The Spanish Blue Division on the Eastern Front, 1941-1945: War, Occupation, Memory (Toronto Iberic) 9781487541651, 9781487541682, 9781487541668, 1487541651

In 1941, the Franco regime established the Spanish Division of Volunteers to take part in the Russian campaign as a unit

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Table of contents :
Cover
Half-Title Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Abbreviations
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction: The Blue Division, the Franco Regime, and the Second World War
Placing the Blue Division within New Military History
Enemies and Friends: Russia, Germany, and Spanish Fascism (1917–41)
From the Imagined Russian to the Real Russian (1917–41)
Hitler, German Nazism, and Spanish Fascism (1930–41)
Italian and German Echoes (1924–36)
Fascinated by the Third Reich (1936–41)
2 Russia Is Guilty!
Extermination and Brutalization: Operation Barbarossa and a Different Kind of War
Allies in the “European Crusade against Bolshevism”
European Volunteers against Bolshevism: Myth and Reality
Spanish Volunteers against the USSR: Recruitment, Sending, and the Nature of the Blue Division
Who Volunteered for the Blue Division?
The “Fever” of the Summer of 1941
The Replacements of 1942–3: Mercenaries, Conscripts, or Volunteers?
Social and Prosopographic Profile of the Volunteers
Falangists, Ex-combatants, and “Wartime Francoists”
Clearing Your Military Record ... or Deserting
“Spain on the Volkhov”: Falangism in the Blue Division
3 A Long March: From Central Europe to the Volkhov Front
The Wehrmacht and Spanish Soldiers
The Admired Wehrmacht: An Egalitarian Army?
Spanish and German Soldiers: Stereotypes, Coexistence, and Conflict
On the German Home Front
The “Achievements” of the Third Reich: Spanish Impressions
Iberians and Bavarians
German Girls: “A Taste of Paganism and Nature”
Occupied Populations on the March to the Front: Spaniards, Poles, and Baltic Peoples
4 The Blue Division on the Front
Lost Victories: The Volkhov Front (October 1941–August 1942)
War of Positions in the Siege of Leningrad (September 1942–November 1943)
The Short-Lived Blue Legion (December 1943–March 1944)
Life on the Front: The Daily Experience of Spanish Combatants
Cold, Filth, Boredom … and Peril
Jünger or Remarque?
Comradeship and the Cult of the Fallen
5 Occupation Practices of the Blue Division in Northwest Russia
Another Image of the Enemy
From “the Horde” to “the Ruski”
Victims, Exotics, and Noble Savages: Russian Civilians
A “Stinking and Depraved Poverty”
The Karamazov Revived?
A Pseudo-Asiatic People?
The Noble Savage: An Opportunity for Redemption
An Idyllic Relationship? The Occupiers and the Occupied
Colourful and Undisciplined Occupiers
Sleeping with the Enemy
Ugly Panienkas, Idealized Katiushas, and the Children
Dealing with Partisans: Benevolence or Inefficacy?
The Spanish Division and the “Jewish Question”
Anti-Semitism without Jews
Encountering the Eastern European Jews, 1941–3
Grodno, Oshmiany, Vilnius, and Riga
Protectors or Bystanders?
6 The Last Crusaders of the Nazi New Order (1944–5)
Spaniards in the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS (1944–5)
Nazis, Radical Falangists, and Survivors
7 War Veterans and Memories from the Eastern Front in Franco’s Spain (1942–75)
Prosopography of the Trajectories of BD Returnees
Agents of Memory: Blue Division Veterans’ Associations
The Blue Division Post-war Narrative
Clichés in Blue Division Memory
An Unpleasant Topic: The Holocaust
Epilogue: “We Were Right!” The “Conversion” of Russia
8 Conclusion: A Spanish Exception in the War of Extermination?
Notes
Sources and References
Index
Toronto Iberic
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The Spanish Blue Division on the Eastern Front, 1941-1945: War, Occupation, Memory (Toronto Iberic)
 9781487541651, 9781487541682, 9781487541668, 1487541651

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THESPAN ISHBLUED IV IS ION ONTHEEASTERN FRONT ,1941–1945 W a r ,O c cupa t ion ,M emo ry X o s éM .Núñ e zS e ix a s

In1941 ,th eF ran cor eg im ee s tab l i sh edth eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r stotak epa r tinth eRu s s iancampa igna saun i tin t eg ra t edin toth e G e rman W eh rma ch t .R e c ru i t edbybo thth eFa s c i s tPa r ty(F a l ang e)and th eSpan i sha rmy ,a round47 ,000Span i shvo lun t e e r s jo in ed wha t wou ld b e com eknowna sth e“B lu eD iv i s ion .” Th eSp an i shB lu eD iv i s i ononth eE a s t e rnF r on t ,1941–1945exp lo r e s anin t ima t eh i s to ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion“ f romb e low ,”u s ing p e rsona l wa rd ia r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,and m emo i r s ,a sw e l la so ff c ia ldo cum en t s f romm i l i ta rya r ch iv e sin Spa in ,G e rmany, B r i ta in ,and Ru s s ia .In add i t iontod e s c r ib ingth eSpan i shexp e r i en c eonth eEa s t e rnF ron t , Xo s é M . Núñ ezS e ixa stak e soncon t rov e r s ia ltop i c sin c lud ingth e B lu eD iv i s ion ’ sp rox im i tytoth e Ho lo cau s tandhow m emb e r so fth e B lu eD iv i s ionhav eb e enr em emb e r edandcomm emo ra t ed . Add r e s singi s su e ssu cha sth eb ehav iou ro fth eSpan ia rd sa so c cup i e r s ,th e i r p e r c ep t ionbyth e Ru s s ian s ,th e i rw i tn e s s ingo fth e Ho lo cau s t ,th e i r comm i tm en ttoth e wa ra im so f Naz iG e rmany ,andth e i rna r ra t iv e s onth e wa ra f t e r1945 ,th i sbooki l lum ina t e sth eexp e r i en c eo fSpan i sh comba tan t sando c cup i edc iv i l ian s . (T o ron toIb e r i c ) XOSÉ M . NÚÑEZSE IXAS i sap ro f e s so ro f mod e rnEu rop eanh i s to rya t th eUn iv e r s i tyo fSan t iagod eCompo s t e la .

Th i s  pag e   in t en t iona l l y   l e f t  b lan k  

XOSÉ M . NÚÑEZSE IXAS T ran s la t edbyAnd r eaB lan ch ,Dan i e lB lan ch , andC ra igPa t t e r son

Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ion onth eEa s t e rnF ron t , 1941–1945 : W a r ,O c cupa t ion ,M emo ry

UN IVERS ITY OFTORONTOPRESS T o ron to Bu f fa lo London

© Un iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s s2022 T o ron to Bu f fa lo London u to ron top r e s s . com P r in t edinCanada ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4165 -1( c lo th ) ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4166 -8(pap e r )

ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4168 -2(EPUB ) ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4167 -5(PDF )

L ib ra ryandA r ch ive sCanadaCa ta logu inginPub l i ca t ion T i t l e :Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,1941–1945: wa r , o c cupa t ion ,m emo ry/Xo s éM . Núñ ezS e ixa s;t ran s la t edbyAnd r ea B lan ch ,Dan i e lB lan ch ,andC ra igPa t t e r son . O th e rt i t l e s :Cama radainv i e rno .Eng l i sh Nam e s : Núñ ezS e ixa s ,Xo s éM .(Xo s é Mano e l ) ,1966–au tho r . S e r i e s :T o ron toIb e r i c;72 . D e s c r ip t ion :S e r i e ss ta t em en t :T o ron toIb e r i c;72|T ran s la t iono f :Cama rada inv i e rno:exp e r i en c iay m emo r iad elaD iv i s iónAzu l(1941–1945 ) .| In c lud e sb ib l iog raph i ca lr e f e r en c e sandind ex . Id en t if e r s :Canad iana(p r in t )2021037750X|Canad iana( ebook ) 20210377569|ISBN9781487541651( c lo th )|ISBN9781487541668(pap e r )| ISBN9781487541682(EPUB )|ISBN9781487541675(PDF ) Sub j e c t s :LCSH :G e rmany .H e e r .In fan t e r i ed iv i s ion(1941–1943 ) ,250 .| LCSH :G e rmany .H e e r .In fan t e r i ed iv i s ion(1941–1943 ) ,250 .–B iog raphy .| LCSH :W o r ld W a r ,1939–1945–Campa ign s–Sov i e tUn ion .|LCSH : W o r ld W a r ,1939–1945–Spa in .|LCSH :W o r ld W a r ,1939–1945– R eg im en ta lh i s to r i e s–G e rmany . C la s s if ca t ion :LCCD757 .32 .N86C36132022|DDC940 .54/1343–d c23

W ew i shtoa cknow l edg eth el andon wh i chth eUn iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s s op e r a t e s .Th i sl andi sth et r ad i t ion a lt e r r i to ryo fth eW end a t ,th eAn i shn a ab eg , th eH aud eno s aun e e ,th eM é t i s ,andth eM i s s i s s aug a so fth eC r ed i tF i r s tN a t ion . Un iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s sa cknow l edg e sth efnan c ia lsuppo r to fth e Gov e rnm en to fCanada ,th eCanadaCoun c i lfo rth eA r t s ,andth e On ta r ioA r t s Coun c i l ,anag en cyo fth eGov e rnm en to f On ta r io ,fo ri t spub l i sh inga c t iv i t i e s .

Con t en t s

L i s to fI l lu s t r a t i on s ix L i s to fA b b r ev i a t i on s x i A c kn ow l edgm en t s x i i i 1 .In t rodu c t ion :TheB lue D iv i s ion ,theF ran coReg ime ,andthe Se cond W o r ld W a r 3 P l a c ingth eB lu eD iv i s i onw i th inN ew M i l i t a ryH i s t o ry 3 En em i e sandF r i end s :Ru s s i a ,G e rm any ,andSp an i sh F a s c i sm(1917–41 ) 13 F romth eImag in edRu s s iantoth eR ea lRu s s ian (1917–41 ) 13 H i t l e r ,G e rm anN a z i sm ,andSp an i shF a s c i sm(1930–41 ) 16 I ta l ianandG e rmanE cho e s(1924–36 ) 16 Fa s c ina t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch(1936–41 ) 19 2 .Ru s s iaI s Gu i l ty ! 23 Ex t e rm in a t i onandB ru t a l i z a t i on :Op e r a t i onB a r b a r o s s aanda D i f f e r en tK indo fW a r 23 A l l i e sinth e“Eu r op e anC ru s ad eag a in s tB o l sh ev i sm” 28 Eu rop eanV o lun t e e r saga in s tBo l sh ev i sm : My thandR ea l i ty 30 Sp an i shV o lun t e e r sag a in s tth eUSSR :R e c ru i tm en t ,S end ing , andth eN a tu r eo fth eB lu eD iv i s i on 35 Wh oV o lun t e e r edf o rth eB lu eD iv i s i on? 42 Th e“F ev e r”o fth eSumm e ro f1941 45 Th eR ep la c em en t so f1942–3 :M e r c ena r i e s ,Con s c r ip t s , o rV o lun t e e r s ? 51 So c ia landP ro sopog raph i cP rof l eo fth eV o lun t e e r s 60

v i Con t en t s

Fa lang i s t s ,Ex comba tan t s ,and“W a r t im eF ran co i s t s” 66 C l ea r ingY ou rM i l i ta ryR e co rd …o rD e s e r t ing 68 “Sp a inonth eV o l kh ov” :F a l ang i sminth eB lu eD iv i s i on 71 3 .ALong Ma r ch :F romCen t ra lEu ropetotheV o lkhovF ron t 76 Th eW eh rm a ch tandSp an i shS o ld i e r s 81 Th eAdm i r ed W eh rma ch t :AnEga l i ta r ianA rmy ? 81 Span i shandG e rmanSo ld i e r s :S t e r eo typ e s ,Co ex i s t en c e , andConf i c t 83 Onth eG e rm anH om eF r on t 86 Th e“A ch i ev em en t s”o fth eTh i rdR e i ch :Span i sh Imp r e s s ion s 86 Ib e r ian sandBava r ian s 89 G e rmanG i r l s :“AT a s t eo fPagan i smand Na tu r e” 91 O c cup i edP opu l a t i on sonth eM a r cht oth eF r on t :Sp an i a rd s , P o l e s ,andB a l t i cP e op l e s 94 4 .TheB lue D iv i s ionontheF ron t 100 L o s tV i c t o r i e s :Th eV o l kh ovF r on t(O c t o b e r1941–Augu s t1942 ) 104 W a ro fP o s i t i on sinth eS i eg eo fL en ing r ad(S ep t em b e r 1942–N ov em b e r1943 ) 1 16 Th eSh o r t -L iv edB lu eL eg i on(D e c em b e r1943–M a r ch1944 ) 123 L i f eonth eF r on t :Th eD a i lyExp e r i en c eo fSp an i shC om b a t an t s 126 Co ld ,F i l th ,Bo r edom …andP e r i l 127 Jüng e ro rR ema rqu e ? 139 Com rad e sh ipandth eCu l to fth eFa l l en 142 5 .O c cupa t ionP ra c t i ce so ftheB lue D iv i s ionin No r thwe s t Ru s s ia 146 An o th e rIm ag eo fth eEn emy 148 F rom“ th e Ho rd e”to“ th eRu sk i” 150 V i c t im s ,Ex o t i c s ,andN o b l eS av ag e s :Ru s s i anC iv i l i an s 159 A“S t ink ingandD ep rav edPov e r ty” 159 Th eKa ramazovR ev iv ed ? 163 AP s eudo -A s ia t i cP eop l e ? 165 Th e Nob l eSavag e :An Oppo r tun i tyfo rR ed emp t ion 168 AnIdy l l i cR e l a t i on sh ip?Th eO c cup i e r sandth eO c cup i ed 170 Co lou r fu landUnd i s c ip l in ed O c cup i e r s 172 S l e ep ing w i thth eEn emy 175 Ug lyP an i en k a s ,Id ea l iz edK a t iu sh a s,andth eCh i ld r en 178 D ea l ing w i thPa r t i san s :B en evo l en c eo rIn e ff ca cy ? 183 Th eSp an i shD iv i s i onandth e“ J ew i shQu e s t i on” 186

Con t en t s v i i

An t i -S em i t i sm w i thou tJ ew s 187 En coun t e r ingth eEa s t e rnEu rop eanJ ew s ,1941–3 189 G rodno ,O shm iany ,V i ln iu s ,andR iga 191 P ro t e c to r so rBy s tand e r s ? 200 6 .TheLa s tC ru sade r so fthe Naz i New O rde r(1944–5 ) 203 Sp an i a rd sinth eW eh rm a ch tandth eW a f f en -SS(1944–5 ) 203 N a z i s ,R ad i c a lF a l ang i s t s ,andSu rv iv o r s 208 7 .W a rV e te ran sand Memo r ie sf romtheEa s te rnF ron tinF ran co ’ s Spa in(1942–75 ) 213 P r o s op og r aphyo fth eT r a j e c t o r i e so fBDR e tu rn e e s 215 Ag en t so fM em o ry :B lu eD iv i s i onV e t e r an s ’A s s o c i a t i on s 218 Th eB lu eD iv i s i onP o s t -w a rN a r r a t iv e 226 C l i ch é sinB lu eD iv i s ion M emo ry 230 AnUnp l ea san tT op i c :Th e Ho lo cau s t 232 Ep i logu e :“W eW e r eR igh t !”Th e“Conv e r s ion”o f Ru s s ia 236 8 .Con c lu s ion :ASpan i shEx cep t ioninthe W a ro f Ex te rm ina t ion ? 239 N o t e s 245 S ou r c e sandR e f e r en c e s 303 Ind ex 337

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I l lu s t ra t ion s

(AA : Au tho r ’ sa r ch iv e ; AGA :A r ch ivo G en e ra ld ela Adm in i s t ra c ión , A l ca lád eH ena r e s ) F ig .2 .1 Span i shvo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s iaa tth e Mad r idUn iv e r s i ty campu s ,Ju ly1941(AGA ) 45 F ig .2 .2 V o lun t e e r sd epa r t ingbyt ra intoRu s s ia , Mad r id , Ju ly1941(AGA ) 47 F ig .2 .3 D epa r tu r eo fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s , Mad r id ,Ju ly1941 (AGA ) 50 F ig .3 .1 Span i shso ld i e r sw i thS o ld a t en bu ch( so ld i e r ’ spo ck e tbook ) , G ra f enwöh r ,Ju ly1941(AGA ) 78 F ig .3 .2 G e rmanso ld i e r sf ra t e rn iz ew i thSpan i shvo lun t e e r s , F ran c e ,Ju ly1941(AA ) 82 F ig .3 .3 Th e ma r chtoth ef ron t ,Ea s t e rnPo land ,S ep t emb e r 1941(AGA ) 86 F ig .4 .1 G en e ra lAgu s t ín MuñozG rand e s( l e f t )a tBDh eadqua r t e r s , 1942(AA ) 101 F ig .4 .2 Span i shso ld i e r sinRu s s ia ,W in t e r1941–2(EFEA r ch iv e , Mad r id ) 1 1 1 F ig .4 .3 Span i shF e ldp o s t(a rmypo s ta ls e rv i c e ) ,1942(AGA ) 127 F ig .4 .4 Span i shso ld i e r sinth er ea rgua rd ,1942–3 (AGA ) 131 F ig .4 .5 T ombo fB en jam ínA r ena l e s ,1943(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo f Ca rm e lod ela sH e ra s , Mad r id ) 138 F ig .4 .6 Span i shso ld i e r stak eSov i e tp r i son e r ,1942(p r iva t e a r ch iv eo fM .X . Nogu e i ra ,San t iagod eCompo s t e la ) 142 F ig .5 .1 W a t e r co lou rbyJoaqu índ eA lba(K in ):Th eyb r ingu san ew cu l tu r ef o rEu r op e(AGA ) 152 F ig .5 .2 W a t e r co lou rby K in ,Th eS ov i e t sbu i l tth e i rp a l a c e sov e rth e p e op l e ’ sm i s e ry(AGA ) 153

x I l lu s t ra t ion s

F ig .5 .3 Span i shso ld i e r sr ead ingspo r t si l lu s t ra t edp r e s s , 1943(AGA ) 179 F ig .5 .4 Conva l e s c en tSpan i shso ld i e r s ,Kön ig sb e rg ,1942(AA ) 186 F ig .5 .5 M emb e r so fBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,amongth emG en e ra l E s t eban In fan t e s ,tak ingpa r ta taCa tho l i cc e r emony , H eadqua r t e r sinPok rov sko e ,1943(AGA ) 202 F ig .6 .1 TwoSpan i shso ld i e r stak eas tud iosho tb e fo r er e tu rn ingto Spa in ,S ep t emb e r1942(AA ) 205 F ig .7 .1 Hom eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion , Mad r id ,1943(AGA ) 220 F ig .7 .2 Mo th e ro fCo rpo ra lN em e s ioGa r c íaV ega ,d e co ra t ed w i thth eI ronC ro s sawa rd edpo s thumou s lytoh e rson ( In f o rm a c i on e s ,24 Ma r ch1942 ) 222 F ig .7 .3 BDv e t e ran s ’lun chinCa l e l la(Ba r c e lona ) ,ea r ly1950 s (Ca l e l laC i tyA r ch iv e ) 223 F ig .7 .4 Twor e tu rn e e sf romSov i e tcap t iv i tya r r iv ea tth e i r hom e town ,Ap r i l1954(AA ) 225 F ig .7 .5 Inaugu ra t iono fca l l eD iv i s iónAzu l(B lu eD iv i s ions t r e e t ) , V i to r ia ,1961(C i tyA r ch iv eo fV i to r ia ) 227 F ig .7 .6 Span i shs e c t iono fG e rman m i l i ta ryc em e t e ryinPankovka (Novgo rod ) ,AA 236 Map s Map1 Map2

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eV o lkhovF ron t(O c tob e r1941– Jun e 1942 ) 106 Th eB lu eD iv i s ion Op e ra t ion s ,S i eg eo fL en ing rad (S ep t emb e r1942–O c tob e r1943 )1 19

Abb r ev ia t ion s

AK AOK BD DEV DGS DNE

A rm e eko rp s A rm e eob e rkommando B lu eD iv i s ion D iv i sónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s D i r e c c iónG en e ra ld eS egu r idad(Span i shS ta t ePo l i c e ) D e l ega c ión Na c iona ld eEx comba t i en t e s(Na t iona lO ff c e fo rW a rV e t e ran s ) FE JONS Fa lang eE spaño lad ela sJONS FET JONS Fa lang eE spaño laT rad i c iona l i s tayd ela sJONS Fd J F r en t ed eJuv en tud e s(Y ou thF ron t ;s e c t iono fFa lang e ) F r on t ov i k Sov i e tf ron tso ld i e r G e s tapo G eh e im eS taa t spo l iz e i(G e rmanS e c r e tS ta t ePo l i c e ) Gu r ip a So ld i e ro fth eBD( co l loqu ia l i sm ) NKVD Na rodny iKom i s sa r ia tVnu t r enn ikhD e l(P eop l e ’ s Comm i s sa r ia tfo rIn t e rna lA f fa i r s ) NSDAP Na t iona l soz ia l i s t i s ch eD eu t s ch eA rb e i t e rpa r t e i (Naz iPa r ty ) OKH Ob e rkommandod e sH e e r e s(H ighCommando fth e G e rmanA rmy ) OKW Ob e rkommandod e rW eh rma ch t(H ighCommando fth e G e rmanA rm edFo r c e s ) OT O rgan iza t ionT od t SD S i ch e rh e i t sd i en s t(G e rmanS e cu r i tyS e rv i c e )

Th i s  pag e   in t en t iona l l y   l e f t  b lan k  

A cknow l edgm en t s

Inth ey ea r si tha stak enfo rth i sbookto ma tu r e ,Ihav er e c e iv edh e lp f roms ev e ra lin s t i tu t ion sandcoun t l e s sind iv idua l s :co l l eagu e s ,f r i end s , co l l e c to r s ,s cho la r s ,andd e s c endan t so fB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran s , who mad eunpub l i sh ed ma t e r ia lava i lab l eto m e .F i r s t ly , mythank stoth e s ta f fo fth ea r ch iv e stha tIhav ea c c e s s ed , whohav esoe ff c i en t lyand d e c i s iv e lyr e spond edto myr equ e s t sfo r ma t e r ia l ,a sw e l la sth el ib ra rian sa tth e Un iv e r s i tyo fSan t iagod e Compo s t e laandLudw ig Max im i l ian Un iv e r s i ty o f Mun i ch . Cha s ia Bo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka ,A l exand r e B lum s t e in ,Jo s é Manu e ld e Cá rd ena s , Xo s éF e rnánd ez Nava l ,Em i l ia Ga r c ía ,Ca r lo sG i l -And r é s ,Jo rd iG ra c ia ,JuanC .J im én ezd eAb e ra s tu r i , Ca rm e lod ela sH e ra s , Han s Jü rg en Kug l e r ,Jua coLóp ez ,J .A .Lóp ez Cova r rub ia s ,An ton ioC . Mo r eno ,Jo rg eM .R ev e r t e ,F e rnandoR ebo l lo , AnaRom e ro , Ad r ianShub e r t ,R i ca rdoS i lva ,Raú lSou t e lo ,andPav e l T end e rak ind lyp rov id eda c c e s sto ma t e r ia l s ,d ia r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,andpamph l e t s ,som eo f wh i ch w e r en ea r lyimpo s s ib l etoob ta in .Th eH ISPONA r e s ea r chg roupo fth e Un iv e r s i tyo fSan t iagod eCompo s t e lap rov id ed fnan c ia lsuppo r t , D i s cu s s ion sw i thin t e r e s t edco l l eagu e sonth ecu l tu ra lh i s to ryo f wa r andv io l en c ea ts em ina r sandcon f e r en c e sin G e rmany ,Sw i tz e r land , B r i ta in , Canada ,Ru s s ia ,andSpa ina l soh e lp edtor efn e myp e r sp e ct iv e s ,id en t i fyfo cu sa r ea s ,co r r e c tfa c tua le r ro r s ,andin co rpo ra t eid ea s . ThoughIcanno thop etodoju s t i c etoev e ryon e ,I wou ldpa r t i cu la r ly l ik etoa cknow l edg e Áng e lA l ca ld e , Dav id A l eg r e ,B i rg i tA s chmann , Dav idBank i e r , Ma r t inBaum e i s t e r ,Jö rgBab e row sk i ,O l egB eyda , Gu stavo Co rn i ,J en sEb e r t ,Jo s éM .Fa ra ldo ,S t igFö r s t e r ,F e r ran Ga l l ego , N i co la Gu e r ra ,A l exand e rH i l l ,Bo r i s Kova l ev , Ma r co Mond in i ,Sönk e N e i tz e l ,Jav i e rRod r igo ,And r ea sS tu ck i ,andJoan M .Thomà s . Pa r t so fth eo r ig ina l manu s c r ip tw e r er eadby Áng e lA l ca ld e , Dav id A l eg r e , And r é s An to l ín -Ho f r i ch t e r , M igu e l Cabo , and H en r ik e

x iv A cknow l edgm en t s

F e s e f e ld t . Map sw e r eadap t edfo rth i sed i t ionby A l fon soIg l e s ia sand Jo s éC . Ga r c ía V ega . How ev e r ,th eau tho ra s sum e sfu l lr e spon s ib i l i ty fo ra l le r ro r so rom i s s ion s .F ina l ly ,thank sto my w i f eH en r ik eand my daugh t e r s ,Sa raandI r en e , whopa t i en t lypu tup w i thth ew r i t ingo fth i s h e f tytom e . Th eo r ig ina lv e r s iono fth i sbook wa spub l i sh edbyEd i to r ia lC r í t i ca , Ba r c e lona ,in2016(C am a r ad ainv i e rn o .Exp e r i en c i ay m em o r i ad el aD iv i s i ónA zu l ,1941–1945,2ndpap e rba cked i t ion2017 ) .AG e rmanv e r s ion wa sa l sopub l i sh ed in2016byA s ch endo r f f , Mün s t e r(D i esp an i s ch eB l au e D iv i s i onand e rO s t f r on t ,1941–1945 :Zw i s ch enK r i eg s e r f ah rungundE r inn e rung) .Th i sadap t edandsub s tan t ia l lyupda t edEng l i shv e r s ionha s b en ef t t edeno rmou s lyf romth ev e rycon s t ru c t iv er ema rk sandsugg e st ion so fth eth r e eex t e rna lr e f e r e e s whoeva lua t edth e manu s c r ip tfo r Un iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s s .Ia l sothankth eed i to r ia lt eamo f Un iv e rs i tyo fT o ron toP r e s sand H i s to ryed i to rS t eph enShap i rofo rw e l com ing th eo r ig ina lp ropo sa landa s s i s t ingth ep ro c e s sw i thsu chcon s id e ra t ion andp ro f e s s iona l i sm . Mun i ch ,summ e r/ fa l l2015 ; San t iagod eCompo s t e la , May2021

THESPAN ISHBLUED IV IS ION ONTHEEASTERN FRONT ,1941–1945

Th i s  pag e   in t en t iona l l y   l e f t  b lan k  

1In t rodu c t ion :Th eB lu eD iv i s ion , th e  F ran coR eg im e ,andth eS e cond W o r ld W a r

P la c ingtheB lue D iv i s ion w i th in New M i l i ta ry H i s to ry Th eh i s to ryo fth eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r s ,knownf romi t s in c ep t iona sth eB lu eD iv i s ion(BD ) ,nowqua l if e sa sac la s s i csub j e c t inSpan i shh i s to r iog raphy .In t e rna t iona l ly ,how ev e r ,i ti sp e rhap sl e s s w e l lknown .Th i sla rg e lyvo lun ta ryexp ed i t iona ryfo r c e wa sfo rm edin Jun e/ Ju ly1941tofgh tw i thth eG e rmanA rmyonth eEa s t e rnF ron tin th eSov i e t -G e rman W a r , imm ed ia t e lyfo l low ingth eG e rman inva s iono f th e USSRon22Jun e .In Nov emb e r1943 ,th eSpan i shd i c ta to r ,G en e ra l F ran c i s coF ran co ,o rd e r edi t sr e t r ea tands en tin s t eadth eSpan i shL eg iono fV o lun t e e r s ,th e“B lu eL eg ion .”Tha tco rp sr ema in edonth ef ron t un t i li t sd efn i t iv er e t r ea tinea r ly Ma r ch1944 . Span i shpa r t i c ipa t iononth e Ax i ss id einth eS e cond W o r ld W a rd id no tendth e r e .In1944–5 ,s ev e ra lhund r edSpan i shso ld i e r s–ex -B lu e D iv i s ionand B lu eL eg ioncomba tan t s ,n ewvo lun t e e r s ,andc iv i l ian wo rk e r sin G e rmany–jo in ed W eh rma ch tand W a f f en -SSun i t so fth e i r ownin i t ia t iv e ,a s s i s t ingth es t rugg l eun t i lth ed efn i t iv efa l lo fth eTh i rd R e i ch .Som eev enfough tam id s tth eru in so fB e r l ininAp r i l/May1945 . F rom1941to1945 ,som efv ehund r edtos ixhund r edSpan i shcomba tan t sw e r etak enp r i son e rbyth eR ed A rmyandr ema in edinSov i e t camp sun t i l1954 .Inla t e Ma r cho ftha ty ea r ,th eR ed C ro s scha r t e r ed th esh ipS em í r am i stor e tu rn248o fth emtoSpa in ,a long w i thfou r“wa r ch i ld r en”(whohadb e eneva cua t edbyth eSpan i sh R epub l i cin1937 andtak eninbyth e USSR ) .Th e r ew e r ea l soth i r ty -on eSpan i shav ia to r sandsa i lo r s who w e r eloya ltoth eR epub l i candhadb e end e ta in ed aga in s tth e i rw i l linSov i e tt e r r i to rys in c e1939 .Inth ea i r ,doz en so f Span i shp i lo t sfough ta long s id eth eLu f twa f f e ,a s s i s t edby“B lu eSquadron”g roundsuppo r tp e r sonn e l(15 .Span i s ch eS ta f f e l ) ,th rough wh i ch a roundahund r edp i lo t spa s s edov e rfou rp e r iod s .A ts ea ,ag roupo f

4 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Span i shsa i lo r ss e rv edinth eG e rman Navya spa r to faco -op e ra t iv e ag r e em en ttha tin c lud edt ra in ingSpan i sh Navyo ff c e r sin K r i eg sma 1 r in eun i t s ,f rom Nov emb e r1942un t i lth esumm e ro f1943 . Th em a inob j e c t iv eo fth i sbooki stor e con s t ru c tth eexp e r i en c eo f B lu eD iv i s iong roundcomb a t an t sandth e i rd i r e c to rind i r e c tsu c c e s so r un i t s ,f romin c ep t ionth rough M ay1 9 4 5 .Th i sg roupin c lud eda round fo r ty s ev enthou s and m en ;n e a r lyfv ethou s ando fth emf e l lincomb a t , wh i l e mo r eth anfo r ty twothou s ando fth emr e tu rn edtoSp a in .Among th em w e r eF a s c i s tvo lun t e e r sandid e a l i s t s ,o rtho s e who ,du etoag eo r g eog r aphy ,h ad m i s s edth ech an c etofgh tfo rth e i rb e l i e f sinth eSp an i sh C iv i lW a r .Som eso ld i e r sw e r een l i s t edo rco e r c iv e lyr e c ru i t ed ;o th e r sw e r e c iv i l i anvo lun t e e r sins e a r cho fadv en tu r e ,ex t r ap ay ,o rev enach an c eto d e s e r tandjo inth eR ed A rmy .Th e r ew e r enon comm i s s ion edo ff c e r s (NCO s )d r iv enbyan t i commun i smo rth ed e s i r etobu i lda m i l i t a ryc a r e e r a sw e l la sp ro f e s s ion a l lyo rid eo log i c a l ly mo t iv a t eda rmyo ff c e r s . Ar e l a t iv e lyh ighp ropo r t iono fun iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,youngl awy e r s ,andev en un iv e r s i ty l e c tu r e r s jo in edr ank sa long s id e indu s t r i a landun sk i l l edwo rke r s ,emp loy e e s ,c iv i ls e rv an t s ,shopwo rk e r s .andi l l i t e r a t ed ayl abou r e r s . InSpan i shpo s t -wa rso c i e ty ,BDv e t e ranp rof l e sw e r eequa l lyva r i ed : f rom w r i t e r sanda r t i s t stop ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r s ,m in i s t e r s , wo rk e r s ,po l i c em en ,o rm ig ran t stoA rg en t inao rG e rmany .Som eev enb e cam ean t i F ran co i s ta c t iv i s t sdu r ingth e1950 sand1960 s . W i thsu chin t e r c la s s d iv e r s i ty ,th eBD m emo ryp e rm ea t ed mu cho fth eso c ia lsp e c t rum .Unl ik eth em emo ryo fo th e rW e s t e rnEu rop eanexp ed i t iona ryfo r c e stha t fough ta long s id eth eW eh rma ch taga in s tth eUSSR ,r em emb ran c eo fth e B lu eD iv i s ion wa sno tc i r cum s c r ib edbyfa r r igh tpo l i t i ca lt end en c i e so r n eo fa s c i s tcu l tsp e c if c i t i e s .Span i shv e t e ran sf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t w e r eno ts t igma t iz ed“ co l labo ra to r s” w i thth e Naz i s ,incon t ra s tw i th tho s er e tu rn ingto No rway ,D enma rk ,o rF ran c e .Th e s econd i t ion sa l so p r ev en t edth em emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionf romb e ingr e l ega t edto ab so lu t epub l i cs i l en c e .F rom1945to1954 ,Span i shv e t e ran sf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron tw e r et r ea t eda sra th e rin conv en i en th e ro e sbyth eF ran co d i c ta to r sh ip ,a si ta t t emp t edto“wh i t ewa sh”ov e ri t sea r l i e rsympa th i e s towa rd s Naz iG e rmanyandr epo s i t ion i t s e l f inth eW e s t e rnB lo caga in s t 2 th eSov i e t Un ion . Th em emo ryo fSpan i shpa r t i c ipa t ioninth eEa s t e rn campa ignb e cam esom e th ingd i f fu s eandub iqu i tou s :no tfo rb idd eno r p e r s e cu t ed ,bu ts ca r c e lyen cou rag edbyth eF ran co i s tr eg im e .Th i sendow edi tw i thag r ea tcapa c i tytoendu r e . Th esam edynam i c sa l sog en e ra t edaka l e ido s cop i cm emo ryo fth e B lu eD iv i s ioninSpan i shpo s t -wa rso c i e ty .Fo rsom e ,i t wa saco rpu so f som ewha tcon fu s ing m emo r i e s ,an e cdo t e s ,ands to r i e sabou tar e la t iv e o ran e ighbou r whofough tinRu s s iafo runknowncau s e s .Fo ro th e r s ,i t

In t rodu c t ion 5

wa sab en chma rko fid eo log i ca lin t eg r i tyfo rnon con fo rm i s tFa lang i sm o ran t i commun i s tcomm i tm en t ,ap ro f e s s iona lpo s t inginab r i l l ian t m i l i ta ryca r e e r ,o rayou th fu ladv en tu r efu e l l edbyth ed e s i r etos e eth e wo r ldb eyondth ePy r en e e s .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa sanun com fo r tab l e m emo ryfo rth eF ran co i s tr eg im e ,andth esub s equ en tcon s t i tu t iona l mona r chy( r e s to r edin1975–8 ) wa sno tk e entocomm emo ra t ei t . O c ca s iona l ly ,th eSpan i shd emo c ra t i cs ta t eha simp l i c i t lyo rexp l i ci t lyequa t edth eB lu eD iv i s ionandi t scomba tan t sw i thth ehund r ed s o fSpan i sh R epub l i canso ld i e r s whofough tw i thth eA l l i e s .Th i sha s g iv enr i s etoin t en s e mom en t so fandcon t rov e r sy .In O c tob e r2004 ,an ex -BD m emb e randafo rm e rp r i son e ro fth eSov i e t ss toodonth ep r e s id en t ia lpod iuma sr ep r e s en ta t iv e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ionFounda t ion , tog e th e rw i thar ep r e s en ta t iv eo fth eSpan i sh9 thCompany( la Nu ev e ) o fth eR ég im en td e ma r ch eduT chad ,pa r to fth e2nd A rmou r ed D iv is ion(D iv i s ionL e c l e r c ) , who w e r eloya lto G en e ra l Cha r l e sd e Gau l l e andth eA l l i e s .Th eso c ia l i s tm in i s t e ro fd e f en c e ,Jo s éBono ,hadinv i t ed th emtoa t t enda spa r to fth e12 O c tob e r(Span i shna t iona lho l iday ) m i l i ta rypa rad e .3 Th i sa t t i tud ep e r s i s t samong m emb e r so fth eSpan i sh a rm edfo r c e sandin m i l i ta rya cad em i e s , wh i chs t i l lt ea chandid ea l iz e th e“h e ro i cd e ed s”o fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .In O c tob e r2020 ,al eaktoth e da i lyp r e s sin fo rm edtha tapo l i c eop e ra t ionaga in s ta l l eg ed Ru s s ian conn e c t ion sw i thCa ta lanna t iona l i s tl ead e r sinr e la t iontoth efa i l edin d ep end en c er e f e r endum inO c tob e r2017hadb e eng iv enth ecod enam e “Op e ra t ionV o lkhov ,”r e ca l l ingth ef r s tba t t l einvo lv ingSpan i sht roop s onth eEa s t e rnF ron t .I tshow stha tth eBD m emo ryinpo s t f ran co i s t Spa ins t i l lsu f f e r sf romala cko fp roa c t iv e ,s ta t e spon so r edpo l i t i c so f d emo c ra t i cm emo ry .A f t e rha l fac en tu ry ,som e wound so fth ed i c ta tor ia lpa s tr ema inop enandin su ff c i en t lyad r e s s edbypub l i cin s t i tu t ion s . Num e rou s book s hav eb e en pub l i sh ed abou tth eB lu eD iv i s ion , mo s t lyinSpa in .I t sexo t i csub j e c t ma t t e rha sinh e r en tapp ea l :as en s eo f adv en tu r e ,Sou th e rnEu rop ean slo s tinanimm en s ef roz enland s cap e , ana c cumu la t iono fex t rao rd ina ryexp e r i en c e s( th ejou rn eyth e r e ,con ta c tw i thth eG e rmanA rmy ,fgh t ingonad i s tan tf ron t ,r e tu rn ing ) ,and th ehazyimp r e s s iontha tth eB lu eD iv i s ionexp e r i en c el e f tonSpan i sh so c i e tya f t e r1944– 5 .A tl ea s tun t i lth ef r s td e cad eo fth etw en ty -f r s t c en tu ry , mo s tSpan ia rd skn ewsom eon e who s efa th e r ,un c l e ,o rg rand fa th e rhad jo in edth eB lu eD iv i s ion . Wh i l ecomm emo ra t iv ew r i t ingonth eB lu eD iv i s ionabound s ,a long w i thapo log e t i candd e s c r ip t iv eapp roa ch e sin t e r e s t edinr e ca l l ingth e mo s tin s ign if can td e ta i l s ,th eh i s to r iog raph i cr e l evan c eo fsu chl i te ra tu r ei sm eag r ea tb e s t . How ev e r ,th eh i s to ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ha sa l so b e en amp lyt r ea t edin p ro f e s s iona lh i s to r iog raphy . Mo s t

6 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

app roa ch e shav esough ttound e r s tandth ero l eo fth eBD w i th inth e f ram ewo rko fth ed ip loma t i c ,e conom i c ,andcu l tu ra lr e la t ion sb e tw e en th eea r lyF ran cor eg im eandth eTh i rd R e i ch .A c co rd ing ly ,F ran co i s t and po s t -F ran co i s th i s to r ian sr ega rd edth eB lu eD iv i s iona sacon c e s s ion mad ebyth eF ran cor eg im etofu lf li t sob l iga t ion sw i th Naz i G e rmany , wh i ch wa sp r e s s ingSpa intos id ew i thth eAx i spow e r sand en t e rth e wa r .F romth i sp e r sp e c t iv e ,th eSpan i shBDso ld i e r sw e r eth e “b loodp r i c e”tha tF ran co i smpa idto ma in ta ini t s“non -b e l l ig e r en cy”in 4 th eS e cond W o r ld W a r . Thu s ,th e i rsa c r if c ehadno tb e eninva in :th ey hadsh i e ld edSpa inf romth eho r ro r so fan ew wa r ,andev enth eth r ea t o fG e rmaninva s ion :Span i shh e ro i smonth eEa s t e rnF ron thadshown H i t l e r wha th i st roop scou ldexp e c ti fth eyt r i edtoinvad eSpa in .5 S in c eth e1980 s ,som eau tho r shav etak enth eoppo s i t ev i ewanda rgu edtha ts end ingth eB lu eD iv i s iontoth eEa s t e rnF ron tr ev ea l edth e d e ep lyG e rmanoph i l ena tu r eo fF ran co i s to ff c ia l sandsuppo r t e r s , who wou lden t e rth e wa ra tanyco s ttos e eth e i rfa s c i s t ,to ta l i ta r ianp roj e c tfu lf l l ed .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionthu scon s t i tu t edth epu r e s texp r e s s ion o fth e mo s t who l eh ea r t edFa lang i s ts e c to r sand mu cho fth em i l i ta ry , a long w i th manyt rad i t iona l i s t s ,Ca tho l i c s ,andcon s e rva t iv e s whos inc e r e lyadm i r edth ean t i commun i s ts tan c eand m i l i ta ryp e r fo rman c eo f 6 th eTh i rdR e i ch ,a tl ea s tun t i l1944 . R e c en tr e s e a r chh a ssh edsom en ewl igh tonth eth er e l a t ion sh ipb etw e enth eF r an cor eg im eandN a z iG e rm any ,add ingtoth econ t r ibu t ion s o fd ip lom a t i ch i s to r i an ss in c eth e1 9 9 0 s .I ta s s ign sth eB lu eD iv i s iona sm a l lp a r tinth ed ip lom a t i cg am eth a tw a sun fo ld ingonSp an i shso i l f rom1 9 4 0to1 9 4 5 .F r an coand mo s to fh i sgov e rnm en tc e r t a in ly w i sh ed toen t e rth ew a ronth eAx i ss id ebu tno tw i thou tsom ek indo fr ew a rd . F r an co w an t edth eG e rm an stoh andov e rag r e a tp a r to fth eF r en chcolon i a lpo s s e s s ion sin A f r i c atoSp a in ,in c lud ingF r en ch Mo ro c co ,p a r t s o fA lg e r i a ,andC am e roon .Th i s wou ldh av eb e enun a c c ep t ab l etoV i chy F r an c e .Th eIb e r i anP en in su l ap l ay edon lya m ino rro l einTh i rdR e i ch w a rs t r a t egyf rome a r ly1 9 4 2on .A si t sa rmyandr e sou r c e sw e r ea lmo s t n eg l ig ib l etoG e rm aney e s ,th eG e rm anch an c e l lo rd idno tn e edSp a inon h i ss id ea tanyp r i c e .K e ep ingV i chyF r an c ea saloy a la l lyandno tpu shing M a r sh a lPh i l ipp eP é t a intos id ew i thth eA l l i e sw a s mo r eimpo r t an tto H i t l e rth an w inn ingth efu l lsuppo r to fF r an co ’ sSp a in .Th i sw a s m a in ly whyth em e e t ingb e tw e enF r an coand H i t l e ra tth er a i ls t a t iono f H end ay e(2 3O c tob e r1 9 4 0 )end edinf a i lu r e :H i t l e rp r io r i t i z edt i e sw i th V i chyF r an c eandF r an cor e tu rn edtoSp a in w i thnot ang ib l ew in s . H i t l e r ’ sin t e r e s tinSp a ind r am a t i c a l lyd e c r e a s eda f t e rth a t ,a so th e r th e a t r e so fop e r a t ionr equ i r edh i sa t t en t ion .M e anwh i l e ,B r i t i shd ip lo m a cyinSp a in w a sp l ay ingi t sc a rd sbysy s t em a t i c a l lyb r ib ingg en e r a l s

In t rodu c t ion 7

andh igho ff c i a l stok e epth ecoun t ryf romin t e rv en inginth ew a ron th eG e rm ans id e .Th egov e rnm en tc r i s i so fS ep t emb e r1 9 4 2andsub s e qu en tappo in tm en to fth eAng loph i l eCoun tJo rd an aa sth em in i s t e rfo r fo r e igna f f a i r sm a rk eda mov etow a rd sfu l ln eu t r a l i tyinSp an i shd ip lo m a cy .S t e adyd i s t an c ingf romB e r l in( andRom e )b e c am e mo r ea c c en tua t edth roughou t1 9 4 3and1 9 4 4 .Th ed eb i l i t a t edF a l ang i s t sw e r eun ab l e toavo idth i ss t r a t eg i c mov eandth e i rp ro j e c t stoe s t ab i shafu l lyf a s c i s t “n ewS t a t e ”inSp a inf ad edaw ay . Un t i lAugu s t1 9 4 5 ,how ev e r ,G en e r a l F r an coh im s e l fs tu cktoth eth eo ryo f“ th r e ew a r s , ” wh i chd e s c r ib edth e wo r ld w a ra sth r e es ep a r a t econf i c t s .Inth ef r s t ,b e tw e enG e rm anyand th eW e s t e rnd emo c r a c i e s(G r e a tB r i t a in ,th e US ,andF r an c e ) ,Sp a in w a s n eu t r a l .Inth es e cond ,b e tw e enG e rm anyandth eSov i e tUn ion ,F r an co i s t Sp a inen thu s i a s t i c a l lya l l i ed i t s e l fw i thth eTh i rdR e i chag a in s tacommon en emy .Inth eth i rd ,b e tw e enth e USandJ ap an ,th eF r an cod i c t a to r sh ip 7 in c r e a s ing lyb a ck edth eUSbu tn ev e ra c tu a l lyd e c l a r ed w a ronJ ap an . Un l ik e Naz iag en t sand m emb e r so fth e Naz iPa r ty ’ sfo r e ignb ran ch inSpa in ,p ragma t i cG e rmand ip loma t sin Mad r id wan t edSpa intor e ma inn eu t ra ltob e t t e rexp lo i t wha tth eycon s id e r edi t s mo s tin t e r e s t ing con t r ibu t iontoth eAx i s wa re f fo r t :th er egu la rsupp lyo f wo l f ramand o th e rs t ra t eg i craw ma t e r ia l s .F ran co i s tSpa in ma in ta in edi t sp e cu l ia r po s i t iono f“non -b e l l ig e r en cy”un t i l1943 ,bu tw i thop enp r e f e r en c efo r th e Ax i s .Th i senab l edSpa intop rov id esom elog i s t i csuppo r t wh i l e avo id inginvo lv em en tin m i l i ta ryop e ra t ion so rd e c la r ing wa ronany o fth eb e l l ig e r en tcoun t r i e s ,in c lud ingth eSov i e t Un ion . Th er eg im e mov edtowa rd sfu l ln eu t ra l i tyin1943 ,und e rd i r e c tp r e s su r ef romth e W e s t e rn A l l i e s .M eanwh i l e ,G e rmand ip loma cya c t edtop r e s e rv eth e Th i rdR e i ch ’ sinfu en c eonSpan i shpub l i cop in ionbysub s id iz ingpubl i ca t ion s , magaz in e s ,andp ropagandainane f fo r ttop r e s en t Naz iG e r manyinana c c ep tab l e waytoCa tho l i c sandcon s e rva t iv e s . Abov ea l l , G e rmand ip loma cya t t emp t edto ma in ta incon t ro lands e cu r ea c c e s sto th eSpan i shr e sou r c e sd e em edc ru c ia ltoth e i r wa re f fo r t .G e rmaninfu en c e wa sr ema rkab l ein manysph e r e so fSpan i shso c i e tyandcu l tu r e un t i l1945 ,ands t i l ll ing e r edfo rd e cad e sina r ea ssu cha sSpan i shc iv i l lawandth eo rgan iza t iono fth eFa lang es ing l epa r ty .A sth eCo ld W a r s e tin ,how ev e r ,G e rmanoph i l ea t t i tud e sw e r econv en i en t lya r ch iv ed andth eF ran cor eg im e manag edtoadap tton ewc i r cum s tan c e s . A f t e rm id -1944 , wh ena l lSpan i shso ld i e r shadr e tu rn edf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron t( ex c ep t ingaf ewhund r ed whocon t inu edtofgh tfo rth e Th i rdR e i chonth e i rownin i t ia t iv e ) ,F ran co i s tm in i s t e r sandd ip loma t s b eganpo r t ray ingth es end ingo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionth r e ey ea r sp r io ra s am e r e ly Ca tho l i candan t i commun i s tin i t ia t iv e ,d evo ido fanyp ro a c t iv esympa thytowa rd sth e Ax i s .Th i sranpa ra l l e ltoe f fo r t sbyth e

8 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

r eg im e ,b eg inn ing w i thCa tho l i cth ink e r sandc e r ta inFa lang i s tl ead e r s , tod e ta chi t sfound ingp r in c ip l e sf romany th ingr e s emb l ingfa s c i sm . F ran co i sm wa s now p r e s en t eda sa Ca tho l i c ,t rad i t iona l i s t ,andant i commun i s t wo r ldv i ew , wh i ch wa sd evo ido fanyto ta l i ta r ian ,ra c i s t , o rimp e r ia l i s tamb i t ion . Som es tud i e sfo cu s eda lmo s tex c lu s iv e lyonth e“h e ro i cd e ed s ”o f th eB lu eD iv i s ion ,th eb a t t l e sandop e r a t ion si ttookp a r tin ,i t sov e r a l l evo lu t ion ,r e c ru i tm en tp r a c t i c e s ,andcompo s i t ion .Th e s e monog r aph s p rov id edno t ewo r thyr e con s t ru c t ion so fth eBDt r a j e c to ryf romh igh ly d iv e r s ep e r sp e c t iv e ssu cha st r ad i t ion a lm i l i t a ryh i s to ry ,d ip lom a t i ch i sto ry ,andev ene conom i ch i s to ry . Mo s tw e r ew r i t t enf romanen thu s i a s t i c a l lyp ro -F r an co i s tpo in to fv i ewandt r i edtop r e s en tab en evo l en t , a c r i t i c a lim ag eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .Su chh ag iog r aph i c ,r ev i s ion i s tap p ro a ch e sbyau tho r sno s t a lg i cfo rth eF r an cor eg im eco ex i s ta long s id e ex t r em e lypo s i t iv i s tp e r sp e c t iv e sonth eh i s to ryo fm i l i t a ryop e r a t ion s , lo c a lh i s to r i e sa t t emp t ing toshow c a s e th econ t r ibu t ion so f th e i rp rov in c e andr eg iontoth eexp ed i t ion a ryco rp s ,andh igh lyd e t a i l edandd e s c r ip t iv e wo rk sonsp e c if cs e c t ion sandb r an ch e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,f rom m i l i t a rych ap l a in stos app e r sand m ed i c a lco rp s .8 Commonton e a r lya l l o fth emi sth e i rendog enou ss e l f su ff c i en cy ,a c comp an i edbyaf ag r an t l a cko fd i a logu ew i th w a rs tud i e s ,n ew m i l i t a ryh i s to ryapp ro a ch e s , andin t e rn a t ion a lh i s to r iog r aphycon c e rn ingth eE a s t e rnF ron t . Mo s to f th e s es tud i e sa l sod i sp l ay edb l a t an tigno r an c eo fth econ t r ibu t ion sand d eb a t e sf romth ecomp a r a t iv eh i s to ryo fv io l en c eand mod e rn w a r f a r e . App roa ch e stha thav ea t t emp t edtofo cu sonth ea c tua lexp e r i en c e o fBD m emb e r sa r efa rs ca r c e r .Th e s elooka tth eo rd ina ry m eninun ifo rm(W o l f ram W e t t e ) ,th e i r mo t iva t ion sandr ea c t ion s ,th e i rr ea son s fo rfgh t ing ,andhowth ey w e r ea f f e c t edbypa r t i c ipa t ingina wa rtha t d i f f e r edsub s tan t ia l lyf romp r io rconf i c t s .Th eSov i e t -G e rman W a r wa s ana rm edcon f ron ta t iontha tb egana shug ed i sp layo ft e chno log i ca l ands t ra t eg i c mod e rn i ty ,bu tw i th inaf ew mon th si t wa scha ra c t e r iz ed byi t sex t r em ec ru e l tyandh ighco s tinhumanl iv e s ,andi t sex t r em e ly ha r shc l ima t eandenv i ronm en ta lcond i t ion s .Comba tb e cam ein c r ea sing lyb ru ta l iz edam id s tev e r -g row ingnumb e r so fc iv i l ianca sua l t i e s , w i th ma s sk i l l ing so fc iv i l ian sandpa r t i san sinth er ea rgua rd .9 Th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sinth esumm e ro f1941b e l i ev edtha tth ey w e r eemba rk ingonab r i e fm i l i ta ryadv en tu r etha t manysawa sacont inua t iono fth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r .Th ey w e r eno ta lway sawa r etha t th ey w e r epa r t i c ipa t inginaconf i c tun l ik e manytha thadp r e c ed edi t : a wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion .InEng l i sh -andG e rman sp eak ingsph e r e s ,th i s conf i c ti sr e c e iv ingr en ew edh i s to r iog raph i ca la t t en t ioninn ew m i l i ta ryh i s to ryandth ecu l tu ra lh i s to ryo fv io l en c e .

In t rodu c t ion 9

Th i sbookadd r e s s e sas e r i e so fba s i cqu e s t ion scon c e rn ing wa ra sa comp l e t eso c ia lr ea l i ty . Whydoso ld i e r sfgh t ? Wha ti sth ed i f f e r en c e b e tw e envo lun t e e r sandcon s c r ip t s ?T owha tex t en tdo id eo logy ,va lu e s , andth ep r io rso c ia l iza t iono fcomba tan t sinfu en c eth e i rw i l l ingn e s s tok i l l ? Do e sth eimag eo fth een emyco r r e spond mo r etop r e ex i s t ing cu l tu ra lcon s t ru c t ion sandimag e so fth eo th e r ,o rtoindo c t r ina t ionin s e rv i c e ,p ropaganda ,andth ed e s i r etoav eng ed eadcom rad e sfo l low ingth eb ru ta l iza t iono fcomba t ?I sv io l en c einna t einp eop l eand mo r e l ik e lytob ea c t iva t edinenv i ronm en ta lc i r cum s tan c e s ,f ea tu r ingcu mu la t iv erad i ca l iza t ionandb ru ta l iza t iono fcomba tcond i t ion s ? Wha t i sth ero l eo fcom rad e sh ipandloya l tytof e l lowso ld i e r sw i th whom r e la t ion sh ip so fcomp l i c i tyand mu tua ld ep end en c ea r ee s tab l i sh ed ? Bond sfo rg edinb loodandba t t l ea r eo f t enc em en t edinexp e r i en c e s tha tcanno tb et ran s f e r r edb eyondth ep r ima rycomba tg roup . How doind iv idua l sexp e r i en c e wa randhowdo e si ta f f e c tth e i rsub s equ en t pa th ?T o wha tex t en tdo e si tc r ea t ean ew wa rcu l tu r e ,und e r s toodh e r e a sas e to fcu l tu ra lp e r c ep t ion scon c e rn ingaso ld i e r ’ sowns id e ,th e en emy ,andcomba t , wh i chb e com ep e rva s iv einc iv i lso c i e tydu r ing anda f t e rth e wa r ? W i th inth esph e r eo f“n ew m i l i ta ryh i s to ry ,” wh i chi sla rg e lyin sp i r ed byso c ia lh i s to ry ,n ewcu l tu ra lh i s to ry ,and mo r er e c en t lybyg end e r h i s to ryandth et ran sna t iona ltu rn ,10th i sbooka l soend eavou r stoup da t eanden r i chcu r r en td eba t e sonSpan i sh wa r so fth e mod e rnp er iod ,f romth eco lon ia lconf i c t so f Cubaand Mo ro c cototh eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r .Th eso c ia landcu l tu ra lh i s to ryo fv io l en c eha sund e rgon e ala t er en ewa linSpa in .11 T rad i t iona lm i l i ta ryh i s to r iog raphyinSpa in wa sa cnho r edtoth eexhau s t iv es tudyo fth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r(1936–9 ) andth esub s equ en t ma s sr ep r e s s ionbyth ew inn ings id e .A sar e su l t , m i l i ta ryh i s to r ian sinSpa inhav eon lyr e c en t lyjo in edth etan sna t iona l m e thodo log i ca landth eo r e t i ca ld eba t e scon c e rn ingth eG r ea tW a rand th eS e cond W o r ld W a r .Thu s ,fo rexamp l e , mu cho fSpan i shh i s to r i og raphyandfo r e ignh i s to r iog raphyontw en t i e th c en tu rySpa insaw th eo rd ina rycomba tan t so fbo tha rm i e s(R epub l i canandin su rg en to r F ran co i s t )du r ingth eC iv i lW a ra spa s s iv ep ro tagon i s t so fana rm ed con f ron ta t ion .Th ep r ima ryag en t sw e r eg r ea tid eo log i e s , wo r ldv i ew s inconf i c t ,po l i t i ca lpa r t i e sandt rad eun ion s ,g r ea tpo l i t i ca ll ead e r sand m i l i ta rych i e f s . Th e r e fo r e ,i t wa simp l i c i t lya s sum edtha tbo ths id e s w e r ea l r eadyd rawnupinJu ly/Augu s t1936 . How ev e r ,th efa c ti stha t manyso ld i e r sb e cam econv in c edo fth ecau s eth ey w e r efgh t ingfo r du r ingth ecou r s eo fth e wa r .Conv i c t ion wa sanou t com eo fth e i r wa r exp e r i en c eandth eimpa c to f ma r t ia lcu l tu r einth e i run i t s ,andth e r e 12 fo r einth e i rm ind s . Th i s wou lda l soapp lytoth eB lu eD iv i s ion .

10 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Span i sh m i l i ta rya r ch iv e ssu f f e rf romas ca r c i tyo fp e r sona lsou r c e s o rego -do cum en t ssu cha s wa rd ia r i e sandso ld i e r s ’l e t t e r s ,ev enin wa r c en so r sh ipco l l e c t ion s ,tha thand i cap sanyapp roa chinvo lv ingth e s e sub j e c t iv eandev e rydayd im en s ion so fth econf i c t . Ana ly t i ca lca t ego r i e ssu cha s“wa rcu l tu r e” w e r es ca r c e lyknowno remp i r i ca l lya s s e s s ed inSpan i shh i s to r iog raphyun t i lth es e condd e cad eo fth etw en ty -f r s t c en tu ry .W a rcu l tu r eco r r e la t e stoak eycon c ep tinth efo rmu la t iono f th i sbook : wa rexp e r i en c eand m i l i ta ryexp e r i en c e ing en e ra l ,a sar i t eo f pa s sag etha ti r r ev e r s ib ly mod if e sth ep e r c ep t ion s , wo r ldv i ew ,andbas i cva lu e so find iv idua l s whotak epa r tin wa r .Ini t s e l f ,th eexp e r i en c e o f wa ri sind iv idua l lycon s t ru c t edandcond i t ion edbyth eso c io cu l tu ra l ba ckg round ,va lu e s ,p e r c ep t ion s ,andp r io rso c ia l iza t iono fea chcomba tan t . Wh i l ecomba tha sas im i la rimpa c to rimm ed ia t eimp r e s s ionon a l lpa r t i c ipan t s ;th eexp e r i en c er ef e c t edbycomba tan t shou r so rday s la t e rinl e t t e r so rd ia r i e sw i l ld i sp laypa lpab l ed i f f e r en c e stha tr ev ea l d iv e r s een coun t e r sw i th fgh t ing ,m en ta lland s cap e s ,andfo rma t iv e ba ckg round . Howea chind iv idua lsumma r iz e stha texp e r i en c eand 13 t ran sm i t si tw e ek so ry ea r sla t e rw i l lva ryev en mo r e . Inapp ly ingth e s econ c ep t stoth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,i tb e com e sev id en t tha ts tudy ingth e wa rexp e r i en c eo fSpan i shso ld i e r sonth eEa s t e rn F ron t ,inth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ionun l ea sh edbyth eTh i rdR e i chaga in s t th eSov i e tUn ion , i s in ev i tab lyat ran sna t iona landcompa ra t iv eend eav ou r .Th i sp e r sp e c t iv einvo lv e scon su l t ingsou r c e sind iv e r s ea r ch iv e s , compa r ing mu tua limag e so ff r i end sandfo e s ,andcon s tan t lyqu e s t ion ing wh e th e rth eSpan ia rd sw e r esotyp i ca l lyd i f f e r en tf romth eG e rman s andth e i ra l l i e sa sha sb e enc la im edin mu cho fp ro -B lu eD iv i s ionl i t e r a tu r e .Sou tho fth ePy r enn e e s ,th i si sth ep r eva i l ingv i s ioninth epub l i c sph e r er ega rd ingSpan ia rd sonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,ev enamongc r i t i c s .I t mu s tb econ t inuou s lycon t ra s t ed w i thcon t r ibu t ion sf romp ro f e s s iona l h i s to r iog raphycon c e rn ingth eexp e r i en c eo fG e rman ,Sov i e t( s t i l lon e o fth el ea s t s tud i eda sp e c t s ,ev enin Ru s s ianh i s to r iog raphy ) ,I ta l ian , Du t ch ,Roman ian ,F inn i sh ,o r Hunga r ianso ld i e r sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t f rom1941to1945 . Wh i l em i l i t a ryop e r a t ion sa r eno tth em a inob j e c to fth i ss tudy ,th ey a r ein t r in s e ctoth esub j e c tm a t t e r .Th eop e r a t ion a la sp e c t sn e c e s s a ry top rov id eanov e rv i ew w i l lb eadd r e s s ed m a in lyf romth ep e r sp e c t iv e o fG e rm an m i l i t a rydo cum en t a t ion ,tog a inas en s eo fth er e l a t iv eimpo r t an c eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion w i th inth ea rm i e s ,a rmyco rp s ,anda rmy g roup so fth eG e rm an O s th e e rund e r wh i chi ts e rv ed .Th i sa l soimp l i e s a cknow l edg ingth a tth eSp an i shso ld i e r sw e r en ev e ranau tonomou si s l andonth eV o lkhovF ron tand inth es i eg eo fL en ing r ad .A long s id eG e r m an , No rw eg i an ,F l em i sh ,B a l t i c ,and Du t chcomb a t an t s ,th eysh a r ed

In t rodu c t ion 1 1

v i s ion so fth een emy ,exp e r i en c e so rex ch ang e sw i thth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ion ,anden coun t e r sw i thr e a rgu a rdso c i e t i e sinRu s s i an ,B a l t i c ,o r G e rm an m i l i t a ryho sp i t a l s .Th eyendu r edth ec l im a t e ,th ecomb a tcond i t ion s ,andth edyn am i c so fv io l en c eandd e s t ru c t ion ,f roman t i -p a r t is an w a r f a r etoth ed epo r t a t iono fJ ew sinth er e a rgu a rd ,th eshoo t ingo f po l i t i c a lcomm i s s a r s ,andr ep r i s a l sag a in s tc iv i l i anpopu l a t ion s .Th e s e a sp e c t ssh a l lb eex am in edcomp r eh en s iv e ly ,fo cu s ingoncomb a t an t sin l andun i t ssu cha sin f an t ryanda r t i l l e ry .Th eexp e r i en c e so fSp an i sha i r m en ,s e am en ,o rp r i son e r so fw a rw i l lno tb eadd r e s s edh e r e .S e am en w e r eav e ryr edu c edg roup ,andth ew a rexp e r i en c eo fa i rm en w a sen1 4 t i r e lyd i f f e r en t ,g iv enth en a tu r eo fth e i rcomb a tcond i t ion s . S im i l a r ly , p r i son e r so fw a rinSov i e tc amp sw e r ea l soal im i t edg roup w i thl im i t ed 1 5 sou r c e s , mo s to f wh i cha r elo c a t edinRu s s i ana r ch iv e s . Wha t ev e rth e i r mo t iva t ion ,po l i t i ca ladh e r en c e ,id ea s ,andexp e r ien c e s ,so ld i e r sdono ta lway sfgh tinth esam e wayandfo rth esam e r ea son s .In mod e rn wa r fa r e ,b rav e ryo rh e ro i sma r ep rob l ema t i cva r ia b l e s ,d i ff cu l ttot ra c eandea syto id ea l iz e . Mo t iva t ion ,how ev e r , i s mo r e con s tan t .G en e ra l lysp eak ing , mo s tso ld i e r sen l i s tfo ra wa r–n ea rbyo r fa raway–ou to fsw e ep ingp r in c ip l e so rg r ea tid ea l s .Th eya r ebo rn e a long inac l ima t eo fen thu s ia smo rbyag roupo ff r i end so rcom rad e sto d e f endth e i rhom eo rth e i rsu r round ingenv i ronm en t ,tos e eth e wo r ld , o rtoea rnal iv ing .A f ew w e ek sa f t e ren t e r ingcomba t , mo s tcomba tan t s k e epfgh t ingfo rth e i rownsu rv iva landtha to fth e i rcomba tg roup– f romth ep la toontoth ecompanyandth e“ t r en chcommun i ty .”Id ea l i s t mo t iv e slo s eimpo r tan c ebu tdono ta lway sd i sapp ea r .Th ee ff c i en cyo f am i l i ta ryun i td ep end sla rg e lyon mo t iva t ionand mo ra l e ,t ra in ingand sk i l l ,th equa l i tyo fth e i rcommand e r s ,andequ ipm en t . Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa sju s ttha t :anin fan t ryd iv i s iono fth eW eh rma ch t .I tn ev e rcov e r edas e c to ro fth ef ron tg r ea t e rthanaf ewdoz en k i lom e t r e s , wh i chnon e th e l e s so f t enex c e ed edav e rag eBD manpow e r . Th eSpan i sh un i t sp e r fo rm ed mod e s t lyincomba t ,bu tnob e t t e ro r wo r s ethan mo s to th e rm i l i ta ryun i t sfgh t inga long s id eo raga in s tth em . Thoughn ev e ra ma jo rcoginth es t ra t eg i c ma ch in e ryo fA rmy G roup No r th ,th eBD wa sano th e rt i l einth e mo sa i co fth eV o lkhovF ron tand th es i eg eo fL en ing rad .Fo rth eG e rmancommand ,a lway scap t iv etoi t s ownp r e jud i c e s ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eind iv idua l lyb rav e ,h igh ly mo t iva t edcomba tan t s ;bu tth ey w e r eon lyr e l iab l efo rpa s s iv ed e f en c e ta sk s ,coup sd e ma in ,andsma l l s ca l eo rgu e r i l lafgh t ing .Th e s ew e r e con s id e r edtyp i ca l lySpan i sh way so f mak ing wa r .A sa m i l i ta ryco l l e c t iv e ,th eG e rman ssawSpan i shso ld i e r sa sabad lyt ra in edandin su ff c i en t lyo rgan iz edun i t ,l edbyunp r epa r edo ff c e r sand NCO s who cou ldno tg ra spth er equ i r em en t so f mod e rn wa r fa r eonth eEa s t e rn

12 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ron t .Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ion wa sacon s tan tannoyan c etoth eG e rmanh ighcommand e r sbu ton eth eyhadtoto l e ra t e ,pa r t lydu etod iploma t i cimp e ra t iv e s ,andpa r t lyb e cau s eG e rmanhumanand ma t e r ia l r e cou r c e sw e r econ t inua l lyd e c r ea s ingf romla t e1941on .Thoughno t pa r t i cu la r ly w e l com e ,Span ia rd scou ldno tea s i lyb er ep la c ed w i thf r e sh G e rmant roop s . How ev e r ,th eG e rman m i l i ta ryhadnog r ea t e rapp r ec ia t ionfo ro th e rfo r e ignl eg ion sandun i t s ,f romI ta l ian sto No rw eg ian s (G e rman i co ro th e rw i s e ) .Span ia rd sw e r eno tund e s i rab l eso ld i e r s ,bu t th ey w e r eno td e s i r ed . Th eevo lu t iono fG e rman -Span i shr e la t ion sf rom1941to1945i sw e l l knownands e rv e sh e r ea saba ckg roundfo rd i s cu s s ingth eh i s to ryo fth e B lu eD iv i s ion .16 H e r e ,th e magn i fy ingl en si sapp l i edto m i l i ta ryh i s to ry f romb e low ,toth eexp e r i en c e s ,p e r c ep t ion s ,andr e in t e rp r e ta t ion so f cu l tu ra l mod e l sandpo l i t i ca ls logan sbyind iv idua lcomba tan t s ,w i th in ag en e ra lf ram ewo rkd e t e rm in edby wa rc i r cum s tan c e s .17 T e s t imon i e s a r ec ru c ia ltoth er e con s t ru c t iono fth e s ep e r c ep t ion s .K eysou r c e sinc lud el e t t e r s , wa rd ia r i e s ,unpub l i sh edandpub l i sh ed m emo i r s ,ev en f c t iona la c coun t sba s edonth eau tho r ’ s wa rexp e r i en c e .18 P r e s sa r t i c l e s s en tf romth eRu s s ianF ron ttolo ca landp rov in c ia l jou rna l scon s t i tu t ea comp l em en ta rysou r c e .Th e s ew e r el e s ssub j e c ttoc en so r sh ipando f t en d ig r e s s edf romth eid ea l iz edcomba trh e to r i cfoundincon t empo ra ry t e s t imon i e so fth e mo r ep rom in en tBD m emb e r s :th ew r i t e r s ,jou rna l i s t s ,andpo l i t i ca ll ead e r s . Th i sb r ing su stoth eongo ingd ia l e c t i c sb e tw e enh i s to ryand m emo ry , b e tw e enl iv edexp e r i en c eand wa rna r ra t iv e s . Wha t manycomba tan t s w ro t eabou ty ea r sandd e cad e sla t e rcon c e rn ingth e i r wa rexp e r i en c e– t ra in ingin G e rmany ,th ejou rn eytoth ef ron t ,b e inginth efo r e f ron to r th er ea rgua rd–do e sno tn e c e s sa r i lyco in c id ew i th wha tth ey w ro t e du r ingth e wa r ,inth e i rl e t t e r stohom eo rinth e i r wa rd ia r i e s .Th eBD m emo rytha t wa scu l t iva t edonth eSpan i sh“hom ef ron t”foundi t sf r s t exp r e s s ioninth ecu l ttofa l l enso ld i e r sind i s tan t Ru s s ianlo ca t ion s , th eninth ecod if ca t iono faco l l e c t iv ea c coun tcon c e rn ingth eBD wa r exp e r i en c e ,andla t e rinth ecomm emo ra t ion sanda c t iv i t i e so fv e t e ran s ’ a s so c ia t ion s ,pa r t lyendo r s edbyth eF ran co i s ts ta t ein s t i tu t ion s .I t wa s on esha rdo fth ed i f fu s em emo ryo fth eEa s t e rnF ron ttha tp r eva i l ed th roughou tEu rop ea f t e r1945 .I tva r i edg r ea t lyf romon ecoun t ryand p e r iodtoano th e r ,en compa s s ingcomp e t i t ionb e tw e enth el ega cyo f S ta l ing radandth e Au s chw i tzsynd rom e ,id ea l iza t iono fth eG r ea tPat r io t i cW a r ,compa r i sono fth e“ twoo c cupa t ion s”(G e rmanandSov i e t ) , 19 andth e( I ta l ian )con s t ru c t iono fa“b en igno c cup i e r” my th . Th i sbooka l sod i s cu s s e sth esp e c if c i tyandv a r i a t ion so fth ero l eo f Sp a in inth i st r an sn a t ion a lm emo ry ,wh i chw a sh igh lycond i t ion edbytwo

In t rodu c t ion 13

c i r cum s t an c e s .F i r s tw a sth eex c ep t ion a llong ev i tyo fth eF r an cor eg im e , ad i c t a to r sh ip w i thf a s c i s to r ig in s .I tw e l com edth ecomb a t an t sb a ckf rom th eE a s t e rnF ron tw i thou ts t igm a t i z ingo rjudg ingth em , wh i l eino th e r Eu rop e ancoun t r i e sth ey w e r es e ena st r a i to r s .Th eF r an cod i c t a to r sh ip h adnoqu a lm sabou tr em emb e r ingth ev e t e r an s ’h e ro i cd e ed sinpub l i c p l a c e sandc e r emon i e s . How ev e r ,th i sr anp a r a l l e ltoth er eg im e ’ se f fo r t s tor e a l ignSp a in w i th W e s t e rnpow e r sinth econ t ex to fth eCo ld W a r .T o th i send ,th eadv en tu r e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ioninRu s s i aw e r epo r t r ay eda s as e condch ap t e ro ranep i logu eo fth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r ,apu r e lyan t i commun i s tend e avou rd evo ido fanya s so c i a t ionw i thN a z iex t e rm in a t ion po l i c i e s .S e cond w a sth eto l e r an c eo fth esu c c e s s iv ed emo c r a t i cgov e rnm en t stow a rd sth er emn an t so fth a tm emo ryf rom1 9 7 7onw a rd s .U l t im a t e ly ,th eya s s im i l a t ed m anyf e a tu r e so fth epo s i t iv em emo ryo fth eB lu e D iv i s ionth a th adb e eng en e r a t eddu r ingth ep r ev iou sr eg im e ,w i thou teng ag inginac r i t i c a lr ev i ewo fi t sro l einth eG e rm an w a ro fex t e rm in a t ion inth eE a s t .Th i sp e r s i s t edinSp an i shpo s t -F r an co i s th i s to r i c a lcu l tu r eand inth epub l i csph e r eth roughth ef r s td e c ad eo fth etw en ty -f r s tc en tu ry . Enem ie sandF r iend s :Ru s s ia , Ge rmany ,andSpan i sh Fa s c i sm   (1917–41 ) F r omth eIm ag in edRu s s i ant oth eR e a lRu s s i an(1917–41 ) Ru s s iacon s t i tu t edana lmo s tunknownlandinth eSpan i shpopu la rimag ina ryp r io rtoth eR evo lu t iono f1917 .Th e r ew e r eaf ewex c ep t ion s s t emm ingf romd ip loma t i cr e la t ion sb e tw e enSpa inandth eT sa r i s tem p i r edu r ing th ef r s tha l fo f th en in e t e en thc en tu ry ,and mo r epa r t i cu la r ly f romth el i t e ra ryimp r e s s ion st ran sm i t t edbyth et rav e lnov e l i s tJuan 20 V a l e rainh i sC a r t a sd e sd eRu s i a(L e t t e r sf romRu s s ia )in1857 . Th i r ty y ea r sla t e r ,th e s esk e t ch e sa cqu i r edd im en s ion w i thth ed i s s em ina t ion o f wha ti snowcon s id e r edc la s s i cRu s s ianl i t e ra tu r ef romau tho r ssu ch a sL evT o l s toyandFyodo r Do s to ev sky ,a long w i thanana ly s i so fRu ss ianso c i e tybyth ed ip loma tandh i s to r ianJu l iánJud e r ía s .N ev e r th e l e s s ,du r ingth ef r s ttwod e cad e so fth etw en t i e thc en tu ry ,th e r ew e r e 21 f ewd i r e c tm ed ia to r sb e tw e enRu s s iaandth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e . V a l e ra ,Jud e r ía sando th e rau tho r sr ep rodu c edth eimag eba s edon th ei con o fa l t e r i ty , ba ckwa rdn e s sandexo t i c i smtha tcha ra c t e r iz ed th eemp i r eo fth eT sa r sin W e s t e rnpopu la rop in iondu r ingth efna l qua r t e ro fth en in e t e en thc en tu ry :th ep s eudo -A s ian ,fana t i cRu s s ia ,capab l eo fun imag inab l esu f f e r ing .Th i sn eo roman t i cv i s iono fEa s t e rn Eu rop e ,enhan c edbyafa s c ina t ion w i thth eexo t i c , wa si t s e l fba s edon c l i ch é sfo rg edbye igh t e en th c en tu ryF r en ch En l igh t enm en tau tho r s .

14 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ela s t ings t e r eo typ e stha tth eycon so l ida t ed mad eRu s s iath er ea lm o fba rba r ian s ,incon t ra s tw i thac iv i l iz edEu rop e .22 F romth eea r ly1920 son ,Span i sht rav e l l e r sandv i s i to r stoth ef edgl ingSov i e t Un iont ran sm i t t edad i f f e r en timag e :anex emp la ryv i s ion o fth en ew“hom e lando fth ep ro l e ta r ia t ,”r e su rg en tf romth eda rkn e s s . Nuan c e sva r i eda c co rd ingtoth eid eo log i ca ll ean ing so fth et rav e l l e r s ( so c ia l i s t s ,commun i s t s ,ana r ch i s t s ,o rbou rg eo i s i e ) ,bu ta lmo s ta l lsaw th eUSSRa sth econ s t ru c t iono fan ew wo r ldandanid ea l iz ed ,c la s s l e s s so c i e ty .Sov i e tp ropagandainSpan i sh ,r epo r t sinth e wo rk e r s ’p r e s s , andrad iob road ca s t sf rom1933onso l id if edth eSov i e t my thamong mu cho fth el e f tw ing .23 Th i sr ep r e s en ta t ioncon t ra s t ed w i thth ei con i cimag ec ra f t edbyth e coun t e r r evo lu t iona ryEu rop eanr igh tw ingf rom1917– 18 on .I tsup e r impo s edid eo log i ca lr e j e c t iono fcommun i smon upda t edimag e so f a l t e r i ty ,fana t i c i sm ,andexo t i c i sm ,a id edbyth esp r eado fRu s s ianl i t e r a tu r ec la s s i c sf romPu shk into Max imGo rk i .Thoughsom et ran s la t ion s hadb eguntoc i r cu la t einSpan i sh magaz in e sinth em id -n in e t e en th c en tu ry , mo s tRu s s ian w r i t e r sfoundth e i r wayin toSpan i shba s edon F r en ched i t ion sf romth e1910 sand1920 sanden joy edno tab l epopula r i ty .Th eg en e r i ct e rm so fth i si cono fa l t e r i ty m ean ttha tth eRu s s i an a ssu ch wa sab s en tf romth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e .Th etyp i ca l Wh i t e Ru s s ianr e fug e e so fth eb e l l eép o qu einPa r i sd idno tapp ea rinSpa in un t i lth eC iv i lW a r .24 Th es t e r eo typ eco r r e spond edtoafam i l ia rtyp e ca s t ing :Sov i e tcommun i sm ,ina l l ian c ew i thF r e ema son ryandJuda i sm , wou ld d e s t roy W e s t e rnand Ch r i s t ianc iv i l iza t ion ,u s ing God ’ sfavou r i t e na t ion– Spa in–a sab r idg eh ead .Th i sd i s cou r s e wa supda t ed w i thth eadv en t o fth eS e condSpan i sh R epub l i candsp r ead mo r ein t en s e lya f t e rth e endo f1935 , wh enth ean t i -R epub l i canr igh tw ingb egana c cu s inga l l Popu la rF ron tpa r t i e so fhav ingso ldou tfo r“Mo s cowgo ld .”Ru s s i a wa s id en t if ed w i thth e USSR ,th ein ca rna t iono fEv i l .I tb egan w i thad e ep r e s eman t i c iza t iono fth ecoun t e r r evo lu t iona ryimag eo fl ib e ra l i smand 25 th eF r en ch R evo lu t ion ,s ea son ed w i thcon sp i ra cyth eo r i e s . By1936 , th i si con wa sfu l lyfo rm edinSpan i shfa s c i sm , wh i chsawafundam en ta lcon t inu i tyb e tw e enth e“o r i en ta l”e s s en c eo ft sa r i s td e spo t i smand 26 th e ma t e r ia l i s tRu s s i atha tth r ea t en edtod evou rW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ion . Inacomp l em en ta ry mann e r ,th i simag eo fRu s s i aa l soco r r e spond ed toana t iona lo th e r . How ev e r ,du r ingth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ,th es e cond fun c t iono fth i s mob i l iz ing my th–tha to fRu s s iaa sanadv e r sa ryo fth e na t ion–r ea ch edanin t en s i tysup e r io rto wha thadb e eni t sf r s tfun ct ionun t i lth en :toin ca rna t eth eAn t i ch r i s t .Th i sm e ld ed w i thth eimag e o fth een emy w i th inands eman t i ca l lyr e in fo r c edi t sa l t e r i ty .27

In t rodu c t ion 15

Th e wa rna t iona l i smo fth ein su rg en t sinth e1936–9Span i shconf i c t b egand ehuman iz ingth een emyv iad ena t iona l iza t ion .28 M emb e r so f th eo th e rSpa inhads topp edb e ingSpan ia rd sbyb e t ray ingth ee s s en c e s o fth e Hom e land ,d i s r ega rd ingt rad i t ionandna t iona lh i s to ry ,s e l l ing ou ttofo r e ign iz ingid eo log i e s .Th et ra i to r scou ldthu sb eg en e r i ca l ly ca t ego r iz eda sSpan ia rd sin f e c t ed w i thafo r e ignv i ru s .Th eo th e r wa s d efn edin mo ra lpa t r io t i candco l l e c t iv et e rm s ,bu ts e ldoma sanexp l i c i tso c ia lg roup .Th em e tapho ro fRu s s i an sa scommun i s tfo r e ign e r sr e in fo r c edth e mo r eg en e ra ls t igma t iza t iono fth een emya sR ed s. Thoughs ev e ra l doz en Ru s s ianan t i commun i s t vo lun t e e r s , mo s to f 29 th ema r r iv ingf romF ran c e , jo in edfo r c e sw i thth ein su rg en t s , th et e rm Ru s s i an b e cam eau tonomou s lye f f e c t iv efo rbo l s t e r ingth ep e r c ep t iono f th econf i c ta sa wa raga in s taninvad e r .Th eamb i t iono fRu s s ia , wh i ch “hadd r eam edo fd igg ingi t sb loody ,emb l ema t i cs i ck l ein toth i slov e ly p i e c eo fEu rop e ,”hadun l ea sh eda wa r :“ th ecommun i s tandso c ia li s t ma s s e so fth eea r th ,un i t ed w i thF r e ema son sandJ ew s” wou ldu s e Spa ina s“ago ld ens t epp ing s ton etog loba lt r iumph .”Th e wa rthu s 30 b e cam ean ewR e c on qu i s t a,ar e conqu e s tl ik etha to fth eM idd l eAg e s . Thoughth eC iv i lW a rhada tf r s tb e end e s c r ib eda sanup r i s ingto r e s to r efu l lSpan i shn e s stoaR epub l i canr eg im etha thadsu r r end e r ed to“Ru s s ian typ eana r cho commun i s tid ea l s ,”th einvo lv em en to fth e USSRt ran s fo rm edi tinth eey e so fF ran co i s tp ropagand i s t sin toa wa r fo rna t iona ll ib e ra t ion .Spa inr ep r e s en t edna t iona l i smr e s i s t ingcom mun i sm ,ag loba lconf i c tb e tw e en“ th ev i ta lr ea l i tyo fth ena t iona l i t i e s” andanin t e rna t iona l i s tid eo logy .I fi tp r eva i l ed ,th e wo r ld wou ldno 31 long e rb ed iv id edin tona t ion s . I fp ro l e t a r i a tin t e rn a t ion a l i smtu rn edin toaninv ad ing pow e r ,a l l Sp an i shcommun i s t scou ldb econ s id e r edRu s s i an s.Th ef e a tu r e so fth i s 3 2 conv e r s ion w e r eno td e s c r ib edine thno cu l tu r a l ,bu tid eo log i c a lt e rm s . Th eR epub l i c an m i l i t i aw e r ef r equ en t lyr ep r e s en t eda srough m en w i th Sov i e tm i l i t a ryc ap s ,and R epub l i c anloy a l i s t sa sund e r cov e r Ru s s i an ag en t s .“Ru s s i a ”and“Ru s s i an ”a l sos e rv eda sp e r f e c tm e t apho r so fa l l th eco l l e c t iv ev i c e sth a tch a r a c t e r i z edth eR epub l i c ans id ef romth ep e r sp e c t iv eo fth e in su rg en t s :pov e r ty ,ch ao s , l a cko fp a t r io t i sm , mo r a lv a cu 3 3 i ty …Inth e i r mo s tC a tho l i cv e r s ion ,i ts imp ly w a sth er e a lmo fS a t an . Th e“Ru s s i an s , ”how ev e r , l a ck edanysp e c if cphy s i c a lf e a tu r e s .D e sp i t e th esub s t an t i a lw e apon rysupp l i edbyth e USSR ,no mo r eth antw en ty twohund r edSov i e tt e chn i c i an s ,p i lo t s ,m i l i t a rycon su l t an t s ,andpo l i t i c a lpo l i c es e tfoo tonSp an i shso i ldu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .Th e r ew a sl i t t l e ch an c eo fa c tu a l ly m e e t ingau th en t i cRu s s i an sonth ef ron t ,thoughin su r g en tp rop ag and ad ep i c t edR epub l i c anp r i son e r sw i thf a c e sl ik eL en ina s 3 4 expon en t so fa“poo r ,d e c ad en tr a c e ”o ra sth e“Mongo l Co s s a ck . ” In

16 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th e i r l e t t e r s ,r eb e lso ld i e r squ i t eo f t ena l lud edtoth e i radv e r s a r i e sa s“Ru s 3 5 s i an s , ” andth es t e r eo typ econ t inu edc i r cu l a t ingin toth ee a r lypo s t -w a r y e a r s .C a tho l i cw r i t e rJo s éM a r í aS a l av e r r í ad e s c r ib edth eRu s s i ana sa “ t av e rnthug , ”m ad edoub lyund e s i r ab l ebyh i simp en e t r ab l eexo t i c i sm andinn a t ed e c e i t fu ln e s s ,p r ed e t e rm in edbyth e“ comp l ex i tyo fh i sr a c i a l m ak e -up ,wh i chf r equ en t lybo rd e r sons av ag e ry . ” Wh enwo rdc am eo f th e inv a s iono fth eSov i e tUn ionon 2 2Jun e1 9 4 1 ,th ew e ek lyp ap e r Mun d or e m ind edi t sr e ad e r sth a tSp a ina l r e adykn ewi t sadv e r s a ry ,“Ru s s i a , wh i ch p e r son if edi t sc ap a c i tyfo rc r im in a lindu c t ionandS a t an i ccomp l i c i ty . ”36 H i t le r , Ge rman Naz i sm ,andSpan i shFa s c i sm(1930–41 ) I t a l i anandG e rm anE ch o e s(1924–36 ) Inth ein i t ia ls tag e so fSpan i shfa s c i sm ,th einfu en c eo f Na t iona lSo c ia l i sm wa sm eag r e .Th ef r s tg roup sd rawntofa s c i smin Mad r idand Ba r c e lonainth e1920 sw e r ea t t ra c t edbyth esh in ingimag eo f Mu s sol in i ’ sfa s c i sma f t e rth e Ma r chonRom e(O c tob e r1922 ) ,i t sr emova lo f l ib e ra lpo l i t i ca le l i t e s ,andi t sm ixo fr evo lu t iona ryapp ea l ,avan t -ga rd e a e s th e t i c s ,andcha r i sma t i cl ead e r sh ip .Th ep ro l if cin t e l l e c tua lE rn e s to G im én ez Caba l l e roin t rodu c edfa s c i smtoth el i t e ra ryavan t -ga rd ein Spa ina f t e rat r iptoRom ein1928 .Acommonapp ea ltoth ec la s s i ch e r itag eo fth eRomanEmp i r ea l so mad eSpan i shfa s c i s t sf e e ltha tth eyw e r e pa r to fan ewr e su rg en c eo f Ca tho l i c in fu s ed M ed i t e r ran eanEu rop e . I ta ly ’ sr e su rg en c eb e cam eak indo f Ho ly G ra i ltha tawok einSpan i sh 37 in t e l l e c tua l sth ed r eamo fan t i l ib e ra lr eb i r thfo rth ena t ion . How ev e r ,th efound e r so fth ef r s tfa s c i s tg roup sinth e1930 s ,Ram i ro L ed e smaand On é s imo R edondo ,b e long edtoayoung e rg en e ra t ion . Th er i s eo f NSDAPinG e rmanyf rom1929ond e c i s iv e lyco lou r edth e i r po l i t i ca lv i ew s ,andth ey w e r efam i l ia rw i thG e rmanlanguag eandcu ltu r e .L ed e smasp en tfou r mon th sin H e id e lb e rgin1930 . As e l f taugh t in t e l l e c tua l ,h e wa sinfu en c edbyth edo c t r in e so fF r i ed r i ch N i e tz s ch e , Ma r t in H e id egg e r ,and O swa ldSp eng l e r .R edondosp en tana cad em i c y ea r(1928–9 )a sSpan i shr ead e ra tth eH ighS choo lo f Comm e r c ein Mannh e im ,d ed i ca t edtoth eana ly s i so fth epo l i t i ca ls t ra t eg i e ss e tin mo t ionby G e rman Ca tho l i c i sm .H er ega rd ed H i t l e ra sad e f end e ro f Ch r i s t ian i tyaga in s t Ma rx i smandadvo ca t edana l l ian c eo fH i t l e rw i th 38 th eZ en t rum(Ca tho l i cC en t r ePa ry )tocon f ron tG e rmancommun i sm . F romth ef r s ti s su eo fh i sn ew w e ek lyL aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t a d o(M a r ch 1 9 3 1 ) ,L ed e sm ag av e in c r e a s inga t t en t iontoth et r a j e c to ryo fG e rm an N a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . Non e th e l e s s ,th eJun t a sd eO f en s iv aN a c ion a lS ind i c a l i s t a( JONS ) ,wh i chh efound ed inO c tob e rth a ty e a r ,w e r eh e av i ly in sp i r ed

In t rodu c t ion 17

by Mu s so l in i ’ sso c i a lco rpo r a t iv i sm .R edondoandh i s fo l low e r s inV a l l ado l id ,wh e r eh eh adb e enpub l i sh ingth ew e ek ly jou rn a lL i b e r t a ds in c eJun e 1 9 3 1 ,w e r ea l sos t rong lyinfu en c edbyth eI t a l i anco rpo r a t iv i s t mod e l . R edondo ’ sg rouph ada mo r eC a tho l i cimp r in tbu tvo i c edan t i -S em i t i c s log an sf romth ev e ryb eg inn ing .Th eagg r e s s iv el angu ag eandsom eo f th em e t apho r sth eyu s edc l e a r lyr e c a l l edth eton eo fN a z i jou rn a l ssu cha s D e rS tü rm e r. How ev e r ,th ean t i -S em i t i ccon t en tu su a l lyr em a in ed w i th in th el im i t so fC a tho l i can t i J ew i shp r e jud i c e , wh i ch m a in lyfoundf au l t w i thth eJ ew i shr e l ig ionr a th e rth anth eb io log i c a lo r ig in so fJ ew s . Thoughth ee cho e sf rom Rom er e sound ed w i thg r ea t e rs t r eng thin th eea r so fSpan i shfa s c i s t s , Na t iona lSo c ia l i smcam eon s tag ea sasp e c ta cu la r mod e lo fna t iona lr e su rg en c e .I t wa sg round edin H i t l e r ’ shyp no t iz ingcha r i smaa sal ead e r whohadcap tu r edth eh ea r to fth ep eop l e , a sw e l la sh i sab i l i tyto w invo t e sand m emb e r sf rombo thex t r em e so f 39 th epo l i t i ca lsp e c t rum . F ragm en t so fM e inK amp f w e r ef r s tt ran s la t ed inth epag e so fL i b e r t ad, wh i ch wa spa r t i cu la r lyin t e r e s t edin Naz iag i 40 ta t ions t ra t eg i e s . F rom F eb rua ry1933 on ,adm i ra t ionfo rH i t l e rsp r eada c ro s sth e en t i r eSpan i shan t i -R epub l i canr igh tw ing ,f rom Ca tho l i c sto mona r ch i s t s .Th eysawth en ew G e rmanchan c e l lo ra sth es tanda rd -b ea r e r o faun i t edan t i -Ma rx i s tandna t iona l i s tf ron ttha tt ran s c end edpa r ty l in e s .L ed e smacon s id e r ed H i t l e rag en iu so fpo l i t i ca lag i ta t ionanda p ragma t i cs ta t e sman , whohads e iz edpow e rw i thf ew e rcon c e s s ion s 41 toth eChu r chandth econ s e rva t iv e sthan Mu s so l in ihad mad eea r l i e r . Span i shfa s c i s t s mo s tadm i r edhowna t iona lso l ida r i tyhadb e eno r ch e st ra t eda roundacha r i sma t i cl ead e r ,bu tth eya l soenv i ed H i t l e r ’ sbo ld n e s sinimpo s ingh i spo l i t i ca lw i l lov e rth econ s t ra in t so fin t e rna t iona l 42 law .G e rmany ’ sr eb i r thshon ea sanexamp l efo rad e cad en tSpa in , and th ef r s texp l i c i t lyfa s c i s tSpan i sh w e ek lyjou rna l ,E lF a s c i o,app ea r ed in Mad r idin Ma r ch1933 .Th ejou rna lga th e r eda roundi tanumb e ro f in t e l l e c tua l sandpo l i t i ca la c t iv i s t sf romth erad i ca lr igh t whosawth e Naz ipow e rg raba sp roo fo fth ei r r e s i s t ib l e mod e rn i tyo ffa s c i sm .43 Naz ira c i smand“pagan i sm”ind e ed po s eda d i l emmafo rsom e adm i r e r so fH i t l e r . Wh i l ed e ta ch ingth em s e lv e sf romb io log i ca lan t i S em i t i sm ,som ea t t emp t edtoe labo ra t ea m e taphy s i ca lth eo ryo fnat iona l so c ia l i s tra c i smbyequa t ingi tw i thth ecu l tu ra landh i s to r i ca l 44 founda t iono fna t iona l i ty .Th i s mad ei texpo r tab l etoo th e rcoun t r i e s . Span i shfa s c i s t sc la im edtha tSpan i shp eop l ed i s l ik edth eJ ew sandexp r e s s edth e i rund e r s tand ingo fth eG e rmanin t e rp r e ta t iono faun iv e rsa lp r o b l em, wh i chinSpa in man i f e s t edi t s e l fs imp lya sacon f e s s iona l i s su e .Thu s ,th eyd i sp lay edab en evo l en ta t t i tud etowa rd sth ef r s ts eg 45 r ega t ion i s tm ea su r e sadop t edbyth e Naz ir eg im eaga in s tth eJ ew s .

18 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ef r s tSp an i shp a r a f a s c i s tandf a s c i s tt r av e l l e r sto N a z iG e rm any p rop ag a t eds im i l a rv i ew s .46 Th econ s e rv a t iv ew r i t e r and un iv e r s i ty p ro f e s so rV i c en t eG ayv i s i t ed G e rm anyin1 9 3 3 .Thoughh em i s t ru s t ed b io log i c a lr a c i smandexp r e s s edh i sp r e f e r en c efo ra“m i ld e r ”au tho r i t a ri an i sm ,h ea l soju s t if ede s t ab l i shm en to fth ef r s tcon c en t r a t ionc amp s 4 7 a sin s t i tu t ion sto“ r e edu c a t e ”b ad G e rm an s . On ey e a rl a t e r ,F a l ang i s t l eg a lexp e r tJu anB en ey toa l soadvo c a t edth en e edto“d e l im i t ”th einfu en c eo fJ ew sandC a tho l i c sinpub l i ca f f a i r sa sas t r a t egyto“n a t ion a l i z e po l i t i c s . ”H es awth en ew G e rm anya san ewd im en s iono fEu rop e an id en t i ty .Th eN a z is t rugg l etoov e r com e“bou rg eo i s ”no t ion so fan a t ion a l s t a t em e rg edw i thth en ew id e ao fr a c eth a tf ed in toan ew m e an ingo fth e 4 8 t e rm“ emp i r e . ” O th e rv i s i to r stoth eTh i rdR e i chag r e edonth a tpo in t . R amónd eR a to w a sas tud en tf roma m idd l e c l a s sb a ckg round whor eg a rd ed N a t ion a lSo c i a l i sma sap rom i s ingfu tu r efo rEu rop e anyou th , who w e r eb e s i eg edby Ma rx i sm .Fu r th e rmo r e ,th eSpan i sh p eop l e w e r eh a rd lyqu a l if edto m ak e mo r a l judgm en t son N a z ian t i -S em i t i sm , b e c au s eth e“ J ew i shp rob l em ”h adb e enab s en tf romSp an i shl i f es in c e 4 9 1 4 9 2 . Inanyev en t ,th eF a l ang i s tjou rn a lL i b e r t a din s i s t edin1 9 3 4 ,th e G e rm anFüh r e r ’ san t i commun i smr ed e em edh i sp ag ane r ro r s : Sofa r. . .th eH i t l e rr eg im eha sno t wonth econfd en c eo fth e Ch r i s t ian W e s t e rn wo r ld .Y e t ,a l lCa tho l i c scana tl ea s tcon c ed ew i thi ttha tBo l sh ev i c a th e i smand m e r c i l e s sba rba r ian i sma r ed iam e t r i ca l lyoppo s edtoCh r i s t ’ s cau s e .S in c ew ea l lag r e etha tth er ea l i tyo fH i t l e r ’ sp r e s en c ei sas t rong ba r r i e raga in s tCommun i s th e l l :…  L e tu sCa tho l i c sadvo ca t eth econv e r5 0 s iono fp ro t e s tan to rpagan Na t iona lSo c ia l i sm ,bu tno ti t sco l lap s e !

F romJanua ry1933on , mo s to f th er igh t -w ingan t i -R epub l i canp r e s swa s equa l lysympa th e t i ctowa rd sH i t l e r . Th e mona r ch i s t s ,p ro to fa s c i s t s , andt rad i t iona l i s t s whoga th e r eda roundth ejou rna lA c c i ónE sp añ o l a w e r egoodp roo fo fi t .G e rman“na t iona lr eb i r th”andth e mod e rn i tyo f Naz i ma s sp e r fo rman c e sa l sofa s c ina t edSpan i shr igh t -w ingrad i ca l s . Th eyadm i r edhow Naz i smp r io r i t iz edth ena t iona lcommun i tyov e r o th e rva lu e s .51 Som em emb e r so fA c c iónE spaño laev ensub s c r ib edto Naz ieug en i c sth eo r i e s ,bu t mo s thadr e s e rva t ion sabou t Naz i“pagani sm”andan t i cap i ta l i s trh e to r i c .Th eya l sod i s l ik edhowth e NSDAP hadcom etopow e rth roughth eba l lo tbox e s ;Span i shan t i -R epub l i can s p r e f e r r eda m i l i ta rycoupd ’ é ta t .52 Non e th e l e s s , mo s tSp an i shf a s c i s t ss t i l ls awth eI t a l i an mod e la sth e mo s tapp rop r i a t eop t ionfo raC a tho l i ccoun t ry .A c co rd ing ly ,th eF a l ang e E sp año l a(Sp an i shPh a l anx )p a r ty( 1 9 3 3 –6 )d evo t ed mu ch mo r ea t t en t iontoI t a ly ,andev enF r an c e ,th antoG e rm any .Th em a inSp an i shf a s c i s t

In t rodu c t ion 19

l e ad e rf rom O c tob e r1 9 3 3 ,Jo s éAn ton ioP r imod eR iv e r a ,w a sinv i t edby th eNSDAP tov i s i tG e rm any in M ay1 9 3 4 .H em e tb r i efyw i thsom eo f i t s l e ad e r s ,in c lud ing H i t l e rh im s e l fandA l f r edRo s enb e rg , whor e c a l l edth e m e e t inginh i sd i a rytwoy e a r sl a t e r .Th eyoungSp an i shf a s c i s t ,“ c l ev e r andc l e a r -m ind ed ;C a tho l i c ,no tc l e r i c a l ;n a t ion a l i s t ,no tdyn a s t i c , ”h ad imp r e s s edh im . How ev e r ,Ro s enb e rga l sono t edth a t“ th eyoungP r imo d eR iv e r a ”h adavo id edanycomm en tonth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion .53 Onh i sr e tu rntoSp a in ,Jo s éAn ton ioP r imod eR iv e r aw a sa c tu a l lyr a th e rs c ep t i c a l 5 4 abou tN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . How ev e r ,o th e rSp an i shf a s c i s t sa l sor ev e r s ed th e i rin i t i a ladm i r a t ionfo rN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sma f t e rh av ingv i s i t ed G e r m any .Th ejou rn a l i s t An ton ioB e rmúd e z -C añ e t e , whojo in edth eJONS in1 9 3 1andl a t e rab andon edth eg roup ,h adb e ena t t r a c t edby H i t l e rand emb r a c edan t i -S em i t i ct en e t s .A f t e rh i st im e( f rom1 9 3 2toJ anu a ry1 9 3 5 ) a sp r e s sco r r e spond en t inB e r l in ,B e rmúd e z -C añ e t eend edupr epud i a t ing 5 5 r a c i sm ,a th e i sm ,andth e“ so c i a l i s t ”t end en c i e so fN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . Bo thth eFa lang eandth ecomb in edFE JONSpa r tya f t e rm e rg ing w i thth eJONS(F eb rua ry1934 ) look edtoRom era th e rthantoB e r l in ,e sp e c ia l ly wh enth eyn e ed edex t e rna lfnan c ing .Th eFa lang i s tpo e tF ede r i cod eU r ru t ia wo rk eda sa jou rna l i s tfo rth en ew spap e rIn f o rm a c i on e s , wh i chhadr e c e iv edsub s id i e sf romB e r l ins in c e1934top ropaga t ean56 t i -S em i t i candp ro -Naz ip ropagandaa r t i c l e s . Som eG e rmancon su la t e s a l sod i s t r ibu t ed Naz il eaf e t sandbook sinSpan i shtolo ca lFa lang i s t g roup s .Thoughs t rongl ink sa l soex i s t edb e tw e enFa lang i s tg roup sand 57 lo ca lchap t e r so fth e NSDAPFo r e ign O rgan iza t ionb ran ch , G e rman d ip loma cyhadl i t t l ei fanyd i r e c tcon ta c tw i thth eFa lang i s tl ead e r s .R ei chd ip loma t sinSpa in w e r eigno ran to fth econ sp i ra c i e stoov e r th row th egov e rnm en tinth esp r ingo f1936 .M eanwh i l e , Mu s so l in i wa s mak ingg en e rou sdona t ion so f mon eyanda rm stoth em i l i ta rycon sp i ra cy ands ev e ra lo fth e mona r ch i candt rad i t iona l i s tl ead e r sinvo lv edini t . F a s c in a t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch(1936–41 ) Th eou tb r eako fth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ma rk edatu rn ingpo in tinth i s s to ry .I ti sw e l lknowntha tth em i l i ta ryin su rg en t sw e r eab l etod e l iv e r th e i rd emandfo rh e lpd i r e c t lyto H i t l e rinBay r eu thby25Ju ly1936 . G e rmanyf r s ts en ta i rp lan e s ,m i l i ta rysupp l i e s ,andanexp ed i t iona ry co rp s :th e Condo rL eg ion ,compo s ed ma in lyo fav ia to r sandg round suppo r tp e r sonn e l .La t e ron ,G e rmanya l sop rov id edfnan c ia landd ip 58 loma t i csuppo r t . Th efn e s thou ro fN a z iinfu en c eonSp an i shf a s c i sm w a sf rom1 9 3 7to 1 9 4 2 , int and emw i th in c r e a s inge conom i c ,cu l tu r a l ,andd ip lom a t i ccoop e r a t ionb e tw e enth e“n ew ”Sp a inandth eTh i rdR e i ch .Fo rth eG e rm an s ,

20 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th er e l a t ion sh ip w a sas t r a t eg i con e .H i t l e randh i sm in i s t e r shop edto in c lud eSp a ininth ee conom i cf r am eo fth eN ewEu rop e anO rd e r ,und e r G e rm angu id an c e .Cu l tu r eandid eo logyp l ay eda m ino r ,thoughno ti rr e l ev an t ,ro l einth i s ,soex ch ang e sin c r e a s ed .Do z en so fF a l ang i s tl e ad e r s andp a r tyo ff c i a l sb eg ant r av e l l ingtoG e rm anyin1 9 3 7tos t r eng th ent i e s w i thth e NSDAP .Th eyu s edth eN a z iP a r typ r e s sandp rop ag and a ,a long w i thth eyou thand wom en ’ ss e c t ion sa sa mod e lfo rth eF r en t ed eJuv entud e s(Y ou thF ron t )in1 9 4 0 .Th eSp an i shr e l i e fo rg an i z a t ionAux i l ioSo c i a l(So c i a lA id )w a sa l sog r e a t ly in sp i r edbyth eG e rm an W in t e rh i l f e ,and th eBund D eu t s ch e rM äd e lb e c am eat emp l a t efo renh an c ingth e i rF e m a l eS e c t ion .59 Sp an i shv i s i to r sw e r eu su a l lyf a s c in a t edbyG e rm an w e l f a r eandso c i a ld i s c ip l in e ,byth em a s sr a l l i e s ,th en ew mo to rw ay s ,and ev e ry th ingr e l a t edtot e chno log i c a lp rog r e s s .Th e i rp e r c ep t ion so fG e r m an mod e rn i tyr e s emb l edtho s eo fm anyB r i t i sht r av e l l e r sa tth a tt im e .60 In t e l l e c tua l ex chang e s mu l t ip l i ed un t i l 1944 :G e rman un iv e r s i ty town sb e cam eacommond e s t ina t ionfo rSpan i sha cad em i c s ,su cha s h ea l thexp e r t s whosp en tlongp e r iod sinB e r l in , Mun i ch ,o rV i enna .61 Th e Naz is ta t ea t t emp t edtoin c r ea s ei t sinfu en c eonSpan i shpub l i c op in ionbysub s id iz ingda i lyn ew spap e r sandrad ios ta t ion s .L eaf e t s w e r ed i s t r ibu t ed p r e s en t ing H i t l e ra sth esav iou ro f Eu rop eaga in s t Bo l sh ev i smanda mod e rn Ch r i s t iankn igh t -p ro t e c to ro fc iv i l iza t ion .62 S t rongl ink sw e r efo rg ed w i thF ran co i s tcu l tu ra lin s t i tu t ion s ,su cha s th eIn s t i tu tod eE s tud io sPo l í t i co s( In s t i tu t eo fPo l i t i ca lS tud i e s ,1939 ) , th rough wh i ch Naz iid ea sonpo l i t i ca lth eo ry ,th eso c ia ls c i en c e s ,and , pa r t i cu la r ly ,th eph i lo sophyo flawcou ldp en e t ra t eSpa in .Th e s em ea su r e shadala s t inginfu en c eons ev e ra lo fth ein t e l l e c tua l s whola idth e 63 th eo r e t i ca lfounda t ion so fth eF ran co i s t“N ewS ta t e .” S t r a t eg i ccoop e r a t ionandid eo log i c a lag r e em en timp l i edth a tapo rt iono fth eF r an co i s tpo l i t i c a landin t e l l e c tu a le l i t ew a sintun ew i thth e Th i rd R e i ch .Th i sd idno tn e c e s s a r i lyen t a i lfu l l -f edg edid en t if c a t ion w i thG e rm ans t r a t eg i cin t e r e s t s ,a s mo s tF a l ang i s t sp r e f e r r edfu l lb e l l ige r en cy .Fo rm anysuppo r t e r so fF r an co ,G e rm anoph i l ea t t i tud e sw e r eno t synonymou sw i th N a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . Amongpo r t ion so fth eSp an i sh so c i a le l i t e s ,th em i l i t a ry ,andth eC a tho l i cr igh tth e r ew a sd e ep roo t ed symp a thyfo rG e rm any , wh i chcou ldb et r a c edb a cka tl e a s ttoth eF i r s t W o r ld W a r .Th i sw a sr e in fo r c edbyth epo l i t i c a ladm i r a t ionth a t mo s to f th emf e l tfo rH i t l e r ,a sw e l la sth e i rf a s c in a t ion w i thth eW eh rm a ch t ,bu t i tw a sno tw i thou tcon t r ad i c t ion s .InS ep t emb e r1 9 3 9 ,m anyF a l ang i s t s w e r esho ck edbyth es ign ingo fth e Mo lo tov -R ibb en t ropP a c tandexp r e s s edth e i rd i s app rov a lo fth eN a z iinv a s iono fC a tho l i cPo l and .64 How ev e r ,th e s er e s e rva t ion squ i ck lyvan i sh eda f t e rth eG e rmanconqu e s to fF ran c einJun e1940 .Fa s c ina t ion w i thth eW eh rma ch tin f e c t ed

In t rodu c t ion 21

Fa lang i s t s ,th em i l i ta ry ,andev en manyan t i -Fa lang i s ta rmyo ff c e r s , wholong edtoen t e rth e wa ronth e Ax i ss id e .65 Som et rad i t iona l i s t s r ega rd ed H i t l e ra sth ega t ek e ep e ro f Ch r i s t ianEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion aga in s tth ecommun i s tth r ea t .Thou sand so f“p rov i s iona l”l i eu t enan t s anden s ign s ,tho s epoo r lyt ra in ed NCO s whohadfough tinth eF ranco i s ta rmydu r ingth eC iv i lW a r ,sha r eds im i la rv i ew s . Mo s to fth emad h e r edtoba s i cva lu e ssu cha st rad i t ion ,r e l ig ion ,andh i e ra r chy .66 Th ey adm i r ed G e rmany ’ sm i l i ta ry m igh t , wh i ch wa snowd i r e c t edaga in s t F ran c eandG r ea tB r i ta in ,th ea l l eg ed“h i s to r i ca len em i e s”o fSpa in . P ra i s efo r Na t iona lSo c ia l i smand H i t l e r mu l t ip l i ed inFa lang i s tp ropagandadu r ing th eea r ly1940 s .H ewa sr ega rd eda sab r i l l ian tso ld i e rand ac la i rvoyan ts t ra t eg i s t . An t i -S em i t i cton e sw e r eno tab s en tf romtha t 67 rh e to r i c . Th e Naz ip ropaganda ma ch in e rycon t inu edtofundn ew s pap e r s ,nov e l s ,andbook s .Rad i ca lFa lang i s t ssom e t im e sapp roa ch ed th eG e rmancon su la t e sandin s t i tu t ion sins ea r cho fr e cogn i t ion , wh i l e s ev e ra lFa lang i s tg roup sadop t ed Naz isymbo l sandlaun ch edboy co t t s 68 aga in s tB r i t i shin t e r e s t s . On esu chg roup ,th e“C ru sad e r saga in s tRu s s ia ,”s en talong m emo randumtoth eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id 69 inJu ly1941 ,a sk ingfo r Naz ih e lp . A sf e rv en tna t iona l i s t s ,how ev e r , rad i ca lFa lang i s t sw e r er e lu c tan ttos e rv ea sin s t rum en t sfo rG e rman in t e r e s t s .Ev entho s e whoapp roa ch edth eTh i rdR e i chins ea r cho fpo l i t i ca lsuppo r tha rd lyda r edqu e s t ionF ran co ´ sl ead e r sh ipandin s i s t ed onp r e s e rv ingth eCh r i s t iancha ra c t e ro fSpan i shfa s c i sm . Infa c t ,ha rd lyanySpan i sh Na t iona lSo c ia l i s t sinSpa ininth eea r ly 1940 s wou ldgosofa ra stoqu e s t ionth e ma in s t r eamt en e t so fCa tho l i c fa s c i sm .Th e i rrad i ca l iz edr e j e c t iono fJ ew s wa ss t i l lcon f e s s iona land t rad i t iona l ,bu tno tb io log i ca l lyba s ed . Af ewau tho r ssu c cumb edto th einfu en c eo fG e rmaneug en i c sth eo r i e sand manag edto m e rg eb i op sy cho logy w i thth et en e t so fC e sa r eLomb ro so .M i l i ta ryp sy ch ia t r i s t An ton ioV a l l e jo -Nág e ra ,fo rexamp l e ,t r i edtod emon s t ra t eth eS em i t i c o r ig in so fth eSpan i shl e f tandr e con c i l eh i ss en s eo fb io log i ca ld e t e rm in i sm w i thanov e ra r ch ingcon c ep to fH i sp an id ad– Span i shn e s s– ba s edoncu l tu r eandr e l ig iou scon f e s s ion .70 In1939– 40 ,th e r ew e r e many“o rd ina rySpan ia rd s”f romd i f f e r en tso c ia landpo l i t i ca lba ckg round s whoop en lysympa th iz ed w i thth eTh i rd R e i ch . Doz en so fth emtooki tuponth em s e lv e sto w r i t etoth eG e rman emba s syin Mad r idonth eo c ca s iono fth eFüh r e r ’ sb i r thday( 20 Ap r i l ) in1940and1941 .S ev e ra l mo r el e t t e r sa r r iv eda tth eemba s sya f t e rth e G e rmanconqu e s to fF ran c e .Th e s e mom en t sco in c id ed w i thSpan i sh d e c la ra t ion so fnon -b e l l ig e r en cyandth eFa lang i s to f f en s iv etoin c r ea s e i t spow e rw i th inth er eg im e . Many mo r el e t t e r sw e r er e c e iv eda f t e r22 Jun e1941 , wh enth eW eh rma ch tinvad edth eSov i e tUn ion .Th es end e r s

22 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fth e s em i s s iv e sb e long edtoth em idd l eandlow e r -m idd l ec la s s e s : l ib e ra lp ro f e s s iona l s ,c iv i ls e rvan t s ,c iv i l ian emp loy e e s , and b lu e 71 co l la r wo rk e r s . Manyo fth em w e r eC iv i lW a rv e t e ran so fth eF ran co i s t a rmyandhadb e env i c t im so f“R edT e r ro r .”Th eysaw H i t l e ra sth e i r av eng ingang e l .Su chexp r e s s ion so fp ro -G e rmanen thu s ia smsugg e s t tha tG e rmanp ropagandae f fo r t sfoundasympa th e t i caud i en c e“ f rom b e low ,”andno ton lyinrad i ca lFa lang i s t s .72 C e r ta in ly ,th el e t t e r sf tw i thth eg en e ra lc l ima t eo fs c ep t i c i smtowa rd sl ib e ra ld emo c ra cy ,th eadm i ra t ionfo rG e rmanpow e r ,andth e con fu s edexp e c ta t ion so fau tho r i ta r ianr eg en e ra t iontha tsp r eada c ro s s 73 con t in en ta lEu rop edu r ingth es e condha l fo f1940 . Innon -b e l l ig e r en t Spa in ,th i st r endhadi t sownpa r t i cu la rfavou r .Som ew e r eg ra t e fu l fo rG e rmansuppo r tdu r ingth eSpan i shconf i c t .O th e r sa cknow l edg ed tha tth eTh i rdR e i ch wa sabou ttod e f ea tSpa in ’ s ma in“h i s to r i ca len em i e s .”S t i l lo th e r sr ega rd edth eG e rmanFüh r e ra sth ea r ch i t e c to fa Eu rop ean N ew O rd e rtha tSpa in wou lden r i ch w i thi t s Ca tho l i cimp r in t .74 Manya l soadh e r edtoth efgh taga in s tl ib e ra ld emo c ra cyand 75 “ Juda i sm ,” wh i chth eyequa t ed w i thin t e rna t iona lcap i ta l i sm . “Popu l a r ”Sp an i shen thu s i a smfo rH i t l e rc l im ax eda tth eb eg inn ingo f Op e r a t ionB a rb a ro s s a ,thoughth e mo t iv a t ion so fG e rm anoph i l e sb e fo r e anda f t e r1 9 4 1s c a r c e lych ang ed .Sp an i shf a s c i s t sr a t if edth e i re a r l i e rad m i r a t ionfo rH i t l e r .R ad i c a lF a l ang i s t ss t i l lexp e c t edth a t jo in ingth eG e rm an w a re f fo r t wou lden ab l eth emtofu lf lth e i ra sp i r a t ion so fw i e ld ing fu l lpow e rw i th inth er eg im e .C a tho l i c sandsom e mon a r ch i s t sr eg a rd ed th eW eh rm a ch ta s God ’ sin s t rum en ttos l ayth e“ r e in c a rn a t iono fLu c i f e r ”( commun i sm )andt e a chB r i t a inah a rdl e s son .Th eya l sohop edth a t th roughth i sfgh tag a in s tth eAn t i ch r i s t ,N a z iG e rm any wou ldr ed e em i t s e l ff romth eo r ig in a ls ino f i t sp ag ann a tu r e .On c e“ th eB e a s t ”h adb e en d e s t roy ed ,th e Th i rd R e i ch wou ldexp e r i en c er e l ig iou sconv e r s ion .76 C a r l i s tt r ad i t ion a l i s t s ,th e mo s tr e lu c t an ttoa c c ep tN a z ia th e i sm ,a l so jo in edth ep ro -G e rm anyf e rvou rinhop e so f“ ann ih i l a t ingcommun i sm ” 7 7 a long s id eth er e s to fth e“Ch r i s t i an wo r ld . ” Th e wo r ld w a rr ep r e s en t ed afgh tb e tw e end emo c r a cy ,a sth ec r ad l eo fcommun i sm ,andth en a 7 8 t ion s whound e r s toodth e i r“h i s to r i c a ld e s t iny . ” Un l ik eth eF a l ang i s t s , how ev e r ,th eC a r l i s t sin s i s t edonth e i rG e rm anoph i l es t an c edu r ingth e S e cond W o r ld W a rbu tavo id edr e f e r en c etoth ech a r i sm a t i cl e ad e r sh ip o fH i t l e r , who w a snow m e r e lyr eg a rd eda sth eK a i s e r ’ sh e i r .79

2Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty !

Ex te rm ina t ionandB ru ta l iza t ion : Ope ra t ionBa rba ro s sa and  a  D i f fe ren tK indo fW a r On 22Jun e1941 ,19a rmou r edd iv i s ion s ,14 mo to r iz edd iv i s ion s ,and 1 19in fan t ryd iv i s ion so fth eW eh rma ch tandth eW a f f en -SS ,a long w i th som e Roman iant roop s ,invad edth eSov i e t Un ion w i thou t wa rn ing . A l tog e th e r ,3 ,300 ,000 m en ,3 ,325a rmou r edv eh i c l e s ,600 ,000v eh i c l e s , and625 ,000ho r s e spa r t i c ipa t edinth e Ax i scampa ign .I tb egan w i th s t r ik ing lyd i f f e r en tf ea tu r e sf romtho s eo fo th e rf ron t s wh e r eth eG e r manA rmy wa so rhadb e enengag ed . Un t i lth en ,onth eW e s t e rnF ron t andin No rway , No r th A f r i ca ,andpa r to fth eBa lkan s ,th eW eh rma ch t hadg en e ra l lycomp l i ed w i thth eno rm so fth eG en eva Conv en t ion . Onth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,how ev e r ,th eTh i rd R e i chun l ea sh edaqua l i tat iv e lyd i f f e r en ttyp eo f wa raga in s tth ecommun i s t wo r ldv i ew , wh i chi t sough ttoe rad i ca t ebyex t e rm ina t ingi t sd e f end e r s .I t wa sa wa raga in s t ap eop l eo ras e to fp eop l e s–Ru s s ian s ,S lav s ,ando th e r s–con s id e r ed ra c ia l lyin f e r io rba s edonb io log i ca lpo s tu la t e s .A f t e re l im ina t ingth e “ ex c e s s”po r t iono fth epopu la t ion ,th er ema ind e r wou ldb er edu c ed tos em i s lav e ryandtop rov i s ion ingth eTh i rdR e i ch w i thraw ma t e r ia l s o rfood .M eanwh i l eth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion , wh i chhadb e enshu tin to gh e t to s , wou ldb ek i l l eden ma s s e .A f t e radop t iono fth e“F ina lSo lut ion”inJanua ry1942 ,th i sinvo lv edsy s t ema t i cd epo r ta t iontoex t e rm i na t ioncamp s .1 Th ea rm edun i t sund e rd i r e c t Naz icommand–th eSSandth eta sk fo r c e so rE in sa tzg rupp en– w e r eno tth eon lyon e sr e spon s ib l efo rth e ex t e rm ina t ion .Th er egu la rW eh rma ch tfo r c e sa l sopa r t i c ipa t edinth i s e thn i cc l ean s ing ,andno ta lway s inas e conda rycapa c i ty .InB e r l inon30 Ma r ch1941 ,H i t l e rh im s e l fhadin fo rm eda lmo s t250 W eh rma ch tg en e ra l s ,th ecommand e r so fth et roop scomm i t t edto Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa ,

24 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fh i s wa rp lan s .Th e s ein c lud edth eg en e ra l sincommando fth eth r e e A rmy G roup s(H e e r e sg rupp en )o fth eO s th e e r(No r th ,C en t r e ,and Sou th ) ,th eLu f twa f f eg roup s ,th ecommand e r so fth ea rmou r edco rp s andth e Ch i e f so fth eG en e ra lS ta f f .H i t l e rexp la in edh i sra c ia l wo r ld v i ewandr ev ea l edtha tth ecampa ign wou ldb eon eo fex t e rm ina t ion , a sth e“Bo l sh ev ikcomm i s sa r sandth ecommun i s tin t e l l ig en t s i a ”hadto b ee l im ina t ed .Th eW eh rma ch tshou ldno tcon s id e rth eBo l sh ev ika sa “ com rad e ,a s wa su sua lono th e rf ron t s .”Th i s wa sa wa ro f“ twooppo s 2 ing wo r ldv i ew s”and wou ldhav eacomp l e t e lyd i f f e r en tna tu r e . Mo s t o fth eg en e ra l sd emon s t ra t edcon fo rm i ty ;thoughf ew w e r e Naz i s ,th ey sha r edad emon iz edv i s iono fBo l sh ev i smandacu l tu ra lcon t emp tfo r th eS lav i cp eop l e s .Add i t iona l ly ,th eysawtha tth econqu e s to fth eEa s t e rnEmp i r e–av i s ionth eyhadch e r i sh eds in c eth eendo fth en in e t e en th 3 c en tu ry– wa sfna l ly w i th inth e i rr ea ch . H i t l e r ’ sin t en t ion sw e r esumm edupsho r t lya f t e rinas e r i e so fins t ru c t ion stha tw e r ei s su edtoth et roop s ju s tp r io rtoinva s ion , wh i cha h i s to r iog raph e rla t e rdubb eda sth e“ c r im ina lo rd e r s .”Th eyhado r ig ina t edind i r e c t iv e sd i c ta t edbyth eFüh r e ron18 D e c emb e r1940–th e r e w e r efou rinth efna lv e r s ion– wh i ch w e r ed i s cu s s edons ev e ra lo c cas ion sbyth eH igh Commando fth eW eh rma ch t(Ob e rkommandod e r W eh rma ch t , OKW )andth eH igh Commando fth eA rmy(Ob e rkommandod e sH e e r e s , OKH ) .4 Th e s einvo lv edth efo l low ing : 1 . Th er egu la t iono fE in sa tzg rupp ena c t iv i ty ,o rta skfo r c e sund e r th eSSandSD .Th i sco l labo ra t ionag r e em en t wa scommun i ca t edtoth e t roop son28 Ap r i l1941 .Ba s edonth e i rpa r tn e r sh ips in c eth econqu e s t o fPo land ,th eE in sa tzg rupp en w e r eau tho r iz edtoop e ra t ef r e e ly w i th in th ea r ea scon t ro l l edbyth eW eh rma ch t .Th e s eun i t sca r r i edou tth eex e cu t iono fc e r ta inpopu la t iong roup s ,J ew sinpa r t i cu la r .Th eycou ld a c tw i thcomp l e t eau tonomy ,an sw e r ingtoth er egu la ra rmyon lyin ma t t e r so fba s i clog i s t i c s( lodg ingandsupp l i e s ) . Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa con s t i tu t edth efna lth ru s ttowa rd sth ei r r ev e r s ib l erad i ca l iza t iono f an t i -S em i t i cpo l i t i c sinth eTh i rdR e i ch .Th ela rg eJ ew i shpopu la t ion s l iv ingino c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sl edth e Naz il ead e r stopond e r wha t wa s tob edon eabou tth em .Th i sb e cam ey e tano th e rs t epp ings ton eonth e pa ththa thadb e enin i t ia t edinth esp r ingo f1939 .A ttha tt im e ,H i t l e r hadau tho r iz edth eann ih i la t iono fphy s i ca l lyand m en ta l lyd i sab l ed p eop l einth eR e i ch ,th enapp rov ed“ savag eeu thana s ia” p rog ramm e s . T en so fthou sand so fPo l i shc iv i l ian sw e r eex e cu t ed ,inap ro c e s stha t appa r en t lycu lm ina t edon ey ea rla t e rw i thp lan stoex t e rm ina t eth em i ll ion so fSov i e tc i t iz en scaugh tupin Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa . InJu ly1941 ,H i t l e rin fo rm edR e inha rd H eyd r i chtha tth et im ehad com efo rth ed efn i t iv eex t e rm ina t iono fth eJ ew s . Th e s eex e cu t ion

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 25

o rd e r sinvo lv edth es e r iou slog i s t i ca lcha l l eng eo fk i l l ingt en so fthousand so fp eop l ee ff c i en t ly .Th e r e fo r e ,an ews t ep wa stak en .S ev e ra l exp e r im en t sw e r eca r r i edou tw i thp r i son e r so f wa rf romS ep t emb e rto D e c emb e r1941 . Camp sandc r ema to r ium sw e r ep r epa r ed ,andt ran spo r ta t ion wa so rgan iz edtoimp l em en tth eob j e c t iv eo fann ih i la t inga l l th eJ ew sinth eEu rop eant e r r i to rydom ina t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch .Op e r a t ion s wou ldb eg ininJanua ry1942 ,invo lv ingap ro c e s so fsy s t ema t i c d epo r ta t ionand mu rd e rtha t wou ldu t i l iz eth ecamp sd e s ign edsp e c i fi ca l lyfo rth i spu rpo s e ,a long w i thsp e c ia lex t e rm ina t ionun i t sinSov i e t 5 t e r r i to ry . A s Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa wa sun l ea sh ed ,th eE in sa tzg rupp enco rp s , compo s edo fsom eth r e ethou sand m end i s t r ibu t edin tofou ra r ea s(A , B ,C ,and D )fo l low edinth er ea rgua rdino rd e rtoid en t i fy ,ga th e r ,and 6 ex e cu t ea l lJ ew i sh ma l e sa ff l ia t ed w i thth eSov i e tr eg im e . Soonth e i r ob j e c t iv eexpand edtoin c lud ea l lJ ew s . Th ec l ea r ma jo r i tyo fSov i e t J ew sw e r ek i l l eddu r ingth ef r s tn in e mon th so fth e wa r ,b e fo r eth e ex t e rm ina t ioncampsy s t emb e cam eop e ra t iv e .Th enumb e ro fE in sa tz g rupp env i c t im s wa sc e r ta in lynof ew e rthanth r e ehund r edthou sand p eop l e ,a long w i thano th e rf f tythou sandv i c t im so fth eSSand O rd e r Po l i c e(O rdnung spo l iz e i ) .Add edtoth e s ew e r eth ev i c t im so fth eW eh rma ch tun i t s ,lo ca lo c cupy ingau tho r i t i e sandaux i l ia ryfo r c e s ,J ew i sh wa rp r i son e r s ,thou sand so fJ ew i shc iv i l ian sk i l l edth roughs ta rva t ion andd i s ea s einth egh e t to s ,and mo r ethan150 ,000 v i c t im sinth et e r r i 7 to ryund e rRoman iancon t ro l . T o wha td eg r e ed idth eso ld i e r so fth eW eh rma ch tpa r t i c ipa t einth e k i l l ingand ma s sd epo r ta t iono fth eJ ew i shpopu la t ioninth eEa s t ?A l l comba tan t skn ewtha tth ee thn i ccommun i tyto wh i ch Naz i sma sp i r ed ex c lud edth eJ ew i shp eop l e ,anda l lw e r eexpo s edtoacon s tan tba r rag e o fp ropagandaequa t ingcommun i sm w i thJuda i smand A s ianba rba8 r i sm . Ann ih i la t ion wa sth e r e fo r eanop t ion .Th i sr ep r e s en ta t iono fr e a l i tytookroo tamong manyso ld i e r s . Wh encomb in ed w i thth es ta t e o f wa randb ru ta l iz ingcond i t ion s ,i tpav edth e wayfo rth et ran s i t ion 9 f romo rd e rtoex e cu t ion . Th e r e wa sc lo s eco l labo ra t ionamongG e rman c iv i lande conom i cadm in i s t ra t ion s ,th epo l i c e ,th eSS ,and W eh rma ch t 10 command . 2 .P r io rtoinva s iono fth e USSR ,G e rmant roop sr e c e iv edth e“D i r e c t iv e sfo rT roopCondu c tinRu s s ia”(“R i ch t l in i enfü rda sV e rha l t en d e rT rupp ein Ru s s land” ) ,f romth e OKWon 19 May1941 . Th e s e d i r e c t iv e sd efn edBo l sh ev i sma s“ th e mo r ta len emyo fth eG e rman na t iona lso c ia l i s tp eop l e ,”th e r ebyju s t i fy ing“ fo r c e fu landru th l e s s p ro c edu r e s”aga in s t“ag i ta to r s , gu e r r i l la s ,sabo t eu r sand Bo l sh ev ik J ew s”and“ to ta le l im ina t iono fa l l pa s s iv eo ra c t iv er e s i s tan c e .”In

26 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

add i t iontosp e c i fy ing who wa stob ee l im ina t ed( J ew s , Commun i s t Pa r ty m emb e r s ,pa r t i san s ) ,th e s eo rd e r sin s t ru c t edG e rmanso ld i e r sto t r ea tp r i son e r so fth eR ed A rmyru th l e s s ly :apo r t iono fth em w e r eto b ek i l l ed ,andth er e s tw e r etob eexp lo i t edtoexhau s t ion .Su cht r ea tm en to fcap t iv e sr e lax edsom ewha ta f t e r May1942 ,pa r t lyb e cau s eo f th eg row ingn e edtou t i l iz ep r i son e r sa sa wo rk fo r c efo rth eR e i ch . Bytha tt im e ,Sov i e tp r i son e rd ea th sdu eto m i s t r ea tm en t ,ex e cu t ion s , ma lnou r i shm en t ,andi l ln e s s e snumb e r edb e tw e en1 .6and1 .9 m i l l ion 1 1 (ou to f3 .5–3 .8 m i l l ionto ta l ) . 3 . Th e“Gu id e l in e sfo rth eT r ea tm en to f Po l i t i ca l Comm i s sa r s”o r “Comm i s sa rO rd e r”(Komm i s sa rb e f eh l ) ,da t ed8Jun e1941 ,s ta t edtha t R ed A rmycomm i s sa r sw e r etob e“d i spo s edo f”imm ed ia t e lyfo l lowingth e i rcap tu r e ,a f t e rb e ings epa ra t edf romth er e s to fth ep r i son e r s . Su chap ro c edu r e wa sju s t if edbys ta t ingtha tth e s ew e r em emb e r so f th eCommun i s tPa r ty :no tju s tso ld i e r s ,bu t“ c en t ra ltoth er e s i s tan c e ,” l ead e r so fana l l -ou t wa rw i thnoru l e s .Th eex e cu t iono fcomm i s sa r s end edupb e ingop e ra t iona l lycoun t e rp rodu c t iv e ,bu tth eo rd e r wa s on lyr evok edon6 May1942 ,a f t e rs ev e ra lthou sandcomm i s sa r shad b e enex e cu t ed .Byth en ,tho s e whor ema in edhadlo s tinfu en c einth e R ed A rmyandhadb e com erad i ca l iz edinth e i rpugna c i ty ,awa r etha t 12 th ey wou ldr e c e iv eno m e r cyf romth eG e rman s . 4 . Th e“D e c r e eo fth eFüh r e rr ega rd ingth eEx e r c i s eo fM i l i ta ryJu r i s d i c t ion inth eBa rba ro s saA r ea ,”da t ed13 May1941 , wa scommun i ca t ed o ra l lytoG e rmano ff c e r s , who w e r eg iv enf r e edomo fa c t ionr ega rd ing pa r t i san sandc iv i l ian ssu sp e c t edo fa id ingth em .O ff c e r s wou ld judg e wh e th e rth eso ld i e r s ’abu s eo fc iv i l ian sendang e r ed m i l i ta ryd i s c ip l in e andpun i shth ema c co rd ing ly .T oavo idp i l lag ing ,th i so rd e r wa sno t imm ed ia t e lycommun i ca t edtoth ecomba tan t s ;in s t ead ,i t wa sd i s s em ina t edh i e ra r ch i ca l lyf romth ed iv i s ioncommanddowntoth elow e r un i t sa sth eyadvan c edin toconqu e r edt e r r i to ry .13 Ju s taf ewd iv i s iong en e ra l s ,a sw e l la s Ma r sha l lF edo rvonBo ck ,r e 14 s i s t edcomp ly ing w i thth e s eo rd e r s . Th roughou tth ecampa ign ,th e in s t ru c t ion sw e r esupp l em en t ed w i tho rd e r sena c t edbyth eh ead so f th em i l i ta ryco rp s . Th eypa in t eda d ehuman iz edandra c ia l lyp r e ju d i c edimag eo fth een emy ,a s so c ia t edJuda i sm w i thBo l sh ev i sm ,and u rg edth ecomba tan t stoa c tw i thou tm e r cy .Th eO s th e e rH igh Command ,w i thaf ewex c ep t ion s ,pa r t i c ipa t edinth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion , a l low edo th e r stodoso ,o rtu rn edab l indey e .Th e“ c r im ina lo rd e r s” s ign if can t lya f f e c t edth eo rd ina ryso ld i e r s .P ropagandad i r e c t eda tth e t roop scommun i ca t edan t i -S em i t i candan t i -S lav i cl e i tmo t i f s ;th et r en ch jou rna l shab i tua l lyin s i s t edonth en e edtoann ih i la t eth e“R edsubhu man s”andc l ea rEu rop eo fJ ew s .G e rmanso ld i e r sw e r eno ttofo rg e t

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 27

tha tth eyex emp l if edasup e r io rra c etha ta sp i r edtodom in ionov e r o th e rp eop l e s .15 Fou rou to fev e ryfv eG e rm anso ld i e r sfough tonth eE a s t e rnF ron t f rom1 9 4 1to1 9 4 4 .I tw a sth es c en eo fa mu rd e rou sw a r ,bo thini t scon c ep t ionandex e cu t ion . Add ingtoth eb ru t a l i tyo fb a t t l ew e r eh a r sh phy s i c a lcond i t ion sandth eb i t t e rr e s i s t an c eo fth eR ed A rmy , wh i ch s low edandth enh a l t ed G e rm anp rog r e s sin O c tob e r –Nov emb e r1 9 4 1 , l e s sth anon ehund r edk i lom e t r e sf rom Mo s cow .A tth i spo in t ,th ein v ad e r sw e r ef a c edw i than ews e to fob s t a c l e s :an in to l e r ab lyco ldw in t e r fo l low edbysnowm e l tth a ttu rn edro ad sto mud ;th econ s t an tp r e s en c e o fp a r t i s an s inth er e a rgu a rd ;anda w a ro fpo s i t ion sth a tend edth ecomp a r a t iv eadv an t ag eth a tth eW eh rm a ch th adh i th e r toen joy ed .Th eyh ad con c en t r a t edf r epow e rinsm a l la r e a sand m ad esw i f tadv an c e sw i th mo to r i z edanda rmou r edd iv i s ion s ,th e r ebysu r round ingth e i ren em i e s . Th eb ru t a lfgh t ingcond i t ion ssu rp a s s edtho s eexp e r i en c edin1 9 1 4 –1 8 . Th enumb e ro fc a su a l t i e sf romen emyf r e ,f ro s tb i t e ,andi l ln e s sf a rsu rp a s s edany th ingth eG e rm anA rmyh adp r ev iou s lyexp e r i en c ed .Byth e endo f1 9 4 1 ,W eh rm a ch tr e s e rv e sw e r econ s id e r ab lyr edu c ed . Th eb ru ta l iza t iono fwa r fa r ewa sappa r en t inhow th eG e rmanso ld i e r s t r ea t edc iv i l ian sandr e su l t edinad epa r tu r ef rom m i l i ta ryd i s c ip l in e . Th ein t en s e Naz iindo c t r ina t ionhad mad eth eso ld i e r spa r t i cu la r lyr e16 c ep t iv etov i ew ingth eS lav i cp eop l ea sUn t e rm en s ch en:subhuman s . Two ma inpo s i t ion sex i s tinth er e c en th i s to r iog raph i cd eba t eonth e sub j e c t .Som eau tho r sa rgu etha tth ein c r ea s ing ly m i s e rab l ecomba t cond i t ion s ,th eb ru ta l i tyo f wha thadb e com ea wa ro fa t t r i t ion ,andth e cama rad e r i eamong G e rmanso ld i e r sd e c i s iv e lyp r e c ip i ta t edth esp i ra l o fin c r ea s ingv io l en c einth eEa s t .F romth i ss i tua t ion i s tp e r sp e c t iv e , th eenv i ronm en ta lcond i t ion sonth eEa s t e rnF ron td idg r ea t e rdamag e thananyid eo log i ca lp r ed i spo s i t iono fth eso ld i e r stowa rd sv io l en c e aga in s tc iv i l ian so rd ehuman iza t iono fth een emy .I tl edtocumu la 17 t iv erad i ca l iza t iono f wa rv io l en c einp ra c t i c e . Fo ro th e rau tho r s ,th e d e c id ingfa c to rinth ein c r ea s ingrad i ca l iza t iono fv io l en tp ra c t i c e sby r egu la rW eh rma ch tcomba tan t s wa sth e i rp e r c ep t iono fth econd i t ion s onth eEa s t e rnF ron t .A sth i sp e r c ep t ionhadb e encond i t ion edbyy ea r s o f Naz iso c ia l iza t ionandindo c t r ina t ion ,th eso ld i e r sw e r ea l r eadyr e la t iv e lyp r ed i spo s ed( compa r edtoo th e rna t iona lcon t ing en t s )to d e human iz ingth e i ren emyba s edonb io log i ca l ra c ia lpo s tu la t e sandto 18 t r ea t ingbo thc iv i l ian sandp r i son e r s(S lav so rJ ew s )v io l en t ly . A l t e rna t iv e ly ,som eh i s to r ian shav esugg e s t edtha tcomba tun i t st r ea t edc iv i l ian sandp r i son e r sd i f f e r en t lya c co rd ingtos i tua t iona lfa c to r s .Though no tanex c lu s iv epa t t e rn ,b ru ta l i tytowa rd snon comba tan t st end edto 19 in c r ea s ew i th mo r eb ru ta lcomba tcond i t ion s .

28 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

A l l ie sinthe“Eu ropeanC ru sadeaga in s tBo l shev i sm” Th et roop sp a r t i c ip a t ingin Op e r a t ionB a rb a ro s s aw e r eno tex c lu s iv e ly G e rm an .F inn i shandRom an i ana l l i e s , mo t iv a t edl a rg e lybyt e r r i to r i a l in t e r e s t s ,p rov id ednol e s sth ans ev enhund r edthou s andso ld i e r sf rom th es t a r to fth ec amp a ign .Th eF inn i sh A rmys awth eG e rm ana t t a ck ag a in s tth e USSRa sanoppo r tun i tytor e cov e rt e r r i to ryth a th adb e en lo s ttoth eR edA rmy inth eW in t e rW a ro f1 9 3 9 – 4 0 . Th eH e l s ink igov e rn m en ts id ed w i th H i t l e randd e c l a r ed w a ronth eUSSRon 2 5Jun e1 9 4 1 . F inn i shin t e rv en t ion w a sm a in lyr e s t r i c t edtoth eno r th e rnf ankinth e s i eg eo fL en ing r ad , wh i chcon t r ibu t edtob lo ck ingo f fth ec i ty .Th i sp a r t i c ip a t ion w a sp r e s en t eda sas e conda c t( th e“Con t inu a t ion W a r ” )toth e Sov i e tagg r e s s iono f1 9 3 9 .Fo rth i sr e a son ,th eF inn i shA rmyexh ib i t edno in t e r e s tinadv an c ingb eyondth e i rfo rm e rbo rd e r .A l thoughth eH e l s ink i gov e rnm en ts en ta roundth r e ehund r edthou s anda rm ed m entoa s s i s t th eAx i spow e r sand m ad er e l ev an tlog i s t i c a lcon t r ibu t ion sinth eK a r e l i anr eg ionandinth es i eg eo fL en ing r ad ,F inn i sht roop sr e f r a in edf rom adv an c ingin toSov i e tt e r r i to ry .InS ep t emb e r1 9 4 4 ,fo l low ingth es i eg e o fL en ing r ad ,F in l ands ign edi t sownp e a c ea c co rd w i thth e USSR ,r enoun c ed i t sc l a imtoth et e r r i to r i e s lo s t in1 9 3 9 –4 0 ,anda s sum edh ighr ep a r a t ionco s t s .A rounde igh ty fou rthou s andF inn i shso ld i e r sandc iv i l i an s 2 0 lo s tth e i rl iv e sinth i sconf i c t ;th ey w e r esub s equ en t lyh a i l eda sh e ro e s . Fo rth ep ro fa s c i s tr eg im eo f Ma r sha lIonAn ton e s cu inRoman ia ,pa rt i c ipa t ionin Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s saf ttwoob j e c t iv e s :r e conqu e r ingth e r eg iono fB e s sa rab ia , wh i chhadp r ev iou s lyb e enann ex edbyth eUSSR , andshow ingsuppo r tfo rH i t l e r ’ sN ew O rd e r .Th i s wou lden su r eafavou rab l ed i spo s i t ioninB e r l into Roman iant e r r i to r ia lc la im saga in s t th e i rn e ighbou r s ,a sth eno r th e rnth i rdo fT ran sy lvan iahadb e ensu r r end e r edto Hunga ryth ep r io ry ea r ,andapa r to fDob rog eatoBu lga r ia . Th e OKW wa sh igh lys c ep t i ca labou tana rmy w i thsu chou tda t ed w eapon rybu tn e ed edRoman iancoop e ra t iontoinvad e Uk ra in e .Th ey cho s etoc r ea t eacomb in edA rmyCo rp sto wh i chRoman iacon t r ibu t ed ov e r325 ,000so ld i e r s .I t s ma inro l e wa stoc l ea rth er ea rgua rdfo l low ing th eadvan c eo fG e rman mo to r iz edun i t s .Inth efa l lo f1941 ,Roman ian s conqu e r edOd e s saandann ex edth er eg iono fT ran sn i s t r ia ,b e tw e enth e Bugand Dn i e s t e rR iv e r s , wh i ch wa s mu chla rg e rthanth et e r r i to r i e s o f No r th e rnBukov inaandB e s sa rab ia .Th eRoman iana rmya l so wa s r equ i s i t ion edfo rth eo f f en s iv eo fth esumm e ro f1942 .Inth i s way ,th e An ton e s cur eg im et i edi t sfa t etotha to fth eTh i rdR e i ch .Inth eBa t t l e o fS ta l ing rad ,th eSov i e t sob l i t e ra t edtwoRoman iana rm i e ss ta t ion ed a tth eDonF ron t .F romth enun t i lth e i rcap i tu la t ioninS ep t emb e r1944 , Roman iant roop sw e r eta sk ed w i thd e f en s iv ee f fo r t s .21

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 29

W i th inaf ewday sa f t e rG e rmanyinvad edth e USSR , Hunga ry ,I ta ly , andS lovak iab egantod emon s t ra t ein t e r e s tind i spa t ch ingt roop stoth e Ea s t .Pupp e ts ta t e sanda l l i e so fth eTh i rdR e i ch wan t edtop layth e i r pa r tinhop e so fr e c e iv ingt e r r i to r ia lsha r e sinth eenv i s ion ed“ r eo rd e ring”o fth eCon t in en tund e rG e rmancon t ro l .H e lp ingtoex t e rm ina t eth e commonen emyp rov id edfa s c i s tgov e rnm en t sw i thsuppo r tfo rth e i r ownimp e r ia l i s to ri r r ed en t i s td r eam s .I ta l sod i s suad edn e ighbou r ing 22 coun t r i e sf roma t t emp t ingtor e c la imt e r r i to r i e sa tth e i rexp en s e . Mu s so l in i wa sf r s t ;h ehadb e enp r epa r ingtopa r t i c ipa t ef romth e mom en th el ea rn edo fth ep lan sfo rinva s ion .In Augu s t ,th eCo rpod i Sp ed iz ion eI ta l ianoin Ru s s iaen t e r edcomba tin Uk ra in e .O r ig ina l ly con s i s t ingo f62 ,000 m enand82 p lan e s , wh enr e in fo r c em en t sf romth e 8 thI ta l ianA rmya r r iv eda tth eDonF ron t ,w e l lequ ipp ed w i thl igh tand 23 h eavya r t i l l e ry ,th eynumb e r ed229 ,000 m ena l tog e th e r . S lovak ia ,a sa t e l l i t es ta t e ,d e c la r ed wa ronth eUSSRands en tn ea r lyf f tythou sand m entoth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,o rgan iz ed in totwo in fan t ryd iv i s ion sandon e mo to r iz edb r igad e . Mo s to fth e s em en w e r er emov eda tth eendo fJu ly ; tho s e whor ema in ed w e r ed i spa t ch edtoth ean t ipa r t i sanfgh tinBy e lo 24 ru s s ia( today ’ sB e la ru s )o rtoa“mob i l ed iv i s ion”inC r im ea . Th epup p e ts ta t eo fC roa t iaa l sod i spa t ch edtoth eEa s tasymbo l i ccon t ing en t o ffv ethou sandso ld i e r s .Th ey w e r ein co rpo ra t edin toth eG e rman6 th A rmy , wh i cha r r iv eda tth ef ron tinla t e Augu s t1941 .F ea rtha tI ta ly wou ldb er ewa rd ed w i tht e r r i to r i e sinth e Ad r ia t i ca c t eda sas t rong in c en t iv efo rC roa t iatod emon s t ra t e wa rm e r i t . Th eau tho r i ta r ianr eg im eo fM ik ló s Ho r thyin Hunga ryd idno tpa rt i c ipa t einth einva s ion ,bu ti td e c la r ed wa ronth e USSRs ev e ra lday s la t e r . Ho r thyandth e Hunga r ianfa s c i s t sf ea r edtha tth e An ton e s cur e g im e wou ldd emandd evo lu t iono f No r th e rnT ran sy lvan iainr ewa rd fo rRoman ianpa r t i c ipa t ion inth e wa re f fo r t .A s manya s93 ,1 15so ld i e r s w e r ed i spa t ch edtoth eEa s t e rnF ron tinAugu s t1941 ,bu th eavylo s s e s inth ef r s t mon thl edth eOKWtos endth e Magya r stofgh taga in s tth e pa r t i san sin s t ead . How ev e r ,fa c ed w i thth ed ep l e t iono fh i sr e s e rv e sin ea r ly1942 ,H i t l e rr equ e s t edala rg e rd ep loym en to f Hunga r iant roop s tor e in fo r c eh i ssumm e ro f f en s iv e .Th eHunga r ian2ndA rmy ,compo s ed o f210 ,000so ld i e r s , wa sd ep loy edonth e DonF ron t .La ck ingad equa t e equ ipm en tandexp e r i en c edo ff c e r s ,th e Hunga r ian sw e r ec ru sh edby aSov i e to f f en s iv einJanua ry1943 .Som efo r tythou sand m enlo s tth e i r l iv e sands ix tythou sand mo r ew e r ecap tu r ed .Thoughth i sd e c r ea s ed th econfd en c eo fth eG e rmancommandinth e i ra l l i e s ,i td idno tp r e v en tth emf romd i spa t ch ingn in e tythou sand mo r eso ld i e r stoth eEa s te rnF ron tth rough Augu s t1944 . Magya rpa r t i c ipa t ionin c r ea s eda f t e r th eG e rmano c cupa t iono f Hunga ryin Ma r ch1944 . Th e Hunga r ian

30 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

1 s tA rmy wa sd ep loy edtod e f endi t sbo rd e r sin Ap r i land May ,and 25 950 ,000 Hunga r ianso ld i e r sfough tth eR edA rmyinS ep t emb e r1944 . A l though G e rmant roop sw e r ea lway sa ma jo r i tyinth einvad e r s ’ a rmydu r ingth eEa s t e rncampa ign ,a l l i edt roop so fth e“an t i -Bo l sh ev ik”coa l i t ioncon t r ibu t eds ign if can t ly ,a tt im e sa c coun t ingfo ra lmo s t afou r tho fto ta lt roop s .Insom es e c to r so fth ef ron tco r r e spond ingto A rmyG roup sC en t r eandSou th ,non -G e rman sr ep r e s en t eda lmo s tha l f o fth em en .InS ep t emb e r1942 ,th enumb e ro fnon -G e rmaninvad ing so ld i e r sr ea ch ed648 ,000 .G e rmant roopinth eEa s t e rnfo r c e srang ed f rom82 .74p e rc en tin1941 ,to72 .3p e rc en tinJun e1942 ,to88 .55p e r c en tinJu ly1943 ,and74 .77p e rc en tinJun e1944 .Th ep e r c en tag eo f G e rmancomba tan t sc l imb edto95 .7p e rc en tinJanua ry1945 ,nolong e r 26 jo in edby Hunga r ian so rRoman ian s . M anyo ff c e r so fth e Ax i s a l l i eda rm i e sw e r ef e r c e lyan t i -S em i t i cand c a r r i edou t th e i rowne thn i cc l e an s ingp ro j e c t s .In m id -D e c emb e r1 9 4 1 , th e Rom an i ana rmyb eg and epo r t ingandex t e rm in a t ingth eJ ew i shpopu l at ion w i thth eh e lpo faux i l i a ryUk r an i anandG e rm anfo r c e sandE in z a t s g rupp eD .S ev e r a lcon c en t r a t ionc amp sw e r ebu i l t fo r th e J ew so fm a in l and Rom an i a ,w i thv i c t im snumb e r ingf rom2 5 0 , 0 0 0 to4 0 0 , 0 0 0 .S in c e l a t e1 9 4 2 , An ton e s cuau tho r i z edth eem ig r a t iono fRom an i anJ ew stoP a l e s t in e ,bu t 2 7 a l sos en tthou s and stowo rkc amp s . S ev e r a lHung a r i anun i t sa l sop a r t i c 2 8 ip a t edinex e cu t ingSov i e tJ ew s ,thoughno tsy s t em a t i c a l ly . Eu r op e anV o lun t e e r sag a in s tB o l sh ev i sm : My thandR e a l i ty Wh i l eTh i rdR e i cha l lyandsa t e l l i t es ta t e scon t r ibu t edr egu la rt roop s toth e Ea s t e rncampa ign ,la rg enumb e r so ffo r e ignvo lun t e e r sf rom No r th e rnand W e s t e rnEu rop ea l sojo in edth eAx i sfo r c e s . Naz ip ropagand i s t sb rand i sh edd e f en c eo fEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ionaga in s t“A s ian” Bo l sh ev i sma sth e i rl e i tmo t i finp ropagandad i r e c t eda tfa s c i s t ,u l t ranat iona l i s t ,andan t i commun i s tc i r c l e sth roughou tEu rop e .Th ey ju s t if ed inva s iono fth eUSSRa sa“p r ev en ta t iv e” m ea su r eaga in s tS ta l in ’ sp rob ab l ep lantoconqu e rEu rop e . Fo r e ignSSb r igad e sand d iv i s ion sw e r eth eob j e c to f mu chfa s c ina t ionand my th if ca t ioninth e po s t -wa rp e r iod .N eo fa s c i s tp ropagand i s t sandv e t e ran shav ep r e s en t edth ema sd i r e c tp r ed e c e s so r sto NATO ,a sth ey w e r ebo th“Eu rop ean”and“an t i commun i s t .”Inr ea li ty ,th ea c tua lcon t r ibu t ionandcomba tcapa c i tyo fth e s efo r e ignun i t s va r i edg r ea t ly . Naz iEu rop ean i sm wa srh e to r i ca l :th egoa lo fcon t in enta lun i ty wa ssubo rd ina t edtoth eenv i s ion edh eg emonyo fth eTh i rd R e i ch . Though H i t l e r ,H imm l e r ,andth er e s to fth e Naz ih i e ra r chy pu r su edth ep r ima ryob j e c t iv eo fa G e rmanemp i r eex t end ingtoth e

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 31

U ra l s ,th eEu rop ean i s tlab e ls e rv eda sau s e fu lp ropagand i s t i ctoo lfo r 29 fo s t e r inggoodw i l lou t s id eo fG e rmany . F romth eb eg inn ingo f Op e r a t ionBa rba ro s sa ,M in i s t e ro fP ropagandaJo s ephGo ebb e l sc l ea r lysaw th epo s s ib i l i t i e sa s so c ia t ed w i than t i commun i s tpub l i cop in iona c ro s s 30 th e Con t in en t . Th e wa rthu sb e cam e ,a c co rd ingtoa p ro c lama t ion o fth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r sinla t eJun e1941 ,a“Eu rop eanc rusad eaga in s t Bo l sh ev i sm ,” wh i chin c lud ed“a l l i e s ,n eu t ra lcoun t r i e s , 31 andev entho s e whohadr e c en t lyc ro s s edswo rd sw i thG e rmany .” Th eN ewEu rop ean O rd e rp rog ram wa sd ev e lop edin1939–40and a c c ep t edinpo l i t i ca landin t e l l e c tua lc i r c l e ssympa th e t i ctoth eTh i rd R e i ch .Th e“An t i -Kom in t e rn”pa c t , wh i ch wa sr en ew edinB e r l inon25 Nov emb e r1941 ,p r e s en t edth e“an t i -Bo l sh ev ikc ru sad e”a sacommon end eavou rf rom wh i chan ewEu rop e wou ldem e rg e ,un i t edund e rG e r manh eg emony .Naz iEu rop ean i s tdo c t r in e scon s i s t ed ma in lyo fg en e r i c id ea stha tth efa s c i s t in t e l l ig en t s iaadap t edtoth e i rown wo r ldv i ew .U s ing G e rmans logan ssu cha s“ l iv ingspa c e”and“Ch r i s t ian W e s t ,”th ey r e imag in edth esp e c if cro l e so fth e i rr e sp e c t iv ecoun t r i e sf romd iv e r s e po s i t ion sw i th inth i sN ewO rd e r .32 Fo r manyan t i commun i s t s ,fa s c i s t s , o rfa s c i s t iz edcon s e rva t iv e sa c ro s sth e Con t in en t ,pa r t i c ipa t inginth e inva s iono fth e USSRp r e s en t edanoppo r tun i tytoc em en tth e i ra l l i an c ew i thth eTh i rdR e i chandga ing r ea t e rinfu en c ew i th inth e i rown coun t r i e s .Th i s“ c ru sad e”a l sosway ed manyan t i commun i s t s whosaw H i t l e ra sanin s t rum en tfo rw ip ingou tth eSov i e tth r ea t ,d e sp i t eth e i r d i s t ru s to f Naz ia th e i sm .Ca tho l i c i sm wa sacommont ra i tamong many Eu rop eanvo lun t e e r s ,a long w i thth eb e l i e ftha tcommun i smhadb e en c r ea t edbyJ ew s ,f r e ema son s ,andin f e r io rp eop l e s . Ind iv idua landco l l e c t iv een l i s tm en tf r s tsu rp r i s edth eOKWandth e M in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r s . On 30Jun e1941 ,s ev e ra lr ep r e s en ta t iv e s o fth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r s ,th e OKW ,th e NSDAP ,andth eSS m e tinB e r l in .Th eyag r e edtha ti t wa spo l i t i ca l lyb en ef c ia ltoa c c ep t th e s evo lun t e e r s .A tf r s t ,th ey w e r eg iv enG e rmanun i fo rm sandp la c ed w i th inna t iona lun i t s . How ev e r ,ac l ea re thnona t iona lh i e ra r chy wa se stab l i sh ed .B eg inn ingin1940 , No rd i cando th e r“G e rman i c”vo lun t e e r s ( su cha sth eDu t chandF l em i sh )w e r e in co rpo ra t ed in toth eW a f f en -SS– th eSSa rm edun i t s(S chu tz s ta f f e lo ra s sau l tb r igad e s )und e rH e in r i ch H imm l e r .33 Span i shandC roa t ianvo lun t e e r sw e r ep la c edin tohomog enou sun i t sinth eW eh rma ch t .F r en chand W a l loonvo lun t e e r sw e r e mo r echa l l eng ingtor e so lv e ,bu tCz e ch ,“Wh i t e”Ru s s ian ,andnon -Ru ss ian USSRvo lun t e e r sw e r er e fu s ed . On ew e ekla t e r ,th e OKWe s tab 34 l i sh edsom egu id e l in e sfo rth efo rma t iono ffo r e ignvo lun t e e run i t s . Fo l low ingth es t ab i l i z a t iono fth eE a s t e rnF ron t , mob i l i z a t ions t emm ingf romth e“Eu rop e anc ru s ad eag a in s t Bo l sh ev i sm ”a l low edth e

32 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th i rdR e i chtor e c ru i tso ld i e r sf roma lmo s ta l lo c cup i edo rn eu t r a lEurop e ans t a t e s .Th e i rs log an scon t inu edtoex a l tth ed e f en c eo fEu rop e an c iv i l i z a t ionag a in s t“A s i an ”commun i sm ,andonas e condt i e r ,ag a in s t 3 5 Jud a i sma sath r e a ttoEu rop e ann a t ion s . Hund r ed so fvo lun t e e r sw e r e r e c ru i t edfo rth eRu s s i anF ron t ,und e rth econ t ro lo fn a t ion a lf a s c i s tp a r 3 6 t i e sandev en th er egu l a ra rmy insom ec a s e s . Th eL eg iono fF r en chV o l un t e e r s(LVF )d r ewi t sr e c ru i t sf romsymp a th i z e r sand m emb e r so fth e m a inf a s c i s tandco l l abo r a t ion i s tp a r t i e s .Th i sun i tn ev e rex c e ed edfou r thou s and m en ;i tw a son lyu s edinl a t e Nov emb e r1 9 4 1fo rsom ef ron t l in efgh t ing ,andth en mov edtoth ean t ip a r t i s anfgh t .W a l loonvo lun t e e r sw e r e mo s t lysou r c edf romth eau to ch thonou sR ex i s tP a r ty ,af a s c i s t andC a tho l i c mov em en t l edbyL éonD eg r e l l e .Th e3 7 3 rd W a l loonIn f ant ryB a t t a l ionin i t i a l lynumb e r edb a r e lyathou s andanden t e r edcomb a t a sp a r to fA rmy G roupSou th .ByS ep t emb e r1 9 4 1 ,ato t a lo ftw en ty fou rthou s andF r en ch ,Sp an i sh ,W a l loon ,andC ro a t i anvo lun t e e r sh ad jo in edth eO s th e e rfo r c e s . Ov e r 7 0p e rc en to fth em w e r eIb e r i an . Tw e lv ethou sand mo r evo lun t e e r so r ig ina t ingf rom“G e rman i c”p eop l e sw e r ea s s ign edtoth erank so fth eSS .ByAp r i l1940 ,H imm l e rhad r e c e iv edp e rm i s s iontoc r ea t eth e mu l t ina t iona lSS W ik ing D iv i s ion .A to ta lo f1 ,564 G e rman i cvo lun t e e r sinth i sd iv i s ion w e r eo rgan iz edin to th e No rd land(No rd i ccoun t r i e s )and W e s t land(F l em i shand Du t ch ) r eg im en t s .B eg inn ingin1940 ,s ev e ra ldoz enF inn i shvo lun t e e r sw e r e a l soin co rpo ra t edin toth eSS Da sR e i ch D iv i s ion .Th e s e mod e s tcont ing en t snumb e r edfa rf ew e rthan Naz il ead e r shadexp e c t ed .InJun e 1941 ,th eSSR e i ch s füh r e rs e tth eW a f f en -SSEu rop eanexpan s ionp ro j e c t in mo t ion .H imm l e r ’ s mod e la l soin co rpo ra t edpo l i t i ca lindo c t r ina t ion , by wh i chth eso ld i e r sb e cam ep ropagandaag en t sfo rth eN ew O rd e r uponr e tu rn ingtoth e i rcoun t r i e s .A sar e su l t ,th einfuxo fG e rman i c vo lun t e e r sin c r ea s edno tab lybu tn ev e rd ra s t i ca l ly .Th e r ew e r etwor ec ru i tm en tpa th s :on eby wh i chc e r ta ing roup sw e r ed i r e c t lycon s c r ip t ed in toth e W a f f en -SS ,andano th e rby wh i chcomba tan t sw e r ed ra f t ed in tona t iona ll eg ion sund e rth eSSumb r e l la . Co l labo ra t ion i s tpa r t i e s f romo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sw e r e mo r ep rom in en tinth ela t t e rg roup .Th i s gav er i s etoth e Du t ch ,F l em i sh , No rw eg ian ,and Dan i shl eg ion s .By th eendo f1941 ,4 ,814 Du t chm en , 2 ,399 Dan e s , 1 ,882 No rw eg ian s , 1 ,571 F l em i sh ,1 ,180 F inn s ,39Sw ed e s ,and135Sw i s sandL i e ch t en s t e in e r s hadb e enin c lud edinth eW a f f en -SS ,a long w i th6 ,200e thn i cG e rman s r e c ru i t edf rom Ea s t e rn and C en t ra l Eu rop e , Lux embou rg ,A l sa c e Lo r ra in e ,andD enma rk . Un t i lS ep t emb e r1 9 4 3 ,p r e f e r en c ew a sshownfo r“G e rm an i c s ”and S c and in av i an s . Byth eendo f1 9 4 1 ,ov e rth i r ty s ixthou s andfo r e ign vo lun t e e r sf roma round Eu rop eh aden l i s t edinth e W eh rm a ch tand

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 33

W a f f en -SS ,no tcoun t inge thn i cG e rm an s .Th i sw a sno tal a rg econ t r ibut ion in m i l i t a ryt e rm s ,amoun t ingtob a r e ly1 p e rc en to ft roop ss t a t ion ed on th eE a s t e rnF ron t .G e rm an i cande sp e c i a l lye thn i cG e rm anvo lun t e e r s ( V o l k s d eu t s c h e)in c r e a s edin1 9 4 2and1 9 4 3 .Th eW a f f en -SSh adr e c ru i t ed 3 7 2 7 , 3 1 4comb a t an t sf rom W e s t e rnand No r th e rnEu rop ebyl a t e1 9 4 3 . Th rough M ay1 9 4 4 ,Du t cht roop snumb e r edb e tw e en2 0 , 0 0 0and 2 3 , 0 0 0 , a long w i th1 0 , 0 0 0F l em i shanda lmo s t6 , 0 0 0D an i shand6 , 0 0 0 No rw e 3 8 g i anr e c ru i t s .I t a l i an sw i th inth e W a f f en -SS numb e r edov e r1 5 , 0 0 0 . Wh i l eth eyc e r t a in lyn ev e rcon s t i tu t ed mo r eth an 1 0 – 1 2p e rc en to fth e to t a lco rp s ,e s t im a t e sv a ryr eg a rd ingth eg lob a lcon t ing en to fvo lun t e e r s f rom W e s t e rnand No r th e rnEu rop e whofough tinth eW eh rm a ch tand W a f f en -SSdu r ingth ew a r .In c lud ingSp an i a rd s , whocomp r i s ed mo r e th an4 0p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r s ,th eto t a lnumb e rcou ldb es i tu a t ed a ta round1 1 5 , 0 0 0m en .Th i sr ep r e s en t ed1 . 1 5p e rc en to fto t a linv ad ing so ld i e r sb e tw e en1 9 4 1and1 9 4 5 . How ev e r ,on ee s t im a t es t a t e sth a tup to4 0 0 , 0 0 0o fth e9 0 0 , 0 0 0so ld i e r scompo s ingth eW a f f en -SScon t ing en t w e r efo r e ign e r s ,s ep a r a t edin totwoc a t ego r i e s :a round 2 0 0 , 0 0 0“ e thn i c G e rm an s , ”andvo lun t e e r sf rom W e s t e rnand No r th e rnEu rop e(6 1 , 0 0 0 a so fJ anu a ry1 9 4 4 )a long w i thE a s t e rnandB a lk anEu rop e ,th eC au c a 3 9 su s ,ando th e rnon -Ru s s i ana r e a so fth eSov i e tUn ion . Th eop e ra t iona le ff c i en cyo fth en ew“ c ru sad e r s” wa squ e s t ionab l e . Th ey w e r ea l lund e rsu rv e i l lan c etoimp ed ed e s e r t iono re sp ionag e . Th eG e rman so f t enimpo s edr e s t r i c t iv em ed i ca lexam sanda t t emp t ed to“G e rman iz e”th e i rcommanda s mu cha spo s s ib l e .Po l i t i ca lr iva l r i e s amongd i f f e r en tfa s c i s tandco l labo ra t ion i s tfa c t ion sa l soch ipp edaway a tth ein t e rna lcoh e s iono fsom evo lun t e e rco rp s .Adv en tu r e r s ,m i l i ta ry m en mo t iva t edbyna t iona l i smandan t i commun i sm ,andfa s c i s tfana ti c sa l lco ex i s t ed w i th inth e s eun i t s .T ran sy lvan ian G e rman s ,fo ron e , w e r ea t t ra c t edbyth e id eao fgoodsa la r i e s ,an t i commun i sm ,andb e ing m emb e r so fane l i t eco rp s .40 H imm l e rga in edth econ t ro lo fth efo r e ignvo lun t e e run i t sin m id 1943 ,w i thth ein t en t iono ftu rn ingth eW a f f en -SSin toapan -G e rman i c 41 a rmy . S ev e ra lr eg im en t sw e r er e conv e r t edin toun i t sw i thpompou s nam e stha thadl i t t l etodo w i thth e i ra c tua lnumb e r s .42 V o lun t e e rSS fo rma t ion s ,o rl eg ion s ,o f Dan e s , No rw eg ian s , Du t chm en ,andF l em i sh so ld i e r sthu sb e cam epa r to fa“G e rman i c”Panz e rCo rp sand w e r ed i v id eda c co rd ing lyin toth ePanz e rg r enad i e r -D iv i s ion No rd land(Dan e s and No rw eg ian s ) ,th eSS -B r igad eN ed e r land– wh i chb e cam eth e34 th SSLand s to rm D iv i s iona f t e rF eb rua ry1945–andth eLang ema r ckA ssau l tB r igad e , wh i chla t e rb e cam eth e27 thSSLang ema r ck D iv i s ion (F l em i sh ) .W a l lon ia wa scon s id e r eda“F r en ch if ed G e rman i c”r eg ion andth eW a l loon D iv i s ion ,command edby D eg r e l l e , wa sin co rpo ra t ed

34 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

in Nov emb e r1944 .Th e s ew e r efo l low edbyo th e rna t iona l i t i e s , ma in ly La t inp eop l e s ,r e c ru i t edth roughth eu sua lchann e l sanda s s ign edto l eg ion s ,SSb r igad e s ,andd iv i s ion s .Th eF r en chvo lun t e e run i tco ex i s t ed w i than ew A s sau l tB r igad e ,andth ecomb in edr ema in so fbo thun i t s (a long w i thsom en ewr e c ru i t s )b e cam eth e Cha r l emagn eD iv i s ion e l ev en mon th sla t e r .Th e1 s tI ta l ianSSB r igad ea l sob e cam ead iv i s ion in Ma r ch1945 . Inadd i t iontop ayandsub s id i e stoth ef am i l i e so fvo lun t e e r s ,SS p rop ag and af rom1 9 4 4onemph a s i z edth eEu rop e ann a tu r eo fth ew a r andc a s tvo lun t e e r sa sex amp l e so fan t i commun i s t ,Eu rop e an i s t ,and in 4 3 som ec a s e san t i -S em i t i cs e l f s a c r if c e . How ev e r ,ap a r tf romf a s c i s t sand an t i commun i s t sfo ck ingtoth er ank so fth eW a f f en -SS ,m anyr e c ru i t s f rom1 9 4 3onen l i s t edfo r mo r ep ro s a i cr e a son s .Th e r ew e r ez e i tg e i s tad v en tu r e r sc augh tupinth ec l a sho fc iv i l i z a t ion s ,commond e l inqu en t s , conv i c t ss e ek ingtor edu c eth e i rs en t en c e s ,F r en chandB e lg i anp r i son e r s o fw a r ,and m anyfo r e ign wo rk e r sinG e rm any– m a in lyF r en ch ,Du t ch , W a l loon ,o rF l em i sh– whos awanoppo r tun i tytoimp rov eth e i rs t a tu s ands a l a ryby jo in ingth eW a f f en -SS .F a s c i s tp a r t i e sandco l l abo r a t ion i s t g roup sf romF r an c e ,B e lg ium , Ho l l and ,andI t a lys e ek ingr e fug einG e rm ant e r r i to ryf rom1 9 4 4onb e c am eth efn a lpoo lfo rr e s e rv e s .Un t i lth e B a t t l eo fB e r l in(Ap r i l/M ay1 9 4 5 ) ,m anyo fth e s ep a r t i e sh adnoo th e r r e cou r s eth antot i eth e i rf a t etoth a to fth eTh i rdR e i ch . Th enon -G e rman i cp eop l e scam en ex t . AC roa t ianSS D iv i s ioncons i s t ing ma in lyo fBo sn ian Mu s l imvo lun t e e r s(1 s tC roa t ian Hand s cha r D iv i s ion )andsom eKo sova r s wa sc r ea t edinF eb rua ry1943tocomba t pa r t i san s .La t e r ,an A lban ianun i t wa sfo rm ed( th eSkand e rb e rg D iv is ion ) , ma in lyr e c ru i t edf romA lbano -Ko sova r s , wh i chth e Naz i sv i ew ed a sap s eudo -G e rman i c wa r r io rra c e .44 Non -Ru s s ianp eop l e sund e rSo v i e tdom in ion w e r ea l soa c c ep t edandb e cam eth ela rg e s t , mo s tr e l evan tg roupf roma m i l i ta ryp e r sp e c t iv e .Th efa t e so fth es epa ra t e USSR na t iona l i t i e sinth eN ew O rd e rhada l r eadyb e end e c id ed .H i t l e rhad noin t en t iono fg iv ingth e Ba l t i ccoun t r i e sba ckth e i rind ep end en c e , andth e i rr e c ru i t sw e r esub sum edin toth eR e i ch skomm i sa r ia tO s t land , no rd idh eenv i s ionsov e r e ign tyfo rth e Uk ra in e .Th en e edfo rt roop s andaux i l ia ryun i t sinth er ea rgua rdd rov eth e Naz i stor e c ru i tth e s e “ in f e r io r”na t iona l i t i e sin toth eO s th e e r andla t e rth eW a f f en -SS .Byth e s e condha l fo f1941 ,th eo c cupy ingfo r c e sw e r ea t t emp t ingtor e c ru i t non -Ru s s ianSov i e tp r i son e r sa sw e l l ,thou sand so f whoms e iz edth e oppo r tun i tytoe s cap eano th e rw i s eb l igh t edfa t e .Som eo fth e s em en 45 jo in edan t ipa r t i sanband s ,o th e r sh e lp edtoex t e rm ina t eJ ew s . Th eTu rkm en s ,C r im e anT a t a r s ,ando th e rC au c a s i an sw e r ein i t i a l ly in co rpo r a t edin to G e rm and iv i s ion sandp l a c edund e rth ecomm ando f

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 35

G e rm ano ff c e r s .Th eyb eg antofo rmth e i rownun i t sin m id 1 9 4 2and numb e r edov e r1 5 0 , 0 0 0by1 9 4 3 .B a l t i cand Uk r a in i ancomb a t an t sw e r e 4 6 th enadm i t t ed in toth eW a f f en -SS . ATu rk i cD iv i s ionw a sfo rm edth a t in c lud ed Mu s l im sinSov i e tt e r r i to ry ,in c lud ingC r im e anandV o lg aT a t a r s , A z e r i s ,andTu rkm en ,a long w i thtwo mo r e Uk r a in i and iv i s ion sandano th e rW a f f en -SS D iv i s ionr e c ru i t edf rom Uk r a in i ann a t ion a l i s t s .A round 1 5 0 , 0 0 0E s ton i an s ,L a tv i an s ,andL i thu an i an sw e r ea l socon s c r ip t edto s e rv e in th er e a rgu a rdand in th ean t ip a r t i s anfgh t .Th e r ew e r eev ensom e exo t i cun i t s , in c lud ingH induandBuddh i s tvo lun t e e r s inth eW eh rm a ch t and W a f f en -SS .AnA rm en i anl eg ion w a sfo rm edinth esumm e ro f1 9 4 2 4 7 th a tfough tinth eC au c a su s ,fo l low edbyaG eo rg i anun i t . Th e Co s sa ck sb e cam eth ee thn i cg rouptha tcon t r ibu t ed mo s tcomba tan t stoth eW eh rma ch t . Hop ingtoc r ea t eanind ep end en tr epub l i c , th eyfough tpa r t i san sun t i l1943 , wh en H i t l e rau tho r iz edth efo rma t ion o fa Co s sa ck D iv i s ion .Som eth i r ty thou sand Co s sa ck sfough tonth e 48 f ron t ,andtwohund r edthou sand mo r es e rv eda saux i l ia ryt roop s . F ina l ly ,th eRu s s ianL ib e ra t ion A rmy(RLA ) wa so r ig ina l lycompo s ed o fp r i son e r sand m e r c ena r i e sund e rth ecommando fG en e ra l And r ey V la sov , whohadb e encap tu r edin1942 .W i thth econ s en to f Naz il eade r s ,V la sovc r ea t eda Comm i t t e efo rth eL ib e ra t iono fth eP eop l e so f Ru s s iain D e c emb e ro fth esam ey ea r ,a sh eenv i s ion edanan t i commun i s tRu s s ia .D e sp i t eH i t l e r ’ sr e lu c tan c e ,inS ep t emb e r1944 V la sov ga in edth esuppo r to fsom eSSin t e l l e c tua l sandev en H imm l e r .Two n ew lyfo rm edRLAd iv i s ion sw e r ed i spa t ch edtoP ragu ein Ma r ch1945 ; two mon th sla t e r ,th eys id ed w i thth e Cz e ch saga in s tth eG e rman s . How ev e r ,a f t e rb e ingsubdu edbyth eSov i e t s , mo s tw e r eex e cu t edo r 49 cond emn edtofo r c edlabou r . Span i shV o lun tee r saga in s ttheUSSR :Re c ru i tmen t ,Send ing , andthe Na tu reo ftheB lue D iv i s ion F ran co i s tSpa in wa sno tabou ttob el e f tb eh indinth e wav eo fan t i commun i s ten thu s ia smtha tsw ep tth roughn eu t ra lando c cup i edEu rop e . Onth en igh to f21Jun e1941– ju s tb e fo r eth eG e rmaninva s iono f th eUSSR–Fo r e ign M in i s t e rRamónS e r rano -Suñ e rd in edw i thFa lang i s t l ead e r sD ion i s ioR id ru e joand Manu e l Mo ra -F igu e roain Mad r id .S e r rano , whokn ewo fth eimm in en tG e rmana t ta ck ,d i s c lo s edh i sp ro j e c t : toc r ea t ean“ exp ed i t iona ryco rp so fvo lun t e e r stofgh tRu s s ia”th e mo m en t wa rb rok eou t .R id ru e joand Mo ra -F igu e roa w e r ebo thfavou rab l etoth i sp lanbu t wan t edtocon f e r mo r ethan m e r ean t i commun i s t symbo l i smonth et roop s ,sod e ta i l sw e r ed i s cu s s ed .A ts ixinth e mo rn 50 ing ,S e r ranoSuñ e rr e c e iv edth eo ff c ia lG e rmans ta t em en t .

36 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Ev en t s mov edqu i ck ly .51 S e r rano p r e s en t edth ep ro j e c ttoF ran co , whoapp rov edi t .Th eG e rmanamba s sado r wa ssub s equ en t lyin fo rm ed o fth eSpan i shd e s igntocon t r ibu t ew i th“ som eFa lang i s tun i t s”toth e “fgh taga in s tth ecommonen emy ,inr em emb ran c eo fG e rmanf ra t e r na la id einth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ,”thoughSpa in wou ldno to ff c ia l ly abandonnon -b e l l ig e r en cy . Rumou r shada l r eadyb e enc i r cu la t ingfo r s ev e ra lday sandth eSpan i sh m i l i ta ry wa sr e s t l e s s .A s Op e ra t ionBa r ba ro s sa wa san t i c ipa t edtob eano th e rb l i tzk r i eg ,aFa lang i s tin i t ia t iv e wou ldpo l i t i ca l lyr e in fo r c eth e mo s trad i ca ls e c to r so fth es ing l epa r ty , whosawth i sa sanoppo r tun i tytoov e r com eth ed e f ea tth eyhadsu ff e r edinth em in i s t e r ia lr eo rd e r ingo f May1941 .Th er i s eo fJo s éLu i sd e A r r e s etog en e ra ls e c r e ta ryo fth eFET JONS( th en ews ing l epa r tya ft e rth eun if ca t iono fth eFa s c i s tFE JONS w i thT rad i t iona l i s t sin Ma r ch 1937 )hadund e rm in edth eFa lang i s tto ta l i ta r ianp ro j e c t , wh i chhadlo s t ou ttoF ran co ’ scon so l ida t iono fp e r sona lpow e randtha to fth eCa thol i c s ,suppo r t edby mo s to fth em i l i ta ry . How ev e r ,pa r t i c ipa t ioninth e Ru s s iancampa ign wou lds t r eng th enS e r ranoSuñ e r ’ spo s i t ion ,sos eve ra lm i l i ta rycommand e r sexp e c t edto m e e tw i thF ran coinhop e so f 52 sway ingh i sop in ion . Th eSpan i shp ropo sa l wa sa c c ep t edtwo day sla t e rin B e r l in . Th e G e rman ssub s equ en t lyexp r e s s edtoS e r ranoth e i rd e s i r efo rSpa into d e c la r e wa ronth e USSR ,a sI ta lyhaddon e .53 P r e s su r ef rom m i l i ta ry l ead e r sc r ea t edf r i c t ion w i thth eFa lang e ;A rmy M in i s t e rG en e ra lJo s é E .V a r e la wan t edtos endar egu la run i tw i thou tanysp e c if cpo l i t i ca l co lou r .Th eFa lang ePo l i t i ca lCoun c i l wa sd iv id edonth i si s su e .Inth e end ,th eyexp r e s s edp r e f e r en c efo racon t ing en to ftw en tythou sand Fa lang i s t s :“70%ex comba tan t s ,10%t ru s two r thyp e r sonn e la ff l ia t ed w i thth es ing l e pa r ty .” Th er ema ind e r wa sl e f t und efn edand m i l i54 ta ryrank sw e r eg ran t edtol ead e r s whovo lun t e e r ed . S e r ranoSuñ e r wan t edc l ea rFa lang ep rom in en c ebu t wa scon c e rn edtha tsu chad e c is ion m igh tl eadth eA l l i e stod e c la r e wa ronSpa in . F ran cocho s eanin t e rm ed ia t eso lu t ion . Th e Coun c i lo f M in i s t e r s ga th e r edon23–4Jun eandapp rov edth ec r ea t iono faSpan i shD iv i s ion . I t wou ldcon s i s to fno mo r ethanf f tythou sand m en ,l edbya rmyo f f c e r s ,w i tht roop sr e c ru i t edbyth eFET M i l i t iaf romamongFa lang i s t vo lun t e e r sando th e r s .55 Th een t i r eSpan i shA i rFo r c eo ff c e rco rp svo l un t e e r edtog e th e rfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tandA i rFo r c eM in i s t e rG en e ra l JuanV igóno f f e r edtos endfo r ty -fv et ra in edp i lo t sa long w i thlandp e r sonn e l .Th enavy m in i s t e ra l sov i s i t edth eG e rmanamba s sado rtoo f f e r 56 t roop stoth eR e i ch . On c eaga in ,ev en t sun fo ld edqu i ck ly . On 24Jun e ,th eFa lang eo rgan iz edad emon s t ra t iontha tc ro s s ed Mad r idtoth epa r tyh eadqua r t e r s ,

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 37

wh e r eS e r ranoSuñ e rra l l i edth ed emon s t ra to r sw i thaf e rv en timp rov i s edsp e e chs ta t ingtha t“Ru s s iai sgu i l ty .” Gu i l tyo f wha t ?O fJo s é An ton ioP r imod eR iv e ra ’ sd ea thin Nov emb e r1936 ,ando fcau s ingth e Span i shC iv i lW a r .Th ecommun i s t“Ru s s ian” wa sc lo s etocap i tu la t ion ; now wa sth et im efo rd efn i t iv er e ta l ia t ion . Manyo fth ed emon s t ra to r s mad eth e i r waytoth eB r i t i shemba s sy , wh e r eth eydamag edp rop e r ty , th en mov edontoth eG e rmancon su la t etod e c la r eth e i rsuppo r t .S im i la rin c id en t so c cu r r edino th e rc i t i e sa sw e l l .Pa ra l l e lFa lang e o rgan iz ed d emon s t ra t ion stook p la c ein o th e rc i t i e s andtown s onth esam e a f t e rnoono f24Jun eandca r r i edonth roughth en ex tday .A l though pub l i ca t t endan c e wa ss ca r c einSan taC ruzd eT en e r i f e ,th enumb e r sin S ev i l l e , Má laga ,and A l i can t er ef e c t edg r ea ten thu s ia sm ,a c co rd ingto 57 th eG e rmancon su l s . Onth en igh to f2 5Jun e ,a l lp rov in c i a lFET l e ad e r sw e r e i s su ed in s t ru c t ion stoo rg an i z er e c ru i tm en tfo ranexp ed i t iontoth eRu s s i anF ron ta s soona spo s s ib l e .V o lun t e e r sshou ldp r e f e r ab lyb es e l e c t edf romamong th eb e s tF a l ang i s t s ,wh e th e r in t e rm so fm i l i t a ry t r a in ingo rpo l i t i c a l -mo r a l fb r e .A rmyo ff c e r sw i th“ aF a l ang i s tsp i r i t ”w e r ea l so w e l com e .Comb a t an t sh adtob etw en tytotw en ty e igh ty e a r so fag eandp a s sa m ed i c a l ex am .P r e f e r en c ew a sg iv ento m en w i th m i l i t a ryexp e r i en c e ,thoughth e o r ig in a lquo t ae s t ab l i sh edar a t ioo f7 5p e rc en tex comb a t an t sand2 5 p e rc en tex -p r i son e r s( inth eR epub l i c anzon edu r ingth eC iv i lW a r )and po l i t i c a l lyt ru s two r thyvo lun t e e r s .C a r e e rm i l i t a ryp e r sonn e lw i sh ingto vo lun t e e rw e r er equ i r edtodoso w i th info r ty e igh thou r s ,bu tF a l ang i s t s w e r eg iv enun t i l 2Ju ly .Th eo r e t i c a l ly ,i f mu l t ip l ec and id a t e sp r e s en t ed th em s e lv e sfo ra m i l i t a rypo s t ,th e mo s texp e r i en c ed m en wou ldb echo 5 8 s en .Ev e ryon eb e l i ev edth efn a lv i c to rytob en e a r . In s t ru c t ion stor equ e s tvo lun t e e r sw e r ea l sos en ttoth eM i l i ta ry D i s t r i c t Command sandt roop sin No r th e rn Mo ro c co . Ap rov i s ionon28 Jun ein c r ea s edth ep e r sonn e lquo tatha tth ea rmy wa sp e rm i t t edtor e c ru i t :th r e e fou r th so fnon comm i s s ion edo ff c e r s(NCO s )andsp e c ia l iz edp e r sonn e l ,anda s manyt roop sa sn e ed edi fc iv i l ianvo lun t e e r s w e r ein su ff c i en t .G en e ra lAgu s t ín Muñoz -G rand e s wa scho s entocommandth eD iv i s ion .Th i sv e t e ranf romth e Mo ro c can wa rhadd i r e c t ed th eso ca l l edA s sau l tGua rddu r ingth eS e condR epub l i candhads e rv ed 59 a ss e c r e ta ryg en e ra lo fth eFET JONSfo rat im e . H e wa sacha r i sma t i c m i l i ta ry mano fpopu la ro r ig inandingoods tand ing w i thFa lang i s t s . S e r ranohadnog r ea tl ik ingfo rh imbu ta c c ep t edh imnon e th e l e s s .O ff c ia l lych r i s t en eda sth eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r s ,th eun i t wa s popu la r lyknowna sth eD iv i s i ónA zu l,th eB lu eD iv i s ion ,ina l lu s ionto i t sFa lang i s tpo l i t i ca lco lou r .Appa r en t ly ,FETS e c r e ta ryG en e ra lA r r e s e cam eup w i thth enam e .R id ru e jo , whohadf r s tou t l in edth ep lano f

38 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

d i spa t ch ingvo lun t e e r stoRu s s ia ,foundi t“ som ewha tr id i cu lou s”bu t p r ed i c t edi t wou ld“b easu c c e s s .”60 Th eSpan i sh d e c la ra t iono f wa ronth e USSR n ev e r ma t e r ia l iz ed , pa r t lyb e cau s eG r ea tB r i ta ind idno tr ea c ttop rovo ca t ion .Th eLondon gov e rnm en t wa sp rud en tenoughtok e epth eSpan i shr eg im ef rom jo iningth e wa ra sana l lyo fth e Ax i s .Thu s ,th eSpan i shexp ed i t ion wa s p r e s en t eda sapu r e lyan t i commun i s ten t e rp r i s eo fr e ta l ia t ionfo rth e C iv i lW a r ,w i thou tac l ea rind i ca t iono fa l ignm en tw i thth eN ewEurop ean O rd e r .S e r ranoSuñ e rs ta t edtoth eD eu t s ch eA l lg em e in eZ e i tung tha tSpan i shpa r t i c ipa t ioninth e wa raga in s tth e USSR wa sar e tu rn toa rm saga in s tth e i r1936en emyandpa r to fan Eu rop eanc ru sad e “aga in s tA s ianba rba r i ty ,”tor eo rgan iz eth eCon t in en tanda ch i ev eendu r ingp ea c ew i thth eB r i t i shand Am e r i can s . Ano th e rp ropagand i s t i c mo t iv e wa sadd ed :th el ib e ra t iono fn in ethou sandSpan i shch i ld r en whohadb e en“ s to l en”byth eUSSRin1937andn ev e rr e tu rn ed .61 Th eSp an i shcon t ing en tw a stob ein t eg r a t edin toth eW eh rm a ch tand wou ldadop ti t so rg an i z a t ion a ls t ru c tu r e ,equ ipm en t ,and un i fo rm– a long w i than a t ion a lb adg eonth es l e ev e–fo ri t sm emb e r stob el eg a l ly r e cogn i z eda scomb a t an t s .Sp an i shso ld i e r sr e c e iv eddoub l ep ay inSp an i shand G e rm an w ag e s ,aW e h r s o l dc amp a ignbonu s ,andp aym en tfo r t im eonth ef ron t .C iv i l i anvo lun t e e r sa l so m a in t a in edth e i rr egu l a rs a l a r i e s .Th eadm in i s t r a t iono f ju s t i c ep rov edth e mo s tcomp l i c a t eda sp e c to f th i sin t eg r a t ion .I tw a sfn a l lyag r e edth a tth eBD wou ldb ep l a c edund e r Sp an i shcomm andbu tsub j e c ttoth es t r a t eg i cd i spo s i t ion so fG e rm an H ighComm and .Th eD iv i s ionwou ldu s e i t sowncod eo fm i l i t a ry ju s t i c e , th a to fth eSp an i shA rmy .Anyp e r son sd e t a in edbyth eG e rm an m i l i t a ry po l i c ew e r etob eh and edov e rtoth er e l ev an tBDau tho r i t i e sandconv i c t s wou ldb et r an spo r t edb a cktoSp a intocomp l e t eth e i rs en t en c e ,ex c ep tfo r c a s e so fe sp ion ag efo rA l l i edfo r c e so th e rth anth e USSR .G en e r a lK e i t e l 6 2 s an c t ion edth e s eru l e sin m id -S ep t emb e ronb eh a l fo fth eOKH . Th ef r s tD iv i s ionadvan c egua rd wa ss ch edu l edtol eav eon8Ju lyto p r epa r et roopqua r t e r sa tth eG ra f enwöh rt ra in ingcampinth e Upp e r Pa la t ina t e .Th ef r s tcon t ing en to ft roop sando ff c e r s wou ldl eav eby 63 t ra inon13Ju ly . F romth eou t s e t , i s su e ssu r fa c ed inadap t ingth eSpan i shcon t ing en ttoth eW eh rma ch tlog i s t i ca lp r io r i t i e sando rgan iza t iona l mod e l . Th e r ew e r etoo manyo ff c e r sin p ropo r t iontonon comm i ss ion edo ff c e r s .Fu r th e rmo r e ,th eSpan i shA rmycou ldno tp rov id e mo to r iz edv eh i c l e s( th r e ehund r edlo r r i e sandfou rhund r ed mo to rb ik e s ) tot ran spo r tth e i rt roop stoth ef ron t . How ev e r ,pa r t lydu etop r e s su r e f romth eG e rman M in i s t ryo fFo r e ignA f fa i r s ,th eOKWa cqu i e s c ed ;th e Span i sht roop sw e r ea c c ep t ed w i thou tt ran spo r ta t ionandth eex c e s s p e r sonn e l wa sin t eg ra t ed .64

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 39

Th ein i t ia lfou rr eg im en t sw e r enam eda f t e rth e i rco lon e l s :Rod r igo (Mad r id ) ,V i e rna(V a l en c ia ) ,E spa rza(S ev i l l e ) ,andP im en t e l(V a l lad o l id ) . Th evo lun t e e r sw e r ed i s t r ibu t edamongd i f f e r en tba r ra ck sin th eva r iou sm i l i ta ryr eg ion s .Th eyth enr e c e iv edg en e ra lin s t ru c t ion s andaSpan i shA rmyun i fo rm , wh i chhadb e enpa r t lyimp rov i s ed w i th ga rm en t stak enf romth eR epub l i canA rmy :i ta l soin c lud edar edb er e t ,and u sua l lyab lu esh i r tw i thFa lang i s t ma rk ing s .Som eth i r ty Wh i t eRu s s ianex comba tan t s , mo s to fth em m emb e r so fth eSpan i sh Fo r e ignL eg ionandvo lun t e e r so fth eF ran co i s tA rmyinth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ,w e r ea l soin t eg ra t edin toth eSpan i shcon t ing en ttos e rv e a st ran s la to r s .65 In Mad r id ,vo lun t e e r sw e r ega th e r edinba r ra ck sandinth eun iv e r s i tyd i s t r i c t , wh e r eth eyp e r fo rm edsom et ra in ingex e r c i s e s . Hou s ing cond i t ion sw e r eo f t en un san i ta ry .Fa lang i s t Lu i s Agu i la r no t edtha t h i sba r ra ck shadf ew e r ma t t r e s s e sthanso ld i e r s ,andtha tth efood wa s badand“d i r ty .”66 Th ef r s texp ed i t ion sl e f tth e i rm i l i ta rycommand h eadqua r t e r sfo rRu s s iaon12Ju ly .V e ryemo t iona ls c en e scou ldb ew i t n e s s edint ra ins ta t ion ssu cha stho s eo f Mad r id ,V a l lado l id ,andS ev i l l e . S e r ranoSuñ e r ,th eG e rmanamba s sado r ,ando th e rau tho r i t i e sa t t end ed th e mu l t i tud inou ss end -o f fa tth e No r thS ta t ionin Mad r idon13Ju ly . Th e mo r esubdu eds c en e sinBa r c e lonaandV a l en c ia ,a sw e l la sth er ec ep t ionfo rconvoy sf romo th e rpo in t so fo r ig ininZa ragoza ,r ef e c t ed 67 th er eg im e ’ sla cko fpopu la r i tyintho s er eg ion s . Th e s eexp ed i t ion shadtochang et ra in sin H enday e ,th ef r s tt ra in s ta t ioninF ran c e .F romth e r e ,th eG e rmano c cupy ingfo r c e sa s sum ed 68 r e spon s ib i l i tyfo rth evo lun t e e r s . Th ef r s tth ingth eyexp e r i en c edou t s id eth e i rcoun t ry wa saco l l e c t iv eshow e randun i fo rmd i s in f e c t ion , b e fo r econ t inu ingth e i rjou rn eyto G e rmanyin pa s s eng e rca r r iag e s . Th eyen coun t e r ed manyd i sp lay so fho s t i l i tyf romth eF r en chra i l road wo rk e r sandc iv i l ian s , whoa im edin su l t s ,ob s c en eg e s tu r e s ,andro ck s a tth em .M ino ra l t e r ca t ion sa ro s e wh en ev e rth et ra in ss topp ed .69 Su ch s c en e s wou ldr ep ea tth em s e lv e sfo rth en ex ttwoy ea r s . Th eou t lookchang eda s th e t roop sa r r iv ed inA l sa c e ,wh i chwa sund e r Th i rdR e i chdom in ion ,andpa r t i cu la r lya sth eypu l l edin to Ka r l s ruh e S ta t ion , inG e rmant e r r i to ry .Th et roop sw e r e mov edbyth een thu s ia s t i c w e l com etha tth eG e rmanc iv i l ianpopu la t iono f f e r edth e i rexo t i ca l l i e s . Th et ra in sa r r iv eda tth eG ra f enwöh rm i l i ta ryt ra in ingcampcomp l ex inth e Upp e rPa la t ina t er eg ionb e tw e en17and23Ju ly .Th e mod e rn , com fo r tab l et ra in ingcamp ss e em edl ik epa rad i s etoth eBDvo lun t e e r s . Th eysp en tfv ew e ek sth e r e–ath i rdo fth es tanda rd G e rmant ra in ing p e r iodfo rso ld i e r s–t ra in ingha rdinunp l ea san t ,ra iny w ea th e r ,w i th o c ca s iona lou t ing sin toth esu r round inga r ea s .

40 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Thoughth et roop sa r r iv edina c c ep tab l eh ea l thov e ra l l ,a s manya s fou rhund r edo fth em enhadcon t ra c t edv en e r ea ld i s ea s e sp r io rto l eav ingo rf rom“unh ea l thy wom en”–p ro s t i tu t e s–aboa rdth et ra in s du r ingth ejou rn ey .A f t e rb e ingt r ea t edin G ra f enwöh r ,285a ff i c t ed vo lun t e e r sw e r er epa t r ia t edon4 Augu s t ,a long w i th62 m end e em ed unf tfo rs e rv i c e ,andon es e rg ean to fA f r i cano r ig in . Th eD iv i s ion la ck ed non comm i s s ion ed o ff c e r ssp e c ia l iz ingincava l ry o rt ran s po r ta t ion ,andth er e in fo r c em en t sr equ e s t edby Muñoz G rand e sd id no ta r r iv eb e fo r eth ed epa r tu r efo rth ef ron t .70 Th eSpan i shso ld i e r s w e r ea s s ign edb i l ingua lin s t ru c to r s ,r e c e iv edG e rmanequ ipm en t ,and a c cu s tom edth em s e lv e sto W eh rma ch tba r ra ck sru l e s :r ev e i l l ea t5 :30 a .m . ,co ldd inn e rinth ea f t e rnoon ,ea r lyn igh t s .Th evo lun t e e r sfound i t mo r ed i ff cu l ttoad ju s ttoan ewd i e tthantoth er igo rou sphy s i ca l t ra in ing w i thl iv eammun i t iontha tth eyendu r edund e rth eG e rman mo t to ,“ sw ea tsav e sb lood .” D i f f e r en tm ea lhou r s ,spa r tanda i lyrat ion s ,foodsu cha sp ea r lba r l eytha t wa sfo r e igntosou th e rnpa la t e s , b e e r in s t eado fw in e ,andb londtoba c cow e r ecommonth em e s in l e t t e r s and jou rna l sf romth evo lun t e e rt roop s .D ion i s ioR id ru e jocomp la in ed o fth e“ou t land i shbu tno ta lway scomp l e t em ea l s wh i ch w e mu s tendu r e .”71 A s id ef romth efood ,o th e rcau s e sfo rcon c e rnin c lud edth e la cko f ma i lf romSpa in ,andth e“d i s c ip l in eandru th l e s s …t r ea tm en t” byo ff c e r sands e rg ean t s .72 Fa lang i s tl ead e r s whohadb e enr edu c ed tos imp l ep r iva t e scommun i ca t edth e i rd i sp l ea su r etoth eSpan i shem ba s syinB e r l in . How ev e r ,th ela cko fpo l i t i ca lso l ida r i ty wa sev en mo r e d i s tu rb ingthanth e i rt r ea tm en t ;d e sp i t er e comm enda t ion sf rom G e rmand ip loma tEb e rha rdvonS toh r e r ,th eFa lang i s tBDl ead e r ss ca r c e ly hadanycon ta c tw i th NSDAPd e l ega t ion sapa r tf romon efo rma lv i s i t on17 Augu s tbyRob e r tL ey ,th ed i r e c to ro fth eD eu t s ch eA rb e i t s f ron t , 73 andth eBay r eu thG au l e i t e r. Inla t eJu ly ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r sund e rw en tin t e rna l o rgan iza t iona lr e s t ru c tu r inginana t t emp ttoadap ti ttoth eo ld W eh r ma ch t mod e l .Th eR ep la c em en tR eg im en t– wh i chg en e ra l lyr ema in ed in G e rmany– wa sin co rpo ra t edin toth eo th e rth r e etob ed ep loy edon th ef ron t .Th e r e wou lda l sob ea mob i l er e s e rv eba t ta l ion( th e250 th ) w i ths en io rs ta f fandth r e ecompan i e s–twoin fan t ryandon em ix ed– tha t wou ldr ema ininth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rd un t i ln e ed ed . Thu s , th eBDo ff c ia l lyb e cam eth e250 th W eh rma ch tD iv i s ion(Span i s ch en F r e iw i l l ig en D iv i s ion ) .Th eo r ig ina lfou rBDr eg im en t sb e cam eth r e e , ea chcompo s edo fth r e eba t ta l ion sandtwoadd i t iona lcompan i e sun d e rth ecommand so f Co lon e lP ed roP im en t e l(262ndR eg im en t ) ,Jo s é V i e rna(263 rdR eg im en t ) ,andJo s é Ma r t ín ezE spa rza(269 thR eg im en t ) . Th efou r thco lon e l ,M igu e lRod r igo , wa spo s t eda ss e condh eado fth e

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 41

D iv i s ion .Th eBDa l soin c lud edana r t i l l e ryandasapp e r s ’r eg im en t a long w i than t i tank ,t ran sm i s s ion ,exp lo ra t ion ,t ran spo r ta t ion ,m ed ica l ,log i s t i ca l ,andv e t e r ina ryg roup s ,m i l i ta rypo l i c e ,cou r i e r s ,s en io r s ta f f ,andg en e ra ls ta f f .T o ta l BDp e r sonn e l wa se s t ima t eda tn ea r ly 74 e igh t e enthou sand . D i sp e r s edth roughou tth eva s tr ea rgua rdtha ts t r e t ch edf romRu s s ia toSpa in ,sma l lSpan i shd e ta chm en t sw e r ed i s t r ibu t edtop rov id eaux i l ia rys e rv i c e stoth er e l i e fexp ed i t ion s , ma r chba t ta l ion s ,andth e mo r e r edu c edcon t ing en t so fso ld i e r s who w e r e wound ed ,r epa t r ia t ed ,o ron l eav e .Inadd i t iontoBDo ff c e s inHo f ,B e r l in ,Kön ig sb e rg ,V i ln iu s ,R iga , and Mad r id ,m i l i ta rypo l i c epo s t sw e r ec r ea t edin May1942in G e r many ,th eBa l t i c s ,anda ts ev e ra lt ran s i tpo in t sinF r en cht e r r i to ryand inth eo c cup i edSov i e tr ea rgua rd .Twoo th e r mob i l eg roup sw e r eg iv en in t e l l ig en c eo rcoun t e r e sp ionag e wo rk ,w i thh eadqua r t e r sinR igaand B e r l in .75 F ina l ly ,an e two rko fSpan i shho sp i ta l s–s e c t ion so fG e rman m i l i ta ryho sp i ta l s– wa se s tab l i sh edinth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rdonth e f ron t ,in c lud ingth ef e ldho sp i ta linPo rkhov( la t e rM e s t e l evo ) ,tho s e o fth ed i s tan tr ea rgua rdin R iga ,V i ln iu s , Ho f ,and Kön ig sb e rg ,and 76 th econva l e s c en tho sp i ta linB e r l in . A l lo fth em w e r ea tl ea s tpa r t ia l ly s ta f f edbySpan i sh m i l i ta rydo c to r sand m ed i c s ,a sw e l la svo lun t e e r nu r s e sf romth ea rmy ,th eR ed C ro s s ,th eFET W om en ’ sS e c t ion ,and lo ca laux i l ia ryp e r sonn e l . How ev e r ,inth ey ea r stha tfo l low ed ,Span i sh wound edandconva l e s c en t scou ldb efoundinG e rman m i l i ta ryho sp ita l sf romB romb e rgtoV i enna . S im i la r ly , andincon sonan c e w i thth eimpo r tan c eg iv entoth e “ sp i r i tua lca r e”o fth eW eh rma ch tt roop s ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s iont roop s b eganto w r i t eth e i rf r s tt r en ch jou rna l s .InG ra f enwöh randdu r ingth e ma r ch e s ,th ey w e r epa s t edon wa l l s . Onth ef ron t ,th e s ei r r egu la rbu ll e t in sb e cam ear egu la rt r en ch jou rna l ,th eH o j ad eC amp añ a, wh i ch wa s f r s tpub l i sh edin G r igo rovo ,th eninR iga ,andfna l lyinT a l l innun t i l ea r ly Ma r ch1944 .I tf ea tu r edcon t r ibu t ion sf romFa lang i s tBDin t e l l e c tua l s ,su cha sin t e rna t iona llawp ro f e s so rF e rnandoCa s t i e l laand w r i t e r Á lva rod eLa ig l e s ia .77 On 31Ju ly1941 ,info rma t ionund e rth eG e rmanandSpan i shfag s onth eK ram e rb e rgf e ld ,th ebu lko fth eB lu eD iv i s ionswo r ea l l eg ian c e toth e“h eado fth eG e rmanA rmyAdo l fH i t l e rinth efgh taga in s tcom mun i sm ,”b e fo r e“Godandonyou rhonou ra sSpan ia rd s .”Th eW eh rma ch toa th wa sadap t edtoavo idth e wo rdFüh r e randin t rodu c edth e nuan c etha tloya l ty wa sl ink edtoth efgh taga in s tcommun i sm .P r e s idingov e rth ec e r emony w i th MuñozG rand e sw e r eG en e ra lCon radvon Co ch enhau s enand G en e ra lF r i ed r i chF romm ,command e rinch i e fo f th er e s e rv ea rmy .Inh i ssp e e ch ,Co ch enhau s enempha s iz edth eth em e s

42 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fanan t i -Bo l sh ev ikc ru sad eandth ed e f en c eo fEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion 78 aga in s tJuda eo -Ma rx i s tdom in ion . WhoV o lun tee redfo rtheB lue D iv i s ion ? Th ek eyqu e s t iono f whovo lun t e e r edfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tand why ha so f t enb e enadd r e s s edind i r e c t lyandi t san sw e rha su sua l lyb e en ba s edonl im i t edemp i r i ca lev id en c e ,ex c ep tfo rsom eun ev en wo rkon sp e c if cp rov in c ia lo rlo ca lcon t ex t s .T oda t e ,how ev e r ,th eta sko fga th e r ingar ep r e s en ta t iv esamp l eo fvo lun t e e rb iog raph i e sfo ra l lo fSpa in ha sp rov edimpo s s ib l e .Su chaco rpu s wou ldid en t i fycommoncha ra c t e r i s t i c so fth evo lun t e e r s ,a sw e l la sth e i rba ckg round s ,th e i rso c ia l , po l i t i ca l ,andcu l tu ra lo r ig in s ,andth e i rr ea son sfo ren l i s t inginth e f r s tB lu eD iv i s ion mu s t e r( Jun e– Ju ly1941 )o ranyo fth etw en ty e igh t r e l i e fba t ta l ion sd i spa t ch edtor ep la c eth efa l l en ,th e wound ed ,and th ev e t e ran s . Th eh i s to r iog raph i cd i s cu s s ionabou tth e mo t iv e sandcha ra c t e r i s t i c s o fB lu eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e r sha so s c i l la t edrough lyb e tw e entwopo l e s . A ton eex t r em e ,th eBDi ss e ena sap r imo rd ia l lyfa s c i s tandg en e ra l ly F ran co i s tcon t ing en t whop e r c e iv edth eRu s s iancampa igna sacon t inua t iono fth eC iv i lW a randth e i ran t i commun i s tcomm i tm en to fth e 1930 s .Thoughnumb e r sb egantod e c l in ein1942 ,th eD iv i s ion ma inta in edi t ss t rongFa lang i s tfavou r , wh i cha l socon t r ibu t edtoth eindo c t r ina t iono fn ewso ld i e r sinth i sid ea l .Inth i sl in eo fth ink ing ,th eBD wa safo r c ecompo s ed ma in lyo fFa lang i s t s ,Ca tho l i c s ,andan t i commun i s t s .79 A tth eo th e rex t r em e ,th eBDha sb e encon s id e r eda sapun i t iv e too lby wh i ch manyo r mo s to fi t sm emb e r shadb e enfo r c edtos e rv ein som e wayo rr e c ru i t edbyco e r c iv em e thod s ,e sp e c ia l ly wh e r eth ea rmy wa sinvo lv ed . Mo s to fth evo lun t e e r sf rom1941–3 wou ld ,inth i sv i ew , no thav eb e enid ea l i s t sbu ta m ixo fp s eudo -m e r c ena r i e s ,con s c r ip t ed so ld i e r s whohadb e eno rd e r edtoen l i s t ,comba tan t sw i thal e f t i s tpa s t s e ek ingtoc l ea rth e i rr e co rd ,o rp ea san t sand wo rk e r sa t t ra c t edbyth e sa la ryth ey wou ldea rn wh i l eth eys e rv ed .Th epov e r tyinSpa ina f t e r 80 th eC iv i lW a r wou ldhav eindu c edth emtoen l i s t . Ath i rdl in eo fin t e rp r e ta t ionlook sa tth e“f r s t” D iv i s ionvo lun t e e r s o fJun e– Ju ly1941a sa m ixo fp ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r s–en s ign s ,co rpora l s ,ands e rg ean t s ma in ly– whoen l i s t edpa r t lyb e cau s eth eysha r ed th eid ea l stha thadl edth emtofgh tinth eC iv i lW a r ,andpa r t lyou to f th ed e s i r eto mak eaca r e e ro fth em i l i ta ry . Av e rys ign if can tcon t in g en to fvo lun t e e r sf romth eFET m i l i t ia s , mo s to f whom w e r em emb e r s o fo rsympa th iz e r sw i thth es ing l epa r ty ,hadid eo log i ca l mo t iva t ion s tha tin c lud edag en e r i cd e s i r etoav eng ep e r sona lo rfam i lysu f f e r ing s

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 43

a t“R ed”hand sdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .Th eysha r edaconv i c t iontha tth e t im ehadcom etoc ru shth ecommun i s ten emyanden su r eSpa in ’ spa r t i c ipa t ioninth eN ewEu rop eanO rd e r ,w i thav i ewtos t r eng th en ingth e ro l eo fth eFa lang e inth eF ran co i s tr eg im e .Ano th e rg roupo fvo lun t e e r s wou ldhav een l i s t ed ma in lyfo re conom i cr ea son s ,o rtof e ef romad i sag r e eab l er ea l i ty . Mo s tr ep la c em en tso ld i e r sf rom Ma r ch1942oncam e f romth ea rmy ,soth evo lun t e e ra sp e c to fen l i s tm en tva r i ed .V o lun t e e r s f romth ef r s tr e c ru i tm en tcampa ign wou ldhav eb e ena t t ra c t edbyth e doub l esa la ry ,bu tsom es e c r e t lysympa th iz ed w i thth el e f tand w e r e po s s ib lylook ingfo rachan c etod e f e c t .81 Th epano ramai sd iv e r s e , wh e th e rf romth ep e r sp e c t iv eo fth evo lunt e e r s ’ mo t iv e so ro fth e i rp ro sopog raph i ct ra i t s .Th eSpan i sh D iv i s ion o fV o lun t e e r s wa sc e r ta in lyno tsov e ryb lu eini t scompo s i t ion .Though s ign if can t ,th eFa lang i s t sw e r ea lway sa m ino r i ty ,bu tth eya cqu i r ed c l ea rsymbo l i ch eg emony .Th i scoa t edth eimag eand wa rcu l tu r eo fth e Span i shD iv i s ion w i thafa s c i s tva rn i sh .R id ru e jo w ro t einAugu s t1941 tha ti t wa sa“Noah ’ sA rk w i tha l lth esp e c i e s ,”thoughth eFa lang i s t s p r edom ina t ed .82 Th e wa raga in s tth ecommonen emya l soa t t ra c t ednu m e rou sm i l i tan t Ca tho l i c s ,som e Ca r l i s t s ,andsom e“wa rF ran co i s t s ,” in c lud ing NCO sanda rmyo ff c e r s .V o lun t e e r ingfo rth eRu s s ianF ron t wa sfo r manyap e r sona linv e s tm en tl ink edtoapo l i t i ca lgamb l e .Fo r manyo th e r s ,th e r ew e r ep ra c t i ca ladvan tag e stob e inga wa rv e t e ranin F ran co i s tSpa in . Th eg en e r a t ion a l ,po l i t i c a l ,andf am i lyexp e r i en c e so fm anyvo lunt e e r sdu r ingth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r– wh e th e rth eyh adp a r t i c ip a t edo r no ta scomb a t an t s ,o rh adb e eninth ef f thco lumn ,o rh adsu f f e r eda s p r i son e r s–p l ay edad e c i s iv ero l einth e i rd e c i s iontojo inth eBD .W a r vo lun t e e r ingh a ss c a r c e lyb e ent r e a t edf romacomp a r a t iv ep e r sp e c8 3 t iv e , bu ti tc anb econ c ep tu a l i z eda sanind iv idu a ld e c i s iont ak enina con t ex to fl im i t edr a t ion a l i ty ,r edu c edop t ion s ,andimp r e c i s ein fo rm a t ioncond i t ion edbyp rop ag and a .V o lun t e e r s ’exp e c t a t ion sw e r ed efn ed byan a r rowr ang eo fp r ed i c t ion s .Th er a t ion a l i tyo fth ed e c i s iontoen l i s t ina w a rw a sa l socond i t ion edbyo th e rf a c to r s :g roupso l id a r i ty ;n a t ion a l i s t ,r e l ig iou s ,o rid eo log i c a lindo c t r in a t ion ;anemo t ion a ll and s c ap eo f w a r mob i l i z a t ioninal im i t edt im ef r am e ;th econn e c t ionb e tw e enth e c au s eandth ed e f en c eo fon e ’ shom eo rch e r i sh edlo c a lcon t ex t ;andth e emph a s i sonv a lu e ssu cha scou r ag e ,adv en tu r einexo t i cl and s ,ands a c r if c efo ron e ’ sn a t ion a lcommun i tyand/o rr e l ig iou sf a i th .Th e s ec l a s s i c a t t r ibu t e so fm a s cu l in i ty w e r ea c c en tu a t edinin t e rw a rEu rop eande s p e c i a l lyv en e r a t edonth eF r an co i s ts id ef rom1 9 3 6on .84 Th e s efa c to r sg en e ra t edacumu l a t iv ep r ed i sp o s i t i onto wa rinaso c ia l con t ex t ma rk edbyth e mob i l iza t iono fth r e ey ea r so fc iv i lconf i c t :an

44 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 85 inh e r i t ed wa rcu l tu r etha tcond i t ion edind iv idua l mo t iv e s . Pov e r ty , un emp loym en t ,r e s t l e s sn e s s ,la cko fso c ia lo r wo rkp ro sp e c t s ,so c ia l p r e s su r eonfam i l i e so fl e f t i s tsympa th iz e r so rr igh t -w ingfam i l i e s who hadno tp rov id edasonfo rth eC iv i lW a r ,so c ia l iza t ioninva lu e slad en w i thv i ta l i smand ma s cu l in i tyo ra s so r t edfam i ly ,p e r sona l ,o rs en t im en ta lc i r cum s tan c e s mayhav es e rv eda sth eimm ed ia t et r igg e rfo r ind iv idua ld e c i s ion s . How ev e r ,th e s e mo t iv e sov e r lapp ed w i tho th e r s tha ta f f e c t edvo lun t e e r sth roughou tth e i rexp e r i en c eo fth e wa r ,f rom s e t t ingou ttosha r edcomba texp e r i en c etoen coun t e r ingth een emy .In th e i rea r l i e s tday sa tG ra f enwöh r ,ev enso ld i e r sf rom l e f t i s tfam i lyba ck g round sexp r e s s edth e i reag e rn e s stogoin tocomba tand“hamm e rth e 86 Ru s s ian s[… ]Up w i thSpa in(A r r i b aE sp añ a) .Longl iv eF ran co .” R e con s t ru c t ingth er ea son sfo rvo lun t e e r ingcon s t i tu t e sa m e thodolog i ca lcha l l eng e .Po s t -wa rt e s t imon i e sa r ep e rm ea t ed w i thth es e l f ju s t if ca t iono fv e t e ran slook ingba ckonth e i rd e c i s ion sinl igh to fth e ou t com e sandth edom inan tin t e rp r e ta t ion so fth eS e cond W o r ld W a r a f t e r1945 .Conv e r t ing“ l i f eincomba t”to wa rexp e r i en c ei sasub j e c t iv e p ro c e s stha tpa r t ia l lyd ep end sonav e t e ran ’ sd e s i r etop la c eth e wa r y ea r sw i th inh i sb iog raphyina waytha tg iv e sm ean ingtoh i ssub s equ en td ev e lopm en t . Mo t iva t ion sexp r e s s eda ttha tt im einl e t t e r s ,p e rsona ld ia r i e s ,o rjou rna l i s t i ccon t r ibu t ion sa lway sspok eo fad e s i r eto upho ldag en e ra l iz edop in ion ,c r ea t ingasmok e s c r e enb eh ind wh i ch th e ma jo r i ty w en ta long w i thth ev i s ionra th e rthant ru lysha r ingi t . Many wa rv e t e rant e s t imon i e sa s c r ib edth ed e c i s iontogotoyou thfu lfo l ly .In1941 , manythough tth ecampa ign wou ldb esho r t :“on e do e sn ’ tgoto wa rth ink ingh ei sgo ingtod i e . On eth ink sh ei sgo ingto 87 s e eo th e r sd i e .” On eex -vo lun t e e ra rgu ed mu chla t e rtha tr ea l ly“mo s t w en tou to fin e r t ia ,th ein e r t iaa cqu i r edinou r[Span i shc iv i l ] wa r wa s 88 s t i l lgo ings t rongandd rov eu stoi t .” Th i sin e r t iaf romaninh e r i t ed wa rcu l tu r e wa sa c t iva t edbyth eemo t iona lcon t ex to fJun e– Ju ly1941 , wh i cha l socond i t ion edind iv idua len l i s tm en t . How ev e r ,th eimpu l s e tovo lun t e e r wa sno ton lyind iv idua lbu tco l l e c t iv einna tu r e :th er e f e r en c eg roup wa sca l l ingi t sm emb e r stoa rm s ,andba ck ingou tm igh t 89 expo s eon etos t igma t i sm . O th e rvo lun t e e r sr e cogn iz edhav ingsu f f e r edf romat ran s i to ry“madn e s s”caugh tf romth e i rpa r tycom rad e s andf r i end s .90 En thu s ia sm wa sa l so p romo t edf romabov e .Ins ev e ra lp rov in c e s , th eFa lang el ead e r s mad esub s tan t ia le f fo r t stoen cou rag een l i s tm en t . How ev e r ,th e s ep epta lk sd idno ta lway sh i tth e i r ma rk .R e su l t sva r i ed a c co rd ingtopo l i t i ca lfam i l i e s ,g en e ra t iona lg roup s ,r eg ion s ,andsp e c if ccon t ex t s ,e sp e c ia l lyina r ea s wh e r eth ed eg r e eo fa c c ep tan c eo fth e F ran cor eg im ehad mad enog r ea tp rog r e s ss in c e1939 .

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 45

F ig .2 .1 .Span i shvo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s iaa tth e Mad r idUn iv e r s i tycampu s , Ju ly  1941(AGA )

Th e“F ev e r”o fth eSumm e ro f1941 A f t e r th ef r s texp ed i t ionhads e tou t inAugu s t1941 ,P ed ro -Lu i sFa ja rdo– ad e co ra t edFa lang i s tand mu t i la t edv e t e rano fth eSpan i shFo r e ign L eg ion–p e t i t ion edth eP rov in c ia lO ff c eo fth eFETinth esou th e rn p rov in c eo f Hu e lvatoa l lowh imtogototh ef ron t .H ea rgu edtha t I t i sno t in my tho rough lyFa lang i s tsp i r i t tob e l e f tb eh ind in th eh ea r t r end ingconfag ra t iono fth een t i r e wo r ld , wh e r eou rh e ro i cB lu eSh i r t sa r e fgh t ingincoop e ra t ion w i thnob l eI ta lo -G e rman i ccom rad e sfo rth ed es t ru c t ionandex t e rm ina t iono fth eco r rup t edba rba r i cA s ia t i cho rd e s , who w i thth e i rd i sa s t rou sid ea l sb lood i edou rhom e landl eav ingat e r r i fy ing t ra i lo fb loodinth e i r wak e ,and who w i thth e i rf e r c eBo l sh ev ikdo c t r in e 9 1 th r ea t enCh r i s t ianc iv i l iza t ionandth er e su rg en c eo fEu rop e .

A longth es am el in e s , wh enth er equ e s to fV a l en c i anFETl e ad e rEdu a rdo Ap a r i s iw a stu rn eddowninJun e1 9 4 1 ,h er e so lv edtos endal e t t e rtoth e G e rm anemb a s sy ,a sk ingtofgh tinth e mo s td i ff cu l tpo s i t ionpo s s ib l eto

46 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 9 2 av eng ecom r ad e s whoh adf a l l eninth e“ho lyc ru s ad e ”o f1 9 3 6 – 9 . InB e n av en t e(Z amo r a ) ,th e a t r eown e randd i s ab l edF a l ang i s tv e t e r anL i c in iod e l a Hu e rg am ad eas im i l a rp l e atoth ep rov in c i a lFETch i e f ,a sk ing“ tob e ab l etoa c comp anyyouandth eo th e rcom r ad e s , ”d r iv enbyh i s“ f e rv en t F a l ang i s tid e a l . ”93Ins im i l a rt e rm s ,ap rov i s ion a ll i eu t en an tf romanAnd a lu s i anv i l l ag er equ e s t edth ep rov in c i a lFETch i e ftoa c c ep th i sapp l i c a t ionto b e com eavo lun t e e r :“now th e t im eh a scom e tos a c r if c eon e s e l f fo rSp a in . ”94 How ev e r ,ap rov i s iona ls e rg ean tf rom Mad r idhado th e r mo t iva t ion s . Wh enh e wa sno tca l l edupbylo t t e ryf romamongtho s e whohadenl i s t edfo rRu s s ia ,h ed e c id edtow r i t etoG en e ra lF ran coh im s e l f .A“good Ca tho l i c ,”h er ev ea l edtha t“ l ink edtoth i si s myd e s i r etopo l i shup my s e rv i c er e co rd w i thd e ed sontha tf ron t ,andth e r ebyqua l i fy my s e l ftoa t l ea s tob ta inapo s ta sfu l ls e rg ean t .” H ea l son e ed edadd i t iona lin com e tocomp en sa t efo rth esa la ryh e wou ldno tb er e c e iv inga sasp e c ia l i s t , in o rd e rtosuppo r th i spa r en t sandsav e mon eytog e t ma r r i ed ,“on c eth e an t i commun i s tcampa igni sfn i sh ed .”95I sab e lSa lado ,anin t e rnnu r s e a taho sp i ta l ,p e t i t ion edin D e c emb e r1941tojo inth eBD m ed i ca ls e r v i c eb e cau s esh ecou ldno th e lph e rfam i lyfo rla cko fin com e .96 A sh a sb e enexp l a in ed ,inth efn a lt a sksh a r ingb e tw e enth eF a l ang e and th ea rmy , th ep a r tywou lda s sum er e spon s ib i l i ty fo rr e c ru i t ingvo lun t e e rt roop s , wh i l eth ea rmy wou ldp rov id el e ad e r s ,o ff c e r s ,sp e c i a l i z ed p e r sonn e l ,and7 5p e rc en to fth e NCO s .Inp rov in c e s wh e r eth een l i s t m en tquo t aw a sno tm e t ,vo lun t e e r s wou ldb er e c ru i t edf romamong so ld i e r sdo ingth e i rm i l i t a rys e rv i c e .Th er e spon s ew a squ i t epo s i t iv e amonga rmyo ff c e r sand NCO sandFET m emb e r s ,e sp e c i a l lyin M ad r id (wh i chh adsupp l i ed2 , 3 0 4 vo lun t e e r sa so f 2 8Jun e ) . How ev e r ,th eso c i a l r e a c t iontoth ec a l lfo rvo lun t e e r sw a sno tun i fo rmth roughou tSp an i sh t e r r i to ry .Ina r e a s wh e r esuppo r tfo rth ein su rg en t sin1 9 3 6 – 9h adb e en l im i t edandwh e r eth eFETh adh add i ff cu l tye s t ab l i sh ing i t s e l f ,p r e c iou s f ew w e r ed r awntoth er e c ru i tm en tc en t r e s .A c co rd ingtoB r i t i shin fo rm an t s ,th ep r e s su r eon m i l i t a rycomm and e r stor e c ru i tvo lun t e e r sinth e b a r r a ck sw a se sp e c i a l ly in t en s e inC a t a lon i a ,andth equo t aw a sm e tw i th ex c e s svo lun t e e r sf romn e ighbou r ingp rov in c e sC a s t e l lónandV a l en c i a . In G i ron a ,th een t i r eg a r r i sonh adb e encomp e l l edtovo lun t e e ra f t e ra p ept a lkf romth eco lon e ll e f tth em w i thf ewa l t e rn a t iv e s .InB a r c e lon a , a lmo s ta l lth eo ff c e r sh aden l i s t ed ,bu tth eb a r r a ck scomm and e r sh ad r e c e iv edth eo rd e rf r s ttoavo idtho s evo lun t e e r s whoh adfough tfo rth e R epub l i c .Con f ron t ed w i th m e ag r er e su l t s ,th eo ff c e r incomm ando fth e m i l i t a ryd i s t r i c to rd e r edev e ryon etoen l i s t .Th eG e rm ancon su lno t ed th a tth enumb e r so fo rd in a ryso ld i e r s whoh aden l i s t edh adjump ed f romaf ewtos ev e r a lhund r ed w i th ind ay s ,l e ad ingh imtoqu e s t ionth e l ev e lo f“vo lun t e e r ing ”invo lv ed . Mo s tc iv i lvo lun t e e r sw e r eF a l ang i s t s ,

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 47

F ig .2 .2 .V o lun t e e r sd epa r t ingbyt ra intoRu s s ia , Mad r id ,Ju ly1941(AGA )

m anyo fth emson so fm idd l e c l a s so rm i l i t a ryf am i l i e s ,a long w i thp e a san t s ,d ayl abou r e r s ,andaf ewo th e r sf romth elow e re ch e lon so fso c i 9 7 e ty . On lyun emp loy edo runqu a l if edp e r son sen l i s t edf romth eC a t a l an 9 8 ru r a la r e a sandth eC a r l i s tR equ e t é sw e r eex c lud ed . Th ecomm and e ro f th e1 0 thExp ed i t ionp a s s edth roughB a r c e lon aon1 5Ju lyandno t edth e co ldn e s so fth es end ingo f fa tth es t a t ion .Som e mo th e r sh adev engon e tod em andth a tth e i rson sb er e tu rn edhom e .Inh i sop in ion ,“F a l ang e 9 9 r e c ru i tm en th a sb e enr a th e rsub s t and a rdo rpoo r lyo rg an i z ed . ” S im i la r ly ,r e c ru i tm en t wa squ i t eun su c c e s s fu linth eBa squ ep rovin c e s , Nava r r e , and o th e rt e r r i to r i e s wh e r e Ca r l i sm con s t i tu t ed a dom inan te l em en tw i th inth eFET .Thoughsom eCa r l i s t sw e r eop en ly favou rab l etoG e rmany ,th e i rl ead e r in ex i l e Manu e lFa lCond ehado r d e r edth emtoab s ta inf rompa r t i c ipa t ion .A c co rd ingtoth eB r i t i shemba s sy ,on lyfo r tyvo lun t e e r shadcom efo rwa rd in Nava r r e .InA lava ,th e numb e ro f Ca r l i s t s whoen l i s t ed wa sn eg l ig ib l e .100InT e ru e l ,Fa lang e r epo r t sind i ca t eds can t wa r l ik een thu s ia smamongi t sm emb e r s ,and 101 comp e l l edsom eo fth ep rov in c ia ll ead e r stovo lun t e e r .

48 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Incon t ra s t ,th efa c ttha ts ev e ra lp rov in c e s ,in c lud ing Mad r idandV a l en c ia ,hadr ema in edund e rR epub l i cancon t ro lun t i lth eendo fth eC iv i l W a rhadd ep r iv ednum e rou sF ran co i s tsympa th iz e r s–som eo f whom hadco l labo ra t ed inth ef f thco lumnando th e rc land e s t in eg roup s inth e R epub l i canr ea rgua rd–o fanyr ea loppo r tun i tytofgh tund e rth efag o fth e i rchoo s ing .Intho s et e r r i to r i e s ,th eFa lang esough ttoga lvan iz e r eg im esympa th iz e r s ,tak ingadvan tag eo fth e mom en ttoga inadh e r en t s .In Mad r id ,th eFa lang i s tsuppo r tba s es e em edab laz ew i tha c t iv i ty . AG e rmanin fo rman tconf rm edtha tg roup so fyoung m en , manyo f th emC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s ,w e r efow ingin toth em i l i t iah eadqua r t e r sto 102 en l i s t . Th esam een thu s ia smcou ldb ef e l tino th e rt e r r i to r i e sbu t wa s l im i t edtoth eFa lang i s tsuppo r tba s eando th e rso c ia ls egm en t sw i th F ran co i s t in c l ina t ion s .InJu ly1941 ,th eFa lang ein Mu r c ias ta t edtha t mo r ethantwothou sanda ff l ia t e so rsympa th iz e r shadcom etoth e i r o ff c e stoen l i s t ,in c lud ingsom eno t ewo r thy“O ldSh i r t s”(m emb e r sb efo r e18Ju ly1936 ,th eda t eo fth eup r i s ingaga in s tth eR epub l i c ) .Th evo l un t e e rexp ed i t ionhadb e enab l etol eav eadayb e fo r eth ed ra f tp e r iod end ed .InA lba c e t e ,th epa r ty wo rk edha rdho ld ing m e e t ing sins ev e ra l town stoen cou rag er e c ru i tm en tandr epo r t eda“magn if c en tsp i r i t” tha tl ed984p eop l etop r e s en tth em s e lv e sa tth er e c ru i t ingo ff c e s .Soon a f t e r ,329o ftho s e–in c lud ingfv elo ca ll ead e r s–l e f tfo rRu s s ia .103 Th e pa r tyh eadqua r t e r sinth eno r th e rnr eg iono fA s tu r ia sd e s c r ib edas im ila rpano ramainth e i r mon th lyr epo r to fJun e1941 : Th eG e rmand e c la ra t iono f wa ronRu s s iaha sb e enr e c e iv ed w i thg r ea t en thu s ia sm …in Ov i edoa lon e … mo r ethan350com rad e shav een l i s t ed fo ra l lpo s t s ,andth eimp r e s s ioni sgoodinth etown s .Th ed epa r tu r eo f th ef r s texp ed i t iono fvo lun t e e r s ,w i thou tanyk indo fpub l i c i ty ,b e cam e ad emon s t ra t iono fau th en t i ca l lyFa lang i s ten thu s ia sm ;th es ta t ionp la tfo rm sw e r eov e rfow ing w i thp eop l ed e l i r iou s lyapp laud ingth ef r s t140 Fa lang i s t s whol e f tfo rdu ty .104

Ev ensom ena t iv ep eop l einSpan i sh Mo ro c coshow edin t e r e s tin fgh t inginRu s s ia , wh i chth eG e rmancon su linT é touansawa sanint e r e s t ingp ropagand i s t i ce l em en tfo ra t t ra c t ingth e Mu s l impopu la t ion o fth e USSR . How ev e r ,th em i l i ta rycommandv e to eden l i s tm en to find ig enou st roop sand ,ex c ep tfo raf ew Mo ro c cans e rg ean t sinth ef r s t exp ed i t ion ,th econ t ing en to fn ea r lytwothou sandvo lun t e e r stha tl e f t fo rth ef ron t wa sa lmo s ten t i r e lycompo s edo fo ff c e r s , NCO s ,andEu 105 rop eanso ld i e r sr e c ru i t edinth eba r ra ck s . Manyvo lun t e e r sa l sohadp e r sona ls co r e stos e t t l e ;th eyhadlo s t b ro th e r s ,fa th e r s ,andf r i end sth roughr ep r e s s ioninth eR epub l i can

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 49

zon eo rhadth em s e lv e ssu f f e r edimp r i sonm en to rp e r s e cu t ion . Nu m e rou sFET m emb e r sandsympa th iz e r shadl iv edc land e s t in e lyinth e R epub l i canr ea rgua rddu r ingth eC iv i lW a r ,hadco l labo ra t ed w i thth e “F i f th Co lumn”in Mad r idando th e rc i t i e s ,o rhaden l i s t edinth eR epub l i can A rmytot rytod e f e c ttoth eF ran co i s tzon e .106 Now ,th eya l l sawth eEa s t e rnF ron ta sanoppo r tun i tyfo rth e i rownp e r sona lshad eo f r ev eng e .Th eB r i t i shamba s sado re s t ima t edinea r lyJu ly1941tha tth i s 107 fa c to r wou ld mo t iva t e“ thou sand so fSpan ia rd s”toen l i s t . Doz en so f Fa lang i s t ,Ca tho l i c ,o rs imp ly“wa r t im eF ran co i s t”vo lun t e e r shadsu ff e r edth elo s so ffam i lyandf r i end sa tth ehand so fd iv e r s eR epub l i can m i l i t ia s ,popu la rt r ia l s ,o rth eR epub l i canIn fo rma t ionS e rv i c e .108 Ev en in1943 ,a G e rmano ff c e rw ro t etha t manyvo lun t e e r s whoa r r iv edin Ru s s iasha r eda“d e s i r efo rr ev eng einh e r i t edf romp e r sona lo rfam i ly 109 su f f e r ingdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .” G en e ra t iona l sop lay edac e r ta inro l e .Th eso c ia lcommun i tyo ftho s e whosuppo r t edth eF ran co i s tr eg im e infu en c edth eyoung e s tm emb e r s , whod e s i r edtod emon s t ra t eth e i rab i l i tytotak eupa rm sind e f en c eo f th esam eid ea l stha thadin sp i r edth ein su rg en t so fJu ly1936 .Tho s e whohadl iv edinR epub l i canzon e so rhadb e entooyoungtofgh tf e l t p r e s su r ef romn e ighbou r sandf e l lowF ran co i s t s .Th ed evou t Ca thol i cs tud en tEn r iqu eSán ch ezF ra i l e , who s e Anda lu s ianv i l lag ehadr e ma in edund e rR epub l i cancon t ro lun t i l Ma r ch1939 ,f e l tth er ep roa ch e s o fr igh t -w ingn e ighbou r saga in s th i spa r en t s :th eyhadno tb e enSpani shenough ,no rhadth eyp rov id edev enon esonfo rth ecau s e .En r iqu e , th enas tud en tin A lm e r ia ,r e so lv edin Ma r ch1942toen l i s tfo rRu s s ia onth eadv i c eo fh i scon f e s so r .110 Fa lang i s tl ead e r sa l sof e l tth i sp r e s su r e , a sev en D ion i s ioR id ru e jo w ro t e ,“ Idon ’ t wan tanyon esay ingId idn ’ t fgh tb e cau s eId idn ’ tda r eto .”111 Th eFa lang i s tandlaws tud en tM igu e l Ma r t ín ez -M enas ta t edtha tth eBDp r e s en t edanoppo r tun i tyfo rtho s e whohadno tfough tinth eC iv i lW a rto mak eth e i ro f f e r ingo fh e ro i sm inaso c i e ty wh e r esu ch m i l i ta ryva lu e shada cqu i r edg r ea tr e l evan c e : I fi ti st ru etha tsom een l i s tm en t sw e r eab i tfo r c ed ,bya f fa i r so fth eh ea r t andin fa tua t ion , wh i l eo th e r ss e tou ttoimp rov eanun c e r ta inp e r sona l fa t e ,o rtoc ro s sov e rtoth eRu s s iancamp …i ti snol e s st ru etha tth eva s t ma jo r i tyo fu sthough ttha tgo ingtoRu s s ia wa sa man lya c t ion ,apa t r io t i c r equ i r em en t ,anin e s capab l ed e c i s ionfo rtho s eo fu s whod idno tpa r t i c i pa t eo r whopa r t i c ipa t edinth eC ru sad eb ea r inga rm sbu td idno thav eth e 1 1 2 lu cko rla cko flu ck …tosu f f e rth eangu i sho fcap t iv i tyinth eR edzon e .

W a rexp e r i en c e wa sp r e r equ i s i t etod emon s t ra t ingth eva lu e so fth e n ewna t iona lcommun i ty ,in ca rna t edbyth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a r .

50 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .2 .3 .D epa r tu r eo fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s , Mad r id ,Ju ly1941(AGA )

Manyf e l tinth esumm e ro f1941tha tth e i rt im ehadcom e ,tha tth ey cou ldaddth e i rown wa rm e r i t stotho s ea l r eadya cqu i r edbycom rad e s o rr e la t iv e s .Fo ra l lth evo lun t e e r s ,id ea l i s t so rno t ,on eth ing wa sc e rta in :b e inganex comba tan tb rough tw i thi tbo thso c ia lp r e s t ig ew i th in th eF ran co i s tcommun i tyandas e r i e so femp loym en tp r iv i l eg e s .Fo r tho s e whohadfough tfo rth eR epub l i cans id e ,w i l l ing lyo ro th e rw i s e , i t wa sadv i sab l eto d emon s t ra t em e r i tinth ecau s eo fth ew inn e r s . Ex comba tan t s , wound edv e t e ran s ,andfo rm e rp r i son e r shadquo ta s r e s e rv edfo rpo s t s inth es ta t eadm in i s t ra t ion , wh i cht ran s la t ed in tob e t t e roppo r tun i t i e stob eacon c i e rg e ,apo s ta l wo rk e r ,o ras choo l t ea ch e r .

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 51

Fo rFET m emb e r s ,comba tm e r i t wa sad e c i s iv ec r i t e r ion inth es e l e c t ion o fpo l i t i ca lp e r sonn e l .113 How ev e r ,th e“ f ev e r”o fth esumm e ro f1941on lya f f e c t edth e mo s t mob i l iz edpo r t iono fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a r .Th eFET m i l i t iar ec ru i t ingo ff c e sfoundth em s e lv e sunab l etocov e rto ta lt roopr equ i r e m en t s .Abou tha l fo fth eso ld i e r s–o ff c e r sand NCO sin c lud ed–cam e f romr e c ru i tm en tinth eba r ra ck s( 9 ,699c iv i l ian sw e r een l i s t edin1941 , 9 ,802in1942 ,and4 ,91 1in1943 ,add ingupto24 ,412 ou to f47 ,200to 1 14 ta lcomba tan t s ) . R e c ru i tm en tm e chan i sm sw e r ea l sora th e ropaqu e a tt im e s . Co e r c ion wa sa lway sp r e s en t : wh e th e rd i r e c t lyf romo ff c e r s tosubo rd ina t e so rind i r e c t lyth roughth eexamp l eo fo th e r s ,th ed e s i r etof tin ,cama rad e r i e ,o rth elong ingtop rov eon e ’ s ma s cu l in i ty . Th e r ew e r ea l sosom er e c ru i t sinth e s eba r ra ck s whosha r edth eva lu e so fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a randvo lun t e e r edp roa c t iv e ly . How many ,th en ,w e r eco e r c ed ,p sy cho log i ca l lyp r e s su r edind iv e r s e way s , o r mo t iva t edbyth eexamp l eo fo th e r s ?Su chaqu e s t iond ef e ss ta t i s t i ca l quan t if ca t ion . Th eR ep l a c em en t so f1942–3 :M e r c en a r i e s ,C on s c r ip t s ,o rV o lun t e e r s? A sea r lya sD e c emb e r1941 ,bo thAgu s t ínAzna randR id ru e jo w e r eu rgingS e r ranoSuñ e rtob eg inpa r t ia lt roopr ep la c em en t s .Th ea rmy m in i s t e r ,Jo s éE .V a r e la ,emb ra c edth eid eao fsub s t i tu t ingth een t i r e“f r s t d iv i s ion” w i thun i t scompo s edo fvo lun t e e r sr e c ru i t edp r ima r i lyo rexc lu s iv e lyf romth eba r ra ck so rf romamongtho s e whohadex c e ed edth e en l i s tm en tquo tain1941 .H e mad enos e c r e to fh i ss l igh tr ega rdfo rth e Fa lang evo lun t e e rr e c ru i t s , whomh ea c cu s edo fla ck ingin s t ru c t ionand hav ing“d e f e c t so fad i f f e r en to rd e r .”115 How ev e r ,th ech i e fo fth eA rmy G en e ra lS ta f f ,G en e ra l Ca r lo sA s en s io ,a l sor epo r t edtoF ran cotha ta comp l e t er ep la c em en to fth eD iv i s ion wa sr equ i r ed ,bu ta l sos ta t edtha t th e r ew e r ein c r ea s ingd i ff cu l t i e sinr e c ru i t ingr ep la c em en t sinth em i l i ta ryba ra ck s ,s in c eso ld i e r sr e tu rn ingf romRu s s iasp r eadn ew sabou t 1 16 th eex t r em e lytoughcond i t ion sth eyhadendu r ed . F rom m id -1942 on ,th ea rmya cqu i r edadom inan tro l einen l i s t inganda s s ign ingvo lun t e e r sfo rth e Ru s s ianF ron t , wh i chd im in i sh edth einfu en c eo fth e Fa lang e .Th ey w e r elo s ingpo s t sw i th inth er eg im ea sS e r ranoSuñ e r 1 17 lo s tinfu en c eand wa sev en tua l lyr emov edinS ep t emb e r1942 . H i s su c c e s so r wa sth eCoun to fJo rdana ,aCa tho l i c whofavou r edth eA l l i e s . F ran cocomp en sa t edh i sg radua ltu rnf romnon -b e l l ig e r en c eton eu t ra li ty w i thsymbo l i cg e s tu r e stowa rd sth eAx i s . ByJanua ry1942 ,s ev e ra lsma l lr e l i e fexp ed i t ion so fo ff c e r sandso ld i e r shadc ro s s edth ebo rd e rf romSanS eba s t ian .In m id -Ma r ch ,th ey

52 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w e r enam ed“Ma r chBa t ta l ion s”andta sk ed w i tht ran spo r t ingr ep la c em en tso ld i e r sf romSpa in .In Ap r i l ,fou rba t ta l ion sa r r iv eda tth ef ron t w i th a lmo s tfou rthou sandso ld i e r s . Tw en ty th r e e mo r e ba t ta l ion s fo l low edun t i lO c tob e r1943 . Ato ta lo f17 ,027 m en w e r et ran spo r t ed th roughF eb rua ryo ftha ty ea randc lo s eto10 ,000 mo r eb e fo r eth eBD wa sd i sman t l ed .Th et ra ff cin c lud edso ld i e r sonl eav einSpa in(a lmo s t athou sanden joy edth i soppo r tun i ty ) , wound edandconva l e s c en tso l d i e r s ,o ff c e r su rg en t ly jo in ingo rl eav ingth e i run i t s ,g roup so fso ld i e r s b e ingr epa t r ia t edfo rbadcondu c to rtocomp l e t es en t en c e sin m i l i ta ry p r i son s ,e t c .118 S ev e r a lt e s t imon i e sf romth a tt im eid en t if edc l e a rd i f f e r en c e sb etw e enth e“f r s t ”BDo fJu ly1 9 4 1andth e“ s e cond ”d iv i s ion ,compo s ed o fl a t e rr ep l a c em en t s .119 How ev e r ,th econ t r a s tin mo t iv e sb e tw e enth e “f r s t ”b a t cho fvo lun t e e r sandth em anyth a tfo l low edf rom1 9 4 2on r em a in s l e s sc l e a r .Th edom in an tp rof l eo fth evo lun t e e r so f1 9 4 1c a r r i ed ov e rtoth ef r s tr ep l a c em en t sd i sp a t ch edtoth ef ron tinsp r ing1 9 4 2 .In p a r t ,th i sco r r e spond edtoth ein co rpo r a t iono fth er emn an to fid e a l i s t i c c iv i l i anvo lun t e e r s whoh adno tb e enadm i t t edth ey e a rb e fo r eand who d e s i r edtos e ecomb a t .In M ay1 9 4 2 ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jo , who w a snow b a ckinSp a inandr em a in edar e f e r en c e mod e lfo rm anySp an i shf a s c i s t s un t i l1 9 4 5 ,w a ss t i l lr e c e iv ing l e t t e r sf romF a l ang i s t sr equ e s t ingar e f e r r a l 1 2 0 fo ren l i s tm en t . Un t i lm id 1 9 4 2 , mo s to fth ec iv i l i anvo lun t e e r s who en l i s t edin M ad r idandB a r c e lon aw e r eF a l ang i s t s .M anyo fth em w e r e “O ldGu a rd ”(p a r ty m emb e r sb e fo r em id -M a r ch1 9 3 6 , wh enth eF a l ang e w a sm ad ei l l eg a lbyth eR epub l i c angov e rnm en tandi t sm a inl e ad e r s w e r eimp r i son ed )andcomp l a in edo fth et r e a tm en tth eyr e c e iv edf rom th em i l i t a ry .Fo rth i sr e a son ,th erumou rsp r e adth a tth ep a r ty w a sgo ing 1 2 1 tob anv e t e r anF a l ang i s t sf romen l i s t ing . Th e“w a i t ingl i s t ”g av es ev e r a lr e c ru i t ingo ff c e sar e s e rv eth a t wou ldcov e rp a r to fth e1 9 4 2quo t a s . In M a r cho fth a ty e a r ,th ep rov in c i a lh e adqu a r t e r so fth eFET m i l i t i a so f 1 2 2 A lb a c e t eh ad1 3 6 vo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s i aonth e i rl i s t . O th e rt e s t imon i e sconf rmth i simp r e s s ion .Jo s é M .B lan ch , who vo lun t e e r edin1942 ,d e s c r ib edth eso c ia lp rof l eo fh i sf e l lowcomba tan t s .Th e r ew e r esom een l i s t edo ff c e r sand NCO s who“w e r ep e rhap s wa i t ingfo rap romo t ion ,”bu t mo s to fth eso ld i e r s“ cam ef romth eFalang e ,s tud en t sf rom Mad r ido rm idd l e c la s sfam i l i e s ,bu ta l sop ea san t s and wo rk e r s .” Th em e chan i cJoaqu ín Mon tañaa l so d i s cov e r edtha t h i s ma t e s“w e r eun iv e r s i typ eop l e” who“ r ea l lyf e l tth en e edtofgh t aga in s tid ea stha trancon t ra rytoth e i rown .” Manu e lT a r ínl e f tfo rth e f ron tin Ap r i l1942 ; wh enh i sfan c é er ep roa ch edh imfo rhav inggon e toRu s s ia ,h er e spond ed :“Th i ss epa ra t ioni sth e wo rko fDu ty …Ihav e 123 com etod e f endGod ,th e Hom e landand myd ign i tya saSpan ia rd .”

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 53

Manu e lT a r ín ’ ston ed idno tchang einth ew e ek stha tfo l low ed ; h ew ro t ein O c tob e r1942tha t“ s ev en mon th shav ea l r eadypa s s ed s in c eIl e f ta l l mylov e sandin t e r e s t stocom eonth i s Ho ly C ru sad e 124 tofgh taga in s tth een em i e so f God ,Spa inandC iv i l iza t ion .” Wh en h i s“wa rgodmo th e r”a sk ed Co rpo ra l An ton io H e r r e ro whyh ehad en l i s t edinau tumno f1942 ,h ean sw e r ed :“Myf r i end , mycom rad e s andIhav ea mon s t rou sandc ru e len emy .Commun i sm !Th i sb ea s t ly andc ru e len emyinea r l i e rday s–inou r wa rinSpa in–tookcowa rd ly advan tag eand w i thfu l lfu ry ma l i c iou s lydamag edth el iv e so ftho s e w elov e mo s t .”125 Non e th e l e s s ,inth ep rov in c e s wh e r eth e r ehadb e enex c e s sm i l i t ia vo lun t e e r sin1941 ,th enumb e ro fn ewvo lun t e e r sc l ea r lyb egantod im in i shth efo l low ingy ea r .Th es tab i l iza t iono fth eEa s t e rnF ron tl ed manytor e con s id e r .126 Th eh eado fFET m i l i t ia s ,G en e ra lJo s é Mo s ca rdó , lam en t edth ela cko fr e c ru i tm en tp ropagandainJu ly1942 ,inl igh to f 127 th e“no tab l ed e c r ea s etha ti tha ssu f f e r edla t e ly .” Th enumb e ro fFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s mov edbyid eo log i ca len thu s ia smb egantod e c l in e s t ead i lyinth es e condha l fo f1942 .InJu ly1943 ,som ep rov in c ia lFET o rgan iza t ion sa cknow l edg edth ela cko fin t e r e s tinvo lun t e e r ingamong m emb e r s .R e c ru i t sw e r eth inonth eg roundf rom m id -1942on ,d e sp i t e th ein s i s t en c eo fth eM i l i ta ry G en e ra lS ta f ftha t“ i ti so fg r ea tin t e r e s t toob ta inth ela rg e s tpo s s ib l econ t ing en to ft roop s .” No tev eno ff c e r s cam efo rwa rdfo rth ef ron t .Th es i tua t ion ,how ev e r ,va r i edf romon e ba s etoano th e r ;amongn ewvo lun t e e r s ,th e r e wa s mo r ethanon e who had“ r e en l i s t ed .”In Ma r ch1942 ,fo rexamp l e ,th e Mo ro c canna t iv eso ld i e r s–th eR egu l a r e s –o fth eBa l ea r i cga r r i sonaga inshow edg r ea t e s t w i l l ingn e s stogotoRu s s ia .128 A c co rd ing ly ,th enumb e rand p ropo r t iono fvo lun t e e r s who w e r e mo r eo rl e s sco e r c ed , whocam ef romth ea rmyrank so r ,toal e s s e r d eg r e e ,f romth eFETo ff c e s–p e r son s who w e r eadv i s edtoen l i s tto “ c l ea r”th e i rr e co rd ,fo rexamp l e–b egantoin c r ea s ein m id -1942 . On m i l i ta ryba s e s ,so ld i e r sand NCO sdo ingcompu l so ry m i l i ta rys e rv i c e inva r iou sga r r i son sonth eP en in su la ,th eI s land s ,andin No r th e rn Mo ro c co w e r ec i r cu i tou s lyp r e s su r edbyth e i rsup e r io r stovo lun t e e r fo rRu s s ia . Hab i tua lp ro c edu r e sin c lud edalo t t e rysy s t emo rr equ i r ing a l lso ld i e r sb e ingt ra in edonth ep r em i s e stos t epfo rwa rd wh envo lun t e e r sw e r er equ e s t ed .Su chta c t i c sw e r ea s s i s t edbyth efa c ttha tth e “ s e l e c t edon e s”f ea r edb e ingp e r c e iv eda scowa rd s .Insom eca s e s ,i f noon es t epp edfo rwa rd ,th eo ff c e r wou ldo rd e ra l lp r e s en ttod e c la r e 129 th em s e lv e svo lun t e e r s . Inth eo ry ,th er e c ru i t scou ldr e fu s e ,and i fth ey w e r elu ckyah igh e rrank ingo ff c e r wou ldinva l ida t eth een l i s tm en t s .130 How ev e r ,i fth eo ff c e rd i r e c t lyinvo lv edin s i s t edo r wa sp r e s su r edby

54 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

h i ssup e r io r s ,v e ryf ewcou ldr e fu s e .131 Fo r manyo th e r s ,vo lun t e e r ing fo r Ru s s iap r e s en t edana t t ra c t iv eoppo r tun i tyint e rm so fadv en tu r e andpay , wh i ch wa ss im i la rtotha to fth eL eg ion .Inth eo ry ,th e i rG e r man wag e shadtob esp en tinth er ea rgua rdo ronth ef ron t ,thoughth i s b e cam e mo r ef ex ib l ef rom1942on .132 G en e ra l MuñozG rand e sw ro t ein May1942tha taqua r t e ro fth en ew vo lun t e e r shadr e c e iv edno m i l i ta ryt ra in ing ,thoughacon s id e rab l e numb e ro fp ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r s ,e sp e c ia l lyl eg ionna i r e spo s t edinth e Span i shP ro t e c to ra t eo f Mo ro c co ,hada l sob e end i spa t ch edtoRu s s ia . Mo s to fth emhadag r e edtol eav efo rth eRu s s ianF ron t ,a sth ey w e r e a l r eadyinfa c tm e r c ena r i e s .Inth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,th eycou ldea rn wa r m e r i tanddoub l epay .Th e i rb iog raph i e sr e s emb l edtho s eo fth ep rov is iona len s ign sands e rg ean t s . Manyhaden l i s t edinth ein su rg en ta rmy in1936– 8andhads tay edon .InJu ly1942 ,th el eg ionna i r eJa im ed eA s sun çâoG ra ça wa shand -p i ck edanda s s ign edtoth ef ron tbyas e rg ean t who wa sr ev i ew ingh i scompanyinC eu ta .H ea tl ea s thadan t i commun i s tandp ro fa s c i s tsympa th i e s ,soh i ss em i fo r c eden l i s tm en t wou ld no tr equ i r eh imtofgh tfo rafo r e igncau s e .133 F rom m id -1942on ,th ep ropagandau s edtocov e rr ep la c em en tquo ta s fo rth eD iv i s ionempha s iz edth ee conom i cadvan tag e sfo rtho s e who r e tu rn ed .Th ey wou ldcon t inu etoea rn wag e sf romth e i rr egu la rjob , ma in ta inth e i rrankinth eadm in i s t ra t iv eco rp s ,o rb eg ran t edc e r ta in p r iv i l eg e si fth eycho s etotak ec iv i ls e rv i c eexam s .134 On een l i s tm en t pamph l e tpub l i sh edin Mu r c iaen t r ea t ed : Tho s e whoen l i s tw i l l hav efu l lygua ran t e edr igh t sand p r iv i l eg e sfo r th em s e lv e sandth e i rfam i l i e s .Y ou w i l lb epa idth e wag e so faG e rmanso l d i e r ,and inSpa inyou rfam i l i e sw i l lr e c e iv easub s idyo f7 .30p e s e ta so rth e sa la ryyour e c e iv edp r io rtoyou rd epa r tu r e ,you rpo s tandlo ca t ion w i l lb e h e ldfo ryou ,andyou w i l lb eg iv enp r e f e r en c efo rth em ,[a long w i th ]f r e e 1 3 5 tu i t ion ,e t c . , wh i chSpan i shso c i e tyr e s e rv e sfo ri t sb e s t .

P ropaganda wa sa l sob road ca s tonlo ca lrad ios ta t ion s ,bu tno ta lway sw e l lr e c e iv ed . Op en ing sfo rvo lun t e e r wo rk e r sin G e rmany ,fac i l i ta t edbyth e Augu s t1941ag r e em en tb e tw e enSpa inandth eTh i rd R e i ch ,w e r ec l ea r lyno tb e ingf l l ede i th e r ,w i thth e i rlow e rsa la r i e sand d i sma l wo rk ingcond i t ion s . Many wo rk e r sw ro t ehom eexp r e s s ingd i scon t en tov e rth e i r wo rk ingcond i t ion sinG e rmany ,tak ingth esh in eo f f th ein fo rma t iontha t wa sc i r cu la t ingabou tsu choppo r tun i t i e s .B eg in n ingin Ma r ch1942 ,s ev e ra lSpan i sh wo rk e r sinG e rmanyev en w en tto en l i s ta tth eBDo ff c e in Ho f .Th eyp r e f e r r edcomba ttoth e i rha r sh wo rk 136 inth eR e i ch .

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 55

I t wa snoco in c id en c etha tin1942and1943th e r ew e r econ s id e rab ly mo r evo lun t e e r sfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tf romth ep rov in c e so fsou th e rn Spa in w i thh igh e rra t e so fs ea sona lag r i cu l tu ra l wo rk ,h ighs ea sona l o rp e rman en tun emp loym en t ,andlow e rl ev e l so fso c ia lsuppo r tfo r th eF ran co i s tr eg im e ,su cha sBada jozand Hu e lva .Infa c t ,th ela rg e s t con t ing en to fvo lun t e e r sf rom Hu e lvad epa r t edf romth ef r s tha l fo f 1942(22 .8p e rc en to fen l i s tm en t s )th rough m id -1943(26 .7p e rc en to f a l lvo lun t e e r sf romth ep rov in c e ) .Ino th e rr eg ion s ,su cha sth eCana ry I s land s ,a t t ra c t ingvo lun t e e r sin1942– 3p rov edin c r ea s ing lyd i ff cu l t . Mo s to ftho s e who jo in edth eBDinth i sp e r iods e emtohav eb e en mo137 t iva t edbye conom i cr ea son s . How ev e r ,i ti simpo s s ib l etop rov id ea s ta t i s t i ca le s t ima t er ega rd ingp e r c en tag e so fvo lun t e e r s who w e r e mo t iva t edbyanyg iv enin c en t iv e . Th e r ea r etwonuan c e stocon s id e rcon c e rn ingth e“ fo r c ed”o rid ea li s t i cna tu r eo fth e1942– 3 vo lun t e e r s .F i r s t , manyso ld i e r sw e r ed rawn byth ea t t ra c t iv ei fno td e c i s iv ein c en t iv eo fdoub l epayandar edu ct ioninth e i rth r e ey ea r so fcompu l so ry m i l i ta rys e rv i c e .Th i s mayhav e b e ene sp e c ia l lyen t i c ingtotho s e whohadfough tonth eR epub l i can s id einth eC iv i lW a rand w e r er equ i r edtor ep ea tth e i rm i l i ta rys e r v i c e .Ev e ry mon tho fs e rv i c einRu s s iacoun t edfo rtwoinSpa in ,and fu l lex emp t ion wa sg ran t ed(uponr e tu rn )a f t e rs ix mon th sonth e f ron t .Th e i r mo t iv e sd i f f e r edl i t t l ef romtho s eo f manyyoungEu rop e an s whojo in edth eW a f f en -SSin1943–4 .R e c ru i t sw i ths can tpo l i t i ca l so c ia l iza t ionen l i s t edfo rth epay ,o rb e cau s eth ey wan t edtos e eth e wo r ld ,o rb e cau s eth eyhadinh e r i t edafa s c ina t ion w i thth em i l i ta ry f romth e1936– 9 wa rcu l tu r e .Daylabou r e rAng e l Ma r ch enaf romCo r dobaen l i s t edinth eD iv i s ionin1942 ,thoughh i sfa th e rhadb e enimp r i son edin1936byth er eb e l sandd i edincap t iv i ty .H er e ca l l ed why h evo lun t e e r ed :th epay wa s“ s ev enandaha l fp e s e ta s ,[ th e wag e s o f ]adayandaha l f .”138 H i ss to rysugg e s t stha th en ev e rp ro f e s s ed id eo log i ca l mo t iv e s ,bu tva lu edloya l tytoh i scom rad e sina rm s .BD vo lun t e e rJoaqu ín Mon tañaf romth ecoun tyo fE lB i e rzo(L eón )r ecoun t edd e cad e sla t e rth er ea son sb eh indh i sd e c i s iontovo lun t e e r . Th ef r s t wa san t i commun i sm ,fo l low edbyth e mod e l so f ma s cu l in i ty a s so c ia t ed w i th m i l i ta ryl i f e ,th einfu en c eo fh i s ma t e s ,goodpay ,th e po s s ib i l i tyo fr edu c ing m i l i ta rys e rv i c e ,andso c ia lp r e s t ig einh i slo ca l r e f e r en c econ t ex t : Th e r ew e r eo th e ryoung m eninth ev i l lag e whota lk edabou tjo in ing up . Ands ev enp e s e ta saday !W i ththa tk indo f mon ey ,youcou ldea tin th eho t e landhav esom el e f tov e rtot r ea tyou rf r i end s …Id idn ’ tknow mu chabou tth eFa lang eo rcommun i sm .W ed r eam edabou tth eun i fo rm

56 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t [… ]  and w ea l r eadysawou r s e lv e sa sga l lan t sinth ec in emao rintho s e do cum en ta r i e syous e eabou tth e wa r … On eday , wh en w er e tu rn ed ,w e wou ldb eha i l eda sh e ro e s .S ev enp e s e ta sandth i r ty wa sagoodsa la ryand wh en w ew e r ein co rpo ra t edin toth eG e rmana rmy ,fou r ma rk s ,twofo r m eandtwotha tth eys en thom eto my mo th e r .139

An ton ioGóm ez ,as ea sona llabou r e rf rom Hu e lva whoen l i s t edfo rth e Ru s s ianF ron tin May1942 ,summa r iz edh i sd e c i s iontovo lun t e e rin s im i la rt e rm s : I wa sa daylabou r e rinth ef e ld sandunma r r i ed .Ien l i s t edabov ea l l b e cau s einth etownth eylook eda tm ea si fI w e r eah ighwaymano ra dog ,s in c e myid eo logy wa s mo r etoth el e f t .Th i s ,add edtoth et e r r ib l e 1 4 0 e conom i cs i tua t iono f myfam i ly ,fo r c ed m etofndawaytoea rna l iv ing .

S e cond ly ,ev en in th e mo s td i ff cu l t mom en t sfo rr e c ru i tm en t , lo ca lFalang eo rCa tho l i cA c t iong roup sto ldo fyoungFa lang i s t so rCa tho l i c s– and mo r ethanon eth eo log i ca ls em ina rys tud en t– whohaden l i s t ed 141 co l l e c t iv e ly . Th e r ew e r es t i l lca s e so ff e rv en tan t i commun i s ten thu s i a smamongth eFa lang er e c ru i t s , NCO s ,en s ign s ,ando ff c e r s whovo l un t e e r edf romsp r ing1942th roughau tumn1943 .142 Thoughinsma l l e r p ropo r t ioncompa r edto1941 ,th ey ma in ta in eda“b lu e ,”fa lang i s tl in e o fcon t inu i ty .Th e s ew e r em emb e r so fn ewyou tho rgan iza t ion s( su ch a sth eFET JONSanda f t e r1942th eFa lang e sJuv en i l e so fF ran co ) ,a long w i thvo lun t e e r s whohadno tb e enadm i t t edinJun e1941andsom e who w e r ew i l l ingtoa c c ep talow e rranktogoto Ru s s iaa sfoo tso ld i e r s .143 S ev e ra lm emb e r so f Ca tho l i cA c t ion ,in c lud ingth ep r e sby t e r , l e f tth eCa ta lantown so fG rano l l e r so rR ipo l lfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tin 144 In1943 , la t e1942and1943a s Ca tho l i c ,an t i commun i s tvo lun t e e r s . 145 som et rad i t iona l i s t sa l sovo lun t e e r edfo rRu s s ia . P rov i s iona ll i eu t enan tB en jam in A r ena l e s wa sa Ca tho l i c Ca s t i l ian , bo rn1917inBu rgo s ,andan“O ldSh i r t”Fa lang i s t , who ,b e ingah igh s choo ls tud en t , hadvo lun t e e r edfo rth ein su rg en ta rmy du r ingth e C iv i lW a r .H el e f th i spo s ta sanaux i l ia ry m i l i ta rya t to rn eyinCu en cato en l i s tinth ef r s t ma r chba t ta l iongo ingtoRu s s ia .H ew ro t einh i sd ia ry tha th e wa sjo in inga wa r“ in wh i chEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ioni sa ts tak e ,” tofgh t“ fo rth esam e mo t iv e stha td rov em etofgh tth eSpan i sh[ c iv i l ] wa r .”Inadd i t iontoth i sid ea l i sm ,h ea l sono t edap e r sona lr ea son .H e wan t edtob e“ som e th inginl i f e”–to mov eupth eladd e r so fm i l i ta ry andso c ia lp r e s t ig etob eab l eto w edh i sfan c é e :“ Ihav esol i t t l eto o f f e rh e r ,tha tIhav echo s ena l lsa c r if c etoob ta ing r ea t e rs e cu r i tyand o f f e ri ta l ltoh e r .” Cap ta in Manu e ld e Cá rd ena s ,a m i l i ta rysu rg eon

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 57

andCa tho l i ct rad i t iona l i s t ,w ro t einF eb rua ry1942tha th ef e l tpa r to fa “g r ea ten t e rp r i s e”fo rGodandcoun t ry .O th e rau tob iog raph i ca c coun t s o fth evo lun t e e r sf rom1942–3 d emon s t ra t easp i r i to fd i s en chan t edn i h i l i sma long s id eid eo log i ca l mo t iv e ssu cha san t i commun i sm ,Span i sh na t iona l i sm ,o rth ed e f en c eo faCh r i s t ianEu rop e .146 S ev e ra lFa lang el ead e r so rgan iz edag r ea tp ropagandacampa ignin ea r ly1943to“ r e -Fa lang iz e”th e ma r chba t ta l ion stha tw e r el eav ing fo r Ru s s ia . Th eyhop edtocoun t e ra c tth eex c e s s iv einfuxf romth e a rmy .147 P r e s su r eonlo ca lFa lang ech i e f scomb in ed w i thth eapp ea l to man l in e s sandind iv idua lva lou r ,a ss e eninth el e t t e rtha tth elo ca l h i e ra r chyin Hu e s car e c e iv edinJanua ry1943 ,s ign edbyth ep rov in c ia l h eadLu i sJu lv e .H er em ind edth emtha t“ th ee f fo r to fou rh e ro i ccomrad e s ,” who“ ch e e r fu l lyo f f e rth e i rb loodind e f en c eo fou rsup r em e id ea l s ,”had mov edth epa r tytoe s tab l i shp e r iod i ca lr ep la c em en t sin o rd e rtog iv eanoppo r tun i tytopa r t i c ipa t einth ecampa ignto“ innum e rab l ecom rad e s , whor ep ea t ed lyd emon s t ra t eth e i ra rd en td e s i r eto en l i s tinth eB lu eD iv i s ion[… ] Com rad e ,th i sl e t t e rshou ldn ev e rb e in t e rp r e t eda saco e r c iv einv i ta t ion .Y ou rownFa lang i s ts en t im en tw i l l d i c ta t eyou rdu ty .”148 Th ein i t ia t iv e wa sabandon edbyFo r e ign M in i s t e rJo rdana ,a tF ranco ’ so rd e r ,a sth ela t t e rhadnoin t e r e s tin mak ingth eBD mo r eFa lang i s t ina mom en to frapp ro ch em en tw i thth eA l l i e s .Ev enso ,th eFa lang i s t s in s i s t ed ,ands ev e ra l pa r tyl ead e r sr e c e iv edau tho r iza t iontoen l i s t , pa r t lytos t i rupen thu s ia sminth e i rt e r r i to r i e s .S ev e ra lna t iona ll ead e r s l e f tfo rRu s s ia ,andth e r e wa sana t t emp ttog e talo ca landap rov in 149 c ia ll ead e rtojo inupf romea chp rov in c e . W a r r io rf e rvou rhadd e c l in edinth eFET ,andspon tan eou sen l i s tm en to fFa lang i s t sb e cam e l e s sf r equ en t .Insom eca s e s ,th ep rov in c ia ll ead e r sh ipr e so lv edaga into en cou rag eyoung m emb e r stogototh eRu s s ianF ron tby“ s e t t inganex amp l e .”B r i t i shr epo r t sind i ca t edtha tinsom ep rov in c e si thadb e ena lmo s timpo s s ib l etop e r suad epa r ty m emb e r stovo lun t e e r .In G ranada , on lytwoo fth i r ty -fv ep rov in c ia lpa r tyl ead e r sen l i s t ed ,a long w i tha f ewlow e r rank ingl ead e r s .Th eadm in i s t ra t iv ep e r sonn e lo fth eFET w e r ea l sop r e s su r edtoen l i s t ,and mo r ethanon ef ea r edlo s ingh i spo s t fo rr e fu s ing .Th epa r i shp r i e s to fth ep rov in c ia l ja i l wo rk edtoconv in c e p r i son e r stogotoRu s s ia .Ag roupo fp rov in c ia lFETl ead e r sev enp romi s edf r e edomtop r i son e r ss e rv ings en t en c e so fl e s sthanth i r tyy ea r s andane conom i cin c en t iv efo ren l i s t ing .150 Lo ca lFa lang el ead e r skn ewtha tbo thth equan t i tyandth equa l i tyo f th en ewvo lun t e e r sf e l lsho r to fexp e c ta t ion s .A sea r lya s Ma r ch1942 , th eFa lang i s to ff c e rGu i l l e rmo H e rnanzexp r e s s edd i sapp rov ing lytha t mo s to fh i sexp ed i t ionpa r tn e r shadal e s s than id ea l i s t i clookabou t

58 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th em .“And w i thth e s eguy sw ea r ego ingtofgh tthou sand so fk i lo m e t r e sf romou r Hom e land !”S ev e ra lsub s equ en tt e s t imon i e st ran sm i tas im i la rimp r e s s ionandr e f e rtoth ef r equ en td i spu t e stha ta ro s e b e tw e enFa lang i s t sandL eg ionvo lun t e e r sinth e ma r chba t ta l ion s .151 In Ap r i l1942 ,th em i l i ta rygov e rno ro f Gu ipúz coalam en t edtha tso many“und i s c ip l in edtyp e sandswagg e r ingon e sinpa r t i cu la r” w e r e tob efoundamongth evo lun t e e r stha tcam eand w en tth roughSan S eba s t ian .152 Th roughou t1943 ,va r iou sin s t i tu t iona lcomp la in t sw e r e mad eabou tth eb ehav iou ro fth evo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s ia who w e r econc en t ra t edinLog roño .Th ey w e r e“ f ea r edbyth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion” b e cau s eth eya c t ed“w i thinapp rop r ia t en e s sbo rd e r ingonin so l en c e” 153 and w e r einvo lv edin“ in c id en t sandd i spu t e s”a lmo s tda i ly . Ano th e r Fa lang i s texp r e s s edd i sappo in tm en ta tth ea tmo sph e r einth eLog roño ba r ra ck s , wh i chr em ind edh imo fap r i sonya rd :“ i ti sn ’ ta s Na t iona l Synd i ca l i s ta sIhadexp e c t ed .”154 G en e ra lEm i l ioE s t eban In fan t e scomp la in edr ep ea t ed lytoth ea rmy m in i s t e r ,Jo s éV a r e la ,r ega rd ingth ea r r iva lo fpo l i t i ca l lyun r e l iab l eso ld i e r s .H eadop t eda mo r es ev e r eton ein Ma r ch1943 wh enh ed i s cove r edtha tth e r ew e r eso ld i e r sina ma r chba t ta l ionh ead ingfo rG e rmany whohadb e eng iv entwoy ea r sex t ras e rv i c efo rs e r iou so f f en c e s .H e o rd e r edth e i rimm ed ia t er epa t r ia t ionanda sk ed Mad r idto“no ts end p e r sonn e lo f dub iou scondu c to rw i than t e c ed en t sfo rm i s condu c t .” Two mon th sla t e r ,th eD iv i s ionch i e fo fs ta f fin s i s t edtha tth eBDno tb e 155 con s id e r ed“ad i s c ip l ina ryco rp s .” Soona f t e r ,bo thth eSpan i sham ba s sado rinB e r l inandth eCoun to fJo rdanaa cknow l edg edth eg rowingd i ff cu l tyo fr e c ru i t ingvo lun t e e rt roop s , wh i chhadl edtoth eu s eo f co e r c iv em e thod sfo rcon s c r ip t ingth e mo s tr e c en tr ep la c em en t s .Th i s wa sr e co rd edinth em emo randump r e s en t edtoth eG e rmanfo r e ign m in i s t e ron 1 O c tob e r1943a s ju s t if ca t ionfo rth ed e c i s ionto w i thd raw th eBD .Th ein c r ea s ingd i ff cu l t i e sina t t ra c t ingvo lun t e e r sm igh tsoon l eadtoacompu l so ryd ra f t , wh i chcou ldno tb ek ep ts e c r e tand wou ld pu tSpa ininanev en mo r ed i ff cu l tpo s i t ion w i thr ega rdtoth eA l l i e s .156 Th eG e rman s had mad es im i la rr ema rk s ,and W eh rma ch tin t e l l ig en c egav esp e c ia la t t en t iontoth epo l i t i ca lr e l iab i l i tyo fth eBDvo lun t e e r stha ta r r iv edf rom Ma r ch1942on .InS ep t emb e r ,th ey wa rn ed tha tth eso ld i e r sa r r iv inga tth ef ron tw e r ev e ryd i f f e r en tf romtho s e r e tu rn ingtoSpa in . Wh i l eth ela t t e rw e r e mo s t lyFa lang i s t sand G e r manoph i l e s ,th en ewvo lun t e e r sw e r e ma in lyl eg ionna i r e so r“ r e s e rv e so ld i e r s ,w i thR ede l em en t samongth em ,”wh i chexp la in edth e in c r ea s e ind e s e r t ion s . Mo r eov e r ,th en ewo ff c e r sw e r e mu ch mo r e mona r ch i s t 157 thanFa lang i s t . On eSDr epo r tin Nov emb e r1943d i s t ingu i sh edb e tw e enth ef r s tB lu eD iv i s ion“ compo s edp r in c ipa l lyo fo ldFa lang i s t s

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 59

whob e long edtoa l lth ei r r ep roa chab l eso c ia landpo l i t i ca ls t ra ta”and th es e cond“D iv i s iono fSpan i sh V o lun t e e r s ,”compo s ed ma in lyo fr e c ru i t edandp ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r sand NCO s , who w e r epo l i t i ca l lyl e s s t ru s two r thy . How ev e r ,th er epo r tind i ca t edtha tth ela t t e rw e r eund e r th ecommando fab e t t e r t ra in edco rp so fo ff c e r sand NCO s , mo s to f whomhadr e c en t lycom eou to fm i l i ta rya cad em i e s .Th roughou t1943 , th equa l i tyo fth et roop sd im in i sh eda sth e“po l i t i ca l lyun r e l iab l e”e l em en t sin c r ea s ed .Th e s ecou ldb eexp e c t edtojo inth een emy w i thou t h e s i ta t iona tth eea r l i e s toppo r tun i ty .158 Th eca r e e ra rmyo ff c e r swhohadb e en tooyoungdu r ing th eC iv i lW a r andhadpu r su ed m i l i ta rys tud i e sb e tw e en1939and1942con s t i tu t eda r egu la rsou r c eo fn ewvo lun t e e r s .Th eyr e l i sh edth echa l l eng eo ffgh t inga long s id eth eid ea l iz ed W eh rma ch tinad emand ing wa rs c ena r io . A sf e rv en tsuppo r t e r so fth eva lu e so fth e“N ewSpa in ,”th e s eyoung m en w e r enol e s san t i commun i s tthantho s e whohada r r iv edin1941 . Infa c t , manyhadp e r sona lo rfam i lys co r e stos e t t l ew i thcommun i sm . A c co rd ingtoth eG e rmanl ia i sonin Augu s t1943 ,upto 30 p e rc en to f th eyoung e s to ff c e r sinth eSpan i sh A rmyhads e rv eds ev e ra l mon th s onth eRu s s ianF ron t .159 Manyo fth emhadb e enunab l etoa c company 160 th ef r s tBDdu etoth eex c e s so fo ff c e r svo lun t e e r ingin1941 . Th ey sough tr e f e r ra l sf romf r i end sandfam i ly m emb e r sinhop e so fb e ing s e l e c t edfo rth er ep la c em en tcon t ing en t s .A r t i l l e ry Cap ta inF e rnando MuñozA c e rab egg edh i sun c l e ,G en e ra l MuñozG rand e s ,toa c c ep th i s p e t i t ionfo ren l i s tm en t ,g iv enh i s“ t ru ed i sappo in tm en t”a thav ingb e en r e j e c t edea r l i e r .Ev enin O c tob e r1943 , manys e rg ean t sinRu s s iafound th em s e lv e sr eun i t ed w i thfo rm e r ma t e sf romth ea cad emy wh e r eth ey hada t t end edcou r s e stoa cqu i r eth eranko f NCOdu r ingth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r .161 Inth e i rm emo i r s ,som ea rmyo ff c e r sadop t edap ro f e s s ion a lfo cu sand p r e s en t edth e i ren l i s tm en ta san impo r t an tc a r e e rs t ep .A l fon soA rm ad a , aC iv i lW a rvo lun t e e r whoc am eou to fth eG en e r a lM i l i t a ryA c ad emya s al i eu t en an tinJun e1 9 4 1 ,summ a r i z edi tth i sw ayy e a r sl a t e r : Iw en ttoth e[Span i sh ]C iv i lW a ren thu s ia s t i ca l ly .I w en ttoRu s s iaa sap ro f e s s iona ltofgh taga in s tcommun i sm. . .Ihadju s tfn i sh edth eA cad emy wh enth eya sk edfo rvo lun t e e r s …And w ea l ls t epp edfo rwa rd ,ev e ryon e , ev e ryon e .Th enth eys e l e c t eds ev en t e encap ta in s …a f t e rtha tth eya sk ed fo rvo lun t e e ro ff c e r stor ep la c etho s ea l r eadyinRu s s ia .W es ign edupand th eycho s efou r ,andla t e rth eyr e j e c t edon eandI w en t ,b e cau s eth e r ew e r e th r e eah eado fm e. . .Th enId e c id ed ,and myfa th e rsuppo r t ed m e ,w i th g r ea tsadn e s s ,ingo ingtoRu s s iab e cau s eh ethough ttha ts in c eIhadfn1 6 2 i sh edth eA cad emy ,Ishou ldd emon s t ra t e myab i l i t i e s .

60 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

S o c i a landP r o s op og r aph i cP r of l eo fth eV o lun t e e r s Wha tw e r eth eso c ia lo r ig in so ftho s e whoen l i s t edfo rth e Ru s s ian F ron t ?Th eFa lang i s tp r e s sl ik edtoempha s iz eth ein t e r c la s sna tu r eo f tho s e whofow edin toth er e c ru i tm en tc en t r e s .Th eV i c e -S e c r e ta r ia tfo r Popu la rEdu ca t ionhadin s t ru c t edth en ew spap e r stoavo idpub l i sh ing en l i s tm en t numb e r s , nam e s ,o rin fo rma t ionr ega rd ing“ r ep la c em en t du etoen l i s tm en to fp e r son s whoo c cupyh ighS ta t e ,A rmyo rPa r ty po s t s .”163 O c ca s iona l ly ,sub t l er e f e r en c e sapp ea r ed :th e Có rdobada i ly pap e rA zu lind i ca t edtha ts ev e ra l“wo rk e r sandp ea san t s”hadgon eto th ep rov in c ia lm i l i t iah eadqua r t e r stop r e s en tth em s e lv e sa svo lun t e e r s , bu ttha tth e r e wa sa l so“ano tab l einfuxo fs tud en t s ,t e chn i c ian s ,c ra f t sm enandu rban wo rk e r s , mo s to f whomhadp e rman en tjob s ,”a sw e l l a s“ayoungFa lang i s tso l i c i to r …o ff c e r s ,s e rg ean t s ,ex comba tan t sand 164 ev end i sab l edv e t e ran s .” Th eimag e wa sno tfa ro f fth e ma rk .U s ingda taf roms ev e ra llo ca l monog raph s , wh i chth em s e lv e sa r eh igh lyva r iab l edu etoth ei r r egu la rr i chn e s so fsou r c e s ,w ecano f f e rth efo l low ingcha r tba s edon 4 ,770ca s e s(a round10 p e rc en to fa l lBDvo lun t e e r s ,bu tr ep r e s en t inga h igh e rp e r c en tag eo fc iv i l ianvo lun t e e r s )inth i r t e enp rov in c e s(T o l edo , San tand e r , Hu e lva ,A lm e r ia ,Có rdoba ,Bada joz , Mu r c ia ,th eth r e eA ragon e s ep rov in c e so fZa ragoza ,T e ru e l ,and Hu e s ca ,andth eBa squ ep rovin c e so fB i s cay ,Gu ipúz coa ,andA lava )f romJun e1941toO c tob e r1943 . Th e s e da tashou ldb ein t e rp r e t edcau t iou s ly ;th e s ew e r evo lun t e e r s , though10–15 p e rc en to fth emd idno t mak ei ttoth ef ron tfo rd iv e r s e r ea son s( fa i l ing m ed i ca lexam s ,r epa t r ia t edfo rb e ingu s e l e s so r“und e s i rab l e ,”e t c . ) . Mo r eov e r ,th ep ro f e s s iona lc la s s if ca t ion s ,o f t enba s edon wha ttho s e whoen l i s t edd e c la r edabou tth em s e lv e s ,a l sol eav eroom fo rin t e rp r e ta t iv ee r ro r .Fo rexamp l e ,s ev e ra lvo lun t e e r sp r e t end edto b ed r iv e r sb e cau s eth i s wa sask i l ltha tm i l i ta ryr e c ru i t e r sva lu edh igh ly . How ev e r ,som econ c lu s ion scanb eex t ra c t edf romth eda ta . F i r s t ,th ein t e r c l a s sp rof l eo fth evo lun t e e r srough lyapp rox im a t ed th eso c i a lp rof l eo fth e i rp rov in c e so fo r ig in ,w i thg r e a t e rr e l a t iv ew e igh t onth em idd l e -andlow e r -m idd l e c l a s ss e c t ion so fth eso c i a lpy r am id . Th i sw a sanu an c edin t e r c l a s s i sm w i thap r epond e r an c eo f wh i t e co l l a r andqu a l if ed m anu a l wo rk e r s ,a r t i s an s ,emp loy e e s ,andlow r ank ing c iv i ls e rv an t s ,a longw i ths ign if c an ts tud en tcon t ing en t swh e r eun iv e r s i t i e sw e r ep r e s en t .Amongth evo lun t e e r sf romT o l edo w i thaknownp ro f e s s ion ,th em a jo r i ty( 2 6 . 1 2p e rc en t )w e r esk i l l ed wo rk e r sandth es am e p e r c en t ag ew e r e wo rk e r sandd ayl abou r e r s ,fo l low edbyc iv i ls e rv an t s , emp loy e e s ,ands e rv i c es e c to r wo rk e r s( 1 8p e rc en t ) ,a r t i s an sandsm a l l s c a l em e r ch an t s( 1 0 . 8p e rc en t ) ,andp e a s an t s( 9p e rc en t ) .S tud en t s ,ina

1 1 1

4 .2

423

3 .6

1 .89

639

0 .19

0 .46

0 .46

707

5 .21

1 .97

1 .83

10 .45

1 1 .8

15 .0

12 .6

41 .14

451

4

2 .66

13 .7 4

1 1 .30

10 .42

32 .3

13 .96

28 .38

586

3 .75

5 .97

24 .91

27 .98

14 .67

9 .89

3 .75

9 .04 19 .6

1 1 .4

139

4 .31

1 .43

575

5

1 .91

4 .31 6 .78

7 .91 15 .65

2 .15 6 .95

34 .53 36 .7

30 .93

14 .38

438

0 .68

1 .59

5 .02

18 .94

5 .25

360

7 .5

1 .66

2 .77

6 .66

6 .66

30 .13 26 .66

20 .31 19 .16

18 .03 28 .88

341

0 .29

0 .87

16 .12

28 .44

8 .5

22 .58

13 .78

9 .38

SeeNúñezSe ixas ,Cama radain v ie rno,92 ;fo rÁ la va ,owne labo ra t ionf romA r ch ivo Gene ra lM i l i ta r ,Á v i la ,Ca jas(C . )5453– 5(cou r tes yb y D r .V i rg in iaLópezde Ma tu rana ) ;fo r Gu ipúzcoaandV izca ya :owne labo ra t ionf romI .Fe rnándezdeV icen te ,“E lp ro yec tofa sc is taene lPa ís V asco ,1933–1945 ”(PhDThes is ,Un iv .o ftheBasqueCoun t ry ,20 19 ) ,pp .520–63 ; fo rCó rdoba :owne labo ra t ionf romF .LópezV i l la to ro ,La F a langerepub l icanaenAnda luc ía .Gue r raC iv i l , Mo v im ien toyD iv is iónAzu l .Có rdoba1931–1945,Có rdoba :A .C .Can tama ra ,20 12 ,pp .289– 90 , andfo rA lme r ía ,owne labo ra t ionf romA .V ic iana Ma r t ínez -Lage ,700 .Losa lme r iensesdelaD iv is iónAzu l ,A lme r ía :IEA ,20 18 , pp .243–83 .

T o ta lamoun to fthesamp le ;4 ,770

2 .86

2 .7

O the r sandunemp lo yed

5 .4

L ibe ra lp ro fess iona ls ,land lo rds , me r chan ts ,andindus t ryowne r s

9 .2

C le rks ,c iv i lse rvan ts(m idd leand 18 .0 18 .43 lowe rs t ra ta )

Un ive r s i tys tuden ts

5 .94

24 .81

14 .5

44 .44

6 .61

10 .8

A r t isans ,shopkeepe r s

25 .3

35 .0

26 .12

26 .12

5 .9

9 .0

Sk i l led manua lwo rke r s , b lue -co l la rwo rke r s

Fa rme r s ,ag r icu l tu ra llabou re r s , sa i lo r s Unsk i l led manua lwo rke r s

T o ledo San tande r Hue l va Bada joz A ragon Mu r c ia Á la va Gu ipúzcoa B isca y Có rdoba A lme r ía

Tab le1 .Soc ia lcompos i t iono fc iv i lvo lun tee rso ftheB lueD iv is ion(% )1941–3

62 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

p rov in c ew i thou taun iv e r s i tybu tn e a rM ad r id ,a c coun t ed fo r5 . 4p e rc en t andw e r econ c en t r a t ed inth ef r s texp ed i t ion .Th ep ropo r t iono fwo rk e r s , d ayl abou r e r s ,p e a s an t s ,andso ld i e r sf rom m i l i t a ryb a s e sin c r e a s edb etw e en1 9 4 2and1 9 4 3 .InS an t and e r ,ap rov in c ew i thaF a l ang i s tp r e s en c e and wh e r eR epub l i c anr ep r e s s ionh adb e ens t rongun t i lm id 1 9 3 7 ,th e so c i a lcompo s i t ionfo rth evo lun t e e r sa l soco r r e spond ed mo s t lytoth e low e r -m idd l eandpopu l a rc l a s s e s .Th efo l low ingr e su l t sa r i s ef roman a l y s i so fth e4 2 3vo lun t e e r sw i thknownp ro f e s s ion s :3 5p e rc en t( 1 4 8 )w e r e un sk i l l ed m anu a ll abou r e r s ,app r en t i c e s ,o rd ayl abou r e r s ,and2 5 . 3p e r c en t( 1 0 7 )w e r esk i l l edl abou r e r s . Ano th e r1 8 . 4 3p e rc en tw e r em idd l e o rlow e r r ank ingc iv i ls e rv an t s ,emp loy e e s ,ands e rv i c e wo rk e r s(who w e r eov e r r ep r e s en t edamongtho s e whoen l i s t ed ) ,5 . 9p e rc en t(2 5 )w e r e p e a s an t s ,f sh e rm en ,ands a i lo r s ,and4 . 2p e rc en t(1 8 )w e r es tud en t s .In 1 9 4 1 ,a tl e a s t1 4 . 6p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r sw e r econ s t ru c t ion wo rk e r s who w e r er ebu i ld ingS an t and e ra f t e rth eg r e a tf r eth a th add ev a s t a t ed th ec i tyfou r mon th se a r l i e r .P r edom in an tamongth e4 5 1c iv i l i anvo lun t e e r sw i thknownp ro f e s s ion sf romth eth r e eA r agon e s ep rov in c e sw e r e sk i l l edandnon -m anu a l wo rk e r s ,a r t i s an sandsm a l l s c a l em e r ch an t s , c iv i ls e rv an t sandemp loy e e s ,a long w i thagoodnumb e ro fun iv e r s i ty s tud en t s .M anu a landsk i l l ed wo rk e r sa c coun t edfo ra lmo s ttwo th i rd s o fth evo lun t e e r sf romA l av aw i thknownp ro f e s s ion s ,fo l low edbyp e a san t sandag r i cu l tu r a l wo rk e r s .Add i t ion a l ly ,a sm anya s3 1(o r2 2 . 3% )o f tho s e whoen l i s t ed w e r ea c tu a l lyun emp loy ed wh enth ey jo in edth eBD . Th ep r edom inan t ly popu la rp rof l eo flow e r andlow e r -m idd l e c la s s e s ,e sp e c ia l ly p ea san t sand daylabou r e r s , wa s mo r ea cu t ein sou th e rnSpa in .In Có rdoba , mo r ethan40 p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r s w e r efa rm e r s ,daylabou r e r s ,andun sk i l l ed wo rk e r s .InBada joz ,41 .1 p e rc en tw e r efa rm e r sanddaylabou r e r s ,15 p e rc en tw e r ea r t i san sand sk i l l edo rs em i sk i l l ed manua llabou r e r s ,12 .6p e rc en tw e r eun sk i l l ed manua lu rban wo rk e r s ,and1 1 .8p e rc en tw e r ea r t i san so rsma l l s ca l e m e r chan t s . As im i la rp rof l ecanb es e enfo rth e639vo lun t e e r sf rom th ep rov in c eo f Hu e lva w i thknownp ro f e s s ion s :40 .06p e rc en tw e r e fa rm e r sanddaylabou r e r s ,14 .5p e rc en tw e r eun sk i l l ed manua llabou r e r s ,and31 .81p e rc en tw e r esk i l l ed manua llabou r e r s .A sinBada joz , emp loy e e sandlow -to m idd l e rank ingc iv i ls e rvan t sa c coun t edfo r s ca r c e ly1 1p e rc en tandth enumb e ro fs tud en t s wa sa lmo s tan e cdo ta l , wh i chi slog i ca linap rov in c ew i thou taun iv e r s i ty .InBada jozand Hu e lva ,as ign if can tp e r c en tag eo fth evo lun t e e r sw e r ei l l i t e ra t e .165In con t ra s t ,th e mo s t lyag r i cu l tu ra lp rov in c eo fA lm e r iap r e s en t eda ma rk ed lyu rbanandlow e r -m idd l e c la s sp rof l e ,w i thfa rm e r sanddayla bou r e r sba r e lysu rpa s s ing9 p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r s . Mu r c ia wa san anoma lou sca s e .Fa lang i s t mob i l iza t ionhadb e env e ryp rom in en tth e r e

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 63

and mo s tr e c ru i t scam ef romth eFET m i l i t ia s .Intha tag r i cu l tu ra lp rovin c ea l so ,s ca r c e ly9 p e rc en to fth ec iv i l ianen l i s tm en t sw e r ep ea san t s o rag r i cu l tu ra l wo rk e r s ;a lmo s taqua r t e rw e r es tud en t s ,andn ea r lyha l f o fth ec iv i l ianvo lun t e e r sw e r el ib e ra lp ro f e s s iona l s ,landown e r s ,and m id -tolow rank ingc iv i ls e rvan t s . S e cond , wh enth e s eg loba lsamp l e sa r ecompa r ed w i thth ep ro f e ss ion sd e c la r edbyth evo lun t e e r s whoen l i s t edinJun e– Ju ly1941 ,th e p e r c en tag e sva ry .Thoughun sk i l l ed manua lp ro f e s s ion s ,p ea san t s ,and daylabou r e r scon t inu edtodom ina t einab so lu t et e rm s ,inth ef r s texp ed i t ionth e r e wa sg r ea t e rpa r t i c ipa t ionf romth em idd l ec la s s e s ,s tud en t s ,and wh i t e co l la rp ro f e s s ion s . Amongth e106 vo lun t e e r sf rom Hu e lva w i thknownp ro f e s s ion s ,th ep e r c en tag eo fs tud en t sro s eto3 .8 p e rc en t ,andtha to fshopa s s i s tan t s ,c iv i ls e rvan t s ,andemp loy e e sinc r ea s edto15 p e rc en t ;sk i l l ed wo rk e r sw i thap ro f e s s ionr ema in eda t 22 .2p e rc en t ,p ea san t sanddaylabou r e r sd e c r ea s edto36 .8p e rc en t , andun sk i l l ed wo rk e r sro s es l igh t lyto16 p e rc en t .O fth e258c iv i l ian vo lun t e e r sw i thknownp ro f e s s ion sf rom A ragonin1941 ,th ep e r c en tag eo fs tud en t sa l soin c r ea s ed(41 ,o r15 .89p e rc en t ) ,a sd idtha to fc iv i l s e rvan t sandemp loy e e s( 33 ,o r12 .8p e rc en t ) , wh i l eth ep e r c en tag eo f p ea san t s ,daylabou r e r s ,andsk i l l edandun sk i l l ed wo rk e r sd e c r ea s ed 166 s l igh t ly . S tud en t s ,c l e rk s ,andc iv i ls e rvan t sa l soa c coun t edfo r22 .43 p e rc en tand23 .96p e rc en to fBa squ evo lun t e e r sf rom Gu ipúz coaand B i s cayin1941 ,r e sp e c t iv e ly .Som eau tho r sa l so m en t iontha t17 p e rc en t o fa l lvo lun t e e r sf rom Mad r id w e r es tud en t s ,andtha t25 p e rc en to fth e vo lun t e e r shadaun iv e r s i tyd eg r e e , wh i ch wa sanex c ep t iona lp e r c en t167 ag ev i s -à -v i sth eSpan i shpopu la t iona ttha tt im e . Th i rd ,in Mad r idando th e run iv e r s i tyd i s t r i c tc en t r e ssu cha sS ev i l l e , V a l en c ia , Mu r c ia ,and V a l lado l id ,Fa lang i s ts tud en t sd efn edth echa ra c t e ro fth evo lun t e e rco rp stoag r ea t e rd eg r e e .Som ela t e rt e s t imon i e s ind i ca t edtha ti t wa sunu sua ltofndp ea san to r wo rk ing c la s syou th amongth evo lun t e e r s mu s t e r edin Mad r id : mo s tw e r e“ s tud en t s ,emp loy e e so rshopa s s i s tan t s .” A c co rd ingtoon eG e rmand ip loma t , mo s t o fth eFa lang i s ts tud en t sf romth e Un iv e r s i tyo fBa r c e lonahadl e f tfo r 168 th eRu s s ianF ron t . Ana l t e rna t iv e wayo fcon s t ru c t inga m ean ing fu lsamp l eo fB lu eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e rb iog raph i e s , wh i cha l sor ef e c t sth e i rd iv e r s i ty ,fo l low s th eimpa c to fR ed A rmybu l l e t s .I tinvo lv e sp ro sopog raph i cana ly s i s o fth efa l l en , who s eb iog raph i e sw e r epub l i sh edinva r iou sn ew spap e r s .Ihav eb e enab l etor e con s t ru c tsom eo fth e s ef romd iv e r s esou r c e s . Asamp l eo f625fa l l en , wh i chr ep r e s en t sa lmo s t 13 p e rc en to fto ta l d ea th s(app rox .5 ,000 ) ,show stha ta s manya s225( 36 p e rc en t )cam e f romth erank so fth ea rmy :in c lud ingo ff c e r s , NCO sandso ld i e r s who

64 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w e r ecomp l e t ingth e i rm i l i ta rys e rv i c e wh enth eyen l i s t edfo rth eD iv i s ion ;286o fth efa l l en(45 .76p e rc en t )w e r eFET m emb e r s ,162(25 .92 p e rc en t )o f whomhad jo in edth epa r typ r io rto18Ju ly1936 . Mo s tw e r e c iv i ls e rvan t s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,andpa r tyemp loy e e s . Ano th e r105 fa l l envo lun t e e r shadb e long edtoth es tud en t s ’o rgan iza t ion(S ind i ca to E spaño lUn iv e r s i ta r io ,SEU )o fth eFET JONS(16 .8p e rc en to fth eto ta l ) . S im i la r ly ,a lmo s tha l f(201 ,o r48 .16p e rc en t )o ftho s e whod i edinRu s s iahadfough to rcoop e ra t ed w i thth eF ran co i s ts id einth eC iv i lW a r . A s manya s 99fa l l envo lun t e e r s(14 .35p e rc en t )hadsu f f e r edd i r e c t ly o rind i r e c t ly( fam i ly )som efo rmo fr ep r e s s ioninth eR epub l i canzon e b e tw e en1936and1939 . Ato ta lo f102(16 .32p e rc en t )hadjo in edth e F ran co i s tA rmydu r ingth eC iv i lW a randhadb e enp romo t edby m e r i t andt ra in ingtorank so fen s ign ,l i eu t enan t ,o rp rov i s iona ls e rg ean t . Th i r ty -on eo fth efa l l en(4 .96p e rc en t )b e long edtoCa tho l i co rgan iza169 t ion s ;and17(2 .72p e rc en t )hadb e enCa r l i s t s . Aga in ,th e da tashou ld b ein t e rp r e t edcau t iou s ly . Th e pub l i sh ed p rof l e so fth efa l l enshowacon s id e rab l enumb e ro fFa lang i s t s ,ex 170 cap t iv e s ,andex comba tan t s ,ev endu r ing1942and1943 . Asy s t em a t i csamp l ingo fth ecomp l e t ea lphab e t i ca ll i s t so fth efa l l enind i ca t e sa mu chsma l l e rnumb e r ,f rom wh i ch i t i spo s s ib l etoob ta inab iog raph i ca l p rof l e .O f158fa l l enso ld i e r s who s esu rnam e sb egan w i thth el e t t e r s EandF ,on ly13 .2p e rc en t(21 )w e r em emb e r so fth eFa lang i s tpa r ty ; 7 .54p e rc en t(12 )w e r ea rmyo ff c e r s , wh i l e15 .72p e rc en t( 25 )w e r e co rpo ra l sands e rg ean t s . W eknowon lyth enam e so fth er ema in ing 171 69 .18p e rc en t . Som elo ca ls tud i e ssugg e s ts im i la rp e r c en tag e s .O f590 vo lun t e e r s whoen l i s t edinth er e c ru i tm en to ff c eo fSan tand e r ,a tl ea s t 81(13 .8p e rc en t )w e r ea ff l ia t ed w i thth eFa lang e ,and manyo ftho s e w e r eO ldSh i r t s . Comb in ed w i thth e Ca r l i s tR equ e t é s ,th ep e r c en tag e in c r ea s e sto17 p e rc en t .O fth e1 ,216 BDvo lun t e e r sid en t if edf rom A ragon ,a tl ea s t1 14(9 .37p e rc en t )w e r eFET m emb e r sanda tl ea s t361 (29 .68p e rc en t )w e r eF ran co i s tex comba tan t s .Fa lang i s t sa c coun t edfo r n ea r ly13 p e rc en to fa l lvo lun t e e r sf rom A lm e r ia ,andov e rath i rdo f th em w e r eO ldSh i r t s .Th ep e r c en tag eo fFa lang i s t sf romamongth e vo lun t e e r s whoen l i s t edin Mu r c ia wa s mu chg r ea t e r ,r ep r e s en t ingup to62 .5p e rc en t(429 )o fth evo lun t e e r sw i thaknownid eo log i ca lp rof l e 172 (686 ,o r55 .5p e rc en to fth eto ta l ) . Th enumb e ro fFa lang i s t samong tho s ef rom A lava wa sn eg l ig ib l e( 3 ,o r2 .15p e rc en t ) ,andev enf ew e r w e r efo rm e rt rad i t iona l i s tR equ e t é s . RamónS e r ranoSuñ e rs ta t edinJu ly1941tha tth ef r s texp ed i t ionto th eRu s s ianF ron thadcon s i s t edo f75 p e rc en tso ld i e r sand25 p e rc en t d evo t edFa lang i s t s .173 How ev e r ,th ep ropo r t iono fFa lang i s t s whof e l l in th een t i r eRu s s ianadv en tu r e wa ssma l l e r .Amongth ef r s ttw en ty th r e e

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Span i sh p r i son e r stak enbyth eR ed A rmyth rough D e c emb e r1941 , e igh t(30 .76p e rc en t )w e r e“w e l l -d efn edFa lang i s t s ,”two w e r ea rmy NCO s ,s ix w e r e“adv en tu r e r s ,rogu e s ,common e r s ,”s ixo th e r sw e r e so ld i e r stha thadb e en mo r eo rl e s sco e r c edtoen l i s t ,andfou rw e r e “wo rk e r sd r iv enby m i s e ryandun emp loym en t ,”a c co rd ingtoaF eb ru a ry1942Sov i e tr epo r t .Th e i rp ro f e s s ion s :fou rs tud en t s ,two NCO s ,on e FETemp loy e e ,s ev enlump en( common e r s ) ,fou ra r t i san s ,fou rp ea san t s , 174 th r e e wo rk e r s ,andon eemp loy e e . C ro s s r e f e r en c ingo fth ed iv e r s equa l i ta t iv esou r c e st end stoconf rm th i sp rof l e .Though m i l i tan tFa lang i s t sd idno tcon s t i tu t eth e ma jo r i ty o fth eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e r s ,th e i rnumb e r sw e r ebyno m ean st r if ing : th eyrang edb e tw e en15 p e rc en tand 20 p e rc en t ,w i thg r ea t e rp r e s en c e amongth evo lun t e e r so f1941and1942 .Th efa c ttha t mo r ethanafou r th o fth esamp l eco r r e spond stoso ld i e r s who w e r efu lf l l ingth e i rm i l i ta ry s e rv i c edo e sno tn e c e s sa r i lysh edl igh tonth econd i t ion so fth e i ren l i s t m en t .Apo r t iono fth emd emon s t ra t eda t l ea s tg roup w i l l ingn e s stovo lun t e e r .Th esam ecanb esa ido f mo s to fth ea rmyco rpo ra l s ,s e rg ean t s , andp rov i s iona len s ign s .Th ecommong roundo fan t i commun i smand aca l cu la t iono fb en ef t s(p ro f e s s iona lp romo t ion ,e conom i cin c en t iv e s , o rp r e s t ig e )w e r ea l sos ign if can tfa c to r s .Ev enth eSpan i shcommun i s t s inex i l ea cknow l edg edtha tth eba ckbon eo fth e“f r s t”B lu eD iv i s ion wa scompo s edo fa rd en tan t i commun i s t s ,e sp e c ia l lyFa lang i s t s(abou t ha l fth econ t ing en t ) .Ano th e r20–25 p e rc en tw e r ea rmyo ff c e r s , NCO s , adv en tu r e r s ,andlump enind iv idua l sa long s id eas im i la rp e r c en tag eo f p ea san t sand wo rk e r s : Th efa c ttha tth e r ehav eb e enca s e so fco e r c iv er e c ru i tm en ti sno t ,how ev e r , su ff c i en t mo t iv etod i s c r ed i tth efa c ttha t mo s to fth er e c ru i t sa r er ea l ly vo lun t e e r s ,andtha tth eco r ei scompo s edo fth em i l i tan tFa lang i s t s( s tud en t sf rombou rg eo i s i eo rp e t i t -bou rg eo i s i eo r ig in s ,son so flandown e r s , emp loy e e sandbu r eau c ra t so fth eFa lang eandth es ta t eappa ra tu s ,af ew a r i s to c ra t s ,e t c . ) .

Th er epo r td e ta i l edth ed i f f e r en c e sbyr eg ion s .In Mad r id ,Fa lang i s t s w e r ep r edom inan tamongavo lun t e e rco rp scompo s edo fs tud en t s , c iv i ls e rvan t s ,andemp loy e e s .Fa lang i s t sandF ran co i s tex comba tan t s abound edinth eno r th ,no r th -w e s t ,andCa s t i l e ,a long w i ths ign if can t numb e r so fs tud en t sandson so fp ro sp e rou sp ea san t s ,c iv i ls e rvan t s , andsom e“p ea san t sandCa tho l i c wo rk e r s .”Amongth er e c ru i t sinth e sou th w e r enum e rou slump en :v i r tua l lyi l l i t e ra t e wo rk e r sandp ea san t s , mo s to f whom w e r eex comba tan t s .175 Ma s s iv eFa lang i s tpopu la ren 176 l i s tm en thadon lyo c cu r r edinV a l en c iaand Mu r c ia .

66 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F a l ang i s t s ,Ex c om b a t an t s ,and“W a r t im eF r an c o i s t s” Wha tso r to fFa lang i s t svo lun t e e r ed ?Th eFETs ta tu t e se s tab l i sh edan in t e rna lh i e ra r chyba s edonnumb e ro fy ea r sinth epa r ty :O ld Gua rd , O ldSh i r t s ,andth er e s t .Th eg r ea t ma jo r i tyo fth eO ldSh i r t sand O ld Gua rd w e r ea l soex comba tan t so rex -p r i son e r s , manyo f whomh e ld po s t so flo ca l ,p rov in c ia l ,o rr eg iona ll ead e r sh ipinth es ing l e pa r ty s t ru c tu r eo rinth es ta t eadm in i s t ra t ion . How ev e r ,in1941 ,th ebu lko f th em emb e r sh ipco r r e spond edtotho s e whohadb e enfow ingin toth e Fa lang es in c eth eou tb r eako fth eC iv i lW a r .Th ev e t e ran so f t encons id e r edn ewFa lang i s t stob em e r eoppo r tun i s t s ,andev ensom ecam oufag ed R ed s .177 Th e you th whoen l i s t eda f t e r1939enhan c edth e h e t e rog en e i tyo fth eFET . Manyhadcom ef romth eSEUandhadno t fough tinth eC iv i lW a r . On el ead e rf rom Mu r c iaind i ca t edtha tth e mo b i l iza t iono fvo lun t e e r sfo rth eBDhadg en e ra t edan ew“un i ty”and s t r eng th en edt i e samong“ com rad e sf romd i f f e r en tpo l i t i ca lo r ig in s”in ap rov in c etha tboa s t ed4 ,303 m emb e r sand 1 1 ,309a ff l ia t e sa tth et im e . Inth ep rov in c eo fL eón ,th e wav eo fen thu s ia smh e lp edtoin c r ea s ea f f l ia t ion w i thth epa r ty . As iz eab l ep e r c en tag eo fFET m emb e r sl e f tfo r Ru s s ia ,bu tno tth e ma jo r i ty .In Mu r c ia ,th e r ew e r ea tl ea s t429Fa lang i s t vo lun t e e r s , wh i cha c coun t edfo r34 .7p e rc en to fa l lvo lun t e e r sand10 p e rc en to fth epa r ty m emb e r sinth ep rov in c e :148 o fth em(34 .5p e r 178 c en t )w e r eO ldGua rd . Pa r t i c ipa t ioninth eC iv i lW a rhadconv e r t ed manySpan ia rd sin to au th en t i c“wa rF ran co i s t s” who w e r efa s c i s t iz edtosom ed eg r e e .Th e r e a r esom ecommonf ea tu r e sinth eb iog raph i e so f NCO s ,p rov i s iona l en s ign s ,s e rg ean t s ,and p rov i s iona ll i eu t enan t s whoen l i s t edinth e BD . Mo s tcam ef rom Ca tho l i c ,ru ra l ,o rs em i -u rbanso c ia landfam i ly con t ex t s .F r equ en t ly ,th e i ron lypo l i t i ca lso c ia l iza t ionp r io rto1936had b e enth roughr e l ig iou so rgan iza t ion s . Du r ingth eC iv i lW a rth eyhad jo in edth er eb e ls id etod e f endth e i rso c ia ls tand ingandth e i rt rad i t iona l Ca tho l i candSpan i shna t iona l i s tva lu e s .179 Som ehadb e com es e rg ean t s o rp rov i s iona len s ign sa long s id etho s e whohada t t end edth eG en e ra l M i l i ta ryA cad emy( th ee s t amp i l l ad o s ,o f“ rubb e r s tamp ed” ) .D e sp i t eth e s can tt e chn i ca lt ra in ingo fth efo rm e r ,th ey w e r ed i s c ip l in edandsha r ed th e my s t iqu eo fsa c r if c e .Som ee s t ima t e sra i s eth enumb e ro f“p rov i 180 s iona ls e rg ean t s” w i th inth eto ta lBDcon t ing en tto4 ,500 . Manyo f 181 th emr ema in edina c t iv es e rv i c ea f t e rAp r i l1939 . Fo r mo r ethanon ep rov i s iona ls e rg ean t ,th ea rmyb e cam ehom eand th em i l i ta ryl i f eth eyhadl ea rn eddu r ingth eC iv i lW a r wa rp edth ed e s t inyo f mo r ethanon ep rom i s ingsonf romth elow e r -m idd l ec la s s e s . L eopo ldo Mu l e t ,sono facu s tom sag en t ,d e s c r ib ed h i sl i f ea son e

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ma rk edbyth e1936–9conf i c t , wh i chin t e r rup t edab iog raphyo r i en t ed towa rd sa m e r can t i l ep ro f e s s ion : Iamaun iv e r s i tyg radua t eandt ea ch e r ,IknowF r en chandEng l i sh ,Ihav e t rav e l l edqu i t ealo t … Wh e r ehav eIb e enun t i lnow ?Th eC iv i lW a rcap tu r ed myin t e r e s t wh i l eI wa sl iv inga thom e ,Ihav eb e enano ff c e rs in c e Ma r ch’37andinth eL eg ions in c e’ 38 … Wh enIg e tba cktoSpa in ,I w i l l h e lp myfa th e rw i thh i s wo rk( cu s tom sag en t ) .

Ju l ioGonzá l ez ,th esono fabou rg eo i sfam i ly ,hadfn i sh edh i sba c ca lau r ea t es tud i e sp r io rto1936and wa ss tudy ing Ma th sin Mad r id .Th eou t b r eako fth eC iv i lW a rchang edh i sfa t e ,tak ingh imf r s ttoth eG en e ra l M i l i ta ryA cad emyandth entoth eRu s s ianF ron t : Th e wa rcaugh tm eonho l idayand …It rad edin myequa t ion sfo rar if e ; a f t e rtha tIthough ttha t myd eg r e em igh ts e rv etog e tm ea mon tho fl eav e andI w en ttoacou r s efo rp rov i s iona la r t i l l e ryen s ign s .Ifn i sh edth e wa r a saL i eu t enan t ,  and wh enfa c ed w i thth ed i l emmao fcon t inu ing my m i l i ta ryca r e e ro rl iv ingo f f myfa th e r…   Iop t edfo rth ef r s t. . .I w en ttoth e A cad emy ,fn i sh edand wh enI wa sb eg inn ingtoen joyga r r i sonl i f eaway 1 8 2 f romhom e ,i thapp en ed …andh e r eIam .

S ev e r a lo ff c e r sinth es app e r s ’co rp sh ads im i l a rt r a j e c to r i e s .Th eyh ad gon eth rought e chn i c a lo rs c i en t if ct r a in ingb e fo r eth eC iv i lW a randh ad vo lun t e e r edfo rth ein su rg en ta rmy .A f t e r1 9 3 9 ,tho s ew i thsom em i l i1 8 3 t a ryt r a in ings t ay edoninth eA rmy Co rp so fEng in e e r s . A l lo fth em w e r es imp lyF r an co i s t sw i thou tanyfu r th e rl ab e l s , whod idno tr e a l ly c a r eabou tm i l i t a ry -F a l ang i s t -C a tho l i cd i spu t e s .Th eysh a r edth eC a tho l i c f a i thandad efn i t iono fth ecommonen emy :commun i sm ,f r e em a son ry , s ep a r a t i sm ,and“ in t e rn a t ion a lJ ew ry . ”Th ebo rd e r sw e r eo f t enb lu r r ed b e tw e enc iv i l i an sandso ld i e r s ,o rb e tw e enp ro f e s s ion a lso ld i e r s(o rtho s e whoh aden l i s t ed wh i l edo ing m i l i t a rys e rv i c e )andc iv i l i an s whoh adenl i s t edth roughth em i l i t i a s .M any NCO sandp rov i s ion a len s ign sh aden l i s t ed th rough th eF a l ang er e c ru i t ingo ff c e s ,wh i l em anyso ld i e r sh adbo th p ro f e s s ion a lob j e c t iv e sandid eo log i c a l mo t iv e s :an t i commun i smanda s en s eo fp a t r io t i cdu tyw e r e in t e r tw in edw i thth ed e s i r etopu r su eac a r e e r 1 8 4 inth ea rmyo rinth es t a t eadm in i s t r a t ion . AF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r ,Con s t an t ino G eo rg a copu lo s ,w ro t ein1 9 4 2th a ta l lh i sun i t ’ sco rpo r a l sc am e f romth elow e rso c i a ls t r a t a .Thougha l lo fth em w e r e“ ch i ld r enf romth e o rph an ag e , ”h el ik edth ef a c tth a tth ey w e r ea l ld evo t edC a tho l i c s .185 Thoughth eFa lang et r i edtoen su r etha tamongth eo ff c e r s whol e f t inJu ly1941th e r e wou ldb ea ffn i ty w i thFa lang i s tid ea s ,th i sd idno t

68 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

en t i r e lyr e so lv eanund e r ly ingt en s ionb e tw e enFa lang i s tm i l i t iam en and p ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r sinth eB lu eD iv i s ion . Manyo fth efo rm e r g roup w e r ef rom m idd l e c la s sfam i l i e so rw e r e un iv e r s i tys tud en t s , wh i l eo th e r shadb e end e co ra t eddu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .I t wa sd i ff cu l t fo rth efo rm e rtoa c c ep to rd e r sf romi l l i t e ra t es e rg ean t s who w e r ef r e qu en t lyb ia s edaga in s tth em .186 Th eya l soexp r e s s ed m i s t ru s to fa m i l i ta ryra th e rthan m i l i t iav en tu r e ,a saFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rw ro t e : A sIhadp r ed i c t ed wh en w el e f t Mad r id ,th e r e wa sno th ing“B lu eD iv is ion”abou ti t ;in s t eado fFa lang i s t sw ea r eso ld i e r s ,bu t wha tk indo fso l d i e r s ?Ing en e ra l ,w ea r et r ea t edbad ly …thoughth eFa lang i s to ff c e r sa r e 1 8 7 r ea l lytob lam e ,th eyt r ea tu sl ik econ s c r ip t s .

Th ef r i c t ionb eganb e fo r eth eyl e f t .Inth eba r ra ck so fth eun iv e r s i ty d i s t r i c to f Mad r id ,th eFa lang i s t sp ro t e s t eda tb e ingpu ttog e th e r“w i th so ld i e r so fnoFa lang i s tf e e l ing wha t so ev e r .” Du r ingth et ra in ingp e r iod , manyg rumb l eda tth e“ s ev e r ed i s c ip l in e ,o fa pu r e ly m i l i ta ry 188 typ e .” Manyo th e rso ld i e r sw e r ed i sgu s t eda tth ep ro l i f e ra t iono fFa lang i s tsymbo l s( su cha sth eyok eanda r row s )onth eun i fo rm s .Lu i s Agu i la rno t edon ecap ta in ’ sd i sp l ea su r ea ts e e ingh i sin s ign ia :“ ‘Don ’ t th inktha tyoua r ecom ingh e r etos t ea ll ik einSpa in , ’h eshou t sa tu s .”A f ewday sla t e r ,h i scom rad e sd i s r ega rd edanen s ign ’ scommandtos top 189 s ing ingth ehymn“Ca raa lso l”(Fa c ingth esun ) . Mo s to fth eFETh i e ra r chyhadb e com es imp l ep r iva t e s ,bu tth eyh e ld g r ea tinfu en c eov e rth e i rcom rad e s .Ins ev e ra lun i t s ,as e condpo l i t i ca l h i e ra r chyranpa ra l l e l( in fo rma l ly )toth em i l i ta rycommands t ru c tu r e . Th e2nd An t i tank Company ,fo rexamp l e , wa scompo s edo fl ead e r s su cha sAgu s t ínAzna r ,En r iqu eSo tomayo r ,R id ru e jo ,and“O ld Gua rd Fa lang i s t sf rom Mad r id .”190 How ev e r ,th eFa lang i s t s wan t edtob em i l i t iam enabov ea l l :Sa lvado rZanón ,as tud en t ,w ro t etha t“ thoughth e M i l i t iaha sb e com epa r to fth eA rmy. . .w e mu s tno tlo s eou rFa lang i s t d i s t in c t ivn e s s .”191 C l e a r ingY ou rM i l i t a ryR e c o rd. . .o rD e s e r t ing Manyvo lun t e e r sw e r e mo t iva t edby ma t e r ia lin c en t iv e s .M i s e ryand un emp loym en tinpo s t -wa rSpa ind rov eth emtoen l i s tfo rRu s s ia ,e sp e c ia l lyinp rov in c e sw i thh ighra t e so fun emp loym en tamongag r icu l tu ra lo ro th e r wo rk e r s .Th edoub l epayo f f e r edbyth eG e rmanand Span i sha rm i e s(7 .30p e s e ta sand4 ma rk sp e rday ,a long w i th1 ,000 p e s e ta sfo rjo in ingup )en t i c edth em ,a long w i thasub s idytoth efam i l i e s o fvo lun t e e r sa tth ef ron t .T osw e e t enth ed ea l ,th eycou lda l sofu lf lth e i r

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 69

m i l i ta rys e rv i c er equ i r em en texp ed i en t ly :s ix mon th sonth e Ru s s ian F ron tw e r eequ iva l en ttotwoy ea r so fcompu l so ry m i l i ta rys e rv i c e .192 A long s id eth e s evo lun t e e r sw e r eo th e r s whohadp rob l em sw i th m i li ta ryju s t i c edu etoth e i rpo l i t i ca lr e co rdo rb e cau s eth eyhadfough t– w i l l ing lyo ro th e rw i s e– w i thth eR epub l i can A rmy .Pa r t i c ipa t ingin th eRu s s iancampa ign m igh ts e rv etoc l ea rth e i rr e co rdand wa stak en in tocon s id e ra t ionby m i l i ta ryandc iv i l iancou r t s .Th eFa lang i s t sth em s e lv e skn ewo fsu chp eop l eanda tt im e sp ro t e c t edth em . On eo fth em w ro t eo fh i sch i ldhoodf r i end ,afo rm e rR epub l i canso ld i e r : W ehav ea lway sb e enl ik eb ro th e r s ,bu th ew en ttoth eun iv e r s i ty …Th en w i thth e wa r ,I wa saL eg iono ff c e randh e wa sano ff c e r inth eR epub l i can A rmy …I fIp e r suad edh imtoen l i s ttocom etoRu s s ia w i thth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,i t wa sb e cau s eIb e l i ev edands t i l lb e l i ev etha ti fh ei slu ckyandr e1 9 3 tu rn stoSpa in ,a sanex comba tan th ew i l li r r ep roa chab l einev e ry way .

Insom eca s e s ,fo rm e rl e f t i s t sen l i s t edinth eD iv i s iontofnda wayto g e tou to fSpa inandev enc ro s sov e rtoth eR edA rmy .194 How ev e r ,no t ev e ryon e whoen l i s t ed wa ss e l e c t ed ;vo lun t e e r sw e r epo l i t i ca l lys c ru t i n iz eda tth eb eg inn ing ,du r ingt ra in ing inG e rmany ,anda sth eya r r iv ed a tth ef ron t .V ig i lan c eb e cam e mo r ein t en s ein1943 ,a sr e c ru i tm en tb e cam el e s ss e l e c t iv einth em i l i ta ryba s e s .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionIn fo rma t ion S e c t ion( I Ib )imp l em en t edt igh t e rcon t ro l sandcomp i l edado s s i e ro f “und e s i rab l e s”tha tev en tua l lyamoun t edov e rth ey ea r s1941–3to 2 ,271 nam e s .195Inla t e1942 ,th eBD G en e ra lS ta f fhadb eguntoshowg r ea t e r con c e rnfo rth equa l i tyo fth e“human ma t e r i e l”a r r iv inginth er ep la c e m en texp ed i t ion s .Th eBDo ff c ein Mad r ido rd e r edth ecommand e ro f th e18 th Ma r chBa t ta l ioninD e c emb e r1942too rgan iz e“anin fo rma t ion s e rv i c e ,amongp e r son sth eyfu l lyt ru s t ,”ino rd e rtounma skso ld i e r s “w i thtu rb idid ea sandth ink ing , who m igh tjo inth eR edrank s .”196 Th eG e rman sa l sof ea r edtha tamongth e ma r chba t ta l iono ff c e r sth e r e m igh tb ein fo rman t s who w e r espy ingfo rth eA l l i e s .197 C e r ta inB r i t i shin t e l l ig en c er epo r t sandSov i e tp ropagandasp r eadan imag etha tth eD iv i s ion wa sr ep l e t ew i thso ld i e r slook ingfo ranoppo r tun i tytod e s e r t .Adv e r sa r i e so fth eFETw i th inth eF ran co i s tadm in i s t ra t ionh e lp edth i simp r e s s iona long .Amba s sado rSamu e l Hoa r er epo r t ed inAugu s t1941 ,a f t e raconv e r sa t ion w i th G en e ra lAn ton ioA randa ,an Ang loph i l e ,tha t750vo lun t e e r shada l r eadygon eov e rtoth een emy .198 How ev e r ,th eto ta lnumb e ro fpo l i t i ca l ly mo t iva t edd e s e r t e r sr ema in ed low . Du r ingth ef r s ts ix mon th so fth er ep la c em en tsy s t em ,s ca r c e ly2 p e rc en to fth eso ld i e r sf romRu s s ia w e r er epa t r ia t edfo rpo l i t i ca lan t ec ed en t stha t wou ldindu c eth emtoen t e r ta inth epo s s ib i l i tyo fd e s e r t ion

70 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o re sp ionag e .199 Ca s e so fs e l f -mu t i la t ion( shoo t ingon e s e l finth ehand , do inggua rddu tyba r e foo ttop rovok ef ro s tb i t einth ef e e t ,e t c . )w e r e 200 equa l lys ca r c e , pa r t lyb e cau s eo fth evo lun t e e rs c r e en ingtha t wa sin p la c e .Th eSpan i sh A rmyandth eFETi t s e l fw e r eth ef r s ton e sin t e re s t edins end ingr e l iab l eso ld i e r s . Som e vo lun t e e r sc ro s s ed ov e rs imp ly ou to ff ea ro rd e sp e ra t ion 201 cau s edbyth ed i r econd i t ion sonth ef ron t . A so fF eb rua ry1942 ,th e r e hadon lyb e ens ixd e s e r t e r s(andon edub iou sca s e ) , whohadd e c la r ed toth eSov i e t stha tth eyhaden l i s t ed w i thth ein t en to fc ro s s ingov e r . Mo s to fth em w e r eR epub l i canex comba tan t so rfo rm e rm emb e r so f l e f t -w ingpa r t i e s .A c co rd ingtoSov i e tr epo r t s ,th eto ta lnumb e ro fd e 202 s e r t e r s mayhav eb e entw e lv e . Inth etwoy ea r so fD iv i s iond ep loy m en tonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,a s manya stw en ty -on eso ld i e r sw e r et r i ed ands en t en c edto d ea thfo rs e r iou sc r im e s(d e s e r t ion ,t r ea son ,e t c . ) ; fou r t e eno fth em w e r eex e cu t ed ,a long w i thtwoo th e r sinth eB lu eL e g ion .203 Th enumb e r mayhav eb e enh igh e r ,bu ton lys l igh t ly ;f rom No v emb e r1941toAugu s t1942 ,tw en ty fou rt r ia l sfo rd e s e r t iontookp la c e 204 inth eB lu eD iv i s ion . Th e BDin t e l l ig en c es e rv i c e sd e t e c t eds ev e ra lca s e so fR epub l i can ex comba tan t s who man i f e s t edsympa th i e sfo rth eR edA rmyandhad 205 t r i edtoconv in c ef e l lowso ld i e r stoc ro s sov e rw i thth em . F romea r ly 1943on ,af ew mo r ed e s e r t ion so c cu r r edb e tw e en Log roñoandth e bo rd e rtowno fI rún ,o rb e tw e en H enday eand G e rmany :fou rso ld i e r s o fth e21 s t Ma r chBa t ta l iond e f e c t edb e fo r eth eun i ta r r iv edin Ho fin Ap r i l1943 .In O c tob e ro fth esam ey ea r ,fou r mo r evo lun t e e r sd e s e r t ed b e fo r er ea ch ingI rúnandtwoo th e r sb e tw e en H enday eand Ho f .206In to ta l ,e igh tytoon ehund r edso ld i e r s–av e rag ings ca r c e lytwop e rthou sand–d e s e r t edtoth een emy . Numb e r sb egantoin c r ea s einth es e cond ha l fo f1942andr ea ch edth e i rh igh e s tpo in tin m id -1943 .Th eG e rman 18 th A rmycommandin fo rm edin Augu s t1942tha td e s e r t ion s had in c r ea s eds in c eth ea r r iva lo fth ef r s t ma r chba t ta l ion s .Th eG e rman m i l i ta rya t ta ch éin Mad r ida sk edth em in i s t e ro fth ea rmytopo s tpon e th ed epa r tu r eo fth eth r e eS ep t emb e rr e l i e fexp ed i t ion sino rd e rtodo ba ckg roundch e ck sonth er e c ru i t s .207 How ev e r ,d e sp i t eG e rman wo r ry ,th enumb e ro fd e s e r t ion sn ev e rr ea l lyb e cam es ign if can t .Thoughawa r en e s so fth er i sko fd e s e r t ion s wa s g r ea t e r ,i tra r e lygav ecau s efo rr ea lcon c e rnincomba t .208 Bycompa r i son ,th ep ropo r t iono fd e s e r t e r s inth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e sdu r ingth e Span i shC iv i lW a r wa sa tl ea s te igh tt im e sg r ea t e r :b e tw e en1 .7p e rc en t 209 and1 .9p e rc en t . E l em en t sun sympa th e t i ctoth eF ran co i s tr eg im ecou ldno ta lway s b epu rg edint im e ,bu tno ta l lo fth emhadth eoppo r tun i tytoc ro s s

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ov e rtoth eSov i e t s .Th efa t etha tawa i t edtho s e who manag edtodoso wa sv e ryd i f f e r en tto wha tth eR ed A rmyl eaf e t shadp rom i s edth em . Som eco l labo ra t ed w i thth e NKVDp ropagandas e rv i c e s ,bu ta l lw e r e in t e rn edinp r i son e rcamp s .Thoughsom ecap t iv e sd e c id edtor ema in inth e USSRa f t e r1954 , mo s tr e tu rn edtoSpa in wh enth eyhadth eop po r tun i ty .210 Manyo ftho s e whor e tu rn edtoSpa inf romSov i e tcap t iv i ty hadb e enl i s t eda sd e s e r t e r sandfa c edin t e r roga t ion .Som eb iog raph i e s w e r ea sp i c tu r e squ ea sth ey w e r et rag i c .Th edaylabou r e r Ma r t ínF e rr e ro ,acommun i s tdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r ,haden l i s t edinth eBDin1942 inhop e so fc ro s s ingov e rtoth een emy .In s t ead ,h e wa st r ea t eda sa p r i son e rbyth eSov i e t s .A lb e r to Mo r eno ,anemp loy e e whohadb e en anana r ch i s tm i l i t iamaninth eC iv i lW a r ,en l i s t edinth eBDin1943 .H e c ro s s edov e rtoth eSov i e t s , whos en th imtop r i soncamp .So t e roGa r c ía hadnopo l i t i ca lr e co rdbu thadb e en mob i l iz edinth eF ran co i s tA rmy in1937 .A f t e rth e wa r ,h eop e ra t edonth eb la ck ma rk e t in Man r e sa(Ba r c e lona )andsp en tsom e mon th sinp r i son .La t e r ,h ek i l l edtwop eop l e andf edtoCád iz , wh e r eh een l i s t edfo rRu s s iaund e rafa l s enam e ,int end ingtod e f e c t .H i se f fo r t shadth esam eou t com e :t eny ea r so fha r sh 21 1 cap t iv i tyinSov i e tcamp s . Thoughf ew ,th enumb e r so fBDd e s e r t e r ssu rpa s s edth eG e rmanave rag e ,ev ena sea r lya sJanua ry1942 . Unau tho r iz edab s en c e sf romth e f ron t(o rd e f e c t ion stowa rd sth eBDr ea rgua rd )w e r e mo r eabundan t thaninn e ighbou r ingd iv i s ion s .Th i sin c lud edin t en t iona ld e s e r t e r sa s w e l la s“d i so r i en t ed”so ld i e r s(d e sp i s t ad o s) whohadb e eng ran t eds ev e ra lday s ’l eav ebu tappa r en t lyhadgo tlo s t wh i l er e tu rn ingtodu ty : 212 som e t im e sw i thth econ s en to fth e i ro ff c e r s ,som e t im e sfo r mon th s . P r iva t eJo s éLu i sPa s ca ld rov eat ru ckdu r ingth e ma r cho f1941 .H e wa ss en tto W a r sawtoa cqu i r er ep la c em en tpa r t s ,on lytor eapp ea rin V i ln iu sinJanua ry1942 .213 S e cund inoA .Canovo lun t e e r edin1941and sp en tth ecampa ignins ev e ra lho sp i ta l s .A f t e rr e en l i s t ingin Nov emb e r 1942 ,h ed e s e r t edin G e rmanyandlook edfo r wo rkinF rank fu r tam Ma in .214 O th e r sf edtowa rd sth er ea rgua rdandd e s e r t edou to ff ea r , d i s con t en t ,o rd e sp e ra t iona tb e ingpun i sh edbyano ff c e r .215 “Spa inontheV o lkhov” :Fa lang i smintheB lue D iv i s ion F e rv en tFa lang i s t sn ev e rcomp r i s eda ma jo r i tyinth eBD ,ev enamong th eo r ig ina lcon t ing en t . How ev e r ,th ey w e r eas ign if can tm ino r i ty w i th ag roupcon s c i en c etha tp e rm ea t edth edom inan tBD wa rcu l tu r e .Th e Ou r en s eFa lang ein fo rm edin O c tob e r1941tha t 35 o fi t s97 vo lun t e e r 216 m i l i t iam en w e r e“Fa lang i s t s ,”and 45 o th e r sw e r eno t . O fth e89 vo l un t e e r sf romSan tand e rinJu ly1941 ,36(40 .44p e rc en t )w e r em i l i tan t

72 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Fa lang i s t sand16 o ftho s e( 18 p e rc en to fth eto ta l )hadb e en m emb e r s p r io rto18Ju ly1936 .A s manya s9(10 .1p e rc en t )hadsu f f e r edR epub l i canv io l en c ep e r sona l lyo rinth e i rfam i ly .In Mu r c ia ,th ep e r c en tag eo f Fa lang i s t sr ea ch ed68 .5p e rc en t(285o f316 w i thknowna ff l ia t ion ) .217 I ti s mo r ed i ff cu l ttoa s c e r ta inhow manyhadb e en m emb e r so fth eFa lang ep r io rtoJu ly1936 .P ropo r t ion sva r i edf romp rov in c etop rov in c e anden thu s ia smt end edtoin t en s i fy wh e r eth e r ew e r e mo r eFa lang i s t s 218 whohadno tb e enab l etofgh t in1936–9 onth es id eo fth e i rchoo s ing . T oboo s tvo lun t e e ren l i s tm en t ,th eFETs e c r e ta r ia tsugg e s t edtha tp rov in c ia ll ead e r sen l i s tinth er e c ru i tm en to ff c e s .Som eo fth em wou ld b ep e rm i t t edtol eav efo r Ru s s ia .Th eya l soen cou rag edvo lun t e e r ing amongtho s einlo ca lh i e ra r ch i e sw i thqu e s t ionab l ecomm i tm en to rr e219 co rd s . E igh to fth ep rov in c ia lFETl ead e r s whoen l i s t edl e f tfo rRu s s ia in1941 .Amongth em w e r eth epa r tyboa rd m emb e r sD ion i s ioR id ru e jo , Mo ra -F igu e roa ,Agu s t ínAzna r ,H ig in ioPa r í sEgu i laz ,Edua rdod eRoja s ,andJo s éM . Gu t i é r r ezd e l Ca s t i l lo ,a long w i thyou thl ead e rJo s é M igu e l Gu i ta r t eand manys e cond -andth i rd t i e rl ead e r s ,f romv i l lag e mayo r stolo ca lcoun c i l lo r s . Fo rm anyF a l ang i s t sth eadv en tu r ew a s in i t i a l lyapo l i t i c a l inv e s tm en t . En l i s tm en tw a sat empo r a ryadv en tu r eth a tm igh ty i e ldp e r son a land co l l e c t iv ed iv id end s .Th ey wou ldr e tu rnhom ea sv i c to r s ,w i thth ep r e s t ig eo fh av ingd e f e a t edth e“G r e a tEn emy ” , wh i ch wou ldenh an c eth e i r po s s ib i l i t i e so ffo s t e r ingth efu l lf a s c i s t i z a t iono fth eF r an cor eg im e .220 Th i sv i s iono fth ec amp a igna sas t eptow a rd sn a t ion a l synd i c a l i s tr evo lu t ion w a sr e in fo r c eda f t e rth ef r s tcomb a t s :“L e tth emno tfo rg e tth a t th evo lun t e e r s ,on c eth een emyi sann ih i l a t edonth ef ron t ,w i l lr e tu rn r e adytod i etop r ev en tanypo s tu l a t eo fou rN a t ion a l -Synd i c a l i s tR ev o lu t ionf romno tb e com ingap r a c t i c a lr e a l i ty , ”w ro t eavo lun t e e r .S im il a r ly ,S a lv ado rLóp e zd el aT o r r eno t edth a tth efund am en t a l mo t iv a t ion o fh i scom r ad e s ,b eyondth e i rp e r son a ls to r i e s ,w a stofu lf lth em i s s ion a l du tyo fth eF a l ang e .Th el e t t e r so fF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r st r an sm i t t edth e i r s e l f -p e r c ep t iono fb e ingth eadv an c et roop sinth efgh tfo rth ephy s i c a l 2 2 1 and“ sp i r i tu a l ”r e con s t ru c t iono fSp a inind i s t an tl and s . Fo rth eFa lang i s t s ,th e Ru s s iancampa igna l sor ep r e s en t edanoppo r tun i tytor e s to r eSpa in ’ s“ imp e r ia ld e s t iny ,”byin c r ea s ingi t spa rt i c ipa t ioninth er e s t ru c tu r ingo fEu rop ea c co rd ingtoth e Naz iN ew O rd e r .D ion i s io R id ru e jor e ca l l edtha th ehadno tgon eto Ru s s iafo r an t i commun i sma lon e ,bu tb e cau s eh eb e l i ev edina“young ,h e ro i c andpopu la rEu rop etha tc e r ta ining en iou sfa s c i s t shav eimag in ed .” H e andh i scom rad e sthough ttha t“a l lth em i s fo r tun e sandlow e r ingo f Spa in–in c lud ingpov e r tyandso c ia lin equa l i ty–p ro c e ed edp r ima ri lyf romi t ssubm i s s iontoAng lo -F r en chh eg emony .” W i thAx i sv i c to ry ,

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 73

th eyexp e c t ed“ th econ s t i tu t iono faun if ed ,ind ep end en tandpow e r fu l Eu rop e ,in wh i chSpa incou ldp layanimpo r tan tro l e .”Th i s wou lda l so mak ei tpo s s ib l etoe l im ina t e“ th ep lu to c ra t i candc l e r i ca lcomp l extha t bu rd en sth eS ta t e .”222 L ik egoodf a s c i s t s ,how ev e r ,th eF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r sw e r ep rop e rn at ion a l i s t s . Non eo fth em w a sw i l l ingtos e rv eexp l i c i t lya sab a t t e r ing r amfo rG e rm aninfu en c e .Thoughth eyh a s t en edtoth eTh i rdR e i chto p rov id epo l i t i c a lsuppo r t ,th ey wou ldn ev e rd a r econ t emp l a t eth eov e rth rowo fF r an cobyap ro -G e rm anpupp e td i c t a to r .A m emo r anduma r r iv eda tth eG e rm anemb a s syinJu ly1 9 4 1 ,s ign edby“C ru s ad e r sag a in s t Ru s s i a , ” whor equ e s t edsuppo r tf romB e r l intog iv eth es t a t eandth e a rmyad e c id ed lyF a l ang i s tag end a .Th eya sp i r edtobo l s t e rth e“ imp e r i a l s ty l eo fth eF a l ang e , ”bu tw e r ec a r e fu ltoemph a s i z eth e“Ch r i s t i anch a r 2 2 3 a c t e r ”o fSp an i shf a s c i smandd idno tqu e s t ionF r an co ’ sl e ad e r sh ip . B lu eD iv i s ion ’ sFa lang i smi sp e rhap sb e s texp r e s s edinth eco rpu so f s logan stha td i s t i l l edth esp i r i to fth ef r s tFa lang e .Adv en tu r e som eb e l l i co s i tya l sor ef e c t edag en e ra t iona ls en t im en t . Hav ingb e enso c ia l iz ed s in c eado l e s c en c einanenv i ronm en to fpo l i t i ca lcon f ron ta t iondu r ing th eR epub l i canp e r iodand wa r mob i l iza t ionin1936– 9 , mo r ethanon e youngFa lang i s tf e l th im s e l fapa r t i c ipan tinas ingu la rh i s to r i ca l mom en t ,in wh i chg r ea tbu t mu tua l lyex c lu s iv eco smov i s ion sd e f end ed th e i rex i s t en c eina rm edconf i c t .Th eFa lang i s tw r i t e r An ton io Abad O ju e lexp r e s s edth i sinf c t ion :th eBD wou ldav eng eth eind e c i s iono f th e i re ld e r s , whohada l low edth ed e f ea to f Cubain1898(“yougav e up w i thou tafgh t” )andt r emb l edb e fo r eth ep rod ig iou spow e ro fv iol en c e .Th en ewfa s c i s tg en e ra t ion“hadb e enbo rnund e rth es igno fth e wa r r io r ,”and wa r“m e tu sa sw etookou rf r s ts t ep sinba c ca lau r ea t e , wa i t edfo ru sinth es t r e e tb raw l s .”Th i s wa sno tat im efo rth eo ry ;“w e a r einth ep r e -apo ca lyp t i ce ra ,o ffundam en ta lva lu e sandf rmd e c i224 s ion s .” Th evo lun t e e r sw e r e“n ew m en” whop r io r i t iz ed“a c t ion .” Th eyr eb e l l edaga in s tth en in e t e en thc en tu ryandr ea son ;th eyid en t if ed w i thth eroman t i c s ,i r ra t iona lva lu e s ,anda c t ionfo rth esak eo fth e na t iona sa“ r evo lu t iona rysyn th e s i s”o fv i r i l i tyandv io l en c e .225 Th i sen thu s ia smr ea ch edi t sh igh e s tl ev e l sinFa lang i s tyou tho rganiza t ion ssu cha sth eSEU , who s el ead e r sen l i s t edtog e th e r .A sea r lya s th ew in t e ro f1939 ,th e r ew e r ep ropo sa l stor e c ru i tvo lun t e e r sfo rth e F inn i shA rmyinth eW in t e rW a r .Som et e s t imon i e shav eind i ca t edtha t a s manya s10 p e rc en t(o r mo r einun iv e r s i tyc i t i e s )o fth eBDvo lun t e e r sin1941 w e r eSEUa ff l ia t e s .By May1942 ,a roundtwothou sand SEU m emb e r sw e r ee s t ima t edto hav ed epa r t edfo r Ru s s ia .226 Th e “wav e”ev enr ea ch eds tud en t sf roman t i -F ran co i s tfam i l i e s .Th ela t e r f lm -mak e rLu i sGa r c íaB e r langa ,th esono fafo rm e rR epub l i canl ead e r

74 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

who wa simp r i son eda tth et im e ,d e c la r edy ea r sla t e rtha th ehadgon e toRu s s iahop ingtog e th i sfa th e rr e l ea s ed ,bu th ed ida cknow l edg etha t h i sFa lang i s tf r i end sa tth e Un iv e r s i tyo fV a l en c iahads t rong lyinfu227 en c edh im . An t i commun i smandrad i ca lSpan i shna t iona l i smp rov id edahomog en iz ingva rn i shtoth eva r iou sid eo log i ca ls en s i t iv i t i e so fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i l W a r , wh e th e rFa lang i s t s ,con s e rva t iv e Ca tho l i c s ,o r “wa rF ran co i s t s .”F i f t e eny ea r sla t e r ,on ev e t e ran w ro t etha tthough th eBDhadem e rg edf romaFa lang i s tin i t ia t iv e ,vo lun t e e r sf romv e ry d iv e r s ea ff l ia t ion shadfough tonth eba s i so ftwocommond enom ina to r s :an t i commun i smand Ca tho l i c i sm . Thu s , M en énd ez Gund ín ind i ca t edth r e ein t e r tw in ed mo t iv e sinh i sd ia ry :an t i commun i sm ,a s en s eo fg en e ra t iona landpa t r io t i cdu ty ,andav eng ingth ed ea tho fh i s fa th e ra tR epub l i canhand s .O th e r sf romth erank so fth eSpan i shA rmy 228 exp r e s s edth econv i c t iontha tth ey w e r efu lf l l ingapa t r io t i cm i s s ion . How ev e r ,a ssom eFa lang i s t sp e r c e iv ed i t ,th ebap t i smbyf r eo fO c tob e r1941hadg iv enb i r thtoan ewpo l i t i ca lr ea l i ty .Th en ewcommun i ty o fcomba tan t s wou ldb ear ev iv edFa lang e ,a m ixo fC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s , O ldSh i r t s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,s e rg ean t s whohadcom eupth rough th erank s ,andd evo t ed Ca tho l i c s :“ th eD iv i s ioni sanda lway sw i l lb e Fa lang i s t ,f romth ecap ta indown ,”p ro c la im ed D ion i s ioR id ru e jo .Th i s n ewFa lang e wa sa l socomm i t t edtoSpa in ’ sd e s t inyinEu rop eandin229 ca rna t edaun iv e r sa ld im en s ion . On es igno fth i s wa sth ea s s im i la t ion o fFa lang i s tsymbo l sbyvo lun t e e r sf romd i f f e r en tp rov enan c e s ,f r s t andfo r emo s tinth eco l l e c t iv es ing ingo fth eFa lang i s tan th em“Ca ra 230 a lSo l”a sth er ep r e s en ta t iono fth esp i r i to fth e who l eB lu eD iv i s ion . Th i sn ewFa lang e wou ldb eth eep i tom eo fth eN ewSpa in ,g round ed inth ed iv e r s eso c ia l ,r eg iona l ,andpo l i t i ca lo r ig in so fth eBDvo lun t e e r s .Th epa r tyn ew spap e rA r r i b ain s i s t edtha tso l ida r i ty w i thth eB lu e D iv i s ionshou ldh e lp“ r e con s t i tu t eth e mo ra land ma t e r ia la r ch i t e c tu r e o fSpa in ,”r e s to r ingtoi t“ th es en s eo fso l ida r i ty”and“po l i t i ca lun i ty .” Th ejo in tpa r t i c ipa t iono fFa lang i s t s , Ca r l i s t s ,andth em i l i ta ry wou ld eng end e r“anau th en t i csyn th e s i so fth efo r c e sr ep r e s en t ingth en ew po l i t i ca landso c ia lo rd e ro fSpa in .”InRu s s ia ,“Ca r l i s t sandFa lang i s t s , p ro f e s so r sands tud en t s ,eng in e e r sand wo rk e r shadfough ttog e th e r ,” und e rth ecommonbann e ro f“ loya l tytoth ep r in c ip l e so f18Ju ly .”Th e un i tyo fd e s t inyd e s c r ib edbyth e my th if edl ead e rJo s éAn ton ioP r imo d eR iv e rahad ma t e r ia l iz edinth eRu s s iancampa ign :anen t e rp r i s etha t wou ldb inda l lSpan ia rd s ina m i s s iona ls en s eo fth ena t ion ,a sp r ea ch ed byFa lang i sm .Th e“Spa inonth eV o lkhov” wou ldendowth e“na t iona l 231 r evo lu t ion” w i thr ea lcon t en t . Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sa l soin t ima t e ly 232 sha r edbyFa lang i s t s whoen l i s t edin1942 .

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ManyBDvo lun t e e r sa l socu l t iva t edas e l f imag eo fe th i ca lin t egr i ty :th eyhadn e i th e rb e enco r rup t edno r pa r t i c ipa t edinF ran co i s t po s t -wa rr ep r e s s ion .Fa lang i s tvo lun t e e rJo s éM . Ca s tañónno t edin h i sd ia rytha t ,r e fu s ingtohav eany th ingtodo w i thth e“ c r im e so f th er ea rgua rd …   Ihav ecom eaga intoth ef ron td r eam ingo fafu tu r e o rd e r ingo fEu rop etha tw i l la l soo rd e rSpa in .”Th eB r i t i sh m i l i ta ry a t ta ch ér epo r t edtha tO ldSh i r t sc la im edtohav een l i s t edinth eD i v i s ionto“g e tawayf romSpa inini t sp r e s en ts ta t e .”233 On eFa lang i s t f romSan tand e rev ens ta t edinal e t t e r pub l i sh eda f t e rh i sd ea thin Ru s s iatha th i sd i s en chan tm en tov e rth ed e t e r io ra t iono fh i sid ea l sin Spa inhad mov edh imtoen l i s t :“ Idono tcon fo rmtol i f ea tp r e s en t ; th i s‘b la ck ma rk e t ’a tmo sph e r ea sphyx ia t e sm e .O fund e r cov e rR ed s , o f‘ l i f e longr igh t -w ing m en . ’”234 Y ea r sla t e r ,th eBDFa lang i s tv e t e ran ssom e t im e snam edth em s e lv e s 235 th eG en e ra t iono f1941 . How ev e rth e i re sp r i td ec o rp s wa sin su ff c i en t toinfu en c eth ed ev e lopm en to fth eFETinanyd e c i s iv e wayo rth er e g im euponth e i rr e tu rn .Th e i rexp e r i en c e wa son eo falo s tg en e ra t ion .

3ALong Ma r ch :F romC en t ra lEu rop e to   th eV o lkhovF ron t

Inla t eJu ly1941 ,ag roupo fSpan i sho ff c e r sl e f tth eG ra f enwöh rcamp fo rth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eyhadb e ena s s ign edto G e rmanun i t sinth e Uk ra in etofam i l ia r iz eth em s e lv e sw i th W eh rma ch tcomba tm e thod s andr e tu rn eds ev e ra lday sla t e r . Mo s to fth eB lu eD iv i s ionun i t s ,howev e r ,r ema in eda tth et ra in ingcampfo rfv etos ix w e ek s–ha l fo fth e u sua ltw e lv e -w e ekt ra in ingp e r iodfo rth eG e rmanA rmy .On20 Augu s t 1941 ,th ef r s tconvoyo fs ixt ra in sw i thcon t ing en t so fSpan i sht roop s d epa r t edf romth eG ra f enwöh r ,Pa rk en s t e in -U l t en ,and W i s ekS ta t ion s . Th e250 th D iv i s ionl e f tins ix ty s ixt ra in sov e rafv e -dayp e r iod .Th e mo to r iz edv eh i c l e sd epa r t edla s t ,inaco lumno ftwohund r edun i t s . Th ey w e r ed e s t in edfo rSuwa łk i ,onth ebo rd e rw i tho c cup i edPo land , thoughsom econvoy sw en td i r e c t lytoG rodnoinEa s t e rnPo land . On c eth eygo to f fth et ra inino c cup i edt e r r i to ry ,th eSpan i shcomba tan t sen coun t e r edth ef r s tha r shr ea l i tyo fth e i rn ewl i f e .L ik e mo s to f th eG e rmanin fan t ryun i t s ,th ey wou ldhav eto mak eagoodpa r to fth e jou rn eyonfoo t ,a s s i s t edbysom ev eh i c l e sandhund r ed so fho r s e stha t ca r r i edimp ed im en ta , mun i t ion s ,a r t i l l e ryp i e c e s ,andh eavy w eapon ry . Th eBDr e c e iv ed5 ,610 ho r s e stha thadb e enr equ i s i t ion edbyth eW eh r ma ch tinth eBa lkan sand w e r einalam en tab l es ta t e wh enth eya r r iv ed in G ra f enwöh ra f t e rsu chalongjou rn ey .Ca r ingfo rth eho r s e sb e cam e as e r iou sp rob l em , mad e wo r s ebyth epoo rqua l i tyo fth ean ima l sand th ein exp e r i en c eo f manyo fth e i rca r e tak e r s .InSpa in ,anex c e s s iv e numb e ro fd r iv e r shadb e enr e c ru i t ed w i thth eid eatha tth eD iv i s ion wou ldb e mo to r iz ed .Th eyhadtob equ i ck lyr e t ra in edtotam eho r s e s .1 Thu sb egananin t e rm inab l e wa lka longth eh ighway so fEa s t e rnPoland ,L i thuan ia ,By e lo ru s s ia ,andRu s s iatoth ec i tyo fV i t eb sk , wh e r e th eyaga inboa rd edat ra info rth es e c to ro fth ef ron ttha thadb e ena s s ign edtoth eBD .Th efoo t ma r ch wa sg ru e l l ingfo r mo s to fth evo l un t e e r s . W a lk ings ev e ra l doz en k i lom e t r e sp e r dayon poo r ,ro cky ,

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 77

i r r egu la rh ighway sinau tumn w ea th e rtha thadtu rn edun s ea sonab ly co ldinS ep t emb e r ,w i thev e rco ld e rf r e ez e sa tn igh t ,andund e rth econ s tan tw e igh to fth e i rk i t s wa ssom e th ingtha tth esho r tt ra in ingp e r iod in G ra f enwöh rhadno tp r epa r edth emfo rsu ff c i en t ly .Th eha rd sh ip s w e r ee sp e c ia l lyunb ea rab l efo rth em idd l e c la s su rbanvo lun t e e r s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,andtho s ew i thou tp r io rm i l i ta ryexp e r i en c e .How ev e r , no tev enth e mo s texp e r i en c edv e t e ran s ,th eba t t l e -wo rnFa lang ea c t ivi s t sf romth efound ingy ea r so rth es e rg ean t sandp rov i s iona len s ign s , hadsu f f e r edsu chha rdandongo ingfoo t ma r ch e sdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r . Ato ta lo f2 ,177a sp e ad o s–th enam eg iv entoso ld i e r s whohadv i r tua l ly“wa lk edth e i rf e e to f f”–d ev e lop eds ev e r eb l i s t e r sandhadto b et ran spo r t edinca r stoho sp i ta l s .A s manya se igh ty twoso ld i e r s and NCO sw e r er epa t r ia t edinla t eS ep t emb e rfo rimp rop e rcondu c t o rla cko fphy s i ca lendu ran c e . Manyo fth ea sp e ad o s ,a c co rd ingto m i l i ta rysu rg eonLóp ez Rom e ro ,a r r iv ed w i tha“ ra th e rr e lax ed” mo ra l e anda t t i tud e ,co r r e spond ingto“ tho s e who wou ldla t e rb es cab sonth e D iv i s ion ,in s epa rab l ef romth eF i e ld Ho sp i ta l , whocam etou sfu l lo f comp la in t sandlam en t s ,ina wo rd ,la cko fsp i r i t .”Th i s wa sr ef e c t edin th e i run t idyapp ea ran c eandbadb ehav iou r : Manyo fth em ,af ewday sin toth e ma r ch ,cam einfu l lo fm i s e ry ,w i thto rn c lo th e s ,longha i r ,un shav enandl i c e r idd en .Du r ingth es taya tth i sc en t r e , th eyp ra c t i c edth e i rfavou r i t epa s t im e s ,gamb l ingands t ea l ing .Inp la c e s l ik eO r sha , wh e r ew ew e r equa r t e r edn ex ttoth etown ,th ey wou ldev en e s cap ea tn igh tf romth e i rr e sp e c t iv elodg ing s ;toth epo in ttha tw ehadto co rdono f fth eCamp .Inth eH ea r ing sfo rD i sab i l i tyinG rodnoand M in sk , th eycam efood ingin ,d emo ra l iz ed ,som et ry ingtotak eadvan tag eo fth e goodfa i tho fth eM ed i ca lT r ibuna lw i thsuppo s eda i lm en t stha t wou ld 2 a l lowth emtor e tu rntoSpa in .

D i s c ip l in ed e t e r io ra t edrap id lyinth e ma r chco lumn s .Th eSpan ia rd s d i s t ingu i sh edth em s e lv e s ,a ssom ehaddon ein G ra f enwöh r ,fo rfou ting th eW eh rma ch tno rm so fun i fo rm i tyando rgan iza t ion .Th eys ca r c e ly con c e rn edth em s e lv e sw i th wha tth eycon s id e r edt r if e s ,su cha sk e ep ingth e i r ja ck e tbu t ton ed ,a lway sca r ry ingth e i rw eapon sonth e i rshou l d e r ,o rl eav ingc l ea rspa c eonth eroad .Th er e su l t inge f f e c tinth e ma r ch co lumn s wa ss ca r c e ly ma r t ia ltoG e rmaney e sandtotho s eino c cup i ed v i l lag e s . Manyso ld i e r st r i edtosav eth em s e lv e sth ee f fo r to f wa lk ing andc l imb edon toequ ipm en tv eh i c l e s wh en ev e rth eycou ld ,ov e r load ingth emfu r th e r .Th eca r eandc l ean ingo fth e i rw eapon sandk i t sl e f t mu chtob ed e s i r ed ,andth es ta t eo fth e i rho r s e s wa s wo r s e . Many w e r e lo s ttoexhau s t ion ,d ef c i en tca r e ,andf r equ en tov e rbu rd en ing .

78 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .3 .1 .Span i shso ld i e r sw i thS o ld a t en bu ch,G ra f enwöh r ,Ju ly1941(AGA )

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 79

Add edtoth i sw e r em ino rin c id en t sw i thth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,b eg inn inginth e Ma su r ianc i tyo fT r eubu rg(O l e cko ) , wh e r eth eG e rman l ia i son w ro t eon26 Augu s to fth e“no tab l ecomp la in t s”o fth ec iv i l ian popu la t ionr ega rd ing th econdu c to f th eBDvo lun t e e r s .Ina6S ep t emb e r m e e t ing w i thF i e ld Ma r sha l l Gün th e rvon K lug e ,command e rinch i e f o fth e4 th G e rman A rmy ,th el ia i sono ff c e r sd e s c r ib edth es i tua t ionin t e l eg raph i ct e rm s : Con fu s ing ma r ch ingo rd e r s ,la cko f ma r chd i s c ip l in e ,s ca r c ecapa c i tyo f th eyoung e s to ff c e r stoimpo s eau tho r i ty ,fa i lu r eo fth e NCOco rp s ,ab so lu t ela cko fqua r t e rma s t e r s ,poo rca r eo fth ea l r eadyd ef c i en tS e rb ian ho r s e s ,e t c .

Th eon lyth ing wo r thh igh l igh t ing ,a c co rd ingtoth el ia i sono ff c e r s , wa sth e“goodch e e randcomba t iv ehapp in e s so fth eSpan ia rd s .”Th e r e wa sth eo c ca s iona lca s eo fd e s e r t iontowa rd sth er ea rgua rdf romso ld i e r sov e r com ebyfa t igu eo rtho s e whod e s i r edtos l ipaway .3 How ev e r ,ing en e ra lth e i r mo ra l ed idno td e c l in ed e sp i t eth eha r shn e s so f th e ma r ch ,th ein c r ea s ingco ld ,andth ev i s ib l es ign so fr e c en tcomba t tha tb e cam e mo r eand mo r ef r equ en ta sth eso ld i e r sc ro s s edth efo rm e r Sov i e tbo rd e r .J e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,aFa lang i s tjou rna l i s t ,p enn edin h i sd ia ryon8S ep t emb e r1941 : W epa s sd e s t roy edtown sandhou s e s .InLydath e r ei sala rg eamoun to f wa r ma t e r i e ld e s t roy edby G e rmana i rra id s .Th e r ea r eeno rmou stank s ands ev e ra lm i l i ta ryt ra in s .Onth eh ighway ,nowandth en ,youfndtomb s o fG e rmanso ld i e r s .

N in eday sla t e r ,th eimp r e s s iono fg e t t ingc lo s e rtoth es c en eo fcomba t g en e ra t edex c i t em en tamongth et roop s :“gu t t edtank s ,ano c ca s iona l c ra sh edR edp lan eandG e rmantomb s .”Th eo ff c e r sw e r esu r etha tth e comba t wou ldb eha r shbu tsho r t ,andev e ryon eexp e c t edasw i f tG e r manv i c to ry .4 Ma r ch d i s c ip l in einth eB lu eD iv i s ionimp rov eda f t e rth es e cond w e eko fS ep t emb e randth eun i tin c r ea s edi t spa c etoa lmo s tth i r tyk i lom e t r e sp e rday .Ev enso , wh en MuñozG rand e sandth eG e rmanl ia i son command e rv i s i t edth eA rmy G roup C en t r eh eadqua r t e r stofna l iz e th ed e ta i l so fth e i rin co rpo ra t iononth ef ron t ,th eG e rman sw e r es can da l iz eda t wha tth eysaw wh enth eSpan ia rd spa s s edby .Th epano rama hadno tchang ed :un i t sw e r e wa lk ingonbo ths id e so fth e mo to rway pa s tM in skandb lo ck ingt ra ff c ,andth e r ew e r eunwa r l ik es c en e s(“ th e ma r chco lumn wa st ran spo r t ingl iv e s to ck” ) ,i r r egu la rc lo th ing ,and

80 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

la cko fag r e em en tr ega rd inghowtoca r ryth e i rw eapon s .Th eO rgan i za t ionT od td r iv e r sonth e mo to rway w e r esp e e ch l e s sa tth esp e c ta c l e 5 tha tr e in fo r c edth e i rb ia s e sr ega rd ingth esou th e rn“ ra s ca l s .” V onBo ckapp ea r edr e t i c en ttocommandSpan ia rd sin A rmy G roup C en t r e .M eanwh i l e ,A rmy G roup No r thn e ed edr e in fo r c em en t s .A f t e r hav ings en tpa r to fi t st roop stoth efna l Mo s cowo f f en s iv e ,i thadb e en fo r c edtor ep e lh eavySov i e tcoun t e r -a t ta ck s .Ina l lp robab i l i ty ,tha t wa s wha t mo t iva t edth eG e rmancommand–a tH i t l e r ’ sr equ e s t–toa s s ign th e250 th D iv i s iontoan ewf ron t . On25S ep t emb e r ,th e OKHno t if ed th e9 th A rmy , whot ran sm i t t edth eo rd e rtoth eBDtha tth ey wou ld b ed i spa t ch edtoth eno r th e rns e c to ro fth ef ron t .Th eSpan ia rd s ,thu s , wou ldpa r t i c ipa t einth eop e ra t ion sfo rth es i eg eo fL en ing radandi t s 6 ad ja c en ts c ena r io s . D e sp i t eth e i rd i sappo in tm en ta tno tfgh t inginth en ex t Mo s cowo ff en s iv e ,th egu r ip a s(wha tth eBDso ld i e r sca l l edth em s e lv e s )tookth e n ew sw i thr e s igna t ionandatou cho fhumou r ,a sp r iva t eLu i sAgu i la r r e co rd ed : Th eysaytha tth eG en e ra lo fth eA rmyCo rp sw ew e r ea s s ign edtodo e sn ’ t wan tu s ,a sinou r ma r ch e sw eg iv eth eimp r e s s iono fb e ingau s e l e s sfo r c e . P e rhap si ti sb e cau s ew egounbu t ton ed ,w i thou rha t stoon es id eand b e cau s esom eo fou ran t i tankp i e c e shav enam e s :Lo la ,Ca rm en c i ta ,e t c . , 7 andth eo c ca s iona lch i ck enhang ingf romth etow .

Th eSpan i shco lumn shad to tu rna round ,r e tu rn toV i t eb sk ,andboa rd th et ra intoP l e skau/P skow ,lo ca t edinth er ea rgua rdo fth eL en ing rad F ron t . On1 O c tob e r , Muñoz G rand e sandl ia i sono ff c e r Gün th e rCo l la tza r r iv eda tA rmy G roup No r thh eadqua r t e r s ;twoday sla t e rth ey w e r ea tth eh eadqua r t e r so fth e16 thA rmy ,to wh i chth eSpan i sh D iv is ionhadb e ena s s ign ed .Th elog i s t i ca lp rob l em scon t inu ed :th eho r s e s and mo to r iz edv eh i c l e sw e r einpoo rcond i t ion sandth et roop sw e r e s c ru f fyandf edupa tno thav ingen t e r edcomba t .Th equa r t e rma s t e ro f th el ia i sons ta f fa l soob s e rv edtha tth eBD ’ so rgan iza t iona ld ef c i en c i e s hadb e com e mo r ea cu t edu r ingth efoo t ma r ch .8 On 10 O c tob e r1941 ,th eA rmy G roup No r th wa rd ia ryind i ca t ed , w i thop en m i s t ru s t ,tha ti t wa sno ton lydub iou stha tth eSpan i sh D iv i s ion wou ldb ecapab l eo fgo ingonth eo f f en s iv e ,du etoth e i rs loven lyapp ea ran c e ,bu ttha t“ th et roop sc r ea t eanunu sua limp r e s s ion to G e rmaney e s . Th es ta t eo fth eho r s e sandv eh i c l e si squ e s t iona b l e .”9 Th efo l low ingday ,th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa sin co rpo ra t edin toth e p rov i s iona la rmyg roupund e rth ecommando fG en e ra lF ranzvon Roqu e s ,th encommand e rinch i e fo fth er ea rgua rdo fA rmy G roup

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 81

No r th .In s t eado fr ep la c ingth e126 th G e rmanIn fan t ry D iv i s ion ,th e BD wa sd ep loy ed mo r etoth esou th ,b e tw e en Novgo rodandth eV o lkhovR iv e r ,toth eno r tho fLak eI lm en ,tor e l i ev eth e18 thIn fan t ryD iv i s ionini t sd e f en s iv epo s i t ion .Th eG e rmanl ia i soncommandandth e h eadqua r t e r so fth e250 th W eh rma ch tD iv i s ion–th eSpan i s ch enF r e iw i l l ig en D iv i s ion– w e r ee s tab l i sh edin G r igo rovo ,onth eou t sk i r t s o fth ed e s t roy ed , mo s t lyabandon edc i tyo f Novgo rod .Th eSpan i sh un i t sb egantoo c cupyth e i rpo s i t ion sonth ef ron tinth efo l low ing day s , ju s ta sth ef r s tsnow fa l l su sh e r edinf r e ez ing w ea th e r–th ep r e lud etoapa r t i cu la r lyha r shandea r ly w in t e rtha t wou ldb ed e c i s iv eto 10 th ecou r s eo fth e wa r . The W eh rma ch tandSpan i shSo ld ie r s Th eAdm i r ed W eh rm a ch t :AnEg a l i t a r i anA rmy? Th ef r s tth ingtha tSpan i shvo lun t e e r sexp e r i en c edin G e rmany wa s th eW eh rma ch t ,r ega rd edbya l lo fth ema sa w e l l -o i l ed ma ch in e .Th ey w e r efa s c ina t edbyi t sequ ipm en t ,a rmam en t s ,ando rgan iza t ion , wh i ch mad ei tpo s s ib l efo rth eW eh rma ch ttofgh ta wa r wh i ch wa s ,inth e i r ey e s ,fa r mo r e mod e rnandb ru ta lthantha texp e r i en c edinSpa infv e y ea r sb e fo r e .Inth ep ro c e s s , manyBDso ld i e r s ,o rd iv i s i on a r i o s,a l soim p l i c i t lyjux tapo s edth eo s t en s ib l ep e r f e c t iono fG e rmanlog i s t i c sw i th th eimp e r f e c tfun c t ion ingo fth eSpan i sh A rmy .Badsupp l i e sandth e in e ff c i en cyo f manySpan i sho ff c e r sand NCO sb e cam epa r t i cu la r ly ev id en ttoth em .D ion i s ioR id ru e joexp r e s s edana lmo s ta s ton i sh edad m i ra t ionfo rth eW eh rma ch ta sh ew ro t ef romth ein s t ru c t ioncampo f G ra f enwöh r :“w ea r einth em id s to faco lo s sa la rmy ,a lmo s tpa in fu l ly p e r f e c t. . .ana rmy wh i chi sl ik eth ep eop l ei ts e rv e s .”Ev enth ec e l l s in G e rman m i l i ta ryp r i son sw e r er ega rd eda scom fo r tab l eandc l ean compa r edtoSpan i shon e s .Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sa l sosha r edbyth e mo s t p ro f e s s iona lSpan i sh m i l i ta ry .A r t i l l e ryCo lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lo w ro t etha t th eG e rman sa sa“ co l l e c t iv e” w e r ea“g r ea tp eop l e .”Ju s taf ew mon th s la t e r ,h eadm i t t edsom e nuan c e s . W eh rma ch tcommand e r sw e r e no long e rd em igod s ;th eycomm i t t edta c t i ca lm i s tak e s ,l im i t edth em s e lv e s to“ob ey ingo rd e r sa srobo t s ,”andla ck edth eab i l i tytoimp rov i s e wh en 1 1 th ing sw en tw rong . BDvo lun t e e r se sp e c ia l lyno t i c edth econ t ra s tb e tw e enG e rman m i li ta rye ff c i en cyandth er e la t iv e lyca r e l e s so rgan iza t iono fth eSpan i sh m i l i ta ryina r ea so fh ea l thca r eandfoodsupp ly . Un t i la tl ea s tm id 1942 ,i t wa sc l ea rtoth ed iv i s i on a r i o stha tth e i rG e rmancom rad e s w e r eb e t t e requ ipp edandb e t t e rf ed ,thoughinth eo rybo thg roup s

82 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .3 .2 .G e rmanso ld i e r sf ra t e rn iz ew i thSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,F ran c e , Ju ly1941(AA )

12 r e c e iv edas im i la rd i e t . Con t ra s t sina t t en t ionr e c e iv eda tm i l i ta ry ho sp i ta l sw e r eev en mo r es t r ik ing .13 Conva l e s c ingSpan i shso ld i e r s u sua l ly po in t edou tth ed i f f e r en c e sint r ea tm en tb e tw e en G e rman m i l i ta ryho sp i ta l s( c l eanand w e l lo rgan iz ed ,w i thsympa th e t i cs ta f f ) andSpan i shon e s .Su chd i f f e r en c e scou lda l sob eob s e rv edinho sp i14 ta l slo ca t edinth eG e rmanr ea rgua rd . Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sla t e rr e in fo r c edbyth eSpan i shso ld i e r s ’sp e c if cm emo r i e so fG e rmannu r s e s , wh i cho s c i l la t edb e tw e eng ra t i tud efo rth e i re ff c i en cyandid ea l izat iono fth e i rsuppo s ed lyop en -m ind edapp roa chtos exua l ma t t e r s . Qu i t eo f t en ,th eK r an k en s chw e s t e rn b e cam eas exua l my thfo rSpan i sh wa rv e t e ran s .15 Mo r eov e r , manyBDcomba tan t s ,pa r t i cu la r lyFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s , p e r c e iv edth eW eh rma ch ta saso c ia l lyega l i ta r iana rmy , wh e r eha r sh d i s c ip l in eco ex i s t ed w i thth er e c r ea t iono fac la s s l e s sna t iona lcommun i ty(V o l k sg em e in s ch a f t)th roughcom rad e sh ipandsha r edexp e r i en c e s 16 a tth ef ron t ,and wh e r e manyo ff c e r sw e r ed e ep lycomm i t t ed Naz i s . I t wa sth et ru e Na t iona lSo c ia l i s ta rmytha t manyFa lang i s t ss t rov e toc r ea t einSpa in ,ands e rv eda sanun com fo r tab l er em ind e ro fth e

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inad equa c i e so fth e i rowna rmy . Manyvo lun t e e r sg r ea t lyapp r e c ia t ed th efa c ttha tG e rmano ff c e r s wa i t edth e i rtu rninth eda i lycommuna l m ea lqu eu e ,d idno ttak eex t rapo r t ion so ffoodandtoba c co ,sa tamong th eso ld i e r sont ra in s ,andr e c e iv edth esam et r ea tm en ta sth ep r iva t e s 17 a tth ecan t ina s(S o ld a t enh e im e)inth er ea r . Mo r eov e r ,th eya l sono t ed po s i t iv e lytha tG e rmano ff c e r sand NCO sd idno tinf i c tphy s i ca lpuni shm en tonth e i rsubo rd ina t e s , wh i ch wa sacommonp ra c t i c einth e Span i shA rmy .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa snoex c ep t iontotha tru l e ,a s many vo lun t e e r sd e s c r ib edinth e i r wa rd ia r i e s .18 Th i s wa scon s i s t en tw i thth e t rad i t iono fth eP ru s s ianA rmyandth eW eh rma ch t , wh e r eo ff c e r sand NCO sw e r em ean ttor e in fo r c eth ecoh e s iono fp r ima ryg roup s . On e Span i shv e t e ranr em emb e r edy ea r sla t e rhowth eya c t eda s“ th em o th e r o fh i sun i t .”19 Sp an i shandG e rm anS o ld i e r s :S t e r e o typ e s ,C o ex i s t en c e ,andC onf i c t Th eG e rman m i l i ta ry w e l com edth eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ionandapp r ec ia t edi t scon t r ibu t ioninamb iva l en tt e rm s .F rom D e c emb e r1941on th eW eh rma ch tsu f f e r edtoo manyca sua l t i e sandth eSpan ia rd sw e r e mo s t lyr ega rd eda su s e fu lfo rcov e r ingd e f en s iv epo s i t ion s .G e rman command e r s , who s ev i ew sw e r econd i t ion edbyp r e ex i s t ings t e r eo typ e s ,w e r eop en lyd i sda in fu lo fSpan i sh m i l i ta rycu l tu r e .Th eysaw inth e i rSpan i shco l l eagu e sab l endo fso c ia le l i t i sm ,p ro f e s s iona lig no ran c e ,andlaz in e s s ,andf e l tpa r t i cu la r lyang ryuponob s e rv ingth e p r iv i l eg e sen joy edbyBDo ff c e r sint e rm so ffoodra t ion sanda c commoda t ion .20 Th e i rr ema rk sr e s emb l edtho s eexp r e s s edbyl ia i sono f f c e r sinRoman ianandI ta l ianun i t s ,andth eyr ev ea l edth ed i ff cu l t i e s o fcoop e ra t ionamong s ta l l i e sw i thd iv e r s em i l i ta rycu l tu r e stha ta l lr ef e c t edth eso c ia lh i e ra r ch i e so fth e i rr e sp e c t iv ecoun t r i e s .21 D e sp i t eth erh e to r i ca lp ra i s ingo fSpan i sh“h e ro i cd e ed s”a tth ef ron t , mo s tG e rmancommand e r s whohadth eBDund e rth e i rr e spon s ib i l i ty d i s l ik edafo r e ignun i twho s ecomba tan t sw e r er ega rd eda s ind iv idua l ly b rav e ,bu tchao t i candl edbyun t ra in edo ff c e r sunab l etound e r s tand mod e rn wa r fa r e .22 Th ev i ew so fW eh rma ch to ff c e r sw e r einfu en c ed mo r ebyth e i rp ro f e s s iona la r rogan c ethanbyra c ia ldo c t r in e s . Non eth e l e s s ,th e r ea l so w e r esom eex c ep t ion s . Ob e rzah lm e i s t e r Ludw ig S chwabf romth em i l i ta ryga r r i sonin Ho fno t edin1944tha tSpan i sh so ld i e r sin co rpo ra t edacong lom e ra t eo fd i f f e r en tra c e s ,f rom A ryan s who w e r e“ ta l l ,b londandb lu e ey ed ,d e s c endan t so fth eGo th s”toth e “m e s t i z o so fA f r i cand e s c en t ,sma l l ,b rown ,w i thcu r lyha i rand N eg ro id t ra c e s .” D e sp i t eb e ingra c ia l lyimpu r e ,h eob s e rv ed ,Span ia rd sa l so w e r ethough ttob e“p roud”andex t r em e lyna t iona l i s t .23

84 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ea t t i tud e so fG e rmanrank -and -f l eso ld i e r sand NCO stowa rd s th e i rSpan i shcom rad e sw e r efa r mo r epo s i t iv e .C e r ta in ly ,th e i r imag eo f th eexo t i cIb e r ian sr e s t edh eav i lyonp r e ex i s t ingroman t i cs t e r eo typ e s , 24 sp r eadbyth ep r e s sandc in emao fth eTh i rdR e i ch . Th e s ei con sw e r e a l sop r e s en tamong s t Naz il ead e r s :H i t l e rapp r e c ia t edSpan i shso ld i e r s a s und i s c ip l in edbu tr e l iab l ecom rad e s .25 G e rman p r iva t e s( L and s e r) pa r t i cu la r lyva lu edqua l i t i e sr e la t edtov i r i l i ty ,su cha scomba tso l ida ri tyandind iv idua lb rav e ry .Incon t ra s ttoRoman iano rI ta l ianso ld i e r s , Span ia rd sea rn edsom er e sp e c tinth e i ra l l i e s ’ey e s .Th epo s i t iv er e f e ren c e stoB lu eD iv i s iond e ed sinth eda i lyW eh rm a ch t s b e r i ch t, wh i ch w e r e though ttosa t i s fyth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t ,undoub t ed lycon t r ibu t edto th i s ,a sw e l la ss ev e ra lp r e s sa r t i c l e spub l i sh edby G e rman ,F r en ch ,o r Roman iann ew spap e r s .26 Y e t wo rdo f mou thcommun i ca t ionamong s t L and s e r s andth e i rfam i l i e s wa s mo r ed e c i s iv e ,a ss ev e ra lexamp l e s f romp r iva t el e t t e r ssugg e s t .F romth eV o lkhovF ron t ,Co rpo ra lO t to M . w ro t ein O c tob e r1941tha t“ad iv i s iono fSpan ia rd sha sb e end ep loy ed h e r eandth eyfgh tqu i t ew e l l ,” wh i l e Cap ta in H e rmannS ch .s ta t ed 27 tha t“ou rSpan i shf r i end sshowth em s e lv e stob ev e rycou rag eou s .” How ev e r ,th eya l sod i s l ik edth eIb e r ianla cko fcon c e rnfo rp e r sona lhyg i en e .28 No tun su rp r i s ing ly ,ab su rdrumou r sa l soc i r cu la t edcon c e rn ing th ela cko fd i s c ip l in eo fth eSpan ia rd s :a G e rmano ff c e rw ro t einAp r i l 1942tha tSpan i shso ld i e r shadshownupin W a r saw–ac i tyth eyhad n ev e rv i s i t ed– w i th“a lmo s tnoequ ipm en tandno w eapon s ,b e cau s e 29 th eyhadso ldev e ry th ing .” W eh rma ch tp ropagandao f t enexa l t edth esp i r i to fcom rad e sh ipb etw e enSpan i shand G e rmanso ld i e r s , wh i chsuppo s ed lyr e in ca rna t ed 30 th eb ro th e r s in -a rm sexp e r i en c eo fth es ix t e en thc en tu ry . Y e t ,ev e ry dayr e la t ion sd i sp lay edsom eamb iva l en c e ,r e in fo r c edbyp r e ex i s t ing s t e r eo typ e s .Thu s ,th ef r s timp r e s s ion sr e co rd edinsom eSpan i sh wa r d ia r i e sa f t e rth ed iv i s i on a r i o sm e tth e i rG e rmancom rad e sfo rth ef r s t t im e ,on c eth eyhadc ro s s edth ePy r en e e s ,po in t edou tatyp i ca la r ch e typ e ,P ru s s ianr ig id i ty :“Th eG e rman stak eov e r .I ’mno tsu r e wha t imp r e s s ionth ey mak eon m e … Anyway , wha ti ssu r ei stha tIfound 31 th emtooco ldandP ru s s ian .” Thoughv e ryf ewBDvo lun t e e r sspok e G e rman , many manag edtos c rap ebyande s tab l i shaso l idcama rad e r i ew i th G e rmanso ld i e r s .Span i shand G e rmano ff c e r sr e so r t edto F r en cha sth e i rl inguaf ran caandco ex i s t en c einfo r e f ron tpo s i t ion sran smoo th ly .Insom es e c t ion s ,su cha sadvan c eda r t i l l e rypo s t s ,p la toon s w e r eo f t en mu l t ina t iona landcommun i ca t edu s inga m ix edja rgono f wo rd sf romva r iou slanguag e s .32 Som eSpan i shand G e rmanso ld i e r s ev ene s tab l i sh edr ea lf r i end sh ipt i e s , wh i cho f t enl edth efo rm e rtofu l ly 33 emb ra c eid en t if ca t ion w i thTh i rdR e i ch wa ra im s .

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Mo s tcon t empo ra rya c coun t scommun i ca t edaf r i end ly ,r e la t iv e ly po s i t iv eimag eo fG e rmancomba tan t s , wh i chendu r edd e sp i t ed i f f e ren c e sin m i l i ta rycu l tu r e . Wh i l eSpan ia rd ssaw G e rman sco l l e c t iv e ly a scoo landd i s tan t , wh enapp roa ch edind iv idua l lyth eIb e r ian sfound th ela t t e rtob ehon e s t ,ha rd -wo rk ing ,andr e sp e c t fu lp eop l e , whoo f cou r s ew e r ein c r ed ib lyc l eanandk ep tth e i requ ipm en tingoodo r d e r . How ev e r ,a f t e rd ea l ing w i thIb e r ian s ,som eG e rman sb e cam e “mo r edown to ea r thandb ehav e mo r eand mo r el ik egyp s i e s . Th ey w e r eonth efdd l e ,smugg l ingandt rad ingev e ry th ingimag inab l e .”34 Th eB lu eD iv i s iont r en chjou rna lin s i s t edtha tsha r edf ron t l in eexp er i en c egav eaf ra t e rna lton etoev e rydayr e la t ion sb e tw e en G e rman s andSpan ia rd s .35 How ev e r ,t ran sna t iona lcom rad e sh ip wa sno ta lway ssoidy l l i cinth e r ea r .InS ep t emb e r1941 ,b e fo r eth eB lu eD iv i s iona r r iv eda tth ef ron t , th e r ew e r equa r r e l sb e tw e enSpan i shand G e rmanso ld i e r s . ASov i e t r epo r tba s edonp r i son e rs ta t em en t sm en t ion edtha tth er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e enBDvo lun t e e r sandth e i ra l l i e st end edtob et en s e :“ in Novgo36 rodsom ec la sh e sb e tw e en Span ia rd sand G e rman sa ro s eaga in .” Sk i rm i sh e sb e tw e enAx i sso ld i e r sinth ev i l lag e sinth er ea ro fth eL ening radF ron tw e r ea l sof r equ en t .Th e s ew e r eo f t enr e la t edtocomp e t i t ionfo rsupp l i e so ffoodandp e t ro l ,o rtoth es ca r c i tyo fr e sou r c e sin at e r r i to rytha thadb e ensy s t ema t i ca l lyp lund e r ed .37 Ono c ca s ion ,th e con s equ en c e so fsu chc la sh e sw e r es ign if can t .In Nov emb e r1943 ,s ix Span i shso ld i e r sw e r ea tth eco r eo fva r iou ss canda l sinth etav e rn so f Kön ig sb e rg . Wh encon f ron t edbyG e rmancomba tan t s whor ep roa ch ed th emfo rth e i rcondu c t ,th eSpan ia rd sop en edf r eonth e i rb ro th e r sin 38 a rm s .I tl e f ton ed iv i s i on a r i od eadands ev e ra l wound ed . How ev e r ,th e mo s tcommon mo t iv efo rd i spu t eb e tw e enIb e r ian s andG e rman s wa sr e la t edto ma s cu l in i tyandth ecomp e t i t ionfo rBa l t i c , Ru s s ian ,o rev enG e rman wom eninth er ea rgua rd .Ru s s ianey ew i tn e s s a c coun t sh igh l igh t edf r equ en tc la sh e sb e tw e enSpan i shand G e rman o c cupan t sinth ev i l lag e sa tth er ea rth eL en ing radF ron t .InJanua ry 1943 ,fo rexamp l e , Span i shso ld i e r s un l ea sh eda wav eo fv io l en c e aga in s tth eG e rman stoav eng eth em i s t r ea tm en to faRu s s ian woman 39 byaL and s e r. Th ed i sd a ino fW eh rm a ch tcomm and e r sw a se sp e c i a l lyh a rdfo rth e G e rm anoph i l eF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r stoa c c ep t .A se a r lya sD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 , R id ru e jo w ro t eth a t“w em ayh av ef e l tou r s e lv e sab andon edbyth eG e rm an s . ” Muño z -G r and e sa cknow l edg edtooth a tG e rm an s“ app r e c i a t e u s ,bu t[… ]a san a t ion ,Ith inkth eydon ’ tt ak eu ss e r iou s ly . ”40 How ev e r , mo s tSp an i shvo lun t e e r sc am etot e rm sw i thsu cha t t i tud e s .R ank and f l eso ld i e r sb a r e lych ang edth e i rpo s i t iv ev i ewo fG e rm an s ,andr e tu rn e e s

86 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .3 .3 .Th e ma r chtoth ef ron t ,Ea s t e rnPo land ,S ep t emb e r1941(AGA )

b rough thom epo s i t iv em emo r i e so fth e i rt r e a tm en tbyth eW eh rm a ch t . G e rm and ip lom a t sandsp i e s inSp a inob s e rv ed th a t mo s tr e tu rn edso ld i e r s 4 1 f romth eE a s t e rnF ron tb e c am es in c e r esuppo r t e r so fth eTh i rdR e i ch . Onthe Ge rman HomeF ron t Th e“A ch i ev em en t s”o fth eTh i rdR e i ch :Sp an i shImp r e s s i on s Th eSp an i shvo lun t e e r sb a r e lyr ef e c t eda tl eng thonth eth eo r e t i c a lp r inc ip l e so fN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sminth e i rd i a r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,and m emo i r s .M any o fth e i rw r i t ing sr e f e r r edtoth ev agu ep ro -Eu rop e anrh e to r i co fth e“N ew O rd e r ”andth ed e f en c eo f Ch r i s t i anc iv i l i z a t ionth a tN a z ip rop ag and a p ro c l a im eda sth ecommongo a lo fa l l“ c ru s ad e r s . ” How ev e r ,th eEu rop e th a tth eSp an i shvo lun t e e r sexp e r i en c ed w a sacon t in en tdom in a t edby th eTh i rdR e i ch .F i r s tand fo r emo s tw a sG e rm any ,wh i ch th eyexp e r i en c ed du r ingb a s i ct r a in inga tc amp s inG r a f enwöh r(Upp e rP a l a t in a t e )andHo f

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 87

(Upp e rF r an con i a ) ,du r ingth e i ro c c a s ion a ll e av e s ,o ronth e i rt r ipb a ck toSp a in .Fo rm anySp an i shvo lun t e e r s ,w a rtou r i sme s s en t i a l lyinvo lv ed v i s i t sto G e rm anyandsom e t im e sL a tv i a . Wh a tw a sth e i rimp r e s s iono f th eG e rm anhom ef ron t ,th en ,and wh a timp r e s s iond idi tl e av eonth em ? Mo s ta c coun t sl e f tby d iv i s i on a r i o sexp r e s ss in c e r eadm i ra t ionfo r wha tth eyp e r c e iv edtob eth eg r ea tso c ia la ch i ev em en t so fth eTh i rd R e i ch :th econ s t ru c t iono fap s eudo -w e l fa r es ta t etha tpa r t i cu la r lyb enef t edth e wo rk ingc la s sandth ep ea san t ry .Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sob l iv i ou sto ,o re l s ew i l fu l lyigno r ed ,th era c ia lco s t so ftha tp e cu l ia rw e l fa r e s ta t e ,shap edbyth econ c ep to fV o l k sg em e in s ch a f t.S egm en t so fth eG e r manpopu la t ionhadb e enex c lud edandk i l l edfo rb iog en e t i cr ea son s , andth e i rpo s s e s s ion shadb e enapp rop r ia t edbyth es ta t e .G e rmany ’ s s lav elabou rande conom i cexp lo i ta t iono fo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sw e r e 42 a l soom i t t edf romth eBDa c coun t s . Span ia rd sfo cu s ed ma in lyon wha tth eysawandhowi tcon t ra s t ed w i thth e i rcoun t ry .Th ep r eva i l ingo rd e randd i s c ip l in ea sw e l la sth e ex t e rna lapp ea ran c eo fv i l lag e sandfa rm sshap edth e i rin i t ia lpo s i t iv e imp r e s s ion suponen t e r ingG e rmant e r r i to ry .Th em i l i ta rysu rg eon Ma nu e ld eCá rd ena sp enn edinh i sd ia rya sh ec ro s s edth eR e i ch ’ sbo rd e r “ inG e rmanynopoo rhou s e scanb es e en .”Th eappa r en tw e l l -b e ingsu r round ingth ema l soimp r e s s edconva l e s c ingSpan i shso ld i e r sonth e i r wa lk sth rough Kön ig sb e rg .Ev entho s e who w e r eno ts taun chfa s c i s t s ma rv e l l eda tG e rmano rd e randc l eann e s s .43 Dan i e lT o r ra wa ss t ru ckin O c tob e r1941byth eco l l e c t iv eha rmonyh ep e r c e iv eda l la roundh im : “G e rmany w i l lundoub t ed ly w inth e wa r. . .I ti sanimm en s eg ea rbox 44 andi t sp i e c e s wo rk w i thch ronom e t r i cp r e c i s ion .” On c ein G e rm ant e r r i to ry ,ev e ryvo lun t e e rs e em edtos e e wh a th e w an t edtos e e .F a l ang i s t sr eg a rd edinth eTh i rdR e i chap e r f e c t mod e l o fas t a t eth a th ada ch i ev edah ighd eg r e eo fso c i a lju s t i c eandn a t ion a l so l id a r i ty :acomb in a t iono fn a t ion a l i smandso c i a l i smth a ts t ay edloy a l toth er evo lu t ion a ryp r in c ip l e so ff a s c i sm w i thou tcon c e s s ion stoth e Chu r ch ,l andown e r s ,o rbou rg eo i s i e .Th i sw a s wh a tth eyf e l ts t i l lh adto b edon einSp a in , wh e r eth eF r an cod i c t a to r sh ip w a sinth e i rey e s mo r e C a tho l i cth ant ru lyf a s c i s t .P r iv a t eJo s éLu i s Mo r a l e sa ff rm edonh i sr etu rntoSp a inth a tG e rm an slov edar eg im eth a t“h adg iv enth emth e i r n a t ion a ld ign i tyb a ck . ”45 O th e r scon s id e r edth a t i tw a sp a r t i cu l a r lyH i t l e r whoh aden ab l edth i sn ewG e rm anw e l l -b e ing ,a f t e r“b r e ak ingth ech a in s o fth eV e r s a i l l e sT r e a ty . ”46 Ano th e rF a l ang i s tsumm edupth i sp e r c ep t ion : W i th inaf ewy ea r s ,H i t l e rhad manag edtor e con c i l einat ru eso c ia lsyne rgyth e wo rk e r s ’fo r c e sando th e rna t iona lfo r c e s. . .S e enf romSpa in , young e rp eop l er ea l lyadm i r edtha t. . . Wha t wa spa r t i cu la r lyfa s c ina t ing

88 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t inth en ewG e rmany , wa stos e em i l l ion so fsa t i sf ed wo rk e r s , whof e l ttha t th e i r wo rkhadb e enendo r s ed .I t wa sas t rong ,b eau t i fu lG e rmanyou th , fu l lo fid ea s ,p ro j e c t ingth em s e lv e sfo rwa rd .I t wa sl ik etou ch ingth ec r ea 4 7 t iono fan ew wo r ldandan ew wayo fl i f e .

Manya sp e c t so fev e ryday l i f ew e r ea l so in t e rp r e t ed w i th inth i sf ram e o fm ean ing .InF eb rua ry1942 ,th eFa lang i s tJo s éM .Ca s tañónadm i r ed th eco r r e c tfun c t ion ingo fth efoodra t ion ingsy s t eminB e r l inand wa s a s ton i sh edbyth efa c ttha tnob la ck ma rk e ts e em edtoex i s t .H ea t t r ib u t edth i stoth ed e eps en s eo fna t iona lcommun i tytha th e lp edso c ia l ju s t i c etop r eva i l ,a s wa sr ef e c t edinth ela cko fb egga r sinth es t r e e t s : Fo rG e rman s ,ju s t i c ei s mo r eroo t edthancha r i ty. . .C e r ta in ly ,aG au l e i t e r mu s tb eb e t t e ro f fthanacommonc i t iz en .Bu tth e r ei snob egga ry .Th e ba s i cn e c e s s i t i e so fl iv inga r ew e l l cov e r edfo rev e ry G e rman ,and mu ch mo r efo rtho s e who wo rk manua l ly .Th e wo rk ingc la s si sp r iv i l eg ed–a l4 8 thoughin t e rna lh i e ra r ch i e sa r eadm i t t ed– w i th inth eS ta t e .

Th i sa l sol edto w i sh fu lth ink ing . Un t i l1943 , manyvo lun t e e r scons id e r edB e r l intob eac i tytha t“ look sl ik eany th ingbu tth ecap i ta lo f 49 ana t ionin wa r t im e .” In Augu s t1941 ,on lyahand fu lo fa s tu t eob s e rv e r sno t edth ein c r ea s ingsa c r if c e stha t wa rr equ i r edonth ehom e f ron t .N ev e r th e l e s s ,th ep e r c ep t iono fth eG e rmanr ea rgua rda sapa r ad i s eb egantochang ein1942 ,a sth e ma s s iv ea i rra id s mod if edth e imag eo fG e rman w e l l -b e ing .So ld i e r sconva l e s c ingo ronl eav ecou ld no t i c ein c r ea s ingsho r tag e so ffood ,c lo th ing ,ando th e rba s i cgood s . Som eev enno t ed , wh enth eyv i s i t edB e r l in ,th e mound so fd eb r i s ;th ey w e r eh eav i lyimp r e s s edbyth es igh to fth ev i c t im s ’co rp s e sl e f tb eh ind bybomba rdm en t s .50 How ev e r , ma t e r ia lw e l fa r e wa sno tth ea sp e c to f Naz iG e rmanytha t imp r e s s edSpan i shso ld i e r sth e mo s t . Manyo fth emapp r e c ia t ed wha t th eysawa sth epa t r io t i cs to i c i smo fc iv i l ian sonth ehom ef ron tand th e i rcomm i tm en ttoth e wa re f fo r to fth eR e i cha sw e l la sth e i rau s t e r i ty .Inth e i rey e s , l i f e wa s mo s t lyha rmon iou sonth eG e rmanhom ef ron t d e sp i t ea l lth eha rd sh ip s .C i t iz en s mad esa c r if c e sfo rah igh e rp r in c ip l e andund e r s toodtha tth e i rfu tu r er equ i r ed“ th e jo in te f fo r to fa l l ,r ega rd l e s so fg end e r ,ag eandc la s s .”Su chs to i c i sm wa ss e ena sth ek eyfa c to r b eh indth eG e rman“ r eb i r th .” Aconva l e s c en tSpan i shso ld i e rno t ed tha tno tev enth ed e f ea to fS ta l ing radhadb rok enth el inkb e tw e enth e hom ef ron tandth ea rmy .51 Ano th e rvo lun t e e r wa sfa s c ina t edby wha t h er ega rd eda sth eexamp l eo fas t rongcommun i tyun i t edbyacommon p r in c ip l eo fna t iona lr e su rg en c eandso c ia lequa l i ty :

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 89 I ti samongth eh igh e s tp r iz e sandanind e s c r ibab l ehonou rtofgh ts id e bys id ew i thth eG r ea tG e rmanP eop l eandth e i rcommand e rAdo l fH i t l e r ; h e r eth e r ea r eno w ea l thyp eop l e ,ju s tana t ionr eadytopu tanendtoa l l ex i s t ingin ju s t i c einth e wo r ld ;th eya l lea tth esam e ;ra t ion ingi ss im i la r fo rth eta l lguyandth el i t t l eguy . . .h e r eth e r ea r enob egga r s ,th eya l lea rn th e i rsa la ry ,andth e wo rk -d i sab l edhav eth esuppo r to fin s t i tu t ion stha t s e etoth e i redu ca t ion . . .Th i si sapa rad i s e ,som e th ing w e wou ldd e s i r efo r ou rownna t ion .52

Insho r t ,th eTh i rdR e i ch wa sth esumo f manyqua l i t i e stha tSpan i sh fa s c i s t senv i ed .I t wa sas e l f -d i s c ip l in ed ,ha rd -wo rk ingna t iontha td id no td e s e rv ed e f ea t :“ I wou ldev enl ik etofgh tju s ttoh e lpap eop l e soun i t edandconv in c edo fi t sid ea s” ;ano th e rFa lang i s ts tud en tw ro t e tha t“ i fGodk e ep sm ea l iv e ,I wou ldl ik etoapp lytoSpa inth eG e rman m e thodfo rg r ea tn e s s .”53 I b e r i an sandB av a r i an s D e sp i t eth eadm i ra t iono f manyo rd ina rySpan ia rd sfo rth ev i c to r i e s andsha r edan t i commun i smo fth eW eh rma ch t ,th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s w i thd e epCa tho l i cconv i c t ion scon t inu edtop e r c e iv eon e ma jo rob s tac l ein Naz iG e rmany :i t spagan ,an t i r e l ig iou scha ra c t e r . Manyadm i r e r s o fth eTh i rdR e i chandth eG e rmanp eop l elam en t edtha tLu th e r ’ ss e ed hadg e rm ina t edintha tso i l .T ocoun t e ra c tth e s es c ep t i ca lvo i c e s ,som e o th e rd iv i s i on a r i o sempha s iz edth efa c ttha tth e r ew e r ea l so many G e r man s whop ray edtoth et ru e God .T oth em ,th i sm ean ttha tgood G e rman sw e r eabov ea l lgood Ca tho l i c s ,pa r t i cu la r lyBava r ian sf romth e Upp e rPa la t ina t e(G ra f enwöh r )and Upp e rF ran con ian sf rom Ho f .A lthoughF ran con ian sandr e s id en t so fth ec i tyo f Ho finpa r t i cu la rw e r e mo s t lyP ro t e s tan t sandd idno tpa r t i cu la r lyf tth eBava r ians t e r eo typ e , th ey w e r esom e t im e spo r t ray eda s“v e ryCa tho l i cp eop l e ,”o r“no tv e ry G e rman i c .”54 Th i sf tv e ry w e l lw i thth es t e r eo typ e so fG e rmancha ra c t e randcu l tu r etha tth eBDso ld i e r shada cqu i r edp r io rtoth e i ra r r iva l toth ecoun t ry . On evo lun t e e r ,fo rexamp l e ,saw Ho fa sa“ typ i ca l lyT y ro l eanv i l lag e[ s i c ]” wh e r e“b e e r ,co f f e eandpo ta to e s” w e r eabundan t . Ano th e rSpan ia rd w ro t etha tBava r ia wa ssynonymou sw i th“b r igh t chu r ch e s ,s imp l ea f f e c t ion sands i l en tb r ew e r i e s ,”andpa r t i cu la r lyap p r e c ia t edth e many wood enca rv ing so fCh r i s ta tth ec ro s s road s .Lu i s R iudav e t sr e ca l l edf romh i st im esp en tin Ho fhowh ehadfoundsom e humb l echu r ch e s inabu co l i c land s cap e , wh i chgav eh imsom ehop efo r th efu tu r eo f Na t iona lSo c ia l i sm :“ insp i t eo f i ta l l ,no tev enth eG e rman s hav efo rgo t t enGod .”55

90 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th eG e rm anp eop l ew e r e ,ine s s en c e ,acommun i tya sw e l lo rg an i z ed a sth e W eh rm a ch t .Y e t ,ind iv idu a l ly G e rm an sl a ck edsoph i s t i c a t ion . A c co rd ingtoR id ru e jo ,ag r e a tc l e av ag eex i s t edb e tw e enth e“ imm en s e in t e l l ig en c eth a tsu chp e r f e c tm e ch an i z a t ionandsu chd e t a i l edfo r e s igh t r ev e a l s ”inth e W eh rm a ch tandth e“ awkw a rde l em en t a rych a r a c t e r o fe a chind iv idu a l . ”Th i sa rou s edsom edoub t sinh im wh enim ag ining G e rm anyru l ingi t semp i r e :“ I tju s tm ak e son eun com fo r t ab l ew i th th eid e ao fh av ingth i sp eop l e …s end inga roundgov e rno r sandd r i l l s e rg e an t sa l lov e r Eu rop e . ” Gu i l l e rmo H e rn an zand C ap t a in C a r lo s F igu e ro l aa r r iv eda ts im i l a rcon c lu s ion s :th eG e rm an sw e r eco a r s e ,bu t w e l lo rg an i z ed .56 No ta l lvo lun t e e r sh adth ech an c eto m e e tth ec iv i l i an s whol iv edn e a rth e i rt r a in ingc amp s .Inth e i ra c coun t sandl e t t e r s toSp a in ,how ev e r ,th eyp a in t edapo s i t iv ep i c tu r eo fth einh ab i t an t so f Ho fandG r a f enwöh r/Au e rb a ch . Wh enconv a l e s c en to ronl e av e ,Sp ani shso ld i e r sw e r eo f t eng r e e t edbyc iv i l i an sdu r ingth e i rw a lk s :“Th e s e G e rm an sa r eex t r em e lyn i c e , ”w ro t eM anu e lT a r ín .L i eu t en an tA r en a l e s w ro t e ins im i l a rt e rm sabou th i ssho r ts t ay inNu r emb e rg :“ Ig r e e tev e ry5 7 on e .Ev e rybodylook sa tu sands ay sH i s p an i s[ s i c ]a sw ep a s sby . ” Amongth elo ca l so f Upp e rPa la t ina t eand Upp e rF ran con ia ,th eimp r e s s ionl e f tbySpan i shvo lun t e e r sonlo ca lm emo rys e em stohav e b e enpo s i t iv eand wa s ma rk edbydoz en so ffunnyan e cdo t e sands to58 r i e s . In G ra f enwöh r ,th er e la t iv eid ea l iza t iono fth eSpan ia rd ss e em s tohav ea c t eda sacoun t e rw e igh ttoth eimp r e s s ionl e f tb eh indbyth e many W a f f en -SSso ld i e r ss ta t ion edth e r ela t e ron . How ev e r ,in t e rna l r epo r t sf romth eBDIn fo rma t ionS e c t ionpo in t edou ttha tSpan i shso l d i e r sw e r er e spon s ib l efo r“d i sgu s t ings c en e sr e la t ingto wom en”and “ in c id en t so fa mo ra lcha ra c t e r”invo lv ingth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion . On o c ca s ion ,d iv i s i on a r i o st r i edtofa t t e rlo ca lg i r l s ,“mak ingob s c en eg e s tu r e sandadd r e s s ingth eminav e ryimp rop e r way .”Th elo ca l shad th e r e fo r eadop t edad i s tan ta t t i tud etowa rd sth eIb e r ian s ,andth e NS DAPb ran ch e sp r ev en t edth e i rf ema l em emb e r sf romhav inganyconta c tw i thth em . Comp la in t sa l soa r r iv edf romth er eg iona lau tho r i t i e s inBay r eu thr ega rd ingth e“unwo r thyb ehav iou r”o fsom eSpan i shso l d i e r sinth elo ca ltav e rn s .A sP r iva t eJoaqu ínRo sr ea ch ed G ra f enwöh r inS ep t emb e r1941 ,h eno t ed ,“G e rman sl ik eu s ,d e sp i t eth efa c ttha tou r p r ed e c e s so r shav ea l sodon esom edamag e .”59 As im i la rpa t t e rn wa sno t i c edin Ho f ,th e Upp e rF ran con iantown wh e r eth er e l i e fexp ed i t ion sf romSpa ina r r iv edf romea r ly1942on ,and wh i cha l sos e rv eda sB lu eD iv i s iond epo tba r ra ck sinth eG e rmanr ea r . Lo ca lshopk e ep e r sb en ef t edf romth er egu la rp r e s en c eo fSpan i shso ld i e r sinth etown , who w e r eeag e rtoa cqu i r econ sum e rgood sandev en souv en i r s . How ev e r ,Ib e r ianvo lun t e e r st r igg e r eds ev e ra lin c id en t sin

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 91

ba r sandr e s tau ran t s .Th eya l soen cou rag edth eg row tho fth eb la ck ma rk e tfo rco f f e e ,l iquo r ,andtoba c co .60 Th ep ro s t i tu t e so f Ho f ,a c co rd ingtos ev e ra la c coun t s ,a l socoun t edth eSpan ia rd samong s tth e i r mo s t r egu la rc l i en t s .A w e l l -knownlo ca ls ex wo rk e r wa sev enpu tont r ia l andcond emn edton in e mon th sinp r i sonbyth eBay r eu thS ond e r g e r i ch t in May1944 ,fo rs e r iou s lyo f f end ing W eh rma ch thonou rbya ff rm ing 61 tha tsh ep r e f e r r edSpan i shlov e r stoG e rman“ba s ta rd s .” Sma l lin c id en t sw e r ea l socommonamongth er e s e rv eso ld i e r s who s topp edov e r in Ho fth roughou t1942and1943 ,onth e i r waytoth eRu s s ianF ron t .ABDr epo r tin m id -1942comp la in edo fhowth eo ff c e r sand so ld i e r so fth e14 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion w e r eg e t t ingd runk ,s ta r t ingpub l i c qua r r e l s ,andd i sp lay ing“ in to l e rab l eb ehav iou r”towa rd sth elo ca l s .62 Comp la in t sabound eda tth e i rla cko fhyg i en eandth e i rt end en cyto c r ea t epub l i cs canda l stha tw e r esho ck ingtoth einhab i tan t so fasma l l 63 townin wa r t im e . Un t i lm id -1942 ,ind i s c ip l in er e ign edamong s tcon va l e s c en t s inth eho sp i ta l s ,who l ik edG e rmannu r s e sbu tw e r er e lu c tan t toob eyth eo rd e r so fW eh rma ch to ff c e r s .Th ela t t e ro f t encomp la in ed abou tth eSpan ia rd s ’d i sda info r ba s i cs tanda rd so fb ehav iou rand d r e s s .Th eya l sog rumb l edf r equ en t lyabou tth einapp rop r ia t econdu c t o fconva l e s c en t sandso ld i e r sonl eav ef romth ef ron t .64 G e rm anG i r l s :“AT a s t eo fP ag an i smandN a tu r e” G e rmanso c i e ty w e l com edth ef r s texp ed i t iono fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s w i tha m ix tu r eo f wond e randcu r io s i ty .Th e s ef e e l ing sw e r esha r edby r ep r e s en ta t iv e so fth e Naz iPa r tyandth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,pa r t i cu la r lyyoung wom en .In t e rna lr epo r t sf romth ecommand e r so fth eSpan i shexp ed i t ion spo in t edou tth eg r ea ten thu s ia sm w i th wh i chth ey w e r e w e l com edinS t ra sbu rg ,ande sp e c ia l lyin Ka r l s ruh e .65 Som eso ld i e r s ’ l e t t e r sr e f e r r edtoth e“ ch e e r sandabundan ttoba c co”tha tvo lun t e e r s en coun t e r edinth era i lways ta t ion so fth eR e i ch ;o th e r sexp l i c i t lyh igh 66 l igh t edth e“k indr e c ep t ion”o fth eG e rman s . Thoughl e s se f fu s iv e , th i spo s i t iv er e c ep t ionin G e rmant e r r i to rycon t inu edtocha ra c t e r iz e 67 th epa s sag eo fSpan i shconvoy sinth een su ingy ea r s . A tth eb eg inn ing ,Span ia rd ss e em edtoen coun t e ranend l e s ssupp ly o fsm i l ingf ema l efa c e sinG e rmany :th eK r an k en s chw e s t e rn whohand ed ou tc iga r e t t e sandco f f e e ,“b lond ,ro syandsw e e tg i r l s”o r“F r o i l an,” 68 appa r en t lyeag e rtob efa t t e r edbyth e moodyIb e r ian s . AFa lang i s t vo lun t e e rw ro t etha tG e rman wom en w e r e“ cha t ty ,v e ryea sy -go ingin 69 th e i rb ehav iou r ,I wou ldsayth eyl ik etoshowo f fth e i rcha rm .” C e r ta in ly ,th et ran s i to fSpan i shso ld i e r sa rou s edth ecu r io s i tyo fth eG e r mang i r l s .L i sa M e e sr em emb e r edin1943th eex chang e so fl e t t e r sand

92 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

g i f t stha tem e rg edf romth eb r i e fen coun t e r sa tKa r l s ruh et ra ins ta t ion b e tw e enBDvo lun t e e r sandlo ca lg i r l stwoy ea r sb e fo r e : Wh enth eSpan ia rd s pa s s edth rough Ka r l s ruh e ,w e ,G e rmang i r l s ,f e l t v e ryhappyand wan t edtos e eth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s .W efoundth ema l l v e ryn i c e ,y e tun fo r tuna t e ly w ecou ldno tund e r s tandea cho th e rp rop e r ly . . .Igav eov e r myadd r e s sw i thap i c tu r eo fm in etoaSpan i shcom rad e . Som ew e ek sla t e rIr e c e iv edak indl e t t e rf romh im .70

Th e Naz ir eg im e hadc e r ta in lyc r ea t ed as e cu la rso c i e ty , wh i ch s e em ed mu ch mo r el ib e ra linpub l i candp r iva t ethanp rud i sh ,F ran co i s tSpa in .Som ef ema l el ead e r so fth eSpan i shFa lang ehada l r eady p e r c e iv edth i sa sapo t en t ia ldang e rin1937–40 ;th eycon s id e r edth e i r G e rmancoun t e rpa r t stob eex c e s s iv e lyl ib e ra lins exua landr e l ig iou s ma t t e r s . How ev e r , Naz i sh e ldcon t rad i c to ryv i ew scon c e rn ingth esoc ia lro l eo fA ryan wom en .Thoughth eya t t emp t edtop i t chth em s e lv e s a sth ed e f end e r so ft rad i t iona lva lu e s ,s exua l mo r e sw e r equ i t el ib e r a t edinth eTh i rdR e i ch .Th i sp ro c e s shadb e ena c c e l e ra t edbyth eexc ep t iona lc i r cum s tan c e so f wa randth esho r tag eo fyoung m enonth e hom ef ron t .71 Th e r e fo r e ,G e rmanys e em edto many d iv i s i on a r i o sa k indo fg i f t w rapp eds exua lpa rad i s e :“aga rd eno funan imou s lyb londg i r l s .”72 Bu t i t wa sanea r th lypa rad i s ep r e s id edov e rbyo rd e rand mod e rn i ty , wh e r e som es c en e sfa s c ina t edth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,su cha sth ev i s iono fa b roadroad“ sp r ink l ed w i thb londg i r l sw ea r ingj ean s ,r id ingab ik e ,” 73 c e r ta in lyara r es igh tinSpa ina ttha tt im e . Th i s wa sa c compan i edby th eabundan c eo fG e rmang i r l sinun i fo rm , whotookuptyp i ca l ly ma l e 74 ta sk s . Th evo lun t e e r sob s e rv edinG e rmang i r l sa moodtha t wa sv e ry d i f f e r en tf romSpan i sh wom en .I tvagu e lyevok ed wha t manyo fth em had wa t ch edinL en iR i e f en s tah l ’ sf lm sandcon s id e r edtob eth esum o fv i r tu e sa s c r ib edto wom enbyfa s c i sm :“ th ef rag ran c eo fpagan i sm , o fna tu r e ,o ff r e sha i r ,o fsunands tad iumtha temana t e sf romth e s e b lond ,tann edg i r l s .”75 G e rman wom enop en lyapp roa ch edso c ia lin t e r cou r s e ,ins ta rkcon t ra s tw i thth es t i f f mo ra l i tyimpo s edbySpan i sh na t iona l -Ca tho l i c i sminpub l i cl i f e .Th i sa l sol edsom er e tu rn e e sf rom 76 th ef ron ttob e l i ev etha tG e rmanF r o i l anla ck edanyno t iono f mo ra l i ty . Wh e th e rfa l s eo rt ru e ,Span i shvo lun t e e r so f t enfoundanid ea l iz edlov e inth e i rf r s tG e rman“wa rgodmo th e r s ,” wh i chh e lp edth emtob e t t e r r e s i s tth elon e l in e s sonth ef ron t ,and wh i chth ey m i s s edlonga f t e rth e i r 77 r e tu rntoSpa in . ManySpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ed evou t Ca tho l i c sandcon s id e r ed G e rman“pagan i sm” tob eap rob l em .Th i swa sno ton ly fo rpo l i t i ca lr ea son s ,

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 93 78 l ik e manyI ta l ianfa s c i s tv i s i to r s , bu ta l sodu etos in c e r er e l ig iou scon v i c t ion .T ocoun t e ra c tth e s es c ep t i ca lvo i c e s ,som eo th e rd iv i s i on a r i o s empha s iz edth efa c ttha tth e r ew e r ea l so many G e rman s whop ray ed toth et ru e God .Th i sm ean ttha t ,toth em ,good G e rman sw e r eabov e a l lgood Ca tho l i c s ,pa r t i cu la r lyBava r ian s .Y e t ,tho s evo lun t e e r s who hadb e enso c ia l iz ed w i th ins t r i c tCa tho l i cm i l i eu sfoundth em s e lv e sa t odd sw i thth el ib e r tyo fs exua l mo r e sinth eTh i rdR e i ch .79 Wh i l esu ch sho r t l iv edroman c e sw e r ep rob l ema t i cinth eru ra landCa tho l i cr eg ion su r round ingG ra f enwöh r ,th ey w e r ecommonp la c einth eb igg e rtown s su cha s Nu r emb e rgandB e r l ino rev eninsma l l e rc i t i e sl ik e Ho f .M i l i ta rysu rg eon Manu e ld eCá rd ena sw ro t einh i s wa rd ia rya f t e rhav ing v i s i t edsom eca f é sth e r e :

A f t e r wo rk ,co f f e eshop sg e tfu l lo fM äd ch en,Span i shguy sand G e rman lad i e sd evo t eth em s e lv e sinajoy fu landop en waytot ea ch ingea cho th e r th e i rr e sp e c t iv elanguag e s .W ea r ea c cu s tom edtoou rb eau t eou sSpan i sh mo ra l i ty ,anda r esho ck edbysom eo fth el ib e r t i e stha tG e rmang i r l stak e w i thth eSpan ia rd sinth e mo s tna tu ra l way …A lmo s tev e rySpan ia rdha s go taG e rmang i r l f r i end .Th eboy ssayth i si stol ea rnG e rmanp rop e r ly .

Acoup l eo fday s la t e r ,h eno t i c edtootha t inaB e r l incaba r e tth e r ewa s “qu i t ea lo to ff r e edom inth e lov eexp r e s s ion so fth ec l i en t s .”Infa c t ,th e Ob e rzah lm e i s t e rS chwabno t edtha t ,onth eev eo fth ea r r iva lo fth ef r s t Span i shso ld i e r sto Ho f ,bo ths ta t eandpa r tyau tho r i t i e shadr e comm end edtha tlo ca l wom enr ema inloya ltoth ep r in c ip l eo fra c ia lpu r i ty . How ev e r ,th e r ew e r esoonqu i t eanumb e ro fex c ep t ion s .By m id -1943 , app rox ima t e lys ix tyn ewbo rni l l eg i t ima t ech i ld r enhadb e enr eg i s t e r ed a tth etownr eg i s t ryo ff c e ,pu rpo r t ed lys i r edbySpan i shso ld i e r s . Many o fth e s ech i ld r en w e r ela t e radop t edby G e rmanfa th e r s .80 Onth eroad go ingea s t ,S e rg ean tJ e sú s Ma r t ín ez -T e s s i e ra l sono t edin Augu s t1941 th eg r ea tsu c c e s so fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s wh enth eyapp roa ch edG e rman g i r l s inEa s tP ru s s ia .Thu s ,h eno t ed inT r eubu rg/O l e ckotha t“ th e lo ca l s w e l com eu sw i thg r ea tsympa thy ,and w eo f t ens e eou rso ld i e r sa c company ingyoungG e rmang i r l s .”Ano th e rvo lun t e e rw ro t etha tth eF r o i l an w e r e“ eag e rto d of av ou r s”andtha ta lmo s ta l lcom rad e so fh i sp la toon w en tou tw i thg i r l sa tn igh t .Indo ingso ,how ev e r , many d iv i s i on a r i o s exp e r i en c edsom eo fth eda rk e ra sp e c t so fth e Naz ir eg im e . Ma r t ín ez T e s s i e rd e s c r ib edhowth e“boy sb e long ingtoth eH i t l e rY ou th w ro t e downth enam e so fth eg i r l s whos tay w i thSpan ia rd sa f t e rsun s e t .”81 Th e NSDAP wa rn ing sc e r ta in lyd idno tp r ev en tG e rmang i r l sf rom c lo s econ ta c tw i thSpan i shconva l e s c en tso ld i e r sa tth e ho sp i ta l so f Kön ig sb e rgand B e r l in , wh i chsom e t im e sf ea tu r ede l em en t so f ma l e

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p i ca r e squ e .M ino rin c id en t sinvo lv ingBDso ld i e r sl edth eSpan i shh igh commandtoi s su ed e ta i l edin s t ru c t ion sinea r ly1942onhowtob ehav e co r r e c t lyin G e rmany .Su cho rd e r sin c lud edr e f ra in ingf romsp end ing 82 th en igh tw i thlo ca l wom en . Fo rth e i r pa r t ,G e rmanso ld i e r s who pa s s edth rough Ho fdu r ingth e i rF r on tu r l au b( t empo ra ryl eav e )w e r e in s t ru c t edtot r ea tth e i rSpan i shcom rad e sw i thr e sp e c t .L eaf e t sd i s t r ibu t edtoth emin s i s t edonth eb ro th e rhoodo fa rm sfo rm eddu r ing 83 th ep r ev iou sy ea r s ,a sth eCondo rL eg ionhadb e end ep loy edinSpa in . Du r ingth e i rs taya tth et ra in ingcampin G ra f enwöh r ,th eSpan i sh vo lun t e e r sfounda l t e rna t iv e way stosa t i s fyth e i rs exua lapp e t i t e .Th ey soonl ea rn edo fth eex i s t en c eo facampo ff ema l ePo l i shandRu s s ian fo r c ed wo rk e r sinth en ea rbyv i l lag eo f Au e rba chandb egan mak ing r egu la rv i s i t s .Som ew e r es e ek ingroman c e ,o th e r s wan t eds exinex chang efo rfoodandc lo th ing .Th efowo fSpan i shso ld i e r sla t ea tn igh t s canda l iz edG e rmans en t in e l s , who w e r eunab l etop r ev en tth emf rom app roa ch ingth eg i r l s .Th ef r equ en cyo fsu chroman t i cen coun t e r scam e toth ea t t en t iono fth eBD G en e ra lS ta f f , wh i chf ea r edfo rth ep r e s t ig e o fth eSpan i shA rmyandth e“ san i ta rydang e r”o f“ ca rna lcon ta c tw i th th eg i r l s .”Thu s ,th egua rd wa sr e in fo r c ed ,andth en igh tou t ing stoth e 84 f ema l eL ag e rcam etoanend . Th e s ew e r eno tth eon lylov ea f f a i r sth a to c cu r r edb e tw e enSp an i sh vo lun t e e r sandfo r c ed wo rk e r s . ASp an i shso ld i e rr e tu rn ingf romth e f ron t in s i s t edont r av e l l ingtoZw i ck au(S axony )tov i s i tafo rm e rRu s s i an g i r l f r i endf romth eL en ing r adF ron t whoh adb e end epo r t edtoG e rm any a safo r c ed wo rk e r .Th et r ipend edinh i sa r r e s tandr ep a t r i a t iontoSp a in . S im i l a rin c id en t stookp l a c ein Ho fth roughou t1 9 4 2and1 9 4 3 , wh e r e Sp an i a rd ssoonb e c am eaw a r eo fac ampo ff em a l eF r en chandRu s s i an con s c r ip t sc lo s etoth e i rb a r r a ck s .Th e s ew e r eamongth em anywhow e r e fo r c edtowo rka tth ea rm am en t sf a c to r i e sandth er a i lw ay s .On ed i v i s i on a r i oev enk i l l edth egu a rdo fasp inn ing m i l l , whoh adc augh th imt ry ing 8 5 toen t e rth ef a c to rya tn igh ttov i s i taF r en chg i r l who wo rk edth e r e . O c cup iedPopu la t ion sonthe Ma r chtotheF ron t :Span ia rd s ,Po le s , andBa l t i cPeop le s Th ed iv i s i on a r i o sb eganth e i r ma r chonfoo tin too c cup i edt e r r i to ryin Augu s t1941 . Ea s t e rn Po landandi t sp ea san t sp lay eda p rom in en t ro l einth eBDexp e r i en c eand m emo ry .D iv e r s et e s t imon i e sd e s c r ib ed th ea t t i tud eo fth elo ca lp eop l etoth epa s s ingo fad iv i s iono fb rown sk inn edso ld i e r s–th ePo l i shp ea san t ssom e t im e sca l l edth emth ec z a rn a Dyw i z j a (b la ckd iv i s ion )–a son eo fexp e c ta t ionandcu r io s i ty .Th eG e r manl ia i sono ff c e r ss ta t edtha tth roughou tth e ma r chth efoodsupp l i e s

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o fPo l i sh ,L i thuan ian ,andBy e lo ru s s ianp ea san t sw e r econ s tan t lyb e ing p i l lag ed .86 O th e rt e s t imon i e spo in tinth esam ed i r e c t ion : wh enL e ib R e iz e rpa s s edth roughth eBy e lo ru s s ianv i l lag eo fRaduninS ep t emb e r 1941 ,h ea sk edap ea san t womani fth eSpan ia rd shadb e eninth ev i llag e .Sh er ep l i edexp r e s s iv e ly : “Y e s ,th ey w e r eh e r e ,”sh ean sw e r ed mo r ebo ld ly .Th eyhadg e s tu r ed w i th th e i rhand sins ignlanguag eanda sk edfo r“g r ea sys tu f f”–bu t t e r–a sw e l l a s“ co ck -adood l e -doo”and“o ink -o ink”–tha ti sch i ck en sandp ig s–in 8 7 ex chang efo rsh i r t s ,s ca rv e s ,so ck sandth el ik e .

T r ad ing w i thth ep e a s an t scon t inu edth roughou tth em a r ch .Th eSp ani a rd s igno r edth ew a rn ing so fth eG e rm ancomm and e r sr eg a rd ingd e a l ing w i thth elo c a l sinth eo c cup i edcoun t r i e s , wh e r enum e rou sW eh rm a ch t so ld i e r sh adb e ens abo t ag edandpo i son ed . How ev e r ,th el e s sh i e r a r ch i c a l gu r i p a sen joy edcommun i c a t ing w i thth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ionino c cup i ed t e r r i to r i e s .E a r lyoninT r eubu rg/O l e cko ,aSp an i shso ld i e rno t edhow “ th e r ea r em anyPo l e s wo rk inga scook sands e rv an t s ;th eG e rm an scon s id e rth emtob eanin f e r io rr a c e ,bu ta sa Ch r i s t i anfo rm eth eya r ea l l 8 8 equ a l . ” Th eBDcomb a t an t so f t en t r ad edp a r t so f th e i requ ipm en t ,su cha s boo t s ,c lo th e s ,o r l igh t e r s , fo rch i ck en s ,egg sandp ig s .Th e mo r ea s tu t eon e s p e r c e iv edth a tth ep e a s an t sp e rh ap sn e ed edfood mo r eth an mon ey ,bu t th eysm i l ed inr e s ign a t ionb e fo r eso ld i e r sd r e s s ed inth eun i fo rmo fth eo c cup i e r .Thoughth ePo l e sw e r econ s id e r edtob eaho sp i t ab l ep eop l e ,no ta l l e x ch ang e sw e r evo lun t a ry .Th eRu s s i anin t e rp r e t e rV l ad im i rKov a l ev sk i i d e s c r ib edhowth eSp an i a rd s loo t edPo l i shp e a s an t sandhowsu cha c t ion s t empo r a r i lyc e a s eda f t e rth eBDcomm ande x e cu t edon eo fth ep lund e r 8 9 e r s . Ano th e rl e t t e rbyaSp an i shp r iv a t econf rm edth i simp r e s s ion : W ed idno tb ehav el ik eang e l se i th e r . Wh i l eshou t ing Sp an i s cha l l e sk a th o l i k [ s i c ]th eytookev e ry th ingf romth epoo rPo l e s ,ea t inga l lth e i rs to r e s ;and wh ena mo r eauda c iou son eadd ed D eu t s ch l andn i ch tk a t o l i s ch ,l apu t[ s i c ] a c compan i edbya m ean ing fu lg e s tu r ea roundth en e ck ,th ePo l e sgav e 9 0 th emev e ry th ing .

Wh i l e many G e rmanso ld i e r sin1939–41 d e s c r ib edth ePo l e sa sfo r 91 e ign e r stoEu rop eancu l tu r e , Span i sh imp r e s s ion sw e r e mo r enuan c ed , pa r t lyb e cau s eth eCa tho l i c i smo fth elo s e r s mad eth em mo r efam i l ia r . Po l i shp ea san t sf r equ en t lya t t end edth eop en -a i r Ma s s e so rgan iz edby 92 th eBD . S e rg ean tCa r lo sRód ena sh igh l igh t edth e“ infn i t ef e rvou ro f th ePo l i shp eop l ea sth eykn e l tb e fo r eth er e l ig iou simag e s .” Ca tho l i cvo lun t e e rSanzJa rqu eexp r e s s ed p l ea san tsu rp r i s ea tth e my s t i c

96 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

d evo t iontoth eB l e s s edV i rg in Ma rytha th een coun t e r edamongPo l e s 93 andL i thuan ian s ;i tr em ind edh imo fh i sownv i l lag e . B e cau s eo fth e i r Ca tho l i c i sm ,Span ia rd sr ep r e s en t edPo l e sa sfu l ly Eu rop ean .Th eappa r en tta l en to fth ePo l i sh m idd l ec la s sfo rfo r e ign languag e s mad eth emp r iv i l eg edin t e rp r e t e r s .Po l i shand/o rBy e lo ru s s ian wom en–Span ia rd ss e ldomd i s t ingu i sh edb e tw e enth em– w e r e a l socon s id e r edtob e“ th e mo s ts im i la rtoou r wom enink indn e s sand s e l f sa c r if c e .”Th econ t ra s to fth eO r thodox ,“o r i en ta l”S lav s–th eRu s 94 s ian s–d rov eth i sp e r c ep t ionev end e ep e r in toth e i rm emo ry . Jo s é -Lu i s Góm ez -T e l lod e s c r ib edaPo l i shp ea san tw edd ingpa r tyin1945 : Amongth e s eyoungp ea san t s– whos t i l lb e longtoth ec iv i l iz ed wo r ld– w i thth e i rfa i rb ea rd s ,th e i rsh i r t sbu t ton eda tth en e ck ,th e i rBoh em ian v e lv e t ja ck e t s ,andth e i rsh inypa t en t l ea th e rboo t s ;b e tw e enth i sand wha t Ihav es e en wand e r ingba ckf romth eSov i e th e l l ,th e r ei sanen t i r e wo r ld o fd i f f e r en c e .95

How ev e r ,th einv e r s ep ro c e s ssu r f a c e sinth ed i a r i e sth a tfo l low edth e rhy thmo fth efoo tm a r ch . Un l ik el a t e rm emo i r s ,in1 9 4 1BDcomb a t an t s comp a r edo c cup i edPo l and w i th wh a tth eyh adob s e rv edin G e rm any . Onth eh e e l so fth e i radm i r a t ionfo rG e rm an w e l l -b e ingc am eth ef r s t b ru t a len coun t e rw i thth eE a s t ,andth ee f f e c t so fth ew a r .A sth eyp a s s ed th roughPo l and ,andb e fo r eth eyh ad w i tn e s s edth eev eng r e a t e rm i s e ry o fth eru r a lSov i e tpopu l a t ion ,m anySp an i a rd sp e r c e iv edth es t r ik ingd i ff e r en c e inth es t and a rdo f l iv ingb e tw e enPo l andandth eR e i ch .Th eya l so no t edhowcon t emp tuou s lyth ePo l e sw e r et r e a t edbye thn i cG e rm an s .96 Thu s ,in T r eubu rg/O l e cko Co rpo r a l M a r t ín e z -T e s s i e r no t edth a tth e Po l e ssu f f e r edv a r iou sfo rm so fd i s c r im in a t ion .“Th ePo l i shinh ab i t an t s a r er equ i r edtow e a rth e l e t t e rPemb ro id e r ed ind a rkb rownonac lo thd i amondp l a c edov e rth e i rb r e a s t …Th eG e rm anpopu l a t iond e sp i s e sth em t r em endou s ly . ” Uponen t e r ingE a s t e rnPo l andsom ed ay sl a t e r ,th econ t r a s tb e tw e en G e rm an w e l l -b e ingandth epov e r tyo fth ePo l i shv i l l ag e s w a sv e ryev id en t :“ th ec l e an ,h appytown sd i s app e a randg r ey wood en hou s e sapp e a r ,d i r tyand m i s e r ab l e ,du s tyro ad sth roughp in efo r e s t s… th ep eop l ea r epoo randd i r ty . ”InSuw a łk i ,ac i tyinru in s ,th eon lyinh ab i t an t sw e r ech i ld r en , wom en ,andth ee ld e r ly ,“d i r tyandr agg ed ,fu l lo f m i s e ryandhung e r . ”97 Lu i sAgu i l a rd e s c r ib edas im i l a rp ano r am a : Th ehou s e sa r ev i r tua lhov e l sandth einhab i tan t scov e r edinrag sand ba r e foo td e sp i t eth e mudcau s edbyth ep e r s i s t en tra in .Th eabundan tf i e s dono tr e spondtoswa t t ing .W eno t i c ehowth i sm i s e ryandf l thcon t ra s t s w i th wha tw esawinG e rmany .98

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Th eso c i a lo r ig in so fth eBDcomb a t an t sa l so infu en c edth ep e r c ep t ion o fth i saby sm a ld i f f e r en c einl iv ingcond i t ion sb e tw e enPo l i shp e a s an t s andp ro sp e rou sG e rm an s .Fo rvo lun t e e r s who w e r ef am i l i a rw i thth e s i tu a t iono fth ep e a s an t ryin m anya r e a so fSp a in ,th econ t r a s td im in i sh ed .J a c in toS an t am a r í aw ro t ey e a r s l a t e r ,a sh er em emb e r edth ePo l i sh v i l l ag e s ,th a t“ tho s epoo r ,humb l e ,s imp l e ,ands e l f s a c r if c ingp e a s an t s ” w e r es im i l a rto“ou rpoo rf a rm wo rk e r s ”inC a s t i l e .99 M anyBDvo lun t e e r sh adth eoppo r tun i tytog a inf r s t -h andin fo rm a t ionabou tth eexp e r i en c eo fth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ionino c cup i edPo l and .Som eDGSr epo r t s in Ap r i l1 9 4 2r e l a t edin fo rm a t ionf romr ep a t r i a t edso ld i e r so fhowth e G e rm an sc a r r i edou t“ s ingu l a r lyinPo l and ,L i thu an i aand Ru s s i a ”a “b loody wo rko fr ep r e s s ion . ”I tin c lud edshoo t ingp eop l edowninth e 1 0 0 s t r e e t sandin c a r c e r a t ingPo l e sandRu s s i an sin“ i so l a t edc amp s . ” BD vo lun t e e r An ton io H e r r e roco r r e spond edin G e rm an w i th U r su l a ,a m idd l e c l a s sPo l i shg i r lf romPo zn ań(Po s en ) .Sh ed e s c r ib edinexp l i c i t d e t a i lth el iv ingcond i t ion sinth a tr eg ionann ex edtoth eR e i ch : A sPo l e s ,w ea r et r ea t edt e r r ib ly .W el iv eho r r ib ly ,w ehav eno th ingd e c en t to w ea r ,w ea r eg iv enr id i cu lou s lysma l lfoodra t ion s ,w ea r eno ta l low ed tohav erad io s ,g ramophon e s ,b i cy c l e s ,o rpho tocam e ra s .W ea r efo rb id d entoen t e ra l lth eshop s ,c in ema s ,andth ea t r e s .Th eydono ta l lowu sto wa lkinpa rk sandga rd en s ,andev e rywh e r ew ego w es e es ign ssay ing , “NoPo l e sa l low ed .”R igh ta tth eb eg inn ingo fth e wa rw ew e r eexp e l l ed f romou rhom e ,w ecou ldno ttak efu rn i tu r e ,c lo th e s ,o rsh e e t s ,andnow w e mu s tsqu e ez efou rp eop l ein toav e rysma l lb ed room …  Th echu r ch e s 1 0 1 a r ec lo s edand manyo fou rf r i end sandr e la t iv e sa r ed ead .

Th roughSpan i shey e s ,th ePo l i shp eop l er ep r e s en t edth et rag i cd e st inyo fanid ea l i s t i cna t ion–on ew i thar e l ig iou sfa ta l i smtha tequ ipp ed i tfo r ma r ty rdom–tha ta sea r lya sth e1930 shadb e ens e ena saba s 102 t iono fan t i commun i smandan t i -S em i t i sm . Th eSpan ia rd sp e r c e iv ed th ema sv i c t im so fth eon eandth eo th e r ,a s wa sr ef e c t edinth e i ren coun t e r sw i thPo l i shp ea san t s whohadlo s tch i ld r ena tth ehand so f bo tho c cup i e r s .Th ean t i commun i smo fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ionsu rp r i s edth eBDso ld i e r s , whof e l tth e i r mo ra ls tan c edoub lyju s t if eda s th ey w i tn e s s edth ee f f e c t so fSov i e tr ep r e s s iononth einhab i tan t so fth e r eg ion . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rhadanin s t ru c t iv een coun t e rw i tha“Po l i sh p ea san t whospok eSpan i sh ,a sh ehad wo rk edfou ry ea r sinA rg en t ina . Th eR ed sd e s t roy edh im .H ehadason whohads tud i edeng in e e r ing , who wa stak enbyth eRu s s ian sandno th ing mo r eha sb e enh ea rdo f h im .” ManyBDcomba tan t sf e l tempa thyfo rtha tpu rpo r t ed lyh e ro i c eop l e ,v i c t im so fh i s to r i cfa t e .In1943 ,anex comba tan tsymbo l iz edth i s

98 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

adm i ra t ionbyevok ingth e“Ca tho l i c mo th e r s whoo f f e r wa t e rfo rou r th i r s ta sw e wa lkandsp eaktou so fth eson whob rok eh i ssab r eona G e rmana rmou r edca ro rano th e r who wa stak enp r i son e rbyth eRu ss ian s .”Th ePo l i shc iv i l ian sw e r eamaz edtofndso ld i e r sw ea r ing G e r manun i fo rm sinth e i r Ca tho l i cchu r ch e s .BDcomba tan t ssom e t im e s 103 cam etob low sw i thG e rman s whor e fu s edtopayinth ePo l i shca f é s , and whof r equ en t edPo l i sh wom en .Th e i rga l lan t r i e sw e r eo f t ensu cc e s s fu lthank stoth era th e run roman t i c mo t iva to r so fhung e randf ea r . A l lina l l ,Po l i sh wom ens t i l ls e em eda t t ra c t iv etoth eBDvo lun t e e r s ; 104 th e i rp e r c ep t iono fRu s s ianf ema l ep ea san t s wou ldb equ i t ed i f f e r en t . A f t e rth ed i s cov e ryo fth e ma s sg rav e so f Ka tynin Ap r i l1943 ,th e F ran co i s tp r e s s mad eg r ea te f fo r t stod e c la r ei t sso l ida r i ty w i thCa thol i cPo landa sth ev i c t imo fg eopo l i t i c s ,caugh tb e tw e entwopow e r fu l n e ighbou r s . Wh i l eavo id ingb lam ing G e rmany ,th eypo in t edou tth e con t inu i tyb e tw e enth eR epub l i cank i l l ing sin1936– 9andth e ma s sex 105 e cu t iono fPo l i sho ff c e r s . Th eBDp r e s sla t e rempha s iz edth e“ con f i c t ingemo t ion s”o fth ed iv i s i on a r i o sa sth eypa s s edth rough“ foo l i sh , w r e t ch ed , ma r ty r edPo land .”D e sp i t eth ef ea ronth efa c e so fth elo ca l s , “ th esw e e tta lkandshou t so fth eso ld i e r s”ev en tua l lyconv in c edth em tha t“Span ia rd sd idno tea tp eop l e .” Manu e lBa r sr e ca l l edth er e l i e fo f 106 th ePo l e s :“Ah ,Spa in !Lando fGod .W ea r ea l soo fGod .” Th ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion so fth eBa l t i ccoun t r i e s ,e sp e c ia l lyinV i ln iu s and R iga ,d e s e rv eanen t i r echap t e ro fth e i rown . ManySpan i shso ld i e r shado c ca s iontoexp e r i en c ebo thc i t i e s wh i l eonl eav eo rdu r ing conva l e s c en c e .Th ein i t ia limp r e s s iono fth evo lun t e e r suponen t e r ing L i thuan ia du r ingth efoo t ma r cho f1941r e s emb l edtha to f Po land . Som ed ia r i e sd e s c r ib eth e i rd i sgu s ta tth epov e r tyinth ev i l lag e s . On8 S ep t emb e r1941 ,onen t e r ingth ecoun t ry ,J e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rno t ed th ed e so la t iontha tr e ign edth e r e :“W om en w i ths ca rv e sonth e i rh ead s , ba r e foo tandca r ry ingth e i rsho e sinth e i rhand s .Longca r t sw i thfou r 107 sma l l wh e e l s ,andpon i e sw i thlong man e s .” Af ew mon th sla t e r ,in Ma r ch1942 , Manu e ld eCá rd ena sexp r e s s edas im i la rimp r e s s iona f t e r c ro s s ingth eL i thuan ianbo rd e ra tV i rba l i s : Th es en sa t ionuponen t e r ingth i sf r s tL i thuan iantowni st ru lyd i sag r e eab l eb e cau s eev e ry th inga roundu ss e em sm i s e rab l eandf l thy .Th es ta t ion i sbad ,poo r ,andd i r ty ,andlongl in e so frubb i sha r ep i l edupontopo fth e 1 0 8 snowb e tw e enth era i l s …Th e wom ena r efa t ,bu td i r ty .

L i thuan ia ,l ik ePo land ,a l soen joy edab en igna s s e s sm en tdu etoth e d e epCa tho l i c i smo f manyo fi t sinhab i tan t s . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rind i ca t ed h i ssa t i s fa c t ion w i th V i ln iu s ,“ag r ea tc i ty .”Th eb eau tyo fi t st emp l e s

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 99

wa sev en mo r eno t ewo r thy :“ I t s monum en ta lchu r ch e sa r eth e ma in f ea tu r e .Th eCa tho l i cfa i th i sv e ryb ig inth i sc i ty .Ina lmo s tev e rychu r ch th e r ea r eimag e so fou rSa in tTh e r e sa .Ou rLadyo fV i ln iu si sv en e ra t ed 109 toth eex t r em e .” O c ca s iona l ly ,V i ln iu s wa sr em emb e r eda sap la c e w i thac iv i l iz edandEu rop eanf e e l .Th ec i ty , wh e r e mo s to fth epopu lat ionspok ePo l i sh ,b e cam efo r manyconva l e s c en t sinth eSpan i shho sp i ta lth e r eak indo fp s eudo -pa rad i s e .Th i s wa spa r t lydu etoth ef r i end ly t r ea tm en tth eyr e c e iv edf romth e lo ca l inhab i tan t s :“ fo rma landg en t e e l . AndCa tho l i cl ik eu s .”110 F ina l ly ,La tv iar ep r e s en t ed wo r ld lyp l ea su r efo rth eSpan ia rd s .I t s co smopo l i tancap i ta l ,R iga , wa sid ea l iz eda sth e“ la s tEu rop eanc i ty” b e fo r er ea ch ingth ef ron t .“Th e r e ,w ethough t ,th eshop s wou ldhav e ev e ry th ing ,th efoodwa sexqu i s i t eandth ewom enfa i r .”Amu l t i cu l tu ra l swa rmo fso ld i e r sf r equ en t edr e s tau ran t sandcou r t edLa tv ian wom en . S ign s inCa s t i l ianSpan i sh w e r eev enhungf romsom edown townshop s andca f é s , wh i chs e rv eda sm e e t ingp la c e sfo rd iv i s i on a r i osonl eav eo r conva l e s c ing .T oM en énd ez -Gund ín ,R iga wa sa“ c i tyo flov e lyl eg s .” Uponr e tu rn ingf romth ef ron t ,A l fon sod eU rqu i jono t i c edinLa tv ia “ som e th ingfam i l ia r ,incommon w i thou rc iv i l iza t ion ;Ithough tI wa s ba ckin W e s t e rnEu rop e .”111 Span ia rd shadsu chin t ima t econ ta c tw i th La tv ian wom entha tth eG e rmancommanda cqu i e s c edtoa l lowsom e 1 12 to ma r ryth emandtak eth e i rspou s e stoSpa in . Th eBDvo lun t e e r ssawth eLa tv ian sa l soa sv i c t im so fcommun i sm whod e s e rv edth e i rso l ida r i ty .Som ed r ewapa ra l l e lb e tw e enth efa t eo f tha tcoun t ryinvad edbyth e USSR ,and wha t wou ldhav ehapp en edin Spa ini fF ran cohadno tp r eva i l ed .Thoughth e r ew e r eca s e so fs t ea l ing f romLa tv ianc iv i l ian s ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sr em emb e r edth ega l lan t r i e s abov ea l l , wh i ch mo r ethanon c etookp la c einb ro th e l so rgan iz edand 1 13 runbyth eW eh rma ch t . Th eFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rJo s éLu i sGóm ezT e l lo w ro t etha t“Eu rop e–i t sland sandsou l s–ex t end son lyal i t t l eb eyond R iga .” Wha tcam ea f t e rtha t ?Th e“ J ew sand …Ea s t e rngh e t to s .”114

4Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t

T a sk sw e r ea s s ign edfo r Op e ra t ion Ba rba ro s sa :A rmy G roup No r th , compo s edo fth e16 thand18 th A rm i e sandth e4 th Panz e rG roup , wou ldadvan c eth roughth eBa l t i cr eg iontotak eL en ing radonabou t 20 Augu s t .I t wou ldth en wa i tfo rth ea r r iva lo fA rmy G roup C en t r e , andth ey wou ldadvan c etog e th e rtowa rd s Mo s cow .Th eOKH ,andSup r em e Command e rF ranz Ha ld e rinpa r t i cu la r , wou ldhav ep r e f e r r ed tocon c en t ra t eth e i re f fo r t sonth eSov i e tcap i ta l . How ev e r ,th esymbo l i c in t e r e s to fL en ing rada sth ec rad l eo fth eBo l sh ev ikR evo lu t ionandth e s t ra t eg i cin t e r e s tinc l ea r ingou t ma r i t im et ra ff cinth eBa l t i cp rov id ed H i t l e rw i thsu ff c i en t mo t iv e stotak etha tc i ty .A f t e rga in ingcon t ro lo f th ee s s en t ia lcampa ignob j e c t iv e s–th eindu s t r ia la r eao fL en ing rad , th eo i lw e l l so fth eCau ca su s ,andth efa rm land so fth e Uk ra in e–th ey wou ldd ea lafna lb lowto Mo s cow . How ev e r ,th es lown e s so fth eG e rmanadvan c e mad ei tn e c e s sa ryto mod i fyth ep lan ,andth eL en ing rad F ron tb e cam eas e conda ry wa rth ea t r e .Th e OKHkn ewtha ttak inga Sov i e tc i ty wou ldinvo lv eab loodyba t t l ein wh i chth esup e r io r i tyo fa rmou r edv eh i c l e slo s tva lu e .So ,in s t ead ,th eG e rmancommandd e c id ed tolays i eg etoth ec i t i e sands ta rv eth emtoth epo in to fsu r r end e r . Wha t wa sth er ea l mo t iv eb eh indth ed e c i s iontob e s i eg eL en ing rad ? Som eau tho r sa t t r ibu t ei tto H i t l e r ’ sp e r sona lob s e s s ion w i thth ec rad l e o fth eO c tob e rR evo lu t ion .O th e r sa rgu etha tth eevo lu t iono fth eautumn1941campa ignandth ed e s i r etoavo idaco s t lyu rbanba t t l econd i t ion edth ed e c i s ion .S t i l lo th e r s ma in ta intha tth ed e c i s ion wa scoh e r en t w i thp lan sfo ra wa ro fex t e rm ina t iontha td e t e rm in ed m i l i ta ryp r io r it i e s .Th e mo s tp lau s ib l ein t e rp r e ta t ioni stha tth e OKH mad eth ed e c i s ioninJu ly1941 ,no tso mu chfo rta c t i ca lr ea son sa sf romth econv i c t ion tha tth ecampa ign wou ldinth em id rang eb e com ea wa ro fpo s i t ion s . Thu s ,th eyhadtod e c r ea s eth enumb e ro fob j e c t iv e sandcon c en t ra t e th e i rs t r eng thonafna la t ta cko f Mo s cow .L e t t ingth epopu la t iono f

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F ig .4 . 1 .G en e r a lAgu s t ín Muño zG r and e s( l e f t )a tBDh e adqu a r t e r s ,1 9 4 2(AA )

L en ing rads ta rv eso lv edacon s id e rab l elog i s t i ca lp rob l emfo rA rmy G roup No r thand wa scoh e r en tw i th m id -andlong rang ea im so f conqu e r ingL e b en s r aumfo re conom i cu s e .Th en ea r lyth i r ty m i l l ionSo v i e tc i t iz en sinhab i t ingth er eg ion w e r econ s id e r edsup e rfuou stotha t end eavou r ,soth ed e c i s ion wa stak entophy s i ca l lye l im ina t e mo s to f th em .A roundL en ing rad ,th i sinvo lv edex t e rm ina t ion ,s lav e ryfo rth e 1 su rv ivo r s ,andth eG e rman iza t iono fth er eg ion . Th ed i r e c t iv e so fth e co lon iza t ionp ro j e c t sfo rth eou t e r“Ma r ch e s”o fth eG e rmanR e i ch w e r e d ev e lop edb e tw e en1939and1941andb e s texp r e s s edinth e Ma s t e r P lanfo rth eEa s t( th eG en e ra lp lan O s t ,o r GPO )o f May1942 ,w r i t t en und e rH imm l e r ’ ssup e rv i s ion .I tind i ca t edtha tL en ing radshou ldb e p rog r e s s iv e lyemp t i edo fth eS lav i cpopu la t ion .2 R e cov e r ingi t sh i s to r i c Sw ed i shnam eo fIng e rman land ,th er eg ion wou ldb eco lon iz edbyG e rman sando th e rG e rman i cp eop l eg roup sb rough tinf romth eR e i ch ,th e Am e r i ca s ,andEa s t e rnEu rop e .Thu s ,th ed e c i s iontos ta rv eL en ing rad r e su l t edf romth ein t e r s e c t iono fa m id rang eid eo log i ca lp ro j e c ttoG e r man iz eth er eg ionandth esho r t rang ep ro j e c ttha ts e rv edth eimm ed ia t elog i s t i ca landta c t i ca ln e ed so fth eW eh rma ch t .

102 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Inea r lyS ep t emb e r1941 ,G e rmant roop sr ea ch edth eou t sk i r t so fL en ing radandcu ti to f ff romou t s id ecommun i ca t ion .F inn i shd iv i s ion s a t ta ck edf romth eno r thandr e conqu e r edth eKa r e l ianI s thmu s .Ex c ep t fo raf ews t ra t eg i cpo in t s ,how ev e r ,th eyd idno tc ro s sth ebo rd e rtha t 3 ex i s t edp r io rtoth eW in t e rW a ro ro c cupyth eea s tbanko fLak eLadoga . F i e ld Ma r sha l lR i t t e rvonL e eb ,command e rinch i e fo fA rmy G roup No r th , wan t edtoa t ta ckands e iz eL en ing rad ,bu ton 6S ep t emb e rth e OKWd iv e r t edth e4 thPanz e rG roupf romth e No r th e rnF ron ttopa r t i cipa t einth e Mo s cowo f f en s iv e .Th ec i ty wou ldno tb etak enbya s sau l t . Th eyc lo s edinandon6 Nov emb e rconqu e r edT ikhv in ,th era i lwayhub toth eea s to fLak eLadoga ,cu t t ingo f fth et ra in l in e sb e tw e enL en ing rad andth eSov i e tr ea rgua rd .Fou r t e en W eh rma ch td iv i s ion sfa c eda tl ea s t 4 th i r tyR edA rmyd iv i s ion s . A f t e rth eG e rmanconqu e s to fT ikhv in ,th eob j e c t iv e ss e em edtob e m e t ,bu tth eSov i e t slaun ch edacoun t e r -o f f en s iv einea r ly D e c emb e r 1941andr e conqu e r edth etown .Th i sm ean ttha tL en ing radcou ldaga in b ep rov i s ion edbyra i lconvoy sf romLak eLadoga .F romtha tpo in ton , th e16 thand18 th A rm i e sb e cam eenm e sh edinal eng thy wa ro fa t t r i t ion .T r en chl in e sex t end edf romLak eI lm entoL en ing rad ,fo rm inga ra th e rs tab l ef ron tun t i lJanua ry1944 .Th eL en ing radF ron tb e cam ea s e conda rycon c e rnfo rS ta l in .Th eR ed A rmyt r i edandfa i l edtob r eak th es i eg eins ev e ra lo f f en s iv e sth roughou t Nov emb e r -D e c emb e r1941 andth esp r ingandsumm e ro f1942 .T oth esou tho f Novgo rod ,th e Sov i e ta t ta ckfo rm edpa r to fth eop e ra t ion sin t end edtob en ef tf rom th esu c c e s so fth e Mo s cowcoun t e r -o f f en s iv e .S ix G e rmand iv i s ion s– th eD emyan skPo ck e t–r e s i s t edinap ro long eds i eg etha tla s t edun t i l Ma r ch1942 . Ine a r ly1 9 4 3 ,th eSov i e tcomm andag a int r i edtob r e akth eL en ing r ad s i eg e .Th em a ino f f en s iv e , Op e r a t ionI sk r a ,b eg anin m id J anu a ry w i th coo rd in a t eda t t a ck sf romth eV o lkhovF ron tandL en ing r ad .A f t e rg ru e l l ingcomb a t ,th eR ed A rmypu sh edth eG e rm an sb a ckf romth e i rpo s i t ion sonth esou ths id eo fL adog a . On1 8J anu a ry1 9 4 3 ,th eyop en eda n a r rowl andco r r ido ron wh i chth eycon s t ru c t edar a i ll in eth a tb rough t p rov i s ion sandr e in fo r c em en t s ,s low lybu ts t e ad i lys t ab i l i z ingsupp lyto L en ing r ad .Th es i eg econ t inu edandinF eb ru a ry1 9 4 3 ,th et roop sth a t w e r eam a s s edtoth esou th e a s to fth es i eg ep e r im e t e ra t t a ck edinana tt emp ttoadv an c ea longth eL en ing r ad -Mo s cowr a i ll in e .D e sp i t ein i t i a l su c c e s s ,th eexh au s t edSov i e tt roop sev en tu a l lyh adtof a l lb a ck .Two o th e rlo c a lo f f en s iv e sinth esumm e ro f1 9 4 3a l soy i e ld edun f avou r ab l e ou t com e sfo rth eR edA rmy .5Inf a c t ,comp a r edtoS t a l ing r ad ,th eDonr e g ion ,andKu r sk ,th eA rmyG roup No r th w a sno t invo lv ed in l a rg e s c a l e m i l i t a ryop e r a t ion sa f t e rD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 .Though w a rp rov edd i ff cu l t

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 103

inth eV o lkhovsw amp sandsom ecomb a t sw e r eno to r iou s lyh a r sh ,con d i t ion sw e r el e s sb ru t a l i z edth anono th e rs e c to r so fth eE a s t e rnF ron t . F romS ep t emb e r1941on ,th eG e rman A rmy wo rk edha rd e rtoin6 t en s i fyth es i eg e .Thoughi tr e fu s edtof e edth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion , th e log i s t i ca ln e ed so f th e16 thand18 thA rm i e s in th eha r shw in t e ro f1941– 2 mad ei tadv i sab l etob eg inadop t ingp ragma t i ca t t i tud e stowa rd sc iv i lian sinth er ea rgua rd . Mo s tp ea san t sinth eo c cup i eda r ea w e r ee ld e r ly , wom en ,o rch i ld r en ; manyhadb e end epo r t edth e r ef romo th e ra r ea s .7 Soon ,how ev e r ,th ey w e r efu lf l l ingaux i l ia ryfun c t ion s :th eysh e l t e r ed andpa r t ia l lyf edth eo c cup i e r s ,c l ea r edroad sandt ra int ra ck s ,andp rov id ed manua llabou rfo rth eR e i ch . Ad eg r e eo fa cqu i e s c en c ef romth e 8 lo ca l s wou ld m in im iz ep ea san tsuppo r tfo rth epa r t i san s . Thu s ,d e p end ingonth ed e c i s ion -mak ing ma rg ino fth eW eh rma ch tlow e rcommandandr egu la rso ld i e r s ,sub t l ed i f f e r en c e sapp ea r edonth eNo r th e rn F ron t wh eni tcam etoen fo r c ing OKWd i r e c t iv e sfo ro c cupa t ion .9 Ea ch w e ek ,th er ea rgua rds e cu r i tyfo r c e s(S i ch e rung s t rupp en)–compo s edo f mo r e ma tu r eso ld i e r s ,an t i -pa r t i sanun i t s ,andla t e ro faux i l ia ryBa l t i c andSov i e tt roop sr e c ru i t edf romamongth ep r i son e r s–d e ta in edhun d r ed so fc iv i l ian sandsho tdoz en so fth emfo rco l labo ra t ing w i thth e pa r t i san s .A l lth i st ran sp i r ed inth em id s to fanev e rydayr ea l i tyd efn ed byp e rva s iv ehung e randab j e c tm i s e ry . Th e2 .9 m i l l ioninhab i tan t so fL en ing rad w en tth roughh e l l .Th eS tal in i s tr eg im er equ i r edeno rmou ssa c r if c e :c iv i l ian s wo rk edinth efa c to r i e s ,bu i l tfo r t if ca t ion s ,andcon s t ru c t edroad sgo ingea s tfo rt ru ck s tob r ingp rov i s ion s .Inth e mo s tin t en s e mon th so fth eb lo ckad e , mo r e than fv ethou sand p eop l ed i ed da i lyf romhung e r ,co ld ,andha r sh wo rk .F rom Ch r i s tma s1941on ,ra t ion sg radua l lyimp rov ed ,bu tunt i lF eb rua ry1943 ,th eyd idno tr ea chnu t r i t iona lm in imum sr equ i r ed fo rsu rv iva l .ByJanua ry1944 ,th epopu la t iono fL en ing radhadfa l l en 10 to630 ,000 . M eanwh i l e ,S ta l in ’ st e r ro r ma ch in e ryin s i s t edonk e ep ingth e popu la t ion p rodu c t iv eandcomba tr eady . Tho s e whofa i l ed tor ea chth er e comm end edob j e c t iv e sw e r esu sp e c t edo fsabo tag eo r d e f ea t i sm . Non -Ru s s ian m ino r i t i e sinth er eg ion(bo th G e rman -and F inn i sh sp eak ing )w e r esu sp e c t edo fb e ingsympa th e t i ctowa rd sth e 1 1 en emyandd epo r t ed . Th el ib e ra t iono fL en ing rad wa sno tap r io r i tyfo rth eR edA rmy .Sov i e tfo r c e sd idno ta t ta ck G e rmanl in e sun t i l14Janua ry1944 ,fo r c ing th eW eh rma ch t18 th A rmytor e t r ea tino rd e rtoavo idad i sa s t e r . On 10Jun e1944 ,th eR ed A rmya l soa t ta ck edth eF inn i sht roop s ,fo r c ing th eH e l s ink igov e rnm en tund e r Ma r sha l Mann e rh e imtos ignana rm i s t i c et r ea tyth r e e mon th sla t e r .O ff c ia lda tapub l i sh edin1945s ta t ed tha t632 ,253c iv i l ian shadd i edinth es i eg eo fL en ing rad . Du r ingth e

104 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Kh ru sh ch evy ea r s ,th efgu r e sw e r era i s edto800 ,000d ea th s .S in c eth en , o th e rca l cu la t ion shav es i tua t edth eto ta lb e tw e en1and1 .3 m i l l ionp e r 12 son s ,a lmo s tha l fth epopu la t iono fth ec i ty . Lo s tV i c to r ie s :TheV o lkhovF ron t(O c tobe r1941–Augu s t1942 ) On 1 O c tob e r1941 , Muñoz G rand e s wa sin fo rm edtha tth eB lu eD iv i s ion wou ldb ein co rpo ra t edin toth e16 thA rmyund e rth ecommando f G en e ra lE rn s tBu s ch .Twoday sla t e r ,h ef ewov e rth ef ron t wh e r eth e Span i shvo lun t e e r s wou ldev en tua l lyb ea s s ign edtor e l i ev et roop so f th e126 th D iv i s ion ,l edby G en e ra lPau lLaux ,andth en e ighbou r ing 18 th D iv i s ion .13 Byla t eS ep t emb e r ,bo thd iv i s ion s–bu te sp e c ia l lyth e 18 th–hadlo s t mo r ethanath i rdo fth e i rcomba tan t sandhadr equ e s t ed r e in fo r c em en t suponconf rm ingtha tf r e shS ib e r iant roop shada r r iv ed onth eo th e rs id eo fth eV o lkhovR iv e randLak eI lm en .14 Th eBD wa s b r i efya s s ign edtoap rov i s iona la rmyco rp sund e rth ecommando f G en e ra lF ranzvonRoqu e s , who wa sr e spon s ib l efo rR ea rgua rdZon e 15 101 o fA rmyG roup No r th . Th eSpan ia rd sa s sum edth e i rpo s t sb e tw e en7and17 O c tob e r .Th e BDo c cup i edas e c t ionex t end ing40 k i lom e t r e sb e tw e en Novgo rodand Lak eI lm entoth esou th ,andtoUda rn ik–a f t e rwa rd sBo r i s sovo–toth e no r th .Th eyo c cup i edth ew e s to rr igh tbanko fth eb roadV o lkhovR iv e r , w i thanav e rag ew id tho ftwohund r ed m e t r e s .Th et e r ra in wa sla rg e ly wood edand ma r shy ,w i ths ca t t e r edv i l lag e sandah ighwayl ead ingto L en ing rad ,a long w i thara i lwayconn e c t ingtha tc i ty w i th Mo s cow .Th e Span ia rd sa r r iv edtorap id lyfa l l ingt emp e ra tu r e s ,th ef r s tsnow fa l l s , andh eavyf ro s t s .Oppo s i t eth em ,onth eea s tbanko fth eV o lkhov ,s tood 16 th e267 thand305 thSov i e tIn fan t ryD iv i s ion s . Th esou th e rnth i rdo fth es e c t ion wa scov e r edbytwoba t ta l ion so f th eSpan i sh262ndR eg im en t ,th ec en t r eth i rdbyth e263 rdR eg im en t , andth eno r thand mo s ta c t iv eth i rdbyth e269 thR eg im en t .A r t i l l e ry wa sd iv id edamongth eth r e es e c t ion s ,andth er ema in ingun i t s(on e a r t i l l e ryg roup ,on eba t ta l ionf romth e262nd R eg im en t ,on esapp e r ba t ta l ion ,anan t i tankg roup ,andth e mob i l er e s e rv eba t ta l ion )w e r e p la c edinth er e s e rv e s .A c ro s sth er iv e r ,th es e c to rcon t ro l l edbyth eR ed A rmys e em edi l lp rov i s ion ed w i ths can ta r t i l l e ryandnoa rmou r edv eh i c l e s . How ev e r ,Sov i e tav ia t iondom ina t edth esk i e s .Thoughnum e r ica l ly mod e s t ,th i s wa sacon s tan tp rob l emb e cau s eth eSpan ia rd sla ck ed ad equa t ean t i -a i rd e f en c e . Ho r s e sw e r ea l soinsho r tsupp lya f t e rth e ma r chf romPo land .By ea r ly O c tob e r ,1 ,205 ho r s e shadb e enlo s tandon ly414r ep la c ed . Wh en th et im ecam eto laun chano f f en s iv e ,th i sc r ea t edd e lay sandd i ff cu l t i e s

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 105

ino rgan iz ingth ep rov i s iono ffood ,m ed i ca lsupp l i e s ,w eapon s ,and ammun i t iontoth et roop sonth ef ron tl in e s .Th eBDhads ev e ra ldamag edcannon sand mo r ethanahund r edb rok en -downv eh i c l e s .Th e an t i tankv eh i c l e shadr e c e iv edl i t t l eca r ef romin exp e r i en c edd r iv e r s , and30 p e rc en to fth eb i cy c l e scou ldno tb eu s ed .Th eso ld i e r shadno t p ra c t i s edshoo t ings in c eG ra f enwöh r ,andth eo ff c e r sand NCO sba r e ly manag edtoimpo s ed i s c ip l in einth e i rh e t e rog en eou srank s .17 A l lth i scau s edth eG e rman stoqu e s t ionth ep e r fo rman c eth eycou ld exp e c tf romth eSpan ia rd s ,b e fo r eth eyev e rb e cam ea c t iv eonth ef ron t . P r e jud i c ea s id e ,th eyhadsom er ea son sfo ri t . Ar epo r tf romth el ia isono ff c e ro fth eI A rmyCo rp sind i ca t edtha tth eov e r -abundan tB lu e D iv i s iono ff c e r sla ck edau tho r i tyandr e so lv e ,th e NCO sla ck edt e chn i ca lt ra in ing ,th eso ld i e r st end edtob eund i s c ip l in ed ,w eapon sw e r e no tp rop e r lyca r edfo r ,t r ea tm en to fho r s e s wa s“ e sp e c ia l lyrough(k i cking ,e t c . ) ,” mo to r cy c l e sw e r esy s t ema t i ca l lyov e r load ed ,andsoon .Th e t roop sm igh tb e“w i l l ing”andth e“p e r sona lb rav e ryo fa l lth eSpan ia rd sg iv e snoroomfo rdoub t ,”bu tinth eab s en c eo fsy s t ema t i ct ra in 18 ing ,th e i rcomba tcapab i l i t i e sr ema in eda my s t e ry . Th ein i t ia ld e s igno fth eV o lkhovo f f en s iv egav enod e c i s iv ero l ein th evangua rdtoth eSpan i shd iv i s ion .Th eSov i e tp lan sw e r ein t end ed tocomp l em en tth eo f f en s iv etha t wou ldb elaun ch ed mo r etoth eno r th : toconqu e rT ikhv in ,conn e c tw i thth eF inn i sht roop s no r tho f Lak e Ladoga ,andt igh t enth es i eg eo fL en ing rad . On lya f t e rth een emy ’ sr es i s tan c ehadb e en wo rndown wou ldth eyadvan c eea s tandsou th ea s t o fth eG e rmanun i t stha thadin i t ia l lyop en edth eb r ea ch .Th es c ep t ic i smo fth eG e rmancommandr ega rd ingSpan i shcomba tcapab i l i t i e s wa s ma in lydu etoth eD iv i s ion ’ sla cko f mob i l i ty .19 How ev e r ,th eG e r manp lan s wou ldev en tua l lychang e ,g iv ingth eBDanoppo r tun i tyto e s tab l i shb r idg eh ead sinth evangua rdo fth ea t ta ck . A f t e raf ewt en ta t iv eandfa i l eds t r ik e s ,th eyp r epa r edtotak eth ei slandb e tw e enth e“ l i t t l eV o lkhov”andth eV o lkhov ,coo rd ina t ing w i th th eadvan c eo fth e126 thG e rmanD iv i s ion .Th i so f f en s iv e mov etoc ro s s th er iv e randr ea chth eV a lda iH i l l scomp l em en t edth eG e rmano f f en s iv etotak eT ikhv in mo r etoth eno r th .Th ef r s ta t t emp tfa i l ed ,bu ton 19 O c tob e ras e c t iono fth i r ty s ix m encon so l ida t edab r idg eh eadon th el e f tbankn ea r Uda rn ik .Th e2ndBa t ta l iono fth e269 th R eg im en t ando th e run i t sjo in edth emth efo l low ingday . Af ewday so fr e la t iv e ca lmt ran sp i r edb e fo r eth eSov i e t sr ea c t edon27 O c tob e r .S i tnob e cam eth es c en eo fha r shcomba t :inth eb loodyc la sh e stha ten su ed ,th e Span i shcomba tan t sa t ta ck edtowa rd sth esou thandtookth ev i l lag e s o fT igoda , Dub rovka ,and N ik i tk ino .F r e ez ingt emp e ra tu r e s mad eth e fgh t ingha r sh e rfo rth epoo r lyequ ipp edcomba tan t sandcomp l i ca t ed

Map 1 .Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eV o lkhovF ron t(O c tob e r1941– Jun e1942 )

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 107

commun i ca t ion s w i thth eb r idg eh ead . Sov i e tr e s i s tan c e wa sa l so s t rong e rthanexp e c t ed . Th e23 O c tob e rlogen t ryfo rA rmy G roup No r thno t edtha t“ th eva lou ro fth eSpan ia rd sincomba ti sr ea s su r ing , th eyhav er ep e l l edaRu s s iana t ta cktoday ,r e su l t inginth r e ehund r ed d ea th sandth r e ehund r eden emyp r i son e r s .”20 Th ecommand e r sd e c id edtofo cu sth e i re f fo r t sontak ingT ikhv inand o rd e r edth eBDtor e l i ev eth eG e rman s inth e mona s t e ryo fO t en sk i iand th ev i l lag e so fPo sadandPo s e lok .A st emp e ra tu r e sd ropp edto20ºC , on9 Nov emb e rar e in fo r c edSpan i shba t ta l ionr ep la c edth eG e rman sa f ewk i lom e t r e stoth eea s tinPo sad ,tocov e rth es e c to ro fth eV i sh e ra R iv e r .F ea r ingL en ing rad wou ldb ecu to f f ,th eSov i e t slaun ch edf e r c e coun t e r -a t ta ck sw i tha i randa r t i l l e rysuppo r t ,cau s ingh eavylo s s e sto th eSpan ia rd ss ta t ion eda tPo sad .Th e r e ,th eyr e s i s t edin fan t rya t ta ck s andl igh ta r t i l l e ryf r efo ra lmo s ta mon th . Conn e c t ion sw e r ep r e ca r iou sb e tw e enth eO t en sk i i mona s t e ry ,S i tno ,andPo sad .Th eroadran th roughad en s esnowyfo r e s t wh e r ev i s ib i l i ty wa sa lmo s tn i l .Th eSo v i e tso ld i e r skn ewhowto mov einth eth i ckb ru shands e ts ev e ra lambu sh e s . How ev e r , manySpan i sht roop e r sw e r ea c cu s tom edtoth i styp e o fcomba t . Mo r ethanon eso ld i e rno t edp roud lyinh i sd ia ryhowth e Span ia rd sengag edin“ fan ta s t i ch e ro i cd e ed s .”21 Inea r ly D e c emb e r ,th eR edA rmyin t en s if edi t scoun t e r -o f f en s iv eto r e tak eT ikhv in .Ea s to fth eV o lkhov ,th eSov i e t sr edoub l edth e i ra t ta ck s on N ik i tk ino ,Lak eI lm en ,Po sad ,and O t en sk i i .Th eG e rmancommand b egantod r eadtha tbo thpo s i t ion s wou ldfa l l in toen emyhand s . Muñoz G rand e sr epo r t edtoth e XXXV I I IA rmy Co rp stha ton lyth i r ty e igh t m enr ema in edcapab l eo fcomba tinPo sad .Th eG e rman sf ea r edtha t R ed A rmyr e in fo r c em en t s wou ldc ro s sth er iv e r ,w ip eou tth eSpania rd s ,andconqu e r Novgo rod .Su chas ign if can tb lowonth ef ron t wou lda l sos t ra in H i spano -G e rmand ip loma t i cr e la t ion s .Th eimpa c t o fth eco ldhada l sob e enb ru ta lonth eG e rmanandSpan i shun i t s , who w e r eba r e lysu rv iv ing .22 F ina l ly ,onth en igh to f7 D e c emb e r ,th eSpan ia rd sabandon edth e i rpo s i t ion sinPo sadfo rf ea ro fb e ingb e s i eg edby th een emy ,w i thth e i rw e l l equ ipp edS ib e r ianr e in fo r c em en t s .Th efo l low ingday ,th eyeva cua t edS i tno , Dub rovka ,ando th e rpo s i t ion sn ea r th eea s tbanko fth eV o lkhov .W i thou t wa i t ingfo rG e rmano rd e r s ,th ey l e f tl igh tcannon s ,equ ipm en t ,and w eapon sb eh ind .A c co rd ingtoth e G e rman A rmyCo rp scommand ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r eno tsy s t ema t i cin lay ing m in e sa tth eabandon edpo s i t ion s ,no rd idth eyd e s t royth ea r t i l 23 l e ryand mo r ta r stha tth eycou ldno tca r ry . Onth ea f t e rnoono f9 D e c emb e r ,th ela s tSpan i shun i t sc ro s s edth eV o lkhovandf e l lba cktoth e i r po s i t ion sonth ew e s t e rnsho r e .Th er e t r ea tcon c lud ede l ev enday sla t e r . Th eSov i e t sfound manyd eadinPo sadandP r avd a pub l i sh edr epo r t s 24 abou tth e“b l e ed ingou t”o fth e“Fa s c i s tB lu eD iv i s ion .”

108 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

A tth i spo in t ,i tb e c am eu rg en ttor e in fo r c eth el in eo fd e f en c e , wh i l e m a in t a in ingaf ewou tpo s t so fr e s i s t an c eonth ee a s tb anko fth eV o lkhov . Th ecomm and e ro fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sf e a r edaSov i e ta t t a ckon anov e r ly w id es e c t iono fth ef ron t( 1 5 0 km )p ro t e c t edbyad eb i l i t a t ed 1 2 6 th G e rm an D iv i s ionandth e“ r a th e run r e l i ab l e ”Sp an i shun i t s .Th e l a t t e rh adshownth em s e lv e sunp r ep a r edfo rcomb a t inex t r em ew e a th e r cond i t ion sand w e r ed e s c r ib eda sa“ho l einth ef ron tl in e . ”Th eG e r m ancomm andd idno tt ru s tth eSp an i a rd sw i thbu i ld ingsh e l t e r so r b a rb ed -w i r ef en c e s ,so G e rm ans app e run i t sw e r es en ttodoth ejob .25 Th eG e rm an sa l so wo r r i edth a tth eSov i e t s wou ldnowcoun t e r a t t a ck onth ew e s tb anko fth er iv e r ,con c en t r a t ingonth ew e ak en edl e f tf ank o fth eBDandr igh tf anko fth e1 2 6 thD iv i s ion .26 Th eyd idno tknowth a t Sov i e tr epo r t sh igh l igh t edhowth eSp an i a rd s ,thoughd emo r a l i z edby th eco ld ,h adso l id lyr e s i s t edth eR ed A rmya t t a ck s .B a s edonp r i son e r in t e r rog a t ion sanden emy w a rd i a r i e s ,th eSov i e tcomm andp e r c e iv ed 2 7 th eBDa sah igh ly mo t iv a t edvo lun t e e rco rp sfu l lo ff an a t i cf a s c i s t s . A f t e rs ev e ra ls t r ik e s ,on24 D e c emb e rth eSov i e t sb egant ry ingtop en e t ra t eth eSpan i shpo s i t ion s .Th r e eday s la t e r ,th eyc ro s s edth er iv e rand a t ta ck edth eBDsuppo r tpo in t s , in c lud ingth e“h e rm i tag epo s i t ion”and th er e in fo r c ed“ in t e rm ed ia t epo s i t ion”tha tl ink ed Uda rn ikandLobk ovo .Th eSov i e t sw ip edou tth esquad rontha t wa sd e f end ingth ela t t e r . Wh enth eSpan ia rd scoun t e r -a t ta ck edandfna l lyr e cov e r edth epo s it ion ,th eyfoundfo r tycadav e r s mu t i la t edands tak edtoth eg round . Th eya l sor e conqu e r edth eh e rm i tag epo s i t ion , wh e r eth eyfoundas imi la rsp e c ta c l e .Th en ,a f t e rad e sp e ra t efgh tin wh i chnop r i son e r sw e r e tak en ,th eyfo r c edth eSov i e t sba cktoth ew e s tbanko fth eV o lkhov .Th e fa l l enso ld i e r so fth ein t e rm ed ia t eandh e rm i tag epo s i t ion s , whohad b e eno rd e r edtob el i t e ra l lyna i l edtoth eg roundinth e i rp la c e s ,b e cam e th esub j e c to fpo e t i cp ra i s eand w e r e my th i c iz edinBDp ropagandaand 28 l i t e ra tu r e . Th ef ron ts tab i l iz ed .By7 D e c emb e r ,th eSov i e t shadr e conqu e r ed T ikhv inand L en ing radcou ldr e c e iv ep rov i s ion sv ia Lak e Ladoga . F romth enon ,th e16 thand18 thA rm i e sw e r eengag edina wa ro fpo s it ion sa longal in eex t end ingb e tw e enLak eI lm enandL en ing rad .Th ey ma in ta in edas tab l ef ron tth e r eun t i lth efna lSov i e to f f en s iv eo fJanua ry1944 .Fu r th e rsou th ,A rmy G roupC en t r ehada l sofa i l edinth e i r a t t emp ttotak e Mo s cow ,soth e wa rw en tonlong e rthanexp e c t ed . BDlo s s e sinth eb r idg eh eadcomba to fth eV o lkhovin c lud edaha r sh to l linb lood sh ed ,bu tth ed ea thr epo r t sp r e s en ts t r ik ingd i spa r i t i e s .Th e o f t enina c cu ra t ecompu ta t ion so fA rmy G roup No r thr epo r t edn ea r ly 29 500fa l l enSpan i shvo lun t e e r sinla t e1941 . How ev e r ,aBD m ed i ca l r epo r t da t ed18Janua ry1942l i s t ed793 d ead ,1 ,883 wound ed ,899

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 109

f ro s tb i t t en ,and1 ,365inf rm ,co l l e c t iv e lyr ep r e s en t ing27 .4p e rc en to f 30 th eBDto ta l . Th e126 thG e rmanD iv i s ionsu f f e r eds im i la rlo s s e s ,w i th 31 3 ,405ca sua l t i e sf rom O c tob e rto D e c emb e r . Ano th e rr epo r ta mon th la t e rind i ca t edtha tth e BD hadin cu r r ed1 ,032 d ea th s ,800s ev e r e ly wound ed ,1 ,400 w i th m ino rin ju r i e s ,160 m i s s ing ,and300f roz ento d ea th .32 A so f25Ju lyo fth esam ey ea r ,BDca sua l t i e snumb e r ed1 ,247 d ea th s( in c lud ing61 o ff c e r s ) ,3 ,263 wound ed( in c lud ing123 o ff c e r s ) , 33 and127 m i s s ing( in c lud ing 3o ff c e r s ) . In mo s tG e rmand iv i s ion s ,on ly ath i rdo fth ein i t ia lt roop sr ema in edf tfo rcomba tby m id -D e c emb e r , 34 in c lud ingso ld i e r s whohadr e cov e r edsu ff c i en t lyf romth e i r wound s . How ev e r ,th e Span ia rd s had a l sotak en a tl ea s t 800 p r i son e r s by Nov emb e r1941 ,cap tu r edas izab l eamoun to fSov i e t wa r ma t e r i e l ,and 35 inf i c t edh eavylo s s e sonth een emy . Ev enso ,th eSpan i shcommand andso ld i e r sw e r ed i sappo in t eda tth efa c ttha tth e i rbap t i smbyf r e hadend edinr e t r ea tf romth epo s i t ion sth eyhadconqu e r eda tsu ch g r ea tco s t .So ld i e r sinth e269 thR eg im en tw e r ea l sod i s con t en t ed w i th Co lon e lE spa rza ’ sty rann i ca lt r ea tm en to fsubo rd ina t e s .H ehadev en o rd e r edh i sm entoa t ta ck w i thou tad equa t ea r t i l l e rycov e r ,cau s ing manyunn e c e s sa ryca sua l t i e s .36 S t i l l ,th e r e wa sth eso la c eo fg lo ry .F rom1 1 Nov emb e r1941to31 Ma r ch1942 ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r eawa rd ed 159I ron C ro s s e s ,S e cond C la s s ,compa r edto 161awa rd edtoth eG e rmanso ld i e r so fth eXXX V I I IA rmyCo rp s .Ano th e r325Span i shso ld i e r sr e c e iv edth eW a rM e r i t C ro s s ,S e condC la s s ,compa r edto210G e rman s .Som eW eh rma ch tcommand e r sexp la in edth i sa symm e t r i ct r ea tm en ta ssh e e rpo l i t i ca ld e f e r37 en c etowa rd sth e i ra l l i e s . Thoughth e r ew e r enog r ea tv i c to r i e stos ing abou t ,ep i sod e ssu cha sth ed e f en c eo fPo sadand O t en sk i iw e r esoon my th i c iz ed .38 Th esam eo c cu r r ed w i thth eT igodacomba t sandth ef ron ta la s sau l tonth efo r t if edh eadqua r t e r sn ea r Dub rovka , wh i chend ed inth es en s e l e s s ma s sa c r eo fdoz en so fso ld i e r sandth er emova lo fth e i r 39 in comp e t en tcommand e r . Pa r t lyfo rpo l i t i ca lr ea son s ,th eo ff c ia lW eh rma ch tr epo r t sb road ca s t fa rand w id eth eva l ian td e ed so fth e2ndBa t ta l iono fth eBD269 th R eg im en t ,w i thi t ss t rongFa lang i s tcompon en t .40 P rom in en tFa lang i s t s and m emb e r so fth eFa lang i s tyou thfgu r edamongth efa l l en ,su ch a sSEUl ead e rEn r iqu eSo tomayo r ,Jo s é An ton io ’ sfo rm e rad ju tan tV i c en t e Ga c eo ,ands ev e ra li l lu s t r iou sO ldSh i r t s .Th e s ecomb in ed w i th G e rman p ropagandatoc r ea t earoman t i c iz edimag eo fth eSpan i sh comba tan t samongth eG e rmanin fan t r i e s .Span i sho ff c e r sp e r c e iv ed adm i ra t ionf romth e i rG e rmanco l l eagu e s ,“ incon t ra s tw i thth eI ta lian s ,Roman ian s ,F inn i sh ,e t c . ,”du etoth eeno rmou se f fo r tth eBDhad mad e .M eanwh i l e ,doub t sa ro s er ega rd ingth esuppo s ed inv in c ib i l i tyo f

1 10 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th eW eh rma ch tonth i se sp e c ia l lyd i ff cu l tf ron t .By Nov emb e r ,Co lon e l Bad i l lohada l r eadycon c lud edtha tth e ma t e r ia lr e sou r c e so fth i scampa ign w e r enob e t t e rthantho s eo fth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ;th et roop s hadto mak edo w i ths ca r c ep rov i s ion s ,in su ff c i en ta r t i l l e ry ,andav e ry 41 longf ron tl in e . Incon t ra s t ,th ecommand e r so fth ed iv i s ion stha tfough ta long s id e th e BD ,andth eh ighcommando fth e16 thand18 th A rm i e s ,w e r e ra th e run imp r e s s ed w i thBDcomba tp e r fo rman c e , wh i ch wo r s en edun d e rth ee f f e c t so fth eha r shc l ima t e ,poo rt ra in ing ,log i s t i ca ld ef c i en c i e s , andth ela cko fho r s e sandv eh i c l e s .F r i ed r i ch -W i lh e lmvonChappu i s , command e rg en e ra lo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,p r ed i c t edin m id -No v emb e rtha tth e“250 thSpan i shD iv i s ion wou ldno tla s tlong .”Th i sl ed h imtop ropo s eth ed ep loym en to fath i rdo fth e61 s tG e rman D iv i s ion andr e tu rnth eBDtoi t ss ta r t ingpo s i t ioninth ew e s tbanko fth eV o lkhov , wh e r ei t wou ldr ema inina“ r e la t iv e lyca lm”p la c e .G en e ra lBu s ch comm en t edtha t ,d e sp i t etak ingT ikhv in ,th eo f f en s iv ehadno tcom p l e t edi t ss e condob j e c t iv e , wh i ch wa sto w ea rdownth eSov i e tt roop s andsho r t enth ef ron tl in etoth eno r th .H ethough ttha tth eSpan ia rd s hadfa i l edinth i sdu etoth e i rla cko f mob i l i ty ,h eavylo s s e s ,andth e e f f e c t so fth eco ld .H eadv i s edd ep loy ingth emon lyd e f en s iv e lyinca lm s e c t ion so fth ef ron t .Th eR ed A rmyhad mob i l iz edr e s e rv e sf romth e Ea s t , wh i chth r ea t en edtod e s t royth et roop sonth ef ron tno r tho fI lm en .Twoday s la t e r , Ma r sha lG eo rgvonKü ch l e r wa s in fo rm edtha tth e “fgh t ingcou rag e”o fth eSpan ia rd s wa s“ s low lybu tsu r e ly” wan ing anda sk edth e OKWtor ep la c eth eB lu eD iv i s ion w i tha G e rmand iv i 42 s ion . V on Chappu i scon cu r r eda f t e rm e e t ing w i th Muñoz G rand e s , whoa cknow l edg edh eavylo s s e sandlow mo ra l edu etoth eco ldbu t 43 r e fu s edto w i thd raw . How ev e r ,th ecommando fA rmy G roup No r thr ea l iz edtha tr ep la cingth eSpan i shd iv i s ion w i thaG e rmanon e( th e81 s t )no r tho f Novgo rodandama s s ingth eIb e r ian stod e f endth eI lm ens e c to ro rth ec i tyo f Novgo roda sa“ so r to fSpan i shen c lav e” invo lv ed“qu e s t ion so ffo r e ign po l i cy”andd idno td ep enden t i r e lyonth ea rmy .Th eh eado fth e16 th A rmys en tth er equ e s tto H i t l e rh im s e l f ,bu ti t wa sno tapp rov ed .Th e fa c ttha tth eSov i e t sd idno tfo cu sth e i rs t r ik e son Novgo rodandth e no r thI lm ena r eaca lm edvonKü ch l e rfo ra wh i l eanda l lay edh i sf ea ro f 44 ab r ea chinth ef ron ta tth es e c to rp ro t e c t edbyth eBD . Th ela cko fin t e r e s tinfo r t i fy ingpo s i t ion sinth eca lms e c t ion so fth e f ron to c cup i edbySpan i shun i t sl edtod i sp ropo r t iona t e lyh eavyBD lo s s e sf romSov i e ta r t i l l e ryf r e . Ou tb r eak so f mang ea l soth r ea t en edto d e c ima t eth eho r s er e s e rv e s .45 Th eG e rman sdoub t edtha tth eIb e r ian s cou ldho ldth epo s i t ion sdu r ingth ew in t e ronaf ron tex t end ing mo r e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 1 1

F ig .4 .2 .Span i shso ld i e r sinRu s s ia ,W in t e r1941–2(EFEA r ch iv e , Mad r id )

thanfo r tyk i lom e t r e sa longth ebank so fth eV o lkhovandtw en ty -on e k i lom e t r e sa longth eI lm en .46 Th e i rs lowr ea c t ioncapab i l i tyfavou r ed th ea c t iv i tyo fSov i e tpa t ro l s , whocou ldnowc ro s sf roz enLak eI lm en 47 tos t r ik e . How ev e r ,th ed im in i sh edhumanr e s e rv e sand ma t e r i e lo fth eW eh rma ch t mad ei timpo s s ib l etor ep la c eth eBD w i thsu ff c i en tp e r sonn e l toen su r eth epo s i t ion s .Th en ew G e rmand iv i s iontha thadb e enr e qu e s t edtor e in fo r c eth ea r eab e tw e enth eBDandth e126 th D iv i s ion n ev e ra r r iv ed .Th eG e rman422ndR eg im en t– w i thcomba tan t sav e ragingth i r ty -fv ey ea r so fag e–tha tr e l i ev edth eexhau s t ed269 thSpan i sh R eg im en t wa sl e s sab l etor e s i s tth ec l ima t eandcomba tcond i t ion sthan 48 th er ev i l edsou th e rn e r s . S in c eea r lyO c tob e r1941 ,A rmyG roup No r th hadb e enr e c e iv inglow e r -qua l i tyr e l i e ft roop sw i thl e s scomba texp e r ien c e . Hav ingendu r edfou r mon th s mo r eo fin t en s ecomba t ,th eho r s e s , th e mo ra l e ,andth el iv ingcond i t ion so fth eG e rmant roop sinth es e c to r

1 12 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w e r eno tsod i f f e r en tf romtho s eo fth eSpan ia rd s .Th eun i t stha thad pa r t i c ipa t edinth eb r idg eh eadcomba t sw e r einnob e t t e rphy s i ca lo r p sy cho log i ca lcond i t ion ,e i th e r .49InJanua ry ,th e Du t ch N i ed e r land e R eg im en t wa sd e em edap tfo rd e f en s iv eta sk sandp la c edb e tw e enth e Span ia rd sandth e126 th D iv i s ion .H i t l e rhads en ti ttoen su r etha tth e Span i shD iv i s ionno tendupb e s i eg edbyth eSov i e t s ,a sth i s wou ldc r e50 a t es e r iou sp rob l em sinh i sd ip loma t i cr e la t ion sw i thF ran co ’ sr eg im e . In M ad r id ,th e r ew a sin c r e a s ingcon c e rnr eg a rd ingth en ews i tu a t ion inth eE a s tbyth eendo f1 9 4 1 .A tCh r i s tm a s ,F r an coo rd e r edth eSp an i sh amb a s s ado rinB e r l in ,Jo s éM .F in a t ,tot r an sm i ttoth eR e i chau tho r i t i e s h i sd e s i r eth a tth eB lu eD iv i s ionen joyar e sp i t e .Th i st empo r a ry w i thd r aw a lw a sun th ink ab l efo ra G e rm ancomm andth a tl a ck edr e s e rv e s . A l thoughF in a tandS e r r anoSuñ e rin s i s t eddu r ingth ef r s t mon th so f 1 9 4 2 ,th ean sw e rf romth e OKWr em a in edun ch ang ed .Th eya rgu ed th a tth eBDp ro t e c t edar e l a t iv e lyc a lm e rf ron t ,w i thfo r t if edpo s i t ion s andac i ty(Novgo rod )th a to f f e r edadd i t ion a lpo s s ib i l i t i e sfo rsh e l t e r . W i thd r aw a lo fp e r sonn e l wou ldon lyb epo s s ib l ei fSp a ingu a r an t e ed r ep l a c em en t s .A l so ,a cqu i e s c ingtosu chp e t i t ion sf rom M ad r id wou ld 5 1 c r e a t eacomp a r a t iv eg r i ev an c eamongth eo th e rW eh rm a ch td iv i s ion s . Th eSp an i shgov e rnm en th adb e en wo rk ingonth ei s su eo fr ep l a c em en t ss in c eD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 ,g iv enth ef a i l edG e rm ano f f en s iv eon Mo scowandth er e a l i z a t ionth a tth ew a rwou ldcon sum e mo r et im eand l iv e s th ano r ig in a l lyfo r e s e en . Agu s t ín A zn a rand D ion i s ioR id ru e join s i s t ed th a tFo r e ign M in i s t e rS e r r anoSuñ e radd r e s sth en e edtofndp a r t i a lr e p l a c em en t s . Wh i l eth em anyF a l ang i s td e a th sh adp rov id ed m a r ty r sfo r th es ing l ep a r tyini t sd r iv etor e cov e rsph e r e so fpow e rinSp a in ,i th ad a l sod ep r iv edth eo rg an i z a t iono fsom eo fi t s mo s tp r e s t ig iou sl e ad e r s andd e c im a t edth einfu en t i a lO ldSh i r t s , who w e r en e ed edinSp a in . G en e r a lV a r e l a wo rk ed w i thth eid e ao fsub s t i tu t ingth een t i r e“f r s tD iv i s ion ”inb lo ck .H e wou lds endso ld i e r sr e c ru i t edex c lu s iv e lyf romth e m i l i t a ryb a r r a ck sandtho s e whoh aden l i s t edin1 9 4 1bu th adno tb e en d i sp a t ch edtoRu s s i ab e c au s eth equo t a sh adb e en m e t .52 Th ef r s tr e l i e f exp ed i t ion s , mod e s tinnumb e r s ,b eg antoc ro s sth ePy r en e anbo rd e rin J anu a ry1 9 4 2 .In m id -M a r ch ,th ey w e r eo ff c i a l lyr e cogn i z eda sm a r ch b a t t a l ion sinvo lv edint r an spo r t ingr ep l a c em en tso ld i e r s .Th i sh e lp edto m a in t a inth esupp lyo fBDcomb a tp e r sonn e landg av eth eSp an i a rd s con s id e r ab l elog i s t i c a lv a lu efo rth eG e rm ancomm and .Th e i rcomb a t c ap ab i l i ty m igh tb equ e s t ion ab l e ,bu ta t l e a s tth eyd idno th av etor ep l a c e f a l l encomb a t an t sw i tho ld e ron e s ,a so th e rW eh rm a ch td iv i s ion sd id . M eanwh i l e ,th een emygav enor e sp i t e .InJanua ry1942 ,som eBD un i t sengag ed inh eavyd e f en s iv ecomba taga in s tSov i e tcoun t e r -a t ta ck s onth e i rno r th e rnfanka tT e r em e t s , wh i l eth e126 thD iv i s ionandsom e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 13

SScompan i e shadtor ep e lSov i e ta t ta ck sinth esou tha tLak eI lm en .In th eno r tho ftha ts e c to r ,th eSov i e t slaun ch edapow e r fu lo f f en s iv etoa l l ev ia t eth es i tua t ion inL en ing rad .On 13Janua ry ,th eSov i e t2ndA s sau l t A rmyc ro s s edth er iv e randtook M ia sno iBo r ,onth ew e s t e rnsho r eo f th eV o lkhov .A tth eendo fJanua ry ,th eSov i e t sd i r e c t edth ea t ta cktoth e no r th -w e s t ,towa rd sth era i ll in e s .Th i sr edu c edth epo s s ib i l i tytha tth e Span ia rd s wou ldb esu r round ed .Af ewday sla t e r ,th e2ndBa t ta l iono f th e269 thR eg im en tandacompanyo fth e263 rd w e r eaga ina t ta ch ed toth e126 th G e rman D iv i s ion .A f t e r manyhou r so fha r shfgh t ingand ma r ch ingth roughsnow ,th eyen t e r ed Ma lo eZamo sh ’ e ,b rok eth es i eg e , andr e s cu ed140 G e rmanso ld i e r s .S ev e ra lo th e rSpan i shun i t sfough t 53 a long s id eth eG e rmanfo r c e stoe l im ina t eth epo ck e ta tM ia sno iBo r . Add edtoth eha r shcomba t ,s ign if can tca sua l t i e s ,andth ec ru e lt emp e ra tu r e s–th eth e rmom e t e rd idno tc l imbabov ez e rofo rev enaf ew hou r sun t i l10 Ma r ch1942– w e r eth es t r ik e sonth eea s t e rnsho r eo fth e V o lkhov .Th e mo s tno to r iou sa c t ion wa stha to fth e“ sk icompany ,”l ed by Cap ta in O rdá s . On1 1Janua ry1942 ,th ecompanyl e f ti t sSpan i sh po s i t ion stoc ro s sf roz enLak eI lm eninana t t emp ttor e s cu ea G e rman un i ttha thadb e ensu r round edinth ev i l lag eo f Vzvad .Th ec ro s s ing wa ssod i ff cu l ttha t 102 m enf roz etod ea thinth ef r s ttwoday s .Tho s e whosu rv iv ed w e r ea t t end edonth eoppo s i t esho r ebyg roup so fG e rmanandLa tv ianso ld i e r s .T enday sla t e r ,a f t e rs ev e ra lcomba t s ,th er ema ind e ro fth ecompanyjo in edtho s eund e rs i eg e . On lytw e lv em en r e tu rn edun in ju r edtoth es ta r t ingpo in t ;e igh t e eno fth e wound edhad toendu r eampu ta t iono fbo thl eg s .Thoughth eh ighhumanco s tp la c ed th e mod e s tr e su l t sinqu e s t ion ,th e“F ea to fLak eI lm en”b e cam eanin d i spu tab l eB lu eD iv i s ionp ropagandasu c c e s sand wa s my th i c iz eda s on eo fi t s mo s t“h e ro i cd e ed s .”54 Op e ra t ionRaub t i e r(P r eda to r )b eganon 15 Ma r ch1942 ,w i thth eob j e c t iv eo fcu t t ingo f fth eSov i e tfo r c e stha thadc ro s s edth er iv e r .Th e Sov i e ta t ta ckhadfa i l ed ,andth eynowfa c edth epo s s ib i l i tyo ffnd ing th em s e lv e sund e rs i eg eb e tw e enth eG e rmanr ea rgua rdandth eV o lk hov . On19 Ma r ch ,th eSpan ia rd sandG e rman saga intook M ia sno iBo r andc lo s edth eV o lkhovpo ck e t ,t rapp inga lmo s t130 ,000 R edA rmyso l d i e r s .A id edbyT -34tank s ,th eR edA rmyb rok eth es i eg et empo ra r i lyon 29 Ma r ch .Th eG e rman saga inc lo s edth emo f f ,l eav ingth emtoendu r e s lowa t t r i t ion .Th eG e rmancommandf ea r edtha tcoun t e r -a t ta ck sby anen emy w i tha lmo s tend l e s sr e s e rv e s wou ldd efn i t iv e lycomp rom i s e th epo s i t ion sp ro t e c t edbyr ep la c em en tt roop s , who w e r eo ld e randi l l p r epa r edfo ro f f en s iv eta sk s ;byo th e run i t s ,exhau s t edf romcomba t andth ew in t e r ;andbyfo r e ignt roop s(Du t ch ,Span i sh ,andsom eF l em55 i sh ) , whomth eysawa sra th e run r e l iab l e . Inth es e cond w e eko fAp r i l

1 14 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

1942 ,b e l l i co s ea c t iv i tyb egantod e c l in ed ra s t i ca l ly .Th ethaw ingr iv e r fa c i l i ta t edaf ews t r ik e sonth eea s tbanko fth eV o lkhovo rtocap tu r e p r i son e r sinth ePo ck e t .56 Th ef r s ts ign if can tr ep la c em en to fSpan i sht roop stookp la c ein May , 57 wh en290o ff c e r s , 88 NCO s ,and1 ,121so ld i e r sl e f tfo rG e rmany . In Jun e ,th e1 ,435 m eno fth e2ndBa t ta l ion w e r er epa t r ia t ed .Th efna lba t t l e stol iqu ida t eth eV o lkhovPo ck e ttookp la c ef romla t e Maytoth eend o fJun e ,a roundBo l ’ sho eZamo sh ’ e .S ev e ra lSpan i shun i t spa r t i c ipa t ed (3 rdBa t ta l iono fth e262ndR eg im en tund e r Ma jo rRam í r ezd e Ca r ta g ena ,acompanyo fsapp e r s ,anan t i tanks e c t ion ,andanexp lo ra t ion g roup ) ,l edby Co lon e l Ha r ry Hopp e(126 th D iv i s ion ) ,a long w i thth e F l em i shL eg ionando th e rG e rmanun i t s ,und e rth ejo in tcommando f th eSSS t and a r t en füh r e r Bu rk .Am id s tswa rm so f mo squ i to e s ,th eSpan ia rd sfough taga in s tad e sp e ra t een emyfo rs ev e ra lday sinfo r e s t sand bog s .D e sp i t ef e r c eSov i e tr e s i s tan c e ,th eop e ra t ion sw e r esu c c e s s fu l .58 Th eG e rmano ff c e r sp ra i s edth eBD inpub l i cbu tqua l if edth e i rcomba tp e r fo rman c e ,e sp e c ia l lydu r ingth efgh t ingo f21–2Jun e ,a sano th e r fa s co .Th eSpan i sho ff c e r sand NCO shadl i t t l eexp e r i en c einfo r e s t comba t .Th eyhadb e ensu rp r i s edbys ev e ra len emya t ta ck sandfo r c ed tor e t r ea t ,l eav ingammun i t ionandh eav i e rw eapon sb eh ind . Add ed toth i s wa sd ef c i en tp r epa ra t ionfo rth ea t ta ckbyth eSpan i shcom mand e r ,th ela cko fcoo rd ina t ion w i th G e rmanandF l em i shun i t s ,and th ein comp r eh en s ib l epau s e sinth efgh t ing .A tfou rinth ea f t e rnoon , th eo ff c e r so rd e r edaon e -hou rb r eakfo r“ cogna c ,ham ,andt eab i s cu i t s .”ThoughBDvo lun t e e r spo s s e s s edind iv idua lva lou r ,th eG e rman op in iono fSpan i shfgh t ingcapab i l i tyhadno tchang ed .Compa r edto “No rd i cs ty l e”comba tan t s ,th eSpan ia rd sd emon s t ra t edg r ea t e rimp etu sa tth eb eg inn ingo fana t ta ck ,bu tl e s sd i s c ip l in e wh eni tcam eto r ep e l l ingcoun t e r -a t ta ck s .Th e ma inp rob l em wa stha tth eyla ck ed“ad equa t egu idan c e”f romr e l iab l e NCO sonth eg round .Span i sho ff c e r s a l son eg l e c t edp rov i s ionandammun i t iondu t i e s , wh i cho f t enr end e r ed 59 th eh eavy w eapon su s e l e s sfo r wan to fp ro j e c t i l e s . Th eG e rman sw e r e equa l lyd i sp l ea s ed wh enth eBDund e rp e r fo rm edini so la t eda c t ion sto cap tu r eSov i e tp r i son e r s ,du etoth e“ fa i lu r eo fl ead e r sh ipandla cko f p r epa ra t iono fth et roop s .”60 How ev e r ,th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp scom mandhadnor e s e rv e sw i th wh i chtosub s t i tu t eth eSpan i shba t ta l ion . Fo r mon th snow ,th eG e rmanr ep la c em en tt roop shadfa l l enfa rb e low W eh rma ch ts tanda rd s .A roundth esam et im e ,A rmy G roup No r thr ec e iv edr epo r t sind i ca t ingtha tth er e c ru i t sa r r iv ingonth ef ron tla ck ed 61 capab i l i t i e s ,t e chn i ca lt ra in ing ,andcomba t mo ra l e . Th eV o lkhovPo ck e t wa sl iqu ida t edon28Jun e1942 .Th eG e rman s pa idah ighp r i c e infa l l enso ld i e r s ,e sp e c ia l lytho s eo fth e58 thand126 th

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 15

D iv i s ion s , who w e r er e l i ev edino rd e rtog iv eth emr e s t .Som eo ftho s e po s i t ion sw e r eo c cup i edbyth eB lu eD iv i s ion .G en e ra l And r e jV la sov , th ecommand e ro fth een c i r c l edt roop s , wa scap tu r edon12Ju ly . Mo r e thanth i r ty twothou sandSov i e tso ld i e r sw e r etak enp r i son e rw i thh im , ands ix ty -fv ethou sand mo r ed i edincomba t .62 M eanwh i l e ,th eR ed A rmyso ld i e r s whohadf edf romth eV o lkhovPo ck e tin c r ea s edgu e rr i l laa c t iv i tyinth er ea rgua rd ,c r ea t ingn ewd i ff cu l t i e sfo rth eXXXV I I I A rmyCo rp s .63 Inea r lyJu ly ,th eG e rmancommands t i l lf ea r edtha tth een emy wou ld coun t e r -a t ta ckf romth e i rpo s i t ion sonth ew e s tbanko fth eV o lkhov andfo cu sonth eno r tho fth eSpan i shs e c to r .N e ighbou r ing G e rman un i t sw e r ein s t ru c t edtocom eandsuppo r tth eIb e r iant roop sinca s e o faSov i e ta t ta ck .Som er e s e rv e s , ma in lyanSSan t i -a i r c ra f ts e c t ion , w e r ep la c edinth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rdtoin t e rv en ei fth eSpan ia rd s y i e ld ed .Inla t eJu ly ,th e i rf ea r sw e r epa r t lyd i sp e l l ed :th eSpan ia rd sengag edinf e r c ehand to -handcomba tbu t manag edtor ep e laSov i e t 64 a t t emp ttos t r ik ea tZapo l ’ e . I tw a sd ang e rou stoexp e c tth eBDtocov e rsu chalongs e c t iono fth e f ron t .Th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp scomm andcommun i c a t edi t sin c r e a s ing app r eh en s iontoth e1 6 th A rmyandth eSup r em e Comm ando fA rmy G roup No r th , wh i chl edth emtop l a c eth eBDonano th e rf ron t .Ev en Muño zG r and e sdoub t edth e i rch an c e so fho ld ingth epo s i t ion sonth e w e s tb anko fth eV o lkhovon c eth er iv e rf ro z eov e rfo rth ew in t e rand f a c i l i t a t edth e mov em en to fen emyt roop s .Add edtoth i sw a sth ed e s i r e top a r t i c ip a t e inth eup com ingNo r th e rnL igh to f f en s iv e , in i t i a l lyp l ann ed 6 5 fo rS ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 ,th a tH i t l e rh aden t ru s t edto A rmy G roup No r th . On1 4Ju ly , Muño zG r and e sno t if edh i sch i e f so fs t a f fabou tth ech ang eo f f ron tand th en ew s t r av e l l edqu i ck ly .H ec l a im ed th a th eh ad in fo rm ed th e t roop so fth eimm in en t mov etoavo idr amp an td e f e a t i sm ,a sh i so ff c e r s h adb e enexp r e s s inganin c r e a s ingd e s i r etor e tu rntoSp a inandg row ing d i s con t en tw i thth ero l eth eyh adp l ay edsof a r .Th eG e rm ancomm and , how ev e r ,f e a r edth a tth en ew s wou ldr e l axth e i rfgh t ingsp i r i t , wh i ch w a sa l r e adyebb ing w i thth ea r r iv a lo fth er ep l a c em en t s . Th eSp an i a rd sw e r efn a l lyr ep l a c edinph a s e sbyun i t so fth e2 0 th and2 1 2 th D iv i s ion sf rom8 Augu s tun t i l1 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 , wh enth e 2ndB a t t a l iono fth e2 6 9 thR eg im en tw a sr e l i ev edf rom i t spo s i t ion s .Th e XXXV I I IA rmyCo rp scomm andr e a l i z edth a t5 0p e rc en tf ew e rG e rm an so ld i e r s wou ldb ecov e r ingth es ix tyk i lom e t r e so ff ron t ,a sth eBDh ad b e enr ep l a c ingi t sf a l l en w i thn ewt roop sf romSp a in . How ev e r ,th ey hop edth a tth i sd e c r e a s e wou ldb ecomp en s a t edbyth eg r e a t e rexp e r ien c eand m i l i t a ryc ap ab i l i tyo fth eG e rm anso ld i e r s ,andf ew e rop e r a t iv e 6 6 in conv en i en c e sd e r iv edf romco l l abo r a t ing w i thfo r e igncomb a t an t s .

1 16 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

W a ro fPo s i t ion sintheS iegeo fLen ing rad (Sep tembe r1942–Novembe r1943 ) Ine a r lyS ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 ,th eBDtookov e rn ewpo s i t ion sonth eL en ing r ad F ron t .Th eys e tuph e adqu a r t e r s in th ePok rov sko ee s t a t e ,r e l i ev ed th e1 2 1 s t G e rm anD iv i s ion ,and jo in edth eL IVCo rp so fth e1 8 thA rmy ,comm and ed byG en e r a lE r ik H an s en .A W a f f en -SSb r ig ad ew a spo s t edn e x ttoth eBD onth eno r th ,andanSSpo l i c ed iv i s iononth esou th .Th eBD w a stocov e r tw en tyk i lom e t r e so ff ron tf romPu shk intoK r a sny iBo r :ana r e at r av e r s ed byth eL en ing r ad -Mo s cowro adandth eI sho r a ,at r ibu t a ryo fth eN ev a R iv e r .In t e rm so fd en s i ty ,o rso ld i e r sp e rk i lom e t r ecov e r ed , th eyw e r enow 6 7 th es e cond -mo s t -num e rou sD iv i s iono fth e1 8 th A rmy . Th et e r r a in w a s f a i r lyf a t ,w i thp e r iph e r a ltown sbo a s t ingp a rk sandsump tuou sp a l a c e s , su cha sth a to fC a th e r in eth eG r e a tinPu shk inandth a to fT s a rP au lIin P av lov sk .Th eo c cupy ingfo r c e su s edth e s ea sb a r r a ck s ,s to r ehou s e s ,and a r t i l l e rylookou tpo s t s ;th eya l so m ad ew a rc em e t e r i e sinth eg a rd en s .Th e c l im a t ew a ssom ewh a tl e s ss ev e r e .Thoughth ep e a s an t so fth ea r e aap p e a r edtol iv eb e t t e rth antho s eo fth eV o lkhovr eg ion ,imp rov em en t sin p rov i s ion stoth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ionb eg inn inginsp r ing1 9 4 2cou ldno t h id eth ed ev a s t a t ionc au s edbyth ef am in eo fth ep r ev iou sw in t e r . Mo s t o fth einh ab i t an t sh adb e end epo r t edtol abou rc amp sinth eR e i ch , wh i l e 6 8 tho s e whor em a in ed w e r efo r c edto wo rkfo rth eo c cupy ingfo r c e s . Th eBDnowpa r t i c ipa t edinth es i eg eo fL en ing rad ,inapha s echa ra c t e r iz edbyas ta t i c wa ro fa t t r i t ion .Th eg en e ra l mono tony wa son ly in t e r rup t edbyspo rad i cs t r ik e s ,e f fo r t stor ep e lSov i e ta t ta ck s ,ando c 69 ca s iona la r t i l l e ryex chang e s . Th et roop sw e r eb e t t e requ ipp edfo rth e co ld ,andBD mob i l i tyhad imp rov ed .Th eho r s e sw e r ea l so inb e t t e rcon d i t ion ,thoughin f e r io rtotho s ea s s ign edtoth en e ighbou r ing G e rman d iv i s ion s .70 Du r ingth e i rf r s t mon th sonth i sn ews e c to ro fth ef ron t ,th e p r io r i ty wa stocon so l ida t ed e f en s iv epo s i t ion s .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionhad p l en tyo fso ld i e r s(un l ik e mo s tG e rmand iv i s ion s ,b eg inn ing w i thth e n e ighbou r ing170 th D iv i s ionandth eSSPo l i c eD iv i s ion ) , wh i chgav e th eG e rmancommand e r s mo r econfd en c einth eSpan ia rd s ’capa c i tyto 71 r e s i s tSov i e ta t ta ck s . Th eya l sova lu edth egoodw i l landen thu s ia sm o fth et roop s ,bu tlam en t edtha tth econ s tan tr ep la c em en to fo ff c e r s and NCO sp r ev en t edth emf roma c cumu la t ingexp e r i en c e .Th eys t i l l though to fth eSpan i shD iv i s iona sno tv e ry mob i l eandth e r e fo r einad equa t efo ro f f en s iv ea c t ion s .Th eBD wou ldn ev e rb eab l eto w i th s tand as t rongen emycoun t e r -a t ta ck ,andn ev e rpa s s edabov el ev e lth r e eo f 72 th efou rca t ego r i e su s edbyth eG e rmancommand . G e rmanb ia s e scon t inu edtocond i t ionth e s ep e r iod i ceva lua t ion s . Th eyh e ldtoth e i rconv i c t iontha tth eSpan ia rd sw e r egoodgu e r r i l la

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 17

fgh t e r sbu tra th e rin ep ta t mod e rn wa r fa r e .T ru etoth e i r“fgh t ing 73 s ty l e ,”th eyp r e f e r r edhand to -handcomba t . Th eya l sola ck edg rand o f f en s iv e sin wh i chtopa r t i c ipa t e .Inth eo ry ,th ey wou ldhav eb e eninc lud edin Op e ra t ion No r th e rnL igh ttotak eL en ing rad ,m e e tup w i th th eF inn i sht roop s ,andadvan c eonSov i e tpo r t sinth eA r c t i c . How ev e r , F i e ld Ma r sha lE r i chvon Man s t e incommun i ca t edto Muñoz G rand e s tha tth ea t ta ckhadb e enpo s tpon edind efn i t e lydu etor en ew edSov i e t a c t iv i tyonth eLadogaF ron t .P e r sonn e lhadtob ed iv e r t edtos topth e o f f en s iv e ,soth eBD wou ldb ed ep loy eda sr e s e rv e sfo rth e121 s tD iv is ioninanda roundPu shk in/S lu tzk . Du etoth ecomb in edp r e s su r eon th een t i r eEa s t e rnF ron tf romSov i e ta c t iv i tyinth eDonandS ta l ing rad , Op e ra t ion No r th e rnL igh t wa sn ev e rlaun ch ed .Th ecou r s eo fth e wa r 74 inth eEa s t wa ss low lyandd efn i t iv e lychang ing . A f t e rfou r mon th so fd e lay s byth eG e rmancommand , Muñoz G rand e s wa so ff c ia l lyr e l i ev edin D e c emb e rbyo rd e ro fth e OKWand H i t l e rh im s e l f .Th en ewcommand e r in ch i e fo fth eD iv i s ion wa sM ini s t e rV a r e la ’ st ru s t ed man ,G en e ra lEm i l ioE s t eban In fan t e s .A f t e rs ev e ra lw e ek so f wa i t ingfo rH i t l e r ’ sapp rova linB e r l in ,h ea r r iv eda tth e G r igo rovoh eadqua r t e r sinAugu s t ,bu ta ss e condincommandun t i lth e Füh r e rsawf ttoh e edF ran co ’ su rg ingtol e t Muñoz G rand e sr e tu rnto Spa in .E s t eban In fan t e shadb e enapa r to fth eSpan i sh A rmy G en e ra l S ta f fand wa sl e s scon c e rn ed w i thcu l t iva t ingh i sgoodimag eamong s t th et roop sthan Muñoz G rand e s .H e wa sco ld ,no tg iv entob e ings e en onth ef ron tl in e s ,andno tpa r t i cu la r lyin c l in edtowa rd sfa s c i sm . Howev e r ,h e wa s mo r em e thod i ca l ,andh i sG e rmanin t e r lo cu to r sthough t h imagoodp ro f e s s iona l .75 Muñoz G rand e s mad eas toponh i sr e tu rn jou rn eytov i s i tH i t l e ra tth eW o l f ’ sLa i r , wh e r eh e wa sawa rd edth e Kn igh t ’ sC ro s so fth eI ron C ro s s ,comp l e t ew i thth eoakl eav e s .Th e Füh r e rt ran sm i t t edh i scon c e rntha tSpa in ma in ta ini t sn eu t ra l i tybu t no tfa l lin w i thth eA l l i e s .H ea l sop rom i s edG e rman m i l i ta ryp ro t e c t ion 76 inth eca s eo fAng lo -Am e r i cana t ta ck sonSpan i sht e r r i to r i e s . Pa ra l l e ltoop e ra t ion sonth e DonF ron t , wh i chev en tua l lyl edtoth e c rumb l ingo fth eI ta l ians e c to randth esu r r end e ro fth e6 th A rmyin S ta l ing rad ,on12Janua ry1943th eR ed A rmys ta r t edth ef r s tpha s e tol i f tth es i eg eo fL en ing rad :th eI sk ra o f f en s iv e . Th eylaun ch ed tw en ty -on ed iv i s ion sa tth esou th e rnfank ,ea s to fth ec i tyandsou tho f Lak eLadoga ,inana t t emp ttoapp lyap in c e r mov em en ttoth eG e rman XXV IA rmy Co rp s .Th e2ndBa t ta l iono fth eSpan i sh269 thR eg im en t wa saga inr equ i r edtor e in fo r c eth eG e rmanpo s i t ion sh e ldbyth e61 s t D iv i s ionn ea rPo s e lok .Th eSpan ia rd sa l sohadtocov e ralong e rs e ct iono fth ef ron t wh enth eSSPo l i c eD iv i s ionpo s t edsou tho fth eBD wa sw i thd rawntocon ta inaSov i e to f f en s iv e .On 22Janua ry ,th eSov i e t s

1 18 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

a t ta ck edPo s e lokandcu to f facompany .Th eRománBa t ta l ionfough t ba ckd e sp i t enum e rou sfa l l en ,coun t e r -a t ta ck ingandth encon ta in ing an ewen emyo f f en s iv e .Th eylo s t124so ld i e r sintwoday s , wh i l eth e wound ed ,f roz en ,s i ck ,and m i s s ingcam ec lo s etoa lmo s tfou rhund r ed .77 M eanwh i l e ,th eBDf e l lund e rth ecommando fG en e ra lPh i l ipp K l e f f e landth eIA rmyCo rp s .On28Janua ry1943 ,th er ema ind e ro fth e RománBa t ta l ionr e tu rn edtoi t sfo rm e rpo s i t ion s . Inea r lyF eb rua ry ,i tb e cam ec l ea rtha tth eR ed A rmy wa scon c en t ra t ingl igh tandh eavya r t i l l e ry ,a long w i thtank sandin fan t ry ,onth e K ra sny iBo rs e c to ro fth ep la in , wh i ch wa sp ro t e c t edbyth eSpan i sh 262nd R eg im en t .Th eon lyth ingl e f ttoa s c e r ta in wa sth eda t eo fth e a t ta ck .E s t eban In fan t e sp r e emp t iv e lyo rgan iz edth r e ed e f en s iv el in e s . A t6 :45 onth e mo rn ingo f 10 F eb rua ry1943 ,ad eva s ta t inga t ta ckb egan w i thv e ryin t en s ea r t i l l e rybomba rdm en ttha tgav e waytoaf ron ta la ssau l tbyfou rin fan t ryd iv i s ion s–v e rysup e r io rinnumb e r s–suppo r t ed bya i rp lan e s ,ahund r edtank s , mo to r iz edun i t s ,sk i e r s ,andan t i tank cannon s .Th eob j e c t iv eo fth eo f f en s iv e ,a spa r to f Op e ra t ionPo la rS ta r , wa stotu rntowa rd sth eea s tandb r eakth es i eg eo fL en ing rad ,c lo s ing o f fth een emyun i t stha tp ro t e c t edth eI sho ras e c to r .Th i s wa sp lann ed toco in c id ew i thana t ta ckonth ePogo s t ’ es e c to rtoth esou th ea s t ,in o rd e rtotak eth eLubańra i lhub .Inth em id rang e ,a long w i thth e Don o f f en s iv eandth ed e s t ru c t iono fth eS ta l ing radpo ck e tinth esou th ,th e op e ra t ionsough ttob r ingabou tth eco l lap s eo fth eG e rman18 thA rmy andag en e ra lr e t r ea to fA rmy G roup No r th ,thank stocoo rd ina t eda tta ck sf romth eD emyan skPo ck e ttoth esou tho fLak eI lm en . How ev e r , th i spa ra l l e lo f f en s iv e , wh i ch wa sin t end edtor ea ch Na rvaandcu to f f A rmyG roup No r th ,d idno ttak ep la c eb e cau s eth eG e rman16 thA rmy hadr e t r ea t edf romth e r ea sap r e cau t ion w e ek sb e fo r e . Th eSpan i shun i t sinth ef r s tl in eo fth ef ron tw e r eov e rwh e lm edby th een emy ’ sf r epow e randsup e r io rnumb e r s . How ev e r ,th esu rv ivo r s t ena c iou s lyr e s i s t edth eSov i e tadvan c eande s tab l i sh eds ev e ra ld e f en c e nu c l e itha ts low eden emyp rog r e s s .G e rmanav ia t ioninth eea r lya f t e rnoono f10 F eb rua ryh e lp eds topth eo f f en s iv e ,a sd idth ea r r iva lo fG e r manr e in fo r c em en t sa long w i thsom eE s ton ianand No rw eg ianun i t s , wh i chcon so l ida t edan ewl in eo fd e f en c etoth esou tho fK ra sny iBo r . Sov i e tr e s e rv e so fm enandammun i t ion w e r edw ind l ing ;th ea t ta ckingt roop s ,exhau s t edanduna c cu s tom edtoo f f en s iv eop e ra t ion s ,fa i l ed top en e t ra t equ i ck lyinth eb r ea chtha thadb e enop en edinth een emy l in e s . Wh enth ef ron t wa sfna l lys tab i l iz edon15 F eb rua ry ,th eW eh r ma ch thadtoa s sum eth elo s so fth r e etos ixk i lom e t r e s .Th et im ega in ed hadcom ea tg r ea tco s ttoth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,bu tth ey w e r enolong e r indang e ro fb e ingsu r round edbyth eSov i e t s .Th e r ew e r e1 ,100fa l l en

Map 2 .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion Op e ra t ion s ,s i eg eo fL en ing rad (S ep t emb e r1942–O c tob e r1943 )

120 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

so ld i e r s ,in c lud ing46 o ff c e r s ;a round200p r i son e r s ;ov e rahund r ed m i s s ing ,and 1 ,500 wound edands i ck .Th eBa t t l eo fK ra sny iBo ra c coun t edfo r20 p e rc en to fto ta lBDd ea th sonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,c la im ingn ea r lyha l fo fth eSpan i shcap ta in sandaqua r t e ro fth el i eu t enan t s 78 ands e condl i eu t enan t s whod i edinRu s s ia . On c e mo r e ,th eG e rmancommandthough tth ed e f en s iv ecapa c i tyo f th eSpan i shD iv i s ioncon t emp t ib l e .On1 1F eb rua ry ,th ey con c lud edtha t th eSpan ia rd s mu s thav e“ cu tandrunf romth ea r t i l l e ryf r e ,”andt r i ed tor ep la c eth eBD w i thG e rmant roop s :“ fo rou rcomba top e ra t ion sth ey a r eno th ingbu tt roub l e .” How ev e r ,th eon lyava i lab l eop t ion wa son e in exp e r i en c edd iv i s ionandon eLu f twa f f ef e ldd iv i s ion .Inth efo l low ingday s ,Span ia rd sand G e rman sengag edins ev e ra lcoun t e r -a t ta ck s , r e cov e r ingpa r to fth et e r r i to rytha thadb e enlo s t .T oavo idcomp ro m i s ingth epo s i t ion snowo c cup i edbyth ed e c ima t edBDt roop s ,th e G e rmancommand p la c edar e s e rv ein t e rv en t ion un i tb eh indth e i r l in e s .Th i s mad ei tpo s s ib l etosa lvag eth es i tua t iono fth eSpan ia rd s , 79 “whob e l i ev etohav efough th e ro i ca l ly .” Th ecommand e ro fth e18 th A rmy ,G en e ra lG eo rgL ind emann ,ev enp ropo s edr ep la c ingth eSpania rd sinth em id rang eand d i spa t ch ingth em ba cktoth eV o lkhov . How ev e r ,H i t l e rcon s id e r edth e Novgo rodfanktob e mo r evu ln e rab l e 80 andr e fu s edth ep ropo sa l . Spo rad i ccomba t so fd im in i sh ingin t en s i ty o c cu r r edinth eI sho ras e c to rth rough m id -Ma r ch . Wh enan ewSov i e t o f f en s iv ea t t emp ton19 Ma r chp rov edun su c c e s s fu l ,th eR edA rmycon s id e r edth ef ron ts tab i l iz ed . K ra sny iBo ri stoda t eth ela s tb igba t t l einvo lv ingar egu la run i to f th eSpan i sh A rmy .I ta l so ma rk edan ewh ighpo in tinth elov e -ha t e r e la t ion sh ipb e tw e enth eB lu eD iv i s ionandth eG e rmancommand .Fo r th eSpan i shG en e ra lS ta f f ,th ed i sa s t e rcou ldhav eb e enavo id edhadth e G e rman sin t e rv en edea r l i e ron 10 F eb rua ryandg iv enth emsu ff c i en t h eavya rmam en t .Th eh ighcommand so fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,th e18 th A rmy ,and A rmy G roup No r th wan t edtoavo idc r ea t ingd ip loma t i c f r i c t ionb e tw e enB e r l inand Mad r id .Th eyhadtoa l lo ca t eev e r s ca r c e r r e sou r c e samongd iv i s ion s who s ecomba te ff ca cy wa sm ea su r edinin v e r s ep ropo r t iontoth e i rG e rmann e s s .Thu s ,th eycou ldno tp e rm i tth e BDtor e c e iv eb e t t e rr e sou r c e sthanth e i rownd iv i s ion s .81 D e sp i t eth e i rn e edfo rp e r sonn e lto d e f endab roads e c to ro fth e f ron t ,G en e ra lK l e f f e l ,G en e ra lL ind emann ,ando th e rs ta f fo ff c e r sr e ma in edd i s t ru s t fu lo fth eSpan i shcapa c i tytor e s i s tana t ta ckp r e c ed ed byin t en s ea r t i l l e ryf r e .82 AG e rmanr eg im en t wa sk ep tinth eBDr ea r gua rd w i tho rd e r stoa s sum econ t ro lo fth eSpan i sh D iv i s ioninan em e rg en cy .Th eyr equ i r edE s t eban In fan t e sto w i thd rawar eg im en t f romth ef ron tev e ryfou rw e ek sfo rt ra in ingino f f en s iv eop e ra t ion s ,

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 121

andth eyp lann edtor edu c eth el eng tho fth epo r t iono fth ef ron ta ss ign edtoth eSpan ia rd s .S im i la r ly ,th eBDcon c en t ra t edonr eg roup ing i t sp e r sonn e l–thank stoth ea r r iva lo fa ma r chba t ta l ion w i thr ep la c e m en t sin Ma r ch–andonfo r t i fy ingpo s i t ion saga in s tn ewa rmou r ed a t ta ck s .83In May ,K l e f f e lr equ e s t edtha tth e mo s tvu ln e rab l es e c t ion o fth ef ron tl in e , wh i chin c lud edth eI sho raR iv e r ,b een t ru s t edtoG e rmanso ld i e r sandtha tth eSpan ia rd sb ed ep loy edinsa f e ra r ea s .Inth e fo l low ing w e ek s ,th e401 s tG e rman R eg im en t wa sp la c edinr e s e rv e b eh indth eBDandth eSpan ia rd sw e r eg iv en mo r ean t i tank w eapon s anda r t i l l e ry .84 Th eG e rmancommand wa scon c e rn edabou tth epo s s ib i l i tyo fano th e rSov i e ta t ta ckonSpan i shl in e s , wh i ch ma t e r ia l iz edin m id -May w i thasma l l s ca l ea s sau l tonth epo s i t ion so fth eBDandth e170 thD iv is ion .Fo rha l fanhou rth eG e rman sf ea r edtha tas ign if can tb r ea chhad b e enop en edinth ef ron t ,bu tth es i tua t ions tab i l iz ed .85 Du r ingth efo l low ing mon th ,th eh ighcommando fth eLA rmyCo rp sr ema in edap p r eh en s iv eo fano th e rb iga t ta ckonth eSpan i shpo s i t ion s ,a sap r e lud e 86 toanexp e c t edo f f en s iv etob r eakth es i eg eo fL en ing rad . Th e i rf ea r s w e r ein t en s if edbyth ep r e c i s iona r t i l l e rya t ta ckonth eBDh eadqua rt e r sinPok ro svko eon18Ju ly1943 ,du r ingabanqu e tto wh i chs ev e ra l G e rmano ff c e r shadb e eninv i t ed .87 Th eG e rm ancomm and e r scon t inu edt ru s t ingth eSp an i a rd stoc a r ry ou ts t r ik e s ,su cha sth ea t t a cko fAugu s t1 9 4 3ag a in s ts ev e r a lSov i e tbunk e r s .Though th eyw e r econ s id e r ed m a s t e r so fgu e r r i l l aw a r f a r efo rgood r e a son ,th er e su l t sg en e r a l lyp rov edun s a t i s f a c to rytoth eG e rm an s .Th e Sp an i a rd sc ap tu r edtoof ewp r i son e r s ,tooktoolongtop r ep a r ea c t ion s , 8 8 andt end edtosu f f e rtoo m anyc a su a l t i e s . Du r ingth esumm e ro f1 9 4 3 , th eG e rm an s ’op in iononth eo f f en s iv ec ap a c i tyo fth eBDr em a in edin v a r i ab lys ev e r e .Though mob i l i tyh ad in c r e a s ed ,th e i rcomb a tc ap ab i l i ty w a scon s id e r edin f e r io rtoth a to fth e1 7 0 tho r2 1 5 thG e rm anD iv i s ion s , du etoth e i rl a cko ft r a in ingandin su ff c i en tan t i t ank w e apon sand a r t i l l e ry .Th eo c c a s ion a lr ep l a c em en to fth e i r mo r eexp e r i en c edcom b a t an t sw a snowr eg a rd eda sad i s adv an t ag e : wh enth eyl e f t ,th en ew on e sh adtob et r a in ed .I tw a ss a idth a t wh i l eth eSp an i a rd sex c e l l eda t sm a l l s c a l ew a r f a r e ,th eycou ldno tw i th s t andf ron t a la t t a ck sw i tha r t i l l e ryandt anksuppo r t .Th eIb e r i ancomb a t an t sw ag ed w a rinth e i rown w ay :th eyn eg l e c t edp rov i s ion ingandtookl i t t l ec a r eo fth e i rt r en ch e s , 8 9 andth e i rp r id em ad eth emr e lu c t an ttoa c c ep tadv i c e . Th e mo ra l eo fth eSpan i sh D iv i s iond e c l in edth roughou tth esp r ing andsumm e ro f1943 ,a c co rd ingto G e rmanr epo r t s .D i s con t en tw i th th ecommando fE s t eban In fan t e shadg rownamongth eo ff c e r sand t roop s ;th equa l i tyo fth er e c ru i t shadd im in i sh ed ;andth equa l i tyand

122 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

t e chn i ca lt ra in ingo fth e NCO s wa ss t i l lv e rylowby G e rmans tand a rd s .Th e r e fo r e ,th ecomba tcapab i l i tyo fth eBDd idno tsub s tan t ia l ly imp rov e .D e sp i t eev en tua l lyb e ingcon s id e r edc lo s etofu l lya rm ed ,in c lud ingsom ean t i tank w eapon s ,th eG e rmancommandn ev e rcon t em p la t edth eSpan i sh D iv i s ioncapab l eo f mo r ethand e f en s iv e wa r fa r e , andth enon lyi fth een emya t ta ckd idno tinvo lv e mu chinth e wayo f 90 tank so ra r t i l l e ry . Inea r lyO c tob e r ,a f t e rs ev e ra lday so frumou r sa tA rmyG roup No r th h eadqua r t e r sandth eR e i ch Chan c e l l e ryin B e r l in ,E s t eban In fan t e s endu r edth ehum i l ia t iono fh ea r ingf rom G en e ra lL ind emann–b e fo r e h ea r ingi td i r e c t lyf rom Mad r id–tha tth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t wa s bu ck l ing und e rA l l i ed p r e s su r eandhado rd e r edth ew i thd rawa lo f th eB lu eD iv i s ionf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eCoun c i lo fM in i s t e r shad ag r e edon23S ep t emb e rtha ton el eg ion wou ldr ema in ,w i tha max i mumo fth r e eba t ta l ion s .91 Though H i t l e rin i t ia l lyr e j e c t edth eid ea ,h e chang edh i sm indanda l low edanex c lu s iv e lyvo lun t e e rfo r c etor e ma inonth ef ron t .P rog r e s s iv e ly ,p e r sonn e ld e c r ea s edf romanin i t ia l p ropo sa lo ftwor eg im en t scomp r i s ing7 ,200comba tan t stoba r e lyon e 92 r eg im en t . In m id -S ep t emb e r ,E s t eban In fan t e s wa sr e c e iv edinth eW o l f ’ sLa i r . Th e r e ,H i t l e rawa rd edh imth esam em eda la sh i sp r ed e c e s so r .A f t e r sp end ingsom et im einB e r l in ,E s t eban In fan t e sr e tu rn edtoth ef ron t in Nov emb e r .Th e r e ,h eov e r sawth ew i thd rawa lo fth ela s tBDun i t s , wh i chhadga th e r edinth eV o lo sovo -N iko la evkar eg ion ,andh eo rganiz edth eSpan i shL eg iono fV o lun t e e r s–th e“B lu eL eg ion .” On eo fh i s fna la c t s wa stop ropo s e491so ld i e r sfo rth eI ronC ro s sS e condC la s s , fo rm e r i t sin c lud ingunu sua lva lou r“onnum e rou so c ca s ion sinth e vangua rd ,a lway svo lun t e e r ingfo rth ep la c e so fg r ea t e s tr i sk ,”fo rpa rt i c ipa t ing“ innum e rou ss t r ik e s ,d i s t ingu i sh edfo rg r ea tva lou rands e r en i ty ,”o rfo rd emon s t ra t ing“a lway safgh t ingsp i r i t ,d i s c ip l in e ,and l ead e r sh ip .” H ea l sor equ e s t edth eW a rM e r i tC ro s sS e cond C la s sfo r 509o ff c e r s , NCO s ,andp r iva t e ssom e t im e sfo rsu ch mod e s td e ed sa s “ ex c e l l en tca r eo fw eapon ry ,”d emon s t ra t ing“g r ea tlov efo r wo rk”in hand l ingcommun i ca t ion s ,o rg iv ing“g r ea ta t t en t iontoth eca t t l eo fh i s un i t .”Th el i s to ftho s ep ropo s edfo rd i s t in c t ioninin fan t rya s sau l t wa s r e s t r i c t edton in e ty s ev enso ld i e r sando ff c e r so fth e263 rdR eg im en t . Th i sg iv e san id eao fth ed e c r ea s ingcomba t in t en s i tyto wh i chth eSpan93 ia rd sw e r eexpo s eddu r ingth e i rfna ls ix mon th sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t . Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa so ff c ia l ly d i s so lv edon 16 Nov emb e r1943 . M eanwh i l e ,th eF ran co i s tr eg im es t rugg l ed a longth e roadf rom non -b e l l ig e r en c etos t r i c tn eu t ra l i tyam id s tth er e t i c en c eo fF ran coand manyo fh i sm in i s t e r stol eav eth eEa s t e rnF ron ten t i r e ly .

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 123

TheSho r t -L ivedB lueLeg ion(De cembe r1943–Ma r ch1944 ) A c co rd ingtoth eag r e em en tb e tw e en G en e ra lCa r lo sA s en s io ,th en ew Span i sh m in i s t e ro fth ea rmy ,and G en e ra lRa fa e l Ga r c íaV a l iño(A rmy G en e ra lS ta f f ) ,th eSpan i shL eg iono fV o lun t e e r s wou ldb eo rgan iz ed a sanin fan t ryun i tw i thou tanin i t ia ll im i tonth enumb e ro fso ld i e r s . How ev e r ,G en e r a lIn s t ru c t i onL .V .1 p rov id edfo ragua ran t e ed m in imum numb e rth roughcompu l so ryen l i s tm en to fa l lBDcomba tan t s whohad 94 s e rv edl e s sthant en mon th sonth ef ron t . A f t e ranex chang eo fv i ew s b e tw e enth eD iv i s ioncommand e randF ran coh im s e l f ,a m ix edsy s t em wa simp l em en t edinth eend .Th en ewL eg ion wa sla rg e lycon s t i tu t ed o fp e r sonn e lf romth ela s t ma r chba t ta l iontha thada r r iv edin O c tob e r 1943 .Th eBD G en e ra lS ta f fr equ e s t edtha tth eo ff c e r so fs ev e ra lun i t s a ska roundamongth eso ld i e r s whohada r r iv edinth e8 thtoth e21 s t Ma r chBa t ta l ion s ,tod e t e rm in ehow many wou ldb ew i l l ingtor e en l i s t inth en ewun i t .Th eo f f e rex c lud ed“a l ltho s e whohav ed emon s t ra t ed un sa t i s fa c to rycondu c to rhav epoo rr e co rd s .” Th e i rr e spon s e sw e r e g en e ra l lyra th e rd efa t ing .95 Imp l em en ta t iono fth eo rd e rd ep end edsub s tan t ia l lyonth eind iv id ua lin c l ina t iono fth eun i tcommand e r s .Som eo ff c e r sy ea rn edtor e tu rn toSpa inandd idl i t t l etoen cou rag er e c ru i tm en to fvo lun t e e r stocon t inu eonth ef ron t .O th e r scho s etor ema inandp r e s su r edth e i rm ento doth esam e .A f t e rs ev e ra lcon t rad i c to ryo rd e r sr ef e c t ingth epo l i t i ca l comp e t i t ionb e tw e enth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r sandth eM in i s t ry o fth eA rmy ,th eB lu eL eg ioncomp r i s edab road e rs e to fcomba tan t s than wa sin i t ia l lyfo r e s e enbyE s t eban In fan t e s :2 ,269 m end iv id edin to th r e eba t ta l ion so rb and e r a s :twog r enad i e rba t ta l ion sandon em ix ed ba t ta l ion .Th e r e wa sa G en e ra lS ta f fa sw e l la sexp lo ra t ionun i t s ,log i st i c s ,v eh i c l er epa i r ,andpo l i c es e c t ion s ,a long w i thr ea rgua rds e rv i c e sin R iga .96 A l ltyp e sf l l edth erank s ,f romid ea l i s t stotho s e whor e en l i s t ed b e cau s eth eycou ldno tadap ttoc iv i l ianl i f ea f t e rth e i rr e tu rnf romRu ss ia . On eo fth emr e ca l l ed ,“ Im i s s ed mycom rad e s ,andIhadno th ing 97 todoin Mad r id .” Thoughsom eun i t shads ign if can tnumb e r so fr e en l i s t edso ld i e r s ,a l tog e th e rth eya c coun t edfo rl e s sthan6 p e rc en to f 98 th eto ta lcomba tan t s . Co lon e lAn ton ioGa r c ía -Nava r rob e cam eth esup r em ecommand e ro f th eL eg ion .Un t i l1 1D e c emb e r ,th eun i tr e c e iv edt e chn i ca landth eo r e t i ca lin s t ru c t ioninK ing i s epp/ Jambu rg ,toth eea s to f Na rva–som ef f ty k i lom e t r e sawayf romth er e s to fth eBD , who w e r eb e ingr epa t r ia t edin pha s e s .Th e18 thA rmycommandp lann edtok e epon eSpan i shba t ta liononth ef ron tandano th e rinth er e s e rv e s .A f t e rth er e t ra in ingp e r iod , how ev e r ,th e r e wa snod e c i s ionabou t wh e r etod ep loyth em .Th eys t i l l

124 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

wan t edtos endth eL eg iontocov e rr e la t iv e lyca lmpo s i t ion s ,su cha s th ecoa s t ,th e r ebyl ib e ra t ingG e rmanp e r sonn e ltos e rv einth e mo r ea c 99 t iv ea r ea sonth eL en ing radF ron t . B e fo r et ra in ingfn i sh ed ,on eL eg ion ba t ta l ionhadtob ed ep loy eda longth eroadf romK ing i s eppto Na rva andpa r t i c ipa t edinan t i -pa r t i sana c t iontoemp tys ev e ra lham l e t s .W i th a lmo s t60 p e rc en to fth en ewun i tcompo s edo fa rmyandL eg ionp e r sonn e l ,b ehav iou rinth er ea rgua rd wa snob e t t e rthanb e fo r e .Th et ra in ingp e r iodinK ing i s epp wa ssp r ink l ed w i thcomp la in t sf romth elo ca l popu la t ionand G e rmanso ld i e r s , whor epo r t edth eSpan ia rd sfo rrobb e ry ,a s sau l t ,ando th e rm ino rin c id en t s .On el eg ionna i r ew ro t etha tth e 100 p la c ehadag r ea tin conv en i en c e :“ th e r ea r enop añ en k a s[g i r l s ] .” Du r ingth e i rb r i e fd ep loym en tonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,th eB lu eL eg ion su f f e r edfou r t e end e s e r t ion sanda s manya ss ixca s e so fs e l f -mu t i la t ion . A l coho l i sm wa srampan t ,ands ev en ty -fv eso ld i e r sw e r er epa t r ia t ed 101 a s“und e s i rab l e s .” G e rmanl ia i sonr epo r t sd e s c r ib edhowth ehuman r e sou r c e stha thada r r iv eda tth ef ron ts in c eth esumm e ro f1943 w e r e po l i t i ca l lyand m i l i ta r i lyun r e l iab l e .Som eo fth e BDr e tu rn e e scommun i ca t edth e i rn ega t iv eimp r e s s iono fth ecompo s i t iono fth e mo s t r e c en t lya r r iv ed ma r chba t ta l iontocom rad e s who w e r es t i l lonth eRu s 102 s ianF ron t . Th eSpan ia rd scou ldb eu s e fu lonas ta t i cf ron t ,solonga s th eyon lyhadtoho ldth e i rpo s i t ion s ,r e s i s ts t r ik e sanda t ta ck sw i thou t mu chtanko ra r t i l l e rysuppo r t ,ando c ca s iona l lyra idth een emycamp totak ep r i son e r sandob ta inin fo rma t ionr ega rd ingth es i tua t iononth e en emys id e . How ev e r ,th e i rp e r fo rman c einr e conna i s san c e ,a t ta ck ,and s t r ik em i s s ion sr ema in edl im i t ed ,pa r t lydu etoth e i rla cko ft e chn i ca l t ra in ing .Th eG e rman ssawtha tafu l l s ca l ea t ta ckonth eSpan i shpo s i 103 t ion s wou ldqu i ck lyd e s t royth e i rr e s i s tan c ecapab i l i t i e s . In m id -D e c emb e r ,th een t i r eB lu eL eg ion wa s mov edtoth esou th ea s to fL en ing rad ,inth eBogo s lovo -S chap i -K s tovos e c to r .Th ey w e r e a t ta ch edtoth e121 s tD iv i s ion ,top ro t e c ta ma r shy ,e l ev enk i lom e t r e s e c t iono fth ef ron t .Th el eg ionna i r e sw e r econ s tan t lyha ra s s edbypa r t i san sandSov i e tsk iun i t s ;th eyd i s l ik edth ea r ea , wh i ch wa simpa s sab l e fo ra rmou r edv eh i c l e s .Th e r ea tl ea s t ,th eL eg ion wou ldno tb eov e r run bytank s , wh i ch wa sacon c e rnfo rth eG e rmancommand .Th eSpan i sh t roop shadar e la t iv e lyca lm mon th ;th e mono tonyo fw in t e r wa son ly in t e r rup t edbyaf ews t r ik e sandtypho idf ev e r . A tth eon s e to fth eSov i e to f f en s iv eon 14Janua ry1944 ,th eG e rman po s i t ion sfank ingth eSpan ia rd sw e r eh i te sp e c ia l lyha rd .A tr i sko fb eingsu r round ed ,th eL eg ionr e t r ea t ed w e s ttoLyuban ,und e r mo r ta rf r e andpa r t i sana t ta ck . Wh enth eya r r iv ed ,th eyen t e r edf e r c ecomba tin acon t ex to fg en e ra lr e t r ea t . On26Janua ry , Ga r c ía Nava r ror e c e iv ed th eo rd e rtor e t r ea tbyt ra intoLuga ,140 k i lom e t r e stoth esou th -w e s t .

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 125

How ev e r ,th et ra inl in e shadb e encu tbyth epa r t i san s ,soth eSpan ia rd s b egana m i s e rab l e ma r ch w i thth e i rs can tv eh i c l e sa longaroads t r ewn w i tht r e et runk s ,am id s tg row ingchao s ,sk i rm i sh e sw i thpa r t i san s ,and 104 s ign so fr eb e l l ioninth erank s . Ine a r lyF eb ru a ry1 9 4 4 ,G en e r a lAn ton G r a s s e r , whoh adr e c en t lya s sum edh i spo s ta sg en e r a lcomm and e ro fth e XXV IA rmy Co rp s ,ob s e rv edth ed ep lo r ab l econd i t iono fth eSp an i a rd s whoa r r iv eda tLug a . Th eG e rm ancomm andh ado r ig in a l lyin t end edtoa s s ignth emtop r ev en tp a r t i s ana t t a ck sa longth er a i ll in e sb e tw e enLug aandP skov/P l esk au . How ev e r ,th es en io rG e rm anl i a i sono ff c e rcommun i c a t edtoh i s sup e r io r sth a tth e l eg ionn a i r e sw e r eexh au s t ed ,d emo r a l i z ed ,andshow ings ign so fd i s in t eg r a t ion .D e s e r t ion sw e r efo r e s e e ab l eins t r e s s fu ls i tu a t ion s .Fo rth a tr e a son ,h er e comm end edth a tth eSp an i sht roop ssp end t im er e t r a in ing inE s ton i a .G r a s s e rm an ag edtog e th i sp e t i t ionapp rov ed andt end ay s l a t e rth e l eg ionn a i r e sbo a rd edat r a info rth eE s ton i antown o fT ap a/T ap s ,lo c a t ede igh tyk i lom e t r e ssou th e a s to fT a l l inn .105 Th e mov etoE s ton iad idno tpu tanendtoth ep rob l em stha tth e Span i shso ld i e r s ,w i thth e i rg row ingd i s con t en t ,c r ea t edfo rth eG e rmancommand .On 5 F eb rua ry ,th ecommand e rg en e ra lo fr ea rgua rds e cu r i tyfo r c e so fA rmyG roup No r thcommun i ca t edh i sapp r eh en s iona t th eimm in en ta r r iva lo fth el eg ionna i r e s .Th econdu c to fth eSpan ia rd s inth er ea rgua rdhadinth epa s tb e encha ra c t e r iz edby“ loo t ing ,th e f t , s exua lc r im e s ,e t c .”Thu s , i t wa sfo r e s e eab l etha tth ey wou ldg en e ra t e i l l w i l ltowa rd sth eW eh rma ch tamongth elo ca lpopu la t ion .H er equ e s t ed 106 tha tth eL eg ions tayb ea ssho r ta spo s s ib l e , and wa sr e l i ev ed wh eni t happ en edtha t way . D ev e lopm en t sinth ef ron t ,w i thp r e s su r ef romth eB r i t i sh ,and G e rm anaw a r en e s sth a ten su r ingth econ t inu i tyo fth ewo l f r amsupp lyf rom Sp a ina sw e l la sG e rm ane sp ion ag e inSp an i sht e r r i to ry ,ou tw e igh edth e s c a r c em i l i t a rycon t r ibu t iono fth eL eg ion .Th i sl edth eM ad r idgov e rn m en ttosugg e s tth a tH i t l e rau tho r i z eth er ep a t r i a t iono fth eB lu eSqu adronandth eB lu eL eg ion .Th eFüh r e ra cqu i e s c edon2 0F eb ru a ry ,andon 6 M a r ch1 9 4 4 ,th eo rd e rf romSp a info rd efn i t iv ew i thd r aw a la r r iv ed 1 0 7 a tL eg ionh e adqu a r t e r s . Th eB lu eL eg ionsu r r end e r eda rm st end ay s l a t e randr e tu rn edinph a s e stoth eb a r r a ck sa tS t ab l a ckSüd(Kön ig s b e rg ) .Th e r e ,W eh rm a ch to ff c e r s id en t if edso ld i e r s who w an t edtocont inu efgh t ing .Som el eg ionn a i r e sr e so lv edtos t ayinth eTh i rdR e i cha s c iv i l i an wo rk e r s ;th er e s tr e tu rn edtoSp a in . On1 2 Ap r i l ,th el a s tb a t 1 0 8 t a l iono fth eB lu eL eg ionc ro s s edth ebo rd e rf romF r an c ein toSp a in . Th eSpan i sh D iv i s ion o fV o lun t e e r sandi t ssho r t l iv edsu c c e s so r thu sc ea s edtoex i s ta sun i t sin t eg ra t ed w i th inth eW eh rma ch t .Th ey l e f tb eh inda lmo s tfv ethou sandd eadinRu s s iant e r r i to ry .Thoughth e

126 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

to ta lnumb e ro fd ea th si sno texa c t ,a1960r epo r tbyth eSpan i sh W a r M in i s t rye s t ima t ed 4 ,800fa l l enandsom e200 mo r em i s s ing ,in c r ea s ing th eto ta lto5 ,000 . Add edtoth e s ew e r e1 15so ld i e r s whod i edinSov i e t p r i son e rcamp s ,a lmo s t2 ,200 who w e r ed i sab l ed ,and many mo r e who w e r ein ju r ed . L i feontheF ron t :The Da i lyExpe r ien ceo fSpan i shComba tan t s In t e rn a l ly ,th eB lu eD iv i s ion w a sso c i a l lyandpo l i t i c a l lyh e t e rog en eou s , bu tth ef r s texp ed i t ioninth esumm e ro f1 9 4 1h adana tmo sph e r eo f in c r e a s ingcoh e s ionandcom r ad e sh ipa sth eyt r av e l l edto G e rm any , t r a in eda tth eG r a f enwöh rc amp ,andl e f tfo rth ef ron t .Though m i l i t i a l i f eh adh a rd en edth evo lun t e e r s ,andd e sp i t ed i s con t en tabou tth efood , th ehou r s ,th ec l im a t e ,o rth ef r i c t ionb e tw e enF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r sand a rmyo ff c e r s ,th edom in an tsp i r i tw a son eo fg enu in ec am a r ad e r i e .R id ru e jod e s c r ib edh i s imp r e s s iono fth eco l l e c t iv eBD mood in m id -Augu s t : Th e r ei sa l sos ing ingandd r ink ingandund e rn ea th–thoughp e rhap sin ara th e rrud im en ta ryandba rba r ian way–th e r ei shapp in e s sanden thu s ia sm .Som e t im e syouh ea r“ i fIhadknownI wou ldno thav ecom e ,”bu t n ev e r“ I wan ttol eav e”o rany th ingtha tcon t rad i c t sth eg en e ra l“ l e t ’ sg e t 1 0 9 s ta r t edb e cau s ew e ’ l lb efn eth e r eon c eth ea c t ionb eg in s .”

A s inth eW eh rm a ch t ,th i scom r ad e sh ipc e r t a in lyh ad i t s l im i t s ,th ef r s t o f wh i ch w e r eso c i a l :d e sp i t eth eid e a l i z a t iono fin t e r c l a s s i smandl a t e r r e c r e a t ion so fcommun i tyinth et r en ch e s ,co ex i s t en c ew a sno ta lw ay s 1 1 0 e a syb e tw e ens tud en t sandp e a s an t so r wo rk e r sand m idd l e c l a s s l ad s . Th e r ew e r ea l sopo l i t i c a ll im i t s .Insom eun i t s ,l e f t i s tvo lun t e e r sm igh t b ep ro t e c t edbyth e i rF a l ang i s tcomp an ion s .Ino th e r s ,th ey m igh tb e w a t ch edo rev enr epo r t ed .Lu i sAgu i l a rno t eddu r ingh i ss t ayinG r a f enwöh rth a t“ th i s mo rn ingth eyd e t a in edth r e e‘vo lun t e e r s ’o fth e Comp anyfo rb e ingR ed s ,amongth emCo rpo r a lD ion i s ioRub io …a sh eh ad b e long edtoth er edS IM[ In t e l l ig en c eS e rv i c e ] .Qu i t eth esp e c im en s ! ”111 Du r ingth e ma r ch , manyBDvo lun t e e r senv i s ion eda wa ro frap id mano euv r e sfo l low edbytankd iv i s ion sinth evangua rd , wh i ch wou ld hav eth empa rad ingth rough Mo s cow ’ sR edSqua r einaf ew w e ek s ’ t im e .InS ep t emb e r1941 ,D ion i s io R id ru e jos t i l la s sum edtha t“ th e a rmyin wh i chI w i l l ma r chon Mo s cowi sinnum e rab l e ,fu tu r i s t i c .I t w i l lb easp l end idsp e c ta c l e wo r thal i f etos e e .” W i th inaf ew w e ek s , 1 12 th eys lamm edupaga in s tana l tog e th e rd i f f e r en tr ea l i ty . L ik e many W eh rma ch td iv i s ion s ,a f t e rth eadvan c ecam es tab i l iza t iono fth ef ron t , th er e tu rntoa wa ro fpo s i t ion s ,andcomba tcond i t ion stha tr iva l l ed

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F ig .4 .3 .Span i shF e ldp o s t , 1942(AGA )

th eF i r s tW o r ld W a rinb ru ta l i ty .Th eV o lkhovo f f en s iv eandsub s equ en t w i thd rawa lgav e waytoa wa ro fa t t r i t ionandpo s i t ion s . C o ld ,F i l th ,B o r ed om …andP e r i l Da i lyl i f einth et r en ch e sandth efo r t if edvangua rdpo s i t ion simpo s ed som eing lo r iou sr ea l i t i e s . Manyso ld i e r sf e l tth en e edto w r i t e ,pa r t lyto r e cov e rash r edo fd ign i tyo rani l lu s iono frou t in eandth eno rma l i ty tha tb e long edtoc iv i l ian l i f e .Th e i rd ia r i e sandt e s t imon i e sr ef e c t edth i s inr ea lt im e .Th eday to -dayo fth e wa rb e cam eanid ea l iz edcon s t ru c t ioninth e i rna r ra t iv e s ,ba s edonemo t iona lcomp en sa t ion m e chan i sm s : w r i t ingabou tth e i rha rd sh ip s wa sa s impo r tan ta sr e co rd ingth ep ro sa i c d e ta i l stha tr em ind edth eso ld i e r so fth e i rfo rm e rl i f e .113 As tab l ef ron t mad efo ra m i s e rab l el i f e .Squa lo rinvad edth el iv ing spa c e so fth evangua rdt roop sandth es e cond l in ea r t i l l e rypo s i t ion s . I t wa sno tin f r equ en ttofndhuman wa s t einth em ;un l ik eth e i r mo r e

128 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

sy s t ema t i cG e rmancom rad e s ,th eBDcomba tan t sd idno ta lway sd ig ho l e sinsom ed i s c r e e tpa t cho fg roundtha tm igh ts e rv ea sla t r in e s . Insp r ingandsumm e r ,rod en t sfou r i sh ed .A r t i l l e ryo ff c e r Gu i l l e rmo H e rnanzawok eon mo r ethanon eo c ca s ioninth eun exp e c t edcompany o fra t s . How ev e r ,“w ego tu s edtoi t ,w ehav e ma s s e so fsp id e r s ,b edbug s ,ra t stha tev enea tou rtoba c co .”Som eso ld i e r ssawth erod en t sa s a l l i e s :“ i fth es en t in e lsawth emrunn ingtowa rd sh im ,h ekn ewtha tth e Ru s s ian sw e r ecom ingtos t r ik etha tn igh t .”114 Th ef l thysu r round ing sa c compan i edarap id d e c l in ein p e r sona l hyg i en e ,e sp e c ia l lyinth et r en ch e sandth ech a b o l a s–th eshan ty l ik e l iv ingspa c e stha tp rov id edsh e l t e rfo rth es e c t ion ,w i thbunk s ,ba s i c fu rn i tu r e ,as tov e ,andaso r to fsod -and t imb e rroo f .Th e s ew e r ecom montoa l lcomba tan t sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,a sth eyhadb e eninth e t r en ch e so fth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r .Th eSpan i shso ld i e r s ,how ev e r ,t end ed tob eev en mo r eunk emp tthanth e i rG e rmancom rad e s ,du eton eg l i g en c eandla cko fin s i s t en c eonth epa r to fth e i rcommand e r s .Th i s wa s no ton lyabou tlax i tyinth eca r eandc l ean l in e s so fth e i run i fo rm s ,o r howrap id lyth e i rc lo th e s wo r eou t ,o rth ed iv e r s ea c c e s so r i e s–f rom Sov i e tba la c lava stoc lo th ingbough to rconf s ca t edf romth e lo ca l s–tha t th ey wo r eov e rth e i rG e rmank i t .Th ela cko fhyg i en eimp l i edag r ea t e r r i sko fd i s ea s e .T e e th w e r era r e lyb ru sh edandoppo r tun i t i e sfo r wa sh ing w e r es ca r c eind e ed . Mo to r iz edl ia i son Ma r t in V e la s co w ro t eon2 Nov emb e r1941 :“T odayi sag r ea tdayfo r myd ia ry , Ihadashow e r… 1 15 th ef r s tIhav ehadina tl ea s tth r e e mon th s .” In ev i tab ly ,th ela cko f wa sh inga l sol edtoth ep ro l i f e ra t iono fl i c e –tho s ebo th e r som ecompan ion stha tev enth ew in t e rco ldcou ldno t e l im ina t e .Sa lvado rZanón w ro t ef romh i sshan tyinth eN ik i tk inofo r e s t :“Mo s t lyIs c ra t ch my s e l f .If e e ll i f et e em ingund e r mya rm s ,a t my wa i s t ,on myba ck ,a round myank l e s .”116 K i l l ingl i c einth eev en ing s b e cam eaf r equ en tpa s t im efo rth eso ld i e r s .E cz ema sp ro l i f e ra t ed ,and pu s tu l e sf roms c ra t ch ing .U s ingb lank e t sonwh i chth epa ra s i t e sfo rm ed “ac ru s ttha th id e sth eco lou ro fth ec lo th ,”117th et roop scou ldno ts l e ep w e l lfo ri t ch ingandsu f f e r edf romla cko fs l e epandn e rvou sn e s s . Add edtoth e s etyp i ca lin conv en i en c e so fl i f eonth ef ron t wa sth e unb ea rab l ec l ima t etha tagg rava t edev e ry th ing .Th eex t r em et emp e ra tu r e so fth eRu s s ian w in t e rw e r eth e mo s tcommonsub j e c tt ran sm i tt edinBD m emo i r s .Th eomn ip r e s en tsnow ,th ei c e ,th ef r e ez ing w ind b e cam eth ei con sa s so c ia t ed w i thth e Ru s s ianF ron tandt ran sm i t t ed in mu l t ip l ena r ra t iv e s ,c in ema tog raph i cr ep rodu c t ion s ,andco e tan eou s r epo r t s .Fo r manyo fth em ,i t wa sanen t i r e lyn ewexp e r i en c e . Th i s wa sap rob l emfo rth einvad e r sing en e ra l .Th eW eh rma ch thad no tad equa t e lyfo r e s e enth en e edtoequ ipi t st roop sw i thapp rop r ia t e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 129

g ea rfo ra wa ro fpo s i t ion sincond i t ion so fin t en s eco ld . Mo r eov e r , w in t e rw ea th e rcam ee sp e c ia l lyea r lyin1941–2 . Th epoo r lyequ ipp ed comba tan t ssu f f e r edth rough manyday so ft emp e ra tu r e sb e low30ºC . Th eO s th e e r la ck edsu ff c i en tba la c lava s ,g lov e s ,fu rcoa t s ,andf e l t ed woo lboo t stoequ ipa l li t st roop s .Supp l i e sa r r iv edtoola t e :byCh r i s tma sa lmo s t 133 ,000ca s e so ff ro s tb i t einva ry ingd eg r e e shadb e enr eg i s t e r edonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,r e su l t inginnum e rou spa r t ia lampu ta t ion s o fl imb so rd ig i t s .Insom eG e rmanun i t s , mo r ethan5 p e rc en to fth e so ld i e r shadin ju r i e sf rompa r t ia lf r e ez ing .W eapon sa l sojamm edf r e qu en t lya tsu chlowt emp e ra tu r e s ,c r ea t ingin s e cu r i ty . Th eg r ea ta c to r sonth e Ru s s ianF ron tw e r eundoub t ed lyth eco ld , th esnow ,andth e i re f f e c t s .Th e s en ewexp e r i en c e shadb eguntosu r fa c edu r ingth efoo t ma r ch , wh enth eSpan i shso ld i e r sfoundtha tth e Ru s s ianau tumn wa ssho r tandha r sh . On3 O c tob e r1941 ,b e fo r eth e f r s tsnow s ,l ia i son Ma r t ínV e la s cono t edinh i sd ia ryhowbo th e r som e th eco ld wa stoth eBDvo lun t e e r s ,bu ts ta t edhaugh t i ly ,“w eh id ei t b e t t e rthanth eRu s s ian s …w e wa lkun cov e r edandth ey w i thth e i ro ld fu rcoa t sandh ead scomp l e t e lycov e r ed .”Inth efo l low ing w e ek s ,su ch qu ixo t i cpo s tu r e sp rov edin su ff c i en tfo rsub -z e rot emp e ra tu r e s ;on ly 1 18 s to i c i smandd i s c ip l in e wou ldg e tth emth rough . In Ma r ch1942 ,th e W eh rma ch thadon lyp rov id ed 15 p e rc en to fth eSpan i shcomba tan t s w i thf e l t edboo t s ;ano th e r5 .5p e rc en thadsh e ep sk infoo tw ea rand15 .5 p e rc en thadboo t s mad eo fs t rawandr e ed s .D e sp i t eth ee f fo r t so fth e FET W om en ’ sS e c t iontos end wa rmc lo th e stoth eso ld i e r s ,s ca r c e ly30 p e rc en to fth emhadr e c e iv edajump e rfo rth eco ldandon ly20 .4p e r 1 19 c en thadov e r coa t s . Pa ckag e sr e c e iv edf romSpa in ,b eg inn ing w i th th e Ch r i s tma sboxtha ta r r iv edinla t eJanua ry1942 ,con ta in edkn i t woo lsw ea t e r s ,so ck s ,sw e e t s ,g la s s e sandtoba c co ,andl iquo r . Non eo f tha te f f e c t iv e lycoun t e ra c t edth eco ld ,andth es i tua t ion wa snob e t t e rin th eG e rmanun i t s .Insom eo fth em ,r e co rd sind i ca t etha t12 .9p e rc en t o fth et roop sw e r ea f f e c t edbyf ro s tb i t e .120 Th eex t rad i ff cu l tycau s edbyth eco ld ,th esnow ,andth ei c ec r ea t ed add i t iona lp rob l em sfo rth et ran spo r ta t ion n e two rk , wh i cha f f e c t ed th ed i s t r ibu t iono ffoodandv i c tua l sinth er ea rgua rdandonth ef ron t . F r equ en t ly ,th em e s sa r r iv eda tth et r en ch e scomp l e t e lyf roz en ,80 p e r c en to fth ebo t t l ed wa t e r ,andagoodpo r t iono fth el iquo r ,f roz e ,and bo t t l e sb rok e .Th e mo to ro i la l sof roz e ,a f f e c t ingth eau tonomyand mano euv r ingo fth et ru ck sanda rmou r edv eh i c l e s ;th epa s ty m e s stha t fo rm ed wh enth esnow m e l t edand m ix ed w i thth e mud mad et ran s i t ex t r em e lycumb e r som e .U r ina t ingo rd e f e ca t ingou tdoo r sb e cam eto r tu rou s .D i t ch e s ,sh e l t e r s ,o rg rav e scou lds ca r c e lyb eduginth ef roz en 121 ea r th . Th elowt emp e ra tu r e sw e r eanun fam i l ia rexp e r i en c efo r mo s t

130 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,andth eco lda l soa f f e c t edth e i rm ind s .“ I fi t con t inu e sa si ts e em sw ecanexp e c ti tto ,i tcandou s mu chha rmand 122 ev enth r ea t enou r mo ra l e ,” w ro t eR id ru e jo . Th eco ld mad eth ecom ba tan t shazy ;i ts low edth e i rr ef ex e sandr ea c t iont im etoun exp e c t ed ev en t s .Dan i e lT o r raexp r e s s eda c cu ra t e lyh i sphy s i ca ls en sa t ion sinth e day sp r io rtoCh r i s tma s1941 : Ith inkIhav elo s tsom eo f myfa cu l t i e ss in c eIhav eb e enh e r e .Idon ’ ts e e w e l l ,Ican ’ tr em emb e rth ing so rexp r e s s my s e l fc l ea r ly ,o rexp r e s s my s e l f rap id ly ,o rund e r s tando rd e s c r ib eth ing squ i ck ly .Iamg row ingphy s i ca l ly w eak e rand w eak e r .Th i si ssov e ryha rd !123

Af r s te f f e c to fth eco ld wa sf ro s tb i t einth eex t r em i t i e s ,e sp e c ia l lyth e f e e t .By Ap r i l1942 ,th i shada f f e c t edupto6 .5p e rc en to fth eSpan i sh t roop sanda c coun t edfo r30 p e rc en to fth eca sua l t i e s .T oavo idf r e ez ing ,th en igh tgua rd shadtob er e l i ev edev e ryhou ro rev e ryha l fhou r a tt emp e ra tu r e slow e rthan-25ºC . Gua rddu ty wa sto r tu rou sfo rth e so ld i e r s ,a sfgh t ingaga in s tth eco ld d i s t ra c t edth emf romv ig i lan c e 124 andev e ryshadowb e cam eafa l s ea la rm . Th esnowtha ta c cumu la t ed du r ingth elong w in t e rin fu s edth esu r round ing sw i thafa l s es en s eo f ca lmtha tm igh tb ein t e r rup t eda tany mom en tbygunf r e ,exp lo s ion s , o ren emys t r ik e s .C l ea r ingpa th sth roughsnowtha tsom e t im e scam e uptoth e i rkn e e s ,w i thah eavypa ckonth e i rba ck ,ind en s ep in eand b i r chfo r e s t stha tr e sound ed w i thth ee choo fth e i r mov em en t sb e cam e aphy s i ca landp sy cho log i ca lto r tu r efo rth ecomba tan t s . Th et r en ch e sandhu t sinth eadvan c epo s i t ion sw e r eo f t enfu l lo f wat e randl i t t l eb e t t e rthanop enexpo su r etoth ee l em en t s .Th et roop s ’f e e t w e r ea lway sw e t , wh i chsom e t im e sl edtoafo rmo fgang r en eknown a st r en chfoo t .Inth evangua rdl i s t en ingpo s t sth eso ld i e r shadtotak e sh e l t e rdayandn igh t inund e rg roundr e fug e stha tw e r edampandco ld , w i thno mo r ethanacamps tov e .O f t en ,i t wa stoodang e rou stogoou t du r ingth eday ,soth et roop scou ldon ly mov ea tn igh t .Th i sin c lud ed mov ingth e wound ed , who wou ldsom e t im e sb l e edtod ea th .125 P r iva t e RamónFa r r ér e ca l l edsu ch mom en t s : At r en chabou tth r e em e t r e slong ,s lop ingdown ,anda tth eendaho l eo f s ca r c e lyfou rm e t r e s ,w i thth eg roundcov e r edins t raw m ix ed w i thsnow tha tth ew indcon s tan t lyb l ewinanda ton eendas tov ebu i l tf roman emp tycan .[Mycom rad e ]  “Ramp e r”i sincha rg eo fl igh t ingth ef r e ,bu t th i sdamn edho l en ev e r wa rm sup …S ixo ’c lo ck .P r iva t ePo lónha sb egun h i sgua rddu ty .P r iva t eV a l en t íha ssa tonalogn ea rth ef r eandth er e s tt ry tofnda waytos l e ep ,bu tth espa c ei ssot igh ttha ti ti sn ’ tl ik e lytohapp en

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 131

F ig .4 .4 .Span i shso ld i e r sinth er ea rgua rd ,1942–3(AGA )

. . . Ou rpo s tu r e sa l lowfo rno tth es l igh t e s t mov em en tandth e mun i t ion s and ma ch e t einou rb e l t sd igin toou rbod i e sr e l en t l e s s ly ,th el i c e mak eu s 1 2 6 i t chd e sp e ra t e lybu ti ti simpo s s ib l etos c ra t ch .

Th el i c e r idd enso ld i e r sd idno tg e tr egu la rr e s t . Th ey w e r eth in , thoughth eyd idno ta c tua l lygohung ry .Th eysu f f e r edf romg en e ra lex hau s t ion ,r e sp i ra to ryandin t e s t ina l ma lad i e s ,ch i lb la in sf romth eco ld , ca l lu s e s ,and mu ch mo r e . Manycomba tan t ssu f f e r edf romco ld s ,th roa t in f e c t ion s ,rh euma t i c ma lad i e s ,k idn eyandga s t r i cin f e c t ion s ,andd ia r rho ea . Onth eRu s s ianF ron t ,a s manya s3 .5p e rc en to fth ecomba tan t s insom eO s th e e r un i t ssu f f e r edf romr e sp i ra to rya i lm en t s .La cko fs l e ep k ep tso ld i e r sinth evangua rdinap e rman en ts ta t eo fd row s in e s s .Th e snowa l sop rovok edey ea i lm en t s .Th epanop lyo f ma lad i e stha tth e Span i shD iv i s iond e s c r ib edr e s emb l ed wha t wa sr e co rd edinth em ed i127 ca lr epo r t so fn ea rbyG e rmanun i t s . Sp r ingandth eaba t ingco ldd idno timp rov econd i t ion sa s mu cha s m igh tb eexp e c t ed .Th ethaw wa sa c compan i edbyth er a spu t i t s a ,o r “ t im ew i thou troad s ,” wh i chtu rn edth e wo r ldin toanimpa s sab l e mud pudd l e .V a s ta r ea stu rn edto ma r sh e sandth e mudimp ed edth et ran s i t

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o fp rov i s ion s ,t ru ck s ,t roop s ,andv i r tua l lya l lt ra ff c .Th eso ld i e r s ’p robl em sd idno tendth e r e :humanr ema in sa l sothaw edandfoa t eddown th eV o lkhov .A sth eyd e compo s ed ,th eyf l l edth ea i ra roundth eba t t l e s i t e sw i thas i ck en ingsw e e ts t en ch .Inth em id s to fi ta l l ,so ld i e r sk ep t fgh t inganddy ing .Th e wo r s to f many wa ra c t ion s wa shav ingto mov e onfoo t ,som e t im e sfo r manyk i lom e t r e sinra ino rin t en s eco ld ,w i th h eavypa ck s ,s t rugg l ingth roughth esnowandth e mud .128 Pa t ro l sin food edfo r e s t sm ean thou r so f wa lk ingin muduptoth ekn e e s ;th e comba tan t send edth edayd r en ch edin mudtha tsoak edth roughth e i r und e r c lo th e s .Th e wa t e rf l l edth et r en ch e sandund e rg roundpo s i t ion s , 129 sotha tth eso ld i e r shadtosp enden t i r eday sha l f soak ingini t . Th ey w e r ea l sot e r r if edo fth ed en s e ,imm en s efo r e s t s , wh e r ei t wa sea syto g e t lo s tfo rhou r s ,andwh e r esound se cho edd e c ep t iv e ly inth ed i s tan c e . A f t e rth esp r ingthawcam eth ein t en s eh ea to fth eb r i e fbu tsu f fo ca tingsumm e randth ep e r s i s t en tc loud so f mo squ i to s , wh i ch w e r ee sp e c ia l lyf e r c eonth eV o lkhovF ron t .Th ecomba tan t su s edn e t t ingov e r th e i rh e lm e t sfo rp ro t e c t ion , wh i chd idno tp rov id ealong t e rmso lu t ion .Th er e s i s tan t ,agg r e s s iv ein s e c t s“b i t er igh tth roughja ck e t sand t rou s e r s .”Th eyd rov ea r t i l l e ryo ff c e r Gu i l l e rmo H e rnanztod i s t ra c t ion :h er e tu rn edf romcommand ingapa t ro lw i thh i sfa c eandhand s 130 swo l l en ,b l e ed ingf romso mu chs c ra t ch ing . Comba t t ingth e pun i sh ingc l ima t eandenv i ronm en t wa so f t ena g r ea t e rcon c e rnthanen emyf r e .A sGu t i é r r ezd e lCa s t i l lopu ti t ,“fgh tinginRu s s iai s …som e th ing my s t i ca landfan s ta s t i ctha tf l l syou w i th s t rang et e r ro r s ;i tf e e l sun fo cu s ed ,a si fyou w e r einag ian tva s tn e s s …i ti sl ik eimm e r s ingth esp i r i tinf r igh t en ingda rkn e s s .”131 Though th ein conv en i en c e sa f f e c t edbo ths id e sequa l ly ,th eSov i e t sw e r eb e t t e r equ ipp edfo rth eco ld .D e sp i t enum e rou sca s e so ff ro s tb i t eandf r e ez ing ,th ey w e r e mo r er e s i s tan ttoth eha rd sh ip sandsu rv iv edons ca r c e ra t ion s .Th ey w e r econ t en ttos taya l iv e ,d e sp i t eb ru ta lt r ea tm en tf rom 132 th e i rsup e r io r s . Th eG e rman sr e cogn iz edtha tth ef r on t ov i k i–th eSo v i e trank -and -f l eso ld i e r s–s e em edtob e“ l e s svu ln e rab l ethanou rso ld i e r s”toth eco ldandth esnow .133 Th i sd emo ra l iz edth einvad e r s .In D e c emb e r1941 ,th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sr epo r t edtha tth et roop sw e r e inpoo rcond i t iondu etoth eco ldandh ighca sua l t i e s .W o r s ethantha t , how ev e r , wa sth eapa thytha ta f f e c t edsom ecommand e r sandth ep r edom inan tanx i e tyamongth et roop s .134 Su chd ep r iva t ion sandphy s i ca ls en sa t ion sw e r etyp i ca lr i t e so fpa ssag e in m i l i ta ryexp e r i en c e ,e sp e c ia l ly in l i f eonth ef ron t .Th ey w e r eno t son ewfo rC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s , manyo f whomhadpa r t i c ipa t ed inha r sh comba tand w e r efam i l ia rw i thhung e r ,co ld ,f l th ,l i c e ,andbo r edom 135 sp r ink l ed w i th mom en t so fdang e r . Th ey w e r enov e l ,how ev e r ,fo r

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s tud en t sandvo lun t e e r sf romu rbanenv i ronm en t s , who w e r el e s sa c cu s tom edtophy s i ca l wo rkandal i f eexpo s edtoth ee l em en t s .Th erad i ca lin t en s i tyanda c cumu la t iono fth e s eexp e r i en c e scomb in ed w i thth e g ru e l l ingfoo t ma r ch e sandth eun c e r ta in tytha ta c compan i edsu chan exo t i c lo ca t ion w e r e in compa rab l etoany th ing inth e i rp r io rexp e r i en c e . No tev e ry th ingth a tw a ss e en ,h e a rd ,andsu f f e r edonth e Ru s s i an F ron tw a st r an sm i t t edinth es am em ann e r .Th ecomb a t an t s–cond it ion eda sth ey w e r ebyth e i rr ank ,th e i run i t ,o rth e i rd e s t in a t ion–r eg i s t e r edd i f f e r en timp r e s s ion so fth eco ldo rcon t a c tw i thth een emy ,andto d i f f e r en td eg r e e s .I tfo l low s ,th en ,th a tth eyd idno ts e l e c t iv e lyt r an s fo rm th e i rimp r e s s ion sin tos im i l a rexp e r i en c e s . Th e i ra s so r t edfo rm a t iv e , id eo log i c a l ,andso c i a lb a ckg roundl edth emtoexp r e s sau th en t i cw a r exp e r i en c e sind iv e r s ew ay s ,a c co rd ingtoth e i rp r e ex i s t ingcogn i t iv e 1 3 6 f r am e s . Th eo ff c e r sand m any NCO s ,ev en inth ev angu a rdpo s i t ion s , l iv edth roughth ew a rinb e t t e rcond i t ion sth anth er egu l a rso ld i e r s . Th eyh adr e l a t iv e lycom fo r t ab l esh e l t e r s ,th ey w e r eno ta lw ay sexpo s ed onth ef ron tl in e ,andSp an i sho ff c e r sw e r ea l low edon eo rev entwo 1 3 7 a s s i s t an t sandth e i rowncook . So ld i e r sinth er e a rgu a rd ,inlog i s t i c a l s e rv i c e s ,inth eG en e r a lS t a f f ,o rin t e l l ig en c ea l soh add i f f e r en texp e r i en c e sth antho s eonth ef ron tl in e s .Th es app e r sandp ion e e r s ,a sw e l la s th ea r t i l l e rym en ,commun i c a t ion st e chn i c i an s ,andan t i t ankso ld i e r s , con s t i tu t edsp e c if cc lu s t e r s .Th ef r s tg roupendu r edg r e a t e rexpo su r e tod ang e randsom e t im e ssp en thou r sandd ay sl ay inginth esnow ,su f f e r ingh e av i lyf romex t r em ew in t e rcond i t ion s wh i l ep e r fo rm ingth e i r 1 3 8 r i skydu t i e s . Th es e condfo l low edju s tb eh indth ev angu a rd .Th el i a i son ss e ldomeng ag edincomb a tbu tw e r eo f t enexpo s edtosn ip e r ,a r t i l l e ry ,andav i a t ionf r e .M ed i c a lp e r sonn e ls c a r c e lyexp e r i en c edt r en ch w a r f a r ebu td e a l tw i thi t scon s equ en c e sandth ep sy cho log i c a lf a t igu ei t en t a i l ed .Th eso ld i e r sb e long ingtoth er ad ios e c t ion ssp en t mo s to fth e t im eincom fo r t ab l epo s t sb eh indth ef ron tl in ebu tw e r er equ i r edgoou t 1 3 9 andr ep a i rcommun i c a t ionl in e samongf ron tun i t s . L ia i sond r iv e r Ma r t ín V e la s co wa sab l etoshow e rw i thsom ewha t mo r er egu la r i tyf rom Nov emb e r1941on .H i ss e rv i c e s(mo s t lytaking m e s sag e stot roop sfa rawayf romh eadqua r t e r s )w e r eno ta lway s n e ed edandev e rydayh een joy edar e la t iv e lyca lmb r eak fa s to fco f f e e andtoa s tw i thbu t t e r .Som e t im e sh ev i s i t edcom rad e s who w e r e“ f ry ing upsom eb e e ff l l e t s ,and ma sh edpo ta to e sw i th m i lkandbu t t e r ,”and w en ttob edea r ly . Dang e rcam einth efo rmo fspo rad i cbomba rdm en t f romSov i e ta r t i l l e ry .A l so ,th ebadcond i t ion so fth et e r ra insom e t im e s mad ei tn e c e s sa ryfo rh imtoa skfo rh e lpf romth ep ea san t stopu l lh i s mo to r cy c l ef romth e mud .H ehadtosp endth en igh to f 24–5 O c tob e r 1941ina Ru s s ianham l e t ,andth efo l low ingdayr equ i r edh e lpf rom

134 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th einhab i tan t so fano th e rlo ca l i ty .“ Ipo l i t e lya sk edsom eRu s s ian sina hou s etoh i t chaho r s etoaca r tandcom ew i th m e ;w er ea ch ed my mach in e ,pu ti tinth eca r t ,andth eytook m etoth een t ran c eo f Novgo rod .” 140 Ind e ed ,th er ea ldang e rcam ef romth epa r t i san s . P r iva t eFa r r éPa lau s wa s inanadvan c epo s i t iono fth es e c t iona round Lak eI lm en .H ehadtosp endth en igh t sinahu t ,tak ingtu rn sa tgua rd du tyinth ep e r i lou sco ld . Du r ingth eday ,h ehadtodoinnum e rab l e ta sk stha tla ck ed wa r r io rg lo ry bu ten su r edth e hab i tab i l i ty o fth e sh e l t e r : Wh enth e r ei sn ’ tgua rddu tyinBabk i ,th e r ei s woodtoco l l e c t ,o rsupp l i e s , o rsnowtoshov e l , mun i t ion stof e t ch ,m in e stop la c einth elak e ,athousandn e c e s sa rye r rand s ,and wh enth eya r edon eth e r ei sba r e lyt im el e f tto 1 4 1 s l e epacoup l eo fhou r sandsp endth en igh tona l e r taga in .

S in c e1 9 4 5 ,BD m emo i r sb eg antofo cu sonr e c r e a t ingth ea c t ion sonth e V o lkhovand inK r a sny iBo r–ep i c im ag e so ff e ro c iou scomb a tonb loody snow . How ev e r ,con s id e r ingth a tSp an i shso ld i e r ss t ay edanav e r ag eo f t en mon th sonth ef ron t , mom en t so fin a c t iv i ty w e r e mu ch mo r eabun d an tth antho s eo fcomb a t .T e s t imon i e sco in c id er eg a rd ingth eunb e a r ab l e mono tonyo fl i f eonth ef ron t , wh i ch w a sac l a s s i cf e a tu r eo f mod e rn w a r f a r eth a tcou ldl e adtoa“ c a lmd e sp e r a t ion ”andanob s e s s ion w i th 1 4 2 th em i s e r i e so fev e ryd ayl i f e . Th e mo s tcommonsub j e c ta f t e rD e c em b e r1 9 4 1w a sl am en tov e rth ep a r a ly s ingrou t in eo fd ay sinth et r en ch e s . Th a t mon th ,D an i e lT o r r aw ro t ehow“no tb e ingab l etoe s c ap eth e mono tonyo fth ehou r si sth e wo r s tth ing . ”Jo aqu ínRo sno t ed mon th sl a t e r th a t“ l i f ei sv e ry mono tonou s . ”Bo r edoma c comp an i edl a cko fhyg i en e , 1 4 3 co ld ,andad i f fu s es en s eo fin s e cu r i tyth a tin c r e a s eda tn igh t . Th i sw a sa w a ro fpo s i t ion s ,bu ti tn ev e rb e c am ea“ c a lmf ron t ”a s m anyh adknowndu r ingth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r .I tw a st ak ingp l a c ein aho s t i l eg eog r aphy ,ag a in s tanen emyon lyaf ewdo z en m e t r e saw ay . Th e r ew e r eo c c a s ion a la rm eden coun t e r s ,bu tth eadv e r s a rylu rk edin th efo r e s t so fth er e a rgu a rd l ik esom em en a c ing ,gho s t lyp r e s en c ewho s e unp r ed i c t ab i l i ty m ad e i ta l lth e mo r ed ang e rou s .Th et ed iumw a sd e c ept iv e :af ewhund r ed m e t r e saw ayth e r em igh tb eac amouf ag edp a r t i s an ,asn ip e r ,ana c egunn e r .Th ehou r so fn igh tw a t cht r i edth eso ld i e r s ’ n e rv e s :“Th e wo r s ti ss en s ingsom e th ingou tth e r e ,f e e l ingacon fu s ed , in exp l i c ab l eapp r eh en s ion ,no tknow ing wh a ti sh app en ingo r wh a t 1 4 4 i scom inguponyou . ” Th erou t in ew a so c c a s ion a l lyin t e r rup t edby 1 4 5 s t r ik e s ,r e in fo r c edp a t ro l s ,and mom en t so fb r i e fbu tin t en s ecomb a t . Th e mo s tt e r r ib l eexp e r i en c e wa sho ld ingth epo s i t ion sdu r ingenemya r t i l l e ryf r eo ro c ca s iona la i rbomba rdm en t .Th eSpan i sht roop s

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hadnoad equa t ep ro t e c t ionf romth ela t t e r ;Sov i e tp lan e scou ldin t e rrup timp rov i s ed“wa rtou r i smou t ing s”ton e ighbou r ingv i l lag e sonth e 146 f ron t . Inana r t i l l e ryo ra i ra t ta ck ,th eangu i sho fno tknow ing wha tto exp e c tdom ina t edth em ind so ftho s e whosough tr e fug eund e rg round o rr i sk edgo ingou t .R id ru e jo w ro t e :“Wha t wa sasa f ep la c e ?W ehad toinv en tasp e c if cconv i c t iontha ti t wou ldno tfa l l‘ th e r e , ’ wh e r ev e r ‘ th e r e ’ wa sa tanyg iv en mom en t ,andl iv ena tu ra l ly .”In s id eth ehov e l s , th es en sa t iono fs e cu r i ty wa son lyi l lu so ry : I fyoua r ein s id e ,ev e ry th ingshak e s ,youa r ed ea f en edandr e s ign edto wha t mu s thapp ena tany mom en t .I fyougoou t s id eth ea i ri sf l l ed w i th sh rapn e l ,th ehou s e stha tr ema ina r eonf r e ,sh e l t e r sa r ecav ingin ,p eop l e 1 4 7 a r es cu r ry ing ,pa s s ing ,andfa l l ing .

Th ea r r iva lo fsp r ingsom ewha ta l l ev ia t edth eco ld r e la t edha rd sh ip s anda l low edfo rb e t t e rp e r sona lhyg i en e :“W eb eganto wa shou r s e lv e s mo r eandno tgosoh eav i lyd r e s s edand w ea l lta lk edtoea cho th e r mo r e ,b e cau s ein w in t e rw ew e r el ik ecoa lm in e r s ,” w ro t eJoaqu ín Ro s .148 Th i sd idl i t t l etoa l t e rth e mono tonyo fth eday s ,how ev e r .L i eu t enan tA r ena l e sw ro t eona r r iv inga th i spo s i t iononth eV o lkhovF ron t on12Jun e1942tha t“h e r eth e r ei sab so lu t e lyno th ing ,i ti sanex t r em e ly ca lms e c to r ,” wh i chr em ind edh imo fh i sexp e r i en c e sinth eC iv i lW a r . Da i lyl i f e wa sf l l ed w i throu t in eta sk s :gua rddu ty ,c l ean ing w eapon s , ca rdgam e s ,l e t t e rw r i t ing ,m e e t ingup w i thcom rad e s ,andon c eina wh i l eav i s i ttoth er ea rgua rd .A r ena l e sw ro t eaga intwoday sla t e rtha t h i ssh e l t e rhada“b ed roominth es ty l eo fth equa t e rna ryp e r iod .”149 A r t i l l e ryL i eu t en an t Gu i l l e rmo H e rn an zh adth es am eimp r e s s iono f th ef ron twh enh ea r r iv edon 2 M ayo f th es am ey e a r ; i tbo r eab so lu t e lyno r e s emb l an c etoth eh e ro i cenv i ronm en th eh adim ag in edb e fo r e .“ Ih av e su f f e r edasm a l ld i s appo in tm en t ;w ea r eonth ef ron t ,i th a sb e ens ev e r a l hou r s ,and w eh av eno th e a rdas ing l ec annon . ”Th e wo r s tfo rh im w a s tos e eth elow mo r a l eo fm anyv e t e r an s .“Th eya l lsp e akc r i t i c a l lyo f… howth eya r et r e a t edbyth ecomm and e r s ,byth eG e rm an s ,andnoon ei s 1 5 0 con t en to rth ink so fany th inge l s ebu ttol e av e . ” Inf a c t ,rumou r sabou t imm in en tr ep l a c em en t sh adb e enc i r cu l a t inginth eBDs in c eD e c emb e r 1 9 4 1 .A tth eendo fth a t mon th ,D an i e lT o r r ah e a rd“v a r iou ss to r i e sabou t th efu tu r eo fth eD iv i s ion . ”Th i sg en e r a t edanx i e tyamongth eso ld i e r s , who w e r ea l r e adyt i r eda f t e rth ef r s ts e r i e so fh a rdcomb a t s .By m id J anu a ry1 9 4 2 ,op t im i sm w a sf ad ing :“ [hop e ]o fr ep l a c em en t s ,no t mu ch . ”151 Ev endu r ingt im e so f in a c t iv i ty ,th ing sw e r eno tsocom fo r t ab l efo rA r en a l e s .W o r s eth anth ein e s c ap ab l e mo squ i to e sw e r eth e mono tony ,th e hom e s i ckn e s sfo rh i sf am i ly ,andth ein c l em en tw e a th e r . On1Jun eh e

136 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

no t edth a th eh adno tl e f tth esh e l t e ra l ld ayandh addon eno th ing mo r e th anw r i t e l e t t e r shom e .H eh adtog iv es ign so f l i f e ,though“ Idon ’ tknow wh a t mo r etot e l lth em . ” On 2 0Jun e ,h ew a sch e e r eda tth eexp e c t a t ion th a th em igh tb es e l e c t edtop a r t i c ip a t einas t r ik eand“ c a t chaRu s s i an , ” wh i ch m igh te a rnh imanI ronC ro s si fsu c c e s s fu l . How ev e r ,h i sc ap t a in d idno ts e l e c th im . Wh enth es t r ik eg roupr e tu rn edon2 6Jun e ,h ew a s sh ak enbyth ed e a tho faf r i end whoh adf a l l eninth er a id .Th i sw a sa c comp an i edbyacon t r ad i c to rys en s eo fr e l i e f :i fA r en a l e sh adgon ein s t e ad ,h ewou ldh av ed i edandn ev e rb e enab l etofu lf lh i sg r e a t e s td e s i r e : tor e tu rntoh i sg i r l f r i end .“ Iw i l lcon so l e mysp i r i tandt ryno ttob eacow a rd ,tor e tu rntoh e rs id ea sIl e f t . ”Ev enso ,h ea l soenv i edtho s e whoh ad 1 5 2 t ak enp a r tinth es t r ik eand w e r enowb e ingr e comm end edfo rm ed a l s . L i eu t enan tH e rnanz , who wa sa s s ign edtoth eh eadqua r t e r sa tG r igo rovo ,exp e r i en c ed anequa l lycon t rad i c to rys en sa t ion . Though h e long edtob es en ttoaba t t e ryonth ef ron t ,h ecou ldno tavo idth ef ea r o fb e ingg rav e lyin ju r edo rk i l l edonth ef ron tl in eandn ev e rs e eh i s b e lov edg i r l f r i end Ma ru jaaga in .153 Dan i e lT o r ra mou rn edth ed ea th o ftwocom rad e sinas t r ik einla t e Ma r ch1942andb i t t e r ly mu s eda t th em ean ingo fth i slo s s :“Whyd idi thapp en ?Th ey w e r eso wo r thy , andth e i rd ea th wa sno tpu r cha s eda ti t sva lu e .”154 On28Jun e1942 , A r ena l e s wa scon sum edbyno s ta lg iaandangu i sh edov e rth eab s en c e o fl e t t e r sf romh i sg i r l f r i end :“ Idon ’ tknow wha ttoth ink ,ev e ry th ing mak e sm eb i t t e r ,i t ’ sb e ensolongtha tIdon ’ tknow wha ttob e l i ev e abou tSag ra r io .” H i s moodtu rn edd ep r e s s iv esom eday sla t e r : I ti sth e max imum ,u tmo s tbo r edomtoknowtha tw ew i l lsp enda l lw in t e r h e r e ,th i si sno ta wa r ,i ti sasumm e rbu t …th e mo squ i to e s mak el i f eimpo s s ib l e ,Ican ’ ts l e ep ;Ib lam eth em ,bu ti t ’ sr ea l lyb e cau s eIhav en ’ thad 1 5 5 anyl e t t e r sf romhom eo rf romSag ra r io .

H e rnanz wa sno tfa r ing mu chb e t t e rinh i spo s i t ion ,ina“wa rtooidio t i canddu l ltoev en wan tto w r i t eabou tinad ia ry .”Af ewday sla t e r , th ela cko fa c t iv i ty mad eh imapa th e t i c ,“d i sgu s t ed w i thRu s s iaand … s i cko fth eBD .” H es ca r c e ly mov edb eyondarad iu so ftwohund r ed m e t r e sf romh i spo s t .Th ein t e rm inab l eday l igh to fth ea r c t i csumm e r mad es l e ep mo r ei r r egu la r ,andfa t igu ea c cumu la t edd e sp i t eth eina c156 t iv i ty . Dan i e lT o r ra w ro t ein May1942tha t“ Iamlo s ing myin t e r e s tin ob s e rv ingandtak ingno t e s ,”ov e r com ea sh e wa sbyas en s eo f“ comp l e t eabandonm en ttofa t e .”157 A r ena l e s wa sd e j e c t edun t i l 16Ju ly , wh ena tla s th er e c e iv edal e t t e r f romh i sg i r l f r i endandh i sd ia ryaga inov e rfow ed w i then thu s ia sm . Intha th e wa snod i f f e r en tf rom mo s to th e rso ld i e r s .H e rnanzcoun t ed

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th ehou r sun t i l ma i ld e l iv e ryand wa sd e ep lyd i sappo in t ed wh enth e r e w e r enol e t t e r sfo rh im .Th eina c t iv i tyl edh imtob e com eob s e s s ed w i th th eid eatha th i sg i r l f r i endhadabandon edh im . How ev e r ,th e s ed ep r e s s iv es ta t e sgav e waytoeupho r ia wh enth ecou r i e rb rough tn ewl e t t e r s 158 f romh i sb e lov ed . Af ewl in e sf romh i sg i r l f r i endgav eA r ena l e sf r e sh in sp i ra t iontosu rv iv e ,to“ ea rnth ep r iv i l eg eo fca l l ingh e r my w i f e… 159 fo rh e rI w i l lfgh tandendu r eany th ingfa t eth row sa tm e .” How ev e r ,th e ma i lf romhom ed idno ton lyb r inggoodn ew s .I ta l so r em ind edth eso ld i e r so fongo ingfam i ly ,s en t im en ta l ,o rso c ia lcon f i c t s , wh i ch w e r ein t en s if edbyqu e s t ion ssu cha showtoa l lo ca t eth e comba tan t ’ ssa la ry .Th e s eth ing s wo r r i edth eso ld i e r sd e ep lyandb e cam een tang l ed w i thth e i rha rd sh ip sonth ef ron t .Th ed i s tan c e mad e th emf e e lh e lp l e s s .A r ena l e s ’pa r en t sands i s t e r sd emand edth epa r to f h i sea rn ing stha th ehads t ipu la t edshou ldgotoh i sg i r l f r i end .Th i s wa s af r equ en tcon c e rninth eco r r e spond en c eo fSpan i shvo lun t e e r sw i th 160 th e i rfam i l i e s . T o mak e ma t t e r s wo r s e ,ano th e r l e t t e rf romh i sb e lov ed Sag ra r ioexp r e s s edtoh imh e r j ea lou syo fA r ena l e s ’ s“wa rgodmo th e r .” W iv e sandg i r l f r i end scon s id e r ed“wa rgodmo th e r s”andnu r s e sr ea l comp e t i t ionina wo r ldth eyimag in edtob eanexo t i cGomo r rah . Wh enth e r ew e r enol e t t e r sf romhom e ,th eday spa s s edinas t rang e ca lm . On26Ju ly ,A r ena l e sw ro t etha t“ th i sdo e sno ts e eml ik ea wa r ; on c eina wh i l eth e r ei sanex chang eo fgun sho t s ,bu ti tgo e snofu rth e r .” On4 Augu s t ,ana la rm wa sr e co rd eda th i spo s t ,bu ta f t e rwa rd s ev e ry th ing wa s“a sbo r inga sev e r .” Ou t ing stoth er ea rgua rdtown s andv i l lag e sw e r eth eso l ed i s t ra c t ion . On15 Augu s t ,h ew ro t etha th e 161 andh i scompan ion shaddan c ed w i th“ som er ea l lyug lyp an i en k a s.” Th eimp rov i s edf e t e sw i thth elo ca l sd idno ta lway shav earoman t i c au ra .H e rnanzcou ldno tcomp r eh endhowo th e ra r t i l l e ryo ff c e r shad th e“ s toma ch”todan c ew i th“ fa tandsm e l ly”f ema l e sinarank ,a lmo s t da rkroom“ sm e l l ingo fhuman i ty .”162 C i r cum s tan c e sd idno tchang e mu ch wh enth es e c t iono fL i eu t enan t A r ena l e s wa sr e l i ev ed ,andh e wa s mov edtoth eKo lp inos e c to r . On 12 O c tob e r ,h e wa st ran s f e r r edandpu tincha rg eo fa ma ch in eguninPavlov sk , wh e r eh er ema in edun t i l22 D e c emb e r .Th eday sr e sum edth e i r mono tonou scou r s e .H e r e ,h i sen t r i e scom etoanend ;w i th ins ix w e ek s , by m id -F eb rua ry1943 ,h ehadfa l l en incomba t .Som e mon th s la t e r ,A r ena l e s ’ sfam i lyr e c e iv edh i sw r i t t end ia ryandsom epho to s–in c lud ing on eo fh i sg rav e–f romar e tu rn edcom rad e .163 Th ew a rd i a r i e so fH e rn an zandA r en a l e s i l lu s t r a t e th ed a i lyp e r c ep t ion o fd ang e rm anyso ld i e r sexp e r i en c ed .Th e mono tonyo ft ed iou sw e ek s , phy s i c a lh a rd sh ip s ,andf l th m igh tb ein t e r rup t edb ru squ e lybyanenemys t r ik e ,asn ip e r s ’bu l l e t ,o rw e l l -p l a c eda r t i l l e ryf r e .D e a thhound ed

138 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .4 .5 .T ombo fB en jam ínA r ena l e s ,1943(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fCa rm e lod ela s H e ra s , Mad r id )

ev e ry mom en tandf r equ en t lyc am einth e mo s tab su rd m ann e r .A f t e r a lmo s ta mon tho fs tup e fy ingbo r edom ,H e rn an zr e s i s t eds ev e r a lhou r s o fa r t i l l e rya t t a ck , wh i chc l a im edth el iv e so fnum e rou scomp an ion sa t h i spo s i t ion .A f t e rth a texp e r i en c e ,h ef e l th eh adb e enr ebo rn .W e ek s l a t e r ,Sov i e ta r t i l l e ryh i tth r e eo fh i scom r ad e s ,l e av ingth emd i sfgu r ed . Emo t ion a lt r ibu t etoth ef a l l encou ldno tm a skth es en s a t ionth a td e a th lu rk edn e a rby .Th el a t ea r r iv a lo fm a i lf romSp a info rtho s e whoh ad ju s t 1 6 4 f a l l enb e c am easup e r s t i t iou sp r emon i t ion . C ap t a inF igu e ro l aw ro t e inh i sd i a ryabou tth e mono tonyo fth ed ay sa tth ef ron t ,h i sen coun t e r sw i tho th e ro ff c e r s ,andth eev e r in c r e a s ingd emo r a l i z a t iono fh i s

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com r ad e s ina rm s . How ev e r ,o c c a s ion a la r t i l l e ry imp a c t sc au s edsudd en 1 6 5 c a su a l t i e s .On1 4Ju ly1 9 4 3h ew a sa l soh i tbyash e l l . F ea ro fdy inginas t r ik e ,f romas t raybu l l e t ,o rf romen emy mo rta rf r eb e cam e doub lyangu i sh ing . How ev e r ,th ep ro sp e c to fb e ing awa rd eda m eda lfo rtak ingpa r ta tana c t ioncou ldapp ea ltoth ep r id e o fev enth el ea s tid ea l i s t i cso ld i e r . Ang e l Ma r ch enaexp r e s s edh i sd el igh ta tr e c e iv ingad i s t in c t ionf romh i scap ta ina f t e rpa r t i c ipa t ingin ani so la t eds t r ik e .Incon t ra s t ,S e rg ean tV a l e r ianoRu izlam en t edtha t h ehadb e end en i eda m eda lfo rth eon lya rm eda c t ionin wh i chh ehad pa r t i c ipa t eddu r ingh i st en mon th sinth et r en ch .166 Jüng e ro rR em a r qu e? Th eSpan ia rd shadf ewoppo r tun i t i e stogoonth eo f f en s iv e du r ing th e i rt im eonth eEa s t e rnF ron t . Wh enth eyd id ,no ta l lun i t spa r t i c i pa t edinequa lm ea su r e .In mo s to fth em ,p e r iod so ft en s eca lmand wa i t ingou tnumb e r edtho s eo fo f f en s iv e .Th es en sa t ion sexp e r i en c ed du r ing mom en t so fin t en s ecomba tw e r era r e lyr ef e c t eduponinBD t e s t imon i e s ,pa r t lyb e cau s esu ch imp r e s s ion sandexp e r i en c e scou ldno t ea s i lyb et ran sm i t t eda f t e rth efa c t .A t mo s t ,D ion i s ioR id ru e joob s e rv ed (h i simp r e s s ion sc l ea r lyevok ingtho s ew r i t t enbyE rn s tJüng e ry ea r s b e fo r e ) ,o f f en s iv ea c t ion sw e r er e cogn iz eda sa mom en to fl ib e ra t ion f roma l lth ef ea r sa c cumu la t eddu r ingt im e so f wa i t ingandpa s s iv i ty . A t ta ck ,ev en w i thabayon e tinanop enf e ld ,b e cam eachao t i cbu tcatha r t i cexp e r i en c eb e cau s eo fth ead r ena l insu rg etha ta c compan i edi t : “a t ta ck ings t r eng th en s , l i f t sth esp i r i t s : i tr e l ea s e syou rt en s ion s ,youg e t ath r i l l wh enth ean t i tank sh i tth e i r ma rk . Dang e rs e em stoe lud eyou p e r sona l lyanddo e sn ’ ts e ekyouou tl ik esom eanonymou sandpa s s iv e mou s e .Bu t wa i t inginth eco ldi sa lmo s tt e r r i fy ing .”167Inth e wo rd so f Fa lang i s tAnd r é sGay tan ,“ runn ingfo rwa rd wa rm supyou rf e e t .”168 Som eex c ep t ion so f f e r edanequa l lyc la s s i cexamp l eo fhowcom rad esh ip wa ss t r eng th en edth roughb loodbond sfo rg edbyk i l l ing ,pa r t i c i pa t inginth esp e c ta c l eo fv io l en c eandd ea th ,andsu rv iv ing .Th ea c to f k i l l ing ,a sina l l wa rexp e r i en c e , wa ssh i e ld edbyco l l e c t iv er e spon s ib i li ty .P r iva t eSán ch ez D ianar em emb e r edth ee f f e c to fana c t iononh im andh i scom rad e sdu r ingth eV o lkhovo f f en s iv ea sabap t i smbyf r e .I t r e in fo r c edab ro th e rhoodc r ea t edf romsha r edexp e r i en c e stha tcou ld no tb et ran sm i t t ed : Ic l imbin toahay s ta cktor e s tandpu t mythough t sino rd e r . Mycom rad e s a r ed i f f e r en tnow .Th eyhav ead i f f e r en tp e r sona l i ty .Th eb l indin s t in c tto fgh tha schang edth esp i r i tbo rninth ecamp ,inth e ma r ch e s ,andinth e

140 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t day sonth et ra inanda tth epo s t .W ea r el ik e wo rk e r so fd ea th .W eb ea rth e 1 6 9 an c i en t ma rko fd e s t ru c t ion .W ea r e wa r r io r s ,l i f eha sad i f f e r en ts ign .

Ind iv idua landco l l e c t iv ecomba texp e r i en c e ,th eemo t iona limpa c t o fk i l l ingands e e ingc lo s ecom rad e sd i e , ma rk edth eso ld i e r sfo rl i f e , mo r ethananyr i t eo fpa s sag einth eba r ra ck so rdu r ingth e ma r chto th ef ron t .I t wa saso r to finn e r jou rn eytoth ed e ep e s tsu rv iva lin s t in c t s , wh i chSán ch ezD ianacap tu r edinid ea l iz edbu tv e ryexp r e s s iv et e rm s : Th ech ang eo fm en t a l i tyth a tw eh av ea l lsu f f e r edandth a tw i l lm a rku s i fw esu rv iv e …Th et e r r ib l ehou r sonth ef ron t ,andth ed i s app e a r an c eo f goodf r i end sandcom r ad e sh a sth i spo s i t iv ea sp e c t .I tsu r round sth i sp l a c e w i thb i t t e r , in t en s e ly ly r i c a ld r eg s …w ek i l l ,andw ed i es imp lyb e c au s e .I t i s ah idd enin s t in c tinhum ank indth a tw el ik etod r e s sup w i thp r e t ty wo rd s . Th es ign if c an c eo fw a ri sth a ti tr ev e a l sth eendr e a sono fm an .W a ri sth e mo th e ro fev e ry th ing …Th e mo r ew ed i s r eg a rdl i f eandth el e s sw ed e s i r e i t ,th e mo r ein t en s e ly w el iv ei t . Ou ran im a lfu ryb lo s som sinag ig an t i c d i sp l ayo fun iqu ev i t a l i t i e s .F a i thinon e s e l fin c r e a s e sw i thd e a th .Th esp i r i t b e com e srough ,p r i ck ly ,h a rd .I ti ssom e th ingh igh e rth anb a rb a r i sm .170

W i thl e s sl i t e ra rya cum en ,ano th e rv e t e ranr e ca l l edth es ta t eo fexc i ta t iontha thadcom eov e rh imdu r ingcomba t :“Y oudon ’ th ea r wha t th eysaytoyou ,youdon ’ th ea ryou r s e l f ,no th ing !Y ou rb loodb eg in sto bo i l ,andyoudon ’ tev enknow wh e r eyoua r e ,no ?Y oucanea s i lyd i e w i thou tno t i c ingi t .”171 Fo r manyso ld i e r s ,inth equ i e ta f t e rth eba t t l e ,th e wa r r io r ’ simm ed ia t er epo s eb rough tw i thi tr ef e c t ionon wha thadb e enexp e r i en c ed .O f t en ,th eapp ea ran c eo fth eexhau s t edcomba tan t sr e tu rn ingf roma rm ed a c t ion sc l ea r lyexp r e s s edhowth e i rl iv e shadchang ed .A f t e r wa t chings ev e ra lcomba tan t sr e tu rnf romPo sad ,R id ru e jod e s c r ib edtwoa t l eng th :twoFa lang i s t s whohadd i s t ingu i sh edth em s e lv e sinba t t l eand whomh enowsawt ran sfgu r edbyexhau s t ionandsu f f e r ing : Tho s etwoanda l lth eo th e r s who“hav eb e enth e r e”nowlookl ik es l e epwa lk e r s . Th e i rconv e r sa t ioni sin coh e r en tand m i s s ingha l fth e wo rd s . Th eyhav easunk en ,lo s tlook ,w i thou tv igou r ,w i thaf ev e r i shsh e enand v e i l ed .Th eyhav eb e com eho r r ib lyth inanda r eb la ckf romgunpowd e r … On em igh tsayth eshadowo fd ea th , wh i ch wa ssoc lo s etoth emand ha sr ep ea t edi t sd e edso manyt im e sb e fo r eth em ,s t i l lhang sov e rth em .172

W a sth ew a raninn e r jou rn ey ,ano rgyo fb loodandv io l en c eth a tl ib e ra t edun su sp e c t edv i t a len e rg i e sinth eso ld i e r s ,l ik eth e“ s to rm so fs t e e l ”

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th a tE rn s tJüng e rid e a l i z edin1 9 2 0 ?Th e mono tonyl ed m anytocon c lud e th a tth ew a rw a sno mo r eth anth e i rev e ryd aye xp e r i en c e :d i r t in e s s ,h a rd sh ip s ,th es a t i s fy ingo fb a s i cn e ed s ,no s t a lg i a ,d ang e ro fd e a th … O th e r s , th eF a l ang i s t s inp a r t i cu l a r ,h ada mo r e id e a l i s t i cr e ad ing .R id ru e jor e fu s ed toth inkl ik eE r i ch M .R em a rqu e–au tho ro fth ep a c if s tnov e lA l l Qu i e t ont h eW e s t e rnF r on t( 1 9 2 9 ) , wh i chd enoun c edth eb ru t a l i tyo ft r en ch w a r f a r edu r ingth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r–th a taso ld i e r ’ sl i f ew a sr edu c edto“ th e pu r ee xp e r i en c eo fth ehum anan im a lw i thou ti l lu s iono rb e l i e f ,w i thou t en cou r ag em en to rh app in e s sand w i thou tv a lu e . ”H econ c ed edth a tR e m a rqu em igh tb er igh tabou t“ th ean e cdo t e s , ”bu tno t in th ed e ep m e an ing o fth ew a re xp e r i en c e .173 D e sp i t eth eco ld ,th eh a r shenv i ronm en t ,andth e num e r i c a lsup e r io r i tyo fth een emy ,th ecomb a te xp e r i en c ew a sana lmo s t my s t i c a lin i t i a t ionin tocom r ad e sh ipandth epu r if c a t iono fth e i rid e a l s : Do w eSpan ia rd sl iv ew e l lth roughth i sd i ff cu l tcampa igno rno t ?I fyou pu tl iv ing w e l lin toabou rg eo i so r ma t e r ia lca t ego ry ,I w i l lt e l lyoutha t h e r ew el iv ebad ly ;i f ,toth econ t ra ry ,youpu ti tona mo ra lp lan e ,o f wha t i sex emp la ryo rsa t i s fy ingtoth econ s c i en c e ,Icant e l lyoutha tw el iv ev e ry w e l l ,b e t t e rthan w ew i l lev e rl iv eaga in .174

L i f eonth ef ron t wa sasou r c eo fp e rman en tp r id efo rth e mo s tid ea l i s t i cso ld i e r s .Th eyfough tfo r wha tth eycon s id e r eda mo ra landju s t cau s e .Th i sf e e l ing wa sen cou rag edf romad i s tan c ebyfam i ly m emb e r s , g i r l f r i end s ,and w iv e s whosha r edth e i r wo r ldv i ew . Do lo r e sGan c edo , th efan c é eo fBDvo lun t e e randFETp rov in c ia ll ead e rA lb e r to Ma r t ín Gam e ro ,w ro t ehowsh ef e l tp roudo f“ th i st ru eFa lang etha tyoua l la r e” andtha tsh esu f f e r ed w i thun c e r ta in ty inth eab s en c eo fh e rspou s e .Th e su f f e r ingo f wa rs e rv edtopu r i fyid ea l sandg iv em ean ingtoano th e r w i s edu l landanonymou sl i f e : Th eso r row so f wa ra r eth ek indtha tf l lu sw i thp r id e ,anda f t e rth eha rd mom en t shav epa s s edi ti sa tl ea s tfo rm eth eon lyth inginth e wo r ldtha t f l l sm ew i thsa t i s fa c t ion ,i ti sth eh igh e s t , mo s tnob l eth inginth i s wo r ldto e l eva t eon e s e l ff romth evu lga r i tyo fl i f eandpu r i fyou rw eakn e s s e sinl i f e w i thth epu r i tyo fou rsu f f e r ingfo rth eb e s tid ea l s .175

Th el e t t e r sr e c e iv edf romSp a ing av een cou r ag em en tandr ev e a l ed con c e rn .Th i sd idno ts topo th e rF a l ang i s t sf romd e s c r ib ingth es am ew a r exp e r i en c ea sana c cumu l a t iono fp enu r i e sandr i sk s ,o fcon s t an tf a t igu e h e igh t en edbysnowandco ld ,s t e ep edinp e rm an en tno s t a lg i afo rhom e . How ev e r ,th i slong ingfo rSp a ing av es t r eng thandin sp i r edcou r ag ein 1 7 6 co r e l ig ion i s t s whoaw a i t edth er e tu rno fth eB lu eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e r s .

142 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .4 .6 .Span i shso ld i e r stak eSov i e tp r i son e r ,1942(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fM .X . Nogu e i ra ,San t iagod eCompo s t e la )

C om r ad e sh ipandth eCu l to fth eF a l l en On e wayo fcomba t t ingf ea ro fd ea th wa stocu l t iva t ebond so fcama rad e r i e .Ev ena sth eD iv i s ionf r s ten t e r edcomba t ,R id ru e jo w ro t e :“Th e v i s ib l ep r e s en c eo fd ea thcanno tb es e enimpa s s iv e ly .Bu tth i sd ea th mak e sso mu chno i s e ,th esp e c ta c l eo f wa t ch ingo th e r sg iv e scou rag e andpa s s ion .”T ra in inghadcon t r ibu t edtoth i s .R id ru e jono t ed“ th eco ll e c t iv ed i s ca rd ingo fc e r ta inhab i t so fd e l i ca cy ,s en t im en t , mo ra lsw e e t n e s s ,andin t e l l e c tua le l egan c e ,”a s“ ev e ry th ingb e com e s mo r erobu s t bu tsma l l e r .Th em enconfn eth em s e lv e stoane l em en ta llay e r ,tha to f p r ima ryn e c e s s i t i e s .”G e t t ingupea r lyev e ryday ,th eha r sht ra in ing ,th e f ruga lm ea l s mad eev e ryso ld i e rc lo s eh im s e l fw i th ina“ ra th e rb l i s s fu l 177 ands eda t ingd e ta chm en t .” How ev e r ,m i l i ta ryl i f e wa sfo r manyFa lang i s t stoo m e chan i ca land d i f f e r en tf romth e i rownid ea lo fpo l i t i ca lcom rad e sh ip .R id ru e jocomp la in eda l soo fth e“pu e r i l eco l l e c t iv ec l ima t etha t mu ff e ssp i r i tua l l i f e .” H ef e l tcom fo r t edbyacompa c t ,in t e r c la s scommun i tytha tg en e ra t ed

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 143

a“ co l l e c t iv ep r id e ,” wh en“ s e e ingon e ’ sco lumngo inga roundacu rv e , youjo ini ta sa man ,v i s ib l eini t sha rmon iou sun i ty …ands ing l eobj e c t iv e .”Th eexamp l eo fo th e r sandsha r edf ea rl edth emtod em ean “any th inginl i f etha tr equ i r ednoe f fo r t .”Th eadv en tu r e wa sa l soan 178 inn e rexp e r i en c e . As t rongs en s eo fcoh e s ion ma rk edth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,e sp e c ia l lyin th ef r s texp ed i t ion .I t wa s ma in lycompo s edo fvo lun t e e r sf romr e l a t iv e lysma l l po l i t i ca lands tud en tp r ima ry g roup s . Th i s mad eth e D iv i s iona“ l i t t l e wo r ld” ;ino th e run i t so rf e ldho sp i ta l son em igh tencoun t e rr e la t iv e s ,a cqua in tan c e sf romth esam ec i ty ,o rb ro th e r sina rm s f rom1936– 9 . Manyo ldf r i end sandcom rad e sfoundea cho th e ra tboo t campin G ra f enwöh r . On eco r r e spond en tw ro t e :“ i ti sf r equ en ttos e e th es c en eo fon eso ld i e remb ra c ingano th e rso ld i e rands lapp ingh imon th eba ck . ‘H i , man …Id idn ’ tknowyou w e r eh e r e . ’” How ev e r ,su chen coun t e r scou lda l sob eunp l ea san t , wh ena cqua in tan c e sandhom e town f r i end sshow edupinth ec em e t e r i e s .San t iago Muñoz C é sa rofound th ec ro s s e so fach i ldhoodf r i endandtwo C iv i lW a rcom rad e sinth e M e s t e l evoc em e t e ry .179 Th eBDs e rv e sa sagoodexamp l eo fcoh e s ionba s edonth es t r eng th o fi t sp r ima ryg roup s , wh i ch w e r eea s i lyr ep rodu c edinth e many mom en t so fr e laxa t iontha ta c compan i eda wa ro fpo s i t ion s .A tl ea s tun t i l m id -1942 ,th i scoh e s ioncou ldb eexp la in eda sth efu s iono f“p r ima ry g roup s”o fo r ig in ,d efn edbypo l i t i ca lo rhom e townbond s ,andn ew g roup s who s ecama rad e r i e wa sso l id lyc em en t edinth e i rcommonexp e r i en c eonth ef ron t .T im eandcomba t mad eth econ tou r so fth ed iv e r s ep r e ex i s t ingpo l i t i ca lcu l tu r e sanda ffn i tyg roup so fth eso ld i e r s so f t enand m e ldin toan ewid en t i tyt i edtoth eD iv i s ioni t s e l f .T oad e g r e e ,th esam eo c cu r r edinth eW eh rma ch t .180 Conv e r sa t ionc i r c l e sp lay edanimpo r tan tro l eincon so l ida t ingo ld andn ewg roup so fr e f e r en c e . Mo r ep r e s t ig iou sFa lang i s t scou ldta lk abou tpo l i t i c sfo rhou r sinth e i rsh e l t e r s , wh i l ep lay ingca rd sandsha r 181 ingd r ink sandfood . Po l i t i c sw en thanding lov ew i thhom e town o r ig in s .V o lun t e e r sf romth esam etownt r i edto m e e t upo f t en ;tog e th e rw i thcom rad e sandf r i end s ,th ey wou ldc e l eb ra t eb i r thday sand pa t ronsa in tday s .182 “ Im e taf r i endandn e ighbou r whoi sth esono f M r .Lu c iano whol iv e sn ex ttoth eC iv i l Gua rdh eadqua r t e r s ,and w e c e l eb ra t ed w i tha d r ink ingb ing e ,” w ro t eA l f r edo Rod r ígu ezto h i s mo th e rinD e c emb e r1941 .183 Th e r ew e r ea l sos ev e r a lc a s e so fb ro th e r sf romth es am ef am i lya ss ign edtod i f f e r en tun i t s , whot r i edtos e ee a cho th e r wh enth eycou ld . S ev e r a lo fth em w e r eo fO ldGu a rdp ed ig r e e–su cha sth eRu i zV e rn a c c i b ro th e r s ,th eG a r c í a Nob l e j a sb ro th e r s ,e t c .S im i l a r ly ,th eBDvo lun t e e r s

144 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

f romC a tho l i cA c t ionY ou th , thoughd i sp e r s edamongs ev e r a lun i t s , t r i ed 1 8 4 to m e e tuponSund ay stop r ayth ero s a ryo rh e a rM a s stog e th e r . Th e BDt r en chn ew sp ap e ro f t enp r in t edr equ e s t so find iv idu a l so rg roup s o fso ld i e r sf romth es am ep l a c e who w e r ein t e r e s t edind i s cov e r ingth e un i to r wh e r e abou t so faf r i end ,r e l a t iv e ,o rhom e towna cqu a in t an c e . Th ehom e towno rpo l i t i c a lco l l e c t iv e , wh e th e rth eg roupi t s e l fo rth e comp any ,s e rv eda sar e fug ef romso r row s ,f e a r ,andlon e l in e s sina s t r ang el and .F a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r s , who w e r eo f t enun iv e r s i tys tud en t s f rom m idd l e -o r upp e r -m idd l e c l a s s hom e s ,l iv ed a long s id eh a l f i l l i t e r a t ep e a s an t s ,m anu a ll abou r e r s ,ands e rg e an t s who h adcom e upth roughth er ank s . Onth ef ron t ,t en s ion sf romth et r a in ingp e r iod so f t en ed ,andso ld i e r sl e a rn edtofun c t iontog e th e rinth es am eun i t s . Sh a r ingqu a r t e r sa l sol edtosom ehomo s exu a lr e l a t ion s , wh i ch w e r e s i l en c edina lmo s ta l lt e s t imon i e sbu tsom e t im e sin s inu a t edinth ed i a r i e s .Th eRu s s i anin t e rp r e t e rV l ad im i rKov a l ev sk i ir e f e r r edinh i sm em o i r stoac a s einvo lv ingtwos e rg e an t s .185 On elog i s t i c sd r iv e rw ro t eo fan en s ign who w a s“ r e a l lyc lo s e ”toh i sa s s i s t an t :“ th eyev ens l e epinth e 1 8 6 s am eb ed . ” BDin t e rn a lsou r c e sind i c a t ea sm anya ss ev en tyc a s e so f homo s exu a l i tyamongo ff c e r s , NCO s ,andso ld i e r sbyth eendo f1 9 4 1 .187 Com rad e sh ipadd edn ewt i e stoth eo ldon e s ,andex i s t ingf r i end sh ip s w e r er e confgu r edbyth e wa r .R id ru e joexp r e s s edth i s wh enh er e f e r r ed toth eev en ing ssp en tinconv e r sa t ion w i thh i scom rad e s :“W eta lk eda lo t .In myhou s eth e r ea r ea lway sf e l lowconv e r sa t iona l i s t s ,som ep e r man en t ,o th e r sva r iab l e .”Lu i sAgu i la rno t edtha tinh i ssha cko th e rFa188 lang i s t so f t en m e ttota lk“abou tpo l i t i c sinSpa inandinth eFa lang e .” T a lk ingabou tt ran s c end en ta lth em e s ,g i r l s ,o rth e i rownl i t t l ep rob l em s c r ea t edaf c t i t iou sbu tn e c e s sa ryi l lu s iono fno rma l i tyfo rth em emb e r s o fth efgh t ingcommun i ty .“ Inth i sa tmo sph e r e ,If e e la si fev e ry th ingi s a l r igh t ;a l l mycompan ion shav eth e i rownl i t t l ep rob l em s ,” ju s ta si fh e w e r eamongf r i end sa tun iv e r s i ty ,w ro t eSa lvado rZanón . How ev e r ,ano th e rr ea l i ty m e tth em wh enth eyl e f tth ei z b a ;th e wa rchang edp eop l e : “ f r i end sI w en ttos e conda rys choo lw i tho rp lay ed w i thinth epa rka s 189 ch i ld r en ,Is e eth eyhav echang ed .” Fo r manyFa lang i s t s ,th ecama rad e r i ea l sohadapo l i t i ca lr ead ing . R id ru e josu rm i s edtha tth esha r ede f fo r thadbond edFa lang i s t sand non -Fa lang i s t sw i th in h i scompany .H ethough th e wa sw i tn e s s ing 190 th eb i r tho fan ewcommun i tyo ft ru eb e l i ev e r s . Inh i sv i ew ,an ew Fa lang ehadem e rg edf romth eb loodo fth efa l l en ,on etha tcomb in ed C iv i lW a rv e t e ran s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s , NCO s ,andCa tho l i c s :“Th eD iv i s ioni snowandfo r ev e rFa lang i s t ,f romth ecap ta indown .”En r iqu e E r randocap tu r edsom e th ings im i la rinaconv e r sa t ion w i that rad i t iona l i s tvo lun t e e r :in Ru s s ia“w es topd iv id ingou r s e lv e sup …b e cau s e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 145

o fou rlab e l s .”191 How ev e r ,po l i t i ca la ffn i ty wa sno ta lway sth e ma in th ing .P r iva t eJo s éL ina r e s ,r e c ru i t edin1942 ,r e ca l l edsom ey ea r sla t e r th eb ehav iou ro fh i scom rad e s . Amongth em w e r e“an t i commun i s t s l ik em e , manyoppo r tun i s t s whohop edfo radvan tag eou s po s i t ion s wh enth eyr e tu rn ed ,som e who w e r eind i f f e r en t ,Fa lang i s t s ,r e l ig iou s on e sonanan t i -Bo l sh ev ikc ru sad e ,m e lan cho lyon e s ,non con fo rm i s t s ,” bu tth eya l lfough t“mo s ta rduou s lyfo rsom e th ingo fl i t t l econ c e rn .” Why ?G roupso l ida r i tyandsu rv iva l .192 Com rad e sh ipa l soex t end edtoth efa l l en . Th eSpan i shcu l ttoth e fa l l enonth ef ron td i f f e r edl i t t l ef rom wha thadb e enr e inv en t edinth e t r en ch e so fth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r–n ewadap ta t ion so fat rad i t iona lr i t e– o rf romth es tanda rdp ra c t i c eo fth eG e rmanA rmy .193 Ea ch W eh rma ch t d iv i s iono rr eg im en te s tab l i sh edac em e t e ryini t sr ea rgua rd .Th es imp l ebu r ia lr i t e sw e r eob s e rv ed w i thca r eandinvo lv edacon c i s er e l ig iou sc e r emony .Incon t ra s tw i thth eR edA rmy ’ sn eg l ig en c eo fi t sown 194 fa l l en , th eW eh rma ch t wo rk edtolo ca t ei t sfa l l enso ld i e r s . Honou r ingfa l l encom rad e sk ep tth ema l iv einth eh ea r to fth e“fgh t ingcom mun i ty”and mo t iva t edth el iv ingtoav eng eth e i rd ea th s .I t wa sa l soa p sy cho log i ca lcop ing m e chan i smfo rsu rv iv ingth eexp e r i en c eo f ma s s d e s t ru c t ion .Su chr i t e sr ea ff rm edb loodbond sandexo r c iz edth ef ea r o fd ea th .W a rc em e t e r i e sinconqu e r edt e r r i to rythu sb e cam easymbo l i co c cupa t ionandlandba th edinth eb loodo fh e r o e sap e r enn ia lr e m ind e ro fpa s tv i c to r i e sa sw e l la sap e rman en t wa rn ingfo rtho s e who r e tu rn ed :th e i rcom rad e sbu r i edinRu s s ias e rv eda s mo ra lexamp l e sfo r 195 th efu tu r eta sk so fth eFa lang e . Th eB lu eD iv i s ionrap id lya s sum edth i s modu sop e rand i .Th eyhad th e i rownc em e t e r i e s ,bu ta l sosha r edspa c ew i thth eG e rmand ead .Th e abundan c eo ffa l l enFa lang i s t sinth ew in t e ro f1941–2a l sogav er i s eto animp rov i s edcampa ignr i tua l .A f t e rth echap la inspok e ,th ecom rad e s sangth eFa lang i s thymn ,pu tb i r chpo l e sa roundth etomb ,andp la c ed aLa t inc ro s sw i tha symm e t r i ca rm s ,a long w i thth efag s(o rsymbo l s ) o fth eFa lang eando th e rr e l ig iou se l em en t s .196 Com rad e st end edth e g rav e s ,p ray ed ,andp la c edfow e r sa tth em ,th e r ebyin t eg ra t ingth eabs en ton e sin toth ecomba tf e l low sh ip .Tho s e whor e tu rn edtoSpa inf e l t th e mo ra ldu tytov i s i tth efam i l i e sandd e l iv e rth ep e r sona le f f e c t so f th efa l l ena safna lt r ibu t etotho s e who wou ldno tr e tu rn .

5O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion in No r thw e s tRu s s ia

A c co rd ingtoth eBDna r ra t iv ea f t e r1945 ,th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ion con s t i tu t edanex c ep t ioninth eW eh rma ch tfo ri t sex t rao rd ina r i lyb e n ignt r ea tm en to fRu s s ianc iv i l ian sandSov i e tp r i son e r s .Th i shadto do w i ths e e ingth ep r e s en c eo fth eBDinRu s s iaa sanan t i commun i s t en t e rp r i s e ,d evo id o fany Naz isympa th i e s . How ev e r ,b eyondth i s s e l f comp la c en timag e ,th e r ei sroomtoa skth esam eh i s to r iog raph i c qu e s t ion stha t wou ldapp lytoo th e ro c cupy ingfo r c e s .T o wha tpo in t w e r eth eSpan ia rd sd i f f e r en tf romth er e s to fth eW eh rma ch t ?W a sth e B lu eD iv i s ionaso r to foa s i sin A rmy G roup No r th w i thr e sp e c ttoth e t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian sandR ed A rmyp r i son e r s ?W a sth e r ea H i span i c va r ian to fth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion ? Aso c io cu l tu ra lfo cu sonth e wa r exp e r i en c eo fBDcomba tan t stha texp lo r e sth e i rv i s iono fth een emy ,o f Ru s s ia ,ando fth eJ ew s mayp rov id esom ean sw e r s .Th i sshou ldb ea ccompan i edbyemp i r i ca lana ly s i so fth e i rb ehav iou rtowa rd sc iv i l ian s , p r i son e r s ,andJ ew sincon t ex tanda si to c cu r r ed ,u s ingacomb ina t ion o fsou r c e sra th e rthanana c r i t i ca la c cumu la t iono fla t e rt e s t imon i e s f romth ecomba tan t sth em s e lv e s . A sind i ca t edabov e , Naz iG e rmanyhadp lann eda wa rtoex t e rm ina t ela rg epo r t ion so fth eSov i e tpopu la t ion .Fundam en ta la sp e c t so f th ep ro j e c ttoc r ea t eanemp i r eund e rth econ t in en ta lh eg emonyo fth e Th i rdR e i chin c lud edd eny ingSov i e tcomba tan t sth er igh ttoc iv i l iz ed t r ea tm en t ,e l im ina t ingpo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r s ,co l labo ra t inginta sk sto ann ih i la t eth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion ,expand ing m i l i ta ryju s t i c etoa s s imi la t et r ea tm en to fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,andn eg l e c t ingtop rov id e th em w i thfood .Som eo fth e s ep r em i s e sa r er e co rd edin“ In s t ru c t ion s fo rth e Condu c to fT roop sin Ru s s ia”o f19 May1941 ,in c lud ingth e “Comm i s sa rO rd e r”(6Jun e1941 ) ,th e“D e c r e eonth eEx e r c i s eo fW a r Ju r i sd i c t ion”(13 May1941 ) ,and“Gu id e l in e sfo rth eT r ea tm en to fP r i s on e r so fW a r”(16Jun e1941 ) .

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 147

ASpan i shv e r s iono fth e“ In s t ru c t ion s” wa sd i s t r ibu t edtoth eBD , t ran s la t eda s“D i r e c t iv e sfo rT roop Condu c tin Ru s s ia .” A sinth e o r ig ina lG e rman ,i tid en t if edBo l sh ev i sma s“ th e mo ra len emyo fth e n ewEu rop e .” A c co rd ing ly ,th ep r e s en tconf i c t wa sd i r e c t ed“aga in s t i t sd i s in t eg ra t ingid ea sandtho s e whor ep r e s en tth em .”Thu s ,“ th i s fgh tr equ i r e sen e rg e t i c ,unwav e r inga c t ionaga in s ta l lBo l sh ev ik ,agi ta to r ,sn ip e r ,sabo t eu r ,o rJ ew i she l em en t sandcomp l e t ee l im ina t ion o fa l la c t iv eo rpa s s iv er e s i s tan c e .”Fu r th e rmo r e ,“a l lcompon en t so f th eR ed A rmy ,in c lud ingp r i son e r s”shou ldb et r ea t ed w i th“anex t r em e lys ev e r ea t t i tud e and max imum p r e cau t ion ,a st r ea ch e rou s m e thod so fcomba tcanb eexp e c t ed .” Pa r t i cu la r ly dang e rou sw e r e th e“A s ia t i cso ld i e r so fth eR edA rmy ,” who w e r e“ in s c ru tab l e ,unp r e d i c tab l e ,in s id iou s ,andun f e e l ing .” Uponcap tu r ingen t i r eun i t s ,“ th e l ead e r sshou ldb eimm ed ia t e lys epa ra t edf romth et roop s .”A sfo rth e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,th egu id e l in e sind i ca t edtha t mo s to fth em w e r e an t i commun i s t s ,v e rye thn i ca l lyd iv e r s e ,l iab l etoexp r e s sr e j e c t ion fo rth eSov i e tr eg im eth roughr e l ig iou sob s e rvan c e ,andshou ldno t b ein t e r f e r ed w i th . How ev e r ,“max imump r e cau t ion”shou ldb eex e rc i s ed“ inconv e r sa t ion sw i thth epopu la t ionandb ehav iou rtowa rd s wom en .”P i l lag ing wa sfo rb idd en ,bu t“a l lk ind so fm e r chand i s eand m i l i ta ryr equ i s i t ion s ,e sp e c ia l lyfoodandfodd e r ,fu e landc lo th ing , 1 shou ldb ep r e s e rv edandconf s ca t ed .” Infa c t ,po l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r s w e r es t igma t iz edbyth eSpan i shFa lang i s tp r e s sandp r e s en t eda sth e d i r e c tin s t rum en t so fSov i e tty rannyandJuda i sm .2 Th e s eo rd inan c e s w e r eso f t en edsom ewha tbyG en e ra lD i r e c t iv e3 .005 ,pub l i sh edbyth e BD G en e ra lS ta f fon 4 Augu s t1941 , wh i ch wa sa sg en e r i co r mo r e sothanth efo rm e r on e s . Th einhab i tan t so fo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e s , th e i rp e r sonandpo s s e s s ion s ,shou ldb er e sp e c t ed ;r equ i s i t ion shad tob ecomp en sa t ed ;th ep r i son e r sw e r etob et r ea t ed w e l landen emy wound ed wou ldr e c e iv em ed i ca la t t en t ion .Sp i e sandsn ip e r sshou ld no tb esumma r i lyex e cu t edbu thand edov e rtosup e r io r sfo rin t e rnm en tinp r i son e rcamp s .3 Th e r ei snoemp i r i ca lev id en c etha tth eSpan i sho ff c e r sw e r eno t if ed o fth e“Comm i s sa rO rd e r .” H i t l e rra t if edi tju s tp r io rtoth eBDa r r iva l a tth ef ron tbu tsp e c if edtha ti tshou ldon lyb et ran sm i t t edo ra l lyto 4 th et roop s . Compa ra t iv e ly , wa rb ru ta l i tyonth e No r th e rnF ron t wa s c e r ta in lyl e s ss ev e r ethanino th e rs e c to r s .O fth e2 ,253 do cum en t edex e cu t ion so fcomm i s sa r sinth ef r s ttw e lv e mon th so fth e wa r(a m in i mume s t ima t e ) ,on ly17 .32p e rc en t(405 )co r r e spond edtoA rmyG roup No r th .F rom O c tob e rth rough D e c emb e r1941 ,th eto ta lnumb e r wa s 101(15 .2p e rc en to fth eto ta lonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ) ,andth enumb e r s d e c r ea s edqu i ck lyinth ef r s t mon th so f1942 .5

148 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Mo s tl ik e ly ,th eSpan i shcomba tan t ss imp lyfo l low edo rd e r s ,s epara t ingou tth epo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r sandshoo t ingth emons i t e . How ev e r ,w ecanno tru l eou ttha t ,a sinsom eG e rmanun i t s ,Span i sho ff c e r s spa r edth et roop ssu cha c t ion sbyo rd e r ingth et ran s f e ro fth ep o l i t ru k s to D iv i s ionCommand , wh e r eth ey wou ldb ehand edov e rtoth eG e r man s .Ind i r e c tda tasugg e s t stha tth eBDcommandando ff c e r skn ew abou tth eo rd e r ;i t wa sexp l i c i t lycoun t e rmand edinsp e c if cop e ra t ion s th rougho rd e r st ran sm i t t edbyth eco r r e spond ing A rmyCo rp s .T oen cou rag eth esu r r end e ro fth eun i t sund e rs i eg einth eV o lkhovPo ck e t , D i r e c t iv e2 .018o f 12 May1942e s tab l i sh edtha tp ropagandal eaf e t sb e d i s t r ibu t ed .Th eyp rom i s edgoodt r ea tm en ttotho s e whola iddown th e i rw eapon s :“T roop sw i l lb ein s t ru c t edimm ed ia t e lytha ti ti sfo r b idd entoshoo tcap tu r edpo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r so rtho s e who w i l l ing ly jo inou rrank s .Th ecomm i s sa r sw i l lr e c e iv eth esam et r ea tm en ta sth e o th e rp r i son e r s .”6I t wou ld mak enos en s etofo rb idth eex e cu t iono f comm i s sa r sun l e s sth ep ra c t i c e wa shab i tua l .L ik ew i s e ,in May1943th e BDG en e ra lS ta f fr e c e iv edno t i c ef romth eLA rmyCo rp sind i ca t ingtha t cap tu r edpo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r shadb e eno rd e r edto“p r e s en tth em s e lv e s vo lun ta r i lyfo r wo rkinth eG e rmanl eg ion s ,”s in c e“ th eRu s s iancommandha sno t i c edth efa c ttha tw enolong e rshoo tcap tu r edRu s s ian 7 comm i s sa r sonp r in c ip l e .” Ano the rImageo ftheEnemy T o wha td eg r e ed idth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r ssha r eth ein t en to fG e rman so ld i e r sdu r ingth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion ? Howd idth eyp e r c e iv eth e en emy ,pa r t i cu la r lySov i e tc iv i l ian s ?T o wha td eg r e ed idth eb e t t e rb e hav iou ro fSpan i sho c cupy ingfo r c e stowa rd sth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion r ef e c tad i f f e r en tv i ewo fth een emy ?W a si tm e r e lyar e su l to fth e mo r e s ta t i cna tu r eo fth eno r th e rns e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron t , wh i chhadl e s s pa r t i sana c t iv i tythaninth e Uk ra in eo r Wh i t eRu s s iaandl e s s(o rl e s s s ign if can t )rad i ca l iz edandb ru ta l iz edfgh t ingcond i t ion s ,a so c cu r r ed 8 in o th e rG e rman d iv i s ion s ? In o th e r wo rd s ,i fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ’ s t r ea tm en to fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ioncon s t i tu t edanex c ep t ion ,to wha t d eg r e e wa sth i scau s edby ,o rto wha td eg r e ed idi tc r ea t e ,ad i f f e r en t imag eo fth een emy–on einh e r i t edf romth eSpan i shC iv i lW a rbu tno t rad i ca l iz edbyab io log i ca l wo r ldv i ew ? S e t t inga s id efo ra mom en tth e monum en ta lsu f f e r ingandth ethousand so fd eadamongth eb e s i eg edc iv i l ianpopu la t ioninth ec i tyo f L en ing rad ,th e wa rinth eno r th e rns e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron tf rom S ep t emb e r1941 wa s( inr e la t iv et e rm s )fa r mo r es ta t i candsom ewha t l e s srad i ca landb ru ta lthaninth ec en t r eandsou th ,and w i thl e s s

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pa r t i sanp r e s en c e .Th eV o lkhovo f f en s iv e(O c tob e r– D e c emb e r1941 ) , th eba t t l e so fth eD emyan sk(F eb rua ry–Ap r i l1942 )andth eV o lkhov fo r e s tpo ck e t(F eb rua ry–Jun e1942 ) ,th eengag em en t sa tLak eLadoga , ando th e r sw e r ec e r ta in lyb loodyba t t l e s ,y e tno ta l lG e rmand iv i s ion s w e r ea f f e c t edtoth esam ed eg r e ebyth ein t en s i tyo fth ecomba t .L ik e th eo th e rd iv i s ion so fth e16 thand18 thA rm i e so fA rmyG roup No r th , th eSpan i shso ld i e r sp r e f e r r edto mak ecampinRu s s ianv i l lag e sn ea r th er ea rgua rd . Onth eV o lkhovF ron t , wh e r ep ea san tpov e r ty wa sex t r em ein1941 ,cohab i ta t ionb e tw e enp ea san t sando c cupy ingfo r c e s b e cam ee sp e c ia l lyt igh t .S ev e ra lso ld i e r s wou lda c commoda t eth ems e lv e sinth em i s e rab l eth r e e -o rfou r spa c edw e l l ing s wh e r eafam i ly a l sol iv ed .9 Th eSpan i sho ff c e r sob s e rv edtha tth efam i sh edc iv i l ian popu lat ion ,sub j e c t edto G e rmanr equ i s i t ion ing , wa s mu ch mo r econ c e rn ed w i thsu rv iva lthanpa t r io t i cr e s i s tan c e .Fo rth i sr ea son , mo s tp ea san t s w e r equ i cktoco l labo ra t ew i thth e s einvad e r s .P ea san t wom en wou ld wa shth eso ld i e r s ’c lo th e s ,ando ld e rp eop l etaugh tth emhowtobu i ld wood enshan t i e s .Insu chc lo s equa r t e r s , many d iv i s i on a r i o sw e r ep ra c t i ca l lyadop t edbyth e s ep ea san tfam i l i e sandcam etos e eth em amu s k a s 10 andth e i ri z b a sa sa“ r ea lex t en s iono fth e i rownhom e .” Th e r ew e r e ev enca s e so funau tho r iz ed w edd ing sb e tw e enSpan i shso ld i e r sand Ru s s ian wom en .G en e ra l ly ,though ,th et igh tl iv ingqua r t e r sande sp ec ia l lyth efoods ca r c i tyl edtoda i lyqua r r e l s ,a sth ep ea san t sh idth e i r m eag r er e s e rv e sf romth ep r ey inginvad e r s .11 Th er e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e enSpan i shso ld i e r sandth ep ea san tpopu lat ion ino c cup i edv i l lag e s–comp r i s ing mo s t ly wom en ,ch i ld r en ,andth e e ld e r ly– w e r eca s tinav e ryfavou rab l eandid ea l iz edl igh tinpo s t -1945 t e s t imon i e s .Th eyunan imou s lyspok eo fha rmon iou scohab i ta t ion ,fu l l 12 r e sp e c t ,app r e c ia t ion ,and mu tua lso l ida r i ty . Th eB lu eD iv i s iont r en ch jou rna lH o j ad eC amp añ a in t rodu c edth i simag e rya sea r lya s1943 :th e Ru s s ianv i l lag e shadb e enp ea c e fu l lyo c cup i edbyso ld i e r s ,“who w e r e pa r tm i s s iona ry ,pa r tboh em iana r t i s t ,andano th e rpa r tg lob e t ro t t e r .”13 How ev e r ,th i sr ep r e s en ta t ionshou ldb edu lycon t ra s t ed w i tht e s t imon i e spub l i sh edand w r i t t enbyBDcomba tan t sp r io rto1945–pa r t i cula r lyinth e i rl e t t e r sandd ia r i e s–and w i thn ew sa r t i c l e sf romtha tt im e . Th eimag efoundth e r econv ey sg r ea t e rnuan c eandr e s emb l e stha to f th eG e rmanso ld i e r sinsom ea sp e c t s .Th eSpan ia rd s ,how ev e r ,hadno t b e ensub j e c t edtora c ia lindo c t r ina t ion .Th eyla ck edanyp r io rcon ta c t w i thth eS lav i cEa s tandf l t e r edth e i rp e r c ep t iono f“Ru s s ia”andth e Ru s s ian sth roughth e i rCa tho l i cconv i c t ion s . ManySpan i shvo lun t e e r s d e s c r ib edth ep ea san t s ’pov e r tyinl i t e ra rys ty l e ,th e r ebyc ra f t ingas ingu la rimag eo fth een emy .14

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F r om“ th eH o rd e”t o“ th eRu s k i” Inth et e s t imon i e spub l i sh eda f t e r1945 ,BDv e t e ran se s tab l i sh edac l ea r d i f f e r en c eb e tw e enth e i rb ehav iou randtha to fth eG e rman sw i thr ega rdtoth e i rapp r e c ia t iono find iv idua lSov i e tcomba tan t sandth e i r (good )t r ea tm en to fp r i son e r s .Th i s wa sr e comm end edinth ef r s tin 15 s t ru c t ion so fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f . Th een emy wou ldno tb er ega rd ed a sara c ia l lyin f e r io rb e ing ,bu ta sa m i l i ta ryadv e r sa ry w i thhuman cha ra c t e r i s t i c s ,av i c t imo fth en eg l e c ttha tth eR edA rmyandth eCom mun i s tr eg im ed i sp lay edcon c e rn ingth ed ign i tyo fth e i rso ld i e r s .16 Th eR ed A rmy ,a saco l l e c t iv een t i ty , wa sfo r manySpan i shvo lunt e e r safo rm l e s sandanonymou s ma s s ,d evo ido fa l lr e sp e c tfo rsp i r i tua l con c e rn sandth eind iv idua l .So ld i e r sw i th A s ianf ea tu r e s ,d runkon vodka , whoadvan c edtoth e wh i s t l eo fth e i ro ff c e r sing r ea t wav e s : “b ea s t ly ma s s e sp r epa r edbyT imo sh enkofo rth einva s iono fEu rop e ,” th rowntog e th e r“ f roma l lth ep rov in c e so fA s ia. . .inth ean ima lpan i c o fas tamp ed e .”17 Su chanimag ea c cu ra t e lyr ef e c t edth ed r ead edCom mun i s tand A s i aninva s iono fW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t iontha thadb e enevok ed by Eu rop eanfa s c i s timag ina rys in c eth eea r ly1920 s . Th ea t ta ck ing ho rd e s wou ldno tb eanexamp l eo froman t i ch e ro i sm ,bu tsymbo l so f th esp i r i tua ld eg en e r a t i onto wh i chBo l sh ev i smsub j e c t edth eind iv id ua l ,w i thou tth et ran s c end en ta ld im en s iono fex i s t en c e .18 A“m e ekand mo t l ey ma s s”o f“d i r ty ,ta t t e r ed[m en ]ty rann iz edbyS ta l in” ;o rra th e r , “ s tup ef edcannonfodd e r ,fo r c edtofgh tby mu rd e rou scomm i s sa r s .”19 Co lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lob e l i ev edtha tth eSov i e tcomba tan t ,l ik eth eR epub l i cano fth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ,hadl i t t l ein t e rna l mo t iva t ion ;on ly th e wh ipo fth epo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r spu sh edh imfo rwa rd ,“w i thafa 20 ta l i smbo rd e r inguponsu i c id e .” Th een emyso ld i e r sw e r ed e s e rv ingo fsom eind iv idua lcomm i s e rat ion–th i sco l l e c t iono f“hung ryandb e t ray edson so fth eRu s s ianp eo p l e ,sa c r if c edbyth e madn e s s ,p r id e ,andev i lo fth e i rJuda eo -Ma son i c 21 l ead e r s .” On c esho tdown ,how ev e r ,though t sr ega rd ingth ed e f ea t ed d idno ta lway sevok ecompa s s ionamongSpan i shso ld i e r s .S ty l iz edd es c r ip t ion so fd eadadv e r sa r i e sabound ,w i thth eimp l i c i td ehuman iza t ionandd e roga to ryt r ea tm en to fth een emy ’ sbodysohab i tua l lyfound in mod e rn wa r fa r e .Th eFa lang i s tJo s é Ma r t ia layd e s c r ib edth e“g r ea t ca rp e to fRu s s ianbod i e s”tha thadb e enl e f tbyaSpan i sha t ta cka sa h eapo f“ sp e c t r e s .”22 Th eSov i e tso ld i e r wa saf e ro c iou sadv e r sa rybu tla ck edin i t ia t iv e .H e cou ldfgh tun t i lexhau s t edbu tla ck edid ea l s . Goodp roo fo fth i s wa s h i ssubm i s s iv en e s s on c ecap tu r ed :S e rg ean t Ma r t ín ez -T e s s i e rw ro t e tha t Ru s s iancomba tan t sw e r e“Poo rd ev i l s , who s eey e sand mou th s

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op en w id ew i thadm i ra t iona tth ehuman et r ea tm en tth eyr e c e iv e .”23In th i sr ega rd ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s ion m emb e r sw e r enod i f f e r en tthanth e G e rman s , who look eduponth eSov i e tso ld i e r sa sexamp l e so fun tam ed fana t i c i sm . Infa c t ,s ev e ra lau tho r scon cu r ind e t e c t inga m ix tu r eo ffa ta l i sm inth e Sov i e tf r on t ov i k i ,comb in ed w i thas en s eo fco l l e c t iv esa c r if c eandsub j e c t iontoth er ep r e s s iv eS ta l in i s tappa ra tu s ,a l lenv e lop edinas imp l e bu te f f e c t iv epa t r io t i sm .24 Th eD iv i s ion m emb e r sa l soa cknow l edg ed som e wa r l ik equa l i t i e sinth een emy :a“da rkf r i end l in e s s”r e ca l l ingth e con t rad i c to ryf e e l ing stowa rd sth ef e sh -and -b loodadv e r sa rytha tF i r s t W o r ld W a rcomba tan t sa l soexp e r i en c ed .25 S ev e ra lr epa t r ia t edBDcom ba tan t sa s s e r t edtha t“ th e Ru s s ian sfgh tw e l l .Th eyla ckt e chn i c ian s , bu tth eyd idno tla ckconv i c t ion s ,” wh i l e“Th eyoungRu s s iang en e rat ion sa r e Ma rx i s t s .”Gu i l l e rmoA lon sod e lR ea ladm i t t edla t e rtha t“ th e Ru s s ianso ld i e r … wa sd i s c ip l in ed ,b rav e ,and magn if c en t lyt ra in ed .” And G en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e sadd edtha tth e Iv an wa sp e r s i s t en t ,bu t s lav etoas e cu la r“ma s sin s t in c t ,”la ck ingin i t ia t iv e .Th i sapp ra i sa l ,ex p r e s s ingadm i ra t ionfo rth eau s t e r i tyandr e s i s tan c eo fth ef r on t ov i k i , wa sr ep ea t edinth et e s t imon i e so fex -BD m emb e r s .26 P ra i s ingth een emyfo rm spa r to fth em i l i ta rycod e sfo rr e c r ea t ing th e my tho fag en t l em en ’ s wa r .Som ea c coun t ss en tby D iv i s ion m em b e r sempha s iz edth i ss en s eo fcomba tinth eEa s ta sac la s s i cdu e l :th e fgh taga in s tth einho sp i tab l ec l ima t eandth ed i ff cu l t i e so fth ef ron t b e cam ean ewt e s to fLa t inv i r i l i ty .27 A l thoughsom et e s t imon i e sex p r e s s edtha tth efgh t inginth eEa s tp i t ch edEu rop eanso ld i e r saga in s t ma s s e so fs lan t ey ed ,y e l low fa c edcomba tan t sf rom“ th eex t r em eFa r Ea s t ,”28 d ehuman iz edd e s c r ip t ion so fSov i e tcomba tan t ssu cha stho s e foundinl e t t e r ss en tby G e rmanso ld i e r sw e r era r eamong s tth eBD . Among s t many L and s e r(F l em i shand No rw eg ianSSvo lun t e e r sa l so , and manyI ta l ian sa sw e l l ) ,th ep r eva l en timag eo fth een emya ssub humanhadb e encon s t ru c t edov e ry ea r so fcon s tan tindo c t r ina t ion .29 Incon t ra s t ,v i sua lr ep r e s en ta t ion so fth e Ru s s ianso ld i e rtha tapp ea r inth eBDt r en chp r e s sw e r eo f t en mo r eb en ignthantho s eapp ea r ing inth eW eh rma ch tandI ta l iant r en chn ew spap e r s . Manyo fth em w e r e s ign edby“K in ,”th eca r toon i s tfo rth eFa lang i s tn ew spap e rA r r i b a and BDvo lun t e e rJoaqu índ eA lba .Th ey w e r ea l sol e s sb i t ingthantho s e d rawnap o s t e r i o r iby“K in”h im s e l ffo rth eexh ib i t ionTh a t ’ s Wh a tth e R ed sW e r eL i k e !A sp e c t so fth eR edR e a r gu a rd, wh i chop en edin Mad r id in May1943 .Th e r e ,th eSov i e tso ld i e r wa sd i s t ingu i sh edbyh i sA s ian 30 f ea tu r e s , wh i chs e em edtof tw i thexp e c ta t ion sf romh igh e rup . S im i la r ly ,th eimag e so fth eSov i e tso ld i e rf romth eBDt r en chjou rna lw e r el e s sagg r e s s iv ethantho s epub l i sh edbyF ran co i s t magaz in e s

152 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .5 .1 .W a t e r co lou rbyJoaqu índ eA lba(K in ):Th eyb r ingu san ewcu l tu r ef o r Eu r op e(AGA )

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F ig .5 .2 .W a t e r co lou rby K in ,Th eS ov i e t sbu i l tth e i rp a l a c e sov e rth ep e op l e ’ s m i s e ry (AGA )

du r ingth eSpan i sh C iv i l W a randev enr ep rodu c edbycom i cbook 31 a r t i s t sinSpa indu r ingla t eF ran co i sm . Th e r ew e r enod e fo rm edand b loody mon s t e r s ,bu tth e s e mo r econ t empo ra ryimag e st end edtopo rt rayth een emya sb ea rd ed ,ta t t e r edso ld i e r sw i thna iv eexp r e s s ion s . Th i sr ef e c t sanin t e r e s t ingt ran spo s i t iono fimag e so fRu s s ianc iv i l ian s on toso ld i e r s :th ef r on t ov i k it end edtob ec l ean shav enandth e i rha i r wa so f t enc lo s e c ropp ed , wh i l s tp ea san t so fac e r ta inag ew e r eknown 32 fo rth e i rlongb ea rd s . Th i si conva r i edl i t t l einr ep r e s en ta t ion so fth e fu tu r eo fSpa ininSov i e thand s ,i fth e wa rw e r elo s t . How ev e r ,th e

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av e r s iontowa rd s“Ang lo -Am e r i can”imp e r ia l i sm wa so f t en mo r ecu t33 t ingthanth eimag eo fth eSov i e tso ld i e r . Th e BDso ld i e r ssawth e Ru s k ia sav i c t imo fcommun i smanda spawno fa th e i s tand ma t e r ia l i s tid eo logy . Th e i rs e rv i l ena tu r eon ly conf rm edhowlowind iv idua ls e l f e s t e emhadfa l l eninaninhuman e 34 r eg im e . Th eSov i e tcomba tan tm igh tb ea wo r thyen emyandawak en compa s s ionandhumanf e e l ing son c eap r i son e r . How ev e r ,th eSpan i sh andG e rmanso ld i e r scon c lud ed ,h e wou ldn ev e rb eab e t t e rcomba tan t 35 thanaEu rop ean . Th eBD wou ldupho ldth e“ c iv i l iz ed”and“mo ra l” va lu e stha t mad eth emchamp ion so fanid ea l .Th e i rs en s eo fr e l ig iou s t ran s c end en c e wou ldg iv eth eSpan ia rd sanadvan tag eov e rth e i rad v e r sa r i e s :a“ fana t i cen thu s ia sm”tofnd Godinth ef roz ent r en ch e s .36 Th i sconv i c t ionh e lp edth emr e s i s tth e“ava lan ch e s”o fth eR ed A rmy andtu rn edth eBD ’ s mod e s tm i l i ta ryp e r fo rman c ein toav i c to ry .Th e Ib e r ianta l en tfo rd e f en s iv e wa r fa r esp rangf romanan c i en tsou r c e , 37 inh e r i t edf romth e i rr e s i s tan c eaga in s tth e Roman sand Napo l eon . Th e i rm i l i ta ry m e r i tnowcon s i s t edo fcon ta in ingth en ewth r ea ttoth e i r hom e land w i th inSov i e tt e r r i to ry .38 Th eSov i e tso ld i e r s whosu r r end e r edcou ldno ta lway sr e lyonimm ed ia t egoodt r ea tm en tf romth e i ren em i e s , wh e th e rSpan i sho rG e rman . Inth ec lamou ro fcomba t ,andtofa c i l i ta t eth ef r e edomo f mov em en to f th e i rownfo r c e s ,i t wa scommonp ra c t i c eamong s tSpan i shun i t sno tto tak ep r i son e r s .Shoo t ingtho s e whosu r r end e r edonth espo t wa sahab i t manyo ff c e r shada cqu i r edinth e Mo ro c can W a r .I ti t wa sa l sou s edby a rm i e sinth eS e cond W o r ld W a r ,pa r t i cu la r lyinth ePa c if candinth e fgh t ingfo l low ingth e No rmandyland ing s .Th eex c i t em en to fcomba t infu en c edth i sb ehav iou r :th eba s i cd e s i r etoav eng ed eadcom rad e s , th ein conv en i en c eo fd ea l ing w i thp r i son e r s ,andev enenvyamongth e cap to r sb e cau s eth e wa r wa sov e rfo rth ecap t iv e s .Thu s ,th econv en 39 t ion sr e la t ingtoth et r ea tm en to fp r i son e r sw e r eno ta lway sr e sp e c t ed . Wha ttodo w i thp r i son e r sl edtof r equ en td i spu t e samong s tth eBD so ld i e r s .I so la t edex e cu t ion so ftho s e whola id downth e i rw eapon s w e r eno tunu sua land w e r eju s t if edonth econv i c t iontha tth eSov i e t s wou lddoth esam etoth e i rp r i son e r s .Cap t iv e s whor e fu s edtocoop e r40 a t edu r ingin t e r roga t ion scou ldb esho ta sa wa rn ingtoth er e s t . Th i s p ra c t i c e wa scu s toma rydu r ingth eV o lkhovo f f en s iv e . Aso ld i e r who c ro s s edth er iv e rtotak esupp l i e stoth et roop sno t ed w i thd i sp l ea su r e tha t wound edp r i son e r sw e r el iqu ida t edru th l e s s ly : Sho r t lya f t e rwa rd s ,th eyb egantob r ing wound edSpan ia rd sb e cau s eth e r e w e r eno wound edRu s s ian s .W e l l ,th eyca t chth emand w ek i l lth em ,and i t ’ sv e ryunp l ea san ttos e e wound edRu s s ianp r i son e r sa sk ingfo rm e r cy

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 155 and w eg raba ma ch in egunand mowth ema l ldown ,I ’dn ev e rs e en mo r e d eadtog e th e rintha t way ,andi t ’ sno tap r e t tys igh t .41

A c t so fth i sk ind ,a l socommoninth eG e rmand iv i s ion s ,hav eb e ena cknow l edg edint im e lya c coun t spub l i sh eds in c eth e1990 s .42 Th eycap tu r eth ev io l en c eo fhand to -handfgh t ing ,a l soth een joym en to fr i sk anddang e r ,andth e“ t e r r i fy ingb eau ty”o fcomba t ,inth e mann e ro f E rn s tJüng e r .Jo s éM .Sán ch ezD iana ,d e s c r ib edi tthu s : W er ea chth ev e ryedg eo fth een emyt r en ch … W ea r epo s s e s s edo faf rm madn e s s ,sw ea r ingandshou t ing“V iv aE sp añ a.”Ikno ckaga in s tabody in to wh i chI ’v es tu ckth ebayon e t .B loods l ipp edth rough myfng e r s… Th eRu s s ianfgu r e sw i thth e i rb r i ck co lou r edcap e sshak el ik ea mov ing s tag ew i thou tl im i t so rend. . .W een t e rth ehou s e sinth etown , wh i chi sa r ea l lylongs t r e e t .W es ea r chth em .I fth e r ei sanen emyso ld i e rin s id e ,h e ’ s k i l l ed .Som esu r r end e rbu tsom eo fth ecompany ,ex c i t ed ,shoo tth emon th espo tw i thou tl i s t en ingtoth em …P eop l ed runkonb looddon ’ tb ehav e w e l lw i thsom ep r i son e r s , wh i ch mak e sm es i ck . Runn ingo f fg iv e sth e p r i son e rac e r ta ins en s eo ff r e edom ,a sh efgu r e stha th eha ssom ef r e edom fo raf ews e cond s …Th e wo r s ti sth esavag e ryo fth ea c t wh i cha tth esam e t im ei st e r r i fy ing lyb eau t i fu l .

Th eb loodb ing e ,ad r ena l in ,andv io l en c econ t inu edth en ex tday : “P r iva t eH e r ed iashoo t send l e s s ly ,e l im ina t ings ev e ra lR ed s who w e r e app roa ch ingw i th th e i ra rm sh e ldup tosu r r end e r …Y ou tak eap r i son e r , youd i spa t chap r i son e r .Th e r e ’ snot im etoga th e rth ema l ltog e th e r .” O th e rcap t iv e s ,a f t e rb e ingr e l i ev edo fth e i rw eapon sandb e long ing s , w e r es en ttoth er ea rgua rd .Bu ttha td idn ’ ta lway sgua ran t e eth eml i f e : Itak eap r i son e r ,anug lyandd i r tyb lok ew i thashadyexp r e s s ion whoi s hugg ing myboo t s .N esp an k i ,n e ,n e ru s k il iu b e t ,n eo b id e . Inh i shav e r sa ckI fndal i t t l eb r eadandahand fu lo fr i c eg ra in s , wh i chIea tl ik ea lmond s .I d e l iv e rh imtoth es e rg ean t s ,bu ton eo fth emc r i e sou t : “Wha ta r ew ego ingtodo w i thh im ?T ak etha t ,yousono fab i t ch. . . !” Andh epu t sabu l l e tinth eba cko fh i sh ead .

As im i la rs c en etookp la c eaf ewday sla t e r ,du r ingth ePo sadfgh t ing : “W etookth r e ep r i son e r s .Th eyhadth ecommun i s ts ta ronth e i rcap s . Mo r i l lotookth emaway ,s tomp edonth em ,andth enbambambam !H e 43 sho tth emdown .” Th e r ew e r eday so fm e r c i l e s scomba t ,su cha stho s eo fth e“ in t e r m ed ia t epo s i t ion”a tth eendo fD e c emb e r1941 ,pa r t ly mo t iva t edby

156 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th eSpan ia rd s ’d e s i r efo rr ev eng ea f t e r fnd ingth e i rowncom rad e s na i l edtoth eg round .Som esou r c e ss ta t etha tth eSov i e t ssom e t im e s n i cknam edth eSpan ia rd s“h eadhun t e r s ,” p e rhap sb e cau s esom eo f th emcu tea r sandno s e sf rombod i e sandev enf romp r i son e r sb e fo r e 44 r e tu rn ingth emtoth e i rl in e s . N ev e r th e l e s s ,apa r tf romsom eo f f en s iv e a c t ion sandsu rp r i s ea t ta ck s ,a f t e r1941th e r ew e r ef ewoppo r tun i t i e sto l iv euptotha tr epu ta t ion , wh e th e rt ru eo rfa l s e . Du r ingfgh t inginth e V o lkhovpo ck e t ,P r iva t eRa igánAb e l lán w ro t einh i sd ia rytha t“ s ev e ra l p r i son e r shav eb e entak en .Th e r ei sano rd e rtok i l lth ema l l ,” wh i chh e ju s t if edb e cau s eth eb e s i eg edo f t enf r edf romt r e e s .Su rp r i s ea t ta ck s cou lda l sob es e t t l ed w i thou tp r i son e r s :“Th e r e wa sar ea lb loodba th ; s in c eth een emy w e r einth e i rh id eou t sandd idn ’ t wan ttocom eou t , 45 th ey w e r ea l lb lownup ,” w ro t es e rg ean tA lon soinAp r i l1943 . ManyBD m emb e r sr e j e c t edth eG e rmant r ea tm en to fcap t iv e s .Th e i r f r s ten coun t e rw i thco lumn so fSov i e tp r i son e r sinea s t e rE Po land b e ingl edby G e rmangua rd stowa rd sp robab l ed ea thc r ea t edop en con t emp tinsom eSpan i sho ff c e r s .I t wou ldb eea sytod e f ea tsu chan en emy . Mo s tSpan ia rd sr ea c t ed ,how ev e r ,w i tha m ixo ffa s c ina t ionand compa s s ion :“O fcou r s eth eyd e s e rv etha tandab i t mo r e ,bu ta sIam aCh r i s t ian ,i tsadd en sm e .”46 R epa t r ia t edso ld i e r sp rov id eds im i la ra c coun t so fth eunm e r c i fu l ,“ t ru lyc r im ina l”a t t i tud eo fth eW eh rma ch t 47 towa rd sSov i e tp r i son e r s . P r iva t eM en énd ezGund ín w ro t einAugu s t 1941 :“ Is e eRu s s ianp r i son e r s , i t ’ sar igh tm e s s . . .w ef e e lso r ryfo rth em , th ey ’ r ea ma r ty r edp eop l eandd ragg edin toth efgh tbyth e i rex e cu 48 t ion e r s .” Th i scu r io s i tyandev enp i tya l soapp ea r edinth er epo r tw r i t t eninla t eO c tob e rbyth eSpan i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch éinB e r l in ,fo l low ing h i sv i s i ttoth eEa s t e rnF ron t : Th e r ea r econ t ing en t sandeno rmou sco lumn so fRu s s ianp r i son e r sev e rywh e r e ,s ta rv ingandimpov e r i sh ed :som ea r eca r r i edons t r e t ch e r s ,o th e r s ma r ch ,labo r iou s lyr e s t ingonth e i rf r i end s ,andfna l lyo th e r sfa l lphy s ica l lybyth eroad s id e ,anda r eo f t ens e enco l lap s ingf romexhau s t ion ,n ev e r tog e tupaga in . How ev e r ,th eon e syous e ea r einth eb e s tcond i t ion. . .th e on e s whoa r einth ep r i soncamp sou tinth eop enand w i thha rd lyany 4 9 foodfo rday sand w e ek s wou ldb einanev en wo r s es ta t e .

Th ef r s tau tob iog raph i e s pub l i sh edby BD v e t e ran sinth e1940 s h igh l igh t edth ed ehuman iz edapp ea ran c eo fth eco lumn so fp r i son e r s : “Sou l l e s sbod i e s ,”r edu c edbycommun i smtoth esubhumanaby s s : am ixo fra c e s ,in c lud ing“ th e Mongo l s ,th e wo r s ts cumo fA s ia” ;o r ra th e r“mon s t rou sandf l thygho s t s whoth rowth em s e lv e stoth efoo r l ik eb ea s t stofgh t ,b i t ingandpun ch ing ,fo raf ru i tp e e lo raba r ebon e .”

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Th eimp r e s s iono fth em emb e r so fth eBDIn fo rma t ionS e c t ion whoa tt end edp r i son e rin t e r roga t ion sinla t e Augu s t ,a tth einv i ta t iono fth e G e rman s , wa snod i f f e r en t :i l l i t e ra t eso ld i e r sf romc en t ra lA s ia ,d ehuman iz edand w i thnos en s eo fr e l ig ion ,command edbyJ ew i shcomm i s50 sa r s . O th e r squa l if edth i simag ey ea r sla t e rtoempha s iz ecompa s s ion fo rth ed e f ea t edandd e s c r ib eden coun t e r ingth eco lumn so fcap t iv e sa s 51 ag enu in eemo t iona lsho ck . Th es i tua t ionchang edin O c tob e r1941 , wh en D iv i s ion m emb e r s th em s e lv e sb egantocap tu r ep r i son e r sandk e epth emincu s todyfo r w e ek s ,un t i lth ey w e r ed e l iv e r edto G e rmanun i t s .P r iva t eF e rnando T o r r e sr e ca l l edhowgoodt r ea tm en tcou ldtu rncap t iv e sin tocom rad e s andev ensuppo r t e r so fth eBDcau s e .52 Ano th e rvo lun t e e rr em ind ed th eD iv i s ion m emb e r stha tth eyshou ldt r ea ttho s ev i c t im so fSov i e tba r ba r i smhuman e ly , wh e th e rth eyd e s e rv edi to rno t ,b e cau s eth eyhad b e ensob ru ta l iz ed :“W ew e r efgh t ingfo rc iv i l iza t ionandlov eamong s t 53 a l lm enonea r thandth eya r eengu l f edinba rba r i sm .” Ac la s s i c mo t i fo f BD comm emo ra t iv ep ro s ei sto evok eth e qua s i cama rad e r i eb e tw e en D iv i s ion m emb e r s andth e i rp r i son e r s . Num e rou san e cdo t e sr ef e c t edth i s :f romth es en t ry whol e f th i sw eapon s wh i l eh es l ep tinth eca r eo faRu s k i,toth eso ld i e r whoevad edan ambu shthank stoa wa rn ingf romh i sp r i son e r s . Onon eo c ca s ion ,a Sov i e tpa ra chu t i s tsu r r end e r edto“achau f f eu r who wa sd r iv inga lon e , su r r end e r ingh i sf r ea rmtoh im .”Th ed r iv e rth enhand edov e rth ep r i s on e r“ toas e rg ean tandachau f f eu r who w e r ego ingbyinano th e rca r .” How ev e r ,“non eo fth e s eth r e eso ld i e r shadaf r ea rmonth em .”BD H eadqua r t e r sth e r e fo r er e i t e ra t edtha tso ld i e r sw e r ep roh ib i t edf rom wand e r ingabou tth er ea rgua rduna rm ed .54 Th esubm i s s iv e ,roughp r i son e r sw e r eanob j e c to fcu r io s i tyfo rBD m emb e r s , whoen joy ed w r i t ingdownth e i rimp r e s s ion s . Hudd l edtog e th e rl ik e“a w r e t ch edh e rdo fan ima l s ,”th ecap t iv e squ i ck lyb e cam e co l labo ra to r s who w e r e“a sloya land d evo t eda s dog s .” Th eyev en c e l eb ra t edEa s t e rw i thth e i rcap to r s . On ea c coun ta l sod e s c r ib edhow th eRu s s ianaux i l ia rynu r s e sinth eSpan i shho sp i ta l s ,g ra t e fu lfo rth e goodt r ea tm en tth eyhadr e c e iv ed ,l ea rn edsom e Ca s t i l ianandcomp la in edabou tth eSov i e t s .Som ecap t iv e sw e r ev e ryyoung ,andl ik eso manyo rphan edch i ld r enth eyd e s e rv edcompa s s ionb e cau s eth eyhad b e enb rough tuponSov i e tva lu e s . On ea r t i c l einth eH o j ad eC amp añ a f ea tu r edak ind ,comm i s e ra t ingimag eo fth egoodRu s k ip r i son e r who wou ldhav es e enth eSpan ia rda sh i sl ib e ra to r .55 Why w e r eth e ru s k i ssodo c i l e ?BDso ld i e r sw e r eno ta lway sawa r e o fth eR edA rmyru l etoshoo to rin t e rnincon c en t ra t ioncamp sanyo f i t sso ld i e r s who w e r etak enp r i son e r ,anda c cu s edth emo fcowa rd i c e

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andt r ea son . Mo r eov e r ,th ew in t e ro f1941–2 wa scha ra c t e r iz ed by low mo ra l eandca s e so fd e s e r t ionamong s tSov i e tt roop sf romL en in g radandth eV o lkhovf ron t .56 Ga in ingth et ru s to fcap to r s whot r ea t ed th emhuman e lyo f t enb e cam eth eon lyra t iona lop t ionfo rsu rv iva lin th esho r tt e rm ,b e fo r eth ey w e r ehand edov e rtoth eG e rman s .Fo rth e Uk ra in ian sando th e rp eop l e s ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r e“ l ib e ra t ing”th em f romcommun i s tand/o rRu s s ians e rv i tud e .Som efough tonth es id eo f 57 th einvad e r s . Af ewRu s s ianp r i son e r so rd e s e r t e r sw e r eev entak ento Spa in w i thth eknow l edg eo fd iv i s iono ff c e r s .58 Th eSpan i shso ld i e r s whoa r r iv ed inth esu c c e s s iv er ep la c em en tun i t s w e r esu rp r i s ed , wh enr ea ch ingth ef ron t ,tos e e“p r i son e r s who w e r e wand e r inga roundf r e e lyev e rywh e r e ,” m ix ing w i thth eRu s s ianc iv i lian s whod idth e i rb idd ing ,and whor e c e iv edco f f e e ,c iga r e t t e s ,and 59 foodf romth eSpan i shso ld i e r s . Insom es e c t ion s ,con s id e rab l enum b e r so fcap t iv e sw e r eu s edinaux i l ia ryta sk s .60 Manyun i t shadap r i s on e rinth e i rs e rv i c e , wh i ch wa sto l e ra t edbyth e i rcommand .Acap ta in o fth esapp e r s ’ba t ta l ion ,Gu i l l e rmo D íazd e lR ío ,r e ca l l edtha th i sown Span i sha s s i s tan thadaRu s s iana s s i s tan tandaboyfo rev e ry th ing .61 Su chs i tua t ion sl edth eG e rmanh ighcommandtoo rd e rinJu ly1942 tha tth eso ld i e r sk e epth e i rd i s tan c ef romcap t iv e sandt r ea tth emco r r e c t ly ,bu tf rm ly .Th eya l sopo in t edou ttha tp r i son e r s“a r eadd i t iona l wo rk fo r c e ;th e i remp loym en tbyth et roop s mu s tno tl eadth emtos top wo rk ing .”Ex c e s s iv ef ra t e rn iza t ion ,su cha ssha r ingtoba c co , wa sfo rb idd en .62 How ev e r ,a sla t ea s Nov emb e r1942th eSDpo s tinPu shk in r e c e iv edr epo r t sind i ca t ingtha tsom eRu s s ian sinG e rmanun i fo rmhad b e ens e en wand e r inga roundand wo rk ingfo rth eSpan ia rd s , who w e r e 63 “ ex t r em e lyr e ck l e s s”inth i sr e sp e c t . Th e s es i tua t ion sa l soo c cu r r edinho sp i ta l s ,pa r t i cu la r lytho s elo ca t ed n ea rth ef ron t .Ru s s ian ma l enu r s e sca r edfo rth e wound edbyn igh t , andth eSpan i shf ema l enu r s e shadva r iou s Ru s s ian wom eninth e i r s e rv i c e . Un l ik eth eh i e ra r ch i ca lt r ea tm en tt ing ed w i thra c ia lcon t emp t tha to f t encha ra c t e r iz edth ea t t i tud eo f manyK r an k en s chw e s t e rnto wa rd sth e i rS lav i ca s s i s tan t s ,64th er e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e enSpan i shand Ru s s iannu r s e sw e r eing en e ra lqu i t ef r i end ly .InPo rkhovho sp i ta l ,a Span i sh -Ru s s ian Ch r i s tma sf e s t iva l wa simp rov i s edin1941 ,w i thf a65 m en c op e r fo rman c e s ,popu la rRu s s iansong s ,andgymna s t i cd i sp lay s . G e rmant r ea tm en to fSov i e tp r i son e r sso f t en edcon s id e rab lyf rom m id -1942on ,ow ingtoth er evo ca t iono fth e“Comm i s sa rO rd e r”and th en e edtoemp loyth ecap t iv e sa sa wo rk fo r c einth eR e i ch .A c co rd ing ly ,th eBD wa sa l soo rd e r edin May1943tog iv ep r e f e r en t ia lt r ea t m en ttod e s e r t e r s ,p rov id ingth em w i th m ed i ca landnu t r i t iona lca r e .66 Th e s em ea su r e sw e r efo l low edbysp e c if cBDo rd e r stha tadd i t iona l

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foodra t ion sb ep rov id edtop r i son e r so f wa r who w e r e“ s i ckinandou t o fho sp i ta l s ,”andtha tSov i e td e s e r t e r sno tb erobb edo fth e i rb e long67 ing s . A l lp r i son e r s ,in c lud ingtho s es e rv ingth eBD ,hadtob et ran s f e r r edtoth en ea r e s tDu r chg ang l ag e r,o rp rov i s iona lG e rmanp r i son e r 68 camp ,tob es en ttoth e“R e i chfo rth e i rr e sp e c t iv eta sk s .” In May1943 , th eD iv i s ionhadtohandov e ron ehund r edadd i t iona lp r i son e r s ,r e p la c ingth eminth e i rdu t i e sw i th“Ru s s iano rF inn i shc iv i l ian s .”69 V i c t im s ,Exo t i c s ,and Nob leSavage s :Ru s s ianC iv i l ian s A“S t in k ingandD ep r av edP ov e r ty” Th eFa lang i s tjou rna l i s tJa c in to M iqu e la r ena wa sth ef r s tSpan i shco rr e spond en ttov i s i tth eRu s s ianF ron t ,in Augu s t1941 .H een joy edd e s c r ib ingth epov e r tyo fth e“Smo l en sk Ho t e l”andhowcommun i sm had“ c r ea t edta t t e r edb egga r sands ca l lywag s .”70 T oth eIb e r ianvo lun t e e r s whoa r r iv eda mon thla t e r ,and manyo th e r sa f t e r ,Ru s s ian s–in c lud ingth ep eop l eo f wha t wa sth enEa s t e rnPo land–r ep r e s en t eda k indo fs t epba ckwa rd sinhumanh i s to ry . On eFa lang i s tw ro t e : W es e eh e r e“ equa l i ty”and“pa rad i s e .”Ev e ryp e r soni sba r e foo t ,s ca r c e ly c lad ,andunawa r eo fth e mo s tba s i cp e r sona lhyg i en e .Th e“p eop l e ,”a s th eyca l lth e wo rk e r s ,l iv ein wood enhu t sinth e mo s tm i s e rab l e wayim 7 1 ag inab l e , wh i l eth eComm i s sa r sinhab i tlav i shpa la c e s .

A sw i th G e rmanandI ta l ianso ld i e r s ,th ef r s tSpan i shvo lun t e e r sto s e tfoo tonSov i e tso i lcon cu r r edinr epo r t ingth e mo s tba s i ce l em en t : f l thypov e r ty .I t wa scap tu r edin wa t e r co lou rbyca r toon i s tandB lu e D iv i s ionvo lun t e e rJoaqu índ eA lba(K in)uponh i sr e tu rntoSpa inin 1943 .72 Cap ta in Áng e l Muñozd e s c r ib edl i f einRu s s iaa s“ap endu lum sw ing ingb e tw e en wo rkand m i s e ry ,”in“ so rd id”town s wh e r eth e 73 room sw e r e“mo r ef tfo ran ima l sthanp eop l e .” D ion i s io R id ru e jo cond en s edin toaf ews en t en c e sa l lth em ean ingh ea t t r ibu t edtoth e m i s e ryh esaw : T e r r ib l e ,th i sl i f eIs e e .T e r r ib l em i s e ry ,in f rahuman i ty ,andd e so la t ion .Th i s i saland s cap eo fno th ingn e s s ,andon lyth ec i t i e sr ev ea ltha tEu rop e wa s h e r e ,andth enaR evo lu t ion w i thad i c ta to r sh ipo fth ep ro l e ta r ia t .Th ev i l7 4 lag e sr e ca l lIvanth eT e r r ib l ei fany th ing. . .

Th eta l e sto ldobv ia t edth efa c ttha tth i sd e so la t epano ramapa r t ia l ly co r r e spond edtoth ee f f e c t so f wa r .I t wa sa l lp r e s en t eda sanexamp l e

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o f wha tcommun i sm wou ldhav eb rough ttoSpa in ,hadi tt r iumph ed in1936andth roughou ta l lo f Eu rop eandhadth e Th i rd R e i chno t p r e emp t iv e lyinvad edth eUSSR .Ino th e r wo rd s ,th eBo l sh ev ikd e s t ru c t iono fp rop e r ty ,o rd e r ,andso c ia lva lu e shadcond emn edth eSov i e t p ea san t stoanex i s t en c etha tcou ldno tb eca l l edl iv ing , wh i ch wou ld b enou r i sh edbyt ran s c end en tb e l i e f ,bu t wa sin s t eadav eg e ta t iv es ta t e 75 con c e rn edon ly w i thimm ed ia t esu rv iva l . Jo s éLu i s Góm ezT e l lod e s c r ib eda“Ru s s ianv i l lag e” :Sov i e t ma t e r ia l i smhadtu rn edth echu r ch e s in to wa r ehou s e sands choo l s ;th eadm in i s t ra t iv eh eadqua r t e r scon s i s t edo fa“ cubo idfo rmth eco lou ro fb lood ,”a c compan i edbyag roup o f“ ram sha ck l e ,da rk ,and m i s e rab l e”k o l kh o zbu i ld ing s .Th ep ea san t s hads t epp eds ev e ra lc en tu r i e sba ck int im eand l iv ed inan“ in f rahuman 76 zon e”n ex ttoth eCommun i s tPa r ty m i l l iona i r e s . N ew lya r r iv edvo lun t e e r sa f t e r1942exp r e s s eds im i la rimp r e s s ion s inth e i rl e t t e r s .Th eyd e s c r ib edth e Ru s s ian sa sap eop l ela ck inghy g i en e , who s esauna ss e em eda“ savag e ,p r im i t iv esy s t em .” Aco rpora lw ro t ehowth eRu s s ian s“a r euna cqua in t ed w i thl igh t s ,e l e c t r i c i ty , Eu rop ean s ty l ec lo th ing ,p lumb ing ;th e i rhu t sa r epoo r lycon s t ru c t ed o f woodandfu l lo fm i s e ry ,insho r t , wo rd scanno td e s c r ib e wha tth ey 77 ca l lth e‘Sov i e tPa rad i s e . ’” P e r sona ld ia r i e st end edtob eev en mo r e a c e rb i c .En s ignJuanRom e ro w ro t etha tth ev i l lag e sw e r e“mad eo fs ev78 e ra l wood enhou s e stha tlook ed mo r el ik es tab l e s .” Co rpo ra lJ e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rd e s c r ib edh i sf r s timp r e s s ion so fth e Ru s s ianp ea san t sa s“d i r tyandimpov e r i sh ed …Th eRu s s ian sw e r ea l lb ea rd sand 79 ta l lboo t s .Th ed i r tyhou s e s mu s tsu r e lyb efu l lo fpa ra s i t e s .” Af ew mon th sla t e r ,upona r r iv inga tth ev i l lag e wh e r eh e wou ldr e s id eonth e f ron t ,B en jam ín A r ena l e sa l sor ema rk edonth econ t ra s tb e tw e enth e Sov i e t my thp ropaga t edbyth el e f tandth epano ramah esaw : Th ev i l lag ecou ldn ’ tpo s s ib lyb econ s t ru c t edany wo r s e .Th ehou s e sa r ea l l mad eo f wood ,f l l ed w i thafou ls t en chtha tI wou ldno tr e comm end ,a s th es tab l e sa r einfa c taroominth ehou s e .Th i si sth eRu s s ianPa rad i s eth e R ed sd r eam edo f !80

A l lt e s t imon i e sun t i l1945con cu rr ega rd ingth e s eimag e s . Góm ez T e l locon s id e r edth em i s e ryh esawinth ePo l i shv i l lag e saluxu rycompa r edtoth e“ in f rahumanl i f eo fth eSov i e tp ea san t ry ,”p e rm ea t edby a“b ea s t lys t igma”uponth e i rfa c e s .81Jo s éM .Ca s tañónexp r e s s edth e sam ev i ew s : Th ehou s e s look l ik e la rg e wood enba r ra ck s ,fo rm edbyon eroom in wh i ch th ep eop l eand l iv e s to ckandfa rm ing in s t rum en t s l iv ea l ls ta ck edtog e th e r .

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 161 Th e r ea r ep i l e so fhaytha ts e rv ea sb ed s …a roundth es tov e , wh i chth ey bu i l tth em s e lv e sou to ft in stha to f t encau s ein tox i ca t ion ;90 p e rc en to f Ru s s ianv i l lag e r shav en ev e rknownanyo th e rso r to fb ed .82

Manyo fth e s ed e s c r ip t ion sw e r ein t end edtoconv in c eanyr ema ining USSRsympa th iz e r so fth ee r ro ro fth e i r way s . Co rpo ra l Ado l fo F e rnánd ez -V e la s co w ro t etotho s e“b l ind edby Ma rx i s tp ropaganda ,” t e l l inghow wha th esawp rov edtha tcommun i sm“hadtu rn edp eo p l ein tob ea s t s ,f l l ed w i thinhuman ma t e r ia l i sm .”Ar epa t r ia t edso ld i e r a l soto ldh i sf e l lowv i l lag e r so fth e“m i s e rab l e wayin wh i ch m i l l ion s 83 and m i l l ion so fRu s s ian sl iv ed .” Th ecommont e rm sinth ed e s c r ip t ion so fth e s eBDvo lun t e e r sr ef e r r ed ma in lytoov e r c rowd ing ,badsm e l l s ,dampn e s s… Un l ik eG e r man s ,Span i shso ld i e r st end edtocon t ra s td i r ty/ c l ean mo r ethan w e t/ d ry .84 Th e mo s tp rom in en t wo rd sfo rd e s c r ib ingRu s s ia w e r eundoub t ed lyd i r tyandf ou l sm e l l ing . Mon t s e r ra tRom eu ,anu r s e ,d e s c r ib edin h e rd ia ryth eunp l ea san timp r e s s ionuponen t e r ingani z b a :“ th es t en ch i sl ik eas laptoth efa c e ,a sw i tha l lRu s s ianhom e s .” Góm ezT e l lov iv id lyd e s c r ib edi ta sasm e l lo fth eO r i en t ,a c c en tua t inghum id i tyand pu t r e fa c t ion :“ I tsm e l l sRu s s ian :ro t t enpo ta to e s ,k apu s k a ,human m i s e ry , manu r e ,anda l l mann e ro ff e rm en ta t ioninana tmo sph e r etha tha s no tb e env en t i la t edfo rt en mon th s .”85 V agu e ly A s ian ph eno typ e so c ca s iona l lya c compan i edth ed e sp i ct ion s ,a sFa lang i s t An ton io A ragon é sexp r e s s edinh i simp r e s s ion sr e ga rd ingth eg r imy inhab i tan t s– w i thsuppo s ed lyA s ianf ea tu r e s–o fth e Novgo roda r ea : F roma fa r ,th eya l llookth esam e .I fp la c edonth eho r izona tn igh t ,th ey wou lda l lhav eth esam ep rof l e :toughr id ingboo t s ,u sua l lyla rg eand a lway sd i r ty ,b r e e ch e so fd i f f e r en tco lou r sandfab r i c sfa l l ena roundth e kn e e s ,a woo l l in edtun i co rlongp e l i s s e ,uptoth en e ck ,andab la cko r khak icap .Ev e ry th ingi sg r imyandb rok en .Th e i rfa c e sa r ea l lth esam e ; round w i tho l iv ecomp l ex ion ,b rowno rsom e t im e sb londha i r ,as t rong b ea rdround eda tth ech in ,a d i r ty mou s ta ch ey e l low edf romtoba c co , sunk enb lu eey e s ,andp rom in en tch e ekbon e s ,t in t ingth e i rfa c e sw i tha sad lyo r i en ta la i r …A l lo fth em ,youngando ld , look l ik eS ib e r ianE sk imo s .

“An ima l iza t ion” wa sano th e rcha ra c t e r i s t i cth eSpan i sho c cup i e r s o f t enp e r c e iv edinth ep ea san t s . Ru s s ianhom e sw e r epu t r idin s id e , w i than ima l sandp eop l el iv ingtog e th e rina“humanp ig s ty .”An ton io A ragon é sspok eo fhowh e wonth et ru s to fa“humancub” w i thcho cola t e . Mon th sla t e rh ed e s c r ib edhowth eRu s s ian wom end e lou s edea ch

162 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o th e r ,k i l l ingth ein s e c t sw i thth esam ekn iv e sth eyu s edtocu tb r ead . Ja im eFa r r éa s c r ib edtoth ep ea san t sa lmo s tap e l ik et ra i t s ,d e s c r ib ing th e“hov e l s” wh e r eth ey“ s l ep ta roundth es tov e ,a l ltog e th e r ;th epa r en t shun t edinth e i rch i ld r en ’ sha i rfo rl i c ea tth esam etab l e wh e r eth ey wou ldea t .”86 Th ea s ton i shm en to fth eIb e r ianvo lun t e e r sa tw i tn e s s ingth em i s e ry o fSov i e tp ea san tl i f es t em sinpa r tf romth efa c ttha t manyo fth e s e so ld i e r shadu rbano r ig in sand w e r eun fam i l ia rw i thth eru ra lcon t ex t . Th econ t ra s td idno ts e emqu i t ea ss ta rktotho s ef romr e la t iv e lyund e rd ev e lop eda r ea so fSpa in .Th i s wa sth eca s efo rJoaqu ín Mon taña , who compa r edth el iv ingcond i t ion so fth eRu s s ian sw i ththo s eo fth ep ea s an t sinh i shom ecoun ty .A l thoughth e wood eni z b a so fth e Ru s s ian s w e r eind e edl e s scom fo r tab l ethanth ep ea san thom e sw i th wh i chh e wa sfam i l ia r ,h ea l sound e r s toodtha tgoods ton ehou s e scou ldno tb e bu i l tinaland wh e r es ton e sw e r es ca r c e .Fo rth i sr ea son ,h ef e l tc lo s e r 87 toth eRu s s ianp ea san t sthan manyo fth e mo r eu rbanvo lun t e e r s . M i l i ta ryeng in e e rA l f r edoB e l lodand Ma jo rJoaqu índ ela C ruza l soap p r e c ia t edth era t iona ls t ru c tu r eo fth e wood enRu s s ianhom e s ,bu i l tto 88 e ff c i en t ly ma in ta ina wa rmin t e r io r . How ev e r ,th rough Span i shl en s e s ,th esp i r i tua lind ig en c eo fth e p ea san t ry wa sev en mo r ed i s tu rb ingthanth e ma t e r ia lm i s e ry . Th e la cko fr e l ig iou sva lu e s wa ss ta rk lyappa r en t–e sp e c ia l lyinth eg en e r a t ion sedu ca t edund e rSov i e tru l e–a long s id eth ela cko fp rog r e s sand w e l l -b e ing .Sa rg ean tSán ch ez A lad ro w ro t ehowth eBo l sh ev ik“mat e r ia l i s tba rba r ian s”hadi so la t ed Ru s s iaf romth ec iv i l iz ed wo r ldby sup r e s s inga l la e s th e t i cexp r e s s ion .“Th e r ei snoph i lo sophyh e r e ,on ly exa c t ma thandacompa s s ;andab so lu t e lynocon s id e ra t ionfo rind iv id ua l i sm .” Ma th s ,bu tnono t iono f God .Th eso c ia l i s ta r ch i t e c tu ra ls ty l e s e em ed ma t e r ia l i s t i candimp e r sona l :“Onth ein s id em enn e i th e rf e e l no rl iv e ,th eya r el ik e ma ch in e se j e c t ing wa rp edid ea s .”89 Th e r e wa sind e edacu lp r i tfo rth ed e so la t e , ma t e r ia l i s t i c ,inhuman pano ramath eSpan i sh vo lun t e e r sfoundinth eSov i e t Un ion :commun i smhadp r ey edupon“ th e s epoo r ,d i r ty ,b ea rd ed Ru s k i s!”T r i ck ed byth er eg im e ,som e th ingev en mo r epa in fu lthan ma t e r ia lm i s e ry wa s 90 add ed :“w r e t ch edn e s so fth esou l .” Th eRu s s ianp eop l ecou ldno tev en comp en sa t eth e i r ma t e r ia ld ef c i en c i e sw i thas en s eo ft ran s c end en c e . Th e Ru s s iansou ls e em ed“ sh e ep l ik e ,a lmo s tun f e e l ing .”S t r ipp edo f 91 th e i rr e l ig ion ,“ th e i rb ea s t l ik ein s t in c t srunrampan t .” A th e i smandth er e tu rntoas ta t eo fna tu r e wa sco r r e la t ed w i thla ck o fs exua l mo ra l i ty , wh i ch manyBD m emb e r sa t t r ibu t edtoth einfuen c eo fcommun i smra th e rthanth ehab i tua lp e rm i s s iv en e s so fru ra l l i f e .P r iva t eSa lvado r Zanónexp r e s s edh i ssu rp r i s eupon m e e t inga

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Ru s s ians tud en tfo r whomlov e wa sm e r e ly“as exua ln e edtob esa t i sf edl ik eanyo th e r .”Th e“Ru s s ian way”o flov eimp l i ed“ ca rna lr e la92 t ion sf romth ev e ryb eg inn ing .” R id ru e jo wa ss canda l iz edbyRu s s ian w edd ing s , wh i ch h ed e s c r ib eda sa“ ca rna lzoo logy .”93 R e ca l l inga n igh tin wh i chap ea san tcoup l esham e l e s s ly mad elov en ex ttoth e Span i shso ld i e r ss l e ep inginth e i ri z b a ,h econ c lud edtha tins exua l ma t t e r sth eRu s s ianp eop l ehadd eg en e ra t edto“ab ea s t lys exua limpu l s e .” Sp i r i tua lm i s e ryanda th e i smhadl edto“ th e mo s tappa l l ing mo ra l d ep rava t ion ,”tha tev ene ra s ed“a mo th e r ’ sa f f e c t ionfo rh e rch i ld r en .” Sov i e tcommun i smsough t“ f r e elov e … wom ena sp rodu c t ionin s t rum en t ss e rv ingth ep ro l e ta r ia t .”94 Th eK a r am a z ovR ev iv ed? W e r eth e s en ewimag e s ?D idth evo lun t e e r sfnd ,o rth inkth eyhad found , conf rma t ion o f th ep r e con c e iv edi con s and s t e r eo typ e s n e ed edtocon so l ida t eth eimag eo fth een emy ?95 Ru s s ia ,a si t sown n in e t e en th c en tu ry w r i t e r shadd ep i c t edi t , wa sa sp r e s en tinth eSpani sh m inda san t i commun i s tindo c t r ina t ionandth eid en t if ca t iono f Ru s s ia w i thth e An t i ch r i s t . Mo r ethanon e“ cu l tu r ed”vo lun t e e rb el i ev edh ehadfounda ff rma t iono fth eexo t i cand my s t i ca limag e s d i s t i l l edf romRu s s ianl i t e ra tu r e ,f romFyodo r Do s to ev skytoL evT o ls toy .Th i ssom ehowp rov id edal in eo fcon t inu i tyf rom Do s to ev sky ’ s pan -S lav i cexpan s ion i smtotha to fth eBo l sh ev ik s .96 R id ru e jo w ro t e how“ th ep eop l eh e r es e eml ik eth echa ra c t e r sinth enov e l sw ea l l soav id lyr ead w i theag e rsympa thy ,bu tw i thou tanad equa t eund e r 97 s tand ingo ft rag edy .” Góm ez -T e l lo wa sfa r mo r ee loqu en t :“ Ib e cam e fam i l ia r iz ed w i thth eb la ckand mo s syenv i ronm en to fth e s ep eop l eo f lo s thuman i tyinth epag e so f Do s to ev skyandT o l s toy .” H efoundth e sub s tan c eo fth e s el i t e ra rycha ra c t e r sinth e my s t i ca l ,“d i so rgan iz ed , w i ldexa l ta t ion”o fap eop l e whohadb rough tth eSov i e t stopow e r , w i th“asou lbu rn ing w i thth ew indo fG engh i s Khan .”98 A lva rod e La ig l e s iaevok eds im i la rimag e s wh end e s c r ib ingth ei z b ain wh i chh e s l ep t ; wh e r eask e l e ta l ,pa ra ly t i co ld manl iv eda s s i s t edby“ano ld lady w i thach i ckp eafa c eandh ighboo t s mad eo fg r eyf e l t .” No tev en Do s to ev sky ’ s“ ex c i t ing m i s e ry” o rT o l s toy ’ s“ ra s ca l s androgu e s” 99 cou ld ma t chth i sSov i e tr ea l i ty . Th ep eop l eandth es c en e sf e l tl ik eth eyb e long edtoal i t e ra ryd é jà vu .Th em i l i ta rysu rg eonJuanPab lo D ’O r sw ro t ehow“manyo fth e ev en t s ,cha ra c t e r s ,andland s cap e stha ta r enowapa r to f myl i f eIhad a l r eadyl iv edinGo rk i ’ spag e s ,und e rth ev iv idl igh to fr ea l i ty .”En r iqu e E r randofound manypa ra l l e l sb e tw e enth ep ea san t sh eo f t en m e tand

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tho s ein Do s to ev sky ’ sTh eB r o th e r sK a r am a z ov(1880 ) .O th e rv e t e ran s vo i c eds im i la rv i ew sy ea r sla t e r ; wha tth eysawinRu s s iah e lp edth em und e r s tandth echa ra c t e r sth ey w e r ea l r eadyfam i l ia rw i thth rough Ru s s ianl i t e ra tu r e :“K indn e s s ,o r i en ta lfa ta l i sm … R e sp e c tbo rd e r ing ons e rv i l i ty .”100 Th e s eimag e sw e r eo f t en u s edinSpan i shan t i commun i s tm ed ia , b l end ing l i t e ra ry i con sw i thpo l i t i ca lp ropaganda ,andhada l r eadyb e en emb edd edinth em ind so f manyvo lun t e e r s .Th eycou ldev enb er e in fo r c edbyth e i rfam i l i e sba ckhom e .In O c tob e r1941 , Do lo r e s Gan c edo w ro t ef romT o l edotoh e rfan c é ,th eFa lang i s tA lb e r to Ma r t ín -Gam e ro , d e s c r ib ing wha tsh eimag in edth e Ru s s ianp eop l etob el ik e ,r ef e c tinga m ix o fl i t e ra ryimag e sandi con sfo rm ed byan t i commun i s t p ropaganda : Il ik edi t wh enyou w e r ein ma in landEu rop e ,bu tIdon ’ tth inkyou w i l l en joyRu s s ia mu ch .Ihav er eadsom eRu s s iannov e l s ,andIl ik edth em , bu tev e rs in c eIr eadCh ekhov ’ sR o omnum b e r5[ s i c ] ,If e e lt e r r ib lyr epu l s ed by Ru s s ia .Iimag in ei ttob ef l thyandco ld ,howshou ldIsay ,l ik eth e s t i cky ,sm e l lyco ldo fad i r ty ,g r ea sysu i t ;o rabu t ch e r ’ sc loaka f t e run load ing m ea t ;tha t ’ sth eenv i ronm en tIimag in e .Ihav ea l soh ea rdabou tth e cha ra c t e r sth e r e ,andtha t ’ showIimag in eth ep ea san t stob e :in capab l eo f b e com ingany th inge l s e ,fo rs e rv inga sva s sa l s won ’ tsha rp enth em ind … Ra spu t in ,S ta l in ,L en in ,Iimag in eth ema l lw i th[ th efo rm e rp r e s id en to f S e condSpan i shR epub l i c ]A l ca láZamo ra ’ sfa c e .101

Cap ta in Manu e ld eCá rd ena sd e s c r ib edth ea tmo sph e r eo fth ec iv i l ian popu la t iono fLugainas im i la rfa sh ion ,m ing l ingpov e r tyands t e r eotyp e sfo rm edbyimag e sf romRu s s ianl i t e ra tu r e .T oh im ,o ldmu zh i k s look edl ik e“Ch r i s t ’ sapo s t l e s ,”a si fth eyhad“ e s cap edf romT o l s toyo r And r ey evnov e l s .”102 Y e tth e s es c en e sc e r ta in lys e em ed wo r thyo fp i ty andcu r io s i tyra th e rthanha t r edandd i sda in ,andth ep ea san t s ’m i se ryr e in fo r c edth e mo s tn ega t iv ea sp e c t so fo ld e rs t e r eo typ e s .M en én d ez Gund ínf e l tsympa thyfo rSov i e tc i t iz en s ,ra th e rthanr epu l s ion : “Hon e s t ly ,Ithough tth es to r i e sto ldinSpa inabou tth eRu s s ianp eop l e w e r em e r e lyp ropaganda ,bu tth eyfa l lsho r to fr ea l i ty .Th e s ep eop l ea r e d i r ty ,poo r lyd r e s s ed …th eyevok e mo r ep i tythanha t r ed .”103 Inth i s way ,acon t rad i c to ryr e la t ion sh ipfo rm edb e tw e enth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,o ra tl ea s ttho s e mo s tid en t if ed w i thth ean t i -Bo l sh ev ik c ru sad e ,andRu s s ianc iv i l ian s .I t wa s ma rk edbyc e r ta ind i sda inanda s en s eo fsup e r io r i ty ,bu ta l sobycompa s s ionandg row ingfam i l ia r i ty w i thth ep ea san t s . Mo r eov e r ,th ecommonp eop l ew i th whomth eBD in t e ra c t ed w e r epo l i t i ca l lyra th e rpa s s iv e .A son ew ro t e ,“ commun i sm

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ha s no tt r iumph edinth e Ru s s iancoun t ry s id eb e cau s e …though som ewha td eg en e ra t e ,i ts t i l lha saspa rko fsp i r i tua l i tyini t sb e ing ,i t i ss t i l lth eco rn e r wh e r eth ela s te s s en c e so fth eo ldt rad i t ion sa r ep r e 104 s e rv ed .” S e rg ean t Manu e l Ma r t ín ezpo in t edou thowth elo ca l sh e m e ta l soha t edS ta l in ’ sty ranny ;h esub con s c iou s lyid en t if edth et e rm Ru s s i an w i thc ommun i s t ,th e r eby p e rp e tua t ings t e r eo typ e sinh e r i t ed f romth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r : Th en e ighbou r s whod idno teva cua t e wan tno th ingtodo w i thth eRu ss ian s[ s i c ] ,andi fyoua skth emabou tS ta l in ,th ey w i l linva r iab lyr ep lytha t h eshou ldb ehungf romat r e e ,fo rth e s ep eop l ehav eb e ens ev e r e lyg r i ev ed byth ecommun i s tr eg im e …Th eya r egoodp eop l efo rth e mo s tpa r t ,and 1 0 5 commun i smha scond emn edth emtor ema inex t r em e lyba ckwa rd s .

Fa lang i s t vo lun t e e r Eu s eb io Dona i r ed e c la r eds im i la r op in ion sin Janua ry1942 . Th e“Ru s s ian s”( commun i s t s )w e r e“b ea s t s”fo rsub j e c t ing“ tho s epoo rp eop l e”toa“ s lav e ry”tha t wa sth er ea l i tyo fth e “Sov i e tPa rad i s e” :“ co ld ,d i r ty ,lov e l e s sv i l lag e s .”106 Commun i sm wa s p e r c e iv eda safo rmo f mod e rnab so lu t i smtha thadtu rn edth eon c e p ro sp e rou sp ea san t ryin toth eva s sa l so fato ta l i ta r ians ta t e .107 Th i s cau s ed manyvo lun t e e r stof e e lso r ryfo rth epopu la t ionv i c t im iz edby S ta l in ,“andlam en taho r r ib lyopp r e s s edp eop l e who mu s tb el ib e ra t ed .”108 Th era th e rna iv ed raw ing sfo rth eH o j ad eC amp añ ao f t end e p i c t edqua in to ld m en ,jov ia l wom en ,ands c en e sf romda i lyl i f e ,su ch a sso ld i e r sp lay inggam e sw i thRu s s ianch i ld r enandf ra t e rn iz ing w i th 109 th ep ea san t s . Gu i l l e rmo H e rnanzcon c lud edtha t“ th ep eop l eI ’v e m e ts in c ea r r iv ingh e r ea r eno tn ea r lya sbada sI wa sl edtob e l i ev e , th eya r es imp ly un fo r tuna t ew r e t ch e scond emn edth e i ren t i r el iv e s (f r s tbyth eT sa r sandth enbycommun i sm )tob e ingho r r ib lyandt ru ly opp r e s s ed .”110 AP s eud o -A s i a t i cP e op l e? Th eSpan i shr ead ingo fth eRu s s iancoun t ry s id ew en tb eyonds c en e s o faninno c en tp eop l ev i c t im iz ed w i th inat r iado f ma t e r ia lm i s e ry , commun i sm ,andh i s to r i ca lfa ta l i sm .Fo r manyvo lun t e e r s ,e sp e c ia l ly th eFa lang i s t s ,commun i smhadp r eva i l edinRu s s iab e cau s eo fth eto r m en t edRu s s iansou l :i t wa sth eou t com eo fanex t r em ec l ima t e ,ho s t i l e land s cap e s ,andba r r enf e ld s–a“god fo r sak enland ,h ea t , mo squ i to s… 1 1 1 th i si sal iv ingh e l l .” Th eRu s s ianp eop l ew e r ebo thd ep r iv edo fc iv i l iza t ionand mad esp i r i tua l lyl e tha rg i cbyth eha r shphy s i ca lenv i ron m en t .Th i s wa sa“p r im i t iv eland ,” w i thon lyshan t i e s“bu i l ts imp lya s

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sh e l t e rf romth et e r r i fy ing w in t e r ,no tin t end eda shom e s .”Tho s el iv ing th e r ecou ldb eno mo r ethan“ s lav e stoth eha r shenv i ronm en t ,”in ca pab l eo fe s tab l i sh ingana r ch i t e c tu ra ls ty l eins ton e .Ind e ed ,th eab s en c e o fs ton econ s t ru c t ionr ef e c t edth eS lav i c“ la cko ft rad i t iona lsp i r i t”o r s en s eo f“h i s to r i ca lcon t inu i tyande f fo r t .”Th elands e em edtor equ i r ea d i c ta to rcapab l eo fru l ingth eimm en s es t epp e .112 A sin G e rmana c coun t s ,ha rd sh ipa spa r to fRu s s ianna tu r eb e cam e acommonf ea tu r einBDp e r c ep t ion s .S in c eth en in e t e en thc en tu ry ,th e th eo ryo fso c ia lhyg i en ehadpo s tu la t edc l ean l in e s sa sa ma rko fc iv i l iza t ionandbou rg eo i scu l tu r e .A c co rd ing ly ,ad i r ty ,w r e t ch edp eop l e w e r esobyna tu r eandno tbya c c id en t .D i r ty ,c rud e ,p r im i t iv eand ,unc iv i l iz edp eop l e ,o rs imp lyphy s i ca l lyuna t t ra c t iv ep eop l e ,w e r eno tin th esam el eagu ew i thEu rop eaninvad e r s . Many G e rmanandI ta l ian so ld i e r sexp r e s s edinth e i rl e t t e r sf romRu s s iahowth ebo rd e rb e tw e en c l ean l in e s sando rd e r– wh i chth eya s so c ia t ed w i thth eW e s t e rn wo r ld and ma s cu l in i ty–andd i r t in e s sandd i so rd e rnowcon s t i tu t edth ebo r d e rb e tw e enc iv i l iza t ionandba rba r ian i sm .113 Th eSpan ia rd sw e r eno t sub s tan t ia l lyd i f f e r en tinth i sr e sp e c t .Infa c t , manyo ff c e r so fth eB lu e D iv i s ionhadexp e r i en c eds im i la rs en sa t ion samongth eB e rb e rpopu la1 14 t iondu r ingth e i ry ea r sinA f r i ca . S im i la r ly ,Span i shcomba tan t ssaw“ th er iv e ro fr e s igna t ion ,th econfo rm i tyo ftho s epoo rp eop l e”a sth eou t com eo fc en tu r i e so fsub j e c t ion toad e spo t i smtha t wa sfo r e igntoEu rop eant rad i t ion .Th e i radap ta t ion tod e spo t i smhadfo rg edanind i f f e r en c etowa rd sd ea th–th eendo fan inan eex i s t en c e– wh i chfo rSov i e tso ld i e r st ran s la t edin toanob s t ina t e d e t e rm ina t iontofgh ttoth eend : Th eRu s s ianp ea san ti sun l ik eanyo th e r man . On e mu s ttak ein toa c coun t tha tun t i lth ela s tc en tu rys lav e ryex i s t edinRu s s ia ;p e rhap sth i si son eo f th ecau s e so fth ecomp l e t eb e s t ia l i tyo fRu s s ianp ea san t s .A l so ,th eab so lu t em i s e ryo fth ecoun t ry s id e ,th ein f rahumanl i f eth eya r ea c cu s tom edto andhav eb e enfo rc en tu r i e s ,th ed e spo t i smo fa l lt sa r s ,r edo r wh i t e ,hav e c r ea t edasp e c ia ltyp eo f man ,th e mo s tp e r f e c tundoub t ed lyfo rsu f f e r ingth eexp e r i en c eo fCommun i s tco l l e c t iv iza t ion .Th eyfgh tb e cau s eth ey don ’ tca r e ,s in c ed ea thi su l t ima t e lyfo rth emth ecomp l e t el ib e ra t ionf rom 1 1 5 al i f etha tha sg iv enth emno th ing .

An ton io A ragon é sexp r e s s edsadn e s sfo rth e“m i s fo r tun eo fth e s e p eop l e ,”bu ta l soa s s e r t edtha tth eyd e s e rv edth e i rfa t e :th e“Ru s s ian 1 16 s lav e s”hada“p sy cho logyo fr e s ign eds e rv i l i ty .” S im i la rthough t s w e r eexp r e s s edbyLu i sR iudav e t sd e Mon t e s , who wa sr e spon s ib l efo r th ecu s todyo fth eSov i e tp r i son e r s .H ed e s c r ib edth eRu s s ianp eop l e

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a s“ ind i f f e r en t ,fa ta l i s t i c ,f e rv en tb e l i ev e r s” who ,du etoth einfu en c e o fc l ima t eo rcu s tom s ,w e r er e s ign edtoty ranny :“ fo rth i sv e ryr eason ,th eyhav ebo rn eth eR evo lu t ion w e l l .Ano th e rp eop l e wou ldhav e g rown w ea ryo fi ty ea r sago .”117 Ino th e r wo rd s ,th i sp eop l ew i th“o r i en ta l”cu l tu ra l ,sp i r i tua l ,and som e t im e sev enphy s i ca lf ea tu r e s ,a c compan i edbyanin s t in c tfo rsub s e rv i en c e ,l iv edinas ta t eo fba rba r i sm ,pov e r ty ,andb ru ta l i ty .Th ein g ra in eds e rv i l i tyo fth e s eRu s s ian s ,w i thth e i r“p rom in en tch e ekbon e s [and ]sma l l ,s l igh t lys lan t edey e s ,” wa sa t t r ibu t edtoc en tu r i e so fty r annybyt sa r sandov e r lo rd s .Su chf e r t i l eg roundhadb e enr ip efo r man ipu la t ionbyth eBo l sh ev ik s .118I tconv in c edth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r stha t th ey w e r efgh t ingfo ra ju s tcau s e .Infa c t ,th esam eno t ionr ev e rb e ra t ed inth el e t t e r sandt e s t imon i e so fth e i rG e rmancoun t e rpa r t s .Th ey w e r e engag edinaqua s i -apo ca lyp t i cs t rugg l eaga in s taf e ro c iou sen emy w i th 1 19 e s s en t ia l lysubhuman(a c co rd ingtosom eG e rman s )f ea tu r e s . Mo r e thanon ecomba tan texp r e s s edth econv i c t iontha th e wa ss e rv ingSpa in 120 andEu rop e“ inth i sb r ea cho fC iv i l iza t ion .” C en tu r i e so f“A s ian” d e spo t i smandaninho sp i tab l e phy s i ca lenv i ronm en tcou ldon lyr e su l tinaboo r i sh ,ind i f f e r en t ,andsubm i s s iv e p eop l e . ManySpan i sha c coun t sd e s c r ib ed Ru s s ian sa sl e tha rg i c ,ind i f f e r en t ,andlazy .Som e t im e sth eyh in t eda tid en t if ca t ion w i thJ ew121 i shs t e r eo typ e s . Fo r Ma r t ín ez -T e s s i e r ,th echa ra c t e r i s t i ca l ly “ lazy mov em en t s”o fth e Ru s s ian sgav eanimp r e s s iono fb e ing“ e t e rna l ly fa t igu ed .” H ea l soob s e rv edtha t“ th elo ca l sa r ed r e s s edinrag sandin 122 ev e ry th ingapp ea rtob e longtoanin f e r io rra c e .” AndJo s éO t e ro -d e A r c ed e s c r ib ed Ru s s ianp ea san t sa s“ ind i f f e r en ttowa rd sev e ry th ing tha tm ean sp rog r e s sands imp lynov e l ty ,”v i c t im so fa“ co l l e c t iv es tu po r .”123 Th i scomm en tca r r i ed mo r ecu l tu ra lthanb io log i ca lm ean ing . Th ecu l tu ra lra c i smappa r en tin manyt e s t imon i e se cho edah i s to r i ca l andg eog raph i ca ld e t e rm in i smtha tr e ca l l sth ea t t i tud e so fG e rmanand Au s t r ianso ld i e r stowa rd sRu s s iaandth eS lav i cEa s tdu r ingth eF i r s t W o r ld W a r–th er e s e rvo i rf rom wh i chn ewra c i s ta t t i tud e sd ev e lop ed 124 a f t e r1920 . Amongth eRu s s ianp eop l e ,how ev e r , mo r ethanon eSpan i shvo lunt e e r wa sab l etoapp r e c ia t ehuman ,ev en mod e rnf ea tu r e s .Fo ras ta r t , mo s tp ea san t sw e r el i t e ra t e ,e sp e c ia l lyth eyoung e rg en e ra t ion s .Som e w e r esu rp r i s edbyth eabundan tcommun i tyl ib ra r i e s ,w i thp l en tyo f popu la rl i t e ra tu r ebu tnopo rnog raphy .125 R id ru e jod e s c r ib edRu s s ian s a sa m ed i eva lp eop l e who w e r eb l ind ed“byp rog r e s s , ma ch in e s , Da r w in …andth ep edan t ryo fth e manys choo l t ea ch e r sp rov id edbyth e r eg im e .”Thoughcommun i smhadtaugh tth emtor ead , i thadd ep r iv ed 126 th emo fth e i r“ la s tsp i r i tua lr e sou r c e s ,”b eg inn ing w i thr e l ig iou sr i t e s .

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A f t e rl i t e ra cy ,som evo lun t e e r sno t edtwoo th e ran e cdo ta lf ea tu r e s : “Th eyn ev e rs t r ik eth e i rho r s e sandth ey mak e wood enn e s t sfo rb i rd s ; bu tth ey m i s t r ea tm en[o th e rhuman s ] .”127 Th e s e mo r em inu t ea sp e c t s spok eo fth eRu s s ian sa ss t rang e ,t r ea t ingan ima l sw i thg r ea t e rr e sp e c t thanhuman s .Th i scoa r s e ,p i t iab l ep eop l ehadend ea r inga sp e c t sbu t w e r e ind e c iph e rab l etoth eSpan ia rd s .Th em ixo fexo t i c i sm ,apa thy ,and fa ta l i smd efn edth ema st ru lysavag eand in capab l eo fs e l f -gov e rnan c e ; a c co rd ingtoE r rando , Ru s s ian shadan“ in fan t i l et emp e ram en t .L ik e ch i ld r en ,th eya r ena iv eandc ru e l .”Ev enth e i rsadpopu la r mu s i cex p r e s s edth econ t rad i c to rycha ra c t e r i s t i c so fth eRu s s ianp sy ch e .128 Th eN o b l eS av ag e :AnOpp o r tun i tyf o rR ed emp t i on A c co rd ingto G e rmanp ropaganda ,th eu l t ima t eob j e c t iv eo fth e Eu r op e anc ru s ad eaga in s tBo l sh ev i sm wa stoban i shth eth r ea to fRu s s i ato Eu rop e . How ev e r ,Span ia rd ss e ldomgav ethough tto wha tth ed e s t iny o fth eSov i e tp eop l e wou ldb eon c e“ l ib e ra t ed ,”a lb e i tw i thaf ewin t e re s t ingex c ep t ion s . Thu s ,th eFa lang i s t Manu e lB enda laa cknow l edg edth euna s sa i lab l e l ega lba s i son wh i chth eTh i rdR e i chcou ldju s t i fyth eapp rop r ia t iono f Sov i e tw ea l th .H eob s e rv edtha tin Ru s s iath e r ew e r eno“ in tang ib l e ind iv idua lr igh t s .”Th e r ew e r eon ly“v i rg ine l em en t stha tinth ehou r o fp ea c e wou ldb ehand edov e rtotho s e whothank stoth e i rw eapon shadca r r i edth eb r ea tho fEu rop etoth ep la c e wh e r eha t r edhad fou r i sh ed .”129 Ru s s ia ,how ev e r ,shou ldno ton lyb e“ sub j e c t edbu ta l so d iv id ed” :th edang e rlayincommun i s tapp rop r ia t iono f“S lav i cm e s130 s ian i sm .” Th eSov i e tr eg im ehadb rough ti t sp eop l eou to fc en tu r i e s o fl e tha rgyandhadadvan c ed“byr e su s c i ta t inga l lth ea tav i sm sand p rom i s ingtha tth eha rdy ,comba t iv ep eop l e so fth es t epp e scou ldba th e in W e s t e rnb lood .” How ev e r ,th ep ea c e fu lco ex i s t en c eo fRu s s ianc iv i l ian sandSpan i shso ld i e r sl edB enda latocon c lud etha ti t wa spo s s ib l e toin co rpo ra t eth eRu s s ianp eop l ein toEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion . How ?By e conom i csub j e c t ion ,tu t e lag e ,andcon t ro lo fth e i rna tu ra lenv i ronm en t th rougha mu ch mo r eb en igncomb ina t iono fco lon iza t ionandp ro t e c to ra t ethan wha tth eG e rmano c cupy ingau tho r i t i e shadp lann ed .Th i s s e em edto ma t chsom eo fth et en e t so fA l f r edRo s enb e rg : Th ein t e rpo s i t iono re s tab l i shm en to fs t rong Eu rop eanco lon iz ing nuc l e i–a si so c cu r r ing w i thth e Du t ch ,G e rman s ,and Roman ian s–th e po l i t i ca lind ep end en c eo fth eBa l t i cs ta t e s ,o f Uk ra in eand Wh i t eRu s s ia , d i sa rmam en tandabo l i t iono f wa rindu s t r i e s …in t en s if ca t iono fag r i cu ltu r e , wh i ch wou ldn e edl i t t l e mo r ethanth er e e s tab l i shm en to fp r iva t e

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 169 p rop e r ty ,d i r e c tEu rop eanin t e rv en t ioninth eindu s t r i e stob ep r e s e rv ed , 1 3 1 andp e rp e tua lcon c e s s iono fth eo i lw e l l stoEu rop e .

Th i s mo r eo rl e s sf r i end lyco lon i z a t ionr e s t edonanapp r a i s a lo fth e S l av sa sap eop l eno ty e tcom eo fag e ,lo c a t edonth elow e rrungo fc ivi l i z a t ion .Eu rop eshou ldo f f e rth emtu t e l ag eandgu id an c e–som e th ing ak in to th eco lon i z edp eop l e so fA s i aandA f r i c a–w i thnoc l e a r ind i c a t ion o f wh enem an c ip a t ion wou ldo c cu r .Th en a r r a t iv e so fBDso ld i e r sw e r e amp l if edb a ckinSp a in . Dom ingoL agun i l l aind i c a t edinth eF a l ang i s t jou rn a l E lE s p añ o lth a tth eh i s to ryo fth eS l av i cp eop l e sh ada lw ay sb e en f r augh tw i th“ igno r an c eandf an a t i c i sm . ”S l av sw e r es e ena scu l tu r a l ly in f e r io rb e c au s eth eya c t edon“ in tu i t ion ,rou t in e ,andsubm i s s ion , ”th ey b e l i ev edin“o c cu l tpow e r s ”and“v i s ion a ry m e s s i an i cr e l ig ion s . ”132 Ana r t i c l epub l i sh edinth eBDt r en chjou rn a lw en tsof a ra stocons t ru c ta rgum en t ss im i l a rtoth eb io log i c a l -g en e t i ct en e t so fN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm .Th e“Ru s s i an m a s s e s ”h adl iv edimm e r s edina l coho l i sm ,c r im e , ands exu a ld eg en e r a t ionp r io rtoth eBo l sh ev ikR evo lu t ion .A c co rd ingto “ a l ls c i en t if cl aw so finh e r i t an c e , ”a l coho l i cp a r en t scou ldon lyeng en d e r“d ef c i en tch i ld r en w i thabno rm a lt end en c i e s . ”Commun i sme a s i ly tookroo tinth i sf e r t i l eg roundbu tfu r th e ragg r av a t edth ed eg en e r a t iv e s t a t eo fth eRu s s i anp eop l e“bysp r e ad ingpo rnog r aph i cnov e l sand … th eth eo ryo ff r e elov e . ”Th em a l ign an ttumou r ,“ th eM a rx i s tc anonth a t th r e a t en edtop l a c eEu rop e inth eh and so facong en i t a l lyd e f e c t iv er a c e , ” h adtob eex t i rp a t ed“ th rougha mo r a l i z ingands an i t a ry l abou r . ”133 Som e ev enrh e to r i c a l lyc a l l edfo rex t e rm in a t ion ;l e t t e r sf romSp a inspok eo f “ th eex t in c t iono fth ef a e c a lr a c eo fhum an i ty …th en a t iono fh a t r edand c a r e fu l lyo rg an i z edag a in s t God . ”Ini ron i can a logytoth econqu e r ing o fJ e ru s a l embyth ec ru s ad e r s( 1 0 9 9 ) ,on evo lun t e e rw ro t einS ep t emb e r o f1 9 4 1th a tth eyhop edto m ak eano f f e r ingtoth em emo ryo fF a l ang i s t l e ad e r sk i l l edbyth eR epub l i c an sby“p a s s ingtwohund r edthou s and wom en ,ch i ld r enande ld e r lyund e rth ekn i f e ”a ssoona s Mo s cowf e l l .134 How ev e r ,th i sex t e rm ina t ionrh e to r i c wa sno tth edom inan tton ein th eFa lang i s tp ropagandar ega rd ingth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eB lu eD i v i s ion ’ s mou thp i e c er e ca l l edon12 O c tob e r1943tha tra c eexp r e s s ed “ahom e landba s edf r s tonb lood ,”bu t“a l soon m ix edb lood .”Th e s e d efn edth eH i span i cra c eint e rm so fcu l tu r e ,fa i th ,andex t e rna lp roj e c t ion .L en inandth eJ ew shade ra s ed“wha t ev e ri snob l ein man k ind”f romth eRu s s ianp eop l e ,bu tth eyou tho fth eN ewEu r op e wou ld r e edu ca t eth emandr e tu rnth emto Ch r i s t ianfa i th .Th eyenv i s ion ed Span ia rd st r ea t ingth eRu s s ian sa sth es ix t e en th c en tu ryconqu i s tado r s hadt r ea t ed Am e r i canna t iv e s :o f f e r ingth emb r eadandca r ry ing God 135 in toth e i rhom e s . Th i swa sfo rth emSpa in ’ sr ea ldu ty inRu s s ia ,wh i ch

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t ran s c end edth e mo r ein s ip idimag e so fco lon ia lm i s s ionh e ldbysom e G e rmano ff c ia l s .136 F ewno t i c edtha tth eSov i e tr eg im er e l i edonpa t r io t i smto mob i l iz eth epopu la t ionaga in s tth einvad e r s ,oppo r tun i s t i 137 ca l lyinvok ingth ev e ryp r in c ip l e stha tth eIb e r ian ssough ttor e s to r e . ManySpan i shso ld i e r sr ea c t edtoth eRu s s ianp eop l eina mann e rr es emb l ingtha to fth e i rf e l lowcoun t rym eninA f r i ca .L ik eth eind ig enou s p eop l e so f Gu in eao r No r th e rn Mo ro c co ,Ru s s ian sw e r egood -na tu r ed andindo l en t ,bu tw i thcu s tom sinapp rop r ia t efo rc iv i l iza t ion . Th ey 138 th e r e fo r er equ i r edtu t e lag eino rd e rtoa c c e s si t . Th i sa t t i tud er ep r e s en t edanadap ta t iono fth et rad i t iona l i s tcon c ep to fH i span idadtha t hadb e enco in edinth eea r ly1920 sandid eo log i ca l lycod if edbyth e Ca tho l i cw r i t e r Ram i ro d e Ma ez tuin1934 .H ehad p ro j e c t edSpa in a sac iv i l iz ingemp i r etha thadex t end edth e Ca tho l i cfa i th ,by wh i ch th esub j e c t so fanyra c ecou lda c c e s ssa lva t ion .Inth eo ry ,a l lm en w e r e equa l ;in p ra c t i c e ,th e Ca tho l i co rd e rd iv id edc la s s e sandra c e sin to tho s ei tcon s id e r edcu l tu ra l lyadvan c edo rba ckwa rd .Th eb la ck A f r i can s ,th e“ma s s e so fth eO r i en t ,”andth eJ ew sw e r eamongth ep e rma n en t lyba ckwa rdra c e s .Eu rop eant r ea tm en to fsu chg roup sshou ldb e ba s edon“ cha r i tyandp i e ty .”139 A c co rd ingto mo s tSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,Ru s s ian scou ldb ec onv e r t ed , a sak eytoth e i rco l l e c t iv esa lva t ion .Th i s ma rk edas ign if can td epa r tu r ef romth era c ia l wo r ldv i ewo fth e Naz i sbu t wa sl e s sd i s tan tf rom 140 th eind iv idua lp e r sp e c t iv e so f many G e rman Ca tho l i ccomba tan t s . Th eysub s c r ib edtoth em i s s iontha ts ev e ra lFa lang i s tjou rna l shadimag in edfo rth e“a rm i e so fEu rop e”onSov i e tso i l .Inth i s ,th edom inan t ton ein Ca tho l i c i smr e sona t ed w i thth eG e rmancon s e rva t iv e so fth e 1920 sandth ev i ewo fc e r ta in Naz i ssu cha s Ro s enb e rg , whod i s t in gu i sh edb e tw e enth e Ru s s ianp eop l eandi t sr eg im e .141 R e s to r ingth e Ru s s ian stoc iv i l iza t iona l so m ean tr e s to r ingth emtoCh r i s t ,a s wa sf r equ en t lyexp r e s s edbyth eBD m i l i ta rychap la in s .142 Infa c t ,du r ingth e i rt im einRu s s iaSpan i shso ld i e r spa r t i c ipa t edin lo ca lr e l ig iou sc e r emon i e s ,f romin fan tbap t i sm stofun e ra l s .Ib e r ian fa s c i s t sd idno tcon s id e rth eRu s s ianp eop l ea sab io log i ca l lyin f e r io r ra c e .Incon t ra s tw i th many W eh rma ch tcomba tan t s ,th eSpan ia rd sd id no tcon s id e rr eg en e ra t ionimpo s s ib l e .Th eRu s s ianp eop l ew e r esu s c ept ib l etosp i r i tu a lr ed emp t ion , ma in lyth roughth er e e s tab l i shm en to fr e 143 l ig iona sasub s tan t iv ea sp e c to fth et rad i t iono fth ecoun t ry . AnIdy l l i cRe la t ion sh ip ?The O c cup ie r sandthe O c cup ied A sm en t ion edabov e ,th eimag eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionso ld i e r sa s“good o c cup i e r s”ha sra r e lyb e ensub j e c t edtoc r i t i ca lenqu i ryo rh i s to r i ca l

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qu e s t ion ss im i la rtotho s eadd r e s s edinth eva s th i s to r iog raphyconc e rn ingth econdu c to fAx i st roop sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t .W e r eth eSpan ia rd sanex c ep t iono rju s tava r ia t ioninth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion ?W a s th e i rco l l e c t iv eb ehav iou rd e t e rm in edbyth ecomba tenv i ronm en t ,o r wa si tr e la t edtop r io rindo c t r ina t ion ?144 Naz iG e rmanyemba rk edona W a ro fEx t e rm ina t iona im eda ts eve ra ls egm en t so fth eSov i e tpopu la t ion . Manyo fth egu id e l in e sfo rth e G e rmanso ld i e r sw e r esoonadap t edtoth eSpan i sht roop sa sD i r e c t iv a sp a r al ac ondu c t ad el at r op aenRu s i a, wh i chid en t if edBo l sh ev i sma s “ th e mo ra len emyo fth en ewEu rop e .”Th eba t t l eta rg e t edth e i r“ co r ro s iv eid ea sandr ep r e s en ta t iv e s ,”and“ th efgh tr equ i r e srobu s t ,im pa r t ia la c t ionaga in s ta l lBo l sh ev ike l em en t s ,su cha sag i ta to r s ,sn ip e r s , sabo t eu r s ,o rJ ew s ;andcomp l e t ee l im ina t iono fa l lr e s i s tan c e , wh e th e r a c t iv eo rpa s s iv e .”S im i la r ly ,a“mo s ts ev e r ea t t i tud eandu tmo s tca r e shou ldb eob s e rv ed”towa rd s“a l lm emb e r so fth eR edA rmy ,in c lud ing th ep r i son e r s .”Th eyb rand edth e“A s ianso ld i e r so fth eR edA rmy”a s “ in s c ru tab l e ,in s id iou s ,andin s en s i t iv e ,”andpa r t i cu la r lydang e rou s . Wh enen t i r eun i t sw e r ecap tu r ed ,“ th ecommand e r sshou ldb eimm ed ia t e lys epa ra t edf romth er e s to fth et roop s .” Though mu cho fth e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion wa sr epo r t ed lyan t i commun i s t ,“ th eu tmo s tcau t ionshou ldb eemp loy ed wh ensp eak ingtoth epopu la t ionand wh en add r e s s ing wom en .”Loo t ing wa sfo rb idd en ,bu t“m e r chand i s eo fa l l 145 typ e s …shou ldb ep r e s e rv edandimpound ed .” Th e s eo rd e r sw e r e so f t en edbyth eIn s t ru c c i ónG en e r a l3 .005 ,i s su edbyth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f in Augu s t1941 , wh i chs t ipu la t edtha tth einhab i tan t so fo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sw e r etob er e sp e c t ed ,r equ i s i t ion shadtob ecomp en sa t ed ,p r i s on e r sw e r etob et r ea t ed w e l l ,andin ju r eden em i e sw e r etor e c e iv eca r e . Sp i e sandsn ip e r sshou ldno tb eex e cu t edons igh tbu td e l iv e r eda l iv eto h igh e rau tho r i t i e sfo rin t e rnm en tinp r i son e rcamp s .146 Th ew a rw a sc e r t a in ly mo r es t a t i candl e s sv i c iou sinth ea r e acov e r ed by A rmy G roup No r th .Th ey w e r er e spon s ib l efo ron ly1 7 . 3 2p e rc en t ( 4 0 5 )o fth e2 , 2 5 3(m in imume s t im a t e )do cum en t edex e cu t ion so fcom m i s s a r s inth ef r s ty e a ro fw a r .B e tw e enO c tob e randD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 ,th e to t a lfgu r ew a s1 0 1 . Th enumb e r sr ap id lyd e c l in edinth ef r s t mon th s o f1 9 4 2 .147 Th e r ei snoemp i r i c a lev id en c etod a t eth a tth e“Comm i s s a r O rd e r ”w a sev e rcommun i c a t edtoth eSp an i sho ff c e r s .I ti sl ik e lyth a t o rd e r sw e r efo l low ed ,andpo l i t i c a lcomm i s s a r sw e r esumm a r i lyt ak en a s id eandsho t .I ti sa l sopo s s ib l eth a tSp an i sho ff c e r s wou ldsp a r eth e i r t roop sf romsu chana c t–a so c cu r r ed inc e r t a inG e rm anun i t s–byo rd e r ingth et r an s f e ro fth ecomm i s s a r stoth eBDh ighcomm and , wh e r eth ey wou ldb eh and edov e rtoth eG e rm an s . How ev e r ,som ed a t asugg e s t s th a tth eSp an i shcomm andando ff c e r sw e r eaw a r eo fth e s e in s t ru c t ion s ,

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b e c au s eth eG e rm an A rmyCo rp s–und e r wh i chth eBDs e rv ed–s en t o rd e r stor ep e a lth eminsp e c if cop e r a t ion s .Fo rin s t an c e ,toen cou r ag e th esu r r end e ro fth eSov i e t un i t ssu r round edinth eV o lkhov po ck e t (M a r ch – Jun e1 9 4 2 ) ,In s t ru c t ion2 0 1 8f rom1 2 M ay1 9 4 2o rd e r edth eu s e o fp rop ag and ap rom i s inggoodt r e a tm en ttowho ev e rsu r r end e r eda rm s . “Th et roop ssh a l lp romp t lyb em ad eaw a r eo fth ef a c tth a t i t i sfo rb idd en toshoo tpo l i t i c a lcomm i s s a r s ,o rtho s e whovo lun t a r i lyjo inou rr ank s . Th e s ecomm i s s a r ssh a l lb esub j e c t edtoth es am et r e a tm en ta sth er e s to f 1 4 8 th ep r i son e r s . ” C l e a r ly ,i t wou ldb es en s e l e s stofo rb idth eex e cu t ion o fcomm i s s a r sun l e s sth i sw a sth eu su a lp r a c t i c e .S im i l a r ly ,in M ay1 9 4 3 th eSp an i shG en e r a lS t a f fr e c e iv edno t if c a t ionf romA rmyCo rp sL ,s t a t ingth a tpo l i t i c a lcomm i s s a rp r i son e r sw e r eo rd e r edto“vo lun t a r i lyo f f e r th em s e lv e sfo remp loym en tin G e rm anl eg ion s , ”a s“ i tw a sev id en tto th eRu s s i anComm andth a tw er e c en t lys topp edshoo t ingRu s s i ancom m i s s a r s wh enth eya r ec ap tu r ed . ”149 T o wha tex t en tcan w eemp i r i ca l lyco r robo ra t eth eb en ignimag eo f th eSpan i sho c cupa t ionpo l i c i e sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ?T ob eg in ,th eG e r man sd idno ta lway sb ehav esod i f f e r en t lyf romth eSpan ia rd s .150 Mo r e ov e r ,th er e la t ion sh ipb e tw e enac iv i l ianpopu la t ionandano c cupy ing a rmyi sa lway scomp l ex ,ev en wh enth elo ca l sdono tsympa th iz ew i th th er eg im eth einvad ingfo r c es e ek stotopp l e .Th en e edtosu rv iv ein ab ru ta l iz edenv i ronm en t mo t iva t ed manyc iv i l ian stofndcommon g roundandavo idop encon f ron ta t ion w i thth einvad e r s .Th i sc r ea t eda d i s t in c t ionb e tw e enth eimp e r sona lo c cupy ingf o r c eandth eind iv idua l o c cup i e r sw i th whomam i cab l er e la t ion sw e r eo f t enfo rm ed .Ev en tua l ly ,so c ia lconv en t ion sb egantoc rumb l e ;f i r t ing w i thth eo c cup i e r s 151 ca r r i edth einh e r en tr i sko fd ev e lop ingas en s eo fc lo s en e s s . Mo r eov e r ,ad e l i ca t eba lan c eex i s t edb e tw e enth eRu s s ianp ea san t s andth eo c cupy inga rmyinth ea r eaen compa s s ingA rmyG roup No r th . W i tha mo r es ta t i c wa rthanin A rmy G roupC en t r eand A rmy G roup Sou th ,th ep ea san t sp rov id edth einvad ingso ld i e r sw i thfoodand hou s ing .Po s t -wa ra c coun t ssugg e s ttha tth ep ea san t sonth eV o lkhov andL en ing radF ron t sha t edth eG e rman sl e s sthanth eRu s s ianco l labo ra to r s ,La tv ian s ,andE s ton ianaux i l ia ryt roop s .W i l l ing lyo ro th e rw i s e , th ev i l lag e mayo r s( s t á r o s t a ,e ld e r s )andlo ca lfam i l i e so f t encoop e ra t ed w i thth eo c cup i e r s .P ea san t s wou ldev enr epo r tth e pa r t i san s who 152 s e iz edth e i rpo s s e s s ion sw i thou tas e condthough t . C o l ou r fu landUnd i s c ip l in edO c cup i e r s Th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ea l r eadyimp l i ca t edinas e r i e so fm ino r in c id en t sinvo lv ingth ep ea san t ry du r ingth e i rf r s t ma r ch onfoo t

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f romEa s t e rnPo landtoth e Ru s s ianF ron t(Augu s t–S ep t emb e r1941 ) . Inr e spon s eto f r s t comp la in t sf romth eG e rmanl ia i son o ff c e r s , Muñoz -G rand e s i s su edaned i c tr em ind ingth eso ld i e r stha t“anya t ta ck top eop l e ,p rop e r ty ,o runau tho r iz edr equ i s i t ion scou ldb econ s id e r ed anin f ra c t iono fth er igh t so fth ep eop l eaga in s td eva s ta t iono rloo t ing” 153 andpun i shab l ebyth eSpan i sh M i l i ta ryCod e . How ev e r , th eb ehav iou ro f th eBDvo lun t e e r sd idno tchang euponent e r ingRu s s iant e r r i to ry .Inla t eS ep t emb e r ,aG e rmanun i tr epo r t edtha t apa s s ing“d iv i s iono fSpan i shso ld i e r s”hadr equ i s i t ion ed l iv e s to ckand 154 ch i ck en sf romlo ca lp ea san t sinth ev i l lag eo fIz i fovo . BDt roop sa r r iv eda tth er ea rgua rds ta t ionin Novo soko l ’n ik ib e tw e en29S ep t emb e r and13 O c tob e r .Th elo ca lG e rman m i l i ta rypo l i c e wa sin e f f e c t iv ein k e ep ingth eSpan i shso ld i e r sf romengag inginloo t ingandin t im idat ion .Th eyd e s t roy edth es ta t iontoob ta inf r ewood ,loo t ed wa r ehou s e s , 155 andr equ i s i t ion edl iv e s to ckandg ra inf romp ea san thou s eho ld s . Th ea r r iva lo fth eSpan ia rd stoth eV o lkhovF ron tc e r ta in lyb egan chao t i ca l ly . Th eylodg ed w i thth elo ca lr e s id en t sinn ea rbyv i l lag e s , d i s rup t ingth erou t in e sth ep ea san tfam i l i e shadb e com ea c cu s tom ed tound e rG e rmanru l e .Th eBD G en e ra lS ta f fo rd e r edtha tb ehav iou r towa rd sth elo ca l sb e“p rud en tandp rop e r ,”avo id ing“ co e r c ionandv i o l en c e. . .a sw e l la sfam i l ia r i ty , wh i chcou ldinv i t ee sp ionag e .”156 How ev e r ,G e rman ssoonb eganr e c e iv ingcomp la in t sf romp ea san t stha tth e Span ia rd sw e r ep lund e r ingfood ,l iv e s to ck ,and wa rmc lo th ing .157 Th ey a l soloo t ed“ exo t i csouv en i r s ,”e sp e c ia l ly O r thodoxi con s .I ti sd i ff cu l t tod i s c e rnhow mu cho f wha tth eso ld i e r stookco r r e spond edtola r c eny , r equ i s i t ion s ,o ro th e rfo rm so fa cqu i s i t iono rba r t e r ing .In Nov emb e r 1942 ,aSpan i shvo lun t e e rd e s c r ib edh i sp e r sona lboo ty :“ Ifoundal i t t l e Ru s s iansu i t ca s e , in wh i chIp lantotak efou rbook sand i con s i fpo s s ib l e …I t ’ sno t mu ch ,andc e r ta in lyno t‘p r e t ty ’–th e r e wa squ i t eth ei con hun ta roundth e s ehou s e sfo rth ef r s tf ewday s–bu tenoughtos t i ra m emo ry .”158 Th eG e rman sa t t r ibu t edsu chb ehav iou rtor e lax edd i s c ip l in e ,m i smanag em en t byi l l t ra in ed NCO s ,th eind i f f e r en c eo fth e BD h igh command , ande sp e c ia l lyth eh i e ra r ch i ca l po s i t ion o fth eD iv i s ion qua r t e rma s t e r , whod i s t r ibu t ed mu chtoth eo ff c e r sandl i t t l etoth e 159 so ld i e r s . Th i sin e ff c i en tp rov i s ion ingsy s t emhadb e enaf ea tu r eo f th eSpan i shA rmys in c eth eco lon ia l wa r so f1895– 8 ,andi tb e cam eev i d en tdu r ingth efoo t ma r chtoRu s s ia .By Nov emb e r1941 ,A rmyG roup No r th wa ss e r iou s lycon s id e r ingr ep la c ingth eBDqua r t e rma s t e rw i th anann ex edd epa r tm en tund e rG e rmancommand .160 Th es i tua t ion may hav el edth ed i s con t en t edSpan i shso ld i e r sto p rov i s ionth em s e lv e s f romth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,a sth e i rG e rmancom rad e shadb e endo ing

174 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 161 fo rw e ek sand mon th s . How ev e r ,v io l en c e wa sno ta lway sn e c e s sa ry . Upona r r iv inga tth ef ron t ,S e rg ean tRamónAbad íad e s c r ib edhowea sy i t wa stoob ta infoodf romth ev i l lag e r s , whomh er ega rd eda sgood savag e s :“w i thal i t t l echo co la t eandsom esw e e t sw ecant r i ckth em in tog iv ingu sm i lkandpo ta to e s…  p robab lyu s ingth esam em e thod s a sCo lumbu sd id wh enh ed i s cov e r edth eAm e r i ca s .”162 Th e r e wa sno t mu chtor equ i s i t ion .Th elo ca lfoods i tua t ioninth e r ea rgua rdo fth eV o lkhovF ron t wa sc r i t i ca lf romO c tob e r1941on .Sub j e c t edto W eh rma ch td emand s ,th ep ea san t shada l r eadyso ld mo s to f th e i rl iv e s to ckanda lmo s tev e ry th ingo fva lu eth eyown ed ,in c lud ing coa t sandboo t s .I t wa sapoo rr eg iontob eg in w i th ;th e r e wa sv e ry l i t t l em e chan iz edag r i cu l tu r e ,andon lyha l fo fth ef e r t i l eland scou ld b efa rm edintha ta r ea .In O c tob e r1941 , many wom en ,ch i ld r en ,and e ld e r lyp eop l eb eganto w i thd rawtoth er ea rgua rdf roma r ea sc lo s eto th ef ron t .On24 O c tob e r ,A rmyG roup No r thcommandd r i lyno t edtha t 163 “ soon e ro rla t e rth e s ep eop l ew i l la l ld i eo fs ta rva t ion .” Th e un ru lycondu c to fth e BDtowa rd sth ep ea san t shada l r eady a la rm edth eG e rmanl ia i sons ta f fbyla t eO c tob e r1941 .Th eyhadcaugh t w indo fth ep e rva s iv ela cko fd i s c ip l in einth er e la t ion sb e tw e enth e Span i shvo lun t e e r sandth ec iv i l ianpopu la t iona sw e l la sth eind i sc r im ina t eandsom e t im e sco e r c iv ep lund e r ingo ffoodandl iv e s to ck . Th e Ru s s ian p ea san t sth em s e lv e sev encomp la in edtoth e Span i sh 164 command . W o r s to fa l l ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r s ’“ la cko fcon t ro lw i th wom en”g en e ra t ed“d i s ta s t e fu ls c en e s”andth eth r ea to fp ropaga t ing v en e r ea ld i s ea s e s .165 Add ingtoth econ t inua lr equ i s i t ion s ,“ rap e sand o th e rnu i san c e stoth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion” mad eth eexa sp e ra t edlo ca l s 166 l e s scoop e ra t iv einth ean t i -pa r t i sanfgh t . Thoughth eBDG en e ra l S ta f fr e co rd edf ewca s e s aga in s tso ld i e r sfo r “d i shon e s t abu s e ,”167 th ecomp la in t sev enr ea ch ed G en e ra lF ran coandth eSpan i sha rmy m in i s t e rin D e c emb e r1941 . Confd en t ia lr epo r t sd e s c r ib edth e“un savou rycha ra c t e r sinth eD iv i s ion , whorob , mu rd e r ,andbu rn wha t ev e r th ey w i sh”a sw e l la sth efa c ttha to ff c e r s“hadto wa t chth et roop s ,to avo idth emr equ i s i t ion ingev e ry th ingth eyfoundinth en e ighbou r ing v i l lag e s ,a sth e s ew e r ef r equ en t ,emba r ra s s ingca s e s .”168 Th ela cko fap p rop r ia t eequ ipm en tfo rsu rv iv ingth ew in t e ragg rava t edth es i tua t ion . Wh enn e c e s sa ry ,th eSpan ia rd s–ando th e r s–tookf e l tboo t s ,ha t s ,and coa t sf romth ep ea san t s ,l eav ingth emd e f en c e l e s saga in s tth ew in t e r 169 co ld . Th ed e layo fth eCh r i s tma sbonu sd i spa t ch edf romSpa in ,and i t ss ca r c i tycompa r edto wha t wa sp rom i s ed ,g en e ra t edadd i t iona ld i s 170 con t en tamongth et roop sinla t eD e c emb e r1941 . A s id ef romth e i rp r e jud i c eaga in s tth eSpan i sh ,th eG e rmanh ighcommandcon c lud edtha tth es t ru c tu ra lcau s eo fBDcondu c ts t emm edf rom

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th eh i e ra r ch i ccu l tu r eo fth eSpan i sh m i l i ta ry .Th ech i e fcommand e ro f th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sa t t r ibu t edth e“b ru ta lcondu c to fth eSpan i sh so ld i e r s”toth ela cko fd i s c ip l in einth eBD ,po in t ingou thow“ th eb e s t foodi sunaba sh ed lyea t enbyth eo ff c e r sa sex t rara t ion s .”InD e c emb e r 1941 ,th ecommand e ro fth e16 thA rmyd emand edf romB e r l intha tth e BDvo lun t e e r sb er e l i ev edo fth e i rdu t i e s ,tok e epth e i rla cko fd i s c ip l in e 171 f romsp r ead ingtoth eG e rmanso ld i e r s . No ton ly w e r eth et roub l e som eso ld i e r sj eopa rd iz ingth eW eh rma ch t ’ sh on ou r , bu tth e i rana r ch i c a c t ion scou lda l sol eadth ec iv i l ianpopu la t iontosuppo r tth epa r t i san s . O fcou r s e ,G e rmanso ld i e r sa l soc r ea t edd i s tu rban c e s ,bu tth e s ew e r e sub j e c tto W eh rma ch td i s c ip l in e .Sy s t ema t i cexp lo i ta t ionand mo r eo r 172 l e s so rgan iz edp lund e r ing wa sd i f f e r en ttoun con t ro l l edr equ i s i t ion s . Th e BDen joy edth ep r iv i l eg eo f no tb e ingsub j e c tto W eh rma ch t m i l i ta ryju s t i c e .Th i st roub l edth eG e rman s ,a sth eycou ldno ta lway s impo s eth e i rd i s c ip l in eonth e i ra l l i e s .In Nov emb e r1941 , wh entwo Span i shso ld i e r sk i l l edth etowne ld e ro f Novgo rod ,th ecu lp r i t sw e r e on lysan c t ion edbyBDcommanda f t e rs ign if can tp r e s su r ef romth e G e rman s .173In D e c emb e r1941 ,th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sb egantof ea r tha tin c e s san tBDp i l lag ing wou ld mak eth ep ea san t sunw i l l ingtoco l 174 labo ra t einr epo r t ings igh t ing so fSov i e tin cu r s ion s . Th r e e mon th s la t e r ,th eA rmy Co rp s Ma r t ia l Cou r texp l i c i t lyind i ca t edtha tth eB lu e D iv i s ion wa sr e spon s ib l efo ra l l ma jo rd i s c ip l in ei s su e sw i th inth e i r ju r i sd i c t ion .A ttha tpo in t ,th eG e rman sd e c id edtoa r r e s tSpan ia rd s caugh tp i l lag ingo rs t ea l ing ,andtoin ca r c e ra t eth emfo rs ev e ra lday s b e fo r ehand ingth emov e rtoBD m i l i ta ryju s t i c e .Th econdu c to fth e vo lun t e e r sa l sol edtor e lax edd i s c ip l in einth eG e rman126 thIn fan t ry D iv i s ion .175 How ev e r ,o th e rG e rmand iv i s ion stha thadl i t t l eo rnocon ta c tw i thth e i rSpan i shcom rad e sw e r ea l soinvo lv edinagg r e s s ionand 176 th em i s t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian s . Th er e l i e fba t ta l ion sa r r iv ingf romSpa inf rom Ma r ch1942onwa rd s w e r enob e t t e rb ehav edthanth e i rp r ed e c e s so r s .Foodth e f t wa scommondu r ingt ra ins top sinPo l i sh ,Ba l t i c ,o rRu s s iant e r r i to ry .F rom D ec emb e r1942on ,th et roop sb egantor e c e iv eb e t t e rfoodra t ion sand w in t e rc lo th ingund e rth ecommando fG en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e s ,and 177 thank stoin c r ea s edsupp l i e sf rom Spa in . Ab e t t e r qua r t e rma s t e r andG e rmanin s i s t en c ea l soh e lp edtoimp rov eda i lyr e la t ion sb e tw e en th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sandth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion . S l e ep ingw i thth eEn emy Th eV o lkhovand L en ing radF ron t sw e r epano rama so fhung e rand d e so la t ion .Som er e co rd sshowtha tth eSpan ia rd sw e r eawa r eo fth e

176 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

t e r r ib l el iv ingcond i t ion sinth eb e s i eg edc i ty ,thank stoth es to r i e so f Sov i e tp r i son e r s .178 M i s e ry wa sth es ta tu squointh er ea rgua rdo fth e o c cup i eda r eaa sw e l l .Inth ev i l lag eo fV y r i t sa ,fo rexamp l e ,th ec iv i l ian mo r ta l i tyra t e in c r ea s ede l ev en fo ld inAp r i l1942 .Cap ta inS e ra f ínPa rdo d e s c r ib ed mon th sla t e rhowch i ld r enand wom en wou ldfgh tov e rth e 179 s c rap sth evo lun t e e r sgav eth em . Wh en Manu e ld eCá rd ena spa s s ed th roughth etowno f Ga t ch ina ,h ed e s c r ib edth e ma lnou r i shm en tw i th c l in i ca lp r e c i s ioninh i s wa rd ia ry : Th e r ea r elo t so fp eop l eonth es t r e e t s. . .o ld ,b ea rd edmu zh i k s,d i r tyand ragg ed ;shabbyo ld wom en w i thfa c e sy e l low edf rom many mon th so f hung e r .P r e t tyyoung wom ennon e th e l e s spoo randd i r ty ;no ta sth ina s th eo ld wom ena sth eycan wo rksom eanda r eb e t t e rsu i t edtofnd ing foodthank stoth e i ryou th . Ba r e foo tu r ch in sw i thha t sonth e i rh ead s bu tsoho r r ib lyth inth e i rl eg slookl ik eth eyb e longtosk e l e ton s …Th e hung e ramongth e s ec iv i l ian si shon e s t lyf r igh t en ing .Th ey mayno tev en su rv iv eth en ex tw in t e r .Io f t ens e em en w i thjuv en i l ef ea tu r e sbu t who looksoho r r ib lyag ed ,pa l edbyav i tam ino s i sandth e i rl eg sswo l l enf rom hung e r . Andth e s eha l f -m ena r eth elu ckyon e s ,th eya r eno tinth ep r i son e rcamp .180

Th ec iv i l ian sw e r esound e r f edtha t ma lnu t r i t ion w eak en edth e i rimmun esy s t em s .Span i sh m i l i ta rysu rg eon sinth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rd o f t enh e lp edth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,bu tth e i rgoodin t en t ion sw e r eno t a lway senough .181InJun e1942 ,Cá rd ena sv i s i t edaho sp i ta lfo rc iv i l ian s andSov i e tp r i son e r sinKo lmovo ,and wha th esawho r r if edh im :“Th e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion …su rv iv edth i sw in t e randnowsu f f e rf romth e mo s taw fu lhung e rand m i s e ry .”Th eho sp i ta lenv i ronm en t wa sf r igh ten ing lyg ru e som e :“Ea chbodyi s mo r eema c ia t edthanth ela s t ;th e i r fa c e s ,hand s ,andf e e tlookl ik eana tom i ca li l lu s t ra t ion s , wh e r eev enth e 182 sma l l e s tt endoncanb es e en .” D e sp i t eth e i rp lund e r ing ,f romth eb eg inn ingo f1942onth eSpani shso ld i e r sw e r eg en e ra l lyam i cab l ew i thth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion .In May1943 ,G en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e sin s t ru c t edth eD iv i s iono ff c e r sto b e wa ryo fso ld i e r so ro ff c e r sl iv ing w i th wom eno rRu s s ianfam i l i e s , bu tth e i rr e spon s e sshow edl i t t l econ c e rnfo rth i si s su e .183 Sov i e tc i t i z en s who wo rk edfo rth eSpan ia rd so f t enp r e s en t edth e i rchao t i co c cup i e r sf romapo s i t iv eang l einth e i rm emo i r s :th eSpan i sh w e r el e s s p r ed i c tab l eandd i s c ip l in edthanth eG e rman s ,bu ta l sol e s sh ea r t l e s s . Th et e s t imonyo fSov i e tco l labo ra to r spo r t ray edBDso ld i e r sa sd evo t ed Ca tho l i c s ,fo rth e mo s t pa r tf r i end ly , whosha r edth e i rra t ion sw i th p ea san tfam i l i e sand w e r eho s t i l etowa rd sth eG e rman s .184

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 177

Fo r manyRu s s ian wom en ,ch i ld r en ,ande ld e r lyp eop l e ,hav ingan o ff c e randh i sa s s i s tan t so rasquad rono fso ld i e r sinth ehou s ecou ld b eal i f e l in efo ren su r ingsu rv iva l ,byg iv ingth e i rfam i lya c c e s stoex t ra ra t ion sandc lo th ing .Two mon th sa f t e rth e i ra r r iva la tth ef ron t ,th e Span ia rd sw e r eg en e ra l ly mo r ew e l com ethanth eG e rman s ,a sth ey d idno tfo r c eth ee ld e r lytoc l ea rroad sandl e tth ep ea san t su s eth e i r l iv e s to ckfo rp lough ing wh enth eg roundthaw ed .Th eIb e r ian so f t en foundinRu s s ianp ea san t wom en“ th efam i ly w ela ck edb e cau s ei t wa s fa raway ,” wh i l eSpan i shlodg e r sw e r es e ena sp ro t e c t ionaga in s tth e g r ea t e rr igou r so fG e rmano c cupa t ion .185 How ev e r ,Span ia rd sa l sob e cam eawa r eo fth em i s e ryth e i r“adop t iv e”fam i l i e ssu f f e r ed .Sa lvado r Zanóna cknow l edg edtha tth ehung ryfam i lyo fth ei z b a wh e r eh i sp la toonl iv eda l sohadtof e edth em : C rabal iv e sw i thh e rsma l l ,d i r ty ,c ry ingbaby ,twov e ryug ly wom en ,and twoo th e rlad so fe igh to rt en , whot ea chu sRu s s ianandea tth ecandyand cho co la t ew esupp ly .Th e s epoo rp eop l el iv easad ,ha r shl i f e ,bu t wh e r e e l s ecanth eygo ?H e r ea tl ea s tth eyhav eaf ewpo ta to e s ,w e l l -h idd enso 1 8 6 tha tw edono ttak eth em .

O chapk ina A .D im i t r i evar em emb e r edth eSpan i shso ld i e r s ’good b ehav iou rtowa rd sth ep ea san tfam i l i e stak ingr e fug einth eO t en sk i i mona s t e ry :“ th ey w e r e mo r ehumanthanth eG e rman s .”187 Span i sho f f c e r sw e r epa r t i cu la r ly w e l com e ,a sth eyb rough tw i thth emb e t t e rsupp l i e s .V a s í lyP . ,ath i r t e en -y ea r -o ldboya tth et im e , wa slu ckyenoughto hav eaSpan i shl i eu t enan tl iv ing w i thh imandh i s mo th e r .Th eo ff c e r sha r edh i sadd i t iona lfoodsupp l i e sw i thh i sho s tfam i ly ,a sd id many BDvo lun t e e r s .188 A c co rd ingtoth elo ca lco l labo ra to rL id ia Ó s ipova ,inPav lov skth e lo ca l s ’f r s timp r e s s iono fth eexo t i co c cup i e r s wa samb iva l en t :in s t ead o fb e ing“p roud ,nob l e ,b eau t i fu l ,”th eSpan ia rd sw e r ev e ryk ind ,bu t “un ru lyl ik e monk ey s ;d i r tysw ind l e r sl ik egyp s i e s .”Th esu c c e s so fth e Ib e r ianvo lun t e e r s wa sno ten t i r e lydu etoth e i rsou th e rncha rm .F rom m id -1942on ,th eyo f t enr e c e iv edpa ckag e sf romSpa incon ta in ingp rodu c t simpo s s ib l etofndinRu s s ia–ev e ry th ingf romch i ckp ea stol iquo r –and wou ldd i s t r ibu t eth e i rsu rp lu samongth elo ca lp eop l e . Na tu ra l ly , th i send ea r edth emtoth ec iv i l ian s , who“hadn ev e rb e enfondo fth e G e rman s .”On17S ep t emb e r ,L id iar e co rd edtha taSpan i shcap ta inhad r i sk edh i sl i f etosav eahom e l e s sch i lddu r ingabomba rdm en t . Onth e down s id e ,th eo rgan iza t iona lchao stha tr e ign edinth eBDr ea rgua rd c r ea t edun c e r ta in tya sto wha t wa sand wa sno ta l low ed . Compa r ed toth eG e rman s ,th eSpan i sho c cup i e r sw e r era th e runp r ed i c tab l e ,bu t

178 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 189 c l ea r lyp r e f e r r edbyth elo ca lpopu la t ion . Th e s t a r o s t ao fAn t rop ch ina v i l lag er epo r t edtoth eG e rmanin fo rma t ions e rv i c e sin Nov emb e r1942 tha tth eSpan ia rd st r ea t edc iv i l ian sfa i r ly w e l l ,andtha tund e rth e i rsu r v e i l lan c eth elo ca l sw e r eno tr equ i r edtodoa s mu chfo r c edlabou r .H e add edtha tth e“moodo fth eRu s s ianpopu la t ionsh i f t s mo r eand mo r e 190 infavou ro fth eSpan i sho c cupa t ion .” Th er equ i s i t ion sd idno tend wh enth eD iv i s ion wa st ran s f e r r ed toth esou th e rnfanko fth es i eg eo fL en ing rad .Th ep ea san t so c ca s iona l lyr epo r t edth e s eev en t stoSpan i sho ff c e r s ,andth efo r c e fu l o c cupa t ionandran sa ck ingo fhom e sbyso ld i e r sl edtos ev e ra lcou r t ma r t ia l s .191 Th eIb e r ian sw e r epa r t i cu la r lyun sy s t ema t i cinp i l lag ing . Th i scau s edt roub l efo rth eG e rmancommand ,a sth ep ea san t sa l so p i l lag edev e ry th ingth eycou ldfnd .192 Th eadv e r s ee f f e c t so fr equ i s i t ion sonth eimag eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionamongth eRu s s ianp ea san t s w e r eno ta lway scomp en sa t edbyequ iva l en ta c t so fk indn e s sf rom o th e rso ld i e r sando ff c e r s .A sw i tho th e rW eh rma ch td iv i s ion s ,exp e r i en c e sva r i edg r ea t lyamongun i t sandv i l lag e s . Wh enCap ta ind e And r é s ’ sd e ta chm en tpa s s edth rough V y r i t sa ,th eyfoundag roupo f fam i sh ede ld e r lyp e r son sandch i ld r en who s ech i ck en shadb e ens to l enbyano th e rSpan i shun i t .T or epa i rth i sd e ed ,d eAnd r é ssa c r if c ed aho r s eandd i s t r ibu t edi tamongth em .S im i la r ly , wh enCap ta inS e r a f ínPa rdoa r r iv eda th i sn ewpo s tonth eL en ing radF ron t ,h etook inas ta rv ing Ru s s ianfam i lyto wo rka saux i l ia r i e sinex chang efo r amp l era t ion s .193

Ug lyPan i enka s,Id e a l i z edKa t iu sha s,andth eCh i ld r en F romth ev e ryb eg inn ingo fth eSpan i sho c cupa t ion ,p l en tyo froman c e s o c cu r r ed b e tw e en d iv i s i on a r i o sandp an i en k a s–th e Po l i sh wo rdfo r “g i r l s”tha tth eIb e r ianvo lun t e e r sa l soapp l i edtoRu s s ian wom en . Num e rou so rd e r sw e r ei s su edf romth eBDG en e ra lS ta f fp roh ib i t ingc lo s e r e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e en Ru s s ianc iv i l ian sandso ld i e r s . Th i sex t end ed to dan c ing , wa lk inga rm in -a rm w i th“Sov i e t wom en ,”anda c c ep t 194 ingth e i rinv i ta t ion s . Th er e i t e ra t iono fth e s ein s t ru c t ion ssp eak so f 195 th e i rin e f f e c t iv en e s s . ManyaSpan i shvo lun t e e r ma in ta in edv i r tua l ly p la ton i cr e la t ion sw i thyoung wom enth eycou ldba r e lycommun i ca t e w i thth roughg e s tu r e s .So ld i e r Rob e r to R iv e ra d e s c r ib edin Augu s t 1942how“Myd ea rl i t t l ef r i endT a t iana(19 y ea r so ld )t r i e stot ea ch m etosp eakRu s s ian. . .Ihav eon lyl ea rn edtosay j o r a s ó=p r e t tyand 196 l in b l in=Ilov eyou .” Span i shso ld i e r spo r t ray edth em s e lv e sa ssu r round edbydo t ing wom en who wa sh edth e i rc lo th e s“b e cau s eIg iv e th emsw e e t sinex chang e .”

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 179

F ig .5 .3 .Span i shso ld i e r sr ead ingspo r t si l lu s t ra t edp r e s s ,1943(AGA )

Thoughga l lan t ry w i thRu s s ian wom en wa s mo r ein t en s eonth eL en197 ing radF ron tthanth eV o lkhovF ron t , ma t ch e sb e tw e enth eo c cupy ing so ld i e r sandRu s s ian wom en w e r ep lau s ib l einth esha r edl iv ingcond i t ion stha tp r eva i l edinbo tha r ea s .Th i s wa sno tl im i t edtoth eSpan ia rd s 198 e i th e r ;ev enth esuppo s ed lyco ld G e rman sfan c i ed Ru s s ian g i r l s . Span i shroman c e sw i thlo ca l wom ensom e t im e send edupinunautho r iz ed w edd ing s ,andby m id -1942th es i tua t ion wa ss canda l iz ingth e OKH .Th eBDcommandd e c id edno ttoo ff c ia l lyr e cogn iz eany ma rr iag e sb e tw e eni t sso ld i e r sandRu s s ian wom en ,fo rb idd ingth emf rom a c company ingr e tu rn ingso ld i e r stoSpa in .199 How ev e r ,som eo fth e s e ma r r iag e ss e rv edtoh id ead i f f e r en ttyp eo fr e la t ion sh ip .Fo rexamp l e , Co lon e l Rob l e sPazo so rd e r edh i s Ru s s ianlov e rto ma r ryon eo fth e D iv i s ion ’ sRu s s ianin t e rp r e t e r ssoh ecou ldb r ingh e rba cktoSpa in .200 Thoughsom e ma r r iag e so c cu r r ed ,i ts e em stha tv e ryf ews in c e r er ela t ion sh ip sem e rg edou to fth e s ec i r cum s tan c e s .Fo ras ta r t ,th e Ru s s ian wom en w e r equ i t er emov edf romth ef em in in eid ea lh e ldbyth e

180 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Span ia rd s ,e sp e c ia l lytho s ef rom m idd l e c la s sba ckg round s .Ev en wh en th eycou ldfndRu s s ian wom en w i thu rbanhab i t s ,s im i la rf e e l ing ssu r 201 fa c ed . L e t t e r sandd ia r i e spo r t ray ed Ru s s iancoun t ryg i r l sa sd i r ty , unk emp tf ema l e s whola ck edso c ia lg ra c e s ,w e r eag edby wo rkand hung e r ,d r e s s edinrag s ,andd idno ta lway sr e sp e c tt rad i t iona l mo ra l s .202 S e rg ean t Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rno t edth e wan to fs i lks to ck ing sand d e l i ca cyinfo rmandd r e s samongth ef r s tRu s s ianp ea san tg i r l sh esaw . H er ema rk edtha tth eyhad“nof em in in i ty”and“man ly” mann e r s .203 Ano th e rvo lun t e e rev en w ro t etha t“ th e woman ,inRu s s ia. . .la ck sth e mo s texqu i s i t es en s e :f em in in i ty .Sh ei sab ea r who wo rk sth ef e ld s .”204 Th ed i s tan c eb e tw e enRu s s ianp ea san t wom enanda e s th e t i cid ea l s con c e rn ingSpan i sh wom en wa sa l soin t e rp r e t eda son e mo r eexam p l eo fSov i e tba rba r i sm , wh i chhadsuppo s ed lys t r ipp ed wom eno fa l l f em in in eand mo ra lcon t en tino rd e rtofa c i l i ta t eth ed e s t ru c t iono ft ra d i t iona lfam i lyt i e s .Th e i rla cko fhyg i en ea l sof tw i thth epu rpo r t ed d i r t in e s so fth eRu s s iancon t ex t .A r ena l e sno t edtha ton lys choo lm i st r e s s e s“ s e emto wa sh , wh i chi sun common .”Th ep s eudo -A s ianphy s i ca lf ea tu r e sh esawinth emd idno tcon t r ibu t etoth e i rb eau ty :“ s lan t ed 205 ey e stha ts e emsunk endu etoexagg e ra t edch e ekbon e s .” No tev e ry th ingqua l if eda sth einno c en tlov etha t wa sla t e rpub206 l i sh edinth em emo i r so fSpan i shv e t e ran s . O f t en ,th eob j e c t iv e wa s m e r es exua len t e r ta inm en tw i th p ea san t wom en , who w e r es e ena s p r im i t iv e stha tm igh t la ck mo ra l sand w e l com ep rom i s cu i ty .InO c tob e r 1941 ,s ev e ra lSpan i shso ld i e r sen t e r edahou s einPodb e r ez ’ e ,look ing fo ras e rg ean tandaco rpo ra l who w e r em i s s ingf romth e i run i t .Th e r e th eysawth e i rcom rad e shav ingin t e r cou r s ew i th( rap ing ? )som elo ca l g i r l sw i thpu rpo r t ed lyA s ianf ea tu r e sinad i r tyenv i ronm en t : Th e r ew e r etworoom s. . .andth eysm e l l edd i sgu s t ing ;inon ew e r eth e “pa r en t s”andth e“ ch i ld r en”o fth ef emm e sf a t a l e s ,no ta ta l lcon c e rn ed w i thth esh r i ek so rw i th wha tth e i rdaugh t e r so rs i s t e r sw e r edo ing …and inth eo th e r ,unb e l i evab ly ,non eo th e rthanth es e rg ean tandth eco rpo ra l , ta lk ingl i t t l eanddo ing mu ch ,w i thtwoSpan ia rd sandtwo G e rman ss i t t ingth e r ed r ink ingands ing ingand“adm i r ing”th eRu s s ianb eau t i e s .Y ou shou ldhav es e enth em !Ande sp e c ia l ly– wha taf r igh t–twoo fth em w e r e sho r t ,s tou t ,w i ths lan t edey e s , mongo lo idl ip s ,andr epugnan ta rm s… on e wa sm i s s ingha l fano s eandha l fo fh e rfa c e wa sbu rn ed ,andth eo th e r k ep tfa r t ingso mu chtha ti ttu rn ed mys toma ch. . .207

B la tan tp ro s t i tu t iona l soo c cu r r ed . On et ea ch e rf romSamokhva lovo , fnd ingsh ecou ldno long e rg iv e l e s son s ,suppo r t edh e r s e l fandth ech i ld r enby“ s e l l ingh e r s e l fa sap ro s t i tu t etoth eSpan ia rd s whoo c cup i ed

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 181 208 th es choo lcomp l ex .” Som ed ia r i e ssugg e s ttha to th e rp an i en k a so f f e r edth e i rcha rm sinex chang efo rfood ,andr e la t ion sh ip scou lda l so b lo s somf romsu chen coun t e r s , wh i ch w e r eev enp romo t edbyp ea san t mo th e r sfo rth esak eo fth e i rdaugh t e r s , whonow w e r e“p ro t e c t ed”and 209 f edbySpan i shso ld i e r s . N ea rS i tno ,aso ld i e rv i s i t ed“ som ep an i enk a stha tI wa sto ld w e r equ i t en i c elook ing .Th eylaugh edand‘w ehad fun . ’” H ev i s i t edon eo fth ems ev e ra l mo r eday s . Wh enh i sun i t wa s 210 fo r c edto w i thd raw ,sh ea sk edinva intha th etak eh e rw i thh im . An ton io H e r r e ro w ro t einAp r i l1943tha ta f t e ra t t end ingaCa tho l i c Ma s s ,h etookpa r tina“magn if c en tbanqu e tfo l low edbyafundan c e w i thth elo ca lg i r l s .”Ev en ingpa r t i e sw e r ecommoninsp r ingandsumm e r ,o f t eninf ron to fan O r thodoxchu r chtha thadb e enr eop en ed .211 How ev e r ,som et e s t imon i e ssugg e s ttha t manyo fth e s ef e t e sw e r eo rgan iz edbyth eG e rmanK omm and a tu r en, wh i chr e c ru i t edlo ca l wom en w i thfood . On eRu s s ianin t e rp r e t e rr ev ea l edtha th i s ma indu t i e sinvo lv edt rav e l l inginth er ea rgua rds e ek ingg i r l sfo rth eo ff c e r s ’pa r212 t i e s . R e la t ion sw i thRu s s ian wom enimp l i eda m ixo fs edu c t ionand d i s t ru s t ,a sth ey m igh tb eco l labo ra t inga sd e coy sfo rapa r t i sanambu sha tth epa r ty .213 Th eda i lyd i spu t e sb e tw e en G e rmanandSpan i sh so ld i e r so f t enr evo lv eda round wom en . An ton ina Davy ch enko w ro t e o faf s tfgh ttha to c cu r r ed wh enSpan i shso ld i e r sp ro t e c t edaRu s s ian womanf romth eha ra s sm en t so fG e rmanso ld i e r s .L id ia Ó s ipovaind i ca t edtha t wh enth ed iv i s i on a r i o sa r r iv edinPav lov sk ,“a l lth eloo s e wom en who w e r ew i thth eG e rman simm ed ia t e ly w en ttob ew i th th eSpan ia rd s ,”a t t ra c t edbyth e i rLa t inna tu r e…andb e t t e rfoodra 214 t ion s . How ev e r ,Evdok i iaBoga ch eva -Ba skakova ,af ema l esu rg eon f romth esam ea r ea ,w ro t e downinh e r unpub l i sh ed wa rm emo i r s tha t“aSpan i shso ld i e ri sju s tth esam erap i s tl ik ea G e rmanon e ,w i th th ed i f f e r en c etha t wh enav i c t impu t sev enth es l igh t e s tr e s i s tan c e ,a Span ia rd wou ldabandonh e rw i thou thu r t ingh e r .” Onth econ t ra ry , th eG e rmanso ld i e r“ i sady ed in th e -woo lrap i s t–i fh ecaugh th i s p r ey ,h e wou ldn ev e rl e th e rgo ,anda t e rth ed e edh e wou lds imp ly shoo th e r .” Wha t wa sth eexp lana t ionfo rsu chb ehav iou r ?A c co rd ing toh e r ,i t wa sno ta ma t t e ro f“La t in”v e r su s“G e rman i c”cha ra c t e r ,bu t th econ s equ en c eo fm i l i ta ryd i s c ip l in e . Wh i l eth eG e rmanso ld i e r wa s a f ra ido fth em i l i ta rycou r tandp r e f e r r edtol eav enot ra c e so fh i srap e , “ th eSpan i sha rmyi sv e ryd i s so lu t e ,andth eSpan i shso ld i e rha sno 215 f ea ro fth ep eop l eabov eh im .” Infa c t ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s iona l socou r t -ma r t ia l l edsom eo fi t sm em b e r s oncha rg e so floo t ingandrap e .N ev e r th e l e s s ,som eexamp l e s sugg e s ttha tth eyra r e lyend edinha r shconv i c t ion s . On7 Ap r i l1942 , acou r t ma r t ia l wa scondu c t edaga in s tS e rg e iPonoma r iov ,a Ru s s ian

182 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

in t e rp r e t e rfo rth eBDandafo rm e r Wh i t eRu s s ianex i l e ,fo r“ana l l eg ed c r im eaga in s tin t e rna t iona llaw”tha thado c cu r r edinJanua ry1942 .A c co rd ingtoth ejud i c ia lr e co rd ,th ein t e rp r e t e ro rgan iz ed“ th ep rov i s ion o ffoodandsupp l i e s”fo rh i sr eg im en tinth ev i l lag eo f Ch e chu l ino . V e raKo r i chava ,w i f eo fth efo rm e rlo ca lh eado fth eCommun i s tPa r ty , wa s“ su sp e c t ed o fh id ing w eapon s .” Th e hou s e wa ss ea r ch edand Ponoma r iov wa scha rg ed w i thhav ings exua l lyabu s edh e rands to l en ob j e c t sand mon ey ,a c co rd ingtoth es ta t em en t so fs ev e ra lRu s s ian w i tn e s s e s . How ev e r ,th ed e f endan t wa sa cqu i t t edb e cau s eth eso ld i e r sand th elo ca ls t a r o s t a–r e c en t lyappo in t edbyPonoma r iovh im s e l f– who w e r ew i thh imt e s t if edtha tth eyhadno tw i tn e s s edanyrap e ,th e f t ,o r abu s e . Mo r eov e r ,th eya l l eg edtha tth et e s t imon i e scam ef rom“Ru s s ian c iv i l ian s who s efam i ly m emb e r sa r een l i s t edinth eR ed A rmy ,”and th echa rg e sw e r eundoub t ed lyin t end edto“d i s c r ed i tth eo c cupa t ion .” Ponoma r iov wa ss en t en c edtoth r e e mon th sinth ep ena lba t ta l ionfo r hav ingex c e ed edo rd e r s ,“n e ed l e s s lyha ra s s ingth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion , wh i chth eyth r ea t en ed .”216 U l t ima t e ly ,Ru s s ianc iv i l ian sd idno tb en ef t f romth em i l i ta rylawimpo s edbyth eo c cup i e r s , wh i chin c lud edth e Span ia rd s . Ch i ld r encon s t i tu t eav e ryd i f f e r en tchap t e r in th eBDna r ra t iv e ,a s th e i r inno c en c ecou ldea s i lysymbo l iz eandr e in fo r c eth er e -Ch r i s t ian iz ing m i s s ionSpan ia rd sa t t r ibu t edtoth em s e lv e s .217 Manyvo lun t e e r ssaw th em s e lv e sa sp ro t e c to r so fch i ld r enandgav eth emt r ea t sandfood . Y oungon e sw e r esom e t im e staugh ttop rayo rsp eakaf ew wo rd sin Span i sh .218 Compa s s ionfo rth ech i ld r eninth e i rm i s e ryshow edupin wa rd ia r i e s . Ma r t ínV e la s co w ro t eo fth ehung e rinV i t eb sk : Fou rRu s s ianch i ld r enn ea rm ea r eho ld inginth e i rl i t t l ehand sag r ea sy pap e rw i thlambbon e sf romou rm e s s , wh i chth ecook sgav eth em .I ti s p i t i fu landsadtos e ehowth e s ech i ld r engnawa tbon e sw i tha lmo s tno m ea tonth emandlooka tm ew i thsma l lsadey e s ,say ing g ou t[ s i c ] , wh i ch 2 1 9 inG e rman m ean s“good .”

ManySpan i shv e t e ran sd e s c r ib edhav ingnou r i sh edandp ro t e c t ednat iv ech i ld r ena sth e i rb e s tm emo ryo fRu s s ia .La t e ra c coun t so fe ld e r ly p ea san t sf romth e Novgo roda r eaco r robo ra t eth i s . Un l ik eth eG e rman s ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eo f t ensu r round edbych i ld r en .220 Many o fth e s em a l en k i s w e r e wa ro rphan s whosom e t im e sfo rm edband stha t wand e r edabou tth er ea rgua rd ,s ea r ch ingfo rfoodo rsh e l t e r ,b egg ingo r 221 engag ing inp e t tyth e f t . BDso ld i e r sando ff c e r sf r equ en t lysuppo r t ed o rphan so rth ech i ld r eno fw idow s ,a l thoughs exua lfavou r sf romth e mo th e r ssom e t im e sw e r eimp l i c i t lya cknow l edg eda sth ep r i c efo rsu ch

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p ro t e c t ion .222 D e sp i t eth eF ran cor eg im e ’ sz ea ltoavo idinf l t ra t ionby Sov i e tsp i e s ,s ev e ra ldo cum en t edca s e st e l lo fRu s s ianch i ld r enandado l e s c en t sh id ingin wagon so rd r e s s inga sSpan i shso ld i e r sandb e ing tak entoSpa inbyBDso ld i e r sando ff c e r s , whoth enin co rpo ra t edth em 223 in toth e i rfam i l i e s . Th i sa l socon s t i tu t edac l ea rd iv e rg en c ef romth e a t t i tud e so f mo s tG e rmanso ld i e r s . D e a l ingw i thP a r t i s an s :B en ev o l en c eo rIn e ff c a cy? An t i -gu e r r i l laop e ra t ion sa r eamongth etho rn i e s ti s su e sinth em emo i r so fBDv e t e ran s .Thoughpa r t i san sw e r er e spon s ib l efo rnum e rou s BDca sua l t i e s ,bu rn t Ru s s ianv i l lag e sandhang edp ea san t sa r eg en224 e ra l lyr e ca l l eda sth e wo rko fth e i rG e rmana l l i e sinth em emo i r s . Du r ingth e ma r chth rougho c cup i edt e r r i to r i e s ,m emb e r so fth ef r s t Span i shexp ed i t ion w i tn e s s ed G e rmanr ep r i sa l saga in s tpa r t i san so r su sp e c t s .Inth e i rd ia r i e s ,s ev e ra lBD m emb e r sw ro t eo fs e e ingpa r t i 225 san s–andc iv i l ian sa c cu s edo fco l labo ra t ing w i thth em–b e ingsho t . Th eya l sosawp l en tyo fpa r t i san shungintownsqua r e s .Som eequa t ed th em w i thJ ew s ,ba s edonacha ra c t e r i s t i cs logano fW eh rma ch tp ropa ganda .226 Th e s es c en e s mu l t ip l i edp ropo r t iona l ly wh enSpan i shvo lun t e e r sr ea ch edth eV o lkhovF ron t .V í c to rJ .J im én ezd e s c r ib edhowh i s l i t e ra rya l t e rego wa so rd e r edbyth eG e rman stoex e cu t etwopa r t i san 227 command e r sth ev e rydayh ea r r iv eda tth ef ron tl in e . Th eBDIn fo rma t ionS e c t ionin t e r roga t eddoz en so fp r i son e r stoid en t i fypo l i t i ca l comm i s sa r sandpo s s ib l epa r t i san s .Th ey w e r eth entak entoth eG e r manA rmyCo rp sh eadqua r t e r sand mo s tl ik e lysho t .228 Th eSpan i sh D iv i s ionhadv e ryf ewF e ldg end a rm en whocou ldtak e cha rg eo fcoun t e r in su rg en cy .Th et e r r i to rycov e r edbyth eSpan ia rd s onth eV o lkhovF ron t wa ss imp lytoob roadtob ee f f e c t iv e ly wa t ch ed , andth ela cko fspa t ia lp en e t ra t ioninth eBDo c cupa t ion m ean ttha tva s t fo r e s ta r ea sandr emo t ev i l lag e sw e r eno te f f e c t iv e lycon t ro l l edbyth e invad e r s .Th eSpan i shso ld i e r sp e r c e iv edpa r t i sandang e ra sad i f fu s e , omn ip r e s en tth r ea t ,l ik e“gho s t s” who popu la t edth ed en s efo r e s t s : “W eh ea rn ew so fb e t raya l s ,ambu sh e s ,andth enr ep r i sa l s .I t i scommon tos e esom eon ef romth etown sonth ebank so fth eV o lkhovhang ing 229 f romab eamo rt e l ephon epo s t .” Byea r ly1942n ea r lytw en tythou sandSov i e tpa r t i san sop e ra t edinth er ea rgua rdo fA rmy G roup No r th and w e r epa r t i cu la r lyabundan tinth e Novgo rodr eg ion . How ev e r ,th e l ev e lo fpa r t i sana c t iv i ty wa s mod e ra t e ,compa r edto Wh i t eRu s s iao r Uk ra in e .230 Th ecommando fth eA rmyG roup No r thr ea rgua rdapp l i ed l e s sagg r e s s iv em ea su r e stocomba tpa r t i san sandu s edp ropagandato en cou rag ep ea san tcoop e ra t iono rth esu r r end e ro fgu e r r i l la m emb e r s .

184 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

R ep r i sa l sandf r ingsquad sin t en s if eda f t e rm id -1942 ,bu tth ebu lko f pa r t i sana c t iv i tyo c cu r r edinth efa rr ea rgua rd , wh e r enoSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ed ep loy ed .231 In O c tob e r1941 ,in s t ru c t ion sf romth eBD H igh Commandr e com m end edtha ti f“anyind iv idua l so fth eoppo s inga rmy ,ini so la t iono r ing roup s ,” w e r ecaugh t“ ca r ry ingou ta c t so fsabo tag esu cha sb low ing upb r idg e s ,a s sau l t ingv eh i c l e so rlodg ing s ,o rca r ry ingou tgu e r r i l la wa r fa r ed r e s s eda sc iv i l ian s ,”th eo ff c e r sincha rg ew e r eau tho r iz edto do“wha t ev e rn e ed stob edon ew i thth e s eind iv idua l s ,d ep end ingon th eta c t i ca ls i tua t ion .”E l ev enday s la t e r ,n ew in s t ru c t ion s ind i ca t edtha t inl igh to fth ein c r ea s ingin t en s i tyo fgu e r r i l laa c t iv i ty ,s e c to rch i e f sand o ff c e r s whocaugh tpa r t i san sshou lda s sum egu i l tandno ts e ekcon c lus iv eev id en c e , wh i ch m igh thav eb e end e s t roy ed w i thth e“ comp l i c i ty o fth elo ca l s .” O ff c e r s mu s tno tb e“ l en i en tg iv enth een su ingth r ea tto th es e cu r i tyo fth ea r eaen t ru s t edtou s .”Su sp i c iou sind iv idua l sshou ld b ehand edov e rtoth ec lo s e s tG e rmancommandand“ sn ip e r s”shou ld b ein t e r roga t ed ,th enhang edinapub l i cp la c eandl e f tth e r efo rs ev e ra l day sa sa wa rn ing .232 Th egu id e l in e sw e r eso f t en edin m id -1942 ,w i thin s t ru c t ion stha tpa rt i san s whosu r r end e r edb eg iv enth esam et r ea tm en ta sR edA rmyd e s e r t e r s .Inth eo ry ,Span ia rd sw e r etot ran s f e ra l lpun i shab l eca s e s ,and summa ryp ro c edu r e saga in s tp r i son e r so f wa rw e r etob eca r r i edou tby th ec lo s e s tG e rman m i l i ta ryau tho r i t i e s .Th ef ewt e s t imon i e stha tm en t ionr e ta l ia to ryop e ra t ion s ind i ca t etha t lo ca l sw e r ea lway shand edov e r toth eG e rman s , whoa l soca r r i edou t ma s s iv er ep r i sa l sintown s wh e r e s en t r i e shadb e en mu rd e r ed .Th e r ei sev id en c etha tSpan i shso ld i e r s c ed ede s cap edp r i son e r stoth ecomp e t en tau tho r i t i e sinth e16 thand 233 18 thA rm i e s . How ev e r ,onsom eo c ca s ion sSpan i sh F e ldg end a rm en un d e r tookth e i rownr ep r i sa l s ,su cha s wh enaSpan i shan t i -pa r t i sanun i t l edby Cap ta in Ma r t ín ezd eTud e lalo ca t edand mu rd e r eds ev e ra lSo v i e tso ld i e r sa sth eya t t emp t edtor e tu rntoth e i rt e r r i to ryinla t e1941 .234 Inea r ly1942 ,th eG e rmancommand d e c id edtor e l i ev eth eB lu e D iv i s iono fa l ls en t rydu t i e sinth en ea rr ea rgua rd ,pa r t lyb e cau s eth e Span ia rd shadtocov e rav e ryb roads e c t iono fth ef ron t .235 Wh e r eth ey w e r er e spon s ib l efo rth e s edu t i e s ,ev id en c esugg e s t stha tcon t ro lo fth e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion wa sl e s ss ev e r ethan w i thth eG e rman“ s e cu r i tyd i v i s ion s”and“p ro t e c t iont eam s”(S i ch e rung sd iv i s i on en andS chu t zm anns ch a f t en ) tha top e ra t ed in th er ea r .Th eIb e r ianp ra c t i c e sw e r er em in i s c en t o ftho s eu s edinth efo rm e rco lon ia l wa r s ,ra th e rthanth eb ru ta l iz ed “ to ta l i ta r iancoun t e r in su rg en c e” m e thod so fth eW eh rma ch t .236 A sin th eG e rman -o c cup i eda r ea s ,th eRu s s ianv i l lag e r sw e r eg en e ra l ly w i l l ingtoco l labo ra t e ; many p ea san t sthough ttha tco l l e c t iv iza t ion had

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end edandexp e c t edtor e cov e rth e i rland .Fo rm e rT sa r i s to ff c ia l sa l so d enoun c edCommun i s tPa r ty m emb e r s whohadno ty e tf edto“R ed” 237 t e r r i to ry . Span i she ff ca cyinth ean t i -pa r t i sanfgh t wa sa l sodub iou s ; th e i reva cua t ion so fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ionf romtown sw e r eo f t encha o t i c ,w i thou t“any m i l i ta rysup e rv i s ion wha t so ev e r .”Th i sm igh tfa c i li ta t eSov i e te sp ionag eandfavou rth epa r t i san s .InJu ly1943 ,ca s e so f Span i shso ld i e r slo s ingth e i rw eapon sto Ru s s ianc iv i l ian sp romp t ed th eLA rmyCo rp scommandtor e comm endtha tth eSpan ia rd sex e r c i s e 238 s t r i c t e rcon t ro lov e rth epopu la t ion . In May1943 ,in c r ea s edpa r t i sana c t iv i tyl edth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s commandtoinvo lv eth ed iv i s ion sonth ef ron tinth ep e r s e cu t iono f pa r t i san sop e ra t inginth e i rr e sp e c t iv er ea rgua rd s .Thu s ,th eSpan ia rd s w e r er equ i r edto wo rk w i thd e ta chm en t so faux i l ia ryRu s s ianandBa lt i ct roop s .Som et e s t imon i e sco r robo ra t etha tth e BDcommandhad g iv eno rd e r stoth e i run i t stoex e cu t eanycap tu r edpa r t i san sons i t e .In O c tob e r ,LA rmyCo rp sin s t ru c t edtha tr ep r i sa l sb eca r r i edou taga in s t lo ca lc iv i l ian s wh e r ev e rW eh rma ch tso ld i e r shadb e ena t ta ck ed . How ev e r ,Span i she ff ca cyincon t ro l l ingpa r t i san sandc iv i l ian sa c t inga s in fo rman t sd idno timp rov e . On18Ju ly1943 ,th eB lu eD iv i s ionh ead qua r t e r sinPok rov sko esu f f e r edap r e c i s eSov i e ta r t i l l e rya t ta ckdu eto in fo rma t ionp rov id edbysp i e sinf l t ra t edamongRu s s iana s s i s tan t sto 239 th eBD . Fou r mon th sla t e r ,th eG e rmancommandl ea rn edo fth ep r e s en c eo fag roupo fpa r t i san stoth esou tho fN iko law jaandr equ e s t edth e a s s i s tan c eo ftwohund r edBDso ld i e r sto“ c l ean s e”th ea r ea . How ev e r , th eop e ra t ionfa i l edfo rla cko fe ff c i en cyamongth eSpan ia rd s .G e rman o ff c e r sb lam edth ebo t ch edop e ra t iononth e i ra l l i e s ’ind i s c r e t ion sw i th 240 th e i rRu s s iana id e s , whoth enpa s s edonth ein fo rma t iontopa r t i san s . F ewBDin t e rna lr epo r t sm en t ionexp l i c i tan t i -pa r t i sana c t ion s ,bu t 241 th eex c ep t ion sshowtha tth eyd ido c cu r . Span i sht e s t imon i e sdono t a lway sc la r i fy whosho tth epa r t i san sandp rov id ef ewd e ta i l sr ega rdingr ep r i sa l s .S ev e ra lBDd e s e r t e r sin t e r roga t edbyth eR edA rmya tth e endo f1942adm i t t edh ea r ings to r i e so fr ep r i sa l saga in s tpa r t i san sf rom 242 th e i rG e rmancom rad e sbu tsa idth eyhadn ev e ra c tua l lys e enany . O th e rt e s t imon i e sa l lud eto G e rmanso ld i e r s“fn i sh ingo f f”in ju r ed pa r t i san sandp r i son e r s . How ev e r ,th eG e rman sd idno ta c ta lon e :som e BD m emb e r ss ta t edtha tth ey w e r eo rd e r edtoex e cu t etho s e whohad b e ena r r e s t edandsumma r i lyt r i ed .243 Th ep e r sp e c t iv eo fth e Ru s s ianc iv i l ian ssugg e s t ssom e th ings imi la r .Span i shso ld i e r so c ca s iona l lyca r r i edou tr ep r i sa l saga in s tc iv i l ian s wh enb l ind edbyad e s i r etoav eng eth ed ea tho facom rad e .L id ia N iko la évnawa se l ev enwh enh e rv i l lag eo fRogavka , lo ca t ed inth er ea rgua rd ,b e cam eth er e s id en c eo fs ev e ra ld e ta chm en t so fSpan i shso ld i e r s

186 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .5 .4 .Conva l e s c en tSpan i shso ld i e r s ,Kön ig sb e rg ,1942(AA )

who w e r er e s t ingf romcomba tinea r ly D e c emb e r1941 .Pa r t i sana c244 t iv i tyimm ed ia t e lyin c r ea s ed ,invo lv ings ev e ra lSpan i shv i c t im s . Th e Ru s s iang i r lw i tn e s s edhowsom eang rySpan ia rd sround edupa l lth e inhab i tan t sf romth etownandsu r round inga r eatotak er ev eng eand hangapa r t i sanfgh t e r .I t wa sth elo ca lG e rmancommand e r whoin t e rv en edtos topg r ea t e rr ep r i sa l s ,a sth eW eh rma ch tn e ed edth ec iv i l ian s 245 fo rlabou r . Th eBDr ea rgua rd wa snob l i s s fu lA r cad ia . How ev e r ,i t wa sn ev e rcha ra c t e r iz edbyco l l e c t iv er ep r i sa l sandru th l e s sb ru ta l i ty . TheSpan i sh D iv i s ionandthe“ Jew i sh Que s t ion” A sth ey ma r ch edonfoo tth roughEa s t e rnPo land ,th ef r s tcon t ing en t o fSpan i shvo lun t e e r ssaw wha tth eJ ew i shinhab i tan t so fth ea r ea w e r e exp e r i en c ing . Span i sh m i l i ta ry ho sp i ta l sw e r e op e ra t ingin V i ln iu s andR iga wh enth elo ca lJ ew i shcommun i t i e sw e r ed epo r t edandth e i r gh e t to sf l l ed w i thJ ew i shfam i l i e sf rom G e rmany ,th rough m id -1942 . Span i shso ld i e r sinth er ea rgua rdo fth eR e i cha l sohadoppo r tun i tyto

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w i tn e s sth ee f f e c t so f Naz ian t i -S em i t i cpo l i c i e s .L e t t e r sand wa rd iar i e so fB lu eD iv i s ion m emb e r sr ef e c t edth i sr ea l i tytoac e r ta inex t en t , thoughp e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew sr ema in edatabootop i cand wa sra r e ly r e f e r r edtoop en lyinth ew r i t t ent e s t imon i e so fth e i rG e rmancom rad e s 246 f romtha tt im e . Wha t wa sth er ea c t iono fSpan i shvo lun t e e r stoth e G e rmanp e r s e cu t ion ,d i s c r im ina t ion ,d epo r ta t ion ,andex t e rm ina t iono f J ew s ? Wha td idth eBDvo lun t e e r ss e e ,andhowd idth eyin t e rp r e ti tin l igh to fth e i r wo r ldv i ew ,p r e jud i c e s ,andpa s texp e r i en c e s ? An t i -S em i t i smw i th ou tJ ew s Span i shfa s c i smsha r edtosom eex t en tth eg en e r i c ,an t i -S em i t i cp ropagandaob j e c t iv e so fo th e rEu rop eanin t e rwa rfa s c i s t mov em en t s .Th e s e a im sw e r ea l sola t en tinSpan i sht rad i t iona l i s tthough tandf edbyn ew imag e stha tapp ea r eddu r ingth ef r s tth i rdo fth etw en t i e thc en tu ry .A d i s cu r s iv et op o s wa sb e ingc r ea t eda ttha tt im e , wh i chsugg e s t edana s so c ia t ionb e tw e enin t e rna t iona lJ ew ry ,F r e ema son ry ,andcommun i sm . I t wa sd ep loy edinth ep ropaganda w i thg r ea t e ro rl e s s e rin t en s i tyd e p end ingonth eid eo logu eo rg roupinvo lv ed .Thoughan t i -S em i t i sm had b e enacon s tan tf ea tu r eo fr eb e lp ropagandaandi conog raphy du r ingth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ,i tcou ldha rd lyfun c t iona sa mob i l iz ing my thdu etoth eobv iou sfa c ttha tth e r e wa snos ign if can tJ ew i shpopu la t iononIb e r ianso i l .Cu r iou s ly ,at ra c eo fph i lo -S em i t i smapp ea r sin a e s th e t i cFa lang i sm ,a sexp r e s s edbyE rn e s to G im én ezCaba l l e ro , who con s id e r ed m emb e r so fS epha rd i ccommun i t i e sinth e Ba lkan sand A s ia M ino rtob eSpan ia rd s .247 Th ef ewJ ew sinSpan i sht e r r i to ry ,sp e c if ca l lyinth eP ro t e c to ra t eo f Mo ro c coandth e No r th A f r i canc i t i e so f C eu taand M e l i l la ,su f f e r edsom ed i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sf rom1936 on .An t i -S em i t i smc e r ta in lyex i s t ed ,bu tv i r tua l lynot ra c e so fb io log i ca l ra c i smcanb efound . Th e r ew e r etwoa sp e c t stoth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion . On e wa sth eJudai smana th em iz edinF ran co i s tp ropagandaando f t enca s ta sanou t s id e fo r c ed ed i ca t edto w eav ingcon sp i ra c i e saga in s tCh r i s t ianna t ion s .Th e o th e ra sp e c t wa s mu chl e s sc l ea randhadtodo w i thhowJ ew i shp eop l e andJ ew sw e r ep e r c e iv eda sad i f f e r en t ia t edco l l e c t iv e .Du r ingth eea r ly 1940 s ,F ran co i s tp ropagandak ep tth e fam eo fan t i -S em i t i crh e to r i c bu rn ing .Th ehund r ed so fJ ew sl iv inginSpa in w e r eund e rp r e s su r eby th eau tho r i t i e sandsom esynagogu e sw e r ec lo s ed .Th eF ran co i s tpo l i c e comp i l edaJ ew i shdo s s i e r ,bu tth ey w e r eno tsub j e c t edtopu rg e so r d i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sw i thr ega rdtoth e i rc iv i lr igh t s .Po s i t ion son th eJ ew sandth eS epha rd i ccon t r ibu t iontoSpan i shcu l tu r epa s tand p r e s en tw e r eo f t encon t rad i c to ry ,a s wa sth eadm i s s ionpo l i cyfo rJ ew s

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f e e ing Naz ip e r s e cu t ion .Th ey w e r eg en e ra l lya l low edtopa s sth rough Span i sht e r r i to ry ,onth econd i t iontha tth eyl e f ta ssoona spo s s ib l e . Th e r ew e r ea l soca s e so fr e fug e e sb e ingr e tu rn edtoth ebo rd e r . Howev e r ,th eind iv idua la c t ion so fd ip loma t ssu cha s Áng e lSanz -B r izin Budap e s tsav edth el iv e so fdoz en so fJ ew i shc i t iz en s , who w e r eg iv en Span i shpa s spo r t s .248 Ra c ia lpo s tu la t e so fas c i en t if cna tu r ew e r eg en e ra l lyab s en tf romth e pub l i csph e r e . Amba s sado rEb e rha rdvonS toh r e rr epo r t edinF eb rua ry1941tha tth eJ ew i shqu e s t ioninSpa ind idno tr ep r e s en t“anyr ea l po l i t i ca lp rob l em”b e cau s e mo s tJ ew shadconv e r t edto Ca tho l i c i sm longago . Wha tth e Naz id ip loma tcon s id e r eda“mod e rncon c ep t iono f th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion”hadv e ry m eag r esuppo r tinSpa in .Som e mon th s la t e r ,vonS toh r e rr e i t e ra t edtha td e sp i t eth er e c en tin c r ea s einan t i S em i t i cp ropagandainSpa in ,th eg en e ra la t t i tud eo fth eSpan i shpopu la t iontowa rd sth eJ ew i shqu e s t ionhadchang edl i t t l eb e cau s eth e r e hadb e env i r tua l lynoJ ew sinth e i rcoun t rys in c e1492 .249 Pub l i csuppo r tandexa l ta t iono fth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sa sth eyl e f t inth esumm e ro f1941e cho ed w i thea r l i e rton e so fan t i -S em i t i cp rop aganda .A l lu s ion stoth eJ ew sw e r eo f t ens eman t i ca l lya s so c ia t ed w i th Sov i e tcommun i sm .Som eo fth eb ro chu r e spub l i sh edinJu ly1941to honou rth evo lun t e e r s who w e r ed i spa t ch edtoRu s s iaa l soexp r e s s ed tha trh e to r i c .A r tu roCua r t e ro w ro t etha tth eB lu eD iv i s ionshou lds e rv e a sapa t r io t i cl e s sonfo ra“m ino r i tyo fF r e ema son sandJ ew s whos t i l l lo i t e ra roundth eg r ea tn e s so fth e[na t iona l ]id ea”andtha tth e“ J ew i sh s egm en to fSpa in”r ep r e s en t edby“ cap i ta l i s t ,indu s t r ia landcomm e r c ia le l em en t s” wou ldb er edu c edto“ap i l eo fs lag”on c eth eB lu eD iv i s ionr e tu rn ed .D e s id e r io Ca r r ión ,apha rma c i s tf romaT o l edov i l lag e , invok edth eBDso ld i e r s :“a sakn igh tsw ea r/tot i eyou rbann e r/toth e eag l e so fth eR e i ch” ino rd e rtod e f ea tSov i e tcommun i sm , who s ew eap on sw e r esuppo s ed lycon t ro l l edbyth eJ ew sand“ th e God l e s s .”250 Th e 1942do cum en ta ryf lmL aD iv i s i ónA zu l,d i r e c t edbyJoaqu ínR e igand V í c to rd elaS e rna ,r ep rodu c edth ea s so c ia t ionb e tw e encommun i sm andJ ew sin t en tond e s t roy ingCh r i s t iancu l tu r e : Th e Com in t e rno rd e ri sas tand ingo rd e ro fth edamn edra c e :tod e s t roy ev e ry th ingtha tevok e sth ep r e s en c e ,r em emb ran c e ,o rp r id eo fCh r i s t ian cu l tu r e .Spa in mu s tb e[ con s id e r edbyth ema s ]th ew i ckby wh i chth e commun i s tto r ch w i l ls e tf r etoth ev en e rab l eEu rop e .I ti sth eo rd e ro f Z ionlaun ch edf rom Mo s cow .251

Th i styp eo frh e to r i cw a sp e r s i s t en tinth eB lu eD iv i s iont r en chp r e s s . Th econ sp i ra cyth eo ry wa scon s i s t en t ly–though no tcon s tan t ly–

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p r e s en t edinop ed sandin s e r t edinp ropagandabann e r sp i c tu r ingJuda i sminb ed w i thin t e rna t iona l Ma rx i sm ,p lu to c ra cy ,andl ib e ra l i sm , wh i ch w e r er e spon s ib l efo rth eou tb r eako fth eSpan i shC iv i lW a rand 252 th eS e cond W o r ld W a r . Som ea r t i c l e ss ta t edtha tcommun i s t sinRu s s ia w e r eat inyp e r c en tag e ,“ twop e rthou sando fth eto ta lpopu la t ion ,” bu tw e l l -o rgan iz edtos e rv ead e spo t i cty ranny ,compo s edla rg e lyo f J ew sandF r e ema son s . Mo s to fL en in ’ sandS ta l in ’ scoun s e l lo r sw e r ela b e l l eda sJ ew s , who w e r esa idtohav ein sp i r edSov i e tcommun i smand 253 i t sob s t ina t ed e -Ch r i s t ian iz ingamb i t ion . How ev e r ,th e s eexp r e s s ion s w e r es t i l lf ram ed w i th inth esam ed i s cu r s iv epa t t e rn sinh e r i t edf rom Ca tho l i can t i -S em i t i sm .Inth epag e so fH o j ad eC amp añ a,onth eo c ca s iono fth e“Dayo fou rRa c e ,”12 O c tob e r1943 ,th eau tho rw ro t etha t ra c e wa s“ th ehom e landbu i l tf r s tonth efounda t iono fb lood .”I tw en t ontosay :“Ev en m ix edb lood .O f t enun i tyr e s id e sin m ix ing .F romint en s ee f fu s ion so fv e ryd iv e r s ee l em en t s ,Spa inc r ea t edp e r enn ia lra c ia l ba s e s ,”ara c e man i f e s tinad i s t in c t iv ecu l tu r e ,th eCa tho l i cfa i th ,and 254 ex t e rna lp ro j e c t ion . Ev enth e mo s tG e rm anoph i l eF a l ang i s tinth eB lu eD iv i s iond idno t emb r a c eb io log i c a lr a c i sm .Y e tth eyd idd emon s t r a t econ sp i cuou sg en e r i c cu l tu r a landr e l ig iou sr a c i smag a in s tJ ew s .A tt im e si tm an i f e s t edi t s e l f op en ly ,bu tono th e ro c c a s ion si tw a sexp r e s s edsub l im in a l ly .Th eAnd alu s i ant emp e r am en tandf am en cod an c ing ,fo rex amp l e ,w e r ed e c l a r ed 2 5 5 f r e ef rom“ cow a rd ly ”J ew i shinfu en c e . C e r t a ind i s cu r s iv ee l em en t s spo r ad i c a l lyapp e a r ed ,d i sp l ay ingc l e a ran t i -S em i t i cton e s ind e s c r ip t ion s o fRu s s i aa s“ th el ando fJ ew s , ”comm en t sabou ten em i e sth a t“ look ed 2 5 6 l ik eJ ew s , ”ad e s i r eto“ sh av eth eb e a rdo f fth a tJ ewS t a l in , ”e t c . En c oun t e r ingth eE a s t e rnEu r op e anJ ew s ,1941–3 Th eSov i e t -G e rman W a r wa sp lann edandex e cu t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch a sa wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion .Th i sb e cam ec l ea rtoth eSpan i shso ld i e r s , ev eninth er ea rgua rd ,bu te sp e c ia l lya sth eyob s e rv edth eG e rman s m i s t r ea t ingSov i e t wa rp r i son e r sandc iv i l ian sdu r ingth e i r ma r chtowa rd sth eR ron t .Th ePo l i shemba s syin Mad r id , wh i ch wa sno tc lo s ed un t i lJanua ry1942 ,andSpan i shd ip loma t s inth efo rm e rPo l i sht e r r i to ry in fo rm edth eF ran cocab in e to fth esu f f e r ing so fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion und e ro c cupa t ion ,in c lud ingth ep e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew s .257 Th i scon t ra s t ed w i thth esuga r coa t edd e s c r ip t ion so fsom e wa rco r r e spond en t s . Lu i sSán ch ez -Ma spon spo r t ray edth eK rakowgh e t toin O c tob e r1941 a san“ en c lo s edspa c e ,w i th w id es t r e e t sandc l eanhou s e s ,” mu ch mo r e hyg i en i cthanth eo ldJ ew i shqua r t e r .H eempha s iz edhowth eJ ew i sh po l i c ew e r eincha rg eo f ma in ta in ingo rd e r ,“w ea r ingcap sr em in i s c en t

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o fou rpo r t e r s”und e rth e Coun c i lo fE ld e r s ,th eau tonomou sgov e rnm en to fth en e ighbou rhood .”258 A c co rd ingtoa1942r epo r tf romth eSpan i shpo l i t i ca lpo l i c e ,th ef r s t r e tu rn e e sf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron tin fo rm edtha tG e rmano c cupa t ion t roop sw e r eca r ry ingou ta“b loodyr ep r e s s ioncampa ign”inPo land , L i thuan ia ,and Ru s s ia .I t wa sd i r e c t edaga in s tPo l e sand Ru s s ian sin g en e ra l , who w e r eex e cu t edinth es t r e e t sands en tto“ r emo t ep r i son 259 camp s .” T owa rd sth eendo f1941 ,Span i shd ip loma t shad manyop po r tun i t i e stoh ea rabou tth em i s t r ea tm en to fJ ew sinth eo c cup i edt e rr i to r i e s .S e r ranoSuñ e rh im s e l fhada l r eadyb e enin fo rm edabou tth e s i tua t iono fJ ew sino c cup i edPo landbyp r e s sco r r e spond en t Ramón Ga r r iga .Thoughsp e c if cd e ta i l sm igh tno thav eb e enava i lab l e ,f rom m id -1942onSpan i sh l ead e r skn ewtha tth eJ ew so fEa s t -C en t ra lEu rop e w e r eb e ingd epo r t edinla rg enumb e r s ,andinJu ly1943th eykn ewfu l l w e l ltha tJ ew sw e r eb e ing mu rd e r ed .InAugu s t1944 ,Amba s sado rÁng e l  SanzB r izr epo r t edto Mad r idtha tJ ew sw e r eb e ingd epo r t edand ex t e rm ina t ed .I t wa sno tun t i lAp r i lo f1945tha tth ec en so r sa l low edth e Span i shp r e s stopub l i shany th ingabou tth eex i s t en c eo fth econ c ent ra t ionandex t e rm ina t ioncamp so fBu ch enwa ld ,B e rg en -B e l s en ,and Au s chw i tz .Th ey w e r ep r e s en t eda sa m e r econ s equ en c eo fth efna l 260 chao t i cs tag e so fth econf i c t . Span i shso ld i e r sen coun t e r eda lmo s tnoJ ew sinth eno r th e rns e c to r o fth eRu s s ianF ron t .Th e r e wa snos ign if can tcon c en t ra t iono fRu s s ian J ew sonth eV o lkhovF ron to rth esou th e rnfanko fth es i eg eo fL en in g rad .E in sa tzg rupp e Ahada l r eady“ c l ean edup”th eV o lkhovr eg ion b e fo r eth eSpan ia rd sa r r iv edth e r e ,in c lud ingv i l lag e ssu cha sS ta ra ia Ru s saandr ea rgua rda r ea ssu cha sP skov/P l e skau , wh e r eth e r ew e r e s t i l lsom efv ehund r edJ ew sinAugu s t1941–th ey w e r eann ih i la t edby G e rmant roop sinan ea rbyfo r e s tf romla t eD e c emb e r1941toF eb rua ry 1942 .InS ta ra iaRu s sa ,abou ttwothou sandJ ew sw e r ea r r e s t ed ,lo ck ed inap r i sonanda mona s t e ryn ea rth ec i ty ,andsho taf ewday sla t e r .A f t e rtha t ,th e l ik e l ihoodo fSpan i shso ld i e r sen coun t e r ingJ ew i shc iv i l ian s inth er ea ro fth e i rf ron ts e c to r wa ssma l l .Byth en ,E in sa tzg rupp eAcon s id e r edi tjud en f r e i–f r e eo fJ ew s–apa r tf romi so la t edind iv idua l s who had manag edtoe s cap eex t e rm ina t ion .Th i spa r t lyexp la in s whyco llabo ra t iono fA rmy G roup No r thun i t s ,in c lud ingth e281 s tR ea rgua rd D iv i s ion ,w i thE in sa tzg rupp enta sk s wa s mu ch mo r el im i t edthanin o th e ra r ea so fth eEa s t e rnF ron t .261 A sar e su l t ,th epo s s ib i l i tyo fSpan i sh so ld i e r ss e e ingany th ingo ranyon eJ ew i shamongth ec iv i l ian so fo c cu p i eda r ea sn ea rth ef ron t wa sex t r em e lylow . Th eg en e ra lin s t ru c t ion sfo rth eSpan i sh D iv i s ion w e r eth esam ea s tho s et ran sm i t t edtoth eG e rmanA rmyCo rp sto wh i chth eyb e long ed .

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F rom O c tob e r1941on ,th e wo rd wa stha tth eJ ew sw e r eth e“ma inupho ld e r s”o fBo l sh ev i sm ,and“anyco l labo ra t ion”o fth ea rmy w i thth e J ew i shpopu la t ion wa sfo rb idd en .Th i sin c lud edth eBD .Th e r e wou ld b eno mo r e“ emp loy ingJ ew sfo raux i l ia rys e rv i c e stoth eA rmy ,”ex c ep t 262 in“ sp e c ia lco lumn so f wo rk e r s…  und e rG e rmansu rv e i l lan c e .” Th i s in s t ru c t ion ,how ev e r , wa sat ran s la t iono fg en e r i cG e rmano rd e r sand no tar e f e r en c etoth ep r e s en c eo fJ ew sonth ef ron tl in e .I t wa s mo r e l ik e lytha tth ed iv i s i on a r i o s hadh ea rdsom eta l eo fth ek i l l ingo fth eJ ew i shpopu la t ionf romRu s s ianlo ca l so rG e rmanso ld i e r s .Som eo fth ela t t e rhadlook edon wh i l eth eE in sa tzg rupp enandth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e i comm i t t edth e s ea c t s , wh i chh e lp edtosp r eadn ew sr ega rd ingth efa t e o fth eJ ew s .263 A roundahund r edJ ew shadb e enk i l l eday ea rea r l i e r inpo s i t ion sh e ldbyth eSpan i shf rom Augu s t1942on .Inth epa la c e ga rd en so fCa th e r in eth eG r ea tinPu shk in ,250J ew shadb e ensho tand bu r i ed .S im i la r in c id en t shado c cu r r ed inPav lov sko rV y r i t sa .264 P r iva t e Jo s é -Lu i sP in i l lo sd e c la r edla t e rh ehadb e com eawa r eo fth efa t eo fth e 265 J ew sth roughconv e r sa t ion sw i thG e rmano ff c e r s . How ev e r ,th eva s t ma jo r i tyo fth eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eigno ran to fth eendlog i co fth i s p e r s e cu t ion , wh i ch ,a f t e rth eW ann s e eCon f e r en c eo fJanua ry1942 , wa s on eo fsy s t ema t i cex t e rm ina t ion . Th eSpan ia rd sthu s wou lds ca r c e lyhav een coun t e r edJ ew sonth e f ron t .Inla t e Augu s tandea r lyS ep t emb e ro f1941 ,how ev e r ,th ef r s t BDvo lun t e e r shadth eoppo r tun i tytocon t emp la t eth es i tua t iono f J ew s und e r Naz i dom in iona sth eycam ea c ro s ss ign if can tJ ew i sh commun i t i e sinth eB ia ły s tok -G rodnod i s t r i c t .Th i sp r e c ed edth eF ina l So lu t ion ,in wh i chth eJ ew sw e r ef r s tconfn edtogh e t to sandla t e r d epo r t edtoex t e rm ina t ioncamp s .Inth eBa l t i cc i t i e so fV i ln iu sand R igaa sw e l la sin G e rmany ,Span i shso ld i e r sa l soen coun t e r edJ ew i sh c iv i l ian s .A c co rd ing ly ,som epo s t -wa rt e s t imon i e sr e f e rtoin c id en ta l en coun t e r so fr ep la c em en tcon t ing en t sw i thJ ew i shc iv i l ian s who w e r e c l ean ingth et ra ins ta t ion sandt ra ck sino c cup i edt e r r i to ryinPo land o rth e USSR .Th ea s ton i sh edSpan i shso ld i e r sth r ewth emtoba c coand 266 foodf romth et ra in . G r odn o ,O shm i any ,V i ln iu s ,andR ig a P rom in en tamonga l lth ec i t i e sw i th impo r tan tJ ew i shcommun i t i e stha t th eB lu eD iv i s ionpa s s edth rough wa sG rodno( today H rodna )inEa s t e rnPo land . Onth i se thn i cf ron t i e r ,Po l e s ,By e lo ru s s ian s ,L i thuan ian s , and Y idd i sh sp eak ingJ ew sl iv edinp r e ca r iou sha rmony .Th eJ ew i sh commun i tyin G rodnonumb e r eda rounds ix tythou sandp eop l eand wa sso l id lypo s i t ion edinso c i e ty .Th e r ew e r eedu ca t iona lin s t i tu t ion s

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in H eb r ewandPo l i sh ,afou r i sh ingcu l tu ra ll i f einY idd i sh ,anda c t iv e so c ia ld emo c ra t ,con s e rva t iv e ,and Z ion i s to rgan iza t ion s .Th eJ ew i sh m idd l ec la s st end edtob ecu l tu ra l lyPo l i sh iz edandhadb e enra th e r Ru s soph i l es in c eth eT sa r i s temp i r e .Th eyco ex i s t ed w i thth e i rO r thodoxandCa tho l i cn e ighbou r s ,bu tno ta lway ssmoo th ly :th ePo l i shnat iona l i s tandcon s e rva t iv ee l em en t sin s t iga t edpog rom sin1935 ,1937 , andaga ininS ep t emb e r1939 ,a s wa rb rok eou t . Inla t eS ep t emb e r1939 ,G rodnoandi t ssu r round inga r ea w e r ein co rpo ra t edin toth e USSR . Thoughth eJ ew i shcommun i tysu f f e r ed e conom i ca l lyf romth eco l l e c t iv iza t ionimpo s edbyth eo c cup i e r s ,th ey con s id e r edth eSov i e t sal e s s e rev i l ,a sth ecommun i s tr eg im egua ran t e edth emequa loppo r tun i t i e sanda c c e s stoedu ca t ion ,pub l i cs e rv i c e s , andth es ta t e adm in i s t ra t ion . Th i sa t t i tud er e in fo r c edth econ sp i r a cyth eo ryo fconn ivan c eb e tw e enJ ew sandBo l sh ev ik sinth eey e so f Ca tho l i cPo l e s .267 A sino th e rc i t i e sinBy e lo ru s s iaandth en ewo c cup i edr eg ionknown a sO s t land ,th eG rodnoJ ew sb egantof e e lth econ s equ en c e so f Naz i ra c ia lpo l i c i e ssho r t lya f t e rth eG e rman so c cup i edth ec i tyinJun e1941 . Du r ingJu lyand Augu s t ,th eyendu r edd iv e r s ed i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sbyth eo c cup i e r s ,andagoodpo r t iono fth e i rp ro f e s s iona land cu l tu ra le l i t e sd i sapp ea r ed .A tf r s t ,th ey w e r er equ i r edto w ea rana rm band w i thas ix -po in ts ta r ,th entwoS ta r so fDav idhadtob es ewnon to th eb r ea s tandba cko fth e i rc lo th ing .Soona f t e r ,th ey w e r efo rb idd en to wa lkonth epav em en tandr equ i r edtoun cov e rth e i rh ead sandsa lu t epa s s ing G e rmanso ld i e r s .J ew i sh m en w e r epu ttofo r c edlabou r . F ina l ly ,on1 Nov emb e r1941 ,th eJ ew i shcommun i tyin G rodno wa s confn edtotwogh e t to s :a“p rodu c t iv e”gh e t tointh eh i s to r i cc en t r eo f th ec i tyandan“unp rodu c t iv e”on eonth eou t sk i r t s .Bo thgh e t to sw e r e e l im ina t edb e tw e en Nov emb e r1942and Ma r ch1943 ;on lyth r e ehun d r edJ ew s manag edtosu rv iv e .268 Onth eroadtoth ef ron t ,th eSpan ia rd scamp edn ea rG rodnofo rs eve ra lday sinla t e Augu s tandea r lyS ep t emb e r1941 .Th e r e ,th eyhad o c ca s iontoe s tab l i shcon ta c tw i thJ ew i sh m en , wom en ,andch i ld r en do ingh eavylabou rund e rth esup e rv i s iono fG e rmant roop s . Wha t d idth eBDvo lun t e e r ss e eandf e e l wh enth eyf r s tw i tn e s s eds ign so f th e Naz ira c ia ls eg r ega t ionpo l i cy ?Th e i rt e s t imon i e sf romth et im ed e s c r ib edth eJ ew sinanappa r en t lyn eu t ra l waya sd i r ty ,ragg ed ,hun g ryind iv idua l s whoapp roa ch edth eco lumn so fso ld i e r stob egfood s c rap sandlook eda tth em w i thf r igh t en edey e s . How ev e r ,th ey w e r e a l so wa ryl e s tth eJ ew i shc iv i l ian sk i l lca r e l e s sso ld i e r s ,suppo r tth epa r t i san s ,o rpo i sonth e i r wa t e randfood . And r é s Gay tand e s c r ib edth e day so fth et r ekin Ma r ch1942 , wh enth ey ma rv e l l eda tth ef ea ro fth e

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J ew sandth e i rf igh tyb ehav iou r ,a si fd i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e shadno t b e enth ecau s e : O fcou r s e ,th eJ ew sa r eab so lu t e lyfo rb idd entogon ea rth em i l i ta ry . Wh en th e r ew e r eJ ew sinon eo fth etown s wh e r ew er e s t ed ,th ed i f f e r en c eb e tw e enth e i rra c eandth eo th e r s wa sobv iou s .Th eyf r igh t enea s i ly ,l ik e wh ipp eddog s ,andlow e rth e i rey e s wh enth ey mov etol e tso ld i e r spa s s . Th eya r efo rb idd entoen t e rth ecan t e en so rca f é sf r equ en t edby G e rman so ld i e r sandth r ea t en ed w i thth e mo s ts ev e r epun i shm en t .Th ey m e e tin c e r ta inhov e l s wh e r eyoudon ’ th ea ras ing l evo i c e . On lyth eb r ea tho fr e p r e s s edlam en ts t eam supth e i rw indow s .269

Th esam ey ea r ,E r randoV i la rw ro t ela con i ca l lyo fth eG rodnoJ ew sand th e wa rn ing so fth eG e rmancommand : Th eJ ew s ,w i thth e i runm i s t ak ab l er a c i a lf e a tu r e s ,r ep r e s en t3 5p e rc en to f th e inh ab i t an t s .Y ouh av etod e f endyou r s e l ff romth em .Th eyw e a ray e l low s t a rw i thfv epo in t s[ s i c ]onth e i rsu i t s .Y oua l soh av etoknow wh e r eth ey l iv e .Inth ec i t i e sth eyh av ee s t ab l i sh edan e ighbou rhood ,at ru eG e t h o[ s i c ] , and inth etown sth e r ea r es ign sev e rywh e r es ay ing“ H i e rw h on en [ s i c ]Ju d en ” 2 7 0 ( J ew sl iv eh e r e )inth ehou s e s wh e r eanI s r a e l i t ef am i ly m ak e si t shom e .

Ach ron i c l epub l i sh eds ev e ra l mon th sla t e rbyP r iva t e Manu e l Nofu en t e sa l lud edtoh i sen coun t e rw i th“mu l t i tud inou sJ ew stha tth e G e rman s had pu t wh i t ea rmband sontoid en t i fyth em”in Po land . Th eau tob iog raph i ca lno t e so fSa lvado r Zanónto ldhowth eSpan i sh vo lun t e e r signo r edth eo rd e rtod i s t ru s tth eJ ew s , wh i l eJ im én ez Ma lo d e Mo l ina d e s c r ib edth e mu l t i e thn i c pano ramao fG rodnoandth e d i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sapp l i edtoth eJ ew i sh popu la t ion ,w i thou t exp r e s s inganyva lu ejudg em en t .D e sp i t eth esn ip e r s ,th et im einth e c i tyhadg en e ra l lyb e env e ryp l ea san tfo rth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s .Th ey op en lyf ra t e rn iz ed w i thth elo ca lg i r l s , wh e th e rJ ew so r Ca tho l i c s .In th ev i l lag eo fLyda ,Gu i l l e rmoGonzá l ezd eCana l e sob s e rv edtha tJ ew s w e r e“mo r er efn ed ,bu tth e r e fo r e mo r edang e rou s .”271 Som em en t ion ed gh e t to s( r ea lo rsuppo s ed )a sano th e re l em en t inth eu rban land s cap e .272 Th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r scou ldno tigno r eth ep e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew s , bu tno rma t iv e judg em en t sa r eg en e ra l lyab s en tf romth e i rt e s t imon i e s . Mo s to fth eme i th e rs i l en c edth ei s su eo ra c c ep t edi ta ssom e th ingr e la t iv e lyno rma ltha tth eJ ew i shpopu la t ionhadto w ea ray e l lows ta r onth e i rc lo th ing ,o rtha tth eycou ldno t wa lkonth epav em en t s .Su ch s i l en c e wa sno tex c lu s iv etoth eSpan ia rd s ,how ev e r ;i ti sa l sotyp i ca lo f th ed ia r i e so fth ePo l i shCa tho l i cpopu la t ionf romtha tt im e , whoo f t en

194 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w i tn e s s ed w i thind i f f e r en c eth es eg r ega t ion ,d epo r ta t ion ,and mu rd e r o fth e i rf e l lowc i t iz en s .273 D e s c r ip t ion sf romtho s e mom en t sexp r e s s ednoexp l i c i tsympa thy fo ro rev encompa s s iontowa rd sth eJ ew s . On eso ld i e rno t edupona r r iv ingin G rodnotha tth eJ ew shad“badin t en t ion s ,a tn igh tth eyt ry toshoo tth eG e rmano rSpan i shso ld i e r s .”Twoday sla t e r ,h ea cknow l edg edth ema s“poo rp eop l e” who w e r econ t en tto wo rkfo rth eSpan ia rd sinr e tu rnfo rfoods c rap s .O c ca s iona l ly ,th ey w e r eev ens e ena s p i c tu r e squ ehuman sinad eg en e ra t eenv i ronm en t :R id ru e jod e s c r ib ed h i sv i s i ttoa“f l thy ,ram sha ck l epho tos tud io”runbya“ fan ta s t i cJ ewi shpho tog raph e r .” Mo r ef r equ en t ly ,th eimag e wa simp l i c i t lyn ega t iv e : th eJ ew sw e r ean t i -Po l i sho r i en t edanda l l i ed w i thth ecommun i s t s ; on lyho s t i l i tycou ldb eexp e c t edf romth em . Ramón Abad íapo in t ed ou tth ein t r in s i cdang e rtha t mo t iva t edth ep roh ib i t iono fd ea l ing w i th J ew s :“ th eya l ll iv ebad ly ; wh enth eso ld i e r sshowth ema ma rk ,th ey wan ttotak eth emtos l e epo rea t .” M en énd ez Gund ín w ro t ehowth e G rodnoJ ew s“ looka tu sw i tha l lth eha t r edtha tth eI s ra e l i t era c eho ld s towa rd sfa s c i sm .”In May1942 ,R evu e l taImazju s t if edth ed i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e so fth eG e rman s :th eSpan ia rd sth em s e lv e sw e r ein nopo s i t iontojudg e ,a sth eyhada l r eady“ so lv ed”th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion 274 in1492 . On lysom ein s igh t fu lob s e rv e r spo in t edou ttha ti fth eBo l sh ev ik shada s s ign ed manylo ca lpo l i t i ca lpo s i t ion stoJ ew s ,i t wa sno t b e cau s eth eysp e c ia l lyapp r e c ia t edth em ,bu tb e cau s eth ey w e r ea l i ento 275 th ePo l i she thn i c ma jo r i tyand ,th e r e fo r e , mo r er e l iab l e . Th i s wa sth e 276 ca s e ino th e ra r ea so c cup i edbyth eUSSR ,su cha sth eBa l t i ccoun t r i e s . S im i l a rs c en e sw e r er ep rodu c ed inV i ln iu saf ewd ay s l a t e r .Th e r e ,howev e r ,th eN a z it e r ro rm a ch in eh adp rog r e s s edfu r th e rini t ssp i r a lo fex t e r m in a t ion .Th eG e rm ano c cup i e r sh adk i l l edth i r ty s ev enhund r edJ ew i sh m en , wom en ,andch i ld r eninar ep r i s a line a r lyS ep t emb e r1 9 4 1 .Th ey h ade s t ab l i sh edtwogh e t to son6and7S ep t emb e r ,c rowd ingfo r ty s ix 2 7 7 thou s andp eop l ein toth em . On lytho s ew i th wo rkp e rm i t scou ldl e av e th egh e t to ,andth e r ew e r erumou r sth a tth einh ab i t an t s wou ldb e mov ed toano th e rp l a c e .Th erumou rr e a ch edth eBD ,a sM a r t ín e zT e s s i e rr ev e a l s : Th eJ ew sa r efo rb idd ena c c e s stoshop sandpub l i cspa c e s .Th eycanno t wa lkonth epav em en t sandth ey l iv ec lo s edup inth e“gh e t to”f rom wh e r e th eyon lyl eav eto wo rki fth e i r wo rkha sb e enau tho r iz ed .Th eyr e c e iv ea 2 7 8 s can tfoodra t ionands l e ep w i thou tb ed s . Mo s tw i l lb eeva cua t ed .

O th e rSpan i shcomba tan t sh ea rd mo r ep r e c i s es to r i e s .Ramón Abad ía w ro t etha t“ th eG e rman shav ehund r ed so fJ ew i shp r i son e r s whomi ti s 279 rumou r edth eyp lantoshoo tth en ex tday .”

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Som es toodou tfo rth e i rexp l i c i t ,h igh lya r t i cu la t edan t i -S em i t i sm . Jo s éLu i s Góm ezT e l lo ,onh i s waytoth eRu s s ianF ron t ,w ro t eha r sh wo rd sabou tth eJ ew sh eob s e rv edinR iga .H es ta t edtha tJ ew i shba rb e r sw e r ehappyto“ con t inu esk inn ingCh r i s t ian s .”Th eJ ew so fG rodno hadb e en“ th epo l i c eandex e cu t ion e r so fth eG .P .U .[S ta l in i s tpo l i t i ca l po l i c e ] ,”a lway sw ea r ing“ la rg eg r ea sycoa t s”andl iv inginf l th , wh i ch th eFa lang i s tf e l t mu s timp l i c i t lyco r r e spondtosom ein t e rna lsp i r i tua l 280 fou ln e s s . Hav ingn ev e ra c tua l lys e enaJ ew i shcommun i tyb e fo r e , Góm ez T e l losough ttosa t i s fy h i san t i -S em i t i ccu r io s i tybyob s e rvingth esma l lJ ew i shcommun i tyo fO shm iany , wh e r eth eBDpa s s ed th roughaf ewday sa f t e rl eav ingth eou t sk i r t so fV i ln iu sb eh ind .I t wa s th enasma l lPo l i sh -By e lo ru s s ianc i tyo fe igh ty -fv ehund r edinhab i t an t s ,a lmo s tha l fo fth emJ ew s .Th eO shm ianygh e t to wa se l im ina t edin pha s e sf romO c tob e r1942to May1943 , wh enth er ema in ing2 ,830J ew s w e r ed epo r t ed .281 Góm ezT e l lo ’ sd e s c r ip t ion so fth egh e t toinO shm ianyr ev ea lh i scont emp tfo rth eJ ew i sh“ ra c e” ,andh i sf rmb e l i e finth el inkb e tw e enJu da i smandcommun i sm .Th elo ca lJ ew sw e r e“mo s tfabu lou s lyr i chin th e i rw r e t ch edn e s s ,”th e i ropu l en c esu rpa s s ingev enth eF r en chJ ew s . Inth egh e t to w e r e“ s t r e e t stha tw e r ecana l so ff l th in e s s ,”o c cup i edfo r th ela s tth r e ehund r edy ea r sbyth esam em i s e ry t ra ff ck ingJ ew i shfam i l i e s .Th eFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rsaw m i s e ryandf ea rinth ehom e s ,bu t th i sl edh imn e i th e rtocompa s s ionno rtor e j e c t iono fth ean t i -S em i t i c po l i c i e stha thadr edu c edth eJ ew stoth e s et e r r ib l econd i t ion s .Ra th e r , h ea s s e r t edtha tth eJ ew s“a r esobu rd en edbyth e i rs in s”tha tth eyd es e rv ed wha tth ey w e r eg e t t ing .Infa c t ,“ th e r ea r esom eth ing stha tI wou ldon lyt e l lina wh i sp e r .” A tsom epo in tth eJ ew s wou ldaga in wand e r ,andth ena“ s to rm”f romh eav en wou ldcom euponth em .H e s ta t edtha ttho s e whohadspa rk edth eBo l sh ev ikR evo lu t ionhadcom e f romappa r en t lypoo rp la c e sl ik eO shm iany : Th e“gh e t to”o fO shm iany ,lo s tonth es t epp e , wou ldb eo fnocon s equ en c e i fi tw e r en ’ tfo rth efa c ttha ti ti sth esp ea rh eado fI s ra e l .F romh e r eand o th e rsu chp la c e shav ecom eth eg r ea tfgu r e stha tcau s edth er evo lu t ion andd i r e c t edth epo l i t i c so fth eK r em l in . Ev e ryon eknow stha tT ro t sky and C la raZ e tk in w e r eJ ew i sh m i l l iona i r e s ,andtha tL en in ’ sw i f e wa sa J ew. . .  Whyno tm en t ionth efa c ttha tth eJ ew so rgan iz edth eSo c i e t i e so f “ th e God l e s s ,”andth esa c r i l eg iou sp ro c e s s ion s ,andth ed e s t ru c t iono f chu r ch e s ,andth er e l en t l e s sandun end ingfgh to fth e Commun i s tS ta t e aga in s tR e l ig ion ?I si t wo r th m en t ion ingtha tth eJ ew sfo l low eda sex e cut ion e r sandpo l i c e wh enth eSov i e tr eg im en t s ma r ch edin to V i ln iu sand R igaandPo landin1939 ?

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A l lth i sl edtoon econ c lu s ion :th e USSRhadb e com eth ep r e f e r r ed in s t rum en to fth eJ ew sinth e i rc en tu r i e s -o ldd e s i r efo rexpan s ionand v eng ean c eonRom eandCh r i s t ian i ty .“Mo s cowi sI s ra e l ’ sg r ea tcamp , 282 and O shm ianyi son eo fi t sou tpo s t s .” How ev e r ,i t wa son eth ingtoha rbou ranan t i -S em i t i cp r e jud i c etowa rd sJ ew s ing en e ra l ,andqu i t ead i f f e r en t ma t t e rtos e ehowth eyw e r e sy s t ema t i ca l lyp e r s e cu t ed ,ev eni fon e wa signo ran to fth eendawa i t ing th eJ ew sconfn edtogh e t to s , wh e r eth ey w e r ev i s ib ly m i s t r ea t ed .Th i s gav er i s etoh ea t edr ea c t ion sf romev enth e mo s td evou tFa lang i s t s .In h i s wa rd ia ry ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jos ta t edop en lytha tth eJ ew sh ehadencoun t e r edinPo land w e r e“ r epu l s iv e”toh im ,andtha tth em ea su r e s adop t edbyth eTh i rd R e i ch w e r eju s t ifab l e .S t i l l ,h er e cogn iz edtha t Span ia rd sw e r e“o f f end edinou rs en s ib i l i t i e s”byth eG e rman s , who w e r eex e r c i s inga“ co ld ,m e thod i ca l ,imp e r sona lc ru e l ty ,”a c co rd ingto ap r ed efn edp lan“ tha t wa sno tar ea c t iontoany th ingonth eg round .” Ino th e r wo rd s ,an t i J ew i shp r e jud i c e wa sund e r s tandab l e ,bu tno tth e sy s t ema t i cv e r s iono fan t i -S em i t i sm .R id ru e joshow edund e r s tand ing fo rspon tan eou sr ep r i sa l s ,su cha s“ loo t ing w i thf r eandb lood ,”bu t no tth econfn em en tand ma rk ingo fe l em en t stob eex c lud edf romsoc i e ty .Ev enthoughSpan ia rd s wou ldf e e lr epu l s edbyJ ew sa saco l l e c t iv e ,“w ecanf e e lno th ingbu tso l ida r i ty w i thth eind iv idua l s .” Wha t R id ru e johadob s e rv eds e em edex c e s s iv etoh im .Infa c t ,a sth eysough t to“a s so c ia t efu l ly w i thG e rmany ,th ehop eo fEu rop etoday ,”th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sfoundtha tth eg r ea t e s tob s ta c l e stoov e r com ew e r eth e i r 283 exp e r i en c e sw i than t i -S em i t i cm ea su r e s . Ca s tañónhadas im i la rr ea c t ioninV i ln iu s : Is e eth epoo rJ ew i shp eop l e wa lk ingabou tw i thth ed i s c r im ina t ings t igma o fas ta r .Th i spoo rra c e , wh i chha sp r ea ch edlov eandnow w es e eth em l ik eth i s ,sotha tw edon ’ tm ix w i thth em .Idono tund e r s tand ,Idono tun d e r s tandsu chd i s c r im ina t ionand ,a saSpan ia rd ,Icanno thav eanyra c ia l comp l ex ,Iob s e rv eth em w i tht end e rn e s sthoughIcanno tsayany th ing 284 toth em .

Non e th e l e s s ,th e s eob s ta c l e sw e r einno wayanin su rmoun tab l eba rr i e rfo rSpan i shfa s c i s t s .Infa c t ,th et rad i t iona lan t i -S em i t i smo fth evo l un t e e r s wa senhan c edbyth ean t i J ew i shf e e l ing so f manyPo l e sand By e lo ru s s ian s whol iv edinth et e r r i to r i e so c cup i edbyth eG e rman s . Som e Span ia rd sequa t edJ ew sto pa r t i san sandsabo t eu r s .285 Many m emb e r so fth ePo l i shr e s i s tan c e ,f romna t iona ld emo c ra t stol e f t -w ing g roup s ,w e r ea l soamb iguou sabou t Naz ira c ia l po l i t i c s .286 R id ru e jo w ro t etha tth elo ca lPo l e sha t edth eG rodnoJ ew sw e r e mo r ethanth e

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G e rman sd id ,and w i thaha t r edtha t“g r ind saud ib ly .”Th i s wou ldh e lp 287 exp la in th ean t i -S em i t i cm ea su r e s imp l em en t edby th en ewo c cup i e r s . Som eev id en c esugg e s t stha t ,du r ingth e ma r chtowa rd sth ef ron t , Span i shvo lun t e e r sw e r eno tav e r s etocon ta c tandd ea l ing sw i thth e J ew i shpopu la t ion ,igno r ingth eo ff c ia lp roh ib i t ion .S in c eth eG rodno gh e t to wa sno ts e tupun t i l Nov emb e r1941 ,th eSpan ia rd shad many chan c e sto m e e tJ ew sonth ec i tys t r e e t s ,d e sp i t eth es ev e ra lr e s t r i c t ion s tha tw e r eimpo s edonth ela t t e rbyth eG e rman ss in c eJun e1941 ,in c lud ingth e i ru s ea sfo r c edlabou r .Thu s ,Span ia rd scou ldob s e rv efo r th em s e lv e sth ee f f e c t so fth es eg r ega t ion m ea su r e s ,thoughth ey may no thav eb e enawa r eo fth espo rad i cra id stha tend edinth erandom k i l l ingo fg roup so fJ ew s .288 Th e BDso ld i e r sw e r ea l sosu rp r i s edtha tsom eJ ew scou ld mak e th em s e lv e sund e r s toodinSpan i sh ,a sth ey w e r eimm ig ran t s whohad r e tu rn edf romA rg en t ina inth ep r io rd e cad e .Som esu rv ivo r sconf rm ed 289 th i simp r e s s ion . G en e ra l ly ,th i scon ta c td idno tinvo lv eso l ida r i tyo r exp l i c i t lyf ra t e rna l mo t iv e s .Ra th e r ,i t ma in lyinvo lv edsma l lcomm e r c ia lex chang e s :ba r t e r ingfo rgood s ,an ima l s ,o rtoo l s ,andh i r ingJ ew s fo raux i l ia ryjob s ,f romsho e sh in etocook ’ sa id .J ew sp r e f e r r edtodo fo r c edlabou rfo rth eSpan ia rd sb e cau s eth ey w e r el e s sb ru ta lthanth e G e rman sandL i thuan ian s .Su rv ivo r Dan i e lK lov skyr e ca l l edtha tr e lat ion sw i thth eSpan ia rd sw e r epa r t i cu la r ly wa rmandf r i end ly .B ronka K l iban sk ia l sor em emb e r edtha tth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s“a l low edu sto ea ta s mu cha sw e wan t edandtotak efoodhom e ,so w ed idno tn e ed 290 tos t ea lany th ing .” Con c lud ingth el i s t wou ldb eth ed emandfo rs exua lfavou r sf rom J ew i sh wom eninex chang efo r mon eyo rfood ,o rth eo c ca s iona lcou r t sh ip . Appa r en t ly ,Span i shso ld i e r sd emon s t ra t ednop r e jud i c eonth i s ma t t e r .J ew i shand Ca tho l i c wom enlook eda t t ra c t iv etoSpan ia rd s , 291 andnum e rou slov ea f fa i r sw e r er e co rd ed . Infa c t ,G e rmano ff c e r sin G rodnocomp la in edabou tth eSpan i shb ehav iou ro ff ra t e rn iz ing w i th 292 th e“ ind ig enou s” wom ening en e ra l . Ev enth ecommand e rinch i e f o fth eG e rmanA rmyG roupC en t r e , Ma r sha lF edo rvonBo ck ,no t edin h i sd ia rytha tth eSpan ia rd shad“o rg i e s” w i thJ ew i sh wom en .293 R id ru e jo w ro t etha tsom eSpan i shso ld i e r s mad elov ew i thJ ew i sh wom en 294 inth em idd l eo fth eV i ln iu ss t r e e t s . Manu e lBa r sr e ca l l edy ea r sla t e r tha t“w ed evo t edou r s e lv e sto‘p lay ingth ebu l lfgh t e r ’w i thth eJ ew i sh g i r l s–th eG e rman scou ldn ´ tp r ev en tu sf romdo ingtha t .” AndS e rg ean t Manu e lG rand es ta t edtha th ehadon lyb e en w i thJ ew i sh wom en a sh et rav e l l edth roughPo landandBy e lo ru s s ia ,anddu r ingh i ss tay 295 in R iga . O th e rt e s t imon i e ssugg e s tca s e so fs exua l ha ra s sm en tin G rodnobyg roup so fSpan i shso ld i e r s .296

198 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Wha td idth einhab i tan t so fG rodnoth inko fth eSpan i shso ld i e r s ? On lyaf ewJ ew i shsu rv ivo r sm en t ionth eSpan ia rd sinth e i rm emo i r s . A l exand r eB lum s t e in(bo rn1930 )w ro t etha tth en ew com e r s“w e r ev e ry s t rang e ‘G e rman s , ’ou tgo ingandso c iab l e ,v i s i t ingc iv i l ianhom e s ,wa lk ingca sua l ly , laugh ing …on ecou lds e eth e s eso ld i e r s jok ing w i thPo l i sh andJ ew i shg i r l s ,s ing ingSpan i shsong s ,p lay ingth e mando l in .Som e app ea r edtob eemba r ra s s edbyth ebow ingandth ea rmband s wo rnby th eJ ew s .”B lum s t e incon s id e r edth ep r e s en c eo fth eSpan i shso ld i e r sa s a“ r e f r e sh ing in t e r lud e .”Andth e i rd epa r tu r e l e f tb eh ind“good imp r e s 297 s ion sandaf ewb rok enh ea r t s .” T oL e ibR e iz e r ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r e no tsod i f f e r en ttoJ ew s :“A l lo fth em w e r eda rkandsunbu rn ed ,had cu r lyha i randS em i t i cno s e s ,andg e s t i cu la t ed w i thth e i rhand s–ju s t l ik eJ ew s .Th e r e wa snot ra c eo fth epu r eG e rman i cra c e .Th eon lyth ing G e rmanabou tth em wa sth e i run i fo rm .”298 AndF e l ixZandmans ta t ed tha tth eSpan ia rd sshow edth eG rodnoJ ew sth ed i f f e r en c eb e tw e en G e rmanan t i -S em i t i smandt rad i t iona lan t i Juda i sm : A si ftoi l lu s t ra t ehowd i f f e r en tth eG e rman sw e r e ,on edayaSpan i shb r igad ecam eth roughth ec i ty ,s en tbyF ran cotofgh taga in s tth eSov i e t s . Th ey w e r einG rodnofo rabou ttwo w e ek s ,and wh i l eth ey w e r eth e r e ,th e a tmo sph e r echang eden t i r e ly .Th eya s so c ia t ed w i thth eJ ew i sh m en w i th ou tas igno fd i s l ik eo rha t r ed .Th ey w en tou tw i thth eJ ew i shg i r l s . And wh enth eyl e f t ,i t wa sev enha rd e rtofa c eth eba rba r ian s whohadtak en 2 9 9 con t ro lo fou rl iv e s .

O th e rsou r c e sconf rmth i simp r e s s ion . Mo sh eB e rkow i tz ,aJ ewf rom V o ronovo ,al i t t l ev i l lag eonth eroadb e tw e enV i ln iu sandLyda ,w ro t e tha tth ea r r iva lo fth eSpan i shso ld i e r sm ean tfo rth elo ca lJ ew i shcom mun i tyab r i e fin t e r lud eo f joyandr e lax .Th ed iv i s i on a r i o sb ehav edco r r e c t ly ,p ro t e c t edth emf rom m i s t r ea tm en tbyth eco l labo ra t ion i s tpo l i c e , andsha r edth e i rfoodsupp l i e sw i thth eV o ronovoJ ew s .Span ia rd sev en had“ typ i ca l lyJ ew i shf ea tu r e s .”300 Th ec land e s t in eo rgano fth ePo l i sh r igh t -w ingr e s i s tan c eg roupS z an i e cin fo rm edinS ep t emb e r1941o fs ev e ra lin c id en t sinG rodnob e tw e enSpan i shvo lun t e e r sandG e rmanso l d i e r s who w e r egua rd ingSov i e tp r i son e r s ,a sw e l la sf r i end lycon ta c t b e tw e enSpan ia rd sandth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion .301 Wh i l eth i sdo e sno t n e c e s sa r i ly m eantha tth eSpan i sht roop sp ro t e c t edth eJ ew sinanysy st ema t i c way ,p lay ingca rd sw i thano ldJ ew i sh mano r wa lk ingabou t w i thaJ ew i shg i r lonyou ra rm wa sc e r ta in lyag e s tu r etha tcommun ica t edhuman i ty ,imp l i c i ta cknow l edgm en ttha tJ ew sd e s e rv edth esam e t r ea tm en ta sanyo th e rc iv i l ian ,andv e i l edd efan c eo fth eru l e so fth e o c cupy ingG e rmanpow e r .

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Amaz ing ly , th e r ea r enopho tog raph s l e f to f th e s een coun t e r sb e tw e en Span i shso ld i e r sandJ ew sinG rodno ,andon lyaf ewSpan ia rd sv i s i t ed th eW a r sawgh e t to .BDnu r s e Mon t s e r ra tRom eusp en tsom eday sth e r e w i thh e rexp ed i t ioncompan ion sinS ep t emb e r1941 .Th et raml in etook th emth roughth egh e t to , wh e r eth eyfounda“n igh tma r i shs c en e .”Sh e saw“ c la s s i crabb i sw i thth e i rb ea rd sandhook edno s e s ,d i r tyandd e c r ep i t ,”a long w i th w e l l -d r e s s ed wom en who“ s t ro l l ednon cha lan t ly 302 amongtha tr i f f ra f f .” Th ep rob ab i l i tyo fen coun t e r sb e tw e enSp an i a rd sandJ ew sw a sh ighe s tinth eB a l t i ccoun t r i e so rSp an i sh m i l i t a ryho sp i t a l sinth er e a r .Sp an i shs e c t ion sw e r eop en ed in th eG e rm an m i l i t a ryho sp i t a l so fKön ig sb e rg , R ig a ,and V i ln iu s .Th e r e ,Sp an i shsu rg eon sandnu r s e semp loy edth e 3 0 3 lo c a lJ ew i shp e r sonn e la saux i l i a r i e s ,nu r s e s ,andt r an s l a to r s . Th ey c a r edfo rSp an i shconv a l e s c en t sand w e r eh igh lyapp r e c i a t ed ,a sth ey w e r eu su a l lyfu en tins ev e r a ll angu ag e s ,in c lud ingSp an i sh . Th eSp an i sh m ed i c a lp e r sonn e ls e em toh av eh e a rdabou t th ef a t eo f th e J ew s ,bu tb a r e lyr ef e c t edoni tinth e i rw a rd i a r i e s .A l fon so U rqu i jo w i t n e s s ed“b r ig ad e so fJ ew s ”inR ig a , whoshov e l l edsnowand w a lk ed“on th ero ad , l ik eb e a s t s . ”J ew i shemp loy e e sa tth eSp an i shho sp i t a l inV i ln iu s c am eand w en tf romth egh e t to , wh e r eth eys l ep t ,and w e r ee s co r t edby conv a l e s c en tso ld i e r s whoo c c a s ion a l lylook eda f t e r wo rkd e t a chm en t s o f gh e t toJ ew sb e ingsub j e c t edtofo r c edl abou r . M en énd e z Gund ín , who w a spo s t edinth eL i thu an i anc i tyin M ay1 9 4 2 ,w ro t eth a tth eJ ew s w e r em i s t r e a t edand wo r e“ th ec l a s s i cp a t chonth e i rb r e a s tandb a ck . ” Ano th e rSp an i shvo lun t e e r whosp en ts ev e r a lw e ek sinho sp i t a ls t a t ed y e a r sl a t e rth a tonon eo c c a s ionth eJ ew i shemp loy e e sw e r ed e c l a r ed ind i sp en s ab l ep e r sonn e ltop r ev en tth emb e ingd epo r t edinr ep r i s a lfo r ana c to fr e s i s t an c e .Th roughth ew indow s ,th econv a l e s c en t scou lds e e th e“go rg eou s ”J ew i sh wom en who“ c l e a r edth esnowf romth eg a rd en p a th sandfow e rb ed s . ”M anyigno r edth ep roh ib i t iono fsp e ak ing w i th th em .Ju an -Eug en ioB l an cos t a t edth a tth eSp an i a rd sb e c am e“ f r i end ly v i s i to r stoth egh e t to ”tocou r tJ ew i shg i r l s .304 O th e rSp an i shconv a l e s c en t so ld i e r sw e r eey ew i tn e s s e stoco l l e c t iv er ep r i s a l sag a in s tinm a t e sinth e J ew i shgh e t to s ,p a r t i cu l a r lyinV i ln iu s ,a sexp r e s s edinth ew a rd i a ryo f p r iv a t eB en ignoC aboinAp r i l1 9 4 3 .F iv e mon th sl a t e r ,ag roupo fSp an3 0 5 i a rd ss awano th e rs l augh t e rinth egh e t to . Som eau tob iog r aph i c a la c coun t spo in t edou tth a tinV i ln iu s ,du r ing Nov emb e r –D e c emb e ro f1 9 4 2 , conv a l e s c en tSp an i shso ld i e r sw e r esom e t im e so rd e r edbyth eG e rm an 3 0 6 comm andtogu a rdg roup so fJ ew s wo rk ingou t s id eth egh e t to . Th esam eth ingo c cu r r edino th e rr ea rgua rdtown s wh e r eth e r ew e r e f e ldho sp i ta l s .On econva l e s c en tinPo rkhovconf rm edth ep r e s en c eo f “ J ew i sh wom enc l ean ingth es t r e e t s ,” who w e r eea s i lyd i s t ingu i sh edby

200 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th e“y e l lows ta rth ey wo r eonth e i rc lo th e s .” H el im i t edh im s e l ftoex p r e s s ingh i sd i sp l ea su r ea ts e e ing“ tho s eg i r l s ,som ev e ryyoung , wo rk307 ingl ik elabou r e r sa tanend l e s sta sk .” P r o t e c t o r so rBy s t and e r s? Th ea t t i tud e so fB lu eD iv i s ionso ld i e r s mu s tb el ink edtoth eh i s to r iog r aph i cd eb a t er eg a rd ingth ero l eo fby s t and e r s :tho s e whod idno tp roa c t iv e lyco l l abo r a t ew i thth eN a z i sbu tw i tn e s s ed wh a tw a sh app en ing 3 0 8 andd idno tin t e rv en etop r ev en ti t . C e r t a in ly ,som et e s t imon i e sm en t ioni so l a t edbu texp l i c i tin i t i a t iv e so fSp an i shso ld i e r stop r o t e c tJ ew i sh c iv i l i an s .Th e s ec anb eund e r s tooda sun s e lf sha c t sth a t invo lv edr i skfo r th eBDvo lun t e e r s ,and w en tb eyondaspon t an eou sr e a c t iono fso l id a r i tyo rg a l l an t rytoob t a ins exu a lf avou r s .A c co rd ingtoth eI s r a e l ih i s to r i anBob eM end e l ,aSp an i sho ff c e rh e lp edag roupo fJ ew stof e ef rom th eR ig agh e t toandgo tth emtoth eF r en ch -Sp an i shbo rd e r . How ev e r , 3 0 9 th ey w e r ed i s cov e r edbyth eG e rm an sandr equ i r edtog e to f fth et r a in . S im i l a r ly ,Sw ed i sh I s r a e l iw r i t e r Co rd e l i aEdv a r son , who w a sbo rnin Mun i chin1 9 2 9a sth ei l l eg i t im a t ed augh t e ro faJ ew i shf a th e randCh r i st i an mo th e r ,r e c e iv edh e lpf romaconv a l e s c ingBDo ff c e rin1 9 4 3 .H e ag r e edtoa m a r r i ag eo fconv en i en c esoth a tsh em igh top tfo rSp an i sh c i t i z en sh ipandavo idd epo r t a t ion .Th ep l anf a i l edb e c au s eCo rd e l i aw a s und e r ag e ,andth eo ff c e rw a sh im s e l ftooyoungtol eg a l lyadop th e r .H e con t a c t edtwoSp an i shs e rv an t s whoag r e edtoadop th e r ,bu tth i sa l so 3 1 0 f a i l ed .Co rd e l i aend edupinAu s chw i t zbu tm an ag edtosu rv iv e . Th epo s t -1945id ea l iza t iono fth ea t t i tud e so fBDvo lun t e e r stowa rd s th eJ ew sinEa s t e rnEu rop eha sb e ena c c ep t ed ,w i thad eg r e eo fm e th odo log i ca ls imp l e -m ind edn e s s ,a sar e c r ea t ion o f wha tr ea l ly happ en ed .Th evo lun t e e r shav eev enb e enca s ta scon s c i en t iou sp r o t e c t o r s o fth eJ ew s ,th roughth er ep rodu c t iono fd iv e r s ean e cdo t e sr ef e c t ing o c ca s iona ld e f en c eo fJ ew i sh m enand wom eninth efa c eo fG e rman 31 1 abu s e . Su chg en e ra l iza t ioni sd eba tab l e .Th evo lun t e e r sla ck edop po r tun i t i e sfo rcumu la t iv erad i ca l iza t iono fa t t i tud e stowa rd sth eJ ew s andhads ca r c eo c ca s ionto mak econ ta c tw i thJ ew sa f t e rO c tob e r1941 . Th i sm ean ttha tSpan ia rd sd idno tpa r t i c ipa t eink i l l ing so rra id s ,no r w e r eth eyo rd e r edtodoso .Thu s ,th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sw e r en ev e r invo lv ed inth esy s t ema t i cann ih i la t iono fth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion ,un l ik e th e i rRoman iancoun t e rpa r t sinB e s sa rab iaandth e Uk ra in e ,o rsom e Hunga r iant roop s .312 How ev e r ,in s tan c e so fBD m emb e r sin cu r r ingr i sk and wo rk ings e lf e s s lyandcon s c i en t iou s lyov e ras ign if can tspano f t im etop r o t e c tJ ew i shc iv i l ian sa r ev e ryin f r equ en tand–un l ik eth eI ta l ian sinth e Uk ra in eo rinth eBa lkan s–d idno tp rovok eanys e r iou s 313 con f ron ta t ion w i thth eG e rman s .

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 201

Apa r tf romspo rad i ca l t e r ca t ion s ,th e Span i shso ld i e r sg en e ra l ly b ehav edl ik ea r ch e typ i ca lby s tand e r s– m e r eob s e rv e r s–thoughp e rhap sra th e rcon fu s edon e sa tf r s t .“W ep e r c e iv edsom e th ingabno rma l 314 inth em ;th ey wa lk edabou tf ea r fu l ,f igh ty ,pa l e ,andgaun t .” Th e i r mo r econf i c t edp e r sona lr ea c t ion sm igh tin c lud ein comp r eh en s iona t th eex t r em i tyo fth em ea su r e sth ey w e r econ t emp la t ingo r Ch r i s t ian compa s s ionfo rth ev i c t im s ,bu tnoempa thyfo rth eJ ew i shco l l e c t iv e . Th e r ei sroomtoa ski fth eSpan i shso ld i e r shadanyr ea lpo s s ib i li tyo fr ea c t ingd i f f e r en t ly .Th e i rcondu c tr e s emb l edtha to f manyo th e r G e rman ,Po l i sh ,o rBa l t i cc i t iz en s .315Inth eb ru ta l iz ingl i f eandcomba t cond i t ion so f wa r ,G e rmanso ld i e r sg en e ra l lya s s im i la t edp r ed i spo s ed pa t t e rn so fb ehav iou rtha tw e r econg ru en tw i thy ea r so f Na t iona lSoc ia l i s tindo c t r ina t iontoa c c ep tth et en e t so fth e Naz i wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion .Th i sd idno tco r r e spondso mu chtof ea ro fth e i rcommand e r sa s toag radua lab so rp t iono ftho s eid eo log i ca lpa t t e rn sinth e i re th i ca lpo s i t ion sandth e i rd e c i s ion s .Examp l e so f“p ro t e c to r so fth eJ ew s” w i th in 316 th eW eh rma ch ta r ef ew . Inth eB lu eD iv i s ionsub t l ebu ts ign if can t d i f f e r en c e scanb ed e t e c t ed w i thr ega rdtoth eG e rman s .H i s to r iog raphi ca l ly ,inth ecu r r en td eba t eb e tw e enin t en t iona l i s t sandfun c t iona l i s t s 317 r ega rd ingth ein t e rp r e ta t iono fth e Ho lo cau s t , th eSpan i shfa s c i s t s d idno tha rbou ranid eo logytha tfavou r edsy s t ema t i cs eg r ega t iono r ex t e rm ina t iono fth eJ ew s .Th eyhadnoc l ea rs en s eo f wha tth eJ ew sa s aco l l e c t iv een t i tya c tua l ly w e r e :ar e l ig iou sfa i th ,ane thn i co rcu l tu ra l g roup ,o ra“ ra c e .”Th e r e wa sev ena H i spano -G e rmanBDo ff c e rw i th J ew i shan c e s t ry :L i eu t enan tE r i chRo s e , whod i edina c t ionin1943 .Pa r t o fh i sfam i lyhadp e r i sh ed inth eShoah .318 Mo r eov e r ,b ru ta l iza t ionf rom l i f eandcomba tcond i t ion sonth ef ron t wou ldno thav el edBDso ld i e r s toadop tg eno c ida la t t i tud e stowa rd sth eJ ew s ,a sth ey w e r ev i r tua l ly non ex i s t en tinth ea r ea s wh e r eth eSpan ia rd sw e r ed ep loy ed . How ev e r ,th i sdo e sno tm e anth a tth eSp an i shpo s i t ion w en t mu chb eyondth a to ftyp i c a lby s t and e r s .Th eyp a s s edth roughs c en e s wh e r eth e Ho lo c au s tw a sg e s t a t ingo ra l r e adyund e rw ay ,thoughf ewh adth eoppo r tun i tyto w i tn e s sm a s sex e cu t ion s .Th eyshow ednoi l lw i l lin wo rdo r a c t iontoth eJ ew sth eyen coun t e r ed ,bu tt r ad i t ion a lan t i J ew i shp r e jud i c e su r f a c ed in th e i rd i a r i e so r l a t e rr ef e c t ion s .Th eyp e r c e iv ed th a tsom e th ing unu su a lw a sh app en ingtoth eJ ew s ,andsom er e a c t edspon t an eou s ly inf avou ro fth ep e r s e cu t ed ,thoughth i sdo e sno tn e c e s s a r i lyimp lyany ongo ingp ro t e c t ion .Inth er e a rgu a rdho sp i t a l s ,th eSp an i shcomm ande r sadop t edl im i t ed m e a su r e sth a tqu a l i fya sp ro t e c t iv e .Th e r em ayh av e b e enaBDvo lun t e e rsom ewh e r e whos toodupandr i sk edh i sl i f e ,bu t mo s tr em a in eds i l en to rspok eon lyob l iqu e lyo f wh a tth ey w i tn e s s ed .319 On e examp l ei l lu s t ra t e sth i sa t t i tud e .S e rg ean t Ma r t ín ez T e s s i e r na r ra t edy ea r sla t e rtha tin G rodnoh e wa sov e r s e e ingad i s c ip l ina ry

202 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .5 .5 .M emb e r so fBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,amongth emG en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e s , tak ingpa r ta taCa tho l i cc e r emony ,h eadqua r t e r sinPok rov sko e ,1943(AGA )

p la toono fso ld i e r s whohadb e ena s s ign edtodophy s i ca l labou r .AG e rmans e rg ean tapp ea r ed w i thag roupo fJ ew stodoth e wo rkin s t ead . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rtookcha rg eo fth emando rd e r edth eyb eg iv enfood . Ag i r lto ldh iminb rok enF r en cho fth e i rm i s e ryanda sk edth eSpan i sh co rpo ra ltop e t i t ionth eBDcommandtohav eag roupo fJ ew sa s s ign ed toh imr egu la r ly ,toen su r eb e t t e rt r ea tm en t .H ed idno t .I t wa son eth ing toshowspon tan eou shuman i tytowa rd sth eJ ew s ,andqu i t eano th e rto 320 comm i ton e s e l ftop ro t e c t ingth em . Su r e ly , mo s tvo lun t e e r scou ldno t imag in e wh e r esu chs eg r ega t ion wou ldl ead . Wh enth eya r r iv eda tth e f ron t ,th ey w e r es t i l lf r ivo lou sabou t wha tth eyhads e eninPo land .K in, th eca r toon i s tfo rth eH o j ad eC amp añ a,na r ra t edinahumo rou sco lumn howth eRu s s ian s ,hav ingn ev e rta s t edg r e enb ean s ,w e r ep e rp l ex edby th e i r Ca s t i l iannam e ,jud í a , wh i cha l so m ean saf ema l eJ ew .“T oobad : w e ’ l lhav etopu tay e l lows ta ronea chon e ,soth ey ’ l lb e l i ev eu s !”321

6Th eLa s tC ru sad e r so fth e Naz iN ew O rd e r(1944–5 )

A f t e rth ed i s so lu t iono fth eB lu eL eg ionin Ma r ch1944 ,Span ia rd s who w i sh edtocon t inu etofgh tinth eG e rmanA rmylo s tth e i rSpan i shc i tiz en sh ip . Manyv e t e ran so fth eB lu eD iv i s ionadm i r edth eW eh rma ch t andb e l i ev edtha tth eTh i rdR e i chr ep r e s en t edanau th en t i cexamp l eo f r evo lu t iona ryfa s c i sm .I tcou ldb et ran sp lan t edtoSpa in ,ov e r com ing th econ s t ra in t simpo s edonFa lang i s tinfu en c eby mona r ch i s t s ,Ca tho l i ct rad i t iona l i s t s ,andth ea rmy .Th eya l sof e l ttha tth e in t e rna t iona l wa r aga in s tcommun i smtha thadb egunonSpan i shso i lin1936 wa sno t y e tfn i sh ed .A l tog e th e r ,b e tw e ens ixhund r edandon ethou sandSpani shvo lun t e e r s–adv en tu r e r s ,oppo r tun i s t s ,fa s c i s tfana t i c s ,su rv ivo r s– cho s etor ema inandjo in edth eG e rmanA rmya f t e r Ma r ch1944 .Som e o fth em w en t in tor egu la ra rmyun i t s ,o th e r s jo in edth eW a f f en -SS .Th ey w e r es ca t t e r edth roughou td i f f e r en t un i t sand d ep loy edonva r iou s f ron t s . Mo r ethanha l fo fth emd i ed ;som eo ftho s e whor e tu rn edfa c ed m i l i ta ryt r ia l s ,bu tth ey w e r eu sua l lya cqu i t t ed . Span ia rd sinthe W eh rma ch tandthe W a f fen -SS(1944–5 ) A sea r lya sD e c emb e r1943 , mo r ethanon ehund r edSpan i sho ff c e r s andso ld i e r sexp r e s s edtoth eG e rmanl ia i sonun i to fth eB lu eL eg ion tha tth ey w i sh edtojo inth eW a f f en -SSa svo lun t e e r s .Th eya l sohop ed tor e c ru i tfu r th e rvo lun t e e r sinSpa inand w e r ecoun t ingonFa lang e 1 suppo r t . Som eG e rmand ip loma t sb e l i ev edtha tB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e r an scou ldfo rmaco l labo ra t ion i s tfo r c einca s eo fa G e rmano rA l l i ed inva s iono fth eIb e r ianP en in su la .Th eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id f rm lyd i sapp rov edo fanya t t emp ta tcon sp i r ing w i thrad i ca lFa lang i s t s tos e tupn ewun i t so fvo lun t e e r sfo rth eEa s t e rnF ron t . How ev e r ,m em b e r so fth eG e rmanemba s syinth es e rv i c eo fth eAbw eh randth eS i ch2 e rh e i t sd i en s t(SD )f r equ en t ly w en tth e i rown way .

204 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F romea r ly1944 ,doz en so fSpan ia rd sc ro s s edth ePy r en e e sonth e i r ownin i t ia t iv e . Manyo fth emcon ta c t edth eG e rmanemba s syin Mad r id .Th ey w e r eg iv ennoexp l i c i tsuppo r t ,bu tSD m emb e r sandcon su l s u sua l lyadv i s edth emonhowtor ea chth eG e rmanr e c ru i t ings ta t ion s 3 c lo s etoth eF r en ch -Span i shbo rd e r . In m id Janua ry ,H i t l e r wa sin fo rm edabou tth en ewvo lun t e e r s .H een thu s ia s t i ca l lyou t l in edth ep ro j e c to ffo rm inga“Fo r e ignL eg ion”compo s edo fSpan ia rd sando th e r “app rop r ia t ehuman ma t e r ia l”f romanycoun t ry .H egav eth eg r e en 4 l igh tfo ra c c ep t ingSpan i shvo lun t e e r sin to G e rman A rmyun i t s . Th e SDa t t emp t edtot r igg e rac land e s t in ecampa ignfo rr e c ru i t ingSpan i sh vo lun t e e r sw i th inSpa inandcon ta c t edsom erad i ca lFa lang i s t s .B r i ti shin t e l l ig en c er epo r t sev en m en t ion edtha t“ i ti srumou r edtha tp lan s a r ea foo ttoo rgan iz ea‘B la ckSSFo rma t ion . ’Th e s ethug sa r ea l soto b er e c ru i t edf romr e tu rn ing m emb e r so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,a r etob e pa id50p e s e ta sadayand wo rkc lo s e ly w i thth eG e rman s .”5Inea r ly Augu s t1944th ep ro j e c t wa sabandon ed .G e rmand ip loma t sf ea r eda r ea c t ionf romth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t ;th eya l sohadno wayo fp r e v en t ingsh e e radv en tu r e r s ,m e r c ena r i e s ,andpa r t i cu la r lyB r i t i shsp i e s f romjo in ing .Fo rth eG e rmanemba s sy ,i t wa s mo r eimpo r tan ttok e ep Spa inn eu t ra lthantoa t t ra c taf ewhund r edvo lun t e e r s .6 Inth em e an t im e ,s ev e r a lG e rm ano ff c e r sb eg ancomp e t ingtoa t t r a c t vo lun t e e r s .Onth e i rown in i t i a t iv eo rw i thsom eh e lpf romth eD eu t s ch e A rb e i t s f ron t(G e rm an L abou rF ron t )o ff c ein M ad r id ,a long w i th Abw eh randSDag en t s ,anumb e ro fSp an i a rd sc ro s s edth ePy r en e e s , o f t enbyb r ib ingbo rd e rpo l i c em eno rsmugg l e r s . On c einF r an c e ,th ey w e r eb rough ttoa m e e t ingpo in tc lo s etoLou rd e s ,th e“F(F r i t z )Sp e c i a l S t a f f ”(S on d e r s t a bF) , wh e r efo rm e rm emb e r so fth eG e rm anl i a i sonun i t w i thth eB lu eD iv i s ionaw a i t edth en ew com e r s .Th einfuxo fvo lun t e e r s w a s mod e s t :abou t1 5 0Sp an i a rd s , mo s to fth emf an a t i cf a s c i s t s ,w e r e 7 r epo r t edtoh av er e a ch edth eFS e c t ionb e tw e enJun eandJu ly1 9 4 4 . O th e rr e c ru i t scam ef rom G e rmant e r r i to ry .D e s e r t e r sf romth eB lu e L eg ionjump edo f fth et ra in stak ingth emba cktoSpa in ,som e t im e s w i thth eh e lpo fth e i ro ff c e r s ,ands tay eda tth eS tab la ck -Südba r ra ck s in Kön ig sb e rg .B e s id e sth e s e ,th e r ew e r es t i l l mo r ethanth r e ethou sandSpan i shfo r e ign wo rk e r s( F r emd a r b e i t e r)in G e rmant e r r i to ryin m id -1944 ,th ela s to fth ec iv i l wo rk e r s ’con t ing en ttha tF ran co i s tSpa in hadb egund i spa t ch ingtoG e rmanyinth esumm e ro f1941 .La s tbu tno t l ea s t ,a tl ea s tth r e ethou sandSpan i sh R epub l i canr e fug e e sinF ran c e hadb e entak entoG e rmanya sfo r c edlabou r e r s(Zw ang s a r b e i t e r) .Som e o fth em w e r ea c t iv ea tth eO rgan iza t ionT od t ,and H i t l e rh im s e l fcons id e r edth ema spo t en t ia l lyr e l iab l ea l l i e sfo rshap ingan ewSpan i sh 8 fa s c i sm . Fo r e ign andcon s c r ip t ed wo rk e r sjo in ed W eh rma ch t and

La s tC ru sad e r so fth e Naz iN ew O rd e r 205

F ig .6 .1 .TwoSpan i shso ld i e r stak eas tud iosho tb e fo r er e tu rn ingtoSpa in , S ep t emb e r1942(AA )

W a f f en -SSun i t s ,o f t en mo t iva t edbyth ed e s i r efo rb e t t e rsa la r i e sand foodra t ion s ,e sp e c ia l lya f t e rA l l i edbomb ingra id shad d e t e r io ra t ed th e i r wo rk ingcond i t ion s .O th e r shop edtor ea cha r ea stha tw e r ec lo s e r toSpa in( I ta lyo rSw i tz e r land ) , wh i l eahand fu ls e emtohav es in c e r e ly 9 emb ra c ed Naz iid eo logy . Inla t eF eb rua ry1944 ,th eOKWcon c en t ra t edth eSpan i shc land e s t in e vo lun t e e r sf romth ePy r en e e sinth eLa R e in eba r ra ck s ,in V e r sa i l l e s . Th ey w e r eth entak entoKön ig sb e rgto jo inth e i rcompa t r io t s .Th eG e rman ssoonr ea l iz edtha tth en ewvo lun t e e r sw e r etoof ewinnumb e r

206 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

tos e tup mo r ethanacoup l eo fcompan i e s ,o ra tb e s taba t ta l ion .Th e G e rmanh ighcommanda l soh e s i ta t edabou thowtou s eth evo lun t e e r s . S in c e1941 ,th eyhadb e enconv in c edtha tIb e r ian sw e r eb e t t e rgu e rr i l la fgh t e r sthan d i s c ip l in edso ld i e r s . Th eSpan ia rd sw e r eeag e rto fgh tth eR ed A rmyonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,y e tth eA bw eh rp r e f e r r edto r e c ru i tsom eo fth em ,in c lud ingth efo rm e rB lu eD iv i s iono ff c e r sLu i s Ga r c ía -V a lda jo sand M igu e lEzqu e r ra ,fo ran t i -pa r t i san“ sp e c ia lun i t s” d ep loy edinF ran c e .10 Th e i rob j e c t iv e wou ldb etoinf l t ra t eF r en chr e s i s tan c eg roup s , wh i ch m igh tin c lud eSpan i sh R epub l i can sinex i l e . Som evo lun t e e r sw e r es en ttoSou th e rnF ran c e , wh i l eo th e r s jo in edsp ec ia lop e ra t ion sun i t sfa c ingth eUSt roop sin No r th e rnF ran c e . Inea r lyS ep t emb e r1944 ,twocompan i e so fSpan i shso ld i e r sl e f t Kön ig sb e rgfo rth e Ho l lab runnandS to ck e rauba r ra ck s ,n ea rV i enna . Sho r t lya f t e rwa rd sth ey w e r eg roup eda tth eSo lbad Ha l lin s t ru c t ion camp( Inn sb ru ck ) ,fo rt ra in inga s moun ta int roop s .Th ey w e r eca l l ed th eSpan i shV o lun t e e rCompan i e s(Span i s ch e -F r e iw i l l ig enKompan i en ) 101and102andg iv en G e rmano ff c e r s .Co ex i s t en c e wa sno tea sy :r e ga rd l e s so fth e i rp r ev iou srank sand m e r i t s ,a l lB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran s w e r er edu c edtoth eg rad eo fp r iva t e .Inla t e Augu s t1944 ,th e102nd Company wa sd i spa t ch edto G e rman -o c cup i edS lov en iaandin co rpora t eda long s id eF r en chandI ta l ianso ld i e r sin toth eB rand enbu rg D iv i s ion ,tofgh tth eYugo s lavpa r t i san s .A l thoughpa r t i sansou r c e ss e emto hav eov e r e s t ima t edth es iz eo fth eSpan i shun i t s ,th ey w e r ed ep loy edin th eno r th ea s t e rnZago r j er eg iontop ro t e c tra i lwayl in e sandpa t ro lth e v i l lag e sins ea r cho fpa r t i san s .Som ev i l lag er ep r e s en ta t iv e sp ro t e s t ed toth eG e rman sanda c cu s edth eSpan ia rd so fs t ea l ingf romth ec iv i l ian popu la t ion .M eanwh i l e ,th e101 s t wa sd i spa t ch edtoBukov inatosuppo r tth eG e rman w i thd rawa lf romRoman ia .11 Inea r lyD e c emb e r1944 ,th esu rv ivo r so fbo thcompan i e sr e tu rn edto Ho l lab runnandS to ck e rau .W i thsom eSpan i shn ew com e r s ,th e i run i t s w e r er e f r am eda sth eSp an i shV o lun t e e rR e s e rv eB a t t a l ion(F r e iw i l l ig en E r sa tz -Ba ta i l lon ) andth e Span i sh T ra in ing Ba t ta l ion(F r e iw i l l ig en Au sb i ldung s -Ba ta i l lon )andadh e r edtoa C roa t ianSS un i t .S ev e ra l Span ia rd sd e s e r t edandth e r ew e r ef r equ en t qua r r e l sw i th G e rman o ff c e r s . Appa r en t ly ,in D e c emb e r1944bo thun i t sw e r ed i s so lv edand p la c edund e rth ecommando fth eW a f f en -SS .12 Th en ,a sth en ewy ea r b egan ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ea s c r ib edtoth e357 thIn fan t ry D iv is ionandd ep loy edaga in s tth eSov i e tA rmyin No r th e rn Hunga ryand Sou th e rnS lovak ia .On lyaf ewsu rv iv edtho s ew e ek so fin t en s ecomba t . Th e s ew e r er e l ea s edf romth e i roa thtoth eG e rman A rmyandg iv en fa l s ep e r sona ldo cum en t stha tid en t if edth ema sfo r e ign wo rk e r s ,in hop e sth ey m igh tb eab l etor e tu rntoSpa in .

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Ap a r a l l e l in i t i a t iv e ,p e rh ap s t r igg e r edby th eAbw eh r ,w a sund e r t ak en bytwo W a l loono ff c e r s ,A lphon s eV an Ho r emb ek eandP au lK eh r en , whoh adfough tonth eF r an co i s ts id einth eSp an i shC iv i lW a randh ad a l sos e rv edinth eW a l loonL eg ion .A long w i th G a r c í a -V a ld a jo s ,th ey tu rn edtoL éon D eg r e l l e , whoen thu s i a s t i c a l lyapp rov edth e i rp l an .In co l l abo r a t ion w i thsom esup e rv i so r so fSp an i shfo r e ign wo rk e r s ,i tw a s po s s ib l efo rth emtor e c ru i t1 5 0 – 2 0 0Sp an i a rd sinG e rm anyf romamong fo r e ign wo rk e r s ,con s c r ip t ed wo rk e r s( Zw an g s a r b e i t e r) ,andso ld i e r s f romth ecomp an i e ss t a t ion ed inAu s t r i a .A l lo fth emfo rm edacomp any o fth e2 8 th W a l loon D iv i s iono fth eW a f f en -SS .13 How ev e r ,no ta l lth e Sp an i a rd sen l i s t edinth eSS w en tin to D eg r e l l e ’ sd iv i s ion .Som ew e r e g iv enth eop t iono fa c comp any ings ev e r a ldo z enI t a l i an sto No r th e rnI ta ly , wh e r eth ey jo in edsom ev e t e r an so fth eB r and enbu rgD iv i s ion who h adr em a in edth e r e . On eo fth em w a sth eo ff c e rJo s éO r t i z -F e rn ánd e z , aBDv e t e r an who wo rk ed inB e r l ina sat r an s l a to run t i lh ew a sr e c ru i t ed byth eA bw e h r tofgh tth eF r en chr e s i s t an c e .H i sm ix edF r en ch -Sp an i sh I t a l i anun i tw a s l a t e rr en am eda sE in s a t zg rupp ePy r en ä en ,andf rom Ju ly1 9 4 4p l a c edund e rth ecomm ando fth eSD ,a sp a r to fJ agdv e rb and Südw e s t ,l edbyth ech a r i sm a t i cSSco lon e lO t toSko r z eny . How ev e r ,O rt i zw en tb a cktoI t a ly ,r e c ru i t edahund r edSp an i a rd sf romamongth e Sp an i sh wo rk e r sin t e rn edinc amp s( som eo fth emh adb e enf r eddu eto l a cko fd i s c ip l in e )n e a rV i enn a ,andfo rm edag roupth a ta l soin c lud ed fo rm e rW a l loon sandB r and enbu rgv e t e r an s .By m id -D e c emb e r1 9 4 4 , th i scomp any w a s in co rpo r a t edtoth e5 9 .G e b i r g s j ä g e r -R e g im en to fth e 2 4 SS Moun t a in D iv i s ion . Un t i li t sd i s so lu t ionin M ay1 9 4 5 ,th e s eSp an i sh SSso ld i e r sfough tI t a l i anp a r t i s an sandth eadv an c ingUSA rmy .14 Th eSpan i sh m emb e r so fth eW a l loond iv i s iontookpa r tinth ef e r c e fgh t ing saga in s tth eR ed A rmyinPom e ran ia .In Ma r ch1945 ,th esu rv iv ingSpan ia rd sga th e r edinPo t sdam , wh e r eth ey w e r eo rd e r edto jo in an ewSSun i tcommand edby M igu e lEzqu e r ra .I tr e l i edonth elog i s t i c suppo r to fth eIb e roam e r i canIn s t i tu t eo fB e r l in ,d i r e c t edby W i lh e lm Faup e l . Cap ta inEzqu e r rar eg roup edSpan i shv e t e ran sf romd i f f e r en t un i t s ,andr e c ru i t edo th e rvo lun t e e r sf romamongSpan i sh wo rk e r s andev ensom eSpan i shs tud en t sinB e r l in .Th eE inh e i tEzqu e r raba r e ly amoun t edtotwocompan i e s . Many m emb e r sd e s e r t ed ,d evo t edth ems e lv e stop lund e r ing ,o ra t t emp t edtor e tu rntoSpa in w i thh e lpo fth e Span i shcon su la t e , wh i chcon s i s t en t lyboy co t t ed Ezqu e r ra ’ sa c t iv i ty . O th e r sd epa r t edfo rth eA lp s , wh e r e ,in s t eado fjo in ingth e“A lp in e fo r t r e s s ,”th eyf edin toI ta lyand wa i t edth e r efo rachan c etor e tu rn toSpa in .M eanwh i l e ,af ewdoz enSpan ia rd sr ema in edinB e r l inand fough ta long s id eF r en ch ,La tv ian ,andS cand inav ianvo lun t e e r sinth e No rd landD iv i s ionun t i lth efna lco l lap s eo fth eR e i ch .

208 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Inth efna lba t t l e so fth e wa r ,som eSpan i shsu rv ivo r sw e r ecap tu r ed byth eSov i e t s ,o th e r sbyth e Am e r i can sandB r i t i sh . Ahand fu l manag edtof e ed i sgu i s eda sc iv i l wo rk e r sandr ea ch edPa r i s ,Sw i tz e r land , andRom e , wh e r eth ey w e r eh e lp edbyth eSpan i shcon su la t e s , wh i ch p rov id edth empa s spo r t sandr e tu rnt i ck e t stoSpa in .15 Wh enth ebu lk o fth esu rv iv ingp r i son e r so f wa rf romth eB lu eD iv i s ion w e r er e l ea s ed f romSov i e tcap t iv i tyin Ap r i l1954 ,th e r ew e r etw en ty -on efo rm e r m emb e r so fth eW a f f en -SSamongth em . Mo r eSSv e t e ran sr e tu rn ed 16 toSpa ininth efo l low ingy ea r s , bu t mo s to fth eSpan i shSSso ld i e r s p e r i sh edincomba t ,w e r ek i l l edbypa r t i san s ,o rd i edinSov i e tcap t iv17 i ty . O th e r sw e r es ca t t e r edamongG e rmanf e ldho sp i ta l s , wh e r eth ey su f f e r edf romth e i r wound sandth einab i l i tytocommun i ca t ew i th 18 su rg eon sandnu r s e s . Naz i s ,Rad i ca lFa lang i s t s ,andSu rv ivo r s A sth eB lu eD iv i s ionandth eB lu eL eg ionr e t r ea t edf romth eEa s t e rn F ron t , manylo ca landp rov in c ia ll ead e r so fFa lang eexp r e s s edth e i r d i sag r e em en t .Som eu l t ra -Fa lang i s tin t e l l e c tua l sev ensough tG e rman suppo r t ,un su c c e s s fu l ly . On eo fth em wa sth eh i s to r ianf romth e Un i v e r s i tyo f Mad r id ,San t iago Mon t e ro D íaz , whouph e ldth e“ r evo lut iona rye s s en c e”o fSpan i shfa s c i sm . Un t i lF eb rua ry1945 ,h e mad e pub l i csp e e ch e sca l l ingonF ran co i s tSpa intoendo r s eG e rmanr e s i s tan c eaga in s tth eSov i e tinva s iono fEu rop etoth ela s t .H e wa sconfn ed byth eF ran co i s ts e cu r i tyfo r c e sun t i lth eendo fth e wa r . How ev e r ,th e Fa lang i s t ma in s t r eampa r tyr ema in ed loya ltoF ran co ,adop t edaCa thol i candan t i commun i s tp rof l e ,andsough ttod i s tan c ei t s e l ff romEu ro p eanfa s c i sm s .19 Th e id eo log i ca lp rog ramfo rth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r so fth eNaz i“N ew O rd e r” wa sc ra f t edou t s id eSpa inbya G e rman ,W i lh e lmFaup e l ,and th ed e f ro ck edBa squ ep r i e s t Ma r t índ eA r r izub i e ta .Th ela t t e rhadb e en c lo s etoth eBa squ ena t iona l i s t mov em en tun t i l1937 ,th enb e cam eaR e pub l i canr e fug e einF ran c e , jo in edth eF r en chFo r e ignL eg ion ,and wa s cap tu r edbyth eW eh rma ch tin1940 .A r r izub i e tasp en tfou ry ea r sdo ing fo r c edlabou rind i f f e r en tpa r t so fG e rmanyun t i lh e wa sr e l ea s edf rom cap t iv i tyAugu s t/S ep t emb e r1944 ,thank stoFaup e l ’ s infu en c e .H ewa s tak entoB e r l inandcha rg ed w i thed i t ingEn l a c e(L ia i son ) ,fo rm e r lyth e mou thp i e c eo fth eFa lang einG e rmany .I thadb e enpu r cha s edbyFaup e landg iv enan ew ,rad i ca l lyan t i -F ran co i s tandu l t ra -Fa lang i s ts tan c e . A f t e rh i st im einSpa inin1936–7a sf r s tH i t l e r ’ senvoytoF ran co ’ s h eadqua r t e r s ,Faup e l wa sconv in c edtha tanau th en t i ca l ly“ r evo lu t iona ry”fa s c i s tr eg im einSpa incou ldon lyb ea ch i ev edi fFa lang i s t sw e r e

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a l soendo r s edbyth ed e f ea t edR epub l i can sandR ed s ,th e r ebyna t iona l iz ingth el e f t . Wh enh eaga ina s sum edl ead e r sh ipo fth eIb e roam e r icanIn s t i tu t e ,h ea l sod ev e lop edac l i en t e l i s tn e two rkamongSpan ia rd s andLa t inAm e r i can sl iv ingin G e rmany .H ep ro t e c t edSpan i shfo r e ign wo rk e r s ,in c lud ingB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran sand R o t sp an i e r(Span i shR e pub l i canp r i son e r so rcon s c r ip t ed wo rk e r s ) . Th e“Na t iona l -So c ia l i s tFa lang i sm” d ev e lop edby A r r izub i e taand Faup e l ,h e lp edbysom e mo r erad i ca lFa lang i s t sandB lu eD iv i s ionv e te ran s , mo s t lycon s i s t edo farad i ca l iz edv e r s iono fth efound ingt en e t s o fSpan i shfa s c i sm ,s e enth roughth em i r ro ro f Naz i“Eu rop ean i sm ,”an exp r e s s ionco in edinth ep ropagandao fth e“Eu rop eanc ru sad eaga in s t Bo l sh ev i sm .”20 S im i la ra ff rma t ion shada l sob e enr ep rodu c edinth e H o j ad eC amp añ a,andinth ew r i t t encon t r ibu t ion stoth eSpan i shed i t ion 21 o fD a sJung eEu r op a byv e t e ran so fth eRu s s ianF ron t . Th en ewEn l a c e, how ev e r ,p r e s en t edc l ea rd i s t in c t ion sonsom epo in t s .Th ef r s to fth e s e wa si t sin s i s t en c eonsom e th ingc lo s etob io log i ca lra c i sm ,toendo r s ea mo r erad i ca lan t i -S em i t i sm .22 S e cond ,i tadvo ca t edna t iona l iza t iono f th el e f t :th ena t iona lf ra c tu r ecau s edbyth eC iv i lW a rinSpa inhadto b eov e r com ebyan ewna t iona lr evo lu t iontha tshou ldb es e cu la r ,abandon ingth ero l eo f Ca tho l i c i sm .F ina l ly ,i t srad i ca l“ so c ia l i s t”rh e to r i c 23 wa sa im eda ta t t ra c t ing R o t sp an i e rtoth en ewna t iona lcau s e . A l lth e s e t en e t s wou ldl eadtoth eov e r th rowo fG en e ra lF ran coon c eth eTh i rd R e i chhad wonth e wa randshou ldb ea t ta in ed w i th inth ef ram ewo rk o fth eEu rop ean N ew O rd e r .24 T o wha tex t en td idth ela s tm entofgh t und e rth eG e rmanfagsha r eth e Naz ic r e ed ?En l a c e wa sundoub t ed ly th e mo s tamb i t iou sa t t emp ttoshap eak indo f“Span i sh Na t iona lSo 25 c ia l i sm ,”ind ep end en to fth eFa lang i s tpa r tyando fth eF ran cor eg im e . Th ela s tSpan i shso ld i e r stos e rv eth eTh i rdR e i ch mayb econ s id e r ed a ma rg ina lph enom enon ,abando fadv en tu r e r s ,th i ev e s , mu rd e r e r s , andaf ewd e sp e ra t e wa rv e t e ran sunab l etosh i f tba cktoc iv i l ianl i f e . Som eau tho r sr ega rdth ema sth et ipo fth ei c eb e rg ,th es e ed so fco l labo ra t ion i s t Naz i sm w i th inth erank so fSpan i shfa s c i sm , wh i chcou ldf t th e Qu i s l ing mod e l . How ev e r ,th e r ei snor ea sontosuppo s etha tth e i r mo t iva t ion sw e r ee s s en t ia l lyd i f f e r en tf romtho s etha td rov eo th e rW e s t Eu rop eanvo lun t e e r sto jo inth eW a f f en -SSun i t s ,b eg inn ingin1943 .26 Av i ewf romb e low ,c en t r edonl e t t e r sanda c coun t sf romSpan i shSS and W eh rma ch tvo lun t e e r sin1944–5 ,show sa m ix tu r eo f mo t iva t ion s . Manyo fth em w e r efa s c i s tadv en tu r e r simbu ed w i thaz e i tg e i s to ffgh t aga in s tcommun i sm .O th e r sw e r eyou thhung ryfo radv en tu r e . Many o th e r sw e r es imp lyt ry ingtosu rv iv e .Th em emb e r so f wha ti ssom et im e sca l l edth e“Gho s tBa t ta l ion”l e f tf ewt ra c e so fth e i rexp e r i en c e s andev enf ew e rw r i t t en m emo i r s , wh i ch w e r eu sua l lyfu l lo ffan ta sy .

210 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

How ev e r ,th e r ei senoughev id en c etoa l lowana t t emp ta tc r ea t inga co l l e c t iv epo r t ra i t .M igu e lEzqu e r raando th e rv e t e ran s whopub l i sh ed th e i rm emo i r sa f t e rr e tu rn ingf romSov i e tcap t iv i tyd ep i c t edth e i rd e c i s iontojo inth efna l wa re f fo r to fth eTh i rdR e i cha ss imp lyanex t en s iono fth e mo t iv e stha thadl edth emtotak eupa rm sinJu ly1936 . Th ey w e r e mo t iva t edbyan t i commun i sm ,th ed e f en c eo f Ch r i s t ian and W e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ion ,andloya l tytoth eo r ig ina lp r in c ip l e so fSpan i shfa s c i sm .A l lth i s wa sa l sosh roud edinath inlay e ro fg en e ra t iona l non con fo rm i sm . Manyapp ea r eda sang ryyoungFa lang i s t s ,bu ton 27 r e tu rn ingtoSpa ins ev e ra lw e r elab e l l eda s“ comp l e t egang s t e r s .” Asamp l eo fth el e t t e r ss en tbySpan i shvo lun t e e r sinth eW eh rma ch t andth eW a f f en -SSb e tw e en Nov emb e r1944and Ma r ch1945 mayp ro v id esom ein s igh ta stoth e mo t iva t iono fth e s ela s tcomba tan t s . Mo s t o fth emsawl i t t l ed i f f e r en c eb e tw e enth eFa lang i s tandan t i commun i s t c r e edth eyhademb ra c edin1936and1941and wha thad mo t iva t ed th e i rfna lr e so lv etofgh ttoth ed ea thin G e rman m i l i ta ryun i t s .Th e fna l -hou rvo lun t e e r sp r e s en t edth em s e lv e sa s“ t ru e”Fa lang i s t s :loya l k e ep e r so fth et rad i t ion so fea r lySpan i shfa s c i smb e fo r ei t“ su r r end e r ed”toth epow e ro fth e Ca tho l i c Chu r chandth ea rmy .Th i sb e l i e f wa sc loak edinag en e ra lapp ea ltoth e“d e s t inyo fEu rop e ,”bu tth ey gav enos igno fhav ingadop t edany Na t iona lSo c ia l i s tc r e edtha tcou ld b econ s id e r ed m im e t i co fth eG e rman mod e l .Juan M .Pon ss ta t edin O c tob e r1944tha t“w ea r enow w i th inth erank so fth eG e rmanA rmy , and. . .con t inu eth efgh tw eb eganfo rth esak eo fSpa inonth e18 th o fJu ly1936 ,”thoughfo r c edto wag e wa rfa rf romSpa inand“und e r 28 ano th e r fag .” W eh rma ch tso ld i e rJo s é -Lu i sIbáñ ez w ro t etha tth e Span ia rd sloya ltoth eFa lang i s tl ega cy w e r efgh t inga long s id era th e r thanfo rG e rmany .B lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran Manu e lD íaz -T e l la , wh enen l i s t edinth eW a f f en -SS ,s ta t edtha th e wa sfgh t ingfo ra l ltha th ehad d e f end edin1936 ,bu ta l sofo rth esak eo f“Eu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion .”29 S ixSpan i shgu e s t wo rk e r sinV i enna man i f e s t edth e i rd e s i r eto jo inth e W a f f en -SS ,toca r ryon“ th eg r ea tta sktha tw ein i t ia t edinou rcoun t ry onth e18 tho fJu ly[1936 ] ,andtha tw ehav eno ty e tg iv enup , wh i ch w e b eganina rm sandla t e rcon t inu ed w i thou r wo rk .”30 Th eFa lang i s tsu r g eonJo s é Igna c ioImaz ,a ttha tt im ea m ed i ca lvo lun t e e ra taho sp i ta lin B raun s chw e ig ,sa idin D e c emb e r1944tha t wh i l e“ ra i s ing mya rm”in aFa s c i s tsa lu t e ,”h esawinth epag e so fEn l a c etha t“ th e r ea r es t i l lt ru e Fa lang i s t s :longl iv eth eO ldGua rd !”31 Th e r ew e r eev ensom ei so la t edca s e so ffo rm e rSpan i shR epub l i can A rmyso ld i e r s who ,a f t e rexp e r i en c ingF r en chlabou rcamp s du r ing 1939–40andy ea r so ffo r c ed labou r inG e rmany ,exp r e s s edtha tth eyhad b e com econv in c edo fth e“ so c ia lr evo lu t iona ryo r i en ta t ion”o f Na t iona l

La s tC ru sad e r so fth e Naz iN ew O rd e r 21 1

So c ia l i sm .Thu s ,Ado l foGonzá l ez -A lm ena ra w ro t einJanua ry1945tha t h esawth eTh i rdR e i cha sth e“ r ea lFa th e r land”o fa l l wo rk e r s ,compa r32 ingi tw i thth ed i sappo in tm en th ef e l tuponen t e r ingF ran c ein1939 . Fa i thinth e“Eu rop ean i s t” p ropagandao fth e Th i rd R e i ch ,anda b e l i e finth ep ro j e c to fa N ew O rd e rfo rth e Con t in en t ,s e em edtob e mo r ethanju s ts logan sfo r manySpan i shvo lun t e e r s .Th i s wa ssu r e ly th eca s efo r Dav id Góm ez , whoc ro s s edF ran c ew i thtwoBDv e t e ran s a f t e rl eav ingSpa inon15 Augu s t1944 .Th ey manag edtor ea chG e rman t e r r i to ryand w e r e wo rk ing inafa c to ry inCh emn i tz ,bu ta l soexp r e s s ed th e i reag e rn e s sto“aga in w ea rth eg r eyun i fo rmandtak epa r tinth e n ewEu rop eano rd e r .”33 S im i la r ly , wo rk e r An ton ioLu c enasa lu t edth e ed i to r so fEn l a c e w i thth es logan“A r r ibaE spaña”and w ro t etha t“ th e v i c to ryo fth eG r ea tR e i ch mu s tb eav i c to ryfo ra l lo fu s .”34 H e wa s fa s c ina t edby“ th i sg r ea tG e rmancoun t ry ,”a long w i th manyo th e run knownSpan ia rd s who w e r ea l so m emb e r so fth eW a f f en -SSand wou ld fgh ttoth eend .35 Ga l i c ianvo lun t e e rP ed roPo r t e lad efn edh im s e l fa sa “young wa r r io rfo rth en ewEu rop e ,”ands ign ed w i th“H e i lH i t l e r !Up w i thSpa in !LongL iv eG e rmany !”36 Ino th e rl e t t e r s ,an t i commun i smapp ea r edtob eth e ma in mo t iv efo r 37 jo in ingth eG e rmanA rmy . Lo r enzo O caña s ,anen s ign whotookpa r t inth ed e f en c eo fB e r l inand wa scap tu r edbyth eSov i e t sin May1945 , id en t if edimag e so fbomb ed G e rmantown sw i th“m emo r i e so f my coun t ry ,”imag in ing“wha tSpa in wou ldhav eb e enl ik ei fth e Mo s cow mon s t e rhad manag edtoroo ti t s e l finou rso i l. . .Ic lo s ed myey e sand saw myownv i l lag einfam e s .” O caña s , whohadb e enavo lun t e e rin th ein su rg en ta rmyo f1936 ,f rm lyb e l i ev edtha tth ecau s eo f1936– 9 onSpan i shso i l wa sb e ingd e f end edinad i f f e r en ts c ena r ioun t i l1945 . Ev ena f t e rr e tu rn ingf romSov i e tcap t iv i ty ,h ew ro t etha tth e wa r wa s no tov e ry e t .38 A l lth e s eexamp l e ssugg e s ttha tev enth e mo s tfana t i cSpan i shso ld i e r s , whofough ta s vo lun t e e r sinth e W eh rma ch tand W a f f en -SS du r ingth e fna ld e sp e ra t e mon th so fth e wa r ,d idi tfo rth esam e p r in c ip l e stha thad mo t iva t ed manyo fth emtofgh tfo rF ran coe igh t y ea r sea r l i e r .Infa c t ,som eo fth evo lun t e e r s who w e r esub s c r ib e r sto En l a c ed i sag r e ed w i thi t sed i to r , Ma r t índ eA r r izub i e ta ,b e cau s eth ey foundth ean t i -Ca tho l i cand“Na t iona lSo c ia l i s t”a r t i c l e spub l i sh edin th ejou rna ltoor emov edf romth ek eye l em en to fau th en t i cSpan i sh t rad i t ion , wh i chth eyf e l tshou ldp e rm ea t eanypu r e lySpan i shfa s 39 c i sm . B eyondadop t inga“Eu rop ean i s t”rh e to r i c ,invo lv em en tinth e G e rmanA rmyandev enth eW a f f en -SSc l ea r lyd idno tl eadth e s evo lun t e e r stoemb ra c ean ew wo r ldv i ew .Th e i rid eo log i ca l mo t iva t ion s r ema in edt ru etoaf ews imp l ebu tfa i r lye f f e c t iv ek eyt en e t s :th efgh t

212 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

wa sb e tw e en GoodandEv i l ,b e tw e en Godandth e God l e s s ,b e tw e en “ c iv i l iz edEu rop e”and“A s ia t i cba rba r i sm .” Apa r tf roman t i -S em i t i c rh e to r i co fr e l ig iou sex t ra c t ion ,th e r e wa snob io log i ca lra c i sm . Bu t th eso c ia lpo t en t ia lfo r“Na t iona lSo c ia l i s tFa lang i sm” wa sex t r em e ly l im i t edini t sfna lhou r .I ton lyr ea ch edaf ewhund r edFa lang i s tad v en tu r e r s ,Span i shgu e s t wo rk e r sin G e rmany ,andsom es e cond rank Fa lang el ead e r sandin t e l l e c tua l sinSpa in .Th ela s tSpan i shfa s c i s t s d i s l ik edth econ s e rva t iv eg en e ra l who wa snowch i e fo fs ta t e ,bu tth e i r ownpo l i t i ca lsu rv iva l wa st i edtoF ran co ’ s .Inth eend ,th i s wa sth e i r ma incon t rad i c t ion .

7W a rV e t e ran sand M emo r i e sf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron tinF ran co ’ sSpa in(1942–75 )

In Nov emb e r1941 ,Span i sho ff c e r sandso ld i e r s whohads e rv edonth e Ru s s ianF ron tb eganr e tu rn inghom e :som eonl eav e ,som e wound edo r mu t i la t ed ,som er epa t r ia t eda sund e s i rab l e s .Th ehaphaza rdt r ea tm en t th eyr e c e iv eda tth eI rúnt ra ins ta t ion ,a f t e rc ro s s ingth eF r en chbo rd e r , 1 spa rk edp ro t e s tamongth er e tu rn e e s . Though manyo fth e s ed i ff cu l t i e sw e r eso r t edou t ,th ef r s tg r ea t wav eo fsom efv ehund r edr e tu rn e e sin Ap r i l1942r e c e iv edaco ld ,i l l -p r epa r edhom e com ingf romth e 2 c iv i land m i l i ta ryau tho r i t i e s . Th eW a rM in i s t ry wa s mov edtoo rgan iz eab e t t e rw e l com efo rr e tu rn ingso ld i e r sa f t e rcomp la in t sw e r eh ea rd f rom G e rmancon su l sandFa lang i s tl ead e r s .A c co rd ing ly ,th eth i r t e en hund r ed m eninth es e cond wav eo fr e tu rn e e s , whos topp edinI rún on24 May ,w e r er ega l ed w i th m i l i ta ryhonou r sb e fo r econ t inu ingon 3 toat r iumpha lw e l com ein Mad r id . Th roughou tth ey ea r ,d i s cha rg ed , wound ed ,o rd i sab l edv e t e ran sr e c e iv eda l l mann e ro fhomag einth e i r hom e town s . Th e Na t iona lD e l ega t iono f Ex comba tan t s(D e l ega c ión Na c iona ld eEx comba t i en t e s , DNE ) ,th es ta t eo rgan iza t ionincha rg eo f wa rv e t e ran sf romth eF ran co i s tA rmy ,a s sum edth eta sko fp rov id ing fo rth e mo s tp r e s s ingn e ed so ftho s e whor e tu rn edf rom Ru s s iaina 4 s i tua t iono find ig en c e . G e rmand ip loma t sf e l ttha t manyr e tu rn e e sw e r es imp lyabandon ed toth e i rfa t ea tth eo th e rendo fth ehom e com ingpa rad e .Th es igh to fBD v e t e ran s ,I ronC ro s s e sonth e i rlap e l s ,un emp loy edo rev enr edu c edto b egg ing , mov edG e rmancon su l stoa c td e c i s iv e ly .InJu ly1942 ,th econsu linB i lbaoin t e r c ed ed w i thth elo ca lau tho r i t i e stofnd wo rkfo rr e 5 tu rn e e sf romRu s s ia . How ev e r ,lo ca lemp loy e r sw e r eno ta lway seag e r toh i r eth e s ev e t e ran s ,know ingtha ti tm igh ts t i rupr e s en tm en tino th e r wo rk e r s , who w e r eho s t i l etoth eF ran cor eg im e .Th eG e rmanamba s sado r ,con c e rn edtha tth ehonou ro fth eW eh rma ch t wa sb e ingta rn i sh ed , in s i s t edtoS e r ranoSuñ e rtha th es endBDv e t e ran sp r e f e r en t ia l lyto

214 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

G e rmanya sc iv i l wo rk e r s .6 Th eFo r e ign M in i s t rys en tth ep ropo sa lto th ecomp e t en tau tho r i t i e s ,bu tgo tnor ep ly .Ev enso , many , manyv e t e r an s manag edtor e tu rntoth eTh i rdR e i cha sc iv i l wo rk e r s . B eg inn inginJu ly1942 ,th en ew lye s tab l i sh ed G en e ra lO ff c efo rth e B lu eD iv i s ion w i th inth e DNE ,d i r e c t edbyth eFa lang i s t wa rv e t e ran Lu i sN i e to ,b e cam e mo r ea c t iv e lyinvo lv edin m e e t ingth en e ed so f tho s e whor e tu rn edf romRu s s ia .Th epo s to fBDp rov in c ia lin sp e c to r wa sc r ea t ed ,andLabou rM in i s t e rJo s é An ton io G i rónannoun c edin Ma r ch1943tha ts ta t ecompan i e s wou lda s sum e“ tu t e lag e”o f wo rke r s whohads e rv edonth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eG e rmancon su la t e sa l so r e c e iv edin s t ru c t ion stoexp ed i t eth eadm in i s t ra t iv e wo rkinvo lv edfo r BDv e t e ran so rth e i rfam i l i e stor e c e iv eth e i r wag e sandp en s ion s .S imi la r ly ,th eyin t e r c ed ed w i thlo ca lbu s in e s s e sandin s t i tu t ion stos e cu r e wo rkfo run emp loy edv e t e ran s .7 A f t e r1944 ,jobp la c em en t wa so f t en chann e l l edth rough DNEr e comm enda t ion sba s edonind iv idua lp e t i t ion s .R e tu rn e e sf romRu s s ia w e r e mo r ein s i s t en t ,a sth eyc la im edth e b en ef t sa s so c ia t ed w i thb e ingaF ran co i s tex comba tan tla t e rthano th8 e r s , whohada l r eadyapp l i edfo rth emin1939–41 . Th i sadm in i s t ra t iv esuppo r tp rov ede sp e c ia l lye f f e c t iv efo rp r i son e r s o f wa r who w e r er epa t r ia t edf romth e USSRin Ap r i l1954 .O fth e286 whor e tu rn ed ,192 w e r eawa rd edth et i t l eo fex comba tan tfo rhav ing s e rv edinth eBD ,th eB lu eL eg ion ,o rsu c c e s so run i t s ,andfo rhav ing condu c t edth em s e lv e s“ r e sp e c tab ly”du r ingth e i ry ea r so fcap t iv i ty .On tha tpo in t ,m i l i ta ryju s t i c eenqu i r i e so f t enb e cam equagm i r e so fun c e r ta in ty ,b eg inn ing w i thconf i c t inga c cu sa t ion so fco l labo ra t ion w i thth e Sov i e t samongth ep r i son e r sth em s e lv e s ,cha rg e so fd e s e r t ion ,o rth e fa c ttha tsom eo ftho s e whohadjo in ed G e rmanun i t sin1944– 5 had l e f tSpa ini l l ega l ly ,o rhadcou r t ma r t ia l sp end ing . Ap ragma t i cso lu t ion wa sadop t ed :a lmo s ta l lBDso ld i e r sw e r eg ran t edth econd i t iono f ex comba tan t ;andf f ty fou ro fth er e tu rn e e sw e r ee l ig ib l etor e c e iv eth e t i t l ei fth e i ro ff c e r sdu r ingcap t iv i tycou ldc e r t i fyth e i rgoodb ehav iou r . Th roughth ein t e rv en t iono fth e DNEandc iv i lgov e rno r s ,a lmo s ta l l tho s er epa t r ia t ed w e r eg iv enemp loym en t . How ev e r ,th er e tu rn edp r i son e r so f wa rw e r ein conv en i en th e ro e s inth eCo ld W a re ra .Th eycomp la in edtha tF ran cohadno tw e l com ed th emba ckinp e r son .Thoughth eW a rM in i s t rypu sh edtoawa rda l l r e tu rn e e sm i l i ta ryd i s t in c t ion sand m eda l sc r ea t edadh o c ,Cap ta inT eo do roPa la c io sandCap ta inG e ra rdoO roqu i e ta ,th etwoh igh e s t rank ing o ff c e r samongth eSpan i shcap t iv e s , wa i t edt eny ea r stob eawa rd ed th e i rm eda l s .Pa la c io s wa st r ea t eda sah e robyth er eg im eand wa s g iv ensom econ t ro lov e rs ev enla t e rexp ed i t ion stor epa t r ia t e“wa rch i ld r en”f romth eSov i e tUn ion ,un t i l1959 .9

W a rV e t e ran sand M emo r i e sf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t

215

P ro sopog raphyo ftheT ra je c to r ie so fBDRe tu rnee s Th eFa lang i s tjou rna l s hop edtha tin co rpo ra t ingth er e tu rn e e sf rom Ru s s iain toc iv i l ianl i f e wou ldh e lpr ev i ta l iz eSpan i shfa s c i smf romb elow , wh i l ea l sos e rv inga sa“Eu rop ean iz ing”and mod e rn iz inge l em en t 10 ini t spo l i t i ca lcu l tu r e . Th es ing l epa r tyfoundth emtob easou r c e o flo ca landp rov in c ia ll ead e r sh ip ;th eycou ldr e inv igo ra t ei t ss t ru c tu r e inth ep rov in c e s wh e r eex comba tan t sw e r eth inonth eg round ,su ch a ssou th ea s tSpa in . How ev e r ,th eBDv e t e ran sn ev e rb e cam eana r t i c u la t edg en e ra t iontha tl e f taun i fo rmimp r e s s iononth eF ran co i s tr eg im e .“Tho s ef romRu s s ia”hadhop edtob e com eth evangua rdo fth e Fa lang i s tc r e ed ,11 andsom e t im e sd e c la r edth em s e lv e seag e rtotak eup a rm saga intok e epSpa inf romb e com inga“ so c ia l i s t”r epub l i c .Th i s wa sani s su ein1946 , wh enex t e rna lp r e s su r ef romth eA l l i e sth r ea t en ed toov e r th rowth eF ran cor eg im e .ABDv e t e ranf romA lmad én(C iudad R ea l )w ro t eth entha t“aga in w eh ea rth evo i c eo fa la rmandi to rd e r su s 12 totak eupcomba tpo s i t ion s .” How ev e r ,th ed i c ta to r sh ip manag edto su rv iv ew i thou tth eh e lpo fth eBDv e t e ran s . A f t e rr e tu rn ingf romth eRu s s ianF ron t ,d iv e r s i ty ma rk edth et ra j e cto r i e so fth eBDv e t e ran s ,a c cu ra t e lyr ef e c t ingth eso c ia lh e t e rog en e i ty o fth evo lun t e e r so f1941–3 . Th i r tyy ea r sla t e r ,th ew r i t e rT omá sSa l vado rob s e rv edtha tany my thth eD iv i s ionhadc r ea t eda roundi t s e l f ow edtoth ein t e rna ld iv e r s i tytha thada l low edi t sm emo rytof l t e rin to b roads e c to r so fSpan i shpo s t -wa rso c i e ty : Many m enf romth eD iv i s ion , who w e r el i eu t enan t so rcap ta in sth en ,a r e h igho ff c e r sinth eA rm edFo r c e stoday .Andno taf ewo fth e i rm enhav e b e ene i th e rm in i s t e r so rl ead e r sinSpan i shpo l i t i c s .Ahand fu lo fth ema r e w r i t e r s .Bu t mo s to fth em …b e longtoth eo rd ina ryp eop l e .Pa r to fth e i r 1 3 l eg endow e stoth i sc i r cum s tan c e .

R e tu rn edo ff c e r sand many NCO scon t inu edth e i rm i l i ta ryca r e e r ,bu t mo s tso ld i e r sr e tu rn edtoc iv i l ianl i f e .Th e i rl i f et ra j e c to r i e sw e r eind e ed va r i ed . B e ingr e cogn iz eda sanex comba tan tf rom Ru s s iahadadvan tag e s wh eni tcam etoa c c e s s ingc iv i ls e rv i c epo s t s . Aquo ta wa sr e s e rv ed fo rBDso ld i e r s–a long w i thC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s ,d i sab l edso ld i e r s ,and ex -p r i son e r sinth eR epub l i canzon edu r ingth eC iv i lW a r( ex c au t iv o s )– ins ta t ec iv i ls e rv i c eexam sa ta l ll ev e l s .Tho s e whocho s etopu r su e un iv e r s i tys tud i e sw e r eex emp t edf romtu i t ionandexamf e e s .InF ebrua ry1942 ,th econd i t iono fex comba tan t ,a sd e s c r ib edinLawo f25 Augu s t1939 , wa sex t end edtoanyon e whohads e rv edfou r mon th s

216 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

onth eRu s s ianF ron to rhadb e en wound edth e r e .14 Th e s e mod e s tad van tag e sgav eBDv e t e ran sando th e rex comba tan t sa c c e s stolow -and m ed ium sk i l lpo s t srang ingf roms choo l t ea ch e r stochau f f eu r s .V e t e ran sw e r ea l sog iv enp r io r i tyfo rob ta in ingp e t ro ls ta t ioncon c e s s ion s 15 and job sinpub l i ccompan i e s . W i th inth i sg en e ra l lyfavou rab l ef ram ewo rkfo rin t eg ra t ingF ranco i s tex comba tan t sin toth ec iv i ls e rv i c e wo rkfo r c e ,ea chv e t e ranhad to mak eth eb e s to fh i sownsk i l l sandr e la t iona ln e two rk stor e in s e r t h im s e l fin toth elabou r ma rk e t .Ev entho s e whod idno tb en ef td i r e c t ly f romth e s ecompa ra t iv eadvan tag e shadb rough tsom e th ingba ckf rom Ru s s ia :th eyhad“ s e enth e wo r ld .”Th i sp r epa r edth emfo rem ig ra t ion toLa t in Am e r i caandEu rop e .Infa c t ,s ev e ra lBDv e t e ran sr e tu rn edto G e rmanya sgu e s t wo rk e r sa f t e r1955 . Th ep ro sopog raph i cda taava i lab l eonth epo l i t i ca landso c ia lp rovenan c eo fth eru l inge l i t einea r lyF ran co i smdo e sno tco r robo ra t eth e id eatha ts e rv inginth eB lu eD iv i s ionandth ea s so c ia t edp r e s t ig eo f b e ingav e t e rano fth eEa s t e rnF ron thadanyimm ed ia t eo rin t r in s i c “ t rampo l in e”e f f e c tonth epo l i t i ca lca r e e r so fth er e tu rn e e s .Th eBD v e t e ran sr e c e iv edsom esymbo l i cd i s t in c t ionun t i l1944 ,bu ta lway sa s ag roup w i th inala rg e rco l l e c t iv eo fex comba tan t so rO ld Gua rdFa lang i s t s . How ev e r ,th e i rp r e s en c e inth e s eg roup st end edtob eno t ewo r thy .T ob eav e t e ranf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t wa snoi so la t edd i s t in c t ion : i to f t enco r r e la t edtoaca r e e rtha tb egan w i thFa lang i s tm emb e r sh ipin th e1930 sandhadinvo lv edimp r i sonm en t ,comba t ,a“p rov i s iona len s ign”po s t ,anddu t i e sinsom eb ran cho fth es ing l epa r ty .Inadd i t ionto loya l tytoth eFa lang e ,b e ingan O ldGua rdFa lang i s t ,anex comba tan t , anex cap t iv e ,o ra m emb e ro faFET ma s so rgan iza t ion w e r eamong th ea c c ru ed“m e r i t s”tha tqua l if edon efo rtowncoun c i lm emb e r sh ip du r ingth e1940 sand1950 s .Fo rm e rBDvo lun t e e r sw e r ein c lud edinth e quo tafo rex comba tan t s .BDv e t e ran sw e r eno tnum e r i ca l lys ign if can t inth es ta t epo l i t i ca lpow e rs t ru c tu r e s ,bu tth ey w e r e mo r er e l evan tin tho s ep rov in c e s wh e r eth e r ehadno tb e en mob i l iza t iono rr e c ru i tm en t o fF ran co i s tcomba tan t sun t i l1938–9 . R e tu rn e e sf romRu s s iad idno tev encon s t i tu t easp e c if ca l lyd efn ed po l i t i ca lfa c t ion ,thoughtho s e who w e r eo rgan iz edina s so c ia t ion s t end edtob ea l ign ed w i thth e mo r efa s c i s ts e c to r so fth eFETa f t e r1944 . On lytwo m in i s t e r sinth eF ran cocab in e t sw e r eBDv e t e ran s :th efo rm e rcommand e r in ch i e fo fth eD iv i s ion ,G en e ra l Muñoz G rand e s , whob e cam eM in i s t e ro fth eA rmy(1951–7 )and V i c e -P r e s id en to fth e Gov e rnm en t(1962–7 ) ;andF e rnando M . Ca s t i e l la ,p ro f e s so ro fin t e r na t iona llawa t Mad r id Un iv e r s i ty , whos e rv eda sanamba s sado rand M in i s t e ro fFo r e ign A f fa i r s(1957–69 ) .In1968 ,1 1o fth e109 m emb e r s

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o fth eFET Na t iona lCoun c i l(app rox ima t e ly10 p e rc en t )w e r efo rm e r d iv i s i on a r i o s,and 22 BDv e t e ran sw e r em emb e r so fth eF ran co i s tCo r t e s o rl eg i s la t iv echamb e r(4 p e rc en to fi t s530 m emb e r s ) .Th e s ew e r esma l l p ropo r t ion s ,bu tla rg e rthanth eg en e ra t iona lcoho r to fBDv e t e ran sin Span i shso c i e ty , wh i chamoun t edtol e s sthan2 p e rc en t ,o rev enth e 16 co l l e c t iv eo fF ran co i s tex comba tan t so fth eC iv i lW a r . Wh en G en e ra l F ran cod i edin Nov emb e r1975 ,th e r ew e r etwoBDv e t e ran s– G ene ra lCa r lo sF e rnánd ezV a l l e sp ínand G en e ra lÁng e lSa la sLa r razába l– amongth es ix t e en m emb e r so fth eCoun c i lo fth eR ea lm(Con s e jod e l R e ino ) ,th eg roupta sk ed w i ths e l e c t ingth ecand ida t e sfo rh eado fgove rnm en tandp ropo s ingth emtoK ingJuanCa r lo sI . BDv e t e ran sw e r e mo r ep l en t i fu la tth es e condl ev e lo fs ta t eadm in i st ra t ion .Th ey w e r ee sp e c ia l lyov e r r ep r e s en t edamongth ed i r e c to r so f th eFa lang i s tV e r t i ca lSynd i ca t e , wh e r eO ldSh i r t sabound ed .F rom1942 to1951 ,10 .5p e rc en t( 19 o f181 )o fth ep rov in c ia lsynd i ca t ebo s s e sw e r e BDv e t e ran s .17 P e r c en tag e sw e r es im i la r lyh igh e rfo rp rov in c ia ll ead ing fgu r e so fth eFETando th e rin t e rm ed ia t epo s t sinth eadm in i s t ra t iv e appa ra tu so fth er eg im e .Th er e la t iv eyou tho fth ev e t e ran sf romRu s s ia , inr e la t ionto C iv i lW a rv e t e ran s , mad eth e i rp r e s en c el e s sno tab l ea t f r s tinth e mun i c ipa ladm in i s t ra t ion so fth ep rov in c ia lcap i ta l s ,p rov inc ia lcoun c i l s ,o ramongth eFa lang i s t s whoev en tua l lyh e ldpo s t sa sc iv i l gov e rno r s .18Inth e1950 s ,th epa r t i c ipa t iono ffo rm e rBD m emb e r sb e cam e mo r ev i s ib l e :a tl ea s ttw en tyBDv e t e ran sb e cam e mayo r sinsma l l and m id s iz edtown s .Thoughp r e s en tth roughou tSpa in ,th e s ev e t e r an sw e r e mo r eabundan tinth esou th ea s t e rnp rov in c e s .S ign if can t ly mo r ev e t e ran sf romRu s s ia w e r ee l e c t eda stowncoun c i lm emb e r sdu r19 ingF ran co i sm ,bu tth eexa c tnumb e r sa r ed i ff cu l ttoa s c e r ta in . Th e r ei sas epa ra t echap t e rinth es to ryfo rth eg en e ra t iono fa rmy o ff c e r s whofn i sh edth e i rt ra in inga tth eG en e ra lM i l i ta ry A cad emy b e tw e en1939and1942ands e rv edinth eBD .Th eEa s t e rnF ron t wa s on eo fth e i rf r s ta s s ignm en t s ,and manycho s ei ta sa wayo fa cqu i r ing wa rm e r i t s .Som e166h igh rank ingo ff c e r spa s s edth roughth eBD ,a l l o fth emca r e e rm i l i ta ry m en . Manyhadb egunth e i rt ra j e c to ryinth e co lon ia l wa r sin Mo ro c co ,o th e r sinth eC iv i lW a r . Add i t iona l ly ,2 ,030 low e r rank ingo ff c e r sanda s manya s4 ,083 NCO shadb e ena s s ign ed toth eRu s s ianF ron t ,and manya cqu i r edac e r ta inp r e s t ig eamongth e i r co l l eagu e sfo rhav ings e rv edinth eW eh rma ch t .M eda l sw e r eea rn ed , a tl ea s t21 o ff c e r s ,34 non comm i s s ion edo ff c e r s ,and2so ld i e r sw e r e p romo t edtoah igh e rrank ,anda tl ea s t218o ff c e r sw e r ep romo t edon 20 th ef e ld . Th i senab l edth emtoc l imbth em i l i ta ryladd e randa s c end topo s i t ion so fh ighcommandr e la t iv e ly mo r equ i ck lythancoho r t stha t hadr ema in edinSpa in .

218 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Y e t ,th ee sp r i td ec o rp so fth ev e t e ran sf romth eRu s s ianF ron tandth e i r g en e ra t iona lso l ida r i ty w i th inth eSpan i sh A rmyd idno tr ea chth ed eg r e eo fcoh e s iontha thadcha ra c t e r iz edth e“A f r i can i s t s”twod e cad e s ea r l i e r ,tho s e whohadfough ta tth eco lon ia l wa r in Mo ro c co .Th e i rt im e inRu s s iahadl e f ta m ean ing fu lbu tth inlu s t r eonth e i rs e rv i c er e co rd s , a f fo rd ingth em p romo t ion s ,m eda l s ,andexp e r i en c e s .A c co rd ingto th ela t eg en e ra lA l fon soA rmada ,“ i t wa sa sthough w ehadcomp l e t ed ado c to ra t e .”Th i sin fo rma lc r i t e r ionba r e lyfoundroominth ea rmy fo rc r ea t ingsp e c if ca s so c ia t ion so rev enfo rcu l t iva t ingla s t ingg roup bond s .21 Af ewo ff c e r sco l labo ra t ed w i thv e t e ran s ’a s so c ia t ion s , wh i ch w e r e ma in lyp romo t edbyBDv e t e ran sr e tu rn edtoc iv i l ianl i f e . Thank stoth ea c cumu la t ed p romo t ion sfo r wa r m e r i t s , du r ing th ey ea r so fth e Span i sht ran s i t ionto d emo c ra cy(1975– 82 )as ign if can tp e r c en tag eo fd iv i s ionandb r igad eg en e ra l sinth eSpan i sh A rmyhadfo rm e r lys e rv edin Ru s s ia .B e tw e en1962and1983 ,s ev en command e r s in ch i e fo fth eC iv i l Gua rd–th em i l i ta r iz edru ra lpo l i c e co rp s–a long w i ths ixg en e ra l sande igh tco lon e l sw e r efo rm e rBDo f f c e r s .A tl ea s t300g en e ra l sind iv e r s eb ran ch e so fth eA rm edFo r c e s(2 cap ta ing en e ra l s ,66l i eu t enan tg en e ra l s ,62 d iv i s iong en e ra l s ,170b r i gad eg en e ra l s )hada l sofough tonth eEa s t e rnf ron t .22 How ev e r ,th i s d idno tn e c e s sa r i lyd e t e rm in epo l i t i ca la l ignm en t s . Wh i l eBDv e t e ran s w e r ep l en t i fu lamongth em i l i ta rytopb ra s s , wh i ch ma in lyid en t if ed w i th ma in ta in ingF ran co i s tva lu e s ,no ta l lo fth em w e r eha rd l in e r s .In fa c t ,th em i l i ta rycommand e r s whop lay edc en t ra lro l e sinth efa i l ed coupd ’ é ta ton23 F eb rua ry1981 ,in c lud ingth ep e rp e t ra to r s– G en e ra l Ja im eM i lán sd e lBo s chandG en e ra lA l fon soA rmada–andtho s e who r ema in edloya lto K ingJuan Ca r lo sIandd emo c ra cy– G en e ra l sA r ambu ruT op e t e ,Jo s é Gab e i ra s ,and Qu in tanaLa ca c i–hadon eth ing incommon :th eI ronC ro s s ,awa rd edfo rs e rv i c eonth eRu s s ianF ron t . G en e ra l sLu i sÁ lva r ezRod r ígu ezandF ed e r i coGóm ezd eSa laza r , who p r e s id eda tth ecou r t ma r t ia lo fth econ sp i ra to r s ,w e r ea l sov e t e ran s f romRu s s ia .Th eyhada l lsha r edacommonpa s texp e r i en c ebu tw e r e onv e ryd i f f e r en troad sfou rd e cad e sla t e r . Agen t so f Memo ry :B lue D iv i s ionV e te ran s ’A s so c ia t ion s Compa r edtov e t e ran s ’b ro th e rhood so fth eG e rman A rmyandi t sa l23 l i e s , o rev entho s eo fF ran co i s tex comba tan t s ,th eo r ig ino fBDv e t e r an s ’a s so c ia t ion s wa sc lo s e lyl ink edtoth ecu l ttoth efa l l en .InJanua ry 1942 ,th eG e rmanemba s syp ropo s edap ro j e c ttoo rgan iz eana s so c ia24 t ionfo rr e tu rn e e sf romth eRu s s ianF ron t . How ev e r ,th esugg e s t ion fa i l eddu etola cko fin t e r e s tonth epa r to fth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t .

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Th ea rmyf ea r edtha tth ev e t e ran sm igh tp romo t erad i ca lFa lang i sm andcomp l i ca t ed ip loma t i cr e la t ion sw i thth eA l l i e s ,o rtha tth eycou ld s e rv ea saT ro janho r s efo rth eTh i rdR e i ch . How ev e r ,th eSpan i shpo l i c e 25 a t t r ibu t ed mu ch mo r er e l evan c etoth e s eg roup sthan wa s wa r ran t ed . Inla t e1942 ,th eG e rmanemba s syb e cam es en s i t iv etoth ep e t i t ion s o fth efam i l i e so fSpan ia rd sfa l l eninRu s s ia .Th econ su l so f t enawa rd ed I ronC ro s s e stofam i ly m emb e r so fth ed ead ,andev ensough tG e rman p en s ion sfo rth em .26In1943 ,th eF ran cor eg im eb eganto mak ei tcom p l i ca t edfo rfam i l i e so fth efa l l enandBDv e t e ran stor e c e iv eind iv idua l iz eda t t en t ionf rom G e rmand ip loma t s ;inJun e1944 , Amba s sado r Han s -H e in r i ch D i e ckho f flam en t edtha th e wa sunab l etos endp ropagandatoth er e tu rn e e s ,a sh ehadnoa c c e s stoth e i r ma i l ingl i s t s .27 D e c i s iv eimp e tu sin i t ia l lycam eth roughth ecoo rd ina t iono fw iv e s anddaugh t e r so fth evo lun t e e r s ,e sp e c ia l lytho s el ink edtoth eFa lang e , inth esumm e ro f1941 .So l ida r i tyin c r ea s eda sn ew so fth ef r s tba t t l e s a r r iv edin m id -O c tob e randBDso ld i e r sb egantos endg r e e t ing sv iaRa d ioB e r l in .Th efan c é eo faFa lang i s tcomba tan td e s c r ib edth e s ega th e ring s , wh i chtookp la c ea f t e r Ma s sandRo sa r i e s : H e r eth e r ea r ev e r i tab l ec i r c l e sfo rl i s t en ingtoRad ioB e r l in ,andg roup s o f mo th e r sands i s t e r sfo rminhom e sw i thrad ior e c ep t ion … w ed i s cu s s i t ,comm en toni t ,som e t im e sw ea r eenv i edando th e rt im e senv iou s ,d e p end ingoni fw ehav er e c e iv edal e t t e ro rno t .28

G i r l f r i end s ,s i s t e r s ,andr e la t iv e sw ro t etoen cou rag eth ecomba tan t s infa r -o f fRu s s ia ,th e i ranx i e tyin c r ea s ing wh enth erad ior epo r t edon th eV o lkhovba t t l e so r wh enth e r ew e r ed e lay sinr e c e iv ingl e t t e r sf rom 29 th evo lun t e e r s . Th e mo th e r s ,g i r l f r i end s ,andr e la t iv e so ftho s e who d i edin Ru s s iao f t en m e ta f t e r Ma s s e sfo rth evo lun t e e r sinfou r Mad r idchu r ch e s .InJun e1942 ,th eid eaa ro s etoc r ea t eab ro th e rhoodo f ex comba tan t stocoo rd ina t eadm in i s t ra t iv e wo rkr e la t edtop en s ion s andsub s id i e sfo rv e t e ran sandth e i rfam i l i e s .30 Span i shA rmyr e t i c en c e exp la in s whyth efam i l i e so fth efa l l enaga intookth ein i t ia t iv e .In1943 , th eB ro th e rhoodo fFam i l i e so fth eFa l l eno fth eB lu eD iv i s ion(H e rman dadd eFam i l ia r e sd eCa ído sd ela D iv i s ión Azu l ) wa sfo rm ed ,w i tha chap e linaFETh eadqua r t e r wh e r ear ep l i cao fas cu lp tu r ebyV í c to rd e lo sR ío s ,ar e l ig iou sca rv e r , wa sin s ta l l ed .Th e r e ,r e la t iv e scou lda t t end da i ly Ma s sfo rth efa l l en ,andfo rBDp r i son e r so f wa rinth eSov i e t Un ionla t e ron .G radua l ly ,symbo l i cda t e sw e r ee s tab l i sh edin m emo ryo fth eBD ,su cha sA l lSa in t s ’ Day(2 Nov emb e r )and13Ju ly ,th e ann iv e r sa ryo fth e1941d epa r tu r eo fth ela rg e s tvo lun t e e rexp ed i t ion . Th ein i t ia t iv esoonsp r eadtoo th e rc i t i e s .Inla t e1942 ,anana logou s

220 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .7 .1 .Hom eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion , Mad r id ,1943(AGA )

b ro th e rhoodr equ e s t edth epa t ronag eo falo ca lpa t ronsa in tf romth e B i shopo f Má laga .InJun e1943 ,th efounda t ionfo rth eP iou sM emo ryo f 31 th eFa l l eninth eG lo r iou sB lu eD iv i s ion wa se s tab l i sh edinV a l en c ia . Inla t e1944 ,th eSpan i shgov e rnm en to rd e r edth ec lo su r eo fth eB lu e D iv i s ion Hom e ,bu tth echap e l wa s mov edtoth eh eadqua r t e r so fth e P rov in c ia lD e l ega t iono fEx -Comba tan t s .Twoy ea r sla t e r ,i tb e cam eth e B ro th e rhoodo fth eFam i l i e so fth eFa l l eno fth eB lu eD iv i s ion(H e rmandadd eFam i l ia r e sd eCa ído sd ela D iv i s ión Azu l ) ,w i tha c t iv i t i e sl imi t edtop e r iod i ca lr e l ig iou sa c t sandth ec e l eb ra t iono f Mo th e r ’ sDayon 8D e c emb e r .In1953 ,i tb e cam eth eB ro th e rhoodo fth eFam i l i e so fth e Fa l l en ,P r i son e r s ,andEx -Comba tan t so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,andb egan n ego t ia t ion stha tu l t ima t e lyl edtoth er epa t r ia t iono f mo s tp r i son e r s f romSov i e tcamp sin Ap r i l1954 ,thank stoth em ed ia t iono fth eR ed C ro s s . Hund r ed so fv e t e ran sw e l com edhom eth er e l ea s edp r i son e r sa t th epo r to fBa r c e lona ,g iv ingth ea c th ighemo t iona limpa c tandin c r ea s 32 ingth ev i s ib i l i tyo fth eco l l e c t iv em emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .

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Th eau th en t i c“ t r an sm i s s ionag en t s ”o fth eo ff c i a lm emo ryo fth ev i cto r so f1 9 3 9 ,th eex comb a t an ta s so c i a t ion sf romth eC iv i lW a r(N a t ion a l Ex -Comb a t an t sB ro th e rhood , N a t ion a lB ro th e rhood o fP rov i s ion a l En s ign s ) , wo rk edincoo rd in a t ion w i thth e DNE .Th ebu rg eon ingBD b ro th e rhood sf tw i th inth i ss t ru c tu r e ,bu tw i thsom es ingu l a r i t i e s .F i r s t , m anyo fth emfo rm edonth espon t an eou sin i t i a t iv e so fg roup so fBD v e t e r an s .S e cond ,th en e c e s s i tyo fad ap t ingtoth eCo ld W a rcon t ex tr equ i r edth er eg im etodownp l ayi t sa t t en t iontoaun i tth a th adfough tin th eW eh rm a ch t .Th e r e fo r e ,th ed i c t a to r sh ipg av es c an to ff c i a lsuppo r t 3 3 toth eBDb ro th e rhood s . Th i sb e c am eev id en t in M ayo f1 9 5 9 , wh enBD v e t e r an sh e ldar e c ep t ionfo rad e l eg a t iono fth eCondo rL eg ionV e t e ran s ’A s so c i a t ion , wh i chh adb e enfound edth r e ey e a r se a r l i e r . Du r inga r e l ig iou so f f e r inginB a r c e lon a ,som eshou t edp ro -N a z is log an s , wh i ch p rov edawkw a rdfo rth eW e s tG e rm anemb a s sy .34 How ev e r ,suppo r tfo r comm emo r a t iv ea c t so fth eb ro th e rhood sinsom ep rov in c e sr ev e a l ed comp l i c i ty w i thp rov in c i a ll e ad e r so fth eFET ,c iv i land m i l i t a rygov e r no r s ,andev entown m ayo r s .Thu s ,th eA l i c an t eb ro th e rhoodr e c e iv ed don a t ion sf romth ep rov in c i a lgov e rnm en tands ev e r a l mun i c ip a l i t i e s . Som eex -BD m emb e r s ma in ta in eds t rongin fo rma ll ink sw i thfo rm e r 35 com rad e sand m e to c ca s iona l lytocomm emo ra t esp e c if cda t e s . Th i s a l sofoundexp r e s s ioninth espon tan eou sfounda t iono fb ro th e rhood s ins ev e ra lc i t i e s ,som e t im e sw i thnoo rgan i cl inktoth e DNEo rth eFa lang e .In A lava ,ap rov in c ia lb ro th e rhood wa sa l r eadyo rgan iz edby F eb rua ryo f1954 .Sub s equ en t ly ,th eA lavag roupp ropo s edth ec r eat iono fb ro th e rhood sina l lth ep rov in c e stoth e Na t iona lD e l ega t eo f Ex -Comba tan t sand BDv e t e ran T omá s Ga r c ía R ebu l l .In1954–5 ,26 mo r eb ro th e rhood ssp rangupin Mad r id ,Ba r c e lona ,ando th e rp rov inc ia lcap i ta l s .Apa r tf romth eex c ep t iona l lyla rg eA s tu r ianb ro th e rhood , m emb e r sh iprang edf rom 45to150 m emb e r ssp r ead ma in lyth rough ou tCa s t i l e ,Anda lu s ia ,andth esou th ea s t . InJun e1956 ,250BDv e t e ran sr ep r e s en t ing29lo ca lg roup sconv e rg ed inV a l en c iafo rth ef r s t Na t iona lCon f e r en c eo fB lu eD iv i s ionB ro th e r hood s ,p r e s id edbyGa r c íaR ebu l l .36 On eo f i t sp r ima ryob j e c t iv e s wa sto c r ea t ea Na t iona lF ed e ra t iono fBDb ro th e rhood s .Con f e r en c esp eak e r s exud edan t i commun i sm ,Ca tho l i c i sm ,andloya l tytoth efound ingt en e t so fF ran co i sm .Th eya l soca l l edfo rfu lf lm en to fth e“ r evo lu t iona ry” t en e t so fth eFa lang e , wh i chin c lud eda“ fa i rr ed i s t r ibu t iono fna t iona l in com e”a sw e l la sa“ so c io e conom i cpo l i cytha tavo id edex c e s s iv ed i f f e r en c e samongwo rk e r s ,”th eg radua ld i sman t l ingo f“p r e s su r eg roup s , ca r t e l s ,t ru s t s ,and monopo l i e s ,”andth evagu egoa lo f“ t ran s fo rm ing th een t r ep r en eu r ia ls t ru c tu r eandcon c ep to fp rop e r ty .”A ch i ev ingth e s e ob j e c t iv e s wh i l eavo id ingpov e r tyinth elow e rc la s s e s– wh i ch m igh t

222 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .7 .2 .Mo th e ro fCo rpo ra lN em e s ioGa r c íaV ega ,d e co ra t ed w i thth eI ron C ro s sawa rd edpo s thumou s lytoh e rson(In f o rm a c i on e s ,24 Ma r ch1942 )

op enth edoo rtocommun i sm–r equ i r edavagu e“ r e fo rm”o fth ed i cta to r sh ip ,r ev i ta l iza t iono fth eFa lang e ,anda l low ingsom ek indo f“o r d e r ly”f r e edomo fsp e e ch .Th eya l sop e t i t ion edtoe s tab l i shquo ta sfo r BDv e t e ran stoa c c e s sc iv i ls e rv i c epo s t sandsub s id iz edhou s ing .37 Th enumb e ro fb ro th e rhood scon t inu edtoin c r e a s ea f t e rth ef r s tconf e r en c e .Th ef r s tN a t ion a lCoun c i lo fBDB ro th e rhood sh e ldinSob rón (Á l av a ) inO c tob e ro f1 9 5 8ho s t edfo r ty twod e l eg a t e sf romtw en ty th r e e lo c a l and p rov in c i a lb ro th e rhood s . Th eg eog r aph i c a ld i s t r ibu t ion loo s e lyco in c id ed w i thp rov in c e sund e rR epub l i c ancon t ro lun t i lM a r ch

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F ig .7 .3 .BDv e t e ran s ’lun chinCa l e l la(Ba r c e lona ) ,ea r ly1950 s(Ca l e l laC i ty A r ch iv e )

1 9 3 9 ;th e r e ,BDv e t e r an sw e r e mo r ev i s ib l einth eab s en c eo fo th e rF r an 3 8 co i s tex comb a t an t so fth eC iv i lW a r . Th eco rpo r a t iv eand mu tu a l i s t i c n a tu r eo fth eo rg an i z a t ion w a sr e in fo r c edandth eyag r e edtoinv i t eth e M in i s t ryo fFo r e ignA f f a i r stoov e r s e ed e a l ing sw i thth eF ed e r a lR epubl i co fG e rm any ,top ro cu r eG e rm an w a rp en s ion sfo r mu t i l a t edv e t e r an s o rf am i l i e so fth ef a l l en .39 Y e t ,th eN a t ion a lB ro th e rhoodo fth eB lu eD i v i s ion w a sno to ff c i a l lye s t ab l i sh edun t i lth eS e cond N a t ion a lCoun c i l , wh i chtookp l a c ein A l i c an t einJun e1 9 5 9 .Ev en w i than a t ion a ls t ru ctu r eandi t s mon th lyjou rn a lH e rm an d a d (b egunin1 9 5 5 ) ,th ep rov in c i a l b ro th e rhood sa lw ay s m a in t a in ed amp l e au tonomy . Th ey pub l i sh ed bu l l e t in sth a tw e r es e ldomr egu l a r ,w i thth eex c ep t iono fth e mon th ly 4 0 m ag a z in eB l auD i v i s i ón ,b egunin1 9 5 7byth eA l i c an t eb ro th e rhood . Th eb ro th e rhood sa l sod emon s t ra t edth e i rconv en ingpow e rin O ctob e r1961 , wh enana c to fhomag eto Ou rLadyo fth eP i l la r(V i rg en d e lP i la r )inZa ragoza wa so rgan iz edfo rth etw en t i e thann iv e r sa ryo f th e i rbap t i smbyf r eonth eV o lkhovF ron t . A man t l ew i thth eBDem b l em wa sp la c edonth eV i rg in ,tob e wo rnev e ry10 F eb rua ryonth e ann iv e r sa ryo fth eBa t t l eo fK ra sny iBo r .Som efou rthou sandex -BD

224 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 41 so ld i e r sandth e i rr e la t iv e sa t t end ed ,a long w i ths ev e ra lFETl ead e r s . Th ev i ta l i tyo fth eBDb ro th e rhood s wa sr ef e c t edinth e i rcapa c i tyto b r ingtog e th e ras ign if can tpo r t iono fth ev e t e ran sinea chp rov in c e . Mo r eov e r ,th eso c ia lp rof l eo fBDb ro th e rhood s wa sl e s sm idd l e c la s s co lou r edthantha to fo th e rF ran co i s tex comba tan ta s so c ia t ion s .Thu s , th eSan tand e rb ro th e rhood wa sfound edin1955andboa s t ed186 m em b e r say ea r la t e r ,r ep r e s en t ingsom e15–17 p e rc en to f l iv ingBDv e t e ran s intha tp rov in c e .Th em idd l eandlow e r -m idd l es t ra ta w e r esom ewha t ov e r r ep r e s en t edinth eso c ia lo r ig in so fth e159 m emb e r s whol i s t ed th e i rp ro f e s s ion , wh i cha c cu ra t e lyr ef e c t edth ed iv e r s i tyo fBDv e t e r an s :54( 34 p e rc en t )w e r eemp loy e e s ,non -manua l wo rk e r s ,andc iv i l s e rvan t s ;43( 27 p e rc en t )w e r esk i l l edlabou r e r s ;35( 22 p e rc en t )w e r e un sk i l l ed wo rk e r so rdaylabou r e r s ;10(6 .28p e rc en t )w e r em emb e r so f 42 th em i l i ta ry ;and2(1 .35p e rc en t )w e r efa rm e r s . Ex c ep tfo rth epow e r fu lA s tu r iana s so c ia t ion , mo s tb ro th e rhood sr ep43 r e s en t ed15–33 p e rc en to fBDr e tu rn e e s . Th ep r e s id en to fth eA lba c e t e b ro th e rhoodc la im edtha tth i sen t i tyhadga th e r eda s manya s200(38 .1 p e rc en t )o fth e515r e tu rn e e stoth ep rov in c e .Th e Gu ipúz coab ro the rhood ,s e tupin1961 ,had120 m emb e r s , wh i chr ep r e s en t eda round 23 p e rc en to fth er e tu rn e e so fth ep rov in c e .Th e Mad r idb ro th e rhood 44 c la im edtwothou sand m emb e r s in1958 . O th e r ind i ca to r sp la c eth e infu en c eo fth eb ro th e rhood sa t mo r e mod e s t l ev e l s .Th eBa r c e lonab ro the rhoodd i s t r ibu t ed2 ,940cop i e so fi t sbu l l e t in( H e rm and ad)th roughou t Spa inin D e c emb e r1958 , wh i chco r r e spond edto7–8 p e rc en to fa l lBD 45 r e tu rn e e s . Th eso l idco r eo fb ro th e rhood s wa s mu chsma l l e r :f rom 1957to2008ato ta lo f870v e t e ran sw e r em en t ion edbynam einB l au D iv i s i ón a scon t r ibu to r s ,sub s c r ib e r s ,a s so c ia t e s ,o rs imp lyr e f e r en c e s . Th i sr ep r e s en t ed ju s tov e r2 p e rc en to fth er e tu rn edv e t e ran s . Lo ca lb ro th e rhood sw e r ee s tab l i sh edonth ein i t ia t iv eo fBDv e t e ran s , who w e r eg en e ra l ly w e l lconn e c t ed w i thlo ca landp rov in c ia lau tho ri t i e s ,o rby m i l i ta ryga r r i sono ff c e r s whohads e rv edonth e Ru s s ian F ron t .A l la s so c ia t ion sfo l low eds im i la r op e ra t iona l pa t t e rn s :som e pub l i sh edbu l l e t in s ,s ev e ra lhadso c ia lc en t r e s ,andth eyd ed i ca t edpa r t o fth e i ra c t iv i t i e stoa ch i ev ingp ra c t i ca lgoa l s ,su cha sin t e r c ed ingto ob ta inp en s ion sfo rfam i l i e so fth efa l l en ,s e ek ings ta t esub s id i e sfo r d i sab l edv e t e ran s ,andp ro cu r ingsub s id i e sfo rtho s einpov e r ty .46 Th ey fun c t ion ed a s bo th mu tua la id a s so c ia t ion s andin fo rma lemp loy m en tag en c i e s . Th eya l so m ed ia t edtos e cu r ea c c e s sto un ionhou singfo rth en e ed i e s t ,o rtosp e c if cs e rv i c e ssu cha spa r t i c ipa t ioninth e 47 s ta t e spon so r edl e i su r eandr e c r ea t iona lo rgan iza t ion s . So l ida r i tyamongv e t e ran sa l soex t end edb eyonda s so c ia t iv esph e r e s . T i e sw e r e ma in ta in edth roughin fo rma lso c ia lga th e r ing s(t e r tu l i a s )tha t

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F ig .7 .4 .Twor e tu rn e e sf romSov i e tcap t iv i tya r r iv ea tth e i rhom e town ,Ap r i l 1954(AA )

b rough ttog e th e ro ff c e r s ,su rg eon s ,ands imp l eso ld i e r s .Th e i rin t en s e cama rad e r i e wa sin fu s ed w i thb i t t e rd i s en chan tm en t :th eBD w e r eth e 48 “a c cu r s ed h e ro e s ,”o r“a g en e ra t ion m i sund e r s toodtoday .” Many v e t e ran skn ewtha tth eycou ldr e f e rtoth e s es en t im en ta lbond s wh en 49 s e ek ingemp loym en to rr e comm enda t ion s . Th eb ro th e rhood sa l soa s sum edth eta sko f ma in ta in ingth eBD m emo ryth roughacu l ttoth efa l l en .I twa ssu s ta in edbycomm emo ra t iv ea c t s and Ma s s e sonsp e c if cda t e s ,o f f e r ing sa tC iv i lW a r monum en t s ,and co l l e c t iv epa r t i c ipa t ioninpa rad e sandcomm emo ra t ion so fth er eg im e . BDv e t e ran sa l socu l t iva t edth e i rowncomm emo ra t iv el i tu rgy . Onchos enann iv e r sa r i e s ,th eyc e l eb ra t edth em emo ryo fth ed epa r tu r eo fth e “f r s td iv i s ion” inea r lyJu ly(1941 ) ,th ea r r iva la tth ef ron ton12 O c tob e r (1941 ) ,ande sp e c ia l lyth eBa t t l eo fK ra sny iBo r(1943 )on10 F eb rua ry . Th esymbo l i cro l eo fth efam i l i e so fth efa l l enr ema in eds ign if can t ,and sp e c if cc e l eb ra t ion sw e r eh e ldfo rth e mo th e r so ffa l l enso ld i e r s .Ev e ry y ea r ,onon eo fth e s eth r e eda t e s ,aCa tho l i c Ma s s wou ldb esa idins eve ra lc i t i e sfo rth esou l so ftho s e whoa r es t i l l“ inRu s s ia ,”fo l low edby sp e e ch e s . Wh e r ev e rth e r e wa sac lo s er e la t ion sh ip w i thc iv i lo rm i l i ta ryau tho r i t i e s ,th e s ea c t sin c lud ed m i l i ta ryr ev i ew s . How ev e r ,in mo s t p rov in c e sth elo ca lau tho r i t i e sg radua l lys topp eda t t end ing .50

226 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ev e t e ran sf romth eRu s s iancampa igno f t encomp la in edabou tth e s can tv i s ib i l i tyo fth em emo ryo fth e i rfa l l encom rad e s . No mau so l eum equ iva l en ttoth e ma j e s t i cV a l l eyo fth eFa l l en ,inaugu ra t edin1959 ,had b e enbu i l tfo rtho s e who“a r es t i l lin Ru s s ia .”Th e monum en ttoth e B lu eD iv i s ioninA lba c e t e ,bu i l tin1958andnowr emov ed , wa sth eon ly p la c e wh e r efo ra lo f f e r ing sw e r e mad eonsp e c if cda t e s .51 How ev e r , th enumb e ro fs t r e e t sandsqua r e sd ed i ca t edtoth eBDin c r ea s eds ign i f i can t lydu r ingth ela t eF ran coy ea r s .S ev e ra ltown s ,in c lud ingCu en ca , V i to r ia ,G i jon ,andPon t ev ed ra ,r e cogn iz eda l lv e t e ran sa s“adop t iv e son s”andnam eds t r e e t sa f t e rth eB lu eD iv i s ioninth eea r ly1960 s .Ba r c e lonafo l low edsu i tin1966 .S t r e e t sw e r enam edfo rG en e ra l Muñoz G rand e sinfou rc i t i e s , wh i l esqua r e sands t r e e t sw e r enam edfo rlo ca l fa l l enh e ro e sandBDo ff c e r sinth e i rhom e town s . Mad r ida l soinaugu ra t edas t r e e td ed i ca t edtoth e“ fa l l enso ld i e r so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion”in 1958 .52 Th e s elo ca lin i t ia t iv e scou ldb epa r t lyund e r s tooda sar ea c t ion by manyFa lang el ead e r s whosawth epo l i t i ca linfu en c eo fth es ing l e pa r tyd e c r ea s ing w i th inth ed i c ta to r sh ip .Jo s éM . Ma r t ín ez -V a l ,as e condh eado fth eFa lang einth eC iudad R ea lp rov in c eandh im s e l fa BDv e t e ran ,w ro t ein1968tha ti tshou ldb ecompu l so rytoshou tinth e fa c e so fth e manyfo rm e rcom rad e s whohadpo l i t i ca l lyd e s e r t edtha t th e“B lu eD iv i s ion wa sno m i s tak ea ta l l .”T oh im ,th eD iv i s ionhad b e enanen t i r e ly“na t iona landFa lang i s t”end eavou r .53 Non e th e l e s s ,th eBD m emo ryins t r e e tnam e s wa ss ign if can t lyl e s s p r e s en tthanth em emo ryo fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a r .S t r e e t sd edi ca t edto18Ju ly ,F ran co ,Jo s é An ton ioP r imod eR iv e ra ,ands ev e ra l in su rg en tg en e ra l sw e r efa r mo r ef r equ en tthanu rbanr em ind e r so fth e B lu eD iv i s ion .A f t e rth ef r s td emo c ra t i clo ca le l e c t ion sin Ap r i l1979 , th e i rnumb e r sd e c r ea s ed .In1986 ,how ev e r ,a tl ea s tn in e t e enc i t i e so f mo r ethanf f tythou sandinhab i tan t ss t i l lhads t r e e tnam e scomm emo54 ra t inge i th e r th eB lu eD iv i s ion , i t sfa l l en ,o r i t s“h e ro e s .” Th eyw e r es t i l l th e r einnum e rou stown sa tth eb eg inn ingo fth etw en ty -f r s tc en tu ry . Ma in ta in ings t r e e tnam e sin m emo ryo faun i to ffo r e ignvo lun t e e r sin th eW eh rma ch ti st ru lyex c ep t iona lin W e s t e rnEu rop e . How ev e r ,th e s e con s t i tu t eat r if ingp e r c en tag eo fth eF ran co i s tsymbo l sandp la c e so f m emo rytha tendu r edb eyond1978 .55 TheB lue D iv i s ionPo s t -wa r Na r ra t ive Inadd i t iontoth epub l i c i ty -o r i en t eda c t iv i tyo fth eb ro th e rhood s ,an impo r tan tp e r c en tag eo fth eau tob iog raph i ca lna r ra t iv e so rBD -ba s ed f c t ionem e rg edf rom pub l i sh inghou s e sl ink edtorad i ca lFa lang i s t c i r c l e s . Twosu ch pub l i sh e r s w e r e Ca ra l t and A c e rvo , own ed by

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F ig .7 .5 .Inaugu ra t iono fca l l eD iv i s iónAzu l(B lu eD iv i s ions t r e e t ) ,V i to r ia , 1961(C i tyA r ch iv eo fV i to r ia )

228 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th e Fa lang i s t Ba r c e lonac i tycoun c i l lo r Lu i sd e Ca ra l tandth e BD ex comba tan tJo s éL lo r en s Bo r rá s ,r e sp e c t iv e ly . Bo r rá s ma in ta in ed c lo s econ ta c tw i ths ev e ra l Eu rop eanfa s c i s tex i l e sinSpa in(Ho r ia S ima ,O t toSko rz eny ,L éon D eg r e l l e )andpub l i sh edan t i -S em i t i cand n eo -Naz i ma t e r ia linth e1960 s .56 In1944 ,th eF ran co i s tr eg im eb egantodownp layth em emo ryo fth e BD .Inth en ewrh e to r i c ,d i spa t ch ingth eB lu eD iv i s iontoth eEa s t e rn F ron thadb e enac l ev e r mano euv r etoapp ea s eH i t l e r wh i l ek e ep ing Spa inou to fth econf i c t :apu r e lyan t i commun i s ten t e rp r i s eandp r ecu r so rtoth e Co ld W a r .Th i sd i lu t edth eG e rmanoph i l iao f manyBD m emb e r s .F rom1943on ,th echang eo fd i r e c t ionb egantosu r fa c esub t ly insom en ew spap e r sand wa sev end e f end edbys ev e ra lBDv e t e ran s . F ed e r i coIzqu i e rdo w ro t ein Ma r ch1945tha tF ran cohadb e enr igh tno t toa s so c ia t eh im s e l fw i th Ax i spo l i t i ca lfo rmu la s .“Ahand fu lo fSpan ia rd s ,r ep r e s en ta t iv e so fana t iona lan t i commun i s tf e e l ing”hadgon e to Ru s s iafou ry ea r sea r l i e r ,toca r ryonth efgh to f1936 ,no tou to f “ f r i end sh ip w i thG e rmany .”57 T r in idad N i e tod e s c r ib edr ea son sfo rc e l eb ra t ingth eA l l i edt r iumphbu tlam en t edth epo s s ib l e“ ex t e rm ina t ion” o fth eG e rmanp eop l ea tSov i e thand s .Eu rop eanc iv i l iza t ionhadb e en d e f ea t edby“aby s sa lA s ia”andth e Un i t edS ta t e s .58 F i f t e eny ea r sla t e r , M in i s t e rF e rnando M .Ca s t i e l lap r e s en t edth eB lu eD iv i s iona tG eo rg etown Un iv e r s i tya sanem in en t lyan t i commun i s ten t e rp r i s e ,th ep r i c e Spa inhadpa idfo ri t sn eu t ra l i tyandap r e cu r so rto wha tth eCo ld W a r wou ldr ep r e s en t .59 Th eBD m emo ryi son eo fd e f ea t ed w inn e r s ;th eyfa i l edtobu i ldan au th en t i ca l lyfa s c i s tSpa inand w e r ed e f ea t edbyth eSov i e ten emy , a long s id eth e i rEu rop eana l l i e s . How ev e r ,th eBDi sa l soimpo r tan tto th ep ro f e s s iona lm emo ryo fth em i l i ta rye s tab l i shm en t .Th e r e ,ab en ign andid ea l i s t i cin t e rp r e ta t iono fth eB lu eD iv i s ionp e r s i s t edun t i lth eend o fth etw en t i e thc en tu ry .Th eBDexp e r i en c eha sg en e ra t eda tl ea s t150 m emo i r s ,na r ra t iv e s ,o rb iog raph i ca lnov e l ss in c e1942 ,w i thg r ea t e s t in t en s i tyf rom1954to1962 ,thank stoth epub l i cv i s ib i l i tytha ta c com pan i edth er e tu rnf romth e USSRo fth ep r i son e r so f wa raboa rdth e sh ipS em i r am i sin Ap r i l1954 .O ff c e r sT eodo roPa la c io sand G e ra rdo O roqu i e ta w e r eexa l t edbyth er eg im ea sh e ro i cd e f end e r so f Ch r i s t ian i ty ;th eya l soempha s iz edth ep e r fo rman c eo fth em i l i ta ryov e rtha t o fth eFa lang i s t s , whosawth e i rro l einth eB lu eD iv i s ion m in im iz ed .60 Th e i rlongcap t iv i tyin sp i r ednov e l sandp lay sfo cu s edonth esu f f e r ing o fth e i rfam i l i e sinSpa in .61In t e r e s tsp ik ed w i thth efa l lo fcommun i s t r eg im e sinth eea r ly1990 sandaga ininth eea r ly2000 s ,co in c id ing w i th asub l im ina l wa ro fm emo ry w i thth eSpan i shpo l i t i ca ll e f t , wh i chhad laun ch edth ecampa ignfo rth er e cov e ryo fth eh i s to r i ca lm emo ryo fth e

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v i c t im so fF ran co i s tr ep r e s s ion .62 T oth e s ew ecanaddhund r ed so fsho r t au tob iog raph i ca lo rf c t iona ls to r i e sandsom ec in ema tog raph i cr e c r eat ion s ,e sp e c ia l lyinth e1950 s , wh enth eBDo c cup i eda mo r ec en t ra lo r 63 la t e ra lpo s i t ioninth ep lo t . Why wa sw r i t ingonth i stop i csop ro l if c ? Ma in lydu etoth eh igh p e r c en tag eo fsu rv ivo r s .A lmo s t90 p e rc en to fth eBDvo lun t e e r sl iv ed tot e l lth eta l e ,b e cau s eth ey w e r ep la c edona mo s t lys tab l ef ron tand w i thd rawnp r io rtoth eg r ea tSov i e to f f en s iv e so f1944 .Th eBD m emo ry wa sn ev e rbann edf romth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e ,andacon s id e rab l e p ropo r t iono fth evo lun t e e r sw e r eun iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,in t e l l e c tua l s ,o r ad ep tw r i t e r ssu cha sR id ru e jo ,T omá sSa lvado r , Ca s tañón ,andRodr igo Royo ,o rjou rna l i s t sl ik e Góm ez -T e l loandT r in idad N i e to ,a long w i th manyo th e r s whos toodou t inth ea r t so rs c i en c e s .Th econ t ex t wa s favou rab l efo rau tob iog raph i e s , ma in lytho s eo fedu ca t edFa lang i s t vo lun t e e r s .Th e i r wo rk scon s t i tu t easubg en r einSpan i shfa s c i s tl i t e ratu r e .By1975 ,af ewBD th em ednov e l shada l sob e enpub l i sh edou t s id e o fSpa in ,thoughth eyd epa r t edf romth eu sua lton e s .64 Th e BD m emo ryund e rw en ts ev e ra lr enova t ion s .65 Thoughi t wa s bo th e r som efo rF ran co i smb e tw e en1945and1950 , i tg radua l lyadap t ed toth eCo ld W a rcon t ex t .Spa in wa sp r e s en t eda saCa tho l i ccoun t ryand afo r e runn e rinth efgh taga in s tcommun i sm .Ap r im eexamp l eo fth i s wa sth eau tob iog raphyo faBDv e t e ran who wa sth ena wo rk e rinG e rmany ,A lb e r tod eLav edán .InAp r i l1945 ,h ee s cap edtoP ragu e , wh e r e h ew i tn e s s edth eup r i s ingaga in s tth eG e rman sandth ea r r iva lo fth e R edA rmy .H eid en t if ed w i thth eCz e chp eop l ea s ma r ty r s ,empha s izingtha tth eB lu eD iv i s ionhadc l ea r lypo in t edou tth een emy wh enth ey con f ron t ed“ th eSov i e tho rd e s …w i thth e i rr edfag s ,th e i rrap e s ,p i l lag ing , ma s s mu rd e r s .”Inh i sv i ew ,thou sand so fSpan ia rd shadfo r e s e en in1936“ th et rag i cun r e s to fth ecu r r en t ,dynam i ca l lyagg r e s s iv ecold 66 war tha tth eSov i e t Un ioni s wag ingaga in s tth e Ch r i s t ian wo r ld .” Thu s ,th el e i tmo t i fo fBDl i t e ra tu r econ s i s t edo fh igh l igh t inghowSpania rd sfough tw i th G e rmany ,bu tno tf o rth eTh i rdR e i ch ,aga in s tacom monen emyinth enam eo fW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ionandCa tho l i cva lu e s ,a s acon t inua t iono fth eC iv i lW a randa sap r e lud etoth eCo ld W a r . Th ed ea tho fF ran cop rov id ednon con fo rm i s tFa lang i s t sw i than ew mo t iva t ion :tov ind i ca t eth el ega cyo fth eB lu eD iv i s iona sanexamp l e fo rn ewg en e ra t ion so fn eo fa s c i s t sandno s ta lg i s t s , who w e r ed i so r i en t edbyth econ so l ida t iono fd emo c ra cyandth e i rowne l e c to ra lw eak n e s s . Manyo fth ems ea r ch edfo rafu tu r einth epa s t .N ewed i t ion so f m emo i r so f wa rv e t e ran sf romth eEa s t e rnF ron tw e r enowen cou rag ed by ma rg ina lpub l i sh e r ssu cha sGa r c ía H i spán , wh i ch wa sown edbyan ex -m emb e ro fth en eo -Naz ig roupCEDADE ,andyoungp ropagand i s t s

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a l ign ed w i thr ev i s ion i s tt en e t so fth e Ho lo cau s to rl ink ed w i tha t t emp t s 67 tor enova t eth eid eo logyo fSpan i shfa s c i sm . How ev e r , du r ingth e t ran s i t ionto d emo c ra cy ,in t e r e s tin c r ea s edinth ep lu ra l i tyo f mo t i va t ion samongth eBDvo lun t e e r s , whoapp ea r eda sev e ry th ingf rom 68 an t i -F ran co i s t stoadv en tu r e r so fth eL eg ion . Th ed em i s eo fth eSov i e tb lo ckandth e USSRin1991h e lp edtor ev iv eth ein t e r e s to f manyex -BDcomba tan t sinpub l i sh ingth e i rm emo i r s .Th i s mom en ta ryr e su rg en c eo fpub l i cin t e r e s tinth eB lu eD iv i s ion co in c id ed w i thth ein t en s if ca t iono fth e2002– 4campa ignind iv e r s e s e c to r so fSpan i shc iv i lso c i e tytor e cov e rf romob l iv ionth em emo ry o fth ed e f ea t edo f1939 :i t wa sth e“ r e tu rno fh i s to r i ca lm emo ry .”Th e so c ia l -d emo c ra t i cgov e rnm en to f Rod r ígu ez Zapa t e ro(2004– 1 1 ) pa r t ia l lya s sum edth i sta sk ,p rovok ingapa ra l l e lcoun t e r -o f f en s iv ef rom in t e l l e c tua l sand w r i t e r sl ink edtoth e mo s tcon s e rva t iv es e c to r so fth e Popu la rPa r ty(PP ) .Th ey w e r ejo in edbyex t r em er igh tc i r c l e s ,t rad it iona lm i l i ta ryh i s to r ian s ,andap e r s i s t en t ,u l t ra -Ca tho l i ch i s to r iog ra phy ,a l lo f wh i chcon s id e rth eB lu eD iv i s iona sas en s i t iv etou ch s ton eo f 69 ana l t e rna t iv eh i s t o r i c a lm em o ry,tha to fth ew inn e r sinth eC iv i lW a r . C l i ch é sinB lu eD iv i s i on M em o ry Th ec i r cum s tan c e sd e s c r ib edh e r ehav econd i t ion edth eso c ia lf ram e s o fth eco l l e c t iv eandind iv idua lm emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .70 Th eBD na r ra t iv em ix e sap e r fo rma t iv er e con s t ru c t ion w i thfa c tua lr ef e c t ion s o fev en t s ,comb in ingr em emb e r ingandfo rg e t t ing . As e to fna r ra t iv e s t ra t eg i e s ,pa ra t ex tua lr e cou r s e s ,m emo i r s ,nov e l s ,andf lm sha sfo rg ed ap e r fo rma t iv ena r ra t iv eabou tth eind iv idua lexp e r i en c eo fth eBDvo lun t e e r stha tha sb e eng en e ra l iz edtoth e who l eD iv i s iona saco l l e c t iv e . Th i sin t e rp r e ta t ionha ssp r eada sth eau th en t i cn a r r a t iv eo fth eB lu eD i v i s ion :i tb e cam eh eg emon i cdu r ingF ran co i smbu ta l sosp r eadth rough 71 th ea rmyand mu cho fth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r ea f t e r1975 . Th e ma inf ea tu r e so ftha tna r ra t iv er e s emb l etho s eo fth em emo r ia li s t i c wo rk so fG e rman ,I ta l ian ,o ro th e rso ld i e r sinth eEa s t e rnF ron t .In b roads t rok e s ,th e i rl eg i t im iz ingd i s cou r s ei sa l soana logou sto wha t wa sp romo t ed by W eh rma ch tv e t e ran a s so c ia t ion s : Eu rop ean i sm , an t i commun i smd e ta ch edf rom Naz iexpan s ion i sm ,d i s tan c ingf rom 72 a l lcomp l i c i ty w i thth e wa rc r im e scomm i t t edex c lu s iv e lybySSun i t s Wha t ,th en ,w e r eth e mo s td i s t in c t iv ee l em en t so fth eBDna r ra t iv eon th eEa s t e rnF ron t ?Th eycanb esumma r iz edinfou rpo in t s . a ) Ih a dad i s i l lu s i on e dc om r a d e .M anyn a r r a t iv e sr ev e a lacomb in a t ion o frubb e r s t ampF a l ang i s tid e a l i smanda c r idd i s appo in tm en t ,bo rn

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o fth econ t r a s tb e tw e enth ev i r i l e ,in t e r c l a s senv i ronm en to fth e 7 3 t r en ch e sandth ehypo c r i t i c a lm a t e r i a l i smo fc iv i l i anl i f e . Th e r ew a s a l sopo l i t i c a ld i s en ch an tm en t .Th eF r an co i s tr eg im eandi t soppo r tun i s tl e ad e r sh adf a i l eda f t e r1 9 4 5tohonou rth es a c r if c eo fth ed i v i s i on a r i o s .M anyv e t e r an sp r e s en t edth em s e lv e sa sth el a s tF a l ang i s t s , ho ld ingh ighth ef ago fap end ingr evo lu t ion ,on lytob e com e“ou tl aw sandou t c a s t s . ”Th ey w e r enon con fo rm i s t s ,bu tun r ep en t an t . R id ru e jo ,C a s t añón ,o rLu i sRom e roevo lv edtow a rd san t i -F r an co i s t andd emo c r a t i cpo s i t ion s ,y e tth eya lw ay sm a in t a in edth a tth eB lu e D iv i s ionh adr ep r e s en t edth eid e a l i smo fa“hypo th e t i c a lF a l ang e . ” Th ey w e r eyoung m eno f“good w i l l ” whob e l i ev edth ey w e r ep a rt i c ip a t ingin“ a mov em en ttor eg en e r a t eth ecoun t ry ,a s mu chin t e rm so fn a t ion a lempow e rm en ta sso c i a lr e fo rm , ” wh i l eth e“ r e a l F a l ang e ”h adb e com e“ ane s s en t i a l lycon s e rv a t iv epow e r . ”74 b )M o rn ings t a r sandb l o od i edsn ow. Mo s tm emo i r sabou tth eBDa l so f ea tu r eas t r ik ingr ea l i sm , man i f e s t edind e s c r ip t ion so fth eha rd sh ip so fth e wa randap en chan tfo rfa i th fu ld e s c r ip t ion so fth e 75 r ea l i tyo fcomba tandth et r en ch e s . Th i shada l r eadyapp ea r ed inth el i t e ra tu r eonth eSpan i shC iv i lW a ro rth eCo lon ia lW a rin No r th e rn Mo ro c co ,andco ex i s t ed w i tharh e to r i ca lly r i c i smcha ra c t e r i s t i co fth eFa lang i s tl i t e ra rys ty l e .Th er e su l ti sap e cu l ia r m ixo fba r ra ck slanguag eandb eau t i fu ll i t e ra ryimag e stha tevok e th esnowyRu s s ianland s cap ein my s t i ct e rm so rcon t emp la t ea s “mo rn ings ta r s”(lu c e r o s )th ecom rad e s whof e l lons ta r ryn igh t s wh i l eongua rddu ty ,a m e tapho rr em in i s c en to fth eFa lang i s tanth em“Ca raa lso l .” c )C l e an e rth anth e“ c l e an W eh rm a ch t .” A so c cu r r ed w i thau tob iog raph 76 i ca lt e s t imon i e so fG e rmanandI ta l iancomba tan t s , som etaboo s w e r era r e lyb rok en .Th e“my tho fth eW eh rma ch t”tha t wa sg ene ra t edinth epo s t -wa rpub l i cop in iono fW e s tG e rmanyin s i s t ed tha tth er egu la rt roop shads e rv edhonou rab ly , wh i l eSSando th e r co rp sw e r eex c lu s iv e lyr e spon s ib l efo rth ea t ro c i t i e sandc r im e s aga in s tth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion .77 Th i spa rad igmi sr ef e c t edin Span i sh m emo r ia l i s t i c wo rk s ,w i thon enuan c e :th eB lu eD iv i s ion hadb ehav edev en mo r ei r r ep roa chab ly .Th eyd i s tan c edth em s e lv e s f romth eSSing en e ra l ,thoughsom ewha tl e s sf romth eW a f f en -SS , bu tth e i rpo s t -wa rd i s cou r s e wa ss t r ik ing lys im i la rtotha to fth e v e t e ran so ftha to rgan iza t ion .78 Wha tw e r etho s es i l en c e sabou t ? G en e ra l ly ,abou tm i s t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian s ,ex e cu t ion so fp r i son e r s o rcomm i s sa r s ,d e s e r t ion s ,abu s eo fc iv i l ian wom en ,homo s exua l r e la t ion sb e tw e enso ld i e r s ,th efgh taga in s tpa r t i san s ,andth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion .

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d ) Ag am eo fm i r r o r s . On eex t rao rd ina ryf ea tu r eo fBD m emo r ia l i s t i c wo rk si sth e i rr e cu r r en tapp ea ltona t iona ls t e r eo typ e s :th ed el igh tinr e c r ea t ingth er ea c t ion so fth eau th en t i cSpan ia rdth rough con t ra s tb e tw e enh i sid ea l iz edt ra i t s–sou th e rn ,ch e e r fu l ,ga l lan t , andg en e rou s–andth eco l l e c t iv ep sy cho logyo fth eo th e rp eop l e s 79 th eyen coun t e r ed . Th enum e rou san e cdo t e sthu sa cqu i r eimp l i c i t m ean ing s .Th eyr ev ea l edth ev i r tu e so fth eSpan i shra c etoth e wo r ld :th e“b rownso ld i e r ,w i thas c en to fca rna t ion sandth eg lo ry o fth esuninh i spup i l s” w en ttoRu s s iato“m ixonth eha rdi c eo f th edamn eds t epp eh i sho tb loodfu l lo fpa s s ionandg en e ro s i ty w i thth eb loodo fth eG e rmancom rad e .”80 Th i scapa c i tyfo radap t ingtoun fo r e s e enc i r cum s tan c e sinaho s t i l eenv i ronm en tb e cam ea pa ramoun texp r e s s iono fth equa l i t i e stha thadenab l edSpan ia rd s toconqu e remp i r e sint im e spa s t : Th es c en eo faSpan i shgu r ip ad r iv ingas l e igh ,w i thh i scoa tunbu t ton ed andha ttoon es id e ,i son eo fth e mo s ttyp i ca lonth ef ron t …Th e s e Anda lu s iancom rad e slooka sthoughth eyhadb e endo ingi ta l lth e i rl iv e s thoughsu r e lyth eyhadn ev e rs e enasnowfak einth e i rhom e town …T o dayth eG e rmancom rad e sund e r s tandhowaf ewhand fu l so fSpan ia rd s , lo s tonava s tcon t in en t , manag edtod e ep lyimp lan tth e i rra c e ,languag e , 81 andr e l ig ion .

Incomba t ,how ev e r ,th e s e jov ia lyoung m enf romth eSou thamaz ed th eG e rman sw i thth e i r inna t ed i s r ega rdfo rd ea th .Th eyw e r e“Qu ixo t e s w i th ma ch in egun s” , who ,un l ik eco ldG e rmanp e r fo rman c e ,fough ta c82 co rd ingtoth e i ran c i en tin s t in c t ,“f i r t ing w i thd ea th .” Th i ss e l f imag e hadtwoadd i t iona lfun c t ion s .I ttu rn edf ru s t ra t ionin tosymbo l i cv i cto ry :“G en e ra lW in t e r”hadp rov edtoo mu chfo r Napo l eon ,bu tno tfo r Span i sh m e t t l e .83I ta l soa l low edth emtocon t ra s tSpan ia rd sandth e r ig id G e rman s wholook eddownonth e i rexo t i ccom rad e s .Th e r e fo r e , th ed iv i s i on a r i o sb e cam ep s eudo -v i c t im so fth eTh i rdR e i chinth eend . AnUnp l e a s an tT op i c :Th eH o l o c au s t W i thth e Nu r emb e rgt r ia l sandth eA l l i e s ’e f fo r t stob road ca s tth ed im en s ion so f Naz ira c ia lex t e rm ina t ionpo l i c i e s ,th eBDex comba tan t s cou ldno tr ema inind i f f e r en ttoth i s ma t t e ra f t e r May1945 .A tf r s t ,th ey d en i edth eex i s t en c eo fth e Ho lo cau s t ,a tl ea s ta si t wa sr ev ea l edtoint e rna t iona lpub l i cop in ionb eg inn ingin1945 .Th e r ew e r ea t t emp t sto d i lu t ei tth roughr ev i s ion i s ta rgum en t stha tempha s iz edth ec r im e sand rap e scomm i t t edbyth eR edA rmy ,o r ma s sd ea th sf romind i s c r im ina t e

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a i rra id sonG e rmanc i t i e s .Ev enso ,th eSpan i shv e t e ran sf e l tcomp e l l ed tosom ehow ju s t i fyth e i rp r e s en c einth eG e rmanA rmy .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionna r ra t iv eb egantod i s tan c ei t s e l ff rom Naz ira c i sm ,pa r t lyth rough as e l e c t iv ea c cumu la t iono fan e cdo t e stha ti l lu s t ra t edth e i rd i sa f f e c t ion w i th G e rmanan t i -S em i t i sm .Th eys t i l lh e ldnosympa thyfo rJ ew sa sa co l l e c t iv eand mu chl e s sfo rth en ews ta t eo fI s ra e l ;i t sem e rg en c e wa s 84 c r i t i c iz edinFa lang epub l i ca t ion s . Inth ev e t e ran s ’a c coun t spub l i sh eda f t e r1945 ,th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion wa sg en e ra l lyavo id ed .Som em en t ioni tsup e rf c ia l ly ,po in t ingou ttha t th eSpan i shso ld i e r shadnoknow l edg eo fth eShoah , wh i ch wa sa l so th epo s i t iono fth eF ran cor eg im eun t i lm id -1944 .In1945 , An ton ioJ . H e rnánd ez -Nava r rop r e s en t edth eJ ew so fG rodnod e roga to r i lyinh i s au tob iog raph i cnov e lId ayvu e l t a(R e tu rnt r ip ) .H ed e s c r ib edth ema s “unk emp tandhumb l e ,en t e r ingth e i rda rkand my s t e r iou shou s e sw i th th ehum i l ia t ionandg r im eo fc en tu r i e s ,l ik ean t sinanan th i l l ;p i l ingup sp i t eand mon ey ,ind i f f e r en ttoth ef e e ttha tt r eaduponth em .”Th e s e “ s ca r edandf l thyJ ew s” w e r esa idtohav ecau s eda“ s l imyf e e l ing”in th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s .Th ep ro tagon i s to fth i ss to ry ,aFa lang i s tf rom Mad r id ,i sconv in c edtha td e sp i t eth e i rob s equ iou sn e s s ,th eJ ew sw i l l c l ingtoth e i rg rudg e sfo rg en e ra t ion s ,th i r s t ingfo rv eng ean c eonth e goy im .Th ey mayev enhav ecau s edth efa l lo fth eTh i rdR e i ch : T oday ’ sJ ew sa r ea sth ey w e r eathou sandy ea r sagoand w i l lb eth esam e inano th e rthou sandy ea r si fth e wo r ldla s t stha tlong .Andi fth ela s ton e i sv i c to r iou s ,a l ltho s e whop r e c ed edh im w i l lrubth e i rhand sw i thg l e ein h e l l. . .i fth ela s tb ro th e ro fth e i rra c er ip sth esk ino f fth ela s tCh r i s t ian .85

Inh i sau tob iog raph i cnov e l4in f an t e s3lu c e r o s( 4in fan t ryso ld i e r s3 mo rn ings ta r s ) ,w r i t t enin1942 ,Ja im eFa r r ér e ca l l edth een coun t e rw i th J ew i shg i r l s inG rodno .La t e r ,th ep ro tagon i s to fth enov e l ,aSpan i shFa lang i s t ,m e e t ssom eJ ew i shg i r l sinR iga , whot e l lh imo fth efa t eo fth e i r pa r en t s . Wh enh efnd saG e rmans e rg ean t whosp eak sSpan i sh ,h ea sk s whyth eJ ew sw e r ep e r s e cu t ed .H i spa r tn e rexp la in stoh imth er ea son : th eJ ew sw e r eb eh inda l lcon sp i ra c i e saga in s tG e rmany ,anda sahom e l e s sp eop l ew e r eoppo s edtopa t r io t i sm .A f t e rwa rd sh ea l sod e s c r ib e s howsom eBDvo lun t e e r scam etoha t eaBa l t i cJ ew whocon f e s s edto hav ingfough tw i thth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e s .A tth eend ,th eSpania rd s ’s en s eo fd i s tan c ef rom Naz ian t i -S em i t i sm wa sso f t en edbyth e 86 fa c ttha tth eya l sosha r edth eth eo ryo faJ ew i sh -Bo l sh ev ikcon sp i ra cy . F rom1954on ,th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion wa sapp roa ch edf roma mo r enuan c edang l e .In1957 ,G en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e savo id ed mak ingva lu e judg em en t sonth e s eando th e rs c en e sob s e rv edbySpan i shvo lun t e e r s

234 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

whohad w i tn e s s ed“ th ed i sag r e eab l esp e c ta c l eo fc e r ta inL i thuan ian popu la t ion sw i thaJ ew i shfavou randana i ro fd e s t i tu t ionandsadn e s s .”87 How ev e r ,th ew r i t ing so f mo s tv e t e ran so f f e r edsom eva lu e judg em en t sr ega rd ingth et r ea tm en to fJ ew s .T omá sSa lvado rw ro t e abou tth e“poo r ,d i r ty ,w r e t ch ed”J ew sh esawinSuwa łk i .I t wa sp la in tha t“ th eG e rman sca r r i edth e i ran t i -S em i t i smtoapo in to ftw i s t ingth e 88 t ru th ,”andth ew r i t e rf e l tcompa s s ionfo rth em . Ca r lo sM .Yd ígo ra s r e ca l l edinh i s1957nov e lA lgun o sn oh em o s mu e r t o (Som eo fu sa r eno t d ead )th ep i t i fu limag eo fth eG rodnoJ ew s ,th es exua la t t ra c t iono fJ ewi sh wom enfo rSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,th ec la sh e sb e tw e enSpan ia rd sand SSso ld i e r s ,andacon c en t ra t ioncampfu l lo fJ ew i shp r i son e r stha t wa s 89 a l l eg ed lyd i s cov e r edbyaBDvo lun t e e r . In1960 ,Lu i sR iudav e t sd e Mon t e stookabo ld e rpo s i t ion : Som eJ ew s ,bu rd en edbyth es ta ro fZ ion ,a l soc ro s s edth es t r e e t s ,s i l en t , th e i rh ead shunglow ,p e rhap sa sham ed ;th ey w e r ego ingtoth e i r wo rk. . . s t ra igh ttoth egh e t t o, wh i chhadb e enconv e r t ed ,byo rd e ro fth eG e rman command ,in toaneno rmou scampfo rp r i son e r s who s el iv e sw e r eno t v e rysa f e .Fo rG e rmanycomm i t t edon eo fth eg r ea t e s tm i s tak e sinpu r suingth eJ ew sw i thso mu chfu ryandla cko fcha r i ty , manyo f whomth ey sho tands en ttoth ega l low s … How manyJ ew shadfa l l eninV i ln iu s ,in R iga ,inKauna s ? How manythou sand s ,p e rhap sm i l l ion s ,w e r e mu rd e r ed byth eSS ?Th enumb e r wou ldb ehug eandth efgu r e sin c r ed ib l e .90

As im i la rna r ra t iv e wa sr ep rodu c edinth een su ingy ea r s .91 Th eb e s t examp l e wa sth esho r tnov e lE lp anene lf ang o(B r eadinth e mud ,1962 ) , wh i chr e c e iv edal i t e ra ryawa rdf roma Ca tho l i cjou rna l .Th eau tho r , Manu e lBa r sCa sam i t jana ,na r ra t edhowaSpan i shso ld i e rs toodupto anSSpa t ro linG rodnotha tsough ttos toph imf romsha r ingh i sra t ion s w i thane ld e r lyJ ew .Bo thth eJ ewandth eSpan ia rdd i ea tth ehand so f th e s eunf in ch ingand m e r c i l e s sT eu ton i cso ld i e r s , who“a c t ed w i tha co ld ,m e ta lfu ry ,fu lf l l ingth e i rta sk w i thcomp l e t ep r e c i s ion ,l ik e ma ch in e s .”Th eb loodo fth eSpan ia rdandth eJ ew ,sh edtog e th e r ,symbo l iz e sth et ru es e ed so fp ea c e ,av i c to ryo fCh r i s t ianind iv idua l i smov e r 92 to ta l i ta r ian i sm . As im i la rm e s sag e wa sr ep rodu c edbyth enov e l L aú lt im aop o r tun id ad(Th e la s tchan c e ,1963 ) ,byRamónZu la i ca .Inth eend ,a g roupo fSpan i shso ld i e r si ssho ta long s id es ev e ra le ld e r lyJ ew i sh m en who w e r efo r c edtod igth e i rowng rav e s .93 Th e r eha sb e enb lank e td en ia ltha tSpan ia rd shadanyknow l edg eo f th ep e r s e cu t iono fJ ew so rth econ c en t ra t ioncamp s . How ev e r ,som e a c coun t ss t i l lcon ta in edan t i -S em i t i cton e sino c ca s iona lcha ra c t e r iza t ion sa s so c ia t ed w i thth ed i s cu r s iv et rop e sabou tth een tang l em en to f

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Juda i sm ,F r e ema son ry ,andcommun i s tl ead e r sh ip .Fo rm e rBDchap la inI ld e fon soJ im én ezAnd rad e sw ro t eabou tth econ t ra s tb e tw e enth e w r e t ch edn e s so fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t iono fM in skandth eluxu r iou s pa la c e so fth eS ta l in i s te l i t e s , mo s to fth em“ J ew i shl ead e r s whol iv edin opu l en c e .”94 Góm ez -T e l lo ,a l ead ingFa lang i s t jou rna l i s t inth epo s t -wa r p e r iod ,f e ro c iou s lyc r i t i c iz edI s ra e lonth eo c ca s iono fth et r ia lo fAdo l f E i chmannin1961 .H eempha s iz edhowth eJ ew ssha r edth eb lam efo r pa s t ma s sk i l l ing sund e rSov i e tcommun i sm .95 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s d i sda in edb io log i ca lra c i smbu tr e ca l l edtha tth e r ehadb e enaconn e ct ionb e tw e enJuda i smandcommun i sms in c eKa r l Ma rx .H elam en t ed th ep e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew s ,bu t wa sno tfondo fth em : Th eo ldt ro ika sc ro s s edth e i rs t r e e t sandth eJ ew sw e r es t i l lbu rd en edby th e i reno rmou ss ta r so fZ ion …A lad ju s ttu rn edfou r t e ento ld m e :“Th ey a r ek i l l ingu sm e r c i l e s s ly ,M r .Cap ta in ,andhow i sth i s myfau l t ,b e ingJ ew i sh ? Wha to f f en c ehav eIcomm i t t edfo rth emtok i l lm e . . . ?”…Y e sind e ed , th ey w e r eJ ew s ,acu r s edra c eab l etod e s t royth e wo r ldi fafavou rab l e o c ca s iona ro s e .Th ey w e r eth ea s sa s s in so fJ e su s ,th et r ea ch e rou sandd e ic ida lp eop l e ,tha tm i s e r lyand w r e t ch edp eop l ef rom who s erank sg r ea t th ink e r s wou ldem e rg e ,bu ta l sor epugnan tr evo lu t iona r i e s : Ka r l Ma rx , H eg e l ,L en in … How ev e r ,aCh r i s t iansp i r i tcou ldno tapp rov eo ftha tco l9 6 l e c t iv ec r im e .

Inf a c t ,po s t -w a rBDn a r r a t iv e sa t t emp t edto m a in t a inad i ff cu l tb a l an c e . Onth eon eh and ,th eyd i s t ingu i sh edth eb eh av iou ro fSp an i sh so ld i e r sf romth a to fth e i rW eh rm a ch tcom r ad e s .Th eSp an i shv e t e r an s adm i t t edth a tm any G e rm anso ld i e r sw e r e mo t iv a t edbyr a c i s tid eo l ogy ,andth a tth e r ew e r eex t e rm in a t ionc amp s .Onth eo th e rh and ,th e r e w a sad e s i r etop r e s e rv eas en s eo floy a l tytow a rd sfo rm e rcom r ad e s in a rm s .Áng e lRu i zA yú c a rexp r e s s edth i spo in to fv i ewin1 9 5 4 : Mu chha sb e ensa idabou tth econ c en t ra t ioncamp sinth i ssadandsp i t e fu l po s t -wa rp e r iod .Ev e ryon eha sth rownas ton ea tth efa l l enp e r son w i thou t f r s tch e ck ingtos e ei fh i sownhand sw e r ec l ean …Bu tw ew i l lno tjo in inth i ss ton ing .I fw ehadanyc r im e stha tw e wan t edtor ep roa chth eG e r man sfo r ,w e wou ld wa i tun t i lth eya r epow e r fu l . . .W ew i l lno tfa l lin toth e 9 7 ab e r ra t iono fin su l t ingtho s e who w e r eou rcom rad e sinth epa s t .

Th i ss ea r chfo rm idd l eg roundcon t inu ed inth een su ingd e cad e s .B lu e D iv i s ion m emo i r sg en e ra l lydor e cogn iz eth e Naz ic r im e saga in s tJ ew s andS lav i cwa rp r i son e r s ,thoughth eyd i spu t eth e i rquan t i ta t iv ed im ens ion .Th ei s su ei sd i sm i s s ed w i thth e wo rn -ou ta rgum en ttha tb lam e

236 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .7 .6 .Span i shs e c t iono fG e rman m i l i ta ryc em e t e ryinPankovka (Novgo rodAA )

fa l l sonbo ths id e so f th econf i c t .Du r ingh i sv i s i t toAu s chw i tz -B i rk enau in1987 ,Pab lo Ca s t e loa rgu edtha tth eSov i e t s ,w i th Ka tynandth e i r S ta l in i s tcon c en t ra t ioncamp s ,a sw e l la sth eA l l i e s ,w i thth e i rca rp e t bomb ingo fG e rmanc i t i e sandth etwoa tom i c bomb sd ropp edon Japan ,hada l lcomm i t t eda t ro c i t i e saga in s tc iv i l ian s , mak ingth emno b e t t e rthanth eG e rman s .98 Ep i l ogu e :“W eW e r eR igh t !”Th e“C onv e r s i on”o fRu s s i a Afu r th e r ,p e r s i s t en tf ea tu r eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion m emo i r si sth e i rcha ra c t e r iza t iono fth eb ehav iou ro fth eSpan i shso ld i e r stowa rd sth eRu ss ianpopu la t iona sex emp la ry .A sav e t e ransumma r iz edin1991 ,th e Span ia rd shadb e en“ab l etocomb in eb rav e ry w i thlov e”inth e i rcondu c t .Th i sin t e rp r e ta t ionb e cam eane ff c i en ta rgum en tinp r e s en t ing 99 th eexp e r i en c eo fth eBDinRu s s iaa sa mo ra lv i c to ry . Th eSov i e tv i c to ryin May1945 wa s mo s t lyr ega rd edbySpan i sh v e t e ran sa sth e i rownandEu rop e ’ sd e f ea t . How ev e r ,f rom1954on , in t e r e s tinth eva r iou sfo rm so fO r thodox wo r sh ipandth em emo ryo f th e“ r eb i r th”o fr e l ig io s i tyamongth eRu s s ianp eop l edu r ingth eSpan i sho c cupa t iongav esom ev e t e ran shop etha tRu s s ia wou ldov e r com e commun i sm .C e r ta inamongth emev ensugg e s t edth epo s s ib i l i tyo fa

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syn c r e t i s t i cfu s iono f Ca tho l i c i smand O r thodoxytha tcou ldr e s to r e Ru s s iatoCh r i s t ianc iv i l iza t ion .Th eRu s s ianp eop l ehadr ed i s cov e r ed “ th e i rt rad i t ion s ,th roughth epa ino fcommun i s tp e r s e cu t ion ,” w i th 100 th eh e lpo fth eo c cupy ingfo r c e s . Inapa ra l l e l way ,th elanguag eo f so c ia lhyg i en e wa sr ep la c ed w i thaqua s i e thnog raph i cin t e r e s tinRu s s ia .Som ev e t e ran sco l l e c t edpopu la rl eg end sandta l e sth eyhadh ea rd f romth ep ea san t so fth eV o lkhovr eg ion .Th e s es to r i e sconv ey edbu co l i cimag e so fap r e r evo lu t iona ryRu s s iafu l lo fr e l ig iou sappa r i t ion s andp ea san tcu s tom s .101 F rom1950on ,nuan c e sapp ea r edtha td iv e rg edf romth eov e rwh e lming lys t e r eo typ edimag eo fth eSov i e t Un iontha t wa sp r e s en tinth e m ed iao fth eF ran cor eg im e . Amongv e t e ran s ,fa s c ina t ionfo r“ th eimm en s eand my s t e r iou sRu s s ia …as t rang ep eop l e ,in t ro sp e c t iv eandr el ig iou sinsp i t eo fth eo ff c ia la th e i sm”g r ew ,b l end ing“ lov eandha t r ed , 102 t end e rn e s sandha r shn e s s .” Ru s s ianv i l lag e r sw e r eth enr em emb e r ed a sth edoub l ev i c t im so fth eBo l sh ev ikt e r ro randth er igou r so fG e r mano c cupa t ion .Th ean t i commun i s tid ea lo f1936–9 wa sr e in fo r c ed byr e ca l l ingth em i s e ryo fRu s s ianp ea san t s .V e t e ranBDo ff c e r ssu cha s Co lon e lD íazd eV i l l ega so f f e r edt ra in ings em ina r sfo rFa lang i s tau tho ri t i e sonth ee f f e c t so fcommun i sminRu s s ia .H eempha s iz edth eev i l s o fth ecommun i s tsy s t em , wh i chd e s t roy edfam i lyt i e sandr e l ig ion .R etu rn ingp r i son e r sin1954u s eds im i la rt e rm s wh enr em emb e r ingth e i r d ea l ing sw i thSov i e tc iv i l ian s . How ev e r ,som eex -D iv i s ion m emb e r sr ema in edconv in c edtha tth eRu s s ianp eop l ecou ldn ev e rchang edu eto th e i rh i s to ry .Th e i r“an th ropo log i ca ls t ru c tu r eandra c ia lcompo s i t ion” mad eth emimp e rm eab l eto W e s t e rnva lu e s .103 RamónS e r ranoSuñ e r ,th efo rm e rp ro -Naz iM in i s t e ro fFo r e ign A ffa i r sandla t e rasu c c e s s fu llawy e r ,empha s iz edin1959tha tth eSpan i sh comba tan t shadgon etoth e USSRtod e s t roySov i e tcommun i smbu t no tth eRu s s ianp eop l e .Ind iv idua l ly ,th eysaw“ th een em i e sth ey w e r e fa c ing mo r ea sv i c t im so fth eid eo log i ca len emythana sth el iv ingin ca rna t iono fi t .”Th eCo ld W a rhadconf rm edtoth emtha tSov i e tcom mun i sm wa sth e ma inen emyo fW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ion ,Eu rop eancu l tu r e , and Ch r i s t ianva lu e s .I tr ema in edanadv e r sa rytha tk ep ti t sownc i t i z en sin m i s e ry :animag econf rm edino c ca s iona lt rav e lna r ra t iv e sby 104 fo rm e rd iv i s i on a r i o s whov i s i t edth eUSSRp r io rto1989 . D e sp i t eth efa c ttha tBDv e t e ran shadg r ea td i ff cu l t i e scom ingto t e rm sw i thth et ran s i t iontod emo c ra cyinSpa in ,th efa l lo fth eB e r l in W a l l ,th er eun if ca t iono fG e rmany ,andth efu l l ,a lmo s timm ed ia t econv e r s iono fRu s s iaandth eo th e rEa s t e rnB lo ccoun t r i e sr e in fo r c edth i s l in eo fa rgum en t . W ew e r er igh t,r eadth et i t l eo fth em emo i r so fana c t iv e m emb e ro fth eBDB ro th e rhood s .A f t e rth efa l lo fcommun i sm ,fo rm e r

238 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

d iv i s i on a r i o sr e en coun t e r edth e Ru s s ian p eop l eandr ea ff rm edth e i r 105 conv i c t ion so f1941 . Th e“ e t e rna lRu s s ia”hadt r iumph ed .Th i s wa s th eBD ’ su l t ima t ev i c to ry ,a son ev e t e ranexp r e s s edth roughaf c t i t iou s Ru s s ianpop e ,u s ingth e“o ld wo rd”fo ri t : Som eday , Godknow s wh en ,a l lth i sw i l lend …andth ee t e rna l Ru s s ia w i l lb er ebu i l t ,thoughp e rhap sab i tsma l l e r ,r edu c edto wha ti t wa sa t th eb eg inn ingo fth es ix t e en thc en tu ry …bu t mo r eau th en t i c .W ehav ean o ldt e rmtod e s igna t etha tr eb i r th ,tha tr e con s t ru c t iontha tw i l lsom eday 1 0 6 r ev iv eu s :p e r e s t r o i k a.

W i thth i s ,th em emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionfoundc lo su r e .Th ev e t e ran sf e l tfu l lyv ind i ca t edinth e i rd e c i s iontovo lun t e e rf f tyy ea r sea r l i e r . Th i sp e r c ep t ionp e rm ea t edSpan i shpub l i cop in ionandcu l tu r eandha s endu r edb eyondth eno s ta lg iafo rF ran co i smtoth ep r e s en tday .

8Con c lu s ion :ASpan i shEx c ep t ioninth e W a ro fEx t e rm ina t ion ?

Th eG e rm an w a ro fex t e rm in a t ioninth eE a s tw a sno ton lyaconf i c t b e tw e enG e rm anyandth eSov i e tUn ion .No rw e r e i t scon s equ en c e s l imi t edtoth etwo m a incoun t r i e sth a ttookp a r t inth eho s t i l i t i e s .Thou s and s o f No r th e rn ,W e s t e rn ,Sou th e rn ,andE a s t e rnEu rop e an stookp a r tinth e w a r .Th eyexp e r i en c edth eb ru t a l i z a t iono fth ef ron ttov a ry ingd eg r e e s . Th ey w i tn e s s edo rp a r t i c ip a t edin w a ra t ro c i t i e s ,r ap e s ,and mu rd e r s . Som ew e r ea c t iv e lyo rp a s s iv e lyinvo lv edinth e Ho lo c au s t .S i tu a t ion a l ands t ru c tu r a lf a c to r scond i t ion edth eb eh av iou ro fn a t ion a lun i t son th ef ron tandinth er e a r . Wh i l esom eo fth e i rm emb e r sw e r es t rong ly mo t iv a t edbyf a s c i sm ,an t i commun i sm ,and/o ran t i -S em i t i sm ,m any o th e r sw e r es imp lycon s c r ip t edso ld i e r s ,adv en tu r e r s ,o rev enap a th e t i c w a r r io r s whoh aden l i s t edfo rd i f f e r en tr e a son s .Th etyp eo fw a rth ey condu c t eda sw e l la sth ein t en s i tyo fcomb a tonth ef ron tl in ed e c i s iv e ly infu en c edth e i rb eh av iou randth e i rp e r c ep t ion so fth econqu e r edl and andth een emy .I tm aya l soh av econ t r ibu t edtoth er ad i c a l i z a t iono fa tt i tud e stow a rd sSov i e tc iv i l i an sandp a r t i s an s .Inth i sr e sp e c t ,th es am e in t e rp r e t a t iv ef r am ewo rkth a th a sb e enapp l i edtoth es tudyo fth eG e r m an W eh rm a ch tinth eE a s tc anb eex t end edtoi t sfo r e igna l l i e sand co l l abo r a to r s ,b e c au s eth er e s e a r chqu e s t ion sa r es im i l a r . W e r eth ed iv e rg en ta t t i tud e so fth eSpan ia rd sw i thr e sp e c ttoth e W eh rma ch tanendo r s em en to fth eth e s i stha tid eo logyandindo c t r inat iono fso ld i e r sw e r eth e ma inp r e r equ i s i t efo rth e i rb ru ta l iza t ion ?O r w e r eth eyafu r th e rexamp l eo fhowcomba tcond i t ion sandenv i ronm en td e t e rm in edth ecomba tan t s ’b ehav iou r ?Ev id en c ecanb efoundto endo r s ebo thhypo th e s e s .Incon t ra s tw i thth eG e rman s ,th eSpan ia rd s la ck eds t rongra c ia l lyo r i en t edid eo log i ca lindo c t r ina t ion ,bu t many a sp e c t so fth e i rb ehav iou rw e r eno tsub s tan t ia l lyd i f f e r en ttoo rd ina ry G e rmanso ld i e r s . How ev e r ,th es i tua t ion i s thypo th e s i ss e em stob e t t e r exp la inth ed i f f e r en c e stha tex i s t edb e tw e enSpan ia rd sandI ta l ian s .Th e

240 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

la t t e ra l sola ck edra c ia lindo c t r ina t ion ,bu thadtofgh tin mu ch wo r s e cond i t ion s ,anda l soca r r i edou tv io l en tr ep r e s s iv em ea su r e saga in s t c iv i l ian s . D e sp i t e wha t po s t -wa rl i t e ra tu r eandv e t e ran s ’a c coun t s hav eins t i l l edinth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e ,th e r e wa snosp e c if ca l ly“M ed i t e r ran ean”pa t t e rno f wa rexp e r i en c etha tco r r e spond edtoanep i cu r ean na tu r e ,ap e cu l ia rtyp eo ffa s c i smand/o ran t i commun i s tc r e ed ,o ra la cko fra c ia lp r e jud i c etowa rd sJ ew sandS lav s . Onth econ t ra ry ,th e B lu eD iv i s ion wa s ma in lyandcon s i s t en t lycompo s edo ffa s c i s tand an t i commun i s t vo lun t e e r s ,p ro f e s s iona l NCO s , and a rmy o ff c e r s . Th e i rid eo log i ca lcoh e s ion wa ss t rong e rthantha to fth eI ta l ian ,Roman ian ,and Hunga r ianun i t sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t , wh i chp r edom ina t e ly con s i s t edo fcon s c r ip tso ld i e r s .In many way s ,th i s mad eth eB lu eD iv i s ion mo r ecompa rab l etoth eid eo log i ca lW e s t e rnEu rop eanvo lun t e e r s inth eW a f f en -SS . A s s e s sm en t so fSpan i shcondu c tonth e Ea s t e rnF ron tshou ldfa l l som ewh e r eb e tw e enth e“ c l eanB lu eD iv i s ion”l eg end–a sr ep rodu c ed inth e po s t -1945 na r ra t iv eba s edon wa rv e t e ran m emo i r sin mo r e o r l e s sapo log e t i ch i s to r i ca ll i t e ra tu r e–andth eg en e ra lcha ra c t e r i st i c stha tapp lyto mo s tG e rman W eh rma ch tt roop s , pa r t i cu la r lyin th eno r th e rns e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eSpan i sh250 th D iv i s ion n ev e rhadac en t ra lro l einth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ionun l ea sh edbyth e W eh rma ch tonth e Ea s t e rnF ron t , no ra r eth e r eind i ca t ion stha tth e Span i shcommand e r skn ewo fth elong t e rmo c cupa t ions ch em e so f th eTh i rdR e i chl ead e r s , wh i ch w e r eimp l em en t edbyth em i l i ta ry . Un l ik e Hunga r ianso ld i e r sinth eUk ra in ianandRoman ian m i l i ta rypo l i c e andcomba tan t sinB e s sa rab ia ,Bukov ina ,andT ran sn i s t r ia ,Span ia rd s d idno tpa r t i c ipa t esy s t ema t i ca l lyo rsp e c if ca l ly inco l l e c t iv er ep r i sa l s in th er ea rgua rdaga in s tRu s s ian ,Po l i sh ,By e lo ru s s ian ,o rBa l t i cc iv i l ian s , o rJ ew s .1 Mo r eov e r ,Span i sht roop sw e r eno ta f f e c t edbys t rongid eo log i ca lo rso c io cu l tu ra lfa c to r s .C e r ta in ly ,som era c i s tund e r ton e sin fo rm ed BDp e r c ep t ion so fth eRu s s iano th e r , whomth eyr ega rd eda sba rba r ian , A s ia t i c ,andcu l tu ra l lyin f e r io rto“ c iv i l iz ed” W e s t e rncu l tu r e s .Inth e i r v i ew ,th i sp r e sum edcu l tu ra lin f e r io r i tyhadpav edth e wayfo rth esu cc e s so fBo l sh ev i sm , wh i chcou ldon lyfou r i shonf e r t i l eso i l .Span i sh ra c ia lv i ew sw e r eno tcomp l e t e lyvo ido fb io log i ca le l em en t s ,bu tw e r e mo s t lyshap edbyh i s to r i ca l ,cu l tu ra l ,andg eog raph i ca ld e t e rm in i sm . S in c eth em id -n in e t e en thc en tu ry ,Span i shan th ropo log i s t shadcon s ide r edth e i rna t iontob eth eou t com eo fa“ ra c ia la l loy”tha thadcon t inu 2 i tyinth eAm e r i canco lon i e s . Inth i sr e sp e c t ,Span i shp e r c ep t ion so fth eEa s thad mo r eincommon w i th G e rmanand Au s t ro -Hunga r ianp e r c ep t ion so fth eS lav i cen emy

Con c lu s ion 241

du r ingth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r .3 Mo s tSpan i shvo lun t e e r shadno tb e enso c ia l iz edinb io log i ca lra c i sm( inr e la t iontoS lav sandJ ew s ) .Th efgh t ing env i ronm en ta tth eV o lkhovF ron t ,andla t e rinL en ing rad ,d idno tfo s t e rana c cumu la t iv erad i ca l iza t iono fSpan i sha t t i tud e stowa rd sth een emyo rc iv i l ian s .Th eno r ths e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron t wa s mo r es tab l e thanth ec en t r eandsou th ,w i thl e s spa r t i sana c t iv i ty .Span i shso ld i e r s hadno tb e enfgh t ingfo r mon th sb e fo r eth eya r r iv edonth ef ron t ,and th eys tay edl e s st im eonav e rag ethanth e i rG e rmancom rad e s .Th e s e fa c to r sd e c i s iv e lyenhan c edb ru ta l iza t ioninth eva r iou s W eh rma ch t un i t s ,a sha sb e end emon s t ra t edfo rth e121 s t ,123 rdand126 thG e rman D iv i s ion so fA rmyG roup No r th .4 Th eab s en c eo fth e s efa c to r sr edu c ed th ee f f e c t so fs t eadyb ru ta l iza t ioninth eSpan i shD iv i s ion . L e s sc e r ta in tyex i s t sr ega rd ingo th e ra sp e c t s ,su cha sth et r ea tm en t o fp r i son e r sandta c t i c sapp l i edinth ean t i -pa r t i sanfgh t .5 G en e ra lb e n evo l en c etowa rd sSov i e tp r i son e r sf romD e c emb e r1941onwa rd s wa s ev id en tamongSpan i shso ld i e r s ,bu tth e r ew e r ea l sosumma ryex e cu t ion sandin t e r roga t ion so fp r i son e r sdu r ingcomba t .Ib e r ian sw e r eno t e sp e c ia l lye f f e c t iv e ,z ea lou s ,o rc ru e linr ep r i sa l so rinth efgh taga in s t pa r t i san s .Th eysom e t im e sex e cu t edc iv i l ian sa c cu s edo fh id ingpa rt i san s . How ev e r ,th e r ei snoev id en c etoind i ca t etha tth eyengag ed inco l l e c t iv ek i l l ing so rr ep r i sa l saga in s ten t i r ev i l lag e s .G e rmanr e po r t ss ca r c e ly m en t ionSpan i shpa r t i c ipa t ioninth e s ea c t iv i t i e s .Th ey do ,how ev e r ,r ev ea lac e r ta inla cko ft ru s tinth eSpan ia rd stoca r ry ou tr ea rgua rdpopu la t ioncon t ro landc l ean s inga c t ion s ,g iv enth e i r d emon s t ra t edin e ff ca cyinth i sa r ea .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion ’ scomp l ian c e w i thth eComm i s sa rO rd e ra l sor ema in sun c l ea r .Th e r ei sno m en t ion o fsumma ryex e cu t ion so fSov i e tcomm i s sa r sinSpan i sh m emo i r so r B lu eD iv i s iona r ch iv e s .Th i sdo e sno tn e c e s sa r i ly m eani td idno thapp en ,s in c etha to rd e r wou ldhav eb e ent ran sm i t t edv e rba l lyto W eh rma ch tcomba tan t s . Th ea t t i tud e so fSpan ia rd stowa rd sc iv i l ian sw e r e mo r eamb iva l en t thanla t e rna r ra t iv e ssugg e s t .Ea s t e rnF ron tv e t e ran A lb e r to D íazex p r e s s edy ea r sla t e rhowSpan ia rd sgo ta long“ fa i r ly w e l l” w i thRu s s ian c iv i l ian sbu t“who ev e rsay sth eRu s s ian sw e r ebadi sly ingand who ev e rsay sth ey w e r egoodi sa l soly ingand who ev e rsay sw eSpan ia rd s w e r esa in t sl i e stoo” ;amongth et roop sth e r ew e r ea l so“ lou t s ,rogu e s , oppo r tun i s t s ,ev enc r im ina l s .”6 Th eimag eo fRu s s iaandth eRu s s ian s tha tSpan i sho ff c e r sandvo lun t e e r shad ,o rfo rg eda tth ef ron t ,d idno t in c lud era c ia lha t r edandcon t emp tba s edonb io log i ca l -g en e t i ct en e t s . How ev e r ,d ia r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,pub l i sh eda r t i c l e s ,andca r i ca tu r e sinth eFalang i s tp r e s sf romtha tt im eshowa mu ch mo r enuan c edp i c tu r ethan th eidy l l i c ,ha rmon iou sco ex i s t en c ed e s c r ib edin m emo i r sand w r i t ing s

242 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

pub l i sh eda f t e r1945 .Th em i s e ryo fth eRu s s ianp ea san t s ,th e i rhumb l e andsubm i s s iv echa ra c t e r ,w e r eund e r s tooda sth econ s equ en c eo fcommun i s td eg en e ra t ion ,d e -Ch r i s t ian iza t ion ,andasuppo s edd e s t ru c t ion o fba s i c mo ra lva lu e s ,su cha sr e sp e c tfo rth efam i ly . How ev e r ,c l ima t e , cu l tu r e ,land ,andc en tu r i e so fnon -Eu rop eant rad i t ionand d e spo t i c gov e rnm en tw e r ea l sop e r c e iv edtob ead e c i s iv einfu en c e . Ru s s ian s w e r ean A s i an p eop l e :b loa t ed ,la ck ingsp i r i tua lp e r sona l i ty ,t e l lu r i c , andp r im i t iv e ,w i thamo ra lt end en c i e stha tp r ed i spo s edth emtob e ing th ep rop i t ia to ryv i c t imo fcommun i sm . Th i s m igh tb e con s id e r ed cu l tu r a lra c i sm , bu ti t wa s no t b io log i ca l -g en e t i cb igo t ry .I tcon s id e r edind iv idua l stob ed e t e rm in ed byth e i rcu l tu ra lm i l i eu ,l eav ingl i t t l eo rnoroomfo rchang e .7 O f t en , th i s wa ssub l im ina l lyexp r e s s edinton e sr edo l en to fso c ia lhyg i en e : f r equ en ta l lu s ion stoth e i rd i r t in e s sandla cko fp e r sona lo rfam i ly hyg i en eh e lp edund e rm in econ s id e ra t iono f Ru s s ian sa shumanb eing sandt ran s fo rmpo l i t i ca lo rso c ia la rgum en t sin tob io log i ca lon e s . Su cha m ind s e ta l sof e s t e r edinSpan i shfa s c i sm , wh i chcon s id e r ed th eo c cup i ed p eop l e sa ssp i r i tua l lyandcu l tu ra l lyin f e r io ro r“un d e rag e ,”thoughno ta sab io log i ca l lysubhumanUn t e rm en s ch.Th i s p e cu l ia rv i s iono fth een emy m igh tin c i t ecomm i s e ra t ionandpa t e rna l i smbu tn ev e rp r ev en t edRu s s ianc iv i l ian sf romsu f f e r ingr equ i s it ion sandth e f t .H i e ra r ch i ca l lyun ev enandlog i s t i ca l lyd ef c i en tt roop p rov i s ion ing wa safa c to rf romth e mom en tth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s l e f tth e i rt ra in ingcamp sin G e rmany .Th i s wa sagg rava t edbyo rgan iza t iona ld ef c i en c i e sandala cko fd i s c ip l in eamongth eBDt roop s , who w e r eah e t e rog en eou sm ixo fca r e e ro ff c e r s ,non comm i s s ion ed o ff c e r sw i thl i t t l et ra in ing ,en thu s ia s t i cfa s c i s t vo lun t e e r s ,m e r c ena ryl eg ionna i r e s ,d ra f t edso ld i e r s whohadb e enp e r suad edtogo to Ru s s ia ,adv en tu r e r s ,and ,fna l ly ,un emp loy ed wo rk e r ss e ek inga l iv ing .F romth e mom en tth eyb eganto ma r chinth esumm e ro f1941 , th e r ew e r econ s tan tin c id en t sinvo lv ingth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion–a l l o f wh i chd e fyp r e c i s equan t if ca t ion–in c lud ingr equ i s i t ion s ,th e f t , s exua labu s e ,andev enrap e . Span i shso ld i e r sw e r eno thab i tua l lyinvo lv edinth ehom i c id eo f Ru s s ianp ea san t s ;infa c t ,th eyco ex i s t edr ea sonab ly w e l l ,g iv enth e i r cond i t iona sinvad ingt roop sinap la c esu cha sth eEa s t e rnF ron t .A s im i la rpa t t e rno fb ehav iou rtowa rd sth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion wa sa l so d i sp lay edbyo th e rG e rmand iv i s ion so fA rmy G roup No r th .8 Af ew s ign if can texamp l e shav er ev ea l ed ju s thownon idy l l i cth e s er e la t ion s w e r e . ManySpan i sho ff c e r shadl ea rn edinth eco lon ia l wa r sin No r the rn Mo ro c cotol e tth e i rt roop sfndp rov i s ion sonlo ca t ion ,ap ra c t i c e 9 th eyr ep ea t ed un s c rupu lou s lyin Ru s s ia . Co lon e lD íaz d eV i l lag e s

Con c lu s ion 243

r e ca l l edth ea rgum en tpu tfo rwa rdbyaFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rengag edin ad i s cu s s ion w i thaG e rman m i l i ta rypo l i c eman :“ I t wou ldb eab su rd … i fa f t e rs e e ingso manyo fou r sfa l l ,a f t e rsu f f e r ingsu chad i ff cu l t wa r , w ecou ldno tev enea taRu s s ianch i ck en .”10 Th ecomp l ex i tyinh e r en tinth ep r e s en c eo f an o c cupy ing a rmy amongc iv i l ian sl ed manySpan i shso ld i e r sando ff c e r s wholodg ed inth ei z b a stofun c t iona sp ro t e c to r so fRu s s ianfam i l i e s , wh i ch w e r e ma in lycompo s edo f wom en ,ch i ld r en ,ando ld m en .Th ed iv i s i on a r i o s wou ldf e edandp ro t e c tth eminex chang efo rs e rv i c e stha trang edf rom lodg ingandlaund rytos exua lfavou r s . Th elowin t en s i tyandev en ab s en c eo fb io log i ca lra c i sml edtoag r ea t e rd eg r e eo ffam i l ia r i tyb etw e en mo s tSpan i shso ld i e r sandRu s s ianc iv i l ian s .Con t ra rytoRoma n ianand Hunga r iant roop sin A rmy G roup C en t r eand A rmy G roup Sou th ,11th eSpan ia rd sd idno tb e com einvo lv edinsy s t ema t i cr ep r i sa l s o rla rg e s ca l e mu rd e r so fc iv i l ian s .Th ey w e r e ,non e th e l e s s ,r e spon s ib l e fo rcon t inua lth e f t ,r equ i s i t ion ing ,andp i l lag ing ,a long w i tho c ca s iona l s exua labu s e .Th i s wa styp i ca lo fth eexp e r i en c e so fo th e ro c cupy ing Ax i sa rm i e sdu r ingth eS e cond W o r ld W a r ,su cha sth er e la t iv e lyb en ignp r e s en c eo fG e rman sin No rway ,D enma rk ,andth eN e th e r land s . Inth e s ecoun t r i e s ,th eexp e r i en c eo fo c cupa t ion wa scha ra c t e r iz edby alowl ev e lo fev e rydayt en s ion ,c lo s ein t e ra c t ion sb e tw e eno c cup i e r s andsom es egm en t so fth eo c cup i edpopu la t ion ,spo rad i cou tbu r s t so f v io l en c e ,r ep r i sa l s ,ando th e rin c id en t s .12Inth econ t ex to fth eEa s t e rn F ron t ,th i s wa sa l sosom ewha tcha ra c t e r i s t i co fth eo c cupa t ionp ra c t i c e s 13 imp l em en t edbyth eI ta l ian A rmyonth e DonF ron t . W i thr ega rd sto Span i sht roopb ehav iou rtowa rd sRu s s ianc iv i l ian sinth eV o lkhovand L en ing rada r ea , wha ts canda l iz ed A rmy G roup No r th– w i thi t sG e rman m i l i ta rys t e r eo typ e s– wa sno ti t sluk ewa rmcomm i tm en ttoth e G en evaConv en t ionbu tth efa c ttha tSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eun sy s t ema t i cinth e i rp i l lag ing .Th i sn ega t iv e lya f f e c t edth eimm ed ia t ein t e r e s t s o fth eW eh rma ch tini t sa t t emp t sno ttocomp l e t e lya l i ena t eth ec iv i l ian popu la t ion . How ev e r ,i t mu s tno tb efo rgo t t entha tth eB lu eD iv i s ione f f e c t iv e ly thoughind i r e c t lya id edas t ra t eg i ca c t iontha ts e rv edth em id rang e p lan sfo ra wa ro fex t e rm ina t iontha thad mo t iva t edth einva s iono fth e USSR :th es en t en c ingo fth r e em i l l ionp eop l etod ea thbys ta rva t ion . ManyFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s ,o ff c e r s ,and NCO sr e j e c t edRu s s iaandth e Ru s s ian sa sA s i an p eop l e , whomth eycon s id e r edtob ecu l tu ra l lyand sp i r i tua l lyin f e r io r .Inadd i t iontob lam ingRu s s iaandcommun i smfo r th em i s e ryo fth ep ea san t s , manya l soa c cu s edth e“ subm i s s iv e”and “b ru t i sh” Ru s s ian sth em s e lv e s .Th i sv i ew wa sp e rm ea t ed w i thcomm i s e ra t ionandev enempa thy ,no tra c ia lha t r ed .Span i shso ld i e r sm igh t

244 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

comm i tex c e s s e s ;th eyf e l tac e r ta ins en s eo fcu l tu ra lsup e r io r i tytowa rd s th een emyandc iv i l ian s ,ak intotha texp e r i en c edby No r th Am e r i can 14 so ld i e r sfa c ingth eJapan e s einth e Pa c if c . N ev e r th e l e s s ,th eB lu e D iv i s ion– i t scommand e r s , manyo f i t so ff c e r s ,and mo s to f i t sso ld i e r s– hadno tenv i s ion edth em id t e rmex t e rm ina t iono rsub juga t iono fth e S lav i cpopu la t ion . Mo s tw e r econv in c edtha tth eyhadcom etor e s to r e Ch r i s t ianfa i thandc iv i l iza t ioninRu s s iabye rad i ca t ingcommun i sm ; th e wa rth eyhadtofgh tonth eEa s t e rnf ron t wa sad i f f e r en ton e .

No t e s

1 .In t rodu c t ion :TheB lue D iv i s ion ,theF ran coReg ime ,andthe Se cond W o r ld W a r 1S e eF e rnánd ezCopp e l(2007 )andE s cuad ra(1998 ) .A l lt ran s la t ion sf rom fo r e ignlanguag e sth roughou tth i sbooka r e myownun l e s so th e rw i s e ind i ca t ed . 2S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018d ) . 3E lP a í s( 1 1and12 O c tob e r2004 ) . 4Spa ina sas ta t ed idno tpa r t i c ipa t einth econf i c t .Th i sdo e sno tequa t e w i thn eu t ra l i ty ,o rnon -a l ignm en tw i thanys id einth e wa r ,a tl ea s tun t i l 1944 . 5D e cad e sla t e r , many wa rv e t e ran ss t i l lb e l i ev edtha tth e i rro l ehada c tua l lyb e entop r ev en tSpa inf romen t e r ingth e wa ronth eAx i ss id e .S e e ,fo r examp l e ,J .d elaT o r r e ,“LaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”D e s t in o( 28Jun e1975 ) . 6S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,P ro c to r(1972 ) ;Ruh l(1986 ) ;Bow en(2007 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá (2007 ) ,o rth esp e c ia li s su eonSpan i shnon -b e l l ig e r en cydu r ingth eS e cond W o r ld W a rbyP eña lbaSo to r r io(2019 ) . 7S e eP r e s ton(1995 ) ;Tu s e l l(1995 ) ;Gud e rzo(1995 ) ;Payn e&Con t r e ra s (1996 ) ;Thomà s(2016b ) . 8S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th eex t en s iv eand w e l l -do cum en t ed monog raphby Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 )tha tfo cu s e s mo r eonop e ra t iona landd ip loma t i ca sp e c t s ,a sw e l la sh i sd e ta i l edt r ea tm en to fth eB lu eL eg ion(Mo r enoJu l iá 2014 ) .S e ea l soth e monog raphbyRod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a ) ;th ed es c r ip t iv eandun c r i t i ca ls tudybyth eama t eu rm i l i ta ryh i s to r ianCab a l l e ro Ju rado(2019 ) ;o rth ev e rysp e c if ct r ea tm en to fchap la in sandr e l ig io s i ty inth eBDbySaga r ra(2012 ) .W i th inRu s s ianh i s to r iog raphy ,som es tud i e s hav eapp ea r edinr e c en ty ea r stha ts tandapa r tf romth ein t e rna t iona l d i s cu s s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th e i r ma in m e r i tundoub t ed lyl i e sin sh edd ingl igh tonsom eSov i e t/Ru s s ian m i l i ta rya r ch iv esou r c e stha ta r e

246 No t e stopag e s 8–16 mo s t lyunava i lab l etonon -Ru s s ianh i s to r ian s :s e eKova l ev(2014 )and E lpa t ev sk i j(2015 ) . 9S e e Ha r tmann(2009 ,2013 ) ; Ha r tmann , Hü r t e r ,L i eb ,&Poh l(2009 ) ;F r i tz (201 1 ) . 10 S e eKühn e&Z i emann(2000 )and W e t t e(1992 ) . 1 1 How ev e r ,an ewg en e ra t iono fh i s to r ian sha sd rama t i ca l lyr ev iv edth e pano ramao f wa rs tud i e sinSpa in .Agoodexamp l ei sth eR ev i s t aUn iv e r s it a r i ad eH i s t o r i aM i l i t a r( www . ruhm . e s) ,fo und edin2012 . 12 Fo rr e f r e sh ingp e r sp e c t iv e sonth em i l i ta ryh i s to ryo fth eSpan i shC iv i l W a r ,s e eS e idmann(2002 ) , Ma t th ew s(2013 ,2019 ) ,H e rnánd ezBu rgo s (2020 )andA l ca ld e(2014 ) .S e ea l soE sda i l e(2020 )fo ranupda t edr ev i ew o fr e c en ts tud i e s . 13 S e eth ec la s s i cs tudybyL e ed(1979 :1–38 ) .S im i la r ly ,s e eLa tz e l(1997 ) , Ja sp e r(201 1 ) ,Z i emann(2013 ) ,and Nüb e l(2014 ) . 14 Fo rth eexp e r i en c eo fth eCondo rL eg ioninth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ,s e e S chü l e r -Sp r ingo rum(2010 ) . 15 A mod e lapp roa chtoth i si s su e ,fo rth eI ta l ianca s e ,i sexam in edinG iu s t i (2003 ) .Ad e s c r ip t iv e(andpa s s iona t e lyp ro -Fa lang i s t )app roa chcana l so b efoundinT o r r e s(2018 ) . 16 S e eRuh l(1986 )and Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 ,2007 ) 17 S e eW e t t e(1992 ) ;U l r i ch(1996 ) ;andJa sp e r(201 1 ) . 18 S e eU l r i ch(1997 ) ;Epk enhan s ,Fö r s t e r ,& Hag emann(2006 ) ;D id czun e i t , Eb e r t ,&Jand e r(201 1 ) . 19 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018a :355–87 )fo racompa ra t iv er ef e c t ion . 20 En c ina s Mo ra l(2008 ) . 21 S e eJud e r ía s(1940 ) ; Ma r t ín ez Ma r t ín ez(1999 ) . 22 T odo rova(1997 ) ;S ch enk(2002 ) . 23 E lo rza&B iz ca r rondo(1999 :79–99 ) ;Fa s ey(2000 ) . 24 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 ) . 25 C ruz(1997 ) ;onth eEu rop eancon t ex t ,s e eK lug(1987 )andGa r c ía(2005 ) . 26 “E lv e rdad e rop e l ig roru so .Lacaba lga taa s iá t i ca ,”A r r i b a( 4 Ap r i l1935 ) . 27 S e eV en t ron e(2005 )andS coppo la(2006 ) . 28 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006 :177–305 ) . 29 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 :7–36 ) . 30 S e r ranod e Ha ro(1942 :289 ) ;D eCa s t roA lba r rán(1938 :156 ) . 31 S e e ,e .g . ,Ga r c ía Mo r en t e(1961 :20–1 ) . 32 S e e“Po raqu ípa sóRu s ia .”L aAm e t r a l l ad o r a( 17 O c tob e r1937 ) ;M .Somoza Po l ea ,“Caba l l e ro scon t raho rda s ,”L aAm e t r a l l ad o r a( 10 O c tob e r1937 ) . 33 S e eKa r l(1937 :161–96 ) . 34 F l e ch a( 25Ju ly1937 ) ;“S ta l in ,M ia jaysu scha r r e t e ra s ,” L aAm e t r a l l ad o r a ( 17Ju ly1938 ) . 35 S e eexamp l e sin Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006a :249–50 ) .

No t e stopag e s 16–19 247 36 J .M .Sa lav e r r ía ,“E lru so .”ABC ( 20 D e c emb e r1939 ) ;“Con t ralaURSS ,” Mund o( 29Jun e1941 ) . 37 P e lo i l l e(2015 ) . 38 S e eT oma son i(2017 ) . 39 S e e ,e .g . ,L .Pu é r to la s ,“Unl ib ro :Cz e ch Jo chb e rg :H i t l e r ,un mov im i en to a l emán ,”L aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t ad o,16( 27Jun e1931 ) ;R .Bad e r ,“E lt r iun fo na c iona lso c ia l i s tad e Hambu rgo ,”L aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t ad o,21( 10 O c tob e r 1931 ) . 40 R .L [ ed e sma ]R [amo s ] ,“E lna c iona l so c ia l i smoa l emán .E lpa r t idod eH i tl e r ,”L aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t ad o,2( 21 Ma r ch1931 ) ;“Lal ib e ra c iónan t i -ma rx i s ta .Ep i sod io sd e lna c iona l so c ia l i smoa l emán ,”L i b e r t ad,19( 19 O c tob e r 1931 ) ;“Ento rnoa lna c iona l so c ia l i smo ,”L i b e r t ad( 9 Nov emb e r1931 ) . 41 R .L ed e smaRamo s ,“E lna c iona l so c ia l i smoene lpod e r .Laru tad eA l eman ia ,” JONS ,1(May1933 ) . 42 “A l eman ia ,”FE,1( 7D e c emb e r1933 ) ;“E lg e s tod eA l eman iaylaSo c i e dadd e Na c ion e s ,”A r r i b a( 21 Ma r ch1935 ) ;“V en tanaa l mundo ,”A r r i b a, ( 16and30 May1935 ) ;E .Gu t i é r r ez -Pa lma ,“ I ta l ia ,A l eman ia ,E spaña ,” L i b e r t ad( 24S ep t emb e r1934 ) . 43 S e eThomà s(2019 )andGa l l ego(2014 :181–7 ) .S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s (2019 ) . 44 F .Ga r c ía Má rqu ez ,“Laraza :fundam en tod elacomun idad ,”JONS ,1 1 (Augu s t1934 ) . 45 “A l eman ia :naz i sy jud ío s ,”FE( 1 1Janua ry1934 ) ;“T r ibuna l e sd eSa lud Púb l i ca ,”FE( 22 F eb rua ry1934 ) . 46 Th e“p i lg r imag e”toB e r l in wa sar i t eo fpa s sag efo r many“ l i t t l efa s c i s t s” o fth eEu rop eanp e r iph e ry .S e eR e i ch e l(2006 ) ;Ba joh r&S t rupp(201 1 ) ; andSa l l é e(2014 ) . 47 Gay(1934 ) . 48 B en ey toP é r ez(1934 :43–6 ,1 13– 18 ,148– 50 ) . 49 Ra to(1935 ;1936 :1 19–23 ) . Th eda t e1492r e f e r stoth ey ea r wh enth eso ca l l edCa tho l i c Mona r ch sF e rnandoandI sab e lexp e l l edf roman ew ly un if ed“Span i sh”k ingdoma l lJ ew sand Mu s l im s whor e fu s edtoconv e r t toCa tho l i c i sm . 50 O .R edondo ,“R e l ig iónypo l í t i ca .D e f en sad eH i t l e r ,” L i b e r t ad( 6 Augu s t 1934 ) . 51 S e eR .d e Ma ez tu ,“H i t l e r :Sut r iun foysup rog rama ,”A c c i ónE sp añ o l a ( 16 May1932 ) .S e ea l so mo r eexamp l e sin H e rnánd ez(2016 :777– 8 ) . 52 Mo rodo(1985 :1 14–24 ) ; Ga l l ego(2014 :165– 7 ) . 53 Ro s enb e rg ’ sd ia r i e s ,en t ryo f23 Augu s t1936(Ma t thäu s&Ba joh r2015 : 200 ) . 54 Payn e(1997 :261–7 ) ;V iña s(2001 :186– 7 ) . 55 V e la rd eFu e r t e s(2008 ) .

248 No t e stopag e s 19–24 56 Bö ck e r(2000 :200 ,230 ,289– 90 ) ;Á lva r ezCh i l l ida(2002 :312– 14 ) . 57 V iña s(2001 :187–8 ) ; Mo ran tiA r iño(2013 :136–7 ) . 58 S e eV iña s(2001 ) ;M e rk e s(1961 ) ,andS chü l e r -Sp r ingo rum(2010 ) . 59 Ru izCa rn i c e r(1996 :156–61 ) ; Mo ran tiA r iño(2013 :325–517 ) . 60 Fo rexamp l e ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jov i s i t edG e rmanya sP ropagandaCh i e fin 1937(R id ru e jo1976 :188–92 ) . 61 S e eB rydan(2016 ,2019b ) . 62 S chu lz e -S chn e id e r(2004 ) ;P eña lbaSo to r r io(2019 ) . 63 S e eRo sAgudo(2002 :271–314 ) ;Janu éi M i r e t(2008 ) ;andS e smaLand r ín (201 1 ) . Onth einfu en c eo f Naz ilawdo c t r in e sinSpa in ,s e eR ivaya(1998 : 49–82 ) ,andGa l l ego(2014 :510– 16 ,740– 7 ) . 64 Bow en(2007 ) . 65 R epo r t sbyth eG e rmanv i c e con su linBada jozf rom16 ,17 ,and20 Augu s t 1940(PAAA ,DBM ,R eg .Po l .A l lg .[RPA ]558/2 , Box767 ) . 66 A l ca ld e(2014 :83–1 1 1 ) . 67 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,“E lhomb r eysue s t i lo ,”A r r i b a( 20Ju ly1940 ) . 68 R epo r t sbyLö s chn e randPau lW inz e r ,V a l en c ia ,28 Ap r i land5 May1941 (PAAA ,DBM ,RPA557/ 2 , Box766 ) . 69 L e t t e rtovonS toh r e r ,13Ju ly1941(PAAA ,DBM ,RPA557/ 2 , Box766 ) . 70 R i cha rd s(2010 ) . 71 R epo r t sf romLö s chn e randPau lW inz e r , Mad r idandV a l en c ia ,28 Ap r i l 1941(PAAA ,DBM ,RPA .557/2 , Box766 ) . 72 R epo r tf romAmba s sado rvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,17Ju ly1942(PAAA , R -29744 ) . 73 S e e Mazow e r(2000 :141–3 ) . 74 L e t t e ro fM .D .R iu sandC .Copa ,Ba r c e lona ,17Jun e1940(PAAA ,DBM , RPA558/2 , Box767 ) . 75 L e t t e rf romAn ton ioCa r r eño , Mad r id ,30 Ap r i l1941(PAAA ,DBM ,RPA 555/1 , Box764 ) . 76 Lazo(1998 :165–75 ) . 77 R epo r tf romG e rmancon su linB i lbao ,1Ju ly1941 ,andl e t t e rs ign edbys ix R e qu e t éo ff c e r s ,29Jun e1941(PAAA ,DBM ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 78 L e t t e r(n .d . ,Jun e1941 )s ign edbyth efv eR equ e t él ead e r sf rom Nava r r e (PAAA ,DBM ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 79 L e t t e rs ign edby19 Ca r l i s to ff c e r sand wa rv e t e ran s , Mad r id ,3 Augu s t 1942(PAAA ,DBM ,G eh e imak t en ,Box795 ,6/2 ) . 2 . Ru s s iaI s Gu i l ty ! 1Fö r s t e r(1983 ) ;W egn e r(1990 ) . 2C i t edbyS t r e i t(1978 :34 ) . 3W e t t e(2002 : 95–7 ) .

No t e stopag e s 24–31 249 4S t r e i t(1978 :29–30 ) . 5H i l lb e rg(2005 :953–78 ) ;Snyd e r(2010 ) . 6K rau sn i ck(1998 :123–30 ) . 7S e eH i lb e rg(2005 :1360–6 )andSnyd e r(2010 ) . 8H i t l e r(1930 :751–53 ) . 9S e eth econ t rov e r s ia lGo ldhag enth e s i s(1997 ) .Ac r i t i c i smapp ea r sin Kühn e(1999 :605–14 )a sw e l la sinB rown ing(2002 )andBöh l e r(2006 : 17–19 ) . 10 Poh l(2008 ) ; Ha r tmann(2009 :466–7 ) . 1 1K e l l e r(201 1 :320–3 ) . 12 K rau sn i ck(1977 )andRöm e r(2008 ) . 13 S e eU eb e r s chä r& W e t t e(1984 :310–15 ) ; Ba r tov(2001 : 106–7 ) ; Röm e r(2008 : 133–58 ) . 14 Röm e r(2008 :172–88 ) . 15 S e eW e t t e(2002 :103–4 )andK e r shaw(2000 :357 ) . 16 Ba r tov(1991 ,2001 ) ;Ra s s(2003 ) . 17 S e eN e i tz e l& W e lz e r(201 1 ) . 18 Röm e r(2012 ) . 19 Ha r tmann(2009 ,2013 ) ;Ru th e r fo rd(2014 ) . 20 V ehv i lä in en(2002 ) ;K iv imäk i(201 1 ) ;K iv imäk i&K innun en(2012 ) . 21 S e eA s swo r thy ,S ca f e s ,&C ra c iuno iu(1995 )a sw e l la sCon s tan t in iu ,Du tu , &R e t egan(1995 ) ,Ro ta r i ,Bu r c in ,Zod ian ,& Mo i s e(1999 ) ,andF i l ip e s cu (2006 ) . 22 D iNa rdo(1996 ,2005 ) ;N e i tz e l(2004 ) ;Ca ta ruzza ,Dy ro f f ,&Lang ew i e s ch e (2012 ) . 23 S ch l emm e r(2005 ,2009 ) ;G iu s t i(2016 ) ;S c ianna(2019 ) . 24 K l im en t& Nak lada l(1997 :65–89 ) , Ry ch l ik(2017 ) . 25 And e r son(1999 ) ;Ungvá ry(2004 ,2005a ,2005b ) ;Rom s i c s(2017 ) . 26 G lan tz(2001 :9 ) . 27 Hau s l e i tn e r ,M ihok ,& W e tz e l(2001 ) . 28 Ungvá ry(2005a :99–100 ) . 29 S t e in(1966 :137–48 ) ; W e t t e(1984 ) ;G run e r t(2012 :51–60 ) . 30 Jou rna len t r i e sda t ed23 ,24and28Jun e1941 ,quo t edby N e i tz e l(2004 : 137 ) . 31 V ö l k i s ch e rB e o b a ch t e r( 28Jun e1941 ) . 32 Ga r c íaP é r ez(1990 ) ;K luk e(1955 ) ; Mazow e r(2000 :221–2 ) ;B run e t eau (2003 ) ;Lo f f(2008 ) ;G run e r t(2012 ) ;andP r évo taux(2010 ) . 33 S e eS t e in(1966 ) ;W egn e r(1999 :1 12–29 ) ;L e l eu(2007 :261– 77 ) ; Roh rkamp (201 1 ) ;S chu l t e ,L i eb ,& W egn e r(2014 ) ;Böh l e r &G e rwa r th(2016 ) . 34 “N i ed e r s ch r i f tüb e rd i eS i tzungimAu swä r t ig enAm tvom30 .Jun i1941 üb e rd i eF r e iw i l l ig en -M e ldunginf r emd enLänd e rnfü rd enKamp fg eg en d i eSow j e tun ion ,”4Ju ly1941(PAAA ,Box708 ,G eh e imak t en ,504/ 4 ) ;

250 No t e stopag e s 31–6 “R i ch t l in i enfü rd enE in sa tzau s länd i s ch e rF r e iw i l l ig e rimKamp fg eg en d i eSow j e tun ion ,”6Ju ly1941(BA -MA ,RW19/686 ) . 35 T ou t el ’Eu r op ec on t r el eB o l ch év i sm e .2 èm eann iv e r s a i r e22Ju in1941– 22Ju in 1943,n .p . :C .E .A . ,n .d .[1943 ] ,25–31 . 36 S e eR eady(1987 )and Mü l l e r(2007 ) .Fo rW e s t e rnEu rop ean s ,s e eE s t e s (2003 ) ;An ton ioue ta l .(2016 ) ;andA l eg r eLo r enz(2017 ) .Fo ranon ex hau s t iv el i s to f monog raph sonth ed i f f e r en tna t iona lun i t s ,s e eB ruyn e (1991 )a sw e l la sB ruyn e &R ikm en spo e l(2004 )fo rth eW a l loon s ;G i o l i t to(2007 ) ,Ca r ra rd(2010 ) ,andS chö t t l e r(2014 )fo rth eF r en ch ;P i e r ik (2001 )fo rth e Du t ch ;W e r th e r(2004 ) ,Sm i th ,Pou l s en , &Ch r i s t en s en (1999 )a sw e l la sCh r i s t en s en ,Pou l s en &Sm i th(2014 )fo rth e Dan e s ; F igu e i r edo(2001 )andSo r l i e(2019 )fo rth e No rw eg ian s ;D eW ev e r (1985 ,1991 ) ,Ca r r e in(1999 ) ,andS eb e r e ch t s(2002 )fo rth eF l em i sh ; S t e in &K ro sby(1966 )fo rth eF inn s ; Gu e r ra(2012 )fo rth eI ta l ian s ; Zaugg(2016 )fo rth eA lban ian s ;and Mo tad e l(2014 )fo ro th e r Mu s l im p eop l e s . 37 W egn e r(1999 :31 1 ) ;N e i tz e l(2004 : 142 ) . 38 P i e r ik(2001 :56–7 ) ; Ch r i s t en s en ,Pou l s en ,&Sm i th(2014 :197 ) . 39 N e i tz e l(2004 : 149 ) ; Roh rkamp(201 1 :14 ) . 40 Luy t en s(2010 ) ;Gu e r ra(2012 ) ;M i la ta(2009 :174–214 ;2014 ) . 41 Th eexa c td im en s ion so fth e s ep lan si sl i t t l eknown .Inth i sr ega rd ,W a f fen -SSth eo r i s t sando rgan iz e r ssu cha sGo t t lobB e rg e randth eG e rm an i s ch e L e i t s t e l l e exp r e s s ed mo r epan -Eu rop eanamb i t ionthan H imm l e r .S e eW eg n e r(1999 :310–16 )andGu tmann(2017 ) . 42 InAp r i l1945 ,25 o fth e38 W a f f en -SSd iv i s ion s(65 .78% )w e r epa r t ia l lyo r en t i r e lycompo s edo fnon -G e rmanvo lun t e e r s ,though manyd iv i s ion s w e r ev e rysma l l(Roh rba ch201 1 :604–6 ) . 43 S e eL aSSt ’ app e l l e !,n .p . ,1943 . 44 Zaugg(2016 )andP e tk e(2014 ) . 45 Go l cz ew sk i(2003 ) . 46 Ho f fmann(1976 ) ; Mo tad e l(2013 ;2014 : 133–77 ) . 47 Fo rE s ton ian s ,s e eM i cha e l i s(2000 )and H i io(2014 ) ;fo rLa tv ian s ,S ch i l l (1977 )andF e ldman i s(2005 :122–131 ) ;andKo t t(2012 ) . 48 N ew land(1991 : 122–37 ) ; Ed e l e(2017 ) ;P e t rov&B eyda(2017 ) . 49 And r ey ev(1987 :206–15 ) ; Ho f fmann(1986 ) . 50 R id ru e jo(1978 :55–6 ) . 51 Ruh l(1986 :22–24 ) ;Smy th(1994 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :69–70 ) . 52 V onS toh r e rtoB e r l in , Mad r id ,22Jun e1941 ,and D eu t s ch eIn f o rm a t i on s st e l l er epo r t , Mad r id ,23Jun e1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 53 R ibb en t roptovonS toh r e r ,Sonn enbu rg ,24Jun e1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 54 R epo r tonth eFETPo l i t i ca lCoun c i lm e e t ing ,n .d .( Jun e1941 ) ,AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 .

No t e stopag e s 36–40 251 55 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 : 65–6 ) ;s e c r e tr epo r t s ,B e r l in ,24Jun e1941 ,and Ma d r id ,24Jun e1941 ;vonS toh r e rtoB e r l in , Mad r id ,25Jun e1941(PAAA R .29741 ) .L e t t e rn .d .(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 56 R epo r t sf romK rahm e r , Mad r id ,25Jun e1941 ,andvonS toh r e r ,26Jun e 1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 57 R epo r t sf romEb e rha rdvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,24Jun e1941 ;F r i tzLöw e , T a r ragona ,26Jun e1941 ;Roh rba ch ,B i lbao ,26Jun e1941 ;vonKnob lo ch , A l i can t e ,26Jun e1941(PAAA ,Box796 ,G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) ;r epo r t sf rom vonS toh r e r(24Jun e1941 ) ,f romcon su l so fSan taC ruzd eT en e r i f e( 25 Jun e1941 ) , Má laga( 26Jun e1941 ) ,A l i can t e( 27Jun e1941 ) ,andBa r c e lona ( 26Jun e1941 ) ,PAAA ,D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id ,Box766 ,R eg .Po l .A l lg . 58 T e l eg ram sf romvonS toh r e r ,26Jun e1941(PAAAR .29741 ) ;copyo fin s t ru c t ion stop rov in c ia lh eado fth eFETinT é touan ,n .d . ,andl e t t e rf rom th eSpan i sh H ighComm i s s ion e rin Mo ro c cotoG en e ra lV a r e la ,27Jun e 1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .588 ) . 59 And r é sSa l iqu e ttoV a r e la ,30Jun e1941 ,andV a r e latoSa l iqu e t ,2Ju ly 1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . Fo rahag iog raph i capp roa chto Muñoz G rand e s ,s e eT ogo r e sSán ch ez(2007 ) . 60 R id ru e jo(1978 :57–9 ,en t r i e so f4and12Ju ly1941 ) . 61 R epo r tby H eb e r l e in ,2Ju ly1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 62 R epo r tonth em e e t ingo fG e rmanandSpan i sh M i l i ta ryJu s t i c er ep r e s en ta t iv e son19 Augu s t1941inB e r l in(AGMAV1978/ 8/2/1 ) . 63 V on W e iz sä ck e rtoth eG e rmanemba s syin Mad r id ,B e r l in ,3Ju ly1941 (PAAA ,R -29742 ) . 64 R epo r tf rom H eb e r l e in , Mad r id ,9Ju ly1941(PAAA ,R .29742 ) ;K l e in f e ld &T amb s(1983 :42–5 ) . 65 “R e la c iónd evo lun ta r io sru so s”n .d .[ Ju ly1941 ] ,AGMAV2005/3/2/3 , s e ea l soth em emo i r so fth evo lun t e e rV lad im i rKova l ev sk i iin Núñ ez S e ixa s&B eyda(2019 ) . 66 Lu i sAgu i la r ,“D ia r iod em icampañad eRu s ia ,”en t ryo f4Ju ly1941 (Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 :43 ) . 67 R epo r tf rom H eb e r l e in ,17Ju ly1941(PAAA , Mad r id553/ 3 , Box761 ) ; Lyau t ey(1942 :58–62 ) . 68 M .Da rana r ,“E lv ia j eaRu s iad elo svo lun ta r io sfa lang i s ta s ,” ABC ( 22Ju ly 1941 ) . 69 S e er epo r t sf romth e2nds e c t iono fG en e ra lS ta f f ,G ra f enwöh r ,19and 21Ju ly1941 ;andCommand e rRamónRod r ígu ezV i ta ,n .d . ,inAGMAV , 2005/2/2 ; MuñozG rand e s ’ sr epo r ttoV a r e la ,29Ju ly1941(AHMC -FGV , C .1 15 ) . 70 R epo r tf romth eBDG en e ra lS ta f ftoG en e ra lV a r e la ,5 Augu s t1941 ;r epo r t byth eDGS ,I rún ,8 Augu s t1941 ,and MuñozG rand e s ’ sr epo r ttoV a r e la , 19 Augu s t1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) .

252 No t e stopag e s 40–6 71 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,9 Augu s t1941 (AFR I ) ;Cap ta insu rg eonB e rna rd inoLóp ezRom e ro ,DEV .H o sp i t a ld e C amp añ a250 .M em o r i a,20 Augu s t1942 ,7(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fCa r lo sLóp ez d e lR ío ,Bo i ro/Mad r id[ACLR ] ) . 72 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,14 Augu s t1941 (AFR I ) . 73 S e eGa r r iga(1977 :360–3 ) ;r epo r t so fvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,9and18Augu s t1941(PAAA ,R29742 ) . 74 S e eth eexhau s t iv ed e s c r ip t ionbyCaba l l e roJu rado(201 1 ) . 75 R epo r t so fth eBDCh i e fo fM i l i ta ryPo l i c e ,B e r l in ,12and23 May1942 (AGMAV1982/ 6/3 ) . 76 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :315 ) ;Caba l l e roJu rado(201 1 : 21 1–17 ) . 77 Ibáñ ez H e rnánd ez(1998 ) ;“Ho jad eCampaña ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,266(S ep t emb e r1981 )and273(Ap r i l1982 ) . 78 R epo r tby MuñozG rand e stoG en e ra lV a r e la ,1 Augu s t1941 ,andt ran s la t edcop i e so fth esp e e ch e so fCo ch enhau s enandF romm(AHMC -FGV , C .1 15 ) . 79 P ro c to r(1972 ) ;K l e in f e ld&T amb s(1983 ) ;Bow en(2000a ) .Th i st end en cy i sno t edins ev e ra llo ca ls tud i e sbyama t eu randn eo -F ran co i s th i s to r ian s : s e eN eg r e i ra(201 1 ) ;T o r r e s(2014 ) ;andCaba l l e roJu rado(2019 ) . 80 E l lwood(1984 :145–6 ) ; Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a ,2009 ) . 81 Ruh l(1986 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 ) . 82 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,18S ep t emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 83 L ev s en&K rüg e r(2010 ) ;A r i e l l i&Co l l in s(2013 ) . 84 A r e s t i(2014 ) .R ega rd ingth eG e rmancomba tan t s ,s e eW e rn e r(2008 ) . 85 E l s t e r(1999 ,2002 ) . 86 A l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r eztoh i spa r en t s ,G ra f enwöh r ,25Ju ly1941 (AFN ) . 87 Skou t e l sky(2006 :270–2 ) ;au tob iog raphyo fJ .M .Ca s tañón ,n .d . , c .1957– 8 (RAH -FMD ) . 88 “ ¿Po rqu éfu imo sa l lá ?”B l auD iv i s i ón,21(May1961 ) ; Mon t e s(2006 :23 ) . 89 Onth econ c ep to f“ r e f e r en c eg roup ,”s e eM e r ton(1970 : 228–386 ) . 90 “ I wa sno taFa lang i s t ,bu tId id wha t manyo f myf r i end sandcompan ion sd id ,”a cknow l edg edF ran c i s coRu iz , whoen l i s t edin1942 , wh enh e wa sdo ingh i sm i l i ta rys e rv i c e(P é r ez Ma e s t r e2008 : 125 ) . 91 L e t t e rf romP ed roLu i sFa ja rdoB i e l ,12 Augu s t1941(AGA 51/20552 ) . 92 L e t t e rf romEdua rdoApa r i s i ,V a l en c ia ,n .d .(O c tob e r1941 ) ,PAAA ,Box 796 ,G eh e im a k t en ,6 /9. 93 L i c in iod ela Hu e rgatoCa r lo sP in i l la ,B enav en t e ,1 1Ju ly1941(CDMH , Ca r lo sP in i l la ’ spap e r s ,Box1448/1 ) . 94 Quo t edbyLóp ezV i l la to ro(2012 :280 ) .

No t e stopag e s 46–9 253 95 Manu e lS .yS .toF ran co , Mad r id , 21Ju ly1941 .O th e rp e t i t ion e r sc i t ed mo t iv e so fav eng ingfam i ly m emb e r s( su cha sth esono fal i eu t enan t who hadfa l l enin1937 )o ran t i commun i smandpa t r io t i sm(Cazo r laSán ch ez 2014 :48–50 ) . 96 App l i ca t iono fI sab e lSa ladoEn r íqu ez , Hu e lva ,13 D e c emb e r1941(AGA , 51/20552 ) . 97 F romasamp l eo f61 vo lun t e e r sinth eG i rona M i l i t ia , mo r ethanon e th i rd ( 36% )w e r eno tbo rninCa ta lon ia ;a lmo s t40% w e r esk i l l edandun sk i l l ed wo rk e r s ,andon e fou r th(24 .6% )w e r elow -and m id rank ingemp loy e e s andc iv i ls e rvan t s ,a long w i thas ign if can tnumb e r(6 .5% )o fl ib e ra lp rof e s s iona l s ,ag r i cu l tu ra landindu s t r ia lbu s in e s sown e r s . Mo r ethanha l f w e r eFET m emb e r s ,ando th e r sw e r er igh tw ingo rt rad i t iona l i s t sp r io rto 1936 .S e ea l soGay(2002 ) . 9 8R epo r t sf romS amu e l Ho a r e ,M ad r id ,8Ju ly1 9 4 1(NA -PRO3 7 1/ 2 6 9 4 0 ) : S t i l l etoG e rm anFo r e ign M in i s t ry ,M ad r id ,8Ju ly1 9 4 1(PAAA ,S amm lung d e rL ag eb e r i ch t e ,M ad r id5 5 3/3 , Box7 6 1 ) ,andf romth eG e rm ancon su lin B a r c e lon a ,1 0Ju ly1 9 4 1(PAAA ,Box7 9 6 , G e h e im a k t en6/ 9 ) ;r epo r tbyAm b a s s ado rFox á ,H e l s ink i ,2 6Ju ly1 9 4 1(AMAE ,R 2 1 9 2 ,Exp . 3 1 ) . Th eBBC s e rv i c einSp an i shr epo r t edth a tno ton ly“m i sd i r e c t ed ”id e a l i s tvo lun t e e r s jo in edth eBD ,bu ta l soex conv i c t sandso ld i e r s whoh adb e enfo r c edtoen l i s t .S e er epo r tbyS amu e l Ho a r e ,1 4S ep t emb e r1 9 4 1(NA -FO3 7 1/ 2 6 9 4 0 ) . 99 R epo r tby Ma jo r Ma r ianod e lP rado ,G ra f enwöh r ,21Ju ly1941(AGMAV 2005/272/23 ) ;K l e in f e ld&T amb s(1983 :35–6 ) . 100 R epo r t sf romth eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id ,andcon su l sinBa rc e lona ,San taC ruzd eT en e r i f e ,B i lbao ,A l i can t e , Má laga ,A lm e r íaand o th e rtown s(PAAA ,D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id ,R eg .Po l .A l lg . ,Box766 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 : 98–100 ) ; Hoa r etoFo r e ign O ff c e ,9Ju ly1941(NA PRO/FO371/26940 ) .S e ea l soF e rnánd ezV i c en t e(2019 :342 ) . 101 Sán ch ezB run(2002 :81 ) . 102 R epo r tf romaV -M ann to H eb e r l e in , Mad r id ,3Ju ly1941(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) . 103 “Pa r t em en sua ld eFET ,”1–30Jun e1941(AGA ,51/20557 ) ;N i co lá s Ma r ín (1982 :437– 9 ) ;A l ca ld e(2012 :53–5 ) . 104 “Pa r t em en sua ld eFET ,”A s tu r ia s ,Jun e1941(AGA ,51/20565 ,Exp .39 ) . 105 R epo r t sf romCon su lR i ch t e r ,T é touan ,5and10Ju ly1941(P AAA ,Box 796 ,G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) . Amongth e Mo ro c canso ld i e r ss ta t ion edinIb iza w e r e 106 vo lun t e e r s ,a l lo f whom w e r er e j e c t ed ;a l so ,490 Mo ro c can so ld i e r ss ta t ion edinT en e r i f evo lun t e e r ed(N eg r e i ra1991 :97–8 ;l i s to f nam e sf rom28Jun e1941 ,in N eg r e i ra201 1 :20–2 ;J im én ezSo to2015 : 161–2 ) . 106 C e rv e raG i l(1998 )andRu iz(2012 ) .Anexamp l e wa sth eFa lang i s t Edua rdoD íazIn fan t e(n .d . :9–10 ) .

254 No t e stopag e s 49–52 107 Samu e l Hoa r etoAn thonyEd en ,2Ju ly1941( c i t edbyPa loma r e s1996 : 35 ) . 108 S e ePa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :271–9 ) . 109 E . Hax e l ,Zu s t and b e r i ch tü b e rd i esp an .F r e iw .D iv .,1 1 Augu s t1943(BA -MA , RH24–50/59 ) . 1 10 W a rd ia ryo fEn r iqu eSán ch ezF ra i l e ,quo t edbyL .Ru iz ,“Ano ta c ion e s d eunso ldadosob r elacampañad eRu s ia ,”unpub l i sh edpap e r ,2006 .S e e a l soV i c iana(2018 :236–7 ) . 1 1 1 Unpub l i sh eds ta t em en t sbyD ion i s ioR id ru e jo(Mo r en t e2006 :191 ) . 1 12 “D i ezr e spu e s ta sad i ezp r egun ta sco lo candolo spun to ssob r ela sí e s ,” B l auD iv i s i ón ,50(O c tob e r1963 ) . 1 13 D e lA r coB lan co(2007 ) ;A l ca ld e(2014 :1 17–38 ;2010 ) . 1 14 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :276 ) . 1 15 T oavo idcomp l i ca t ion sinth eba r ra ck sund e rh i scommand ,inJanua ry 1942th eH ighComm i s s ion e ro f Mo ro c co ,G en e ra lLu i sO rgaz ,sugg e s t ed tha ton lyFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r sb ed i spa t ch edtor ep la c etho s e whor e tu rn edf romRu s s ia ;G en e ra lV a r e lar e spond edtha t“ th e r ea r ev e ryf ew Fa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s .”Lu i sO rgaztoV a r e la ,T é touan ,10Janua ry1942 , andV a r e latoLu i sO rgaz , Mad r id ,24 F eb rua ry1942 .Th eph ra s er e f e r r ing toth eFETvo lun t e e r sinth el e t t e rf romth eA rmyCh i e fo fS ta f fto Muñoz G rand e s , Mad r id ,n .d . ,c . Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 1 16 R epo r tbyG en e ra lCa r lo sA s en s io ,A rmyC en t ra lS ta f f ,toF ran co , Mad r id , 9F eb rua ry1942(AGMAV ,C .2005/ 14/1/6 ) . 1 17 Thomà s(2016b ) . 1 18 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a :31 1 ) ;Caba l l e roJu rado(2004a :30–1 ) . 1 19 Inth ebo rd e rtowno fI rún ,th e“f r s t”BDvo lun t e e r s who w e r er e tu rn ing toth ef ron ta f t e rl eav eo rconva l e s c en c einSpa inev ena sk edno ttosha r e at ra incompa r tm en tw i thth er ep la c em en t s ,a sth ey w e r e“no to fth e sam ec la s sa stho s e who w en tay ea rago”(DGSr epo r to f13Jun e1942 , AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 120 Fo rexamp l e ,th eC iv i lGua rd Manu e lPu en t e sin May1942 ,a l soa Fa lang i s t ,inal e t t e rtoD ion i s ioR id ru e jo ,15 May1942(CDMH -FR , MF/ R5912 ) . 121 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :395–6 ) ; DGSr epo r t s ,24and28 F eb rua ry1942 (AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . An O ldGua rdFa lang i s tf romV a l en c iavo lun t e e r ed inth ela t esumm e ro f1942 wh i l edo ingh i sm i l i ta rys e rv i c einBa r c e lona . H ehadno tb e enadm i t t edon ey ea rb e fo r e ,bu tla t e r“vo lun t e e r sa r ela cking”andthu ss e rv i c em enondu ty w e r ea l low edtoen l i s t(G eo rga copu lo s 2015 :29 ) . 122 Mon th lyr epo r to fth eFETinA lba c e t e , Ma r ch1942(AGA ,P r e s id en c ia , 51/20580 ) . 123 Manu e lT a r ínSa latoR em ed io sR ebo l lo , 13Jun e1942(AFR ) .

No t e stopag e s 53–6 255 124 Manu e lT a r ínSa latoR em ed io sR eb e l lo , 12Ju ly1942 ,andtoanonymou s f r i end s ,21 O c tob e r1942(AFR ) . 125 U r su latoCo rpo ra lAn ton io H e r r e ro ,Poznań,13S ep t emb e r1943 ,and An ton io H e r r e rotoU r su la ,Ru s s ia ,30S ep t emb e r1943(AA ) . 126 InA lba c e t e ,fo rexamp l e ,984vo lun t e e r ss ign edupa tr e c ru i tm en to f f c ein1941 .In Ma r ch1942 ,th enumb e ro fen l i s tm en t s wa s132 .S e eth e mon th lyr epo r t so fth eFETinA lba c e t e ,Ju ly1941and Ma r ch1942(AGA , 51/20544and51/20580 ) ,andA l ca ld e(2012 :62 ) . 127 Mo s ca rdótoV a r e la , Mad r id , 20Ju ly1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 128 Rod r ígu ezGonzá l ez(2003 :291 ) ;N eg r e i ra(201 1 :129–200 ) . 129 S e ePu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :195–7 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :482– 6 ) . 130 Aso ld i e rinSan tSadu rn íd ’Ano iar e fu s edtogotoRu s s ia ,igno r ingth e sugg e s t ion so fh i ssup e r io r s :J . J .Tha r ra t s ,“San tSadu rn íd ’Ano iaila f l · lox e ra ,”D i a r id eG i r on a( 1 1O c tob e r1987 ) . 1 3 1C ap t a inF ed e r i coFu en t e s -Góm e zd eS a l a z a rw a sc a l l edtofo rm a t ionin Jun e1 9 4 2onth ecou r ty a rdo fth eC ad e t sA c ad emyinLog roño .Tho s e who d i dn o tw i s htogodoRu s s i aw e r etot ak eon es t epfo rw a rd .Though a lmo s ta l lth ec ad e t ssymp a th i z ed w i thth eBDinth eo ry ,th eyh adto m ak e th e i rd e c i s ionina m a t t e ro fs e cond s(Lóp e z -Cov a r rub i a s2 0 1 2 :1 6 – 1 7 ) .P r i v a t eJo s éL in a r e sG a r c í aw a sr e c ru i t edina Mo ro c c anb a r r a ckbyano ff c e r whos en te igh tso ld i e r sfo raphy s i c a lex am ,b lu r t ingou t :“Y oua r ego ing toth eD iv i s ion ,r igh t ? ”Bycon t r a s t ,inn e ighbou r ingT é tou an“ th eco lon e l d idno tw an tanyon eto‘vo lun t e e r ’inth a tw ay ”(L in a r e s2 0 0 0 :2 3 ) . 132 In t e rv i ew w i thJoaqu im M .Ro sad eO l iv e i ra ,L i sbon ,17 O c tob e r2010 ( cou r t e syo fM r .R i ca rdoS i lva ,L i sbon ) . 133 MuñozG rand e stoV a r e la , 10 May1942 ;V a r e lato MuñozG rand e s , Mad r id , 12Jun e1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) ;r epo r tbySonn l e i thn e r ,t ran s m i t t edto H i t l e randR ibb en t rop , 4S ep t emb e r1942(PAAAR .29744 ) ; OInd ep end en t e,26Jun e1992 . 134 J .Fa r r éd eCa lzad i l la ,“L eg i s la c iónlabo ra lp ro t e c to rad elo svo lun ta r io s d elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”En l a c e,9( 20S ep t emb e r1942 ) . 135 ¡E sp añ o l e s ! , Mu r c ia :Imp .J im én ez ,n .d .[1942 ] . 136 L e t t e rbyCap ta inF ran c i s coGonzá l ez , Ho f ,25 Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV , C .1 15 ) . 137 D íazB en í t ez(2005 ) . 138 Ma r ch enaCañ e t e(2003 : 49–50 ) . 139 C e la(2010 :177–8 ) . 140 P é r ez Ma e s t r e(2008 :131–2 ) . 141 L ina r e s(2000 :30–1 )ind i ca t edtha tinth e16 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion(S ep t em b e r1942 )th e r ew e r e manyc iv i l ianvo lun t e e r s ,som es em ina rys tud en t s andco rpo ra l sands e rg ean t s whor eg r e t t edth e i rd e c i s iontoen l i s tba ckin 1941 .

256 No t e stopag e s 56–8 142 A c co rd ingtoth er e coun tby Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :505 ) ,a so fth eendo f 1943 ,upto42 p e rc en to fB lu eD iv i s ionp e r sonn e lhadcom ef romth e Fa lang e .Y e tnod e ta i l edsou r c e sa r ep rov id ed . 143 Su cha sth eg roupo ftw en ty -fv em emb e r so fth eF ran co ’ sY ou thFa lang e f romA lmad én(C iudadR ea l ) whoen l i s t eda svo lun t e e r sin Nov emb e r 1942 :E lP i r in e o( 12 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 144 S e eB o l e t índ eA c c i ónC a t ó l i c a,G rano l l e r s( 1Jun e1942 ) ;C ru z ad a( 1 Ma r ch 1943 ) ;FETyJONS( 3F eb rua ry1942 ,10 Nov emb e r1943and3 F eb rua ry 1944 ) . 145 R epo r t ,n .d .(1943 ) ,CDMH ,FNFF , MF/R7256 ,Do c .2595 . 146 D i a r i od eop e r a c i on e seimp r e s i on e sd e lt en i en t ep r ov i s i on a lB en j am ínA r en a l e s enl ac amp añ ad eRu s i a ,unpub l i sh ed wa rd ia ry(1942 ) ,1and31–2(p r iva t e a r ch iv eo fCa rm e lod ela sH e ra s , Mad r id ) ; wa rd ia ryo fCap ta insu r g eon Manu e ld eCá rd ena sRod r ígu ez(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fJo s é Manu e ld e Cá rd ena s ,SanS eba s t ián ) ,p .1 ; M i ra l l e sGü i l l(1981 :74–8 ) ; Ca s tañoDoña (1991 ) ;F .Caña sE s t iva l ,“No ch ebu enaene lf r en t eru socon m i scama ra da s ,”O f en s iv a,27 D e c emb e r1942 . 147 R ibb en t roptoAdo l fvon Mo l tk e ,1 1F eb rua ry1943 ;von Mo l tk etoR ib b en t rop ,12 F eb rua ry1943(PAAA ,R .29747 ) . 148 M emoo fFETp rov in c ia ll ead e rLu i sJu lv e , Hu e s ca , 30Janua ry1942(AGA 51/20665 ) . 149 “ J e ra rqu ía sd elaFa lang eenRu s ia ,”En l a c e,I I : 13( 26Jun e1943 ) ;A .Pozo Zaya s ,“D iv i s iónAzu l ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 27 F eb rua ry1943 ) . 150 R epo r to fth eFETP rov in c ia lH eadqua r t e r sin Hu e lva ,2Jun e1943(AGA , 51/20613 ) ;no t e so fth eB r i t i shV i c e -Con su linG ranada ,28 F eb rua ry1943 ; r epo r to fth eB r i t i shemba s sy ,7 Ap r i l1943(NA -PRO ,FO371/34813 ) .In Ju ly1943arumou rc i r cu la t edtha tfou r t e enyoung m ena r r e s t edinapo l i c era idhadb e entak end i r e c t lytoZa ragozaandp la c edinth eun i ttha t wa sl eav ingfo rth eRu s s ianF ron t .S e eB r i t i shV i c e -Con su lr epo r t ,G ranada ,17Ju ly1943(NA -PRO ,FO371/34813 ) . 151 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :4 ,en t ryo f30 Ma r ch1942 ) ;M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s , “Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,59( Ju ly1964 )and80(Ap r i l1966 ) . 152 R epo r t sf romth em i l i ta rygov e rno ro fGu ipúz coa ,16 Ap r i l1942 ,andth e DGS ,SanS eba s t ián ,4 Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 153 R epo r to fth ep rov in c ia ld e l ega t eo fth eFET O ff c efo rPopu la rEdu ca t ion , Log roño ,25Jun e1943 ,andr epo r to frumo r s ,25 O c tob e r1943(AHPLR , PP/20andPP/ 20/8 ) ;L ina r e s(2000 :30 ) . 154 MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 : 21 ,en t ryo f20Jun e1942 ) . 155 C i t edinRod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :293 ) .S e ea l soL ina r e s(2000 :35 ) . 156 S t e eng ra ch ttoR ibb en t rop ,B e r l in ,1 O c tob e r1943 ,and m emo randum p r e s en t edtoth eSpan i shamba s sado r ;r epo r tbyD i e ckho f fa f t e raconv e rsa t ion w i thJo rdana , Mad r id ,2 O c tob e r1943(PAAA ,R .29750 ) .

No t e stopag e s 58–64 257 157 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,AOK16toA rmyG roup No r th ,7 F eb r ua ry1942 , andth e OKWr epo r t ,B e r l in ,8 Ap r i l1942(BA -MARH19I I I/493 ) ;r e po r t so fth eG e rmanFo r e ign M in i s t ry ,3S ep t emb e r1942(BA -MA ,RH 20–18/1075 ) . 158 R epo r to f Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzkommandoI ,10 Nov emb e r 1943(USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 159 Hax e l , Zu s t and b e r i ch t,1 1 Augu s t1943 . 160 Th eCa ta lano ff c e rDan i e lT o r raexp r e s s edinJu ly1941h i sd i s cou rag em en ta tno thav inghadth egoodfo r tun etogototh eRu s s ianF ron t ,a s th es ev en t e eno ff c e rvo lun t e e r samongf romR eu sandT a r ragonaex c e ed edth equo ta :“ ev entho s ew i thconn e c t ion sa r eonth e wa i tl i s t .And h e r eyouhav eu sth i r t e enl e f tov e r ,squ i rm ingl ik eaba s i l i skandeag e rfo r som es e r iou sa c t iono rfo rn ewun i t stob eo rgan iz ed .”L e t t e rf romDan i e l T o r ra ,T a r ragona ,6Ju ly1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :35 ) . 161 L e t t e r sf romCap ta inF e rnando MuñozA c e rato MuñozG rand e s ,n .d . (AGMAV ,2003/ 4/2/1 )andf romJo s éSa laza rM e l cónto Ma r i saS chü tz e A lon so ,14 O c tob e r1943(MPA ,R .4453/ 12 ) . 162 Cu en caT o r ib io(2001 :25 ) . 163 In s t ru c t ion so fth eFET O ff c efo rPopu la rEdu ca t iontoth ep r e s s ,29Jun e 1941(AGA ,SC ,M IT ,C .76 ) . 164 “ Juv en tudyop t im i smoene lband e r índ eengan ch e ,”A zu l( 5Ju ly1941 ) . 165 Asamp l eo f122so ld i e r sf romth eCana ryI s land s who w e r er e c ru i t ed wh i l edo ingth e i rm i l i ta rys e rv i c e ,and who s ep ro f e s s ion sinc iv i ll i f e w e r eknown ,a l sor epo r t ss im i la rr e su l t s :40 .16% w e r efa rm e r s ,daylabou r e r s ,andf sh e rm en , wh i l e14% w e r eun sk i l l edandsk i l l ed manua l wo rk e r s( J im én ezSo to2015 :291 ) . 166 Au tho r ’ sowne s t ima t e sba s edonRam í r ez -Cop e i rod e lV i l la r(2001 ) ; P é r ez Ma e s t r e(2008 :1 15–18 ,217–86 ) . 167 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :395 ) .Th eau tho r ,how ev e r ,d idno tl i s tth epopu la t ion samp l ed . 168 Ramo s(1953 :6 ) ; Gonzá l ezP in i l la(1987 :238 ) ;r epo r tbyvon W e iz sä ck e r , 5F eb rua ry1943(PAAA ,R -29743 ) . 169 Da taha sb e encomp i l edf romd iv e r s eda i lyn ew spap e r s(ABC,A r r i b a, Pu e b l o,In f o rm a c i on e s ,L aV angu a rd i a) ,a sw e l la sf roms e conda rysou r c e s , b iog raph i ca lr epo r t sonfa l l enFa lang i s tso ld i e r sandda tacomp i l edbyth e Span i shA rmyi t s e l f(AGMAV ,C .3762/1andC .3762/ 5 ) . 170 B e tw e enJanua ry1942andD e c emb e r1943 ,214 ob i tua r i e sw i thb iog ra ph i e so fBDvo lun t e e r sw e r epub l i sh edinth en ew spap e rABC.S ix ty -fv e o fth evo lun t e e r s(30 .3% )w e r ef romth eA rmy .Th e r ew e r e56 FET m em b e r sa ttha tpo in t(26 .16% ) ,40 o f whom(18 .7% )w e r eo ldsh i r t so rc am i s a s v i e j a s.A long w i thth e s ew e r e34(15 .88% ) whohadfough tinth eC iv i l W a r .Th e r ew e r e 10(4 .67% )p rov i s iona len s ign sandasma l lp e r c en tag e

258 No t e stopag e s 64–8 a ff l ia t ed w i thCa tho l i cY ou tho ro th e rr e l ig iou so rgan iza t ion s(12 ,o r 5 .6% ) .N in eo fth efa l l en(4 .2% )w e r ef romfam i l i e s ma rk edbyr ep r e s s ion inth eR epub l i canzon e . 171 S e el i s t so fth efa l l enk ep tinth eFunda c iónD iv i s iónAzu l(Mad r id ) ,and da taga th e r edf romth ed i s cu s s ionfo rumh t tp ://m emo r iab lau . fo ro s .w s 172 S e ePu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :179–80 ) ;au tho r ’ se s t ima t e sba s edonPa la c io P i la c é s(2013 :I I ,1083–1246 ) ;V i c iana(2018 :242 ) ;T o r r e s(2014 :183 ) . 173 V onS toh r e r , Mad r id ,18 Augu s t1941(PAAA ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en6/9 ) ; Rüh l(1986 :25–6 )e s t ima t e sth i sfgu r etob eb e tw e en20%and30% . 174 “ In fo rm esob r elaD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s ,l lamada‘D iv i s ión Azu l , ’r ea l izadocont e s t imon io sd ep r i s ion e ro s ,d e s e r to r e syd ia r io sd e campañacap tu rado spo re lE j é r c i toRo jo ,”F eb rua ry1942(AHPCE ,Box 104 , Fo ld e r1 ) . 175 Som eB r i t i shr epo r t sm en t ion edth i s :Con su lin Ma laga ,10Ju ly1941 (NA -FO371/26891 ) . 176 “ In fo rm esob r elaD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s ,”4–8 . 177 Th ee ff ca cyo fFa lang i s tr evo lu t iona ryrh e to r i cina t t ra c t ingfo rm e rm emb e r sf romth e wo rk ing c la s sl e f tha sb e enadd r e s s ed ,andtosom eex t en t ov e r e s t ima t ed ,byPa r e jo(2008 ) . 178 Mon th lyr epo r tJu ly1941 , Mu r c ia(AGA 51/20557 ) ;T o r r e s(2014 :74 ,183 ) ; Rod r ígu ezGonzá l ez(2003 :251–5 ) ; Do lo r e sGan c edotoA lb e r to Ma r t ín Gam e ro ,T o l edo ,27 O c tob e r1941(AA ) . 179 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 ) .Som eb iog raph i e sinPa r r i l la N i e to(2007 ) , andD elaIg l e s ia&Bu rgu e t e(2015 ) . 180 A l ca ld e(2014 :101–2 ) ;J .S eoan eAb e l la ,“E lSa rg en toP rov i s iona lenlaD i v i s iónAzu l ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,158(S ep t emb e r1972 ) . 181 S e e ,e .g . ,M e l iáV i la(2003 ) . 182 L e t t e r sf romL eopo ldo Mu l e t ,21 O c tob e r1941 ,andf romJu l ioGonzá l ez , 7 May1942(Ramóny O r t iz2003 :345– 8 ,369– 74 ) . 183 B e l lodGóm ez(2004 :269–72 ) . 184 Th eB r i t i shamba s sado rsu rm i s edsom e th ings im i la r :s e eth er epo r to f Samu e l Hoa r e ,2Ju ly1941(NA -FO371/26940 ) . 185 G eo rga copu lo s(2015 :33 ,40 ) . 1 8 6A r r e s etoR id ru e jo ,M ad r id ,3Ju ly1 9 4 1(CDMH ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jop ap e r s , MF/R5 9 1 2 ) ;R id ru e jo( 1 9 7 8 :1 8 – 2 0 ,and 1 1 6 ) ;B l an co( 1 9 5 4 : 8 – 1 0and 3 4 ) . 187 D ia ryo fEn r iqu eM en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f23Ju ly1941(C e la2010 : 139 ) . 188 “ In fo rm ed eamb i en t esob r elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” Mad r id ,7Ju ly1941 (AGA ,P r e s id en c ia ,54/18950 ) ;2ndS e c t iono fBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,n .d .[25 Ju ly1941 ] ,AGMAV2005/ 2/3/6 . 189 W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t r i e so f 23Ju ly1941and3 Augu s t1941 , r ep rodu c edinPa r r i l la N i e to(2018 :49and53 ) .

No t e stopag e s 68–70 259 190 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,n .d .[ ea r lyAugu s t 1941 ] ,AFR I ; Mo r en t e(2006 :294–5 ) . 191 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,25 O c tob e r1941 ,AFR I ;“D ia r io d ecampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(1ªpa r t e )”B l auD iv i s i ón,619 (F eb rua ry201 1 ) ,en t ryo f9 Augu s t1941 . 192 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :95–8 ) ,m emo i r so fP r iva t eEn r iqu e Mu r i l lo(G rag e ra D íaz&In fan t e s2007 :146–9 ) . 193 W a rd ia ryo fF ed e r i co M en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 (C e la2010 :142 ) . 194 S e eexamp l e sinL ina r e s(2000 )andSán ch ezSa l c edo(2002 ) . 195 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :285 ) . 196 O rd e ro fBDR ep r e s en ta t ion , 30 Nov emb e r1942(AGMAV2006/ 8/3/1 ) . 197 OKWtoA rmyG roup No r th , 8Jun e1942 ,andAbw eh rpo s tr epo r to fth e X I I IM i l i ta ryD i s t r i c t(Nu r emb e rg ) ,28Jun e1942 ,r ega rd ingCap ta inJuan A lga r ra , who wa s ma r r i edtoanEng l i sh woman(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 ) . 198 Samu e l Hoa r etoth eFo r e ign O ff c e ,6 Augu s t1941(NA -PRO ,FO 371/26891 ) . 199 Cap ta inCo l la tztoL IVA rmyCo rp s ,26 O c tob e r1942(BA -MA ,RH20– 18/1075 ) .Th e r e mayhav eb e en mo r eca s e so fd e s e r t ion ,a sth eBDCh i e f s o fS ta f fw e r er e lu c tan ttop rov id er e l iab l eda tatoth eG e rman s .S e er epo r t o fG en e ra l Han s eno fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,toth e1 1 thA rmy ,27 O c tob e r 1942(BA -MA ,RH20–18/1075 ) . 200 A c co rd ingtor epo r t sbyth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f(AGMAV ,3736/6 ) ,th e r e w e r ef ewp ro c e ed ing sfo rs e l f -mu t i la t ionb e fo r eth eendo f1942 :on ein Nov emb e r1941andano th e rinJu ly1942 . 201 S e efou rca s e sinP in i l laTu r iño(1987 :261–3 ) . 202 R epo r tonth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,F eb rua ry1942 ;ar epo r ttoG en e ra lV a r e la , n .d .(c .D e c emb e r1941 ,AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 )ind i ca t edtha tth e r ehadb e en fv ed e s e r t ion stoda t e . 203 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 : 202 ) ; Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :329 ) . 204 Au tho r ’ sownda taba s edono rd e r so fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f fb e tw e en tho s eda t e s(AGMAV ,3736/ 6 ) . 2 0 5S e e ,fo rex amp l e ,th er epo r to fth eIn t e l l ig en c es e c t ionr eg a rd ingA v e l ino N av a r ro , whoh ad jo in edth eBD wh i l edo ing m i l i t a rys e rv i c e .H eh adb e en aSo c i a l i s t ,h ads e rv edinth eR epub l i c anA rmy ,and w a sp r e sum edtob e“ a R edA rmysymp a th i z e r . ”Th er e so lu t ion w a sto w a t chh imandd enyh im l e av e( r epo r to fCo lon e lS .Am ado ,1 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 3 ,AGMAV1 9 9 4/ 1 2/ 2 ) . 206 R epo r t so fth eCommand ingG en e ra lo fth e21 s t Ma r chba t ta l ion ,8 Ap r i l 1943 ,andth e27 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion , Ho f ,18 O c tob e r1943(AGMAV , 1989/5/4/3 y1995/ 6/5/1 ) . 207 S e eAOK18toA rmyG roup No r th ,5 Augu s t1942 ; OKHtoA rmyG roup No r th , 5S ep t emb e r1942and15S ep t emb e r1942(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 ) .

260 No t e stopag e s 70–3 208 R epo r t so fCo lon e lW i lh e lmKnüpp e l ,9 May1943 ,andL i eu t enan t Fö r s t e r ,9Ju ly1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/59 ) . 209 Th enumb e ro fd e s e r t e r sinth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e s wou ldb ea tl ea s t 575(o f32 ,256to ta lvo lun t e e r s ) .S e eSkou t e l sky(2006 :169 ,266– 74 ) . 210 Fo rin s tan c e ,th eCommun i s tJu l ioJ im én ezGóm ez(2010 ) , whod e s e r t ed inJanua ry1943 . 21 1R epo r to fth eC iv i lGov e rno ro fBa r c e lona ,9Ju ly1954(AGMAV ,C 3770/1 ) . 212 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,Abw eh r s t e l l eO s t landtoth e OKWAm tAu s land/ Abw eh r ,24Janua ry1942(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 )andr epo r tbyth e G en e ra lkommandoXXXV I I IAK ,I c ,Un e r l au b t eEn t f e rnung en -F ahn enfu ch t 1 .4 .42–31 .12 .42(BA -MA ,RH24–38/187 ) . 213 Pu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :87 ) . Fo r mo r eca s e s ,s e eAGMAV ,C3777/ 4 . 214 R epo r tbyS e rg ean tJu l ioLu engo ,F rank fu r ta .M . ,14 Ap r i l1943(AGMAV C37777/4 ) . 2 1 5 Fo rex amp l e ,P r iv a t eV i c en t eP e r a l e sen l i s t edinJun e1 9 4 2 .Uponb e ingpuni sh edbyano ff c e r , whos en th imun a rm edtoth ef ron tl in e s ,h ed e s e r t ed and w a sc augh tinav i l l ag einth er e a rgu a rdandcond emn edtof f t e en y e a r so fp r i son .S e eCou r tM a r t i a lo f1 3 M ay1 9 4 3(AGMAV ,1 9 9 0/ 5/ 5/ 1 2 I ) . 216 R epo r to fth ep rov in c ia lh eado fth eFET , Ou r en s e ,16 O c tob e r1941(AGA , 21/20558 ) . 217 Au tho r ’ sowne s t ima t e sba s edonda tabyPu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :53–64 ) andT o r r e s(2014 :120 ) . 218 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th eevo ca t iono fv io l en c ein1936–7inh i shom e townby BDvo lun t e e rE sp ino saPov eda(1992 :32–5 ) ;o rth eb r i e fau tob iog raphyo f m ed i ca ls tud en tPauA r r iaga(2003 ) . 219 Th i s wa sth eca s efo rG ranadaSEUl ead e rDan i e lSau c edo .Anin t e rna l r epo r ts ta t edtha th eshou ldb ed i spa t ch edtoRu s s iatod i sp rov eh i s“ fak e Fa lang i sm”(H e rnánd ezBu rgo s2013 :197–8 ) . 220 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th es e r i e so fa r t i c l e spub l i sh edinth eBDt r en ch jou rna l w i thth et i t l eM añ an a[ tomo r row ] :H o j ad eC amp añ a,17and25 F eb rua ry 1942and9 Ma r ch1942 . 221 S e e ,e .g . ,S .Lóp ezd elaT o r r e ,“Do saño sya” ;H a z,IV : 6( Ju ly -Augu s t 1943 ) ;J .H e rnánd ezB ravo ,“Unpu e s tod egua rd iasob r elan i ev eru sa ,” A r r i b a( 6F eb rua ry1942 ) . 222 A .Azna r ,“F i e s tad elaRazaenRu s ia ,”A r r i b a( 1 1O c tob e r1942 ) ;R id ru e jo (2008 :123 ) ;J .B en ey to ,“Pa ra l e loo r i en ta l ,”H a z( 19 Augu s t1941 ) . 223 M emo randumtoth eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id , 13Ju ly1941 (PAAA ,ADBM ,R eg .Po l .A l lg . ,557/ 2 , Box766 ) . 224 “Ca r ta sd e sd eRu s ia ,”A r r i b a( 16Janua ry1942 ) ;A .Abad O ju e l ,“Lo squ e vamo salagu e r ra ,”ABC ( 1 1F eb rua ry1942 ) ;A .C r e spo ,“T i empo sd e juv en tud ,” Juv en tud ,23( 29 O c tob e r1942 ) ;F .Caña sE s t iva l ,“E l Qu in to

No t e stopag e s 73–7 261 An iv e r sa r iod ela mu e r t ed eJo s éAn ton ioenla st r in ch e ra sd e lE s t ed e Eu ropa ,”O f en s iv a( 19 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 225 “Homb r e snu evo s ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 4 Nov emb e r1942 ) ;J .L .Góm ez T e l lo ,“Connu e s t ro sabu e lo s ,con t ranu e s t ro spad r e s ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 31 ( 29 May1943 ) ;J .Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro ,“Lapaznos een cu en t ra ;hayqu e gana r la ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 30 Ma r ch1942 ) . 226 Ru izCa rn i c e r(1996 :143–7 ) . ;J .G .Land e ro ,“E lS ind i ca toE spaño lUn iv e r s i ta r io .Sulabo rp r e s en t eysu sanh e lo sfu tu ro s ,”ABC ( 2 Nov emb e r1941 ) ; J .L .A .B e l log ín ,“D euncama radad elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”H a z( 14 O c tob e r 1941 ) ;F .San choRuano ,“Evo ca c iónyr e cu e rdod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” H o r i z on t e s,5( 31Janua ry1942 ) . 227 T e s t imonybyLu i sGa r c íaB e r langainth ef lmdo cum en ta rybyJav i e r R ioyo ,Ex t r an j e r o sd es ím i sm o s(2001 ) ,ava i lab l ea t :h t tp s ://www .you tub e . com/wa t ch ?v=EHOZ57wo45U(m inu t e58 :30 onwa rd s ) . 228 D ia ryo fEn r iqu eM en énd ezGund ín ,en t r i e so f4Ju ly1941and26 O c to b e r1941(C e la2010 :137 ,146 ) ;l e t t e r so ffv eso ld i e r stoCo lon e lL eand ro Ga r c ía13 O c tob e r1941 ,andf romS e rg ean tR ío s ,12 D e c emb e r1941 (FLGG -MPA ) . 229 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,30 O c tob e r1941and17 D e c emb e r1941(AFR I ) ;F .Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“Lag en e ra c iónd elo sd iv i s ion a r io s ,”A r r i b a( 9F eb rua ry1943 ) ;A .T ova r ,“Cómoin t e rp r e tamo se l25 d e jun io ,” H a z,IV : 5( Jun e1943 ) . 230 W a rd ia ryo fL t .JuanRom e ro O s end e ,en t ryo f 29 O c tob e r1941(p r iva t e a r ch iv eo fAnaRom e ro ,ACo ruña ) .S e ea l soAnd r é s On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] , “Lacan c iónd elaFa lang eene lf r en t eru so ,”A r r i b a( 14 Ap r i l1942 ) . 231 “Po rla Nav idadd elo sd iv i s iona r io s ,”A r r i b a( 17 Nov emb e r1942 ) ;“Un cuad rol eg enda r ioh e ro i co ,”A r r i b a( 25 F eb rua ry1943 ) ;T .N i e toFun c ia , “Lasa lva c iónd elo sCa t i l ina r io s ,”A r r i b a( 1 1O c tob e r1942 ) ;D .R id ru e jo , “LaE spañad e lW o l chow ,”A r r i b a( 18Ju ly1942 ) . 2 3 2S e e ,e .g . ,l e t t e ro fM anu e lT a r ínS a l atoh i sg r and f a th e r ,1 0 Ap r i l1 9 4 2(AFR ) . 233 Ca s tañón(1991 :81 ,100 ) ;r epo r tbyth eB r i t i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch é , Mad r id ,9 Ju ly1941(NA -FO371/26940 ) . 2 3 4S e e“C a ído sd el aD iv i s iónA zu l :¡P r e s en t e s ! ”Nu e v aA l c a r r i a( 1 1 Ap r i l1 9 4 2 ) . 235 Juand e Novgo rod ,“Pa soanu e s t rag en e ra c ión ,”H e rm and ad,I I I : 8( Janu a ry–F eb rua ry1959 ) . 3 . ALong Ma r ch :F romCen t ra lEu ropetotheV o lkhovF ron t 1J .M .T ron co so ,“ConlaD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io senuncampa m en toa l emán ,” E j é r c i t o,25(F eb rua ry1942 ) . 2Cap ta inB e rna rd inoLóp ezRom e ro ,H o sp i t a ld eC amp añ a250 .M em o r i a . D e sd ee ld í a8d es ep t i em b r ea l1ºd eo c tu b r ed e1941 ,2and4–5(ACLR ) .

262 No t e stopag e s 79–83 3W a rd ia ryo fth eG e rmanl ia i sonun i t ,en t r i e so f 26and31 Augu s t ,1and 6S ep t emb e r1941 ,BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ; Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a : 1 18–19 ) . 4Muño zG r and e stoV a r e l a ,M in sk ,1 8S ep t emb e r1 9 4 1(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 1 5 ) . 5R e iz e r(2009 :87 ,96–7 ) . 6W a rd ia ryo fth e9 thA rmy ,en t r i e so f 24and25S ep t emb e r1941 ,BA -MA , RH20–9/17 ;K l e in f e ldandT amb s(1983 :102–3 ) . Th i sund idth ein i t ia l p lano fth e9 thA rmytod ep loyth eSpan i shD iv i s ioninp la c eo fth e86 th D iv i s ion , wh i ch wou ldhav egon ein toth er e s e rv e . 7W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f 27S ep t emb e r1941(Pa r r i l la N i e to 2018 :65–6 ) . 8R epo r tbyth equa r t e rma s t e ro fth eG e rmanl ia i sons ta f finth eBD ,B e r ich tü b e rd i eE r f ah rung enb e imSp an . -D iv . -V e rp l f .Am tW i t e b s kam2 . -10 .10 .41 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) . 9W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,vo l .4 ,en t ryo f10 O c tob e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/168 ) . 10 W a rd ia ryo fth eG e rmanl ia i sonun i t ,en t r i e so f 25S ep t emb e rand1 ,1 1 , and17 O c tob e r1941 . 1 1D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,7 Augu s t1941 (ARF ) ;V i c en t eRod r ígu ezV e latoCo lon e lL eand roGa r c ía ,22 Ma r ch1942 (MPA ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :30–1 ) ; Co lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lotoV a r e la ,16 Augu s t1941and25 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ) . 12 R e c ioCa rdona(1998 :87–107 ) ;R id ru e jo1978 :1 19 ) . 13 In f o rm es o b r el aS an id add el aD iv i s i ónA zu l ,Po rkhov ,30 Nov emb e r1941 (AGA ,P r e s id en c ia18950 ) . 14 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :158–9 ,172 ) ;D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :175– 6 ) . 15 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :254–5 ,en t ryo f9 Nov emb e r1942 ) ;Fa r r éA lb iñana (1949 :187– 90 ) . 16 S e eF r i tz(1995 )andKühn e(2006 ) . 17 S e e wa rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f25 F eb rua ry1942 ;s im i la r a c coun t sw e r eco l l e c t edbyG e rmand ip loma t sinSpa inamongr e tu rn ed so ld i e r s :r epo r tf romEb e rha rdvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,1Jun e1942(PAAA , D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id553/3 , Box761 ) . 18 Ca s tañoDoña(1991 :60 ) ;G rag e raD íaz&In fan t e s(2007 :76 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 :I ,388– 9 ) ; W a rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínCu e rdaRo s ,en t r i e so f19and 22S ep t emb e r ,3 O c tob e r ,and1 Nov emb e r1941(Cu e rdaRo s2013 :38 ,41 , 46 ,61–3 ) ; Anonymou s , D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f18S ep t emb e r1941 (AGMAV ,46767/ 2/5 ) . 19 A .Rug e roCozano ,“R e tazo s ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,537(Ap r i l2004 ) . 20 T ä t ig k e i t s b e r i ch td e sG en ,Kd o .L IVAK ,A b t .Iv a ,fü rd i eZ e i tv om1 .9–31 D e c em b e r1942(BA -MA ,RH24–54/235 ) .G e rmanp i lo t so fth eCondo rL e g ionh e ldas im i la rv i ew(S chü l e r -Sp r ingo rum[2010 :152–7 ] ) .

No t e stopag e s 83–5 263 21 S e eH e l lb e ck(2012 :507 ) ;D iNa rdo(1996 :71 1–30 ) . 22 R epo r t so fCap ta in W e s s e l , Dno ,2 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–1/29 ) ; G en e ra lvonChappu i s ,8 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/67 ) ;16 th A rmytoA rmy G roup No r th , 18 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I /774 ) . 23 Ludw igS chwab ,D i eS t ad tH o fundd i esp an i s ch eD iv i s i onimeu r op ä i s ch en F r e ih e i t s k r i eg,1944 ,15(SH -A , Manu sk r ip t e , M48 ) . 24 P e t e r(1992 :180–4 ) ;Sp an i en sF r e iw i l l ig eand e rO s t f r on t :L o sv o lun t a r i o se sp añ o l e sene lf r en t e .E inB i ld bu chv ond e rB l au enD iv i s i on,Kauna s :P ropagan da -Kompan i ed e rA rm e eBu s ch ,n .d .[1942 ] . 25 En t r i e so f4and5Janua ry1942 ,inJo chmann(1982 :178 ) .H i t l e rr ep ro du c eda lmo s tl i t e ra l lyth ev i ew so fth eP ru s s iano ff c e rAugu s tKa r lvon Go eb en , whofough tinSpa ina sa m e r c ena ryinth em id -n in e t e en thc entu ryandp enn edtwobook s :V i e rJ ah r ein Span i en(1861 )andR e i s e -und L and b r i e f eau sSp an i enundv omsp an i s ch enH e e r ein M a r o k k o(1863 ) . 26 S e efo rin s tan c e“H e ld enkamp fd e rB lau enD iv i s ion ,”B rü s s e l e rZ e i tung ( 1Janua ry1942 ) ;“Moa r t eag lo r ioa sâaS e fu lu i .E s cad r i l eA lba s t r e ,”V i a t a, Bu cha r e s t(2S ep t emb e r1942 ) ;“D i eB lau eD iv i s ion ,”P a r i s e rZ e i tung ( 3O c tob e r1943 ) . 27 L e t t e r so fCo rpo ra lO t to M . ,30 O c tob e r1941 ,andCap ta in H e rmannS ch . , 5 Nov emb e r1941(B fZ -SS ) . 28 Au tho r ’ sin t e rv i ewo fD r .Ch r i s tophvonAu e r ,G roßbu rgw ed e l ,15S ep t emb e r2002(AA ) .S e ea l so“La sm emo r ia sd euncap e l lánca s t r en s e ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,583(F eb rua ry2008 ) ,andth ea c coun tbyth efo rm e rp r iva t e o fth e126 thIn fan t ryD iv i s ion ,H . -H .Ku rzinB l auD iv i s i ón(Nov emb e r D e c emb e r1987 ) . 29 L e t t e rf romcava l ryin sp e c to rH e in r i chK . ,B r e s t -L i tov sk ,30 Ap r i l1942 (B fZ -SS ] . 30 D o sañ o sd elu ch a .E s t amp a sd iv i s i on a r i a s,B e r l in :Ga l lu sD ru ck e r e iAG , 1944 ,p .5 . 31 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 20 ) . 32 A .A ragon é s ,“D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 18 Ap r i l1942 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :320 ) . 33 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th el e t t e r sex chang edb e tw e enth eG e rmanso ld i e rA lfon sL i t tw in( 15 D e c emb e r1944 )andth eSpan i shv e t e ranL id ioB engoa (B i lbao ,5Jun e1944 ) ,GS tA ,I . Ha218 ,N r .256 . 34 W a rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo s ,en t ryo f May1942(Cu e rdaRo s2013 : 63 ) ; W a r d ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f4 Ma r ch1942 ;Yd ígo ra s(1984 :299 ) ; M e l iáV i la(2003 :1 14 ) . 35 “A l eman e sye spaño l e san t eL en ing rado ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 31 Nov emb e r 1943 ) ;“D e l‘ land s e r ’a l‘gu r ipa ’pa sandopo rM e s t e l ewo ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 7 Nov emb e r1943 ) .

264 No t e stopag e s 85–9 36 J e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,D i a r i od ec amp añ a,en t ryo f24S ep t emb e r1941 (p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fM r .Jo rg e Ma r t ín ezR ev e r t e , Mad r id ) ;“ In fo rm esob r e laD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s ,”AHPCE ,F eb rua ry1942 . 37 R epo r to fth eF e ldg enda rm e r i eo fth e18 thA rmy ,16–31Janua ry1943 (BA -MA ,RH20–18/1476 ) ; mon th lyr epo r to fth e Ho sp i ta l s ’In sp e c t ion , Jun e1943(AGMAV29/7/49 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :53–4 ) .P r iva t eEug e n ioRod r ígu eza l sod e s c r ib edsom equa r r e l sb e tw e enSpan ia rd sandG e rman s ,g en e ra l ly mo t iva t edbyG e rmanb ehav iou rtowa rd sc iv i l ian s .S e e P é r ez(2020 :187 ) 38 R epo r to fl i eu t enan tB en í t ez ,Kön ig sb e rg ,19 Nov emb e r1943(AGMAV , 1996/3/3/3 ) . 39 D ia ryo fL id ia Ó s ipova ,en t r i e sda t ed25 Augu s t1942and8Janua ry1943 (Lomag in2004 :464 ,466– 7 ) . 4 0D ion i s ioR id ru e joto M a r i chud el a Mo r a ,1 7D e c emb e r1 9 4 1(ARF ) ; Muño z G r and e stoV a r e l a ,M in sk ,1 8S ep t emb e r1 9 4 1(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 1 5 ) . 41 R epo r tfo rm Ob e r füh r e rSS W a l th e r -F r i ed r i chS ch e l l enb e rg ,B e r l in ,4Jan ua ry1944(PAAA ,R -101 143 ) ; Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzg rupp eI ,14 Nov emb e r1943(USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 42 S e eA ly(2005 ) ,a sw e l la sanupda t edsyn th e s i sin H e rb e r t(2016 :105–15 ) . 43 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f 1 Ma r ch1942 ;SanzJa rqu e (2010 :45–6 ) ; W a rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo ,1944 ,13–14(p r iva t ea r ch iv e o fJo rg eV i l l ena , Mad r id ) . 44 L e t t e ro fDan i e lT o r ra ,4 O c tob e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :51 ) . 45 A r r i b a( 13 Ma r ch1942 ) ;Sa la sIñ igo(1988 :45 ) . 46 G .R i e ra ,“C rón i caazu ld egu e r ra ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 5S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 47 Ma r t ín ez -M ena(1991 : 14–15 ) . 48 Ca s tañón(1991 :184–5 ,187 ) . 49 “E lcap i tán Muñozhab lad e lh e ro í smod elo svo lun ta r io sd elaD iv i s ión Azu l ,”E lA l c á z a r( 3F eb rua ry1942 ) . 50 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,B e r l in ,21 Augu s t1941(ARF ) ; D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :210–1 1 ) ;th ed e s c r ip t iono fth ebomba rdm en t sinB e r l in ,in wa rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo ,144 . 51 “Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,”B o l e t índ e lSEUd eM ad r id,12(1942 ) ;“D elah e ro i ca D iv i s iónAzu l ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 20 Ma r ch1943 ) . 52 “Ca r tad e lcama radaGab r i e lR i e ra ,vo lun ta r ioenlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 25 Ap r i l1942 ) . 53 “Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,”B o l e t índ e lSEUd eM ad r id,1 1(1942 ) . 54 Cap ta insu rg eonLóp ezRom e ro ,H o sp i t a ld eC amp añ a250 .M em o r i a, 9(ACLR ) . 55 E .N ind eCa rdona ,“R eg r e sod eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 14 Ma r ch 1942 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :26 ,en t ryo f4Ju ly1942 ) ;Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 : 16 ) ;R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :10 ) .

No t e stopag e s 90–2 265 56 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,7 Augu s t1941and B e r l in ,21 Augu s t1941(ARF ) ;H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :38–9 ,en t ryo f25 Ap r i l1942 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fCa r lo sF igu e ro la ,en t ryo f17Jun e1942(R em í r ez d eE spa rza2020 :27–8 ) . 57 V ad i l lo(1967 :70–3 ,101 ) ;L e t t e ro f Manu e lT a r ínSa la ,17 Ap r i l1942(AFR ) ; W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s , 10–1 1 . Fo r mo r eexamp l e s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s (2018b ) . 58 In t e rv i ew sw i thA lb e r tLo r enz(bo rn1927 ) ,B e rn r eu th ,andJohannL e i t g eb(bo rn1930 ) ,Au e rba ch ,17 May2004 ,by Han s Jü rg enKug l e r(AA ) . 59 R epo r t so fth e2ndS e c t iono fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,25and28Ju ly1941 (AGMAV ,2005/ 2/3/7 ) ;R epo r to fth e2ndIn fan t e r i e -E r sa tzba t ta l ion ,Bay r eu th ,5 Augu s t1942(AGMAV ,1978/ 7/3/2 ) ;D ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo sCabo , en t ryo f10S ep t emb e r1941 ,inCu e rdaRo s(2013 :33 ) . 60 S chwab ,D i eS t ad tH o f,20–1 . 61 Pau lu s(2001 :73 ) . 62 No t i c e so fth ecommand e ro fth e14 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion , Ho f , 31 Augu s t and1S ep t emb e r1942(AGMAV ,1985/ 20/3and1984/ 12/1 ) ;r epo r tf rom Cap ta inAn ton ioV i l la lobo s , Ho f ,6–7Ju ly1942(AGMAV1983/ 5/3 ) . 63 S ev e ra lexamp l e sinAGMAV28/7/15/9 . 64 R epo r tf romth eSpan i sh m i l i ta rypo l i c e ,B e r l in ,28 D e c emb e r1942 (AGMAV1985/ 20/5 ) ;l e t t e rf romG en e ra l MuñozG rand e stoA l f r edo Gu ed ea ,28 O c tob e r1942(AGMAV1985/ 8/4 ) ;In sp e c c i ónd eH o sp i t a l e s .In f o rm em en su a l ,Ap r i l1943(AGMAV2025/ 6/1 ) .S e ea l soB rydan(2019b ) . 65 R epo r t sf romCo lon e lF e rnánd ezd eLanda ,20Ju ly1941 ,andCap ta inV í c to r Ho rn i l lo s ,G ra f enwöh r ,21Ju ly1941(AGMAV20052/ 2/21 ) . 66 L e t t e rf romA l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r ezto M .Rod r ígu ezDopazo ,20–1Ju ly 1941(AXFN ) ;l e t t e rf romtw e lv evo lun t e e r stoCo lon e lL eand roGa r c ía , 9 Augu s t1941(MPA ) ;l e t t e ro fD ion i s ioR id ru e jo ,G ra f enwöh r ,n .d .[ c .25 Ju ly1941 ] ,AFR . 67 S e e ,e .g . ,H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :24–5 ,en t ryo f9 Ap r i l1942 ) . 68 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,106( Jun e1968 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 : 25 ) . 69 W a rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGund ín ,en t r i e so f 10and29 O c tob e r1941(C e la 2010 :146–7 ) . 70 L e t t e ro fE l i sab e th M e e stoco rpo ra lAn ton io H e r r e ro ,Jöh l ing en ,28 Ma r ch1943(AA ) . 71 S e e Mo ran tiA r iño(2013 :422 ,433–5 ) ,and H e rzog(2007 :10–63 ) .  72 Á lva r ezd eSo tomayo r(1991 :156 ) . 73 “C rón i cad eRu s ia ,”En l a c e,13( 29 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 74 D .Ca s t roV i l la caña s ,“Unso ldadoenB e r l ín ,”A r r i b a( 26 Ma r ch1943 ) . 75 J .R evu e l taImaz&F .Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“Lapa r t ida ,”M en s a j e .R ev i s t at r im e s t r a l,1–2(1943 ) .

266 No t e stopag e s 92–6 76 R epo r to fth eDGS ,19Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) ; wa rm emo i r so f B en ignoCabo ,151 . 77 S e e ,e .g . ,Emm iSan t t e rtoAn ton io H e r r e ro ,B ra ck enh e im ,3and7 F eb rua ry1943(AA ) . 78 Na t t e rmann(201 1 ) . 79 Saga r ra(2012 :180–90 ) . 80 S chwab ,D i eS t ad tH o f,22 . On eo fth e s eca s e s wa sF ran c i s caG r i e s s l(bo rn 1943 ) , who wa sto lda sayoungadu l ttha taSpan i shso ld i e r wa sh e rb io log i ca lfa th e r . Manyy ea r sla t e r ,sh efoundtha th e rfa th e rhadb e enth e p ion e e r s ’s e rg ean tF ran c i s coSuá r ez O j eda(B l auD iv i s i ón,573 ,Ap r i l2007 ) . 81 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t r i e so f 4and15 Ma r ch1942 ; wa r d ia ryo fJ . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t r i e so f25–6 Augu s t1941 ;D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f29 Augu s t1941 . 82 R epo r tf romth ed i r e c to ro fth eSpan i sh Ho sp i ta linB e r l in ,6 F eb rua ry 1943(AGMAV1987/10/2/3 ) ;H o j ad ein s t ru c c i ónp a r al o ss o ld ad o se sp añ o l e s, n .d .[1942 ] ,andDEV ,3dS e c t ionG en e ra lS ta f f ,In s t ru c c i óng en e r a l3 .054 ,18 May1942(AGMAV ,3736/5 ) . 83 L eaf e tAna l l eU r l au b e r,s ign edbyth eW eh rm a ch t s t and o r t ä l t e s t e rH o f, Ho f : n .p . ,1942 ,AA . 84 V ad i l lo(1967 :104–5 ,1 10–1 1 ) ;r epo r t sf romth e2ndS e c t iono fth eG en e ra l S ta f f ,28–9Ju ly1941(AGMAV ,2005/ 2/3/7–8 ) . 85 W a rM emo i r so fB en ignoCabo , 14 ;S chwab , D i eS t ad tH o f, 21 ;H e r rm ann (2012 :95 ) . 86 S e eth e wa rd ia ryo fth eG e rma inL ia i son ,13 Augu s t1941– 24Ju ly1942 ,in BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ,en t r i e so f26 Augu s tand1S ep t emb e r1941 . Ma r t ín V e la s coa l so w ro t etha ta tt im e sh i s mo to r iz edl ia i song roup mad eo f f w i th mo r ech i ck en sthanth eycou ldca r ryba cktoth ecamp(wa rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryo f 19S ep t emb e r1941 ) . 87 R e iz e r(2009 :96 ) . 88 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f29 Augu s t1941 ;E izagu i r r e(1955 :17–19 ) ; R id ru e jo(1978 :47–8 ) . 89 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 :120–1 ,126 ) . 90 T ran s c r ib edl e t t e ro fP r iva t eCa r lo sJuan ,M in sk ,18S ep t emb e r1941 ,in AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 91 Ja sp e r(201 1 :45 ) ; Böh l e r(2006 ) . 92 E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :50 ) ;J im én ezAnd rad e s(1957 :38–47 ) ; Ca s t e loV i l laoz(1990 :55–6 ) ;E sp ino saPov eda(1993 :9 ) . 93 E .Bo r rá s ,“E lh e ro í smod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”M ed i t e r r án e o( 26 F eb rua ry 1942 ) ;SanzJa rqu e(2010 :77–82 ,89 ) . 94 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,75(Nov emb e r 1965 ) . 95 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :40 ) .

No t e stopag e s 96–101 267 96 L .Sán ch ez Ma spon s ,“C rón i cad eunv ia j eaRu s ia .Lap r im e raimp r e s ión a len t ra renUk ran ia ,”In f o rm a c i on e s( 30 O c tob e r1941 ) . 97 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 29 Augu s t1941 ;P .Ca r r e t e roV e ga s ,“Suwa lkyoSudau en ,in i c iod eaqu e l la s ma r cha s ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,256 (Nov emb e r1980 ) . 9 8W a rd i a ryo fLu i sAgu i l a r ,en t ryo f3 1 Augu s t1 9 4 1(P a r r i l l aN i e to2 0 1 8 : 5 9 ) . 99 U rqu i jo(1973 :261 ) ;J .San tama r íaD í ez ,“P i e ckzankayGa spa ron e ,”B l au D iv i s i ón,271(F eb rua ry1982 ) . 100 R epo r to fth eDGS ,28 Ap r i l1942(FNFF1992– 4 :331– 50 ) . 101 U r su la[ su rnam ei l l eg ib l e ]toCo rpo ra lAn ton io H e r r e roCa s t e l lano , Poznań,13S ep t emb e r1943(AA ) . 102 S e eB .B engoa ,“Po lon iacon t ralahozye l ma r t i l lo ,”D om ing o .S em an a r i o N a c i on a l( 2 May1937 ) . 103 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 ;“D iv i s ión Azu l ,”H a z,IV : 4(May1943 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :126–7 ,132–3 ,en t r i e so f 14 Ma r chand16–17 Ma r ch1943 ) . 104 Ca s tañón(1991 :186 ) ;R ev e r t e&R ev e r t e(2001 :192 ) . 105 M .PomboAngu lo ,“La má sb e l lao ra c ión ,” ABC ( 29 Ap r i l1943 ) ;E . G im én ezCaba l l e ro ,“Ka tynolav enganzad eBo r i sGoduno f ,”ABC ( 2 May1943 ) ;J .A r ra rá s ,“La sfo sa sd eKa tynyo t ra s ,”L aV angu a rd i a E sp añ o l a( 15 May1943 ) . 106 Sa lvado r(1962 :68–9 ,73 ) ; Ba r sCa sam i t jana(1962 :1–2 ) . 107 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 . 108 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f 16 Ma r ch1942 . 109 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 . 1 10 D elaV ega(1998 :82 ) ; M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,153(May1972 ) .S e ea l soth eimp r e s s ion sw r i t t enbyJav i e rU rm en e ta ,r ep rodu c edinJ im enoA rangu r en(2015 :1 12 ) . 1 1 1R epo r to fth eSpan i sh M i l i ta ryG enda rm e r i einR iga ,6 Augu s t1943 (AGMAV1993/ 6/1/2 ) ; M e l iáV i la(2003 :127 ) ;d ia ryo fM en énd ezGun d ín ,en t ryo f4 Nov emb e r1941(C e la2010 :148 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :325 ) . 1 12 Cogo l lo sV i c en s(1985 :166–7 ) ; Lóp ez -Cova r rub ia s(2012 :322– 4 ) . 1 13 E r randoV i la r(1942 :280–1 ) . 1 14 B lan chSab en ch(2010 :75 ) ;L .Lóp ezBa l l e s t e ro s ,“Su rene l No r t e ,” E lE sp añ o l,I I : 30( 22 May1943 ) ;J .L .Góm ez -T e l lo ,“V e in t i cua t roho ra sen R iga ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 29( 15 May1943 ) . 4 . TheB lue D iv i s ionontheF ron t 1S e eA ly& H e im(1993 :381–5 ) , Hü r t e r(2001 :402– 4 ) , Ganz enmü l l e r(2000 ; 2005 :19–40 ;2014 ) ,K i l ian(2012 )andRu th e r fo rd(2014 ) . 2S e eRö s s l e r&S ch l e i e rma ch e r(1993 ) ,a sw e l la s Mada j czyk(1994 ) .

268 No t e stopag e s 102–7 3V ehv i lä in en(2002 ) . 4G en e ra lBu s ch ,AOK16 ,toA rmyG roup No r th ,18 Nov emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH20–16/66 ) . 5G lan tz(2002 :287–304 ) . 6Ganz enmü l l e r(2005 )andR e id(201 1 ) . 7O fth e1 ,31 1 ,000inhab i tan t s ,69% ov e rfou r t e eny ea r so fag ew e r e wom en ; tho s eund e rfou r t e enandtho s eov e rs ix tyto ta l l ed46%(K i l ian2012 : 94–6 ) . 8Hü r t e r(2001 ) ; Ha s s(2002 ) ;andK i l ian(201 1 ) . 9Bo rd jugov(1999 ) ;Ra s s(2005 :80–90 ) . 10 Fo rana r ra t iono fth eb lo ckad e ,s e eG lan tz(2002 )andSa l i sbu ry(2003 ) . Onth eda i lyl i f eo ftho s eund e rs i eg e ,s e eth ed ia ryo fL ena Mu ch in a (2014 )a sw e l la sJa rov(2013 ) ,Dob ro tvo r ska ja(2013 )andAdamow i t s ch& G ran in(2018 ) . 1 1 Ganz enmü l l e r(2005 :279–313 ;201 1 ) ;R e id(201 1 :143–71 ) . 12 R e id(201 1 :497–500 ) ;V o ron ina(201 1 ) . 13 Th ein i t ia lid ea wa sfo rth eBDtor e l i ev etwo th i rd so fth e126 thD iv i s ion , wh i ch wou ldgoin toth er e s e rv e s .S e eo rd e ro fth e16 thA rmyCommand , 28S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MARH24–1/29 ) . 14 Command e rG en e ra lo fth eIA rmyCo rp stoG en e ra lH e r r l e in ,24S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–1/37 ) . 15 D ia ryo fth eG e rmanl ia i sonco rp s ,en t r i e so f1 ,4and1 1O c tob e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ) . OnF ranzvonRoqu e s ,s e e Ha s en c l ev e r(2010 : 108–20 ,197 ) . 16 R epo r to fSpan i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch éinB e r l in ,7 Nov emb e r1941(AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 17 R epo r to fCap ta inCo l la tz ,n .d .[2 O c tob e r1941 ](BA -MA ,RH24–1/29 ) . 18 R epo r to fCap ta in W e s s e l ,Dno ,2 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–1/29 ) . 19 R epo r to fth e16 thA rmytoA rmyG roup No r th ,10 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA , RH20–16/67 ) ;r epo r to fG en e ra lvonRoqu e s ,20 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA , RH20–16/70 ) . 20 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t ryo f 23 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH 19 I I I/168 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :122–8 ) . 21 W a rd ia ryo fG e rmanl ia i sonun i t ,en t r i e so f 9 Nov emb e rto4 D e c emb e r 1941(BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ) ;J e sú sBad i l lotoV a r e la , Novgo rod ,24 O c tob e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) ;D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryinS i tno ,18 Nov emb e r1941 . 22 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f7D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA RH24–38/51 ) ; W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f7and8 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/769 ) . 23 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 8and9 D e c emb e r1941 . 24 S e e“Go luva iaD iv iz iai s t eka e tk rob iu ,”P r avd a( 17Janua ry1942 ) .

No t e stopag e s 108–10 269 25 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 10 ,1 1 ,12and14 D e c em b e r1941 ,a l so9and13Janua ry1942 ; wa rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th , en t ryo f8 D e c emb e r1941 . 26 R epo r t sf romAOK16 ,6 ,8 ,and9 D e c emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH20–16/66 ) . 27 R epo r ttoPCE ,F eb rua ry1942 ;Kova l ev(2014 :124–231 ) . 28 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,F .M .Ca s t i e l la ,“ ¡C lavado sa lt e r r eno !”In f o rm a c i on e s( 20 Janua ry1942 ) . 29 A c co rd ingtoda taf romth e16 thA rmy ,b e tw e en17 O c tob e rand21 D e c emb e r1941 ,th eBDsu f f e r ed509d ea th s(6 .41%o fto ta ld ea th sin th e16 thA rmy )and1 ,351in ju r ed(4 .52% ) .S e eV e r lu s t l i s t en,BA -MA ,RH 20–16/627 . 30 R epo r tbyG en e ra lGóm ezU l la ,h eado fBD m ed i ca ls e rv i c e s ,10 Ma r ch 1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 31 Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :200–2 ) . 32 R epo r tby W i lh e lm i ,23 Ma r ch1942(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) . Tha tsam e mon th , MuñozG rand e sh im s e l fe s t ima t ed900d ea th sand 1 ,000 wound ed who w e r e“ i r r e cov e rab l e”(MuñozG rand e stoV a r e la , B e r l in ,16 Ma r ch1942 ,AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 33 A rmyG roup No r th ,Z ah l enm ä s s ig eG e s am tv e r lu s t eb i s15 .7 .42,27Ju ly1942 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/51 1 ) . 34 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t ryo f 14 D e c emb e r1941 . 35 R epo r to fAOK16 , Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) ; B o l e t índ e In f o rm a c i óno fth e2ndS e c t iono fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,17Janua ry1942 (AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 36 DGSr epo r t ,I rún ,17Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) .Soona f t e r ,E s pa rza wa sr e l i ev edo fh i scommandandr epa t r ia t ed ,appa r en t lydu eto p r e s su r ef romth eFa lang epa r ty . 37 R epo r to fth e2ndS e c t iono fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,1 1 Nov emb e r1941 to31 Ma r ch1942(BA -MA ,RH24–38/41 ) .S e ea l soP in i l la(n .d . :181–261 ) . 3 8F .I zqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“ ¡O t en sky !¡Po s s ad ! ”H o j ad eC am p añ a( 1Ju ly1 9 4 2 ) ;A . d eL a ig l e s i a ,“Po s s ad ,e lsub l im em a r t i r io , ”H o j ad eC am p añ a( 2 4Jun e1 9 4 2 ) ; J .A .V i l l a e s cu s a ,“Nu e s t r ap r im e r aop e r a c ión , ”O f en s i v a( 1 8O c tob e r1 9 4 2 ) . 39 Th eBDt r en ch jou rna landth eFET JONSpub l i ca t ionEn l a c e,pub l i sh ed s in c em id -1942fo rSpan i sh wo rk e r sinG e rmany ,b eganth e my th if ca t ion o fth e s ea rm edd e ed s .S e eE .G .R .I . ,“Soñando… ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 23 Ma r ch1942 ) ;L . Mo r c i l loD íaz ,“H e ro í smoe spaño lenT igoda ,”En l a c e ( 1 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 40 S e eCa r r e raBu i l&F e r r e r -Da lmau(2003 ) ,andRománJ im én ez(201 1 ) . 41 J e sú sBad i l lotoV a r e la ,8 Nov emb e r1941and 24 Nov emb e r 1941(AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 42 W a rd ia ryo fth eAOK 16 ,1 s tS e c t ion ,en t r i e so f16 ,18and20 Nov em b e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/49 ) ;r epo r t so fAOK16 thA rmy ,s ign edby

270 No t e stopag e s1 10–14 Bu s ch ,8 Nov emb e r1941and14 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/66 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,9 D e c emb e r1941 . 43 R epo r to fG en e ra lvonChappu i s ,G r igo rovo ,9 D e c emb e r1941(RH 20–16/67 ) ; W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f9 ,10 ,and1 1 D e c emb e r1941 . 44 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f 18 ,20 ,26 ,28 ,and29 D e c emb e r1941 . 45 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 21 Nov emb e r1941 (BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 46 R epo r to fAOK16toA rmyG roup No r th ,9 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MARH 20–16/67 ) . 47 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f2D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA RH24–38/51 ) . 48 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 4Janua ry1942 ;Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :197– 9 ) . 49 L ind emanntoA rmyG roup No r th ,3 O c tob e r1941 ,andr epo r t sbyAOK 16 ,17 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/67 ) ;r epo r to fth e16 thA rmy , 29 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/90 ) . 50 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 24Janua ryand5 F eb rua ry1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 51 R epo r t so fvon W e iz sä ck e r ,10and16Janua ry ,5 ,13 ,19 ,and26 F eb rua ry 1942 ;r epo r to fvonS toh r e r ,27 F eb rua ry1942 ;R i t t e rtoth eS e c r e ta ryo f S ta t e ,4 Ma r ch1942(PAAA ,R .29742 ) ;r epo r to fSpan i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch é , B e r l in ,1 F eb rua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 52 S e r ranoSuñ e rtoR id ru e joandAgu s t ínAzna r ,n .d .[w in t e ro f1941 ] ,and toD ion i s ioR id ru e jo ,6 Ap r i l1942(G ra c ia2007 :75–6 ,79–80 ) . 53 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 10 ,12 ,and13 F eb rua ry 1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 54 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,E sp añ ayA l em an i a .F r a t e rn id adene lc amp od eb a t a l l a, n .p . ,1942 ;V .d elaS e rna ,“E ld e sf l ed e l42 ,”En l a c e( 17 Ap r i l1943 ) ; S ch l a ch tam W o l ch ow,179–80 ;“La shazaña sd enu e s t ro sc ruzado sjun to a llago ,”E lA l c á z a r( 13 F eb rua ry1942 ) .S e ea l soAzna r(1942 )andBa r ra ch ina(1994 ) . 55 Conv e r sa t ionb e tw e enth eCommand e ro fth eA rmyG roup No r thand th eCommand e rG en e ra lo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s , wa rd ia ryo fth e XXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f29 Ma r ch1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 56 A c co rd ingtoth eda i lya c t iv i tyr epo r t so fth eun i t sund e rth ecommando f th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sb e tw e en1 Ap r i land29Jun e1942(BA -MA ,RH 24–38/180 ) . 57 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 27 May1942(BA -MARH 24–38/51 ) . 58 Onth eV o lkhovPo ck e tcomba t s ,s e eRu th e r fo rd(2014 :240–6 ) .

No t e stopag e s1 14–17 271 59 Comba tr epo r t so fCo lon e l Hopp e ,24Jun e1942 ;o fCap ta inS chm id t L i e rmann ,24Jun e1942(BA -MA ,RHRH24–38/55 ) ;o fth eSSS tandan t e r füh r e rBu rk ,26Jun e1942 ,ando fL i eu t enan tH e in r i ch s ,24Jun e1942 (BA -MARH26–126/49 ) . 60 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 22 ,23 ,24 ,and26Jun e 1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 61 R epo r to fAOK16 ,2 O c tob e r1942(BA -MARH19 I I I/693 ) ;r epo r to fL t . vonU s la r -G l e i ch en ,B e r l in ,25Ju ly1942(BA -MARH19 I I I/780 ) .S e ea l so Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :202–8 ) . 62 S e eth ea lbumK amp fundS i egam W o l chow( 19 42 ) ,BA -MA ,RH 24–38/292 . 63 R epo r to fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,ICS e c t ion ,13Ju ly1942(BA -MARH 24–38/137 ) . 64 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f6 ,14 ,19 ,and31Ju ly 1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 65 L e t t e rf romAOK18toth eg en e ra lincommando fth eXXXV I I IA rmy Co rp s ,22Ju ly1942 ;l e t t e rf romAOK18toA rmyG roup No r th ,28Ju ly 1942(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 ) . 66 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f7 ,9 ,13 ,and21 Augu s t , 2and10S ep t emb e r1942 . 67 ABDr epo r tda t ed7 D e c emb e r1942l i s t ed7 ,252 m en ,anav e rag eo f348 so ld i e r s/kmo ff ron t ,ou tnumb e r edon lybyth e1 s tG e rmanIn fan t ry D iv i s ion , wh i chhad656so ld i e r s/km .Th eo th e rd iv i s ion shadf ew e r comba tan t sp e rk i lom e t r eo ff ron t( S t and7 .12 .1942 .In f . -G e f e ch t s s t ä r k end e r D iv . -A b s cn i t t e,BA -MARH20–18/823 ) . 68 Th e121 s tD iv i s iona l soapp l i edani ron -f s t edo c cupa t ionpo l i cyinPavlov skinth ew in t e ro f1941– 2(Ru th e r fo rd2014 :151–68 ,287– 8 ) . 69 Mo s tda i lyd i spa t ch e shad“no th ingsp e c ia ltor epo r t .”S e eth e wa rd ia ry o fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,O c tob e r–Nov emb e r1942(BA -MARH24–54/60 ) . 70 No t eonth es ta t eo fth eho r s e so fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,D e c emb e r1943 (BA -MARH24–54/69 ) . 71 InD e c emb e r1942 ,th eBDhadato ta lo f7 ,242comba t r eady m en ,com pa r edto3 ,727 m enth eSS -Po l iz e iD iv i s ionand3 ,944inth e170 thD iv i s ion .Th e i rl igh tandh eavy w eapon ry wa squ i t es im i la r .S e er epo r t so fth e L IVA rmyCo rp s ,7 D e c emb e r1942(BA -MA ,RH24–54/65 ) . 72 R epo r to fAOK18toA rmyG roup No r th ,3 D e c emb e r1942(BA -MARH 19 I I I/708 ) ;w e ek lyd iv i s ionr epo r t so fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,5 ,12 ,and18 Janua ry1943(B -MA ,RH24–54/74 ) . 73 Conv e r sa t ionb e tw e enth ecommand e rg en e ra lo fA rmyG roup No r th andth eL IVA rmyCo rp sCommand(wa rd ia ryo fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s , en t ryo f31 D e c emb e r1942[BA -MARH24–54/60 ] ) . 74 E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :136–7 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :283– 5 ) .

272 No t e stopag e s1 17–22 75 L ind emanntoA rmyG roup No r th ,9 D e c emb e r1942 ,BA -MA ,RH 20–18/1075 . 76 Mo r enoJu l iá(2007 :427–9 ) . 77 Ca r r e raBu i l&F e r r e r -Da lmau(2003 :227–36 ) . 78 Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :208–10 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :186–7 ) . Fo rop e ra t iona l d e ta i l s ,s e eCaba l l e roJu rado(2004a )andFon t en laBa l l e s ta(2012 ) .S e ea l so r epo r tbyCap ta inA l emany ,20 F eb rua ry1942(AGMAVc .2006/ 14/3/1 ) . 79 W a rd ia ryo fth eA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f1 1and12 F eb rua ry1943 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/199 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f10and 16 F eb rua ryand2 Ma r ch1943(BA -M ,RH24–50/35 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth e AOK18 ,en t r i e so f10and1 1F eb rua ry1943(BA -MA ,RH20–18/470 ) . 80 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f 17 F eb rua ryand7 Ma r ch1943 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/200 ) . 81 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,LA rmyCo rp stoth e18 thA rmy ,18 May1943(BA -MA , RH24–50/65 ) . 82 Conv e r sa t ionb e tw e enG en e ra lK l e f f e landG en e ra lLo ch ,8 Ap r i l1943 (BA -MA ,RH24–50/64 ) . 83 F ah r t b e r i ch t10 M a r ch1943250( sp an . )In f .D iv . ,r epo r ttoth eLA rmy Co rp s ,BA -MA ,RH24–50/49 ;F ah r t b e r i ch t24 M a r ch1943(BA -MA ,RH 24–50/64 ) . 84 “B e f eh lfü rd i eUmg l i ed e rungimAb s chn i t td e sL .AK ,”9 May1943 (BA -MA ,RH24–50/65 ) . 85 W a rd ia ryo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 16 Ma r ch ,8and18 Ap r i l ,1 ,9 , and17 May ,17and26Jun e1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/57 ) . 86 F ah r b e r i ch to f26Jun e1943(BA -MARH24–50/65 ) . 87 O rd e rf romth eLA rmyCo rp sCommand , 20Ju ly1943(BA -MA ,RH 24–50/66 ) . 88 O rd e ro fth eLA rmyCo rp sCommand , 10 Augu s t1943 ;r epo r to fGa r c ía Nava r ro , 26 Augu s t1943(BA -MARH24–50/66 ) . 89 W e ek lyr epo r t stoAOK 18 ,16 ,and22 Ma r chand29 Ap r i l1943 ;l ia i sonr e po r t s(Co lon e lKnüpp e l ) ,8 Ap r i l1943 ,9 May1943 ,9Jun e1943(BA -MA , RH24–50/59 ) . 90 L ia i sonr epo r t s ,9Ju lyand1 1 Augu s t1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/59 ) . 91 K l e in f e ldandT amb s(1983 :483–4 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(1999 ,2014 ) ;W eh rma ch t G en e ra lS ta f fr epo r ttoth eAOK18 ,28S ep t emb e r1943(BA -MARH 19 I I I/493 ) . 92 M e e t ingo fL ind emannandE s t eban In fan t e s , 13 O c tob e r1943 ;p r e s en ta t iono fE s t eban In fan t e stoL ind emann ,14 O c tob e r1943(BA -MARH 24–50/84 ) ;Sonn l e i thn e rtoR i t t e r ,3 O c tob e r1943 ,andtoR ibb en t rop ,9 O c tob e r1943(PAAA ,R .29750 ) . 93 E s t eban In fan t e stoG en e ra lW eg en e r ,13 Nov emb e r1943(PAAA ,ADBM , Zu sa tz12 ) .

No t e stopag e s 123–6 273 94 Fo rtho roughd e s c r ip t ion so fth eba t t l e sandth ed ip loma t i cc i r cum s tan c e s su r round ingth ea c t ion so fth eB lu eL eg ion ,s e eP é r ezRub io&P r i e toBa r r io(2014 )and Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 ) . 95 G en e ra lO rd e rs ign edbyA .Ga r c ía Nava r ro ,21 O c tob e r1943 ;andr ep ly o fth ecommand e ro fth e250 thSapp e r s ’Ba t ta l ion ,29 O c tob e r1943(AG MAV 28/18/15/12 ) . 96 Ibáñ ez H e rnánd ez(1997 :261– 2 ) ;r e co rd so fth econv e r sa t ionb e tw e enE s t eban In fan t e sandKnüpp e l ,9 Nov emb e r1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/84 ) . 97 T e s t imonyo fJuanRam í r ezd eV e rg e r , whovo lun t e e r edin1941and wa s r epa t r ia t edin May1942fo rb e ingund e rag e .H er e en l i s t edinth eB lu e L eg ion(U r ia r t eA rba iza2012 :1 13 ) . 98 R epo r tonr e en l i s tm en t sda t ed9S ep t emb e r1943(AGMAV , 1994/12/5/1 ) .Inth e2ndCompanyo fth e26 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion ,fo rex amp l e ,th e r ew e r e23 ,a l lfo rm e rvo lun t e e r sf romJu ly1941 .Th e r ew e r e10 inth e3 rdCompanyand9inth e4 thCompany .Ar e l evan tnumb e rw e r e s e rg ean t sandco rpo ra l s .Th eto ta lamoun to fr e en l i sm en t s wa s60 ,r ep r e s en t ingasma l lp e r c en tag eo fn ewa r r iva l s . 9 9W a rd i a ryo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 5and 3 0O c tob e r , 1 3Nov emb e r , 1 0and 1 2D e c emb e r1 9 4 3(BA -MA ,RH 2 4 – 5 0/ 7 4 ) ; Knüpp e ltoE s t eb an In f an t e s ,1 3 Nov emb e r1 9 4 3(BA -MA ,RH 2 4 – 5 0/ 8 4 ) . 100 M .J im én ezto Manu e lT a r ín ,K ing i s epp , 27 D e c emb e r1943(AFR ) . 101 T e l eg ramf romth e18 thA rmytoth e OKH ,D ep t .o fM i l i ta ryA t ta ch é s ,27 Janua ry1944 ,and18 thA rmytoA rmyG roup No r th ,5Janua ry1944 ,bo th inBA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ; Mo r enoJu l iá(1999 :127 ) . 102 Anonymou sr e tu rn edvo lun t e e rtoAn ton io H e r r e roCa s t e l lano ,Log roño , 18 O c tob e r1943(AA ) . 103 V eytoE in sa tzkommandoI ,23 Nov emb e r1943(USHMM ,SpBD 1 1 .001M .05 ) . 104 Fo rfu r th e rd e ta i l s ,s e e Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :344–8 ) ,andP é r ezRub io& P r i e toBa r r io(2014 :144–50 ) . 105 R epo r to fth eXXV IA rmyCo rp stoth e18 thA rmy ,1 F eb rua ry1944 (BA -MA ,RH24–26/1 15 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eXXV IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 1F eb rua ry1944(BA -MA ,RH24–26/1 13 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :328– 9 ) ; R epo r tbyD i e ckho f f , Mad r id ,1 1F eb rua ry1944(PAAA ,R -29751 ) . 106 Command e ro fth eS i ch e rung s t rupp entoA rmyG roup No r th ,5 F eb rua ry 1944(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) . 107 Sonn l e i thn e rtoth eS e c r e ta ryo fS ta t e ,B e r l in ,20 F eb rua ry1944 ;r epo r tby S t e eng ra ch t ,B e r l in ,22 F eb rua ry1944(PAAA ,R -29751 ) . 108 K l e in f e ld&T amb s(1983 :498–500 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :368–9 ) . 109 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,14 Augu s t1941 , AFR I . 1 10 Audo in -Rouz eau(1986 :53–6 ) ; Kühn e(2006 :152–3 ) .

274 No t e stopag e s 126–32 1 1 1W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f 22 Augu s t1941(Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 : 56–7 ) . 1 12 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra , 22 S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; l e t t e rf rom Dan i e lT o r ra ,19 D e c emb e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 : 57–8 ) . 1 13 Audo in -Rouz eau(1986 :42–7 )s ta t edsom e th ings im i la rabou tth eF r en ch so ld i e r sinth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r .S e ea l so Nüb e l(2014 :42–788 ) ,andKno ch (1989 ) . 1 14 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 123 ,141 ,162 ,237 ) ;M e r inoB ravo(2007 :62–3 ) . 1 15 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryo f 2 Nov emb e r1941 . 1 16 “D ia r iod eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(5apa r t e ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,623( Jun e 201 1 ) . 1 17 W a rd ia ryo fEn r iqu eSán ch ezF ra i l e ,quo t edby Ma r t ín ezR ev e r t e(201 1 : 430 ) . 1 18 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryo f3O c tob e r1941 ;A .Gay tan ,“E lf r ío enRu s iaye lequ ipa j ed elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lP i r in e o( 9F eb rua ry1942 ) . 1 19 M em o r i as o b r el ainfu en c i ad el a sép o c a sd el luv i a s ,f r í o syd e sh i e l oenl o ss e rv ic i o sd egu e r r a ,enl ac amp añ a1941–1942enRu s i a ,10 May1942(BA -MA ,RH 24–38/55 ) .S e ea l soB rydan(2019a ) . 120 A l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r ezto Ma r ía -Lu i saP é r ez ,6 F eb rua ry1942(AFN ) ; r epo r to fth ech i e fdo c to ro fth e16 thA rmy ,30 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA , RH20–16/748 ) ;Ra s s(2003 :155 ) . 121 Rom e ro(1982 :135 ) ;A .H e rnánd ez -Nava r ro ,“Cam i saAzu len Nu eva Y o rk ,”L o sS i t i o s( 12 F eb rua ry1952 ) . 122 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,10 Nov emb e r1941(AFR I ) . 123 W a rd ia ryo fDan i e lT o r ra ,en t ryf rom 22 D e c emb e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :61 ) . 124 M .Gu i ja r ro ,“M ip r im e raau ro raenRu s ia ,” L o sS i t i o s( 7S ep t emb e r1958 ) . 125 W a rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo ,1944 . 126 Fa r r éPa lau s(1991 :86–7 ) . 127 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th er epo r t so fth em ed i ca lch i e fo fth eXA rmyCo rp s ,30 O c tob e r1941(BA -MARH 24–10/86 ) . 128 S e e ,e .g . ,D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,25 O c tob e r1941 (AFR I ) . 129 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :1 10–14 ,en t ryo f30Jun e1942 ) ;F r i tz(1995 :104–14 ) ; Lu ca s(2014 :71–91 ) ;F .T o r r e s ,“Y as efu e ronlo st r in eo s ,”L aV o zd eG a l i c i a, 15 Ap r i l1943 . 130 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 88 ,95–6 ,en t r i e so f31 May1942and1–3Jun e 1942 ) .S e ea l soth e wa rd ia ryo fCa r lo sF igu e ro la ,9Ju ly1942(R em í r ezd e E spa rza2020 :33–4 ) . 131 J .M .Gu t i é r r ezd e lCa s t i l lo ,“E lAgu ina ldod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”O f en s iv a ( 3D e c emb e r1942 ) .

No t e stopag e s 132–6 275 132 M e r r ida l e(2005 :1 18–21 ) . Th eSov i e tso ld i e r shadnosou r c eo findoo r h ea t ing .Th e i rw in t e requ ipm en t wa sb e t t e rthantha to fth eG e rman s , thoughno tn e c e s sa r i lyth e i rfoodra t ion s .Sov i e tindu s t rycou ldon lyp ro v id eon epa i ro fboo t sfo rev e ryth r e em en . 133 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,1 1 Nov emb e r1941to31 Ma r ch 1942 ,en t ryo f20 F eb rua ry1942(BA -MA ,RH24–38/51 ) . 134 R epo r to fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,6 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20– 16/67 ) ;s e ea l soF r i tz(1995 :59–60 )and Humbu rg(1999 ) . 135 A l ca ld e(2014 :60–9 ) . 136 Ro s en tha l(1990 ) ;La tz e l(1997 ) ;N e i tz e l& W e lz e r(201 1 ) . 137 S e e ,e .g . ,P .d elaL lav eA la s ,“ Juan ,”R e c on qu i s t a,352( Ju ly1979 ) . 138 Agoodexamp l eo fth i s wa sth ea c coun tbyP ion e e r s ’s e rg ean tF ran c i s co Suá r ez O j eda :s e eh i s wa rd ia ry ,14–15(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fM s . Ma r íaP . Suá r ez M ed ina ,Gá lda r ,G ranCana r ia ) . 139 S e efo rin s tan c eth ed e s c r ip t iono fth eda i lyrou t in ebyth eso ld i e r so fth e 250 thT ran sm i s s ion sG roup ,a sr ef e c t edbyth e wa rd ia ryo fP r iva t e Ca r lo sO r ja l e s(Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 :147–8 ) . 140 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t r i e so f 24and25 d eO c tob e rand1 Nov emb e r1941 . 141 Fa r r éPa lau s(1991 :85 ) . 142 S e e Ma e land&B run s tad(2009 :3–4 ) . 143 L e t t e rf romDan i e lT o r ra ,19 D e c emb e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 : 57 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo sCabo ,en t ryo fJu ly1942(Cu e rdaRo s2013 : 66 ) ;l e t t e r sf romp r iva t eAn ton io Qu in tanaLu ca s .n .d .(Qu in tanaSo lá 2020 :29–30 ,36 ) . 144 S .Zanón ,“Lacampañad eRu s ia ,unañod e spu é s(2 ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 612–13( Ju ly–Augu s t2010 ) . 145 S e e ,e .g . ,th em emo i r so fp r iva t eEug en ioRod r ígu ez( Ju ly1942 ) ,inP é r ez (2020 :172–6 ) . 146 W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f 26 Ap r i l1942(Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 :98 ) . 147 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,Po r chow ,17 D e c emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 148 W a rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo sCabo(Cu e rdaRo s2013 : 62 ,en t ryo f May 1942 ) . 149 W a rd ia ryo fB en jam ínA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 12and14Jun e1942 . 150 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 57 ,en t ryo f2 May1942 ) . 151 W a rd ia ryo fDan i e lT o r ra ,en t r i e so f 29 D e c emb e r1941 ,2and1 1Janua ry 1942(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :62–3 ) . 152 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 24and26Jun e1942 . 153 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 72–4 ,en t ryo f17 May1942 ) . 154 L e t t e rf romDan i e lT o r ra ,1 Ap r i l1942(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :82–5 ) . 155 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 28Jun eand6Ju ly1942 .

276 No t e stopag e s 136–43 156 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 130[ en t ryo f17Ju ly1942 ] ,138[ 26Ju ly1942 ]and 164–5[ 17 Augu s t1942 ] ) . 157 W a rd ia ryo fDan i e lT o r ra ,en t r i e so f 14and15 May1942(T o r rai Pu igd e l l ívo l2013 :94 ) . 158 L .M .D . ,“Laho rad e lco r r eo ,”¡ ¡A r r i b aE sp añ a ! !( 24Ju ly1943 ) ;H e rnanz B lan co(2013 :60 ,75–6 ,97 ,103 ,and151 ) . 159 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t ryf rom 16Ju ly1942 . 160 S e eexamp l e sinPu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :75 ,83 ) . 161 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 26Ju lyand15 Augu s t1942 . 162 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 63 ,80 ,en t r i e so f8and24 May1942 ) . 163 A r ena l e s ’ob i tua ry wa spub l i sh edsom ew e ek sla t e r :s e e“B en jam ínA r ena l e sV a l cabado ,”O f en s iv a( 1 1 Ma r ch1943 ) ,and“Cama radaB en jam ín A r ena l e s ,”O f en s iv a( 18 Ma r ch1943 ) . 164 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 , 167–9 ,212– 13 ,en t r i e so f19 Augu s tand30 S ep t emb e r1942 ) . 165 S e eR em í r ezd eE spa rza(2020 :37–942 ,47 ,97–8 ) . 166 Ma r ch enaCañ e t e(2003 : 66 ) ;t e s t imonyo fV a l e r ianoRu iz(Pu en t eF e rnán d ez2012 :289–91 ) . 167 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,Po rkhov ,17 D e c emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 168 A .Gay tan ,“Lagu e r raar e tagua rd iaolo sp e l ig ro sd elao cupa c ión ,” E lP i r in e o( 14 Ma r ch1942 ) . 169 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :1 1 1 ) . 170 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :128–9 ) . 171 T e s t imonyo fF ran c i s coB e rgua ,c i t edbyPa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :475 ) . 172 R id ru e jo(1978 :302–3 ,en t ryo f19 Nov emb e r1941 ) .Rom e ro(1982 :142–3 ) w ro t etha ttho s eso ld i e r sr e tu rn ed“w i thswo l l enandf eb r i l eey e s[… ] a l thoughsom ew e r ee igh t e enando th e r suptoth i r ty ,th eya l ls e em edo ld . W esawth ema r r iv eth roughth efog ,ind i f f e r en ttodang e randexhau st ion ;th eylaydownn ex ttoth ef r s tf r eth eyfoundl i t .” 173 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,Po rkhov ,17 D e c emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 174 And r é s On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] ,“Ca r ta sd elagu e r ra . Nu e s t rov iv i r ,”A r r i b a ( 27 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 175 Do lo r e sGan c edotoA lb e r to Ma r t ínGam e ro ,T o l edo ,5and29 Augu s t 1941(AA ) . 176 N .A l ca láA rana ,“C rón i cad eund ía ,” A r r i b a( 17 Ma r ch1942 ) . 177 R id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,25 O c tob e r1941 ,andG ra f enwöh r ,25 Ju ly1941(AFR I ) . 178 R id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,n .d .[ ea r lyAugu s t1941 ] ,9 ,and22 Augu s t1941(AFR I ) . 179 J .M iqu e la r ena ,“Lo svo lun ta r io sfa lang i s ta sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”ABC ( 4 Augu s t1941 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :37 ,65 ,152 ) .

No t e stopag e s 143–7 277 180 Onth es t r eng tho f“p r ima ryg roup s”a sacoh e s iv efa c to rinth eW eh rma ch t ,s e eBa r tov(1991 : 29–58 ) . Onth efu s iono fpo l i t i ca lcu l tu r e sand so c ia lo r ig in sinth eW eh rma ch t ,s e eRöm e r(2012 ,2013 ) . 181 And r é sd e On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] ,“E ll ib roylae s ta tua ,”A r r i b a( 13Janua ry 1942 ) . 182 S e eA .A ragon é s ,“D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a rr i a( 25 Ap r i l1942 ) . 183 A l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r eztoh i s mo th e r ,21 D e c emb e r1941(AFN ) . 184 M .M .Ca r ra s co sa ,“R e cu e rdoaunaf e cha ,” O f en s iv a( 18 O c tob e r1942 ) ;M . Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,142( Jun e1971 ) ;E l N o r t ed eC a s t i l l a( 2Janua ry1942 ) ;SanzJa rqu e(2010 :122 ) . 185 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa sandB eyda(2018 :108 ) . 186 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryf rom1S ep t emb e r1941 . 187 Ca s e so fso ld i e r sr epa t r ia t edfo r“homo s exua l i sm ,”inth eDGSr epo r t , SanS eba s t ián ,13 Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . Ma r t ínV e la s coe ch o edth i sinh i s wa rd ia ry( en t ryo f4 Nov emb e r1941 ) . 188 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,9 Nov emb e r1941(AFR I ) ;L . Agu i la r ,“D ia r iod em icampañaenRu s ia( IX ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,604(No v emb e r2009 ) . 189 “D ia r iod ecampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(V I ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 624–5( Ju ly–Augu s t201 1 ) . 190 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,30 O c tob e r1941andPo rkhov , 17 D e c emb e r1941(AFR I ) . 191 E r randoV i la r(1942 :105 ) . 192 L ina r e s(2000 :127 ) . 193 Capd ev i la &V o ldman(2002 :173–205 ;2004 ) ;Ko s e l l e ck &J e i smann (1994 ) . 194 S e eM e r r ida l e(2005 :121–2 )and H i l l(2016 ) . 195 Audo in -Rouz eau(1995 :176–9 ) ; Kühn e(2006 :166–71 ) .S e efu r th e rexam p l e sinB .B en í t ez ,“Avo so t ro s ,”O f en s iv a( 23 Augu s t1942 ) ,and“Ca ído s d elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”O f en s iv a( 28 O c tob e r1942 ) . 196 V .d elaS e rna ,“P r e s en c iar ea ld eJo s éAn ton ioenlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” In f o rm a c i on e s( 20 Nov emb e r1941 ) . 5 .O c cupa t ionP ra c t i ce so ftheB lue D iv i s ionin No r thwe s tRu s s ia 1D i r e c t iv a sp a r al ac ondu c t ad el at r op aenRu s i a,2ndS e c t iono fth eG en e ra l S ta f f . ,n .d . ,AGMAV/2003/5/1/4 . 2“Lo scom i sa r io sd egu e r raene lE j é r c i tosov i é t i co ,”Pu e b l o( 26 Nov emb e r 1941 ) . 3In s t ru c c i óng en e r a lnúm .3 .005 ,2ndand3 rdS e c t ion so fth eBDG en e ra l S ta f f ,Amp l i a c i ónd en o rm a sju r íd i c a sin t e rn a syd eD e r e ch oIn t e rn a c i on a l, AGMAV2005/4/2/1 .

278 No t e stopag e s 147–51 4O rd e ro fth e OKH ,2 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I/ 123 ) . 5Röm e r(2008 :581–96 ;2014 ) ;Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :212 ) . 62ndS e c t iono fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,In s t ru c c i ónn . º2 .018 ,12 May1942 (AGMAV2005/ 18/1/6 ) . 7Commun i ca t ionbyth eCh i e fo fS ta f fo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,3 May1943 (AGMAV2007/ 5/3/1 ) . 8Onth eimpo r tan c eo fs i tua t iona lfa c to r sfo rth eb ru ta l iza t iono fG e rman so ld i e r sa tth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,s e eS .N e i tz e l& W e lz e r(201 1 ) ,a sw e l la sRu th e r fo rd(2014 ) . Onindo c t r ina t ionandi t sro l einenhan c ingb ru ta l iza t ion , s e eBa r tov(2001 )andRöm e r(2012 ,2013 ) . 9Add endumtoth er epo r to fCap i ta inCo l la tzfo rth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s , 5 May1942(BA -MA ,RH26–250/3 ) . 10 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,166(May1973 ) . 1 1 Fo rexamp l e ,th evo lun t e e rSa lvado rZanónadm i t t edtha tinth ei z b ao c cup i edbyh i sg roup ,po ta to e s wou ldd i sapp ea rf romth efam i ly ,bu t“ th ey sha r edou rb r ead ,ou rra t ion sandou rm e s spo r t ion .”Two w e ek sla t e r ,h e no t edtha tth eo th e rso ld i e r shads e c r e t lyen t e r edac e l la r wh e r eaRu s s ian fam i lys to r edth e i rpo ta to e s ,thoughla t e rth eysha r edth em w i thth esam e fam i ly .S e e“D ia r iod elaCampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(Pa r t e V I ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,624– 5( Ju ly -Augu s t201 1 ) ,en t r i e sda t ed22and24 D e c emb e r1941 ,and6Janua ry1942 . 12 Sa lvado r(1962 :355 ) ;Dom ingo(2009 :192–3 ) . 13 “C rón i cafá c i l .¨EnlaCa l l ed e lP i la rt i en eu s t edsuca sa ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 31 O c tob e r1943 ) . 14 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :45–50 ) ;“Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,” B o l e t índ e lSEUd e M ad r id,12(1942 ) ;J .E .B lan co ,“P ion e ro scon t raD io s .S en t idoan t i r r e l ig i o sod elaedu ca c iónru sa ,”A r r i b a( 29 Ap r i l1944 ) . 15 In s t ru c c i óng en e r a ln . º3 .005 ,4 Augu s t1941 ,AGMAV ,2005/ 4/2/1 . 16 R id ru e jo(1978 :157–8 ) . 17 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :39 ) . 18 D íazd eV i l l ega s(1967 :57–8 ) . 19 D .Ca s t roV i l la caña s ,“No ta sd eh e rmandad .E lt en i en t eRo s s e ,”En l a c e ( 3 Ap r i l1943 ) ;Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :29 ) ;“Lad e c i s ión ,e lva lo rye len tu s ia smod elag lo r io saD iv i s iónAzu l ,”ABC ( 25Janua ry1942 ) . 20 R epo r tbyCo lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lo ,n .d .(D e c emb e r1941 ) ,AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 . 21 F .P radoL e r ena ,“Unen em igov en c idoyo t roqu elos e rá ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 9 Ma r ch1942 ) . 22 J . Ma r t ia lay ,“Má sno ta spa raund ia r iod egu e r ra ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 14 F eb rua ry1942 ) ;Audo in -Rouz eau(2008 :241–2 ) .S e ea l so D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f7 Nov emb e r1941 . 23 Quo t edby Ma r t ín ezR ev e r t e(201 1 : 187 ) .

No t e stopag e s 151–4 279 24 S e eM e r r ida l e(2005 :315–16 )and H i l l(2019 ) . 25 Audo in -Rouz eau(1986 :197–8 ) . 26 “En cu en t roconcama rada sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”In f o rm a c i on e s( 24janua ry 1942 ) ;A lon sod e lR ea l[F e rnandoRamo s ](1953 :24 ) ;E s t eban In fan t e s (1956 :37 ) ; Royo Ma s ía(1956 :213–14 ) ; Agu s t íRo ca(2003 :106 ) . 27 J . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,“T e rm inae linv i e rnoenRu s iays eadv i e r t ens ín toma s d ep róx ima sop e ra c ion e s ,”A r r i b a( 9 Ap r i l1942 ) . 28 Th i s wa sa ff rm edbyEn r iqu eGa r c íaGa l ludinh i sunpub l i sh ed m emo i r s ( M i sd o sc amp añ a sm i l i t a r e s ,1936–1942) ;s e eE r randoV i la r(1942 :89 ,121–2 , 204–5 ) . 29 Ba r tov(2001 :76–87 )andKno ch(2003 ) . OnF l em ing s , No rw eg ian s ,and I ta l ian ss e eD eW ev e r(1985 :80 ) ,So r l i e(2014 :187–98 ) ,andPanna c c i (2020 ) . 30 Fo rexamp l e ,th e wa t e r co lou r sP o r t ad o r e sd eun anu ev acu l tu r ap a r aEu r op a, and¡Eu r op e o s !E s t o ss onl o so j o squ en o sa c e ch an ,enAGA ,F/0474 ,IDD (03 )003 .000 . 31 Bo ix ca r(1954 ,1955a ,1955b ) .Fo r mo r ed e ta i l s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2017 ) . 3 2 Fo rex amp l e so fc a r i c a tu r e so fth eR edA rmy ,s e eth eBDt r en ch jou rn a l ,H o j a d eC am p añ a , 9 M a r ch1 9 4 2 ,d ep i c t ingaSov i e tp a t ro l ) ; 5 Augu s t1 9 4 2(po r t r ay ingp r i son e r s ) ;1 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2(Sov i e tt ankc r ew m emb e r ) ; 3 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2( ano th e rp r i son e r ) ;3 O c tob e r1 9 4 3 ,o r 7 Nov emb e r 1 9 4 3(Sov i e t so ld i e r ) .On lyinon ec a s e( 3 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 )do w efndanagg r e s s iv ed e p i c t iono fth eSov i e tso ld i e r .Th e r ea r ea l soth ef r equ en tc a r i c a tu r e so fS t a l in o rSov i e tcommun i sm ,w i th Mongo lo ido rc ad av e rou sf e a tu r e s ;o rin s t e ad , tho s eth a tevok eth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r ,w i thSov i e tso ld i e r sw e a r ingth e i r unu su a lm i l i t a ryc ap ,po r t r ay eda sabu s ing wom en( s e eH o j ad eC am p añ a, 2 1 Nov emb e r1 9 4 3 ) .Jo aqu índ eA lb a( K in)a l sod r ewupons ev e r a lo fth e s e th em e sfo rth eexh ib i t ionS ow e r et h eR e d s !,a sd i sp l ay edinh i sw a t e rp roo f s V e in t eañ o sd ee s t a tu a sl i b e r t a r i a s, L ai gu a l d a do S o b r el am i s e r i ad e lpu e b l o ,l o s s o v i e t sh anc on s t ru i d osu s“ p a l a c i o s ”(AGA ,F/ 0 4 7 4 ,IDD ( 0 3 ) 0 0 3 . 0 0 0 ) . 33 S e e“Unaca r i ca tu racon mo ra l e ja ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 7 Nov emb e r1943 ) ; “Lo sd i ez mandam i en to sd e lbu ene spaño l ,”En l a c e( 29 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 34 “C rón i cafá c i l .E lp r i s ion e ro ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 19S ep t emb e r1943 ) ;Fa r r é A lb iñana(1949 :1 15 ) . 35 Bu chb end e r&S t e rz(1982 :83–105 ) ; La tz e l(2000b ) . 36 G .Góm ezd elaS e rna ,“Laan t iguavozd e lh e ro í smoenlae s t eparu sa ,” A r r i b a( 5 May1942 ) ;J .R evu e l ta ,“D ecómoE r i ch Ma r iaR ema rqu enoe s tuvoenlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”H a z,IV : 1(F eb rua ry1943 ) . 37 Royo Ma s ía(1956 :318 ) . 38 D iv i s i ónA zu l .2 .ºCu ad e rn o , Mad r id :V i c e s e c r e ta r íad eEdu ca c iónPopu la r , 1943 ;A .Abad O ju e l ,“Ha c eunañoqu elaD iv i s iónAzu lcomba t e ,”E lP i rin e o( 13Ju ly1942 ) .

280 No t e stopag e s 134–57 39 S e eBou rk e(1998 :175–91 ) . 40 SanzJa rqu e(2010 :123 ,129 ) . Co lon e lE spa rzah im s e l fhado rd e r ed p r i son e r so r wound eden emyso ld i e r stob esho t :s e eth eDGSr epo r t ,23 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 41 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f3 Nov emb e r1941 . 42 Onth ep ra c t i c eo fshoo t ingp r i son e r sinr ev eng efo rth e mu t i la t iono f th ebod i e so ffa l l enSpan i shso ld i e r s ,s e eSán ch ezD iana(1993 :1 18 ,138 , 144 ,and146 ) ;th et e s t imonyo fA lb e r toD íazGá lv ez ,inGa r r idoPo lo n io&Ga r r idoPo lon io(2002 :168–9 )andV i c iana(2018 :227–8 ) .S e ea l so Lóp ez -Cova r rub ia s(2012 :141 ,223 ) . 43 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :109–10 ,1 13–14 ,144–6 ) . 44 S e efo rin s tan c eE r randoV i la r(1942 :277 ) . Th er e f e r en c eto mu t i la t ion s , wh i cha r eno tco r robo ra t edbyo th e rsou r c e s ,i sfoundinK l e in f e ld& T amb s(1983 :245 ) . 45 Som et e s t imon i e sinSaga r ra(2012 :628–30 ) . As im i la rin c id en t wa sa l so d e s c r ib edbyP ion e e r s ’s e rg ean tF ran c i s coSuá r ez O j edainAp r i l1942 (wa rd ia ry ,p .6 ) . 46 D ia ryo fth eH ea l thUn i t2ndCompany ,w r i t t enbyth em i l i ta rysu rg eon Lu i sRod r ígu ezd elaBo rbo l la(quo t edinRod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a :226 ) ; DGSr epo r t ,unda t ed( endo fS ep t emb e r1941 ) ,AMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ;D i a r i o d euns o ld ad o,en t ryo f1 1S ep t emb e r1941 .Som eday sla t e r ,h er epo r t edin Bo r i sov(19S ep t emb e r1941 )tha tinan ea rbySov i e tp r i son e rcamp ,th e G e rman s wou ldk i l l“100–200 ,a sr ep r i sa l sfo rth esn ip e r s .” 47 DGSr epo r t ,SanS eba s t ián ,29Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 48 W a rd ia ryo fF ed e r i co M en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f 30 Augu s t1941(C e la 2010 :140 ) . 49 R epo r tby m i l i ta rya t ta ch éRo cad eT ogo r e s ,B e r l in ,30 O c tob e r1941 (AGMAV ,DEV29/3/52 ) . 50 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 29 Augu s t1941 ;H e rnánd ez Nava r ro(1971 : 48–9 ) ; Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :169–71 ) . 51 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :52–3 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :268 ) . 52 F .T o r r e s ,“E lsa rg en toG i l ,”ABC ( 6 Ma r ch1943 ) . 53 E .F e i jooGa r c ía ,“RamónGa r c íaP in to ,vo lun ta r iod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” M ed i t e r r án e o( 7F eb rua ry1942 ) . 54 P in i l laTu r iño(1987 :271–4 ) ;2ndS e c t iono fG en e ra lS ta f f , In s t ru c c i óng en e r a l ,num .2 .019 ,31 May1942 ,AGMAV2005/ 18/1/8 . 55 “Enunho sp i ta ld ecampañad elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”A r r i b a( 13 Ma r ch1943 ) ; A .Gay tan ,“M i s chka ,so ldadosov i é t i co ,enlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lP i r in e o ( 1 1 Ma r ch1942 ) ;A .Andú ja r ,“Nu e s t roru sk ihas idoh e r ido ,”H o j ad e C amp añ a( 8 Augu s t1943 ) ;F .T o r r e s ,“E lp r i s ion e rod eKop ino ,”L aV o zd e G a l i c i a ,16 Ma r ch1943 .

No t e stopag e s 158–9 281 56 Lomag in(1998 :14–16 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t ryo f19 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/168 ) . 57 A s wa sev enpo in t edou tinth ep ropagandabookpub l i sh edin1943 : B a l an c ed eh e r o í sm o .L aD iv i s i ónE sp añ o l ad eV o lun t a r i o sene lF r en t ed e lE s t e , Inv i e rn o1942–1943 ,Ru s i a ,T a l l in :n .p . ,1943 ,19 ;l ik ew i s e ,B lan co(1954 :33 ) . 58 D eAnd r é s(2004 :143–4 ) ; Ru izA yú ca r(1981 :158–61 ) . Fu r th e rca s e sw e r e th ed e s e r t e rPab loS .A l exand rov i ch , who wa sp ro t e c t edbyo ff c e r so f th eSpan i shG en e ra lS ta f f ,andla t e radop t edbya ma jo r whotookh im toSpa in ,andS e rgu e iD . Ma r ch enko ,bo rnin1926 , wa sana s s i s tan tcook inth eBD m ed i ca lco rp sand ,und e rth ep ro t e c t iono fsom eo ff c e r s wa s tak entoS ev i l l e , wh e r eh es e t t l ed .Fu r th e rmo r e ,th ee igh t e en -y ea r -o ld W a l t e rJam saf romPu shk in ,ana s s i s tan to faSpan i sho ff c e r ,l iv edin Ap r i l1944inC iudadR ea l .S e eJ .M .Ga r c íaS e t i én ,“Pab loSak i enkoA l exand rov i ch .Unru sod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,602(S ep t emb e r 2009 ) ;“Un jov enru sos ebau t iza ráenS ev i l la ,”L o sS i t i o sd eG e r on a( 24 May1944 ) ,andC .L .P . ,“Un mu cha choru soenC iudadR ea l ,” L an z a( 22 Ap r i l1944 ) . 59 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,87(Nov emb e r 1966 ) . 60 InS ep t emb e r1942 ,th eBDS e rv i c eCo rp shad45Sov i e tp r i son e r sini t s s e rv i c eini t sbak ing ,supp ly ,and m ea tcompan i e s :th enumb e rhadd e s c r ea s edto34in1943 .S e ea l soth er epo r tbyth eS e rv i c eCo rp sComman dan t ,29S ep t emb e r1942(AGMAV2006/ 3/2/3 ) ,andr epo r t sbyCap ta in Ra fa e lGonzá l ezF e rnánd ez ,27 F eb rua ry1943(AGMAV1987/ 15/1/2 ) . 61 D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :172–3 ) . 62 In s t ru c t ioncon c e rn ingP r i son e r so f wa r ,2 .ªS e c c iónd eEM ,16Ju ly1942 , AGMAV2006/1/3/1 . 63 R epo r t stoth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e iundSD -Au s s en s t e l l ePu s chk in ,7 Nov emb e r1942 ,C en t ra lS ta t eA r ch iv eo fSa in tP e t e r sbu rg(T sGASPB ) . Fund9788 , Op i s1 .D e lo31 ,L i s t21 . 64 S e e ,e .g . ,Eb e r t&P euk e r t(2006 ) . 65 Rom euF e rnánd ez(2007 :66–7 ) .S e ea l soth et e s t imonyo fth enu r s e sAu r e l iaS egov iaandT e r e saV a ld e r rama ,inLóp ez -Cova r rub ia s(2012 :249–51 ) . 66 O rd e rby OKH , 4 May1943 , H o j ad ein s t ru c c i óns o b r ee lt r a t am i en t od eev ad id o s(p a r al at r op a )(AGMAV2007/ 7/1/1 1 ) . 67 G en e ra lo rd e r sn .20( 21 May1943 )and22( 9 May1943 ) ,AGMAV , 2007/7/1/22and2007/ 7/1/17 . 68 In s t ru c t ionbyLA rmyCo rp stoBD ,2S ep t emb e r1943 ,AGMAV 2008/13/2/1 . 69 G en e ra lO rd e r ,2ndG en e ra lS ta f fS e c t ion ,19 May1943 ,inAGMAV 2007/9/3/1 .

282 No t e stopag e s 159–62 70 J .M iqu e la r ena ,“E lho t e lSmo l en sko ,ho t e l mod e rno ,”ABC ( 16 Augu s t 1941 ) . 71 “D iv i s iónAzu l ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 15 Nov emb e r1941 ) . 72 S e eth ecom i cs t r ip sF e l i c id adenl o sh og a r e s andAp en a sp i s am o sl ap r im e r a c a r r e t e r aru s a ,c am in od e lf r en t e ,y av em o sl oqu ee se lad e l an t os ov i é t i c o ,in AGA ,F/0474 ,IDD(03 )003 .000 . 73 E lA l c á z a r( 3F eb rua ry1942 ) . 74 J .Fu e r t e s ,“Loqu eno sl l egad eRu s iaalo sfa lang i s ta s .Sa c r if c ioyen tu s i a smod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”A r r i b a( 1Janua ry1942 ) . 75 Elcorreodelzar,“D iv i s iónAzu l .Com en ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 21 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 7 6J .L .Góm e z -T e l lo ,“L aa ld e aru s a , ”En l a c e( 2 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 ) ;F .I zqu i e rdo Luqu e ,“Un ac a s aco l e c t iv aenRu s i a , ”P en s am i en t oA l a v é s( 2 2 M ay1 9 4 2 ) . 77 Po s t ca rd sf romBDvo lun t e e r s ,22 O c tob e r1941and19 D e c emb e r1941 (V ázqu ezEn c i so1995 :133–5 ) ;V i c en t eRod r ígu ezV e latoCo lon e lL eand ro Ga r c ía ,22 Ma r ch1942(MPA -FLGG ) . 78 W a rd ia ryo fJuanRom e ro O s end e ,en t r i e sf rom 24 Augu s t1941and17 O c tob e r1941 . 79 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryf rom 14S ep t emb e r1941 . 80 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t ryo f 25 May1942 . 81 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :51 ) ;“Cómohab land e l Mandolo svo lun ta r io sd ela ‘D iv i s iónAzu l , ’”In f o rm a c i on e s( 26 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 82 “Lag lo r io saD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lN o r t ed eC a s t i l l a( 24 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 83 F e rnánd ezV e la s co(1943 :9–1 1 ) ;“ In fo rma c iónd elap rov in c ia ,” Nu ev aA lc a r r i a( 1 1 Ap r i l1942 ) . 84 Th e l ew e i t(1995 ) . 85 Rom euF e rnánd ez(2007 :57 ,en t ryda t ed16 O c tob e r1941 ) ;Góm ez -T e l lo (1945 :50 ) . 86 “D ia r iod eunvo lun ta r io . No ta sd em i ma cu to ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 20 D e c emb e r1941 ) ;“D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a ( 21 Ma r ch1942 ) ;Fa r r éA lb iñana(1949 :92 ) . 87 M emo i r so fJoaqu ín Mon taña ,inC e la(2010 : 249–50 ) . 88 B e l lodGóm ez(2004 :199–200 ) ;J .d elaC ruzLa ca c c i ,“Laca sad eN i co la i F r ed e r i ch ,”R e c on s t ru c c i ón,34( Jun e Ju ly1943 ) . 89 Ra imundoSán ch ezA lad rotoJoaqu inaCab e ro ,17 F eb rua ry1943(MPA , R .6410 ,A6/15–5 ) ;V .d elaS e rna ,“No ta sd eunv ia j ealaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” In f o rm a c i on e s( 12 D e c emb e r1941 ) ;C r e spo(1945 :178 ) . 90 V id .“Loqu ev imo senRu s ia ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 23 May1943 ) ;“M i s e r ia sob r em i s e r ia(E lay e rd eRu s ia ) ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 20Jun e1943 ) ;C . Lam e la ,“Y oe raof c ia ld e lZa r ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 8 Augu s t1943 ) . 91 A r r i b a( 13 Ma r ch1942 ) ;M .T imm e rman s ,“R e cu e rdo sd euninv i e rnoen Ru s ia ,”A r r i b a( 4 Augu s t1942 ) .

No t e stopag e s 163–6 283 92 S .Zanón ,“Lacampañad eRu s ia ,unañod e spu é s( I I I ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 615(O c tob e r2010 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fRamónAbad ía ,c i t edbyPa la c ioP i la c é s (2013 :I ,549 ) . 93 R id ru e jo(1978 :172–3 ) .O th e rt e s t imon e sw e r era th e rd i s co rdan t :s e eLa r razAnd ía&S i e r ra -S e súmaga(2010 :371– 2 ) . 94 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,19S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; J im én ezAnd rad e s(1957 :39 ,51 ) ;Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :25–7 ) ;V a s cano (1960 :84 ) . 95 B enz(1996 :9–18 ) . 96 E . Mon t e s ,“D ramayg rand eza .D eDo s to i ev sk iaS ta l in ,”D om ing o .S em an a r i oN a c i on a l( 2 May1937 ) . 97 D ion i s ioR id ru e jototh eed i to r ia lboa rdo fE s c o r i a l,22S ep t emb e r1941 (CDMH -FR , MF/R5912 ) . 98 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :52 ,1 1 1–13 ) . 99 A .d eLa ig l e s ia ,“E s tampa sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l .Laún i car e tagua rd ia ,” En l a c e( 28Jun e1942 )and“Lal ey endapa r t ida ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 4F eb rua ry1942 ) . 100 D ’O r sP é r ez(1960 ) ;E r randoV i la r(1942 :255–6 ,260 ) ;H e rm and ad,I I : 4 ( Ju ly -Augu s t1958 ) .S e ea l soP é r ez(2020 :146 ) . 101 L e t t e ro fDo lo r e sGan c edotoA . Ma r t ínGam e ro ,T o l edo ,22and23 O c tob e r1941(AA ) .Th eCh ekhovs to rysh er e f e r stoi sW a rdn o .6 . 102 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryda t ed 21 Ap r i l1942 . 103 W a rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryda t ed 18S ep t emb e r1941(C e la 2010 :143 ) . 104 “ ¿Cuán to scomun i s ta shayenRu s ia ?”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 3O c tob e r1943 ) ; Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :124–6 ) ;R .d eGonza lo ,“Laconqu i s tad elaa ld ea ,” O f en s iv a( 9 Augu s t1942 ) . 105 “Ca r tad eRu s ia ,”V o lun t ad ( 8F eb rua ry1942 ) . 106 Od i e l( 15Janua ry1942 ) . 107 S e e ,e .g . ,“Cha r landoconunlab rado rru so .Imp r e s ion e sd eunso ldadoen laRu s ial ib e rada ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 26S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 108 H i spanu s ,“Ca r ta sd e sd eRu s ia .C r i s i s mo ra l ,” Lu ch a( 7Ju ly1943 ) . 109 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,H o j ad eC amp añ a( 13 D e c emb e r1941 ;1 1Janua ry1942 ; 5 Augu s t1942 ;19 Augu s t1942 ;26 Augu s t1942 ;18 Nov emb e r1942 ;21 Ma r ch1943 ; 31 Ma r ch1943 ,and1 1 Ap r i l1943 )(fgu r e s3and4 ) . 1 10 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 46–47 ,en t r i e sda t ed27–30 Ap r i land1 May1942 ) . 1 1 1L e t t e ro f Manu e lT a r íntoR em ed io sR ebo l lo ,5Jun e1942(AFR ) . 1 12 A .d elaIg l e s ia ,“Pa ralah i s to r iad enu e s t raD iv i s iónAzu l .Supa i sa j e ,” ABC ( 17 May1942 ) ;D íazd eV i l l ega s(1967 :45–6 ) ;E r randoV i la r(1942 : 61–2 ,1 13and233 ) . 1 13 S e eLa tz e l(2000 :145–56 ) ; Mü l l e r(2007 :175–94 ) ;andK ipp(2014 :47–1 10 ) . S e ea l soCo rn i(2010 ;2012 :37–8 )andV e t to razzo(2004 ) .

284 No t e stopag e s 166–9 1 14 N e r ín(2005 : 204–6 ) . 1 15 F .T o r r e s ,“Lacampañad einv i e rnopa rae le j é r c i toru so ,”ABC ( 26Janu a ry1943 ) . 1 16 “D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 21 Ma r ch1942 ) ; P .Sa lvado r ,“D iv i s iónAzu l :V oze spaño laenlaba ta l lad e l mundo ,”H o j a d eC amp añ a( 9 May1943 ) . 1 17 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :21 ,77 ) . 1 18 E r randoV i la r(1942 :1 12–13 ) ;J .R evu e l taImaz ,“Cam i sa sazu l e sen Now go rod ,”Pu e b l o( 28Ju ly1942 ) . 1 19 F r i tz(1995 :195–203 ) . 120 L e t t e ro fRa imundoSán ch ezA lad ro ,10 D e c emb e r1943(MPA ,R6410/ A6/15–2 ) . 121 Thu s , Mon t s e r ra tRom eu(2007 :67 )d e s c r ib edata i lo rinPo rkhova s “ th ec la s s i cRu s s ian w i thsma l lsp e c ta c l e s ,aRu s s ianb lou s eandJ ew i sh look .” 122 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryda t ed 19S ep t emb e r1941 .S e ea l so J . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,“D e sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l .E s tampa ssov i é t i ca s ,”S I . Sup l em en t os em an a ld eA r r i b a,37( 13S ep t emb e r1942 ) . 123 J .Gonzá l ez Muñoz ,“Lo squ er eg r e sand e lo t rolado .Unvo lun ta r iod ela D iv i s iónAzu lhab lapa raEl C orreo G allego,”E lC o r r e oG a l l eg o ,30 Augu s t1942 . 124 S e eL iu l ev i c iu s(2000 ;2006 )andDo rn ik(2013 ) . 125 L e t t e ro fCa r lo sJuan ,M in sk ,18S ep t emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 126 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,19S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; And r é s On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] ,“Pa i sa j ed elaba ta l la ,”A r r i b a( 10Janua ry 1942 ) .S e ea l soR id ru e jo(1978 :225–30 ) . 127 A .A ragon é s ,“D elaD iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r tad eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a rr i a( 3Janua ry1942 ) . 128 E r randoV i la r(1942 :250–1 ) ;“C rón i cafá c i l .Uncon c i e r to ,” H o j ad eC amp añ a( 30 May1943 ) ;J .L .Góm ezT e l lo ,“Nowgo rod ,lac iudadb lan cad e lo se spaño l e s ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 16( 6F eb rua ry1943 ) . 129 M .B enda la ,“Po l í t i caygu e r raene l mundo .La ju r id i c idadenlagu e r ra d eRu s ia ,”Juv en tud( 30 Ap r i l1942 ) . 130 “Ru s iav i s tad e sd efu e ra ,”Juv en tud( 7 May1942 ) . 131 M .B enda la ,“Ru s iacomo m i s ióneu rop ea ,” H a z,IV : 5( Jun e1943 ) . 132 D .Lagun i l la ,“Lo sin s t in to sp r im i t ivo sd elarazae s lava ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 15 ( 6F eb rua ry1943 ) . 133 S .M .C . :“La mo rbo s idadd elaRu s iasov i é t i ca ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 5S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 134 L e t t e r so fth eJuv en tudd eA c c iónCa tó l i cato MuñozG rand e s ,S igü enza , 20 Nov emb e r1941(AGMAV1979/ 6/1/5 ) ,andf romP r iva t eCa r lo sJuan , 18S ep t emb e r1941 .

No t e stopag e s 169–73 285 135 “Laraza ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 10 O c tob e r1943 ) ;G .G .R . :“Lo sbo l ch ev iqu e s , laimp r en taylar e l ig ión ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 14 Nov emb e r1943 ) ;“E lco mun i smo ,in t e rp r e ta c ión ma t e r ia l i s tad elav ida ,” H o j ad eC amp añ a( 21 Nov emb e r1943 ) ; Ma r t ín ezC ru c e s(1942 :1 10–1 1 ) . 136 “Sang r eib é r i casob r ee lh i e lod eRu s ia ,”A r r i b a( 29Ju ly1942 ) .Fo ru top ia s ba s edonth eG e rman“ cu l tu ra lm i s s ion”inRu s s ia ,con s i s t inginb r ing ing “o rd e r”toth eEa s t ,s e eK ipp(2014 :139–46 ,176–82 ) . 137 C .A lon sod e lR ea l ,“D iá logosob r et emaru so ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 48 ( 25S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 138 Á lva r ezCh i l l ida(2014 ) . 139 Ma ez tu(1941 : 67–8 ) . 140 S e esom eexamp l e sinS ta rga rd t(2015 :207–8 ) . 141 S e eA y çob e r ry(2003 )and Qu ink e r t(2014 ) . 142 R ega rd ingth esuppo s edG e rmancomm i tm en ttor e -Ch r i s t ian iz eRu s s ia , s e eF .d eBo l inaga ,“LaayudaalaR e l ig iónenRu s iaylaapo r ta c iónd ela Ig l e s iae spaño la ,”Lu ch a( 20 Augu s t1943 ) . 143 S e e“Han ma tadoaunan iña ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 15 Augu s t1943 ) ; Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :91–3 ) .F .T o r r e s ,“Ru so senlar e tagua rd ia ,”Lu ch a ( 15Ju ly1943 ) . 144 S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018 c ) . 145 D i r e c t iv a sp a r al ac ondu c t ad el at r op aenRu s i a,G .S .2nds e c t ion ,n .d . , AGMAV ,2003/5/1/4 . 146 DEVG en e ra lS ta f f ,Amp l i a c i ónd eN o rm a sJu r íd i c a sin t e rn a syd eD e r e ch oInt e rn a c i on a l ,AGMAV2005/ 4/2/1 . 147 Röm e r(2008 :581–96 ) . 148 2ndS e c t iono fDEVG en e ra lS ta f f ,In s t ru c c i ónnum .2018 , 12 May1942 , AGMAV2005/18/1/6 . 149 Comun iqu éo fth eH eado fG en e ra lS ta f fo fA rmyCo rp sL ,3 May1943 , AGMAV2007/5/3/1 . 150 K i l ian(2012 :189–240 ) . 151 S e esom eob s e rva t ion scon c e rn ingSov i e t wom endu r ingth eo c cupa t ion inR eb rova(2014 ) . 152 S e eth er epo r to fS i ch e rung s r eg im en t107 ,8 Ma r ch1942(BA -MA ,RH 20–16/99 ) . 153 Ed i c tby Muñoz -G rand e s ,3S ep t emb e r1941(AGMAV1978/ 13/5/1 ) . 154 R epo r tbySond e r füh r e rW a l t e r ,Bau t ruppI I ,29S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MA , RH19 I I I/774 ) . 155 S e eth eo rd e ro fth elo ca l Novo soko l ’n ik icommand ,5 O c tob e r1941 ; r epo r t so fs ta t iono ff c e rS e i f e r t ,13 O c tob e r1941 ,andth eV i ln iu sT ran s po r tCommand ,16 O c tob e r1941 ;r epo r t so fLo ca lCommandI(V )293 Novo soko l ’n ik iandV 181 ,21and22 O c tob e r1941 ;and M i l i ta ryPo l i c e r epo r t , Novo soko l `n ik i ,20 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) .

286 No t e stopag e s 173–5 156 DEV ,2ndS e c t ionGS ,G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2009 ,19 O c tob e r1941(AGMAV 3736/5 ) . 157 How ev e r ,th e s er epo r t st end edtob lam efo r e igna l l i e so rn e ighbou r ingd iv i s ion sfo rbadb ehav iou r , wh i chcou ldhav eb e enth edo ingo fG e rman s . S e eK i l ian(2012 :218–19 ) . 158 G r ego r itoLu i sRom e ro ,8 Nov emb e r1942(UCSD -MS563 ) . 159 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,24 O c tob e r1941(AFR I ) . 160 S e er epo r t sbyl ia i sono ff c e rD r .Gu tz s ch ebau ch ,2–10 O c tob e r1941 ,a s w e l la sr epo r t stoth eIAd epa r tm en to fth eA rmyG roup No r th , 2 Nov em b e r1941 , OKHtoA rmyG roup No r th ,3 Nov emb e r1941 ,ando fG en e ra l vonChappu i stoth eSup r em eCommando fth e16 thA rmy ,G r igo rovo ,17 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH 19I I I/774 ) . 161 Th i spo in t wa sa l sopo in t edou tbyV lad im i rKova l ev sk i i(Núñ ezS e ixa s &B eyda2019 :152–3 ) . 162 K i l ian(2012 :215–17 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :548 ) . 163 R epo r to fG roupIV Wo f16 thA rmy ,29 O c tob e rto21 D e c emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH20–16/1 100 ) ; Ha s en c l ev e r(2010 :305–9 ) ;A rmyG roup No r th wa rd ia ry ,en t ryda t ed 24 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/ 168 ) . 164 U rqu i jo(1973 :283 ) ;in fo rma t ionno t eo fth eG en e ra lS ta f f2nds e c t ion ,28 D e c emb e r1941 ,AGMAV2005/8/3/1 . 165 Cap ta inCo l la tztoA rmyG roup No r th ,23 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH 19 I I I/774 ) . 166 Co l la tztoA rmyG roup No r th ,5 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) . Fo rt e s t imon i e so fs exua la s sau l tonRu s s ian wom enbyG e rman sand Span ia rd s ,s e eth e wa rm emo i r so fF ran c i s co Man e ro(Pa la c ioP i la c é s 2013 ,I :551–2 ) ,andB en ignoCabo ,132 .S e ea l sosom eRu s s ianey ew i tn e s s a c coun t sinKova l ev(2014 :347 ) . 167 On lyon eo c cu r r edb e tw e en Nov emb e r1941andAugu s t1942(G en e ra l S ta f fO rd e r103 ,16Ju ly1942 ,AGMAV3736/ 6 ) . 168 S e c r e tr epo r tbyasu rg eon s ’comm i s s iontha tv i s i t edG e rmanyandPoland ,D e c emb e r1941(FNFF1992 :404– 19 ) ;r epo r ttoV a r e la ,22 D e c emb e r 1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 169 T e s t imon i e so fA .P .Ja s ch in ,S .V .A l ek sand rovna ,andG .Ivanovna(Koval ev2014 :354– 9 ) . 170 ¿Qu éh ap a s ad oc one lAgu in a ld o? N .d .[F eb rua ry/Ma r ch1942 ] ,AGMAV 2005/16/2/13 . 171 R epo r t so fG en e ra lvonChappu i s ,8 D e c emb e r1941 ,andG en e ra lBu s ch , 4D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/67 ) . 172 Ba r tov(1991 :76–8 ) ;K i l ian(2012 :220–5 ) .A sw i thth eca s eo f Hunga r ian so ld i e r s ,G e rmanr epo r t st end edtoexagg e ra t eth e i rcon c e rnfo rth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion wh en ev e ro th e r sw e r er e spon s ib l efo rm i s condu c t(And e r son1999 ;Ungvá ry2005 ) .

No t e stopag e s 175–8 287 173 Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 : 208–9 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I I .A rmy Co rp s ,en t ryda t ed18 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–38/51 ) . Th ed e ta in e e wa scond emn edandr epa t r ia t edinJanua ryo f1942(DGSr epo r t , Mad r id , 27Janua ry1942 ,AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 174 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I I .A rmyCo rp s ,en t ryf rom 2 D e c emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH24–38/51 ) . 175 T ä t ig k e i t s b e r i ch td e rA b t .I I Id e sG en .K omm and o sd e sXXXV I I IA .K .fü rd i e Z e i tv om1 1 .X I .1941b i s31 .I I I .1942(BA -MA ,RH24–38/253 ) . 176 K i l ian(2012 :225–33 ) . 177 Cogo l lo sV i c en s(1985 :1 15 ) ;H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :220 ,en t ryf rom6 O c tob e r1942 ) . 178 F .T o r r e s ,“Bomba rd eod eSanP e t e r sbu rgo ,”ABC ( 4Jun e1943 ) ;E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :128 ) . 179 Mon th lyr epo r to fth eW i r t s cha f t skommandoK ra snogwa rd e i skfo rAp r i l 1942(BA -MA ,RH20–18/1358 ) ;Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :1 18 ) . 180 Cá rd ena s ,D i a r i o,en t ryf rom1S ep t emb e r1942 . 181 S e eJ .San tama r íaD í ez ,“Sd r inoga ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,179( Jun e1974 ) ;D ’O r s P é r ez(1960 ) . 182 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryf rom 3Jun e1942 . 183 S e eIn s t ru c c i óng en e r a l2 .016 ,4 May1942(AGMAV ,28/28/18 ) ;fo rth e w r i t t enr e spon s e so fo ff c e r stoth em emoo fG en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e s da t ed27 May1943 ,s e eAGMAV ,2007/ 12/2/5 . 184 S e e ,e .g . ,th ea c coun tbyV lad im i rRud in sk i ,aSov i e tc i t iz en who wo rk ed fo rth eSpan ia rd sa sanin t e rp r e t e r :V .Rud in sk i ,“ I span t syGo lubo id iv i z i i ,”N a sh as t r an a( 8S ep t emb e r2007 )and“Pa t r ia rkhru s sko iza rub ezhno i pub l i t s i s t ik i ,”N a sh as t r an a( 6 Augu s t201 1 ) . 185 D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :202–3 ) ;t e s t imonyo fA .V a l l e jo ,inLa r raz&S i e r ra S e súmaga(2010 :373 ) . 186 “D ia r iod elacampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(V ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 623( Jun e201 1 ) ,en t ryf rom22 D e c emb e r1941 . 187 Kova l ev(2014 :330–2 ) . 188 In t e rv i ew w i thV a s í lyP .(bo rn1928 ) ,Podb e r ez ’ e ,29 Ap r i l2003(AA ) ;t e s t imonyo fap ea san tg i r lf romT rub i t ch ino ,inGa r r idoPo lon io&Ga r r ido Po lon io(2002 :90–1 ) . 189 D ia ryo fL id ia Ó s ipova ,en t r i e sda t ed25 Augu s t ,17S ep t emb e r , 30S ep t emb e r ,1and5 O c tob e r1942(Lomag in2004 :I I ,464– 6 ) . 190 R epo r ttoth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e iundSD -Au s s en s t e l l ePu s chk in , 2 Nov emb e r1942(T sGASPB ,Fund9788 . Op i s1 .D e lo31 .L i s t29 ) . 191 Th i so c cu r r edaf ew mon th sa f t e rth eSpan ia rd sa r r iv edinPav lo sk , wh en ag roupo fs ev enso ld i e r sen t e r edth elodg ing so fRu s s ianc iv i l ianCa tar ina Ma l i s ch eva .Th ea c cu s ed w e r econd emn edtos ix mon th s ’in ca r c e ra t ion(AGMAV ,C .3777/ 2 ) .

288 No t e stopag e s 178–81 192 L e t t e rf romL i eu t enan tP .Em e r i ch ,O r t skommandan tu rI I(351 ) , 22S ep t emb e r1942(B fZ -SS ) . 193 D eAnd r é s(2004 :25 ) ; Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :1 18 ) . 194 G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2016 ,4 May1942(AGMAV28/28/18/3 ) . 195 In O c tob e r1943as im i la rin s t ru c t ionou t l in edth esam et e rm s(GS O rd e r 1F eb rua ry1943 ,AGMAV ,28/29/1 1/7 ) . Mo r eexamp l e sinBow en(2000 : 1 14–15 ) . 196 Rob e r toR iv e rotoCa rm enSán ch ez ,26 Augu s t1942(D eRamón& O r t iz 2003 :355–6 ) . 197 W a rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo , 128–9 ; Ga r c ía Izqu i e rdo(2009 :333– 5 ) . 198 Ch i cha r ro -Lamam i éd eC la i ra c(2001 :42 ) . Lov ea f fa i r sb e tw e eno c cupy ingso ld i e r sandSov i e t wom enno rma lyhadon er ea lfun c t ion :tofndan i l lu so ryr e fug ef romth eha rd sh ip so f wa r :s e eF r i tz(1995 :78–9 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :166–7 ) ,and Müh lhäu s e r(2010 :159 ,216 ) . 199 OKHtoA rmyG roup No r th , 20 May1942 ,and18 thA rmytoA rmy G roup No r th ,12Jun e1942(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/493 ) .Som eexamp l e sa r e d e s c r ib edbyD íazIn fan t e(n .d . :49 ) . 200 Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :133 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :552 ) . 2 0 1D .R am í r e z Mo r a l e s ,“No t a sd eund i a r io , ”Ju v en tu d , 2 9( 5 Nov emb e r1 9 4 2 ) . 202 Ra imundoSán ch eztoJoaqu inaCab e ro ,18Janua ry1943(MPA ,R .6410 , 16/15–3 ) .S e ea l so M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,85(S ep t emb e r1966 ) . 203 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryf rom 14S ep t emb e r1941 . 204 “Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,”B o l e t índ e lSEUd eM ad r id,1 1(1942 ) . 205 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t ryda t ed 5Jun e1942 .S e ea l so“Loqu ecu en tan lo svo lun ta r io sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lP r og r e s o,7 F eb rua ry1942 . 206 S e ee .g .th eunpub l i sh ednov e lR e cu e rd o s byth eBDv e t e ran Ó s ca rR ey , wh i chna r ra t e sas to ryo flov eand j ea lou syb e tw e entwoSpan i shso ld i e r s andaRu s s iang i r l(p e r sona la r ch iv eo fCa r lo sR ey ,ACo ruña ) . 207 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryf rom28 O c tob e r1941 . 208 J .San tama r íaD í ez ,“An e cdo ta r iod e lD r .Payno ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,183 (O c tob e r1974 ) .S e ea l soth em emo i r so fP r iva t eEug en ioRod r ígu ez , whor e f e r r edop en lytoth eex i s t en c eo fRu s s ianandPo l i shp ro s t i tu t e sin Novgo rodando th e rp la c e sc lo s etoth ef ron tl in e(P é r ez2020 : 151 ,165 ) . 209 P r iva t eEug en ioRod r ígu ezr e ca l l edinh i sm emo i r stha th eandh i s com rad e so f t enfoundsh e l t e randf ema l ecompanya tafam i ly ’ si z b a ,in ex chang efo rp ro t e c t ionandfood . On en igh t ,th eyev en w i tn e s s edhow th efam i lyh idtwopa r t i san s who w e r es ea r ch edbyaG e rmanpa t ro l .S e e P é r ez(2020 :166–8 ) . 210 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t r i e sf rom2 ,3 ,and8 D e c emb e r1941 .Su chcon du c t wa sa l socommonamongG e rmanso ld i e r s(Ru th e r fo rd2014 :187–9 ; Müh lhäu s e r2010 : 251–2 ) .

No t e stopag e s 181–3 289 2 1 1 An ton io H e r r e rotoh i s mo th e r ,2 5 Ap r i l1 9 4 3(AA ) ;w a rd i a ryo fM anu e l d eC á rd en a s ,en t ryf rom2 0 M ay1 9 4 2 ;J im én e zM a lod e Mo l in a( 1 9 4 3 : 1 7 6 ) . 212 Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :123 ) ; no t eo fth eDGS ,9 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 ) .Som eRu s s ian mo th e r sh idth e i rdaugh t e r sf romth eSpan i sh o ff c e r s(Kova l ev2014 :365 ) . 213 Á lva r ezd eSo tomayo r(1991 :162–3 ) ; Royo Ma s ía(1956 :88–9 ) ; Ga r c ía Luna(1959 :32 ,1 13 ) ;SanzJa rqu e(2010 :330 ) . 214 T e s t imonyo fA .Dav i ch enko ,r ep rodu c edinth edo cum en ta ryTh eS i eg e o fL en ing r ad(Sa in tP e t e r sbu rglo ca lTV ,2007 ) ;d ia ryo fL id ia Ó s ipova ,en t r i e sda t ed25 Augu s tand5 O c tob e r1942(Lomag in2004 ,2 :464– 6 ) . 215 Un t i t l ed m emo i r so fEvdok i iaBoga ch eva -Ba skakova(1970 ) ,pp .29and 32–5(Mu s eumo fRu s s ianCu l tu r e ,SanF ran c i s co , Manu s c r ip tCo l l e c t ion , Box2 , Fo ld e r4 ) . 216 S e er e co rdo fth ecou r t ma r t ia lands en t en c e ,7 Ap r i l1942 ,a sw e l la sr e po r t sbya t to rn eyo ff c e ro fth eBD ,7 Ma r ch1942and17 Ap r i l1942(AG MAVC .3791/30 ) . 217 “A lampa ropa t e rno ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 15 Augu s t1944 ) ;J . Ma r t ia lay , “Nu evap r imav e ra ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 23 May1942 ) . 218 Pu en t e(1954 :157–8 ) ;J . Ma r t ia lay ,“Ho ra syho ra sene ld e s can so ,” Nu ev a A l c a r r i a( 7 Ma r ch1942 ) . 219 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryf rom 3 O c tob e r1941 . 220 In t e rv i ew sw i thL id ia N .Y e ro f e j eva ,Po sad ,27 F eb rua ry2015 ,andth e p r i e s to fKo ro t sko e ,27 F eb rua ry2015(AA ) ;Kova l ev(2014 :336 ,372– 3 ) . 221 S e e ,fo rexamp l e , Mon t e s(2006 :93–6 ,1 13–17 ) . Onth eov e rabundan c eo f o rphanch i ld r eninth er ea rgua rd ,s e eth er epo r to fth eW i r t s cha f t skommandoK ra snogwa rd e i sk , 20 Ap r i l1942(BA -MA ,RH20–18/1358 ) . 222 B l auD iv i s i ón,50(O c tob e r1963 ) ;M i ra l l e sGü i l l(1981 :88–90 ) . 223 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,Pu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :125–8 ) . ARu s s ianch i ld ,Bo r i s S .N iko la i ev i ch , wa stak entoSan t iagod eCompo s t e labyana r t i l l e ryo ff c e randadop t edbyalo ca lfam i ly , wh i chbap t iz edh ima saCa tho l i c ( E lC omp o s t e l an o,7Jun e1944 ) . 224 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :26 ,53 ,59–60 ,68–9 ,71–3 ) . 225 DEV ,2ndS e c t ion ,17 O c tob e r1941(AGMAV3736/ 5 ) ;t e s t imon i e so fJuan Lu i sPa ch e co ,F ran c i s coT a r r é s ,P ed roB e ja rano ,Ado l fod e Mon tagu t ,and Gu i l l e rmoGonzá l ezd eCana l e s ,numb e r edinSaga r ra(2012 :643–4 ) ; Lu i s Agu i la r ,“D ia r iod em iCampañad eRu s ia(3 ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,603(2009 ) , en t ryf rom18S ep t emb e r1941 ;U rqu i jo(1973 :272 ) . 226 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryda t ed 28S ep t emb e r1941 . 227 J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina(1942 :178–9 ,187–8 ) . 228 V ad i l lo(1967 :347–53 ) . 229 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :132 ) . 230 OnSov i e tpa r t i san s ,s e eS l epyan(2006 ) ,H i l l(2005 ) ,and Mu s ia l(2009 ) .

290 No t e stopag e s 184–6 2 3 1H a s en c l ev e r( 2 0 1 0 :3 7 1 –7 ,4 1 0 – 1 7 ,4 4 8 – 5 5 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd( 2 0 1 4 : 1 4 5 ,2 1 5 ) . Som ea t t r ibu t edi ttoth el a cko fa moun t eds e c t ion( c av a l ry )inth eBD , wh i chh adb e enr ep l a c ed w i thab i cy c l es e c t ionth a tcou ldno tc a r ryou ti t s du t i e sinfo r e s t edo rm a r shya r e a s .S e eth eICs e c t ionr epo r to fth eXXXV I I I A rmyCo rp s ,1 3Ju ly1 9 4 2(BA -MA ,RH 2 4 – 3 8/ 1 6 4 ) ;J .M a r t ín e zE sp a r z a , “Lo s‘p a r t i s an e s ’yo t ro sru so s , ”H o j ad eC am p añ a( 1 5D e c emb e r1 9 4 3 ) . 232 G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2007 ,17 O c tob e r1941and2007B ,28 O c tob e r1941 (AGMAV ,2005/ 5/5 ) . 233 G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2023 ,7Ju ly1942(AGMAV ,2006/ 1/1/7 ) ; OKWo r d e rf rom20 Augu s t1941(BA -MA ,RW19/686 ) .T e s t imonyo fon esu ch r ep r i sa l wa sna r ra t edbyr epa t r ia t edso ld i e r sinaDGSr epo r t ,SanS e ba s t ián ,30Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) ;T ä t ig k e i t s b e r i ch td e rA b t . I c /A .O .fü rd i eZ e i tv on1 .b i s22 N ov em b e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/473 ) . 234 Ga r c ía H i spán(1992 :46–7 ) ; Kova l ev sk i i ’ sm emo i r s ,in Núñ ezS e ixa s& B eyda(2019 :254–73 ) . 235 H ighCommando fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s , 5Janua ry1942(BA -MA , RH .24–38/34 ) . 236 Fo racompa ra t iv ed i s cu s s ion ,s e eH eu s e r(2013 :142–215 ) . 237 S e eKova l ev sk i i ’ sm emo i r s ,in Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 :129–45 ) . 238 P ion e e r s ’Ba t ta l ion250toth ecap ta ino fth e1 s tCompany ,5 O c tob e r 1942(AGMAV1985/3/5/1 ) ;A rmyCo rp sL ,O rd e rda t ed10Ju ly1943 (BA -MA ,RH24–50/66 ) . 239 MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 : 158 ,183 ,en t r i e sf rom29 Mayand31 O c tob e r1943 ) . 240 Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzkommando 1 ,6 Nov emb e r1943 (USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 241 Da i lyr epo r to f250 thD iv i s iontoth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,18 D e c emb e r 1941(BA -MA ,RH24–38/171 ) . 242 In t e r roga t ion so faSpan i shso ld i e ro fth e10 thCompany ,R eg im en t269 ; o faso ld i e ro fth e3 rdCompanyo fth esam er eg im en t ,andano th e ro fth e R e conna i s san c eBa ta l lon :Ga t ch ina Nava lA r ch iv e ,102 .o .1 .d .354 . l l .71–4 , 1 10–13 ,and146–9 . 243 T e s t imonyo fAn s e lmoP é r ezGóm ez(P é r ez Ma e s t r e2008 :161–3 ) ;Sanz Ja rqu e(2010 :239 ) ;D ia ryo fP r iva t eP ed roSo l é ,en t ryf rom25 Ma r ch1942 ( h t tp ://www .m iabu e lo en ru s ia . com) . 244 Da i lyR epo r to f250 thD iv i s iontoXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,21 Nov emb e r 1941 ,3and4 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–38/171 ) ;s e ea l soth er epo r t o fth e16 thG e rmanA rmy ,P a r t i s an en b e k ämp fungind e rA rm e eind e rZ e i t v om6–12 D e c em b e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/99 ) . 245 In t e rv i ewo fL id ia N iko la évna ,Rogavka ,28 Ma r ch2004byPav e lT en d e ra(Au tho r ’ sA r ch iv e ) ,andann extoth er epo r to fth e16 thA rmy H igh Commandtoth eA rmyG roup No r th ,13 F eb rua ry1942(BA -MA ,RH 20–16/99 ) .

No t e stopag e s 187–91 291 246 K ipp(2007 ,2014 ) . 247 Fo rasyn th e s i so fth ean t i -S em i t i crh e to r i candcon t en t so fSpan i shfa sc i smandea r lyF ran co s im ,s e eÁ lva r ezCh i l l ida(2002 :381–420 ) .S e ea l so Bö ck e r(2000 ) ;Pa lm e roA randa(2016 ) ;andS chammah -G e s s e r(2007 ) . 248 Ro th e r(2005 :53–77 ) ; Roz enb e rg(2010 :213–48 ) ;and H e r rman&B r enn e i s (2020 ) . 249 V onS toh r e rtoAu swä r t ig e sAm t , Mad r id ,28 F eb rua ry1941(PAAA ,R 29741 ) ;r epo r tf romth eG e rmanemba s syin Mad r id ,7 Nov emb e r1941 , quo t edbyRoz enb e rg(2010 :179 ) . 250 S e eCua r t e ro(1941 :23–5 )andCa r r ión(1941 ) . 251 Quo t edbyT ran ch e&Sán ch ezB io s ca(201 1 : 69 ,440– 1 ) . 252 E .B lan coB . ,“E lv e rdad e roen em igo ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 4 May1942 ) : “W eknowyou !Y ou rsu rnam e sa r eD emo c ra cy , Ma rx i smandP lu to c ra cy , andyou rf r s tnam ei sunm i s takab l e :Juda i sm .”S e ea l so“E spañad ef end eEu ropacon t rasu st r e sen em igo sa l iado s :bo l ch ev i smo , juda í smo , ma son e r ía ,” H o j ad eC amp añ a( 15 D e c emb e r1943 ) ;“Lo sbo l ch ev iqu e s ,la imp r en taylar e l ig ión ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 14 Nov emb e r1943 ) ;and“E l comun i smoin t e rp r e ta c ión ma t e r ia l i s tad elav ida ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 21 Nov emb e r1943 ) . 253 “ ¿Cuán to scomun i s ta shayenRu s ia ?”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 3O c tob e r1943 ) . 254 “Laraza ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 10 O c tob e r1943 ) . 255 A .Gay tan ,“Can t e jondoene lF r en t ed e lE s t e ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 25 May 1942 ) . 256 MuñozG rand e sc r i t i c iz edsom em emb e r so fth eG en e ra lS ta f fandlab e l l edth emd e sp e c t iv e lya s“ J ew s”(Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez2005 :142 ) .S e ea l so Ma r t ín ezC ru c e s(1932 : 28 ) . 257 Bow en(2007 ) . 258 L .Sán ch ez Ma spon s ,“Cam inod eRu s ia .E lpa sopo rC ra cov iaylaPo lon ia O r i en ta l ,”In f o rm a c i on e s( 28 O c tob e r1941 ) . 259 R epo r tbyth eDGS ,28 Ap r i l1942 ,r ep rodu c edinFNFF(1992– 94 :I I I , 331–50 ) . 260 ABC ( 26 Ap r i l1945 ) ;Ga r r iga(1983 :41–43 ) ; Ro th e r(2005 :125–9 ) . 261 K rau sn i ck(1998 :154–5 ) ; Kova l ev(1998 :43 ) ;H i l l(2005 :25–37 ) ; Ha s en c l ev e r(2010 :548– 50 ) ;K i l ian(2012 :95 ) . 262 In s t ru c c i óng en e r a l2010 ,28 O c tob e r1941 ,AGMAV/2005/ 5 . 263 N ew so fth ea t ro c i t i e sp e rp e t ra t edaga in s tth eSov i e tc iv i l ian sandJ ew s o f t ensp r eada srumou r sp ropaga t edbyso ld i e r sont ra in so ronl eav e f romth ef ron t(Humbu rg201 1 ;Ja sp e r201 1 :79–82 ) . 264 A rad(2009 :196–7 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :159–60 ) . 265 Dom ingo(2009 :190–1 ) . 266 M . Ma r t ín ez -M ena ,“E spañas ead e lan tóa lt i empoenqu ev iv ía ,” B l au D iv i s i ón,36(Augu s t1962 ) .

292 No t e stopag e s 192–7 267 Cho law sk i(1998 :x–xxv i i ,3–31 ) ;s e ea l soA ck e rmann(201 1 :93–127 ) ,and th et e s t imonyo fCha s iaBo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka(2008 :51–96 ) . 268 K la r s f e ld(1980 ) ;Fa ta l -Knaan i(1995 ,1996 ) ;A ck e rmann(201 1 :158–72 ) . 269 A .Gay tan ,“Lagu e r raar e tagua rd iaolo sp e l ig ro sd elao cupa c ión ,”E l Id e a lG a l l eg o( 13 Ma r ch1942 ) . 270 E r randoV i la r(1942 :20 ) . 271 M . No fu en t e s ,“La s ma r cha sd elaD iv i s iónent i e r raru sa ,” Juv en tud ,2( 30 Ap r i l1942 ) ;S .Zanón ,“Lacampañad eRu s ia ,unañod e spu é s(1 s tpa r t ) ’ ; J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina(1943 :37–41 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fGonzá l ezd eCana l e s , quo t edbySaga r ra(2012 :598 ) . 272 S e eth e wa rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f10S ep t emb e r1941 . 273 T y ch(2005 ) . Ons i l en c ea sau sua lfo rmo fr ea c t ionbyth eby s t and e r s ,s e e Ba rn e t t(1999 :125–8 ) . Examp l e so fs i l en c ew e r ecap ta inU rm en e ta( J i m enoA rangu r en2015 :1 1 1–12 )andP r iva t e Qu in tanaLu ca s(Qu in tana So lá2020 :26 ,53 ) . 274 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t r i e so f1and3S ep t emb e r1941 ;R id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,22S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; wa rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGun d ín ,en t r i e so f31 Augu s tand 6S ep t emb e r1941(C e la2010 : 140–1 ) ; Pa la c io P i la c é s(2013 ,I :379 ,383–4 ) . 275 B lan co(1954 :17–19 ) ; Royo Ma s ía(1956 :267 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :264 ) ; Yd ígo ra s(1984 :61–2 ) . 276 OnBa l t i can t i -S em i t i smin1940–5 ,s e eF e ld e r(2009 :172–5 )and W e i s s W end t(2009 ) . 277 A rad(2009 :144–6 ) ;D i e ckmann(201 1 :892– 6 ,967–1008 ) . 278 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,d ia ryen t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 . 279 Quo t edinPa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :382 ) . 280 Góm ezT e l lo(1945 :12–13 ) . 281 Cho law sky(1998 :231–2 )andA rad(2009 :261–2 ) . 282 Góm ezT e l lo(1945 :64–73 ) . 283 R id ru e jo(1978 :40 ,42–3 ,53 ,60–4 ,and80–1 ) . 284 Ca s tañón(1991 :127 ) . 285 S e e MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :187 ,en t ryda t edon9 Nov emb e r1943 ) . 286 Gu tman(2005 )andF r i szk e(2005 ) . 287 R id ru e jo(1978 :42–3 ) . OnPo l i sh-S em i t i sm ,s e e Mu s ia l(2002 :71–8 ) , Pu f e l ska(2007 ) ;andG ro s s(2002 ) . 288 Som et e s t imon i e sinK la r s f e ld(1980 ) .S e ea l soBo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka(2008 : 98–120 ) . 289 Bo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka(2008 :35 ) ;l e t t e rf romCha s iaBo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka , K ibu tzL ehavo t Haba s chan( I s ra e l ) ,23 Augu s t2009(AA ) . 290 J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina(1943 :38–9 ) ;K lov sky(2003 :22 ) ;in t e rv i ew w i th B ronkaK l iban sk i ,ava i lab l ea th t tp :// co l l e c t ion s .u shmm .o rg/ s ea r ch/ ca ta log/ i rn502736( la s ts e enon1 1D e c emb e r2015 ) .

No t e stopag e s 197–200 293 291 Cap ta inCo l la tztoA rmyG roup No r th ,23 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 H I/774 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eG e rma inL ia i sons e c t ion ,en t r i e so f 26 Augu s t , 1and6S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ) ;D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t r i e so f3and4S ep t emb e r ,1941 . 292 No t ef romth eLo ca lK omm and an tu ro fG rodno ,26 Augu s t1941 ,AGMAV , 1978/7/4 . 293 V onBo ck(1995 :268 ,281 ) ,en t r i e so f3and20S ep t emb e r1941 . 294 R id ru e jo(1978 :64–5 ) . 295 C f .A .Da lmau ,“Rú s s iae scu lpab l e !”E lD ium eng e( 28Ju ly1991 ) ;in t e r v i ew w i th Manu e lG rand ebyX .M . Núñ ezS e ixa s , Ou r en s e ,27 D e c emb e r 1987(AA ) . 296 M e l iáV i la(2003 : 75–6 ) . 297 B lum s t e in(2002 :71–3 ) . 298 R e iz e r(2009 :86–7 ) . 299 Zandman(1995 :42 ) . 300 Mo sh eB e rkow i tz ’ shandw r i t t en m emo i r sa r ek ep ta tth eY adV a sh em Mu s eum ,J e ru sa l em .S e eapoo r lyed i t edSpan i sht ran s la t ionbyr ev i s ioni s tama t eu rh i s to r ian s ,a long s id eanin t rodu c t ionbyB e rkow i tz ’ sg rand son ,inB e rkow i tz&Fon t en laBa l l e s ta(2019 :85–7 ) . 301 Quo t edby Mu szyn sk i(2002 : 19–20 ) . 302 Rom euF e rnánd ez(2007 :37–8 ) . Pho toonp .4 :ag roupo fJ ew s wa lk ing away ,w i thth es ix -po in ts ta ronth e i rba ck s ,inasnowyu rbans e t t ing . 303 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th eno t e sby Manu e ld eCá rd ena sonSpan i shho sp i ta l p e r sonn e linV i ln iu s(wa rd ia ry ,en t ryo f19 Ma r ch1942 ) ,a sw e l la sPa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 : 189 ) . 304 U rqu i jo(1973 :326 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f7 May1942 (C e la2010 :154–5 ) ;B lan co(1954 :57 ) . 305 S e em emo i r so fB em ignoCabo(1944 )a sw e l la sSaga r ra(2012 :600 ) . 306 M emo i r so fP r iva t eEm i l io Mu r i l lo(G rag e raD íaz2004 : 170 ) . 307 Ga r c ía Izqu i e rdo(2009 :185 ) . 308 H i lb e rg(1992 : 195–268 ) ; Ba rn e t t(1999 ) ;C e sa r in i&L ev in e(2002 ) . 309 M end e l(1972 : 218 ) . Th eau tho r ,how ev e r ,p rov id e snofu r th e rd e ta i l s .An o th e ra t t emp ta te s cap ebyag roupo fJ ew sf romth eR igagh e t toinvo lv ed b r ib ingaLu f twa f f eo ff c e rtotak eth emtoSw ed en ;un fo r tuna t e ly ,h e wa s infa c taG e s tapoag en t . 310 Edva r son(2008 :59–60 ) ;H i lb e rg(1992 :156–7 ) . 31 1 Bow en(1998 ) . 312 And e r son(1999 ) , Hau s l e i tn e r ,M ihok ,& W e tz e l(2001 ) ,s e ea l soUngvá ry (2002– 3 ) . 313 M i cha e l i s(1978 : 321 )and W e t t e(2002 :135–40 ) . Th e my tho fth ep ro J ew i shna tu r eo fth eI ta l iano c cupa t ioninRu s s iaandth eBa lkan si snon e th e l e s ssub j e c ttod eba t e(Rodogno2005 ;2006 :107–51 ) .

294 No t e stopag e s 201–6 314 Rom e ro(1982 :139 ) . 315 F r i ed länd e r(2007 ) . 316 S e eRa s s(2005 ) ;W e t t e(2003 ) ;and Ha r tmann , Hü r t e r ,L i eb ,&Poh l(2009 ) . 317 Ca ta ruzza(2006 ) ;Ba joh r ,&Löw(2015 ) . 318 Caba l l e roJu rado(2004b ) . 319 Kova l ev(2014 :379–93 )a r r iv e sa tas im i la rcon c lu s ionind e s c r ib ingth e r ea c t iono fth eBDvo lun t e e r stoth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion ,ba s edonsom et e s t i mon i e sr ega rd ingR igatha tpa r t ia l lyco in c id ew i thou r sh e r e . 320 R ev e r t e&R ev e r t e(2001 :193–5 ) . 321 K . ,“La ma rm i ta ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 10 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 6 . TheLa s tC ru sade r so fthe Naz i New O rde r(1944– 5 ) 1Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzkommandoI , 29 Nov emb e r1943 ,and S tu rmbahn füh r e rGo ta rdtoCh e fo fSD“O s t land ,”Ga t ch ina ,1 1D e c emb e r 1943(USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 2In l andI ItoR ibb en t rop ,B e r l in ,29Janua ry1944 ;no t i c ebyR ibb en t rop ,1 F eb rua ry1944(PAAA -R .101 143 ) . 3G e rman m i i l i ta rya t ta ch é , Mad r id ,13Janua ry1944(BA -MA ,RW5/ 430 ) ;W inz e rtoR e i ch s s i ch e rh e i t shaup tam t , Mad r id ,4 F eb rua ry1944 (USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 4No t i c ebyCo lon e lKu rmma ch e r , 19Janua ry1944 ;o rd e rbyfo r e igns e c t ion o fAbw eh r ,19Janua ry1944 ;G e rman O c cupa t ionAu tho r i tyinF ran c e ,17 Janua ry1944(BA -MA ,RW5/430 ) . 5R epo r tbySamu e l Hoa r e ,25 Ma r ch1944(G rand íoS eoan e2017 :127 ) . 6M emo randumby W a l t e rS ch e l l enb e rg , 2Jun e1944(BA -MA ,RW5/430 ) . 7M inu t eby OKH , 19Ju ly1944 ;r epo r to fSond e r s tabF ,7Ju ly1944 ;no t i c e so f3 ,8 ,and10S ep t emb e r1944 ;m inu t e sf romA l lg em e in e sH e e r e s am t, 29Ju ly1944(BA -MA ,RW5/431 ) ;m inu t e so fth em e e t ingo fCo lon e l Rudo l f Ma jo r , Ma jo rUm é(ag .Au s land -Abw eh r )amdSond e r füh r e r K e l l e r(Sond e r s tabF ) ,5 Augu s t1944 ; Ob e rkommandod e rW eh rma ch tto Sond e r s tabF ,12 Augu s t1944(BA -MA ,RW5/431 ) . 8S e eH i t l e r ’ sp r iva t econ s e rva t ion s ,en t r i e so f7Jun eand7Ju ly1942 (Conv e r sa c ion e s2004 :41 1– 12 ,415– 16 ,451 ) . 9R epo r t so fSpan i shamba s sado rinB e r l in ,18 Augu s t1944 ,andSpan i shamba s sado rinS lovak ia ,B e rn ,21 Ap r i l1945(AMAE ,R -2299/ 2and R -2192/36 ) ;Janu éi M i r e t(2014 ) . 10 No r l ing(2007 ) ;Ezqu e r ra(1947 ) . 1 1S e eBow en(2001 ) ;G i l Ma r t ín ez(201 1 ) ;Sou rd(2007 ) ;Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2015 : 194–7 ) ;andKo c jan c i c(2016 ) . 12 W .V op e r sa l ,F r e iw i l l ig en -K omp an i e( sp an . )101 , BA -MAN756 .Examp l e s o fd e s e r t ioninl e t t e ro fJo s éLu i sIbáñ ez , Ho l lab runn ,27 F eb rua ry1945

No t e stopag e s206–1 1 295 (G s tA ,I . HA218/536 ) ,and m inu t e sf rom15Janua ry1945(GS tAI . HA 218/467 ) . 13 S e eJ .T omá sG in e r ,In f o rm es o b r ed iv e r s o sa sun t o senB e r l inenr e l a c i ónc on F a l ang e, 16 May1946(A r ch iv eo fth eFUE , Mad r id ,A r ch ivod e lGob i e rno d elaR epúb l i caene lEx i l io ,M in i s t e r iod eGob e rna c ión ,103–4 ) . 14 Af ewSpan ia rd sw e r es ca t t e r edth roughd iv e r s eun i t s ,su cha sth e Sou th -T y ro l eanSS -Po l iz e iF r e iw i l l ig enBa t ta l l ionPo s en ,andev enth e sp e c ia lba t ta l ionD i r l ewang e r(Sou rd2007 :90– 5 ) . 15 Thu s ,Co rpo ra lJu l ioGa r c íaAgu i la r , whovo lun t e e r edfo rth eBDin1943 , r ema in edinth eB lu eL eg ionand ,a f t e rr e tu rn ingtoSpa in ,c ro s s edth e Py r en e e sin May1944 .InJun e1945 ,h eshow edupa tth eSpan i shcon sula t eo fB ra t i s lava ,th enf edtoV i enna ,B e lg rad e ,andfna l lyr ea ch edI ta ly , wh e r eh e manag edtocon ta c tth eSpan i shcon su la t einRom e .F in a l ly ,h e wa sr epa t r ia t edbyth econ su la t e( s e eth er epo r tinAGA ,52/2289 ) . 16 D e ta i l so fth epa r t i c ipa t iono fSpan i shso ld i e r sa tth eBa t t l eo fB e r l ina r e l i t t l eknown . How ev e r ,s e eth eun r e l iab l ena r ra t iono fEzqu e r ra(1947 ) . 17 Som eo fth ems e emtohav eb e enk i l l edbySpan i shR epub l i canvo lun t e e r s o fth eL e c l e r cD iv i s ion ,a sth eyen t e r edB e r ch t e sgad en ;s e eth e wa rd ia ry o fLu ca sCamónPo r t i l lo ,7 May1945(Coa l e2014 :422– 3 ) . 18 S e el e t t e r sf romL eoGa r c ía ,SS -Laza r e t tS ta rk enba ch ,14Janua ry1945 ,16 Janua ry1945 ,and22Janua ry1945(GS tA ,I .Ha218/586 ) . 19 Fo rfu r th e rin fo rma t iononth i s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2012 :156–62 ) . 20 G run e r t(2012 ) . 21 S e eL aJ ov enEu r op a(1942–1943 ) .An t o l og í ad et ex t o sd iv i s i on a r i o sye sp añ o l e s, Mo l in sd eR e i :Ed s . Nu evaR epúb l i ca ,2010 . 22 “So c ia l i smoeu rop eo ,”En l a c e( 21 D e c emb e r1944 ) . 23 S e e“Ob r e ro scomo m e r can c íahumana ,”En l a c e( 23 Nov emb e r1944 ) ,and “Hab launr e fug iado ,”En l a c e( 20Janua ry1945 ) . 24 “RazayR evo lu c ión ,”En l a c e( 15 O c tob e r1944 ) . 25 Fo rfu r th e rd e ta i l s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2005 ) . 26 S e eBow en(2001 :196–219 ) ,andL e l eu(2007 :261–77 ) . 27 S e eEzqu e r ra(1947 ) ;Pa r r i l la(2002 ) ;Pu en t e(1954 :16–22 ) ;E izagu i r r e (1955 :32–48 ) .S e ea l soth eb iog raph i e so fsom eo fth emco l l e c t edinr epo r t da t edon24S ep t emb e r1954(AGMAV ,C .3770/ 2 ) . 28 J .M .Pon s Ma s ca ró ,“ ¡E spaño l e s . . .” ’En l a c e( 29Janua ry1945 ) . 29 J .L .Ibáñ ezPa ja r e s ,“Ho ra sd e c i s iva s ,”En l a c e( 23 Nov emb e r1944 ) . 30 L e t t e rs ign edbyJ e sú sO choa M i randaands ix mo r eSpan ia rd s ,S t . V a l en t in(V i enna ) ,8Janua ry1945 ,GG s tA ,I . Ha318/586 . 31 L e t t e ro fJo s éIgna c ioImaz ,B raun s chw e ig ,29 D e c emb e r1944(GS tA ,I . Ha318/586 ) . 32 Ado l foGonzá l ezA lm ena ratoA r r izub i e ta ,K ra tzan ,7Janua ry1945 (GS tA ,I . Ha218/586 ) .

296 No t e stopag e s21 1–17 33 Dav idGóm eztoA r r izub i e ta ,Ch emn i tz ,25 D e c emb e r1944 ,GS tA ,I . Ha 318/586 . 34 An ton ioLu c enatoA r r izub i e ta ,Ko rnw e s th e im ,7Janua ry1945(GS tA ,I . Ha318/586 ) . 35 L e t t e ro faSpan i shvo lun t e e ro fth eW a f f en -SS ,B e r l in ,28 Ap r i l1945 (V ázqu ezEn c i so1995 :261 ) . 36 P ed roPo r t e latoA r r izub i e ta ,S to ck e rau ,10Janua ry1945(GS tA ,I . Ha318 /586 ) . 37 L e t t e r sbyJuanSán ch ezP eña lv e r ,R e s e rv e laza r e t tR in t e ln ,15 Ma r ch1945 , andbyJ e sú sCo r ra l Ma r t ín ,6Janua ry1945 ,toA r r izub i e ta(GS tA ,I . Ha 318/586 ) . 38 Pu en t e(1954 :20–2 ) .S e ea l soE lL eg ionar io ,“Po rqu élu chamo s ,”En l a c e ( 6Janua ry1945 ) . 39 “Am igo sd eEn la c e ,”En l a c e( 23 Nov emb e r1944 ) . 7 . W a rV e te ran sand Memo r ie sf romtheEa s te rnF ron tinF ran co ’ sSpa in (1942– 75 ) 1DGSr epo r t ,19 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 2S i ch e rh e i t sd i en s td i r e c to randth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e itoth eFo r e ign M in i st ry ,B e r l in ,9 Ap r i l1942 ;G e rmanFo r e ign M in i s t rytoemba s syin Mad r id , 13 May1942 ;r epo r tf romG e rmancon su linSanS eba s t ián ,21 May1942 (PAAA ,R -101 144 ,andG eh e imak t en ,Box796 ) . 3DGSr epo r t s ,26and27 May1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 4A l ca ld e(2014 :169–70 ) . 5R epo r t sf romRoh rba ch ,23Ju ly1942and 22 Augu s t1942(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 6No t i c eonth em e e t ingo fvonS toh r e rw i thS e r ranoSuñ e r , 25Ju ly1942 (PAAA ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 7L e t t e rf romth eC iv i lGov e rno ro f Má lagatoth eG e rmancon su l ,19Janu a ry1944 ,inPAAA ,D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id ,Zu sa tz91 . 8A l ca ld e(2014 :268–78 ) .S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018d ) . 9AGMAV ,C .3770/1andC .3770/ 2 ; M e r inoIzqu i e rdo(2017 :179– 82 ) . 10 “Lag en e ra c iónd elo sd iv i s iona r io s ,”E lE sp añ o l( 2Janua ry1943 ) .S e ea l so J . MoyaGóm ez ,“A lgosob r eh e ro i c idad ,”O f en s iv a( 26 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 1 1 “Lo sd eRu s ia ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 18 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 12 D .Ca s t ro Ma r t ín ez ,“Nu evam en t ed i spu e s to sala só rd en e sd eF ran co ,” L an z a( 26 Ma r ch1946 ) . 13 Sa lvado r(1971 ) . 1 4B o l e t ínOf c i a ld e lE s t a d o¸2 2J anu a ryand 5F eb ru a ry1 9 4 2 , 8and 1 7 M ay1 9 4 2 . 15 A l ca ld e(2014 :177–8 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I I :886– 92 ) . 16 B l auD iv i s i ón,104(Ap r i l1968 ) .

No t e stopag e s217–23 297 17 B e rna lGa r c ía(2010 :276–86 ) . 18 Fo rth eca s eo fth er eg ionCa s t i l e -La Man cha ,s e eGonzá l ez Mad r id (2007 ) . 19 Fo rexamp l e ,inth esou th ea s t e rnc i tyo fA l i can t e ,fv eex -BDvo lun t e e r s s e rv eda stowncoun c i l lo r sin1963 ,andtwoin1967 .S e eB l auD iv i s i ón,44 (Ma r ch1963 )and89( Janua ry1967 ) . 20 P in i l la(n .d . :170–2 ) ;B l auD iv i s i ón,598(May2009 ) ,r epo r t edtha t40en s ign sb e cam el i eu t enan t s ,154l i eu t enan t sb e cam ecap ta in s ,15cap ta in s b e cam ecommand e r s ,and7command e r sb e cam el i eu t enan tco lon e l s . 21 Cu en caT o r ib io(2001 :43 ) . 22 S e eGa r c ía H i spán(1991 :77–80 ) ;“Lo sg en e ra l e sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,539( Jun e2004 ) . 23 E ch t e rnkamp(2000 ) ;E ch t e rnkamp& H e t t l ing(2008 ) ; Man ig(2004 )and S chw e l l ing(2010 ) . 24 R epo r tf romGa rd emann , Mad r id ,2Janua ry1942(PAAA ,Bo t s cha f t Ma d r id ,Box796 ,G eh e im a k t en ,6/9 ) . 25 DGSr epo r t sf rom9 ,13 ,18 ,and20Jun e1942a s sum edth eex i s t en c eo f anex -BD“o rgan iza t ion”und e rth ecommando fa“ s e condJo s éAn ton io [P r imod eR iv e ra ]”tha tsough ttor eo r i en tth er eg im eandv ind i ca t e Mo ro c co ,Po r tuga l ,Ando r ra ,andG ib ra l ta r(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 26 S e es ev e ra lexamp l e sinPAAA ,ADBM ,Zu s a t z91 .B e t r . :v ond enA l l i i e r t en g e f e r t ig t eV e r z e i chn i s s e( Inv en t a r l i s t enu . a . ) . 27 Mo r enoJu l iá(2009 : 90 ;2014 :429– 30 ) ;r epo r tf romD i e ckho f f ,9Jun e1944 (PAAA ,R -29752 ) . 28 Do lo r e sGan c edotoA . Ma r t ínGam e ro ,T o l edo ,1 Nov emb e r1941(AA ) . 29 T e l eg ramf romvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,28 O c tob e r1941(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e imak t en ,6/10 ) . 30 DGSr epo r t ,21Jun e1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 31 U r ia r t eA rba iza(2012 :172–3 ) ;Saga r ra(2012 :655– 60 ) ;L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 1 1Ju ly1943 ) . 32 L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 2 ,3 ,and4 Ap r i l1954 ) ;Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2008 ) ; S egado r(2019 :90–3 ) . 33 R i cha rd s(2013 :150–5 ) . 34 L ehmann(2006 :182–95 ) . 35 A s ,e .g . ,inC iudadR ea l :s e e“No tapa ralo sex comba t i en t e sd elaD iv i s ión Azu l ,”L an z a( 27 Ap r i l1954 ) . 36 L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 9Janua ry1956 ) . 37 H e rm and ad,7(Augu s t -S ep t emb e r1956 ) . 38 A l ca ld e(2014 :280–2 ) .A c co rd ingtoSaga r ra(2012 :985– 7 ) ,40 b ro th e r hood sex i s t edb e tw e en1943and2012 . 39 In1959 ,th e Na t iona lBDB ro th e rhoodp e t i t ion edth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r stoau tho r iz ei t sa ff l ia t ion w i thth eV e rbandD eu t s ch e rSo lda t en

298 No t e stopag e s223–6 (VDS ) ,tor equ e s ta idf romth eFRGfo r mu t i la t edv e t e ran sandfam i l i e so f th efa l l en .In c lu s ionb e cam ee f f e c t iv einJanua ry1960 .Twoy ea r sla t e r ,an ag r e em en ton wa rp en s ion s wa ss ign ed ,and wa sra t if edbyth eBund es tagin1965(A s chmann1999 :385– 91 ) . 40 S e eB l auD iv i s i ón,534( Janua ry2004 ) ;Saga r ra(2012 :985– 7 )id en t if e s21 pub l i ca t ion s .Som elo ca ln ew spap e r sa l sor e s e rv edr egu la rspa c efo rth e p rov in c ia lBDB ro th e rhood . 41 Saga r ra(2012 :674–5 ) ;“ Jun ta sCon su l t iva s ,” H e rm and ad,8(Ma r ch–Ap r i l 1959 ) . 42 Au tho r ’ sowne s t ima t ionba s edonPu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :210–13 ,226– 7 )andth eb ro chu r eH e rm and add eEx c om b a t i en t e syf am i l i a r e sd ec a íd o sd el a “D iv i s i ónA zu l” .S an t and e r .Índ i c ed eaf l i ad o s .M ay o1956,n .p . ,1956 . 43 In1974(Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez1997 :361– 4 ,396 ) ,th eBDb ro th e rhood wou ld hav enumb e r ed12 ,550ex comba tan t s ,o ra lmo s tath i rdo fth esu rv ivo r s . Saga r ra(2012 :664 )s ta t edtha tth e r ew e r e10 ,000(a lmo s t25% ) . Bo thfg u r e ss e eminfa t ed . 44 L .Pa r r eño ,“50 .ºan iv e r sa r iod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”L aT r i bun a( 7 Ap r i l 1991 ) ;A r ch iv eo fth eR eg i s t r od eA s o c i a c i on e s,SanS eba s t ián( cou r t e syo f D r .Ama iaLam ik iz ) ;A l ca ld e(2014 :281 ) . 45 “T i radayd i fu s iónd eH e rmandad ,”H e rm and ad,6(Nov emb e r -D e c emb e r 1958 ) . 46 “A c t iv idad e s ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a .Ó r g an od ea c t iv id ad e sd el a“D iv i s i ónA zu l” d eV a l en c i a,9(Ma r ch1961 ) . 47 H e rm and ad,19(Ap r i l–May1961 ) .Examp l e so fin t e r c e s s iontos e cu r e wo rk fo rBDv e t e ran sinB l auD iv i s i ón,2( Ju ly1957 ) ,and4(Nov emb e r1957 ) . 48 “M i rado rna c iona l .Atumbaab i e r ta ,”L o sS i t i o s( 1 1Ju ly1971 ) ;“T r e in ta año sd eunag e s ta ,”L o sS i t i o s( 24 O c tob e r1971 ) . 49 Th eBDv e t e ranÁng e l Ma r ch ena ,a f t e rb e ingaru ra l wa rd eninh i sv i llag e ,d idodd job sandl ev e rag edh i scond i t iontoob ta inl e t t e r so fr e com m enda t ionf romfo rm e rBDo ff c e r s .Th roughth e s e ,h ea c c e s s edhou s ing inBa r c e lona .Y ea r sla t e r ,h epa s s eda m ed i ca lexam ina t ionto m ig ra t eto G e rmanyb e cau s eth esu rg eona l so wa sav e t e rano fth eRu s s ianF ron t (Ma r ch enaCañ e t e2003 :1 16– 20 ,124– 7 ) . 50 S .N i evaY a r r i tu ,“S egu imo sso lo sya i s lado s ,”H e rm and ad,16(O c tob e r Nov emb e r1960 ) . 51 S e e“S econm emo raenA lba c e t ee lXXV Ian iv e r sa r iod elaen t radaen comba t ed elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”L o sS i t i o s,13 O c tob e r1967 ;“C iudadR ea l . Hom ena j ealaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” L an z a( 1 1F eb rua ry1968 ) . 52 S e eB l auD iv i s i ón,1 1( Janua ry1960 )and31(Ma r ch1962 ) ;Lóp ezd e Ma tu r ana(2014 :272–7 ) ;L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 1 1F eb rua ry1966 ) . 53 J .M . Ma r t ín ezV a l ,“M emo r iad elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”L an z a( 10 F eb rua ry 1968 ) .

No t e stopag e s226–30 299 54 Gu í aC ód ig oP o s t a l -E sp añ a, M in i s t e r iod eT ran spo r t e s ,Tu r i smoyT e l e co mun i ca c ion e s , Mad r id ,1986 . 55 Du chiP lana(2002 ) . 56 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(1997 :402 ) . 57 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,“Pa ras e rin expugnab l e s ,”L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 24 F eb rua ry1943 ) ;F .Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“Lav i c to r iad elapazd eF ran co ,”E l E sp añ o l,127( 31 Ma r ch1945 ) . 58 T .N i e toFun c ia ,“Razon e se spaño la ssob r elapaz ,”E lE sp añ o l,133( 12 May1945 ) . 59 L o sS i t i o s( 25 Ma r ch1960 ) . 60 Lu cad eT ena&Pa la c io s(1955 ) ;E izagu i r r e(1955 ) ;Ca lav ia&Á lva r ez Co sm en(1956 ) ;O roqu i e ta&Ga r c íaSán ch ez(1958 ) ;N eg roCa s t ro(1959 ) ; Poqu e tGua rd io la(2001 ) ;Sa laman ca&T o r r e sGa r c ía(2002 ) . 61 Fo rexamp l e ,J .Sa lom ,E lm en s a j e(Mad r id1963 ) ;J .L . Ma r t ínV ig i l ,L a mu e r t ee s t áene lc am in o (Ba r c e lona1956 ) ;C .Ku r tz ,E ld e s c on o c id o(Ba r c e lona1956 ) . 62 Un t i l1988 ,th e r ew e r ea tl ea s t136t i t l e sin c lud ingbook s ,pamph l e t s ,nove l s ,f lm s ,andau tob iog raph i e sfo cu s edonth eB lu eD iv i s ion(Caba l l e ro& Ibáñ ez1989 ) .S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006 ) . 63 Inadd i t iontoEm b a j ad o r e sene linf e rn o(Amba s sado r stoh e l l ,Jo s éM . ª Fo rqu é ,1956 ) ,w ecanr e ca l lL ap a t ru l l a(Th epa t ro l ,P ed roLazaga ,1954 ) , L ae sp e r a(Th e wa i t ,V i c en t eL lu ch ,1956 ) ,andC a r t aaun amu j e r(L e t t e rto a woman , Manu e lIg l e s ia s ,1961 ) .A f t e ralongpau s e ,th etop i c wa sr e -add r e s s edinth eamb i t iou s ,bu tfa i l ed , mov i eS i l en c i oenl an i ev e(S i l en c ein th esnow ,G e ra rdo H e r r e ro ,201 1 ) .S e eIbáñ ez H e rnánd ez(2001 ) . 64 Fo rexamp l e ,s e eA lva r e l lo s(1948 )o rth e1959 wo rko f Hann s Maa s s en ,a fo rm e rcomba tan to fth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e s whob e cam ea w r i t e rin th eG e rmanD emo c ra t i cR epub l i c .S e ea l soPan iagua(1961 ) . 65 S e ePo s s i(2016 ,2017 ) ,a sw e l la sGuzmán Mo ra(2016 ) . 66 Lav edán(1959 :12 ) . 67 Ca sa l s(1995 :177 ,315–16 ) . 68 S e eCogo l lo sV i c en s(1985 )andL ina r e s(2000 ) . 69 S e eBu l lónd eM endoza&T ogo r e s(201 1 ) ,a sw e l la s manyo fth ep r e s en tat ion sa tth econ f e r en c eh e ldin Mad r idin201 1fo rth es ev en t i e thann iv e r sa ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion( h t tp ://www . cong r e so lad iv i s ionazu l . com) .Fo r som ein t e r e s t ingsou r c e s ,though mo s t lyt r ea t eda c r i t i ca l ly ,s e eSaga r ra (2012 )andCaba l l e roJu rado(2019 ) . 70 Ha lbwa ch s(2004 ) . 71 Fo r mo r ed e ta i l s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006b ) . 72 Ro cha t(1982 ) ; Mond in i(2008 :157–218 ) ;O s t iGu e r razz i(2010 :266–79 ; 201 1 ) ;Co rn i(2012 :45–9 ) ; Fo ca rd i(2013 ) ;Ca r t eny(2013 ) .R ega rd ingth e I ta l ian m emo i r sandau tob iog raph i cw r i t ing sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,s e eth e

300 No t e stopag e s230–5 b e s t s e l l e r sbyB ed e s ch i(1994 )andR ev e l l i(2013 ) .Fo rth eF r en chcomba tan t s ,s e eCa r ra rd(2010 ) . 73 S e eSa lvado r(1975 ) ;U rgo i t iyBa s(1987 ) ;Royo Ma s ía(1944 :157–9 ) . 74 Ca s tañoDoña(1991 :104 ) ;R id ru e jo(1976 :438– 9 ) ; Rom e ro(1982 :143 ) . 75 Rod r ígu ezPu é r to la s(1986 :556–65 ) . 76 Epk enhan s ,Fö r s t e r ,& Hag emann(2006 ) ;W e t t e(2002 :180–1 ) ; Co rn i (2012 ) . 77 H e e r(1999 :180–8 ) ; Pä tzo ld(2000 ) ,s e ea l soBa ld ,K lo tz ,& W e t t e(2001 ) . 78 W i lk e(201 1 : 17 ) ; W e r th e r& Hu rd(2014 :334– 5 ) . How ev e r ,th eb ro th e r hood s jo in edth ef r s ta c t so ff ra t e rn iz ing w i thv e t e ran so fth eW a f f en -SS inth em id1960 s ,su cha sth ega th e r ingo ffo rm e rSSinR end sbu rgin O c tob e r1965 :s e e“Fo toconp i e ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,76(D e c emb e r1965 ) . 79 Anea r lyexamp l einA . Ma rqu e r í e ,“E j e r c i c io sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”In f o r m a c i on e s( 6 Augu s t1941 ) .M emo i r so fF r en chSSvo lun t e e r sp rov id es im i la rexamp l e s(Ca r ra rd2010 :1 19– 22 ) . 80 D iv i s i ónA zu l .2ºCu ad e rn o ,n .p . 81 “Lo st ran spo r t e senlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 16 Ma r ch1942 ) . S e ea l soJ .R . Ma so l iv e r ,“Lo sGuzman e snohan mu e r to ,”D e s t in o,305( 22 May1943 ) . 82 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :302 ) ;Á .d eLa ig l e s ia ,“Un Qu i jo t eha mu e r toenRu s ia ,” E lE sp añ o l( 27 F eb rua ry1943 ) . 83 “Lain fan t e r íae spaño la ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 6 Ap r i l1942 ) ;R .Ga r r iga , “Nu e s t ro svo lun ta r io s ,inv i c to stamb i énd e lf r ío ,”L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a ( 14Janua ry1942 ) . 84 Onth er e c ep t ioninSpa ino fth e Nu r emb e rgt r ia l s ,s e ePa lm e roA randa (2016 :241– 52 ) . 85 H e rnánd ez Nava r ro(1971 : 57–60 ) . 86 Fa r r éA lb iñana(1949 :90 ,250– 5 ) . 87 E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :50 ) . 88 Sa lvado r(1962 :73 ) . 89 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :57–8 ,62–9 ) . 90 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :13–14 ) .B e fo r el eav ingfo rRu s s ia ,h es ta t ed tha taJ ew i shcon sp i ra cyhadex i s t edinSpa in ;s e eh i s“R i e sgoyv en tu ra d elarazah i spana ,”E lA l c á z a r( 14 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 91 S e eV ad i l lo(1967 :134–5 ,156 ,159– 66 ,180 ,186– 94 ) ;V .Lo rF e rnánd ez ,“L ia , laen f e rm e rapo la ca ,”H e rm and ad ,5(S ep t emb e r–O c tob e r1958 ) ;Ca s t e lo V i l laoz(1990 :45 ) ;Sán ch ezSa l c edo(2002 :44 ) ,L ina r e s(2000 :1 10 ) . 92 Ba r sCa sam i t jana(1962 :6–12 ) . 93 Zu la i ca(1963 ) . 94 J im én ezAnd rad e(1957 :50–1 ) . 95 A r r i b a( 14 Ap r i l1961 ) . 96 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :18–19 ,40–1 ,155– 6 ) .

No t e stopag e s235–42 301 97 Ru izA yú ca r(1981 :156 ) . 98 Ca s t e loV i l laoz(1992 :87–8 ) . 99 V ida lyGad ea(1991 :63 ) ;A .M ed inaL eón ,“E spaño l e syru so s ,” E lE sp añ o l,159( 30 O c tob e r1965 ) . 100 G .A lon sod e lR ea l ,“Unsa rg en toe spaño lan t elaV i rg end eKazán ,”ABC ( 21 May1955 ) ;M .A t i enza ,“R e cu e rdo sd eRu s ia ,”H e rm and ad,17(D e c em b e r1960– Janua ry1961 ) . 101 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,B enda la(1944 ) . 102 Á lva r ezd eSo tomayo r(1991 :160–1 ) .S e ea l soth eimp r e s s ion sw r i t t enby cap ta inJav i e rU rm en e tain1942 ,r ep rodu c edbyJ im enoA rangu r en(2015 : 121 ) . 103 D íazd eV i l l ega s(1950 ;1951 ) ;Ga r c íaLuna(1959 :38–9 ,121 ) ;M . Ma r t ín ez M ena ,“P en sa ryv iv i rd eunpu eb lo ,cone lcua llo sd iv i s iona r io ss impat izamo s ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,56(Ap r i l1964 ) . 104 R .S e r ranoSuñ e r ,“Ha c iaunpa t r io t i smoeu rop eo ,”ABC ( 29S ep t emb e r 1959 ) ;M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,54(F eb rua ry1964 ) ;J .A .V ida lyGad ea ,“No ta sd eunv ia j ealaURSS( I I Iyú l t imo ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,197(D e c emb e r1975 ) ;V . Ma s ,“Do sv ia j e saRu s ia ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,537(Ap r i l2004 ) . 105 E sp ino saPov eda(1993 ) ;T r em l e t t(2008 :59–60 ) ,r ep rodu c e ss im i la rv i ew s exp r e s s edbyth ep r e s id en to fth eBDB ro th e rhooda ttha tt im e ,Juan Ch i cha r ro -Lamam i éd eC la i ra c . 106 D elaV ega(1999 :33–4 ) . 8 . Con c lu s ion :ASpan i shEx cep t ioninthe W a ro fEx te rm ina t ion ? 1S e eAnd e r son(1999 ) .S tud i e sonth eb ru ta l iza t iono fRoman ian wa r fa r ein th e wa raga in s tth eSov i e tUn ion mo s t lyfo cu soni t spa r t i c ipa t ioninth e d epo r ta t iono fth eJ ew i shandGyp sypopu la t ion sS e e Hau s l e i tn e r ,M ihok , &W e tz e l(2001 ) ,a sw e l la sH e in en(2007 :109–49 ) ,andD e l e tan t(2006 : 150–204 ) . 2Fo rth eem e rg en c eandd ev e lopm en to fra c ia lthough tinSpa in ,s e eGood e (2009 ) . 3S e eL iu l ev i c iu s(2000 )andDo rn ik(2013 ) . 4Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :1 15–52 ,240– 79 ) . 5Ru s s i ant e s t imon i e sa f t e r1 9 4 4on lyind i c a t eth a taSp an i shl i eu t en an tinKoro t sko ew a sr e spon s ib l efo rsom eshoo t ing so fp e a s an t s(Kov a l ev2 0 1 2 :3 6 9 ) . 6Dom ingo(2009 :158 ) . 7S e eW i evo rka(2009 :42–7 )andKa l l i s(2009 :26–84 ) . 8A sRu th e r fo rd(2014 :280–302 )sugg e s t sfo rth eG e rman121 s tand126 th D iv i s ion s , wh i l eba t t l econd i t ion sfo s t e r edg r ea t e rb ru ta l iza t ionamong th eso ld i e r so fth e123 rdD iv i s ion .

302 No t e stopag e s242–4 9Ba l fou r(2002 :215–33 ) ;N e r ín(2005 :280–3 ) . 10 Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :124 ) . 1 1S e eAnd e r son(1999 )andUngvá ry(2005 ) . 12 S e eBohn(1997 ) ;Pou l s en(1991 ) ;andFo ray(2010 ) . 13 S ch l emm e r(2005 :368–97 ;2009 ) ;ad i f f e r en tp e r sp e c t iv eonth eI ta l ian t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian s ,ba s edonSov i e tdo cum en t s ,i so f f e r edbyS co ton i (2013 :218–23 ,286–300 ) , whound e r l in e sth eb en igncha r c t e ro fI ta l ian o c cupa t ionincompa r i son w i thG e rmanb ehav iou rtowa rd sc iv i l ian sand p r i son e r so f wa r .S e ea l soS c ianna(2019 :229–66 )andPanna c c i(2020 ) . 14 S ch r i jv e r s(2002 ) .

Sou r c e sandR e f e r en c e s

P r ima rySou r ce s Pu b l i candP r iv a t eA r ch iv e s A r ch iv eo fth eFUE ,R e s id en c iad eE s tud ian t e s , Mad r id A r ch ivoG en e ra ld elaAdm in i s t ra c ión ,A l ca lád eH ena r e s(AGA ) A r ch ivoG en e ra lM i l i ta r ,Á v i la(AGMAV ) A r ch ivo H i s tó r i co Mun i c ipa ld eCád iz ,FondoG en e ra lV a r e la(AHMC -FGV ) A r ch ivod e lM in i s t e r iod eA sun to sEx t e r io r e s , Mad r id(AMAE ) Au tho r ’ sA r ch iv e(AA ) B ib l io th ekfü rZ e i tg e s ch i ch t e ,S tu t tga r t ,S t e rzCo l l e c t ion(B fZ -CS ) Bund e sa r ch iv -M i l i tä ra r ch iv ,F r e ibu rgimB r e i sgau(BA -MA ) C en t ra lS ta t eA r ch iv eo fSa in tP e t e r sbu rg(T sGASPB ) C en t roDo cum en ta ld ela M emo r ia H i s tó r i ca ,Sa laman ca(CDMH ) C i tyA r ch iv e Ho f/S tad t sa r ch iv Ho f(SH ) F e ldpo s ta r ch iv , Mu s eumfü rKommun ika t ion ,B e r l in G eh e im e sS taa t sa r ch ivP r eu s s i s ch e rKu l tu rb e s i tz ,B e r l in(GHS ta ) H i s to r i ca lA r ch iv eo fLaR io ja/A r ch ivo H i s tó r i coP rov in c ia ld elaR io ja , Log roño(AHPLR ) H i s to r i ca lA r ch iv eo fSpan i shCommun i s tPa r ty/A r ch ivo H i s tó r i coPa r t ido Comun i s tad eE spaña , Mad r id(AHPCE ) Mu s eod e lPu eb lod eA s tu r ia s ,G i jón(MPA ) ,L eand roGa r c íaGonzá l ezPap e r s (FLGG ) Na t iona lA r ch iv e s–Fo r e ign O ff c e ,Su r r ey ,London(NA -FO ) Nava lA r ch iv e ,Ga t ch ina(Ru s s ianF ed e ra t ion ) Po l i t i ca lA r ch iv eo fth eG e rman M in i s t ryo fFo r e ignA f fa i r s/Po l i t i s ch e sA r ch iv d e sAu swä r t ig enAm t e s ,B e r l in(PAAA ) P r iva t eA r ch iv eo fM r .Xo s éF e rnánd ez Nava l ,San t iagod eCompo s t e la(AFN ) P r iva t eA r ch iv eo fM r .Ca r lo sLóp ezd e lR ío ,Bo i ro/Mad r id(ACLR )

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Sou r c e sandR e f e r en c e s 335 V onBo ck ,F .(1995 ) .Zw i s ch enPf i ch tundV e rw e ig e rung :D a sK r i eg s t ag e bu ch. Mun i ch :H e rb ig . V o ron ina ,T .(201 1 ) .H e ro i s ch eT o t e .D i eB lo ckad e ,d i e Op f e rzah lundd i e E r inn e rung .O s t eu r op a,61(89 ) ,155–68 . W egn e r ,B .(1990 ) .D e rK r i egg eg end i eSow j e tun ion1942/43 .In M i l i tä rg e s ch i ch t l i ch e sFo r s chung sam t(Ed . ) ,D a sd eu t s ch eR e i chundd e r zw e i t eW e l t k r i eg .Bd .6 :d e rg l o b a l eK r i eg .D i eAu sw e i tungzum W e l t k r i egundd e r W e ch s e ld e rIn i t i a t iv e (pp .761–1 102 ) .S tu t tga r t :DVA . W egn e r ,B .(1999 ) .H i t l e r sP o l i t i s ch eS o ld a t en :D i eW a f f en -SS ,1933–1945. Pad e rbo rn :S chön ingh .(O r ig ina l wo rkpub l i sh ed1986 ) W e i s s -W end t ,A .(2009 ) . Mu rd e rw i th ou th a t r ed :E s t on i an sandth eH o l o c au s t. N ewY o rk :Sy ra cu s eUP . W e rn e r ,F .(2008 ) .“Ha r t mü s s en w i rh i e rd rauß ens e in” :So lda t i s ch e Männ l i chk e i timV e rn i ch tung sk r i eg1941–1944 .G e s ch i ch t eundG e s e l l s ch a f t, 34(1 ) ,5–40 . W e r th e r ,S .(2004 ) .D än i s ch eF r e iw i l l ig eind e rW a f f en -SS.B e r l in : W i s s en s cha f t l i ch e rV e r lag . W e r th e r ,S . ,& Hu rd ,M .(2014 ) .GoEa s t ,o ld man :Th er i tua lspa c e so fSS v e t e ran s ’m emo ry wo rk .Cu l tu r eUn b ound,6,327–59 .h t tp ://dx .do i . o rg/10 .3384/ cu .2000 .1525 .146327. W e t t e ,W .(1984 ) .D i ep ropagand i s t i s ch eB eg l e i tmu s ikzumd eu t s ch enÜb e r fa l l au fd i eSow j e tun ionam22 .Jun i1941 .InU eb e r s chä r& W e t t e(Ed s . ) , Un t e rn ehm enB a r b a r o s s a (pp .1 1 1–29 ) . W e t t e ,W .(Ed . ) .(1992 ) .D e rK r i egd e sk l e in en M ann e s .E in eM i l i t ä r g e s ch i ch t ev on un t en. Mun i ch/Zü r i ch :P ip e r . W e t t e ,W .(2002 ) .D i eW eh rm a ch t .F e ind b i ld e r ,V e rn i ch tung s k r i eg,L eg end en. F rank fu r ta .M . :F i s ch e r . W e t t e ,W .(Ed . ) .(2003 ) .R e t t e rinUn i f o rm .H and lung s sp i e l r äum eim V e rn i ch tung s k r i egd e rW eh rm a ch t.F rank fu r ta .M . :F i s ch e r . Wh ea l ey ,R .H .(1989 ) .H i t l e randSp a in :Th eN a z ir o l eandth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r 1936–1939.L ex ing ton :Th eUn iv e r s i tyP r e s so fK en tu cky . W i evo rka ,M .(2009 ) .E lr a c i sm o :un ain t r odu c c i ón.Ba r c e lona :G ed i sa . W i lk e ,K .(201 1 ) .D i e“H i l f sg em e in s ch a f tau fG eg en s e i t ig k e i t”(H IAG )1950–1990 . V e t e r an end e rW a f f en -SSind e rBund e s r epu b l i k.Pad e rbo rn :S chön ingh . Yd ígo ra s ,C .M .(1984 ) .A lgun o sn oh em o smu e r t o. Mad r id :Cy r[1957 ] . Zandman ,F .(1995 ) .N ev e rth el a s tj ou rn ey. N ewY o rk :S cho ck enBook s . Zaugg ,F .(2016 ) .A l b an i s ch e Mu s l im eind e rW a f f en -SS .V on“G r oß a l b an i en”zu r D iv i s i on“S k and e r b e r g .” Pad e rbo rn :S chön ingh . Zu la i ca ,R .(1963 ) .L aú l t im aop o r tun id ad.SanS eba s t ián :Ágo ra .

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Ind ex

Abad O ju e l ,An ton io ,73 Abad ía ,Ramón ,174 ,194 Abw eh r ,203–7 A f r i ca ,6 ,23 ,166 ,169–70 Agu i la rSanab r ia ,Lu i s ,39 ,68 ,80 ,96 , 126 ,144 A lba ,Joaqu índ e(K in) ,151 ,159 A lba c e t e ,48 ,52 ,224 ,226 A l i can t e ,37 ,221 ,223 A lm e r ía ,49 ,60–2 ,64 A lon so ,Aman c io ,156 A lon sod e lR ea l ,Gu i l l e rmo ,152 Á lva r ezRod r ígu ez ,Lu i s ,218 And r ey ev ,L eon id ,164 An ton e s cu ,Ion ,28–30 An t rop ch ina ,178 Apa r i s iSo l e r ,Edua rdo ,45 A ragon é s ,An ton io ,161 ,166 A rambu ruT op e t e ,Jo s éLu i s ,218 A randa ,An ton io ,69 A r ena l e s ,B en jam ín ,56 ,90 ,135–8 , 160 ,180 A rmada ,A l fon so ,59 ,218 A r r e s e ,Jo s éLu i s ,36–7 A r r izub i e ta , Ma r t índ e ,208–9 ,21 1 A s en s io ,Ca r lo s ,51 ,123 A s sun çâoG ra ça ,Ja im ed e ,5 A s tu r ia s ,48 Au e rba ch ,90 ,94

Au s chw i tz ,12 ,190 ,200 ,236 Azna r ,Agu s t ín ,51 ,68 ,72 ,1 12 Bada joz ,55 ,60–2 Bad i l lo ,J e sú s ,81 ,1 10 ,150 Ba r c e lona ,16 ,39 ,46–7 ,52 ,63 ,71 , 220–1 ,224 ,226 ,228 Ba r sCa sam i t jana , Manu e l ,234 Bava r ia ,89 B e l lod ,A l f r edo ,162 B enav en t e ,46 B enda la , Manu e l ,168 B en ey toP é r ez ,Juan ,18 B e rg en -B e l s en ,190 B e rkow i tz , Mo sh e ,198 B e r l in ,3 ,7 ,19–20 ,23 ,28 ,31 ,34 ,36 , 40–1 ,58 ,73 ,88 ,93 ,1 12 ,1 17 ,122 , 156 ,175 ,188 ,207–8 ,21 1 ,219 ,237 B e rmúd ezCañ e t e ,An ton io ,19 B ia ly s tok ,191 B i lbao ,213 B lan ch ,Jo s é Ma r ía ,52 B lan co ,JuanE . ,199 B lum s t e in ,A l exand r e ,198 Boga ch eva -Ba skakova ,Evdok i ia ,181 Bo l ’ sho eZamo sh ’ e ,1 14 Bono ,Jo s é ,5 Bo r i s sovo ,104 B raun s chw e ig ,210

338 Ind ex B romb e rg ,41 Bu ch enwa ld ,190 Bukov ina ,206 Bu rgo s ,56 Bu rk ,SS -S tanda r t en füh r e r ,1 14 Bu s ch ,E rn s t ,104 ,1 10 By e lo ru s s ia ,29 ,76 ,197

D íazGá lv ez ,A lb e r to ,214 ,277 D íazT e l la , Manu e l ,210 D i e ckho f f , Han s -H e in r i ch ,219 D im i t r i eva ,O chapk inaA . ,177 Dona i r e ,Eu s eb io ,165 Do s to ev sky ,Fyodo rM . ,13 ,163–4 Dub rovka ,105 ,107 ,109

Cabo ,B en igno ,199 Cád iz ,71 Ca l e l la ,223 Cano ,S e cund ino ,71 Ca ra l t ,Lu i sd e ,228 Cá rd ena s , Manu e ld e ,56 ,87 ,93 ,96 , 164 ,176 Ca r r ión ,D e s id e r io ,188 Ca s tañón ,Jo s éM . ,75 ,88 ,160 ,196 , 229 ,231 Ca s t e loV i l laoz ,Pab lo ,236 Ca s t e l lón ,46 Ca s t i e l la ,F e rnando M . ,55 ,216 ,228 C eu ta ,54 ,187 Ch e chu l ino ,182 Ch ekhov ,An ton ,164 Ch emn i tz ,21 1 C iudadR ea l ,215 ,226 Co l la tz ,Gün th e r ,80 Có rdoba ,55 ,60–2 C roa t ia ,29 Cua r t e ro ,A r tu ro ,188 Cu en ca ,56 ,226

Edva r son ,Co rn e l ia ,200 E i chmann ,Ado l f ,235 E r randoV i la r ,En r iqu e ,144 ,163 ,168 , 193 E s t eban In fan t e s ,Em i l io ,58 ,1 17–18 , 120–3 ,151 E s ton ia ,125 Ezqu e r ra ,M igu e l ,206–7 ,210

D ’O r s ,JuanPab lo ,163 Da rw in ,Cha r l e s ,165 Davy ch enko ,An ton ina ,181 D eAnd r é s ,An ton io ,178 D elaC ruz ,Joaqu ín ,162 D eg r e l l e ,L éon ,32–3 ,207 ,228 D emyan sk ,102 ,1 18 ,149 D íaz ,A lb e r to ,241 D íazd eV i l l ega s ,Jo s é ,237 ,242 D íazd e lR ío ,Gu i l l e rmo ,158

Fa ja rdoB i e l ,P ed roL . ,45 Fa lCond e , Manu e l ,47 Fa r r é ,Ja im e ,162 ,233 Fa r r éPa lau s ,Ramón ,130 ,134 Faup e l ,W i lh e lm ,207–9 F e rnánd ezV a l l e sp ín ,Ca r lo s ,217 F e rnánd ezV e la s co ,Ado l fo ,161 F e r r e ro , Ma r t ín ,71 F igu e ro la ,Ca r lo s ,90 ,138 F ina t ,Jo s éM .(Coun to f Maya ld e ) , 1 12 F in land ,28 F ran c e ,4 ,6–7 ,15 ,20–1 ,34 ,39 ,82 , 125 ,204 ,206 ,208 ,21 1 F ran coBahamond e ,F ran c i s co ,3 , 6–7 ,20 ,36 ,46 ,51 ,57 ,73 ,99 ,1 17 , 122–3 ,174 ,198 ,208–9 ,21 1 ,214 , 217 ,226 ,228–9 F rank fu r tam Ma in ,71 F romm ,F r i ed r i ch ,41 Ga c eod e lP ino ,V i c en t e ,109 Gan c edo ,Do lo r e s ,141 ,164 Ga r c ía ,So t e ro ,71 Ga r c íaB e r langa ,Lu i s ,73

Ind ex 339 Ga r c ía Nava r ro ,An ton io ,123–4 Ga r c íaR ebu l l ,T omá s ,221 Ga r c íaV a lda jo s ,Lu i s ,206–7 Ga r c íaV a l iño ,Ra fa e l ,123 Ga r c íaV ega ,N em e s io ,222 Ga r r iga ,Ramón ,190 Ga t ch ina ,176 Gay ,V i c en t e ,18 Gay tan ,And r é s ,139 ,192 G eo rga copu lo s ,Con s tan t ino ,67 G e rmany ,3–4 ,6–7 ,12–13 ,16–22 , 31 ,34 ,39–41 ,47 ,54 ,58 ,69–71 ,81 , 86–92 ,94 ,96 ,98 ,1 14 ,146 ,171 ,186 , 191 ,196 ,204 ,207–12 ,214 ,216 ,223 , 229 ,231 ,233–4 ,237 ,239 ,242 G i jón ,226 G im én ezCaba l l e ro ,E rn e s to ,16 ,187 G i rón ,Jo s éAn ton io ,214 G i rona ,46 Go ebb e l s ,Jo s eph ,31 Góm ezd eSa laza r ,F ed e r i co ,218 Góm ez -T e l lo ,Jo s éLu i s ,96 ,99 ,160–1 , 195 ,229 ,235 Gonzá l ez ,Ju l io ,67 Gonzá l ezA lm ena ra ,Ado l fo ,21 1 Gonzá l ezd eCana l e s ,Gu i l l e rmo ,193 Go rk i , Max im ,14 ,163 G ra f enwöh r ,38–41 ,44 ,76–8 ,81 ,86 , 89–90 ,93–4 ,105 ,143 G ranada ,57 G rand e , Manu e l ,197 G rano l l e r s ,56 G ra s s e r ,An ton ,125 G r igo rovo ,41 ,81 ,1 17 ,136 G rodno ,76–7 ,191–9 ,201 ,233–4 Gu i ta r t e ,Jo s éM . ,72 Gu t i é r r ezd e lCa s t i l lo ,Jo s éM . , 72 ,132 Ha ld e r ,F ranz , 100 Han s en ,E r ik ,1 16 H e id e lb e rg , 16

H e l s ink i , 34–5 ,44 ,148 ,151 H enday e ,6 ,39 ,70 H e rnánd ez Nava r ro ,An ton ioJ . , 233 H e rnanz ,Gu i l l e rmo , 57 ,90 ,128 ,132 , 135–8 ,165 H e r r e ro ,An ton io , 53 ,97 ,181 H eyd r i ch ,R e inha rd , 24 H imm l e r ,H e in r i ch , 30–3 ,35 ,101 H i t l e r ,Ado l f ,6 ,16–24 ,29–31 ,34–5 , 41 ,80 ,87 ,89 ,93 ,100 ,1 10 ,1 12 ,1 15 , 1 17 ,120 ,122 ,125 ,147 ,204 ,208 , 21 1 ,228 Hoa r e ,Samu e l , 69 Ho f , 41 ,54 ,70 ,83 ,86 ,89–91 ,93–4 Ho l lab runn , 206 Hopp e , Ha r ry ,1 14 Ho r thy ,M ik ló s , 29 Hu e lva , 45 ,55–6 ,61–3 Hu e rga ,L i c in iod ela , 46 Hu e s ca , 57 ,60 Hunga ry , 28–9 ,206 Ibáñ ez ,Jo s éLu i s ,210 I lm en ,Lak e ,81 ,102 ,104 ,107–8 ,1 1 1 , 1 13 ,1 18 ,134 Imaz ,Jo s éIgna c io ,210 Inn sb ru ck ,206 I rún ,70 ,213 I sho raR iv e r ,1 16 ,120–1 I s ra e l ,195 ,233 ,235 I ta ly ,16 ,17–18 ,29 ,34 ,36 ,205 ,207 Iz i fovo ,173 Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,F ed e r i co ,228 Japan ,7 ,236 J im én ezAnd rad e s ,I ld e fon so ,235 J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina ,V í c to rJ . , 183 ,193 Jo rdana ,Coun to f ,7 ,51 ,57–8 , Jud e r ía s ,Ju l ián ,13 Ju lv e ,Lu i s ,57 Jüng e r ,E rn s t ,139 ,141 ,155

340 Ind ex Ka r l s ruh e ,39 ,91–2 Ka tyn ,98 ,236 Kauna s ,234 K eh r en ,Pau l ,207 K e i t e l ,W i lh e lm ,38 K ing i s epp( Jambu rg ) ,123–4 K l e f f e l ,Ph i l ipp ,1 18 ,120–1 K l iban sk i ,B ronka ,197 K lov sky ,Dan i e l ,197 Ko lmovo ,176 Ko lp ino ,137 Kön ig sb e rg ,41 ,85 ,87 ,93 ,125 ,186 , 199 ,204–6 Ko r i chava ,V e ra ,182 Kova l ev sk i i ,V lad im i r ,95 ,144 K ra sny iBo r ,1 16 ,1 18 ,120 ,134 ,223 , 225 Kh ru sh ch ev ,N ik i ta ,104 Ladoga ,Lak e ,102 ,105 ,108 ,1 17 ,149 Lagun i l la ,Dom ingo ,169 La ig l e s ia ,Á lva rod e ,41 ,163 La tv ia ,87 ,99 Laux ,Pau l ,104 L ed e smaRamo s ,Ram i ro ,16–17 L en in(V lad im i rU l ianov ) ,15 ,164 , 169 ,189 ,195 ,235 L en ing rad ,10 ,28 ,80 ,85 ,94 ,100–4 , 107–8 ,1 13 ,1 16–18 ,121 ,124 ,148 , 154 ,172 ,175 ,178–9 ,190 ,241 ,243 L en ing rad ,s i eg eo f ,28 ,80 ,105 , 1 16–19 ,121 ,178 ,190 L eón ,55 ,66 L ey ,Rob e r t ,40 L ina r e s ,Jo s é ,145 L ind emann ,G eo rg ,120 ,122 L i thuan ia ,76 ,97–8 ,190 L lo r en sBo r rá s ,Jo s éA . ,228 Lobkovo ,108 Log roño ,58 ,70 London ,38 Lóp ez ,Lu i s ,109 ,264

Lóp ezd elaT o r r e ,Sa lvado r ,72 Lóp ezRom e ro ,B e rna rd ino ,77 Lou rd e s ,204 Luban ,1 18 Lu c ena ,An ton io ,21 1 Luga ,124–5 ,164 Lyda ,79 ,193 ,198 Mad r id ,7 ,16–17 ,21 ,35–6 ,39 ,41 , 45–50 ,52 ,58 ,62–3 ,65 ,67–70 ,1 12 , 120 ,122–3 ,125 ,151 ,189–90 , 203–4 ,208 ,213 ,216 ,219–21 ,224 , 226 ,233 Má laga , 37 ,220 Ma lo eZamo sh ’ e ,1 13 Mannh e im , 16 Ma r ch ena ,Áng e l , 55 ,139 Ma r t ia lay ,Jo s é , 150 Ma r t ínGam e ro ,A lb e r to , 141 ,164 Ma r t ín ez , Manu e l , 165 Ma r t ín ezE spa rza ,Jo s é , 40 Ma r t ín ez M ena ,M igu e l , 49 Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,J e sú s , 79 ,93 ,96–8 , 150 ,160 ,167 ,180 ,194 ,201–2 Ma r t ín ezd eTud e la ,P ed ro , 184 Ma r t ín ezV a l ,Jo s é ,M . , 226 Ma rx ,Ka r l , 235 M e l i l la , 187 M en énd ezGund ín ,F ed e r i co , 74 ,99 , 156 ,164 ,194 ,199 M e s t e l evo , 41 ,143 M ia sno iBo r ,1 13 M i lán sd e lBo s ch ,Ja im e , 218 M in sk , 77 ,79 ,235 Mon taña ,Joaqu ín , 52 ,55 ,162 Mon t e roD íaz ,San t iago , 208 Mo ra -F igu e roa , Manu e l , 35 ,72 Mo ra l e s ,Jo s éLu i s , 87 Mo r eno ,A lb e r to , 71 Mo ro c co ,6 ,9 ,37 ,48 ,53–4 ,170 ,187 , 217–18 ,231 ,242 Mo s ca rdó ,Jo s é , 53

Ind ex 341 Mo s cow , 14 ,27 ,80 ,100 ,102 ,104 , 108 ,1 12 ,1 16 ,126 ,169 ,188 ,196 ,21 1 Mu l e t ,L eopo ldo , 66 Mun i ch , 20 ,200 Muñoz ,Áng e l , 159 MuñozA c e ra ,F e rnando , 59 MuñozG rand e s ,Agu s t ín , 37 ,40–1 , 54 ,59 ,79–80 ,85 ,101 ,104 ,107 ,1 10 , 1 15 ,1 17 ,143 ,173 ,216 Mu r c ia , 48 ,54 ,60–6 ,72 Mu s so l in i ,B en i to , 16–17 ,19 ,29 Na rva ,1 18 ,123–4 N i e toFun c ia ,T r in idad , 228–9 N i e toGa r c ía ,Lu i s , 214 N ik i tk ino , 105 ,107 ,128 N iko law ja , 185 No fu en t e s , Manu e l , 193 Novgo rod , 81 ,85 ,102 ,104 ,107 ,1 10 , 1 12 ,120 ,134 ,161 ,175 ,182–3 ,235 Novo soko l ’n ik i , 173 Nu r emb e rg , 90 ,93 ,323 O caña s ,Lo r enzo , 21 1 Od e s sa , 28 O roqu i e ta ,G e ra rdo , 214 ,228 O r sha , 77 O r t izF e rnánd ez ,Jo s é , 207 O shm iany , 191 ,195–6 Ó s ipova ,L id ia , 177 ,181 O t en sk i i , 107 ,109 ,177 O t e ro -d eA r c e ,Jo s é , 167 Ou r en s e , 71 Ov i edo , 48 Pa la c io s ,T eodo ro ,214 ,228 Pa rdo ,S e ra f ín ,176 ,178 Pa r i s ,14 ,208 Pa r í sEgu i laz ,H ig in io ,72 Pa s ca l ,Jo s éLu i s ,71 Pav lov sk ,1 16 ,137 ,177 ,181 ,191 P é ta in ,Ph i l ipp e ,6

P im en t e l ,P ed ro ,39–40 P in i l lo s ,Jo s éLu i s ,191 Podb e r ez ’ e ,180 Pogo s t ’ e ,1 18 Pok rov sko e ,1 16 ,121 ,185 Po land ,20 ,24 ,76 ,86 ,94 ,96–8 ,104 , 156 ,159 ,173 ,186 ,190–1 ,193 , 195–7 ,202 Pom e ran ia ,207 Ponoma r iov ,S e rg e i ,181–2 Pon t ev ed ra ,226 Po rkhov ,41 ,158 ,199 Po r t e la ,P ed ro ,21 1 Po sad ,107 ,109 ,140 ,155 Po s e lok ,107 ,1 17–18 Po t sdam ,207 P ragu e ,35 ,229 P r imod eR iv e ra ,Jo s éAn ton io ,19 , 37 ,74 ,226 P skov(P l e skau ) ,125 ,190 Pu shk in ,14 ,1 16–17 ,158 ,191 Pu shk in ,A l ek sand r ,14 Qu in tanaLa ca c i ,Gu i l l e rmo , 218 Radun ,95 Ram í r ezd eCa r tag ena ,Áng e l , 1 14 R e ig ,Joaqu ín ,188 R e iz e r ,L e ib ,95 ,198 R ema rqu e ,E r i ch M . ,139 ,141 R evu e l taImaz ,J . ,194 R id ru e jo ,D ion i s io ,35 ,37 ,40 , 43 ,49 ,51–2 ,68 ,72 ,74 ,81 ,85 ,90 , 1 12 ,126 ,130 ,135 ,139–42 ,144 ,159 , 163 ,167 ,194 ,196–7 ,229 ,231 R i e f en s tha l ,L en i ,92 R iga ,41 ,98–9 ,123 ,186 ,191 ,195 ,197 , 199–200 ,233–4 R ío s ,V í c to rd elo s ,219 R ipo l l ,56 R i t t e rvonL e eb ,W i lh e lm ,102

342 Ind ex R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s ,Lu i s ,89 , 166 ,234–5 R iv e ra ,Rob e r to ,178 Rob l e sPazo s ,Ramón ,179 Ród ena s ,Ca r lo s ,95 Rod r igo ,M igu e l ,39–40 Rod r ígu ez ,A l f r edo ,143 Rogavka ,185 Ro ja sO rdóñ ez ,Edua rdod e ,72 Roman ia ,28–40 ,206 Rom e ,7 ,12 ,16–17 ,19 ,196 ,208 Rom e ro ,Lu i s ,231 Rom e ro O s end e ,Juan ,160 , Rom eu , Mon t s e r ra t ,161 ,199 Ro s ,Joaqu ín ,90 ,134–5 Ro s e ,E r i ch ,201 Ro s enb e rg ,A l f r ed ,19 ,168 ,170 Royo Ma s ía ,Rod r igo ,229 Rub io ,D ion i s io ,126 Ru iz ,V a l e r iano ,139 Ru izA yú ca r ,Áng e l ,235 Sa lado ,I sab e l ,46 Sa la sLa r razába l ,Áng e l ,217 Sa lav e r r ía ,Jo s éM . ,16 Sa lvado r ,T omá s ,215 ,221 ,229 ,234 Samokhva lovo ,180 SanS eba s t ián ,51 ,58 Sán ch ezA lad ro ,Ra imundo ,162 Sán ch ezD iana ,Jo s éM . ,139–40 ,155 Sán ch ezF ra i l e ,En r iqu e ,49 Sán ch ez Ma spon s ,Lu i s ,189 San taC ruzd eT en e r i f e ,37 San tama r ía ,Ja c in to ,97 San tand e r ,60–2 ,64 ,71 ,75 ,224 SanzB r iz ,Áng e l ,188 ,190 SanzJa rqu e ,JuanJ . ,95 S chap i ,124 S chwab ,Ludw ig ,83 ,93 S e rna ,V í c to rd ela ,188 S e r ranoSuñ e r ,Ramón ,35–9 ,51 ,64 , 1 12 ,190 ,213 ,237

S ev i l l e ,37 ,39 ,63 S ima , Ho r ia ,228 S i tno ,105 ,107 ,181 Sko rz eny ,O t to ,228 S lov en ia ,206 S lowak ia ,29 ,206 Smo l en sk ,159 Sob rón ,222 So lbad Ha l l(Ha l linT i ro l ) ,206 So tomayo r ,En r iqu e ,68 ,109 S ta l in ,Io s i f ,30 ,102–3 ,150 ,165 ,189 S ta l ing rad ,12 ,28 ,88 ,102 ,1 17–18 S ta ra iaRu s sa ,190 S to ck e rau ,206 S t ra s sbu rg ,91 Suwa lk i ,76 ,96 ,234 Sw i tz e r land ,205 ,208 T a l l inn(R eva l ) ,41 ,125 T apa(T ap s ) ,125 T a r ín , Manu e l ,52–3 ,90 T e r em e t s ,1 12 T e ru e l ,47 ,60 T é touan ,48 T igoda ,105 ,109 T ikhv in ,102 ,105 ,107–8 ,1 10 T o l edo ,60–1 ,164 ,188 T o l s toy ,L ev ,13 ,163–5 T o r ra ,Dan i e l ,87 ,130 ,134–6 T o r r e s ,F e rnando ,157 T r eubu rg(O l e cko ) ,79 ,93 ,95–6 Uda rn ik ,104–5 ,108 Uk ra in e ,29 ,34 ,76 ,100 ,148 ,168 , 183 ,200 Upp e rPa la t ina t e ,38–9 ,89–90 U rqu i jo ,A l fon sod e ,99 ,199 U r ru t ia ,F ed e r i cod e ,19 V a l en c ia ,29 ,45–6 ,48 ,63 ,65 ,74 , 220–1 V a l e ra ,Juan ,13

Ind ex 343 V a l lado l id ,17 ,29 ,63 V a l l e jo -Nág e ra ,An ton io ,21 van Ho r emb ek e ,A lphon s e ,207 V a r e la ,Jo s éEn r iqu e ,36 ,51 ,58 ,1 12 , 1 17 V e la s co , Ma r t ín ,128–9 ,133 ,182 V e r sa i l l e s ,87 ,205 V i enna ,20 ,41 ,206–7 ,210 V i e rna ,Jo s é ,39–40 V igón ,Juan ,36 V i ln iu s ,41 ,71 ,98–9 ,186 ,191 ,194–9 , 234 V i t eb sk ,76 ,80 ,182 V la sov ,And r e j ,35 ,1 15 V o lkhovf ron t ,10–1 1 ,76 ,84 ,102 , 104–5 ,132 ,135 ,149 ,173–4 ,179 , 183 ,190 ,223 ,241 V o lkhovR iv e r ,74 ,81 ,104 ,107–8 , 1 10–1 1 ,1 13–15 ,123 ,134–5 V o lo sovo -N iko la evka ,122 vonBo ck ,F edo r ,26 ,80 ,197 vonCh appu i s ,F r i ed r i ch -W i lh e lm ,1 1 0

vonCo ch enhau s en ,Con rad ,41 vonK lug e ,Gün th e r ,79 vonKüch l e r ,G eo rg ,1 10 von Man s t e in ,E r i ch ,1 17 vonRoqu e s ,F ranz ,80 ,104 vonS toh r e r ,Eb e rha rd ,40 ,188 V o ronovo ,198 V y r i t sa ,176 ,178 ,191 Vzvad ,1 13 W a r saw , 71 ,84 ,199 Yd ígo ra s ,Ca r lo sM . ,234 Zago r j e ,206 Zandman ,F e l ix ,198 Zanón ,Sa lvado r ,68 ,128 ,144 ,162 , 177 ,193 Zapo l ’ e ,1 15 Za ragoza ,39 ,60 ,223 Zu la i ca ,Ramón ,234 Zw i ckau ,94

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T o ron toIb e r i c

co -ed itor s : Rob e r t Dav id son(T o ron to )andF r ed e r i ck A .d eA rma s (Ch i cago ) ed i tor ia lboard :Jo s i ahB l a ckmo r e (H a rv a rd ) ;M a r in aB rown l e e (P r in c e ton ) ; An thonyJ .C a s c a rd i(B e rk e l ey ) ;Ju s t inC rumb augh(M t Ho lyok e ) ; Em i ly F r an com ano(G eo rg e town ) ;Jo rd an a M end e l son(NYU ) ;Jo an R amon R e s in a(S t an fo rd ) ;En r iqu eG a r c í aS an to -T om á s(U M i ch ig an ) ; H .Ro s iSong(Du rh am ) ;K a th l e enV e rnon(SUNYS tonyB rook ) 1An thonyJ .Ca s ca rd i ,C e rv an t e s ,L i t e r a tu r e ,andth eD i s c ou r s eo f P o l i t i c s 2J e s s i caA .Boon ,Th e My s t i c a lS c i en c eo fth eS ou l :M ed i ev a lC ogn i t i on inB e rn a rd in od eL a r ed o ’ sR e c o l l e c t i on M e th od 3Su sanBy rn e ,L awandH i s t o ryinC e rv an t e s ’ Don Qu ixo t e 4Ma ryE .Ba rna rdandF r ed e r i ckA .d eA rma s( ed s ) ,O b j e c t so f Cu l tu r einth eL i t e r a tu r eo fImp e r i a lSp a in 5N i lSan t iáñ ez ,T op og r aph i e so fF a s c i sm :H a b i tu s ,Sp a c e ,and W r i t ingin Tw en t i e th -C en tu rySp a in 6N e l son O r r ing e r ,L o r c ainT un ew i thF a l l a :L i t e r a ryand Mu s i c a l In t e r lud e s 7Ana M .Góm ez -B ravo ,T ex tu a lAg en cy :W r i t ingCu l tu r eandS o c i a l N e tw o r k sinF i f t e en th -C en tu rySp a in 8Jav i e rI r igoy en -Ga r c ía ,Th eSp an i shA r c ad i a :Sh e epH e rd ing ,P a s t o r a l D i s c ou r s e ,andE thn i c i tyinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 9S t ephan i eS i ebu r th ,Su rv iv a lS ong s :C on ch i t aP i qu e r ’ s Cop la sand F r an c o ’ sR eg im eo fT e r r o r 10 Ch r i s t in eA rk in s ta l l ,Sp an i shF em a l eW r i t e r sandth eF r e e th in k ing P r e s s ,1879–1926

1 1 Ma rga r e tBoy l e , Un ru ly W om en :P e r f o rm an c e ,P en i t en c e ,and Pun i shm en tinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 12 Ev e l inaGužau sky tė ,Ch r i s t oph e rC o lum bu s ’ sN am inginth ed ia r io so f th eF ou rV oy ag e s(1492–1504 ) :AD i s c ou r s eo fN eg o t i a t i on 13 Ma ryE .Ba rna rd ,G a r c i l a s od el aV eg aandth eM a t e r i a lCu l tu r eo f R en a i s s an c eEu r op e 14 W i l l iamV i e s t enz , Byth eG r a c eo fG od :F r an c o i s tSp a inandth eS a c r ed R o o t so fP o l i t i c a lIm ag in a t i on 15 M i cha e lS cham ,L e c to rLud en s:Th eR ep r e s en t a t i ono fG am e sand P l ayinC e rv an t e s 16 S t eph enRupp ,H e r o i cF o rm s :C e rv an t e sandth eL i t e r a tu r eo fW a r 17 En r iqu eF e rnand ez ,Anx i e t i e so fIn t e r i o r i tyandD i s s e c t i oninE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 18 Su sanBy rn e ,F i c in oinSp a in 19 Pa t r i c ia M .K e l l e r ,Gh o s t lyL and s c ap e s :F i lm ,Ph o t og r aphy ,andth e A e s th e t i c so fH aun t inginC on t emp o r a rySp an i shCu l tu r e 20 Ca ro lynA . Nad eau ,F o od M a t t e r s :A l on s oQu i j an o ’ sD i e tandth e D i s c ou r s eo fF o odinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 21 C r i s t ianB e r co ,F r omB odyt oC ommun i ty :V en e r e a lD i s e a s eandS o c i e ty inB a r o qu eSp a in 22 E l izab e thR .W r igh t ,Th eEp i co fJu anL a t in o :D i l emm a so fR a c eand R e l ig i oninR en a i s s an c eSp a in 23 RyanD .G i l e s ,In s c r i b edP ow e r :Amu l e t sand M ag i cinE a r lySp an i sh L i t e r a tu r e 24 Jo rg eP é r ez ,C on f e s s i on a lC in em a :R e l ig i on ,F i lm ,and M od e rn i tyin Sp a in ’ sD ev e l opm en tY e a r s ,1960–1975 25 JoanRamonR e s ina ,J o s epP l a :S e e ingth eW o r ldinth eF o rmo fA r t i c l e s 26 Jav i e rI r igoy en -Ga r c ía ,“ M o o r sD r e s s eda sM o o r s” :C l o th ing ,S o c i a l D i s t in c t i on ,andE thn i c i tyinE a r ly M od e rnI b e r i a 27 J eanDang l e r ,Edg ingt ow a rdI b e r i a 28 RyanD .G i l e sandS t ev en W ag s cha l( ed s ) ,B e y ondS i gh t :Eng a g ing th eS en s e sinI b e r i anL i t e r a tu r e sandCu l tu r e s ,1200–1750 29 S i lv iaB e rmúd ez ,R o c k ingth eB o a t :M ig r a t i onandR a c ein C on t emp o r a rySp an i sh Mu s i c 30 H i la i r eKa l l endo r f , Am b igu ou sAn t id o t e s :V i r tu ea sV a c c in ef o rV i c ein E a r ly M od e rnSp a in 31 L e s l i e Ha rk ema ,Sp an i sh M od e rn i smandth eP o e t i c so fY ou th :F r om M igu e ld eUn amun ot o LaJov enL i t e ra tu ra 32 B en jam inF ra s e r ,C ogn i t iv eD i s a b i l i tyA e s th e t i c s :V i su a lCu l tu r e , D i s a b i l i tyR ep r e s en t a t i on s ,andth e( In )V i s i b i l i tyo fC ogn i t iv eD i f f e r en c e 33 Rob e r tPa t r i ck N ew comb ,I b e r i an i smandC r i s i s :Sp a inandP o r tug a l a tth eT u rno fth eTw en t i e thC en tu ry

34 Sa raJ .B r enn e i s ,Sp an i a rd sin M au th au s en :R ep r e s en t a t i on so faN a z i C on c en t r a t i onC amp ,1940 -2015 35 S i lv iaB e rmúd ezandRob e r taJohn son( ed s ) ,AN ewH i s t o ryo f I b e r i anF em in i sm s 36 S t ev en W ag s cha l ,M ind ingAn im a l sInth eO ldandN ew W o r ld s :A C ogn i t iv eH i s t o r i c a lAn a ly s i s 37 H ea th e rBam fo rd , Cu l tu r e so fth eF r agm en t :U s e so fth eI b e r i an M anu s c r ip t ,1 100–1600 38 En r iqu eGa r c íaSan to -Tomá s( ed ) ,S c i en c eonS t ag einE a r ly M od e rn Sp a in 39 Ma r inaB rown l e e( ed ) ,C e rv an t e s ’P e r s i l e sandth eT r av a i l so f R om an c e 40 Sa rahThoma s ,Inh a b i t ingth eIn -B e tw e en :Ch i ldh o odandC in em ain Sp a in ’ sL ongT r an s i t i on 41 Dav idA . Wa ck s ,M ed i ev a lI b e r i anC ru s ad eF i c t i onandth e M ed i t e r r an e an W o r ld 42 Ro s i l i eH e rnánd ez ,Imm a cu l a t eC on c ep t i on s :Th eP ow e ro fth e R e l ig i ou sIm ag in a t i oninE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 43 Ma ryCo f f eyand Ma rgo tV e r s t e eg( ed s ) ,Im ag in edT ru th s :R e a l i smin M od e rnSp an i shL i t e r a tu r eandCu l tu r e 44 D ianaA rambu ru ,R e s i s t ingInv i s i b i l i ty :D e t e c t ingth eF em a l eB odyin Sp an i shC r im eF i c t i on 45 Samu e lAmagoand Ma t th ewJ . Ma r r( ed s ) ,C on s e qu en t i a lA r t : C om i c sCu l tu r einC on t emp o r a rySp a in 46 R i cha rdP .K inkad e ,D awno faDyn a s ty :Th eL i f eandT im e so fIn f an t e M anu e lo fC a s t i l e 47 J i l lRobb in s ,P o e t ryandC r i s i s :Cu l tu r a lP o l i t i c sandC i t i z en sh ipinth e W a k eo fth eM ad r idB om b ing s 48 Ana Ma r íaLagunaandJohnB eu s t e r i en( ed s ) ,G o od by eE r o s : R e c a s t ingF o rm sandN o rm so fL ov einth eAg eo fC e rv an t e s 49 Sa raJ .B r enn e i sandG ina H e r rmann( ed s ) ,Sp a in ,W o r ld W a rI I ,and th eH o l o c au s t :H i s t o ryandR ep r e s en t a t i on 5 0F r an c i s coF e rn ánd e zd eA lb a ,S e x ,D ru g s ,an dF a s h i onin1 9 7 0 sM a d r i d 51 Dan i e lAgu i r r e -O t e iza ,Th i sGh o s t lyP o e t ry :R e ad ingSp an i sh R epu b l i c anEx i l e sb e tw e enL i t e r a ryH i s t o ryandP o e t i cM em o ry 52 La raAnd e r son ,C on t r o landR e s i s t an c e :F o odD i s c ou r s einF r an c o Sp a in 53 Fa i th Ha rd en ,A rm sandL e t t e r s :M i l i t a ryL i f eW r i t inginE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 54 E r inA l i c eCow l ing ,T an iad eM igu e l Mag ro ,M inaGa r c íaJo rdán , andG l endaY .N i e to -Cu eba s( ed s ) ,S o c i a lJu s t i c einSp an i shG o ld en Ag eTh e a t r e

55 Pau lM i cha e lJohn son ,A f f e c t iv eG e og r aph i e s :C e rv an t e s ,Em o t i on ,and th eL i t e r a ry M ed i t e r r an e an 56 Ju s t inC rumbaughand N i lSan t iáñ ez( ed s ) ,Sp an i shF a s c i s tW r i t ing : AnAn th o l ogy 57 Ma rga r e tE .Boy l eandSa rahE . Ow en s( ed s ),H e a l thandH e a l ingin th eE a r ly M od e rnI b e r i an W o r ld :AG end e r edP e r sp e c t iv e 58 L e t i c iaÁ lva r ez -R e c io( ed ) ,I b e r i anCh iv a l r i cR om an c e :T r an s l a t i on s andCu l tu r a lT r an sm i s s i oninE a r ly M od e rnEng l and 59 H en ryB e r l in ,A l on eT og e th e r :P o e t i c so fth eP a s s i on sinL a t eM ed i ev a l I b e r i a 60 Ad r ianShub e r t ,Th eSw o rdo fLu ch an a :B a ld om e r oE sp a r t e r oandth e M a k ingo fM od e rnSp a in ,1793–1879 61 Jo rg eP é r ez ,F a sh i on ingSp an i shC in em a :C o s tum e ,Id en t i ty ,and S t a rd om 62 En r iqu e taZa f ra ,L a z a r i l l od eT o rm e s :AG r aph i cN ov e l 63 E r inA l i c eCow l ing ,Ch o c o l a t e :H owaN ew W o r ldC omm od i ty C on qu e r edSp an i shL i t e r a tu r e 64 Ma ryE .Ba rna rd , AP o e t ryo fTh ing s :Th eM a t e r i a lL y r i cinH a b s bu r g Sp a in 65 F r ed e r i ckA .d eA rma sandJam e s Mand r e l l( ed s ) ,Th e G a s t r on om i c a lA r t sinSp a in :F o odandE t i qu e t t e 66 Ca th e r in eIn fan t e ,Th eA r t so fEn c oun t e r :Ch r i s t i an s , Mu s l im s ,andth e P ow e ro fIm ag e sinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 67 Rob e r tR i chmondE l l i s ,B i b l i oph i l e s , Mu rd e r ou sB o o km en ,and M ad L i b r a r i an s :Th eS t o ryo fB o o k sin M od e rnSp a in 68 B ea t r izd eA lba -Ko ch( ed ) ,Th eI b e r o -Am e r i c anB a r o qu e 69 D ebo rahR .Fo r t eza ,Th eEng l i shR e f o rm a t i oninth eSp an i sh Im ag in a t i on :R ew r i t ingN e r o ,J e z e b e l ,andth eD r ag on 70 O lgaS end raF e r r e r, B a r c e l on a ,C i tyo fM a r g in s 71 Da l eShug e r ,G od M ad eW o rd :AnA r ch a e o l ogyo f My s t i cD i s c ou r s ein E a r ly M od e rnSp a in 72 Xo s éM . Núñ ezS e ixa s ,Th eSp an i shB lu eD iv i s i ononth eE a s t e rn F r on t ,1941–1945 :W a rExp e r i en c e ,O c cup a t i on ,M em o ry