Understanding Contemporary Africa 9781685855475

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UNDERSTANDING CONTEMPORARY AFRICA

UNDERSTANDING I n t r o d u c t i o n s to t h e States a n d R e g i o n s o f the C o n t e m p o r a r y World Donald

L. Gordon,

series

editor

Understanding

Contemporary

Africa, second

edition

edited by April A. G o r d o n & D o n a l d L. G o r d o n

Understanding

Contemporary

Latin

America

edited b y R i c h a r d S. Hillman

S E C O N D EDITION

UNDERSTANDING CONTEMPORARY

edited by

April A. Gordon & Donald L Gordon

I.YNNIi

N I! I I I'llHI.ISI I ] RS R [ K N

Kou I n I u I 11 N DO N

Cover: Betty LaDuke, who painted "Millet Rhythms," is an artist-traveler and professor of art at Southern Oregon State College, Ashland.

Published in the United States of America in 1996 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. 1800 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80301 and in the United Kingdom by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. 3 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8LU © 1996 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Understanding contemporary Africa / edited by April A. Gordon and Donald L. Gordon.—2nd ed. p. cm.—(Understanding: Introductions to the states and regions of the contemporary world) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-55587-547-5 (alk. paper) 1. Africa—Politics and government—1960- 2. Africa—Social conditions—1960- I. Gordon, April A. II. Gordon, Donald L. III. Series. DT30.5.U536 1996 960.3'2—dc20 96-7581 CIP British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the requirements (Q) of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1984. 5 4 3 2 1

•

Contents

•

List of M a p s

IX

Preface

XI

1

Introduction

2

Africa: A Geographic Preface

April A. Gordon & Donald L. Gordon J e f f r e y W. N e f f

7

The Moving ITCZ Natural Regions Continents Adrift 3

The Historical Context

Thomas

O'Toole

23

T h e P e o p l i n g of A f r i c a Political P a t t e r n s of the Past Trade, Exploration, and Conquest The Colonial Period Conclusions 4

African Politics

Donald

L. Gordon

53

T h e I m p a c t of C o l o n i a l i s m N a t i o n a l i s m and the P o l i t i c s of I n d e p e n d e n c e T h e T r a n s f e r of P o w e r Independence T h e C e n t r a l i z a t i o n of S t a l e P o w e r P a t r o n a g e , the P a t r i m o n i a l S t a t e , a n d P e r s o n a l R u l e Military Intervention T h e Political E c o n o m y of D e c l i n e S t a t e a n d S o c i e t y in C r i s i s S t r u c t u r a l A d j u s t m e n t a n d the R e o r d e r i n g of the S t a t e Beyond Autocracy 5

The E c o n o m i e s of Africa

Virginia

Precolonial Economies T h e I n f l u e n c e of C o l o n i a l i s m Postcolonial Development Strategies Current Issues

v

DeLancey

91

VI

6

Contents

African International Relations

Peter

J. Schraeder

129

The Dependency-Decolonization Debate The Formulation and Implementation of African Foreign Policies Pan-Africanism and the Organization of African Unity Regional E c o n o m i c Cooperation and Integration The Role of Foreign Powers in African International Relations The United Nations and International Financial Institutions Toward the Future 7

Population Growth and Urbanization

April

A. Gordon

167

E. Nyang'oro

195

Precolonial and Colonial Periods Postindependence Trends The Birth Control Controversy Urban Population Policy A I D S in Africa 8

Africa's Environmental Problems

Julius

The Environment in Africa Contemporary Problems of the African Environment Development and the Environment Other Issues of Environmental Concern Conclusions 9

Family and Kinship

Brian

Siege!

221

C o m p a r i n g Marriage and Family Forms Unilineal Descent and Descent G r o u p s African Descent and Residence Patterns Marital Alliances and Transactions Family Ties and Social Order Contemporary Trends Conclusions 10

W o m e n and D e v e l o p m e n t

April

A. Gordon

249

Women in Precolonial Africa European Penetration The Postindependence Period Women in the E c o n o m y Women and Politics Prospects for African Women 11

R e l i g i o n in A f r i c a

Ambrose

African Traditional Religions Christianity in Africa Islam in Africa Conclusions

Moyo

273

vu

Contents

12

African Literature

George

Joseph

303

A f r i c a n Oral L i t e r a t u r e W r i t t e n L i t e r a t u r e in A f r i c a n L a n g u a g e s A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e in E u r o p e a n L a n g u a g e s Conclusions 13

South Africa

Patrick

J.

335

Furlong

T h e P e o p l i n g of S o u t h A f r i c a T h e R o o t s of R a c i a l D i s c r i m i n a t i o n T h e A d v e n t of the British F a c t o r The Mineral Revolution The United Settler State N a t i o n a l i s t R u l e a n d t h e C r e a t i o n of t h e A p a r t h e i d S t a t e T h e A t t e m p t to M o d e r n i z e A p a r t h e i d Dismantling the Apartheid State T h e T o r t u r o u s R o a d to a N e w S o u t h A f r i c a Conclusions 14

Trends and Prospects

April

A. Gordon

& Donald

L. Gordon

371

Appendixes List of A c r o n y m s

379

Glossary

381

Basic Political Data

395

A b o u t the A u t h o r s

413

Index

415

A b o u t the B o o k

432

• Maps

•

2.1

M a j o r P h y s i c a l Features and R e g i o n s

17

2.2

Natural R e g i o n s and I T C Z L o c a t i o n

18

2.3

L i n k a g e s and R e s o u r c e s

19

2.4

Early States and E m p i r e s

20

2.5

A f r i c a in 1 9 1 4

21

2.6

Countries and Capitals

7.1

H I V in A f r i c a

188

11.1

Islam in A f r i c a

298

13.1

South A f r i c a

336

22

IX

Preface The first edition of Understanding Contemporary Africa was the culmination of nearly three years of collaborative thought, research, and writing by a dedicated group of Africanist scholars and teachers. On the basis of informal conversations, and then in a broader survey of other Africanists teaching at the undergraduate level, we discovered that most of us were finding it difficult to locate a good, up-to-date text on sub-Saharan Africa to use in our introductory courses. Available texts were, for the most part, too disciplineoriented—created especially for history, anthropology, or political science courses; they were too advanced for students with little prior background; or they were dated. On the other hand, some introductory texts on the market tried to do too much; they were so broad in scope that they lacked the theoretical base or scholarly depth we were looking for. This left professors compelled to use multiple readings from several different books and periodicals to cover their topics. We decided that for us, as well as many other teachers of "Introduction to A f r i c a " courses, the availability of a single text designed to address important contemporary topics and to provide background from a variety of academic subject areas would be an attractive alternative. It would save many of us from lengthy searches for material, time wasted with library reserve procedures, or an expensive panoply of required book purchases. Addressing the above concerns provided the rationale for this book. The success of the book since its publication in 1992 confirms our belief that Understanding Contemporary Africa, with its broad scope, up-to-date and in-depth chapters, and attention to readability for undergraduate students, is a valuable text for both multidisciplinary African studies courses and disciplinal courses. It covers many of the most important topics and issues needed for a grasp of the reality of sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s—e.g., the environment, w o m e n ' s roles, population, and urbanization—that get little or no treatment in most disciplinal texts. The information in each chapter of the book represents the best of the current research and thinking in those fields of study, providing students and professors with a useful background on Africa, and also presenting major issues in a way students can understand. And, although each chapter is designed to stand alone, the authors have produced a well-integrated volume, referring in their own chapters to complementary ideas discussed elsewhere in the book. This allows instructors to assign readings to meet their

XI

Xll

Preface

n e e d s — b y c h a p t e r or by topic, f o r i n s t a n c e — a t the s a m e time that the book helps students to see the c o n n e c t i o n s a m o n g issues or e v e n t s and r e i n f o r c e s w h a t they m a y h a v e read earlier. We h a v e retained the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the first edition, while a d d i n g a c h a p t e r on A f r i c a ' s international relations: In the introduction that f o l l o w s this p r e f a c e , the s c o p e and t h e m e s of the b o o k are d i s c u s s e d . Next, c h a p t e r s on the g e o g r a p h y and history of s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a p r o v i d e the b a c k g r o u n d n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t f o l l o w s . ( R e a d e r s s h o u l d refer to the m a p s in t h e g e o g r a p h y c h a p t e r w h e n r e a d i n g later c h a p t e r s of the b o o k . ) T h e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s c o v e r m a j o r institutions and issues c o n f r o n t i n g subS a h a r a n A f r i c a today. W h i l e e a c h c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s historical b a c k g r o u n d , the e m p h a s i s is on the vital c o n c e r n s f a c i n g A f r i c a n o w and in the f u t u r e . M o s t central a m o n g these c o n c e r n s are A f r i c a n political and e c o n o m i c syst e m s and issues, w h i c h are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 4, 5, and 6. Tied closely to political a n d e c o n o m i c policies and t r e n d s are p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , u r b a n i z a tion, and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s , as d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 7 and 8. N e x t w e d i s c u s s A f r i c a n f a m i l y and k i n s h i p s y s t e m s ; without an a w a r e n e s s of h o w A f r i c a n s u n d e r s t a n d k i n s h i p , issues like tribalism and corruption are d i f f i cult to c o m p r e h e n d and o f t e n m i s c o n s t r u e d by outsiders. W o m e n in A f r i c a are the f o c u s of C h a p t e r 10; as this c h a p t e r s h o w s , social c h a n g e in A f r i c a is a f f e c t i n g w o m e n m u c h d i f f e r e n t l y than m e n , and o f t e n to the d i s a d v a n t a g e of w o m e n . In C h a p t e r s 11 and 12, on A f r i c a n religion and literature, the f o c u s shifts to the ideological s p h e r e — t o h o w A f r i c a n s explain and attempt to g r a p p l e with the c o m p l e x i t i e s of their w o r l d and their place in it. C h a p t e r 13 is d i f f e r e n t f r o m the o t h e r s b e c a u s e it deals with one c o u n try, S o u t h A f r i c a . In recent years. S o u t h A f r i c a has c a p t u r e d the attention of the o u t s i d e world as its black m a j o r i t y s t r u g g l e d to break the s h a c k l e s of centuries of racist o p p r e s s i o n . A l t h o u g h w h i t e - r u l e d S o u t h A f r i c a has been in m a n y w a y s an a n o m a l y on the c o n t i n e n t , w e think it is important that students u n d e r s t a n d the history of a p a r t h e i d , the liberation struggle, and current e f f o r t s to create a n e w d e m o c r a t i c S o u t h A f r i c a in w h i c h people of all races can live t o g e t h e r and prosper. In a brief c h a p t e r on trends and p r o s p e c t s , w h i c h f o l l o w s the discussion of S o u t h A f r i c a , w e assess w h e r e s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a m a y be h e a d i n g . W h i l e w e d o not a t t e m p t to predict any s p e c i f i c o u t c o m e s , w e d o note that m a n y A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s are a t t e m p t i n g political and e c o n o m i c r e f o r m ; s o m e are m a k i n g real p r o g r e s s w h i l e o t h e r s are teetering on the brink of disaster. In all c o u n t r i e s , n e w leaders are e m e r g i n g , r e p l a c i n g those w h o a s s u m e d p o w e r at i n d e p e n d e n c e . W h e t h e r the n e w g e n e r a t i o n s h a p i n g the A f r i c a of the f u t u r e will i m p r o v e on the r e c o r d of the past still r e m a i n s very m u c h an open question. Writing and e d i t i n g this b o o k has left us i n d e b t e d to a n u m b e r of people. O u r r e s e a r c h w a s a i d e d e s p e c i a l l y by s u m m e r r e s e a r c h g r a n t s f r o m the

Preface

XIII

University of F l o r i d a A f r i c a n S t u d i e s C e n t e r u n d e r the direction of Hunt D a v i s , to w h o m w e are m o s t g r a t e f u l . Prior r e s e a r c h at the Institute of D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s at the U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x and h e l p f r o m C h a r l e s H a r v e y w e r e also important and a p p r e c i a t e d . In a d i f f e r e n t w a y each of us is o b l i g a t e d to M a r k D e L a n c e y of the U n i v e r s i t y of S o u t h C a r o l i n a . M a r k ' s l e a d e r s h i p and p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m as an A f r i c a n i s t are well k n o w n . F o r us both, a F u l b r i g h t p r o g r a m in C a m e r o o n u n d e r M a r k ' s direction w a s an a c a d e m i c high point. F o r April G o r d o n , M a r k ' s introduction to A f r i c a w a s the inspiration f o r a c a r e e r f o c u s e d o n the c o n t i n e n t . In addition, April o w e s m u c h to several p e o p l e at W i n t h r o p University. T h e m o r a l s u p p o r t , release t i m e , and staff aid g e n e r o u s l y g i v e n by Jack T u c k e r , chair of the S o c i o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t , w e r e vital. F u r t h e r m o r e , A1 Lyles, f o r m e r dean of arts and sciences, and Betsy B r o w n , the current d e a n , a p p r o v e d s u m m e r s t i p e n d s and release time; the W i n t h r o p R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l p r o v i d e d additional f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e ; and f o r m e r dean R o b i n B o w e r s w a s k i n d e n o u g h to f u n d a 1994 C o u n c i l f o r I n t e r n a tional E d u c a t i o n E x c h a n g e trip to Z i m b a b w e . D o n G o r d o n is obliged to m a n y p e o p l e at F u r m a n U n i v e r s i t y : A special debt is o w e d to Jim G u t h , then c h a i r of the D e p a r t m e n t of Political S c i e n c e , f o r his h e l p in a r r a n g i n g b l o c k s of t i m e f o r D o n to c o n c e n t r a t e on this book, and f o r his a d v i c e as a p r o f e s s i o n a l editor. In a d d i t i o n , D o n is g r a t e f u l to form e r v i c e - p r e s i d e n t and d e a n of F u r m a n University, J o h n H. C r a b t r e e , Jr., f o r his strong support for r e s e a r c h trips to Z i m b a b w e and M a l a w i and A f r i c a Study P r o g r a m s in E g y p t , K e n y a , and T a n z a n i a . D o n ' s r e s e a r c h and travel were also u n d e r w r i t t e n by the R e s e a r c h and P r o f e s s i o n a l G r o w t h C o m m i t t e e of F u r m a n University. W h i l e the i m p e t u s f o r writing this b o o k c a m e f r o m m a n y sources, m u c h of it can be traced to D o n G o r d o n ' s l o n g - t e r m association with the N a t i o n a l Model O r g a n i z a t i o n of A f r i c a n Unity S i m u l a t i o n directed by M i c h a e l N w a n z e at H o w a r d University. We are both i n d e b t e d to M i c h a e l , to Jack Parson of T h e C o l l e g e of C h a r l e s t o n , to Ed B a u m of O h i o University, and to the other highly c o m m i t t e d A f r i c a n i s t p r o f e s s o r s w h o m a d e this e d u c a t i o n a l event so s u c c e s s f u l and f r o m w h o m w e h a v e learned m u c h about h o w underg r a d u a t e s learn a b o u t A f r i c a . We e x t e n d o u r t h a n k s to M a r y L o u I n g r a m at the World Bank f o r her g e n e r o s i t y in p r o v i d i n g us with m o s t of the p h o t o g r a p h s w e used in the book. N o book can be c o m p l e t e d w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a b l e secretarial assistance. We have been b l e s s e d with s o m e of the very best: P e g g y H e r r o n of W i n t h r o p and. at F u r m a n , M a r g a r e t C r i s p and C a r o l y n S i m s . T h e s e c o m p e t e n t , pleasant p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h e e r f u l l y s u f f e r e d t y p i n g n u m e r o u s r e v i s i o n s of each chapter. T h i s book has b e e n s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e d t h r o u g h the h e l p of several

Preface

XIV

individuals, two o f whom we do not know. We gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e two a n o n y m o u s reviewers whose c o m m e n t s were o f considerable help in revising and improving the book, the aid o f Claude Stulting o f Furman for "editing the e d i t o r s , " and R i c k Watson o f North C a r o l i n a Wesleyan for reviewing several chapters. O u r gratitude to our chapter authors and other contributors to this book is as broad as the African continent. We thank them for their expertise and f o r their c o m m i t m e n t to expanding an appreciation for A f r i c a , not only in this book but in their work in the c l a s s r o o m . F o r e m o s t , we thank our f a m i l y : our sons, Aaron and Jared, were young children when the first edition o f this book was being written. T h e y are now old enough to realize that the time and energy the book took ( s o m e t i m e s a w a y from them) was well spent. L a s t , we thank L e l a , whose fifty years in the c l a s s r o o m are a model to us all.

April A. Gordon Donald L. Gordon

• 1•

Introduction April A. Gordon & Donald L. Gordon Most people know very little about sub-Saharan Africa, and most of what they do know is only partially correct or based on stereotypes or an inadequate historical or conceptual framework for understanding and interpretation. For instance, it is not uncommon to find people who believe that Africa is a land of primitive stone-age hunters and gatherers living in the jungle (the Africa of Tarzan movies). Another idea is that Africans are an especially violent people who practice cannibalism, believe in cruel religions and gods, and conduct endemic tribal warfare. At the other extreme are images of Africans as innocents unaware of modern twentieth-century life, like the "Bushman'" hero of the movie The Gods Must Be Crazy. The media tend to reinforce these perceptions, especially with their almost exclusive focus on negative news, such as drought and famine, civil war, or widespread poverty. While these phenomena certainly exist, there is far more to Africa and its people. Moreover, where Africa is suffering from problems like drought, civil war, and poverty, it is important to know why and what has been or should be done about such tragedies. Understanding Contemporary Africa has been written to provide the basic concepts, theoretical perspectives, and essential information that are neccssary for understanding the dynamic, as well as troubled, region that is Africa today. This book is mainly about sub-Saharan Africa, Africa south of the Sahara. While some mention is made of North Africa, Africa's Asiatic communities, and white settlers (especially in South Africa), those interested in these topics will need to consult additional sources. The authors have written in depth on the most important issues and institutions in Africa. Although these writers are from different disciplines and each chapter is more or less self-contained, a broad portrait of sub-Saharan Africa is discernible. Geographically, Africa is a massive continent, roughly three and a half times larger than the United States. Africa's range of climates, topography, and physical beauty have created conditions conducive to the formation of

1

2

April A. Gordon & Donald

L

Gordon

an i m m e n s e d i v e r s i t y o f p e o p l e s and cultures. A f r i c a is in f a c t the " h o m e " o f h u m a n k i n d , in w h i c h e v e r y m e a n s o f l i v e l i h o o d f r o m g a t h e r i n g and hunting to i n d u s t r i a l i s m c a n b e f o u n d . A t the s a m e t i m e , the e n o r m i t y o f the c o n tinent and its o f t e n harsh e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , such as e x t r e m e s o f oppressive

heat,

vast

deserts,

marginal

soils,

and

expanses

of

subtropical

v e g e t a t i o n , left m a n y g r o u p s r e l a t i v e l y isolated f r o m o t h e r parts o f the w o r l d until the last f e w c e n t u r i e s and limited the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f population and r e s o u r c e s that led to the m o r e t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y c o m p l e x s o c i e t i e s o f the " o l d w o r l d " and industrial E u r o p e . D e s p i t e this relative i s o l a t i o n , s o m e s o c i e t i e s h a d c o n t a c t with r e g i o n s a s distant as North A f r i c a , India, and e v e n C h i n a . R e g a r d l e s s , all d e v e l o p e d intricate cultures with rich r e l i g i o u s and artistic traditions and c o m p l e x s o c i a l and k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s . A s is true o f o t h e r a r e a s o f the world, s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a ' s history is f r a u g h t with e p i s o d e s o f u p h e a v a l , v i o l e n c e , and cultural c h a l l e n g e s g e n e r ated f r o m b o t h internal a n d e x t e r n a l f o r c e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , m o v e m e n t s o f p e o ple within the c o n t i n e n t led to c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e o f ideas, g o o d s , and p e o p l e as w e l l as to c o n f l i c t . F o r e i g n r e l i g i o n s , m a i n l y C h r i s t i a n i t y and I s l a m , w e r e c a r r i e d b y o u t s i d e r s and resulted in c h a l l e n g e s and c o n f l i c t s not o n l y with l o c a l r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s but with l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m s and w a y s o f life. At the s a m e t i m e , t h e s e r e l i g i o n s have b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d into A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s , c h a n g i n g both in the p r o c e s s . T h e r e h a v e a l s o b e e n periods o f p e a c e and p r o s p e r i t y in w h i c h A f r i c a n s c o u l d live out their lives in relative s e c u r i t y and c o n t e n t m e n t , partly b e c a u s e m o s t l a c k e d the e x t r e m e stratification

and state

structures

that

led

to so

much

oppression

class and

e x p l o i t a t i o n in s o - c a l l e d c i v i l i z e d areas o f the w o r l d . B e g i n n i n g in the 1 5 0 0 s , A f r i c a ' s history b e g a n to c o m m i n g l e with that o f an e x p a n s i o n i s t W e s t in pursuit o f trade, booty, and e x o t i c lands and p e o ple to c o n q u e r . T h i s e v e n t u a t e d in the most cruel and disruptive period in A f r i c a n history, starting with the slave trade and c u l m i n a t i n g in c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n o f the c o n t i n e n t . T h i s r e a c h e d its m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m in S o u t h A f r i c a , w h o s e A f r i c a n m a j o r i t y w a s ruled until r e c e n t l y by the w h i t e d e s c e n dants o f its E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z e r s . A l o n g with its o t h e r e f f e c t s , the W e s t e r n p e n e t r a t i o n o f A f r i c a e x p o s e d A f r i c a n s to the m a t e r i a l r i c h e s and culture o f the W e s t . A s B o h a n n a n and Curtin ( 1 9 8 8 : 1 6 ) o b s e r v e , A f r i c a n s w e r e not d e p r i v e d b e f o r e Western p e n e tration o f t h e i r s o c i e t i e s . M a n y lived f u l f i l l i n g l i v e s o f great dignity, c o n t e n t without the " t r a p p i n g s o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n . " H o w e v e r , o n c e e x p o s e d to the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n , the lure has proven to b e a l m o s t i r r e s i s t i b l e in A f r i c a and e l s e w h e r e . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f the W e s t and W e s t e r n c u l t u r e is the m a j o r t r a n s f o r m a tive f o r c e in A f r i c a today. B y r e s p o n d i n g to the p r o m i s e o f acquiring W e s t ern a f f l u e n c e , A f r i c a n s a c r o s s the c o n t i n e n t , to v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , are b e i n g i n t e g r a t e d into the w o r l d w i d e n e t w o r k o f trade and p r o d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d " t h e g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m y . " T h i s g l o b a l e c o n o m y is

Introduction

3

dominated for the most part by the few rich, politically and militarily powerful countries of Europe and by the United States—countries that initially gained much of their preeminence from the exploitation of Africans (and other Third World people). As slaves or colonial subjects, Africans' labor and resources (usually obtained directly or indirectly by coercion) provided many of the low-cost raw materials for Western factories and affluent consumer lifestyles. Since colonialism, African cash crops, minerals, and fuels have continued to be transported overseas, while Western manufactured goods, technology, financial capital, and Western lifestyles are imported to Africa. So far, the "integration" of Africa into the global economy has largely gone badly for most countries on the continent as the cost of Western imports compared to the prices of African exports has become increasingly unfavorable to Africa, leaving almost all countries in debt, their economies a shambles, and living standards spiraling downward. Only a minority of Africans have been able to acquire more than a few tokens of the promised life the West symbolizes. Another import from the West is Western political systems. Like a handme-down suit never fitted to its new wearer, Western multiparty political systems, hastily handed over to Africans experienced mainly in colonial despotism, did not "fit." Most degenerated into one-party states or military dictatorships riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Opposition to the state was either co-opted or ruthlessly repressed. Expected to be the architects of development for their people, African states instead became largely self-serving, bloated bureaucracies alienated from the masses for whom "development" became a more remote prospect as economies began deteriorating from the 1970s on. Making things worse were the unprecedented growth of population in Africa and the rapid expansion of urban areas. In part, these two related trends both reflected and exacerbated economic and political problems. Certainly, agrarian societies like Africa's value large families. Nonetheless, African family sizes are considerably in excess of those found in most other developing regions. In Africa, inadequate investment in farming, especially in food crops grown mostly by women, keeps most agriculture highly "labor intensive" (dependent on labor rather than machines). Since mainly it is men who migrate to cities for work, women need children more than ever to help them with farm chores. Moreover, as patronage relationships based on ethnicity and kinship are often vital to gaining access to resources (such as jobs, schooling, or money), children are valuable assets even in affluent urban families. For many Africans resources are shrinking because of mounting political and economic problems. Structural adjustment programs (SAPs), designed ostensibly to combat these problems, often compound the hardships instead. The neglect of agriculture and lack of opportunity in rural areas along with the expansion of wage jobs in cities inevitably attract j o b

April A. Gordon b Donald L. Gordon

4

seekers. Unfortunately, their numbers are far greater than the capacity o f cities to employ them or adequately service their needs. T h e resulting discontent o f urbanites is frequently the basis o f political opposition to whatever regime is in power and contributes to the problems o f political repression and instability. T h e way Africans have tried to develop their e c o n o m i e s , often on the basis o f Western development advice, has indirectly promoted population growth and urbanization by favoring industry, export production, and cities over rural areas. It has also discriminated against women and neglected their interests as producers, mothers, and individuals, with detrimental effects on the e c o n o m y and social welfare. It has also contributed to environmental degradation, especially soil erosion, deforestation, and desertification. Land scarcity is affecting growing numbers o f poor farmers and pastoralists. L a c k o f resources or technology to improve methods o f production, along with lack o f opportunity to make a living elsewhere, leaves many people with little recourse to cultivating or grazing their cattle on fragile or marginal land and destroying trees. Western multinational corporations and development agencies, often in league with African business or state elites, have also been guilty o f pursuing e c o n o m i c " g r o w t h " and profits at the expense o f the environment. As gloomy as this picture o f Africa looks, we must remember that African independence is only about thirty years old, or less in s o m e cases. Africans are a practical and adaptive people, as their history and cultures clearly show. Africans have not been locked in hopelessly outmoded traditions, as stereotypes sometimes suggest. Rather, they have always taken from other traditions and cultures what they perceived to be valuable for their own. African resilience and flexibility are in evidence now as in the past. Africans have been experimenting for well over a thousand years with Islam and Christianity and more recently with secular religions such as socialism,

capitalism,

and M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m ,

blending

them

in

often

quixotic stews with indigenous African practices. That such experimentation produces mixed results should be expected. As Goran Hyden ( 1 9 8 3 ) notes in the title o f his book on Africa, there are " n o shortcuts to progress," a hard lesson being learned by many Africans whose expectations for quick development have been sharply downscaled as a result o f recent trends. African cultures remain vibrant and are playing a leading role in the efforts to cope with and assess the forces affecting African

societies.

Questions o f personal and collective identity and meaning frequently c o m e to the fore as well as discontent with political oppression, foreign exploitation, and e c o n o m i c inequality and poverty. T h e s e concerns are clearly manifested in new forms o f religious expression, literature, and political movements for democratization. T h e extended family remains a vital refuge for most Africans, although the Western nuclear family and challenges to male dominance are growing. Until recently, it was easy and convenient to blame A f r i c a ' s problems

Introduction

5

m the West, and for the most part accurate. The negative legacy of cololialism has been especially profound. Many scholars still contend that the nle Africa has been assigned in the global economy as a producer of cheap nw materials continues to prevent it from achieving its economic potential. At least partial blame for Africa's political problems such as coups d'état aid authoritarian rule could be laid at the West's doorstep. After all, the West (ften has had a major role in deciding who came to power or stayed in jower. Typically, Western interference in African politics has been deternined mostly by geopolitical or economic interests rather than by such lofty *

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