Vegetables 9057821478

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pROTA

Vegetables

Plant Resources of Tropical Alrica 2 Vegetables

I'KOTA

is

an international Foundation involving the &)llowing participating institu-

tions:

— — —

—

Wageningen Umversils (WU), I'lanl Sciences Group (PSG), llaarweg 333, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands Agropolis International (AGROPOLIS), Avenue Agropolis, F-34394 Montpellier cedox 5. France Royal Botanic Jardons Kow (H H( Centre for Economic Botany, Richmond. Surrey TW 9 3AB. United Kin^l. Tn; Cruhben. (J. I. I

(I'jditors).

Plant Re«)un:es

of Tropical

Wageningen, Netherlands / Backhu> Wageningen, Nedierlands. pp. ........

.Mrica

2.

X'egelables.

s I'ublishers,

II & Dcnion O.A. PUOTA I'oundat ion,

Leiden, Netherlands

/

CT\

ISBN 90-5782-147-8 (book only) ISBN 90-5782-148.6 (book + CD-Rom) €)

PKOTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands, 2004.

No part of this

publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations embodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print, photocopy, microfiln^ cltHMrir or eleclromagnelic record without written permission from he copyright holder: PROTA Foundation, P.O. Box 341, I

6700

AH Wageningen, Netherlands.

Printed in the Netherlands by Ponsen & Loo:gen bv, Wageningen Distributed for the PROTA Foundation by Backhuys Publishers, P.O. Box 321, 2300 All I.( iden Netherlands (worldwide), and CTA, P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen,

Netherlands (ACP countries).

Contents

C()ninl)iilt)r.s

PROTA

(1

RnarH nf Triiatnr^s anH Pnrfinnnol

TnfmHiipHnn

1:^

Alphabetical treatment of vegetables 19

Vegetables with other priman'^ use 559 T.itprfltiirp

5fi7

Index of scientific plant names 652 Index of vernacular plant names 660

PROTA in

short,

CTA in

Map of Tropical Africa

short 667

for

PROTA

668

1 1

6 VBGETABLES

Contributors

-

M.O. Abiikutsa-Onyango, Department of Horticulture, Maseno University, P.O. Private Bag Maseno, Maseno, Kenya (Pasella 0/60, CrotcUaria brevidens)

-

A.A. Adebisi, CEN HAD P M.B. 5062, Jericho Hills, Ibadan. Nigeria (Cucumeropsis nutnuii. Lahlah jyitrpureus, Ixutnaeaicatixcudfolia, Luffaacutan^Ui, TVichosinilhcs u< unicnnu) O.C. Adebooye, Obalemi Awolovvo University, l*'aculty o! Agricult ure, Depart
"

(

names

in

ol'l'icial

lanf^uayes

ul

are included, English, French, Portuguese and Swahili.

regional importance in Airica It is

beyond the scope of

PROTA to give an extensive account of the names of a species in all languages spoarea of distribution. Checking names would require extensive fieldwork by forms of Arabic are spoken in several countries in Af> rica, tho number of African i)lanf specie^ tb-il have a name in written, classical Arabic is limited. Arabic names are therelore omitted, i^ames of plant products are mentioned under the heading 'Uses'.

ken in

its

specialists. Althoui^h ((nrional

Origin and geographic distrilration To avoid long lists ofcoiinl ri(>s in the le\(_ a dislribiition map is addiMl (or major species. The map indicates in which countries a species has been recorded, either wild or planted.

It

should be realized that for

many

species these

maps

are incom-

plete because they are prepared on the basis of published information, the quantity

and quality of which

varies greatly ficom species to species. This is especially the

case for

which are not or incompletely covered by the regional African

\\

ild si)ecies

and

w hich are only planted on a small scale (e.g in (e.g. Central A(ri(;an Republic. Chad. Sudan, Angola) there is comparatively little information in the literature. Sometimes they are not covered by recent regional or national floras and although species may be present there, this cannot be demonstrated or confirmed. For some major species, a distribution map has been omitted because there is too little information on distrifloras,

home

for culiiN :ited s|)(>ci(>s

garden.s). i'or

some count ri(>s

bution.

The assortment ot market vegetables in African countries varies largely, in urban areas the 25 most important cultivated vegetables account for up to 90% of the total consumption of 100-160 g/person, whereas vegetables collected ficom the wild account for less than 5%. In rural areas the variation is greater and more wild vegetables are consumed. Large differences exist not only between urban and rural areas, but niso between forest and savanna zones, lowland and highland regions, countries and tribes, and more generally between West, Central, Fast and Southern Ali'ica and between Anglophone, Francophone and Portuguese-speaking countries. As an illustration of this location*dependent variation a list of the most important market vegetables is present ed in Table 1. It shows differences between s. Inl'ormalion on ex-situ germ|)lasm collcH ions is mostly extracted Irom publications of the international Plant Genetic Resources Institute. t

INTRODUCTION 17

Breeding comparison with other parts of the world, little breeding work aiming specilically and few seed companies offer seed of locally adapted cultivars. Large differences exist in the occurrence of landraces, and local production of exotic vegetables, e.g. tomato, carrot and onion, is more based on &rmsaved seed in West Africa than in Kast Africa, wheri' the seed is more often importt'd. However. French bean seed in West Africa is mostly imported, while in Kast Africa it is locally produced. Seed of w hite headed cabbage is almost exclusively imported in all countries. Seed companies offering locally adapted cultivars, either bred in situ or elsewhere in the tropics for comparable conditions, are mentioned. Citii^ a cultivar does not imply a recommendation. III

at conditions in Africa has been done

References

The main objective of the list of references given is to guide readers to additional information; it is not intended to be complete or exhaustive. Authors and editors have selected major and olher rer!>rences; major ref(>rences are limited to 10 references (5 for minor spealni Masrarf'TTP Islands nliliaeui

M. et el, 2002; Moore, Normand, F., 1999.

1984;

Other references TUCN. servation Robert. P.,

attempts to introduce hi on successful.

Uses The seeds

should be restricted to cultivated

collection

H.E.

Accutthoaieyoa horridua

1995; llhl,

X

\

L

Kew Con-

20()i'

Palmarium,

1996;

Stafi;

C, Rouch, C.

& Cadet,

P.,

Dransfield.

2003;

1997; Tuley,

J.,

ACANTHOSICYOS HORRIDU8 Welw. ex Hook.f.

is

Hook.f., Gen. pi. 1(3):

824(18{;7)

bitter

(En). Nara,

melon nara

and geographic

tips are

hni'

(Fr).

kidney

bush, nara

Nara

(Po). .\r up

1

acute; leceplai uiar liracts straw -coloured, often

tinged ]>urple-red

up to 6

mm

x

1

mm. Disk

flowers 400-()2(), corolla 5-merous. yellow, up .'-5.5 X 1 lonp Fruit an nchene 2—2.5

to

mm

mm

mm; pappus consistmg of 2 bristles. Aemdla is a pantropical genus of about 30 cies,

spe-

with 2 of these native to tropical Africa

and 2 introduced. Most Acmella species were formerly considered to belong to the genus ktnlhes. The 2 native species. Acindla eaitlirhi:a

Delile (s\nr)nym:

Spituiitlu's

niaii-

DC.) and Acinalla have similar uses as Arniella oleracea and have undoubtedly been mixed up in the literature. Acmella caulirhiza can be distinguished from Acmella oleracea by the presence ctf ray flowers. AcmeUa uUginoaa has a 4-morous corolla. Ecology As an escape from cultivation Acmella oleracea is found in weedy habitats. Naturalized populations are usually found in lilianua auct.

non

ttiiginosa (Sw.)

(liuh.)

Cass.,

36 VEGETABLES wet

locBlities such as lakeside marshes. Management Acmella oleracea is grown ns a vegetable in Madagascar and Comoro < unl hIso in l\ are used either fresh as a cooked vegetable or dried and powdered as an ingredient of soups and sauces. The slmnts and mnts of seedlings are eaten as well. The routs are boiled and eaten in West Africa in times of famine.

raw L.

Protologue Sysl nrit rd 10, 2: 1144 (1759). Family Bombacaceae (AI'G: Malvaceae) Chromosome nunber 2n = 160 Vernacular names Baobab, monkey-bread dead-rat tree, cream-of-tartar tree (En)

Baobab, calebassier du S^^al, arbre de mille ans (Fr). Baobab, molambeira, imbondeiro, mlnhnrrirn cnhnrevrr (Po). Mbuyu, mkuu hapingwa, mkuu hafungwa, muuyu (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Baobab occurs naturally in most of mainland tropical Mrica. Originally it was absent from many Central Alrican countries, but it has been introduced in most of them. In mainland tropical Africa it is still absent from Rwanda, Burundi,

The flowers are eaten

.

fruit

contains

soft,

white, edible

and nutri-

( monkey bread ). It is used to curdle eaten as a sweet and is used in makand rcfn shing drinks and ire-cream.

tious flesh

milk,

tree

is

ers and

The

ADANSONIA DIGITATA

it

introduction most likely brought by Arab trad-

oftheisl-md

1

et

and Uganda. It has been introduced in Mndngasrnr and m.-iny other Indian nrrnn islands, in West Africa it often occurs in baobab ordiards around villages. Outside Africa it has been widely inunikK ed in tropical and Djibouti

thos{>

&

Hind, N.

2003; Janaen, R.K., 1985; Ramsewak, Enck.son .\ & Nnir, M.C. ;)!).

M.

Adanaonia digiiata - wild and planted

ing In

it is

gi-uel

Sudan

it

is

called 'gubdi*.

added

made mto a milk-like drink The powdered fruit flesh is

to (did li1 tn treat amenorrhoea. The bark, fruit pul|i :md .--m ds are used as an antidoti' for Strupliuiilhus poisoning. In Maluwi baobab juice called 'dambedza' is served as a cure for hanpo\(M".- and against ronstipadon. In Zambia a root infusion is used to bathe babies to protion of the baric is

mote a smooth with

rilatn

},

trrr

hnhU;2,

tip of leafy

ahoot; 3, flower; 4, opened fruit.

Redrawn and adapted by Aehmad Satin Nur-

haman smooth, dark brown to black, with thick seedhypogeal germination; cotyledons breaking free from testa; first leaves simple, narrowly Imear; taproot swollen. Other botanical infonaatloti Adatiaonia comprises 8 species, one of which is of African mnjnlanrl origin, one endemic to Australia and 6 to Madagascar. In the Sahel 4 types of baobab are distinguisbrd: black -bark", red-bark', 'grey-bark' and

coat. Seedling with

dark-leaf.

The dark-leaf

tj'pe is

preferred for

use as a leaf vegetable, the 'grey-bark' type is used for fibre, and the others are preferred for the fruits. In Sudan si/e. shape antl taste of the fruits differ between areas. In Kenya S types are distinguished, based on sweetness of the fruit, shape of the tree si/o and shape of tbe inxii, and season of flowering. Dislinguishmg botanical varieties is tempting, but as variatiii\vth phust s litis been developed based on data from South African trees. The first 'sapling phase lasts 10-16 yean at the end of which the diameter at breast height m nnd crown width 2—4 is 7—25 cm hri- 6 days. Plants readi the harvest stage when 16 leaves have apl)ut cf>ntinue to grow in thickness. Floral inilialion occurs about 180 days alter sowing in temperate conditions, plants expoeed lifillin*: e.-irlier. to low temperatures Growth of the floral stem is enhanced by long

peared

days; consequent ly bolting and flowering rarely occur under tropical conditions. Leek flowers are pollinated by insects. Both self- and crosspollination occui-s. Besides seed, bulbils (topsets) may be formed in the umbel of some cultivara.

cm

Management A

harvest of 20 t/ha removes Of) kg N, 10 kg P Tf) kg K. kg Ca, 3 kg and l.T kg S from the soil Fertilization with 5-20 t/ha of organic manure and an adequate quantity NPK including sulphates is

about

;^.^)

Mg

recommended Diseases and .-is

\M n

.is

))ests

liming

if

necessary-

The most important

leaf disease is inu ple blotch {Altenmria porri), to which plants are more sustvptible on calsoils. It can lie controlled With dithiocarbamate fungicides or iprodione.

cium-deficient acid

In the lowlands, roots are invaded by Pyreitochaetn lerrcKtrif! in the same way as for garlic or onion. The roots and basal plate can be destroyed by the fungus Seleroiium cepivonim or the nematode Dilylenchus dipsaci. potent iall\

noxious in the tropics if intriKimi d in highlands (e.g. by cultivation of contaminated garlic cloves). Rust {Puccinia spp.) and white tip {Phytopl^hora porri^, which are major diseases

44 VEGETABLES in temperate areas,

have not been recorded in

exclusion

progeny

of

Afirica.

pollination. Fi cultivars

Tluips labaci can cause serious losses in yield and quidily, It ran be cont rolled liy insect iroduclion, but

where red onions are preferred.

Their bolting resistance is higher than that of onion cultivars imported from India, hence their suit ability for high altitude growing areas, e.g. in Kenya. Several seed companies woridwide have undertaken breeding work to improve tropical shortday onions, including Technisem in West .Africa and East West Seed Company in Zim-

babwe and

Asia.

Improved cultivars resulting

48 VEGETABLES from

this

breeding work

ore

available; these include Noflaye' later bolting selection from

and Red Pinuy

(I^tist

commercially (Technisem de GalmiOt

Violet

West Seed

("'ornpany

-

a

complete and the bulbs enter a phase of more or less intense dormancy, which varies in depth

between

cultivars.

This

dormans without bolting in the first year. Genetic material is available and research is carried out at several national institutes in Africa to reduce onion bolt ing in the first year. Three levels can be considered for onion breed-

ing;

-

Selection within a cultivar for interesting characters, such .is ai ease resistance, or male

in Senegal. Hie largest number of ricn ssions is Icrjit nt the Oentro Regional de Recherche Agronomique (CERRA), Maradi (Niger) and the largest regional collection is stored at the Centre Regional di !;> which is either sown directly into the field or tillers

first in nurseries.

2.2—2.5

g.

The weight

of 1000 seeds

is

Seed requirements are 8-16 kg/ha and 2-4 kg/ha in Uie case of

for direct seeding

transplanting. In nursery beds

seeds are

ther broadcast or sown in rows or

m

5-6

ei-

cm

wide bands. The area of nurseiy required is 10-12% of the field area. Seedhngs an nMily for transplanting when 25-30 cm tall and thick

Management For land preparation

is

ally practised 6-7 weeks after planting Allium fistulomm needs plenty of water. At lower ele-

vations,

usually grtnvn during the rainy is nert'ss.iry diirinp the

it is

season. Daily irrigation

diy season. Mixed cropinnp with white cabbage, carrot and potato is common in the highlands.

For blanched pseudostem production, fields are deeply cultivated. Furrows of 10-20 cm deep are made, the soil being thrown to one side forming a ridge which will 8upp>ort the young plant and facilitate earthing up later. Earthing up is essential to blanch and soften the leafsheath cylinder. As earthing up also affects aeration of the mots and thus checks growth, it should be done gradually' and not be started too early.

losiiin

[•


mm

mm

I

AMARANTHUS 66 AmaixiiUhns lividus L. hove been published simultaneously. The correct name depends on the author who first combined the taxa, acoeptinp one of them, -I I) Hooker (1885) seems to be the first to unite them and did so under the name ot Anutranthua blitum.

Growth and development Emergence

of

the seedling takes place 3-5 days after sowing. Vegetative development is fast. Like maize and

sugar cane, the penus Ainaranlhus is charao terized by the ('4-cj'< le i)hotosynthetic pathway which means a high rate of photosynthesis at high temperature and radiation. Flowering may start 4-8 weeks after sowing making the plant less suitable £ar oonaumption. Po m ion is effsebed by wind but the abundam lollen production, especially in the flowers in the upper part of the plant, causes a high rate of self1

1

1

.

1

pollination. Insect pollination also takes place.

The

first

seed matures after 2 months. The

plants continue growing for several

months

before dying.

Ecology Vegetable amaranths grow well

at

day temperatures above

2.'"r ;uid night temperatures not lower than I.j°C. Shade is disadvantageous except cases of drought stress. Amaranth is a quantitative short-day plant, which is an advantage in the sid)trnpics where the generative stage is retarded during summer. Amaranths like fertile, well-drained soils with a liii se structure. The mineral uptake is very high. Ainnrnnfhiis hiiliiiii is fairly resis-

m

Amaranihiis hlitum - 2, flowering cutd fiuUing branch; 2, fruit; 3, need. Redrawn and adapted by hkak Syamsudin

stamens opposite

with

tt

pals:

fomalo flowors

and soil conditions. Propagation and planting The seed of

with superioi-, 1-celled ovary crowned by (2-)3

tant to adverse climate

stigmas. Fruit a subglobular to broadly ovoidellipsoid capsule r 2 inin long, indehiscent or

Ajiiatrtitthits

bursting irregularly, crowned by stigmas, seeded. Seed lenticular, for,

glossy dark

hrown

up to

1.6

1-

mm in diame-

In black.

Other botanical information

Tlir

prniis

about 70 species, mchiding at least 17 species with edible leaves. Aiiiaraitthujs txjmprises

Many

Inrnl typos

and

riiltivars of Atunraiiffiii.i

bliluin occur. Cultivated types are larger,

erect

and more succulent than weedy

more types.

Mediterranean cultivated types erect,

m

tall,

are robust simple or little-branched plants, up to 1 with large leaves. The African or Asian

(Indian) cultivated tjrpes are generally smaller,

up

to .^0 cm,

mudi

stronply branched and

Some cultivated and wild types have dark red infloresoenoes and a large brown-red spot of anthocyane in the centre of the leaf blade hence the name 'purple amaerect or prostrate.

ranth in most Airican lloras the name Ainaranthua lividua is used instead of AmaraiUhua blitum. The names Amarantkus blitum L. and .

blitum

is

larger than the seed of

most other Ainarwithua species with about 1000 seeds/g. In the wild and in home gardens the seed of flowering plants scatters and givs rise to

the

new

seed

plants automatically. In the dark,

may remain dormant for several when it comes at fbe sur-

years. It germinates

face or in the upper soil layer of le.ss than cm. For market production Amaranthua blitum is normally grown as a sole crop on beds. It is also found in intercropping systems with lood crops ;mlanting after 2-3 weeks, From nurserj', the prower gets up to 1000 plant lets per m- for transplanting. A plant density of fl

100-200 plantaAn' can be used for a once-over harvest whereas 25 plants/m^ are appropriate

66 VEGETABLES repeated cuttings. In Kenya, Aiiiaranthus sown in a mixed cropping with other indigenous vegetables like Corchorus olitorius L in rows '^n cm .-ipart; the seed is mixed with sand tor easier sowing. Management In home gardens, the only care given to Amanmthua blitum plants is selective weeding. Amcmmthus bUtum is less fast growing, lees susceptible to diseases and pests and more tolerant to drought ihnn the most roinmonly riiltivnted nmnrnnth Ainaraiithus cmeiUus. Because of the rather strong growth of Amaranthus blitum, whidi itself displays a weedy character, wcids are not very troublesome, except sometimes nut grass {Cypema Tt^iiM/duB L.). If rainfall is not sufficient, irrigation by sprinkling should be done before the plants re;nh (heir wilting point. Watering every day with G ram (6 1/m-) is sufficient. Water shortage causes early flowering, which refor

blituin is

.

nnd the mni'k-ct qiKiIity. Amaranth is a vei:;>' high consumer of minerals. Only modest crops can be produced on poor sill Is. Die mineral uptake and removal calculated for an Amaranthus crop yielding 25 t,/ha is 125 kg N, 26 kg P, 260 kg Iv, 75 kg Ca and 4U kg Mg. Larger quantities of N and K are easily absorlM i] ,i< hixiiiy uptake if these elements are abundant. Amaranth responds to high rates of organic fertilizer. On poor soils, the application of 400 kg/ha of NPK 10-10-20 in diicfs thf yield

addition to

mended.

A

'2^>

t

split

of nrpnnir

manure is rommis recommended

application

during the rainy season. Nitrate-N is better than ammonuiin-N. Amaranth dues not seem to need to be rotated with other crops smce no serious soilbome disease has been observed. Diseases and pests Stenirot caused by the fundus Chnanephnrn nicurhitnnim is the main disease. It is favoured by wet conditions, poor soil fertiUty and high nitrogen doses. Chemical control by repented spraying with funpieides such as manel) or earbatene reduces the losses, but is seldom applied. Damping-ofT caused by

Pylhium and Rhizoctoiu'a may be serious in

The larvae of the stem borer Li.xiis tniiicatubia may cause much damage, sometimes alreadj' in the seedbed. The basal pait of the plant containing the pupae swells and the jilant growth is much retarded. Many other insects such as aphids, leafininers, stinkbugs, mole cridcets and mites also attack amaranth but generally

cause only minor damage, Commercial growers spray insecticides to dispel insects insAead of the traditional control method of spreading

wood ash. Amaranth

is not verj' susceptible to nematode damage. Harvesting Commercial tjiowi s har\ est by uprooting or by cuttmg at ground level. If the i

crop

was sown

directly,

the anee-avex harvest

by iiinooting or by cutting at ground level may be done 3-1 Weeks after sowing. Some growers obtain a second harvest 3 weeks later from the

regrowth of the smallest plants. is by repeated cutting the first

When

harvest

ciittintr

takes

place about 3 weeks after transplanting, and then every 2—3 weeks for a period of one or two months. Cutting should be done at a height that leaves at least 2 leaves and buds for re-

growth. The height of the

first

cutting

is

nor-

mally 10-16 cm. Yield .\n uprtwted crop of Ainaratithti.s bittuin may yield 1.0 kg/m^ at 4 weeks after sowing. A yield of 1.6 kg/m^ may be obtained from 2-3 cuttings in 2 months fi-om transplanting date. In an experiment in India 20 \lhn of foliage was obtamed 36 days after planting. The yield of Amanmthua blitum is definitely lower than that of Amaraiitiiua erumtua or Amaran,thus dubius. Handling after harvest Harvested plants or shoots are bundled, the roots are washed, and the produce is pnckod for transport to the market, in markets and shops, it is sprmlvled with water to keep a firesh appearance. If uprooted, the vcfjolablr can be kept fresh for some days by putting it a basm with the roots the water. It is sold in bundles or by weight. Some people dry the leaves for use during the

m

m

It is controlled by good drainage Over-dense sowing should be avoided. I'ungi-

dry

ddes such as dithiocaibamates have some

present in Indian collections at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resnurcfs (XT'T' '-R*

seedbeds.

fect.

No

reported.

dam.i'^jc

by

viinas

AmaraiUhua

for turnip

ef-

diseases has been

blituin is a natural host

mosaic virus and tobacco leaf curl

blituin is

New

Delhi (India). Some research mstitutes in and southern A&ica have small working Kawanda Agrirullural Kr search Institute Uganda. Hvalua-

EJast

collect ilusi, 1988; Burkill, H.M, 1985; (Jrubben,

O.O.,

&

van Sloten, 6.J.H.. 1975; Grubben, G.J.H. D.H., 1981: Grubben r, J H,. 1993a: Keskar. B.G. et

1981;

al..

&

Maundu, P.M., Ngugi, G.W.

Kabuye, C.H.S., 1999; Schippers, R.R., 2000; Stevels, J.M.C.. 1990: Townsend. r.C. 1985. V Other references IIolhuuL B I'liwiii & Buss, D.H.. 1991; Leung, W.-T.W., Busswjn, & Jardin, F. C, 1968; Pal, M. & Khoshoo, T.N., 197.S: Sena, J.P., Kauffinan, C.S. & Bail^, I

.

I

N.N., 1981.

Sources of illvstration

Stevels^

J.M.C.,

1990.

Authors

G.J.H. Grubben

AMARANTHUS CRUENTUS L.

AmanaiUma emaitua - wild caid plaiUed popular in humid lowland than in highland or nrid area.';. Tt is also an important vegetable in many tropical areas outside Africa e.g. in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Caribbean. The Bangladesh tj'pe has big fleshy stems, which are oinsumed with the leaves. AinaranUtua cruenlus is grown as leaf vegetable throughout South-East Asia, although to a lesser extent than AiiKinin thii s Iricolnr T,. In Indonesia it is grown muunlain areas, where the climate is too cold for the more common Amaraaihu9 tricolor. C.rn\n amaranth, a cultiAiiinraiilhu.s eruentus with yellowvar-group ish white or pale bi-own seed, is traditionally grown as a cereal crop in Latin America (e.g. Mexico Huatemala Ecuador. C'

areas of the L'nited States, Ai'geu-

and China. Apart from some

tiy-outs in

Zimbabwe, Kenya. I'ganda and Ethiopia, grain amaranth is not cultiv ateil in Afric.-i. r>rnjimonlal types ol Amaranthus eruentus characterized by big bright-red infloresooices can be frequently found in tropical and subtropical countries,

Uaes The main use of Amaranthua eruentua as a leaf vegetable (vegetable amaranth) prepared by rooking and consumed as a vegetable dish or as an ingredient in sauces. The leaves and tender stems are cut and cooked or sometimes fried in oil, and mixed with e.g. is

68 VEGETABLES meat, fish, cucurbit seeds, gixiundnut and palm Dishes with amaranth are eaten with the of n n ;ilH or tubers. Traditionally in arid regions, the k-aves are (Ined and the leaf powder is used in sauces durmg the dry season. Experimental work in India and the United States has shown that Aiinnaiitfms cntenius is suitable for the processing of leaf protein concentrates, but as far as is known there is no practical application. In colonial times, amaranth was often roromnnMidcd to Kurnpeans as the best substitute for spmach (Spiiiacia ol-

dispersed sales in small street markets. In the big cities in Benin the average quantity of

L.). In South Africa Amaranthua erumgrown commercially for canning and sold supomarkets. Ixk Nigeria and S^baibwe, the introduction of

AnutranthuB erumtus) per 100 g edible portion is (averages of about 40 samples): water 84.0 g (78.4-81.3), energy 176 kJ (42 haaX), protein 4.6 g (3.2-6.0), fat 0.2 g (trace-0.6), caibohydrate 8.3 g, fibre 1.8 g (0.4-6.4), Ca 410 mg (69-8.3.3), P 10:! ing l-2.30) Fe 8.9 mg (0.6-10.2). [1carotene 5716 pg, thiamin U.Uo mg (0.05-O.U6), riboflavin 0.42 mg (0.36-0.44), niacin 1.2 mg, ascorbic acid 64 mg (.52-200) (Leung \V -T.W., Busson, F. & Jardin, C, 1968). Other analyses indicate that amaranth leaves contain 85 pg folate and 725 |ig carotene pet 100 g edible portion. The large variation in moisture content and composition is caused more by variations in plant age and ecological and cultural Vinicondit ions than by .species or cultivar. pared to other leafy vegetables, amaranth is remarkably rich in vitamin A, vitamin C, iron, calcium and folate. However, the absoiplion of P-( iri'tene and iron by the human Itody may be rather low, depending on the quality of the fresh product (age, fertilizer use), the preparation method the comlunat nm with other foods and the physical condition of the consumer. The protein has a high content of sulphurcontaining amino acids (methionine, lysine, cysteine), which makes it n good combination with cereals. The leaves easily become soft after 5-10 minutes cooking in lightly salted It is not common to add potash. The w,)(< r leaves and stems contain nitrate, mostlj' in the

oil.

main dish

eraeea tU3 is in

whitish-seeded Amaran

I

Synonyxna Amai-aiUhua Irtalis auct. non L. Vernaoular names Amaranth, pigweed .Amoranle. brede de Malabar (Ft).

Ama-

in Benin. Experimental breeding of grain tj^ies in India shows that there are pos-

(Ears old.

diihins

is

frequently

found in tropical humid lowland from sea level to 500 altitude, and also but mudi less at higher elevations up to 2000 m. It is a common plant waste places, roadsides, flood plains, river banks and deared forest areas. It diows a weak quantitative short -day reaction. Vegetable amaranths grow well at day temperatures above 25°C and night temperatures not lower than 16*C. Shade is disadvantageous except in rases of drought stress, .\mnrnnths like fertile,

m

up

m

well-drained soils with a lo«se stnicture.

hybridua L. as the other. This theoiy is disputable because of the different diromosome number of Aiiuiiaitthus spinosiia (2n = 34). Also, a

Propagation and planting The seed Amaranthua dubiua is smaller than that

DXA

other cultivated amaranths

genomes could not apinoms and Ainaranllms

analy sis of the various

confirm Ainuraiitlius hybridua as ancestors of Amareatlhua dubiua. ilist inction is ahnnst impossibl(> to make Tt ,i

Amamnthua

diibiii.s and AinaraiiUma based on mori>hological characters; Anuiranthim spinoaua has axillary spines which are not present in \waravlhiis duhvis. However, spineless Amaraiithus apinosua plants with 2n = 34 have been observed in sev-

lictween

spiiimttta

eral

localities.

In

Nigeria

an

.

l//fa;v//i//i//.v

dubiua plant with 2u = 32 has been recorded; be a spineless Amanmtiiua apino3U.S. Other more or less reliable differences are the gn ator number of terminal male flowers in the inflorescences of Ainarauihua apinosus and the smaller pores of the poIlMi, Spontaneous hybrids between Amaranthua diibi'tifi and Amaranthus blitum L. mostly with 2u = 32 have been reported from India and America. Weedy Amaranthua dubiua is a small prost rate plant found in open places on wasteland "ultivaled types of Ainiiiaiilhus dubiiis differ greatly from weedy types; the plants are lai^er, mnr' at a rate of 2-10 and transplanting after 2-3 weeks. From a nursery, the grower obtains up to 1000 plantlets per m- for transplanting. A plant density of

g/in'

100-20U pianls/m- can be practised for onceover harvesting while 26 plants/m' is appropriate for repeated cuttings. Amaranthus dnhiiia

Orowtli and development Emergence of the seedling takes place 3-5 days after sowing. The vegetative development is fast. Like maixe

is especially well-suited to repeated cutting. For maricet production Amaranthua dubiua is normally grown as a sole crofi an beds. It js also found in intercropping systems with food

and sugar cane, the genus AmaixiiUhua is characterized by the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway, which means a high rate of photoeyn-

the only care

crops.

Management

In fields and home gardens, to weedy Amanmthua

giv^

AMARANTHUS 76 and

nematode Rolylendiulua

diihius plants is solortivr wrcding. Amaraii'

ing tomato

thus dubius

reniformis affecting banana.

is fast

growing, albeit less than the

more oomm of the many flowers, pcHjple will not cook the whole shoot but they pick the individual leaves, which is one reason why this amaranth has a low market value. In some regions IS calen mixed with other leaf vegetables it collected from the wild, e.g. by the Okiek peo-

nidssaira

—

32,

34

anguatififlius

silvestris

Vill.

Lam.

(1807),

Ainaranthua thelUmgianus Nevaki (1937). Vemaoiilar names Wild nniaranth, prostrate amaranth, ^reading prj (En). Amarante sauvage, amarante sylvealie. amarante africaine (Fr). Tristes, amaranto, bredu (Pu). Mdiidia (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution ranlhua giuecizaiis utx:urs scattered thruughuut tropical Africa, where it has been recorded for I

many oountries.

It is also

distributed in south-

ern Eiiropo and Asia,

people in

K^ya, who mix it commonly Rumex species and Urtiea

with Solan um or

(1763).

2ii

Synonjrans Amarantima (178;i)

iVcholi

sale to people of Indian origin.

ple in Western

Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 990 Family Aniaranthareae

by the

Nebbi, l^ganda, and in Tanzania for market

in tropical and subtropical and has been introduced to the United

States. It is especially popular as a vegetable in (if Kenya. I'yanda T;m/riiiia. Malawi and elsewhere southern Airica, and is sometimes a protected weed in backyards and home gardens. It is locally cultivated on a small scale in

parts

m

Mddbr

Ain u ran th us gmecizan s is used as a fodder for livestodc. In Mauritania the seed is baked into thin rnkos while in the western T'nitr-d Slate.s it

is

ground into

flour.

Like other wild ama-

ranths, whole plants of Amanmthua graecizans

are used in ture a local

l-Jast

salt.

and West

Afirica to ni mui

ir-

Fur this purpose, the plants

are dried and burned tu ashes, the filtrate

is

evaporated and the residue used as a substitute fcsr ffunmon salt. In Uganda the heaves are chewed and the Hquid swallowed to treat tonsillitis. In Senegal, the leaves are used as an anthrlniinlic. Production and int^^mational trade l;/mmnthua graechaiis is occasionally sold at markets as a low-value vegetable, but there are no records on |>r t]\itiosus has axillary spmes which ai-e not pi-esent in Amaranihua dubim. However, spineless Amanmihua apmoaua plants with 2/t = 34 have Ix on observed in several localities. In Nigeria an Amaranthua dubuu plant with 2n = 32 has been recorded; this might be a Spind,e8s AniorniiiJni.i spiiio.sus. Other more nr less n linblc

male flowers

number

ol

terminal

in the infloresoenoes of

Amaran-

differences are the greater

thus apinomia and the smaller pores of the pe.st8 that may affect crops. Some insects attaeking Aiiiamntints spiiiusns have been rerorded fmni Me.\ic-o: the pyralid Herpelugramina bipuncfulis and the cureulionid Coftoiraehebia aenieulua. These might be useful r bi:>li-::ie:d unii-i l-">

'l

f'

Genetic resources and breeding The genetic variability of Amaranthua apinosua is great because of

its

ln

u'i

area of distribution

and its wide ecological adaptation. A collection amaranths is kept at the Rodale Organic Gardening and Farming Research Center of

arid condit imis

(OGFRf)

Spiny amaranth is a very noxious weed in many parts of the world. It is, for instance, troublesome in maize, cassava and groundnut

States; Suuth-East Asian accessions are kept at

in

f'rhnna,

in

cotton in Mozambique,

and

in

sugar cane in South Africa. In general, it is very common in roadirides^ waste places, railw ny yards nopped land and gardens, up to 1100 m altitude. Management Amaranthus spinoma is propagated by seed, Some types are known to produce 235.000 seeds per plant The weight of 1000 seeds is 140—250 mg. Freshly collected seeds may germinate at temperatures as high as 40*'C. with a germination rate of up to 95%. After storage, however, temperature requirements are lower. Seeds stored for one month at

room temperature have almost 100% germinaand after 5 months they have approxi-

tion,

mately 90% germination. When they are stored for one year at 20"C the germination rate will drop to about 60%, but storage at lower tem-

at

Kutztf)wn,

Peiuisylvania.

I'nited

the Asian Vegetable Researdi and Development Center (AWDC) at Tainan, Taiwan. .African ndtivars and introdiirtions from n( IFRC are kept at

the iNational Horticultural Research Institute (NHR) in Nigeria and African cultivars at the WTiDC centre nt .\nishn Tan-

NaBureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, India. Many national zania. Indian collections are kept at the

tional

have small working collections of and vanabdily studneeded to reveal the amount of exploit-

institutes

local cultivars. F\ alualion

ies are

able

UUM

Genetic reaonrees Important geimplasm

Vatke

I

t

1

'

1

1

1

1

1

•

1

Synonyms Allan ema seaamoidea (Vahl) Benth. (1835). Origin and geographic distribution Ai titnema longifolium is found tropical Africa from Liberia to Cameroon, DR Congo, L'ganda and Tanzania. It occurs also in India and throus^-

m

out tropical South-F-'ast .\sia

Uses

stalk celery is processed by canning.

(L.)

Protologue Linnaea 43: 307 (1882). FamiI> S u a r a cf a e

In Nigeria

and Tanzania the leaves

of

Arkmema

collections are

longifolium are collected firom the wild and eaten as a vegetable.

thf

Properties An aqueous extract of Artcaiema langifiilmm is a component of .Ayurvedic medicines used against influijiiMMons of the skeleto-muscular system. It is also used

maintained at the Reaeardi and Plant Breeding Institute for Vegetables in Olomouc, Czech Republic, the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India, ili)V

burg,

Institute of Plant Industry

the

Russia,

Inslitute

Peters-

of llurticultural

against nuuseu.

Researdi, Wellesboume, United Kingdom, and at the Northeast Rctrionid Plnnt Int rdiluction Station, Geneva, New York, United States. Breeding The main breeding objectives for oeleiy are to improve disease resistam r .md tolerance of high temperatures, for stnlk relen,'

Botany Erect, often brandied herb up to 90 cm tail with sharply quadrnngulnr to almost 4-

the tenderness of the petioles and the selfblanching character. Prospects 'clery is curri'ntly not an important commercial vegetable Africa and since most produce is purdiased by Asian and Westera people, market oppori unities are not likely chanpe in to increase considerably imlcs.-i food habits takes place. The markets for leaf and stalk celety in the cities in firanoophone West .Africa offer better opportunities It seems likely that more improved cultivars for tropical conditions will soon become available. Major references K iiimi S S & Salunkhe,

tles.

(

m

.1

D. K.,

innH-

Knott

,11::.

& Deanon

Jr,

.I.R.,

1967; Lawrence, B.M., 1998; Messiaen, C.-M.,

&

Kudiarek, T., 3003; Quixos, C.F.. inn:^; Rubatrky \'.E. & Yamaeuchi, M,, 1997; Susiarti, S. & Siemonsma, J.S., 1993. Otiier references Ahmed, B. et al, 2002; Atta. .AH. & .JJkofahi. A.. 1998; BallmerWeber. B.K. et al.. 2000: Peier. I?.C. & Oertli, E. H., 1983; Chowdhury, .A.R. & Kapoor, V.P., 2000; FHtz, D. et al., 1989; Holland, B., Unwin, 1974; Raid, R.

I.D.

&

Buss, D.H., 1991: Ko, F.N., Huansi,

T

P.

& Teng, CM.. 1991; Leung, W.-T.W., Busson, F. & Jardin, C, 1968; Momin, R.A. & Nair, M.G.. 2001; Zheng. G.Q. et al., 1993. Sources of illustration Susiarti, S. & Siemonsma,

J.S.,

Authors RR.

1993.

Scfaii^ers

Baaed on PROSEA 8: Vegetables.

winged, fleshy, hollow stem. Leaves opposite, simple, subsessile; blade lanceolate, 3.5—25 cm X 1-9 cm, margin entire to slightly serrate, glabrous but rough above because of small brisInflorescence

flowered, peduncled

a

terminal,

erect,

raceme up to 40

many-

cm

long.

Plowers bisexual, /ygoniorpbic: pedic(>l up lo cm long; calyx 5-lobed almost lo the base, lobes ovate-oblong, 3-10 long, overlapping at anthesis persistent in fruit; corolla deep redpurple, glandul.n- b.airy with wide tube and 2 hps 1-3 cm long, upper lip erect, broadly rounded, emarginate, lower lip patent, rounded .'Vfid: stamens I, didynamous. filaments with a disk-like appendage; ovarji' superior, 2-ceUed, style filiform, stigma 2-lobed. Fniit a SUbglobose capsule up to 1 (!m in diameter, many-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid-globose yellow-brown, tuberculate. Seedling with epigeal germination; hjrpooo^l 3-7 long, ejiicotyl \ ery short; cotyledons rhomboid, 4-6 1

mm

mm

mm long, leafy. Arkmema

is poorly known; it comprises about 4 species and is distributed in tropical .Africa and .\sia. It has been classified in tnlie didtioleae, which is highly diverse and split up in

recent molecular-^srstematic studies. nnl included in these studlss.

Artanema

-

Ecology Artanema loitgifoUum occurs in and scrub vegetation, in humid and localities, and is common along rice fields and watercourses and in soggy grassland, up to 400 m altitude. Genetic resources and. breeding Artth nema kmgifoUum is widespread in trqpical forest

swampy

94 VEGETABLES

The

have a variety of medicinal

Mrica and Asia and not in danger of genetic

troubles.

erosion.

uses. In Senegal and Tanzania they are added

Prospects Artaiiema mstin

minr)r

ii

vosi't ;iliU\

Mf'

!
ri

(;1ia

leaf

and and Canada farmers may get

ported, depending on pi-oduction season cultivar. In India

sofd yiidd< nf rjnO-lsno ku.lui in a good year,

Handling after harvest The leaves are rather perishable and wilt or become yellow when left on the shelf for more than a day. Farmers therefore harvest small quantities at a time. To retain freshness, the leaves are kept moist inside a bag that is left in the shade or in a cool place WTien the product is offered as

whole plants with in water

roots, traders place

and plants can thus be kept

the roots for a

few

dlQTS.

Genetic resources The genetic Bra.ssica

cariiiata

diversity in

DNA

based on molecular

is much less than in Braesiea juneea. In spite of the comparatively small variation in Brassica cariiiala, there are many landraces

markers

both the oilseed and the lea5' vegetable differing in earl in ess, plant structure, leaf si/e, shape and sinirture. seed yield and

for

type.s,

glucosuiolate and erucic acid levels in the seed. There is a need for further collection, conservation and evaluation of this diversity before

farmers start usmg new cultivars at the expense of their traditional landraces. A collection is maintained a( the Centre for n^ iic Resoiirros (('(IN) Wapeninpen. Netherlands (

Working

'.i

collections are available at research

institutes in Ethiopia, Tanzania,

Zambia and

Zimbabwe.

Breeding In Africa some breeding work has been done and several selections have been made in Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Selection

criteria

.are

leaf size,

late boltini;

reduced susceplibiiily to major diseases and and high yield. Well-known cultivars are 'White Fipiri', 'Puqilo Fipiri'. T.ushoo' Mbeya Green' and the large-leaved Lambo from Tan-

pests,

'RRS-V from Zimbabwe, 'Chibanga' and iVom Zambia, 'TAAIU Tex Sel' is a vegetable cultivar released in Texas (I'nited zania,

•NIKS

States). In

Zambia, Ethiopian kale has been

crossed with Portuguese cabbage and with nigra. More breeding work has taken

Braanca

BRASSICA 123 place on cultivars used for oilsood, mninly in

Canada, India and

Low erucic acid and and high seed yield are

Italy.

gluoosinolate content

major selertion

critiTia.

Prospects Ethiopian kale

a leaty vegeta-

is

ble and oil crop that is fully adapted to African oonditions and has a high potential There are many different landraces, allowing the breeder iimple scope for advancement. Seed production by fnrmers ihrmscKes is easy, but the availnbility of rcUable and healthy rommerrinl seed would also benefit farmers. If no action is taken soon, this species will gradually disappear, and be r^laoed by new cultivars of especially Bmanea juneea and loose-leaved tj^es of Braasiea oUraeaa, for nduch more researdi has been done and whidi receive more attention from bri't-tiers. Major references Alemayehu, N. & Becker, H., 2002; Getinet, A., Rakow, G. & Downey,

R.K., 1990; Ootinot

et

Maundu,

1997b;

al.,

A. ot

a!.,

A

.\.

(2ii

G.W.

&

em

P.M., Ngugi,

1988:

1988; \hizava. N.A.

,

Mnzava.

Msikita,

WAV.

N.A.

&

&

&

&

Jen-

Msikita. WAV..

Olsson,

K..

1990:

Mnzava, N.A., 1988; Schip-

pers, R.R., 2002a.

Other references Cardone. M. et al. Cowley, W.R., 1970; del Rio, M, de Haro, A. & Fera£ude2-Mattlnez, J.M., 2003; Edwards, S.B., 1991; FAO, 1988; nildnma. h. r P., 1997; Gomez-Campo, Mathai, son,

ft

Loukari, A, C.J.P., 1983;

1994;

C.

1999;

Jonsell,

B.

2900;

1981; Ahizava, N.A., 1986; Pear-

P.J.,

M.N.

Bock K.R., 1976; Pedras, M.S.C., & Okrintia, F.I. 1998; Seegeler. SEPASAL, 2UU;ia; Stephens, J.M.,

Stephens, T.S., Saldana

&

Lime,

B.,

1976; Westphal, A. & Marguard, R., 1981. Sources of illustration Jonsell, B., 1982a; Jonseli, B., 2000.

Authors N

A Mnzava & R.R. Schippers

BRASSICA JUNCEA

(L.)

Czem.

Siiinpix jiiiirm

(1753).

Vernacular names Brown mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard (En). Mfmtarde brune, moutarde de Sarepta. moutarde de Chine, moutnrdo frisre (Ft .Mostardn vermeiha, most arda mdiana (Po). Haradali, mastadi (Sw). Origin and gaographic distribulion Braaaiea jmieea is an amphidiploid with Braadea )

and central Asia have been assumed to be the centre of origin of Braasiea juneea. Brown mustard has been cultivated in Asia and !]urope for thousands of years for its leaves and seeds. Presently, vegetable types of Biussiea juneea are cultivated throughout southern and eastern .\sia, ^"nriation is jjreatesf in China. Brown mustard is grown as a ieaHy veget able in West and southern Africa, known as 'laulau' in Nig. where it is ref(>rred to as 'rape',

Africa

it is verj' popul.-n-

but no reliable statistirs are

available on the area under cultivation, pro-

duction or produce traded.

Properties Brown mustard leaves contain per 100 g edible portion: water 90.8 g, energy 109 kJ (26 kcal), protein 2.7 g, fat 0.2 g, caibohydrate 4,9 g total dietary fibre .3 3 g. Ca 103 mg. Mg 32 mg. P 43 mg. Fe 1.40 mg. Zn 0.2 mg, vitamin A 10,500 lU, thiamin 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.11 mg, niacin 0.80 mg, folate 187 |ig ascorbic arid 70 mg. Dry mustard seed contains per 100 g edible portion: water 6.9 g, energ>' 1964 kJ (469 kcal), protein 24.9 g, fat 28.8 g, carbohydrate 34.9 g, Ca 521 mg, Mg 298 mg, P 811 mt;. Fe 10.0 mg. vitamin A 62 lU. thiamin 0.54 mg, riboflavin 0.38 mg, niacin 7,9 mg, ascorbic acid 3 mg (USDA, 2003). The s(>eds and lrei

and temperatiu-es

is

ipitation of ot

i".-:')7'*C

reported to

tol-

500-4000

mm

and

is

therefore

suited 1u the troincai low lands as well as rela-

grows best on fertile, well-drained loamy soils with a pH of 6.6-6.8, rich in orpnnir matter. .\t high temperatures it tively cool conditions. It

will quickly flower

production is tion,

and yields are lower, but For seed produc-

still possible.

brown mustard is

tolerant of

i

h

i

r^e eon-

ditions including moisture stress, high or low

Bmasica juncea -

1,

flowering branch;

eruig and fruiting bratieh; Source: PROSEA

3, seed.

2,

flou

-

and

damage. Propagation and planting Brown mustard can be sown directly or tranq[>lanted. Direct pH,

salt

insect

126 VEXtETABLES

sowing

is

mainly used when time

is a

limitmg

moth

(Plutello xyloslelh). especiallj- during the

season. Other pests are cabbage web worm (Hellula widalis) caterpillars of the mustard leaf webl>er (Crucidoluiitia biiiotali.t). aphids

and where there is a market that will freaccept smaller leaves. This system quently used in Zanihin in wet fireas (villed dambos'. The weight of 1000 seeds is 1.7-2 g.

dr>'

The seeds need

nematodes. In cold weather brown mustard has few pests, hut wanner weather will bring on aphids and other msects. Field sanitation, rotation with unrelated crops and the use of pathogen-free seeds considerably reduce the impart of pests anrmalion on production and trade of Bixisnca nopiM

nal lobe up to 90 cm X 36 cm, crenate, toothed, sinuate or entii-c 'jlahrnus or sparsely hairy,

oU is not available. Properties The nutritional composition of

ple, clasping at base, glabrous, glaucous. Inflo-

rape kale per 100 g

(midribs of the product as purchased) is: edililf

removed 87% water 88.2 g, energy 155 kJ 3.8

g, fat

Mg 86

0.3

mg,

P

iioitmn

(.37 kcal),

protein

caifaohydrate 4.8 g, Ca 250 mg. 81 mg, Fe 1.7 mg, carotene 1990

e,

partly swollen (swede); stem branched. Leaves

5 pairs of small lateral lobes

and large termi-

glaucous; stem leaves pinnately parted to sim-

rescence a terminal raceme up to 60 cm long, with buds overtopping the open flowers. Flow-

up to 3 ascending; sepals 6-8 long, erect ^[treading, yellow-green; petals

ers bisexual, regular, 4-merou8; pedicel

cm

lnphf In duvk

6; ovt^ry superior, cylmdriciil, 2-

stigma globose. Fruit a linear silique 4.511 cm X mm. with a tapering beak 1-3 cm long, dehuMxmt, up to 30-seeded. Seeds globose,

oelled,

mm

1.6-2.6 in diameter, finely reticulate, bluish blade to dark brown. Seodling with epigeal germination, with a taproot nnd Intoral roots: hv-poootyl c. 5 cm long, epitxjtyl 2—1 long; cotyledons with petiole c. 2 cm long, blade onrdate, 11.5 cm lonp, runonto at bnso notchoH nt npox

mm

Other botanical information Brasska napua

is

often difficult to distinguish from

Brassica rapo.

which

;ir('

It

diflV-rs

in

its

basiil

leaves,

usually less hairy and bluish ^reen

(bright green in Brassica

mpu) and

in lis

open

flowers not over-topping the buds at the top of the inflorosccnrr. The swodo tuber ran be dis-

tinguished £rom that of turnip (Brassica mpa) its apex bearing a number of ridges, which are scars ci leaf-bases. It is composed of the swollen upper part of the taproot (hypocotyl) and lower part of the stem, whereas the tuber of turnip is composed of the swollen upper part of the taproot ^lypoootyl) only.

by

The

to

temperate

ecological requirements of the

cultivars grown in the Sahara arc not known.

Tliose of oil-seed crops are similar to rape kale.

Redrawn and adapted by lekak Syamsudin

yellow;

climates.

Propagatton and planting Rape kale is grown exclusively by seed. The seedlings are raised in seedling tray> nr in a seedbed. The

m

1000-seed weight is about o g. If raised a seedbed, about 500 g of seed is enough for 1 ha. The seedbfd sh()ulbage is

more perishatde than headed cabbage because the leaves are open and have a large surface to volume ratio. However, the leaves are less per^ ishable than (husc kT HthiDiiinn kale (BrOMtca brown mustard (Braaaica juaeeci^

and

cultivars

have developed desirable characand

ters including tolerance to diseases, pests

environmental

stress. Collection

and

cons.

i

\

is urgently needed, because the e.\pected increasing popularity of improved cultivars will cause genetic erosion. Breeding Several international seed companies have created improved cultivars of the European leaf cabbage types including Portuguese^ kale, which are sold in seed shops everywhcn- in East and southern Afrirn. Commercial seed from a local cultivar of sukuma wiki' is available in seed shops in Kenya. However, bleeding efforts on local li ar cabbage types in Africa are almost absent. Imported cultivars can be outstanding in yield and uniformity, but they lack resistance to pests and diseases as found in the local cultivars. are less suited to the consumer taste and are not suitable for cultivation at lower altitudes. In Zimbabwe, East West Seed Company recently started breedmg work on local cultivars. It was observed that seed-propagated crops from plants that are normally vegetal i\ely propagated show earlier flowering in the following generation, implying a less desirable selection for early bolting. They also showed a wide variation showing the highly heterogenic nature of

tion of this gi>nn|ilasm

caruiala),

leaf cal.ibage.

and rape kale (Braaaica napua) because of their more waxy surfnce.

Prospects Leaf cabbage is an extremely important leaf v^etable in East and southern .Africa in many regions at least as important as headed cabbage. The high yield capacity,

to he sold on (he market should be harvested in the evening or early mornmg and immediately taken to the market. In Zimbabwe, traders sjirinkle cold water onto the

Leaves

leaves or suspend the stalks in water to tain freshness.

mam-

The sweetness of leaves that

popularity

a couple of days before cooking. Locally, the

tivars.

Genetic resources Collections of leaf cabbage are held in European countries, notably in Portugal (Banco Portugues de (Jermoplasma Vegetal (OPOV), S. Pedro de Merelim Rraga) and the Netherlands (Centre for Uenelic Resources,

Waganingen),

St.ntos (Xorthensf

Station, sity,

and in the United

Regional Plant Introduction

PGRU, USDA-ARii,

Geneva NY) and Russia

Kussian Industiy.

.Scientifir

St

main source

Cornell Univer-

Vavilov Alllu'soarrb li.-riiiui> of Plant

Petersburg).

Li

(N,I.

jil

r;ibbage

is

a

of genes for conferring resistance

to environmental stress to other Brasaica ol'

eraeea types. Traditicnal leaf cabbage clones

excellent

indicate the

m

^d Wn-

cultural

practices including integrated control of pests

and

ape.

all

more breeding and research work on

have been harvested in warm weather can be improved by keeping them in a refriperntor for fresh leaves are sun-dried for long-term stor^

among consumers and

nutritional pnipcrtics

for

disinniercial cul-

tivation

is

still

mostly restricted

to the cooler

&

49 mg (Holland, B., Unwin, I.D. Buss, D.H., 1991). crops contain iikuosinolates Bixissicu

bic acid

development. Whereas the primitive types were urigmally cultivated lor medicinal purposes, headed cabbage had become one of the mcifit important vogetablrs in to

of the product as purchased) is; water kJ (26 kcal) protein 1.7 g,

rnorp>' lOD

Wild types of Braasiea oleracea growing along the coasts of western Europe may have contributed

i

which

in

crushed leaves are hydrolyzed by the to mostly bitter-tasting and \-olatile isolbiocyanales;

enzyme myrosinase thiocyanates

these compounds have antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic properties. In headed cabbage glucosinolate content is rather low doo ing per 100 g) as a result of centuries of selection

climates uf the highlands ur to the mild cool

against bitter-tastmg pltmts. In spite of

its

seasons at higher latitudes. In Africa headed cibba^e is espedally common in East Africa and Egypt. Uses Headed cabbage is usually consumed as a cooked m- stir-fried vcfjotable, sometimes pu'klod. It IS also eaten fresh as an intrredirnt of coleslaw (a salad made of raw sliced or diopped cabbage) and mixed salads. It may be preserved liy steaniint; and drying,' f)r by anaerobic fermentation brme (sauerkraut). Production and international trade The importance of headed cabbage in lroi)i( ;d and subtropical repions, mainly early inaturinp white headed cabbage with firm and round to flat heads (1-2.6 kg), has increased oonsiderably durinp recent decades. It can be fairly eas-

ancestry, headed cabbage does not

seem

to

m

produced in large quantities, transported over great distances without mudi damage and stored for a few weeks. The area planted with headed cabbage worldwide in 2002 was estimated at about 3 million ha in 124 countries (producing some 62.6 million t): 2 million ha in .Asia (of which 1.5 million ha in Thina), 0J> mUlion ha in Europe, 180,000 ha in the Americas, and an estimated 100,000 ha in Africa, Reliable data on an as planted annually with headed cabliatje are lackintj for most countries in tropical Africa. Based on sales of commemal seed, at least 40»000 ha of white headed cabbage is grown in K^iya, Uganda and Tanzania ily

have medicinal aj)pli( at ions. Description Erect, glabrous, biennial herb up to 60 cm tall at the mature vegetative stage, up to 200 cm when flowering, with unbranched stem up to M) cm lonp pradually thickeninp upwards; root system strongly branched. Leaves alternate but closely arranged, sessile, basal leaves formuig a rosette, upper leaves in a compact flattened globose to elhpsoid head up to 30 cm in diameter, usually simple; stipules absent; blarle ovate to obovate or almost cm x ;iO cm, undulate or ircircular, up to regularly incised to almost entire, coated with a layer of wax, whitish to pale green with whitish veins (white headed cabbage), red-purple (red headed cabbage), or green to yellow-green and puckered (savoy headed cabbage). Inflorescence a terminal paniculate raceme up to 100

cm

loni;

Flowers bisexual

pedicel up to 2 long,

cm

c. 1

cm

cm

ret^ular

l-merous:

long, ascending; sepals ob-

long, erect; petals obovate, 1.6-2.6

lonp clawed pale to bright yellow or whit-

stamens G; ovary superior, cylindrical, 2stigma globose. Fruit a linear sili(|ue 510 em X & 5 mm, with a taptTini^ beak ')-!•" mm long, dehiscent, up to i-secdcd. Seeds globose, 2-1 mm in diameter, finely reticulate, brown. Seedling with epigeal germinati 20°C average

broccoli seed (')% mnisfure eonfent) will

daily temperatures.

of floral primoniia in cauliflower rnn only stnH nt the end of the juvenile

DiflEerentiation

phase, when plants have 12-15 leaves for early types to more than 30 leaves for late biennial types. Good curd induction requires a subsequent period of 20-30 days at relatively low night temperatures of 10—16*C for temperate

and 18-22''C for tropical cultivars. Higher than optimum temperatures during this period will cause delayed curd I'urmation and defects such as fiizziness and bracting (development of brncl?;.

whirh

mny prow

throiiph the rurd sur-

Premature flower bud formation causing a rough granular appearance can occur when the temperature is below optimum. Curd induction requirements of most broccoli cultivars are similar to those of temperate summer cauliflower. Heads of annual cauliflower and broccoli are ready for h;ir\( >iinp T.'i-IBO dnys after sowing, depending on cultivar and climate. Vezy soon after the optimum harvesting date, curds of caulifl(i\v< r plants start, to enlarge, become loose, the ficduncli s lenpthen and turn green and the floral meristems develop into face).

inflorescences. Particularly in

modem

cauli-

firm and dense curds, only the outer nm of the curd develops flowers, with the rest aborting and becoming a substrate for i)nihop(>nic fungi under humid conditions. In broccoli the bond is n mass of fiilly developed flower buds and normally veiy

flower

cultivars

with

very

abortion takes place. Flowering starts nt the bn-c nf tbi' inflnrrscrnces and continues for about one month cauliflower and for 20-25 days in broocoU plants. little

m

Insects,

especially

Seeds are mature

bees,

4r)-r)n

effect

pollination.

days after anthesis.

during the drj' winter season. In tropical lowland conditions only adapted tropical tj^pes can iJieir wei^t and quality are in general inferior t" tcmpiTate types. For successful seed production a fairly cool and dry climate is a prerequisite. Soils should be well drained and fertile with good moisture retainmg capacity and a high org.inic matter content; the optimum pH is

be grown, but

'' growth stage will cause buttoning': stunted plants with reduced leaf and head develdpincnt Cauliflower and bruiroli have a high demand fur Mg. Ho and Mo. Ajudiiat ions of dolomite limestone, borax and ammonium molybdate may be necessary to prevent phjrsiologirnl disorders, siirh as browning nf the head later to stimulate good

srielding crop

and

2nO-.'^no

.

Ecology Temperate summer cultivars of cauliflower and broccoli can be grown in the tropics when maximum temperatures do not exceed 30°C and night temperatures drop below 18"C for about four weeks about one month

and plants without a heart. more commonly on add soils.

after planting to ensure good curd induction. In

A regular water sufiply

subtropical areas these conditions often occur

includes

deep digging, mixing with compost or stable manure (20 t/ha). followed by fitv tillage. N'PK fertilizers — type and rates dependmg on soil type, mineral reserves in the soil and expected

Deficiencies occur

required throughout the growing season, but the heads of cauliis

in the diy winter season. In the equatorial ar-

flower and broccoli are easily affected by fungal

eas these conditions can be found at elevations above 1000 m, at higher latitudes in the tropics

tions. Therefore,

rots

when

continuously eiqMised to wet condithe mature plant stage and

142 VEGETABLES harvesting should bo planned as much as possible outside the rainy season and overhead irrigation should be avoided. The young crop should be kept friM- of weeds Mulching, e.g. with rice straw, is beneficial to as it retains moisture, keeps soil temperatures down and supprrssfs Wfcds Growth of the plant should be regular and undisturbed.

^wth

(

Sudden increases stress

may

in temperature or water cause the formation of bracts,

fuzziness or splitting nf rnuliflowrr curds nnd irregular

head formation and premature

tlow-

ering in broccoli. Maturing cauliflower curds must be protected &om direct sunlit;ht l)y covering with brok^-off leaves to prevent them from turnmg yellow andA>r pink. Many modem

cal control)

can also be

effective in

cauhflower

and broccoli. Harvesting Annual cauliflower and broccoli are ready for harvesting 60-150 days after transplanting; some earlj- heat-tolerant cultimainly Fi hybrids, are even ready within 40-55 days in tropical regions. Harvesting takes place over a period of 1-2 weeks. Modern Fi hybrids can be harvested in 2-3 cuttings. Cauliflower heads are cut with sufiGcient rimmed leaves still attached to protect the

vars,

curds during packing and transport. Broccoli heads are harvested with 10-15 cm of stem, without leaves.

Yield Cauhflower yields can attain 12-30 and broccoli yields 10-16 t/ha; in the trop-

t/ha

etunpeatris pv. eainpesfn's)

ics the highest yields are obtained above 1000 altitude. Seed yiekls are 200-600 kg/ha in t^nperate climates. Handling after harvest Cauliflower and broccoli heads will deteriorate quickly unless cooled soon after harvesting. Cauliflower curds can be stored for about 3 weeks at 1"C and 96% relative humidity, but storage li£B for broccoli is much shorter and heads are usually wrapped

broccoli acc-(^ssions, hut (he majority of present-

and yellowing. Genetic resources

cultivars are self-protecting,

i.e.

inner leaves

wrap titrhtly around the curd Diseases and pests Diseases and pests are similar to those of cabbage in tropical regions. For importnni diseases siirli as Fiisariiim yel-

lows (Fusariuin oxyspomm f.sp. congUuinans), downy mildew on leaves and heads (Perono'

apora paraaUica),

black

rot

iXantliomonas

and club root (Plasmodiophora brasaicae), resistance or field tolerance have been found in cauliflower and day cultivars are

still

susceptible.

A pH

of 7 is

dub

root damage. recommended Other diseases causing problems are the seeddiseases black leg {f.pplospharria warnlans; asexual form: Phoma lingain) and Alterto prevent

home

naria blight (Altemaria seedhoi-iie diseases polygoiii),

damping

braaaiee, q>edal cultivars of turnq) are

BRASSICA 147 important as fodder crop. Drassira rapa

oil

crops are of no importance in tropical Africa, may be important elsewhere, e.g. in India, Canada and France, tojiether with ouIfivMi s of

but

Bmaaica juncea

(L.)

Czern. and Braasicxi iiapus

L.

Production and international trade Chineae cabbage, pakchoi and caisin are leading market vegetables in China, Japan and SouthEast Asia, grown on more than 500,000 ha. Vcgctablo turnip is rnthrr importnnt in Jnpnn and Europe. In tropical Africa Chinese cabbage and turnip are rather common in city markets, but pakchoi and caisin are of minor importance. All Bmaaica rapa types are grown occasionally for specialized markets in major cities for consumers of Asian and - to a lesser degree European origin. Nu statistital data on yield and trade are known, but international trade is probably limited to some occasional export frnm East Africa to Europe and Arab countries.

Properties The nutritional composition of Chinese cabbage is per 100 g edible portion (93%): water 911 ^ energy 67 kJ (16 kcal), protein 1.2 g, I'al 0.2 g, carbohydrate 3.2 g, dietaiy fibre 1.2 g, Ca 77 mg, Mg 13 mg, P 29 mg, Fe O.l'.l mu, Zn 0 2.^ mg vitamin .\ ;^18 IT thiamm 0.U4 mg, riboflavin 0.05 mg, niacin 0.4 mg, folate 79 \ig, ascorbic acid 27 mg. Raw pakchoi contains per 100 p edible portion (88%): water 95.3 jf, energi,- rt k.l ]:' kcal) protein 1.5 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrate 2.2 g, dietary fibre 1.0 g, Ca 105 mg, Mg 19 mg, P 37 mg, Fe 0.8 mg, Zn 0 2 mg vitamin A 168 IV. thiamin 0.04 mg, riboflavin 0.07 mg, niacin 0.5 mg, folate 66 ^g, ascorbic acid 46 mg. The nutritional compo(

\

1

Pira.s.v'ca rapa 1, plaiU li'ihif of liirnip; 2, plant habit of caisiii; 3, plant habit uf Chinese eahbagc; 4, head of Chinese aAhage; 5, plant habit of pakchoi.

Redrawn and adapted by lakak Syammdin

uml)el-like |-aeeme

Flowers bisexual,

fruit.

pedict^l

(81%): water 02 g energy 17 kJ (28 kral), protein 0.9 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrate 6.4 g, dietary

mm

fibre 1.8 g, 0..3

mp Zn

Ca 30 mg, Mg 11 mg. P 27 mg, Fe 0 mg vitamin A absent, thiamin ll

0.04 mg, riboflavin 0.03 mg, niacin 0.4 mg, folate 15 \ig, a8coibicacid21 mg (USDA, 2002). Leaf and root extracts oE Bixissica rapa showed

and antifunu'al ad n Description Erect, annual to

ani iliacterial

il

u s

bteiuiiul

herb

m

tall, with stout taproot, sometimes up to 1.5 partly swollen (turnip); stem brnnrhed T. eaves

arranged spirally but in a rosette durmg the vegetative stage; stipules absent; lower leaves

more or

less petiulate. pinnately

parted with 1—

and large termix 35 cm, crenate, toothed,

5 pairs of small lateral lobes

nal lobe up to 90

cm

sinuate or entire, usualfy hairy; stem leaves pinnately parted to simple, dating at base.

up

flowers overtopping the buds,

sition of turnip root s is per 100 g edible portion 1

Inflorescence a terminal to 60 cm lt)ng, with open

glaucous.

glabrous,

up

to 3

long,

cm

elongating in 4-merou8;

regular,

long, ascrading; sepals

spreading,

obovate, 0.5-1

stamois

cm

5-8

petals

yellow-gi-een:

long, clawed, bright yellow;

ovary superior, qrUndrieal, 2-celled, a linear silique 4—10 em x 2-4 mm, with a tearing beak 0.5-3 cm long, dehiscent, up to SO-seeded. Seeds globose, 1in diameter, finely reticulate, dark 1.5 brown. Seedling with epigeal germination with 6;

.stigma globose. Fruit

mm

a taproot and lateral roots; hypocotyl long, epiootyl

petiole

c.

2

2-4

rm

c.

5

cm

mm

long; cotyledons with long blade cordate, 1—1,6 cm

notched at apex. Oilier botanical information The taxbnce aflc^r

Ecology


rt

Plowes, D.C.H., 1993; White, A. 1937.

&

Other references Wadorxl A

&

with 3-11 ;dl( Is

1

cm

up

to 15

leaflets,

ovate,

up

to

em

long,

imparipmnate

bearing rather stifT hairs; cm long with stalks up to

long, lowest pairs sniallcsi

margin serrate

.npn\ nrute,

to crenate. Inflorescenc-e usu-

ally a terminal, densely flowered, stalked rau]> to

20

cm

long in fruit

Flowers bisex-

ual, regular, 4-merou8, small, greenish, often

mm

long; eleistogamous; pedicel in fruit up to 7 sepals oblong, up to 2 long, with scattered hairs: pi'tals white, shorter than sepals or absent;

Shah, S.A

,

P.V.,

1989;

M.H.

l' oblong in outline, c. 1.5 red-brown, minutely rugose. Cardamine comprises about 130 species in drical, to

rnlly

Burkill,

outline oblong,

mm

ment;il,

Xxy,

The crushed wounds for 2—

3 days to improve healing, and they also make a good herbal bath for babies. Botany Erect or ascending, annual herb up to 50 cm tall; stem unbranched or profusely branched from the hnsi- I^envcs alteniale, in

ceme

yciir-round

Management ally cultivated

kwashiorkor.

treat

to

leaves are used as a dressing on

l
/o«ia d^ui Suess. (1961). Vernacular names Silver spinadi, woolflower, cock's comb (En). C^losie, cr§te de eoq (Fr). B(')rob6r6 6&0 (Po). Mfungu (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Crlosia

lowland areas. Improved Xiprrian

cultivars are late maturing

pi

CELOSU TRIGYNA L.

dung the shelf Ufe of harvested seedlings as us ensure good leaf quality for marketing

trigyna occurs almost throughout tropical Africa, also in

South Africa and southern Arabia,

often as a weed.

m

South

Uses

15)78:

& O gun-

Babatola, J.O.

Radra

T,

VMY.V,

Burkill

1997a; Schippers, R.R., 2000;

pers, R.

Town-

send, CO., 1985.

Otker references

M.V.A.

Aletor,

ugun. n.\. 1995: Babatola. J.O., 1988: et

ai.,

2UU1; Ilase, K. et

al.,

&

Ade-

("ai

Y,

1997; Ilayakawa,

Y. et al, 1998; Ikeorgu. J.E.G., 1990; Ifon, E.T.

&

Bassir. O., 1979; Keshinro, O.O. 1970;

A.O.,

Khoshoo

T.N.

&

Pnl,

&

M

Ketiku,

a vegetable, finely cut in

&

Jardin,

NIHORT.

198.=)

C,

1968; NIHORT. Nwanguma, Rl

has been mit is lo-

consumed as soups, stews and sau-

The slightly bitter leaves are pnpidar amongst the Yoruba people in south-western where the plant is known as 'aje fo

Nigeria, wo'.

plant

is

used

in traditional medicine.

In

used for the treatment of heart complaints, whereas in northern Nigeria it is used to {rv:\\ i>ustular skin cn.ijttion In Ghana it is applied to sores and boils. Pulped pains, chest leaves are used to treat costal troubles, stomach-ache andurethrni iii-nr arc ])riibrilily used as a vegetable as well: Celosia globosa Schinz (found from Nigeria to Uganda), Celosia isetiii C.C.Towns, (throughout tropical Africa xn i)t the nortb-oastorn part) Celnsin Irptt/slarhya Benth. (Sierra Leone to DK Congo) and Celosia pseudovirgata Sdiinz (Nigeria to DR Congo). .

Growth and develoijment

Si

i

d

m

rnii-

nates 4-6 days after sowing. The growmg period is 90-120 days from planting to seed maturity.

The flowers are pollinated by

Ecolog\'

Crlnsia

Iriffyiia

insects.

occurs

in

forest

clearings and grassland, along roadsides

rivws,

and as a weed

in fields,

up

and

to 160(K-

2500 mm annual rainfall and maximum temperatures of 25-30*C for optimum growth, and does not tolerate temperatures below 15'C. It grows on a wide range of soils, but prefers fertile welldramed loamy soils. 2000)

m

altifiido

If

requires

iif)

io

Propagation and planting Cdosia trigyna is

propnpated by seed

whirh

is

either broad-

The seeds are small, the lOOO-seed weight being about 0.3 g A seed rate of 8 kg/ha is recorded as adequate Hcfnre sowing, the seed is mixed with sand or Imely sieved soil to achieve a uniform cast or drilled directl>' on plant beds.

Celosia trigyna -

1,

plant habit;

2,

flowering

hixaieh.

Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudm

spread and good plant estabhshment. Broadcasting the seed is preferred for leaf produc-

CERATOPTERIS 173 Plants arc thiiincd to a spacing of about 15 cm; they become verj' bushy with overhanging branches at wider spadnga. DrilUng in rows spaced n 8-1,0 apart is more suitable tion.

m

for seed product ion.

Blaiuigement Celonia trigyna requires tile soils for

ately fertile

fer-

proper growth. In poor or moderincorporation of organic ma-

soil,

nure at a rate of 20—26 t/ha before planting is recommended. As an alternative, application of NPK (20-10-10) at ;W0-)00 kg/ha is suitable for a single har\'est by uprooting, whereas in case of repeated cutting a higher dose of 500700 kg/ha can be applied. Weeding is essential at the early seedling stage and regular watering is required during dry periods. Celoaia trigyna often becomes weedy in other ci-0|>s It can be controlled fairly easily both

mechanically and w ith herbicides. Diseases and pests Disease incidence is not common in Celosia trifiyiia nnd no records of serious diseases are

available,

Prospects Celosia Irifiyiia is currently of importance as a leafy vegetable in comparison with Celosia argmtea, but availability little

of genetically improved tyiies and suitable ag-

ronomic practices could rapidfy increase the production as a tasty leafy vegetable.

Major references Burkill. II.M.. 198.5: Leung, VV.-T.W., Busson, F. & Jardin, C, 1968; Mander, M., 1998; Townsend, C.C., 1986; Towns, nd CO., 1988; Townsend, C.C., 2000; van Eijcnhuijsen C.W. 1974. Other references Akinlosotu, T.A., 1983; Badra, T., 1993; Cavaco, A., 1974; Dupriez, H. & De Leener P., 1989: Eluwa, M.C.. 1977: Gbile, Z.O., 1983; Lowe, J. & Soladoye, M.O., 1990; Townsend, C.C., 1975; Townsend, C.C., 199.3.

Sources of Ulustration Townsend,

Authors O.A. Denton

insect pests

recorded include millipedes and the adults and nymphs of the tortoise beetle (Cassida toata), which feed on the leaves. In south-western

CERATOPTERIS THAUCTROIDES

Nigeria, a few destructive insects have been

ser. 3, 8; 186,

recorded on the plant. Adults of GaaterwlUus rhoiuhniflalis attack the stem and the leaves are attacked by adults of Aiiacatantopa notatiis. The larvae of Seeliodea laiaalU and HyitH'uia riTitri ali.s arc dcst ructive to

Harvesting

("clnsia

In'fiyna

the leaves. can bo har-

vested either by uproot mg of young and vigorous seedlings or by repeated cutting. The first leaf harvest is about 8 weeks after sowing nnd up to 8 pidungs of young shoots are possible a period of 2 months before flowering reduces growth. Cutting of side brandies and .stems at cm .ibri\-c soil K vi encourages branching. Yield W eekly har\'est for a period of up to 2 months can yield about 4-6 t/ha of fredi vege
I(i World. It IS foimd throughout .Vtrican coastal lowland,
-Januaiy respectively. In Sudan and Malawi the roots are eaten but they are considered a ramin*- looii m the latter country. They are poisonous unless well cooked. In

Kenya the leaves are crushed, mixed with water

and drunk as

root

decoction

mouthwash

n cure for puff-adder bites.

with leaf sap

is

.\

used as a Tanza-

to treat tooth abscesses in

nia.

Properties No data are known on ihc loaf is likely comparable to

composition, but this

other medium green leaf vegetables. The roots contain per 100 g: water 81 g, enei^ 289 kJ

202 VEGETABLES (68 kcal), protein g,

fibre

g, fnt

1

Ca 44 mg,

1 g,

g, rnrbohydratc 16 30 mg, P 39 mg, Pe

0.1

Mg

0.4 mg, thiamin 0.02 mg, riboflavin 0.11 mg, niiif'in 0 :i mt; .inil ascorbic acid 81 mg. |

Iruiti? coat am per 100 g: water 92 g, energy 112 kJ (27 kcal), protein 2 g, fat 2 g, carbohydrate ^ K Cn 28 mg. Mg 28 mg P 4 mg. Fe 0.6 mg, ascorbic acid 19 mg (Arnold, T.ll., Wells, M.J. & Wehmeyer, A S., 1985).

The

fruits conlnin cucurhitacin

R and

traros of runirliitai'in D. ('u' grf>wth and disturbed localities

therefore useful as a fodder plant after pro-

longed drought. The same applies for its use as a vegetable; it is available earlier than commonly cultivated species.

212 VEGETABLES

Management

in

and

I'gnndfl

Tanzania

Commelina africana is not cultivnted or protected by local people. It is cununun as a weed and therefore

easily aceessible, Tlie leaves are

collected in the rainy season for

They are not

immediate use.

stored.

Genetic resources and breetling No germplasm collections or breeding programmes are to exist for Commdina afriema. Be^ its abundance in Africa, there is no danger of genetic erosion.

known

cauM? of

Prospects Despite its multiple uses, the plant is reported not to be marketed in Tanzania. It is not a very popular vegetable. Prospects for its development as a vegetable crop

seem bleak. Major references Katende. A.B Kelbessa, E.

.

&

Burkill.

II.

M..

1985;

Ssejjawa P & Birnie, A., 1999; Faden, B., 1997; Maundu, P.M.,

Ngugi, G.W. & Kabuye. C.H.S., 1999; Ruffo, O.K., Rimie, A. & Tengn.ns, R L'OOL': Tredpold, M.H., 1986; Watt, J.M. & Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G., 1962.

Other references Kato, kaayi-Kiwanuka. W.. 1998: 1977; Schreiber, A., 19G7;

C.S..

1996;

Na-

Dgwal, E.X.K Vanden Berghen, C,

1988.

Authors W.J. van der Burg

other vegetables such as Bidens pilosa L. or Cleome hirta Oliv, It is also reported as a vegetable in Ethiopia. In Indonesia the leaves and young tops are occasionally steamed and eaten

as a vegetable, and in the Phibppmes they are eaten cooked. In India the leaves are eaten as famine food. In Sudan and eastern Africa the plants are grazed by domestic stock, at the same time providing part of the cattle's need for \valr. In northern Jhana it is n favourite fef^l for pigs
oultice for sore feet. In East Africa the sap of CommeUna bengliulcnsis leaves and stems is used to treat ophthalmia sore throat and burns, and the liquid contained in the flowering spathe is used to treat eye complaints in Zan/iliar. In Uganda and Tanzania the sap is used topically against thrush infants, and Tanzania a solution of pounded leaves soaked in warm water to treat diarrhoea. In .southern Africa CnmiiipUun beiiffhafrii.-ii.t is used to counter infertility in women, and a decoction of the root is used for the relief of stomach disorcations,

m

Ck>MMELlNABENGHALENSIS Protologue

Sp. pi.

1:

U

L

(1753).

Family Commelinaoeae

Chromosome number '2n Synonyms CuiniHeliiia

- 22 pyrrkoblepharia

Hassk. (1867).

Vernacular names Blue commelina, venus* bath

Benghal dayflower, tropical spiderwort

ders. In India

ra^, and

m

it

is s;nil

to

m

be beneficial for lep-

the Philippmes

it is

used as an

emollient suppository for strangury. In Rajast(India) sheep with jaundice ar(> treated

ban

with a mixture of the plant with

whey and

Commeline, commelme (Fr). Trapoeraba Kongwa, kafiila, mpovupovu .58. Other references Watt, J.M. & BreyerltK;2:

Brandwijk. M.G.. 1962. Antlioxa C.H. Bosdi

stalked;

sepals free, linear to linear-oblanceolate, 6-10 long; petals free, obIancfH)late to ohovnie,

Protologue Trav,

S, ^Vlrica

6—10

mm

long,

yellow;

stamens numerous;

ovarj' superior, 3-oeUed, style

c.

2

mm

il

400 (1822).

1:

1

I

(En).

(Fr).

Origin and geographic distribution Corchorus aspleuifolius is restricted to southern from Zambia southwards to South Africa and Swaziland. It is common at the fringes of the Kalnhnri doscM't. Uses The mucilaginous texture of the foliage makes it a popular leafy vegetable when eonsumed together with a coarse staple food. In the past, ashes fi-om this plant were used as a substitute for salt. The ash is said to dispel Africa,

ants.

Prodnotion and international trade Thia

to 7

mm long.

up

to 4

cm

wide attonunted to a blunt, undivided apex, dehiscing by ;3 valves, usually on twisted stalk, many-seeded. Seeds shortly cylini!i l.'V2 mm lony. d;ak Itniwn. Other botanical information The genus Corchorua comprises an uncertain number of q>ecie8, with estimates ranging from 40-100. long and

Family Tiliaceae (APG: Malvaceae)

Chromosome number 2/( = Vernacular names Wild Jew s mallow

up

Fruit a slender cylindrical capsule

I

CORCHORUS ASPLENIFOUUS Burch.

Corete sauvage

bisexual,

shortly

mm

ifii'i!

A.L)..I.,

Flowers

bracteate.

Corchorua aaplenifoUua - wild

CORCMORUS 217 may be dried, use during the

made

powder and kept

for

Genetic resources Although Coivhonu

tu-

dr>'

into

season.

very widespread, it does not be liable to genetic erosion because it is

ph'nifofiiis is not

seem

to

variable in morphology, locally common and may resprout from its woody rootstodc left be-

hind after collecting leafy stems. Prospects Corehoma aaplmifoUtu is a locally common and nutriimu- \« t;etal)le and as such a vahjahle wild pl.mt. prices at markets, so there

domesticate duction.

Il

only fetches low

is little

incentive to

and consider commercial pro-

it

The perennial habit may make

suit-

it

able for home garden planting for regular supply as a green vegetable for family consumption.

Major references Edmonds,

J.M.,

1990:

Schippers, R.R., 2000; Tredgold, M.H., 1986; Wild, H.. 1963; Wild, H.. 1984. Other references / imp \A -T \\' Russon, I

F.

&

Jardin,

Mavi,

S.,

C,

1968; Wild, H., Biegel,

H.M.

&

1972.

Sources of illustration Wild, Authors R.R. Scfaippers

Ck>RCHORUS OUTOBIUS Protologue

Sp.

pi. 1:

H., 1984.

L.

629 (1763).

Family TiUaoeae (APG: Malvaceae)

Chromosome number 2n Vernacular names Jew s mallow, I

I

jute mal-

Corehorus aaplmifoUus - rootstoek with flower-

low, krinkrin, tossa jute,

and fniiling hniiicli. Redrawn and adapted by laliatt

can surrel (En) Corete pr)t,ij,'ere. jute potager. mauve des Juifs, cramcrain, krinkrin (Fr). Corete, caruru da Bahia (Po). Mlenda (Sw).

ing

Syainaudiii

Corehorus asplenifolius can be identified by its wooHy rootstoek and often prostrnto stems hnving nan-ow leaves and 3-valved capsules, often on twisted stalks. It resembles Corehoma eonWild, hut this speeies usually has fiisiis broader leaves and straight fi\iit stalks.

budi okra, West

Origiu and geogmpliic distributkm Hie

Growth and development plenifolius is one of the

ma

species

down

Tii

thi'

ground

to

Corehorus asfew pereniiuil (\)reho-

dry season, level,

but

it

it

is ol'ten liurni

sprouts again

when the in

rainy season starts. It flowers mainly the mid-rainy seastm, between December

and March. Ecology Corehorus cuplenifoUas occurs

in

opoL woodland and

swamps

at the margins of seasonal usually on sandy soils

Harvesting Tops

of leafy stems

and leaves

are collected firom the wild Handling after harvest Harvested leaves

Afri-

Corehorus oUtorius - wUd and plmUed

218 VEGETABLES gcographicnl origin of CoiThoriis often disputed, because

it

olitoriits.

is

has been cultivated

since centuries both in Asia and in Africa, and Some if (xvurs in the wild in both contim-nts

Production and international trade Jew's mallow is one of the lending leafy vegetables in many countries an jnucfa cultivated and I

traded.

No

statistical

data on production or

authors consider India or the indo-Burmese area as the ori^ of Corchoms oUtorius and several other Corchoms species. However, the presence in Africa of more wild Corchoma species and the larger genetic diversity within Corchoms olitoriiu point to Africa as the first contro of origin of the genus, with n sorondnry

marketing are available, international trade with nei^bouring countries occurs, but is not registered In Europe. Jew s mallow is sold in powder form as a Libanese product, under its

centre of diversity in the Indo-Burmese region.

has been stable over the past -10 years. In the period 1997-2001 it averaged 2.76 milli kJ (58 kcal), protein 4.5 g, fat 0.3 g, carbohydrate 12.4

At present Corchoms oUtorius is widely ^read all over the tropics, and it probably oocurs in countries of tropical Africa. In tropical Africa it is reported as a wild or cultivated vegetable in many countries, It is a leading ienf ve^jetjible in Tnte d'lvoire. Benin. all

Nigeria,

Cameroon,

Sudan,

and Zimbabwe. Jew's mallow ns a leaf vegetable in the


world jute production

CorchortiH nlitnruts

g,

fibre 2.0 g,

P-carotenc

(>

1

(combined data from

and Con hnnis capmilaris)

Ca 360 mg, P It) (.ip

122 mg, Fe 7.2 mg, thiamin O l-'i mg riboflavin

0.53 mg, niacin 1.2 mg, ascorbic acid 80

mg

(Leung, W.-T.W.. Busson, F. & Jardin, C, 1968). Hiis composition is in line with other dark green leaf vegetables, but the dry matter content of fresh Jew s mallow leaves is higher than average. The composition and especially

the microniit rieni content are strongly influenced by external factors such as soil fertiliiy and fertilization. Nitrogen fertiUwr greatly improves the micronutrient content, e.g. F^ P, Cn carotene and vitamin C.

The mucilagmous polysaccharide in the leaves uronic acid (65%) and consists of

is rich in

rhamnose. galactose, glucose, galacturonic acid a molar ratio of

and glucuronic acid 1.0:0.2:0.2:0.9:1.7 in

m

addition to 3.7% acetyl

groups.

Jute fibres are obtained from the hast The use is limited to coarse fabrics, because the lragth:diamet«r ratio of jute filaments is only 100-120 much below the minimum of 1(100 .

required for line spinnmg quality. Fibre cells long and 15-20 \im in diameter. are 2-2.5 Fibre cells are cemented together into filaments of up to 250 long. The tensile strength of jute is 3U5-775 MPa, the elongation at break is only 1—2%. Jute has a low ignition temperature of l!i.'^°C, posing a considerable fire hazard in warehouses. Corchoms oUtorius leaves contain antioxida*

mm

mm

tive

phoudic

compounds,

of

which

5-

is the most important. Some ionone glucosides have also been isolated from the leaves; they showed inhibitory activily on histamine release from rat peritoneal exudate

caffeoylquinic acid

CORCMORUS 219 cells

induced by antigen-antibody reaction. The

seeds are poisonous to mammals and They contain cardiac glycosides. Adulterations and substitutes As

inttii' cm x o r,-;!(cm, rounded and with setaceous nppendaires up to 1 cm long at base, rounded, acuminate or acute at apex, margin serrate or rrcnate, sparsely pubescent, usually non-shmy and pale green, d(-6)-v^ed Stem the base. Inflorescence a 1— 4-fIowered lenf-opposrd fnsrirulate ryme, bracteate. Flowers bisexual, regular, usually 5merous, shortly stalked; sepals firee, narrowly elliptical to narrowly obuvate. .3-5 long; petals free narrowly ul)o\ate to narrowly oblanceolate, 4—5 long, yellow, caducous; stamois up to 20; ovaiy superior, 3-celled, style lil

iilc

elliptical,

1

.-,)

mm

mm

short. Fniit n slender rylindriral rapsiilo

4

cm

long and up to 2

up

to

mm wide, slightly ribbed,

with 3 small spreading horns at apex, dehiscing by 3 vahres, many-seeded. Seeds cylindiicnl, often somewhat quadrangular, c. 1.5 long, dark brown. Other botanical infoxmatlon The genus Corehoma comprises an uncertain number of

mm

ranging frum -100. Cnrchorus tridens can be easily idi-ntified by

species, with estimates

is

the 3 small horns at the top of the slender cap-

which

sules,

seems

maturity with 3 valves. It Conliorus {leatucata, but this

split at

closest to

species has winged fruits.

Growth and development The i)lanls grow rapidly in the ramy season and flowering occurs about G weeks after germination. The first leaves can be picked at about

10

days after

Flowering occurs continuously and seeds mature nt 00-1 10 days from sowing. Fruiting plants can be found throughout the sowing.

year.

Ecology Corclwrus vanna,

tridois

occurs in

sa-

woodland and scrub vegetation, and It can be found up to altitude, but is generally grown below

often grows as a weed.

m

1700 700 m.

If is

a hot sonsnn \-e

same

tcclmolofjy

may

he applird as

is

widespread and occurs in anthropogenic habiand thus does not seem liable to genetic erosion. There are no germplasm collections Prospects Corciioms tridens is an interesting vegetable in dry environments, occurring s]iontaneously. but it can also he cultivated in home gardens. Seeds are easily procured and tats,

stored. It is a well-liked vegetable, easily pre-

and im|)or(ant Ici-mplasm collection

8er\(Ml as dried leaf, nulrilious

food security policy.

in

(

for Corclwnis olitorius. Seeds are sown directly on well-prepared, manured beds at the beginning of the wet season, broadcast or drilled in rows spaced at 20-30 cm. The seed rate is about 5 g per 10 m'. The plants are thinned to 20 plants per m*. Gernnnation may be poor due to seed dormancy, but a short immersion in boiling water or soakmg overnight in warm water speeds up germination and makes it less erratic. The secrls rrtain their viability for 8— 12 months when stored ia well-sealed jars. Rfanagement Weeding must be done early; thinning is done prior to the first harvest. Supplementary irrigation in a drought period is

and research of Coivhoms tridens should be promoted. However, in peri-uiban cultivation it cannot otnprte with the higher yielding Cor-

Organic fertilizer may be applied at up to 20 kg per 10 m^ bed. A basal application with XPK ('.Iogy Egusi-itoo occurs in forest, often at the margin or in opening!^ but also in swamp

more humid savanna and abandoned up to 1150 m altitude. Propagation and planting At the beginning of the rainy season 3-4 seeds per hole are forest

fields,

CUCUMIS 237 sown. The 1000-sccd weight is (15()-)22()-250 g. Seedlings usually nppear within 6-8 days. E!gum-itoo is often grown between other cn^s, growing' on !^t)ikes ;ilonsj u ith ynm or supported

by a strong treUisofat least

Management

1

m tall.

are dried to about 10% moisture content before packing. Packaging must be thorough and packs must be stored away from moisture, as

seeds

otherwise

facilitated

may

germinate,

I

Killing

is

by heating to 60*C. The weight of

mainly

col-

which iue often

re-

decorticated seed is about 60% of the whole dry seed. The kernels are milled and used as a

tained when clearing fields. In cult i\nt ion it requires a soil rich in manure or pui iuilly de< compoRed organic matter. Application of X and K fortili/or rnn inrroaso yields considerably,

vegetable or for producmg vegetable oil for domestic use. Processing the seed of egusi-itoo is time consuming and labour intensive; this is one of the reasons why it has been partly re-

Egusi-itoo is

lected from wild stands,

but

1'

fertilizer

has shown Utile

still

placed by egusi melon.

effect.

Diseases and pests In Nigeria a severe damping-ofT disease caused Ity Marroplininiiia piiaaeoUiia has been reported. The fruits are sometimes att^ked by the fruit fly Daeus punctifrona. The larvae develop in the fruit and eventually cause rot Fruit flies attack fruits at everj' stage of development and can severely affect production. The pupae are found in the soil and if is then foro ndvisfd not to plant in the same field the following year. The aphidlike flea hopper Halticus tibialis may suck sap from the leaves; young leaves become wrinkled, older ones become swollen around the sucking

holes

and

later die. Several other pests attack-

ing cucuihits are also found on egusi-itoo. Rpd of

with pedicel up to

together 1

cm

long,

in

small fasrirles

stamens

3;

female

flowers solitary, with pedicel 1-4 cm long, (n.Mv "Tforior densely softly spiny. Fruit an ellipsoid to oblong-ellipsoid berry

4.5

cm,

when

ripe

strongly

3-9

cm

x 2-

mm

'

1-1 2

areas close to habitation.

Management

lv«'aves

leeted from the wild. In

and fruits are colMadagascar the fruits

are collected from scmi-w ild plants. G-enetie resources and breeding Cueumia africamts is not uiieonnnon in its urea of origin

and hence

not threatened with genetic ero-

is

Cucumis afneanua germplasm is stored in the United States, United Kingdom, the Czeeh Republie and Spain. Within the anguna group of about 16 spinyfruited Cucumis species to which Cucumis onfiiin'a belongs as well, there seem to he no major barriers to gene exchange. Several interspecific crosses have been made in this group. iiv mildew An intermediate response to iPm'udopcroiinsponj riihi'usis) has be^ reported for Cucumis ajiicanus. Prospects In southern Africa Cucumis afrisi(m or extinction.

I

is

rc)nsi(ler(Ml

mestication.

The

>v

to ha\'e ])olen(i.'d

for do-

variation within the species

breeding and selection. Breeders' interest will focus on disease resistance within the scope of gene transfer to the will allow successful

economically important Cucumis species. referenees Arnold, T.H., Wells, M.J.

Mf^r

& Wehnuwr Jeffrey,

A.S.

198.'"i:

Jeffrey.

C, 1980; van Wyk. B.E.

2000; Watt, J.M.

&

&

C.,

1978;

Gericke, N.,

Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G.,

19(52.

Other references Keraudren,

M.,

196(5;

Kirkbride Jr., J.H., 1993; Meeuse, A.D.J., 1962; Sdiippers, R.R., 2000; Staub, J.E. Pahner,

&

Authors C.H. Bosdi

longitudinally

striped pale greenish-white and puiplishbrown. with spines ;^-ening processes are Qseh coloration, and accumulaticm of sugars and orclimacteric) life

ganic acids.

Ecology Wild Cueumia melo plants occur in open wof)dland (^specially along rivers and as a weed in fields and waste places, up to 1200

m

kled, llesh white.

-

mostly bees, effect pollination. The heavy sink for assimilates and miners and per plant usu^ill-. 'uly 3-6 fruits will develop out of 30-100 Iciii.il. .'bi-^cxLial flowers. The fruit development curve is sigmoid with maximum growth at 10-40 days after flowerinsects,

important in Sudan; a similar type

named 'seinat' in Sudan is grown for its seed. Sweet melon simwn for the urban markets in tropical Africa comprises nowadays mostly Fi hybrid cultivars of Reticulatus Group (e.g. 'Galin ) and Cnntnloiipc '.roup (e.g. Charenlnis Growth and development Melon seed will remaui viable for at least 6 years when stored dry (moisture content 6%) at temperatures below 1ical

sub-Saharan re-

from Senepal to Somalia .md

South Africa. It has also been recorded m Yemen. In Kenya, New 2Sealand, France and the fruits of improved cultivars are commercially grown foi- e.xport, Cuenmis inetulifems has become naturalized in Australia, and is reported as adventive in Croatia. Uses Th(> fruits of horned melon are mainly eaten, and some parts of Africa the leaves are also used as a vegetable. The fruits are peeled and eaten in either the immature or the mature stapes Fruits in the imripe stapes have Israel

m

the appearance and taste of cucumber. Mature

may have

a sweet dessert-fruit flavour. also be split open and dried Botswana the Kalahari San people prepare the fruits by roasting. In Zimbabwe young leaves are stripped from fridts

Mature

fruits

sun

may

for later use. In

Pajo.

&

Shinohara,

S.,

&

Yamaguchi, M., 1997; 1984; Whitaker, T.W. ft Davis,

G.N,. 1962.

Other references Andres. Tahir, l.M.

&

Pilral,

Z.,

2000; Mirphani, K.A.

&

1996; Polaodii, W.,

Perloff

B.P,.

Stepansky,

,V.,

1982:

al.,

2003: El

&

2001; Karchi,

El Tahir, T.M., 1997;

More, T.A., 2002; Oluoch, G.E.,

T.C..

1999; Fisher, C.

M.,

Scott, T.R., 1997; Jones. B. et

.VI.O. & Welbaum. MacHargue, J.S. ft

Purseglove.

Kovalski

I,

&

J.W., 1968; Porl-Treves. R.,

1999; Tindall, H.D., 1983; USD.A, 2002a; WylUe. S.6. et al., 1996; Zheng, X.Y.. Wolf^ D.W. Crosby. K.M., 2002.

11:

Family name Cucurbitaceae Chromosome number 2r = 24 Vernacular names loomed melon. African cucumber, homed cucumber, kiwano (£In). Concombre comu, m^tulon, kiwano (Fr).

Hammer, K., 1992; Pitrat, M., Hanelt, P. 2nnO: Robinson, R-W. & Docker- Walters, D.S,, 1997; Rubatzliy, V.E.

4,

10 (18.59).

M.M. & van dcr H.A.M., 1993b; Pitrat, M. & Risser, G.,

Odet,

ossen,

Tahir

in the

attention.

Montforte, •liMYM

Sources of illustration Hassib, M., 1938; M.M. ft van der Vossen, H.AM., 1993b. Authors H.A M, van der Vossoi, I.M. El

Paje.

& Cueumia metuUferut - mild and pkaited

CUCUMIS 249 the stems, washed and boiled as spinach, in the same way as musk pumpkin leaves {Cucurbita mosehata Duchesne), adding peanut butter

intact on the plants, as neither

prior to serving'

other w

Fruits fi-om wild-growmg plants are often bit-

ness varies ui immature and mature fruits on the same plant, with srounger fruits having a

ter

and

inedible. Traditional medical practitio

ners in Zimbabwe consider the liitt< wild £ruits as poisonous if taken by mouth. The root is used in the Mutare area (Zimbabwe) for the ndierofpain following childbirth. In Benin the fruit is said to possess mediro-mnpical properi

ties

and

is

used

to treat eruptive

levers in

'Sakpata voodoo' rituals. The decorticated fruit macerated in distilled palm wine or lemon juice ia used to treat smallpox and sldn rashes. In Western countries Cueumis metuUfema ia currently mostly marketed as an ornamental for its decorative fruit with a unique appearance and extended keeping qualities. Production and international trade In southern Africa homed melon is considered a .

traditional

fruit

been on a small

vegetable. scale, e.g. in

Cultivation

has

Zimbabwe

it is

and peri-urban areas for Side in traditional markets and by street vendors. The development of the African horned melon into an international crop started in New Zealand where it h.is been cfimmercially grown and exported smce the 198Us. There it was given the name Iciwano' in an attempt to promote the new fruit crop in Japan and the

cultivated in rural

arc bitter-fruited and have caused poisoning. Bitter

mature

fruits

ildlife eat

may remain

completely

baboons nor

them. The amount of

less bitter taste. Bitterness

is ilue

I)itter-

primarily to

the presence of cucurbitacins, bitter and toxic

compounds occurring

in

Cumrhitaeea*. Gucur-

bitadns can cau.se severe illness and death, due to their potent action as purpalives and laxatives. Cucuinis inetulifeius contams cucur* bitacin B, a triteipene known to ediibit cytotoxic antitumour and anti-inflammatoty activities.

Deaoriptfon Vigorous annual herb with climbing or prostrate stems, having soUtary, simple tendrils 4-10. .5 cm long: root system strong, fibrous; stems reaching several in length, grooved, with long stiff spreading hairs.

m

I.,eaves altern,-it(^

simple: .stipules absent: peti-

ole .3-12 cm long, setose; blade ovate or pentagonal in outline, 3.5-14 cm x 3.5-13.5 cm, shallowly palmately 3-5-lobed, hispid setulose especially on veins below, becoming scabrid-

punctate.

Flowers unisexual,

regular,

5-me-

United States. Since then it has also been grown commercially to a limited extent Cali-

m

fornia for the United States market,

and

in

and Kenya fmrn where the fruits are exported to markets in Europe. Recent efforts to grow the crop during the summer in southern France for the European market have been Israel

successful

Properties The nutrient content for fresh Gucumu metulifema (per 100 g edible is: water 01.0 g, enerpj' 1.31 kJ (.32

fruits of

portion)

g. carbohydrate 5.2 crude fibre 1.1 g, Ca 11.9 mg, Mg 22.3 mg, P 25.5 mt; Ke 0.53 mg, thiamin 0.04 mg, ribollavin 0.02 mg. niacine 0.5.5 mg. ascorbic acid 19 mg (Wehmeyer, A.S., 1986). Some values may vaiy depending on fruit maturity, as the fruits are eaten at both immature and mature stapes. The leaf composition is approximatel;^' the same as other dark green leafy vegetables. In wild Cum III is iiieliili^nu, plants w ith bittw and non-bitter fruits occur, and the two tj^pes are morphologically mdistmguishable. A significant proportion of wild-growing homed melon plants oicountered in southern Africa

kcal), protein 1.1 g, fat 0.7 g,

Ctiriimia nietulifents

1,

male and female flower; 2, Redrawn i

Chromosome number 2u = 14 Vernacular namea Cucumber, (En).

Concombre, comichon

(Fr).

gherkin Pepino (Po).

Tango (Rw) Origin and geograpliic distribution Cucumis satwua is believed to have originated in the southem Himalayan foothills region of .\si.i.

The wild Cucuinis sativus var. luiiduichii (Royle) Gabaev (sjmonj'm: Cucumia hardwieiai which

Royle), tor,

can

is

still In-

seen as the possible progenifnund there. It has small, verj'

and is fully compatible with Cucumia aativua. An alternative view, however, suggests that var. hardwiekii is a derivative

bitter,

spiny

fruits,

Younc

or ripe

cucumber fruits are occasionally used as cooked vegetables or made into diutney. Locally in Asia types with large, white or yellow fruits are boiled and eaten as an ingredient of stews, young shoots are consumed as a leafy vegetable, and seeds are consiuned or used to extract an edilile od imt these uses have not been recorded for Alrica. In tropical .Africa cucumber is considered an exotic or Western vegetable

of

relatively

recent

int

i-.:iiluct

ion,

mostly used by city consumers. However, it is gaining popularity in the African kitchen; in East Africa it is regularly used in kachumbari', a kind of African coleslaw. Ripe raw cucumber fruits are said to cure sprue, and in Indo-Ghina cooked immature fruits are given to children to treat dysentery. rapidly

264 VEGETABLES

The seed has some anthelmintic property. Cucumber extract is known to have cleansing, and softening properties: it is used as

soothing,

in ingredient in a variety ot'health and beauty products for the skin. Cucumber peel when eaten by oodcroaches is reported to kill them after sovcriil niRhts Xon-food uses of cucumber are not common Africa. Production and international trade In 2002 the world area under Ciiriiinis .sdlitii.H was estimated at about 2 million h.i with a total production of 36 million t. Asia is the world leader, with China alone accounting for over 60%. Cucumber is giown in all countries of tropical Africa, but nowhere on a large acale. la 2002 Africa produced 607,000 t on 26,000 ha, accounting for just under 1.5% of production. Egypt is the largest .\fi-ican producer with 360,000 t. Detailed data on countries of tropical Africa are lacking. International trade in 2002 nmnimted to 1.5 million t, with Mexico, the

m

Netherlands and Spain as the main exporters;

bom

international trade

Afiican countries is

modest and unrecorded. Properties Ttn' nutritional composition of cucumber per 100 g edible portion (ends trimmed, not peeled, edible part 97%) is: water 9f).4 g, energj- 42 kJ (10 kcal), protein 0.7 g, fat

Cueumis sativua 3, fruit.

18 mg, Mg 8 mg, P 49 mg, Fe 0.3 mg, Zn 0.1 mg. carotene 60 |ig, thiamin 0.03 mg, riboflavin 0.01 mg niacin 0 2 mg, folate 0 pg ascorbic acid 2 mg (Holland, B., Unwin, l.D. & Buss, D.H., 1991). The edible portion is about 85% when peeled. Seed kernels contain approximately 42% oil and 42% protein. The bitter principle cucurbitadn C occurs in CueumU aaiwus. Cucurbitacins are terpene

Source:

g,

carbohydrate

components

in

1.5 g, dietaty fibre 0.6 g,

the foliage and fruits the evolu-

tionary role being to protect the plant against hetbivore attadc. As a result of breeding, modem cultivars are not bitter. The presence of a

saponin and the slightly poisonous alkaloid hypoxanthine might explain the anthelmintic propei ty of the seed.

Adulterations and substitutes Tin fruits West Indian ghermay replace those of Cueumia sativus for pickling, and the fruits of snnke melon (QtCUmU melo L.) for pickling and fresh use. Description Annual monoecious heib with m long, havtrailing or scandent stems up to ing simple tendrils up to 30 cm long: .stem l-.'iof Cucuini^ aitgitna L., the

kin,

i")

angled,

sparingly branched, with bristle-like

hairs; root ficial.

^stem

extensive

and

laigety super-

Leaves alternate, simple; stipules ab-

J,

mid

flowering

fruiting

9hoot; 2, female flower in loHgHudintMl section;

Ca

0.1

PROSEA

sent: petiole r>-2()

ovate

ill

cm

outlme, 7-20

long blade triangularx 7-15 cm, palmately

cm

3—7-lobed, deeply cordate at base, acute at apex, toothed, bristly hairj", Flowers unisexual, regular, 5-merous; sepals narrow

0.6—1

cm

long;

corolla

widely

!> i

triangular,

ampanulate,

lobes up to 2 cm long, yellow; malc» llowers in 3— T-flowered fascicles, with pedicel 0..5-2 cm long,

stamens

pedicel short

lengthening ellipsoid,

3;

female flowers

solitary,

with

and thick up to 0.6 cm long, cm ovary inferior, up to

in friiit

2-5 cm

r>

long, pricklj' hairj' or warty,

stigma 3-lobed. Fruit a pendulous, globose to cylindrical berry up to over 30 cm long, often slightly curved, beset with spinous tul)ercles and warts when young, skin usually green, but in some cultivars white, yellow or brown, flesh pale green many-seeded. Seeds ovalc-olilong in x 3-6 mm. compressed, outline, 8-10 white, smooth. Seedling with epigeal germina-

mm

t

ion

Other botanical information With their chromosome number of 2/i = 14, cucumber and its wild relative are different from all other members of the genus, whidi have 2n = 24. It

CUCUMIS 256 tho only Ciiciiinis spccios thought to in Asia; the other species are indigenous to AlVita. Cucuiiiis angtuia is often rrtniuscj with (he small cucumtier types that are used for pickles, since both are commonly

slim, rather spiny:

is also

fnaits relatively long,

have originntpd

southern China sometimes with black spines, Japan perfect size 22 cm x 2-3 cm, whitespined: (^hinesf eultivars include Beijing Dachi and Canfeng 3 ii-om GAAS, popular

called '^ei4dn'.

A

satisfactory' classification of the cultivated

cucumber does not

exist.

A

fruit shapes, sizes, colours istics

can be found

in

large variation of

and rind character'

differenl combinations,

and numerous cultivnrs have all

over the world.

Commonly

ht^en

developed

cultivated types

include:

- American sheer

fruits dark gi-een. smoothsl

induce male flowering. Concenand duration of spraying dep«id on the genotype and the intended result: usually spraying can start at the 2-3 true leaf stage, and can be repeated every 2 days for up to 6 allic acid will

tration

times.

For gjTineeious or highly female roiltivars that are not parthenocarpic, commercial seed is usually mixed with 10-16% of a highly male line. Rees are the main pollinating agents and

should be sufficiently available for good fruit development. Poor pollination results in deformed or curved fruits. However, the Ehiropean parthenocarpic greenhouse cucumber should not be pollinated, since this will result in unwanted seeded fruits and fruit deformation. (Jreenhouses are th^pefore kept insect free to prevent pollination. Fruits are harvested 1-2 weeks after flowering, dep«lding on the genotype, usually before they are physiologically mature. Kreijuent han'ostmg of immature, marketable fruits will result in a continuation of new fruitset and a longer life cycle of the crop. Large, maturing fruits

266 VEGETABLES that ore

left

on the plant inhibit the develop-

ment of additional fiiiits. Verj' early, fieldgrown cultivars can senesoe quickly and may die after only 2-3 months osiiocially when diseases start to affect the plants during fruit setting

The crop cjrcle of cucumber glasshouses in Europe can be ataround 6 months under specific con-

stage.

grown

in

tended

to

ditions.

Ecology Cucumber requires a mafo. Tn mol tompernfo muntries

warm it

is

cli-

prown

durmg hot summers can the open. The optimum tempera-

in greenhouses; only it

be grown

in

fjmwfh is aliout .30"C and the oiitimum mght temperature 18—21'C; the minimum temperature for good development is 16*C. Pickling cultivars are usually more adapted to low temperatures. Sensitivity to daylength differs per cultivar; short du^lengths usually promote vegetative growth and female flower produrfion. High litrht intensity is nofdcd for ture

fill-

optimum yields. Cucumber needs a of water but

it

fair

amount

cannot stand waterlogging.

Low

relative humidity results in hig^ plant evapo-

ration due to the large leaf area, irrigation is then very important.

and sufficient High relative

facilitates the occurrence of downy mildew. The soil should be fertile well-drained, with a pH of 6.0—7.0. In tropical Africa eleva-

humidity

up to 2000 m appear to be suitable for cucumber eultivation. Propagation and planting Cucumber is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight ranges fix>m 20^35 g. During soil preparation generous incorporation of organic manure (about 25-35 t/ha) is required. About 1—3 kg of seed is needed per ha depending on the method of sowing. Direct sowing, whidi is .still a com-

tions

mon

practice especially in open fields requires

larger

amounts of seed. The use of transplants more uniform crop stand, if

will result in a

dom-

|iro])orly.

Tn

open fields

in

the tropics

improve drainage, which

is

especially impor-

tant during the rainy season, and can support

good

development. The

root

use of plastic

mulch makes weed control and water management easier, and can help in reducmg insect populati'

wide. For Africa few data are available: estimates fur DR Con«(i and Chana are and 10 1

l7ha

respectively.

In

iropical

Asia,

countries

such as Thailand, Indonesia and India have an estimated average yield of just below 10 t/ha. Hybrid cultivars in Thailand yield over 100 t/ha. The Ehiropean Union as a whole produces an average of 90 tAia, but under protected condilions in greenhouses this can be even higher, mainly because the crop's Ufe cycle is extended considerably.

Handling after harvest Cucumber

fruits

268 VEGETABLES the}-

are sensi-

downy mildew and

damage. The

maximum

tolerant, gj-noecious hybrid is Olympic',

should br treated with care as tive to transportation

storage period relative

is

about 14 days at 13°C with a

humidity nf 9"% Below 10

r*

chilling

injurj' may occur and above 16 C fruits rapidly become yellow. Waxing or packaging in plastic

film reduces moisture loss. In tropical coun-

&uits will usually keep an acceptable marketable quality for around 5 days imless they are stored under cool conditions. After that they become soft and lose their crispy texture, and they can become yellowish. Genetic reaourees Important germplasm collections are available in the Czech Republic

tries,

(Breeding Station, Kvetoslavov), Germany (Institute tor Plant Cultivation and Plant Breeding, Braunschweig), India (Kerala Agricultural University. Trichur). the Netherlands (Centre for Genetic Resources, Wagemngen), the Philippines (Institute for Plant Breeding, Los Banos) Turkey (.\.\RIR. Nfenenion. l/mir),

Russian Federation (N.l. Vaviiov Institute of Plant Industry, St Petersburg), United States (NCRPIS. Iowa State L niversity, Ames; NSSL, T 'SDA-ARS Colorado State University, Colo-

in addition to

The

less heat tolerant pickler, but

1945. Gjrnoecious sex expression

high yields. esjirci.iUy

in

consumption cultivated

m

cucumber for fresh greenhouses. Breed-

ing of disease- and pest-resistant cultivars, iimbined with better cult ivation practices, has led to more than thicofnld increases in the (

yield of pickling

cucumber over the past 60

'.Arizona Ff is a adds angular leaf

and CMV tolerance. The Beit Alpha type Ti Basma' has tolerance to both mildews, and to CM\' and WMV viruses. Thv hybrid Excel' has a less vigorous plant and is parthenocarpic; it is

especially suited for greenhouse growing.

'ttical in x 1.6-2 mm,

mm

Robinson. R \V. d.E. & 'aimer I

&

Jr., J.H.,

1993;

lunvalewsJci, E., 1978; Staub,

M..I.

litHT.

Authors U.H. Bosch

CUCURBITA FICIFOLIA Bouche Protologue

\'erh.

\'ereins Befrinl

b.Mues Konigl. Preuss. Staaten 12:

Family

205


tic patients has a hypoglycnemic effect making it an appropriate medi-

The seed comhusk is ground into a flour that an emulsion with water and t;dsin One of these proteins, Cueurbita niaxinia trypsm inhibitor V (CMTI-V), is also a specifie inhibitor of human \ll blood coatrulal ion fa

Other

diseases are scab causing small

uriuii' iinuiii).

all plant parts, and Choanephorn wet (Choanephora cucurbitanini), causing fruit rot. Of the many viruses reported on Cumrbita maxima the most important ones are cucumber

spots on rot

mosaic virus (('M\0, papaya ring spot virus (PRSV-VV), squash leaf curl virus (SLCV), watermelon mosaic virus (VVi\l\'-2) and zucchini yellow mosfiic virus (ZYMV), These viruses often occur in combmation. They are spi-ead by medianical infection and insects (mainly aphids, whitefly and thrips), and probably some by seed. Insect pests are seldom serious. Nevertheless it is important to keep aphids, whitefly and thrips under control to avoid spreading virus diseases,

Whitefly

(e.g.

Beinisia

spp.)

may

cause damage. Leaf-feeding ^Uaehtta beetles may be harmful on young plants. ladybird (Henosepilachtta tialerii) la r^[>orted as a major pest on puiupknis in Sudan. Spider mites (Tetranychus spp,) may also cause damage. Harvesting Pumpkin fruits are picked when nearly or fully mature, 4-G weeks after flowering, and are harvested in several rounds until thf rro]) stops producing. 5)0—120 days after

A

plautmg. Some African farmers leave the fruits in the field until they collect the whole crop. Fur leaf consumption, usually the third and fuunh leaves from the tip are harvested; the first and second leaf are left to continue growing. Sometimes the tips are removed to probranching,

niote

f

young immature

)crasionally

flowers

and

fruits are harvested for con-

sumption.

Yield The yield largely deper and growing conditions The numlier

culiivar

i

nf

mature

harvested per plant is low, and the weight of individual fruits, mainly depending 'ing,

stored for several

months on

slatted shelves

with good ventilation. The fledi can be dried in

CUCURBITA 267 strips for later use in soups

and

stews. Seeds

are often extracted as the fruits are consumed:

some are stored

for fiiture planting, others are

used as food. When a crop is grown for its seed the ftoiit is a by-product. Seeds are offered either in their shell or after shelling, shelled seeds commanding considerably hii^her prices. The shelling process is tedious when done by hand: mechanized shelhng is now carried out in s> .inili ni herb climbl-bi-anchcd tendrils, strongly ing by lateral, branched, or with bushy habit and then often without tendrils; stems angular and often grooved, prickly hairy, often rooting at nodes Leaves alternate, simple, without stipules; petiole 9-24 cm long, grooved; blade broadly ovate to triangular in outline, distinctly palmately o-T-lobed {10-)2O-3.5 cm in dirimder. deeply cordate at base, margms toothed, bristly hairy, often with white markings, 3-6-veined

from

the base.

Flowers

solitary,

iinisexiinl,

c. 10 cm in diameter, golden yellow; sepals free, subulate to linear, 1-3 cm long; corolla campanulate, with erect to spreading lobes: male flowers long-pedicelled. with 3 stamens, fila-

regular, .'i-merous, large

lemon yellow

to

2002).

(if

tal forms,

r umrhila pf^pn. especially omamenmay contam bitter compounds; cu-

G

cuifoitadns 6, D, E, and I and the glycoside of cucurbit a cin E have been recorded. Seeds (as reported from F^ritreai are rich in oil (about

35%) and contain protein 38%, carbohydrate 37% and a-tocopherola. The oil contains Unoleic add 47%, oleic add 29%, pahnitic add 13.6%

Ctirurbita pepo

bmnch

1,

(courgetle); 2,

flou'crinp>

fruit

and

fruitiiifi

(gem squash);

aeed.

Redmm tatd adapted by likak Syammdin

3,

CUCURBITA 276 ments

froo,

anthers usually connivcnt

into

twisted body: fpmale flowers shortly ii with inlV iior rounded to ellipsoid,

alonp

pedici'llt

1-celled ovary, styl*' thn k

stiyniri< 3

l^-Iolu'd,

Fruit a large, globose lo ovoid, obovoid, cushion-shaped or cylindrical berty, weighing up to 50 kg when nuitun'. with a wide range of colours, with small, raised, wartlike spots or smooth, sometimes deeply grooved; flesh whitish to yellow or orange, many-seeded; fruit stalk pentagonal in section not enlarged at apex. Seeds obovoid, flattened, 1-1.5 cm x 0.51

to

cm, usually white or tawny, surface smooth somewhat roui^h margin prominent. Seed-

ling with epigeal germination.

Other botnnieal InfbcmntioiL

Principal

features distinguishing Cucurbita other cultivated Cucurbita species are more Aa&plfy lobed leaves with silvery markings, pridcly haiiy stems and leaves and fruit stalk hard nntl pentnponnl in crnss-sertion. Supposed!}' wild populations of Cucurbit a prpo are known from northern Mexico (siib^^i), fraterna (L.H.Bailey) D.S. Decker) and eastern United States (subsp m ifeni (L.) D S I )eckor var ozarhatia D.S.Decker and var. iexaiia (Scheele) Filov). These are all considered candidates for the proijonitor of cultivated Cunirhi !ii pi'iin which has Ix't n divided into 2 taxa, snha^. pepo Harz. and subsp at ifera var. ovifem Several cultivar classitu at ions have been proposril but none has been widi-ly accepted.

wanted. miGrowth and development Seeds nate 5-7 days after sowing, or earlier if the sf'r'd-( f),it is carcfullx' split or iiccled. Plants develop an extensive fibrous root system and their growth is indeterminate. Under favourable conditions stems may grow up to 15 m long and root at the nodes. Many modern cultivars of courgette have a bushy habit characterized by short intei-nodes and sparse or no branching. f-'Iowcrina st.irts .'iO—40 days after emergence of the seedlmg, and is more or less continuous. Pollination is by insects, mainly bees and wasps, The first immature fruits can be harvested 50-60 days after germination. Mature fruits can be harvested after 90-100 days. Under cool temperatures (nights 10*C, days 20''C) parthenocarpic fruit set may take is

t,'
to 80 t/ha. In tropical Africa, an average yield level is 20 t/ha. HandUng after harvest Immature fruits are verj' susceptible to damage .ind must be carefully handled and put mto baskets or crates coated with paper or plastic. They can* not be kept longer than 5-6 days at temperatures of 2.5-.35''(\ Optimum storage temperature is 10°C, with a storage life of 20-25 days. Larger firuits fibr family use n

is

possible with Cu-

and Cucurbita moachala, but the progeny is not fertile. Genes can be transferred to vegetable cultivars from any cultivated curbilu iHuxiina

type of Ciinirhita pppn including smal]-fniitefolioIate or

d(>('ply

lonj::

lobcd: stipules absent;

IcnHcts or lobes elliptical,

sinuate-serrate. Flowers unisexual, regular, 5merous; male flowers in axillary, 10-20 cm long panicles: female nnwi-is ^(iHtiiry, with inferior,

an indehisoent, up to 16 em long, taper^ white-green, sometimes with

1-celled ovar^'. Fruit

obliquely ovoid berr>' flattened,

ing, stift

spmes. many-seeded. Seeds

c.

1.6

cm

CyeUmtkera

Xew

placed in Cyelanlhereae, an enWorld tribe. Cyrlaiitfirra brachyis

slachya (Ser.) Cogn. (sj-nonym: Cyclantliera explodtna Naudin, called 'fat baby ) is cultivated locally in Cameroon at altitudes of 1500200(3 m as a fruit vegetable. It differs notably from Cyclanlhera pedala in its explosively dehiscent, small fruits (2-4 cm long).

Ecology

CyrlatilliiVd

j>i'(ltil(i

is

fnirly toler-

ant of cxtld and cultivated in the tropics at altitudes of 2000-3000 m. Management Propagation is by .seed. Plants are spaced at 90 cm < HO cm. They h.-tve to be staked. Fruits are harvested trum about 3 months after planting. Plants usually remain ]>riHlucti\

breiidena N.E.Br.

('

with

,iliutul,int

fruiting for several

months. Harvesting is preferably done when the fruits are full-sized but stiU immature.

Genetic resources and breeding

Interest

Cyclnufhera peHalo is mainly in the .\mericas and India, where commercial cultivars are marketed. Prospects Tn hiehlnnd nrons in fropirnl .\fin

rica Cyclanlhera pedala certainly has a future as a vegetable crop. Products based on a fruit extract are marketed m the I'nitcd States and western Europe as a herhiil nv licinc riijainst high cholesterol levels, and demand might well

increase.

Major references J^Brey

C.

1W)7;

Mon-

2001; Naticmal Research Council, 1989: Rubatzky, V.E. Yamagucfai, M., 1997; van den l^Tgh, M.H., 1993. toro, P. et al.,

&

Other references Cucurbit Network. 2003; Jeffrey, C, A., 1992a; 1980;

Huxley,

Keraudren, M., 1967. Aufliors C.H. Bosch

(1900).

Origin and geographic distributiou Cynansouthern from Kcny.i Hurundi and DR Congo south to .Angola and South Africa. Uses In Malawi the leaves of Cyiumehum aehialoglossuin are eaten raw or cooked as a side-dish vegetable, usually with salt added. The product is well liked and commonly used chiiin .tcliistnglo.H.viiu is distributed in

Africa

in the rainy season.

Properties No information

in

diameter, black. tirely

Cyiianchuiit

Cynanehum vagum N.E.Br. (1895), CyiK III chum deivevrd De Wild. & T.Durand

(1895),

Botany stem up

Synonyms

6 cucurbitacin gly-

oosides.

Schltr.

Protologue Journ. Bot, 33: 271 (1895). Family Ascle^iiiKliucac (APfc .\pocynaceae)

is

available on

the phytochemistr^' of Cynaiichuin achialogloasum. C]!ynandiotoxin or vinoetoxin are sometimes present in the leaves and roots of other Cynaiichuin species (e.g. in Cynanehum (rfricentum (L.) Hoffsgg. and Cynanehum elliptieum causing R.A.Dyer), eynanchosis (Harvey) fkrampsiekte) m livestock in .South Africa Botany Perennial herb up to 3 tall, with

m

woody

stem twining, stroni^y contnininp latex. l,

with

long,

verj' short free

i

]

fUaments, anthers winged

and with connective appendage; ovary superior, slylar head depressed conical. FruH consisting of a pau- of fusiform, brown, glabrous

foUides, eadi one 5-6.5

mm

cm x 5-6 mm. Seeds

x 4 mm, pale brown, at apex c. 6 bearing a eoma of hairs 2-2 5 em long. The genus Cynwicluiin comprises about 250 species worldwide. The major centre of diversity in .\fric.n is Mndngnscar with npproximatelj' 70 species, minor centres of diversity are eastern Africa, the Horn of Africa and southern Africa with 10-15 species eacb. Cynanchinv srhislnghssiim is the most variable Cynanehum species on the African mainland. Corona dentati'A;

Hoy-

Schaerer, H. & Kuensch, U., 2O0S; Kahangi, E.M., Chw^a, J. A. & Akunilabwoni L.S.M., 1996a. Peter^ion. C.£. & Sunon, P.VV., 1986; Quagliotti, L., 1967; Rubatzky, V.E., Qulros, CP, & Simon, P.W., 1999: Rubatzky. V,E, & Yamaguchi. M.. 1997; Takairhi. M. & Oeda. K.. 2000; van der Voss^, H.A..\I. & Sambas, E.X., 1993. Other refereneea Banga, O. & de Brusm, J.W,, 19G8; O.opn A & Hnfmnnn T. 2003: Hedberg, I. & Hedberg, U., 2003; Holland, B., Unwin, I.D. & Buss, D.H., 1991; Kahangi, E.M.. Chweya. J. A & .Akundabweni. L.S.M., 199(3b: Porceddu, A. et al., 2000; Shinohara, S.,

.^heath

petiole leaflets

70-110 cm long, with grey tomcntum, 15—15 cm long, rachis 2-2.5 m long; 50-70 on eadi side of the radiis, me-

dian leaflets

up

to 1.1

nO-T!")

m

cm

x .3-5 cm. Inflorescence

long; lowest bract 0.1-1

m

long;

peduncle 4-7 cm long, with grey-brown scaly hair.s: branches up to 10 20-7.' ciii Iimt,' hangmg, glabrous. Flowers unisexual, 3-merou8, 6— long; male flowers yellow to brown, with 8 6 stamens and rudimentary pislil; female flowers with superior, ovoid. -celled ovniy and 3 minute rudimentary stamens. Fruit an ovoidellipsoid drupe 1.5—2 cm x 1 cm, very dark

mm

1

purple or black c.

1

cm

long,

1

-seeded Seed ovoid-ellipsoid,

u-regularly ribbed;

endosperm

ruminate.

comprises a single spi ni s Three are distintjuished: var. dlhuin the

i>u;l;)NMperina

varieties

hangi

white hurricane palm; var. auieiuii Ball.l., the golden hurricane palm, generally less than 10 m tall and \\\\h a distijirt yellow or orange stripe on the lower side of the petiole and rachis; and var. coiijugatum H.E.Moore & L.J.Ciueho. with a short sturdy stem up to 5 tall, red to brown male flowers and the tips of the leaflets staying attached to one another for a long time, giving it a characteristic appearance. Diclyosperma album is a medium fost grower. Ecology Diciyo.yx-rma tdbum grows at low

Based on PROSEA 8: Vegetables.

elevations generally up to (500

1984.

Sources of Ulnatratioii van der Vossen, H.A.Xr

& Sambas.

E.X., 1993.

Authors H.A.M. van der Vossen

&

E. Ka-

m

cultivation,

drained

DICTYOSPERMA ALBUM

light

soils are

shade or

full

recommended.

m

altitude. In

sun and wellIt is salt

and

wind tolerant.

(Bory) Scheff.

Management

Thi-

three

varieties

of the

Protologue Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 1: 167 (1876). Family Arecaroao (Palmae) Synonyms Arrra aJha Roiy (1801), Dictyosperma aureuin HAVendl. & Drude (1878), Dietyoaperma furfuraeeum H.Wendl. & Drude

hurricane palm are cultivated in the Mascarene Islands and elsewhere. In Reunion tree growth has been investigated on-farm under several management regimes, especially with regard to weed control.

(1«78).

tyosperma nlhinn vnr. album occurs in the wild with a total of about 30 individuals in Mauritius and Reunion. No natural regeneration has been observed recently. This variety is extensi\'ely cultivated for the palm heart in Mauritius and lieunion, all stocks ongmaling from R^nion. The Conservatoire Botanique National de Mascarin in Reunion and the Sir Seewoosagur Kamgoolam Botanic Garden in Mauritius have collections of var. aUtum, Less than 10 individuals of var. aumum are known from Rodrigues, and all are in unprotected environments. Seedlmgs have been grown at the Solitude Nurseiy, Rodrigues, and near to 300 seedlings have been replanted in the two

Vernacular names Hurricane palm, white baibel palm, yellow baibel palm, princess palm (En). Pahniste blanc, palmiste bon, palmiste I'ile

Rondi'

de

i.Vv)

Origin and geographic distribution Dietyosperma cdbum is endemic to Bunion and M.-nii-il ins.

Uses Diclyosperma album is valued for its palm heart. It is widely grown as an ornamental in the tropiis and subtropics. In Mnuntius n root dorortion is used as a diuretic. Botany Slender palm up to 20 m tail, with trunk up to 16 cm in diameter. Leaves 10-20 in crown, arranged spirally, pinnately compound; excellent

Genetic resources and breeding Die-

286 VBGETABLES

main reserves of he island. Var. conjiigaliun is endemic to Round Island, off the north-east coast of Mauritius, and only one wild adult individual is known Sw'dlintjs h;tvo been grown by the National Parks and Conservation Service and 50 of these have been introduced to

endangered, but they do not feature on the

cata is considered a famine food. The flowers are rich in nectar which is sometimes sucked by diildren in Kei^a. The whole plant is ;dso commonly grazed as a forage, particularly by sheep and goats, in Senegal Digera murieata is used internally against digestive system disorders and in India seeds and flowers are used to treat urmary disorders. Botany Annual herb up to 70 em tall; stem simple or branched, suhgiabrous, ridged. Leaves alfemnte simple: petiole up to 5 cm long; blade Imear to ovate, 1-9 cm x 0.2-5 cm,

lUCN Red List.

base narrowed, apex acuminate, margin ^tire,

t

the rat-fn-o

lie ;uix Aitrrcttos. off

of Mauritius.

The

the oaHt coast

Sir Seewoouagur

Ramgoolam

Botanic Garden in Mauritius has extensive collections of this variety as well. All

throe varieties are indicated as rritirally

Prospects Dtvlyospenna album is lioing planted expenmentaily Cor the palm heart. It takes a lung time before the trees are sufficiontly mature for harvesting the palm heart, but in the meantime they may provide a source of seeds which can be exploited cummercially. This could provide the farmers with an additional source of income before the trcrs nrc rut for the palm heart. Dictyosperma alhinn is an attractive ornamental palm. Var. conjugaUim with its peculiar leaves has great ornamental potent i:d. but

tln'

sf>uroes of seed are limited.

Major references Gunb-Fakim, A., 2002; Maunder, M. et al., 2002; Moore, H.E. & Hueho, T,.J., 1J)84; Normand, F. V.W.) Tuley, P., 1995; Uhl, N.W. & Dransfield, J., 1987. Other refierences Gray, 2n();i:

Palmarium,

M., 2003;

lUCN,

2(K);i

Authors W.J. van der Burg

DIGERAMURICATA (L.) Mart. Protolo^e

Beitr.

Amarantac:

77,

no 2

subglabrous, innoicsci nn' a long-pedunculate

(up to 14 cm long), axillary, spike-like bracteate raceme up to 30 cm kng, eadi bract subtending a subsessile partial inflorescence with a central fertile flower and 2 sterile lateral flowers. Fertile flower with 2 firm, boat-shaped outer perianth segments 3-6 long and 2-3 inner slightly shorter, hyaline segments; sta-

mm

mens

usually

free or slightly connate at

5,

base; ovaiy superior, 1-oelled, style filiform,

mm

to 4

long,

stigmas

2,

divergent:

up

lateral

flowers consisting of accrescent ant k r-shaped scales.

Fruit a subglubose, hard, mdehiscent

mm

2 in diameter, ridged, enclosed by perianth and fidling together with the sterile flowers and bracteoles. only 1 species. Based on the comprises Digera venation of the outer lepals 2 subspecies of Digiera wuricatn have been distingiiished: subsp. murieata with outer tepals 7-12-vemed, mainly occurring in Asia, but also in eastern Africa and Madagascar, and subsp. triiim is C.C.Towns, with outer tepals 3-^-vemed, mainly occurring in Africa. Based on hairiness of leaves and on form of scales in sterile flow ers several varieties have been distinguished in subsp. Irinen is, of which var. palentipilosa C.C.Towns, seems moat suitable as a lea^r nutlet

the

c.

[ii

rsisleni

-

Fani i y \ma ran h aceae Synonyms Digera aireiisis Forssk. (1775), Digem aUemifialia (L.) Asch. (1867), Digera 1

anguMifolid

Qcigbi murieata

t

.

Siii s-

(

in.=in).

is

distribution Digera wideq>read in eastern tropical Af-

Sudan and Ethiopia suuth to T.inzaMadasjMSoar and tropical and subtrufiical ^Asia (from Yemen to Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Malaysia and Indonesia). Uses Leaves and younp shoots of Diffpra rica (from nia).

murieata are

locally' u.sed

as a vegetable,

e.g. in

Africa (E!thiopia, Kenya) and in India. In Kinvii they are partknilaily popular as a cooked vegetable nmonRst coastal tribes. In India the leaves are

made

into curries or the

and seasoned Sometimes Diggra mun-

entire plant is boiled in water

with salt and

chilli.

.-tbli \ bieraiise it has large leaves. Ecology Digera murieata is most common on disturbed and waste ground, but occurs in many kinds of habitat, from dry savanna and semi-desert to moist localities on deep clay and mud soils, from sea-level up to loOO m altitude. It also occurs as a weed in fields, sometimes i

and geographic

fjr

t

Iji'inu

t

roublesome.

Management

Digera murieata is usually from the wild although in parts of Ethiopia (Konso region) and India it is also cultivated as a leaf vegetable and sold on local

collected

markets.

Genetie reaonroes and breeding Digera is widespread and not in danger of

murieata

DlOSOOREA 287 genetic ersosion.

Prospects Digem muricata will most probably remain a leaf vegetable of only local importance.

Major references Freedman, Maundu, 1999:

P.M., Ngugi.

Schipperhi.

Nambiar,

G.W.

R.R..

ft

2000:

R.L.,

1998;

Kabuye, C.H.8., S(>shiiiil)i

srent

above,

glabixius below, with 5-7 promment ascendmg veins and parallel transversal veinlets. Inflorescence a terminal, lax, hanging panicle up to 20 cm X 27 cm consisting of cymes. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel 0.5—1.5 cm l(mg, gradually enlarging into an obconical hjTjanthium: calyx tubular, 4-6 long, fleshy, with .small teeth; petals ovate, c. 1 cm long, fleshy, pink or white; stamens 10, arranged in 2 whorls, filaments curved, anthers with a 2-lobed appendix at base opening bj' an apical pore; ovarj' interior, connate with hypanthium, many-celled, style sigmoid, thickened above, c. 1 cm long, aiding in a small cir-

mm

Veruacubur aaittaa Bush yam, forest yam, white yam (En). Igname de brousse, igname saiu'.-i'j'

I

Pr''

Origin and geographic distribution Dioscorea praeheihrnlia occurs wild from Guinea east tr> Ethiopia and south to Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. Uses The young shoots are eaten in Bas Congo (DR Congo). The flesh of the tuber is hitler and only enten after caif ful preparation,

used to treat

stomach complaints, urethral

discharge and oedema.

m

Botany

Dioecious climbing herb up to 16 long; tuber up to (M) cm loni; flc-^h whitt> with yellow tinge, with bitter purple layer below the akin, armed with a crown of thoniy roots; stem 1—2 cm in diameter, dig^tly ribbed longitudinallj', spiny, often wnx>-, glabrous, purplishgreen. Leaves opposite, occasionally alternate,

simple; petiole 2.6-6 ovate-lanceolate,

4-10

cm kmg; blade ovate to cm x 3-6 cm, deeply cor-

288 VEGETABLES date

at base,

acute at apex, entire, 5-7-vcincd;

basal leaves often strongly reduced. Inflorescence an axillarj- spike: male ones 3-6 togi'thcr. fle.Miiius 3-."> cm lon^j; femtde ones 1-2 together, pendulous,

10-25

cm

unisexual, perianth segments in long; male flowers with 1.5

mm

long.

Flowers

2 rows of 8, 1(5

stamens;

IPGRI,

1997; Okigbo, B.N Ongoiba .Moussa, A.

margins up

m allUude. Dioseorea praehensUis has

to 7UU(-lGt)U)

Management

oerasinnnlly been tnken info riiltivntion.

The

wild form has been to some extent genetically improved to produce longer tubers. In some umature of cultivars the protective thi in, roots has been re( lured to slender short spiny roots. The cullivalion is like other yams; Dioaeorea praeheiisiUt is grown in well-weeded plots, often in mounds of soil and trained against a support. Qeuetle reaowreea and breedini; Dtoscorea praehensilLt is quite common in West Afrira. It is consideivd one of the wild relatives, or even one of the parents, of the cultivated IXoacorea caymmtM and therefore may lie used as a source nf ii'sistance and other

useful [iroperties.

The many

genetically differ-

Several living collections are kept in institutes in nhana. Cote d l voire Togo Benin and Nigeria. The seeds of Dioseorea pixielienailis can be stored under gene bank conditions for long period? without deterioration. Din.fcnrrn seed

banks

all

over the

world; large collections are maintained at IRD (Inst it ut de Recherche pour le Developpement),

Mont pt'in. r France and IITA. Ibadan Nigeria. Prospects As a vegetable Dioseorea praehenailia is of limited use and potential. It is import nnt as

yam breedmg

.n

source of genetic v.nriation in

work. Further genetic improve-

ment to reduce the bitter constituents may render this yam more palatable and popular. Major references Bouquet, A.. 19G9: BurkiU, H.M., 1985; Coursey, D.G., 1976; DalJ.M., 1937; Latham, P.. 2002.

ziel,

Other references Berthaud,

&

TrousSebsebe,

G.K.o 1002; 1985; Raponda-Walker,

II

.

1961; Tostain, S.

&

Dainou,

DiPLAZIUM PROUFERUM (Lam.) Tfaouars Protologue Esquisse

fl.

Tristan dAcugna:

35 (1808).

Family

1

^ryo] itfi-idaceae

Chromosome number 2ii Synonsrms

Aaplenium

- 82

prolifemm

Lam.

(1786), CaUipteris prolifera (Lam.) Bory (1804), Diplaziiiiu acci'dcns

Bhimv

(1828). Callipleris

accedena (Blume) J.Sm. (1841), Alhyriuin acce(Una (Blume) Milde (1870). Vernacular names Mother fr-rn (Rn). Origin and geographic distribution Diplasium prolifemm is widespread in tropical Africa, from Guinea to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko) Sao Tome et Principe, DR Congo and Madagascar. Uses In Madagascar the jroung still enrolled

nddleheads) are eaten as a In South-East Asia the croziers as well as the bulbils present on the rachis are eaten boiled or steamed as a \-egetafronds

cooked

hie, or

(ci-oziers,

vegetable.

raw as

n

salad

Diplaziiim prolifemm is

widely planted as an ornamental. related D^lasium eaeulentum (Retz.) Sw. the most important fern used for human food

The is

in the world.

It

does not occur in Africa.

Botany Large

ent populations are being studied.

collections are kept in gene

Sillans, K.,

Pungu. O.

& Demissew

Autiiors W.J. van der Burg

species of the section Eucniliophyllum siu h as

DioaeoFea abyaamiea Iloehst. ex Kunth and Dioaeorea burkilUana J.Miege. EiCology Dioscoiva pnieliensilis grows in forest, often seeondary forest and along forest

&

B.,

J.

1087: Okiy.

O.. 1998.

fe-

male flowers with infertor, 3-celled ovaty. Fruit a deeply 34obed capsule 2-2.5 cm x 3 cm, 3-6seeded. Seeds winged all round, 1.6-2 cm long. It has been suggested that Din.irarpa pirtehensilis is one of the parents of the cultivated DioKorea eayenmeia Lam., together with other

Malauric,

200;3;

M.F., 1995; Miege,

lot,

J. et al., 1998;

ered u

iih

fern with erect riuzome covbrown scales at apex. Leaves slightly

lonthery, clustered

ing bulbils diis; petiole

inn f;n-2no lanceolate,

at

apex of rhizome, produc-

and young plants all over the ra3-60 cm long, straw-coloured; lam-

cm

long, pinnate: pinnae numerous, the lower ones slightly reduced, alternate, 6—7 cm apart, shortly

median pinnae

15—20 cm x 3-5 cm, truncate at base, apex al)ruptly narrowed into a long tip: lolies of pinnae rounded or emarginate al apex, denticulate; bases of pinnae proliferous, with young plantlet s on the upper side. Sori linear, in a characteristic V-shaped arrangement following all veinlets of the lobes, usually 4-5, but up to 7 especially in West Africa. Indusia linear attached along the vein. Spores with a few long folds above a papillate inner perispore. Diplasium is often placed in Woodsiaeeae, sometimes in Athyriaeeae, families whidi are petiolate,

DlPLOCYCLOS 289 mcludod in Dryopleridaceae here. Some authors propose placing Diplazium in ThelypleriThe genus is closely related to Athy-

daceae.

from which

riuiii

chromosome

(«

it

=

10

would

differ

and h = 41

by only one respectively)

even though the chromosome number n

=

41

is

not consistent in Dipla:iiiiii. Dipldtiuin pioUfemin and related species with anastomosing veins are sometimes placed in a separate genua Cdlliplcri.s.

Ecology

DipJaziiiw

prnh'ferum

grows in

liaphia thickets and marshes.

Management IXplazmm

sionally oaten as well in South-East Asia. In

Kenya the roots are used as an antivenin and fruits and leaves to cure stomach-ache. In Thailand stems are used as an expectorant and fruits as a laxative, and in Nepal seeds as a Dipheyelos palmatus is grown in Kenya and Zimbabwe as a garden omam«ital because of the decorative fruits. Properties Dried leaves caused death in calves and ewes in Kenya. Galacto.«5e .specific febrifiige.

lectin activity

was dotoctod

in

the mucilatiinoiis

coat surrounding the seeds of Diplocyclos pal-

species are easily

spores, The bulbils can be detached in the soil £ar rooting, or they can be on the plant to develop into plantlets which can be simply detached and planted Genetic resources and breeding Diplazium proliferum is widespread and does nut seem to be endangered. Although it is widely

matua. The lectin

polypeptide diain carlKihydrate. Punicic acid, a

2%

is a single

grown from

cxintaining

and placed

trans fatty acid that is rare in plants, was isolated from Diplocyclos palmatu*. Botany Perennial, monoecious herb climb-

left

riiitivnted ns nn ornamental, vated for use as a vegetable. collections are known.

Prospects No

known

it

is

not

culti-

No germplasm

special culinar>' merits are

seems it has the potential to be grown and traded at a commercial scale. Its use as an

om;r"ii ni

il

it

tcmriins important.

Major references

Hoveokamp, P.H.

& Umi

Kal-

R..

1946;

som, ]\\\

Y

2003; Johns, RJ., 1991; Stevenson,

1i)8l.

Other references

Alston,

long: blade broadly ovate,

lobed,

up

to 14

cm

elliptical

dentate. Inflorescence an a.villary duster, with

usually both male and female flowers in

A.H.G.,

1959;

&

1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, solitary or clustered, red with silvery white longitudinal stripes.

Diplocyclos comprises

confined to Afiica.

19!)().

valleys, at altitudes

1973: flolttum. R.E.

M

Authors W.J. van der Bui^

DiFLOCTCLOS PALHATU8 Protologue Kew Bull.

(L.) C. Jeffrey

15:

352 (1962).

Family Cucuihitaoeae

Chromosome number names

Vernacular

= 24 LoUipup

Ecology

climber,

Origin and geographic distribution Dip Incycloa palinalus is widely spread in the Old World tropics including Madagascar. It occurs throughout sub-Saharan .\frica. but is absent in most of West .\frica and Somalia. of Diplocyclos palinalus are

eaten as a vegetable in Kenya and in SouthEast Asia; young fruits and shoots are occa-

1

species, 3 of

which are

Diplocyrlcis pnhiialn s occurs in dif-

ferent tjpes of vegetation, but usually

swampy

m

wet

and m. Genetic resources and breeding \s Diplocyclos palmatus is widespread and hardly exploited, there seem to be no immediate localities, e.g.

up

forest, flood-plains

to 1800

threats of genetic erosion.

Prospects In view of the toxicity, promoting the consumption of Diplocyclos is hazardous. Furtlier research into the chemical constituents

2ii

striped cucumber, native bryony (En).

Uses The leaves

same

Flowers unisexual, regular, 5-merous, corolla white to greenish-yellow; male flowers pedicf4]ntc with fret- stamens: female flowers subsessile, with mferior, 1-celled ovary, stigma 3-lobed. Fruit a sub^obose, indefaiscent berry axil.

Burrows. 8.M., 2001; Faden, R.B., & Roy, S.K HM'.r,; Jones, D.L., 1998; Manton, I., 1959; TardieuBlot, L., 1964h: Tr> on, A.F. & Lugardon, B., Burrows, J.B.

palmately 5{— 7)-

x 15 cm; base cordate; lobes or elliptical, margin sinuate-

''

BurkilL H.M., 2000; De-

car}',

,

cm

narrowly

of Dijiluzium proli/rniin ;ind

unlikely that

ing by bifid tendrils: stem up to G m long, young stems spotted with darker green. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules absent; petiole 2—10

is

desirable

Major references

.\nuradlia, P.

&

lihide

S.,

2002; Jeffrey, C, 1995; Keraudren-Aymonin, M., ]9H-A: Mugurn, 1970: Njoroge, G.K. &

CM

Newton,

L.E., 2002;

van den Bergh, M.H., 1993.

Other references

Burkill, H.M.. 1985; Jef-

C, Authors C.H. Bosch

frey.

C, 1962:

Jeffrey,

1979.

290 VEGETABLES

DuosPERMA CRENATUM

(Lindau) P.G.Mey.

cal composition require investigation.

Major references Protologue

Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml.

002 (innO). Family Acanthaceae Synonyms Hygrophila

chen

Mun-

3:

Diaperma

(1894).

pan

Other references Agnew, Lindau

erenata iflonim

(Lindnu)

C.B.Clarke (1899), Diaperma crenalum (Lindau) Milne-Redh. (1933). Oligin and geographic distribution Duoaperwa crpuahim is found in Krnyn Tanzanin Malawi, Zambia, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Uses Yhiuii,' livncs of Diiosperma erenatum are collected irom the wild, duq^d and cooked alone or mixed with other vegetables audi as peas or amaranth leaves, and served with a staple food. Coconut milk or [JoumJed groundnuts are often added. A leaf mfusiun is drunk women for an easy delivery. Duosperma \> .ilsn ii.«pd

crrnattiiii

as forage.

Properties Mature leaves of Duoapenna erenatum which start to turn yeUow are believed to be toxic to humtuis.

Botany up lar,

Erect small shrub or perennial herb

m

tall, with more or less quadrangupubescent stems arising from a woody rbi-

to 1.2

zome Loaves

oj)posite,

simple, almost sessile;

up to 8 cm x 4 cm, narrowed at both ends, margin entire in lower part, crenate blade

elliptical,

to toothed in uppci p

iri,

sparsely hairy. Inflo-

rrsrenrr an nxillaiy, dense, cymoso fascicle with small pale green bracts. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, 5-merous; calsrx tubvilar, 6-9 long, lobes more or less connate: corolla tuhular, 9-11 long, 2-iipped, white with purplish dots or lines in the throat; stamens 4: ovarj" superior, 2-celled, style with 2 unequal stigmoid branches. Fruit a flnttpncd ellipsoid capsule c. 8 long, shiny brown, 2-seeded. Seeds discoid, with hygroscopic hairs on the margin. Duoapenna comprises about 15 species and is confined to tropical Africa, but it is not well known. Most characteristic are its flattoaedellipsoid fruits with 2 seeds only

mm

mm

mm

Ecology Uuoaperma

Burkill,

cieiiatuiii

rodcy bushland, at 300-1000

occurs

m

dry

m altitude.

Genetic resources and breeding Dimapenna crenalum is rather widespread and does not seem to be in danger of genetic ero-I' although in some countries it ia reported II

to be rare (e.g in Kenya).

Prospects Duosperma erenatum will i-emain a minor leaf vegetable in the dry areas of East and southern Africa. Its nutritional and chemi-

I,H.

&

Clarke,

1899-1900; Ruffb, C.K., Bimie, A. Trngmis. B., 2002. C.B.,

A.D. and Mozambique. r?edand purple-flowered plants have been imported in Mauritius and have become naturalized locally.

Uses The use

of EmiUa eoeeinea as a vegeta-

ble is reported from Kenya, Tanzania lawi

111

'r.it),',!!!!,!

leaves

are

and Ma-

chopped and pens and

cooki'd jilone or with pulses such as

beans. In Malawi the leaves are only occasionally eaten as a side dish; they are considered to

have an unpleasant taste.

EMILIA 293 In

Tanzania eye inflammations arc treated by

applying a cold water compress of the bruised plant or by soaking leaves mixed with those of Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br in watfiv iiftor whic-h the iniusion is used for eye drops. Crushed green leaves are used to treat wounds, sores and sinusitis. Dried powdered leaves are also applied to sores. Roots or leaves are boiled and

the decortion

an and

roots

nia

coccinea

us
handing

ERUCA 296 condiment and mature leaves can be cooked or utilized in sauces. .Another vegetable use

is as whereby the young seedlings are cut when the cotyledons are fully opened or when the first pair of true leaves is present. In Africa garden rocket is used as a vegetable, a condiment and as an oil crop. Garden rocket is used as a medicinal plant against eye infections and to treat digestive and kidney problems. It is considered an excellent stomachic nnd stimidnnf and is ;ils; most important in the Mediterranean region, in ..Ai'nca it is grown throughout the Sahel region, firom Mauritania in tht- west to Ethiopia and Kritrea in the east. It is especially popular Sudan.

m

Uses Garden rocket is an ancient crop revered by the ancient Greeks, who used both the sood oil nnd thc> loaves for Ihoir allogrd aphrodisiac properties, it is also an ancient crop in A^hanistan, Pakistan and northern India whoro it is primarily grown for its oil called Jamba oil' or taramira oil'. In the Mediterranean region it developed into a salad vegetable.

The

taste of the leaven resembles that of wabeing similarly sharp with a mustardhke pungency. Young, fresh leaves that are not too pungent are becoming increasingly popular in western cuisino and nro ronsumrd raw in green salads. They are often added steamed or raw to Italian dishes and pizzas. In Arab coun^ tries pieces of meat served with rockot form a popular dish; those lonvos. locally callod 'gargeer^, are generally more mature and therefore sharper than the ones eaten in salads in Europe. Older leaves and seeds are used as a tcrcrt'ss.

|.

(

is

oil has a high erucic acid content and used as an industrial oil for lubrication and

The soods art^ also used to produce a kind of mustard. Taramira oil and oil are still used in India for pickling. Its use as a salad or cooking oil is limited because illumination.

jamba of

initial acridity:

its

the acridity disappears

months and the

oil can then be used for cooking purposes. The leaves and croj) rosidiH's are fed to camels caltlo and sheep, and the cake remammg after oil e.\traclivestock. tion is also used to feed Fkodnctioii and international tends Gardoi

after storage fur 6

rocket

is

popular

in

tho .Moditorrnnoan region

and Sudan, and in Sudan alone thei-e is about 3000 ha of year-round cultivation under irrigation

mainly

for

growmg areas

the leaves.

No

statistics

on

are avaUable for other Sahel

Garden rodcet is traded in local markets throughout northern Africa. Ii i- becoming incrrnsinglj' important as a salad rop in western Europe and the L nited States, but statistics on production are not available. Properties Tho composition of frosh pardon rocket leaves per 100 g edible portion is: water 91.8 g, energy 88 kJ (21 kcal), protein 2.7 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrate 3.7 p. fibiv 0.9 g, Ca 352 mg r 1icain seeds are occasionally used for the

same purposes. Properties In Ethiopia

some that eating have side

is

it

Enica.' almost clawed with oljlong x 2 mm. yellow: stamens 6, 4 blade, 3.5-6

up

mm 6 mm

long; ov^n

drical, 2-celled, style short.,

Fruit

a

straight silique

with up to

1.5

smooth to

v

superior, cylin-

stigma semiglobose. cm x 1..5 mm,

I.5-.5

mm long beak,

valves* Seeds ellipsoid,

main of importance

will

re-

locally as a wild vegetable,

Us nutriand chemical properties

certainly in times of food scarcity tional

composition

need research. Major references Maundu P.M., Xgugi

fIons(>ll

1982b;

B.,

&

Knbuye, C.H.S., 1999; Robyns, VV. & Boutique, K., 1951; Seegeler, C.J.P., 1983; Westphal, B., 1975. Other references Chweya. J. A,. 1985: Exell, A.W.. 1960; Jonsell, O., 2000; Katende. A.B., Ssegawa, P. & Bimie, A., 1999; Marai% W.. 1970: SchipiK

i

'

'..W.

I^R., 2000.

s

Authors P.C.M. Jansen

Bbtthrooocca iQRKn (MaU.Arg.) Prain

irregularly dentate, sinuate or slightly uneven.

c.

by

growing conditions.

acid, linoleic

Botany Annual herb up to 1 m tall, branched or tmbranched, sparsely hispid on stem and leaves. Leaves alternate, simple, lower leaves largest and with short petiole upper leaves sessile, smaller and less divided; blade spatulate to lyrate-pinnatifid, up to 18 cm K 6 cm, t(M-minal lol)e larf^c and rounded, lat( i-,il lobes up to 4 pairs and triangular to oblong, margms

longer ones

rent

Prospects Eincaslruin arabieum

oil

.iml linolenic acid.

regular,

(liffi

and drying

The seed contains about 35%

with as major fatty acids erucic ar

believed by

anibicuiii

effects such as drowsiness

arabieum. Because it spread widely as a weed it is now the most common crucifer in eastern Africa. Its variability is largely explained

c.

1

dehiscent with 2

mm

long, brown,

finrly reticulate.

Protologne Ann. Bot.

Synonyms

comprises about 20 species and is distributed in Africa, Arabia and Ehirope. In s]>e< s occur. Emeaatnun arabieum is Africa 5 often confused with some Brasslca ccainota types, which however, have wider Iruits. i(

Claoxyloii

609 (191 hirhii

1).

MUll.Arg.

Pax (1895). Origin and geacKaphio disMbutioii ErythTvcorra hirhii is found in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique. Uses hi. Tanzania and occasionally in Kenya (18(i4),

Krylhrucocca

initio

diopped leaves of Erytlnococca cooked as a vegef-ihlc

kirkii are eaten

nloiK' or in a

mixture with

pounded groundnuts, cocunui milli or other vegetables, and served with a staple food. Ripe fruits art^ eaten raw. The leaves am •ilso used for fodiier and the wood tor &rewoud. Uccasionally, he ])lant is cultivated as an ornamental. Properties The composition of Erythrocneca hirhii leaves is not known. Fresh leaves of Erylhrococca bongensis Pax (from Central and East Africa) contain per 100 g: water 68 g, pro(

tein 7.2 g

Emeastmm

25:

Family Euphorbiaoeae

4.3 g,

f.it

'J

7 ^

carbohydrate 18

.5

g fibre

Ca 678 mg and P 107 mg (Leung, W.& Jardin, C. 1968).

T.W., Busson, F.

Botany glini;

Dioecious,

or erect shrub

bark.

Leaves

up

much-branched, strag15 m tidl with rough

to

alternate,

simple;

stipules

Etcology Eructtalmm arabieum grows in in upland forest and as a weed cultivated land, from sea -level up to

broadly triangular; petiole 0.5-2.6 cm long, 2purplish; blade ovate to elliptical, 5-15 cm

2500 altitude, but it is most common at 1500-2000 m. Genetic resources and breeding Emeastmm aixibicum is widespread and not m dan-

crenate,

disturbed localities

m m

ger of genetic erosion. Several Bmssica gene-

banks have a few accessions

of

Erueaatmm

8 cm, base cvmeate, apex acuminate, margin almost glabrous, green, purplish tinged when young. Inflorescence a subsessile glomenile 12 cm long, female ones fewer flowered than male ones. Flowers unisexual, regular, small, petals absent; male flowers with pedicel a 1 cm long, 3 triangular, green-white

GaLINSOGA 299 calyx lobrs

c.

mm

1

3—4

mm long,

yellow

calyx lobes smaller than in male,

^ scalo-like disk

!^l:inds

superior ovaiy crowned by

.j

and

3-loht'd

Tree styles. Fruit a

3-lobed capsule, breaking into 3 globular, 1' seeded parts 3-4 in diameter each. Seeds

mm mm in

subglobose, 3

orange or red

diameter, with yellow,

aril.

Eryllirococra romprist^s about 50 species and

is

confined to Africa. The- leaves of some other species are also occasionally used as a vegeta-

Erythrococea afrieana (BaiU.) Prain in BeErythmcncca aliovireiis (Pax) Prain in DR Congo, EiyUiixtcocca chevaUeri (Beilie) Prain and Erythrococea welwitaehiana (MQll.Arg.) Pax & K.HotTm. in Congo, and Erythi-ococca meiiyhaiihii (Pax) Pram iii southern Alrica.

ble:

nin.

They are not treated separately in PROTA. Ecology Erythrococea kifitii grows in forest edges nnd roast nl bushland or thicket, inland mostly along nvers and lakesides, up to 1250

m altitude. Management

im s m* Februar\^June and

In Tanzania the

collected from the wild in

l>

markets. They are not stored. Erythrococea kirkii is not cultivated or protected Init it can he prii[i ;!.:-il i! by seed. Genetic resources and breeding Erythrosold

fresh

on

local

widespread and locally common, and not in danger of genetic erosion. Prospects Erythrnrncm fnrJiii is a wild vegetable m parts of East .Africa which merits more attention because it has harvestable cocea kirkii is

leaves for ennsiderable periods nf the year. Its nutritional value requires mvestigation.

BCajor references Raddiffe-Smith, Radcliffe-Smith.

A &

Tengniis,

P.

A

.

Origin and geographic distribution Galinpan ipora originates from Central Amer* It has been introduced elsewhere and it

nn annular disk and

long,

usually' 8 stamens; female flo%vers with pedicel

A., 1987;

1996; Ruffo, C.K., Bimie.

soga ica.

can be fiiund in lioth temvierate and tropical regions. In tropical Africa it is widespread and has been collected in Cape Verde, c^itral, east' em and southern Africa, and the Indian Ocean islands.

Uses People in Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and possibly elsewhere in Africa collect gallant soldier when weeding their crops. The young stems and leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable but flowerheads and buds are usually removed f'allant soldier is also eaten as a vegetable in SouthEast Asia, hi South AmancB the dried leaves Cguascas') are an essential flavouring for certain dishes. is used for the treatment of and similar skin inflammation by rubbing the afferliHl skin with the len\fs. The leaves are used for wound dressing in Ethiopia. The plant is grazed by livestock and used as a

Gallant soldier

nettle stings

or chicken. ral)lMts and pigs. Properties The leaves of gallant soldier contam per 100 g edible portion: water 88.4 g, energy 663 kJ (156 keal), protehi 3.2 g, fat 0.4 Tibre 1.1 g, Cn 2H mg g carbohydrate Mg 60 mg, P 58 mg, l''e 5.3 mg, Zn 1.3 mg, carothiamin tene 4 mg, 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.21 n^, :

'

i

'

l

."

i'

avc\s opposite, simple; petiole 2-1.5 long: blade ovate or ovateoblong, 1-6.5 cm X 0.5—4.5 cm, margin shal-

mm

•Jun-J.

Other references Beentje, H.J., 1991b; Govaerts, R., Fkodin, D.G. & Raddifie-Smith, A 2f)no: Leung, W.-T.W., Busson, F. & Jardin, C, 1968.

lowly serrate. Inflorescence a terminal or axfllaiy head often in pairs involucral bracts in 2 rows, glabrous, pales present,

Authors P.C.M Jansen

trifid.

Ray

flow-

ers female, usually 5, white, with short ligule and maiked tube: disk llowers tubular, yellow. Fruit an achene 1-2 loni;. central achenes

.

mm

GaLINSOC!A

I'AKVII

LOKA Cav.

ovate, black, with

pappus consisting

of white,

Galinsoga a petites fleurs, piquant blanc (Fr). Eb?va da moda, picSo branoo (Po). Msekeseke

fruit, marginal achenes without pappus. Gaiinsoga comprises 14 species and is indigenous in tropical America. Galinaoga parviflora and the tetraploid Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav. (sjnonyms: Galijimso riliafa (Raf.) S.K.Blake, Galinaoga urticifolia (Raf.) S.F.Blake) have become oommr;).

Family Asteraoeae (Compositae) Chromosome number 2» = 16 Vernacular names

Grallant soldier, chick-

weed, smallflower galinsoga

quickweed (En).

The latter spedes is more haiiy.

300 VEGETABLES

As

a weed, gallant soldier is difficult to eradi-

on the ground after whereas undevt'ldpt'd seeds will continue te ripen even under drj' conditions. Fields can soon be covered by gallant soldier because a single plant of 8-9 weeks old ciin pioduce over 7000 viable seeds and several generations are possible in each growing season. The small, lightweight fruits can be spread by the winti and he stiff pappus h ni-s cling to people's clothing or the ftir of cate because plants

wt


,

short-day i)lanm emergence to the first harvesting. control of posts

.\s a first thinning, plants of ahout 20 rm arc pulled up and marketed with their roots attached. When ratoon cropping is practised, the

second harv( st is at the 6-week stage, 2-3 weeks after the thinning round. Cutting is done at a height of 6-8 cm, leaving 3 leaves and buds for regrowth. Up to 4—5 harvests may he carried out at 'J-il wcok ratooning inton-als After that, the remaming loose leaves are collected for

home consumption. In commercially

grown broadcast crops whole plants are pulled up when 2n-.'T;0 cm tall and are sold at the market with their roots attached. Tlie recommended time of harvesting kenaf as a fibre crop for an optimum balance in fibre yield and quaUty is when about 50% of the plants are flowering. Plants are cut near the L;ifii.iiiil and tied into loose bundles that are placed upright in the field for 2-',\ days to induce defoliation and drying. Stems are then graded and tied into bundles of about 10 kg

and of even stem thickness.

320 VEGETABLES Yield The yield for once-over harvest, as a bj^ uprooting is 20-30 t/ha. For ratoon cropping, a total of 60 t/ha is feasible from n h.'tivcst rniiinN ili'pcndins: on ^lil fcilility and moisture. The highest yields are obtamed from the second and third cuts. World yield nf kcnaf ;is M filirc crop averages about 1.2 t dr>' fibre per ha. The potential yield, obtained in experimental fields with improved cultivars, is .>-") dry fibre per ha Handling after harvest Fre.'ih shoots are easily transported and can be kept in good conditim for 1—2 days especially in shade or cool places. Sprinkling with water helps to keep the leaves freah. Leaves can be preserved by sundrying. The dried product is brokoi into small pieces or ground to powder and used in aoups. For fibre production kenaf stems are usually relied in clear and slow-muving water for a period of 10-16 days at temperatures above M)°C to liberate the fibroN from the l>,-irk vegetable

i

Sometimes stems are decorticated (ribboned) and only the ribbons are steeped in water, cutting retting time by half. When retting is complete, the fil>res are stripi>ed manually from the

stems, washed thoroughly in clean water and

dried well in dust- and sand-firee conditions. The dried fibres are transported in crude bales of 60-150 kg to the spinning mills. Whole stems may also be tran^rted to pulp- and

paper-making factories. Kenaf can be pulped by chemical semi-chemical and mechanical processes.

The

alkaline sulphite-anthraquinone

process is suitable for kenaf bark and whole -ti'tiis

siiving better yield

and brightness

of the (mlp

anthraquinone

]>ulping.

stn-ngth. viscosity

than suda and soda-

Genetic resources Local landran^s table kenaf are presently not at great

of vegeri*;k

of

genetic erosion, but the genetic variability

m

narrow. In Africa no major kenaf have been reported. The Crop Research institute in Kumasi, Ghana, has a germplasm collection of local cultivars of fibre cultivars is

rollerfions of

the vegetable type. In other countries (India, Bsingladesh) laiue colli'et ions of kr-n.')!' as fibre are mamlained. The iJangiudesh Jute Researdi Institute (6JRI) at Dhaka, Bangladesh, has been designated as the world permplasm depositoiy for kenaf and maintains a crop

collection of

and new

some 920

cultivars

accessions, including old

lan

li

wild and semiclated species.

>

:

wild accessions of kenaf and Breeding Almost no research has been carried out to enhance the genetic potential. The existing landraoes are mixtures of genotypes; i

the available diversity should be studied and selections made from the desirable types. Purple-flowered strains and the purple false roselle (Hibiscti.i acrfosfUa) are resistant to the

main disease of kenaf, root-knot nematodes; hence they are potential sources of desirable genes in breeding programmi's, Breeding of fibre cultivars with high potential is urgent as kenaf grown for fibre is being pushed increasingly towards marginal environments. Other breedmg objectives ai-e plants without prickly stems and bristly capsules to facilitate harvest-

yields tmder suboptimal conditions

in g.

and resistance to diseases, nematodes and

pests.

Proqfteets K^af is a high-yielding and increasingly popular vegetable for the city markets. rontrar\' to the popular roselle (Hibiscus sabdari/fu), it can be grown near the equator. At present its main constraint is its sensitivity to nematodes. If this problem ran be solved, vegetable kenaf may well face a bright future. Kenaf fibre is a biod^radable and environment-friendly raw material suitable for many applications, such as woven and non-woven fabrics, geutextiles and semi-rigid and laminated sheets for padcaging and panelling. Kenaf stems arc an e\c-ell(>nl siihsliUilc fur suftwood as raw material for the pulp and paper industry. Prospects for increased kenaf fibre

pu^ production are good in view of growing concerns about environmental pollution

and

and dwindlmg forest resources. Mi^r references Blundell,

M.,

1987;

Burkill. 11. M.. 1997 D.-mpsey. J.M.. 1975; Edmonds, J.M., lyyi; Leung, W.-T.W., Busson, F. & Jardin, C, 1968; Purseglove, J.W., 1968;

Schippers, R.R., 2000;

Shamsudilm Ahmad

&

van dcr Vossen, H.A.M., 2003a; Wilson, F.D., 1999.

CHher references Akpan, G.A., 2000; Amankwatia Y.O., 1981; .\ndrews, F.W 19.52; Angelini,

LM.

Banuelos, G.S., Abrecht, D.G., 1990; B A.. 1991; Crane, J.C.. .Vlanso, R.E.. 1946; Eldin N.S. & et

Aeuna. J.B. .\min,

&

E..\l.,

1998;

al.,

1996; Carberry, P.S. Cook, C.G. & .Mullin,

ft

1981; Foil,

S.,

Garnaccia, P.

&

Patane, C, 1998; Gutteridge, R.C., 1988; Lind, 1!)7.-|; Peters P R., E. M. & Tallantire, A.C.

OBrien, E.M. & Drummond, R.B., 1992; PUl, Tihnon. H.D. ft Taylor, R.W.. 1996; Vawdrey, L.L. & Stirling. G.R., 1992; Wilson, F. D. & Menzel M Y., 1961. Sources of illustration Nabakooza, J., W.G.,

2003a.

Auihora R. Bukenya-Ziraba

HIBISCUS 321

Hibiscus sabdariffa Protologue Sp. pi. Family Mnlvacffie

2:

L.

695

(1753).

Chromosome number 2» — 72 Vemaeular name* Roselle, Jamaican

sor-

Indian sorrel. bis oentuiy, e.g. in India, Sri

Lnnkn Thailand Malay-

sia and Java. Roselle is now found throughout the tropics. In tropical Africa it is especially common in the savanna region of West and Central Africa It is often fouml is an escape from cuUivation. However, apparently truly wild plants of Hihiama aabdanffa have been mill I'd in Ghana, Niger Xij^nrin and Angola. Uses In Africa roseiif has two main uses: as a v^[etable and for preparation of a beverage. 1

1

Young

roselle shoots,

leaves and calicos are

used as a conked vcgetablr or finely cut and used ill sauces. The leaves and fresh green used to make a soup, which is rather mucilaginous in texture Freshly harvested leaves and/or calyces are also added to water-baaed sauces; oil, salt, onions, dried fish and hot pepper are often added. The sauces are

calioes are

oaten with tuber or cereal pnrru]ar8ely priddy, green or reddish. Leaves

alternate

to In s|>;it

-

cm

simple;

prickles

cm

narrowly

with a nectary outside; petals fi-ee, obovate, up cm X 3.5 cm, pale yellow or pale pink, often with dark red-purple centre; stamens numerous, united into a column up to 2 cm long, pink; ovary superior, 6-celled, style with 5 branches. Fruit an ovoid capsule up to 2.5 cm long, almost glabrous to npp!"es5ied-pubescent onclosed by the calyx, many-seeded. Seeds reniform, up to 7 long, daric brown. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons rounded, up to 2.5 cm X 3 cm, leafy. Otiter botanleal Inibmiation Hibiaeut comprises 200-300 species, mainly in the trop-

to 5

mm

ics

and subtropies: many of them grown as

ornamentals. The estimated number of species

15 cm,

sometimes undivided, up margin toothed, glabrous or sometimes with a few

pubescent,

on midrib, palmately

distinct nectary at

up

cam-

varies because opinions differ about indusion if -1 \ eral related groups of species in the ge-

to 1.6

\ t ined, with a base of midnb Flowers soliu-meruus;

tar^' in leaf axjls, bisexual, regular,

pedicel

subulate to

long; calyx

lung; petiole

up

7)-]obed

rm l\

stipules

base,

cm

long; blade shallowly to deeply pal-

lanceolate to linear,

0.5-12 matoiy

nt

panulate. up to 5.5 cm long, becoming fleshy in luhes nearly sjlabrous to hispid hain,'. (Villi

to

2

cm

long, articulate; epicalyx

•

nus. Hibiscus sabdariffa belongs to section Furcaria, a group of about 100 spedes whidi

' calyces of 93 kg/ha. In Senegal maximum production of calyx on a dry weight basis is 500 kg/ha.

5-2.5 Average fibre yields froai roselle are tTha, depending on cuUivar and management. 1

India reported an average yield of 1.9 t/ha for 1997-2001. Reported seed sdelds rai^ from

200-1500 kg/ha.

Handling after harvest As a

leafy vegeta-

bunches with a

ble roselle shoots are sold in

length of up to 50 cm. Thinned seedlings are less perishable than shoots; as they are sold with their roots attached th^ can be kept fresh by placing the roots in water. In most areas in Africa roselle calyces are audried prior to marketing Dr> ing in the sun can lead to reduced quality. .Adequate ventilation is important. Plastir shorts are placed on the ground to avoid contamination with soil, which also strongly reduces the vahie. Drying by artificial heating is capital-int nsive and rare in sub-Saharan Africa. Temperatures must remain below 43°C. Dried calyces are gathered and .sold in bulk or in individual .sachets throughout West Africa, in Senegal dried calyces are rolled mto 80 kg balls for export. Roselle exported to the United States and flcim.any must meet strirt standards concernmg moisture content (maximum i

12%), acidity, residues and oontaminaticms. roselle syrup, dried calyces are boiled

To make

at a ratio of

1

part dried roselle to 4—5 parts

water. Because of

its

verj'

tart

taste,

large

amounts of sugar are added. The mixture is boiled down for several hours. Before use the syrup is watered down to make da bilenni A study estimated that one person could produce .

about 300 1 juice per day from k j iily< d. It is also used to thicken sauces. In DR Congo the leaves are rooked with fish or meat. Young leaves are sometmies used as a condiment.

Leaves

bescent.

alternate,

ovate, autnculate, amidexiraul.

cm; petiole 2-7(— 11)

cm

simple;

up

stipules cm x 1

to l.n

long, prickly

and pu-

bescent; blade shallowly to deeply palmately 3— 5-Iobed, up to 10 cm x 10 cm. margin serrate,

pubescent

prickly on veins below, palmately

veined. Flowers solitary in leaf axils, bisexual,

The

baric yields a fibre, which is occasionally le.ivcs are used as cordage In Uganda, conki used to coagulate the latex of Lundolpliia spp. In Guinea and DR Congo the plant is regarded as atonic for heart and stomach. In Nigeria the leavrs aroused in poultices in ('.nbon .softened leaves ai'e applied to boils. In Senegal the seed has been used as a remedy for eye diseases and dysmtcry Tn Tanzania leaf sap is taken to prevent miscarriage and to treat vertigo, whereas a root decoction is used as a laxative. In South Africa the Zulu people use a lotion of the leaf and stem for the treatment of penile irritation of any sort, including venereal sores and urethritis. An infiision is also used for injecting into the urethra and vapina to treat gonorrhoea and other inflammations. An ointment made firom the leaves is sometimes applied for the same purposes, whereas in Nigeria deeorlions of the leaves and root s are iised I

similarly, in

DK Congo

dried leaf powder

used to cure wounds. In Kenya the ash

is

fixnn

the plant is applied to cuts, and an infusion to

Hibiscus suniitiuisis ing tu ig;

3, fruit; 4,

1,

leaf; 2,

part of flower-

seed.

Redrawn and adapted by Aehmad Satin Nurhamati

328 VEGETABLES regular, 5-morous; pedicel ticulate, prickly; epicalyx

up to 8 cm long, arsegments 8-10, biand c. 0.5 cm

furcate, the outer fork spatulate

long, the inner fork linear, c 1 cm long; calyx cup-shaped, up to 2.5 cm long, lobes prickly; petals free, obovate, up to 6 cm x 4 cm, bright yellow \\ ith n rl-purp] base; stamois numer"us united into a column up to 2 cm long, redle; ovary superior, 5-oelled, style with 6 branch(>s. Fruil an ovoid to globose capsule up tn 5 cm long, densely pubescent manyx 2 mm. seeded. Seeds reniform, c. 3 1

m

i

]

mm

OilieT botanical information Hihiaau comprises 20O-.30n species, niiunly in the tropics and subtropics; many of them are grown as ornamentals. T^e estimated number of species varies because opinions differ about inclusion of several related sjroups of sjiecies in the ge-

nus.

Hibiscus suraltennis belongs to section

a group of about 100 species whidi a pergamentacemis raly\ (rarely flesh}') with 10 strongly' prominent veins, 5 running to the apices of the segments and bearing a nectary, and " running to the sinuses, Other species belonKinji to this section and used as a vegetable are Hibiscus acelusclla L., HibUeus asper Hook.f Hibiatui emmahiFitrearia,

have

common

in

,

tiiis

1..

llihisnis dii ersifnUii s

Hibiacua roatellatus Guill.

& Pen*,

later in a similar

way

as the fresh leaves.

Genetic resources There are no indications that Hibiscus su ratlensis erosion, although unconiniiin.

e^^.

collections are

is

it

danger of genetic

is in

reported to be locally

No germplasm

Uganda.

in

known

to exist.

Proqiects Hibiaeus mrattmaia

is

an under-

utilized but locally popular sturdy leafy vegetable (lenetic improvement and management

practices should be studied for further domestication.

Major references Burkill. HM, 1997: KaAB., Ssegawa, P. & Bimie, A., van den Bergh, M.H., 1993; Wilson, F.D., 1999. Other references Akpan. G.A.. 2000; (loode. P.M.. 1989; Ilauman L & Wouters, W., 1903; Kalanda, K. & Omasombo, VV.D., 1995; Kokwaro, J.O., 1993; Lubmi, A. et al., 1994; Mosango M. & Iso.si, W., in9«: Xdjele, \f. & tende,

Bigawa,

SillanB,R,

O Brien, E.M. Raponda-Walker, A.

1982; Peters, C.R„

S.,

Dnunmond,

R.B.. 1992;

r.'r-l: N

ollesen. K.

& &

199."il>,

Sources of illustration Berhaut,

J.,

1979;

Vollesen, K., lyyob.

Anthon M. Mosango

JUhisnix

rl,ic(i..

inecliouii Garcke, Hibiscus noldeae

cooked immediately as a vegetable, or dried, for up to a year and used

pounded and kept

Baker

1'.,

and Hibiacua

Hibiscus TRioNUM L.

sabdariffa L.

Growth and development

llibisais siiraf-

tenais is an annual plant growmg naturally during the rainy season. It is mainly selfpollinatinti.

Ecology Hibiscus suraileiisis occurs in grassland and at forest edges in lowland and at medittni attitudes up to 1700 m. in n^gions with

mm

an average annual rainfall of lOOO-HidD It also occurs in marshes, abandoned fields and plantations, on waste ground near habitation, and in coastal habitats such as sand dunes. It is

found on a wide variety of soil types.

Management Wh«i

cultivated

surattenaia is prc^agated by seed.

management

practice

is

weeding.

this species is rarely cultivated

Protologue Sp

pi

2:

697

(1763).

Family Malvaceae

Chromosome number 2ii = 56 Vernacular names Flower logue Fl. aegj^pt.-arab.: 44 (1775). Family Convolvulaceae

duromosome nniuber 2r = 30 Synonyms Ipomoea reptans Poir s 1). Vernacular names Kangkcmg. kangkung.

and petals of ImpatieM niamniammsu.

Botany Erect perennial herb up to 1 m tall, sometimes epiphytic: stem succulent, becoming woody below, little branched. Leaves arranged spirally, simple: petiole 1—10 cm long: blade broadly ovntr, ovnte-ohlnnij or elliplirnl up to 22 cm 9.5 cm, base cuneate, apex sub-obtuse, acute or shortly acuminate, margin crenate. Flowers azillaiy, in 2-6-flo\vered fasddes, bi-

(

water

convolvulus,

swamp

spinach,

Cancon, batata aquatica

moon

cal Africa,

it

flowers throughout the

Mriba wa ziwa

w idespread as a swamp weed and many subtropical lowland

n

from Mauritania and Senegal, east ;in() g. Seed is either broadcast or sown in rows. The seed may be soaked for 12-24 houi s in water befeire sowing. The seed rate is high, 60-100 g per 10 m-bed (tlO-lOO kg/ha). If ne essnjy soils nre limiMi before sowing (L'-'HO tion. Cultivation of

kg/ha). Final plant densities may range from 0.3-1.7 millfon plants/ha. A quick and uniform emergence is nn important objective of farmers,

Wet or

paddy-fleid cultivation is

still

much

practised in South-East Asia, but is dedming because upland kangkong is more productive

and

h:is a better mtirket

quality

usually direct by cuttings, bul in

Phuiting

is

some places

tranq[>lanting 6-week-old seedlings raised on nursen," beds is used Cuttings nre plnnted o-o

cm deep into the mud. Planting densities vaiy widely from 0.2-1.5 milUon cuttings per ha. Locally, floating kangkong without root contact with the soil is grown on a commercial scale in ponds and rivers, integrated systems with fish, pigs and diidcen. Cuttings are anchored t(i b.imboo frnni(> floating in the water and furmmg a kmd of bed. Management bi upland cultivation weeding is seldom needed, except when germination is slow. E)ady wntering with ample water is necessary. Although kangkong can do well under conditions of moderate soil fertility, it reqionds well to N fertilizer and the mineral upfnke is high. A general fertilizer recommendation in-

m

:i

cludes

manure applied before sowing

at a rate

writer or rooting nt the stem nodes in

or 10 t/ha supplemented with P ;'.n kg.^a and K -40 kg.1i;i. This is followed by topdressmg at tliree 10-day mtervals with at a rate of 30, 8 and 8 kg/ha, P at 4, 4 andO kg/ha nnd K at 12, nnd 0 kg.'Tin, Tn ensc

or wet

of ratooning, whicli is

self-pnibnnted (G0-().5%), but cross-pollination

by bees and

buttei'flies

does occur. is found floating on

Ecology Wild kangkong

in rice

marshy banks and as a weed and other crops on wet soils. It occurs

soil,

often on river

from sea-level up to 1500

m altitude.

Cultivated

produces nptimiim yields iri lln' lowland tropics under lugh lempeialures, lull sunshine and abundant water. It is rarely grown above 500 m altitude bernuse nf temper.if iires

kArtglfrtw g

below 25**C the growth rate

is too

slow to

make

it

an ectmomic crop. At higher latitudes it is grown as a summer vegetable. Kangkong is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions, but fertile soils with a h^h level of organic matter are pre-

The optimum pH is 5.3-6.0. Prc^agation and planting Kangkong can

ferred.

of

up

N

nO

to

'.W t/ha,

kg,1-i;i

,

N

common

in

home

gardens,

recommended after Application of large amounts of

additional top dressing is

each cutting.

nitrogen fertilizer increas«:'s yield :ind leid'/stem ratio,

but also the nitrate content, whereas the

diy matter content decreases. In wet eiiltivntinn the water

level is raised in

accordance with the development of the crop, reaching a depth of 15—20 cm. Young plants cannot withstand flooding. Fertilizer application is similar to upland cultivation, also with a top dressing after each cuttmg. Cultivation is terminated in the event of flowering or serious losses due to diseases, peats or weeds.

IPOMOEA 336 Diseases and pests White mst.

(Albujio

iponioeae-panduratae, often referred to as Al-

imga ecmdida), oommon on sweet

potato, is the

ni'wf I'ninninn ilisefisc of k;uiy;kiii»; it causes white patches which diminish the market qualHeavy white rust infection may start as soon as two weeks after seedhng emergence. Damping ofl' of seedlings caused by Pythium ap. may occur, and occasionally Cereoapora leaf spot. Owing to the short growing period, disea8e^> and pests cause fower p7"ob1rms in onceity.

m

kangkong bundles are packed in layers of 15 cm in bamboo crates with crushed ice in between. Kangkong harvested from rivers has a longer shelf life because the leaf area of the

young shoots is small. Genetie resources Ipomoea aquatiea extremely widespread and not in danger genetic

Germplasm

erosion.

collections

is

of

are

maintained at the Asian Vegetable Research

and Development Center (AM^DC) and

at national

in

Taiwan

research institutes in South-

ratooned crops. over han'ested crops tlian Where ratooning is practised caterpillars of

East Asia.

and aphids may cause serious damage. Chemical control is a general practice, but hazardous because of residues. Root-knot nematodes

ences with regard to the quality of the product,

Spoilopt era litura

and DiacHsia

{Mi'!oi(loi>yiiv spp.)

strigatiila

are reported as occasionally

m

truublesume ratuon cropping in dry land, but not in wet soils. Upland kangkong harvested by uproot insi and sown repeatedly at tho same bed without an^' crop rotation is remarkably free of BoiS>ome diseases, including nematodes, probably because many noxious nematodes are

removed with the roots when uprooting. Harvesting Harvesting ul upland kangkong takes place from 21-30(—45) days after sowing for once-over harvest

ground

level.

by

u[)rootinf: or riittinji at

The damaged basal leaves are

removed. The stems of the seedlings are big, tender and crisp. In wet cnltivation barvoslinp by cutting younp shoots starts 1-2 months after planting, and subsequently at regular intervals, or the plants are c-ut ."-10 cm abovt- giound level every 4-6 weeks. The stems are thmner and more fibrous and tough than in upland kangkong. Yield Undc>r upland cultivation, yields per crop range fi-om 7—'.W t/ba of fresh produce dependmg largely on the cultivation period. A good once-over harvested crop of 3 weeks produces l..^-2.0 kfr/m^. The pctenti.-d yield of 12 crops per year from the same bed would add up to 240 t/ha of fresh marketable produce. Under

wet

cultivation, yields are difficult to

compare

because cultivation periods differ greatly. Annual yields of 25—100 t/ha are reported in South-East Ana. For floating kani^ong an nnnu nl production of 90 t/ha of fresh produce is reported for Thailand. Handling after harvest Shoots of wetland kangkong are tied into bundles and transported to the market. Entire plants of uiilnnd kangkong are washed or wetted and sometimes

wrapped

prev^t wilting. For longand supermarkets in Asia,

in plastic to

distance transport

Breeding Consumers have

specific prefer-

number of leaves, stem length, perc ses, or, mixed with lemon juice, taken to induce menstruation. In T'otp d'Tvoiro thr- pnlpcd leaves are rubbed on the skin to treat convulsions and feverish pains in babies. In Ghana the plant is used internally and externally against fever, yaws and diarrhoea in children. The inflorescence is said to be a cure for dysentery. An infusion of the plant is taken with egg lA'

albumen and of the heart tion.

c-oconut juice against pnljiitntions

and

In Tanzania leaf sap is

hookworm and

an eye lotaken against

leaf sap is used as to

treat

hydrocele,

including

5.

c,

3

c.

mm

1

cm

long,

long,

white

2-lipped, lower lip 2-

tubular,

stamens 2 filaments

one anther cell below the other, ovary superior, 2-celled, subglabrous, style hairv below, ending in 2 short stigma branches. Fruit a 4-seeded capsule c. 8 long, densely hairy, splitting in 2 halves, but remaining connected at base. Seeds compressed globose, brown to black. Justicia is a large genus comprising 300-600 spedes. Its taxonomy is badly known and opinions differ about its delimitalion because differences between related genera are hardly distinctive. Numerous spedes can be found in the literature referred to by a variety of names within the genera Aillidlnila Dm rntoia, Genglabrous,

tailed;

mm

A

daiussu, Justiciu, Ruslellaria and RiuiffXl. all related genera is urgently needed, -fiisliria Pava is classified in the

complete revision of

section Tylogloaaa, characterized by spike-like

and ammonite-like or rugose and by its pollen type. The flowers of Jiistiriu Pava are much visited by bees and other insects. Ecology Justicia flava grows in open habi-

inflorescences seeds,

with a wide ecologic.al range fi'om seaup to 2300 m altitude. In dry regions it grow as an annual with smaller flowers. can Management 'Iiiaticia Pava is not cultitats,

level

bathing the affected parts The bitter root is chewed by the Masai to cure diarrhoea and

vated but collerted from the wild. In 'Uiinen it IS not removed as a weed when occurring in

coughs.

cultivated fields, but allowed to

Properties The composition of fresh

Jti. so-ciillcd •///.y spraying with fungicides. Xanthoiiioitas phajieoli can cause severe defoliation in humid weather. Selemtium lolfsii may cause rotting of the stem bases. In Asia several pests have been recorded on lablab: pod boring larvae (e.g. AdiMira aikuisoiti) nrv the most serious p pecially in semi-arid regions it is easy to produce good lettuce seed, but if not properly stored, lettuce seed loses its viability very fast. Plants of headed types are normally raised in a nursery. Seeds are sown in a shaded seedbed the seedlmgs pricked out 2-3 weeks after emergence, and planted in the field or in soil blocks of about 4 cm x 4 cm. which are jjlanted out in the field 2-3 weeks later. Somewhat older plants are sturdier

With optimal cultural

and easier

to handle.

practices, the seed re-

g seed for ')() m^, but under suboptimal conditions the seed re(liiiremenl is only 2i)0 g/ha

(1

quirement is much higher. Crisp lettuce can be cm between rows planted out in the field at and HO cm within the row (66,000 plants/ha) or 35-60 cm X 35 cm (50,000-90,000 at plants/ha). Butteriiead lettuce may be planted somewhat clnser together dejiending on the mature head size of the cultivar, at 25 cm x

20-26 cm. The spacing for cos lettuce can be even narrower, although farmers may prefer to leave a path of An vm between double rows spaced at 15 cm. Bunching lettuce is usually sown directly in the field in drills 20 cm apart, and thinned to fS-\0 cm 10-20 days after emergence. Afirican farmers often plant very dense, at 7-9 cm ^ 7-9 cm. Crisp lettuce like Great Lakes' or Blonde de Paris' is also often planted densely to [Moduce a bunching f.vpe lettuce. The seed requirement for direct sowing under optimal conditions is about 0.6 kg per ha or c seed per 20 m-. Heading lettuce is 1

also sown directly' in the field. In that case, plants should be thinned to 30 cm within the row. In strongly mechanized cultivatifHi in western countries headed lettuce is sown directly

m

the

field,

using pelleted seed and pre-

dion drilling equipmoit. Management Young lettuce cannot compete

362 VEGETABLES with fnst-growing weeds. Several weedings are needed in the first month when the soil surface is not yet covered hy the lettuce plants. In additmn thf water supply must lie very legular The farmers normally sprmkle their lettuce beds twice daily, during the morning and in the ev&aing, or during the day. The evapotrani^piration increases £ast, fit>m 2-3 mm/day in the first weeks to 6-8 for a fiilUgrown crop. Sprinkling the crop with water from a polluted source such as a local stream containinp sew-

mm

age or passing through dumping grounds should be avoided because of health risks. moderately high upLettuce is M crop with take of mmerals. Depending on the soil condi;i

tions, a suitable fertilizer

recommendation

is

30 t/lia of farmyard manure combmeil with 50 kg X. lo k^r P and 65 K Itct'ore jihmtint; Many farmers only use poultry manure, applied freely and worked into the beds before ]il.int int:. An X sidr- dressinp of fid kg/ha is given '6 weeks after plantmg and again 3 weeks later if needed. The mineral uptake (N, K) is low during the first month after sowing and highest in the last weeks before harx'est Too

much tip

nitrogen

bum

and

makes the crop susceptible to and increases the con-

diseases,

tent of nilrnte in the h.in-esled [iroiluct.

The physiological disorder tip burn is probably the most serious problem of lettuce in the tropics.

m

The symptoms an

the leaf margins

in

internal necrosis of the hi-aif often followed by

The necrosis is caused by water shortage in hot weather and fast growing conditions. whic'h lead to Cn deficiency in the young leaves. It can be controlled by use of bacterial rot.

tolerant eultivars, liming before planting, slow-

ing

down

of the growth by hmiting the N-

shading and especially by always keeping an ample and even supply of fertilizing

soil

a

light

best control of bottom rot and Sch-

and recommended to plant on ridges haul Hnwuv miblew is con-

rolinia is good sanitation, crop rotation

drainage.

It

is

instead of on

f'l;it

trolled by the u.se of eultivars with resistance to the relevant race of the fungus or by spraying with fungicides. Damping-olT (Pythi'uin). grey mould (Bottytia) and leaf spot (Ceix:o3pora) are also reported. Cenoapora longisaima caused heavy losses on lettuc«> in Cote d'lvoire. Infection takes place at high humiility by splashing soil, and control is possible by less dense planting and by sprajring with benomyl. The most serious pest are aphids, especially in headed lettuce, because they cannot be controlled easily by spraying with chemicals, which is, moreover, rislQr because of residues. Other pests are cut worm (Agrotis). army worm {Spodupteru) and other caterpillars, leaf hop-

firom the

pers, snails Insect

todes.

slugs, and root-knot nemapests are usually controlled by

and

spraying chemicals. Nematodes in lettuce can be kept imder control by crop rotation, disinfection of the seedbed or nursery soil by heating, and fertilizing with ample organic matter, e.g. manure. Harvesting Harvesting of headed lettuce is commenced when the heads are fidly developed, usually 60-80 days after planting. Harvesting is done by cutting the plants at their base. Bimching lettuce and densily planted

heading eultivars are mostly uprooted for bunching. Uld outer leaves are trimmed off. Bundling lettuce is usually harvested between ."^n-'iO days after sowing, but can be harvested at any time from the young stage untd boltmg starts. The younger it is, the more tender the lettuce will be, but also the lower the yield.

Yield For headed lettuce

a yield of

7(1";,

er

number of plants originally planted considered a satisfactory result. Successful farmers may reach 90%. The average world yield is about 20 t/ha. Yields above 30 t/ha are reported from temperate areas, but in the li pHs tli v are much lower. In tropical highland a liaisest of 50.000 heads.lia with an average weight of 200-300 g yielding 10-15 more

of the

may be

moisture.

Diseases and pests Many fungal bacterial and viral diseases mfest lettuce in the tropics. diseases are mosaic virus, bottom rot and downy mildew Mosaic is caused by lettuce

Common

mosaic virus (LM\').

The

tropics.

It

may

be contioUed by

the use of healthy seed, control of aphids and immediate removal of diseased plants. Bottom rot caused by Rhiznrtom'a .inlniii commonly occurs under wet conditions. The symptoms are

a slimy rotting of the underside of the plant, progressing into the head. Si ferotmia causes a wet rot of the entire plant, beginning at the stem base. Downy mildew caused by Bivmia laetueae, the most serious disease of lettuce in tenqierate areas, occurs in cooler parts of the

t/ha is readiable. Criq> lettuce in the

highlands

is

reported to yield

|.t

Kenyan

t/ha

with

heads of 300-500 g. Yields of bunching lettuce readi only 3-8 t/ha. Stem lettuce harvested at 80—100 days after planting may yield up to 20 t/ha.

Handling after harvest Lettuce wilts easThe most suitable packing of headed let-

ily.

tuce

is

in open-topped polythene

bags which

LAGENARIA 363 arc put in crates or boxes. Fast coolinR to 0— 2°C and pnrking with ice improve keepability.

Crop Plant Research

market gardeners may dip the cleaned lieiids in mlcl WMter and imme(hfttely put the produce m a cool place. Headed lettuce is fiirther trimmed if old or damaged outer

Rouxel. F,

ruiniiu

I'n.'il

leaves are

tuce

ia

still

present, In XiRcria,

much

&

(Editors), 2001; Messiacn,

Messiaen.

1989;

Lafon.

19G8: Rubatzky

V

K.,

C.-M..

Blancard,

D„

1991; Purseglove, J.W.,

& Yamaguchi.

E.

M., 1997;

Ryder, E.J., 1986; Ryder, E.J., 1999; Tindall, H.D., 1983. 19*i7; H Other references Bantoc -h-. I.W., Hazekamp, Th. & van Hmtum,

lil-

m the savanna area, packed m and transported over long distances

produced

jute bags

C. -M.,

.

Ooukema,

Th.J.L., 1990; Holland, B.,

& Buss, Sherf, A.F. &

Unwin,

S

I.D.

to the cities in \hc south, resulting in high lossos Plants of headed rnl»i\";u'> which hnvf»

D. H..

not produced a head of marketable size (less than 150 g) are often uprooted or cut and bimdled in liunchr-8 of 3-8 plants, I'prontcd lettuce in street markets is kept Iresh by puttmg the roots in a basin with water. It ia adviaable to

Sources of illustration Grubben, G.J.H. Sukprakam, S., 1993. Authors G.J.H Grubben Based on PROSEA 8: Vegetables.

wash

Savar>',

.\..\.

108';:

Tel cm long, with fri'e 'Stamens mserted on the receptacle tube, connectives broad; female flowers on short pedicels 2-10 cm long, with inferior densely hairy ovary, stigma .S-lobed thick each lobe 2-lobed. Fruit a berr^', ver>'

variable

m

and shape, often up to 1 m long, when yoimg, someusually' brown when

size

globular, bottle- or dub-shaped,

white-yellow to dark green

times whitish speckled, dried, with hard, durable rind, flesh white and soft, many-seeded Seeds oblong, compressed, up to 2 r-m long emarginate at base, with 2 flat facial ndges, smooth, sometimes rugose, whitish to brownish.

mature and

Other botanical information

Laficvaria

comprises 6 qiedes, 5 of these occurring wild in Africa. These wild species are perennial and have spherical to eUipsoid, small-maed bittw fruits with a slimy juice containing saponins The cultivated Lagenaria aicetxtiia is poljmorphic and has numerous landraoes; its phenotypic variaticn is continuous and difficult to

366 VEGETABLES

The hnrd nnd

quantify.

developod handle' of the

thick rind fruit

and

wcll-

are often charac-

Kenya local edible types are small and laiind. In some communities, fruits

teiistj

III

in

with a warted surface are selected for consumption. The variation in fruit diape is larger than that in seed shape and there is no correlation between fruit and seed shape. Growth and ^tevdopmeut Emergence of the seedling occurs 4-6 days alter sowing. The vining stape starts 2-'^ weeks after emerpenre

with rapid elongation of lateral stems and tendrils. Growth slows down at the onset of flowerint,'. Malf flowers appear 8-18 weelcs after planting, female ones 2-4 weeks later. The female flowering period lasAa d-12 weeks dependnifi on cultivar and environmental conditions. In some eullivars, a secondary' flowering period occurs during the next rainy season from the stems that survived the drj' season. Female flfjwers ai'e formed on the

growth of

auxiliary' stems, and rarely towards the tip of the main stem. Female flowers in the lower leaf axils have a greater chance of developing fruits than thdsc appearint; higher up on the stem. Female flowers al the end of the creepmg brandies develop smaller fruits or dry up. Flowers open in the evening,' anrl close afler 820 hours. The stigmas are receptive from 6 hours before to 36 hours after anthesis. Male flowers opm earUer and close later than female ones. There are more male flowers than female flowers, the ratio being approximately 9:1, although it is lower at low temperatures. The flower rat id ,i!so depends on culln ar Pollination IS mainly by bees; hawkmoth {tiippution eeUrio) and a skipper butterfly (Gorgyra johnstont) are major pollinators in Kenya. For seed production, fruits need 2-:'> months to mature. Ecology Bottle gourd is widely cultivated in the tropics firom sea-level to 2600 altitude, and is found as ;m i's-pes but prefers well-aerated, fertile soils with pH G-7.

Propagation and planting Bottle gourd is is oft^ sown di-

propagated by seed, which

Transplanting is possible if .seed is As no commercial cultivars are avail-

rectly.

scarce.

able in Africa, farmers carefully select dried intact fruits for seed for the next crop. The

seeds are often preserved in the intact

fruits.

For vegetable use, non-bitter types are selected by scratdiing the surface or chewing the

The weight of 1000 seeds is about 160 g. Planting normally takes place with the onset of the rainy season. Seed dormancy often occurs. A heat treatment of o()°(' for 7 days markedly leaves.

increases the germmation rate. Bottle gourd

is

often planted near the homestead. During the

wet season

it

is

often planted on mounds, in

the dry season in depressions. It is sometimes intovropped with other vegetables and grain crops, especially pumpkin. Per hole 2-3 seeds are sown at a spacing of 1 m in the row and 2 m between rows. Weak or diseased seedlmgs are thinned out 3-^ weeks after sowing, leaving one plant jier hole. Spontaneous plants in are

fields

often

retained.

In

cattle-herding

communities sudi as the Maasai of Kenya, bottle gourd arises spontaneously along the

fimces of cattle enclosures where there

manure and enough

moisture.

is

ample

Plants

with

large elongated fruits can occasionally be found on fences in abandoned homesleails fn Asia special

vegetable cultivars are commercially

grown on stakes or

trellises,

using the same

cultural practioes as for cucumber. Management Bottle gourd has a good ability to suppress weed. It has an extensive but shallow root system and soil tillage should be minimized during the fruiting stage. Manual weedmg around the base of the plant is recommended For continuous growth, irrigation is needed in the diy season. In .some communities people use an old clay pot half buried next to the plant base for irrigation. The container is filled with water and covered with a half bottle gourd serving as a lid. The water gradu-

ally oozes out to the roots. Water is added once or twice a week. Bottle gourd responds well to fertilizer,

When

applied

planting

at

10-10-20 plant

A

at a rate of

may be

pends on

available

the

ample manure

ihemical

fertilizer

is

NTK

500 kg/ha or 100 g per

applied. Fruit size largely deposition

of the

fruit

on

the

amount of rain, and damage by whereas the firuit shape is largely determined by the cultivar. Hie diape can be manipulated by measures such as placing young fmits upright on a flat ground to obtain a gourd with a flat bottom, tying a string around the neck, or by hanging the firuits branch, the

pests,

LAGENARIA 367 To obtain extra

well

and cleaned further before

large fruits for use as container, often only a

The

oil

per plant. Diseases and pests Major

arranged in a branched \ kJ (32 kcal) carbohydrate 5.5 g, fibre 1.1 g, Ca 81 mg, Mg 38 mg, P 76 mg, Pe 1.3 mg, Zn n.2.T mg. vitamin A 9300 IT, thiamin 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.26 mg, niacm 1.0 mg, folate 80

protem

2.6

8J>

g, fat

pg, ascorbic

g

0.7

g,

add 69 mg (USDA,

The stem and leaves

2002).

of Lepidium sativum con-

tain glucosinolates, the

main component being

Upon

truly wild.

glucotropaeolin

Uses In many parts of the world seedlings of Lepidium .laliniin are used in s.ilnds because of their pungent taste. Whole fruits or seeds are used, fresh or dried, as a seasoning with a

distillation the heib yields about O.IM of a colourl(-^s i-ssenfial nil, with a characteristic pungent odour. The seeds yield about 25% of a

consumed in Arabs, either ground in honey or as

peppen,' flavour. Boiled seeds are di

inks

l>y

an infusion in hot milk. The seed oil can be used for illumination and soap making. In Ethiopia the seed and it.s oil are primarily used medicinally, but also as condiment and in baking, although the odour of the oil is not pleasant. .A paste of the seeds with w ater is fl^Ued to chapped lips, and also ajrainst sunburn and other skin problems of humans and animals. The paste is also takoi internally with honey to treat amoebic dysentery, and given to ani-

(benzylglucosinolate).

steam

yellowish-brown, Bemi-dn,'ing oil with a pecum! is rich in oleic, liar, disagreeable odour. Tli linoleic and uric acids, and also contains imidazole alkaloids.

It

has antio.vidanl properties.

Hie seedcoat of germinating seeds contains much mucilage, which has an allelopathic substance, lepidimoide. The effects of the germinating seeds were studied to determine the jiotential for slowing down the hydrolysis of .starch to glucose in diabetic persons. The seeds significantly lowered the glycaemic response to a test meal. In the long term (21 days) treatment of diabetica with 16 g seeds/day, there

366 VEGETABLES

was a significant reduction in the levels of blood glucose at the end of study period. The ethanol extract of the seeds showed significant niti-inflammatorv effrets jijjainst ctirrageenanmiiuced rat paw oedema, at a dose of 500 mg/kg.

The seed

genie net

oil

has a pronounced oestro-

ivil y.

The antibacterial action has been demonstrated

of Lepidium sativum in several tests.

The

showed strong

anti-

extract of the fresh leaves bnrtorinl artion nirninsl

IluriUun mibliliH

and

Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus, but was less effective against Eaeheriehia eoU. The antibacterial action depends largely on the age of the plants used. An antiviral effect against the encephalitis virus Columbia SH was demonstrated

in

a

on mice. An extract of decreased the mutai;enic

test

Lepidium sativum

number t^himurium

effects of a

of pesticides, using Salinu-

nelta strains as test organisms. The lenvr s showed significant teratologic e£fect in tests with rats.

Botany more

Erect annual herb

up

to 80

cm

tall,

or less glaucous: stem terete or finely profusely linmcht d. glabrous. Leaves

striate,

alternate, irregularly pinnate, up to 12 cm x 9 cm; petiole up to 4 cm long; leaflets 6-11, in outline ovate or obovate, pinnatisect, the idti-

mate

lobes usually irregularly toothed, .spar-

sely hairy above, glabrous below, leaflets of higher leaves gradually becoming linear, upper leaves usually simple and linear, sometimes lobed or with teeth. Inflorescence a termmal or axillaty raceme 1^ cm long, accrescent to 25 cm when fruiting. Flowers bisexual, regular. 4merous; pedicel 1.5-4.5 long, ascending; sepals ovate, 1—2 long; petals spatulate with short daw, up to 3 long, white or pale pink: stamens H, anthers usually puj-plish; ovary superior, flattened, apex emargmate, style up to 0.5 long, stigma capitate. Fruit a rounr! or ovate, flattened dlique 4-6 mm >' 3-

mm

mm

mm

mm

pale green to yellowiah, margins wmglike, apex emarginate, deluaeing by 2 valves, usually 2-seeded. Seeds ovoid, flattened. 2-3 lonj;. pale brown to almost black Seedling 5.5

mm,

mm

with

epigeal

foliolate,

germinaliun; spatulate,

leaflets

cotyledons lateral

3-

ones

smaller than oen t rn on rLepidium comprises about 150 species and is distributed worldwide. In tropical Africa 9 species can be found. Because of the great v.n i.ilulity in leaf shape, fruit size and seed colour, many subclassil'ications of Lepidium sativum have been published, all of them however, withf)ut much practical value. For this cultivated species it would be more appropriate to distinguish cultivars. The life cycle of t he plant is about 3 months. The flowers of /../j/Jium snftvntn are slightlj" protogA'nous and have a I

strong odour, attracting numerous insects that promote cross-pollination. In water, the seeds become covci-ed in slime. Ecology Lepidium sativum thrives on any rich, light, moisture-retentive soil, but grows best on moist loams. It can be grown at all elevations throughout the year, but in

t?-opical

regions it grows best in the cool season. It is rather drought resistant. In tropical Afirica it is grown nt 7.50-2000 m altituHr, preferring

around 2400 m altitude. Uaiuigemeiit Lepidium satimtm is usually tmx.unjjlc in grown as a garden cmp cooler localities at

>

EJthiopia. in fields

mixed

\\i\h let or

Hax For

sprout production, the seeds are sown thickly in rows, covered lightly with soil or not.

About

10 Hays after germination the .seedlings can he

harvested. Plants can also be thinned if larger plants are preferred. In Europe, the sprouts are sold directly in the small boxes in which they germinated. For seed production, a few

Lepidium sativum stem;

2, basal leaf; Sourve: PROSEA

3,

1,

flowering and fruiting

flower;

4,

seed.

plants are

left till

the seeds are fully mature.

The plants are then pulled np, dried and threshed. Serious diseases and pests are not

LEPTADENIA 367 known, but some fungal and viral infections have been recorded, as well as susceptibility to nematodes. Genetic resources and breeding Lepidium saliiuiii is widely cultivated and shows quite some variability. It does not seem lialilc

ti> i:*'n.

i

ic i'l-itnion.

Prospects Lepidium satii iiiii will remain a minor vegetable, used widely but in small quantities. The glucosinolates (ii-cst-ni are

known

to displny several interestinu i>h;irmn-

oological

activities,

which merit further refrom the

In addition, the mucilage seeds show s an interesting effect on starch hydrolysis, which might be for tiie treatment of non-insulin search.

Major references P.C.M.,

Brotonegoro.

R.R

1981; Jonsell,

B..

Other

th ovan,-; ovarj-

eelled,

S

&

\Vi-

1985; Jansen,

Id82b; Sdiippers.

Adam, S.E.I., 1099; Ashenafi, M., 1999; Fleming, T.

references

M.D,.

1995:

Jonsell

B..

Kalaycioglu, A., Oner, C. & Erdem, G., Nath, D., Sethi, N., Singh, RK. ft Jain, A0e, VA'. & Phadnis, 19!)2: Palol.v \.P 1998; SmaU, E., 1997; USDA, 2002a. Soiuroes of illnstaration Brotonegoro, ,

&

superior, glabrous to hairy, 2-

indehiscent or bursting

cies

riverine

rainforest,

savanna woodland, wasteland and as a weed cultivated fields, firom sea-level

Prospects

S.

&

m

will

re-

of local use only. Its

nutritional compositkm needs invest igation. Buikill, H.M., 1985;

Gon-

1!I87

r.-ilvcN

Other references Verdcourt, Authors P.C.M. Jansen

B,, 1963.

Til-v.

(1878).

Origin and geographic distributiou Lepistemon oufarienae is widely distributed in tropieal Afru it. where it occurs in all regions,

Ghana

the leaves of

Lepisleiiiun ouariense are collected from the wild and eaten as a cooked vegetable. Botany Glimbing perenninl herb with stem up to 3 long, covered with appressed yellow-

m

Leaves alternate, simple; up to 15 cm long, hairj': IG cm, base blade rorilnlc-ox nte, up to i'i in deeply cordate, apex acute to emarginate, margin entire, shallowly lobed or ooarsdy dentate, pilose rodr 8: 551 (1844).

Family Asclepiadaceae

(AI^G: Apocynaceae)

Synonyms Cynanekum (1811),

CynaiirJunii

ItMee^atutn Polr. m Scbiimnch. &

InticffaJiu

Thoim. (1827), LeptadeiUa laiicifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne. (1838). Origin and geographic distribution Lepta(ti'iiid iHtstald is uiddv ilistnbuted in tropical .\irKu; from Mauritania and Senegal eastwards to Cameroon, Ethiopia, northern E^ya and to I'tzandn In some locations, e.g. locally in Ethiopia,

it is

also cultivated.

Uses Everywhere

in its distribution area, and flowers of Li'i>t(t(loaf snp is

areas with a high locally naturalized

Leone

to Xitjeria. It

cuiiivated I'rum the coastal areas to the semi-

dry savanna,

e.g. in Sierra Leone, Cdte d'lvoire, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria. In East Africa

an eyewash to cure conjunct ivit is. and seeds are used in heibal prepa-

also used as

The

fVdtn Sicrrn

n

juiciness.

pickled.

loofah, ribbed gourd,

AlVic-i

.ts

also eatai

Cucuifoitaceae

rainfall. It is cultivated

and young

in soups

(ops with

2000;

Chromosome nmnber 2>t = 26 Synonyms Ciirmiii.f (iciitangnliis L. (1753). Vernacular names Ridged gourd, angled

spread pantropically to

and used

th(^ sl«'m

a popular vegetable because of the mildly bitter flavour, the slightly spongy te.vture and sweet

Roxb.

Protologue Hoit. bengal: 70

Family

small scale near the

mIso lurally cultivated

vegetable. In South-East .Asia, ridged gourd

Autiiors W.J. van der Burg

(L.)

a

is

1987;

1993; Raven, P.II., 1978; Ray-

LUFFA ACUTANGULA

it

Irnves nnd flower buds are used

nal. A., 1966; Taton, A., 1967.

is

grown on

15)07;

Thulin, M., 1993a.

West

is

Asian origin, and

of

sauces. Occasionally,

able.

in

ridged gourd

big cities as an exotic vegpfable for consumers

fruits

rations for the treatment of venereal diseases, particularly gonorrhoea .M;iuritius the In

seeds are eaten to expel intestinal worms and the leaf juice is applied to skin affections such as ecx.emn The i)l;int including the seed is insecticidal. Mature fruits when harvested dry are processed into sponge.s and used for scrubbing the body while bathing or for domestic purposes sucb as washing nf cooking utensils and as filters for local drinks such as palm wine. Industrial use is made of these fibres for making hats. However, the sponge gourd (Luffa cyLmdrica (L.) M.Roem., qmor^rm: Luffa acgyptiaca Mill.) is preferred for making sponges bc>cause its fibrc> is easier to extract. The trailing stem is used ;is tempornr\' tying

rope for firewood and crops to be carried home.

The plant tal

is oecasionally

used as an ornamen-

climber for enclosures.

Productiou and inteniational trade Ridged gourd is mainly produced as a home garden crop. Thailand exports ridged gourd to western vegetalde for the Asian communiEJuroi)e MS ties. Japan and Bra^d are the main ejqixtrters of loofah sponges mostly to the United Statos, but these are mainly from sponge gourd. In West Africa mature fruits of ridged gourd or sponge gourd are sold as sponges in street markets and supermarkets. Properties The composition o| idgid gourd !i

i

per 100 g edible portion (tough skin removed, edible portion 62%) is: water 94.2 g, energy 70 kJ (17 kcal), protein 0.8 g, fat 0.1 g, fi'uits

Luffa aeutangula - planted and naturalized

LUFFA 371 carbohydrate 3.3 g, fibre 1.7 g, (Ja 12 mg, P 32 mg, Fe 0.3 mg, carotene 26 ng, thiamin 0.07 mg, riboflaviii 0.02 mg, niacin 0.4 mg, folate 37 a8CorV)if acid 3 mg Tho n)mp nny m.inagement care is given. Diseases and pests Ridged gourd is not very susceptible to diseases and pests. Powdery mildew iEty.'^iplie cichoraceanini) and downy

Ecology Ridged gourd may be common as a qxmtaneous plant on abandoned land, as a fallow crop and on gaibage heaps. Unbke many

mildew {Paeudoperonoapoixt cubenaia) are

re-

ported. Fruits rot easily in contact with

wrt

other rueiirbits it prows well in tropicnl lowlands, it prefers seasonal climates because diyseason planting is more sucoessfiil than wetseason planting. In Africa it thrives in the dry forest or moist savanna area, around 8— lO'N. Outside these latitudes^ too much rain or excessive diyness often affect the development of the fruits. In humid areas growth is direeted towards the production of leaf biomass, whereas under dry conditions the energy is directed toM.inls abundant nowering. Too niurh hrn\y

Harvesting Young immature fruits of 300— 400 g are picked 12-15 days after fruit set. Fruits can be picked e\ ei \ days throughout

rainfall

during flowering and fruiting leads to

fruit rot. Frost is not tolerated. Ridged gourd prefers a well-drained soil with a hi^ ne liole per m each way, Alternatively, seedlmgs may be raised in containers and transplanted. The 1000-seed weigfht is around 00 g. For direct sowing 2-;^ kg Mil needed per ha. for transplanting 1-15 ki: In the I'hilippines, a planting distance of 2 m -< v is practised for a superior Fi hybrid, with a seed requirement of only ^00 p.^ia.

m

m

Management In commercial cultivation the crop needs good care. Planting on raised beds assures good drainage in the rainy season. Irrigation is required during dry conditions at regular intervals, particularly before the flowering period.

NPK

fertilizer is applied to

hance growth, flowering and

fruit

In South -East Asia, the larvae of fruit flies (Darii.t spp.) may damage yoimg fruits: a high infection of thrips may cause stunted gi-owth, and also caterpillars, leaf miners and aphids soil.

are

re|)nl-tei| ;is

pests.

:i

hand

the fruiting season, by Individual plants

or with a knife.

may produce 15—20

fruits;

declines after 8-13 weeks of harvesting. For sponge production, the fruits are left for

jrield

two months on the vines till turning brown. For seed production, the seeds are shaken out of the complel ely dry fruits.

Yield Landraees produce 10-15 t/ha. An average yield of 27 t^ha of young fruits is reported for hybrid eultivars in the Philippines imdcT gocid in.-in,ii:i-m' Handling after harvest Immature fruits of ridged gourd are easily damaged. For long distance transport, the fruits have to be carefully packed. The fruits can be stored for 2— weeks at 12-16°C. The processmg of sponges fixim the ripe fruits involves immersing the friut in running water until the rind disintegrates and disappears, then the juilp and seeds are washed out, the sponges are bleached with hydrogen peroxide and dried in the sun. I"

t

Genetic resources (lermj)lasm

collections

m

of Luf/a aculaiigiila are kept at genebanks India and Taiwan, at the Institute for Plant Breeding in the Philippines, and in Nigeria at

the National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotedmology (NACGRAB) at Ibadan. Breeding Many local eultivars are found in the Asian countries and improved eultivars are available from several seed companies. Popula-

en-

tions are very variable. Fi hybrid eultivars are

A

used in several .\sian countries East-West Seed Ckimpany in Thailand developed Fi hybrids for tropical lowland with good market

formation.

basal dressing of NPK (e.g. 14-14-14) at the rate of 26 g/hill can be given, followed by side dressings of 20 g/hill d' urea or NPK at twoweek intervals. Lateral stems are pruned if they gi-ow too abundantly. Some top and leaf pruning may promote flower and fruit development, resulting in a higher yield. For opti-

quahty, e.g. pale or dark green fruits, short cm) to long (50 cm) fruits. Malika F- is a hybrid '

i

with

high

disease

tolerance

and especially

suited for the rainy season.

FxoipeetB Ridged gourd

is

a high yielding

LYCOPERSICON 373 and easy to cultivate vcRctablc. Breeding and production technologj' research combined with market development might gn e

it

a

chance to

develop into n mnrkef vfgctnlde of imptirt nnct"

Asian countries. The use of fibre from the mature fruits and the use in agroin Africa, as in

I'oi-fstiy iis a jtlant for •^dil

rehabilitation with a

heavy production of leaf biomass might be mvestigated.

Major references (Iron din

Snindja

1

Heiser. C.B. B.,

Unwin,

&

I.D.

H.M., 1986; Armoufinm, R. 2002;

Rurkill,

&

rl

1990; Holland, D.H., 1991; Huyskens,

Schilling, E.E.,

& Buss,

& Ventura M G.J., Gildemacher, B.Ii. & 1993; Jansen Phuphathanaphung, L., 1993; Martin, P.W., 1979: Purseglove, J.VV,, 1968: Kobinson, R.W. S.,

Mendlinger, S

,

Benzioni, A,

&

Dork.T-Wallfrs, D.S.. 1997; Watt, J.M. Bre\er-Brand\vijk, M.G., 1962.

Other references

&

&

Lyeoperaieoii eaeuleiiUtin - planted

Ladipo, Akinsayn, \. &

edible (except in Italy) because of the erroneous

Naqvi, H.Z., 1968; Central (Queensland University, 2003: Chakravarty, H.L., 1968; Fernando, L.N. & Griin. 11'.. 2001: Huyskens. S.. 1991; Irvine, F R. Ui.'^2: Soladuye. .M.O., 198.J.

many other Solanaceae species. Tomato was introduced bom EHirope to southern and eastem Asia in the 17th centuiy and subsequently to the I'nited States. Africa and the Middle

Sources of illustration Jansen, G.J., Gildemadber, B.H. & Phuphathanaphong, L.,

portant vegetables worldwide.

D.O.,

Adebisi, A.A.

2000n; Adopokp

R A

,

assiiinf)tion that

East.

Tomato has become one

Uses Tomato

I99:i

Authors M.O. Soiadoye &

A.A. Adebisi

they would be poisonous like

fruits are

of the

mnsumod

most imfresh

salads or cooked in sauces and used as a

in

fla-

vouring in soups and meat They are made into sweetened candies, dried fruits, and even into wine. Rrnnomirnlly equally important are the processed forms such as puree, juice, ketdiup, canned whole and diced frtiits. Fkodnction and internatioiial teade \\'orld tomato production in 2001 was about 105 milUon t fresh fruit from an estimated 3.9 million ha. Leading iomato producing countries are China with 934,000 ha India .^DOOOO ha. or fish dishes.

Lyoopersicon esculentum Protologne Gard. n, 2

Mill.

diet. ed. 8,

Lyeoperaieon

(17n8)

Family Sulanaceae Chromosome umitber 2n = 24 Synonjnns Solanum lycopersicu m

L. (1763), Lyropprairnti Ivcoprraictim (L.) H.Knrst. (1882).

Vernacular names Tomato Tomate (Po). Nyanya (Sw).

(En).

Tomate

(Fr).

Origin and geographic distribution Tho genus Lycopersicoii, comphsmg 9 species, has its origin in the South American Andes, from central Ecuador through Peru to northern rhilf: one species is endemic in the (Halapagos Islands. Wild plants of Lycopersicoii esculentum are more widespread and have been perhaps more recently disi rilniterl into other South American regions and into Mexico. Archaeological, ethnobotanical

and

linguistic evi-

dence suggest that tomato was d',

embryo

coiled

m

endosperm. Seedling with epigeal germination. Other botanical information Research on phylogenetic relationships, using morphological characteristics but also molecular markers,

indicates that Lyct^teraieon should be induded in Sniaiiinn and is closely related fo potato and

9 larger ones per loaf these ovate to oblong, 510 cm long, irregularly toothed and sometimes phinatifid at base, and a variable number of

its wild relatives. However, the systematic placement of tomato in Solamtm (as Solamim

smaller ones

sicuin) is

hairs.

glandular cyme, normally 6-12-

leaflets covered with

Inllorescence

a

compound and up to 100-flowered. Flowers bisexual, regular, 1.6-2

flowered, but sometimes

lycopersicmii in section or subsection Lyeoperstill

controversial in that

it

has yet to

gain universal acceptance, and the treatment in Lyeopenieon can be justified by the maintenance of nomendatural stability in this eco-

LYCOPERSICON 376 nomically important crop. Lycopersicoii esciilentum can be hybridized hut with with the othi-r 8 Lycoperaicon sjh 2 of these, the self-incompatible Lycopri sicon

ms

pemvianum

(L.)

Mill,

and

chUense Dunal, hj^ridizaticn

is

Lycopersicoii

only possible

usually formed before the apex

i.s

transformed growth is

into a terminal inflorescence. Further

sympodial. In indeterminate cultivars sympodial growth txmtinues inilefinitely with inflorescences everj' tially

3"*^

over a

leaf

and fmits maturing sequen-

kmg period of time.

In determinate mflnrescen-

Mi

with the Mid of embrj'o culture or by pollination with a mixture of auto- and allo-poUen. J^Ioat wild Lycoperdcon species have contributed to

types growth is arrested after

the genome of modern tomato cultivars.

slower growing shoot with one leaf and a terminal infloreswx'nce. Strong axillaiy bud develop-

Numerous

r-ultivars of

tomato

exist

They can

be variously classified, e.g. according to; - growth habit: indeterminate, semi-determi-

-

oes,

leaf

when the primary axillary' bud of the last aborts and the next bud develops into a

ment

at the base of determinate Kypes produces

their bushy habit with several stems

nate or (jrtermin.iti' (Inishy):

period of prolific flowering folkiU

round (cherrj' tomato. < 30 g; 'Monqnoiaker', 80 g), medium-large round (120-160 g), beefsteak and ribbed (> 200 g);

when frmt growth

fruit size; small

-

fruit

-

colour of ripe

-

utili/ntinn; for fresh

shape:

round,

heart-shaped,

shaped, plum-shaped, elongated or fruit: red,

pear-

flat;

pink, orange or yellow;

market

(dirert ronsiimp-

tion) or protvssing (high soluble solid content

and viscosity). In tropical Africa, many farmers still use open-pollinated euitivars. lioth fresh market and processing types. Floradade lleinz 1370', 'Marglobe', 'Super Marmande', 'Moneymaker', Rio Fu(>()200 g seeds are sown per 250 m- of seedbed which provides enough plants for 1 ha. WTien direct-seeded, the sowing rate is 600-1000 g seed per ha. Fertilizer at a rate of 10 g N 10 g

K

and 2 kg farmyard manure per 1 mof seedbed area should be worked into the seedbed. The young seedlings require ample P, 15 g

water

good healthy growth. Seedcaused by damping-off diseases are

to sustain

ling losses

by solarization of the seedbed or by drenching the soil with fun-

often controlled eflEectively

such

gicides

as

Previcur

N

hydrodiloride), prior to sowing. 1

1

Miisplanting

waterini; should

(propamocarb-

A week before be reduced

to

harden be seedlings. Seedlings ore ready for transplantmg when 3—1 weeks old (15-25 cm tall with 3-6 true leaves). They should be thoroughly watered 12-14 hours before they are I

of the seed-bed to avoid excessive to the roots. Transplanting should be the afternoon or on a still, cloudy day to reduce the transplanting shock, and should be followed by watering. Spacing between lifted out

damage

m

done

plants and distance between rows depends ha of fruits are obtained on average from an open-field tomato crop. Some average yields per count ly arc: Xiperia 7 t/ha Kenya 12 t/ha Egypt 35 tVha, France 120 t/ha. Extremely high tomato srields (rf 460-600 t/ha are obtttined in heated and lighted glasshouses in the Netherlands with a harvesting period of 9 months from a single crop. Seed yields are 100-150 kg/ha for Fi hybrids and up to 300 kg/ha for open-pollinated culti-

m

vars.

Handling after harvest After piddng, tofruits may be moved to a shady place to prepare them for the market. Properlj- sorted mato

in the hot tropics tend to have a pale red or yellowidi colour and are poorly fla-

voured. Glenetic resources Many institutional collections of cultivated and wild Lycopersicon exist. Some of these collections have been well described, evaluated and documented for use scientists, the most important one being the ("^.M Rick Tomato Henetic Resources Center (TCIRC) at the University of California, Davis, United States. The TGRC maintains at present about 1060 accessions of tiie 9 Lymjn'r-

by tomato

sicon

and

1

related Solniiitm species

;>()()

ac-

cessions of monogenic (spontaneous and in-

duced) mutants affecting all aspects of plant development inf regressed disease resistance

g^es and protem marker miscellaneous

stocks,

and 1190

including

accessions

linkage

tester stocks, trisomies, translocations, Latin

.American cultivars and various progenies from interspecific pre-breeding.

A

large collection is

also maintained at the Asian Vegetable Re-

search and Development Penter (.WTJDC) in Taiwan and the N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant

Industry (VI R) in Russia. Since modem imprnved uhn ars are rapidly replacing the old Umdraci's th>' latter should be collected for future breeding purposes. l

Breedinir In

common

to

tomato breeding, methods crops have been

self-pollinated

complemented with those

specific to outbreedinbred lines developed from intra-

and graded fixiits generally command a better market price than ungraded ones. The market-

era. Selected

able fruits are packaged in containers

lowed by line, pedigree and recurrent selection can be either released as cultivars or used as parent lines for the production of Fi hybrid cultivars. Although more eiqiensive to produce

often

10-2o-kg wooden or plastic boxes. Processing tomato fruits are popular in market gardens in the tropics because their firmer fruit better

and

interspecific crosses

and backcrns-i

s

fol-

MARSILEA 379 hy multiplication (seed handmostly pollination), Fi hybrids are often higher jielding as a result of transgressive hybrid vigour in crosses with genetically divergent inbred lines. However, the main advantage is the potential of combining several disease resistances and oiher inte resting plant and firuit diaracters in

one

cultivar.

Many

characters, including resistance to sev-

diseases and pests, are controlled by monogrnos Howovor fruit quality, rosistnnro to diseases lilve bacterial wilt and TYLCV, heat tolerance and other agronomic characters are eral

inherited polygenically. Selection requires

i

x-

and progress is often much work at the University of

tensive field testing slower. Breeding

Florida has produced cultivars, such as

F\o-

and adapand humid summers of Florida), whidi have been progenitors of several cultivars rrcommondrd for tropical climates. Other important contributions have come £rom Hawaii (resistance to root-knot nematodes, genetic studies on bacterial wilt and TSWV rade' (disease resistances, firm fruits

tation to the hot

resistant^?),

- supeunited at baae. Fruit a in diameter, globose, r)-valv(l capsule c. 5

rior, 6-celled, styles 5,

mm

few-seeded. Seeds S-sided,

c.

mm x

3

2.6

mm,

Protologue Hook., Niger F1.: 503 (1849). Family K u ph o rl ren e Chromosome uiunber 2n = 20, -lO, 60 > i ;

Synonjrms Tragia mercurialia L. (1753), MerciiHaHs al tern ifolia ham. (1797), CkuM^fiau (L.) Thwaites (1861). Origin and geographic dlstrlbutiou MicrO'

mercurialis

tbmughout

cocca mercurialis occurs

Yemen

Africn

Sri

Indi.-i

tropical

Lanka, western Ma-

and northern Australia.

striate.

laysia

Mdoehia comprises about 50

species, with 3 mainland tropical Africn MeUtchia meUsaifoUa Bonth. is found in both

Uaes In Benin and Gabon leaves of Micrococca mocinialis are eaten as a vegetable. In Uganda leaves are w idely used as a vegetable

and trapieal America. It occurs grassland and on waste griauid It from Mvloch'ui corchorifolia in the allround pubescence of the stems. Both species are highly variable and have similar uses. Ecology .Vc/or/i/o cnrrhorifniia is mostly found in sunny or slightly shaded, humid localities such as river banks, lake shores and alluvial plains. It is a common anil unpurtant weed, notably in lin' (heth upland and low-

and the method of }ireparation and popularity differs by region. They are sold in local markets and dried and pounded to powder for storage and later use. In Congo the plant is used to treat fever in children, and plant sap is

species occurring in

tropical Africa

swampy

in

diffeis

and cassava. In the literature mention

land), soybean, cotton

Management made

is

of niltivnlion of }frlochia rorrliorifolia

but no details seem to have been pubhshed. Propagation is done by seed, germination can be improved considerably by scarification. Scarified seed germinates best at temperatures of

35— lO'C. Melochia

to

be a host of Aingal diseases (RhizocUmia

corchorifolia is reported

solan f)

Genetic reaources and breeding Genetic

instilled into nose,

eyes or ears to treat head-

ache, filariasis of the eye

and

otitis,

respec-

tively.

Properties The leaves of Mieroeocea mercurialis have an acid taste. Botany Annual herb up to 60 cm tall. Leaves alternate; stipules small, early caducmis [ii'tiole up to cm long blade OVate to lanceolate, 2-7.5 cm x 1-4 cm, rounded at base, apex acuminate, margin crenate, glabres''.'•>

oent to subglabrous, dull grey-green. Inflorescence a raceme :]-\'2 cm long with flowers ar-

ranged mterruptedly flower sexual

in

and several male pciliccl 2

mm

dusters of

1

female

flowers. Flowers uni-

long, petals absent:

flowers with 3 calyx lobes leas than

1

male

mm long,

erosion is not hkely as the geographical distribution o{ Melochia corchorifolia is extensi\c

yellow-green, stamens 3-20 (in African speci-

Prospects Melochia cnnhorifolia will i^emain locally of some importance as a collected vegetable. Its weedy nature warrants caution

purple;

promoting wider use and ridti\-ntinn. ()uite some research has been done on the phytochemistiy but little is known about the pharfor

Eastm,

E.F.,

Burkill,

1083; Goldberg, A.,

II.

M..

2000:

1967; Wild,

H., 1961b; Ysrael, M.C., 1999.

Other references

.\renes,

J.,

1959; Black,

& Snow, J.P., N., Babu, A., Dom, S. & 1996; Raja, Ignacimuthu, S,. 2001; van der Zon, A.P.M. & Grubben G J.H 1976; Williamson J., 195.5. Sources of illustration Ysrael, M.C., 1999. Authors C.H. Bosch

B.D., Griffin, J.L., Russin, J.S.

n 9) disc glands stipitate, spatulate, fomalc llowers with 3-5 calyx-lobes,

ofte

mm

lanceolate, 2 long, green with hyaline margin, ovaty superior, 3-kibed, styles 3, 1 long disc glands linear-filiform, 1 long. x 4 Fruit a subglobose, 3-lobed capsule 2.5

mm

mm mm

mm,

strigose,

subglobose, 2

macological properties of its com|>ounds.

Major references

mens

purplish.

mm

x

1.5

Seeds angular^ pink-brown to

mm,

blackish

Micrococca comprises about 12 species, and is distributed in the tropics of the Old World. Micrococca /»e;r;;r»oiMr comprises a polyploidnl complex selected by climate, which determines the duration of the growth cyd.e: 2n = 20 (diploid, dry Sudan /one short growth G9;

H.M., 1994; Katende, A.B., Ssegawa,

P & Rii-nip A 1!)1>9; Radcliffe-Smith, .\., 1987; Raponda- Walker, A. & Sillans, R., 1961. Other references Berhaut, J., 1967; Champault. A..

1970; Govaerts. R,. Frodm. D.G.

&

Radeiiffe-Smith, A., 2000: RadclifTt-Smith. A.,

& van Wei/en, P.C., 2002; van derZon, A.P.M & Grubben, G.J.H., 1976. 1996; Sagun, V.G.

on

but horses avoid

it

In Queensland, Aus-

it.

and flowers were

without causing problems. The

fed to sheep

s are used ami form a slightly soapy solution m water. Medicinal use of Momordica bahamina is widespread and diverse, ("otnmon widespread uses are as an anthelmmthic (Iruits, seeds and leaves), against fever and excessive uteiine bleeding (leaves), and to treat syphilis, hepntiris nnri skin di.soiflcrs. rheiimntism Other uses are as an abortifacient, aphrodisiac

fn clean mi'tal (ibjects

body.

and

and

I:

.i \

to uasli hancls

I'hey

lactogenic,

and

The

in treating diabetes.

whole i>lant. totrether with Strophanlhiis. is used in the preparation of an arrow poison in parts of Xi|j:fria. Ripe firuits may have caused the death of do^s and pigs. Properties The composition of the leaves per 100 g is: w ater 80.4 g, protem 3.0 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrate 3.6 g, fibre 0.9 g, Ca 340 mg, mp P j!7,7 nifi, Fr- lii.T 7n 0 !) mg, Mt: .HT 1

thiamm

0.01 mg, riboflavin 0.09 mg, mg, ascorbic add 0.4 mg.

macm

0.7

The composition ter 89

1

g.

of the fruits per 100 g is: waprotein 2.0 g. fat 0.1 g, carbohydrate

5.1 g, fibre 1.8 g,

36.8 mg.

mp

Authors P.C.M. Jansen

leaves

tralia,

Fe

Ca

2.6 mg,

Mg 41.2 mg, P mg, thiamin 0.04

35.9 mg,

Zn

rihoflnvin O.Ofj mp,

1.0

nscoi-hic .u'id O

(Arnold, T.H., VVeUs, M.J.

.'i

& Wehmeyer,

mg

A.S.,

1986).

MOMORDICA BALSAMINA L

The

bitter taste of

sniniiin

Protologue

many

Sp. pi. 2; 1009 (1753).

Family Cucuibitaoeae

Chromosome niuuber 2jf = 22 Vernacular names Balsam apple,

(Po).

Origin and geosrapliie disMbntkm Momororrurs thr ufhout /\frica south of the Sahara, but not in the Indian Ocean islands; it is also found in Yemen, India and Australia. It occurs wild in tropu nl America as fiifd hnlsaiiiitia

probably as a result of

intriKliu tion.

Uses The leaves and young fruits of Momordica bahamina are cooked and eaten as a Cameroon Stidrin .md sf)ii(hpm Africa. The bitter young fruits have been reported widely as edible, whereas the ripe fruits cause vomiting and diarrhoea, and can be poisnnniiR. The bright red fruit pulp is eaten in Namibia. The leaves and stems serve as camel fodder. In Senegal donkeys, cattle, she^ and goats feed vofrrtnblo in

part s of

Momordica

bal-

nirurbitnrins, as in

may

also be

caused by saponins. The ribosome inactivating momordin II has liccn isolated. ii< u i'II as the caffeic acid ester rosmarmic acid, which is of pharmaceutical interest because of its

protein african

cucumber, southern balsam pear (En). Margose, coui^ette africaine, cmncrnmbre balsamite (Fr). Balsamina de purga, balsamina pequena

well,

all

may be caused by

other Cucurbitaceae, but

anti-inflammatoiy, antiviral, antibacterial antioxidant activifirs

and

Botany Monoecious, annual or short-Uved perennial heib, trailing or climbing with simple tendrils: stem up to \ J\ m lonp angular. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules absent; petiole 0.5-6 cm long, pubescent; blade broadly ovate to orbiculai 1-9 cm x 1-12 cm. deeply palmately 5-7-lobed lohcs -i-.l-lubulate. Flowers solitary, unise.vuul, regular, 5-merous; male

flowers with pedicel 1.6-10 cm long, receptacle 2-4..^ lonp. sepals 0 .^-1 cm long, petals 1-

mm

2

cm

long, pale yellow,

cream or white, and 3

bee stamens; female flowers with 0.6

cm

long, receptacle 0.5-1

mm

up to sepals

pedicel

lung

narrow up to O cm long, petals n..")-l rm long, and ulterior, 1 -celled ovary. Fmit an rt

cm long, tubercubright orange or red, dehiscing with 3

ovoid-ellipsoid berzy 2.5-4.5 late,

."i

MOMORDICA 386 vnlvos, oxposing the manj" seeds

embedded

in

mm

red pulp. Seeds ovate, compressed, 9-12 long.

Momordica comprises about

10

majority of which are Ai'ncan.

the

sjieoies.

Where Mo-

mordica balaamma and Momordica eharantia L. both occur, they fire not clearly distinguished by the local population. Hence, many vernacular names apply to both.

Ecology Momordica halsaiiiiiui is widespread throiiphoiif the ' river

OQ river banks

grasflland,

beds.

Management Momordica

bahamina

ia

mainly collected from the tivated as well

Ii

wild, but widely culplanted close to home-

IS

and huts. Qenetio reaonroes and breeding Mo-

Momordica eharantia - wild atid plaiUed

steads, often grow ing over fences

mnrdicn halsaiiiiiia is widespread and not in danger of genetic erosion. Transfer of genes within tiie genus is possible, allowing improvement of notably Momordica eharantia. Prospects The contradictory reports on toxof Momordica balsamiiia plant parts should instil caution when transferring uses frum one nrea to another. .\s in many other icity

cucurbit species, bitter

and

different

types

may

toxic as well as non-bitter

occur:

and

edible

ones.

Major references Arnold T.H

&

Wells, M.J.

Wehmeyer, A.S., 1985; Burkill, H.M., 1985; C, 1978; Jeffrey, C, 1980; Neuwinger,

Jeffrey.

Other references

C

ics, but now pantropical. It was possibly domesticated in India and southern China and is naturalized in almost all tropical and subtropical regions. It is an important market vegetable southern and eastern Asia, e.g. India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysi;i thrld trop-

dica rharaii till

1979;

.Asiatic

from the wild as a vegetable or medxcmai plant. It is occasionally cultivated in East Af-

B.E., ID.^iS:

Watt

van .I.M

W

\

Stevels, k

X:

Brandwijk, M.G., 1962; Zemede Aslaw

H.E,

&

ISreyer&.

Mes-

rica mostly

by people of Asian

origin using

Asian cultivars.

Uses Immulure fruits oi Momordica cliarau' used in stews and curries, or pickled. They are also stuffed with minced meat. Seeds of more mature fruits must be removed. Bitterness may be reduced by parboiling urd is BUHccjilibit'

including Ralatonia,

will usujilly

show clear yellowing of the

wilt

veins,

resulting in a webbed' pattern on the leaves, before wilting. Infection with bacterial wilt

causes quite supin,\

,

spiny,

dark green

fruits)

medium green

ing the rainy season

and Indra' (short, For growing dur-

fruits).

when

prices for produce

are usually high, the cultivar Jade Star XL'

was

developed, which has minimum problems with fruit cracking. For advanced farming sys-

tems and shorter crop cycles, earlier maturing pale green cuHivars sudi as 'Hanuman' (medium-sized fruits) and Torapi' (long fruits) were introduced Taiwanese and Indian seed companies also developed Fi hj bnds. The Tai-

wanese seed oompttiy Known-You developed the popular white-fruitrd warty cultivar

Noon and the green smooth rise'.

'Hi^

cultivar 'Motm-

Bitter gourd has been successfrilly crossed

Moinordica cochiiichi'iwitsis (I.our.) with Spreng. nnd with snake gourd iTrirhostitilhrs L.). Genetic mformation on bitter

cucuineniia

gourd is rath^ limited; most of this work done at Indian research institutes.

is

390 VEGETABLES

Prospects gourd

in the

In view of tho popularity of bitter

Asian tropics and the release of

and many are

-shared with other

Momordica

The

spp.

juice of crushed leaves is used to recough (Uganda), stomach-ache (Uganda),

superior Pi hybrid cultivars, its popularity in Africa is expected to incrt'MSH Since the results

lieve

with bitter gourd in the treatment of diabetes still somewhat oontradictoiy, more researdi needs to be done on its hypoglycaemic activity. Several compounds from bitter gourd show interesting pharmacological activities, e.g. antitumour, immunotoxic and anti-HTV, which

headache (iJurundi, Uganda, Malawi), earache (Tanzania), toothadie (Uganda) and as an antidote for snakebites (Tanzania). Skin problems caused by smallpox (Cote d'lvoire), boils (South

are

nnd m;iy hnve potential in the development of future medicmes. Maior references Burfcill, H.M., 1985; Jeffir^, C. 1967: Morton. J.R., 1967: .\guyen Huu Hien & Sri liayati Widodo, 1999; Oyedapo, 0. 0. & Araba, B.G., 2001; Reyes, M.E.C., uldcmacher. B.H & Jansen, G.J., 1993; Ross, 1. A L'008: Tunlalf II, D.. 1983. Other references Adlerz, VV.C, 1972; Agrawal, J.S., Khanna,, A.N. & Singh, S.P., 1957: Ahmed nhandrannth, T., Shnrma, A.K., Adeghate, E., Fallot, D.J. & Singh, J.. 1999; Ayensu. E.S.. 1978; Ganguly. C. De. S. & merit

fiirthcn- rosonrcli


e firuits is eaten in ^hana, Gabon, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda collected

i

'

and Tanzania. The plants are grazed by cattle in Sudan. Leaves are used as ladder (Kenya, Tanzania) and are said to be especially suitable for fattening rabbits. However, there are reports from

Kooya that

emmenapopue (Cote

as

d'lvoire),

Uganda, Tanza-

ecbolic (Cote d'lvoire, Gabon,

aphrodisiac (Cote d'lvoire) and abortifocient (Uganda).

The roots, said to be poisonous, and the enidted seeds are used in East Africa to cure constqiation. The fruit pulp is said to be poisonous to weevils, moths and ants, and is used as an insect repellent in Tanzania. The Karamajong (Uganda) use the whole plant on their rattle as an oxperker repellent. The fruits are often eaten by egg-eating snakes. In Gabon the leaves are soaked, dried in the sun and used to stuff cushions, Properties Leaves have a bitter taste and foetid smell when crushed. Their nutrilionul composition per 100 g edible portion is: energy

92 kJ (22 kenl) |.ri>t( in r fibre :\.2 g. Cn 1.1 mg, Fe 3.4 mg, Zn U.4 mg, P-carutene 5.4 mg, (ig, ascorbic folate 40 acid 20.6 mg (Nesamvuni, C, Steyn, X P & Potgieter, M.J., 2001). Triterpenes id* the eueurbitarin t\-pe found in both Momuidica chantnlia and Momordica foetida, particularly in the fruits and seeds, are :'.

:i

Muniordicines and foewere reported from fruits and leavee dt Momordica foetida. Momordicines have been found to be both baceytolexic

(identical

teriostntie

and

charantin)

to

it

had no

was shown normal rats,

insecticidal; foetidin

m

lower blood glucose levels

to

but

significant effect in diabetic ani-

mnls, Foetidin has sli^t antispasmodic

anil in Slhpsc)i-

let pulp. Seeds oblong, flattened, c. 1 cm long, brown, testa sculptured, margins 2-grooved. Momordica comprises about 40 species, the majority of which nro African^ The fruits and

consumed as

leaves of several wild species are

vegetables, whereas others are used in traditional medicine.

Ecology Momurdiea

foelida occurs in forest

edges and dearings, margins of swamps and on disturbed ground as a weed and colonizer, up to 2400 m altitude la West Africa it is considered an indicator of soil suitable fur growing cacao.

Genefio resoorces and breeding Moinnnlira /of^itib Is widespread and not in danger

of genetic erosion.

A

few accessions of Mo-

mordica foetida are held at the New Yoik State Agricultural Experiment Station (United States)

and in the National Gciifbank of Kenya. Prospects The main interest in Momordica fbeiida at present appears to lie in the medicinal aspects.

The

insec

t

iridal j>ropcrtic's are

recognized in a small area within distribution. It will

remain only a

ils

only range of

locally

used

vegetable, but it may become important as a source of resistance in breeding o£ Momordica

&

Lehmann,

J., 2nn2£;; Jeffrey,

C.

& Wadhawan, S., & Potgieter,

M.J., 2001; Oliver-Bever, B.,

ls as an

ano-

dyne, anthelmintic, antispasmodic and disinfectant (bactericidal, fungicidal) are widespread. The bark exudes a white to reddish gum (Ben gum or .Moringa gum ) with the oil, which used for tanning, in calioo printing and is sometimes added to sauces to make them

properties of tragacanth (Astragalua) is

thidcer.

Moringa

oleifera is

used

for living fences, in

and as a source of nectar for The leaves are eaten by livestock, espegoats, camels and donkeys. The seed

alley cropping

bees. cially

cake is considered unsuitable as animal feed because of the high content of alkaloids and saponms and is mamly used as fertilizer. The soft wood bums smoke-free and jrields a blue dy«. In India its pulp has bean used to make paper.

Production and international trade in Aflocal trade is mainly restricted to the Kenya some 200(1 mnstly small-SCale

rica

leaves Tn

farmers produce Moriiiga oleifem green fruits Asian community. In Tanzania an enterprise has started with the aim of producing oil and a noeculaling agent. There is considerable international trade, mostly from India, in for the

canned and fresh fruits, oil, seeds and leaf powder, but statistics on the volumes and value are not available. Propertiea The leafy tips of Moringa oleifeinccmtain ])er ion g edible jiortion; water 78 7 g,

energj- 2ading, many-flowered panicle H-'.U) cm Ifing Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, 5-merous; sepals free, 7-14 long, often unequal; petals free, oblong-spatulate 1-2 cm long unequal the largest erect, velvety pubescent, white or cream; stamens 5, filaments 7-8 long, anthers waxy yellow or orange, alternating with 3-5 staminodes: ovary superior stalked, cylindrical, 3—5 long, pink at base, densely hair^', 1 -celled, style slender, glabrous, without stigmatir lobes. Fruit an elongate 3-valvefl eapsule 10-50 cm long, 9-ribbcd, brown when ripe, many-seeded. Seeds globose, 1—1.5 cm in di;iin< tt r with 3 thin wings 0.5-2.6 cm long. Other botanical information Moringa is the only genus of the Moringaceae, a family related to Brasaicaeeae. It comprises 13 spedes, of which 8 are mdemic to the Horn of Af-

mm

mm

mm

394 VEGETABLES rica. Moringa oleifera is most closely related to Moringa con-canensia Nimmo (also from India) and Moringa peii-^iiiid (Forssk.) Kiitii (from the region arounil the Rcil Sc;i. the Horn of Africa, Yemen and Oman). These 3 species share a slender tree habit and the zygomorphic

flowers.

Growth and development

Germination

rates for fresh seeds are around 80%, going down to about 50% after 12 months storage, Init

no

tially

soorls survive 2

years of stornpe. Ini-

the tree grows at a remarkable rate; 3-1

m growth in a year is not unusual. Young trees raised from seed stnrt flowerini;

jiffer 2

In trees grown from cuttmgs the

may be

expedited

years.

first fruits

6—12 months after idanting.

Flowering often precedes or coincides with the formation of new leaves. In Nigeria flowering occurs throughout the year. Etcolo^ Moringa oleifera grows well at lower olovations fn East .Afrirn it is found up to 1350 m altitude, but its adaptability is shown by a naturalized stand at over 2000 in Zimbabwe. It is drought tolerant and is found m lopations with as little as -500 annual ramfall. It can be grown m a wide range of soils but fertile, well-drained soils are mnsl suit.il)!i- Lifjlit fro-i ruled.

m

mm

I

ili

Propagation and planting

In Africa

Mor-

inga oleifera is mostly propagated by seed; in India the use of rutlinps is more common as trees raised from seed produce inferior fnait.

Seed

is

either

sown

directly

m

the field at the

onset of the rainy season or in an irrigated nursen," during the dry season. It is sown at a depth of 2 cm. Germmation takes (3—)7— 14 days and seedlings benefit from shade (about 50%). Initially they are watered twice a day, but this is rcduo d tn onrn a day when seedlings are 10-15 cm tall. Seedlings grow to 15-

cm in 2 monUis; afber 3 months th^ are 40 cm tall and ready for plant in p out. Planting out should coincide with the onset of the rains. Manure is applied in each hole. Cuttings are primarily used for the establishment of live fences. Rranehes 1-1..") m in length with a diameter of up to 4 cm will root readily in just a few months. When grown as a shortduration rrnp in monoculture }fnn'iifin nlrift^ra is planted at a spacing of 0,7-1 m; when planted for long-term production a common spacing; is 1-5 either way. In Tanzania Moringa tili'ijvni is grown for the jirndurtion of seed 26

m

for oil

and

tlocculant at a

recommended density

of 800 trees per ha. In alley cropping an intrarow pacing of 2 is used. In the wet season

m

cereals arc

grown between the

lines, in

the dry

season vegetables.

management Moringa ceives

little

care

apart

oleifera usually re-

fmm

watering.

If

planted during the di-y season half-shade should be provided and watering should be done regularly until the trees are estaldished Manure application is essential to obtam good yields. Manure is spread over the whole field, so asso( iat(Hl ai>ply

{•roi)s

ehemiral

benefit too.

friiij^n steiiojH'lala usually occurs on rocky ground near permanent water. It prefers well-drained soils with a high groundwater table, yet it also withstands and ronsoquently it is drj' rondition.s well found in both wetlands and dry areas. Propagatton and planting The recommended way of propagation is by sowing in polythene bags. Seeds of up to 1 year old have a germination rate of doae to 100%: germination of older seeds is variable and declines as a function of age and storage method. Seeds are placed 1 cm dtjep in a mixture of sand and loam, enriched with compost. The bags have to 111 in h.ilf shade and watered daily. Oerminntion rate and speed of germination are highest at 25-30"C. Transplanting can be done when the plants are 20 cm tall or 6 months old. and with proper water supply (.ilioat 2.5 of water I

everj- iJ—4 days) all plants

should survive. The

most common practice in traditional cultivation seedlinps that have become is (o transplant established under old trees. Before transplanting, branches and roots are cut and the seedlings are left o diy for a week, roots are covered with ash and upper parts with diinp Tn arable fields in Konso, where food crops such as sorghum, maize and finger millet are grown, t

SO-i'O tn-es4ia are maint

areas the trees are planted in micro-catchments. In Arab Mindi, trees are mainly grown in home gardens of up to 0.1 ha with o-15 trees per garden. Other crops usually grown in these .iiiieil

In drier

gardens are papaya, coffee, banana, cassava, maize, sugar cane, cotton and Capsicum peppers.

Cuttings can be used, but in the traditional Konso people they are seldom used. I'rees established from cuttings were e a poor root system. found 1m Management Trees are pruned every o years during the rainy season (Mardi—April). practice of the

Ownership

of individual trees

is

well regulated.

Even trees in public places are owned by individuals and the right to harvest leaves of a tree for life can be bought and sold. Diseases and pests The main problem of Moringa slenopelala in Konso is an unidentified caterpillar, whidi, in just a week can devour the leaves of the trees of an entire village.

No

effective

treatment has been found yet. In

excessively wet soils root rot occurs.

Harvesting siciiofu'fafii

The

of Moringa en the trees dur-

leaves

are preferably

ing the rainy season

when

left

other vegetables are

ample supply. Leaves have a better taste

in

in

sea-^iin than during the rains. Harvestmainly done by children using a long pole

the dry ing

is

with a sickle-like blade attached. Fruits are harvested young to avoid competition with leaf production.

Yield Yield estimates are scarce. Annual production can reach 2000 fiuits or 6 kg of seed per tree under ideal conditions. Medium to high fruit and leaf fields are reported for the plains of the Rift Valley at about 1200 altitude. At altitudes of over 1650 m no fiuits at

m

all

is

are harvelKTt:;ill

I.riLis

S

liisir. .1.

&

A..

Jahn,

Sflomos,

K., 2003; Maundu, V.M, Ngugi, GAV. & Kabuye, C.H.8., 1999; Mayer, F.A. & Stelz, A., 1993; Olson, M.E. & Carlqui^t S.. 2001; Olson. M.E., 2002; Teketay, D., 1995; Verdcourt, B.,

Yalemtsehay Mekonnen & Amare 1986; Geaseae, 1998 Sources of illustration Verdcourt, B., 198U; Verdcourt,

B.,

2U0Ub.

Authors C.H. Bosch

Fl

vegetables. Throughout the range of the speries.

m

the heartshaped

Ghana,

long, is

is

fruit, failed

eaten for

its

f

joil

li*

;irt'

sweet or acidulous

which is about 1 cm eaten after cooking from Cdte dflvoire

The

oil-ridi seed,

DR Congo. Extracts of the leaves or leafy shoots of MyH' anlhiia (irhorcii.t are used in Sierra Leone, Nigeria and the .Mount Cameroon nren in prepato

rations to treat dysenleiy, diarrhoea

and vom-

In the Igala area of Nigeria the leaves of a febrifuge given to young children. In eastern Nigeria a plaster made of beaten leaf-petioles is aiqplied to boils, and the bruised leaf is similarly used in Gabon. In Conm> hiipped leaves are eaten raw with salt to treat heart troubles, pregnancy complicaiting.

are

an ingredient

i

dysmenorrhoea and incipient hernia. A bark decoction is drunk to treat mnlarin fever and cough. In DR Congo a leaf decoction is also used as an anticough medicine. In Tanzania an infusion of the leaves is taken to improve lactation in women Sap from young leaves or terminal buds is applied topically to treat toothache or to the chest against bronchitis and to tions,

Mtrianthw ASBOREUS Protologue

among the most popular indigenous

rated

pulp.

Nahrstedt, A., Jany, K.D.,

H.

Tsnknis.

Nigeria, the leaves of Myriaullius arboreus are

Ownre

P.Beauv. 1:

IG.

t.

11.

12 (1805).

Family Cecropiaceae (APG: Urticaceae) Chromosome number 2n - 28 Vernacular names linnl yrllow mulbeny, bush pmeapple, curkwuud (En). Grand wou'

nian, arbre h pain indigene (Ft).

Pemambuco

(Pn).

Origin and geographic distribution ^fyH the forest zone of

antlius arboreus occurs

m

Guinea and Sierra Leone and aouth to DR Congo, Tanzania and .Angola. Uses In West Africa young leaves are eaten in vegetable soups. In Delta and Edo States of

tropical Africa from

east to southfi'ii Suil.in jiml Kthidpi.i

the throat

.iL'ninst

Inryngitis or sore throat

Myrianthus arboreua is a useful analgesic in the treatment of muscular pains, fractures and haemonhoids. In Cote rflvoire pounded leaves are applied as an enema to treat jmin in the back and loins. The copious sap from the aerial roots is drunk in Congo as an antitussive and ant idiarrhoeic. and as a remedy for haematuria and blennorrhoea. The roots are dued and prepared together with meleguel a pepper (seeds of Afmmomuin inelvgiida K.Schum.i as a vajjour bath against headache In Conpt) the whole fruit is boiled m sap from the tree or in palm wine or other fixiit-ferments and taken as an emeto-purgative; the bark or leaves are used similarly but are considered less elective. MyrkaUhus arboreua is important as an auxiliary plant, the leaves forming a thick layer of or-

ganic mulch It fallow systems.

is

being tested for

managed

Hie wood is soft, yellowish white, perishable and difficult to work, but is used for fcncinu and occasional!}' as a general purpose wood. The wood is also suitable for paper making. Its a to 2. .5 or branched and spike-like and 2—3.5 peduncle up to 7 cm long. Flowers

glabrous. Inilorescence head-like

cm

long,

cm

long;

iisunlly .".mfrous

bisexual, regiil.ir

bular, tube squarish, 1.5

up

to 3.6

mm

x

1

smaller; coroUa tubular,

pale

lilac

mm long,

mm,

calyx tu-

longest lobe

much

other lobes bright

white,

blue,

or purple, tube up to 13

mm

long,

densely hairy at the throat, lobes ovate-oblong-

mm

x 1—2 mm; ovary 2-oelled, lanceolate, 2-6 style filiform, ecaerted 2~i in kmg-atyled

mm

PENTARRHINUM 411 flowers, stigma divided into 2 filiform lobes

mm long.

to 2

mm

X

1.5-.:

usually

up

Fruit capsulp-like, ovoid, 1.5-2.5

inm

ihin-\v;ilir- literature, the

name Penlarrhinum msipuhiin has sometimes erroneously been used for Pentarrhinum abys' siiiicuiii.

Ecology

Pfvitnrrhinuni fjisipuliini

is

associ-

ated with shrubland and savanna, in diy or well-drained conditions, but does not tolerate extremes of dry and wet. It ranges ftcm sea-

412 VEGETABLES level

up

m

2200

to

altitude,

but

most com-

is

mon between 600-1600 m.

Management Pmtarrhinum

inaipidum can easily lio grown from seed and is a rapid producer of green material. Genetic resources and breeding Pentarrhiiiuiii iusipidum is witU'spread in East and southern Africa and not in danger of genetic

mm

erosion.

Prospects in.sii)itln

wild.

is

III

It IS

In

southern

.Africa Pcniarrhiiiuiii

nn important vrpi't;ihlc

fi-ttm

tho

considfied to have some potential for

developmrait as a commercial vegetable. Its nii'(li

lil

t

ii'

erosion.

Prospects Peraicaria

an inmore reaeareh to medicinal and orna-

M'liegaleiiaia is

teresting species, meriting

evaluate

its nutritional,

mental values. Major references Burkiil, H.M., 1997; Dos-

^Mueolus vulgaris - planted

saji, S.F., Kairu, M.G., Gondwe, A.T. & Ouma, J.H., 1977; Graham. R.A., 1958; Wilson. K.L.,

genie in heredity, was improved by breeding in Europe during the 18^'' and 19''' centuries. The

1990.

bard

Other references Cavaco, A,, 1953; Decarj', K. 1016: Hedberg, 0.. 2000: Jansen. P.C.M., 1981; Kerharo. J. & Adam. J.G.. 1971: Iv>kwaro, J.O., 1993; Odei, M.A., 1973; RapondaWalker. A. A., 15)78

& Sillans,

Thulin.

M,

R.. 1961; Raynal-Roques, VMVAh.

Authors P.C.M. Jansen

PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. (French bean) Protologne 8p. pi. 2: 723 (1763). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae

-

Papilio-

noideae, Fabaceae)

Cluromoaoime rnunbez 2n = 22

season.

Vemacnlar namea French bean, snap bean, nnvy- benn, rommnn bean (En). Haricot vert, haricot mange-tout (Fr). Vagem (Po). Mharagwe (Sw). Origin and geographic

distribution Pliascn-

lua vulgaris was domesticated in Central and South America more than 6000 years ago. Domestication occurred independently in Mexico InalcniJila and Peru and nei^jhlxiurinK !ind '

m

c ount ies. Small-seeded ecolypes occur the wild in northern Argentina and Central Amerirn. nr>- si»eds wore introduced and planted in l

the 16^' century and &om there Phaaeohu vulgaris was taken to France. The unripe pods soon became popular as a veget;able in Europe. The use of the green pods was

Spam durmg

made

fibres along both sutures ( strings') were eliminated by a dominant mutation, whidi appeared spontaneously during the 19^ oentur\. However several genes control the presence uf strmgs and this character is somewhat linked with pod etraightness, and it ia only recently thai Frenle

or with

purplish stripes,

(2-),'i-7(-0)-

Description Climbmg, trailing or more or and bushy annual herb, slightly pu-

seeded. Seeds globose to kidney-shaped, elhpsoid or oblong, 0.5-1.5(-2) cm long, blade,

well developed, with many !k1\ entitious roots: stem up to 3 angular or nearly cylindrical. Leaves al-

m

brown, yellow red or white, sometimes with speckled, necked or saddled patterns: hilum oblong to elliptical. Seedling with epigeal ger-

ternate, 3-fbliolate; stipules triangular, small; petiole up to 15(— .'U)) cm long, grooved above,

mination; cotyledons oblong, thick; first two leaves simple and opposite, subsequent leaves

less erect

bescent;

iiipnmt

lateral arnl lung,

distmctly thickened at base, rachis (1.5-)2.53.5(-6)

cm

long; stipels small; leaflets ovate,

(6-)7.5-14(-20) cm x 6-10(-15) in asymmotrical, apical one symmi irK slightly

pubescent,

3-veined from

sal

I

.il

ones

entire

the base.

Inflorescence an axillary or terminal raceme

to

16(-^5)

cm

long,

up

with flowers arranged

alternate, 3-foholate.

Other botanif»d infennatioii Phcueobia .iiut ,"0 species, most of them in the Ampricas, Mo.si French bean cultivars belong either to the climbing, unbranched pole type, or to the dwarf 'bush' type. The pole cultivars have indeterminate growth up to 3 high and coiiq>riBes

.

il

m

PHASEOLUS 417 arc normally supported.

growth

terminate

wax beans

short intemodes. predomimiti' The so-

with

now

Stringless rultivars called

The bush cultivars are tall, and have de-

cm

early maturing, 20-60

are yellow because chloro-

phyll is absent from the pods, petioles and yuini; stems '^rci/n Fi'ciK-h Ix'an pods may be unii'ormly green, or purple-striped due to the presence of anthocyanins. Some cultivars proMantje-lout a duce uniformly purple [kjcIs (e ['uri>le stl-i(ied ;md yellow i)ods OOBSe violet te )

are easier to pick by hand amongst the green foliage.

drical

Most Frendi bean pods.

large

Init

called 'slicing bean

home gardening

in

cultivars

flat

have

tylin-

stringlesB ones,

are popular especially for Europe. Local African culti,

vars - genetic mixtures resulting fiDiu earlier introdiKlions and often heavily mfeeted with seedborne diseases — can be found where smallBcale fanners keep their own seeds.

Growth and development germination, the

soil

Fni-

must be warmer than

peratures of 35*C. which can. however induce flower abortion. The roots form nodules containing nitrogen-fixing Rhiz(Aium bacteria. Several Rhiznhiinu sptn-ie.*; fix ni(r(igle cultivars are sown n-/i together in lines at intervals of 40-50 cm, with 100-120 cm between lines. The seeds are buried at 3-^ cm depth, or up to 7 cm if the soil surface is di^' and the soil not too heavy. For

French bean varies from 0.2-1

tivars, seeds are

ti> i

salmity lay suils

germination problems may occur if irrigation applied between sowing and emergoioe.

is

Propagatton and planting Seed wei|^t of

\n

nvi

rn^e fertilizer recom-

mendation for French bean is about 40 kg N, 90 kg P and 90 kg K per ha for bush cultivars, and 60 kg N. 120 kg V> and 120 kg K for pole cultivars, tion. it is

depending on the

soil fertility situa-

As the growth of the root system is slow, recommended that some nitrogen fertilizer

ni)plied even where effective nodidation can expected. However, excess nitrogen will predispose the cTop to bacterial blight and aphid infestation. In acid soils tricalcium phosphate may he applied in the furrow Ix f'ore snw-

1)(-

lie

m

neutral or allialme soils triple supermg, phosphate. Direct contact between seed and fertilizer should be avoided. During the vegetative stage weeds must be rigorously controlled, but damage to the roots and stem base should b(> avoided. During this stage irrigation should be applied twice weekly if it does not rain.

Overhead

irrigation is

recommended

if

certified

seeds have been sown and if aphids and thrips are a problem. TTowever, overhead irrigation should be avoided for Frendi bean grown for seed production, since it may induce bacterial lili^ht Diseases and pests .Ml parts of the French bean plant may be attacked by one or more diseases and pests, the severity and incidence depending on location and season. Several seedborne diseases are widespread, in Africa disease-free

ncueokia vulgaris is the same diseases and

affected

by

essentially

pests that are found on other legumes such as Cajaitits cajan, Viffttn

sublermnea (L.) V erde, and \ 'igiia ungumilala. In seedlings damping off caused by Pythium aphoitidermatum or RhizoeUmia aolaiii can be

418 VEGETABLES serious in excessively wet soils and particularly

seeds are not treated with fippropriate fungiOlder plants can be killed by scnc ici! (Scli'inliiuii wilt-causing ivifhu^cns lolfsii if

cides.

Macwplioininu pluiseoliiia, Fusarium solani f.8p. phtueoU and by nematodes). Infestation with these diseases

is tjciii'i ally

severe in eases

weeks

of growth are bean flics {Ophiowhich tend to be severe during dry Aphids (Aphis fabtie and A/ifiis rrarrit nt) can also be a pi(il)ii'm at early growth stages. Both bean flies and aphids can be effectively controlled by seed treatment with systemic insecticides such as imidaclofirst

1

myia

spp.),

spells after a rainy sea.son.

In Africa cutworms (Agrotia spp.)

and

of repeated cultivation without crop rotation.

prid.

Management

of these soilbome diseases is veiy dilTicuIt. In Western countries pestuides for the cdntnil of some soilbome ]);)thoijens are

caterpillars {Spodoptera spp.)

commercially available. In Ai'nca the control is by the use of soil amendments (including neem

clude thrips (FrauklinieUa occidentalis, Frcaik-

nematode

extracts for

enntrol)

long crop rota-

or leaving the land fallow for several

tions,

seascms.

The

seedbome diseases angular

if'liiH'ois(itioj>s)\'i

ifn'.ti'nld).

and halo

common

French bean

spot

bacterial

pv. phaseoU)

(Psrudnninnas .syringop pv.

blight

can

pliaaeoUcola)

leaf

anthraenose (Colh'-

(Xcmthomonas campeslria cause

serious

losses

in

crops. It is not possible to control

once establidied. Copper sprays can only minimize further spread and provide limited protection to apparently healthy plants. The use of certified disease-free seed is critical in averting the introduction of these diseases iniu new fields. These diseases are aggravated by overhead irrigation and excessive nitrogen fertiUzation. Most modem FriMich benn cultivnrs are resistant to common races of CoUetotnchuni. It is possible to effectively control angular leaf spot and anthracnose by seed dressing and hy fungicide spi :i\ s Other diseases that can cause serious crop losses are bean rust (Uromyces appendieulatua var. appcndintlalua). powdeiy mildew (Erytt-

bacterial

blight

phi' pnlyfioiii)

and web

blight {Rhiznrtnuia

lam).

Some

bean

rust. Application of fungicides

.in-

cultivars are relatively i-esistant to

may be

bean rust or powdety mildew occur during the early stages

necessnrjfections

if

in-

of

French bean cultivars oa. the market nowadays are resistant tu hcan common mosaic virus (BCM\', aphui-U ansmilled and seedbome). In tropical lowlands where common bean is grown logothei- with cowpea, legume strains of cucumber mosaic virus (CM\0 and several cowpea viruses transmitted by beetles have been obser\'ed on French bean. The conNfofit

t5(

lestulalis)

talia,

and spider mites (Tetraiiychua urliJhwikladeUa oeeiden-

'M\'

is

based on the use of certified

disease-free seed, resistant cultivars

management. The most important

and vector

inaect peata during the

are veiy difBcult to ocmtrol as they are

resistant to

many commonly used

Pod borers are

pesticide'^

easily controlled by Bacillus

ihuringienais products. Spider mites are genrrrdly sm-ero during the hot, diy season and in

many

cases are a result of excessive appUcation

of foliar pesticides early in the season. Integrated pest management (IPN'I) strategies

French

lie^ii iiroduction are centred on the avoidance of foliar pesticide applications for as long and as as possible. This shoiilfl give natural cf)ntrnl agents a chance to keep ])est populations at le\ Is. The stjcond prm( ij)Ie is not tO aj)ply any pesticides after flowering to avoid the contamination of pods. IPM includes crop rotation with nonleguminous crops, the use of certified diseasefree seed, seed treatment with a qrstemic fiin-

for

concept

ol

mu^

(

yicide

and

insecticide, e

g.

carljoxin

and

iiniila-

cloprid for control of damping-off diseases

and

flies respectively, and treatment of lateseason pests such as thrips, pod borers and spidermites by insecticides

bean

Harvesting In

Africa

French

beans

are

picked by hand, usually twice a week, resulting in 4 han-ests for bush cultivars and 7-9 for pole cultivars. This gives higher yields and

better

growth.

trol of

in-

Unietta achultzei and Megabirothrips sjosiedtii, pod borers (Heh'coi erpa ariiii,Q' tendei- seedless, with no strings and (iw iVoin any detects; the width should be less than 6

may

character

cause reappearance of strings in

the progeny of the best F2 or F\ plants.

and

Interspecific crosses can be matle with Phaaeo-

mm and the minimum

tral America),

length 10 cm. The fine pods may have sm.-dl seeds Mnd be short with soft strings; the width should be 6-8 mm. Specifications of grades in other countries may difier somewhat. French bean {xxl.s arv {)acked in rorruU'ited rnrdboard boxes of 'A kp pros.s

m

weight or 500 or 1000

g.

Pre-cooling

is

plastic pre-packs

weighmg

250,

doni- usnit; forced air coolers at

T-S^C. At this temperature and a relative humidity of 96-100%, the pods can be stored for one to two weeks. Genetic resources Most French bean culfivars are of European or North-American origin. Germplasm collections are k^t by researdi institutes in Europe and North America, and catalogues of seed companies ofifer a ocmsiderable variability. The collection preserved by the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CI AT). Call rolombia holds

mostly pulse cultivars;

it

includes mteresting

potential parents for disease resistance, gen-

eral tolerance or

y In adverse soil

a(la[it nbilil

which could be mtroduced mto French bean. Cultivars traditionally recommended for the tropics are the bush cullivars Contender' and Tenderpreen', and the pole cultivars Kentucky Wonder or Phenomene a

conditions,

rames^. These cultivars

nowadays local

may

also

be replaced

b\ nvn-r iccent cultivars chosen after

experimentation and better adapted to

tropical conditions (e.g. the

of

following

generation

by

(taitifoliua

Xanthomonas

bacterial blight already obtained in Ehirope

and and

the I'mted States), proper fruit setting at high

temperatures

adaptation to tropical low-

for

land conditions, improved nitrogen fixation and adaptation to adverse soil conditions using

genes available from tropical pulse cultivars. Bfajor references Ali, M.A., 1950: Fouilloux. G. & Bannerot, H., 1992: Gentry. U S \\\m .\k-ssiaen C.-M., 1992h: Messiaen. C.-.\I..

&

Blancard, D., Rouxel, F. Seif, A.A., Vat«Ia, V,

2fifn:

Sb(>rr.

Lafon, R.,

1991;

&

Loehr,

A.M., Michalik, S.

.\.F.

& MacXab,

A..\.,

1980;

Smaitt, J., 1989; Van Schoonhoven, A. & Voysest, O. (Editors), 1991; Westphal, E., 1974.

Other references S

T.,

Muriuki

CM.

Beije.

Seif

S.J.,

A A &

Kanyagia

Whittle, A.M.

1981; FouiUoux, G.,

1981; Dulie, J.A.,

Holland, B., Unwin, I.D. Janssen. W., 1988: Kay.

1975;

&

Buss, D.H., 1991;

D

E,.

1979; Masten-

C, 196U; Pauvert, P., 1989. SouTcea of illustratioii Smartt,

broek,

PiSUM SATIVUM

L.

Protologue Sp.

Family

1989.

J.,

& A.A. Seif

Antiiors C.-M. Messiaen

pi. 2:

727 (1753).

Papilionaceae (Leguminosae

-

PiQiilio-

noideae, Pabaoeae)

Chromosome number Vernacular names

off-coloured

New homogeneous

lines can be obtained after 7-8 generatioi|s The dry seeds of field pea are first si>aked ill water to soften and are then boiled and consumed as a pulse dish. Alternatively, they are distinguished: field pea,

decorticated

and

split

(

split peas')

before boiling

also consumed roasted The young pods of sugar pea are boiled for a few minutes

They are

only, to preserve their erispness; after boiling

may be stir-fried before ronsumption. The of garden pea are also boiled for a few minutee. Th^ are commonly offered as canned or - in Westeni countries - as deep frozen products In Ethiopia the annual consumption per person of pea seeds IS estimated at 6-7 kg. Mam dishes iii< luile shiro wot' (split pea seeds ground and made into slew and kik wot' (split pea seeds boiled and made mto stew). Snacks include 'eshef (fresh green field pea seeds either eaien raw or roasted), nifn>' (boilt^d dvy or fresh green pea seeds) and endushdush' (seeds soaked first and then roasted). In local maritets white- and cream-coloured seeds are preferred for kik -niakmg and grey -coloured they

young seeds

Piaim 3ativum - planted not well known.

)

The Mediterranean

resrion,

western and cftitml Asia, and RtlTioj>ja have been indicated as centres of origin. Kecently FAO designated Ethiopia and western Asia as centres of diversity, with secondary centres in southern Asia and the Mediterranean rejjion Archaeological evidence of the use of pea dat-

ing from 8000 Cresc(>nt.

The

BC has been found in the Fertile first

(•ultivatif)n

of pen ai)])ortanoe, sugar pea more in Francophone countries, garden pea more in Anglophone countries. Imported

caiuied garden pea seeds are available eveiy-

where in food shops. Uaea Three main types of pea

cultivars

can be

seeds fur shiro -making. In Malawi and some Asian countries, the young shoots are used as a leafy vegetable. In \Vcsif?-n coiinlries dry, mature pea seeds are extensively used as animal feed. The haulms or straw after threshing are used as forage, hay, silage and green manure. Apart from being an important source of food and feed, pea plays a role m soil fertility restoration as a suitable rotation crop that fixes atmospheric

nitro^'i

n

Plroductiou and international trade FAQ estimated the annual world dry pea seed production in i!»;isi-2()():'. ai about 10.5 miliicm t from f) mdbon hn. The main producers are

Canada

(2.1 million l/year I'l-om 1.1 million ha),

France (1.9 millioti t^rear from 400,000 ha), China (1.1 million t/year from 000,000 hn) and the Russian Federation (1.1 million t/year from 700,000 ha). The annual production in tropical Afn< a for this period was about 310,000 1 finm 470. OUU ha. Here, the main producers are Ethiopia (135,U0U t/year from 184,000 ha), DR Congo (66,000 t^rear from 96.000 ha), Burundi (:?2000 t/year from 40 000 ha), Tanzania (28,000 tyj-ear from 63,000 ha), Uganda (18,000 t^ear from 29,000 ha) and Rwanda (14,000 t/year from 3D»000 ha). Hie annual w rald pro' 2111);? was duction of green pen seeds in about 8.7 million t from 1.0 million ha, the main producers being India (3.4 miUion t^rear from 300,000 ha), China (1.6 million t^ear

PlSUM 421 from 190.000 ha) and the United Stntos

(1.0

million t/year from 96,000 ha). In tropical Af-

about 30.000 t green pea seed was produced annually iVom 6400 ha, mainly in Kenya (23,000 tyyear from 5600 ha). StatisticB on the intemational trade in pea seed aie generally scanty, as they are mostly aggregated in pulse crops' as a whole. The main exporting countries are Canada, Austraba, France and China. Canada focuses on the European f^tork feed markti and in roront rica

m

years on the food market India. Australia focuses on the food markets and the domestic feed market. The top importers for pea feed or food are Spain, Bangladesh, Belgium, India, China, United States, Colcnnbia, United Arab E^mirates and Malaysia. Ahnost all the pi hIucMust tion in Ethiopia is consumed locally sugar pea pods produced the world are sold in local markets. Western countries import larcc (]uantirios of supnr poa pods from devel-

m

oping tropical countries because loca% produced ones are available for only a short time of the year and because of the high labour costs of picking. Kenya exports yearly 4.500 t sugar pea puds to the European Union. Garden pea seeds are mostly exported as canned or frozen products from Wi'storn coimlries, r.p. the United States and France, but statistical data are not available. Properties \Miolr mniure dried seeds of field pea contain per 100 g edible portion: water 13.3 g, energy 1269 kJ (303 kcal), protein 21.6 g, fat 2.4 g, carbohydrate 52.0 g (starch 47. G g). fibre 15.0 Ca 61 mu Mg 120 mg P 300 mg, Fe 4.7 mg, Zn 3.7 mg, cai otene 245 jig, thiamin 0.6 mg, riboflavin 0.3 mg, niacin 3.0 mg, ascorbic acid trace. The composition of wrinkled pea seeds is diffetvnt from r-ounded ones; they have less starch (27-37 g) Cat (5 g) and sugars.

Raw

10

Jig,

I.D,

ascorbic acid 51

&Buss,

mg (Holland,

B.,

Unwia,

D.H., 1991).

Description

Annual,

glabrous herl) uji ti) 2nO(-.300) cm tall (up to 130 cm for sugar pea types); tapixiot well developed, up to 120 cm long, with many lateral roots; stem terete, with no or few basal branches, internodes hollow. Leaves alternate, pinnate, with l-d(-4) pairs of leaflets and ending in a usually branched tendril; stipules leaf-like, up to 8(cm long: 10) cm ^ 4 cm; petiole (2— )4—gress in cultivar development

field

and hence less replacement of landraces by a few new cultivars. Many germplasm collections of pea are held all over the s\ nrld The world collection of cultivars and mutant forms of aativum is housed at the Nordic Gene Rank .Alnarp. Swdn (about 2700 accessions). Emiibasis in the c ui' ^ood

ered

light ly

fertility.

Organic manure

recommended As

is

rate of 20-30 t/ha at land preparation.

dressing 40

ku'h.i

"f urea

effen listed as oni^ of the world's

worst weeds, although others consider it not very harmful because of its shallow rooting. It IS however nn iiiiportant host plant for rootknot nematotles. When contmllini; it in other crops, sprayed herbicides such us glyphosate efifective,

it

but seeds

takes for

n

may ma-

herbicide to

kill

the plant. It can also be controlled with the more environmentally friendly com gluten ir ly vek^ in mulched meal. Purslane areas and mulch placed over purslane will usually smother it. Diaeaaea and peata No serious pests or diaeaaea occur, but white rust {Albugo spp.) ia i

!•

Cutting .should be done low to stimulat(> nvw growth. Once-over har\'estinp by uprooting is also done. After 6-8 weeks flowering reduces

the quality of the crop. Yield In the troincs yields kcal) protein 29.7 g, fat 10.-3 g,

bean,

carri, haricot ail^

(En).

^). Fava de cavalo (Po).

carpus tptirtgnunlohtis is known only in cultivation; truly wild specimens have never been finind. The greatest divernty is found in New

Guinea and fho hills of north-onstorn India and neighbouring Mj'anmar (Burma), which are probable centres of domestication. Since the

1960s winged bean has been promoted strongly by intemationid organizations as a multipurpose crop, and it has been introduced and tested in research stations in most countries of the tropirs inrluding those in tropical Africa.

Yet at present it is only rarely found in home gardens or cultivated by farmers. Uses Immature fruits are most commonly used for consumption. They aro tender but insipid and less appreciated than French bean or yardlong bean. The consumption of young leaves is quite common in Asia, either cooked

carbohj'drate 11,7 g, Ca MO mg, Mg 179 mg, P 461 mg, Fe 13.4 mg, Zn 4.6 mg, vitamin A 0 lU, thiamin 1.0 mg, riboflavin 0 In mg, niacin •'^.1 mg, folate 45 pg, ascorbic add 0 mg. The composition of the tubers per 100 g edible portion is; water .57.1 g. energy 620 kJ (1 18 kcal), protein 11.6 g. fat 0 9 g, carlioh\drat.^ 28.1 g, ("a mg. I' 46 mg, Fe 2.U mg, vitamin .A 0 lU, thiamin 0.4 mg, riboflavin 0.16 mg, niacin 1.6 mg, folate 19 ug, ascorbic acid 0 mg (1 'SDA 2002), The food value of winged bean fruits is comparable to that of Frendi bean and yardlong bean, and that of the leaves to othci l.n k green leaty vegetables. The composition of lh>' .seed is comparable to soya bean, its amino acid spectrum being similar. Improved cuitivars with up to 37% protein in the seed exist. The lysine and

m

436 VEGETABLES threonine content

and

is

high,

Q'stine ore limiting

while methionine

amino

acids.

The

oil

and

cm

control is becoming increasingly difficult.

to 2

Adxilterations and substitutes In vegetable dishes other leguminous fruits may as well be used, e.g. pods of French bean, pea, oowpea or yardlong bean The dn,- seeds may be replaied liy soya bean lima bean, cowpea or other pulses. The edible leaves of the wild and

blue

t

cultivated African winged

bean (Pn^hoearpus

.imndtvi.i (Kndl.) \'erf1r.) rnn

be used as substi-

tutes for the leaves of winged bean.

Description Perennial cUmbing or twining herb, usually grown as an annual; roots numerous, with [una lateral roots runnmu horizontally at shallow depth, and some becommg thidc and tuberous; stem up to 4 long, ridged

m

stipules ovate-lanceolate,

c. 1

cm

long, qiurred,

Leaves alternate, 3-foliolatc; 3-12 cm long rachis 1.5-5.5 1-15 cm x

glabrous.

persistent; petiole

resembles that of groundnut. Oleic and linoleic acids make up ah()Ut (".7% of the total fatty acid component and saturated fatty acids 29%. The easily refined oil is reasonably stable, with a high tocophi'i'o! content. The seed contains several potent proteinase inhibitors active e.g. in HeUothia annigera. It has been suggested that transfer of he relevant genes tn other rrops niny ninlsc these resistant to the caterpillar, for which chemical

long; leaflets ovate-triangular

3.5-12 cm. truncate to rouiuled

imse. acute ;il on both sur2-10-flowered pseudor.iceine: peduncle 5-15 cm long, rachis 1-10 cm long, slightly pubescent; bracts semicaducous, minute, bracteoles persistent, up to 0.~) em long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaetHius;

at apex, glabrous or glabrescent

Inflorescence

faces.

up

pedii'o]

If)

n

mm

calyx with tube 1-G

mm long,

a

long

slightly iniln scent

mm long,

lobes unequal,

up

green to dark red-purple; corolla

mauve, creamy or reddish, with almost

up and keel

cm

circular to broadly oblong st.uidard

to 4

X

slightly

3.5 cm, emarginate, \vings

stamens 10, 9 with fused filaments and 1 free or somewhat connate in the middle; ovary superior, oblong, 1 -celled, style bent, with a row of hairs below the stigma. Fruit an oblong to linear-oblong pod square in rrosssection, 6-40 cm x 2-3.5 cm, prominently 4winged, glabrous, 5-21-seeded. Seeds almost yloln so 0.5-1 cm in diameter, yellow, brown or shorter;

sometimes white, sometimes mottled,

lilack

with

glabrous,

small

a

aril.

Seedling with

epigeal germination.

Other botanical infoxmation Psnphncarpus comprises about 10 species, all native to tropical

Africa,

g()noh)hii9.

except

Psophocarpus

Some authors

Psnphnrarpiis ssrniidiflnni s

tetrtt-

consider the wild R Wilrzek others

Psophocarpus scaiulens (Endl.) Verde. (African winged bean), as progenitor of Paophoecupus tclids^onolohiis. Psi)}>hi>C(iri>iin jxiliisti i.i Desv is also closely related. However, it has also been suggested that Pitophoearptu Mragonolohiu dev(>loped from an extinct wild Asian species. is characterized by its comparatively large

It

flowers,

leaves,

short

bracteoles

and by its often loi^

Growth and

and

glabrescent

fruits.

Emrrgrnco of the seedling under field conditions occurs 5-7 days after sowing. Tonperatures around 25M! appear most suitable for germination and growth The fibrous root system with large Xfi.\ing

developillieilt

nodules (up to 1.5

cm

grows 3 months

in diameter)

in proportion to the shoot until about

after planting. In tuberous rultivnrs, increases

diy weight continue beyond the &^ month after planting. After about 2 months the in root

plants start flowering, although smnt local cultivars require as long as o months. The

Psophocaipus It'lragoiiolobus - 1, pari of flou ering branch; 2, tuber; 3, fruit; 4, seed.

Soume: PROSEA

flowers are mostly self-pollinated. Fruit devel-

opment

is not greatly affected by environmental conditions. Maximum fruit length and

PSOPHOCARPUS 437 mnturity nrrur about 20 days and 65 days after pollination, respectively.

Ecology Winged bean equatorial climates.

up

2000

It

is

best adapted to cultiviited iVom seais

m altitude,

but does not tolerate night firost. Day temperatures of 25-3 2°C and iiit,'ht lemix-raturt's ahove 18°C are optimal lor growth and reproductive development. Tuber initiation is favoured by cooler conditions. \\'in^'t>m 10-1. but up to 3.J t/ha has been reported. Seed 8001600 kg/ha; experimental yields of more than 2

per hole can be practised or tough. It may be harvested with or without leaf tops. Small radishes can be hanested mechanically uprooted trimmed and bunched in one operation, but small scale gardeners harvest manually. Lc.)\ s are hnn'csted when required. Yield Approximately 7-10 t/ha of fresh radish can be achieved for early-maturing cultivara of small radish. Yields of mooli types vary between l.'5-20 f/ha and more when roots are

States),

collections

(Tsukuba, Japan),

Philippines).

systemic benzenoid fiingicide metalaxyl with the seed at the rate of 4 g/lvg seed just before sowing reduces field infestation of downy mildew. Serious root diseases in temperate areas are blade rot (Aphanomyeea ropAont) and yellows (Fiisnriii in oxy.sporu in f. Fii .sfiriii III raphani). Club root (Plasinodiophora) is increasingly a problem in tropical highlands in East and southern Africa on soils with a low pll. Important pests are Ilea beetles (Phyllotrela spp.), which attack young seedlmgs, aphids i^hia goaaypii, Liportion is: water 93.6 g, energj- 88 kJ (21 kcalj, protem O.U g, fat 0.2 g, caibohydrate 4.5 g, fibre 1.8 g, Ca 86 mg; 12 ma. P inu Fi' 0.2 m^; Zn 0 mu. vitaA 102 lU, thiamin 0.U2 mg, riboflavm 0.03 mg, niacin 0.30 mg, folate 7 |ig. ascorbic add 8 1

1

1

mm

r ily ,] iste is mg (LTSDA, 2002). The caused by the preisenre nf malic, o.xalic and citric acids and saturated and unsaturated Ce aldehydes and adds. Rhubaib contains free oxalic j

i

1

t

The oxalate content varies bet worn cultivars and samples, in 71 rhubarb genotypes the acid.

mean

content of water-soluble oxalate on a drj' was 3.1% (1.6-^3.0%), that of total of li-;) 2%): the mean c-ontent

matter basis oxalate ).;!%

(;',

malate was 21.U% tl2.2-2U.2%). If consumed in modest portions and not more than a few times per week health hazards .are unlikely .Anfhocyanins in the juice of the leaf stalk are responsible for the red odour. common antinutritional oompaiient in Sheiim species is the mutagcnous nnthraquinono, but no evidence of mutagenicity has been detected rhubai-b leaf stalks. Anthraquinone ooncentratians are higher in the leaf blades and roots.

A

m

Rheum ^ybridum xtalh;

.?

Source:

iiiParrscpfiee

1, plant habili 3, leaf branch; 4, flower; S, fruit.

PKOSEA

Description Robust, perennial luftedherb up to 1,5 m tall, with a woody rhi/ome and fleshy roots. Leaves in a rosette, simple, large, alternate and gradually smaller on flowering stem: stipules united to form a lar^e

whitish,

membranous sheath; petiole up to 1 m long and often more than 2 cm in diameter, fleshy, on the upper side flat, on the underside obscurely proovod or rounded with sharp mnrpins, prrrn often tmged with red or pink; blade broadly ovate or cordate, 20-60 cm x 15-dO cm, base cordate, apex obtusely rounded marpins undulate or crispy and irregularly ciliate, palmately 3—7-veined, pubescent on the veins beneath. Inflorescence a large panicle inaii\ -flnwend I'lowers bisexual, small greenish-white U'lJals in 2 whorls of 3, free; stamens t); ovary superior, 1 -celled, styles 3. Fruit an ovoid nut c. 1 •".lii'-iiviu-^ win

nl>;n

he an inrreasing

for Salicornia pachystacliya. Its nutri-

composition

tional

at - nil

and

cultivation

require-

commercial scale deserve more inves-

Major references Brenan, Brenan, d.P.M.,

&

B.E.

1988; Decarj-.

J.P.M.,

1964;

l{)4n;

R.,

van

Gericke, N.. 2000; Wilson, P.G.,

1981.

Other rdferenees Cavaco,

M

A.,

1954b; O'Cal-

H,R, 1967. Authors P.C.M. Jansen

laghan,

,

1902; Tolkrn,

Samolus valerandi L. Pxotologne Sp.

pi. 1:

171 (1753).

Family Primulaceae (APG; Theophrasta-

re-

only in times when other vegetables are scarce. In southern Africa the plant is ut^ed as a remedy for itch, ringworm and other skin rashes. The plant is sometimes cultivated as an oma1111 -a 111 in water borders; some types survive -iilsnn-rsion for some months, hut Saiiiolu.t alemiuii is not recommended as an aquarium I

l

plant.

Botany Kn ct. glabrous, annual to shortlived perennial herb up to 50(-80) cm tail; stem simple or branched, arising from a basal rosette.

Leaves alternate, simple,

leaves with petiole up to 3

cm

fleshy; rosette long, spatulate.

cm

X 1.5—3.5 cm, stem leaves usually gradually becoming smaller and subsessile. Tnfioresronre an axillary or terminal many4.5—10

flowered raceme up to 25

cm

long.

Flowers

cm

bisexual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel 1-2.5

usually abruptly bent near the middle

where

a bract

tube

1.5

c.

is

attached: cal> x cuji-shajied,

mm long and partly adnate to ovary,

lobes triangular, about half as long as tube; corolla ramiianulaic c 2

mm

long,

with spatu-

stamens mserted at base of corolla tube, alternating with staminodes inserted between the corolla lobes; ovarj- halflate lobes, white;

globose,

inferior

stylo

O

r>

mm

long,

stigma

mm

rounded. Fruit a globose capsule c. 3 in 5, strongly reflexed

diameter, dehiscing with valves,

many-soodod

S( f>ds

angular, c

0..'"i

mm

dark brown. Seedlmg with epigeal germination; hypocoiyl 1—2

mm

long, epicotyl absent; cotyledons leafy, oblongolliptiral

1

-1

..5

mm

long.

Saiiwlus comprises about 9 species, with only Samobts vaUamndi being cosmopolitan, the others mostly found in tho Southorn flomisphere. Dispersion of Sainolus valerandi seeds IS probably effected by birds and by wind. Ecology Sainolus valenmdi grows at water level on stream banks m swamps in drj'ing riverbeds, along coasts and in dunes. It is tolerant of saline soils. Seed germinates only in light does not survive long in salt water and

seedlings die in sea water.

oeae)

Chromosome nwnber 2n = 26 iii Vernacular names Brookweed pimpemrl (En). Mouron d'enu (Fr). Alface dos rioe, v\

coent i*o de tchincherrote

Origin

temppratc

tropical to

Uaes The young

long, minutely granular,

tigation.

Wyk

localities in

and occurs throughout tropical Africa. leaves of Samohis valerandi are cullectcd fiom the wild and oaten as a cooked vegetable or raw as a salad, but mostly gions,

long,

Genetic resources and breeding Salicornia pachyalachya is widespread and does not seem to be in danger of genetic erosion. Prospects StUi^orti in jiarliy.sfarJwti will remain an interesting vegetable with a dist inctive taste. SaUeomia in general is becoming more and more appreciated in haute cuisine cooking

humid

(I'o).

and geographic

bia valerandi is

i

disixibntion Samoan almost oosmopoUtan herb of

Genetic reaourcas and breeding Samobts valerandi is extremely widespread and not in danger of genetic erosion.

Prospects Samohia valeixindi will remain a minor vegetable, paiticularly of importance in times of food scardly. Its nutritional oompoai-

464 VEGETABLES tion

and medicinal properties need

investiga-

tion.

Major references Hrt;i

Hurkill,

1927: Kupirli;i, F

r.

K

H.M.,

1997;

.

Otlier references tJoutique, K., 1971; Fi1995a; Taylor. P., 1958; Watt. J.M. & Breyer-Bnindwijk, M.G., 1962. gueiredo, E.,

Authors P.C.M. J an sen

SCHOUWIA PURPUREA (Forssk.) Protologue

Schweinf.

Bull. Herb. Boiss. 4, append. 2:

18;MI89G).

Family Braasicaoeae (Cruciferae)

Chromosome number 2n = 36 Synonyms Scliounia schimperi Sp;ich (18

17).

Schuiut ia lliehuica

Vernacular names AluuaL

Jaub.

Webb

&

(1847).

(Fr).

Origin and geograpfaio disteilraiicm Sehoutciii /ill rpii

rra

is

distributoH from M.-nirit nnin

throughout the Sahel. Sahara and northern and Somalia; also in Arabia. Uses The Touareg people collect the leaves of Schuiiwia piirjuirea from the wild and eat them either cooked or dried without salt. The young leaves add an agreeable flavour to a salad, similar to thnf of \i S.Moore (1905),

Secamone

rariflo-

m S.Moore (1905). Origin and geographic distribution Seeaiiioiic .slufilinaiiitii is found in Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi.

Uses Tn times of scarcity the leaves of Seeormone xluhhiitimtii are eaten oooked 88 A Vegem .Malawi. The fibrous stems are used for

table

rope. In East Africa a root decoction is used against stomadi problems. Botany l.inna containing latex the whole plant iiisi y-i>ubescent with spreading hairs.

Leaves long;

simple: petiole

n|ijii>site,

blade

oblong

cm

or

ovate

up

to

to

6

mm

lanceolate-

> 0 5-2 rm. base

rounded to acute, apex rounded to acute, margin entire. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary cyme, up to G-flowered podnnrle up to 12 long. Flowelliptical

]-(->

mm

ers

bisexual,

scented; pedicel

regular,

up

6-merous, sweetly long; calyx with

mm mm x

to 8

ovate lobes up to 1,5 0.5 mm, ciliate; corolla tubular with lobes up to 3 long, yellow; corona with triangular or falcate lobes, attached near the base of the staminal column and about one third of its Imgth; ovary supe-

mm

466 VEGETABLES

rior,

apical portion of -stigma head oxscrtod for

about

mm

1

from the top of the staminal

col*

umn. Fruit a pair of folhcles, each one 6-10 cm X 1 cm tfipering yrjidually to a drawn-out point,

brown

silveiy

or

olive-green,

striate,

mm

x 1—1.5 mm, red* puberulent. Seeds 7-10 brown, with a coma of white hairs at apex. Secainone comprises about 80 species, and is native to the tropics and subtropics of the Old World; 62 species are recorded for Ma{]agnscar, for rnnfincntal Africa for southern India 1

and

Sri

Lanka and

South-East Asia and

for

1

AuBtralia. Together with related genera

it is

in

need of revision because the boundaries are not dear.

Ecology Seeamone atuhlmaimii is found in and thickets, at altitudes

riverine bushland bclvsecn 8(1(1-1 7i in

m

Seehiuin edule - planted

Genetic resources aud breeding Sevais widespread and does not SPim in danger of genetic erosion Prospects More research is needed to evaluate the nutritional and medicinal value of

mone atuhlmannU

Seca III 01 w sill 111 in an ii ii. Major references Goyder,

Other references Kokwaro,

II.J.,

1994b;

J.O., 1993; Williamson, J., 1966.

Anthors P.C.M. Jansen

Sechiumedule Protologue

l-'l.

(Jacq.)

Sw.

Ind. occid. 2(2): 1150 (1800).

Family Cucuibitaoeae

Chromosome nimiber "In = 2P> 2S Vernacular names Chayote, choyote mirliton

("hudi6,

(Fr). elv

m -Iv

i

i

'm

cfaahiota,

(En).

caiota,

i

Origin aud gcograpiiic distributiou

i'he

centre of origin and domestication of Sediium

and

Ouatemala, where wild types are still found. The Aztecs and Mayas already cultivated chayote in preColumbian times, but fossil records are lacking It has now spread throughout the tropics ediile

and

is

soxifhern

Mexico

sublropics. In tropical Africa

it

occurs in

many areas as a minor fruit and leaf vegetable, and the Mascarene Islands. In Reunion and Mauritius it is e.g. in

East Afrien

The

of local

dishes,

Nf.-idapasrnr

locally naturalized.

Uses Chayote is mainly grown for its immature or almost mature fruits, han'ested before enlargement of the seed, and eaten as a cooked vegetable. In tropical America and Asia also young, small fruits and young leaves and

besides the

from bland or stardiy to sweetish, depending on the cultivar. Fruits of bland cultivars are used indusi ri.'dly as food filler for pastes and sauces. Because of its low energy value, chayote is gaining importance as a dielarj' food in hospitals and nursing homes Chayote fruits are also considered pood flavour and a baby food. The seed is nutUke source of protein. Fruits, shoots and tubers are fruits.

fruits vary in flavour

m

use' 20^' centuries,

home exjiiirt

paiile de

chouchou

.

The leaves

of chayote are

said to possess cardiovascular modifying as well as blood pressure lowering properties and to dissolve kidney stones. The tubers are a potent diuretic and are also applied for pulmonaiy ailments and relief of intestinal inflammation Medicinal uses of chi^ote have not been reported from Africa. Production and international trade In rhayote is one of the leading market quant vegetables in Central and South America and 11 \

South-East Asia, but its commemal value is low. There is considerable intematiomal trade, e.g. for export to Europe and the United States. in

SECHIUM 457 In tropical Mricn, it is locallj' of some impore.g. in Sierra Leone, Ghana, Malawi, Reunion and Mauritius, but no statistical data on innilu> lidii (»r 1r.:i'li' .'iiv ;iviiil;iMe. Properties The edible portion of chayote finiits is about 86%. The average nutritional tance,

oompoeitiun of fruits iu>r 100 g eilible poriiion is: water 94 g, energy 80 kJ (19 kcal), protein 0.8 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrate 4.5 g, dietary fibre 1.7 g, Ca 17 mg. Mg 12 mg, P 18 mg. Fe DM mg, Zn 0.7 nitj vitnmin A ")(; IF thiamin 0 03 mp ri-

boilavm 0.03 mg, niacin

0. 17

mg,

folate y;i

add 7.7 mg (U8DA, 2002). leaves and shoots contain per 100

ascoibic

^ig,

The young

90 energy 251 kJ (60 kcal), protein 4.0 g, fat 0.4 carbohydrate 4.7 g, fibre 1.2 g, Ca 68 mg, P 108 mg, Fe 2.5 mg, vitamin A 615 jig. thiamin 0(t.S mo;, nlioflavin 0.18 my. niarin 11 mg, ascorbic acid Iti mg. The tuberous roots contain per 100 g edible portion (73% of total): water 80 p cnorpy .V.\] kJ (79 krnl), protein 2.0 p f;it 0.2 g, carbohydrate 17.8 g, fibre 0.4 g, Ca 7 mg, P 34 mg, Fe 0.8 mg, thiamin 0.05 mg, riboflavin 0.03 mv.. niarm 0.9 mg. ascoibic add 19 mg writer

g, g,

(Huiiels,

J.M.M

.

v:m)

edule showed antimutagenic activity in a Salmonetla typhiExtracts

of

Secliiuiii

The ribosome-inact ix atil^ protem sechiumm was purified from the seeds. It has been suggested that this compound could be used for the preparation of immunotoxin as miiritini .issny

n

potential

ranrer rhemotherapeutic

apent.

Fruit extracts exhibited hypotensive effect in

Chayote

tests with

rata.

kalaomia

pregnancy.

in

may

cauae hypo-

sprawling or climbing with large, 2-6-branched tendrils; root larpe, tuberous; stem Up to 15 lonp lonpitudinally grooved. Leaves arranged spirally, simple; stipules absent; petiole 3-25 cm long; blade broadly ovate-drcular in out•?-7-:inpiilnr nr line, 7-2-'i cm in diameter

m

margms

obtusel)'

scabrid haiiy, 5-7-veined from the base. Flowers unisexual, regular, 6-meroration of manure or compost is

mm

recommended, as well as application of NPK before planting followed by regular topdressing with nitrogen fertilizer or liquid manxire until fruit formation. In the .Antilles incorporation of farmyard manure

everj-

3 months

is

recom-

In India ammonium sulphate and su])erphos[ihate at the rate of 1 kg and 0.5 kg

mmded.

respectively per pit are applied in two doses some parts of the world, the plfuits are pruned at the end of the season, leaving only a small portion of about 1.5 of the stem. Diseases and pesta Chayote is in general not very susceptible to pests and diseases, but it is often heavily attacked by rout-knot nematodes. Application of large amounts of organic manure to the planting holes reduces damage. Chayote plants sometimes suffer from mosaic

before flowering. In

m

m

virus.

lowlands, but the production stops during the

mm),

hottest months. Tn (he Antilles, cb-iynfe pro-

cubeiisis)

duces

occur but are rarely serious. In Trinidad a disease called web bUght and caused by the Amgus Thaiialephoms cucumeris has been reported. Spider mites and insects such as leaf beetles may cause some damage. The use of pesticides may lead to reduction in yield by

higher latitudes,

fruit

season, at

it

gi-ows

and produces well

at sea-level only during the cool

medium elevatims the whole year

m

round, and at 1600 altitude

pairs of leaflets: stipules linear

or filiform, petiole without gland, rachis with

prominent gland between 1-2 lower pairs of leaflets: leaflets obovate,

(

1-)

1

.."i-.'tMi)

cm

long,

apex rounded or abruptly acuminate, mucronate. Inflorescence 1-2-flowered, with usually very short peduncle. Flowers bisexual, 5-

merous; pedicel l..^-3..'i(- 1.,"!) cm long- sepals c. 5 long; petals obovate, 1-2 cm long, yellow; stamens 10, lower 3 largest, 4 smaller and 'A very sin;dl n'duci'd; somewhat ovary superior, linear, curved. Fruit a Imear, dehiscent pod up to 23 cm x 0.5 cm, straight or curved, many-seeded. Seeds rhomboid, c. 5 long with a distinct areole. Seedling with epigeal germmation; cotyledons semi-fleshy. Until the beginning of the 1980s Cassia was considered to be a large genus of over 550 .species, but then it was split into 3 genera: Cassia sensu stricto, Senna and Chamaeerista. Cassia now has only 30 species, whereas Senna and Chanuwcrista comprise about 2''i0 and 270 spe-

ovate,

mm

mm

cies,

respectively.

Senna

oblusifoliu is closely

related to Senna torn L., but the latter can be recognized by its shorter pedicels Thf distinction

between Senna

obtusifolia,

Senna occiden-

Link and Senna tora is not always properly made; names have often been misapplied and vernacular names may apply to all of talis (L.)

them. The presence of Senna tora in ..\lrica is it probably concern

doubtful and references to

Senna obtusifolia.

SERIOOOTACHYS 461 Senna

obiusifolia is a short-day plant, but ex-

act light requirements for flower initiation differ

by provenance.

and

It is self-pollinating

have not yielded viable

interspecific crosses

seed.

Schipper.s,

1987;

1991: Stevels.

M

1993:

i l..

Tilley,

Eeology Seima obtunfoUa

is

M

r

Wagner,

1990;

J.J.,

& Hnrbome

l.VV.,

J.B.,

van den Bergh.

1993; Walker. H.L.

&

A.M., 1997.

Authors C.H. Bosch

found along

rivers and on lake shores, as well as on vated land, up to 1700 altitude.

J.

Southon,

2000;

R.R..

Bisby, F..A, Buckingham, J.

culti-

m

Management

on

Details

d

cultivation

Sericostachys scandens Gilg

Sienna ohiusifolia ia Africa are unknown. In spods for pum produrfion are prrsontly

harvested from the wild. As far as is known, Seimo y-to-])icl< Icui s. Au-ti-alia may .start a

breeding programme based on seed stock collected from all over the area of distribution in the ne;u' future. Breeding would aim nt high seed and ffxim yield tjood pi'm quality and adaptation to

mechanized

Prospects other Senna

cultivation.

Smna species

is

a

like

many

true muhipurpose

A proper

understanding of the variation will be essential for fiiture developments. Sama ohtusifolia will probably remain a minor vecetnhle. Seed sjiims are used worldwide for a variety of mdustrial applications. Increased demand and tnconsistentgr of supply and price

plant.

has driven

Synonyms

indiistrinl users to search for

new

sources of supply and Senna obiusifolia is a good alternative for locust bean (Ceratonia and guar (Cyamopais tetragonoltAa siliqua L (L.) Taub ). A [latent restrictmg the use of Senna obiusifolia gum lapsed in 2002. The )

medicinal properties also seem to justii^ more research. However, the weedy nature and the

Sencoataehya tomentoaa Lopr.

(1899).

Origin and geographic dislribntlon SerieO' slachys scandens is widespread m tropical Africa from Nigeria to Ethiopia and aouth to Angola and Malawi. Uses In DR Congo the leaves of Serieostnrhys scandwa collected froin the wild are eaten as a vegetable. The leaves are applied as a poultice on wounds and from the bark a medicine for venereal diseases is prepared. In Rwanda and Uganda Sericostachys scandens is a key species for honey production from wild flowers in the forest. In Kenya initiation ceremonics are relalei! to the occurrence of flowermg. which IS there thought to happen only once everj- 7-8 years.

Botany Much-branched, .scandent shrub, with branches up to m long; branches oppo-

M

site,

chtuaifbUa,

terete to angular, finely striate, swollen at

the nodes. Leaves opposite, simple; petiole 1— 2.5 cm long; blade broadly ovate to lanceolateovate, 5-15 cm X 3-8 cm, base cuneate to attenuate, apex acuminate, margin entire, almost gl ilin us to densely tomentose. Inflorescencp a broad panicle of spikedike bi-anches up to 8 cm long with sessile flower clusters and persistent bracts up to 6 long; each floww

mm

fertile and 2 modified subtended by 2 bracteoles up to

cluster consisting of sterile flowers,

6

mm

tile

late.

1

long, long pilose in sterile flowers. Fer»

flowers bisexual, o-merous; tepals lanceo-

4-8

to pilose;

mm

long, with pale margins, glabrous

stamens 3.5—G

mm long,

up

to 3

om-

mm

Ssegnwa, P. & Birnie M., 1990; Toruan-rurba, A.\

furnished with spreading hairs

1999; Lock, J.

1 -celled,

sisting of

cent in

1999.

Other references Cunningham, D. K, 2001; Dupriez. H. & De Leener,

Walsh,

& P.,

base fused

long, stigma capitate. Sterile flowers

rior,

Major references Buridll, H.M., 1995; Irwin, H.S. & Bameby, R.C. 1982; Katende, .\.

al

to a solid disk-like rim and alternating with very small tooth-liko staminodes: ovarj' supe-

toxic properties require caution.

A.B.,

& Lopr.

Protologue F^ol. -lahrh. 27: 51 (1899). Family Amaranthaceae Chromoaome number 2i» = 22

Indi'i

glabrous, style filiform,

up to 12 linear appendages densely

fruit.

much

accres-

Fruit a thin-walled, indehiscent,

ovoid-roperties need further investigation. Its possibilities as an ornamental are more promising; in fruit it is strikingly decorawill

Sesamum indicum which en
le food. They are sometimes sold on local markets. The cooked leaves form a very slimy product. In Malawi Sescunum €$tigolmse is often eaten with hran porridpr and is partirularly popular with collected

women; the dish

is often given to babies and disabled persons. decoction or infusion of the leaves or roots is drunk to countorart vomiting, cough ratnrrh

A

constipation,

diarrhoea

and poisoning,

and

applied extemalfy to cure wounds and skin diseases such as measles and sores, and to cur-

Botany Erect annual or perennial herb up to 3 m tail, bad smelling, with simple or branched, slightly quadrangular stem. Leaves opposite, simple, without stipules, sessile or with short petiole; blade oblong, elhptical to oblanoeolate, 2-11 cm x 0.5-4 cm, base cuneate, apex truncate, retuse or acute and usually mucronnte margin entire more or less inrolled, giabrescent above, white tomentose and densely glandular below. Flowers solitary in leaf axils bisexual /ygomorphir, ,'i-merous: calyx campanulate, with lanceolate lobes up to 1 cm X 2 mm, pubescent, persistent in firuit; corolla obliquely campanulate. up to 7 cm long, 2-lipped, pink red ])urple or pale mauve with deeper markings, pubescent; stamens 4, filaments arising from a band of hairs near the base of the (Niron.-! tube disk annular, rogiilar: ovary superior, white-hairy', 2-ei lli (l style filiform, stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a slightly quadrangular capsule 3-3 cm x .5-7 mm. 1-giooved, gradually narrowed into a flattened short beak, densely pubescent but giabrescent, dehiscmg longitudinally, many-seeded. Seeds flattened x 1.6 mm, not winged. obconical, c. 2

mm

464 VEGETABLES faintly rugose.

Sesamuin comprises about 20 species, most of which are indigenous to tropical Africa. Scsintniiii (iiii^nh'itsi' Vii'longs to section

Aph'ra

characterized by entue leaves and seeds with-

out wings, together with lifdliinii

(hi< lanceolate lobes up to 9 long, persistent in firuit; corolla tubular, 2—1 cm long, 2-lipped,

mm

mauve or purple, often spatted inpubescent: stiiniens f'iljiinents arising a band ut' hairs in the uuroUa tube; disk annular; ovary superior, 2-celled, style filiform, stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a narrowly oblong. (iu;idmm, lii ejily ranpular capsule up to 2 5 cm 'x

pink, red, side,

1

bom

Maesen,

2003; Burkill, H.M.

J.,

E.A., 1953; Gelfand, M., Mavi,

K

B.

&

Xdemera,

LA

Appelqvist.

1997: Bruce.

S.,

Drummond,

&

1985; Kamal-Eldin, A. 1994: Kokwnro J O.. 1993:

B.,

Busson, F. & Jardm, C, 1968; Sdiippers, R.R., 2000; Sorensen. C, 1993; Tredgold H 198(, Watt, J.M. & BreyerBrandwijk, M.G., 1962.

Leung.

VV.-T.VV.,

M

Authors P.C.M. Janaen

I

•1-grooved,

mm

hiscing 1.5

apex with a narrow beak up

to 3.5

loni;ituilui;ill>

nun X

mm,

i

Seeds

many-seeded

.

c.

not winged, surface rugose,

Seaamum

belonga to

anguatifolium

Aptora. together with

e.g. Sc'sainiiin

section

angoh'tiso

and Homem, and opinions differ ahoiit its delimitation. The difference between Sesammn aiigusUfoUum and Seaamum calyehmm is not always dear. The Sesainum calyciiium Seaamum radiatum Thonn. ex

Welw.,

fiuiK 1.

1< li

of r

Welw.

calyciiium are usually seeds usually larger and have a

Sesainiiiii

;md

its

double fringe.

Ecology Seaamum anguatifoUum is common weed in fields,

in mndsidt^s prnsslnnd nnd as a

from sea-level up to 2UUU

m altil tide.

Managemeut Seaamum an guntifolium is mostly collected from the wild, but occnsion.illy cultivated around houses or in fields, and sold at local markets. Propagation is by seed and seedlings are thinned to a spacing of about 20 cm, YIant stai-ts flowering nnd fruiting after sowing

if

Chromosome nnmber 2/( = 64 Vernacular names Black benniseed

.iltlinugh tlic d to powder and stored in bags or plastic containers.

Genetic reaonrces Sesamum radiatum is in various habitats, and

widespread and occurs

Ecology Sesamum radiatum

is

adapt I'd to a

is

consequently not

danger of genetic ero-

in

No germplasm

wide range of habitats, but is must common in savanna. It occupies open localities where few other herhac-eoiis i)lants prow Ti occurs on nutritionally poor sites, growing in gravelly, sandy and rocky localities. It is also a weed and

produces fresh leaves during the dry season.

occurs in formerh" cultivated fields. It tolerates heat and drought well anil continues growth

Burkill

H.M., 1097; Busson,

O.B.,

1969;

and tlowermg during the diy season. Propagation and planting The wei^t of 1000 seeds is about 2 g. Seed may be sown ">

into seedbeds, in seed boxes or directly

2^

seeds per hole. Germination takes 6-10 days. Seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of approximately ]"icm.

Management Sesamum

radiatum responds

well to fertilizer. For leaf production plants are topped to promote the growth of new ha.sal

shoots ixom which larger leaves can be har-

pruned

to a

th^

second year may be height of 2-6 cm to encourage new

vested. Plants in shoot prniilict inn

Diseases aud pests I'hylludy (a mycoplasma disease) and stem fasdation appear in wild Sendinui)} spcrirs as well as sesame cultivars. Cercospom sesami may cause small blade spots with difiuse edges on the leaves and also on the stems and fruits. Caterpillars of hawk moths {Sphiugiddi') may defoliate a plant m a few days. The catei-piUars are parasitized by nematodes and flies that kill them before pupation. Larvae of another moth, Anii-

sion.

collections

or breeding

programmes are known to exist. Prospects Se.sn in tiiti nidiatiim will probably remam of some importance m West Africa as it

Major references

D.,

pre.ss;

in

Dokosi,

F.,

100.^:

D.,

1992;

F.R.,

1969;

H.-D.,

Ihlenfeldt,

Redigian,

Gautier-Beguin, 1988;

Irvine,

2000 Stev.-ls^ J.M.C.. 1990, Neuwmi,'. Other references iiedigian, D., 1988; Bedigian, D., 2003a; Bedi^an, D., 2003b; Be1-

]] ]1

digian, D.. Seigler, D.S.

& HaHan.

J R.,

1985;

1081; Heine, H. ]'.mh: Katcndo, Hakki, M l A.B., Ssegawa, 1*. & Binue, A., 1999; Lee, J.I., Lee, B.H., Seong, N.S. & Kang, C.W., 1991; lOHS; Leung, W.-T.W Russon, F. & Jardin,

C

,

Ogle, B.A., Malombo, L., ^/lingochi, D.S., Nkomesh, A. & Malasha, I., 1990; Portdres, R., 1961; Thangavelu. S.. 1991: Watt, J.M. &

MmI 10i-,2 Sources of illustration

Breyer-Rranilwiik 1990.

Authors D. Bedigian

Stevels,

J.M.C.,

468 VEGETABLES

SESUVIUM PORTULACASTRUM Protologue

Family

whole, mnny-.seeded. Seeds smooth, black.

(L.) L.

Sjrst. nat., ed. 10:

Sesuvium comprises about 12 species and is it lated to Cypucli'd and Triaiithema,

1058 (1759).

closely

Aizonrcni 'Zn

-

caceae;

16, 32, 3t>, 18

portulaeastrum

L.

(175:i)

Vernacular names Seaside purslane, samphire, cenicilla (En). Pourpier de mer, pourpier mJJrilinio (Fr). Rcldrocga dn prnia (Po).

is

widely distributed in

and subtropics on saltwater (KTurs idont; all cx>fists of Africa,

tropics

beiichfs.

It

Uses Sesuiiuin portiilacaatmm

is

oocasion-

but in many ooimtriea eaten as a v^jetable, and the leaves have the acidulous flavour of sorrt'l (Riiiiu'x spp. and OxaJis spp ). Because ally

it

very salty,

is

it

net*ds repealed bulling in

fresh water. Several animals graze gnnts. cnTncls)

.-ind

it

s.iid lo

is

he

it

(sheep,

n fnvoiirito

Ghana it is burnt to smoke In Sen^al the plant is used as a haemoand a decoction is considered the best antidote for stinsjs of venomous fish; it should food of crabs. In fish.

static

be applied externally tur a lung time. The leaves are said to be antiacotbutic. Seauvmm is sometimes fiiltivnted ns nn ornamental and as ground cuver to prevent erosion in dune vegetation. Properties At increasing levels of NaCl in the soil (up to 600 mM). totnl nmino nrid and sugar contents of Sesuvium portukuasirum

poriuhu-fi.'iliinu

decrease while protein, starch, proline and t;l\ ciiicliot ;tin('

riintcnts

inrrcase.

The

insect

hormone 2U-hydroxyecdysone has been isolated from Sesuvium portulaeastrum. moulting

Botany

A

suIh rect, proslrale or creeping,

glabrous, sumilfnt pej-onnial herb up to 30

cm

tall, with thick stems rooting at the nodes. Leaves opposite, simple, fleshy: blade oblanoeoInto cm 0.1 — 15 cm brisc m-ndunlly narrowing into a petiole, scarious-expanded, stem-clasping and connate with base of opposite leaf, apex rounded, margins entire, Flow-

7-12

ers solitarj', bisexual, regular pedicel

3—15

mm

long,

tepals

6,

lobes,

these unequal,

mm

long;

upwards; connate at base

thickciuci

persistent in fruit, into a tube about one third of the length of the triangular,

acute, Just

below the apex each with a fleshy dorsal apiculong, greon outride, pink to redlus 1.6 purplish inside; stamens many, free, inserted

mm

in the rior,

mouth

of the perianth tube; ovary supe-

(2-)3-4-ceUed, styles (2-)3-4. Fruit a dr-

cumadsaile capsule with the

lid

it

is

tn link

sometimes

Aizoaccdc to Porliilathe latter

classified

m

family.

Ecology Sesin iiiiri portiildcnstruiii grows on maritime shores at about high water-level, saline beadi-dunes in the littoral, marshes,

m

loc-atlons in coastal arlagoons and dislml eas It is vejy salt loh rant and n pioneer sandcolonisuig plant that grows on the upper beach and seaward slope of the frontal dune or beadi ridge. It trn]>s and holds winii-l>lr)wn s;md and tends to ibrm small ridges or mounds, it does not survive complete burial under wind-blown I

Origin and geographic distribution Siwiliuin portulaeastrum

the

thought

(ogetbt'i-

Chromosome number Synonyms Portulaea

remaining

sand.

It

also

ral locations

grows well in more protected littoand it can be included in dune

revegetation programmes. Flowering and fruit-

ing is year round. Eadi flower opens for only a few hours [ici' day.

Management Sesiuium poriulacastmm can be inopagated by seed and by rooted stem cuttings. Plants are preferably planted in welldrained sandy soil, spaced 75-150 rm ai)art Semii iuin porlulacaalruin gruws full sun and tolerates acidic and alkaline soils, having also toler.inrrIt is lowa high drought a mamtenance plant, needing no irrigation or pests are fertilizer and s^ious diseases or not

m

known. Genetic resources and breeding Srsiiiuin purtiilacaislruiii is widespread and not in danger of genetic erosion. Prospects Si'siiviuin portulaeastrum is interesting vegetable, easy to grow, remaming of value in suitable locations. It is an important picmeer spades on sandy beaches in the subtropics and tropics where its mat-forming growth habit pi-omotes embrjonic dune formal

m

tion.

Major

references

Bogle

Burkill, H.M., 1985; Jeffiey,

.\.L.,

1970;

C, 1961.

Other references Lonard,

R.I.

&

Judd,

F.W., 1997; van den Bergh. Mil, 1993; Venkatesalu, V. Kumar. R.Ii. & 'hll;ippan K.i'., lLiti4a; \ enkalesalu, V., I\uniar, li.U. &, '

Ghellappan, K.P., 1994b. Auliiors P.C.M. Jansen

SOLANECIO 469

Smithia ELUOTii Baker

Miyor references

f.

Williamson,

Protologne Legum. Trop. Afiica

2:

304

(1929).

lett.

Family Papibonaceae (Leguminosae

-

I'apilio-

noideae, Fabaoeae)

J.,

bert,

J.B

.

B.G.,

Verdoourt,

B.,

2Q00a;

1955.

Other references PolhiU,

Burkill

H.M

R.M.. Verdcourt.

Miine-Redhead, E.

&

Gil-

199."):

.

B SehuBrummitt,

R.K.. 1971; Thulin, M.. 1989.

Origin and geographic distribution Siitithia recorded from Nigeria, (r'ameroon, DR Congo. Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Titn/iinia, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and

Antiiors C.H. Bosch

elliotii is

Madagasrar Uses In Malawi the leaves of Smilhia elliotii are cooked and eaten as a side dish. The leaflet s mo sfparated from thf rachis and cooked with the addition of potash. The cooked product is 80 slippery that most of it runs bad djaknttou) and in RasI Africa,

especially

Uganda, mainly as a leaf

vegetable (called 'nakati*).

Uses The immature

fruits

of

Solanum

aethiopieum are used as cooked M t^rt aides in stews, and sometimes eaten raw. i'he leaves and shoots are used as a cooked vegetable. They are picked from the same plants that provide the fruit vegetable or from special lealy cultivars. Fruits of bitter cultivars are used as medicine in many African countries. Medicinal

as a carminative and sedative, and to treat and high blood pressure; leaf juice as a sedative to treat uterine complaints: an alco-

holic extract

of leaves

as a

sedative,

anti-

emetic and to treat tetanus after abortion; and crushed and macerated fruits as an oiema. Igbo people in south-eastern Nigeria traditionally welcome visitors into the family house by o&ring fruits. Solatium aeihiopiciiin is sometimes cultivated ns nn ornament nl. Some cultivars (Aculeatum Group) are occasionally used as a rootstock for tomato and eggplant. Production and international trade African eggplant is one of the most commonly consumed fruit vegetables in tropical Africa, in quantity and value probably the third, after tomato and onion, and before okra. Reliable statistics fur sub-Saharan Africa are nut available. A rough estimate for a few countries indicates an annual fruit production of HOOO in t

Senegal, 60,OUO t in Cote dlvoire and 4500 t in Burkina Faso. Commercial production to sup-

ply cities e g

I'rom

is

increasing, as

Uganda. Tote d

is

export to Europe, and Senegal.

Ivoire

Small-scale growers account for at least

the

total

production.

Leaves

of

80%

of

Solanum

aclhinjyinini are esi>ecially important in south-

eastern Xitjena Cameroon and Uganda. It is the most popui.ir lealy vegetable of the maiket Kampala. Bitter Solanum (Kthiopicum in fruits called jilo', arc important as a market

vegetable in tropical Brazil, 7000 ha are cultivated.

Properties

Sohtninii

where

at

arfln'opirii in

least

fruits

contain per lOU g edible portion: water 90.0 g, energy 136 kJ (32 kcal), protein l.S g, fiat 0.1 g, carbohydrate 7.2 g, fibre 2.0 g, Ca 28 mg. P 47 mg, Fe 1.5 mg, p-carotcno O .'^.t mg thiamin

0.07 mg, riboflavin 0.06 mg, niacin 0.8 mg, ascorbic acid 8 mg. The compositicni is comparable with that of eggplant. The romposition of fr^esh

as:

leaves per 100 g edible portion is given g, energy 215 kJ (51 kcal), pro-

water 82.1

g. fat 0.3 g. carbohydrate 10.3 g, fibre 2 P It mg. Fe 6.0 mg. (5g. ("a .'".2;^ mg curotene G.4U mg, thiamin 0.23 mg, riboflavin

tein 1.8 !

1

0.44 mg, niacin 1.8 mg, ascorbic add 67 Russon, F. & Jardin (Ueung W.-T.W

Solanum aeUiiopiaim- planted

mg T.,

1968). This composition is within the range of other dark-green \eafy vegetables. Betulin and sterolin (sitosterol glucoside) have boon isolated from the fruits and several sesquiterpenoids from the roots. Among these compounds are lubimin and epilubimin, which have antifungal activity. The leaves contain

SOLA^^JM 473 and aUvaloids, e.g. solasodine. which has glycocorticoid effects. Their concentration is reduced by cooking. The characteristic bitter taste has been attributed to furostanol glyoxflloto

cosides.

Adulterationa

and

anbatitatea In dishes African tiKplant fruits can be replaced by eggplant {Solamiin melongena L.). The leaves can be replaced by other Sotanum leafy vegetables, mainly Soldiiiini amerkaniiin Mill., SoUxKUm srahniiii Xfill. nnd Sioliiniiin rillosiiin Mill. Description Shrub to perennial or annual heib, up to 200 cm tall, often much-branched; root systi'iii extending both vertically and laterally; branches and leaves with or without prickles and steUate hairs. Leaves alternate, i

cm

mm mm mm long; corolla stellate, 6—15

(4-)5-8(-10)-merous; pedicel (2-) l-12(-15) long in fruit; calyx campanuup to 27

long,

late, lobes

4-10

mm

white, sometimes pale purple:

long,

-ifa-

mens inserted near the base of the corolla tube and alternate with corolla lobes, filaments and

anthers connivent yellow, pores; ovary superior, 2—6long as or slightly longer than stamens, stigma small, olitusc. l-^-uii a u'lulose to depressed globo.se ellipsoi' l-)7-21 cm, obtuse or cordate at base, acute lu obtuse al lobed to deeply at margin, pinapex, sUe^tly nately veined" upper leaves smrillor, nnmnver

Sulaniim comprises over 1000 species and is almost cosmopoliian, with at least lOU indige-

simple, stipules absent; petiole

up

blade broadly ovate.

less lobed

a

lateral,

to 11

(

and often subopposite. Inflorescence racemose cyme, up to 5(-12)-

flowered; peduncle often short or even absent,

rachis short to long. Flowers bisexual, regular.

nous African species. Solanum odkiopimm helfinps

to

sul)'t"

I

f

T 'ni\'('rsi1 y (Xclhprl.'inds). Solaniiin aiiiericanum la a poten-

XiimcLTiMT

Prospects

important leafy vegetable for the lowlands. Investigations are needed lo reduce its alkaloid content pnrfirnlarly of solanine to

tially

ribits

cultivated vegetable.

Uses The green fruits of Solanum cmguivi are rollectrd and consumed as a vegetable. In

Ghana they

are used as an appetizer. In

Cam-

eroon, the small bitter fruits are an important ingredient of a dish called 'nkwi'. Fruits are

used fresh or dried and ground as medicine against high blood pressure. In compounds the plants with their masses of red berries are appreriatf-il for

t

111 'ir

I'

ti

iitnent

.'il

\ rilii!'

Production and international trade SoUx'

num

anguivi fruita are sold in local maricets.

As they are gathered from the wild or semicultivated in compounds data OH production and trade are not available. Properties The nutritional value of So-

make it safe and mure palatable to consumers. Further researdi is needed into agronomic aspects, pest mana^'ement and storage. There IS also a need to develop appropriate cultivars to give farmers access to reliable sources of

probably comparable to fruits of the related Solanum aethiopieum L. Solamargine and two

seed.

steroid alkaloid glycosides,

Major references Bukenya, Z R &

linttiDi

iingtiivi fruits

is

('araseo,

1999; Chweya, J.A. & Eyzaguure, P.B., 1999; Edmffiids, J.M. ft Chw«ya, J.A., 1997; El H.F., 1077; Srhippers. R.R., 2000;

J.F.,

Gueye,

J.S. & Jansen, P.C.M., 1993; van Epenhuijsen, C.W., 1974; West, C.E., Pepping, F. & Temaliwa, C.R. (Editors), 1988.

Siemonsma,

Other references Edmonds. Edmonds,

J.M..

1972:

J.M., 1977; Henderson, R.J. P., 1974;

Hunziker,

A.T.,

Tsnm.kanp,

E.,

Matlhare,

2001;

Taylor,

F.W.,

Oagile,

T.,

O.

&

Modise, D.M., 1999; Nee, M., 1999; Schippers, R.R., 2002b.

Sources of illustration & Ownbey, M.,

Cronquist, A.

Hitchcock.

C.L.,

1969; Roe, K.E.,

1971.

AxMnan Weerden

M.L. Manoko

&

G.M. van der

Solanum anffuvi - wild

not rejiorted

but

is

named ai^wvine

SOLA^^JM 481 and isoanguivincj have been isolated from the roots and three steroidal glycosides (anguiviosides A-C) from the fruits. Adulterations and substitiites Am mediit can be replaced by dried scarlet eggplant firuits (Solainnn (irtliiopicuin Shum Group). Description Shrub up to 3 tall with spreading branches; stem often prickly, bearill-i l-K firms. stollato h.-iirs w small, sessile ing

cine against high blood pressure

m

Lonvos alfornnfo simiilr>: stipules nbsi-nl: petiole 2-6 cm long, densely stellate-hairj'; blade elliptical-ovate, 10—20 cm x 5-10 cm, sinuate to pairs of lobes 2-3 em distinctly lobed with 2 long, base obUque, cuneate or occasionally tnmcate or suboordate, apex acute to obtuse, on both surfaces with more or less sessile stellate hairs having (5-10 more or less equal arms. Inflorescence a raceme-like cyme, extra1

axillaiy,

5— 15-flowered.

occasionally

flowers

Flowers usually bisexiinl, nrrnsionally the distal flowers with short styles and functionally male, regular, usually 5-merous; pediil\ \ densely hairj'. lobes c. cel 4-15 long: long: corolla stellate (>-12 mm in diame3 ter, white, occasionally with pale purple vems on the outer surface, stellate hairy outside, solitnry.

mm


plant may persist in the trojiics jis a short-liv ed perennial. This is common in home gardens, whereas market gardeners remoive the crop

some months when the yield and quality have become inferior. Regular han'estmg with short intervals, e.g. once per week or per 2 after

reronunended to promote growth of new shoots, older leaves including stems with fruits must be avoided for consumption as they weeks,

is

beccwie bitter and fibrous. Yield tbs yield of the fiwst harvest amounts

Thunbekgia L.VNCIFOUA T.Anderson Protologne Joum. Linn.

Soc.

Bot. 7:

19

(1863).

Family Acanthaoeae Origin and geograflllic

distribution ThimDR Congo Hurundi. Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Angola, Zimbabwe beigiu IniK ifnlid occurs in

and Mozambique. Uses In Malawi and Zimbabwe the young leaves of Thunbergia lancifoUa are collected from the wild, cooked and used as a vegetable, althoufj^they are rather tough. Sometimes the leaves

are cooked

in

the

sour

liquid

(

nia-

tsukwa) that remains after soakmg maize, sometimes mixed with young leaves of sweet potato. This latter product ia not much liked

530 VEGETABLES

and only cookod occasionally. The flowers are rich in nectar and sucked for their sweetness. In Mozambique the riiizome is applied as dried powdtT oil swellings and tm vxtnu-tum in water is drunk against bilharzia. Ash of the burned rhizome is eaten with food by women as contraceptive. In DR Congo macerateil leaves are applied to burns. In Zimbabwe an infusion of the plant is used to treat skin diseases and after soaking the leaves for some hours, the extract liquid is used as h.iif shnmpno Properties No data on nutritive value or chemical composition are available for Thuti'

Suns nf which the leaves are also eaten but which is more important as an ornamental, phenolic compounds (caffeoylmalic acid, fei ul hnalic acid and p-coumaroylmalic acid) have been found in the leaves, and in several other spebi'vijia IfincifoHa.

In Tlniiibergi'a alula

>\

des iridoid

Botany

gljrcosides (e.g. stilberiooside).

or silabi-escent solitary,

plossy

axillarj',

margin

nl lirilh

cm

large,

to 3

cm

short, irregular teeth; corolla tubular, o-lobed,

3 cm X 1.6 cm, lobes unequal, c. 2 cm long, lavender to reddish with yellnw-(>rly known genus, comprising about 100 species and confined to the Old World trr)pics and sul)tropics. In Ma-

lawi the leaves ot Jliiiiibergia obloiigifolia Oliv.

(an erect woody heib, also ni;i)

rire

similarly used

n.s

known from Tanzan

vegetable. Tluin-

bergia aurea N.E.Br., occurruig in Botswana,

Namibia and South

Africa,

also

has edible

leaves. Several Thunbergia species are popular

ornamentals,

e.g.

(black-eyed Susan)

Thinibprgin

m

nlala

Sims

eastern and southern

and Thunbergia ffvmdiflora (Roxb.) Roxb. (tihie trumpet vine^, introduced and

Africa,

danger of genetic erosion. Prospects Thunbergia laneifolia will remain a minor vegetable, mosl piohahly only locally enten in times of food scarcity. The

in

large, showy, blue flowers with orange-yellow throat and the erect, short, shrubby habit ni.ike

It

,1

|nit(

nd.il i/in-'unent

.-d

Major references

&

I.H.

kill,

P C M. 19Htl:

&

Burkill, ILM., 1985; BurClarke, C.B., 1899-1900; Jansen,

Mendes O

Willi.amsnn,

J..

Other references

1983; Tredgold, M.H..

1955.

Benoist, R., 1967;

Heme,

Andary, C, Gargaden2002; Jensen, S R. & Nielsen, B.J., 1989; Meyer, P.G., 1968; Retie£ E. & Reyneke. W.F., 1984; Sdionenberger. J., 196da; Housti,

noc,

.A.

&

.'\mssn

P.,

M.,

1999,

Authors P.C.M. Jansen

Trianthema fortulacastrum L.

sub-

x 2 cm; pedicel

long in flower, 6.5 cm in fruit; calyx persistent connate at base, with unequal,

up

have edible leaves.

Eicology Thunbergia laneifolia oocars m dry, and open woodland, at 1000-180U m alt itude. Genetio resoinrees and breeding JTiunbciiria laneifolia in rather widespread and not regularly burned savanna

entire, glabrous

surfaces. Flowers

zygomorphic,

tended by 2 ovate bracts 3

ter species

H.,

branched, pen nnird herb or shrub up to 90 cm tall, glabrous, with woody rhizome; stems grooved. Leaves decussately subsesnile; opposite, simple, blade linearlanceolate to elliptical, oblanceolate or obovate, 4—19 cm X 1—4 cm, base attenuate, sometimes Erect

auriculate, apex acute,

naturalized, for example, in Nigeria. Both lat-

Protologue Sp.

pi. 1:

223

(175:^).

Family Aizoaoeae

Chromosome number Synonyms Tnanlhenui Vemaonlar names car|>et\\eed, giant

2/;

=

'M'l

inonogyna L. (1767).

Horse

pigweed

purslane,

(En). Pouipier cou-

rant (Fr).

Origin and geographic distvibulion TVuxntheina porliilara.itniin cally

m chiding

is

distributed pantropi-

in tropical Africa,

where

it is

widespread. Uses In Africa the young tops and leaves of Trimillii'inn parftilarasfnini are enten as a cooked vegetable or in soups; there are records of such use fix>m Ghana, Cameroon and Tanzania. In India and South-East Asia it is similarly used. II()\\ e\ er. the plant may cause diar-

rhoea or paralysis, particulaily

when

older

leaves are eaten. When used as a fodder, it can produce similar effects and most domestic ani-

mals refuse to eat it. The seeds are harmful contaminants in food grains and other crop seeds. Hie plant has a potential value as a source of orpanic matter. The roots have cathartic and stomachic properties and in ^Atrica, the Philippines, Thailand and India they are used to relieve obstructions of the liver and to

TRIANTHEMA 531 relieve asthmn. In Asin they are given as

emmenagogue, and

an

doses as an abortiand are applied

in larpe

facient. Tlie leaves are diuretic in

th

treMtment of oedema jaundice.

discharge of urine and dropsy.

A

|>ai!d'ul

decoction of

the herb is used as a vermifuge and is useful in rheumatism: it is considered an antidote to alcoholic poisoning. The fleshy nature of the leaves makes them suitable for use as a wound-dressing or poultice. In Nigeria the old leaves are used in a treatment apainst gonorrhoea. In

Gabon

a decoction of the

powdered

root is taken to treat venereal disdiarge. Dried

plants are oecfisionally traded in local maricets

and by herbahsts. Properties Truinthema portulaeastrum contains the alkaldnl trianthemine and the steroid ecdysterone. The flavonoid C-niethylflavone has been isolated from the dichloromethane extract of the herb. The seeds contain 12.6% of a fatty oil, and the loaves contain caroffne and oxalates. Pharmacological investigations of extracts of Trianthema poHulacaatnim revealed effects on the Uver. An ethanol extract of the aerial parts showed a significant reduction of CCli-induced chronic hepatocellular damage of Swiss albino mice. A chloroform extract

sho\vege present in the seeds. The seeds also protein contain ribosome-inactivating a The rhloroform extract of (trichoanguin).

THchosanihes cucumerina roots showed

sig-

nificant antibacterial activity against Pseudo-

mnnas

nrniffitiosa,

and seed extracts diowed

fluueriiig shoot;

4. .trcH.

available on the composition of the red fruit pulp and the leaves, galai'lnse-specific

1,

top of female flower in Imgitudinal section,' fniil;

with inferior. 3.

solitary

1-oelled ovary

and

sessile,

long-hairy,

stig-

Fruit a very slender, long and cylmdri-

30-180 cm x 2-10 cm, green idi-whtte when immniure, dark red when mature many-seeded. Seeds flattened 1 — 1. .5 cm long, greyish-brown, sculptured, margin undulate. Seedling with epigeal gwraiination. Other botanical information The genus cal berry, often twisted,

nematicidal activity.

Trichosanihes comprises about 100 species, of

Adulterationa and substitutes The young fruits can be replaced by other cucurbits such bottle gourd as squash (Cticti rhila pcpo L

which a few have been domesticated in Asia, snake gourd being the most important. Two

),

{Lag0lianu siceiana (Molina) Standi.) or ridged gourd (Luffa aeuiangula (L.) Roxb.). Monoorious Description nnnunl herb climbing by 2-3-branched tendrils; stem slender, 5-angled.

Leaves alternate, simple;

ules absent: pt'iml' 2-10 surrulent, scalirid haiiy;

cm

long,

stip-

furrowed,

blade slightly to x 8-20 cm, cordate at base, margin d«itate, pubescent. Flowers unisexual, regular, 6-meroua, white; calyx tudeeply 5-7-lobed, 7-25

cm

varieties are distinguished within

Trichosan-

Ihea cucuiiierina. the wild var. ciuiiinerina oc-

curring from India, Sri Lanka and China, thrnuph South-East Asia, to nnrthmi .\usfraiia,

and the cultivated var.

aiigtiina (L.)

Hames

its elongated fruits. Only traditional landraces of Trichosaulhes cucumerina are used in West and Central Africn whereas improved

with

grown m East Africa. developntent Flowering emergoice of the seed-

cultivars from India are

Growtii and 5-6 weeks

starts

after

534 VEGETABLES ling. Male flowers appear first followrd by female ones 3 days later. The flowers open in the evening or in the early morning. Anthers dehi-^ii- severnl hours licfore anthi'sis, stigmas are receptive from a few hours before anthesis to a few hours after. Pollinaticm is effected by

insects

inrluiling Vxt-s. wasps, ants Imtterflies

and moths. The fruits can be harvested 2—3 months after sowing or planting and the harvest

may

continue

lor

'1

monihs.

Ecology Wild snake gourd grows in >;rrub vegetation, along forest edges and in open forest, from sea-level to 1500 m altitude. Snake gourd is well adaptcil to tho luimid fmpical lowlands. The optunum average day temperature for growth is 30-35*C with a minimum of 20"C. It does not tolerate dry soil and requires a good moisture reserve in the soil. However, it is sensitive tu waterlogging. Propagation and planting Seeds of snake gourd arc dried nftor iTmf>\ rd from the mature fruits.

They are

recalcitrant.

The seeds are

in planting holes or on ridges 100-150 cm apart and 60-75 cm between plants, requiring 4-]iing, a stone or other weight IS

attached tu the apex of each fruit in order to fruits. Snake gourd responds

Harvesting Fruits are picked when i

place at

tlios.

but information on the extent of damage and

measures of control are lacking especially Africa.

for

fruits

Ibadan, Nigeria, at Kerala Agricultural UniRatios

New

Phili])i)ines

York

t

and

NPGRL-IPB, Los

at Cornell University,

nited States.

Breeding Breeding woric has been performed by Indian seed companies, selecting for high jield. good fruit quality an total yield of young fruits ranges from 8-10 t.'ha If npe fruits of about 1 kg are harvested, a yield of up to 30 t/ha is reported. Handling after harvest The young fruits store well for 10-14 days at a temperature of about 15*C and high humidity. Genetic resources Germplasm collections are available at genebanks at XArr^RAB,

well to manuring and fertiHzer application, but caution should be taken not to apply too much

nitrogenous fertilizer as this leads to excessive

full

m

may be used for seed extraction.

produce straight

stem production at the expense of fruit production. Tn areas where seasonal moisture stress is experienced, there is a need for irrigation. Diseases and pests Downy mildew (Pseu* dopcrouospora ciibensis) and anthracnose (ColIrtolricltiiiii Uiaeiian'iiiii) attack immature and mature fruits. They are controlled by removal of the attacked fruits and by sprasring of fungiride e g maneb Snake t:*]un! is susreptible to

still

immature about 2 weeks after fruit set, when in length, or up to 1 m dethey are 30-('>o pending on the cultivar and may weitih up to 1 kg. WTien fruit pulp production is the objective of cultivation, ^e harvest of the fruits takes

Major references

&

Jeffrey,

Bates,

Robinson,

D.M.,

(Editors),

1000;

Burkill,

H.M., 1985; Chow, L.P., Chou, M.H., Ho, C.Y., L4n, J.T., Caiuang, C.C., Pan, P.M., Wu, S.H. 1999; Gildomachcr, B.H. Jansrn, O.J. & f"ha-

&

yamaxit, K., 1993; Robinson, li.W. Walters, D.S., 1997.

Other references

DO.

&

Decker-

&

Liidipo,

Adebisi. A. A,

Choudhury. B., lOn?: Desphande. Bankapur, V.M. & Ventkatasubbaiah, K.A., 1980; Dupriez, H. ft De Leener, P., 1989; Hrubben, O., lOfiT; Rugayah & de Wilde, 2000ti:

A..A.,

W.J.J.O., 1999; Soladoye, M.O., 1985.

Sources of illastration Gildemacher, (^.J. & Chayamarit K 1993,

Jansen,

Authors M.O. Soladoye

.

& A.A. Adebisi

B.H.,

TRIUMFETTA 536

Tbiplochitonzambesiacus Miine-Redh.

along river banks and on alluvial lloodplains. It with termitaria. Management Propagation can l>e ilone by

is oflien associated

Protologue BuU. Misc. Inform. Kew: 271 (193")

When

seed.

Family

wine-cup tree

Zambesi

Wine-cup,

Ttiplo-

chiton sambeaiaeua ie endemic to the Zambesi valley and the lower reaches of i< s ibul aries. I

availability

a pnil>|( in auil-

is

l

is

practised tor

THploekiton aeteroxylon, would be feasible.

(Km

Origin and geographic distribution

-^cccl

tipUcation by stem cuttings, as

Sterculiaceae (AI'G: Malvaceae)

Vemaeular names

Genetic resources and breeding The limand the specific habitat of

ited distribution

Triplochiton zambtsiaeua

make

vulnerable,

it

although there are no indications of immediate threats of extinction or genetic erosion.

Uses 'ooki leaves are eaten in Zambia and Zimbabwe. The wood is hard and has been used for yokes for oxen. The fine shade caused by thi' dense folia^-e ami the handsome flowers

Prospects Research on nutritive value and phytochemistty is desirable to evaluate the use

make

a desirable ornamental. No data on diemical oompoaition of Triplochiton zambeaiacua are available, but data on the oompot' 668 kJ (160 kcal). protein

possible, there

(

ii

it

Propextiea

Triplochiton scleioxyloii

29.2

g,

fat 2.2

g,

stardi 3.0

g,

sugar 2.3 g, fibre mg, Fe 9.2 mg, f-

51.0 g, Ca ni l mg, Mg 5.51 canitene 16.5 mg, riboflavm 0.78 bic acid 165

mg

my and

(iler/og, F., Farah, Z.

ascor-

& Amado,

The mucilage content of the leaves per g was 4.2 g as compared to 9 ex acute to acumiglabrous to nate, margin serrate-crenate, (1.5-).3-9.5{-ll,5)

Bcabrid. Inflorescence a cyme, 3—7 together in uppermust leaf axils, ofl;^ opposite the nf each cyme 3-flowered. Flowers bisexual, reguIr

lar,

mm X

1

5-merous, yellow to orange: pedicel c. 1.5 long; sepals oblanceolate. up to Willi .ijiicnl s[iinc ]>rtals broadly

mm

mm

mm

c. .3 mm, clawed; stamens 1ovary superior, spherical. Fruit a spherical cm in diameter including hooked spines up to 7 long, brown or

spatulate,

x 2

8;

to ellipsoid capsule 1-2

mm

black, glabrous or inconspicuously hairy, de-

hiscent with 4 valves, few-seeded. Seeds reniform. c 2 lent,' brow n or black.

mm

Triumfetta cuuuta - wild

Other botanical information given to is

women who have

delivered a child. It

Tho

nlso usod ns nn nppetizor.

used as

fibrous bark

is

Tiium-

string, as is the case for other

Triuinfelta

a pantropical genus of about 100 species. Trillin frtta ainiiia is often confused with Tri-

is

umfella penlatidra and Triumfetta rhomboidea, is diaracterized by its glabrous or inconspicuously hairv' fruits, leaves with simple hairs and lacking glands and stems having 1— 2 lines of hairs. In Trimnfvtta annua 2 forms

but

fetta species.

Production and intematioiud teade The demand for the leaves and young stems at marlvets is limited. Must people whu prepare 'nkwi' soup grow some plants at home and trndo in Ibo i>r('{);ircrl souji is much more liirralive than trade in the yuung stems. No data are available on production or yield, and international trade is either non-existent or veiy limited.

Properties The nutritional composition of burweed (Triumfetta sp.) leaves per 100 g ediwater

energy 28." k-I (68 carbohydrate 15,2 g, fibre 3.4 g, Ca 392 mg, P 76 mg, Fe 29.2 mg {I.;ir affections, diarihoea with bluod, chest pam, male impotency and furundes, as an aphrodisiac and laxative,

and as a component of arrow poison. The whole plant is used as a diuretic. The sap of cnisbed inflorescences is taken as a poison antidote.

The small red

fruits are

used as a bait in bird

traps,

Properties Aqueous

of the

leaf e.\tracts

Neotropical Urera baecifera (I^.) Wedd. have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and analj^esic activities, but nothinji is known about the phy-

tochemistry of the Airican Urera species. Botany Dioedous liana up to 10 long; c. 3 cm in diameter, attached by adventi-

m

stem

tious

roots,

5-lobed

in

cross-section,

older

branches with 5 rows of pridde-like protuberances, young brandies with stilling hairs, these ;dso on leaves and inflorescences. I^oaves alternate, simple; stipules connate, bifid, early

caducous; petiole ofViicid.ii- to

(,\-,-itc

up

to 12(-d6)

up

to

cm cm

long; blade

lonp base

rounded to slightly cordate, apex acuminate, margin crenate to dentate, 3-vejned from the base, Innoresaenoe an axillary, lax panicle; male inflorescenoe iq> to IG cm long: female inflorescence up to 6 cm long. Flowers unisexual, regular, small; male flowers with c 2

mm

long pedicel, reddish; female flowers sessile,

c.

URERA 539

mm

1 mm long. Fruit an achone up to 2 long, surroundod by the perianth. Urera comprises about 35 species and occurs in

tropu'jil Africa

including MadaKJiscar. tropical

America and Hawaii. The taxonomy of the West African Urera species is incompletely known. The fact that leaf morphology has usually been the basis for separating species seems to be the underlying problem.

Ecology Like other (lifiiHii iii-rui-

m

I

'reni spec!ir stij)ules and simply serrate leal margins, and it is less robust. Urtiea dioiea L. has been reported from tropirnl .Afrirn (OR 'nnpo, E!thic^ia), probably as an introduced weed in gardens, but its presence is not confirmed by herbarium specimens. In South Africa and many other regions of the world its leaves are used as a vegetable It is widely used medicmally in treating asthma, allergies, coughs, rheumatism, sjrmptoms of benign pi'oslalir byi/. rjilasia and pnrrdyzed limbs, and has been recommended as a diuretic and antispasmodic and to stimulate hair growth. Ecology Urtirn mnssaira occurs in clearings and natural open glades in rainforest and moist evergreen bu^and, often near human dwellings. It is ffvund mainly af alfitudt's of 1500—3250 and is often associated with buffoloes. In grazing areas it is considered an important weed. In Uganda it is an import ani '

m

of

the

abandom d clearmgs where grazmg

vegetation

in forest

of

takes place.

Management To stiniidntr fjrnwfh of tender sprouts the old stems are cut bade. Harvesting should be done with hands protected because of the

st

inging haizB.

Genetic resources and breeding luassuica

is

common

in its

I'liira

urea of distribution

and not threatened with genetic erosion. A single germplasm ac cession is held by the National Genebank of Kenj'a. Prospects As a vegetable Urtiea maaaaica remain important nnl\ locally. The widespread interest in other I 'riira species because of their medicinal properties, combined with the many uses of Urtiea maaaaiea in tradiwill

tional medicine,

may

Major references

Priis, 1., 1980b; Katende, Bunie. A.. 1999; Maundu, Kabuye, C.II.S.. 1999; Ruffo, C.K., Birnie, A. & Tengnas, B., 2002. Otiier references Kdcwaro, J.O., 1993; Xjomgo D. & WaMaitai. C.K Talalaj. S mugunda, R., 1990; Marshall. F., 2001; Muregi, F.W., Chhabra, S C., Xjagi E.N.M.. Lang'at Thoruwa, C.C.. Njue, W.M., Orago, A.S.S.

P.M.

Ngugi.

&

r.W &

.

Omar

VrUca comprises about 80 species and is almost cosmopolitan, with most species in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and about 5 in AMca, 2 of which are introduced weeds. Urtiea aimensia Hodist. ez ARich., an

component fields and

tion from phytochemical research. A.B., Ssegawa, P.

eventually attract atten-

S.A. & Xdiege, I.O., 2003; Ngigi, A.N. Xdalut, K., 2000.

&

Authors C.H. Bosch & R.R. Schippers

URTICA 8TMENSIS Hochst. ex ARich. Protologue Tent.

fl.

abyss. 2:

260

(1860).

Family Urticaceae Origin and geogn^iliic diatribntton Urtiea aiiiifiiiiiii is endemic to Ethiopia. Uses The leaves and young shoots are edible, eaten mainty in times of famine. Properties The boiled leaves give a burning sensation in the mouth if not crushed before boiling. Acetylcholine, histamine and 5hydroxytryptamine have been implicated in itching from the stinging hairs of other Urtiea species.

Botany to

1

m tall,

almost unbranched; rhizome creepleaf blades and infldT-osrences

ing;

petioles

with

c.

posite,

2.5

mm

long stinging hairs. Leaves op-

simple;

cm 5-12 cm

0.5—1

up

Dioecious, erect, perennial herb

stipules fbsed, interpetiolar, c, 4 cm long; blade ovate. X 3-8 cm, base rounded to slightly

long; petiole

apex broadly acute or acuminate, margin simply serrate. Inflon^scenc-e an axilcm long l;iiy, lax, rymose panicle up to at each node. Flowers unisexual, regular, 4merous, & 1.6 mm long, with free tepals in 2 unequal pairs; male flnwers with inflexod stamens and rudimentary ovar}'; female flowers with superior, ovoid, 1-celled ovaiy. Fruit an adiene c. 2 mm long cordate,

.'

I

I

Urtiea comprises about 80 species antl

most cosmopolitan, with most species

in

is

al-

tem-

perate regions of the northern hemisphere and about 5 in .\frica 2 of which are introduced

weeds. Urtiea massaica Mildbr. is also used as a vegetable in East Africa; it can be distinguished by larger stqniles and usually doubleserrate leaf margins, and it is more robust. Urtiea dioiea L. has been reported from tropical Africa (DR Congo, Elthiopia). probably as an introduced weed in gardens, but its presence is

542 VEGETABLES confirmed by herbarium specimens. In South Africa and many other regions of the world its jucs aii- used jis a vegetable. not

li

Ecology land and

found

liica sinwiixis is

I

common

is

in

disturbed

in

grass-

localities,

often plentiful near houses. It is found at 1500'^^)00

m

fields

and pastures.

.-dtitude.

is

It

considered a weed in

Management The

plants grow throughout the year and can be harvested \vh(>nt>ver there is a need. For collection the hands should be

covered to protect against the stinging hairs. The leaves are cut and spread between two hides on the ymund and crushed by stamping or rubbing. After boiling for about 3 hours, the leaves are enidied once more to obtain a

smooth iiun-e. Genetic resources and breeding simensis

is

common

Properties Leaves contain per 100 g: water 1 g. energj' 92 kJ (22 kcal). protein 2.0 g, fat g, carbohydrate 3.4 g, fibre 0.8 g, Ca 35 mg, Mg 13 mg. P 49 mg. Fe 7 mg thiamin 0 07 mg, riboflavin 0.08 mg, niacm 0. 1 mg and ascorbic acid 35 mg (Rubatzky & Yamagudii, 1997). Botany lOn t. dichotomously branched annual herb up to 40 cm tall. Leaves opporat^ 93.

0.

1

1


roperties might eventually attract attention from phylochemical research

Major references Friis T H)89a; Lemor^ dant, D., 1971b; UN-EUE, idUUld. Other reference* Friis, L, 1989b; Westphal, E., 1975; Zemede Asfaw & Mesfin Tadesse, 2001.

Authors C.H. Bosch

1

';i

PI. bordel.,

1

1

'

ri

;i

(L.)

Laterr.

ed. 2:

93

(1821).

n :\ ro n

Chromosome number 2n =

Synonyms

Desv.,

Italian

cornsalad,

wluch is closely related to V'alei iaiiella has a largely similar distribution and sionally cultivated in Ehirope

locuata, is occa-

and the United

States.

Ecology

aienanella locuata is a weed of its area of origin. It prefers a .soil although it tolerates a wide range of soils and humidity. It is icoaX.resistant and reasonably .ulapted to subtropi* cal elim.-u( > and in the tropics it can be cultivated only at higher altitudes. \

arable land in

for Urtiea simenais.

Protologue Fani i y \

to 7.5

Valerianella comprises about 50 species. Valel^rtica

and therefore not threatened with genetic

VaL£R1AN£LLA locusta

up

16

VcUeriwi^la oUUtria

(L.)

PoUidi

Vernacular names Cornsalad, lamb s letEuropean cornsalad (En). Madie, tuce, doucette (Fr). Alface de cordeiro,

alfaoe de

fairlj'

rich,

light

Management Propagation is done by direct seeding in fine soil at a depth of 1 cm in rows 1." cm apart- About 1 g of sec-d is needed per m^. For home consumption, sowmg should be done successively to ensure a continuous supply. WTiole plants are harvested when they have 8-12 leaves. .Mtematively ratooning is practised by cutting at 5 cm above ground level. Shading, sofficiMit moisture and nitrogen fortili/er will help to delay flowering f h crgrown plants

will

go to seed and re-seedmg will

take place.

Genetic reaonrces and breeding Many have been released in United Stales. They fall of, on the one hand hardy, rosette-forming plants and on the other hand productive, long-leaved cultivars that are more cultivars of eornsalad

Origin and geographic distribution I alei iandla locusta is a native of Europe, temperate western .Asia and northern Afrira. It is widely cultivated, and has become naturalized in parts of the United States. It is occasionally cultivated in DR Congo, East Africa and Madagascar. Uses The most mmmnn use of VnleriaiieJla locuala IS of whole young plants m salads. Altemativdy plants are cooked or blandied. The stems of young inflorescences are edible as well

Europe

and

the

roughly in 2 groups

sensitive.

Prospects In highland trt^ical

AMca

Vale^

rianrlla locusta may continue to be grown for home consumption or for the local market. It is likely to

remain a vegetable crop of limited

importance.

VBRNONIA 543

Major references Rubatzky, V.E. & Yama1997; van den Bergh, M.H., 1993; Wiersema, J.H. & Leon. B 1999, Other references Huxley, (Editor),

mixed with ground peanuts

1992c; Walters. S.M., 1976.

ground to powder lor use m soups. In Cameroon the leaves are sometimes eaten unproeessed and raw mixed with palm nil and salt. The leaves are browsed by goats. Dry stems and branches provide fiiel. Young twigs are used as toothpicks or diewing sticks. The plant is sometimes prown as n hedge. The brandies are used as stakes to line fields. Vemonia amygdaUna is commonly used in traditional medicine. Leaf denu tions are used

guchi, M.,

.

A

Anthora C.H. Bosdi

VERNONU AMYGDALINA Delile Protologne Cent.

Voy.

pi. Afr.

Iwleroe;

41

(18:^0).

Family Asteraoeae (Compositae)

Chromosome number 2;/ = 40 Synonyms GyinnaiUhemum amygdaUimm (Delile)

Walp. (1843).

ndule

(En)

Bitterleat

(Fr). Suc-uniadeira,

common

bit-

oommime,

vernonie

^\>rnonie,

pau fede (Po),

Or^ln and geographic tiin rjiiiy^Hali'na

diatribution Vemo-

orrurs wild

in

intist

coiinlrics

of tropical Africa, from Guinea east to Somalia

and south to north-eastern South Africa, and in Yem^. It is commonly grown as a vegetable in Benin. Nigeria. Cameroon, Gabon and DR Cungu, and to a lesser extent m Iheir neighbouring countries. The Luhya people in wrsliTn Kcny;i use

\

rniniiia

vegetable, but du nut cultivate

amygdoUna SB & it.

Uaeii Bitterleaf is a highly appreciated vegetable in West and Central Africa and can b© ronsiimed in vnrioiis dishes In N'iperin where the Voruba

name

i

to treat fever, malaria, diarrhoea, dysentery,

hepatitis

Vernacular names terleaf

lor this crop is

ewuro and

the Igbo call it 'onugbu', leaves are boiled in soups. Leaves are sometimes sold in the market after bemg shredded, parboiled and made into fist-sized balls. In Cameroon the processed leaves are codced with meat and/or prawns

make a famous

to

dish called ndoje'. Alternatively, whole leaves with cassava or yam tuare cooked to^'> ih> bers wherens tln' lfa\'es are also dried and

fertilit}'

and cough, as a laxative and as a They are also used as a medi-

inducer.

cine for scabies, headache lloot

e.vtracls

are

also

and stomach-ache, used as treatment

against malaria and gastrointestinal disorders. In Niprria leaves are placed on n wound as ;) substitute for iodine. One of the most common medicinal uses of Vemonia amygdalina is as a treatment against intestinal worms including nematodes. Not only humans but also chimpanzees ingest the bitter pith of Vernoiiia amygdalina for the control of intestinal nematode infections. In

Zimbabwe

a root infusion is

used to treat sexually transmitted diseases. Bark infusions are also taken to treat fever and diarrhoea, dried flowers against stomach disorders. Vcruouln oitiyQclnlfiia is al.so useful as a

m plants. The used to control

control agent against diseases

ash from burnt branches seed-borne

fungi

is

{Curviihivia.

Aspi'ij^tlliia,

Fuaariuin and Penicilliuin spp.) thus ameliorating seed viability and germination capacity. It has also been used for brewing ber as a substitute for hop Vemonia amygdaUna is a well-lcnown bee plant. Production and international trade The leaves are sometimes collerted from the wild,

but most people prefer leaves from selected and cultivated plants whidi are generally less bitter. Bitterleaf is

Vemania canysdaUna - wild and planted

usually grown for

home

con-

sumption and less often for sale at the market, is an increasing tendency to sell the processed product rather than branches with leaves. In ('ameroon processed leaves sell for up to five times the price of the raw commodity. Plncessed leaves are exported from West Africa in dried or deep li n/< n form and ofin»d in major markets of African vegetables in Europe. No production statistics are available. Properties The nutritional composition of Venwnia amygdaUna leaves per 100 g edible but there

644 VEGETABLES portion

is:

water 82.6

g,

kcal), protein 5.2 g, fat 0.

ascorbii- ncid

&

1

218 kJ (52 carbohydrate 10.0 i) mg,

oncrg>' g,

Ca 145 mg. P 67

g, fibre 1.5

mg

."]

(Lt'unt;.

l- i'

W -T \V

'i

I'u^soii

C, 1968). This composition is in line with other dark green leaf vegetables. The bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene lactones (e.g. vemodalin, vemolepin and vemomygdin) and steroid glucosides (vernoniosides). Some of these compounds have significant ani]>:ir:i-;il .ictivity, o.';porialIy vomodnlin nnd vernonioside Bl. Vernolepin showed platelet anti-aggregating properties. Vemodalin and vernomygdin have cytotoxic activity Aqueous extracts of V'emonia amygdaliiia F.

Jardin,

ii-

t

leaves exhibit cytostatic action to retard the growth of human breast cancer cells. In tests with rats a sesquiterpene extract from the

showed antihepatotoxic activity. Exand root baric showed antima-

leaves

tracts of leaves

larial activity ntiainst

Plasinnrfiinn hrrf>htn in

vivo in mice and against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Extracts also showed potent antileishmanial activity. Chewing sticks made from \Wiiotn'a aniygchlina wood exhibited activities against bacteria that are significant

in periodontal disease. ties

.•ifjninsi

\ ririi

Leaves diowed

activi-

Venumia amygdalina flon ering head;

branch;

ais li.-ntifin :int] viruses.

J, 4,

leaf: S,

fUnvering

fniil

Adulteratious and substitutes leaves of Vemonia kymenol^i* A.Ridi. and some other Verwmia species are used for the same pur-

Redrawn and adapted by iskak Syamaudiu

poses as Vrriiniiia amygrlnlivn Processed

tube, with

.

bit-

an expensive product and for this reason unscrupulous dealers sometimes add terleal' is

0t}ir

[il.iiit

m.it

I'l-i.il

to increase the

cm

lanrrolnfr

long; blade ovate-elliptical to x l-15(-28) cm cm.

cuneate or rounded at base, shortly acuminate at apex, margin minutely toothed to coarsely serrate, finely pubescent but often glabrescent, jiinnately veined. Inflorescence a head, ar-

ranged in terminal, compound, umbel-like cymes; stalk of head up to 1 cm long, pubescent; involucre cylindrical to broadly ellipsoid.

3—5

mm

long, bracts 3-7-senate,

1-4,5

mm

Flowers bisexual, regular, 5exserted from the invohicra; pappus consisting of outer linear, caduooua long, appressed.

meroua, scales

stnmg^

up

to 1.5

mm

long

or brownish bristles 4-7 lar,

6-8

mm

long,

and

of inner

creamy

mm long; corolla tubu-

whitish,

glandular, with

stamens with anthers united into a appendages at apex; ovar>' inferior,

pubescent and glandular, style hairy, 2-brandied. Fruit a 10-ribbed adiene 1.6-3.5 1 -celled,

mm

volume.

Description Shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall, much branched; trunk up to 40 cm in diameter; bark grey to brown, snu Kth becoming fissured: young branches densely puhoscent. Leuves alternate, simple; stipules absent; petiole 0.2-4

erect lobes;

liubesccnt and Kbnidiilar brown to crowned by the much longer pappus

loiiK

black,

bristles.

Seedling with epigeal germination.

Other botanical information Vemonia

is

the largest genus of the tribe Wvnniu'cap with close to 1000 species; it occurs mamly m South America and Afirica. More than 300 species have boon described from Africa with about one third occurring in Madagascar. Apart from Vemonia amygdalina several species are eaten as vegetable, of which Vemonia hymenolepis is most important. \'enio)i)a culuruta (WiUd W.F. M.Drake is closely related to W-rnoiiiu amygdalina. It differs in its more or less entire leaves and glabrous fruits. Leaves of ]'rniniiia colorala are mainly coUected from the wild, and its primarj^ use is as a medicinal plant. Other species occasionally cultivated as a vegetable but more often collected from the wild are )

Vernonia cinerea

(L.)

Less, in Kenya, Vernonia

poskeana Vatke & Hildebrandt in Zimbabwe, which are both also more important as medid-

VBRNONIA 546

Madagascar and Vernonia

able during the drj- season. Old branches should be pruned back to a low level to stimu-

Sierra Leone.

late the production of larger,

nal plants,

\'ernoiiia

appendiculata Less, in perrottetii Waip. in

Growth and development

\

ornutiia ainyg-

dalina can grow into a tree, but in cultivation it is mostly pruned to a shrub or hedge. Once established in a gardt-n. leaves or young shoots can be picked for up to 7 years, but for commercial production farmers prefer younger plants. Plants flower in the drj' season (Janunrj' nnd i>ai'ly Pcbriiajy in Wrst and Cenfral

Regular hai-vestmg of the shoots stimuretarding flower initiaHarvesting of only leaves hainpt is regrowth. Towards the dry season new lea\es become smaller and become dark greyish green in colour: these are very coarse and bitter, esAfrica).

lates

new growth thus

tion,

pecially those close to (he inflorescence.

Ecology

\

'ernonia ainygdalinu occurs natu-

rally along rivers and lakes, in forest mai^ins, woodland and grassland up to 2000 m altitude. It often

occurs in disturbed localities such as

abandoned farmland, and can be found growing spontaneously in secondary forest. It requires full suidight in cultivation. Flowering is

induced by short days.

It

prefers a

humid

envi-

ronment although it is fairly drought tolerant. can he found on all soil tjrpes, but performs

It

best in humus-rich

abundant

This

foliage.

is liest

and

succulent

done before the

arrival of the rains. WTien adequate water is it takes only about 3 weeks for fresh shoots to develop after pruning. Young plants are more productive than older ones and commercial farmers prefer to plant a new crop at the beginning of everj' new season >! .itw ihe second year. They do not remove tln ir nlil crop

available,

i

until they have been able to harvest the first regrowth at the start of the season because this Cfimmands a premium price. Diseases and pests Apart from a leaf curl

no major diseases that afifect production. Pests do not cause major damage either, although many pest species have been virus, there are

recorded on

bitlerleaf

in

northern Nigeria,

'niey include thrips, aphids, ants, white fly, Fnipna.fa spp., Sphrarornri.s ainiiihis Fahri-

cms

spp.,

Ptyebu grosaus, Polyciaeis

spp.

and

Xanthochelua mdjieratiis. As a remedy, people traditionally sprinkle wood ash on the leaves to keep ants and aphids away The bitterleaf weevil Lixua vainerunua may damage stems and branches by making tunnels, causing 111: in

I

-lies

to break.

Harvesting During the rainy season, har-

soils.

Propagatiou aad planting Propagation is possible by seed, hut most farmers use stem

vesting takes placre by cutting the leafy shoots, allowing new side shoots lo de velop which can

used for propagation from mature steins are selected on the basis of at-

be harvested n few weeks later. Stems of various lengths are cut the afternoon and these are sorted and tied into bundles of equal length. on the season, stems Depending brought to the maricet have a length of 30-50 cm, often longer during he ])( ak period. Bundles of 15-20 stems weighing 1-2 kg are often made, but smaller ones are made during periods of scarcity. The bundles are kept overnight, placed upright in a basin of water and sometimes covered with jute bags to avoid desircation. The bundles themselves are tied together into bigger bimdles before they are carried to the market. During dr>' periods people pick

cuttings. Cuttings

tributes such as degree of bitterness, leaf size

and growth characteristics. In home gardens more than one type is often grown because young people prefer the sweeter, less bitter types and elderly people the more bitter ones. Cuttings may bo planted erect or slanting nt an angle of 15" to obtain more sideshoots. Cuttings

grow foster than seedlings. Seed

may be

col-

lected from dry flower hr'.nds. It is brojidrast on nursery beds prepared of humus-nch soil and shaded from excessive heat and sunlight. Seed takes 2-3 weeks to germinate. During diy periods, it is important to water the nursery- beds frequently. Some 4—1> weeks after emergence, seedlings can be transplanted. In home garden?;

people

plant

bitterleaf

amongst other

crops or as a hedge or live fence; in commercial fields it is planted in rows. Management Weeding, mukliing and the application of organic manure in the nurserj' stage contributes to healthy and rapid growth of seedlings and cuttings. A regular supply of

moisture

is

important and irrigation

is profit-

m

I

nnlv the leaves

;inected to be higher.

546 VEGETABLES Yield Highest yields arc obtained during the rainy season, the peak being in May-August. Production statistics are not available. Handling after harvest Leaves may be

2001; Biholong, M., 1986; Burkill, H.M., Coates Palgrnve, K., 1983; Durand, J.M., Huffman. M.A.. 2003; Kokwaro. J.O., Kupi han. S.M.. Hemingway, R.J.. Karim

shredded and pounded m a mortar. During pounding foam develops. The foam and bitterness is removed by repeatedly rinsing the leaves with water between poundings. Salt or lime is sometimes added in the mortar to speed up the mncc>ralion. Tjoaves may be shr(>dded nml bniK'ii firsl Kn(^-i' season ;in irrigated sweet bitterleaf crop may fetch a high price at the maiketa, particularly since at this tinu- it is not as bitter as Vernonia amygduUtia Delile. The produce is sold both at local mar-

m the big cities. Deep frozen and dried leaves of Vemonia kymmolepia, Vemonia amygdalina and Vrvnniiia cnlnrala (Willd.) W.F.M.Drake are exported from Nigeria and Cameroon to the major markets of African kets and

vegetables in Eui ope.

Properties The nutritional composition of Vemonia hyinenolepia leaves is comparable to that of bitterleaf (Venuinia amygdaJina). It is li'ss bitter than other \'' exserted

resjular

5-mei-oiis

from the involucre; pappus

consisting of many-seriate bristles, up to 1.5 in I! uibular, 1-2 cm cm long, pale brown
loaves, they are pruned by nippuig the growing point and then transplanted with a ball of soil. At this stage, bitter si^edlings are screened by tasting one of their 1

leaves. This selection process not only secures a better quality crop, but also serves to reduce

tho

next

generations Tn solo cropping, seedlings are transplanted at a spacX of or even closer; when 20 cm ing 30 cm intercropped in home gardens the spacing is nbrmf 7.T rni x 1^ cm Some famnors sow di-

bitternoss

in

m

rectly lines spaced at 30 cm and thin their crop to a distance of 20-25 cm at the 3-4-week stage. The thinned material can be sold to other farmers as seedlings or consumed. Propagation by cuttings is sometimes practised i('

used in home gardens when a

particular plant type is appreciated.

Management Sweet

bitterleaf

is ver>'

sensi-

tive to drought anil should thcrofon' be irri-

gated daily. Weeding is hardly required in a dosely spaced mcmocrop. Mulching is occasionally practised. T'rea is applif»d ns a tnpdressing to promote regrowth i>f new leaves after harvest. Ratoon cro]>]^ing is practised in southwestern Cameroon: shoots are harvested about 10 cm above ground level, allowing new shoots to develop. Some farmers only harvest once and re-sow immediately thereafter because young plants grow £aster than side shoots. In

X 20

a planting distance

and pests Main

vem bandmg and

diseases of sweet

distortion of the leaves,

and wilting caused by Fusarium

rivers

cultivation sites

,-,t

cm

Diseases

kill

sp.,

which

the plants. Pests include snails, crick-

and variegated grasshopper (Zonocema variegaius), which cuts off young leaves and stems. Methyl-paraffin is used for control. Harvesting Picking nf loaves starts at 4-G

weeks

after sowiiig or

G-8 weeks after trans-

planting. Harvesting is done eitiier

by

cutting

the young shoots or gathering the leaves only. Although the harvest of leaves only is often preferred, this system may adversely affect the development of the plant. Best results are obtained during the rainy season by cutting the shouts at 5—10 cm above the soil, which will then be replaced 1^ one or two side shoots. These side .shoots could be hanrsic d H— 4 weeks later and.

depending on

moisture and fertihty, this

soil

process could be repeated two or three times. In the dry season, when new shoots develop only slowly tf at all farmers pick leaves only With

adequate

irrigation, the raluun

system

is possi-

ble even during the diy season.

Yield Highest yields are obtained during the rainy season. In

Cameroon the period May—

August is the peak harvesting period, when a bundle of 15-20 stems of 4()-.5() cm and occasionally as long as kg.

Stem

weight,

Of) rni

coidd

quantity

\vei[;h

nlioul

1

and quality ave

greatly reduced in the dry season. Hie initial h.incst yif Ills .ibout kg/m- which decreases 1

No data are available for leaf jrield. Handling after harvest Th harvested produce is left in a cool place an^l when needed tu about

5UU g/m- at the third harvest.

water is sprinkled to delay shrinking. Leaves are sliced, washed and squeezed. To reduce may rub the lea\-es uv hoW

bitterness, people

them for 5 minutes in water containing lime. Freezing or diying and packaging may follow. Dried leaves may be reduced to powder but this proce'ss changes the taste. The dry leaves must be steeped in water before c-onsumplion. Genetic resources Vemotiia hymetiolepi* is widespread and occurs often in disturberl h.ibitats, and there is no danger of genetic erosion. Its diversity in the wild is great, but as yet hardly studied or oqgloited. Wild, often puipleflowered plants are ven,' bitter. Breeding Cross-pollination takes place through both insects and the wind. Isolation at the propagation stage is therefore important

VIGNA 549 since crosses between wild nnd cultivated plants often result in bitter-tasting plnnts. Prospects V'enionia hymmolepis is u nuich appreciated but rather Venice Vfjictnlile. Vegetative propagation would be the best way to

maintain unifbrmity, but poor rooting and slow n.'Liniw th niiiiiiii a problem, fhice ncu rmd unii'orm cultivars are developed and high quality seed becomes available, this species may well take over the whole market for bitterleaf includinii

common

the

bitforleaf

the

l^rocessing

aiiiygdalina).

{Vt^niniiin

leaves

before

marketing them could become a new source of income ns consumers would not need to spend 80 much time on the preparation of dishes, which maybe important for people in cities. Major references Beentje. H.J.. 2000: Besong, B.F.

&

Abia.

C

& De

Leener,

&

Dupriez, H.

1998; Biholong, M.. 1986: P.,

1989; Fube, H.N.

Djonga, B., 1987; Kalanda, K. & Lisowski, 199.^; Kokwaro. J.O., 1993; Sdiippers, R.R,

S.,

2000; Stevels, J.M.C.. 1990. 1985; Fide-

Isawumi, .VI A., 1993; Jeffrey, 1988: Kupclum, S.M., Hemingway, R J. Werner, D., Karim, A., McPhail, A.T. & Sim, G.A., 1968; Mbinglo, S.B., 1998; Numfor, F.A.,

C

Cuba and

susrv i^nlitlity to frost

Sources of illustration

tion

1990.

AvthiorB Fidelia Uchedc Fomum

VlGNALUTEOLA

(Jacq.) Benth.

Protologue Mart.,

Family

Fl. bras. 15;

194 (1859).

Papilionaoeae (Leguminosae

-

Papilio-

noidcae, Fabaceae)

Chromosome number 2ii = 22 Synonyms igiia Jmelien Harms (1899). Vemacnbir names Hairypod oowpea, vipn.'i

liccr

\ic!\

dal-

(Rn)

Origin and geographic distribution luteola occurs throughout the tropics

\

i'Xrgentina,

life cycle,

to insect pests,

and

and cholesterol

and

hovels,

it

and

is

also re-

antineoplastic

properties.

Properties With a crude protein content of 17.4% of

drj'

matter

Mgiia luteola

at flowering

an excellent fodder. The ilavonoids queroetin and isoihamnetin, isolated from the leaves, are thought to play a role in the resistance mei'haniwm against a])hids The seeds qualifies as

high

contain

levels

of antimetabolic

factors

(tannins, phytic acid, inhibitors of trypsin cj-statin) implied in

High

and

the rrsij;fnnro to storage

levels of the

amino acid

cj'stine are

present in the seeds.

Botany Twining

or trailing perennial heib;

stem up to 6 m long hairy but glabiescent. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules up to 5 long; petiole up to 8.5 cm long, radtis 0.5-2

mm

leaflets ovate-lanceolate fo Irincr-olalc

Innt:

cm

X 0.5-4.5 cm, base rounded ur cuneate to truncate, apex acute to obtuse. Infloresomce an axillary false raceme; peduncle 12— cm long rachis up to .i n cm long, with flowers in pairs at each node. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous, 1-2 cm long, yellow. Fruit a linear, curved pod. slightly constricted between the seeds, 6.6-8 cm long, with short curved x 3.5 mm. beak. Seeds up to 4.5 Vigiia comprises about 80 species. However, the tropical .\merican species are likely to be placed m a separate genus the near future, which would reduce the genus to 60-60 species. Important cmjis (hat belong to the genus are oowpea, mung bean, rice bean and bambara groundnut. A haiiy variant of Vigna btteola,

2.5— 1(J

mm

m

\

rj'mplo

and

ported to have antimicrobial

cm J.M.C.,

Stevels,

Zambia,

rather short

its

In Ethiopia the leaves and flowers are mixed with Hageiii'u ahyssiiiica (Bruce) -fF'^mii. flowers to treat syphilis and ulcers. In Argentina the plant is used to control lipid adsorp-

U.F.. 2000:

1997: T.ilnina H. 2000.

dhana,

Australia. However, disadvantages

trouble some seed production.

pests.

Other references Burkill. H.M., lia,

including

tries

as a pasture crop are

igua

and

is

widespread in mainland Africa. It has been grown on research stations in Reunion and Maunlius. Uses The flowers of X^gna luteola are eat«a as a boiled vogrtablr in Ethiopia and Malawi. In Malawi the roots are dug up by children, peeled and chewed to extract a sweet juice. The tender cooked seeds are edible. Because it is palatable for livestock and grows and nodulates well in wet and slightly saline soils, Vigna hUeola has been tested as a pasture plant and cover crop in a number of coun-

formerly

known as

Fast Afru-a

a(

is

found in

East

\

(ox

is

common

er

l-'iDO ai)

in

igiiu iiieinbranuceu .A.Rich.

DR Congo, Burundi and throughout

.\frica: in

fr>'ing

Vigita fischeri,

hiuher altitudes

The blue-flowered

Kenya the leaves are eaten

after

or boiling and are said to taste like cow-

pea leaves. V^jna bUeoIa

is

nonspecific in

its

Rhizobhim

requirement. It is day-neutral and flowers throughout the year.

Ecology l%na luteola grows in swampy among reeds on sandy lake shores.

grasslands,

560 VEGETABLES papyrus swamps, on stream sides and in forest, from sea-level up to 2200 m altian annual rainfinll of 1250 or more. in

swamp

Vernacular names — Cowpea, black-eye bean

mm

tude. It prefers

Management As a pasture plant Vigiia luteda does not tolerate heavy grazing or dose cut-

—

ting, and under such t-onditions will behave Hke an annual or short-lived perennial. Yields of 4600 kg/ha dry matter per rainy season have

bwn

n>pl.'>nls) Combretum panieukUum (medicmal jilants) Coinbretiiiit

Cninbrrliini pfatyptrni m (nie(iilants)

Cardioapeniiuin grandiflomin (medicmal

Combrelum racemoaum (ornamentals)

plants)

CommeUna diffitsa (forages)

Cnrdiospermum halicacabum (medicinal plants)

Carica papaya (fruits) Corpolnbia nliui (t nnbers) f

^(irpolohid

i(«8 ,

dii crsifolia (fibres)

Gimrdinia condeiiaata Girardinia heterophylla Glimis loloidex (medicinal plnnts) Gliniia opposilifoUua (medicinal plants) Gliricidia aepiuin (auxiliary plants)

Globimetula brauaii (medicmal plants) Gloaaoiiemn hoicdiiiim (forages) Glosaonema nubicuin Glycine inctx (cereals and pulses) Sojd

hi.'i iini.fr

Jaain inu m

Juneus

(nrnamentals)

m au rilianu m

risfidtts (fibres)

(fibres)

An ri.it rophylhi in .teni n d ip oni in Launea acida (medicmal plants) Lannea microcarpa (fibres) lAiporlea nestuans (fibres) Fleurya aeatuana Laaianthera afrieana (medicinal plants) Leptttd&lia pyroterhnica (fuel plants) Leiicoeiia e.snilnita (ornamentals)

Uihiscus ludu igii (fibres) Hibiaeua hmariifoUua (fibres)

Leucaeita Icucocephala (auxiliary plants)

llihisrit.t iiiicntiilhtis (filircs)

Leticas iiuirtlnicntsifi (mdifinal plants)

Hibiscus paiiduri/orini-s (fibres)

Limonmm siuualum

Leucaena gUmca (ornamentals)

VBCETABLE8 WITH OTHER PRIMARY USE 563 Muaaaenda landolphivides (ornamentals) Myrianfhiis lihericua (fruits)

Lobelia aiiceps (medicinal plants) Loeseneriella clemaioides (fibres)

LoiuariopsLt gitiiwcuiiin (medicinal plants) Loll rli oca rpiifi laxifliini.s (dyi N and tannins)

Luduigia

alolonifera (forages)

Jufsiaea repens Ludu'igia aciscriidens Luffa cyliiidrira (fibres) Luffa acgypiiaca Lycium euTopateuw (foraRoa) Lygodiii III iiiivvvpliylliim (ornnmcnf als)

Maema angolensis (medicinal plants) Maema erasaifolia (timbers) Maema pseiidoju'iafo.sa (medicinal plants) Courboaia virgata

Maeta laneeolata (medicinal plants) Maeao nil da (medicinal plan) s) Malva pan iflora (medicinal plants) Mangifem indica (fruits) Fegimanra africana Mamliot esciifciitd (carbohydrates) MaiiUiol

utiliJisiiiia

ManUua ^aziovii (essential oils and exudates) Mariaat.s mhroiinetus (medicinal plants)

Cypenis

distaiis

Maytenua arhutifolia

(auxiliarj' plants)

Neouolonia n ightii (forages) Glycine n ightii

Neorauhmenia miiia (medicinal plants) NwTOUtoiirn in psi'ii (Inparfi yrli i:a N^hrolepis biaerralu (ornamentals) Neptunia oleracea (medicinal plants) Neuropeltis ncuininata (fibres)

Nicandra phyaalodcn (fruil s) Normcuidiodmdinn romii (l imbers) Leotmrdoxa romii Nyinphaea loln^i (carbohydrates)

Nymphaea nouchali (carbohydrates) Nymphaea eaemla Nymphaea etMUmUta Nymphaea capenns Nymphoideg itidica (ornamentals) Ocimum amerieanum (essential oils and exuilates)

Uciinuin cauum Ocimum graveolena

Oeimuni busilicuin (spices and condiments) Ocimum graiiaaimum (essential oils and exudates)

Ocimum suave

.1 laytenua terrata Muytvinis .ipiicgali'iisis (timbers)

Uyiit n uspui ia aeiiegalenais

Maytmus undata (timbers) Me^dpli rvniti in in acrostachyii in fibres) Sarcophryniuin arnoldianum Melanthera acandens (medicinal plants) Melon lliera hwu nei (

Melnslninasiniin nfzelii (ornamentals)

Ocim u m

ii

Ocimum

viride

riicifoUum

Oldenkmdia eorymbosa (medicinal plants) CHdrn hmdia caeapitosa Oldenlandia kmci^Ua (medicinal plants) Opilia amentaeea (medicinal plants) Opilia celtidifoUa Optintia ficiifi-indica (fruits)

Ormocarpum

Diaaotis paiicistellata

Mdiaasedarach

Myrianlliii.s .•n'rratua (fruits)

Osmiinda

(timbers)

hirhii (medicinal plants)

regalis (ornamentals)

Mcrrrini'a iiinhcVuta 'riuxilinrv plants)

Olti'liii iih ifolid (mi'(]i pet

able oils)

Boinbacopai^ glabixt Paehyrkizua eromt (caibohydrates) Pdiieraliii ni Iridiilliiiin (ornamentals) PoiidaiMa ulilia (fibres) \^nsonia utilis Panicuin hirgidum (cereals .unl jailaes) Piii hid biiffohoaa (s|>iees and condiments) Miinosu biglobusa Parkia afriemia Pal In (I chijipfrUm inn a

Parkia filicoidea (limbers)

564 VEGETABLES Parkuiaonia aciileata (auxiliniy plants) I'ai

Hla cr(MM/)e« (medicinal plants)

Pcpoiiiiiii)

of,''7r;

Pericop»i» Itvdfloro (timbers) Afi-nrniosia la.\iflora

Phascnlits acullfoliiis (cerenls

.'ind

[Xit

regia

Ruelliu pruelerniiaau (medicmal plants)

Rumex criapiia (medicinal plants)

LoTxaUhua acaciae pri-.sioin'ifniia

plants)

(Juratea affiuia

(fibres)

Phylloslachys niirca (ornamentals) Phyaalis angiilata (medicinal plants) Phyaalia peivt iaiut (fruits) Phytolacca dodi'i'inil a (medicinal plants)

Pnly^aht

(ilnipiirpiircn

Ranunculus niullifidua (medicmal Raphia farinifera (fibres)

Rhabdophylliim

Pliiiiiliypsis loiigifnlin

PHiiistis^uiu iiiululniricti

n bergian a

EapiUarttffia

ffruilsl

Pergularia dacinia (medic inal plants)

Phoenix reelinata

t hii

Piipalia lappacea (medicinal plants)

Pupa} id

f'l'iniisi'tinn pnri>iirrii ni (for.iijps)

Penladiplundra brazzeaiia (medicinal plants) Peperomia pellueida (medicinal plants) r

Pit era ria

Piniico gran alum (fruits)

Passiflora quadraugiilaris (fruits)

(nu'dinnnl plants)

Riitiii'x lien nxiis

(medicinal plants)

Polygonum buibaium (medicinal plants)

Rumex usambarenai^

PoriiflacaTia afra (ornamentals)

Rungia cotigoenaia (spices and condiments) Rungia grandia (medicinal plants) Sarrhanim spotitaupiim (auxiliary plants)

Poitzohia

iiiixia (fibres)

Pnitznlzia liypnhvtrn

Prosopis africana (timbers) Proaopis glandulosa (auxiliary plants) Prn.ini)is jiiliflnrn (nvixilian,' plants) Protea inadienaia (tmibers) Proiea argyrophaea

Salvadora peraica

Samca indica

(auxiliaQ' plants)

(fruits)

(ornamentals)

Sarcoatemma vimimdr (medicinal plants)

plants)

Sclerocarya biri-ea (fruits) Poupartia birrea Poupartia caffra Sclerocarya caffra Senna burapaularis (omamentals)

Pseiideniiitln'iiiuiii uigritamim PseiidogtutphaUum luteo-aUfum (medicinal

SrniKi

Protea tXUol til

Psetidemnthemuni luiiicaluin (medicinal

CasH ia b icap sulari.t hir.siiia

(auxiliary plants)

Caasiu liirauta

plants)

Gtu^halium htteo-linnfhiis niirabilis (rarbnhydrnlcs)

StrophanUlua preusaii (medicinal plants) Strychnos apinoaa (fruits) Stylot lKielon lancifolius (carbohydrates)

and condi-

Tril^mum madagaaammae (fruits) Bnsqueia mgolenaia Bosqueia boiviniema Boaquma phoberoa Triiimfetta cnrdifolia (fibres)

Triumfetta rhomboidea (fibres) Tropaeolum (ornamentals)

Tylnphora glaura (medicinal plants) Tyloaema jasaoglenaia (cereals and pulses)

Bauhinia fitsat^fenais Typhn angiiatifnlia (fibres) Typha doniingenaia (fibres) Typha auatralis Typha clcpiuinlina (fibres)

Synij)hyliiiii offirinalc fm pp.

fiir

Baskaran, R.K.M., Mahadevan. N R., Sridhar, P., Kandasamy, G. & Thangavelu, S., 1U9U. In vivo and in vitro screening of germplasm against sesame leaf roller and pod borer. Journal of Oilseeds Rcscaivh 7(1): 30-41. Bali s DM., Robinson, R.W. & Jeffrey. ('. (Kdiior.s). 1990. Biolotry and Utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. Cornell L'niversity Press, New York, United States. 485 pp. Baudoin, W., Ba, M.L. & Jeangille, P., 1994. Onion production and ocmstraints in the Sahelian countries of Africa. International sjnaiporaum Alliums for the tropics, Banf^k, Thailand, 1993. Acta Ilorticulturae 358: 37-42. Baum, D.A., 1995. A sjrstematic revision oi Adansonia, Bombacaceae. Annals of Missouri Botanical

Gardens

82(3):

1

10-470.

K.. 1994. A review of chromosome numbers in Bombacaceae with new counts for Adansonia. Ta.xon 43: 11-20. Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae): Ethnobotany in Sudan, crop diversily, lignans, origin, and related taxa. In: Goldblatt, P. & Lowiy, P.P. (Editors). Modem ^stematic stud-

Baum. D

A.

& Ogunima.

Bedigian, D., 1988.

LITERATURE 576 ies in African botany. ^VETFAT Monographs in Systematic Botany 25. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, United States, pp. 315-321. Bedigian, D., 20()3a. Mxolut ion of Sesame revisited: domestication, diversity and prospects. Genetic Rpsourrrs and Cntp Kvidiition 50(7): 773—778.

Bedigian, D., 200;ib. Sesame in Africa; origin and dispersals. In: Neumann, K., Butler, A, & Kahlheber, S. (Editors). Food, fuel and fields: Progress in African ardiaeobotany. Africa Praehistorica. Ilfinrirh

Earth Inst it uto,

Colofjnf"

'

Jormany. pp.

17-;'>f!.

Bedigian, D., in press. Slimy leaves and oily seeds: distribution and use o( wild relatives of sesame in Africa.

&

van der Maesen, J., 2003. Slimy leaves and oily seeds: distribution and use of and rer-atolhc'ca sesamoides (Pedaliact^ne) in .Africa In Schmelzer, (I.H. & Omino, E..'\. (Editors). Proceedings of the First FROTA International Work.shop 23-25 September 2002, Nairc^i, K«iya. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA) Foundation, Wageningm, Netherlands p]) 271—271 Bedigian, D., Seigler, D.S. & Ilarlan, J.R., 1985. Sesamin, sesamolm and the origm uf sesame. Biochemical Systematies and Ecology 13: 133-139. 1989 Bombacaceae In: Polhill, R.M. (Editor). Flora of Tropical East Africa. A.A. Beentje, H.J Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands. 9 pp. Beentje, H.J., 1994a. A monograph of Ravenea (Palmae: Ceroxyloideae). Kew Bulletin 49(4): 623— Bedigian, D.

Sesamum

spp.

671.

Beent je, 1 1. J., 1994b. 722 pp.

K^ya trees, shrubs and lianas. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya.

Ravenea in Madagascar. Princ^es 38(4): 195-203. 1999. A new genus and some new spedes of Compositae from East

Beentje, H.J., 1996.

Beent jcv

II

.1

Kew BuUetm

54(1):

tropical Africa.

97-102.

Beentje, H. J., 2000. Compositae (part

1).

In: Beentje, H.J. (Editor).

Flora of Tropical East Africa.

A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp. 1-313.

Compositae (part 2) In: Beentje, H J. (Editor). Flora of Tropical East Africa. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp. 315-54G. Behera, T.K., Singh, N. & Kalda, T.S., 1999. Genetic diversity in eggplant for resistance to shoot and fruit borer. Indian Journal of Hortirultiuf 'H: 2ri9-2fil. Beier, R.C. & Oertli, E.H., 1983. Psoralen and other imear furocoumarins as phytoalexins in celery. Phytochemistiy 22: 2595-2597. Beijr, CM.. Kanyagia, S.T. Muriuki S.J.. Self, A.A. & WTiitHo, AM. lf)«4. Horticultural Crops Protection Handbook. F.\( )/Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development/National Horticultural Research Centre, Thika, Kenya. Benedict, R.C., 1909. The genus Ceratopteris: a preliminaiy review. Bulletin of the Torrey BotaniBeentje. H.J., 2002

cal

Club 36: 403-170

Benham,

S.,

1993. Tulbaghia: a sur\'ey of the species in cultivation. Piantsman 15(2): 89-1

Benhura, M.A.N.

&

CThitsiku, I.C., 1997.

losa) loaves after cooking,

The

extractable P-carotene content of

It).

Guku (Bid«M

pi-

diying and storage. International Journal of Food Science and Tedi-

nology 32(6): 495-500. Beniest,

J.,

1987. Guide pratique du maraichage au Senegal. Centre pour le Developpement dc

I'Horticullure, Collection Cahiers d Information

Bennett

R.X

.

Mellon, F

.\

.

No

1,

Dakar, Senegal. 144 pp. & Williamson, C, 2002. Identifi-

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(Editors). Flora of E!thiopia

die spesie. (Notes on the growth rate of planted baobab trees (Adansonia digit ata) and observations in respect of lifespan, growth phases and genetic variation of the species). Journal of Den-

drology 5(1-2): 1-21.

von Schanffhausen, R.. 1963. Dolichos lablab or hyacinth bean: its uses for feed, food and soil improvement. Economic Botany 17: 146—153. von Tschermak-S^sseneg, E., 1934. Der Kttrbis mit schalailos^i Samen, eine beaditenswerte Olfrucht. Wiener land\\ ii M h.irt ZeitunK8l- 11-12. 18-49, Voorrips, R.E., 1996. Clubroot the cole crops: the mteraction between Plasmodiophora brassicae and Brassica oleraoea. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands. 118 pp. Voorrips. R.E.. Jongerius, M.C. & Kanne. II. J.. 2003. t^uantitative trait loci for clubfoot resistant* Brassica oleracea. In: Nagata, T. & Tabata, S. (Editors). Brassicas and legumes. From genomestructure to breeding. Biotedmology in Agriculture and Foreatiy 62. Springer Verlag, Beriin, Germany, pp. 87-104.

m

m

LITERATURE 647 Vos, J.G.M.,

19'J

1.

Integrated crop

mnnagement

of hot pepper

(Capsicum

spp.) in tropical lowlands.

PhD thesis. Wageningen l^niversity, Netherlands. 188 pp. Vosa, CO., 1975. The cytotnxonomy of the genus Tulbaghia. Annali di Botanicn 24: 48—121. \'nsn (' 4

Cannabiis saliva, 354

Begoiiixj auririilala, 100

Begonia elaloateininoides, 100 Begonia eniinii. 00 Begonia fusialala. 100 Begonia hirsutitla. 100 Begonia homoensia, 100 Begonia inacrocarpa. Iflfi Begonia sciapliilu, 100 Begonia scutifolia. 100 Begonia sessilifolia. 100 Benincasa cerifera. 107 Benincasa hispida, liLL 1 Bi'/a inacmcarpa, Bf/o patula, Be/o vulgaris. 110. ill Bidens bipinnata, 113 Bidens bifernata, 11 Bidens leu cant ha. 14 Bidens pilnsa. 114. Hfi Bidens pilosa var. bipinnala, 112. Bidens schimperi, 118 1

288

Callipteris protifera, 28X

40fi

Fkisalla cordifolia, 10:^

Hasi'lla

Ml

297.

Biicholzia maritima, ILL

Bartris gasipaes, iii Barlpria broivnii, 103

72 72 1

Celosia Irigvna, 171,

205 Cemtognniim alriplicifolium, 400 Cemtogonu ni cnrdnfanum, 407 Cemtogonum sinualum, 407 Cemlonia siliqua, 401

Cephalandm

sessilifolia.

Cemlopferis cornuta, 1 73 Cemlopteris richafdii, 1 74 Cemlopteris fhalictroides, 173 7 7.;^ Cemlolheca melanosperma. 1 75 Cemtotheca sesamoides. 175 77f). 400

(jfjS

654

VKdKTAHIJOS

Cerntotheca irilnha,

1

Cerceslia mirabiiia.

Colocaaia antiquonim, 20fi Colocasia eacu len ta, 206 i^Q.g Colocynlhia citnillua, 185

7fi

Cerceslia cameninensia.

!

77

177

Ceropegia cordiloba, 7H Ceropegia miilfiflora, 178

Colocynthia naiidianus,

1

178 Chenopodinin album, 178 /Zg. ifiQ Cei-opejiio papillnta.

Cheiiopodiiiin aiiiaraiilicolor, Cltpnopodiiiin gigntiteiiin,

1

1

79

79

Chenopodinin mil rale, 179. 180 Clwnopodiiim opiilifolium, 180 Chenopodinin qiiiiioa, 79 Chrvaalidocarpua baroiiii, 290 Chryaalidocaipua fihroaua, '291 Chryaalidocarpua mananjarenaia, Cichorium calvuin, 181 Cichorium endivia, 180 /i*?/ Cichorium inlybua. 181. 182 Cichorium pu mi hi in, 181 Ciaatta adcnocaulis, 279 1

Coinmelino heiighalenais, 212. Coin met inn difftiaa, 213 Coinnit'lina iinberbia, 213 Coinnielina latifolia, 213 Coininclina pyri hobh'pharis, 212 Coinnwlina zainbe.iica, 213 Commiphora i-oatmta, 214 Conrolrithia farinosiia.

'291

,

M.

Colophosperiniiin mopane. 330 Coiniiwlina africana, 21

21A

Convolviihia mnlabaHcua, 31

Corallocarpua baineaii, ZlA Coral loco rpu a poiaaonii. 215 Corallocarpua apJiaerocarpua. 215 Corallocarpua u clii itachii, 21(> Corchonia aeatuana, 219. 222

Ciasus dcbilia, 185

Corcliorus asplenifotiua. 216, -2/7

Ciaaua dinhlagei. 183

Corchorua capaulari-a, 218. 317. 322. Corchorua confusus, 217 Corchorua faacicularia, 219 Corchorua olitoriua. 21L 219. 322 Corchorua t riden a, 221^ 222.

Ciasus gnicilis.

IfiB

Ciaaua pulinatifida, 183 Ciasus product a. 183. 184 Cilnilhia fialutoaua. 430 Citrullua lanulus, 185,

i£Z

Citnillua lanatua var. fiatuloaua, 430 Citrullua iiaudiiiianua, Citnillua vulgaris, 185

iM

Claoxylon hirhii, 298 Claoxylon mercurialia, 383 Cleome allamanii, I9fi Cleome ciliata, 197

Cleome gynandra. 191. /-^g Cleome hirta. 1 Cleome iberidella, 198 Cleome icoaandixi, 198 Cleome maculata, 19fl Cleome monophylla. 196 Cleome peniaphylla, 191 Cleome rutidoaperma. 1 97 Cleome achimperi, 198 Cleome viacoaa. 198. /9.9 fl-*^

Cnidoacohia

arnniiifoliiis, 2SiSL

Cnidoacohia chayamanaa, 201 Cnidoacohia napaeifolina, 200 CocciIlia abyasinica, 203 Coccinia adoenais, 2JH Coccinia grandia. 202, Coccinia quinqueloha, 202

M2

Coccinia rehmannii, 204 Coccinia aeaailifolia. 2fl5. Coccin ia trilnbala, 204 Coleua dysentericus, 508 Coleus mtundifolius. iiilii

Corclionia trilocularia. 223

.g.gj

Coatua afer, Coatua lucanusianua, 225 Coatua phyllocephalus, 225. Coatua apeetabilia, 225

Crassocephalum biafrae, 4fi9 Crasaocephatum crepidioidea, 226. Crassocepholum nibena, 22fi. Craaaocephaliini aaivobaaia, 228. 229 Creaceniia cujete, 355 Crotalaria anthyllopaia, 230, Crotalaria brevifiens, 223.

2M

Crotalaria cannabina, 222. Crotalaria cephalotea, 230, 234

2M

Crotalaria cleomifolia, 230. Crotalaria florida, 230 Crotalaria intermedia, 229, 232

Crotalaria nalalitia, 231 Crotalaria ochroleuca, 2^2^232 Crotalaria senegalenaia, 230. 234

Cryptolluma

ediilia. 163, IfiA

Ciicumeropaia inannii, 235, Ciicumia acutanguhia, 370

232 Cucumia angaria. 288. Cucumia hai-divickii, 253 C» cH Hj /i j'rs*/ /// 242 Cucumia hookeri, 237 Cucumia hysln\\\ 258 Cucumia lepiodermia, 252 Ciiciimia africanua,

i'.'?

j(.

TNDKX of scientific I'LANT NAMKS Ciicumis longipes.

2.'^fl

Cucu mis

III

Ciicumis

iiieliiliferiia,

el o. 107.

243,

2M

248. 2A3.

252 Cucumis uaudiiiiaiius. Cucumis prophetaruin subsp. Cucumis salivus, 253^2^ Cucumis zeyheri, 25Si Cucniin's myriocarpiis,

M

Cucurbit a andrenna,

zeyheri, 25£1.

264.

2£i5.

Cucurhitn ficifolia. 257. 259. ^g/. 212. CucurbiUi liispida, 107 Cucurbita lafjeiiaria, '^.'^3 CucurbiUi luiideUiaiia, 272 Cucurbita maxima, 109. 257. 263. ^g-/. 272.

211 Cucurbita mi'lanosperina, 2n9 Cucurbita mixta, 272 Cucurbita moschata. 109. 257. 267. 2£3,211 Cucurbita pepo, 107. 212. 273. Cucurbita pepo vnr. moscliata, 2fi7 Cucurbita sicciaria. ;153

^

(^yaiiiopsis tetnigonoloba. 4fi1

Cyclaiithera biachystachya,

2Ifi.

Cyclantlwra expluJens, 278 Cyclaiithera pedata, 277 Cyiiaiu'huiii africaiiuiii. 278 Cyiianehuin brvi idens, 278 Cyiianchum deu evrei. 278 Cyiiaiichuiii ellipticuin, 278 Cyiianchum lanceolatum. 2B1

Cyiianchum laiicifolium, 3f>7 Cyiianchum schistoglossum, 21fi Cyiianchum vagum, 278 Cyphosteiuina adeiiocaule, 279 Cyrtosperma seiiegalense, 359

Daucus capillifolius, 281 Daucus carota. 280. i?^/ Demidovia tetmgoiiioides, 521 Diclyosperma album, 2&5. Dictyosperma aureuin, 285 Diclyosperma furfuraceuin, 285 Digera alternifolia. 28fi Digera angusfifolia, 28fi Digera arvensis, Digera miiricata, 2fifi. Dinophoin spenneroides, 287 Dioscorea abyssiiiica, 288 Dioscorea biirkilliaiia, 288 Dioscorea cayeiiensis, 288

2M

Dioscoiva cayeiu'iisis vnr. praehensilis, 287 Dioscorea praeheiisilis, 287 Diplaziuin accedons. 288

Diplazium esculciitum, 2BB. Diplazium proliferuiii, 2fifi. Diplocyclos pal mat us, 2fiS Disperma crenatiim, 290

Disperma parriflorum, 290 Dolirhos lablah, M2. Dolirhos sesquipedalis, 552 Duosperma creiiatum. 221L Dypsis baronii. 290 Dypsis basilonga, 290 Dypsis maiianjareiisis, 291 Dypsis oreophila, 290 Dypsis piliilifera, 291 Dypsis prestoniana, 291 Dypsis tsaralanaiieiisis, 291 Dypsis tsararoasim, 291 Edithcolea graiidis. 232. Kdithcolen .sordida, 2£i2 Eichhornia cras.sipes. 4f?0 Elalostema trinervis, 539 Emilia coccinea, 292. 2iiii £//» f/ a /7(/ «i //I t'a 293 Emilia jaraiiica, 293 Emilia lisou shitiiia, 2t)3 Emilia praelermissa. 293. 294 Emilia preiianlhoidea, 293, 294 1

.

Emilia sagittata. 222 Emj/ia son chifolia. 293. 221 Eixigrostis tef 165

294

Eruca

sativa,

Emca Emca

sativa subsp. sativa, 29f> vesicaria.

Emcastium

294 297

aixibicuin.

Erythrococca africana, 299 Eiythroeocca alrovirens, 299 Erythrococca bongensia, 298 Erythrococca chevalieri, 299 Erythrococca hirkii, 2S& Erythrococca menyharthii, 299 Erythrococca mitis, 298 Erythrococca u elwitschiana, 2SS Euterpe oleixicea. ill Fleurya ovalifolia. 3.59 Fleu rya podocarpa. '.''>'.)

Galiiisoga ciliata, 299 Galiiisoga parviflora, 2il2. Galiiisoga quadriradiala, 299 Galiiisoga urlicifolia, 299

Germanea

508

rotundifolia,

Gisehia coiigesta, 300 Gisekia diffusa. 301 Gisehia linearifolia, 300

Gisehia phariiaceoides, 300 Gisehia rubella, 300

Gnelum

africaiiiim,

301

.^Qg

Gnetiim hiichholzianum, 304.

Gongronema Gongmiiema Grumilea

aiigolviise,

latifolium,

stolzii,

307 308

438

G rum ilea uiigoiiieiisis,

438

(ifjr)

656 VKdKTAHIJOS Ipoinoea batatas. 334

Guizntia ahyssiiiica, 308. 3QR

Ipoinoea eriocarpa, 334. 336 Ipoinoea fragilis, 336

308

Giiizolia scahra,

Giiizotia schimperi, .^OH

Gynntanlhfiinnin

Gymnosporia

amy^Halmum,

btixi folia.

f>4a

Ipoinoea hispida, 33fi

380

Ipoinoea inconspicua. 336 Ipoinoea obsciiixi. 334, 33fi.

Gynnndrap.sL'! gyiiaiicira, 191

GynnndropsU

Ipoinoea oirariensis, 367 Ipoinoea rcptaiis. 332

penlaphylla, 191

Gyniira bicolor, 1 Gyim rn cernua, ^'^H '.\

Gynura Gyimra

(

Ipoinoea sessiUPora, 336

am iiifolia.

crepidinides, ^^fi

Ipoinoea

miiiiala, HOi)

Isoiieina biicliliohii,

lilaciniim,

Jaequemontia rnpitata. 338 310

Jacqiiemontia lamiiifolin, 33fi

Jatropha acunitifolia, 200 datropha naparifolia, 200 Jussiuea abyssin ica. 369 Jussiava electa, 369

Haiiniaiiiaslnini quarrei, 310

Hcdyotis pmfriiidra, 412 Hewitt ia niahibariea. 311

Heu ittiu

scandi'iis, 31

ucelosella. 312.

Justicia flara. 333 •Justicia heterucurpa, 341

a^pi'i; 312,

31:1 calycinus, 315

Justicia insularis, 340

calyphyllus, SIS

Justicia opaca, 103

canuabiiius. 315, Slfi^^XS cannabiiius var. puiieialus, 314

Justicia scliiinperi. 340

Hcivitlia stiblohala, 31

Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscus Hibiscu s Hibiscus

338 337

Isoneina iiifundihuliflonim, 337 Isoneina smeathinuniiii, 337

Gyntira pseiidochinn, 311ft Halosarcia indica, 310 f/f j(/ ;/i f /;< iastni in cm'ni lei: in

Jlnumaninstnim

t

Justicia ladaiioides, 340.

dii eisifolius, 313. 318. 323,

32&

jjjfl

Justicia striata, 341 Justicia suaveoleiis, 3.38 Justicia sulcata, 338

esculentus,

mauihot. 21

mauihot var.

caillei,

21

Kedrostis abdallai, 342 Kedrostis hirtella,

M2

342

mechowii, 313, 315. 323, a2a

Kedrostis

mutabilis, 329

Kedrostis pseudogijef, 342.

noldeae. 313. 315. 323 328 ovalifoliua.

316

radiatus, 314.

M£.

rostellatus, 313. 323.

a2a

sabdariffa, 287. 312, 321.

sabdariffa subsp. caunabinus, 316

sura t ten sis, 312. 326. i32Z trionuin. 323.

Hoodia alslonii. 330 Hoodia cu rrorii. 322. Hoodia flara. 330 Hoodia js[ibbosa, 329 Hoodia gonion a, 330 Hoodia lii fiardii, 329 Hoodia macraniha. 329 Hoodia moil tana, 329 Hoodia officinalis. 330 Hoodia pilifci a, 330 Hygiophila crenala, 290 Iinpafiens irringii, 331

leloja.

Lablab niger. 343 Lablab purpu reus, 34Sj^3dA Lablab vulgaris. 343 Lactuca capensis, 348 Lactuca indica, 348 Lactuca inermis. 348 Lactuca saliva, 318. 349. ^SiiQ Lactuca schulzeana, 348 Lactuca schu einfurthii, 348 Lactuca serriola, 349 Lactuca tainxacifolia, 3(i2 Lagenaria leucantha, 353 Lagenaria siceraria. 108, 109, 353, Lagenaria .sphaerica. 333. Lagenaria vulgaris, 3.53 Lapoiiea aestiians, 359 Laportea ovalifolia. 33S. Lasiantheni africana. 302, 305 Lasimorpha afzelii, 3.5i) Losimorplia senegalmsis. 3.59

Iinpaliens macroptera, 332

Laiiiiaea cornula, 3fifl

Iiiipatiens niamniftmvnsis, 331 Ipoinoea acantliocarpa, 336

Lattnaea taraxacifolia. 3fi2>

Ipomoi'a aqiialica, 332.

Letiiuropisiiin ediile. 3fi4.

Laiiiiaea in tybacea, 361,

3ti2. .^f?.?

TNDKX of scientific I'LANT NAMKS Lepidium sativum, 364. j3!£fi Lepislemon africanum, 3B7 Lppi.Hlvinou onarimse, 367

Nnslurtium officinale. 401, Neodypsis baronii, 290 Nephtytis piclurata, 77

Nidorella microcephala. 404

Nidorella resedifolia, 10 Nidorella resedifolia subsp. mirrocephala, 404 I

'A(^i)

,

erecki. Sfifl

Luffa acutangula, 370^311

Luffa aegyptiaca, .^70 Luffa cyliudrica, MO, :ni Lycopersicon chilen.se, H7fi Lycopersicoii esculenlum. STS^JU. Lycopersicon lycopersicuni, -Mil Lycopersicon

pem vianum,

.'^75

Marsdenia angolensis. 307 Marsdeniu gondarensis, 307 Marsilea ni inula, 379 Marsilea quadrifolia, 380 Marsilea senegalensis. 379 Maylenus hetei-ophylla. 380 Medinilla inirubili^, 381 Melochia cotrhorifolia. 382, Melochia ntelissifotia, 383 Melochia pyramidata, 3fi2 Melochia lonientosa, 382 Mercurialis alternifolia, 383 Micrococca inefvurialis. 383 Momordica balsamina, 384, 3S2

Momordica charanlia, 385, 385, Momordica cochinchinensis. 389 Momordica foelida, 387. Momordica lanala, 185 Momordica rosltnla, 387. aifll Momordica Ihollonii, 38.1 Moringa con can en sis, 391 Moringa drouhardii. 397 Moringa hildehrandlii, 397 Moringa oleifein. 392. Moringa ovalifolia, 397 Moringa peregrina. 393, 394. 325 Moringa plerygosperma, 322 Moringa slenopelala, 393^ 395 .9.97 ,

Mionia glandulifera, 404 Myrianlhentum mirabile, 381 Myrinnlhiis arboreus, 399 -Jfl/? Myrianthus holslii. 400 Myrianlhus libericua, 400 Myrianlhiis serraliis, 400 NasluHium huniifusu m, 449 Naslurliuni microphylla. 402 ,

Oldenlandia macrophylla, 4 '2 Oldenlandia penlandra, 412 Ophioglossum cosfaliiin, 404 Ophioglossum grande, 404 Ophioglossum ovaluin, 404 Ophioglossum reliculatum, 404 4^.^ Ophioglossum rutgalum, 404 Ophioglossum vulgalum var. reliculatum, 404 Orlhanthera brou niana, 405 Orthanlhera jasminiflora, 405 1

Liidii igia ahyssinica, 33S.

Ludu igia

-/^g

1

Lepiadenia arborea. '^fiH Lepladenia haslafo, 367 Lepiadenia landfolia, 'MM Lepiadenia pyrotechnica, Lepladenia reliciilala, Loinaria lemiifolia, fil Lomariopsis tenuifolia. i^lfi Ludirifiia adscendens,

(557

Oxygonum Oxygonum

acelosella, 40fi

alaiuni.

406

Oxygonitni atriplicifolium, 406

Oxygonum atriplicifolium var. sinualum, 407 Oxygonum fagopyroides, 40fi Oxygonum salicifolium. 407 Oxygonum sinualum. 407 Oxygonum somalense, 406 Paslinaca saliva. 408 Pedaliuin murex. 409 Pentanisia crassifolia. 410 Pentanisia schu einfurthii, 410 Pentanisia variabilis, 410 Pentarrhinum abyssinicum \ Pentarrhinum insipidum, 411 Pentodon pentandrus, 412 ,

1

Pey^o fici folia, '^59

Peripioca nigresceua. 301

Persicaria attenuala, 412 Persicaria decipiens,

i

13. -113.

Persicaria glabixi, 415 Persicaria salicifolia, 413 Persicaria senegalensis, 414

Pelroselinum crispum, HQ Phaseolus acutifolius, 419 Phaseolus coccineus. 19 Phaseolus vulgaris, 415, 4/g Piaum aalivum, 419. 4g/
.'^ Calobassior du Sonogal, 36. Canaigre du paj's, 451

Chinense pepper, 54 Chinese cabbage. 4fi Chinese okra, 322 Chinese radish, 442 Chinese violet, 100 Chinese winter melon, 107

Canhamo

brasileiro,

Canola, 127 Cantaloupe.

Capsicum.

:^lfi

I

Capsicum pepper, li>4 Caralluma comestible, Carotte.

1

2ML

Cat's whiskers, 191 Catassol, Hfi.

Catjang cowpea, Cauliflower, 122. Caupi, 550 blanc,

Cebolete.

M

121

1

1

fiHO

Choisum, lAQ. Choi-sum. IM.

Chou a grosses cotes, 131 Chou brocoli, 39 Chou cabus, 35 Chou cavalier, 131 Chou c;hinois, 14fi Chou de Bruxelles, 1A2 Chou de Shanghai, IM Chou ethiopien, 19 Chou pomme, 135 Chou vert, 132 Chou vert non pomme, 131 1

1

1

Caruru da Bahia, 217 Casse fetide, 4ri9

Caya

lfi3

mi

Carpetweed, fi.'^O Carrapicho agulha, Carrapicho de agulha, Carrot,

iM

Chocho. ALU Chocolate weed, 382

2J[ii •">

1

1

14

222

Collard,

Calabash gourd, 353

Cancon,

Colcas,

Chanvre de Bombay, 31fi Chanvre de Guinee, 31 fi Chaya, 202

Chicoree scarole. 180 Chicoria e.scarola, 180 Chicoria frisada, 181

Caisin, lAQ.

14

Cocoyam, 206 Coentro de tchincherrote, 453

1

IM

xin,

1

Cock's comb, 167. IZl

Cenoura. 282 Ceylon spinach, 103. ii22 Chahiota,

Chenopode blanc, 78 Cherry eggplant, oQl Chickenweed, i22 Chickweed, 222 Chicoree frisee, 181

2QQ

Cobbler's pegs,

Cenicilla,

IM

l\ri'A

Cabbage Cabbage Cabbage

lfi7

1

Chouchou, 456 Chouchoutte, ALQ. Chou-fleur,

132

132

Colombro, 353. Colza,

121

Commeline, 212. Commeline, 211, 212

Commeline

africaine,

211

Common bean, 415 Common bitterleaf, 543 Common gourd, 353 Common okra, 25. Common .sowthistle, 512 Common spike-thorn, 380 Concombrc, 253

Concombre africain, 385 Concombre amer, 385 Concombre antillais, 238 Concombre balsamite, 384

Conmmbre cornu, 248 Concombre-serpent. 532 Congo's crockatoo, 33 Cooking melon, 185 Corete. 217 221_223 Corete a trois dents, 221 Corete a rois logos, 223 Corete potagere, 217 Corete sauvage. 2 16 Corkwood, 322 Cornichao das Antillas, 238 Cornichon, 253. Comichon des Antilles, 23fi Cornsalad, 542 Cote de blette, 112 Courge, 213 Courge bouteille, 353 t

Courge cannelee, 522

662

VKdKTAHIJOS

Courge circuso. 107 Course d'hiver, 263 Courgo do Sinm, '^fi^ Courge ecarlato, 262 Courge musquee, 267 Courgp lurban, '2(VA Cl'ourpette, 21A CourgeUe africaine, 3ft

Doucetto,

Courgot to voluo, 107 Couve bmcolo, 139 Couve chinesa, 1 46

Egou.si,

Feijao da China. 550

542

Drumstick

Feto dos montes, 439 Feto ordinario, 439

Egusi melon. 1H5 Egusi watermelon, 1H5 Egusi-itoo, 235 Egypt ian bean, 343 Eldorets nightshade, 498 Elephant ear, 2Qa Elephant garlic, 41

Craincrain. 217

Epmard d ete, 527

Cranberrj' hibiscus. 312 20.

36o

de fontaine, 401 de Para, 35

des jardins. 365 du Senegal, 449 sauvage, 449 Cressonnette, 164, 2QL Crete de coq, 161.111 Crotalaire.

Feijao padre. 343

235

Emilie. 222 Endive, lEl Epmard, 513

alenois,

Feijao miudo, 550

4M

Egousi-itoo, 235

1

Cresson Cresson Cresson Cresson Cresson Cresson

Feijao frade alfange, 550 Feijao macundi, 550

Edible caralluma, 163 Eggplant,

Couvo d inflorosroncia, 146 Couve da China, 146 Couve de Bruxelas, 143 Couve flor. 122 Couve pelsai, 46 Couve rabano, 144 Couve repolho. 135 Cowpea, ^^^^^) Cozida. 52

Cream-of-tartar tree, Cresson, 401. MS.

Feijao da India, 343 Feijao de metro, 550 Feijao espargo. 550

tree, 322.

Dwarf copporloaf 02 Eagle fcm, 43a Ebolo, 22£ Eddoe, 20G

229.232

Epinard 527 Epinard Epinard Epinard Epinard Epinard

412 112

Field pea, Figiri,

Fig-leaf gourd, 259

Fireweed, 22fj Flameflower, 518 Fleur d une heure, 328 Floating stag's horn, 173

Flower of an hour, 328 Fluted gourd, ii22 Fluted pumpkin, S22 Fodder melon, 185

de Nouvelle-Zelande,

Forest nettle, 540

Forest yam,

du Congo,

m

Fougere Fougere Fougere Fougere

malabar, S2 piquant, 80.

88

vert,

Eru. 301. 304 Eruca, 224 Erva da moda, 299 Erva do bicho, 412

Erva moura.

222

Fougere aquatique

fifi

indien, 103

flottante,

379 de Sumatra, 123 des savanes, 439 grand-aigle, 439 d'eau,

432

Fougere-aigle,

Frafra potato. 508

French bean, Fringed spiderflower, 197 1 1

177. 193.

428

Curolio ocarlate, 292

Ervilha,

Cucumber, 2f>3 Cuman', 399

IXDUX OV \KRNACV\AU PLANT NAMKS Giraumon, 2fi7 Gisekia, 300

Igname de brousse, 287 Igname snuvage, 287

Glnsswort, 310, 45'2 Glossv nightshade, 477

Imbondeiro. 2ii Impatience bcc-de-perroquet. 331

Goa bean, Gombo, 2f)

135

Gombo comniun, 25. Gombo oupsl-afrirain,

21

cucumber, 252 Gooseberry tourd, 23ft Gourde, 353 Gousi, 235 Grand arum du Senegal, 359 Grant! wounian, 3S)n Grasse, 520 Great-headed garlic, 4 Green amaranth. SS. (joosoborrj'

Impat ience d'lrving, ii3 Impatience du Zaire, 33 Indian butter bean, 343 Indian Indian Indian Indian

fern,

1

73

mustard, 123 sorrel. 321 spinach. f>7, 103 Inhame do Egipto, 20(» Ivy gourd, 202 Jagatu tunga, 472 Jamaican sorrel. 32

(.jumbo ouest-africain, 2J. Ilabanero, 154

Jambu. 35. Japanese bunching onion, 52. Japanese jackbean, 151 Japanese radish, 442 Jew s mallow. 217, 221, 223 Jewels of Opar. 518 Jilo, 472

Hairy beggarticks, 114

Jindungu.

Hairj' bittercress, 184

Joseph's coat, 8A

Groseille, 321

Ground arum, Guinea hemp, Gumbo. 211

51fi 31f>

338

Hair}' cluster-vine, Hair}' knotweed, 4

1

Haradali, 1^3 aile,

54

340 Jute mallow, 2 Jute potager, 2 1 Justicia.

Kabichi,

435

Haricot mange-tout, 415 Haricot vert, 415

Hausa potato. 508 Headed cabbage, 35 Hemlock be^ggar's licks, 113 Herbe a aiguilles, Herbe a balai, 382 Herbe a panier, 535 Herbe aiguille, 1 13. 14 Herbe le rail, 100 Herbe mouton. 557 Herbe onze heures, 518 Herbe pistai^he, 100 Herbe villebague, 114 1

1

1

1

Herero cucumber. Hoodia cactus, 329 Horned cucumber, 24& Horned melon. 248 Horse purslane, 530 Horseradish tree, 392 Hurricane palm, 285. Hyacinth bean, 343

Krinkrin, 217

H

Kurrat, Labe-labe, 343

Lablab, 343 Lablab bean, 343

Lady's finger, 25 Lady's slipper, 277 Laga^'o

33fi

t!t)'/inho,

Lagos spinach, Laiteron Laiteron Laiteron Laiteron Laiteron Laiteron

lft7

commun, 512 epineux, 511

maraicher, 512 piquant. 511 potager, 512 rude, 511

Laitue, 349

Laitue amere, 380 Lalo-cammho, 1 75

Lamb's lettuce. 542 Lamb's quarters, 78 1

Lastron, 5 12 1

Leaf beet, 10 Leaf cabbage, 130 Leaf celerv'. 89 Leaf mustard, 23

135

1

Kafula, 212 Kale, 130

1

Knngkong. 3.32 Kangkung, 332 Karela, 385 Karkade, 321 Karkadch, 321 Karoti, 280

Leek, 11

Lega^ao cabecinho, 338 Lcita ruga, 5

1

I^emon-eyed rose mallow, 3 1 Lettuce, 349

Kenaf, 31fi Kenaf, 3 (i 1

Ketmie

Koko, 301, Mil Kongwa, 211, 212

Lastron piquant, 5

Kabichu, 135.

Haricot doHque. 550 Haricot kilometre. 550 Haricot sabre. 151

Kohlrabi, 144

Lambsquarters, 1 78 Langue de serpent, 404 Langue de vache, 382

1

Hairy nightshade, 503 Hair}'pod cowpea, 54D Haricot

1

328

d'Afrique,

Kibosa. 5 3 .5

Kichoma mguu, Kichoma nguo. 114 Kichwamangwo, 100 1

1

Liane a saucisses, 185 Liane torchon, 3 70 Lingua de cobra, 404 Lingua de vaca, 518 Lipupu, 235 Liseron d eau, 332 Local

tete,

fili

Ixillipop climber,

289

Kikalakasa, 433

Low

Kikopwe, 338 Kilembe cha mbwana, 292 Kmdiri, 407 Kindri. 408 Kmyorwe, 429

Lufa riscada. 370 Lustrosa grande, 520

Kisegeju.

Kitunguu,

1f>4

M

Kitunguu saumu, Kiwano, 248 Knolkhol 144

(?(j3

5fi.

senna, 459

Maasai stinging

nettle,

540

IM

Mabala. Mache, Machiche, 233. Machur, MQ. Macissis, 238

Madagascar Palmyra palm.

664

VKdKTAHIJOS

Musky

Madcrc, 2Qa

Mjembe.

£2 Mais des psprits, HiSa Makundo, 550. Malabar gourd, 259 Malabar nightshade,

Mjimbi, 206 439

Muuj-u, 32

Mkabili, JILL

Mwangani mgange, Mwengele, 212

Magloire,

2flfi.

Mkabi-lishemsi, 191

Mkula, 1 i)'.^

im

Mi

Myugwa,

Mkunde. 550

Mkuu Mkuu

Maria prntinha, 477 Marsilea,

Mlenda wa sege. Mlendo, 22a

Marsilee, iilS Marsilia, 379

MIonge. 3112

Masc;arene Islands cabbage palm, 20. Mastadi. 123

Mmung'unye, 35:? Mnavu. isL 498. 5Qa Mnavu mchungu, 477 Mnukia muuma, 390 Molambeira, M. Monkey-bread tree, Modi. 112

hafungwa, 3fi hapingwa, iiQ Mlangaze, 410 Mlenda, 175, 217. jga MIenda mwitu, 464

Mmumunye.

Mastru^-o ordinario, 36/1

Mauve des Maxije,

Juifs,

217

Maxixe. 22&.

Mbamia, 2S Mbilingani,

i&a

Mehachu, 450 80. 83. 84.

M

72. 76, 78.

Mchumvichumvi, 450 Mdodoki,

iilil

Melaneia, 185

Melao, 2ia Meliio de Sao Caet ano,

Nara bu.sh, 31 Nara melon, ai

243, 353

Melongene-diable, 501

IM

Metulon, 2ia Mlljih. AA2.

M2

Zealand spinach, 527 Ngogwe, 472. IM Nhacandora, 316 Niebe, 550 Nigerian watercress, 449 Njegere, 419 Njengere, 419 Nkoko. 301. aty. Nyanya, 373^ 4M

Nyanya chungu. 472. 484 Obscure morning glor>'. 3 36

H

Oignon, Oilseed rape, 127 Okra, 2h. Okro, 25. Oldmaid, Onion, Ophioglosse, 404

mi

51

Mpopo, 382 Mpovupovu, 212

Oriental water fern, 173 Orlie massaie, 540

Mpupu, 359. Mil Mriba wa ziwa, 332 Mronge, 222

Oaeille de gorille, 106

Oaeille d'.Abyssinie, 450 Oaeille de chimpanze. 106

Msekeseke. 222. Mtango. 243. 263

Oseille de Guinee, 321

Mtango mungunyana, 243 Mtikini, 122

Oseille des Pygmees. 184

Oaeille de la brousse, 106

IM

Mtikiti maji.

Oseille indigene, 326 Oseille malabare. 326

Muringueiro. 392

IM.

New

M

1

Mhacha. 2a Mharagwe, 415 thistle,

MQ.

crops, 146

Neverdie. 392

191

Mpilipili hoho,

Mtikiti.

Mirliton.

chinois,

Ndole. iiia.

Neep

1

Mfiwi mafuta, Mfungu. 167.111 Mtuta, Mgagani. 191. 195. 197. I3&

Milk

2fi2.

442 Navy bean, 415

Mpilipili, 154

Melon a pist ache, 185 Melon de Malabar. '259 Melon nara, iii Melongene, 488

AM

Native bryony, Navet. 142

Navet

Moringa ailee, 392 Mostarda Indiana, 123 Mostarda vermeiha, 12a Mother fern, 2aa Mouron d'eau. 453 Moutarde brune. 123 Moutarde d'Abyssinie, 19 Mouiarde de Chine, 123 Moutarde de Sarepta. 123 Mouiarde frisi^e, 123

Mouzambe, :^85

Melon, 2AA

Merevjile.

75

Morelle noire. 477, 498

Mboga buterezi. 103 Mboga ya kimasai, 25H Mbujni. 35a Mbwanda, 151 Mchicha, 63. 67,

1

20(>

Mzunze, 232.

Morelle de Guinee, 493 Morelle jaune, 503 Morelle noire. 493

Mbinda, 25. Mbiringanya, 488 Mboga, 267.22a

191

Nabo, 112. Nnbo amarelo, 1 27 Nabo de Suecia, 127 Naeaeha, 3 1 Nara, ai

M

2ia

2B1

Mwingasiafu, 151

Mange-tout. 100, Manioc- batard, 200. Marejoa, '->Mn 231. 222 Margose, 384. Maria gombi, r)18

2M

gourd,

IM

Oseille sango, 450

Mtsunga, 322

Padouk

Mtunda nyoka. 391

Pak-thoi,

Musambe,

191. 195, 197.

Musk pumpkin, Muskmelon, 243

2fi7

blanc, 441

112 112 142 Pakchoy. Ufi

Pakchoi,

12a

Pakchoi,

Palmiste blanc. 2fi5

IXDUX OV VIORNAClJLAie PLANT NAMKS Pnlmistc bon, 2aS. Palmiste bourre, 3Q. Palmiste de I'ile Ronde,2a5

Piquant

3Q Palmiste des hauts, 3Q

Poireau,

Palmiste dcs bois,

Palmiste rouge, 3Q

3Q

Panais. 108 Papon gayo, Paprika, 1B4

MO

25.

Patole,

Mi

Pearl onion, Pepinela,

1

10

f>t)1

11

Redweed, 3il2 Renouee a fcuillcs de iia

sec,

419

Pois yeux noirs. 550

Poivre de Cayenne, 154 Poivron, 154

Pombo.

de terre de Madagascar, 508 Pomme de terre du Soudan, 508

Peppergrass. Hfio Periquito-sessil, 62.

Pourpier Pourpier Pourpier Pourpier

Red-leaved hibiscus, 312

122

de mer, IfiB. maritime, 468 potager, 42R tropical,

520

saulc,

Rhodesian forget-me-not, 410 Rhubarb, llii Rhubarbe, llE Ribbed gourd, 32Q Ridged gourd, 370 Rocket salad, 221 Ronier de Madagascar, 1 18 Roquette, 221

321

Roselle.

3fi2

Pomme

Poui-pier courant, 530

Pepino das Antilhas, 238.

Red cockies beak, 331 Red gherkin, 225. Red palm, 32 Red thistle, 222 Redflower ragleaf, 226 Red-fruited nightshade, 503

Pourpier. 426.

4fifi

232

Rave, ll£i

Pois bouc^oussou, 343

Potiron. 2fia

Pepino,

232

Rattlepod. 229. 231,

Pois aile africain, 4:^3 Pois antaque, 343

Pois IHJi

Pasteque fourragcre, 185 Pastinaga. 408 Palate aquatique, 'A^itl fede.

10

Uii

Pois sabre, 151 Pois sabre rouge, 151

cuire, 18r>

PastiHiue egousi,

Pea eggplant, Pea pod, lia

1

Poiree a coupcr,

Pois carre, 435 Pois gourmand, 419 Pois mange-tout, 419 Pois quenique, 392

Paroka, .^Sn Parrot plant. 331 Parsnip, Mi& Pastoquc, 185

Pau

11

Poireau perpetuel, 11

Pois,

Pasteque a

Rattlebox.

152

211

Palmiste piquant, 3£i

Para -cress.

14

1

Poiree a carde,

Palmiste epineux,

Palmiste zepines,

noir,

Pistache marron, 100, Plate brush, 501

Roselle sauvage, 314 Rosj' dock, 452

Rough sow thistle, Round melon, 430 Rucola, 221 Riicola, 221 Ruho, 202 Ruibarbo, 112

51

Rutabaga, 127 Rutabaga, 121 Saladi,

312

Pernambuco. 399

Preser\'ing melon, 185

Salicome, 452

Persian carpet flower 292 Petit poireau antillais, JJ.

Prickly amaranth,

Salicome indicnne, 310

Petit pois, Petit-pois.

Petsai, Pe-tsai,

Petsai,

nSL lia

lifi.

IM IM.

Picao branco, 222. Picao preto, 111 Pigweed, fi3, 12. 23, 178, 42fi Pi men t, 1n4

IM

Piment antillais, Piment oiseau, 1^4 Pimenta de galinha, 477 Pimentao. 54 Pimento, 1»4 1

Pimento chines, 154 Pimento de caiena, 154. Pimento do(?e, 154 Pimentos, 154 Piri-piri, 1 54

Piquant blanc, 2aa

()6r)

fill

Prickly paddy cucumber, 252 Prickly sow thistle, 51

Salsao,

Prince s feather, IE. Princress palm, 285

Salsifis noir,

Prostrate amaranth, ifi

Samphire. 452,

Pumpkm,

Scarlet eggplant,

263. 267. 223.

Purple amaranth, Purslane. 426 Quail grass, 167 Quiabeiro.

63.

25

Quiabeiro azedo, 321 Quiabo de metro, 532 Quickweed, 222

Rabanete chines, 442 Rabano, Ml Rabao, 112 Rabarbaro, 447

112 112 121 Rattle pea, 222 Radis,

Radish,

Rape

kale,

aO 151

Salsifis.

454

Salt of the torioise.

106

4(;8

472

Scarlel-fiTjited gourd,

Scarole,

202

IM

Scoraonere, 454

Smrzonera, 454 Scratchbush, 539 Seaside purslane, 468 Sene, 152

Serpent vegetal, 532 Serralha aspera. 51 Serraiha branca, 512 Serralha espinhosa. 51 Serralha macia, 512 Serralha preta, 51 Sesame de gazelle, 162 Sesame of the gazelle. 462

666

VKdKTAHIJOS

Swamp arum, 359 Swamp fern. 173 Swamp morning glorj', Swamp .spinach, 332

Sosamum, 462 Sessile joyweed, Q2. Shrub nllhoa, H26

Sicklcpod.

ila£l

Silk squash, 370

Silver spinach, 171 Singie-riowerecl purslane,

429

Swi.ss chard,

1

Sienderleaf, 222. Slipj)er gourd, '277 4*25

Small knotweed, Smallflower galinsoga, 299 Small-leaved j)urslane, 4*29 Smooth sow thistle, 512

Wandering Jew, 21 Warrigal cabbage, 527 Water clover, 379 Water convolvulus, 332 Water pimpernel, 453 Water sjiinacih, 332 Water sprite, 1 73

151

Talinum. Tamin de cipo. 277 Tamia de comer. 277 Tango, 253 Tapis persan, 222

Watercress, 401. MO. Waterleaf, fi20 Watermelon, 185

Watersmart weed, 412

Snake gourd, f>32 Snake root, 413 Snake tomato. 532 Snap bean, 415 Snap pea, 419

Taro,

Snow

pea, 419

Ten

soko,

mi

Tetragone cornue, 527

200

Tarler>-, 80. Striped cucumber, 2ft9

Tropical spider^vo^t, 212

Stuffing cucumber, 277

Sucumadeira, 543 Sudan potato, 508

Turnip, 146 Turnip-rooted celery. 82 Ufuta, 321

Sugar pea, 19 Sugarcane palm, 22Q Sugarcane tree, 290

Vagem, 415

Worowo, 102

Vegetable kenaf, aifi. Vegetable marrow, 273 Venice mallow, 328 Venus' bath, 212

Yanrin, 362 Yard-long bean, 550 Yellow barbel palm, 285 Yellow commelina. 211

1

Sukuma

wiki, 131

Sumatra

fern,

1

73

Summer squash, 273 Surelle,

450

Turkey berry, 501

Ufuta dume, 321 Ulimi wa ngombe, 222

Woolflower, 111

IXDUX OV VIORNAClJLAie PLANT NAMKS Ycrba dc jicoton, i^fiQ Yoruban bologi, 22S. Znmbosi winr-c"up tree, Zucchini,

22a

Zulu round potato. 508

n'Aft

(567

668

VKOETABLE5S

PROTA in

short

The Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA) projrramme was initiated in 2000 and developed into an international partnership of 11 institutions in 11 countries during the Preparatory Phase 2000 2003. Since 1*1 Februaiy 200:3. PROTA operates as an international foundation domiciled

in

Wageningen, Netherlands.

PKO'IA is a major 'informal ion brokerage and knowifnlge r(^j)atriati()n' jirogramme. The objectives are to bring the world literature on the useful plants of Tropical Africa, now accessible only to the resourceful happy few, into the (African) public domain, and contribute to greater awareness and sustained use of the plants, with due respect for traditional knowledg(>

and

inlllec(

ual property rights.

PROTA will

de-

Implementation Phase 20032012, The information carriers will ho freely accessible W eb databases www.prota.org) a low-price Handbook and CD-Rom series featuring lii Commodity groups, and Special Products per commodity group for rural development, education, research and policy actors (all in English and French). PROT\l^ Cereals and pulses PROTA Hi .Auxiliary plants scribe the estimated IlKlii useful plants during the

(

PROT.\

.

2. X'egctables (200

I)

PROT.\ii: Dyes and tannins

PROTA ± PROTA iL PROTA ii:

Ornamentals Forages Fruits

PROTXl: Timbers PKOT.\iL (^arbohvdrates

CTA in

PROTA KL PROTA 11^ PROTA 12. PROTA lili PROTA Hi PROTA 15i PROTA liL

Fuel plants Medicinal plants Spices and condiments Essential oils and exudates Vegetable oils Stimulants Fibn's

short

for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was established under the Lome Convention between the ACP (African. Caribbean and Pacific) Cirouj) (tf States and the European Union Member States. Since 2000. it has operated within the fi-amework of the ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement,

The Technical Centre in 19cS;}

CTAs

tasks are to develop and provide senices that improve access to information and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in this area. CTA s programmes are designed to: provide a wide range of information products and sendees and enhance awareness of relevant information sources: promote the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensify cont acts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and develop ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate ICM strategies, including those relevant to .science and technology. CT.\ s work inc()r|)(>rales new developments in nKMhodologies and cross-cutting issues such as gender and social capital. (CTA. P.O.Box iMl^GTOO AJ Wageningen, Netherlands). for agricultural

WEST AFRICA

SOUTHERN AFRICA

CENTRAL AFRICA

1.

Cape Verde

17.

Sao Tome et Principe

2.

Mauritania Senegal

18.

3. 4.

Gambia

20.

Cameroon Chad Central AfHoan Republic

5.

21.

Equatorial Guinea

22.

7.

Guinea Bisaaii Guinea Sierra Leone

Angola 88. Namibia 39. Botswana

28.

Gabon Congo

41.

8.

Liberia

24.

Democratic Republic of Cdngo

9.

Coted'lvoire Mali

25.

Rwanda

10.

26.

Burundi

11.

Burkina Faso

12.

Ghana

EAST AFRICA

13.

Togo Benin

27.

Sudan

31.

Somalia

28.

Eritrea Ethiopia

32.

Kenya Uganda

45.

88.

46.

Reunion

84.

Taniania

47.

Mauritius

6.

14. 15.

16.

Niger Nigeria

19.

29.

80. Pjibonti

85. 8ft.

Malawi Zambia

87.

40.

Zimbabwe Moaambique

INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS 42.

CcmioTOB

43.

Mayotte (Fr) Madagascar

44.

Seychelles (Fr)

PROTA,

short for 'Plant Resources of Tropical Africa',

is

an international programme

focused on the 7,000 useful plants of Tropical Africa. Its purpose

is

to

make

availa-

knowledge on these plant resources for education, extension, research and industry through Internet databases, books, CD-Roms, and derived products such as brochures, leaflets, and manuals. A thorough knowledge of the plant resources is essential for arriving at ecologically balanced and sustainable land-use systems. A large international team of experts is contributing the texts on particular species. All species are described according to a standard format with details on uses, trade, properties, botany, ecology, agronomy or sylviculture, genetic resources, breeding, prospects and literature. In the printed series the species are grouped into commodity groups. More information on www.prota.org. ble the wealth of dispersed

Vegetables PROTA 2

deals with the vegetables of Ti opical Africa. PROTA's database 'SPECIESLIST' presents about 880 species used as such, but only 350 are 'primary use' vegetables qualifying for treatment in this volume, the other 530 species have been listed as 'Vegetables

with other primary use' and referred to other Handbook volu-

mes.

The 350 'primary

use' vegetables are described in 275 reN^ew articles, implying that about 75 species have no separate article due to lack of information; they are only

mentioned

in the articles of related species.

ISBN 90-5782-147-8 ISBN 90-5782-148-6

(book only (book +

)

CD-Rom)

PROTA, Wageningen, Netherlands

Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands

^CTA^

CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands