Total History and Civics 9: As per Latest ICSE 2026 Syllabus

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As per the Latest ICSE 2026 Syllabus

OTAL HISTORY & CIVICS With Multiple-Choice Questions

per the Latest ICSE 2026 Syllabus

:

TOTAL HISTORY & CIVICS

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NEP

With Multiple-Choice Questione

ALIGNED by Dolly E. Sequeira, M.A., B.Ed. (Formerly Teacher) St. John’s College. Varanasi

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within 30 days’ time period for a refund. Maps given in this edition are not drawn to scale.

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Total History and Civics-9 is a textbook of History and Civics for Class IX of the ICSE courne, The book is written according to the new syllabus in History and Civics prescribed Council and the guidelines provided by the National Education Policy (NEP), 2020.

by

the

The course content, as per the syllabus and the scope, is given at the head of each chapter, The main focus of the lessons in the book is to discourage rote learning and encourage conceptual clarity so as to enable the students not only to learn History and our Constitution but alao to

team from history and our Constitution. With this in view, the book highlights concepts, principles and their application in the past and in the present period.

The lessons have been trial-tested in a classroom situation. It is recommended

that mapa,

charts, models and other teaching aids be used to make the teaching-learning procesa an interesting experience. The questions given at the end of the lesson are for self-assessment by the students. The emphasis of the book is on competency-based questions so that the studerita can understand the cause and effect sequence and to predict human behaviour in future. It is recommended that the students should have interactive sessions among themselves to understand the significance of our past and the need to give up certain norms which have become obsolete and

continue

with

the

rest. Highlights

The

following

sections

have

been

revised

of the

Edition

or re-written

while

updating

this edition

of the

book:

*®

Extensive and exhaustive questions to build on conceptual clarity following the guidelines of the NEP. focussing on application of classroom studies to interpret global events,

¢

Multiple-Choice

©

Application

®

Questions

*

In the Section on Civics, latest information on Current Affairs related to the topics provided to keep the students abreast of the latest happenings in the country,

e

Ar

the

been

end

given

Questions

and

Case-Based

to enhance

of

(MCQs)

each

exactly

Chapter,

the entire

content

of each

chapter,

Questions.

Analytical

in the

covering Reasoning.

Short

format

Answer

provided

Questions

in the

and

latest

Structured

Specimen

Questions

Paper

issued

is

have

by

the

Counal

©

Ar the end of each Chapter, questions based on Thinking Skills have been given enhance the students’ thinking skills so that they can apply the knowledge gained real-life siruations ——

oe

ae

ee

+2

ep

cr

to in

er tee

4

It is hoped that al] students who go through the book diligently will be adequately prepared for the ICSE AB

examination

suggestions

for the

as

per the

unprovement

syllabus

prescribed

of this book

by the Council.

wil] be gratefully

acknowledged.

Authors

Total History and Civics- IX

a

es

i

iy

—

Harappan

Civilisation

The Vedic Period Jainism

and

Buddhism

The

Mauryan

Empire

The

Sangam

The

Age of the Guptas

Age

Medieval

India —

(A) The Cholas

Medieval

India —

(B) The Delhi Sultanate

Medieval

India —

(C) The

Medieval

India —

(D) Composite

Mughal

Empire

109

— _

Modern

Age in Europe —

(A) Renaissance

110

120

The

Modern

Age in Europe —

(B) Reformation

121

125

The

Modern

Age in Europe —

(C) Industrial Revolution

126

134

Our

Constitution

136

141

142

153

Salient Features of the Constitution—II

154

159

Elections

160

166

Local

167

174

Local Self-Government—Urban

175

181

Appendix 1—Course Content — Syllabus

182

184

Appendix 2—Specimen

185

188

Aas oY o

_

The

N

Culture

ai

as

The

~

ray

ew

enon fF &

bw

~

CONTENTS

Salient Features

of the Constitution—I

Self-Government—Rural

Paper

Total History and Civics-—IX

CHAPTER 1 } The Harappan Civilisation THE The Harappan

Civilisation

Sources: Great Bath, Citadel, seals, bearded man, dancing girl, dockyard, script. Origin, extent, urban planning, & craft, and its decline.

BRONZE

AGE

trade,

art

a varietyof tools, implements and weapons. The first metal to be discovered was copper. For a long time stone implements continued to be used along with copper. The period when man used both stone and copper tools is known as the Chalcolithic Period.

Later on, man learnt the art of mixing copper with tin or zinc to produce the alloy called Bronze. Bronze is harder and more ductile than copper and is, therefore, more suitable for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because of the importance of bronze in the growth of the first civilisations, these civilisations are known as the Bronze Age Civilisations. about

2500

BC,

four

The Harappan Civilisation is considered to be the first civilisation that arose in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. It is so called after the name of the first major site

of

this

civilisation,

i.e.,

Harappa,

which

was discovered in 1921 in the province of West

sites, which

From using stone tools, man gradually came to know the use of metals. Metals were more durable than stone and could be used for making

By

CIVILISATION

Punjab in Pakistan. It is also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation because some of its important

CIVILISATIONS

civilisations emerged.

HARAPPAN

bronze

age

These were:

(i) the Harappan Civilisation in northern and western parts of India and Pakistan; (ii) the Mesopotamian Civilisation on the banks of river Euphrates and Tigris in modern Iraq; (iii) the Chinese Civilisation in the valley of Hwang Ho and Yangtze rivers; and (iv) the Egyptian Civilisation on the banks of Nile river in Egypt.

were

excavated

first, are located

in

the valley of the river Indus. in

The discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation the 20th century was an important event

in the history of India. Up to this time it was believed that the history of India began with the advent of Aryans.

However,

the discovery of the

Harappan Civilisation pushed back the history of India by at least a thousand years, so as to put it at par with the other oldest Bronze Age civilisations of the world, namely Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilisations. The Harappan Civilisation is also referred to as the Harappan Culture. The term ‘Culture’ is used by the archaeologists for a group of objects distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time. In the case of Harappan culture, these distinctive objects are seals, weights, stone blades and baked bricks. Sources Our knowledge of the Harappan civilisation is based entirely on the archaeological remains such as buildings, pottery, sculpture, seals and cemeteries. This is so because no adequate written records are available. A number of seals were discovered with a few letters engraved on each, but the script has not been deciphered as The Harappan Civilisation

a

%

a rt

Dholavira

The Harappan city of Dholavira in Gujarat’s Rann of Kutch has been designated as a World Heritage site by UNESCO, It is one of the very few well-preserved urban settlements. Spread over 22 hectares, the Harappan-era metropolis is the

fifth largest archaeological site of the Indus Valley

Civilisation, dating back to around

3000 BC and

is believed to have been occupied till 1500 BC. It draws its name from present-day village Dholavira.

Locally known

rooms were provided for the members kind

light on the life of the

that throws

information

people and culture of the Harappan Civilisation: e

as Kotda Timba, the site was

archaeologist Ravindra Singh Bisht in the 1990s.

of som,

think that

the rooms were provided for changing clothes This structure, with several distinctive features has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a ritual bath. The Great Bath is an important source of

The construction of the Great Bath indicates

that the art of building had reached a high degree

discovered in the 1960s by archaeologist Jagat Pati

Joshi. It was excavated under the supervision of ASI

others

whereas

of priesthood,

The

of perfection

time.

at that

massive structure p points out that have existed a ruling class

sila might

there that

could mobilise labour, collect taxes and build such a huge structure for the public, e The design of the Great Bath portrays the

efficient

planning

features relating sewage disposal.

uw

e

e

eon,>

i

yet. Therefore, the major sources of our information about the Harappan Civilisation are the following: 1. The Great Bath: The Great Bath is one of the largest public buildings at Mohenjo-daro. It has a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. There are two flights of steps one in the north and the other in the south leading into the tank. To make the pool watertight, burnt bricks and mortar lined with bitumen and

pools

and

immemorial. A lot of planning

rivers

must

and

since

time

have been made

2. The

Citadel: The raised area of each city

was called the Citadel. It owed its height to the buildings constructed on mud brick platforms.

gypsum were used for construction. The water for

the bath was provided by a well in an adjacent room. Surrounding the bath, were porticos and sets of rooms, and a stairway which led to an

Pees

structural]

supply

to construct such a huge structure. This is indicated by the use of bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, which were of a standardised size.

Reservoir at Dholavira

upper storey. Some

the

Most of the scholars agree that the Great Bath might have been used for religious purposes. This indicates the importance attached to ceremonial bathing in sacred tanks,

®

TIT yO , ‘ty

in

to water

scholars believe that these

Total History and Civics—IX

aie

: The Great Bath

e

The

unicorn

seal

shows

their

mythical

beliefs, The seals bear some kind of script which

e The

has

seals

not yet been

were

deciphered.

produced

mainly

for

commercial purpose. The seals were used by traders to stamp their goods. After a

bag with goods Pashupati Seal

Unicorn

was pressed on it leaving an impression. If the bag reached its destination with its seal intact, it indicated that it had not

and important buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and the workshops.

e

provides

useful

insights

been tampered with. It also conveyed

about

presence

houses

of specific buildings

of the ruling class,

and

indicates e

some

social

classification.

e There

were

probably

buildings

meant

on

the

Citadel

for public purposes

that

the

Harappan

trade

had

spread over a vast area.

and

indicate

sort of political organisation

the

identity of the sender or the owner. These seals were found in different regions. This

The Citadel points to the elaborate planning that went into the development of cities and justifies that the Harappan civilisation was an urban civilisation.

e The

tied, a layer of wet

clay was applied on the knot, and the seal

Seal

The citadel had the houses of the ruling class

The Citadel the following:

was

like

the granary and the Great Bath. 3. Seals: The seals used by the Harappans show their artistic skills. About 2000 seals have been discovered. Of these a great majority comprise short inscriptions with pictures of the one-horned bull, buffalo, tiger, goat, elephantand rhinoceros. Material used in making the seals comprise

Probably seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners, as modern-day identity cards.

4. Bearded Man: The stone sculpture of a man with a beard was discovered from Mohenjo-daro. The statue has a shawl worn

over

the

left

half-closed

shoulder

and

the

eyes

are

as if in a state of meditation.

e

Some scholars believe that statue of a yogi or a priest.

this

is the

e

This sculpture is of high artistic value and points to the existence of skilled artisans in the Harappan Civilisation who could

make beautiful three-dimensional figures.

terracotta, steatite, agate, etc. Most of the seals

are rectangular or square but some of them are circular in shape.

Harappan

seals provide useful information

about the script, the Harappans:

e Seals

trade,

religion and

of Pashupati

show

beliefs

that

of

people

believed in Shiva. It is shown as a three-faced deity wearing a buffalo-horned

head-dress,

seated

cross-legged

on

a

throne and surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two deer at his feet. This deity has been identified as Pashupati Mahadeva.

Bearded Man

The Harappan Civilisation |

—

5, Dancing Qirl; The bronze statue of a dancing girl, which has been fovind is a at Mohenjo-daro,

of art and

masterpiece

manufacturing

it

The

ingenuity.

of the

dancing

right

arm

girl

rests

on the hip and the left arm is heavily bangled. lt holds a small bow] against

“=

dockyard

provides

existence

of trade

It indicates

the

internal

external.

and

It testifies

hydraulic

the

as

the

both

knowledge

boats

could

of the

dock

at

Letters on an Ancient Signboard showing Harappan Script

connected by channels to the Gulf of Cambay. Archaeologists have also found the remains of stone anchors, marine shells and seals, which can be traced to the Persian Gulf. These, along with a structure identified as a warehouse,

strongly suggest that Lothal was a port with a dockyard.

According

to

here had

the

historians,

studied

the

town

tides in detail to be

able to leverage connecting rivers at high tide to come

into

scientifically

the flow of water and

the

port. The

designed its current.

dockyard

to withstand It also had

a

water locking to keep the water in. It has been route

The

information;

OTHOOAKOD

Dancing Girl

floods. The dockyard made of baked bricks, was

suggested

trade.

following,

Lothal,

is believed to be one of the oldest dockyards in the world. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as a protection against

is most

the

oversensa

Harappans

6. Dockyard: A rectangular dockyard was discovered at Lothal in Gujarat. This dockyard

for ships

out

used

e

her left leg.

planners

for

carrying

was

e

shows vigour, variety and

Valley

Indus

the

and

civilisation

shows a high depgree of in the art development of sculpture. The figurine

of

centre

ang

trading

important

an

was

Lothal

.

by the archaeologists

existed

Sutkagendor

linking Lothal on the Makran

and

that a coastal

Dholavira

to

7. Script: The Harappans used a script which is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and varieties of

the human form. The number of signs of Harappan

script is known to be between 375 and 400. The script is found inscribed on a number of seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery and on an ancient signboard. The script provides about the Harappans:

following

information

e The script used by the Harappans was not alphabetical as it has too many signs. e The script was written from right to left as is evident from a seal which shows wider space on the right than the left; indicating that the engraver might have started from the right and he ran out of space when he reached the left hand side. e The availability of the script on a wide variety of objects indicate that probably many

people were

literate.

In

1875,

.

Coast.

THINK IT ABOUT

seal

the _

first

which

had

y

the engraving of a humpless bull and six signs above it was discovered. More than a hundred years later, we don’t know what is written on these seals. What

is the script?

What is the language? What is the subject

matter? Who Lothal—Dockyard

Total History and Civics-IX

were the Harappans? — All

\_ these questions remain unanswered.

©

>

ORIGIN OF THE CIVILISATION There are several theories about the origin of the Harappan Civilisation. These can be categorised into two groups: Foreign Origin: Some scholars believe that this civilisation came

into existence as a result

of a sudden migration of people with an urban civilisation to the Indus basin. According to these scholars, the Harappan Civilisation was an offshoot of the Mesopotamian Civilisation. However, excavations at various Harappan sites have indicated stnking differences between the

Harappan and the Mesopotamian Civilisations. Some scholars also held the view that trade with Mesopotamia played an important role in the transformation of the Harappan Civilisation from the early stage to the mature phase. But this theory has been rejected on the ground that no evidence of trade with Mesopotamia during the early Harappan period has been found. Indigenous

Origin:

The

recent

researches

show that roots of the Harappan Civilisation lie deep in the Indian soil. According to some historians, the urban Harappan culture was only an outgrowth of the extensive local

Discovery of Harappan Sites Year of Excavation

Harappa

=|

Leader of Excavation

~—Ss«921~SSs*| Daya RamSahni

~ Mohenjo-daro

1922.

R.D. Banerjee.

~Chanhudaro

1931

“NG. Mazumdar —

Kalibangan

1953

Kot Diji

tothal” “Surkotada

| B.B. Lal and A.N Ghosh

1955.

4957 1972,

Dholavira

1990-91

| Fazal Ahmad Khan

©

SRERad | SP Joshi R.S. Bisht

village cultures and not of foreign origin. These cultures probably contributed to the growth of the Harappan Civilisation, together with the external stimulus provided by trade contacts with Mesopotamia. These historians found some marked similarities between the pre-Harappan and proto-Harappan cultures at Kot

Diji, Amri

and

Kalibangan

in terms

of

granary, defensive walls and long distance trade in these settlements. From this historians concluded that the Harappan Civilisation evolved

from these agricultural communities.

EXTENT OF THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

The Harappan Civilisation

,

The

THE

OF

EXTENT

area

entire

is triangular

in

CIVILISATION

of the shape

civilisation

Harappan and

accounts

for

about

1.3 million sq.km and was the largest area amongst the ancient civilisations. It extended from Sutkagendor (on the sea-coast of South Baluchistan) in the west, to Alamgirpur (in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab in western UP) in the east and from Manda (in Jammu) in the north to Bhagatrav in Narmada estuary in the south. The Harappan culture covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh. Consequent to the partition of India, the main centres of civilisation, Le., Harappa,

Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro and Sutkagendor are now in Pakistan. Some of the centres of this civilisation in India are Manda, Banawali, Kalibangan, Alamgirpur, Lothal, Rupar and

Rangpur. In recent years, many more extensions of this civilisation in Gujarat and Punjab have been discovered. Dholavira in Gujarat is the most

civilisation is the Indus Valley Civilisation. A thirg city lies at Chanhudaro, about 130 km south

of Mohenjo-daro. The fourth city is at Lothal in Gujarat, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. The

fifth city lies at Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan and

the

sixth

Fatehabad

called

Banawali

is

situated

jn

district in Haryana.

The Harappan culture has been found in its mature

and

flourishing

stage

notonly

in these

six cities but also in the cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada, each of which has a citadel. The later Harappan phase has also been discovered in Rangpur

in Khathiawar

in Gujarat.

The ruins of Mohenjo-daro were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980. FreatTuRES

OF

URBAN

PLANNING

The most striking feature of the Harappan civilisation is its urban planning. The Indus cities differed from the Sumerian cities in

Mesopotamian civilisation, in modern Iraq. While the Sumerian cities developed around the temple and followed a circular pattern, the Indus cities

prominent among them. The largest sites of the

followed a grid pattern.

Harappan

the regularity of the divisions, the alignment of streets, the planning of the houses and public buildings with the provision for thoroughfares. The main characteristics of town planning

Civilisation

daro, Harappa, URBAN

however,

Kalibangan

and

are MohenjoLothal.

PLANNING

Harappan

Cities

were

The two most important Harappan cities are —

Harappa in Montgomery district of Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Larkana district of Sindh

(now

both in Pakistan). These two cities are linked by the

river

Indus

and

hence

the

name

of the

COMMON ELEMENTS BETWEEN MOHENJO: ae AND HARAPPA

This

is indicated by

the following:

1. Each city was divided into two parts — the raised

area,

called

the

‘Citadel’

and

the

‘lower town.’ The citadel owed its height to the buildings which were constructed on mud brick platforms. The citadel was separated from the lower town by a wall. The important buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and the workshops were located on the citadel. The lower town had the residential buildings

Barapa on the left ban _ Both

. ‘the Ravi.

measured around 5.0 km in circuit.

where the people lived and worked. 2. The main streets followed a grid pattern running from north to south or from east to west.

3. The houses at street corners were rounded to allow carts to pass easily. 4. House

drains emptied

all waste water into

the street drains. 5S. The streets crossed

angles, dividing the rectangular blocks.

—_

ii

| Total History and Civics-IX

the main

road at right

city

square

into

of

were meant for threshing grain because wheat and barley grains were found in the crevices of the floors. Two-roomed

barracks, which possibly

accommodated labourers have also been Harappa. The location of Harappa near Ravi suggests that food grains were to this place by boat. It was built on platform

to protect

it from

floods.

found at the river brought a raised

The granary

had ventilation to prevent grains from becoming mildewed., Granaries

Houses The

main

characteristics

of

houses

were

the

following: 1. The

residential

buildings

were

built

according to a set plan on a high mound in order to protect them from floods. Their foundations

were deep.

2. There were variations in the size of from single room tenements to bigger with courtyards, up to twelve rooms, wells and toilets. Each house had drains connected with

houses houses private covered

street drains.

3. The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at right angles.

4. The kitchen was placed in a sheltered corner of the courtyard and the ground floor contained storerooms and well chambers. 5. The houses were made of brick and wood. Each house had doors, windows and ventilators. Doors and windows opened on the side of the streets and not on the main roads, MonuMENTAL

ARCHITECTURE

The contribution of the Harappans to architectural design is evident from the following public buildings. (a) The Great Bath: For details refer to the Sources in this Chapter, (b) Granaries: Granaries have been found at several sites—Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal and Kalibangan. However, at Harappa there were two rows of six granaries cach. ‘lo the south of the granaries at Harappa working floors consisting of rows of circular brick platforms were discovered, It ia belleved that these floors

TRADE The elaborate social structure and standard of living confirmed by the presence of granaries, numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area indicate the existence of a highly developed system of trade. There is abundant evidence that the Harappans traded not only with other parts of India but also with many countries of Asia. Internal Trade: The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc.,

within the Indus civilisation zone. In some cases common products have been found in all the areas, indicating some kind of trade, They, however, did not use metal money but carried on all exchanges through barter. The cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal were important centres for metallurgy, producing tools and weapons as well as kitchenware and other objects for wide distribution. Rice seems to have been imported to Punjab from Gujarat, Lothal and Surkotada provided cotton for the expanding townships of

Mohenjo-daro,

Harappa,

Banawali,

etc.

Balakot and Chanhudaro were centres for bangle-making. Lothal and Chanhudaro were centres for the manufacturing of beads. External

Harappans

Trade:

also had

Besides

internal

commercial

trade,

the

contacts with

their western neighbours. Lothal, Surkotada and

Balakot were some of the important trading coastal towns which carried on trade with Mesopotamia and other West Asian sites, They had also set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which facilitated trade with Central Asia. The

Mesopotamian

records

from

about

2350BC onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region. The Mesopotamian texts refer to

The Harappan Civilisation

km

——

two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun

ART

and Makan, which lay between Mesopotamia and Meluha. Dilmun has been identified with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf. Possibly the trade

All

with these countries used to be carried out by sea.

Mesopotamian

texts

refer to Meluha

as a

land of seafarers. Besides, the depictions of ships and boats on seals also indicate this. The Harappan merchants were exporting to

and

importing

Central North

Asian

goods

sites.

Gold

from

the

was

West

imported

Karnataka and Afghanistan;

and

from

copper from

Rajasthan, South India, Baluchistan and Arabia; lead from

either East or South

India.

Weights and Measures: A number of stone weights were discovered from the excavations. The

Harappan

people

used

sets

of cubical

stone weights. The basic unit was 16 (equal to modern 14grams). The larger weights were multiples of 16 like 32, 48, 64,

128 and

so on.

The smaller ones were all fractions of 16.

AND the

Seal Depicting a Ship

Transport: Several representations of ships were found on seals at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. A terracotta model of a ship was discovered from Lothal, pointing to the use of ships. Boats were also used tocarry goods from production centres to cities. For inland travel, there is enough

evidence from terracotta models of bullock carts. Copper or bronze models of carts with seated drivers were also found from Harappa and Chanhudaro. Carts used in those days resemble the modern

Ekka (horse-cart).

works

—§_

Total History and Civics-IX

Harappan

was

A

craftsmen.

of skilled

art,

including

discovered

from

piece

of woven

Mohenjo-daro

and

cotton textile

impressions were found on several objects. This shows weaving was an important craft. The Harappans practised boat-making. Sea]. making and making terracotta articles were important crafts. The subjects portrayed on the seals and terracotta figures include human beings, animals and birds. The human figurines were shown wearing heavy ornaments and jewellery and elaborate headgear. Among the inanimate objects the most common were terracotta models of bullock carts and ploughs, The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones. The Harappans

also knew

the art of bead-making. Harappans produced their own characteristic Earthen

which

was

vessels

made

and

glossy

pottery,

and

crafted

shining.

on the

potter’s wheel, were decorated with black geometrical designs. The large jars with narrow

necks and red pots with black decoration bear evidence

of their artistic skill.

Sculpture:

The

Harappan

artists

were

skilled

sculptors. Their portrayal of human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature with detailed anatomical details. The statues were made in stone, bronze or terracotta. A large number of stone images have been found. Among these, the bust of a bearded man found in Mohenjo-daro is well known. (for details refer to the Sources in this Chapter.)

1S

Terracotta Model of Cart

of

figurines of clay and terracotta, stone ang bronze sculpture, seals and beads, are products

pottery by 2 S.

CRAFT

=

;

Harappan Pottery

Terracotta

have

been

Dream: The Indus Valley men used to wear a dhoti

figurines

in

us is depicted on a poteherd from Harappa. They

large numbers from the Harappan settlements, The most important terracotta image is that

found

wore 4 shawl a6 on Upper garment as shown by the frumous figure of the priest from Mohenjodaro, The women wore o skirt and used a cloak lo cover arms and shoulders, The discovery of

of the Mother Goddess.

needles and buttons at some sites show least some of the clothes were stitched.

Besides, there are a few

figurines

that

at

of bearded

Ornaments: Ornaments were worn by both men

males with coiled hair, standing ngidly upright. It is believed that since

and wornen. Some of the common ornaments were necklaces, finzer-rings, bangles, armlets, anklets, nose rings, fan-shaped head-dress and earrings. They were made of gold, silver, precious stones and ivory.

these male figurines of exactly same type are found, they might be of a deity. They were

perhaps

used

toys

or

figures.

cult

Toys and Amusements: People played games and had many other forms of entertainment. They played dice and went on hunting and fishing expeditions. Their main musical instruments

as

A large number of male

and

female

have also been

The casting

on

figurines, carts and whistles were also made.

found.

art of bronzewas

a wide

bronze

were the drum and the lyre. Toys of birds, animals,

figurines

prevalent

scale.

statues

ee

The

DECLINE

=

Mother Goddess

were

The

OF

THE

Harappan

around

CIVILISATION

Civilisation

declined

sometime

1800 B.C. Some of the likely causes for

the decline are the following:

made by using the special lost wax process. In this process wax figures were covered with a coating of clay. Then the wax was melted by heating and the hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object.

They have inferred this from the fact that the houses and streets at Mohenjo-daro were found

The bronze statue of dancing girl (for details refer to the Sources in this Chapter) found at

covered with silty clay left by the flood waters which had submerged the streets and houses.

Mohenjo-daro

is another

Besides the dancing girl,

masterpiece

of art.

a number

of bronze

figures of animals, buffalo and rams

and some

models of carts have been unearthed.

(a) Floods

some led

The

and

scholars to

the

people

houses

and

Earthquakes:

that

floods

abandonment

in

It is held

Mohenjo-daro

of this

of Mohenjo-daro

by

settlement.

again

built

streets on top of the debris

up

of the

previous buildings, after the floods had receded. But

a

time

came,

when

the

impoverished

Harappans at Mohenjo-daro could not take it anymore and simply abandoned the settlement. According to a famous hydrologist, R.L.

Raikes,

such

flooding

could

not

be

the

result of normal flooding in the river Indus. Earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood plains of the Indus river. This uplift of the plain of the Indus blocked the passage of the river to the sea and the rising water levels of the river led to the inundation of the hinterland of Mohenjo-daro. (b) Increased Aridity: According to renowned Ornaments

historians, D.P. Agarwal and Sood, the Harappan

The Harappan

Civilisation

| ised

civilisation declined because of increasing aridity

Wheeler

in the area and the drying up of the river Ghaggar.

men, women and children were massacred |j the streets and houses aa ia evident front the skeletons of 13 males nnd females and one child

Sutlej and Yamuna

used to be the tributaries of

the river Ghaggar and because of some tectonic disturbances, the Sutlej stream was captured by the Indus river and the Yamuna shifted east to

join the Ganges. This change left the Ghaggar waterless. The ecological disturbance caused by the increased aridity and shift in the drainage pattern led to the decline of the Harappan civilisation. (c) Deforestation:

Since

Indus

valley

civilisation was a Bronze Age culture, enormous

quantities of wood bronze. Wood was

was also

needed needed

to to

produce produce

jewellery, to bake bricks, pottery, stoneware and

to make boats and furniture. This could have led to deforestation leading to climatic change in the region.

(d) Attack: Some historians like Mortimer Wheeler believed that the Aryans destroyed the Indus settlements. According to Mortimer

in

the

last

phase

of Mobenjo

dary,

found lying in a room, Herirraarn

The decline of the physical aspects of the Harappan civilisation did not lead to the total disappearance of all the traits of thip civilisation, Many of its features were found ty the

later cultural

way

of making

jewellery,

development,

baked

textiles,

The

pottery,

etc,

was

bricks,

of the

beads,

adopted

later civilisations. One of the most achievements

Harappay

Hurappan

by

the

remarkable

people

was the

cultivation of cotton, which was adopted by the Egyptians after several centuries, In the relighoug

sphere, the worship of Pashupati Shiva, the female deity as Mother Goddess, sacred trees, animals, serpents, religious symbols, ctc., which were

prevalent

some of them

during

the

have continued

Harappan

period,

to this day,

aeEXERCISES eau>

®@ NF O

Il.

During the Later Vedic Age, the caste system became quite rigid.

. Give

and

mention Name

as Bhagwad

the importance battle is known

what

does each

any two Upanishads.

period.

Gita?

of the Epics as a source as the Mahabharata?

the role of iron in the development two features of Painted

deal with.

Grey Ware

of information

For how

of agriculture (PGW)

long was during

about this

the Aryans.

battle

the Vedic

fought? Age.

Pottery.

. How did trade become a pivot around which the life of the people revolved? State the difference in the position of women between the Early Vedic and Later Vedic Ag . State briefly the change

that occurred in the position of the Brahmins

. State two important changes from

|

the Early Vedic

Period

in the

Later Vedic Ag

that took place in the society in the process

of its transit

to the Later Vedic

Total History and Civics-IX

Period.

Structured a.

With

Questions

reference to the sources of information about

the Vedic Age, write short notes on the

L)

following:

eo

AY.

(a)

The

(c)

Role

. With

Vedas

of Iron

reference

(a)

Explain

(b)

State

(c)

Explain

. With

(b)

Epics

Implements to the Society

briefly

the

The

the

position the

class

to

economic

the Vedic

divisions

of women

four stages

reference

during

that

Age,

existed

in the Vedic

in the

life of an

organisation

answer

of

in

the

the following questions: society.

period, Aryan, the

people

in

the

Vedic

Period,

answer

the

following questions: (a)

State

the

methods

used

(b)

Why

was

(c)

How

was trade managed

domestication

by the Aryans of animals

important

to the Aryans?

during this period?

. With reference to the picture given answer the following questions: (a)

in agriculture,

on

the

right,

Identify this ancient education system. Persons

belonging this?

to which

ashrama

of life attended

(b)

Describe briefly the life in this ancient education institution.

(c)

What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of studying in this educational setup?

IV. Thinking Skills 1. The Vedic knowledge was passed on orally from generation to generation until they were written down many centuries later. Why were these texts not put to writing for such a long period? Give reasons to support your answer. 2. The Early Vedic Age can be defined as a period when rights with men. Justify this statement with examples.

women

were

given

equal

3. The Vedic Age laid the foundation of Indian culture and civilisation. Do you agree with this viewpoint? Give reasons to support your answer. 4. You have annual

been asked

day

to select an epic for a musical

celebration.

Which

epic

would

you

to be held on your school’s

choose?

Give

reasons

to support

your choice. 5. Write a play based on the life and times of the Rig Vedic Period. would be relevant in the Later Vedic Period?

) Ld

2. bd

How

much

of it

2 bed

The

Vedic Period

| ee

CHAPTER 3 ) Jainism and Buddhism The

SYLLABUS Jainiem

and

Buddhism

Sources: Angas, Tripitikas and Jatakas (brief: meraiion).

Causes

century

USS

SSS

SSO

6

OS

OHSAS

Ee

BSCS

KOE

SSE

SHE

Shem

nowacwe

In ihe sixth century BC, the Aryan settlements expanded to the east, accompanied by rapid socio-economic and political changes. Society,

at some

places

had

traits of tribal political

organisation while at some other places, kingdoms were on the rise. Materialism and spiritualism both existed side by side. The people in the Later Vedic Age began to use implements end tools made of iron. The iron tools enabled them to clear forests, bring

more land under cultivation and lead a settled life. As a result there was surplus production of food grains. This surplus produce could be utilised by the kings to meet their military and administrative needs. It could also be used by the

people in the towns who specialised in various ams and crafts. All these advantages enabled the people to lead a settled life and

to expand

further in neighbouring areas. This

expansion

resulted

in

different tribes.

In these wars,

more

tribes

powerful

defeated

wars

between

the larger and the

smaller

ones and expanded their territory and created large kingdoms. These kingdoms were called janapadas. A number of janapadas joined together to form bigger and more powerful

independent kingdoms called mahajanapadas.

—_§_

Total History and Civics—IX

century

BC

is

regarded

as

an

important epoch in world history which saw the emergence of thinkers like Zarathustra or Zoroaster in Persia, Confucius in China and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, among many others,

for their rise in the 6th

B.C.; Doctrines. Ss

sixth

in

India.

In

India,

it

was

the

period

when orthodox religious beliefs and practices were challenged and even rejected by the new sects. Of these sects, Jainism and Buddhism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements. SOURCES The three important sources which provide information about Jainism and Buddhism are the following: (i) Angas: It is generally accepted that whatever Lord Mahavira taught after gaining omniscience, was compiled by his disciples in

12

parts

called

parts.

These

Angas

Dwadashangi.

The

Angas,

are

Sanskrit

collectively

foremost

of these

word

for

known

as

Angas

is

Aacharang Sutra. Another well known Anga is the Vyakyha Pragnapti which is more popularly known as Bhagavati Sutra. While the former deals with the code of conduct which a Jain monk is required to follow, the later expounds the Jain doctrines in a comprehensive manner. Based

on these Angas,

12 auxiliary works

the seers also compiled

that came

to be known as

Upangas. It is

said

that

these

Angas

and

Upangas

were not written for a long time. They were orally passed on by the religious leaders to their pupils.

According to famous historian, R.CMajumdar, “Towards the close of the fourth century

BC,

the exodus

a famine of an

in South

important

headed by Bhadrabahu,

Bihar

section

led to

of Jainas,

to South India. Thos¢

that remained behind in Pataliputra called for a

council, in order to revive the knowledge of the Angas.

The

result

was

the

compilation

of the

twelve Angas. At another council held at Valabhi in Gujarat in the fifth or sixth century AD, a final collection of the scriptures was made for

the first time in Ardhmagadhi Prakrit language”. The Angas are regarded as the most important

part of the Jain doctrines. They discuss religious rites, stages of a householder’s life, the vows of chastity, rules of conduct and other features of Jain philosophy. (ii)

Tripitikas:

important The

word

Tripitikas

literary

works

are

of the

‘Tripitika’ means

the

most

Buddhists.

‘Three

Baskets’

of

Buddhist canon. The earliest writings of these texts were

taken

on long,

narrow

leaves,

sewn

together on one side and bound in bunches, then stored in baskets; therefore, they were called The Three Baskets. These works, written in Pali language include the following:

®

The

Vinaya

rules

and

Pitaka

deals

regulations

with

which

the

Buddha

promulgated

for the monks

(bhikkhus)

and the nuns

(bhikkhunis).

It also gives

an account of the life and of Buddha as well as some

teachings important

aspects of ancient Indian history, customs

and ®

arts

Many Jataka tales have parallels in the Mahabharata and elsewhere in non-Buddhist literature, The Jataka stories have also been

illustrated frequently in sculpture and paintings throughout the Buddhist world. According to A.

K.

Warder,

the Jatakas

are

the

precursors

to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at Jater dates. Although many Jatakas were written from an early period, which describe previous lives of the

Buddha,

about

very

Gautama’s

little

own

biographical

life has been

However, the Jatakas throw the political, economic and people from the fifth to the They also reflect Buddhist principles.

materia]

recorded.

significant light on social conditions of second century BC. morals, ethics and

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM The following factors favoured the growth of Jainism and Buddhism: (i) Reaction

period.

the people in the people from the appear in thern elephant — but, some virtue that

against

Ritualism:

rise

and

Religious

The Sutta Pitaka comprises the discourses

ceremonies by then had become very expensive,

of Buddha on various occasions. It also has discourses by some of the disciples of Buddha such as Sariputta, Ananda and others. The Dhammapada (way of truth) is an important component of this Pitaka,

beyond

which ®

of the

Buddha identifying the lives of introductory story with such past. The future Buddha may as a king, an outcast, a god, an in whatever form, he exhibits the tale thereby highlights.

The

comprises

the

means

of ordinary

people.

Some

priests hardly realised the sufferings of the common man. This was an important cause that gave rise to faiths that were simple and inexpensive.

Buddha’s teachings.

Abhidhamma

Pitaka

deals

with

Buddhist philosophy. It describes things like the working of the human mind and the state

of matter.

Besides being the most reliable source of information about Buddhist religion and

philosophy, the Tripitakas provide a glimpse of the social, economic and political life in the age of Buddha. (iii) Jatakas: Jatakas refer to the tales which describe the previous births of Buddha, in both human and animal form.

Each tale begins by noting the occasion that prompted its telling and ends with the

Statue of Mahavira

Jainism and Buddhism

| ex

systematic. That is why Mahavira is Consider, as the founder of Jainism.

(ii) Corruption in Religion: Corruption crept into religious practices. In order to increase their own wealth, priests encouraged ordinary people

Mahavira

to perform yajnas and conduct household rites beyond their means. Kshatriya rulers protested against the dominance of such practices. The

System:

His father was

the chief of a Kshatriya Clay

to the Toy

family of Lichchavis. Mahavira received his eax, education in all specialised branches. He is sai; to have been very brave and to have saved h;, colleagues from dangers. For these deeds 4 bravery, he was called Mahavira. At the timeg;

The division of

Shudras had become rigid. It did not allow any social mobility. A person of one caste could not

his birth, his father’s kingdom

become a member of the other caste. There were restrictions on the basis of caste on food, drinks

and marriage. Interchange of caste was impossible. (iv) Difficult Language: Sanskrit was considered a sacred language. Most of the Vedic literature was composed in Sanskrit. The priestly class gave discourses and chanted mantras in this language, which the common people found difficult to understand. Therefore, many people

to look for an alternative religion that

was Prosperous

so the boy was called Vardhamana (Prosperity, He got absorbed in spiritual pursuits from eariy childhood. He was married to Yashoda. This was done in order to divert his attention frop asceticism. At the age of thirty, after the death of his parents,

Mahavira

renounced

the worl

and roamed about as an ascetic practising severe

penance

for 12 years. He silently endured aj

they could understand better. (v) Political situation: In the sixth century BC, Magadha was ruled by Bimbisara and later

by Ajatashatru. Both these rulers were liberal

and tolerant. They too, were free from Brahmanic influence and condemned certain social evils in their kingdoms. When the opportunity came, they patronised both Jainism and Buddhism. (vi) Agricultural Economy: Killing of animals to perform sacrifices was against the interests of farmers in the Gangetic valley. The use of iron had made the animal-drawn plough popular. Such farmers needed a religion that would give protection to animals. Both Jainism and Buddhism preached non-violence and were against animal sacrifices. JAINISM The

doctrines

of the Jains were

preached

by

saints or acharyas called tirthankaras, literally meaning, those who guide men and women across the river of existence. Twenty-three tirthankaras preceded Mahavira. The first tirthankara was Rishabhadev and the twentythird was Parshvanath. s

Vardhamana

|

P Anicey

=a

Mahavira

Mahavira was the twenty-fourth and the last of the tirthankaras. He made Jainism popular and es

Total History and Civics-IX

Nea, ;

and his mother Trishala belonged

society into Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and

began

Kundagrama

in

BG;

common man could not reconcile to this attitude of the priests. Both Jainism and Buddhism were founded by two Kshatnya princes.

(iii) Rigid Caste

born

was

Vaishali in Bihar in the second half of 6th cenn,,

inthiieetemahde 5

ne

Bhutanese painting showing Jataka Tales

the hardships. At last he obtained the supreme knowledge. He subdued his desires and became Jina or the conqueror. His followers came to be called Jinas or Jains—i.e., those who have conquered their desires.

Preachings of Mahavira: After becoming the Jina, Mahavira spent his life in preaching. He gave his first sermon at Mount Vipul situated in Rajgnha, the capital of Magadha. He was now a Kevalin (all-knowing) or Lord Mahavira. He had a large number of followers. He preached at

various

centres

like

Avanti,

Kosala,

Pavapuri in Bihar. At the time of his death, he Main

14,000

TEACHINGS

Jainism

did

not

followers. OF JAINISM

accept

the

authority

of the

Vedas. Jainism preaches five vows. It is said that only the fifth vow was added by Mahavira. 1. The

Five Vows:

Doctrines or JAINISM (i) T'ri-ratmas: Mahavira preached that the ultimate goal of man is to attain freedom from worldly bonds or to attain ‘moksha’. It can be obtained

Anga,

Mithila, Champa, Videha and Vaishali. Lord Mahavira attained salvation at the age of 72 at had about

Jiva (living things), Ajiva (non-living things), Punya (results of good deeds), Pap (sin), Ashrav (good deeds), Sanvar (hindrances in the way of karma), Bandha (bondage), Nirjara (destruction of karmas) and Moksha (salvation).

A Jain householder

has

to take the following five vows:

by following tri-ratnas or three jewels:

(a) right faith, (b) right knowledge, (c) right conduct.

and

These three jewels inspire a true Jain to have faith in the 24 Tirthankaras (literally, those who guide men and women across the river of existence), to acquire knowledge from their sermons and to lead a good life. {ii) Karma: The Jains believe in the Karma

theory

of Hinduism

responsible

and

for one’s

that one

own

Karma

should

be

or actions.

Good deeds alone liberate a man from the cycle of life and death.

(i) Ahimsa: non-violence. (ii) Achaurya or Asteya: not stealing.

(iii) Equality: Mahavira laid stress on equality between men and men as well as between men

(iii) Satya: not telling a lie.

and women.

(iv) Aparigraha: not possessing property. (v) Brahmacharya: practising chastity.

He preached universal brotherhood.

He considered all men equal irrespective of their

These doctrines came to be regarded as five vows, which every Jain is supposed to take. The most important precept in Jainism is that the entire world is animated, i.e., even stones, rocks and water have life. Therefore, non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects, is important in Jain philosophy. According to Mahavira violence is of three kinds—{a) Physical violence like killing, causing injury or pain, (b) Violence in words or

caste or creed. Mahavira believed that the virtuous deeds could achieve ultimate salvation or nirvana. All living beings, from the tiny insect to the highest form

of life, should

be shown

compassion.

Abode of the liberated soul

N22A \ Right Conduct

harsh language and (c) Mental violence like illwill towards others. Jains believed in the sanctity

of life or the right of every living being to live. 2. Nine Truths: Besides the five vows and other general doctrines of Jainism, Jains are expected

to have the knowledge of the nine truths.

Non-violence

,

According to Jain philosophy, the knowledge

of these

Nine

renunciation

Truths

is essential

is the shortest way

and

only

to salvation.

These Nine Truths have a central place in the philosophy of Jainism. The Nine Truths are:

Symbol of Jainism

Jainism

and Buddhism

| 2S

>

Non-violence as well al

“|

maintaining the sanctity

of life is the

path

and

the goal of Jainism

and

(ii) Royal Patronage: Jainism received royal patronage. Chandragupta Maurya is said to haye later years been converted to Jainism in the

of his rule.

in the spread of Jainism (ili) Saints:

Jains

non-violence and self-denial. To attain salvation it is necessary to practise the tri-ratnas of right faith. right knowledge, and right action. Belief

in

Penance:

Jains

believed

in

penance. To die of starvation, called santhara or sallexhana was considered a virtue. Jainism

lays so much stress on severe penance that very few people could lead such an austere life. This

explains why Jainism had few followers. Spreap

oF JAINISM

Jainism had royal patronage. Therefore, it spread easily around Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa

and other parts of the country. Lord Mahavira founded monasteries headed by learned munis (sages). They lived an austere life to give an example to the people to follow. In the western parts of India, Jainism was patronised by the business

by

There

in castern

were

a dominant

religion

Drvision

into Two

SEcTs

During the time when Bhadrabahu took Jainism to Karnataka, there arose differences between him and Sthulabhadra, who was based in

Magadha. In the first Jain council held around 300

BC,

these

differences

came

(a) Shvetambaras or the white clads were led

by Sthulabhadra. They remained in Magadha. They wore white clothes and covered their faces with a small white cloth to avoid killing the tiniest of insects or germs that might enter the nose while breathing. They fasted but did not believe in extreme penance and austerity. (b) Digambaras

followed Bhadrabahu.

pleasures.

According

to them,

in

(i) Local Dialect: Mahavira adopted the language of the common people, i.e., Prakrit instead of Sanskrit to preach his doctrines. People

found

followed the same practice.

it easier to follow the preachings

of Jainism in the local language.

——§_

| Total History and Civics-IX

|

They

were sky-clad and did not believe in covering their bodies. According to Digambaras living without clothes signified detachment from worldly

OF THE SPREAD OF JAINISM

Later, the monks

to surface. As

a result, Jains were divided into two groups.

Kamataka. Jainism spread to Odisha, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Causes

Jain

(iv) Appeal to People: People found the religion attractive as it was based on austerity, simplicity and spirituality. There were no anima| sacrifices nor was there any class distinction,

In South India, Jainism was patronised the Rashtrakuta and Chalukya kings. became

devout

many

community.

Later, Jainism

India,

made it a centre of Jainism. Another Jain Saint Bhadrabahu took Jainism to Karnataka.

believe in Moksha (Salvation) or freedom from the cycle of births and rebirths. This can be achieved only by leading an austere life based on

(vi)

Chalukyay

saints like Kalkacharya who lived in Ujjain anq

jiv) Eternal soul: Mahavira believed in the immortality of the soul (atma). He said that the

Hindus,

AD

and Rashtrakutas also patronised Jainism, Kharavela, the ruler of Kalinga (Odisha), helpeg

Buddhism; making these faiths relevant in today’s world where terrorism is affecting everyone in all walks of life. How have they | managed to survive through the centuries to = relevant even to this day? J

body dies but not the soul. (v) Salvation: Like the

In the 5th century

Tirthankaras

one

could avoid

killing life forms by not wearing clothes because while washing clothes, many germs would get

killed. They were orthodox followers of Mahavira, They kept Impacr

long fasts and

OF

led an austere

life.

JAINISM

Jainism believes in the spirit of accommodation and equality. Its approach was pragmatic. It,

therefore, had a profound impact on the political and social life of the people. (a) Political Impact: In early stages, its success

was

more

remarkable

than

that

of Buddhism. However, it was mainly the Kshatnyas who took to this new faith. As a result they lost their war-like instincts. It is one of the reasons why Jains did not try to build any political empire of their own.

(b) Social and discarded

the

Religious

system

Impact:

of casteism,

Jainism shunned

rituals and encouraged social service. (c) Language and Literature: Jain scholars have made an important contribution in literary field. The Jain texts were writtenin Prakrit, but

at some places these texts were also written in the local languages. They were finally compiled

in the sixth century AD at Valabhi in Gujarat. The

Angas,

the

twelve

books

containing

the teachings of Mahavira, are a great source of knowledge. The Mahapurana composed by Jinasena, Kalpasutra compiled by Bhadrabahu and Ratna Malika by the Rashtrakuta ruler,

Amoghavarsha are outstanding literary works. Jain literature is in Ardhmagadhi and Prakrit dialects. It highlights the values of ahimsa. From the writings

of the Jains,

the history of India,

especially from the 6th to 4th century BC, can be (d) Art and Architecture: Jains constructed temples and monasteries. Jain relics are found

and

Udaygiri

caves

in Odisha.

Jains constructed hundreds of Dharamshalas, opened several orphanages and supported many

charitable institutions. The gigantic structures iGomateswara)

than

is Palitana 800

at

of the

Shravanabelagola

Bahubali and

at

karkala in Karnataka are good examples of Jain art and architecture. The Dilwara temples at Mt.

Abu in Rajasthan and at Ranakpur near Jodhpur and the Jain Tower at Chittor are famous for Jain architecture. The most famous Jain holy

in Gujarat

which

has

more

temples.

DECLINE

OF

JAINISM

The following factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism: (i) Jainism preached rigid austerity. It rose at a time when Buddhism also existed. The theory of ahimsa was extended even to wearing of clothes. These factors prevented it from getting popular support. (ii) The religion did not spread to foreign countries.

It did not have missionary effort.

(iii) Jainism did not get royal patronage from contemporary rulers. In contrast, Buddhism received a large-scale support from Ashoka, Harsha and Kanishka. (iv) Though Jainism advocated equality of men, it did not do away totally with the high

and low positions in society. (v)

reconstructed.

in Khandagiri

place

years,

During

the

Hinduism

Gupta

once

period

again

Therefore, Jainism remained pockets in the country.

BUDDHISM Buddhism catered

and

became

in

later

popular.

restricted to a few

to religious

striving of the

time. It was a midway between Hinduism and Jainism. Buddhism presented the ascetic

traditions to Indian society. It had more followers abroad than in India. Buddhism is one of the imprints that India has left on other civilisations. The

background

of Jainism presented

and

and

Buddhism

causes

have

for

the

already

rise

been

earlier in this Chapter. Jainism

and Buddhism

| Bea

’

.

re

AN

'

PX

He?

P

r,

ix

7 SN,

A Sick Man

An

A Dead Man

Ascetic

The Four Great Sights

GAUTAMA BuDDHA Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism.

ENLIGHTENMENT

He belonged to the Kshatriya clan of Sakya. According to one legend he was born in 563 BC

wandered from place to place. For some time he

at Lumbini near Kapilavastu, in childhood name was Siddharth.

Nepal. His His father

Suddhodana was the ruler of Kapilavastu. Like Mahavira,

he was

inclined from

his childhood,

towards spiritual pursuits. All the royal luxuries in which Gautama lived had no effect on him. He was married at a young age to a princess called Yashodhara and

had The

a son Great

named

Rahul.

Renunciation:

Once

Gautama’s

studied under renowned teachers of Rajgrihaani then went to Gaya. He practised severe penance and led a life of extreme austerity. Finally, at the age of thirty-five Gautama attained

enlightenment

at Bodh

Gaya

in Bihar. From

then onwards he began to be called the Buddha or the Enlightened One. Dharmachakrapravartana: At the place where Buddha got enlightenment, a temple known as Mahabodhi Temple was constructed later. The

charioteer was driving him through the town.

peepal tree is now referred to as the Mahabodhi

The

Tree. Buddha was also called the Tathagat, the

appearance

moved

Gautama.

of an old man

bent with age

Again the sight of a sick man,

groaning with pain, was pathetic. The dead body of a man being carried for cremation made Gautama think about man’s destiny. He was consoled when he saw an ascetic in search of salvation, These sights are known as the ‘Four Great Sights’. Gautama left home, his wife and the child in order to find a solution. This event is known as Mahabhiskramana or ‘The Great Renunciation’.

—_

After leaving home in search of Truth, Gautam;

Total History and Civics-IX

founder of Truth. After the enlightenment, he embarked on preaching his religion. He delivered

his first sermon at the Deer Park in Sarnath

near Varanasi

in the

presence

of five ascetics

This event in the history of Buddhism is know! as Dharmachakrapravartana the wheel of sacred law.

or the turning o

Buddha’s fame spread far and wide. Fo! another forty years he travelled all over thé

He established

country spreading his message.

a Bodh Sangha (Buddhist order) at Magadha. He had a large number of followers including the

Kosambi.

and

Kosala

Magadha,

of

rulers

His disciples were from all classes of society, Gautama

Buddha,

in his last years went

to

Kushinagar, which is near Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. He obtained mahaparinirvana at the age of 80 at Kushinagar. His disciples took his sacred remains to eight different places where huge mounds called stupas were erected, TEACHINGS

OF

BuDDHISM

Buddha followed a simple path and inspired people to lead a simple life. His teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found mainly in the

Sutta

Pitaka.

that the world

His

message

to

people

is full of sufferings

and

was

Four Noble Truths: The essence of Buddhism lies in Four Noble Truths. They are: () The world is full of suffering. (i) The suffering has a cause. (wi) Desire is the cause of suffering. (iv) If desire is stopped, suffering can also be stopped. Path:

The

way

to

nirvana,

in

Buddhism, or the path that leads to removal of suffering, is known as the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marg) or the middle path. It is a path midway between luxurious living and hard penance. It includes: (i) Right action: To remain away from theft, luxuries and (ii) Right

violence.

thought:

To

remain

away

from

empty rituals and worldly evils.

(iii) Right belief: To give up desire. (iv) Right living: Not to dealings with others. (v) Right

speech:

Speak

have the

dishonest

truth

(vii) Right

and

do

not think ill of others. (vi) Right effort: Work for deliverance sins and for the welfare of others.

from

Buddha

recollection:

Think

about

pious

things.

a man

could attain salvation by following his teachings contained in the Eightfold Path and Four Noble Truths.

Eightfold

Gautama

(viii)

Right

meditation:

Concentrate

on only

what is right. Attitude towards God: Buddha held that the whole universe was controlled by Dhanna, a universal law. He was silent about the existence

of God, though he never formally denied it. Like Mahavira he emphasised on non-violence. Cope

or

Buddha

Conpuct formulated

a

code

of

conduct

for his followers. This included the following: () Not to tell a lie, (i) Not to own property. (iii) Not to consume

alcoholic drinks.

(iv) Not to commit violence, (v) Not to indulge

in corrupt

practices.

Karma: Like Hinduism, Buddhism believed in the theory of Karma. Buddhism said that man is the maker of his destiny and it believed in rebirth. The evil deeds will be punished. Therefore, man should follow a middle path, It is Karma which decides the type of man's existence in the next life. It is called the wheel of Existence, Stress on Morality: Buddha insisted on a life based

on

good

actions.

His

followers

were

enjoined to practise non-violence and to lead an upright life. Nirvana: The ultimate goal of life is to attain Nirvana or salvation, It is a peaceful state of

Jainism and Buddhism

.

>

mind, which conquers all diseases, makes the person free from the cycle of birth and death.

Universal Brotherhood: Lord Buddha preached universal brotherhood of mankind. He wanted people to live in peace, setting aside all their

differences. He invited people of all classes and races to join Buddhism. No

Faith

in Rituals

and

Sacrifices:

Buddha

said that yajnas cannot change a man’s destiny. Sacrifices and rituals are empty ceremonies. Ahimsa: Like Mahavira, Buddha attached importance to sanctity of life and followed the

Dharmachakra on Sanchi Stupa

path of non-violence. Thus,

the importance given to conduct and

values rather than claims of superiority based on birth, fellow feelings, compassion for the young and

weak

drew

men

and

women

to Buddhist

teachings. ORGANISATION The Sangha: The organisation for teaching of Buddhism came to be known as the Sangha. It was a monastic order established to spread

Buddhism. Later the Sangha became a powerful institution. It helped to spread Buddhism far and wide. The principles that governed the Sangha are the following:

1.

Membership:

monastic

and

order were

The

members

of the

called

Bhikshus

(monks)

Bhikshunis (nuns). They were required

to

renounce the world before joining the Sangha. The minimum age was 15 years during Buddha’s time. The members had to take the oath— Buddham Sharnam Gachhami, Dharmam Sharnam Gachhami and Sangam Sharnam Gachhami. (I take shelter under Buddha; I take shelter under

Religion; I take shelter under the Sangha). The followers had to undergo training for 10 years. 2.

Ten

Commandments:

The

members

had to lead a disciplined life and follow the ten commandments

(Paramita):

() to speak the truth. (ii)

to abide

by

Brahmacharya.

(iii) not to harm creatures. (iv) not to own property.

| Total History and Civics-IX

(v) to shun music and dancing. (vi) to take meals only at fixed times. (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

not not not not

to to to to

use intoxicants. use scented goods. sleep on cushions. keep money.

3. Viharas: The Bhikshus and the Bhikshuni

were required to roam about in different parts¢ the country for eight months of the year. The had to sleep in Viharas which had separatt sections for men and women. Special mules wer framed for the Bhikshunis. This was done 10 ensure discipline. In the Viharas, the membersle a life of chastity, austerity, devotion, and purity Sects

During

or

BuppHIsSM

the deliberations

of the 4th Buddhis

Council, in the reign of Kanishka, Buddhism sp!

into two sects—the Hinayana and the Mahayant

Hinayana:

Hinayana

stood

for

following th

doctrine of Buddha in letter and spirit. It deni¢é the existence of God. Hinayana holds that ti Eightfold Path is the only means of salvatio! It shuns idol-worship and does not believe th#

Buddha was God. Buddha was regarded a8!

human being who attained enlightenment 2”

nirvana through his own efforts. Pali was US

by the followers of Hinayana as the language ° its scriptures.

The

Hinayana

sect

is found i

India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia and l4*

Mahayana: The term Mahayana means ‘ “Greater Vehicle” of salvation. It is a combinat”

of Buddhism and Hinduism. Mahayana belit™ aT

that Buddha was an incarnation of God and he was the one who could ensure salvation, Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisattvas also developed. According to Mahayana, the Bodhisattvas were those holy Buddhists who had not as yet got Nirvana like Buddha but who were proceeding rapidly towards it. In fact, they were Buddha in the making. They made their goal to attain swarga (a state of Bliss) rather

than attaining Nirvana. The worship of images of the

Buddha

and

Bodhisattvas

became

an

important component of Mahayana. Buddhist scholars like Nagarjuna and Asanga founded the Mahayana sect. They wrote their scriptures in Sanskrit. Kanishka was a follower of Mahayana. The followers of this

sect are found in North-western parts of India, South-east Asian countries, China and Japan.

bow

a

a

A.

The Bodhisattva Maitreya fro m Bharhut Stupa

Impact OF BuDDHISM Buddhism made a lasting contribution to Indian culture, religion, art and social life in the following respects: (i) Ahimsa: The doctrine of Ahimsa became a

weapon against the ills in the society. After the rise of Buddhism,

animal

protection

became

a

new culture. Mahatma Gandhi later used Ahimsa in the form of non-violent struggle against the British rule.

on

Social

Life:

Buddhism

fostered intellectual tradition and exposed the weaknesses in our society. The weaker sections

of the society, who had been subjected to many atrocities, got an opportunity to have their say in matters of political and social life. (iv) Political Impact: The republics of Shakyas, Vajjis and Mallas embraced Buddhism. Ashoka and Kanishka made Buddhism their state

religion.

(ii) Influence on Religious Life: Buddhism

provided a challenge to Hinduism. started

(iii) Influence

a reform

movement

within

There soon Hinduism.

The costly yajnas and sacrifices and rigidity of caste system were

done

away with.

(v) Cultural far and wide in

Impact: Buddhism spread South-East Asia, China and

Sri Lanka. It had a far-reaching cultural impact in raising the prestige of India. There emerged close cultural contacts between these countries and India. Buddhism acted as a vital force between different cultures.

(vi) Language and Literature: Buddhism made valuable contribution to the field of language and literature. A vast and varied nature of literature was produced in the language of the masses, i.e., Pali. The Tripitakas and the Jatakas are the

most important literary works of the Buddhists. Besides these, other literary works of importance, written in Pali language are Mahavamsha and Deepavamsha. Divyavadana, Laltvistara, Saundaranand and Buddhacharita are significant works of Buddhist literature The Sanchi Stupa

written in Sanskrit.

Jainism and Buddhism

|

(wii) Art and Architecture: Buddhism made immense contribution to the evolution of art and architecture. Stupas, chaityas, viharas and rockcut cave temples were their unique contribution. The like

Stupa

is a semi-spherical

structure

containing

the

solid

relics

dome-

of Buddha

like hair, teeth or bones. The Stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati are remarkable specimens

of art surviving upto

this day.

The Chaityas were rectangular halls with a semi-circular roof supported by a number of columns. These halls were meant for worship. The Viharas were the monasteries for the monks to live in. Later when statues of Buddhabegan to be carved after the Christian era, there emerged several schools of art and architecture. Even during Mauryan times,

specially

during

the

time

cutting and chiselling technical skill. DECLINE

oF

of Ashoka,

of pillars

stone

required

high

Council. Hinayana and Mahayana actually were sects.

OL

A cant S

Worshipping the Bodhi Tree (Image from Sanchi Stupa) was

deterioration

in the spiritual life. Buddhist

Sanghas received patronage of royalty and had become very rich. The monks and nuns used to lead a worldly life. Therefore, decline was not a surprise.

BuDDHISM

major

Ee PTO”

the riches for their personal benefit. They began

{i) Split in Buddhism: The division of Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana sects brought about many changes in Buddhism. Its popularity and prestige suffered. Differences had begun to surface right from the Second Buddhist only two

PoE EREEETELET

There

sects and each had its own

were

sixteen

other

followers.

(ii) Language: Buddha preached his teachings in Pali. After his death,

Sanskrit,

the language

the religious

(iv) Reforms in Hinduism: Reform movement in Hinduism started with full vigour and the appeal of new religions vanished. Hinduism assimilated the positive aspects of Buddhism. Even foreign invaders and settlers adopted Hinduism as their new religion. Among these are included the Shakas and the Satavahanas. (v) Invasions: From the eighth centuryAD the Turkish invasion dealt a blow to Buddhism.

of the upper classes, also came to be adopted.

The

(iii) Corruption in Sangha: The monks and nuns started living a luxurious life. There

wealth, the

monasteries,

were

which

looted.

monasteries

had accumulated great

The

invaders

of Nalanda

and

plundered

Takshila

and

forced some of the monks to flee to neighbouring countries

like Nepal

(vi) End

of Royal

and Tibet. Patronage:

Rajput rulers

were war like and could not follow the policy of

ahimsa. Besides, the kings of the Gupta period patronised temples in honour of Hindu gods a” goddesses. Thus, the lack of royal patronage brought JAINISM

about AND

the decline of Buddhism. BUDDHISM

COMPARED

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN JAINISM AND BuppHIS” Worshipping the Stupa (Image from Sanchi Stupa)

—_—_

i

|

Total History and Civics-IX

(a) The founders of both religions, Mahavi and Gautam Buddha had similar backgrounds

Both

of them

belonged

to the

Kshatriya

clan

(cd) Non-violence was their creed,

and

followed the same path. (b) Both sought the attainment of salvation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death. (c) Both did not accept the Vedas.

(ce)

Monks

Jainism

had

world. They

and

nuns

to

renounce

had

to lead a

of

Buddhism

family

life

and

and

the

life of chastity.

Dissimilarities Buddhism

Jainism

© {twas completely a new religion in 6th century BC.

©

|thad been founded long before Mahavira.

* It followed a middle path,

*

It believed in hard penance.

© Itspread far and wide and led to cultural evolution in India.

©

|tdid not spread beyond the Indian shores.

He was the last of its Tirthankaras,

\EXERCISES > I. Multiple-Choice A. 1.

Choose

the correct answers

Jataka

Besides

the

(b) five vows

and

Tripitikas other

knowledge of the ______ (a) 3.

Angas

doctrines

(d)

of Jainism,

Dwadashangi Jains

are

expected

to have

truths. five

(c)

ten

(d)

nine

Buddha’s life Climatic conditions

(b) (d)

Socio-economic conditions None of the above.

(b) (d)

Sixth tirthankara Tenth tirthankara

(b) (d)

saints preaching doctrines of Buddhism. None of the above.

(c)

Sanskrit

(b) (d)

His marriage to a princess All of the above.

Mahavira was the

Twenty fourth tirthankara First tirthankara

saints preaching doctrines of Hinduism. saints preaching doctrines of Jainism.

Local languages

(b)

Prakrit

(d)

Both (a) and (b)

Buddha’s Great Renunciation was a result of (a) (c)

8.

(b)

general

(c)

Jain texts were composed in (a)

7.

options.

Tirthankaras are (a) (c)

6.

seven

Vardhamana (a) (c)

5.

the given

Jataka tales gives information about (a) (c)

4.

to the questions from

Which of the following means “Three Baskets” of Buddhist cannon? (a)

2.

Questions

The four great sights His turning into an ascetic

Which of the following is incorrect? (a)

Mahabhiskramana

: The Great Renunciation

(b)

Dharmachakrapravartana : Turning of the wheel of sacred law

(c)

Chaudharma

(d)

Ashtangika Marg : Eightfold Path

: Four Noble Truths

Jainism and Buddhism

| io

————___ The members of the monastic orders of Buddhism are called (b) Bikhu; Bikani (a) Bhikshus: Bhikshunis (d) Vinaya; Vinayaka (c) Sangha; Sanghi 10. 11.

Buddhist texts were mainly composed in (b) Pali (a) Sanskrit

Semi-circular solid domes are called __________; are large rectangular prayer halls. (a) (c})

12.

Stupas, viharas, chaityas Chaityas, viharas, stupas

are

monasteries

—_________

All of the above.

(d)

Parakrit

(c)

and

called

———_______

Viharas, chaityas, stupas Stupas, chaityas viharas

(b) (d)

Which of the following vows means “practising chastity”? (c) Aparigraha (b) Ahimsa (a) Asteya

(d)

Brahmacharya

Read the two statements given below and select the option that shows relationship

between

ay

the correct

(A) and (B).

(A)

In the sixth century BC, orthodox religious beliefs and practices were challenged by the new sects.

(B)

During this period, Jainism and Buddhism emerged as important religious reform movements.

(A)

(a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

for (A)

Angas and Upangas are Jain texts which were orally passed on by religious leaders to their pupils.

(B)

Tripitikas are the most important literary works of Jains.

(a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Jainism and Buddhism grew and spread as a reaction against ritualism prevalent in the existing religious practises.

(B)

Most of the Vedic literature was composed the common people. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(c) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Mahavira attained salvation at Pavapuri in Bihar.

(B)

Mahavira gave his first sermon

at Deer Park in Sarnath

near Varanasi.

(a) (B) contradicts (A)

(b) (B) is the reason for (A)

(c) (A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

According to Jainism, good deeds alone liberate a man

(B)

Jains believe in Moksha or freedom from the cycle of births and rebirths. (a)

(c) (A) (B)

—

in Sanskrit and difficult to be understood by

from the cycle of life and death.

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other:

Mahavira adopted the language of the common people, i.e., Prakrit to preach his doctrines Buddhists adopted Pali language in their literature.

(a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other:

(A)

Jains believed in Nine Truths and Tri-ratnas.

(B)

Buddhists believed in Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

| Total History and Civics-IX

|

8.

(A)

(A) (B)

Short

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and

Answer

- What

are Angas?

- What

are the Tripitikas?

What

. State two

important

- Who

Vardhamana

was

. List any . What . Give Name

four vows

are known two

causes

the two

List any

Name

causes

prescribed

sects

© N W ££

. Give

. Give the meaning

of Buddha

. Buddha

his

Buddha?

did Buddha Four

any four points

Jainism

for Jainism

. Give

he

of both parts

of his name.

of Jainism.

into which

reasons

got divided.

Why

were

they so called?

having few followers.

Where

as Four Great

was

he born?

Sights?

attain enlightenment?

Noble Truths

delivered

Give the significance

Buddhism.

for the Jains.

for the spread

Gautam

and

as the Triratnas?

are known

of Buddhism.

of the Eightfold

first

a

J

- Name

any two principles

= oO

. State

any two

. Give

features

two differences

Path of Buddha.

and Tathagat.

sermon

at

Sarnath.

What

is this

event

called?

What

the

literal

of the event.

of the name

_ ©

meaning

the three Tripitikas,

Mahavira?

- How

was

matter of these Angas?

for the rise of Jainism

a

two

is the subject

. What

i

(B) are independent of each other.

Questions

. Who

= ~

(b)

a

won Oo ONanr

II.

(B) contradicts (A)

Hinayana does not believe that Buddha was God. Mahayana believes that Buddha was an incarnation of God. (a) (B) contradicts (A) (b) (B) is the reason for (A) (c) (A) is true but (B) is false (d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other. Both Jainism and Buddhism did not accept the Vedas. Buddhism believes in the middle path whereas Jainas believed in hard penance. (a) (B) contradicts (A) (b) (B) is the reason for (A) (c) (A) is true but (B) is false (d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(B)

9.

(a)

that governed

of Buddhism

between

the

Sangha.

that attracted

Hinayana

and

people towards

Mahayana

it.

Buddhism.

20. Give two causes for the decline of Buddhism. Ill.

Structured

Questions

1. With reference to the sources significance of the following: (a) 2. With (a) (b) (c)

Angas reference

of information (b)

to Jainism

and

about

Tripitikas

Buddhism,

answer

Jainism (c)

and

Buddhism,

state

the

Jatakas

the following questions:

Give briefly the background of the socio-economic conditions in 6th century BC. State any three causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. What caused the division of Jainism into two sects?

Jainism and Buddhism

| co

oo

3. With (a) (b) (c) 4. With (a)

reference

to Jainism

answer

the following questions: Who was Mahavira? Why was he called Jina? State the five vows which a Jain householder has to take. State the Jains view on Karma and Salvation. reference Who

was

to Buddhism, Gautama

answer the following questions: Buddha? How did he achieve enlightenment?

(b) What is known as ‘Dharmachakrapravartana’? (c) How did Buddha have a large following? 5. With reference to the Buddhism answer the following questions: (a) (b)

What

is the Eightfold

Path?

What

was

of Buddhism

(c)

What role did the Sangha

6. With

the

impact

on

the

reference to the given pictures, answer the questions

(A) (a)

socio-religious

life of the

people?

play in the spread of Buddhism?

Identify the two preachers, whose

that follow.

(B) images

are given.

Name

the religions founded

(b)

Mention three main teachings of each of the two religions founded

(c)

Mention any two by them.

similarities and

two dissimilarities

between

by them.

by these preachers.

the two

religions founded

\ (~ IV.

Thinking 1.

Skills

The most important precept of Jainism is ahimsa or non-violence. It was popularised

by Mahatma Gandhi during India’s freedom struggle. Do you think the philosophy of ahimsa is as relevant today as it was in the era of Mahavira? 2.

What were the reasons due to which Buddhism borders in other countries of the world?

3.

List

4.

the

similarities

and

in the

differences

could

religions

spread —

beyond.

Buddhism

Jainism,

Buddhism which emerged in ancient India against the Brahmanic

the Indian and

social order, has

gained importance in contemporary India. State your views giving examples.

5. Write the script of a play on the life and times of Gautam Buddha.

‘

ay

as

9

>

ee

o> 2 ee

oie

“CHAPTER 4 ) The Mauryan Empire qpennnnanncnssmenngeanasaccaseroncscwasianane se

:

ST>

wa

GM HEH Bh? TERIMO-

(The Mauryan Empire Sources: Arthashastra, ‘Edicts, Sanchi Stupa.

Indika, Ashokan

‘

Political history and administration (Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka); Ashoka’s Dhamma.

Se we ow

THE

a

ow

a a

a

a ew

a

a

a

ee

a a

ee

eee

SOURCES wt

MAURYAS

The

Mauryan

4th

century

He

organised

empire

BC

by

was

founded

Chandragupta

a powerful

army

and

in

the

Maurya. laid

The reign of Bindusara’s son, Ashoka constitutes one of the brightest periods in the Indian history. After the Kalinga War, Ashoka devoted his life to human welfare. He considered his subjects as his children. He built many marvels in art and architecture, some of which have survived up to this day.

the

foundation of a vast empire. He overthrew the Nandas from Magadha and the Greek Satraps from the North-West Frontier and unified a large part of the Indian subcontinent under his centralised government. His successor Bindusara kept the Mauryan Empire intact and further extended its boundaries.

LITERARY

SOURCES

(i) Arthashastra of Kautilya: Of all the literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the most important source is the Arthashastra,

written by Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. He was the advisor and Prime Minister of Chandragupta. Arthashastra is written

in Sanskrit. It is a comprehensive manual that deals with politics, rules of diplomacy, principles of administration and other such political topics. This book was discovered in 1909 and its English translation is now

available.

(ii) Indika: Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He was sent as an ambassador to the court by Seleucus

Nicator, the Greek

ruler.

He

wrote a book named Indika which contains his impressions of what he heard and saw during his stay in India. Megasthenes’ original Indika has

been

lost, but its fragments

still survive

in

the writings of later Greek authors like Strabo, Arrian

and

Diodorus.

Megasthenes

wrote

the

following account about what he saw in India. “The

appears royal

occasions

on

which

the

in public

are

celebrated

processions.

He

is carried

emperor

with in

grand

a golden

palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of The Mauryan Empire

|

trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste

the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same

bedroom

for two nights”.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

SOURCES

(i) Edicts of Ashoka:

An edict is a decree

issued by a Sovereign. The edicts of Ashoka form the most important source of Mauryan

history. They are the oldest, precisely dated records of are inscribed on rocks and the country and include 14 Seven Pillar edicts and a Rock

edicts.

The

best preserved and India. These edicts pillars throughout Major Rock edicts, number of Minor

inscriptions

on

these

edicts

provide a useful insight into the life and ideals

of Ashoka

in particular and about

of the Mauryas

the history

in general.

Except those at Shahbazgarhi

and Mansehra,

which are inscribed in the Kharosthi script running, like Arabic, from right to left, the rest

are all engraved in the Brahmi lipi, written from left to right. The most important event of Ashoka’s reign

Sanchi Stupa

In pursuance

of his policy

of non-violence,

Ashoka prohibited killing of animals for sacrifices. advocated restraint in the number that had to be killed for consumption; protected some of the animals, and in general condemned crue! acts against animals. Reference to protection of animals is made in the Rock Edict-I which states, “Formerly, in the great refectory and temple of the heaven-beloved king Piyadasi, daily were many hundred thousand animals sacrificed for the sake of meat food. So even

was the conquest of Kalinga. The indescribable

at this day while this religious edict is under

made a solemn resolve not to take up arms any more. The war drum (bherighosha) was Silenced forever, and henceforth were heard

for the sake of food, some two are killed, or one is killed; but now the joyful chorus resounds again and again that henceforward not a single animal shall be put do death.”

sufferings and atrocities of the Kalinga war deeply touched Ashoka’s conscience and he

only the echoes of ‘Dhammaghosha’, non-violence and universal peace.

the call to

promulgation,

—

from the sacrifice of animals

(As translated by James

Princep).

(ii) Samchi Stupa: A stupa is a semi-spherical solid dome-like structure made of unburnt bricks

and stones. The Buddhist stupa has special significance. It represents the spiritual body

of Buddha containing his relics such as haif, teeth or bones. A casket containing thesé

relics is placed

foundation

at the

base

of the Sanchi

of the dome. The

Stupa

was laid by

Ashoka at Sanchi about 45 km from Bhopal ©

Madhya Pradesh. There are four gateways in fou! directions. They have carved panels depictiné

events

from

the life of Buddha

and

some

tales

from Jataka stories. Buddha is represented bY symbols like the peepal tree, lotus, or a whee!

The pillars are surmounted by capitals whic? contain sculptures of lions. The most importa of these capitals is the Lion Capital, a sculpt

—_—§

Total History and Civics-IX

showing

four Asiatic

lions

standing

back

to

back, on an elaborate base that includes other animals. It was officially adopted as the Emblem

of India, in 1950. THE

MAURYAN

CHANDRAGUPTA

EMPIRE

MAuRYA

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. Not much is known about his childhood. According to a legend he had been dismissed from the service of Nandas who ruled before him. He met Kautilya at Takshila. Kautilya, who later became famous as Chanakya, was the

son of a Brahmin. Kautilya too was wronged by the Nandas. He, therefore, joined hands with Chandragupta to destroy the Nanda dynasty. After a long series of battles with Chandragupta, the Nanda capital at Pataliputra

fell. This led to the emergence of a new dynasty —

the

Mauryan

dynasty

with

Chandragupta

Maurya as the emperor. Alexander,

the

Greek

ruler

had

many states in the North-Western

conquered

part of India.

After his death his territories in the Indian subcontinent were taken over by Chandragupta Maurya. With the help of Chanakya he embarked on the consolidation process of his empire. In 305 BC, India was again attacked by Seleucus, a former general under Alexander. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus. According to the treaty signed with Seleucus, Chandragupta got

from

Kabul,

Kandahar,

the Greek

Herat

commander.

and

Baluchistan

Seleucus

gave

his

Ashoka’s visit to a Stupa (from Sanchi Stupa)

daughter Helen, in marriage to Chandragupta. After this victory Chandragupta appointed Pushyagupta as the governor of his NorthWestern province. He then proceeded to the south and captured some territories there. Chandragupta’s and Kandahar in in the south; and Saurashtra in the

empire extended from Kabul the North-West to Mysore from Bengal in the east to west.

According to the Jain tradition, after ruling for 24 years, he renounced the world. He handed over

the kingdom

to his son,

Bindusara.

BINDUSARA Bindusara succeeded his father, Chandragupta Maurya. The Greek historian Athenacus calls him a ‘slayer of foes’. He conquered many parts of South India after defeating sixteen rulers. During his rule he faced a revolt in Takshila. It was quelled by his second son Ashoka, who was the governor there. Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the rulers of Greece. ASHOKA Ashoka succeeded to the throne after his father Bindusara’s death. On ascending the throne, Ashoka took the title of ‘Devanamapriya’ (The Beloved

Beautiful Kalinga

Lion Capital

of

the

Gods)

and

‘Priyadarshi’

(The

One). War

After ascending the throne, Ashoka fought the famous Kalinga War. According to Megasthenes, the Greek historian at the court of Chandragupta

The Mauryan

Empire

| 4

Maurya,

(iv) Ashoka himself went on tours to preag,

a powerful

had

the ruler of Kalinga

Rock Edict-XIII, both

people of Kalinga

Ashoka

won

suffered

the war,

the

and

Though

most.

policies and personality of Ashoka.

to spread

(i) The death and destruction caused by the in the personal and political life of Ashoka.

_

He abandoned the policy of ‘conquest by

;,

of Buddhism.

construction

the

of 84,009

Stupas to keep the relics of Buddha. He

gave donations to Buddhist viharas. was

in all directions’ (Digvijay) and embraced

in

a decline

military

preparedness

and efficiency.

the policy of religion (Dhammagosha).

Extent of Ashoka’s Empire

life.

He stopped hunting andeating meatand

After

his

victory

at

Kalinga,

Ashoka’s

empire

__ abandoned the life of luxury.

extended from Hindukush in the north-west to

(iti) The prisoners of war were used for agricultural work. It resulted in an _

river Pennar in the south. It also included some parts of Nepal in the north and Kabul, Herat

increase in production and brought about economic prosperity in his empire.

and Kandahar provinces boundary of India.

Bi

ARABIAN SEA

Se

ie

eit on,

os ae

mt

so

- |

oe

Dhauii

—_

~ fs

A Mask

Total History and Civics-IX

outside

ASHOKA'S EMPIRE

sen

=

Lanka

(vii) On account of abandonment of war there

force’ (bherigosha) and ambition of ‘victory

personal

teachings

the

ordered

He

Kalinga war brought about a great change

(ii) Kalinga changed Ashoka’s

Sri

Buddhism and followed the Buddhig; principles in his State Policy like nop. violence and disapproval of empty rituals (vi) He got erected several pillars and edicts

the

effect on

to

Mahindra

(v) Ashoka, after the Kalinga War, embrace,

consequences for him and his empire. Consequences of Kalinga War The Kalinga War had a profound

son,

propagate Buddhism.

far reaching

it had

Sen

also

parts of t,

world. He sent his daughter, Sanghamit;,

but

losses,

suffered

sides

He

to the various

missionaries

Ashoka faced tough resistance. According to the

people.

to

Buddhism

army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.

BAY

OF

“ INDEX 2 Pillar Edicts 4 Rock Edicts

0

3

the

present

MAURYAN

ADMINISTRATION

Pan-Indian

Character:

The

BY

Mauryan

beginning with Chandragupta with an all-India character.

empire

Maurya was vast,

Seleucus, whom Chandragupta defeated in war, had handed him four provinces of Kabul, Kandahar. Herat and Baluchistan. These remained

with

the

empire

Mauryan

right

up

to

the end of Ashoka’s rule. During Bindusara’s rule, Ashoka reached Takshila and quelled the revolt there. After Bindusara had established his rule over South India no other king ever ruled over

the whole of India. The fact that Chandragupta Maurya spent his last years at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka speaks volumes about the all India

character of the Mauryan empire. The

chief

advantages

of the

Pan-Indian

character of his empire were the following: (a) It marked the end of small states. (b) It helped in establishing trade links with

The existence of an early postal system in India can be found during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In order to exercise control over his vast empire Chandragupta Maurya used the pigeon post

India kings

successfully. (d) After Ashoka’s

victory over

Kalinga,

Chandragupta

to

increase

Maurya,

under

the

guidance of Chanakya, who laid the foundations of an elaborate system of administration. Chanakya wrote a book ‘Arthashastra’ in which he describes the principles of politics and the

Mauryan

and

the

Kalinga

in the

existing

fifth

province,

four provinces,

with Tosali as its capital. (ii) The Mauryan centralised monarchy became

a paternal despotism under Ashoka. In one of his Edicts, Ashoka says, ‘all men are my children’. (iii) Ashoka simplified many rigorous practices

related

to

economic

two

and

main

Military

administration

regarding

Government.

(i) Central Government: The Mauryan government was centralised and was managed

by several officers of different ranks. The king was the supreme authority and his throne was

court

new

had

Administration

Provincial

made some changes necessitated by the change of heart after the Kalinga War. a

administration

divisions—Civil

hereditary.

added

and

Administration.

art of administration. Chandragupta’s son Bindusara retained the same system and Ashoka

(i) Ashoka

productivity

activity across the Empire. (iv) Ashoka appointed Mahamatras (Governors) to look after the welfare of his subjects.

Civil Administration: The Civil administration had two main divisions—the Central Government

Administration

It was

the

taxation and crop collection. This helped

the

economic prosperity.

between

of and authenticity pigeon post till date.

strong and helped the face foreign aggressions

era of conquests and wars was over. It helped the Mauryan kings to pay more attention to social and economic life of the people. Hence, there was an all-round

communication

privacy of messages ensured? Trace the use

foreign countries.

(c) It made Mauryan

for

capital city and the provincial capitals. The pigeon post system continued even during the time of Emperor Ashoka, The letters in little cachets were tied to the feet of trained pigeons which were made to fly to specific destinations and thus important messages were sent. How was speed of delivery and

He

Megasthenes,

was

the

also

Greek

of Chandragupta

the

supreme

judge.

ambassador

at the

Maurya,

in

his

Indica and Chanakya in the Arthashastra, us about

the Mauryan

book

tell

administration.

Ashoka brought about some changes in the administrative system of Chandragupta Maurya. He appointed Mahamatras (governors) to look after the welfare of his subjects. At the central level, the king was assisted by the council of ministers (Mantri Parishad) headed by the Prime Minister. Each minister was responsible for his department. The council of The Mauryan Empire

|

ministers included the chief Pujari of the state called

Purohit;

Senapati, who

advised

the

king

on matters related to war and peace; the head treasurer called Sannidhata; and Samaharta, the

taxation expert. The other important officers were Accountant General, one incharge of agriculture, Superintendent of mines, Superintendent of Ports,

Controller

of Commerce,

as

well

as

the

Superintendent of Weights and Measures. (ii) Provincial

Government:

Ashoka

made

time, there were five provinces as shown below:

Capital

Takshila

4. Southern Province

Swamagiri

5. Kalinga

-.

Tosali

this position. During Ashoka’s time the Kumar assisted

According

by

the

to some

Governor

rock

and

(Mahamatra).

pillar edicts

of

Ashoka, besides the Mahamatra, other officers took active part in the administration of the provinces. Pradeshika collected taxes. Rajuka performed the functions of modern day Tehsildar or revenue officer. The Yukta was the treasurer.

According.

historians Vincent Smith and Shamashes:. Bali was a religious tribute. Toll tax was imposed on articles which we, brought for sale. Taxes were levied on lignaT os shops and gambling houses. Some taxes we-. a7

collected from forests and mines. Frorn t, revenue collected, the state provided variny, facilities like roads, irrigation, hospitals 2, met other expenses of the state. (vi) The Spy System: Chandragupta Maur; had a wide network of spies in his empire. The:

maintained

a

huge

army

consistinz

source, the Mauryas maintained 8000 chariots.

The chief weapons used were bows, arrows. shields, swords, etc. The king was the commander-in-chief of the army. The whole army was under a military commission of thirty members. The Maurya:

also had a well-laid recruitment policy. The soldiers were paid salary in cash. The Mauryan king had built forts at strategic places for safety and security of the empire.

(iii) District Administration: The provinces were divided into districts called Janapadas.

ASHOKA’S DHAMMA After the Kalinga war Ashoka became the peoples

Their administration was looked Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta.

king. He embraced Buddhism but did not impos¢ it on his subjects. He wanted his subjects ©

(iv)

Administration

of Cities:

after

by

Important

cities, the capitals of provinces as given earlier, had their own administrative system. The head of the city was called Nagaradhyaksha. According to Megasthenes, the administration of Pataliputra, the capital city of the Mauryan empire was looked after by a committee of 30 members. (v) The Revenue System: The land revenue was the chief source of income in the Mauryan

—§_

of the

of infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots According to Megasthenes the Mauryan Anny consisted of 6,00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry and 9000 war-elephants. According to another

Head of the province was called Kumar or Aryaputra. Only the princes were appointed to was

the cattle at the rate of one-sixth.

Maurya

Ujain

to one-fourth

produce. Two kinds of taxes, namely Bak tee Bhaga are mentioned in the Edicts of Asti, Bhaga was levied on agricultural produce z-/

(vii) Military Administration: Chandregupz

—

3. Avanti (Eastem Province)

one-sixth

were spies against the spies and on importz:matters more than one agent was asked to colle: information. The king was always kept informe: of the working of the bureaucracy.

Provinces and their Capitals

2. Gandhara (North-western Province)

It was

+

alterations only in the central government and not in the provincial government. During his grandfather’s time there were four provinces and after the addition of Kalinga in Ashoka’s

Province

empire.

za

| Total History and Civics-IX

follow such a Dhamma that may be based on the

unifying principles of all major religions of tht world. The Dhamma as described in Ashoka‘

Edicts is not a religion or religious system, bu! a ‘Moral Law’, ‘a Common Code of Conduct’ # an ‘Ethical Order’, which is a common meeting ground of all religions. Principles

of Dhamma

Ashoka’s Dhamma has the following salient poin's (i) Respect for elders and love for childre®

(ii) Ahimsa or non-violence.

(iii) Good (iv) (v)

deeds

or good

happiness

to man

He taught

people

He disapproved

karma

would

give

in the next birth. to respect all religions.

empty

rituals.

unity:

(iii) End of crimes: The policy of Ahimsa did have a great moral impact on people. Thefts, crimes and other such activities almost came to an end. (iv)

Impact oF DHAMMA ON Asuoka’s ImperiAL Pouicy (i) Religious

(ii) Moral values: People under the influence of Dhamma started living a moral life.

People

belonging

to

different religions followed their emperor's policy of religious tolerance.

Public

welfare:

With

the

policy

conquests and wars having come to an end, Ashoka’s Dhamma helped officials to undertake public welfare and public work schemes. This resulted in prosperity and helped people to lead a peaceful

life.

ES

I.

Multiple-Choice A. 1.

Choose

6.

options.

(b) (ad)

Nandas and Greek Satraps Greek Satraps and Guptas

Bindusara : Slayer of foes Bindusara : Favourite of gods

(b) (a)

Chandragupta : The most beautiful one Ashoka : The greatest one

Bherigosha, Bherigosha,

and embraced

Digvijay Dhammagosha

(b) (d)

Dhammagosha, Dhammagosha,

Bherigosha Digvijay

Ashoka abandoned the life of luxury Increased military preparedness

(b) (a)

Increased agricultural output Increased Buddhist missionary activity.

What was an advantage of the Mauryan administration having a pan-Indian character? (a) (b) (c)

More attention paid to socio-economic life of people Increased uprising in small provinces Increased area to be protected from foreign invaders

(d)

All of the above.

Which of the following were provinces in the Mauryan Empire? (a) (b) (c) (d)

7.

the given

Which of the following was NOT a consequence of the Kalinga War? (a) (c)

5.

Guptas and Chalukyas Rashtrakutas and Nandas

Ashoka abandoned (a) (c)

4.

to the questions from

Which of the following is correct? (a) (c)

3.

answers

Chandragupta Maurya established a vast empire overthrowing (a) (c)

2.

Questions

the correct

Magadha, Avanti, Kalinga and Cholamandalam Magadha, Gandhara, Avanti, Kalinga and Southern Province Magadha, Takshila, Ujjain and Tosali None of the above.

Which of the following were officers in the Provincial Government? (a)

Purohit,

Senapati,

Sannidhata,

(b)

Mahamatra,

(c) (d)

Pradeshika, Rajuka, Yukta Bali, Bhaga

Prashika,

of

Samaharta

Rajuka, Yukta

The Mauryan Empire

| io

Read

the

two

relationship

(A) (B)

(A)

between

given

(A) and

below

and

select

the option

that

shows

the correct

(B).

The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 4th century B.C, Chandragupta (a) (c)

(A) (B)

statements

Maurya was succeeded by Ashoka. (B) contradicts (A) (b) (B) is the reason for (A) (A) is true but (B) is false (d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other,

Most of the Ashokan

Edicts are engraved

in the Brahmi

lipi, written from left toright,

The Ashokan edicts provide a useful insight into the life and ideals of Ashoka. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(ad)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

In pursuance of his policy of non-violence, Ashoka prohibited the killing of animals for

sacrifices,

(B)

After the Kalinga war, Ashoka made a resolve not to take up arms and to shunviolence,

(a) (c)

(A)

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

The Buddhist Stupa represents the spiritual body of Buddha containing his relics like hair, teeth or bones.

(B)

Buddha is represented by symbols like the peepal tree, lotus or wheel on the Sanchi Stupa. (a) (c)

(A) (B)

Chandragupta

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

Maurya defeated Greek general Seleucus.

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

The land revenue was the chief source of income in the Mauryan empire, Bhaga was a (a) (c)

II.

(b) (d)

The Greek historian Athenacus called Ashoka a ‘slayer of foes.’ (a) (c)

(A) (B)

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

religious tribute in the Mauryan empire.

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

Short Answer

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

Questions

State any two sources of information about the Mauryan

5

Empire.

Pp RBXIaAnAYDN

- Who wrote Arthashastra? What is its importance? What is the importance of Ashoka’s edicts? Who wrote the Indika? What does it contain? What is a stupa? Name one stupa built by Ashoka. How did Chandragupta

What is the importance of the Kalinga war in the personal life of Ashoka? What was the impact of Ashoka embracing the policy of Dhammagosha? Name the two taxes mentioned How

in the Edicts of Ashoka.

did the king keep himself abreast with whatever was

Ee

i

ones

ht

Maurya establish the Mauryan dynasty?

—

. What is meant by Ashoka’s Dhamma? . Give the basic principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma. What was the impact of Dhamma on Ashoka’s policies?

Ea

Total History and Civics-IX

happening

in his kingdom?

Ii.

Structured

Questions

bo

1. With reference to the sources significance of the following: (a) Arthashastra . With

(a) (b) (c) 3. With

(a) (b) (c)

of

information

(b)

on

the

Mauryan

Indika

explain

Empire,

briefly

the

(c) Sanchi Stupa

reference to Mauryan Empire, answer the following Bq questions: . Give a brief account of how Chandragupta established the Mauryan Empire. Give a brief account of the Kalinga war and its consequences. Name tour important ways in which Buddhism spread under the royal patronage during the Mauryan times.

reference to Mauryan administration, answer the following questions: Why is Chandragupta Maurya regarded as the chief architect of administration? Briefly describe the main features of civil and military administration under Mauryan rule. Explain. briefly the Pan-Indian character of Mauryan

the

systern

of

administration.

4. With reference to the Mauryan the following: (a) The Central Government. (b) District Administration. (c) Revenue system.

administration,

write short notes on

5. Study the Ashokan Edict given on the right and answer the following questions: (a) What is an edict? Where are these edicts inscribed? (b) What is the significance of edicts as a source of information? (c) Explain briefly the importance of Ashoka’s edicts, giving example from one of his edicts. 6. Study the picture given on the right and answer the following questions: (a) Name the structure given in the picture. Name the dynasty and the king who built it. (b) Where is it located? Mention any two architectural features of this structure. (c) What is the significance of a Buddhist Stupa?

Picture

for Q.No.

6

IV. Thinking Skills 1.

Imagine

that you

met

a person,

whose

family

suffered the consequences

of the

Kalinga War waged by Ashoka. Describe the horrors of the war as told by him. State

the

differences

which

you

find between

the Kalinga

War

and

the modern

‘warfare.

2.

Explain the symbolism preached by the sculpture on the Emblem of India.

3. You are given an oppor

XS

to pen the text of an Ashokan Edict. Briefly list what

would you write. O. *°

5@5 “

"-@ ~~

The Mauryan Empire

| 5

—

CHAPTER

S

)

The Sangam Age The

Sangam

SOURCES The primary sources of information Sangam Age include the following:

Age

: Sources: Tirukkural and Megaliths. : A brief study of society and economy.

1. Tirukkural: It is one of the most celebrated works of the eighteen minor works (Patinenkilkanakku) of the Sangam

The Sangam Age is considered a landmark in the history of South India. The word ‘Sangam’ is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit ‘Sangha’ which means an assembly or an association. Thus, the

Sangam Age refers to the period when bulk of Tamil literature was composed by a body of Tamil scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings called Sangam. Hence, Sangam refers to the gatherings of poets and bards. These took place between first century BC and second century AD in the kingdom of Pandyas. These texts were called Sangam because they are believed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies of poets that were held in the city of Madurai. It is believed

that

the

first

Sangam

literature, written by Tiruvalluvar, Tamil poe and philosopher. Tirukkural (or Kural) is considered as a compound of the teachings of Dharamashastra, the Arthashastra and the Kamasutra. It comprises a series of brief metrical proverbs on many aspects of life and religion It is a collection of Tamil couplets organised into 133 chapters. Each chapter has a specific subject ranging from “ploughing a piece of lang to “ruling a country”.It preaches simplicity and truth throughout its verses. The 133 chapters are grouped into three sections: (a) Aram (righteousness); (b) Por! (wealth); and (c) Inbam or Kamam (pleasure). While

was

attended by Gods and legendary sages including Sage Agastya, but all its works have perished. The second Sangam, attended by several poets, produced a large mass of literature, but only

Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiar (the oldest book of Tamil grammar) has survived. The third Sangam,

attended by many poets, produced vast literature of which only a fraction has survived. It is this fraction

which

Sangam

literature.

constitutes

the

extant

body

of

The three kingdoms of Cheras, Pandyas and

Cholas were always at war with one another. Their wars and heroic deeds form the themes of Sangam literature. According to these descriptions, Cheras had finally asserted their supremacy

over the other two kingdoms.

| Total History and Civics-IX

a

about the

Thiruvalluvar

Aram

private

and

Inbam

hfe,

discuss

Porul deals

with

Besides these, Tami

epics,

namely

Slappadikaram,

about

ethical

public

living

in

affairs,

literature comprises five

Jivakachintamani, Valayapathi

and

Manimekalai, Kuntalakeshi,

Apart from the story and literature, these epics are a vast treasure of information about music

and dance; administration and grandeur of Kings of the era.

2. Megaliths: Mcgaliths are box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on cach other without any mortar. Sometimes there was an opening cut into one of the sides, These acted either as burial sites or commemorative memonials. While

some

megaliths

can

be

seen

on

the

surface, some others are often found underground.

Stone circles or boulders placed on the surface probably served as signposts to find the burial site, so that people could return to the same place whenever they wanted to. Some megaliths contain more than one skeleton. This indicates that people belonging to the same family were buried in the same place though at different time

periods. These are also known as memonial stones. These megaliths contained not only skeletons of the buried people, but also contained grave goods including pottery and iron objects. These goods

provide a useful insight about the life of people during the Sangam Age. For example, the number of agricultural tools compared to those meant for fishing and hunting are less, so it can be concluded that

the megalithic people

initially did not practice

an advanced type of agriculture. From the grave goods, religious beliefs of the megalithic people

Magalith Burial

of tridents in the graves, show their faith in Lord Shiva. Renowned

historian, Champakalakshmi

has

identified the Sangam Age with the last phase of the megalithic culture in the Tamil region. She has substantiated her viewpoint by correlating the velir settlements known from literature with the megalithic sites of the far south. This includes a subsistence base consisting of agriculture, cattle rearing and fishing, the use of iron, and a period in which warfare and weapons were important.

TAMIL

KINGDOMS

The Sangam poems mention the term ‘muvendar’, which is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs and was used for the heads of three ruling families, namely Chera, Chola and Pandya in the Tamil country during the Sangam Age. In addition to these three kingdoms, there were local chieftains. Crera The

KinGpom

territory

of the

Sangam

Cheras

mostly

comprised the present state of Kerala.

can also be inferred. For example, the presence

The known

and

Chera by many

kings

of the

Sangam

Age

titles such as Vanavar,

were

Villavar

Malaiyar. There were two important lines of

Chera Kings. The first one started from Udiyan Cheralathan and the second from Irumporai.

The

kings

belonging

to these two lines ruled

the Chera kingdom. Their capital was

Vanji and

their chief port was Thondi. Their symbol on the flag was

bow and

Cheran

arrow.

Senguttuvan

was

the most

popular

king of the Sangam Cheras. The Sangam works, Padirruppattu of information

and Ahananuru provide a lot about him. His brother Illango

The Sangam Age

7

Vadigal composed the Tamil Epic, Silappadikaram

which, besides the story of Kannagi and Kovalan, tells about

how Senguttuvan

defeated

a number

of rulers to bring a stone from the Himalayas to build a temple dedicated to Kannagi. Senguttuvan led an expedition up to the Himalayas. He crossed the river Ganges and defeated his enemies. He reached the Himalayas and hoisted the Chera

Cheras

flag. Pattini cult, that is the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife, was started by him. It is said that

he brought a stone from the Himalayas to carve a statue of Kannagi

Padirrupattu

and

and

built a temple

other

Sangam

for her.

literature

among them were Cheralathan, Peruncheral Irumporai and Kanaikkal Irumporai. CHOLA

KINGDOM The kingdom of the Sangam Cholas comprised the present Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli districts.

The

Chola

kingdom

to

referred

is

in

the Sangam literature as Chonadu, Kaveri Nadu, Kaveri Soozh Nadu, Neer Nadu and

Punal

Nadu.

These

names

indicate

water resources of the Chola country.

the

rich

The river

Kaveri that flowed through the Chola kingdom, made

its soil fertile. The

capital of the Sangam

Cholas was Uraiyur. Their second capital was Kaveripoompattinam. It was also the chief port of the Sangam Cholas. Their symbol was tiger. The Sangam literature mentions a number of Chola kings.

They

had

surnames

like

Kill,

Valavan,

Senni and Cholan.

The most popular among the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan. The Sangam literature gives useful information about Karikalan. Even in his young

age,

he proved

his extraordinary

ability

of settling the disputes in his kingdom. He was a great warrior. He defeated the Chera and the Pandya kings at Venni. In another battle,

—_

Pandyas

Cholas

give a long list of Chera kings. The most popular

Embiems of Three Tamil Kingdoms

Kaveripoompattinamor Puhar and made it his capital, which flourishedas a great centre for trade. Merchants from foreign countries visited Puhar.

Karikalan

was

generous

towards Tamil

poets and patronised them. Panpyvan

KINGDOM

The extent of the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam

Age

comprised

the present districts of

Madurai, Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram. The Pandya

kings

were

known

as

Maran,

Valudhi

and Chezhiyan . Their capital was Madurai and their chief port was Korkai. Their symbol was fish. The Pandyan kings earned name and fame for their patronage to the Tamil Sangam. It can be said that their capital Madurai had remained the capital of Tamil language and literature. The Sangam literature provides a long list of Pandya kings. Some of them had become

popular. Mudhukudumi Peruvazhthi performed many

sacrifices

to

Ariyappadaikadantha

celebrate

his

victories.

Neduncheliyan

was 4

famous Pandyan ruler. He gave death sentence t0 the hero of Silappadikaram, Kovalan, by mistake.

Karikalan defeated a confederacy of nine princes. He extended his kingdom beyond Kanchipuram.

Another important ruler was Thalaiyalanganathu

Karikalan had become popular for the development activities in his kingdom. He had encouraged the growth of agriculture as well as commerce. He had built the dam called Kallanat across the river Kaveri. Its water was used for irrigation. Karikalan had fortified the port-city

forces of Chera, Chola and other local chieftains at a place called Thalaiyalanganam. He

Total History and Civics-IX

Nedunchezhiyan.

He

defeated

the

combined

patronised a number of Tamil poets including

Mangudi

Maruthanar.

The Pandya rule ceased along with that o

the Cheras and Cholas in the third century AD:

CHIEFTAINS

Locat

Apart from the three Tamil kingdoms, a number of local chieftains ruled in different parts of Tamil Nadu. They were known as Velirs. The Sangam literature furnishes lot of information about them, The most famous among the Velirs were called Seven Patrons or Kadaiyelu Vallalgal. They were

Pari, On, Malayan, Elini, Pegan, Aay and Nalli. The local chieftains had extended patronage to the Tamil poets. In turn, these poets hailed them for their generosity, They had extended their

help

to

resolve

rulers. For example,

disputes

between

the

Avvaiyar played the role of

a diplomat in the court of Adhiyaman. Another Sangam poet, Kapilar had taken care of Pari’s daughters after his death. These local chieftains made

and

generous

donations

their consorts.

to

the

poets,

Like the Chera,

Chola

bards

and

Pandya rulers, the local chieftains also played a significant role in the political, social and cultural domains during the Sangam Age. SOCIETY The

Sangam

literature

gives

a true

picture

of

the society in the Sangam Age. SociAL The

CLassEs

Sangam

literature

speaks

of many

tribes

and also refers to the traditional castes. This means that the caste divisions and the tribal arrangement

existed

side

by

side.

However,

the distinction in Tamil Sangam society was primarily based upon the division between the high

born

and

the low

born,

differentiating the

Brahmanas and their patrons from the common

men. Though the beginnings of caste system can be made

out within the Brahmana

households,

the larger society remained casteless. The Tolkappiyam has mentioned four castes, namely, Brahmanas, kings, traders and farmers, ignoring

most of the other names of the people. These references in the Tolkappiyam obviously show influence of the Sanskritic social ideal. The Brahmanas during the Sangam Age were

a respectable

and

learned

community.

They performed their caste duties scrupulously. They served the king occasionally as judicial officers and always

as priests and

astrologers.

They were attached to the land and were proud of their country and their mother tongue.

It seems that trade was common to both the Vaishyas and Vellalars. The Vaishyas were assigned the duties of learning, performing sacrifice, making gifts, agriculture, protection of cows and trade, Vellalars were landed aristocrats, who cultivated the wetlands during the Sangam

Age. They had close associations and held high positions of office with the three main dynasties, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. They also carried out trade. So the two communities were known by the profession in which they were engaged.

The ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar and

the

landless

labourers

were

known

as

kadasiyar and adimai. The

most

relevant socio-economic

aspect of

the anthologies is their concept of tinai according to which the land was divided. The whole area consisted of five tinais or divisions viz., hilly backwoods (kurinji), parched zones (palai), pastoral tract (mullai), wet land (marutam) and littoral land (neital).

The poems in the anthologies describe the mode of human adaption in each tinai and the various social groups there: ® The inhabitants of the hilly areas were hunters and gatherers. @ In the parched zone, the inhabitants lived by plunder and cattle lifting.

® In the pastoral tract, subsisted on shifting animal husbandry. ® Wet

land

was

the inhabitants agriculture and

inhabited

by

people

subsisting on plough agriculture. ® And finally, the littoral land was inhabited by those dependent on fishing and salt extraction.

Besides the above mentioned social groups, there are references to some full-time craftmen such as goldsmiths, blacksmiths and potters in the poems. Foop

anp

DrREss

Grain, meat and fish formed the chief articles of

food, with vegetables, milk and milk products. Grain was husked in hollows made in the ground, and converted into flakes (aval). Appam (apupa) or rice-cake soaked in milk was a luxury.

The

cooked

fish with

piping hot curry

was equally valued. The Sangam Age

| esa

Clothing comprised two pieces of cloth. Women in high society used corsets and hair paste. Ornaments were worn by both sexes. The

children wore a necklace of tiger teeth. ENTERTAINMENT

The

Sangam

Age

people

made

use

of different

modes of entertainment during their leisure time. Music and dance filled a good part of the spare time of men and women. In the villages, cock-fighting and goat-fighting were popular. Gambling was practised widely. Wrestling was a common form of sport enjoyed by the youth

with the Chera

ruler Senaguttuvan’s worship

Kannagi and it spread to distant places like s, Lanka in the South and Malwa in the North,

MARRIAGE There is little information about the institutip, of marriage during the Sangam Age. Later wor, like the Tolkappiyam and the Kalaviyal say thz the Aryans introduced the rituals and ceremonig, of marriage (karanam). These works refer to th eight forms of marriage known to the Sanskr Dharmashastras

and

show

great

ingenuity i;

fitting them into framework of the Tamil scheme

though at times it led to the death of one of the

contestants. Children played various games. Pos!ITION

OF WOMEN

The status of women in Sangam society was not equal to that of men. The Sangam society consisted of different kinds of women. There were married women who had settled down as dutiful housewives looking after their husbands and children. There were female ascetics belonging

to Buddhist or Jain tradition like Kaundi Adigal and Manimegalai. There were a large number of courtesans. However, women enjoyed freedom of movement in society and the number of women poets of the age is a proof that the women were provided with good education. The worship of Kannagi or Pattini (‘the Chaste Lady’) was perhaps a very early institution and was an extension of the worship of the Goddess of

Chastity. But this seems to have become popular

ECONOMY The economy during the Sangam Age was simp and self-sufficient. The people were industriou; and they believed in living well by earning wealth

The Sangam literature points to the existence: of both the wealthy and the poor in society. Th: wealthy people included the kings and those who surrounded them. The poor were either the fam and casual labourers or the wandering minstrels. The division of social groups into the rich ani the poor was accepted as natural as poverty was considered the result of the past actions of men AGRICULTURE Agriculture was the main occupation. The main

crop was rice, while other crops included cotton. ragi, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, cardamom turmeric, cinnamon, different varieties of fruits,

etc. Construction of embankments and canal for irrigation was undertaken by the state. Chera country was noted for its jackfruil pepper and turmeric. In the Chola count a piece of land yielded much paddy. Many rural activities

like the cultivation

of ragi and

sugarcane, the making of sugar from the cane, and the harvesting and drying of grain at

described in the Sangam poems in detail. OTHER

OccuUPATIONS

Next to agriculture, spinning and weaving we™ the most widely practised crafts. Spinning ane

weaving of cotton, and perhaps also of silk, h@

attained a high degree of perfection.

was Statue of Kannagi

—_$__§_

i

| Total History and Civics—IX

the

part-time

occupation

Spinni%

of women.

TH

weaving of complex patterns on cloth and si4

Ship-building, metalworking, Carpentry, rope-making, ornament-making, tanning, and

a

Construction

of mobile

making of ivory products were widely practised.

and electricity towers as well as mining and unauthorised excavations pose a threat to the existence

|

of ancient structures. The most prominent

-}|

_ is the ‘pillared dolmen’ of the megalithic era, found at Mallayyagaripalle, nestling

on

a hillock

between

_ Dornakambala,

20 km

Chandragiri

TRADE

The Sangam literature is full of details regarding the commercial activities of the people. Trade, both internal and foreign was well organised and briskly carried on throughout the period. Internal trade was brisk, caravans of merchants with cars and pack-animals carried their merchandise from place to place.

and

from Tirupati. The

- structure locally referred

to as

‘Pandava

Most of the trade was carried on by barter. Paddy constituted the most commonly accepted

Gullu’or ‘Pandavula Banda’ in memory of

| the Pandavas, is estimated to be 2,500 years -}

medium of exchange, specially in the rural areas. Salt was sold for paddy. Paddy was soid by mentioning its price in terms of salt. Honey and roots were exchanged for fish oil. Tnere were established markets, called angadi in the bigger towns. Elsewhere, hawkers carried goods to the

old. The site escaped damage by a whisker as villagers, supported by anthropologists, intervened and got granite mining activity _ stopped.

|

There

is

5 i monument

another

endangered

in Palem

megalith

village near

houses

Kallur,

There was an extensive trade with foreign countries. According to the Sangam literature. the Tamil land had certain commodities which were in great demand in foreign markets. These included pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon,

~ | which resembles a bull’s horn. Called locally | as ‘Devara Yeddhu’, the site has suffered | repeated damage due to clandestine excavation

by treasure

hunters.

Also, an

| electric post was fixed very close to the site,

turmeric, ivory products, pearls, precious stones.

_ which is indicative of official apathy.

The main imports included horses, gold and giass. The port cities were the centres of foreign trade. Big ships entered the port of Puhar

Yet another type of a megalithic burial site is the ‘stone circle’, where the tomb is surrounded by round stones arranged in a circle. One such site in Venkatapuram, 15km east of Tirupati near Karakambadi, is damaged due to the installation of a mobile tower.

Ks

How can we ensure the safety our monuments and artifacts from scourge of modernisation?

is often

mentioned

in literature

and

bringing in precious merchandise from overseas.

The family of the rich merchants

Bandar in Chera are counted among the most important ports in the poems. The

Periplus of the Red Sea

that describes

navigation and trade of the Roman empire gives information on the trade between India

-

Uraiyur

skin of the woven that the thread. In addition

to cotton and silk, cloth made of wood fibre was

also used by the priestly class. Dyeing was widespread ancillary industry to weaving.

lived on the

upper floors, while the lower ones were set apart for business. Saliyurin the Pandya country and

was a major centre of cotton trade. The poems

mention cotton cloth as thin as the snake or a cloud of steam, so finely the eye could not follow the course of Scissors and needles were known.

of the people.

a

and the Roman empire. It mentions the ports of Naura (Cannanore), Tyndis (identified with

Ponnani) and Muziris (Cranganore), as of leading importance on the west coast. The Periplus also mentions Uraiyur. All the pearls from the coast were sent to Uraiyur and exported. It notes further that a great quantity of muslin

was

made

in the region of Andhra.

The gold and silver coins from the Roman empire found in the interior of the Tamil land indicate the extent of the trade.

Il.

Multiple-Choice

A. 1.

Choose

Questions

the correct answers

The word Sangam.

ta}

to the questions from

the given options.

literally means:

Association

(b)

Involvement

(c)

Opposite

(a)

Kingdom

2.

Tuukkural ts a collection of Tamil couplets organised into _______ chapters. (a) 134 fb) 133 {c}) 113 (d) 143

3.

What are the box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other witho.. any mortar calied? {a}

4.

5.

6.

8.

9.

11.

Tirukkural

(c)

(a)

Aram,

fb} {c)

Vanavar. Malaivar and Udivan Tolkappivam. Tirukkurel and Tiravalluvar

{d}

None of the above.

Couplets

(d)

Malatyar

Poral and

(ad)

Udiyan

inbem

How are Megalithis or memoriai stones a source of information? fa) Information about religious beliefs (6)

information about

{c) (dj

Information about life of people Ali of the above.

tools and implements

Which of the following is not a sobriquet for Chera kings? Vanavar

(b)

Villavar

{c)

Malaiyar

Which of the following is incorrect? {a}

Chera Kingdom

(c)

Pandya kingdom

: bow and arrow : crocodile

(b)

Chola Kingdom : Tiger

(dq)

Pandya kingdom : fish

The names referring to the Sangam Chola kingdom indicate (a)

Powerful kings

(b)

Rich water resources

(c}

Overseas

(d)

All of the above.

trade

Karikalan was the most popular Sangam Chola ruler because (a) (b) (c} fd)

10.

(6)

The Tirukkural had three sections, namely

(a)

7.

Megahiths

he he he All

was a great warrior and diplomat fortified his capital making it a trade-centre encouraged growth of agriculture and commerce of the above.

The Velirs extended patronage to poets who acted as {2}

administrative agents

(b)

diplomats and caretakers

(c})

patrons of other arts

(d)

All of the above.

Referring to the Sangam society which of the following is incorrect? (a)

Uzhavar : ordinary ploughmen

(b)

Vellalars : landed aristocrats

(c)

Adimai : priests

(d)

Kadasiyar : landless labourers

B. Read the two statements given below and select the option that shows th correct relationship 1.

——

aH

(A)

between

(A) and (B).

Tamil literature comprises five epics, besides the Tirukkural.

Total History and Civics-IX

(8)

Megaliths

(a) (ce)

(A) (B)

(A) (B)

(bb) (cl)

(B) ia the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

The Chola Kingdom was rich in water resources. The river Kaveri flowed through the Chola Kingdom. (B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

The most popular rulers of the Sangam

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other. Cholas was Karikalan, who was a great warrior.

He not only defeated the Cheras and the Pandya Kings but also a confederacy of nine princes.

(a) (c)

(A) (B)

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

memorials.

Their symbol on the flag was tiger,

(a) (c)

(A) (B)

as burial sites or commemorative

The capital of the Cheras was Vanji and their chief port was Thondi. (a) (c)

(A) (B)

acted

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

The local chieftains who ruled in different parts of Tamil Nadu were called Velirs. They helped to resolve the disputes among the rulers. (a)

(B) contradicts

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

During the Sangam Age, the Brahmanas were a respectable and learned community. They used to serve the kings as priests and astrologers and occasionally as judicial officers. (a) (c)

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

During the Sangam Age, the inhabitants of parched zone used to live by plunder and cattle lifting.

(B)

The inhabitants of the hilly areas subsisted on shifting agriculture and animal husbandry. (a) (B) contradicts (A) (b) (B) is the reason for (A) (c) (A) is true but (B) is false (d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other. During the Sangam Age, paddy constituted the most commonly accepted medium of exchange.

(A) (B) (A) (B)

Paddy was sold by mentioning its price in terms of salt. (a) (B) contradicts (A) (b) (B) is the reason for (A) (c) (A) is true but (B) is false (d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other. There was an extensive trade with the foreign countries during the Sangam Age.

The gold and silver coins from the Roman Empire found in the interior of Tamil land indicate the extent of foreign trade. (a) (c)

10.

(A) (B)

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

During the Sangam Age, there were female ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain tradition. The status of women (a) (c)

in the Sangam Age was equal to that of men.

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other. The Sangam Age

| 3

II,

Short

Answer

1. Who

was

the author of Tirukkural?

pwn

Tirukkural

are Megaliths?

Name

any

. Who

An

the three sections into which

Why are they so called? four divisions (tinais) mentioned in the the Vellalars during the Sangam Age?

were

Sangam

the main crops grown during the Sangam

. Name one centre Sangam Age.

7. Name

Name

are categorised.

What

- Name

Ill.

Questions

of cotton

trade and

the chapters of

literature.

Period.

the products

exported

to foreign countries

during the

the social divisions of this period and the occupations associated with each one of them..

Structured

Questions

1. With reference to the picture given alongside, answer the following: (a) Identify the lady whose statue this picture is. Why was the lady revered? (b) What was the position of women during the Sangam Age? (c) What does the Tolkappiyam say about ways of living of the people during the Sangam age? 2. With reference questions:

to

the

Sangam

Age,

answer

the

following

(a)

State why

(b)

Name the three kingdoms along with their capitals that

(c)

existed during the Sangam Age. Describe the achievements of Chera

the Sangam

Age

is so called.

ruler,

Senguttuvan;

3. With reference to the economy during the Sangam (a) (b)

What was the main occupation of the people Explain the organisation of internal trade.

(c)

Explain

the extent

—

( ay.

‘

and

significance

and

Chola

ruler,

Karikalan.

Age, answer the following questions: and

of external

the activities associated

with

it?

trade.

—

Thinking Skills 1. How was the society in the Sangam Age different from that in the Vedic Age? 2.

Imagine you

are transported

position of women, 3. Find out structures

in the Sangam

Age by a time-machine.

as seen by you.

similar to megaliths

civilisations of the world. List megaliths and these structures.

the

or commemorative

similarities

and

Describe

memorials

dissimilarities

the

in other

ee

ae

4. Read the plot of the two epics — Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai, Compare and contrast

1

Re

the

women

characters

in these

Mahabharata.

oe

= 2. °°

gy entry ane ct

two

*. ~

epics with

those

of Ramayana

and

0)

¢, o,*

_

SHAR

ERG:

=)

) The Age of - the Guptas peewee

ene

meee

een

we

owen

eww

wn ww

ew ee

ww

eee

wy

made

>

{

careful

conditions The

Age

of the

of Fa-hien;

Allahabad

|

e

| Pillar Inscription. Political

history

and

‘ (Samudragupta

and

t Vikramaditya);

administration

!}

Chandragupta

Contribution

the

}

|

Deogarh

to

!

‘ fields of Education (Nalanda University), ‘ Science (Aryabhatta) and Culture (works of Kalidasa,

temple).Vedic society

{ and economy. eee

em wm

wwe

ne ee

ee

ee

eee

me

ee

ew

ew

ew

we ween

we ee

ee

vast empire comprising almost the entire northern

In the

empire

process

they were

such

a huge

facilitated by certain

of carving

material

advantages such as fertile land in eastern UP and Bihar and iron ore found in Central India and Bihar, which they could exploit to their advantage. The material progress thus gained enabled them to make progress in the field of literature, art and architecture,

science and

Magadha

was

with

towns,

large

a

prosperous

teeming

sources

Pataliputra

e

numerous charitable institutions, including a hospital endowed by benevolent citizens. Although the people were wealthy, they led simple lives, generally observing the Buddhist rules of conduct.

®

Vaishnavism,

|

was

a flourishing

Shaivism,

Jainism were the main

about

city

Buddhism

religions.

with

and

People,

however, had no ill-will towards other sects.

e

Hindu gods and goddesses were depicted on coins and also in sculptures and paintings.

e The penal code was mild and the offences were ordinarily punished

by fines only.

culture. This period is

of information

wealthy

e

SOURCES main

the

country

with

therefore, also known as the “classical age” or the ‘golden age’ of Indian history.

The

about

to Fa-hien’s

population.

eee

The period of about two centuries from early fourth century AD is known as the /mperial Age of the Guptas. The rulers of this dynasty established a India.

observations

accounts:

Guptas

{ Sources: Accounts

unbiased

at that time. According

the

Guptas are the following: 1, Accounts of Fa-hien: Fa-hien was the earliest

Chinese pilgrim who visited India on a religious mission during the reign of Chandragupta Il. During his stay in India, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kannauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajagriha. He

Fa-hien

The

Age of the Guptas

From that the

the above accounts, it can be inferred Gupta Empire was prosperous and

governed on enlightened principles. 2.

or

Inscription

Pillar

Allahabad

The

Prayaga Prashasti: It is one of the important epigraphic evidences of the Imperial Guptas. Samudragupta,

of

poet

thecourt

Harisena,

by

Composed

Allahabad Pillar inscription,

also

known as Prayaga Prashasti, is written in praise of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers. It describes the reign of the

Guptas in ancient India. Besides,it provides an impressive list of Kings and tribal republics that

were conquered by Samudragupta. The inscription

is also important because of the political geography of India that it indicates by naming the different kings and peoples who populated India in the first half of the 4th century AD.

Chandragupta-I

Chandragupta I was the first independent king

with the title of Maharajadhiraja or ‘the king of kings’. After declaring his independence jn Magadha, Chandragupta-I extended his empire through matrimonial alliance by marrying a Kumaradevi.

princess,

Lichchhavi

His empire extended from Brahmaputra in the from

Chambal

and

the overflowing of the multitude of (his) many good qualities adored by hundreds of good actions, has wiped off the fame of other kings with the soles of (his) feet;

of India’. He further extended his empire up to the Chambal river by defeating the Naga kings of Mathura, Gwalior and Ahichhatra. Like Alexander

the

cause

and

the

Being), bad

of the

destruction

being

of the good

of the prosperity

(he

is)

incomprehensible; (he is) one whose tender heart can be captured only by devotion and of compassion;

(he is) possessed

humility;

(he is) the giver of many hundred-thousands of cows; (his) mind

has

initiation for the

uplift

the poor,

the forlorn

is) resplendent mankind;

and

received ceremonial

and

of the the

miserable,

suffering;

embodied

kindness

(he is) equal to (the gods)

(he

to

Kubera

(the god of wealth), Varuna (the god of ocean), Indra

(the god of rains) and

Yama

(the god

of death)...

in the south. It is because of his bravery and generalship that he is known as the ‘Napoleon

he

was

daring.

During

his

famous Deccan campaign he covered more than 3,000 miles through dense forests. Though he defeated many powerful rulers, he did not annex southern territories. He made the southern kings accept his authority

and

allowed

them

to

rule. The

Allahabad

Inscription

Pillar

of Samudragupta

describes four different kinds of rulers and tells us about Samudragupta’s policies towards them:

The history of the first two rulers of the Gupta

(a) The nine rulers of Aryavarta were uprooted and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta’s empire.

dynasty — Sri Gupta and his son Ghatotkacha

(b) The

REIGN

OF

GUPTA

PERIOD

is obscure. So, it is believed that the Gupta Era originated with the reign of Chandragupta 1.

a

Total History and Civics-IX

in the west

in the north to Narmada

Himalayas

and

(the Supreme

event

issued by

He was the son of Chandragupta I. Much of the information about him is obtained from a long inscription composedby his court poet, Harisena. This inscription is engraved on a Pillar at Allahabad. He was a great conqueror, an able statesman as well as a patron of arts.

An excerpt from the Prayaga Prashasti He was without an antagonist on earth; he, by

(he is) Purusha

This

Samudragupta

east to rivers Yamuna

—_

coins

is recorded in a series of gold Chandragupta-l.

twelve

rulers

of

Dakshinpatha (South India), who surrendered to

Allahabad Pilla!

GUPTA EMPIRE

Samudragupta

liberated

after

and

being

allowed

defeated,

to rule

again

were

and extended the Gupta empire by conquest of

over

his own. He annexed the territories of Sakas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra. For this he was given the title ‘Sakar’ or conqueror of Sakas.

their kingdoms.

(c) The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, Coastal Bengal, Nepal and a number of gana sanghas

(organisation of

many kings) in the north-west paid tribute, followed his orders and attended his court. (d) The rulers of the outlying areas submitted to him and offered their daughters in marriage. According to Samudragupta’s court poet

Harisena,

Samudragupta

performed

an Ashvamedha Yajna or horse sacrifice. Samudragupta was not only a brave warrior and conqueror but also a great ruler, a musician and a poet. In one of his coins he is shown playing the veena. Samudragupta issued eight types of coins made of gold. His court was full of great scholars and literary persons. Samudragupta was a follower of Brahmanism

According to noted historian, Dr. Vincent Smith, “the annexation of Saurashtra and Malwa not

only

added

to

the

empire,

provinces

of

exceptional wealth and fertility, but opened up access to the ports of the western coast; andthus

placed Chandragupta II in direct touch with the seaborne commerce with Europe through Egypt.”

Chandragupta II entered into matrimonial alliances as a part of his foreign policy. He married Kuberanaga of the Naga family. The Nagas

were

a powerful

matrimonial in

alliance

expanding

his

ruling

helped

empire.

clan

the The

and

Gupta

this

ruler

marriage

of

Chandragupta’s daughter, Prabhavati with the

He also had faith

Vakataka ruler, Rudrasena II helped him to establish his political influence in the Deccan.

in Vedic sacrifices. But he was tolerant towards

It was during the reign of Chandragupta II

and worshipped Lord Vishnu.

other religions. Chandragupta

II Vikramaditya:

The

Gupta

inscriptions

mention

succeeded He inherited

his father, Samudragupta. the military genius of his father

that

Chandraguptall

that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien visited India. Fa-hien does not mention the name of

Chandragupta II in his accounts, but he gives interesting information on the life of the people and the general condition of the kingdom. The

Age of the Guptas

| 7

—

Like Samudragupta, he issued a wide variety of gold coins. The differences in design between

the coins of the two rulers are significant. Chandraguptall is represented as slaying a lion on some coins with the legend simha-vikrama

whereas Samudragupta

is shown

as slaying a

tiger.

On many of his coins, Chandragupta the title Vikramaditya.

II has

His court is said to have

been adorned by ‘nine gems’ including Kalidasa, Varahamihira and Amarsimha, He was succeeded by Kumaragupta. It was during Kumaragupta’s reign that Hunas, a barbarian tribe of Central Asia invaded India for the first time. At the time of the next attack the crown prince Skandagupta had ascended the throne. He gave the Hunas a crushing defeat and they did not dare attack India in the next SO years.

GUPTA

ADMINISTRATION

The Gupta period saw the gradual disappearance of the Republican form of government. However, unlike the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta administration was decentralised in nature. It means that feudatories, i.e., local kings and smallar chiefs ruled a large part of the empire.

Coins of the Gupta Period

under the control and guidance of the king Likewise, the central secretariat also worked under the supervision of the king. The king was the source of all honours and titles. All land in the

country was the property of the king who could give away the same to anybody he pleased. He could construct dams, give shelter to foreigners, impose, recover and remit taxes and give justice.

If any property was unclaimed, that went into the coffers of the king. Despite the divine elements attributed to Gupta kings, the brahmans as the chief custodians and

interpreters

of laws,

exercised

royal power.

a check on

These chiefs and rulers adopted the titles like raja and maharaja, whereas the imperial Gupta

THE

rulers adopted pompous titles like parameshvara, maharajadhiraja and paramabhattaraka.

The Gupta rulers had their councils. Kalidasa, the renowned poet, refers to the Mantri-Parishad.

MOoNaRcHY

the feudatories. Among the high officers were the kKumaramatya and the sandhivigrahika. The kumaramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high functionaries. Some of the

different Gods such as Yama,

Varuna, Indra and

Kubera. They were compared to Vishnu as regards their function of preserving and protecting the people. Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, appears on many Gupta coins.

The Gupta kings enjoyed a large number of powers which covered the political, administrative,

military and judicial

fields.

They

were

the

commanders-in-chief of the army. Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Skandagupta personally

led their armies. The kings appointed all the

governors and important military and civil officers.

The governors and

Ea

or

Ministers

It consisted of the prince, the high officials and

Monarchy was the prevailing form of government during the Gupta period. The theory of the divinity of kings became popular during this period. The Gupta Kings were compared to

——~

CounciL

their officers had

to work

Total History and Civics-IX

kumaramatyas

functioned

in their own

and maintained their regular office.

right

The office of the sandhivigrahika (minister of

peace and war) first appeared under Samudragupta

and

Harisena

held

of sandhivigrahika

this

was

title.

to

The

deal

main

with

duty

the

feudatories. In addition to these officers, there are references to a dozen other officer s engaged in managing military, fiscal and rural matters. The growing importance of cavalry is supported by seals and inscriptions. Civil officials such

as amatyas, kumaramatyas, etc., performed military functions or were promoted to the rank

of high military officers.

There

were

officers

connected

transaction, Some of these maintained

with

land

records of

land, sales and other records connected with land.

Revenues might have been collected mostly in kind; but rich peasants probably paid in eash.

The

officer connected

with

the

collection

were separate guilds of artisans (kKulika) and of merchants (shreshthi. FeupaL

Nature

or

Po.ity

The system of administration underwent several changes under the Guptas.

of tolls on commodities is known as shaulkika,

The Mauryan state is credited with “comprehensive competence based on centralised

PROVINCIAL

control”, which may have been true of its rule in

The

Gupta

provincial

AND rulers

and

Loca

ADMINISTRATION

evolved

local

the

first systematic

administration,

which

was primarily concerned with the collection of revenues and maintenance of law and order. Provincial Administration: The core of the Empire directly controlled by the Guptas was

divided into bhuktis, each of which was placed under the charge of an uparika. The uparika was a governor appointed by the king.

the core area of the middle Ganga plains. The Gupta period shows the process of the devolution

of the state authority. The functions of collection of taxes, regulation together with those and

order

and

performed

gradually and

by

of mines, agriculture etc., of the maintenance of law

defence,

the

delegated,

state

which

were

officials,

earlier

were

now

first to the priestly class

later to the warrior class.

The bhuktis were divided into vishayas, placed under the charge of the vishayapati.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF INDIAN CULTURE The Gupta period is described as the Golden

The vishaya was divided into smaller units. This pattern, however, was present mainly in

Age of Indian culture because of the high level of civilisation and culture of this period. Along with the revival of Hinduism, the power of creativity was unleashed in the fields of education, literature, arts, architecture and science. This

the territories directly governed by Gupta kings. Elsewhere, there existed different fiscal and administrative units such as desa, mandala, bhoga,

etc., especially in central and western India. Village Administration: The village administration was managed by the village headman. The Gupta inscriptions refer to the participation of leading

period also saw the extension of this influence beyond

India’s frontiers.

EDUCATION

local elements in the administration of the village

During

or small towns called vithis. No land transactions

utmost importance. This is evident from the intellectual output in various fields like literature, science, mathematics, astronomy, astrology and

could be effected without their consent and this

may have been also true of other important affairs. Thus, while villages in Mauryan times were managed

times

seem

from above,

to have

been

those in the Gupta

managed

from

the

grassroot level.

Town Administration: There were various towns (janapadas}, which issued their seals and coins. They were administered by a committee of five. Some towns were being administered by some kind of parishads. The towns in the Gupta Empire were usually placed under an officer called purapala. The leading local men were also associated with the work of administration in towns. Such people

belonged to the guilds of artisans and traders

which flourished during the Gupta age. Vaishali in Bihar was an important town where there

the

Gupta

Age,

education

was

given

medicine. There were many centres of learning in cities like Pataliputra, Valabhi, Ujjain, Ayodhya and Nasik. According to the inscriptions, the teachers

were

learned

Brahmanas,

who

were

known as Acharyas and Upadhyayas and sometimes they were also given the title of Bhattas. These teachers were supported by the grant of villages, called the agraharas, given by the Gupta rulers and charities given by generous public. The disciples, called shishyas had to learn fourteen sections of science (chaturdasavidya), comprising the four Vedas, six Puranas, the Mimansa, Nyaya

Vedangas, the and Dharma,

besides Vyakarana (Ashtadhyayi of Panini) and the Satasahashri-samhita or the Mahabharata. In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist

systems

of education

The

assumed a

Age of the Guptas

different

| |

69

dimension. students

for

years.

ten

admitted

monasteries

Buddhist

Learning

with

began

the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries

were normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich mercantile class. They attracted scholars from far and near. Fa-hien also spent several years in the monastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Higher education was given equal importance during the Gupta Age as is evident from a

number

of universities

this period.

The

two

which

popular

existed

universities

Takshila and Nalanda. The Takshila was one of the first few centres in which offered higher education. This was however, established before Empire came into existence. Nalanda

University:

during

It was the most

were

university the world university the Gupta renowned

educational institution of ancient India. It was located at Nalanda in Rajagriha in Bihar. A lot of information about the Nalanda University is given in the inscriptions and in the accounts of Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese Buddhist scholar, who visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana. The

University

of Nalanda

had

imposing

buildings. There were at least eight colleges built by different patrons including one by Balaputradeva, King of Sumatra. According

to Hiuen Tsang the whole university area was enclosed by a brick wall. The Nalanda University provided various facilities to the students for their studies. There were three great libraries (called Ratnasagar,

hardly 20% students passed and the rest Wer rejected. Only the most brilliant were admit, m4 to the University. Nalanda

continued

to be

a beacon

of Mohammad Ghori. Today only the remains g, | its magnificence and glory can be seen. SCIENCE During

was

the

made

Gupta

period,

in many

great

contribution |

branches

like astronomy, medicine, Varahamihira was a great

proved that moon

rotates round the earth anq |

the

round

earth

rotates

the

sun.

Total History and Civics—IX

Brihg | |

botany, natural history and physical geography, |

Brahmagupta

was

a mathematician

and|

astronomer. He described the law of gravitation | several centuries before Newton. Charaka and

Sushruta were famous scholars of Ayurveda. Metallurgy or the scientific study of metals | had reached an advanced stage during the Gupta period. This is evident from the Iron Pillar at Mehrauli near Qutub Minar in New) Delhi which has not gathered rust even after s0 |

many centuries. The bronze images of Buddha | produced on a considerable scale in the period are also an example of advanced technology. The | beautiful paintings of Ajanta prove that the ar | of making colours was quite advanced during | the Gupta

period.

|

Aryabhatta : He was a great astronomer and | mathematician. He flourished during the reigt | of Gupta dynasty. His two famous books include |

medicine, sankya, yoga, nyaya and the Buddhist

aH

The

Samhita of Varahmihira deals with astronomy, |

Ratnodadhi and Ratnaranjak). There were more

—

of science,

metallurgy, et; | astronomer, He |

than 10,000 students and teachers. They came from Korea, Mongolia, Japan, China, Tibet, Ceylon and various parts of India. The subjects of study at Nalanda University were all the four Vedas, logic, grammar, works of the different schools. Nalanda University was not an ordinary university. It was a post-graduate institution to which admission was very difficult. Before admission, an examination was held in which

of jj

upto 12th century AD when it was destroyes by Mohammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khilji, a genera

Ruins of Nalanda University

Aryabhattiyam and Surya Siddhanta. achievements were the following: ()

He

said

that

the

earth

moves

the sun. It was several centuries Europeans said the same thing.

(i) He

discovered

the

rule

His main round

before

the

for finding

the

area of a triangle,

(1) He calculated the exact value of pi which was equal to 3.1416, The credit for development of tngonometry

should

actually

go

to him.

(i) In us work Surya Siddhanta, he explained the exact causes of solar and lunar eclipses. (v)

Aryabhatta

was

acquainted

with

used

CULTURE The

Gupta

empire

a succession

was

a well-organised

of versatile

Vishnu Temple at Deogarh

the

decimal system and use of ‘zero’.

under

by

and

state

mighty

rulers who led it from one point of achievement to another. There was political stability so

trade and commerce flourished. This economic

prosperity allowed people to pursue various arts

and crafts and literary activities. Thus, the ideal conditions available in the Gupta Age, led to the

unprecedented development of Indian culture.

During the Gupta period temples were built with elaborate details. Unlike the earlier period, when wood or other perishable material was

for

temple

construction,

the

temples

in

Gupta period were built of solid material like bricks and stone. These temples were built in the architectural style known as Nagara. Two of these temples, one made of stones at Deogarh in Jhansi and the other made of bricks at Bhitargaon in

Kanpur have been found in Uttar Pradesh. The Vishnu Temple at Deogarh: The Vishnu temple,

also

called

the

Dashavatara

Temple,

is

one of the finest examples of Gupta architecture. It is about 125km from Jhansi in Uttar Pradesh. It is one of the earliest Hindu stone temples to survive till date. It was the first North Indian temple with a Shikhara or tower, although a part

of it has disappeared. Inspite of its dilapidated condition, the temple has a compelling presence. The temple was built on a 1.5 metre high

platform. Four stairways outside the platform provide access to the temple. Its exterior is decorated with scenes from Ramayana. The entrance and pillars are adorned with countless paintings and carvings. The front entrance has

sculptures of various Gods and Godesses in moods varying from contemplation to affection and above them is Vishnu flanked by two of his avataras Narasimha and Vamana. On each of the three sides of the temple, a niche is made in the wall. Carved into them are dramatic representations of Lord Vishnu’s various forms.

lron Pillar, Delhi

One nook has giant serpent The niche Nar Narayana

Vishnu asleep on the coil of the called Sheshnaga. at the back shows the concept of or the fusion of divine and the

human.

third

The

niche

depicts

Lord

Vishnu

coming to the aid of the trapped elephant, Gaja in the famous story of Gajendra moksha. The

Age of the Guptas

| 7

| Unfortunately, the temple is missing.

idol

of the

deity

inside

Bharavi.

the

But

the

most

shining

light was of |

course, Kalidasa, the famous poet and dramatig,

LITERATURE The Gupta age constitutes an important phase in the history of Sanskrit literature. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit not only in inscriptions but also

by

Shakespeare.”.

His

four

poetic

works

are.

Meghaduta

ang

in religious and philosophical literature. Sanskrit

Ritusamhara,

became the language of the learned and retained its supreme position for a thousand years. Guptas made Sanskrit the official language for administrative purposes. Sanskrit was used in official documents as well as in inscriptions. The classical Sanskrit literature that flowered during the Gupta period consisted of epics,

Kumarasambhava. The Meghaduta, (the Cloud Messenger) is an outstanding lyrical poetic work,

poetry,

drama,

lyrics

and

prose.

Both

religious

and secular literature existed side by side. The Gupta period marked the beginning of the writing of important works known as Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Varaha Purana, Narsimha Purana, Vaman Purana, Shiva Purana

and Matysa Purana. The texts refer to the stories

The

Raghuvamsa,

three

dramatic

works

A

notable

feature

of

Kalidasa’s

is

and

women

speak

in Prakrit.

This

shows

that

|

the status of women declined during the Gupta

| !

languages

was

distinguished

by

a

of the world.

Although the subject-matter of Kalidasa’s works is love, nature and beauty, they nevertheless give reliable information about the government, society and religion of the Gupta period. Besides, they also contain traces of political history.

=e

I. Multiple-Choice A.

1.

Choose

answers

to the questions from

the given

options.

Which of the following is true according to the Chinese traveller, Fa-hien? (a) (b) (c) (d)

2.

Questions

the correct

Though Though People Though

people were prosperous, they led simple lives people were poor, they led extravagant lives were rich and extravagant the cities were flourishing, people were poor.

According to Fa-hien which of the following was a major city in the Gupta empire? (c) Patliputra (d) Mathura (b) Vaishali (a) Rajagriha

| Total History and Civics-IX

| |

it

in

number of writers, whose contributions vastly enriched the different branches of Indian literature. These included Kalidasa, Sudraka, Bhasa, Harisena, Dandin, Subandhu and

——

works

that the characters belonging to higher castes speak in Sanskrit while those of lower castes

All the works of Kalidasa specially dramatic works have been translated into many major

also compiled

|

of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala whose son Bharata later became the ruler.

please them through fasts and pilgrimages. Some were

|

Abhijnanashakuntalam narrates the love story

related to different Gods and mention the ways to Smritis or the law books

| | |

of Kalidasa were:

Vikramorvashiyam, Malavikagnimitram and Abhijnanashakuntalam. His dramatic work

period.

the Gupta period. The Gupta Age

| |

et

temple on the tank’, a name it gets from the square water pool cut into the rock in front.

Kalidasa: Kalidasa is regarded as the greates | poet and playwright, India has ever produceq Vincent Smith has rightfully compared th, Gupta Age with the Elizabethan period j, the history of England. According to him “In India all the lesser lights are outshone by the brilliancy of Kalidasa as in Englang all the smaller authors are overshadoweg

eet

The Dashavatara temple is locally known as the Sagar mark, which literally means, ‘the

3.

4.

The Prayaga Prashastt was composed

(a)

Fa-hien, Chandragupta II.

(c)

Harisena, Chandragupta

Who was the first independent (a) (c)

5.

6.

honour of

(b)

Harisena, Samudragupta.

(dq)

Fa-hien, Chandragupta

I.

king with the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ or ‘the king of kings’?

Chandragupta | Samudragupta

(b) (d)

Chandragupta II Srigupta

(a) (b)

He kept the kingdoms under his direct control. He allowed the defeated rulers to rule their kingdoms,

(c)

The defeated rulers paid tribute and attended Samudragupta’s court.

(d)

All of the above.

Which of the following is incorrect Vikramaditya : Sakari Chandraguptal: Maharajadhiraja

(b) (d)

Chandragupta II : Vikramaditya Samudragupta : Sakari

Who is represented as slaying a lion on some coins with the legend Simha-Vikrama? (a) (c)

8.

II,

in

How did Samudragupta or the Napoleon of India rule the southern kingdoms?

(a) (c) 7.

by

Chandragupta I Samudragupta

(b) (d)

Chandragupta II Rudrasena II

(b) (d)

Vishaya : Vishayapati Janapadas : Purapala

Which of the following is incorrect?

(a) (c)

Bhukti : Uparika Vithis : Vithipala

B.

Read the two statements given below and select the option that shows the correct relationship between (A) and (B).

i.

(A)

Fa-hein made careful unbiased observations about conditions during the Gupta period.

(B)

According to him, the Gupta Empire was prosperous and governed by enlightened principles. (a) (c)

2.

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

Samudragupta uprooted the nine rulers of Aryavrata and made their kingdoms a part of his empire.

(B)

Samudragupta defeated the twelve rulers of Dakshinapatha and annexed their kingdoms. (B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Unlike the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta administration was decentralised in nature.

(B)

Local kings and smaller chiefs ruled a large part of the Gupta empire. (a) (c)

4.

(b) (d)

(A)

(a) (c) 3.

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Unlike the earlier phase in history, the Gupta temples were not made of perishable material.

(B)

The Gupta period marked the beginning of writing of important works like the Puranas. (a) (c)

(B) contradicts (A) (A) is true but (B) is false

Il. Short Answer

(b) (d)

(B) is the reason for (A) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

Questions

1. Who

was

Fa-hien?

What

2. Who

was

the ruler when

did

he say about

Fa-hien

India?

visited India?

Name

the three places of pilgrimage

that

Fa-hien visited in India.

The

Age of the Guptas

| 73

dah lade alk

Name two dramas written by Kalidasa. Why is the Gupta Period known as the Golden Age of Indian culture? How was Samudragupta a bold and great conqueror? Name the famous university that existed during the Gupta period. In which present day state is ir, Name any two titles adopted by the Gupta rulers. During the Gupta period name the officer who (i) collected toll tax; and (ii) the one who was incharge of a provinee or bhukti. Name any two famous literary figures of the Gupta Age.

9.

What

10,

IU.

contribution

Structured 1. With

did

Aryabhatta

make

in the

field

of science?

Questions

reference

to the

sources

of information

about

the

Gupta

Age,

write

short

notes

on the

given

in the

following:

(a)

Accounts

(c)

Nalanda

of Fa-hien

(b) The Allahabad

Pillar Inscription

University

, With reference to the Age of the Guptas, answer the following questions: (a) Explain the extent of Samudragupta’s Empire based on the information (b)

Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Explain how Chandragupta I] expanded

(c)

Briefly mention

. With

reference

to the

the

any

four observations

administrative

position

system

of the Guptas,

of the king during

answer

questions:

Describe

(c)

According to the Allahabad Pillar, which kinds of rulers were there? How did Samudragupta deal with them?

of villages

Gupta

following

Explain

administration

the

the

(a)

the

powers

about the reign of Chandragupta II.

(b)

briefly

and

his empire.

of Fa-hien

during the Gupta

Age. period.

. With reference to the picture given alongside, answer the following: (a) Identify the temple given in the picture. Where is it located? To which God is this temple dedicated?

the architectural

features

(b)

Mention

(c)

temple. Briefly describe the educational set up during this period.

of this

institution

z

(i

1. Imagine. a

=

meeting between

Fa-hein

and

Harisena.

Write

down

a the

discussion

_ between them about religion in the Gupta period. How would they had conversed ~ with each other due to the barrier of language the two had? ~

What

role

Sia af

did the ‘Gupt

“Kings play in promoting religion? Do you think that the

‘alowed by ‘fe ers

gained prominence? Give reasons to support your

—

EZ.

| Total History and Civics~IX

of vw

ky,

ofe

answer,

fo

of

_

Cenk R 7)

Medieval India (A) The Cholas et

rm

ee

ew

Medieval

India (A) The

Sources:

Inscriptions,

ee

ee

ee

ee

ee

ey,

The inscriptions of the Cholas are in the form of Copper-plate grants, stone inscriptions and inscriptions made on the walls and pillars of

Cholas

Brihadeshwara

|

Temple. Political history and administration (Rajarajal,

:

Rajendra I). ew

ee

The southern part of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river was inhabited by the Dravidians. They had their own language and culture. This region was home to three

powerful

kingdoms—the

Cheras,

the Pandyas

and the Cholas. The most powerful of the three

were the Cholas.

The Chola Empire which arose in the ninth century, brought under its control a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy which enabled them to develop India’s sea-trade in the Indian Ocean and to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands. By the end of the 9th century, the Cholas defeated the Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the Pandyans bringing the Tamil country (Tondamandala) under their control.

temples. The Copper-plate grants known as Anbil and Karandi as well as the Kanyakumari

are written in Sanskrit and Tamil. They record a grant made to a temple by Rajendra Chola I. The inscriptions provide information about the Cholas.

the

following

(j) They tell us about the Chola administration.

For example, the Uttaramerur inscription gives information taxation and

on the village land revenue.

administration,

(ii) They record gifts and endowments to temples and brahmanas. Copper-plate inscriptions are the records of grants of villages, plots of land or other privileges to individuals or institutions by the Cholas. For example, the Leyden grant (so called as they are preserved in the Museum of Leyden in Holland) of Parantaka

SOURCES The important sources of information about the Cholas are the following: 1. Inscriptions: The main source of information for the history of the Chola period is the large number of inscriptions of that period. Rajarajal

conceived the idea of prefixing to his inscriptions the main achievements of his reign. The example

of Rajaraja was followed by his successors as well. Consequently, there exists a formal record of the transactions made by each Chola ruler.

stone

inscription give a long list of rulers indicating the origin of the Chola dynasty. Another set of Copperplate contains 31 copper sheets. These plates

Copper-plate Inscriptions

Medieval India (A) The Cholas

|

|

Brihadeshwara Temple

Chola and those of Parakesari Uttama Chola are among the most important.

(tii) They inform us about the construction of a temple or the setting up of a new image

of the deity.

(tv) Some on

taxation

village

inscriptions and

land

revenue,

assemblies,

against persons other crimes.

have

royal

resolutions

judgements

guilty

orders

of theft,

of

delivered murder

and

(v) Inscriptions on temple walls served the purpose of public registrations such as the ecord of sales, mortgages and other forms of

wansfers

of property

rights in village lands.

2. The Brihadeshwara temple: The Cholas built a number of temples. The gateway of the temple was called ‘gopuram’. The main shrine was known as the ‘garbhagriha’. Here, the images of gods and goddesses were kept. These images were made either of stone or bronze. The ‘mandapa’ or the audience hall, was a place where people gathered for prayers. It was built in front of the main shrine. The chief features of Chola temples are their massive vimanas or towers and spacious

courtyards.

The

best

example

of

Chola

temple is the Brihadeshwara, also known as Rajarajeshwara temple, dedicated to Lord

Shiva. It is located at Thanjavur and was built by the Chola king, Rajaraja I. It is one of the

best

specimens

of Dravidian

style

of

architecture. The main structure of the temple

—¥

EH

Total History and Civics-IX

has

a great

vimana

or

tower

which

rises

toa

height of 66 metres. It is crowned by a massi ve dome consisting of a single block of stone, 7.6 metres high and weighing about 80 tons. The main temple is built of 130,000 tons of granit e,

The massive temple building is covered from the base to the top with sculptures and decora tive

mouldings. Shiva

Lingam,

The

cut

shrine in

a

houses monolithic

a

gigantic

rock

about

8.87 metres high. The temple has many structures such as a Nandi Pavilion, a pillared porti co and a large assembly hall. The Brihadeshwara temple

is the finest monument

South

Indian

history

of a splendid and

the

most

period of beautiful

specimen of Tamil architecture, The templ e has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The Brihadeshwara temple provid es

the following information:

(i) The temple has a portrait of Rajaraja Chola paying obeisance to Lord Nataraja, This is undoubtedly, the first ever instance of a royal

portrait.

(ii) Inscriptions in the temple point towards Rajaraja as the chief architect of the temple.

(iii) Depictions of dancers showing eighty one of

hundred and eight karanas (synchronised

movements of hands and feet) in Bharata

Natyam are carved here. It shows that the temple was a platform for talented dance rs to showcase their talent. These depictions

are first of their kind.

(iv) The

inscriptions

mention

the

different

kinds of jewels used in the Chola period, A

total

of twenty

of pearls,

eleven

three

different

varicties

types

of diamonds

and rubies are mentioned inscriptions, (v) lt is one of the few temples

in

these

that

have

Ashta-dikpaalakas (Guardians of the eight directions)

POLITICAL

idols.

HISTORY

Chola ruler Vijayalaya established Chola rule in Tamil land, with Thanjavur as his capital, during

prosperity to their kingdom, Cholamandal. In fact, the word, Coromandel has been derived from Cholamandal,

Rajendra Chola: Rajendra Rajaraja |. He continued his invaded and annexed the Lanka. Sri Lanka was not from

the Chola

control

succeeded his father, father’s policies. He whole island of Sri able to free herself

for another

SO years.

Rajendra’s campaigns were daring. Once his armies marched up to the east coast of India, through Odisha, and up to the Ganga river. Rajendra Chola himself led the army up to the

Godavari and thereafter his generals took charge

the middle of the ninth century. After his death, his grandson, Parantaka I, became the king. He

of the army. The Chola army defeated Mahipala,

conquered

king of Bengal.

Madurai

and defeated

the Pandyas

and the rulers of Lanka. By the 11th century AD the Chola power had reached the height of its glory. Rajaraja I and his son, Rajendra Chola were

the two prominent

rulers of this dynasty.

Rajaraja I: Rajaraja I was a brilliant general and campaigned in many directions. He attacked the kingdoms of the Pandyas and the Cheras as well as parts of Mysore. Rajaraja annexed parts of Deccan and overran Vengi. He did this in order to prove the strength of the Chola power. He took some territories of Mysore, Travancore and Coorg.

he adopted

To commemorate

this victory,

the title of Gangaikonda

and

built

a new capital called Gangaikonda-Cholapuram in the present State of Tamil Nadu. His most daring campaign was in South-East Asia. For centuries, Indian merchants had been

trading with various parts of South-East Asia and southern

China,

through

the Straits of Malacca,

which was held by the kingdom of Shrivijaya (modern day Indonesia). As the merchants of Shrivijaya began creating problems for the Indian

The coasts of Kerala, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Maldive Islands had become rich through the money that came to them from trade. India sent textiles, spices and

overseas precious

stones to the West Asian countries. The people who

came

from Western

Asia to trade in these

goods were the Arab merchants, who exchanged money for goods. Foreigners brought wealth to India through their trade. Rajaraja was aware of the importance of controlling the sea. He decided to show his strength along the coasts of South India. So, he took out a naval expedition and attacked both

Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands. He conquered

the northern

half of Sri Lanka.

He built the Rajarajeshwara temple of Lord

Shiva at Thanjavur. On the walls of this temple are inscribed the main works of Rajaraja I. Under his rule, the Cholas became the supreme power

in Southern India. The increase in trade brought

Vimana of Brihadeshwara Temple

Medieval India (A) The Cholas

a

SOUTH

7

INDIA (AD 800-1200)

{ PALAS RASHTRAKUTAS

(>

yors nae PALLAVAS

CHOLAS

merchants, the Indian merchants appealed to Rajendra Chola for help. He sent out a huge navy

was divided into mandalams or provinces. These

and defeated the Shrivijaya king. As a result,

were further divided into valanadu and naduy,

Indian trade with South-East Asia and southern China continued, thereby greatly enriching the Chola kingdom. He built magnificent palaces and beautiful temples at his new capital GangaikondaCholapuram.

Princes of the royal family governors of provinces.

THE CHOLA ADMINISTRATION The Chola system of administration was highly organised and efficient. The king was the pivot of administration and all the authority rested in his hands.

Central Government: The king was the most important person in the Chola administration as all authority was vested in him. But he had Council of Ministers to advise him. The king often went on tours in order to keep a check on the administration. The officers were paid by giving them assignments in revenuebearing lands. The princes were associated with the ruling sovereigns and actively employed in peace and war. The Central government looked after external defence, internal peace and order, promotion of general prosperity and cultural Progress of the empire.

—

Total History and Civics-IX

Provincial

Local

Government:

The

Chola

were

Self-Government:

The

empire

appointed Cholas

were

good administrators. They believed in local self-government. In many of the villages the administration

government

was

carried

officials

but

out,

by

the

not

by

the

villagers

themselves. These villages had three types of village assemblies, namely, the ur, the sabha and the

nagaram.

There

are

long

inscriptions

on

the walls of some of the village temples giving details of how the urand sabha were organised. The ur was the common type of assembly of the villages where the land was held by all classes of people who

were,

therefore,

members

of the

local assembly. The sabha was an exclusively Brahmin assembly of the villages, where all the land belonged to the Brahmins. The nagaram was an assembly of merchants and belonged to localities where traders and merchants were in a dominant position. Villagers who owned land were chosen by a vote to the council. The life and the work of the villages were discussed in

these councils. This was

a source

of popular

strength because it united the people. All affairs concerning the village, such as, collection of taxes, settlement of disputes and allocation of water were

looked

after by

the

According to leading Archeometallurgist Sharada Srinivasan “In terms of the scale of accomplishments in art and architecture and the wealth of writing and epigraphic records, the Cholas would come across as

committees.

The temple in the Chola kingdom was the centre of social activity. It was not only a place

of worship, but was also a place where people gathered.

Some

temples

owned

huge

lands

one of the richest dynasties in South Indian

and

history... There is a profusion of inscriptions

participated in inland and overseas trade. The lands donated to the temples were known as the devadaya or devadana. In some cases, instead of giving land to temples, land-revenue

of certain villages was the

and

concerned

assigned

villagers

that

to the temple

were

outreach

education and establishing hospitals.

housed

in

the

temple

courtyard.

The

students learnt their lessons in two languages — Sanskrit and Tamil. The religious teaching was in Sanskmit since texts such as the Vedas had to be studied. The students learnt Tamil, the language

which was widely spoken in the Chola kingdom.

inscriptions...

the

of expeditions,

conquests

or trade

effect of this grand empire on Sri Lanka and

and housing facilities and by arranging proper

as there were no separate schools. The schools

about

to Sri Lanka, the Maldives, China, Java/ Sumatra and southeast Asia.” What was the

welfare of its workers by providing food, clothing

were

details

Cholas were also the first empire with grand commercial and territorial ambitions outside of the Indian subcontinent with a maritime

to pay land-revenue in produce and in gold to the temple treasury. The temples were also the biggest employers after the State, providing work and means of livelihood to a large number of people. The temples used to take care of the

The temple was also a centre for education.

meticulous

I has nearly a hundred

instructed

The priests of the temple were the local teachers

give

administration, social life, and material culture... The Brihadeshwara Temple alone that was consecrated in 1010 CE by Rajaraja

Re

South-East the same?

Asia?

Do

we

have

evidence

of

yy,

Tamil was influenced by Sanskrit and gradually incorporated a number

The kingdom

Revenue: came

of Sanskrit words.

The

revenue

from—taxes

on

of the land

Chola

and

the

produce of the land, and tax on trade. Part of the revenue was kept for the king. The rest was used

on public works, such as the building of roads and tanks, on salaries of officials, on paying for

the upkeep of the army, and on the building of temples. The taxes on land were collected by the officials from the village councils.

The Chola Art: The Chola rulers were great conquerors and efficient administrators. They loved art and architecture. They built temples, canals,

roads,

cities

and

palaces.

Most

of the

Chola temples were built in the Dravidian style.

Early Chola temples were simple structures. Later, temples became bigger and more grand. The art of making stone and metal images had made rapid progress under the Chola rulers. The Cholas excelled in making images of gods

and goddesses. The bronze image of Lord Shiva

as ‘Nataraja’—Lord of Dance, is an excellent work

of art. The image of Nataraja has been described as the “cultural epitome” of the Chola period.

Medieval India (A) The Cholas |

—_ EXERCISES I.

Multiple-Choice A.

1.

Choose

6.

10.

11.

B.

questions from

the given

options.

Inscriptions on temple pillars

(d)

All of the above.

Audience halls Images of deities

(b) (d)

Large vimanas and courtyards All of the above.

Gopuram

(b)

Garbhagriha

(c)

Lingam

(ad)

Mandapa

(b) (d)

Public registrations All of the above.

(a)

Parantaka I - Vijayal - Rajaraja I.

(b)

Rajaraja I - Parantaka I - Rajendra Chola

(c)

Vijayalaya - Parantaka | - Rajarajal.

(d)

Rajaraja II - Parantaka I - Vijayalaya.

Which of the following territories did NOT form a part of the Chola kingdom? Malaysia

(b)

Mysore

(c)

Srilanka

(d)

Odisha.

Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda to commemorate which victory? Odisha

(b)

Bengal

(c)

Srilanka

(d)

Mysore

The Chola empire was divided into ________ and further into (b) (d)

Mandalams, ur and sabha Sabha, nagarams

(a) (c) 9.

to the

Which of the following represents the timeline for the reign of famous Chola rulers?

(a)

8.

answers

Chola administration Taxation

(a)

7.

correct

What information do the inscriptions provide about the Cholas? (a) (c)

5.

the

The main shrine in the Brihadeshwara Temple was called:

(a) 4.

Questions

What are the chief features of Chola temples?

(a) (c) 3.

a

Inscriptions of the Cholas are in which forms? (a) Stone inscriptions (b) Copper-plate grants

(c)

2.

>

Under whose

rule did the Cholas

become

‘

Mandalams, Valanadu and nadu Sabha, ur and nagarams

the supreme

power in Southern

(a)

Parantaka I

(b)

Parantaka II

(c)

Rajaraja I

(d)

Rajindra Chola

(b)

sabha:

(d)

urs: landless

India?

Which of the following pairs is incorrect? all classes

(a)

urs:

(c)

nagaram

: merchants

Brahmins

What of the following did not contribute to the revenue?

(a)

Overseas trade

(b)

taxes on land

(c)

trade-tax

(d)

taxes on produce

Read

the two statements given below

and select the option

that shows

the correct

relationship between (A) and (B). 1.

(A) (B)

The southern part of the Indian peninsula was home to three powerful kingdoms, namely, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas. These kingdoms were located north of the Krishna river.

(a) (B) contradicts (A) (c)

—

aH

(A) is true but (B) is false

Total History and Civics-IX

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

2.

(A)

The Brihadeshwara temple is the first example of having a portrait of a ruler, i.e., Rajaraja

Chola. (6)

$3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

(a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(a)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Chola ruler Rajaraja I took out a naval expedition and attacked both Sri Lanka and Maldives.

(B)

Rajaraja I established Chola rule during the middle of ninth century. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(ce)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

{A} and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Under Rajendra Chola’s command, the Chola army defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal.

(B)

To commemorate his victory, Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda and built his no capital, called Gangaikonda-Cholapuram. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

{A) is the reason for (B)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

Onthe complaint of Indian merchants, Rajendra Chola sent out a huge army and defeated Shrivijaya, the ruler of present day Indonesia.

(B)

Shrivijaya was creating problems for Indian merchants who had been trading with various parts of South-East Asia and Southern China. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(ad)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

The Cholas established local self-government in villages,

(B)

The ‘ur’ was the local assembly, with all the villagers as members. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but [B) is false

(ad)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(A)

The temples were centres of education in the Chola kingdom.

(B)

The students learnt their lessons in two languages, i.e,, Hindi and Sanskrit.

Short

(a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b)

(B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(a)

(A) and (B) are independent of each other.

Answer

Questions

1. State two significant features of inscriptions

wn

. Who . Why

o2In ane

. Name

~

Name

for providing

established the rule of the Cholas? Name

information

about

the Cholas.

the capital of his empire.

did Rajaraja undertake a naval expedition against Ceylon and Maldives? any

two great

rulers of the Chola

. Give any two achievements

bad

ll.

It has been declared as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

the new

of Rajendra

capital built by Rajendra

dynasty. Chola. Chola.

In which

present-day

state is it situated?

Why did the Cholas build a strong naval fieet? What

made

the Chola

Name

the two

administration

languages

promoted

strong and

effective?

by the Cholas.

Name any two features of temples built by the Cholas.

Medieval India (A) The Cholas | 3

ooo

11. Which 12.

I.

What

is the is known

Structured 1. With

(a) (b)

example

of Chola

as the ‘gopuram’?

temples?

Name

Give

one

reason.

another feature of temples

built during the Chola period.

Questions

reference

to the

sources

of information

about

the

Cholas,

List the forms of Chola inscriptions. What was the special feature of the inscriptions? Who one

(c)

best

answer

conceptualised

the

following:

the idea? Name

by him.

built

temple

briefly

Mention the significance of Brihadeshwara Temple.

2. With reference to the Chola period explain the following: (a) Taxes imposed by the Cholas. (b) Administration of the Kingdom. (c)

The

types

three

3. With reference notes on:

assemblies.

of village

to the Chola Administration,

(a) (b)

The King, the chief administrator. Local Self-Government.

(c)

Temples

4. Study (a)

as the centre

the picture

Name

the

and

this com

of social activity.

answer

temple

given

Where

write short

the following questions: in

the

picture.

Who

built

is it located?

two special features of this temple. (c)

What were the following features as? (c) Gateway

(E IV.

Thinking

(ii)

of temples

Shrine

known

(iii) Audience

Hall

(iv)

Towers

ana

Skills

aa

1. What do you think would have been the reason for the Chola rulers to issue large number of inscriptions, especially on copper-plates? 2. The temple a place

3.

Recently

in the Chola Kingdom

of worship.

a movie

How

—

was

the centre

did the temples

a magnum

opus

gain

based

of social activity, besides

this position

on

a

being

of eminence?

fictional

account

of a Chola

kingdom — was released. How authentic do you think it was with respect to the life of rulers and the ruled?

So; *,°

—+_—_

a

Total History and Civics—IX

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‘

3 DEHAPTER Bes) | Medieval India (B) The Delhi Sultanate se". pws

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' ‘Medieval India (B) The Delhi Sultanate Sources: Inscriptions; Qutub Minar.

‘ political history and administration | (Qutbuddin Aibak, Alauddin Khilji and ‘Muhammad Bin Tughlaq). Boe ee

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kingdoms had emerged in North India because of the absence of a powerful central government.

These kingdoms were constantly at conflict with one another. This lack of political unity was

largely responsible began

for quick victories of the their conquests

in the

11th

and 12th centuries. However, their Empire was established in the

period

between

1206

and

1526,

when

SOURCES ew

By the 10th and 11th centuries, numerous small

Turks, who

The

five dynasties successively ruled from Delhi is known as the period of Delhi Sultanate. It wasso called because the rulers of various dynasties ruled from their capital at Delhi and were called the Sultans.

13th century.

3. Melting gold to highlight important words and passages.

There are a number of official records, administrative

manuals,

biographies,

autobiographies,

court

histories, chronicles, foreign travellers’ accounts and private correspondence which provide much information for reconstructing the history of the Delhi Sultanate. The ‘histories’ (tawarikh), written in Persian constitute an important place among the sources about Delhi Sultanate. These histories were written by learned men like secretaries, administrators,

who

both

recollected

poets and courtiers,

events

and

advised

the

4. Preparing the binding.

Four stages in the making of illuminated manuscript

Medieval India (B) The Dethi Sultanate

| easy

living conditions, faiths and beliefs as wel] 2, the socio-cultural outlook of the rulers.

The most significant of these monuments , Qutub

Minar in Delhi.

Qutub Minar: It was started by Qutub-u¢. din Aibak and was dedicated to the Sufi sairQutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, who was greath, venerated by the people of Delhi. The structure was completed by Iltutmish. Its special feature, are: (a) When originally completed, it rose to a heig*s of 71.4 metres with four storeys. The tows

was damaged

by lightning in 1369, and =

the course of repairs and renovations Fercz

Shah Tughlugq further raised its height (b) It has five storeys tapering as they ascend Each storey is separated from the other by projecting balcony.

(c) The

entrance

is through

the northern side. (d) The Minar is a circular

Qutub Minar

rulers. However, these authors often wrote for the Sultans in the hope of getting rich awards. These handwritten works were decorated with gold or

silver to highlight important words and passages and were called illuminated manuscripts. The important source of information about the Delhi Sultanate are: 1. Inscriptions: Inscriptions are valuable supplements and not the information on the Delhi

sole sources of Sultanate. The

inscriptions are found on coins, monuments, milestones and tombstones. Many inscriptions record land-grants made by various rulers and chiefs;

others

are

descriptions

of battles

the

doorway

tower

about

source

were used

to construct

the tower.

(f) Each of the towers has a projecting balcony. These balconies are supported in such 2 way that the whole structure takes the load of weight. No wonder that such an olf

building has lasted so many centuries. (g) Verses

from

the

Holy

intricate carvings with inscribed on this tower.

Quran

floral

or

of information on

the history of different rulers and local chiefs. Some

of the inscriptions are in Sanskrit,

some

in Arabic and some in both the languages. For example, the first coin issued by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji bears both Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions.

2. built

Monuments: The rulers of Delhi Sultanate many

monuments

which

reveal

not only

the cultural trends of the period but also the

——_

a

| Total History and Civics-IX

13.

metres in diameter at the base and tapers to the width of around 3 metres ai ihe summit. It has a circular stairway of 379 steps leading to the top. (e) Red sandstone, marble and grey quartzite

eulogies to rulers. Together, these inscriptions provide act as a good

oz

Qutub-ud-din Aibak

and

motifs

some

ar

THE SLAVE DYNASTY There were five successive ruling dynasties, namely, the Slave, Khilji,

THE MAMLUK

Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties. Muhammad

Ghori

DYNASTY

defeated

Prithviraj Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain

in 1192.

Delhi

passed

into

the hands of these rulers later. From Delhi the Turkish rule was extended

into the Gangetic plains and to Bihar and Bengal. The victorious Turks before leaving for Afghanistan left behind a slave general Qutub-ud-din Aibak as viceroy of the conquered

lands.

QutupuppDIN AIBAK He is regarded as the founder of the Slave dynasty. The early rulers of this dynasty

were called the ‘Mamluk’ Sultans. The word Mamluk is an Arabic word that means ‘owned’. Since these Sultans were earlier either the slaves of the Turks or were the sons of the slaves, they were called Mamluk Sultans.

the throne and Razia became ruler of Delhi Sultanate.

was

murdered

general, Qutubuddin Aibak was a man of letters.

who

proclaimed

Scholars like Hasan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir adorned his court. Because of liberal distribution of money, he earned the title of ‘Lakhbaksh’.

AvauppiIn

famous Sufi saint Khwaja Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, which was completed by Iltutmish. In 1210, Aibak died of a sudden fall from a horse at Lahore while playing chaugan or polo. Qutubuddin Aibak’s son Aram Shah had succeeded him. Since Aram Shah was an incapable ruler, he was overthrown by Iitutmish, the slave and son-in-law of Aibak.

ltutmish did not consider his sons as capable of becoming a Sultan. He therefore, nominated his daughter, Razia as his successor. But many Turkish nobles opposed this move because

first woman

THE KHILJI DYNASTY The last ruler of the slave dynasty was murdered in 1290 and there arose a new line of rulers called the Khiljis. Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder of the Khilji

To complete his master’s work Qutubuddin Aibak embarked on a series of conquests and captured the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand and Anhilwara (capital of Solankis) in Gujarat. Besides being a brave and capable military

Qutubuddin Aibak laid the foundation of Qutub Minar in Delhi, after the name of the

the

dynasty, who came to the throne after killing Kaikubad, the last king of the slave dynasty. He

by his nephew

Alauddin

Khilji,

himself as the Sultan.

Kuyt

On ascending the throne, Alauddin had to face a rebellion of Mongols who had earlier settled near Delhi. When Alauddin heard of the rebellion he got many of the Mongols massacred. After that Alauddin conquered all the territories of Malwa, including Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi and Mandu. By

1305, Alauddin conquered most of the northern India. He had a strong army and started paying his soldiers in cash. Market Regulations: Alauddin is best known in history for his market regulations. He fixed the cost of all commodities such as foodgrains, sugar and cooking oil. For this purpose, he set up

three

markets

at

Delhi—

one

market

for

So they crowned Iltutmish’s

food grains, the second for costly cloth, and the third for horses, slaves and cattle. Each market was put under the charge of a controller of

son Ruknuddin as the new Sultan. But within seven months Ruknuddin was removed from

prescribed for cheating and underweighing goods.

they considered

it below

ruled by a woman.

their

tradition

to be

market

(shahna). Very strict punishments

Medieval India (B) The Delhi Sultanate

were

| i>

Deccan

Expedition:

Alauddin

Khilji was

the

first Sultan who, after conquering the bulk of northern India, sent an expedition to Deccan under Malik Kafur. The kingdoms of Devagiri,

Warangal.

Dwarasamudra

and

Madurai

were

intrigues the Khilji dynasty finally came to 2p end when Ghazi Malik, the Governor of Dipalpu ascended the throne. TUGHLAQ

DYNASTY

conquered but not annexed. Alauddin did not annex these kingdoms for two reasons. First, he realised that practically it would be difficult to contro! these distant lands from Delhi. Second, he was more interested in acquiring the wealth of these Deccan kingdoms for the maintenance of

The ascension to the throne by Ghazi Malik haq its own ups and downs. In 1320 he took the title

his huge army. Thus, the rulers of Deccan were forced to accept the overlordship of Alauddin

Muxammap

Khilji and

Measures

to pay

annual

against

tribute

Nobility:

to him.

When

Alauddin

Khilji came to the throne, he had to face a series of rebellions from the nobles. So he took

a number of measures

to cmish their power.

(i) The Nobles were not allowed to hold parties or festivities or to form marriage alliances without the permission of the Sultan. (u) The use of wine and intoxicants was banned. (ii) Gambling was forbidden and gamblers were severely punished.

(iv) He stopped paying the soldiers in land and introduced (v) He established

cash salaries. an efficient spy

system

to keep a check on the activities of the nobles.

Military Reforms: Alauddin Khilji was the first ruler of Delhi who laid the foundation of a permanent

standing army.

He imported

quality

horses and started the system of branding horses (dagh) so that the soldiers could not replace them with inferior quality horses. He also introduced the system of chehra, i.e., giving a kind of identity card for every soldier. He himself approved all

recruitments to the army and paid cash salaries to the soldiers from the royal treasury. Revenue Reforms: Alauddin Khilji introduced a number of important measures to get Maximum revenue. He brought all the land of the empire under his direct control. He introduced the practice of measuring the land and fixing the State share accordingly. He increased the land revenue from one-third to one-half and demanded it to be paid in cash and not in kind. He appointed Special officers to collect land revenue. by

a

Towards the end of his life he was dominated Malik Kafur, his commander. After many

Total History and Civics-IX

of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Shah and began the Tughlaq dynasty. He died during the collapse o/ a pavilion built in his honour

Bin TUGHLAQ

and

the

took

ascended the

Khan

Ghiyas-ud-din’s son Jauna

throne

in 1329:

title of Muhammad

Bin

Tughlaq.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was one of the most remarkable

rulers

He had

scholar.

of his

age.

He

great interest

was

a great

in religion and

philosophy. He had also mastered mathematics, astronomy, logic and physical sciences. He was a lover of Persian literature, music, fine arts and calligraphy.

Transfer of Capital: Tughlaq’s

reign

During Muhammad

the empire

had

Bin

also spread to

the south. He shifted his capital to Devagiri near modern Aurangabad and renamed it Daulatabad He did it for the following reasons: e

e

Daulatabad was centrally where he could control territories;

Delhi was

located from the Deccan

in the grip of severe

famine;

and

e Delhi was Mongol

constantly

threatened

by the

invasions.

He ordered the people of Delhi including religious heads to shift to Daulatabad. On realising the gravity of the threat from north-west he decided to shift the capital back to Delhi. This caused

lots of hardships

to the people.

Token Currency: Another controversial step which Muhammad Bin Tughlaq took was the introduction of the “token currency”. It meant introduction of bronze tanka in place of silve! tankas. This was done because of the shortage of silver. But this experiment failed due to the circulation of counterfeit or fake coins on 4 very large scale, which caused chaos in trade

and commerce. Consequently, he withdrew th¢ token currency.

Taxation wanted

in Doab:

to conquer

Muhammad

Bin Tughlaq

but also in Central Asia,

doab.

At

the

no mercy and took stern measures to collect the taxes. This made some of the peasants abandon their lands and flee to jungles. Bin Tughlaq took effective steps

to ight the famine and save the situation.

He

free distribution of grains, advanced the peasants, improved irrigation etc. But it was too late and a number were starved to death as agriculture a heavy setback in the doab area.

Plan of Conquests:

officials,

The

The minister in charge of the army was called ‘ariz-i-mumalik’, The ariz was not the commander-

same time, a severe famine broke out in the area and the people refused to pay the extra taxes and rose in rebellion, But the tax collectors showed

ordered loans to facilities, of people suffered

of the other

For this he required

of Ganga-Yamuna

Muhammad

the work

final decisions were always taken by the Sultan.

a large army and. therefore, large amounts of money to pay for the army. So in order to get more revenue, he increased the land tax in the

fertile region

supervised

in India

territories not only

Muhammad

Bin Tughlaq

dreamt of conquering the world. So he organised

a huge army and paid one full year’s salary in advance to his soldiers. He then decided to conquer Khurasan, Persia (Iran) and Iraq. But after a year, and following the failure of the token currency, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq abandoned the project and disbanded the army.

SULTANATE ADMINISTRATION The State set up by the Turks towards the end of the 12th century in northern India gradually developed into a powerful and highly centralised state. The Sultan was the supreme executive, legislative, judicial and military authority. The

Sultan kept an eye on revenue and expenditure. He was assisted by a number of ministers. The key figure in administration was the wazir, who acted as the Prime Minister. The wazir

in-chief of the army, commanded

all

the

since the Sultan armed

forces.

himself

The

responsibility

of the ariz’s department

recruit, equip

and

special

was

to

pay the army.

There were two other important departments, namely, the ditwan-i-risalat and the diwan-t-insha. The diwan-i-risalat dealt with religious matters

and was presided over by the Chief Sadar, who was generally a leading gazt. The qazi was _ the head of the department of justice and advised the Sultan on civil and religious matters. The diwan-i-insha

dealt with

state correspondence.

During the Sultanate the empire was divided into provinces called ‘igtas’. Each province was placed under officials called ‘muqtis’. To facilitate

local

administration,

divided into ‘shiqs’, and

provinces

were

further

‘parganas’ or districts.

The village was the lowest administrative unit. The officials who worked at the village level included the ‘muqaddam’ (the village headman), the ‘patwari’ (the record-keeper) and the ‘nushnf

(the village accountant). Each village also hada panchayat

to settle local disputes.

Nobles: The nobles formed an extremely powerful group as they held positions of provincial governors and military commanders.

During this period, the practice of giving grants of revenue from a territory came to be known as the Iqta system’. Those who were given iqtas were

called igtadars’. Out of this grant, the iqtadars had to maintain themselves, their families and some soldiers for use by the Sultan during war. When

the central authority became weak, many

of these iqtadars functioned as independent rulers of the territories under their command.

Px} re>

te

ke

Shah Zafar exiled to Myanmar.

Medieval India (C) The Mughal Empire

;

|

a

—

ee —.


human

iiC

\d

anatomy—creating thousands of pages of neatly drawn illustrations, His paintings of the ‘Virgin of the Rocks’, The Last Supper’ and ‘Mona Lisa’ are great

masterpieces of art. New techniques were adopted in his paintings to give a fine fecling of reality. *Michelangelo:

Michelangelo

was

a

painter,

sculptor, architect and poet, He concentrated on painting the human

figure. He is famous

for his

paintings in the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. They depict incidents and persons from the Old Testament. His Last judgement and The Fall of Man are among the most famous works of art

4, 4

“ ==

fale 4"

J) 4g iat

ae Ae

RE

Diem

ay

St. Peter's Church, Rome

SCULPTURE The revival of the study of antiquity left a great impact in the field of sculpture. Some of the Renaissance artists copied the great

masterpieces of the Greeks and Romans, while the others produced outstanding pieces which could

rival the Greek creations.

Some of the outstanding Renaissance period were:

sculptors

of the

e The first great sculptor of Renaissance was Donatello, who made the bronze statue of

David,

“Raphael: Raphael was a great artist of the Florentine schoo] and his most celebrated painting was Sistine Madonna’. He lived several years in Rome in the service of the Pope, decorating the Vatican and designing the St. Peter’s Church.

slain Goliath.

:

ii

r :

in the world.

2]

[Ee

triumphant

over the body

of the

e The famous sculptor in Italy was Lorenzo Ghiberti. He worked for 20 years to make two pairs of bronze doors for the Baptistery at Florence.

SES

Statue of Moses by Michelangelo

a * For information only.

The Modern Age in Europe (A) Renaissance

|i

—

e

In

Michelangelo made o statue in Rome called ‘Picta’ showing Mother Mary in a seated posture carrying the body of Jesus across her chest. The huge statues of David in Florence and the statue of Moses were also made by Michelangelo. Italy

many

sculptors

worked

for

the

Popes or rich merchants, to decorate churches or palaces with their sculptures. Later on the sculptors

were

invited

to

England,

France

or

Spain and they spread the Renaissance art to the rest of Western Europe. LITERATURE The most significant impact of Renaissance on literature was the use of local languages, instead of Latin, as in the Middle Ages. Besides,

there was

a change

of themes

in the literary

work. Earlier writers dwelt on spiritual themes including heaven. However, during Renaissance, the authors wrote on man and his problems. Such emphasis on man gave birth to a new movement known as Humanism.

wrote

Spencer

work

immortal

the poem,

Edmund

of Milton.

‘Faerie Queene’.

William Shakespeare: He was an English poet, playwright and actor, who is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England’s national poet and the

‘Bard of Avon’. He wrote 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems and a few other verses. With the exception of Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare’s first plays were mostly historical dramas like Richard II, Henry VI V. He and Henry also wrote several during comedies his early period: A Midsummer Night’s Much Ado Dream, William Shakespeare About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth

It was

Night.

only

that he wrote

1600,

after

Literature in Italy: Machiavelli was a great political writer of Italy. He expressed his political

tragedies

ideas in Comedy’ It reveals Petrarch,

Shakespeare’s work transcends culture and history. He appeals to emotions and thoughts that are a part of eternal human nature and

his work ‘The Prince’. Dante’s ‘Divine is an epic poem on the state of the soul. the religious and social life of the day. a great scholar and writer, has been

called ‘the father of humanism’. His sonnets and lyrics were popular throughout Europe. Other Italian writers were Aristo, Tasso and

Boccaccio. Boccaccio wrote in prose. His work Decameron stories. Literature

is a collection of 100 famous in

England:

England

short

produced

a number of writers, poets and dramatists of repute. Geoffrey Chaucer heralded the Renaissance literature in England. He is regarded as the ‘Father of English Poetry.’ ‘The Canterbury Tales’, is his outstanding work. Thomas More wrote

Utopia describing an imaginary island in

America where the rich did not exploit the poor.

like

Hamlet,

King

Othello and

Lear,

Macbeth.

therefore,

have

a universal

appeal.

SCIENCE The

Renaissance

modern

science.

marked Earlier

the

it was

beginning

of

held

all

that

views even on Science are to be supported by the authority of the scriptures. However, the

all

scientists

views

on

this

period

believed

Science

of

should

be

based

that

on

observation and experimentation. The method of enquiry, questioning, observation and

experimentation are used even today in scientific investigations.

There, the society had no blind faith and it did

Nicolaus Copernicus: He was a mathematician and astronomer, who formulated a model of the

not believe in useless wars. Other famous English writers in this period

at the centre of the universe.

were Francis Bacon, William Shakespeare, Ben Johnson and Marlowe. Francis Bacon was a famous essay writer. Shakespeare, Ben Johnson,

——

Lost’ is an

‘Paradise

dramatists.

were well-known

Marlowe

ia

Total History and Civics—IX

universe that placed the sun rather than the earth of this

model

in

his

book

The publication De

revolutionibus

orbium celestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial spheres) just before his death in 1543

CONSEQUENCES

OF

RENAIBGANCE

Led to the Reformation

Renaissance

paved

England

in Burope,

and

Movement

in Europe:

the way for Reformation People

started

in

viewing

everything by questioning, observation and experimentation, They became critica) of the

rituals on the division and the

practised by the Church and insisted reform of the Church. This Jed to the of the Church into two eects—Catholice Protestants.

Development Nicolaus Copermicus

is regarded as a major event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican

Revolution.

Copernicus based his Heliocentric theory on the following: e

There is no one centre of all celestial circles

or spheres.

e The centre of the earth is not the centre of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere. ® All the spheres revolve about the sun as their midpoint and therefore, the centre of the universe. e The earth has more turning on its axis

the sun

is

than one motion, and moving in a

spherical orbit around the sun. Later on,

a German

Scientist

John

Kepler

proved that the earth and other planets move round the sun not in a circle but in elliptical orbits. Italian Scientist, Galileo invented the telescope. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the Law

of Gravitation.

Great discoveries were made in the field of medical sciences. Vesalius wrote a treatise on anatomy. William Harvey, an English physician,

discovered the circulation of blood from the heart to all parts of the body and back to the heart. Paracelsus proved a close connection between medicine and chemistry. Cordus prepared ether from alcohol and sulphuric acid. Helmontt discovered carbon dioxide. Arabs gave Algebra and numerals to the West. Modern Geometry was made systematic by Desargues. Stevin advocated

Coins, weights and measures.

decimal

system of

of Humanism:

Jn the Middle

Ages the only study undertaken was that of spirituality and theology. They were more interested in the future life. Renaissance widened the outlook of people and created an interest in man, his interests, his nature and his life in this

world. It developed humanism the study of humanities. Development

of

and encouraged

Scientific

Outlook:

Renaissance contributed to the development of the scientific attitude and encouraged the people to accept the things only if they appealed to reason. This scientific outlook gave a setback to blind faith and encouraged new discoveries and inventions which greatly contributed to the progress of human

civilisation.

Rise of Monarchical Form of Government: Renaissance provided great impetus to the

evolution

of strong

Government

in

monarchical

Europe.

The

system

decline

of

of the

authority of the Church and the feudal system strengthened the desire of the people to have peace, security and political stability. Thus, they readily provided support to the kings and enhanced

the powers

Development

of monarchs.

of Arts:

Renaissance

led to

new forms of paintings, sculpture, architecture, music, etc. It, thus, rendered valuable service to the growth of fine arts.

Rise of the Middle Class: In the Middle Ages feudal lords controlled everything. They

held

a greater

part

of the

territory

of

their country in their hands and consequently they had the leisure to enjoy the comforts and luxuries of life. But the new movernent gave

The Modern Age

in Europe (A) Renaissance

|

people

them a setback and in their place, the traders, soldiers, lawyers, etc., who belonged to the

Middle Class, began to make Rise

and

Renaissance

Growth

of

led to the feelings

explore

new

roites

and

distant

lands. These peoxraphical discoveries led to the establishment of trade between Murope and

rapid progress. Nation

to

the East. These commercial relations prosperity to Europe. They also paved

States:

of nationality

brought the way

and the progress of national literature. This in turn led to the rise and growth of nation states,

for the process of colonisation of Asia and Africa, Europeans countries began to export the

Consequences of Geographical Explorations: Scientific inventions enabled

resources of their colonies in America, Africa to increase their power,

Asia and

I.

Multiple-Choice A.

Choose

the

Questions correct

answers

to the questions from

the given

options.

1.

Which of the following is the correct order of hierarchy of medieval Kurope? (a) Dukes — Barons — Knight — peasants (b) Barons — Earls — Feudal Lords — peasants (c) Earls — Dukes — Knights — Barons (d) Barons — Dukes — Knights — Lords

2.

Which of the following was NOT a result of the Fall of Constantinople? (b) Crusades (a) Discovery of new trade routes (d) Revival of learning (c) Decline of Feudalism

3,

—__________ refer to the religious expeditionary wars with the goal of restoring, (he Church’s access to holy places in and near Jerusalem. (a)

4.

(b)

Crusades

Brisades

(c)

Black wars

(d)

Agnar

(c)

Italy

(

eee

i

Questions

the correct

answers

to the questions from

the given

options.

Constitution is a comprehensive document containing the set of rules that describe the rights and duties of its citizens and the way the governance is to be carried out. Which of the following statements correctly describes the same? (a)

It ensures smooth

governance

for the welfare of its citizens.

(b)

It regulates the position of the citizens.

(c)

It dictates terms to the states work under the central government.

(d)

It provides rules and regulations establishment in the country.

for the

smooth

functioning

of various

commercial

The Constituent Assembly was truly national in character. In this context, identify the categories which were given membership of the Constituents Assembly. (P)

: General Category, Muslims and Sikhs. Our Constitution

|

(Q)

: Christians, Anglo-Indians and Parsees

(R)

: General Category and Sikhs.

(S)

:

Christians

(a)

and

Parsees.

How were members

(c)

Rands

(b)

Pando

Directly elected by the people Nominated by the Viceroy Indirectly elected by Provincial Legislative Assemblies

(ad)

Indirectly elected by the Provincial Council

The Constituent Assembly of undivided India consisted (c) 389 (b) 292 {a) 390 “A

QandS

of the Constituent Assembly selected?

(a) (b) (c)

When

(d)

PandR

of ________ members. (d) 384

was the first sitting of the Constituent Assembly held?

(a)

December

5,

1946

{b)

December

25,

1945

(c)

December 9, 1946

(d)

December 24, 1946

Where was the first sitting of the Constituent Assembly held? (a)

Present

(b) (c)

Present Rajya Sabha Hall of Parliament Present Central Hall of the Parliament

Lok Sabha

Hall of Parliament

(d)

Rashtrapati

Bhawan

Arrange the following events in chronological order. {A)

: Independence of India.

(B)

: Setting up of the Drafting Committee.

(C) (D)

: First sitting of the Constituent Assembly : Election to Provincial Assembly (a) DCAB (b) BACD (c)

ADCB

(d)

DCBA

Who was elected President of the Constituent Assembly at its first sitting? (a) (c)

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Dr. Sachidananda Sinha

(b) (d)

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.

(b) (d)

Mahatma Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru

Who proposed the ‘Objectives Resolution’? (a) (c) 10.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Subhash Chandra Bose

The Objectives Resolution Assembly on January 22,

proposed on December 13, 1946 and passed by the Constituent 1947 highlighted the objectives of the Constitution. Which of the

following were the national goals laid down?

EL:

12,

—_

ii

(a)

Free India would be a republic.

(c)

Ideals of social, political and economic democracy to all citizens.

(b)

Fundamental Rights to all citizens.

(d)

All of the above.

Name the legal sanction that allowed the Constituent Assembly to function post Partition.

(a)

Objectives Resolution, 1946

(c)

Poorna Swaraj

Declaration,

1929

The Cabinet Mission Plan had ensured

|

(a)

Anglo-Indians

(b)

Muslims

and

Muslims

and Sikhs

Total History and Civics—IX

(b)

Indian Independence Act, 1929

(d)

Government of India Act, 1942

representation to general category and

(c) (d) 13.

On the basis of which plan was the Constituent Assembly constituted?

14.

fl.

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribes Muslims, Christians and Silhs.

(a)

Cabinet Mission Plan

(b)

Mountbatten

(c)

Cripps Mission

(dl)

None of the above.

Who was appointed as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution? (a) Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru (b) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (c) Dr. H.C. Mukherjee (d) Dr, Rajendra Prasad

Short

Answer

on

What

ok

Questions

is meant

by the term Constitution? What is known as the ‘Objectives Resolution’? By whom was the Objectives Resolution proposed? When was the Constitution adopted and passed? When did the Constitution come into force? Why

Il.

Plan

was

January

26

chosen

for

the

commencement

Write a short note on Dr. Ambedkar’s

Structured

1. With

(a)

Constitution?

contribution to the Indian Constitution.

Questions

reference

Name

to the making

the

Plan

members

(b)

of the

of the

which

of Indian

proposed

Constituent

How was the membership of the

Constitution

to set

Assembly

up

explain

the

the following:

Constituent

Assembly.

How

were

the

elected?

of the Constituent Assembly reduced as a

result of partition

country?

(c)

How can you say that the Constituent Assembly gave adequate representation to all sections of the Indian Society? 2. With reference to the ‘Objectives Resolution’ explain the following: (a) Who proposed the ‘Resolution? When was the Resolution passed by the Constituent Assembly? Name the Act that gave legal sanctity to the Constituent Assembly.

IV.

(b)

State

(c)

List

Thinking 1. The

any four

three

points

principles

of the

that

‘Objectives

Babasaheb

Resolution’.

Ambedkar

incorporated

in

the

Constitution.

Skills

Constitution

of India

is the longest

written

Constitution

in the world.

would have been the consequences if the Constitution of India was Give reasons to support your answer. 2. 8.

What

not written?

Do you think that the Constitution of India has an important role in maintaining the unity and integrity of India? Give reasons to support your answer. Dr.

Bhimrao

Ambedkar

was

a learned

man

with

great

foresight.

Make a

list of

instances where his foresight came to our nation’s aid in times of crisis. 4.

es

&.

The Indian Constitution has taken the best features from the Constitutions of countries around the world. Make a list of few of these features stating which country inspired them and how have they been modified to suit the needs of our country.

Trace how the Republic Day has been celebrated over the years. >, +¢

@): Ad

Lf

.@ 9

Our Constitution

|

as

CWARTER.

2)

Salient Features of the Constitution—lI off separatist tendencies and promote fraternity and unity among the people.

SYLLABUS (A)

Features

Single

of

the

Citizenship,

Constitution—I

Universal

Franchise,

Fundamental

Fundamental

Duties.

ee

By the

Adult

Rights

the

and

citizenship

ee

Our Constitution has established

et

|

a democratic

society, providing justice to all, irrespective

to all

who

(PIOs),

ee

Citizenship

January

26,

(Amendment)

has

of India

Government

dual Origin

countries

to other

All

1950.

2003,

of Indian

Persons

the

migrated

Act

granted

of an

privileges

after Indian

citizen except the right to vote could be enjoyed by PlIOs.

of UNIVERSAL This

means

ADULT that

all

FRANCHISE persons

of

18

years

>

their social or cultural background. It has many salient features, some of which are given below.

. ‘a

Salient

oe

|

SINGLE

of age

CITIZENSHIP

The Indian Constitution provides for a Single Citizenship. This means that all Indians irrespective of the State of their domicile are the citizens of India. This is unlike the

system

prevailing in the USA,

be

a citizen

an

American

of the

New

citizen.

York

In

where State

India,

a

one can as well as

person

born

in Punjab or in Kerala can only be a citizen of India and not a citizen of the State of their domicile

as

well.

This

has

been

done

to ward

and

above

have

|

Total History and Civics-IX

right

to vote

irrespective of their caste, colour, religion, etc. The British had provided for communal electorate under the Acts of 1919 and 1935. The Constitution of Independent India has replaced

this

system

by

introducing

joint

electorate.

According to this system, resident voters of a constituency have to vote for the same candidate irrespective of his caste or creed. Similarly, some seats are reserved for candidates from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. All people from such constituencies have

PES

All are citizens of india

the

Right to Vote

ry vote for the candidates evstem politics

is

aimed at and fostering

Fundamental

rights,

which

This

RIGHTS

FUNDAMENTAL The

of the area.

curbing communal harmony. communal

Rights

are

provide

basic

the

human

conditions

essential for the all-round development of be human being. They protect people against

unjust disciminaton

among

members

community. They don’t make between human beings based on

sex, religion or other such

of the

distinctions race, colour,

considerations.

They give recognition to dignity and equality of all human beings. The Fundamental Rights are given in Part-IJ] of the Constitution of India. They are classified

gna Esueey of shops etc., have to be made without discrimination mentioned in Article-14. This | emsures

into the following categories:

(b)

|, The Right to Equality—Articles 14 to 18 ‘ The success of Indian democracy largely rests on the Right to Equality of citizens. The Right

both

equality

before

law

as well

creed,

religion,

equality.

of Opportunity:

negesis wader

Ge

tavee

oF oes

(OBCs),

these accounts makes it a punishable offence.

7.5 per cent for Scheduled Tribes.

Prohibits

discrimination

Pe oNOeEne a

| Service are reserved for Other Backward Classes

or sex. Practice of any kind of discriminationon

Article-15:

Article-16

It prohibits any sort of ‘ discrimination on : grounds mentioned in Article-14. It also allows making of reservations of posts in favour of . ; Scheduled Castes and Tribes by : passing a law. At present 27 per cent posts in government

as equality in protection by law irrespective of economic status, caste, colour,

Equality

economic

provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment in an

to Equality has political, social and economic components. (a) Equality before Law: Article-14

guarantees

and

social

15

percent

for Scheduled

Castes

and

on

(c) Abolition of Untouchability: Article-17

gounds mentioned in Article-14. For example,

abolishes untouchability and its practice in any

admission to educational institutions, allotment

form.

Any

person

preventing

the

other

from

Right to Equality Right to Education

Right to Freedom a.

=

—

Right to Constitutional

Cultural and

era

-

‘

Remedies

™

f ;

Educational Rights Fundamental

ns

(Right Against Exploitation

7

Freedom of Religion

Rights

Salient Features of the Constitution—I

| 143

|

entering

a place

of public

worship

or using

a

public well, a public transport system, etc. can be

punished

by

law.

(d) Abolition of Titles: Article-18 abolishes all titles ike Rai Sahib, Khan Bahadur, Maharaja, etc. These titles are considered a negation of

equal

status

However,

for all.

for meritorious

titles

in

fields

of the Constitution. Right to is an implied Fundamental

Article 19(1) Information is

the

as

‘Bharat

public

of sports,

Ratna’,

service

academic

etc.,

or other honoursor

Fundamental

implied

An

Right.

one

which

Fundamental

titles such

given

RIGHT TO INFORMATION Right to Information (RT!) has been included in

is

a

Right

part

of

a

partakes

or

Right named

of

the

same basic nature and character as that Fundamental Right. Since RTI is implicit in

the Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression

military service are not covered by this provision.

(Article19),

The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 puts certain restriction on the Right to Equality. A person cannot move the Court if his/her right to equality is restricted to implement the Directive Principles of State Policy.

Right because if one does not know the facts one cannot speak freely. The Right to Information Act came into force on October

2. Right

to Freedom—Articles

19

to

22

This Right is a cluster of six essential freedoms (Article-19) and their protection. (a) Under Article-19, the Constitution guarantees six basic freedoms to its Citizens, viz.

(i) Freedom

of speech

(ii)

to

Freedom

and

assemble

expression. peacefully

without

arms. (iii)

Freedom

to form associations and unions.

(iv)

Freedom

to move

(v)

Freedom of India.

to reside

(vi)

freely throughout and

settle in any

Freedom to practise any profession, or business.

India. part trade

it

is

an

implied

Fundamental

12, 2005. This Act gives the citizens of India the right to:

(a) seek and receive information from the government and other public authorities. (b) ask them certain questions. (c) take copies, including certified copies, of documents. (d) inspect documents.

(e) take sample of materials. Any citizen can file an application under

Information

RTI with the Public

Officers

(PIOs), Assistant Public Information Officers (APIOs) and seek the required information. There

is

no

specific

provision

in

our

Constitution guaranteeing the freedom of the Press because freedom of the Press is included in the wider freedom of ‘expression’ which is guaranteed

by Article

19.

The Constitution restricts the State from enacting laws which could curtail these freedoms.

But

at

the

same

time,

it does

not

mean that the State cannot make laws for the public good or for protection of interests of trade

and

profession.

For

example,

State

can

make the laws to prescribe certain minimum educational, technical or other qualifications for entry The

Right to Freedom to Assemble Peacefully

—_§_

ira

| Total History and Civics-IX

to a certain Right

to

profession.

reside

and

settle

in

any

part of India cannot go against the laws of a particular territory where larger national interest is involved. For example, one cannot displace Tribal communities and settle in their territory.

! (

{

Limitations

Supreme Court Declares

(i) Emergency:

-Right to Privacy - A Fundamental Right On

August

24,

2017,

the

Supreme

Court

of India declared the Right to Privacy as a fundamental right. (a) Right to Privacy - A Fundamental Right e Supreme Court confirmed that the right

w privacy is a fundamental

right that does

not need to be separately articulated but can

“be derived from Articles 14, 19 and 2) of the “Constitution. It is a fundamental right about

all information of a person and the choice that he/she makes. It protects an individual from the scrutiny of the State in their home, of

“their movements and over their reproductive choice, choice of partners, food habits, etc.

(b) Not an Absolute Right - It is Subjected ‘to Reasonable Restrictions The Supreme Court clarified that the

during

(li) Not Absolute: The security of the State and national interest being of paramount interest, reasonable restrictions could be

imposed

on

health services, etc., which if obstructed would affect the normal life of the people) impose certain restrictions on the Right to Freedom. (b)

for

Protection

Offences:

protections (i)

prescribed

a

law

that

justifies

an

of reasonableness

and

without

State action; and 3.The means adopted proportional

to

the

by

the

objects

arbitrary

State and

needs

knowledge, and preventing the dissipation of Social welfare benefits.” What Privacy includes _1-Preservation of personal intimacies, the sanctity of family life, marriage, procreation, home and sexual orientation. 2.A right to be left alone. 3. Safeguards individual autonomy, protecting vital aspects of his/her life. 4.Personal choices governing a way of life '

are intrinsic to privacy.

5.It recognises plurality and diversity of our culture.

available greater

under

of Conviction

Article-20

the

following

to a citizen: penalty

than

what

is

the law is prohibited.

cannot

or prosecuted

be compelled

in the case where

to be a

he himself is accused

offence.

(c) Protection of Life and Personal Liberty:

Under Article-21 a person cannot be deprived ofhis life and liberty except in accordance with the law. (d)

are

sought to be fulfilled by the law. According to the judgement, the legitimate aims of the state should be “protecting national security, preventing and investigating crime, encouraging innovation and the spread of

are

A person

witness

that

the nature of this law falls within the zone

Respect

(ii) No one can be punished for the same offence twice.

of the

- 2.A legitimate State need that ensures

in

Under

Against

(iii)

of

of this right.

delivery of essential services like public transport,

fundamental right to privacy is not absolute

encroachment on privacy;

the implementation

(iii) Laws of Parliament: Legislations like Preventive Detention; Essential Services Maintenance Act (ESMA, a law to ensure the

and will always be subject to reasonable restrictions. The State can impose restrictions ‘on it to protect legitimate State interests but it can only do so by following the points given

below: _1.Existence

Article-19 can be suspended

Emergency.

Protection

Detention: citizens

Arrest

and

Article-22 gives such rights to the

under

two

(i) Ordinary of arrest under

arrested

Against

person

different

circumstances:

Circumstances: In the case ordinary circumstances, the

has

(a) To be informed

the following rights: of his/her

offence.

(b) To be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours from the time of arrest. Such a person

cannot be kept in custody for more than 24 hours without the permission of the magistrate. (c) The right to consult a lawyer and prepare for defence at the tnial.

(ii) Preventive

Detention: In case a person

is detained under Preventive Detention such a person can be kept in custody for a period of three months without trial. Such a person has the

rights

as follows.

Salient Features of the Constitution—I | 145

oo

and

mines

in factories,

years

other

hazardous

occupations. The practice of bonded labour has

to

Freedom

Religion

of

following:

Co

Right

Articles

me

4.

unlawful.

declared

been

also

conscience and the right to freely practise and propagate their religion.

25

Ne

}. All

to 28

indicate

persons

are

the

entitled

to

of

profess,

2. Subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the nght— (a)

to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;

(b)

to manage

Protection of Life and Personal Liberty

(a)

that

Preventive

a person

precautionary

Detention

stands

does

accused.

not

mean

It is only

a

for the purpose

measure.

the High

and

consisting

of a judge

of

against

the detention

order.

LimITATIONS

affairs in matters

(c)

to own and acquire movable immovable property; and

(d)

to administer accordance with

Court.

(c) Grounds of detention have to be specified and the detainee informed of these grounds. The latter also has the right to make representation

its own

of religion;

(b) Detention beyond three months can be extended only by an Advisory Board constituted

3.

No

person

shall

such law. be

property

compelled

to

and in pay

taxes for the promotion of a particular religion. 4. No religious instruction shall be provided in any institution wholly maintained out of State funds.

{i) Public interest: The authority or the State can take recourse to public interest and refuse to disclose the grounds of detention.

5. Even though religious instruction may be imparted in educational institutions recognised

(ii) Power of the Parliament: The legislature or the Parliament has the power to specify the

attending such institutions shall be compelled

maximum 3. Right and 24

period of Preventive Against

Detention.

Exploitation—Articles

23

by or receiving funds from the State, no person to receive that religious instruction without the consent of himself/herself or of his/her guardian

(in case

the pupil

be

a minor).

This right upholds the dignity of the individual and prohibits exploitation in following respects: (i)

Article

23-(a)

freedom

from

slavery,

beggary or other forms of forced labour. (b)

Trafficking

in

human

beings

means

buying and selling of human beings is prohibited. It also prohibits use of women or girls for immoral purposes. (li) Article 24 This article employment of children below the ___e 4

freedom

|

prohibits age of 14

Total History and Civics—IX

Right Against Exploitation

on them.

Rights conferred

other Fundamental

Dr. Ambedkar described this article as the “heart and soul of the Constitution.” In essence it is not a right but a remedy.

Under this article the Supreme Court andthe

High Courts (within their respective jurisdiction) a are empowered to issue writs. A writ is

formal written order issued by the Supreme

Court and the High Courts to provide legal remedies to individuals who do not obtain adequate protection under ordinary laws. As per the Constitution, the enforcement of the

Freedom of Religion

S, Cultural

and

Educational

Rights

Articles 29 and 30: Protection of Minorities: Article 29 gives a section of the people or whole of them the right to preserve their distinct language,

Fundamental Rights, issuance of writs, raking of laws by the Parliament and suspension of this right under very special circumstances have all been taken care of under different clauses of Article 32. The most important writs

script and culture. In the matter of admission to any educational institution maintained by the

are

Slate, admission

IMPORTANT

cannot

be denied

on grounds

of religion, colour, caste, creed or sex. Minorities

and

Educational

given

below.

WRITS

(i) Habeas Corpus: It means ‘to have the body’. By issuing such a writ, the High Court or the Supreme Court can get the body of any

Institutions:

Arncle 30 gives all minorities the right to establish and administer the educational institutions of their choice. The State is also prohibited from discriminating against educational institutions

person released if it has been unlawfully detained by any person or a group of persons or by the

in the matter of grants.

the personal

6.

Right

Article

to

Constitutional

Remedies

Rights

are justiciable, i.e., a suit

can be filed in a High Court or the Supreme Court if Fundamental Rights are violated. Article 32 gives the Right to Constitutional Remedies. This Right is given to citizens to move Supreme

ae,

SS

Court

(iii)

Writ

Prohibition

of

is an

Prohibition:

order

issued

The

by

Writ

of

a superior in a

case which might be in excess of the jurisdiction of the lower

court.

oe).

Cultural and Educational Rights

for

of a citizen.

court to a lower court to stop proceedings

for the enforcement of

y

freedom

(ii) Mandamus: In Latin it means ‘we order. It is a command or an order from a Superior Court to a lower or an administrative authority to perform a certain duty.

—

32

Fundamental

State. This writ is thus a great safeguard

Right to Constitutional Remedy

Salient Features of the Constitution—I

|

the

(iv) Writ of Certiorari; This writ is issued by a superior court to a judicial authority desiring

is going on." Though Writ

there is a difference. Writ of Prohibition is issued when certain proceedings are going on. is issued

after the order

has already been passed by the lower court. (v) Quo-warranto; It means “by what order.” It is issued when a person has usurped any office. This wrt, thus prevents public officers from forcibly or wrongly holding a high public office.

the

power

to

issue

these

1.

2.

Right

Right

Right to Equality

to Freedom

. Right Against Exploitation

to

of 6

14

years

in

shall

to all such

manner as the state may, by law, determine” RIGHT

TO

PROPERTY

dispose

off movable

as well

keeping Rights

with

the

socialistic

as immovable

Right. However, in philosophy

of the

At a Glance

Chief Components/Features Article 14. Article 15. Article 16. Article 17.

Equality before law and equal protection of law. Prohibition of discrimination. Equality of opportunity in respect of employment. Abolition of untouchability.

:

Article 18.

Abolition of titles.

a

Article

19.

. 4

Article Article Article Article Article

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Freedom of speech, expression, assembly, movement] settlement and profession. Protection against conviction for offences. Protection of life and liberty. Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour. Prohibition of employment of children under the age of 14 in

. Right to Freedom of Religion

education

compulsory age

the

in

State

Sy

The

of the

and

writs,

Fundamental

free and

property as a Fundamental

presently only the Supreme Court and the High have

provide children

“The

states,

Article 31 of the Constituti empowered the citizens of India on had earlier to purchase, hold

the Right to Constitutional

Remedies the most important and also malce it an eflective tool for their enforcement. Though Courts

which

inserted

been

has

21A

article

Ne

The writs make

new

a

Constitution,

Se

of Certiorari

(Eighty-six Amendment) Act, 2002. By this Act

o.

Writ

This right has been granted by the Constitution

Article 25. Article 26. Article 27.

factories,

mines

ha

The

Education

to

Right

7.

of Prohibition,

on

WN

the

Powers

etc.

oe

to

similar

Freedom of conscience, profession, preaching and propagation. Freedom to manage religious affairs.

Freedom

from payment

TA

of what

similar

confer

os

it appears

can

courts.

of taxes for promoting particular] :

oF

“to be informed

Parliament

other

Article 28.

py

religion.

Freedom from attendance at religious instructions in certain] ,,

educational institutions. . Cultural and Educational Rights

Article 29. Article 30.

Protection

Right

to establish

social and

. Right to Constitutional Remedies

Article 32.

. Right

Article 21A.

to Education

of language,

and

of minorities.

minority

educatio:

Issue of writs (habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, — certiorari,

148 | | Total History and Civics—IX

culture

administer

cultural institutions.

quo-warranto.)

age of 6 to 14 years.

ee

‘i

script,

constitution, the Right to Property was cleleted fom the list of Fundamental Rights by the 44th

proclamation

of

Imergency

1s

made soon

An

352.

Article

by

the a

As

President

under

the Right to Property (Article 300A) a Legal right,

proclamation of such an emergency in made, the Legislature is free lo make any law and the

Cusck on ArniTrary Actions or tis Srare

Executive

has

amendment

Act

1978.

This

amendment

made

the Fundamental Rights secured to the individual

are in the nature of limitations or restrictions on dye arbitrary actions of the State. Article 13(2) declares that all laws and executive orders in fre immediately before the commencement af the

Constitution,

amdamental

inconsistent

rights are void

with

the

to the extent

of

such inconsistency. This article, thus, provides for judicial review of all legislations in India.

However, the Constitution has empowered the State to make valid exceptions to the rights en the grounds such as security of the State, public order, public morality, etc. RESTRICTIONS

IMPOSED

Fundamental Rights are not absolute. Reasonable restrictions can be imposed on them because

of the general welfare of the society. 1. The Fundamental Rights can be suspended when the President declares a state of Emergency in the country in case of war, external aggression

or armed rebellion. Such a suspension of rights is temporary. As soon as the over, the rights are restored.

2.

For

the

security

of

national interest reasonable

Emergency

the

State

is

and

restrictions on the

Pundamental Rights can be imposed. Parliament has

the

power

Fundamental Armed

to

modify

Rights

Forces,

the

to the

Police

application

members

Force

or

even

though

speech

the

liberty

it restricts expression,

and

any

to take

the right

action,

to freedom

assembly,

of

association,

movement, residence, profession or occupation, These restrictions remain in effect only as long as the emergency is in operation. When

a

proclamation

of emergency

is

in

operation, the President may by Order declare that of the right to move a court for the enforcement the Fundamental Rights shall remain suspended, In case of such a situation, the Supreme Court

and the High Courts shall be powerless to issue the writs or to make any other order for the enforcement of any fundamental right. FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES Duties and rights go hand-in-hand, there can be no rights in a society where there are no duties. For example, if we have a right to life, it is our duty to respect others’ life and not to injure another person. Similarly, the right to freedom implies that we have to maintain a selfrestraint

and

accord

similar

rights

to

others

which we want for ourselves. It was in keeping with these ideals in view that Fundamental Duties were incorporated the Constitution of India.

in

of

of the

intelligence

organisations so as to ensure proper discharge

of their duties. 3. There are some use

of these

rights

laws which in

public

restrict the

interest.

The

Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), Defence of India Rules (DIR), Preventive Detention Act (PDA), the National Security Act 1980 (NSA),

Essential Services Maintenance Act (ESMA), etc., are made to safeguard the interests of the nation, but they curtail the use of the Fundamental Suspension

of

FUNDAMENTAL

The Fundamental Constitution

rights

remain

Rights.

RIGHTS

guaranteed

suspended,

by the while

a

Salient Features of the Constitution—I

| 149.

|

Kinps

or

per, humanism (h) to develop the scientific tem

Duries

The Fundamental Duties were added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 and inserted in Part IV of the Constitution. The Article SI-A of the Constitution following ten dutes of a citizen:

states the

(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and

Anthem;

National

the

(b) to

cherish

ideals which

and

inspired

follow

our national

(c)

noble

struggle for

7

to uphold

and

protect

the

sovereignty,

unity and integrity of India; (a) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so: (e) to promote harmony and spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional

or sectional diversities, to renounce derogatory to the dignity of women; to value

and

to

protect

and including

environment

and

wildlife,

(j)

and

have

{

=

and

that

so

activity,

collective

or, as the case

child

levels of

for education

be,

may

to

to his/her

between

ward

the age of six and fourteen years. tution The clause (k) was added by the Consti 2. (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 200

IMPORTANCE OF FUNDAMENTAL The Fundamental Duties Constitution of India:

the

1. to make social and

DUTIES

aware

citizens

the

in

enlisted

are

of

their

obligations;

economic

2. to warn them to do and not to do certain

practices

3.

things in the interest of their country, fellow citizens and themselves; to protect and awaken the people to

their cultural heritage;

the natural lakes, rivers

4.

to tame the unruly elements in society;

for

. to strengthen national harmony as they

compassion

stir up

living creatures;

‘ 11. Duty of the parent/ ) guardian to provide education to his child of L 6 to 14 years of age di

eres to strive towards excellence in all sph

the nation constantly rises to higher endeavour and achievement. an (k) it is the duty of a parent or guardi

the rich heritage

improve forests,

violence;

of individual

culture;

of our composite (g)

preserve

abjure

to

and

ur

(f)

, the spirit of inquiry and reform ty (i) to safeguard public proper

provide opportunities

the

freedom;

and

1. To abide by the Constitution and to respect the national flag and the national anthem

patriotism.

2. To follow the noble ideals

=

3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity L and integrity of India —

>

10. To strive for excellence

4. To defend the country and to render national service

f Fundamental Duties

a

9. To safequard public property and

ts

eidiiadi

5. To promote harmony L

=

develop scienti jentific 8. . To To devel : temper, humanism and spirit of enquiry

7. To protect natural environment

Fundamental

|

Total History and Civics-IX

Duties

|

and brotherhood

6. To preserve rich cultural heritage

)

TERMS

TO

REMEMBER

: The night of a person country.

to be legally recognised

as a member

of the

The right to vote given to persons of 18 years of age and above (adults) irrespective of caste, colour, Amendment

creed, qualifications,

etc.

:

Freedoms of ordinary citizens.

:

Changes,

:

An instance of having committed a criminal offence. A formal agreement. Riots resulting from friction between two or more communities. Taking

modifications

unfair advantage

or additions

of some

to the Constitution.

one.

Able to be shown right or reasonable by the judiciary. : The relatively smaller groups of people. : An arrangement whereby something is reserved, for example reservation of posts for Other Backward

Castes

(OBCs).

A law suit containing a set of complaints for legal judgement.

a

me

I. Multiple-Choice Choose

the

Questions

correct

answers

to the questions from

the given

options.

Which of the following are the salient features of the Indian Constitution? {a) Universal Adult Franchise (b) Fundamental Duties (c})

Single Citizenship

(d}

All of the above.

A Person of Indian Origin can enjoy all privileges of an Indian citizen except (a) (c)

Right to vote Right to enter the country

(b) (d)

Right to protest Right to freedom

In case a person is detained under Preventive Detention such a person can be kept in custody for a period of _______ months without tzial. (a)

Four

(b)

Six

(c)

Three

(d)

Twelve

Righi to Property is (a) (c)

a Fundamental Right a Legal Right

(b) (d)

a Fundamental Duty no longer a fundamental right.

The Constitution of India provides for a Single Citizenship. Which of the following statements describe the same? (a) (b)

A person born in India can be either the citizen of a State of domicile or of India. All Indians irrespective of the State of their domicile are the citizens of India.

(c)

All Indians living in India are the citizens of India even if they are not born in India.

(d)

All citizens of neighbouring countries living in India are Indian citizens.

If a male and a female are selected for the same post but the female candidate gets less salary, which of her following rights its discriminated? {a)

The Right to Freedom.

(b)

The Right Against Exploitation.

{c)

The Right to Education.

(a)

The Right to Equality.

Salient Features of the Constitution—I

|

eo

——

Right to Information has been included in Article—of the Constitution.

(a)

19(1)

(b)

20

(c)

21

Complete the analogy Right to Equality : Articles 14-18 :: _______:

(d) Articles

22

19-22

(a) Right Against Exploitation

(b) Right to Constitutional Remedies

(c)

(d)

Right to Freedom of Religion

Right to Freedom

Which of the following is incorrectly matched? (a) Habeas Corpus: to have the body (b) Mandamus: we order

10.

(c)

Quo-Warranto:

(d)

Wnt of Certioran: information of what is going on

to be informed

A labourer was unlawfully detained by his employer. Which of the following writs will be issued by the Supreme Court or the High Court?

(a)

Mandamus

Certiorari

(c)

Habeas Corpus (d) Quo-Warranto.

11,

A seven-year-old boy was not given admission in a school mun by the State government. of his Fundamental Rights was violated by the State. (a) Right to Freedom. (b) Right against Exploitation. (c) Cultural and Educational Right. (d) Right to Education.

12.

Which of the following is incorrect? (a) Right to Equality: Article 14-19 (c) Right to Education: Article 29-30

13.

14.

Fundamental

(c)

Single citizenship

Which

Right to Freedom: Articles 19-22 Right Against Exploitation: Article 23-24 : Part Il,

Franchise

(b)

Fundamental

(d)

Constitutional Remedies

Rights

Right to Information is an implied Fundamental Right meaning it is a part of

a named

Fundamental Right.

(b)

it partakes of the same

(c)

it is implicit in the Right to Freedom and Expression.

(d)

All of the above.

Answer

i. What

SS

(b) (d)

: Part IV 2:

Universal Adult

Short

ae 8S +

Duties

(a)

(a)

Il.

(b)

is meant are

What

the

one

Rights

is meant

By which Mention

are

‘Single Citizenship’?

universal]

by the term

the

Explain

Right granted

term

sentence.

Rights,

‘Right

to citizens of India.

give one example

Against

Duty which

that India is a secular

state.

Exploitation’?

Act of the Parliament were the Fundamental the Fundamental

in one

‘Right to Equality’?

of Fundamental by

in nature.’

Rights justciable?

Fundamental

In the context What

by the term

Fundamental

is meant

Mention

Right.

Questions

‘Fundamental How

basic nature and character of the Fundamental

has been added

Duties included by the Constitution

in the Constitution? (86th Amendment}

Act, 2002. To whom

can

the citizens

of India file an application

from the government authorities?

——§

a

Total History and Civics-IX

if they wish

to seek

any

information

Questions

}, Structured 1. Explain

following

basic

features

of the

Single Citizenship. Fundamental Rights

(a) (c) to

the

. With

reference

to the

Indian

(b)

Fundamental

Rights

Why are Fundamental Rights so called? State their three characteristic features.

(c)

Briefly

the components

Universal

answer

(a) (b)

explain

Constitution:

of the

Right

Adult

Franchise.

the following:

to Equality.

- With reference to inclusion of Right to Freedom in the Indian Constitution, state the following: {a} State any three freedoms given under Article 19. (b)

What

(c)

Explain

do

these freedoms imply? the restrictions imposed

on

these

rights.

. Article 20 provides for Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences. In this respect answer the (a)

following: What protections

are

available

to the citizens against conviction? What is meant by Preventive Detention? State the right of citizens Explain the limitations of the Right to Protection.

(b) (c)

in this respect.

- With reference to the Right to Constitutional Remedies, answer the following questions: (a) How has this right been given legal sanction? (b) Why is this right important? (c) Explain any two writs issued by courts for enforcement of this right.

. With reference to Fundamental (a)

Rights, answer the following questions:

What

are the components of the Right to Education? How is the Right to Information an implied Fundamental Write a short note on Right to Privacy.

(b) (c) - With

reference

(a)

What

(b)

Give

(c)

What

to the

are known any

three

is the

Fundamental

Duties,

answer

the

Right?

following:

as Fundamental Duties? Fundamental Duties.

importance

of these

Duties?

fa

“WV. Thinking Skills

(c) "4

2.

For the transfer of a case from lower to higher court. To prohibit a lower court from proceeding in a case.

Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties go hand in hand. If this statement is holistically followed many of our problems would be solved. Give your reply with examples to prove your point.

2,% 0% 0.0 ®, >

-

(i) (ii)

2, >

Se

Name the writ that will be issued in each of the following circumstances. (a) Against a person holding a public office to which he is not entitled. (b) An order to an administrative authority to perform a certain duty.

°°

1.

Salient Features of the Constitution—I

| 13

\. —_

a we

eo

es

~*~ aw

-L feet ew

CHAPTER

3

"

the Constitution

Si (iv) The Charter of Human

sew,

Salient

(B)

Features

Directive

(meaning),

of the

Principles

Welfare State,

MEANING OF PRINCIPLES

THE

deliberating over the Indian Constitution.

IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

DIRECTIVE

The Directive Principles are the guidelines to be Part IV of the Constitution

has

the Directive Principles of State Policy under Articles36 to 51. The Directive Principles are not a substitute for laws of the country. They are called ‘Directive Principles’ because the government has to take them into consideration while making laws. These principles contain lofty ideas, deep human thought, belief and knowledge. These principles are not found in any other Constitution of the world except those of

India and Ireland. Sources of Directive Principles At the time of drafting of the Constitution, its framers were inspired by five important sources. (i) The

Constitution

of the

Irish

Republic

which contains the Principles of Social Policy for the guidance of legislators. (ii) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens of revolutionary France. (iii) The ideas of Mahatma

Gandhi.

The fact

that the Directive Principles also contain Gandhian Principles is sufficient proof that ideas of Mahatma Gandhi had influenced the framers of the Constitution.

—§_

ra

of Human

Rights was adopted by the United Nations when the Constituent Assembly was

Policy

followed by the government in the governance of the country.

the United Nations. (v) The Universal Declaration

Constitution—II

of State

Rights framed by

| Total History and Civics-IX

Like in the case of Fundamental Rights there is a difference of opinion regarding the importance of the Directive Principles of State Policy. The main difference of opinion surrounds their

non-justiciable nature. Fundamental Rights are justiciable. That is to say—citizens can move the court to get their rights. But Directive Principles are

not

justiciable.

Despite

these

limitations,

the Directive Principles are very important. This importance stems from the following: 1. Directive Principles are in the nature of a pledge made by the framers of the Constitution

to the people of India. They provide a framework, political, social and economic programme for a modern democratic State. 2. The Directive Principles give guidelines to the governments to make laws and draft their policies according to these fundamental principles, which summarise the objectives of

our Constitution. They provide an element of permanence

3. They government’s

4. The

in a democracy.

provide

a measure

to judge 4

performance.

Directive

Principles

direct

the

government to move towards the goal of a Welfare State. They reflect the ideas of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity mentioned in the Preamble.

5. They enlighten and educate the people of what they can expect from the politicians whom they

vote

6. They

provide

a direction

to Courts

in

respect of safeguarding the rights of the citizens. 7. Since public opinion backs the Directive Principles, the goal of establishing social and

economic order is clearly laid out before the

government. 8. The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 provides

that if a law is made to give effect to any of the Directive Principles it will not be declared

unconstitutional even if it takes away any of the rights under Articles

provision

is

of

great

14,

19 and 31. This

importance

for

the

implementation of the Directive Principles. It also makes it clear that in case of any conflict

between the Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights, the former shall prevail. This is because the welfare of the people as a whole is of paramount importance over that of an individual. However,

the

Directive

not specifically mentioned

in the Constitution,

the aims and objectives of a Welfare State are

power.

to

the words “Welfare State” are

State. Although

Principles

are

not

enforceable by any court of law in the country. This in effect means that the citizens cannot move the courts of law if the government fails to implement these directives. But on moral grounds both the government and the courts have to take cognizance of these directives. WELFARE STATE A Welfare State is a state which seeks to ensure the maximum happiness of maximum number of people living within its territory. The Constitution of India seeks to establish India as a Welfare

clearly pointed out in the Directive Principles of

State Policy. These Directives emphasise that the goal of the Indian Polity is a Welfare State, where the State has a positive duty to ensure to its citizens

social and

economic justice and

dignity to the individual. Both the Union and the State governments, have over the past six decades

taken steps to implement

Directive principles,

aim at establishing social and economic

which

democracy,

Socta,

the basic goal of a Welfare State.

EQuaLITY

AND JUSTICE State

and

The

Union

been

taking steps

Governments

to implement

have

the Directive

Principles.

1. The Right to Education Act has made it mandatory for every child between the ages of 6-14 to be provided free education in all government and government aided schools. The Act also requires all private schools to reserve 25 per cent of seats for the children belonging

to economically weaker sections of the society as a part of the public-private partnership plan. 2.

socially

Special

and

scholarships

economically

are

weaker

provided

to

sections

of

the society. There is a system of reservation of seats in jobs and in educational institutions for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 3. Untouchability has been made an offence punishable by law.

Difference Between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights Directive Principles

1. They are provided in Part-lV of the Constitution. 2. These are not justiciable or enforceable by any court of law. 3. They are meant for the government to create certain privileges for the citizens. 4. They are mere directions to the State to attain certain set objectives. 5. These aim to establish a Welfare State. 6. Their scope is wider as they deal with wide range of subjects including international peace and secuntty.

Fundamental Rights 1. These are provided in Part-Ill of the Constitution. 2.

These are justiciable. The citizens can seek protection from a High Court or Supreme Court in case of infringement.

3, They are privileges in existence for the citizens to enjoy. 4. They are a certain kind of restriction on the State.

5. These aim to establish political democracy. &.

Their scope is limited as they are concerned with individual's rights.

Salient Features of the Constitution—II | 155

oo

4. In order to provide justice to the Econ omically Weaker Sections (EWS) from the upper caste s, the Central Government has provided 10 per cent reservation for them in government jobs and in higher education. This provision was introducecl by the Constitution (103rd Amendment) Act in January 2019. The amendment aims to fulfill the commitments of the Directive Principles of State Policy under article 46 to promote the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the society. The benefits of this act are given to —

e

People who have an annual income of less Rs.

than

8 lakhs,

e

People who own farm land, or

e

People

who

have

or

less

than

five acres

of

Bill

Reservation

(Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam) The Women Reservation Bill, also known as the

Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam was passed by Parliament on September 21, 2023 and became

an Act after receiving the President’s assent on

September 28, 2023. The Act seeks to provide 33 per cent reservation to women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies. The reservation for women will continue for 15 years and the

Parliament can later extend the benefit period, This Act is an attempt to bring gender parity

into the political domain by encouraging more women to voice their opinion and play an active

role in politics. a

house

lesser

than

1,000 sq feet in a town (or 100 sq yard in a notified municipal area). Economic

Women

WELFARE

(a) The Government has abolished the Zamindari System and introduced the land reform programme to do away with the old feudal socio-economic structure of rural India.

(b) Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Bill, 2013 was passed by the Parliament in September 2013. This Act came into force from January 1, 2014. The Act aims to establish the law on land acquisition, as well

as the rehabilitation and resettlement of directly affected by the land acquisition in The Act provides for fair compensation to whose land is taken away, transparency

(e) Ayushman Bharat Yojana is a centrally sponsored health scheme launched in 2018. It is an

umbrella

of two

major

health

initiatives

namely, Health and Wellness Centres and National Health Protection Scheme (NHPS). The scheme will cover 10 crore poor and vulnerable families, providing coverage up to 5 lakh rupees

per family per year for secondary and tertiary care hospitalisation. Benefits of the scheme are

portable across

the country

and a beneficiary

covered under the scheme will be allowed to take cashless benefits from any public or private

empanelled hospitals across the country.

those India. those in the

process of acquisition of land to set up factories

or buildings, infrastructural projects and assures rehabilitation of those affected. The Act has replaced the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, a nearly

120-year-old law enacted during British rule. (c)

Nationalisation

of

banks,

companies and some key industries have been done to ensure that the ownership of the material resources of the community are so distributed so as to obtain

best service of common

good.

(d) In order to ensure just payment to workers and equal pay for equal work, the payment of wages is governed by the Government which has enacted legislation to the effect that

Ayushman Bharat Yojana

(f) Pradhan Mantri Samaan Nidhi Yojana: Under this scheme, small and marginalised farmers (SMFs) are given Rs. 6000 per year in three installments of Rs. 2000 each, which

is transferred directly to the bank accounts of beneficiaries through direct benefit transfer

(DBT)

scheme.

The

scheme

aims

help SMFs

the payment be made according to the Minimum

in

Wages Act 1948, as amended

crop health and appropriate yields and thereby

|

—_

Vella Hon Wet Sareea Aleta

insurance

from time to time.

Total History and Civics-IX

procuring

various

inputs

to

ensure

proper

augment their income. The scheme will also help protect the farmers from falling in the clutches of money

(a)

Mantri

Pradhan

Yojana

Fasal Bima

lenders.

Pradhan

this scheme,

Mantri

Ujjwala

Yojana:

five crore

Under :

LPG connections are to be provided to Below Poverty Line

(BPL) houscholds. The

scheme provides a financial support of Rs. 1600 for each LPG connection to the BPL

households. Providing

Farmer's contribution to promum reducod

———\_

ue Acanth seQruhcanty

\\

Scheme

New

\ famoves ha —\ Previous Capping on pramiurmn so that full =

get

nemiets Bum insured

YYYYY

a » as

Use

—— Localizad

p= : armote & &% \ of 4 sirmgta a e

simart tecnnology mnugh prores is Bed4 ab thenugh ™. bie las y d ternata

VA

Mutuole

'¥

LPG connections to BPL households will ensure Uljwala Yojana universal coverage of cooking gas in the country. Besides, this scheme wil empower women, protect their health and

reduce drudgery and the time spent on cooking. (h) Pradhan Mantr Gramin Awaas Yojana (Housing for All): Under this scheme, financial assistance is provided for construction of pucca house to all houseless and those household who are living in dilapidated houses. The cost of assistance is to be shared between Central and

State Governments in the ratio of 60:40 in plain

; 4

fa

of oon:

‘eros

= APy

y

-

.

fosses taken into account to orisure Mi) that no farmer's A alone in timers ot

at

> eA

»

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana

Under this pay a uniform

all kharif crops

scheme, farmers premium of two

per cent

1.5

and

will have to per cent for

for all rabi

crops. For annual commercial and horticultural crops, farmers will have to pay a premium of 5 per cent. The remaining share of the premium

will be borne respective

areas and 90:10 for North East and hilly areas.

The assistance given to each beneficiary in the

\

ques asirnatan , and early satioment

‘inka ark} post hares!) :

‘

on

State

equally

by

the

Centre

and

the

governments.

Under PMFBY, there government subsidy

is be no upper limit and even if balance

1,20,000 in plain areas and to Rs.

premium is 90 per cent, it will be borne by the

1,30,000 in hilly states /difficult areas /Integrated

government. The scheme also provides farm level assessment for localised calamities including hailstorms, unseasonal rains, landslides and inundation.

scheme is Rs.

Action Plan (IAP) for selected Tribal and Backward distncts. The beneficiary is entitled to 90 days of unskilled labour from MNREGA and can avail a loan of up to Rs. 70,000 for construction of the house. These houses will be equipped with facilities such as toilet, LPG connection, electricity connection and drinking water. (i)

The

Pradhan

Mantn

Fasal Bima

(PMFBY) was launched on January

Yojana

(j) A social upliftment scheme, called the Jan Dhan Yojana’, was announced by the Prime Minister,

Under

opened

Narendra

the

Modi

scheme,

for the poor.

on

bank

Each

August

accounts

account

15,

2014.

have

has a

been

life

13, 2016.

Wars Wat arava asrat-areaor Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana Gramin Awaas Yojana

Jan Dhan Yojana

Salient Features of the Constitution—I

|7

—

insurance

one

cover

lakh

available

of

Rs.

30,000,

accidental

insurance

under

account.

accompanied

the

adding

to

benefit

The

account

with a RuPay-enabled

is

debit card.

This scheme is aimed at improving the lives of millions of India’s poor by bringing them into the financial mainstream and freeing them from the clutches of money lenders, while giving them the benefit of insurance cover. (k) The

Government

programmes

such

has

as

launched

various

Integrated

Rural

Development Programme (IRDP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) to help the poor. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 seeks to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage

employment

(b)

the

already

to rural households.

PoLiTICcAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND LEGAL MATTERS (a) Panchayati Raj has been established in the remotest villages to promote the idea of local self-government.

free

In view legal aid

of the constitutional has been provided

directive, to those

people, who themselves cannot engage lawyers. This has been done to ensure equal justice to all. (c)

In order

there is now judiciary from

Foretian

to check

the

a complete the executive.

misuse

of power,

separation

of the

Povicy

(a) In order to promote international peace and security India is opposed to colonialism and racialism and has helped many countries to win their freedom. India supported the cause of South Africa against Apartheid. (b) India is law abiding; it respects international law. It has stood for settlement of international issues by mutual understanding. (c) India holds the policy of complete disarmament and has been firmly against all the

attempts of some powerful countries for partial disarmament.

Ry RS >EXERCISES

Oo I, Multiple-Choice Choose 1.

3. 4.

Laws

ira

(d)

the given

options.

None of the above.

:: Fundamental Rights: Justiciable. (b) Not Justiciable (d) Mandatory

Directive Principles: Enforceable by courts Obligatory

Which of the following is incorrect regarding the Directive Principles?

(a)

They provide a measure to judge a government’s performance.

(b)

They provide a framework

(c) (d)

—

to the questions from

in the Constitution

democratic

6.

answers

Which of the following formed the sources for drafting the Directive Principles of State Policy? (b) UN Human Rights Charter (a) Irish Constitution (d) All of the above. (c) Mahatma Gandhi's ideas to the State to attain certain set objectives. The Directive Principles are mere (c) directions (d) promises (a) orders (b) requests (a) (c)

5.

the correct

Which of the following constitute the guidelines given in the Constitution for governance of the country? (b) Directive Principles of State Policy (a) Fundamental Rights and Duties (c)

2.

Questions

for political, social and economic programmes

for a modern

state.

They enlighten and educate people about profitability for the nation. They provide a direction to courts in respect of safeguarding rights of the citizens.

Identify the statements about Fundamental Rights which are correct. (P) : They are provided in Part III of the Constitution.

| Total History and Civics—IX

(Q) (R) (S)

7.

: They are a certain kind of restriction on the State. : Their aim is to establish a Welfare State. : They provide a measure to judge a government's performance. PandQ

(b)

PandS

(c)

RandS

(d)

QandR

Which of the following measures reflect the implementation government? (a) Untouchability made a punishable offence

8.

Pradhan

(a) Short

Mantri

Gramin

Awaas

Employment Answer

1. What

(b)

are known

four important

3. When

the Directive

incorporated

Yojana

: Housing

Health

5S. Name

Structured

1. There

Bharat

Insurance

(d)

: ——____—_

None of the above.

incorporated? sources

of Directive

Principles.

Principles are not enforceable

by law courts,

why

have

of State

the

taken by the Government

Directive

Principles

and

Policy.

Questions

are differences of opinion Fundamental

(a) (b)

State any three differences between the Fundamental Rights and Directive State Policy. How do the Directive Principles complement Fundamental Rights?

(c)

What

(a)

What

(b)

How

(c)

Mention

court

2.

is the importance

reference

In this context

of Directive

to the concept

is meant does

Thinking

Rights.

regarding the significance of both the Directive Principles

the

Why

Fundamental

towards implementation of the Directive

and

2. With

they been

in the Constitution?

any two measure

Principles

:: Ayushman

(c)

4. What happens in case of any conflict between Rights? Give reason to support your answer.

i.

by the

as Directive Principles of State Policy? In which part of the Constitution

Principles

2. Name

TV.

Principles

Questions

are Directive

MM.

of Directive

The Right to Education Act Reservations for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) All of the above.

(b) (c) (d)

Il.

(a)

the

any

the following: Principles of

Principles?

of a ‘Welfare State,’ answer

by a Welfare Constitution

explain

the following questions:

State’? of India

four government

seek

schemes

to establish

aimed

India

as

a Welfare

at social upliftment

State?

of the poor.

Skills

do you think the Directive Principles of State Policy are not justiciable by any of law?

Give

reasons

to

support

your

answer,

Suppose you are made the Minister for Social Welfare. What initiate for the welfare of weaker sections of the society?

%

measures 7

o «°

J °

{ | |

would you 7 J

©. °°

Salient Features of the Constitution—I | | 159

CoAY

TER

4

-

Elections ee

ee

ee

ee

ee

ee eee

et

|

Elections

|

Meaning; Composition of Election Commission

!

party lines. The party or a combination of parties

‘(in brief); Direct and Indirect election; General

|

election; Mid-term election and By-election. www

wwe

we on eww

ewww

oe ee

ee

ee

ee

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wt

MEANING

OF

ELECTIONS

Democracy the people

is a form of government in which have a say in who should hold

India has two types of legislatures both at the

power and how the power should be used. In a democracy, citizens choose or elect their representatives either directly or indirectly to

Union and State level. At the State level only some States have the second house called Vidhan Parishad, the Legislative Council or the Upper House. At the Union Level the upper

run the country. Election are chosen,

is a procedure whereby persons by voting, to represent the voters

for running the government.

Generally, there is

a contest between different candidates for the same position. Thus, in the elections there are winners and losers. In modern societies elections are fought on party lines. A political party is a group of people holding similar views or beliefs. Any

political getting

party

or a combination

largest

the

number

of votes,

InpIRECT

house

ELECTIONS

is known

as Rajya

Sabha,

which

is a

permanent house. The election to both houses at the State and the Union level is Indirect i.e., the representatives are not directly elected by the people. The elected representatives of the people elect the members of the Upper House, both at the Centre as well as the State. In the case of the Legislative Council, members are elected by members of the Legislative Assembly

of parties form

the

Elect

Representatives .

Form

eX

sca

government. Pee

ELECTIONS

KINDS

OF

Direct

ELECTIONS

People of India directly elect their representatives to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies. The members of the State Legislative Assembly, known as MLAs, are directly elected

the by the people of the State. The members of

| Total History and Civics-Ix

25

SS,

Government Oi—|

a

cis _,

sf

r¥

ww

eee

ow

ee

ow

ee

a

eee

oe

ee ee

we

having the largest number of legislators elect their leader from amongst themselves, who is made the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister, as the case may be.

oe

Rowe

Lok Sabha are known as Members of Parliament (MP) or Members of the Lok Sabha. Under the existing political system elections are held on

Ss.

een

fom amongst persons who are not the members of the Legislative Assembly.

along with the Parliamentary Elections. Earlier up to 1957 simultaneous elections were held for

The Rajya Sabha consists of not more than

both the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies. However, on account of early dismissal and midterm elections the two got gradually separated.

250 members. Out of these, 238 members are elected by the elected members of the Legislative

Assembly members

of each State. The remaining 12 are nominated by the President persons

from among

- or practical literature,

having

experience

science,

in

art and

knowledge

special

matters social

such

as

Min-TERM

This type of election is held when a State Legislative Assembly or the Lok Sabha is dissolved before the

service.

ELECTION

completion

By-ELectTions

elected indirectly by the members of an Electoral

When

members of the elected

members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States including National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Union Territory of Puducherry. The election takes place in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. Like the

full

term

(5 years).

The

new house will normally have a full five year term. This election is called Mid-term Election.

Election of the President and the VicePresident of India: In both these cases the elections are Indirect. The President of India is College consisting of the elected both Houses of Parliament and

of its

a

seat

held

by

any

member

of the

Legislative Assembly in the Centre or State falls vacant on account of death, resignation of the member before completion of his/her term, to fill

up this vacancy the election which is held called By-Election. The person so elected remains the member

for the unexpired

ELECTION

term of the House.

COMMISSION

is

Election is the best way by which representatives

also Indirect.The Vice-President is elected by members of both Houses of Parliament. In this

of the people can be sent to the legislatures. India being a federal country makes provisions for

election, the State Legislatures do not take part.

holding elections both for the Central and State

President,

GENERAL

the election

of the Vice-President

legislatures. Hence,

ELECTIONS

The elections held

to elect the members

of the

Lok Sabha after expiry of the normal term of five years are called the General Elections. Elections

to some State Legislative Assemblies may be held

elections need to be free and

fair with wide participation. Keeping in view the great impact and significance of the elections, the Constitution has made detailed provisions for the free and fair conduct of elections in Part XV, Articles 324 to 329.

Differences Between Direct and Indirect Elections Indirect Elections

Direct Elections

ee People vote directly to elect their representatives. =

aac

-

1. People elect their representatives indirectly through their elected representatives. For example, members of Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies.

& ‘Law regulates the qualifications, age, etc. of voters and establishes 5 coe requirements for state officials.

2.

3 Every adult person holds the rightto vote.

3. Every elected representative holds the right to vote.

AL Theresa very large body of voters called the electorate. 5. Members of Legislative Assemblies and members of Lok Sabha are

4. There is a very small body of voters.

All elected representatives are treated at par. There are no further qualifications. Eligibility requirement for State officials is similar to ‘thatin the direct elections.

5. The Members of state Legislative councils, Members of Raia Sabha, | the president of India and the Vice President are elected indirectly.

Elections

|

THE

COMPOSITION

OF

Article 324, composition

Clauses

and

other

of

related

Commissioner the hierarchy The

Election

Election

the

Evectrion

Commission

ELECTIONS

to 6 deal with the Election Commission j

issues.

(CEC) of the

The

Chief

Election

stands at the top in Election Commission.

Commission

Commissioner

consists

and

other

of

a

Chief

Election

Gencral Elections

Mid-term Elections

ByElections

Commissioners.

From 1950 to 1989 the Election Commission was a single member Constitutional body. In 1989, the Election Commission was made a multi-member body. Two more Commissioners were appointed and the Chief Election Commissioner was designated as the Chairman of the Commission.

Commission

(ii)

Thus, at present the Election

consists

of three members.

The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and the other Commissioners are appointed by the President of India. This is done at the behest of

the Prime Minister as per Article 74. The Regional Election Commissioners are also appointed by the President in consultation with the Election Commission. Term oF OFrrice or SERVICE

(i)

AnD

CONDITIONS

The Parliament of India passed an Act in 1994, as laid down in Article 324 Clause5 of the Constitution. Under this Act the terms of office and the conditions of service of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners were determined.

(iii)

They are appointed for a term of 6 years. During this tenure if they attain the age of 65 years, they shall vacate office on the day of attaining this age. The salary of the Chief Election Commissioner and other such Commissioners shall be equal to the salary of a Supreme Court judge. They are also entitled to pension after retirement. Any difference of opinion between the Chief Election Commissioner and the other Commissioners shall be decided in favour of the majority opinion.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS ELEecTion Commission

OF THE

The Election Commission has wide ranging powers under the Representation of the People (Amendment) Act, 1996.

The functions of the Election Commission with respect to the conduct of elections to Parliament and to the legislature of every state and of elections to the offices of President and Vice President are given as follows: (a) Preparation of Electoral Rolls and Photo Identity Cards: The Constitution provides for one “general electoral roll” for every

territorial Constituency of the Lok Sabha and State Assembly. An electoral roll is a voter’s list containing the name, father’s name, age and sex of the voter. These electoral rolls are updated from time to time to provide for new and deaths as well as other changes.

entrants

The Commission identifies eligible voters in each constituency and prepares the list of all Ballot Box

——

ra

| Total History and Civics-IX

eligible voters. This is called voters list. In order to carry out this function, the Photo Identity Card

tet am ne

Knee fee

ce

ee

tt

for every voter is issued. This prevents fraud ulent

yoting by impersonators, {b)

Registration

Political

Parties:

and

The

Recognition

Election

of Comuninsion

grants recognition to political parties. (c) Allotment of Symbols: The Commission

allots

symbols

to

the

Commission

as reserved

and

Commission

on

may

others

have

as

some

symbols

free. ‘The

recognition

Election

of a political

party

allots it a reserved common symbol. The political party uses the symbols for all candidates sponsored by it. The independent candidates or non-registered political parties can select a symbol of their choice on the first-come-first served basis from the list of free symbols. In case of a split in a

political party the Election Commission

claims and

counterclaims

reserved symbol. It asks some other symbols.

verifies

and may freeze the the factions to choose

(d) Fixing Dates and Conducting Elections: The Election Commission fixes dates for elections. Under the Constitution, the Government decides as to when the elections should be held. The fixing of exact dates rests with the Election Commission. The Commission states the reasons

for holding or not holding the elections during a particular

period.

refuse

to hold

May

duration

to ensure

The

Election

elections

talpractices lave oceurred, (il) In tertos of the recent amendments lo Representatlve of Peaplen Act the Commission prescribes severe punabnent for booth capturhay,

Election recognised

political parties and the candidates for clectiona. The

(il) The Comimnieasion counternmande polliny where H bas reasoneble doubt that some

Commission

at a particular

free and fair elections even

if the political parties insist on having elections

(f) Appointment

of Polling

Officers:

The

Mlection Comminsion appolnta polllag officers for the constituencies, This process is sel into motion as soon us notification for the conduet of elections is made,

Each Constituency js put under supervision

the overall

of an officer not Jess than

the rank

of a Deputy Commissioner of the dintriet on the Magistrate. The Officer is designated am the ‘Returning Officer. It is hin responsibility to declare a candidate

fit for contesting elections,

At the time of elections Presiding Officers in-charge of polling booths and counting centres

are also appointed. (g) Scrutiny of Nomination Papers: The Commission announces the date of elections

and the date of filing nomination papers and the last date of withdrawal for nominations. Scrutiny

of the

applications

is

made

by

the

Returning Officer. The Returning Officer has to verify

whether

deposit,

election

the

provisions

symbol,

concerning

election

agent,

the etc.,

have been fulfilled. (h) Scrutiny of Election Commission

Election Expenses: The scrutinises the accounts of

election expenses submitted by the contestants. In order to downplay the role of money influencing elections, the contesting candidates

at that particular period. (e) Ensuring Free and Fair Elections: The Election Commission has to ensure free and fair elections. The Commission prescribes a code

of conduct

for the guidance of candidates and

all others concerned. In addition, the Election Commission takes the following steps to ensure free and fair elections.

(i) The Commission may send Central observers to

the

danger

constituencies

of violence

where

or booth

there

is

capturing.

This is done to ensure that citizens can vote freely without fear.

Electronic Voting Machine

|at —_

Registration

Allotment of symbols

and

recognition of political parties

Fixing dates to conduct free and fair elections

Preparation of electoral roll

Appointment of Polling Officers

Advisory functions

Scrutiny of nominated papers Scrutiny of election expenses

Functions of the Election Commission

should

the

submit

the

Returning

Commission

Statement

Officer, for

who

scrutiny.

winning candidate can there was malpractice.

of Accounts

submits The

election

be declared

(i) Advisory Functions: The Election Commission also advises the President or the Governors of the State in respect of electoral

of the

invalid,

TERMS

if

matters, disqualification of members, disputes, petitions etc.

TO

election

REMEMBER

Proportionate Representation

: A system in which parties. in an election gain seats in proport to the number of votes cast for them. .

Franchise

: The right to vote.

By-Election

: An election held for a pardcular seat ‘or seats for the remaining period of an elected body.

Mid-Term Election

: An election held in the middle of a period of office.

—

ape

the correct answers

to the questions from

the given

Rajya Sabha State Legislative Assemblies

If a person

stands

(b) (d)

options.’

State Legislative Council Parliamentary Committees.

for election as the President of India, he/she

requires the votes of

of Parliament.

(P)

:

(Q) (R) (S)

: Elected Members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States. : Elected Members of Legislative Councils. : Nominated Members of Rajya Sabha. (b) RandS (a) PandQ (d) QandR PandR (c)

Elected Members

of both Houses

| Total History and Civics-IX

n a

eas

People of India directly elect their representatives to the Lok Sabha and the

(a) (c)

——§_

to

it to the

si

Which of the following refer to a group of people holding similar views or beliefs? {a}

Government

(b)

(c) Ruling Party

Political Party

(ad) Candidate

The election held upon dissolution of the Legislature before its full term (5 years) is:

ja)

General elections

(b)

Direct elections

{c})

Indirect elections

(d)

Mid-term elections

indirect Elections are held to elect members

fa} (c)

Lok Sabha Vidhan Parishad

of

(b) (d)

Rajya Sabha Both (b) and (c)

Who appoints the Election Commissioners?

{a)

President of India

(b)

Prime Minister of India

{c)

Chief Justice of India

(d)

Act of Parliament

What is the normal term of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners? fa)

Five years

(b)

Four years

{c)

Six years

(d)

Ten years

In favour of the majority The Supreme Court settles it

(c) {d}

The Chief Election Commissioner’s opinion is final The President intervenes and decides

(a) (c) 10.

Parliamentary Elections Election of the Office of President

(b) (d)

State Legislative Elections All of the above

Every registered Political Party is allotted a symbol. Which of the following statements is correct

about the allotment of a symbol to a Political registered party?

ti.

{a) (b) (c)

A registered Political Party is allotted a symbol from its list of reserved symbols. A registered Political Party selects a symbol of its choice from the list of ‘free symbols’. A registered Political Party selects a symbol of its choice from a list of ‘reserved symbols’

(d)

A register Political Party can take any symbol of its choice.

Election symbols are allotted to Political parties by

(a)

The President of India

(b)

The Chief Election Commissioner

(c)

The Election Commission

(d)

The Political party itself

Constituency : Returning Officer :: _________: Presiding Officers (a) {c} 13.

Sare

gay

(a) (b)

The Election Commission conducts

ome.

in

tee

How is the difference of opinion amongsi the Election Commissioners settled?

Polling booths Both (a) and (b)

(b) (d)

Counting centres None of the above.

Which of the following helps the Election Commission to ensure free and fair elections?

(a)

Code of Conduct

(b)

Severe punishment for booth capturing

|

(c)

Central Observers

(d)

All of the above.

|

li. Short Answer

Questions

1. What is meant by the term: election? 2.

Under which method of elections are the elections to Lok Sabha held? Name the system of election to the office of the President of India.

Elections

What

is meant

and

(b) mid-term

a ae

Who allots the symbols to political parties? What Name

. What Write

I III.

by (a) by-election

two

important

is known a short

Structured

powers

and

functions

as the Voters List? Who note

on

the

advisory

election?

role do election symbols play in an election?

of the

Election

Commission.

prepares the Voters

function

of the

Election

List? Commission,

Questions

1, With reference to Democracy

and

Elections, answer the following questions:

(a)

Distinguish

(b)

What type of elections are direct and what type are indirect in a Parliamentary Democracy? How are the elections of the President and Vice-President of India held? Give reasons

(c)

between

two

types

of elections.

to support your answer. 2. With

reference

to types

(b)

State two points of difference between a by-election and mid-term election.

(c)

When

3. With

the

General

the following:

What

were

as

answer

(a)

term

is known

of elections,

last

Elections?

General

‘electorate’? What

Elections

held

in

India?

What

do

you

understand

by

the

are the rights of the electorate?

reference to terms of office and conditions of service of the Election Commission,

answer

the following questions: {a)

(b) (c)

Who

constitutes the Election

Who

appoints him?

What

is the

term

of the

difference

in opinion

State any

four functions

Commission?

Election

between

Who

is the head

Commissioners?

the Election

of the Election

What

of the Election

happens

Commission?

in case

there

is a

Commissioners?

Commission.

a

eS IV.

Thinking 1.

Skills

Suppose the Class Representative of your class is to be elected by means of single transferable vote through secret ballot. Write down the steps for election starting from filling the forms by those who want to stand for election till the final selection is made.

2. If you have Vidhan

—§_

ira

to bring certain reforms

Sabha

in States,

which

Total History and Civics-IX

ones

in the system would

you

of elections to Lok Sabha and

like to introduce

and

why?

—Rural area it is known Municipality. - Leeal

Self-Government-Rural

Rural ; Three-tier system of Panchayati Raj— Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Ria Parishad — their meaning and functions.

We have the Central

Government

the interests of the whole have State Governments

to look after

country, while we to manage State

administration. At the local level, we have Local Self-Government,

which

manages

local

affairs,

through the representatives of the locality. Local Self-Government

has

thus

become

an

integral

part of the three-tier system of the Government. MEANING OF LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT Local self-government is an institution comprising locally elected representatives managing the affairs of the locality and providing them with basic amenities. In a rural area such an institution is called Panchayat and in an urban

Local Self-Government

Municipal

as

ano

Loca. Government SeL_e-GoveERNMENT Local local

self-government government. In

Corporation

or

LOCAL

is quite different from local government the

administration of a locality is looked after by the officials appointed by the State. Such officials are

paid

a

salary;

they

include

patwari

or

policeman or the village chowkidar, and the village

postman. These officials provide certain services

to the local people and do not have any say in

management and administration of local affairs.

Local

self-government

of elected

consists

representatives. They receive government grants for their activities like sanitation, providing elementary education and settling disputes. That is to say that local people govern themselves. SIGNIFICANCE OF LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT The local self-government institutions play an important role in the functioning of democracy at grassroot level. This importance also stresses the need for having such institutions. (i) These institutions provide the foundations on which the entire democratic structure of our country stands. These institutions make it possible for local people to take interest in their own affairs and groom them well to take on larger responsibilities later. (ii) The local institutions provide a training ground for local leadership and to gain necessary experience for undertaking bigger challenges at the state or the national level.

Local Self-Government—Rural

|

—

(iii) Local people know their problems well and are best judges of their own needs.

varies from state to state but the basic structure remains a three-tier one starting with the village

(iv) The local institutions encourage self-help

(or group of small villages) at the base, Panchayat Samiti at the Block level and

and voluntary

service and save the state

of many unnecessary expenses. (v) Local self-government institutions gain the support of local communities.

(vi) Through

these

institutions

government

can reach ordinary citizens in times of need like National Emergency. (vii) These institutions lessen the burden of workload on State and Central Government machinery. (viii) They facilitate active participation of local people as an individual can

evaluate the performance

of the elected

representatives. Panchayati Raj system was first inaugurated at Nagaur in Rajasthan on October 2, 1959. It was followed by Andhra Pradesh in the same

year. Real breakthrough came on 24th April 1993 when the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into force. That is why April 24 is celebrated as National Panchayati Raj Diwas every year. SALIENT

FEATURES

OF

(73rp AMENDMENT)

THE

Act,

CONSTITUTION

1992

over

population

of

20 lakh,

(ii) To hold Panchayat every five years, (iii) To

having

provide

elections

reservation

of

regularly seats

at the District level.

PANCHAYATI

RAJ

SYSTEM

ORGANISATION OF PANCHAYAT! The

three-tier system

RaJ INSTITUTION

comprises

the following:

(i) Gram Panchayats at village level. (ii) Panchayat Samiti at block level or middle level. (iii) Zila Parishad at District level. In addition,

a Nyaya

Panchayat

has

provided for every three or four village Panchayats. (a) Qualification for Election to Local Bodies: A candidate seeking election to any of the local bodies (including Municipal Corporation) must have the following qualifications: (i) He/She must be a citizen of India and not less than 21 years of age. (ii) He/She must be a registered voter, in the

case of Panchayats, member of the Gram Sabha, in the constituency. (iii) He/She

should

not

be

a

convict

(iv) He/She should not hold any profit under the Government.

for

every five years to make recommendations on financial powers of the Panchayats, (v) To constitute District Planning Committee to prepare draft development plan for the district as a whole.

A three-tier system of Local Self-Government into effect in April

1993.

There were the Panchayats at the village level, the Block Samitis and the District Boards

Zila Parishad)

—_

=

a

at the apex. The

(The

nomenclature

| Total History and Civics—IX

office

of

Act, 1992 relating to Panchayats and Part IX-A relating to Municipalities provide for among

(iv) To constitute State Finance Commissions

came

or

(b) Term: The Constitution (73rd Amendment)

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women.

for rural areas

been

have been disqualified by a Law of the Parliament or an undischarged insolvent.

(i) To provide three-tier system of Panchayati

Raj for all States

Zila Parishad

the the

A meeting of the Gram

Panchayat

Punetions

of

the Panchayat

other things a uniform and fixed term of S years for both the rural and urban local bodies.

functions

GRAM

1.

PANCHAYAT

as the general

body

5 to 31.

Panchayat

has

In most

5 to 9

members. One-third of the seats of the Panchayat

are reserved for women. for Scheduled

Seats are also reserved

Castes/Tribes

in

proportion

to

their population in the village. The members are elected on the principle of Adult Franchise. Office

Bearers:

The

Sarpanch

and

Vice-

Sarpanch are honorary members. They are not paid a salary. A paid Secretary to the Panchayat and a Treasurer, if the Panchayat is large, are appointed by the State government through the district authorities.

Functions A Gram Panchayat

performs

the following

at

decentralisation

Functions

works like

and

public

construction,

welfare

repair

and

maintenance of village roads, cart tracks,

(iii) Sanitation,

health,

setting

up

of health

centres and dispensarics. (iv) Providing primary education. (v) Arranging irrigation facilities, fertilisers. (vi) Registration

(vii) Maintaining

of births and

records

seeds,

deaths.

of cormmmon

village

property, their sale and purchase and land

Members: Number of members of the Panchayat is fixed by the State. The membership of a is between

sired

bridges, drains, tanks and wells. (ii) Upkeep of cremation and burial grounds.

Sarpanch: He/She is the head of the Gram Panchayat. In some states a Sarpanch is elected directly and in others indirectly by members of the Gram Panchayat. A Vice-Sarpanch from amongst its own members is also elected.

a Village

public

functions

of the

CoMPOSITION

Village Panchayat

Administrative

(i) All

Gram Panchayat, All adult men and women in the village registered as voters are members of the Gram Sabha.

of the States

are

of political power.

The members of the Gram Panchayat are electedby the Gram Sabha. In essence Gram

Sabha functions

which

grants. 2.

Social

and

Economic

Functions

These functions are not obligatory and can be performed according to the availability of funds. These functions include: (i) Construction of guest marriage halls, etc;

(ii) Organising

regular

and exhibitions; (iii) Planting of trees,

houses,

village parks,

libraries,

melas,

fairs

gardens

and

playgrounds for recreation; (iv) Establishing fair price shops, Cooperative Credit Societies.

3. Judicial Functions These are discussed under Nyaya Panchayats. Local Self-Government—Rural

|

a

——

NYAYA

PANCHAYATS

Nyaya Panchayat also called Panchayati Adalat is set up for every three or four Gram Panchayats.

These

Panchayats

exist

only

in some

States

and perform judicial functions. The chief characteristics of Nyaya Panchayats are the following: (i) They ensure quick and inexpensive justice to villagers. (iit) They can impose a fine of up to Rs. 100. (iii) They cannot award a sentence of imprisonment. (iv) Lawyers are not allowed to appear before these Panchayats.

(v) There the

is generally

decision

of

the powers are jurisdiction.

no

appeal

a Nyaya

exercised

ie

Panchayat Samiti Office, Dahanu

(iii) Members of Parliament belonging to the area. (iv) Block Development Officers of the block

against

Panchayat

within

if

their

or the area served

(v) Co-opted

(vi) However, under the Panchayats Act, Subdivisional Magistrates and Sub-Judges of the District are empowered to hear

representing women, (vi)

No person can be a member of the Nyaya

Panchayat and the Panchayat Samiti, Gram Panchayat or other local selfgoverning body at the same time. (viii) The state government or the State Judicial Service decides the jurisdiction of these Panchayats.

From the above account it can be stated that Gram Sabha acts as a General Body as well as legislature,

the Panchayat

PANCHAYAT SAMITI (AT THE BLOCK LEVEL) This intermediate body at the block level is known by different names in different states, like Panchayat Samiti, Kshetra Samiti, Janapada Panchayat and Panchayat Union Council. The Community Block is in fact Panchayat of the Panchayats. Composition: It has the representatives of Panchayats and some others as its members as given below:

(i) Sarpanchs of all Panchayats concerned. (ii) Members of Legislative Assembly State from the area.

| Total History and Civics-IX

of the

(provisional)

Scheduled Castes/

Representatives of Cooperative (only in certain States).

The Samiti appoints Committees to undertake

Societies

various Standing specialised works.

These committees may have outside members as well. Office

Bearers

Chairperson—elected from amongst its own members.

Deputy Chairperson—elected from amongst

as the Executive

and Nyaya Panchayat as the Judicial Body for a village or a group of such villages.

by them.

members

Tribes.

appeals. (vii)

en att

its own

by

members.

Secretary—A salaried employee appointed the State authorities through District

Administration. FUNCTIONS (i) To supervise and

coordinate

the working

of Gram Panchayats. (ii) To conduct higher education

(higher

secondary level and above) for a group of villages or at block level. (iii) To provide hospital and health services with various facilities at community block level.

(iv) To pay special attention to development of agriculture through undertaking minor irrigation schemes, distribution of quality seeds and

fertilisers.

a} To approve building plans, undertake ' other development works including roads and bridges within the circle Panchayats. sj To provide dnnking water and execute other community development programmes. ma

To

act

as

a

link

between

the

Gram

Panchayat and Zila Parishad.

coordinate the functions of circle Panchayats. Functions vary from State to State. These functions generally pertain to the following: (i) Oversecing all-round development work of the district under the overall charge of an experienced functionary like the Deputy

LA

PARISHAD

(AT DISTRICT

fii} The

LEVEL)

a the apex of the three-tier Panchayati Raj eestem lies the Zila Parishad. It is a local self-

government unit at district level. Panchayat Samia forms a link between the Gram Panchayat god Zia Parishad.

The

link between

The

Zila

Parishad

the State

Panchayats

Gewermment and the Gram Za Parishad. is

also

is the

Council,

Zila

Parishad

varies

usually comprises

—

from

Deputy

40

to 60

district

and

Heads

of

of all Government

Departments in the district; Members of Pariament and Legislative Assembly in the strict (as Associate Members

in some States);

& representative of each cooperative society (only = some States); some women and Scheduled Caste members if not adequately represented:

and Co-opted

members

having

éxpetience and achievements

extraordinary

in public service.

Office Bearers Chairman:

over

the

meetings

and

conduct proceedings. Elected by members from amongst

themselves.

Deputy

Chairperson:

amongst

themselves.

Secretary.

A whole

by

members

paid

employee

of the

State government.

Fusctions The Zila Parishad as seen from its composition is like a regular official body rather than a popular

one. It functions mostly through various Standing Committees.

There

minor irrigation works, vocational and industrial schools, village industries, sanitation and public health. (vii) It advises the State Governmeni on all matters relating to the Gram Panchayats and Panchayat Samitis under their own jurisdiction.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE PANCHAYATI RAJ SYSTEM Gandhiji’s

dream

the introduction Raj System. training

Ministry to the

of every

are

District

Boards

who

village

being

a

translated into reality with of the

three-tier

of Rural members

at all levels in order time

a

(iv)

The Elected

each

holds discussions and take decisions. Members of the District Boards are also included in the Standing Cornamittee. (iii) In practice, the Working Committee functions as the executive body of the District Board.

republic has been

Presides

have

Chairperuon,

and

Commissioner

the District, Presidents of all Panchayat Samitis = the

Deputy

of Panchayat Samitis is done. (vi) It cooperates with and coordinates the work of Panchayat Samitis for undertaking various development works specially

CoMPOSITION

The membership

Committees and

and

by

Parishad.

Mohkuma

Standing

Chairperson,

Supervision of working of Panchayats is carried out. (vj) In some states like in Assam, Bihar and Punjab scrutiny of the budget estimates

known

@erent names in different States, like District

Development

Commissioner.

Panchayati

Development of the

gives

Panchayats

to implement

the rural

development programmes under schemes such as Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY}. The Panchayati Raj system has, thus, brought government close to people. (a) The

Central

government

has

started

the

process of digitisation of over 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats across the country. Under

this, all Gram Panchayats will be converted

Local Self-Government—Rural

{ a7 t

|

oe

Panchayat

Panchayat Panchayat

Village

Composition

| Consists diveotly

and

5 | Sarpanchs

al members

elected

by Gram

| MPa

Zila

of

and

Development

Officer.

| of government departments,

| BDOs

and

Provision of civic amenities,

property, provision of Prumary education and pnmary health centres,

of all

Samitis,

MPs

| and MLAs belonging to tha district.

Chairman

| Coordination of the working of varioua Panchayats under it,

looking after sanitation, management of common

Chairmen

| Panchayat

Chairman

Sarpanch

avg

Village | Deputy Commissioner, Heads |

MLAs

of the Zila Pariahad

Bleck

Parishad

District

belonging to that area,

members

ana

Functions

Parishad

Samiti

| Panchayats,

Sabha,

President

Zila

Block /Cirele

of minimum

and naximum

Samiti

eS

Oe

Village

Panchayat,

ee

Village

eT|!

of

Management

of

schools and

colleges.

| Coordination of the working of Panchayat Samitis under it. Recommendation for grantsin-aid for local bodies.

Maintenance of hospitals and

Help in the formulation of

other health services.

various plans.

Help in the development agriculture.

of

Act

as a link

government

between

the

and the local

bodies.

to ‘digital’ Panchayats delivery of government

to provide

speedy

services and welfare

schemes to people in rural areas.

ae

(c) The District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) in close cooperation with Zila Parishads release funds to Gram Panchayats

As a part of the Digital India program, the Government of India has started the eGram

under the Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). Its main objective is to create demand

Swaraj, a user-friendly web-based portal. It is a step towards complete digitisation

driven village infrastructure. JGSY

of villages and

all records of

will maintain

is now

implemented through Panchayats all over the country. The Mahatma Gandhi National

developmental activities of villages and will

Rural

be accessible on mobile

provides every rural household 100 days of work in a year which involves unskilled manual work. Gram Panchayat is the implementing agency of this scheme.

(b) Panchayati

Raj

system

phones.

ensures

effective

government between coordination programmes and those of voluntary agencies,

s.r

Structure

Employment

Guarantee

Act.

2005,

er

Multiple-Choice

to the questions from

Which of the following statements

(Q)

appointed by the State, : Local Self-government consists

the administration of a locality is looked after by the officials

Total History and Civics-IX

-'.

: In Local Government,

of elected

representatives who

get grants

from

the

sartirhe Hot edna

(P)

eitarers

re

best describe the difference between Local Self-Government

Local Government?

government.

—_§

the given options.

Widnes

and

ae

Questions

Choose the correct answers 1.

eee

(R} {S}

° In Local Government, all the voters look after the administration of the State Local Self-government ia run by a Cooperative comprising the MLAs and Sarpanche of the Panchayat.

fa) Pand Q (b) Rands (c) Pond Rk (d) Rand Q Which of the following statements about the significance of the local self-government are correct?

()

(Q)

(R) (S)

+ They make it possible for the local people to run their own affairs.

: They make it possible for the local people to select their favourites to run the administration.

> They give the local people the right to call back the membe rs of the Panchayat if they do not work for the welfare of the local people. : They lessen the burden

7]

(a)

PandQ

A person commits

(b)

of workload

Rands

on State and Central government

(c)

PandR

(d)

machinery.

QandS

an offence and is taken to Nyaya Panchayat. Which of the following action s

can be taken by the Nyaya Panchayat? {a} It can award a sentence of imprisonment for a month. (b) It can impose a fine of up to Rs. 1000. (c) It can impose a fine of up to Rs. 100. (a) It can award both a fine and imprisonment. Complete the following analogy Panchayat: rural::_-———s: urban

(a)

Zila Parishad

(b)

Municipality

(c)

Mayor’s Office

(d)

None of the above

Local self-government has which of the following benefits? (a)

Reduces workload on State Government

(b)

Easy accessibility to common citizen

(c) {d)

Training for local leadership All of the above

~

Where was the Panchayati Raj System inaugurated?

(a)

Nagaur, Rajasthan

(b)

Amritsar, Punjab

(c)

Ajmer, Rajasthan

(a)

Bhatinda, Punjab

Under the system of local self-government which local body discharges judicial functions in a rural area?

(a) (c) Name (a) (c)

Gram Panchayat Panchayat Samiti

(b) (ad)

Nyaya Panchayat Gram Sabha

the apex body of the Panchayati Raj System. Gram Panchayat Zila Parishad

(b) (d)

7

Panchayat Samiti Nyaya Panchayat

Which of the following is NOT a part of the three-tier Panchayati Raj System? {a) (c)

Gram Panchayat Zila Parishad

U. Short Answer 1 - Differentiate

(b) (d)

Gram Samiti 7 Panchayat Samiti

Questions between

local government and local self-government

2 . What

are

3 - Name 4 - What

the three-tier institutions of the Panchayati Raj.

the

advantages

is a Gram

unit.

of having local self-government?

Sabha? Local Self-Government—Rural

|

5. What did the Constitution of Panchayats? 6. What 7. Ill.

was

Who

is the

Structured

ba

1. With

head

of the

Name

important

(b)

What

is the

(c)

Mention

. With

village

(a)

How

(b)

Mention

(c)

What

local

Panchayat?

What

to Panchayati

did

Panchayats

any

three

is Nyaya

reference

remuneration

reference

system

come

Panchayat?

to

of this

person?

be

two

state

(73rd Amendment)

Act,

1992.

the following questions: on

a uniform

Panchayati

Raj

basis

all over

the

country?

System.

of its functions.

the following: (c)

Samiti,

the following questions:

institutions?

set up

of the

Its function.

to the Panchayat

answer

institutions.

answer

Mention

Panchayat,

(b)

areas,

of the Constitution

achievements

to Gram

in rural

features

Raj

the

Important

answer

office bearers.

the following questions:

(a)

What is known as the Panchayat Samiti? Who is the head of the Panchayat Samiti? How is he appointed?

(b)

State the composition

(c)

List four functions of the Panchayat reference

of the Panchayat

to the Panchayati and

Raj

State the name

composition

(b)

Who

(c)

List four functions of the apex body.

answer

of the apex

is the head of local government

Thinking

Samiti.

Samiti.

System

(a)

the following questions:

body.

at the district level? How is he elected?

Skills

1.

A large number of people in the villages are illiterate and are carried away by caste — and creed politics. In this scenario, do you think Panchayati Raj system is effective na 4 in providing good governance in the villages? Give reasons to support your answer.

2.

Do

you

think

various welfare Give

two

digitalisation

schemes

examples

villages will help

in the

introduced

to support

your

carks aula eid ¢ >

® >

¢, =

Total History and Civics—IX

in providing

by the Central government answer.

e.% 2 Oe

ia

is the

of self-government

four salient

lts composition.

5. With

—§{

1992 provide for in respect of organisation

Panchayats?

self-government

significance

any

respect

4. With

on

to local self-government

(a)

(a)

Ne

of Gandhiji

Act,

Questions

reference

3. With

IV.

the view

(73rd Amendment)

simi

the benefits

of |

to the villagers?

my

c

3

CHAPTER

6

)

—_ Local Self-Government” —Urban SENT

Te SES

0m ww

Local

00 a we a on 0 00 a 0

ee OG

0

wo

Ot

ie ese

we

a

a

urban local bodies more effective, the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992, also known as the Nagarpalika and Municipalities Act was passed.

Self-Government-—Urban

The

Urban: Municipal Committees and Municipal Corporations—meaning and functions. (eee

sew

e wee

de meme

eee

eww

ewes

eee

ewww

ew

eee

wee

eee

with

a population

of more

for urban

local bodies

had

become

weak

and ineffective on account of a variety of reasons including the failure to hold regular elections. As a result Urban Local Bodies were not able

as under:

areas

Urban Self-Governing Bodies

; Corporation

ee Municipal

Committees

Town Area Committee

the

In addition, there are Town Area Committees, Cantonment Boards and Port Trusts in certai n urban areas.

to perform effectively as vibrant democratic units of self-government. In order to make the

Municipal

are

(i) Municipal Corporations for larger urban areas. (ii) Municipal Councils for smaller urban areas. (iii) Nagar Panchayats for areas in transition from a rural area to urban area.

THE CONSTITUTION (74TH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1992 States

Act

for women under each category of SC/ ST/Backward Classes. (v) District Planning Committee to be constituted by the State Government. The Act provides for three tier local bodies

than 40 lakh are known as metropolitan cities. The local self-government institutions in all these areas function independent of one another.

In many

of the

(iv) 33 per cent of the seats should be reserved

towns are called cities. According to the Census cities

features

(i) The Act gives constitutional status to urban local bodies. (ii) The Act provides for direct election to all the local self-government bodies. (iii) A fixed tenure of five years for the municipalities has been prescribed.

a

An urban area is regarded as one which is a town or a city, has minimum population of 5000 and at least 75 per cent of its population should be engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. A town is generally regarded as a smaller urban area. Large Commission,

salient

following:

'

’

Cantonment

Port Trust

Board

' Improvement Board

Notified Area Committee

Local Self-Government—Urban

|

Se

Corporation

unit in big cities. The

Municipal

functions or

and

Corporation

through

departments,

Sewage

is a local self-government

well

For

Disposal

carries

organised

example,

out

its

divisions

Water

Supply

Undertaking,

Housing

Board, Education Department and Electricity Department. Each of these departments are

looked

after

by

persons.

experienced

and

qualified

ELECTION

The members of the Corporation are elected in the same way as members of the Legislative Assembly. However instead of Constituency, Municipal areas are known as Wards. The elections are held on

the basis of Universal Adult Franchise through secret ballot. The number of representatives

depends on the population

of the city.

TERM

A fixed tenure of five years has been provided in the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992. It can be dissolved even before the completion

of its term by the Governor of the State on the advice of the Council of Ministers. However,

the

election for the Municipal Corporation should be completed before the expiry of its term. In case of dissolution, elections should six months of its dissolution.

be held within

Municipal Corporation

’

v

‘Mayor

ey

v

General

Standing

Municipal

Council

Committees

Commissioner

COMPOSITION

A Municipal Corporation comprises the following:

|

(a) General Council. (b) The Mayor.

(c) (a)

The Standing Committees. A Municipal Commissioner. (a) General Council: The General Council is

|

|—

formed of elected members known as Municipal Councillors. These members are elected directly on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise through secret ballot. The number of seats in a Corporation

ia

| Total History and Civics-IX

=

—

The Municipal Corporation of Delhi The Municipal Corporation of Delhi had its first

formal meeting on June 1, 1863. According | to officials the municipality came

into being |

ener]

Municipal

CORPORATION

ee

in February 1863 and acted as a constituent — committee to frame by laws to run the city. The year also marked the setting up of the first sanitation and

a

conservancy

system

with |

Unani dispensary in Sadar Bazar as well

as the introduction of registration births and deaths. The next year saw the introduction of fire fighting system, water supply and taxation. Municipal Corporation of Delhi as set up by the an Act of Parliament in 1958 is the second largest municipal body in the world.

depends

on the population

of the city and

is

determined by the State government. There are reserved constituencies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The General Council

co-opts some members as Aldermen. They are generally eminent persons of the city and are nominated by the Governor. The General Council

appoints many other officials except the Municipal Commissioner.

(b) Mayor: Aldermen

The

elect

Councillors

from

together with

amongst

themselves

the Mayor and the Deputy Mayor. They are generally elected for a period of one year but can be re-elected the Corporation.

annually

for the full term

of

Functions of the Mayor (i) Considered as the First Citizen’, he/she represents the city at various ceremonies

and

receives

foreign

guests

coming

to

visit the city. This is considered his most important duty.

(ii) He/She presides over the meetings of the Corporation.

(iii) He/She regulates and conducts business of the Corporation. (iv) He/She fixes the agenda for consideration at the meetings of the Corporation. (v) He/She obtains reports from the Municipal Commissioner regarding various projects and programmes undertaken by the Corporation. (vi) He/She acts as a link between the Corporation and

the State government.

ee ee

MUNICIPAL

ee

Optional Functions ,

Lighting

Transportation

Rest Houses

Health Services

Functions of Municipal Corporation

(ec)

Standing

Committees:

The

members

functions and discretionary or optional functions

ef the General Council are represented on Standing Committees through elections. There are different Standing Committees to deal with subjects like finance, health, engineering, taxation and welfare schemes. (d) Municipal Commissioner: The Municipal Commissioner is appointed by the Governor usually for a term of 5 years. In the case of Union Territory, he/she is appointed by the Central

(functions depending on availability of funds). 1. Compulsory Functions: These include: (i) Provision of electricity, water, sewage disposal. These functions are carried through various departments which have

Government. He/She is the Chief Executive of the Corporation. His/Her functions include the following:

provision of hospitals, dispensaries, family welfare centres. It has to organise and carry on special public health measures to

(i) To carry on and control the administration (u) Toimplement the projects and programmes

as laid down by the General Council.

{iii) To maintain and safeguard all municipal etc.

records

(iv) To prepare financial budgets and perform other related functions. (v) To take part in the meetings of the Council but he cannot move any resolution or vote

He also keeps records

in the meetings. of the minutes meetings.

and

of the

proceedings

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUNICIPAL CORPORATION The Municipal Corporation is the local government

unit

of the

city.

It deals

with

selfall

the matters that concern the residents of the city. These functions are generally divided into two

categories—the

the Corporation. (ii) Provision

of public

health

services

like

prevent spread of communicable diseases.

Removal and disposal of garbage, dealing

of the Corporation.

properties,

the services of experts and engineers who are appointed as full time employees of

obligatory

or compulsory

with other city wastes are priority functions. The Corporation appoints its own staff to carry on these functions. (iii) Provision of public conveniences and utilities like roads, buildings, bus-shelters,

demolition

of dangerous

structures,

plantation of trees, provision of public urinals and toilets. (iv) Provision of educational institutions like primary and secondary schools including organisation of adult literacy classes, organising and undertaking promotion of sports and games and providing necessary facilities. (v) Maintenance of records of births and deaths and maintenance and upkeep of cremation and burial grounds.

(vi) Undertaking of public safety and security like maintenance of fire together with fire engines;

Local Self-Government—Urban

department disaster like

|

a—

floods

and

earthquake

management

groups ete. (vii)

Preparation, publishing and issuing of annual report of the Corporation stating Us various activities, projects and

programmes 2,

Discretionary

or

Optional

Functions:

These include the following: housing

boards. of public theatre,

Municipal Councils and Municipal Corporations are constituted in smaller urban areas and larger urban areas respectively. The Governor of a state determines the areas for different forms of urban bodies based on the population of the area, density of population,

revenue generated by the local body, percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities and other factors.

MUNICIPAL

COMMITTEE

A Municipal Committee is set up for smaller towns. Such bodies are also called Municipal Boards or Municipalities. Their organisation is more or less similar to Municipal Corporation. Due to their smaller size these have generally

Medical camp being organised by Municipal Corporation

three wings—General Body, Chairman/ President, Chief Executive Officer or the Secretary. (a) General Body of the Municipal Committee: The members of the General

Body

of the Municipal

—_—§_

ia

| Total History and Civics—IX

are

called

Eligibility: Eligibility for contesting elections

to the General Body of the Municipal Committee are same as in the case of Municipal Corporation. Term: According to the new Nagarpalika Act, all rural and urban local self-government bodies have a uniform term of 5 years in all states.

(b) Chairman/President: A Chairperson and a Vice-Chairperson are elected indirectly by the members from among themselves. The Chairperson of a Municipality enjoys vast powers. His functions are similar to those of the Mayor. (Kindly refer to Functions of Mayor)

(c) Chief

Municipal Corporation constructs and maintains roads and flyovers

Committee

Councillors. They are elected from Municipal wards. The number of members depends on the population of the city.

Executive

Officer:

The

Chief-

Executive Officer is an appointee of the State government and usually belongs to the State Civil Services. He looks after the administrative wing of the Municipal Committee. Other Office Bearers: Like in the case of Municipal Corporation, a Municipal Committee also has various departments like Education, Health, Engineering, Taxation etc. These departments are under the administrative contro} of senior officers and engineers or other

experts.

Fv

akharas, picnic resorts etc. (iii) Establishing and maintaining children’s homes, orphanages, old-age homes, night shelters and rest houses. (iv) Undertaking welfare schemes, organising fares, functions, melas. (v) Beautification of city.

Pinar

through

Construction and maintenance parks, libraries, museums,

Fie.

(i) Public housing (ii)

y reeme a

COOPERATION AND COORDINATION BETWEEN LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT Txe

District

by the Superintendent of Police. Under him, work deputy superintendents, inspectors and subedars. A number of villages are provided a police chowki and a chowkidar is also placed on

ADMINISTRATION

duty in each village. Other important officers at

A distinction has already been drawn between the local self-government unit and the local government. The local government in an area functions at the district level under the

the district

A Deputy Commissioner often these functions. He is also the

highest officer in a district for the purpose revenue collection District Collector.

Appointment:

and

The

is therefore

Deputy

officers, heading under the Deputy

also influences the policies and programmes of the Panchayats. Functions: The Deputy Commissioner is the

also called

Commissioner

chief executive officer of the district. As such he performs almost every function of local government in the district. These include:

Commissioner all aspects of of local affairs. of government

various departments, Commissioner. Among

(i) Collection of Revenue.

(ii) Maintenance and Updating of land record. (iii) Law and Order. (iv) Supervision and execution of all plans of the Union and State governments. (v) Provision of civic amenities and execution

work these

officers some are exclusively deputed to rural areas

with

variety

of duties.

These

Officer,

represented on the Zila Parishad. Therefore, he

of

belongs to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and is appointed by the State government.

A District Collector or Deputy is a highly trained officer in administration and management Other Office Bearers: A number

Chief Medical

All of these government officers work in close cooperation and coordination with the Panchayats often through the Block Development Officer, Further the Deputy Commissioner is also

overall charge of a District Collector or Deputy Commissioner. combines both

level include

Inspector of Education and District Judge, etc.

of public works.

include

(vi) Implementation of policies and programmes

Tehsildar, Naib Tehsildars, Kanungos, Lekhpal or Patwari all concerned with preparation

in respect of Panchayati Raj institutions. (vii)

and maintenance of land records and revenue

Supersession, election,

collection from district down to village level. At the district level law and order is looked after

etc.,

dissolution, in

respect

holding

of

of Panchayati

Raj institutions.

Difference Between a Municipal Corporation and a Municipal Committee Municipal Committee

Municipal Corporation

1 These are meant for big cities.

1.

2 The head of the corporation is known as Mayor.

2. The head of a Municipal committee is known as Chairperson/President.

3. Ithas more powers and more sources of revenue.

3. It has comparatively less powers and fewer sources of revenue.

“4, It deals with the State government directly,

4.

These are meant for smaller cities.

|tdeals with the State government through the District Administration.

—_< EXERCISES >— ieS So I. Multiple-Choice Choose 1.

Questions

the correct

answers

to the questions from

the given options.

Which of the following statements correctly describe an urban area? (a) It has a minimum population of 10,000.

(b)

At least 75 per cent of its population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.

Local Self-Government—Urban

| 179

td

(c)

At least 5O per cent of its population is literate.

(da)

All of the above.

The Councillors together with Deputy

(a) (c)

4.

(a)

Sabha

(c)

Ballots

7.

8.

Panchayat:

II.

small urban

Wards Boards

area rural and

Areas in transition between

Nagar Panchayat:

(d)

Municipal Corporation: large urban areas

urban

What is the tenure of a Municipal Corporation? 6 years

(b)

5S years

(c)

1 year

(d)

3 years

Which of the following is NOT a part of Municipal Corporation? (a)

The Mayor

(b)

Standing Committees

(c)

General Council

(d)

Municipal Board

Which of the following is NOT a part of compulsory function of a Municipal Corporation? (a)

Provision of public health services

(b) (c)

Provision of electricity, water, sewage disposal Undertaking of public safety and security

(d)

Provision of housing for all.

The Deputy Commissioner of a Municipal Committee belongs to which cadre?

IPS

(b)

IAS

(c)

IFS

(a)

IRS

Which of the following deals with the State government directly? Municipal Committee Municipal Corporation

The members

(a) (c) 11.

(b) (ad)

Gram Panchayat Zila Parishad

of the Municipal Corporation are elected in the same way as members

Legislative Council Lok Sabha

(b) (d)

Short

Legislative Assembly Rajya Sabha

(a)

The Alderman

(b)

The Mayor

(c)

The President

(d)

The Commissioner

Answer

Questions by the term

urban area?

2. Mention any two salient features of the Constitution (74the Amendment 3. How is a Municipal Corporation

i

of the

Who is known as the First Citizen’, and represents the City at various ceremonies?

1. What do you understand

—

the Mayor and the

Minister Collectors

(b) (ad)

Municipal Council: smaller urban areas

(a) (c) 10.

themselves

: Constituencies :: Municipal Corporation :

(c)

(a) 9.

(b) (ad)

(b)

(a) 6.

elect from amongst

Which of the following is NOT correct? (a)

5.

Chief Minister Alderman

Legislative Assemblies

3.

—__

Mayor.

| Total History and Civics-IX

Act),

set up? What are wards in a Municipal area?

1992.

& a

- Who

oD

|

a

Who

as the

Mayor?

State one of the most

important

functions

is the ‘First Citizen’ of the city? Give reason. Name one compulsory and one optional function of the Municipal

. What

is the

- What

is known

Who

i. With

tenure as

or term

of office of a Municipal

Municipal

Committee?

Who

reference

to Municipal

Corporation,

answer

State

its composition.

(ob)

State

any

(c)

State any four functions of the Corporation.

three

General

(b)

Standing

(c)

Municipal

(a)

functions

the role of each

(a)

. With

Mayor.

Corporation.

head

of the Municipal

Committee?

Committee?

Questions

(a)

. Give

of the

Corporation?

is the

is the Chief Executive Officer of a Municipal

Structured

nd

m.

is known

Council

regard

the following questions:

of the Mayor.

of the following in the Municipal

Corporation:

of the Corporation.

Committees. Commissioner.

to the working

of a Municipal

Corporation

answer

the following questions:

Giving three examples, state how compulsory functions are distinguished from optional functions.

(b)

What

(c)

Who is the Municipal Commissioner? How is he appointed?

. With

organisational

regard

system

to the Municipal

(a)

Distinguish

(b)

Describe

(c)

What

between

exists for carrying out these functions?

Corporation

Municipal

the three wings

Corporation

of the Municipal

and

Municipal

Committee.

Committee.

is the role of the Deputy Commissioner at the district level? z\

Thinking Skills 1.

Do

you

think

that

the

urban

local

bodies

in your

city are

effectively

performing

their role? Give examples from your personal experience to support your answer.

Local Self-Government—Urban

| ..

)

Tiltiritittft fT. Titrtttttfhtfhtft |

P Appendix

mT TT oo a a a

1

[ Course Content-Syllabus | [PAPER I: HISTORY AND CIVICS | Aims:

1. 2.

To provide

an

student

grow

to

To enrich crucial

understanding into

of the working

a responsible,

the understanding

of the Indian

enlightened

citizen

of those aspects of Indian

to the understanding

of contemporary

government

in a secular

necessary

for the

democracy.

historical development

which

are

India.

3.

To awaken a desirable understanding in pupils of the various streams which have contributed to the development and growth of the Indian nation and its civilisation and culture.

4.

To develop a world historical perspective of the contributions made the

total

heritage

by various cultures to

of mankind. CLASS

Ix

There will be one paper of two hours duration carrying 80 marks and Internal Assessment of 20 marks. The paper will be divided into two parts, Part I and Part II. Part I (30 marks) Candidates

will contain short answer questions set from the entire syllabus.

will be required to answer all questions.

Part II (50 marks) will consist of Section A and Section B. Candidates will be required to answer two out of three questions from Section A and three out of five questions from Section B. The sections will correspond to the sections indicated in the syllabus. SECTION

An elementary study Articles in detail. 1. Our

is required

of this

A:

section

CIVICS

without

verbatim

study

of the

Constitutional

Constitution

Definition of Constitution — date of adoption, date of enforcement and its significance. Features: Single Citizenship, Universal Adult Franchise, Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties, Directive Principles of State Policy (meaning), Welfare State. 2. Elections

Meaning; Composition of Election Commission election; Mid-term election and By-election. 3.

Local

(i)

(in bref); Direct and Indirect election; General

Self-Government

Rural:

Three-tier system

of Panchayati

Raj—

Gram

Panchayat,

Panchayat

Samiti,

Parishad — their meaning and functions. (ii)

——

ra

Urban : Municipal Committees and Municipal Corporations—meaning and functions.

| Total History and Civics-IX

Zila

SECTION . The

Harappan

Bath,

Origin,

urban

extent,

Vedic

Sources;

and

Brief comparative and

. The

planning,

Trade,

art

Epics

study

(brief mention); of arly

and

and

tron Artifacts

Later

serpt

iia deeline,

Vedie

and

woclely

Pottery.

and

economy.

Tripitikas and Jatakas (brief mention).

for their rise in the 6th century

Mauryan

Sources;

G& erafi,

daneing gil, dockyard,

Buddhism

Sources: Angas, Causes

Citadel, seals, bearded man,

Period

Vedas

. Jainism

HISTORY

Civilisation

Sources; Great

The

B:

B.C.;

Doctrines.

Empire

Arthashastra,

Indika,

Ashokan

Edicts,

Sanchi

Stupa,

Political history and administration (Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka); Ashoka’s Dharma, . The

Sangam

Sources;

Tirukkural

A brief study . The

Age

Sources:

Age and

of society

of the Accounts

Megaliths. and

economy.

Guptas of Fa-hien;

Allahabad

Pillar Inscription.

Political history and administration (Samudragupta and Chandragupta Vikramaditya); Contribution to the fields of Education (Nalanda University), Science (Aryabhatta) and Culture (works of Kalidasa, Deogarh temple). . Medieval

(a)

The

India

Cholas

Sources:

Inscriptions,

Brihadeshwara

Temple.

Political history and administration (Rajarajal, Rajendra 1). (b)

The

Delhi

Sources:

Sultanate Inscriptions;

Qutub

Minar.

Political history and administration (Qutbuddin Aibak, Alauddin

Khilji and Muhammad

Bin Tughlaq). (c)

The

Mughal

Empire

Sources: Ain-i-Akbari,

Taj Mahal, Jama

Masjid and Red Fort.

Political history and administration (Babur, Akbar and Aurangzeb).

Appendix 1 | Pe

_

(d)

Composite Sources:

Culture Bijak,

Guru

Granth

Significance of Bhakti Nizamudadin).

8.

Influence

of Christianity

Modern

Age

The (a)

in

Sahib,

Movements

(St.

Francis

Ajmer Sharie/, and

Sufism

St,

Francis

(Mirabai,

Sant

Asaisl

Church

Jnanesivar

(Kochi), and

Hagrat

Xavier).

Europe

Renaissance Definition, causes (capture of Constantinople, decline of Feudalism, new trade routes, spirit of enquiry and invention of the printing press) and impact on art, literature and sctence (Leonardo

(b)

Da

Vinci,

Shakespeare

and

Copernicus).

Reformation Causes

(dissatisfaction

Luther’s contribution,

(c)

William

Industrial

with the practices of the Catholic Church and new

learning); Martin

Counter Reformation.

Revolution

Definition of the term. Comparative study of Socialism and Capitalism.

| INTERNAL ASSESSMENT Any one project/assignment related to the syllabus. Suggested Assignments

‘The Indian Constitution protects the rights of children, women, minorities and weaker sections,’ Elaborate on the basis of a case study.

‘Fundamental Duties complement

Fundamental

Rights.’ Illustrate with the help of a Power

Point Presentation. Highlight the civic issues of your locality and what

suggestions

would

you

offer to address

them.

Visit

a museum

or local site of historical importance and discuss its significance.

Discuss the art and architectural features of any of these monuments: Buddhist Caves, Ajanta; Iron Pillar, Mehrauli; Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur; Mattancherry Synagogue, Cochin; Kamakhya Temple, Guwahati;

St. Thomas

Make a pictorial presentation Revolution.

Basilica, Chennai; Tower of Silence, Mumbai.

of inventions and

innovations

as a result of the Industrial

Make a comparative study of the Harappan and the Mesopotamian Civilisations.

—§_

ra

Total History and Civics-IX

Ce

oe

_ Specimen Paper | ee

ee

History,

Civics

Paper

|

to

this

You

paper

ual

NOT

must

be

be allowed

Geography

(History (Two

Answers

&

&

Civica)

hours)

written

on

to unte

the

during

paper

provided

the first

1S

separately

minutes

This fime ts to be spent in reading the question paper The

time

giwen

at

the

head

Azemyxt all questions from Part

of

this

Paper

I (Compulsory).

is

the

time

allowed

A total of five

for

questions

writing

the

answers

are to be attempted

from

Pertil, two out of three questions from Section A and three out of five questions from Section B. The wtended

marks for questions or parts of questions are given in brackets [

}.

PART I (30 Marks} Attempt all questions from this Part. Qnestion

Choose

1

the correct

answers

to the questions from

the given

options.

{16}

fi} Right to Freedom is a cluster of six essential freedoms and their protection. But the State can make laws to impose limitations on these rights. Which of the following can be a limitation? (a)

No one can displace tribal communities

and settle in their territory despite the right to

settle in any part of the country. (b) The government can prescribe certain minimum educational qualifications for entry into a job. (c)

No person can be deprived of his/her life and liberty.

(d)

All of them.

(ii) Which of the following statements about the election to the Municipal Corporation are correct? (P)

:

Members are elected directly from the municipal areas called Wards on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise.

(Q)

:

Members are nominated by the Members of Legislative Assemblies.

(R)

:

The number of representatives depends on the population of the city and are elected for a period of 5 years.

(S)

:

It cannot be dissolved before the completion of its term.

(a) "The

students

PandQ_

are requested

(b)

PandR

to check

the Latest

(c)

RandS

Specimen

Paper

(d) to be issued

QandR by the Council.

somen? | a —

(iii)

Given

below are details of a few Indian citizens. Candidate _

W

———

——

a

Zz

ee

Other a registered | vote rin

.

years

JO years

;

.

20 Oyears

the constituency.

‘holds an office of profit

:

Details

oe

undischarged solvent

25 years: Tan

|

a PY

21

_

|

.

Age

under

the ‘government

| a registerred voter in the case of Panchayats

_

Select the person who fulfils the eligibility criteria to become a member of the local self-government institutions in rural and urban areas. (a)

W

(b) X

(c) Y

(d) Z

(iv) For how long a person detained under Preventive Detention can be kept in custody without trial? (a) For three days (b) For three weeks (c)

For three months

(d)

For three years.

(v) —_________ are the in-charge of polling booths and counting centres at the time of elections,

(a) (c) (vi)

Polling Officers Presiding Officers

(b) Returning Officers (d) Designated Officers.

Panchayat Samiti : _________:: (a)

Village

Zila Parishad : District.

(b) Black

(c) City

(vii) Read the two statements given below relationship between (A) and (B). (A)

and

(d) Town

select the option

that

shows

the correct

Hinayana sect does not believe that Buddha was God.

(B) Mahayana sect believes that Buddha was an incarnation of God. (a)

(B) contradicts (A)

(b) (B) is the reason for (A)

(c)

(A) is true but (B) is false

(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.

(viii) Which of the following was NOT a trading coastal town of the Indus Valley Civilisation? (a) (ix)

Balakot

(b) Banawali

The philosophical commentaries

(c) Lothal

(d) Surkotada

on the Vedas were called the

(a) Vedangas (b) Upavedas (c) Upanishads (x) With respect to source of wealth complete the following: Land

(b) Jewellery

(d) Darshanas

.

Early Vedic Age : Cattle :: Later Vedic Age : (a)

.

(d) Coins

(c) Cows

(xi) The landed aristocrats, who cultivated wetlands during the Sangam Age were called (a)

Kadasiyar

(b)

Adimai

(4)

(c) Vellalars

Marutam

(xii) Who, among the following, visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II? (d) None of the these. (c) I-tsing (b) Hiuen Tsang (a) Fa-hein (xiii) Who was the founder of the Slave dynasty? Ruknuddin

(a)

Iltutmish

(b)

(c)

Qutubuddin Aibak

(a) Muhammad

(a)

Sulh-kul

Ghori

(xiv) A new faith promulgated by Akbar was known as ________. (b)

Mahzar

(c)

Ibadat

(xv) Kabir : Bijak :: Namdev : (a) Amritanubhava

—

EH

(b) Padavali

Total History and Civics-IX

(c) Abhangas

(d)

Din-i-Mahi

(d) Shabda

x)

Which of the following was NOT a change associated with the Industrial Revolution?

(a) Production by machines

(b) Wages to the employees for their labour

ic)

(d) Domestic system of production.

oeestion

Large scale production of goods 2

=) State any two ways in which the script of the Indus Valley Civilization provides us with valuable historical information. [2] =} Name the Epics written during the Later Vedic period. [2] =) List any two sources of information about the Mauryan Empire. [2] =v} What are Megaliths? [2] wy) State any two architectural features of Qutub Minar. [2] ml Mention any two reasons to state that the decline of Feudalism led to the rise of the Renaissance. [2] va) Define the term Industrial Revolution. [2]

PART

II

SECTION

A

Answer any two questions from this Section. Question

Wh

3

reference to the salient features of the Indian Constitution answer the following questions: fi} Define the term ‘Constitution’. State any two reasons for its significance. [3] (a) State any three freedoms given under the ‘Right to Freedom’. [3]

(ii) Mention

any two differences between the Fundamental Rights and Directive

Principles of State Policy. Qzestion

4

Sections

play

a very

significant

[4] role in our

Indian

Democracy.

2 the light of this statement, answer the following questions: (i) State the composition of the Election Commission. fi) Under what circumstances can a ‘By-election’ be held?

[3] [3]

fii) Explain the terms ‘General Election’ and ‘Mid- term Election’.

[4]

Question 5 local self-government in India is essential for building democracy 5 this context, answer the following questions:

from

the grassroots.

[3] [3] [4]

fi) State the three-tier system of the Panchayati Raj system. fa) Give any three functions of a Municipal Committee. {ii} State any two functions of the following: (b) Panchayat Samiti. (a) Gram Panchayat SECTION

B

Attempt any three questions from this Section.

Question 6 With reference to the Bhakti Movement,

—

Sufism and

Christianity, answer

the following questions:

[3]

ft) Mention the teachings of Kabir as mentioned in the Bijak.

sees |

{u) State the significance of Sufism on Indian (isi)

State

any

two

contributions

of St.

Socicty.

Francis

Xavier

[3] in

the

advancement

of

Christianity in India. Question

[4]

7

(i) State any three social changes the Position of Women. (uj)

State

fil)

Mention

Question

any

(i)

about

that existed

during

in the Later Vedic Period in relation to [3] the

Vedic Age.

any two similarities in the teachings of Jainism

and

[3]

Buddhism,

[4]

8

reference

With

three occupations

that came

How

to the

Modern

Age

the

invention

of

did

answer

in Europe, the

Printing

Press

the following questions: lead

to

the

rise

of the

Renaissance

Europe? State

(iil)

Mention

Question Study

{3] three contributions

any

(ii)

any

two differences

of Martin

between

Luther

in reforming

‘Capitalism’ and

the Church

in Europe.

[3]

[4]

‘Socialism’.

9

the Picture

given

below

(i) Identify the structure

and

answer

given above.

its significance as a source

(ii) State

the following questions:

Where

(3]

is it located?

of information

about

the Harappan

(iii) Explain its irnportance as a scientific marvel for maritime trade. Question

in

Civilisation.

{3]

[4]

10

With reference to the irmpact of the Renaissance in the field of Literature, Art and Science, state the contributions of: (3] (i) Leonardo da Vinci in the field of Art. [3] (ii) William Shakespeare in the field of Literature.

(iii) Copernicus in the field of Astronomy.

—_—_

| Total History and Civics—IxX

(4)