Western Fruit Gardening [Reprint 2020 ed.] 9780520349414

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WESTERN FRUIT GARDENING

R E I D M. B R O O K S

• C L A R O N O.

HESSE

ÍVeAÍem tf-mit A HANDBOOK FOR THE HOME GARDENER ON FRUIT VARIETIES; CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS; SOIL, WATER, AND NUTRIENT

REQUIREMENTS;

GATION;

CONTROL

ILLUSTRATIONS

BERKELEY

AND

UNIVERSITY

OF

OF

PRUNING AND PROPADISEASES

AND

BY B E V E R L E Y

LOS

PESTS

FARMER

ANGELES

1953

CALIFORNIA

PRESS

University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles Cambridge University Press, London, England Copyright, 1953, by the Regents of the University of California Printed in the United States of America Designed by John B. Goetz

Preface This book has been written to help Western gardeners—with or without experience—to secure the greatest pleasure with fruit trees and plants in their gardens. The variety of information you will find here is by no means the work of the authors alone. We have gathered our material from many scattered sources, representing the achievements of workers in the field of pomology over many years. With their help, for which we are deeply grateful, we are putting into your hands what we believe to be the best information on Western fruit gardening now available. REID M .

BROOKS

CLAKON O . HESSE

Davis, California June 23, 1953

Contents INTRODUCTION

PART I. GROWING FRUIT PLANTS

3

Planning Your Fruit Garden Varieties—What Are They? 5 • Climatic Limitations 6 • Site 15 • Soil 16 • Planting for a Diversity of Crops 18 • Planting for Pollination 19 • Selecting Plants 23 • Spacing Trees 24 • How to Plant 25

28

Care of Young and Mature Trees Watering 28 • Cultivation 34 • Fertilizers and Mineral Elements 35

Pruning

43

How Trees Grow 44 • Methods of Training 49 • Fruit Thinning 57

Propagating Your Own Selection of Varieties

59

Layering 60 • Cuttings 62 • Budding 64 • Grafting 70

Growing Fruit in Limited Spaces

75

Dwarf Fruit Trees 75 • Espaliers 79 • Cordons 85 • Trees in Containers 86 • Multiple Variety Trees 87

PART II. WESTERN FRUITS

89

Almond 91 • Apple 95 • Apricot 105 • Avocados 110 • Blackberries 115 • Blueberry 121 • Carissa 124 • Cherimoya 126 • Cherries 128 • Chestnuts 134 • Crab Apples 136 • Currant 138 • Date 140 • Feijoa 144 • Fig 146 • Filbert 151 • Gooseberry 154 • Grapes 155 • Grapefruit 172 • Guavas 173 • Jujube 176 • Kumquats 177 • Lemon 179 • Limes 181

viil

Contents

* Loquat 183 • Macadamia 185 • Mandarin 187 • Nectarine 189 • Olive 191 • Orange 195 • Papaya 201 • Passion Fruit 204 • Peach 206 • Pear 214 • Pecan 220 • Persimmon 223 • Pistachio 226 • Plums 228 • Plumcot 240 • Pomegranate 242 • Prune 244 • Quince 246 • Raspberries 248 • Strawberry 252 • Strawberry Tree 260 • Tangelo 262 • Walnuts 263 • White Sapote 269 • Did You Miss the Mulberry Tree? 270 PART III. TROUBLES OF FRUIT PLANTS

271

Kinds of Diseases and Pests

271

Control Measures

274

Implements

278

INDEX

281

Introduction Trees, vines, and bushes that produce edible fruits and nuts can be especially welcome additions to the garden. Many are ornamental in the best sense of the word; all contribute greatly to the pleasure of gardening. Unfortunate experiences with fruit production are usually based on lack of understanding of climatic adaptation, of cultural requirements, and finally of disease and insect control. For the occasional gardener some of these limitations may be a real deterrent, but even so there are some fruits which can be grown satisfactorily with practically no care. The confirmed gardener, on the other hand, will find the problems of fruit growing no more troublesome than the requirements of many of the ornamental forms he grows as a matter of course in order to have a well stocked, highly ornamental garden at all seasons of the year. In Part I of this book, basic information about the growth habits and adaptation of fruit plants is given in sufficient detail to enable the gardener to understand why they behave as they are observed to do. This information will enable you to select fruit plants for your garden which can be expected to grow satisfactorily and produce well. Also described are those cultural practices which the gardener must perform regularly, or occasionally, such as fertilizing, watering, and pruning. Basic information and proven practices are stressed. Commercial methods are drawn upon, but are related to garden practice in a practical way. One of the most satisfying activities for the advanced gardener is experimenting with plants and varieties. A few widely applicable methods of propagating fruit plants are given. No effort is made to supply a comprehensive text on plant propagation; the methods given are sufficient for the propagation of all the fruit plants discussed in this book. A few proven methods, well practiced, can give much more satisfaction in successful fruit culture than simply experimenting with the many other systems of budding, grafting, or other types of propagation. Methods of adapting plants to smaller spaces are noted, for most garden plots are too small for extensive plantings of standard-sized fruit trees. These methods also give you the opportunity to grow several kinds of fruits, with a long harvest season and diversity of products.

2

Western Fruit Gardening

Part II of this book individually treats the fruits which may be grown in Western gardens. If you have but a single fruit tree in your yard all necessary information about it can soon be found here. You will undoubtedly be intrigued by other fruits listed as you browse through this section. That is our hope! Part III discusses the kinds of diseases and pests which may affect fruit plants, and something about equipment and materials used to combat them. No attempt is made to enumerate the myriad diseases and insect pests or controls for them. Appropriate controls have been devised for each state or region, and you can get specific recommendations from your county agencies. The fruit garden is a long-term investment; a small additional outlay for spray materials and equipment will keep your investment sound and productive over many years. With such equipment you will find the task involved no more tedious than spading a flower bed or raking leaves—and a great deal more interesting. A bountiful harvest is yours for little effort.

Part I Growing Fruit Plants PLANNING YOUR FRUIT GARDEN The planting and care of your fruit garden can be a rewarding experience. It need never become a burden if you bear in mind the amount of time you can spare for upkeep of your garden. If your time is limited, you can grow several kinds of fruits that require little or no care, as shown in the table on the next page. Of course most garden projects repay only in proportion to effort expended on them.

The gardener must be willing to devote some time to pruning, watering, and controlling pests and diseases. Do not establish so many fruit plants that you are unable to take care of them as they grow larger and demand added attention. There are several things to consider when planning your fruit garden. First, know your space limitation. Even the smallest garden has room for some fruit plants. If it will not accommodate a tree, there are bush berries or vines to fill a corner or climb over an arbor or up a wall. But remember, trees, vines, and bushes require a cer3

4

Western Fruit Gardening

tain minimum amount of room to produce annual crops of quality fruit. Do not plan for more than your garden will hold when the plants reach reasonable size. If you have limited space for fruit trees, do not overlook these possibilities: Dwarf trees of several kinds of fruits are now available. Trees on dwarfing rootstocks do not attain the height and spread of ordinary or standard trees, but with proper care they will produce ample fruit. Also, two or more trees may be planted in a hole only slightly larger than that needed for a single tree, and will finally occupy the space required by a single tree. Finally, by topworking, it is possible to Fruits Requiring Little or No Care. These fruits will do well left alone. If you give them greater care, however, quality and production will always be improved. Pomegranate Blueberry Papaya Fig Quince Carissa Jujube Pecan Strawberry Tree Persimmon Chestnuts Macadamia Feijoa Pistachio Walnut (Black) Olive Fruits Requiring Average Care. This usually consists of some pruning and spraying. Tangelo Almond Grapefruit Mandarin Apricot Orange Walnut (English) Guavas Avocado Kumquat Passion Fruit White Sapote Plums Cherries Lemon Crab Apple Limes Plumcot Filbert Loquat Prune Fruits Requiring More Than Average Care. These fruits usually demand an annual pruning and spraying schedule, or considerable attention to culture. Apple Date Nectarine Strawberry Blackberries Fig (Calimyrna) Peach Cherimoya Gooseberry Pear Currant Grapes Raspberries

have more than one variety of a single kind of fruit on one tree, such as an early-ripening and a late-ripening apple, or to have two or three different kinds of fruits, such as peaches, nectarines, and almonds, or lemons and oranges. A second planning consideration is climate. Some variety of most of the deciduous fruit trees (those that lose their leaves in the winter) can be grown almost anywhere in the West except in the high mountain areas where winters are severe. Many evergreens, such as citrus, may require special climatic conditions. Another item to consider is your family's taste in fruits. Obviously, you will want to give the most space to the fruits you like best. You will also want to take into account the size of your family, and the problem of what to do with possible surpluses. If you cannot eat fresh all that you raise, do you plan to use the surplus for canning, freezing, or swapping with friends? If you prefer fresh fruits over a

Growing Fruit Plants

5

long period, your garden must be planned with harvest dates in mind. You will not want to plant fruits that ripen all at the same time. Keep in mind your vacation periods, too. If you are away at about the same time each summer, plant varieties that will not ripen while you are gone. Ask yourself these questions when deciding on a fruit for your garden: (1) Will it grow well where you live? If you have room to experiment with a "doubtful" fruit, go ahead. You may have good luck. But if space is limited, do not waste it on a planting that is not recommended for your area. (2) Will there be enough room for it when it is full grown? (3) Will this fruit be enjoyed by all the family? Finally, having decided what kinds of fruits will be suitable for your garden, you will come to the question of varieties. Varieties—What Are They?

The variety, or clone, is one of the main bases for our large fruit industry, and as special varieties or combinations of varieties are often needed in fruit culture, it is well to establish the meaning of the word as it applies to fruit trees, vines, and small-fruit plants. Fruit trees and plants grown from seed are known as seedlings. If a hundred seeds from almost any fruit plant are grown, each will be recognizably different from the others and from the parent. Each will be potentially a new variety; each will differ from the parent variety. Some will ripen earlier; some will be vigorous, others weak—each characteristic will vary more or less among the seedlings, and no combination of characters will prove identical with another in all respects. Usually such seedlings are inferior to the parent variety, though they may occasionally prove superior, and hence become propagated as new varieties. Practically all fruit varieties are propagated vegetatively—that is, by budding, grafting, layering, suckers, or any of the methods described on pages 59-75. A fruit variety, therefore, is simply a part of the original plant established separately (often on a rootstock of seed origin). It has identical characteristics of time of bloom and leafing; growth habits; size, color, shape, and quality of fruit; and time of ripening of its fruits. All the plants so established are identical if grown in a uniform environment. Everyone recognizes the differences that may be brought about by cultural practices, but these differences are not those that distinguish between varieties. Flower and vegetable varieties normally grown from seed are practically true-breeding; this is because they are kept under constant selection by competent plant breeders. Many varieties would

6

Western Fruit Gardening

otherwise soon degenerate into a worthless lot of inferior, widely variable, mongrel sorts. Fruit plants do this immediately if grown from seed. Fruit varieties are remarkably stable under vegetative propagation; varieties handed down from early colonial days are exactly like they were originally. Occasionally, however, part of a fruit plant may show a sudden, marked variation. Growth from a bud may produce a spur, shoot, or even a limb which will bear fruit and foliage that differ from the same plant parts borne on the rest of the tree—they show a marked deviation from the characteristics of the variety. For example, a shoot on a peach tree may bear nectarines, or a tree producing striped apples may bear apples on one limb of a solid red. Such sudden changes are limited to the new growth arising from this deviating part. The rest of the tree remains as it always was. These deviations of part of a plant are known as bud mutations or sports. Vegetatively propagated sports will remain true in all characteristics, and may be recognized immediately as new varieties if they have merit. Fruit varieties are usually given names, as Elberta peach, Concord walnut and grape, Fuerte avocado, to name some. For most fruits, scores to thousands of varieties are known. Specific information on recommended varieties is given in Part II. Climatic

Limitations

Climate and topography are inextricably mixed; the Western states are cut by mountain ranges into several distinct climatic zones. Over all of these falls the more general north-south pattern: higher rainfall in the north, lower rainfall in the south; lower winter minimum temperatures in the north; a longer frost-free period in the south. This pattern is crossed by another from west to east: moderate climate near the ocean, more rigorous climate inland, especially where the inland area is cut off from ocean influence by an intervening mountain range—a common situation all along the Pacific Coast. In addition, wherever the area, climate rapidly becomes more extreme as altitude increases, with falling winter minimum temperatures and longer frost seasons. High elevations far to the south often approximate the climatic characteristics of more northerly areas. Topography has an especially notable effect on rainfall pattern for any area. Coastal regions have the greatest rainfall, especially where they are separated from inland zones by mountain ranges. Washington and Oregon may each be conveniently divided into two climatic regions: west of the Cascade mountains and east of them. To the west rainfall is high, averaging from 40 to over 100

7

Growing Fruit Plants

north coast

western Oregon and Washington California coastal eastern Oregon and Washington mountain high desert

central coast

low desert California central valley

south coast

inches per year, with a considerable portion coming in the summer months. East of the Cascade mountains, where elevations are higher, winter minimum temperatures are considerably lower, and may occasionally cause damage to fruit plants. Rainfall is much less, averaging 10 to 30 inches in areas suitable for gardening. Most of this comes during the winter months, the summers being relatively dry. These climatic trends are altered radically with elevation. Few

Almond Apple Apricot Avocado Blackberry Blueberry Carissa Cherimoya Cherry Chestnut Crab Apple Currant Date Feijoa Fig Filbert Gooseberry Grape Grapefruit Guava Jujube Kumquat Lemon Lime Loquat Macadamia Mandarin Nectarine

Species

Eastern Western Washington Washington Elevation and 3,500 feet and Oregon Oregon or over

Pacific Northwest Elevation 1,000-3,500 feet

Central and North Coasts

California Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys South Coast

High Desert

Low Desert

Arizona and California

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10

Western Fruit Gardening

mountain locations are adaptable to fruit gardening. Where they are, only the hardiest fruits can be grown. Because of its more complicated topography, California is marked by several climatic zones. The high mountain areas have moderately warm to warm summers, but very cold, long winters. Rainfall is high, and extends over more months than in the lower valleys. At elevations between 1,000 and 3,500 feet the climate is intermediate between that of the higher elevations and bordering valleys. The Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys (with adjacent foothill areas) have only moderate or low rainfall, all of which comes in the winter months; the summers are hot and dry, the winters are fairly cold, with all-time minimum recorded temperatures of about 10° to 15° F. The north and central coast regions are milder than the interior valleys at all times; the summers are cooler, the winters warmer. Rainfall is greater and increases rapidly in amount and time as one goes north. In this zone, deciduous trees do not suffer winter injury. The south coast is also mild, and in some favored locations frosts are very rare. Rainfall is low, and it all comes in the winter months. The climate rapidly becomes more extreme as one goes inland in the valleys facing the ocean. The relatively warm winters are favorable to some fruits and unfavorable to others. The true desert areas of Arizona (and California east of the Sierra Nevada and Sierra Madre ranges) are divided into two climatic zones—the low desert (below 2,000 feet) and the high desert. Throughout the high desert only the hardiest fruit trees can be expected to live, for winter minimum temperatures are too low, and water is generally lacking for adequate irrigation during the hot summers. In the low desert regions many of the deciduous and evergreen fruits can be grown. The factors which will determine their adaptability are winter minimum temperatures and sufficient winter cold to satisfy the chilling requirement of the deciduous species. In this latter case, late spring frosts may also be a determining factor. The Imperial and Coachella valleys are somewhat exceptional, for the extremely low elevations and nearness to the coast further modify the climate; the winters are somewhat warmer. Garden sites often offer sheltered areas such as walls or patios which receive high radiation, or where plants can be easily protected when the need arises. There is, then, no reason why the tender-fruited trees might not be grown to advantage here in otherwise adverse climatic situations. The further your climate differs from that of the recommended area, the greater the need for special care. Precaution as to site, requirement, or variety can be determined by deciding how your

Growing Fruit Plants

11

known climate differs from that of the area in which the fruit in question is shown to do well. For example, in the mild-winter south coast area peach varieties with a low chilling requirement must be chosen; inland at high elevations nearly all peach varieties will do well. Also, many European grape varieties can be grown successfully in eastern Oregon and Washington if given adequate winter protection in this otherwise too rigorous climate. Such special protective devices as glass houses are not considered, though with their use, almost any fruit listed can be grown in almost any place. In any given area, fruits grown commercially will be best adapted to the garden. If you dwell outside such an area there may be other fruits that will suit your needs.

A few fruit plants are peculiar in that there are areas where they will grow well but will not ripen their fruit, or only rarely. The date palm is one such tree; many grape varieties need a specially favorable climate to produce anything but poor berries. Frost Damage.—Growing tissues are sometimes injured by temperatures below 32° F in the spring when growth is starting, or in early fall, at temperatures much higher than they will withstand in midwinter. Such damage is termed frost damage. Frost damage most commonly occurs in the spring as trees start growth. The tissues of the plant vary in their susceptibility to frost. Flower buds are more susceptible than leaf buds and small twigs (more extensive damage would be classed as winter injury). Deciduous species are not considered adapted to regions where the vegetative growth will often be damaged by frost. Flower buds become more susceptible to frost damage as they open; young fruits are more susceptible than flowers in full bloom.

12

Western Fruit Gardening

For example, 30° F may kill young apricot fruits up to an inch or more in diameter, whereas the open flowers will withstand a temperature of 26° F. Damage can be determined the day after a frost occurs: the pistil of damaged flowers turns black; the seedcoat in young fruits turns brown—a sure indication that the damaged part has been frosted and will fall from the tree. Trees still holding their leaves in late fall may be touched by frost. The tender tissues may be frozen; they are killed if they turn black on thawing. Evergreen plants also suffer from frost damage, often in midwinter in the areas where they are widely grown. The leaves and young twigs are killed, turning brown or yellowing, and finally falling from the tree. Under such conditions the trees soon send out new shoots, and recover rapidly. More extensive damage is termed winter inwrong

good

better

COVERS FOR FROST PROTECTION

jury. Many evergreen plants are in fruit during the winter—as are citrus species—and fruits are more susceptible to frost damage than the foliage. Some evergreens can withstand 20° F, but citrus species are damaged at higher temperatures—from 22° to 25° F. The fruits of most evergreen species are damaged at 27° to 28° F, or even higher. The gardener may care to endure the loss of an occasional crop to frost for the pleasure of growing a species somewhat outside its recommended zone. The use of protected garden sites for this purpose has been mentioned. Other methods may also be used. You will probably not want to bother with heating trees. But espaliered, dwarf, or tubbed plants can be effectively protected by covering them with a canvas or blanket. In frost situations the greatest benefit is derived simply from protecting the plants against radiation of heat to the night sky. A cover supported over the plant is quite effective. Even better, a large cover can be brought down to the ground, open to the soil, thereby trapping heat radiated from the

Growing Fruit Plants

13

ground. Do not wrap just the top of the plant in a cover, for frost damage will be greater than if it were left unprotected. If you want to go all out, a light bulb or heating element may be put under the cover. This will afford a great deal of protection from even severe frosts. Winter Hardiness and Winter Injury.—Winter injury, as opposed to frost damage, usually occurs when the plants are completely dormant and showing their maximum winter hardiness. Hardiness characteristics vary with species and with the climatic situation just before the temperature falls. Thus, plants that have grown late in the fall may be severely injured by the sudden onset of low temperatures which would do no damage at a later time, or following a long relatively cool period. Similarly, low temperatures after a relatively warm period in midwinter may cause damage which would otherwise not take place. Plants, however, have a limit below which all are injured in greater or less degree. For evergreen plants this limit is quite high, and their culture is limited accordingly. Even the deciduous fig will withstand temperatures to 0° F, but most evergreens suffer winter injury at 20° F and below. Some will be quite seriously injured at even higher temperatures. Deciduous fruit trees will normally withstand considerably lower temperatures at maximum hardiness. Temperatures as low as —20° to —30° F will not kill the tops of most fruit plants, such as apple, pear, most plums, peaches, and apricots. Different tissues of the plant show different degrees of winter hardiness. Normally, poorly matured shoot growth, flower buds, twigs and small shoots, trunk and limb crotches, and main limbs are decreasingly liable to damage from low temperatures. Thus peach flower buds may be killed at temperatures from —15° F to as high as 25° F, depending upon the stage at which the low temperature occurs. However, the hardiest peach varieties will withstand temperatures below —15° F when the trees are completely dormant. At 25° F, damage will not be likely except when the tree is in bloom, and will more commonly be called frost damage. Trees badly injured by low temperatures commonly show cracking of the bark on main limbs and the trunk. When the bark thaws it will separate from the trunk wood, and wide cracks will appear. There is usually considerable killing back of small wood throughout the top. As the cambium is the hardiest of all the tissues, very badly damaged trees may still start new growth from remaining living tissues the following spring.

14

Western Fruit Gardening

Proper care of a badly winter-injured tree is simple. Do nothing to it until early summer or later. Allow all living tissue time to grow, new shoots to develop, and the tree to accumulate such reserves as it can. Then cut out all dead wood. Keep all foliage on the tree and delay reshaping to the desired habit until the following dormant pruning. Keep the tree growing as vigorously as possible during the summer following winter injury. Severe heading back of winter-injured trees may weaken them to the point where they will be extremely susceptible to injury the following winter; they will never regain their maximum hardiness until two or three damage-free years have passed. Trees may be protected against the very lowest temperatures to some degree by the same methods suggested for protection against frost damage. However, severe winter temperatures are usually widespread, often accompanied by winds, and go so low as to make protection impossible; therefore protection against low-temperature damage is likely to be more a matter of keeping the tree in such condition that its hardiness is at a maximum. Vigorous trees which have been allowed to go dormant in early fall are normally most resistant. Minimum winter temperatures and spring frosts are primary factors in choosing species for planting in a given area. The former are more important with evergreen fruit species, which must have a relatively high minimum temperature (usually about 20° to 25° F) even under the most favorable situation. Degree and frequency of spring frosts are more critical in successful production of good crops of deciduous fruits. In the colder areas of the Pacific Northwest, and at high elevations elsewhere, winter minimum temperatures may become important for the more tender deciduous fruit trees and vines. However, most of the fruits will do well in the principal fruit districts of all the Western states. Limitations for specific kinds of fruits are covered in Part II. Chilling Requirements.—Another important climatic factor in the case of deciduous fruit trees is their need for winter chilling, the amount depending upon the species and variety. Such trees are harmed when grown in areas with winters so mild as to afford too little winter chilling to meet the requirement of the plant. The buds start growth irregularly and may not develop new foliage until several weeks after the normal time in spring. Blossoming is irregular and protracted. This condition is known as delayed foliation or prolonged dormancy. Delayed foliation is particularly noticeable in southern California. Insufficient chilling may cause dropping of the fruit buds of apricot and peach just before blooming time. The only practical way to con-

Growing Fruit Plants

15

trol this trouble is to plant a variety that has a low chilling requirement; such varieties are discussed in Part II. If you are already growing a variety affected by delayed foliation, you may wish to topwork the tree to another variety suitable for your specific location. WINTER CHILLING sufficient

insufficient

Evergreen plants have no chilling requirement, and are not subject to delayed foliation and fruit-bud drop. Site

The commercial orchardist is always cautioned to select a site having the climate, soil, water, and marketing facilities that will promote his financial success. The gardener, on the other hand, must use the site he has, whether all conditions are favorable or not.

air drainage

water drainage

16

Western Fruit Gardening

If there is a choice of site in your garden, by all means seek a spot with good natural air and water drainage. Air drainage is very important at high altitudes, or in other places where there is danger of late spring frost. Cold air sinks to the ground at night and flows away like water to settle in the low areas. A difference of 2° or 3° F in night temperatures may determine whether the blossoms are killed or survive. Another point to consider is the neighboring property. Fruits do not grow well in competition with shade trees. Plan so that fruit trees and small fruits will not be shaded—now or in the near future —by large ornamentals on adjoining properties. Walls and sides of buildings can be utilized as special sites because of the protection offered or the greater heat reflected from them (see drawing, p. 11). The plant may have to be considerably modified; for example, it may need to be trained as a natural or formal espalier. The use of such sites greatly increases the number of species that may be grown in unfavorable areas. Soil

The best soil for fruit plants is one of medium texture, such as a sandy loam or loam. For fruit trees, it should be at least 4 to 6 feet deep, but with care much shallower soils can be effectively utilized. Fruit-tree roots are not present in large amounts below 6 feet, even in deep soils. However, deep soils permit free water to drain from the upper layer about the tree roots. SOIL TEXTURE A N D WATER

hòlds water

holds little water

good drainage

becomes waterlogged

poor drainage

17

Growing Fruit Plants

Coarse soils, such as sands, do not hold much water; ordinarily, they must be irrigated more often than fine-textured soils. If the drainage is poor, a waterlogged condition may result; this will be fatal to cherries, peaches, almonds, walnuts, oranges, and avocados, the roots of which cannot stand excessive moisture for long periods. Although pears, plums, quinces, and apples are more tolerant, wet soils are bad for fruit plants of any kind. However, certain species can be grown on rootstocks specially developed for their resistance to wet soil. Look for these in Part II. Poor soil drainage is usually evident during the winter months, the soil being saturated with water during most of the winter rainy period. Root activity may be hampered, and roots may suffer from inroads of disease organisms due to saturation. Too wet a soil may be improved before planting by laying 3-inch drainage tile to a depth

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of 3 or 4 feet (or deeper if an outlet can be provided) throughout the area to be planted, draining to the lowest spot in the area. Most people refer to excess soluble salts in the soil as "alkali." Although the term "alkali" soil has had a long and wide use, it is well to restrict its meaning to a soil high in salts, especially of sodium, and with a strongly basic reaction. Such soils usually have poor strutcure. The term "salinity" is now commonly used to describe excess soluble salts of any kind in water and soil, and their effects on plants. High salinity may be recognized by burned margins on the leaves. Simple home-made tests are not too accurate in indicating what is wrong with your soil. It will be far better to consult your local farm advisor and have him arrange for a salinity test as well as one to determine the amount of acidity (or alkalinity) in the soil. Pears, figs, and olives will tolerate a considerable amount of salinity, but most

18

Western Fruit Gardening

fruits are definitely intolerant. Strawberries are especially sensitive. Water is the only agent by which excess soluble salts can be removed from the soil in a practical way. Removal is primarily a matter S O I L DEPTH

make small trees difficult culture

make large trees easy culture

of establishing good drainage conditions. If permanent drainage can be provided to a depth of 6 feet or more, the excess salts can be washed out by heavy waterings over a period of several months. An application of lii to 2K pounds of gypsum per 100 square feet will aid in securing good water penetration on alkali soils. Fruit trees can be grown in soils with a substratum of rock if the top layer of soil is at least 18 inches deep. Culture becomes of prime importance in such a soil if the trees are to be kept healthy. Weeds must be kept down to conserve moisture and irrigation must be more frequent. In short, if soil is poor, its shortcomings must be compensated for by extra attention to the usual manual tasks. The better the soil, the more easily vigorous tree growth is to maintain, and, in the long run, the less work there will be for the gardener. Planting for a Diversity of Crops

The gardener does not have to specialize in one fruit or concentrate on markets. He can plan a garden, whatever its size, for fruits to suit his personal tastes. The table on pages 20-21 shows the space required by the different kinds of fruits. Use this table with the one on page 8. First see what plants will do well for you. Then check to see how much space will be needed by the mature plant as grown in an open space or

19 with other trees, if pruned or allowed to grow unpruned, and if it is to be grown on a dwarfing rootstock if one is available. A single standard tree producing normally will satisfy the table needs of the average family during the season for the variety, and leave a small excess for canning, processing, or swapping. Even a tree divided among three or four varieties ripening at different times will go a long way to satisfying the desire for out-of-hand eating over the longer period. However, if you plan to freeze or can large amounts, two or three trees of the desired kinds may be worth while, space permitting. For example, you might plant two peach trees for canning and freezing and a third onto which three or four varieties are topworked, this to supply the table only. Nuts will probably be used in much larger amounts by the family that grows its own than if purchased, but a single tree is usually sufficient. The entire crop is cured and is thus available for use for many months. One to six bramble or bush fruit plants will satisfy the family's table needs. A strawberry bed of about 30 to 40 plants should yield in the same general proportion. One to three grape vines of each variety grown should prove sufficient, unless the gardener plans to make juice or raisins. Don't forget that smaller quantities of other fruits may be produced by using special niches, walls, trellises, or fence lines in the garden. Examples are currants, gooseberries, papayas, passion fruits, carissas, and espaliered trees. With a little care in planting, the gardener can produce a variety of fruits ripening at different times of the year in a very limited space. Dwarf trees will produce about in proportion to the degree of dwarfing. Not all trees can be dwarfed as severely as others. A truly dwarfed apple may produce only a tenth as much fruit as a standard tree; "dwarfed" apricots may yield two-thirds as much as full-sized trees. Don't overlook the use of fruit trees as shade trees as long as they do not overhang sidewalks and streets. Nut trees may be grown in front yards where soft fruits are usually to be avoided. No fruit or nut tree is recommended for parkway planting. Growing Fruit Plants

Planting for Pollination

In order to bear fruit, any given variety of certain kinds of fruits must have the pollen from another variety deposited on the stigma of the flower (cross-pollination). Therefore, two varieties of these fruit species must be planted near each other, or the second variety top-

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Growing Fruit Plants

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Organic fertilizers, being complex mixtures, have variable contents of fertilizer elements. The usual range found is shown in the same table. For all practical purposes of fertilization, amounts of various fertilizers containing equal amounts of the actual element to be added will have equal effect on plant growth. Therefore the most economic use of fertilizers is to buy the one which costs least per pound of the essential element contained. For example: a pound of nitrogen is supplied by 5 pounds of ammonium sulfate, 3 pounds of ammonium nitrate, 10 pounds of a complete fertilizer of the formula 10-4-4 or a special fertilizer showing a 10 per cent total nitrogen content, or approximately 100 pounds of a good manure. Experience has definitely shown that only in a few limited locations do fruit plants respond by increased growth and production to any fertilizer element other than nitrogen. The use of complete fertilizers in the garden may be useful to annual plants nearby, but do not expect the tree to respond more favorably than to applications of nitrogen alone. Plants deficient in nitrogen have light-colored, yellowish foliage, make poor growth, and produce fruit that is small and of poor quality, though often highly colored. The symptoms are general in that no definite patterns, spots, or death of plant parts are to be found. On somewhat infertile soils annual applications of about 1 pound actual nitrogen per mature tree per year may be required. On more fertile soils the amount needed will be less. For small-fruit plants, an application of approximately 0.2 to 0.4 pounds of actual nitrogen per 100 square feet will afford equivalent fertilization. The time of application is generally not important. The usual time is in the fall or winter, well before the spring growth flush. If the trees are deficient, maximum response will be shown by such timing, but if they have received an annual application of fertilizer for several years, summer applications will maintain adequate growth just as well as winter applications. Soil type and rainfall may dictate the best method of applying fertilizers. On light, sandy soils more benefit may be derived from applying the fertilizer in two applications, using half the total amount at each time. One application would normally be made in the winter or spring season and the other in the summer. This is done to minimize leaching of the soluble nitrogen salts from such soils. Heavier soils may best be fertilized by this method in areas of high rainfall, which may leach soluble salts below the root zone

38

Western Fruit Gardening

of fruit plants. On most soils in most areas a single application is sufficient. Fruit trees should not receive excess amounts of nitrogenous fertilizers. Vegetative growth will be greatly stimulated, but the fruit will be watery, lacking in sugar and aroma, and of poor color. Fruit trees will have active competition for nutrients if grown in a garden site, lawn, or near other plants. The fertilizer requirements of these other plants must be considered, as they may use a large portion of the fertilizer applied. The best indication is to watch the growth of the fruit plant. If it is growing satisfactorily, its mineral requirements are undoubtedly being satisfied. In the last column of the preceding table certain characteristic effects of common nitrogen carriers on the physical condition of the soil are shown. The use of a given chemical fertilizer may either alleviate or intensify undesirable soil characteristics, and this difference may dictate the choice of fertilizer. Composts of vegetative matter are used in gardens to improve the physical properties of the soil, provide mulches, and secondarily to add fertilizer elements. The natural nitrogen content of such materials is low, and may be disregarded in considering the fertilizer requirements of fruit trees and plants. If nitrogenous material has been added to the compost, it will, of course, become available, and should be considered. Mulches sometimes enable a fruit plant to develop roots near the soil surface, where a few elements may be in greater abundance than at lower depths. Organic forms of nitrogen become available relatively slowly. Even when they are added in equivalent amounts the effect will become evident much later than with chemical fertilizers. Eventually, with consistent, annual use, the results will be the same. For quick correction of weak growth, the use of chemical fertilizers is recommended. Applications of phosphorus have not been shown to increase tree growth or improve fruit quality of deciduous trees or vines. In a very limited area of California phosphorus has been found to be deficient to such an extent that growth of citrus is limited, and the trees respond to applications of this element. The foliage of deciduous or evergreen trees low in phosphorus becomes dull and bronzed in late summer; affected citrus fruits are of low quality and have enlarged, puffy skins. Higher color, firmness, and earlier maturity of stone fruits are sometimes attributed to the phosphorus applied in complete fertilizers. Actually, less nitrogen is usually applied in a complete fertilizer, and the qualities attributed to the phosphorus are due to the lower level of nitrogen fertilization.

39 Potassium, the third fertilizer element, is found to be deficient in only a few locations, notably in the Sacramento Valley of California. The gardener will therefore seldom benefit from applications of this element. Deficiency of potassium has been noted most frequently in European plum, prune, olive:, and almond. Trees of the first two species show leaf scorch, and shoot dieback is common. Olive leaves become yellowish, shoot tips die back, and growth is weak. Almonds show small, boat-shaped leaves, less growth than normal, and much-reduced cropping. Potassium deficiency may be corrected on almonds and olives by applying rather massive doses of potassium chloride or potassium sulfate to the soil under the tree. Fifteen to 25 pounds should be used, depending on the size of the tree. A single application may be effective for several years. Work the material into the soil, for potassium is quickly fixed by the soil and will not readily leach into the lower soil layers explored by the roots. Avoid potassium chloride on soils known to be relatively high in saline salts. While potassium deficiency of European plum and prune theoretically should be cured by the same treatment, such has not proven to be the case, even though there is conclusive evidence that potassium deficiency is responsible for the symptoms described. Severe pruning to limit the potential fruiting area and heavy thinning so that only a light crop matures seem to be the best corrective measures. If trees are pruned severely from the time of planting and heavy soil applications of potassium salts are made, it is often possible to delay the onset of potassium deficiency symptoms in trees on soils low in available potassium. Minor-element deficiencies, and in a few cases excesses, require separate consideration, for many of these are not usually present in commercial fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are normally quite low in content of minor elements, and marked deficiencies will not be corrected by their use. Among the minor elements most often deficient are zinc, iron, manganese, boron, and copper. Boron may also cause trouble if present in excess. Zinc is the minor element most often observed to be deficient throughout the West. Apples, most of the stone fruits, nut trees, and grapes have been observed to suffer from deficiencies of this element in many soils, especially sandy ones. In young trees, severe deficiencies are characterized by stunted growth, with tufts or rosettes of small yellow or mottled leaves at the tips of more or less bare shoots, noticeable delay in development of spring foliage, absence of crop, and even dieback of twigs or branches. In old trees, Growing Fruit Plants

40

Western Fruit G a r d e n i n g

the only noticeable signs may be pale or yellowish foliage, smaller than normal leaf size, and poor crops. The inhibition of terminal growth may cause lateral buds to grow, all of which develop small, chlorotic leaves. This gives a typical rosette of deformed twigs and foliage, so pronounced on pecan. Zinc applied to deficient soils is usually quickly and effectively tied up (fixed) so that it is not available to the tree. Therefore other methods of supplying the tree with the small quantities needed are generally advised. A zinc sulfate spray at the rate of 2M pounds per 10 gallons of spray the first year, in the dormant season, followed in successive years by sprays of the same material at 1 to 2/2 pounds per 10 gallons, according to the severity of the symptoms, will usually effectively cure the deficiency. A foliage spray of zinc oxide at the rate of /2 pound per 10 gallons of water applied in spring is also helpful. Cherry and walnut may fail to respond to these sprays, and must be supplied with zinc by driving small triangular pieces of galvanized iron or glaziers' zinc points into the branches. Space them about 1 inch apart each way. Use ten pieces for each inch of circumference. Thus, a branch 3 inches around will require thirty pieces. Drive them through the bark and into the sapwood parallel to the length of the branch. This treatment is usually effective for several years, whereas spray control measures must be repeated annually. A soil application of zinc sulfate may also be used as a permanent treatment, and if it proves effective, may be the simplest measure for the gardener to apply. Ten pounds of zinc sulfate plus 1 pound extra for each inch of diameter of the trunk are placed in a circular trench about 14 inches deep and 2 to 4 feet from the trunk, depending on tree size. The tree roots will pick up enough zinc from this local, highly concentrated application to satisfy their needs for several years, thus relieving you of annual spray applications. Zinc deficiency on grape is corrected by painting pruning cuts just after pruning with a solution of 1/2 pounds of zinc sulfate per gallon of water. Iron is sometimes held in the soil so that plant roots cannot absorb it. The affected plant shows typical yellowing of the foliage, usually called chlorosis. The leaves are of normal size, unless the deficiency is extreme, but the leaf blade is yellow except for the sharply delimited green veins. In these two respects iron chlorosis differs from the yellowing of leaves by either nitrogen or zinc deficiency. Alkaline and calcareous (limy) soils more commonly hold iron in this unavailable form, and because applications of lime make soils more

Growing Fruit Plants

41

alkaline, such chlorosis is often called lime-induced chlorosis. All species may be affected; fruit plants such as blueberries which require acid soils will inevitably show chlorosis if planted in an alkaline soil. Because soils have a very great fixing power for iron, applications of iron salts will not cure the trouble. Applications of sulfur to the soil aid in making it more acid, and may help in overcoming iron deficiency, but this is seldom effective. Manganese deficiency is manifested by diffused chlorotic areas between the leaf veins, which remain green. Later in the season, the yellow areas may turn red or dark brown. Only in extreme cases may there be a dying-back of the top of the tree. Quantity or quality of fruit is not affected, other than to limit the crop if branches die back. Normally, mild manganese deficiency is not worth correcting, but in severe cases a foliage spray of 1 pound of manganese sulfate and 1 pound of hydrated lime with a teaspoon of casein spreader added to 10 gallons of water will correct the trouble for the season. Almond, apple, apricot, citrus, and walnut most commonly show symptoms of manganese deficiency. Boron is an exceptional minor element, for it is essential to normal plant development, but slight excesses can cause severe disease symptoms too. Deficiency of boron has been noted on apple, olive, pear, and walnut. Limited areas of soils deficient in this element are found throughout the West. The skin of apples and pears shows undue russetting and cracking, with brown corky areas appearing in the flesh, especially near the calyx end. The young twigs may die back in severe cases. The corky flesh spots have given this deficiency the name of cork spot or drought spot of apple and pear. Boron deficiency of olive shows mainly in deformations of the fruit, usually toward the tip, to which the names monkey-face, sheep-nose, and shrivel-tip have been applied. The affected fruit areas are dark-colored, shriveled, and variously deformed. Terminal shoot buds often die, resulting in short, bunchy twig growth from lateral buds. By late summer, leaves may become yellow toward their tips. Boron deficiency is readily corrected by applications of borax or boric acid to the soil; K to 1 pound of borax applied under the spread of the tree (one-third less of boric acid is used) any time during the year will be effective. A single treatment should last two or three years. Do not repeat the treatment until signs of deficiency again appear. Be sure that you do not apply too much boron, otherwise you will have injury due to boron excess. Excess boron is found in many soils, and adversely affects almost

42

Western Fruit Gardening

all fruit plants, though some are more sensitive than others. Apricots, bush fruits, and walnuts are particularly subject. Boron excess commonly causes a marginal scorch of the leaves, accompanied by a cupping-upward of the leaf, and necrotic black spots in the leaf blade. These leaf symptoms are found on blackberry, fig, gooseberry, grape, pecan, raspberry, strawberry, and walnut. High concentrations of other salts sometimes result in similar symptoms, but the scorch is more likely to start from the tip of the leaf. Apricot, nectarine, peach, and plum show injury of the current season's growth and dying back of the tips, accompanied by cracked and corky bark which may exude gum. Shoots of apricot and plum often have greatly enlarged nodes. Apple, cherry, and pear seldom show typical symptoms as given above; soil and leaf analyses may be necessary to determine if boron excess is causing tree distress. Excess boron must be leached from the soil with water to correct the difficulty. In this connection, water containing more than 1.5 to 2.0 parts per million of boron may permit accumulation of boron in the soil until it becomes excessive. Copper deficiency (exanthema) is less common than deficiencies of the minor elements listed above. Its symptoms are quite similar to those given for zinc deficiency, and appear most commonly on the same plants. Young trees are stunted and bushy because the terminal buds die, forcing lateral buds to grow which in turn are very short-lived, producing a dieback condition. The leaves become yellow and scorched, having a dried-out appearance; leaf margins turn brown. Sometimes the bark is corky on the small branches. Older trees show similar symptoms on the individual larger branches. Copper deficiency is readily corrected by applying 1 to 5 pounds of copper sulfate to the soil under the tree, spading it thoroughly into the soil. Apply before the last rains of the season, or irrigate well following the application. For citrus the foliage may be sprayed with 3-3-50 Bordeaux during the early part of the summer for immediate correction of the deficiency; use 5-5-50 Bordeaux on deciduous trees. Copper deficiency rarely appears on deciduous trees which are given an annual spray of Bordeaux as the usual control of certain diseases. Some times excesses of nonessential elements or salts in the soil may cause trouble. Excesses of salts characterize so-called saline soils. Sodium may sometimes be present in amounts deleterious to fruit plant growth. The leaves die from the tips or margins, and the tree is devitalized by loss of leaf surface. Limbs may eventually die,

Growing Fruit Plants

43

and sunburn of exposed limbs may hasten the death of the tree. As with excess boron, the only means of correcting excesses of such salts or elements is by leaching with water. Materials are sometimes added to soils as much for their effect on soil tilth as for their fertilizer value. Manure is used not only for fertilizer but also as a soil builder. Four or more inches of stable or dairy manure definitely help to make the soil more porous for water and root penetration, and the ground more friable for cultivation purposes. Manures often promote tree growth beyond the amount to be expected simply from the added fertilizer element content. For this reason they are recommended whenever available at reasonable cost. Adobe soils, although usually fertile, are so crusty when dry and so sticky when wet that they are difficult to handle. The new soil conditioners now available may be very helpful in such soils, but they have no fertilizer value. Sandy soils, on the other hand, are workable most of the time, but they do not retain water long. Either type of soil may be greatly improved by the addition of organic material, such as compost, well-rotted manure, or peat moss. The addition of sand to adobe soils does not help.

No operation performed by the gardener can so affect the growth of healthy trees, otherwise receiving good care, as does pruning. The time of pruning, amount, and the type of growth removed in pruning all affect the tree response—not only its growth response, but often the production of fruit. Good pruning therefore requires some understanding of how trees grow.

Growing Fruit Plants

43

and sunburn of exposed limbs may hasten the death of the tree. As with excess boron, the only means of correcting excesses of such salts or elements is by leaching with water. Materials are sometimes added to soils as much for their effect on soil tilth as for their fertilizer value. Manure is used not only for fertilizer but also as a soil builder. Four or more inches of stable or dairy manure definitely help to make the soil more porous for water and root penetration, and the ground more friable for cultivation purposes. Manures often promote tree growth beyond the amount to be expected simply from the added fertilizer element content. For this reason they are recommended whenever available at reasonable cost. Adobe soils, although usually fertile, are so crusty when dry and so sticky when wet that they are difficult to handle. The new soil conditioners now available may be very helpful in such soils, but they have no fertilizer value. Sandy soils, on the other hand, are workable most of the time, but they do not retain water long. Either type of soil may be greatly improved by the addition of organic material, such as compost, well-rotted manure, or peat moss. The addition of sand to adobe soils does not help.

No operation performed by the gardener can so affect the growth of healthy trees, otherwise receiving good care, as does pruning. The time of pruning, amount, and the type of growth removed in pruning all affect the tree response—not only its growth response, but often the production of fruit. Good pruning therefore requires some understanding of how trees grow.

44

Western Fruit Gardening

The following is a discussion of general pruning principles. Pruning methods for each of the popular fruits—methods which encourage fruit production according to a tree's particular fruiting habit—will be found in Part II. How Trees Grow

The seasonal cycle of growth of deciduous trees is readily observed: bud swell and bloom in the spring, growth of foliage and fruit during the summer months, and finally leaf fall and dormancy with the onset of winter. Underlying these obvious external seasonal transformations the tree undergoes profound internal changes; these are called physiological changes. They are associated with alterations in the physical and chemical nature of the living material in the plant. In addition, one should remember that approximately half the tree develops out of sight beneath the soil; and this half of the tree also undergoes important changes. Let us start with a deciduous tree (later we will compare its growth cycle with that of the broad-leafed evergreens) in the dormant condition—that is, when all the leaves are off the tree in the winter months. The tree is now in what is known as the rest period, and will not respond to normal growing temperatures (above 45° F ) until rather late in the winter. While in this condition the tree is most resistant to low temperatures. Assuming normal growth during the preceding season, the tissues of the tree, both twigs and sizable branches, are filled with stored food materials, mostly in the form of starch. These stored foods were manufactured in the leaves the preceding summer and represent the end products of the process known as photosynthesis. They also represent the excess production of food over that needed for growth of shoots, roots, leaves, and fruit. Now, it might seem that any pruning done at this time would seriously weaken the tree, for the greatest amount of reserve foods would be removed. Pruning during the dormant season is devitalizing—all pruning is, whenever done. But it is really least detrimental at this time. Dormant pruning removes a very large proportion of the possible growing points, most of which, however, occur on wood of small diameter and hence of limited capacity for storage of reserve foods. The remaining larger branches contain the bulk of the reserve materials. These materials, after pruning, are thus distributed among a much smaller number of growing points, with the result that each such bud has available a larger share of food than if all

Growing Fruit Plants

45

buds had been left to develop. And the root system, which has developed to a degree capable of supporting the unpruned tree, is in no way reduced. The result is simply much increased vigor of the shoots developing the following spring. We see then increased vigor of growth from a fewer number of shoots, but less total growth. The vigorous shoots will form strong branches, having been directed through pruning to best advantage to develop a strong tree. They are more likely to be fruitful than the weaker, often unfruitful wood produced by the many growing points left on the unpruned tree. The roots, unlike the top, do not go into a rest period, but continue active though slowed growth during the winter months. The rate of growth will decrease from fall to spring, at which time it may cease. This growth is made at the expense of food reserves stored in the root tissues, and perhaps some transported from the top of the tree. Root growth gradually stops because of lowering soil temperature and probably because the branches no longer bear leaves to supply certain substances necessary for root elongation. The drain upon the reserve foods of the tree by this root growth is small, and can be disregarded. With the coming of spring the physiology of the tree changes drastically to accommodate the renewed surge of life so beautifully manifested by masses of bloom, the flush of green leaves covering the bare branches, and the development of fruit. Stored products are quickly changed to soluble materials which may be mobilized in the many growing tissues—flowers, leaves and shoots, roots, and fruits. This mobilization is an exhausting process, reducing the reserves materially. The rapid spring growth is a continuing drain for some time, because new, unfolding leaves are not able to manufacture food substances nearly as fast as they are used in growing. This drain will continue throughout the rapid growth of the spring flush— usually about a month—when the tree will be materially depleted of its reserve food store, or at least that part of it which is readily mobilized. However, a time eventually comes when the number of new leaves is sufficiently great, and growth slows down enough, so that new foods are manufactured in sufficient quantities to equal those used in growth. A tree setting fruit provides still another tissue area to which foods move in quantity. If the tree sets an unreasonably great number of fruits, these will require an unduly large supply of the reserve foods. All shoot growth will be slowed by this drain, and the time

46

Western Fruit Gardening

needed before the tree is able to manufacture as much as it uses will be materially prolonged, both by the increased use of stored foods and because fewer leaves develop to manufacture new supplies. Any practice or accident which reduces leaf surface (summer pruning, defoliation by insects or diseases, or cessation of leaf activity due to drought) will have increasingly severe devitalizing effects on the tree up to the time the tree begins to manufacture more food than it is using in growth. Soon after the renewed activity in the tree top starts, the roots begin to grow rapidly. In addition they once again absorb large amounts of water from the soil supply to keep the new growth turgid and to replace that lost from the increased transpiring surfaces exposed to higher temperatures and lower humidity. Mineral elements are also absorbed and transported to the top to be used in the manufacture of the complex chemicals characteristic of living material. At the time of the rapid spring flush of growth the roots may not be active enough, due to low soil temperatures, to supply all needed elements in sufficient quantities, hence mineral deficiencies may be more marked at this time than later. For example, relatively slight nitrogen deficiency may be shown by the light-yellowish growth of newly emerging leaves; zinc deficiency is often noted at this time, but may disappear later in the growing season. Contrarily, if there are excess amounts of certain injurious elements they will be less in evidence than at a later date. By midsummer it is observed that only the most vigorous shoots keep growing; most have ceased active elongation. Most leaves have now become mature. The tree is able to manufacture much more food than it needs to support its current activities. A possible exception is the tree which remains so heavily loaded with fruit that all shoot growth has stopped at a relatively early stage, and hence not enough leaves have been formed to supply the heavy demands of the fruit and shoot growth. Such trees will show seriously reduced growth and may fail to set any flower buds for the following season. These buds are usually formed during July and August of the year preceding bloom. Trees that have their fruit reduced by thinning will not only develop fruit of good size and high quality, but will make more vigorous vegetative growth for the next season. Root growth may have slowed toward the end of the spring growth flush simply due to exhaustion of reserve food. During the midsummer period root growth will increase to a maximum, using newly manufactured food from the mature foliage of the top. New feeder roots are constantly forming and dying, by which means the roots thoroughly explore the soil mass, absorbing water and mineral

Growing Fruit Plants

47

elements required for continued growth. While a tree can undergo a rather prolonged drought (not enough water to prevent wilting), active growth processes are slowed or stopped and the effect may be likened to dormancy. The most noticeable effect of such drought periods will be reduced growth. Another physiological change may be noted in the branches of the tree during the midsummer period. If a shoot is cut in late spring or early summer for any reason, we expect new buds below the cut to break quickly into vigorous growth. As the summer progresses the growth of such buds will become weaker and weaker; finally, by late midsummer, buds on weaker shoots will probably not start growth at all during the remainder of the summer if a branch is cut. These buds are now in the rest period. By late summer and early fall all or nearly all shoot elongation will have ceased and all the leaves of the tree will be mature. Only late-maturing varieties or kinds of plants will still hold their fruit. Therefore the tree will be rapidly restoring a full supply of food reserves to the storage tissues. As time passes toward the winter period the tree takes on more and more of the physiological characteristics of the dormant tree. Pruning in early fall will probably not start new growth, and it will be only slightly more devitalizing than dormant pruning. Due to the gradual aging of the leaves with accompanying decreased photosynthetic activity, defoliation due to pruning, insect attacks, or drought will have the least detrimental effect at this time. Roots remain active through this period, but their growth slows as winter approaches. Soil temperatures are at a maximum, and the tree continues to have a rather high water requirement until the onset of cool fall weather. Such reduction of root growth as occurs in early fall is less likely due to a lowering of soil temperature than to failure of the aging leaves to supply enough critical substances for continued root elongation. The deciduous tree completes the seasonal cycle by dropping its leaves in early winter to midwinter. Frosts hasten the process. It is an important characteristic of such plants that, being in the rest period, the tissues have acquired an ability to withstand much lower temperatures than would be possible in actively growing tissues; we say they have acquired hardiness. All species of deciduous trees or bushes have a characteristic limit below which injury from low temperatures will occur. Evergreen fruit plants are all broad-leafed—as opposed to the conifers—and the term evergreen as used in this book refers to these broad-leafed plants.

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Western Fruit Gardening

Because of their diverse nature, these evergreen trees exhibit a wide variety of growth habits and patterns. Nevertheless, their physiological behavior may be compared in general terms with deciduous trees. The most obvious difference in the garden is the fact that the evergreen species retain their leaves throughout the year. We also recognize the fact that they never attain the hardiness of the deciduous plants, even though many are able to withstand several degrees of frost—in many species more so than the young, succulent tissues of deciduous plants. Evergreen plants have no true rest period. Also, they are generally capable of more than one flush of growth during the season, whenever conditions are particularly favorable. Evergreen species store considerable amounts of reserve foods in their tissues, just as do the deciduous species. But these reserves are either smaller, or less readily mobilized, and hence pruning, defoliation by insect attacks, or other factors which reduce the effective leaf surface result in a more moderate response than would characterize a deciduous tree under similar conditions. Evergreens pruned in winter will not respond as vigorously as a deciduous tree to dormant pruning; on the other hand they will never be devitalized so greatly as a deciduous tree pruned at the end of the spring flush of growth. Another difference readily noted is that the evergreen tree will respond to treatments of various kinds at all seasons; the buds do not go into a rest period, and hence will react to stimuli. Of course, the amount of response will be determined in large measure by seasonal temperatures, and is dependent upon an adequate supply of water and nutrients. Some evergreens may be quite sensitive to humidity and light intensity, especially near the limit of the area where they can be grown, so that growth flushes occur only when conditions are particularly favorable. Still another marked difference is that evergreens have an appreciable water requirement even during the winter months, though reduced in comparison to their summer needs. They will suffer in dry winters more drastically than deciduous plants, which are dormant at that time. More care must be exercised in maintaining adequate soil moisture during the so-called winter period for evergreens than for deciduous plants, which may be allowed to exhaust the soil moisture late in the growing season, or in early winter, with little detrimental effect. Other types of fruit plants, such as strawberries, brambles, and bush fruits, in which the growth cycle is obviously modified because

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Growing Fruit Plants

the top is either mostly annual, or biennial, usually closely follow the cycle of deciduous trees. However, the perennial part of such a plant is usually much smaller in size and amount of storage wood. Lacking the large food reserves of trees, such plants are more likely to be sensitive to cultural practices, insect and disease attacks, or other modifying influences. They show more extreme responses. These plants are often rather shallowly rooted, and a major feature of their culture is adequate watering to maintain vigorous growth. Methods of Training

Trees that are pruned for purposes of shaping and developing the main branches, or scaffolds, are trained according to one of two CENTRAL LEADER TRAINING

first year unpruned

second year pruned

pruned

general methods. The simpler is the central leader or pyramid. Using this method of training, a central shoot is allowed to grow straight up; the tree thus assumes a pyramidal shape in its early years. In training by this method, care need be taken only to see that side branches do not grow more rapidly than the central leader and that the branches are well spaced up and down the trunk so that several arising at one point do not choke out the leader. A modification of the central leader system is sometimes used for apples and pears in the Northwest. Under this system the tree is trained as for the central leader during the first few years of its life, but the central leader is eventually removed, being cut back to a strong lateral in the upper part of the tree. By this method— the delayed open center—some of the advantages of the open center type of training are obtained in the mature tree, while in growing it

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Western Fruit Gardening

has been allowed to assume its most natural and vigorous habit. Many apples and some pears make satisfactory trees when so trained. Most fruit trees, however, tend to shade out in the lower branches under such training and hence become unproductive. The vase type is a more common method of training, especially of deciduous stone-fruit trees. In this system three main branches, or scaffolds, are developed near the ground; these are soon multiplied to five to seven, and at intervals thereafter branches are allowed to develop in a well-spaced pattern. These branches are all toward the outside of the tree, and give it a typical vase shape or goblet form, depending upon the growth habit of the particular tree or variety. VASE SHAPE TRAINING

unpruned

pruned

pruned

The pruning given to young trees as described below is designed to give a strong, well-shaped tree of the vase type. The advantages of this system are its universal application, better development of strong fruiting wood over the entire tree, and greater ease in regulating the growth and height of the tree. Special cases where a centralleader tree may have advantages are given in Part II. Deciduous Trees.—Practically all pruning of deciduous trees should be done while the trees are dormant; summer pruning, though helpful in maintaining proper shape, is a weakening process. The general principles of pruning and training young deciduous fruit trees are approximately the same for all species. The tops of young trees must be cut back to about 2 feet above ground at planting to make up for the roots lost when the trees are dug at the nursery and to produce a tree with the desired shape.

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Stone fruits, such as the peach and apricot, are generally headed (cut off) lower than pome fruits, such as the apple and pear; the walnut is headed higher, 5 to 6 feet, than all the others. Deciduous trees, when purchased, may or may not have side branches. If side branches are present, it is best to cut them back to K inch or less. The short stubs will protect buds which might be killed by close cutting. These buds will be needed to form the tree branches. If the trees do not have side branches, cut the whip back to a bud at approximately the height you wish the tree to branch. Trees such as cherry or pear will yield branches only at a distance of 3 to 6 inches below the cut tip whereas peach, almond, and other trees may give rise to branches a foot or more below the cut. A tree handled in the above fashion should be allowed to grow the first summer undisturbed—though in a garden site a few of the lower shoots may be removed to avoid smothering ground plants. After the first year's growth the scaffold branches of the tree are selected. These should be three in number, well spaced vertically and equally around the trunk; usually the topmost is merely an extension of the trunk. Do not have three branches arising at a single point; this results in a weak crotch (your tree is going to produce many pounds of fruit). Use only two branches and wait a year to select the third rather than selecting three arising at a single point. The pruning just described is performed in January or February, about a year after the tree has been planted. It is the first dormant pruning, and the selection of the primary scaffold framework branches is the most important feature. All other branches are removed to the trunk, except for weak twigs (under 3 or 4 inches) which may be left to develop leaves to shade the trunk in the second summer. The two or three scaffolds chosen are usually headed about 2 or 3 feet from the trunk; the uppermost branch should be cut so as to leave it considerably longer than those below it. If the lowest scaffold is started 18 inches from the ground, it will always remain at that height; and there will be no changes in the distance between the branches. This refers to the center of each branch, for all will increase in diameter, and their enlargement will decrease the actual space between them as well as the actual distance from the ground. In very favorable situations a tree may make extremely vigorous growth the first summer. In this case summer pruning may materially reduce the amount of cutting necessary at the first dormant pruning described earlier. Many more branches will develop than are needed to form the tree. The three needed for the permanent

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framework are then chosen in early summer, about June. These are not touched, but all others are cut back to four or five leaves (this is commonly called pinching but you will find the use of a sharp knife or hand shears more satisfactory). The pinched branches will usually not make much more growth, but if necessary the operation is repeated. As the framework branches have already been selected and encouraged to outgrow all others, you will then find that the first dormant pruning is relatively simple, and that little additional wood needs to be removed to develop a well-shaped tree.

PRUNING DETAIL

The pruned tree may prove to be larger than a similar one not summer-pruned. This discussion points up another principle of pruning useful to remember. To encourage a shoot do not prune it, or cut it, if at all, relatively lightly. To subdue an overly vigorous shoot cut it heavily. This applies to cuts made in the dormant season as well as to summer pinching. Strong crotches are developed by unequal cutting wherever two branches are making equal length growth. At the second dormant pruning, select the secondary branches (a total of five to seven) that are to complete the permanent frame-

TREE PRUNED BY CUTTING BACK (cutting to stubs)

work of the tree. Remove other large and competing branches and all new shoots on the trunk and on the three primary framework branches. Smaller twig-like branches may be left; cut some out if there are too many of them. Beyond securing the desired number of main branches with

was cut to a lateral at this point

TREE PRUNED BY THINNING OUT (cutting to laterals)

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proper spread, nothing is gained by further pruning when trees are young and not bearing fruit. Lightly pruned non-bearing trees have stockier and stronger trunks and branches than heavily pruned trees. The lighter the pruning, the greater the total development. Lightly pruned trees come into bearing from one to three years earlier than those heavily pruned, and this early bearing does not hinder future productivity. In pruning a bearing tree, the principal aim is to maintain the proper balance between wood growth and fruit production. OverTHINNED T W O THIRDS

vs.

HEADED T W O THIRDS

bearing is accompanied by shorter growth which will diminish the vigor of the tree. The ideal condition is to have the tree make moderate growth each year, and increase or maintain its fruiting area while bearing a large, but not excessive crop. Heavy pruning, especially a heavy cutting back of the young growth to stubs rather than thinning out of shoots, limits leaf area, and causes bearing trees to expend too much energy on the growth of long shoots and not enough on fruit production. Fruit that does set may be small because the tree is unable to supply sufficient food to size it. Normal pruning of a bearing tree should consist of little more

55 than the thinning out of shoots produced during the preceding summer. Species like the peach, which bears fruit only on long shoots, will need to have many of these left. Species which bear mainly on spurs should have all spurs left, but most shoots may be cut off. Spurs are merely shoots 4 inches or less in length. The height of a mature tree is maintained at a constant level by cutting out all but one of the strong shoots which develop at the point of heading. This one may be left long (to be removed the following winter) or cut to a few buds. Branches, which become barren or are killed by disease, are removed, and a well-placed shoot is allowed to remain to replace the lost branch. Large pruning wounds should not be a problem if the tree is properly pruned from the start. However, when it is necessary to remove a limb of about 3 inches or more in diameter, the wound should be covered with a grafting compound (see p. 74) or special paint. Bordeaux paste, white lead paint mixed with raw linseed oil, or commercial asphalt emulsions may be used. The exact pruning treatment selected for a bearing tree will depend first upon the fruiting habit of the tree, and second upon the amount of new growth it is making. Fruiting habit refers to the manner in which fruit is borne on the tree. It varies with different fruits. Peaches and, to some extent, apricots and Japanese plums, are conspicuous examples of trees that bear their fruit from buds on shoots produced during the last growing season. Apples and pears, on the other hand, produce most of their fruit on short spurs. Cherries and plums bear some of their fruit on the sides of twigs, but most of it is on spurs. Trees tend to form their fruit buds where they receive the most sunlight. Since the main limbs should be clothed with fruiting wood, the tops of the trees should not be so dense as to shade out fruiting parts below. The center of the tree should be moderately open to favor the formation of buds and the proper ripening and coloring of the fruit, but it should not be too open or the wood will be sunburned. If the fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree tends to weaken and die, open the center by cutting out inward-growing shoots in the top of the tree. The extra light admitted will stimulate new growth in the lower part of the tree. High-headed trees may be developed if a tree is situated in a lawn or patio or any other place where people will congregate under it. This is best done, and results in a strong tree, if the process is gradual over a period of two or three years. An upright shoot should be selected during the first summer. Branches which tend to outgrow Growing Fruit Plants

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this shoot should be pinched back lightly about early summer; one or two further pinchings may be necessary. The upright shoot may need to be staked and tied to keep it directed. After the first season this branch should outgrow any other arising below it. At the end of the first growing season a few of the lower branches may be removed entirely, say to a height of 2 feet. Branches above that point should not be removed, even if they are temporarily in the way. They may be shortened by cutting to a weak side shoot if they have become strong and woody.

1 train to pyrami

D E V E L O P I N G A HIGH-HEADED TREE

The upright branch selected for the tall trunk should be allowed to grow to a height of 12 to 18 inches above the lowest point at which a branch is desired. The tip is pinched and side branches are allowed to grow; this can be done in the middle of the growing season if it proves timely. During the following winter the main branches are selected just as described above for a standard tree. Lower branches are not removed, however. They may be cut back rather severely, leaving only short stems on which leaves will form. At the end of the third season, the tree should have made enough growth that the branching height has been reached and the main branches selected. If enough shoots have been left below this point, the trunk should be relatively strong; it may no longer need staking.

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57

As soon as the top has put forth sufficient shoots to afford a good canopy of leaves, all branches may be removed up to the point of branching. You will establish a strong, vigorous, high-headed tree more quickly by this method than any other. In spite of temporary inconvenience, you will avoid the necessity for long use of ugly supports and an unsightly, weakly growing top. Evergreen Trees.—Pruning young evergreen trees is considerably simpler than the training necessary for most deciduous species. The tree is usually headed back lightly at the time of planting. During the training period most attention is given to developing a strong framework, but this is done merely by cutting out strong growths that would tend to give the opposite effect. On upright trees more outward-growing branches are encouraged; on spreading trees, shorten the side branches and choose vigorous upright shoots for the main framework. On older trees pruning is practiced to cut out weak and diseased limbs, but primarily to limit the size of the tree. Pruning may be done any time, but preferably before the spring growth flush. If the tree is allowed to reach the size attained in commercial orchards there is little evidence that pruning will then result in any increase in yield and size or quality of the fruit. However, the gardener may, by pruning, hold many evergreen trees to relatively small size, if he is willing to accept reduced yields. With some evergreen species this may be carried to the extreme of training the tree to a rather informal espalier or tall hedge alongside a wall. Most citrus species can be so handled. An extreme example of size reduction is the use of carissa as a low hedge plant. Evergreens usually fruit on wood of a previous growth flush, either of the same season or of a previous season's growth. This, together with the evergreen's more moderate physiological response to pruning, results in little change in fruiting habit after pruning, except as bearing area is reduced. For this reason, pruning of evergreens may be as casual as you like. Vines and Bush Fruits.—Systems of training vary from species to species; these are treated individually in Part II. Fruit Thinning

Many species of fruit, particularly apricots, peaches, and Japanese plums, set such heavy crops that the fruit must be thinned if desirable size and quality are to be obtained, and the growth of the tree maintained. Since hand-thinning is tedious and takes time, the distribution of the fruit should be regulated, so far as possible, by pruning. But even then, thinning will be necessary.

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Some fruits, such as pears, cherries, prunes, nuts, and all evergreens, are not thinned. When thinning, it is desirable to break up the clusters of fruits. In the case of peaches, which are borne along the branch, spacing them 5 to 8 inches apart is advisable. For apples, apricots, Japanese plums, and the like, which are borne on spurs, leave one or two fruits per spur, or even one fruit for every two or three spurs if the set is uniformly heavy over the tree. Final spacing between fruits should be to 2 to 4 inches at least. Hand-thinning is done as early in the season as the fruits can be removed from the tree without tearing oif spurs and bark. Apricots

unthinned

thinned

are usually thinned soon after mid-April in California; peaches and plums in May or June, the earlier time for the early-maturing varieties in your garden. The earlier any thinning is done the greater will be the benefit. Thinning fruit just before the tree breaks down only saves the tree, it does not improve the fruit. If hand-thinning is too arduous a task, the fruit may be thinned by several mechanical means. Brushing a bushy branch over the flowers will remove a good number of them and reduce initial set. A pole with an 8- to 12-inch piece of rubber hose affixed on one end has been used successfully to knock the young fruit from the branches. The end result is not so satisfactory as is actual handthinning, but the job takes less time.

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Chemicals are now being used commercially to thin fruit from the tree both at blossom time and after full-bloom time. Much of this work is still in the experimental stage, but if you wish to try it, here are some recommendations. Elgetol 30 and DN 1 may be used at a concentration of one teaspoon per gallon of water. At this writing, these materials come only in prohibitively large containers (a gallon or more); we include the directions since they may become available in small amounts. It is essential that the ingredients of the container be mixed thoroughly before the chemical is used for the purpose designated. To be effective in thinning, the spray must be applied when 85 to 90 per cent of the flowers are open; you had better count the open and closed flowers on a few twigs; your "guesstimate" may be way off. If you wish to thin young peach or apple fruits, NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid) may be used. This compound is the active ingredient of sprays which are designed primarily to prevent the preharvest drop of apples and pears. They are made up to give a concentration of 10 p.p.m. (parts per million) for stopping preharvest drop when the directions on the container are followed. To thin peaches by this method, make up a solution containing 40 or 60 p.p.m. (use only )i or % the amount of water specified); apply 27 to 34 days after full bloom. For apples, use 20 p.p.m. some two or three weeks after full bloom. You may wish to experiment with these compounds by spraying a single branch and watching the results. If one concentration, or the timing, is not satisfactory, then try your hand at varying the amounts and the time of application next year. As noted, spray thinning, especially of blossoms, is done very early, before you know the amount of fruit that has set on the tree; therefore some risk is involved. You may spray off too many of the fruits; or, if a frost occurs, you may not have enough fruit left on the tree to satisfy your needs. Since hand-thinning is done later, a better estimate of the crop can be made and so a more judicious job of thinning can be done. PROPAGATING YOUR O W N SELECTION OF VARIETIES Few operations are more rewarding to the gardener than propagating varieties of his own choosing. Often he may wish to have two or more varieties on the same tree; this is a definite recommendation to nearly all fruit gardeners. As an example, you may wish a succession of peaches ripening over several weeks; therefore, four or five varieties may be propagated on one tree.

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Chemicals are now being used commercially to thin fruit from the tree both at blossom time and after full-bloom time. Much of this work is still in the experimental stage, but if you wish to try it, here are some recommendations. Elgetol 30 and DN 1 may be used at a concentration of one teaspoon per gallon of water. At this writing, these materials come only in prohibitively large containers (a gallon or more); we include the directions since they may become available in small amounts. It is essential that the ingredients of the container be mixed thoroughly before the chemical is used for the purpose designated. To be effective in thinning, the spray must be applied when 85 to 90 per cent of the flowers are open; you had better count the open and closed flowers on a few twigs; your "guesstimate" may be way off. If you wish to thin young peach or apple fruits, NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid) may be used. This compound is the active ingredient of sprays which are designed primarily to prevent the preharvest drop of apples and pears. They are made up to give a concentration of 10 p.p.m. (parts per million) for stopping preharvest drop when the directions on the container are followed. To thin peaches by this method, make up a solution containing 40 or 60 p.p.m. (use only )i or % the amount of water specified); apply 27 to 34 days after full bloom. For apples, use 20 p.p.m. some two or three weeks after full bloom. You may wish to experiment with these compounds by spraying a single branch and watching the results. If one concentration, or the timing, is not satisfactory, then try your hand at varying the amounts and the time of application next year. As noted, spray thinning, especially of blossoms, is done very early, before you know the amount of fruit that has set on the tree; therefore some risk is involved. You may spray off too many of the fruits; or, if a frost occurs, you may not have enough fruit left on the tree to satisfy your needs. Since hand-thinning is done later, a better estimate of the crop can be made and so a more judicious job of thinning can be done. PROPAGATING YOUR O W N SELECTION OF VARIETIES Few operations are more rewarding to the gardener than propagating varieties of his own choosing. Often he may wish to have two or more varieties on the same tree; this is a definite recommendation to nearly all fruit gardeners. As an example, you may wish a succession of peaches ripening over several weeks; therefore, four or five varieties may be propagated on one tree.

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Western Fruit Gardening

Sometimes the gardener discovers that a variety does not do well in his locality, and may therefore wish to graft or bud a more desirable variety onto the existing tree. Details of a few accepted and standard methods of propagating varieties of your own selection are given here. The chances are that you will rely on your nurseryman for young trees to plant in your own garden, so the steps involved in the propagation of trees to the stage as sold in the nursery yard are not discussed. The majority of all fruit trees sold consist of a seedling rootstock to which has been budded (or grafted) the desired fruiting variety. Layering One of the simplest of all propagation methods is layering, by which a branch is induced to form roots while still a part of the parent plant. In simple layering a branch, attached to the parent plant, is bent so that it lies on the ground; all except the tip of the branch is then covered with soil. To induce rooting, the stem is

notched at the ground line before burying. The layering is done during the dormant season or early the following spring. The following dormant season a section of the old branch, which now bears roots and a shoot, is cut free and planted elsewhere in your garden. Filberts are usually propagated in this manner; carissa, pomegranates, and grapes may be, but usually other methods are used. TIP LAYERING

The canes of trailing blackberries, dewberries, and black raspberries naturally droop to the ground. If the tip is covered with soil,

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61

roots will form. This is called tip layering, and is the usual method of propagating these plants. Trench layering is an elaboration of simple layering and is used with advantage for some hard-to-root species such as apples, pears, plums, and cherries. Some varieties of these species do not root well

TRENCH LAYERING

even by this method, and results may be erratic. Trench layering, however, affords a method of propagating plants which cannot otherwise be grown on their own roots. In most cases it would be simpler for the gardener to plant a seedling or another plant of the desired species, and to topwork by using budding or grafting methods described below. To trench-layer a plant, either the main shoot of a young plant or a branch of an older plant is bent so that it may be laid to its tip in a trench about 4 inches in depth. This is done in the winter season. Notched stakes or pieces of heavy wire may be used to advantage in holding the branch in position in the trench. As shoots grow from the layered branch, fine soil is gradually filled around them until the soil is level or slightly mounded. Many of these shoots may root during the following summer, and at the next dormant season will be cut free for transplanting. Such layers can be used for several seasons, repeating the same operations, until they become weak or barren.

Still another method, mound or stool layering, is used to propagate plants of gooseberries, currants, quinces, and Paradise apple (dwarfing ) rootstock. The mother plant is cut off close to the ground during the winter. As shoots emerge from the stump in the spring their bases

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are covered with soil to a depth sufficient to insure that the soil can be kept moist with occasional watering. Some of these shoots will root, and may be separated from the mother plant during the following dormant season. Cuttings

Every experienced gardener is familiar with stem cuttings or slips; these are used to propagate many plants including grapes, currants, gooseberries, figs, quinces, olives, and pomegranates. For fruit plants, hardwood cuttings are generally used, that is, the cuttings are made in the winter from matured wood of the previous season's growth (fig and olive may often be more successfully propagated from cuttings made of two- or three-year-old wood). The cuttings should be long enough to include two buds but are generally 6 to 14 inches in length. The bottom cut is made straight across just below the lower CUTTINGS

when planted

growing

node or joint (a bud is located there), and the top cut about an inch above the upper bud. If the buds are numerous along the stem, less attention need be paid to these details, but cuttings root most readily near the nodes. The cuttings are planted in the winter if the soil can be worked readily. Otherwise they may be stored by keeping them moist in a cool place, for example by burying them in damp soil, sand, peat moss, or sawdust in a place in constant shade. If stored, tie them in bundles and stand them on end, with the upper end of the cutting down; sift the storage medium around the cuttings so they will not dry out. They are then planted whenever the soil permits, but before growth starts in the spring. Plant these cuttings so that the upper bud is just above the soil surface; space them two or three inches in the row. Give them good garden care during the following summer season. Those that root will be ready for planting in their final place in the garden the following winter.

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Growing Fruit Plants

A very few fruit plants, notably olive, can be propagated satisfactorily by softwood cuttings—cuttings made during the summer from current season's growth. However, special beds and care are needed for success; the gardener will do better to stay with the more easily handled hardwood cuttings, mentioned just above. Red raspberries may be propagated by means of root cuttings; pieces of roots are cut into short lengths 2 to 4 inches long which are placed horizontally in trenches about 4 or 5 inches deep. Also, they may be planted vertically as are stem cuttings, in which case the top of the cutting is at ground level, and a little soil is pulled up to form a small mound over the cutting. Certain chemicals, sometimes spoken of as growth-regulating substances or plant hormones, have been found to aid the rooting of cuttings. Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), indolebutyric acid (IBA), and indoleacetic acid (IAA) have been most effective. These substances are available under trade labels which indicate their special use. Follow the directions given on the label. Species difficult to root will always prove stubborn, but some extra measure of success will usually follow the use of these substances. Strawberries are propagated by taking advantage of their characteristic habit of forming runners. These form leaves at every other mother plant

runner

runner

node. If the soil surface is kept moist and leafy nodes are buried under a thin layer of soil, rooting will take place. During the winter the rooted runner plants are dug and cut free, thereby furnishing a new supply of young plants. Everbearing varieties may form runners sparingly or not at all, in which case the crown of an old plant may be divided into two or more parts. Suckers are rooted plants that are produced naturally from the underground portion of mature plants. They may be dug, removed from the parent, and planted during the winter. Red raspberries and Stockton Morello cherry (a rootstock for cherries) are propagated by this means.

64

Western Fruit G a r d e n i n g SUCKER

n r Dates are propagated by offshoots which are individual plants growing on the trunk near its base. Some offshoots have well-developed roots; others need to have the soil mounded up around them so that they will strike root. Budding

The commonest method of propagating fruit trees other than those listed above is by budding. This consists of inserting a single bud under the bark of a stock plant in such a manner that the bud and stock will unite and grow. This is the method used by nurserymen to grow the familiar named varieties on seedling rootstocks of which you may never have heard. For the gardener, it is a way of topworking to change trees or part of a tree over to another variety. Budding can be done only between closely related species, for example, plum on peach rootstock, and is usually done with varieties belonging to the same species, for example, Rio Oso Gem peach on Elberta peach. Or, lemon, orange, and grapefruit may be propagated on the same tree. A pear bud could not be made to grow on an apricot tree, nor a cherry on an apple. Part II includes information on the degree of compatibility among our common fruit species. By selecting a proper stock, several types may be grown, as peach, almond, apricot, and plum on a peach rootstock. However, it may be more difficult to maintain good control of diseases and pests, and also to maintain proper balance in pruning. The gardener will have to weigh the advantages and disadvantages. Quite often, budding is used to introduce a pollinating variety into a tree of a species such as filbert, almond, or sweet cherry which needs a pollinator for the production of a crop when only a single tree is growing in one location. You should choose a pollinator which produces desirable fruit. For all budding, both on deciduous and evergreen species, it is essential that the cambiums of the stock and the bud be in contact. Cambium is the thin layer of cells found between the bark and the

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wood and which produces new bark and wood season after season. It is moist to the touch. Budding must be done when the bark slips easily from the wood. The bark on older wood tightens earlier in the season than on younger, vigorous shoots. In order to do budding in March or April, known as spring budding, you must first select in the winter budwood from the variety you want and hold it in storage until you bud. A few shoots of last year's growth, % to % inch in diameter, will yield many buds. These branches may be stored in your refrigerator. Place them in moistened newspaper and enclose all in waxed paper to prevent drying. If you plan to bud later in the growing season, you will be able to select buds from the current season's growth. It is usually best to bud only young trees, and to graft the larger branches of older trees (see p. 70). If old trees are to be budded, they are usually cut back the winter before in order to force out new branches in which to place the buds. Evergreen fruit trees can be budded whenever the bark is slipping. For most species fall budding is preferred. The buds may be forced as soon as they have united with the stock, but are often left dormant until the following spring. The latter is recommended for citrus species. Forcing is accomplished by cutting back the stock (see p. 67). Some foliage should be left above the bud until it is well started, so that the stock branch is generally cut back in two or three steps. The final cut is made just above the bud. Spring budding is usually satisfactory, and the buds may be forced the same summer. T or shield budding is the most common type for both deciduous and evergreen species and is a comparatively simple operation. The spot where the bud is to be inserted should be free of any growth for a space of 2 to 3 inches; the bark should be as smooth as possible in that area. Make a vertical cut, about an inch long, through the bark to the wood. Next, with the knife blade slightly slanted, make a transverse cut at the top of the vertical cut, forming the letter T. With practice, your horizontal cut will open slightly the two flaps of the vertical cut. Take budwood directly from a tree of the variety you wish to propagate at the time you wish to do your budding, except for spring budding (as mentioned above). Remove the leaves by cutting through the petiole (leaf stalk) about inch from the shoot. No harm is done if the petiole is removed entirely, but the short stalk left is a convenient handle for inserting the bud. Select only wellformed, mature buds that appear on the current season's wood. Be

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sure that you select budwood from a healthy tree, especially from one that is free of any virus or virus-like diseases. Remove the bud from the budstick by cutting in under the bark, upwards toward the bud, starting the cut M inch or more below the bud. Cut into the wood. Extend the cut about & inch above the bud. Upon completion of the cut, your thumb should be holding the bud and shield of the bark to the knife blade. Carry the shield to the T cut, insert the bottom of it into the top of the T and push it down until the entire portion of the shield is

T O R SHIELD B U D D I N G

encased by the flaps of the cut. This procedure places the cambium of the bud next to the cambium of the stock. The next step is to wrap the bud so that it is tight against the stock. This does two things: it holds the two cambiums together so that growth will follow, and it will prevent drying out of the bud. Large, flat rubber bands, % inch wide, cut in half, may be used. Or, commercial budding strips may be purchased; these are about 4 inches long, of the desired width. Start wrapping the bud at the top of the T by lapping the first loop over the loose end of the rubber strip. Continue wrapping the understock with the remaining stretched strip of rubber until you have used up most of the strip.

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Then insert the end of the strip under the last loop, which should be at or below the lower cut of the T. This procedure will hold the bud tightly in place and you will not have to tie any knots in the rubber strip. Moistened raffia strips, nurseryman's tape, or even common string may be used, but the rubber strips are more practical. A growth union will take place in about 10 days if the budding has been successful. The bud ties must be cut as soon as any signs of constriction appear. Cut on the side opposite the bud shield. Buds inserted from mid-May to mid-June may make some growth the

PATCH BUDDING

same season. They can be forced by cutting back to the bud after the union has taken place. If budding is done in late June, July, or August, the bud will unite with the stock but it will not usually grow into a shoot until the following spring. This is called summer or fall budding. Therefore, before the buds begin to start spring growth, cut the branch back to the bud itself. Otherwise, the bud may not grow. If you have not cut the raffia, string, or rubber bands, do so when you cut back so that no constriction of the branch will result. After the first growing season, the resulting branch may be treated in pruning as you would any other branch. Start your training pro-

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gram the first winter or dormant season in order to secure the framework you desire. The T or shield bud is the simplest and generally the most satisfactory method for nearly all fruit trees. However, the thick-barked species, such as walnut and pecan, are more easily budded using the patch or flute bud. In this method a square or rectangular patch, including a bud, is cut from a budstick of the variety to be propagated, as follows: The patch is cut on all four sides. It is then slipped from the budstick by pressing near the bud from the side with both budstick

stock

I BUDDING

thumbs. This will insure the removal of a small core of wood with the bud; otherwise the bud will fail to grow. Budwood of these species is generally much larger, M inch to an inch in diameter, than that of species T-budded. A piece of bark of exactly the same size and shape is removed from the stock limb, the patch containing the bud is inserted and tied. If the bark of the stock is considerably thicker than that of the bud, it may be shaved down so that the tie presses the bud firmly against the stock. For exceptionally thick-barked stock limbs a modification known as I or modified H budding is sometimes used. In this method the bud is cut in the same manner as for patch budding, but instead of removing a similar patch from the stock limb straight cuts are made

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in the shape of an H on its side. The two flaps on either side of the vertical cut are lifted and the patch inserted beneath. The stock bark is trimmed down and the bud tied. Care should be taken to see that the patch does not buckle while being tied. Grapes require a different method of budding, and are usually budded only after the first year's growth. A method called chip budding is used. Budding is done in late summer or early fall, as soon as matured buds from light-brown canes are available. As with other budsticks, the leaves are removed, and the canes are kept moist and cool unless the budding is done immediately. The bud is cut from the cane by making a cut deep into the wood, starting just below the bud and at a 45° angle downward. The cut

bud

budstick

f

stock cut for chip

wrapped bud

stock CHIP B U D D I N G

should be straight. A second cut is made starting a little more than lA inch above the bud, cutting downward in a straight line to meet the lower cut about M inch or a little more from the surface of the cane. A similar cut is made in the stock cane just above the ground line. This cut should be slightly more angled, so that the chip containing the bud fits firmly. It is tied as for other buds. The bud is covered with a layer of moist soil to a depth of 4 inches or more. The next spring, as the buds on the top canes start to swell, the bud is uncovered, and, if it has united, the top of the vine is cut off to within an inch or so of the bud. During the following summer train the developing shoot upward by tying to a stake, and keep off all suckers developing from the stock. If you start a grape cutting with the intention of eventually budding it, you can make it "suckerproof" by removing all the buds but the topmost.

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Older trees and vines on which the lower branches have become too large for budding may be changed to other varieties by one of several methods of grafting. This process is a little more involved than budding, but some people find it easier to do. Two general methods of grafting are described here: the bark graft and the cleft graft. They are applicable to all fruit trees and require the simplest tools. Professional grafters may use other methods, but often prefer these. scion

budshield

BUDDING AND GRAFTING TISSUE RELATIONS

Deciduous trees are grafted in the winter (from January on), or not later than early spring just when the bark first slips well. Many evergreen trees may be grafted at any time of the year, but spring is the time usually preferred. For all methods of grafting, scionwood of the desired variety must be selected. Scions cut from this wood include two or three buds above the basal cuts necessary to fit the scion to the stock. Scionwood is somewhat larger in diameter than budwood; it is usually from % to % inch in diameter.

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Deciduous-fruit scionwood must be dormant, and is therefore selected in the winter, and stored, if necessary, in a manner similar to that described for dormant budwood for spring budding. The wood should be well matured, with good buds showing (avoid including flower buds). Evergreen scionwood is secured at the time grafting is to be done, although it too may be stored for short periods if more convenient. The leaves should be removed as described above for budwood. It should be well matured wood of good size for the species, and is often taken from the second or third previous growth flush. Tip growth should be discarded, although the basal growth of a justcompleted growth flush may be satisfactory. On both deciduous and evergreen trees nurse branches are sometimes left. A nurse branch is a branch of the stock left ungrafted until the scions are well started, at which time it is cut off, or in turn grafted. Nurse branches are not necessary on deciduous trees; many evergreens seem to do better if they are left. In selecting a nurse branch, one that will afford some shade to the grafted limbs is best.

stock

scions in place

A satisfactory method for all fruit species is the bark graft. When deciduous trees are topworked by this method its use is limited to the time the bark first slips well in the spring, that is, when the bark peels easily from the wood. The scions must be dormant. Evergreen trees may be bark-grafted whenever the bark is slipping; this may be at almost any time of the year. However, the preferred time for almost all evergreen species is in the spring. To make a bark graft, saw off the trunk or main framework branches at a convenient height; the cut should be at right angles

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to the length of the branch. Stems 2 to 4 inches in diameter are preferred as larger branches heal too slowly. With a knife make two parallel cuts through the bark, beginning at the saw cut and running lengthwise down the branch. The cuts should be as far apart as the scionwood is wide. Pull back the flap of bark made by the two cuts. On the scionwood make a slanting cut, nearly through the wood, about 2 to 2M inches from the bottom. On the opposite side, at the bottom of the scion, make a shorter tapering cut. Insert this scion into the flap of bark on the stock so that only a little of the longer cut surface, placed against the wood, extends above the top of the stock. Using two or three small nails or brads % to 1 inch long, depending on the size of the scionwood, nail the flap tight to the scion and the wood of the stock. Seal all cut surfaces with grafting wax. From one to three or more scions may be inserted on each stock, depending on the size of the stock. If two or more are placed on the stock, follow the after-treatment described below for the cleft graft. Larger and older trees should be topworked by grafting the main branches. If a graft fails to grow, the shoots arising from the stump may be budded. A modification of the bark graft which is very helpful in those cases where the bark and cleft graft are not satisfactory, as with macadamia, cherimoya, and avocado, is the side bark graft in which the grafted limb is not cut off at the time of grafting. The graft is made in much the same manner as described above for the common bark graft, but at the top of the parallel cuts in the limb a triangular piece of bark, about three to four times the diameter of the scion, is removed. The base of the triangle is toward the bottom, and the parallel slits for the scion are centered in the middle. The scion is cut and attached to the stock limb in the same fashion as described for the bark graft. After it has united and started growth the grafted limb is cut back heavily, and about a year later may be cut back to the scion, making a sloping cut opposite the scion to aid in healing. As with other grafts, all cut surfaces on stock and scion should be well covered with a grafting compound at the time the graft is made, and when the stock is cut back to the scion. The cleft graft is one of the most popular and usable methods for deciduous trees. If the trunk or any of its branches are from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, saw the trunk or branch off at the height at which you wish to insert the scions. With a hatchet or long-bladed, fairly thick knife, split the stump left by the saw-cut lengthwise through the center. The cut so made must be held open with a wedge

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so as to receive the scions, one of which is placed on either edge of the split. The lower end of the scion should be cut to form a long, tapering wedge. These sloping cuts should be at least 1/2 inches long, with at least two buds above the cut. The usual length of scions is four or five inches. Place the scion into the wedge of the stock so that the cambium of the scion cuts across the cambium of the stock. This means that the scion should be tilted outward somewhat so that you will be sure the cambiums touch each other by crossing. Be particularly careful to accomplish this if the stock has thick bark. When the scion is in

plement. The succeeding pressure will hold the scion firmly in place. Since there are so many cut edges to dry out or allow the entrance of diseases or pests, immediately cover all the cut surfaces with a generous amount of grafting wax. Be sure to place a daub of wax on the top of the scion, too. Cleft grafting is usually done in January or February while the stock is completely dormant. Therefore, it can be done over a longer period than the somewhat simpler bark graft. However, cleft grafts may be made after the stock has started growth if the scionwood has been collected earlier and kept completely dormant in cold storage. Old grape vines may be grafted using the cleft graft. The method is called crown grafting because it is done at or below the ground line. The procedure is exactly the same, but first the soil is removed

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to expose the straight part of the trunk above the roots. The split is made in the same manner, but is usually somewhat shorter than in the branches of a tree. The scion is not waxed, but covered completely with moist soil, using care not to disturb the scion. The following spring, when the scions of topworked trees start growth, all watersprouts (long succulent growth) from the stock should be removed or pinched back at frequent intervals. If the new growth from the scions becomes long, it is well to brace it by tying to stakes set in the ground or nailed to the tree trunk. In the case of grape, all suckers should be carefully removed and the desired cane from the scion trained by tying to a stake. At the first dormant pruning, cut to 10 or 12 inches the scions that you do not wish to save so that they will become less vigorous. The second dormant season after grafting you will want to saw off the suppressed scion, but only if the grafting wound has healed over. Remove the suppressed scion with a tapering saw cut. Place some grafting wax over this long cut to keep out diseases and pests. Protecting the Grafts.—Wounds made in grafting need protection against drying out and entrance of wood-rotting organisms. For this purpose a grafting compound—usually termed grafting wax—is used. All types of grafting waxes are obtainable from nurserymen or dealers in orchard supplies. Cold asphalt emulsions are easy to apply and are entirely satisfactory. Just be sure they are not washed off in a rain before they have had a chance to set. After 24 hours they are usually able to withstand rains. Apply generously and make a second application if cracks or openings develop. True grafting waxes must be melted but do not get them too hot. These waxes harden immediately and will not be affected by rain. You may also use a hand wax, which can be worked and molded by hand, and is applied with the fingers instead of a brush or paddle. Hand waxes are not commonly met with, but are satisfactory. Grafts of deciduous trees seldom need protection beyond the use of a grafting compound at the time the graft is made. Walnut grafts are an exception, and they may benefit by added protection. This is because they are usually grafted late in the spring and are exposed to higher temperatures and more intense sunlight. A common method of protecting grafts is to tie a paper bag over the scions. It is essential to provide ventilation by tearing or punching small holes in the bottom corners of the bag and along the edges near the stock. It has been found that whitewashing newly set walnut scions seems to provide adequate protection also. It is common to wrap the set scions of evergreen grafts. A piece of muslin is wrapped around the top of the stock, covering the cleft

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or lifted bark of the stock after the grafting compound has been used on all cut surfaces. The wrap is pulled tight and tied. This aids in protecting against drying through cracking of the grafting compound, careless application of the compound, or other causes, and also helps hold the scions firmly. After tying with muslin strips, another coat of grafting compound is used to cover the whole surface around the scions, including the muslin. Paper bags may then be tied over the scions to the stock in the same fashion as described above. These protect the scions and young growth from sunburn. Remove the paper bags when the new growth from the scions reaches the bottom of the inverted bag. G R O W I N G FRUIT IN LIMITED SPACES Space for growing fruit trees is at a premium in the modern garden. Most city and suburban lots are small to begin with, and the terraces, patios, and work areas that are a part of outdoor living further limit the available ground area. It is easy to find a place for small fruits— berries, grapes, and the like—but the full-sized, standard tree often is just too big.

The problem is one of getting fruit without taking up too much of your garden in its production. Gardeners are finding ways to solve this problem. Some of the successful methods are described here. Dwarf Fruit Trees The chief advantages of the dwarf tree over the well-developed, standard-sized tree are these;

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or lifted bark of the stock after the grafting compound has been used on all cut surfaces. The wrap is pulled tight and tied. This aids in protecting against drying through cracking of the grafting compound, careless application of the compound, or other causes, and also helps hold the scions firmly. After tying with muslin strips, another coat of grafting compound is used to cover the whole surface around the scions, including the muslin. Paper bags may then be tied over the scions to the stock in the same fashion as described above. These protect the scions and young growth from sunburn. Remove the paper bags when the new growth from the scions reaches the bottom of the inverted bag. G R O W I N G FRUIT IN LIMITED SPACES Space for growing fruit trees is at a premium in the modern garden. Most city and suburban lots are small to begin with, and the terraces, patios, and work areas that are a part of outdoor living further limit the available ground area. It is easy to find a place for small fruits— berries, grapes, and the like—but the full-sized, standard tree often is just too big.

The problem is one of getting fruit without taking up too much of your garden in its production. Gardeners are finding ways to solve this problem. Some of the successful methods are described here. Dwarf Fruit Trees The chief advantages of the dwarf tree over the well-developed, standard-sized tree are these;

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The operations of pruning, spraying, thinning, and harvesting are easier. Dwarf trees come into bearing at an early age (one to three years, compared with the three to ten for standard trees). Dwarfs take up much less room than standard trees, so that many more can be planted in a given area. A greater number of varieties can be grown. Where a pollinator is needed but space is limited, a dwarf tree may be planted. The individual fruit produced on the dwarf tree is identical in size and all other characteristics with that of standard trees of the same variety. Dwarf fruit trees may be used to beautify your grounds in addition to yielding fine fruits. Two dwarf trees planted at the head of a path leading to the garden will emphasize the garden vista. Trees may be planted along a boundary with the lower branches left on for added effect. They may be used to accent a shrub border along a driveway. For an attractive corner planting, combine a dwarf tree with low-growing shrubs and a clump of bamboo or an albizzia. There are some disadvantages to growing dwarf fruit trees. As a rule, the cost of the individual trees is greater than for trees on standard rootstocks. The cost of planting a piece of ground to dwarf trees is many times the cost of planting the same ground to standard ones simply because more trees are needed for the same area. Dwarf trees are often permitted to overbear; consequently they do not live as long as they might otherwise. But under expert management, such as English and French gardeners give their trees, dwarf pears, for example, may live 75 years. Dwarfs require more attention than standards, especially since it is necessary to prune frequently to keep the trees at a certain size. The total yield is less, on an area basis, than for standard trees. Most dwarfing rootstocks have shallow root systems. As a result they suffer more from drought than do standard rootstocks, and they may be more easily uprooted by high winds. Staking may be necessary. Only a few species, and not all varieties of these, can be successfully dwarfed. A "dwarfed" apricot or cherry, for example, is still a tree of considerable size.

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In spite of these disadvantages, varieties on dwarf rootstocks definitely have a place in the fruit garden. There are three main ways by which trees may be reduced below standard size: by grafting the desired variety upon a dwarfing rootstock; by heavy pruning, especially in summer; or by partially starving the roots through confining them in pots or boxes. The use of dwarf or partially dwarfing rootstocks is the method chiefly employed. Such rootstocks are usually special dwarf varieties —ones that, if left to produce their own top growth, would stay small in stature. Regular fruiting varieties are budded (or grafted) onto the dwarfing roots. The tops still have all the characteristics of the variety, but the dwarf understocks largely regulate the size of the tree. You may propagate your own dwarfs by budding or grafting the variety of your own choosing onto the proper rootstock. The different methods that may be used have just been described in the preceding pages. Or you may order directly from a nursery the desired variety already established on a dwarfing stock. The following rootstocks are generally used for dwarfing: Apples (dwarfing): Mailing IX. Apples (semidwarfing): Paradise, Mailing VII, Mailing V, Mailing II, Mailing I. Apricots: Western sand cherry. Cherries: Stockton Morello (semidwarfing), mahaleb (only partially dwarfing under certain circumstances). Citrus: Trifoliate orange. Nectarines: St. Julien plum. Peaches: St. Julien plum. Pears: Angers quince. Plums: St. Julien plum, Western sand cherry. During the winter months, many nurseries have a supply of bareroot, two- or three-year-old dwarf trees of apples, pears, plums, peaches, cherries, apricots, and nectarines. However, the wholesale sources for these trees are limited and the demand is great. To date, few nurseries have ever been able to acquire enough of them to offer a complete selection of varieties. In time, enough dwarf trees may be propagated to meet the demand. These trees will be 2 to 4 feet high when you buy them. Under ordinary conditions, dwarf apples and pears make small trees—10 to 12 feet high, with a corresponding spread. Other species may grow considerably larger, but will take much less space than standard trees (see the table on p. 20).

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Among citrus fruits, the Meyer lemon, a natural dwarf variety, has been popular for years. Dwarfing rootstocks are now being used to produce dwarf trees of oranges, limes, grapefruits, lemons, and kumquats. The dwarfs so produced are beginning to appear at the nurseries. Most of these dwarf citrus will level off at about 8 feet in height, with an equal spread. As is true with all fruit trees, dwarfs must be exposed to full sun if tree and fruit are to grow satisfactorily. If the spot in which the trees are to be planted receives less than three or four hours of sunlight a day, you cannot expect satisfactory fruit production. Large shrubs or tall trees or buildings south of the dwarfs will rob the small trees of sunlight. Tall trees or shrubs will also rob the dwarfs of needed moisture and soil nutrients. The soil must be fertile and well drained for best results, especially in the top few feet of ground. The trees have a small, shallow root system and thus an adequate supply of water and plant nutrients must be maintained close to the tree. The generally recommended planting distance for dwarf trees is 12 by 12 feet. Certain dwarf trees may be more closely planted, for example, 6 feet apart. Allow enough space so that the trees can be properly sprayed for pest and disease control and can develop properly and produce good fruit. Thus, with dwarfs you have a much greater choice of varieties and an opportunity to have a real orchard in a limited area. But standard trees will normally produce more fruit than will the dwarf trees that can be planted in the same space. In planting trees propagated on dwarfing roots, have the point of union of the varietal top and the rootstock above ground. If the varietal part is in contact with the soil, it may take root and result in a tree of standard size instead of a dwarf. The place of union is indicated by a change of bark color and often by a slight curve in the trunk near the base of the tree. Another important factor in growing trees on dwarfing rootstocks successfully is severe pruning. This pruning, much more drastic than that practiced on standard trees, consists of thinning out many more lateral branches than would ordinarily be removed and in heading back the vigorous growth made by the shoots. These two practices result in a very compact tree. However, in taking these steps to develop a well-branched framework in the early years, it may be necessary to sacrifice some fruit production during that time. Pruning at planting is the same as recommended for a standard tree (see pp. 50-51) except that the tree is headed lower. Summer

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pruning helps a great deal in developing short branches or spurs, thus placing the fruit close to the main trunk and branches. During the summer, small shoots develop which usually produce only leaf buds. In order to get fruit buds to develop along these shoots, pinch or prune off one-third of their length when they are about 6 to 10 inches long. One or more new shoots will appear below the cut in about two weeks' time. When these lateral branches are about 4 inches long, pinch them back 1 or 2 inches. Always cut back to matured wood in shortening these small growths. Pinching green, succulent tissue will force more buds than wanted. Do not pinch back the main branches of the tree as these are to be pruned during the regular dormant pruning. Summer pruning is a weakening process, as you are removing present and potential leaf areas which manufacture food for the plant. If the tree is not too vigorous, omit the summer pruning and rely on the dormant pruning to accomplish the aims you are after. Summer pruning permits you to shape vigorous trees at will during one season—a process that might otherwise take several seasons. If a tree develops roots of the varietal top, it will produce vigorous upright growth. If this type of growth appears—and it is easily recognized—the base of the tree should be examined for scion rooting, and any scion roots should be cut off. Also, the soil should be removed from around the scion to a distance of 2 or 3 inches below the point of union. With dwarf trees, it is especially important to maintain soil fertility by applying manure or chemical fertilizer every year because the root system is shallow. Dwarf roots will not explore even a deep fertile soil. The amount of fertilizer will depend upon the fertility of the soil and the growth of the tree, but will usually range from M to 1 pound of such fertilizers as ammonium sulfate. It is usually applied during the dormant season. Espaliers

Espaliering a fruit tree is another way to grow fruit in limited areas. An espaliered plant is one that is trained in a plane, usually vertical, and often against a wall. The espaliered tree is best used in a long, narrow bed between a walk and a wall, fence, or trellis where a standard fruit tree cannot be grown. Even a dwarf tree with a typical branching habit will be too big for such an area. Of course, the wall or supporting frame should face the sun most of the day. No matter how you train a fruit tree, it must get sun if it is to bear fruit.

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In addition to providing fruit in a small area, espaliered trees are ornamental. Espalier patterns, several of which are illustrated, add interest to the garden. Training the Espalier.—This fascinating and enjoyable pastime is often approached with undue concern because of unfamiliarity with

1 s i 1 1 —-itgsg?" • j j

ESPALIER O N FRAME

the growth characteristics of the chosen subject. Some trees are better suited to specific types of espalier training than others. Apple and pear, which bear their fruit on long-lived spurs, are best suited to the more rigid espalier patterns. Peach and nectarine, which bear practically all fruit on one-year-old shoots, must necessarily be trained to a more informal pattern which will allow the

T W O FORMAL ESPALIER PATTERNS

development of sufficient strong shoots each summer to provide for the following crop. To avoid becoming too large, such a pattern must be started low, practically from a stump which is, in effect, allowed to produce watersprouts freely each season. The espalier pattern must be replaced each season with these new fruiting shoots, and therefore a rigid, angular pattern cannot be developed.

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For the more formal or rigid espalier patterns it is easiest to control the growth of the tree if a dwarfing or semidwarfing stock is used. This may be especially important in cases of very vigorously growing species, or with certain types of training, such as the cordon (see p. 85), which calls for many upright shoots for the development and maintenance of fruiting wood. The tree as planted may consist of a single whip, or a branched nursery tree. If branched, and the branches are properly spaced, they may be used to start the espalier pattern. Otherwise, new growth from the trunk must be used. It is generally best if the point at which a branch is to be taken from the main trunk to form a horizontal arm of the pattern is just below the position of the horizontal support. The arc at which the limb is brought to the horizontal should be fairly short. The shoot or limb is then tied to the frame support, the tie being made in such a way as to hold the bend rather rigid. The shoot should be allowed to grow freely at the end. It should be tied down frequently, near the growing tip, while the wood can still be bent to the horizontal easily without danger of breaking. The growing tip itself should not be tied down. It will, of course, tend to assume a vertical position. At points where vertical framework branches are needed in the pattern a lateral bud is allowed to grow. These will break freely and care must be taken to see that such vertical limbs do not take all the growth, as the natural tendency is for the vertical shoots to be much more vigorous than limbs tied in a horizontal position. Pinch back growing tips as needed to keep the various parts in balance. Horizontal shoots should be kept straight. Allowing them to dip and rise will result in poor growth in those parts which dip below the horizontal, and difficulty in containing the growth of those parts which slant upward. Vertical shoots will show considerable strong growth at the point of heading. This must be kept down by pinching frequently. One way to minimize this difficulty, especially on espaliers which call for a central trunk, is to develop a small fan of branches at the top, thus distributing this growth over several growing points, each of which will produce less-vigorous shoots than those developing from a single, upright stem. The problems of proper training to the selected form, then, are mainly those of frequent attention to tying shoots to the desired pattern, and maintaining a balance between the growth of the different chosen limbs by pinching the overly vigorous to combat their tendency to take over. Spurs are developed by pinching the growth from lateral buds.

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Normally, because of their free, upright growth, such buds tend to form strong shoots rather than spurs. When they have grown to a length of 4 to 6 inches pinch out the terminal portion. The new growth should be pinched back to hardened wood. If the pinch is made in soft, succulent wood the lateral buds of subtending leaves break freely, resulting in a witches'-broom of new growth, which in turn will have to be subdued. Buds on mature wood show this tendency to much lower degree. While the tree is young and growing rather freely, several such pinchings may be necessary to contain the growth during the season. If, at the end of the growing season, the small twigs which you are training to be spurs have made too much branched growth, they may be cut to a lateral bud or twig, and the same process repeated the following season. Gradually a rather freely branched system of small spurs will develop, clothing the espalier limbs. If these become too thickly branched they may be thinned out by cutting to laterals. Do not head each branch of the system, for this will only multiply the problem. If too many spur systems are developed, they may be thinned out by removing some to the espalier limb. As the tree matures the extra exuberance of growth will largely disappear, and you will find it necessary to practice much less pinching and training to keep the espaliered tree in bounds. Each spring there will be a strong flush of growth, and some watersprouts will develop from dormant buds. These should be rubbed off entirely, or pinched back to develop new spur systems if properly placed and needed. Do not allow this type of growth to develop freely, for it will take the growth of the plant, and the more mature portions of the espalier will suffer, and eventually be choked out. Informal espaliers—those not trained to a geometrical pattern— are treated essentially in the same way, and, of course, the same species may be used. However, some species, as the peach, may be satisfactory only if trained by such a method. This is because long annual shoot growth is necessary to produce fruit, and calls for constant replacement of this kind of wood. It is therefore impossible to limit the growth as rigidly as for the spur-bearing species and still develop wood which will form fruit buds. A method often used is to head the tree 6 to 12 inches from the ground. Allow a number of strong shoots to develop, pinching back any extra shoots that are not needed, thus throwing all the growth into the chosen shoots. They may be tied to the framework in a pleasing pattern, but it will be necessary to allow them to grow more

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or less upright. A fan shape is often used to meet these requirements. The shoots so developed will bear fruit the following season. New shoots are chosen from the headed trunk in the next season and trained in the same manner. The shoots of the previous season are kept in check by pinching back new growth developing from them. After the second season, the limbs which have fruited are removed, for they will no longer prove fruitful, unless considerable new growth which can be kept has developed from them. The shoots chosen the season previous are retained, and a new set of vigorous shoots is encouraged for replacement. It is obvious that such training results in considerable growth each year, so that such species as require this type of training will not form

I N F O R M A L F A N ESPALIER

Species which bear fruit on current season's growth, as persimmon, fig, and quince, are trained best to a more or less informal pattern, but, unlike the espaliered peach, permanent scaffold limbs may be developed, and annual growth along them encouraged. It will be necessary to allow such growth to become long enough to flower, and enough foliage to develop to support the fruit set. On this account, these species, like the peach, cannot be trained to such rigid patterns as the spur-bearing species. Espaliers, especially those of peach and those fruiting on current season's growth, should be kept in a vigorous condition by adequate fertilization to insure proper replacement-wood growth. They should not be overcropped because of the devitalizing effect. Remember that the total leaf area of an espaliered tree is greatly reduced, and that fruiting must also be restricted. Evergreens are handled in an informal fashion somewhat similar

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to the species just mentioned. Sufficient growth must be left to insure fruiting, which occurs on one of the previous growth flushes. Some shoot growth beyond this point will be necessary to insure proper leaf surface to develop the fruit. Ready-trained espaliered fruit trees are available at nurseries. Naturally, they are expensive compared with standard trees. And they are not so widely available as they might be. The sources of supply for espaliered trees are even more limited than for dwarf fruit trees. To avoid disappointments in growing espaliered trees, a few difficulties should be kept in mind. The first arises in connection with spraying trees trained against buildings. Two common sprays are lime-sulfur and Bordeaux mixture. The former will discolor an unpainted wall and blacken a painted one because of a chemical action between the sulfur in the spray and the lead in the paint; and the Bordeaux will stain either a painted or an unpainted surface a most unattractive, dirty green. Lead arsenate leaves no stain, but only a light deposit on the wood, which can be brushed off when dry or washed off with a garden hose. Nicotine sulfate spray used to control aphids will discolor wood, particularly if a soap spreader is used. None of the newer insecticides, such as DDT, lindane, and the like, leaves any residue to speak of. The pear is a satisfactory fruit to flatten against a wooden wall, as spraying can generally be limited to lead arsenate or to DDT, which prevents wormy fruit resulting from codling moth. If the trees become infested with San Jose scale or other scale insects, an oil spray can be carefully painted on the trunk and branches with a brush. It is now safe to grow espaliered pear trees where blight is prevalent because copper sprays or dusts may be used for control. In regions with high rainfall, use only varieties known to possess a high degree of resistance—for example, Dearborn, Winter Nelis, or Hardy. Bartlett is one of the varieties most susceptible to fireblight. Here are a few pointers and suggestions concerning methods of espaliering the different common fruit types. Dwarf espaliered apples are trained to various shapes. One way is to plant the young trees 2, 3, or 4 feet apart—4 feet being more favorable for the beginner—and train them to a three-wire trellis. A single whip is trained at an angle of about 65° and subsequently pruned to a system of spurs. They will begin bearing the second year. This is a favorite method of training in English fruit gardens, but the trees require much detailed attention.

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Dwarf espaliered apple trees usually bear too heavily but, if judiciously thinned, may produce larger fruit than the same variety on standard roots. Even with only fair treatment, such trees should live for twenty-five years, provided they are kept fertilized, are properly pruned, and are not allowed to overbear—the last injunction being the most important. Under ideal conditions they will live much longer than a quarter of a century. In a dry climate, since the root system is small and shallow, they must be carefully watered. If treated as border plants and watered accordingly, they should grow satisfactorily. If allowed to suffer for water even for a few days, however, they may be sunburned at the point where they are bent, and thus become infested with flat-headed borers, which will quickly girdle the trunk. One common method of espaliering pears is to flatten them against a garden wall or against individual spikes of a picket fence. The tree can be caused to fork and form many branches near the ground, each of which is trained against a separate picket. Another geometric form is that of the specimen tree, which stands in the open with the branches trained to grow on the horizontal in four directions. The tree is tied to a post, which is made the center of a trellis extending in two directions. The trellis will consist of several wires (five to eight) 12 to 15 inches apart. When the horizontal branches have reached a length of about 3 or 4 feet, they are caused to turn upward by being bound to a stake. Upon reaching the next branch above, they are grafted into it. If the work is carefully done, the tree, at about eight or ten years of age, presents a striking effect. Cordons

A method of training, slightly different from espaliering, and again a favorite in Continental gardens, is the cordon style. Apple and pear are particularly adaptable to this treatment. This requires oneyear-old trees with straight trunks 5 or 6 feet tall and, if possible, without branches. They are planted about 6 feet apart against a single-wire trellis 18 to 20 inches from the ground. Beginning at one end of the row, the gardener bends the tree over as nearly as possible to a right-angle turn, ties it to a stake to hold the lower portion of the stem upright, and ties the upper portion to the wire to hold it in a horizontal position. He then treats the next tree similarly and so on, with all trees pointed in the same direction, except that the one at the end of the row may be pointed the opposite way. When the first tree in the row has grown until it reaches the second, it is grafted into the trunk on a level with the wire. The others are treated in the same way except that the end tree, which has been turned in the

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opposite direction, will be grafted into the tip of the tree that it meets rather than into the trunk. The trees, when grown together, form a living cordon both unique and ornamental. Such cordons are used as borders for driveways and garden paths. They must be kept carefully pruned, as nearly as possible to a system of spurs; otherwise the branches will grow vertically and eventually assume the role of principal growth. This reduces and eventually destroys all vigor in the cordon itself. Much summer pruning may be necessary; this consists mostly of pinching out terminal buds and undesirable twig growth.

In regions of high summer temperatures and long growing seasons, it is impossible to prune heavily enough to keep the cordon hedge low (3 feet) in the European style, without sacrificing the spurs and reducing fruit production to almost nothing. Another common way of training is to plant trees along a five-wire trellis and train the branches so that they will grow in a horizontal position in two directions. When the branches meet, they are grafted together; in this way they form a series of living cordons across the garden. Trees in Containers

The more you limit the space in which you grow fruit trees, the more work you will have to do. This is evident when you compare the care required for standard fruit trees, dwarfs, espaliers and cordons. Each method, in that order, requires a little more skill and

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perseverance in pruning and training. When you grow fruit trees, even dwarfs, in containers, you limit the space even more and thus increase the attendant work. It is possible to harvest fruit every year from trees grown in containers. But to keep the trees in good condition, it is necessary to move them to larger containers occasionally—usually every two or three years—and to prune with skill to keep the top growth in balance with the physically limited root system. The following kinds of fruit trees may be grown in containers: apples, pears, citrus, peaches, plums, cherries, nectarines, apricots, and figs. Some of the naturally low-growing fruit plants, such as currant, gooseberry, and carissa, may be planted in containers, as may certain vines (passion fruit). Trees in containers may be used in small, formal, or semiformal gardens, as they can be moved at will, for special occasions, then returned to another location. A year-old fruit tree, on bare root from the nursery, should go first into a three- or five-gallon can, or a box or tub of equal volume. It would be unwise to put it into a larger tub at first because the roots would immediately explore the entire soil area and thus the effect of physically limiting the root system—and hence the top—would be lost. Instead, the tree should go through a gradual succession of increasingly larger tubs, staying in each for at least two or three years. The maximum convenient size of such a container is a tub of about 20 inches in diameter. Repotting into a larger container does three things: provides more room for the root system, gives opportunity for root pruning, and permits replacing some of the spent soil. During the transplanting process, some of the topsoil (4 inches or so) may be removed and replaced with fertile topsoil; to this soil may be added well-decomposed manure. Some of the finer roots may be pruned in this four-inch space, as they will be replaced by new growth. The larger roots may be pruned back to the soil line if they are found growing along the wall of the container. Trees in containers should be pruned so that their maximum spread and height are 4 feet or less. Thus judicious pruning is essential to prevent excessive vegetative growth and yet secure successive crops of fruits. Light top-dressings of fertilizers may be in order through the years. Multiple-Variety Trees

Nurseries offer grafted or budded, multiple-variety fruit trees. The dealers list them as "combination fruit trees," as "three-way cher-

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ries," "five-way apples," and the like. Some typical offerings along this line are: cherry trees carrying the varieties Royal Ann, Bing, and Black Tartarian (the latter is a pollinator for the first two, and vice versa); pears carrying Bartlett, Max-Red Bartlett, and Anjou; and apples with Winesap, Golden Delicious, Red Stayman, and Red Delicious. Often one or two of the varieties tend to outgrow the others. This tendency must be controlled by pruning the strongly growing varieties more heavily.

The gardener may accomplish the same thing by budding or grafting two or more varieties in the top of a single tree, as has been discussed. Another way to grow several varieties of a fruit in the space normally required for a single tree is to plant several trees in one hole. Four is a convenient maximum number. Naturally, this requires special preplanting pruning of topgrowths and roots. Each tree must be treated as though it were a single main branch in one tree. The illustration shows how to do it. Trees planted in this way should have the same growth habits to avoid cultural difficulties.

Part II Western Fruits You will find here specific directions and information for growing fruits recommended for Western gardens. This information is presented in a standard form and is a working guide based on the principles we have outlined in Part I. The fruits are listed alphabetically. Each fruit is treated in the following way: An introductory statement describes the unique features of the fruit (if it is one of the less common ones) and gives the general areas where the fruit may be expected to do well. Don't forget that you may take advantage of various devices, such as walls, patios, windbreaks, and other such means to modify your garden climate. By so doing you materially increase the number of fruits you can grow or experiment with. VARIETIES of each fruit are listed, with special consideration to climatic adaptation where this is known to be important. Several considerations have guided our selection of the varieties included. One of the most important of these is availability—there is little use including a variety which you cannot find in a nursery catalog or buy from your nurseryman. Quality and attractiveness of the fruit have also been considered. Selection has been made wide enough to cover all seasons of maturity. New varieties are constantly becoming available; some of these will prove welcome additions to the garden. With the use of techniques of budding and grafting, these may be established on your less favored trees, and brought to fruiting in as little as two seasons. Do not be afraid to try varieties not listed. But you will be surprised at how much better some of the old standard varieties taste when you can harvest them full ripe from your own trees. POLLINATION REQUIREMENTS are covered only for those fruits which have special requirements. ROOTSTOCKS AND TOPWORKING is designed for the gardener who would like to experiment with varieties, or multiple trees, or who wants to change from one kind of fruit to another. This information will tell you how far you can go with reasonable chance of success in topworking various kinds of fruits onto each other. It will also help you select trees to plant. Too often the gardener selects only the top part of a tree at the nursery-yard. The tree obviously has a root system, but usually little 89

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attention is given to the selection of a rootstock to meet the needs of the garden site or the requirements of the gardener. Sometimes the choice is strictly limited, other times the proper choice may mean the difference between success and failure. SOIL AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS covers the specific requirements of each species. Problems most likely to be met with are mentioned, and recommendations for fertilization are made. WATER REQUIREMENTS deals with the necessity for deep or shallow irrigation at frequent or at long intervals, and the susceptibility of various fruit plants to poor irrigation practices. PRUNING is based on the treatment in Part I; modifications or variations from the more general treatment are presented. For those fruit plants which need special pruning, training, or support—such as vines or bush fruits—the entire discussion of pruning is given in this section. FRUIT THINNING is presented in specific detail for those kinds which are improved by thinning, but is based on the more general discussion in Part I. Girdling and special fruit-thinning methods for grapes are taken up in this section. HARVESTING AND HANDLING gives standards of picking maturity and storage life for each fruit. DISEASES AND PESTS occurring with annoying frequency are particularly mentioned, but the lists are by no means complete. Those fruit plants free from serious disease and pest troubles are noted. The omission of any of the above sections for any particular fruit indicates that no special attention needs to be given to such operations or conditions. Special sections are included where necessary to describe operations peculiar to individual fruits.

ALMOND Prunus

amygdalus

Batsch

The almond is best adapted to the climate of California's Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, the intermountain valleys of the central coast, and similar districts where warm, dry summers permit the maturing of the nuts. Almonds do reasonably well in the desert, and in the inland areas of the south coast especially at higher elevations (up to 2,000-3,000 feet). They are not adapted to the Imperial Valley. In other Western states, because almonds bloom early, they should be grown only where there is relative freedom from frosts during their blooming period and during April when the fruit is forming. The small, immature fruits are even more susceptible to frosts than are blossoms. The nuts will not mature properly under conditions of cool summers and high humidity. Varieties

Nonpareil is considered the best all-round kind. It is a paper-shell variety, which means that the percentage of kernel in relation to the shell is extremely high, and it may be easily shelled by hand. The tree bears quite regularly and is adapted to practically all the almondgrowing districts. Davey is a new variety closely resembling Nonpareil; the tree blooms with Nonpareil and the two will serve as cross-pollinators for each other. Jordanolo is a soft-shelled variety with a large, smooth, highquality kernel. It is easy to harvest and hull. The tree bears regularly and heavily, but blooms early. IXL produces soft-shelled nuts of good quality, but they are often gummy. The tree tends to be a light bearer. Because this variety is at its best in certain places—the foothills and a few favored valley locations in California—it would be a good idea to check with your nurseryman before selecting it. It is rather exacting in its cultural needs. 91

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Ne Plus Ultra bears large nuts with an attractive, soft shell, although the quality of the nut is not as high as that of Jordanolo and Nonpareil. This variety is perhaps even more particular in its cultural requirements than is IXL. It is, however, a good pollinator for Nonpareil. Eureka produces a soft-shelled nut; the kernel is smaller than the other varieties. It does better under adverse cultural conditions. Texas (Mission), a small, semi-hard-shelled nut, has a late blooming habit, thus being able to escape frost injury in many localities. It yields regularly and well. The usual sequence of ripening, the earliest first, is: Nonpareil, Davey, IXL, Jordanolo, Ne Plus Ultra, Eureka, Texas. Pollination Requirements

All almond varieties are unfruitful to their own pollen, and thus the pollen of another variety is necessary in order to produce fruit. The second factor to consider is the time of bloom, as the pollinating variety must bloom at the same time as the desired variety. Fortunately these conditions are met quite easily in the varieties described above; with the exception of Nonpareil and IXL, which are inter-unfruitful, any variety given here will pollinate satisfactorily any of the other varieties. The usual sequence of blooming, from earliest to latest, is: Jordanolo, Ne Plus Ultra, IXL, Eureka, Nonpareil, Davey, Texas. An example will indicate how varieties may be planted to insure pollination: Because Jordanolo blooms earlier than Nonpareil, it is better to plant Ne Plus Ultra, which blooms between them, with either one or both of these varieties. Rootstocks and Topworking

The gardener will usually buy nursery trees on almond or peach seedling roots. Some almond varieties do reasonably well on myrobalan seedlings, or vegetatively propagated stocks of this species, such as Myro 29 and the related Marianna 2624. The best of these is Marianna 2624, but Nonpareil is not compatible with this stock. The advantages of myrobalan and Marianna rootstocks are covered on page 234. S-37 is a special peach rootstock, resistant to root-knot nematodes. Almond varieties can be topworked into the trunk or limbs of seedlings or varieties of trees of any of the species mentioned above. In addition, they may be topworked into trees of these species which are on other roots incompatible with almond, for example, almond on peach on apricot roots; this is known as double working.

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Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Almonds do well on any type of soil from light sandy soils to medium loams. On heavy, poorly drained soils the trees are subject to collar rot and root rot. The almond is deep-rooted and so should be grown on the deepest soil available, but will do very well on soils only 6 feet deep. On sandy loams, the trees will need more fertilizer than when they are planted on heavier soils. Almond trees are not tolerant of saline soils. Even moderate amounts of sodium or boron are harmful. Trees will respond to nitrogenous fertilizers on most soils. Trees making 8 to 15 inches of growth each year do not need fertilization. If length growth is insufficient, apply about 2 pounds of actual nitrogen to each mature bearing tree; non-bearing trees do not need fertilizers unless they are being grown in poor soil. Water Requirements

In all areas, almond trees have to be irrigated during late spring and summer if good crops are to be produced year after year. However, the almond will adjust itself to non-irrigated sites better than almost any other fruit tree. Sparse growth and little fruit will be produced, but the tree will exist with remarkable tenacity. Trees which go without irrigation, especially under competition from other plants, will produce fewer nuts and of poor quality, and may suffer from attacks by various mites. On the other hand, too much water and shade may cause blossom, foliage, and collar rot diseases. A shaded lawn is a good example of where not to plant an almond tree, but on an open lawn, if care is taken to keep the soil around the tree crown not too wet, the almond will develop into an ornamental of considerable character. The area under the tree should be thoroughly soaked two or three times each summer. Pruning

From the start, train almond trees to the vase shape. After the first year's growth, prune to three well-placed, primary branches, and continue training as described on pages 51-55. The nuts are born on spurs—short shoots which make little linear growth. With bearing trees, the object of pruning is to replace those branches on which the spurs are past their prime. Such spurs usually last five years. Almonds are pruned by making a few large cuts; detailed pruning is not necessary. Besides pruning in the dormant season, remove vigorous watersprouts (long succulent growth) each year in early summer while the wood is soft.

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Harvesting and Handling Almonds are harvested after the hulls are cracked open and partially dried. They are gathered by knocking them with long poles, by jarring the branches with heavy rubber mauls, or by allowing them to drop naturally. This last method takes weeks to secure the entire crop, and rain may come before all almonds have fallen. Hull by removing the leathery covering around the shell. Spread the hulled nuts in the sun for a day or more to complete the drying so that they may be stored. A practical test for adequate drying is to shake a handful; if the kernels rattle in the shells, they are dried satisfactorily. Also, a kernel snaps upon bending when it is cured. Almonds stored in warm or damp places become rancid. In a cool, dry, well-ventilated place, properly cured unshelled almonds will keep without deterioration for six months or longer. Nonpareil and Jordanolo are particularly recommended for blanching. Diseases and Pests Almond is not subject to many diseases or pests of serious consequences, but a few need annual control by spraying. Blight and brown rot, both fungus diseases, are serious, but the latter only in humid localities. Blight affects both the twigs and fruits. Shot-hole borers may attack the fruit at various stages of its development, but are easily controlled by sprays. Mites are the most damaging to almonds, but will not be likely to reach serious proportions in a well-cared-for garden. They become important under conditions of drought and dust. Almonds are susceptible to wet soils and are attacked by oakroot fungus, unless on Marianna rootstock. This disease, though disastrous, has a small chance to infect any given tree, and hence the expectation of loss from it is very slight.

Malus domestica Borkh. Apples are the most widely adapted of all the temperate zone deciduous fruits; varieties are available that will do well in almost all the climatic regions of the Western states. Possibly the only exceptions are the low desert areas of California and Arizona, where no present variety is successfully adapted to the combination of mild winter and extremely high summer temperatures. Apples will do best in climates with considerable winter cold, moderate summer temperatures, and, unlike most other tree fruits, rather high humidities. Such conditions favor best fruit quality. With high light intensity, though other conditions may be reasonably well met, flesh texture is somewhat coarser and the fruit is a little less flavorful. Ideal growing conditions most nearly obtain in eastern Washington (except that this area has high light intensity), western Washington and Oregon, the coastal districts of central and northern California, and some mountain valleys in central California. The apple is less successful in California's interior valleys, and only a few varieties will do well in southern California, except at high elevations. Relatively low night temperatures and high light intensity during the ripening period favor the development of color of apples; such regions as eastern Washington develop highly colored varieties to perfection. Excess fog or cloudy days during the summer months will result in poor coloring of the red and striped varieties, with some objectionable russetting, and may adversely affect the resistance of tree and fruit to some diseases. The apple has a high chilling requirement, but a few varieties have been developed which need little winter chilling; these have extended the successful range into the south coast region of California. The apple is one of the hardiest of the deciduous fruits, and as a result its northern and high altitude range is considerably beyond that for peaches and other stone fruits. For this reason it will usually 95

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do well in the high desert regions, at higher altitudes in mountainous areas, and farther north than other fruits. Many varieties, if well hardened before the onset of low winter temperatures, will not be injured by temperatures as low as — 30 °F or lower. Under conditions of adequate winter chilling, the apple blooms before the peach, because it is able to grow at somewhat lower temperatures. It is, therefore, subject to spring frosts in such regions. In milder winter areas apple bloom is usually delayed, and apples do not bloom until after the peach, and usually after any danger of frost damage. But fruit set may be adversely affected, foliation irregular, and the trees may suffer with the early onset of high summer temperatures. Varieties

Varieties grown for garden use are largely a matter of personal preference. You may wish to try some which are not grown commercially. Where the winters are warm, you will need to grow varieties which have only a slight chilling requirement. Because there are literally thousands of apple varieties, the naming of the "best" ones is not as simple as with some other fruits. The varieties described below are grouped according to their climatic adaptability, and were selected on their reputation for general excellence. COLD REGIONS

Benoni is an early-maturing red variety, which blooms late and therefore may escape frosts which kill the blossoms of other varieties. Blaxtayman is a red mutation of Stayman Winesap. The fruit has more red color of a deeper tone; otherwise it is similar to Stayman Winesap. Delicious is a most famous apple, easily identified by the long, tapering shape with five prominent knobs at the blossom end. The fruit is usually large; it is striped red (some red mutations are solid colored); it is juicy, aromatic, sweet, and very mild. It is a high quality fruit unless you prefer a more tart apple. It does not cook well. Ripening takes place in late fall or early winter. The tree is vigorous, blooms late, and is aphid-resistant. Golden Delicious is a medium to large, clear-yellow fruit of nearly the same shape and flavor as Delicious, though the knobs are less prominent. The quality is very good; the fruit ripens in late summer or early fall, and keeps well in storage if the humidity is high, otherwise it shrivels badly. It can be used for cooking as well as fresh. Jonathan is a medium to large apple, round-oblong in shape, and

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usually quite regular in outline. Well-grown fruits are a high-colored red. The flesh is juicy, of good quality, and moderately tart. It is a variety for all purposes, ripening in early fall, and may be stored through the following January. Red June is an early-maturing, red, summer apple. The flesh is soft, sprightly, and of good quality. Red Rome is a red-colored mutation of Rome Beauty. The fruit is large, smooth, and round; the flesh is yellowish, firm, crisp, and of mediocre quality for fresh use, but excellent for baking. Its season is late, in the fall; it can be stored through the following February. Richared is a red-colored strain of Delicious. Grow this variety where Delicious does not attain good color. Rome Beauty is the same as Red Rome, but with less color. Starking has the same characteristics as Richared. Stayman Winesap is generally considered to be one of the bestflavored apples. The fruit is medium to large, round-conic in shape, dull red, often not highly colored, with grey and russet dots. The flesh is tender, juicy, subacid, and of excellent dessert quality. The fruit ripens in late summer. It can be kept through the end of the year. Staymared is a red strain of Stayman Winesap, with higher color. White Pearmain is primarily adapted to coastal sections, but an excellent variety for the garden because of its quality. The fruit is medium to large, pale greenish in color, usually with one side blushed red. The flesh is tender and juicy, very mildly subacid, and of excellent flavor. Its storage season is from October to January. Winesap is another old favorite of wide renown because of its fine quality and excellent storage characteristics. The fruit tends to be small, but is well colored; the flesh is firm and juicy. It ripens in the fall, and may be kept through the following April. Yellow Newtown is most widely grown in the coastal districts. It is valuable for its storage qualities. The fruit is medium to large, roundish to flattened, green to yellow, with considerable russetting at the stem end. The flesh is firm and sweet, being good for dessert use and for cooking. Properly stored, this late-ripening fruit may be kept into the following May. COASTAL REGIONS

Alexander is an early, large, beautifully striped apple of uniform shape. The flesh is rather coarse, though good for cooking. Golden Delicious, described above, also does well in the coastal regions. Grimes (Grimes Golden) is a variety of excellent quality for the

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garden. The fruit is medium, roundish, with flattened ends. The skin is a clear yellow. The flesh is sweet, firm, quite mild, and aromatic. The fruit matures in fall and early winter; it keeps very well, and is esteemed as both a dessert and culinary apple. The tree requires favorable growing conditions, so that the variety does not do well everywhere. Gravenstein is the justly famous variety of California's northcoast apple district; it is brilliantly red-striped over a deep yellow skin. The flesh is crisp and aromatic; the flavor is good. It ripens in summer, and is not a late-keeping variety. The fruit may be used for dessert purposes or for cooking. In areas where Gravensteins do well they are so readily available in season that you may wish to use your garden space for some other variety. Mcintosh, possibly the most famous apple of the United States, is bright red, medium to large, and nearly round. The flesh is snowwhite, tender, subacid, and of high quality. It ripens in the fall, and will not hold too well in storage because it is quite tender. The tree is more subject to many diseases than some other varieties. This is an excellent apple for the garden if good care is given. Yellow Newtown is a widely grown variety in all coastal districts. It has been described in the preceding section. CALIFORNIA INTERIOR VALLEYS

Golden Delicious does reasonably well, and is recommended. In these regions it is a summer apple. It is described under Cold Regions. Gravenstein, described in the preceding section, does reasonably well in the interior valleys. Red Astrachan bears medium-sized fruit, somewhat irregular in shape. The skin is red striped. The flesh is juicy and rather acid. It is an acceptable dessert variety and good for cooking. It matures in July. Yellow Transparent is medium to large, nearly round, and greenish to whitish-yellow, often lightly blushed on one side. The flesh is tender, somewhat acid, but of good quality for cooking. Its season is from mid-June to mid-July. SOUTHERN

CALIFORNIA

At elevations around 2,500 feet or higher, varieties listed for either the cold regions or the coastal areas will be found satisfactory, although at the higher elevations spring frosts may prove limiting. At the lower elevations varieties with high chilling requirements

99 should be avoided; these are Rome Beauty, Red Rome, and Winesap. At still lower elevations, and on the valley floors, an apple tree is not advised. If desired, however, Beverly Hills, Delicious, White Pearmain, and Winter Banana will perform better than other varieties. Crab apples do well (see p. 136). Beverly Hills is a small to medium apple, splashed and striped red over a light yellow skin. The flesh is tender, subacid, and of excellent quality; it somewhat resembles Mcintosh. This variety is definitely best suited to the cooler coastal locations of southern California; in warmer areas it will not develop its characteristic good quality. Delicious is described in earlier sections. White Pearmain is described under Cold Regions. Winter Banana is a large-fruited variety of exceptional, fragile beauty. The color is pale, with a waxy finish, and one side is usually blushed a delicate pink. The flesh is tender, mildly subacid, with a distinctive aroma; the quality is good. It ripens in late fall. Western Fruits

DESERT

No apple variety can be recommended for the low desert regions, but all varieties described above can be grown through the high desert areas. Pollination

Requirements

Some varieties, such as Yellow Transparent, Grimes, Yellow Newtown, Rome Beauty, and Red Rome, are usually self-fruitful. Other varieties, such as Red Astrachan, Golden Delicious, and Jonathan, are partially self-fruitful but set better crops if the individual variety is cross-pollinated with another one. The following varieties are largely self-unfruitful—that is, they will not usually set a crop of fruit unless they are cross-pollinated: Gravenstein, Mcintosh, Delicious, Richared, Starking, Stayman Winesap, Blaxtayman, Staymared, White Pearmain, Winesap, and Winter Banana. None of the following varieties can be used as a pollinator because they produce infertile pollen: Gravenstein, Stayman Winesap, Blaxtayman, Staymared, and Winesap. The other varieties may be used for pollination purposes. Varieties that need cross-pollination must have the pollinator bloom at the same time. The varieties are segregated here as to the time of bloom. Early blooming: Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Gravenstein, and Mcintosh.

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Western Fruit Gardening

Midseason blooming: Grimes, Yellow Newtown, Golden Delicious, Jonathan, Delicious, Richared, Starking, Stayman Winesap, Blaxtayman, Staymared, White Pearmain, Winesap, and Winter Banana. Late blooming: Benoni, Rome Beauty, and Red Rome. If a pollinator is required for a single tree, you may wish to graft it into your desired variety as a single branch; methods for doing this are given on pages 64-75. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of common apple varieties are used as rootstocks. Because the rootstocks were formerly imported from France they are known as French apple seedlings. Seedlings of other apple species are generally not entirely satisfactory for common apples. In areas with very cold winters, Virginia crab apple and seedlings of Malus baccata are sometimes used because they are more resistant to cold, and seem to impart some of this resistance to the trunk and lower branches of the top variety. Not all apple varieties do well on these roots, and it is seldom cold enough on the west coast to profit from their use. A few vegetatively propagated rootstocks are sometimes used for resistance to certain soil-borne diseases and insects, and for the production of dwarf and semidwarf trees. Seedlings of these rootstocks cannot be used because they do not often retain the favorable characteristic of the parent. Dwarfing and semidwarfing rootstocks are discussed on pages 77-78. Rooted Northern Spy and Spy 227, a more vigorous seedling of Northern Spy, are resistant to woolly apple aphid. Varieties topworked onto other apple varieties on Spy 227 sometimes carry a latent virus which may cause the tree to die. Virginia crab apple is resistant to at least one collar rot organism; and quince, on which Winter Banana alone is known to be reasonably compatible, is more resistant to damage by wet soil conditions than apple rootstocks. The vegetative apple rootstocks mentioned here are propagated by stool or trench layering, are relatively expensive if procured from a nursery, and are not often available. Apple trees topworked to any of the above rootstocks can be successfully topworked to other apple varieties. Double working may be used to produce a more dwarfed tree on a standard stock, by topworking the stock to one of the dwarfing kinds and then to an edible variety. The intermediate piece need be only a few inches long. Such trees are usually less dwarfed than if grown directly upon dwarfing rootstocks. The value of the many ornamental crab apple species as rootstocks

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has not been fully determined; usually they will not be as satisfactory as the apple rootstocks mentioned above. Apple and pear, though closely related, will not serve as rootstocks for each other, nor can one be topworked to the other. The rare exceptions to this can be disregarded. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Apple trees do best on deep, well-drained clay loams to loams, but, with extra cultural care, shallow or sandy soils are adequate. Apple trees usually respond only to applications of nitrogen, which should be supplied if terminal shoot growth is less than 6 to 10 inches. Mature trees will require an application giving about 1 pound of actual nitrogen per standard tree. Young trees take less; /4 to /2 pound of actual nitrogen should be sufficient. Dwarf trees should receive about M pound of ammonium sulfate or its equivalent of other nitrogenous fertilizer. W a t e r Requirements

Because apples are grown commercially in areas with cool summers and rather high winter rainfall, many orchards are not irrigated. Under other conditions, the apple requires as much water as other trees, and in garden locations should be watered just as thoroughly and as often as any other fruit plant. Pruning

Young Trees.—The height of the trunk is determined when the tree is first planted, and should be somewhat higher than for stone fruits; a height of 30 to 36 inches is recommended. The main trunk should be left high enough so that about 8 inches intervene between the main scaffolds, with the lowest branch not too near the ground. If you want to place the tree in a lawn, you may want to train it to a central leader, as discussed on page 49. The pruning of the young apple tree follows closely the pattern outlined on page 51. At two to four years a few more branches may be developed than are recommended in the general discussion on training. Also, branches developing toward the inside of the tree may be left without harm, as long as they are not too numerous, or do not shade out nearly all growth through the lower part of the tree. After about four years, pruning will consist mainly of cutting out extra growth and crossing or interfering branches. Apple trees may also be conveniently trained by the delayed open center method described on page 49. The early training by this method is the same as for the central leader type of training. When

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the tree approaches full size, the top is opened by cutting the leader back to a strong lateral branch. Bearing Trees.—Most of the crop is produced terminally on spurs developed from wood two years old or older, although a few varieties produce some fruit terminally on shoots. Spurs normally begin to form after three to five years, or when the young tree naturally tends to slacken its vegetative growth. It is essential to maintain a proper balance between vegetative growth and fruit production. Excessive fruit production is accompanied by less growth and, if continued, may destroy vigor. The ideal condition is for the trees to make 6 to 10 inches of new growth annually. Light crops and a large amount of vegetative growth would indicate that previous pruning practices have been too severe. Such trees should receive very little pruning. In districts where mildew is prevalent, it is a common practice to remove the tips of infected branches. Pruning Old Trees.—Trees producing heavy crops of small-sized fruit, or trees not making 6 or more inches of new wood growth yearly, require somewhat heavier pruning than strong-growing ones in order to secure the desirable amount of new growth and to maintain the vigor of the fruiting spurs. Combined with moderately heavy thinning-out of the weaker branches and spurs, such pruning may aid in rejuvenating an old tree. Fruit T h i n n i n g

Apples are often grown without thinning, but to insure quality fruit of good size thinning will be found to be very profitable, especially following heavy fruit sets. It is difficult to tell just when to thin apples. A few weeks after fruit has set there may be a noticeable drop of fruit, the June drop, which is a natural occurrence. Thinning soon after this drop is usually most efficient in regulating the crop, and still early enough to insure a good response. Apples may be thinned to a distance of 6 to 8 inches apart. Another method is to thin off all fruit on every other spur, or to leave fruit on one spur and remove those on the next two in working out on a branch. Leave plenty of room for fruit to develop. Unless the set is very light, break up all clusters, leaving only a single fruit. This aids in growing clean fruit, as two touching afford a good spot for diseases or insects to attack. Thinning is usually done by hand, but a pole tipped with a short length of rubber hose may be used to knock off the young fruits.

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Newer methods of thinning involve chemical spraying of blossoms or young fruit. These methods may not be of as much practical use to you as they are to the commercial orchardist, yet some amateurs who like to experiment in the application of new techniques may well want to try them. For details concerning these sprays see page 59. Harvesting and Handling Many varieties of apples tend to drop badly just before they are mature enough for normal harvest. A considerable portion of the crop may fall; such fruit is usually bruised or cut, and its useful life is greatly reduced. Many commercial compounds are available which greatly reduce or stop this drop. Most varieties respond to sprays containing naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), but Winesap and Mcintosh do not. The drop of Winesap is readily controlled by sprays containing 2,4-D at 10 p.p.m. Sprays containing 2,4,5-T not only reduce preharvest drop, but seem to impart better color to many apple varieties. Read the fine print on the preharvest drop spray you buy to see which chemical is used. In applying these sprays, follow the given directions exactly. The sprays are usually applied a few days before the time the fruit is expected to ripen, or just as the preharvest drop becomes evident. The effect of the spray lasts for periods of 5 to 20 days or longer. Just because the apples are staying on the tree does not mean that they should not be picked at the usual time of maturity. Apples remaining on the tree beyond their usual picking date become mealy and of poor quality. The following considerations are of importance in determining the time to harvest. Apples approaching maturity may be broken from the spur easily. They will usually undergo some color change; yellow varieties will change from grass-green to a lighter or more yellowish tone; red-colored varieties will show full color development but this may vary from season to season, so is not an absolute test. If the flesh is crisp, sharply acid, and with some of the characteristic flavor of the variety it is ready to harvest. There should be no starchy taste. The flesh will also show some softening; you can feel it give under pressure of your thumb. Wormy fruit—if you are unfortunate enough to have some—will ripen first, and show the full-ripe condition when sound fruits are at the proper stage. Do not pull or twist an apple in removing it from the tree. Bend it upward with a quick motion to break it cleanly from the spur.

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Improper harvesting will tear spurs and may injure the fruit so that it will not keep well. Where cold-storage facilities are not available, late-ripening apples may be held several weeks if kept in a cool place with a relatively high humidity, necessary to prevent excessive moisture loss and shriveling of the fruit. Winter varieties, such as Yellow Newtown and Winesap, can be kept until April or May. Stored apples readily pick up odors, so take care to keep them from other products, or molds, that produce off-flavors. Covering the boxes will help. Diseases and Pests The apple requires attention every year to keep some of the more serious diseases and pests in check; others may occur but rarely. Among the most serious diseases of apples, which require annual spray programs—sometimes several sprays each season—are apple scab and powdery mildew. The first causes black, sooty spots on leaves and fruit; the second a white powdery fungus on the foliage. Each can be controlled by properly timed sprays. Fungus diseases of apples are a good deal more troublesome in humid climates; in dry climates the attacks may be so light that you can ignore them. Codling moth is the most serious insect pest of apples, and worms appear in the fruit wherever it is grown. While serious, this insect, too, can be readily controlled by proper sprays; generally two or three a year are sufficient. Among other pests particularly troublesome on apples are aphids, mites, scales and small boys. These, however, may need attention only occasionally to keep them under control.

APRICOT Prunus armeniaca

L.

Apricots can be grown throughout the West except at high altitudes or regions where late spring frosts are likely to destroy the flowers or young fruits. The early blooming habit of the apricot limits its range to locations somewhat milder than for peaches. Within this range, the apricot is not so well adapted to areas with high summer temperatures as is the peach, for the fruits are subject to heat damage at temperatures most other fruits endure without harm. Especially favored areas for apricots are the coastal valleys of central California, especially near San Francisco Bay, and eastern Washington. However, the limitations imposed by high summer temperatures are not so rigorous as to exclude apricots from gardens except in the low desert regions. The apricot has a chilling requirement very similar to that of peach; in areas with mild winters only a few varieties do well. In cool, humid, coastal districts the fruit will not reach high quality, and both tree and fruit may be subject to diseases not common in warmer localities. Varieties

Royal and Blenheim have lost their separate identities, and are discussed here as one variety. The fruit is of excellent quality; when well thinned, it reaches medium to fairly large size. The flesh is thick, aromatic, with a yellow to yellowish-orange color; the flavor is sweet and sprightly; the texture is firm when the fruit is fully ripe. Tilton fruit ripens a little later than Royal, and is less flavorful. Fruits are medium to large when well thinned. This variety is less subject to brown rot, but more subject to the effect of high winter temperatures than Royal, and sometimes tends to bear only every other year. Franciscan is quite similar to Tilton, but has a deeper-colored flesh, and seems to be more resistant to pit-burn (browning around the pit) than any other variety listed. It is recommended for the 105

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hot interior valleys of California, wherever pit-burn discourages the use of Royal. Moorpark is generally conceded to have the finest quality of all apricots. The flavor is sweet, rich, and plum-like. The very large fruits are best used fresh; they are not suitable for canning. The flesh is yellowish orange, sometimes slightly fibrous, and is covered by a dull skin often spotted or slightly blushed with red where exposed to the sun. Fruits characteristically ripen unevenly, one side being green ripe while the other is soft. They become very soft when fully ripe—about seven to ten days after Royal. This variety does not bear well where winters are too warm to break the rest period, and is not adapted to Arizona. It does best in the Northwest and in the coastal valleys of central California. Hemskirke is similar to Moorpark in all respects except that it is slightly less flavorful. Wenatchee (Wenatchee Moorpark) is a large, oval, compressed fruit with orange-yellow skin and flesh. It is the main variety in the Northwest apricot districts, but is not grown in California. The variety does not have the high quality of Royal, Moorpark, or Riland, and is included only because of its evident adaptability to Northwest climatic conditions. It matures with or slightly later than Royal. Riland is nearly round, yellowish orange to deep apricot, and covered with a brilliant red blush. The flesh is thick, meaty, and deep orange. It is somewhat fibrous and coarse, but has a rich, plum-like flavor. It matures a few days later than Royal in most localities. Phelps has a large, roundish, orange-yellow fruit, but is recommended only as an early-maturing variety for the Northwest. Perfection is a moderately early variety, maturing about seven to ten days before Royal. It has large, oval to oblong fruits. The skin is yellowish orange to deep orange at full maturity; there is no blush. The flesh is yellowish orange, of rather good quality and texture. This is probably the largest apricot available at present. There is some evidence that it may do well in the Southwest, as it seems to require only moderate chilling. Reeves is an early variety that ripens about one month before Royal in southern California; it is especially suited to warm winter areas. Other and newer varieties may be offered by nurseries and may be worth planting on an experimental basis. Pollination Requirements There is no need for cross-pollination except for Riland, Perfection, and Reeves; each will need another variety in order to set a

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crop. Any other variety among those discussed above will serve adequately, except Reeves, which is pollen-sterile. For Reeves itself use another early-blooming variety, such as Perfection, as a pollinator in the Southwest; any other variety should serve in colder regions. Rootstocks and Topworking

Apricots are commonly propagated on seedlings of peach and apricot, and less commonly on seedlings of myrobalan plum. Myrobalan seedlings are most often used for planting apricots in wet soils, but apricots do not unite well with some and the union may fail as the tree becomes older. In place of myrobalan seedlings, commercial growers often plant rooted Marianna 2624 and bud the desired variety during the first summer. The gardener might do the same. Apricots do well on Marianna 2624; its advantages are given on page 234. Apricot roots are immune to the root-knot nematode, and are a preferred stock. However, if you plan to topwork several species into the tree, S-37 peach might preferably be used as the nematoderesistant root; more kinds of fruits, including apricot, can be topworked to peach than to apricot. If an apricot tree is to be planted in a spot formerly occupied by a fruit tree on peach rootstock, apricot or Marianna rootstock should be preferred, for, no matter what the top species, trees on peach root often do poorly when planted in soil formerly occupied by peach roots. Seedlings of the Western sand cherry, Prunus besseyi, are used to produce semidwarf apricot trees. Apricots can be topworked to all the species mentioned above with good results. This may be done even though the rootstock upon which such a tree is growing is not recommended for apricot, as in the case of peach on almond seedling rootstock. In addition, apricots will be successful when topworked on trees which are never used as rootstocks in this country. These are: ornamental flowering apricots (P. mume and P. dasycarpa); all Japanese plum varieties and Japanese plum hybrids; and European plums, although the trees may not prove entirely satisfactory on a few varieties. The apricot will probably make a satisfactory union with many of our native plums, although there are no detailed observations on these combinations. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Apricots grow best on fine-textured soils (loams and clay loams) and do well on sandier soils. Avoid poorly drained soils and those

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underlain with shallow hardpans. Soils with high salt concentrations should also be avoided as they will almost inevitably result in poor tree growth. Apricots respond to nitrogen applications, at least as the trees become older. But it is not wise to get apricot trees into too vigorous a vegetative condition, for the fruit will be soft and will ripen unevenly. Nitrogenous fertilizers are equally effective when applied on the basis of equal nitrogen content. Ammonium sulfate is commonly applied at the rate of 2 to 7 pounds per tree, based on tree age, size, or need. Applying fertilizer immediately after harvest minimizes the deleterious effect on the fruit. Water Requirements

Under most conditions the apricot requires three to five irrigations per dry season. Pruning

The apricot is trained to a vase shape as described on pages 50-55. It is pruned, during its formative years and as a mature tree, more heavily than most spur-bearing fruit trees. Do not be afraid to cut out two-year or older branches that gradually bend downward as the tree develops. Cut them to an upward growing branch, or remove them entirely. If the tree starts to lose the spurs in the lower branches, and no new shoots form there, heavier pruning through the top is indicated. This should be done by cutting out some of the branches, not simply by cutting all back more heavily. Fruit Thinning

As the apricot usually sets too much fruit, it should be thinned severely when the fruit is about an inch in diameter. Trees that overbear may set little or no fruit the following year. Also, unless the trees are vigorous and have been kept well watered, the fruits will be very small. Blossom spray thinning is sometimes quite successful, as noted on page 59. Harvesting and Handling

The apricot develops its delectable characteristics when fully ripe on the tree. A single tree will mature its fruits over a period of about three weeks. If you wish to can or store any of the fruit, pick when it is firm ripe and before it has developed its typical apricot skin color. When stored in a cool place, the fruits will keep fairly satisfactorily

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for another three or four weeks, but will not have the sprightliness of tree-ripened apricots. Diseases and Pests

Brown rots are almost certain to develop on apricots, attacking both blossoms and fruits, especially in humid weather. They can be controlled by one or two properly timed sprays in the spring. The fruit rot is the more difficult to subdue, and it may prove impossible to protect all the fruit. Shot-hole fungus sometimes mars the fruits and produces numerous small holes in the leaves—hence the name. Sprays will control the trouble. Few insects are harmful to apricot; codling moth and twig borers may infest the fruit in considerable numbers, but in most places this will not be true. Apricots are quite subject to damage from wet soils. The roots are well liked by gophers, and the trees succumb to oak-root fungus. Zinc deficiency is found to be serious in some places. In the Northwest, trees are occasionally found to be infected with the ring-pox virus, which seriously marks the fruit. Other diseases and pests occur but sporadically, and rarely need control measures.

AVOCADOS Persea

species

The avocados grown in the Southwest are native to the warm climates of the countries south of the border. Avocados grow best in areas where the temperature does not fall much below freezing. This fact limits their culture almost entirely to southern California. There, the best districts are found some distance inland from the coast, where the trees are protected from the chilling breezes directly off the ocean, yet are subject to the humid coastal atmosphere. In Arizona only almost completely frost-free areas can be utilized for avocados. Because avocados are so different from other tree fruits, they are much sought after by gardeners even far removed from the avocado belt in southern California. Thus they have been tried in many localities in northern California. They have fruited successfully in the San Francisco Bay region and also inland, near the coastal range. However, in such locations the trees have been killed back by frosts in quite a few seasons, so that raising them for fruit is rather hazardous. Most varieties mature satisfactorily in climates that are too cool for grapefruits and mandarins to develop even acceptable flavor. Mild frost damage may blacken the fibers in the flesh but will not impair the flavor. Severe frost damage will cause the flesh to brown, with resulting loss of flavor, or the fruit may be killed outright. The leaves and shoot ends will turn black, yet if the injury is not too severe, young growth may start before the old leaves have fallen. Trees that are well cared for, that is, trees well supplied with water and all nutrients, generally survive cold waves. Cool weather during the bloom period may reduce or cause complete failure of fruit set. After fruit set sudden hot spells often cause serious drop of young fruits. 110

Western Fruits

111

Varieties

Avocados have been classed into two species, Persea americana Mill., the Guatemalan and West Indian races, and P. drymifolia Cham. & Schlecht., the Mexican race. Some varieties are hybrids between these two species. The recent tendency is to subordinate the Mexican race to a botanical variety of the other species, as P. americana var. drymifolia, with the Guatemalan and West Indian races still bearing the scientific name of P. americana. The botanical variety is a much larger class than the pomological or horticultural variety discussed in this book. Each race of avocado has its own varieties. The fruits vary from very small to extremely large, and have green, purple, or brown skin which may be smooth or very rough. The oil content varies considerably, as does the time of maturity. The higher the oil content, the better the quality of the fruit, as a general rule. You can have ripe fruits throughout the entire year by selecting even as few as two varieties. The following table gives the ripening periods of recommended varieties, as well as other information. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of Guatemalan and Mexican races of avocados or hybrids of them are used as rootstocks. Rootstocks of the Mexican race are supposed to give a combination somewhat more resistant to frost; the West Indian race is not used because it is so susceptible to frost. Avocados may be propagated by leafy cuttings, but only with great difficulty, and the method is not recommended, for no benefits are to be gained. All varieties can be topworked to Persea species normally available to west coast growers. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Avocado trees grow well on a wide range of soils, from fine sands to silt loams. But they do best on medium-textured ones, with a depth of not less than 3 feet. Garden sites with good drainage are essential. Hardpans and clay subsoils are most likely to interfere with water movement and cause poor soil aeration. The presence of such layers can be determined with the use of a soil auger or post hole digger. On sites not entirely satisfactory, the installation of drains (see p. 17) may be helpful. Avocado trees require very little fertilization. As long as young trees make good annual growth, there is no need to apply nitroge-

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113 nous fertilizers. If necessary to apply nitrogen to older trees, use about 1/2 pounds of actual nitrogen per tree. Other fertilizer elements have not been found to be needed in areas where avocados are grown. Western Fruits

Water Requirements

Avocado roots are distributed largely in the top 3 feet of soil, and that soil should not be allowed to dry. Avocado trees are extremely sensitive to excess water; over-irrigation must be avoided on heavy soils, or on soils with poor drainage. Trees growing in the hot interior districts will require more water than those in the coastal areas. The only satisfactory method to determine moisture conditions is to examine the soil to a depth of at least 4 feet. This may be done with a soil auger, soil tube, or by digging with a shovel. It is important to irrigate young trees immediately after planting, by making a basin 3 feet in diameter and 6 inches deep, around the tree. If available, place well-rotted manure in the basin to act as a mulch; otherwise, leaves and grass may be used. Then fill the basin with water. Water young trees frequently during the first two years —about once every 10 to 12 days during the dry season, for average soil. Older avocado trees should be allowed to exhaust as much of the soil moisture as possible without causing the tree to wilt. This insures good soil aeration. Water avocados well, but not too frequently. In hot weather avocado leaves may wilt even though the soil is wet. If wilting occurs in the cool part of the day, the tree is fairly certain to be suffering from lack of water. Pruning

There are no definite rules for pruning avocado trees. In general, pruning may follow the wishes of the gardener. Most varieties normally have a spreading growth habit; if the lower branches are in the way, prune them off or cut back to an upward-growing shoot at the desired height after the tree has developed sufficient foliage above. Fruit Thinning

There is no need to thin avocados unless the fruit set is so much on one or more branches that breakage might occur, or unless the crop is so very great that it might drain the tree of too many reserve foods.

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Harvesting and Handling

Avocado fruits do not soften on the tree, and it is difficult to tell when the fruit is ripe. If the fruit softens without shrivelling after picking, it is mature. On dark-skinned varieties the skin is fairly well colored when the fruits are ready for harvesting. Green-skinned fruits are usually ready to pick when the brightness begins to lessen, turning to a slight yellowish tint. The seeds harden and the seedcoat becomes dry and papery as maturity approaches. The fruits are clipped from the tree. Do not pull them off for the loss of the button, or pedicel, is almost certain to result in decay. Since the fruits are very tender, they must be handled carefully. Allow them to soften at room temperature. Diseases and Pests

Several pests and diseases may occur sporadically. Vigorously growing trees seldom suffer seriously, and such troubles are usually easily brought under control. Possibly the most serious trouble is decline and collapse of the tree brought on by wet soils. This trouble may cause tree death in a very short time, and nothing can be done. See particularly the discussion of watering avocado trees for information aimed at avoiding the occurrence of decline and collapse.

BLACKBERRIES Rubus species

Blackberry culture, as treated here, includes trailing blackberries and dewberries, and the upright or bush forms; all are blackberries and are discussed as such. Though blackberries may be grown in most regions of the Western states, there are some climatic limitations to their successful culture, and they do not perform equally well in all areas where the plants can be grown without difficulty. Blackberries do best in regions with cool, fairly humid summer climates; at the same time most varieties are definitely susceptible to winter injury in the colder areas of the West, such as the high elevations of eastern Washington and Oregon, and the high desert regions. The canes can be protected to some degree (see p. 116). In areas where summer day temperatures are very high the vines do poorly, are short-lived, relatively unproductive, and the berries are poor. The ideal climate for blackberries is in western Oregon and Washington, and the more humid sections of the north coast of California. Even so, the gardener in eastern Washington and Oregon, the interior valleys, mountains, and coasts of California, and in southern California will be well repaid to include blackberries in the garden. Possibly only in the low desert regions will blackberry-growing be discouraging. Varieties

Trailing sorts must be trellised, and are described first. They are recommended for all Western gardens where adapted. Boysen is a favorite because of its unusually high yield and superior quality. It is used fresh, canned, and frozen. The berries are reddish, and most are about 1H inches long and 1 inch in diameter, with a sweet taste and delightful aroma. The berries carry a dusty bloom, so are not shiny. They are very juicy, yielding about a gallon of juice for each 10 pounds of fruit. The picking season in southern California is from late May through June; in the interior valleys of central California from late May to late June; along California's north coast in June and July. 115

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Boysen ripens later in western Oregon and Washington, from midJune through July in Oregon and late June and early July in Washington. Logan and Thornless Logan are more tart than most other blackberries, so they are especially adapted to processing and baking. The fruit is about the same length as Boysen, but of smaller diameter and light reddish in color, not darkening when full ripe. The berries are dull, because of the fine hairs. The fruit ripens in the same season as Boysen. The thornless form is not as satisfactory as the regular form in the Northwest, but the advantage of thornlessness will recommend it to some. Himalaya is extremely vigorous, the plants producing canes 20 to 30 feet long in any one season; in addition the plants are long-lived. One bush may prove more than enough for a limited garden planting. An unattractive feature of Himalaya is the large, strong, very numerous spines which arm the canes, making handling and harvesting difficult. The berries are not large, are round, jet black, and shiny; the quality is excellent for all purposes. This variety is especially adapted to the central and north-coast regions of California. The fruit matures from mid-July through September in these areas, giving a long harvest season. Young and Thornless Young are similar to Boysen in most respects, but the varieties do not produce as well; their season is from 7 to 10 days earlier, however. The berries may be told from those of Boysen because they are shiny. The thornless form is usually somewhat inferior to the regular type; Young is not generally preferred over Boysen. Cascade berries are of medium size, soft, and difficult to handle, but the flavor is excellent and they are recommended for the gardens of the Northwest. Cascade matures earlier than the varieties above. The variety has not been grown in California. Nectar is quite similar to Boysen in all respects. The above varieties may be grown in eastern Washington valley districts if the canes are given protection during the winter; leaving them on the ground and covering with a straw mulch is usually adequate. No trailing blackberry varieties are recommended for eastern Oregon because of their lack of winter hardiness. The varieties listed below are best only when grown in western Washington and Oregon; they are not recommended for planting in other areas. Evergreen and Thornless Evergreen are highly productive, very

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vigorous bushes especially adapted to heavy soils. The season is August and September. The thornless form is similar to the regular one. Olympic is similar to Young and matures in July and August. The varieties described below are upright forms; their requirements are somewhat different from those of the trailing forms, especially in regard to pruning. These kinds are not recommended for California, but can be grown in gardens of western Washington and Oregon; they are too tender for the eastern regions of these states, except the warmest valley locations of eastern Washington. All mature in June and July in the Northwest. Eldorado bears firm berries of large and attractive appearance, with excellent quality. The bushes are vigorous and productive, and the variety is somewhat hardier than others in this class. Mesereau bears large, long, firm berries of high quality. It is an old variety of proven merit. Snyder is a newer variety of this class. Rootstocks

All blackberries are propagated on their own roots by layering or suckers. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Blackberries do best in a deep soil of medium texture. Soils less than 4 to 6 feet deep require especial care in irrigation to keep the plants healthy and productive. A soil which becomes saturated with water will quickly kill the roots of the plants. The best soil is one which dries out quickly on the surface. The bushes need frequent irrigation, and need to be picked over every few days. Saline soils are particularly harmful. Applications of nitrogen, but of no other fertilizer element, have been found beneficial to established plants in some areas. Newly set plants are easily injured by chemical fertilizers or fresh manures, and usually do not require fertilization. Amounts for established plantings vary between and 1 pound of ammonium sulfate per bush, depending upon the soil type and native fertility; light soils usually require the larger amounts. Other nitrogenous fertilizers are used in proportion to their nitrogen content. Application of the prescribed amount is usually split into two or three separate fertilizations. The first, applied before spring growth, is aimed at increasing foliage and set of fruit. The second, made in midspring, is designed to cause vigorous

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growth of the new canes. A third may be given in midsummer to assist the bushes in forming a goodly number of blossoms in the next fruiting season. Fertilizers should be applied in such manner that they are quickly dissolved and carried into the soil by the irrigation water; they should be spread around the plant for a distance of 3 or 4 feet, for the roots will explore a wide area of soil. Water

Requirements

Blackberry bushes need frequent irrigation, especially in the warmer sections; at the same time, care should be taken to water so that the soil does not become saturated. This is especially true on shallow soils. Irrigation should extend over a considerable area around the bush. Sprinklers may be used without harming the ripening fruit. Pruning, Trellising, a n d Winter C a r e

Blackberries require special pruning methods not covered in Part I. The fruit is borne on canes which are produced annually, but the cane which produces fruit in any year develops during the previous season. The canes need to be supported on trellises.

TWO-WIRE BLACKBERRY TRELLIS

New plants should have the woody canes pruned out when planted; if the plants are weak this operation is delayed, and the flowers on the older canes are removed when they appear the first season. Thereafter, to secure the greatest yield, the bushes need annual pruning; this operation is intimately related to the operation of trellising. Trailing Blackberries.—As no fruit will be produced during the first growing season, the vegetative canes are pruned during July or August, following the same principles as will be used in future seasons for the non-fruiting canes. Either of two methods is used. For bushes planted 4 to 6 feet apart the usual method is to fan

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out the canes along the trellis (see below for dimensions of the trellis), cutting them to about 7 to 8 feet long. The canes are woven among the trellis wires and tied to them. If the bushes are planted at a greater distance apart, about 8 feet, the common method is to head the canes at 10 feet or more, and then to twist them in a loose spiral around the trellis wires. Avoid sharp bends which will break the canes. Each year thereafter the new vegetative canes, which trail along the ground up to the time of training, are handled in the same manner. In addition, during the fall, short vegetative branches from these canes are headed to about 15 inches long. The canes so pruned will bear the fruit crop the next year. Pruning is thereafter performed just after the crop has been harvested. The canes which have just finished fruiting are then cut off at the ground surface and removed from the trellis. The new vegetative canes, which are trailing the ground, are pruned and put up on the trellis in the manner described. Upright or Bush Blackberries.—The canes of these forms do not grow so long, and are generally carried upright, though they may need some support. Vegetative canes of the current season are headed when they reach a height of 4 to 6 feet—depending upon the vigor of growth—and the lateral branches developing from these canes are usually headed at 15 to 18 inches. On these will be borne the crop the next season. Fruiting canes are removed at the ground after harvest and they should be destroyed to aid in disease and pest control. Trellising.—The simplest supports are trellises composed of either two or three wires. Firmly set redwood posts of sufficient strength to support the tightly stretched wire are needed for the end posts— 6 " x 8 " or 8 " x 8 " posts. Supporting posts between these are 2" x 2 " redwood stakes set between every second or third bush. The top wire of the trellis, about 4% feet above the ground, should rest on top of the posts. You may find other methods of anchoring the ends of the wires, thereby doing away with the large end posts. Number 12 or 13 galvanized wire is used, tacked to each stake, and secured at the end posts. For a two-wire trellis the lower wire is placed 3 feet or less from the ground, and the upper at the top of the posts. A three-wire trellis carries the lowest wire 2 feet or less from the ground, the middle about 3 feet or a little over, and the topmost on the stakes. Do not be discouraged by the complications of building a trellis. It is the most convenient support, but not the only one which can be used. Canes can be trained against a fence, a pergola, or other

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support to which they can be tied. Or they can be trained up a single post set near the bush, using wire loops to control the canes. Upright blackberry canes may need some support to keep them from breaking over, but it is only necessary to tie them to a stake, or to support the canes between two parallel wires at a convenient height. There is no need for tying the canes to wires, or training them along them. Harvesting and Handling

Blackberries develop maximum flavor and sugar content at maturity, indicated by their turning from a reddish to a blackish-red color. Because the fruits are tender, they must be handled with care when picked. Diseases and Pests

Blackberries are subject to numerous pests and diseases which may develop to more or less severe proportions in established plantings. They are likely to be more numerous, troublesome, and difficult in humid areas. One disease the gardener should note is the blackberry mite, attacks of which prevent all or parts of the berries from ripening. As these mites are very small, it is easy to overlook the causal agent. A few properly timed sprays and clean garden culture will go a long way toward alleviating the attacks of the many diseases and pests. Blackberries are subject to a few serious viruses, but some are resistant to particular ones. Affected bushes can only be destroyed.

BLUEBERRY

Vaccinium corymbosum L. The newer varieties of blueberries, all of the highbush species, produce extremely large fruits (up to the size of a dime) of excellent flavor. Their culture is limited by two factors, climate and soil. They all form bushes which are long-lived, and present no serious cultural problems other than that of soil. The neat growing habit of these bushes makes them fine for ornamentals, as their foliage is glossy and turns to autumnal colors in the fall. Huckleberries are often confused with blueberries. Quite often the "huckleberries" you see in the markets are fruits of wild blueberry species. Blueberries, in cross section, have ten locules in which the soft, inconspicuous seeds are borne. Huckleberries have four or five locules, in each of which are two large, hard, bony seeds. Both wild huckleberries (Vaccinium ovatum) and wild blueberries (V. occidentale) are found growing along the Pacific Coast. The former are found along the coast, whereas the latter are found inland, high in the Sierra Nevada and Cascades. Blueberries require a cool summer climate for best development. Therefore, their culture is limited to the coastal regions of the Northwest; they do best in western Washington. Because of their unique characteristics the gardener in warmer sections may wish to experiment with them if he can meet the exacting soil requirements. They might do well in partial shade in such areas. Varieties

Dixi berries are very large (the newer named varieties are much larger than the wild blueberry or huckleberry), aromatic, and of good quality. The color is medium blue. The bushes are spreading, open, and very productive. Atlantic is another large, firm-fleshed variety of better than average quality. The bushes are open and productive. Rubel is a favorite, ripening early in July; the average-sized berries are medium blue, and of good, though rather tart flavor. 121

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Concord berries are large, medium blue, and of excellent flavor. Concord is a midseason variety, ripening in July. Stanley is also midseason in ripening; the berries are attractive, light blue, with a rich flavor. The bush is productive and vigorous. Jersey is a late-maturing variety, ripening toward the end of July and into August in the Northwest. The berries are large and dark blue; the bush is very productive. Rootstocks

Blueberries are propagated on their own roots by means of softwood cuttings, or hardwood cuttings with more difficulty. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Blueberries are adapted to many soil types if they are acid; even neutral soils will not support them. Most soil types are suitable if they are made acid enough. Soils may be acidified by applying aluminum sulfate to the surface of the soil each year at the rate of a halfpound to a square yard of soil. Some chemical fertilizers produce an acid reaction in the soil, for example, ammonium sulfate, sulfate of potash, and acid phosphate. Sulfur combined with ammonium sulfate would probably be more effective in acidifying the soil (lowering the pH). If the pH is above 5.8, the bushes may be mottled-chlorotic, with yellow leaves, indicating a need for more iron. If the pH is 5.8 or below, the iron in the soil becomes more readily available to the plants. If considered desirable, manure may be applied at a safe interval— three months—before planting the bushes. Apply additional amounts of manure yearly for the organic matter contained in it. Blueberries are particularly susceptible to fertilizer injury the first season after planting; at this time it is best to omit fertilizers. A soil composed of half sand and half peat or rotted leaves may be used to grow blueberries in tubs or beds. Water Requirements

Excellent drainage is essential for the growth of blueberries. Do not allow the water to remain on the surface of the soil for any length of time. Too much water, particularly during the growing season, can be more injurious than insufficient water. Irrigate these shallowrooted bushes lightly but often. Pruning

During the first two years after planting, blueberry bushes need only a light thinning out of the weaker branches. These are cut at

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the crown. All flowering shoots should be cut back to insure good vegetative growth. On plants three or more years old, remove short, weak shoots that tend to crowd the stronger, more vigorous ones. Cut off branches that are nearly horizontal, as the weight of the blueberries will drag them to the ground. Some varieties produce many fruit buds in relation to the number of leaf buds. Shoots of these varieties should be cut back one-half to two-thirds in order to balance fruiting with vegetative growth. Harvesting and Handling

Full production is generally reached in six to ten years. The berries ripen over a long period, some six or seven weeks. All the berries in one cluster do not ripen at the same time, so select the ripe ones and leave the others for a later picking. Ripe berries will hold on the bush for a week or more without deteriorating. The berries are fairly tender and should be handled carefully. You will probably use them fresh soon after picking. They are satisfactorily quick-frozen. Diseases and Pests

Blueberry is reasonably free of disease and pest troubles, and hence is a very satisfactory garden subject for the gardener who does not want to be bothered with the application of sprays and dusts.

CARISSA Carissa grandiflora

A . DC.

The carissa or Natal plum is a medium to large, evergreen shrub from South Africa, bearing attractive red fruits which develop from fairly large white flowers. It is suitable for use as a low-growing hedge if pruned rather severely, or as a tall hedge of 8 or 10 feet or even more under good growing conditions if allowed to grow naturally. The branches are spiny. Carissa will not withstand more than a few degrees of frost. Temperatures below 26 °F are liable to be damaging. For this reason carissa is limited to the south coast regions, unless it can be well protected against frost. It may also be grown as a house plant. Varieties

In recent years named varieties have been selected from among seedlings grown in California and Florida on the basis of large fruit size (up to 2 inches or so long) and high production of fruit over a long period of time. The shrub bears its main crop from June through October but some fruits are ripening almost continuously during the year. Only a few varieties have been worth naming, Chesley (Alles), Serena, Frank, and Torrey Pines. The first two are most commonly found in nurseries. Pollination Requirements

Chesley, Serena, and Frank bear light crops. Planting another variety or seedling will aid in setting more fruit. Torrey Pines usually bears good crops when planted alone. Even with provision for crosspollination, light and irregular bearing has not been entirely alleviated. Often a variety which does not bear well in one area will produce good crops in another. 124

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Rootstocks and Topworking Varieties are grown on their own roots; propagation is by simple layering and sometimes by cuttings. They may be propagated onto seedling stock by using shield buds. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements The plants do well in nearly every kind of soil, but better in welldrained, well-aerated ones. Not much is known of the nutrient requirements; nitrogen will help if the plants are making weak growth. They are shallow-rooted, so frequent waterings are advisable. Pruning The plants can be pruned to grow as a low hedge of 2 feet or so, as a specimen plant, or as a hedge-row 8 to 10 feet high with corresponding spread. Harvesting and Handling Since the flowers tend to bloom all the year round, you will have a succession of fruit ripening nearly all the time. Pick the fruit when it reaches its characteristic scarlet color. Carissa has a unique flavor and may be eaten fresh when full ripe; if used for sauce, preserves, or jellies, it may be picked somewhat immature. Diseases and Pests Carissa shrubs appear to be remarkably free of diseases and insects. Greenhouse thrips have been observed occasionally.

CHERIMOYA Annona

cherimola

Mill.

This is a delicious, custard-like fruit which may be grown in mild subtropical climates. The tree attains a height and spread of about 20 feet and is characterized by light and irregular bearing. The lightgreen leaves are extremely large, being some 4 to 10 inches long. The trees begin to bear at three or four years of age. The cherimoya develops its best flavor in southern California somewhat inland from the ocean. It does not do well where the summers are hot or the winters frosty. Thus, suitable areas for this fruit are limited. The tree is less resistant to cold than the Eureka lemon, and the young growth may be killed by high summer temperatures. Varieties

Booth, Bays, Chaffey, McPherson, and Ryerson are recently selected varieties. None of these has been observed under all conditions where cherimoyas can grow, so no accurate evaluation of them can be made at this time. Cherimoya fruits vary from % to IK pounds each. The skin of some varieties is not smooth, but has rounded tubercles on it, giving the appearance of overlapping leaves. The flesh is creamy white, containing numerous black seeds about the size of large beans. In highquality fruits, the flesh has a pleasant blend of sweetness and mild acidity all its own. Such are rarely produced except in local areas with just the right climate. Pollination Requirements

One drawback to the successful growing of cherimoyas is that the flowers frequently mature their stamens and pistils at different times, so that it is rare to find a receptive stigma (of the pistil) when the pollen is available. On unpollinated trees, the crop tends to be light and the fruits misshapen because only a few seeds develop. It is usually necessary to hand-pollinate the flowers in order to 126

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produce a good crop. In the afternoon gather some of the newly opened flowers into a small paper bag and hold them overnight or until the pollen sheds from the anthers. Then, with a small camel-hair brush, apply the pollen to the stigmas of freshly opened flowers on the tree. You need not pollinate every flower in order to secure a good yield. The flowers bloom over a fairly long time, so if you want fruits to ripen over an extended period, pollinate at five- to ten-day intervals. The fruits mature some five to eight months after pollination, and longer if pollinated so late that the fruits do not mature before winter. Rootstocks

The cherimoya is propagated by budding or topworking seedlings of cherimoya. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

Cherimoya trees thrive on well-drained, well-aerated soil. Not much information is at hand on nutrition of the trees; it may be assumed, though, that the tree will respond to nitrogen fertilizers. Keep the tree well watered; do not allow the soil to become dry. Pruning

The young tree requires little pruning to develop it into a convenient form for your garden. Moderate annual pruning, consisting of cutting back to lateral branches, is sufficient to keep the tree in bounds. Severe pruning will limit the crop produced in any one year. Harvesting and Handling

The fruits should be harvested when the flesh is soft and melting and the skin color a yellow-green. Since the skin is very thin and tender, cherimoyas must be handled with care both during picking and later. The fruits will keep for seven to ten days if they are harvested when the skin color is grayish or brownish green and when the flesh is firm-ripe. Diseases and Pests

Pests and diseases have not become established on cherimoya in California.

CHERRIES Prunus species Cherry trees are among the most lovely in the world. The ornamental cherry species perhaps hold first place in the hearts of gardeners, but the abundant yield of edible kinds make them desirable garden subjects. Sweet cherries are adapted to an intermediate climatic site; they do not do well where summer temperatures are high, but are also not well adapted to foggy, humid coastal sites. They reach perfection in the valleys of eastern Washington, the river valleys of Oregon, and in areas adjoining San Francisco Bay in California. They are well adapted to the foothill areas of the hot interior valleys of California, up to 2,500 or 3,000 feet, and do reasonably well in the higher mountain areas of southern California. Sweet cherries will withstand considerable winter cold, but are not so hardy as most other stone fruits. They are late blooming and hence tend to suffer a little less from spring frosts; on the other hand buds which have started growth in late winter or early spring are often injured when those of other species escape without damage. Hot summer temperatures are not conducive to good sizing of the fruit, or to development of best quality. More limiting, however, is the susceptibility of sweet cherry trees to sunburn and more serious inroads of disease which follow and often destroy the tree in a few years. Under cool, humid coastal conditions, the trees are subject to inroads of diseases, especially bacterial gummosis, and the flowers and fruit to brown rot. Sweet cherry has a uniformly high chilling requirement, and for this reason no varieties are adapted to the lower elevations of the south coast or to the low desert regions. The sour, pie, or red cherry is an ideal garden tree: it is not as large as the sweet cherry, and is easy to grow. Sour cherries are adapted to more rigorous climates in every respect. In addition, they may do reasonably well even in southern California, for their chilling 128

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requirement is smaller. Therefore, they can be grown everywhere sweet cherries can and in less favored locations as well. Duke cherries, hybrids between sweet and sour cherries, have been especially recommended through the years for the garden, but you may be so accustomed to Bing, Napoleon, or Montmorency that the Dukes may not appeal to you. The Duke type of tree growth is more nearly that of the sweet cherry than of the sour. Dukes are adapted to the same areas as the sweet and sour cherries. Not many nurseries carry the Duke cherries. Varieties have about the same climatic requirements as the sweet cherries. Varieties

The scientific name of the sweet cherry, as well as the mazzard rootstock, is Prunus avium L.; sour, pie, or red cherries belong to P. cerasus L.; and the Duke cherries are hybrids, P. avium x P. cerasus. Sweet Cherries.—These are described in their order of ripening. The times given apply to California; the same varieties ripen approximately a month later in the Northwest. Black Tartarian is the best of the early-maturing cherries, ripening in May. Its fruit is black, large, tender-fleshed, and sweet. This variety is afflicted with crinkle leaf, so try to obtain disease-free trees. Bush Tartarian, known only in California, is in no way related to Black Tartarian. It is a much smaller tree than any of the other sweet cherry varieties. The fruit ripens with Black Tartarian, but is firmer; it more nearly resembles Bing in shape. The tree tends to overbear in many years, resulting in small fruit. Bing is one of the best. It is consistently large; the flesh is firm, meaty, sweet, and with very good flavor. Its season is from May 15 to June 15 in most years in most districts. In hot districts it produces some double fruits in certain years. The tree may be affected by crinkle leaf, but less than Black Tartarian. This variety is one of the best for canning. Napoleon (Royal Ann) is cream-colored with a red blush. The fruit is large, firm, meaty, juicy, and good. This variety is a great deal more susceptible to doubling in hot areas than is Bing. This is the standard for canning—and is brined to make the familiar maraschino cherry. Its season of maturity is the same as for Bing. The tree is moderately vigorous, upright spreading, and very productive, but is rather particular as to soil and climate. Republican (Black Oregon) bears a medium-sized, dark-red cherry; the flesh is firm, meaty, and rich. It is an excellent late-ripening variety. Lambert fruit is large, red to dark red and black, firm, meaty, and

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sweet, with excellent flavor. It is the last to ripen of the sweet cherries discussed here, and matures in June. Among all the easily procurable sweet cherries, the connoisseur considers Lambert the best, and it is a commercial favorite in the Northwest. Sour or Pie Cherries.—Montmorency and Early Richmond are the preferred varieties. The fruit of these is typically small, round, and bright red. Duke Cherries.—Suitable varieties for planting are May Duke, Royal Duke, and Late Duke. The fruit has the shape and color of the sweet but the flavor and tartness of the sour. Pollination Requirements

Sweet cherries are self-unfruitful, and therefore require the presence of two varieties near to each other. The presence of bees to distribute the pollen is also necessary. Sweet cherry varieties may bloom at different times, and therefore the time of bloom is a contributing factor to the success of cross-pollination. Black Tartarian, Bush Tartarian, and Republican are successful pollinators for the other varieties. As Lambert is a late-blooming variety, Republican and Bush Tartarian may be the only suitable pollinators for it in some years. Bing, Napoleon, and Lambert are inter-unfruitful, and have caused much grief to unsuspecting gardeners who thought that by planting any combination of two of these sweet cherry varieties fruitfulness would be insured. Sour cherry varieties are apparently capable of setting fruit on sweet varieties, and this combination is known to be effective in the case of Bing. Sour and Duke varieties are self-fruitful and need no precautions to insure fruit set. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of mazzard (Prunus avium) and mahaleb (P. mahaleb) are most often used as rootstocks. Both are susceptible to heavy, wet soils, but on good soils both make excellent trees. Trees on mahaleb are said to be slightly more resistant to bacterial gummosis than on mazzard, and mahaleb seems to produce a better tree on dry or sandy soils. Nevertheless mazzard is more extensively used, probably because of the greater uniformity and vigor of tree growth. Mahaleb is said to be somewhat dwarfing to sweet cherry, but this is not a reliable characteristic. Stockton Morello, a sour cherry variety used only as a rootstock, is propagated by suckers; its merits lie in its greater resistance to wet

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soils and its semidwarfing ability. On this rootstock, sweet cherry is able to grow on soils suitable to myrobalan plum and apple roots. Unfortunately many Stockton Morello suckers are infected with one or more serious virus diseases; ask for virus-free trees. Duke cherries are propagated on the same rootstocks as sweet cherry varieties. Sour cherries are most often grown on seedlings of mahaleb; mazzard roots are not so satisfactory, and sour cherry seedlings are quite variable in vigor. All kinds of cherries do well when topworked on each other. By topworking sweet cherry well out on the scaffold limbs of established mahaleb trees a special kind of "resistance" to buckskin virus of sweet cherry (a common disease in some areas) is obtained. A sweet cherry limb may succumb quickly, but the virus will not enter the mahaleb, so the rest of the tree remains healthy; on mazzard stock the entire tree will succumb, though more slowly. The compatibility of edible cherries on flowering forms has not been well investigated; however, most combinations will probably prove moderately successful, though the trees produced may not be as satisfactory or as long lived as those topworked to the normally used stocks. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

The sweet cherry requires a deep, well-drained soil of medium texture—sandy loam to silt-loam—for best tree growth. The susceptibility of sweet cherry rootstocks to wet, poorly drained soils has been mentioned. The trees are seldom vigorous on sandy soils. Sods and avoidance of deep cultivation are beneficial to tree growth. The nutrient requirements of sweet cherries are about the same as for other deciduous fruits; they respond to applications of nitrogenous fertilizers. The amount applied to a mature tree should be from 1 to 10 pounds of actual nitrogen, depending on its size and vigor. The larger amounts are more commonly used in the Northwest. However, cherries often are not fertilized unless they are making very weak growth. Duke cherries have the same soil and nutrient requirements as sweet cherries. Sour cherries do well not only on loamy soils but also on somewhat lighter soils and do not suffer quite so markedly from moderate drought conditions. They do, however, make much more satisfactory growth if well cared for. Trees making weak growth should be fertilized with a half-pound to a pound of actual nitrogen per tree.

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It is important to keep sour cherries growing vigorously, for they tend to become weaker with age, and to produce much lighter crops as they weaken. Water Requirements

Watering practices may well be the deciding factor in the success of your sweet cherry planting. Of all tree fruits, the sweet cherry is perhaps the most critical in its water needs. During the first two years in the life of the trees, irrigate them at fairly frequent intervals, perhaps every two to four weeks. In other words, whenever the soil begins to dry out in the top foot, it is time to water the young trees. Thereafter, irrigate as recommended in Part I. Sweet cherry trees suffer more from drought than most other deciduous trees. Duke cherries have a similar water requirement. Sour cherry trees are somewhat more resistant to poor watering, but, like other fruit trees, respond to good watering with increased crops of quality fruit. Pruning

Sweet cherry trees grow upright and do not produce side branches during their early life. Each scaffold and branch should be headed, or cut back, rather severely in the early years to force branch development. Make the cut at the point where you want the future branches to arise. Head the new growth moderately for the first three or four years, and thin out the undesirable branches. Always cut to an outside branch, if at all possible, to force the tree to spread. The purpose of pruning bearing trees is to remove dead and interfering branches and to renew the fruiting wood. Sweet cherry fruits are borne mostly on long-lived spurs which are economically productive for ten to twelve years. The cherry therefore needs less renewal wood than almost any other deciduous fruit tree. When the trees begin to bear, they require little pruning. Merely thin out the new shoots lightly each year and cut out all weak, interfering, and encroaching branches. The tops should be kept from getting too high by an occasional cutting-back to strong lateral branches. Once the trees have become thoroughly established, they require little pruning. Duke cherry trees may be handled in a manner similar to that just described for sweet cherries. Sour cherry trees are so well adapted to vase-type training that the directions given on pages 50-55 will suffice. They are much more spreading than young sweet cherries, so there will be no diffi-

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culty in securing a proper spread to the main branches. On older, bearing trees merely thin out excess shoots so that light can enter the tree, and cut back the weaker branches to strong laterals. The sour cherry bears its fruit on spurs on two- to five-year-old wood. Harvesting and Handling

Cherries are picked when fully ripe and generally with the stems on the fruit, as they will keep much better that way. However, if you are to use the fruit for canning or other processing, the cherries may be stripped from the tree without their stems. This is a much easier and faster method, but is messy. Bing and Lambert are preferred for canning or freezing among the red sweet cherries, but they also make good pies and preserves. Napoleon, a white variety, is the traditional canning cherry. The Duke cherries may also be canned. Sour cherries are usually served cooked in some manner. Though some may relish them as fresh fruit, they are too acid for most palates. Their second name, pie cherries, indicates their national popularity. Though usually used directly from the tree, they may be canned or frozen and used at a later time. Diseases and Pests

Cherries are subject to a long list of diseases and pests, a few of which are almost certain to develop to bothersome proportions, especially in the more humid regions of the Northwest. Possibly the most serious disease is bacterial gummosis, for which no really adequate control has been found. Brown rot of blossoms, but especially of the fruit, will prove troublesome in humid regions, but may be controlled by sprays and dusts. A few pests cause serious trouble on occasion. The cherry fruit fly occurs only throughout the Northwest, and needs annual control measures. Pear or cherry slug is occasionally damaging, but is easily controlled. Sweet cherries are probably damaged more by these and other similar troubles than are the sour cherries. Cherries are subject to several virus diseases, many of which are very serious, and will probably result in the loss of the tree. Cherries are especially influenced by proper watering practices, and are quite susceptible to wet soil conditions.

CHESTNUTS

Castanea

species

The chestnut makes a striking shade tree. The nuts are of high quality and of good size. Often the trees are rather hard to get established, particularly in California's interior valleys; they do better in cooler climates. The tree comes into bearing quite early, sometimes as soon as two or three years after planting. The trees do well in the Northwest and in other areas where summer temperatures are not extreme, as in the California foothill regions at altitudes up to 3,500 feet. They are quite winter hardy. The European chestnut will do better where summer temperatures are high than will the Chinese species. But even the European will grow to better advantage in a moderate climate. The rest period of both species is slight, and they can be grown in southern California, though their buds are sometimes delayed in opening after mild winters. Neither tree is adapted to the desert areas because of the high summer temperatures. The Chinese chestnut does not do well in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys of California on soils alkaline in nature. Varieties

Two kinds of chestnuts are treated here, the Chinese chestnut, Castanea mollissima Blume, and the European species, C. sativa Mill. The first two varieties listed below belong to the European species. Marrón Cómbale develops into a large tree, 50 feet in height and spread. The nuts are large, deep brown, of high quality and especially suitable for roasting. Marrón Quincy is a smaller tree, and perhaps more suitable to most gardens. The nuts are similar to those of Marrón Combale. Since the American sweet chestnut (C. dentata) is no longer being grown in the eastern United States because of chestnut blight, some people consider that the Chinese chestnut is the only one likely to become important in this country. Many consider this species to be 134

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even more flavorful than the European. The following varieties belong to the Chinese species. Abundance was introduced in Oregon in 1941. It has an attractive appearance; the nuts are sweet and fairly large. The tree is prolific. Zimmerman was introduced from Pennsylvania in 1935. The nut is sweet, but small. Carr, Hobson, Stoke, Reliable, and Yankee are other varieties that the gardener particularly interested in chestnuts may want to try; they have not been planted in the West other than on a limited trial basis. Eastern nurseries handle these. Several new and larger-fruited varieties have been released recently by the United States Department of Agriculture. These are Nanking, Killing, and Meiling. Pollination Requirements

The chestnut is monoecious, that is, the staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers are borne separately on the same tree. Sometimes a heavier crop results if cross-pollination has taken place, that is, pollination between two varieties. If light crops occur regularly, it might be advisable to graft in scionwood of another variety. Use large-fruited varieties for a pollinator, because there is some evidence that the pollen variety can materially affect the size of the nuts. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of chestnuts are used as rootstocks for chestnuts. Any species may be used for any variety. They may be topworked upon each other. Soil, Nutrient, Water, and Pruning Requirements

Trees of the Chinese species do not grow well in alkaline soils; under such conditions they develop leaf scorch. Otherwise, they are widely adapted. Trees of the European species grow well generally in soils of California's interior valley, where trees of the Chinese species often fail. Not much is known about the chestnut's nutrient, water, or pruning requirements. Good care should therefore be the rule. Harvesting and Handling

The nuts mature in late summer or fall. Remove them from the burrs and dry in the sun (or shade on hot days) before storing for use. Store the nuts in a cool, dry place to forestall rancidity or molds. Properly stored, they can be held for several months.

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Diseases and Pests Chestnuts are relatively free from any troubles, but the Chinese chestnut is rather intolerant of alkaline soil conditions, and hence does not do well in some areas which otherwise seem well suited.

CRAB APPLES Malus species Crab apples are highly regarded for jelly making and pickling. Some varieties are delicious for eating fresh. They are fast becoming the most popular group of ornamental trees in North America. As a general rule, all apples with fruits 2 inches or less in diameter are considered crabs. Many of the crab apples have a much lower chilling requirement than most standard apple varieties; others are quite winter hardy. Therefore the range of adaptability for crab apples exceeds that of the standard varieties. Varieties These apples belong to many species of Malus, but the majority of the edible ones, as distinct from the primarily flowering kinds, belong to M. baccata (L.) Borkh., the Siberian crab apple, and M. ioensis Britt., the prairie or Western crab apple. Fruit colors range from pure yellow to pure red, with all gradations of shades. In general, the trees are small, less than 20 feet tall; some are shrub-like. The ornamental forms are legion; we are interested in those grown mainly for their fruit. The following varieties are the best of the crab apples now available. Florence, Hyslop, and Transcendent bear fruits which are yellow

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Diseases and Pests Chestnuts are relatively free from any troubles, but the Chinese chestnut is rather intolerant of alkaline soil conditions, and hence does not do well in some areas which otherwise seem well suited.

CRAB APPLES Malus species Crab apples are highly regarded for jelly making and pickling. Some varieties are delicious for eating fresh. They are fast becoming the most popular group of ornamental trees in North America. As a general rule, all apples with fruits 2 inches or less in diameter are considered crabs. Many of the crab apples have a much lower chilling requirement than most standard apple varieties; others are quite winter hardy. Therefore the range of adaptability for crab apples exceeds that of the standard varieties. Varieties These apples belong to many species of Malus, but the majority of the edible ones, as distinct from the primarily flowering kinds, belong to M. baccata (L.) Borkh., the Siberian crab apple, and M. ioensis Britt., the prairie or Western crab apple. Fruit colors range from pure yellow to pure red, with all gradations of shades. In general, the trees are small, less than 20 feet tall; some are shrub-like. The ornamental forms are legion; we are interested in those grown mainly for their fruit. The following varieties are the best of the crab apples now available. Florence, Hyslop, and Transcendent bear fruits which are yellow

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blushed with red. Montreal Beauty fruits are green and red. Whitney fruits are striped red over a yellow ground color. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of crab apple are usually used as rootstocks. Seedlings of the common apple will also serve. For winter hardiness, seedlings of Malus haccata can be used. Many crab apples can be started on their own roots by using chemicals to induce rooting of cuttings; either softwood or hardwood cuttings may be used. Results are likely to be poor, but enough will root to supply all the plants the gardener is likely to want. Crab apples may also be induced to develop their own roots by planting deep, following budding on a rootstock of another species. While some combinations will prove more successful than others, almost any crab apple can be topworked to any other, regardless of the species so combined. Crab apples will do well topworked on the common apple. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

Requirements of crab apples are the same as for the common apple. The trees are naturally smaller, and cultural practices may be modified to allow for that fact. Crab apples need a minimum of attention in comparison to the common apple. Pruning and Fruit Thinning

The pruning of crab apples is simple; training may be to the central leader or vase shape, as desired. The trees will usually naturally take a round-headed form when pruned to a central leader. Older trees merely need to have shoots thinned out to prevent excess shading through the center of the tree. The fruits are borne on long-lived spurs, like the common apple, which produce fruit for many years. Fruit thinning is not practiced. The small size and light weight of the individual fruits generally preclude damage from overcropping. Harvesting and Handling

Crab apples are handled in the same manner as common apples; as they are most generally used for jellies and jams, they are more likely to be used immediately after harvest. Diseases and Pests

These are the same as for the common apple; see page 104.

CURRANT Ribes sativum Syme

Currant bushes may be easily grown with a modicum of care, but they respond beautifully to culture with a corresponding increase in quality and quantity of crop. Culture of gooseberries (see p. 154) is included in the following discussion. Currants are extremely hardy and are grown over much of the United States, but they do not do so well in the drier sections. In the West, they grow best in a cool, humid climate such as that of western Oregon and Washington and in the central and north coast sections of California. In California it is possible to grow them in the foothill areas of the Sierra Nevada, but it may be illegal in your locality to grow currants and gooseberries because of the danger of their acting as alternate hosts for the white-pine blister rust. In the interior valleys and other warmer areas of California currants might do reasonably well if planted in the shade, as along the north side of a wall or fence. They are not generally recommended for the desert regions, though they are grown in some low desert localities. Varieties

Red Lake is the most productive variety to grow in California, Washington, and Oregon. The fruits are red, of medium size, and borne in rather loose clusters. The quality is good. The bush is rather upright, with dense foliage. Perfection is another variety of good vigor and productiveness widely adapted to the Northwest; the fruit and clusters are similar to those of Red Lake. It is recommended for eastern Washington valley locations, western Oregon and Washington, but is not as well adapted to California as Red Lake. Wilder, a productive variety of similar characteristics, is widely grown in the valley districts of eastern Washington. Cherry and Fay (Fay's Prolific) will do well in western Oregon gardens. 138

139 Currants ripen during June, earlier in more southerly locations, and later northward.

Western Fruits

Rootstocks

Currants and gooseberries are propagated on their own roots by hardwood cuttings; or, more seldom, by stool layering or trench layering. They are not topworked. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Currants and gooseberries do well in medium- to heavy-textured soils that are neutral to slightly alkaline. Most Western soils have such a favorable reaction. Saline soils, however, should be avoided, for these species are sensitive to them. So far as is known, both fruits respond only to nitrogenous fertilizers. Sodium nitrate and manures high in sodium salts, such as poultry manure, should be avoided because of the danger of resulting injury. Water Requirements

Currants and gooseberries produce well only when irrigated adequately and regularly. Since they are shallow rooted it is necessary to water fairly often. The roots will not withstand saturated soils for more than a few hours without injury, so care must be taken in irrigating heavy soils. Cultivation should be held to a minimum depth, not more than 3 or 4 inches, because of the shallow root system. Pruning

Since currants and gooseberries are bush plants, their pruning is quite different from tree pruning as covered in Part I. The young plants are set in place, either in January or February, in hills or rows, as preferred. They should be planted about 5 or 6 feet apart, but do satisfactorily set at 3- to 4-foot intervals in rows 4 feet apart. After the first season's growth six to eight of the strongest shoots are kept, the others removed at the ground or plant crown. At the end of the following season, three or four one-year-old shoots are again chosen, and four or five of the best two-year-old shoots kept; all other growth is removed from the bush. After the third year, shoots are selected so that three or four shoots of each age—one, two, and three years—are retained, all others being removed. Select the strongest canes each year, and prune with an eye to spacing the shoots evenly.

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Do not save canes four years old or older. They are less fruitful, or become barren, and may increase the disease problem. The best fruit is usually borne on the two-year-old canes. Harvesting and Handling

Currants and gooseberries are considered ripe when all berries in a cluster are full color. They ripen slowly, and can be held on the bush for a long time in cool areas. If the fruit is to be used for jelly, pick it while slightly under-ripe, as at that stage it contains more pectin. If it is to be used for any processing other than jelly making, it should be picked when fully ripe. Diseases and Pests

Currants and gooseberries are subject to some diseases and pests, and especially so in the more cool, humid districts where they otherwise are best adapted. Serious inroads by these troubles will necessitate control measures. However, the relatively isolated garden planting may long remain free of any of these.

DATE Phoenix dactylifera

L.

The date palm has been cultivated and highly prized from the remotest antiquity to the present. The tree becomes a tall, graceful palm with age, but is less attractive while young; it may reach a height of 80 feet or more. The date palm is a plant which does not show an annual increase in girth. Also, it has but a single, terminal bud (except for the offshoots, which do not develop into true branches), and so adds to its height each year. It cannot be cut back.

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Do not save canes four years old or older. They are less fruitful, or become barren, and may increase the disease problem. The best fruit is usually borne on the two-year-old canes. Harvesting and Handling

Currants and gooseberries are considered ripe when all berries in a cluster are full color. They ripen slowly, and can be held on the bush for a long time in cool areas. If the fruit is to be used for jelly, pick it while slightly under-ripe, as at that stage it contains more pectin. If it is to be used for any processing other than jelly making, it should be picked when fully ripe. Diseases and Pests

Currants and gooseberries are subject to some diseases and pests, and especially so in the more cool, humid districts where they otherwise are best adapted. Serious inroads by these troubles will necessitate control measures. However, the relatively isolated garden planting may long remain free of any of these.

DATE Phoenix dactylifera

L.

The date palm has been cultivated and highly prized from the remotest antiquity to the present. The tree becomes a tall, graceful palm with age, but is less attractive while young; it may reach a height of 80 feet or more. The date palm is a plant which does not show an annual increase in girth. Also, it has but a single, terminal bud (except for the offshoots, which do not develop into true branches), and so adds to its height each year. It cannot be cut back.

141 The trunk of the palm is enclosed by the old leaf bases, which give it its characteristic appearance. Near the top, and enclosing the terminal bud, is a graceful crown of a hundred or more large, green leaves, each of which may be 10 to 14 feet in length. The flower and fruit clusters, borne in the axils of these leaves, arise at a greater height from the ground each succeeding year. The production of fruit of good quality requires long, hot summers; these conditions are found in Arizona and California in low desert valleys. The trees will grow in considerably milder climates and will do well in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, in warmer locations in the southern portion of the central coast region, and in the south coast region of California. In the very warmest areas of these regions the fruits of early varieties may mature after especially hot summers, but will usually be of poor quality. The date palm is moderately resistant to winter cold, as is indicated by its ability to grow in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. At higher elevations or where temperatures fall below 12° to 15° F it may be killed. Besides the long, hot summers, dates require low humidity if quality fruit is to be produced. High humidity causes checking, cracking, and rots of the fruit at various stages of its growth. Western Fruits

Varieties

Deglet Noor is the principal variety grown in California. It is a semi-dry date, with a midseason to rather late ripening period. This variety gives greater yields than do the others described here. It is adapted to the lighter soils of Arizona date regions. Khadrawy and Halawy produce soft, early-maturing fruits. In the warm interior valleys of California fruits may occasionally ripen fairly satisfactorily before the rains come. These varieties are recommended for Arizona gardens, especially on heavier soils. Khadrawy palms grow slower than those of the other varieties. Zahidi is a semi-soft date of medium size and good quality which can be dried. It can be used in place of Deglet Noor in Arizona gardens. Pollination Requirements

Date palms are dioecious, that is, the female flowers which produce the fruit and the male flowers which produce the pollen are borne on separate trees. Pollination is essential to produce a crop of dates. Pollination is best accomplished by inverting and tying two or

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three strands of freshly opened male flowers among the strands of the female flower cluster during the first three or four days after it has opened. Cotton tufts dusted with pollen likewise may be tied among the female strands to effect pollination. The pollen of any male tree may be used satisfactorily to pollinate the fruiting palms, although certain male palms are frequently selected because of the superior results obtained from the use of their pollen. Time of maturity may be advanced several days by the use of certain pollens, for example, Fard 4, which hence is an insurance against early rain damage. Pollination operations require work at some distance above ground in older trees. Long ladders are necessary. Rootstocks

Date varieties are propagated by offshoots from the parent palm. These offshoots develop only during the early life of the palm, from axillary buds low on the trunk. Offshoots are therefore own-rooted plants. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Date palms do best on light soils, but they will grow and thrive quite satisfactorily in the garden on soils of medium to mediumheavy texture. The palms are quite deeply rooted, so the soil should be at least 6 feet deep. If you grow dates in the heavier soils, be certain that water will penetrate to the depth at which roots are found. The soil must be well drained for good vegetative growth of the palm. Nitrogenous fertilizers may be necessary, especially in light soils, but this need can only be determined by trial and error. Either organic or inorganic fertilizers may be used. Water Requirements

The date palm probably requires more water than any other plant described in this book. But this may be because the date is grown in arid areas and light soils. The frequency of irrigation will depend upon individual conditions, but usually, during the warmer weather, water must be applied every two weeks; during the winter months, every thirty to forty days, if the rains are insufficient to wet the root-containing soil. Newly planted offshoots should be watered every day or so in hot, desert climates, but discontinue watering if the soil becomes saturated. Mulches, especially of well-rotted manures, may prove very beneficial at this time.

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Pruning

Three- to four-year-old leaves begin to die gradually, starting at the tips. It is well to remove these older leaves during the winter or early spring, before they become a fire hazard. Also, the thorns are dangerous, and may interfere with the cultural operations on the tree. Removal of spines at the leaf bases facilitates pollination and harvesting operations. Scale sometimes attacks the thick leaf bases and if that happens, it is wise to remove the dead leaves. However, it is a matter of taste whether the old leaves are removed or not, since they do no real harm if left on the tree. Fruit Thinning

Normal date clusters are often too large and dense to produce quality fruit. Thinning may take three forms, and most growers practice a combination of methods. First, the long fruiting strands are cut back about one-third; this is usually done at time of pollination. Second, individual strands may be removed from the cluster. This may be done at time of pollination, but is often delayed until the set is evident, so that thinning may be in accord with crop. The simplest method of strand thinning is to remove the distal end of the cluster stalk. This removes the inner whorl of strands, and tends to open up the cluster, which is beneficial later in the season, allowing more air movement and reducing damage from high humidity. A third method of thinning, not usually practiced, is to remove dates from the individual strands, spacing them at greater distances. The large amount of hand work makes this a less favored method. Thinning practices are most often used on the long-stranded varieties, such as Deglet Noor. Covering the developing bunches with paper skirts or bags is a very important operation to protect the fruit against rain damage and birds. Another practice related to thinning is leaf removal. Most mature palms, if kept in proper vigor, produce from 8 to 12 bunches per year. If too many leaves are present above these clusters, the dates may show certain defects. Therefore, the number of leaves is often reduced to about 100 to 120. Harvesting and Handling

Dates do not ripen all at once on any one bunch or strand, and the fruits must be individually picked from time to time. Individual fruits are ripe when they soften and develop their typical brown color. In parts of Arizona, late summer or fall rains sometimes make it

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advisable to harvest the fruit when only about half colored and ripen it off the tree. This is accomplished by holding the fruit at 110° to 115° F in a closed chamber. Humidity should be regulated to dry the fruit only partially; slight wrinkling of the skin indicates proper drying. The flesh should soften and the date should be pliable to the stone. Tree-ripened fruits are preferable. The gardener may dry fruits of Deglet Noor and Zahidi very satisfactorily. Dry to a semi-dry state indoors, until the flesh of the date assumes a smooth inner texture. Then complete the drying in the sun. Such dried dates may be kept two or more years if protected from insects. Khadrawy and Halawy dates cannot be stored for long periods. Diseases and Pests

Dates are particularly subject to one or two soil-borne diseases, but there is little the gardener can do to prevent them. As they are exotic in origin, the planting of good healthy stock will usually be sufficient to insure against them. A few insect pests, particularly mites, occasionally attack the palms, but will be unlikely to cause trouble to well-cared-for trees. The fruits are especially subject to damage by even light rains or periods of high humidity.

FEIJOA Feijoa

sellowiana

Berg

These fruits have a pleasant, slightly tart flavor, faintly suggestive of the pineapple, and outwardly a resemblance to the common guava, though they are green in color. Some people call the feijoa the pineapple guava. But it should not be confused with the guava, from which it differs greatly both as to shrub and fruit. The shrubs or small trees, of considerable ornamental interest,

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advisable to harvest the fruit when only about half colored and ripen it off the tree. This is accomplished by holding the fruit at 110° to 115° F in a closed chamber. Humidity should be regulated to dry the fruit only partially; slight wrinkling of the skin indicates proper drying. The flesh should soften and the date should be pliable to the stone. Tree-ripened fruits are preferable. The gardener may dry fruits of Deglet Noor and Zahidi very satisfactorily. Dry to a semi-dry state indoors, until the flesh of the date assumes a smooth inner texture. Then complete the drying in the sun. Such dried dates may be kept two or more years if protected from insects. Khadrawy and Halawy dates cannot be stored for long periods. Diseases and Pests

Dates are particularly subject to one or two soil-borne diseases, but there is little the gardener can do to prevent them. As they are exotic in origin, the planting of good healthy stock will usually be sufficient to insure against them. A few insect pests, particularly mites, occasionally attack the palms, but will be unlikely to cause trouble to well-cared-for trees. The fruits are especially subject to damage by even light rains or periods of high humidity.

FEIJOA Feijoa

sellowiana

Berg

These fruits have a pleasant, slightly tart flavor, faintly suggestive of the pineapple, and outwardly a resemblance to the common guava, though they are green in color. Some people call the feijoa the pineapple guava. But it should not be confused with the guava, from which it differs greatly both as to shrub and fruit. The shrubs or small trees, of considerable ornamental interest,

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will reach a height of 15 feet or more. Pruning will keep the feijoa in a space of 10 feet or less. Feijoas make attractive hedges and do well as a specimen planting in a lawn. The fruits may be enjoyed fresh, except for a thin outer portion of the skin. Usually the fruits are better in marmalades, and may be used in jellies, jams, and even in many types of desserts. The flowers are an inch or more across; the fleshy petals are whitish below and purplish above, and are edible in salads. The feijoa is a subtropical species, but one of the few which prefers cooler locations, where it produces the best quality fruit. It is well adapted to all the coastal regions of California, and produces fruit of highest quality around San Francisco. Nevertheless, it may be grown in other areas of California and of Arizona, except the mountain districts, which are too cold in the winter. Feijoas bloom in May in southern California, and in June in the northern sections. The fruits mature about September or October in southern California, and a month or more later farther north. In more northern areas the fruit fails to mature before the onset of cold weather. Varieties

There are only a few varieties available, and these differ from seedlings only in producing larger fruits. The fruits are round to egg-shaped, from 1 to 3 inches long, dark- or yellow-green when ripe, with a conspicuous calyx. Superba and Choiceana produce well-flavored fruits. Coolidge is smaller and of milder flavor, but it usually bears better than the others. Pollination Requirements

With the exception of Coolidge, which is self-fruitful, all varieties will produce larger yields by cross-pollination with another variety or seedling. Choiceana definitely needs cross-pollination. Rootstocks

Feijoa varieties are topworked to seedlings of feijoa, or are propagated by leafy softwood cuttings (with some difficulty). If grown on seedlings, they are usually grafted to established plants; such grafts fail in a high percentage of those attempted. Soil, Nutrient, a n d Water Requirements

The feijoa does best in a rich, loamy soil. Soils definitely unfavorable are those with an excessive lime content or those with a shallow topsoil. The plant usually makes satisfactory growth without fertilization; but if weak, a moderate application of }i to % pound

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of ammonium sulfate per tree should suffice. Irrigate generously during the dry season. Feijoas in lawns do very well. Pruning If the vegetative growth becomes very thick, it is well to thin out some of it; otherwise, no pruning is necessary. Harvesting and Handling The fruit is ready for use when it is soft inside, even though the rind may be quite firm. At room temperature, the fruit deteriorates in a few days even though it feels fairly firm. Feijoas may be stored in a cool place until they are slightly soft and more aromatic than when on the tree. In cold storage, the fruit may be kept for a month or longer. Diseases and Pests The tree seems to be free of any diseases and pests; perhaps it has not been grown widely enough for any to have caused concern.

FIG Ficus carica

L.

The fig tree is unique in that it provides two crops of fruit a year, the first in early summer, the second from midsummer to fall. If the tree is allowed to develop to its fullest extent it attains a tremendous spread—up to 90 feet or more. With large trees, permanent propping of the lower branches will be necessary to keep them off the ground. On the other hand, fig trees may be pruned severely and kept small—as low as 5 feet. In this case the first crop of fruit will be sacrificed, but the second crop will be of better quality than on larger trees. Figs planted in tubs will be further restricted in their growth, and the trees can be successfully handled in this manner.

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of ammonium sulfate per tree should suffice. Irrigate generously during the dry season. Feijoas in lawns do very well. Pruning If the vegetative growth becomes very thick, it is well to thin out some of it; otherwise, no pruning is necessary. Harvesting and Handling The fruit is ready for use when it is soft inside, even though the rind may be quite firm. At room temperature, the fruit deteriorates in a few days even though it feels fairly firm. Feijoas may be stored in a cool place until they are slightly soft and more aromatic than when on the tree. In cold storage, the fruit may be kept for a month or longer. Diseases and Pests The tree seems to be free of any diseases and pests; perhaps it has not been grown widely enough for any to have caused concern.

FIG Ficus carica

L.

The fig tree is unique in that it provides two crops of fruit a year, the first in early summer, the second from midsummer to fall. If the tree is allowed to develop to its fullest extent it attains a tremendous spread—up to 90 feet or more. With large trees, permanent propping of the lower branches will be necessary to keep them off the ground. On the other hand, fig trees may be pruned severely and kept small—as low as 5 feet. In this case the first crop of fruit will be sacrificed, but the second crop will be of better quality than on larger trees. Figs planted in tubs will be further restricted in their growth, and the trees can be successfully handled in this manner.

147 One advantage of growing a fig tree is that its cultural requirements are relatively few. Some people think of the fig as a purely subtropical species, but most of the commercial orchards are in the interior valleys of northern California. Trees can be grown wherever winter temperatures do not fall below 15° F. Very young trees may be injured if frosts occur in early fall or late spring, but these may be covered with a tarpaulin or blanket to protect them in this early stage.

Western Fruits

Varieties

Mission is a black-skinned variety of excellent quality that grows in all sections adapted to figs. In central California, the first crop ripens in June, the second in August and September. It is extremely suitable both fresh and dried and for making fig jam. Adriatic is used principally as a drying fig, but its quality is not so high as that of Mission or Calimyrna. The vigorous trees need little care. The first-crop fruits have a green skin with a deep strawberryred pulp. In hot areas, fruits of the second crop have a lighter-colored pulp; in coastal areas they tend to be larger than in the interior valleys. Kadota is used mostly for canning, and in recent years has proved useful as a dried product. The fruits of the first crop are richer in taste than those of the second crop. The first crop matures about the middle of June; the fruit of the second crop matures in late July and continues to ripen as long as the weather remains favorable. Kadota is especially adaptable to hot valleys but is not recommended for the south coast region. Turkey (Brown Turkey) is a large-fruited variety suitable only for fresh use. The first-crop figs are large, pear-shaped, and brownish black; the pulp is light strawberry. Second-crop figs are usually smaller with a mild flavor. This variety does very well in the south coast and desert regions where it is the principal fresh fig, both for gardens and for the commercial fresh-fruit market. Calimyrna produces very excellent fruit for all uses. No one bothers with the first-crop fruits which are insipid. Second-crop fruits are large, with a lemon-yellow skin; the pulp is amber and highly flavored. Pollination

Mission, Adriatic, Kadota, and Turkey do not require pollination. Calimyrna requires cross-pollination with the capriflg (male).

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POLLINATION OF CALIMYRNA FIG

The entire process, known as caprification, is complicated. The variety is not recommended to the gardener unless caprifigs are available, or fig-setting sprays are used, as noted below. Actual pollination is done by a small wasp, known as blastophaga, which overwinters in the caprifig which produces the pollen. These figs are gathered and placed in small bags or cages through the Calimyrna tree, so that the emerging wasps, carrying pollen, will enter the Calimyrna fruits and effect pollination. A simple method of artificially setting Calimyrna fruit is the application of a growth-regulating substance called para-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (PCPA). At present it is being marketed under the trade name Fig Fix. Follow the directions for mixing given on the container. The spray is applied at the normal stage for pollination. This may be difficult to determine by casual observation, but corresponds to the time when shoot growth has ceased and the leaves are fully expanded. Figs at the base of the shoots at this time are generally somewhat larger in diameter than a 25-cent piece. The fruits set in this manner are comparable in size, color, and sugar content to mature pollinated (caprified) figs, but are seedless. Since much of the characteristic flavor of the Calimyrna fig is associated with the oils in the seed, figs set with growth substances do not have the same flavor as the caprified fruit.

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Rootstocks and Topworking

Figs are propagated from cuttings, and hence are on their own roots. Two- to three-year-old wood makes more satisfactory cuttings than younger wood. Fig varieties may be topworked by budding or grafting. For grafting use vigorous, thick shoots for scionwood, as the fig shoot has a large central pith area which makes the use of weaker shoots impractical. Budding is done by the patch or the T methods. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

Fig trees do well on a wide range of soils, but deep clay loams are best. In light, sandy soils the trees grow well for quite a few years but finally die back, probably of injury by nematodes. Figs should not be planted on alkali soils as the leaves will show tipbum and a reduction of yield. The fig is a deep-rooted species, being similar to the walnut in this respect. One would therefore expect the tree to grow better and produce finer fruits on a deep soil. This species responds to applications of nitrogenous fertilizers. If the shoot growth in each season averages less than 6 inches, apply nitrogen during the winter months. If the tree begins to shed its leaves fairly early in the season, this may be the result of lack of nitrogen, lack of sufficient water, or both. As with other deciduous fruit trees, figs require regular irrigations. Pruning

The fig may be pruned in a variety of ways—not at all or so heavily that the tree classifies as a dwarf; it is readily trained to an informal espalier. The gardener's wishes can set the style. For standard trees, training should follow closely that given in Part I, pages 50-55, for the vase type. As the tree grows older, pruning need be much less severe than for most other fruits, and may consist only of occasional thinning out of relatively large branches. However, even with such a tree, the gardener can practice heavy, annual thinning out and cutting back if he desires. The short, low, spreading trees one sees in traveling through commercial fig districts of California are of the Kadota variety. The shape is secured by cutting inner, or central, branches short, and leaving the outer ones longer. All are headed at the same height above the ground. The short pruning is simply designed for economic harvest of the fruit, which is all picked fresh for canning. Tree size

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is not limited for drying varieties, the fruits of which are allowed to drop, and are harvested from the ground. The ability of the fig to fruit under such widely varying pruning treatments is due to its fruiting habit. Edible figs produce two crops a year. The first crop is produced in the axils of the basal leaves of the current season's growth and the distal portion of the one-yearold wood of varieties such as Mission, Turkey, and Adriatic. Firstcrop fruit, except of Calimyrna, is best for fresh use as it is larger and juicier. The second crop, produced in the more distal leaf axils of the current season's growth, is liable to be smaller, drier, and of poorer quality. However, if pruning is very severe, the first crop is mostly lost, but the second crop may then approach the first in size and quality. Heavy pruning, either to limit the size of the tree, or to produce higher quality second-crop figs, will naturally reduce the crop as compared to an unpruned or lightly pruned tree. Canker disease of fig is carried on pruning tools; where it occurs, the less pruning is practiced the greater the tree's chance to escape the disease. Harvesting and Handling For maximum richness and flavor, figs should not be picked until the individual fruits wilt at the neck and bend over on the stem from their own weight. If any milky latex develops at the stem end when the fruit is picked, it has not reached full ripeness. In all instances, the figs should be soft for optimum flavor and eating quality. Such fruits are excellent for eating fresh and for freezing and drying. For pickling, the figs should be picked when firm ripe. Fresh-frozen figs retain their natural color, flavor, and texture remarkably well. The best dried figs are allowed to dry partially on the tree and drop naturally to the ground, from which they are gathered to be finished on drying trays. Figs left to mature thoroughly on the tree attain a high sugar content and quality which can never be obtained by drying of the firm ripe fruit. Pick up the figs from the ground as soon as feasible—at least within one or two days. Since the figs are partially dried, they may be finished in the sun. Turn the fruits on the trays fairly frequently. The interior of a properly dried fig should have the consistency of a thick fruit jam or butter, and the skin should have a kid-glove softness and pliability. When dried to this stage, the figs should be placed in a box for ten days or so to equalize the moisture between the large and small fruits.

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Diseases and Pests

Only a few diseases or insects attack the tops of the trees. With good garden care they will probably never suffer from them. The roots are, however, quite susceptible to nematodes of at least two kinds; on the other hand, oak-root fungus does not attack fig. Fig fruits may be infected by a variety of bacterial rots and molds, and infested with any of several insects. Harvest promptly and these troubles will occur less abundantly. They will be more severe in cooler, more humid regions.

FILBERT

Corylus avellana L. Filbert varieties are derived from the wild hazelnut. They have proved best adapted to western Oregon and Washington, and do not, as a rule, bear well in California. Most commercial filbert production centers in the Willamette Valley, but the plant makes a suitable garden subject over a much wider range. It is reasonably hardy, and can be grown more extensively than peaches or apricots, but does not bear well in all locations. In California, filberts bear best in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, between 1,500 and 3,000 foot elevations. Some winter killing of the branches may occur at higher altitudes. The trees grow well in the hot, dry valleys, but often fail to set a crop. Fairly satisfactory yields have been secured in the north and central coastal regions, but filberts are not recommended for the south coast and desert regions. They may do reasonably well in mild sites in eastern Oregon. Varieties

Barcelona is an excellent nut with good flavor. The husks, in which the nuts are borne, are short and flaring, thus allowing the

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Diseases and Pests

Only a few diseases or insects attack the tops of the trees. With good garden care they will probably never suffer from them. The roots are, however, quite susceptible to nematodes of at least two kinds; on the other hand, oak-root fungus does not attack fig. Fig fruits may be infected by a variety of bacterial rots and molds, and infested with any of several insects. Harvest promptly and these troubles will occur less abundantly. They will be more severe in cooler, more humid regions.

FILBERT

Corylus avellana L. Filbert varieties are derived from the wild hazelnut. They have proved best adapted to western Oregon and Washington, and do not, as a rule, bear well in California. Most commercial filbert production centers in the Willamette Valley, but the plant makes a suitable garden subject over a much wider range. It is reasonably hardy, and can be grown more extensively than peaches or apricots, but does not bear well in all locations. In California, filberts bear best in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, between 1,500 and 3,000 foot elevations. Some winter killing of the branches may occur at higher altitudes. The trees grow well in the hot, dry valleys, but often fail to set a crop. Fairly satisfactory yields have been secured in the north and central coastal regions, but filberts are not recommended for the south coast and desert regions. They may do reasonably well in mild sites in eastern Oregon. Varieties

Barcelona is an excellent nut with good flavor. The husks, in which the nuts are borne, are short and flaring, thus allowing the

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nuts to drop free at maturity. This variety is generally the preferred one. Du Chilly also is a good nut, but the husks are long, and hold the nut quite tightly, thus preventing their dropping free. Hence this variety must be husked, an added chore for the gardener. Pollination Requirements

Filberts require cross-pollination since the varieties are self-unfruitful. For this purpose two or more varieties are grown, or one variety may be topworked into another to supply pollen. Because of the differences in time of bloom of catkins (the male or pollen-bearing flowers) and pistillate flowers, it is sometimes difficult to select varieties which will show a proper overlap of bloom to effect adequate pollination. This problem is less acute in Oregon and Washington, but is one of the chief reasons for the poor bearing of filberts in many California locations. For the varieties recommended above, White Aveline and Daviana are recommended pollinators; they are also of value for their nuts. Du Chilly is also a suitable pollinator for Barcelona. The catkins often drop prematurely in the interior valleys and coastal districts of California, which further limits their adaptability to these regions. Rootstocks

Filberts are usually propagated on their own roots by trench layering, though stool layering is often used, especially with plants trained as bushes, as there are many suckers and watersprouts near the ground. Filberts may also be propagated by suckers. Corylus colurna has been suggested as a rootstock because it suckers less than the regular filbert varieties. In this case seedlings are grown and later topworked by grafting. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

For best yields the trees should be on a deep well-drained soil, though they will exist on shallow soils moderately well. They grow better on somewhat heavier soils than most other fruit trees. As long as the growth is adequate and the leaves dark green there is no need for fertilization. On weak trees, M to 1 pound of actual nitrogen will probably prove sufficient to give good growth. As with other trees, good irrigation practice will repay the gardener with best production and growth.

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Pruning

This species may be grown either as a large bush or as a tree. In California the tendency is to treat the filbert as a shrub; in orchards of the Northwest it is grown as a tree. In the first instance little or no pruning is required. Filberts are somewhat more difficult to train as a tree than, say, stone-fruit species, because of their habit of producing many suckers from the trunk at ground level. If filberts are to be trained as a tree they should be carefully planted so that the roots are just at the soil line, with very little or no trunk in the soil; the tree then may produce relatively few suckers. In any case, after planting, the tree is trained like other trees, but when young the suckers should be removed periodically; remove them close to the trunk three or four times each season. If properly done, suckering will be very infrequent after three or four years. After selecting three main scaffolds, the tree is pruned lightly; cut out only interfering and crowding branches. Limit the secondary scaffolds to the usual number of five to seven. Filbert trees are relatively small, though old specimens may reach considerable size. In the garden it is safe to plant them 15 feet from a neighboring tree; they may be kept in bounds by pruning when they eventually fill this space. The trees usually come into bearing at about five years of age, and will bear annually if their pollination requirements are properly met, and the trees are kept growing vigorously. Harvesting and Handling

At harvest, the nuts are picked from the ground as often as practicable. The Du Chilly variety needs husking. If rains occur during harvest, it may be necessary to wash the nuts. They are sun dried in the same way as almonds and walnuts. A practical test of dryness is to bite into the kernel; if it is dry, it will snap. Filberts in the shell may be stored at cool temperatures for many months. The shelled meats will keep for some weeks at room temperature, but it is better to store them in the shell until needed. Diseases and Pests

Filberts are attacked by very few diseases or insects in California; in the Northwest, filbert blight is prevalent, and may require annual spray applications. Most other troubles are of minor importance and can be controlled by proper spraying or dusting.

GOOSEBERRY

Ribes hirtellum Michx. The gooseberry is known for its pleasing, tart fruit which is fine for pies. Gooseberries also make excellent jelly, preserves, and marmalades because they are rich in pectin and acid. When used with currants, raspberries, or other fruits, they make even better jam than when used alone. All the remarks made in the discussion on currants, page 138, except with regard to varieties, apply equally well here. Variety

Oregon Champion is satisfactory, and is recommended for the garden. The light-green to yellow fruits are medium to large, and of good quality. They are thornless. The bushes are fairly vigorous, with moderately dense foliage. No gooseberry is well adapted to California. The cultural requirements and horticultural problems of the gooseberry are essentially similar to those of the currant, and are given with currant on pages 139-140.

154

GRAPES Vitis species The gardener usually prefers to grow grapes for table use, for their sweet, unfermented juice, and occasionally for drying and canning purposes. Varieties for winemaking are not discussed. Grape vines do well when trained on a fence, against the sunny side of a building if there is no room for them in the open garden, on an arbor or pergola, or on a wire trellis. Most European grapes need long, warm to hot, dry summers for their best development. They are capable of withstanding temperatures to about 0° F fairly well, but frosts occurring after vine growth starts in the spring may kill most of the fruitful shoots, thus reducing the crop tremendously. Some varieties of European grapes can be grown in all regions, except where minimum winter temperatures are too low. However, few European table grape varieties are well adapted to the Northwest or the north-coast districts of California, or to other districts directly exposed to the ocean. The fruit requires a long growing season, with rather high temperatures to mature properly. Daily mean temperatures of 65° F are necessary for practically all varieties, and some need considerably higher temperatures of about 75° to 80° F. In addition, rains or cold cloudy weather during the bloom period may cause poor setting of the berries. At harvest time such weather conditions result in damage through rotting of the fruit, although in relatively cool areas a higher humidity can be tolerated than in warmer areas. The gardener should select the earliest-maturing European varieties if he is located in the Northwest or in a coastal area. These will mature before adverse weather in the late summer or fall, and will produce the best quality grapes for his location. In the hotter districts of the interior valleys most European table grape varieties can be grown, although even here some will do much better if grown only in the hottest sections, as the San Joaquin Valley, or the hot inland intermountain valleys of southern California. 155

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On the other hand, the temperatures of the desert areas, especially in Arizona and in Coachella and Imperial Valleys of California, may be too high for the development of best quality of most grape varieties. At low elevations only European varieties should be grown. The early-maturing varieties are most satisfactory. Color development may be poor with the midseason varieties. At high elevations only early European varieties should be tried. They may also require winter protection. The American grape varieties (including their hybrids with European grapes) do best in a more humid climate, and usually reach their highest quality in the Northwest. In California, the valleys of the coastal regions prove best for such kinds. The American grapes are more winter-hardy than the European kinds and they can be grown at high elevations in desert regions where the less hardy European grapes may fail. Varieties

The common table grapes grown in California are of the European species, Vitis vinifera L. Many varieties of this species are suitable for eating fresh, for making grape juice, and for canning. The native American species, V. labrusca L., and their hybrids with European varieties, are called slip-skin grapes because the skin slips very easily from the pulp. Varieties of the American species are more common in the Northwest and are usually used for grape juice, although many people like them fresh because of their foxy flavor. European Varieties.—These are remarkably sensitive to temperatures during their growing and ripening period. In general, varieties have a definite heat requirement to reach maturity; however, if the climate is so mild that average daily temperatures are not high, the grapes fail to develop full quality even though the total heat requirement is finally met late in the season. It is for this reason that the European varieties do best in hot climates. Some of the colored midseason varieties especially, on the other hand, fail to develop best quality or full color if daily maximum temperatures are extremely high, as on the low deserts of the Southwest. The early varieties do better here because they ripen before the hottest period. The European varieties are now described in approximate order of ripening (July through October). Pearl of Csaba berries are medium-sized, white to amber, and nearly seedless, with a Muscat flavor. This variety is one of the earliest grapes to mature, and is especially suitable to the Northwest.

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Delight is the first truly Muscat-flavored seedless grape developed. The clusters are large, loose, and well filled. The berries are similar to those of Thompson Seedless, but with a Muscat flavor. They ripen a week earlier than Thompson Seedless. The vine should be spurpruned. Delight is both a table and raisin variety. It is recommended for trial in gardens of the Northwest and of all coastal sections where it is too cool for Thompson Seedless to ripen. Thompson Seedless (Sultanina) is the most popular grape for eating fresh because it is seedless and sweet. The clusters are large and well filled. The berries are medium-sized, greenish white to pale golden, and always seedless. They have little flavor but are very sweet when fully ripened. They ripen early. The grapes dry easily into raisins. The vines are very vigorous and productive. Cane pruning is required. This variety is well adapted to the hot valleys of California and to desert regions. If given adequate winter protection it is one of the best European varieties for eastern Oregon and Washington. It is unsuited to cool coastal regions. In the hot desert it does better than any other variety tried. Sultanina Rose is a pink variation of Thompson Seedless. Except for its pink, or rose, color it is almost identical with Thompson Seedless. Ribier is a beautiful table grape. The clusters are medium in size. The berries are very large, jet black, with little flavor, and mildly astringent. The vines are very productive; they should be cordonpruned; flower-cluster thinning (see pp. 169-170) gives the best fruit. Ribier is an early midseason variety. Scarlet clusters are compact. The berries are jet black, with brightred, sweet, abundant, richly flavored juice—ideal for making unfermented juice. Scarlet has a mild Concord-type flavor. It is a midseason variety. The vines are vigorous, and make fine ornamentals, as the foliage turns dark red in late fall. Scarlet is highly recommended for the garden. Its best place is on an arbor. Red Malaga (Molinera) clusters are quite large and loose to well filled. The berries are large, pink to reddish purple, and have little flavor. The grapes ripen in early midseason, usually just before Malaga, but require high temperatures for good development. Red Malaga should be cordon-pruned, or long-pruned and flower-clusterthinned. Monukka (Black Monukka) berries are medium in size, reddish black, and seedless, and ripen in midseason. Monukka should be cordon-pruned and trellised for best results. Flame Tokay is a variety of exceptional beauty in the area to which it is best adapted, in the lower San Joaquin Valley of Cali-

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fornia. The clusters are large and compact. The berries are large to very large, brilliant red to dark red, and very firm. The flavor is only fair. Flame Tokay ripens in late midseason. In the hotter regions the variety does not color well and sunburns badly, while in the cooler coastal sections it does not ripen well. Muscat of Alexandria is highly recommended for gardens, both for fresh fruit and for raisins. Its pronounced flavor, large berry size, and juicy pulp make it a favorite with nearly all who are familiar with it, even though it is not so beautifully colored as many other varieties. The clusters are medium-sized and loose; the berries are large, dull green, and strongly aromatic (Muscat-flavored). The grape matures in late midseason. The vines are very productive and are usually head-pruned. Muscat of Alexandria is adapted to hot to warm regions. It is not suited, however, to the hot desert because of its tendency to sunburn under extreme heat. Muscat Hamburg (Black Muscat) berries are medium in size, black, crisp, with a fine, rich Muscat flavor. This late-maturing grape is highly recommended, perhaps even over Muscat of Alexandria, for the interior valleys of California. The vine is vigorous and should be head-pruned to the bush type of vine. European varieties can be grown in eastern Washington and Oregon if given adequate winter protection, and if planted in the mildest winter and warmest summer sites. Do not forget that a garden site may have a climate considerably modified from that of the surrounding open country. One of the best ways to protect tender vines from winter injury is to lay them as close as possible to the ground and mound them over with soil. European varieties which may do well under such conditions in eastern Washington and Oregon are: Pearl of Csaba, Delight, Thompson Seedless, Sultanina Rose, Ribier, Monukka, and possibly Flame Tokay and Muscat of Alexandria. In western Washington and Oregon, European varieties maturing no later than Thompson Seedless can be grown with some success in the warmer sites. The Washington and Oregon gardener should not, however, expect his grapes to attain the full quality they would show if grown in a more suitable climatic zone. Even the coastal valleys of California are too cool for best development of most European varieties. American and Hybrid Varieties.—These are adapted to cooler regions than European grapes, and can withstand more humid

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climates. They will also do reasonably well at high altitudes in the desert regions, too cold for European varieties in the winter. They are widely grown in the Northwest, and do better than the European varieties in all except the warmest locations in California's north coast region. American varieties will not withstand hot summer climates, and few do well in the warmer parts of the Southwest. The American varieties and their hybrids are now described, in approximate order of ripening, which is from late July through October. The regions to which these varieties are best adapted are given at the end of the descriptions. Early Giant matures in August; the berries are large, blue-black, and have good flavor. However, they ripen unevenly on the bunch. The variety is recommended only because of its early season of maturity. Portland is also an extra early variety; the berries are green. Campbell's Early has large blue-black berries of excellent quality; the variety is early, maturing a week to ten days before Concord, and is especially recommended for Northwest gardens. Ontario ripens in late August and early September. The berries are light green and of good quality though only small to medium size. The berries are susceptible to shriveling, but, like Early Giant, Ontario affords an early garden grape. Fredonia matures late in August and early September. The vines are vigorous, and produce black berries of good quality. Worden is quite similar to Concord, but ripens earlier and is sweeter as grown in western Washington. It will mature in October, and is particularly recommended for the garden. Niagara is a white or greenish variety maturing about Concord time; it is fairly productive and the vines are very hardy. It is therefore a good variety for the garden in the coldest locations. Seneca is a new variety bearing large white berries of excellent quality. It is especially recommended for the garden; it matures in September. Concord matures in September, and the large, blue-black berries with their foxy flavor are familiar to all. Agawan is a purplish variety of medium size, with a very good foxy flavor. Delaware is a September variety in eastern Washington; it bears red berries which are sweet and of high quality, and should be one of those grown. Keuka is a late-maturing variety, not ripening until October, and

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is the latest one recommended. The berries are only small to medium, but are sweet and well-flavored. The vines are vigorous and productive. Sheridan is also a late-ripening variety, and for this reason should be planted only in warm sites. The berries are blue and of excellent quality where the variety ripens properly. Golden Muscat, a hybrid variety, ripens in late October in western Washington. The berries are green and of excellent quality when fully ripe. This grape should be grown only in warmer sites. Pierce (California Concord) is very similar to Concord in all respects, but is better adapted to warm climates. It is recommended as an American foxy grape for the warmer regions of central California. Christmas is a late-maturing variety quite similar to Concord. Because of its season it is adapted to California, where it does well along the coast. It is especially recommended as an American variety for an arbor. American varieties adapted to the higher elevations of eastern Washington and Oregon and the desert regions are: Campbell's Early, Niagara, Concord, and Delaware. Those varieties adapted to the more protected and warmer valley locations of eastern Washington and Oregon, and to intermediate desert climates are: Early Giant, Campbell's Early, Ontario, Fredonia, Niagara, Concord, Agawan, Delaware, and Keuka. American varieties for western Washington and Oregon are Campbell's Early, Portland, Worden, Seneca, Sheridan, and Golden Muscat. European varieties maturing no later than Thompson Seedless may also be grown with some success in warmer sites. Pierce is especially adapted to warmer regions where American varieties often do poorly. Christmas is recommended for California's north coast. Rootstocks and Topworking

Grapes are most generally propagated on their own roots by means of hardwood cuttings. They may also be tip layered, or otherwise layered to start a new vine. Certain selected rootstocks, which are in turn propagated by hardwood cuttings, and are therefore true varieties, are used for special purposes. Thus Rupestris St. George is highly resistant to phylloxera. Aramon x Rupestris 1 is also resistant to phylloxera, though not so much so as the above stock; it usually produces a more vigorous vine. Solonis x Othello 1613 is only moderately resistant to phylloxera

161 but is highly resistant to root-knot nematode. Dogridge and Salt Creek are also resistant to root-knot nematode, but on them many vines tend to be over-vegetative. European varieties on American rootstocks would show the degree of resistance to phylloxera characteristic of the rootstock. Unless the problems of phylloxera or root-knot nematode are known to exist, own-rooted vines are probably best under all circumstances. Either the European or American varieties may be grafted upon each other. See the special directions for grafting grape vines on pages 73-74. Western Fruits

Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Throughout the world, grapes are grown commercially in practically every type of soil from gravelly sands to clay loams; from shallow to very deep soils; and in those ranging from high to low fertility. It is well, however, to avoid very heavy clays and soils that are very shallow, poorly drained, or that contain relatively high concentrations of salts of alkali metals, or boron. The deeper and more fertile soils usually produce the heaviest crops and are usually preferred. Certain varieties, notably Malaga, attain higher quality when grown on soils of limited depth. Of the three fertilizer elements—nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—nitrogen is usually the only one to which vines respond. They respond favorably when lack of that element has been limiting their growth and productivity. If in doubt, apply nitrogen, & to % pound ammonium sulfate, or its equivalent, to a vine and see if any benefit results. Water Requirements

Moisture should be readily available to the vine at all times. It is usually well to irrigate the vines sometime just before they are ready for harvest. The plants may need no water following the beginning of harvest until all the grapes are picked, but it is better to water them during that period than to have the vines suffer. They should be watered following the picking of the grapes unless the winter rains have started. Pruning

Pruning of grape vines differs greatly from the pruning of trees, as discussed in Part I. Pruning and training of vines have two objectives: to shape the vine to meet the gardener's needs, and to balance fruit production with vegetative development of the vine.

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Four systems of training are in use: training to a head, training to canes, cordon training, and finally, training on arbors or pergolas. The first is simplest, occupies the least space, and requires the least support for the vine. Other systems of training require trellises or other supports, as given on pages 168-169. Training a grape vine takes three to four years, after which the vine is treated as a mature, bearing plant. The gardener may plant a cutting or buy a rooted one. If a cutting is planted, the first year's growth is cut back to a single cane and a single bud, and the vine allowed to grow undisturbed for another year. If a rooted, pruned cutting is planted, set it so that only the top bud is level with the ground, and then mound a little soil over the TRAINING Y O U N G VINES

top of the plant. Developing buds will push their way to the surface. Then proceed as described below. Pruning Young European Grape Vines.—For all systems of training, the vine is allowed to grow undisturbed the -first year after planting. The object of this is to develop a good root system; the vine should be kept well watered to insure healthy development. At the time of the first dormant pruning, all but one strong cane is pruned from the vine, and the remaining cane is cut back to two or three buds. During the second summer, the object of training for all systems is to develop a single, strong cane which will form the trunk of the vine. After the two or three buds left following the first dormant pruning have made a few inches growth, the best-placed and strongest shoot is saved and the others are removed. This shoot is trained

163 up along a stake, which is best placed at the time of planting. The shoot is loosely tied. Lateral shoots from this cane are allowed to develop, but suckers from the roots and crown should be removed. If low-growing laterals tend to outgrow the upright cane, they should be pinched at the tip to slow their growth. The upright cane is kept tied to the stake, and is allowed to grow about a foot above the height chosen for heading, at which point it is headed by pinching out the tip, if the vine is to be trained to a head or for cane pruning. Cordon-trained vines (second summer) are allowed to grow unheaded, but two strong laterals, or the main shoot and a strong lateral, are chosen at a point about 8 to 10 inches below the trellis wire (see p. 168) to which the cordon is to be trained. All other laterals are pinched back, as is the main cane if it has not been chosen for one of the cordons. The selected canes are brought up to the trellis wire from the trunk in a smooth curve of about a 6- to 8-inch radius, and are tied along the trellis wire to form the cordon. The two canes are trained in opposite directions along the trellis; this bilateral cordon is recommended. The ties should not be made too close to the growing tip—keep a foot or more back of it. The canes are trained out along the wire to a point about 18 inches beyond the mid-point to the next vine, where they are pinched out at the tip. If these canes are not vigorous enough to make the required growth to start them along the trellis during the second summer, the chosen canes are cut to two buds during the following winter, and the trellis training is accomplished the third summer by using vigorous shoots from the spurs. If they can be trained only part way to the center during the second summer, a strong terminal cane of the third summer is used to complete the formation of the cordons; choose a strong bud from the underside of the cordon. If the second summer's growth has been normal, the next dormant pruning follows as directed below for the various systems of training. Canes of head-trained vines are cut off at the node above where the head is to be formed, cutting through the node in such a manner as to destroy the bud at that point. The cane is tied tightly to the supporting stake at the top, and more loosely about half-way to the ground. All lateral canes below the middle of the trunk cane are removed entirely, and weak laterals above this point are also removed. Two to four strong laterals may be cut back to two or three buds each. The greater the vigor of the vine, the more spurs are left. The greater the diameter of the cane, the more buds that can be left. As a rule of thumb, not counting the basal bud: for a cane the Western Fruits

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diameter of a lead pencil, leave one bud; the diameter of your little finger, leave two buds; the diameter of the index finger, leave three buds; the diameter of the thumb or larger, leave four buds. Vines to be cane-pruned may have one fruiting cane left, 8 to 12 buds long. On weaker vines only a single spur of two buds is left. Cordon-trained vines have the lateral arms cut back to a point at which they are about % inch in diameter. If the pruned length along the trellis wires is not a foot or more, the arms should be cut to two buds, from which a strong shoot is used to form the cordon during the next growing season. During the third season in place, the vine may provide some fruit but the essentials of training are still followed to complete the formation of a strong, well-trained vine. If more fruit is produced than is compatible with good vine growth, it should be removed as quickly as the fact is recognized. All suckers and buds developing on the lower half of head- and cane-pruned vines should be removed; cordon vines have all growth on the trunk and arm bends removed. This is best done by going over the vines a few times during the summer and rubbing off the new growth. Shoots beyond the bends of cordon-trained vines which tend to become too vigorous are pinched at about 15 to 18 inches length, to allow the weaker laterals to keep pace. All shoots developing from the underside of the arms are removed, leaving only those on the top half of the arms. Strong terminal growth is tied to an upper wire during midsummer so that the weight of new canes and foliage will not turn the cordon arms over; if this happens, it can probably not be corrected. Cordon-trained vines sometimes overbear during the third season, although if the arms have been properly pruned the previous winter this should not often happen. However, if more fruit forms than the vigor of the vine indicates is reasonable, it should be severely thinned out by removing bunches entirely. Suckering is continued for all types of training at intervals throughout this growing season; on cordon-trained vines take care to keep all growth off the arms at the bend. By this time the vines should have reached a stage at which they can be considered bearing vines, and are pruned accordingly. Depending upon the vigor of the vine, this stage may be reached a year sooner or later—just follow the training procedures until the vines have developed as outlined. Pruning Mature European Grape Vines.—Head-trained vines are usually spur-pruned and, because of the limited space allotted them,

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the pruning given is the most severe. The trunk will probably have been headed at a height of 1 to 3 feet. From the strong canes developing during the third summer in place, remove all but three to six canes, depending on vine vigor. These are cut to two to three or four buds, depending on cane vigor, as indicated by diameter of the canes. These will be the fruiting spurs. They will be spaced around the trunk, but should be as near the top as convenient. In following seasons, strong canes from the bases of these fruiting spurs, or new canes that develop from older wood, are chosen. These are distributed uniformly around the trunk, nearly at one height, to develop the arms of the vine gradually in a symmetrical pattern. New fruit spurs are formed by cutting back to two to four buds those canes reserved, all other canes being removed each dormant season. The number of fruiting spurs retained is fruiting spurs

It/

MATURE HEAD-TRAINED SPUR-PRUNED VINE

gradually increased as the vine ages and develops, until on old, large, head-trained vines 10 to 20 such spurs may be retained annually. Production of fruit is balanced with vine vigor; if overbearing slows the growth of the vine, leave fewer fruiting spurs. During the earlier years some attention will need to be given to the removal of suckers and watersprouts low on the trunk; on older vines these will not be so likely to form. Vines to be cane-pruned are handled in much the same fashion as head-trained vines, except that canes of 6 to 18 buds (depending on vine and can vigor) are retained for fruiting, and the selection is made so as to form the arms along the trellis in a fan shape rather than symmetrically around the trunk. At the third dormant pruning in the life of the vine two such canes are selected. All others are removed. The selected ones are tied along the trellis wire. These selected canes will produce the fruit; from the base of such

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canes strong lateral shoots will arise. At the following dormant pruning two of the strongest of these laterals are retained and cut back to two buds; the rest of the fruiting cane is cut off. Always remove old fruiting canes. The spurs left will develop the fruiting canes for selection at the next pruning. From spurs left at the bases of the

fruiting canes the preceding season, new fruiting canes are selected and in turn tied along the trellis wire. In later years the number of canes selected at each pruning is increased to four or six. If the vine is to be trained high, as against a wall or on a pergola, the number may be increased to fill the space,

for the vine will have much more leaf surface, and can therefore carry more fruit. Cordon-trained vines require a great deal more attention. At the third dormant pruning fruiting spurs are retained along the cordon arm, spaced 8 to 12 inches apart from the arm bend to the tip. These

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are cut to two or three buds, depending on the vigor of the canes. The cordon arms should be retied, straightening them as much as possible, and care should be taken to remove any sags in the arms. During the following summer, the strong canes arising from the fruiting arms should be tied to an upper wire to avoid bending or twisting the cordons. Growth of the canes can be kept even by judicious pinching of overly vigorous canes. With both cane- and cordon-pruned vines, growth on the trunks should be removed at intervals until it no longer develops. Crop regulation of cordon vines is determined partly by the number of arms developed, and the fruiting spurs left on them each season; but many varieties may tend to overbear, so that some other regulation is necessary. This is usually accomplished by thinning, as discussed below. Vines to be trained on arbors or pergolas are treated in much the same manner as described above for cordon training. The trunks are longer, of course, and are developed by training canes into the desired space. Varieties which need to be cane-pruned, such as Thompson Seedless, are treated as discussed above; other varieties are trained to multiple cordon systems. The vine is headed at the top of the arbor, and cordons developed from appropriately spaced canes; these are then spur-pruned. On walls, multiple cordon systems are best used, training the cordons at intervals over the wall to be covered. Tying and support for these cordons are essential. Pruning American Grape Vines.—American grape vines are trained most easily to the Kniffen system, which is the only method described here. This differs but slightly from the method described for cane-pruning European grape varieties. The planted, rooted cutting is pruned to one cane, which is cut to two buds. During the first summer direct the growth into the strongest cane by pinching back others. Tie this cane to a stake to secure a straight trunk. At the next dormant pruning cut off all shoots but the one saved to form the trunk, which is cut off just above the upper trellis wire, and to which it is tightly tied. Tie it loosely to the lower wire. If the cane selected has not made vigorous enough growth to reach the upper trellis wire, cut it back to two buds and form the trunk the next season. After the next season's growth, prune away all but two canes at each trellis wire level. These canes are tied loosely to the trellis; they will fruit the following summer. Cut them to four to eight buds,

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not counting the basal bud, depending upon vigor. These canes will also produce shoots from which renewal spurs will be selected the following year. In later years, remove old fruiting canes; select vigorous canes for next year's fruiting. Tie them to the trellis and cut them 6 to 10 buds long, depending upon vigor. This will make a maximum of 40 buds —on the four canes—which is about all a mature vine will fruit satisfactorily. Also select from the base of the old fruiting cane, or the arms near the trunk, two or three strong canes and cut these to two buds each. Growth from these will supply the next season's fruiting canes. These steps are repeated annually. One modification eliminates the lower two canes and trellis wires —all being carried high, at the top of the trellis. The trellis should be constructed with level cross arms at the top of the posts, at each end of which a wire is carried. Canes will grow over these wires, and less tying is needed. The ground under the vines can be kept clear, as all growth is carried high, and it is easier to work with the vines and fruit during the summer. Other small fruit plants, such as gooseberries and currants, can be planted under the vines if desired. All American grapes can be trained this way; they bear smaller bunches than the European grapes, and more fruiting wood must be left to secure adequate yields. American grape varieties can also be trained over arbors and walls. Extend the trunk to the desired height as opportunity affords, and develop fruiting canes well spaced out in such a manner that foliage, growth, and cropping will be in balance. Each fruiting cane is then treated like a single Kniffen-system fruiting cane at time of pruning. Staking and Trellising.—Staking is necessary for head-pruned vines, and trellises for cane-pruned and cordon-trained vines. Stakes and trellises are best erected before planting. Head-pruned vines will need support for five to eight years, after which they are usually able to support themselves. The stakes should be redwood, and of sufficient strength to hold the vine securely when it is tied. Stakes 4 to 6 feet long are good. The trellis is constructed much as those for blackberry described on page 119. A stake is placed at each vine position, and the end stakes should be of sufficient size and strength to hold the wire tight. A two-wire trellis is usually sufficient for cane-pruned or cordon vines. The wires should be at about 3 and 4 feet from the ground, respectively. A wide-top trellis is an aid in producing the highest quality table

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grapes. It enables you to retain more fruiting wood, to develop more leaf area on the vine, and to manipulate the bunches more easily for spacing, thinning, and harvesting. The wide top is constructed by wiring a cross arm to the top of each stake, at an angle of about 30° from the horizontal. The cross arm is of 2" x 2" stock, and about 3 feet long. About a third is left on the low side of the cross arm, and the longer arm is directed upward. Three wires are stretched along this cross arm; vine growth is trained up over this slanting trellis slope. The low edge should face the sun.

Vines trained to arbors and pergolas can be tied to the structure. Wires will be needed if training is against a wall. These can usually be anchored to the wall, and should be 5 or 6 inches from it. Fruit Thinning and Girdling Fruit thinning of European grapes (American varieties are not thinned) is accomplished by three methods: flower-cluster removal, cluster removal after set, and berry thinning. Each has its place, and aids in producing quality fruit. The gardener should try his hand at these practices to grow "picture-book" clusters of the best possible fruit. Flower-cluster removal is practiced at time of bloom; extra clusters are removed with the result that those remaining set more compactly. Use this method on varieties that tend to set poorly, or set loose clusters. If flower-cluster removal is practiced regularly, the preceding dormant pruning may be somewhat less severe, for extra flower clusters are removed early in the season, and the additional leaf area afforded will result in higher quality grapes. Varieties tending to set compact clusters should not be flower-cluster-thinned. Cluster thinning after fruit-set enables the gardener to remove small and poorly set clusters, and allows the vine to expend more

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energy on the better clusters remaining. It does not affect the nature of the remaining clusters, except perhaps in quality, because the set of berries has already been determined. It is a highly advantageous method to use on any vines that have set too many clusters. Berry thinning, while more tedious, enables the grower to produce the most perfect bunches, especially when used in conjunction with one of the above methods. It is done soon after the berries set, and is usually accomplished by cutting off the more distal end of the bunch and perhaps one or more of the branches of the cluster. Such thinning reduces the size of the bunch, and changes its shape. The nutrition of the vine is expended on the remaining berries, with a resulting increase in quality. When combined with cluster thinning, berry thinning can produce very attractive bunches of high-quality grapes. Berry thinning is usually limited to varieties that tend to set compact clusters; it opens them up and allows for better development of the individual berries. The gardener may well use all three methods of thinning on a single vine in one season: flower-cluster thinning to reduce total bunch number to near what the vine can properly mature; cluster thinning a little later to remove any extra bunches and poorly shaped clusters; and finally, berry thinning to produce clusters of greatest eye appeal and berries of best quality. Girdling is an operation that aids in the production of quality grapes, often markedly increases berry size, and allows the grower better control of coloring and time of maturity of some varieties. Girdling is always performed in the same manner, but the purpose to be accomplished regulates the time of girdling. Seedless varieties set more heavily if girdling is done at the time of bloom. Girdling a week or two after bloom will greatly increase the size of these varieties—sometimes doubling their size. Thompson Seedless girdled to increase berry size will need to be berry-thinned as well, for the bunches are normally compact, and with increased berry size will be too much so. Seeded varieties are not increased in size greatly by such girdling, but the little extra size may be sufficient to recommend the practice to the gardener interested in producing clusters of greatest attractiveness. Seedless berries on seeded varieties are increased in size just as are the berries of seedless varieties. Girdling to increase color and hasten maturity should be done just as the berries start to color. It will be effective only on seeded varieties; seedless varieties show no response. Vines bearing light crops show the greatest response; heavily bearing vines show none. Girdling is done by cutting out a strip of bark around the vine trunk, an arm, or a cane. The girdle should be about %e inch wide,

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and the bark should be removed, but the cut should not be scraped. Normally, girdles should heal in from three to six weeks. Trunk girdles that fail to heal over will cause the death of the vine; unhealed cane or arm girdles are less serious. However, properly healed girdles appear to leave no deleterious effects, and vines have been girdled for many years in succession without damage to them. The girdle affects only the fruit borne beyond the point of girdling. It stops the movement of sugars to the roots, and these may then accumulate in greater amounts in the grapes. As the girdle quickly stops transport of food materials to the roots, these stop growing, and the vine is seriously weakened while the girdle is open. For this reason overcropping of girdled vines is to be studiously avoided. Actually, girdled vines should be expected to bear only about two-thirds as much fruit as a similar ungirdled vine. A gardener growing vigorous, healthy vines and practicing the arts of thinning and girdling has an opportunity to "outdo" any of his neighbors who do not make use of these techniques. Harvesting and Handling

As grapes mature they become noticeably sweeter, with less acid, and take on the characteristic color and flavor of the variety. The red or black varieties rapidly change color; green-berried varieties become yellowish or whitish. The main cluster stem often becomes brown or woody. With these facts as a guide, taste some of the greenest berries of the cluster—those near the apex. If they are sweet and flavorful, the bunch is ready for harvest. It should be clipped from the vine, and any over-ripe or diseased berries removed from the cluster. Grapes to be dried for raisins should be allowed to hang on the vines somewhat longer, as their sugar content will increase. However, they should be picked by mid-September, to allow complete drying before the fall rains start. Diseases and Pests

Grapes are subject to numerous diseases and pests. A few of these will probably be recurring in almost all districts, and will require annual sprays or dusts to control. Others may be more sporadic in appearance. Powdery mildew, which requires frequent dusts through the growing season to control, is one of the most serious of grape diseases. Several mites can cause considerable trouble to vines; these are less likely to gain a foothold if the vines are kept vigorous. Phylloxera, a plant louse which attacks the roots of all European and some

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American grapes, may be serious in a few locations, but methods for escaping the damage of this pest are available (see pp. 160-161). A few serious virus diseases attack grapes, but these are not likely to be found in your garden.

GRAPEFRUIT

Citrus paradisi

Macfad.

Grapefruit flavor is more influenced by temperature during the growing season than is the flavor of oranges. In the cooler districts, it may take 18 months or more for the fruits to be acceptable for eating and even then they may be too acid for most palates, whereas in hotter areas, good fruits may mature in 15 months or so from the time the flowers open. The trees are slightly less resistant to cold than orange trees, but the fruits show about as much resistance as orange. In those areas where the day temperatures go as high as 115° to 120° F, the trees and exposed fruit show less injury than orange and lemon under similar conditions. Grapefruits grown near the coast are not good. Grapefruit, then, is adapted to warmer inland areas of the south coast, the central valleys of California if they can be given adequate winter protection, but preeminently to the desert regions, especially of Arizona. Varieties

Marsh is the most important variety and is highly recommended. The fruit is large, averaging about four inches in diameter; the juice is abundant and highly flavored. The best fruit is seedless or nearly so. In the desert, fruits ripen from December to May, but near the coast, from May to August. The skin is thinner and the pulp sweeter in the hotter regions. The fruit may be allowed to remain on the tree for about four months after it reaches maturity, without de-

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American grapes, may be serious in a few locations, but methods for escaping the damage of this pest are available (see pp. 160-161). A few serious virus diseases attack grapes, but these are not likely to be found in your garden.

GRAPEFRUIT

Citrus paradisi

Macfad.

Grapefruit flavor is more influenced by temperature during the growing season than is the flavor of oranges. In the cooler districts, it may take 18 months or more for the fruits to be acceptable for eating and even then they may be too acid for most palates, whereas in hotter areas, good fruits may mature in 15 months or so from the time the flowers open. The trees are slightly less resistant to cold than orange trees, but the fruits show about as much resistance as orange. In those areas where the day temperatures go as high as 115° to 120° F, the trees and exposed fruit show less injury than orange and lemon under similar conditions. Grapefruits grown near the coast are not good. Grapefruit, then, is adapted to warmer inland areas of the south coast, the central valleys of California if they can be given adequate winter protection, but preeminently to the desert regions, especially of Arizona. Varieties

Marsh is the most important variety and is highly recommended. The fruit is large, averaging about four inches in diameter; the juice is abundant and highly flavored. The best fruit is seedless or nearly so. In the desert, fruits ripen from December to May, but near the coast, from May to August. The skin is thinner and the pulp sweeter in the hotter regions. The fruit may be allowed to remain on the tree for about four months after it reaches maturity, without de-

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terioration. The tree is vigorous and bears heavily. Trees should be spaced about 20 to 24 feet apart. Ruby is a seedless, red-fleshed fruit with a pronounced crimson or pink blush on the rind. In other qualities, it compares favorably with Marsh. In places near the coast, Ruby shows very little color, either of flesh or rind. While none of the grapefruit varieties is well adapted to coastal areas, the lack of red or pink color of Ruby does not otherwise impair the quality. The coloration is regularly well developed only in the desert areas. As all citrus fruits have nearly the same cultural requirements and present nearly identical horticultural problems, the discussion of these for grapefruit is presented under Orange, on pages 196-201.

GUAVAS Psidium

species

Cattley and common guavas are used mainly for the pleasant, but musky, well-known jelly and other preserved products. The guava has a high vitamin C content which cooking apparently does not destroy. The larger, improved varieties have thick flesh and are agreeable eaten out-of-hand or as dessert or salad fruits. The best tropical guavas are sprightly, with a sweet, somewhat musky flavor. The guavas are in reality large evergreen bushes and need as much space as a well-pruned peach tree, that is, about 18 to 20 feet. Again, pruning can keep a bush within lower limits, but the yield of fruit will be smaller. Cattley's grow much more slowly than the common guava, the fruits are considerably smaller, but the plants are much more ornamental. The tropical guava may be killed at 26° F or even at higher tem-

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terioration. The tree is vigorous and bears heavily. Trees should be spaced about 20 to 24 feet apart. Ruby is a seedless, red-fleshed fruit with a pronounced crimson or pink blush on the rind. In other qualities, it compares favorably with Marsh. In places near the coast, Ruby shows very little color, either of flesh or rind. While none of the grapefruit varieties is well adapted to coastal areas, the lack of red or pink color of Ruby does not otherwise impair the quality. The coloration is regularly well developed only in the desert areas. As all citrus fruits have nearly the same cultural requirements and present nearly identical horticultural problems, the discussion of these for grapefruit is presented under Orange, on pages 196-201.

GUAVAS Psidium

species

Cattley and common guavas are used mainly for the pleasant, but musky, well-known jelly and other preserved products. The guava has a high vitamin C content which cooking apparently does not destroy. The larger, improved varieties have thick flesh and are agreeable eaten out-of-hand or as dessert or salad fruits. The best tropical guavas are sprightly, with a sweet, somewhat musky flavor. The guavas are in reality large evergreen bushes and need as much space as a well-pruned peach tree, that is, about 18 to 20 feet. Again, pruning can keep a bush within lower limits, but the yield of fruit will be smaller. Cattley's grow much more slowly than the common guava, the fruits are considerably smaller, but the plants are much more ornamental. The tropical guava may be killed at 26° F or even at higher tem-

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peratures, but may sprout from the roots and be yielding again in two or three years. Cool summer weather causes trees of some strains to die back, with the living leaves showing a yellowish mottling. Even where the winters are frost-free, if the mean summer temperature is 60° F or lower the trees tend to stop growing, and eventually die from lack of heat. However, guavas cannot stand the high summer temperatures of the desert regions or the warmest parts of the central valleys. The Cattley guavas withstand cool summers better, and are distinctly more frost-resistant than the common guava. As a general rule, Cattley guavas may be produced wherever lemons are grown. Common guavas, being more tender, can be grown only in the most protected places. For these reasons, guavas are limited almost entirely to the south coast region. Varieties

Two species of guavas may be grown, the common or tropical guava (Psidium guajava L.), often called the lemon guava, and the Cattley guava (P. cattleianum Sabine), sometimes known as the strawberry guava. The so-called pineapple guava is the feijoa; see page 144. A few selections of common guava are now available, for example, Rolfe, Florence, Webber, and Riverside. Cattley guava has no varieties named and propagated as such. The plants you purchase probably will be seedlings; you may want to plant seed and raise the seedlings yourself. These seedlings may show considerable variation of habit, in time of flowering and maturity, and in bearing behavior. With good cultivation, the size and quality of the fruit may be greatly improved. Guavas may be round, oblong, or pear-shaped; they vary in size from about 1 to 4 inches in length; the waxy skin surface varies from smooth to very ridged. Flesh color is white, yellow, or pink in the common guavas, but only white in Cattleys. The pulp is soft and juicy, with an agreeable flavor. Flowers usually appear during May, but they may be delayed until late midsummer if the spring is especially cool. Fruits mature as early as three months after full bloom, depending upon the strain and the climate. Pollination Requirements

The pollination problems of guavas have not been studied; most plantings are mixed seedlings, and produce satisfactory crops.

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Rootstocks

The named varieties of guavas are propagated by budding or grafting to seedlings of guava, or by propagating them on their own roots by means of soft- and hardwood cuttings, and by root cuttings. All methods of propagation succeed with extreme difficulty. Exposing and cutting a root, but leaving it otherwise undisturbed, sometimes forces a sucker from the cut end. The root can then be dug, and the resulting plant transferred to a new site. Obviously only own-rooted varieties will come true by this method. As present named varieties are but little superior to good seedlings, the most satisfactory way for the gardener to secure new plants may be simply to grow or plant such seedlings. Seed from large-fruited, good selections should be used, as these will produce the highest percentage of good to superior guava seedlings. Cattley guavas seem to come nearly true from seed. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

The trees do well on a wide range of soils, from open sands to compact clays. Fertilizer requirements are the same as for citrus trees. Water generously during the dry season. If water is withheld, blooming may be delayed. Pruning

Guavas are not pruned except at the expense of yield. Harvesting and Handling

Guavas may be picked when they begin to soften. They are a tender fruit, so should be carefully handled. Diseases and Pests

Guavas have not been observed to succumb to attacks of disease organisms or insect pests, except to occasional attacks of greenhouse thrips.

JUJUBE

Zizyphus ¡ujuba MUI. This fruit is often spoken of as the Chinese date because it is similar in shape and coloring to the common date. The shiny, reddish-brown skin is quite parchment-like, and covers a mild, rather sweetish, somewhat pithy flesh which is crisp when eaten fresh. However, in China its principal uses are as a candied or glacéed fruit, and dried and canned. The trees are highly ornamental and go well with lawn shrubbery. They are medium-sized, upright growing, and have small, shiny green leaves. The twigs assume a very characteristic zig-zag pattern that adds much to the tree's character, especially when bare in the winter. The jujube is quite winter hardy; in addition it has a very low chilling requirement. But it does not grow well or ripen its fruits in regions where the summer temperatures are low or the summers short. It is, therefore, best adapted to the hot valleys of California, and is an excellent tree for the desert regions. Varieties

Only two varieties have reached any importance; both come from China. Lang is rather pear-shaped, about 1/2 inches long and half as broad. Li is round and larger (2 inches in diameter). Trees of both varieties bear fruits in great profusion. They bear very early in their life, sometimes having fruits the first year following planting; they may reach full bearing in three or four years. The fruit ripens during September and October. The flowers bloom quite late in the spring, usually in May, thus escaping most frosts and assuring a continuous succession of crops. The trees, under favorable conditions, may reach a height of 20 to 25 feet. 176

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Rootstocks

Jujubes are propagated by budding or grafting onto jujube seedlings, and may be propagated on their own roots by hardwood and root cuttings. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

The jujube does well on a wide range of soils, but grows most strongly on deep, well-drained soils of medium texture. It is said to do well on soils too saline to support good growth of other fruit trees. Its nutrient requirements are not yet known. As with other trees, jujube should be adequately watered during the summer months for best growth, although it is quite resistant to drought. Diseases and Pests

Jujube trees appear to be free of all diseases and pests.

KUMQUATS Forfunella species

This is a citrus fruit that is edible in its entirety—both flesh and rind. The flesh is mildly acid, bearing few seeds. For such a small fruit (kumquats average about an inch in length and slightly less in diameter), the rind is fairly thick, but is spicy and sweet. The tree is shapely and small, rarely achieving a height of more than 10 feet on its own roots. On trifoliate orange rootstock, it is very dwarf—from 2 to 4 feet tall. Thus it is admirably suited not only for growing in pots or tubs, in a patio or along a walkway, or in the garden proper, but also inside the home. These trees make a fine hedge.

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Rootstocks

Jujubes are propagated by budding or grafting onto jujube seedlings, and may be propagated on their own roots by hardwood and root cuttings. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

The jujube does well on a wide range of soils, but grows most strongly on deep, well-drained soils of medium texture. It is said to do well on soils too saline to support good growth of other fruit trees. Its nutrient requirements are not yet known. As with other trees, jujube should be adequately watered during the summer months for best growth, although it is quite resistant to drought. Diseases and Pests

Jujube trees appear to be free of all diseases and pests.

KUMQUATS Forfunella species

This is a citrus fruit that is edible in its entirety—both flesh and rind. The flesh is mildly acid, bearing few seeds. For such a small fruit (kumquats average about an inch in length and slightly less in diameter), the rind is fairly thick, but is spicy and sweet. The tree is shapely and small, rarely achieving a height of more than 10 feet on its own roots. On trifoliate orange rootstock, it is very dwarf—from 2 to 4 feet tall. Thus it is admirably suited not only for growing in pots or tubs, in a patio or along a walkway, or in the garden proper, but also inside the home. These trees make a fine hedge.

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Kumquats are one of the hardiest citrus fruits known—much hardier than oranges and somewhat more so than mandarins. They do well in nearly all parts of California and Arizona except the mountain regions, and with proper winter protection can be grown in the Pacific Northwest. The trees grow very slowly in cool weather, and hence are liable to fruit very little in the cooler coastal districts. However, they will remain living under conditions which would eventually kill other citrus. Flowers appear in late spring and early summer and are therefore not subject to frost damage. In cool places they may fail to bloom. Most of the fruits ripen early, from fall to midwinter, but the tree tends to bear nearly all year. The fruits hold well on the tree for many weeks. Fruit quality is generally better in hot climates than in cool ones. Varieties

Two species of kumquats are grown, Fortunella japonica (Thunb.) Swing., the round or Marumi kumquat, and F. margarita (Lour.) Swing., the oval or Nagami kumquat. There are no pomological varieties. One or the other of these species is planted. The cultural requirements and horticultural problems of the kumquat are discussed in the appropriate headings under Orange (pp. 196-201), as those of all citrus are so nearly alike.

LEMON Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.

The uses of lemons are many and familiar. Lemons are produced over a long period of time, and store remarkably well in a cool place. The trees of some varieties are small and thus do not take up much room in the garden. The lemon is more susceptible to cold than either orange or grapefruit. The wood is badly injured at temperatures around 21° F; the blossoms and young fruits, which may be present and at various degrees of development in the winter, cannot withstand temperatures below 29° F. On the other hand, most lemons do not do well in regions with extreme summer temperatures. For these reasons, lemons are best adapted to the south coast, both near the ocean and in favored localities inland. Lemons develop their best acid flavor near the coast in summer, and at average temperatures too low for oranges and grapefruit to reach highest quality. Farther north in California, growing temperatures are too low along the coast, and inland winter minimum temperatures are likely to be damaging. The lemon will do better if planted in the lee of a building or tree where it is protected from winds. Hot, dry winds tend to defoliate the trees; in cool locations the windbreak will result in more favorable growing temperatures. Varieties

Meyer, a hybrid lemon, is definitely recommended for the garden, as the tree is decidedly dwarfish, achieving a height of about 6 or 7 feet, with corresponding spread. It produces abundantly and is more resistant to cold than true lemons. It will do well in the central valley and warmer coastal locations of northern California. The orangecolored skin is thin; the medium-sized fruit is very juicy, but a little less acid than true lemons. The tree may be adapted in various ways, as a single tree, as a large shrub, and as a hedge, or it may be grown 179

180 Western Fruit Gardening in a pot for use on the patio. It is a very adaptable variety in every respect, from the standpoint of climate, usefulness, and ornamentation. Eureka is a smooth, thin-skinned variety; it is extremely popular because of the season in which most of its crop is borne. Harvesting peaks are from March to May and from October to December, but in the coastal regions, from January to March and from June to September. Eureka is best suited to the coast. The tree is spreading, open, of medium vigor, and is much more subject to frost injury than any other lemon variety. Lisbon fruit is nearly identical to that of Eureka. The tree is large, vigorous, dense, and spreading. It tends to bear its fruit on the inside of the tree, away from sun and wind. Lisbon is hardier than Eureka to both hot and cold weather. The cultural requirements and horticultural problems of the lemon are treated in the sections on the Orange, pages 196-201, as these are so similar for all citrus.

LIMES Citrus

species

Limes and lime-like fruits are usually used forflavoring.They exceed lemons in both acid and sugar content, and are consequently valued as a highly flavored acid fruit. The trees bloom and mature fruit all year long, but the heaviest bloom follows a rather long, dry period or a cool winter. The lime is one of the tenderest of all citrus fruits—even more tender than the lemon. Lime plantings should not be attempted where the temperature is likely to fall below 28° F. Their culture is limited to the most protected localities of the south coast region. In other places almost prohibitive winter protection is necessary. Varieties of related species are more satisfactory because such trees are more frost-resistant. Rangpur, not a true lime at all, is an excellent lime or lemon substitute and is recommended for garden planting, especially where the winters are too cold for either the lemon or lime. This variety is equivalent to orange for cold resistance. Limequats may be assumed to have climatic limitations quite similar to the hardier, lime-like citrus, such as Rangpur. Calomondin is one of the most cold-resistant of all our edible citrus fruits; however, it will not do well in climates as cool as the kumquat will tolerate. Varieties

The true limes belong to Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swing.; the Bearss and Mexican varieties belong here. The Rangpur variety is thought to be a hybrid form, possibly between lime and mandarin: C. aurantifolia x C. reticulata; sometimes it is considered an acid mandarin. Calomondin is a separate species (C. mitis Blanco), although some consider it closely related to the mandarin and others to the kumquat. Limequats are hybrids between limes and kumquats, C. aurantifolia x Fortunella sp. Bearss, a seedless variety, has a high acid content, yet is rich in 181

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true lime flavor. Its quality is excellent. The skin color is a light lemon-yellow, over a greenish-yellow, juicy pulp. The fruits are medium to large (nearly 2 inches in diameter), and longer than they are broad. The main crop ripens during winter to late spring, but some fruits mature more or less throughout the year. Bearss is fairly cold-resistant, more so than Mexican, and is a strong and rapid grower. It produces a fairly large tree, 15 to 20 feet tall, is vigorous and upright, and practically thornless. Bearss is perhaps more generally planted than any other lime variety. Mexican produces small, acid fruits with very thin rinds; a few seeds are usually found. The tree is small (10 to 15 feet), bushy, and has fine twigs and small leaves. It is frost tender. The numerous slender twigs and branches bear many small thorns. The greenishyellow pulp is fine-grained, with abundant juice, and has the strong, typical lime flavor. The limes mature during late fall to spring, but ripen more or less throughout the year. Calomondin fruits are orange-colored and quite small, about one inch or more in diameter; the seeds are small and few. The orangecolored pulp is tender, highly acid, and juicy. The tree is tall, growing upright some 20 to 25 feet, but rather bushy with some thorns. Rangpur produces good, highly acid fruits from frost-resistant, heavy-bearing trees. The trees are more hardy than the lemon, and seem to be as hardy as the sweet orange though the fruit is more easily injured by frosts. Skin color is a deep orange flushed with red. The acid juice comes from an orange-colored pulp in which are embedded several small seeds. The large fruits ripen mainly during the late fall to spring, but ripening goes on more or less throughout the year. The tree is vigorous, exceedingly productive, and large (15 to 20 feet tall). The thorns are small, being nearly inconspicuous on many twigs. It is one of the most useful and dependable of citrus trees for the garden and is an excellent ornamental. Eustis and Lakeland are limequat varieties. Both resemble limes to a marked degree; Lakeland bears the larger fruit of these two varieties. The main crop of fruits matures during the winter months, but a few ripen more or less throughout the year. Since limequats are hybrids between limes and kumquats, they have characteristics of both parents, but the fruits are used as limes, while the trees are hardier than the true lime. The cultural requirements and horticultural problems of the limes and other lime-like fruits are discussed in the sections under the Orange, pages 196-201, as these are so similar for all citrus.

LOQUAT Eriobotrya

japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

This long-lived evergreen produces its fruit during the spring months when other fruits are scarce. The fruits are about the size and shape of a small egg, orange-yellow, sweet, rich, and with a sprightly, aromatic flavor. The tree may reach a height of 30 to 40 feet under exceptionally favorable growing conditions, but it usually grows only about 20 to 25 feet tall, with a well-rounded, low spread of about 15 to 20 feet. In warm areas, trees may not grow much beyond 10 to 15 feet tall. The flowers, borne in clusters, usually set three to ten fruits per cluster. The dark green leaves may become a foot long on succulent growth, but usually are 5 to 10 inches long and 3 to 4 wide. They generally have toothed margins and are heavily covered with fine hairs. Hardier than most subtropical trees, the loquat thrives almost anywhere in California except in the mountain and desert regions, but does best near the coast, where high humidity and cooler weather prevail. Because the loquat blooms between December and February, its flowers may be destroyed by winter frosts and it is, therefore, not adapted to the Northwest or to high elevations. Both the young fruits and the tree are remarkably resistant to frost for an evergreen fruit tree. However, the flowers may be killed on the coldest nights even in the central valley districts of California. The tree does not do well where summer temperatures are high, and so is not well adapted to the desert regions. The fruit, which is quite exposed, sunburns readily. Varieties

Champagne fruits are medium-sized, yellow-skinned, with a tart, white flesh that is very juicy and richly flavored. This is a good variety for warmer regions as well as for the coastal ones. Fruits mature during the period from March to May. This variety is among the best for jelly-making. 183

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Advance produces large, pear-shaped fruits with deep yellow skin and white flesh. It, too, is suitable for the interior valleys as well as the coast. Gold Nugget has orange-colored flesh and skin. Gold Nugget is more suited to the coastal districts than to warm inland sections. Its season is later than that of Champagne or Advance—it matures in May and June. Thales is grown frequently in southern California. The fruits are large, orange, and mature late. Thales is similar to Gold Nugget. Rootstocks and Topworking

Loquat varieties are propagated on seedlings of loquat. This may be done by budding seedlings or by topworking established trees. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

The tree is not very tolerant of light, sandy soil and does best in a loam, but it will tolerate heavy clay. Because the loquat is a minor commercial fruit, its specific nutrient requirements have not been studied. Like all fruit trees, it will give its best performance in a fertile soil. Water requirements are similar to those for other evergreen fruits. Pruning

The branches on young trees should be spaced to avoid crowding. This is done by thinning out crowded branches. An old tree may need some shortening of its branches to reduce the danger of breakage from the weight of foliage and fruit. This pruning may be done in connection with fruit thinning. Fruit Thinning

In some years a high percentage of the flowers may set fruit. Thinning is then necessary to produce quality fruit. If not thinned, the fruit will be small, with a large proportion of seed to flesh. Also, the tree may form only a few flower clusters for the succeeding year. Thinning is most easily done by removing entire clusters. This will increase the size of the remaining fruits and reduce alternate bearing. Cluster thinning may be accomplished by cutting out some of the branches that are becoming too long. Harvesting and Handling

The fruit will have reached its characteristic golden-yellow color when it is ready for harvest. The flesh will be smooth and mellow, with a fine flavor. After fruits have been picked, they may be kept

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for a few days in cold storage. The fruits bruise easily, resulting in browning and discoloration of the skin and flesh. Diseases and Pests

Loquats are seldom troubled by diseases or pests, though occasionally they are attacked seriously. Fireblight disease and aphid infestations will probably prove most harmful.

MACADAMIA Macadamia

ternifolia F. Muell.

The macadamia (Queensland) nut is a relatively new species for the Pacific Coast. This species is native to Australia. In the open, the tree is about 30 feet tall, and is quite slow in growth and bearing. The tender trees can be grown only in nearly frost-free districts. Macadamia seedlings in southern California are about as resistant to cold as lemons or avocados of the Guatemalan race. To grow well, the tree needs average daily temperatures above 60° F, being similar to orange trees in this respect. Some trees are ever-blooming, hence ever-bearing, while others are quite seasonal. The plant will tolerate rather high humidity but it is sensitive to arid conditions. It has not thrived in interior areas having generally low humidity during the summer and heat during a large part of the year. The plant appears to be adapted only to the moderate climate of the coastal area of southern California. Varieties

Macadamias now grown are seedlings. The nuts mature about six or seven months after the blossoms appear. The kernels are high in oil content—up to 60 to 80 per cent—and have an excellent flavor. The kernel is borne in a very thick, hard, round shell, about % to I inch in diameter, which is very difficult to crack.

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for a few days in cold storage. The fruits bruise easily, resulting in browning and discoloration of the skin and flesh. Diseases and Pests

Loquats are seldom troubled by diseases or pests, though occasionally they are attacked seriously. Fireblight disease and aphid infestations will probably prove most harmful.

MACADAMIA Macadamia

ternifolia F. Muell.

The macadamia (Queensland) nut is a relatively new species for the Pacific Coast. This species is native to Australia. In the open, the tree is about 30 feet tall, and is quite slow in growth and bearing. The tender trees can be grown only in nearly frost-free districts. Macadamia seedlings in southern California are about as resistant to cold as lemons or avocados of the Guatemalan race. To grow well, the tree needs average daily temperatures above 60° F, being similar to orange trees in this respect. Some trees are ever-blooming, hence ever-bearing, while others are quite seasonal. The plant will tolerate rather high humidity but it is sensitive to arid conditions. It has not thrived in interior areas having generally low humidity during the summer and heat during a large part of the year. The plant appears to be adapted only to the moderate climate of the coastal area of southern California. Varieties

Macadamias now grown are seedlings. The nuts mature about six or seven months after the blossoms appear. The kernels are high in oil content—up to 60 to 80 per cent—and have an excellent flavor. The kernel is borne in a very thick, hard, round shell, about % to I inch in diameter, which is very difficult to crack.

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Rootstocks and Topworking Macadamias are as yet mostly own-rooted seedlings, but superior sorts may be propagated by topworking, though with difficulty. Budding seems to fail in all instances. A side bark graft, described in Part I, is most successful, with the limb being cut back after the scion is well united and growing. Success is most often attained when both stock and scion are specially treated with grafting in mind, as follows. The stock is slightly checked in growth, usually by withholding water. The shoots from which scions are to be taken are ringed about two weeks before they are cut from the tree. Under these conditions the grafting will more likely be successful. Cuttings of macadamia are rather successful. Leafy cuttings of mature branches are used; they are cut 1 or 2 feet long, and must be given excellent care: temperature not too high, humidity high, and a rich rooting medium. Trees grown from cuttings are not entirely satisfactory, however, for the roots are not well distributed. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements The macadamia can be grown in both heavy and very sandy soils, but like other trees, it does best in a deep, rich loam. Little is known of the nutrient requirements of this species. It will endure saturated soil conditions for short periods, but adequate drainage is essential for good tree growth and size. Pruning A pyramid system is suitable, as it aids in developing strong branch crotches. This system needs little pruning to maintain it, except to keep the central leader dominant in the early years. Harvesting and Handling The nuts fall over a long period, and should be harvested many times each season to avoid any deterioration of flavor. The nuts should not be shaken from the tree, but allowed to drop naturally. Remove the hulls as soon as possible. Dry the nuts in the sun to reduce the moisture content of the kernels. After the nuts are cracked, the kernels may be dried still further. The kernels may be stored for a long time if the humidity is kept low enough to discourage molds. Macadamia nuts are delicious without processing, but are even better after roasting and salting. Diseases and Pests The only trouble known to affect macadamia is oak-root fungus.

MANDARIN Citrus reticulata

Blanco

The variable group of loose-skinned, or so-called kid-glove, oranges is properly called mandarin. Tangerine is usually applied more strictly to those varieties producing deep orange or scarlet fruits. But mandarin is the older name and, on the whole, seems to be the better name to apply to the group. These are splendid trees for garden planting as they produce heavy crops of sweet, juicy, uniquely flavored fruit. In some parts of the world, mandarins are preferred over sweet oranges, but to many people their smaller size and seediness detract from their usefulness. The outstanding feature of mandarins for a good many gardeners is the fact that the trees are among the more cold-resistant citrus species. However, the fruits are as readily injured by cold as is the sweet orange. Mandarin trees are more resistant to cold than sweet oranges, but otherwise have much the same climatic limitations. Also, the fruits require a little warmer climate than oranges to mature with good quality. Mandarins, especially Satsumas, grown under cool summer temperatures, tend to be dry and of poor quality. They will do best in the interior valleys of northern California, along the south coast except near the ocean, and in the desert regions where it is not too cold for them in the winter. Varieties

Dancy (Dancy tangerine, tangerine) is the best known and most highly prized mandarin. Its attractive fruit is of excellent quality and usually sweeter than Owari. The skin color is a deep orange-red to scarlet. The pulp separates easily into the familiar segments typical of this group. Dancy matures from November to February. Its small size and numerous seeds are its only detractions. The tree is large, more upright than Clementine, and a heavy producer; it is fairly cold-resistant. Clementine (Algerian tangerine) is a medium-sized fruit with few 187

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seeds, of excellent quality and flavor. Its season is November and December, but the fruit remains good, juicy, and palatable into June. It develops good flavor in districts too cool in summer for good flavor of most other mandarins, and apparently has better flavor than Dancy in such districts. It makes a beautiful, medium-sized, spreading tree. Owari (Owari Satsuma) is a medium-sized, flat fruit, juicy and sweet, sometimes seedless; both the skin and flesh are orange. The fruit ripens from October to Christmas or later, depending on climate, and becomes overripe rather soon if left on the tree. The spreading tree is dwarf, and seldom exceeds 8 feet in height. This mandarin variety is recommended for northern California. It is far too acid, and without richness, along the coast. Kara is a newly introduced hybrid variety which shows promise of being an excellent juice mandarin. It is worthy of trial. Its late season—April through June—commends it. The deep orange fruit is about 2/2 inches in diameter. Fruits produced in warm interior valleys are somewhat larger than those in coastal areas. The juice aroma is exotic and pleasant, and the juice may be diluted as much as 50 per cent in making drinks. The rind adheres loosely and is somewhat puffy. There are about 12 to 20 seeds per fruit, but in some seasons Kara is nearly seedless. The large tree is thornless. Kinnow is another new variety; it is exceedingly high in richness, flavor, and bouquet. The skin and pulp color is a deep yellowishorange; seeds are fairly numerous. Its season is January to May. The tree is well shaped and makes an excellent ornamental. It, too, is recommended for trial. Frua is the most recent mandarin introduction. The fruit is similar to Dancy in color, ease of peeling, and flavor, but is larger in size and ripens earlier. Defects are low vigor of the tree, inability to produce a crop under hot desert conditions, and short season of the fruit. However, it is an especially early variety, and is harvested before the Washington orange reaches its best quality. It is best adapted to the southern navel-orange districts. The cultural requirements and horticultural problems of mandarins are treated in the sections on the Orange, pages 196-201, as these are so similar for all citrus.

NECTARINE Prunus persica (L.) Batsch

The nectarine is a smooth-skinned peach. Besides the smooth skin, its fruit is usually smaller, sweeter, and often has a more distinctive aroma. Most of the older varieties are tender to handle, but newer kinds are better in this regard. The trees of peach and nectarine are identical in all respects. All the characters found in peaches—freestone and clingstone, yellow flesh and white flesh, large flowers and small flowers—can also be in nectarine varieties. Each kind can produce the other from seed, and peaches mutate (or sport) to nectarines often enough so that many such changes have been observed. All persons familiar with the fruit recognize its unique appeal, and the gardener should include one or more nectarines in the space he would allot to peaches—or even to some other fruit. Varieties

Many of the old standard varieties are white-fleshed and clingstone. Most of the newer varieties, of which there are an ever increasing number of choice ones, are yellow-fleshed and freestone—characters many consider more valuable. Recommended varieties for quick freezing are Stanwick and Tioga. Few make a good canned product. Recommended varieties, in appropriate order of ripening, are: Third week in June: John Rivers, Cardinal. First week in July: Dixie, Early Flame, Silver Lode. Second week in July: Mabel, Philp. Third week in July: Flaming Gold. Fourth week in July: Pioneer, Quetta, Fuzzless-Berta. First week in August: Freedom, Garden State. Third week in August: Stanwick. First week in September: Tioga, Victoria. Among the old standard varieties these are recommended: Cardinal is an early, medium-sized, white-fleshed, semifreestone. It is attractive and of fairly good quality. The flowers are large. Dixie has a small, pointed fruit, with a mild honey-like flavor. It 189

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is a freestone, with soft, white flesh. This variety does reasonably well in areas with mild winters except near the coast. The flowers are showy. John Rivers is the earliest variety, but is badly affected by delayed foliation after warm winters and can therefore be grown only in areas with cold winters. It is an English variety of excellent quality; its flesh is greenish white, tender, juicy, and practically freestone. The blossoms are showy. Quetta fruit is large and round, with greenish-white skin which may become almost solid red under favorable conditions. The flesh is white, very firm, meaty, clingstone, and red at the pit. Stanwick fruit is large and round, with a greenish skin which becomes red under good conditions; its flesh is white, tender, juicy, of fair quality, freestone, and red at the pit. Its weakness is that it tends to drop before maturity. Stanwick produces large flowers. Newer varieties well worth planting are: Early Flame (Stark Early Flame) has yellow flesh which is semifreestone, and an attractive red and deep yellow skin. Flaming Gold is a freestone variety with yellow flesh of a good quality. The skin is smooth and red-blushed. Luther Burbank was the originator. Freedom, a new patented California variety, has a juicy, goldenyellow flesh with excellent flavor. The fruit is large, firm, freestone, and is suitable for canning and dessert use. The skin is highly colored. Fuzzless-Berta has yellow flesh and is a freestone, with fair quality. Garden State originated and was introduced in New Jersey. Its freestone fruit has yellow flesh. Mabel fruit is medium to large; the skin is a rich yellow overlaid with a deep red blush; the flesh is yellow, fine-grained, firm-melting, and freestone. The flowers are large and showy. Philp is medium to large. The skin is lemon-yellow with a deep red overcolor. The yellow flesh is firm to firm-melting, fine-grained in texture, and is of excellent flavor; Philp is a freestone variety. The flowers are large and showy. Pioneer is a freestone with yellow flesh touched with red, especially around the pit. The skin is yellow overlaid with red; the flavor is rich and distinctive. The tree is ornamental, with large, pink, and very showy flowers. Pioneer is suitable for southern California because of its slight chilling requirement. Silver Lode is another variety which does well in southern California because of its light chilling requirement. The flesh is white, sweet, of excellent texture, and freestone. The skin color is red.

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Tioga fruit is large, yellow-fleshed, and freestone. It is red at the pit. It is satisfactory for quick freezing, but does not can well. Victoria is a white-fleshed freestone variety, round, moderately firm, juicy, with high quality. The cultural requirements, including climatic limitations, and horticultural problems of the nectarine are treated in the sections on the Peach, pages 206-213, as the two are identical.

OLIVE Olea europaea

L.

Many people admire the graceful, feathery appearance of a large olive tree; its grayish foliage offers a welcome accent note to the predominant green of most garden plantings. This evergreen tree can be grown satisfactorily except where winter temperatures drop below 12° F. Green fruits will be damaged at about 28° F, but ripe ones will withstand somewhat lower temperatures. The tree will grow in cool coastal regions, but it is not likely to bear fruit regularly. The olive is best adapted to the hot, interior valleys of California and desert regions where, with proper care, good crops of fruit can be expected. Varieties Mission fruit is of medium size and blue black when thoroughly ripe. It starts to mature the first of November; picking continues for several weeks because of unevenness in ripening. Oil content is about average for olives. The tree grows much taller than either Manzanillo or Sevillano. Mission is somewhat more cold resistant than other varieties.

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Tioga fruit is large, yellow-fleshed, and freestone. It is red at the pit. It is satisfactory for quick freezing, but does not can well. Victoria is a white-fleshed freestone variety, round, moderately firm, juicy, with high quality. The cultural requirements, including climatic limitations, and horticultural problems of the nectarine are treated in the sections on the Peach, pages 206-213, as the two are identical.

OLIVE Olea europaea

L.

Many people admire the graceful, feathery appearance of a large olive tree; its grayish foliage offers a welcome accent note to the predominant green of most garden plantings. This evergreen tree can be grown satisfactorily except where winter temperatures drop below 12° F. Green fruits will be damaged at about 28° F, but ripe ones will withstand somewhat lower temperatures. The tree will grow in cool coastal regions, but it is not likely to bear fruit regularly. The olive is best adapted to the hot, interior valleys of California and desert regions where, with proper care, good crops of fruit can be expected. Varieties Mission fruit is of medium size and blue black when thoroughly ripe. It starts to mature the first of November; picking continues for several weeks because of unevenness in ripening. Oil content is about average for olives. The tree grows much taller than either Manzanillo or Sevillano. Mission is somewhat more cold resistant than other varieties.

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Manzanillo fruits are a little larger than Mission, and start to ripen earlier. Thus they may escape early frost damage. They make excellent pickles. The oil content is about average for olives. Ascolano fruits are large, with a relatively small pit; the oil content is quite high for a large olive, but below Mission and Manzanillo. The fruit is tender and thus must be handled carefully in harvesting for pickling. Of the four varieties described here, this is most satisfactory for processing. Sevillano produces much the largest olives, but the oil content is lower and the flesh has a woody texture. Since the amount of oil affects the richness of the ripe olive pickle, the above-described varieties make better processed olives. If you are interested in processing large olives only, then this variety is suitable. Pollination Requirements

Olives are self-fruitful; difficulties in securing adequate crops in some years are related to climate and perhaps to biennial bearing habit, and not to failure of pollination. Olive pollen is wind-borne; bees are not necessary to insure pollination. Rootstocks and Topworking

Although the olive tree reproduces itself in more diverse ways than any other fruit tree, no method is simple and easy. Most olive trees are purchased on their own roots, the plants being grown from cuttings. Almost any size of branch, from a leafy shoot to a large limb, will root; the latter is sometimes placed directly in the soil where the future tree is desired. Small wood produces roots most quickly, and with considerably greater success when root-promoting growth substances are used (see p. 63). Sevillano will almost certainly fail unless so treated. For small-wood cuttings, clean sand is a satisfactory rooting medium, and bottom heat is helpful. Somewhat larger and older wood, \ inch in diameter or a little more, will root more surely, but takes a little longer to etablish. Large pieces of the trunk and root bark and wood taken near the crown and planted with the bark upwards in a rich rooting soil will send up several sprouts; the large, smooth swellings apparent at the base of olive trunks will do the same when cut from the tree and buried. These are usually cut off in winter and stored in a cold, moist place until spring. Olive varieties which root with difficulty, as Sevillano, are often grafted onto seedlings. This is a time-consuming process, for the seedlings must be large enough to graft; if cuttings can be made to

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grow, even in very low percentages, they will be simpler for the gardener. Suckers taken from around the trunk of an established tree may also be used, but the fruit may be very inferior if the parent tree is not on its own roots. Varieties of olives may be topworked onto others or onto seedlings. The bark graft is usually employed. Olives will often unite with species of ash (Fraxinus) and lilac (Syringa). The California wild olive, Forestiera neo-mexicana, may prove to be a good dwarfing rootstock for olive. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

Olives will grow on a wide range of soils, both light and heavy, but do best on soils of medium texture, deep and well drained. The trees are more resistant to mild salinity than almost any other fruit tree. They will respond to applications of nitrogenous fertilizers, and need about the same amounts as most deciduous trees. A pound or two of actual nitrogen per mature tree, as needed, will do. The trees should not be stimulated too much with heavy or repeated nitrogen applications, as the maturity of the fruit is delayed, and its quality may be affected. Potassium has been found to be deficient enough to affect tree growth of olives in a few locations in California, mostly in the Sacramento Valley and neighboring foothills. Applications of 25 pounds of potassium sulfate per tree will correct the trouble; a single application will last for several years. Symptoms of potassium deficiency will be found on page 39. The olive is a drought-resistant tree. Neglected trees maintain themselves over a long period, but to grow well and set crops they need irrigation. Their water requirement is the same as for deciduous trees in summer, but they may need watering in winters in dry regions. Pruning

Olive trees are best trained in the same manner as deciduous trees —to a vase-shape, as given in Part I, pages 50-55. But after the selection of the main framework branches at the end of the first growing season, no further training is given. Pruning is then limited to cutting out crossing and interfering branches. Older trees are often not pruned at all, and at most only a light thinning out of dense growth should be considered.

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If old trees become too tall for the site, do not hesitate to head back the large branches to a more suitable height. Olives can be heavily cut without damage, but the crop will be reduced accordingly. For best production prune only lightly, or not at all. Fruit Thinning

Olives are usually not thinned. However, in years of exceptionally heavy crops the fruit of most varieties will be quite small. So, if you want to produce the largest possible olives of the variety, you can increase fruit size by thinning. This should be done as soon after fruit set as is practical. Thin until the remaining fruit average two or three per foot of twig. Most olive varieties tend to become alternate bearing, that is, they produce an exceptionally heavy crop one year, followed by one or more years of very light crops. Pruning and thinning have not been shown to overcome this tendency. The production and dropping of fruit are a distinct disadvantage when the tree is grown mainly for ornamental purposes. Recent experimental work suggests that spraying the trees at the time of bloom with preharvest-drop sprays (see p. 103), at ten times the concentration directed for that purpose, will prevent fruiting. Harvesting and Handling

The time of harvest depends upon the type of processing to be followed. For most pickling methods the fruit is hand-picked as it is turning color. Diseases and Pests

A few diseases occur on olive, but only occasionally do they become serious enough to present a troublesome control problem. Scale insects generally cause greatest concern, and some of these are very difficult to control. The trees are known to suffer from mineral deficiencies and excesses in several localities in California.

ORANGE Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck

Along the coast, the orange may be grown as far north as San Francisco Bay and in sheltered valleys for another hundred or more miles. In California's interior valleys, it is grown to the upper reaches of the Sacramento Valley, but in known cold districts it will need protection. Admittedly, the high flavor, color, and holding capacity of the fruits on the tree reach optimum in the south coast region, wherever the mean temperatures are above 62° F. Frost is a definite hazard, and even in the citrus belts of California and Arizona there have been disastrous frosts. Because oranges tend to blossom over a long period, occasional frost during the time of flowering is not serious. The fruit is on the tree during the winter, is more susceptible to frost damage than flowers or wood, and is most frequently lost to frost. The orange is the standard for comparison of cold resistance of citrus species. Vigorous, mature orange trees will withstand temperatures down to about 15° F and this fact sets the limit of their culture. Varieties

There are three classes of varieties: navel fruit (Washington, Robertson), which is characterized by an umbilical marking, a secondary fruit, at the stylar end; common, or normal, fruit (Valencia, Trovita); and blood fruit (Ruby, Torocco), characterized by bloodred pulp and juice. Judicious choice among the available varieties will yield oranges throughout a considerable part of the year. Valencia is the most important summer- or late-maturing (April to September) variety in the world. The fruit ripens some 13 to 19 months after the blossoms open. It has few seeds and an abundance of highly flavored juice. The fruit is medium-sized. The tree is about the largest of the orange varieties. 195

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Trovita is small and early-maturing. The fruit is similar to Washington but without the navel structure. It is promising for trial in the hot desert sections where Washington may not set fruit. Armstrong (Armstrong Seedless Valencia) is a new variety, relatively seedless, with other characteristics similar to Valencia. Washington is the most important winter-maturing (December through April) orange. This variety and Valencia mature the year round in the Southwest citrus districts as a whole but not for any one locality. The fruits are larger than Valencia. Washington is cultivated successfully in all citrus sections except the desert region, but reaches its highest perfection in interior valleys, especially those a few miles from the coast in southern California. An objection to Washington is its thick skin. In flavor, sweetness, and size and appearance of fruit, it is unexcelled by any other variety; it is almost always seedless. Robertson is a variety developed from Washington. It matures up to two or three weeks before its parent. The tree is not vigorous and should be on an invigorating rootstock. In other respects, it is similar to Washington. Summernavel, also developed from Washington, extends the navel season through the early summer months. The fruit is large, juicy, peels easily, and has segments that separate readily. Its season is March through August. Torocco is a blood orange—the flesh and juice are red—recently imported from Sicily. It is of medium size and thin-skinned. The flesh color varies slightly with planting area and climate. Ruby is an old, well-known blood variety, maturing from January to April. The pulp is orange with red streaks; the juice is orange to pink in color. The blood color rarely develops in coastal districts, only occasionally in the interior districts, and regularly only in the desert. The riper the fruit, the more red is present in the pulp and juice—true of all blood oranges. The following sections include information about all species of citrus discussed in this book: grapefruit, kumquat, lemon, lime, mandarin, orange, and tangelo. The requirements of each, where they differ from that of the orange, are given here. Climatic limitations are treated under the separate fruits. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of sweet and sour oranges are most generally used a.« rootstocks for oranges and other citrus fruits. Rough lemon and trifoliate orange seedlings, the latter usually somewhat dwarfing, are

197 also used to some extent. Grapefruit seedlings have been used, but are generally unsatisfactory because the trees are often variable in vigor and growth. Many other experimental stocks are being tested; one of the most promising for oranges and other citrus is seedlings of the Cleopatra mandarin. The choice of rootstock for the gardener will most likely be sweet, sour, or trifoliate orange. Sweet orange seedlings seem to be fully as satisfactory as any other stock; they grow best on medium or lighter soils, and their only great failing is susceptibility of the stock to gummosis and wet soil conditions. Sour orange seedlings are somewhat more resistant to these troubles, and for this reason have been until recently the preferred stock in many citrus districts, and the recommended stock on heavier soils. Sweet orange on sour orange rootstocks is affected by quick decline disease, while those on sweet orange rootstocks are not. To date quick decline is limited to southern California. If there are no other oranges for some distance from the planting site, the risk of losing trees from the disease will probably be very slight. Rough lemon seedling rootstocks produce very vigorous trees, but in many citrus species they lower fruit quality. Oranges are affected in this way as are grapefruits, lemons, Bearss lime, and mandarins. Trifoliate orange seedlings more or less dwarf some citrus. The strain of trifoliate stock used will affect the degree of dwarfing considerably. Dwarf citrus trees which depend upon the rootstock for their dwarf nature are usually on this stock. Most citrus species do well on trifoliate stock, but the results with sweet orange have been variable. Seedlings of other citrus than those mentioned may also be used as rootstocks for oranges and other citrus species; no recommendations can be made, except that seedlings of Cleopatra mandarin are quite promising. Kumquat is usually propagated on seedlings of trifoliate orange or grapefruit. Otherwise, the results with sweet orange may be taken as a guide in choosing a rootstock. Most citrus species, orange included, may be propagated on their own roots by means of cuttings, though they are successfully rooted with some difficulty, and seem to offer no advantage over seedling rootstocks. Hardwood to semi-hardwood cuttings are used, but they need good care in the propagation frame. Eureka and Lisbon lemons root readily from cuttings. Many true limes have, in the past, been grown simply as seedlings on their own roots; they seem to come true from seed in most cases. A variety of any species of citrus can be topworked on any other variety of the same species. In addition, most kinds of citrus can be Western Fruits

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grafted upon one another without difficulty. A multiple-variety tree will therefore be of interest to the gardener. The use of naturally small citrus species, such as kumquat, on which to topwork orange, grapefruit, or other large kinds will probably result in dwarfing of the top variety. The unions may be weak. The bark graft is preferred for such topworking but side bark grafts and patch budding may be used; cleft grafts are to be avoided if possible because of the large wounds which result from their use. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

Orange trees thrive on fertile loam soils, but do well on gravelly soils which contain considerable amounts of finer particles. They are more difficult to maintain on sands or very light soils, and often do poorly on heavy, clay soils. Possibly as important as the direct influence of soil texture are the water-retaining characteristics of the soil. Oranges and other citrus are susceptible to wet soils, but need frequent irrigation. Therefore the soil should be fast-draining. Sandy soils hold so little water it may prove difficult to maintain the soil moisture without allowing the trees to wilt at times. Although the orange and other citrus fruits are shallow rooted, deep soils are preferred simply because, with frequent irrigation necessary, shallow soils may become saturated. Orange trees require nitrogen fertilization in most soils. Light applications—ii pound of ammonium sulfate or its equivalent— should be given when the tree is young. The amount is gradually increased; mature orange trees will need from 2 to 4 pounds of actual nitrogen per year. If such applications result in overly vegetative growth, with delayed fruit maturity, decrease the amount used. Grapefruit requires about the same nitrogen fertilization as orange, but fruit quality may be more affected by excess nitrogen, so that in actual practice somewhat lighter applications should be given. Lemons require rather heavy applications of nitrogen. The larger amount recommended for oranges is normal for lemons. The trees tend to be rank-growing, and their vigor must be maintained. Other citrus, as kumquats and limes, do not need as heavy nitrogen applications as the orange; amounts from a third to half of the requirement for orange should suffice for limes and mandarins; kumquats can apparently do without nitrogen fertilization on all but the poorest soils. Citrus have not been found to need fertilizers other than nitrogen. However, in some southern citrus-producing areas, potassium has

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been found to be deficient, and as this element is known to be lacking in some California soils the gardener should watch his trees for symptoms of such deficiency. Potassium-deficient trees make slender, weak growth; the fruit is small, the leaves are puckered and lusterless. Applications of potassium sulfate in rather large amounts, 10 to 15 pounds per tree, should correct this difficulty, and the effect should last for several seasons. Apply smaller amounts to sandy soils, more to heavy soils. Other elements may prove to be deficient; these are discussed on pages 38-42. Water Requirements

Young trees should be irrigated frequently, especially during warm weather: perhaps as often as once a week. Mature trees are watered once every two or three weeks in the warmer areas; frequency is determined in part by the temperature and in part by the soil. In the coastal areas with more moderate temperatures one irrigation every month or six weeks may suffice. Lemon seems to be more water-sensitive than other citrus. Any considerable water deficit may cause the tree to suffer, and if prolonged the trees may decline. On the other hand, the trees are very susceptible to wet soils and poor aeration. Over-irrigation will often cause the trees to go into a gradual decline from which it is hard to make them recover. Shallow or heavy soils will be more difficult to irrigate properly than deep, well-drained soils. One way to avoid these difficulties is to water under half of the tree at one irrigation, and the other half the next. This will insure the tree a constant supply of water, but allows part of the soil to become relatively dry, which insures good aeration. Water should not be allowed to stand against the trunks of citrus, and the soil next the trunk should be kept as dry as possible. In basin irrigation, standing water is avoided by building a ridge about a foot from the trunk to hold the water away; see page 33. Another method is to plant the trees on a mound high enough that the soil at the trunk is above the irrigation level. Pruning

The pruning of orange and other citrus is the least important phase of their culture. Trees are usually pruned back at the time of planting to compensate for any roots disturbed in planting, and to reduce the water requirement while the tree is becoming established. The trees are usually more satisfactory if the limbs are not allowed

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to develop too close to the ground, so those arising on the lower 2 feet of the trunk may be removed, but not until sufficient foliage develops above them to keep the tree growing well, and to shade the trunk. As the trees get older, interfering and crossing limbs may be removed and dead wood cut out. The trees tend to shape themselves very nicely. Some may grow too tall, and the gardener can head them back to keep them in bounds. Lemons are somewhat exceptional, for they need more attention. If allowed to go unpruned they send up many vigorous watersprouts through the trees; these tend to shade each other, and soon die back, leaving a tangled growth of dead wood. Watersprouts and deadwood should be removed. In addition, these strong growths, if left unpruned, soon cause the tree to become too tall. The easiest method of controlling the sprouting in lemons is to pull off or cut out the watersprouts developing in the center of the tree. Those toward the outside will bend over of their own accord and soon become fruitful. Pruning of citrus affects the size of the fruit little if at all; therefore it does not serve the same thinning function as it does in the case of deciduous fruits. Pruning of citrus will very likely reduce the yield of the tree, nearly in proportion to the amount of wood removed. In the case of the lemon this may not hold strictly, for unpruned trees may soon develop considerable dead wood, and hence light pruning to keep them in better shape may not reduce the actual production potential as measured by fruitful wood. Harvesting and Handling

Most citrus possess the very convenient habit of retaining their fruits in good edible condition on the tree over long periods of time. For this reason the gardener will most likely harvest his fruit as it is used. Orange and grapefruit usually have only a single flush of bloom each year, so that the harvest, though prolonged, will be seasonal. Surpluses may be harvested and stored in a cool, dry place, and the period of their use extended somewhat. Most other citrus, such as lemons, mandarins, and many of the limes, will flower at almost any period of the year, and hence have fruit in all stages of development and maturity. However, there are usually one or two main flushes of bloom and most of the crop will develop seasonally following these bloom flushes. It can be harvested over a long period, as with oranges; after the main crop a few fruits

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will be maturing almost constantly for the rest of the year. Surpluses can be harvested and held for rather long periods in cool places. Diseases and Pests

Citrus trees are subject to many diseases and pests, a few of which are often quite troublesome, but most are minor. The trees and fruit seem to be subject to an unusual number of physiological disorders. However, many insects, especially scales, attack the trees and are quite serious because of their devitalizing effects. These are difficult to control in the garden, but fortunately many are kept from becoming serious by being parasitized. A few virus diseases occur, but nursery trees are unlikely to harbor them, and natural infection is either very slow or not known to occur. All citrus are sensitive to soil water conditions. Some of the more troublesome problems may be avoided by following the suggestions in the discussion of watering, on page 199.

PAPAYA Carica papaya

L.

Papaya fruits resemble a melon in appearance and in taste. They are, in reality, large, fleshy berries, weighing 1 or 2 or 5 pounds, with a succulent orange-yellow flesh 1 or 2 inches thick. The center of the fruit is filled with numerous small black seeds which form on the inner wall of the flesh. Papayas begin to produce blossoms about five months after the seeds are planted. Fruits may be ripe some eight months after the flowers open. The papaya is a giant tree-like herb, with no woody tissue in the trunk. Lateral branches are rarely produced. The fruits are borne in the axils of the leaves, and thus, as the tree grows higher, the

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will be maturing almost constantly for the rest of the year. Surpluses can be harvested and held for rather long periods in cool places. Diseases and Pests

Citrus trees are subject to many diseases and pests, a few of which are often quite troublesome, but most are minor. The trees and fruit seem to be subject to an unusual number of physiological disorders. However, many insects, especially scales, attack the trees and are quite serious because of their devitalizing effects. These are difficult to control in the garden, but fortunately many are kept from becoming serious by being parasitized. A few virus diseases occur, but nursery trees are unlikely to harbor them, and natural infection is either very slow or not known to occur. All citrus are sensitive to soil water conditions. Some of the more troublesome problems may be avoided by following the suggestions in the discussion of watering, on page 199.

PAPAYA Carica papaya

L.

Papaya fruits resemble a melon in appearance and in taste. They are, in reality, large, fleshy berries, weighing 1 or 2 or 5 pounds, with a succulent orange-yellow flesh 1 or 2 inches thick. The center of the fruit is filled with numerous small black seeds which form on the inner wall of the flesh. Papayas begin to produce blossoms about five months after the seeds are planted. Fruits may be ripe some eight months after the flowers open. The papaya is a giant tree-like herb, with no woody tissue in the trunk. Lateral branches are rarely produced. The fruits are borne in the axils of the leaves, and thus, as the tree grows higher, the

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fruits are borne ever farther from the ground as the leaves are borne only near the apex. Because of this and because the fruit and leaves tend to become smaller as the tree grows older, it is easiest to cut down the tree after three or four years' growth and start a new one. Papaya is a tropical species and may be grown only in the warmest frost-free locations, such as are found in protected sites along the south coast region. The site should be warm enough to grow the fruits satisfactorily; papaya will grow in weather too cool for plant development of some other tropical plants, but the fruit will not be good. Since papayas produce a ripened fruit about a year from planting, it may be worth while to grow them even if frosts are known to occur only once in two or three years. They do very well in a greenhouse; if they become too tall for that space, they may be cut back or another one planted. Varieties

Papaya is propagated by seed. Therefore, even though there are named "varieties," these do not have the same horticultural significance as do other fruit varieties as discussed on page 5. These socalled varieties are strains known to come reasonably true to type from seed. Solo is a well-known strain of papaya widely grown in Hawaii. The fruits are small, averaging about 1 or 2 pounds each, with excellent flavor. Betty is an early-producing, semidwarf form; the fruits weigh 2 to 3 pounds. Kissimmee, a Florida strain, has a thick, sweet flesh, and ripens better in districts too cool for the development of best quality in other strains. Pollination Requirements

Some papaya plants have perfect flowers (stamens and pistils present), and in this case there is no pollination problem. However, others have only staminate or pistillate flowers; therefore, male or perfect-flowered forms must be present to supply pollen to the female trees. Because there is no way of telling before flowering whether a seedling will have perfect flowers or prove to be pistillate or staminate, the best procedure is to plant at least three or four seedlings to insure getting either one perfect-flowered plant, or both male and female trees. If the plant is not perfect-flowered, insects must be present to affect pollination, or it may be done by hand.

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Topworking As papayas are grown from seed, they are on their own roots; they are not usually topworked, though they can be budded and grafted. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements The plants do best on a well-drained, fertile soil of medium texture. They will not withstand waterlogged soils. They should be kept growing vigorously; apply nitrogenous fertilizers generously, as they are not likely to become overly vegetative. They should be watered freely, but with care that the soil does not become saturated for long periods. Any water deficit will stop growth, and this will reduce fruiting; for as the fruits are borne in the leaf axils, new leaves must be kept developing at all times. Pruning Papaya plants that become too tall may be cut off near the ground. They will send up a few sprouts, one of which is kept to form a new trunk. Such sprouts tend to be less fruitful than the original plant, but may come into bearing more quickly. Generally it is better to start a new plant. Harvesting and Handling Papayas are handled in the same manner as perishable melons. They should be picked as they change from green to yellow. For best quality allow them to ripen on the tree, or to become nearly ripe as indicated by the color change. They may be stored for short periods, but do not hold them at temperatures below 50° F. Diseases and Pests The fruits are subject to many fruit rots when stored, and low storage temperatures decrease their resistance to these rots. The trees are subject to at least one destructive virus in tropical lands, but this may not be present in California. The plants are known to be quite susceptible to root-knot nematode.

\

/

VCj^v

PASSION FRUIT Passiflora edulis Sims

N ^ ^ P ^ y

There are several kinds of edible passion fruits, the most familiar being the purple one, sometimes known as the purple granadilla. The plants are woody, evergreen, perennial vines which grow so rapidly that they may cover the side of a fairly large residence in two years. They need not take up much space, however, unless they are allowed to grow rampant. They come into bearing very early in the life of the vine. The fruits are slightly oval and about 2 to 2/á inches long. The numerous small seeds, inside the parchmentlike rind, are surrounded by an aromatic, juicy pulp of a different, pleasing, and somewhat acid flavor. The pulp may be eaten out of hand or in fruit salads. The extracted juice serves as a beverage and as a flavoring in cooking. The vines bear unique, startling blossoms during spring and early summer; the fruits mature in late summer and fall. The vine safely withstands only very light frosts. Passion fruit is considered a rather tender subtropical; it is not suggested for planting where frost is frequent, and is adapted only to the mild areas of the south coast region unless well protected. If the cold weather is not too severe, the roots will put forth a new vine even though the top may be killed. However, the vines do much better in subtropical regions and in areas where they can be sheltered from temperatures below 28° F. Varieties

There are no established varieties. Usually the better nurseries propagate plants from seed of those which produce the largest fruits and have the heaviest bearing vines. Rootstocks

The plants are grown as seedlings on their own roots, or selected vines may be propagated by woody cuttings. 204

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205

Soil and Nutrient Requirements Passion fruit is not so exacting in its soil requirements as other vines. Apparently the soil may vary a great deal in composition and in texture and still give excellent plants. However, these vines do require good drainage; wet soils, resulting from lack of drainage, are unsuitable. The vine is exceedingly susceptible to crown rot resulting from heavy wet soils. Because the passion fruit vine grows so rapidly and produces so many fruits, it will require nitrogen fertilizer applications, usually annually. So far as it known, this species does not respond to any other element. Water Requirements The vines will withstand considerable drought, but growth is retarded and crop yield reduced materially if inadequate moisture is available. Therefore, it is better to irrigate rather frequently. The plant suffers if the soil is not well drained. Pruning Since this vine is a rapid grower, it is usually trained over an arbor or trellis, or along a fence. The top of the vine tends to become dense and must be pruned out. It has been found that pruning may be done more satisfactorily when the plants are beginning their vigorous growth than when they are dormant. Harvesting and Handling Allow the fruits to become fully mature. The characteristic flavor will soon tell you when the fruits are satisfactory for eating. Since the leathery rind serves as protection for the soft interior, there are no special precautions to follow in harvesting the fruits. Following picking, which may have to be done with a knife or pair of clippers if the fruit does not break away easily from the vine, the fruit may be kept for a good many days, or even weeks. Even though the rind may shrivel a bit, the fruit's interior will stay juicy for quite a while. Diseases and Pests None have been reported seriously affecting either the flowers, fruits, or vines.

PEACH Prunus persica (L.) Batsch

Queen of the temperate zone fruits, the peach is a fitting partner to King Apple. Peaches are easily grown, the fruits are borne early in the life of the tree, and the trees, especially in bloom, are attractive. The tree does not become too large, usually not more than 15 to 18 feet in diameter and about 15 feet or less tall. Several varieties ripening at different times may be budded or grafted upon the same tree. If your garden is small, this is an ideal way to have peaches during many weeks. A newer method to achieve the same purpose is described on page 88. The peach will start bearing large crops when three or four years old, and will reach its peak at 8 to 12 years. Next to the apple the peach is the most widely distributed tree fruit in the world. Its range is normally somewhat south that of apple because the trees are less hardy; on the other hand, there are more varieties adapted to mild winter climates than for apple. Also, in contrast to apple, peaches like clear, hot weather during the growing period, and for this reason peaches do best in the hotter inland areas at any latitude of the Pacific Coast. In Washington the peach is adapted to the valley floors of the eastern part, where summer conditions are favorable. At higher elevations the winter climate is too rigorous. In Oregon the peach will do best in inland areas protected from the direct influence of the ocean, but again is not adapted to the high eastern portion because of the rigorous winter climate. In California the peach reaches perfection in the hot interior valleys, and can be grown at elevations up to 1,500 to 2,000 feet in the surrounding foothills. In the coastal valleys summer temperatures are generally too cool for best development of quality and color, but the tree does well. Most varieties may be grown at higher elevations in southern California, but only specially selected ones will do well at low eleva206

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tions, because of the winter chilling requirement. Insufficient chilling results in delayed foliation which will be serious enough to cause injury and eventual death of the tree. No variety is adapted to the low desert areas, but a few are suggested in the variety recommendations given below. PEACH V A R I E T I E S F O R T H E G A R D E N Varieties except for Southern California Variety Mayflower Florence Merrill Gem Blazing Gold Vetter Elberta J . L. Ames Starking Delicious Gold Dust Marigold Merrill Beauty Redhaven Merrill Delicious Golden Jubilee Fisher Nectar Veteran July Elberta Merrill Gold Rush Halehaven Strawberry Free Babcock Fortuna Merrill Dandy Early Crawford Elberta Fay Elberta J . H. Hale Paloro Flamingo Anza Alamar Late Crawford Merrill Nectaheath Lovell Rio Oso Gem Gaume Halford 2 Currie Free Salwey Merrill Late Gold Heath (White Heath) Levy Miller's Late

Flesh color white white yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow white yellow yellow yellow yellow white white yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow white yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow white yellow yellow

Flesh adhesion cling cling cling free free free free free semicling free free free free free free free free free free free free canning cling free free free free free canning cling free free free free canning cling free free canning cling canning cling free free free canning cling cling free

Approximate ripening date in Central California first week of June first week of June first week of June first week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June first week of July first week of July first week of July first week of July first week of July second week of July second week of July second week of July third week of July third week of July last week of July first week of August first week of August first week of August first week of August first week of August first week of August first week of August second week of August second week of August second week of August second week of August third week of August last week of August last week of August second week of September second week of September third week of September third week of September mid-October

208

Western Fruit Gardening PEACH VARIETIES FOR T H E GARDEN (Continued) Varieties for Southern California Variety-

Robin Meadow Lark Two Star Four Star Ventura Redwing Merrill Gold Rush Babcock Flamingo Three Star Hermosa Anza Golden Blush Rubidoux Rio Oso Gem Altair Sims Curlew

Flesh color white yellow white white yellow white yellow white yellow yellow white yellow yellow yellow yellow white yellow yellow

Flesh adhesion semicling free semicling free free free free free free free free free free free free free canning cling free

Approximate ripening date in Central California first week of June third week of June third week of June third week of June last week of June last week of June first week of July third week of July first week of August first week of August first week of August first week of August first week of August second week of August second week of August second week of August last week of August third week of September

Varieties

There are so many varieties available that they are best given in the adjoining concise table, where they are separated into coldwinter and mild-winter groups. Choose them according to the climate of your locality, the time of ripening, and the purpose you want them for. Since most gardeners prefer freestone peaches over clingstones our emphasis is on freestones. Though nobody is likely to require more than one kind of yellow canning clingstone in the garden, several are suggested to give a choice of season of ripening and because you may have variety preferences. For southern California and low desert areas in particular, choose your varieties with care, for some have been selected for certain localities only. For example, at higher elevations in southern California the standard varieties listed in the first section of the table, such as Rio Oso Gem, Elberta, and July Elberta, will do well. But along the coastal regions of southern California, only Curlew, Ventura, and Four Star will produce well because of the mild winter temperatures. A few miles inland, another group of varieties is called for, such as Flamingo, Golden Blush, Redwing, Robin, and a few others. Along the extreme south coast, peaches can only be grown on the higher elevations. No varieties will do well in low desert regions, but Ventura and Four Star might do best of any named.

209 Any variety designed for southern California will grow well in colder regions, but is more liable to frost damage because of early bloom. In Oregon and Washington the varieties Golden Jubilee and Veteran are still in favor, but these are no longer recommended for California. In a few cases synonymy may confuse the gardener buying trees: July Elberta is also known as Kim Elberta and Burbank July Elberta; Fay Elberta is known in the Northwest as Gold Medal. Ripening dates are given for central California peach districts. In cooler locations varieties mature at a later date, and in general varieties ripen about a month later in the Northwest. There are literally hundreds of named varieties of peaches. Availability has been considered in compiling the listed ones, as well as quality and climatic adaptation. You may know of others you prefer. Western Fruits

Pollination Requirements

Peaches are self-fruitful except for a very few varieties which produce no pollen—they are pollen-sterile—and hence require the near-by presence of a pollen-bearing variety, and honey bees, of course. J. H. Hale and Alamar are the only such varieties in the lists. Rootstocks and Topworking

By far the largest number of peaches is propagated on peach seedling rootstock. Seedlings of S-37 peach are resistant to attacks of the root-knot nematode. Peach does not generally do well on apricot seedling rootstocks, but under special conditions, described below, may grow satisfactorily on apricot. Peaches are sometimes propagated on almond seedlings because of their greater drought resistance. However, the trees are generally dwarfed, weaker, shortlived, and probably not so very resistant to drought as to overcome such disadvantages. Peaches usually fail on myrobalan seedlings or the vegetatively propagated myrobalan rootstocks. St. Julien rootstock is used to dwarf peaches; some varieties grow on this stock, but many fail. Peaches can be topworked to trees of the species mentioned above as rootstocks. However, in some localities, notably southern California, peaches have done quite well on apricot when topworked well up in the framework branches. In addition, it may be possible to get peaches on myrobalan rootstocks (see discussion of apricot and plum for their advantages) by first topworking St. Julien to the

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myrobalan rootstock. The peach can then be topworked to St. Julien. This is still quite experimental, but there is hope that some peach varieties will grow with nearly normal vigor on such a combination of stocks. Seedlings of Japanese plums are never used as rootstocks, but as they can be readily topworked to peaches it is to be expected that most peach varieties will do well when topworked to them. The same holds for European plums and prunes. A few varietal combinations may fail or do poorly, but there is not enough information for specific recommendations on this point. Other Prunus species of the peach and plum group will probably prove compatible with peach topworked on them. Soil and Nutrient Requirements

A deep soil of medium texture—sandy loam to silt loam—well drained, and lacking excess toxic soil salts, produces the best peach trees. Peaches do well on lighter soils if their fertilizer requirements are fully met and irrigation practice is good. Heavier soils encourage the development of crown and root rots. Peach trees respond remarkably to nitrogenous fertilizers. Few soils can long support the growth of vigorous peach trees without some addition of nitrogen. When growth becomes weak and yellowish the need for nitrogen is apparent. One to two pounds of actual nitrogen per tree per year should keep them growing vigorously and maintain the dark green color typical of healthy foliage. Excess application of nitrogen delays maturity and will often result in fruit of poor quality and color. On light sandy soils the nitrogen application may well be split, one-half given in the summer and the other half in late winter. This will minimize leaching, and result in more satisfactory tree growth. In a very few locations, especially in central California, potassium may be deficient in amounts necessary to supply the growth requirements of peach trees. The shoot growth will be weak and slender, there may be some dying-back of the shoot tips, and the foliage will be yellowish. The fruit may be smaller than it should be. Ten to 15 pounds of potassium sulfate per tree should cure this deficiency for several years. Water Requirements

Peach trees should not be allowed to suffer for water while the fruit is on the trees, and they will grow better and remain healthy longer if available water is maintained throughout the time the leaves are on the tree. If the trees suffer for water before the fruit

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is picked, it will be small and of poor quality, though it may be highly colored because the growth of the tree has been stopped. Irrigations on a soil of medium texture in the hot summer regions should be given about once a month. The soil should be wet through the root zone, which is the top 5 or 6 feet of soil. Pruning

The discussion of pruning a tree to the vase shape, on pages 50-55, is based largely on the model of the peach tree. The peach will not do well trained to a central leader. Peaches are pruned more heavily than any other deciduous fruit tree. They produce their fruit on shoots of the past season's growth, and it is therefore necessary to replace nearly all the fruiting wood each season. Unpruned trees will set tremendous crops of very small fruits the season after pruning is omitted, but will make such poor growth that little fruit will be produced in the following years. The tree is readily trained to the vase system by following the directions. Mature trees should have enough of the past season's shoot growth thinned out to encourage vigorous growth from the remaining shoots. In addition, pruning is a very satisfactory method of thinning fruit, even though it cannot replace all the thinning which will have to be done later when the fruit has set. Mature trees should make 15 to 30 inches growth through the top and around the sides of the tree each season. If short growth is not due to heavy cropping or low nitrogen level, you should prune more drastically. Too much growth through the top and center of the tree tends to shade out shoot growth; to remedy, thin out some of the upper branches. Fruit Thinning

Peaches tend to set too heavily in nearly every year, even though pruning has been rather severe. They need to be thinned. Unthinned peach trees produce small fruit of poor quality, growth of the trees is materially reduced, and breakage is liable to result because of the heavy load of fruit. Pruning and fertilization cannot overcome the bad effects of overcropping under normal conditions of set. Peaches (and all other stone fruits, for that matter) have three definite growth stages; hand-thinning is done in relation to these stages. The first growth stage is immediately after bloom, when the developing fruit bursts out of the jacket and increases to about the size of the thumb—usually to about inches in largest diameter. After this time there is a period when the peach appears to grow

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more slowly or not at all. Early-ripening varieties show only a small decrease in rate of growth at this time; late-maturing varieties may appear not to grow at all for a month or longer. This is natural, and heavy watering or fertilization will not affect the cycle at all. It may appear to do so, however, for after this stage of reduced growth, the fruit starts enlarging rapidly and continues this increase until it reaches maturity. Hand-thinning should be done at the beginning or during the second growth stage—that is, when the fruit appears to be standing still. Early-maturing varieties should be thinned first, late-maturing ones later. Thinning at this stage is mechanically easy, and the fruit which is destined to drop from natural causes—the June d r o p is now dropping or may have already dropped from the tree. Therefore the crop can be accurately regulated. Later thinning, after this second growth stage, will have much less effect than thinning done at the proper time. It will aid mostly in reducing tree loads which might cause limb breakage. Hand-thinned trees should have the fruit spaced at intervals of 6 to 10 inches after thinning. The larger interval, or even greater spacing, should be used if the tree has set heavily on nearly all the fruiting branches. If the set is lighter in some parts of the tree, the smaller spacing should be used where the fruits are too thickly set. Thinning may be repeated at a later date if there seems to be too much fruit remaining for normal tree growth. Fruit size will be materially increased by proper thinning; quality will almost certainly be higher, for growth is invigorated and the leaves have to supply fewer fruits with foodstuffs. Nevertheless, there is a limit to increasing size of fruit by thinning; this limit is more or less a varietal characteristic. Babcock peaches will never reach the size common among well-grown J. H. Hale peaches, for example. Blossom thinning with the aid of a brush of shoots or by hand is usually quicker and easier than hand-thinning of the fruit. However, it has to be done before the trees have set their crop, at a time when you are not sure of avoiding frosts or unseasonable weather. Blossom thinning is more risky but more beneficial than hand-thinning. Chemical blossom spray thinning can be used with peaches, as given on page 59. All the benefits of such thinning accrue, but the dangers pointed out are inherent in the method. Spray-thinned trees may have clusters of fruit left if the crop is in balance with the leaf area and growth of the tree. In this, spray thinning differs from hand-thinning, where it is important to space the fruits equally over the tree to secure uniformly large size.

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Harvesting and Handling

Generally, the best peach is the tree-ripe peach. It should be firm-ripe, not soft-ripe when it is picked. The sugar content and flavor of the peach are best when it is allowed to come to nearly full maturity on the tree; soft ripe fruits are sweeter, but they lose some of their aroma, and quickly become over-ripe. A few varieties, but especially the late-maturing ones, are better if harvested at a hard- to firm-ripe stage and allowed to mellow off the tree at a moderate temperature. If the peaches are to be stored, pick them at the firm-ripe stage, and hold in a cool place, or in a refrigerator. They cannot be held long even under the most favorable conditions. A week to ten days is about the limit, after which they lose their flavor. For canning freestones, peaches are best picked hard-ripe to firm-ripe and allowed to soften for a day or two at about 75° F. They will make a more attractive canned product, and will peel much more easily. Clingstone varieties should be harvested when the fruit breaks away from the stem when picked. Diseases and Pests

Peaches (and nectarines) are subject to many troubles; they will almost certainly require some annual sprays. Diseases most likely to be troublesome are peach-leaf curl—the usual bane of the garden peach tree—mildew, rust, and blight. All can be controlled by properly applied sprays. Insect pests most likely to cause damage are those attacking the ripening fruits, among which the peach twig borer and codling moth are normally present. Grubs of various wood-boring insects are also likely to be present, though they often do no extensive damage, and may escape unnoticed. Trees growing vigorously are usually less likely to be attacked. A few viruses attack peach, but these are generally confined to limited regions, as peach mosaic to southern California and stony pit to the Northwest. Purchase healthy stock and these troubles are not likely to occur in your garden. The peach is another species quite subject to wet soils, crown rots, and oak-root fungus.

PEAR Pyrus communis L.

The familiar Bartlett variety is a summer pear, but after the abundant summer fruits are gone, and when fresh fruit is limited, fall and winter pears are particularly welcome. By the use of a dwarfing rootstock, a pear tree will not take up much room, as the total spread of the branches may not be more than 6 to 10 feet. Many pears do not develop high-quality fruit in the heart of the hot interior valley regions of California. A few are satisfactory, and they are noted in the discussion on varieties. Pears flourish and produce good crops in the foothill districts around the central valley, and in those areas in the valley where the influence of the ocean is felt. The intermountain valleys of the central and north coast are famous pear-growing districts. Pears are grown in quantity in the mountain regions up to 3,500 to 4,000 feet. They will do reasonably well at elevations over 2,000 feet in the south coast regions, and in the high valleys of desert regions. But no variety is adapted to the low desert regions of Arizona and California. Pears are especially well adapted to the river valleys of Oregon and to eastern Washington, where they are grown extensively. In these regions the winter varieties reach perfection. Fairly cold winters are necessary to break the rest period of pear buds so that the flowers will open in the spring. If winters are too warm, uneven opening of flowers results, and many leaf buds remain dormant throughout the summer. This irregularity also makes it difficult to time the application of calyx spray for the control of codling moth. Weather conditions during flowering and shortly thereafter are important, especially if there is danger of frosts; young fruits are particularly susceptible to frost. Some pear varieties, notably Bartlett and Winter Nelis, develop excellent quality under high summer temperatures and are the best for hot valleys of California. Others, mainly the winter varieties, seem to do much better in areas with more moderate temperatures 214

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during the growing season. These do best in the Northwest and in California's coastal districts and higher elevations of the mountain region. Pears growing in areas of high humidity are more subject to fireblight; even the latest methods of prevention may not be too successful in keeping this disease under control in humid areas. Varieties

Seckel is the variety par excellence for the garden. It is a true American pear, distinct from any of the other varieties discussed, nearly all of which are European in origin. Seckel stands almost alone in vigor of tree, productiveness, and immunity to fireblight, and is equalled by few other varieties in fruit quality. Its only disadvantages are that the fruits are small and not especially attractive. Seckel matures about a month after Bartlett. Bartlett is the most popular variety. It produces large fruits of distinctive flavor and attractive appearance. Under the most favorable conditions the fruits will be highly colored, while elsewhere they develop no blush, but turn from green to a clear, light yellow. The season of maturity varies from the first of July to the middle of September, depending on the district. The tree is well adapted to widely different soils and climates. It is an upright grower and needs to be spread by judicious pruning. As the tree becomes older it is spread naturally by the weight of the crop. Dana Hovey (Winter Seckel) is a small dessert pear of highest quality which is attained best on quince rootstock. The skin is pale yellow with some russet. The flesh is aromatic, sweet and melting. The fruits mature in October, but may be stored until January. Dearborn has melting, juicy fruits of good quality to offset their rather small size. This variety matures a little before Bartlett. The tree is vigorous, productive and hardy. It well deserves a place in the garden. It is somewhat resistant to fireblight, and generally requires little care. Cornice is considered by many to be the best pear of all. The fruits are large, triangular shaped, deeply depressed at the calyx or blossom end, and, while not particularly attractive, of superb quality. The tree is not strong-growing, and does well only under favorable conditions of soil and climate. Fruits grown in the Northwest and in California at higher mountain elevations and in coastal districts are much superior to those grown elsewhere. The fruit is generally ready for harvest about the second or third week of August. It should be placed in the refrigerator or in cold

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storage for at least six weeks at temperatures down to 32° F before it is allowed to ripen for eating. It can be stored for five or six months. Hardy is tender, with a slightly russeted skin which covers a sweet, juicy, and aromatic flesh. This pear is of fine quality, and ripens with Bartlett. It is a large and handsome fruit. Anjou fruits are medium to large, round, and with a smooth, greenish skin on which appears some russeting. The flesh is white, juicy, melting, and sweet. In appearance it closely resembles Cornice, but the variety does not compare in flavor to Seckel, Cornice, and Winter Nelis. The fruits begin to mature during the second week in August and should be handled as recommended for Cornice. They are produced on a large tree. This variety attains highest quality in the Northwest. Winter Nelis is a winter pear, maturing about September 1. The roundish fruits are partially russeted, sweet, and with a most pleasing flavor. Winter Nelis is small and unattractive in appearance. This variety does well in hot valley districts where other varieties fail to attain high quality. Trees are somewhat resistant to fireblight and are fairly vigorous. Bosc thrives best under conditions favorable to Anjou. The large, beautifully russeted fruits have a long tapering neck which distinguishes Bosc from all other pear varieties. The flesh is tender and, under favorable climatic conditions, has a rich aroma that places Bosc with the best dessert pears. The fruit matures about the third week in August, and may be stored for several months. The trees are vigorous and difficult to train; young shoots tend to spiral upwards in growing. Winter Bartlett fruit is similar to Bartlett, but is smaller and ripens much later, around the first of November. Max-Red Bartlett is a red-fruited bud sport of the familiar Bartlett, ripening some 12 to 15 days later than its parent, but otherwise quite like Bartlett. The high red blush makes the fruit particularly attractive. Pollination Requirements

Like apples, pears may be grouped according to whether or not the varieties will set fruit without cross-pollination. Bartlett, Cornice, Max-Red Bartlett, and Hardy are usually self-fruitful in California and therefore need no pollinators. In the Northwest these varieties may require cross-pollination to bear regularly. Anjou, Bosc, Dana Hovey, and Seckel are partially self-fruitful; each sets more fruit if any other variety is present. Winter Nelis, Dearborn, and Winter

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Bartlett are self-unfruitful, and therefore need a pollinator in order to set fruit; any other variety will serve as a pollinator. Rootstocks and Topworking

Pear rootstocks are numerous, but in practice "French pear seedlings" are most commonly used. These are seedlings of the common pear, and take their name from the fact that they were imported in earlier years—mostly from France. Other pear species used for seedling rootstocks are Japanese pear (Pyrus pyrifolia), Ussurian pear (P. ussuriensis), and Callery pear (P. cattery ana). These are of oriental origin and are more or less resistant to the dread fireblight. Only the Japanese pear has been widely tested as a blight-resistant rootstock, and because Bartlett and some other varieties develop a physiological disorder known as black end or hard end when grown on this rootstock, its use has been discontinued. Many pear varieties may be grown on their own roots by stool layering, but no advantage is apparent. Dwarf pear trees are developed by budding to quince rootstock; rooted cuttings of the Angers variety are especially desirable. Many pears on this stock are only semidwarf, but the slower-growing varieties may be held to true dwarf proportions if pruned severely. Plant the tree with the union at or above ground level, otherwise the scion variety will become rooted and the dwarfing effects lost. Pears to be espaliered or planted in boxes should be on quince root. Fireblight resistance.—The oriental species mentioned above are usually highly resistant to fireblight; varieties other than Bartlett and Cornice will probably not develop black end. Seedlings of the common pear resistant or nearly immune to fireblight have been developed, but are not commonly available yet; when they are they should be used. In all of the above cases, the resistant stock should be allowed to develop the trunk and lower scaffold branches, into which the desired variety is topworked. Then, if fireblight attacks a branch it cannot destroy the whole tree, for blight will not penetrate the resistant stock limbs. It is best to topwork the scaffolds 18 inches to 2 feet from the trunk. Watersprouts from these limbs may be budded to replace any limbs lost to blight. Resistant trunks and scaffolds may be developed by using the varieties Old Home or Farmingdale—fireblight-resistant varieties without edible quality. These varieties will not root from cuttings and are therefore first budded to quince. They are allowed to develop the main scaffolds, and then budded to the desired variety as

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described above. If planted deep Old Home or Farmingdale will usually become scion-rooted. The susceptible quince will die under these conditions, and the whole root and trunk system will then be resistant. Espaliered trees may have the trunk and parts of the main arms developed from these resistant stocks. Pears may be topworked to all the species mentioned above; they are not commonly worked high onto quince because of the propensity of this stock to develop abundant watersprouts, which will "take" the tree unless removed frequently. All varieties do well on these species, except that Bartlett will not grow on quince; however, it does well topworked to any other variety on quince. Most pear varieties do reasonably well when topworked on hawthorn (Crataegus) and mountain ash (Sorbus). Soil and Nutrient Requirements

The pear will do well on soils somewhat heavier than those used for peach, and the trees can withstand wet soils better than most deciduous fruit trees. Pear trees have been known to grow for several years when they have been intermittently flooded for periods of several days to weeks. As with most other trees, nitrogen is the only fertilizer element to which pear trees have been found to respond. Generally the pear will need lighter applications than other deciduous trees; % to 1 pound of actual nitrogen per mature tree should be sufficient. Possibly it is for this reason that pears will do better in lawns than some other species. The tree should make 12 to 18 inches growth through the top and on strong side shoots. If growth is less than this, fertilization is indicated. Water Requirements

Like other fruit trees, growth will stop earlier in the fall if the tree is allowed to suffer for water. The fruit will be smaller, and the tree will go dormant earlier under drought conditions. Irrigation practice should be the same as for other deciduous trees of the same general size. The soil should be wet to 5 or 6 feet at each irrigation. Fruit Thinning

The pear needs no thinning of the fruit except when the crop is excessively heavy, and even then thinning is not often done. If a very heavy crop sets, thinning is done a few weeks before picking. Remove small and blemished fruits.

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Harvesting and Handling

Pears should be ripened off the tree; tree-ripe fruit is definitely inferior. Pick the fruit while still green and hard, but of the size the given variety should be when ripe. Allow the fruit to ripen in a cool place. For summer varieties which are not to be stored, put them in a place where the temperature will not exceed 75° F. Lower temperatures will increase their life and, of course, by storing them at temperatures below 40° F (down to 32° F ) they can be kept for several weeks, then brought out to correct ripening temperatures. Winter varieties usually need a period of cold storage of about six weeks before ripening to develop the highest quality for the variety. This is particularly true of Cornice and Anjou. Winter Nelis, Seckel, and Dana Hovey will ripen satisfactorily without this treatment if stored in a cool place. Harvest pears by lifting up on them until the fruit stem separates from the spur; do not pull or twist them. If the stems do not break easily from the spur, allow the fruit to ripen for a few more days. Diseases and Pests

Pears are subject to relatively few diseases, but scab may be particularly damaging, especially in cool, humid regions. In warm, dry locations it may rarely occur. Fireblight, a bacterial disease, is very destructive, and as prevention rather than cure is the only practical control, annual spray applications are called for. Don't wait to see if fireblight is going to attack your pear tree. Dust or spray in advance. Codling moth is the worst insect enemy of pear because wormy fruit results from its attacks; it can be readily controlled with a couple of sprays each season. Other insect pests which may need annual or occasional control are blister and other mites, and pear or cherry slug.

PECAN Carya illinoensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch

Pecan trees are tall and graceful but grow so large that they are more adapted to country estates and farms than to small homesites. If the garden is large enough for a big tree, then it is well to consider either the pecan or walnut. The nuts require long summers with lots of heat to fill the shell properly; the tree does well in more moderate climates, but the harvest will be disappointing. The summers in California, except in the central valley and desert regions, or exceptionally warm areas in other regions, are not sufficiently hot to mature pecans. Some varieties require less heat than others, but even those with the smallest heat requirement cannot be expected to fill their nuts well in coastal areas. Dormant trees are quite resistant to low winter temperatures; they have a relatively light chilling requirement. With these characteristics, they can be grown as shade trees in most regions except the high mountains. The trees are very resistant to high summer temperatures, and can be grown in localities too hot for the English walnut; they are therefore eminently suited to the low desert areas of Arizona. Varieties

Early-leafing varieties should be used in most of California, especially in coastal areas, so as to take advantage of the longest possible growing season. A number of such varieties have recently been offered by nurserymen. Some of these show promise, but none has been well tested. The first three varieties listed belong to this group. Nellis nuts are long and thin-shelled. Kernel quality is good. This would be one of the best to try in the coast regions. Select is a California introduction and is quite well suited to the interior valleys and other warm areas of the state. The thin shell fills well; the nut is large and matures early. The tree starts bearing at an early age. 220

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Humble requires very little chilling and is a heavy-bearing variety with wide adaptability. Mahan is exceptionally large-fruited, producing nuts up to 2M inches long, and with a fairly thin shell. It can be recommended only for the warmest areas of California, in the interior valleys and desert regions. The nut does not always fill well even in these areas. Success is an old, well-established variety. The nuts are large, with medium-thick shells, and the meats are of good quality. The variety is only fairly well adapted in California. Burkett is quite dependable and produces well. The nuts are large, round, and thin-shelled. Pollination Requirements

All of the varieties described above are self-fruitful. Thus no cross-pollination is necessary to secure a crop of nuts, but because of too early shedding of pollen, in some cases, better crops will often be secured by a combination of two or more varieties. Rootstocks and Topworking

Pecan is propagated on seedlings of pecan. Pecan will grow when budded to seedlings of one of the hickory nuts, Carya aquatica, on which it is said to be more resistant to wet soil conditions than when on pecan seedlings. Pecan varieties can be topworked to one another. Grafting onto other species of Carya is not recommended, for the unions are often weak, and the nuts produced may be small. Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements

While the pecan can tolerate soils of rather low fertility, much the best results will be obtained on deep, fertile soils. Trees do well on soils of medium to heavy texture. They require deeper soils than most deciduous fruits; 6 to 8 feet is about the minimum—deeper soils are preferred. They are not tolerant of even low amounts of salinity. The pecan will respond to nitrogen applications with more vigorous growth, but generally the trees do well without them. Other fertilizer elements have not been found necessary. Pecans often suffer from zinc deficiency (rosette) even on soils good enough to support the growth of other species. Pecans require as much water as do English walnut trees. Follow the recommendations for walnuts, page 266. For production of quality nuts it is imperative that pecans be kept growing vigorously at all times. Any deficiency in nutrients or water during the growing season results in poorly filled nuts.

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Pruning

Pecan trees are not pruned much. They are usually trained to a central leader, and after a year or so little or no pruning is practiced. Lower branches may be removed when the top becomes large enough to support good annual growth. The trees are brittle. Harvesting and Handling

The hulls with the enclosed nut remain on the tree and must be shaken down with poles. Nuts should not be shaken or poled off the tree until they are well filled. Remove hulls from the nuts as soon as possible after harvesting. In all other respects, treat the pecan nuts as you would walnuts (see p. 267). Diseases and Pests

The pecan is reasonably free of diseases. Crown gall will attack the roots. The most common physiological disorder is caused by zinc deficiency and is known as little leaf or rosette of pecan. Boron excess is occasionally seen. Aphids will sometimes infest the foliage.

PERSIMMON Diospyros kaki L. f.

The oriental, Japanese, or kaki persimmon is highly ornamental in a garden planting. The tree bears a heavy crop of delicious fruit, which are extremely attractive in the early winter, and needs almost no attention. It attains a height of 30 feet or more, with wide, spreading branches. Some varieties may be eaten out of hand like an apple; others must become very soft before the astringency or "puckeriness" has been removed. Persimmon may be grown wherever the temperature does not fall below 0° F. It requires only slight chilling; the buds open satisfactorily even after the warmest winters in southern California. The foliage turns the familiar autumn color characteristic of many deciduous trees of the eastern United States, even in the warmest parts of California. Varieties

There are two types of persimmon fruits, astringent and nonastringent. The astringent varieties pucker the mouth unless the fruit is soft ripe. Most people make the mistake of picking and eating these fruits before they are fully ripe, and are therefore disappointed. If you will wait until ripening is complete and the fruits exceedingly soft, you will be rewarded by their rich flavor. Fruits of the nonastringent varieties, however, may be eaten when they are firm ripe, much like an apple. Their flavor is somewhat different from that of the softer varieties. Persimmons ripen in late September and October. A frost will help remove the astringency. Hachiya is the leading variety. The fruit is astringent until soft; it is large and oblong-conic. The skin and flesh become yellow to orange when ripe. This is one of the largest-fruited varieties grown— 4 or more inches in length and 2% to 3 inches across. Fuyu is the most important nonastringent variety. The reddish223

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yellow flesh is sweet and mellow. Fuyu is not so large as Hachiya, being the size of a baseball, but flattened. Pollination Requirements Trees of Hachiya and Fuyu bear only pistillate flowers, the ones which produce the fruits. Fortunately, these flowers do not need pollination to set a good crop. These fruits are parthenocarpic— developing without pollination—and are seedless. If a persimmon tree with male or pollen-bearing flowers is nearby, some of the flowers may be pollinated and the resulting fruits will have some seeds. The flesh around these seeds may be an unattractive dark color, but this does not impair the quality in any way. Rootstocks and Topworking Seedlings of Diospyros lotus, D. virginiana, and D. kaki are used. The last seems preferable, although the other species are generally satisfactory. The Fuyu variety is reported to make a poor union with D. lotus. The species mentioned above may be topworked upon each other; different varieties of persimmon may be worked into the same tree. Soil and Nutrient Requirements Persimmons succeed under widely varying soil conditions. However, they are not tolerant of poorly drained soils. A deeper hole may be necessary for planting a persimmon than that required for other deciduous trees, for persimmon usually has a rather long taproot. Persimmon trees will respond to added nitrogen if the soil is somewhat depleted of this element. A usual application for young trees is about K pound of ammonium sulfate per tree. The amount may be increased gradually up to 5 pounds or more for mature, bearing ones. If nitrogen is used to the extent that length growth of mature trees exceeds a foot a year, the tree will drop its young fruits to a certain extent. If this happens, nitrogen should be withheld. Apparently the persimmon does not respond to or need fertilizers other than those containing nitrogen. Nor is it troubled by excesses or deficiencies of other soil elements. Water Requirements Persimmons are less susceptible to drought than many deciduous fruits; thus their water requirements are not so exacting. However, vegetative growth and fruit production will be better with adequate and regular irrigations.

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Pruning

It is difficult to train a persimmon tree to a form other than the one it naturally assumes, and since it is a graceful tree, there is not much point in attempting to shape it otherwise. Because the wood is quite brittle and tends to split when bearing a fairly good crop, it is well to begin pruning when the tree is young. This will consist of cutting some of the shoots back to laterals over the entire tree. Try to develop strong crotches by uneven cutting, as described on page 52. Since the tree does become rather large with age, this program will keep it within bounds, and you will be able to plant it within 20 feet of another tree. Of course, for ornamental purposes, you may wish to allow more space in your garden and permit your tree to grow at will. Persimmons may be grown as dwarfs, espaliers, or in tubs by pruning them heavily to keep them in bounds. Harvesting and Handling

The fruits adhere strongly to the tree at harvest time, so that the fruit stem may need to be cut with shears. The tough, green calyx adheres to the fruit, so do not attempt to remove the fruit alone without taking the calyx and short fruit stem with it. The soft, astringent varieties are picked when firm ripe or may be allowed to soften on the tree. The firm, nonastringent varieties are picked when the color has turned its characteristic golden-yellow. Hachiyas may be kept for a month or more if stored in a refrigerator; Fuyu may be kept for several months. At lower temperatures, the flesh will become pasty and poor in taste. The Chinese often dry peeled persimmons. These make a somewhat unattractive, but delicious product. Diseases and Pests

Persimmons are remarkably free from diseases and pests. They are among the best, if not the best trees for planting in the garden where the gardener has little time for spraying and other controls.

PISTACHIO Pistacia vera L.

Trees of the edible pistachio require many years to reach large size, and can be kept small almost indefinitely if desired. The open habit of the tree and the large, divided, grayish leaves give it considerable ornamental value. The light colored, pink-blushed nuts are borne in clusters. The yield per tree is smaller than for any other nut tree. This deciduous species is about as resistant to cold as are almonds, but has a longer chilling requirement. It is quite drought resistant and very tolerant of high summer temperatures. Pistachio is best adapted to the hot interior valleys and desert regions of California and the Southwest. Varieties

Red Aleppo and Trabonella are suggested, with Peters or USDA 23 as pollinators. Pollination Requirements

This species is dioecious—that is, it has staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers on separate trees. Therefore, in order to secure nuts, you must either plant two trees, one of each sex, or graft scionwood of a staminate tree into one branch of the pistillate variety. The pollinating-variety limb may need severe pruning to keep it in check. The pollen is windborne; bees are not necessary. Rootstocks and Topworking

Seedlings of non-edible pistachio species, Pistacia chinensis, P. atlantica, and P. terebinthus, are used as rootstocks for the edible P. vera. Seedlings of the latter are generally weak and not well adapted to nursery operations. Edible pistachio varieties can be topworked to the other species of pistachio, as well as to other varieties of the edible kind. 226

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Soil, Nutrient, and Water Requirements The tree is able to withstand drought, poor soil, and unfavorable climatic conditions. If you are not interested in securing a crop of nuts, you may grow the tree fairly satisfactorily, as an ornamental, under poor conditions. But if you wish regular nut crops, it is well to care for the plant as you would other fruit species. Pruning Pistachio trees tend to be naturally low, spreading, and round headed. They are easily trained to a vase shape and after the initial training period little further pruning is necessary. Cutting out crossing and interfering shoots will suffice. Rigorous pruning should not be attempted, for crop production is light. Harvesting and Handling The nuts are harvested when the crisp covering around the shell is fairly loose. Remove the succulent covering. Dip the hulled nuts in water and spread in the sun to dry; many of the shells will split. One method of processing is to boil the nuts in a salt solution for a few minutes. They are then redried. Diseases and Pests The pistachio is one of the best trees to plant if you wish to do no spraying for insects or diseases, as it is remarkably free of them.

PLUMS Prunus species Plums show great diversity of color, size, taste, form, and use. Among all the cultivated and wild forms there are several which should please anyone's taste. Many cultivated varieties are pleasant fruits to eat fresh, and have just enough tartness to make splendid jelly. The trees are well suited to gardens because they are comparatively small, and bear consistent, good crops. There is some sort of plum for practically every location. European plums are the blue or common plums; they mature usually during the late summer and fall. Japanese or Oriental plums are the red, early-blooming ones which include many popular shipping varieties. The native American plums, found along the Pacific Coast and in the eastern United States, are generally small and tart. The Damsons are small, usually blue, and are used principally for jelly and jams. Prunes are a type of European plum with an extra high sugar content which permits them to be sundried without fermenting at the pit. They may be eaten fresh if you like a very sweet fruit. Prunes are discussed on page 244. The wide choice of species makes it possible to grow some plum variety in almost every location in the West. Each species does have climatic limitations imposed by its inherent characteristics. European plums and prunes are adapted to nearly all locations of the Northwest, and to California's central and northern coastal and interior valleys, and mountains up to 2,000 feet. The species is lateblooming, thereby escaping early spring frosts; the trees are hardy. Most varieties have a moderately high chilling requirement, and European plums are therefore not well adapted to California's south coast, or to the low desert areas of California and Arizona. They may do reasonably well in the high desert areas free from late spring frosts, but European plums do not as a rule do too well under conditions of high summer heat. Actually, the best trees are grown in areas where summer temperatures are moderate. However, they like 228

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clear days for best fruit development, and suffer from fruit rots in humid, foggy sites. Damson plums are quite similar to European plums in all climatic requirements. Japanese plums do well in eastern Oregon and Washington valley districts, but the early-blooming varieties should be avoided. The tree grows well along the coast, but the cool weather is not conducive to best fruit development. These plums reach perfection in the foothill and valley locations of central California, and also do well at higher elevations in southern California. No varieties are recommended for the low desert areas, though those with low chilling requirements may do reasonably well in places with the coldest winters. Late spring frosts will probably preclude their use in high desert regions. Japanese varieties are quite similar to apricot in regard to their climatic requirements, except that best quality is obtained in areas with hot summer days. The species has the same failing as apricot in blooming early, and is therefore particularly subject to spring frost damage. Also, under conditions of cold, damp spring weather it often fails to set satisfactorily, and fruits do not ripen with best quality. The trees are as winter hardy as apricot or peach. They are quite similar to peach in their winter chilling requirement, and, like the peach, some varieties (Methley, Mariposa) are known to do well in mild winter climates. There are many native American species; some are native to the Southwest, some to the Pacific Coast mountains, and others to areas in central Canada. With this range it is obvious that some sort can be found that will do well in any location in the West. Varieties have been selected and propagated from the wild of many of these species, and are usually propagated locally in the areas where they have been found, and are known to be adapted. Local nursery sources will undoubtedly be familiar with such plums. They are generally not widely known or available. Ornamental forms are recognized here but not treated, for they are seldom grown for the fruit they produce. Varieties

There are, in reality, five types of plums, all with different characteristics: European (Prunus domestica L.); Japanese (P. salicina Lindl. and hybrids with this species as a parent); native American (P. americana Marsh., P. munsoniana Wight & Hedr., P. subcordata Benth., and others); Damson (P. insititia L.); and ornamental (P. cerasifera Ehrh., P. blireiana Andre, and others).

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276

Western Fruit Gardening

Lacking these helps, you can make reasonable estimates visually by dividing a pound of material into equal piles. This will serve best in estimating small amounts of dry materials. For example: divide a pound of material into two equal piles, and one of these again to give two piles of material each containing approximately four ounces. Further subdivisions can be easily made, and very close approximations to the recommended concentrations will be obtained. Bordeaux spray mixture is a standard fungicide of many uses. It may be purchased ready-mixed in a dry form, in which case the directions of the manufacturer can be used. The best Bordeaux is freshly prepared. Bordeaux spray is a mixture of copper sulfate (buy the powdered form for ease in dissolving it) and freshly slaked lime. The use of ready-made hydrated lime is less satisfactory. You mix stock solutions of these materials in the spray tank in amounts sufficient to give the recommended strength Bordeaux spray. Lime is slaked by adding water to unslaked lime. A terrific amount of heat is generated in the slaking process, so take care! Slake in a metal or wooden container, adding water to make a smooth paste. Allow the slaked lime to cool before using it to make Bordeaux mixture. The copper sulfate stock solution should be prepared in glass or crockery; it will react with a metal container. Convenient stock solutions of copper sulfate and slaked lime are made by dissolving one pound of each material in water to make one gallon—each material in a separate container. Bordeaux spray mixture is prepared by adding stated amounts of these stock solutions in the spray tank with water. Bordeaux mixtures of various strengths are designated according to the following scheme: 5-5-50, 8-6-50, etc., in which the first figure stands for the number of pounds of copper sulfate, the second for the number of pounds of lime, and the last the final volume of spray mixture—50 gallons in the examples given. To make 10 gallons of 5-5-50 Bordeaux, use 1 gallon of each stock solution, in each of which 1 pound of chemical is dissolved, and add to 8 gallons of water, which will then give 10 gallons of Bordeaux spray of the formula 5-5-50, or a 1-1-10 formulation. The various strengths can be adjusted by the use of larger or smaller amounts of stock solution. For example, ten gallons of a 3-3-50 Bordeaux mixture will require % gallon of each of the suggested stock solutions added to water to make ten gallons of spray. The gardener may find it more convenient to use prepared Bordeaux powders. These have been made essentially as described

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above, and then dried to a powder form. Use as directed on the package. Bordeaux paste is prepared by mixing the two ingredients of Bordeaux in just enough water to make a thick suspension or paste. Raw linseed oil may be used to mix with prepared dry Bordeaux powder to form a mixture called Bordeaux paint. This can be used wherever Bordeaux paste is suggested, if preferred. Lime-sulfur is another standard spray material used both as an insecticide and fungicide. The commercial preparations now available are better and of more uniform strength than those home-made, and are preferred. You may be perplexed by the fact that recommendations for various dusts do not always total 100 per cent. Thus a dust recommendation may call for a 30 per cent calcium arsenate dust containing 5 per cent DDT. What is the other 65 per cent? In such cases the remainder is an inert material, such as talc or finely ground walnut shell. By common usage, only the per cent content by weight of the active ingredients is given. Many oil sprays are used in insect control. Oils used to spray plants are classed by weight (e.g., light summer, winter). Summer or medium-weight oils are rather highly refined and are more volatile than winter oils. They are not as effective in controlling insects and diseases, but they do not harm foliage at low concentrations, and can therefore be used when winter-weight oils cannot. Oils also come prepared for tank-mix (not recommended). These need an added emulsifier and constant agitation in the spray tank to keep them in suspension. The emulsive oils are already prepared with an emulsifier present. They will usually form stable emulsions without constant agitation. Because of the presence of the emulsifying agent, oil concentration is lowered, usually to around 80 per cent. Proprietary Compounds.—Many excellent spray materials are offered (usually in relatively small packages) for the gardener. Some of these are the commercial materials just discussed; others are especially compounded mixtures with multiple-purpose use. These latter may prove expensive to use in the control of certain pests or diseases because many of the active ingredients you pay for are designed to control other pests or troubles which may not be present. Usually the label indicates the group or groups of insects or diseases for which the mixture is effective. Concentrations and formulations are also given. In the small type on the label the exact composition of all active ingredients is listed. Read this to see what you are getting. Many of these mixtures contain the newer insecti-

278

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cides. The recommendations given by the manufacturer are to be followed with confidence. Trade names given to the complex mixtures containing these substances vary from manufacturer to manufacturer; the list below will identify the active ingredients as given on the labels. Materials containing TEPP and parathion are not recommended for garden use because of their toxic nature. DESIGNATIONS APPLIED TO SOME N E W FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

Common name allethrin alky] aryl sulfite

BHC chlordane CPB-55 DD D D D or T D E DDT dieldrin EPN ferbam HETP lindane methoxychlor methyl parathion nabam parathion schradan sulfotepp, or dithione T E P P or T E P toxaphene 2,4-D 2,4,5-T zineb ziram

Chemical name DL-2-allyl-4 hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-l-one, plus other complexes in mixture product containing 2-(p-ieri-butylphenoxy)-l-methyl ethyl 2-chloroethyl sulfite 1,2,3,4,5,6, hexachlorocyclohexane (12-14 per cent of the gamma isomer) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,8 octachloro-2,3,3a,4,7,7a-hexahydro—4,7-methanoindene technical chlorobromopropane, 55 per cent mixture of 1,2 dichloropropane and 1,2 dichloropropene dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethane chlorophenothane, or dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane l,2,3,4,10,10-hexachIoro-6,7-epoxy-l,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro1,4,5,6-dimethanonaphthalene 0-et.hyl O-p-nitrophenyl benzene-thiophosphonate ferric dimethyl dithiocarbamate hexaethyl tetraphosphate gamma isomer of BHC of not less than 99 per cent purity l,l,l-trichloro-2,2 bis (p-anisyl) ethane 0,0-dimethyl O-p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate disodium ethylene bisdithiocarbamate 0,0-diethyl O-p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate octamethyl pyrophosphoramide tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate tetraethyl pyrophosphate chlorinated camphene having a chlorine content of 67 to 69 per cent 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid zinc ethylene bisdithiocarbamate zinc dimethyl bisdithiocarbamate

Implements

Most of the smaller spray equipment found in garden stores for use on flowers and shrubs is inadequate for use on large fruit trees. First, the capacities are usually too small. A knapsack duster will probably be adequate for fruit tree work, but a sprayer of the same type and general size will prove too small because of the small amount of liquid it will hold. Second, some sprays will not stay uniform unless they are constantly agitated. Bordeaux mixture is one. Hand sprayers or air pressure types do not have provision for agitation; if they are to be used,

278

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cides. The recommendations given by the manufacturer are to be followed with confidence. Trade names given to the complex mixtures containing these substances vary from manufacturer to manufacturer; the list below will identify the active ingredients as given on the labels. Materials containing TEPP and parathion are not recommended for garden use because of their toxic nature. DESIGNATIONS APPLIED TO SOME N E W FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

Common name allethrin alky] aryl sulfite

BHC chlordane CPB-55 DD D D D or T D E DDT dieldrin EPN ferbam HETP lindane methoxychlor methyl parathion nabam parathion schradan sulfotepp, or dithione T E P P or T E P toxaphene 2,4-D 2,4,5-T zineb ziram

Chemical name DL-2-allyl-4 hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-l-one, plus other complexes in mixture product containing 2-(p-ieri-butylphenoxy)-l-methyl ethyl 2-chloroethyl sulfite 1,2,3,4,5,6, hexachlorocyclohexane (12-14 per cent of the gamma isomer) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,8 octachloro-2,3,3a,4,7,7a-hexahydro—4,7-methanoindene technical chlorobromopropane, 55 per cent mixture of 1,2 dichloropropane and 1,2 dichloropropene dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethane chlorophenothane, or dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane l,2,3,4,10,10-hexachIoro-6,7-epoxy-l,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro1,4,5,6-dimethanonaphthalene 0-et.hyl O-p-nitrophenyl benzene-thiophosphonate ferric dimethyl dithiocarbamate hexaethyl tetraphosphate gamma isomer of BHC of not less than 99 per cent purity l,l,l-trichloro-2,2 bis (p-anisyl) ethane 0,0-dimethyl O-p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate disodium ethylene bisdithiocarbamate 0,0-diethyl O-p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate octamethyl pyrophosphoramide tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate tetraethyl pyrophosphate chlorinated camphene having a chlorine content of 67 to 69 per cent 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid zinc ethylene bisdithiocarbamate zinc dimethyl bisdithiocarbamate

Implements

Most of the smaller spray equipment found in garden stores for use on flowers and shrubs is inadequate for use on large fruit trees. First, the capacities are usually too small. A knapsack duster will probably be adequate for fruit tree work, but a sprayer of the same type and general size will prove too small because of the small amount of liquid it will hold. Second, some sprays will not stay uniform unless they are constantly agitated. Bordeaux mixture is one. Hand sprayers or air pressure types do not have provision for agitation; if they are to be used,

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only materials capable of solution or very fine suspension can be sprayed. Wheelbarrow pump-type sprayers or stirrup-type bucket sprayers are probably most useful for trees. They usually do not have adequate provision for agitation. Of course, the ideal is a small power spray rig with proper agitation. Such a spray rig may well prove the least expensive, and certainly the most convenient, if purchased on a neighborhood pool plan—if it cannot be afforded individually. Dusters, as mentioned, need not be so large, as comparatively little material is applied per tree. Knapsack dusters which strap to the back and operate by a hand-worked blower or bellows should be adequate for even fairly extensive garden orchards. These will prove more satisfactory for the flower or vegetable garden than smaller types, too.

In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended, nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.

Index Air drainage, 16 Almond, 91-94; varieties (Davey, Eureka, IXL, Jordanolo, Mission, Ne Plus Ultra, Nonpareil, Texas), 91-92 American and hybrid grapes, 156 American plums, 229 American sweet chestnuts, 134 Angers quince rootstock, 217 Annona cherimola, 126 Apple, 95-104; varieties (Alexander, Benoni, Beverly Hills, Blaxtayman, Delicious, Golden Delicious, Gravenstein, Grimes, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Mcintosh, Red Astrachan, Red June, Red Rome, Richared, Rome Beauty, Starking, Stayman Winesap, Staymared, White Pearmain, Winesap, Winter Banana, Yellow Newtown, Yellow Transparent), 96-99 Apricot, 105-109; varieties (Blenheim, Franciscan, Hemskirke, Moorpark, Perfection, Phelps, Reeves, Riland, Royal, Tilton, Wenatchee, Wenatchee Moorpark), 105-106 Aramon x Rupestris 1 grape rootstock, 160 Arbutus unedo, 260 Avocados, 110-114; varieties (Anaheim, Benedict, Carlsbad, Dickinson, Duke, Fuerte, Hass, Lyon, MacArthur, Mexicola, Nabal, Puebla), 112 Bacterial diseases, 272 Balled plants, 23 Bare-root plants, 23, 24 Bark graft, 71-72 Berry thinning of grape, 170 Blackberry, 115-120; varieties (Boysen, Cascade, Eldorado, Evergreen, Himalaya, Logan, Mesereau, Nectar, Olympic, Snyder, Thornless Evergreen, Thornless Logan, Thornless Young, Young), 115-117 Black walnuts, 263, 268 Blastophaga wasp, 148 Blood oranges, 195 Blossom spray thinning, 59 Blueberry, 121-123; varieties (Atlantic, Concord, Dixi, Jersey, Rubel, Stanley), 121-122 Bordeaux: paint, 277; paste, 277; spray mixture, 276

Boron, 41-42 Broad-leafed plants, 47 Budding, 64-69; time of, 65; spring, 65; T or shield, 65-68; budwood, 65-66; summer, 67; fall, 67; patch, 68; flute, 68; I, 68-69; modified H, 68-69; chip, 69 Bud: mutations, 6; sports, 6 Bush fruit plants: blackberries, 115; blueberry, 121; carissa, 124; currant, 138; gooseberry, 154; raspberries, 248 Callery pear, 217 Cambium, 64 Caprifig, 147 Caprification, 148 Care: of winter-injured trees, 14; of young and mature trees, 28-43 Carica papaya, 201 Carissa, 124-125; varieties (Alles, Chesley, Frank, Serena, Torrey Pines), 124 Carissa grandiflora, 124 Carya: aquatica, 221; illinoensis, 220 Casimiroa edulis, 269 Castanea: dentata, 134; mollissima, 134; sativa, 134 Catkins, 152, 265 Cattley guava, 174 Central leader pruning, 49 Chemical fertilizers, 35 Chemical spray thinning of fruits, 59 Cherimoya, 126-127; varieties (Bays, Booth, Chaffey, McPherson, Ryerson), 126 Cherries, 128-133; varieties (Bing, Black Oregon, Black Tartarian, Bush Tartarian, Early Richmond, Lambert, Late Duke, May Duke, Montmorency, Napoleon, Republican, Royal Ann, Royal Duke), 129, 130 Chestnuts, 134-136; varieties (Abundance, Carr, Hobson, Ruling, Marron Combale, Marron Quincy, Meiling, Nanking, Reliable, Stoke, Yankee, Zimmerman), 134-135 Chilling requirements, 14 Chinese chestnuts, 134 Chinese date, 176 Chip budding, 69 Citrus: aurantifolia, 181; aurantifolia x reticulata, 181; aurantifolia x Fortunella sp., 181; limon, 179; mitis, 181;

282 paradisi, 172; reticulata, 187; reticulata x paradisi, 262; sinensis, 195 Cleft graft, 72-73 Climate, 4; in Washington and Oregon, 6-10; in California, 10; in Arizona, 10 Climatic limitations, 6-15; considerations of, 4; regions, 6-10; zones, 7; where you can grow fruits, 8-9; garden sites, 10-11. See also Each fruit in Part II. See also Chilling requirements; Frost damage; Winter hardiness Cluster thinning of grapes, 169-170 Common guava, 174 Common orange, 195 Composts, 38 Control measures for diseases and pests, 274-278; sprays, 274-276; Bordeaux spray mixture, 276; Bordeaux paste, 277; Bordeaux paint, 277; lime-sulfur, 277; dusts, 277; oil sprays, 277; proprietary compounds, 277; names of proprietary compounds, 278 Copper, 42 Cordons, 85-86 Corylus: avellana, 151; colurna, 152 Crab apples, 136-137; varieties (Florence, Hyslop, Montreal Beauty, Transcendent, Whitney), 136-137 Cross-fruitful, 22 (illus.) Cross-pollination, 19 (illus., 22) Cross-unfruitful, 22 (illus.) Crown graft, 73-74 Cultivation, 34 Currant, 138-140; varieties (Cherry, Fay, Fay's Prolific, Perfection, Red Lake, Wilder), 138 Cuttings, 62-63; stem, 62; slips, 62; hardwood, 62; root, 63; softwood, 63; chemically rooting, 63, 137 Cydonia oblonga, 246 Damson plums, 229 Date, 140-144; varieties (Deglet Noor, Halawy, Khadrawy, Zahidi), 141 Deciduous plants: definition, 44; pruning, 50-57; almond, 91; apple, 95; apricot, 105; blackberries, 115; blueberry, 121; cherries, 128; chestnuts, 134; crab apples, 136; currant, 138; fig, 146; filbert, 151; gooseberry, 154; grapes, 155; jujube, 176; nectarine, 189; peach, 206; pear, 214; pecan, 220; persimmon, 223; pistachio, 226; plums, 228; plumcot, 240; pomegranate, 242; prune, 244; quince, 246; raspberries, 248; strawberry, 252; walnuts, 263

Index Deficiencies: of chemical elements, 3742; of mineral elements, 38-42 Delayed foliation, 14; rest period, 44; in relation to specific varieties, see Part II Delayed open center pruning, 49 Dewberries, 115 Dioecious plants, 141, 226 Diospyros: kaki, 223; lotus, 224; virginiana, 224 Diseases, 271-273; bacterial, 272; fungus, 272; virus, 272; physiological disorder, 273. See also Each fruit in Part II Dogridge grape rootstock, 161 Double working, 92, 100 Drainage, 16; air, 16; water, 16 Duke cherries, 129 Dusts, 277 Dwarf fruit trees, 19, 75-79; dwarfing rootstocks, 77-78; espaliers, 79-85; cordons, 85-86; trees in containers, 8687; pruning, 78-79; fertilizing, 79 Eastern black walnuts, 263 English walnuts, 263 Eriobotrya japonica, 183 Espaliers, 79-85; training, 80-85; formal, 81-82; informal, 82-84; fruits adapted to, 80, 82, 83 Essential elements, 35 European chestnut, 134 European grapes, 156 European plums, 229 Everbearing strawberries, 254 Evergreen plants: definition, 47; avocado, 110; carissa, 124; cherimoya, 126; date, 140; feijoa, 144; grapefruit, 172; guava, 173; kumquat, 177; lemon, 179; lime, 181; loquat, 183; macadamia, 185; mandarin, 187; olive, 191; orange, 195; papaya, 201; passion fruit, 204; strawberry tree, 260; tangelo, 262; white sapote, 269 Excesses of chemical elements, 38, 41-42, 42-43; salinity, 17-18 Fall budding, 67 Farmingdale pear as stocks, 217 Feijoa, 144-146; varieties (Choiceana, Coolidge, Superba), 145 Feijoa sellotviana, 144 Fertilizers, 35-43; chemical, 35; content, 35-37; organic, 37; nitrogen deficiency, 37; time of application, 37-38; rate of application, 37 Ficus carica, 146 Field capacity of soil, 29

283

Index Fig, 146-151; varieties (Adriatic, Brown Turkey, Calimyrna, Kadota, Mission, Turkey), 147 Filbert, 151-153; varieties (Barcelona, Daviana, DuChilly, White Aveline), 151-152 Fireblight resistance of pear, 217-218; rootstocks, 217; trunks and scaffolds, 217-218 Flower-cluster removal of grapes, 169 Flute budding, 68 Formal espaliers, 81-82 Fortunella: japonica, 178; margarita, 178 Fragaria: chiloensis, 252; vesca, 252; virginiana, 252 Framework branches, 51-54 French apple seedling rootstocks, 100 French pear seedling rootstocks, 217 Frost damage, 11-13; to flower buds, 11; to leaf buds, 11; to fruits, 11-12; to deciduous plants, 11-12; to evergreen plants, 12; protection of plants from, 12-13; time of occurrence of, 11-12; determining damage from, 12. See also Winter injury Fruit-bud drop, 14 Fruit thinning, 57-59; by hand, 58; by mechanical means, 58; by chemical sprays, 59; spacing of fruits, 58; date, 143; grape, 169-170. See also Each fruit in Part II Fruits adapted to espaliers, 80, 82, 83 Fruits requiring little or no care, 4; average care, 4; more than average care, 4 Fungus diseases, 272 Garden sites, 10, 15 Girdling of grape vines, 170-171 Gooseberry, 154; variety (Oregon Champion), 154 Grafting, 70-75; scionwood for, 70-71; nurse branches in, 71; bark graft, 7172; side bark graft, 72; cleft graft, 7273; crown graft, 73-74; training grafts, 74; protecting grafts, 74-75; waxes, 74 Grapefruit, 172-173; varieties (Marsh, Ruby), 172-173 Grapes, 155-172; varieties (Agawan, Black Monukka, Black Muscat, California Concord, Campbell's Early, Christmas, Concord, Delaware, Delight, Early Giant, Flame Tokay, Fredonia, Golden Muscat, Keuka, Molinera, Monukka, Muscat Hamburg, Muscat of Alexandria, Niagara, Ontario, Pearl

of Csaba, Pierce, Portland, Red Malaga, Ribier, Scarlet, Seneca, Sheridan, Sultanina, Sultanina Rose, Thompson Seedless, Worden), 156-160 Growing fruit in limited spaces, 75-88; dwarf fruit trees, 75-79; dwarfing rootstocks, 77-78; espaliers, 79-85; cordons, 85-86; trees in containers, 86-87; multiple-variety trees, 87-88 Growth cycle, 44-49 Growth-regulating substances: rooting, 63, 192; preharvest drop sprays, 103; thinning apples, 103; thinning apricots, 108; setting Calimyrna figs, 148; preventing fruiting of olive, 194; thinning peaches, 212; thinning Japanese plums, 238 Guatemalan avocado, 111 Guava, 173-175; varieties (Florence, Riverside, Rolfe, Webber), 174 Hardiness, 13, 47 Hardwood cuttings, 62 Harvesting and handling of fruits. See Each fruit in Part II Hazelnut, 151 Heading trees, 55 Heeling in plants, 23 High-headed trees, pruning to develop, 55-57 Hormones. See Growth-regulating substances How to plant, 25-28; deciduous plants, 25-27; evergreen plants, 27-28; watering, 26, 27; fertilizing, 26 How trees grow, 44-49 Huckleberry, 121 I budding, 68-69 Implements, 278-279 Informal espaliers, 82-84 Insect pests, 273-274 Iron, 40-41 Irrigation, 28-34. See also Watering Japanese pear, 217 Japanese plum, 229 Juglans: californica, 263; hindsii, 263; nigra, 263; regia, 263 Jujube, 176-177; varieties (Lang, Li), 176 June drop, 102 Kumquat, 177-178

284 Layering, 60-62; simple, 60; tip, 61; trench, 61; mound or stool, 61 Lemon, 179-180; varieties (Eureka, Lisbon, Meyer), 179-180 Lemon guava, 174 Limes, 181-182; varieties (Calomondin, Bearss, Eustis, Lakeland, Mexican, Rangpur), 181-182 Limequats, 181; varieties (Eustis, Lakeland), 182 Lime-sulfur, 277 Loquat, 183-185; varieties (Advance, Champagne, Gold Nugget, Thales), 183-184 Macadamia, 185-186 Macadamia ternifolia, 185 Mahaleb cherry, 130 Mailing rootstocks, 77 Malus: baccata, 100, 136; domestica, 95; ioensis, 136 Mandarins, 187-188; varieties (Algerian, Clementine, Dancy, Frua, Kara, Kinnow, Owari), 187-188 Manganese, 41 Manure, 37, 43 Marianna 2624 rootstock, 92, 94, 107, 233 Marumi kumquat, 178 Mazzard cherry, 129 Mexican avocados, 111 Mineral deficiencies, 38-42 Mineral elements, 35-43 Mineral excesses, 41, 42 Minor elements, 35, 39-43 Modified H budding, 68-69 Monoecious plants, 135, 265 Mulberry, 270 Mulches, 38 Multiple-variety trees, 87-88; combination fruit trees, 87-88; topworking, 88; several trees in one hole, 88 Myro 29 rootstock, 92 Myrobalan plum rootstock, 92, 107, 233; seedlings as rootstocks, 234 Nagami kumquat, 178 Natal plum, 124 Navel orange, 195 Nectarine, 189-191; varieties (Cardinal, Dixie, Early Flame, Flaming Gold, Freedom, Fuzzless-Berta, Garden State, John Rivers, Mabel, Philp, Pioneer, Quetta, Silver Lode, Stanwick, Stark Early Flame, Tioga, Victoria), 189-191 Nitrogen, 35; deficiency, 37 Northern California black walnut, 263

Index Northern Spy rootstock, 100 Nurse branch in grafting, 71 Nutrient requirements. See Each fruit in Part II Nuts: almond, 91; filbert, 151; chestnut, 134; macadamia, 185; pecan, 220; pistachio, 226; walnut, 263 Offshoots, 64 Oil sprays, 277 Old Home pear as stocks, 217 Olea europaea, 191 Olive, 191-194; varieties (Ascolano, Manzanillo, Mission, Sevillano), 192 Oranges, 195-201; varieties (Armstrong, Armstrong Seedless Valencia, Robertson, Ruby, Summernavel, Torocco, Trovita, Valencia, Washington), 196 Organic fertilizers, 37 Ornamental plums, 229 Oval kumquat, 178 Papaya, 201-203; varieties (Betty, Kissimmee, Solo), 202 Paradox walnut rootstocks, 265 Parthenocarpic fruit set, 224 Passiflora edulis, 204 Passion fruit, 204-205 Patch budding, 68 Peach, 206-213; varieties (Anza, Alamar, Altair, Babcock, Blazing Gold, Curlew, Currie Free, Early Crawford, Elberta, Fay Elberta, Fisher, Flamingo, Florence, Fortuna, Four Star, Gaume, Gold Dust, Golden Blush, Golden Jubilee, Halehaven, Halford 2, Heath, Hermosa, J. H. Hale, J. L. Ames, July Elberta, Late Crawford, Levy, Lovell, Marigold, Mayflower, Meadow Lark, Merrill Beauty, Merrill Dandy, Merrill Delicious, Merrill Gem, Merrill Gold Rush, Merrill Late Gold, Merrill Nectaheath, Miller's Late, Nectar, Paloro, Redhaven, Redwing, Rio Oso Gem, Robin, Rubidoux, Salwey, Sims, Starking Delicious, Strawberry Free, Three Star, Two Star, Ventura, Veteran, Vetter Elberta, White Heath), 207-208 Pear, 214-219; varieties (Anjou, Bartlett, Bosc, Cornice, Dana Hovey, Dearborn, Hardy, Max-Red Bartlett, Seckel, Winter Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Winter Seckel) Pecan, 220-222; varieties (Burkett, Humble, Mahan, Nellis, Select, Success), 221

Index Perfect flowers, 202 Permanent wilting point of soils, 29 Persea: americana, 111; americana var. drymifolia, 111; drymifolia, 111 Persian walnut, 263 Persimmon, 223-225; varieties (Fuyu, Hachiya), 223 Pests, 271, 273-274 pH of soils, 122 Phoenix dactylifera, 140 Phosphorus, 35, 38 Physiological disorders, 273 Pinching, 52 Pineapple guava, 144 Pissardi plum, 232, 234 Pistachio, 226-227; varieties (Peters, Red Aleppo, Trabonella, USDA 23), 226 Pistacia: atlantica, 226; chinensis, 226; terebinthus, 226; vera, 226 Pistillate flowers, 135, 152, 265 Planning your fruit garden, 3-28 Planting: for a diversity of crops, 18-19; for pollination, 19, 22; distance between, 20-21; time to plant, 25; size of hole, 26; procedure to follow, 26-27 Plum, 228-239; varieties (Anita, Apex, Beauty, Burmosa, Duarte, Earliana, Emilie, Florida, Formosa, Frogmore, Grand Duke, Green Gage, Gros Hungarian, Hollywood, Howard Miracle, Inca, Italian, Kelsey, Late Santa Rosa, Mariposa, Methley, Pond, President, Rayburn, Rayburn Tragedy, Red Ace, Redheart, Red Rosa, Santa Rosa, Satsuma, Shiro, Shropshire, Standard, Thundercloud, Tragedy, Vesuvius, Wickson), 230-232 Plumcot, 240-241; varieties (Purple, Rutland, Sharpe, Stanford), 240 Pollen sterility, 99, 107, 241; definition, 209 Pollination, 19; cross-pollination, 19, 22; agents of, 22; relations, 22 (illus.); hand pollination of cherimoya, 126127; dates, 141-142; Calimyrna fig, 148 (illus.); caprification, 148; chemical spray fruit setting, 148; requirements, see Each fruit in Part II Pomegranate, 242-243; variety (Wonderful), 242 Potassium, 35, 39 Prairie crab apple, 136 Preharvest drop sprays, 103 Propagation, 59-75; of your own varieties, 59; layering, 60-62; cuttings, 6263; runners, 63-64; suckers, 64; off-

285 shoots, 64; budding, 64-69; grafting, 70-75 Proprietary compounds, 277; names of, 278 Protection of grafts, 74-75 Prune, 244-245; varieties (Burton, French, Imperial, Italian, Petite Prune d'Agen, Prune d'Agen, Robe de Sergeant, Sugar), 244-245 Pruning, 43-57; in relation to how trees grow, 44-49; methods of training plants, 49-57; central leader or pyramid, 49; delayed open center, 49; vase, 50; height of heading, 50; deciduous trees, 50; dormant, 51; summer, 51; spacing branches, 51; selection of scaffolds, 51; pinching, 52; non-bearing trees, 51-54; bearing trees, 54-55; bearing habit in relation to, 54-55; high-headed trees, 55-57; wounds, 55, 74; evergreen trees, 57; vines and bush fruits, 57; dwarf fruit trees, 78-79; blackberry, 118-119; blueberry, 122-123; carissa, 125; currant and gooseberry, 139; date, 143; European grape, 161-167; American grape, 167-169; red raspberry, 250251. See also Each fruit in Part II Prunus: americana, 229; amygdalus, 91; armeniaca, 105; avium, 129; avium x cerasus, 129; besseyi, 107; blireiana, 229; cerasifera, 229; cerasus, 129; dasycarpa, 107; domestica, 229, 244; insititia, 229; mahaleb, 130; moseri, 232; mume, 107; munsoniana, 229; pérsica, 189, 206; salicina, 229; species hybrids, 240; subcordata, 229 Psidium: cattleianum, 174; guafava, 174 Pterocarya rootstock, 265 Púnica granatum, 242 Purple granadilla, 204 Pyramid pruning, 49 Pyrus: calleryana, 217; communis, 214; pyrifolia, 217; ussuriensis, 217 Queensland nut, 185 Quince, 246-248; varieties (Apple, Champion, Orange, Pineapple, Smyrna), 246 Raspberry, 248-251; varieties (Bristol, Cumberland, Cuthbert, Latham, Lloyd George, Munger, Naples, Newburgh, Plum Farmer, Ranere, St. Regis, Sodus, Taylor, Washington), 249-250 Readily available water, 30

286 Rest period, 44 Ribes: hirtellum, 154; sativum, 138 Root cuttings, 63 Rootstocks. See Each fruit in Part II Round kumquat, 178 Royal walnut rootstocks, 265 Rubus: idaeus, 249; idaeus var. strigosus, 249; laciniatus, 249; occidentalis, 249; procerus, 249; species, 115, 248; ursinus, 249 Runners, 63-64, 254-256 Rupestris St. George grape rootstock, 160 S-37 peach rootstock, 92, 107, 209, 233 St. Julien plum rootstock, 209-210 Salinity, 17-18; tolerance to, see Each fruit in Part II Salt Creek grape rootstock, 161 Satsuma: mandarin, 187; variety (Owari), 188 Scaffold branches, 51 Scionwood for grafting, 70-71 Seedlings, 5 Selecting plants, 23-24; size to plant, 23 Self-fruitful, 22 (illus.) Self-pollination, 22 (illus.) Self-unfruitful, 22 (illus.) Shield budding, 65-68 Siberian crab apple, 136 Side bark graft, 72 Site, 10, 15-16; garden, 10; exposure, 16 Small trees: carissa, 124; crab apple, 136; feijoa, 144; filbert, 151; guava, 173; kumquat, 177; papaya, 201; pomegranate, 242; quince, 246 Softwood cuttings, 63 Soil, 16-18; drainage, 17; alkali, 17; depth, 16, 17, 18; water-holding capacity, 17; basic reaction, 17; salinity, 17; tolerance to salinity, 17; correcting salinity, 18; extraction of water from, 30-33; conditioners, 43; blueberry requirements, 122; pH, 122. See also Each fruit in Part II Solonis x Othello 1613 grape rootstock, 160-161 Sour (pie or red) cherry, 129 Southern California black walnut, 263 Space limitations, 3-4 Spacing trees, 24-25, 20-21 Sports, 6 Sprays, 274-278 Spring budding, 65 Spurs, 93 Spy 227 apple rootstock, 100 Staking grape vines, 168

Index

Staminate flowers, 135, 265 Stem cuttings, 62 Stockton Morello cherry rootstock, 130131 Strawberry, 252-260; varieties (Brightmore, Catskill, Corvallis, Dorsett, Fairfax, Howard 17, Klondike, Lassen, Marshall, Narcissa, Premier, Rockhill, Shasta, Twentieth Century, Utah Everbearer, Wayzata), 253-254; raised beds, 256; flat beds, 256-257; solid beds, 257; as border plants, 257; barrel, 259; tiered beds, 259 Strawberry guava, 174 Strawberry tree, 260-261 Suckers, 64 Summer budding, 67 Sweet cherry, 129 T or shield budding, 65-68 Tangelo, 262; varieties (Minneola, Pearl, Sampson), 262 Tangerine, 187; varieties (Alegrian, Clementine, Dancy), 187 Topworking, 64; multiple-variety trees, 88. See also Each fruit in Part II Training: plants, 49-57; grafts, 74; espaliers, 80; grape, 161-169. See also Each fruit in Part II Transpiration, 32 Transplanting, 27, 87 Trees in containers, 86-87 Trellising: blackberry, 119-120; grape, 168-169; raspberry, 251 Tropical guava, 174 Troubles of fruit plants, 271-279. See also Each fruit in Part II Ussurian pear, 217 Vaccinlum: corymbosum, 121; occidentale, 121; ovatum, 121 Varieties: what are they? 5; by name for each fruit, see Part II Vase pruning, 50 Vegetative propagation, 5 Vines: grape, 155; passion fruit, 204 Virginia crab apple rootstock, 100 Viruses, 272 Vitis: labrusca, 156; vinifera, 156 Walnuts, 263-268; varieties (Concord, Eureka, Franquette, Hartley, Lattin Franquette, Ohio, Payne, Placentia, Thomas, Treat Franquette, Wasson, Willson Franquette), 264, 268

287

Index Water drainage, 16 Watering, 28-34. See also Each fruit in Part II Water movement, 33 Water requirement, 34. See also Each fruit in Part II Watersprouts, 93 Waxes for grafting, 74 Weeds, 34 Western crab apple, 136 Western sand cherry rootstock, 107 West Indian avocados, 111

When to plant, 24-25; evergreen plants, 24; deciduous plants, 25 White sapote, 269-270; varieties (Coleman, Pike, Wilson), 269 Winter hardiness, 13; relative hardiness of plant parts, 13 Winter injury, 13; care of plants, 14 Wounds, 55, 74 Zinc, 39-40 Zizyphus jujuba, 176