Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship 9811990158, 9789811990151

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Brahma Singh Pritam Kalia   Editors

Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship

Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship

Brahma Singh • Pritam Kalia Editors

Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship

Editors Brahma Singh Brahma Singh Horticulture Foundation (BSHF) New Delhi, India

Pritam Kalia ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi, India

ISBN 978-981-19-9016-8 ISBN 978-981-19-9015-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9016-8

(eBook)

# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Dedicated to

In loving memory of our most revered Late Professor Dr. Kirti Singh—A legend Vegetable Scientist of India, who we lost recently. He was very happy and supportive of our webinar series on horticultural crops we started under the aegis of Brahma Singh Horticulture Foundation (BSHF) during pandemic in 2020 focusing on vegetable nutrition and entrepreneurship. He had always been appreciative of our efforts in advancing vegetable science pursuits.

Preface

Nutrition plays a key role in our daily life. Its value is more important for any individual's health. The solid food or liquids affect our body and health because each of these contains particular nutrition which is very necessary for our physical and mental growth. Whenever we take any food or nourishing liquids, our body digests and absorbs the simple but essential minerals, vitamins, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and water from these food or nourishing liquids and converts them into bloodstream and energy that help our body to grow and keep it healthy and build new cells in our body. Nutrition promotes vitality and an overall sense of health and well-being by providing the body with energy and nutrients that fuel growth, healing, and all body systems and functions. Good nutrition will also help to ward off the development of chronic diseases. Fresh food provides the body with what it needs to produce energy, promote metabolic activity, prevent micronutrient deficiencies, ward off chronic disease, and promote a sense of overall health and well-being. Vegetables which encompass fresh edible portions of certain herbaceous plants, such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, pods, etc., are either eaten fresh or prepared in a number of ways, usually as a savory. All the important vegetables were cultivated among the ancient civilizations of either the Old or the New World and have long been noted for their nutritional importance. Vegetables have water content in excess of 70%, with only about 3.5% protein and less than 1% fat. These are good sources of minerals, especially calcium and iron, and vitamins, principally A and C. Nearly all vegetables are rich in dietary fiber and antioxidants and are referred to as protective foods. Fresh vegetables are naturally low in fat, salt, and sugar, making them an excellent food choice. They provide energy, vitamins, minerals, and fiber, and there is growing evidence of additional health benefits from a range of phytonutrients, which are naturally occurring plant compounds. There are thousands of these different phytonutrients in vegetables, usually in small amounts. Plants produce them for their own protection from insects or bacteria, as pigments for photosynthesis (energy production) and flavor. They are often responsible for the bright colors of fruits and vegetables, and research shows that these compounds may help reduce the risk of disease and promote health. Few examples of phytonutrients worth citing are lycopene in tomatoes, beta-carotene in carrots, and glucosinolates in Cole vegetables. vii

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Phytonutrients may work in lots of different ways to protect against diseases and promote health. Modes of action that are being investigated include anti-inflammatory activity, boosting the body’s antioxidant defenses, modulating gut microflora, lowering cholesterol, fighting bacteria, and supporting the body’s immunity. Vegetables are important for human nutrition in terms of bioactive nutrient molecules such as dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and non-nutritive phytochemicals (phenolic compounds, flavonoids, bioactive peptides, etc.). These nutrient and non-nutrient molecules reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, certain cancers, and obesity. Since vegetables have been instrumental in minimizing nutritional deficiencies at household level, they have special mention in sustainable development goals (SDGs) of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for their role as a source of dietary micronutrients and income at the global level. Vegetable farming can be a big entrepreneurship opportunity for small and marginal farmers. These farmers with less than two hectares of land account for 86.2% of all farmers in India, but own just 47.3% of the crop area, according to provisional numbers from the 10th agriculture census of 2015–2016. The presence of a significant number of small and marginal farmers, close to 126 million according to a recent survey, is notable, who on an average have land holding of just 0.6 ha each. In small farms, vegetable crops offer the best options for achieving high yields from multiple harvests across number of crops in a year when combined with the use of modern technologies and access to markets. This can go a long way in sustaining families of small farmers. Entrepreneurship is the process of turning a concept into a developed product. To understand the importance of entrepreneurship, recognizing what an entrepreneur does is necessary. The term itself comes from the French “entreprendre,” which means “to undertake.” An entrepreneur is someone who undertakes or plans for all the risks and responsibilities that come with the formation of a new business to earn profits. Entrepreneurship is important because it has the benefits like creation of job opportunities, creation of new businesses, innovation, leads to better standards of living, supports research and development, promotes community development, and leads to increased productivity and creation of national wealth. It contributes to social welfare. Alongside these basics, it is important to go ahead with vegetable quality improvement to meet global requirements emerging due to the current evolution of consumers’ demands. In particular, producing vegetables with enhanced nutritional and organoleptic quality is one of the most challenging targets for breeding, facing climatic changes and the need for a more efficient production system. High-throughput metabolomic, transcriptomic, and genomic advances and others represent useful tools to identify genetic architecture and biochemical pathways and also to predict breeding values for selection and deployment. Modern breeding needs to address global challenges including climate change, varieties, and hybrids amenable to emerging modern production technologies, increasing yield and quality to secure food and nutritional security for a growing population as India (1.4286 billion) has just scaled beyond most populous China (1.4257 billion) in 2023 and will participate

Preface

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in maximizing the resources of farming systems. Current tools in multiomic approaches are a fundamental support for vegetable breeding to match crop metabolism genetics and further improve organoleptic and nutraceutical quality in new varieties. Advances in -omics technologies make it possible to elucidate the genetic and molecular bases of the multiple traits composing quality using genetic, genomic, and metabolomics approaches, particularly in case of pleiotropy and unfavorable trait association. The application of CRISPR/Cas in tomato breeding, for instance, has hastened improvement, and similar technology could fasten breeding, reducing the gap with other vegetable crops. With this backdrop, the first webinar series was organized on Vegetable Nutrition and Entrepreneurship by Brahma Singh Horticulture Foundation (BSHF) during 2020–2021. The program was designed to bring together researchers from diverse fields such as vegetable crops, production systems, bioactive compounds, genetic resources, regions, underexploited crops, value addition, etc. to highlight their increasing importance. The 22 chapters in this book represent a collection of recent and highly relevant reviews, covering a wide range of topics, prepared by speakers in the aforementioned webinar series who are well-recognized experts in their respective fields. We thank all the contributing authors profusely for their untiring efforts in developing excellent informative reviews on vegetable nutrition and entrepreneurship. We, the editors, hope that this book will provide a valuable reference resource as also inspiration for new researchers, teachers, students, planners, entrepreneurs, progressive farmers, health conscious consumers, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry owners. Finally, we are also thankful to the publisher for their support, inputs, and agreeing to bring out this important publication. New Delhi, India

Brahma Singh Pritam Kalia

Contents

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Nutritional Enhancement of Vegetable Crops (With Major Emphasis on Broccoli: A New Cole Crop in India) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pritam Kalia and Shrawan Singh

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New Systems of Vegetable Production: Protected Cultivation, Hydroponics, Aeroponics, Vertical, Organic, Microgreens . . . . . . . Brahma Singh

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Bioactive Nutrients in Vegetables for Human Nutrition and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jagdish Singh

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Nutritive Vegetable Crop Germplasm for Future Food Security . . . Veena Gupta and Chithra Devi Pandey

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Nutritive Vegetable Production and Protection with the Use of Vrikshayurveda-based Herbal Kunapajala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. P. S. Beniwal

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Microgreens from Vegetables: More Nutrition for Better Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Tanmay Kumar Koley and Vikramaditya Pandey

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On-Farm Organic Inputs Generation for Quality Vegetable Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 R. A. Ram

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Bitter Gourd for Human Health, Nutrition, and Value Addition . . . 141 Gograj Singh Jat, Tusar Kanti Behera, and Umesh K. Reddy

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Nutrition in Potato and Its Food Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Brajesh Singh, Pinky Raigond, Som Dutt, Milan K. Lal, Arvind Jaiswal, Sushil S. Changan, and Bandana Koundal

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Antioxidants and Health Benefits of Brinjal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Pranab Hazra

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Home Gardening: The Way Forward to Be Safe and Healthy . . . . . 217 M. L. Chadha

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Andaman’s Indigenous and Exotic Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Shrawan Singh and D. R. Singh

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Off-Season Vegetable Growing for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Akhilesh Sharma, Hem Lata, Pankaj Sood, Alisha Thakur, K. C. Sharma, and Parveen Sharma

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Capsicums for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 K. Madhavi Reddy

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Genetic Resources of Vegetable Crops: A Potential Source of Nutrition and Entrepreneurship in North-Eastern Region of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Veerendra Kumar Verma, Heiplanmi Rymbai, and Pankaj Baiswar

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Moringa for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 T. Arumugam, E. Allirani, and V. Premalakshmi

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Mushrooms for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Manjit Singh

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Aquatic Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . 389 Jitendra Singh, Hina Chauhan, Versha Kumari, and Rekha Singh

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Tropical Tuber Crops: Nutrition and Entrepreneurial Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 M. S. Sajeev, G. Padmaja, A. N. Jyothi, T. Krishnakumar, and C. Pradeepika

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Legume Vegetables for Human Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 T. S. Aghora, M. Thangam, and Naganagouda Patil

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Underexploited Vegetables of Coastal India for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 T. Pradeepkumar and K. I. Divya

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Root Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Pritam Kalia and Raman Selvakumar

About the Editors

Brahma Singh PhD (Horticulture), is a Padma Shri Awardee—the fourth highest Indian Civilian Award. He is a Fellow of NAAS, NABS, IAHS, ISVS, AFST(I), BVd, ISNS, and Hon. FISAE. Prof. Singh is the Founder Chairman, Prof. Brahma Singh Horticulture Foundation, Delhi; Founder President, Indian Society for Protected Cultivation, New Delhi; President, Indian Society of Vegetable Science, Varanasi; Former President of Society for New Age Herbals; and Member, Planning Board, Ladakh UT. He had the privilege to work under Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, former President of India, both in DRDO and at President House, New Delhi. He is known for his contributions to the greening of Leh valley—a cold Himalayan desert—protected horticulture in the country, and exploitation of natural growth of sea buckthorn/Brahmphal in Ladakh UT, besides developing root-knot nematode varieties of tomato and several varieties of different vegetables suitable for higher Himalayan region. He has been the organizer of BSHF series of webinars since the last 2 years. A monograph on Life Sciences Research in DRDO for the Service of Soldiers has been released, which is compiled by Prof. Singh. (For details, Google Wikipedia/Brahma Singh). Pritam Kalia A renowned vegetable breeder, who headed the Vegetable Science Division, at the ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, for more than 6 years and contributed significantly to the overall modernization of the division. Besides, Dr. Kalia served as Professor of Horticulture at ICAR-IARI handling academics of four diverse divisions. He also served as ICAR-Emeritus Scientist for full term and worked on a very important futuristic topic entitled “Advances in biotic stress resistance breeding and β-carotene biofortification in Indian cauliflower and nutraceutical mapping in carrot.” Dr. Kalia developed 33 varieties of different vegetable crops with major contributions in exotic vegetables, nutraceutical and resistance breeding, and genetic mechanisms facilitating hybrid breeding in cauliflower and carrot. He is credited with the introduction of new vegetable crops in India such as broccoli and leek, developing their indigenous varieties and popularizing them. He identified

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About the Editors

genes Xca1bo and Xca1bc, which impart resistance to black rot disease in cauliflower. These are being bred into commercial varieties through marker-assisted backcross breeding. Dr. Kalia has introgressed beta-carotene-enhancing Or gene in Indian cauliflower, which will go a long way in tackling beta-carotene malnutrition problem in India. For his outstanding contribution to vegetable science, he was awarded the VASVIK Award, IAHS Shivshakthi Lifetime Achievement Award, and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award of the ICAR.

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Nutritional Enhancement of Vegetable Crops (With Major Emphasis on Broccoli: A New Cole Crop in India) Pritam Kalia and Shrawan Singh

Abstract

Vegetables are an essential component of balanced diets for good health. They are ‘protective foods’ as they are rich in micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants and other health-benefiting compounds. Hence, intake of adequate quantity of quality-rich vegetables is essential. Although vegetables are known to be a treasure of microelements, they also contain appreciable amount of major nutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, ash and dietary fibres, thereby contributing to the overall nutrition and health factors of a balanced diet. These crops are known as a good source of nutraceuticals, which are gaining popularity among consumers and also have a significant presence in the market. Nutraceutical is any substance that may be considered as food or part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, encompassing prevention and treatment of diseases. Research efforts strive to improve our understanding of crop manipulations for nutrition, and in many cases, substantial progress has been made by using conventional and molecular tools. Cole vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts and cauliflower, are rich sources of anticancerous sulphurcontaining glucosides and bioactive compounds known as glucosinolates. Broccoli is high in vitamin C and soluble fibre and contains multiple nutrients with potent anticancerous properties, including di-indolylmethane and selenium. The 3,3′-di-indolylmethane found in broccoli is a potent modulator of the innate immune response system with antiviral, antibacterial and anticancer activity. It also contains the compound glucoraphanin, which can be processed into the anticancerous compound sulphoraphane. Intake of broccoli has been found to reduce the risk of prostate cancer. Genetically, most of the quality traits are complex in nature; therefore, limited success has been made through P. Kalia (✉) · S. Singh ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India # The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 B. Singh, P. Kalia (eds.), Vegetables for Nutrition and Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9016-8_1

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conventional breeding of nutrient-dense varieties in vegetable crops. But modern high-throughput biochemical and molecular analytical tools and techniques have a great potential to handle complex traits with shortened breeding cycles. Keywords

Nutrients · Nutraceuticals · Phytonutrients · Carotenoids · Anthocyanins · Glucosinolates · Cole crops · Cauliflower · Cabbage · Broccoli · Brussels sprouts · Knol khol · Kohlrabi · Kale

1.1

Introduction

Vegetables are one of the essential components of balanced diets for good health. Vegetables are ‘protective foods’ as they are rich in micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants and other health-benefiting compounds. Hence, intake of adequate quantity of quality-rich vegetables is essential. Notably, a number of epidemiological evidences indicate association between diet rich in vegetables and decreased risk of many non-communicable diseases. The beneficial health effects of vegetables are not only due to minerals and vitamins but also due to a diverse range of antioxidant compounds such as carotenoids in leafy (spinach, beet leaf, amaranth, coriander leaf, kale, etc.) and orange-colour vegetables (orange carrot, pumpkin, orange cauliflower, orange flesh sweet potato, cassava, etc.), anthocyanin in purple- or red-colour vegetables (beetroot, black carrot, red amaranth, red cabbage, purple broccoli and purple cauliflower, purple lettuce, etc.), lutein in pale or yellow vegetables (pale carrot), lycopene in red-coloured vegetables (tomato, watermelon, red radish, seed coat of bitter gourd, and Momordica), glucosinolates in radish and cole vegetables, quercetin and fructan in onion, anti-diabetic constituents in bitter gourd and white brinjal, etc. Increasing health issues on one side and simultaneous increase in information on healthy foods on the other are attracting people towards consumption of fruits and vegetables. There is increased global interest in nutraceuticals and edible colour because of their positive appeal to sensory organs for consumption and their immediate role in human health. Further, these are natural origin colours; hence, their demand is increasing in the food industry, particularly organic food industry. Besides yield- and stress-related traits, the quality traits are getting adequate attention in vegetable breeding programmes. Consumer awareness for nutritional and health concerns also leads to changes in consumer preference in favour of quality vegetables, which stresses on breeding varieties rich in such novel traits. However, quality of food has multi-dimensions, which depend not only on the property of food but also on consumer perception (Fig. 1.1). Genetically, most of the quality traits are complex in nature; therefore, limited success has been made through conventional breeding for breeding nutrient-dense varieties in vegetable crops. But modern high-throughput biochemical and molecular analytical tools and

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Nutritional Enhancement of Vegetable Crops (With Major Emphasis. . .

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Fig. 1.1 Quality attributes of vegetable crops

techniques have great potential to handle complex traits with shortened breeding cycles.

1.2

Dietary Nutrients and Health Attributes of Vegetables

Vegetables are important sources of proteins, vitamins, minerals and healthbenefiting phytochemicals. They are low in fat and calories and devoid of cholesterol. Vegetables are rich in protein, which is essential for body building, mainly tissue, muscles and blood such as garlic, garden pea and other legume vegetables. These are a good source of potassium, which helps in maintaining healthy blood pressure and reducing the development of kidney stone. Examples are sweet potato, beans, tomato products, beet leaf, spinach, etc. Vegetables are rich in dietary fibre to reduce blood cholesterol level, lower risk of heart diseases and improve bowel function. Examples are cowpea, hyacinth bean, drumstick, pointed gourd, etc. Vegetables are also rich in folate, which helps the body to form red blood cells. Examples are spinach, beet root, cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, etc. Rich profile of vegetables for beta-carotene makes them a good candidate food for keeping the eyes and skin healthy. Beta-carotene helps to protect against infections. Examples are amaranth, beet leaf, carrot, pumpkin, muskmelon, tomato, etc. Vitamin C-rich vegetables are broccoli, tomato, cauliflower, cabbage and chilli, which help heal cuts and wounds and keep teeth and gums healthy.

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Vegetables are also rich in different phytochemicals or bioactive compounds, which have protective and disease-preventive roles. Examples are cole crops in glucosinolates; tomato, carrot and watermelon in lycopene; carrot and beet root in anthocyanin and betacyanin, respectively.

1.3

Major Nutrients in Vegetable Crops

Vegetables are known to be a treasure of microelements, but they also contain appreciable amount of major nutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, ash and dietary fibres, thereby contributing to the overall nutrition and health factors of a balanced diet. There is wide difference in content values for these elements, and most of the commercially grown and widely consumed vegetables have less content. On the other side, the minor or underexploited vegetables appear to be a rich source of these elements as shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Major dietary mineral content in edible portion of common and underutilized/minor vegetable crops Content Protein (g/100 g)

Major vegetables Peas (7.25 ± 1.03), French beans (2.49), cauliflower (2.15), brinjal (1.48), tomato (0.76), capsicum (1.47), bitter gourd (1.61), potato (1.54), carrot (1.04), radish (0.77), sweet potato (1.33), colocasia (3.31), okra (2.08), lettuce (1.54), fenugreek leaves (3.68)

Ash (g/100 g)

Radish (0.82), sweet potato (0.96), potato (0.92), carrot (1.22), colocasia (1.95), okra (0.94), brinjal (0.70), bottle gourd (0.36), bitter gourd (0.81), spinach (2.47), lettuce (1.11), tomato (0.43) Tomato (1.58), okra (4.08), peas (6.32), cauliflower (3.71), capsicum (2.19), cluster bean (4.83), brinjal (3.98), bottle gourd (2.11), bitter gourd (3.49), spinach (2.38), lettuce (1.79), cabbage (2.76), Brussels sprouts (4.29), potato (1.71)

Dietary fibre (g/100 g)

Minor vegetables Agathi leaves (8.01), green amaranth leaves (3.29), red amaranth leaves (3.93), Brussels sprouts (4.26), drumstick leaves (6.41), garden cress (5.62), mustard leaves (Brassica juncea) (3.52), parsley (5.55), pumpkin leaves (4.21), cluster beans (3.55), field beans (3.71), drumstick pod (2.62), Alternanthera sessilis (5.29), pak choi leaves (1.41), colocasia leaves (3.42), beet greens (2.38), bathua leaves (2.50), lotus roots (1.94) Pumpkin leaves (2.24), Alternanthera sessile (2.65), parsley (2.25), pak choi leaves (1.10), colocasia leaves (2.30), beet green (2.69), amaranth leaves (2.52), Basella leaves (1.09), bathua leaves (1.71), lotus roots (1.50) Ash gourd (3.37), pumpkin leaves (2.25), parsley (3.87), mustard leaves (3.92), drumstick leaves (8.21), colocasia leaves (5.60), beet green (3.64), bathua (4.01), amaranth leaves (4.41), lotus roots (4.70)

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Nutraceuticals from Vegetables

Vegetable crops are known as a good source of nutraceuticals, which are gaining popularity among consumers and also have significant presence in the market. The term “nutraceutical” was coined by Dr. Stephen DeFelice in 1989, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine in 1989. According to DeFelice, ‘a nutraceutical is any substance that is a food or a part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease’. The word nutraceutical represents a combination of two words, i.e. ‘nutrient’ (a nourishing food or food component) and ‘pharmaceutical’ (a medical drug), and the intended meaning is quite evident, even if these terms encompass very different product categories. Nutraceutical is any substance that may be considered as food or part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, encompassing prevention and treatment of diseases. They are also referred to as a product isolated or purified from foods and generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food and demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic diseases. On the other hand, nutraceuticals not only maintain, support and normalize any physiologic or metabolic function, but can also potentiate, antagonize or otherwise modify physiologic or metabolic functions for good health. These are available in various forms such as pills, capsules, solutions, gels, liquors, powders and granulates. A nutraceutical may be a single natural nutrient in powder or tablet form (i.e. lycopene, protein) or a source of different elements (i.e. multivitamin and mineral tablets, powder). These are not necessarily a complete food, but equally not a drug. The nutraceuticals have received considerable interest because they are presumed to be safe for health and with potential nutritional and therapeutic effects (Dureja et al. 2003). In general, the definition of nutraceuticals is supplemented with five broad categories that encompass the full range of nutraceuticals. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Raw food, e.g. carrots that contain beta-carotene Processed foods without added ingredients, e.g. oat bran cereal Processed foods with added ingredients, e.g. calcium-enriched orange juice Genetically engineered foods, e.g. enhanced tomato with higher concentrations of lycopene 5. Isolated/purified preparations of active ingredients sold in tablet, capsule or tincture form There are different nutraceuticals/bioactive compounds in different vegetable crops having varied health benefits as given in Table 1.2.

1.4.1

Global Scenario of Nutraceuticals

The world market for functional foods and beverages is highly dynamic. Globally, the nutraceutical product market in 2019 was around USD 247 billion, which was

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Table 1.2 Vegetables rich in nutraceuticals Nutraceuticals/ bioactive compounds Allyl sulphides, organosulphur compounds, allicin, quercetin

Indoles/ glucosinolates, sulforaphane Isothiocyanates/ thiocyanates, thiols Isothiocyanates Lycopene Capsaicin

Carotenoids, phthalides Polyacetylenes Flavonoids (isoflavones) Heart disease; cancer

Vitamin A (retinol)

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vitamin E Coumarins, steroids, alpha-tocopherol Peptides, terpenoids Flavonoids (saponins) Indoles, isothiocyanates β-Carotene Allium (allyl sulphides) β-Carotene

Putative biological effect TC and LDL-C, TG, cholesterol and FA synthesis, BP, thrombosis, AOx, carcinogen detoxification, tumour promotion, modulation of cell signalling pathways, inhibition of COX-2 Tumour initiation/promotion, carcinogen activation, carcinogen detoxification Induction of phase II enzymes, modulation of cell signalling pathways, induction of apoptosis LDL-C and LDL-C oxidation, AOx, antimutagen Modulation of cell signalling pathways, inhibition of phase I enzymes Promote the activity of white cells and act as anti-carcinogenic

Vegetables Allium vegetables (garlic, onions, chives, leeks)

Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, kale, turnips, kohlrabi) Broccoli

Solanaceous vegetables, (tomatoes, peppers) Chilli

Umbelliferous vegetables (carrots, celery, parsley, parsnips)

Carcinogen detoxification

Beans

TC and LDL-C, LDL-C oxidation, TG, thrombosis, AOx, antimutagen, angiogenesis HDL-C, apoptosis Anti-carcinogenic, combined opsin to give rhodopsin for better vision Anti-carcinogenic

Soybean

Antioxidant Anti-diabetic Macular degeneration Protect against cancer, lower cholesterol Protect against cancer, heart disease and stroke Antioxidant Protect against certain cancers and heart disease, boost the immune system Antioxidant

Carrots, squash, broccoli, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, kale, collards, cantaloupe and pumpkin Green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, cabbage and tomatoes Green leafy vegetables Fenugreek Bitter gourd Beans Broccoli Carrot Garlic, onion

Sweet potato (continued)

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Table 1.2 (continued) Nutraceuticals/ bioactive compounds Lycopene, flavonoids Momordicin and charantin Isothiocyanates Capsaicin, oleoresin Chlorogenic acid

Putative biological effect Protect against cancer, fight infection Anti-diabetic, blood purifier, hypertension, dysentery, anathematic Jaundice, liver infection, piles Anti-diarrhoeal, anti-rheumatic Anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity and anti-diabetic properties

Vegetables Tomato Bitter gourd

Cauliflower/radish Chilli Brinjal

Source: Kalia and Singh (2018)

expected to reach to the level of USD 336 billion in 2023 and USD 722.49 billion in 2027 at a CGAR of 8.3% over the forecast period (https://www.prnewswire.com/). Similarly, in India, the status of nutra industry in 2019 stood around USD 5 billion but is expected to rise @ 21% CAGR to USD 11 billion in 2023 with a market share of 3.5% and USD 25 in the next decade. It covers the business segments of functional food, beverages and dietary supplements. The factors associated with rapid emergence of nutraceuticals are the following: 1. Consumers dissatisfied with drug costs and conventional healthcare are turning to unproven and untested natural product for treatment and prevention of diseases. 2. Chronic diseases with poor therapeutic alternatives. 3. Desire for personalized medicines. 4. Positive campaign in electronic and print media for nutraceutical. 5. Acceptance of nutraceutical products in large section of educated healthconscious population. 6. Scientific evidences in favour of nutraceuticals without major negative side effects. 7. New focus on preventing medicine. 8. Public perception that ‘natural is good’.

1.4.2

Nutraceuticals/Bioactive Compounds and Their Functions

The nutraceuticals or phytonutrients can be classified into various groups on the basis of alike protective functions as well as individual physical and chemical characteristics of the molecules. Focusing on nutraceuticals has greater potential for opportunities that are new, novel as well as exciting. The following is a list of important phytonutrients and their useful medicinal values. Natural antioxidants are substances in our foods, which prevent or slow the oxidative damage to our body by acting as ‘free radical scavengers’. Different kinds of food-grade nutraceuticals are shown in Fig. 1.2. Vegetables are rich sources of natural antioxidants such as

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Fig. 1.2 Food-grade nutraceuticals

carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E, flavonoids, organosulphurs, glucosinolates and minerals like selenium, zinc and copper. The role of different phytochemicals in human and plant health is described in Table 1.3. Glucosinolates: These are present in the vegetables of Brassica family and help in the detoxification enzymes in liver, white blood cells and cytokines, thereby helping in boosting immunity. The isothiocyanates, dithiolthiones and sulphoraphane are the bio-transformation products of glucosinolates that are involved in blocking enzymes, which are responsible for tumour growth in liver, lung, breast and gastrointestinal tracts (oesophagus, stomach and colon). Flavonoids: Flavonoids constitute a subclass of phenols that improve the effects of ascorbate-vitamin C. These are beneficial in allergic conditions, inflammation, liver disorders, platelet aggregation, pathogens (bacteria and viruses), cancer and ulcers and act as antioxidants. These inhibit a number of specific enzymes, preventing, thereby, various diseases and maintaining a healthy body. Flavonoids block the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) that is responsible for raising blood pressure. Different types of flavonoids in plants are given in Table 1.4, and classification of vegetables for flavonoid content is given in Table 1.5. Indoles: Indoles include phytonutrients that interact with vitamin C, and their complexes bind with chemical carcinogens. These also help in activating the detoxification enzymes. The acid in stomach helps in the formation of bio-transformation products of indoles like the ascorbigen. Isoflavones: This is a subclass of phenols found in beans and other legumes, and its function is similar to flavonoids in effectively blocking enzymes promoting tumour growth. The important enzymes include genistein and daidzein. The incidence of breast, uterine and prostate cancers is rare in people who consume legumes.

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Table 1.3 Phytochemicals and health benefits Phytochemicals Phenolics

Role in plant system Signalling molecules, pigments, flavour, defence

Alkaloid Carotenoids

Plant defence Pigmentation (yellow, orange, red), attract pollinators

Anthocyanin

Pigmentation (purple, red)

Steroids Glucosinolates Omega-6-fatty acids (linoleic acid)

Precursor for compounds Plant defence Plant defence and metabolic activities

Vitamins

Plant growth and development, quality

Organic acids

Precursor for compounds

Role in human health (when consumed in adequate quantity) Antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, anti-carcinogenic, reduce cardiovascular diseases Antioxidant effects and health stimulants Anticancer, anti-cardiovascular and age-related eye diseases, β-carotene: antioxidant, eye health; lycopene: antioxidant, prostate cancer Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic activity, cardiovascular disease prevention, obesity control, and diabetes alleviation properties Anti-diabetic Anticancer compounds Balanced ratio of omega-3-fatty acids (e.g. from fish) and omega-6-fatty acids (e.g. from vegetables) is essential for good health Antioxidants, anti-atherogenic, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulator, prevent colon and breast cancers, some cardiovascular diseases, cataract, arthritis, certain neurological disorders Taste factor, human metabolism

Source: Kalia and Singh (2018) Table 1.4 Flavonoids and their vegetable sources Flavonoid Quercetin Kaempferol Flavanols Luteolin Anthocyanidins

Source Tomato, potato, broad beans, broccoli, Italian squash, kale and onion Radish, horseradish, endive and kale l Legumes Beetroot, Brussels sprout, cabbage, cauliflower Red potato

Phenols: Phenolic compounds comprise one of the most numerous and widely distributed groups of substances in the plant kingdom, with more than 8000 phenolic structures currently known. Natural phenolics can range from simple molecules, such as phenolic acids, to highly polymerized compounds, such as tannins, and their occurrence in foods is extremely variable. The term phenolic or polyphenol is chemically defined as a substance that possesses an aromatic ring, bearing one or more hydroxy substituents, including its functional derivatives (esters, methyl esters, glycosides, etc.). The three groups of phenolic compounds which commonly occur in food materials are (1) simple phenols and phenolic

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Table 1.5 Flavonoid content range in different vegetables Flavonoid range 50 mg/100 g

Sources Garlic, beans, carrot, cucumber, tomato, radish, potato Spinach, Brussels sprout, cabbage, lettuce, kale, turnip greens, cauliflower, sweet pepper Broccoli, celery, knol khol, onion Broad beans, parsley, sweet potato leaves, chilli

Source: Published literature online and Kalia and Singh (2018)

acids, (2) hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and (3) flavonoids. The phenolics content in different vegetables is given in Table 1.6. The most common group of plant phenolics are the flavonoids, the structures of which are based on that of flavone, consisting of two benzene rings linked through a three-carbon γ-pyrone ring. Common classes of flavonoids include flavones, flavonols, isoflavones, anthocyanins, catechins (flavanols) and flavanones. More than 4000 flavonoids have been reported and, except for catechins, most flavonoids occur in nature as glycosides: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Flavonols: quercetin kaempferol, myricetin, isorhamnetin Flavones: apigenin, luteolin Flavanones: hesperetin, naringenin, eriodictyol Isoflavones: genistein, daidzein Flavan-3-ols: catechins, epicatechins, theaflavins, thearubigins Anthocyanidins: cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin

Thiols: Thiols comprise sulphur-containing phytonutrients present in garlic and cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, turnips and other members of the mustard family). Allylic sulphide subclass is abundantly found in garlic, onions, leeks, shallots and chives and is released when the plants are cut or smashed. These possess antimutagenic and anti-carcinogenic properties as well as immuneenhancing and cardiovascular protective properties. Garlic and onions activate liver detoxification enzyme systems and are also effective against tumours, bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites, cholesterol and platelet/leukocyte adhesion factors. Anthocyanins: Anthocyanins are natural pigments belonging to the flavonoid family. They are responsible for the blue, purple, red and orange colour of many vegetables. Anthocyanins are capable of acting on different cells involved in the development of atherosclerosis, one of the leading causes of cardiovascular dysfunction. On the one hand, they can interfere with glucose absorption, and on the other hand they may have a protective effect on pancreatic cells.

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Table 1.6 Different phenolics content in common vegetable crops Phenolics Total polyphenols (mg/100 g) Chlorogenic acid Caffeic acid Sinapinic acid Resveratrol Gallic acid Cinnamic acid Quercetin Protocatechuic acid Vanillic acid Syringic acid Ferulic acid P-coumaric acid

Brinjal 2.64–16.10

Cabbage 0.55–15.85

Cauliflower 1.75–34.18

Carrot 1.45–12.30

0.01–2.69 0.00–0.77 – – 0.00–0.12 – – 0.00–0.33 0.00–6.17

– 0.00–0.01 0.00–0.08 0.02–0.31 BDL 0.01–0.86 0.00–0.04 0.00–0.61 0.00–0.06 0.16–0.84 0.16–11.35 0.00–0.04

– – – 0.04–1.21 – 0.02–0.76 – 0.11–1.25 0.01–1.74 0.00–0.48

0.02–1.35 – – – – – – – 0.00–0.09

0.00–0.45 0.00–0.24

0.00–0.02

0.00–0.58 0.00–1.57

Bitter gourd 0.50–7.50 – – – – – – – 0.00–0.11 – 0.19–8.97 – –

Source: IFCT (2017), Kalia and Singh (2018) – Not detected

Microencapsulation of anthocyanin pigments of black carrot by spray drier has led to acylated and non-acylated anthocyanins. They are temperature resistant and water soluble with strong colours, have been used to colour food and are stable at pH