A4, (cf. 1069) SW - S 1]ual, wua l; W 1]04 ; B 1]ua4 ; Sh 1]04, w0 4 ; LNK 1]ua6 ; LCH ho0 4 (colloquial), vo0 4 (literary); LMY 1]00\ CM T]ua' 0257 - snake, A4 SW - S T]uu l; W, B, Sh 1]u4 ; LNK T]uu 6 ; LCH, LMY T]uu 4 ; CM T]uu l CN - LP vuu 4 ; LM 1]ow\ WN, LC, PS 1]uu4 ; NM Iww 4 N - Y T]wa4 ; Sk 1]ua4 ; WM 1]W 2; P 1]WW 2 0258 - forest, B2, (cf. 0448, 0900) SW - S, W, B, Sh paa2 ; LNK paa\ LCH, LMY paa2 ; CM paal CN - WN paa2 N - Sk paa6 0259 - aunt, older sister of either parent, C2 SW - S, W, B, Sh paal ; LNK paas; LCH, LMY paa3 ; CM paas CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM paal N - Y pal; Sk, WM, P paal

95

Comparative Tai Source Book

0260 - to announce, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh paaw; LNK paaw1; LCH, LMY paaw; CM paaw3 N - Y paaw2; Sk paaw6 0261 - to go, A2 SW - S, W, B, Sh payl; LNK payZ; LCH payl; LMY pay4 (LCH and LMY have payl 'don't' before verbs; for this, LCH also has yaa2 pa/); CM pay! (A2?) CN - LP payZ; LM pey!; WN, LC, PS, NM payl N - Y, Sk pai; WM poi; P pai 0262 - to blow, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh paw; LNK paw3 ; LCH, LMY paw 2 ; CM paw3 CN - LP paws; LM, WN paw2 ; PS paw2; NM puu 2 N - Y p02; Sk ph::l::l 6 0263 - to be, become, A2 SW - S pen l; W pin l; B, Sh pen l; LNK pen 2; LCH, LMY pin l; CM pen 2 CN - LP phin4; LM pin4; WN pan 4; LC, PS pin4; NM pen4 (A4 in CN languages) N - Y pan 4 ; Sk phal 4 (OG), phan 4 (YG); WM, P pan 2 (A4 in N languages) 0264 - duck, DS2 SW - S, W, B pee; Sh pd; LNK, LCH, LMY petl; CM pee CN - LP pie; LM pyae; WN pat6 ; LC, PS pie; NM pd N - Y pie; Sk pit4 ; WM pitS 0265 - eight, DL2 SW - S PEEtz; w, B, Sh pEe; LNK, LCH, LMY pEEe; CM pEd CN - LP peetS; LM peet2; WN pEe; LC, PS, NM peee N - Y pee; Sk peet6 ; WM petS; P peetS 0266 - wing, DL2, (cf. 0784) SW - S piik 2 ; W, B pi7 2 ; Sh pik 2 ; LNK, LCH, LMY piik2 ; CM piik3 CN - LP pik 2 ; LM pik 3 (DS2); WN pik6 (DS2); LC, PS pik 2 ; NM piik2 0267 - tender, decayed, B2 SW - S pwayZ; W Pyyz; B pwal; Sh pol; LNK pwal; LCH, LMY Pyyz; CM pwal N - Skpwal 0268 - gun, A2 sw - S pwwn l; W, B, Sh pwn l 'arrow'; LNK pwwn2 ; LCH, LMY pwn l 'arrow'; CM pwwn 2

96

Cognates

0269 - fish, A2 SW - S plaal; W, B, Sh paa l ; LNK paa2; LCH, LMY paa l; CM paa2 CN - LP pyaa2 ; LM pyaa l; WN paa l; LC, PS, NM pyaa l N - Y pya l; Sk plaa l (OG), praa l (YG); WM plaa\ P pyaa l 0270 - end, tip, A2, (cf. 0746) SW - S plaayl; W, B, Sh paai; LNK paa/; LCH, LMY paay\ CM paa/ CN - LM pyaai; WN paai; LC pyaai 'summit of the tree'; PS, NM pyaayl N - Y pyaayl; Sk plaayl (OG), praayl (YG); WM plaai; P pyaayl 0271 - empty, B2 SW - S plaaw; W, B, Sh paw; LNK paWJ; LCH, LMY paw; CM pawl CN - LP pyaw 5 ; LM pyaw; WN paw; LC, PS pyaw2 N - Y pyu2; Sk pluu6 (OG), pruu6 (YG); WM plaw 5 ; P pyuu 5 0272 - to fell (a tree), C2 SW - S plam l 'to wrestle'; W, B, Sh paml ; LNK pams 'to wrestle, fell a tree'; LCH, LMY poml; CM pam 5 N - Sk plam l (OG), pram l (YG) 0273 - flame, A2 SW - S plewl ; W, B pew l; Sh pew l; LNK peew2; LCH, LMY pew l; CM pew CN - LM, PS piiw l N - Sk pleewl (OG), preew l (YG) 0274 - leech, A2 SW - S pUll 1; W, B, Sh pilll; LNK Pill2; LCH, LMY pilll; CM pill2 CN - LP pill2; LM, WN pilll; LC, PS pilll; NM PVlll N - Y pilll; Sk plilll (OG), prilll (YG); WM plilll; P pilll 0275 - to blow away, A2 SW - S pliwl; W, B, Sh piw l; LNK piw2; LCH, LMY piw'; CM piw N - Sk pliw' (OG), priwl (YG) 0276 - to take down, put down, A2 SW - S pIOll'; W pUll'; B, Sh pall'; LNK pOll2; LCH, LMY PUTJ'; CM pOTJ2 CN - WN pOTJI N - Y Pyoll'; Sk pbll' (OG), proTJ' (YG) 0277 - to remove, take down, DS2 SW - S ploe; W poe (but pwe in certain expressions); B poe; Sh pot4 'to unloose, loosen; to teach to read'; LNK potl; CM poe CN - LM pyoe N - Sk plet4 (OG), pret4 (YG)

97

Comparative Tai Source Book

0278 - to release, B2 SW - S p\:)i; W, B, Sh poi; LNK pooyl; LCH, LMY poi; CM poyl CN - LP pyyyi; LM pyuuy2; WN poi; LC pyuui 0279 - white ant, DL2 SW - S pluak2; W p07 2; B pua7 2; Sh pok 2; LNK puak2 ; LCH, LMY pook 2 ; CM puakl CN - LP cuukS; LM pyuuk2; WN cUk2 ; PS kuuk 2 N - Y SUkl; Sk (di 6) pluk4 (OG), (di6) pruk4 (YG) (DS2 in N languages) 0280 - to awaken (someone), DS2, (cf. 0901) SW - S pluk2; W, B pUk 2; Sh pOk4; LNK pUkl; CM pUk2 CN - LM pyok\ WN pok 6 ; LC pyuk 2; PS pyok 2 N - Y pyokl; Sk pluk4 (OG), pruk4 (YG); P pyok2 0281 - to plant, DL2 SW - S pluuk2; W, B pu7 2; Sh phuk2; LNK, LCH, LMY pUUk2; CM pUUkl CN - LM pywwk2 'to transplant', pyokl 'to plant seeds' (which is cognate?); WN pUk6 (DS2); LC py¥¥k2 'to stop; to transplant to some other place' N - Sk p\:)ok6 (OG), prook 6 (YG) 0282 - to cover, DS2, (cf. 0794, 1078) SW - S, W, B pok 2; LNK, LCH, LMY pOkl; CM pOk2 N - Sk pok\ pOk4 0283 - to peel, DL2 SW - S pook 2; W, B po7 2; Sh pok2; LMY pook2 ; CM pookl CN - LP pooks 'to skin'; LM pook 2; WN pOk2; LC pOOk2 'to skin' (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM pook2 'to skin' N - YpOk2 0284 - to split, B 1 SW - S, W phaa2 ; B faa 2 ; Sh phaa2; LNK phaal ; LCH, LMY phaa 2 ; CM phaa1 CN - LM, WN phaa2 N - Y pa2; Sk phaa6; P paas 0285 - cloth, C1 SW - S, W phaa3 ; B faa 3 ; Sh phaa3 ; LNK phaa4; LCH, LMY phaa3 ; CM phaa 5 0286 - to lay (a cloth) across, DL4 SW - S phaatl; W paat4; B paatS; Sh paae; LNK phaatS; LCH, LMY paatS; CM paat4 CN - WN paat5 N - Y paatS

98

Cognates

0287 - vegetable, DS 1 SW - S, W phak2; B fak 2; Sh phak4; LNK, LCH, LMY phak'; CM phak2 CN - LP phyak2; LM phyakl; WN phak 6 ; LC, PS phyak2; NM phyak4 N - Y piak2 (DLl); Sk phrak4; WM plaks; P pyak2 0288 - to fold, DS4, (cf. 0374, 0422) SW - S phap4; W pap4; B paps; LNK phapl; CM phap 6 CN - WN pap4 N - Y pap'; Sk thrap 6, phap 6, phlap 6; WM pap6 0289 - daughter-in-law, C4, (cf. 1091) SW - S (sa 2) phal; W, B paLlj6; LNK phal; LCH, LMY, CM pal N - Y paLlj6; SK khwyy6; WM, P paLlj4 0290 - goat, C3 SW - S phE74 (?); W, B bEl; Sh PES (C4); LNK bEES; LCH, LMY bEEl, pE7 5 (LMY informant thinks these are two different kinds of goats); CM pE7 6 (C4) CN - LP bee l ; LM mee); WN bEEl; LC bee l 'sheep'; PS, NM bee l N - Y be6; Sk bEEl 0291 - raft, A4 SW - S phEE'; W, B, Sh PE 4; LNK phEE 6; LCH, LMY PEE 4; CM PEE' CN - LM pee 4 ; WN PEE 4; PS, NM pee 4 N - Y pe 4; Sk phee 4 0292 - to clean, Cl SW - S phEEwl; W phEW) 'to sweep'; B fEWl 'to sweep'; Sh phewl; LNK phEEW4; LCH, LMY phewl ; CM phiaw5 'to sweep' CN - LM pheew) 'to clear (grass)' N - Y pew3 'to clear out' 0293 - fat, A4 SW - S phii'; W, B, Sh pi4; LNK phij6; LCH, LMY pii4; CM pii' CN - LP phii4; LM pel; WN, LC, PS pii4; NM pel N - Y pi\ Sk phuul (cognate?); WM pi 2 ; P pi? 0294 - older sibling, B4 SW - S phi?; w, B pi 5 ; Sh pi 3 ; LNK phii 3 ; LCH, LMY pii 5; CM pjj4 CN - LP phiP; LM pel; WN, LC, PS pii 5; NM pel N - Y pi 6 (C4); Sk phii 5 (B4); WM pol (C4); P pii4 (C4) 0295 - wrong, DS1, (cf. 0988) SW - S, W phie; B fie; Sh phit4 ; LNK, LCH, LMY phit'; CM phie CN - WN phit6 N - Sk phit4

99

Comparative Tai Source Book

0296 - to whistle, Al SW - S phiws; W, B thiw 1; Sh, LNK phiwl; LCH, LMY thiw 1; CM phiw2 CN - LP khwiiw (BI); LM viiw1 ; WN thiw 1; PS khwiiw (BI); NM khwii2 (Bl) N - Sk thiw2, phriw, hiiw2 (OG), hiw (YG) 0297 - bee, beeswax, Cl SW - S, W phWTj3; B fWTj3; Sh phWTj3; LNK ph'lTj4, ph'l'lTj4; LCH, LMY phWTj3; CM ph'lTjs CN - LM phY'lTj3 (usual word is mii 4 fOTjI) 0298 - to turn (something) over, OS4 SW - S phlik4; W pik4; B piks; CM pik6 (in W, B, and CM also 'to turn back, return') 0299 - betel, A4 SW - S phluu 1 ; W, B pu4 ; Sh pus (C4); LNK phuu6; LCH, LMY puu 4; CM puu 1 N - Y pyu 4; Sk phluu 4 (OG), phruu 4 (YG) 0300 - hair of the head, Al SW - S phoms; W phum 1; B fom l ; Sh, LNK phom 1; LCH, LMY phum l ; CMphom 2 CN - LP, LM phyom 1; WN pham 1; BY phom 1; LC phyuml; PS, NM phyom 1 N - Y piam 1; Sk phram 2 ; WM plom 1; P py::>ml 0301- father, B4 SW - S ph::>::>3; W, B p::>s; Sh p::>3; LNK ph::>::>\ LCH, LMY p::>::>s; CM p::>::>4 CN - LP phoos; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM poos N - Y pos; Sk ph:d; WM p'l6; P p006 0302 - coconut, C4 SW - S (ma 4) phraaw4; W, B (maa7 2) paaw6; LNK (maak2) phaaws; LCH, LMY Cmaak2) paaw6; CM (ba7 2) paaw6 CN - LM pyaawS; WN phaaws (B4 in CN languages) N - Y paaws (B4), piaw4 (A4); Sk phlaaw6 COG), phraaw6 (YG) 0303 - root, OL4 SW - S raak3; W haa4; B haa7 s; Sh haak 3 ; LNK haak s; LCH, LMY haak s (literary raak s, laak S); CM haak4 CN - LP, LM, WN laaks; LC laak 4; PS, NM laaks N - Y raak s; Sk raak 6 COL?); WM raak 6 ; P laak 6 0304 - to love, DS4 SW - S rak4; W hak4; B, Sh hak'; LNK hak3, lak3; LCH hak s; LMY hak s (literary rak s, lakS); CM hak6

100

Cognates

0305 - we (you and I, not others), A4 SW - raw l; W, B, Sh haw4 ; LNK haw6 ; LCH haw4 ; LMY haw4 (literary raw4 ); CM hawl CN - LP faw 4 ; LM law4 ; WN oaw4 ; LC, PS, NM law4 N - Y raw4; Sk ro0 4 ; WM raw l (A?); P law 0306 - dry field, B4 SW - S ray; W, B hal; Sh, LNK hal; LCH, LMY hai; CM hal CN - LP +al; LM lal; WN oay\ LC, PS f ay 5 N - Y ri 5 ; Sk rii 5 ; WM ro/; P lii 6 0307 - armpit, second syllable C4; first syllable DS4 SW - S (rak4) m: 4 ; W (hak4) he 6 , (haa"l) he 6 ; B (hak 5) he 6 ; LNK (khii4) hee 5 ; LMY hEE 6, lEE6; CM hEE 6 CN - LP (fak 4) fee 3 ; LM (Iak4) lee 6 ; PS (i-ak4) fee 6 N - Sk kh EE 5 (B4) 0308 - a snare, C4 SW - S rEew\ W, B hew6 ; Sh hEWS; LNK heEws; LCH, LMY hEW6 ; CM hEEW 6 CN - LM heew6 'loop in a snare'; WN oiw6 N - Sk reew6 0309 - edge, A4, (cf. 1137) SW - S riml; W, B, Sh him4; LNK him 6 ; LCH, LMY him4; CM himl N - Sk rim 4 0310 - boat, A4 SW - S rwal; W h¥4; B hwa4; Sh h¥4; LNK hwa6 (modern Iwa6 ); LCH h¥¥4; LMY h¥¥4 (literary r¥¥4, 1¥¥4 ); CM hwa l CN - LP 1¥¥4; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM Iww 4 N - Y rua4; Sk rual (A?); WM ru 2 0311 - house, A4 SW - S rwan l ; W h¥n4; B hwan 4; Sh h¥n\ LNK hwan 6 ; LCH h¥n4; LMY h¥n4 (rare, literary r¥n4); eM hwan l CN - LP h¥n4; LM Iwwn4; WN own 4; LC, PS fnn 4 ; NM Iwwn 4 N - Y, Sk raan 4; WM raan 2 ; P laan 2 0312 - day after tomorrow, A4 SW - S (mii4) rwwn\ W, B, Sh hW4; LNK hww 6 ; LCH, LMY hWW4; CM hww l CN - LP h¥4; LM I¥UJ4; WN, LC, PS IWW4; NM laUJ4 N - Y rw 4; Sk rww l (A?)

101

Comparative Tai Source Book

0313 - shade, B4 SW - S rom 3; W hums; B horns; Sh, LNK hom 3 ; LCH, LMY hums (literary rums, lum S); CM hom4 CN - LM lom s; WN ]lums 'shade', lams 'shady' (which is cognate?) N - Y ram 5 ; Sk yum l (A?); WM ram 6 0314 - hot, C4, (cf. 1006) SW - S ro:m 4 ; W, B hon 6 ; Sh hon 5; LNK hoon 5 (modern loons); LCH, LMY hon 6 (also, literary ron 6, bn6); CM hoon 6 N - Sk ruul 6 (OG), ruun 6 (YG) 0315 - hundred, C4, (cf. 0912) SW - S rool; W, B hoi; LNK hool (also, 'to string'), boy5 'hundred'; LCH, LMY hoi (literary ro/, b y6; in both Lue dialects the usual word for 'hundred' is paak2); CM 100/, hoo/ N - Y rol 'to string'; Sk rool; WM ryl 'to string' 0316 - to leak, B4 SW - rua3 ; W h0 5 ; B hua5 ; Sh h0 3 ; LNK hua 3 ; LCH, LMY ho0 5 ; CM hua4 CN - LP tuu 5 ; LM luu 5; WN ouu 5 ; LC, PS tuu 5; NM low5 N - Y r0 5; Sk roo s; WM ry6 0317 - fence, C4 SW - S rua4 ; W h0 6 ; B hua6; Sh h0 5 ; LNK hua5 ; LCH, LMY ho0 6; CM hua6 CN - LM luu 6 'to fence' 0318 - hole, A4, (cf. 0038, 0546) SW - S ruu l ; W, B, Sh hu\ LNK huu 6; LCH huu 4 ; LMY huu4 (literary ruu4); CMhuu l CN - LP tuu 4 ; LM low4; WN ouu 4 ; Le, PS tuu 4 ; NM low4 N - WM ru l (A?) 0319 - to know, C4 SW - S ruu 4 ; W, B hu 6; Sh hus; LNK huus (modern luus); LCH huu 6; LMY huu 6 (literary ruu 6 , luu 6); CM huu 6 CN - LP tuu 3 ; LM lo~; WN ouu 6 ; LC, PS tuu6; NM low6 N - Y r06; Sk ro0 6; WM ry4; P 1004 0320 - young unmarried woman, Al SW - S saaws; W, B saaw l ; Sh shaaw l ; LNK, LCH, LMY saaw\ CM saaw2 CN - LP taaw l ; LM, WN saaw l ; BV taaw 2 ; LC, PS, NM +aaw l N - Y 8aaw l ; Sk saaw2; WM 8aawl ; P haw l

102

Cognates

0321 - sand, A4 8W - 8 saay'; W, B saay4; 8h shaa/; LNK saal; LCH, LMY saa/; CM saay' CN - LP +aa/; LM, WN saa/; LC, P8, NM +aa/ N - Y 8way4; Sk yoo/, yo/ (fast speech) 0322 - left (hand), C4 SW - S saay\ W, B saal; 8h shaa/; LNK saa/; LCH, LMY, CM saal CN - LP +aa/; LM, WN saal; LC, PS, NM hal N - Y 8wal; WM 8wl; P +wwl 0323 - cord, string, AI, (cf. 1086) SW - S saa/; W, B saay'; Sh shaay'; LNK, LCH, LMY saay'; CM saai CN - LP hayl; LM, WN saayl; BY +aai; LC, PS hay' N - Y 8aay'; Sk saai 'cord, string' (but saayl 'necklace'); WM 8 aayl 0324 - late in the morning, Al SW - S saa/; W, B saai; LNK suai; LCH, LMY xwaai; CM khwaai CN - LP +aay'; LM, WN saayl; BY +aai; LC, PS +aai N - Y kwaa/; Sk thlaa4 (OG), thraa4 (YG) (probably not cognate); P kwaai (A4 in N languages) 0325 - to wash (clothes), DS4, (cf. 0552, 1116) SW - S, W sak4; B sak s; Sh shak 5 ; LNK sak 3 ; LCH, LMY sak5 ; CM sak6 CN - LP hk4; LM, WN sak4; LC, PS +ak4 N - Y SakI; Sk yak 6 ; WM 8ak6 ; P hk 3 0326 - to repeat, C4 SW - S sam4; W, B sam6 ; Sh sham 5 ; LNK sam 5 ; LCH, LMY sam6 'all, completely' (cognate?); CM sam6 N - Sk yam 6 0327 - animal, DS 1 SW - S, W, B sae; Sh shat 4 ; LNK satl; LCH sd; LMY satl; CM sat2 N - 8k s£t\ sae 0328 - banyan, A4 SW - 8 sayl; W, B hay4; LNK sal; LCH, LMY hal; CM hay' CN - LM hay\ WN (\al N - Sk hal 0329 - to put, B I SW - S sai; W, B sal.l.j2; Sh shal.l.j2; LNK sal; LCH, LMY sai; CM say3 N - Y S02; Sk c::d

103

Comparative Tai Source Book

0330 - intestines, CI SW - S, W, B sal; Sh sha/; LNK sal; LCH, LMY sal; CM sal CN - LP fa/; LM, WN sal; LC, PS, NM fal N - Y 9a/; Sk sal; WM 9a/; P fal 0331 - clear, transparent, Al SW - S sayS; W, B saUjI; Sh shaUjI; LCH, LMY say!; CM sal CN - LP faUjI; LM, WN saUjI; BV faUj2; LC, PS, NM faUjI N - Y, WM 9aUjI; P faUjI 0332 - spade, Al SW - S siam s; W semi; B siam l; Sh shem!; LNK siam!; LCH, LMY semi; CM siam 2 CN - LC fiim! 0333 - sound, Al SW - S sia1']s; W se1']!; B sia1']!; Sh she1']\ LNK sia1']l; LCH, LMY se1']l; CM sia1']2 CN - LP, LM hi1']!; WN h81']1; LC hee1'] I; PS hee1']1 'voice'; NM hY1']1 'voice' N - Y hi1']!; Sk sia1']2; WM 9i1']! (Li says < Chinese) 0334 - ten, DSI SW - S, W, B Sip2; Sh ship4; LNK, LCH, LMY sip!; CM sip2 CN - LP fip2; LM sipl; WN Si p6; LC, PS fip2; NM fOp4 N - Y Sipl; Sk sip6; WM Sip6; P Sipl (DS4 in N languages) 0335 - chisel, B 1 SW - S, W, B siw2; Sh shiw2; LNK siw3 ; LCH, LMY siw2 ; CM siw3 CN - LM siiw; WN siw2; LC fiiw2 N - Y 9iw, 9iaw2 ; Sk siiw6 (OG), siw6 (YG); P +iw5 0336 - pimple, Al SW - S siws; W, B siw l; Sh shiwl; LNK, LCH, LMY siw 1; CM siw 2 N - Y saw4 (A4); Sk siiw l (OG), siw l (YG) 0337 - shirt, C 1, (cf. 0880) SW - S swa 3; W Sy3; B swa3; Sh sh y 3; LNK swa\ LCH, LMY CN - LP h y 3; LM, WN sww 3 ; LC, PS, NM fww l

Syy3;

CM swas

0338 - straight, B4 SW - S sww 3 'honest'; W, B sw 5; Sh shw 3 ; LNK sww 3; LCH, LMY sww s; CM sww 4 CN - LM SYUjs; WN sww 5 ; LC fww s N - Y 90 5 ; Sk yoo5

104

Cognates

0339 - heel, Cl SW - S son 3 ; W sun 3 ; B son 3 ; Sh shon 3 ; LNK son 4 ; LCH, LMY sun 3 ; CM sons CN - LP hn3 ; LM syn 3 ; WN san 3 ; LC, PS hn 3 ; NM fen 3 N - Y ean 2 (Bl); Sk son 3 0340 - elbow, DLl SW - S sook 2; W, B s07 2; Sh shok2; LNK, LCH, LMY sook 2 ; CM sook3 'lower arm' CN - LP fook 2; LM sook2; WN sok2 ; PS fook 2 N - Y suak s (DL4); Sk sook6 , suak6 0341 - two, AI, (cf. 0734) SW - S soo'l'}s; W, B SO'l'}!; Sh sho'l'}!; LNK SOO'l'}!; LCH, LMY sO'l'}!; CM SOO'l'}2 CN - LP foo'l'}!; LM SOO'l'}\ WN SO'l'}I; BY fOO'l'}2; LC, PS, NM foo'l'}! N - Y eo'l'}!; Sk SOO'l'}2; WM ey'l'}!; P foo'l'}! 0342 - garden Al SW - S suan s; W son!; B suan!; Sh shon\ LNK suan!; LCH, LMY son!; CM suan 2 CN - LP fuun!; LM suun!; WN swn!; BY fuun 2 ; LC, PS, NM fuun! N - Y ewan!; Sk suan 2 ; WM euan!; P fwwn! 0343 - cooked, ripe, DS 1 SW - S, W, B sUk 2; Sh shuk 4 ; LNK, LCH, LMY suk!; CM suk2 CN - LP fok 4 (DS4); LM sok3 ; WN suk 6 ; LC fuk 2; PS fok 2 ; NM fok 4 N - Y suk!; Sk suk 6 ; P suk 3 , fuk 3 (DS4 in N languages) 0344 - high, tall, Al SW - S suu'l'}s; W, B SU'l'}!; Sh ShU'I'}I; LNK suu'l'}!; LCH, LMY SU'l'}I; CM SUU'l'}2 CN - LP fo'l'}!; LM SO'l'}\ WN sU'l'}!; BY fU'l'}2; LC fu'l'}\ PS, NM fO'l'}1 N - Y eaa'l'}!; Sk saa'l'}\ WM 8aa'l'}!; P faa'l'}! 0345 - to expose to the sun, DL2 SW - S taak 2 ; W, B taa7 2 ; Sh taak\ LNK, LCH, LMY taak 2 ; CM taak 3 CN - LP, LM phyaak 2; WN thaak 2; LC, PS phyaak2; NM thaak2 (DLl in CN languages) N - Y taak2 ; Sk praak6 ; WM raak s; P taak S 0346 - to die, A2 SW - S, W, B, Sh taayl; LNK taay2; LCH, LMY taa/; CM taay2 CN - LP haai; LM, WN, BY thaai; LC, PS haai; NM thaayl N - Y taay!; Sk praa/; WM raa/; P taa/

105

Comparative Tai Source Book

0347 - to crawl, B2, (cf. 0144) SW - Staal; W, B tal (in Wand B 'to cross a bridge'); Sh tay2; LNK tay3; LCH, LMY tal; CM tal CN - WN tal 'to walk' N - Y raal (B4); Sk tal 0348 - below, south, C2 SW - Staal; W, B, Sh taUj); LNK tayS; LCH, LMY tal; CM tal CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, ps, NM taUj3 N - Sk tyy) 0349 - to dip out, DS2 SW - S, W, B tak 2; Sh tak 4 ; LNK, LCH, LMY tak!; CM tak2 CN - LP tak2 ; LM tak); WN tak6 ; LC, PS tak2 ; NM tak 4 N - Y tak); Sk tak 4; WM tak S; P tak 2 0350 - low, short (not tall), B2, (cf. 0697) SW - S, W, B tam 2; Sh tam 2 , tEm2 'low, lowly'; LNK tam); LCH, LMY tEm2; CMtam3 CN - LP tamS; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM tam 2 N - Y tam 2 ; Sk tam 6 ; P tamS 0351 - stool, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh taT]2; LNK taT]); LCH, LMY taT]2; CM taT]) CN - LP taT]s; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM taT]2 N - Y taT]2; Sk taT]6; WM taT]s 'bench' (Li says < Chinese) 0352 - liver, DS2 SW - S, W, B tap2; Sh tap4; LNK, LCH, LMY tap!; CM tap2 CN - LP tap2; LM tap); WN tap6; LC, PS tap2; NM tap4 N - Y tap3; Sk tap4; WM tapS; P tap2 0353 - gizzard, A2 SW - Stay! 'kidney, gland'; W, B taUj!; Sh taUj! 'callous caused by friction of the skin'; LNK tal; LCH, LMY tay!; CM tal CN - LP taUj2; LM taUj!; WN thaUj!; ps, NM taUj! N - Y taUj!; Sk tyy! 0354 - full, A2 SW - Stem!; W tim l ; 8, Sh tern!; LNK tem 2; LCH, LMY timl; CM tem 2 CN - LP tim 2; LM tim l; WN tam l ; LC, PS timl; NM tom l N - Y rim!; Sk rim 2 (AI); WM rim!; P liml

106

Cognates

0355 - to break (intransitive), OL2, (cf. 0073) SW - S tEEk2; W, B, tE72; Sh tEk2; LNK, LCH, LMY tEEk2; CM tEEk 3 CN - LP, LM pheek2; WN thEk 2 ; LC pheek2 (OLI in CN languages) N - Y tek 2 ; Sk preek6 ; P teek S 0356 - foot, A2 SW - S tiinl; W, B, Sh tin l ; LNK tiin 2 ; LCH, LMY tinl; CM tiin 2 CN - LP tin2 (usual word is haa l); LM tinl (usual word is khaa l); WN tinl N - Y tinl; Sk tiin l (usual word is yeeT}S); WM, P tinl 0357 - shallow, C2 SW - S twwn 3 ; W, B, Sh twn 3 ; LNK twwn S; LCH, LMY twn 3 ; CM twwn S 0358 - to fall, OS2 SW - S, W, B tok2 ; Sh tok 4; LNK, LCH, LMY tok l ; CM tok2 CN - LP tok 2; LM tok 3 ; WN tok 6 ; LC tuk 2 N - Y tok 3 ; Sk tok4; WM tok S; P tok 2 0359 - to boil (transitive), C2, (cf. 0447) SW - tom 3 ; W tum 3 ; B, Sh tom 3 ; LNK tomS; LCH, LMY tum 3 ; CM tom' CN - LP, LM tom 3 ; LC khaw3 tum 3 'dumpling of glutinous rice'; PS, NM tom 3 N - Y tum 2 ; Sk room 6 ; WM turnS (B2 in N languages) 0360 - bamboo strip for tying, OL2 SW - S took 2; W, B t07 2 ; Sh tok 2; LCH, LMY took2 ; CM took3 CN - LP, LM phyook2; WN thok2; LC, PS, NM phyook2 (OLI in CN languages) N - Y tuk3 ; Sk pluk 4 (OG), pruk4 (YG); WM ruk s; P tuk 2 (OS2 in N languages) 0361 - to nibble, peck, DL2 SW - S tooe; W, B toe; Sh tot2 'to strike, as a snake'; LNK tooe; LCH, LMY toot2 'to bite, of a fish or snake'; CM tooe CN - LP tootS; WN toe; LC, PS, NM tooe N - Y toe; Sk toot6 ; WM htS 0362 - classifier for animals, A2 SW - S tua l; W, B, Sh tol; LNK to0 2, tua2 ; LCH, LMY tool; CM tua2 CN - LP tuu2 ; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM tuu l N - Y tua4; Sk thua4; WM tu 2 ; P tuu 2 (A4 in N languages) 0363 - land leech, OL4 SW - S thaak 3; W taa4; B taa7 s (also, 'to measure'); Sh taak 3; LNK thaak s 'land snail'; LCH, LMY taak s; CM taak 4 CN - LM, WN taak 5; LC tyk4; PS hk 4, taak 5 N - Y taak 2 (OL?, also, twk 3 'kind of water leech'); Sk thaak s (but thEEk5 'to measure'); WM taak 5 ; P taak6 'to measure'

107

Comparative rai Source Book

0364 - road, way, A4, (0474, 1101) SW - S thaa11l; W, B, Sh taa114; LNK thaa116; LCH, LMY taa114; CM taa111 CN - WN taa11 4 (only in certain idioms) N - Sk thaa114 0365 - cave, C1, (cf. 0974) SW - S, W, B, Sh tham 1 ; LNK tham 4; LCH, LMY tham 1 ; CM tham S CN - LP, LM, PS tham3 N - Sk tham 3 0366 - ashes, B4 SW - S tha~; W, B tawS; Sh taw3; LNK tha~; LCH, LMY tawS; CM taw4 CN - LP phyaw\ LM pyaw S; WN tawS; LC, PS pyaw\ NM phyaws N - Y tawS; Sk thawS; WM, P taw6 0367 - equal, B4 SW - S thaw\ W, B to\ LNK thoo\ LCH, LMY tawS, too S; CM taw4 CN - LP thoos; LM to0 6 (C4); LC to0 6 'like, equal to' (C4); PS to0 6 (C4) N - Y to S 'enough' 0368 - a plow, to plow, Al SW - S thai; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY thai; CM thayZ CN - LP, LM thai; WN thai (noun only; the verb is thwWI); BV, LC, PS thayl N - Y sai; Sk thay2; WM, P sai 0369 - candle, A4 SW - S thian l; W ten 4; B tian 4; Sh ten 4; LNK thian 6; LCH, LMY ten4; CM tian\ thian l N - Sk thian4 0370 - closely spaced, miserly, Bl SW - S thii 2 ; W, B, Sh thi 2; LNK thiil; LCH, LMY thii 2 ; CM thii 1 CN - LP thii 2 ; LM thayZ; WN thii 2; LC thiF 'hard, solid'; NM theyZ (in CN languages always means 'dense, solidly packed', slightly different meaning in SW languages) N - Y ti 5 ; Sk thii 5 ; WM toy6; P tii 6 (84 in N languages) 0371 - place, B4 SW - S thii 3 ; W, B ti 5 ; Sh til; LNK thiil; LCH, LMY tii 5 ; CM tii 4 CN - LP thii 5 ; LM tel (believed by LP and LM informants to be < Cantonese); WN tii 5 ; LC, PS tii 5 ; NM the/ 5 N - Y ti ; Sk thii 6 (B?, only in certain expressions); WM tiS, tol (Li says both < Chinese)

108

Cognates

0372 - to hold, carry, AI, (cf. 0834) SW - S thww 5; W, B, Sh tw 4 (A4, also, in W, B 'to wear hat, shoes'); LNK thww'; LCH, LMY tww 4 (A4, also in certain expressions thww' 'to hold or carry'); CM thww 2 CN - LP thYY'; LM thYUj'; WN, LC, PS thww' N - Y tw 4; Sk thww4; WM taUjz; P tww 2 (A4 in N languages) 0373 - to stomp (on), DL4 SW - S (kril2) thwwp3; W twp4; B twp5; Sh twp3; LNK thwwp5; LMY twp5 (perhaps an error for thwWp5?); CM twwp4 N - Sk thwwp 5 0374 - to fold double, DS4, (cf. 0288,0422) SW - S thop4; W top4; B, Sh topS; LNK thop3; LCH, LMY top5; CM top6 N - Sk thop6 0375 - stomach, belly, C4 SW - S thOO1']4; W, B, t01']6; Sh t01']5; LNK thOO1']5; LCH, LMY tOT]6; CM tOOT]6 CN - LP thOOT]3; LM tOOT]6; WN tOT]6; LC, PS tOOT]6; NM tOT]6 N - Y tUT]6; Sk thUT]6; WM, P tUT]4 0376 - to remove, DLl SW - S thoot2; w, B, Sh thot2; LNK, LMY thoot2; CM thooe CN - LP thuue, thooe; LM thooe; WN thof; LC thut2 (Li says < Chinese); PS thooe; NM thuut2 N - Y toe; Sk thuut6 ; WM tuat S (Li says < Chinese) 0377 - bean, Bl SW - S thua2 ; W th0 2; B thua2; Sh th0 2; LNK thua3 ; LCH, LMY tho0 2 ; CM thua 3 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM thuu 2 N - Y tua 5 ; Sk thua 5; WM tu 6; P tuu 6 (B4 in N languages) 0378 - bowl, cup, Cl SW - S thuai; W thoi; B thuai; LNK thual; LCH, LMY thoy3; CM thual CN - LP thooi; LM, LC, PS, NM thuuy3 N - Y twa/; Sk thoo/; P tul (C4 in N languages) 0379 - armspread (a measure), A4 SW - S waa'; W, B vaa4; Sh waa 4; LNK waa6; LCH, LMY vaa 4 ; CM waa' CN - WNvaa4 N - Sk vaa4

109

Comparative Tai Source Book

0380 - to say, B4 SW - S waa 3 ; W, B vaa5 ; Sh waa3 ; LNK waa3 ; LCH, LMY vaa5 ; CM waa4 CN - LP, LM vaa 5 'to lie' (said by LP and LM informants to be < Cantonese); WN vaa 2 (B?); LC vaa 5 'sentence; to speak'; PS, NM vaa5 N - Sk yaa 5 0381 - yesterday, A4 SW - S waan l ; W, B T]waa4; Sh waa4; LNK waan 6; LCH, LMY vaa4 ; CM waa \ waan I CN - LP, LM vaa4 ; WN T]aa4; LC van 4 vaa 4 ; PS, NM vaa 4 0382 - sweet, Al SW - S waan 5 ; W vaan'; B vaan l, baanl; Sh waan l; LNK waan'; LCH, LMY vaan'; CM waan 2 CN - LP, LM, WN vaan l; BY vaan 2 ; LC, PS, NM vaan l N - Y vaan l ; Sk vaal 2 (OG), vaan' (YG); WM waan l ; P vaan l 0383 - day, A4 SW - S wanl; W vin4; B ven4; Sh wan 4 'the sun, a day'; LNK wen 6 , (also, wan6 in names of days of the week); LCH, LMY van 4 ; CM wan l CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS van 4 ; NM T]an4 N - Y van 4; Sk Jl8n 4, (also, van 4 in names of days of the week); WM T]on 2 ; P T]on 2 0384 - housefly, A4 SW - S (me&T]I) wanl; W (m8T]4) mun4; B (m8T]4) T]wan 4 ; LNK (m88T]6) wan 6 ; LCH, LMY (meT]4) mun4; CM (m&&T]') T]onl CN - LP (meeT]4) fyn 4; WN (meT]4) fan 4; LC (meeT]4) fan 4 N - Y Jlan l; Sk Jl81 2 (OG), Jl8n 2 (YG) (AI in N languages) 0385 - a cold, DSI SW - S waf; W, B vaf; Sh wat4; LNK wat'; LCH, LMY vae; CM waf N - Sk vat4 0386 - to put away, C4 sw - S wa/; W, B val; Sh, LNK wa/; LCH, LMY val; CM CN - LM, WN, LC val

wal

0387 - medicine, A3 SW - S, W, B, Sh yaa 1; LNK yaa2; LCH yaa 1; LMY yaa4; CM yaa 1 CN - LP yaa2 ; LM yaa4; WN, LC, PS, NM yaa 1 N - Y yia\ Sk yaa l (only in certain phrases < Lao and Siamese), WM 7yw l ; P yii 6

110

Cognates

0388 - paternal grandmother, B4 SW - S yaa3 ; W, B yaa5 ; Sh yaa3 'an appellation given to elderly females, now nearly obsolete in colloquial language'; LNK]laa3; LCH, LMY yaaS; CM]laa4 'old woman' CN - LP, LM yaa5; WN yaaS 'wife, woman'; PS yaa S N - Y yaS; Sk yaaS; WM, P yaa6 0389 - grass, CI, (cf. 0498) SW - S yaa3; W, B ]laa3; Sh yaa3, y¥3; LNK]laa4; LCH, LMY yaa3; CM]laas CN - LP, LM yaa3; WN ]laa3; LC, PS yaa3 ; NM ]laa3 N - Y ]lia3,]la' (A?); Sk]lua3; WM]lW3 0390 - difficult, DL4, (cf. 0968) SW - S yaak 3; W yaa4; B yaa7 S; Sh yaak 3; LNK]laak s, yaakS; LCH, LMY yaakS; CM]laak4 0391 - coarse; vulgar, DL3 SW - S yaap2; W, B ]laap2; Sh yaap2; LNK yaap2, ]laap2; LCH, LMY yaap2; CM]l aap 3 CN - LP yaap2 (DL ?); LM yaap2; WN ]laap2; LC yaap2 N - Y]laap2; Sk ]liap6; WM ]laaps 0392 - to step on, B4, (cf. 1072) SW - yam 3; W, B ]lams; Sh yam3; LNK ]lam3; LCH, LMY yamS; CM ]lam4 CN - LM yam 6 (C4); WN ]lams; LC, PS yamS N - Y]lams 0393 - still, yet, A4 SW - S yaT]'; W, B ]laT]4; Sh yaT]\ (also, 'negative, not'); LNK]laT]6; LCH, LMY yaT]4; CM ]laT] 1, yall' CN - LP, LM yaT]\ WN nWT]4, na1l4; LC na1l4 N - Y naT]2 (B?) 0394 - to stop, C4 SW - S yaT]4; W, B yaT]6; Sh yallS; LCH, LMY ya1l6; CM ]laT]6 CN - LP ya1l3; LM, LC ya1l6 'to lift (the foot)' (same meaning in LP, LM; also, 'to lift the arm') 0395 - spiderweb, fiber, membrane, A4 SW - S yay'; W, B, Sh yallj4; LNK]la/; LCH, LMY ya/; CM ]layl 0396 - big, Bl, (cf. 0200, 0765) SW - S yay2; W, B ]lallj2 'to grow bigger'; Sh yallj2; LNK ]lal; LCH, LMY yay2; CM ]lal CN - WN ]lallj2 « Lao) N - Sk]lal 111

Comparative Tai Source Book

0397 - to open (the mouth), C3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7aa3 ; LNK 7aa5 ; LCH, LMY 7aa3 ; CM 7aa 5 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM 7aa3 N - Y 7a6 ; Sk, WM 7aa3 0398 - saddle, A3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7aan!; LNK 7aan 2 ; LCH 7aan!; LMY 7aan4 CN - LP 7aan 2 ; LM 7aan4; WN, PS, NM 7aan! N - Y, Sk 7aan! 0399 - tendon, A3 SW - S 7en!; W 7in!; B, Sh 7en!; LNK 7en 2 ; LCH 7in!; LMY 7in 4 CN - LP yin2 ; LM yin\ WN yen 4 (A4); LC, PS yin4 (A4); NM TJen 4 (A4) N - Y ]lin4 (A4); Sk 7in!; WM ]lin2 (A4) 0400 - swallow (a bird), B3 SW - S, W, B, Sh ?en l CH - LP 7een 5; LM 7een 2; WN 7en 2 ; LC, PS, NM 7eenz N - Y 7en z; Sk 7een6 ; P 7ween5 0401 - to bake, DS3 SW - S, B 70pz; LNK 70p! 'to steam' (modern synonym ofnwTj4); LCH, LMY 70p!; CM 70pz 0402 - cradle, B3 SW - S 7uu 2 ; B, Sh 7u\ LNK 7uu 3 ; LCH, LMY 7uu 2 ; CM 7uu 3 N - Sk 7uu 6 0403 - shoulder, B3 SW - S, W, B baa 2 ; Sh maaz; LNK baa3 ; LCH, LMY baa 2 ; CM baa3 CN - LP baa\ LM maa 2 ; WN, LC, PS, NM baa2 N - Y ba 2; Sk vaa6; WM 7baa 5; P maa 5 0404 - village, C3 SW - S baan 3 (also, 'house'); W, B baan 3 ; Sh maan 3 ; LNK baan 5 ; LCH, LMY baan 3; CM baan5 CN - LP baan 3 ; LM maan 3 ; WN, LC, PS, NM baan 3 N - Y baan 6 ; Sk baan\ WM 7baan3 ; P maan 3 0405 - thin (not thick), A3, (cf. 0645) SW - S, W, B baaTJ!; Sh maaTJ!; LNK baaTJz; LCH baaTj!; LMY baaTj4; CM baaTJ! CN - LP baaTJz; LM maaTJ\ WN, LC, PS, NM baaTJ! N - Y baaTJ!; Sk vaaTJ!; WM 7baaTJ\ P m££TJ 6

112

Cognates

0406 - flying squirrel, B3, (cf. 0888) SW - S, W, B baa..,2; Sh waa..,2; LNK baa..,3; LCH baa..,2 CN - WN baa..,2 N - Y baa..,2; Sk paa..,6 0407 - young unmarried man, B3 SW - S, W, B baaw; Sh maaw2; LNK baaw; LCH, LMY baaw; CM baaw3 CN - LP baaw5 ; LM maaw; WN, LC, PS, NM baaw 2 N - Y baaw2; Sk baaw6; WM 7baaw5 ; P maaw5 0408 - light (not heavy), A3 SW - S, W, B bawl; Sh maw l ; LNK baw 2; LCH bawl; LMY baw4 CN - LP baw; LM maw4 ; LC, PS, NM bawl N - Y bawl; Sk vaw l ; WM 7baw l; P maw6 0409 - to strain, make an effort, B3 SW - S be..,2; W bi..,2; B be..,2; Sh me..,2, we..,2 'to groan or grunt, as a person in sickness'; LNK be..,3; LMY bi..,2 CN - LM mi..,2; WN b£..,2 N - Sk be..,6, b£..,6 (but some say the genuine Sk pronunciation is bli..,6) 0410 - to twist, wring, DS3 SW - S, W, B bie; Sh mit4 ; LNK, LCH, LMY bitl; CM bie CN - LP bie; LM mie ('to pinch, pluck' in both LP and LM); LC bie 'to pick, to break with fingers (flowers, fruits from the tree)' (or cognate rather with 0440?); N - Y bie 'to pinch'; Sk bit4 0411 - bored, B3, (cf. 0598,1041) SW - S, B bwa2; Sh m¥2 'sickened, poisoned'; LNK bwa 3 'to be poisonous; to be bored' (cf. 1041); LMY b¥¥2 'bored, poisonous'; CM bwa 3 CN - LP b¥¥5; LM mww 2; LC bww 2 'bored, disgusted' (same word as 1042, or perhaps the two words have become confused in some languages?); PS, NM bww 2 N - Y bwa 2; WM 7bw 5; P mww 5 0412 - side, C3 SW - S bwa..,3; W b¥..,3; B bwa..,3 CN - LP b¥¥..,3; LM mwwY]3; WN bW..,3; LC, PS b¥¥..,3 N - Sk via..,3; WM 7bwa..,3 0413 - dry land, DS3 SW - S, W, B bok 2; LNK, LCH, LMY bok l CN - LP bok2; LM mok'; WN bok6; LC buk 2 'water goes down, dries up'; PS bok 2 'water goes down'; NM bok 4 'water goes down' N - Y bok3 'shallow'; Sk bok4; WM 7bok5; P mok 3 113

Comparative Tai Source Book

0414 - on, A3, (cf. 0607, 0808) SW - S bon'; Sh mun', mon'; LNK bon 2 ; LCH bun'; LMY bun 4 ; CM bon' N - Y bun'; Sk bwn'; WM 7bun'; P mwn 6 ('sky' in N languages) 0415 - well, spring, B3 SW - bo 2 ; W, B bo 2 ; Sh mo 2 'pit or mine in the ground'; LNK boo 3 ; LCH, LMY boo 2 ; CM boo l CN - LP bo0 5; LM mool; WN, LC, PS, NM bool N - Y b0 2; Sk boo 6 'mine'; WM 7by 5; P mo0 6 (B4) 0416-blind,DL3,(cf.1154) SW - booe; W, B boe; Sh moe; LNK, LCH, LMY booe CN - LP boot5; LM mooe; WN boe; LC, PS booe N - Y boe 0417 - cicada (first syllable), DS2, (cf. 0418) SW - S cak4 (DS4) (kil 2 can 2); W, B cakl (can2); Sh sak 4 (saal ); LNK cak' (canl); LCH cak' kUTj2 'kind of edible insect similar to a cricket but larger'; LMY in some other animal names: cak' kin 3 'house lizard', cak' khee l 'crocodile'; CM cak6 can l (DS4) 0418 - cicada (last syllable), B2, (cf. 0417) SW - S (cak4 kil 2) can2; W, B, (cak2) can 2; LNK (cak') can 3 ; LCH cEn2; LMY can 2; CM (cak6) can 3 0419 - to catch, DS2 SW - S, W, B cap2; Sh sap4; LNK, LCH, LMY cap'; eM cap2 CN - LP cap2 'to perch'; LM capl 'to perch'; WN CEp6 (but SEp6, sap6 'to perch'); LC capl 'to light on (speaking ofa bird)' N - Sk cap4 0420 - to tend (animals), C4 SW - W CYTj6; Sh SYTj5 'a female attendant upon a princess, a lady-in-waiting' CN - LP chYYTjl; LM CWWT]6; WN ciTj6; LC C¥¥T]6 'to bring up (a child), to raise' N - Y siaTj6; WM swaTj4; P siiT]4 0421 - to pick (the teeth), C2 SW - S, W, B cim l ; LNK cim 5 ; LCH, LMY cim 3 N - Sk ciml, ciim6 (B2) 0422 - to pleat, DL2, (cf. 0288, 0374) SW - S ciip2; W, B cip2; LNK ciip2 eN - LP ciip5; LM cipl (DS2); WN cip6 (DS2); Le, PS, NM cip2

114

Cognates

0423 - hoe, DL2 SW - S C::l::lp2; W, B C::lp2; LNK C::l::lp2 0424 - peak, summit, A2 SW - S c::l::lm'; W, 8 c::lm'; Sh s::lm'; LNK c::l::lm 2; LCH, LMY c::lm' 0425 - swift (of water), B4, (cf. 0884) SW - S chiaw3; B tiaw5; Sh SEW3; LCH ciw5, cew5, CEW5, xiw5; LMY ciw5, cew\ CEW5; CM ciaw3 (B2?) N - Sk riiw4 (OG), riw4 (YG) (perhaps < Siamese rew' 'quick') 0426 - name, B4 SW - S chww 3; W, B cw 5; Sh sw3; LCH, LMY cww 5; CM cww 4 CN - LM CYUj5 ('school name'; LM uses miT]4 for 'name'); WN cww 5 N - Y S05; Sk S::l::l5; WM ~y6; P sww 6 0427 - elephant, C4 SW - S chaaT]4; W, 8 caaT]6; Sh, LNK saaT]5; LCH, LMY, CM caaT]6 CN - LP chaaT]3, ChYYT]5 (84), oj.yYT]5 (B4); LM caaT]6, CWWT]5 (B4); WN caaT]6; LC, PS caaT]6; NM CWWT]5 (84) N - Y, Sk saaT]6; WM ~waT]6 (84, Li says < Chinese); P saaT]4 0428 - to weigh, B4 SW - S, Sh chaT]3; LNK saT]3; LCH, LMY caT]5; CM caT]4 CN - LP chaT]5; LM, WN caT]5; LC caT]5 'steelyard'; PS, NM caT]5 N - Y, Sk saT]5; WM saT]6 'scales'; P saT]6 0429 - to scold, revile, B3 SW - S, W daa 2; B daa2, laa2; Sh laa2; LNK daa3; LCH, LMY daa2; CM daa3 CN - LP daa 5; LM naa2; WN, LC, PS, NM daa2 N - Y da2; WM 7da5; P naa 5 0430 - preverbal indicating present progressive time, A3 SW - W, B daaT]' CN - LP daaT]2 'body'; LM naaT]4 'body'; WN daaT]' 'body; progressive'; LC daaT] , 'body' N - Y daaT]' 'body'; Sk daaT]' 'in, during'; WM 7daaT] I 'body'; P naaT]6 'body' 0431 - spotted or splotched with white, 83 SW - S daaT]2; W baaT]2; B naT]' daaT]2 daaw ' 'freckles'; Sh laaT]2 , a cutaneous disease appearing as white spots on the skin'; LNK daaT]3; LCH, LMY daaT]2 CN - LM maaT]2; WN daaT]2; PS, NM byaaT]2 N - Y daaT]2; Sk daaT]6

115

Comparative rai Source Book

0432 - lye (water), B3 SW - S daa112; W, B da112; Sh la11 2 CN - LP dal1s; LM na112; WN da112 (also, 'salty'); LC, PS, NM da112 N - Y da112; Sk da116; WM 7dal1s; P nal1s 0433 - sword, DL3, (cf. 0939) SW - S, W daap2; B, Sh laap2; LNK, LCH, LMY daap2 N - Sk daap 6 0434 - to weed, A3 SW - S daai; W, B baai; Sh maai; LNK daa/; LCH baayl; LMY baay"; CN - LP yaay2; LM myaay4; WN daayl (also, maaks baayl 'hoe'); LC, PS, NM byaayl N - Y daayl; WM 7daayl; P daal 0435 - nose, A3 SW - W, B dal1l; LNK da112; LCH dal1l; LMY da114; CM da111 CN - LP da112; LM na114; WN, LC, PS, NM da111 N - Y, Sk dal1l; WM 7dal1l; P na114 (C4) 0436 - to transplant (young rice plants), A3 SW - S, B daml; LNK dam 2 CN - LP dam 2; LM nam 4 ; WN, LC, PS, NM dam l N - Y daml; Sk tram l; WM 7dam l; P nam 6 0437 - to extinguish, OS3 SW - S, W dap2; B dap2, lap2; Sh lap4 'to be dark'; LNK, LCH, LMY dap\ CM dap2 eN - LP dap2; LM nap3; WN dap6; LC, PS dap2; NM dap4 N - Y dap3; Sk dap4; P nap3 0438 - which, what, any, A3, (cf. 1037) SW - S dai; W daLljI; B daLljI, laLljI; Sh laLljI; LNK dai; LCH dai; LMY dal CN - LP naLlj4 (A4); LM IYLlj4; WN oaLlj4 (A4); LC naLlj4 (A4) N - Sk dyyl 'who' 0439 - child, DS3, (cf. 0201) SW - S dek2; W dek 2 nol, diT]2 nol; B dek2; LNK, LCH, LMY dek l CN - LP, LC, PS dik 2 ; NM dek 4 N - Sk dek 4 0440 - to pluck, DS3, (cf. 0916) SW - S, W, B dee; LNK, LCH, LMY dd; CM dee CN - WN bit6 'to pick (flowers)'; det6 'to pinch between the fingernails'; LC, PS bie; NM bd (cf. 0410) N - Y biae; Sk rek4; P mie 116

Cognates

0441 - red, A3, (cf. 0491) SW - S d££Tj\ w, B d£Tj\ Sh I£TjI; LNK d££Tj2; LCH d£TjI; LMY d£Tj4; CM d££TjI CN - LP deeTj2; LM nee1l4; WN dell l; LC, PS, NM deeTjI N - Y diTjI; Sk riilll; WM 7dilll 0442 - good, A3 SW - S diil; W dil; B diI, JiI; Sh Iii; LNK diF; LCH diil; LMY dii 4; CM dii l CN - LP day2; LM nay\ WN, LC, PS dayl; NM dei N - Y dP; Sk diP; WM 7doi; P nii 6 0443 - gallbladder, A3 SW - S diil; W, B bil; Sh li\ LNK bii 2; LCH diil; LMY dii 4 CN - LP dii 2; LM ne/; WN, LC, PS dii l N - Y dil; Sk blii l (OG), bii l (YG); WM 7boyl; P nii 6 0444 - to kick, DL3 SW - S diit2; w, B dit2 'to pounce'; LNK, LCH, LMY diit2; CM diie N - Sk bliit6 (OG), diit 6 (YG) 0445 - earth, dirt, A3, (cf. 1004) SW - S, W, B dinl; Sh linl; LNK din 2; LCH dinl; LMY din 4; CM din l CN - WN din l 'land, country' (for 'earth' WN uses naam 5) N - Y naam 5 'earth' 0446 - raw, not ripe, DS3 SW - S, W dip2; B dip2, lip2; Sh lip4; LNK, LCH, LMY dipl; CM dip2 CN - LP dip2; LM nip3; WN dip6; LC, PS dip2; NM dOp4 N - Y dip3; Sk rip4; WM 7dip5; P nip3 0447 - to boil (intransitive), DL3, (cf. 0359) SW - S dwat2; Sh h,t2; LNK dwat2; LCH, LMY d¥¥t2; CM dwae 'angry' CN - LP d¥¥t 5 'very hot'; LM nwwt2; WN daat2 'hot'; LC d¥¥t2 'hot, angry' (current in the countryside) N - Y daae 'hot'; Sk daat6 'to scorch'; WM 7daat5 'hot'; P naat 5 'hot' 0448 - forest, A3, (cf. 0258, 0900) SW - S dOll l; W dUll l; B dOTjl; Sh 10TjI; LNK dOTj2; LCH dUTjl; LMY dUTj4; CN - LP dOTj2; LM nOTj4; WN d::>TjI; LC dUll l; PS, NM dOTjI N - Y dOTj l; Sk d::>Tjl; P n::>1l6 0449 - winnowing basket, C3 SW - S (ka 2) dOTj3; W dU1l3; B dOTj3; Sh 10113; LNK (ka-) dOTj5; LMY dUTj3 CN - LP dOTj3; LM nOTj3; WN d::>1l3; LC dU1l3; PS, NM dOTj3 N - P n::>Tj3 117

Comparative Tai Source Book

0450 - to look, watch over, A3 SW - S duu!; W du!; B du 1, luI; Sh lu!; LNK duu 2; LCH duu!; LMY duu4 CN - LP duu 2 ; LC duu! 'to tend to cattle, sheep, etc.'; PS duu! 0451 - with, C3, (cf. 0482) SW - S duai; W dyi; Sh loi; LNK duay5; LCH, LMY doi CN - LP dooi; LM nuui; LC duui N - Sk duai (said to be < Lao or Siamese) 0452 - palm, sole, B I SW - S, W, B faa 2 ; Sh phaa 2 ; LNK faa l ; LCH, LMY faa 2 CN - LP phaa l (AI); LM, WN, LC, PS, NM phaal (CI) N - Y va2; Sk paa6 , vaal; WM paa5 0453 - split bamboo flooring, DL4 SW - S faak l ; W faa 4 ; B faa7 5 ; Sh phaakl; LNK, LCH, LMY faak 5 N - Sk vaak 5 0454 - straw, stubble, A4 SW - S faall!; B fwall 4 ; Sh phYll4; LCH, LMY fYll4; CM fwalll CN - LP, LM, WN, LC faall4 N - Y fwall 4 ; Sk viall! (A?); WM fwall 2 ; P fWWll2 0455 - cotton, Cl SW - S, W, B faai; LNK faa/; LCH, LMY faai; CM faa/ CN - LP, LM phaai 'cloth'; WN phaai; LC phaai 'cloth'; PS, NM phaai N - Y vaal (Bl); Sk paay' (A?); WM, P faa/ (BI) 0456 - tooth, A4, (cf. 0133) SW - S fanl; W fan 4 (usual word is X&W1); B fan 4 (usual word is kh&w1); LCH, LMY fan 4 (literary; usual word is xew3 ) CN - WN, LC fan 4 N - Y fan 4 'teeth ofa saw'; WM fan 2 0457 - seed, A4, (cf. 0213, 0943) SW - W, B fan 4; Sh phan 4; LCH, LMY fan 4 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS fan 4 N - Y van!; Sk van 2 ; P fan! (AI in N languages) 0458 - to dream, AI, (cf. 0460,0537) SW - S fan 5 ; W, B fan!; Sh phan!; LNK, LMY fan!; CM fan 2 CN - LP, LM, WN phan!; BY phon!; NM phan! N - Sk van 4 (A4)

118

Cognates

0459 - river bank, B 1 SW - S, W, B faT]2; Sh phaT]2; LNK faT]3; LCH, LMY faT]2; CM faT]3 CN - LM, WN phaT]2 N - Sk vaT]6; WM paT]4 (C4); P faT]5 0460 - to dream of, Bl, (0458, 0537) SW - S fay2; W, B fall.l 2; Sh phall.l 2; LNK fal 'to desire (e.g., the good)' 0461 - a boil, Al SW - S tW; w, B fil; Sh phil; LNK, LCH, LMY fii\ CM fij2 N - Y pal 'a boil not yet broken'; Sk phal 'impetigo' (A4 in N languages) 0462 - firewood, A4, (cf. 0574) SW - S fwwn l; B fwn4; Sh phwn4; LNK fwwn 6; LCH, LMY fwn 4 CN - LP, LM fyn 4; WN hun4 ; LC, PS fyn 4 N - Y fun 4; Sk vwP (OG), vwn l (YG) (A?); WM fun 2 ; P fwwn 2 0463 -to grind, sharpen, AI, (cf. 0556, 0560,1089,1107) SW - S fans; Sh phon l ; LNK fonl; LMY fun l ; CM fon 2 CN - LP, LM phYn\ WN phan l; LC, PS phYnl; NM phan l 0464 - (two or more persons) carry, Al SW - S haam 5; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY haam l ; CM haam 2 CN - LP haam l; LM, WN, BY thaam l; LC, PS, NM haam l N - Y raam l ; Sk raam 2 ; WM raam l ; P IEEml 0465 - testicles, Al SW - W, B, Sh, LNK ham l; LCH, LMY haml, (xii-) lam l (latter form is polite) CN - LP ham l; LM, WN, BY tham l; PS ham l ; NM haam l N - Y ramI; Sk ram 2; WM ramI 0466 - to chop, CI, (cf. 0951) SW - S, W, B ham 3 CN - LP, LM, WN tham 3 ; LC tham 3 (current in the countryside); PS, NM tham 3 N - Y, WM ram 3 ; P lam 3 0467 - to close, DS 1 SW - S, W, B hap2; Sh hap4; LNK hapl (old-fashioned speech); LCH, LMY hapl; CM hap2 CN - LP hap2; LM hap 3; PS hap2; NM hap4 N - Y hap 3 0468 - head louse, Al SW - S hawS; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY haw l CN - LP hawl; LM, WN, BY thaw l ; LC, PS, NM haw l N - Y raw l; Sk raw 2 ; WM raw l; P law l 119

Comparative Tai Source Book

0469 - hail, DS 1

SW - S hep2; Whee; B hep2; LNK hepl CN - LM hae; WN tat6; LC, PS hae; NM hat4 N - Y ri p3 0470 - chasm, Al SW - S heews; B hEW I; LNK heew l; LCH, LMY hew l, hEW I 0471 - cast-net, Al

SW - S hEE s; W, B hEI; Sh khEI; LNK, LCH, LMY hEEl; CM hEE2 CN - LP, LM heel; WN Ch8EI; BY khee l; LC, PS heel N - Y rei; Sk ree 2 'a long net'; P lee l 0472 - impetigo, the itch, DSI

SW - S, W, B hie; Sh hit4 ; LNK, LCH, LMY hitl; CM hie CN - LP khet2, het2 (khit2, hie?); LM lie; PS het2 N - Sk hit4 ; P lae 'measles' 0473 - to carry, as one carries a suitcase, C I SW - S, W, B, Sh hiw3; LNK hiw4; LCH, LMY tiw 3 (also, rare hiw3);

CM tiwS, hiws CN - LP, LM thiiw3 ; WN thiw3; LC ya\y3 'to hold something hanging down'; PS yiiw3 ; NM thii~ N - Y riaw3 ; Sk riiw3 (OG), riw 3 (YG), hiiws 0474 - road, AI, (0364,1101)

SW - S hon s; LNK hon l; LCH, LMY hunl; CM hon 2 N - Y rani; WM hon l; P h::>nl 0475 - to laugh, Al SW - S huas (r::>?4); B hua l; Sh khol; LNK hua l; LCH xoo l; LMY XOOI, hool;

CM hua2 CN - LP vuu l; LM luu l; WN khuu l; LC, PS huu l; NM khuu l N - Y riaw l; Sk ruaw; WM riaw l; P liw l (also transcribed as lyuu 2) 0476 -loop, Bl

SW - S huaTJ2; W tOTJ2; B tuaTJ2; Sh tOTJ2 N - Y kuaTJ6 (C?); Sk huaTJ6 0477 - picture, BI

SW - S hun 2 'puppet, marionette'; W, B, Sh hun 2; LNK hun 3 'figure, appearance; robot'; LMY hun 2; CM hun 3 CN - WN hun 2 'image; design' N - Y hun 2; Sk hun 6; WM huns 'track'

120

Cognates

0478 - to cook (rice), Al SW - S hUlls; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY hUll l ; CM hU1l2 CN - WN thull l ; LC hUlll (current in the countryside); NM hOlll N - Y rull l ; Sk rU1l2 0479 - ear, Al SW - S huus; W, B, Sh hUI; LNK, LCH, LMY huu l; CM huu 2 CN - LP vuu l; LM low l; WN chuu!; BV, LC, PS huu l; NM khyool N - Y rwa\ Sk rua4; WM rw 2; P Iww 2 (A4 in N languages) 0480 - loom fOf weaving, DLl SW - S huuk 2 ; W, B hu7 2 ; Sh huk2 'the warp of cloth'; LNK, LCH, LMY huuk2 CN - LP hok2; LM lok3 (DSI); WN thuk 6 (DS1); LC huk 2; PS hok2; NM huuk 2 N - Y rok 2 ; Sk huuk 6 ; WM fvk s; P looks 0481 - a crow, A2 SW - S, W, B, Sh kaa l; LNK kaa 2; LCH, LMY kaa l; CM kaa 2 CN - LP kaa2 ; LM kaa l; WN kaa\ 7aa l; LC, PS, NM kaa l N - Y 7a l ; Sk kaa l ; WM 7aa!; P 7aa6 (A3) 0482 - with, and, DS2, (cf. 0451) SW - S, W, B kap2; Sh kap4; LCH, LMY kapl; CM kap2 N - Sk kap4 0483 - old (of things), B2, (cf. 0091, 0712) SW - S, W, B, Sh kaw; LNK kaw; LCH, LMY kaw2 ; CM kaw 1 CN - LP kaws; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM kaw2 N - Y kaw2 ; Sk kaw6 ; WM, P kaw 5 0484 - to pick up, DS2 SW - S, W, B kep2; Sh kep4; LNK, LCH, LMY kepi; CM kep2 CN - LP kip2; LM kyap 3; WN CEp6; LC, PS kip2 N - Y Cipl; Sk kip4; P cipz 0485 - to undo, untie, C2 SW - S kEC 3 ; W, B, Sh h\ LNK kEE 5 ; LCH, LMY hc 3 ; CM hc s CN - LP, LM kee 3 ; WN cee 3 ; LC, PS, NM kee 3 N - Sk kee 3 ; WM ke 3 ; P cee 3 0486 - rapids, B2 SW - S h1l 2 ; W, B h1l 3 (C2?); Sh h1l 2 nam s; LNK, CM hE1l3 0487 - to eat, A2 SW - S, W, B, Sh kin!; LNK kin 2; LCH, LMY kin!; CM kin 2 CN - LP kin 2 ; LM kin!; WN cin!; LC, PS kin!; NM ken! N - Y kwn!; Sk kin!; WM, P kwn! 121

Comparative Tai Source Book

0488 - branch (of a tree), B2, (cf. 0960) SW - S, W, B, Sh ki1l2; LNK kill'; LCH, LMY ki1l2; CM ki1l3 CN - LM, LC ki1l2 N - Sk kii1l6, ki1l6 (fast speech), kaa1l6 0489 - young rice plant, C2 SW - S klaa3; W, B, Sh kaa3 ; LNK kaa\ LCH, LMY kaa3 ; CM kaa 5 CN - LP caa3 ; LM kyaa3 ; WN caa3 ; LC, PS, NM kyaa3 N - Y ca3 ; Sk tlaa 3 (OG), traal (YG); WM klaa 3 ; P caa 3 0490 - hairknot, C2 SW - S klaa~; W, B, Sh kaw3 ; LNK kaw 5 'to make a hairknot'; LCH, LMY kaw' (both noun and verb); CM kaw6 CN - LP ca~; LM kyaw 3 ; WN caw3 ; LC kyaw 3 ; PS kyaaw3 ; NM kyaw3 N - Y caw3 ; Sk thraw3 ; WM ra~; P caw 3 ('head' in all four languages) 0491 - dark (red), B2, (cf. 0441) SW - S klam 2; W, B, Sh kam 2; LNK kam 3 ; LCH, LMY kam 2 CN - LM kyam 2; WN cam 2 'kind ofleafused to dye rice red' N - Y cam 2; WM klam 5 'plant used as dye'; P cams 0492 - far, A2 SW - S klay'; B, Sh kay'; LNK ka/; LCH, LMY kay'; CM ka/ CN - LP kwa/; LM kway'; WN kay'; LC, PS kway'; NM kyay' N - Y cay'; Sk tiay' (OG), tray' (YG); WM klay'; P cay' 0493 - drum, A2 SW - S klo0ll'; B, Sh koll'; LNK ko01l 2; LCH, LMY koll ' ; CM ko01l2 CN - LP COO1l2; LM kyoOll'; WN COlli; LC, NM kyooT]' N - Y COll'; Sk tiooll' (OG), trooll' (YG); WM kl¥ll'; P cooll' 0494 - I, A2, (cf. 0533, 1144) SW - S kuu ' ; W, B ku'; Sh kaw'; LNK kuu 2; LCH kaw', kuu'; LMY kaw ' , kuu 4 ; CM kuu ' (A?) CN - LP kaw2; LM kaw'; WN kuu', kuu 6 (latter more frequent); LC, PS kaw'; NMkow' N - Y kU'; Sk kuu'; WM kaw ' ; P kuu ' 0495 - wicker hat, DS2 SW - W, B kUp2; Sh kUp4; LNK, LCH, LMY kUp'; CM kUp2 CN - LP COp2; LM ki p 3 'cape made of grass'; LC, PS kip2 N - Y capl; P COp2

122

Cognates

0496 - more than, B2 SW - S, B kwaa2 ; Sh kwaa2 'to go'; LCH, LMY kwaa2 (also, 'to go past'); CM kwaa3 CN - LP kwaa 5 ; LM kwaa2 ; WN kaa2 'away, past'; LC kwaa2 'to pass by'; PS, NM kwaa 2 'to pass' N - Y kwa2 ; Sk kwaa6 (OG), kua6 (YG); WM, P kwaa5 ('to pass' in Y, WM, and P) 0497 - stuck, A4 SW - S khaa l ; W, B kaa4 ; Sh kaa4 'to escape, as an animal pierced by any weapon, and carrying the weapon in its flesh'; LNK khaa6 ; LMY kaa4 CN - LP khaa4; LM kaa4 ; WN kaa4, caa4; PS, NM kaa4 N - Y ka4; Sk khaa4 0498 - thatch grass, A4, (cf. 0389) SW - S khaa\ W xaa4; B kaa4; Sh khaa4 ; LNK khaa6 ; LCH, LMY xaa4; CM khaa l CN - LP, LM, WN haa4 ; LC, PS, NM kaa4 N - Y ha4; Sk yaa4 ; WM xaa 2 ; P haa2 0499 - galangal, kind of root, Bl SW - S khaa2 ; W xaa2 ; B khaa2 ; LNK khaa3 ; LCH, LMY xaa 2 ; CM khaa3 CN - LM haa 2; WN khaa2 N - Y ha2 ; Sk haa6 0500 - price, value, B4, (cf. 0947) SW - S khaa3 ; W, B kaas; Sh kaa3 ; LCH, LMY kaa 5; CM kaa4 CN - LM, WN kaa5 N - Y ka 5; Sk khaa5; WM, P kaa 6 0501 -leg, AI, (cf. 0l31, 1150) SW - S khaa s; W xaa l ; B, Sh, LNK khaa l ; LCH, LMY xaa l ; CM khaa 2 CN - LP khaa l ; LM khaa l 'foot'; WN, BY khaa l ; LC khaa l 'foot'; PS khaa1; NM haa l 1 N - Y ka ; Sk kwaa 1 (OG), kua l (YG); WM haa l ; P kaa 1 0502 - carrying pole, A4 SW - S khaan 1 ; W, B, Sh kaan 4; LNK khaan 6 ; LCH, LMY kaan 4 ; CM kaan 1 CN - LP khaan 4; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM kaan 4 N - Y haan4; Sk yaan 4; WM xaan 2; P haan 2 0503 - chin, A4 SW - S khaaTJl; W, B, Sh kaaTJ4; LNK khaaTJ6; LCH, LMY kaaTJ4; CM kaaTJI CN - LP khaaTJ4; LM, WN, LC, NM kaaTJ4 N - Y haaTJ4; Sk yaa114; WM xaaTJ2; P haaTJ2

123

Comparative rai Source Book

0504 - top for spinning, B 1 SW - S khaaT]2; W (maa7 2) chaaT]2; B saaT]2; LNK (maak2) khaT]3; LMY xaaT]2 CN - LP haaT]5 (B4); LM laaT]2; WN chaaT]2; LC, PS haaT]2; NM khyaaT]2 N - Y caaT]2; WM raaT]5; P caaT]5 0505 - side, ribs, Cl SW - S khaaT]3; W chaaT]3; B saaT]3; Sh khaaT]3; LNK khaaT]4; LCH, LMY xaaT]3 CN - LP haaT]3; LM laaT]3; WN chaaT]3; LC, PS haaTJ3; NM khyaaTJ3 0506 - to hold in the jaws, DL4 SW - S khaap3; W kaap4; 8 kaap5; Sh kaap\ LNK khaap5; LCH, LMY kaap5 N - Y kaap5; Sk khaap5 0507 - to put out of the mouth, A4 SW - S khaay\ W xaay4; B kaay\ Sh khaay4; LNK khaay6; LCH, LMY xaal CN - LM, WN haal N - Y haay4; Sk '{aay4; P haal 0508 - to sell, Al SW - S khaal; W xaay\ B khaa/; Sh khaal; LNK khaa/; LCH, LMY xaal; CM khaal CN - LP, LM, WN, BV, LC, PS khaal; NM haal N - Y kaay'; Sk kwaay' (OG), kuay' (YG); WM haay'; P kaay' 0509 - white, AI, (cf. 1055) SW - S khaaw5; W xaaw'; 8 khaaw' 'silver-colored'; Sh khaaw'; LNK khaaw'; LCH, LMY xaaw'; CM khaaw 2 CN - LP, LM, WN khaaw'; LC ph¥¥k2 khaaw'; PS khaaw' N - Y haaw'; Sk haaw2; WM haaw' 0510 - dike between rice fields, A4 SW - S khan'; W xan 4; 8 kan 4; LNK khan 6 ; CM khan' CN - LP khan4; LM han 4; WN hen 4 'edge, side'; LC, PS kan 4; NM han 4 N - Y han4 ; Sk '{a1 4 (OG), '{an4 (YG); WM xan 2; P han 3 (C?) 0511 - to sing, DS1 SW - S khap2; W xap2; B khap2; Sh khap4 'to sing a metrical piece alternately, as a man and woman'; LNK khap'; LCH, LMY xap' N - Sk hap4 0512 - dry, 81, (cf. 0561) SW - W xaUj2; 8 khaUj2 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS khaUj2; NM haUj2 N - Sk kho0 2 (AI), hww6 (which is cognate?)

124

Cognates

0513 - they, other people, Al SW - khaw\ W chaw l; B saw l; Sh khaw l; LCH, LMY xaw l CN - LP hawl; LM law l; WN khaw\ thaw l; LC khyaw l; PS, NM hawl N - Sk rawl 0514 - dove, Al SW - S (nok4) khaw5; W chaw l; B saw l; LNK khaw l CN - LM law l; WN chaw l N - Y raw\ Sk hawz; WM raw l; P law l 0515 - horn (of an animal), A I SW - S khaw5; W xaw l ; B khaw l; Sh khaw l; LNK khaw l; LCH, LMY xaw l; CM khawz CN - WNkhaw l N - Y, Sk, P kaw l 0516 - salty, A4 SW - S khem l; W kim4; B kem 4; Sh sem 4; LNK khem 6 ; LCH, LMY cim 4; CM kem l CN - LP khim 4; LC, PS kim4; NM kyom 4 N - Y kem 4, cem 4; Sk khem 4 0517-hard,AI SW - S khe'l']5; W, B, Sh khe'l']l; LCH, LMY xe'l']l CN - LP khee'l']l; LM lee'l']l; BV khee'l']l; LC, NM khee'l']l N - Sk thria'l']2; WM kle'l']l; P cee'l']l 0518 - son-in-law, Al SW - S khvvl; W khvi; B khwai; Sh khoi; LNK khvvi; LCH, LMY xvi CN - LP khvvyl; LM khuui; WN khuy\ khwyl; LC, PS khvvyl; NM kuuy4 (A4) N - Y kwa/; Sk khoo/; WM kwy; P kwwy (A4 in N languages) 0519 - accustomed, A4 SW - S khvvyl; B khvy4; LNK khnl; LCH, LMY hy4; CM hi N - Sk khvv/ 0520 - to scratch (as chickens do), B 1 SW - S khiaz; W khwe 2; B khia2 ; Sh khe 2; LNK khia3 ; LCH, LMY xee 2 CN - LP vii 2 ; LM Ii?; WN kee 3 (C2?, probably not cognate) N - Sk khia 6 0521 - tripod, A4 SW - S khia'l']l, khaa 5 yaa'l']z; W, Sh keY]4; LCH, LMY xeY]4 CN - LP khii'l']4; LM kiiY]4; WN CiY]4; LC kiiY]4 N - Y ciaY]4; Sk khiaY]4; WM kiaY]2; P ciiY]2 125

Comparative Tai Source Book

0522 - excrement, Cl SW - S khiil; W, B, Sh khil; LNK khii4; LCH, LMY xi?; CM khii 5 CN - LP, LM khiP; WN chiP; LC, PS khiP; NM khe/ N - Y hal; Sk val; WM xal; P hal (C4 in N languages) 0523 - ginger, Al SW - S khiT)5; W xiT)l; B, Sh, LNK khiT)l; LCH, LMY xiT)1 CN - LP, LM khiT)\ WN chiT)l; BY, LC, PS khiT)l; NM hYT)1 N - Y hiT)l; Sk hiiT)2; P hiT)1 0524 - eggplant, A I SW - S (ma4) khwa5; W khyl; B khwa l; LNK (maak 2) khwa l; LCH, LMY (maak2) Xyyl; CM (ba72) khwa2 CN - LP khyyl; LM khww l; WN kww 4 (A4); PS khww l N - Y kwa4 (A4); Sk keel (but khwa l khwa4 'tomato', which syllable is cognate with 0524?); P kww 4 (A4) 0525 - to grope, feel, A4 SW - S khlam l; W, B cam4 (caa4 ); Sh kam 4 CN - WN cam4 'to pet' 0526 - dried sweat and dirt on the skin, A4 SW - S (khiil) khlayl; B (khil) kay\ Sh khal; LNK (khii4) khal; LCH, LMY (xiil) xal CN - LM lay4; WN yal; PS nal N - Y hi4; Sk (val) Vii4; WM xoy2 'dirt'; P hie 0527 - to wobble, not firm or tight, A4 SW - S khl:xm l; B kon4; Sh khon4; LMY xon4 CN - LM hoon\ WN hon 4 0528 - to lasso, C4 SW - S kh100T)4 (khoOI); B COT)6 (k04); Sh bT)5; LNK khooT)5; LMY kOT)6 CN - LM 100T)6; LC kyoOT)6 'a loose knot'; PS, NM kyoOT)6 N - Sk VOOT)6, tIo0T)6, th100T)6 (OG), throoT)6 (YG); WM klYT)4 0529 - thick (of fluids), CI, (cf. 0595) SW - S khon l ; LCH, LMY xun 3 ; CM khon 5 CN - WN khon 3 N - Y hun l 0530 - to search, C4 SW - S khon 4; B kon 6 ; LCH, LMY xun 6 'to awaken someone'; CM khon 6 CN - WN hun 5 (B4) N - Y hun 5 (B4); Sk khon l (CI?)

126

Cognates

0531 - body hair, Al SW - S khon 5; W xun 1; B, Sh, LNK khon 1; LCH, LMY xun 1; CM khon2 CN - LP, LM khon 1; WN khon l; BY khon 1; LC khun l; PS khon 1; NM honl N - Y pun 1; Sk pull (OG), pun l (YG); WM pun\ P pwn l 0532 - bitter, Al SW - S khom 5; W khum 1; B, Sh, LNK khom\ LCH, LMY xum 1; CM khom 2 CN - LP, LM khom 1; WN kham\ BY khom 1; LC khum l ; PS khom 1; NM hom l N - Y ham 4 ; Sk yam4 ; WM xam 2 ; P ham 2 (A4 in N languages) 0533 - slave; I, Cl, (cf. 0494,1144) SW - W xoi; B khoi; LNK khool; LCH, LMY xoi; CM khool CN - LP, LM khooy\ WN khoi; LC khooi N - Y hoi; Sk hooy6; WM hyl (B1 in N languages) 0534 - indigo, A4, (cf. 0958) SW - S khraam 1 ; W, B caam 4 ; Sh khaam 4 'a tree used for dyeing'; LNK khaam 6 ; LCH, LMY xaam 4 CN - LP chaam4 ; LM laam 4 ; WN caam4 ; LC kyaam 4 (also, laam 4 which Li says < Chinese); PS laam4; NM kyaam4 N - Y saam 4 ; Sk khaam4; P saam 2 0535 - discarded snake skin, DL4 SW - S khraap3; W caap4; B caap5; Sh khaap 3; LCH, LMY xaap5 CN - LM laap5; PS kyaap5 N - Sk thraap5 0536 - sticklac, B4 SW - S khraY]3; Sh khaY]3; LMY xaY]5; CM caY]5 CN - WN caY]4 (A4) N - Sk thraY]S, thaTJ5 0537 - to desire, B4, (cf. 0458, 0460) SW - S khray3; Sh khay3, khaU1 3; LCH, LMY xal; CM khal N - WM klal (A4) 0538 - vine, A4, (cf. 0922) SW - S khrwa l; W Cy4 (cf. 0037); B cwa 4 'warp (in weaving)'; Sh khy4; LNK khwa6 ; LCH, LMY Xyy4; CM khwa l CN - LM Iww 4 'lengthwise threads in weaving' N - Sk thaa4 (probably not cognate?) 0539 - bunch of bananas, A4 SW - S khrwa\ W hy4; B hwa4; Sh h y4 'a stock or bunch of fruit or flowers'; LNK khwa6 ; LCH, LMY h yy 4 CN - LM Iww4; WN Iww 4 'a banana tree bearing fruit' 127

Comparative rai Source Book

0540 - half, middle, B4 SW - S khrwTJ3; W CWTJ5; B C¥TJs; Sh khwTJ3; LNK kh¥TJ3; LCH, LMY xW115 CN - LM li115 'to divide in half'; WN ciTJ s N - Sk thrwTJ5, kh¥TJ5; WM kla11 6 'to block the road halfway'; P caTJ6 0541 - big (tiger), B4, (cf. 0678, 0822) SW - S (swaS) khrooTJ3; W (S¥I) CUTJ5; B (swa l) co115; LNK (swa l) khooTJ3; LCH, LMY (S'1('1(I) xU115 0542 - entire, complete, DS4 S W - S khrop4; B, Sh kOp5 CN - LM lop4 N - Sk khop6 0543 - kitchen, A4 SW - S khrua l; B cua4; Sh kh0 4 'clothes, goods, property'; LNK khua6; LCH, LMY X004 N - Sk thrua4 'family' 0544 - bridge, AI, (cf. 0952) SW - W khol; B khua l; Sh khol; LNK khua l; LCH, LMY XOOI; CM khua2 N - Sk khaw4 (A4, cognate?) 0545 - cycle, year, DLl, (cf. 0626) SW - S, B khuap2; Sh khop2; LNK khuap2; LCH, LMY XOOp2 CN - LP, LM khuup2; WN khup2; LC, PS khuup2; NM khup2 N - Sk khuap6, thruap 6 (hypercorrection for khuap 6); P hoops 0546 - hole, pit, AI, (cf. 0038, 0318) SW - S khum\ W, B, Sh, LNK khum l; LCH, LMY xum\ CM khum 2 CN - LP, LM khom l; WN, BY, LC khum\ PS khom l; NM kom4 (A4) N - Y kum 4; Sk khum 4 ; WM, P kum 2 (A4 in N languages) 0547 - pair, B4 SW - S khuu\ W ku 5 'comrade'; B kus; Sh ku 3; LNK khuu 3 ; LCH, LMY kuu 5 ; CM kuu 4 CN - LP khuu 5; LM kow5 ; WN, LC, PS kuu 5 ; NM koo s N - Y kus; P kuu 6 0548 - sharpened stake, DLl, (cf. 0554) SW - S khwaak2 ; W khaa7 2; B khwaa7 2; Sh khwaak2; LNK khuak2; LCH, LMY xwaak2 CN - LP kuuk s 'hoe' (DL2); LM kuuk 2 'hoe', vaak2 'sharpened stake'; WN khaak2 ; LC kuuk 2 'hoe' (Li regards all these as cognates; probably the words for 'hoe' are not) N - Y vaak 2 ; Sk khwaak 6 128

Cognates

0549 - axe, Al SW - S khwaan 5 ; W, B khwaan l ; Sh khwaan l 'a thunderbolt'; LNK khuan l (homonymous with 0171); LCH, LMY kwaan I CN - LM khwaan l (rare); WN khaan l N - Y vaan l; Sk vaan2 ; P vaan l 0550 - nephew, niece; grandchild, Al SW - S laan5 ; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY laan l; CM laan 2 CN - LP, LM, WN laan l ; BV laan 2 ; LC, PS, NM laan l N - Y laan l; Sk laan 2 ; WM, P laanl 0551 - below, B4 SW - S laall 3 ; W, B laall 5 'space beneath an elevated house'; Sh laall 3 'space beneath an elevated house'; LNK laall); LCH, LMY (tai) laall 5 'underneath a house' CN - LP, LM laall s 'a pen'; WN laall 2 (B?) 'space below'; LC laall 5 'space beneath an elevated house' N - Sk lualls 0552 - to rinse, wash, C4, (cf. 0325, 1116) SW - S laall 4; W, B laall 6 ; Sh, LNK laall s; LCH, LMY, CM laall 6 CN - LP laall\ LM, WN, LC, NM laall 6 N - Y rwall6; Sk laall 6 ; WM rwall4; P IWWll4 0553 - saliva, A4 SW - S laai; W laa/; B (sa) laa/; LNK laal; LCH, LMY laay4; CM laayl CN - LP laal; LM, WN naa/; LC, PS, NM laa/ N - Y naal; Sk mlaa/; WM mlaa/; P naa/ 0554 - a stake, DS 1, (cf. 0548) SW - S, W, B lak 2 ; Sh lak 4 ; LNK, LCH, LMY lakl; CM lak2 CN - LP lak2 ; LM lak J ; WN lak 6; PS lak) (tone?); NM lak 4 N - Y lak); Sk lak 4 0555 - back, Al SW - S lall 5; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY lall l; CM lall 2 CN - LP, LM, WN lall l ; BV lall 2 ; LC, PS, NM lall l N - Y lall 1; Sk lall 2; WM, P lall l 0556 - to sharpen (a knife), DS4, (cf. 0463, 0560, 1089, 1107) SW - S, W lap4; B, Sh laps; LNK lap 3; LCH, LMY lap 5 N - Sk lap 6 0557 - to tell, B4 SW - S law 3 ; W, B laws; Sh, LNK law); LCH, LMY, CM laws N - Sk 100 5 (cognate?) 129

Comparative Tai Source Book

0558 - body louse, A4 SW - S len!; B, Sh men4; LNK len6 ; LCH, LMY min 4 CN - LP, LM min4; WN man 4 ; LC, PS min4; NM men 4 N - Y nan 4; Sk mlEl 4 (OG), mlw4 (YG); WM nan 2 0559 - to exchange, DL4 SW - S 1!:!:k3; W 1!:4; B 1!:7 5 ; Sh l!:k3; LNK, LCH, LMY 1!:!:k5; CM 1!:!:k4 N - Y lei (DS4) 0560 - sharp-pointed, AI, (cf. 0463, 0556,1089,1107) SW - S I!:Em5; W, B, Sh IEml; LNK IEEml; LCH, LMY IEm! CN - LP +iim 3; LM siim\ WN lem l; LC, PS +iiml; NM +om l (CI in LP, LM, LC, PS) N - Y lem!; Sk l!:m 2 'to sharpen', IEEm2 'sharp-pointed' 0561 - dry (of weather, season), C4, (cf. 0512) SW - S IE!:Tj4; W, B IETj6; Sh IETj5; LNK I!:ETj5; LCH, LMY I!:Tj6; CM IE!:Tj6 CN - LP leeTj3; LM leeTj6; WN leTj6; LC, PS, NM leeTj6 N - Y reTj6; Sk 1!:!:Tj6; WM reTj4; P leeTj4 0562 - finished, C4 SW - S I!:Ew4; B lEw6 ; LNK lE!:w5; LCH, LMY IEw6 ; CM IEEW6 CN - LP leew1 ; LM leew6; WN IEW6; PS leew3 (C?) N - Y le~; Sk IEEW6; WM liaw4 0563 - to lick, A4 SW - S lia!; W le 4; B lia4 ; Sh le 4 ; LNK lia 6 ; LCH, LMY lee4 ; CM lial CN - LP lii4; LM ley4; LC, PS, NM lii4 N - Y ria4; Sk lia4; WM ri 2; P lii 2 0564 - monkey, A4 SW - S \iTj!; W, B, Sh \iTj4; LNK liTj6; LCH, LMY liTj4 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS liTj4; NM h(Tj4 N - Y IiTj4; Sk liiTj4 0565 - to be left over, Al SW - S Iwa5; W lyl; B lwa l; Sh IY!; LNK Iwa!; LCH, LMY IYY!; eM Iwa2 CN - LP hY!; LM, WN Iww!; PS, NM Iww 2 (B?) N - Y Iwa\ Sk lua2; WM Iw!; P lww l 0566 - python, Al SW - S (Tjuu!) Iwam 5; W (Tju 4) Iym!; B (tol) Iwam l; Sh hml; LNK (Tjuu6) Iwam l; LCH, LMY (Tjuu 4 ) hml CN - WN num l N - Y (tua4) nuam l

130

Cognates

0567 - yellow, Al SW - S Iwa1']s; W 1'1'1']1; B Iwa1']l; Sh J¥1']I; LNK Iwa1']l; LCH, LMY 1'1'1']1; CM Iwa1']2 CN - LP 1'1' 1'1']1; WN IW1']1 (usual word is hen 3 ); LC, PS 1'1' 1'1']1; NM IWW1']1 N - Sk vaa1']4 (A4, cognate?) 0568 - gadfly, DLl SW - S Iwap2; W h'7 2; B Iwa7 2 ; Sh l¥k2; LNK Iwap2; LCH, LMY Ink2 CN - LM nwwk2; WN I¥e N - Y Iwak 2; Sk Iwap 6 0569 - the wind, A4 SW - S lom l; W lum 4; B, Sh lom 4; LNK lom 6 ; LCH, LMY lum4; CM lorn! CN - LP, LM 10m4; WN lam4 ; LC lum\ PS, NM lom 4 N - Y rum 4; Sk lum4; WM rum2; P lum 2 0570 - to sink into mud, B 1 SW - S 10m2 'mud'; W lum 2; B 10m2 'low place'; Sh 10m2 ; LNK 10m3 'muddy place in a road'; LCH, LMY lum 2 'to step into (mud, a hole, etc,)'; CM 10m 3 CN - LM 10m 2; WN lam 2 'to step into (mud, a hole)' N - Y lam 2 'to sink'; WM 10mS, 10m!; P bm s 0571 - to go down, A4 SW - S 101']\ W IU1']4; B, Sh 101']4; LNK 101']6; LCH, LMY IU1']4; CM 101']! CN - LP n01']4; LM 101']4; WN b1']4; LC nU1']4; PS, NM n01']4 N - Y r01']4; Sk b1']4; WM r01']2; P b1']2 0572 - to cast (metal), B 1 SW - S 1::):)2; W, B, Sh b 2 ; LNK b0 3 ; LCH, LMY b0 2 CN - WN 100 2 'to pour' 0573 - wheel, C4 SW - S b0 4; W b 6 'spool'; Sh b 5 'cart'; LNK bo s 'cart, wheel'; LCH, LMY b06 'cart; wheel'; CM b0 6 'oxcart' N - Sk I:d 'oxcart' (C?, probably < Lao); P luu 4 'to roll' 0574 - firewood, AI, (cf 0462) SW - W 10 1; B lua!; Sh lo!; LNK lua! 'bamboo used for firewood'; LCH, LMY loo!; CM lua2 CN - WN luu! 'small pieces of bamboo for firewood' N - Sk lua2 'bamboo firewood'

131

Comparative rai Source Book

0575 - loose-fitting, Al SW - S luam 5 ; W lom l; B Iuam l; Sh lom l; LNK lom l (modern luaml); LCH, LMYlum l N - Y lom l; WM Ivm l 0576 - uncle, older brother of either parent, A4 SW - S IUT]l; W, B, Sh IUT]4; LNK IUT]6; LCH, LMY lUT]\ CM IUT]l CN - LP, LM 10T]4; WN, LC IUT]4; PS, NM 10T]4 N - Sk lUT]\ WM, P lUT]2 0577 - to soak, B1, (cf. 0770) SW - S, W, B maa2 ; Sh maa 2 'to soak in liquor'; LNK maa3 ; LCH, LMY maa2 ; CM maa 3 CN - LP, LM, WN, PS, NM maa 2 N - Y ma2; Sk maa6; P maa2 (A4) 0578 - to increase, CI SW - W maa 3; B maa3 'interest, profit' CN - LP, LM maa 3; WN maa] 'to rise, of water'; LC, PS maa3 N - Y ma3 ; P maa3 0579 - classifier for tools, DL4 SW - W maa\ ma7 2, maa7 4; B maa7 5; Sh maak 3 CN - LP, LM, WN maak 5 ; LC maak4; PS, NM maak 5 N - Y faak 5; Sk maak 5, maak 6; WM faak 6 0580 - to mark; to intend, aim, Al SW - S maal; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY maayi; CM maa/ CN - LM, WN maayi N - Y maayl; Sk maay2; P maayl 0581 - to like, DS4 SW - S mak 4 'to be inclined to'; W mak4 ; B, Sh mak 5 ; LNK mak]; LMY mak 5 ; CM mak 6 N - Sk mak 6 0582 - he, it, A4

SW - S man l; W, B, Sh man 4; LNK man 6; LCH, LMY man 4 ; CM man! CN - LP min 4 ; WN man 4 ; LC m)(n 4 ; PS min\ NM men l N - Sk man 4 0583 - potato, A4

SW - S man l; W, B man4; Sh man 4 'sweet potato'; LNK man 6; LCH, LMY man 4; CM man' CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS man 4 N - Y, Sk man 4; P man 2 132

Cognates

0584 - oil, A4, (cf. 1076) SW - S man l; B, Sh man 4; LNK man 6; LCH, LMY man4; CM man l N - Sk man 4 0585 - porcupine, Cl SW - S men\ W min3 ; B, Sh men 3 ; LNK men4; LCH, LMY min 3; CM men 5 CN - LP, LM min 3 ; WN man 3 ; LC min 3; PS min 6 (C4); NM men 3 N - Sk man 3, men 3 0586 - to have, A4 SW - S miil; W, B, Sh mi4; LNK mii 6; LCH, LMY mii4; CM mii l CN - LP mii 4; LM mel; WN, LC, PS mii 4; NM mel N - Y mi 4; Sk mii\ WM m?; P mii 2 0587 - ditch, Al SW - S mwa1)5 'a mine'; W m¥1)\ B mwall l; Sh m¥1)1 'a dam'; LNK mwalll 'a mine'; LCH, LMY m¥lll; CM mwall2 CN - LP nW¥1)I; LM mww1)l; WN mWll\ LC m¥¥lll (current in the countryside); PS m¥¥1)1 N - Sk mwalll; WM mwa1)1 0588 - you, A4 SW - S mW1)I; W, B mWll4; Sh maUj4; LNK mWll6; LCH, LMY mW1)4; CM mW1)1 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS maUj4; NM malll N - Y, Sk mWll4; P mW1)2 0589 - mango, B4 SW - S mua1)3; W m01)5; B mua1)s; LNK mua1)3; LCH, LMY m01)5; CM mua1)4 (in each language preceded by the word for 'fruit') CN - WN m::J1)5 N - Y m01)5; Sk mia1)5 0590 - pig, Al SW - S muus; W, B, Sh mu l; LNK, LCH, LMY muu l; CM muu 2 CN - LP muu l; LM mow l; WN muu l; BY muu 2 ; LC, PS muu l ; NM now l N - Y mu l; Sk muu2 ; WM maw\ P muu l 0591 - mucus of the nose, DL4 SW - S muuk3 ; W mur; B mu7 5 ; LNK, LCH, LMY muuk 5 CN - LP mok s; LM mook 5 ; WN muk s; LC muk4; PS mok4 (DS4); NM muuk 5 N - Y muk l (DS4); Sk muuk 5; WM muk 5 (DL?); P muk 3 (DS4)

133

Comparative Tai Source Book

0592 - face, Cl SW - S, W, B, Sh naa3 ; LNK naa4 ; LCH, LMY naa\ CM naa5 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM naa3 N - Y na3 ; Sk, WM, P naa3 0593 - crossbow, Cl SW - S, W, B naa3 ; LNK naa4 ; LMY naa3 CN - WN naa3 N - Y nwa\ Sk nua 3 0594 - mother's younger sibling, C4 SW - S naa4 ; W, B naa 6 ; Sh na5 ; LNK naa 5 ; LCH, LMY, CM naa6 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS naa 5 (B4 in CN languages) N - Y na6 ; Sk naa 6 (C4 in N languages) 0595 - thick, AI, (cf. 0529) SW - S naa 5; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY naal; CM naa2 CN - LP, LM, WN naal; BV naa2; LC, PS, NM naal N - Y na 1; Sk naa 2; WM, P naa 1 0596 - otter, DL4 SW - S naak 3 ; W naa4 ; B naa7 5 CN - LP, LM, WN, PS, NM naak 5 N - Y naak 5 ; Sk naak5 ; WM naak 6 0597 - long (oftime), A4, (cf. 0975,1058,1155) SW - S naan 1; W, B, Sh naan 4 ; LNK naan 6 ; LCH, LMY naan 4 CN - LM, WN naan4 N - Y naan 4 ; WM naan 2 ; P naan 2 0598 - bored, Bl, (cf. 0411,1041 ) SW - S, W, B naay2; LNK naay1; LCB, LMY naayZ; CM naay1 CN - LP, LM, LC naayZ 'tired' N - Y naayZ; Sk naal; WM nwaal; P naal ('tired' in all four languages) 0599 - to soften over a fire, B4 SW - S naay1; B nal; Sh nay1; LCH, LMY nal; CM nal 0600 - skin, Al SW - S naTJ5; W, B, Sh, LNK, LCB, LMY naTJI; CM naTJ2 CN - LP, LM, WN naTJ1; BV naTJ2; LC, PS, NM na1")1 N - Y na1")l; Sk na1")2; WM, P na1")1

134

Cognates

060 I - in, inside, A4 SW - S nay!; W, B naLlj4 'yonder'; Sh naLlj4; LNK nal; LCH, LMY nay4; CM nayl CN - LP daLlj2 (A3); LM naLlj4; WN, LC, PS, NM daLljl (A3) N - Y daLljI; Sk ryyl; WM 7daLljl; P naLlj6 (A3 in N languages) 0602 - rotten, B4 SW - S naw3; W, B naws; Sh, LNK naw3; LCH, LMY naws; CM naw4 CN - LP, LM, WN, PS, NM naws N - Y, Sk naws; WM, P naw6 0603 - tough, sticky, AI, (cf. 1030) SW - S niaw 5; W new1; B niaw l; Sh new l; LNK niaw 1; LCH, LMY new 1 CN -LM neew l N - Y niaw l; Sk niaw2 0604 - to pinch or hold in claws, under the arm, DLl, (cf. 0139) SW - S niip2; W, B nip2; Sh nip3 (DL4); LNK, LMY niip2 CN - LP nip2 'to pick up with chopsticks'; LC nip2 'to pinch, to take with chopsticks' N - Y nip3 (DS I); Sk nii p6 (said to be < Lao) 0605 - pangolin, B4 SW - S nim 3 ; W, B lin 5 ; Sh, LNK lin\ LCH, LMY lin s CN - LP, LM, WN lins; NM lenS N - Y lin s; Sk WS (OG), !ins (YG); WM !in 6 0606 - meat, flesh, C4 SW - S nwa4 ; Sh nys; LNK nwa s; LCH, LMY nyy6 (also called cin 6 ) CN - LP nyy3; LM, WN nww 6 ; LC, PS, NM nww 6 N - Y n0 5 ; Sk mloo s; WM ny6; P no0 6 (B4 in N languages) 0607 - above, north, AI, (cf. 0414, 0808) SW - S nwa s; W nY\ B nwa l; Sh nyl; LNK nwa l ; LCH, LMY nyyl; CM nwa 2 CN - LP nyyl; LM, WN nww l ; BY nww 2; LC, PS, NM nww l 0608 - tired, B 1 SW - S nwayl; W nyyl; B nwayl; Sh noyl; LNK nwayl; LCH, LMY nyy2 CN - WN nwyl 0609 - worm, Al SW - S noons; W, B non 1; Sh non l 'maggot'; LNK noon!; LMY non!; CM noon 2 CN - LP, LM noon l ; WN non\ LC, PS, NM noon l N - Y non!; Sk nool 2 (OG), noon 2 (YG); WM nyn l ; P noon 1

135

Comparative rai Source Book

0610 - younger sibling, C4 SW - S nooTj4; W, B nOTj6; Sh nOTj5; LNK nooTj5; LCH, LMY nOTj6; CM nooTj6 CN - LP nooTj\ LM nooTj6; WN nOTj6; LC, PS, NM nooTj6 N - Y, Sk nuaTj6; WM nuaTj4; P nuuTj4 0611 - deaf, DLl SW - S nuak2 ; W n07 2 ; B nua7 2 ; Sh nok2; LNK nuak 2 ; LCH, LMY nook 2 CN - LP, LM nuuk2 ; WN nuk2 ; LC, PS, NM nuuk 2 N - Y nuk 3 (DS 1); Sk nuuk6; WM nuk 5; P nuk 2 (DS 1) 0612 - young, B1 SW - S num 2 (only of men); W, B num 2, nom2; Sh num 2 ; LNK num 3; LCH, LMY num 2; CM num 3 N - Sk num 6 (said to be < Lao) 0613 - kapok, B4, (cf. 0215) SW - S nun 3 ; W, B nun 5; Sh, LNK nun 3 ; LMY nuns N - Y nuns; Sk nun6 (C4, said to be < Lao) 0614 - to support, as with a pillow, Al SW - S nun 5; W, B, Sh mun l; LNK nun\ muun l; LCH, LMY nun l, mun l N - Sk muun2 0615 - rat, mouse, Al SW - S nuus; W, B, Sh nul; LNK, LCH, LMY nuu l; CM nuu 2 CN - LP nuu l; LM now l; WN nuu l; BY nuu 2 ; LC, PS nuu l; NM now l N - Y nul; Sk nuu 2 ; WM naw l; P nuu l 0616 - elephant's tusk, ivory, A4 SW - S Tjaa l; W, B, Sh Tjaa4; LNK Tjaa6; LCH, LMY Tjaa4; CM Tjaa l CN - LP yaa4; LM Tjaa\ yaa4 ; WN Tjaa4; PS yaa4 N - Y Tja4; Sk Tjaa4 0617 - sesame, A4 SW - S Tjaa l; W, B, Sh Tjaa\ LNK Tjaa6 ; LCH, LMY Tjaa4 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS Tjaa4; NM haa4 N - Y Tja4 , ra4 ; WM raa2 ; P l1aa2 0618 - (to lie) face up, Al SW - S Tjaa/; W, B haayl; Sh Tjaay\ haai 'to turn back or over'; LNK, LCH, LMY l1aayl CN - LM haayl; WN Tjaai N - Y haa/; Sk Tjaay2

136

Cognates

0619 - central root, C 1 SW - S T]aw l ; W, B hawl ; Sh T]awl 'bottom, foundation, origin'; LNK T]aw4 ; LCH, LMY T]awl CN - WN T]awl 'stem (of fruit), 0620 - to tilt the head back, Al SW - S T]ew\ W, B hen l; Sh T]enl 'to look up to, depend upon', hen l 'to turn up the face, to look up'; LNK hew I (modern T]eenl); LMY T]W I 0621 - mythical water creature, DL4 SW - S T]wak 3 ; W T]y4; B T]wa7 s; Sh T]yk3 'an alligator, crocodile'; LNK T]waks; LCH, LMY T]yyk5 CN - LP hvvk s; LM T]wwks; WN T]vks; LC T]yvk\ PS T]vykS N - Y T]wak s; Sk T]uaks; P T]WWk6 0622 - crippled, B4 SW - S T]:>l; w, B T]:>yl; LNK T]:>:>l 'lame'; LCH T]oyl; LMY T]:>Ys 'paralyzed' 0623 - mouth, DL2, (cf. 1158) SW - S paak2; W, B paa7 2 'to speak'; Sh paak2 'to speak; mouth'; LNK paak2; LCH, LMY paak2 'to speak' but 'mouth' in certain contexts; usual word is SOpl; CM paak3 'to speak, mouth' CN - LP paaks; LM, WN, LC, PS paak2; NM paak2, paa7 2 N - Y paak2; Sk paak6 ; WM, P paak5 0624 - kind of small frog, DL2 SW - S (ta 2) paat2; W (kOp2) paat2; B paat2; LNK (ta-) paae; LMY (xeee) paat2 CN - LP paatS; LM, PS paaf; NM paa7 2 N - Y paaf 0625 - to revolve, spin, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh pan 2; LNK pan l ; LCH, LMY pan 2 ; CM pan 3 CN - LP pans; LM, WN pan 2 ; Le, PS, NM pan 2 N - Y pan2 ; Sk pin6 ; panl, paJ 6 (OG), pan 6 (YG) 'to spin (cotton)'; P pans 0626 - year, A2, (cf. 0545) SW - S piP; w, B, Sh pi l; LNK pii 2; LCH, LMY pii l; CM pii 2 eN - LP pii 2 ; LM peyl; WN piil; BV pii 2 ; LC, PS piil; NM pei N - Y pi l; Sk pii\ WM pi l; P piil 0627 - banana blossom, A2 SW - S pliil; W, B, Sh pil; LNK pi?; LCH, LMY piil; eM pii 2 eN - LP pie; LM peyl; LC, PS piil; NM pei N - Sk pi iii (OG), priil (YG); P piil

137

Comparative rai Source Book

0628 - bark, shell, DL2 SW - S plwak2; W p¥7 2; B pwa7 2; Sh p¥k 2; LNK pwak2; LCH, LMY p¥¥k2; CM pwak 3 CN - LP p¥¥k s; LM pWWk2; WN pik 2; LC, PS p¥¥k 2; NM pWWk2 N - Sk plaak 6 (OG), praak 6 (YG); WM plwk s (pluk 5 ?) 0629 - naked, A2 SW - S plway'; B pway'; Sh poy'; LNK pway2; LCH p¥y'; LMY p¥y', poy'; CMpway2 N - Sk pway' 0630 - lung, DL2 SW - S pooe; w, B, Sh poe; LNK, LCH, LMY poot2 CN - LP p¥tS; LM p¥e (DS2); WN poe; LC, PS p¥t2; NM pooe N - Y pue; WM putS; P pwt2 (DS2 in N languages) 0631 - to be graciously pleased, DL2 SW - S prooe; LNK pooe; LCH, LMY phooe; CM phooe N - Sk phoot6 0632 - crab, A2 SW - S puu'; W, B, Sh pu'; LNK puu 2 ; LCH, LMY puu'; CM puu2 CN - LP puu2; LM pow'; WN, LC, PS puu'; NM pow' N - Y, Skpaw' 0633 - cliff, rock, A I SW - S phaas; W phaa'; B faa'; LNK, LCH, LMY phaa'; CM phaa2 CN - LP, LM phyaa'; WN phaa'; LC, PS, NM phyaa' N - Sk phraa 2; WM plaa'; P pyaa' 0634 - forehead, DLl SW - S phaak2; LNK, LCH, LMY phaak 2 CN - LP, LM phyaak2; WN phaak2; LC, PS, NM phyaak2 N - Y pyaak 2 ; Sk phraak6 ; WM plaak 5 ; P pyaak5 0635 - to walk, Cl SW - S phaai (usual word is d¥¥n'); W phaai; Sh phaai 'to go'; LCH, LMY phaay3 'to pass' CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM phyaayl N - Y pyaal; WM plaal; P pyaay3 0636 - to rest, DS4 SW - S phak 4 ; LMY phak\ CM phak 6 CN - LP phak 5 ; LM pak\ LC pak4 'tired, fatigue'

138

Cognates

0637 - to collapse, A4 SW - S phaTJ\ B, Sh paTJ4; LNK phaTJ6; LCH, LMY paTJ4 CN - LM paTJ4 0638 - to burn (transitive), AI, (cf. 0212) SW - S phaws; W phaw l; B faw l; Sh, LNK, LCH, LMY phaw l CN - LM phyawl; WN phaw l N - Y piaw l; Sk phraw2; WM plaw l; P pyaw l 0639 - spicy hot, DSl, (cf. 0890,1065) SW - S, W phee; B fee; Sh phd; LNK, LCH, LMY phet l; CM phet2 CN - LP phit2; LM phyae; WN phat6; LC phie; PS phd N - Sk phd (said to be < Siamese) 0640 - expensive, A4 SW - S phEETJI; W, B pETJ4; Sh P8TJ4 'to put away'; LNK ph88TJ6; LCH, LMY pETJ4; CM PEETJI CN - LP pheeTJ4; LM peeTJ4; WN peTJ 4; LC, NM peeTJ4 N - Y pe114; Sk phEE114; P peeTJ2 0641 - ghost, AI, (cf. 0849) SW - S phiis; W phil; B fil; Sh phil; LNK, LCH, LMY phiil; CM phii2 CN - LP phiil; LM pheyl; WN, LC, PS phiil; NM pheyl N - Sk phiil (in certain phrases; usual word is maaTJ4) 0642 - taro, DLl SW - S phwak2; B fwa7 2; Sh phvk2; LNK phwak2; LCH, LMY phvvk2; CM phwak3 CN - LP phvvk2; LM phywwk2; WN phik2; LC phvvk2 'kind of potato'; PS phvvk2; NM phywwk 2 N - Y pwak 2; WM plwaks; P piiks 0643 - to slip and fall, DL4 SW - S phlaae; W phaat4; B pi[ 21aat5; Sh phaae 'to go by, pass by' CN - LM pyaat5; LC pyaat4 N - Y pyaatS ; Sk thlvvt S (OG), thrvvt 5 (YG); P pyaat6 0644 - enough, A4, (cf. 1000) SW - S ph:>:>I; W, B, Sh p:>4; LNK ph:>:>6; LCH, LMY p:>:>4; CM p:>:>l N - Sk pho:>4 0645 - thin (not fat), AI, (cf. 0405) SW - S ph:>:>m5; W ph:>ml; B bml; Sh y:>ml; LNK ph:>:>ml; LCH, LMY y:>ml (both places also have phom l in certain expressions); CM ph:>om 2 CN - LM yoom l; WN phom l; LC phyoom l N - Y pyom l; Sk phro:>m2; WM plvml; P pyoom l 139

Comparative Tai Source Book

0646 - big knife, machete, C4 SW - S phraa4; W, B paa6 ; Sh pha\ LNK phaa\ LCH, LMY phaa6 (general term for knife) CN - LP phyaa3; LM pyaa6 ; WN paa6 ; LC, PS, NM pyaa6 N - Y sa6 ; Sk thaa6; WM, P saa4 0647 - to separate, DL4 SW - S phraak3; W paa74; B paa7 s; Sh phaak3; LNK, LCH, LMY phaaks; CM phaak4 CN - LP phyaak5; LM pyaakS; LC pyaak\ PS pyaak S N - Y pyaak5; WM plaak 6 ; P pyaak6 0648 - to deceive, A4 SW - S phraa,,\ Sh phaa,,4 'unsubstantial, empty, void; unable to see' (last meaning cognate with S faa,,!, 1154); LNK phaa,,6 'to conceal'; LCH, LMY phaa,,4 CN - LM pyaa,,4; LC pyaa,,4 (current in the countryside) N - P pyaall2 0649 - common people, B4 SW - S phrai; W, B pal; LCH, LMY phays CN - LM pyal 0650 - late meal, A4 SW - S phraw! (obsolete); LCH, LMY phaw4 CN - LP phyaw4; LM pyaw4 ; WN paw4 ; LC, PS, NM pyaw4 N - Y saw4 ; WM, P saw2 0651 - silk cloth, A4 SW - S phm;!; W, B PE 4 ; Sh phE4 'satin'; LNK phEE 6 ; LCH, LMY phEE4, h8E 4 0652 - pepper, DS4 SW - S phrik4; LNK phik3 ; LCH, LMY phik 5 ; CM phik6 0653 - altogether, C4 SW - S phroom 4; W, B pom 6 ; Sh phom 5; LNK phooms; LCH, LMY phom 6 ; CM phoom 6 N - Sk phroom 6 ; P som 4 0654 - half gone, partly empty, B4 SW - S phroll3; LNK phoOll3; CM phO,,4 'some' CN - LP phyoo"S; LM pyoo"S; WN POlls 'half'; LC pyoo"S 'half'; PS pYOOll5 N - Y pyo,,5 'halffull'; Sk phroo"s, phroll5 (fast speech); P pYOOll6

140

Cognates

0655 - tomorrow, DL4 (?) SW - S phruT]3 (nii4) (?); B pu7 s; Sh phuk3; LCH, LMY phuk s CN - LP phyokS, choks; LM coks; WN pykS; LC pyuk4; PS pyokS; NM tuuk s N - Y soks; Sk th~~k5; WM syk6 ; P sook 6 0656 - husband, Al SW - S phua 5 ; W pho!; B fua!; Sh pho!; LNK phua'; LCH, LMY phoo!; CM phua2 CN - WN phuu' 0657 - mountain, A4, (cf. 0778,1002) SW - S phuu'; W, B pu4; LNK phuu6 ; LCH, LMY puu 4 0658 - person, Cl, (cf. 0145) SW - S phuu3; W phu 3 ; B fu 3; Sh phu 3 ; LNK, LCH, LMY phuu 3 ; CM phuu s CN - LP phuu 3 ; LM phow3 ; WN phuu 3 ; LC puu 3; PS phuu 3 ; NM phowl N - Y pu 6 ; Sk phuu 6 ; WM paw4 (C4 in N languages) 0659 - to tie, DLI, (cf. 0210, 0839) SW - S phuuk2; W phu7 2; B fu7 2; Sh phuk2; LNK phuuk 2 CN - LP phok2; LM phyokl; WN phuk 6 ; LC phuk 2 (DSI in LP, LM, WN, LC); PS phok2; NM suuk 2 N - Y suk! (DS4) 0660 - to vomit, DL4 SW - S raak l ; W haa4; B haa7 5; Sh haak3 ; LNK, LCH, LMY haak s; CM haak 4 CN - LP 'l-aak s; LM laak\ LC 'l-aak 4 ; PS, NM 'l-aaks N - Y, Sk ruak s; WM ruak6 0661 - bran, A4, (cf. 1118) SW - S ram'; W, B, Sh ham4; LNK ham 6 ; LCH ham 4 (literary lam4); LMY ham4 CN - LP 'l-am\ LM lam4; WN oam 4; LC 'l-am 4 'pig feed', hm s 'bran'; PS, NMtam4 N - Y, Sk ram4; WM ram 2; P lam2 0662 - chicken louse, A4 SW - S ray'; B hal; LNK hal; LCH, LMY hal CN - LP 'l-al; LM Ial; WN oal; LC, PS tal; NM Iel N - Y ri 4; Sk rii4; WM roy2; P Ii? 0663 - first, DL4 SW - S m:k 3; B h87 5 ; LNK, LMY h88k s; CM h88kl

141

Comparative rai Source Book

0664 - rhinoceros, DL4 SW - S m:e; W hd; B hEtS; Sh hEt\ LNK hEEtS (modern IEEt S); LCH, LMY hEEtS N - Y ret 5; Sk rEEtS 0665 - long, A4, (cf. 0729) SW - S fiil (usual word is yaawl); W, S, Sh hi4; LNK hii 6 'oval' CN - LP ::>k3; W h::>4; B h::>75; LNK (ka-) h::>::>k5; LMY h::>::>k5 CN - LP took 5; LM lok 5; WN o::>k 5 N - Y rok 5; Sk fO::>k 5 0889 - a room, OS4, (cf. 0683) SW - B luk5; Sh luk4 (DS?) CN - WN ouk4 'bedroom' N - Y ruk l 'bedroom'; WM ruk 6 ; P luk 3 0890 - spicy hot, DL4, (0639, 1065) Not in SW languages N - Y saat5 ; Sk thaat 5 0891 - fishtrap, A4 SW - S sayl; W, B sal; Sh shal; LNK sal; LCH, LMY sal CN - LP tay4; LM, WN sal; LC tal N - Y 8al; Sk yal 0892 - splinter, Cl SW - S, B sian 3 ; Sh shen3; LNK sian4; LCH, LMY sen3 CN - WN cen 6 (C4) N - Y sen 6 ; Sk kheel 6 COG), kheen 6 (YG) (C4 in N languages) 0893 - to see (someone) off, Bl SW - S SOT}2; W SUT}2; B SOT}2; Sh ShOT}2; LNK 50T}3; LCH, LMY SUT}2 CN - LP 'l-OT}2; LM SOT}2; WN SOT}2; LC 'l-UT}2; PS, NM tOT}2 N - Sk COT}6 0894 - to put on, wear, C2, (cf. 1031) Not in SW languages N - Y tan 3; Sk ten 3; WM, P tan 3

167

Comparative rai Source Book

0895 - to set up, C2 SW - S, W, B, Sh tall3; LNK tall5; LCH, LMY tall3 CN - LP, LM, WN tall3; LC tall3 'to erect, build'; PS, NM tall3 N - Y, Sk tall3 0896 - shuttle of the loom, B2, (cf. 0197) Not in SW languages CN - LM pyaw5; WN thaw (B I) N - Y taw2; WM raw 5 (B?); P taw 5 0897 - turtle, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh taw 2 ; LNK taw1; LCH, LMY taw2 CN - WN taw2 N - Sk r::>::>4 (A4, probably not cognate) 0898 - to hunt, B2? Not in SW languages CN - LP phyaw l (AI); LM phyaw4 (A?); LC, PS phyaw2 N - Y taw2; P taw 5 0899 - to warn, A2 SW - S twan l ; LNK twan 2; LCH, LMY t¥nl CN - WNtwn l N - Y twan 2 (B2); WM twan l ; P twwn l 0900 - wild, forest, B 1, (cf. 0258, 0448) SW - S thwan2; W th¥n 2; B thwan 2 ; Sh th¥n 2 ; LNK thwan 3; LCH, LMY th¥n2 CN - LP th¥¥n 2; LM thwwll2; LC thnnl (A?) N - Y twan 5; Sk thual 5 (OG), thuan 5 (YG); WM twanG; P twwn 6 (B4 in N languages) 090 I - to wake up (intransitive), B2, (cf. 0280) SW - S twwn 2 ; W, B, Sh twn 2; LNK twwn\ LCH, LMY twn 2 CN - LP t¥n5; LM t¥n2; WN twn 2; LC, PS tin 2; NM ten 2 N - Y rwn 2 0902 - to castrate, A2 SW - S t::>::>n 1; W, B, Sh, LCH, LMY t::>nl CN - LP toon 2 ; LM toon l; WN toni; LC, PS toon l ; NM toon 2 (tone? toon l) N - Y toni; Sk t::>::>n 1; WM t'1(n 1 0903 - to argue, Al SW - S thiall5; W thell l; B thialll; Sh thell l; LNK thiall l; LCH, LMY thelll CN - LM khiilll; WN celli N - Y sell I ; Sk thiall2

168

Cognates

0904 - to pull out, Al SW - S tho:m 5; Sh thon l; LNK thoon l; LMY thon l N - Sk tuun l 'to take off, remove' 0905 - to flood, Cl SW - S thuam 3; W, Sh thom 3; LNK thuam 4 ; LCH, LMY thom 3 CN - LP thoom 3 (thuum 3?); LM thuum 3; WN thum 3; LC, PS thuum 3 N - Y turnS 'to flood' (B4), tum 6 'covered by water or earth' (C4) (which is cognate?); Sk thum6 (C4) 0906 - whole area of fields, B4 SW - S thu113; B tOllS; Sh t0113; LNK tho113; LCH, LMY tUllS CN - LP tho115; LM tOllS; WN t0115; NM t0115 N - Y t0115; Sk tho115 0907 - rattan, Al SW - S waa/; W, B vaayl; Sh, LNK waay I; LCH, LMY vaal CN - LP, LM, WN, LC vaayl N - Y vaayl; Sk vaay2; WM waal 0908 - to fan, a fan, A4 SW - S wiil; W, B vi 4 ; Sh wi 4; LNK wii 6; LCH, LMY vii 4 CN - LP vii4; LM vel; WN, LC, PS vii 4 ; NM vel N - Y vj2 'to winnow' (B?); Sk phii4; WM poy2 0909 - to broil, C3 SW - S, W, B, Sh yaa113; LNK yaa115; LCH, LMY yaa113 CN - LM, WN yaa113 N - Y yia116; Sk yua113 'to smoke fish, meat, etc.'; WM 7ywa113 0910 - to smell bad, AI, (cf. 0867) SW - S mens; W mini; Sh, LNK men l; LCH, LMY mini CN - WN man l 0911 - soft, C1, 2, 3 or B4? SW - S nim 3 0912 - hundred, DL2, (cf. 0315) SW - Sh, LCH, LMY paak2 CN - LP paak5; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM paak2 0913 - figure, shape, B4 SW - S raa113 'frame, sketch'; Sh haa113; LCH, LMY haa115

169

Comparative Tai Source Book

0914 - mattress, B 1 SW - S swa2 'mat'; W S)(2; B swa 2 ; Sh sl1)(2 'to spread open, as a mat'; LNK swa 3 ; LCH, LMY S)()(2 'to spread' CN - WN sww 2 N - Sk swa6 0915 - to bend or straighten, DS3 SW - S dae; Sh lat4 ; LCH, LMY datI CN - LM myae N - Sk det\ blet4 0916 - to pluck, DS2, (cf. 0440) SW - S pIie; W, B pie; Sh pit4 0917 - kind of vegetable, DL2 SW - S, W, B, LCH, LMY kaat2 CN - LP kaae; LM, WN kaat2; LC laa4 kaaf 'a kind of potato' (LC perhaps not the same vegetable); PS, NM kaae N - Sk kek4 (DS2) 0918 - to be afraid, A2, (cf. 0728, 0840) SW - S klua l ; Sh kOI; LNK kua2; LCH, LMY kOOI 0919 - half-grown, fairly large, B 1 SW - S khwa112; LCH, LMY X)(11 2 CN - LP kh)()(11 2; LM khwW112; WN khw112 0920 - to kneel, DS4, (cf. 0970) SW - S khuk4 ; Sh khup 5; LCH, LMY XOp5 (xaw2) CN - LM kok4 'to bend the knee' N - Sk thuk6 0921 - to surround, A4, (cf. 1102) SW - S khum l ; Sh kum 4 ; LNK khum 6 ; LCH, LMY kum 4 0922 - vine, AI, (cf. 0538) SW - S khaw 5; W khaw l CN - LP, LM, WN, PS khaw l ; NM hawl 0923 - pond, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM thom l ; LC thum l; PS thol11 1

170

Cognates

0924 - dregs, B 1, (cf. 0993) SW - S saa2; B saa2 'yeast'; Sh, LCH, LMY saa2 CN - LM saa 2 'wine dregs'; PS caa 2 'wine dregs' N - Sk saa6 0925 - millet, CI SW - S, LCH, LMY faa1l3 CN - LP, LM, WN, NM phaa1l3 N - Sk via1l3 0926 - tobacco, A3 Not in SW languages CN - LP yiin 2; LM 7iin4; LC 7iin 2 (B?, Li says < Chinese); PS, NM yiin l 0927 - to pickle, DL3, (cf. 0053) SW - W 7¥p2; LNK 7wap2 CN - LP 7¥¥ps; LM 7WWp2; LC, PS 7¥¥p2; NM 7Up2 N - Sk 7wap 6 0928 - warm, B3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7un2; LNK 7un3; LCH, LMY 7un 2 CN - LP 70n 5 ; LM 70n 2 ; WN 7un 2; LC 7un 2 'to cook slowly for a long time' 0929 - to have sexual intercourse, CI SW - W, B si 3; LNK sii 4 ; LCH, LMY sii 3 0930 - to hold in the mouth, A3 SW - S 70m l ; W 7um l ; B, Sh 70m\ LNK 70m 2; LCH 7um l ; LMY 7um4 CN - LP 70m 2; LM 70m 4 ; WN 7um l ; PS 70m l ; NM hom l N - Y 7am 2, 7um 2 (B3); Sk 7am l 0931 - basin, B3 SW - S, W, B, Sh 7aa1l2; LNK 7aa1l3; LCH, LMY 7aa1l2 CN - LP 7aalls; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM 7aa1l2 N - Y 7aa1l2; Sk 7aa1l6 0932 - to set up (a bed), A3, (cf. 0990) Not in SW languages CN - LP 7aan 2 ; LM 7aan 4 ; PS, NM 7aan l 0933 - to read, B3 SW - S, W, B 7aan 2 ; Sh 7aan 2 - 'to read aloud, as a scholar, count'; LNK 7aan3 ; LCH, LMY 7aan 2 'to read, to count' CN - LP ?aan s; LM, WN 7aan 2; LC 7aan 2 ('to count' in CN languages) N - Sk 7aan l (A3?)

171

Comparative rai Source Book

0934 - to lean back, A3, (cf. 0755) Not in SW languages CN - LP 7aay2; LM 7aa/; LC 7ii 3 7aayl 'arm-chair'; PS, NM 7aay1 0935 - father's younger brother, A3, (cf. 0752) SW - S 7aa 1; W, B 7aaw l ; Sh 7aaw l 'father's younger brother or husband of father's younger sister', same as 7aa\ LNK 7aaw2 ; LCH 7aaw1; LMY 7aaw 4 CN - LM, WN 7aaw; LC 7aaw2 'father's younger brother or husband offather's younger sister'; PS 7aaw (B3 in CN languages) N - Y 7aaw1; Sk 7aaw s (B4); WM 7aaw 1 0936 - classifier for things, A3 SW - S, W, B 7an 1; Sh 7an 1 'which, that which; a substantive particle'; LNK 7an 2 ; LCH 7an 1; LMY 7an 4 CN - LP 7an 2; LM 7an 4 ; WN, LC, NM 7an 1 N - Sk 7al l (OG), 7an 1 (YG) 0937 - mirror, B2 Not in SW languages CN - LP kiiTJs; LM kiiTJ2; WN ciTJ2; PS, NM kiiTJ2 0938 - gold, A2 (cf. 0117) Not in SW languages CN - LP kim 2; LM kiml; WN cim 1; LC, PS kiml; NM kyom 1 N - Y cim 1; WM kiml 0939 - sword, B2, (cf. 0433) Not in SW languages CN - LP kiim s; LM, LC, PS, NM kiim 2 0940 - a saw, to saw, B2, (cf. 0192) SW - W kw s (B4) CN - LP b"¥'s; LM bUj2; WN chww 2; LC, PS kww 2 ; NM kaUj2 N - Y kw 2 0941 - work (noun), A2, (cf. 0722) Not in SW languages CN - LP kOTJ2; LM kOTJ1; WN kaTJ 6 (C4); LC kUTJI (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM kOTJ1 0942 - buttocks, C2 SW - S kon 3 ; W kun3 ; B, Sh kon 3 ; LNK kon s; LCH, LMY kun 3 CN - LP kon 3 ; LM kom 3 , kom 2 ; LC kun 3 ; PS, NM kon 3

172

Cognates

0943 - seed, hard core, B2, (cf. 0213, 0457) SW - S, W, B, Sh ken2; LNK kEEn2 (A2); LCH kEn 2 ; LMY kEnl (A2) CN - LP keen 5; LM keen 2; WN cen 2; PS keen 2 ('hard' in CN languages) N - Sk keel 6 (OG), keen 6 (YG) 0944 - fishbone, C2 SW - S, W, 8, Sh kaaYjl; LNK kaaYj5; LCH, LMY kaaYjl CN - LP, LM, PS, NM kaalll N - Sk kaa,,3 0945 - to take up in the two cupped hands, DL2 SW - S bOp2; B, Sh kOp2; LCH, LMY kOOp2 CN - LP koops; LM kOOp2; WN bp2; LC, PS, NM kOOp2 0946 - door latch, A2 SW - S kb:m l 'door latch; rafter'; W bn l 'roofbeam'; B bnl; Sh bn l 'rafter'; LNK bon 2; LCH, LMY bn l CN - LP coon2; LM, LC, PS, NM kyoon l ('to close a door or window' in CN languages) 0947 - price, B2, (cf. 0500) Not in SW languages CN - LP kyaa S; LM kyaa2; WN caa2 ; LC, PS kyaa2 0948 - shelf above a fire, B 7 SW - W caa l (C7); Sh khaa2 (87); LCH, LMY xaa2 (B7) CN - LP kyaa5; LM kyaa2; WN chaa 2; PS kyaa2 (B2 in CN languages) N - Sk thraa6 (C4) 0949 - melon, A2 SW - S kwaa l 'cucumber'; LCH, LMY kwaa l 'kind of gourd' CN - LP kwaa 2; LM, LC, PS, NM kwaa l 0950 -to roll up, C2 SW - W kon 3 CN - LP, LM kwiin l ; LC kwiin 3 (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM kwiin 3 0951 - to chop, DLI, (cf. 0466) SW - W khwe7 2; B khia7 2 CN - LP, LM, LC khiik2 0952 - bridge, A4 (cf. 0544) Not in SW languages CN - LP khiiw4 ; LM, LC, PS, NM kiiw4 N - Y ciaw4 ; Sk khaw4 ; WM kiaw2

173

Comparative Tai Source Book

0953 - penis, A4 SW - S khuai; W xway4; B kuay4; Sh kway4, kay4; LNK khol; LCH, LMYkway4 CN - LP, LM, WN, PS, NM vay4 0954 - turbid, DS4, (cf. 0162) Not in SW languages CN - LP khot4; LM kot4; LC kut4 taae; PS, NM kot4 0955 - to feed, AI, (cf. 0187) SW - S khun s; LNK khun 1 CN - LP, LM khon 1; LC khun 1; PS, NM khon 1 0956 - scissors, C2 SW - W, Bk&~ CN - LP kheew4; LM, LC, PS, NM keew4 (A4 in CN languages) N - Sk h&w3 (Could all these be cognate with S khiaw 1 'sickle'?) 0957 - classifier for garments, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP kho1l4; LM luu1l4; WN, LC kU1l4; PS kOTj4; NM tOTj4 0958 - indigo, Bl, (cf. 0534) Not in SW languages CN - LP khon s (B?); LM khon 2 ; WN khun 2 ; PS, NM khon 2 0959 - to cut, B4, (cf. 0692) Not in SW languages CN - LP khee s; LM keeS, hees; WN h&&s; LC, PS, NM kee 5 0960 - branch, B4, (cf. 0488) SW - W xaas; B Tjaas; Sh khaa 3; LNK Tjaa3; LCH, LMY xaas 'fork in a road' CN - LP khaas; LM, WN Tjaas; LC. PS kaa s; NM 11aas N - Sk 11aas 0961 - ape, B4 SW - S khaa113; Sh kaa113; LNK khaa113; LCH, LMY kaa115 CN - LP khaalls; LM, PS, NM kaa115 N - Sk khaa115, khaa116 (C4) 0962 - threshold, C4 Not in SW languages CN - LP khaam 3; LM, WN, LC, PS kaam 6

174

Cognates

0963 - to squeeze, massage, C4 SW - S khan 4; W, B kan6 ; Sh kan s 'to wrestle, ravish'; LNK khans; LCH, LMY kan 6 CN - LP khan 3; LM kan 6 ; WN kan 6 'to wrestle'; NM kan 6 N - Sk khal 6 (OG), khan 6 (YG) 0964 - tight, OS4 SW - S khap4; W kap4; B, Sh kaps; LNK khap3; LCH, LMY kap5 CN - LP kap2 (DS2?); LM kap3 (OS2?); WN kap\ LC, PS, NM kap4 (,narrow' in CN languages) 0965 - shady, cloudy, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, LC, PS kham 1; NM ham 1 0966 - swollen, B4, (cf. 0769, 0785) SW - W, B kaLlj5; Sh kaLlj3; LCH, LMY kal CN - LP khaLlj5; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM kat.ljs 0967 - crooked, hunchback, A4, (cf. 0147) SW - LCH, LMY kl0 4 ; PS ko0 4 CN - LP kho0 4; LM, LC ko0 4 0968 - poor; difficult, C I, (cf. 0390) SW - W kh0 3; B kh0 2 (8?) CN - LP kho0 3; LM ho0 3 ; LC, PS, NM kho0 3 0969 - a hook, Al SW - S khoos; W xo l ; B, Sh khol; LNK, LCH, LMY xo0 1 CN - LP kho0 4 (A4); LM, WN, PS khoOI N - Sk ho0 2 0970 - to kneel down, B4, (cf. 0920) Not in SW languages CN - LP khwii 5 ; LM kweyS; WN kii s; LC kwii 5 0971 - cupboard, B4, (cf. 0705) SW - W kul (B2?) CN - LP khwii 5 ; LM kweyS; WN kii 5 ; LC, PS kwii 5; NM kweys 0972 - fist, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP khwiin 4 ; LM kwiin 4; WN kin 4; LC kam l kwiin 4 'to make a fist'; PS, NM kwiin 4

175

Comparative Tai Source Book

0973 - trousers, B 1 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM khwaa2 ; WN khaa 2; LC, PS khwaa2 ; NM vaa2 0974 - cave (actually a recess beneath a projection in a cliff), A4, (cf. 0365) Not in SW languages CN - LP 11¥¥m4; LM l1wwm4; WN l1um4; LC 11¥¥m4 (Li says < Chinese); PS 11¥¥m4; NM l1wwm4 0975 - time, turn, DL4, (cf. 0597,1058,1155) SW - S l1uae; B l1uat5; LNK lluat 5 CN - LP vuue; LM l1uut5; LC l1uut4 ('month' in CN languages) 0976 - to look, A4, (cf. 1094) SW - Sh 110l 'to look at slyly' CN - LP, LM, LC, PS 1100l 0977 - first (month), A2 SW - W cel1!; B cial1\ Sh sell!; LCH, LMY cell! CN - LP cill2; LM ciil1!; WN cil1\ LC, PS, NM ciil1! N - Sk ciall! 0978 - blanket, A2, (cf. 1128) SW - W cen! CN - LP ciin 2 ; LM, PS, NM ciin! 0979 - to turn, B2 Not in SW languages CN - LP ciin 5; LM, PS, NM ciin 2 0980 - wall, A4, (cf. 0058) Not in SW languages CN - LP fi114; LM, WN, LC, PS cill4; NM s¥11 4 0981 - to cook, C2 Not in SW languages CN - LP C¥¥3; LM C¥1l.f3; LC, PS cww 3 0982 - to fry, A2 SW - W, B cEn! CN - LP ceen 2 ; LM ceen!; WN cen!; PS, NM ceen! 0983 - bottomless cage, C2 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, LC, PS caam 3

176

Cognates

0984 - raised net, A2, (the type of net called yoo! in S) SW - Sh sam!; LCH, LMY cam! CN - LP cam 2 ; LM, WN, LC, PS cam! 0985 - thousand, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM chiin!; LC siin! (Li says < Chinese); PS siin!; NM siin! 0986 - money, A4, (cf. 0250) SW - W, B cEn 4 CN - LP cheen4; LM ceen 4; WN cen4; LC ceen 4 (Li says < Chinese); PS ceen 4; NM seen 4 0987 - fork, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM chaa!; WN chaa 6 (C4); LC saa!; PS, NM saa! 0988 - wrong, incorrect, BI 7, (cf. 0295) SW - W caas 'false' (B4) CN - LP, LM chaa 2 (BI); WN saa3 (CI 7); LC saa2 (B I 7); PS, NM saa2 (B I) 0989 - it is, B4 SW - S chai; W cws; Sh sa~3 'true, certain'; LCH, LMY cal CN - LP chyyS; LM Cy~5; WN ca~s; LC cww S 'to be; to belong'; PS cww s; NM ca~s 0990 - bed, A4, (cf. 0932) SW - W COTl4; LCH, LMY COTl 4 'bed of a monk' CN - LP chooTl4; LM COOTl4; WN COTl4; LC cooTl 4 (,table' in CN languages) 099l - to hide, C3, (cf. 0806,1001) Not in SW languages CN - LP dii 3; LM nii 3 ; LC, PS dii 3 0992 - navel, C3 (cf. 0050) Not in SW languages CN - LP -dii3; LM -ney3; WN, PS -die 0993 - wine dregs, B3, (cf. 0924) Not in SW languages CN - LP dyyS; LM nww2 ; LC, PS dww 2 ; NM dww 4 0994 - to smell something, A3 SW - S dom!; W dum!; B dom!; Sh nom!; LNK dom 2 ; LCH dum!; LMY dum 4 CN - LP dom 2 ; WN dom! N - Sk dam! 177

Comparative Tai Source Book

0995 - numb, benumbed by cold, e3 SW - Sh laaTJ3 eN- LP daaTJ3; LM naa'll3; Le daa'lll ('cold' in eN languages) 0996 - idle, free, A3, (cf. 11 05) SW - S, W, B daayl; Sh laayl 'to be empty, barren, alone'; LeH daayl; LMY daa/ eN - LP daaf; LM naa/; WN daayl; Le, PS, NM daayl N - Sk dyyyl 0997 - to make a fire, A3, (cf. 0818) SW - W da'lll eN - LP da'll2; LM na'll4; WN, LC, PS, NM da'lll 0998 - to sting, e3 SW - B dan 3 eN - LP dan\ LM nan 3; WN, Le danl ('to itch' in eN languages) 0999 - to swim under water, A3 SW - S, W, B dam\ Sh lam I 'to dive'; LeH daml; LMY dam 4 eN - LP dam 2 ; LM nam4 ; WN, PS, NM dam l 1000 - enough, A3, (cf. 0644) SW - B no l eN - LP do0 2 ; LM no0 4; Le, PS, NM doo l 1001 - to hide, take shelter, e3, (0806, 0991) Not in SW languages eN - LP do0 3 ; LM no0 3 ; Le, PS do0 3 1002 - hill, e3, (cf. 0657, 0778) Not in SW languages eN - LP doo'll3; LM noo'll3; Le doo'll3 'wilderness; outskirts ofa village'; PS, NM doo'll3 1003 - to hit, play, etc. (in phrases), DS2 SW - S, W, B tok 2 ; Sh twk4; LNK, LCH, LMY tok l eN - LP tYk2 ; LM tyk3; WN tyk 6 (in many expressions, but thok 6 paa l 'to fish'); Le tik 2 'to do, to cause' N - Sk twk 4 1004 - earth, dirt, A2, (cf. 0445) SW - S tom l 'mud' eN - LP tom2 ; LM tom l; Le tum l; PS, NM tom l

178

Cognates

1005 - to light (fire, lamp), C2, (cf. 0688) Not in SW languages CN - LP tiim 3 , teem 3 ; LM tiim 3 ; WN tem3 ; LC, PS, NM teem) 1006 - hot; angry, C3, (cf. 0314) Not in SW languages CN - LP diiw); LM niiw) , to scorch'; LC, PS, NM diiw l 1007 - plugged up, A2, (cf. 0014) SW - S, W, B tan l; Sh tan l 'to be solid, have no cavity'; LNK tan 2 ; LCH, LMYtan l CN - LP tan 2 ; LM tan! N - Sk tEn! 1008 - to hold, contain, A2 Not in SW languages CN - LP to0 2; LM tool; WN to0 4 (A4); LC, PS, NM tool 1009 - kind of wasp, B2 SW - S t:):)2; W, B t0 2 ; Sh t0 2 'a large hornet'; LNK to:)3; LCH, LMY t:):)2 CN - LP too S; LM, WN, PS, NM to0 2 N - Sk to0 6 1010 - to gamble, C2 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM to0 3 N - Sk to0 3 'to challenge' 1011 - a piece, lump, 82 SW - B t:)n 2 ; LNK to:)n 3; LCH, LMY t:)n 2 CN - LP toon S 'a meal'; LM toon 2 'a meal'; LC toon 2 'meal, numeral classifier of meals'; PS toon 2 'meal' 1012 - to listen, hear, 84, (cf. 0735, 0869) Not in SW languages CN - LP thi1l5; LM tillS; LC, PS tillS; NM t)(1l5

lOB - sugar, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP th)()(lll; LM thwwlll; WN thwlll; LC th¥¥lll (Li says < Chinese); PS th¥¥lll; NM thwWll! 1014 - to swallow, AI, (cf. 0816) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM th¥nl; WN thwn 6 (C4); PS th¥n!; NM then!

179

Comparative Tai Source Book

1015 - chopsticks, B 1 SW - W, B, Sh thu 2 ; LCH, LMY thuu 2 CN - LP thuu 2 ; LM thow2 ; WN, PS thuu 2 ; NM thallj2 N - Sk thww S, thuu S (B4) 1016 - kind of basket, C1 SW - W thU1)3 CN - LP, LM th01)3 'bucket'; PS, NM th01)3 1017 - wet, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP thom 4; LM tom 4 ; LC tum 4 1018 - to carry on the back, C4, (cf. 1043) Not in SW languages CN - LP thee\ LM, LC, PS tee6 1019 - to smear, A4 SW - S thaa 1; W, B, Sh taa4 ; LNK thaa6 ; LCH, LMY taa4 CN - LP thaa4 ; LM, WN, LC, PS taa4 N - Sk thaa4 1020 - all, A4, (cf. 0225) SW - S tha1)4 (C4); W tW1)4; Sh ta1)4; LNK tha1)6; LCH, LMY tW1)\ ta1)4 (frequently taa1)4 in both places) CN - LP tha1)4; LM ta1)4; WN ta1)4, tW1)4; LC, PS, NM ta1)4 N - Sk thW1)4 1021 - place (in expressions for above, below, etc.), C 1 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM than 3 ; LC than 3 'side, place' 1022 - to shave, B 1 Not in S W languages CN - LP, LM, LC, PS thay2 1023 - bag, B4, (cf. 0717) SW - W, B tal; LNK thal; LCH, LMY tal CN - LP thai; LM, WN, LC, PS tayS 1024 - rabbit, DL? SW - W th07 2 ; B th07 5 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM tho0 2 (Bl in CN languages)

180

Cognates

1025 - to gather, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP tho0 4; LM, WN to0 4; LC to04 'to provide, to store up'; PS, NM to0 4 1026 - to do reciprocally, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP tho04; LM, LC, PS, NM to0 4 1027 - brass, copper, A4 SW - S th:X)l1!; W, B, Sh t0114; LNK thoo116 'gold'; LCH, LMY t0114 CN - LP thoo114; LM too114; WN t0114; LC, PS, NM too114 N - Sk thoo114 (only in certain expressions < Lao or Siamese) 1028 - to flee, Al SW - S nii 5; B, Sh nil; LNK, LCH, LMY nii 1 CN - LP niil; LM ney1; WN niil,]liil; LC, PS nii!; NM neyl 1029 - crop (ofa chicken), Al SW - S nia115; W nel1!; B nial1!; Sh nel1!; LNK nial1!; LMY nel1! CN - LP, LM niil1! 1030 -to be sticky, AI, (cf. 0603) SW - Sh no! CN - LP, LM, WN nuu!; LC khaw 3 nuu! 'glutinous rice'; PS nuu! 1031 - to put on, wear, B4, (cf. 0894) SW - S nU113 (lower garment only); W, B nU115; Sh nUl1\ nW113; LNK nU113; LCH, LMY nU115 CN - LP n0115; LM 10115; WN, LC nU115; PS n0115 1032 - breast, A4 SW - S nom l; W num4 ; B, Sh nom4 ; LNK nom 6 ; LCH, LMY num4 CN - LP, LM, PS, NM nom 4 N - Sk nom 4 (only in the meaning 'milk') 1033 - lady, A4 SW - S naal1!; W, B, Sh naa114; LNK naa116; LCH, LMY naa114 CN - LP, LM naa114; WN naa114 'wife of older brother'; PS, NM naa114 N - Sk naa114 1034 - kind of deer, C4, (cf. 0109, apparently the same animal as 0782) Not in SW languages CN - LP naan\ LM, WN, LC, PS, NM naan 6

181

Comparative Tai Source Book

1035 - dew, mist, A4 SW - Sh naa/ CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM naa/ 1036 - top of the head, A4 Not in SW languages N - Y naLl.j\ Sk nn 4 1037 - which, A?, (cf. 0438) SW - S nai, da/, rayl; W, 8 daLl.jl; Sh laLl.jl, naUJl C - LP naUJ4 (A4); LC naUJ1; PS naUJ4 (A4); NM kaLl.j4 N - Y laLl.j4 (A4); Sk nyy4, nyy2 'where' (A 1) 1038 - the morning, AI, (cf. 0028) SW - Sh laUJ1, naUJ1; LCH na/ CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM naUJl 1039 - to rub, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM nool; WN no0 6 (C4); PS noo l 1040 - flour, A3 SW - W byl 'yeast, leaven'; 8 bwa l; LCH byyl CN - LP byy2; LM mww 4; LC, PS bww 1 N - Sk bwa l 1041 - to poison (fish), A3/83?, (cf. 0411, 0598) SW - S bwa2 (83); W by2 (83); 8 bwa l (A3); Sh my2 (83); LNK bwa2 (A3); LCH bn l (A3); LMY byy4 (A3) CN - LP byy2 (A3); LM mww 2 (83); WN bww l 'to poison' (A3), bww 2 'poisonous' (83); LC, PS bww l (A3) N - Sk vial 'to poison' (A3), via6 'to be poisoned by' (83) 1042 - an edible water plant, C3 SW - S, W bUTJ3; 8 bOTJ3; LCH, LMY bUTJ3 CN - LP bOTJ3; LM mOTJ3; WN bWTJ3; LC phyak2 bUTJ3 buu 2 ('sweet potato' in CN languages) 1043 - to carry on the back, DL3, (cf. 1018) SW - S beek2; W, 8 be7 2 ; Sh mek 2 ; LNK, LCH, LMY beek 2 CN - LP beek 5 ; LM meek 2; WN bek2; LC, PS, NM beek 2 1044 - a package; to wrap up, A3 Not in SW languages CN - LP been 2 ; LM meen4; LC, PS, NM been 1

182

Cognates

1045 - to spill, B3 SW - S, W baa2 ; B baa2 , vaa2 ; LNK naam s baal 'flood'; LCH, LMY baa2 CN - LP baas; LM maa2 ; WN, LC, PS, NM baa2 1046 - to squirm, struggle, C3 SW - S dinl; Sh 1inl; LNK dins; LCH, LMY tinl 1047 - crucible, C3 SW - S bawl; W bawl 'a cast, mold'; B bawl taa' 'eye socket'; Sh maw\ LNK baws; LCH, LMY bawl CN - LP bawl 'head'; LM maw l 'jug'; WN bawl 'gourd'; LC, PS baw3 'head' N - Sk bawl 1048 - queue (referring to hair), A2 Not in SW languages CN - LP piin2 ; LM piin'; LC piin' (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM piin' 1049 - half, B2 Not in SW languages CN - LP puun 5; LM puun 2 ; LC puun 2 (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM puun 2 1050 - a board, C2 SW - W, B, Sh p£J1}; LNK P8£J1\ LCH, LMY p£J1 l CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM peen} N - Sk peenl 1051 - hemp, B2 SW - S, W, B, Sh paan 2; LNK paanl; LMY paan 2 CN - LM, WN paan 2 'ramie'; LC paan 2 1052 - to divide, A2, (cf. 0761) SW - S, W, B pan'; Sh pan' 'to give'; LNK pan 2 ; LCH, LMY pan l CN - LP pan 2 ; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM pan' N - Sk pan' 1053 - to mold with the hands, C2 SW - S, W, B, Sh pan l ; LNK pans; LCH, LMY pan l CN - LP, LM, WN pan 3 ; LC pan 3 'to work in clay or clay-like substance'; NM pan l N - Sk vall (00), van 3 (YO) 1054 - to feed (a child or invalid), C2 SW - S p::>::ml; W, B, Sh p::>n}; LNK p::>::>n 5 ; LMY p::>nl CN - LP, LM poon 3 ; WN pon 3 ; LC, NM poon 3 N - Sk puun 6 (B2)

183

Comparative rai Source Book

1055 -white, DLl, (cf. 0509) SW - S phwak2; LCH, LMY ph¥¥k2 CN - LP ph¥¥k2; LM phwwk2; LC, PS phnk2; NM phwwk2 N - Sk only in saaTJ6 phwak6 'white elephant' 1056 - goose, B4, (cf. 0068) Not in SW languages eN - LP ph¥n s; LM, LC, PS p¥n s; NM pens 1057 - to whittle, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, PS, NM pheen l 1058 - a time, A4, (cf. 0597, 0975, 1155) Not in SW languages CN - LP phal; LM, WN, LC, PS pal 1059 - bamboo, B 1 SW - S phal; LNK phai; LCH, LMYphayZ CN - LP phal; WN phal 'a kind of hardwood'; LC, PS phayZ N - Sk phral 'a kind of wild bamboo' 1060 - a mound, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP phoo\ LM poo\ WN pOOl 'mountain' (A?); LC, PS p004 1061 - orphan, C4 SW - S (kam l) phraa4; LCH (kam 2) phaa6; LMY (kam 2 ) faa 6 CN - LP phyaa 3 ; LM pyaa6 ; WN paa6; LC, PS, NM pyaa6 N - Sk thraa 6 1062 - vinegar, B 1 SW - B mi 2 ; Sh mi 2 'seasoning'; LCH, LMY nam 6 mij2 'pepper sauce' (mi? 'to prepare food in the form of a salad') CN - LP mi?; LM mel; WN, LC, PS mi?; NM mel 1063 - to return, A4 SW - S mwa l (obsolete); W m¥4 'to go upstream'; B mwa4 'to go upstream' (opposite of pay I 'to go downstream'); Sh m¥4; LNK mwa6 ; LCH, LMY mn 4 'to go' CN - LP m¥¥4; LM mww 4 ; LC, PS, NM mww 4 N - Sk mwa4 (said to be < Lao) 1064 - frost, Al SW - W lmy'; B mwayl 'dew'; Sh moyl; LCH, LMY m¥yl 'dew, mist' CN - LP m¥¥yl; LM muuy'; WN mwyl; PS l11nyl; NM muuy' 184

Cognates

1065 - spicy hot, B4, (cf. 0639, 0890) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, PS myn 5 ; NM men 5 1066 - round, A4, (cf. 0817) SW - B, Sh mon4; LCH, LMY mun 4 CN - LP, LM myn4; WN man 4 ; LC, PS myn4; NM men 4 N - Sk mon4 1067 - plum, C4 SW - W man 6 ; LCH, LMY sum 3 maak 2 man 6 'a kind of fruit' CN - LP man 3 ; LM, WN, PS, NM man 6 1068 - drunk, A4 SW - S maw!; W, B maw4; Sh maw4 'giddy, dizzy'; LNK maw6 ; LCH, LMYmaw4 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM maw4 N - Sk maw4 1069 - ox, A4, (cf. 0256) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, WN moo 4; LC moo 6 (C4); PS, NM moo 4 N - Sk boo 4 1070 - dawn, Bl Not in SW languages CN - LM moon 2 ; LC moon2 'twilight'; PS moon 2 1071 - to stretch out, DL3, (cf. 0742) SW - S yiaf; W yet2; B yiat2; Sh yef; LNK yiatl; LCH, LMY yeet2 CN - LP yiit 5; LM 7iie; WN 7it1 ; LC, PS, NM yiit2 1072 - to step on, DL3, (cf. 0392) SW - S yiap2; Sh yep2; LNK yiap2; LCH, LMY yeepl CN - LP yiip5; LM 7iip2 N - Sk yiap 6 1073 - hawk, Bl, (cf. 1100) SW - S hiaw2, yiaw2 ; W hew2, yew2 ; B hiaw 2 CN - LP, LM, PS yiiw 5 (B4) 1074 - a small shrimp, A4 SW - Sh T)£w4 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS yiiw4

185

Comparative rai Source Book

1075 - Indian corn, B4 Not in SW languages CN - LP y¥¥5; LM Y¥Uj5; LC khaw1 yww4 (A4); PS yww 5; NM flall.j5 1076 - oil, A4, (cf. 0584) SW - W yaw4; B yaw4 (said to be < Vietnamese); LCH, LMY maak 2 yaw4 'kind offruit that yields oil' (cognate?) CN - LP yuu 4 ; LM yow\ WN yiw4; LC, PS yuu 4; NM yow4 1077 - to use, B4?, (cf. 0032) SW - W yUT]4 (A4) CN - LP, LM yOT]5; WN YUT]2 (B?); LC YUT]5 (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM YOT]5 1078 - to cover, A4, (cf. 0282, 0794) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, WN yaa4; LC yaa4 'to cover up, to screen, to mend' 1079 - kind, B3 SW - S yaaT]2; LNK yaaT]l; LCH, LMY yaaT]2 CN - LP Y¥¥T]5; LM YWWT]5; WN yiT]5; LC Y¥¥T]5 'form, manner' (Li says < Chinese); PS Y¥¥T]\ NM YWWT]5 (B4 in CN languages) N - Sk yaaT]6 1080 - slack, A4 SW - S yaan 1 ; W, B, Sh yaan\ LNK flaan 6 ; LCH, LMY yaan 4 N - Sk yaal 4 (OG), yaan 4 (YG) 1081 - light, daybreak, B4, (cf. 0676) SW - S ruT]l; W, B hUT]5; Sh hUT]l 'to shine'; LCH hUT]5 (also in the name Chieng Hung: ceT]4 hUT]5; literary ruT]5); LMY hUT]5 CN - LP +0T]5; LM 10T]5; WN OUT]5; LC +U'll5 'to dawn; to be bright'; PS, NM +0'll5 N - Y roT]5; Sk roo'll5 1082 - to fight, DS4 SW - S rop4; Sh hopS 'to find, meet with'; LNK hopl 'to fight (only of cocks)' CN - LP +op\ LM lop4; LC +Up4 ('to meet' in CN languages) N - Sk lop6 1083 - gutter, trough, A4 SW - S raaT]l; W, B, Sh haaT]4; LNK haaT]6; LMY haaT]4 CN - LP +aaT]4; LM laa1l 4; WN oaaT]\ LC +aaT]4 N - Y ruaT]4; Sk haa1l4

186

Cognates

1084 - to receive, DS4 SW - S rap\ 8, Sh hap5; LNK hap 3 CN - LP +ap4; LM lap4; WN oap4; LC, PS fap4 N - Sk rap6 1085 - to cry out, C4 SW - S roo114; W, 8 h0116; Sh h0115; LNK h00115, 100115; LCH, LMY h0116 CN - LP +0011 3 ; LM 100116; WN 0011 6 ; LC +0011 6 1086 - string, A4, (cf. 0323) SW - W lin 4 CN - LP, LM lin4; WN lan 4; LC, PS lin4; NM len 4 1087 - lotus, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM liin4; WN lin 5 (84); LC liin 4 (Li says < Chinese); PS liin4 1088 - sickle, A4 Not in SW languages CN - LP liim4; LM niim4; LC, PS, NM liim4 N - Sk liam 4 1089 - to sharpen, AI, (cf. 0463, 0556, 0560, 1107) Not in SW languages CN - LP Iiiw l 'to peel'; LM liiw l ; LC, PS liiw l 'to peel' 1090 - to play, 84, (cf. 0184) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM liiw5; WN liw5; LC, PS, NM Iiiw5 1091 - wife of man's younger brother, A4, (cf. 0289) SW - W 104; 8 lua4 'wife offather's younger brother'; Sh 10 4 'one's elder brother's wife' CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS luu 4 ('daughter-in-law' in CN languages) N - Sk luaw4 'wife of father's younger brother' 1092 - blunt-pointed, 81 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, LC, PS luu 2 1093 - all (day, etc.), 84 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM l'I(n 5; PS lin5; NM len 5

187

Comparative Tai Source Book

1094 - to look, A4, (cf. 0976) SW - S lee l ; W, B le 4; LNK lee 6 ; LCH, LMY lee 4 'to look sideways' CN - LP, LM lee4 1095 - lightning, DL4 SW - S IEEp3; B meps 'to stick out (the tongue)'; Sh maap3 'to blaze, flame; to glitter, glance as a ray of light'; LNK leeps 'to stick out'; LCH, LMY mEeps CN - LP, LM meeps; WN maaps; LC meep4 'to glitter', faa 6 meep4 'lightning'; PS, NM meeps 1096 - to run, B4 SW - S Iw3; W, B Iws; Sh IEI1\ LNK IEW 3 ; LCH, LMY lenS CN - LP, LM leen s; WN lenS; LC, PS leen s 1097 - (rice) cooked in a bamboo tube, A I SW - S (khaaw3) laam 5; B laam l ; Sh laam l 'to hold in the fire'; LNK (khaw4) laam l ; LCH, LMY (xaw3) laam l CN - LP, LM, WN laam l ; LC kha~ laam l ; PS laam l 1098 - soybeans, C 1 Not in SW languages CN - LP hall3; LM lall 3; PS hall3 1099 - to water (plants), A4, (cf. 0887) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM lam 4 1100 - hawk, B4, (cf. 1073) Not in SW languages CN - LP lamS 'eagle'; LM, WN lamS; LC lamS 'a kind of eagle or hawk'; PS lamS N - Sk lamS 1101 - road, B4, (cf. 0364, 0474) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM 100 5 1102 - to surround (as with a fence), C4, (cf. 0921) SW - S bom 4; W, B bm 6 ; Sh bm s; LNK loomS; LCH, LMY bm 6 CN - LP 100m3; LM 100m 6 ; WN hom 6 , hum 6 ; LC, PS 100m6 1103 - thunder, A4, (cf. 0878) Not in SW languages CN - LM, LC 100y4; PS poos lool

188

Cognates

1104 - tile, C4 Not in SW languages CN - LP vaa3; LM vaa6 ; LC, PS vaa6 ; NM llwaa6 1105 - free, idle, B 1, (cf. 0996) SW - S waa1l3 (B4); W vaa1l2; Sh waa1l2 'to assist gratuitously'; LNK waa1l3 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM vaa1l2 1106 - heart, AI, (cf. 0022) Not in SW languages CN - LP fiml; LM simI; LC, PS fiml; NM fom l 1107 - to sharpen to a point, CI, (cf. 0436, 0556, 0560, 1089) SW - S siam3; Sh shem3; LNK siam 4 ; LCH, LMY sem3 CN - LP fiim 3; LM siim3; LC fiim 3 'sharp' 1108 - pillar, AI, (cf. 0675) Not in SW languages CN - LP fiiw l ; LM seew l ; LC faw l , fiiw l ; PS fiiw l 1109 - to swim, Al Not in SW languages CN - LP fiiw l; LM seew l; LC, PS fiiw l 1110 - to embroider, 81 SW - W, B sew2 ; Sh shew 2 'to sew for decoration'; LNK seew 3 'to baste'; LCH, LMY sew2 CN - LP fiiw 2; LM seew2; WN sew3 (C?); PS fiiw 2; NM fiiw 3 (tone?) 1111 - day before yesterday, A4 SW - S swwn l; W, B swn 4 ; Sh shwn 4 (in 'day before yesterday', 'month before last', 'year before last'); LNK, LCH, LMY swn 4 CN - LP hyn\ LM syn 4 ; WN sin\ LC van 4 fin 4 ; PS fin 4 ; NM fen 4 1112 - a part, BI SW - S, B suan 2; LNK suan 3; LCH, LMY son 2 N - Sk sual 6 (OG), suan 6 (YG) 1113 - classifier for long, thin objects, C 1 SW - S sen3; Sh shen 3 'string, rope'; LNK sen 4 ; LCH, LMY sin 3 CN - WN san3 N - Sk sel 3 (OG), sen3 (YG) 1114 - a lock, Cl Not in SW languages CN - LP faa 3; LM saa1 ; WN saa2 (8?); LC, PS faa 3 189

Comparative Tai Source Book

1115 - cockroach, DLl SW - S, B, LNK, LCH, LMY saap2 CN - LP +aap2; LM, WN saap2; LC, PS +aap2; NM +aak2 N - Sk saap6 1116 - to wash, A4, (cf. 0325, 0552) SW - S saaw l; Sh taaw4 'to wash for gold'; LNK thaaw6 'to seek in water with a stick, hook, spoon, etc.'; LCH, LMY taaw4 'to feel about in water; to wash (rice) in water' CN - LP +aaw\ LM saaw4 ; WN taaw4 'to wash for gold'; LC, PS, NM +aaw4 1117 - one or so, any, OS 1 SW - S, W, B sak2; Sh shak4 'particle denoting separation'; LCH, LMY saki CN - LP +ak 2 ; LM sak3; WN sak6; LC, PS +ak2 N - Sk sak 4 1118 - pig-feed, C1, (cf. 0661) Not in SW languages CN - LM sam3; LC +am 3 1119 - small, B 1, (cf. 0246) Not in SW languages CN - LP +al; LM sal; LC, PS, NM +al 1120 - to poke, C2, (cf. 0034) SW - S cii 3; W d; Sh si 3 'to sting as an insect'; LNK cii 5 'to hold up, rob'; LMY ci? 'to sting' 1121 - to teach, Al SW - S soon 5; W son l 'to imitate'; B son l; Sh shon l 'to study, learn, acquire knowledge'; LCH, LMY son l CN - LP +oon l; LM soon l; WN sonl, son l; LC, PS +oon l S - Sk sool2 (OG), soon 2 (YG) 1122 - to pound (rice) again, C4 SW - S soom 4 ; W, B som6; Sh shom 5 ; LCH, LMY som6 CN - LP +oom J ; LM soom6 ; LC khawJ +00m 6 'husked rice'; PS +00m 6 1123 - necklace, C1 SW - S soy; W soy3 'earring'; B soy 'necklace; chain'; Sh shoy 'a tuft, a tassel'; LCH, LMY soy CN - LP +ooy 'earring'; LM sooy 'earring'; WN soy 'necklace, bracelet'; LC, PS +ooy 'earring' N - Sk sooy

190

Cognates

1124 - a harrow, Al SW - Sh ph'Ol; LCH ph'O'Ol; LMY f'O'Ol CN - LP ph'O'Ol; LM, WN, LC, PS, NM phwwl N - Sk phia2 1125 - to braid, AI SW - W f'Ol; B fwa l ; Sh ph'Ol; LNK fwa l; LCH, LMY f'O'Ol CN - LP ph'O'Ol; LM, WN phwwl; LC phwwl 'to dress (hair)'; PS, NM phwwl N - Sk pial 1126 - mat, DL4, (cf. 0763) SW - S fuuk 3 'mattress'; W fur; B fu7 S ; LNK fuuk s 'mattress' CN - LP fok s; LM fooks; WN fuk s; LC fuk 4 ; PS fok 4 (DS4); NM fuuk s 1127 - water tortoise, Al SW - W faa l ; LNK (paa2) faa l; LCH, LMY faa l CN - LP, LM, WN, PS phaa l N - Sk via3 (probably not cognate) 1128 - blanket, A4, (cf. 0978) SW - B faa 4 CN - LP, LM, WN, LC, PS, NM faa 4 'quilt' 1129 - to bury, Al SW - S falls; W, B fall l; Sh phallI; LNK, LCH, LMY falll CN - LP, LM, WN, LC phallI 1130 - to make (rope), C1 SW - S, W, B fan 3 ; Sh phan 3 'to twist tight and hard'; LNK fan 4; LCH, LMY fan 3 CN - LP, LM phan 3 ; LC phan 3 'to twist'; NM phan 3 1131 - market, B4 Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM faUj5; LC faUj4 (A4); PS, NM faUj5 1132 - mole, Al SW - S fayS; LCH, LMY fayZ 'freckles' (8 I, cognate?) CN - LP, LM, PS mal 1133 - vagina, Al SW - S hii s; W, B, Sh hi!; LNK, LCH hiil CN - LP, LM hiil; WN sii!; PS hiil; NM heyl

191

Comparative Tai Source Book

1134 - to do, to make, DS4?, (cf. 0823) SW - S yet4 'to have intercourse'; W yd; B yetS; Sh hd (DS1); LNK hee; LCH, LMY hetS CN - LP hee (hie?); LM hae; LC hie; PS hee; NM hd (DSI in CN languages) N - Sk hit6 1135 - cage, B 1 Not in SW languages CN - LP hOTj2; LM IOTj2; LC hUTj2; PS hOTj2; NM khyoTj2 1136 - pot, frying pan, DLl, (cf. 0227) SW - B lu:7 2 'pot' CN - LP, LM heek 2 'frying pan'; LC heek 2 'pot, caldron, kettle'; PS, NM beek2 'round-bottomed frying pan' N - Sk hEEk6 1137 - edge, side, A4, (cf. 0309) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM been4 1138 - to guard, Al SW - S hEEn 5 CN - LP, LM, LC, PS, NM heen l 1139 - cholera, B? SW - S haa2 (B1); W baa4 (A4); Sh haa 3 (B4); LNK baa3; LCH, LMY haas (B4) CN - LP ha5; LM laa5; WN oaas (B4 in CN languages) N - Sk haa6 (C4) 1140 - to set (a trap), Cl, (cf. 0774) SW - W baaTj3; B haaTj3 'platform for bunting'; Sb haaTj3 'to construct, arrange, array, prepare, hunter'S platform in a tree'; LNK haaTj4 'a trap, hunter's platform'; LCH, LMY haaTj3 'platform; to prepare, set up' CN - LP haaTj3; LM, WN thaaTj3; LC, PS haaTj3 1141 - shoe, A4 SW - W, B haal CN - LP, LM, WN haal; LC, PS kaal; NM haal 1142 - lime, AI, (same as 0085?) Not in SW languages CN - LP, LM hooyi; WN hoyl; LC hooyi (Li says < Chinese); PS, NM hooyi 1143 - to hang down, Cl SW - S, W, B, Sh hoy'; LNK hool; LCH, LMY hoy' CN - LP, LM hooy'; WN hoy'; PS hooy' 192

Cognates

1144 - slave, I, CI, (cf. 0494, 0533) SW - S khaa3 (khaa2 'mountain people'); W chaa3 'mountain people'; B saa3 'mountain people'; Sh khaa3; LNK khaa4 'servant; l' (latter said to be from Bangkok); LCH, LMY xaa3 CN - WN chaa3 'mountain people' 1145 - paternal grandfather, B2 SW - S puu 2 ; W, B, Sh pu2 ; LNK puu3; LCH, LMY puu 2 1146 - tree; beginning, C2 SW - S ton3; W tun\ 8, Sh ton 3; LNK tonS; LCH, LMY tun 3 1147 - cool, A3 SW - S, B yen I; Sh yen l 'to be quiet, still'; LNK yen 2 ; LCH yin I; LMY yin4 CN - LM nin 4 'gooseflesh' N - Sk yen i (only in certain expressions < Lao) 1148 - to hire, C2 SW - S, W, B caall\ Sh saall3; LNK caall5; LCH, LMY caall3 N - Sk caall3 1149 - anvil, B4 SW - S thall3; 8 tallS; Sh tall3; LNK thall3; LCH, LMY tallS CN - LM, WN tallS N - Sk thall6 (C4) 1150 - calf of the leg, 84, (cf. 0131, 0501) SW - S nOll3; W, B, nOlls 'underside ofthe knee'; Sh nOll3 'the inside of the bend of the knee'; LNK nooll3; LCH, LMY nOlls CN - LM, NM nooll5 1 151 - to toast, C2

sw - S, W, B, Sh pill); LNK pills; LCH, LMY pill3 CN - LM pill3 'to bake in ashes' 1152 - level; only, A4 SW - S phiall I; 8 pia'll4; Sh pell 4; LNK phia'll6; LCH, LMY pell4 CN - LP phiillI; LM pill4; WN phi'll I, pell5 N - Sk phia'll4 1153 - to mend, Al SW - W, 8 fUll\ Sh phU'llI; LNK fUU'llI; LCH, LMY fUll I CN - LP, LM phO'llI; WN phUllI, phOllI; NM phoOlli 1154 - blind, having poor eyesight, A4, (cf. 0416) faall 4; LNK faa'll6; LCH, LMY faall4

sw - S faa'llI; W, 8

193

Comparative Tai Source Book

1155 -long (of time), AI, (cf. 0597, 0975,1058) SW - S hWTJ5 (literary); W hWYjI; B hYYjI; Sh hWTJ'; LNK hYYYj'; LCH, LMY hWTJ' CN - LP, LC hYTJl; PS hWYjI; NM haTJI 1156 - to sift, Al SW - S khwYj5; W ChWYjI; B SYTJI; Sh khwYjI; LNK khYYjI 'a sieve'; LMY XWYjI CN - LM IYYjI; WN chaYjI; LC khYYTJI; PS khiYjI N - Sk raYj2 1157 - petal; section offruit, DL2 SW - S kliip2; W, B kip2; LNK kiip2; LCH liip2 'a clove of garlic' (cognate?) CN - LP kiip5; WN ci p6; LC kip2 N - Sk tlii p6 (OG), trii p6 (YG) 1158 - mouth, DSI, (cf. 0623) SW - W, B SOp2; Sh ShOp4; LNK SOpl 'lips'; LCH, LMY SOpl 1159 - strange, DL2 SW - S pleek2; W, B pe7 2 'alike, similar' (cognate?); Sh pek2 'different'; LNK peek2 CN - LM peek2 'to exchange by mistake'; WN pek 2 'to leave, separate from'

194

REFERENCES Abramson, Arthur S. 1962. The Vowels and Tones o/Standard Thai: Acoustical Measurements and Experiments. Publication 20. Bloomington: Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. Aymonier, Etienne. 1895. Voyage dans Ie Laos. Paris: Annals du Musee Guimet, Bibliotheques d 'Etudes vols. 5, 6. Reference to "savages" called Sftk, vol. 5, pp. 112-13. Baccam, Don, Falaung Baccam, Hung Baccam, and Dorothy Fippinger. 1989. Tai Dam-English English Tai-Dam Vocabulary. Eastlake, CO: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Benedict, Paul K. 1997. Linguistic Prediction: The Case ofSaek. In Comparative Kadai: The Tai Branch, edited by Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit, 161-87. Arlington, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. Bickner, Robert J., John Hartmann, Thomas John Hudak, and Patcharin Peyasantiwong, eds 1989. Selected Papers on Comparative Tai Studies: WilliamJ. Gedney. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 29. Ann Arbor, Ml: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. Blanchard, Wendell. 1957. Thailand, Its People, Its Society, Its Culture. New Haven: HRAF Country Survey Series. Bonifacy, Auguste Louis. 1907. Etude sur les Tay de la Riviere Claire au Tonkin et dans la Chine Meridionale (YUnnan et Kouangsi). Toung Pao, series 2,

8:77-98. - - - . 1919. Cours d'ethnographie indochinoise. Hanoi-Haiphong: lmprimerie d'Extreme-Orient. Sek listed on p. 81. Creder, Wilhelm. 1935. Siam, das Land der Tai. Stuttgart: J. Engelhorns nachf. Cushing, Josiah Nelson. [1881]1914. A Shan and English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press. (Reprint: Farnborough, England: Gregg International, 1971.) Davis, Sara L.M. 2005. Song and Silence: Ethnic Revival on China's Southwest Borders. New York: Columbia University Press. Dieu, Chinh Nhim, and Jean Donaldson. 1970. Nip san khhi'im pak Ti'iy-Keo-Eng: Ngu~vu'ng

Thai (Trang)-Viet-Anh: (White) Tai-Vietnamese-English Vocabulary. Saigon: Department of Education. Diguet, Edouard. 1895. Etude de la langue tai; precedee d'une notice sur les races des hautes regions du Tonkin: comprenant grammaire, methode d'ecriture tai et vocabulaires. Hanoi: F.H. Schneider.

195

Comparative rai Source Book

Donaldson, Jean. 1963. White Tai Phonology. M.A thesis, Hartford Seminary Foundation, Hartford, CT. Donaldson, Jean, and Jerold A. Edmondson. 1997. A Preliminary Examination of Tay Tac. In Comparative Kadai: The Tai Branch, edited by Jerold A Edmondson and David B. Solnit, 235-66. Arlington, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. Durand, Maurice. 1952. Notes sur les pays tai de Phong-th6. Bulletin de la Societe des Etudes Indochinoises. N.s. 27:193-231. Edmondson, Jerold A 2000a. Personal Communication, 6 May. - - - . 2000b. The Language Corridor: New Evidence from Vietnam. In Proceedings: The International Conference on Tai Studies, July 29-31, 1988, edited by Somsonge Burusphat, 129-50. Bangkok: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University. Edmondson, Jerold A, and Kenneth J. Gregerson. 2001. Four Languages of the Vietnam-China Borderlands. In Papersfrom the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society: 1996, edited by Karen L. Adams and Thomas John Hudak, 101-33. Tempe, AZ: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University. Edmondson, Jerold A., and David B. Solnit. 1997a. Comparative Shan. In Comparative Kadai: The Tai Branch, edited by Jerold A Edmondson and David B. Solnit, 337-59. Arlington, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. - - - , eds 1997b. Comparative Kadai: The Tai Branch. Arlington, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. Egerod, S0ren. 1957. Essentials of Shan Phonology and Script. Academia Sinica Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology 29: 121-29. - - - . 1960. The Romanization of Shan. Burma Research Society Fiftieth Anniversary Publication 1:47-49. - - - . 1961. Three Shan Texts. Acta Orientalia 26(3/4): 149-88. Esquirol, Joseph, and Gust Williatte. 1908. Dictionnaire Dioi-Franr;ais. Hong Kong: Imprimerie de la Societe des Missions-Etangeres. Fippinger, Jay. 1975. Black Tai Sentence Types. In Studies in Tai Linguistics in Honor of William J. Gedney, edited by Jimmy G. Harris and James R. Chamberlain, 130-69. Bangkok: Cemtral Institute of English. Fippinger, Jay, and Dorothy Fippinger. 1970. Black Tai Phonemes, with Reference to White Tai. Anthropological Linguistics 12(3):83-97. Fraisse, Andre. 1950. Les tribus Sek et Kha de la province de Cammon (Laos). Bulletin de la Societe des Etudes Indochinoises 25(3):333-48. Saek vocabulary on pp. 338-40. Gedney, William J. 1947. Indic Loanwords in Spoken Thai. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University. - - - . 1961. Special Vocabularies in Thai. In Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics, edited by Michael Zarechnak, 109-14. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. - - - . 1964. A Comparative Sketch of White, Black, and Red Tai. The Social Science Review, Special Number, 1-47. Bangkok. 196

References 1965. Yay, A Northern Tai Language in North Vietnam. Lingua 14: 180-93. - - - . 1970. The Saek Language ofNakhon Phanom. Journal a/the Siam Society 57(1 ):67-87. - - - . 1972. A Checklist for Determining Tones in Tai Dialects. In Studies in Linguistics in Honor a/George L. Trager, edited by M. Estellie Smith, 423-37. The Hague: Mouton. - - - . 1989. Siamese Verse Forms in Historical Perspective. In Selected Papers on Comparative Tai Studies: William 1. Gedney, edited by Robert J. Bickner, John Hartmann, Thomas John Hudak, and Patcharin Peyasantiwong, 489-544. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1993a. Saek Final-I: Archaism or Innovation? In William 1. Gedney's The Saek Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 917-74. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1993b. The Twelve Year Names in Saek. In William 1. Gedney's The Saek Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 975-89. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1995a. Linguistic Diversity Among Tai Dialects in Southern Kwangsi. In William 1. Gedney's Central Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 803-22. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1995b. A Comparative Central Tai Word list. In William 1. Gedney's Central Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 883-962. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1995c. An Areal Vowel Change in Tai Dialects in Kwangsi and Kweichow. In William 1. Gedney's Central Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 823-58. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1995d. Notes on the Tai Dialect ofNing Ming: Part One. In William 1.

Gedney's Central Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 859-82. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - . 1997. Saek, A Displaced Northern Tai Language. In William 1. Gedney's Tai Dialect Studies: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations, edited by Thomas John Hudak, 1281-1302. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. Haas, Mary R. 1942a. Types of Reduplication in Thai. Studies in Linguistics 1(1): 1-6. - - . 1942b. The Use of Numeral Classifiers in Thai. Language XVIII:201-05. - - - . 1946. Techniques ofIntensifying in Thai. Word II: 125-30.

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Comparative Tai Source Book

---.1956. The Thai System o/Writing. Washington D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies. - - - . 1964. Thai-English Student's Dictionary. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Hartmann, John F. 1981. Computations on a Tai Dam Origin Myth. Anthropological Linguistics 23(5): 183-202. - - - . 1984. Linguistic and Memory Structures in Tai-Lue Oral Narratives. Pacific Linguistics Series B-No. 20. Canberra: The Australian National University. - - - . 1985. Dating White Thai and Black Thai Scripts. A paper presented at the 18 th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok, August 27-29. Published in Thai: 1987. Kaan-kaamnot ?aayu? tua-?aksoun tay khaaw lae? tay dam. Ruam Bot Khwaam Prawatisaat [Royal Thai Historical Society Review] 5:121-39. ---.1986. Varieties ofTai Dam Scripts. Crossroads 3(1):97-103. - - - . 1992. Tai Dam Poetics and Proto-tone Categories. In Papers on Tai Language, Literature, and Linguistics, edited by Carol J. Compton and John F. Hartmann, 262-77. DeKalb, IL: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern llIinois University. - - - . 1994. Pronominal Strategies in Tai Dam Poetic Discourse. In Papers/rom the Second Annual Meeting o/the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society: 1992, edited by Karen L. Adams and Thomas John Hudak, 187-99. Tempe, AZ: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University. Haudricourt, Andre-Georges. 1956. De la restitution des initiales dans les langues monosyIIabiques: Ie probleme du thai commun. Bulletin de la Societe de Linguistique de Paris 52(1):307-22. - - - . 1958. Les Sek de la province du Cammon (Laos), migration thai ou deportation chinoise? Journal Asiatique 246: 107-08. - - - . 1960. Notes sur les dialectes de la region de Moncay (Vietnam du Nord). Bulletin de I 'Ecole Fral1l;aise d'Extreme Orient 50:161-77. - - - . 1963a. Remarques sur les initiales complexes de la langue Sek. Bulletin de la Societe Linguistique de Paris 58:156-63. - - - . 1963b. La langue Sek. Proceedings 0/ the fnternational Congress 0/ Orientalists 25 (Moscow) 4:414-15. Abstract. - - - . 1972. Problemes de phonologie diachronique. Paris: Societe pour I'etude des Jangues africaines. - - - . 1976. La tonologie du Sek. Bulletin de fa Societe Linguistique de Paris 71(1):299-304. Henderson, Eugenie J.A. 1949. Prosodies in Siamese: A Study in Synthesis. Asia Major New Series 1(Part III):189-215. Hudak, Thomas John. 2004. William 1. Gedney'S Elicitation Questionnaire. Journal o/the American Oriental Society 124(3):549-59.

198

References Hudak, Thomas John, ed. 1991a. William J. Gedney's The Yay Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 38. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 1991b. WilliamJ. Gedney's The Tai DialectofLungming: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 39. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 1993. William J. Gedney's The Saek Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 41. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 1994. William J. Gedney's Southwestern Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 42. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 1995. WilliamJ. Gedney's Central Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 43. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 1996. William J. Gedney's The Lue Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 44. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 1997. William J. Gedney's Tai Dialect Studies: Glossaries, Texts, and Translations. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 45. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. - - - , ed. 2000. Cushing's Shan-English Dictionary: A Phonetic Version. Tempe, AZ: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University. - - - , ed. 2001. Minot's White Tai Dictionary: A Phonetic Version. Tempe, AZ: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University. Khanitthanan, Wilaiwan. 1975. Saek Revisted. In A Tai Festschrift for William J. Gedney on the Occasion of his Fifth Cycle of Life Birthday Anniversary, April 14, 1975, edited by Thomas W. Gething, 128-39. Honolulu: University ofHawai'i Southeast Asian Studies Program. - - - . 1976. Phaasaa Saek [The Saek Language]. Bangkok: Thammasat University Press. In Thai. Lebar, Frank M., Gerald C. Hickey, and John K. Musgrave. 1964. Ethnic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia. New Haven: HRAF Press. Li, Fang-Kuei. 1940. The Tai Dialect of Lungchow. Institute of History and Philology Monographs, Series A, No. 16. Academia Sinica. Shanghai: The Commercial Press, Ltd. In Chinese.

199

Comparative Tai Source Book

- - - . 1944. The Influence ofthe Primitive Tai Glottal Stop and Pre-glottalized Consonants on the Tone System of Po-ai. Bulletin of Chinese Studies 4:59-68. - - - . 1956. The Tai Dialect of Wu-ming. Institute of History and Philology Monographs, Series A, No. 19. Academia Sinica. Taipei, Taiwan. In Chinese. - - - . 1957a. The Jui Dialect of Po-ai: Phonology. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology 28:551-66. - - - . 1957b. The Jui Dialect of Po-ai and the Northern Tai. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology 29:315-22. - - - . 1959. Classification by Vocabulary: Tai Dialects. Anthropological Linguistics 1(2): 15-21. - - - . 1960. A Tentative Classification of Tai Dialects. In Culture in History: Essays in Honor ofPaul Radin, edited by Stanley Diamond, 951-59. New York: Columbia University Press. - - - . 1964. The Phonemic System of the Tai-Lli Language. Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology 35:7-14. ---.1977. A Handbook of Comparative Tai. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawai'i. Luo, Yongxian. 1996. The Subgroup Structure ofthe Tai Languages: A HistoricalComparative Study. Ph.D. dissertation, The Australian National University. Macey, Paul. 1905. Etude ethnographique sur diverses tribus, aborigEmes ou autochtones habitant les provinces des Hua-phano, Ha-tang-hoc et du Cammon, au Laos. Actes 14e Congres International des Orientalistes, Alger 1905. 1ce Partie, 5e Sect.:3-63. Description of"Seks" on pp. 36-43; vocabulary on pp. 52-57. Mark, Lindy Li, and Fang-kuei Li. 1966. Speech Tone and Melody in Wu-Ming Folk Songs. In Essays Offered to G.H. Luce by his Colleagues and Friends in Honour ofhis Seventy-fifth Birthday, vol. 1, edited by Ba Shin, Jean Boisselier, and A.B. Griswold, 167-86. Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae. Maspero, Henri. 1912. Etude sur la phonetique historique de la langue annamite. Les initiales. Bulletin de rEcole Franr;aise d'Extreme-Orient 12(1): 1-127. Saek tones on pp. 3-5. McFarland, George Bradley. 1944. Thai-English Dictionary. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Minot, Georges. 1940. Dictionnaire tay blanc-franyais avec transcription latine. Bulletin de l'Ecole Franr;aise d'Extreme Orient 40(1):1-237. - - - . 1949a. Vocabulaire Franr;ais-Thay Blanc et Elements de Grammaire, vol. I. Hanoi: L'Ecole Franyaise d'Extreme-Orient. - - - . 1949b. Vocabulaire Franr;ais- Thay Blanc et Elements de Grammaire, vol. II. Hanoi: L'Ecole Franyaise d'Extreme-Orient. Mix, Mrs. H. W., ed. 1920. An English and Shan Dictionary. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press.

200

References Moeng, Sao Tern. 1995. Shan-English Dictionary. Kensington, MD: Dunwoody Press. Moerman, Michael. 1965. Ethnic Identification in a Complex Civilization: Who are the Lue? American Anthropologist 67: 1215-30. - - - . 1988. Talking Culture: Ethnography and Conversational Analysis. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Morev, L.N. 1988. Yoziksek [The Saek Language]. Moscow: Nauka. In Russian. Noss, Richard B. 1964. Thai Reference Grammar. Washington D.C.: Foreign Service Institute. Riviere, Armand. 1902. Vocabulaire Hang-thcek, khas Xos, Hareme. In Mission Pavie, Geographie et Voyages IV, 285-90. Paris: E. Leroux. Sarawit, Mary. 1973. The Proto-Tai Vowel System. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan. Siedenfaden, Erik. 1930. Ethnology. In Siam, Nature and Industry, 82-106. Bangkok: Ministry of Commerce and Communications. Snyder, Wil c., and Lu Tianqiao. 1997. Wuming Zhuang Tone Sandhi: A Phonological, Syntactic, and Lexical Investigation. In Comparative Kadai: The Tai Branch, edited by Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit, 107-37. Arlington, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. Thongkum, Theraphan L. 1976. The Saek Language of Ban Ba Wa: Some Phonetic Notes. In Genetic Relationship, Diffusion, and Typological Similarities of East and Southeast Asian Languages, edited by Mantaro J. Hashimoto, 398-409. Tokyo: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. Tingsabadh, M.R.K. 1976. A Phonetic Description ofTai Nong. In A Festschrift for Richard B. Noss, edited by A. Wansotorn and J.D. Palmer, 159-75. Bangkok: Central Institute of English Language. Young, Linda Wai Ling. 1985. Shan Chrestomathy: An Introduction to Tai Mau Language and Literature. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

201

INDEX [Note: Locator numbers refer to the gloss, not the page]

artisan; skilled ........... ashes ................... ask .................... asleep .................. astringent in taste ......... aunt, older sister of either parent ........... avoid, dodge ............. awaken (someone) ........ axe ....................

above .............. 607,0808 north ................. 0607 on ................... 0808 acacia .................. 0830 accustomed . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0519 add .................... 0695 affair, matter ............. 0165 afraid .................. 0918 aim, intend; mark ......... 0580 alive ................... 0841 all ................. 0225,1020 all (day, etc.) . . . . . . . . . .. 1093 all gone . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0225 also, then ............... 0104 altogether ............... 0653 and, with. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0482 angry; hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1006 animal .................. 0327 classifier for ........... 0362 horn of ............... 0515 penfor ................ 0150 tend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0420 young male ............ 0715 announce ............... 0260 answer a call . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0826 ant ..................... 0226 white ant .............. 0279 antelope ................ 0782 anvil ................... 1149 any, one or so . . . . . . . . . . .. 1117 which, what ............ 0438 ape .................... 0961 argue ................... 0903 arm .................... 0129 armpit .................. 0307 armspread (a measure) ..... 0379 arrive, reach ............. 0716 arrow of crossbow ........ 0858

0031 0366 0709 0775 0059 0259 0188 0280 0549

back ................... 0555 carryon the back. .. 1018, 1043 bad .................... 0883 bag ................ 0717,1023 bah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0739 bake ................... 0401 bamboo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1059 shoot ................. 0882 split flooring ........... 0453 strip for tying .......... 0360 tube .................. 0760 banana ................. 0101 blossom ............... 0627 bunch ................ 0539 leaf .................. 0703 stem .................. 0747 bank,ofriver ............ 0459 banyan ................. 0328 bark, shell ............... 0628 bark, to ................. 0074 basin ................... 0931 basket .................. 1016 fish .................. 0153 winnowing ............ 0449 bathe ................... 0001 be, become . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0263 be in a place ............. 0749 203

Comparative Tai Source Book

beach,sandbar ........... bean ................... soybeans .............. bear, a .................. beard. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0247, beat .................... be~,pound .............. become, be . . . . . . . . . . . . .. bed .................... set up, to .............. bedbug ................. bee, beeswax ............ beeswax, bee ............ before . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. beg .................... beginning; tree ........... believe ................. belly, stomach ............ below .................. below, south ........... bend over ............... bend, strengthen .. . . . . . . .. benumbed by cold, numb ... betel ................... big .......... 0200, 0396, big (tiger) ............. bird .................... bite,to ................. takeabite ............. bitter ................... black ................... blanket ............ 0978, cover with . . . . . . . . . . . .. blind ................... poor eyesight. . . . . . . . . .. blistered ................ blood .................. blow, to ................. blow away ............. blow the nose .......... blunt-pointed ............ board .................. boat .................... body body hair .............. body louse .............

boil, a .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. boil, to intransitive ............ transitive .............. bone ................... book, writing ............ bored ............. 0411, borrow ................. bottomless cage .......... bowl, cup ............... braid, to ................ brains .................. bran ................... branch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. of a tree ............... brass, copper. . . . . . . . . . . .. break, to intransitive ............ transitive . . . . . . . . . . . . .. break wind .............. breast .................. breath, heart ............. hold the breath ......... bridge ............. 0544, broil ................... broom .................. brother father's younger brother .. bruised ................. bruised, swollen ........ brush, a ................. bubble, foam ............. build ................... bunch of bananas ......... bundle, a; to tie up ........ burn, to intransitive ............ transitive .............. bury ................... buttocks ................ buy ....................

0789 0377 1098 0216 0857 0696 0718 0263 0990 0932 0886 0297 0297 0106 0149 1146 0771 0375 0551 0348 0102 0915 0995 0299 0765 0541 0242 0146 0801 0532 0043 1128 0794 0416 1154 0881 0191 0262 0275 0674 1092 1050 0310

cage ................... bottomless ............ calf of the leg ............ can; to obtain ............

0531 0558 204

0461 0447 0359 0055 0681 0598 0740 0983 0378 1125 0758 0661 0960 0488 1027 0355 0073 0698 1032 0022 0812 0952 0909 0748 0935 0769 0785 0875 0786 0818 0539 0210 0212 0638 1129 0942 0680 1135 0983 1150 0042

Index

chopsticks. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1015 cicada ............. 0417,0418 city, a country. . . . . . . . . . .. 0221 civet cat ................ 0077 classifier for animals ............... 0362 garments .............. 0957 long, thin objects. . . . . . .. 1113 round objects .......... 0054 things ................ 0936 tools ................. 0579 claws pinch or hold in ......... 0604 take hold of with ........ 0139 clean, to ................ 0292 clear, transparent ......... 0331 cliff, rock ............... 0633 climb ................... 0871 close, to ................ 0467 the eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0177 closely spaced; miserly ..... 0370 cloth ................... 0285 silk cloth .............. 0651 cloud ................... 0056 cloudy, shady ............ 0965 coarse; vulgar ............ 0391 cockroach . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 liS cockscomb .............. 0255 cockspur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0049 coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0302 coconut grub ........... 0780 cold .................... 0234 cold, a ................ 0385 collapse ................. 0637 comb, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0724 to comb . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0724 come ................... 0203 common people .......... 0649 complete, entire .......... 0542 confused ................ 0751 contain, hold. . . . . . . . . . . .. 1008 cook, to ................. 0981 cook rice .............. 0478 cooked, ripe ............. 0343 in a bamboo tube. . . . . . .. 1097 cooking pot. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0227

candle .................. 0369 carcass ................. 0670 carefully, gradually, slowly 0154 carry; to hold ............ 0372 as a suitcase ........... 0473 in the arms ............ 0013 on the back ....... 1018,1043 on the shoulder .. . . . . . .. 0807 on two ends of a shoulder pole ......... 0070 two or more persons ..... 0464 carry, transport . . . . . . . . . .. 0834 carrying pole ............. 0502 cast (metal), to ........... 0572 cast-net ................. 0471 castrate ......... . . . . . . .. 0902 cat ..................... 0852 catch ................... 0419 caterpillar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0766 catfish .................. 0779 cave .............. 0365,0974 central root . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0619 chaff ................... 0098 challenge ............... 0708 chang~to ............... 0872 clothes, etc. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0711 charcoal ................ 0710 chase .............. 0121,0179 chasm .................. 0470 cheap .................. 0719 cheek .................. 0092 chest ................... 0008 chew ................... 0134 chicken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0090 crop .................. 1029 louse ................. 0662 scratch ................ 0520 child ................... 0439 child, (one's) ............ 0201 chin .................... 0503 chipped, nicked .......... 0762 chisel .................. 0335 cholera ................. 1139 choose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0190 chop .............. 0466,0951 chopping board. . . . . . . . . .. 0832 205

Comparative Tai Source Book

cool .................... 1147 copper, brass. . . . . . . . . . . .. 1027 cord, rope ............... 0037 cord, string ............ 0323 core, hard, seed. . . . . . . . . .. 0943 cotton .................. 0455 cough, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0003 count ................... 0237 country, city . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0221 cove~to ........... 0282,1078 with a blanket .......... 0794 crab .................... 0632 crack, hole .............. 0038 cradle .................. 0402 crawl .............. 0144,0347 crazy .............. 0015,0877 creature, mythical water . . .. 0621 crippled ................ 0622 crooked ................. 0147 crooked,hunchback ....... 0967 crop (of a chicken) ........ 1029 cross, to ................ 0114 crossbow ................ 0593 arrow of .............. 0858 crow, a ................. 0481 crow, to ................. 0119 crucible. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1047 cry out ................. 1085 crystal, glass ............. 0805 cucumber ............... 0694 cup, bowl ............... 0378 cupboard ........... 0705,0971 curry, soup .............. 0803 cut, to ............. 0692,0959 cycle, year .............. 0545 dark ................... dark red ............... daughter-in-law .......... dawn ................... day .................... after tomorrow ......... before yesterday ........ daybreak, light ........... deaf .................... debt ....................

decayed, tender. . . . . . . . . .. 0267 deceive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0648 deep ................... 0196 deer .............. , 0109,1034 kind of deer. . . . . . . . . . . . 0782 defeat, be defeated ........ 0879 design, stripe, mark ....... 0174 desire, to ................ 0537 destroy ................. 0173 dew, mist ............... 1035 die ..................... 0346 differ ................... 0686 difficult ................. 0390 difficult; poor ............ 0968 dig .................... 0163 dike between rice fields .... 0510 dip out ................. 0349 dirt, earth .......... 0445, 1004 disappear ............... 0790 discarded snake skin ....... 0535 ditch ................... 0587 divide .................. 1052 divide, share ........... " 0761 divorce ................. 0726 do, make ........... 0823, 1134 do reciprocally ......... 1026 doctor, shaman . . . . . . . . . .. 0854 dodge, avoid ............. 0188 dog .................... 0205 don't ................... 0725 door ................... 0704 door latch ...... . . . . . . . .. 0946 dove ................... 0514 drag, pull ............... 0172 dream, to ................ 0458 dream of .............. 0460 dregs ................... 0924 wine dregs. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0993 dried sweat and dirt on skin . 0526 dried up ................ 0079 drum ................... 0493 drunk .................. 1068 dry .................... 0512 dry field .............. 0306 dry land ............... 0413 weather, season ......... 0561

0223 0491 0289 1070 0383 0312 11 11 1081 0611 0861 206

Index

duck ................... dumb, mute .............. dust .................... dust off ............... dye ....................

0264 0017 0788 0870 0745

each other, together ....... ear ..................... ear of rice ............. earth, dirt .......... 0445, earthworm ............... easy .................... eat ..................... eaves ................... edge ................... edge, side ............. edible water plant . . . . . . . .. effort, make an; strain . . . . .. egg .................... eggplant ................ eight ................... elbow .................. elephant ................ elephant's tusk; ivory .... embrace, hug ............ embroider . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. empty .................. half gone, partly empty . .. end, tip ................. enemy, war . . . . . . . . . . . . .. engage in trade . . . . . . . . . .. enough ............ 0644, enter ................... entire, complete .......... equal ................... equipment, utensils, tools ... erase ................... evening meal ............ exchange ................ excrement ............... expensive ............... expose to the sun ......... extinguish . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. eye .................... blind; poor eyesight ..... close the eyes ..........

0089 0479 0667 1004 0048 0249 0487 0768 0309 1137 1042 0409 0124 0524 0265 0340 0427 0616 0821 1110 0271 0654 0270 0679 0113 1000 0123 0542 0367 0159 0846 0186 0559 0522 0640 0345 0437 0684 1154 0177

open the eyes .......... 0194 face .................... 0592 lie face down ........... 0169 lie face up ............. 0618 fall (of a leaf, etc.) ........ 0844 fall over. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0843 slip and fall ............ 0643 fall, to .................. 0358 familiar, tame ............ 0836 fan, a ................... 0908 fan, to .................. 0908 far ..................... 0492 fat ..................... 0293 father .................. 0301 father's younger brother .. 0935 father's younger sibling .. 0752 fear . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0728, 0840 feed, to ................. 0955 a child or invalid. . . . . . .. 1054 feed, raise ............. 0187 feel, grope ............... 0525 fell (a tree) .............. 0272 fence, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0317 fever ................... 0125 few, small . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0246 fiber, spiderweb, membrane 0395 field dry field .............. 0306 rice field .............. 0231 whole area of .......... 0906 fight, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1082 figure, shape ............. 0913 fingeGtoe .......... 0239,0868 pick up with ........... 0738 fingernail, toenail .. . . . . . .. 0185 finished ................. 0562 fire .................... 0063 make a fire ............ 0997 soften over a fire ........ 0598 firewood ........... 0462,0574 firm wobble, not firm or tight .. 0527 first .................... 0663 first month. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0977 fish .................... 0269 207

Comparative Tai Source Book

galangal, kind of root . . . . .. 0499 gallbladder .............. 0443 gamble ................. 1010 garden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0342 garments, classifier for . . . .. 0957 gather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1025 genuine, real, really ....... 0714 gesture make salutation gesture. .. 0721 gho~ .............. 0641,0849 gills, the gums ............ 0253 ginger ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0523 girl .................... 0764 give .................... 0075 gizzard ................. 0353 glass, crystal ............. 0805 go ..................... 0261 go down .............. 0571 goout ................ 0010 go up ................. 0143 goat .................... 0290 gold .............. 0117,0938 good ................... 0442 goose ............. 0068, 1056 graciously pleased ........ 0631 gradually, slowly, carefully . 0154 grain, seed .............. 0213 grandchild; nephew, niece .. 0550 great-grandchild ........ 0181 grandfather maternal .............. 0685 paternal ............... 1145 grandmother maternal .............. 0731 paternal ............... 0388 grass ................... 0389 grass mat .............. 0763 thatch grass . . . . . . . . . . .. 0498 grasshopper ............. 0689 great-grandchild .......... 0181 green ................... 0135 grey-haired . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0254 grind, sharpen . . . . . . . . . . .. 0463 grope, feel. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0525 grub, coconut ............ 0780 guard, to ................ 1138

catfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0779 fish basket . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0153 fishbone .............. 0944 fish hook . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0019 fish scales ............. 0097 fishtrap ............... 0891 fishy smell .............. 0827 fist ..................... 0972 five .................... 0066 flame ................... 0273 flea .................... 0209 flee .................... 1028 flesh, meat .............. 0606 float .............. 0198, 0787 flood, to ................ 0905 flooring, split bamboo ..... 0453 flour ................... 1040 flow ................... 0180 flower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0052 fly, to .................. 0020 flying squirrel . . . . . . . . . . .. 0406 foam, bubble. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0786 fog .................... 0228 fold, to ................. 0288 fold double ............ 0374 foot .................... 0356 footprint, track ......... 0666 forehead ................ 0634 forest .............. 0258, 0448 forest, wild ............ 0900 forget .................. 0193 fork .................... 0987 four .................... 0677 fragrant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0084 free, idle ........... 0996, 1105 frog .................... 0103 small frog ........ 0132,0624 frost ................... 1064 fruit .................... 0206 section of; petal. . . . . . . .. 1157 fry ..................... 0982 frying pan, pot ........... 1136 full .................... 0354 after eating ............ 0007 gadfly .................. 0568 208

Index

guest ................... gums, the; gills ........... gun .................... gutter, trough ............

heart ................... 1106 heart, breath ........... 0022 heavy .................. 0235 heavy shower .......... 0065 heel .................... 0339 help, to ................. 0039 hemp ................... 1051 here, this . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0862 hide ............... 0806, 0991 hide, take shelter . . . . . . .. 1001 high, tall ........... . . . .. 0344 highest point, tip ........ 0746 hill .................... 1002 hill, mountain .......... 0778 hire .................... 1148 hit, play (in phrases) ....... 1003 hoe .................... 0423 hold, contain. . . . . . . . . . . .. 1008 hold, carry ............. 0372 hold the breath ......... 0812 in claws, under the arm . .. 0604 in closed hand .......... 0800 in the jaws ............. 0506 in the mouth ........... 0930 hole .................... 0318 hole, crack ............. 0038 hole, pit ............... 0546 hollow .................. 0100 home ................... 0730 hoof (as of a horse) . . . . . . .. 0094 hook,a ................. 0969 horn of an animal ......... 0515 horse ................... 0204 hot .................... 0314 hot; angry ............. 1006 spicy hot .... 0639,0890, 1065 house .................. 0311 housefly ................ 0384 how many . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0093 hug, embrace ............ 0821 human being, person. . . . . .. 0145 hump of an ox . . . . . . . . . . .. 0864 hunchback, crooked ....... 0967 hundred ............ 0315,0912 hungry ............ 0009,0727 hunt .................... 0898

0831 0253 0268 1083

hail .................... 0469 hair body hair .............. 0531 hairknot ............... 0490 of the head ............ 0300 pubic ................. 0856 queue ................. 1048 whorl in the hair; spirit ... 0171 half .................... 1049 half gone, partly empty . .. 0654 half-grown, fairly large ... 0919 half, middle. . . . . . . . . . .. 0540 hammer ................. 0151 hand ................... 0219 hold in the closed hand ... 0800 left ................... 0322 lift in both hands ........ 0744 mold with the hands ..... 1053 right .................. 0164 take in two cupped hands 0945 handle, rod .............. 0829 handle of a knife ..... . .. 0040 hang down .............. 1143 hang up ............... 0168 hard ................... 0517 hard core, seed ......... 0943 harrow ................. 1124 hat wicker hat . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0495 hate .................... 0030 have ................... 0586 hawk .............. 1073,1100 he, it ................... 0582 head ................... 0086 hair of the head ......... 0300 head louse ............. 0468 tilt the head back. . . . . . .. 0620 top of the head ......... 1036 heap up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0820 hear .................... 0735 hear, listen ........ 0869, 1012 209

Comparative Tai Source Book

know ................... 0319

hurt .................... 0023 husband ................ 0656 husk ................... 0799

ladder, stairs . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0044 lady .................... 1033 lake; pus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0865 land, dry ............... 0413 land leech ............... 0363 landing ................. 0707 lasso ................... 0528 last (year) ............... 0810 latch, door. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0946 late at night ............... 0051 in the morning. . . . . . . . .. 0324 late meal .............. 0650 laugh ................... 0475 lay (a cloth) across ........ 0286 lazy ............... 0]55,0815 lead by the hand .......... 0025 leaf ................... 0018 big leaf, especially a banana leaf . . . . . . . .. 0703 leak .................... 0316 lean back .......... 0755,0934 leech ................... 0274 land leech ............. 0363 left (hand) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0322 left over ................ 0565 leg ..................... 0501 calf of the leg .......... 1150 lower leg, shin. . . . . . . . .. 0131 lemongrass .............. 0158 level; only. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1152 lick ................... 0563 lid; wall ................. 0058 lie ..................... 0676 lie athwart ............. 0838 lie down, sleep ......... 0245 lie face down ........... 0169 lie face up ............. 0618 lift in both hands .......... 0744 light ................... 0676 light a lamp ............ 0688 I ight, daybreak ......... 1081 light (fire, lamp) ........ 1005 light (not heavy) .......... 0408

I ..................... 0494 I; slave .......... 0533, 1144 idle, free ... . . . . . . .. 0996, 1105 impetigo, the itch ......... 0472 imprison, shut up ......... 0120 in, inside ................ 0601 incorrect, wrong .......... 0988 increase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0578 incubate ................ 0061 Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1075 indigo ............. 0534,0958 ink ..................... 0224 insect .................. 0215 inside, in ................ 0601 inside out turn upside down or inside out. . . . . . . . .. 0873 intend, aim; mark ......... 0580 intercourse, sexual ........ 0929 intestines ................ 0330 iron (the metal) ...... 0]83,0847 it, he ................... 0582 it is .................... 0989 itch, the; impetigo. . . . . . . .. 0472 itch, to ............. 0828,0835 ivory, elephant's tusk ...... 0616 jackal .................. 0859 join .................... 0701 kapok .................. kapok tree . . . . . . . . . . . .. kick .................... kidney stones ............ kill .................... kind .................... kitchen ................. knee ................... kneel ................... kneel down ............ knife ................... big knife, machete .......

0613 0251 0444 0863 0112 1079 0543 0122 0920 0970 0218 0646 210

Index

married get married ............ 0777 massage, squeeze ......... 0963 master, owner; you ........ 0021 mat .................... 1126 grass mat . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0763 matchbox ............... 0811 maternal grandfather ............ 0685 grandmother ........... 0731 matter,affair ............. 0165 mattress ................ 0914 meal ................... 0220 evening meal ........... 0186 late meal .............. 0650 midday meal ........... 0248 measure from thumb to the fingertip ......... 0142 meat, flesh .............. 0606 medicine ................ 0387 melon .................. 0949 membrane, spiderweb, fiber 0395 mend ................... 1153 metal, cast to . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0572 midday meal . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0248 middle .................. 0095 middle, half ............ 0540 millet .................. 0925 mirror .................. 0937 miserly; closely spaced ..... 0370 mist, dew ............... 1035 moan, to ................ 0156 mold with the hands ....... 1053 mole ................... 1132 mollusk ................. 0085 money .................. 0986 money, silver. . . . . . . . . .. 0250 monkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0564 month, moon ............. 0047 first (month) ........... 0977 moon, month. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0047 more than ............... 0496 morning ........... 0028,1038 late in the morning ...... 0324 mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0160 mosquito ................ 0750

lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1095 like,to .................. 0581 lime .................... 1142 Iiquid, soft .............. 0182 liquor .................. 0178 listen, hear ......... 0869, 1012 listen, obey .............. 0062 litter (of young) .......... 0837 liver ................... 0352 lock, a .................. 1114 long ............... 0665, 0729 long (of time) ....... 0597,1155 look .............. 0976, 1094 look, watch over ........ 0450 loom for weaving ......... 0480 shuttle of loom ......... 0896 loop ................... 0476 loose-fitting ............. 0575 lose one's way ........... 0845 lotus ................... 1087 loud ................... 0776 louse body louse ............. 0558 chicken louse .......... 0662 headlouse ............. 0468 love, to ................. 0304 lover ................. 0772 low, short (not tall) ........ 0350 lump, piece . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1011 lung .................... 0630 lye (water) .............. 0432 machete, big knife ........ 0646 make,do ........... 0823,1134 make a fire ............ 0997 make an effort, strain .... 0409 make rope ............. 1130 male person, man ......... 0029 young male animal ...... 0715 man, male person ......... 0029 young unmarried man . . .. 0407 mango .................. 0589 many, much ............. 0175 mark; intend, aim ......... 0580 mark, stripe, design ....... 0174 market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1131 211

Comparative rai Source Book

mother ................. mother's younger sibling . mound .................. mound, pubic .......... mountain ................ mountain, hill .......... mountain stream ........ mouse, rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. mouth ............. 0623, hold in the mouth ....... open (the mouth) ........ put out of mouth .. . . . . .. much, many ............. mucus of the nose ......... mud, sink into, to ......... mushroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. mute, dumb . . . . . . . . . . . . .. mythical water creature ....

0214 0594 1060 0860 0657 0778 0087 0615 1158 0930 0397 0507 0175 0591 0570 0078 0017 0621

naked .................. name ................... narrow ................. navel .............. 0050, near .................... neck ................... necklace ................ needle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. nephew, niece; grandchild .. net cast-net ............... raised net. . . . . . . . . . . . .. new .................... nibble, peck ............. nicked, chipped .......... niece, nephew; grandchild .. night ................... night, nightfall. . . . . . . . .. nine .................... north, above ............. nose ................... blow the nose .......... mucus of nose .......... not .................... numb, benumbed by cold . ..

0629 0426 0130 0992 0096 0148 1123 0128 0550 0471 0984 0211 0361 0762 0550 0141 0118 0088 0607 0435 0674 0591 0016 0995

obey, listen .............. 0062 212

obtain; can .............. of; thing ................ oil ................ 0584, old .................... of living things ......... of things .............. older brother of either parent, uncle ......... sibling ................ sister of either parent, aunt olive, wild ............... on ..................... o~above .............. one .................... one in eleven ........... one or so, any .......... only; level . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. only one, single, same . . .. open ................... open the eyes .......... open the mouth ......... orange, tamarind .......... orphan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. other ................... other people, they ....... otter ................... outside ................. owner, master; you ........ ox ................ 0256, hump of ox ............

0042 0152 1076 0712 0091 0483

package; to wrap up ....... pair .................... palm, sole ............... pan, frying .............. pangolin ................ part, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. partly empty, half gone ..... paternal grandfather .. . . . .. grandmother ........... peak, summit ............ peck, nibble ............. peel, to ................. pen for animals . . . . . . . . . .. penis ...................

1044 0547 0452 1136 0605 1 112 0654 1145 0388 0424 0361 0283 0150 0953

0576 0294 0259 0819 0414 0808 0240 0754 1117 1152 0046 0126 01 94 0397 0825 1061 0756 0513 0596 0244 0021 1069 0864

Index

people common people. . . . . . . .. 0649 they, other people ....... 0513 pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0652 person .................. 0658 person, human being ..... 0145 pestle .................. 0669 petal; section of fruit ...... 1157 pick (the teeth) ........... 0421 pick up ................. 0484 with the fingers ......... 0738 pickle, to ........... 0053, 0927 picture .................. 0477 piece, lump .............. 1011 pig .................... 0590 pig-feed. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1118 pillar .............. 0675, 1108 pillow .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0229 support as with a pillow .. 0614 pimple .................. 0336 pinch, hold in claws, under the arm .......... 0604 pipe water pipe ............. 0842 pit, hole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0546 place ................... 0371 be in a place ........... 0749 in expressions for above, below, etc. . . . . . . . . . .. 1021 plant edible water plant ....... 1042 plant, tree ............. 0105 toplant ............... 0281 play, to ............ 0184, 1090 play, hit, etc. (in phrases) . 1003 pleased, graciously ........ 0631 pleat, to ................. 0422 pliers, tongs ............. 0138 take hold with . . . . . . . . .. 0139 plow, a ................. 0368 to plow ............... 0368 pluck. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0440, 0916 plug (a hole) ............. 0014 plugged up ............ 1007 plum ................... 1067 pod; sheath .............. 0060

point, to ................ poison, to ............... poke ................... pole, carrying ............ pond ............ . . . . . .. poor; difficult . . . . . . . . . . .. porcupine ............... pot, cooking ...... . . . . . .. pot, frying pan ........... potato .................. pound, to ........... 0690, pound, beat . . . . . . . . . . .. pound (rice) again ....... present progressive ........ price ................... price, value ............ progressive, present ....... pubic hair ............... pubic mound . . . . . . . . . .. pull, drag ............... pull out ............... pungent, unpleasantly. . . . .. pus; lake ................ put .................... put away .............. put down, take down ..... put on, wear ...... 0894, put out of mouth ........ python. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

0034 1041 1120 0502 0923 0968 0585 0227 1136 0583 0702 0718 1122 0430 0947 0500 0430 0856 0860 0172 0904 0136 0865 0329 0386 0276 1031 0507 0566

queue (refer to hair) ....... 1048 quick ................... 0884 rabbit .................. raft .................... rain .................... rainbow ................. raise, feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. raise, lift ................ raised net .............. rapids .................. rat, mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. rattan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. raw, not ripe ............. reach, arrive ............. read .................... 213

1024 0291 0064 0668 0187 0743 0984 0486 0615 0907 0446 0716 0933

Comparative Tai Source Book

rope, cord ............... 0037 make rope ............. 1130 strand (of rope) ......... 0814 rotten .................. 0602 round ............. 0817,1066 rub .................... 1039 run .................... 1096

real, genuine, really ....... 0714 really, genuine, real ....... 0714 receive ................. 1084 reciprocally, to do . . . . . . . .. 1026 red .................... 0441 dark red ............... 0491 reflection, shadow ........ 0866 release .................. 0278 remove ................. 0376 remove, take down ...... 0277 repeat .................. 0326 rest .................... 0636 return .................. 1063 revile, scold ............. 0429 revolve, spin . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0625 rhinoceros. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0664 ribs, side ................ 0505 rice .................... 0116 cook rice .............. 0478 cooked in bamboo tube . .. 1097 dike between rice fields .. 0510 ear of rice ............. 0667 pound (rice) again ....... 1122 rice field .............. 0231 transplant (young rice plants) ........... 0436 vessel for steaming rice ... 0791 young rice plant ........ 0489 ride .................... 0137 right (hand) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0164 ring .................... 0723 ringworm ............... 0809 rinse, wash .............. 0552 ripe, cooked ............. 0343 river bank ............... 0459 road .............. 0474, 1101 road, way ............. 0364 rob ..................... 0874 rock, cliff ............... 0633 rod, handle .............. 0829 roll up .................. 0950 roof, to ................. 0230 room ................... 0889 root .................... 0303 central root ............ 0619 galangal, kind of root .... 0499

saddle .................. 0398 saliva .................. 0553 salt .................... 0099 salty .................. 0516 salutation make gesture of . . . . . . . .. 0721 same, single, only one ..... 0046 sand ................... 0321 sandbar, beach ......... 0789 saw, a ............. 0192, 0940 to saw ........... 0192, 0940 say .................... 0380 scald ................... 0199 scales, fish .............. 0097 scatter, sow. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0720 scissors ................. 0956 scold, revile ............. 0429 scrape .................. 0161 scratch, to .......... 0140,0802 as chickens ............ 0520 search, to ............... 0530 section offruit; petal ...... 1157 see .................... 0076 see someone off ........ 0893 seed ................... 0457 seed, grain . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0213 seed, hard core ......... 0943 seek .................... 0067 sell .................... 0508 send (a present) .......... 0781 separate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0647 sesame ................. 0617 set up .................. 0895 set up a bed ............ 0932 set up a trap ............ 1140 seven ................... 0024 sew .................... 0732 sexual intercourse . . . . . . . .. 0929 214

Index

sing .................... 0511 single, only one, same ..... 0046 sink, to ................. 0767 sink into mud .......... 0570 sit ..................... 0236 six ..................... 0082 skilled; an artisan ......... 0031 skin .................... 0600 discarded snake skin ..... 0535 dried sweat, dirt on skin .. 0526 sky .................... 0057 slack ................... 1080 slap .................... 0699 slash ................... 0783 slave; I ............ 0533, 1144 sleep, lie down ........... 0245 slip and fall . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0643 slippery, smooth . . . . . . . . .. 0195 slowly, gradually, carefully 0154 small. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1119 small, few ... . . . . . . . . .. 0246 smear .................. 1019 smell fishy smell. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0827 smell bad ......... 0867,0910 smell something ........ 0994 smoke .................. 0170 smooth ................. 0813 smooth, slippery ........ 0195 snake ................... 0257 discarded snake skin ..... 0535 snare, a ................. 0308 snore ................... 0107 soak .............. 0577,0770 soft .................... 0911 soften over a fire . . . . . . .. 0599 soft, liquid . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0182 soft;young ............ 0011 sole, palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0452 son-in-law. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0518 soot .................... 0853 sound .................. 0333 soup, curry .............. 0803 sour .................... 0682 south, below . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0348 sow, scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0720

shade ................... 0313 shadow, reflection ........ 0866 shady, cloudy ............ 0965 shallow ................. 0357 shaman, doctor . . . . . . . . . .. 0854 shape, figure . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0913 share, divide ............. 0761 sharp, sharp edge ......... 0833 sharpen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1089 a knife ................ 0556 sharpen, grind . . . . . . . . .. 0463 sharpen to a point ....... 11 07 sharpened stake .......... 0548 sharp-pointed ............ 0560 shave ................... 1022 sheath; pod . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0060 shelf above a fire ......... 0948 shell, bark . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0628 shin, lower leg ........... 0131 shirt ............... 0337,0880 shoe ................... 1141 shoot, to ................ 0736 shoot, sprout . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0243 bamboo shoot .......... 0882 short ................... 0697 short (not tall), low ...... 0350 shoulder ................ 0403 carry on shoulder ....... 0807 shower, heavy. . . . . . . . . . .. 0065 shrimp .................. 0108 small shrimp ........... 1074 shrink .................. 0795 shut up, imprison ......... 0120 shuttle of the loom ........ 0896 sibling father's younger ........ 0752 mother's younger ....... 0594 older ................. 0294 younger . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0610 sickle .................. 1088 side .................... 0412 side, edge ............. 1137 side, ribs .............. 0505 sift ..................... 1156 silk cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0651 silver, money ............ 0250 215

Comparative Tai Source Book

stop .................... 0394 straight ................. 0338 straighten, bend . . . . . . . .. 0915 strain, make an effort ...... 0409 strand (of rope) ........... 0814 strange ................. 1159 straw, stubble ............ 0454 stream, mountain ......... 0087 strength, strong . . . . . . . . . .. 0885 stretch .................. 0742 stretch out . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1071 string. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1086 string, cord ............ 0323 stripe, design, mark ....... 0174 stroke, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0202 strong, strength ........... 0885 struggle, squirm .......... 1046 stubble, straw ............ 0454 stuck ................... 0497 stump ............. 0700, 0824 sugar ................... 1013 sugarcane ............. 0012 summit, peak ............ 0424 sun, expose to the ........ 0345 sunshine ................ 0045 support, as with a pillow .... 0614 surround ......... . . . . . .. 0921 as with a fence ......... 1102 swallow (a bird) .......... 0400 swallow, to ......... 0816, 1014 sweat ................... 0252 dried sweat, dirt on skin .. 0526 sweep .................. 0111 sweet ................... 0382 swift (of water) ........... 0425 swim ................... 1109 swim under water ....... 0999 swollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0966 swollen, bruised ........ 0785 sword ............. 0433,0939

soybeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1098 spade .................. 0332 speak ................... 0798 spear, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0083 spicy hot ....... 0639,0890,1065 spider .................. 0027 spiderweb, fiber, membrane. 0395 spill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1045 spin, revolve . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0625 spirit; whorl in the hair ..... 0171 spleen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0848 splinter ................. 0892 split .................... 0284 split bamboo floor. . . . . .. 0453 splotched, spotted with white 0431 spool ................... 0197 spotted, splotched with white 0431 spring, well . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0415 sprout, shoot. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0243 squeeze, massage ......... 0963 squirm, struggle .......... 1046 squirrel ............. . . .. 0888 flying squirrel .......... 0406 stairs, ladder . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0044 stake ................... 0554 sharpened stake ......... 0548 stand ................... 0741 star .................... 0041 steal ................... 0176 steam, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0241 steam, vapor ........... 0004 stem ................... 0797 banana stem ........... 0747 step on ............ 0392, 1072 sterile .................. 0850 sticklac ................. 0536 sticky .................. 1030 sticky, tough ........... 0603 stiff and tired ............ 0222 still, yet ................. 0393 sting ................... 0998 stinger (of a bee) . . . . . . . . .. 0238 stomach, belly ............ 0375 stomp on ................ 0373 stone ................... 0081 stool ................... 0351

Tai, Thai ................ tail .................... take .................... take down, put down. . . .. take down, remove ...... 216

0713 0069 0002 0276 0277

Index

tight ................... 0964 wobble, not firm or tight .. 0527 tile .................... 1104 tilt the head back ......... 0620 time, a .................. 1058 time, turn .............. 0975 time, long ............... 0597 tip, end ................. 0270 tip, highest point .......... 0746 tired ................... 0608 stiff and tired . . . . . . . . . .. 0222 toast, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1151 tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0926 toe, finger .......... 0239, 0868 toenail, fingernail ....... 0185 together, each other ....... 0089 toilet ................... 0683 tomorrow ............... 0655 tongs, pliers ............. 0138 take hold with .......... 0139 tongue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0189 tools, utensils, equipment ... 0159 tools, classifier for ........ 0579 tooth .............. 0133,0456 top for spinning .......... 0504 top of the head ........... 1036 torn .................... 0115 tortoise, water ............ 1127 tough, sticky . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0603 track, footprint ........... 0666 trade, engage in .......... 0113 transparent, clear ......... 0331 transplant (young rice plants) 0436 transport, carry ........... 0834 trap set a trap .............. 1140 to trap ................ 0774 tree, plant ............... 0105 branch (ofa tree) ........ 0488 fell (a tree) ............ 0272 tree; beginning ......... 1146 tripod .................. 0521 trough, gutter ............ 1083 trousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0973 tube, bamboo ............ 0760 turbid ............. 0162,0954

take hold with tongs, claws 0139 take in two cupped hands 0945 tall, high ................ 0344 tallow .................. 0127 tamarind, orange. . . . . . . . .. 0825 tame, familiar ............ 0836 taro .................... 0642 taste, to ................. 0036 tattoo, to ., . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0673 tea ..................... 0026 teach ................... 1121 tear, to ................. 0035 teeth, to pick ............ 0421 tell .................... 0557 ten ..................... 0334 tend (animals) ............ 0420 tender, decayed. . . . . . . . . .. 0267 tendon .................. 0399 termite ................. 0855 testicles ................. 0465 Thai, Tai ................ 0713 thatch grass .............. 0498 then, also ............... 0 I 04 they, other people ......... 0513 thick ................... 0595 thick (of fluids) ......... 0529 thin (not fat) ........... .. 0645 thin (not thick) ......... 0405 thing classifier for ........... 0936 old ................... 0483 thing; of ................ 0152 this, here ................ 0862 thorn .............. 0233,0757 thousand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0985 thread ............. 0773, 0851 three ................... 0671 threshold ................ 0962 throw, to ................ 0166 thunder ............ 0878, 1103 tick .................... 0792 tie, to .................. 0659 tie up ................. 0839 tie up; bundle .......... 0210 tiger .............. 0678, 0822 big (tiger) ............. 0541 217

Comparative Tai Source Book

turn, to ................. turn (something) over .... turn upside down or inside out. . . . . . . . .. turn, time ............... turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. tusk, elephant's; ivory ..... twist, wring . . . . . . . . . . . . .. two ............... 0341, uncle, older brother of either parent ......... undo, untie .............. unmarried young man ............ young woman .......... untie, undo .............. upside down turn upside down or inside out. . . . . . . . .. urinate .................. use, to ............. 0032, utensils, tools, equipment ...

warn ................... 0899 wart .................... 0796 wash ................... 1116 wash (clothes) .......... 0325 wash, rinse ............ 0552 wasp ....... . . . . . . . . . . .. 0693 kind of wasp ........... 1009 watch over, look .......... 0450 water ................... 0232 edible water plant ....... 1042 lye (water) ............. 0432 mythical water creature . .. 0621 swift water ............ 0425 swim under water ....... 0999 water buffalo ............ 0167 water pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0842 water (plants), to ..... 0887,1099 water tortoise ............ 1127 way, road ............... 0364 we (you and I, not others) ... 0305 wear, put on ........ 0894, 1031 weave .................. 0691 weave (baskets, mats) .... 0672 weed, to ................ 0434 weep ................... 0072 weigh .................. 0428 well, spring. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0415 wet .................... 1017 what, which, any .......... 0438 wheel .................. 0573 which .................. 1037 which, what, any ........ 0438 whistle, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0296 white .............. 0509,1055 white ant . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0279 spotted, splotched with white ........... 0431 whittle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1057 who .................... 0157 whorl in the hair; spirit . . . .. 0171 wicker hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0495 wide ................... 0110 widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0207 wife .................... 0217 of man's younger brother . 1091 wife, woman ........... 0876

0979 0298 0873 0975 0897 0616 0410 0734

0576 0485 0407 0320 0485

0873 0733 1077 0159

vagina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. value, price .............. vapor, steam ............. vegetable ............... kind of vegetable. . . . . . .. vessel for steaming rice .... Vietnamese .............. village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. vine ............... 0538, vinegar ............ . . . .. vomit .................. vulgar; coarse ............

1133 0500 0004 0287 0917 0791 0804 0404 0922 1062 0660 0391

waist .............. 0005, wait .................... wake up intransitive ............ walk ................... wall .................... wall; lid ............... war, enemy .............. warm ...................

0793 0706 0901 0635 0980 0058 0679 0928 218

Index

yawn ................... year .................... last (year) ............. year, cycle . . . . . . . . . . . .. yellow .................. yesterday ............... day before . . . . . . . . . . . .. yet, still ................. yoke ................... part under the neck ...... you .................... you; master, owner ...... young .................. male animal ............ rice plant . . . . . . . . . . . . .. unmarried man ......... unmarried woman ....... young; soft .............. younger sibling . . . . . . . . . ..

wild, forest ... . . . . . . . . . .. 0900 wind, the. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0569 window ................. 0687 wine dregs .............. 0993 wing .............. 0266,0784 winnowing basket. . . . . . . .. 0449 wipe ................... 0033 with .................... 0451 with, and . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0482 withered ................ 0080 wobble, not firm or tight .... 0527 woman ................. 0737 woman, wife ........... 0876 young unmarried ........ 0320 wood ................... 0208 work (noun) ........ 0722, 0941 worm .................. 0609 wound, to ............... 0759 wrap up; package ......... 1044 wring, twist . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0410 writing, book ............ 0681 wrong .................. 0295 wrong, incorrect ........ 0988

219

0071 0626 0810 0545 0567 0381 1111 0393 0006 0753 0588 0021 0612 0715 0489 0407 0320 0011 0610

OCEANIC LINGUISTICS SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS

Robert A. Blust General Editor

Editorial Board Joel Bradshaw, Michael L. Forman, George W. Grace, Howard P. McKaughan, Yoku Otsuka, Kenneth L. Rehg, Albert J. Schlitz Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications are occasional publications issued under the sponsorship of the Department of Linguistics of the University of Hawai'i. The series consists of independently subsidized studies bearing on the languages of the Oceanic area. The "Oceanic area" is defined for this purpose as the combined Austronesian, Papuan, and Australian language areas. The Special Publications are published and distributed for the Department by the University of Hawai'i Press. Manuscripts may be submitted to: Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications Department of Linguistics 1890 East-West Road Moore Hall 569 University of Hawai'i Honolulu, Hawai 'i 96822