The Spanish Blue Division on the Eastern Front, 1941-1945: War, Occupation, Memory (Toronto Iberic) 9781487541651, 9781487541682, 9781487541668, 1487541651

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THESPAN ISHBLUED IV IS ION ONTHEEASTERN FRONT ,1941–1945 W a r ,O c cupa t ion ,M emo ry X o s éM .Núñ e zS e ix a s

In1941 ,th eF ran cor eg im ee s tab l i sh edth eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r stotak epa r tinth eRu s s iancampa igna saun i tin t eg ra t edin toth e G e rman W eh rma ch t .R e c ru i t edbybo thth eFa s c i s tPa r ty(F a l ang e)and th eSpan i sha rmy ,a round47 ,000Span i shvo lun t e e r s jo in ed wha t wou ld b e com eknowna sth e“B lu eD iv i s ion .” Th eSp an i shB lu eD iv i s i ononth eE a s t e rnF r on t ,1941–1945exp lo r e s anin t ima t eh i s to ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion“ f romb e low ,”u s ing p e rsona l wa rd ia r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,and m emo i r s ,a sw e l la so ff c ia ldo cum en t s f romm i l i ta rya r ch iv e sin Spa in ,G e rmany, B r i ta in ,and Ru s s ia .In add i t iontod e s c r ib ingth eSpan i shexp e r i en c eonth eEa s t e rnF ron t , Xo s é M . Núñ ezS e ixa stak e soncon t rov e r s ia ltop i c sin c lud ingth e B lu eD iv i s ion ’ sp rox im i tytoth e Ho lo cau s tandhow m emb e r so fth e B lu eD iv i s ionhav eb e enr em emb e r edandcomm emo ra t ed . Add r e s singi s su e ssu cha sth eb ehav iou ro fth eSpan ia rd sa so c cup i e r s ,th e i r p e r c ep t ionbyth e Ru s s ian s ,th e i rw i tn e s s ingo fth e Ho lo cau s t ,th e i r comm i tm en ttoth e wa ra im so f Naz iG e rmany ,andth e i rna r ra t iv e s onth e wa ra f t e r1945 ,th i sbooki l lum ina t e sth eexp e r i en c eo fSpan i sh comba tan t sando c cup i edc iv i l ian s . (T o ron toIb e r i c ) XOSÉ M . NÚÑEZSE IXAS i sap ro f e s so ro f mod e rnEu rop eanh i s to rya t th eUn iv e r s i tyo fSan t iagod eCompo s t e la .

Th i s  pag e   in t en t iona l l y   l e f t  b lan k  

XOSÉ M . NÚÑEZSE IXAS T ran s la t edbyAnd r eaB lan ch ,Dan i e lB lan ch , andC ra igPa t t e r son

Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ion onth eEa s t e rnF ron t , 1941–1945 : W a r ,O c cupa t ion ,M emo ry

UN IVERS ITY OFTORONTOPRESS T o ron to Bu f fa lo London

© Un iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s s2022 T o ron to Bu f fa lo London u to ron top r e s s . com P r in t edinCanada ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4165 -1( c lo th ) ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4166 -8(pap e r )

ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4168 -2(EPUB ) ISBN978 -1 -4875 -4167 -5(PDF )

L ib ra ryandA r ch ive sCanadaCa ta logu inginPub l i ca t ion T i t l e :Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,1941–1945: wa r , o c cupa t ion ,m emo ry/Xo s éM . Núñ ezS e ixa s;t ran s la t edbyAnd r ea B lan ch ,Dan i e lB lan ch ,andC ra igPa t t e r son . O th e rt i t l e s :Cama radainv i e rno .Eng l i sh Nam e s : Núñ ezS e ixa s ,Xo s éM .(Xo s é Mano e l ) ,1966–au tho r . S e r i e s :T o ron toIb e r i c;72 . D e s c r ip t ion :S e r i e ss ta t em en t :T o ron toIb e r i c;72|T ran s la t iono f :Cama rada inv i e rno:exp e r i en c iay m emo r iad elaD iv i s iónAzu l(1941–1945 ) .| In c lud e sb ib l iog raph i ca lr e f e r en c e sandind ex . Id en t if e r s :Canad iana(p r in t )2021037750X|Canad iana( ebook ) 20210377569|ISBN9781487541651( c lo th )|ISBN9781487541668(pap e r )| ISBN9781487541682(EPUB )|ISBN9781487541675(PDF ) Sub j e c t s :LCSH :G e rmany .H e e r .In fan t e r i ed iv i s ion(1941–1943 ) ,250 .| LCSH :G e rmany .H e e r .In fan t e r i ed iv i s ion(1941–1943 ) ,250 .–B iog raphy .| LCSH :W o r ld W a r ,1939–1945–Campa ign s–Sov i e tUn ion .|LCSH : W o r ld W a r ,1939–1945–Spa in .|LCSH :W o r ld W a r ,1939–1945– R eg im en ta lh i s to r i e s–G e rmany . C la s s if ca t ion :LCCD757 .32 .N86C36132022|DDC940 .54/1343–d c23

W ew i shtoa cknow l edg eth el andon wh i chth eUn iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s s op e r a t e s .Th i sl andi sth et r ad i t ion a lt e r r i to ryo fth eW end a t ,th eAn i shn a ab eg , th eH aud eno s aun e e ,th eM é t i s ,andth eM i s s i s s aug a so fth eC r ed i tF i r s tN a t ion . Un iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s sa cknow l edg e sth efnan c ia lsuppo r to fth e Gov e rnm en to fCanada ,th eCanadaCoun c i lfo rth eA r t s ,andth e On ta r ioA r t s Coun c i l ,anag en cyo fth eGov e rnm en to f On ta r io ,fo ri t spub l i sh inga c t iv i t i e s .

Con t en t s

L i s to fI l lu s t r a t i on s ix L i s to fA b b r ev i a t i on s x i A c kn ow l edgm en t s x i i i 1 .In t rodu c t ion :TheB lue D iv i s ion ,theF ran coReg ime ,andthe Se cond W o r ld W a r 3 P l a c ingth eB lu eD iv i s i onw i th inN ew M i l i t a ryH i s t o ry 3 En em i e sandF r i end s :Ru s s i a ,G e rm any ,andSp an i sh F a s c i sm(1917–41 ) 13 F romth eImag in edRu s s iantoth eR ea lRu s s ian (1917–41 ) 13 H i t l e r ,G e rm anN a z i sm ,andSp an i shF a s c i sm(1930–41 ) 16 I ta l ianandG e rmanE cho e s(1924–36 ) 16 Fa s c ina t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch(1936–41 ) 19 2 .Ru s s iaI s Gu i l ty ! 23 Ex t e rm in a t i onandB ru t a l i z a t i on :Op e r a t i onB a r b a r o s s aanda D i f f e r en tK indo fW a r 23 A l l i e sinth e“Eu r op e anC ru s ad eag a in s tB o l sh ev i sm” 28 Eu rop eanV o lun t e e r saga in s tBo l sh ev i sm : My thandR ea l i ty 30 Sp an i shV o lun t e e r sag a in s tth eUSSR :R e c ru i tm en t ,S end ing , andth eN a tu r eo fth eB lu eD iv i s i on 35 Wh oV o lun t e e r edf o rth eB lu eD iv i s i on? 42 Th e“F ev e r”o fth eSumm e ro f1941 45 Th eR ep la c em en t so f1942–3 :M e r c ena r i e s ,Con s c r ip t s , o rV o lun t e e r s ? 51 So c ia landP ro sopog raph i cP rof l eo fth eV o lun t e e r s 60

v i Con t en t s

Fa lang i s t s ,Ex comba tan t s ,and“W a r t im eF ran co i s t s” 66 C l ea r ingY ou rM i l i ta ryR e co rd …o rD e s e r t ing 68 “Sp a inonth eV o l kh ov” :F a l ang i sminth eB lu eD iv i s i on 71 3 .ALong Ma r ch :F romCen t ra lEu ropetotheV o lkhovF ron t 76 Th eW eh rm a ch tandSp an i shS o ld i e r s 81 Th eAdm i r ed W eh rma ch t :AnEga l i ta r ianA rmy ? 81 Span i shandG e rmanSo ld i e r s :S t e r eo typ e s ,Co ex i s t en c e , andConf i c t 83 Onth eG e rm anH om eF r on t 86 Th e“A ch i ev em en t s”o fth eTh i rdR e i ch :Span i sh Imp r e s s ion s 86 Ib e r ian sandBava r ian s 89 G e rmanG i r l s :“AT a s t eo fPagan i smand Na tu r e” 91 O c cup i edP opu l a t i on sonth eM a r cht oth eF r on t :Sp an i a rd s , P o l e s ,andB a l t i cP e op l e s 94 4 .TheB lue D iv i s ionontheF ron t 100 L o s tV i c t o r i e s :Th eV o l kh ovF r on t(O c t o b e r1941–Augu s t1942 ) 104 W a ro fP o s i t i on sinth eS i eg eo fL en ing r ad(S ep t em b e r 1942–N ov em b e r1943 ) 1 16 Th eSh o r t -L iv edB lu eL eg i on(D e c em b e r1943–M a r ch1944 ) 123 L i f eonth eF r on t :Th eD a i lyExp e r i en c eo fSp an i shC om b a t an t s 126 Co ld ,F i l th ,Bo r edom …andP e r i l 127 Jüng e ro rR ema rqu e ? 139 Com rad e sh ipandth eCu l to fth eFa l l en 142 5 .O c cupa t ionP ra c t i ce so ftheB lue D iv i s ionin No r thwe s t Ru s s ia 146 An o th e rIm ag eo fth eEn emy 148 F rom“ th e Ho rd e”to“ th eRu sk i” 150 V i c t im s ,Ex o t i c s ,andN o b l eS av ag e s :Ru s s i anC iv i l i an s 159 A“S t ink ingandD ep rav edPov e r ty” 159 Th eKa ramazovR ev iv ed ? 163 AP s eudo -A s ia t i cP eop l e ? 165 Th e Nob l eSavag e :An Oppo r tun i tyfo rR ed emp t ion 168 AnIdy l l i cR e l a t i on sh ip?Th eO c cup i e r sandth eO c cup i ed 170 Co lou r fu landUnd i s c ip l in ed O c cup i e r s 172 S l e ep ing w i thth eEn emy 175 Ug lyP an i en k a s ,Id ea l iz edK a t iu sh a s,andth eCh i ld r en 178 D ea l ing w i thPa r t i san s :B en evo l en c eo rIn e ff ca cy ? 183 Th eSp an i shD iv i s i onandth e“ J ew i shQu e s t i on” 186

Con t en t s v i i

An t i -S em i t i sm w i thou tJ ew s 187 En coun t e r ingth eEa s t e rnEu rop eanJ ew s ,1941–3 189 G rodno ,O shm iany ,V i ln iu s ,andR iga 191 P ro t e c to r so rBy s tand e r s ? 200 6 .TheLa s tC ru sade r so fthe Naz i New O rde r(1944–5 ) 203 Sp an i a rd sinth eW eh rm a ch tandth eW a f f en -SS(1944–5 ) 203 N a z i s ,R ad i c a lF a l ang i s t s ,andSu rv iv o r s 208 7 .W a rV e te ran sand Memo r ie sf romtheEa s te rnF ron tinF ran co ’ s Spa in(1942–75 ) 213 P r o s op og r aphyo fth eT r a j e c t o r i e so fBDR e tu rn e e s 215 Ag en t so fM em o ry :B lu eD iv i s i onV e t e r an s ’A s s o c i a t i on s 218 Th eB lu eD iv i s i onP o s t -w a rN a r r a t iv e 226 C l i ch é sinB lu eD iv i s ion M emo ry 230 AnUnp l ea san tT op i c :Th e Ho lo cau s t 232 Ep i logu e :“W eW e r eR igh t !”Th e“Conv e r s ion”o f Ru s s ia 236 8 .Con c lu s ion :ASpan i shEx cep t ioninthe W a ro f Ex te rm ina t ion ? 239 N o t e s 245 S ou r c e sandR e f e r en c e s 303 Ind ex 337

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I l lu s t ra t ion s

(AA : Au tho r ’ sa r ch iv e ; AGA :A r ch ivo G en e ra ld ela Adm in i s t ra c ión , A l ca lád eH ena r e s ) F ig .2 .1 Span i shvo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s iaa tth e Mad r idUn iv e r s i ty campu s ,Ju ly1941(AGA ) 45 F ig .2 .2 V o lun t e e r sd epa r t ingbyt ra intoRu s s ia , Mad r id , Ju ly1941(AGA ) 47 F ig .2 .3 D epa r tu r eo fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s , Mad r id ,Ju ly1941 (AGA ) 50 F ig .3 .1 Span i shso ld i e r sw i thS o ld a t en bu ch( so ld i e r ’ spo ck e tbook ) , G ra f enwöh r ,Ju ly1941(AGA ) 78 F ig .3 .2 G e rmanso ld i e r sf ra t e rn iz ew i thSpan i shvo lun t e e r s , F ran c e ,Ju ly1941(AA ) 82 F ig .3 .3 Th e ma r chtoth ef ron t ,Ea s t e rnPo land ,S ep t emb e r 1941(AGA ) 86 F ig .4 .1 G en e ra lAgu s t ín MuñozG rand e s( l e f t )a tBDh eadqua r t e r s , 1942(AA ) 101 F ig .4 .2 Span i shso ld i e r sinRu s s ia ,W in t e r1941–2(EFEA r ch iv e , Mad r id ) 1 1 1 F ig .4 .3 Span i shF e ldp o s t(a rmypo s ta ls e rv i c e ) ,1942(AGA ) 127 F ig .4 .4 Span i shso ld i e r sinth er ea rgua rd ,1942–3 (AGA ) 131 F ig .4 .5 T ombo fB en jam ínA r ena l e s ,1943(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo f Ca rm e lod ela sH e ra s , Mad r id ) 138 F ig .4 .6 Span i shso ld i e r stak eSov i e tp r i son e r ,1942(p r iva t e a r ch iv eo fM .X . Nogu e i ra ,San t iagod eCompo s t e la ) 142 F ig .5 .1 W a t e r co lou rbyJoaqu índ eA lba(K in ):Th eyb r ingu san ew cu l tu r ef o rEu r op e(AGA ) 152 F ig .5 .2 W a t e r co lou rby K in ,Th eS ov i e t sbu i l tth e i rp a l a c e sov e rth e p e op l e ’ sm i s e ry(AGA ) 153

x I l lu s t ra t ion s

F ig .5 .3 Span i shso ld i e r sr ead ingspo r t si l lu s t ra t edp r e s s , 1943(AGA ) 179 F ig .5 .4 Conva l e s c en tSpan i shso ld i e r s ,Kön ig sb e rg ,1942(AA ) 186 F ig .5 .5 M emb e r so fBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,amongth emG en e ra l E s t eban In fan t e s ,tak ingpa r ta taCa tho l i cc e r emony , H eadqua r t e r sinPok rov sko e ,1943(AGA ) 202 F ig .6 .1 TwoSpan i shso ld i e r stak eas tud iosho tb e fo r er e tu rn ingto Spa in ,S ep t emb e r1942(AA ) 205 F ig .7 .1 Hom eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion , Mad r id ,1943(AGA ) 220 F ig .7 .2 Mo th e ro fCo rpo ra lN em e s ioGa r c íaV ega ,d e co ra t ed w i thth eI ronC ro s sawa rd edpo s thumou s lytoh e rson ( In f o rm a c i on e s ,24 Ma r ch1942 ) 222 F ig .7 .3 BDv e t e ran s ’lun chinCa l e l la(Ba r c e lona ) ,ea r ly1950 s (Ca l e l laC i tyA r ch iv e ) 223 F ig .7 .4 Twor e tu rn e e sf romSov i e tcap t iv i tya r r iv ea tth e i r hom e town ,Ap r i l1954(AA ) 225 F ig .7 .5 Inaugu ra t iono fca l l eD iv i s iónAzu l(B lu eD iv i s ions t r e e t ) , V i to r ia ,1961(C i tyA r ch iv eo fV i to r ia ) 227 F ig .7 .6 Span i shs e c t iono fG e rman m i l i ta ryc em e t e ryinPankovka (Novgo rod ) ,AA 236 Map s Map1 Map2

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eV o lkhovF ron t(O c tob e r1941– Jun e 1942 ) 106 Th eB lu eD iv i s ion Op e ra t ion s ,S i eg eo fL en ing rad (S ep t emb e r1942–O c tob e r1943 )1 19

Abb r ev ia t ion s

AK AOK BD DEV DGS DNE

A rm e eko rp s A rm e eob e rkommando B lu eD iv i s ion D iv i sónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s D i r e c c iónG en e ra ld eS egu r idad(Span i shS ta t ePo l i c e ) D e l ega c ión Na c iona ld eEx comba t i en t e s(Na t iona lO ff c e fo rW a rV e t e ran s ) FE JONS Fa lang eE spaño lad ela sJONS FET JONS Fa lang eE spaño laT rad i c iona l i s tayd ela sJONS Fd J F r en t ed eJuv en tud e s(Y ou thF ron t ;s e c t iono fFa lang e ) F r on t ov i k Sov i e tf ron tso ld i e r G e s tapo G eh e im eS taa t spo l iz e i(G e rmanS e c r e tS ta t ePo l i c e ) Gu r ip a So ld i e ro fth eBD( co l loqu ia l i sm ) NKVD Na rodny iKom i s sa r ia tVnu t r enn ikhD e l(P eop l e ’ s Comm i s sa r ia tfo rIn t e rna lA f fa i r s ) NSDAP Na t iona l soz ia l i s t i s ch eD eu t s ch eA rb e i t e rpa r t e i (Naz iPa r ty ) OKH Ob e rkommandod e sH e e r e s(H ighCommando fth e G e rmanA rmy ) OKW Ob e rkommandod e rW eh rma ch t(H ighCommando fth e G e rmanA rm edFo r c e s ) OT O rgan iza t ionT od t SD S i ch e rh e i t sd i en s t(G e rmanS e cu r i tyS e rv i c e )

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A cknow l edgm en t s

Inth ey ea r si tha stak enfo rth i sbookto ma tu r e ,Ihav er e c e iv edh e lp f roms ev e ra lin s t i tu t ion sandcoun t l e s sind iv idua l s :co l l eagu e s ,f r i end s , co l l e c to r s ,s cho la r s ,andd e s c endan t so fB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran s , who mad eunpub l i sh ed ma t e r ia lava i lab l eto m e .F i r s t ly , mythank stoth e s ta f fo fth ea r ch iv e stha tIhav ea c c e s s ed , whohav esoe ff c i en t lyand d e c i s iv e lyr e spond edto myr equ e s t sfo r ma t e r ia l ,a sw e l la sth el ib ra rian sa tth e Un iv e r s i tyo fSan t iagod e Compo s t e laandLudw ig Max im i l ian Un iv e r s i ty o f Mun i ch . Cha s ia Bo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka ,A l exand r e B lum s t e in ,Jo s é Manu e ld e Cá rd ena s , Xo s éF e rnánd ez Nava l ,Em i l ia Ga r c ía ,Ca r lo sG i l -And r é s ,Jo rd iG ra c ia ,JuanC .J im én ezd eAb e ra s tu r i , Ca rm e lod ela sH e ra s , Han s Jü rg en Kug l e r ,Jua coLóp ez ,J .A .Lóp ez Cova r rub ia s ,An ton ioC . Mo r eno ,Jo rg eM .R ev e r t e ,F e rnandoR ebo l lo , AnaRom e ro , Ad r ianShub e r t ,R i ca rdoS i lva ,Raú lSou t e lo ,andPav e l T end e rak ind lyp rov id eda c c e s sto ma t e r ia l s ,d ia r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,andpamph l e t s ,som eo f wh i ch w e r en ea r lyimpo s s ib l etoob ta in .Th eH ISPONA r e s ea r chg roupo fth e Un iv e r s i tyo fSan t iagod eCompo s t e lap rov id ed fnan c ia lsuppo r t , D i s cu s s ion sw i thin t e r e s t edco l l eagu e sonth ecu l tu ra lh i s to ryo f wa r andv io l en c ea ts em ina r sandcon f e r en c e sin G e rmany ,Sw i tz e r land , B r i ta in , Canada ,Ru s s ia ,andSpa ina l soh e lp edtor efn e myp e r sp e ct iv e s ,id en t i fyfo cu sa r ea s ,co r r e c tfa c tua le r ro r s ,andin co rpo ra t eid ea s . ThoughIcanno thop etodoju s t i c etoev e ryon e ,I wou ldpa r t i cu la r ly l ik etoa cknow l edg e Áng e lA l ca ld e , Dav id A l eg r e ,B i rg i tA s chmann , Dav idBank i e r , Ma r t inBaum e i s t e r ,Jö rgBab e row sk i ,O l egB eyda , Gu stavo Co rn i ,J en sEb e r t ,Jo s éM .Fa ra ldo ,S t igFö r s t e r ,F e r ran Ga l l ego , N i co la Gu e r ra ,A l exand e rH i l l ,Bo r i s Kova l ev , Ma r co Mond in i ,Sönk e N e i tz e l ,Jav i e rRod r igo ,And r ea sS tu ck i ,andJoan M .Thomà s . Pa r t so fth eo r ig ina l manu s c r ip tw e r er eadby Áng e lA l ca ld e , Dav id A l eg r e , And r é s An to l ín -Ho f r i ch t e r , M igu e l Cabo , and H en r ik e

x iv A cknow l edgm en t s

F e s e f e ld t . Map sw e r eadap t edfo rth i sed i t ionby A l fon soIg l e s ia sand Jo s éC . Ga r c ía V ega . How ev e r ,th eau tho ra s sum e sfu l lr e spon s ib i l i ty fo ra l le r ro r so rom i s s ion s .F ina l ly ,thank sto my w i f eH en r ik eand my daugh t e r s ,Sa raandI r en e , whopa t i en t lypu tup w i thth ew r i t ingo fth i s h e f tytom e . Th eo r ig ina lv e r s iono fth i sbook wa spub l i sh edbyEd i to r ia lC r í t i ca , Ba r c e lona ,in2016(C am a r ad ainv i e rn o .Exp e r i en c i ay m em o r i ad el aD iv i s i ónA zu l ,1941–1945,2ndpap e rba cked i t ion2017 ) .AG e rmanv e r s ion wa sa l sopub l i sh ed in2016byA s ch endo r f f , Mün s t e r(D i esp an i s ch eB l au e D iv i s i onand e rO s t f r on t ,1941–1945 :Zw i s ch enK r i eg s e r f ah rungundE r inn e rung) .Th i sadap t edandsub s tan t ia l lyupda t edEng l i shv e r s ionha s b en ef t t edeno rmou s lyf romth ev e rycon s t ru c t iv er ema rk sandsugg e st ion so fth eth r e eex t e rna lr e f e r e e s whoeva lua t edth e manu s c r ip tfo r Un iv e r s i tyo fT o ron toP r e s s .Ia l sothankth eed i to r ia lt eamo f Un iv e rs i tyo fT o ron toP r e s sand H i s to ryed i to rS t eph enShap i rofo rw e l com ing th eo r ig ina lp ropo sa landa s s i s t ingth ep ro c e s sw i thsu chcon s id e ra t ion andp ro f e s s iona l i sm . Mun i ch ,summ e r/ fa l l2015 ; San t iagod eCompo s t e la , May2021

THESPAN ISHBLUED IV IS ION ONTHEEASTERN FRONT ,1941–1945

Th i s  pag e   in t en t iona l l y   l e f t  b lan k  

1In t rodu c t ion :Th eB lu eD iv i s ion , th e  F ran coR eg im e ,andth eS e cond W o r ld W a r

P la c ingtheB lue D iv i s ion w i th in New M i l i ta ry H i s to ry Th eh i s to ryo fth eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r s ,knownf romi t s in c ep t iona sth eB lu eD iv i s ion(BD ) ,nowqua l if e sa sac la s s i csub j e c t inSpan i shh i s to r iog raphy .In t e rna t iona l ly ,how ev e r ,i ti sp e rhap sl e s s w e l lknown .Th i sla rg e lyvo lun ta ryexp ed i t iona ryfo r c e wa sfo rm edin Jun e/ Ju ly1941tofgh tw i thth eG e rmanA rmyonth eEa s t e rnF ron tin th eSov i e t -G e rman W a r , imm ed ia t e lyfo l low ingth eG e rman inva s iono f th e USSRon22Jun e .In Nov emb e r1943 ,th eSpan i shd i c ta to r ,G en e ra l F ran c i s coF ran co ,o rd e r edi t sr e t r ea tands en tin s t eadth eSpan i shL eg iono fV o lun t e e r s ,th e“B lu eL eg ion .”Tha tco rp sr ema in edonth ef ron t un t i li t sd efn i t iv er e t r ea tinea r ly Ma r ch1944 . Span i shpa r t i c ipa t iononth e Ax i ss id einth eS e cond W o r ld W a rd id no tendth e r e .In1944–5 ,s ev e ra lhund r edSpan i shso ld i e r s–ex -B lu e D iv i s ionand B lu eL eg ioncomba tan t s ,n ewvo lun t e e r s ,andc iv i l ian wo rk e r sin G e rmany–jo in ed W eh rma ch tand W a f f en -SSun i t so fth e i r ownin i t ia t iv e ,a s s i s t ingth es t rugg l eun t i lth ed efn i t iv efa l lo fth eTh i rd R e i ch .Som eev enfough tam id s tth eru in so fB e r l ininAp r i l/May1945 . F rom1941to1945 ,som efv ehund r edtos ixhund r edSpan i shcomba tan t sw e r etak enp r i son e rbyth eR ed A rmyandr ema in edinSov i e t camp sun t i l1954 .Inla t e Ma r cho ftha ty ea r ,th eR ed C ro s scha r t e r ed th esh ipS em í r am i stor e tu rn248o fth emtoSpa in ,a long w i thfou r“wa r ch i ld r en”(whohadb e eneva cua t edbyth eSpan i sh R epub l i cin1937 andtak eninbyth e USSR ) .Th e r ew e r ea l soth i r ty -on eSpan i shav ia to r sandsa i lo r s who w e r eloya ltoth eR epub l i candhadb e end e ta in ed aga in s tth e i rw i l linSov i e tt e r r i to rys in c e1939 .Inth ea i r ,doz en so f Span i shp i lo t sfough ta long s id eth eLu f twa f f e ,a s s i s t edby“B lu eSquadron”g roundsuppo r tp e r sonn e l(15 .Span i s ch eS ta f f e l ) ,th rough wh i ch a roundahund r edp i lo t spa s s edov e rfou rp e r iod s .A ts ea ,ag roupo f

4 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Span i shsa i lo r ss e rv edinth eG e rman Navya spa r to faco -op e ra t iv e ag r e em en ttha tin c lud edt ra in ingSpan i sh Navyo ff c e r sin K r i eg sma 1 r in eun i t s ,f rom Nov emb e r1942un t i lth esumm e ro f1943 . Th em a inob j e c t iv eo fth i sbooki stor e con s t ru c tth eexp e r i en c eo f B lu eD iv i s iong roundcomb a t an t sandth e i rd i r e c to rind i r e c tsu c c e s so r un i t s ,f romin c ep t ionth rough M ay1 9 4 5 .Th i sg roupin c lud eda round fo r ty s ev enthou s and m en ;n e a r lyfv ethou s ando fth emf e l lincomb a t , wh i l e mo r eth anfo r ty twothou s ando fth emr e tu rn edtoSp a in .Among th em w e r eF a s c i s tvo lun t e e r sandid e a l i s t s ,o rtho s e who ,du etoag eo r g eog r aphy ,h ad m i s s edth ech an c etofgh tfo rth e i rb e l i e f sinth eSp an i sh C iv i lW a r .Som eso ld i e r sw e r een l i s t edo rco e r c iv e lyr e c ru i t ed ;o th e r sw e r e c iv i l i anvo lun t e e r sins e a r cho fadv en tu r e ,ex t r ap ay ,o rev enach an c eto d e s e r tandjo inth eR ed A rmy .Th e r ew e r enon comm i s s ion edo ff c e r s (NCO s )d r iv enbyan t i commun i smo rth ed e s i r etobu i lda m i l i t a ryc a r e e r a sw e l la sp ro f e s s ion a l lyo rid eo log i c a l ly mo t iv a t eda rmyo ff c e r s . Ar e l a t iv e lyh ighp ropo r t iono fun iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,youngl awy e r s ,andev en un iv e r s i ty l e c tu r e r s jo in edr ank sa long s id e indu s t r i a landun sk i l l edwo rke r s ,emp loy e e s ,c iv i ls e rv an t s ,shopwo rk e r s .andi l l i t e r a t ed ayl abou r e r s . InSpan i shpo s t -wa rso c i e ty ,BDv e t e ranp rof l e sw e r eequa l lyva r i ed : f rom w r i t e r sanda r t i s t stop ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r s ,m in i s t e r s , wo rk e r s ,po l i c em en ,o rm ig ran t stoA rg en t inao rG e rmany .Som eev enb e cam ean t i F ran co i s ta c t iv i s t sdu r ingth e1950 sand1960 s . W i thsu chin t e r c la s s d iv e r s i ty ,th eBD m emo ryp e rm ea t ed mu cho fth eso c ia lsp e c t rum .Unl ik eth em emo ryo fo th e rW e s t e rnEu rop eanexp ed i t iona ryfo r c e stha t fough ta long s id eth eW eh rma ch taga in s tth eUSSR ,r em emb ran c eo fth e B lu eD iv i s ion wa sno tc i r cum s c r ib edbyfa r r igh tpo l i t i ca lt end en c i e so r n eo fa s c i s tcu l tsp e c if c i t i e s .Span i shv e t e ran sf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t w e r eno ts t igma t iz ed“ co l labo ra to r s” w i thth e Naz i s ,incon t ra s tw i th tho s er e tu rn ingto No rway ,D enma rk ,o rF ran c e .Th e s econd i t ion sa l so p r ev en t edth em emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionf romb e ingr e l ega t edto ab so lu t epub l i cs i l en c e .F rom1945to1954 ,Span i shv e t e ran sf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron tw e r et r ea t eda sra th e rin conv en i en th e ro e sbyth eF ran co d i c ta to r sh ip ,a si ta t t emp t edto“wh i t ewa sh”ov e ri t sea r l i e rsympa th i e s towa rd s Naz iG e rmanyandr epo s i t ion i t s e l f inth eW e s t e rnB lo caga in s t 2 th eSov i e t Un ion . Th em emo ryo fSpan i shpa r t i c ipa t ioninth eEa s t e rn campa ignb e cam esom e th ingd i f fu s eandub iqu i tou s :no tfo rb idd eno r p e r s e cu t ed ,bu ts ca r c e lyen cou rag edbyth eF ran co i s tr eg im e .Th i sendow edi tw i thag r ea tcapa c i tytoendu r e . Th esam edynam i c sa l sog en e ra t edaka l e ido s cop i cm emo ryo fth e B lu eD iv i s ioninSpan i shpo s t -wa rso c i e ty .Fo rsom e ,i t wa saco rpu so f som ewha tcon fu s ing m emo r i e s ,an e cdo t e s ,ands to r i e sabou tar e la t iv e o ran e ighbou r whofough tinRu s s iafo runknowncau s e s .Fo ro th e r s ,i t

In t rodu c t ion 5

wa sab en chma rko fid eo log i ca lin t eg r i tyfo rnon con fo rm i s tFa lang i sm o ran t i commun i s tcomm i tm en t ,ap ro f e s s iona lpo s t inginab r i l l ian t m i l i ta ryca r e e r ,o rayou th fu ladv en tu r efu e l l edbyth ed e s i r etos e eth e wo r ldb eyondth ePy r en e e s .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa sanun com fo r tab l e m emo ryfo rth eF ran co i s tr eg im e ,andth esub s equ en tcon s t i tu t iona l mona r chy( r e s to r edin1975–8 ) wa sno tk e entocomm emo ra t ei t . O c ca s iona l ly ,th eSpan i shd emo c ra t i cs ta t eha simp l i c i t lyo rexp l i ci t lyequa t edth eB lu eD iv i s ionandi t scomba tan t sw i thth ehund r ed s o fSpan i sh R epub l i canso ld i e r s whofough tw i thth eA l l i e s .Th i sha s g iv enr i s etoin t en s e mom en t so fandcon t rov e r sy .In O c tob e r2004 ,an ex -BD m emb e randafo rm e rp r i son e ro fth eSov i e t ss toodonth ep r e s id en t ia lpod iuma sr ep r e s en ta t iv e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ionFounda t ion , tog e th e rw i thar ep r e s en ta t iv eo fth eSpan i sh9 thCompany( la Nu ev e ) o fth eR ég im en td e ma r ch eduT chad ,pa r to fth e2nd A rmou r ed D iv is ion(D iv i s ionL e c l e r c ) , who w e r eloya lto G en e ra l Cha r l e sd e Gau l l e andth eA l l i e s .Th eso c ia l i s tm in i s t e ro fd e f en c e ,Jo s éBono ,hadinv i t ed th emtoa t t enda spa r to fth e12 O c tob e r(Span i shna t iona lho l iday ) m i l i ta rypa rad e .3 Th i sa t t i tud ep e r s i s t samong m emb e r so fth eSpan i sh a rm edfo r c e sandin m i l i ta rya cad em i e s , wh i chs t i l lt ea chandid ea l iz e th e“h e ro i cd e ed s”o fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .In O c tob e r2020 ,al eaktoth e da i lyp r e s sin fo rm edtha tapo l i c eop e ra t ionaga in s ta l l eg ed Ru s s ian conn e c t ion sw i thCa ta lanna t iona l i s tl ead e r sinr e la t iontoth efa i l edin d ep end en c er e f e r endum inO c tob e r2017hadb e eng iv enth ecod enam e “Op e ra t ionV o lkhov ,”r e ca l l ingth ef r s tba t t l einvo lv ingSpan i sht roop s onth eEa s t e rnF ron t .I tshow stha tth eBD m emo ryinpo s t f ran co i s t Spa ins t i l lsu f f e r sf romala cko fp roa c t iv e ,s ta t e spon so r edpo l i t i c so f d emo c ra t i cm emo ry .A f t e rha l fac en tu ry ,som e wound so fth ed i c ta tor ia lpa s tr ema inop enandin su ff c i en t lyad r e s s edbypub l i cin s t i tu t ion s . Num e rou s book s hav eb e en pub l i sh ed abou tth eB lu eD iv i s ion , mo s t lyinSpa in .I t sexo t i csub j e c t ma t t e rha sinh e r en tapp ea l :as en s eo f adv en tu r e ,Sou th e rnEu rop ean slo s tinanimm en s ef roz enland s cap e , ana c cumu la t iono fex t rao rd ina ryexp e r i en c e s( th ejou rn eyth e r e ,con ta c tw i thth eG e rmanA rmy ,fgh t ingonad i s tan tf ron t ,r e tu rn ing ) ,and th ehazyimp r e s s iontha tth eB lu eD iv i s ionexp e r i en c el e f tonSpan i sh so c i e tya f t e r1944– 5 .A tl ea s tun t i lth ef r s td e cad eo fth etw en ty -f r s t c en tu ry , mo s tSpan ia rd skn ewsom eon e who s efa th e r ,un c l e ,o rg rand fa th e rhad jo in edth eB lu eD iv i s ion . Wh i l ecomm emo ra t iv ew r i t ingonth eB lu eD iv i s ionabound s ,a long w i thapo log e t i candd e s c r ip t iv eapp roa ch e sin t e r e s t edinr e ca l l ingth e mo s tin s ign if can td e ta i l s ,th eh i s to r iog raph i cr e l evan c eo fsu chl i te ra tu r ei sm eag r ea tb e s t . How ev e r ,th eh i s to ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ha sa l so b e en amp lyt r ea t edin p ro f e s s iona lh i s to r iog raphy . Mo s t

6 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

app roa ch e shav esough ttound e r s tandth ero l eo fth eBD w i th inth e f ram ewo rko fth ed ip loma t i c ,e conom i c ,andcu l tu ra lr e la t ion sb e tw e en th eea r lyF ran cor eg im eandth eTh i rd R e i ch .A c co rd ing ly ,F ran co i s t and po s t -F ran co i s th i s to r ian sr ega rd edth eB lu eD iv i s iona sacon c e s s ion mad ebyth eF ran cor eg im etofu lf li t sob l iga t ion sw i th Naz i G e rmany , wh i ch wa sp r e s s ingSpa intos id ew i thth eAx i spow e r sand en t e rth e wa r .F romth i sp e r sp e c t iv e ,th eSpan i shBDso ld i e r sw e r eth e “b loodp r i c e”tha tF ran co i smpa idto ma in ta ini t s“non -b e l l ig e r en cy”in 4 th eS e cond W o r ld W a r . Thu s ,th e i rsa c r if c ehadno tb e eninva in :th ey hadsh i e ld edSpa inf romth eho r ro r so fan ew wa r ,andev enth eth r ea t o fG e rmaninva s ion :Span i shh e ro i smonth eEa s t e rnF ron thadshown H i t l e r wha th i st roop scou ldexp e c ti fth eyt r i edtoinvad eSpa in .5 S in c eth e1980 s ,som eau tho r shav etak enth eoppo s i t ev i ewanda rgu edtha ts end ingth eB lu eD iv i s iontoth eEa s t e rnF ron tr ev ea l edth e d e ep lyG e rmanoph i l ena tu r eo fF ran co i s to ff c ia l sandsuppo r t e r s , who wou lden t e rth e wa ra tanyco s ttos e eth e i rfa s c i s t ,to ta l i ta r ianp roj e c tfu lf l l ed .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionthu scon s t i tu t edth epu r e s texp r e s s ion o fth e mo s t who l eh ea r t edFa lang i s ts e c to r sand mu cho fth em i l i ta ry , a long w i th manyt rad i t iona l i s t s ,Ca tho l i c s ,andcon s e rva t iv e s whos inc e r e lyadm i r edth ean t i commun i s ts tan c eand m i l i ta ryp e r fo rman c eo f 6 th eTh i rdR e i ch ,a tl ea s tun t i l1944 . R e c en tr e s e a r chh a ssh edsom en ewl igh tonth eth er e l a t ion sh ipb etw e enth eF r an cor eg im eandN a z iG e rm any ,add ingtoth econ t r ibu t ion s o fd ip lom a t i ch i s to r i an ss in c eth e1 9 9 0 s .I ta s s ign sth eB lu eD iv i s iona sm a l lp a r tinth ed ip lom a t i cg am eth a tw a sun fo ld ingonSp an i shso i l f rom1 9 4 0to1 9 4 5 .F r an coand mo s to fh i sgov e rnm en tc e r t a in ly w i sh ed toen t e rth ew a ronth eAx i ss id ebu tno tw i thou tsom ek indo fr ew a rd . F r an co w an t edth eG e rm an stoh andov e rag r e a tp a r to fth eF r en chcolon i a lpo s s e s s ion sin A f r i c atoSp a in ,in c lud ingF r en ch Mo ro c co ,p a r t s o fA lg e r i a ,andC am e roon .Th i s wou ldh av eb e enun a c c ep t ab l etoV i chy F r an c e .Th eIb e r i anP en in su l ap l ay edon lya m ino rro l einTh i rdR e i ch w a rs t r a t egyf rome a r ly1 9 4 2on .A si t sa rmyandr e sou r c e sw e r ea lmo s t n eg l ig ib l etoG e rm aney e s ,th eG e rm anch an c e l lo rd idno tn e edSp a inon h i ss id ea tanyp r i c e .K e ep ingV i chyF r an c ea saloy a la l lyandno tpu shing M a r sh a lPh i l ipp eP é t a intos id ew i thth eA l l i e sw a s mo r eimpo r t an tto H i t l e rth an w inn ingth efu l lsuppo r to fF r an co ’ sSp a in .Th i sw a s m a in ly whyth em e e t ingb e tw e enF r an coand H i t l e ra tth er a i ls t a t iono f H end ay e(2 3O c tob e r1 9 4 0 )end edinf a i lu r e :H i t l e rp r io r i t i z edt i e sw i th V i chyF r an c eandF r an cor e tu rn edtoSp a in w i thnot ang ib l ew in s . H i t l e r ’ sin t e r e s tinSp a ind r am a t i c a l lyd e c r e a s eda f t e rth a t ,a so th e r th e a t r e so fop e r a t ionr equ i r edh i sa t t en t ion .M e anwh i l e ,B r i t i shd ip lo m a cyinSp a in w a sp l ay ingi t sc a rd sbysy s t em a t i c a l lyb r ib ingg en e r a l s

In t rodu c t ion 7

andh igho ff c i a l stok e epth ecoun t ryf romin t e rv en inginth ew a ron th eG e rm ans id e .Th egov e rnm en tc r i s i so fS ep t emb e r1 9 4 2andsub s e qu en tappo in tm en to fth eAng loph i l eCoun tJo rd an aa sth em in i s t e rfo r fo r e igna f f a i r sm a rk eda mov etow a rd sfu l ln eu t r a l i tyinSp an i shd ip lo m a cy .S t e adyd i s t an c ingf romB e r l in( andRom e )b e c am e mo r ea c c en tua t edth roughou t1 9 4 3and1 9 4 4 .Th ed eb i l i t a t edF a l ang i s t sw e r eun ab l e toavo idth i ss t r a t eg i c mov eandth e i rp ro j e c t stoe s t ab i shafu l lyf a s c i s t “n ewS t a t e ”inSp a inf ad edaw ay . Un t i lAugu s t1 9 4 5 ,how ev e r ,G en e r a l F r an coh im s e l fs tu cktoth eth eo ryo f“ th r e ew a r s , ” wh i chd e s c r ib edth e wo r ld w a ra sth r e es ep a r a t econf i c t s .Inth ef r s t ,b e tw e enG e rm anyand th eW e s t e rnd emo c r a c i e s(G r e a tB r i t a in ,th e US ,andF r an c e ) ,Sp a in w a s n eu t r a l .Inth es e cond ,b e tw e enG e rm anyandth eSov i e tUn ion ,F r an co i s t Sp a inen thu s i a s t i c a l lya l l i ed i t s e l fw i thth eTh i rdR e i chag a in s tacommon en emy .Inth eth i rd ,b e tw e enth e USandJ ap an ,th eF r an cod i c t a to r sh ip 7 in c r e a s ing lyb a ck edth eUSbu tn ev e ra c tu a l lyd e c l a r ed w a ronJ ap an . Un l ik e Naz iag en t sand m emb e r so fth e Naz iPa r ty ’ sfo r e ignb ran ch inSpa in ,p ragma t i cG e rmand ip loma t sin Mad r id wan t edSpa intor e ma inn eu t ra ltob e t t e rexp lo i t wha tth eycon s id e r edi t s mo s tin t e r e s t ing con t r ibu t iontoth eAx i s wa re f fo r t :th er egu la rsupp lyo f wo l f ramand o th e rs t ra t eg i craw ma t e r ia l s .F ran co i s tSpa in ma in ta in edi t sp e cu l ia r po s i t iono f“non -b e l l ig e r en cy”un t i l1943 ,bu tw i thop enp r e f e r en c efo r th e Ax i s .Th i senab l edSpa intop rov id esom elog i s t i csuppo r t wh i l e avo id inginvo lv em en tin m i l i ta ryop e ra t ion so rd e c la r ing wa ronany o fth eb e l l ig e r en tcoun t r i e s ,in c lud ingth eSov i e t Un ion . Th er eg im e mov edtowa rd sfu l ln eu t ra l i tyin1943 ,und e rd i r e c tp r e s su r ef romth e W e s t e rn A l l i e s .M eanwh i l e ,G e rmand ip loma cya c t edtop r e s e rv eth e Th i rdR e i ch ’ sinfu en c eonSpan i shpub l i cop in ionbysub s id iz ingpubl i ca t ion s , magaz in e s ,andp ropagandainane f fo r ttop r e s en t Naz iG e r manyinana c c ep tab l e waytoCa tho l i c sandcon s e rva t iv e s . Abov ea l l , G e rmand ip loma cya t t emp t edto ma in ta incon t ro lands e cu r ea c c e s sto th eSpan i shr e sou r c e sd e em edc ru c ia ltoth e i r wa re f fo r t .G e rmaninfu en c e wa sr ema rkab l ein manysph e r e so fSpan i shso c i e tyandcu l tu r e un t i l1945 ,ands t i l ll ing e r edfo rd e cad e sina r ea ssu cha sSpan i shc iv i l lawandth eo rgan iza t iono fth eFa lang es ing l epa r ty .A sth eCo ld W a r s e tin ,how ev e r ,G e rmanoph i l ea t t i tud e sw e r econv en i en t lya r ch iv ed andth eF ran cor eg im e manag edtoadap tton ewc i r cum s tan c e s . A f t e rm id -1944 , wh ena l lSpan i shso ld i e r shadr e tu rn edf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron t( ex c ep t ingaf ewhund r ed whocon t inu edtofgh tfo rth e Th i rdR e i chonth e i rownin i t ia t iv e ) ,F ran co i s tm in i s t e r sandd ip loma t s b eganpo r t ray ingth es end ingo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionth r e ey ea r sp r io ra s am e r e ly Ca tho l i candan t i commun i s tin i t ia t iv e ,d evo ido fanyp ro a c t iv esympa thytowa rd sth e Ax i s .Th i sranpa ra l l e ltoe f fo r t sbyth e

8 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

r eg im e ,b eg inn ing w i thCa tho l i cth ink e r sandc e r ta inFa lang i s tl ead e r s , tod e ta chi t sfound ingp r in c ip l e sf romany th ingr e s emb l ingfa s c i sm . F ran co i sm wa s now p r e s en t eda sa Ca tho l i c ,t rad i t iona l i s t ,andant i commun i s t wo r ldv i ew , wh i ch wa sd evo ido fanyto ta l i ta r ian ,ra c i s t , o rimp e r ia l i s tamb i t ion . Som es tud i e sfo cu s eda lmo s tex c lu s iv e lyonth e“h e ro i cd e ed s ”o f th eB lu eD iv i s ion ,th eb a t t l e sandop e r a t ion si ttookp a r tin ,i t sov e r a l l evo lu t ion ,r e c ru i tm en tp r a c t i c e s ,andcompo s i t ion .Th e s e monog r aph s p rov id edno t ewo r thyr e con s t ru c t ion so fth eBDt r a j e c to ryf romh igh ly d iv e r s ep e r sp e c t iv e ssu cha st r ad i t ion a lm i l i t a ryh i s to ry ,d ip lom a t i ch i sto ry ,andev ene conom i ch i s to ry . Mo s tw e r ew r i t t enf romanen thu s i a s t i c a l lyp ro -F r an co i s tpo in to fv i ewandt r i edtop r e s en tab en evo l en t , a c r i t i c a lim ag eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .Su chh ag iog r aph i c ,r ev i s ion i s tap p ro a ch e sbyau tho r sno s t a lg i cfo rth eF r an cor eg im eco ex i s ta long s id e ex t r em e lypo s i t iv i s tp e r sp e c t iv e sonth eh i s to ryo fm i l i t a ryop e r a t ion s , lo c a lh i s to r i e sa t t emp t ing toshow c a s e th econ t r ibu t ion so f th e i rp rov in c e andr eg iontoth eexp ed i t ion a ryco rp s ,andh igh lyd e t a i l edandd e s c r ip t iv e wo rk sonsp e c if cs e c t ion sandb r an ch e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,f rom m i l i t a rych ap l a in stos app e r sand m ed i c a lco rp s .8 Commonton e a r lya l l o fth emi sth e i rendog enou ss e l f su ff c i en cy ,a c comp an i edbyaf ag r an t l a cko fd i a logu ew i th w a rs tud i e s ,n ew m i l i t a ryh i s to ryapp ro a ch e s , andin t e rn a t ion a lh i s to r iog r aphycon c e rn ingth eE a s t e rnF ron t . Mo s to f th e s es tud i e sa l sod i sp l ay edb l a t an tigno r an c eo fth econ t r ibu t ion sand d eb a t e sf romth ecomp a r a t iv eh i s to ryo fv io l en c eand mod e rn w a r f a r e . App roa ch e stha thav ea t t emp t edtofo cu sonth ea c tua lexp e r i en c e o fBD m emb e r sa r efa rs ca r c e r .Th e s elooka tth eo rd ina ry m eninun ifo rm(W o l f ram W e t t e ) ,th e i r mo t iva t ion sandr ea c t ion s ,th e i rr ea son s fo rfgh t ing ,andhowth ey w e r ea f f e c t edbypa r t i c ipa t ingina wa rtha t d i f f e r edsub s tan t ia l lyf romp r io rconf i c t s .Th eSov i e t -G e rman W a r wa s ana rm edcon f ron ta t iontha tb egana shug ed i sp layo ft e chno log i ca l ands t ra t eg i c mod e rn i ty ,bu tw i th inaf ew mon th si t wa scha ra c t e r iz ed byi t sex t r em ec ru e l tyandh ighco s tinhumanl iv e s ,andi t sex t r em e ly ha r shc l ima t eandenv i ronm en ta lcond i t ion s .Comba tb e cam ein c r ea sing lyb ru ta l iz edam id s tev e r -g row ingnumb e r so fc iv i l ianca sua l t i e s , w i th ma s sk i l l ing so fc iv i l ian sandpa r t i san sinth er ea rgua rd .9 Th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sinth esumm e ro f1941b e l i ev edtha tth ey w e r eemba rk ingonab r i e fm i l i ta ryadv en tu r etha t manysawa sacont inua t iono fth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r .Th ey w e r eno ta lway sawa r etha t th ey w e r epa r t i c ipa t inginaconf i c tun l ik e manytha thadp r e c ed edi t : a wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion .InEng l i sh -andG e rman sp eak ingsph e r e s ,th i s conf i c ti sr e c e iv ingr en ew edh i s to r iog raph i ca la t t en t ioninn ew m i l i ta ryh i s to ryandth ecu l tu ra lh i s to ryo fv io l en c e .

In t rodu c t ion 9

Th i sbookadd r e s s e sas e r i e so fba s i cqu e s t ion scon c e rn ing wa ra sa comp l e t eso c ia lr ea l i ty . Whydoso ld i e r sfgh t ? Wha ti sth ed i f f e r en c e b e tw e envo lun t e e r sandcon s c r ip t s ?T owha tex t en tdo id eo logy ,va lu e s , andth ep r io rso c ia l iza t iono fcomba tan t sinfu en c eth e i rw i l l ingn e s s tok i l l ? Do e sth eimag eo fth een emyco r r e spond mo r etop r e ex i s t ing cu l tu ra lcon s t ru c t ion sandimag e so fth eo th e r ,o rtoindo c t r ina t ionin s e rv i c e ,p ropaganda ,andth ed e s i r etoav eng ed eadcom rad e sfo l low ingth eb ru ta l iza t iono fcomba t ?I sv io l en c einna t einp eop l eand mo r e l ik e lytob ea c t iva t edinenv i ronm en ta lc i r cum s tan c e s ,f ea tu r ingcu mu la t iv erad i ca l iza t ionandb ru ta l iza t iono fcomba tcond i t ion s ? Wha t i sth ero l eo fcom rad e sh ipandloya l tytof e l lowso ld i e r sw i th whom r e la t ion sh ip so fcomp l i c i tyand mu tua ld ep end en c ea r ee s tab l i sh ed ? Bond sfo rg edinb loodandba t t l ea r eo f t enc em en t edinexp e r i en c e s tha tcanno tb et ran s f e r r edb eyondth ep r ima rycomba tg roup . How doind iv idua l sexp e r i en c e wa randhowdo e si ta f f e c tth e i rsub s equ en t pa th ?T o wha tex t en tdo e si tc r ea t ean ew wa rcu l tu r e ,und e r s toodh e r e a sas e to fcu l tu ra lp e r c ep t ion scon c e rn ingaso ld i e r ’ sowns id e ,th e en emy ,andcomba t , wh i chb e com ep e rva s iv einc iv i lso c i e tydu r ing anda f t e rth e wa r ? W i th inth esph e r eo f“n ew m i l i ta ryh i s to ry ,” wh i chi sla rg e lyin sp i r ed byso c ia lh i s to ry ,n ewcu l tu ra lh i s to ry ,and mo r er e c en t lybyg end e r h i s to ryandth et ran sna t iona ltu rn ,10th i sbooka l soend eavou r stoup da t eanden r i chcu r r en td eba t e sonSpan i sh wa r so fth e mod e rnp er iod ,f romth eco lon ia lconf i c t so f Cubaand Mo ro c cototh eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r .Th eso c ia landcu l tu ra lh i s to ryo fv io l en c eha sund e rgon e ala t er en ewa linSpa in .11 T rad i t iona lm i l i ta ryh i s to r iog raphyinSpa in wa sa cnho r edtoth eexhau s t iv es tudyo fth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r(1936–9 ) andth esub s equ en t ma s sr ep r e s s ionbyth ew inn ings id e .A sar e su l t , m i l i ta ryh i s to r ian sinSpa inhav eon lyr e c en t lyjo in edth etan sna t iona l m e thodo log i ca landth eo r e t i ca ld eba t e scon c e rn ingth eG r ea tW a rand th eS e cond W o r ld W a r .Thu s ,fo rexamp l e , mu cho fSpan i shh i s to r i og raphyandfo r e ignh i s to r iog raphyontw en t i e th c en tu rySpa insaw th eo rd ina rycomba tan t so fbo tha rm i e s(R epub l i canandin su rg en to r F ran co i s t )du r ingth eC iv i lW a ra spa s s iv ep ro tagon i s t so fana rm ed con f ron ta t ion .Th ep r ima ryag en t sw e r eg r ea tid eo log i e s , wo r ldv i ew s inconf i c t ,po l i t i ca lpa r t i e sandt rad eun ion s ,g r ea tpo l i t i ca ll ead e r sand m i l i ta rych i e f s . Th e r e fo r e ,i t wa simp l i c i t lya s sum edtha tbo ths id e s w e r ea l r eadyd rawnupinJu ly/Augu s t1936 . How ev e r ,th efa c ti stha t manyso ld i e r sb e cam econv in c edo fth ecau s eth ey w e r efgh t ingfo r du r ingth ecou r s eo fth e wa r .Conv i c t ion wa sanou t com eo fth e i r wa r exp e r i en c eandth eimpa c to f ma r t ia lcu l tu r einth e i run i t s ,andth e r e 12 fo r einth e i rm ind s . Th i s wou lda l soapp lytoth eB lu eD iv i s ion .

10 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Span i sh m i l i ta rya r ch iv e ssu f f e rf romas ca r c i tyo fp e r sona lsou r c e s o rego -do cum en t ssu cha s wa rd ia r i e sandso ld i e r s ’l e t t e r s ,ev enin wa r c en so r sh ipco l l e c t ion s ,tha thand i cap sanyapp roa chinvo lv ingth e s e sub j e c t iv eandev e rydayd im en s ion so fth econf i c t . Ana ly t i ca lca t ego r i e ssu cha s“wa rcu l tu r e” w e r es ca r c e lyknowno remp i r i ca l lya s s e s s ed inSpan i shh i s to r iog raphyun t i lth es e condd e cad eo fth etw en ty -f r s t c en tu ry .W a rcu l tu r eco r r e la t e stoak eycon c ep tinth efo rmu la t iono f th i sbook : wa rexp e r i en c eand m i l i ta ryexp e r i en c e ing en e ra l ,a sar i t eo f pa s sag etha ti r r ev e r s ib ly mod if e sth ep e r c ep t ion s , wo r ldv i ew ,andbas i cva lu e so find iv idua l s whotak epa r tin wa r .Ini t s e l f ,th eexp e r i en c e o f wa ri sind iv idua l lycon s t ru c t edandcond i t ion edbyth eso c io cu l tu ra l ba ckg round ,va lu e s ,p e r c ep t ion s ,andp r io rso c ia l iza t iono fea chcomba tan t . Wh i l ecomba tha sas im i la rimpa c to rimm ed ia t eimp r e s s ionon a l lpa r t i c ipan t s ;th eexp e r i en c er ef e c t edbycomba tan t shou r so rday s la t e rinl e t t e r so rd ia r i e sw i l ld i sp laypa lpab l ed i f f e r en c e stha tr ev ea l d iv e r s een coun t e r sw i th fgh t ing ,m en ta lland s cap e s ,andfo rma t iv e ba ckg round . Howea chind iv idua lsumma r iz e stha texp e r i en c eand 13 t ran sm i t si tw e ek so ry ea r sla t e rw i l lva ryev en mo r e . Inapp ly ingth e s econ c ep t stoth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,i tb e com e sev id en t tha ts tudy ingth e wa rexp e r i en c eo fSpan i shso ld i e r sonth eEa s t e rn F ron t ,inth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ionun l ea sh edbyth eTh i rdR e i chaga in s t th eSov i e tUn ion , i s in ev i tab lyat ran sna t iona landcompa ra t iv eend eav ou r .Th i sp e r sp e c t iv einvo lv e scon su l t ingsou r c e sind iv e r s ea r ch iv e s , compa r ing mu tua limag e so ff r i end sandfo e s ,andcon s tan t lyqu e s t ion ing wh e th e rth eSpan ia rd sw e r esotyp i ca l lyd i f f e r en tf romth eG e rman s andth e i ra l l i e sa sha sb e enc la im edin mu cho fp ro -B lu eD iv i s ionl i t e r a tu r e .Sou tho fth ePy r enn e e s ,th i si sth ep r eva i l ingv i s ioninth epub l i c sph e r er ega rd ingSpan ia rd sonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,ev enamongc r i t i c s .I t mu s tb econ t inuou s lycon t ra s t ed w i thcon t r ibu t ion sf romp ro f e s s iona l h i s to r iog raphycon c e rn ingth eexp e r i en c eo fG e rman ,Sov i e t( s t i l lon e o fth el ea s t s tud i eda sp e c t s ,ev enin Ru s s ianh i s to r iog raphy ) ,I ta l ian , Du t ch ,Roman ian ,F inn i sh ,o r Hunga r ianso ld i e r sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t f rom1941to1945 . Wh i l em i l i t a ryop e r a t ion sa r eno tth em a inob j e c to fth i ss tudy ,th ey a r ein t r in s e ctoth esub j e c tm a t t e r .Th eop e r a t ion a la sp e c t sn e c e s s a ry top rov id eanov e rv i ew w i l lb eadd r e s s ed m a in lyf romth ep e r sp e c t iv e o fG e rm an m i l i t a rydo cum en t a t ion ,tog a inas en s eo fth er e l a t iv eimpo r t an c eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion w i th inth ea rm i e s ,a rmyco rp s ,anda rmy g roup so fth eG e rm an O s th e e rund e r wh i chi ts e rv ed .Th i sa l soimp l i e s a cknow l edg ingth a tth eSp an i shso ld i e r sw e r en ev e ranau tonomou si s l andonth eV o lkhovF ron tand inth es i eg eo fL en ing r ad .A long s id eG e r m an , No rw eg i an ,F l em i sh ,B a l t i c ,and Du t chcomb a t an t s ,th eysh a r ed

In t rodu c t ion 1 1

v i s ion so fth een emy ,exp e r i en c e so rex ch ang e sw i thth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ion ,anden coun t e r sw i thr e a rgu a rdso c i e t i e sinRu s s i an ,B a l t i c ,o r G e rm an m i l i t a ryho sp i t a l s .Th eyendu r edth ec l im a t e ,th ecomb a tcond i t ion s ,andth edyn am i c so fv io l en c eandd e s t ru c t ion ,f roman t i -p a r t is an w a r f a r etoth ed epo r t a t iono fJ ew sinth er e a rgu a rd ,th eshoo t ingo f po l i t i c a lcomm i s s a r s ,andr ep r i s a l sag a in s tc iv i l i anpopu l a t ion s .Th e s e a sp e c t ssh a l lb eex am in edcomp r eh en s iv e ly ,fo cu s ingoncomb a t an t sin l andun i t ssu cha sin f an t ryanda r t i l l e ry .Th eexp e r i en c e so fSp an i sha i r m en ,s e am en ,o rp r i son e r so fw a rw i l lno tb eadd r e s s edh e r e .S e am en w e r eav e ryr edu c edg roup ,andth ew a rexp e r i en c eo fa i rm en w a sen1 4 t i r e lyd i f f e r en t ,g iv enth en a tu r eo fth e i rcomb a tcond i t ion s . S im i l a r ly , p r i son e r so fw a rinSov i e tc amp sw e r ea l soal im i t edg roup w i thl im i t ed 1 5 sou r c e s , mo s to f wh i cha r elo c a t edinRu s s i ana r ch iv e s . Wha t ev e rth e i r mo t iva t ion ,po l i t i ca ladh e r en c e ,id ea s ,andexp e r ien c e s ,so ld i e r sdono ta lway sfgh tinth esam e wayandfo rth esam e r ea son s .In mod e rn wa r fa r e ,b rav e ryo rh e ro i sma r ep rob l ema t i cva r ia b l e s ,d i ff cu l ttot ra c eandea syto id ea l iz e . Mo t iva t ion ,how ev e r , i s mo r e con s tan t .G en e ra l lysp eak ing , mo s tso ld i e r sen l i s tfo ra wa r–n ea rbyo r fa raway–ou to fsw e ep ingp r in c ip l e so rg r ea tid ea l s .Th eya r ebo rn e a long inac l ima t eo fen thu s ia smo rbyag roupo ff r i end so rcom rad e sto d e f endth e i rhom eo rth e i rsu r round ingenv i ronm en t ,tos e eth e wo r ld , o rtoea rnal iv ing .A f ew w e ek sa f t e ren t e r ingcomba t , mo s tcomba tan t s k e epfgh t ingfo rth e i rownsu rv iva landtha to fth e i rcomba tg roup– f romth ep la toontoth ecompanyandth e“ t r en chcommun i ty .”Id ea l i s t mo t iv e slo s eimpo r tan c ebu tdono ta lway sd i sapp ea r .Th ee ff c i en cyo f am i l i ta ryun i td ep end sla rg e lyon mo t iva t ionand mo ra l e ,t ra in ingand sk i l l ,th equa l i tyo fth e i rcommand e r s ,andequ ipm en t . Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa sju s ttha t :anin fan t ryd iv i s iono fth eW eh rma ch t .I tn ev e rcov e r edas e c to ro fth ef ron tg r ea t e rthanaf ewdoz en k i lom e t r e s , wh i chnon e th e l e s so f t enex c e ed edav e rag eBD manpow e r . Th eSpan i sh un i t sp e r fo rm ed mod e s t lyincomba t ,bu tnob e t t e ro r wo r s ethan mo s to th e rm i l i ta ryun i t sfgh t inga long s id eo raga in s tth em . Thoughn ev e ra ma jo rcoginth es t ra t eg i c ma ch in e ryo fA rmy G roup No r th ,th eBD wa sano th e rt i l einth e mo sa i co fth eV o lkhovF ron tand th es i eg eo fL en ing rad .Fo rth eG e rmancommand ,a lway scap t iv etoi t s ownp r e jud i c e s ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eind iv idua l lyb rav e ,h igh ly mo t iva t edcomba tan t s ;bu tth ey w e r eon lyr e l iab l efo rpa s s iv ed e f en c e ta sk s ,coup sd e ma in ,andsma l l s ca l eo rgu e r i l lafgh t ing .Th e s ew e r e con s id e r edtyp i ca l lySpan i sh way so f mak ing wa r .A sa m i l i ta ryco l l e c t iv e ,th eG e rman ssawSpan i shso ld i e r sa sabad lyt ra in edandin su ff c i en t lyo rgan iz edun i t ,l edbyunp r epa r edo ff c e r sand NCO s who cou ldno tg ra spth er equ i r em en t so f mod e rn wa r fa r eonth eEa s t e rn

12 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ron t .Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ion wa sacon s tan tannoyan c etoth eG e rmanh ighcommand e r sbu ton eth eyhadtoto l e ra t e ,pa r t lydu etod iploma t i cimp e ra t iv e s ,andpa r t lyb e cau s eG e rmanhumanand ma t e r ia l r e cou r c e sw e r econ t inua l lyd e c r ea s ingf romla t e1941on .Thoughno t pa r t i cu la r ly w e l com e ,Span ia rd scou ldno tea s i lyb er ep la c ed w i thf r e sh G e rmant roop s . How ev e r ,th eG e rman m i l i ta ryhadnog r ea t e rapp r ec ia t ionfo ro th e rfo r e ignl eg ion sandun i t s ,f romI ta l ian sto No rw eg ian s (G e rman i co ro th e rw i s e ) .Span ia rd sw e r eno tund e s i rab l eso ld i e r s ,bu t th ey w e r eno td e s i r ed . Th eevo lu t iono fG e rman -Span i shr e la t ion sf rom1941to1945i sw e l l knownands e rv e sh e r ea saba ckg roundfo rd i s cu s s ingth eh i s to ryo fth e B lu eD iv i s ion .16 H e r e ,th e magn i fy ingl en si sapp l i edto m i l i ta ryh i s to ry f romb e low ,toth eexp e r i en c e s ,p e r c ep t ion s ,andr e in t e rp r e ta t ion so f cu l tu ra l mod e l sandpo l i t i ca ls logan sbyind iv idua lcomba tan t s ,w i th in ag en e ra lf ram ewo rkd e t e rm in edby wa rc i r cum s tan c e s .17 T e s t imon i e s a r ec ru c ia ltoth er e con s t ru c t iono fth e s ep e r c ep t ion s .K eysou r c e sinc lud el e t t e r s , wa rd ia r i e s ,unpub l i sh edandpub l i sh ed m emo i r s ,ev en f c t iona la c coun t sba s edonth eau tho r ’ s wa rexp e r i en c e .18 P r e s sa r t i c l e s s en tf romth eRu s s ianF ron ttolo ca landp rov in c ia l jou rna l scon s t i tu t ea comp l em en ta rysou r c e .Th e s ew e r el e s ssub j e c ttoc en so r sh ipando f t en d ig r e s s edf romth eid ea l iz edcomba trh e to r i cfoundincon t empo ra ry t e s t imon i e so fth e mo r ep rom in en tBD m emb e r s :th ew r i t e r s ,jou rna l i s t s ,andpo l i t i ca ll ead e r s . Th i sb r ing su stoth eongo ingd ia l e c t i c sb e tw e enh i s to ryand m emo ry , b e tw e enl iv edexp e r i en c eand wa rna r ra t iv e s . Wha t manycomba tan t s w ro t eabou ty ea r sandd e cad e sla t e rcon c e rn ingth e i r wa rexp e r i en c e– t ra in ingin G e rmany ,th ejou rn eytoth ef ron t ,b e inginth efo r e f ron to r th er ea rgua rd–do e sno tn e c e s sa r i lyco in c id ew i th wha tth ey w ro t e du r ingth e wa r ,inth e i rl e t t e r stohom eo rinth e i r wa rd ia r i e s .Th eBD m emo rytha t wa scu l t iva t edonth eSpan i sh“hom ef ron t”foundi t sf r s t exp r e s s ioninth ecu l ttofa l l enso ld i e r sind i s tan t Ru s s ianlo ca t ion s , th eninth ecod if ca t iono faco l l e c t iv ea c coun tcon c e rn ingth eBD wa r exp e r i en c e ,andla t e rinth ecomm emo ra t ion sanda c t iv i t i e so fv e t e ran s ’ a s so c ia t ion s ,pa r t lyendo r s edbyth eF ran co i s ts ta t ein s t i tu t ion s .I t wa s on esha rdo fth ed i f fu s em emo ryo fth eEa s t e rnF ron ttha tp r eva i l ed th roughou tEu rop ea f t e r1945 .I tva r i edg r ea t lyf romon ecoun t ryand p e r iodtoano th e r ,en compa s s ingcomp e t i t ionb e tw e enth el ega cyo f S ta l ing radandth e Au s chw i tzsynd rom e ,id ea l iza t iono fth eG r ea tPat r io t i cW a r ,compa r i sono fth e“ twoo c cupa t ion s”(G e rmanandSov i e t ) , 19 andth e( I ta l ian )con s t ru c t iono fa“b en igno c cup i e r” my th . Th i sbooka l sod i s cu s s e sth esp e c if c i tyandv a r i a t ion so fth ero l eo f Sp a in inth i st r an sn a t ion a lm emo ry ,wh i chw a sh igh lycond i t ion edbytwo

In t rodu c t ion 13

c i r cum s t an c e s .F i r s tw a sth eex c ep t ion a llong ev i tyo fth eF r an cor eg im e , ad i c t a to r sh ip w i thf a s c i s to r ig in s .I tw e l com edth ecomb a t an t sb a ckf rom th eE a s t e rnF ron tw i thou ts t igm a t i z ingo rjudg ingth em , wh i l eino th e r Eu rop e ancoun t r i e sth ey w e r es e ena st r a i to r s .Th eF r an cod i c t a to r sh ip h adnoqu a lm sabou tr em emb e r ingth ev e t e r an s ’h e ro i cd e ed sinpub l i c p l a c e sandc e r emon i e s . How ev e r ,th i sr anp a r a l l e ltoth er eg im e ’ se f fo r t s tor e a l ignSp a in w i th W e s t e rnpow e r sinth econ t ex to fth eCo ld W a r .T o th i send ,th eadv en tu r e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ioninRu s s i aw e r epo r t r ay eda s as e condch ap t e ro ranep i logu eo fth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r ,apu r e lyan t i commun i s tend e avou rd evo ido fanya s so c i a t ionw i thN a z iex t e rm in a t ion po l i c i e s .S e cond w a sth eto l e r an c eo fth esu c c e s s iv ed emo c r a t i cgov e rnm en t stow a rd sth er emn an t so fth a tm emo ryf rom1 9 7 7onw a rd s .U l t im a t e ly ,th eya s s im i l a t ed m anyf e a tu r e so fth epo s i t iv em emo ryo fth eB lu e D iv i s ionth a th adb e eng en e r a t eddu r ingth ep r ev iou sr eg im e ,w i thou teng ag inginac r i t i c a lr ev i ewo fi t sro l einth eG e rm an w a ro fex t e rm in a t ion inth eE a s t .Th i sp e r s i s t edinSp an i shpo s t -F r an co i s th i s to r i c a lcu l tu r eand inth epub l i csph e r eth roughth ef r s td e c ad eo fth etw en ty -f r s tc en tu ry . Enem ie sandF r iend s :Ru s s ia , Ge rmany ,andSpan i sh Fa s c i sm   (1917–41 ) F r omth eIm ag in edRu s s i ant oth eR e a lRu s s i an(1917–41 ) Ru s s iacon s t i tu t edana lmo s tunknownlandinth eSpan i shpopu la rimag ina ryp r io rtoth eR evo lu t iono f1917 .Th e r ew e r eaf ewex c ep t ion s s t emm ingf romd ip loma t i cr e la t ion sb e tw e enSpa inandth eT sa r i s tem p i r edu r ing th ef r s tha l fo f th en in e t e en thc en tu ry ,and mo r epa r t i cu la r ly f romth el i t e ra ryimp r e s s ion st ran sm i t t edbyth et rav e lnov e l i s tJuan 20 V a l e rainh i sC a r t a sd e sd eRu s i a(L e t t e r sf romRu s s ia )in1857 . Th i r ty y ea r sla t e r ,th e s esk e t ch e sa cqu i r edd im en s ion w i thth ed i s s em ina t ion o f wha ti snowcon s id e r edc la s s i cRu s s ianl i t e ra tu r ef romau tho r ssu ch a sL evT o l s toyandFyodo r Do s to ev sky ,a long w i thanana ly s i so fRu ss ianso c i e tybyth ed ip loma tandh i s to r ianJu l iánJud e r ía s .N ev e r th e l e s s ,du r ingth ef r s ttwod e cad e so fth etw en t i e thc en tu ry ,th e r ew e r e 21 f ewd i r e c tm ed ia to r sb e tw e enRu s s iaandth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e . V a l e ra ,Jud e r ía sando th e rau tho r sr ep rodu c edth eimag eba s edon th ei con o fa l t e r i ty , ba ckwa rdn e s sandexo t i c i smtha tcha ra c t e r iz ed th eemp i r eo fth eT sa r sin W e s t e rnpopu la rop in iondu r ingth efna l qua r t e ro fth en in e t e en thc en tu ry :th ep s eudo -A s ian ,fana t i cRu s s ia ,capab l eo fun imag inab l esu f f e r ing .Th i sn eo roman t i cv i s iono fEa s t e rn Eu rop e ,enhan c edbyafa s c ina t ion w i thth eexo t i c , wa si t s e l fba s edon c l i ch é sfo rg edbye igh t e en th c en tu ryF r en ch En l igh t enm en tau tho r s .

14 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ela s t ings t e r eo typ e stha tth eycon so l ida t ed mad eRu s s iath er ea lm o fba rba r ian s ,incon t ra s tw i thac iv i l iz edEu rop e .22 F romth eea r ly1920 son ,Span i sht rav e l l e r sandv i s i to r stoth ef edgl ingSov i e t Un iont ran sm i t t edad i f f e r en timag e :anex emp la ryv i s ion o fth en ew“hom e lando fth ep ro l e ta r ia t ,”r e su rg en tf romth eda rkn e s s . Nuan c e sva r i eda c co rd ingtoth eid eo log i ca ll ean ing so fth et rav e l l e r s ( so c ia l i s t s ,commun i s t s ,ana r ch i s t s ,o rbou rg eo i s i e ) ,bu ta lmo s ta l lsaw th eUSSRa sth econ s t ru c t iono fan ew wo r ldandanid ea l iz ed ,c la s s l e s s so c i e ty .Sov i e tp ropagandainSpan i sh ,r epo r t sinth e wo rk e r s ’p r e s s , andrad iob road ca s t sf rom1933onso l id if edth eSov i e t my thamong mu cho fth el e f tw ing .23 Th i sr ep r e s en ta t ioncon t ra s t ed w i thth ei con i cimag ec ra f t edbyth e coun t e r r evo lu t iona ryEu rop eanr igh tw ingf rom1917– 18 on .I tsup e r impo s edid eo log i ca lr e j e c t iono fcommun i smon upda t edimag e so f a l t e r i ty ,fana t i c i sm ,andexo t i c i sm ,a id edbyth esp r eado fRu s s ianl i t e r a tu r ec la s s i c sf romPu shk into Max imGo rk i .Thoughsom et ran s la t ion s hadb eguntoc i r cu la t einSpan i sh magaz in e sinth em id -n in e t e en th c en tu ry , mo s tRu s s ian w r i t e r sfoundth e i r wayin toSpan i shba s edon F r en ched i t ion sf romth e1910 sand1920 sanden joy edno tab l epopula r i ty .Th eg en e r i ct e rm so fth i si cono fa l t e r i ty m ean ttha tth eRu s s i an a ssu ch wa sab s en tf romth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e .Th etyp i ca l Wh i t e Ru s s ianr e fug e e so fth eb e l l eép o qu einPa r i sd idno tapp ea rinSpa in un t i lth eC iv i lW a r .24 Th es t e r eo typ eco r r e spond edtoafam i l ia rtyp e ca s t ing :Sov i e tcommun i sm ,ina l l ian c ew i thF r e ema son ryandJuda i sm , wou ld d e s t roy W e s t e rnand Ch r i s t ianc iv i l iza t ion ,u s ing God ’ sfavou r i t e na t ion– Spa in–a sab r idg eh ead .Th i sd i s cou r s e wa supda t ed w i thth eadv en t o fth eS e condSpan i sh R epub l i candsp r ead mo r ein t en s e lya f t e rth e endo f1935 , wh enth ean t i -R epub l i canr igh tw ingb egana c cu s inga l l Popu la rF ron tpa r t i e so fhav ingso ldou tfo r“Mo s cowgo ld .”Ru s s i a wa s id en t if ed w i thth e USSR ,th ein ca rna t iono fEv i l .I tb egan w i thad e ep r e s eman t i c iza t iono fth ecoun t e r r evo lu t iona ryimag eo fl ib e ra l i smand 25 th eF r en ch R evo lu t ion ,s ea son ed w i thcon sp i ra cyth eo r i e s . By1936 , th i si con wa sfu l lyfo rm edinSpan i shfa s c i sm , wh i chsawafundam en ta lcon t inu i tyb e tw e enth e“o r i en ta l”e s s en c eo ft sa r i s td e spo t i smand 26 th e ma t e r ia l i s tRu s s i atha tth r ea t en edtod evou rW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ion . Inacomp l em en ta ry mann e r ,th i simag eo fRu s s i aa l soco r r e spond ed toana t iona lo th e r . How ev e r ,du r ingth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ,th es e cond fun c t iono fth i s mob i l iz ing my th–tha to fRu s s iaa sanadv e r sa ryo fth e na t ion–r ea ch edanin t en s i tysup e r io rto wha thadb e eni t sf r s tfun ct ionun t i lth en :toin ca rna t eth eAn t i ch r i s t .Th i sm e ld ed w i thth eimag e o fth een emy w i th inands eman t i ca l lyr e in fo r c edi t sa l t e r i ty .27

In t rodu c t ion 15

Th e wa rna t iona l i smo fth ein su rg en t sinth e1936–9Span i shconf i c t b egand ehuman iz ingth een emyv iad ena t iona l iza t ion .28 M emb e r so f th eo th e rSpa inhads topp edb e ingSpan ia rd sbyb e t ray ingth ee s s en c e s o fth e Hom e land ,d i s r ega rd ingt rad i t ionandna t iona lh i s to ry ,s e l l ing ou ttofo r e ign iz ingid eo log i e s .Th et ra i to r scou ldthu sb eg en e r i ca l ly ca t ego r iz eda sSpan ia rd sin f e c t ed w i thafo r e ignv i ru s .Th eo th e r wa s d efn edin mo ra lpa t r io t i candco l l e c t iv et e rm s ,bu ts e ldoma sanexp l i c i tso c ia lg roup .Th em e tapho ro fRu s s i an sa scommun i s tfo r e ign e r sr e in fo r c edth e mo r eg en e ra ls t igma t iza t iono fth een emya sR ed s. Thoughs ev e ra l doz en Ru s s ianan t i commun i s t vo lun t e e r s , mo s to f 29 th ema r r iv ingf romF ran c e , jo in edfo r c e sw i thth ein su rg en t s , th et e rm Ru s s i an b e cam eau tonomou s lye f f e c t iv efo rbo l s t e r ingth ep e r c ep t iono f th econf i c ta sa wa raga in s taninvad e r .Th eamb i t iono fRu s s ia , wh i ch “hadd r eam edo fd igg ingi t sb loody ,emb l ema t i cs i ck l ein toth i slov e ly p i e c eo fEu rop e ,”hadun l ea sh eda wa r :“ th ecommun i s tandso c ia li s t ma s s e so fth eea r th ,un i t ed w i thF r e ema son sandJ ew s” wou ldu s e Spa ina s“ago ld ens t epp ing s ton etog loba lt r iumph .”Th e wa rthu s 30 b e cam ean ewR e c on qu i s t a,ar e conqu e s tl ik etha to fth eM idd l eAg e s . Thoughth eC iv i lW a rhada tf r s tb e end e s c r ib eda sanup r i s ingto r e s to r efu l lSpan i shn e s stoaR epub l i canr eg im etha thadsu r r end e r ed to“Ru s s ian typ eana r cho commun i s tid ea l s ,”th einvo lv em en to fth e USSRt ran s fo rm edi tinth eey e so fF ran co i s tp ropagand i s t sin toa wa r fo rna t iona ll ib e ra t ion .Spa inr ep r e s en t edna t iona l i smr e s i s t ingcom mun i sm ,ag loba lconf i c tb e tw e en“ th ev i ta lr ea l i tyo fth ena t iona l i t i e s” andanin t e rna t iona l i s tid eo logy .I fi tp r eva i l ed ,th e wo r ld wou ldno 31 long e rb ed iv id edin tona t ion s . I fp ro l e t a r i a tin t e rn a t ion a l i smtu rn edin toaninv ad ing pow e r ,a l l Sp an i shcommun i s t scou ldb econ s id e r edRu s s i an s.Th ef e a tu r e so fth i s 3 2 conv e r s ion w e r eno td e s c r ib edine thno cu l tu r a l ,bu tid eo log i c a lt e rm s . Th eR epub l i c an m i l i t i aw e r ef r equ en t lyr ep r e s en t eda srough m en w i th Sov i e tm i l i t a ryc ap s ,and R epub l i c anloy a l i s t sa sund e r cov e r Ru s s i an ag en t s .“Ru s s i a ”and“Ru s s i an ”a l sos e rv eda sp e r f e c tm e t apho r so fa l l th eco l l e c t iv ev i c e sth a tch a r a c t e r i z edth eR epub l i c ans id ef romth ep e r sp e c t iv eo fth e in su rg en t s :pov e r ty ,ch ao s , l a cko fp a t r io t i sm , mo r a lv a cu 3 3 i ty …Inth e i r mo s tC a tho l i cv e r s ion ,i ts imp ly w a sth er e a lmo fS a t an . Th e“Ru s s i an s , ”how ev e r , l a ck edanysp e c if cphy s i c a lf e a tu r e s .D e sp i t e th esub s t an t i a lw e apon rysupp l i edbyth e USSR ,no mo r eth antw en ty twohund r edSov i e tt e chn i c i an s ,p i lo t s ,m i l i t a rycon su l t an t s ,andpo l i t i c a lpo l i c es e tfoo tonSp an i shso i ldu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .Th e r ew a sl i t t l e ch an c eo fa c tu a l ly m e e t ingau th en t i cRu s s i an sonth ef ron t ,thoughin su r g en tp rop ag and ad ep i c t edR epub l i c anp r i son e r sw i thf a c e sl ik eL en ina s 3 4 expon en t so fa“poo r ,d e c ad en tr a c e ”o ra sth e“Mongo l Co s s a ck . ” In

16 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th e i r l e t t e r s ,r eb e lso ld i e r squ i t eo f t ena l lud edtoth e i radv e r s a r i e sa s“Ru s 3 5 s i an s , ” andth es t e r eo typ econ t inu edc i r cu l a t ingin toth ee a r lypo s t -w a r y e a r s .C a tho l i cw r i t e rJo s éM a r í aS a l av e r r í ad e s c r ib edth eRu s s i ana sa “ t av e rnthug , ”m ad edoub lyund e s i r ab l ebyh i simp en e t r ab l eexo t i c i sm andinn a t ed e c e i t fu ln e s s ,p r ed e t e rm in edbyth e“ comp l ex i tyo fh i sr a c i a l m ak e -up ,wh i chf r equ en t lybo rd e r sons av ag e ry . ” Wh enwo rdc am eo f th e inv a s iono fth eSov i e tUn ionon 2 2Jun e1 9 4 1 ,th ew e ek lyp ap e r Mun d or e m ind edi t sr e ad e r sth a tSp a ina l r e adykn ewi t sadv e r s a ry ,“Ru s s i a , wh i ch p e r son if edi t sc ap a c i tyfo rc r im in a lindu c t ionandS a t an i ccomp l i c i ty . ”36 H i t le r , Ge rman Naz i sm ,andSpan i shFa s c i sm(1930–41 ) I t a l i anandG e rm anE ch o e s(1924–36 ) Inth ein i t ia ls tag e so fSpan i shfa s c i sm ,th einfu en c eo f Na t iona lSo c ia l i sm wa sm eag r e .Th ef r s tg roup sd rawntofa s c i smin Mad r idand Ba r c e lonainth e1920 sw e r ea t t ra c t edbyth esh in ingimag eo f Mu s sol in i ’ sfa s c i sma f t e rth e Ma r chonRom e(O c tob e r1922 ) ,i t sr emova lo f l ib e ra lpo l i t i ca le l i t e s ,andi t sm ixo fr evo lu t iona ryapp ea l ,avan t -ga rd e a e s th e t i c s ,andcha r i sma t i cl ead e r sh ip .Th ep ro l if cin t e l l e c tua lE rn e s to G im én ez Caba l l e roin t rodu c edfa s c i smtoth el i t e ra ryavan t -ga rd ein Spa ina f t e rat r iptoRom ein1928 .Acommonapp ea ltoth ec la s s i ch e r itag eo fth eRomanEmp i r ea l so mad eSpan i shfa s c i s t sf e e ltha tth eyw e r e pa r to fan ewr e su rg en c eo f Ca tho l i c in fu s ed M ed i t e r ran eanEu rop e . I ta ly ’ sr e su rg en c eb e cam eak indo f Ho ly G ra i ltha tawok einSpan i sh 37 in t e l l e c tua l sth ed r eamo fan t i l ib e ra lr eb i r thfo rth ena t ion . How ev e r ,th efound e r so fth ef r s tfa s c i s tg roup sinth e1930 s ,Ram i ro L ed e smaand On é s imo R edondo ,b e long edtoayoung e rg en e ra t ion . Th er i s eo f NSDAPinG e rmanyf rom1929ond e c i s iv e lyco lou r edth e i r po l i t i ca lv i ew s ,andth ey w e r efam i l ia rw i thG e rmanlanguag eandcu ltu r e .L ed e smasp en tfou r mon th sin H e id e lb e rgin1930 . As e l f taugh t in t e l l e c tua l ,h e wa sinfu en c edbyth edo c t r in e so fF r i ed r i ch N i e tz s ch e , Ma r t in H e id egg e r ,and O swa ldSp eng l e r .R edondosp en tana cad em i c y ea r(1928–9 )a sSpan i shr ead e ra tth eH ighS choo lo f Comm e r c ein Mannh e im ,d ed i ca t edtoth eana ly s i so fth epo l i t i ca ls t ra t eg i e ss e tin mo t ionby G e rman Ca tho l i c i sm .H er ega rd ed H i t l e ra sad e f end e ro f Ch r i s t ian i tyaga in s t Ma rx i smandadvo ca t edana l l ian c eo fH i t l e rw i th 38 th eZ en t rum(Ca tho l i cC en t r ePa ry )tocon f ron tG e rmancommun i sm . F romth ef r s ti s su eo fh i sn ew w e ek lyL aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t a d o(M a r ch 1 9 3 1 ) ,L ed e sm ag av e in c r e a s inga t t en t iontoth et r a j e c to ryo fG e rm an N a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . Non e th e l e s s ,th eJun t a sd eO f en s iv aN a c ion a lS ind i c a l i s t a( JONS ) ,wh i chh efound ed inO c tob e rth a ty e a r ,w e r eh e av i ly in sp i r ed

In t rodu c t ion 17

by Mu s so l in i ’ sso c i a lco rpo r a t iv i sm .R edondoandh i s fo l low e r s inV a l l ado l id ,wh e r eh eh adb e enpub l i sh ingth ew e ek ly jou rn a lL i b e r t a ds in c eJun e 1 9 3 1 ,w e r ea l sos t rong lyinfu en c edbyth eI t a l i anco rpo r a t iv i s t mod e l . R edondo ’ sg rouph ada mo r eC a tho l i cimp r in tbu tvo i c edan t i -S em i t i c s log an sf romth ev e ryb eg inn ing .Th eagg r e s s iv el angu ag eandsom eo f th em e t apho r sth eyu s edc l e a r lyr e c a l l edth eton eo fN a z i jou rn a l ssu cha s D e rS tü rm e r. How ev e r ,th ean t i -S em i t i ccon t en tu su a l lyr em a in ed w i th in th el im i t so fC a tho l i can t i J ew i shp r e jud i c e , wh i ch m a in lyfoundf au l t w i thth eJ ew i shr e l ig ionr a th e rth anth eb io log i c a lo r ig in so fJ ew s . Thoughth ee cho e sf rom Rom er e sound ed w i thg r ea t e rs t r eng thin th eea r so fSpan i shfa s c i s t s , Na t iona lSo c ia l i smcam eon s tag ea sasp e c ta cu la r mod e lo fna t iona lr e su rg en c e .I t wa sg round edin H i t l e r ’ shyp no t iz ingcha r i smaa sal ead e r whohadcap tu r edth eh ea r to fth ep eop l e , a sw e l la sh i sab i l i tyto w invo t e sand m emb e r sf rombo thex t r em e so f 39 th epo l i t i ca lsp e c t rum . F ragm en t so fM e inK amp f w e r ef r s tt ran s la t ed inth epag e so fL i b e r t ad, wh i ch wa spa r t i cu la r lyin t e r e s t edin Naz iag i 40 ta t ions t ra t eg i e s . F rom F eb rua ry1933 on ,adm i ra t ionfo rH i t l e rsp r eada c ro s sth e en t i r eSpan i shan t i -R epub l i canr igh tw ing ,f rom Ca tho l i c sto mona r ch i s t s .Th eysawth en ew G e rmanchan c e l lo ra sth es tanda rd -b ea r e r o faun i t edan t i -Ma rx i s tandna t iona l i s tf ron ttha tt ran s c end edpa r ty l in e s .L ed e smacon s id e r ed H i t l e rag en iu so fpo l i t i ca lag i ta t ionanda p ragma t i cs ta t e sman , whohads e iz edpow e rw i thf ew e rcon c e s s ion s 41 toth eChu r chandth econ s e rva t iv e sthan Mu s so l in ihad mad eea r l i e r . Span i shfa s c i s t s mo s tadm i r edhowna t iona lso l ida r i tyhadb e eno r ch e st ra t eda roundacha r i sma t i cl ead e r ,bu tth eya l soenv i ed H i t l e r ’ sbo ld n e s sinimpo s ingh i spo l i t i ca lw i l lov e rth econ s t ra in t so fin t e rna t iona l 42 law .G e rmany ’ sr eb i r thshon ea sanexamp l efo rad e cad en tSpa in , and th ef r s texp l i c i t lyfa s c i s tSpan i sh w e ek lyjou rna l ,E lF a s c i o,app ea r ed in Mad r idin Ma r ch1933 .Th ejou rna lga th e r eda roundi tanumb e ro f in t e l l e c tua l sandpo l i t i ca la c t iv i s t sf romth erad i ca lr igh t whosawth e Naz ipow e rg raba sp roo fo fth ei r r e s i s t ib l e mod e rn i tyo ffa s c i sm .43 Naz ira c i smand“pagan i sm”ind e ed po s eda d i l emmafo rsom e adm i r e r so fH i t l e r . Wh i l ed e ta ch ingth em s e lv e sf romb io log i ca lan t i S em i t i sm ,som ea t t emp t edtoe labo ra t ea m e taphy s i ca lth eo ryo fnat iona l so c ia l i s tra c i smbyequa t ingi tw i thth ecu l tu ra landh i s to r i ca l 44 founda t iono fna t iona l i ty .Th i s mad ei texpo r tab l etoo th e rcoun t r i e s . Span i shfa s c i s t sc la im edtha tSpan i shp eop l ed i s l ik edth eJ ew sandexp r e s s edth e i rund e r s tand ingo fth eG e rmanin t e rp r e ta t iono faun iv e rsa lp r o b l em, wh i chinSpa in man i f e s t edi t s e l fs imp lya sacon f e s s iona l i s su e .Thu s ,th eyd i sp lay edab en evo l en ta t t i tud etowa rd sth ef r s ts eg 45 r ega t ion i s tm ea su r e sadop t edbyth e Naz ir eg im eaga in s tth eJ ew s .

18 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ef r s tSp an i shp a r a f a s c i s tandf a s c i s tt r av e l l e r sto N a z iG e rm any p rop ag a t eds im i l a rv i ew s .46 Th econ s e rv a t iv ew r i t e r and un iv e r s i ty p ro f e s so rV i c en t eG ayv i s i t ed G e rm anyin1 9 3 3 .Thoughh em i s t ru s t ed b io log i c a lr a c i smandexp r e s s edh i sp r e f e r en c efo ra“m i ld e r ”au tho r i t a ri an i sm ,h ea l soju s t if ede s t ab l i shm en to fth ef r s tcon c en t r a t ionc amp s 4 7 a sin s t i tu t ion sto“ r e edu c a t e ”b ad G e rm an s . On ey e a rl a t e r ,F a l ang i s t l eg a lexp e r tJu anB en ey toa l soadvo c a t edth en e edto“d e l im i t ”th einfu en c eo fJ ew sandC a tho l i c sinpub l i ca f f a i r sa sas t r a t egyto“n a t ion a l i z e po l i t i c s . ”H es awth en ew G e rm anya san ewd im en s iono fEu rop e an id en t i ty .Th eN a z is t rugg l etoov e r com e“bou rg eo i s ”no t ion so fan a t ion a l s t a t em e rg edw i thth en ew id e ao fr a c eth a tf ed in toan ew m e an ingo fth e 4 8 t e rm“ emp i r e . ” O th e rv i s i to r stoth eTh i rdR e i chag r e edonth a tpo in t . R amónd eR a to w a sas tud en tf roma m idd l e c l a s sb a ckg round whor eg a rd ed N a t ion a lSo c i a l i sma sap rom i s ingfu tu r efo rEu rop e anyou th , who w e r eb e s i eg edby Ma rx i sm .Fu r th e rmo r e ,th eSpan i sh p eop l e w e r eh a rd lyqu a l if edto m ak e mo r a l judgm en t son N a z ian t i -S em i t i sm , b e c au s eth e“ J ew i shp rob l em ”h adb e enab s en tf romSp an i shl i f es in c e 4 9 1 4 9 2 . Inanyev en t ,th eF a l ang i s tjou rn a lL i b e r t a din s i s t edin1 9 3 4 ,th e G e rm anFüh r e r ’ san t i commun i smr ed e em edh i sp ag ane r ro r s : Sofa r. . .th eH i t l e rr eg im eha sno t wonth econfd en c eo fth e Ch r i s t ian W e s t e rn wo r ld .Y e t ,a l lCa tho l i c scana tl ea s tcon c ed ew i thi ttha tBo l sh ev i c a th e i smand m e r c i l e s sba rba r ian i sma r ed iam e t r i ca l lyoppo s edtoCh r i s t ’ s cau s e .S in c ew ea l lag r e etha tth er ea l i tyo fH i t l e r ’ sp r e s en c ei sas t rong ba r r i e raga in s tCommun i s th e l l :…  L e tu sCa tho l i c sadvo ca t eth econv e r5 0 s iono fp ro t e s tan to rpagan Na t iona lSo c ia l i sm ,bu tno ti t sco l lap s e !

F romJanua ry1933on , mo s to f th er igh t -w ingan t i -R epub l i canp r e s swa s equa l lysympa th e t i ctowa rd sH i t l e r . Th e mona r ch i s t s ,p ro to fa s c i s t s , andt rad i t iona l i s t s whoga th e r eda roundth ejou rna lA c c i ónE sp añ o l a w e r egoodp roo fo fi t .G e rman“na t iona lr eb i r th”andth e mod e rn i tyo f Naz i ma s sp e r fo rman c e sa l sofa s c ina t edSpan i shr igh t -w ingrad i ca l s . Th eyadm i r edhow Naz i smp r io r i t iz edth ena t iona lcommun i tyov e r o th e rva lu e s .51 Som em emb e r so fA c c iónE spaño laev ensub s c r ib edto Naz ieug en i c sth eo r i e s ,bu t mo s thadr e s e rva t ion sabou t Naz i“pagani sm”andan t i cap i ta l i s trh e to r i c .Th eya l sod i s l ik edhowth e NSDAP hadcom etopow e rth roughth eba l lo tbox e s ;Span i shan t i -R epub l i can s p r e f e r r eda m i l i ta rycoupd ’ é ta t .52 Non e th e l e s s , mo s tSp an i shf a s c i s t ss t i l ls awth eI t a l i an mod e la sth e mo s tapp rop r i a t eop t ionfo raC a tho l i ccoun t ry .A c co rd ing ly ,th eF a l ang e E sp año l a(Sp an i shPh a l anx )p a r ty( 1 9 3 3 –6 )d evo t ed mu ch mo r ea t t en t iontoI t a ly ,andev enF r an c e ,th antoG e rm any .Th em a inSp an i shf a s c i s t

In t rodu c t ion 19

l e ad e rf rom O c tob e r1 9 3 3 ,Jo s éAn ton ioP r imod eR iv e r a ,w a sinv i t edby th eNSDAP tov i s i tG e rm any in M ay1 9 3 4 .H em e tb r i efyw i thsom eo f i t s l e ad e r s ,in c lud ing H i t l e rh im s e l fandA l f r edRo s enb e rg , whor e c a l l edth e m e e t inginh i sd i a rytwoy e a r sl a t e r .Th eyoungSp an i shf a s c i s t ,“ c l ev e r andc l e a r -m ind ed ;C a tho l i c ,no tc l e r i c a l ;n a t ion a l i s t ,no tdyn a s t i c , ”h ad imp r e s s edh im . How ev e r ,Ro s enb e rga l sono t edth a t“ th eyoungP r imo d eR iv e r a ”h adavo id edanycomm en tonth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion .53 Onh i sr e tu rntoSp a in ,Jo s éAn ton ioP r imod eR iv e r aw a sa c tu a l lyr a th e rs c ep t i c a l 5 4 abou tN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . How ev e r ,o th e rSp an i shf a s c i s t sa l sor ev e r s ed th e i rin i t i a ladm i r a t ionfo rN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sma f t e rh av ingv i s i t ed G e r m any .Th ejou rn a l i s t An ton ioB e rmúd e z -C añ e t e , whojo in edth eJONS in1 9 3 1andl a t e rab andon edth eg roup ,h adb e ena t t r a c t edby H i t l e rand emb r a c edan t i -S em i t i ct en e t s .A f t e rh i st im e( f rom1 9 3 2toJ anu a ry1 9 3 5 ) a sp r e s sco r r e spond en t inB e r l in ,B e rmúd e z -C añ e t eend edupr epud i a t ing 5 5 r a c i sm ,a th e i sm ,andth e“ so c i a l i s t ”t end en c i e so fN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . Bo thth eFa lang eandth ecomb in edFE JONSpa r tya f t e rm e rg ing w i thth eJONS(F eb rua ry1934 ) look edtoRom era th e rthantoB e r l in ,e sp e c ia l ly wh enth eyn e ed edex t e rna lfnan c ing .Th eFa lang i s tpo e tF ede r i cod eU r ru t ia wo rk eda sa jou rna l i s tfo rth en ew spap e rIn f o rm a c i on e s , wh i chhadr e c e iv edsub s id i e sf romB e r l ins in c e1934top ropaga t ean56 t i -S em i t i candp ro -Naz ip ropagandaa r t i c l e s . Som eG e rmancon su la t e s a l sod i s t r ibu t ed Naz il eaf e t sandbook sinSpan i shtolo ca lFa lang i s t g roup s .Thoughs t rongl ink sa l soex i s t edb e tw e enFa lang i s tg roup sand 57 lo ca lchap t e r so fth e NSDAPFo r e ign O rgan iza t ionb ran ch , G e rman d ip loma cyhadl i t t l ei fanyd i r e c tcon ta c tw i thth eFa lang i s tl ead e r s .R ei chd ip loma t sinSpa in w e r eigno ran to fth econ sp i ra c i e stoov e r th row th egov e rnm en tinth esp r ingo f1936 .M eanwh i l e , Mu s so l in i wa s mak ingg en e rou sdona t ion so f mon eyanda rm stoth em i l i ta rycon sp i ra cy ands ev e ra lo fth e mona r ch i candt rad i t iona l i s tl ead e r sinvo lv edini t . F a s c in a t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch(1936–41 ) Th eou tb r eako fth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ma rk edatu rn ingpo in tinth i s s to ry .I ti sw e l lknowntha tth em i l i ta ryin su rg en t sw e r eab l etod e l iv e r th e i rd emandfo rh e lpd i r e c t lyto H i t l e rinBay r eu thby25Ju ly1936 . G e rmanyf r s ts en ta i rp lan e s ,m i l i ta rysupp l i e s ,andanexp ed i t iona ry co rp s :th e Condo rL eg ion ,compo s ed ma in lyo fav ia to r sandg round suppo r tp e r sonn e l .La t e ron ,G e rmanya l sop rov id edfnan c ia landd ip 58 loma t i csuppo r t . Th efn e s thou ro fN a z iinfu en c eonSp an i shf a s c i sm w a sf rom1 9 3 7to 1 9 4 2 , int and emw i th in c r e a s inge conom i c ,cu l tu r a l ,andd ip lom a t i ccoop e r a t ionb e tw e enth e“n ew ”Sp a inandth eTh i rdR e i ch .Fo rth eG e rm an s ,

20 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th er e l a t ion sh ip w a sas t r a t eg i con e .H i t l e randh i sm in i s t e r shop edto in c lud eSp a ininth ee conom i cf r am eo fth eN ewEu rop e anO rd e r ,und e r G e rm angu id an c e .Cu l tu r eandid eo logyp l ay eda m ino r ,thoughno ti rr e l ev an t ,ro l einth i s ,soex ch ang e sin c r e a s ed .Do z en so fF a l ang i s tl e ad e r s andp a r tyo ff c i a l sb eg ant r av e l l ingtoG e rm anyin1 9 3 7tos t r eng th ent i e s w i thth e NSDAP .Th eyu s edth eN a z iP a r typ r e s sandp rop ag and a ,a long w i thth eyou thand wom en ’ ss e c t ion sa sa mod e lfo rth eF r en t ed eJuv entud e s(Y ou thF ron t )in1 9 4 0 .Th eSp an i shr e l i e fo rg an i z a t ionAux i l ioSo c i a l(So c i a lA id )w a sa l sog r e a t ly in sp i r edbyth eG e rm an W in t e rh i l f e ,and th eBund D eu t s ch e rM äd e lb e c am eat emp l a t efo renh an c ingth e i rF e m a l eS e c t ion .59 Sp an i shv i s i to r sw e r eu su a l lyf a s c in a t edbyG e rm an w e l f a r eandso c i a ld i s c ip l in e ,byth em a s sr a l l i e s ,th en ew mo to rw ay s ,and ev e ry th ingr e l a t edtot e chno log i c a lp rog r e s s .Th e i rp e r c ep t ion so fG e r m an mod e rn i tyr e s emb l edtho s eo fm anyB r i t i sht r av e l l e r sa tth a tt im e .60 In t e l l e c tua l ex chang e s mu l t ip l i ed un t i l 1944 :G e rman un iv e r s i ty town sb e cam eacommond e s t ina t ionfo rSpan i sha cad em i c s ,su cha s h ea l thexp e r t s whosp en tlongp e r iod sinB e r l in , Mun i ch ,o rV i enna .61 Th e Naz is ta t ea t t emp t edtoin c r ea s ei t sinfu en c eonSpan i shpub l i c op in ionbysub s id iz ingda i lyn ew spap e r sandrad ios ta t ion s .L eaf e t s w e r ed i s t r ibu t ed p r e s en t ing H i t l e ra sth esav iou ro f Eu rop eaga in s t Bo l sh ev i smanda mod e rn Ch r i s t iankn igh t -p ro t e c to ro fc iv i l iza t ion .62 S t rongl ink sw e r efo rg ed w i thF ran co i s tcu l tu ra lin s t i tu t ion s ,su cha s th eIn s t i tu tod eE s tud io sPo l í t i co s( In s t i tu t eo fPo l i t i ca lS tud i e s ,1939 ) , th rough wh i ch Naz iid ea sonpo l i t i ca lth eo ry ,th eso c ia ls c i en c e s ,and , pa r t i cu la r ly ,th eph i lo sophyo flawcou ldp en e t ra t eSpa in .Th e s em ea su r e shadala s t inginfu en c eons ev e ra lo fth ein t e l l e c tua l s whola idth e 63 th eo r e t i ca lfounda t ion so fth eF ran co i s t“N ewS ta t e .” S t r a t eg i ccoop e r a t ionandid eo log i c a lag r e em en timp l i edth a tapo rt iono fth eF r an co i s tpo l i t i c a landin t e l l e c tu a le l i t ew a sintun ew i thth e Th i rd R e i ch .Th i sd idno tn e c e s s a r i lyen t a i lfu l l -f edg edid en t if c a t ion w i thG e rm ans t r a t eg i cin t e r e s t s ,a s mo s tF a l ang i s t sp r e f e r r edfu l lb e l l ige r en cy .Fo rm anysuppo r t e r so fF r an co ,G e rm anoph i l ea t t i tud e sw e r eno t synonymou sw i th N a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm . Amongpo r t ion so fth eSp an i sh so c i a le l i t e s ,th em i l i t a ry ,andth eC a tho l i cr igh tth e r ew a sd e ep roo t ed symp a thyfo rG e rm any , wh i chcou ldb et r a c edb a cka tl e a s ttoth eF i r s t W o r ld W a r .Th i sw a sr e in fo r c edbyth epo l i t i c a ladm i r a t ionth a t mo s to f th emf e l tfo rH i t l e r ,a sw e l la sth e i rf a s c in a t ion w i thth eW eh rm a ch t ,bu t i tw a sno tw i thou tcon t r ad i c t ion s .InS ep t emb e r1 9 3 9 ,m anyF a l ang i s t s w e r esho ck edbyth es ign ingo fth e Mo lo tov -R ibb en t ropP a c tandexp r e s s edth e i rd i s app rov a lo fth eN a z iinv a s iono fC a tho l i cPo l and .64 How ev e r ,th e s er e s e rva t ion squ i ck lyvan i sh eda f t e rth eG e rmanconqu e s to fF ran c einJun e1940 .Fa s c ina t ion w i thth eW eh rma ch tin f e c t ed

In t rodu c t ion 21

Fa lang i s t s ,th em i l i ta ry ,andev en manyan t i -Fa lang i s ta rmyo ff c e r s , wholong edtoen t e rth e wa ronth e Ax i ss id e .65 Som et rad i t iona l i s t s r ega rd ed H i t l e ra sth ega t ek e ep e ro f Ch r i s t ianEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion aga in s tth ecommun i s tth r ea t .Thou sand so f“p rov i s iona l”l i eu t enan t s anden s ign s ,tho s epoo r lyt ra in ed NCO s whohadfough tinth eF ranco i s ta rmydu r ingth eC iv i lW a r ,sha r eds im i la rv i ew s . Mo s to fth emad h e r edtoba s i cva lu e ssu cha st rad i t ion ,r e l ig ion ,andh i e ra r chy .66 Th ey adm i r ed G e rmany ’ sm i l i ta ry m igh t , wh i ch wa snowd i r e c t edaga in s t F ran c eandG r ea tB r i ta in ,th ea l l eg ed“h i s to r i ca len em i e s”o fSpa in . P ra i s efo r Na t iona lSo c ia l i smand H i t l e r mu l t ip l i ed inFa lang i s tp ropagandadu r ing th eea r ly1940 s .H ewa sr ega rd eda sab r i l l ian tso ld i e rand ac la i rvoyan ts t ra t eg i s t . An t i -S em i t i cton e sw e r eno tab s en tf romtha t 67 rh e to r i c . Th e Naz ip ropaganda ma ch in e rycon t inu edtofundn ew s pap e r s ,nov e l s ,andbook s .Rad i ca lFa lang i s t ssom e t im e sapp roa ch ed th eG e rmancon su la t e sandin s t i tu t ion sins ea r cho fr e cogn i t ion , wh i l e s ev e ra lFa lang i s tg roup sadop t ed Naz isymbo l sandlaun ch edboy co t t s 68 aga in s tB r i t i shin t e r e s t s . On esu chg roup ,th e“C ru sad e r saga in s tRu s s ia ,”s en talong m emo randumtoth eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id 69 inJu ly1941 ,a sk ingfo r Naz ih e lp . A sf e rv en tna t iona l i s t s ,how ev e r , rad i ca lFa lang i s t sw e r er e lu c tan ttos e rv ea sin s t rum en t sfo rG e rman in t e r e s t s .Ev entho s e whoapp roa ch edth eTh i rdR e i chins ea r cho fpo l i t i ca lsuppo r tha rd lyda r edqu e s t ionF ran co ´ sl ead e r sh ipandin s i s t ed onp r e s e rv ingth eCh r i s t iancha ra c t e ro fSpan i shfa s c i sm . Infa c t ,ha rd lyanySpan i sh Na t iona lSo c ia l i s t sinSpa ininth eea r ly 1940 s wou ldgosofa ra stoqu e s t ionth e ma in s t r eamt en e t so fCa tho l i c fa s c i sm .Th e i rrad i ca l iz edr e j e c t iono fJ ew s wa ss t i l lcon f e s s iona land t rad i t iona l ,bu tno tb io log i ca l lyba s ed . Af ewau tho r ssu c cumb edto th einfu en c eo fG e rmaneug en i c sth eo r i e sand manag edto m e rg eb i op sy cho logy w i thth et en e t so fC e sa r eLomb ro so .M i l i ta ryp sy ch ia t r i s t An ton ioV a l l e jo -Nág e ra ,fo rexamp l e ,t r i edtod emon s t ra t eth eS em i t i c o r ig in so fth eSpan i shl e f tandr e con c i l eh i ss en s eo fb io log i ca ld e t e rm in i sm w i thanov e ra r ch ingcon c ep to fH i sp an id ad– Span i shn e s s– ba s edoncu l tu r eandr e l ig iou scon f e s s ion .70 In1939– 40 ,th e r ew e r e many“o rd ina rySpan ia rd s”f romd i f f e r en tso c ia landpo l i t i ca lba ckg round s whoop en lysympa th iz ed w i thth eTh i rd R e i ch . Doz en so fth emtooki tuponth em s e lv e sto w r i t etoth eG e rman emba s syin Mad r idonth eo c ca s iono fth eFüh r e r ’ sb i r thday( 20 Ap r i l ) in1940and1941 .S ev e ra l mo r el e t t e r sa r r iv eda tth eemba s sya f t e rth e G e rmanconqu e s to fF ran c e .Th e s e mom en t sco in c id ed w i thSpan i sh d e c la ra t ion so fnon -b e l l ig e r en cyandth eFa lang i s to f f en s iv etoin c r ea s e i t spow e rw i th inth er eg im e . Many mo r el e t t e r sw e r er e c e iv eda f t e r22 Jun e1941 , wh enth eW eh rma ch tinvad edth eSov i e tUn ion .Th es end e r s

22 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fth e s em i s s iv e sb e long edtoth em idd l eandlow e r -m idd l ec la s s e s : l ib e ra lp ro f e s s iona l s ,c iv i ls e rvan t s ,c iv i l ian emp loy e e s , and b lu e 71 co l la r wo rk e r s . Manyo fth em w e r eC iv i lW a rv e t e ran so fth eF ran co i s t a rmyandhadb e env i c t im so f“R edT e r ro r .”Th eysaw H i t l e ra sth e i r av eng ingang e l .Su chexp r e s s ion so fp ro -G e rmanen thu s ia smsugg e s t tha tG e rmanp ropagandae f fo r t sfoundasympa th e t i caud i en c e“ f rom b e low ,”andno ton lyinrad i ca lFa lang i s t s .72 C e r ta in ly ,th el e t t e r sf tw i thth eg en e ra lc l ima t eo fs c ep t i c i smtowa rd sl ib e ra ld emo c ra cy ,th eadm i ra t ionfo rG e rmanpow e r ,andth e con fu s edexp e c ta t ion so fau tho r i ta r ianr eg en e ra t iontha tsp r eada c ro s s 73 con t in en ta lEu rop edu r ingth es e condha l fo f1940 . Innon -b e l l ig e r en t Spa in ,th i st r endhadi t sownpa r t i cu la rfavou r .Som ew e r eg ra t e fu l fo rG e rmansuppo r tdu r ingth eSpan i shconf i c t .O th e r sa cknow l edg ed tha tth eTh i rdR e i ch wa sabou ttod e f ea tSpa in ’ s ma in“h i s to r i ca len em i e s .”S t i l lo th e r sr ega rd edth eG e rmanFüh r e ra sth ea r ch i t e c to fa Eu rop ean N ew O rd e rtha tSpa in wou lden r i ch w i thi t s Ca tho l i cimp r in t .74 Manya l soadh e r edtoth efgh taga in s tl ib e ra ld emo c ra cyand 75 “ Juda i sm ,” wh i chth eyequa t ed w i thin t e rna t iona lcap i ta l i sm . “Popu l a r ”Sp an i shen thu s i a smfo rH i t l e rc l im ax eda tth eb eg inn ingo f Op e r a t ionB a rb a ro s s a ,thoughth e mo t iv a t ion so fG e rm anoph i l e sb e fo r e anda f t e r1 9 4 1s c a r c e lych ang ed .Sp an i shf a s c i s t sr a t if edth e i re a r l i e rad m i r a t ionfo rH i t l e r .R ad i c a lF a l ang i s t ss t i l lexp e c t edth a t jo in ingth eG e rm an w a re f fo r t wou lden ab l eth emtofu lf lth e i ra sp i r a t ion so fw i e ld ing fu l lpow e rw i th inth er eg im e .C a tho l i c sandsom e mon a r ch i s t sr eg a rd ed th eW eh rm a ch ta s God ’ sin s t rum en ttos l ayth e“ r e in c a rn a t iono fLu c i f e r ”( commun i sm )andt e a chB r i t a inah a rdl e s son .Th eya l sohop edth a t th roughth i sfgh tag a in s tth eAn t i ch r i s t ,N a z iG e rm any wou ldr ed e em i t s e l ff romth eo r ig in a ls ino f i t sp ag ann a tu r e .On c e“ th eB e a s t ”h adb e en d e s t roy ed ,th e Th i rd R e i ch wou ldexp e r i en c er e l ig iou sconv e r s ion .76 C a r l i s tt r ad i t ion a l i s t s ,th e mo s tr e lu c t an ttoa c c ep tN a z ia th e i sm ,a l so jo in edth ep ro -G e rm anyf e rvou rinhop e so f“ ann ih i l a t ingcommun i sm ” 7 7 a long s id eth er e s to fth e“Ch r i s t i an wo r ld . ” Th e wo r ld w a rr ep r e s en t ed afgh tb e tw e end emo c r a cy ,a sth ec r ad l eo fcommun i sm ,andth en a 7 8 t ion s whound e r s toodth e i r“h i s to r i c a ld e s t iny . ” Un l ik eth eF a l ang i s t s , how ev e r ,th eC a r l i s t sin s i s t edonth e i rG e rm anoph i l es t an c edu r ingth e S e cond W o r ld W a rbu tavo id edr e f e r en c etoth ech a r i sm a t i cl e ad e r sh ip o fH i t l e r , who w a snow m e r e lyr eg a rd eda sth eK a i s e r ’ sh e i r .79

2Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty !

Ex te rm ina t ionandB ru ta l iza t ion : Ope ra t ionBa rba ro s sa and  a  D i f fe ren tK indo fW a r On 22Jun e1941 ,19a rmou r edd iv i s ion s ,14 mo to r iz edd iv i s ion s ,and 1 19in fan t ryd iv i s ion so fth eW eh rma ch tandth eW a f f en -SS ,a long w i th som e Roman iant roop s ,invad edth eSov i e t Un ion w i thou t wa rn ing . A l tog e th e r ,3 ,300 ,000 m en ,3 ,325a rmou r edv eh i c l e s ,600 ,000v eh i c l e s , and625 ,000ho r s e spa r t i c ipa t edinth e Ax i scampa ign .I tb egan w i th s t r ik ing lyd i f f e r en tf ea tu r e sf romtho s eo fo th e rf ron t s wh e r eth eG e r manA rmy wa so rhadb e enengag ed . Un t i lth en ,onth eW e s t e rnF ron t andin No rway , No r th A f r i ca ,andpa r to fth eBa lkan s ,th eW eh rma ch t hadg en e ra l lycomp l i ed w i thth eno rm so fth eG en eva Conv en t ion . Onth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,how ev e r ,th eTh i rd R e i chun l ea sh edaqua l i tat iv e lyd i f f e r en ttyp eo f wa raga in s tth ecommun i s t wo r ldv i ew , wh i chi t sough ttoe rad i ca t ebyex t e rm ina t ingi t sd e f end e r s .I t wa sa wa raga in s t ap eop l eo ras e to fp eop l e s–Ru s s ian s ,S lav s ,ando th e r s–con s id e r ed ra c ia l lyin f e r io rba s edonb io log i ca lpo s tu la t e s .A f t e re l im ina t ingth e “ ex c e s s”po r t iono fth epopu la t ion ,th er ema ind e r wou ldb er edu c ed tos em i s lav e ryandtop rov i s ion ingth eTh i rdR e i ch w i thraw ma t e r ia l s o rfood .M eanwh i l eth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion , wh i chhadb e enshu tin to gh e t to s , wou ldb ek i l l eden ma s s e .A f t e radop t iono fth e“F ina lSo lut ion”inJanua ry1942 ,th i sinvo lv edsy s t ema t i cd epo r ta t iontoex t e rm i na t ioncamp s .1 Th ea rm edun i t sund e rd i r e c t Naz icommand–th eSSandth eta sk fo r c e so rE in sa tzg rupp en– w e r eno tth eon lyon e sr e spon s ib l efo rth e ex t e rm ina t ion .Th er egu la rW eh rma ch tfo r c e sa l sopa r t i c ipa t edinth i s e thn i cc l ean s ing ,andno ta lway s inas e conda rycapa c i ty .InB e r l inon30 Ma r ch1941 ,H i t l e rh im s e l fhadin fo rm eda lmo s t250 W eh rma ch tg en e ra l s ,th ecommand e r so fth et roop scomm i t t edto Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa ,

24 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fh i s wa rp lan s .Th e s ein c lud edth eg en e ra l sincommando fth eth r e e A rmy G roup s(H e e r e sg rupp en )o fth eO s th e e r(No r th ,C en t r e ,and Sou th ) ,th eLu f twa f f eg roup s ,th ecommand e r so fth ea rmou r edco rp s andth e Ch i e f so fth eG en e ra lS ta f f .H i t l e rexp la in edh i sra c ia l wo r ld v i ewandr ev ea l edtha tth ecampa ign wou ldb eon eo fex t e rm ina t ion , a sth e“Bo l sh ev ikcomm i s sa r sandth ecommun i s tin t e l l ig en t s i a ”hadto b ee l im ina t ed .Th eW eh rma ch tshou ldno tcon s id e rth eBo l sh ev ika sa “ com rad e ,a s wa su sua lono th e rf ron t s .”Th i s wa sa wa ro f“ twooppo s 2 ing wo r ldv i ew s”and wou ldhav eacomp l e t e lyd i f f e r en tna tu r e . Mo s t o fth eg en e ra l sd emon s t ra t edcon fo rm i ty ;thoughf ew w e r e Naz i s ,th ey sha r edad emon iz edv i s iono fBo l sh ev i smandacu l tu ra lcon t emp tfo r th eS lav i cp eop l e s .Add i t iona l ly ,th eysawtha tth econqu e s to fth eEa s t e rnEmp i r e–av i s ionth eyhadch e r i sh eds in c eth eendo fth en in e t e en th 3 c en tu ry– wa sfna l ly w i th inth e i rr ea ch . H i t l e r ’ sin t en t ion sw e r esumm edupsho r t lya f t e rinas e r i e so fins t ru c t ion stha tw e r ei s su edtoth et roop s ju s tp r io rtoinva s ion , wh i cha h i s to r iog raph e rla t e rdubb eda sth e“ c r im ina lo rd e r s .”Th eyhado r ig ina t edind i r e c t iv e sd i c ta t edbyth eFüh r e ron18 D e c emb e r1940–th e r e w e r efou rinth efna lv e r s ion– wh i ch w e r ed i s cu s s edons ev e ra lo c cas ion sbyth eH igh Commando fth eW eh rma ch t(Ob e rkommandod e r W eh rma ch t , OKW )andth eH igh Commando fth eA rmy(Ob e rkommandod e sH e e r e s , OKH ) .4 Th e s einvo lv edth efo l low ing : 1 . Th er egu la t iono fE in sa tzg rupp ena c t iv i ty ,o rta skfo r c e sund e r th eSSandSD .Th i sco l labo ra t ionag r e em en t wa scommun i ca t edtoth e t roop son28 Ap r i l1941 .Ba s edonth e i rpa r tn e r sh ips in c eth econqu e s t o fPo land ,th eE in sa tzg rupp en w e r eau tho r iz edtoop e ra t ef r e e ly w i th in th ea r ea scon t ro l l edbyth eW eh rma ch t .Th e s eun i t sca r r i edou tth eex e cu t iono fc e r ta inpopu la t iong roup s ,J ew sinpa r t i cu la r .Th eycou ld a c tw i thcomp l e t eau tonomy ,an sw e r ingtoth er egu la ra rmyon lyin ma t t e r so fba s i clog i s t i c s( lodg ingandsupp l i e s ) . Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa con s t i tu t edth efna lth ru s ttowa rd sth ei r r ev e r s ib l erad i ca l iza t iono f an t i -S em i t i cpo l i t i c sinth eTh i rdR e i ch .Th ela rg eJ ew i shpopu la t ion s l iv ingino c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sl edth e Naz il ead e r stopond e r wha t wa s tob edon eabou tth em .Th i sb e cam ey e tano th e rs t epp ings ton eonth e pa ththa thadb e enin i t ia t edinth esp r ingo f1939 .A ttha tt im e ,H i t l e r hadau tho r iz edth eann ih i la t iono fphy s i ca l lyand m en ta l lyd i sab l ed p eop l einth eR e i ch ,th enapp rov ed“ savag eeu thana s ia” p rog ramm e s . T en so fthou sand so fPo l i shc iv i l ian sw e r eex e cu t ed ,inap ro c e s stha t appa r en t lycu lm ina t edon ey ea rla t e rw i thp lan stoex t e rm ina t eth em i ll ion so fSov i e tc i t iz en scaugh tupin Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa . InJu ly1941 ,H i t l e rin fo rm edR e inha rd H eyd r i chtha tth et im ehad com efo rth ed efn i t iv eex t e rm ina t iono fth eJ ew s . Th e s eex e cu t ion

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 25

o rd e r sinvo lv edth es e r iou slog i s t i ca lcha l l eng eo fk i l l ingt en so fthousand so fp eop l ee ff c i en t ly .Th e r e fo r e ,an ews t ep wa stak en .S ev e ra l exp e r im en t sw e r eca r r i edou tw i thp r i son e r so f wa rf romS ep t emb e rto D e c emb e r1941 . Camp sandc r ema to r ium sw e r ep r epa r ed ,andt ran spo r ta t ion wa so rgan iz edtoimp l em en tth eob j e c t iv eo fann ih i la t inga l l th eJ ew sinth eEu rop eant e r r i to rydom ina t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch .Op e r a t ion s wou ldb eg ininJanua ry1942 ,invo lv ingap ro c e s so fsy s t ema t i c d epo r ta t ionand mu rd e rtha t wou ldu t i l iz eth ecamp sd e s ign edsp e c i fi ca l lyfo rth i spu rpo s e ,a long w i thsp e c ia lex t e rm ina t ionun i t sinSov i e t 5 t e r r i to ry . A s Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s sa wa sun l ea sh ed ,th eE in sa tzg rupp enco rp s , compo s edo fsom eth r e ethou sand m end i s t r ibu t edin tofou ra r ea s(A , B ,C ,and D )fo l low edinth er ea rgua rdino rd e rtoid en t i fy ,ga th e r ,and 6 ex e cu t ea l lJ ew i sh ma l e sa ff l ia t ed w i thth eSov i e tr eg im e . Soonth e i r ob j e c t iv eexpand edtoin c lud ea l lJ ew s . Th ec l ea r ma jo r i tyo fSov i e t J ew sw e r ek i l l eddu r ingth ef r s tn in e mon th so fth e wa r ,b e fo r eth e ex t e rm ina t ioncampsy s t emb e cam eop e ra t iv e .Th enumb e ro fE in sa tz g rupp env i c t im s wa sc e r ta in lynof ew e rthanth r e ehund r edthou sand p eop l e ,a long w i thano th e rf f tythou sandv i c t im so fth eSSand O rd e r Po l i c e(O rdnung spo l iz e i ) .Add edtoth e s ew e r eth ev i c t im so fth eW eh rma ch tun i t s ,lo ca lo c cupy ingau tho r i t i e sandaux i l ia ryfo r c e s ,J ew i sh wa rp r i son e r s ,thou sand so fJ ew i shc iv i l ian sk i l l edth roughs ta rva t ion andd i s ea s einth egh e t to s ,and mo r ethan150 ,000 v i c t im sinth et e r r i 7 to ryund e rRoman iancon t ro l . T o wha td eg r e ed idth eso ld i e r so fth eW eh rma ch tpa r t i c ipa t einth e k i l l ingand ma s sd epo r ta t iono fth eJ ew i shpopu la t ioninth eEa s t ?A l l comba tan t skn ewtha tth ee thn i ccommun i tyto wh i ch Naz i sma sp i r ed ex c lud edth eJ ew i shp eop l e ,anda l lw e r eexpo s edtoacon s tan tba r rag e o fp ropagandaequa t ingcommun i sm w i thJuda i smand A s ianba rba8 r i sm . Ann ih i la t ion wa sth e r e fo r eanop t ion .Th i sr ep r e s en ta t iono fr e a l i tytookroo tamong manyso ld i e r s . Wh encomb in ed w i thth es ta t e o f wa randb ru ta l iz ingcond i t ion s ,i tpav edth e wayfo rth et ran s i t ion 9 f romo rd e rtoex e cu t ion . Th e r e wa sc lo s eco l labo ra t ionamongG e rman c iv i lande conom i cadm in i s t ra t ion s ,th epo l i c e ,th eSS ,and W eh rma ch t 10 command . 2 .P r io rtoinva s iono fth e USSR ,G e rmant roop sr e c e iv edth e“D i r e c t iv e sfo rT roopCondu c tinRu s s ia”(“R i ch t l in i enfü rda sV e rha l t en d e rT rupp ein Ru s s land” ) ,f romth e OKWon 19 May1941 . Th e s e d i r e c t iv e sd efn edBo l sh ev i sma s“ th e mo r ta len emyo fth eG e rman na t iona lso c ia l i s tp eop l e ,”th e r ebyju s t i fy ing“ fo r c e fu landru th l e s s p ro c edu r e s”aga in s t“ag i ta to r s , gu e r r i l la s ,sabo t eu r sand Bo l sh ev ik J ew s”and“ to ta le l im ina t iono fa l l pa s s iv eo ra c t iv er e s i s tan c e .”In

26 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

add i t iontosp e c i fy ing who wa stob ee l im ina t ed( J ew s , Commun i s t Pa r ty m emb e r s ,pa r t i san s ) ,th e s eo rd e r sin s t ru c t edG e rmanso ld i e r sto t r ea tp r i son e r so fth eR ed A rmyru th l e s s ly :apo r t iono fth em w e r eto b ek i l l ed ,andth er e s tw e r etob eexp lo i t edtoexhau s t ion .Su cht r ea tm en to fcap t iv e sr e lax edsom ewha ta f t e r May1942 ,pa r t lyb e cau s eo f th eg row ingn e edtou t i l iz ep r i son e r sa sa wo rk fo r c efo rth eR e i ch . Bytha tt im e ,Sov i e tp r i son e rd ea th sdu eto m i s t r ea tm en t ,ex e cu t ion s , ma lnou r i shm en t ,andi l ln e s s e snumb e r edb e tw e en1 .6and1 .9 m i l l ion 1 1 (ou to f3 .5–3 .8 m i l l ionto ta l ) . 3 . Th e“Gu id e l in e sfo rth eT r ea tm en to f Po l i t i ca l Comm i s sa r s”o r “Comm i s sa rO rd e r”(Komm i s sa rb e f eh l ) ,da t ed8Jun e1941 ,s ta t edtha t R ed A rmycomm i s sa r sw e r etob e“d i spo s edo f”imm ed ia t e lyfo l lowingth e i rcap tu r e ,a f t e rb e ings epa ra t edf romth er e s to fth ep r i son e r s . Su chap ro c edu r e wa sju s t if edbys ta t ingtha tth e s ew e r em emb e r so f th eCommun i s tPa r ty :no tju s tso ld i e r s ,bu t“ c en t ra ltoth er e s i s tan c e ,” l ead e r so fana l l -ou t wa rw i thnoru l e s .Th eex e cu t iono fcomm i s sa r s end edupb e ingop e ra t iona l lycoun t e rp rodu c t iv e ,bu tth eo rd e r wa s on lyr evok edon6 May1942 ,a f t e rs ev e ra lthou sandcomm i s sa r shad b e enex e cu t ed .Byth en ,tho s e whor ema in edhadlo s tinfu en c einth e R ed A rmyandhadb e com erad i ca l iz edinth e i rpugna c i ty ,awa r etha t 12 th ey wou ldr e c e iv eno m e r cyf romth eG e rman s . 4 . Th e“D e c r e eo fth eFüh r e rr ega rd ingth eEx e r c i s eo fM i l i ta ryJu r i s d i c t ion inth eBa rba ro s saA r ea ,”da t ed13 May1941 , wa scommun i ca t ed o ra l lytoG e rmano ff c e r s , who w e r eg iv enf r e edomo fa c t ionr ega rd ing pa r t i san sandc iv i l ian ssu sp e c t edo fa id ingth em .O ff c e r s wou ld judg e wh e th e rth eso ld i e r s ’abu s eo fc iv i l ian sendang e r ed m i l i ta ryd i s c ip l in e andpun i shth ema c co rd ing ly .T oavo idp i l lag ing ,th i so rd e r wa sno t imm ed ia t e lycommun i ca t edtoth ecomba tan t s ;in s t ead ,i t wa sd i s s em ina t edh i e ra r ch i ca l lyf romth ed iv i s ioncommanddowntoth elow e r un i t sa sth eyadvan c edin toconqu e r edt e r r i to ry .13 Ju s taf ewd iv i s iong en e ra l s ,a sw e l la s Ma r sha l lF edo rvonBo ck ,r e 14 s i s t edcomp ly ing w i thth e s eo rd e r s . Th roughou tth ecampa ign ,th e in s t ru c t ion sw e r esupp l em en t ed w i tho rd e r sena c t edbyth eh ead so f th em i l i ta ryco rp s . Th eypa in t eda d ehuman iz edandra c ia l lyp r e ju d i c edimag eo fth een emy ,a s so c ia t edJuda i sm w i thBo l sh ev i sm ,and u rg edth ecomba tan t stoa c tw i thou tm e r cy .Th eO s th e e rH igh Command ,w i thaf ewex c ep t ion s ,pa r t i c ipa t edinth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion , a l low edo th e r stodoso ,o rtu rn edab l indey e .Th e“ c r im ina lo rd e r s” s ign if can t lya f f e c t edth eo rd ina ryso ld i e r s .P ropagandad i r e c t eda tth e t roop scommun i ca t edan t i -S em i t i candan t i -S lav i cl e i tmo t i f s ;th et r en ch jou rna l shab i tua l lyin s i s t edonth en e edtoann ih i la t eth e“R edsubhu man s”andc l ea rEu rop eo fJ ew s .G e rmanso ld i e r sw e r eno ttofo rg e t

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 27

tha tth eyex emp l if edasup e r io rra c etha ta sp i r edtodom in ionov e r o th e rp eop l e s .15 Fou rou to fev e ryfv eG e rm anso ld i e r sfough tonth eE a s t e rnF ron t f rom1 9 4 1to1 9 4 4 .I tw a sth es c en eo fa mu rd e rou sw a r ,bo thini t scon c ep t ionandex e cu t ion . Add ingtoth eb ru t a l i tyo fb a t t l ew e r eh a r sh phy s i c a lcond i t ion sandth eb i t t e rr e s i s t an c eo fth eR ed A rmy , wh i ch s low edandth enh a l t ed G e rm anp rog r e s sin O c tob e r –Nov emb e r1 9 4 1 , l e s sth anon ehund r edk i lom e t r e sf rom Mo s cow .A tth i spo in t ,th ein v ad e r sw e r ef a c edw i than ews e to fob s t a c l e s :an in to l e r ab lyco ldw in t e r fo l low edbysnowm e l tth a ttu rn edro ad sto mud ;th econ s t an tp r e s en c e o fp a r t i s an s inth er e a rgu a rd ;anda w a ro fpo s i t ion sth a tend edth ecomp a r a t iv eadv an t ag eth a tth eW eh rm a ch th adh i th e r toen joy ed .Th eyh ad con c en t r a t edf r epow e rinsm a l la r e a sand m ad esw i f tadv an c e sw i th mo to r i z edanda rmou r edd iv i s ion s ,th e r ebysu r round ingth e i ren em i e s . Th eb ru t a lfgh t ingcond i t ion ssu rp a s s edtho s eexp e r i en c edin1 9 1 4 –1 8 . Th enumb e ro fc a su a l t i e sf romen emyf r e ,f ro s tb i t e ,andi l ln e s sf a rsu rp a s s edany th ingth eG e rm anA rmyh adp r ev iou s lyexp e r i en c ed .Byth e endo f1 9 4 1 ,W eh rm a ch tr e s e rv e sw e r econ s id e r ab lyr edu c ed . Th eb ru ta l iza t iono fwa r fa r ewa sappa r en t inhow th eG e rmanso ld i e r s t r ea t edc iv i l ian sandr e su l t edinad epa r tu r ef rom m i l i ta ryd i s c ip l in e . Th ein t en s e Naz iindo c t r ina t ionhad mad eth eso ld i e r spa r t i cu la r lyr e16 c ep t iv etov i ew ingth eS lav i cp eop l ea sUn t e rm en s ch en:subhuman s . Two ma inpo s i t ion sex i s tinth er e c en th i s to r iog raph i cd eba t eonth e sub j e c t .Som eau tho r sa rgu etha tth ein c r ea s ing ly m i s e rab l ecomba t cond i t ion s ,th eb ru ta l i tyo f wha thadb e com ea wa ro fa t t r i t ion ,andth e cama rad e r i eamong G e rmanso ld i e r sd e c i s iv e lyp r e c ip i ta t edth esp i ra l o fin c r ea s ingv io l en c einth eEa s t .F romth i ss i tua t ion i s tp e r sp e c t iv e , th eenv i ronm en ta lcond i t ion sonth eEa s t e rnF ron td idg r ea t e rdamag e thananyid eo log i ca lp r ed i spo s i t iono fth eso ld i e r stowa rd sv io l en c e aga in s tc iv i l ian so rd ehuman iza t iono fth een emy .I tl edtocumu la 17 t iv erad i ca l iza t iono f wa rv io l en c einp ra c t i c e . Fo ro th e rau tho r s ,th e d e c id ingfa c to rinth ein c r ea s ingrad i ca l iza t iono fv io l en tp ra c t i c e sby r egu la rW eh rma ch tcomba tan t s wa sth e i rp e r c ep t iono fth econd i t ion s onth eEa s t e rnF ron t .A sth i sp e r c ep t ionhadb e encond i t ion edbyy ea r s o f Naz iso c ia l iza t ionandindo c t r ina t ion ,th eso ld i e r sw e r ea l r eadyr e la t iv e lyp r ed i spo s ed( compa r edtoo th e rna t iona lcon t ing en t s )to d e human iz ingth e i ren emyba s edonb io log i ca l ra c ia lpo s tu la t e sandto 18 t r ea t ingbo thc iv i l ian sandp r i son e r s(S lav so rJ ew s )v io l en t ly . A l t e rna t iv e ly ,som eh i s to r ian shav esugg e s t edtha tcomba tun i t st r ea t edc iv i l ian sandp r i son e r sd i f f e r en t lya c co rd ingtos i tua t iona lfa c to r s .Though no tanex c lu s iv epa t t e rn ,b ru ta l i tytowa rd snon comba tan t st end edto 19 in c r ea s ew i th mo r eb ru ta lcomba tcond i t ion s .

28 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

A l l ie sinthe“Eu ropeanC ru sadeaga in s tBo l shev i sm” Th et roop sp a r t i c ip a t ingin Op e r a t ionB a rb a ro s s aw e r eno tex c lu s iv e ly G e rm an .F inn i shandRom an i ana l l i e s , mo t iv a t edl a rg e lybyt e r r i to r i a l in t e r e s t s ,p rov id ednol e s sth ans ev enhund r edthou s andso ld i e r sf rom th es t a r to fth ec amp a ign .Th eF inn i sh A rmys awth eG e rm ana t t a ck ag a in s tth e USSRa sanoppo r tun i tytor e cov e rt e r r i to ryth a th adb e en lo s ttoth eR edA rmy inth eW in t e rW a ro f1 9 3 9 – 4 0 . Th eH e l s ink igov e rn m en ts id ed w i th H i t l e randd e c l a r ed w a ronth eUSSRon 2 5Jun e1 9 4 1 . F inn i shin t e rv en t ion w a sm a in lyr e s t r i c t edtoth eno r th e rnf ankinth e s i eg eo fL en ing r ad , wh i chcon t r ibu t edtob lo ck ingo f fth ec i ty .Th i sp a r t i c ip a t ion w a sp r e s en t eda sas e conda c t( th e“Con t inu a t ion W a r ” )toth e Sov i e tagg r e s s iono f1 9 3 9 .Fo rth i sr e a son ,th eF inn i shA rmyexh ib i t edno in t e r e s tinadv an c ingb eyondth e i rfo rm e rbo rd e r .A l thoughth eH e l s ink i gov e rnm en ts en ta roundth r e ehund r edthou s anda rm ed m entoa s s i s t th eAx i spow e r sand m ad er e l ev an tlog i s t i c a lcon t r ibu t ion sinth eK a r e l i anr eg ionandinth es i eg eo fL en ing r ad ,F inn i sht roop sr e f r a in edf rom adv an c ingin toSov i e tt e r r i to ry .InS ep t emb e r1 9 4 4 ,fo l low ingth es i eg e o fL en ing r ad ,F in l ands ign edi t sownp e a c ea c co rd w i thth e USSR ,r enoun c ed i t sc l a imtoth et e r r i to r i e s lo s t in1 9 3 9 –4 0 ,anda s sum edh ighr ep a r a t ionco s t s .A rounde igh ty fou rthou s andF inn i shso ld i e r sandc iv i l i an s 2 0 lo s tth e i rl iv e sinth i sconf i c t ;th ey w e r esub s equ en t lyh a i l eda sh e ro e s . Fo rth ep ro fa s c i s tr eg im eo f Ma r sha lIonAn ton e s cu inRoman ia ,pa rt i c ipa t ionin Op e ra t ionBa rba ro s saf ttwoob j e c t iv e s :r e conqu e r ingth e r eg iono fB e s sa rab ia , wh i chhadp r ev iou s lyb e enann ex edbyth eUSSR , andshow ingsuppo r tfo rH i t l e r ’ sN ew O rd e r .Th i s wou lden su r eafavou rab l ed i spo s i t ioninB e r l into Roman iant e r r i to r ia lc la im saga in s t th e i rn e ighbou r s ,a sth eno r th e rnth i rdo fT ran sy lvan iahadb e ensu r r end e r edto Hunga ryth ep r io ry ea r ,andapa r to fDob rog eatoBu lga r ia . Th e OKW wa sh igh lys c ep t i ca labou tana rmy w i thsu chou tda t ed w eapon rybu tn e ed edRoman iancoop e ra t iontoinvad e Uk ra in e .Th ey cho s etoc r ea t eacomb in edA rmyCo rp sto wh i chRoman iacon t r ibu t ed ov e r325 ,000so ld i e r s .I t s ma inro l e wa stoc l ea rth er ea rgua rdfo l low ing th eadvan c eo fG e rman mo to r iz edun i t s .Inth efa l lo f1941 ,Roman ian s conqu e r edOd e s saandann ex edth er eg iono fT ran sn i s t r ia ,b e tw e enth e Bugand Dn i e s t e rR iv e r s , wh i ch wa s mu chla rg e rthanth et e r r i to r i e s o f No r th e rnBukov inaandB e s sa rab ia .Th eRoman iana rmya l so wa s r equ i s i t ion edfo rth eo f f en s iv eo fth esumm e ro f1942 .Inth i s way ,th e An ton e s cur eg im et i edi t sfa t etotha to fth eTh i rdR e i ch .Inth eBa t t l e o fS ta l ing rad ,th eSov i e t sob l i t e ra t edtwoRoman iana rm i e ss ta t ion ed a tth eDonF ron t .F romth enun t i lth e i rcap i tu la t ioninS ep t emb e r1944 , Roman iant roop sw e r eta sk ed w i thd e f en s iv ee f fo r t s .21

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 29

W i th inaf ewday sa f t e rG e rmanyinvad edth e USSR , Hunga ry ,I ta ly , andS lovak iab egantod emon s t ra t ein t e r e s tind i spa t ch ingt roop stoth e Ea s t .Pupp e ts ta t e sanda l l i e so fth eTh i rdR e i ch wan t edtop layth e i r pa r tinhop e so fr e c e iv ingt e r r i to r ia lsha r e sinth eenv i s ion ed“ r eo rd e ring”o fth eCon t in en tund e rG e rmancon t ro l .H e lp ingtoex t e rm ina t eth e commonen emyp rov id edfa s c i s tgov e rnm en t sw i thsuppo r tfo rth e i r ownimp e r ia l i s to ri r r ed en t i s td r eam s .I ta l sod i s suad edn e ighbou r ing 22 coun t r i e sf roma t t emp t ingtor e c la imt e r r i to r i e sa tth e i rexp en s e . Mu s so l in i wa sf r s t ;h ehadb e enp r epa r ingtopa r t i c ipa t ef romth e mom en th el ea rn edo fth ep lan sfo rinva s ion .In Augu s t ,th eCo rpod i Sp ed iz ion eI ta l ianoin Ru s s iaen t e r edcomba tin Uk ra in e .O r ig ina l ly con s i s t ingo f62 ,000 m enand82 p lan e s , wh enr e in fo r c em en t sf romth e 8 thI ta l ianA rmya r r iv eda tth eDonF ron t ,w e l lequ ipp ed w i thl igh tand 23 h eavya r t i l l e ry ,th eynumb e r ed229 ,000 m ena l tog e th e r . S lovak ia ,a sa t e l l i t es ta t e ,d e c la r ed wa ronth eUSSRands en tn ea r lyf f tythou sand m entoth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,o rgan iz ed in totwo in fan t ryd iv i s ion sandon e mo to r iz edb r igad e . Mo s to fth e s em en w e r er emov eda tth eendo fJu ly ; tho s e whor ema in ed w e r ed i spa t ch edtoth ean t ipa r t i sanfgh tinBy e lo 24 ru s s ia( today ’ sB e la ru s )o rtoa“mob i l ed iv i s ion”inC r im ea . Th epup p e ts ta t eo fC roa t iaa l sod i spa t ch edtoth eEa s tasymbo l i ccon t ing en t o ffv ethou sandso ld i e r s .Th ey w e r ein co rpo ra t edin toth eG e rman6 th A rmy , wh i cha r r iv eda tth ef ron tinla t e Augu s t1941 .F ea rtha tI ta ly wou ldb er ewa rd ed w i tht e r r i to r i e sinth e Ad r ia t i ca c t eda sas t rong in c en t iv efo rC roa t iatod emon s t ra t e wa rm e r i t . Th eau tho r i ta r ianr eg im eo fM ik ló s Ho r thyin Hunga ryd idno tpa rt i c ipa t einth einva s ion ,bu ti td e c la r ed wa ronth e USSRs ev e ra lday s la t e r . Ho r thyandth e Hunga r ianfa s c i s t sf ea r edtha tth e An ton e s cur e g im e wou ldd emandd evo lu t iono f No r th e rnT ran sy lvan iainr ewa rd fo rRoman ianpa r t i c ipa t ion inth e wa re f fo r t .A s manya s93 ,1 15so ld i e r s w e r ed i spa t ch edtoth eEa s t e rnF ron tinAugu s t1941 ,bu th eavylo s s e s inth ef r s t mon thl edth eOKWtos endth e Magya r stofgh taga in s tth e pa r t i san sin s t ead . How ev e r ,fa c ed w i thth ed ep l e t iono fh i sr e s e rv e sin ea r ly1942 ,H i t l e rr equ e s t edala rg e rd ep loym en to f Hunga r iant roop s tor e in fo r c eh i ssumm e ro f f en s iv e .Th eHunga r ian2ndA rmy ,compo s ed o f210 ,000so ld i e r s , wa sd ep loy edonth e DonF ron t .La ck ingad equa t e equ ipm en tandexp e r i en c edo ff c e r s ,th e Hunga r ian sw e r ec ru sh edby aSov i e to f f en s iv einJanua ry1943 .Som efo r tythou sand m enlo s tth e i r l iv e sands ix tythou sand mo r ew e r ecap tu r ed .Thoughth i sd e c r ea s ed th econfd en c eo fth eG e rmancommandinth e i ra l l i e s ,i td idno tp r e v en tth emf romd i spa t ch ingn in e tythou sand mo r eso ld i e r stoth eEa s te rnF ron tth rough Augu s t1944 . Magya rpa r t i c ipa t ionin c r ea s eda f t e r th eG e rmano c cupa t iono f Hunga ryin Ma r ch1944 . Th e Hunga r ian

30 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

1 s tA rmy wa sd ep loy edtod e f endi t sbo rd e r sin Ap r i land May ,and 25 950 ,000 Hunga r ianso ld i e r sfough tth eR edA rmyinS ep t emb e r1944 . A l though G e rmant roop sw e r ea lway sa ma jo r i tyinth einvad e r s ’ a rmydu r ingth eEa s t e rncampa ign ,a l l i edt roop so fth e“an t i -Bo l sh ev ik”coa l i t ioncon t r ibu t eds ign if can t ly ,a tt im e sa c coun t ingfo ra lmo s t afou r tho fto ta lt roop s .Insom es e c to r so fth ef ron tco r r e spond ingto A rmyG roup sC en t r eandSou th ,non -G e rman sr ep r e s en t eda lmo s tha l f o fth em en .InS ep t emb e r1942 ,th enumb e ro fnon -G e rmaninvad ing so ld i e r sr ea ch ed648 ,000 .G e rmant roopinth eEa s t e rnfo r c e srang ed f rom82 .74p e rc en tin1941 ,to72 .3p e rc en tinJun e1942 ,to88 .55p e r c en tinJu ly1943 ,and74 .77p e rc en tinJun e1944 .Th ep e r c en tag eo f G e rmancomba tan t sc l imb edto95 .7p e rc en tinJanua ry1945 ,nolong e r 26 jo in edby Hunga r ian so rRoman ian s . M anyo ff c e r so fth e Ax i s a l l i eda rm i e sw e r ef e r c e lyan t i -S em i t i cand c a r r i edou t th e i rowne thn i cc l e an s ingp ro j e c t s .In m id -D e c emb e r1 9 4 1 , th e Rom an i ana rmyb eg and epo r t ingandex t e rm in a t ingth eJ ew i shpopu l at ion w i thth eh e lpo faux i l i a ryUk r an i anandG e rm anfo r c e sandE in z a t s g rupp eD .S ev e r a lcon c en t r a t ionc amp sw e r ebu i l t fo r th e J ew so fm a in l and Rom an i a ,w i thv i c t im snumb e r ingf rom2 5 0 , 0 0 0 to4 0 0 , 0 0 0 .S in c e l a t e1 9 4 2 , An ton e s cuau tho r i z edth eem ig r a t iono fRom an i anJ ew stoP a l e s t in e ,bu t 2 7 a l sos en tthou s and stowo rkc amp s . S ev e r a lHung a r i anun i t sa l sop a r t i c 2 8 ip a t edinex e cu t ingSov i e tJ ew s ,thoughno tsy s t em a t i c a l ly . Eu r op e anV o lun t e e r sag a in s tB o l sh ev i sm : My thandR e a l i ty Wh i l eTh i rdR e i cha l lyandsa t e l l i t es ta t e scon t r ibu t edr egu la rt roop s toth e Ea s t e rncampa ign ,la rg enumb e r so ffo r e ignvo lun t e e r sf rom No r th e rnand W e s t e rnEu rop ea l sojo in edth eAx i sfo r c e s . Naz ip ropagand i s t sb rand i sh edd e f en c eo fEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ionaga in s t“A s ian” Bo l sh ev i sma sth e i rl e i tmo t i finp ropagandad i r e c t eda tfa s c i s t ,u l t ranat iona l i s t ,andan t i commun i s tc i r c l e sth roughou tEu rop e .Th ey ju s t if ed inva s iono fth eUSSRa sa“p r ev en ta t iv e” m ea su r eaga in s tS ta l in ’ sp rob ab l ep lantoconqu e rEu rop e . Fo r e ignSSb r igad e sand d iv i s ion sw e r eth eob j e c to f mu chfa s c ina t ionand my th if ca t ioninth e po s t -wa rp e r iod .N eo fa s c i s tp ropagand i s t sandv e t e ran shav ep r e s en t edth ema sd i r e c tp r ed e c e s so r sto NATO ,a sth ey w e r ebo th“Eu rop ean”and“an t i commun i s t .”Inr ea li ty ,th ea c tua lcon t r ibu t ionandcomba tcapa c i tyo fth e s efo r e ignun i t s va r i edg r ea t ly . Naz iEu rop ean i sm wa srh e to r i ca l :th egoa lo fcon t in enta lun i ty wa ssubo rd ina t edtoth eenv i s ion edh eg emonyo fth eTh i rd R e i ch . Though H i t l e r ,H imm l e r ,andth er e s to fth e Naz ih i e ra r chy pu r su edth ep r ima ryob j e c t iv eo fa G e rmanemp i r eex t end ingtoth e

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 31

U ra l s ,th eEu rop ean i s tlab e ls e rv eda sau s e fu lp ropagand i s t i ctoo lfo r 29 fo s t e r inggoodw i l lou t s id eo fG e rmany . F romth eb eg inn ingo f Op e r a t ionBa rba ro s sa ,M in i s t e ro fP ropagandaJo s ephGo ebb e l sc l ea r lysaw th epo s s ib i l i t i e sa s so c ia t ed w i than t i commun i s tpub l i cop in iona c ro s s 30 th e Con t in en t . Th e wa rthu sb e cam e ,a c co rd ingtoa p ro c lama t ion o fth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r sinla t eJun e1941 ,a“Eu rop eanc rusad eaga in s t Bo l sh ev i sm ,” wh i chin c lud ed“a l l i e s ,n eu t ra lcoun t r i e s , 31 andev entho s e whohadr e c en t lyc ro s s edswo rd sw i thG e rmany .” Th eN ewEu rop ean O rd e rp rog ram wa sd ev e lop edin1939–40and a c c ep t edinpo l i t i ca landin t e l l e c tua lc i r c l e ssympa th e t i ctoth eTh i rd R e i ch .Th e“An t i -Kom in t e rn”pa c t , wh i ch wa sr en ew edinB e r l inon25 Nov emb e r1941 ,p r e s en t edth e“an t i -Bo l sh ev ikc ru sad e”a sacommon end eavou rf rom wh i chan ewEu rop e wou ldem e rg e ,un i t edund e rG e r manh eg emony .Naz iEu rop ean i s tdo c t r in e scon s i s t ed ma in lyo fg en e r i c id ea stha tth efa s c i s t in t e l l ig en t s iaadap t edtoth e i rown wo r ldv i ew .U s ing G e rmans logan ssu cha s“ l iv ingspa c e”and“Ch r i s t ian W e s t ,”th ey r e imag in edth esp e c if cro l e so fth e i rr e sp e c t iv ecoun t r i e sf romd iv e r s e po s i t ion sw i th inth i sN ewO rd e r .32 Fo r manyan t i commun i s t s ,fa s c i s t s , o rfa s c i s t iz edcon s e rva t iv e sa c ro s sth e Con t in en t ,pa r t i c ipa t inginth e inva s iono fth e USSRp r e s en t edanoppo r tun i tytoc em en tth e i ra l l i an c ew i thth eTh i rdR e i chandga ing r ea t e rinfu en c ew i th inth e i rown coun t r i e s .Th i s“ c ru sad e”a l sosway ed manyan t i commun i s t s whosaw H i t l e ra sanin s t rum en tfo rw ip ingou tth eSov i e tth r ea t ,d e sp i t eth e i r d i s t ru s to f Naz ia th e i sm .Ca tho l i c i sm wa sacommont ra i tamong many Eu rop eanvo lun t e e r s ,a long w i thth eb e l i e ftha tcommun i smhadb e en c r ea t edbyJ ew s ,f r e ema son s ,andin f e r io rp eop l e s . Ind iv idua landco l l e c t iv een l i s tm en tf r s tsu rp r i s edth eOKWandth e M in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r s . On 30Jun e1941 ,s ev e ra lr ep r e s en ta t iv e s o fth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r s ,th e OKW ,th e NSDAP ,andth eSS m e tinB e r l in .Th eyag r e edtha ti t wa spo l i t i ca l lyb en ef c ia ltoa c c ep t th e s evo lun t e e r s .A tf r s t ,th ey w e r eg iv enG e rmanun i fo rm sandp la c ed w i th inna t iona lun i t s . How ev e r ,ac l ea re thnona t iona lh i e ra r chy wa se stab l i sh ed .B eg inn ingin1940 , No rd i cando th e r“G e rman i c”vo lun t e e r s ( su cha sth eDu t chandF l em i sh )w e r e in co rpo ra t ed in toth eW a f f en -SS– th eSSa rm edun i t s(S chu tz s ta f f e lo ra s sau l tb r igad e s )und e rH e in r i ch H imm l e r .33 Span i shandC roa t ianvo lun t e e r sw e r ep la c edin tohomog enou sun i t sinth eW eh rma ch t .F r en chand W a l loonvo lun t e e r sw e r e mo r echa l l eng ingtor e so lv e ,bu tCz e ch ,“Wh i t e”Ru s s ian ,andnon -Ru ss ian USSRvo lun t e e r sw e r er e fu s ed . On ew e ekla t e r ,th e OKWe s tab 34 l i sh edsom egu id e l in e sfo rth efo rma t iono ffo r e ignvo lun t e e run i t s . Fo l low ingth es t ab i l i z a t iono fth eE a s t e rnF ron t , mob i l i z a t ions t emm ingf romth e“Eu rop e anc ru s ad eag a in s t Bo l sh ev i sm ”a l low edth e

32 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th i rdR e i chtor e c ru i tso ld i e r sf roma lmo s ta l lo c cup i edo rn eu t r a lEurop e ans t a t e s .Th e i rs log an scon t inu edtoex a l tth ed e f en c eo fEu rop e an c iv i l i z a t ionag a in s t“A s i an ”commun i sm ,andonas e condt i e r ,ag a in s t 3 5 Jud a i sma sath r e a ttoEu rop e ann a t ion s . Hund r ed so fvo lun t e e r sw e r e r e c ru i t edfo rth eRu s s i anF ron t ,und e rth econ t ro lo fn a t ion a lf a s c i s tp a r 3 6 t i e sandev en th er egu l a ra rmy insom ec a s e s . Th eL eg iono fF r en chV o l un t e e r s(LVF )d r ewi t sr e c ru i t sf romsymp a th i z e r sand m emb e r so fth e m a inf a s c i s tandco l l abo r a t ion i s tp a r t i e s .Th i sun i tn ev e rex c e ed edfou r thou s and m en ;i tw a son lyu s edinl a t e Nov emb e r1 9 4 1fo rsom ef ron t l in efgh t ing ,andth en mov edtoth ean t ip a r t i s anfgh t .W a l loonvo lun t e e r sw e r e mo s t lysou r c edf romth eau to ch thonou sR ex i s tP a r ty ,af a s c i s t andC a tho l i c mov em en t l edbyL éonD eg r e l l e .Th e3 7 3 rd W a l loonIn f ant ryB a t t a l ionin i t i a l lynumb e r edb a r e lyathou s andanden t e r edcomb a t a sp a r to fA rmy G roupSou th .ByS ep t emb e r1 9 4 1 ,ato t a lo ftw en ty fou rthou s andF r en ch ,Sp an i sh ,W a l loon ,andC ro a t i anvo lun t e e r sh ad jo in edth eO s th e e rfo r c e s . Ov e r 7 0p e rc en to fth em w e r eIb e r i an . Tw e lv ethou sand mo r evo lun t e e r so r ig ina t ingf rom“G e rman i c”p eop l e sw e r ea s s ign edtoth erank so fth eSS .ByAp r i l1940 ,H imm l e rhad r e c e iv edp e rm i s s iontoc r ea t eth e mu l t ina t iona lSS W ik ing D iv i s ion .A to ta lo f1 ,564 G e rman i cvo lun t e e r sinth i sd iv i s ion w e r eo rgan iz edin to th e No rd land(No rd i ccoun t r i e s )and W e s t land(F l em i shand Du t ch ) r eg im en t s .B eg inn ingin1940 ,s ev e ra ldoz enF inn i shvo lun t e e r sw e r e a l soin co rpo ra t edin toth eSS Da sR e i ch D iv i s ion .Th e s e mod e s tcont ing en t snumb e r edfa rf ew e rthan Naz il ead e r shadexp e c t ed .InJun e 1941 ,th eSSR e i ch s füh r e rs e tth eW a f f en -SSEu rop eanexpan s ionp ro j e c t in mo t ion .H imm l e r ’ s mod e la l soin co rpo ra t edpo l i t i ca lindo c t r ina t ion , by wh i chth eso ld i e r sb e cam ep ropagandaag en t sfo rth eN ew O rd e r uponr e tu rn ingtoth e i rcoun t r i e s .A sar e su l t ,th einfuxo fG e rman i c vo lun t e e r sin c r ea s edno tab lybu tn ev e rd ra s t i ca l ly .Th e r ew e r etwor ec ru i tm en tpa th s :on eby wh i chc e r ta ing roup sw e r ed i r e c t lycon s c r ip t ed in toth e W a f f en -SS ,andano th e rby wh i chcomba tan t sw e r ed ra f t ed in tona t iona ll eg ion sund e rth eSSumb r e l la . Co l labo ra t ion i s tpa r t i e s f romo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sw e r e mo r ep rom in en tinth ela t t e rg roup .Th i s gav er i s etoth e Du t ch ,F l em i sh , No rw eg ian ,and Dan i shl eg ion s .By th eendo f1941 ,4 ,814 Du t chm en , 2 ,399 Dan e s , 1 ,882 No rw eg ian s , 1 ,571 F l em i sh ,1 ,180 F inn s ,39Sw ed e s ,and135Sw i s sandL i e ch t en s t e in e r s hadb e enin c lud edinth eW a f f en -SS ,a long w i th6 ,200e thn i cG e rman s r e c ru i t edf rom Ea s t e rn and C en t ra l Eu rop e , Lux embou rg ,A l sa c e Lo r ra in e ,andD enma rk . Un t i lS ep t emb e r1 9 4 3 ,p r e f e r en c ew a sshownfo r“G e rm an i c s ”and S c and in av i an s . Byth eendo f1 9 4 1 ,ov e rth i r ty s ixthou s andfo r e ign vo lun t e e r sf roma round Eu rop eh aden l i s t edinth e W eh rm a ch tand

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 33

W a f f en -SS ,no tcoun t inge thn i cG e rm an s .Th i sw a sno tal a rg econ t r ibut ion in m i l i t a ryt e rm s ,amoun t ingtob a r e ly1 p e rc en to ft roop ss t a t ion ed on th eE a s t e rnF ron t .G e rm an i cande sp e c i a l lye thn i cG e rm anvo lun t e e r s ( V o l k s d eu t s c h e)in c r e a s edin1 9 4 2and1 9 4 3 .Th eW a f f en -SSh adr e c ru i t ed 3 7 2 7 , 3 1 4comb a t an t sf rom W e s t e rnand No r th e rnEu rop ebyl a t e1 9 4 3 . Th rough M ay1 9 4 4 ,Du t cht roop snumb e r edb e tw e en2 0 , 0 0 0and 2 3 , 0 0 0 , a long w i th1 0 , 0 0 0F l em i shanda lmo s t6 , 0 0 0D an i shand6 , 0 0 0 No rw e 3 8 g i anr e c ru i t s .I t a l i an sw i th inth e W a f f en -SS numb e r edov e r1 5 , 0 0 0 . Wh i l eth eyc e r t a in lyn ev e rcon s t i tu t ed mo r eth an 1 0 – 1 2p e rc en to fth e to t a lco rp s ,e s t im a t e sv a ryr eg a rd ingth eg lob a lcon t ing en to fvo lun t e e r s f rom W e s t e rnand No r th e rnEu rop e whofough tinth eW eh rm a ch tand W a f f en -SSdu r ingth ew a r .In c lud ingSp an i a rd s , whocomp r i s ed mo r e th an4 0p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r s ,th eto t a lnumb e rcou ldb es i tu a t ed a ta round1 1 5 , 0 0 0m en .Th i sr ep r e s en t ed1 . 1 5p e rc en to fto t a linv ad ing so ld i e r sb e tw e en1 9 4 1and1 9 4 5 . How ev e r ,on ee s t im a t es t a t e sth a tup to4 0 0 , 0 0 0o fth e9 0 0 , 0 0 0so ld i e r scompo s ingth eW a f f en -SScon t ing en t w e r efo r e ign e r s ,s ep a r a t edin totwoc a t ego r i e s :a round 2 0 0 , 0 0 0“ e thn i c G e rm an s , ”andvo lun t e e r sf rom W e s t e rnand No r th e rnEu rop e(6 1 , 0 0 0 a so fJ anu a ry1 9 4 4 )a long w i thE a s t e rnandB a lk anEu rop e ,th eC au c a 3 9 su s ,ando th e rnon -Ru s s i ana r e a so fth eSov i e tUn ion . Th eop e ra t iona le ff c i en cyo fth en ew“ c ru sad e r s” wa squ e s t ionab l e . Th ey w e r ea l lund e rsu rv e i l lan c etoimp ed ed e s e r t iono re sp ionag e . Th eG e rman so f t enimpo s edr e s t r i c t iv em ed i ca lexam sanda t t emp t ed to“G e rman iz e”th e i rcommanda s mu cha spo s s ib l e .Po l i t i ca lr iva l r i e s amongd i f f e r en tfa s c i s tandco l labo ra t ion i s tfa c t ion sa l soch ipp edaway a tth ein t e rna lcoh e s iono fsom evo lun t e e rco rp s .Adv en tu r e r s ,m i l i ta ry m en mo t iva t edbyna t iona l i smandan t i commun i sm ,andfa s c i s tfana ti c sa l lco ex i s t ed w i th inth e s eun i t s .T ran sy lvan ian G e rman s ,fo ron e , w e r ea t t ra c t edbyth e id eao fgoodsa la r i e s ,an t i commun i sm ,andb e ing m emb e r so fane l i t eco rp s .40 H imm l e rga in edth econ t ro lo fth efo r e ignvo lun t e e run i t sin m id 1943 ,w i thth ein t en t iono ftu rn ingth eW a f f en -SSin toapan -G e rman i c 41 a rmy . S ev e ra lr eg im en t sw e r er e conv e r t edin toun i t sw i thpompou s nam e stha thadl i t t l etodo w i thth e i ra c tua lnumb e r s .42 V o lun t e e rSS fo rma t ion s ,o rl eg ion s ,o f Dan e s , No rw eg ian s , Du t chm en ,andF l em i sh so ld i e r sthu sb e cam epa r to fa“G e rman i c”Panz e rCo rp sand w e r ed i v id eda c co rd ing lyin toth ePanz e rg r enad i e r -D iv i s ion No rd land(Dan e s and No rw eg ian s ) ,th eSS -B r igad eN ed e r land– wh i chb e cam eth e34 th SSLand s to rm D iv i s iona f t e rF eb rua ry1945–andth eLang ema r ckA ssau l tB r igad e , wh i chla t e rb e cam eth e27 thSSLang ema r ck D iv i s ion (F l em i sh ) .W a l lon ia wa scon s id e r eda“F r en ch if ed G e rman i c”r eg ion andth eW a l loon D iv i s ion ,command edby D eg r e l l e , wa sin co rpo ra t ed

34 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

in Nov emb e r1944 .Th e s ew e r efo l low edbyo th e rna t iona l i t i e s , ma in ly La t inp eop l e s ,r e c ru i t edth roughth eu sua lchann e l sanda s s ign edto l eg ion s ,SSb r igad e s ,andd iv i s ion s .Th eF r en chvo lun t e e run i tco ex i s t ed w i than ew A s sau l tB r igad e ,andth ecomb in edr ema in so fbo thun i t s (a long w i thsom en ewr e c ru i t s )b e cam eth e Cha r l emagn eD iv i s ion e l ev en mon th sla t e r .Th e1 s tI ta l ianSSB r igad ea l sob e cam ead iv i s ion in Ma r ch1945 . Inadd i t iontop ayandsub s id i e stoth ef am i l i e so fvo lun t e e r s ,SS p rop ag and af rom1 9 4 4onemph a s i z edth eEu rop e ann a tu r eo fth ew a r andc a s tvo lun t e e r sa sex amp l e so fan t i commun i s t ,Eu rop e an i s t ,and in 4 3 som ec a s e san t i -S em i t i cs e l f s a c r if c e . How ev e r ,ap a r tf romf a s c i s t sand an t i commun i s t sfo ck ingtoth er ank so fth eW a f f en -SS ,m anyr e c ru i t s f rom1 9 4 3onen l i s t edfo r mo r ep ro s a i cr e a son s .Th e r ew e r ez e i tg e i s tad v en tu r e r sc augh tupinth ec l a sho fc iv i l i z a t ion s ,commond e l inqu en t s , conv i c t ss e ek ingtor edu c eth e i rs en t en c e s ,F r en chandB e lg i anp r i son e r s o fw a r ,and m anyfo r e ign wo rk e r sinG e rm any– m a in lyF r en ch ,Du t ch , W a l loon ,o rF l em i sh– whos awanoppo r tun i tytoimp rov eth e i rs t a tu s ands a l a ryby jo in ingth eW a f f en -SS .F a s c i s tp a r t i e sandco l l abo r a t ion i s t g roup sf romF r an c e ,B e lg ium , Ho l l and ,andI t a lys e ek ingr e fug einG e rm ant e r r i to ryf rom1 9 4 4onb e c am eth efn a lpoo lfo rr e s e rv e s .Un t i lth e B a t t l eo fB e r l in(Ap r i l/M ay1 9 4 5 ) ,m anyo fth e s ep a r t i e sh adnoo th e r r e cou r s eth antot i eth e i rf a t etoth a to fth eTh i rdR e i ch . Th enon -G e rman i cp eop l e scam en ex t . AC roa t ianSS D iv i s ioncons i s t ing ma in lyo fBo sn ian Mu s l imvo lun t e e r s(1 s tC roa t ian Hand s cha r D iv i s ion )andsom eKo sova r s wa sc r ea t edinF eb rua ry1943tocomba t pa r t i san s .La t e r ,an A lban ianun i t wa sfo rm ed( th eSkand e rb e rg D iv is ion ) , ma in lyr e c ru i t edf romA lbano -Ko sova r s , wh i chth e Naz i sv i ew ed a sap s eudo -G e rman i c wa r r io rra c e .44 Non -Ru s s ianp eop l e sund e rSo v i e tdom in ion w e r ea l soa c c ep t edandb e cam eth ela rg e s t , mo s tr e l evan tg roupf roma m i l i ta ryp e r sp e c t iv e .Th efa t e so fth es epa ra t e USSR na t iona l i t i e sinth eN ew O rd e rhada l r eadyb e end e c id ed .H i t l e rhad noin t en t iono fg iv ingth e Ba l t i ccoun t r i e sba ckth e i rind ep end en c e , andth e i rr e c ru i t sw e r esub sum edin toth eR e i ch skomm i sa r ia tO s t land , no rd idh eenv i s ionsov e r e ign tyfo rth e Uk ra in e .Th en e edfo rt roop s andaux i l ia ryun i t sinth er ea rgua rdd rov eth e Naz i stor e c ru i tth e s e “ in f e r io r”na t iona l i t i e sin toth eO s th e e r andla t e rth eW a f f en -SS .Byth e s e condha l fo f1941 ,th eo c cupy ingfo r c e sw e r ea t t emp t ingtor e c ru i t non -Ru s s ianSov i e tp r i son e r sa sw e l l ,thou sand so f whoms e iz edth e oppo r tun i tytoe s cap eano th e rw i s eb l igh t edfa t e .Som eo fth e s em en 45 jo in edan t ipa r t i sanband s ,o th e r sh e lp edtoex t e rm ina t eJ ew s . Th eTu rkm en s ,C r im e anT a t a r s ,ando th e rC au c a s i an sw e r ein i t i a l ly in co rpo r a t edin to G e rm and iv i s ion sandp l a c edund e rth ecomm ando f

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 35

G e rm ano ff c e r s .Th eyb eg antofo rmth e i rownun i t sin m id 1 9 4 2and numb e r edov e r1 5 0 , 0 0 0by1 9 4 3 .B a l t i cand Uk r a in i ancomb a t an t sw e r e 4 6 th enadm i t t ed in toth eW a f f en -SS . ATu rk i cD iv i s ionw a sfo rm edth a t in c lud ed Mu s l im sinSov i e tt e r r i to ry ,in c lud ingC r im e anandV o lg aT a t a r s , A z e r i s ,andTu rkm en ,a long w i thtwo mo r e Uk r a in i and iv i s ion sandano th e rW a f f en -SS D iv i s ionr e c ru i t edf rom Uk r a in i ann a t ion a l i s t s .A round 1 5 0 , 0 0 0E s ton i an s ,L a tv i an s ,andL i thu an i an sw e r ea l socon s c r ip t edto s e rv e in th er e a rgu a rdand in th ean t ip a r t i s anfgh t .Th e r ew e r eev ensom e exo t i cun i t s , in c lud ingH induandBuddh i s tvo lun t e e r s inth eW eh rm a ch t and W a f f en -SS .AnA rm en i anl eg ion w a sfo rm edinth esumm e ro f1 9 4 2 4 7 th a tfough tinth eC au c a su s ,fo l low edbyaG eo rg i anun i t . Th e Co s sa ck sb e cam eth ee thn i cg rouptha tcon t r ibu t ed mo s tcomba tan t stoth eW eh rma ch t . Hop ingtoc r ea t eanind ep end en tr epub l i c , th eyfough tpa r t i san sun t i l1943 , wh en H i t l e rau tho r iz edth efo rma t ion o fa Co s sa ck D iv i s ion .Som eth i r ty thou sand Co s sa ck sfough tonth e 48 f ron t ,andtwohund r edthou sand mo r es e rv eda saux i l ia ryt roop s . F ina l ly ,th eRu s s ianL ib e ra t ion A rmy(RLA ) wa so r ig ina l lycompo s ed o fp r i son e r sand m e r c ena r i e sund e rth ecommando fG en e ra l And r ey V la sov , whohadb e encap tu r edin1942 .W i thth econ s en to f Naz il eade r s ,V la sovc r ea t eda Comm i t t e efo rth eL ib e ra t iono fth eP eop l e so f Ru s s iain D e c emb e ro fth esam ey ea r ,a sh eenv i s ion edanan t i commun i s tRu s s ia .D e sp i t eH i t l e r ’ sr e lu c tan c e ,inS ep t emb e r1944 V la sov ga in edth esuppo r to fsom eSSin t e l l e c tua l sandev en H imm l e r .Two n ew lyfo rm edRLAd iv i s ion sw e r ed i spa t ch edtoP ragu ein Ma r ch1945 ; two mon th sla t e r ,th eys id ed w i thth e Cz e ch saga in s tth eG e rman s . How ev e r ,a f t e rb e ingsubdu edbyth eSov i e t s , mo s tw e r eex e cu t edo r 49 cond emn edtofo r c edlabou r . Span i shV o lun tee r saga in s ttheUSSR :Re c ru i tmen t ,Send ing , andthe Na tu reo ftheB lue D iv i s ion F ran co i s tSpa in wa sno tabou ttob el e f tb eh indinth e wav eo fan t i commun i s ten thu s ia smtha tsw ep tth roughn eu t ra lando c cup i edEu rop e . Onth en igh to f21Jun e1941– ju s tb e fo r eth eG e rmaninva s iono f th eUSSR–Fo r e ign M in i s t e rRamónS e r rano -Suñ e rd in edw i thFa lang i s t l ead e r sD ion i s ioR id ru e joand Manu e l Mo ra -F igu e roain Mad r id .S e r rano , whokn ewo fth eimm in en tG e rmana t ta ck ,d i s c lo s edh i sp ro j e c t : toc r ea t ean“ exp ed i t iona ryco rp so fvo lun t e e r stofgh tRu s s ia”th e mo m en t wa rb rok eou t .R id ru e joand Mo ra -F igu e roa w e r ebo thfavou rab l etoth i sp lanbu t wan t edtocon f e r mo r ethan m e r ean t i commun i s t symbo l i smonth et roop s ,sod e ta i l sw e r ed i s cu s s ed .A ts ixinth e mo rn 50 ing ,S e r ranoSuñ e rr e c e iv edth eo ff c ia lG e rmans ta t em en t .

36 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Ev en t s mov edqu i ck ly .51 S e r rano p r e s en t edth ep ro j e c ttoF ran co , whoapp rov edi t .Th eG e rmanamba s sado r wa ssub s equ en t lyin fo rm ed o fth eSpan i shd e s igntocon t r ibu t ew i th“ som eFa lang i s tun i t s”toth e “fgh taga in s tth ecommonen emy ,inr em emb ran c eo fG e rmanf ra t e r na la id einth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ,”thoughSpa in wou ldno to ff c ia l ly abandonnon -b e l l ig e r en cy . Rumou r shada l r eadyb e enc i r cu la t ingfo r s ev e ra lday sandth eSpan i sh m i l i ta ry wa sr e s t l e s s .A s Op e ra t ionBa r ba ro s sa wa san t i c ipa t edtob eano th e rb l i tzk r i eg ,aFa lang i s tin i t ia t iv e wou ldpo l i t i ca l lyr e in fo r c eth e mo s trad i ca ls e c to r so fth es ing l epa r ty , whosawth i sa sanoppo r tun i tytoov e r com eth ed e f ea tth eyhadsu ff e r edinth em in i s t e r ia lr eo rd e r ingo f May1941 .Th er i s eo fJo s éLu i sd e A r r e s etog en e ra ls e c r e ta ryo fth eFET JONS( th en ews ing l epa r tya ft e rth eun if ca t iono fth eFa s c i s tFE JONS w i thT rad i t iona l i s t sin Ma r ch 1937 )hadund e rm in edth eFa lang i s tto ta l i ta r ianp ro j e c t , wh i chhadlo s t ou ttoF ran co ’ scon so l ida t iono fp e r sona lpow e randtha to fth eCa thol i c s ,suppo r t edby mo s to fth em i l i ta ry . How ev e r ,pa r t i c ipa t ioninth e Ru s s iancampa ign wou lds t r eng th enS e r ranoSuñ e r ’ spo s i t ion ,sos eve ra lm i l i ta rycommand e r sexp e c t edto m e e tw i thF ran coinhop e so f 52 sway ingh i sop in ion . Th eSpan i shp ropo sa l wa sa c c ep t edtwo day sla t e rin B e r l in . Th e G e rman ssub s equ en t lyexp r e s s edtoS e r ranoth e i rd e s i r efo rSpa into d e c la r e wa ronth e USSR ,a sI ta lyhaddon e .53 P r e s su r ef rom m i l i ta ry l ead e r sc r ea t edf r i c t ion w i thth eFa lang e ;A rmy M in i s t e rG en e ra lJo s é E .V a r e la wan t edtos endar egu la run i tw i thou tanysp e c if cpo l i t i ca l co lou r .Th eFa lang ePo l i t i ca lCoun c i l wa sd iv id edonth i si s su e .Inth e end ,th eyexp r e s s edp r e f e r en c efo racon t ing en to ftw en tythou sand Fa lang i s t s :“70%ex comba tan t s ,10%t ru s two r thyp e r sonn e la ff l ia t ed w i thth es ing l e pa r ty .” Th er ema ind e r wa sl e f t und efn edand m i l i54 ta ryrank sw e r eg ran t edtol ead e r s whovo lun t e e r ed . S e r ranoSuñ e r wan t edc l ea rFa lang ep rom in en c ebu t wa scon c e rn edtha tsu chad e c is ion m igh tl eadth eA l l i e stod e c la r e wa ronSpa in . F ran cocho s eanin t e rm ed ia t eso lu t ion . Th e Coun c i lo f M in i s t e r s ga th e r edon23–4Jun eandapp rov edth ec r ea t iono faSpan i shD iv i s ion . I t wou ldcon s i s to fno mo r ethanf f tythou sand m en ,l edbya rmyo f f c e r s ,w i tht roop sr e c ru i t edbyth eFET M i l i t iaf romamongFa lang i s t vo lun t e e r sando th e r s .55 Th een t i r eSpan i shA i rFo r c eo ff c e rco rp svo l un t e e r edtog e th e rfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tandA i rFo r c eM in i s t e rG en e ra l JuanV igóno f f e r edtos endfo r ty -fv et ra in edp i lo t sa long w i thlandp e r sonn e l .Th enavy m in i s t e ra l sov i s i t edth eG e rmanamba s sado rtoo f f e r 56 t roop stoth eR e i ch . On c eaga in ,ev en t sun fo ld edqu i ck ly . On 24Jun e ,th eFa lang eo rgan iz edad emon s t ra t iontha tc ro s s ed Mad r idtoth epa r tyh eadqua r t e r s ,

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 37

wh e r eS e r ranoSuñ e rra l l i edth ed emon s t ra to r sw i thaf e rv en timp rov i s edsp e e chs ta t ingtha t“Ru s s iai sgu i l ty .” Gu i l tyo f wha t ?O fJo s é An ton ioP r imod eR iv e ra ’ sd ea thin Nov emb e r1936 ,ando fcau s ingth e Span i shC iv i lW a r .Th ecommun i s t“Ru s s ian” wa sc lo s etocap i tu la t ion ; now wa sth et im efo rd efn i t iv er e ta l ia t ion . Manyo fth ed emon s t ra to r s mad eth e i r waytoth eB r i t i shemba s sy , wh e r eth eydamag edp rop e r ty , th en mov edontoth eG e rmancon su la t etod e c la r eth e i rsuppo r t .S im i la rin c id en t so c cu r r edino th e rc i t i e sa sw e l l .Pa ra l l e lFa lang e o rgan iz ed d emon s t ra t ion stook p la c ein o th e rc i t i e s andtown s onth esam e a f t e rnoono f24Jun eandca r r i edonth roughth en ex tday .A l though pub l i ca t t endan c e wa ss ca r c einSan taC ruzd eT en e r i f e ,th enumb e r sin S ev i l l e , Má laga ,and A l i can t er ef e c t edg r ea ten thu s ia sm ,a c co rd ingto 57 th eG e rmancon su l s . Onth en igh to f2 5Jun e ,a l lp rov in c i a lFET l e ad e r sw e r e i s su ed in s t ru c t ion stoo rg an i z er e c ru i tm en tfo ranexp ed i t iontoth eRu s s i anF ron ta s soona spo s s ib l e .V o lun t e e r sshou ldp r e f e r ab lyb es e l e c t edf romamong th eb e s tF a l ang i s t s ,wh e th e r in t e rm so fm i l i t a ry t r a in ingo rpo l i t i c a l -mo r a l fb r e .A rmyo ff c e r sw i th“ aF a l ang i s tsp i r i t ”w e r ea l so w e l com e .Comb a t an t sh adtob etw en tytotw en ty e igh ty e a r so fag eandp a s sa m ed i c a l ex am .P r e f e r en c ew a sg iv ento m en w i th m i l i t a ryexp e r i en c e ,thoughth e o r ig in a lquo t ae s t ab l i sh edar a t ioo f7 5p e rc en tex comb a t an t sand2 5 p e rc en tex -p r i son e r s( inth eR epub l i c anzon edu r ingth eC iv i lW a r )and po l i t i c a l lyt ru s two r thyvo lun t e e r s .C a r e e rm i l i t a ryp e r sonn e lw i sh ingto vo lun t e e rw e r er equ i r edtodoso w i th info r ty e igh thou r s ,bu tF a l ang i s t s w e r eg iv enun t i l 2Ju ly .Th eo r e t i c a l ly ,i f mu l t ip l ec and id a t e sp r e s en t ed th em s e lv e sfo ra m i l i t a rypo s t ,th e mo s texp e r i en c ed m en wou ldb echo 5 8 s en .Ev e ryon eb e l i ev edth efn a lv i c to rytob en e a r . In s t ru c t ion stor equ e s tvo lun t e e r sw e r ea l sos en ttoth eM i l i ta ry D i s t r i c t Command sandt roop sin No r th e rn Mo ro c co . Ap rov i s ionon28 Jun ein c r ea s edth ep e r sonn e lquo tatha tth ea rmy wa sp e rm i t t edtor e c ru i t :th r e e fou r th so fnon comm i s s ion edo ff c e r s(NCO s )andsp e c ia l iz edp e r sonn e l ,anda s manyt roop sa sn e ed edi fc iv i l ianvo lun t e e r s w e r ein su ff c i en t .G en e ra lAgu s t ín Muñoz -G rand e s wa scho s entocommandth eD iv i s ion .Th i sv e t e ranf romth e Mo ro c can wa rhadd i r e c t ed th eso ca l l edA s sau l tGua rddu r ingth eS e condR epub l i candhads e rv ed 59 a ss e c r e ta ryg en e ra lo fth eFET JONSfo rat im e . H e wa sacha r i sma t i c m i l i ta ry mano fpopu la ro r ig inandingoods tand ing w i thFa lang i s t s . S e r ranohadnog r ea tl ik ingfo rh imbu ta c c ep t edh imnon e th e l e s s .O ff c ia l lych r i s t en eda sth eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r s ,th eun i t wa s popu la r lyknowna sth eD iv i s i ónA zu l,th eB lu eD iv i s ion ,ina l lu s ionto i t sFa lang i s tpo l i t i ca lco lou r .Appa r en t ly ,FETS e c r e ta ryG en e ra lA r r e s e cam eup w i thth enam e .R id ru e jo , whohadf r s tou t l in edth ep lano f

38 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

d i spa t ch ingvo lun t e e r stoRu s s ia ,foundi t“ som ewha tr id i cu lou s”bu t p r ed i c t edi t wou ld“b easu c c e s s .”60 Th eSpan i sh d e c la ra t iono f wa ronth e USSR n ev e r ma t e r ia l iz ed , pa r t lyb e cau s eG r ea tB r i ta ind idno tr ea c ttop rovo ca t ion .Th eLondon gov e rnm en t wa sp rud en tenoughtok e epth eSpan i shr eg im ef rom jo iningth e wa ra sana l lyo fth e Ax i s .Thu s ,th eSpan i shexp ed i t ion wa s p r e s en t eda sapu r e lyan t i commun i s ten t e rp r i s eo fr e ta l ia t ionfo rth e C iv i lW a r ,w i thou tac l ea rind i ca t iono fa l ignm en tw i thth eN ewEurop ean O rd e r .S e r ranoSuñ e rs ta t edtoth eD eu t s ch eA l lg em e in eZ e i tung tha tSpan i shpa r t i c ipa t ioninth e wa raga in s tth e USSR wa sar e tu rn toa rm saga in s tth e i r1936en emyandpa r to fan Eu rop eanc ru sad e “aga in s tA s ianba rba r i ty ,”tor eo rgan iz eth eCon t in en tanda ch i ev eendu r ingp ea c ew i thth eB r i t i shand Am e r i can s . Ano th e rp ropagand i s t i c mo t iv e wa sadd ed :th el ib e ra t iono fn in ethou sandSpan i shch i ld r en whohadb e en“ s to l en”byth eUSSRin1937andn ev e rr e tu rn ed .61 Th eSp an i shcon t ing en tw a stob ein t eg r a t edin toth eW eh rm a ch tand wou ldadop ti t so rg an i z a t ion a ls t ru c tu r e ,equ ipm en t ,and un i fo rm– a long w i than a t ion a lb adg eonth es l e ev e–fo ri t sm emb e r stob el eg a l ly r e cogn i z eda scomb a t an t s .Sp an i shso ld i e r sr e c e iv eddoub l ep ay inSp an i shand G e rm an w ag e s ,aW e h r s o l dc amp a ignbonu s ,andp aym en tfo r t im eonth ef ron t .C iv i l i anvo lun t e e r sa l so m a in t a in edth e i rr egu l a rs a l a r i e s .Th eadm in i s t r a t iono f ju s t i c ep rov edth e mo s tcomp l i c a t eda sp e c to f th i sin t eg r a t ion .I tw a sfn a l lyag r e edth a tth eBD wou ldb ep l a c edund e r Sp an i shcomm andbu tsub j e c ttoth es t r a t eg i cd i spo s i t ion so fG e rm an H ighComm and .Th eD iv i s ionwou ldu s e i t sowncod eo fm i l i t a ry ju s t i c e , th a to fth eSp an i shA rmy .Anyp e r son sd e t a in edbyth eG e rm an m i l i t a ry po l i c ew e r etob eh and edov e rtoth er e l ev an tBDau tho r i t i e sandconv i c t s wou ldb et r an spo r t edb a cktoSp a intocomp l e t eth e i rs en t en c e ,ex c ep tfo r c a s e so fe sp ion ag efo rA l l i edfo r c e so th e rth anth e USSR .G en e r a lK e i t e l 6 2 s an c t ion edth e s eru l e sin m id -S ep t emb e ronb eh a l fo fth eOKH . Th ef r s tD iv i s ionadvan c egua rd wa ss ch edu l edtol eav eon8Ju lyto p r epa r et roopqua r t e r sa tth eG ra f enwöh rt ra in ingcampinth e Upp e r Pa la t ina t e .Th ef r s tcon t ing en to ft roop sando ff c e r s wou ldl eav eby 63 t ra inon13Ju ly . F romth eou t s e t , i s su e ssu r fa c ed inadap t ingth eSpan i shcon t ing en ttoth eW eh rma ch tlog i s t i ca lp r io r i t i e sando rgan iza t iona l mod e l . Th e r ew e r etoo manyo ff c e r sin p ropo r t iontonon comm i ss ion edo ff c e r s .Fu r th e rmo r e ,th eSpan i shA rmycou ldno tp rov id e mo to r iz edv eh i c l e s( th r e ehund r edlo r r i e sandfou rhund r ed mo to rb ik e s ) tot ran spo r tth e i rt roop stoth ef ron t . How ev e r ,pa r t lydu etop r e s su r e f romth eG e rman M in i s t ryo fFo r e ignA f fa i r s ,th eOKWa cqu i e s c ed ;th e Span i sht roop sw e r ea c c ep t ed w i thou tt ran spo r ta t ionandth eex c e s s p e r sonn e l wa sin t eg ra t ed .64

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 39

Th ein i t ia lfou rr eg im en t sw e r enam eda f t e rth e i rco lon e l s :Rod r igo (Mad r id ) ,V i e rna(V a l en c ia ) ,E spa rza(S ev i l l e ) ,andP im en t e l(V a l lad o l id ) . Th evo lun t e e r sw e r ed i s t r ibu t edamongd i f f e r en tba r ra ck sin th eva r iou sm i l i ta ryr eg ion s .Th eyth enr e c e iv edg en e ra lin s t ru c t ion s andaSpan i shA rmyun i fo rm , wh i chhadb e enpa r t lyimp rov i s ed w i th ga rm en t stak enf romth eR epub l i canA rmy :i ta l soin c lud edar edb er e t ,and u sua l lyab lu esh i r tw i thFa lang i s t ma rk ing s .Som eth i r ty Wh i t eRu s s ianex comba tan t s , mo s to fth em m emb e r so fth eSpan i sh Fo r e ignL eg ionandvo lun t e e r so fth eF ran co i s tA rmyinth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ,w e r ea l soin t eg ra t edin toth eSpan i shcon t ing en ttos e rv e a st ran s la to r s .65 In Mad r id ,vo lun t e e r sw e r ega th e r edinba r ra ck sandinth eun iv e r s i tyd i s t r i c t , wh e r eth eyp e r fo rm edsom et ra in ingex e r c i s e s . Hou s ing cond i t ion sw e r eo f t en un san i ta ry .Fa lang i s t Lu i s Agu i la r no t edtha t h i sba r ra ck shadf ew e r ma t t r e s s e sthanso ld i e r s ,andtha tth efood wa s badand“d i r ty .”66 Th ef r s texp ed i t ion sl e f tth e i rm i l i ta rycommand h eadqua r t e r sfo rRu s s iaon12Ju ly .V e ryemo t iona ls c en e scou ldb ew i t n e s s edint ra ins ta t ion ssu cha stho s eo f Mad r id ,V a l lado l id ,andS ev i l l e . S e r ranoSuñ e r ,th eG e rmanamba s sado r ,ando th e rau tho r i t i e sa t t end ed th e mu l t i tud inou ss end -o f fa tth e No r thS ta t ionin Mad r idon13Ju ly . Th e mo r esubdu eds c en e sinBa r c e lonaandV a l en c ia ,a sw e l la sth er ec ep t ionfo rconvoy sf romo th e rpo in t so fo r ig ininZa ragoza ,r ef e c t ed 67 th er eg im e ’ sla cko fpopu la r i tyintho s er eg ion s . Th e s eexp ed i t ion shadtochang et ra in sin H enday e ,th ef r s tt ra in s ta t ioninF ran c e .F romth e r e ,th eG e rmano c cupy ingfo r c e sa s sum ed 68 r e spon s ib i l i tyfo rth evo lun t e e r s . Th ef r s tth ingth eyexp e r i en c edou t s id eth e i rcoun t ry wa saco l l e c t iv eshow e randun i fo rmd i s in f e c t ion , b e fo r econ t inu ingth e i rjou rn eyto G e rmanyin pa s s eng e rca r r iag e s . Th eyen coun t e r ed manyd i sp lay so fho s t i l i tyf romth eF r en chra i l road wo rk e r sandc iv i l ian s , whoa im edin su l t s ,ob s c en eg e s tu r e s ,andro ck s a tth em .M ino ra l t e r ca t ion sa ro s e wh en ev e rth et ra in ss topp ed .69 Su ch s c en e s wou ldr ep ea tth em s e lv e sfo rth en ex ttwoy ea r s . Th eou t lookchang eda s th e t roop sa r r iv ed inA l sa c e ,wh i chwa sund e r Th i rdR e i chdom in ion ,andpa r t i cu la r lya sth eypu l l edin to Ka r l s ruh e S ta t ion , inG e rmant e r r i to ry .Th et roop sw e r e mov edbyth een thu s ia s t i c w e l com etha tth eG e rmanc iv i l ianpopu la t iono f f e r edth e i rexo t i ca l l i e s . Th et ra in sa r r iv eda tth eG ra f enwöh rm i l i ta ryt ra in ingcampcomp l ex inth e Upp e rPa la t ina t er eg ionb e tw e en17and23Ju ly .Th e mod e rn , com fo r tab l et ra in ingcamp ss e em edl ik epa rad i s etoth eBDvo lun t e e r s . Th eysp en tfv ew e ek sth e r e–ath i rdo fth es tanda rd G e rmant ra in ing p e r iodfo rso ld i e r s–t ra in ingha rdinunp l ea san t ,ra iny w ea th e r ,w i th o c ca s iona lou t ing sin toth esu r round inga r ea s .

40 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Thoughth et roop sa r r iv edina c c ep tab l eh ea l thov e ra l l ,a s manya s fou rhund r edo fth em enhadcon t ra c t edv en e r ea ld i s ea s e sp r io rto l eav ingo rf rom“unh ea l thy wom en”–p ro s t i tu t e s–aboa rdth et ra in s du r ingth ejou rn ey .A f t e rb e ingt r ea t edin G ra f enwöh r ,285a ff i c t ed vo lun t e e r sw e r er epa t r ia t edon4 Augu s t ,a long w i th62 m end e em ed unf tfo rs e rv i c e ,andon es e rg ean to fA f r i cano r ig in . Th eD iv i s ion la ck ed non comm i s s ion ed o ff c e r ssp e c ia l iz ingincava l ry o rt ran s po r ta t ion ,andth er e in fo r c em en t sr equ e s t edby Muñoz G rand e sd id no ta r r iv eb e fo r eth ed epa r tu r efo rth ef ron t .70 Th eSpan i shso ld i e r s w e r ea s s ign edb i l ingua lin s t ru c to r s ,r e c e iv edG e rmanequ ipm en t ,and a c cu s tom edth em s e lv e sto W eh rma ch tba r ra ck sru l e s :r ev e i l l ea t5 :30 a .m . ,co ldd inn e rinth ea f t e rnoon ,ea r lyn igh t s .Th evo lun t e e r sfound i t mo r ed i ff cu l ttoad ju s ttoan ewd i e tthantoth er igo rou sphy s i ca l t ra in ing w i thl iv eammun i t iontha tth eyendu r edund e rth eG e rman mo t to ,“ sw ea tsav e sb lood .” D i f f e r en tm ea lhou r s ,spa r tanda i lyrat ion s ,foodsu cha sp ea r lba r l eytha t wa sfo r e igntosou th e rnpa la t e s , b e e r in s t eado fw in e ,andb londtoba c cow e r ecommonth em e s in l e t t e r s and jou rna l sf romth evo lun t e e rt roop s .D ion i s ioR id ru e jocomp la in ed o fth e“ou t land i shbu tno ta lway scomp l e t em ea l s wh i ch w e mu s tendu r e .”71 A s id ef romth efood ,o th e rcau s e sfo rcon c e rnin c lud edth e la cko f ma i lf romSpa in ,andth e“d i s c ip l in eandru th l e s s …t r ea tm en t” byo ff c e r sands e rg ean t s .72 Fa lang i s tl ead e r s whohadb e enr edu c ed tos imp l ep r iva t e scommun i ca t edth e i rd i sp l ea su r etoth eSpan i shem ba s syinB e r l in . How ev e r ,th ela cko fpo l i t i ca lso l ida r i ty wa sev en mo r e d i s tu rb ingthanth e i rt r ea tm en t ;d e sp i t er e comm enda t ion sf rom G e rmand ip loma tEb e rha rdvonS toh r e r ,th eFa lang i s tBDl ead e r ss ca r c e ly hadanycon ta c tw i th NSDAPd e l ega t ion sapa r tf romon efo rma lv i s i t on17 Augu s tbyRob e r tL ey ,th ed i r e c to ro fth eD eu t s ch eA rb e i t s f ron t , 73 andth eBay r eu thG au l e i t e r. Inla t eJu ly ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s iono fV o lun t e e r sund e rw en tin t e rna l o rgan iza t iona lr e s t ru c tu r inginana t t emp ttoadap ti ttoth eo ld W eh r ma ch t mod e l .Th eR ep la c em en tR eg im en t– wh i chg en e ra l lyr ema in ed in G e rmany– wa sin co rpo ra t edin toth eo th e rth r e etob ed ep loy edon th ef ron t .Th e r e wou lda l sob ea mob i l er e s e rv eba t ta l ion( th e250 th ) w i ths en io rs ta f fandth r e ecompan i e s–twoin fan t ryandon em ix ed– tha t wou ldr ema ininth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rd un t i ln e ed ed . Thu s , th eBDo ff c ia l lyb e cam eth e250 th W eh rma ch tD iv i s ion(Span i s ch en F r e iw i l l ig en D iv i s ion ) .Th eo r ig ina lfou rBDr eg im en t sb e cam eth r e e , ea chcompo s edo fth r e eba t ta l ion sandtwoadd i t iona lcompan i e sun d e rth ecommand so f Co lon e lP ed roP im en t e l(262ndR eg im en t ) ,Jo s é V i e rna(263 rdR eg im en t ) ,andJo s é Ma r t ín ezE spa rza(269 thR eg im en t ) . Th efou r thco lon e l ,M igu e lRod r igo , wa spo s t eda ss e condh eado fth e

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 41

D iv i s ion .Th eBDa l soin c lud edana r t i l l e ryandasapp e r s ’r eg im en t a long w i than t i tank ,t ran sm i s s ion ,exp lo ra t ion ,t ran spo r ta t ion ,m ed ica l ,log i s t i ca l ,andv e t e r ina ryg roup s ,m i l i ta rypo l i c e ,cou r i e r s ,s en io r s ta f f ,andg en e ra ls ta f f .T o ta l BDp e r sonn e l wa se s t ima t eda tn ea r ly 74 e igh t e enthou sand . D i sp e r s edth roughou tth eva s tr ea rgua rdtha ts t r e t ch edf romRu s s ia toSpa in ,sma l lSpan i shd e ta chm en t sw e r ed i s t r ibu t edtop rov id eaux i l ia rys e rv i c e stoth er e l i e fexp ed i t ion s , ma r chba t ta l ion s ,andth e mo r e r edu c edcon t ing en t so fso ld i e r s who w e r e wound ed ,r epa t r ia t ed ,o ron l eav e .Inadd i t iontoBDo ff c e s inHo f ,B e r l in ,Kön ig sb e rg ,V i ln iu s ,R iga , and Mad r id ,m i l i ta rypo l i c epo s t sw e r ec r ea t edin May1942in G e r many ,th eBa l t i c s ,anda ts ev e ra lt ran s i tpo in t sinF r en cht e r r i to ryand inth eo c cup i edSov i e tr ea rgua rd .Twoo th e r mob i l eg roup sw e r eg iv en in t e l l ig en c eo rcoun t e r e sp ionag e wo rk ,w i thh eadqua r t e r sinR igaand B e r l in .75 F ina l ly ,an e two rko fSpan i shho sp i ta l s–s e c t ion so fG e rman m i l i ta ryho sp i ta l s– wa se s tab l i sh edinth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rdonth e f ron t ,in c lud ingth ef e ldho sp i ta linPo rkhov( la t e rM e s t e l evo ) ,tho s e o fth ed i s tan tr ea rgua rdin R iga ,V i ln iu s , Ho f ,and Kön ig sb e rg ,and 76 th econva l e s c en tho sp i ta linB e r l in . A l lo fth em w e r ea tl ea s tpa r t ia l ly s ta f f edbySpan i sh m i l i ta rydo c to r sand m ed i c s ,a sw e l la svo lun t e e r nu r s e sf romth ea rmy ,th eR ed C ro s s ,th eFET W om en ’ sS e c t ion ,and lo ca laux i l ia ryp e r sonn e l . How ev e r ,inth ey ea r stha tfo l low ed ,Span i sh wound edandconva l e s c en t scou ldb efoundinG e rman m i l i ta ryho sp ita l sf romB romb e rgtoV i enna . S im i la r ly , andincon sonan c e w i thth eimpo r tan c eg iv entoth e “ sp i r i tua lca r e”o fth eW eh rma ch tt roop s ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s iont roop s b eganto w r i t eth e i rf r s tt r en ch jou rna l s .InG ra f enwöh randdu r ingth e ma r ch e s ,th ey w e r epa s t edon wa l l s . Onth ef ron t ,th e s ei r r egu la rbu ll e t in sb e cam ear egu la rt r en ch jou rna l ,th eH o j ad eC amp añ a, wh i ch wa s f r s tpub l i sh edin G r igo rovo ,th eninR iga ,andfna l lyinT a l l innun t i l ea r ly Ma r ch1944 .I tf ea tu r edcon t r ibu t ion sf romFa lang i s tBDin t e l l e c tua l s ,su cha sin t e rna t iona llawp ro f e s so rF e rnandoCa s t i e l laand w r i t e r Á lva rod eLa ig l e s ia .77 On 31Ju ly1941 ,info rma t ionund e rth eG e rmanandSpan i shfag s onth eK ram e rb e rgf e ld ,th ebu lko fth eB lu eD iv i s ionswo r ea l l eg ian c e toth e“h eado fth eG e rmanA rmyAdo l fH i t l e rinth efgh taga in s tcom mun i sm ,”b e fo r e“Godandonyou rhonou ra sSpan ia rd s .”Th eW eh rma ch toa th wa sadap t edtoavo idth e wo rdFüh r e randin t rodu c edth e nuan c etha tloya l ty wa sl ink edtoth efgh taga in s tcommun i sm .P r e s idingov e rth ec e r emony w i th MuñozG rand e sw e r eG en e ra lCon radvon Co ch enhau s enand G en e ra lF r i ed r i chF romm ,command e rinch i e fo f th er e s e rv ea rmy .Inh i ssp e e ch ,Co ch enhau s enempha s iz edth eth em e s

42 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fanan t i -Bo l sh ev ikc ru sad eandth ed e f en c eo fEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion 78 aga in s tJuda eo -Ma rx i s tdom in ion . WhoV o lun tee redfo rtheB lue D iv i s ion ? Th ek eyqu e s t iono f whovo lun t e e r edfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tand why ha so f t enb e enadd r e s s edind i r e c t lyandi t san sw e rha su sua l lyb e en ba s edonl im i t edemp i r i ca lev id en c e ,ex c ep tfo rsom eun ev en wo rkon sp e c if cp rov in c ia lo rlo ca lcon t ex t s .T oda t e ,how ev e r ,th eta sko fga th e r ingar ep r e s en ta t iv esamp l eo fvo lun t e e rb iog raph i e sfo ra l lo fSpa in ha sp rov edimpo s s ib l e .Su chaco rpu s wou ldid en t i fycommoncha ra c t e r i s t i c so fth evo lun t e e r s ,a sw e l la sth e i rba ckg round s ,th e i rso c ia l , po l i t i ca l ,andcu l tu ra lo r ig in s ,andth e i rr ea son sfo ren l i s t inginth e f r s tB lu eD iv i s ion mu s t e r( Jun e– Ju ly1941 )o ranyo fth etw en ty e igh t r e l i e fba t ta l ion sd i spa t ch edtor ep la c eth efa l l en ,th e wound ed ,and th ev e t e ran s . Th eh i s to r iog raph i cd i s cu s s ionabou tth e mo t iv e sandcha ra c t e r i s t i c s o fB lu eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e r sha so s c i l la t edrough lyb e tw e entwopo l e s . A ton eex t r em e ,th eBDi ss e ena sap r imo rd ia l lyfa s c i s tandg en e ra l ly F ran co i s tcon t ing en t whop e r c e iv edth eRu s s iancampa igna sacon t inua t iono fth eC iv i lW a randth e i ran t i commun i s tcomm i tm en to fth e 1930 s .Thoughnumb e r sb egantod e c l in ein1942 ,th eD iv i s ion ma inta in edi t ss t rongFa lang i s tfavou r , wh i cha l socon t r ibu t edtoth eindo c t r ina t iono fn ewso ld i e r sinth i sid ea l .Inth i sl in eo fth ink ing ,th eBD wa safo r c ecompo s ed ma in lyo fFa lang i s t s ,Ca tho l i c s ,andan t i commun i s t s .79 A tth eo th e rex t r em e ,th eBDha sb e encon s id e r eda sapun i t iv e too lby wh i ch manyo r mo s to fi t sm emb e r shadb e enfo r c edtos e rv ein som e wayo rr e c ru i t edbyco e r c iv em e thod s ,e sp e c ia l ly wh e r eth ea rmy wa sinvo lv ed . Mo s to fth evo lun t e e r sf rom1941–3 wou ld ,inth i sv i ew , no thav eb e enid ea l i s t sbu ta m ixo fp s eudo -m e r c ena r i e s ,con s c r ip t ed so ld i e r s whohadb e eno rd e r edtoen l i s t ,comba tan t sw i thal e f t i s tpa s t s e ek ingtoc l ea rth e i rr e co rd ,o rp ea san t sand wo rk e r sa t t ra c t edbyth e sa la ryth ey wou ldea rn wh i l eth eys e rv ed .Th epov e r tyinSpa ina f t e r 80 th eC iv i lW a r wou ldhav eindu c edth emtoen l i s t . Ath i rdl in eo fin t e rp r e ta t ionlook sa tth e“f r s t” D iv i s ionvo lun t e e r s o fJun e– Ju ly1941a sa m ixo fp ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r s–en s ign s ,co rpora l s ,ands e rg ean t s ma in ly– whoen l i s t edpa r t lyb e cau s eth eysha r ed th eid ea l stha thadl edth emtofgh tinth eC iv i lW a r ,andpa r t lyou to f th ed e s i r eto mak eaca r e e ro fth em i l i ta ry . Av e rys ign if can tcon t in g en to fvo lun t e e r sf romth eFET m i l i t ia s , mo s to f whom w e r em emb e r s o fo rsympa th iz e r sw i thth es ing l epa r ty ,hadid eo log i ca l mo t iva t ion s tha tin c lud edag en e r i cd e s i r etoav eng ep e r sona lo rfam i lysu f f e r ing s

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 43

a t“R ed”hand sdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .Th eysha r edaconv i c t iontha tth e t im ehadcom etoc ru shth ecommun i s ten emyanden su r eSpa in ’ spa r t i c ipa t ioninth eN ewEu rop eanO rd e r ,w i thav i ewtos t r eng th en ingth e ro l eo fth eFa lang e inth eF ran co i s tr eg im e .Ano th e rg roupo fvo lun t e e r s wou ldhav een l i s t ed ma in lyfo re conom i cr ea son s ,o rtof e ef romad i sag r e eab l er ea l i ty . Mo s tr ep la c em en tso ld i e r sf rom Ma r ch1942oncam e f romth ea rmy ,soth evo lun t e e ra sp e c to fen l i s tm en tva r i ed .V o lun t e e r s f romth ef r s tr e c ru i tm en tcampa ign wou ldhav eb e ena t t ra c t edbyth e doub l esa la ry ,bu tsom es e c r e t lysympa th iz ed w i thth el e f tand w e r e po s s ib lylook ingfo rachan c etod e f e c t .81 Th epano ramai sd iv e r s e , wh e th e rf romth ep e r sp e c t iv eo fth evo lunt e e r s ’ mo t iv e so ro fth e i rp ro sopog raph i ct ra i t s .Th eSpan i sh D iv i s ion o fV o lun t e e r s wa sc e r ta in lyno tsov e ryb lu eini t scompo s i t ion .Though s ign if can t ,th eFa lang i s t sw e r ea lway sa m ino r i ty ,bu tth eya cqu i r ed c l ea rsymbo l i ch eg emony .Th i scoa t edth eimag eand wa rcu l tu r eo fth e Span i shD iv i s ion w i thafa s c i s tva rn i sh .R id ru e jo w ro t einAugu s t1941 tha ti t wa sa“Noah ’ sA rk w i tha l lth esp e c i e s ,”thoughth eFa lang i s t s p r edom ina t ed .82 Th e wa raga in s tth ecommonen emya l soa t t ra c t ednu m e rou sm i l i tan t Ca tho l i c s ,som e Ca r l i s t s ,andsom e“wa rF ran co i s t s ,” in c lud ing NCO sanda rmyo ff c e r s .V o lun t e e r ingfo rth eRu s s ianF ron t wa sfo r manyap e r sona linv e s tm en tl ink edtoapo l i t i ca lgamb l e .Fo r manyo th e r s ,th e r ew e r ep ra c t i ca ladvan tag e stob e inga wa rv e t e ranin F ran co i s tSpa in . Th eg en e r a t ion a l ,po l i t i c a l ,andf am i lyexp e r i en c e so fm anyvo lunt e e r sdu r ingth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r– wh e th e rth eyh adp a r t i c ip a t edo r no ta scomb a t an t s ,o rh adb e eninth ef f thco lumn ,o rh adsu f f e r eda s p r i son e r s–p l ay edad e c i s iv ero l einth e i rd e c i s iontojo inth eBD .W a r vo lun t e e r ingh a ss c a r c e lyb e ent r e a t edf romacomp a r a t iv ep e r sp e c8 3 t iv e , bu ti tc anb econ c ep tu a l i z eda sanind iv idu a ld e c i s iont ak enina con t ex to fl im i t edr a t ion a l i ty ,r edu c edop t ion s ,andimp r e c i s ein fo rm a t ioncond i t ion edbyp rop ag and a .V o lun t e e r s ’exp e c t a t ion sw e r ed efn ed byan a r rowr ang eo fp r ed i c t ion s .Th er a t ion a l i tyo fth ed e c i s iontoen l i s t ina w a rw a sa l socond i t ion edbyo th e rf a c to r s :g roupso l id a r i ty ;n a t ion a l i s t ,r e l ig iou s ,o rid eo log i c a lindo c t r in a t ion ;anemo t ion a ll and s c ap eo f w a r mob i l i z a t ioninal im i t edt im ef r am e ;th econn e c t ionb e tw e enth e c au s eandth ed e f en c eo fon e ’ shom eo rch e r i sh edlo c a lcon t ex t ;andth e emph a s i sonv a lu e ssu cha scou r ag e ,adv en tu r einexo t i cl and s ,ands a c r if c efo ron e ’ sn a t ion a lcommun i tyand/o rr e l ig iou sf a i th .Th e s ec l a s s i c a t t r ibu t e so fm a s cu l in i ty w e r ea c c en tu a t edinin t e rw a rEu rop eande s p e c i a l lyv en e r a t edonth eF r an co i s ts id ef rom1 9 3 6on .84 Th e s efa c to r sg en e ra t edacumu l a t iv ep r ed i sp o s i t i onto wa rinaso c ia l con t ex t ma rk edbyth e mob i l iza t iono fth r e ey ea r so fc iv i lconf i c t :an

44 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 85 inh e r i t ed wa rcu l tu r etha tcond i t ion edind iv idua l mo t iv e s . Pov e r ty , un emp loym en t ,r e s t l e s sn e s s ,la cko fso c ia lo r wo rkp ro sp e c t s ,so c ia l p r e s su r eonfam i l i e so fl e f t i s tsympa th iz e r so rr igh t -w ingfam i l i e s who hadno tp rov id edasonfo rth eC iv i lW a r ,so c ia l iza t ioninva lu e slad en w i thv i ta l i smand ma s cu l in i tyo ra s so r t edfam i ly ,p e r sona l ,o rs en t im en ta lc i r cum s tan c e s mayhav es e rv eda sth eimm ed ia t et r igg e rfo r ind iv idua ld e c i s ion s . How ev e r ,th e s e mo t iv e sov e r lapp ed w i tho th e r s tha ta f f e c t edvo lun t e e r sth roughou tth e i rexp e r i en c eo fth e wa r ,f rom s e t t ingou ttosha r edcomba texp e r i en c etoen coun t e r ingth een emy .In th e i rea r l i e s tday sa tG ra f enwöh r ,ev enso ld i e r sf rom l e f t i s tfam i lyba ck g round sexp r e s s edth e i reag e rn e s stogoin tocomba tand“hamm e rth e 86 Ru s s ian s[… ]Up w i thSpa in(A r r i b aE sp añ a) .Longl iv eF ran co .” R e con s t ru c t ingth er ea son sfo rvo lun t e e r ingcon s t i tu t e sa m e thodolog i ca lcha l l eng e .Po s t -wa rt e s t imon i e sa r ep e rm ea t ed w i thth es e l f ju s t if ca t iono fv e t e ran slook ingba ckonth e i rd e c i s ion sinl igh to fth e ou t com e sandth edom inan tin t e rp r e ta t ion so fth eS e cond W o r ld W a r a f t e r1945 .Conv e r t ing“ l i f eincomba t”to wa rexp e r i en c ei sasub j e c t iv e p ro c e s stha tpa r t ia l lyd ep end sonav e t e ran ’ sd e s i r etop la c eth e wa r y ea r sw i th inh i sb iog raphyina waytha tg iv e sm ean ingtoh i ssub s equ en td ev e lopm en t . Mo t iva t ion sexp r e s s eda ttha tt im einl e t t e r s ,p e rsona ld ia r i e s ,o rjou rna l i s t i ccon t r ibu t ion sa lway sspok eo fad e s i r eto upho ldag en e ra l iz edop in ion ,c r ea t ingasmok e s c r e enb eh ind wh i ch th e ma jo r i ty w en ta long w i thth ev i s ionra th e rthant ru lysha r ingi t . Many wa rv e t e rant e s t imon i e sa s c r ib edth ed e c i s iontogotoyou thfu lfo l ly .In1941 , manythough tth ecampa ign wou ldb esho r t :“on e do e sn ’ tgoto wa rth ink ingh ei sgo ingtod i e . On eth ink sh ei sgo ingto 87 s e eo th e r sd i e .” On eex -vo lun t e e ra rgu ed mu chla t e rtha tr ea l ly“mo s t w en tou to fin e r t ia ,th ein e r t iaa cqu i r edinou r[Span i shc iv i l ] wa r wa s 88 s t i l lgo ings t rongandd rov eu stoi t .” Th i sin e r t iaf romaninh e r i t ed wa rcu l tu r e wa sa c t iva t edbyth eemo t iona lcon t ex to fJun e– Ju ly1941 , wh i cha l socond i t ion edind iv idua len l i s tm en t . How ev e r ,th eimpu l s e tovo lun t e e r wa sno ton lyind iv idua lbu tco l l e c t iv einna tu r e :th er e f e r en c eg roup wa sca l l ingi t sm emb e r stoa rm s ,andba ck ingou tm igh t 89 expo s eon etos t igma t i sm . O th e rvo lun t e e r sr e cogn iz edhav ingsu f f e r edf romat ran s i to ry“madn e s s”caugh tf romth e i rpa r tycom rad e s andf r i end s .90 En thu s ia sm wa sa l so p romo t edf romabov e .Ins ev e ra lp rov in c e s , th eFa lang el ead e r s mad esub s tan t ia le f fo r t stoen cou rag een l i s tm en t . How ev e r ,th e s ep epta lk sd idno ta lway sh i tth e i r ma rk .R e su l t sva r i ed a c co rd ingtopo l i t i ca lfam i l i e s ,g en e ra t iona lg roup s ,r eg ion s ,andsp e c if ccon t ex t s ,e sp e c ia l lyina r ea s wh e r eth ed eg r e eo fa c c ep tan c eo fth e F ran cor eg im ehad mad enog r ea tp rog r e s ss in c e1939 .

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 45

F ig .2 .1 .Span i shvo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s iaa tth e Mad r idUn iv e r s i tycampu s , Ju ly  1941(AGA )

Th e“F ev e r”o fth eSumm e ro f1941 A f t e r th ef r s texp ed i t ionhads e tou t inAugu s t1941 ,P ed ro -Lu i sFa ja rdo– ad e co ra t edFa lang i s tand mu t i la t edv e t e rano fth eSpan i shFo r e ign L eg ion–p e t i t ion edth eP rov in c ia lO ff c eo fth eFETinth esou th e rn p rov in c eo f Hu e lvatoa l lowh imtogototh ef ron t .H ea rgu edtha t I t i sno t in my tho rough lyFa lang i s tsp i r i t tob e l e f tb eh ind in th eh ea r t r end ingconfag ra t iono fth een t i r e wo r ld , wh e r eou rh e ro i cB lu eSh i r t sa r e fgh t ingincoop e ra t ion w i thnob l eI ta lo -G e rman i ccom rad e sfo rth ed es t ru c t ionandex t e rm ina t iono fth eco r rup t edba rba r i cA s ia t i cho rd e s , who w i thth e i rd i sa s t rou sid ea l sb lood i edou rhom e landl eav ingat e r r i fy ing t ra i lo fb loodinth e i r wak e ,and who w i thth e i rf e r c eBo l sh ev ikdo c t r in e 9 1 th r ea t enCh r i s t ianc iv i l iza t ionandth er e su rg en c eo fEu rop e .

A longth es am el in e s , wh enth er equ e s to fV a l en c i anFETl e ad e rEdu a rdo Ap a r i s iw a stu rn eddowninJun e1 9 4 1 ,h er e so lv edtos endal e t t e rtoth e G e rm anemb a s sy ,a sk ingtofgh tinth e mo s td i ff cu l tpo s i t ionpo s s ib l eto

46 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 9 2 av eng ecom r ad e s whoh adf a l l eninth e“ho lyc ru s ad e ”o f1 9 3 6 – 9 . InB e n av en t e(Z amo r a ) ,th e a t r eown e randd i s ab l edF a l ang i s tv e t e r anL i c in iod e l a Hu e rg am ad eas im i l a rp l e atoth ep rov in c i a lFETch i e f ,a sk ing“ tob e ab l etoa c comp anyyouandth eo th e rcom r ad e s , ”d r iv enbyh i s“ f e rv en t F a l ang i s tid e a l . ”93Ins im i l a rt e rm s ,ap rov i s ion a ll i eu t en an tf romanAnd a lu s i anv i l l ag er equ e s t edth ep rov in c i a lFETch i e ftoa c c ep th i sapp l i c a t ionto b e com eavo lun t e e r :“now th e t im eh a scom e tos a c r if c eon e s e l f fo rSp a in . ”94 How ev e r ,ap rov i s iona ls e rg ean tf rom Mad r idhado th e r mo t iva t ion s . Wh enh e wa sno tca l l edupbylo t t e ryf romamongtho s e whohadenl i s t edfo rRu s s ia ,h ed e c id edtow r i t etoG en e ra lF ran coh im s e l f .A“good Ca tho l i c ,”h er ev ea l edtha t“ l ink edtoth i si s myd e s i r etopo l i shup my s e rv i c er e co rd w i thd e ed sontha tf ron t ,andth e r ebyqua l i fy my s e l ftoa t l ea s tob ta inapo s ta sfu l ls e rg ean t .” H ea l son e ed edadd i t iona lin com e tocomp en sa t efo rth esa la ryh e wou ldno tb er e c e iv inga sasp e c ia l i s t , in o rd e rtosuppo r th i spa r en t sandsav e mon eytog e t ma r r i ed ,“on c eth e an t i commun i s tcampa igni sfn i sh ed .”95I sab e lSa lado ,anin t e rnnu r s e a taho sp i ta l ,p e t i t ion edin D e c emb e r1941tojo inth eBD m ed i ca ls e r v i c eb e cau s esh ecou ldno th e lph e rfam i lyfo rla cko fin com e .96 A sh a sb e enexp l a in ed ,inth efn a lt a sksh a r ingb e tw e enth eF a l ang e and th ea rmy , th ep a r tywou lda s sum er e spon s ib i l i ty fo rr e c ru i t ingvo lun t e e rt roop s , wh i l eth ea rmy wou ldp rov id el e ad e r s ,o ff c e r s ,sp e c i a l i z ed p e r sonn e l ,and7 5p e rc en to fth e NCO s .Inp rov in c e s wh e r eth een l i s t m en tquo t aw a sno tm e t ,vo lun t e e r s wou ldb er e c ru i t edf romamong so ld i e r sdo ingth e i rm i l i t a rys e rv i c e .Th er e spon s ew a squ i t epo s i t iv e amonga rmyo ff c e r sand NCO sandFET m emb e r s ,e sp e c i a l lyin M ad r id (wh i chh adsupp l i ed2 , 3 0 4 vo lun t e e r sa so f 2 8Jun e ) . How ev e r ,th eso c i a l r e a c t iontoth ec a l lfo rvo lun t e e r sw a sno tun i fo rmth roughou tSp an i sh t e r r i to ry .Ina r e a s wh e r esuppo r tfo rth ein su rg en t sin1 9 3 6 – 9h adb e en l im i t edandwh e r eth eFETh adh add i ff cu l tye s t ab l i sh ing i t s e l f ,p r e c iou s f ew w e r ed r awntoth er e c ru i tm en tc en t r e s .A c co rd ingtoB r i t i shin fo rm an t s ,th ep r e s su r eon m i l i t a rycomm and e r stor e c ru i tvo lun t e e r sinth e b a r r a ck sw a se sp e c i a l ly in t en s e inC a t a lon i a ,andth equo t aw a sm e tw i th ex c e s svo lun t e e r sf romn e ighbou r ingp rov in c e sC a s t e l lónandV a l en c i a . In G i ron a ,th een t i r eg a r r i sonh adb e encomp e l l edtovo lun t e e ra f t e ra p ept a lkf romth eco lon e ll e f tth em w i thf ewa l t e rn a t iv e s .InB a r c e lon a , a lmo s ta l lth eo ff c e r sh aden l i s t ed ,bu tth eb a r r a ck scomm and e r sh ad r e c e iv edth eo rd e rf r s ttoavo idtho s evo lun t e e r s whoh adfough tfo rth e R epub l i c .Con f ron t ed w i th m e ag r er e su l t s ,th eo ff c e r incomm ando fth e m i l i t a ryd i s t r i c to rd e r edev e ryon etoen l i s t .Th eG e rm ancon su lno t ed th a tth enumb e r so fo rd in a ryso ld i e r s whoh aden l i s t edh adjump ed f romaf ewtos ev e r a lhund r ed w i th ind ay s ,l e ad ingh imtoqu e s t ionth e l ev e lo f“vo lun t e e r ing ”invo lv ed . Mo s tc iv i lvo lun t e e r sw e r eF a l ang i s t s ,

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 47

F ig .2 .2 .V o lun t e e r sd epa r t ingbyt ra intoRu s s ia , Mad r id ,Ju ly1941(AGA )

m anyo fth emson so fm idd l e c l a s so rm i l i t a ryf am i l i e s ,a long w i thp e a san t s ,d ayl abou r e r s ,andaf ewo th e r sf romth elow e re ch e lon so fso c i 9 7 e ty . On lyun emp loy edo runqu a l if edp e r son sen l i s t edf romth eC a t a l an 9 8 ru r a la r e a sandth eC a r l i s tR equ e t é sw e r eex c lud ed . Th ecomm and e ro f th e1 0 thExp ed i t ionp a s s edth roughB a r c e lon aon1 5Ju lyandno t edth e co ldn e s so fth es end ingo f fa tth es t a t ion .Som e mo th e r sh adev engon e tod em andth a tth e i rson sb er e tu rn edhom e .Inh i sop in ion ,“F a l ang e 9 9 r e c ru i tm en th a sb e enr a th e rsub s t and a rdo rpoo r lyo rg an i z ed . ” S im i la r ly ,r e c ru i tm en t wa squ i t eun su c c e s s fu linth eBa squ ep rovin c e s , Nava r r e , and o th e rt e r r i to r i e s wh e r e Ca r l i sm con s t i tu t ed a dom inan te l em en tw i th inth eFET .Thoughsom eCa r l i s t sw e r eop en ly favou rab l etoG e rmany ,th e i rl ead e r in ex i l e Manu e lFa lCond ehado r d e r edth emtoab s ta inf rompa r t i c ipa t ion .A c co rd ingtoth eB r i t i shemba s sy ,on lyfo r tyvo lun t e e r shadcom efo rwa rd in Nava r r e .InA lava ,th e numb e ro f Ca r l i s t s whoen l i s t ed wa sn eg l ig ib l e .100InT e ru e l ,Fa lang e r epo r t sind i ca t eds can t wa r l ik een thu s ia smamongi t sm emb e r s ,and 101 comp e l l edsom eo fth ep rov in c ia ll ead e r stovo lun t e e r .

48 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Incon t ra s t ,th efa c ttha ts ev e ra lp rov in c e s ,in c lud ing Mad r idandV a l en c ia ,hadr ema in edund e rR epub l i cancon t ro lun t i lth eendo fth eC iv i l W a rhadd ep r iv ednum e rou sF ran co i s tsympa th iz e r s–som eo f whom hadco l labo ra t ed inth ef f thco lumnando th e rc land e s t in eg roup s inth e R epub l i canr ea rgua rd–o fanyr ea loppo r tun i tytofgh tund e rth efag o fth e i rchoo s ing .Intho s et e r r i to r i e s ,th eFa lang esough ttoga lvan iz e r eg im esympa th iz e r s ,tak ingadvan tag eo fth e mom en ttoga inadh e r en t s .In Mad r id ,th eFa lang i s tsuppo r tba s es e em edab laz ew i tha c t iv i ty . AG e rmanin fo rman tconf rm edtha tg roup so fyoung m en , manyo f th emC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s ,w e r efow ingin toth em i l i t iah eadqua r t e r sto 102 en l i s t . Th esam een thu s ia smcou ldb ef e l tino th e rt e r r i to r i e sbu t wa s l im i t edtoth eFa lang i s tsuppo r tba s eando th e rso c ia ls egm en t sw i th F ran co i s t in c l ina t ion s .InJu ly1941 ,th eFa lang ein Mu r c ias ta t edtha t mo r ethantwothou sanda ff l ia t e so rsympa th iz e r shadcom etoth e i r o ff c e stoen l i s t ,in c lud ingsom eno t ewo r thy“O ldSh i r t s”(m emb e r sb efo r e18Ju ly1936 ,th eda t eo fth eup r i s ingaga in s tth eR epub l i c ) .Th evo l un t e e rexp ed i t ionhadb e enab l etol eav eadayb e fo r eth ed ra f tp e r iod end ed .InA lba c e t e ,th epa r ty wo rk edha rdho ld ing m e e t ing sins ev e ra l town stoen cou rag er e c ru i tm en tandr epo r t eda“magn if c en tsp i r i t” tha tl ed984p eop l etop r e s en tth em s e lv e sa tth er e c ru i t ingo ff c e s .Soon a f t e r ,329o ftho s e–in c lud ingfv elo ca ll ead e r s–l e f tfo rRu s s ia .103 Th e pa r tyh eadqua r t e r sinth eno r th e rnr eg iono fA s tu r ia sd e s c r ib edas im ila rpano ramainth e i r mon th lyr epo r to fJun e1941 : Th eG e rmand e c la ra t iono f wa ronRu s s iaha sb e enr e c e iv ed w i thg r ea t en thu s ia sm …in Ov i edoa lon e … mo r ethan350com rad e shav een l i s t ed fo ra l lpo s t s ,andth eimp r e s s ioni sgoodinth etown s .Th ed epa r tu r eo f th ef r s texp ed i t iono fvo lun t e e r s ,w i thou tanyk indo fpub l i c i ty ,b e cam e ad emon s t ra t iono fau th en t i ca l lyFa lang i s ten thu s ia sm ;th es ta t ionp la tfo rm sw e r eov e rfow ing w i thp eop l ed e l i r iou s lyapp laud ingth ef r s t140 Fa lang i s t s whol e f tfo rdu ty .104

Ev ensom ena t iv ep eop l einSpan i sh Mo ro c coshow edin t e r e s tin fgh t inginRu s s ia , wh i chth eG e rmancon su linT é touansawa sanint e r e s t ingp ropagand i s t i ce l em en tfo ra t t ra c t ingth e Mu s l impopu la t ion o fth e USSR . How ev e r ,th em i l i ta rycommandv e to eden l i s tm en to find ig enou st roop sand ,ex c ep tfo raf ew Mo ro c cans e rg ean t sinth ef r s t exp ed i t ion ,th econ t ing en to fn ea r lytwothou sandvo lun t e e r stha tl e f t fo rth ef ron t wa sa lmo s ten t i r e lycompo s edo fo ff c e r s , NCO s ,andEu 105 rop eanso ld i e r sr e c ru i t edinth eba r ra ck s . Manyvo lun t e e r sa l sohadp e r sona ls co r e stos e t t l e ;th eyhadlo s t b ro th e r s ,fa th e r s ,andf r i end sth roughr ep r e s s ioninth eR epub l i can

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 49

zon eo rhadth em s e lv e ssu f f e r edimp r i sonm en to rp e r s e cu t ion . Nu m e rou sFET m emb e r sandsympa th iz e r shadl iv edc land e s t in e lyinth e R epub l i canr ea rgua rddu r ingth eC iv i lW a r ,hadco l labo ra t ed w i thth e “F i f th Co lumn”in Mad r idando th e rc i t i e s ,o rhaden l i s t edinth eR epub l i can A rmytot rytod e f e c ttoth eF ran co i s tzon e .106 Now ,th eya l l sawth eEa s t e rnF ron ta sanoppo r tun i tyfo rth e i rownp e r sona lshad eo f r ev eng e .Th eB r i t i shamba s sado re s t ima t edinea r lyJu ly1941tha tth i s 107 fa c to r wou ld mo t iva t e“ thou sand so fSpan ia rd s”toen l i s t . Doz en so f Fa lang i s t ,Ca tho l i c ,o rs imp ly“wa r t im eF ran co i s t”vo lun t e e r shadsu ff e r edth elo s so ffam i lyandf r i end sa tth ehand so fd iv e r s eR epub l i can m i l i t ia s ,popu la rt r ia l s ,o rth eR epub l i canIn fo rma t ionS e rv i c e .108 Ev en in1943 ,a G e rmano ff c e rw ro t etha t manyvo lun t e e r s whoa r r iv edin Ru s s iasha r eda“d e s i r efo rr ev eng einh e r i t edf romp e r sona lo rfam i ly 109 su f f e r ingdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .” G en e ra t iona l sop lay edac e r ta inro l e .Th eso c ia lcommun i tyo ftho s e whosuppo r t edth eF ran co i s tr eg im e infu en c edth eyoung e s tm emb e r s , whod e s i r edtod emon s t ra t eth e i rab i l i tytotak eupa rm sind e f en c eo f th esam eid ea l stha thadin sp i r edth ein su rg en t so fJu ly1936 .Tho s e whohadl iv edinR epub l i canzon e so rhadb e entooyoungtofgh tf e l t p r e s su r ef romn e ighbou r sandf e l lowF ran co i s t s .Th ed evou t Ca thol i cs tud en tEn r iqu eSán ch ezF ra i l e , who s e Anda lu s ianv i l lag ehadr e ma in edund e rR epub l i cancon t ro lun t i l Ma r ch1939 ,f e l tth er ep roa ch e s o fr igh t -w ingn e ighbou r saga in s th i spa r en t s :th eyhadno tb e enSpani shenough ,no rhadth eyp rov id edev enon esonfo rth ecau s e .En r iqu e , th enas tud en tin A lm e r ia ,r e so lv edin Ma r ch1942toen l i s tfo rRu s s ia onth eadv i c eo fh i scon f e s so r .110 Fa lang i s tl ead e r sa l sof e l tth i sp r e s su r e , a sev en D ion i s ioR id ru e jo w ro t e ,“ Idon ’ t wan tanyon esay ingId idn ’ t fgh tb e cau s eId idn ’ tda r eto .”111 Th eFa lang i s tandlaws tud en tM igu e l Ma r t ín ez -M enas ta t edtha tth eBDp r e s en t edanoppo r tun i tyfo rtho s e whohadno tfough tinth eC iv i lW a rto mak eth e i ro f f e r ingo fh e ro i sm inaso c i e ty wh e r esu ch m i l i ta ryva lu e shada cqu i r edg r ea tr e l evan c e : I fi ti st ru etha tsom een l i s tm en t sw e r eab i tfo r c ed ,bya f fa i r so fth eh ea r t andin fa tua t ion , wh i l eo th e r ss e tou ttoimp rov eanun c e r ta inp e r sona l fa t e ,o rtoc ro s sov e rtoth eRu s s iancamp …i ti snol e s st ru etha tth eva s t ma jo r i tyo fu sthough ttha tgo ingtoRu s s ia wa sa man lya c t ion ,apa t r io t i c r equ i r em en t ,anin e s capab l ed e c i s ionfo rtho s eo fu s whod idno tpa r t i c i pa t eo r whopa r t i c ipa t edinth eC ru sad eb ea r inga rm sbu td idno thav eth e 1 1 2 lu cko rla cko flu ck …tosu f f e rth eangu i sho fcap t iv i tyinth eR edzon e .

W a rexp e r i en c e wa sp r e r equ i s i t etod emon s t ra t ingth eva lu e so fth e n ewna t iona lcommun i ty ,in ca rna t edbyth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a r .

50 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .2 .3 .D epa r tu r eo fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s , Mad r id ,Ju ly1941(AGA )

Manyf e l tinth esumm e ro f1941tha tth e i rt im ehadcom e ,tha tth ey cou ldaddth e i rown wa rm e r i t stotho s ea l r eadya cqu i r edbycom rad e s o rr e la t iv e s .Fo ra l lth evo lun t e e r s ,id ea l i s t so rno t ,on eth ing wa sc e rta in :b e inganex comba tan tb rough tw i thi tbo thso c ia lp r e s t ig ew i th in th eF ran co i s tcommun i tyandas e r i e so femp loym en tp r iv i l eg e s .Fo r tho s e whohadfough tfo rth eR epub l i cans id e ,w i l l ing lyo ro th e rw i s e , i t wa sadv i sab l eto d emon s t ra t em e r i tinth ecau s eo fth ew inn e r s . Ex comba tan t s , wound edv e t e ran s ,andfo rm e rp r i son e r shadquo ta s r e s e rv edfo rpo s t s inth es ta t eadm in i s t ra t ion , wh i cht ran s la t ed in tob e t t e roppo r tun i t i e stob eacon c i e rg e ,apo s ta l wo rk e r ,o ras choo l t ea ch e r .

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 51

Fo rFET m emb e r s ,comba tm e r i t wa sad e c i s iv ec r i t e r ion inth es e l e c t ion o fpo l i t i ca lp e r sonn e l .113 How ev e r ,th e“ f ev e r”o fth esumm e ro f1941on lya f f e c t edth e mo s t mob i l iz edpo r t iono fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a r .Th eFET m i l i t iar ec ru i t ingo ff c e sfoundth em s e lv e sunab l etocov e rto ta lt roopr equ i r e m en t s .Abou tha l fo fth eso ld i e r s–o ff c e r sand NCO sin c lud ed–cam e f romr e c ru i tm en tinth eba r ra ck s( 9 ,699c iv i l ian sw e r een l i s t edin1941 , 9 ,802in1942 ,and4 ,91 1in1943 ,add ingupto24 ,412 ou to f47 ,200to 1 14 ta lcomba tan t s ) . R e c ru i tm en tm e chan i sm sw e r ea l sora th e ropaqu e a tt im e s . Co e r c ion wa sa lway sp r e s en t : wh e th e rd i r e c t lyf romo ff c e r s tosubo rd ina t e so rind i r e c t lyth roughth eexamp l eo fo th e r s ,th ed e s i r etof tin ,cama rad e r i e ,o rth elong ingtop rov eon e ’ s ma s cu l in i ty . Th e r ew e r ea l sosom er e c ru i t sinth e s eba r ra ck s whosha r edth eva lu e so fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a randvo lun t e e r edp roa c t iv e ly . How many ,th en ,w e r eco e r c ed ,p sy cho log i ca l lyp r e s su r edind iv e r s e way s , o r mo t iva t edbyth eexamp l eo fo th e r s ?Su chaqu e s t iond ef e ss ta t i s t i ca l quan t if ca t ion . Th eR ep l a c em en t so f1942–3 :M e r c en a r i e s ,C on s c r ip t s ,o rV o lun t e e r s? A sea r lya sD e c emb e r1941 ,bo thAgu s t ínAzna randR id ru e jo w e r eu rgingS e r ranoSuñ e rtob eg inpa r t ia lt roopr ep la c em en t s .Th ea rmy m in i s t e r ,Jo s éE .V a r e la ,emb ra c edth eid eao fsub s t i tu t ingth een t i r e“f r s t d iv i s ion” w i thun i t scompo s edo fvo lun t e e r sr e c ru i t edp r ima r i lyo rexc lu s iv e lyf romth eba r ra ck so rf romamongtho s e whohadex c e ed edth e en l i s tm en tquo tain1941 .H e mad enos e c r e to fh i ss l igh tr ega rdfo rth e Fa lang evo lun t e e rr e c ru i t s , whomh ea c cu s edo fla ck ingin s t ru c t ionand hav ing“d e f e c t so fad i f f e r en to rd e r .”115 How ev e r ,th ech i e fo fth eA rmy G en e ra lS ta f f ,G en e ra l Ca r lo sA s en s io ,a l sor epo r t edtoF ran cotha ta comp l e t er ep la c em en to fth eD iv i s ion wa sr equ i r ed ,bu ta l sos ta t edtha t th e r ew e r ein c r ea s ingd i ff cu l t i e sinr e c ru i t ingr ep la c em en t sinth em i l i ta ryba ra ck s ,s in c eso ld i e r sr e tu rn ingf romRu s s iasp r eadn ew sabou t 1 16 th eex t r em e lytoughcond i t ion sth eyhadendu r ed . F rom m id -1942 on ,th ea rmya cqu i r edadom inan tro l einen l i s t inganda s s ign ingvo lun t e e r sfo rth e Ru s s ianF ron t , wh i chd im in i sh edth einfu en c eo fth e Fa lang e .Th ey w e r elo s ingpo s t sw i th inth er eg im ea sS e r ranoSuñ e r 1 17 lo s tinfu en c eand wa sev en tua l lyr emov edinS ep t emb e r1942 . H i s su c c e s so r wa sth eCoun to fJo rdana ,aCa tho l i c whofavou r edth eA l l i e s . F ran cocomp en sa t edh i sg radua ltu rnf romnon -b e l l ig e r en c eton eu t ra li ty w i thsymbo l i cg e s tu r e stowa rd sth eAx i s . ByJanua ry1942 ,s ev e ra lsma l lr e l i e fexp ed i t ion so fo ff c e r sandso ld i e r shadc ro s s edth ebo rd e rf romSanS eba s t ian .In m id -Ma r ch ,th ey

52 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w e r enam ed“Ma r chBa t ta l ion s”andta sk ed w i tht ran spo r t ingr ep la c em en tso ld i e r sf romSpa in .In Ap r i l ,fou rba t ta l ion sa r r iv eda tth ef ron t w i th a lmo s tfou rthou sandso ld i e r s . Tw en ty th r e e mo r e ba t ta l ion s fo l low edun t i lO c tob e r1943 . Ato ta lo f17 ,027 m en w e r et ran spo r t ed th roughF eb rua ryo ftha ty ea randc lo s eto10 ,000 mo r eb e fo r eth eBD wa sd i sman t l ed .Th et ra ff cin c lud edso ld i e r sonl eav einSpa in(a lmo s t athou sanden joy edth i soppo r tun i ty ) , wound edandconva l e s c en tso l d i e r s ,o ff c e r su rg en t ly jo in ingo rl eav ingth e i run i t s ,g roup so fso ld i e r s b e ingr epa t r ia t edfo rbadcondu c to rtocomp l e t es en t en c e sin m i l i ta ry p r i son s ,e t c .118 S ev e r a lt e s t imon i e sf romth a tt im eid en t if edc l e a rd i f f e r en c e sb etw e enth e“f r s t ”BDo fJu ly1 9 4 1andth e“ s e cond ”d iv i s ion ,compo s ed o fl a t e rr ep l a c em en t s .119 How ev e r ,th econ t r a s tin mo t iv e sb e tw e enth e “f r s t ”b a t cho fvo lun t e e r sandth em anyth a tfo l low edf rom1 9 4 2on r em a in s l e s sc l e a r .Th edom in an tp rof l eo fth evo lun t e e r so f1 9 4 1c a r r i ed ov e rtoth ef r s tr ep l a c em en t sd i sp a t ch edtoth ef ron tinsp r ing1 9 4 2 .In p a r t ,th i sco r r e spond edtoth ein co rpo r a t iono fth er emn an to fid e a l i s t i c c iv i l i anvo lun t e e r s whoh adno tb e enadm i t t edth ey e a rb e fo r eand who d e s i r edtos e ecomb a t .In M ay1 9 4 2 ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jo , who w a snow b a ckinSp a inandr em a in edar e f e r en c e mod e lfo rm anySp an i shf a s c i s t s un t i l1 9 4 5 ,w a ss t i l lr e c e iv ing l e t t e r sf romF a l ang i s t sr equ e s t ingar e f e r r a l 1 2 0 fo ren l i s tm en t . Un t i lm id 1 9 4 2 , mo s to fth ec iv i l i anvo lun t e e r s who en l i s t edin M ad r idandB a r c e lon aw e r eF a l ang i s t s .M anyo fth em w e r e “O ldGu a rd ”(p a r ty m emb e r sb e fo r em id -M a r ch1 9 3 6 , wh enth eF a l ang e w a sm ad ei l l eg a lbyth eR epub l i c angov e rnm en tandi t sm a inl e ad e r s w e r eimp r i son ed )andcomp l a in edo fth et r e a tm en tth eyr e c e iv edf rom th em i l i t a ry .Fo rth i sr e a son ,th erumou rsp r e adth a tth ep a r ty w a sgo ing 1 2 1 tob anv e t e r anF a l ang i s t sf romen l i s t ing . Th e“w a i t ingl i s t ”g av es ev e r a lr e c ru i t ingo ff c e sar e s e rv eth a t wou ldcov e rp a r to fth e1 9 4 2quo t a s . In M a r cho fth a ty e a r ,th ep rov in c i a lh e adqu a r t e r so fth eFET m i l i t i a so f 1 2 2 A lb a c e t eh ad1 3 6 vo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s i aonth e i rl i s t . O th e rt e s t imon i e sconf rmth i simp r e s s ion .Jo s é M .B lan ch , who vo lun t e e r edin1942 ,d e s c r ib edth eso c ia lp rof l eo fh i sf e l lowcomba tan t s .Th e r ew e r esom een l i s t edo ff c e r sand NCO s who“w e r ep e rhap s wa i t ingfo rap romo t ion ,”bu t mo s to fth eso ld i e r s“ cam ef romth eFalang e ,s tud en t sf rom Mad r ido rm idd l e c la s sfam i l i e s ,bu ta l sop ea san t s and wo rk e r s .” Th em e chan i cJoaqu ín Mon tañaa l so d i s cov e r edtha t h i s ma t e s“w e r eun iv e r s i typ eop l e” who“ r ea l lyf e l tth en e edtofgh t aga in s tid ea stha trancon t ra rytoth e i rown .” Manu e lT a r ínl e f tfo rth e f ron tin Ap r i l1942 ; wh enh i sfan c é er ep roa ch edh imfo rhav inggon e toRu s s ia ,h er e spond ed :“Th i ss epa ra t ioni sth e wo rko fDu ty …Ihav e 123 com etod e f endGod ,th e Hom e landand myd ign i tya saSpan ia rd .”

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 53

Manu e lT a r ín ’ ston ed idno tchang einth ew e ek stha tfo l low ed ; h ew ro t ein O c tob e r1942tha t“ s ev en mon th shav ea l r eadypa s s ed s in c eIl e f ta l l mylov e sandin t e r e s t stocom eonth i s Ho ly C ru sad e 124 tofgh taga in s tth een em i e so f God ,Spa inandC iv i l iza t ion .” Wh en h i s“wa rgodmo th e r”a sk ed Co rpo ra l An ton io H e r r e ro whyh ehad en l i s t edinau tumno f1942 ,h ean sw e r ed :“Myf r i end , mycom rad e s andIhav ea mon s t rou sandc ru e len emy .Commun i sm !Th i sb ea s t ly andc ru e len emyinea r l i e rday s–inou r wa rinSpa in–tookcowa rd ly advan tag eand w i thfu l lfu ry ma l i c iou s lydamag edth el iv e so ftho s e w elov e mo s t .”125 Non e th e l e s s ,inth ep rov in c e s wh e r eth e r ehadb e enex c e s sm i l i t ia vo lun t e e r sin1941 ,th enumb e ro fn ewvo lun t e e r sc l ea r lyb egantod im in i shth efo l low ingy ea r .Th es tab i l iza t iono fth eEa s t e rnF ron tl ed manytor e con s id e r .126 Th eh eado fFET m i l i t ia s ,G en e ra lJo s é Mo s ca rdó , lam en t edth ela cko fr e c ru i tm en tp ropagandainJu ly1942 ,inl igh to f 127 th e“no tab l ed e c r ea s etha ti tha ssu f f e r edla t e ly .” Th enumb e ro fFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s mov edbyid eo log i ca len thu s ia smb egantod e c l in e s t ead i lyinth es e condha l fo f1942 .InJu ly1943 ,som ep rov in c ia lFET o rgan iza t ion sa cknow l edg edth ela cko fin t e r e s tinvo lun t e e r ingamong m emb e r s .R e c ru i t sw e r eth inonth eg roundf rom m id -1942on ,d e sp i t e th ein s i s t en c eo fth eM i l i ta ry G en e ra lS ta f ftha t“ i ti so fg r ea tin t e r e s t toob ta inth ela rg e s tpo s s ib l econ t ing en to ft roop s .” No tev eno ff c e r s cam efo rwa rdfo rth ef ron t .Th es i tua t ion ,how ev e r ,va r i edf romon e ba s etoano th e r ;amongn ewvo lun t e e r s ,th e r e wa s mo r ethanon e who had“ r e en l i s t ed .”In Ma r ch1942 ,fo rexamp l e ,th e Mo ro c canna t iv eso ld i e r s–th eR egu l a r e s –o fth eBa l ea r i cga r r i sonaga inshow edg r ea t e s t w i l l ingn e s stogotoRu s s ia .128 A c co rd ing ly ,th enumb e rand p ropo r t iono fvo lun t e e r s who w e r e mo r eo rl e s sco e r c ed , whocam ef romth ea rmyrank so r ,toal e s s e r d eg r e e ,f romth eFETo ff c e s–p e r son s who w e r eadv i s edtoen l i s tto “ c l ea r”th e i rr e co rd ,fo rexamp l e–b egantoin c r ea s ein m id -1942 . On m i l i ta ryba s e s ,so ld i e r sand NCO sdo ingcompu l so ry m i l i ta rys e rv i c e inva r iou sga r r i son sonth eP en in su la ,th eI s land s ,andin No r th e rn Mo ro c co w e r ec i r cu i tou s lyp r e s su r edbyth e i rsup e r io r stovo lun t e e r fo rRu s s ia . Hab i tua lp ro c edu r e sin c lud edalo t t e rysy s t emo rr equ i r ing a l lso ld i e r sb e ingt ra in edonth ep r em i s e stos t epfo rwa rd wh envo lun t e e r sw e r er equ e s t ed .Su chta c t i c sw e r ea s s i s t edbyth efa c ttha tth e “ s e l e c t edon e s”f ea r edb e ingp e r c e iv eda scowa rd s .Insom eca s e s ,i f noon es t epp edfo rwa rd ,th eo ff c e r wou ldo rd e ra l lp r e s en ttod e c la r e 129 th em s e lv e svo lun t e e r s . Inth eo ry ,th er e c ru i t scou ldr e fu s e ,and i fth ey w e r elu ckyah igh e rrank ingo ff c e r wou ldinva l ida t eth een l i s tm en t s .130 How ev e r ,i fth eo ff c e rd i r e c t lyinvo lv edin s i s t edo r wa sp r e s su r edby

54 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

h i ssup e r io r s ,v e ryf ewcou ldr e fu s e .131 Fo r manyo th e r s ,vo lun t e e r ing fo r Ru s s iap r e s en t edana t t ra c t iv eoppo r tun i tyint e rm so fadv en tu r e andpay , wh i ch wa ss im i la rtotha to fth eL eg ion .Inth eo ry ,th e i rG e r man wag e shadtob esp en tinth er ea rgua rdo ronth ef ron t ,thoughth i s b e cam e mo r ef ex ib l ef rom1942on .132 G en e ra l MuñozG rand e sw ro t ein May1942tha taqua r t e ro fth en ew vo lun t e e r shadr e c e iv edno m i l i ta ryt ra in ing ,thoughacon s id e rab l e numb e ro fp ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r s ,e sp e c ia l lyl eg ionna i r e spo s t edinth e Span i shP ro t e c to ra t eo f Mo ro c co ,hada l sob e end i spa t ch edtoRu s s ia . Mo s to fth emhadag r e edtol eav efo rth eRu s s ianF ron t ,a sth ey w e r e a l r eadyinfa c tm e r c ena r i e s .Inth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,th eycou ldea rn wa r m e r i tanddoub l epay .Th e i rb iog raph i e sr e s emb l edtho s eo fth ep rov is iona len s ign sands e rg ean t s . Manyhaden l i s t edinth ein su rg en ta rmy in1936– 8andhads tay edon .InJu ly1942 ,th el eg ionna i r eJa im ed eA s sun çâoG ra ça wa shand -p i ck edanda s s ign edtoth ef ron tbyas e rg ean t who wa sr ev i ew ingh i scompanyinC eu ta .H ea tl ea s thadan t i commun i s tandp ro fa s c i s tsympa th i e s ,soh i ss em i fo r c eden l i s tm en t wou ld no tr equ i r eh imtofgh tfo rafo r e igncau s e .133 F rom m id -1942on ,th ep ropagandau s edtocov e rr ep la c em en tquo ta s fo rth eD iv i s ionempha s iz edth ee conom i cadvan tag e sfo rtho s e who r e tu rn ed .Th ey wou ldcon t inu etoea rn wag e sf romth e i rr egu la rjob , ma in ta inth e i rrankinth eadm in i s t ra t iv eco rp s ,o rb eg ran t edc e r ta in p r iv i l eg e si fth eycho s etotak ec iv i ls e rv i c eexam s .134 On een l i s tm en t pamph l e tpub l i sh edin Mu r c iaen t r ea t ed : Tho s e whoen l i s tw i l l hav efu l lygua ran t e edr igh t sand p r iv i l eg e sfo r th em s e lv e sandth e i rfam i l i e s .Y ou w i l lb epa idth e wag e so faG e rmanso l d i e r ,and inSpa inyou rfam i l i e sw i l lr e c e iv easub s idyo f7 .30p e s e ta so rth e sa la ryyour e c e iv edp r io rtoyou rd epa r tu r e ,you rpo s tandlo ca t ion w i l lb e h e ldfo ryou ,andyou w i l lb eg iv enp r e f e r en c efo rth em ,[a long w i th ]f r e e 1 3 5 tu i t ion ,e t c . , wh i chSpan i shso c i e tyr e s e rv e sfo ri t sb e s t .

P ropaganda wa sa l sob road ca s tonlo ca lrad ios ta t ion s ,bu tno ta lway sw e l lr e c e iv ed . Op en ing sfo rvo lun t e e r wo rk e r sin G e rmany ,fac i l i ta t edbyth e Augu s t1941ag r e em en tb e tw e enSpa inandth eTh i rd R e i ch ,w e r ec l ea r lyno tb e ingf l l ede i th e r ,w i thth e i rlow e rsa la r i e sand d i sma l wo rk ingcond i t ion s . Many wo rk e r sw ro t ehom eexp r e s s ingd i scon t en tov e rth e i r wo rk ingcond i t ion sinG e rmany ,tak ingth esh in eo f f th ein fo rma t iontha t wa sc i r cu la t ingabou tsu choppo r tun i t i e s .B eg in n ingin Ma r ch1942 ,s ev e ra lSpan i sh wo rk e r sinG e rmanyev en w en tto en l i s ta tth eBDo ff c e in Ho f .Th eyp r e f e r r edcomba ttoth e i rha r sh wo rk 136 inth eR e i ch .

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 55

I t wa snoco in c id en c etha tin1942and1943th e r ew e r econ s id e rab ly mo r evo lun t e e r sfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tf romth ep rov in c e so fsou th e rn Spa in w i thh igh e rra t e so fs ea sona lag r i cu l tu ra l wo rk ,h ighs ea sona l o rp e rman en tun emp loym en t ,andlow e rl ev e l so fso c ia lsuppo r tfo r th eF ran co i s tr eg im e ,su cha sBada jozand Hu e lva .Infa c t ,th ela rg e s t con t ing en to fvo lun t e e r sf rom Hu e lvad epa r t edf romth ef r s tha l fo f 1942(22 .8p e rc en to fen l i s tm en t s )th rough m id -1943(26 .7p e rc en to f a l lvo lun t e e r sf romth ep rov in c e ) .Ino th e rr eg ion s ,su cha sth eCana ry I s land s ,a t t ra c t ingvo lun t e e r sin1942– 3p rov edin c r ea s ing lyd i ff cu l t . Mo s to ftho s e who jo in edth eBDinth i sp e r iods e emtohav eb e en mo137 t iva t edbye conom i cr ea son s . How ev e r ,i ti simpo s s ib l etop rov id ea s ta t i s t i ca le s t ima t er ega rd ingp e r c en tag e so fvo lun t e e r s who w e r e mo t iva t edbyanyg iv enin c en t iv e . Th e r ea r etwonuan c e stocon s id e rcon c e rn ingth e“ fo r c ed”o rid ea li s t i cna tu r eo fth e1942– 3 vo lun t e e r s .F i r s t , manyso ld i e r sw e r ed rawn byth ea t t ra c t iv ei fno td e c i s iv ein c en t iv eo fdoub l epayandar edu ct ioninth e i rth r e ey ea r so fcompu l so ry m i l i ta rys e rv i c e .Th i s mayhav e b e ene sp e c ia l lyen t i c ingtotho s e whohadfough tonth eR epub l i can s id einth eC iv i lW a rand w e r er equ i r edtor ep ea tth e i rm i l i ta rys e r v i c e .Ev e ry mon tho fs e rv i c einRu s s iacoun t edfo rtwoinSpa in ,and fu l lex emp t ion wa sg ran t ed(uponr e tu rn )a f t e rs ix mon th sonth e f ron t .Th e i r mo t iv e sd i f f e r edl i t t l ef romtho s eo f manyyoungEu rop e an s whojo in edth eW a f f en -SSin1943–4 .R e c ru i t sw i ths can tpo l i t i ca l so c ia l iza t ionen l i s t edfo rth epay ,o rb e cau s eth ey wan t edtos e eth e wo r ld ,o rb e cau s eth eyhadinh e r i t edafa s c ina t ion w i thth em i l i ta ry f romth e1936– 9 wa rcu l tu r e .Daylabou r e rAng e l Ma r ch enaf romCo r dobaen l i s t edinth eD iv i s ionin1942 ,thoughh i sfa th e rhadb e enimp r i son edin1936byth er eb e l sandd i edincap t iv i ty .H er e ca l l ed why h evo lun t e e r ed :th epay wa s“ s ev enandaha l fp e s e ta s ,[ th e wag e s o f ]adayandaha l f .”138 H i ss to rysugg e s t stha th en ev e rp ro f e s s ed id eo log i ca l mo t iv e s ,bu tva lu edloya l tytoh i scom rad e sina rm s .BD vo lun t e e rJoaqu ín Mon tañaf romth ecoun tyo fE lB i e rzo(L eón )r ecoun t edd e cad e sla t e rth er ea son sb eh indh i sd e c i s iontovo lun t e e r . Th ef r s t wa san t i commun i sm ,fo l low edbyth e mod e l so f ma s cu l in i ty a s so c ia t ed w i th m i l i ta ryl i f e ,th einfu en c eo fh i s ma t e s ,goodpay ,th e po s s ib i l i tyo fr edu c ing m i l i ta rys e rv i c e ,andso c ia lp r e s t ig einh i slo ca l r e f e r en c econ t ex t : Th e r ew e r eo th e ryoung m eninth ev i l lag e whota lk edabou tjo in ing up . Ands ev enp e s e ta saday !W i ththa tk indo f mon ey ,youcou ldea tin th eho t e landhav esom el e f tov e rtot r ea tyou rf r i end s …Id idn ’ tknow mu chabou tth eFa lang eo rcommun i sm .W ed r eam edabou tth eun i fo rm

56 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t [… ]  and w ea l r eadysawou r s e lv e sa sga l lan t sinth ec in emao rintho s e do cum en ta r i e syous e eabou tth e wa r … On eday , wh en w er e tu rn ed ,w e wou ldb eha i l eda sh e ro e s .S ev enp e s e ta sandth i r ty wa sagoodsa la ryand wh en w ew e r ein co rpo ra t edin toth eG e rmana rmy ,fou r ma rk s ,twofo r m eandtwotha tth eys en thom eto my mo th e r .139

An ton ioGóm ez ,as ea sona llabou r e rf rom Hu e lva whoen l i s t edfo rth e Ru s s ianF ron tin May1942 ,summa r iz edh i sd e c i s iontovo lun t e e rin s im i la rt e rm s : I wa sa daylabou r e rinth ef e ld sandunma r r i ed .Ien l i s t edabov ea l l b e cau s einth etownth eylook eda tm ea si fI w e r eah ighwaymano ra dog ,s in c e myid eo logy wa s mo r etoth el e f t .Th i s ,add edtoth et e r r ib l e 1 4 0 e conom i cs i tua t iono f myfam i ly ,fo r c ed m etofndawaytoea rna l iv ing .

S e cond ly ,ev en in th e mo s td i ff cu l t mom en t sfo rr e c ru i tm en t , lo ca lFalang eo rCa tho l i cA c t iong roup sto ldo fyoungFa lang i s t so rCa tho l i c s– and mo r ethanon eth eo log i ca ls em ina rys tud en t– whohaden l i s t ed 141 co l l e c t iv e ly . Th e r ew e r es t i l lca s e so ff e rv en tan t i commun i s ten thu s i a smamongth eFa lang er e c ru i t s , NCO s ,en s ign s ,ando ff c e r s whovo l un t e e r edf romsp r ing1942th roughau tumn1943 .142 Thoughinsma l l e r p ropo r t ioncompa r edto1941 ,th ey ma in ta in eda“b lu e ,”fa lang i s tl in e o fcon t inu i ty .Th e s ew e r em emb e r so fn ewyou tho rgan iza t ion s( su ch a sth eFET JONSanda f t e r1942th eFa lang e sJuv en i l e so fF ran co ) ,a long w i thvo lun t e e r s whohadno tb e enadm i t t edinJun e1941andsom e who w e r ew i l l ingtoa c c ep talow e rranktogoto Ru s s iaa sfoo tso ld i e r s .143 S ev e ra lm emb e r so f Ca tho l i cA c t ion ,in c lud ingth ep r e sby t e r , l e f tth eCa ta lantown so fG rano l l e r so rR ipo l lfo rth eRu s s ianF ron tin 144 In1943 , la t e1942and1943a s Ca tho l i c ,an t i commun i s tvo lun t e e r s . 145 som et rad i t iona l i s t sa l sovo lun t e e r edfo rRu s s ia . P rov i s iona ll i eu t enan tB en jam in A r ena l e s wa sa Ca tho l i c Ca s t i l ian , bo rn1917inBu rgo s ,andan“O ldSh i r t”Fa lang i s t , who ,b e ingah igh s choo ls tud en t , hadvo lun t e e r edfo rth ein su rg en ta rmy du r ingth e C iv i lW a r .H el e f th i spo s ta sanaux i l ia ry m i l i ta rya t to rn eyinCu en cato en l i s tinth ef r s t ma r chba t ta l iongo ingtoRu s s ia .H ew ro t einh i sd ia ry tha th e wa sjo in inga wa r“ in wh i chEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ioni sa ts tak e ,” tofgh t“ fo rth esam e mo t iv e stha td rov em etofgh tth eSpan i sh[ c iv i l ] wa r .”Inadd i t iontoth i sid ea l i sm ,h ea l sono t edap e r sona lr ea son .H e wan t edtob e“ som e th inginl i f e”–to mov eupth eladd e r so fm i l i ta ry andso c ia lp r e s t ig etob eab l eto w edh i sfan c é e :“ Ihav esol i t t l eto o f f e rh e r ,tha tIhav echo s ena l lsa c r if c etoob ta ing r ea t e rs e cu r i tyand o f f e ri ta l ltoh e r .” Cap ta in Manu e ld e Cá rd ena s ,a m i l i ta rysu rg eon

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 57

andCa tho l i ct rad i t iona l i s t ,w ro t einF eb rua ry1942tha th ef e l tpa r to fa “g r ea ten t e rp r i s e”fo rGodandcoun t ry .O th e rau tob iog raph i ca c coun t s o fth evo lun t e e r sf rom1942–3 d emon s t ra t easp i r i to fd i s en chan t edn i h i l i sma long s id eid eo log i ca l mo t iv e ssu cha san t i commun i sm ,Span i sh na t iona l i sm ,o rth ed e f en c eo faCh r i s t ianEu rop e .146 S ev e ra lFa lang el ead e r so rgan iz edag r ea tp ropagandacampa ignin ea r ly1943to“ r e -Fa lang iz e”th e ma r chba t ta l ion stha tw e r el eav ing fo r Ru s s ia . Th eyhop edtocoun t e ra c tth eex c e s s iv einfuxf romth e a rmy .147 P r e s su r eonlo ca lFa lang ech i e f scomb in ed w i thth eapp ea l to man l in e s sandind iv idua lva lou r ,a ss e eninth el e t t e rtha tth elo ca l h i e ra r chyin Hu e s car e c e iv edinJanua ry1943 ,s ign edbyth ep rov in c ia l h eadLu i sJu lv e .H er em ind edth emtha t“ th ee f fo r to fou rh e ro i ccomrad e s ,” who“ ch e e r fu l lyo f f e rth e i rb loodind e f en c eo fou rsup r em e id ea l s ,”had mov edth epa r tytoe s tab l i shp e r iod i ca lr ep la c em en t sin o rd e rtog iv eanoppo r tun i tytopa r t i c ipa t einth ecampa ignto“ innum e rab l ecom rad e s , whor ep ea t ed lyd emon s t ra t eth e i ra rd en td e s i r eto en l i s tinth eB lu eD iv i s ion[… ] Com rad e ,th i sl e t t e rshou ldn ev e rb e in t e rp r e t eda saco e r c iv einv i ta t ion .Y ou rownFa lang i s ts en t im en tw i l l d i c ta t eyou rdu ty .”148 Th ein i t ia t iv e wa sabandon edbyFo r e ign M in i s t e rJo rdana ,a tF ranco ’ so rd e r ,a sth ela t t e rhadnoin t e r e s tin mak ingth eBD mo r eFa lang i s t ina mom en to frapp ro ch em en tw i thth eA l l i e s .Ev enso ,th eFa lang i s t s in s i s t ed ,ands ev e ra l pa r tyl ead e r sr e c e iv edau tho r iza t iontoen l i s t , pa r t lytos t i rupen thu s ia sminth e i rt e r r i to r i e s .S ev e ra lna t iona ll ead e r s l e f tfo rRu s s ia ,andth e r e wa sana t t emp ttog e talo ca landap rov in 149 c ia ll ead e rtojo inupf romea chp rov in c e . W a r r io rf e rvou rhadd e c l in edinth eFET ,andspon tan eou sen l i s tm en to fFa lang i s t sb e cam e l e s sf r equ en t .Insom eca s e s ,th ep rov in c ia ll ead e r sh ipr e so lv edaga into en cou rag eyoung m emb e r stogototh eRu s s ianF ron tby“ s e t t inganex amp l e .”B r i t i shr epo r t sind i ca t edtha tinsom ep rov in c e si thadb e ena lmo s timpo s s ib l etop e r suad epa r ty m emb e r stovo lun t e e r .In G ranada , on lytwoo fth i r ty -fv ep rov in c ia lpa r tyl ead e r sen l i s t ed ,a long w i tha f ewlow e r rank ingl ead e r s .Th eadm in i s t ra t iv ep e r sonn e lo fth eFET w e r ea l sop r e s su r edtoen l i s t ,and mo r ethanon ef ea r edlo s ingh i spo s t fo rr e fu s ing .Th epa r i shp r i e s to fth ep rov in c ia l ja i l wo rk edtoconv in c e p r i son e r stogotoRu s s ia .Ag roupo fp rov in c ia lFETl ead e r sev enp romi s edf r e edomtop r i son e r ss e rv ings en t en c e so fl e s sthanth i r tyy ea r s andane conom i cin c en t iv efo ren l i s t ing .150 Lo ca lFa lang el ead e r skn ewtha tbo thth equan t i tyandth equa l i tyo f th en ewvo lun t e e r sf e l lsho r to fexp e c ta t ion s .A sea r lya s Ma r ch1942 , th eFa lang i s to ff c e rGu i l l e rmo H e rnanzexp r e s s edd i sapp rov ing lytha t mo s to fh i sexp ed i t ionpa r tn e r shadal e s s than id ea l i s t i clookabou t

58 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th em .“And w i thth e s eguy sw ea r ego ingtofgh tthou sand so fk i lo m e t r e sf romou r Hom e land !”S ev e ra lsub s equ en tt e s t imon i e st ran sm i tas im i la rimp r e s s ionandr e f e rtoth ef r equ en td i spu t e stha ta ro s e b e tw e enFa lang i s t sandL eg ionvo lun t e e r sinth e ma r chba t ta l ion s .151 In Ap r i l1942 ,th em i l i ta rygov e rno ro f Gu ipúz coalam en t edtha tso many“und i s c ip l in edtyp e sandswagg e r ingon e sinpa r t i cu la r” w e r e tob efoundamongth evo lun t e e r stha tcam eand w en tth roughSan S eba s t ian .152 Th roughou t1943 ,va r iou sin s t i tu t iona lcomp la in t sw e r e mad eabou tth eb ehav iou ro fth evo lun t e e r sfo rRu s s ia who w e r econc en t ra t edinLog roño .Th ey w e r e“ f ea r edbyth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion” b e cau s eth eya c t ed“w i thinapp rop r ia t en e s sbo rd e r ingonin so l en c e” 153 and w e r einvo lv edin“ in c id en t sandd i spu t e s”a lmo s tda i ly . Ano th e r Fa lang i s texp r e s s edd i sappo in tm en ta tth ea tmo sph e r einth eLog roño ba r ra ck s , wh i chr em ind edh imo fap r i sonya rd :“ i ti sn ’ ta s Na t iona l Synd i ca l i s ta sIhadexp e c t ed .”154 G en e ra lEm i l ioE s t eban In fan t e scomp la in edr ep ea t ed lytoth ea rmy m in i s t e r ,Jo s éV a r e la ,r ega rd ingth ea r r iva lo fpo l i t i ca l lyun r e l iab l eso ld i e r s .H eadop t eda mo r es ev e r eton ein Ma r ch1943 wh enh ed i s cove r edtha tth e r ew e r eso ld i e r sina ma r chba t ta l ionh ead ingfo rG e rmany whohadb e eng iv entwoy ea r sex t ras e rv i c efo rs e r iou so f f en c e s .H e o rd e r edth e i rimm ed ia t er epa t r ia t ionanda sk ed Mad r idto“no ts end p e r sonn e lo f dub iou scondu c to rw i than t e c ed en t sfo rm i s condu c t .” Two mon th sla t e r ,th eD iv i s ionch i e fo fs ta f fin s i s t edtha tth eBDno tb e 155 con s id e r ed“ad i s c ip l ina ryco rp s .” Soona f t e r ,bo thth eSpan i sham ba s sado rinB e r l inandth eCoun to fJo rdanaa cknow l edg edth eg rowingd i ff cu l tyo fr e c ru i t ingvo lun t e e rt roop s , wh i chhadl edtoth eu s eo f co e r c iv em e thod sfo rcon s c r ip t ingth e mo s tr e c en tr ep la c em en t s .Th i s wa sr e co rd edinth em emo randump r e s en t edtoth eG e rmanfo r e ign m in i s t e ron 1 O c tob e r1943a s ju s t if ca t ionfo rth ed e c i s ionto w i thd raw th eBD .Th ein c r ea s ingd i ff cu l t i e sina t t ra c t ingvo lun t e e r sm igh tsoon l eadtoacompu l so ryd ra f t , wh i chcou ldno tb ek ep ts e c r e tand wou ld pu tSpa ininanev en mo r ed i ff cu l tpo s i t ion w i thr ega rdtoth eA l l i e s .156 Th eG e rman s had mad es im i la rr ema rk s ,and W eh rma ch tin t e l l ig en c egav esp e c ia la t t en t iontoth epo l i t i ca lr e l iab i l i tyo fth eBDvo lun t e e r stha ta r r iv edf rom Ma r ch1942on .InS ep t emb e r ,th ey wa rn ed tha tth eso ld i e r sa r r iv inga tth ef ron tw e r ev e ryd i f f e r en tf romtho s e r e tu rn ingtoSpa in . Wh i l eth ela t t e rw e r e mo s t lyFa lang i s t sand G e r manoph i l e s ,th en ewvo lun t e e r sw e r e ma in lyl eg ionna i r e so r“ r e s e rv e so ld i e r s ,w i thR ede l em en t samongth em ,”wh i chexp la in edth e in c r ea s e ind e s e r t ion s . Mo r eov e r ,th en ewo ff c e r sw e r e mu ch mo r e mona r ch i s t 157 thanFa lang i s t . On eSDr epo r tin Nov emb e r1943d i s t ingu i sh edb e tw e enth ef r s tB lu eD iv i s ion“ compo s edp r in c ipa l lyo fo ldFa lang i s t s

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 59

whob e long edtoa l lth ei r r ep roa chab l eso c ia landpo l i t i ca ls t ra ta”and th es e cond“D iv i s iono fSpan i sh V o lun t e e r s ,”compo s ed ma in lyo fr e c ru i t edandp ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r sand NCO s , who w e r epo l i t i ca l lyl e s s t ru s two r thy . How ev e r ,th er epo r tind i ca t edtha tth ela t t e rw e r eund e r th ecommando fab e t t e r t ra in edco rp so fo ff c e r sand NCO s , mo s to f whomhadr e c en t lycom eou to fm i l i ta rya cad em i e s .Th roughou t1943 , th equa l i tyo fth et roop sd im in i sh eda sth e“po l i t i ca l lyun r e l iab l e”e l em en t sin c r ea s ed .Th e s ecou ldb eexp e c t edtojo inth een emy w i thou t h e s i ta t iona tth eea r l i e s toppo r tun i ty .158 Th eca r e e ra rmyo ff c e r swhohadb e en tooyoungdu r ing th eC iv i lW a r andhadpu r su ed m i l i ta rys tud i e sb e tw e en1939and1942con s t i tu t eda r egu la rsou r c eo fn ewvo lun t e e r s .Th eyr e l i sh edth echa l l eng eo ffgh t inga long s id eth eid ea l iz ed W eh rma ch tinad emand ing wa rs c ena r io . A sf e rv en tsuppo r t e r so fth eva lu e so fth e“N ewSpa in ,”th e s eyoung m en w e r enol e s san t i commun i s tthantho s e whohada r r iv edin1941 . Infa c t , manyhadp e r sona lo rfam i lys co r e stos e t t l ew i thcommun i sm . A c co rd ingtoth eG e rmanl ia i sonin Augu s t1943 ,upto 30 p e rc en to f th eyoung e s to ff c e r sinth eSpan i sh A rmyhads e rv eds ev e ra l mon th s onth eRu s s ianF ron t .159 Manyo fth emhadb e enunab l etoa c company 160 th ef r s tBDdu etoth eex c e s so fo ff c e r svo lun t e e r ingin1941 . Th ey sough tr e f e r ra l sf romf r i end sandfam i ly m emb e r sinhop e so fb e ing s e l e c t edfo rth er ep la c em en tcon t ing en t s .A r t i l l e ry Cap ta inF e rnando MuñozA c e rab egg edh i sun c l e ,G en e ra l MuñozG rand e s ,toa c c ep th i s p e t i t ionfo ren l i s tm en t ,g iv enh i s“ t ru ed i sappo in tm en t”a thav ingb e en r e j e c t edea r l i e r .Ev enin O c tob e r1943 , manys e rg ean t sinRu s s iafound th em s e lv e sr eun i t ed w i thfo rm e r ma t e sf romth ea cad emy wh e r eth ey hada t t end edcou r s e stoa cqu i r eth eranko f NCOdu r ingth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r .161 Inth e i rm emo i r s ,som ea rmyo ff c e r sadop t edap ro f e s s ion a lfo cu sand p r e s en t edth e i ren l i s tm en ta san impo r t an tc a r e e rs t ep .A l fon soA rm ad a , aC iv i lW a rvo lun t e e r whoc am eou to fth eG en e r a lM i l i t a ryA c ad emya s al i eu t en an tinJun e1 9 4 1 ,summ a r i z edi tth i sw ayy e a r sl a t e r : Iw en ttoth e[Span i sh ]C iv i lW a ren thu s ia s t i ca l ly .I w en ttoRu s s iaa sap ro f e s s iona ltofgh taga in s tcommun i sm. . .Ihadju s tfn i sh edth eA cad emy wh enth eya sk edfo rvo lun t e e r s …And w ea l ls t epp edfo rwa rd ,ev e ryon e , ev e ryon e .Th enth eys e l e c t eds ev en t e encap ta in s …a f t e rtha tth eya sk ed fo rvo lun t e e ro ff c e r stor ep la c etho s ea l r eadyinRu s s ia .W es ign edupand th eycho s efou r ,andla t e rth eyr e j e c t edon eandI w en t ,b e cau s eth e r ew e r e th r e eah eado fm e. . .Th enId e c id ed ,and myfa th e rsuppo r t ed m e ,w i th g r ea tsadn e s s ,ingo ingtoRu s s iab e cau s eh ethough ttha ts in c eIhadfn1 6 2 i sh edth eA cad emy ,Ishou ldd emon s t ra t e myab i l i t i e s .

60 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

S o c i a landP r o s op og r aph i cP r of l eo fth eV o lun t e e r s Wha tw e r eth eso c ia lo r ig in so ftho s e whoen l i s t edfo rth e Ru s s ian F ron t ?Th eFa lang i s tp r e s sl ik edtoempha s iz eth ein t e r c la s sna tu r eo f tho s e whofow edin toth er e c ru i tm en tc en t r e s .Th eV i c e -S e c r e ta r ia tfo r Popu la rEdu ca t ionhadin s t ru c t edth en ew spap e r stoavo idpub l i sh ing en l i s tm en t numb e r s , nam e s ,o rin fo rma t ionr ega rd ing“ r ep la c em en t du etoen l i s tm en to fp e r son s whoo c cupyh ighS ta t e ,A rmyo rPa r ty po s t s .”163 O c ca s iona l ly ,sub t l er e f e r en c e sapp ea r ed :th e Có rdobada i ly pap e rA zu lind i ca t edtha ts ev e ra l“wo rk e r sandp ea san t s”hadgon eto th ep rov in c ia lm i l i t iah eadqua r t e r stop r e s en tth em s e lv e sa svo lun t e e r s , bu ttha tth e r e wa sa l so“ano tab l einfuxo fs tud en t s ,t e chn i c ian s ,c ra f t sm enandu rban wo rk e r s , mo s to f whomhadp e rman en tjob s ,”a sw e l l a s“ayoungFa lang i s tso l i c i to r …o ff c e r s ,s e rg ean t s ,ex comba tan t sand 164 ev end i sab l edv e t e ran s .” Th eimag e wa sno tfa ro f fth e ma rk .U s ingda taf roms ev e ra llo ca l monog raph s , wh i chth em s e lv e sa r eh igh lyva r iab l edu etoth ei r r egu la rr i chn e s so fsou r c e s ,w ecano f f e rth efo l low ingcha r tba s edon 4 ,770ca s e s(a round10 p e rc en to fa l lBDvo lun t e e r s ,bu tr ep r e s en t inga h igh e rp e r c en tag eo fc iv i l ianvo lun t e e r s )inth i r t e enp rov in c e s(T o l edo , San tand e r , Hu e lva ,A lm e r ia ,Có rdoba ,Bada joz , Mu r c ia ,th eth r e eA ragon e s ep rov in c e so fZa ragoza ,T e ru e l ,and Hu e s ca ,andth eBa squ ep rovin c e so fB i s cay ,Gu ipúz coa ,andA lava )f romJun e1941toO c tob e r1943 . Th e s e da tashou ldb ein t e rp r e t edcau t iou s ly ;th e s ew e r evo lun t e e r s , though10–15 p e rc en to fth emd idno t mak ei ttoth ef ron tfo rd iv e r s e r ea son s( fa i l ing m ed i ca lexam s ,r epa t r ia t edfo rb e ingu s e l e s so r“und e s i rab l e ,”e t c . ) . Mo r eov e r ,th ep ro f e s s iona lc la s s if ca t ion s ,o f t enba s edon wha ttho s e whoen l i s t edd e c la r edabou tth em s e lv e s ,a l sol eav eroom fo rin t e rp r e ta t iv ee r ro r .Fo rexamp l e ,s ev e ra lvo lun t e e r sp r e t end edto b ed r iv e r sb e cau s eth i s wa sask i l ltha tm i l i ta ryr e c ru i t e r sva lu edh igh ly . How ev e r ,som econ c lu s ion scanb eex t ra c t edf romth eda ta . F i r s t ,th ein t e r c l a s sp rof l eo fth evo lun t e e r srough lyapp rox im a t ed th eso c i a lp rof l eo fth e i rp rov in c e so fo r ig in ,w i thg r e a t e rr e l a t iv ew e igh t onth em idd l e -andlow e r -m idd l e c l a s ss e c t ion so fth eso c i a lpy r am id . Th i sw a sanu an c edin t e r c l a s s i sm w i thap r epond e r an c eo f wh i t e co l l a r andqu a l if ed m anu a l wo rk e r s ,a r t i s an s ,emp loy e e s ,andlow r ank ing c iv i ls e rv an t s ,a longw i ths ign if c an ts tud en tcon t ing en t swh e r eun iv e r s i t i e sw e r ep r e s en t .Amongth evo lun t e e r sf romT o l edo w i thaknownp ro f e s s ion ,th em a jo r i ty( 2 6 . 1 2p e rc en t )w e r esk i l l ed wo rk e r sandth es am e p e r c en t ag ew e r e wo rk e r sandd ayl abou r e r s ,fo l low edbyc iv i ls e rv an t s , emp loy e e s ,ands e rv i c es e c to r wo rk e r s( 1 8p e rc en t ) ,a r t i s an sandsm a l l s c a l em e r ch an t s( 1 0 . 8p e rc en t ) ,andp e a s an t s( 9p e rc en t ) .S tud en t s ,ina

1 1 1

4 .2

423

3 .6

1 .89

639

0 .19

0 .46

0 .46

707

5 .21

1 .97

1 .83

10 .45

1 1 .8

15 .0

12 .6

41 .14

451

4

2 .66

13 .7 4

1 1 .30

10 .42

32 .3

13 .96

28 .38

586

3 .75

5 .97

24 .91

27 .98

14 .67

9 .89

3 .75

9 .04 19 .6

1 1 .4

139

4 .31

1 .43

575

5

1 .91

4 .31 6 .78

7 .91 15 .65

2 .15 6 .95

34 .53 36 .7

30 .93

14 .38

438

0 .68

1 .59

5 .02

18 .94

5 .25

360

7 .5

1 .66

2 .77

6 .66

6 .66

30 .13 26 .66

20 .31 19 .16

18 .03 28 .88

341

0 .29

0 .87

16 .12

28 .44

8 .5

22 .58

13 .78

9 .38

SeeNúñezSe ixas ,Cama radain v ie rno,92 ;fo rÁ la va ,owne labo ra t ionf romA r ch ivo Gene ra lM i l i ta r ,Á v i la ,Ca jas(C . )5453– 5(cou r tes yb y D r .V i rg in iaLópezde Ma tu rana ) ;fo r Gu ipúzcoaandV izca ya :owne labo ra t ionf romI .Fe rnándezdeV icen te ,“E lp ro yec tofa sc is taene lPa ís V asco ,1933–1945 ”(PhDThes is ,Un iv .o ftheBasqueCoun t ry ,20 19 ) ,pp .520–63 ; fo rCó rdoba :owne labo ra t ionf romF .LópezV i l la to ro ,La F a langerepub l icanaenAnda luc ía .Gue r raC iv i l , Mo v im ien toyD iv is iónAzu l .Có rdoba1931–1945,Có rdoba :A .C .Can tama ra ,20 12 ,pp .289– 90 , andfo rA lme r ía ,owne labo ra t ionf romA .V ic iana Ma r t ínez -Lage ,700 .Losa lme r iensesdelaD iv is iónAzu l ,A lme r ía :IEA ,20 18 , pp .243–83 .

T o ta lamoun to fthesamp le ;4 ,770

2 .86

2 .7

O the r sandunemp lo yed

5 .4

L ibe ra lp ro fess iona ls ,land lo rds , me r chan ts ,andindus t ryowne r s

9 .2

C le rks ,c iv i lse rvan ts(m idd leand 18 .0 18 .43 lowe rs t ra ta )

Un ive r s i tys tuden ts

5 .94

24 .81

14 .5

44 .44

6 .61

10 .8

A r t isans ,shopkeepe r s

25 .3

35 .0

26 .12

26 .12

5 .9

9 .0

Sk i l led manua lwo rke r s , b lue -co l la rwo rke r s

Fa rme r s ,ag r icu l tu ra llabou re r s , sa i lo r s Unsk i l led manua lwo rke r s

T o ledo San tande r Hue l va Bada joz A ragon Mu r c ia Á la va Gu ipúzcoa B isca y Có rdoba A lme r ía

Tab le1 .Soc ia lcompos i t iono fc iv i lvo lun tee rso ftheB lueD iv is ion(% )1941–3

62 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

p rov in c ew i thou taun iv e r s i tybu tn e a rM ad r id ,a c coun t ed fo r5 . 4p e rc en t andw e r econ c en t r a t ed inth ef r s texp ed i t ion .Th ep ropo r t iono fwo rk e r s , d ayl abou r e r s ,p e a s an t s ,andso ld i e r sf rom m i l i t a ryb a s e sin c r e a s edb etw e en1 9 4 2and1 9 4 3 .InS an t and e r ,ap rov in c ew i thaF a l ang i s tp r e s en c e and wh e r eR epub l i c anr ep r e s s ionh adb e ens t rongun t i lm id 1 9 3 7 ,th e so c i a lcompo s i t ionfo rth evo lun t e e r sa l soco r r e spond ed mo s t lytoth e low e r -m idd l eandpopu l a rc l a s s e s .Th efo l low ingr e su l t sa r i s ef roman a l y s i so fth e4 2 3vo lun t e e r sw i thknownp ro f e s s ion s :3 5p e rc en t( 1 4 8 )w e r e un sk i l l ed m anu a ll abou r e r s ,app r en t i c e s ,o rd ayl abou r e r s ,and2 5 . 3p e r c en t( 1 0 7 )w e r esk i l l edl abou r e r s . Ano th e r1 8 . 4 3p e rc en tw e r em idd l e o rlow e r r ank ingc iv i ls e rv an t s ,emp loy e e s ,ands e rv i c e wo rk e r s(who w e r eov e r r ep r e s en t edamongtho s e whoen l i s t ed ) ,5 . 9p e rc en t(2 5 )w e r e p e a s an t s ,f sh e rm en ,ands a i lo r s ,and4 . 2p e rc en t(1 8 )w e r es tud en t s .In 1 9 4 1 ,a tl e a s t1 4 . 6p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r sw e r econ s t ru c t ion wo rk e r s who w e r er ebu i ld ingS an t and e ra f t e rth eg r e a tf r eth a th add ev a s t a t ed th ec i tyfou r mon th se a r l i e r .P r edom in an tamongth e4 5 1c iv i l i anvo lun t e e r sw i thknownp ro f e s s ion sf romth eth r e eA r agon e s ep rov in c e sw e r e sk i l l edandnon -m anu a l wo rk e r s ,a r t i s an sandsm a l l s c a l em e r ch an t s , c iv i ls e rv an t sandemp loy e e s ,a long w i thagoodnumb e ro fun iv e r s i ty s tud en t s .M anu a landsk i l l ed wo rk e r sa c coun t edfo ra lmo s ttwo th i rd s o fth evo lun t e e r sf romA l av aw i thknownp ro f e s s ion s ,fo l low edbyp e a san t sandag r i cu l tu r a l wo rk e r s .Add i t ion a l ly ,a sm anya s3 1(o r2 2 . 3% )o f tho s e whoen l i s t ed w e r ea c tu a l lyun emp loy ed wh enth ey jo in edth eBD . Th ep r edom inan t ly popu la rp rof l eo flow e r andlow e r -m idd l e c la s s e s ,e sp e c ia l ly p ea san t sand daylabou r e r s , wa s mo r ea cu t ein sou th e rnSpa in .In Có rdoba , mo r ethan40 p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r s w e r efa rm e r s ,daylabou r e r s ,andun sk i l l ed wo rk e r s .InBada joz ,41 .1 p e rc en tw e r efa rm e r sanddaylabou r e r s ,15 p e rc en tw e r ea r t i san sand sk i l l edo rs em i sk i l l ed manua llabou r e r s ,12 .6p e rc en tw e r eun sk i l l ed manua lu rban wo rk e r s ,and1 1 .8p e rc en tw e r ea r t i san so rsma l l s ca l e m e r chan t s . As im i la rp rof l ecanb es e enfo rth e639vo lun t e e r sf rom th ep rov in c eo f Hu e lva w i thknownp ro f e s s ion s :40 .06p e rc en tw e r e fa rm e r sanddaylabou r e r s ,14 .5p e rc en tw e r eun sk i l l ed manua llabou r e r s ,and31 .81p e rc en tw e r esk i l l ed manua llabou r e r s .A sinBada joz , emp loy e e sandlow -to m idd l e rank ingc iv i ls e rvan t sa c coun t edfo r s ca r c e ly1 1p e rc en tandth enumb e ro fs tud en t s wa sa lmo s tan e cdo ta l , wh i chi slog i ca linap rov in c ew i thou taun iv e r s i ty .InBada jozand Hu e lva ,as ign if can tp e r c en tag eo fth evo lun t e e r sw e r ei l l i t e ra t e .165In con t ra s t ,th e mo s t lyag r i cu l tu ra lp rov in c eo fA lm e r iap r e s en t eda ma rk ed lyu rbanandlow e r -m idd l e c la s sp rof l e ,w i thfa rm e r sanddayla bou r e r sba r e lysu rpa s s ing9 p e rc en to fth evo lun t e e r s . Mu r c ia wa san anoma lou sca s e .Fa lang i s t mob i l iza t ionhadb e env e ryp rom in en tth e r e

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 63

and mo s tr e c ru i t scam ef romth eFET m i l i t ia s .Intha tag r i cu l tu ra lp rovin c ea l so ,s ca r c e ly9 p e rc en to fth ec iv i l ianen l i s tm en t sw e r ep ea san t s o rag r i cu l tu ra l wo rk e r s ;a lmo s taqua r t e rw e r es tud en t s ,andn ea r lyha l f o fth ec iv i l ianvo lun t e e r sw e r el ib e ra lp ro f e s s iona l s ,landown e r s ,and m id -tolow rank ingc iv i ls e rvan t s . S e cond , wh enth e s eg loba lsamp l e sa r ecompa r ed w i thth ep ro f e ss ion sd e c la r edbyth evo lun t e e r s whoen l i s t edinJun e– Ju ly1941 ,th e p e r c en tag e sva ry .Thoughun sk i l l ed manua lp ro f e s s ion s ,p ea san t s ,and daylabou r e r scon t inu edtodom ina t einab so lu t et e rm s ,inth ef r s texp ed i t ionth e r e wa sg r ea t e rpa r t i c ipa t ionf romth em idd l ec la s s e s ,s tud en t s ,and wh i t e co l la rp ro f e s s ion s . Amongth e106 vo lun t e e r sf rom Hu e lva w i thknownp ro f e s s ion s ,th ep e r c en tag eo fs tud en t sro s eto3 .8 p e rc en t ,andtha to fshopa s s i s tan t s ,c iv i ls e rvan t s ,andemp loy e e sinc r ea s edto15 p e rc en t ;sk i l l ed wo rk e r sw i thap ro f e s s ionr ema in eda t 22 .2p e rc en t ,p ea san t sanddaylabou r e r sd e c r ea s edto36 .8p e rc en t , andun sk i l l ed wo rk e r sro s es l igh t lyto16 p e rc en t .O fth e258c iv i l ian vo lun t e e r sw i thknownp ro f e s s ion sf rom A ragonin1941 ,th ep e r c en tag eo fs tud en t sa l soin c r ea s ed(41 ,o r15 .89p e rc en t ) ,a sd idtha to fc iv i l s e rvan t sandemp loy e e s( 33 ,o r12 .8p e rc en t ) , wh i l eth ep e r c en tag eo f p ea san t s ,daylabou r e r s ,andsk i l l edandun sk i l l ed wo rk e r sd e c r ea s ed 166 s l igh t ly . S tud en t s ,c l e rk s ,andc iv i ls e rvan t sa l soa c coun t edfo r22 .43 p e rc en tand23 .96p e rc en to fBa squ evo lun t e e r sf rom Gu ipúz coaand B i s cayin1941 ,r e sp e c t iv e ly .Som eau tho r sa l so m en t iontha t17 p e rc en t o fa l lvo lun t e e r sf rom Mad r id w e r es tud en t s ,andtha t25 p e rc en to fth e vo lun t e e r shadaun iv e r s i tyd eg r e e , wh i ch wa sanex c ep t iona lp e r c en t167 ag ev i s -à -v i sth eSpan i shpopu la t iona ttha tt im e . Th i rd ,in Mad r idando th e run iv e r s i tyd i s t r i c tc en t r e ssu cha sS ev i l l e , V a l en c ia , Mu r c ia ,and V a l lado l id ,Fa lang i s ts tud en t sd efn edth echa ra c t e ro fth evo lun t e e rco rp stoag r ea t e rd eg r e e .Som ela t e rt e s t imon i e s ind i ca t edtha ti t wa sunu sua ltofndp ea san to r wo rk ing c la s syou th amongth evo lun t e e r s mu s t e r edin Mad r id : mo s tw e r e“ s tud en t s ,emp loy e e so rshopa s s i s tan t s .” A c co rd ingtoon eG e rmand ip loma t , mo s t o fth eFa lang i s ts tud en t sf romth e Un iv e r s i tyo fBa r c e lonahadl e f tfo r 168 th eRu s s ianF ron t . Ana l t e rna t iv e wayo fcon s t ru c t inga m ean ing fu lsamp l eo fB lu eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e rb iog raph i e s , wh i cha l sor ef e c t sth e i rd iv e r s i ty ,fo l low s th eimpa c to fR ed A rmybu l l e t s .I tinvo lv e sp ro sopog raph i cana ly s i s o fth efa l l en , who s eb iog raph i e sw e r epub l i sh edinva r iou sn ew spap e r s .Ihav eb e enab l etor e con s t ru c tsom eo fth e s ef romd iv e r s esou r c e s . Asamp l eo f625fa l l en , wh i chr ep r e s en t sa lmo s t 13 p e rc en to fto ta l d ea th s(app rox .5 ,000 ) ,show stha ta s manya s225( 36 p e rc en t )cam e f romth erank so fth ea rmy :in c lud ingo ff c e r s , NCO sandso ld i e r s who

64 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w e r ecomp l e t ingth e i rm i l i ta rys e rv i c e wh enth eyen l i s t edfo rth eD iv i s ion ;286o fth efa l l en(45 .76p e rc en t )w e r eFET m emb e r s ,162(25 .92 p e rc en t )o f whomhad jo in edth epa r typ r io rto18Ju ly1936 . Mo s tw e r e c iv i ls e rvan t s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,andpa r tyemp loy e e s . Ano th e r105 fa l l envo lun t e e r shadb e long edtoth es tud en t s ’o rgan iza t ion(S ind i ca to E spaño lUn iv e r s i ta r io ,SEU )o fth eFET JONS(16 .8p e rc en to fth eto ta l ) . S im i la r ly ,a lmo s tha l f(201 ,o r48 .16p e rc en t )o ftho s e whod i edinRu s s iahadfough to rcoop e ra t ed w i thth eF ran co i s ts id einth eC iv i lW a r . A s manya s 99fa l l envo lun t e e r s(14 .35p e rc en t )hadsu f f e r edd i r e c t ly o rind i r e c t ly( fam i ly )som efo rmo fr ep r e s s ioninth eR epub l i canzon e b e tw e en1936and1939 . Ato ta lo f102(16 .32p e rc en t )hadjo in edth e F ran co i s tA rmydu r ingth eC iv i lW a randhadb e enp romo t edby m e r i t andt ra in ingtorank so fen s ign ,l i eu t enan t ,o rp rov i s iona ls e rg ean t . Th i r ty -on eo fth efa l l en(4 .96p e rc en t )b e long edtoCa tho l i co rgan iza169 t ion s ;and17(2 .72p e rc en t )hadb e enCa r l i s t s . Aga in ,th e da tashou ld b ein t e rp r e t edcau t iou s ly . Th e pub l i sh ed p rof l e so fth efa l l enshowacon s id e rab l enumb e ro fFa lang i s t s ,ex 170 cap t iv e s ,andex comba tan t s ,ev endu r ing1942and1943 . Asy s t em a t i csamp l ingo fth ecomp l e t ea lphab e t i ca ll i s t so fth efa l l enind i ca t e sa mu chsma l l e rnumb e r ,f rom wh i ch i t i spo s s ib l etoob ta inab iog raph i ca l p rof l e .O f158fa l l enso ld i e r s who s esu rnam e sb egan w i thth el e t t e r s EandF ,on ly13 .2p e rc en t(21 )w e r em emb e r so fth eFa lang i s tpa r ty ; 7 .54p e rc en t(12 )w e r ea rmyo ff c e r s , wh i l e15 .72p e rc en t( 25 )w e r e co rpo ra l sands e rg ean t s . W eknowon lyth enam e so fth er ema in ing 171 69 .18p e rc en t . Som elo ca ls tud i e ssugg e s ts im i la rp e r c en tag e s .O f590 vo lun t e e r s whoen l i s t edinth er e c ru i tm en to ff c eo fSan tand e r ,a tl ea s t 81(13 .8p e rc en t )w e r ea ff l ia t ed w i thth eFa lang e ,and manyo ftho s e w e r eO ldSh i r t s . Comb in ed w i thth e Ca r l i s tR equ e t é s ,th ep e r c en tag e in c r ea s e sto17 p e rc en t .O fth e1 ,216 BDvo lun t e e r sid en t if edf rom A ragon ,a tl ea s t1 14(9 .37p e rc en t )w e r eFET m emb e r sanda tl ea s t361 (29 .68p e rc en t )w e r eF ran co i s tex comba tan t s .Fa lang i s t sa c coun t edfo r n ea r ly13 p e rc en to fa l lvo lun t e e r sf rom A lm e r ia ,andov e rath i rdo f th em w e r eO ldSh i r t s .Th ep e r c en tag eo fFa lang i s t sf romamongth e vo lun t e e r s whoen l i s t edin Mu r c ia wa s mu chg r ea t e r ,r ep r e s en t ingup to62 .5p e rc en t(429 )o fth evo lun t e e r sw i thaknownid eo log i ca lp rof l e 172 (686 ,o r55 .5p e rc en to fth eto ta l ) . Th enumb e ro fFa lang i s t samong tho s ef rom A lava wa sn eg l ig ib l e( 3 ,o r2 .15p e rc en t ) ,andev enf ew e r w e r efo rm e rt rad i t iona l i s tR equ e t é s . RamónS e r ranoSuñ e rs ta t edinJu ly1941tha tth ef r s texp ed i t ionto th eRu s s ianF ron thadcon s i s t edo f75 p e rc en tso ld i e r sand25 p e rc en t d evo t edFa lang i s t s .173 How ev e r ,th ep ropo r t iono fFa lang i s t s whof e l l in th een t i r eRu s s ianadv en tu r e wa ssma l l e r .Amongth ef r s ttw en ty th r e e

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Span i sh p r i son e r stak enbyth eR ed A rmyth rough D e c emb e r1941 , e igh t(30 .76p e rc en t )w e r e“w e l l -d efn edFa lang i s t s ,”two w e r ea rmy NCO s ,s ix w e r e“adv en tu r e r s ,rogu e s ,common e r s ,”s ixo th e r sw e r e so ld i e r stha thadb e en mo r eo rl e s sco e r c edtoen l i s t ,andfou rw e r e “wo rk e r sd r iv enby m i s e ryandun emp loym en t ,”a c co rd ingtoaF eb ru a ry1942Sov i e tr epo r t .Th e i rp ro f e s s ion s :fou rs tud en t s ,two NCO s ,on e FETemp loy e e ,s ev enlump en( common e r s ) ,fou ra r t i san s ,fou rp ea san t s , 174 th r e e wo rk e r s ,andon eemp loy e e . C ro s s r e f e r en c ingo fth ed iv e r s equa l i ta t iv esou r c e st end stoconf rm th i sp rof l e .Though m i l i tan tFa lang i s t sd idno tcon s t i tu t eth e ma jo r i ty o fth eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e r s ,th e i rnumb e r sw e r ebyno m ean st r if ing : th eyrang edb e tw e en15 p e rc en tand 20 p e rc en t ,w i thg r ea t e rp r e s en c e amongth evo lun t e e r so f1941and1942 .Th efa c ttha t mo r ethanafou r th o fth esamp l eco r r e spond stoso ld i e r s who w e r efu lf l l ingth e i rm i l i ta ry s e rv i c edo e sno tn e c e s sa r i lysh edl igh tonth econd i t ion so fth e i ren l i s t m en t .Apo r t iono fth emd emon s t ra t eda t l ea s tg roup w i l l ingn e s stovo lun t e e r .Th esam ecanb esa ido f mo s to fth ea rmyco rpo ra l s ,s e rg ean t s , andp rov i s iona len s ign s .Th ecommong roundo fan t i commun i smand aca l cu la t iono fb en ef t s(p ro f e s s iona lp romo t ion ,e conom i cin c en t iv e s , o rp r e s t ig e )w e r ea l sos ign if can tfa c to r s .Ev enth eSpan i shcommun i s t s inex i l ea cknow l edg edtha tth eba ckbon eo fth e“f r s t”B lu eD iv i s ion wa scompo s edo fa rd en tan t i commun i s t s ,e sp e c ia l lyFa lang i s t s(abou t ha l fth econ t ing en t ) .Ano th e r20–25 p e rc en tw e r ea rmyo ff c e r s , NCO s , adv en tu r e r s ,andlump enind iv idua l sa long s id eas im i la rp e r c en tag eo f p ea san t sand wo rk e r s : Th efa c ttha tth e r ehav eb e enca s e so fco e r c iv er e c ru i tm en ti sno t ,how ev e r , su ff c i en t mo t iv etod i s c r ed i tth efa c ttha t mo s to fth er e c ru i t sa r er ea l ly vo lun t e e r s ,andtha tth eco r ei scompo s edo fth em i l i tan tFa lang i s t s( s tud en t sf rombou rg eo i s i eo rp e t i t -bou rg eo i s i eo r ig in s ,son so flandown e r s , emp loy e e sandbu r eau c ra t so fth eFa lang eandth es ta t eappa ra tu s ,af ew a r i s to c ra t s ,e t c . ) .

Th er epo r td e ta i l edth ed i f f e r en c e sbyr eg ion s .In Mad r id ,Fa lang i s t s w e r ep r edom inan tamongavo lun t e e rco rp scompo s edo fs tud en t s , c iv i ls e rvan t s ,andemp loy e e s .Fa lang i s t sandF ran co i s tex comba tan t s abound edinth eno r th ,no r th -w e s t ,andCa s t i l e ,a long w i ths ign if can t numb e r so fs tud en t sandson so fp ro sp e rou sp ea san t s ,c iv i ls e rvan t s , andsom e“p ea san t sandCa tho l i c wo rk e r s .”Amongth er e c ru i t sinth e sou th w e r enum e rou slump en :v i r tua l lyi l l i t e ra t e wo rk e r sandp ea san t s , mo s to f whom w e r eex comba tan t s .175 Ma s s iv eFa lang i s tpopu la ren 176 l i s tm en thadon lyo c cu r r edinV a l en c iaand Mu r c ia .

66 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F a l ang i s t s ,Ex c om b a t an t s ,and“W a r t im eF r an c o i s t s” Wha tso r to fFa lang i s t svo lun t e e r ed ?Th eFETs ta tu t e se s tab l i sh edan in t e rna lh i e ra r chyba s edonnumb e ro fy ea r sinth epa r ty :O ld Gua rd , O ldSh i r t s ,andth er e s t .Th eg r ea t ma jo r i tyo fth eO ldSh i r t sand O ld Gua rd w e r ea l soex comba tan t so rex -p r i son e r s , manyo f whomh e ld po s t so flo ca l ,p rov in c ia l ,o rr eg iona ll ead e r sh ipinth es ing l e pa r ty s t ru c tu r eo rinth es ta t eadm in i s t ra t ion . How ev e r ,in1941 ,th ebu lko f th em emb e r sh ipco r r e spond edtotho s e whohadb e enfow ingin toth e Fa lang es in c eth eou tb r eako fth eC iv i lW a r .Th ev e t e ran so f t encons id e r edn ewFa lang i s t stob em e r eoppo r tun i s t s ,andev ensom ecam oufag ed R ed s .177 Th e you th whoen l i s t eda f t e r1939enhan c edth e h e t e rog en e i tyo fth eFET . Manyhadcom ef romth eSEUandhadno t fough tinth eC iv i lW a r . On el ead e rf rom Mu r c iaind i ca t edtha tth e mo b i l iza t iono fvo lun t e e r sfo rth eBDhadg en e ra t edan ew“un i ty”and s t r eng th en edt i e samong“ com rad e sf romd i f f e r en tpo l i t i ca lo r ig in s”in ap rov in c etha tboa s t ed4 ,303 m emb e r sand 1 1 ,309a ff l ia t e sa tth et im e . Inth ep rov in c eo fL eón ,th e wav eo fen thu s ia smh e lp edtoin c r ea s ea f f l ia t ion w i thth epa r ty . As iz eab l ep e r c en tag eo fFET m emb e r sl e f tfo r Ru s s ia ,bu tno tth e ma jo r i ty .In Mu r c ia ,th e r ew e r ea tl ea s t429Fa lang i s t vo lun t e e r s , wh i cha c coun t edfo r34 .7p e rc en to fa l lvo lun t e e r sand10 p e rc en to fth epa r ty m emb e r sinth ep rov in c e :148 o fth em(34 .5p e r 178 c en t )w e r eO ldGua rd . Pa r t i c ipa t ioninth eC iv i lW a rhadconv e r t ed manySpan ia rd sin to au th en t i c“wa rF ran co i s t s” who w e r efa s c i s t iz edtosom ed eg r e e .Th e r e a r esom ecommonf ea tu r e sinth eb iog raph i e so f NCO s ,p rov i s iona l en s ign s ,s e rg ean t s ,and p rov i s iona ll i eu t enan t s whoen l i s t edinth e BD . Mo s tcam ef rom Ca tho l i c ,ru ra l ,o rs em i -u rbanso c ia landfam i ly con t ex t s .F r equ en t ly ,th e i ron lypo l i t i ca lso c ia l iza t ionp r io rto1936had b e enth roughr e l ig iou so rgan iza t ion s . Du r ingth eC iv i lW a rth eyhad jo in edth er eb e ls id etod e f endth e i rso c ia ls tand ingandth e i rt rad i t iona l Ca tho l i candSpan i shna t iona l i s tva lu e s .179 Som ehadb e com es e rg ean t s o rp rov i s iona len s ign sa long s id etho s e whohada t t end edth eG en e ra l M i l i ta ryA cad emy( th ee s t amp i l l ad o s ,o f“ rubb e r s tamp ed” ) .D e sp i t eth e s can tt e chn i ca lt ra in ingo fth efo rm e r ,th ey w e r ed i s c ip l in edandsha r ed th e my s t iqu eo fsa c r if c e .Som ee s t ima t e sra i s eth enumb e ro f“p rov i 180 s iona ls e rg ean t s” w i th inth eto ta lBDcon t ing en tto4 ,500 . Manyo f 181 th emr ema in edina c t iv es e rv i c ea f t e rAp r i l1939 . Fo r mo r ethanon ep rov i s iona ls e rg ean t ,th ea rmyb e cam ehom eand th em i l i ta ryl i f eth eyhadl ea rn eddu r ingth eC iv i lW a r wa rp edth ed e s t inyo f mo r ethanon ep rom i s ingsonf romth elow e r -m idd l ec la s s e s . L eopo ldo Mu l e t ,sono facu s tom sag en t ,d e s c r ib ed h i sl i f ea son e

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ma rk edbyth e1936–9conf i c t , wh i chin t e r rup t edab iog raphyo r i en t ed towa rd sa m e r can t i l ep ro f e s s ion : Iamaun iv e r s i tyg radua t eandt ea ch e r ,IknowF r en chandEng l i sh ,Ihav e t rav e l l edqu i t ealo t … Wh e r ehav eIb e enun t i lnow ?Th eC iv i lW a rcap tu r ed myin t e r e s t wh i l eI wa sl iv inga thom e ,Ihav eb e enano ff c e rs in c e Ma r ch’37andinth eL eg ions in c e’ 38 … Wh enIg e tba cktoSpa in ,I w i l l h e lp myfa th e rw i thh i s wo rk( cu s tom sag en t ) .

Ju l ioGonzá l ez ,th esono fabou rg eo i sfam i ly ,hadfn i sh edh i sba c ca lau r ea t es tud i e sp r io rto1936and wa ss tudy ing Ma th sin Mad r id .Th eou t b r eako fth eC iv i lW a rchang edh i sfa t e ,tak ingh imf r s ttoth eG en e ra l M i l i ta ryA cad emyandth entoth eRu s s ianF ron t : Th e wa rcaugh tm eonho l idayand …It rad edin myequa t ion sfo rar if e ; a f t e rtha tIthough ttha t myd eg r e em igh ts e rv etog e tm ea mon tho fl eav e andI w en ttoacou r s efo rp rov i s iona la r t i l l e ryen s ign s .Ifn i sh edth e wa r a saL i eu t enan t ,  and wh enfa c ed w i thth ed i l emmao fcon t inu ing my m i l i ta ryca r e e ro rl iv ingo f f myfa th e r…   Iop t edfo rth ef r s t. . .I w en ttoth e A cad emy ,fn i sh edand wh enI wa sb eg inn ingtoen joyga r r i sonl i f eaway 1 8 2 f romhom e ,i thapp en ed …andh e r eIam .

S ev e r a lo ff c e r sinth es app e r s ’co rp sh ads im i l a rt r a j e c to r i e s .Th eyh ad gon eth rought e chn i c a lo rs c i en t if ct r a in ingb e fo r eth eC iv i lW a randh ad vo lun t e e r edfo rth ein su rg en ta rmy .A f t e r1 9 3 9 ,tho s ew i thsom em i l i1 8 3 t a ryt r a in ings t ay edoninth eA rmy Co rp so fEng in e e r s . A l lo fth em w e r es imp lyF r an co i s t sw i thou tanyfu r th e rl ab e l s , whod idno tr e a l ly c a r eabou tm i l i t a ry -F a l ang i s t -C a tho l i cd i spu t e s .Th eysh a r edth eC a tho l i c f a i thandad efn i t iono fth ecommonen emy :commun i sm ,f r e em a son ry , s ep a r a t i sm ,and“ in t e rn a t ion a lJ ew ry . ”Th ebo rd e r sw e r eo f t enb lu r r ed b e tw e enc iv i l i an sandso ld i e r s ,o rb e tw e enp ro f e s s ion a lso ld i e r s(o rtho s e whoh aden l i s t ed wh i l edo ing m i l i t a rys e rv i c e )andc iv i l i an s whoh adenl i s t edth roughth em i l i t i a s .M any NCO sandp rov i s ion a len s ign sh aden l i s t ed th rough th eF a l ang er e c ru i t ingo ff c e s ,wh i l em anyso ld i e r sh adbo th p ro f e s s ion a lob j e c t iv e sandid eo log i c a l mo t iv e s :an t i commun i smanda s en s eo fp a t r io t i cdu tyw e r e in t e r tw in edw i thth ed e s i r etopu r su eac a r e e r 1 8 4 inth ea rmyo rinth es t a t eadm in i s t r a t ion . AF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r ,Con s t an t ino G eo rg a copu lo s ,w ro t ein1 9 4 2th a ta l lh i sun i t ’ sco rpo r a l sc am e f romth elow e rso c i a ls t r a t a .Thougha l lo fth em w e r e“ ch i ld r enf romth e o rph an ag e , ”h el ik edth ef a c tth a tth ey w e r ea l ld evo t edC a tho l i c s .185 Thoughth eFa lang et r i edtoen su r etha tamongth eo ff c e r s whol e f t inJu ly1941th e r e wou ldb ea ffn i ty w i thFa lang i s tid ea s ,th i sd idno t

68 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

en t i r e lyr e so lv eanund e r ly ingt en s ionb e tw e enFa lang i s tm i l i t iam en and p ro f e s s iona lso ld i e r sinth eB lu eD iv i s ion . Manyo fth efo rm e r g roup w e r ef rom m idd l e c la s sfam i l i e so rw e r e un iv e r s i tys tud en t s , wh i l eo th e r shadb e end e co ra t eddu r ingth eC iv i lW a r .I t wa sd i ff cu l t fo rth efo rm e rtoa c c ep to rd e r sf romi l l i t e ra t es e rg ean t s who w e r ef r e qu en t lyb ia s edaga in s tth em .186 Th eya l soexp r e s s ed m i s t ru s to fa m i l i ta ryra th e rthan m i l i t iav en tu r e ,a saFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rw ro t e : A sIhadp r ed i c t ed wh en w el e f t Mad r id ,th e r e wa sno th ing“B lu eD iv is ion”abou ti t ;in s t eado fFa lang i s t sw ea r eso ld i e r s ,bu t wha tk indo fso l d i e r s ?Ing en e ra l ,w ea r et r ea t edbad ly …thoughth eFa lang i s to ff c e r sa r e 1 8 7 r ea l lytob lam e ,th eyt r ea tu sl ik econ s c r ip t s .

Th ef r i c t ionb eganb e fo r eth eyl e f t .Inth eba r ra ck so fth eun iv e r s i ty d i s t r i c to f Mad r id ,th eFa lang i s t sp ro t e s t eda tb e ingpu ttog e th e r“w i th so ld i e r so fnoFa lang i s tf e e l ing wha t so ev e r .” Du r ingth et ra in ingp e r iod , manyg rumb l eda tth e“ s ev e r ed i s c ip l in e ,o fa pu r e ly m i l i ta ry 188 typ e .” Manyo th e rso ld i e r sw e r ed i sgu s t eda tth ep ro l i f e ra t iono fFa lang i s tsymbo l s( su cha sth eyok eanda r row s )onth eun i fo rm s .Lu i s Agu i la rno t edon ecap ta in ’ sd i sp l ea su r ea ts e e ingh i sin s ign ia :“ ‘Don ’ t th inktha tyoua r ecom ingh e r etos t ea ll ik einSpa in , ’h eshou t sa tu s .”A f ewday sla t e r ,h i scom rad e sd i s r ega rd edanen s ign ’ scommandtos top 189 s ing ingth ehymn“Ca raa lso l”(Fa c ingth esun ) . Mo s to fth eFETh i e ra r chyhadb e com es imp l ep r iva t e s ,bu tth eyh e ld g r ea tinfu en c eov e rth e i rcom rad e s .Ins ev e ra lun i t s ,as e condpo l i t i ca l h i e ra r chyranpa ra l l e l( in fo rma l ly )toth em i l i ta rycommands t ru c tu r e . Th e2nd An t i tank Company ,fo rexamp l e , wa scompo s edo fl ead e r s su cha sAgu s t ínAzna r ,En r iqu eSo tomayo r ,R id ru e jo ,and“O ld Gua rd Fa lang i s t sf rom Mad r id .”190 How ev e r ,th eFa lang i s t s wan t edtob em i l i t iam enabov ea l l :Sa lvado rZanón ,as tud en t ,w ro t etha t“ thoughth e M i l i t iaha sb e com epa r to fth eA rmy. . .w e mu s tno tlo s eou rFa lang i s t d i s t in c t ivn e s s .”191 C l e a r ingY ou rM i l i t a ryR e c o rd. . .o rD e s e r t ing Manyvo lun t e e r sw e r e mo t iva t edby ma t e r ia lin c en t iv e s .M i s e ryand un emp loym en tinpo s t -wa rSpa ind rov eth emtoen l i s tfo rRu s s ia ,e sp e c ia l lyinp rov in c e sw i thh ighra t e so fun emp loym en tamongag r icu l tu ra lo ro th e r wo rk e r s .Th edoub l epayo f f e r edbyth eG e rmanand Span i sha rm i e s(7 .30p e s e ta sand4 ma rk sp e rday ,a long w i th1 ,000 p e s e ta sfo rjo in ingup )en t i c edth em ,a long w i thasub s idytoth efam i l i e s o fvo lun t e e r sa tth ef ron t .T osw e e t enth ed ea l ,th eycou lda l sofu lf lth e i r

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 69

m i l i ta rys e rv i c er equ i r em en texp ed i en t ly :s ix mon th sonth e Ru s s ian F ron tw e r eequ iva l en ttotwoy ea r so fcompu l so ry m i l i ta rys e rv i c e .192 A long s id eth e s evo lun t e e r sw e r eo th e r s whohadp rob l em sw i th m i li ta ryju s t i c edu etoth e i rpo l i t i ca lr e co rdo rb e cau s eth eyhadfough t– w i l l ing lyo ro th e rw i s e– w i thth eR epub l i can A rmy .Pa r t i c ipa t ingin th eRu s s iancampa ign m igh ts e rv etoc l ea rth e i rr e co rdand wa stak en in tocon s id e ra t ionby m i l i ta ryandc iv i l iancou r t s .Th eFa lang i s t sth em s e lv e skn ewo fsu chp eop l eanda tt im e sp ro t e c t edth em . On eo fth em w ro t eo fh i sch i ldhoodf r i end ,afo rm e rR epub l i canso ld i e r : W ehav ea lway sb e enl ik eb ro th e r s ,bu th ew en ttoth eun iv e r s i ty …Th en w i thth e wa r ,I wa saL eg iono ff c e randh e wa sano ff c e r inth eR epub l i can A rmy …I fIp e r suad edh imtoen l i s ttocom etoRu s s ia w i thth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,i t wa sb e cau s eIb e l i ev edands t i l lb e l i ev etha ti fh ei slu ckyandr e1 9 3 tu rn stoSpa in ,a sanex comba tan th ew i l li r r ep roa chab l einev e ry way .

Insom eca s e s ,fo rm e rl e f t i s t sen l i s t edinth eD iv i s iontofnda wayto g e tou to fSpa inandev enc ro s sov e rtoth eR edA rmy .194 How ev e r ,no t ev e ryon e whoen l i s t ed wa ss e l e c t ed ;vo lun t e e r sw e r epo l i t i ca l lys c ru t i n iz eda tth eb eg inn ing ,du r ingt ra in ing inG e rmany ,anda sth eya r r iv ed a tth ef ron t .V ig i lan c eb e cam e mo r ein t en s ein1943 ,a sr e c ru i tm en tb e cam el e s ss e l e c t iv einth em i l i ta ryba s e s .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionIn fo rma t ion S e c t ion( I Ib )imp l em en t edt igh t e rcon t ro l sandcomp i l edado s s i e ro f “und e s i rab l e s”tha tev en tua l lyamoun t edov e rth ey ea r s1941–3to 2 ,271 nam e s .195Inla t e1942 ,th eBD G en e ra lS ta f fhadb eguntoshowg r ea t e r con c e rnfo rth equa l i tyo fth e“human ma t e r i e l”a r r iv inginth er ep la c e m en texp ed i t ion s .Th eBDo ff c ein Mad r ido rd e r edth ecommand e ro f th e18 th Ma r chBa t ta l ioninD e c emb e r1942too rgan iz e“anin fo rma t ion s e rv i c e ,amongp e r son sth eyfu l lyt ru s t ,”ino rd e rtounma skso ld i e r s “w i thtu rb idid ea sandth ink ing , who m igh tjo inth eR edrank s .”196 Th eG e rman sa l sof ea r edtha tamongth e ma r chba t ta l iono ff c e r sth e r e m igh tb ein fo rman t s who w e r espy ingfo rth eA l l i e s .197 C e r ta inB r i t i shin t e l l ig en c er epo r t sandSov i e tp ropagandasp r eadan imag etha tth eD iv i s ion wa sr ep l e t ew i thso ld i e r slook ingfo ranoppo r tun i tytod e s e r t .Adv e r sa r i e so fth eFETw i th inth eF ran co i s tadm in i s t ra t ionh e lp edth i simp r e s s iona long .Amba s sado rSamu e l Hoa r er epo r t ed inAugu s t1941 ,a f t e raconv e r sa t ion w i th G en e ra lAn ton ioA randa ,an Ang loph i l e ,tha t750vo lun t e e r shada l r eadygon eov e rtoth een emy .198 How ev e r ,th eto ta lnumb e ro fpo l i t i ca l ly mo t iva t edd e s e r t e r sr ema in ed low . Du r ingth ef r s ts ix mon th so fth er ep la c em en tsy s t em ,s ca r c e ly2 p e rc en to fth eso ld i e r sf romRu s s ia w e r er epa t r ia t edfo rpo l i t i ca lan t ec ed en t stha t wou ldindu c eth emtoen t e r ta inth epo s s ib i l i tyo fd e s e r t ion

70 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o re sp ionag e .199 Ca s e so fs e l f -mu t i la t ion( shoo t ingon e s e l finth ehand , do inggua rddu tyba r e foo ttop rovok ef ro s tb i t einth ef e e t ,e t c . )w e r e 200 equa l lys ca r c e , pa r t lyb e cau s eo fth evo lun t e e rs c r e en ingtha t wa sin p la c e .Th eSpan i sh A rmyandth eFETi t s e l fw e r eth ef r s ton e sin t e re s t edins end ingr e l iab l eso ld i e r s . Som e vo lun t e e r sc ro s s ed ov e rs imp ly ou to ff ea ro rd e sp e ra t ion 201 cau s edbyth ed i r econd i t ion sonth ef ron t . A so fF eb rua ry1942 ,th e r e hadon lyb e ens ixd e s e r t e r s(andon edub iou sca s e ) , whohadd e c la r ed toth eSov i e t stha tth eyhaden l i s t ed w i thth ein t en to fc ro s s ingov e r . Mo s to fth em w e r eR epub l i canex comba tan t so rfo rm e rm emb e r so f l e f t -w ingpa r t i e s .A c co rd ingtoSov i e tr epo r t s ,th eto ta lnumb e ro fd e 202 s e r t e r s mayhav eb e entw e lv e . Inth etwoy ea r so fD iv i s iond ep loy m en tonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,a s manya stw en ty -on eso ld i e r sw e r et r i ed ands en t en c edto d ea thfo rs e r iou sc r im e s(d e s e r t ion ,t r ea son ,e t c . ) ; fou r t e eno fth em w e r eex e cu t ed ,a long w i thtwoo th e r sinth eB lu eL e g ion .203 Th enumb e r mayhav eb e enh igh e r ,bu ton lys l igh t ly ;f rom No v emb e r1941toAugu s t1942 ,tw en ty fou rt r ia l sfo rd e s e r t iontookp la c e 204 inth eB lu eD iv i s ion . Th e BDin t e l l ig en c es e rv i c e sd e t e c t eds ev e ra lca s e so fR epub l i can ex comba tan t s who man i f e s t edsympa th i e sfo rth eR edA rmyandhad 205 t r i edtoconv in c ef e l lowso ld i e r stoc ro s sov e rw i thth em . F romea r ly 1943on ,af ew mo r ed e s e r t ion so c cu r r edb e tw e en Log roñoandth e bo rd e rtowno fI rún ,o rb e tw e en H enday eand G e rmany :fou rso ld i e r s o fth e21 s t Ma r chBa t ta l iond e f e c t edb e fo r eth eun i ta r r iv edin Ho fin Ap r i l1943 .In O c tob e ro fth esam ey ea r ,fou r mo r evo lun t e e r sd e s e r t ed b e fo r er ea ch ingI rúnandtwoo th e r sb e tw e en H enday eand Ho f .206In to ta l ,e igh tytoon ehund r edso ld i e r s–av e rag ings ca r c e lytwop e rthou sand–d e s e r t edtoth een emy . Numb e r sb egantoin c r ea s einth es e cond ha l fo f1942andr ea ch edth e i rh igh e s tpo in tin m id -1943 .Th eG e rman 18 th A rmycommandin fo rm edin Augu s t1942tha td e s e r t ion s had in c r ea s eds in c eth ea r r iva lo fth ef r s t ma r chba t ta l ion s .Th eG e rman m i l i ta rya t ta ch éin Mad r ida sk edth em in i s t e ro fth ea rmytopo s tpon e th ed epa r tu r eo fth eth r e eS ep t emb e rr e l i e fexp ed i t ion sino rd e rtodo ba ckg roundch e ck sonth er e c ru i t s .207 How ev e r ,d e sp i t eG e rman wo r ry ,th enumb e ro fd e s e r t ion sn ev e rr ea l lyb e cam es ign if can t .Thoughawa r en e s so fth er i sko fd e s e r t ion s wa s g r ea t e r ,i tra r e lygav ecau s efo rr ea lcon c e rnincomba t .208 Bycompa r i son ,th ep ropo r t iono fd e s e r t e r s inth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e sdu r ingth e Span i shC iv i lW a r wa sa tl ea s te igh tt im e sg r ea t e r :b e tw e en1 .7p e rc en t 209 and1 .9p e rc en t . E l em en t sun sympa th e t i ctoth eF ran co i s tr eg im ecou ldno ta lway s b epu rg edint im e ,bu tno ta l lo fth emhadth eoppo r tun i tytoc ro s s

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ov e rtoth eSov i e t s .Th efa t etha tawa i t edtho s e who manag edtodoso wa sv e ryd i f f e r en tto wha tth eR ed A rmyl eaf e t shadp rom i s edth em . Som eco l labo ra t ed w i thth e NKVDp ropagandas e rv i c e s ,bu ta l lw e r e in t e rn edinp r i son e rcamp s .Thoughsom ecap t iv e sd e c id edtor ema in inth e USSRa f t e r1954 , mo s tr e tu rn edtoSpa in wh enth eyhadth eop po r tun i ty .210 Manyo ftho s e whor e tu rn edtoSpa inf romSov i e tcap t iv i ty hadb e enl i s t eda sd e s e r t e r sandfa c edin t e r roga t ion .Som eb iog raph i e s w e r ea sp i c tu r e squ ea sth ey w e r et rag i c .Th edaylabou r e r Ma r t ínF e rr e ro ,acommun i s tdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r ,haden l i s t edinth eBDin1942 inhop e so fc ro s s ingov e rtoth een emy .In s t ead ,h e wa st r ea t eda sa p r i son e rbyth eSov i e t s .A lb e r to Mo r eno ,anemp loy e e whohadb e en anana r ch i s tm i l i t iamaninth eC iv i lW a r ,en l i s t edinth eBDin1943 .H e c ro s s edov e rtoth eSov i e t s , whos en th imtop r i soncamp .So t e roGa r c ía hadnopo l i t i ca lr e co rdbu thadb e en mob i l iz edinth eF ran co i s tA rmy in1937 .A f t e rth e wa r ,h eop e ra t edonth eb la ck ma rk e t in Man r e sa(Ba r c e lona )andsp en tsom e mon th sinp r i son .La t e r ,h ek i l l edtwop eop l e andf edtoCád iz , wh e r eh een l i s t edfo rRu s s iaund e rafa l s enam e ,int end ingtod e f e c t .H i se f fo r t shadth esam eou t com e :t eny ea r so fha r sh 21 1 cap t iv i tyinSov i e tcamp s . Thoughf ew ,th enumb e r so fBDd e s e r t e r ssu rpa s s edth eG e rmanave rag e ,ev ena sea r lya sJanua ry1942 . Unau tho r iz edab s en c e sf romth e f ron t(o rd e f e c t ion stowa rd sth eBDr ea rgua rd )w e r e mo r eabundan t thaninn e ighbou r ingd iv i s ion s .Th i sin c lud edin t en t iona ld e s e r t e r sa s w e l la s“d i so r i en t ed”so ld i e r s(d e sp i s t ad o s) whohadb e eng ran t eds ev e ra lday s ’l eav ebu tappa r en t lyhadgo tlo s t wh i l er e tu rn ingtodu ty : 212 som e t im e sw i thth econ s en to fth e i ro ff c e r s ,som e t im e sfo r mon th s . P r iva t eJo s éLu i sPa s ca ld rov eat ru ckdu r ingth e ma r cho f1941 .H e wa ss en tto W a r sawtoa cqu i r er ep la c em en tpa r t s ,on lytor eapp ea rin V i ln iu sinJanua ry1942 .213 S e cund inoA .Canovo lun t e e r edin1941and sp en tth ecampa ignins ev e ra lho sp i ta l s .A f t e rr e en l i s t ingin Nov emb e r 1942 ,h ed e s e r t edin G e rmanyandlook edfo r wo rkinF rank fu r tam Ma in .214 O th e r sf edtowa rd sth er ea rgua rdandd e s e r t edou to ff ea r , d i s con t en t ,o rd e sp e ra t iona tb e ingpun i sh edbyano ff c e r .215 “Spa inontheV o lkhov” :Fa lang i smintheB lue D iv i s ion F e rv en tFa lang i s t sn ev e rcomp r i s eda ma jo r i tyinth eBD ,ev enamong th eo r ig ina lcon t ing en t . How ev e r ,th ey w e r eas ign if can tm ino r i ty w i th ag roupcon s c i en c etha tp e rm ea t edth edom inan tBD wa rcu l tu r e .Th e Ou r en s eFa lang ein fo rm edin O c tob e r1941tha t 35 o fi t s97 vo lun t e e r 216 m i l i t iam en w e r e“Fa lang i s t s ,”and 45 o th e r sw e r eno t . O fth e89 vo l un t e e r sf romSan tand e rinJu ly1941 ,36(40 .44p e rc en t )w e r em i l i tan t

72 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Fa lang i s t sand16 o ftho s e( 18 p e rc en to fth eto ta l )hadb e en m emb e r s p r io rto18Ju ly1936 .A s manya s9(10 .1p e rc en t )hadsu f f e r edR epub l i canv io l en c ep e r sona l lyo rinth e i rfam i ly .In Mu r c ia ,th ep e r c en tag eo f Fa lang i s t sr ea ch ed68 .5p e rc en t(285o f316 w i thknowna ff l ia t ion ) .217 I ti s mo r ed i ff cu l ttoa s c e r ta inhow manyhadb e en m emb e r so fth eFa lang ep r io rtoJu ly1936 .P ropo r t ion sva r i edf romp rov in c etop rov in c e anden thu s ia smt end edtoin t en s i fy wh e r eth e r ew e r e mo r eFa lang i s t s 218 whohadno tb e enab l etofgh t in1936–9 onth es id eo fth e i rchoo s ing . T oboo s tvo lun t e e ren l i s tm en t ,th eFETs e c r e ta r ia tsugg e s t edtha tp rov in c ia ll ead e r sen l i s tinth er e c ru i tm en to ff c e s .Som eo fth em wou ld b ep e rm i t t edtol eav efo r Ru s s ia .Th eya l soen cou rag edvo lun t e e r ing amongtho s einlo ca lh i e ra r ch i e sw i thqu e s t ionab l ecomm i tm en to rr e219 co rd s . E igh to fth ep rov in c ia lFETl ead e r s whoen l i s t edl e f tfo rRu s s ia in1941 .Amongth em w e r eth epa r tyboa rd m emb e r sD ion i s ioR id ru e jo , Mo ra -F igu e roa ,Agu s t ínAzna r ,H ig in ioPa r í sEgu i laz ,Edua rdod eRoja s ,andJo s éM . Gu t i é r r ezd e l Ca s t i l lo ,a long w i thyou thl ead e rJo s é M igu e l Gu i ta r t eand manys e cond -andth i rd t i e rl ead e r s ,f romv i l lag e mayo r stolo ca lcoun c i l lo r s . Fo rm anyF a l ang i s t sth eadv en tu r ew a s in i t i a l lyapo l i t i c a l inv e s tm en t . En l i s tm en tw a sat empo r a ryadv en tu r eth a tm igh ty i e ldp e r son a land co l l e c t iv ed iv id end s .Th ey wou ldr e tu rnhom ea sv i c to r s ,w i thth ep r e s t ig eo fh av ingd e f e a t edth e“G r e a tEn emy ” , wh i ch wou ldenh an c eth e i r po s s ib i l i t i e so ffo s t e r ingth efu l lf a s c i s t i z a t iono fth eF r an cor eg im e .220 Th i sv i s iono fth ec amp a igna sas t eptow a rd sn a t ion a l synd i c a l i s tr evo lu t ion w a sr e in fo r c eda f t e rth ef r s tcomb a t s :“L e tth emno tfo rg e tth a t th evo lun t e e r s ,on c eth een emyi sann ih i l a t edonth ef ron t ,w i l lr e tu rn r e adytod i etop r ev en tanypo s tu l a t eo fou rN a t ion a l -Synd i c a l i s tR ev o lu t ionf romno tb e com ingap r a c t i c a lr e a l i ty , ”w ro t eavo lun t e e r .S im il a r ly ,S a lv ado rLóp e zd el aT o r r eno t edth a tth efund am en t a l mo t iv a t ion o fh i scom r ad e s ,b eyondth e i rp e r son a ls to r i e s ,w a stofu lf lth em i s s ion a l du tyo fth eF a l ang e .Th el e t t e r so fF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r st r an sm i t t edth e i r s e l f -p e r c ep t iono fb e ingth eadv an c et roop sinth efgh tfo rth ephy s i c a l 2 2 1 and“ sp i r i tu a l ”r e con s t ru c t iono fSp a inind i s t an tl and s . Fo rth eFa lang i s t s ,th e Ru s s iancampa igna l sor ep r e s en t edanoppo r tun i tytor e s to r eSpa in ’ s“ imp e r ia ld e s t iny ,”byin c r ea s ingi t spa rt i c ipa t ioninth er e s t ru c tu r ingo fEu rop ea c co rd ingtoth e Naz iN ew O rd e r .D ion i s io R id ru e jor e ca l l edtha th ehadno tgon eto Ru s s iafo r an t i commun i sma lon e ,bu tb e cau s eh eb e l i ev edina“young ,h e ro i c andpopu la rEu rop etha tc e r ta ining en iou sfa s c i s t shav eimag in ed .” H e andh i scom rad e sthough ttha t“a l lth em i s fo r tun e sandlow e r ingo f Spa in–in c lud ingpov e r tyandso c ia lin equa l i ty–p ro c e ed edp r ima ri lyf romi t ssubm i s s iontoAng lo -F r en chh eg emony .” W i thAx i sv i c to ry ,

Ru s s iaI sGu i l ty ! 73

th eyexp e c t ed“ th econ s t i tu t iono faun if ed ,ind ep end en tandpow e r fu l Eu rop e ,in wh i chSpa incou ldp layanimpo r tan tro l e .”Th i s wou lda l so mak ei tpo s s ib l etoe l im ina t e“ th ep lu to c ra t i candc l e r i ca lcomp l extha t bu rd en sth eS ta t e .”222 L ik egoodf a s c i s t s ,how ev e r ,th eF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r sw e r ep rop e rn at ion a l i s t s . Non eo fth em w a sw i l l ingtos e rv eexp l i c i t lya sab a t t e r ing r amfo rG e rm aninfu en c e .Thoughth eyh a s t en edtoth eTh i rdR e i chto p rov id epo l i t i c a lsuppo r t ,th ey wou ldn ev e rd a r econ t emp l a t eth eov e rth rowo fF r an cobyap ro -G e rm anpupp e td i c t a to r .A m emo r anduma r r iv eda tth eG e rm anemb a s syinJu ly1 9 4 1 ,s ign edby“C ru s ad e r sag a in s t Ru s s i a , ” whor equ e s t edsuppo r tf romB e r l intog iv eth es t a t eandth e a rmyad e c id ed lyF a l ang i s tag end a .Th eya sp i r edtobo l s t e rth e“ imp e r i a l s ty l eo fth eF a l ang e , ”bu tw e r ec a r e fu ltoemph a s i z eth e“Ch r i s t i anch a r 2 2 3 a c t e r ”o fSp an i shf a s c i smandd idno tqu e s t ionF r an co ’ sl e ad e r sh ip . B lu eD iv i s ion ’ sFa lang i smi sp e rhap sb e s texp r e s s edinth eco rpu so f s logan stha td i s t i l l edth esp i r i to fth ef r s tFa lang e .Adv en tu r e som eb e l l i co s i tya l sor ef e c t edag en e ra t iona ls en t im en t . Hav ingb e enso c ia l iz ed s in c eado l e s c en c einanenv i ronm en to fpo l i t i ca lcon f ron ta t iondu r ing th eR epub l i canp e r iodand wa r mob i l iza t ionin1936– 9 , mo r ethanon e youngFa lang i s tf e l th im s e l fapa r t i c ipan tinas ingu la rh i s to r i ca l mom en t ,in wh i chg r ea tbu t mu tua l lyex c lu s iv eco smov i s ion sd e f end ed th e i rex i s t en c eina rm edconf i c t .Th eFa lang i s tw r i t e r An ton io Abad O ju e lexp r e s s edth i sinf c t ion :th eBD wou ldav eng eth eind e c i s iono f th e i re ld e r s , whohada l low edth ed e f ea to f Cubain1898(“yougav e up w i thou tafgh t” )andt r emb l edb e fo r eth ep rod ig iou spow e ro fv iol en c e .Th en ewfa s c i s tg en e ra t ion“hadb e enbo rnund e rth es igno fth e wa r r io r ,”and wa r“m e tu sa sw etookou rf r s ts t ep sinba c ca lau r ea t e , wa i t edfo ru sinth es t r e e tb raw l s .”Th i s wa sno tat im efo rth eo ry ;“w e a r einth ep r e -apo ca lyp t i ce ra ,o ffundam en ta lva lu e sandf rmd e c i224 s ion s .” Th evo lun t e e r sw e r e“n ew m en” whop r io r i t iz ed“a c t ion .” Th eyr eb e l l edaga in s tth en in e t e en thc en tu ryandr ea son ;th eyid en t if ed w i thth eroman t i c s ,i r ra t iona lva lu e s ,anda c t ionfo rth esak eo fth e na t iona sa“ r evo lu t iona rysyn th e s i s”o fv i r i l i tyandv io l en c e .225 Th i sen thu s ia smr ea ch edi t sh igh e s tl ev e l sinFa lang i s tyou tho rganiza t ion ssu cha sth eSEU , who s el ead e r sen l i s t edtog e th e r .A sea r lya s th ew in t e ro f1939 ,th e r ew e r ep ropo sa l stor e c ru i tvo lun t e e r sfo rth e F inn i shA rmyinth eW in t e rW a r .Som et e s t imon i e shav eind i ca t edtha t a s manya s10 p e rc en t(o r mo r einun iv e r s i tyc i t i e s )o fth eBDvo lun t e e r sin1941 w e r eSEUa ff l ia t e s .By May1942 ,a roundtwothou sand SEU m emb e r sw e r ee s t ima t edto hav ed epa r t edfo r Ru s s ia .226 Th e “wav e”ev enr ea ch eds tud en t sf roman t i -F ran co i s tfam i l i e s .Th ela t e r f lm -mak e rLu i sGa r c íaB e r langa ,th esono fafo rm e rR epub l i canl ead e r

74 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

who wa simp r i son eda tth et im e ,d e c la r edy ea r sla t e rtha th ehadgon e toRu s s iahop ingtog e th i sfa th e rr e l ea s ed ,bu th ed ida cknow l edg etha t h i sFa lang i s tf r i end sa tth e Un iv e r s i tyo fV a l en c iahads t rong lyinfu227 en c edh im . An t i commun i smandrad i ca lSpan i shna t iona l i smp rov id edahomog en iz ingva rn i shtoth eva r iou sid eo log i ca ls en s i t iv i t i e so fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i l W a r , wh e th e rFa lang i s t s ,con s e rva t iv e Ca tho l i c s ,o r “wa rF ran co i s t s .”F i f t e eny ea r sla t e r ,on ev e t e ran w ro t etha tthough th eBDhadem e rg edf romaFa lang i s tin i t ia t iv e ,vo lun t e e r sf romv e ry d iv e r s ea ff l ia t ion shadfough tonth eba s i so ftwocommond enom ina to r s :an t i commun i smand Ca tho l i c i sm . Thu s , M en énd ez Gund ín ind i ca t edth r e ein t e r tw in ed mo t iv e sinh i sd ia ry :an t i commun i sm ,a s en s eo fg en e ra t iona landpa t r io t i cdu ty ,andav eng ingth ed ea tho fh i s fa th e ra tR epub l i canhand s .O th e r sf romth erank so fth eSpan i shA rmy 228 exp r e s s edth econv i c t iontha tth ey w e r efu lf l l ingapa t r io t i cm i s s ion . How ev e r ,a ssom eFa lang i s t sp e r c e iv ed i t ,th ebap t i smbyf r eo fO c tob e r1941hadg iv enb i r thtoan ewpo l i t i ca lr ea l i ty .Th en ewcommun i ty o fcomba tan t s wou ldb ear ev iv edFa lang e ,a m ixo fC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s , O ldSh i r t s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,s e rg ean t s whohadcom eupth rough th erank s ,andd evo t ed Ca tho l i c s :“ th eD iv i s ioni sanda lway sw i l lb e Fa lang i s t ,f romth ecap ta indown ,”p ro c la im ed D ion i s ioR id ru e jo .Th i s n ewFa lang e wa sa l socomm i t t edtoSpa in ’ sd e s t inyinEu rop eandin229 ca rna t edaun iv e r sa ld im en s ion . On es igno fth i s wa sth ea s s im i la t ion o fFa lang i s tsymbo l sbyvo lun t e e r sf romd i f f e r en tp rov enan c e s ,f r s t andfo r emo s tinth eco l l e c t iv es ing ingo fth eFa lang i s tan th em“Ca ra 230 a lSo l”a sth er ep r e s en ta t iono fth esp i r i to fth e who l eB lu eD iv i s ion . Th i sn ewFa lang e wou ldb eth eep i tom eo fth eN ewSpa in ,g round ed inth ed iv e r s eso c ia l ,r eg iona l ,andpo l i t i ca lo r ig in so fth eBDvo lun t e e r s .Th epa r tyn ew spap e rA r r i b ain s i s t edtha tso l ida r i ty w i thth eB lu e D iv i s ionshou ldh e lp“ r e con s t i tu t eth e mo ra land ma t e r ia la r ch i t e c tu r e o fSpa in ,”r e s to r ingtoi t“ th es en s eo fso l ida r i ty”and“po l i t i ca lun i ty .” Th ejo in tpa r t i c ipa t iono fFa lang i s t s , Ca r l i s t s ,andth em i l i ta ry wou ld eng end e r“anau th en t i csyn th e s i so fth efo r c e sr ep r e s en t ingth en ew po l i t i ca landso c ia lo rd e ro fSpa in .”InRu s s ia ,“Ca r l i s t sandFa lang i s t s , p ro f e s so r sands tud en t s ,eng in e e r sand wo rk e r shadfough ttog e th e r ,” und e rth ecommonbann e ro f“ loya l tytoth ep r in c ip l e so f18Ju ly .”Th e un i tyo fd e s t inyd e s c r ib edbyth e my th if edl ead e rJo s éAn ton ioP r imo d eR iv e rahad ma t e r ia l iz edinth eRu s s iancampa ign :anen t e rp r i s etha t wou ldb inda l lSpan ia rd s ina m i s s iona ls en s eo fth ena t ion ,a sp r ea ch ed byFa lang i sm .Th e“Spa inonth eV o lkhov” wou ldendowth e“na t iona l 231 r evo lu t ion” w i thr ea lcon t en t . Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sa l soin t ima t e ly 232 sha r edbyFa lang i s t s whoen l i s t edin1942 .

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ManyBDvo lun t e e r sa l socu l t iva t edas e l f imag eo fe th i ca lin t egr i ty :th eyhadn e i th e rb e enco r rup t edno r pa r t i c ipa t edinF ran co i s t po s t -wa rr ep r e s s ion .Fa lang i s tvo lun t e e rJo s éM . Ca s tañónno t edin h i sd ia rytha t ,r e fu s ingtohav eany th ingtodo w i thth e“ c r im e so f th er ea rgua rd …   Ihav ecom eaga intoth ef ron td r eam ingo fafu tu r e o rd e r ingo fEu rop etha tw i l la l soo rd e rSpa in .”Th eB r i t i sh m i l i ta ry a t ta ch ér epo r t edtha tO ldSh i r t sc la im edtohav een l i s t edinth eD i v i s ionto“g e tawayf romSpa inini t sp r e s en ts ta t e .”233 On eFa lang i s t f romSan tand e rev ens ta t edinal e t t e r pub l i sh eda f t e rh i sd ea thin Ru s s iatha th i sd i s en chan tm en tov e rth ed e t e r io ra t iono fh i sid ea l sin Spa inhad mov edh imtoen l i s t :“ Idono tcon fo rmtol i f ea tp r e s en t ; th i s‘b la ck ma rk e t ’a tmo sph e r ea sphyx ia t e sm e .O fund e r cov e rR ed s , o f‘ l i f e longr igh t -w ing m en . ’”234 Y ea r sla t e r ,th eBDFa lang i s tv e t e ran ssom e t im e snam edth em s e lv e s 235 th eG en e ra t iono f1941 . How ev e rth e i re sp r i td ec o rp s wa sin su ff c i en t toinfu en c eth ed ev e lopm en to fth eFETinanyd e c i s iv e wayo rth er e g im euponth e i rr e tu rn .Th e i rexp e r i en c e wa son eo falo s tg en e ra t ion .

3ALong Ma r ch :F romC en t ra lEu rop e to   th eV o lkhovF ron t

Inla t eJu ly1941 ,ag roupo fSpan i sho ff c e r sl e f tth eG ra f enwöh rcamp fo rth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eyhadb e ena s s ign edto G e rmanun i t sinth e Uk ra in etofam i l ia r iz eth em s e lv e sw i th W eh rma ch tcomba tm e thod s andr e tu rn eds ev e ra lday sla t e r . Mo s to fth eB lu eD iv i s ionun i t s ,howev e r ,r ema in eda tth et ra in ingcampfo rfv etos ix w e ek s–ha l fo fth e u sua ltw e lv e -w e ekt ra in ingp e r iodfo rth eG e rmanA rmy .On20 Augu s t 1941 ,th ef r s tconvoyo fs ixt ra in sw i thcon t ing en t so fSpan i sht roop s d epa r t edf romth eG ra f enwöh r ,Pa rk en s t e in -U l t en ,and W i s ekS ta t ion s . Th e250 th D iv i s ionl e f tins ix ty s ixt ra in sov e rafv e -dayp e r iod .Th e mo to r iz edv eh i c l e sd epa r t edla s t ,inaco lumno ftwohund r edun i t s . Th ey w e r ed e s t in edfo rSuwa łk i ,onth ebo rd e rw i tho c cup i edPo land , thoughsom econvoy sw en td i r e c t lytoG rodnoinEa s t e rnPo land . On c eth eygo to f fth et ra inino c cup i edt e r r i to ry ,th eSpan i shcomba tan t sen coun t e r edth ef r s tha r shr ea l i tyo fth e i rn ewl i f e .L ik e mo s to f th eG e rmanin fan t ryun i t s ,th ey wou ldhav eto mak eagoodpa r to fth e jou rn eyonfoo t ,a s s i s t edbysom ev eh i c l e sandhund r ed so fho r s e stha t ca r r i edimp ed im en ta , mun i t ion s ,a r t i l l e ryp i e c e s ,andh eavy w eapon ry . Th eBDr e c e iv ed5 ,610 ho r s e stha thadb e enr equ i s i t ion edbyth eW eh r ma ch tinth eBa lkan sand w e r einalam en tab l es ta t e wh enth eya r r iv ed in G ra f enwöh ra f t e rsu chalongjou rn ey .Ca r ingfo rth eho r s e sb e cam e as e r iou sp rob l em , mad e wo r s ebyth epoo rqua l i tyo fth ean ima l sand th ein exp e r i en c eo f manyo fth e i rca r e tak e r s .InSpa in ,anex c e s s iv e numb e ro fd r iv e r shadb e enr e c ru i t ed w i thth eid eatha tth eD iv i s ion wou ldb e mo to r iz ed .Th eyhadtob equ i ck lyr e t ra in edtotam eho r s e s .1 Thu sb egananin t e rm inab l e wa lka longth eh ighway so fEa s t e rnPoland ,L i thuan ia ,By e lo ru s s ia ,andRu s s iatoth ec i tyo fV i t eb sk , wh e r e th eyaga inboa rd edat ra info rth es e c to ro fth ef ron ttha thadb e ena s s ign edtoth eBD .Th efoo t ma r ch wa sg ru e l l ingfo r mo s to fth evo l un t e e r s . W a lk ings ev e ra l doz en k i lom e t r e sp e r dayon poo r ,ro cky ,

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 77

i r r egu la rh ighway sinau tumn w ea th e rtha thadtu rn edun s ea sonab ly co ldinS ep t emb e r ,w i thev e rco ld e rf r e ez e sa tn igh t ,andund e rth econ s tan tw e igh to fth e i rk i t s wa ssom e th ingtha tth esho r tt ra in ingp e r iod in G ra f enwöh rhadno tp r epa r edth emfo rsu ff c i en t ly .Th eha rd sh ip s w e r ee sp e c ia l lyunb ea rab l efo rth em idd l e c la s su rbanvo lun t e e r s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,andtho s ew i thou tp r io rm i l i ta ryexp e r i en c e .How ev e r , no tev enth e mo s texp e r i en c edv e t e ran s ,th eba t t l e -wo rnFa lang ea c t ivi s t sf romth efound ingy ea r so rth es e rg ean t sandp rov i s iona len s ign s , hadsu f f e r edsu chha rdandongo ingfoo t ma r ch e sdu r ingth eC iv i lW a r . Ato ta lo f2 ,177a sp e ad o s–th enam eg iv entoso ld i e r s whohadv i r tua l ly“wa lk edth e i rf e e to f f”–d ev e lop eds ev e r eb l i s t e r sandhadto b et ran spo r t edinca r stoho sp i ta l s .A s manya se igh ty twoso ld i e r s and NCO sw e r er epa t r ia t edinla t eS ep t emb e rfo rimp rop e rcondu c t o rla cko fphy s i ca lendu ran c e . Manyo fth ea sp e ad o s ,a c co rd ingto m i l i ta rysu rg eonLóp ez Rom e ro ,a r r iv ed w i tha“ ra th e rr e lax ed” mo ra l e anda t t i tud e ,co r r e spond ingto“ tho s e who wou ldla t e rb es cab sonth e D iv i s ion ,in s epa rab l ef romth eF i e ld Ho sp i ta l , whocam etou sfu l lo f comp la in t sandlam en t s ,ina wo rd ,la cko fsp i r i t .”Th i s wa sr ef e c t edin th e i run t idyapp ea ran c eandbadb ehav iou r : Manyo fth em ,af ewday sin toth e ma r ch ,cam einfu l lo fm i s e ry ,w i thto rn c lo th e s ,longha i r ,un shav enandl i c e r idd en .Du r ingth es taya tth i sc en t r e , th eyp ra c t i c edth e i rfavou r i t epa s t im e s ,gamb l ingands t ea l ing .Inp la c e s l ik eO r sha , wh e r ew ew e r equa r t e r edn ex ttoth etown ,th ey wou ldev en e s cap ea tn igh tf romth e i rr e sp e c t iv elodg ing s ;toth epo in ttha tw ehadto co rdono f fth eCamp .Inth eH ea r ing sfo rD i sab i l i tyinG rodnoand M in sk , th eycam efood ingin ,d emo ra l iz ed ,som et ry ingtotak eadvan tag eo fth e goodfa i tho fth eM ed i ca lT r ibuna lw i thsuppo s eda i lm en t stha t wou ld 2 a l lowth emtor e tu rntoSpa in .

D i s c ip l in ed e t e r io ra t edrap id lyinth e ma r chco lumn s .Th eSpan ia rd s d i s t ingu i sh edth em s e lv e s ,a ssom ehaddon ein G ra f enwöh r ,fo rfou ting th eW eh rma ch tno rm so fun i fo rm i tyando rgan iza t ion .Th eys ca r c e ly con c e rn edth em s e lv e sw i th wha tth eycon s id e r edt r if e s ,su cha sk e ep ingth e i r ja ck e tbu t ton ed ,a lway sca r ry ingth e i rw eapon sonth e i rshou l d e r ,o rl eav ingc l ea rspa c eonth eroad .Th er e su l t inge f f e c tinth e ma r ch co lumn s wa ss ca r c e ly ma r t ia ltoG e rmaney e sandtotho s eino c cup i ed v i l lag e s . Manyso ld i e r st r i edtosav eth em s e lv e sth ee f fo r to f wa lk ing andc l imb edon toequ ipm en tv eh i c l e s wh en ev e rth eycou ld ,ov e r load ingth emfu r th e r .Th eca r eandc l ean ingo fth e i rw eapon sandk i t sl e f t mu chtob ed e s i r ed ,andth es ta t eo fth e i rho r s e s wa s wo r s e . Many w e r e lo s ttoexhau s t ion ,d ef c i en tca r e ,andf r equ en tov e rbu rd en ing .

78 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .3 .1 .Span i shso ld i e r sw i thS o ld a t en bu ch,G ra f enwöh r ,Ju ly1941(AGA )

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 79

Add edtoth i sw e r em ino rin c id en t sw i thth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,b eg inn inginth e Ma su r ianc i tyo fT r eubu rg(O l e cko ) , wh e r eth eG e rman l ia i son w ro t eon26 Augu s to fth e“no tab l ecomp la in t s”o fth ec iv i l ian popu la t ionr ega rd ing th econdu c to f th eBDvo lun t e e r s .Ina6S ep t emb e r m e e t ing w i thF i e ld Ma r sha l l Gün th e rvon K lug e ,command e rinch i e f o fth e4 th G e rman A rmy ,th el ia i sono ff c e r sd e s c r ib edth es i tua t ionin t e l eg raph i ct e rm s : Con fu s ing ma r ch ingo rd e r s ,la cko f ma r chd i s c ip l in e ,s ca r c ecapa c i tyo f th eyoung e s to ff c e r stoimpo s eau tho r i ty ,fa i lu r eo fth e NCOco rp s ,ab so lu t ela cko fqua r t e rma s t e r s ,poo rca r eo fth ea l r eadyd ef c i en tS e rb ian ho r s e s ,e t c .

Th eon lyth ing wo r thh igh l igh t ing ,a c co rd ingtoth el ia i sono ff c e r s , wa sth e“goodch e e randcomba t iv ehapp in e s so fth eSpan ia rd s .”Th e r e wa sth eo c ca s iona lca s eo fd e s e r t iontowa rd sth er ea rgua rdf romso ld i e r sov e r com ebyfa t igu eo rtho s e whod e s i r edtos l ipaway .3 How ev e r ,ing en e ra lth e i r mo ra l ed idno td e c l in ed e sp i t eth eha r shn e s so f th e ma r ch ,th ein c r ea s ingco ld ,andth ev i s ib l es ign so fr e c en tcomba t tha tb e cam e mo r eand mo r ef r equ en ta sth eso ld i e r sc ro s s edth efo rm e r Sov i e tbo rd e r .J e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,aFa lang i s tjou rna l i s t ,p enn edin h i sd ia ryon8S ep t emb e r1941 : W epa s sd e s t roy edtown sandhou s e s .InLydath e r ei sala rg eamoun to f wa r ma t e r i e ld e s t roy edby G e rmana i rra id s .Th e r ea r eeno rmou stank s ands ev e ra lm i l i ta ryt ra in s .Onth eh ighway ,nowandth en ,youfndtomb s o fG e rmanso ld i e r s .

N in eday sla t e r ,th eimp r e s s iono fg e t t ingc lo s e rtoth es c en eo fcomba t g en e ra t edex c i t em en tamongth et roop s :“gu t t edtank s ,ano c ca s iona l c ra sh edR edp lan eandG e rmantomb s .”Th eo ff c e r sw e r esu r etha tth e comba t wou ldb eha r shbu tsho r t ,andev e ryon eexp e c t edasw i f tG e r manv i c to ry .4 Ma r ch d i s c ip l in einth eB lu eD iv i s ionimp rov eda f t e rth es e cond w e eko fS ep t emb e randth eun i tin c r ea s edi t spa c etoa lmo s tth i r tyk i lom e t r e sp e rday .Ev enso , wh en MuñozG rand e sandth eG e rmanl ia i son command e rv i s i t edth eA rmy G roup C en t r eh eadqua r t e r stofna l iz e th ed e ta i l so fth e i rin co rpo ra t iononth ef ron t ,th eG e rman sw e r es can da l iz eda t wha tth eysaw wh enth eSpan ia rd spa s s edby .Th epano rama hadno tchang ed :un i t sw e r e wa lk ingonbo ths id e so fth e mo to rway pa s tM in skandb lo ck ingt ra ff c ,andth e r ew e r eunwa r l ik es c en e s(“ th e ma r chco lumn wa st ran spo r t ingl iv e s to ck” ) ,i r r egu la rc lo th ing ,and

80 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

la cko fag r e em en tr ega rd inghowtoca r ryth e i rw eapon s .Th eO rgan i za t ionT od td r iv e r sonth e mo to rway w e r esp e e ch l e s sa tth esp e c ta c l e 5 tha tr e in fo r c edth e i rb ia s e sr ega rd ingth esou th e rn“ ra s ca l s .” V onBo ckapp ea r edr e t i c en ttocommandSpan ia rd sin A rmy G roup C en t r e .M eanwh i l e ,A rmy G roup No r thn e ed edr e in fo r c em en t s .A f t e r hav ings en tpa r to fi t st roop stoth efna l Mo s cowo f f en s iv e ,i thadb e en fo r c edtor ep e lh eavySov i e tcoun t e r -a t ta ck s .Ina l lp robab i l i ty ,tha t wa s wha t mo t iva t edth eG e rmancommand–a tH i t l e r ’ sr equ e s t–toa s s ign th e250 th D iv i s iontoan ewf ron t . On25S ep t emb e r ,th e OKHno t if ed th e9 th A rmy , whot ran sm i t t edth eo rd e rtoth eBDtha tth ey wou ld b ed i spa t ch edtoth eno r th e rns e c to ro fth ef ron t .Th eSpan ia rd s ,thu s , wou ldpa r t i c ipa t einth eop e ra t ion sfo rth es i eg eo fL en ing radandi t s 6 ad ja c en ts c ena r io s . D e sp i t eth e i rd i sappo in tm en ta tno tfgh t inginth en ex t Mo s cowo ff en s iv e ,th egu r ip a s(wha tth eBDso ld i e r sca l l edth em s e lv e s )tookth e n ew sw i thr e s igna t ionandatou cho fhumou r ,a sp r iva t eLu i sAgu i la r r e co rd ed : Th eysaytha tth eG en e ra lo fth eA rmyCo rp sw ew e r ea s s ign edtodo e sn ’ t wan tu s ,a sinou r ma r ch e sw eg iv eth eimp r e s s iono fb e ingau s e l e s sfo r c e . P e rhap si ti sb e cau s ew egounbu t ton ed ,w i thou rha t stoon es id eand b e cau s esom eo fou ran t i tankp i e c e shav enam e s :Lo la ,Ca rm en c i ta ,e t c . , 7 andth eo c ca s iona lch i ck enhang ingf romth etow .

Th eSpan i shco lumn shad to tu rna round ,r e tu rn toV i t eb sk ,andboa rd th et ra intoP l e skau/P skow ,lo ca t edinth er ea rgua rdo fth eL en ing rad F ron t . On1 O c tob e r , Muñoz G rand e sandl ia i sono ff c e r Gün th e rCo l la tza r r iv eda tA rmy G roup No r thh eadqua r t e r s ;twoday sla t e rth ey w e r ea tth eh eadqua r t e r so fth e16 thA rmy ,to wh i chth eSpan i sh D iv is ionhadb e ena s s ign ed .Th elog i s t i ca lp rob l em scon t inu ed :th eho r s e s and mo to r iz edv eh i c l e sw e r einpoo rcond i t ion sandth et roop sw e r e s c ru f fyandf edupa tno thav ingen t e r edcomba t .Th equa r t e rma s t e ro f th el ia i sons ta f fa l soob s e rv edtha tth eBD ’ so rgan iza t iona ld ef c i en c i e s hadb e com e mo r ea cu t edu r ingth efoo t ma r ch .8 On 10 O c tob e r1941 ,th eA rmy G roup No r th wa rd ia ryind i ca t ed , w i thop en m i s t ru s t ,tha ti t wa sno ton lydub iou stha tth eSpan i sh D iv i s ion wou ldb ecapab l eo fgo ingonth eo f f en s iv e ,du etoth e i rs loven lyapp ea ran c e ,bu ttha t“ th et roop sc r ea t eanunu sua limp r e s s ion to G e rmaney e s . Th es ta t eo fth eho r s e sandv eh i c l e si squ e s t iona b l e .”9 Th efo l low ingday ,th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa sin co rpo ra t edin toth e p rov i s iona la rmyg roupund e rth ecommando fG en e ra lF ranzvon Roqu e s ,th encommand e rinch i e fo fth er ea rgua rdo fA rmy G roup

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 81

No r th .In s t eado fr ep la c ingth e126 th G e rmanIn fan t ry D iv i s ion ,th e BD wa sd ep loy ed mo r etoth esou th ,b e tw e en Novgo rodandth eV o lkhovR iv e r ,toth eno r tho fLak eI lm en ,tor e l i ev eth e18 thIn fan t ryD iv i s ionini t sd e f en s iv epo s i t ion .Th eG e rmanl ia i soncommandandth e h eadqua r t e r so fth e250 th W eh rma ch tD iv i s ion–th eSpan i s ch enF r e iw i l l ig en D iv i s ion– w e r ee s tab l i sh edin G r igo rovo ,onth eou t sk i r t s o fth ed e s t roy ed , mo s t lyabandon edc i tyo f Novgo rod .Th eSpan i sh un i t sb egantoo c cupyth e i rpo s i t ion sonth ef ron tinth efo l low ing day s , ju s ta sth ef r s tsnow fa l l su sh e r edinf r e ez ing w ea th e r–th ep r e lud etoapa r t i cu la r lyha r shandea r ly w in t e rtha t wou ldb ed e c i s iv eto 10 th ecou r s eo fth e wa r . The W eh rma ch tandSpan i shSo ld ie r s Th eAdm i r ed W eh rm a ch t :AnEg a l i t a r i anA rmy? Th ef r s tth ingtha tSpan i shvo lun t e e r sexp e r i en c edin G e rmany wa s th eW eh rma ch t ,r ega rd edbya l lo fth ema sa w e l l -o i l ed ma ch in e .Th ey w e r efa s c ina t edbyi t sequ ipm en t ,a rmam en t s ,ando rgan iza t ion , wh i ch mad ei tpo s s ib l efo rth eW eh rma ch ttofgh ta wa r wh i ch wa s ,inth e i r ey e s ,fa r mo r e mod e rnandb ru ta lthantha texp e r i en c edinSpa infv e y ea r sb e fo r e .Inth ep ro c e s s , manyBDso ld i e r s ,o rd iv i s i on a r i o s,a l soim p l i c i t lyjux tapo s edth eo s t en s ib l ep e r f e c t iono fG e rmanlog i s t i c sw i th th eimp e r f e c tfun c t ion ingo fth eSpan i sh A rmy .Badsupp l i e sandth e in e ff c i en cyo f manySpan i sho ff c e r sand NCO sb e cam epa r t i cu la r ly ev id en ttoth em .D ion i s ioR id ru e joexp r e s s edana lmo s ta s ton i sh edad m i ra t ionfo rth eW eh rma ch ta sh ew ro t ef romth ein s t ru c t ioncampo f G ra f enwöh r :“w ea r einth em id s to faco lo s sa la rmy ,a lmo s tpa in fu l ly p e r f e c t. . .ana rmy wh i chi sl ik eth ep eop l ei ts e rv e s .”Ev enth ec e l l s in G e rman m i l i ta ryp r i son sw e r er ega rd eda scom fo r tab l eandc l ean compa r edtoSpan i shon e s .Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sa l sosha r edbyth e mo s t p ro f e s s iona lSpan i sh m i l i ta ry .A r t i l l e ryCo lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lo w ro t etha t th eG e rman sa sa“ co l l e c t iv e” w e r ea“g r ea tp eop l e .”Ju s taf ew mon th s la t e r ,h eadm i t t edsom e nuan c e s . W eh rma ch tcommand e r sw e r e no long e rd em igod s ;th eycomm i t t edta c t i ca lm i s tak e s ,l im i t edth em s e lv e s to“ob ey ingo rd e r sa srobo t s ,”andla ck edth eab i l i tytoimp rov i s e wh en 1 1 th ing sw en tw rong . BDvo lun t e e r se sp e c ia l lyno t i c edth econ t ra s tb e tw e enG e rman m i li ta rye ff c i en cyandth er e la t iv e lyca r e l e s so rgan iza t iono fth eSpan i sh m i l i ta ryina r ea so fh ea l thca r eandfoodsupp ly . Un t i la tl ea s tm id 1942 ,i t wa sc l ea rtoth ed iv i s i on a r i o stha tth e i rG e rmancom rad e s w e r eb e t t e requ ipp edandb e t t e rf ed ,thoughinth eo rybo thg roup s

82 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .3 .2 .G e rmanso ld i e r sf ra t e rn iz ew i thSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,F ran c e , Ju ly1941(AA )

12 r e c e iv edas im i la rd i e t . Con t ra s t sina t t en t ionr e c e iv eda tm i l i ta ry ho sp i ta l sw e r eev en mo r es t r ik ing .13 Conva l e s c ingSpan i shso ld i e r s u sua l ly po in t edou tth ed i f f e r en c e sint r ea tm en tb e tw e en G e rman m i l i ta ryho sp i ta l s( c l eanand w e l lo rgan iz ed ,w i thsympa th e t i cs ta f f ) andSpan i shon e s .Su chd i f f e r en c e scou lda l sob eob s e rv edinho sp i14 ta l slo ca t edinth eG e rmanr ea rgua rd . Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sla t e rr e in fo r c edbyth eSpan i shso ld i e r s ’sp e c if cm emo r i e so fG e rmannu r s e s , wh i cho s c i l la t edb e tw e eng ra t i tud efo rth e i re ff c i en cyandid ea l izat iono fth e i rsuppo s ed lyop en -m ind edapp roa chtos exua l ma t t e r s . Qu i t eo f t en ,th eK r an k en s chw e s t e rn b e cam eas exua l my thfo rSpan i sh wa rv e t e ran s .15 Mo r eov e r , manyBDcomba tan t s ,pa r t i cu la r lyFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s , p e r c e iv edth eW eh rma ch ta saso c ia l lyega l i ta r iana rmy , wh e r eha r sh d i s c ip l in eco ex i s t ed w i thth er e c r ea t iono fac la s s l e s sna t iona lcommun i ty(V o l k sg em e in s ch a f t)th roughcom rad e sh ipandsha r edexp e r i en c e s 16 a tth ef ron t ,and wh e r e manyo ff c e r sw e r ed e ep lycomm i t t ed Naz i s . I t wa sth et ru e Na t iona lSo c ia l i s ta rmytha t manyFa lang i s t ss t rov e toc r ea t einSpa in ,ands e rv eda sanun com fo r tab l er em ind e ro fth e

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inad equa c i e so fth e i rowna rmy . Manyvo lun t e e r sg r ea t lyapp r e c ia t ed th efa c ttha tG e rmano ff c e r s wa i t edth e i rtu rninth eda i lycommuna l m ea lqu eu e ,d idno ttak eex t rapo r t ion so ffoodandtoba c co ,sa tamong th eso ld i e r sont ra in s ,andr e c e iv edth esam et r ea tm en ta sth ep r iva t e s 17 a tth ecan t ina s(S o ld a t enh e im e)inth er ea r . Mo r eov e r ,th eya l sono t ed po s i t iv e lytha tG e rmano ff c e r sand NCO sd idno tinf i c tphy s i ca lpuni shm en tonth e i rsubo rd ina t e s , wh i ch wa sacommonp ra c t i c einth e Span i shA rmy .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa snoex c ep t iontotha tru l e ,a s many vo lun t e e r sd e s c r ib edinth e i r wa rd ia r i e s .18 Th i s wa scon s i s t en tw i thth e t rad i t iono fth eP ru s s ianA rmyandth eW eh rma ch t , wh e r eo ff c e r sand NCO sw e r em ean ttor e in fo r c eth ecoh e s iono fp r ima ryg roup s . On e Span i shv e t e ranr em emb e r edy ea r sla t e rhowth eya c t eda s“ th em o th e r o fh i sun i t .”19 Sp an i shandG e rm anS o ld i e r s :S t e r e o typ e s ,C o ex i s t en c e ,andC onf i c t Th eG e rman m i l i ta ry w e l com edth eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ionandapp r ec ia t edi t scon t r ibu t ioninamb iva l en tt e rm s .F rom D e c emb e r1941on th eW eh rma ch tsu f f e r edtoo manyca sua l t i e sandth eSpan ia rd sw e r e mo s t lyr ega rd eda su s e fu lfo rcov e r ingd e f en s iv epo s i t ion s .G e rman command e r s , who s ev i ew sw e r econd i t ion edbyp r e ex i s t ings t e r eo typ e s ,w e r eop en lyd i sda in fu lo fSpan i sh m i l i ta rycu l tu r e .Th eysaw inth e i rSpan i shco l l eagu e sab l endo fso c ia le l i t i sm ,p ro f e s s iona lig no ran c e ,andlaz in e s s ,andf e l tpa r t i cu la r lyang ryuponob s e rv ingth e p r iv i l eg e sen joy edbyBDo ff c e r sint e rm so ffoodra t ion sanda c commoda t ion .20 Th e i rr ema rk sr e s emb l edtho s eexp r e s s edbyl ia i sono f f c e r sinRoman ianandI ta l ianun i t s ,andth eyr ev ea l edth ed i ff cu l t i e s o fcoop e ra t ionamong s ta l l i e sw i thd iv e r s em i l i ta rycu l tu r e stha ta l lr ef e c t edth eso c ia lh i e ra r ch i e so fth e i rr e sp e c t iv ecoun t r i e s .21 D e sp i t eth erh e to r i ca lp ra i s ingo fSpan i sh“h e ro i cd e ed s”a tth ef ron t , mo s tG e rmancommand e r s whohadth eBDund e rth e i rr e spon s ib i l i ty d i s l ik edafo r e ignun i twho s ecomba tan t sw e r er ega rd eda s ind iv idua l ly b rav e ,bu tchao t i candl edbyun t ra in edo ff c e r sunab l etound e r s tand mod e rn wa r fa r e .22 Th ev i ew so fW eh rma ch to ff c e r sw e r einfu en c ed mo r ebyth e i rp ro f e s s iona la r rogan c ethanbyra c ia ldo c t r in e s . Non eth e l e s s ,th e r ea l so w e r esom eex c ep t ion s . Ob e rzah lm e i s t e r Ludw ig S chwabf romth em i l i ta ryga r r i sonin Ho fno t edin1944tha tSpan i sh so ld i e r sin co rpo ra t edacong lom e ra t eo fd i f f e r en tra c e s ,f rom A ryan s who w e r e“ ta l l ,b londandb lu e ey ed ,d e s c endan t so fth eGo th s”toth e “m e s t i z o so fA f r i cand e s c en t ,sma l l ,b rown ,w i thcu r lyha i rand N eg ro id t ra c e s .” D e sp i t eb e ingra c ia l lyimpu r e ,h eob s e rv ed ,Span ia rd sa l so w e r ethough ttob e“p roud”andex t r em e lyna t iona l i s t .23

84 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ea t t i tud e so fG e rmanrank -and -f l eso ld i e r sand NCO stowa rd s th e i rSpan i shcom rad e sw e r efa r mo r epo s i t iv e .C e r ta in ly ,th e i r imag eo f th eexo t i cIb e r ian sr e s t edh eav i lyonp r e ex i s t ingroman t i cs t e r eo typ e s , 24 sp r eadbyth ep r e s sandc in emao fth eTh i rdR e i ch . Th e s ei con sw e r e a l sop r e s en tamong s t Naz il ead e r s :H i t l e rapp r e c ia t edSpan i shso ld i e r s a s und i s c ip l in edbu tr e l iab l ecom rad e s .25 G e rman p r iva t e s( L and s e r) pa r t i cu la r lyva lu edqua l i t i e sr e la t edtov i r i l i ty ,su cha scomba tso l ida ri tyandind iv idua lb rav e ry .Incon t ra s ttoRoman iano rI ta l ianso ld i e r s , Span ia rd sea rn edsom er e sp e c tinth e i ra l l i e s ’ey e s .Th epo s i t iv er e f e ren c e stoB lu eD iv i s iond e ed sinth eda i lyW eh rm a ch t s b e r i ch t, wh i ch w e r e though ttosa t i s fyth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t ,undoub t ed lycon t r ibu t edto th i s ,a sw e l la ss ev e ra lp r e s sa r t i c l e spub l i sh edby G e rman ,F r en ch ,o r Roman iann ew spap e r s .26 Y e t wo rdo f mou thcommun i ca t ionamong s t L and s e r s andth e i rfam i l i e s wa s mo r ed e c i s iv e ,a ss ev e ra lexamp l e s f romp r iva t el e t t e r ssugg e s t .F romth eV o lkhovF ron t ,Co rpo ra lO t to M . w ro t ein O c tob e r1941tha t“ad iv i s iono fSpan ia rd sha sb e end ep loy ed h e r eandth eyfgh tqu i t ew e l l ,” wh i l e Cap ta in H e rmannS ch .s ta t ed 27 tha t“ou rSpan i shf r i end sshowth em s e lv e stob ev e rycou rag eou s .” How ev e r ,th eya l sod i s l ik edth eIb e r ianla cko fcon c e rnfo rp e r sona lhyg i en e .28 No tun su rp r i s ing ly ,ab su rdrumou r sa l soc i r cu la t edcon c e rn ing th ela cko fd i s c ip l in eo fth eSpan ia rd s :a G e rmano ff c e rw ro t einAp r i l 1942tha tSpan i shso ld i e r shadshownupin W a r saw–ac i tyth eyhad n ev e rv i s i t ed– w i th“a lmo s tnoequ ipm en tandno w eapon s ,b e cau s e 29 th eyhadso ldev e ry th ing .” W eh rma ch tp ropagandao f t enexa l t edth esp i r i to fcom rad e sh ipb etw e enSpan i shand G e rmanso ld i e r s , wh i chsuppo s ed lyr e in ca rna t ed 30 th eb ro th e r s in -a rm sexp e r i en c eo fth es ix t e en thc en tu ry . Y e t ,ev e ry dayr e la t ion sd i sp lay edsom eamb iva l en c e ,r e in fo r c edbyp r e ex i s t ing s t e r eo typ e s .Thu s ,th ef r s timp r e s s ion sr e co rd edinsom eSpan i sh wa r d ia r i e sa f t e rth ed iv i s i on a r i o sm e tth e i rG e rmancom rad e sfo rth ef r s t t im e ,on c eth eyhadc ro s s edth ePy r en e e s ,po in t edou tatyp i ca la r ch e typ e ,P ru s s ianr ig id i ty :“Th eG e rman stak eov e r .I ’mno tsu r e wha t imp r e s s ionth ey mak eon m e … Anyway , wha ti ssu r ei stha tIfound 31 th emtooco ldandP ru s s ian .” Thoughv e ryf ewBDvo lun t e e r sspok e G e rman , many manag edtos c rap ebyande s tab l i shaso l idcama rad e r i ew i th G e rmanso ld i e r s .Span i shand G e rmano ff c e r sr e so r t edto F r en cha sth e i rl inguaf ran caandco ex i s t en c einfo r e f ron tpo s i t ion sran smoo th ly .Insom es e c t ion s ,su cha sadvan c eda r t i l l e rypo s t s ,p la toon s w e r eo f t en mu l t ina t iona landcommun i ca t edu s inga m ix edja rgono f wo rd sf romva r iou slanguag e s .32 Som eSpan i shand G e rmanso ld i e r s ev ene s tab l i sh edr ea lf r i end sh ipt i e s , wh i cho f t enl edth efo rm e rtofu l ly 33 emb ra c eid en t if ca t ion w i thTh i rdR e i ch wa ra im s .

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Mo s tcon t empo ra rya c coun t scommun i ca t edaf r i end ly ,r e la t iv e ly po s i t iv eimag eo fG e rmancomba tan t s , wh i chendu r edd e sp i t ed i f f e ren c e sin m i l i ta rycu l tu r e . Wh i l eSpan ia rd ssaw G e rman sco l l e c t iv e ly a scoo landd i s tan t , wh enapp roa ch edind iv idua l lyth eIb e r ian sfound th ela t t e rtob ehon e s t ,ha rd -wo rk ing ,andr e sp e c t fu lp eop l e , whoo f cou r s ew e r ein c r ed ib lyc l eanandk ep tth e i requ ipm en tingoodo r d e r . How ev e r ,a f t e rd ea l ing w i thIb e r ian s ,som eG e rman sb e cam e “mo r edown to ea r thandb ehav e mo r eand mo r el ik egyp s i e s . Th ey w e r eonth efdd l e ,smugg l ingandt rad ingev e ry th ingimag inab l e .”34 Th eB lu eD iv i s iont r en chjou rna lin s i s t edtha tsha r edf ron t l in eexp er i en c egav eaf ra t e rna lton etoev e rydayr e la t ion sb e tw e en G e rman s andSpan ia rd s .35 How ev e r ,t ran sna t iona lcom rad e sh ip wa sno ta lway ssoidy l l i cinth e r ea r .InS ep t emb e r1941 ,b e fo r eth eB lu eD iv i s iona r r iv eda tth ef ron t , th e r ew e r equa r r e l sb e tw e enSpan i shand G e rmanso ld i e r s . ASov i e t r epo r tba s edonp r i son e rs ta t em en t sm en t ion edtha tth er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e enBDvo lun t e e r sandth e i ra l l i e st end edtob et en s e :“ in Novgo36 rodsom ec la sh e sb e tw e en Span ia rd sand G e rman sa ro s eaga in .” Sk i rm i sh e sb e tw e enAx i sso ld i e r sinth ev i l lag e sinth er ea ro fth eL ening radF ron tw e r ea l sof r equ en t .Th e s ew e r eo f t enr e la t edtocomp e t i t ionfo rsupp l i e so ffoodandp e t ro l ,o rtoth es ca r c i tyo fr e sou r c e sin at e r r i to rytha thadb e ensy s t ema t i ca l lyp lund e r ed .37 Ono c ca s ion ,th e con s equ en c e so fsu chc la sh e sw e r es ign if can t .In Nov emb e r1943 ,s ix Span i shso ld i e r sw e r ea tth eco r eo fva r iou ss canda l sinth etav e rn so f Kön ig sb e rg . Wh encon f ron t edbyG e rmancomba tan t s whor ep roa ch ed th emfo rth e i rcondu c t ,th eSpan ia rd sop en edf r eonth e i rb ro th e r sin 38 a rm s .I tl e f ton ed iv i s i on a r i od eadands ev e ra l wound ed . How ev e r ,th e mo s tcommon mo t iv efo rd i spu t eb e tw e enIb e r ian s andG e rman s wa sr e la t edto ma s cu l in i tyandth ecomp e t i t ionfo rBa l t i c , Ru s s ian ,o rev enG e rman wom eninth er ea rgua rd .Ru s s ianey ew i tn e s s a c coun t sh igh l igh t edf r equ en tc la sh e sb e tw e enSpan i shand G e rman o c cupan t sinth ev i l lag e sa tth er ea rth eL en ing radF ron t .InJanua ry 1943 ,fo rexamp l e , Span i shso ld i e r s un l ea sh eda wav eo fv io l en c e aga in s tth eG e rman stoav eng eth em i s t r ea tm en to faRu s s ian woman 39 byaL and s e r. Th ed i sd a ino fW eh rm a ch tcomm and e r sw a se sp e c i a l lyh a rdfo rth e G e rm anoph i l eF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r stoa c c ep t .A se a r lya sD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 , R id ru e jo w ro t eth a t“w em ayh av ef e l tou r s e lv e sab andon edbyth eG e rm an s . ” Muño z -G r and e sa cknow l edg edtooth a tG e rm an s“ app r e c i a t e u s ,bu t[… ]a san a t ion ,Ith inkth eydon ’ tt ak eu ss e r iou s ly . ”40 How ev e r , mo s tSp an i shvo lun t e e r sc am etot e rm sw i thsu cha t t i tud e s .R ank and f l eso ld i e r sb a r e lych ang edth e i rpo s i t iv ev i ewo fG e rm an s ,andr e tu rn e e s

86 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .3 .3 .Th e ma r chtoth ef ron t ,Ea s t e rnPo land ,S ep t emb e r1941(AGA )

b rough thom epo s i t iv em emo r i e so fth e i rt r e a tm en tbyth eW eh rm a ch t . G e rm and ip lom a t sandsp i e s inSp a inob s e rv ed th a t mo s tr e tu rn edso ld i e r s 4 1 f romth eE a s t e rnF ron tb e c am es in c e r esuppo r t e r so fth eTh i rdR e i ch . Onthe Ge rman HomeF ron t Th e“A ch i ev em en t s”o fth eTh i rdR e i ch :Sp an i shImp r e s s i on s Th eSp an i shvo lun t e e r sb a r e lyr ef e c t eda tl eng thonth eth eo r e t i c a lp r inc ip l e so fN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sminth e i rd i a r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,and m emo i r s .M any o fth e i rw r i t ing sr e f e r r edtoth ev agu ep ro -Eu rop e anrh e to r i co fth e“N ew O rd e r ”andth ed e f en c eo f Ch r i s t i anc iv i l i z a t ionth a tN a z ip rop ag and a p ro c l a im eda sth ecommongo a lo fa l l“ c ru s ad e r s . ” How ev e r ,th eEu rop e th a tth eSp an i shvo lun t e e r sexp e r i en c ed w a sacon t in en tdom in a t edby th eTh i rdR e i ch .F i r s tand fo r emo s tw a sG e rm any ,wh i ch th eyexp e r i en c ed du r ingb a s i ct r a in inga tc amp s inG r a f enwöh r(Upp e rP a l a t in a t e )andHo f

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 87

(Upp e rF r an con i a ) ,du r ingth e i ro c c a s ion a ll e av e s ,o ronth e i rt r ipb a ck toSp a in .Fo rm anySp an i shvo lun t e e r s ,w a rtou r i sme s s en t i a l lyinvo lv ed v i s i t sto G e rm anyandsom e t im e sL a tv i a . Wh a tw a sth e i rimp r e s s iono f th eG e rm anhom ef ron t ,th en ,and wh a timp r e s s iond idi tl e av eonth em ? Mo s ta c coun t sl e f tby d iv i s i on a r i o sexp r e s ss in c e r eadm i ra t ionfo r wha tth eyp e r c e iv edtob eth eg r ea tso c ia la ch i ev em en t so fth eTh i rd R e i ch :th econ s t ru c t iono fap s eudo -w e l fa r es ta t etha tpa r t i cu la r lyb enef t edth e wo rk ingc la s sandth ep ea san t ry .Th i sp e r c ep t ion wa sob l iv i ou sto ,o re l s ew i l fu l lyigno r ed ,th era c ia lco s t so ftha tp e cu l ia rw e l fa r e s ta t e ,shap edbyth econ c ep to fV o l k sg em e in s ch a f t.S egm en t so fth eG e r manpopu la t ionhadb e enex c lud edandk i l l edfo rb iog en e t i cr ea son s , andth e i rpo s s e s s ion shadb e enapp rop r ia t edbyth es ta t e .G e rmany ’ s s lav elabou rande conom i cexp lo i ta t iono fo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sw e r e 42 a l soom i t t edf romth eBDa c coun t s . Span ia rd sfo cu s ed ma in lyon wha tth eysawandhowi tcon t ra s t ed w i thth e i rcoun t ry .Th ep r eva i l ingo rd e randd i s c ip l in ea sw e l la sth e ex t e rna lapp ea ran c eo fv i l lag e sandfa rm sshap edth e i rin i t ia lpo s i t iv e imp r e s s ion suponen t e r ingG e rmant e r r i to ry .Th em i l i ta rysu rg eon Ma nu e ld eCá rd ena sp enn edinh i sd ia rya sh ec ro s s edth eR e i ch ’ sbo rd e r “ inG e rmanynopoo rhou s e scanb es e en .”Th eappa r en tw e l l -b e ingsu r round ingth ema l soimp r e s s edconva l e s c ingSpan i shso ld i e r sonth e i r wa lk sth rough Kön ig sb e rg .Ev entho s e who w e r eno ts taun chfa s c i s t s ma rv e l l eda tG e rmano rd e randc l eann e s s .43 Dan i e lT o r ra wa ss t ru ckin O c tob e r1941byth eco l l e c t iv eha rmonyh ep e r c e iv eda l la roundh im : “G e rmany w i l lundoub t ed ly w inth e wa r. . .I ti sanimm en s eg ea rbox 44 andi t sp i e c e s wo rk w i thch ronom e t r i cp r e c i s ion .” On c ein G e rm ant e r r i to ry ,ev e ryvo lun t e e rs e em edtos e e wh a th e w an t edtos e e .F a l ang i s t sr eg a rd edinth eTh i rdR e i chap e r f e c t mod e l o fas t a t eth a th ada ch i ev edah ighd eg r e eo fso c i a lju s t i c eandn a t ion a l so l id a r i ty :acomb in a t iono fn a t ion a l i smandso c i a l i smth a ts t ay edloy a l toth er evo lu t ion a ryp r in c ip l e so ff a s c i sm w i thou tcon c e s s ion stoth e Chu r ch ,l andown e r s ,o rbou rg eo i s i e .Th i sw a s wh a tth eyf e l ts t i l lh adto b edon einSp a in , wh e r eth eF r an cod i c t a to r sh ip w a sinth e i rey e s mo r e C a tho l i cth ant ru lyf a s c i s t .P r iv a t eJo s éLu i s Mo r a l e sa ff rm edonh i sr etu rntoSp a inth a tG e rm an slov edar eg im eth a t“h adg iv enth emth e i r n a t ion a ld ign i tyb a ck . ”45 O th e r scon s id e r edth a t i tw a sp a r t i cu l a r lyH i t l e r whoh aden ab l edth i sn ewG e rm anw e l l -b e ing ,a f t e r“b r e ak ingth ech a in s o fth eV e r s a i l l e sT r e a ty . ”46 Ano th e rF a l ang i s tsumm edupth i sp e r c ep t ion : W i th inaf ewy ea r s ,H i t l e rhad manag edtor e con c i l einat ru eso c ia lsyne rgyth e wo rk e r s ’fo r c e sando th e rna t iona lfo r c e s. . .S e enf romSpa in , young e rp eop l er ea l lyadm i r edtha t. . . Wha t wa spa r t i cu la r lyfa s c ina t ing

88 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t inth en ewG e rmany , wa stos e em i l l ion so fsa t i sf ed wo rk e r s , whof e l ttha t th e i r wo rkhadb e enendo r s ed .I t wa sas t rong ,b eau t i fu lG e rmanyou th , fu l lo fid ea s ,p ro j e c t ingth em s e lv e sfo rwa rd .I t wa sl ik etou ch ingth ec r ea 4 7 t iono fan ew wo r ldandan ew wayo fl i f e .

Manya sp e c t so fev e ryday l i f ew e r ea l so in t e rp r e t ed w i th inth i sf ram e o fm ean ing .InF eb rua ry1942 ,th eFa lang i s tJo s éM .Ca s tañónadm i r ed th eco r r e c tfun c t ion ingo fth efoodra t ion ingsy s t eminB e r l inand wa s a s ton i sh edbyth efa c ttha tnob la ck ma rk e ts e em edtoex i s t .H ea t t r ib u t edth i stoth ed e eps en s eo fna t iona lcommun i tytha th e lp edso c ia l ju s t i c etop r eva i l ,a s wa sr ef e c t edinth ela cko fb egga r sinth es t r e e t s : Fo rG e rman s ,ju s t i c ei s mo r eroo t edthancha r i ty. . .C e r ta in ly ,aG au l e i t e r mu s tb eb e t t e ro f fthanacommonc i t iz en .Bu tth e r ei snob egga ry .Th e ba s i cn e c e s s i t i e so fl iv inga r ew e l l cov e r edfo rev e ry G e rman ,and mu ch mo r efo rtho s e who wo rk manua l ly .Th e wo rk ingc la s si sp r iv i l eg ed–a l4 8 thoughin t e rna lh i e ra r ch i e sa r eadm i t t ed– w i th inth eS ta t e .

Th i sa l sol edto w i sh fu lth ink ing . Un t i l1943 , manyvo lun t e e r scons id e r edB e r l intob eac i tytha t“ look sl ik eany th ingbu tth ecap i ta lo f 49 ana t ionin wa r t im e .” In Augu s t1941 ,on lyahand fu lo fa s tu t eob s e rv e r sno t edth ein c r ea s ingsa c r if c e stha t wa rr equ i r edonth ehom e f ron t .N ev e r th e l e s s ,th ep e r c ep t iono fth eG e rmanr ea rgua rda sapa r ad i s eb egantochang ein1942 ,a sth e ma s s iv ea i rra id s mod if edth e imag eo fG e rman w e l l -b e ing .So ld i e r sconva l e s c ingo ronl eav ecou ld no t i c ein c r ea s ingsho r tag e so ffood ,c lo th ing ,ando th e rba s i cgood s . Som eev enno t ed , wh enth eyv i s i t edB e r l in ,th e mound so fd eb r i s ;th ey w e r eh eav i lyimp r e s s edbyth es igh to fth ev i c t im s ’co rp s e sl e f tb eh ind bybomba rdm en t s .50 How ev e r , ma t e r ia lw e l fa r e wa sno tth ea sp e c to f Naz iG e rmanytha t imp r e s s edSpan i shso ld i e r sth e mo s t . Manyo fth emapp r e c ia t ed wha t th eysawa sth epa t r io t i cs to i c i smo fc iv i l ian sonth ehom ef ron tand th e i rcomm i tm en ttoth e wa re f fo r to fth eR e i cha sw e l la sth e i rau s t e r i ty .Inth e i rey e s , l i f e wa s mo s t lyha rmon iou sonth eG e rmanhom ef ron t d e sp i t ea l lth eha rd sh ip s .C i t iz en s mad esa c r if c e sfo rah igh e rp r in c ip l e andund e r s toodtha tth e i rfu tu r er equ i r ed“ th e jo in te f fo r to fa l l ,r ega rd l e s so fg end e r ,ag eandc la s s .”Su chs to i c i sm wa ss e ena sth ek eyfa c to r b eh indth eG e rman“ r eb i r th .” Aconva l e s c en tSpan i shso ld i e rno t ed tha tno tev enth ed e f ea to fS ta l ing radhadb rok enth el inkb e tw e enth e hom ef ron tandth ea rmy .51 Ano th e rvo lun t e e r wa sfa s c ina t edby wha t h er ega rd eda sth eexamp l eo fas t rongcommun i tyun i t edbyacommon p r in c ip l eo fna t iona lr e su rg en c eandso c ia lequa l i ty :

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 89 I ti samongth eh igh e s tp r iz e sandanind e s c r ibab l ehonou rtofgh ts id e bys id ew i thth eG r ea tG e rmanP eop l eandth e i rcommand e rAdo l fH i t l e r ; h e r eth e r ea r eno w ea l thyp eop l e ,ju s tana t ionr eadytopu tanendtoa l l ex i s t ingin ju s t i c einth e wo r ld ;th eya l lea tth esam e ;ra t ion ingi ss im i la r fo rth eta l lguyandth el i t t l eguy . . .h e r eth e r ea r enob egga r s ,th eya l lea rn th e i rsa la ry ,andth e wo rk -d i sab l edhav eth esuppo r to fin s t i tu t ion stha t s e etoth e i redu ca t ion . . .Th i si sapa rad i s e ,som e th ing w e wou ldd e s i r efo r ou rownna t ion .52

Insho r t ,th eTh i rdR e i ch wa sth esumo f manyqua l i t i e stha tSpan i sh fa s c i s t senv i ed .I t wa sas e l f -d i s c ip l in ed ,ha rd -wo rk ingna t iontha td id no td e s e rv ed e f ea t :“ I wou ldev enl ik etofgh tju s ttoh e lpap eop l e soun i t edandconv in c edo fi t sid ea s” ;ano th e rFa lang i s ts tud en tw ro t e tha t“ i fGodk e ep sm ea l iv e ,I wou ldl ik etoapp lytoSpa inth eG e rman m e thodfo rg r ea tn e s s .”53 I b e r i an sandB av a r i an s D e sp i t eth eadm i ra t iono f manyo rd ina rySpan ia rd sfo rth ev i c to r i e s andsha r edan t i commun i smo fth eW eh rma ch t ,th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s w i thd e epCa tho l i cconv i c t ion scon t inu edtop e r c e iv eon e ma jo rob s tac l ein Naz iG e rmany :i t spagan ,an t i r e l ig iou scha ra c t e r . Manyadm i r e r s o fth eTh i rdR e i chandth eG e rmanp eop l elam en t edtha tLu th e r ’ ss e ed hadg e rm ina t edintha tso i l .T ocoun t e ra c tth e s es c ep t i ca lvo i c e s ,som e o th e rd iv i s i on a r i o sempha s iz edth efa c ttha tth e r ew e r ea l so many G e r man s whop ray edtoth et ru e God .T oth em ,th i sm ean ttha tgood G e rman sw e r eabov ea l lgood Ca tho l i c s ,pa r t i cu la r lyBava r ian sf romth e Upp e rPa la t ina t e(G ra f enwöh r )and Upp e rF ran con ian sf rom Ho f .A lthoughF ran con ian sandr e s id en t so fth ec i tyo f Ho finpa r t i cu la rw e r e mo s t lyP ro t e s tan t sandd idno tpa r t i cu la r lyf tth eBava r ians t e r eo typ e , th ey w e r esom e t im e spo r t ray eda s“v e ryCa tho l i cp eop l e ,”o r“no tv e ry G e rman i c .”54 Th i sf tv e ry w e l lw i thth es t e r eo typ e so fG e rmancha ra c t e randcu l tu r etha tth eBDso ld i e r shada cqu i r edp r io rtoth e i ra r r iva l toth ecoun t ry . On evo lun t e e r ,fo rexamp l e ,saw Ho fa sa“ typ i ca l lyT y ro l eanv i l lag e[ s i c ]” wh e r e“b e e r ,co f f e eandpo ta to e s” w e r eabundan t . Ano th e rSpan ia rd w ro t etha tBava r ia wa ssynonymou sw i th“b r igh t chu r ch e s ,s imp l ea f f e c t ion sands i l en tb r ew e r i e s ,”andpa r t i cu la r lyap p r e c ia t edth e many wood enca rv ing so fCh r i s ta tth ec ro s s road s .Lu i s R iudav e t sr e ca l l edf romh i st im esp en tin Ho fhowh ehadfoundsom e humb l echu r ch e s inabu co l i c land s cap e , wh i chgav eh imsom ehop efo r th efu tu r eo f Na t iona lSo c ia l i sm :“ insp i t eo f i ta l l ,no tev enth eG e rman s hav efo rgo t t enGod .”55

90 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th eG e rm anp eop l ew e r e ,ine s s en c e ,acommun i tya sw e l lo rg an i z ed a sth e W eh rm a ch t .Y e t ,ind iv idu a l ly G e rm an sl a ck edsoph i s t i c a t ion . A c co rd ingtoR id ru e jo ,ag r e a tc l e av ag eex i s t edb e tw e enth e“ imm en s e in t e l l ig en c eth a tsu chp e r f e c tm e ch an i z a t ionandsu chd e t a i l edfo r e s igh t r ev e a l s ”inth e W eh rm a ch tandth e“ awkw a rde l em en t a rych a r a c t e r o fe a chind iv idu a l . ”Th i sa rou s edsom edoub t sinh im wh enim ag ining G e rm anyru l ingi t semp i r e :“ I tju s tm ak e son eun com fo r t ab l ew i th th eid e ao fh av ingth i sp eop l e …s end inga roundgov e rno r sandd r i l l s e rg e an t sa l lov e r Eu rop e . ” Gu i l l e rmo H e rn an zand C ap t a in C a r lo s F igu e ro l aa r r iv eda ts im i l a rcon c lu s ion s :th eG e rm an sw e r eco a r s e ,bu t w e l lo rg an i z ed .56 No ta l lvo lun t e e r sh adth ech an c eto m e e tth ec iv i l i an s whol iv edn e a rth e i rt r a in ingc amp s .Inth e i ra c coun t sandl e t t e r s toSp a in ,how ev e r ,th eyp a in t edapo s i t iv ep i c tu r eo fth einh ab i t an t so f Ho fandG r a f enwöh r/Au e rb a ch . Wh enconv a l e s c en to ronl e av e ,Sp ani shso ld i e r sw e r eo f t eng r e e t edbyc iv i l i an sdu r ingth e i rw a lk s :“Th e s e G e rm an sa r eex t r em e lyn i c e , ”w ro t eM anu e lT a r ín .L i eu t en an tA r en a l e s w ro t e ins im i l a rt e rm sabou th i ssho r ts t ay inNu r emb e rg :“ Ig r e e tev e ry5 7 on e .Ev e rybodylook sa tu sands ay sH i s p an i s[ s i c ]a sw ep a s sby . ” Amongth elo ca l so f Upp e rPa la t ina t eand Upp e rF ran con ia ,th eimp r e s s ionl e f tbySpan i shvo lun t e e r sonlo ca lm emo rys e em stohav e b e enpo s i t iv eand wa s ma rk edbydoz en so ffunnyan e cdo t e sands to58 r i e s . In G ra f enwöh r ,th er e la t iv eid ea l iza t iono fth eSpan ia rd ss e em s tohav ea c t eda sacoun t e rw e igh ttoth eimp r e s s ionl e f tb eh indbyth e many W a f f en -SSso ld i e r ss ta t ion edth e r ela t e ron . How ev e r ,in t e rna l r epo r t sf romth eBDIn fo rma t ionS e c t ionpo in t edou ttha tSpan i shso l d i e r sw e r er e spon s ib l efo r“d i sgu s t ings c en e sr e la t ingto wom en”and “ in c id en t so fa mo ra lcha ra c t e r”invo lv ingth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion . On o c ca s ion ,d iv i s i on a r i o st r i edtofa t t e rlo ca lg i r l s ,“mak ingob s c en eg e s tu r e sandadd r e s s ingth eminav e ryimp rop e r way .”Th elo ca l shad th e r e fo r eadop t edad i s tan ta t t i tud etowa rd sth eIb e r ian s ,andth e NS DAPb ran ch e sp r ev en t edth e i rf ema l em emb e r sf romhav inganyconta c tw i thth em . Comp la in t sa l soa r r iv edf romth er eg iona lau tho r i t i e s inBay r eu thr ega rd ingth e“unwo r thyb ehav iou r”o fsom eSpan i shso l d i e r sinth elo ca ltav e rn s .A sP r iva t eJoaqu ínRo sr ea ch ed G ra f enwöh r inS ep t emb e r1941 ,h eno t ed ,“G e rman sl ik eu s ,d e sp i t eth efa c ttha tou r p r ed e c e s so r shav ea l sodon esom edamag e .”59 As im i la rpa t t e rn wa sno t i c edin Ho f ,th e Upp e rF ran con iantown wh e r eth er e l i e fexp ed i t ion sf romSpa ina r r iv edf romea r ly1942on ,and wh i cha l sos e rv eda sB lu eD iv i s iond epo tba r ra ck sinth eG e rmanr ea r . Lo ca lshopk e ep e r sb en ef t edf romth er egu la rp r e s en c eo fSpan i shso ld i e r sinth etown , who w e r eeag e rtoa cqu i r econ sum e rgood sandev en souv en i r s . How ev e r ,Ib e r ianvo lun t e e r st r igg e r eds ev e ra lin c id en t sin

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 91

ba r sandr e s tau ran t s .Th eya l soen cou rag edth eg row tho fth eb la ck ma rk e tfo rco f f e e ,l iquo r ,andtoba c co .60 Th ep ro s t i tu t e so f Ho f ,a c co rd ingtos ev e ra la c coun t s ,a l socoun t edth eSpan ia rd samong s tth e i r mo s t r egu la rc l i en t s .A w e l l -knownlo ca ls ex wo rk e r wa sev enpu tont r ia l andcond emn edton in e mon th sinp r i sonbyth eBay r eu thS ond e r g e r i ch t in May1944 ,fo rs e r iou s lyo f f end ing W eh rma ch thonou rbya ff rm ing 61 tha tsh ep r e f e r r edSpan i shlov e r stoG e rman“ba s ta rd s .” Sma l lin c id en t sw e r ea l socommonamongth er e s e rv eso ld i e r s who s topp edov e r in Ho fth roughou t1942and1943 ,onth e i r waytoth eRu s s ianF ron t .ABDr epo r tin m id -1942comp la in edo fhowth eo ff c e r sand so ld i e r so fth e14 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion w e r eg e t t ingd runk ,s ta r t ingpub l i c qua r r e l s ,andd i sp lay ing“ in to l e rab l eb ehav iou r”towa rd sth elo ca l s .62 Comp la in t sabound eda tth e i rla cko fhyg i en eandth e i rt end en cyto c r ea t epub l i cs canda l stha tw e r esho ck ingtoth einhab i tan t so fasma l l 63 townin wa r t im e . Un t i lm id -1942 ,ind i s c ip l in er e ign edamong s tcon va l e s c en t s inth eho sp i ta l s ,who l ik edG e rmannu r s e sbu tw e r er e lu c tan t toob eyth eo rd e r so fW eh rma ch to ff c e r s .Th ela t t e ro f t encomp la in ed abou tth eSpan ia rd s ’d i sda info r ba s i cs tanda rd so fb ehav iou rand d r e s s .Th eya l sog rumb l edf r equ en t lyabou tth einapp rop r ia t econdu c t o fconva l e s c en t sandso ld i e r sonl eav ef romth ef ron t .64 G e rm anG i r l s :“AT a s t eo fP ag an i smandN a tu r e” G e rmanso c i e ty w e l com edth ef r s texp ed i t iono fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s w i tha m ix tu r eo f wond e randcu r io s i ty .Th e s ef e e l ing sw e r esha r edby r ep r e s en ta t iv e so fth e Naz iPa r tyandth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,pa r t i cu la r lyyoung wom en .In t e rna lr epo r t sf romth ecommand e r so fth eSpan i shexp ed i t ion spo in t edou tth eg r ea ten thu s ia sm w i th wh i chth ey w e r e w e l com edinS t ra sbu rg ,ande sp e c ia l lyin Ka r l s ruh e .65 Som eso ld i e r s ’ l e t t e r sr e f e r r edtoth e“ ch e e r sandabundan ttoba c co”tha tvo lun t e e r s en coun t e r edinth era i lways ta t ion so fth eR e i ch ;o th e r sexp l i c i t lyh igh 66 l igh t edth e“k indr e c ep t ion”o fth eG e rman s . Thoughl e s se f fu s iv e , th i spo s i t iv er e c ep t ionin G e rmant e r r i to rycon t inu edtocha ra c t e r iz e 67 th epa s sag eo fSpan i shconvoy sinth een su ingy ea r s . A tth eb eg inn ing ,Span ia rd ss e em edtoen coun t e ranend l e s ssupp ly o fsm i l ingf ema l efa c e sinG e rmany :th eK r an k en s chw e s t e rn whohand ed ou tc iga r e t t e sandco f f e e ,“b lond ,ro syandsw e e tg i r l s”o r“F r o i l an,” 68 appa r en t lyeag e rtob efa t t e r edbyth e moodyIb e r ian s . AFa lang i s t vo lun t e e rw ro t etha tG e rman wom en w e r e“ cha t ty ,v e ryea sy -go ingin 69 th e i rb ehav iou r ,I wou ldsayth eyl ik etoshowo f fth e i rcha rm .” C e r ta in ly ,th et ran s i to fSpan i shso ld i e r sa rou s edth ecu r io s i tyo fth eG e r mang i r l s .L i sa M e e sr em emb e r edin1943th eex chang e so fl e t t e r sand

92 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

g i f t stha tem e rg edf romth eb r i e fen coun t e r sa tKa r l s ruh et ra ins ta t ion b e tw e enBDvo lun t e e r sandlo ca lg i r l stwoy ea r sb e fo r e : Wh enth eSpan ia rd s pa s s edth rough Ka r l s ruh e ,w e ,G e rmang i r l s ,f e l t v e ryhappyand wan t edtos e eth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s .W efoundth ema l l v e ryn i c e ,y e tun fo r tuna t e ly w ecou ldno tund e r s tandea cho th e rp rop e r ly . . .Igav eov e r myadd r e s sw i thap i c tu r eo fm in etoaSpan i shcom rad e . Som ew e ek sla t e rIr e c e iv edak indl e t t e rf romh im .70

Th e Naz ir eg im e hadc e r ta in lyc r ea t ed as e cu la rso c i e ty , wh i ch s e em ed mu ch mo r el ib e ra linpub l i candp r iva t ethanp rud i sh ,F ran co i s tSpa in .Som ef ema l el ead e r so fth eSpan i shFa lang ehada l r eady p e r c e iv edth i sa sapo t en t ia ldang e rin1937–40 ;th eycon s id e r edth e i r G e rmancoun t e rpa r t stob eex c e s s iv e lyl ib e ra lins exua landr e l ig iou s ma t t e r s . How ev e r , Naz i sh e ldcon t rad i c to ryv i ew scon c e rn ingth esoc ia lro l eo fA ryan wom en .Thoughth eya t t emp t edtop i t chth em s e lv e s a sth ed e f end e r so ft rad i t iona lva lu e s ,s exua l mo r e sw e r equ i t el ib e r a t edinth eTh i rdR e i ch .Th i sp ro c e s shadb e ena c c e l e ra t edbyth eexc ep t iona lc i r cum s tan c e so f wa randth esho r tag eo fyoung m enonth e hom ef ron t .71 Th e r e fo r e ,G e rmanys e em edto many d iv i s i on a r i o sa k indo fg i f t w rapp eds exua lpa rad i s e :“aga rd eno funan imou s lyb londg i r l s .”72 Bu t i t wa sanea r th lypa rad i s ep r e s id edov e rbyo rd e rand mod e rn i ty , wh e r e som es c en e sfa s c ina t edth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,su cha sth ev i s iono fa b roadroad“ sp r ink l ed w i thb londg i r l sw ea r ingj ean s ,r id ingab ik e ,” 73 c e r ta in lyara r es igh tinSpa ina ttha tt im e . Th i s wa sa c compan i edby th eabundan c eo fG e rmang i r l sinun i fo rm , whotookuptyp i ca l ly ma l e 74 ta sk s . Th evo lun t e e r sob s e rv edinG e rmang i r l sa moodtha t wa sv e ry d i f f e r en tf romSpan i sh wom en .I tvagu e lyevok ed wha t manyo fth em had wa t ch edinL en iR i e f en s tah l ’ sf lm sandcon s id e r edtob eth esum o fv i r tu e sa s c r ib edto wom enbyfa s c i sm :“ th ef rag ran c eo fpagan i sm , o fna tu r e ,o ff r e sha i r ,o fsunands tad iumtha temana t e sf romth e s e b lond ,tann edg i r l s .”75 G e rman wom enop en lyapp roa ch edso c ia lin t e r cou r s e ,ins ta rkcon t ra s tw i thth es t i f f mo ra l i tyimpo s edbySpan i sh na t iona l -Ca tho l i c i sminpub l i cl i f e .Th i sa l sol edsom er e tu rn e e sf rom 76 th ef ron ttob e l i ev etha tG e rmanF r o i l anla ck edanyno t iono f mo ra l i ty . Wh e th e rfa l s eo rt ru e ,Span i shvo lun t e e r so f t enfoundanid ea l iz edlov e inth e i rf r s tG e rman“wa rgodmo th e r s ,” wh i chh e lp edth emtob e t t e r r e s i s tth elon e l in e s sonth ef ron t ,and wh i chth ey m i s s edlonga f t e rth e i r 77 r e tu rntoSpa in . ManySpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ed evou t Ca tho l i c sandcon s id e r ed G e rman“pagan i sm” tob eap rob l em .Th i swa sno ton ly fo rpo l i t i ca lr ea son s ,

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 93 78 l ik e manyI ta l ianfa s c i s tv i s i to r s , bu ta l sodu etos in c e r er e l ig iou scon v i c t ion .T ocoun t e ra c tth e s es c ep t i ca lvo i c e s ,som eo th e rd iv i s i on a r i o s empha s iz edth efa c ttha tth e r ew e r ea l so many G e rman s whop ray ed toth et ru e God .Th i sm ean ttha t ,toth em ,good G e rman sw e r eabov e a l lgood Ca tho l i c s ,pa r t i cu la r lyBava r ian s .Y e t ,tho s evo lun t e e r s who hadb e enso c ia l iz ed w i th ins t r i c tCa tho l i cm i l i eu sfoundth em s e lv e sa t odd sw i thth el ib e r tyo fs exua l mo r e sinth eTh i rdR e i ch .79 Wh i l esu ch sho r t l iv edroman c e sw e r ep rob l ema t i cinth eru ra landCa tho l i cr eg ion su r round ingG ra f enwöh r ,th ey w e r ecommonp la c einth eb igg e rtown s su cha s Nu r emb e rgandB e r l ino rev eninsma l l e rc i t i e sl ik e Ho f .M i l i ta rysu rg eon Manu e ld eCá rd ena sw ro t einh i s wa rd ia rya f t e rhav ing v i s i t edsom eca f é sth e r e :

A f t e r wo rk ,co f f e eshop sg e tfu l lo fM äd ch en,Span i shguy sand G e rman lad i e sd evo t eth em s e lv e sinajoy fu landop en waytot ea ch ingea cho th e r th e i rr e sp e c t iv elanguag e s .W ea r ea c cu s tom edtoou rb eau t eou sSpan i sh mo ra l i ty ,anda r esho ck edbysom eo fth el ib e r t i e stha tG e rmang i r l stak e w i thth eSpan ia rd sinth e mo s tna tu ra l way …A lmo s tev e rySpan ia rdha s go taG e rmang i r l f r i end .Th eboy ssayth i si stol ea rnG e rmanp rop e r ly .

Acoup l eo fday s la t e r ,h eno t i c edtootha t inaB e r l incaba r e tth e r ewa s “qu i t ea lo to ff r e edom inth e lov eexp r e s s ion so fth ec l i en t s .”Infa c t ,th e Ob e rzah lm e i s t e rS chwabno t edtha t ,onth eev eo fth ea r r iva lo fth ef r s t Span i shso ld i e r sto Ho f ,bo ths ta t eandpa r tyau tho r i t i e shadr e comm end edtha tlo ca l wom enr ema inloya ltoth ep r in c ip l eo fra c ia lpu r i ty . How ev e r ,th e r ew e r esoonqu i t eanumb e ro fex c ep t ion s .By m id -1943 , app rox ima t e lys ix tyn ewbo rni l l eg i t ima t ech i ld r enhadb e enr eg i s t e r ed a tth etownr eg i s t ryo ff c e ,pu rpo r t ed lys i r edbySpan i shso ld i e r s . Many o fth e s ech i ld r en w e r ela t e radop t edby G e rmanfa th e r s .80 Onth eroad go ingea s t ,S e rg ean tJ e sú s Ma r t ín ez -T e s s i e ra l sono t edin Augu s t1941 th eg r ea tsu c c e s so fSpan i shvo lun t e e r s wh enth eyapp roa ch edG e rman g i r l s inEa s tP ru s s ia .Thu s ,h eno t ed inT r eubu rg/O l e ckotha t“ th e lo ca l s w e l com eu sw i thg r ea tsympa thy ,and w eo f t ens e eou rso ld i e r sa c company ingyoungG e rmang i r l s .”Ano th e rvo lun t e e rw ro t etha tth eF r o i l an w e r e“ eag e rto d of av ou r s”andtha ta lmo s ta l lcom rad e so fh i sp la toon w en tou tw i thg i r l sa tn igh t .Indo ingso ,how ev e r , many d iv i s i on a r i o s exp e r i en c edsom eo fth eda rk e ra sp e c t so fth e Naz ir eg im e . Ma r t ín ez T e s s i e rd e s c r ib edhowth e“boy sb e long ingtoth eH i t l e rY ou th w ro t e downth enam e so fth eg i r l s whos tay w i thSpan ia rd sa f t e rsun s e t .”81 Th e NSDAP wa rn ing sc e r ta in lyd idno tp r ev en tG e rmang i r l sf rom c lo s econ ta c tw i thSpan i shconva l e s c en tso ld i e r sa tth e ho sp i ta l so f Kön ig sb e rgand B e r l in , wh i chsom e t im e sf ea tu r ede l em en t so f ma l e

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p i ca r e squ e .M ino rin c id en t sinvo lv ingBDso ld i e r sl edth eSpan i shh igh commandtoi s su ed e ta i l edin s t ru c t ion sinea r ly1942onhowtob ehav e co r r e c t lyin G e rmany .Su cho rd e r sin c lud edr e f ra in ingf romsp end ing 82 th en igh tw i thlo ca l wom en . Fo rth e i r pa r t ,G e rmanso ld i e r s who pa s s edth rough Ho fdu r ingth e i rF r on tu r l au b( t empo ra ryl eav e )w e r e in s t ru c t edtot r ea tth e i rSpan i shcom rad e sw i thr e sp e c t .L eaf e t sd i s t r ibu t edtoth emin s i s t edonth eb ro th e rhoodo fa rm sfo rm eddu r ing 83 th ep r ev iou sy ea r s ,a sth eCondo rL eg ionhadb e end ep loy edinSpa in . Du r ingth e i rs taya tth et ra in ingcampin G ra f enwöh r ,th eSpan i sh vo lun t e e r sfounda l t e rna t iv e way stosa t i s fyth e i rs exua lapp e t i t e .Th ey soonl ea rn edo fth eex i s t en c eo facampo ff ema l ePo l i shandRu s s ian fo r c ed wo rk e r sinth en ea rbyv i l lag eo f Au e rba chandb egan mak ing r egu la rv i s i t s .Som ew e r es e ek ingroman c e ,o th e r s wan t eds exinex chang efo rfoodandc lo th ing .Th efowo fSpan i shso ld i e r sla t ea tn igh t s canda l iz edG e rmans en t in e l s , who w e r eunab l etop r ev en tth emf rom app roa ch ingth eg i r l s .Th ef r equ en cyo fsu chroman t i cen coun t e r scam e toth ea t t en t iono fth eBD G en e ra lS ta f f , wh i chf ea r edfo rth ep r e s t ig e o fth eSpan i shA rmyandth e“ san i ta rydang e r”o f“ ca rna lcon ta c tw i th th eg i r l s .”Thu s ,th egua rd wa sr e in fo r c ed ,andth en igh tou t ing stoth e 84 f ema l eL ag e rcam etoanend . Th e s ew e r eno tth eon lylov ea f f a i r sth a to c cu r r edb e tw e enSp an i sh vo lun t e e r sandfo r c ed wo rk e r s . ASp an i shso ld i e rr e tu rn ingf romth e f ron t in s i s t edont r av e l l ingtoZw i ck au(S axony )tov i s i tafo rm e rRu s s i an g i r l f r i endf romth eL en ing r adF ron t whoh adb e end epo r t edtoG e rm any a safo r c ed wo rk e r .Th et r ipend edinh i sa r r e s tandr ep a t r i a t iontoSp a in . S im i l a rin c id en t stookp l a c ein Ho fth roughou t1 9 4 2and1 9 4 3 , wh e r e Sp an i a rd ssoonb e c am eaw a r eo fac ampo ff em a l eF r en chandRu s s i an con s c r ip t sc lo s etoth e i rb a r r a ck s .Th e s ew e r eamongth em anywhow e r e fo r c edtowo rka tth ea rm am en t sf a c to r i e sandth er a i lw ay s .On ed i v i s i on a r i oev enk i l l edth egu a rdo fasp inn ing m i l l , whoh adc augh th imt ry ing 8 5 toen t e rth ef a c to rya tn igh ttov i s i taF r en chg i r l who wo rk edth e r e . O c cup iedPopu la t ion sonthe Ma r chtotheF ron t :Span ia rd s ,Po le s , andBa l t i cPeop le s Th ed iv i s i on a r i o sb eganth e i r ma r chonfoo tin too c cup i edt e r r i to ryin Augu s t1941 . Ea s t e rn Po landandi t sp ea san t sp lay eda p rom in en t ro l einth eBDexp e r i en c eand m emo ry .D iv e r s et e s t imon i e sd e s c r ib ed th ea t t i tud eo fth elo ca lp eop l etoth epa s s ingo fad iv i s iono fb rown sk inn edso ld i e r s–th ePo l i shp ea san t ssom e t im e sca l l edth emth ec z a rn a Dyw i z j a (b la ckd iv i s ion )–a son eo fexp e c ta t ionandcu r io s i ty .Th eG e r manl ia i sono ff c e r ss ta t edtha tth roughou tth e ma r chth efoodsupp l i e s

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o fPo l i sh ,L i thuan ian ,andBy e lo ru s s ianp ea san t sw e r econ s tan t lyb e ing p i l lag ed .86 O th e rt e s t imon i e spo in tinth esam ed i r e c t ion : wh enL e ib R e iz e rpa s s edth roughth eBy e lo ru s s ianv i l lag eo fRaduninS ep t emb e r 1941 ,h ea sk edap ea san t womani fth eSpan ia rd shadb e eninth ev i llag e .Sh er ep l i edexp r e s s iv e ly : “Y e s ,th ey w e r eh e r e ,”sh ean sw e r ed mo r ebo ld ly .Th eyhadg e s tu r ed w i th th e i rhand sins ignlanguag eanda sk edfo r“g r ea sys tu f f”–bu t t e r–a sw e l l a s“ co ck -adood l e -doo”and“o ink -o ink”–tha ti sch i ck en sandp ig s–in 8 7 ex chang efo rsh i r t s ,s ca rv e s ,so ck sandth el ik e .

T r ad ing w i thth ep e a s an t scon t inu edth roughou tth em a r ch .Th eSp ani a rd s igno r edth ew a rn ing so fth eG e rm ancomm and e r sr eg a rd ingd e a l ing w i thth elo c a l sinth eo c cup i edcoun t r i e s , wh e r enum e rou sW eh rm a ch t so ld i e r sh adb e ens abo t ag edandpo i son ed . How ev e r ,th el e s sh i e r a r ch i c a l gu r i p a sen joy edcommun i c a t ing w i thth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ionino c cup i ed t e r r i to r i e s .E a r lyoninT r eubu rg/O l e cko ,aSp an i shso ld i e rno t edhow “ th e r ea r em anyPo l e s wo rk inga scook sands e rv an t s ;th eG e rm an scon s id e rth emtob eanin f e r io rr a c e ,bu ta sa Ch r i s t i anfo rm eth eya r ea l l 8 8 equ a l . ” Th eBDcomb a t an t so f t en t r ad edp a r t so f th e i requ ipm en t ,su cha s boo t s ,c lo th e s ,o r l igh t e r s , fo rch i ck en s ,egg sandp ig s .Th e mo r ea s tu t eon e s p e r c e iv edth a tth ep e a s an t sp e rh ap sn e ed edfood mo r eth an mon ey ,bu t th eysm i l ed inr e s ign a t ionb e fo r eso ld i e r sd r e s s ed inth eun i fo rmo fth eo c cup i e r .Thoughth ePo l e sw e r econ s id e r edtob eaho sp i t ab l ep eop l e ,no ta l l e x ch ang e sw e r evo lun t a ry .Th eRu s s i anin t e rp r e t e rV l ad im i rKov a l ev sk i i d e s c r ib edhowth eSp an i a rd s loo t edPo l i shp e a s an t sandhowsu cha c t ion s t empo r a r i lyc e a s eda f t e rth eBDcomm ande x e cu t edon eo fth ep lund e r 8 9 e r s . Ano th e rl e t t e rbyaSp an i shp r iv a t econf rm edth i simp r e s s ion : W ed idno tb ehav el ik eang e l se i th e r . Wh i l eshou t ing Sp an i s cha l l e sk a th o l i k [ s i c ]th eytookev e ry th ingf romth epoo rPo l e s ,ea t inga l lth e i rs to r e s ;and wh ena mo r eauda c iou son eadd ed D eu t s ch l andn i ch tk a t o l i s ch ,l apu t[ s i c ] a c compan i edbya m ean ing fu lg e s tu r ea roundth en e ck ,th ePo l e sgav e 9 0 th emev e ry th ing .

Wh i l e many G e rmanso ld i e r sin1939–41 d e s c r ib edth ePo l e sa sfo r 91 e ign e r stoEu rop eancu l tu r e , Span i sh imp r e s s ion sw e r e mo r enuan c ed , pa r t lyb e cau s eth eCa tho l i c i smo fth elo s e r s mad eth em mo r efam i l ia r . Po l i shp ea san t sf r equ en t lya t t end edth eop en -a i r Ma s s e so rgan iz edby 92 th eBD . S e rg ean tCa r lo sRód ena sh igh l igh t edth e“ infn i t ef e rvou ro f th ePo l i shp eop l ea sth eykn e l tb e fo r eth er e l ig iou simag e s .” Ca tho l i cvo lun t e e rSanzJa rqu eexp r e s s ed p l ea san tsu rp r i s ea tth e my s t i c

96 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

d evo t iontoth eB l e s s edV i rg in Ma rytha th een coun t e r edamongPo l e s 93 andL i thuan ian s ;i tr em ind edh imo fh i sownv i l lag e . B e cau s eo fth e i r Ca tho l i c i sm ,Span ia rd sr ep r e s en t edPo l e sa sfu l ly Eu rop ean .Th eappa r en tta l en to fth ePo l i sh m idd l ec la s sfo rfo r e ign languag e s mad eth emp r iv i l eg edin t e rp r e t e r s .Po l i shand/o rBy e lo ru s s ian wom en–Span ia rd ss e ldomd i s t ingu i sh edb e tw e enth em– w e r e a l socon s id e r edtob e“ th e mo s ts im i la rtoou r wom enink indn e s sand s e l f sa c r if c e .”Th econ t ra s to fth eO r thodox ,“o r i en ta l”S lav s–th eRu s 94 s ian s–d rov eth i sp e r c ep t ionev end e ep e r in toth e i rm emo ry . Jo s é -Lu i s Góm ez -T e l lod e s c r ib edaPo l i shp ea san tw edd ingpa r tyin1945 : Amongth e s eyoungp ea san t s– whos t i l lb e longtoth ec iv i l iz ed wo r ld– w i thth e i rfa i rb ea rd s ,th e i rsh i r t sbu t ton eda tth en e ck ,th e i rBoh em ian v e lv e t ja ck e t s ,andth e i rsh inypa t en t l ea th e rboo t s ;b e tw e enth i sand wha t Ihav es e en wand e r ingba ckf romth eSov i e th e l l ,th e r ei sanen t i r e wo r ld o fd i f f e r en c e .95

How ev e r ,th einv e r s ep ro c e s ssu r f a c e sinth ed i a r i e sth a tfo l low edth e rhy thmo fth efoo tm a r ch . Un l ik el a t e rm emo i r s ,in1 9 4 1BDcomb a t an t s comp a r edo c cup i edPo l and w i th wh a tth eyh adob s e rv edin G e rm any . Onth eh e e l so fth e i radm i r a t ionfo rG e rm an w e l l -b e ingc am eth ef r s t b ru t a len coun t e rw i thth eE a s t ,andth ee f f e c t so fth ew a r .A sth eyp a s s ed th roughPo l and ,andb e fo r eth eyh ad w i tn e s s edth eev eng r e a t e rm i s e ry o fth eru r a lSov i e tpopu l a t ion ,m anySp an i a rd sp e r c e iv edth es t r ik ingd i ff e r en c e inth es t and a rdo f l iv ingb e tw e enPo l andandth eR e i ch .Th eya l so no t edhowcon t emp tuou s lyth ePo l e sw e r et r e a t edbye thn i cG e rm an s .96 Thu s ,in T r eubu rg/O l e cko Co rpo r a l M a r t ín e z -T e s s i e r no t edth a tth e Po l e ssu f f e r edv a r iou sfo rm so fd i s c r im in a t ion .“Th ePo l i shinh ab i t an t s a r er equ i r edtow e a rth e l e t t e rPemb ro id e r ed ind a rkb rownonac lo thd i amondp l a c edov e rth e i rb r e a s t …Th eG e rm anpopu l a t iond e sp i s e sth em t r em endou s ly . ” Uponen t e r ingE a s t e rnPo l andsom ed ay sl a t e r ,th econ t r a s tb e tw e en G e rm an w e l l -b e ingandth epov e r tyo fth ePo l i shv i l l ag e s w a sv e ryev id en t :“ th ec l e an ,h appytown sd i s app e a randg r ey wood en hou s e sapp e a r ,d i r tyand m i s e r ab l e ,du s tyro ad sth roughp in efo r e s t s… th ep eop l ea r epoo randd i r ty . ”InSuw a łk i ,ac i tyinru in s ,th eon lyinh ab i t an t sw e r ech i ld r en , wom en ,andth ee ld e r ly ,“d i r tyandr agg ed ,fu l lo f m i s e ryandhung e r . ”97 Lu i sAgu i l a rd e s c r ib edas im i l a rp ano r am a : Th ehou s e sa r ev i r tua lhov e l sandth einhab i tan t scov e r edinrag sand ba r e foo td e sp i t eth e mudcau s edbyth ep e r s i s t en tra in .Th eabundan tf i e s dono tr e spondtoswa t t ing .W eno t i c ehowth i sm i s e ryandf l thcon t ra s t s w i th wha tw esawinG e rmany .98

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Th eso c i a lo r ig in so fth eBDcomb a t an t sa l so infu en c edth ep e r c ep t ion o fth i saby sm a ld i f f e r en c einl iv ingcond i t ion sb e tw e enPo l i shp e a s an t s andp ro sp e rou sG e rm an s .Fo rvo lun t e e r s who w e r ef am i l i a rw i thth e s i tu a t iono fth ep e a s an t ryin m anya r e a so fSp a in ,th econ t r a s td im in i sh ed .J a c in toS an t am a r í aw ro t ey e a r s l a t e r ,a sh er em emb e r edth ePo l i sh v i l l ag e s ,th a t“ tho s epoo r ,humb l e ,s imp l e ,ands e l f s a c r if c ingp e a s an t s ” w e r es im i l a rto“ou rpoo rf a rm wo rk e r s ”inC a s t i l e .99 M anyBDvo lun t e e r sh adth eoppo r tun i tytog a inf r s t -h andin fo rm a t ionabou tth eexp e r i en c eo fth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ionino c cup i edPo l and .Som eDGSr epo r t s in Ap r i l1 9 4 2r e l a t edin fo rm a t ionf romr ep a t r i a t edso ld i e r so fhowth e G e rm an sc a r r i edou t“ s ingu l a r lyinPo l and ,L i thu an i aand Ru s s i a ”a “b loody wo rko fr ep r e s s ion . ”I tin c lud edshoo t ingp eop l edowninth e 1 0 0 s t r e e t sandin c a r c e r a t ingPo l e sandRu s s i an sin“ i so l a t edc amp s . ” BD vo lun t e e r An ton io H e r r e roco r r e spond edin G e rm an w i th U r su l a ,a m idd l e c l a s sPo l i shg i r lf romPo zn ań(Po s en ) .Sh ed e s c r ib edinexp l i c i t d e t a i lth el iv ingcond i t ion sinth a tr eg ionann ex edtoth eR e i ch : A sPo l e s ,w ea r et r ea t edt e r r ib ly .W el iv eho r r ib ly ,w ehav eno th ingd e c en t to w ea r ,w ea r eg iv enr id i cu lou s lysma l lfoodra t ion s ,w ea r eno ta l low ed tohav erad io s ,g ramophon e s ,b i cy c l e s ,o rpho tocam e ra s .W ea r efo rb id d entoen t e ra l lth eshop s ,c in ema s ,andth ea t r e s .Th eydono ta l lowu sto wa lkinpa rk sandga rd en s ,andev e rywh e r ew ego w es e es ign ssay ing , “NoPo l e sa l low ed .”R igh ta tth eb eg inn ingo fth e wa rw ew e r eexp e l l ed f romou rhom e ,w ecou ldno ttak efu rn i tu r e ,c lo th e s ,o rsh e e t s ,andnow w e mu s tsqu e ez efou rp eop l ein toav e rysma l lb ed room …  Th echu r ch e s 1 0 1 a r ec lo s edand manyo fou rf r i end sandr e la t iv e sa r ed ead .

Th roughSpan i shey e s ,th ePo l i shp eop l er ep r e s en t edth et rag i cd e st inyo fanid ea l i s t i cna t ion–on ew i thar e l ig iou sfa ta l i smtha tequ ipp ed i tfo r ma r ty rdom–tha ta sea r lya sth e1930 shadb e ens e ena saba s 102 t iono fan t i commun i smandan t i -S em i t i sm . Th eSpan ia rd sp e r c e iv ed th ema sv i c t im so fth eon eandth eo th e r ,a s wa sr ef e c t edinth e i ren coun t e r sw i thPo l i shp ea san t s whohadlo s tch i ld r ena tth ehand so f bo tho c cup i e r s .Th ean t i commun i smo fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ionsu rp r i s edth eBDso ld i e r s , whof e l tth e i r mo ra ls tan c edoub lyju s t if eda s th ey w i tn e s s edth ee f f e c t so fSov i e tr ep r e s s iononth einhab i tan t so fth e r eg ion . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rhadanin s t ru c t iv een coun t e rw i tha“Po l i sh p ea san t whospok eSpan i sh ,a sh ehad wo rk edfou ry ea r sinA rg en t ina . Th eR ed sd e s t roy edh im .H ehadason whohads tud i edeng in e e r ing , who wa stak enbyth eRu s s ian sandno th ing mo r eha sb e enh ea rdo f h im .” ManyBDcomba tan t sf e l tempa thyfo rtha tpu rpo r t ed lyh e ro i c eop l e ,v i c t im so fh i s to r i cfa t e .In1943 ,anex comba tan tsymbo l iz edth i s

98 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

adm i ra t ionbyevok ingth e“Ca tho l i c mo th e r s whoo f f e r wa t e rfo rou r th i r s ta sw e wa lkandsp eaktou so fth eson whob rok eh i ssab r eona G e rmana rmou r edca ro rano th e r who wa stak enp r i son e rbyth eRu ss ian s .”Th ePo l i shc iv i l ian sw e r eamaz edtofndso ld i e r sw ea r ing G e r manun i fo rm sinth e i r Ca tho l i cchu r ch e s .BDcomba tan t ssom e t im e s 103 cam etob low sw i thG e rman s whor e fu s edtopayinth ePo l i shca f é s , and whof r equ en t edPo l i sh wom en .Th e i rga l lan t r i e sw e r eo f t ensu cc e s s fu lthank stoth era th e run roman t i c mo t iva to r so fhung e randf ea r . A l lina l l ,Po l i sh wom ens t i l ls e em eda t t ra c t iv etoth eBDvo lun t e e r s ; 104 th e i rp e r c ep t iono fRu s s ianf ema l ep ea san t s wou ldb equ i t ed i f f e r en t . A f t e rth ed i s cov e ryo fth e ma s sg rav e so f Ka tynin Ap r i l1943 ,th e F ran co i s tp r e s s mad eg r ea te f fo r t stod e c la r ei t sso l ida r i ty w i thCa thol i cPo landa sth ev i c t imo fg eopo l i t i c s ,caugh tb e tw e entwopow e r fu l n e ighbou r s . Wh i l eavo id ingb lam ing G e rmany ,th eypo in t edou tth e con t inu i tyb e tw e enth eR epub l i cank i l l ing sin1936– 9andth e ma s sex 105 e cu t iono fPo l i sho ff c e r s . Th eBDp r e s sla t e rempha s iz edth e“ con f i c t ingemo t ion s”o fth ed iv i s i on a r i o sa sth eypa s s edth rough“ foo l i sh , w r e t ch ed , ma r ty r edPo land .”D e sp i t eth ef ea ronth efa c e so fth elo ca l s , “ th esw e e tta lkandshou t so fth eso ld i e r s”ev en tua l lyconv in c edth em tha t“Span ia rd sd idno tea tp eop l e .” Manu e lBa r sr e ca l l edth er e l i e fo f 106 th ePo l e s :“Ah ,Spa in !Lando fGod .W ea r ea l soo fGod .” Th ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion so fth eBa l t i ccoun t r i e s ,e sp e c ia l lyinV i ln iu s and R iga ,d e s e rv eanen t i r echap t e ro fth e i rown . ManySpan i shso ld i e r shado c ca s iontoexp e r i en c ebo thc i t i e s wh i l eonl eav eo rdu r ing conva l e s c en c e .Th ein i t ia limp r e s s iono fth evo lun t e e r suponen t e r ing L i thuan ia du r ingth efoo t ma r cho f1941r e s emb l edtha to f Po land . Som ed ia r i e sd e s c r ib eth e i rd i sgu s ta tth epov e r tyinth ev i l lag e s . On8 S ep t emb e r1941 ,onen t e r ingth ecoun t ry ,J e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rno t ed th ed e so la t iontha tr e ign edth e r e :“W om en w i ths ca rv e sonth e i rh ead s , ba r e foo tandca r ry ingth e i rsho e sinth e i rhand s .Longca r t sw i thfou r 107 sma l l wh e e l s ,andpon i e sw i thlong man e s .” Af ew mon th sla t e r ,in Ma r ch1942 , Manu e ld eCá rd ena sexp r e s s edas im i la rimp r e s s iona f t e r c ro s s ingth eL i thuan ianbo rd e ra tV i rba l i s : Th es en sa t ionuponen t e r ingth i sf r s tL i thuan iantowni st ru lyd i sag r e eab l eb e cau s eev e ry th inga roundu ss e em sm i s e rab l eandf l thy .Th es ta t ion i sbad ,poo r ,andd i r ty ,andlongl in e so frubb i sha r ep i l edupontopo fth e 1 0 8 snowb e tw e enth era i l s …Th e wom ena r efa t ,bu td i r ty .

L i thuan ia ,l ik ePo land ,a l soen joy edab en igna s s e s sm en tdu etoth e d e epCa tho l i c i smo f manyo fi t sinhab i tan t s . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rind i ca t ed h i ssa t i s fa c t ion w i th V i ln iu s ,“ag r ea tc i ty .”Th eb eau tyo fi t st emp l e s

F romC en t ra lEu rop etoth eV o lkhovF ron t 99

wa sev en mo r eno t ewo r thy :“ I t s monum en ta lchu r ch e sa r eth e ma in f ea tu r e .Th eCa tho l i cfa i th i sv e ryb ig inth i sc i ty .Ina lmo s tev e rychu r ch th e r ea r eimag e so fou rSa in tTh e r e sa .Ou rLadyo fV i ln iu si sv en e ra t ed 109 toth eex t r em e .” O c ca s iona l ly ,V i ln iu s wa sr em emb e r eda sap la c e w i thac iv i l iz edandEu rop eanf e e l .Th ec i ty , wh e r e mo s to fth epopu lat ionspok ePo l i sh ,b e cam efo r manyconva l e s c en t sinth eSpan i shho sp i ta lth e r eak indo fp s eudo -pa rad i s e .Th i s wa spa r t lydu etoth ef r i end ly t r ea tm en tth eyr e c e iv edf romth e lo ca l inhab i tan t s :“ fo rma landg en t e e l . AndCa tho l i cl ik eu s .”110 F ina l ly ,La tv iar ep r e s en t ed wo r ld lyp l ea su r efo rth eSpan ia rd s .I t s co smopo l i tancap i ta l ,R iga , wa sid ea l iz eda sth e“ la s tEu rop eanc i ty” b e fo r er ea ch ingth ef ron t .“Th e r e ,w ethough t ,th eshop s wou ldhav e ev e ry th ing ,th efoodwa sexqu i s i t eandth ewom enfa i r .”Amu l t i cu l tu ra l swa rmo fso ld i e r sf r equ en t edr e s tau ran t sandcou r t edLa tv ian wom en . S ign s inCa s t i l ianSpan i sh w e r eev enhungf romsom edown townshop s andca f é s , wh i chs e rv eda sm e e t ingp la c e sfo rd iv i s i on a r i osonl eav eo r conva l e s c ing .T oM en énd ez -Gund ín ,R iga wa sa“ c i tyo flov e lyl eg s .” Uponr e tu rn ingf romth ef ron t ,A l fon sod eU rqu i jono t i c edinLa tv ia “ som e th ingfam i l ia r ,incommon w i thou rc iv i l iza t ion ;Ithough tI wa s ba ckin W e s t e rnEu rop e .”111 Span ia rd shadsu chin t ima t econ ta c tw i th La tv ian wom entha tth eG e rmancommanda cqu i e s c edtoa l lowsom e 1 12 to ma r ryth emandtak eth e i rspou s e stoSpa in . Th eBDvo lun t e e r ssawth eLa tv ian sa l soa sv i c t im so fcommun i sm whod e s e rv edth e i rso l ida r i ty .Som ed r ewapa ra l l e lb e tw e enth efa t eo f tha tcoun t ryinvad edbyth e USSR ,and wha t wou ldhav ehapp en edin Spa ini fF ran cohadno tp r eva i l ed .Thoughth e r ew e r eca s e so fs t ea l ing f romLa tv ianc iv i l ian s ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sr em emb e r edth ega l lan t r i e s abov ea l l , wh i ch mo r ethanon c etookp la c einb ro th e l so rgan iz edand 1 13 runbyth eW eh rma ch t . Th eFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rJo s éLu i sGóm ezT e l lo w ro t etha t“Eu rop e–i t sland sandsou l s–ex t end son lyal i t t l eb eyond R iga .” Wha tcam ea f t e rtha t ?Th e“ J ew sand …Ea s t e rngh e t to s .”114

4Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t

T a sk sw e r ea s s ign edfo r Op e ra t ion Ba rba ro s sa :A rmy G roup No r th , compo s edo fth e16 thand18 th A rm i e sandth e4 th Panz e rG roup , wou ldadvan c eth roughth eBa l t i cr eg iontotak eL en ing radonabou t 20 Augu s t .I t wou ldth en wa i tfo rth ea r r iva lo fA rmy G roup C en t r e , andth ey wou ldadvan c etog e th e rtowa rd s Mo s cow .Th eOKH ,andSup r em e Command e rF ranz Ha ld e rinpa r t i cu la r , wou ldhav ep r e f e r r ed tocon c en t ra t eth e i re f fo r t sonth eSov i e tcap i ta l . How ev e r ,th esymbo l i c in t e r e s to fL en ing rada sth ec rad l eo fth eBo l sh ev ikR evo lu t ionandth e s t ra t eg i cin t e r e s tinc l ea r ingou t ma r i t im et ra ff cinth eBa l t i cp rov id ed H i t l e rw i thsu ff c i en t mo t iv e stotak etha tc i ty .A f t e rga in ingcon t ro lo f th ee s s en t ia lcampa ignob j e c t iv e s–th eindu s t r ia la r eao fL en ing rad , th eo i lw e l l so fth eCau ca su s ,andth efa rm land so fth e Uk ra in e–th ey wou ldd ea lafna lb lowto Mo s cow . How ev e r ,th es lown e s so fth eG e rmanadvan c e mad ei tn e c e s sa ryto mod i fyth ep lan ,andth eL en ing rad F ron tb e cam eas e conda ry wa rth ea t r e .Th e OKHkn ewtha ttak inga Sov i e tc i ty wou ldinvo lv eab loodyba t t l ein wh i chth esup e r io r i tyo fa rmou r edv eh i c l e slo s tva lu e .So ,in s t ead ,th eG e rmancommandd e c id ed tolays i eg etoth ec i t i e sands ta rv eth emtoth epo in to fsu r r end e r . Wha t wa sth er ea l mo t iv eb eh indth ed e c i s iontob e s i eg eL en ing rad ? Som eau tho r sa t t r ibu t ei tto H i t l e r ’ sp e r sona lob s e s s ion w i thth ec rad l e o fth eO c tob e rR evo lu t ion .O th e r sa rgu etha tth eevo lu t iono fth eautumn1941campa ignandth ed e s i r etoavo idaco s t lyu rbanba t t l econd i t ion edth ed e c i s ion .S t i l lo th e r s ma in ta intha tth ed e c i s ion wa scoh e r en t w i thp lan sfo ra wa ro fex t e rm ina t iontha td e t e rm in ed m i l i ta ryp r io r it i e s .Th e mo s tp lau s ib l ein t e rp r e ta t ioni stha tth e OKH mad eth ed e c i s ioninJu ly1941 ,no tso mu chfo rta c t i ca lr ea son sa sf romth econv i c t ion tha tth ecampa ign wou ldinth em id rang eb e com ea wa ro fpo s i t ion s . Thu s ,th eyhadtod e c r ea s eth enumb e ro fob j e c t iv e sandcon c en t ra t e th e i rs t r eng thonafna la t ta cko f Mo s cow .L e t t ingth epopu la t iono f

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F ig .4 . 1 .G en e r a lAgu s t ín Muño zG r and e s( l e f t )a tBDh e adqu a r t e r s ,1 9 4 2(AA )

L en ing rads ta rv eso lv edacon s id e rab l elog i s t i ca lp rob l emfo rA rmy G roup No r thand wa scoh e r en tw i th m id -andlong rang ea im so f conqu e r ingL e b en s r aumfo re conom i cu s e .Th en ea r lyth i r ty m i l l ionSo v i e tc i t iz en sinhab i t ingth er eg ion w e r econ s id e r edsup e rfuou stotha t end eavou r ,soth ed e c i s ion wa stak entophy s i ca l lye l im ina t e mo s to f th em .A roundL en ing rad ,th i sinvo lv edex t e rm ina t ion ,s lav e ryfo rth e 1 su rv ivo r s ,andth eG e rman iza t iono fth er eg ion . Th ed i r e c t iv e so fth e co lon iza t ionp ro j e c t sfo rth eou t e r“Ma r ch e s”o fth eG e rmanR e i ch w e r e d ev e lop edb e tw e en1939and1941andb e s texp r e s s edinth e Ma s t e r P lanfo rth eEa s t( th eG en e ra lp lan O s t ,o r GPO )o f May1942 ,w r i t t en und e rH imm l e r ’ ssup e rv i s ion .I tind i ca t edtha tL en ing radshou ldb e p rog r e s s iv e lyemp t i edo fth eS lav i cpopu la t ion .2 R e cov e r ingi t sh i s to r i c Sw ed i shnam eo fIng e rman land ,th er eg ion wou ldb eco lon iz edbyG e rman sando th e rG e rman i cp eop l eg roup sb rough tinf romth eR e i ch ,th e Am e r i ca s ,andEa s t e rnEu rop e .Thu s ,th ed e c i s iontos ta rv eL en ing rad r e su l t edf romth ein t e r s e c t iono fa m id rang eid eo log i ca lp ro j e c ttoG e r man iz eth er eg ionandth esho r t rang ep ro j e c ttha ts e rv edth eimm ed ia t elog i s t i ca landta c t i ca ln e ed so fth eW eh rma ch t .

102 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Inea r lyS ep t emb e r1941 ,G e rmant roop sr ea ch edth eou t sk i r t so fL en ing radandcu ti to f ff romou t s id ecommun i ca t ion .F inn i shd iv i s ion s a t ta ck edf romth eno r thandr e conqu e r edth eKa r e l ianI s thmu s .Ex c ep t fo raf ews t ra t eg i cpo in t s ,how ev e r ,th eyd idno tc ro s sth ebo rd e rtha t 3 ex i s t edp r io rtoth eW in t e rW a ro ro c cupyth eea s tbanko fLak eLadoga . F i e ld Ma r sha l lR i t t e rvonL e eb ,command e rinch i e fo fA rmy G roup No r th , wan t edtoa t ta ckands e iz eL en ing rad ,bu ton 6S ep t emb e rth e OKWd iv e r t edth e4 thPanz e rG roupf romth e No r th e rnF ron ttopa r t i cipa t einth e Mo s cowo f f en s iv e .Th ec i ty wou ldno tb etak enbya s sau l t . Th eyc lo s edinandon6 Nov emb e rconqu e r edT ikhv in ,th era i lwayhub toth eea s to fLak eLadoga ,cu t t ingo f fth et ra in l in e sb e tw e enL en ing rad andth eSov i e tr ea rgua rd .Fou r t e en W eh rma ch td iv i s ion sfa c eda tl ea s t 4 th i r tyR edA rmyd iv i s ion s . A f t e rth eG e rmanconqu e s to fT ikhv in ,th eob j e c t iv e ss e em edtob e m e t ,bu tth eSov i e t slaun ch edacoun t e r -o f f en s iv einea r ly D e c emb e r 1941andr e conqu e r edth etown .Th i sm ean ttha tL en ing radcou ldaga in b ep rov i s ion edbyra i lconvoy sf romLak eLadoga .F romtha tpo in ton , th e16 thand18 th A rm i e sb e cam eenm e sh edinal eng thy wa ro fa t t r i t ion .T r en chl in e sex t end edf romLak eI lm entoL en ing rad ,fo rm inga ra th e rs tab l ef ron tun t i lJanua ry1944 .Th eL en ing radF ron tb e cam ea s e conda rycon c e rnfo rS ta l in .Th eR ed A rmyt r i edandfa i l edtob r eak th es i eg eins ev e ra lo f f en s iv e sth roughou t Nov emb e r -D e c emb e r1941 andth esp r ingandsumm e ro f1942 .T oth esou tho f Novgo rod ,th e Sov i e ta t ta ckfo rm edpa r to fth eop e ra t ion sin t end edtob en ef tf rom th esu c c e s so fth e Mo s cowcoun t e r -o f f en s iv e .S ix G e rmand iv i s ion s– th eD emyan skPo ck e t–r e s i s t edinap ro long eds i eg etha tla s t edun t i l Ma r ch1942 . Ine a r ly1 9 4 3 ,th eSov i e tcomm andag a int r i edtob r e akth eL en ing r ad s i eg e .Th em a ino f f en s iv e , Op e r a t ionI sk r a ,b eg anin m id J anu a ry w i th coo rd in a t eda t t a ck sf romth eV o lkhovF ron tandL en ing r ad .A f t e rg ru e l l ingcomb a t ,th eR ed A rmypu sh edth eG e rm an sb a ckf romth e i rpo s i t ion sonth esou ths id eo fL adog a . On1 8J anu a ry1 9 4 3 ,th eyop en eda n a r rowl andco r r ido ron wh i chth eycon s t ru c t edar a i ll in eth a tb rough t p rov i s ion sandr e in fo r c em en t s ,s low lybu ts t e ad i lys t ab i l i z ingsupp lyto L en ing r ad .Th es i eg econ t inu edandinF eb ru a ry1 9 4 3 ,th et roop sth a t w e r eam a s s edtoth esou th e a s to fth es i eg ep e r im e t e ra t t a ck edinana tt emp ttoadv an c ea longth eL en ing r ad -Mo s cowr a i ll in e .D e sp i t ein i t i a l su c c e s s ,th eexh au s t edSov i e tt roop sev en tu a l lyh adtof a l lb a ck .Two o th e rlo c a lo f f en s iv e sinth esumm e ro f1 9 4 3a l soy i e ld edun f avou r ab l e ou t com e sfo rth eR edA rmy .5Inf a c t ,comp a r edtoS t a l ing r ad ,th eDonr e g ion ,andKu r sk ,th eA rmyG roup No r th w a sno t invo lv ed in l a rg e s c a l e m i l i t a ryop e r a t ion sa f t e rD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 .Though w a rp rov edd i ff cu l t

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 103

inth eV o lkhovsw amp sandsom ecomb a t sw e r eno to r iou s lyh a r sh ,con d i t ion sw e r el e s sb ru t a l i z edth anono th e rs e c to r so fth eE a s t e rnF ron t . F romS ep t emb e r1941on ,th eG e rman A rmy wo rk edha rd e rtoin6 t en s i fyth es i eg e .Thoughi tr e fu s edtof e edth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion , th e log i s t i ca ln e ed so f th e16 thand18 thA rm i e s in th eha r shw in t e ro f1941– 2 mad ei tadv i sab l etob eg inadop t ingp ragma t i ca t t i tud e stowa rd sc iv i lian sinth er ea rgua rd . Mo s tp ea san t sinth eo c cup i eda r ea w e r ee ld e r ly , wom en ,o rch i ld r en ; manyhadb e end epo r t edth e r ef romo th e ra r ea s .7 Soon ,how ev e r ,th ey w e r efu lf l l ingaux i l ia ryfun c t ion s :th eysh e l t e r ed andpa r t ia l lyf edth eo c cup i e r s ,c l ea r edroad sandt ra int ra ck s ,andp rov id ed manua llabou rfo rth eR e i ch . Ad eg r e eo fa cqu i e s c en c ef romth e 8 lo ca l s wou ld m in im iz ep ea san tsuppo r tfo rth epa r t i san s . Thu s ,d e p end ingonth ed e c i s ion -mak ing ma rg ino fth eW eh rma ch tlow e rcommandandr egu la rso ld i e r s ,sub t l ed i f f e r en c e sapp ea r edonth eNo r th e rn F ron t wh eni tcam etoen fo r c ing OKWd i r e c t iv e sfo ro c cupa t ion .9 Ea ch w e ek ,th er ea rgua rds e cu r i tyfo r c e s(S i ch e rung s t rupp en)–compo s edo f mo r e ma tu r eso ld i e r s ,an t i -pa r t i sanun i t s ,andla t e ro faux i l ia ryBa l t i c andSov i e tt roop sr e c ru i t edf romamongth ep r i son e r s–d e ta in edhun d r ed so fc iv i l ian sandsho tdoz en so fth emfo rco l labo ra t ing w i thth e pa r t i san s .A l lth i st ran sp i r ed inth em id s to fanev e rydayr ea l i tyd efn ed byp e rva s iv ehung e randab j e c tm i s e ry . Th e2 .9 m i l l ioninhab i tan t so fL en ing rad w en tth roughh e l l .Th eS tal in i s tr eg im er equ i r edeno rmou ssa c r if c e :c iv i l ian s wo rk edinth efa c to r i e s ,bu i l tfo r t if ca t ion s ,andcon s t ru c t edroad sgo ingea s tfo rt ru ck s tob r ingp rov i s ion s .Inth e mo s tin t en s e mon th so fth eb lo ckad e , mo r e than fv ethou sand p eop l ed i ed da i lyf romhung e r ,co ld ,andha r sh wo rk .F rom Ch r i s tma s1941on ,ra t ion sg radua l lyimp rov ed ,bu tunt i lF eb rua ry1943 ,th eyd idno tr ea chnu t r i t iona lm in imum sr equ i r ed fo rsu rv iva l .ByJanua ry1944 ,th epopu la t iono fL en ing radhadfa l l en 10 to630 ,000 . M eanwh i l e ,S ta l in ’ st e r ro r ma ch in e ryin s i s t edonk e ep ingth e popu la t ion p rodu c t iv eandcomba tr eady . Tho s e whofa i l ed tor ea chth er e comm end edob j e c t iv e sw e r esu sp e c t edo fsabo tag eo r d e f ea t i sm . Non -Ru s s ian m ino r i t i e sinth er eg ion(bo th G e rman -and F inn i sh sp eak ing )w e r esu sp e c t edo fb e ingsympa th e t i ctowa rd sth e 1 1 en emyandd epo r t ed . Th el ib e ra t iono fL en ing rad wa sno tap r io r i tyfo rth eR edA rmy .Sov i e tfo r c e sd idno ta t ta ck G e rmanl in e sun t i l14Janua ry1944 ,fo r c ing th eW eh rma ch t18 th A rmytor e t r ea tino rd e rtoavo idad i sa s t e r . On 10Jun e1944 ,th eR ed A rmya l soa t ta ck edth eF inn i sht roop s ,fo r c ing th eH e l s ink igov e rnm en tund e r Ma r sha l Mann e rh e imtos ignana rm i s t i c et r ea tyth r e e mon th sla t e r .O ff c ia lda tapub l i sh edin1945s ta t ed tha t632 ,253c iv i l ian shadd i edinth es i eg eo fL en ing rad . Du r ingth e

104 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Kh ru sh ch evy ea r s ,th efgu r e sw e r era i s edto800 ,000d ea th s .S in c eth en , o th e rca l cu la t ion shav es i tua t edth eto ta lb e tw e en1and1 .3 m i l l ionp e r 12 son s ,a lmo s tha l fth epopu la t iono fth ec i ty . Lo s tV i c to r ie s :TheV o lkhovF ron t(O c tobe r1941–Augu s t1942 ) On 1 O c tob e r1941 , Muñoz G rand e s wa sin fo rm edtha tth eB lu eD iv i s ion wou ldb ein co rpo ra t edin toth e16 thA rmyund e rth ecommando f G en e ra lE rn s tBu s ch .Twoday sla t e r ,h ef ewov e rth ef ron t wh e r eth e Span i shvo lun t e e r s wou ldev en tua l lyb ea s s ign edtor e l i ev et roop so f th e126 th D iv i s ion ,l edby G en e ra lPau lLaux ,andth en e ighbou r ing 18 th D iv i s ion .13 Byla t eS ep t emb e r ,bo thd iv i s ion s–bu te sp e c ia l lyth e 18 th–hadlo s t mo r ethanath i rdo fth e i rcomba tan t sandhadr equ e s t ed r e in fo r c em en t suponconf rm ingtha tf r e shS ib e r iant roop shada r r iv ed onth eo th e rs id eo fth eV o lkhovR iv e randLak eI lm en .14 Th eBD wa s b r i efya s s ign edtoap rov i s iona la rmyco rp sund e rth ecommando f G en e ra lF ranzvonRoqu e s , who wa sr e spon s ib l efo rR ea rgua rdZon e 15 101 o fA rmyG roup No r th . Th eSpan ia rd sa s sum edth e i rpo s t sb e tw e en7and17 O c tob e r .Th e BDo c cup i edas e c t ionex t end ing40 k i lom e t r e sb e tw e en Novgo rodand Lak eI lm entoth esou th ,andtoUda rn ik–a f t e rwa rd sBo r i s sovo–toth e no r th .Th eyo c cup i edth ew e s to rr igh tbanko fth eb roadV o lkhovR iv e r , w i thanav e rag ew id tho ftwohund r ed m e t r e s .Th et e r ra in wa sla rg e ly wood edand ma r shy ,w i ths ca t t e r edv i l lag e sandah ighwayl ead ingto L en ing rad ,a long w i thara i lwayconn e c t ingtha tc i ty w i th Mo s cow .Th e Span ia rd sa r r iv edtorap id lyfa l l ingt emp e ra tu r e s ,th ef r s tsnow fa l l s , andh eavyf ro s t s .Oppo s i t eth em ,onth eea s tbanko fth eV o lkhov ,s tood 16 th e267 thand305 thSov i e tIn fan t ryD iv i s ion s . Th esou th e rnth i rdo fth es e c t ion wa scov e r edbytwoba t ta l ion so f th eSpan i sh262ndR eg im en t ,th ec en t r eth i rdbyth e263 rdR eg im en t , andth eno r thand mo s ta c t iv eth i rdbyth e269 thR eg im en t .A r t i l l e ry wa sd iv id edamongth eth r e es e c t ion s ,andth er ema in ingun i t s(on e a r t i l l e ryg roup ,on eba t ta l ionf romth e262nd R eg im en t ,on esapp e r ba t ta l ion ,anan t i tankg roup ,andth e mob i l er e s e rv eba t ta l ion )w e r e p la c edinth er e s e rv e s .A c ro s sth er iv e r ,th es e c to rcon t ro l l edbyth eR ed A rmys e em edi l lp rov i s ion ed w i ths can ta r t i l l e ryandnoa rmou r edv eh i c l e s . How ev e r ,Sov i e tav ia t iondom ina t edth esk i e s .Thoughnum e r ica l ly mod e s t ,th i s wa sacon s tan tp rob l emb e cau s eth eSpan ia rd sla ck ed ad equa t ean t i -a i rd e f en c e . Ho r s e sw e r ea l soinsho r tsupp lya f t e rth e ma r chf romPo land .By ea r ly O c tob e r ,1 ,205 ho r s e shadb e enlo s tandon ly414r ep la c ed . Wh en th et im ecam eto laun chano f f en s iv e ,th i sc r ea t edd e lay sandd i ff cu l t i e s

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 105

ino rgan iz ingth ep rov i s iono ffood ,m ed i ca lsupp l i e s ,w eapon s ,and ammun i t iontoth et roop sonth ef ron tl in e s .Th eBDhads ev e ra ldamag edcannon sand mo r ethanahund r edb rok en -downv eh i c l e s .Th e an t i tankv eh i c l e shadr e c e iv edl i t t l eca r ef romin exp e r i en c edd r iv e r s , and30 p e rc en to fth eb i cy c l e scou ldno tb eu s ed .Th eso ld i e r shadno t p ra c t i s edshoo t ings in c eG ra f enwöh r ,andth eo ff c e r sand NCO sba r e ly manag edtoimpo s ed i s c ip l in einth e i rh e t e rog en eou srank s .17 A l lth i scau s edth eG e rman stoqu e s t ionth ep e r fo rman c eth eycou ld exp e c tf romth eSpan ia rd s ,b e fo r eth eyev e rb e cam ea c t iv eonth ef ron t . P r e jud i c ea s id e ,th eyhadsom er ea son sfo ri t . Ar epo r tf romth el ia isono ff c e ro fth eI A rmyCo rp sind i ca t edtha tth eov e r -abundan tB lu e D iv i s iono ff c e r sla ck edau tho r i tyandr e so lv e ,th e NCO sla ck edt e chn i ca lt ra in ing ,th eso ld i e r st end edtob eund i s c ip l in ed ,w eapon sw e r e no tp rop e r lyca r edfo r ,t r ea tm en to fho r s e s wa s“ e sp e c ia l lyrough(k i cking ,e t c . ) ,” mo to r cy c l e sw e r esy s t ema t i ca l lyov e r load ed ,andsoon .Th e t roop sm igh tb e“w i l l ing”andth e“p e r sona lb rav e ryo fa l lth eSpan ia rd sg iv e snoroomfo rdoub t ,”bu tinth eab s en c eo fsy s t ema t i ct ra in 18 ing ,th e i rcomba tcapab i l i t i e sr ema in eda my s t e ry . Th ein i t ia ld e s igno fth eV o lkhovo f f en s iv egav enod e c i s iv ero l ein th evangua rdtoth eSpan i shd iv i s ion .Th eSov i e tp lan sw e r ein t end ed tocomp l em en tth eo f f en s iv etha t wou ldb elaun ch ed mo r etoth eno r th : toconqu e rT ikhv in ,conn e c tw i thth eF inn i sht roop s no r tho f Lak e Ladoga ,andt igh t enth es i eg eo fL en ing rad . On lya f t e rth een emy ’ sr es i s tan c ehadb e en wo rndown wou ldth eyadvan c eea s tandsou th ea s t o fth eG e rmanun i t stha thadin i t ia l lyop en edth eb r ea ch .Th es c ep t ic i smo fth eG e rmancommandr ega rd ingSpan i shcomba tcapab i l i t i e s wa s ma in lydu etoth eD iv i s ion ’ sla cko f mob i l i ty .19 How ev e r ,th eG e r manp lan s wou ldev en tua l lychang e ,g iv ingth eBDanoppo r tun i tyto e s tab l i shb r idg eh ead sinth evangua rdo fth ea t ta ck . A f t e raf ewt en ta t iv eandfa i l eds t r ik e s ,th eyp r epa r edtotak eth ei slandb e tw e enth e“ l i t t l eV o lkhov”andth eV o lkhov ,coo rd ina t ing w i th th eadvan c eo fth e126 thG e rmanD iv i s ion .Th i so f f en s iv e mov etoc ro s s th er iv e randr ea chth eV a lda iH i l l scomp l em en t edth eG e rmano f f en s iv etotak eT ikhv in mo r etoth eno r th .Th ef r s ta t t emp tfa i l ed ,bu ton 19 O c tob e ras e c t iono fth i r ty s ix m encon so l ida t edab r idg eh eadon th el e f tbankn ea r Uda rn ik .Th e2ndBa t ta l iono fth e269 th R eg im en t ando th e run i t sjo in edth emth efo l low ingday . Af ewday so fr e la t iv e ca lmt ran sp i r edb e fo r eth eSov i e t sr ea c t edon27 O c tob e r .S i tnob e cam eth es c en eo fha r shcomba t :inth eb loodyc la sh e stha ten su ed ,th e Span i shcomba tan t sa t ta ck edtowa rd sth esou thandtookth ev i l lag e s o fT igoda , Dub rovka ,and N ik i tk ino .F r e ez ingt emp e ra tu r e s mad eth e fgh t ingha r sh e rfo rth epoo r lyequ ipp edcomba tan t sandcomp l i ca t ed

Map 1 .Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eV o lkhovF ron t(O c tob e r1941– Jun e1942 )

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 107

commun i ca t ion s w i thth eb r idg eh ead . Sov i e tr e s i s tan c e wa sa l so s t rong e rthanexp e c t ed . Th e23 O c tob e rlogen t ryfo rA rmy G roup No r thno t edtha t“ th eva lou ro fth eSpan ia rd sincomba ti sr ea s su r ing , th eyhav er ep e l l edaRu s s iana t ta cktoday ,r e su l t inginth r e ehund r ed d ea th sandth r e ehund r eden emyp r i son e r s .”20 Th ecommand e r sd e c id edtofo cu sth e i re f fo r t sontak ingT ikhv inand o rd e r edth eBDtor e l i ev eth eG e rman s inth e mona s t e ryo fO t en sk i iand th ev i l lag e so fPo sadandPo s e lok .A st emp e ra tu r e sd ropp edto20ºC , on9 Nov emb e rar e in fo r c edSpan i shba t ta l ionr ep la c edth eG e rman sa f ewk i lom e t r e stoth eea s tinPo sad ,tocov e rth es e c to ro fth eV i sh e ra R iv e r .F ea r ingL en ing rad wou ldb ecu to f f ,th eSov i e t slaun ch edf e r c e coun t e r -a t ta ck sw i tha i randa r t i l l e rysuppo r t ,cau s ingh eavylo s s e sto th eSpan ia rd ss ta t ion eda tPo sad .Th e r e ,th eyr e s i s t edin fan t rya t ta ck s andl igh ta r t i l l e ryf r efo ra lmo s ta mon th . Conn e c t ion sw e r ep r e ca r iou sb e tw e enth eO t en sk i i mona s t e ry ,S i tno ,andPo sad .Th eroadran th roughad en s esnowyfo r e s t wh e r ev i s ib i l i ty wa sa lmo s tn i l .Th eSo v i e tso ld i e r skn ewhowto mov einth eth i ckb ru shands e ts ev e ra lambu sh e s . How ev e r , manySpan i sht roop e r sw e r ea c cu s tom edtoth i styp e o fcomba t . Mo r ethanon eso ld i e rno t edp roud lyinh i sd ia ryhowth e Span ia rd sengag edin“ fan ta s t i ch e ro i cd e ed s .”21 Inea r ly D e c emb e r ,th eR edA rmyin t en s if edi t scoun t e r -o f f en s iv eto r e tak eT ikhv in .Ea s to fth eV o lkhov ,th eSov i e t sr edoub l edth e i ra t ta ck s on N ik i tk ino ,Lak eI lm en ,Po sad ,and O t en sk i i .Th eG e rmancommand b egantod r eadtha tbo thpo s i t ion s wou ldfa l l in toen emyhand s . Muñoz G rand e sr epo r t edtoth e XXXV I I IA rmy Co rp stha ton lyth i r ty e igh t m enr ema in edcapab l eo fcomba tinPo sad .Th eG e rman sf ea r edtha t R ed A rmyr e in fo r c em en t s wou ldc ro s sth er iv e r ,w ip eou tth eSpania rd s ,andconqu e r Novgo rod .Su chas ign if can tb lowonth ef ron t wou lda l sos t ra in H i spano -G e rmand ip loma t i cr e la t ion s .Th eimpa c t o fth eco ldhada l sob e enb ru ta lonth eG e rmanandSpan i shun i t s , who w e r eba r e lysu rv iv ing .22 F ina l ly ,onth en igh to f7 D e c emb e r ,th eSpan ia rd sabandon edth e i rpo s i t ion sinPo sadfo rf ea ro fb e ingb e s i eg edby th een emy ,w i thth e i rw e l l equ ipp edS ib e r ianr e in fo r c em en t s .Th efo l low ingday ,th eyeva cua t edS i tno , Dub rovka ,ando th e rpo s i t ion sn ea r th eea s tbanko fth eV o lkhov .W i thou t wa i t ingfo rG e rmano rd e r s ,th ey l e f tl igh tcannon s ,equ ipm en t ,and w eapon sb eh ind .A c co rd ingtoth e G e rman A rmyCo rp scommand ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r eno tsy s t ema t i cin lay ing m in e sa tth eabandon edpo s i t ion s ,no rd idth eyd e s t royth ea r t i l 23 l e ryand mo r ta r stha tth eycou ldno tca r ry . Onth ea f t e rnoono f9 D e c emb e r ,th ela s tSpan i shun i t sc ro s s edth eV o lkhovandf e l lba cktoth e i r po s i t ion sonth ew e s t e rnsho r e .Th er e t r ea tcon c lud ede l ev enday sla t e r . Th eSov i e t sfound manyd eadinPo sadandP r avd a pub l i sh edr epo r t s 24 abou tth e“b l e ed ingou t”o fth e“Fa s c i s tB lu eD iv i s ion .”

108 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

A tth i spo in t ,i tb e c am eu rg en ttor e in fo r c eth el in eo fd e f en c e , wh i l e m a in t a in ingaf ewou tpo s t so fr e s i s t an c eonth ee a s tb anko fth eV o lkhov . Th ecomm and e ro fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sf e a r edaSov i e ta t t a ckon anov e r ly w id es e c t iono fth ef ron t( 1 5 0 km )p ro t e c t edbyad eb i l i t a t ed 1 2 6 th G e rm an D iv i s ionandth e“ r a th e run r e l i ab l e ”Sp an i shun i t s .Th e l a t t e rh adshownth em s e lv e sunp r ep a r edfo rcomb a t inex t r em ew e a th e r cond i t ion sand w e r ed e s c r ib eda sa“ho l einth ef ron tl in e . ”Th eG e r m ancomm andd idno tt ru s tth eSp an i a rd sw i thbu i ld ingsh e l t e r so r b a rb ed -w i r ef en c e s ,so G e rm ans app e run i t sw e r es en ttodoth ejob .25 Th eG e rm an sa l so wo r r i edth a tth eSov i e t s wou ldnowcoun t e r a t t a ck onth ew e s tb anko fth er iv e r ,con c en t r a t ingonth ew e ak en edl e f tf ank o fth eBDandr igh tf anko fth e1 2 6 thD iv i s ion .26 Th eyd idno tknowth a t Sov i e tr epo r t sh igh l igh t edhowth eSp an i a rd s ,thoughd emo r a l i z edby th eco ld ,h adso l id lyr e s i s t edth eR ed A rmya t t a ck s .B a s edonp r i son e r in t e r rog a t ion sanden emy w a rd i a r i e s ,th eSov i e tcomm andp e r c e iv ed 2 7 th eBDa sah igh ly mo t iv a t edvo lun t e e rco rp sfu l lo ff an a t i cf a s c i s t s . A f t e rs ev e ra ls t r ik e s ,on24 D e c emb e rth eSov i e t sb egant ry ingtop en e t ra t eth eSpan i shpo s i t ion s .Th r e eday s la t e r ,th eyc ro s s edth er iv e rand a t ta ck edth eBDsuppo r tpo in t s , in c lud ingth e“h e rm i tag epo s i t ion”and th er e in fo r c ed“ in t e rm ed ia t epo s i t ion”tha tl ink ed Uda rn ikandLobk ovo .Th eSov i e t sw ip edou tth esquad rontha t wa sd e f end ingth ela t t e r . Wh enth eSpan ia rd scoun t e r -a t ta ck edandfna l lyr e cov e r edth epo s it ion ,th eyfoundfo r tycadav e r s mu t i la t edands tak edtoth eg round . Th eya l sor e conqu e r edth eh e rm i tag epo s i t ion , wh e r eth eyfoundas imi la rsp e c ta c l e .Th en ,a f t e rad e sp e ra t efgh tin wh i chnop r i son e r sw e r e tak en ,th eyfo r c edth eSov i e t sba cktoth ew e s tbanko fth eV o lkhov .Th e fa l l enso ld i e r so fth ein t e rm ed ia t eandh e rm i tag epo s i t ion s , whohad b e eno rd e r edtob el i t e ra l lyna i l edtoth eg roundinth e i rp la c e s ,b e cam e th esub j e c to fpo e t i cp ra i s eand w e r e my th i c iz edinBDp ropagandaand 28 l i t e ra tu r e . Th ef ron ts tab i l iz ed .By7 D e c emb e r ,th eSov i e t shadr e conqu e r ed T ikhv inand L en ing radcou ldr e c e iv ep rov i s ion sv ia Lak e Ladoga . F romth enon ,th e16 thand18 thA rm i e sw e r eengag edina wa ro fpo s it ion sa longal in eex t end ingb e tw e enLak eI lm enandL en ing rad .Th ey ma in ta in edas tab l ef ron tth e r eun t i lth efna lSov i e to f f en s iv eo fJanua ry1944 .Fu r th e rsou th ,A rmy G roupC en t r ehada l sofa i l edinth e i r a t t emp ttotak e Mo s cow ,soth e wa rw en tonlong e rthanexp e c t ed . BDlo s s e sinth eb r idg eh eadcomba to fth eV o lkhovin c lud edaha r sh to l linb lood sh ed ,bu tth ed ea thr epo r t sp r e s en ts t r ik ingd i spa r i t i e s .Th e o f t enina c cu ra t ecompu ta t ion so fA rmy G roup No r thr epo r t edn ea r ly 29 500fa l l enSpan i shvo lun t e e r sinla t e1941 . How ev e r ,aBD m ed i ca l r epo r t da t ed18Janua ry1942l i s t ed793 d ead ,1 ,883 wound ed ,899

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 109

f ro s tb i t t en ,and1 ,365inf rm ,co l l e c t iv e lyr ep r e s en t ing27 .4p e rc en to f 30 th eBDto ta l . Th e126 thG e rmanD iv i s ionsu f f e r eds im i la rlo s s e s ,w i th 31 3 ,405ca sua l t i e sf rom O c tob e rto D e c emb e r . Ano th e rr epo r ta mon th la t e rind i ca t edtha tth e BD hadin cu r r ed1 ,032 d ea th s ,800s ev e r e ly wound ed ,1 ,400 w i th m ino rin ju r i e s ,160 m i s s ing ,and300f roz ento d ea th .32 A so f25Ju lyo fth esam ey ea r ,BDca sua l t i e snumb e r ed1 ,247 d ea th s( in c lud ing61 o ff c e r s ) ,3 ,263 wound ed( in c lud ing123 o ff c e r s ) , 33 and127 m i s s ing( in c lud ing 3o ff c e r s ) . In mo s tG e rmand iv i s ion s ,on ly ath i rdo fth ein i t ia lt roop sr ema in edf tfo rcomba tby m id -D e c emb e r , 34 in c lud ingso ld i e r s whohadr e cov e r edsu ff c i en t lyf romth e i r wound s . How ev e r ,th e Span ia rd s had a l sotak en a tl ea s t 800 p r i son e r s by Nov emb e r1941 ,cap tu r edas izab l eamoun to fSov i e t wa r ma t e r i e l ,and 35 inf i c t edh eavylo s s e sonth een emy . Ev enso ,th eSpan i shcommand andso ld i e r sw e r ed i sappo in t eda tth efa c ttha tth e i rbap t i smbyf r e hadend edinr e t r ea tf romth epo s i t ion sth eyhadconqu e r eda tsu ch g r ea tco s t .So ld i e r sinth e269 thR eg im en tw e r ea l sod i s con t en t ed w i th Co lon e lE spa rza ’ sty rann i ca lt r ea tm en to fsubo rd ina t e s .H ehadev en o rd e r edh i sm entoa t ta ck w i thou tad equa t ea r t i l l e rycov e r ,cau s ing manyunn e c e s sa ryca sua l t i e s .36 S t i l l ,th e r e wa sth eso la c eo fg lo ry .F rom1 1 Nov emb e r1941to31 Ma r ch1942 ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r eawa rd ed 159I ron C ro s s e s ,S e cond C la s s ,compa r edto 161awa rd edtoth eG e rmanso ld i e r so fth eXXX V I I IA rmyCo rp s .Ano th e r325Span i shso ld i e r sr e c e iv edth eW a rM e r i t C ro s s ,S e condC la s s ,compa r edto210G e rman s .Som eW eh rma ch tcommand e r sexp la in edth i sa symm e t r i ct r ea tm en ta ssh e e rpo l i t i ca ld e f e r37 en c etowa rd sth e i ra l l i e s . Thoughth e r ew e r enog r ea tv i c to r i e stos ing abou t ,ep i sod e ssu cha sth ed e f en c eo fPo sadand O t en sk i iw e r esoon my th i c iz ed .38 Th esam eo c cu r r ed w i thth eT igodacomba t sandth ef ron ta la s sau l tonth efo r t if edh eadqua r t e r sn ea r Dub rovka , wh i chend ed inth es en s e l e s s ma s sa c r eo fdoz en so fso ld i e r sandth er emova lo fth e i r 39 in comp e t en tcommand e r . Pa r t lyfo rpo l i t i ca lr ea son s ,th eo ff c ia lW eh rma ch tr epo r t sb road ca s t fa rand w id eth eva l ian td e ed so fth e2ndBa t ta l iono fth eBD269 th R eg im en t ,w i thi t ss t rongFa lang i s tcompon en t .40 P rom in en tFa lang i s t s and m emb e r so fth eFa lang i s tyou thfgu r edamongth efa l l en ,su ch a sSEUl ead e rEn r iqu eSo tomayo r ,Jo s é An ton io ’ sfo rm e rad ju tan tV i c en t e Ga c eo ,ands ev e ra li l lu s t r iou sO ldSh i r t s .Th e s ecomb in ed w i th G e rman p ropagandatoc r ea t earoman t i c iz edimag eo fth eSpan i sh comba tan t samongth eG e rmanin fan t r i e s .Span i sho ff c e r sp e r c e iv ed adm i ra t ionf romth e i rG e rmanco l l eagu e s ,“ incon t ra s tw i thth eI ta lian s ,Roman ian s ,F inn i sh ,e t c . ,”du etoth eeno rmou se f fo r tth eBDhad mad e .M eanwh i l e ,doub t sa ro s er ega rd ingth esuppo s ed inv in c ib i l i tyo f

1 10 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th eW eh rma ch tonth i se sp e c ia l lyd i ff cu l tf ron t .By Nov emb e r ,Co lon e l Bad i l lohada l r eadycon c lud edtha tth e ma t e r ia lr e sou r c e so fth i scampa ign w e r enob e t t e rthantho s eo fth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ;th et roop s hadto mak edo w i ths ca r c ep rov i s ion s ,in su ff c i en ta r t i l l e ry ,andav e ry 41 longf ron tl in e . Incon t ra s t ,th ecommand e r so fth ed iv i s ion stha tfough ta long s id e th e BD ,andth eh ighcommando fth e16 thand18 th A rm i e s ,w e r e ra th e run imp r e s s ed w i thBDcomba tp e r fo rman c e , wh i ch wo r s en edun d e rth ee f f e c t so fth eha r shc l ima t e ,poo rt ra in ing ,log i s t i ca ld ef c i en c i e s , andth ela cko fho r s e sandv eh i c l e s .F r i ed r i ch -W i lh e lmvonChappu i s , command e rg en e ra lo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,p r ed i c t edin m id -No v emb e rtha tth e“250 thSpan i shD iv i s ion wou ldno tla s tlong .”Th i sl ed h imtop ropo s eth ed ep loym en to fath i rdo fth e61 s tG e rman D iv i s ion andr e tu rnth eBDtoi t ss ta r t ingpo s i t ioninth ew e s tbanko fth eV o lkhov , wh e r ei t wou ldr ema inina“ r e la t iv e lyca lm”p la c e .G en e ra lBu s ch comm en t edtha t ,d e sp i t etak ingT ikhv in ,th eo f f en s iv ehadno tcom p l e t edi t ss e condob j e c t iv e , wh i ch wa sto w ea rdownth eSov i e tt roop s andsho r t enth ef ron tl in etoth eno r th .H ethough ttha tth eSpan ia rd s hadfa i l edinth i sdu etoth e i rla cko f mob i l i ty ,h eavylo s s e s ,andth e e f f e c t so fth eco ld .H eadv i s edd ep loy ingth emon lyd e f en s iv e lyinca lm s e c t ion so fth ef ron t .Th eR ed A rmyhad mob i l iz edr e s e rv e sf romth e Ea s t , wh i chth r ea t en edtod e s t royth et roop sonth ef ron tno r tho fI lm en .Twoday s la t e r , Ma r sha lG eo rgvonKü ch l e r wa s in fo rm edtha tth e “fgh t ingcou rag e”o fth eSpan ia rd s wa s“ s low lybu tsu r e ly” wan ing anda sk edth e OKWtor ep la c eth eB lu eD iv i s ion w i tha G e rmand iv i 42 s ion . V on Chappu i scon cu r r eda f t e rm e e t ing w i th Muñoz G rand e s , whoa cknow l edg edh eavylo s s e sandlow mo ra l edu etoth eco ldbu t 43 r e fu s edto w i thd raw . How ev e r ,th ecommando fA rmy G roup No r thr ea l iz edtha tr ep la cingth eSpan i shd iv i s ion w i thaG e rmanon e( th e81 s t )no r tho f Novgo rodandama s s ingth eIb e r ian stod e f endth eI lm ens e c to ro rth ec i tyo f Novgo roda sa“ so r to fSpan i shen c lav e” invo lv ed“qu e s t ion so ffo r e ign po l i cy”andd idno td ep enden t i r e lyonth ea rmy .Th eh eado fth e16 th A rmys en tth er equ e s tto H i t l e rh im s e l f ,bu ti t wa sno tapp rov ed .Th e fa c ttha tth eSov i e t sd idno tfo cu sth e i rs t r ik e son Novgo rodandth e no r thI lm ena r eaca lm edvonKü ch l e rfo ra wh i l eanda l lay edh i sf ea ro f 44 ab r ea chinth ef ron ta tth es e c to rp ro t e c t edbyth eBD . Th ela cko fin t e r e s tinfo r t i fy ingpo s i t ion sinth eca lms e c t ion so fth e f ron to c cup i edbySpan i shun i t sl edtod i sp ropo r t iona t e lyh eavyBD lo s s e sf romSov i e ta r t i l l e ryf r e . Ou tb r eak so f mang ea l soth r ea t en edto d e c ima t eth eho r s er e s e rv e s .45 Th eG e rman sdoub t edtha tth eIb e r ian s cou ldho ldth epo s i t ion sdu r ingth ew in t e ronaf ron tex t end ing mo r e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 1 1

F ig .4 .2 .Span i shso ld i e r sinRu s s ia ,W in t e r1941–2(EFEA r ch iv e , Mad r id )

thanfo r tyk i lom e t r e sa longth ebank so fth eV o lkhovandtw en ty -on e k i lom e t r e sa longth eI lm en .46 Th e i rs lowr ea c t ioncapab i l i tyfavou r ed th ea c t iv i tyo fSov i e tpa t ro l s , whocou ldnowc ro s sf roz enLak eI lm en 47 tos t r ik e . How ev e r ,th ed im in i sh edhumanr e s e rv e sand ma t e r i e lo fth eW eh rma ch t mad ei timpo s s ib l etor ep la c eth eBD w i thsu ff c i en tp e r sonn e l toen su r eth epo s i t ion s .Th en ew G e rmand iv i s iontha thadb e enr e qu e s t edtor e in fo r c eth ea r eab e tw e enth eBDandth e126 th D iv i s ion n ev e ra r r iv ed .Th eG e rman422ndR eg im en t– w i thcomba tan t sav e ragingth i r ty -fv ey ea r so fag e–tha tr e l i ev edth eexhau s t ed269 thSpan i sh R eg im en t wa sl e s sab l etor e s i s tth ec l ima t eandcomba tcond i t ion sthan 48 th er ev i l edsou th e rn e r s . S in c eea r lyO c tob e r1941 ,A rmyG roup No r th hadb e enr e c e iv inglow e r -qua l i tyr e l i e ft roop sw i thl e s scomba texp e r ien c e . Hav ingendu r edfou r mon th s mo r eo fin t en s ecomba t ,th eho r s e s , th e mo ra l e ,andth el iv ingcond i t ion so fth eG e rmant roop sinth es e c to r

1 12 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w e r eno tsod i f f e r en tf romtho s eo fth eSpan ia rd s .Th eun i t stha thad pa r t i c ipa t edinth eb r idg eh eadcomba t sw e r einnob e t t e rphy s i ca lo r p sy cho log i ca lcond i t ion ,e i th e r .49InJanua ry ,th e Du t ch N i ed e r land e R eg im en t wa sd e em edap tfo rd e f en s iv eta sk sandp la c edb e tw e enth e Span ia rd sandth e126 th D iv i s ion .H i t l e rhads en ti ttoen su r etha tth e Span i shD iv i s ionno tendupb e s i eg edbyth eSov i e t s ,a sth i s wou ldc r e50 a t es e r iou sp rob l em sinh i sd ip loma t i cr e la t ion sw i thF ran co ’ sr eg im e . In M ad r id ,th e r ew a sin c r e a s ingcon c e rnr eg a rd ingth en ews i tu a t ion inth eE a s tbyth eendo f1 9 4 1 .A tCh r i s tm a s ,F r an coo rd e r edth eSp an i sh amb a s s ado rinB e r l in ,Jo s éM .F in a t ,tot r an sm i ttoth eR e i chau tho r i t i e s h i sd e s i r eth a tth eB lu eD iv i s ionen joyar e sp i t e .Th i st empo r a ry w i thd r aw a lw a sun th ink ab l efo ra G e rm ancomm andth a tl a ck edr e s e rv e s . A l thoughF in a tandS e r r anoSuñ e rin s i s t eddu r ingth ef r s t mon th so f 1 9 4 2 ,th ean sw e rf romth e OKWr em a in edun ch ang ed .Th eya rgu ed th a tth eBDp ro t e c t edar e l a t iv e lyc a lm e rf ron t ,w i thfo r t if edpo s i t ion s andac i ty(Novgo rod )th a to f f e r edadd i t ion a lpo s s ib i l i t i e sfo rsh e l t e r . W i thd r aw a lo fp e r sonn e l wou ldon lyb epo s s ib l ei fSp a ingu a r an t e ed r ep l a c em en t s .A l so ,a cqu i e s c ingtosu chp e t i t ion sf rom M ad r id wou ld 5 1 c r e a t eacomp a r a t iv eg r i ev an c eamongth eo th e rW eh rm a ch td iv i s ion s . Th eSp an i shgov e rnm en th adb e en wo rk ingonth ei s su eo fr ep l a c em en t ss in c eD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 ,g iv enth ef a i l edG e rm ano f f en s iv eon Mo scowandth er e a l i z a t ionth a tth ew a rwou ldcon sum e mo r et im eand l iv e s th ano r ig in a l lyfo r e s e en . Agu s t ín A zn a rand D ion i s ioR id ru e join s i s t ed th a tFo r e ign M in i s t e rS e r r anoSuñ e radd r e s sth en e edtofndp a r t i a lr e p l a c em en t s . Wh i l eth em anyF a l ang i s td e a th sh adp rov id ed m a r ty r sfo r th es ing l ep a r tyini t sd r iv etor e cov e rsph e r e so fpow e rinSp a in ,i th ad a l sod ep r iv edth eo rg an i z a t iono fsom eo fi t s mo s tp r e s t ig iou sl e ad e r s andd e c im a t edth einfu en t i a lO ldSh i r t s , who w e r en e ed edinSp a in . G en e r a lV a r e l a wo rk ed w i thth eid e ao fsub s t i tu t ingth een t i r e“f r s tD iv i s ion ”inb lo ck .H e wou lds endso ld i e r sr e c ru i t edex c lu s iv e lyf romth e m i l i t a ryb a r r a ck sandtho s e whoh aden l i s t edin1 9 4 1bu th adno tb e en d i sp a t ch edtoRu s s i ab e c au s eth equo t a sh adb e en m e t .52 Th ef r s tr e l i e f exp ed i t ion s , mod e s tinnumb e r s ,b eg antoc ro s sth ePy r en e anbo rd e rin J anu a ry1 9 4 2 .In m id -M a r ch ,th ey w e r eo ff c i a l lyr e cogn i z eda sm a r ch b a t t a l ion sinvo lv edint r an spo r t ingr ep l a c em en tso ld i e r s .Th i sh e lp edto m a in t a inth esupp lyo fBDcomb a tp e r sonn e landg av eth eSp an i a rd s con s id e r ab l elog i s t i c a lv a lu efo rth eG e rm ancomm and .Th e i rcomb a t c ap ab i l i ty m igh tb equ e s t ion ab l e ,bu ta t l e a s tth eyd idno th av etor ep l a c e f a l l encomb a t an t sw i tho ld e ron e s ,a so th e rW eh rm a ch td iv i s ion sd id . M eanwh i l e ,th een emygav enor e sp i t e .InJanua ry1942 ,som eBD un i t sengag ed inh eavyd e f en s iv ecomba taga in s tSov i e tcoun t e r -a t ta ck s onth e i rno r th e rnfanka tT e r em e t s , wh i l eth e126 thD iv i s ionandsom e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 13

SScompan i e shadtor ep e lSov i e ta t ta ck sinth esou tha tLak eI lm en .In th eno r tho ftha ts e c to r ,th eSov i e t slaun ch edapow e r fu lo f f en s iv etoa l l ev ia t eth es i tua t ion inL en ing rad .On 13Janua ry ,th eSov i e t2ndA s sau l t A rmyc ro s s edth er iv e randtook M ia sno iBo r ,onth ew e s t e rnsho r eo f th eV o lkhov .A tth eendo fJanua ry ,th eSov i e t sd i r e c t edth ea t ta cktoth e no r th -w e s t ,towa rd sth era i ll in e s .Th i sr edu c edth epo s s ib i l i tytha tth e Span ia rd s wou ldb esu r round ed .Af ewday sla t e r ,th e2ndBa t ta l iono f th e269 thR eg im en tandacompanyo fth e263 rd w e r eaga ina t ta ch ed toth e126 th G e rman D iv i s ion .A f t e r manyhou r so fha r shfgh t ingand ma r ch ingth roughsnow ,th eyen t e r ed Ma lo eZamo sh ’ e ,b rok eth es i eg e , andr e s cu ed140 G e rmanso ld i e r s .S ev e ra lo th e rSpan i shun i t sfough t 53 a long s id eth eG e rmanfo r c e stoe l im ina t eth epo ck e ta tM ia sno iBo r . Add edtoth eha r shcomba t ,s ign if can tca sua l t i e s ,andth ec ru e lt emp e ra tu r e s–th eth e rmom e t e rd idno tc l imbabov ez e rofo rev enaf ew hou r sun t i l10 Ma r ch1942– w e r eth es t r ik e sonth eea s t e rnsho r eo fth e V o lkhov .Th e mo s tno to r iou sa c t ion wa stha to fth e“ sk icompany ,”l ed by Cap ta in O rdá s . On1 1Janua ry1942 ,th ecompanyl e f ti t sSpan i sh po s i t ion stoc ro s sf roz enLak eI lm eninana t t emp ttor e s cu ea G e rman un i ttha thadb e ensu r round edinth ev i l lag eo f Vzvad .Th ec ro s s ing wa ssod i ff cu l ttha t 102 m enf roz etod ea thinth ef r s ttwoday s .Tho s e whosu rv iv ed w e r ea t t end edonth eoppo s i t esho r ebyg roup so fG e rmanandLa tv ianso ld i e r s .T enday sla t e r ,a f t e rs ev e ra lcomba t s ,th er ema ind e ro fth ecompanyjo in edtho s eund e rs i eg e . On lytw e lv em en r e tu rn edun in ju r edtoth es ta r t ingpo in t ;e igh t e eno fth e wound edhad toendu r eampu ta t iono fbo thl eg s .Thoughth eh ighhumanco s tp la c ed th e mod e s tr e su l t sinqu e s t ion ,th e“F ea to fLak eI lm en”b e cam eanin d i spu tab l eB lu eD iv i s ionp ropagandasu c c e s sand wa s my th i c iz eda s on eo fi t s mo s t“h e ro i cd e ed s .”54 Op e ra t ionRaub t i e r(P r eda to r )b eganon 15 Ma r ch1942 ,w i thth eob j e c t iv eo fcu t t ingo f fth eSov i e tfo r c e stha thadc ro s s edth er iv e r .Th e Sov i e ta t ta ckhadfa i l ed ,andth eynowfa c edth epo s s ib i l i tyo ffnd ing th em s e lv e sund e rs i eg eb e tw e enth eG e rmanr ea rgua rdandth eV o lk hov . On19 Ma r ch ,th eSpan ia rd sandG e rman saga intook M ia sno iBo r andc lo s edth eV o lkhovpo ck e t ,t rapp inga lmo s t130 ,000 R edA rmyso l d i e r s .A id edbyT -34tank s ,th eR edA rmyb rok eth es i eg et empo ra r i lyon 29 Ma r ch .Th eG e rman saga inc lo s edth emo f f ,l eav ingth emtoendu r e s lowa t t r i t ion .Th eG e rmancommandf ea r edtha tcoun t e r -a t ta ck sby anen emy w i tha lmo s tend l e s sr e s e rv e s wou ldd efn i t iv e lycomp rom i s e th epo s i t ion sp ro t e c t edbyr ep la c em en tt roop s , who w e r eo ld e randi l l p r epa r edfo ro f f en s iv eta sk s ;byo th e run i t s ,exhau s t edf romcomba t andth ew in t e r ;andbyfo r e ignt roop s(Du t ch ,Span i sh ,andsom eF l em55 i sh ) , whomth eysawa sra th e run r e l iab l e . Inth es e cond w e eko fAp r i l

1 14 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

1942 ,b e l l i co s ea c t iv i tyb egantod e c l in ed ra s t i ca l ly .Th ethaw ingr iv e r fa c i l i ta t edaf ews t r ik e sonth eea s tbanko fth eV o lkhovo rtocap tu r e p r i son e r sinth ePo ck e t .56 Th ef r s ts ign if can tr ep la c em en to fSpan i sht roop stookp la c ein May , 57 wh en290o ff c e r s , 88 NCO s ,and1 ,121so ld i e r sl e f tfo rG e rmany . In Jun e ,th e1 ,435 m eno fth e2ndBa t ta l ion w e r er epa t r ia t ed .Th efna lba t t l e stol iqu ida t eth eV o lkhovPo ck e ttookp la c ef romla t e Maytoth eend o fJun e ,a roundBo l ’ sho eZamo sh ’ e .S ev e ra lSpan i shun i t spa r t i c ipa t ed (3 rdBa t ta l iono fth e262ndR eg im en tund e r Ma jo rRam í r ezd e Ca r ta g ena ,acompanyo fsapp e r s ,anan t i tanks e c t ion ,andanexp lo ra t ion g roup ) ,l edby Co lon e l Ha r ry Hopp e(126 th D iv i s ion ) ,a long w i thth e F l em i shL eg ionando th e rG e rmanun i t s ,und e rth ejo in tcommando f th eSSS t and a r t en füh r e r Bu rk .Am id s tswa rm so f mo squ i to e s ,th eSpan ia rd sfough taga in s tad e sp e ra t een emyfo rs ev e ra lday sinfo r e s t sand bog s .D e sp i t ef e r c eSov i e tr e s i s tan c e ,th eop e ra t ion sw e r esu c c e s s fu l .58 Th eG e rmano ff c e r sp ra i s edth eBD inpub l i cbu tqua l if edth e i rcomba tp e r fo rman c e ,e sp e c ia l lydu r ingth efgh t ingo f21–2Jun e ,a sano th e r fa s co .Th eSpan i sho ff c e r sand NCO shadl i t t l eexp e r i en c einfo r e s t comba t .Th eyhadb e ensu rp r i s edbys ev e ra len emya t ta ck sandfo r c ed tor e t r ea t ,l eav ingammun i t ionandh eav i e rw eapon sb eh ind . Add ed toth i s wa sd ef c i en tp r epa ra t ionfo rth ea t ta ckbyth eSpan i shcom mand e r ,th ela cko fcoo rd ina t ion w i th G e rmanandF l em i shun i t s ,and th ein comp r eh en s ib l epau s e sinth efgh t ing .A tfou rinth ea f t e rnoon , th eo ff c e r so rd e r edaon e -hou rb r eakfo r“ cogna c ,ham ,andt eab i s cu i t s .”ThoughBDvo lun t e e r spo s s e s s edind iv idua lva lou r ,th eG e rman op in iono fSpan i shfgh t ingcapab i l i tyhadno tchang ed .Compa r edto “No rd i cs ty l e”comba tan t s ,th eSpan ia rd sd emon s t ra t edg r ea t e rimp etu sa tth eb eg inn ingo fana t ta ck ,bu tl e s sd i s c ip l in e wh eni tcam eto r ep e l l ingcoun t e r -a t ta ck s .Th e ma inp rob l em wa stha tth eyla ck ed“ad equa t egu idan c e”f romr e l iab l e NCO sonth eg round .Span i sho ff c e r s a l son eg l e c t edp rov i s ionandammun i t iondu t i e s , wh i cho f t enr end e r ed 59 th eh eavy w eapon su s e l e s sfo r wan to fp ro j e c t i l e s . Th eG e rman sw e r e equa l lyd i sp l ea s ed wh enth eBDund e rp e r fo rm edini so la t eda c t ion sto cap tu r eSov i e tp r i son e r s ,du etoth e“ fa i lu r eo fl ead e r sh ipandla cko f p r epa ra t iono fth et roop s .”60 How ev e r ,th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp scom mandhadnor e s e rv e sw i th wh i chtosub s t i tu t eth eSpan i shba t ta l ion . Fo r mon th snow ,th eG e rmanr ep la c em en tt roop shadfa l l enfa rb e low W eh rma ch ts tanda rd s .A roundth esam et im e ,A rmy G roup No r thr ec e iv edr epo r t sind i ca t ingtha tth er e c ru i t sa r r iv ingonth ef ron tla ck ed 61 capab i l i t i e s ,t e chn i ca lt ra in ing ,andcomba t mo ra l e . Th eV o lkhovPo ck e t wa sl iqu ida t edon28Jun e1942 .Th eG e rman s pa idah ighp r i c e infa l l enso ld i e r s ,e sp e c ia l lytho s eo fth e58 thand126 th

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 15

D iv i s ion s , who w e r er e l i ev edino rd e rtog iv eth emr e s t .Som eo ftho s e po s i t ion sw e r eo c cup i edbyth eB lu eD iv i s ion .G en e ra l And r e jV la sov , th ecommand e ro fth een c i r c l edt roop s , wa scap tu r edon12Ju ly . Mo r e thanth i r ty twothou sandSov i e tso ld i e r sw e r etak enp r i son e rw i thh im , ands ix ty -fv ethou sand mo r ed i edincomba t .62 M eanwh i l e ,th eR ed A rmyso ld i e r s whohadf edf romth eV o lkhovPo ck e tin c r ea s edgu e rr i l laa c t iv i tyinth er ea rgua rd ,c r ea t ingn ewd i ff cu l t i e sfo rth eXXXV I I I A rmyCo rp s .63 Inea r lyJu ly ,th eG e rmancommands t i l lf ea r edtha tth een emy wou ld coun t e r -a t ta ckf romth e i rpo s i t ion sonth ew e s tbanko fth eV o lkhov andfo cu sonth eno r tho fth eSpan i shs e c to r .N e ighbou r ing G e rman un i t sw e r ein s t ru c t edtocom eandsuppo r tth eIb e r iant roop sinca s e o faSov i e ta t ta ck .Som er e s e rv e s , ma in lyanSSan t i -a i r c ra f ts e c t ion , w e r ep la c edinth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rdtoin t e rv en ei fth eSpan ia rd s y i e ld ed .Inla t eJu ly ,th e i rf ea r sw e r epa r t lyd i sp e l l ed :th eSpan ia rd sengag edinf e r c ehand to -handcomba tbu t manag edtor ep e laSov i e t 64 a t t emp ttos t r ik ea tZapo l ’ e . I tw a sd ang e rou stoexp e c tth eBDtocov e rsu chalongs e c t iono fth e f ron t .Th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp scomm andcommun i c a t edi t sin c r e a s ing app r eh en s iontoth e1 6 th A rmyandth eSup r em e Comm ando fA rmy G roup No r th , wh i chl edth emtop l a c eth eBDonano th e rf ron t .Ev en Muño zG r and e sdoub t edth e i rch an c e so fho ld ingth epo s i t ion sonth e w e s tb anko fth eV o lkhovon c eth er iv e rf ro z eov e rfo rth ew in t e rand f a c i l i t a t edth e mov em en to fen emyt roop s .Add edtoth i sw a sth ed e s i r e top a r t i c ip a t e inth eup com ingNo r th e rnL igh to f f en s iv e , in i t i a l lyp l ann ed 6 5 fo rS ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 ,th a tH i t l e rh aden t ru s t edto A rmy G roup No r th . On1 4Ju ly , Muño zG r and e sno t if edh i sch i e f so fs t a f fabou tth ech ang eo f f ron tand th en ew s t r av e l l edqu i ck ly .H ec l a im ed th a th eh ad in fo rm ed th e t roop so fth eimm in en t mov etoavo idr amp an td e f e a t i sm ,a sh i so ff c e r s h adb e enexp r e s s inganin c r e a s ingd e s i r etor e tu rntoSp a inandg row ing d i s con t en tw i thth ero l eth eyh adp l ay edsof a r .Th eG e rm ancomm and , how ev e r ,f e a r edth a tth en ew s wou ldr e l axth e i rfgh t ingsp i r i t , wh i ch w a sa l r e adyebb ing w i thth ea r r iv a lo fth er ep l a c em en t s . Th eSp an i a rd sw e r efn a l lyr ep l a c edinph a s e sbyun i t so fth e2 0 th and2 1 2 th D iv i s ion sf rom8 Augu s tun t i l1 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 , wh enth e 2ndB a t t a l iono fth e2 6 9 thR eg im en tw a sr e l i ev edf rom i t spo s i t ion s .Th e XXXV I I IA rmyCo rp scomm andr e a l i z edth a t5 0p e rc en tf ew e rG e rm an so ld i e r s wou ldb ecov e r ingth es ix tyk i lom e t r e so ff ron t ,a sth eBDh ad b e enr ep l a c ingi t sf a l l en w i thn ewt roop sf romSp a in . How ev e r ,th ey hop edth a tth i sd e c r e a s e wou ldb ecomp en s a t edbyth eg r e a t e rexp e r ien c eand m i l i t a ryc ap ab i l i tyo fth eG e rm anso ld i e r s ,andf ew e rop e r a t iv e 6 6 in conv en i en c e sd e r iv edf romco l l abo r a t ing w i thfo r e igncomb a t an t s .

1 16 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

W a ro fPo s i t ion sintheS iegeo fLen ing rad (Sep tembe r1942–Novembe r1943 ) Ine a r lyS ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 ,th eBDtookov e rn ewpo s i t ion sonth eL en ing r ad F ron t .Th eys e tuph e adqu a r t e r s in th ePok rov sko ee s t a t e ,r e l i ev ed th e1 2 1 s t G e rm anD iv i s ion ,and jo in edth eL IVCo rp so fth e1 8 thA rmy ,comm and ed byG en e r a lE r ik H an s en .A W a f f en -SSb r ig ad ew a spo s t edn e x ttoth eBD onth eno r th ,andanSSpo l i c ed iv i s iononth esou th .Th eBD w a stocov e r tw en tyk i lom e t r e so ff ron tf romPu shk intoK r a sny iBo r :ana r e at r av e r s ed byth eL en ing r ad -Mo s cowro adandth eI sho r a ,at r ibu t a ryo fth eN ev a R iv e r .In t e rm so fd en s i ty ,o rso ld i e r sp e rk i lom e t r ecov e r ed , th eyw e r enow 6 7 th es e cond -mo s t -num e rou sD iv i s iono fth e1 8 th A rmy . Th et e r r a in w a s f a i r lyf a t ,w i thp e r iph e r a ltown sbo a s t ingp a rk sandsump tuou sp a l a c e s , su cha sth a to fC a th e r in eth eG r e a tinPu shk inandth a to fT s a rP au lIin P av lov sk .Th eo c cupy ingfo r c e su s edth e s ea sb a r r a ck s ,s to r ehou s e s ,and a r t i l l e rylookou tpo s t s ;th eya l so m ad ew a rc em e t e r i e sinth eg a rd en s .Th e c l im a t ew a ssom ewh a tl e s ss ev e r e .Thoughth ep e a s an t so fth ea r e aap p e a r edtol iv eb e t t e rth antho s eo fth eV o lkhovr eg ion ,imp rov em en t sin p rov i s ion stoth ec iv i l i anpopu l a t ionb eg inn inginsp r ing1 9 4 2cou ldno t h id eth ed ev a s t a t ionc au s edbyth ef am in eo fth ep r ev iou sw in t e r . Mo s t o fth einh ab i t an t sh adb e end epo r t edtol abou rc amp sinth eR e i ch , wh i l e 6 8 tho s e whor em a in ed w e r efo r c edto wo rkfo rth eo c cupy ingfo r c e s . Th eBDnowpa r t i c ipa t edinth es i eg eo fL en ing rad ,inapha s echa ra c t e r iz edbyas ta t i c wa ro fa t t r i t ion .Th eg en e ra l mono tony wa son ly in t e r rup t edbyspo rad i cs t r ik e s ,e f fo r t stor ep e lSov i e ta t ta ck s ,ando c 69 ca s iona la r t i l l e ryex chang e s . Th et roop sw e r eb e t t e requ ipp edfo rth e co ld ,andBD mob i l i tyhad imp rov ed .Th eho r s e sw e r ea l so inb e t t e rcon d i t ion ,thoughin f e r io rtotho s ea s s ign edtoth en e ighbou r ing G e rman d iv i s ion s .70 Du r ingth e i rf r s t mon th sonth i sn ews e c to ro fth ef ron t ,th e p r io r i ty wa stocon so l ida t ed e f en s iv epo s i t ion s .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionhad p l en tyo fso ld i e r s(un l ik e mo s tG e rmand iv i s ion s ,b eg inn ing w i thth e n e ighbou r ing170 th D iv i s ionandth eSSPo l i c eD iv i s ion ) , wh i chgav e th eG e rmancommand e r s mo r econfd en c einth eSpan ia rd s ’capa c i tyto 71 r e s i s tSov i e ta t ta ck s . Th eya l sova lu edth egoodw i l landen thu s ia sm o fth et roop s ,bu tlam en t edtha tth econ s tan tr ep la c em en to fo ff c e r s and NCO sp r ev en t edth emf roma c cumu la t ingexp e r i en c e .Th eys t i l l though to fth eSpan i shD iv i s iona sno tv e ry mob i l eandth e r e fo r einad equa t efo ro f f en s iv ea c t ion s .Th eBD wou ldn ev e rb eab l eto w i th s tand as t rongen emycoun t e r -a t ta ck ,andn ev e rpa s s edabov el ev e lth r e eo f 72 th efou rca t ego r i e su s edbyth eG e rmancommand . G e rmanb ia s e scon t inu edtocond i t ionth e s ep e r iod i ceva lua t ion s . Th eyh e ldtoth e i rconv i c t iontha tth eSpan ia rd sw e r egoodgu e r r i l la

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 1 17

fgh t e r sbu tra th e rin ep ta t mod e rn wa r fa r e .T ru etoth e i r“fgh t ing 73 s ty l e ,”th eyp r e f e r r edhand to -handcomba t . Th eya l sola ck edg rand o f f en s iv e sin wh i chtopa r t i c ipa t e .Inth eo ry ,th ey wou ldhav eb e eninc lud edin Op e ra t ion No r th e rnL igh ttotak eL en ing rad ,m e e tup w i th th eF inn i sht roop s ,andadvan c eonSov i e tpo r t sinth eA r c t i c . How ev e r , F i e ld Ma r sha lE r i chvon Man s t e incommun i ca t edto Muñoz G rand e s tha tth ea t ta ckhadb e enpo s tpon edind efn i t e lydu etor en ew edSov i e t a c t iv i tyonth eLadogaF ron t .P e r sonn e lhadtob ed iv e r t edtos topth e o f f en s iv e ,soth eBD wou ldb ed ep loy eda sr e s e rv e sfo rth e121 s tD iv is ioninanda roundPu shk in/S lu tzk . Du etoth ecomb in edp r e s su r eon th een t i r eEa s t e rnF ron tf romSov i e ta c t iv i tyinth eDonandS ta l ing rad , Op e ra t ion No r th e rnL igh t wa sn ev e rlaun ch ed .Th ecou r s eo fth e wa r 74 inth eEa s t wa ss low lyandd efn i t iv e lychang ing . A f t e rfou r mon th so fd e lay s byth eG e rmancommand , Muñoz G rand e s wa so ff c ia l lyr e l i ev edin D e c emb e rbyo rd e ro fth e OKWand H i t l e rh im s e l f .Th en ewcommand e r in ch i e fo fth eD iv i s ion wa sM ini s t e rV a r e la ’ st ru s t ed man ,G en e ra lEm i l ioE s t eban In fan t e s .A f t e rs ev e ra lw e ek so f wa i t ingfo rH i t l e r ’ sapp rova linB e r l in ,h ea r r iv eda tth e G r igo rovoh eadqua r t e r sinAugu s t ,bu ta ss e condincommandun t i lth e Füh r e rsawf ttoh e edF ran co ’ su rg ingtol e t Muñoz G rand e sr e tu rnto Spa in .E s t eban In fan t e shadb e enapa r to fth eSpan i sh A rmy G en e ra l S ta f fand wa sl e s scon c e rn ed w i thcu l t iva t ingh i sgoodimag eamong s t th et roop sthan Muñoz G rand e s .H e wa sco ld ,no tg iv entob e ings e en onth ef ron tl in e s ,andno tpa r t i cu la r lyin c l in edtowa rd sfa s c i sm . Howev e r ,h e wa s mo r em e thod i ca l ,andh i sG e rmanin t e r lo cu to r sthough t h imagoodp ro f e s s iona l .75 Muñoz G rand e s mad eas toponh i sr e tu rn jou rn eytov i s i tH i t l e ra tth eW o l f ’ sLa i r , wh e r eh e wa sawa rd edth e Kn igh t ’ sC ro s so fth eI ron C ro s s ,comp l e t ew i thth eoakl eav e s .Th e Füh r e rt ran sm i t t edh i scon c e rntha tSpa in ma in ta ini t sn eu t ra l i tybu t no tfa l lin w i thth eA l l i e s .H ea l sop rom i s edG e rman m i l i ta ryp ro t e c t ion 76 inth eca s eo fAng lo -Am e r i cana t ta ck sonSpan i sht e r r i to r i e s . Pa ra l l e ltoop e ra t ion sonth e DonF ron t , wh i chev en tua l lyl edtoth e c rumb l ingo fth eI ta l ians e c to randth esu r r end e ro fth e6 th A rmyin S ta l ing rad ,on12Janua ry1943th eR ed A rmys ta r t edth ef r s tpha s e tol i f tth es i eg eo fL en ing rad :th eI sk ra o f f en s iv e . Th eylaun ch ed tw en ty -on ed iv i s ion sa tth esou th e rnfank ,ea s to fth ec i tyandsou tho f Lak eLadoga ,inana t t emp ttoapp lyap in c e r mov em en ttoth eG e rman XXV IA rmy Co rp s .Th e2ndBa t ta l iono fth eSpan i sh269 thR eg im en t wa saga inr equ i r edtor e in fo r c eth eG e rmanpo s i t ion sh e ldbyth e61 s t D iv i s ionn ea rPo s e lok .Th eSpan ia rd sa l sohadtocov e ralong e rs e ct iono fth ef ron t wh enth eSSPo l i c eD iv i s ionpo s t edsou tho fth eBD wa sw i thd rawntocon ta inaSov i e to f f en s iv e .On 22Janua ry ,th eSov i e t s

1 18 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

a t ta ck edPo s e lokandcu to f facompany .Th eRománBa t ta l ionfough t ba ckd e sp i t enum e rou sfa l l en ,coun t e r -a t ta ck ingandth encon ta in ing an ewen emyo f f en s iv e .Th eylo s t124so ld i e r sintwoday s , wh i l eth e wound ed ,f roz en ,s i ck ,and m i s s ingcam ec lo s etoa lmo s tfou rhund r ed .77 M eanwh i l e ,th eBDf e l lund e rth ecommando fG en e ra lPh i l ipp K l e f f e landth eIA rmyCo rp s .On28Janua ry1943 ,th er ema ind e ro fth e RománBa t ta l ionr e tu rn edtoi t sfo rm e rpo s i t ion s . Inea r lyF eb rua ry ,i tb e cam ec l ea rtha tth eR ed A rmy wa scon c en t ra t ingl igh tandh eavya r t i l l e ry ,a long w i thtank sandin fan t ry ,onth e K ra sny iBo rs e c to ro fth ep la in , wh i ch wa sp ro t e c t edbyth eSpan i sh 262nd R eg im en t .Th eon lyth ingl e f ttoa s c e r ta in wa sth eda t eo fth e a t ta ck .E s t eban In fan t e sp r e emp t iv e lyo rgan iz edth r e ed e f en s iv el in e s . A t6 :45 onth e mo rn ingo f 10 F eb rua ry1943 ,ad eva s ta t inga t ta ckb egan w i thv e ryin t en s ea r t i l l e rybomba rdm en ttha tgav e waytoaf ron ta la ssau l tbyfou rin fan t ryd iv i s ion s–v e rysup e r io rinnumb e r s–suppo r t ed bya i rp lan e s ,ahund r edtank s , mo to r iz edun i t s ,sk i e r s ,andan t i tank cannon s .Th eob j e c t iv eo fth eo f f en s iv e ,a spa r to f Op e ra t ionPo la rS ta r , wa stotu rntowa rd sth eea s tandb r eakth es i eg eo fL en ing rad ,c lo s ing o f fth een emyun i t stha tp ro t e c t edth eI sho ras e c to r .Th i s wa sp lann ed toco in c id ew i thana t ta ckonth ePogo s t ’ es e c to rtoth esou th ea s t ,in o rd e rtotak eth eLubańra i lhub .Inth em id rang e ,a long w i thth e Don o f f en s iv eandth ed e s t ru c t iono fth eS ta l ing radpo ck e tinth esou th ,th e op e ra t ionsough ttob r ingabou tth eco l lap s eo fth eG e rman18 thA rmy andag en e ra lr e t r ea to fA rmy G roup No r th ,thank stocoo rd ina t eda tta ck sf romth eD emyan skPo ck e ttoth esou tho fLak eI lm en . How ev e r , th i spa ra l l e lo f f en s iv e , wh i ch wa sin t end edtor ea ch Na rvaandcu to f f A rmyG roup No r th ,d idno ttak ep la c eb e cau s eth eG e rman16 thA rmy hadr e t r ea t edf romth e r ea sap r e cau t ion w e ek sb e fo r e . Th eSpan i shun i t sinth ef r s tl in eo fth ef ron tw e r eov e rwh e lm edby th een emy ’ sf r epow e randsup e r io rnumb e r s . How ev e r ,th esu rv ivo r s t ena c iou s lyr e s i s t edth eSov i e tadvan c eande s tab l i sh eds ev e ra ld e f en c e nu c l e itha ts low eden emyp rog r e s s .G e rmanav ia t ioninth eea r lya f t e rnoono f10 F eb rua ryh e lp eds topth eo f f en s iv e ,a sd idth ea r r iva lo fG e r manr e in fo r c em en t sa long w i thsom eE s ton ianand No rw eg ianun i t s , wh i chcon so l ida t edan ewl in eo fd e f en c etoth esou tho fK ra sny iBo r . Sov i e tr e s e rv e so fm enandammun i t ion w e r edw ind l ing ;th ea t ta ckingt roop s ,exhau s t edanduna c cu s tom edtoo f f en s iv eop e ra t ion s ,fa i l ed top en e t ra t equ i ck lyinth eb r ea chtha thadb e enop en edinth een emy l in e s . Wh enth ef ron t wa sfna l lys tab i l iz edon15 F eb rua ry ,th eW eh r ma ch thadtoa s sum eth elo s so fth r e etos ixk i lom e t r e s .Th et im ega in ed hadcom ea tg r ea tco s ttoth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,bu tth ey w e r enolong e r indang e ro fb e ingsu r round edbyth eSov i e t s .Th e r ew e r e1 ,100fa l l en

Map 2 .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion Op e ra t ion s ,s i eg eo fL en ing rad (S ep t emb e r1942–O c tob e r1943 )

120 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

so ld i e r s ,in c lud ing46 o ff c e r s ;a round200p r i son e r s ;ov e rahund r ed m i s s ing ,and 1 ,500 wound edands i ck .Th eBa t t l eo fK ra sny iBo ra c coun t edfo r20 p e rc en to fto ta lBDd ea th sonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,c la im ingn ea r lyha l fo fth eSpan i shcap ta in sandaqua r t e ro fth el i eu t enan t s 78 ands e condl i eu t enan t s whod i edinRu s s ia . On c e mo r e ,th eG e rmancommandthough tth ed e f en s iv ecapa c i tyo f th eSpan i shD iv i s ioncon t emp t ib l e .On1 1F eb rua ry ,th ey con c lud edtha t th eSpan ia rd s mu s thav e“ cu tandrunf romth ea r t i l l e ryf r e ,”andt r i ed tor ep la c eth eBD w i thG e rmant roop s :“ fo rou rcomba top e ra t ion sth ey a r eno th ingbu tt roub l e .” How ev e r ,th eon lyava i lab l eop t ion wa son e in exp e r i en c edd iv i s ionandon eLu f twa f f ef e ldd iv i s ion .Inth efo l low ingday s ,Span ia rd sand G e rman sengag edins ev e ra lcoun t e r -a t ta ck s , r e cov e r ingpa r to fth et e r r i to rytha thadb e enlo s t .T oavo idcomp ro m i s ingth epo s i t ion snowo c cup i edbyth ed e c ima t edBDt roop s ,th e G e rmancommand p la c edar e s e rv ein t e rv en t ion un i tb eh indth e i r l in e s .Th i s mad ei tpo s s ib l etosa lvag eth es i tua t iono fth eSpan ia rd s , 79 “whob e l i ev etohav efough th e ro i ca l ly .” Th ecommand e ro fth e18 th A rmy ,G en e ra lG eo rgL ind emann ,ev enp ropo s edr ep la c ingth eSpania rd sinth em id rang eand d i spa t ch ingth em ba cktoth eV o lkhov . How ev e r ,H i t l e rcon s id e r edth e Novgo rodfanktob e mo r evu ln e rab l e 80 andr e fu s edth ep ropo sa l . Spo rad i ccomba t so fd im in i sh ingin t en s i ty o c cu r r edinth eI sho ras e c to rth rough m id -Ma r ch . Wh enan ewSov i e t o f f en s iv ea t t emp ton19 Ma r chp rov edun su c c e s s fu l ,th eR edA rmycon s id e r edth ef ron ts tab i l iz ed . K ra sny iBo ri stoda t eth ela s tb igba t t l einvo lv ingar egu la run i to f th eSpan i sh A rmy .I ta l so ma rk edan ewh ighpo in tinth elov e -ha t e r e la t ion sh ipb e tw e enth eB lu eD iv i s ionandth eG e rmancommand .Fo r th eSpan i shG en e ra lS ta f f ,th ed i sa s t e rcou ldhav eb e enavo id edhadth e G e rman sin t e rv en edea r l i e ron 10 F eb rua ryandg iv enth emsu ff c i en t h eavya rmam en t .Th eh ighcommand so fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,th e18 th A rmy ,and A rmy G roup No r th wan t edtoavo idc r ea t ingd ip loma t i c f r i c t ionb e tw e enB e r l inand Mad r id .Th eyhadtoa l lo ca t eev e r s ca r c e r r e sou r c e samongd iv i s ion s who s ecomba te ff ca cy wa sm ea su r edinin v e r s ep ropo r t iontoth e i rG e rmann e s s .Thu s ,th eycou ldno tp e rm i tth e BDtor e c e iv eb e t t e rr e sou r c e sthanth e i rownd iv i s ion s .81 D e sp i t eth e i rn e edfo rp e r sonn e lto d e f endab roads e c to ro fth e f ron t ,G en e ra lK l e f f e l ,G en e ra lL ind emann ,ando th e rs ta f fo ff c e r sr e ma in edd i s t ru s t fu lo fth eSpan i shcapa c i tytor e s i s tana t ta ckp r e c ed ed byin t en s ea r t i l l e ryf r e .82 AG e rmanr eg im en t wa sk ep tinth eBDr ea r gua rd w i tho rd e r stoa s sum econ t ro lo fth eSpan i sh D iv i s ioninan em e rg en cy .Th eyr equ i r edE s t eban In fan t e sto w i thd rawar eg im en t f romth ef ron tev e ryfou rw e ek sfo rt ra in ingino f f en s iv eop e ra t ion s ,

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 121

andth eyp lann edtor edu c eth el eng tho fth epo r t iono fth ef ron ta ss ign edtoth eSpan ia rd s .S im i la r ly ,th eBDcon c en t ra t edonr eg roup ing i t sp e r sonn e l–thank stoth ea r r iva lo fa ma r chba t ta l ion w i thr ep la c e m en t sin Ma r ch–andonfo r t i fy ingpo s i t ion saga in s tn ewa rmou r ed a t ta ck s .83In May ,K l e f f e lr equ e s t edtha tth e mo s tvu ln e rab l es e c t ion o fth ef ron tl in e , wh i chin c lud edth eI sho raR iv e r ,b een t ru s t edtoG e rmanso ld i e r sandtha tth eSpan ia rd sb ed ep loy edinsa f e ra r ea s .Inth e fo l low ing w e ek s ,th e401 s tG e rman R eg im en t wa sp la c edinr e s e rv e b eh indth eBDandth eSpan ia rd sw e r eg iv en mo r ean t i tank w eapon s anda r t i l l e ry .84 Th eG e rmancommand wa scon c e rn edabou tth epo s s ib i l i tyo fano th e rSov i e ta t ta ckonSpan i shl in e s , wh i ch ma t e r ia l iz edin m id -May w i thasma l l s ca l ea s sau l tonth epo s i t ion so fth eBDandth e170 thD iv is ion .Fo rha l fanhou rth eG e rman sf ea r edtha tas ign if can tb r ea chhad b e enop en edinth ef ron t ,bu tth es i tua t ions tab i l iz ed .85 Du r ingth efo l low ing mon th ,th eh ighcommando fth eLA rmyCo rp sr ema in edap p r eh en s iv eo fano th e rb iga t ta ckonth eSpan i shpo s i t ion s ,a sap r e lud e 86 toanexp e c t edo f f en s iv etob r eakth es i eg eo fL en ing rad . Th e i rf ea r s w e r ein t en s if edbyth ep r e c i s iona r t i l l e rya t ta ckonth eBDh eadqua rt e r sinPok ro svko eon18Ju ly1943 ,du r ingabanqu e tto wh i chs ev e ra l G e rmano ff c e r shadb e eninv i t ed .87 Th eG e rm ancomm and e r scon t inu edt ru s t ingth eSp an i a rd stoc a r ry ou ts t r ik e s ,su cha sth ea t t a cko fAugu s t1 9 4 3ag a in s ts ev e r a lSov i e tbunk e r s .Though th eyw e r econ s id e r ed m a s t e r so fgu e r r i l l aw a r f a r efo rgood r e a son ,th er e su l t sg en e r a l lyp rov edun s a t i s f a c to rytoth eG e rm an s .Th e Sp an i a rd sc ap tu r edtoof ewp r i son e r s ,tooktoolongtop r ep a r ea c t ion s , 8 8 andt end edtosu f f e rtoo m anyc a su a l t i e s . Du r ingth esumm e ro f1 9 4 3 , th eG e rm an s ’op in iononth eo f f en s iv ec ap a c i tyo fth eBDr em a in edin v a r i ab lys ev e r e .Though mob i l i tyh ad in c r e a s ed ,th e i rcomb a tc ap ab i l i ty w a scon s id e r edin f e r io rtoth a to fth e1 7 0 tho r2 1 5 thG e rm anD iv i s ion s , du etoth e i rl a cko ft r a in ingandin su ff c i en tan t i t ank w e apon sand a r t i l l e ry .Th eo c c a s ion a lr ep l a c em en to fth e i r mo r eexp e r i en c edcom b a t an t sw a snowr eg a rd eda sad i s adv an t ag e : wh enth eyl e f t ,th en ew on e sh adtob et r a in ed .I tw a ss a idth a t wh i l eth eSp an i a rd sex c e l l eda t sm a l l s c a l ew a r f a r e ,th eycou ldno tw i th s t andf ron t a la t t a ck sw i tha r t i l l e ryandt anksuppo r t .Th eIb e r i ancomb a t an t sw ag ed w a rinth e i rown w ay :th eyn eg l e c t edp rov i s ion ingandtookl i t t l ec a r eo fth e i rt r en ch e s , 8 9 andth e i rp r id em ad eth emr e lu c t an ttoa c c ep tadv i c e . Th e mo ra l eo fth eSpan i sh D iv i s iond e c l in edth roughou tth esp r ing andsumm e ro f1943 ,a c co rd ingto G e rmanr epo r t s .D i s con t en tw i th th ecommando fE s t eban In fan t e shadg rownamongth eo ff c e r sand t roop s ;th equa l i tyo fth er e c ru i t shadd im in i sh ed ;andth equa l i tyand

122 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

t e chn i ca lt ra in ingo fth e NCO s wa ss t i l lv e rylowby G e rmans tand a rd s .Th e r e fo r e ,th ecomba tcapab i l i tyo fth eBDd idno tsub s tan t ia l ly imp rov e .D e sp i t eev en tua l lyb e ingcon s id e r edc lo s etofu l lya rm ed ,in c lud ingsom ean t i tank w eapon s ,th eG e rmancommandn ev e rcon t em p la t edth eSpan i sh D iv i s ioncapab l eo f mo r ethand e f en s iv e wa r fa r e , andth enon lyi fth een emya t ta ckd idno tinvo lv e mu chinth e wayo f 90 tank so ra r t i l l e ry . Inea r lyO c tob e r ,a f t e rs ev e ra lday so frumou r sa tA rmyG roup No r th h eadqua r t e r sandth eR e i ch Chan c e l l e ryin B e r l in ,E s t eban In fan t e s endu r edth ehum i l ia t iono fh ea r ingf rom G en e ra lL ind emann–b e fo r e h ea r ingi td i r e c t lyf rom Mad r id–tha tth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t wa s bu ck l ing und e rA l l i ed p r e s su r eandhado rd e r edth ew i thd rawa lo f th eB lu eD iv i s ionf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eCoun c i lo fM in i s t e r shad ag r e edon23S ep t emb e rtha ton el eg ion wou ldr ema in ,w i tha max i mumo fth r e eba t ta l ion s .91 Though H i t l e rin i t ia l lyr e j e c t edth eid ea ,h e chang edh i sm indanda l low edanex c lu s iv e lyvo lun t e e rfo r c etor e ma inonth ef ron t .P rog r e s s iv e ly ,p e r sonn e ld e c r ea s edf romanin i t ia l p ropo sa lo ftwor eg im en t scomp r i s ing7 ,200comba tan t stoba r e lyon e 92 r eg im en t . In m id -S ep t emb e r ,E s t eban In fan t e s wa sr e c e iv edinth eW o l f ’ sLa i r . Th e r e ,H i t l e rawa rd edh imth esam em eda la sh i sp r ed e c e s so r .A f t e r sp end ingsom et im einB e r l in ,E s t eban In fan t e sr e tu rn edtoth ef ron t in Nov emb e r .Th e r e ,h eov e r sawth ew i thd rawa lo fth ela s tBDun i t s , wh i chhadga th e r edinth eV o lo sovo -N iko la evkar eg ion ,andh eo rganiz edth eSpan i shL eg iono fV o lun t e e r s–th e“B lu eL eg ion .” On eo fh i s fna la c t s wa stop ropo s e491so ld i e r sfo rth eI ronC ro s sS e condC la s s , fo rm e r i t sin c lud ingunu sua lva lou r“onnum e rou so c ca s ion sinth e vangua rd ,a lway svo lun t e e r ingfo rth ep la c e so fg r ea t e s tr i sk ,”fo rpa rt i c ipa t ing“ innum e rou ss t r ik e s ,d i s t ingu i sh edfo rg r ea tva lou rands e r en i ty ,”o rfo rd emon s t ra t ing“a lway safgh t ingsp i r i t ,d i s c ip l in e ,and l ead e r sh ip .” H ea l sor equ e s t edth eW a rM e r i tC ro s sS e cond C la s sfo r 509o ff c e r s , NCO s ,andp r iva t e ssom e t im e sfo rsu ch mod e s td e ed sa s “ ex c e l l en tca r eo fw eapon ry ,”d emon s t ra t ing“g r ea tlov efo r wo rk”in hand l ingcommun i ca t ion s ,o rg iv ing“g r ea ta t t en t iontoth eca t t l eo fh i s un i t .”Th el i s to ftho s ep ropo s edfo rd i s t in c t ioninin fan t rya s sau l t wa s r e s t r i c t edton in e ty s ev enso ld i e r sando ff c e r so fth e263 rdR eg im en t . Th i sg iv e san id eao fth ed e c r ea s ingcomba t in t en s i tyto wh i chth eSpan93 ia rd sw e r eexpo s eddu r ingth e i rfna ls ix mon th sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t . Th eB lu eD iv i s ion wa so ff c ia l ly d i s so lv edon 16 Nov emb e r1943 . M eanwh i l e ,th eF ran co i s tr eg im es t rugg l ed a longth e roadf rom non -b e l l ig e r en c etos t r i c tn eu t ra l i tyam id s tth er e t i c en c eo fF ran coand manyo fh i sm in i s t e r stol eav eth eEa s t e rnF ron ten t i r e ly .

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 123

TheSho r t -L ivedB lueLeg ion(De cembe r1943–Ma r ch1944 ) A c co rd ingtoth eag r e em en tb e tw e en G en e ra lCa r lo sA s en s io ,th en ew Span i sh m in i s t e ro fth ea rmy ,and G en e ra lRa fa e l Ga r c íaV a l iño(A rmy G en e ra lS ta f f ) ,th eSpan i shL eg iono fV o lun t e e r s wou ldb eo rgan iz ed a sanin fan t ryun i tw i thou tanin i t ia ll im i tonth enumb e ro fso ld i e r s . How ev e r ,G en e r a lIn s t ru c t i onL .V .1 p rov id edfo ragua ran t e ed m in imum numb e rth roughcompu l so ryen l i s tm en to fa l lBDcomba tan t s whohad 94 s e rv edl e s sthant en mon th sonth ef ron t . A f t e ranex chang eo fv i ew s b e tw e enth eD iv i s ioncommand e randF ran coh im s e l f ,a m ix edsy s t em wa simp l em en t edinth eend .Th en ewL eg ion wa sla rg e lycon s t i tu t ed o fp e r sonn e lf romth ela s t ma r chba t ta l iontha thada r r iv edin O c tob e r 1943 .Th eBD G en e ra lS ta f fr equ e s t edtha tth eo ff c e r so fs ev e ra lun i t s a ska roundamongth eso ld i e r s whohada r r iv edinth e8 thtoth e21 s t Ma r chBa t ta l ion s ,tod e t e rm in ehow many wou ldb ew i l l ingtor e en l i s t inth en ewun i t .Th eo f f e rex c lud ed“a l ltho s e whohav ed emon s t ra t ed un sa t i s fa c to rycondu c to rhav epoo rr e co rd s .” Th e i rr e spon s e sw e r e g en e ra l lyra th e rd efa t ing .95 Imp l em en ta t iono fth eo rd e rd ep end edsub s tan t ia l lyonth eind iv id ua lin c l ina t iono fth eun i tcommand e r s .Som eo ff c e r sy ea rn edtor e tu rn toSpa inandd idl i t t l etoen cou rag er e c ru i tm en to fvo lun t e e r stocon t inu eonth ef ron t .O th e r scho s etor ema inandp r e s su r edth e i rm ento doth esam e .A f t e rs ev e ra lcon t rad i c to ryo rd e r sr ef e c t ingth epo l i t i ca l comp e t i t ionb e tw e enth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r sandth eM in i s t ry o fth eA rmy ,th eB lu eL eg ioncomp r i s edab road e rs e to fcomba tan t s than wa sin i t ia l lyfo r e s e enbyE s t eban In fan t e s :2 ,269 m end iv id edin to th r e eba t ta l ion so rb and e r a s :twog r enad i e rba t ta l ion sandon em ix ed ba t ta l ion .Th e r e wa sa G en e ra lS ta f fa sw e l la sexp lo ra t ionun i t s ,log i st i c s ,v eh i c l er epa i r ,andpo l i c es e c t ion s ,a long w i thr ea rgua rds e rv i c e sin R iga .96 A l ltyp e sf l l edth erank s ,f romid ea l i s t stotho s e whor e en l i s t ed b e cau s eth eycou ldno tadap ttoc iv i l ianl i f ea f t e rth e i rr e tu rnf romRu ss ia . On eo fth emr e ca l l ed ,“ Im i s s ed mycom rad e s ,andIhadno th ing 97 todoin Mad r id .” Thoughsom eun i t shads ign if can tnumb e r so fr e en l i s t edso ld i e r s ,a l tog e th e rth eya c coun t edfo rl e s sthan6 p e rc en to f 98 th eto ta lcomba tan t s . Co lon e lAn ton ioGa r c ía -Nava r rob e cam eth esup r em ecommand e ro f th eL eg ion .Un t i l1 1D e c emb e r ,th eun i tr e c e iv edt e chn i ca landth eo r e t i ca lin s t ru c t ioninK ing i s epp/ Jambu rg ,toth eea s to f Na rva–som ef f ty k i lom e t r e sawayf romth er e s to fth eBD , who w e r eb e ingr epa t r ia t edin pha s e s .Th e18 thA rmycommandp lann edtok e epon eSpan i shba t ta liononth ef ron tandano th e rinth er e s e rv e s .A f t e rth er e t ra in ingp e r iod , how ev e r ,th e r e wa snod e c i s ionabou t wh e r etod ep loyth em .Th eys t i l l

124 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

wan t edtos endth eL eg iontocov e rr e la t iv e lyca lmpo s i t ion s ,su cha s th ecoa s t ,th e r ebyl ib e ra t ingG e rmanp e r sonn e ltos e rv einth e mo r ea c 99 t iv ea r ea sonth eL en ing radF ron t . B e fo r et ra in ingfn i sh ed ,on eL eg ion ba t ta l ionhadtob ed ep loy eda longth eroadf romK ing i s eppto Na rva andpa r t i c ipa t edinan t i -pa r t i sana c t iontoemp tys ev e ra lham l e t s .W i th a lmo s t60 p e rc en to fth en ewun i tcompo s edo fa rmyandL eg ionp e r sonn e l ,b ehav iou rinth er ea rgua rd wa snob e t t e rthanb e fo r e .Th et ra in ingp e r iodinK ing i s epp wa ssp r ink l ed w i thcomp la in t sf romth elo ca l popu la t ionand G e rmanso ld i e r s , whor epo r t edth eSpan ia rd sfo rrobb e ry ,a s sau l t ,ando th e rm ino rin c id en t s .On el eg ionna i r ew ro t etha tth e 100 p la c ehadag r ea tin conv en i en c e :“ th e r ea r enop añ en k a s[g i r l s ] .” Du r ingth e i rb r i e fd ep loym en tonth eRu s s ianF ron t ,th eB lu eL eg ion su f f e r edfou r t e end e s e r t ion sanda s manya ss ixca s e so fs e l f -mu t i la t ion . A l coho l i sm wa srampan t ,ands ev en ty -fv eso ld i e r sw e r er epa t r ia t ed 101 a s“und e s i rab l e s .” G e rmanl ia i sonr epo r t sd e s c r ib edhowth ehuman r e sou r c e stha thada r r iv eda tth ef ron ts in c eth esumm e ro f1943 w e r e po l i t i ca l lyand m i l i ta r i lyun r e l iab l e .Som eo fth e BDr e tu rn e e scommun i ca t edth e i rn ega t iv eimp r e s s iono fth ecompo s i t iono fth e mo s t r e c en t lya r r iv ed ma r chba t ta l iontocom rad e s who w e r es t i l lonth eRu s 102 s ianF ron t . Th eSpan ia rd scou ldb eu s e fu lonas ta t i cf ron t ,solonga s th eyon lyhadtoho ldth e i rpo s i t ion s ,r e s i s ts t r ik e sanda t ta ck sw i thou t mu chtanko ra r t i l l e rysuppo r t ,ando c ca s iona l lyra idth een emycamp totak ep r i son e r sandob ta inin fo rma t ionr ega rd ingth es i tua t iononth e en emys id e . How ev e r ,th e i rp e r fo rman c einr e conna i s san c e ,a t ta ck ,and s t r ik em i s s ion sr ema in edl im i t ed ,pa r t lydu etoth e i rla cko ft e chn i ca l t ra in ing .Th eG e rman ssawtha tafu l l s ca l ea t ta ckonth eSpan i shpo s i 103 t ion s wou ldqu i ck lyd e s t royth e i rr e s i s tan c ecapab i l i t i e s . In m id -D e c emb e r ,th een t i r eB lu eL eg ion wa s mov edtoth esou th ea s to fL en ing rad ,inth eBogo s lovo -S chap i -K s tovos e c to r .Th ey w e r e a t ta ch edtoth e121 s tD iv i s ion ,top ro t e c ta ma r shy ,e l ev enk i lom e t r e s e c t iono fth ef ron t .Th el eg ionna i r e sw e r econ s tan t lyha ra s s edbypa r t i san sandSov i e tsk iun i t s ;th eyd i s l ik edth ea r ea , wh i ch wa simpa s sab l e fo ra rmou r edv eh i c l e s .Th e r ea tl ea s t ,th eL eg ion wou ldno tb eov e r run bytank s , wh i ch wa sacon c e rnfo rth eG e rmancommand .Th eSpan i sh t roop shadar e la t iv e lyca lm mon th ;th e mono tonyo fw in t e r wa son ly in t e r rup t edbyaf ews t r ik e sandtypho idf ev e r . A tth eon s e to fth eSov i e to f f en s iv eon 14Janua ry1944 ,th eG e rman po s i t ion sfank ingth eSpan ia rd sw e r eh i te sp e c ia l lyha rd .A tr i sko fb eingsu r round ed ,th eL eg ionr e t r ea t ed w e s ttoLyuban ,und e r mo r ta rf r e andpa r t i sana t ta ck . Wh enth eya r r iv ed ,th eyen t e r edf e r c ecomba tin acon t ex to fg en e ra lr e t r ea t . On26Janua ry , Ga r c ía Nava r ror e c e iv ed th eo rd e rtor e t r ea tbyt ra intoLuga ,140 k i lom e t r e stoth esou th -w e s t .

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 125

How ev e r ,th et ra inl in e shadb e encu tbyth epa r t i san s ,soth eSpan ia rd s b egana m i s e rab l e ma r ch w i thth e i rs can tv eh i c l e sa longaroads t r ewn w i tht r e et runk s ,am id s tg row ingchao s ,sk i rm i sh e sw i thpa r t i san s ,and 104 s ign so fr eb e l l ioninth erank s . Ine a r lyF eb ru a ry1 9 4 4 ,G en e r a lAn ton G r a s s e r , whoh adr e c en t lya s sum edh i spo s ta sg en e r a lcomm and e ro fth e XXV IA rmy Co rp s ,ob s e rv edth ed ep lo r ab l econd i t iono fth eSp an i a rd s whoa r r iv eda tLug a . Th eG e rm ancomm andh ado r ig in a l lyin t end edtoa s s ignth emtop r ev en tp a r t i s ana t t a ck sa longth er a i ll in e sb e tw e enLug aandP skov/P l esk au . How ev e r ,th es en io rG e rm anl i a i sono ff c e rcommun i c a t edtoh i s sup e r io r sth a tth e l eg ionn a i r e sw e r eexh au s t ed ,d emo r a l i z ed ,andshow ings ign so fd i s in t eg r a t ion .D e s e r t ion sw e r efo r e s e e ab l eins t r e s s fu ls i tu a t ion s .Fo rth a tr e a son ,h er e comm end edth a tth eSp an i sht roop ssp end t im er e t r a in ing inE s ton i a .G r a s s e rm an ag edtog e th i sp e t i t ionapp rov ed andt end ay s l a t e rth e l eg ionn a i r e sbo a rd edat r a info rth eE s ton i antown o fT ap a/T ap s ,lo c a t ede igh tyk i lom e t r e ssou th e a s to fT a l l inn .105 Th e mov etoE s ton iad idno tpu tanendtoth ep rob l em stha tth e Span i shso ld i e r s ,w i thth e i rg row ingd i s con t en t ,c r ea t edfo rth eG e rmancommand .On 5 F eb rua ry ,th ecommand e rg en e ra lo fr ea rgua rds e cu r i tyfo r c e so fA rmyG roup No r thcommun i ca t edh i sapp r eh en s iona t th eimm in en ta r r iva lo fth el eg ionna i r e s .Th econdu c to fth eSpan ia rd s inth er ea rgua rdhadinth epa s tb e encha ra c t e r iz edby“ loo t ing ,th e f t , s exua lc r im e s ,e t c .”Thu s , i t wa sfo r e s e eab l etha tth ey wou ldg en e ra t e i l l w i l ltowa rd sth eW eh rma ch tamongth elo ca lpopu la t ion .H er equ e s t ed 106 tha tth eL eg ions tayb ea ssho r ta spo s s ib l e , and wa sr e l i ev ed wh eni t happ en edtha t way . D ev e lopm en t sinth ef ron t ,w i thp r e s su r ef romth eB r i t i sh ,and G e rm anaw a r en e s sth a ten su r ingth econ t inu i tyo fth ewo l f r amsupp lyf rom Sp a ina sw e l la sG e rm ane sp ion ag e inSp an i sht e r r i to ry ,ou tw e igh edth e s c a r c em i l i t a rycon t r ibu t iono fth eL eg ion .Th i sl edth eM ad r idgov e rn m en ttosugg e s tth a tH i t l e rau tho r i z eth er ep a t r i a t iono fth eB lu eSqu adronandth eB lu eL eg ion .Th eFüh r e ra cqu i e s c edon2 0F eb ru a ry ,andon 6 M a r ch1 9 4 4 ,th eo rd e rf romSp a info rd efn i t iv ew i thd r aw a la r r iv ed 1 0 7 a tL eg ionh e adqu a r t e r s . Th eB lu eL eg ionsu r r end e r eda rm st end ay s l a t e randr e tu rn edinph a s e stoth eb a r r a ck sa tS t ab l a ckSüd(Kön ig s b e rg ) .Th e r e ,W eh rm a ch to ff c e r s id en t if edso ld i e r s who w an t edtocont inu efgh t ing .Som el eg ionn a i r e sr e so lv edtos t ayinth eTh i rdR e i cha s c iv i l i an wo rk e r s ;th er e s tr e tu rn edtoSp a in . On1 2 Ap r i l ,th el a s tb a t 1 0 8 t a l iono fth eB lu eL eg ionc ro s s edth ebo rd e rf romF r an c ein toSp a in . Th eSpan i sh D iv i s ion o fV o lun t e e r sandi t ssho r t l iv edsu c c e s so r thu sc ea s edtoex i s ta sun i t sin t eg ra t ed w i th inth eW eh rma ch t .Th ey l e f tb eh inda lmo s tfv ethou sandd eadinRu s s iant e r r i to ry .Thoughth e

126 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

to ta lnumb e ro fd ea th si sno texa c t ,a1960r epo r tbyth eSpan i sh W a r M in i s t rye s t ima t ed 4 ,800fa l l enandsom e200 mo r em i s s ing ,in c r ea s ing th eto ta lto5 ,000 . Add edtoth e s ew e r e1 15so ld i e r s whod i edinSov i e t p r i son e rcamp s ,a lmo s t2 ,200 who w e r ed i sab l ed ,and many mo r e who w e r ein ju r ed . L i feontheF ron t :The Da i lyExpe r ien ceo fSpan i shComba tan t s In t e rn a l ly ,th eB lu eD iv i s ion w a sso c i a l lyandpo l i t i c a l lyh e t e rog en eou s , bu tth ef r s texp ed i t ioninth esumm e ro f1 9 4 1h adana tmo sph e r eo f in c r e a s ingcoh e s ionandcom r ad e sh ipa sth eyt r av e l l edto G e rm any , t r a in eda tth eG r a f enwöh rc amp ,andl e f tfo rth ef ron t .Though m i l i t i a l i f eh adh a rd en edth evo lun t e e r s ,andd e sp i t ed i s con t en tabou tth efood , th ehou r s ,th ec l im a t e ,o rth ef r i c t ionb e tw e enF a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r sand a rmyo ff c e r s ,th edom in an tsp i r i tw a son eo fg enu in ec am a r ad e r i e .R id ru e jod e s c r ib edh i s imp r e s s iono fth eco l l e c t iv eBD mood in m id -Augu s t : Th e r ei sa l sos ing ingandd r ink ingandund e rn ea th–thoughp e rhap sin ara th e rrud im en ta ryandba rba r ian way–th e r ei shapp in e s sanden thu s ia sm .Som e t im e syouh ea r“ i fIhadknownI wou ldno thav ecom e ,”bu t n ev e r“ I wan ttol eav e”o rany th ingtha tcon t rad i c t sth eg en e ra l“ l e t ’ sg e t 1 0 9 s ta r t edb e cau s ew e ’ l lb efn eth e r eon c eth ea c t ionb eg in s .”

A s inth eW eh rm a ch t ,th i scom r ad e sh ipc e r t a in lyh ad i t s l im i t s ,th ef r s t o f wh i ch w e r eso c i a l :d e sp i t eth eid e a l i z a t iono fin t e r c l a s s i smandl a t e r r e c r e a t ion so fcommun i tyinth et r en ch e s ,co ex i s t en c ew a sno ta lw ay s 1 1 0 e a syb e tw e ens tud en t sandp e a s an t so r wo rk e r sand m idd l e c l a s s l ad s . Th e r ew e r ea l sopo l i t i c a ll im i t s .Insom eun i t s ,l e f t i s tvo lun t e e r sm igh t b ep ro t e c t edbyth e i rF a l ang i s tcomp an ion s .Ino th e r s ,th ey m igh tb e w a t ch edo rev enr epo r t ed .Lu i sAgu i l a rno t eddu r ingh i ss t ayinG r a f enwöh rth a t“ th i s mo rn ingth eyd e t a in edth r e e‘vo lun t e e r s ’o fth e Comp anyfo rb e ingR ed s ,amongth emCo rpo r a lD ion i s ioRub io …a sh eh ad b e long edtoth er edS IM[ In t e l l ig en c eS e rv i c e ] .Qu i t eth esp e c im en s ! ”111 Du r ingth e ma r ch , manyBDvo lun t e e r senv i s ion eda wa ro frap id mano euv r e sfo l low edbytankd iv i s ion sinth evangua rd , wh i ch wou ld hav eth empa rad ingth rough Mo s cow ’ sR edSqua r einaf ew w e ek s ’ t im e .InS ep t emb e r1941 ,D ion i s io R id ru e jos t i l la s sum edtha t“ th e a rmyin wh i chI w i l l ma r chon Mo s cowi sinnum e rab l e ,fu tu r i s t i c .I t w i l lb easp l end idsp e c ta c l e wo r thal i f etos e e .” W i th inaf ew w e ek s , 1 12 th eys lamm edupaga in s tana l tog e th e rd i f f e r en tr ea l i ty . L ik e many W eh rma ch td iv i s ion s ,a f t e rth eadvan c ecam es tab i l iza t iono fth ef ron t , th er e tu rntoa wa ro fpo s i t ion s ,andcomba tcond i t ion stha tr iva l l ed

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F ig .4 .3 .Span i shF e ldp o s t , 1942(AGA )

th eF i r s tW o r ld W a rinb ru ta l i ty .Th eV o lkhovo f f en s iv eandsub s equ en t w i thd rawa lgav e waytoa wa ro fa t t r i t ionandpo s i t ion s . C o ld ,F i l th ,B o r ed om …andP e r i l Da i lyl i f einth et r en ch e sandth efo r t if edvangua rdpo s i t ion simpo s ed som eing lo r iou sr ea l i t i e s . Manyso ld i e r sf e l tth en e edto w r i t e ,pa r t lyto r e cov e rash r edo fd ign i tyo rani l lu s iono frou t in eandth eno rma l i ty tha tb e long edtoc iv i l ian l i f e .Th e i rd ia r i e sandt e s t imon i e sr ef e c t edth i s inr ea lt im e .Th eday to -dayo fth e wa rb e cam eanid ea l iz edcon s t ru c t ioninth e i rna r ra t iv e s ,ba s edonemo t iona lcomp en sa t ion m e chan i sm s : w r i t ingabou tth e i rha rd sh ip s wa sa s impo r tan ta sr e co rd ingth ep ro sa i c d e ta i l stha tr em ind edth eso ld i e r so fth e i rfo rm e rl i f e .113 As tab l ef ron t mad efo ra m i s e rab l el i f e .Squa lo rinvad edth el iv ing spa c e so fth evangua rdt roop sandth es e cond l in ea r t i l l e rypo s i t ion s . I t wa sno tin f r equ en ttofndhuman wa s t einth em ;un l ik eth e i r mo r e

128 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

sy s t ema t i cG e rmancom rad e s ,th eBDcomba tan t sd idno ta lway sd ig ho l e sinsom ed i s c r e e tpa t cho fg roundtha tm igh ts e rv ea sla t r in e s . Insp r ingandsumm e r ,rod en t sfou r i sh ed .A r t i l l e ryo ff c e r Gu i l l e rmo H e rnanzawok eon mo r ethanon eo c ca s ioninth eun exp e c t edcompany o fra t s . How ev e r ,“w ego tu s edtoi t ,w ehav e ma s s e so fsp id e r s ,b edbug s ,ra t stha tev enea tou rtoba c co .”Som eso ld i e r ssawth erod en t sa s a l l i e s :“ i fth es en t in e lsawth emrunn ingtowa rd sh im ,h ekn ewtha tth e Ru s s ian sw e r ecom ingtos t r ik etha tn igh t .”114 Th ef l thysu r round ing sa c compan i edarap id d e c l in ein p e r sona l hyg i en e ,e sp e c ia l lyinth et r en ch e sandth ech a b o l a s–th eshan ty l ik e l iv ingspa c e stha tp rov id edsh e l t e rfo rth es e c t ion ,w i thbunk s ,ba s i c fu rn i tu r e ,as tov e ,andaso r to fsod -and t imb e rroo f .Th e s ew e r ecom montoa l lcomba tan t sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,a sth eyhadb e eninth e t r en ch e so fth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r .Th eSpan i shso ld i e r s ,how ev e r ,t end ed tob eev en mo r eunk emp tthanth e i rG e rmancom rad e s ,du eton eg l i g en c eandla cko fin s i s t en c eonth epa r to fth e i rcommand e r s .Th i s wa s no ton lyabou tlax i tyinth eca r eandc l ean l in e s so fth e i run i fo rm s ,o r howrap id lyth e i rc lo th e s wo r eou t ,o rth ed iv e r s ea c c e s so r i e s–f rom Sov i e tba la c lava stoc lo th ingbough to rconf s ca t edf romth e lo ca l s–tha t th ey wo r eov e rth e i rG e rmank i t .Th ela cko fhyg i en eimp l i edag r ea t e r r i sko fd i s ea s e .T e e th w e r era r e lyb ru sh edandoppo r tun i t i e sfo r wa sh ing w e r es ca r c eind e ed . Mo to r iz edl ia i son Ma r t in V e la s co w ro t eon2 Nov emb e r1941 :“T odayi sag r ea tdayfo r myd ia ry , Ihadashow e r… 1 15 th ef r s tIhav ehadina tl ea s tth r e e mon th s .” In ev i tab ly ,th ela cko f wa sh inga l sol edtoth ep ro l i f e ra t iono fl i c e –tho s ebo th e r som ecompan ion stha tev enth ew in t e rco ldcou ldno t e l im ina t e .Sa lvado rZanón w ro t ef romh i sshan tyinth eN ik i tk inofo r e s t :“Mo s t lyIs c ra t ch my s e l f .If e e ll i f et e em ingund e r mya rm s ,a t my wa i s t ,on myba ck ,a round myank l e s .”116 K i l l ingl i c einth eev en ing s b e cam eaf r equ en tpa s t im efo rth eso ld i e r s .E cz ema sp ro l i f e ra t ed ,and pu s tu l e sf roms c ra t ch ing .U s ingb lank e t sonwh i chth epa ra s i t e sfo rm ed “ac ru s ttha th id e sth eco lou ro fth ec lo th ,”117th et roop scou ldno ts l e ep w e l lfo ri t ch ingandsu f f e r edf romla cko fs l e epandn e rvou sn e s s . Add edtoth e s etyp i ca lin conv en i en c e so fl i f eonth ef ron t wa sth e unb ea rab l ec l ima t etha tagg rava t edev e ry th ing .Th eex t r em et emp e ra tu r e so fth eRu s s ian w in t e rw e r eth e mo s tcommonsub j e c tt ran sm i tt edinBD m emo i r s .Th eomn ip r e s en tsnow ,th ei c e ,th ef r e ez ing w ind b e cam eth ei con sa s so c ia t ed w i thth e Ru s s ianF ron tandt ran sm i t t ed in mu l t ip l ena r ra t iv e s ,c in ema tog raph i cr ep rodu c t ion s ,andco e tan eou s r epo r t s .Fo r manyo fth em ,i t wa sanen t i r e lyn ewexp e r i en c e . Th i s wa sap rob l emfo rth einvad e r sing en e ra l .Th eW eh rma ch thad no tad equa t e lyfo r e s e enth en e edtoequ ipi t st roop sw i thapp rop r ia t e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 129

g ea rfo ra wa ro fpo s i t ion sincond i t ion so fin t en s eco ld . Mo r eov e r , w in t e rw ea th e rcam ee sp e c ia l lyea r lyin1941–2 . Th epoo r lyequ ipp ed comba tan t ssu f f e r edth rough manyday so ft emp e ra tu r e sb e low30ºC . Th eO s th e e r la ck edsu ff c i en tba la c lava s ,g lov e s ,fu rcoa t s ,andf e l t ed woo lboo t stoequ ipa l li t st roop s .Supp l i e sa r r iv edtoola t e :byCh r i s tma sa lmo s t 133 ,000ca s e so ff ro s tb i t einva ry ingd eg r e e shadb e enr eg i s t e r edonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,r e su l t inginnum e rou spa r t ia lampu ta t ion s o fl imb so rd ig i t s .Insom eG e rmanun i t s , mo r ethan5 p e rc en to fth e so ld i e r shadin ju r i e sf rompa r t ia lf r e ez ing .W eapon sa l sojamm edf r e qu en t lya tsu chlowt emp e ra tu r e s ,c r ea t ingin s e cu r i ty . Th eg r ea ta c to r sonth e Ru s s ianF ron tw e r eundoub t ed lyth eco ld , th esnow ,andth e i re f f e c t s .Th e s en ewexp e r i en c e shadb eguntosu r fa c edu r ingth efoo t ma r ch , wh enth eSpan i shso ld i e r sfoundtha tth e Ru s s ianau tumn wa ssho r tandha r sh . On3 O c tob e r1941 ,b e fo r eth e f r s tsnow s ,l ia i son Ma r t ínV e la s cono t edinh i sd ia ryhowbo th e r som e th eco ld wa stoth eBDvo lun t e e r s ,bu ts ta t edhaugh t i ly ,“w eh id ei t b e t t e rthanth eRu s s ian s …w e wa lkun cov e r edandth ey w i thth e i ro ld fu rcoa t sandh ead scomp l e t e lycov e r ed .”Inth efo l low ing w e ek s ,su ch qu ixo t i cpo s tu r e sp rov edin su ff c i en tfo rsub -z e rot emp e ra tu r e s ;on ly 1 18 s to i c i smandd i s c ip l in e wou ldg e tth emth rough . In Ma r ch1942 ,th e W eh rma ch thadon lyp rov id ed 15 p e rc en to fth eSpan i shcomba tan t s w i thf e l t edboo t s ;ano th e r5 .5p e rc en thadsh e ep sk infoo tw ea rand15 .5 p e rc en thadboo t s mad eo fs t rawandr e ed s .D e sp i t eth ee f fo r t so fth e FET W om en ’ sS e c t iontos end wa rmc lo th e stoth eso ld i e r s ,s ca r c e ly30 p e rc en to fth emhadr e c e iv edajump e rfo rth eco ldandon ly20 .4p e r 1 19 c en thadov e r coa t s . Pa ckag e sr e c e iv edf romSpa in ,b eg inn ing w i th th e Ch r i s tma sboxtha ta r r iv edinla t eJanua ry1942 ,con ta in edkn i t woo lsw ea t e r s ,so ck s ,sw e e t s ,g la s s e sandtoba c co ,andl iquo r . Non eo f tha te f f e c t iv e lycoun t e ra c t edth eco ld ,andth es i tua t ion wa snob e t t e rin th eG e rmanun i t s .Insom eo fth em ,r e co rd sind i ca t etha t12 .9p e rc en t o fth et roop sw e r ea f f e c t edbyf ro s tb i t e .120 Th eex t rad i ff cu l tycau s edbyth eco ld ,th esnow ,andth ei c ec r ea t ed add i t iona lp rob l em sfo rth et ran spo r ta t ion n e two rk , wh i cha f f e c t ed th ed i s t r ibu t iono ffoodandv i c tua l sinth er ea rgua rdandonth ef ron t . F r equ en t ly ,th em e s sa r r iv eda tth et r en ch e scomp l e t e lyf roz en ,80 p e r c en to fth ebo t t l ed wa t e r ,andagoodpo r t iono fth el iquo r ,f roz e ,and bo t t l e sb rok e .Th e mo to ro i la l sof roz e ,a f f e c t ingth eau tonomyand mano euv r ingo fth et ru ck sanda rmou r edv eh i c l e s ;th epa s ty m e s stha t fo rm ed wh enth esnow m e l t edand m ix ed w i thth e mud mad et ran s i t ex t r em e lycumb e r som e .U r ina t ingo rd e f e ca t ingou tdoo r sb e cam eto r tu rou s .D i t ch e s ,sh e l t e r s ,o rg rav e scou lds ca r c e lyb eduginth ef roz en 121 ea r th . Th elowt emp e ra tu r e sw e r eanun fam i l ia rexp e r i en c efo r mo s t

130 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o fth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,andth eco lda l soa f f e c t edth e i rm ind s .“ I fi t con t inu e sa si ts e em sw ecanexp e c ti tto ,i tcandou s mu chha rmand 122 ev enth r ea t enou r mo ra l e ,” w ro t eR id ru e jo . Th eco ld mad eth ecom ba tan t shazy ;i ts low edth e i rr ef ex e sandr ea c t iont im etoun exp e c t ed ev en t s .Dan i e lT o r raexp r e s s eda c cu ra t e lyh i sphy s i ca ls en sa t ion sinth e day sp r io rtoCh r i s tma s1941 : Ith inkIhav elo s tsom eo f myfa cu l t i e ss in c eIhav eb e enh e r e .Idon ’ ts e e w e l l ,Ican ’ tr em emb e rth ing so rexp r e s s my s e l fc l ea r ly ,o rexp r e s s my s e l f rap id ly ,o rund e r s tando rd e s c r ib eth ing squ i ck ly .Iamg row ingphy s i ca l ly w eak e rand w eak e r .Th i si ssov e ryha rd !123

Af r s te f f e c to fth eco ld wa sf ro s tb i t einth eex t r em i t i e s ,e sp e c ia l lyth e f e e t .By Ap r i l1942 ,th i shada f f e c t edupto6 .5p e rc en to fth eSpan i sh t roop sanda c coun t edfo r30 p e rc en to fth eca sua l t i e s .T oavo idf r e ez ing ,th en igh tgua rd shadtob er e l i ev edev e ryhou ro rev e ryha l fhou r a tt emp e ra tu r e slow e rthan-25ºC . Gua rddu ty wa sto r tu rou sfo rth e so ld i e r s ,a sfgh t ingaga in s tth eco ld d i s t ra c t edth emf romv ig i lan c e 124 andev e ryshadowb e cam eafa l s ea la rm . Th esnowtha ta c cumu la t ed du r ingth elong w in t e rin fu s edth esu r round ing sw i thafa l s es en s eo f ca lmtha tm igh tb ein t e r rup t eda tany mom en tbygunf r e ,exp lo s ion s , o ren emys t r ik e s .C l ea r ingpa th sth roughsnowtha tsom e t im e scam e uptoth e i rkn e e s ,w i thah eavypa ckonth e i rba ck ,ind en s ep in eand b i r chfo r e s t stha tr e sound ed w i thth ee choo fth e i r mov em en t sb e cam e aphy s i ca landp sy cho log i ca lto r tu r efo rth ecomba tan t s . Th et r en ch e sandhu t sinth eadvan c epo s i t ion sw e r eo f t enfu l lo f wat e randl i t t l eb e t t e rthanop enexpo su r etoth ee l em en t s .Th et roop s ’f e e t w e r ea lway sw e t , wh i chsom e t im e sl edtoafo rmo fgang r en eknown a st r en chfoo t .Inth evangua rdl i s t en ingpo s t sth eso ld i e r shadtotak e sh e l t e rdayandn igh t inund e rg roundr e fug e stha tw e r edampandco ld , w i thno mo r ethanacamps tov e .O f t en ,i t wa stoodang e rou stogoou t du r ingth eday ,soth et roop scou ldon ly mov ea tn igh t .Th i sin c lud ed mov ingth e wound ed , who wou ldsom e t im e sb l e edtod ea th .125 P r iva t e RamónFa r r ér e ca l l edsu ch mom en t s : At r en chabou tth r e em e t r e slong ,s lop ingdown ,anda tth eendaho l eo f s ca r c e lyfou rm e t r e s ,w i thth eg roundcov e r edins t raw m ix ed w i thsnow tha tth ew indcon s tan t lyb l ewinanda ton eendas tov ebu i l tf roman emp tycan .[Mycom rad e ]  “Ramp e r”i sincha rg eo fl igh t ingth ef r e ,bu t th i sdamn edho l en ev e r wa rm sup …S ixo ’c lo ck .P r iva t ePo lónha sb egun h i sgua rddu ty .P r iva t eV a l en t íha ssa tonalogn ea rth ef r eandth er e s tt ry tofnda waytos l e ep ,bu tth espa c ei ssot igh ttha ti ti sn ’ tl ik e lytohapp en

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 131

F ig .4 .4 .Span i shso ld i e r sinth er ea rgua rd ,1942–3(AGA )

. . . Ou rpo s tu r e sa l lowfo rno tth es l igh t e s t mov em en tandth e mun i t ion s and ma ch e t einou rb e l t sd igin toou rbod i e sr e l en t l e s s ly ,th el i c e mak eu s 1 2 6 i t chd e sp e ra t e lybu ti ti simpo s s ib l etos c ra t ch .

Th el i c e r idd enso ld i e r sd idno tg e tr egu la rr e s t . Th ey w e r eth in , thoughth eyd idno ta c tua l lygohung ry .Th eysu f f e r edf romg en e ra lex hau s t ion ,r e sp i ra to ryandin t e s t ina l ma lad i e s ,ch i lb la in sf romth eco ld , ca l lu s e s ,and mu ch mo r e . Manycomba tan t ssu f f e r edf romco ld s ,th roa t in f e c t ion s ,rh euma t i c ma lad i e s ,k idn eyandga s t r i cin f e c t ion s ,andd ia r rho ea . Onth eRu s s ianF ron t ,a s manya s3 .5p e rc en to fth ecomba tan t s insom eO s th e e r un i t ssu f f e r edf romr e sp i ra to rya i lm en t s .La cko fs l e ep k ep tso ld i e r sinth evangua rdinap e rman en ts ta t eo fd row s in e s s .Th e snowa l sop rovok edey ea i lm en t s .Th epanop lyo f ma lad i e stha tth e Span i shD iv i s iond e s c r ib edr e s emb l ed wha t wa sr e co rd edinth em ed i127 ca lr epo r t so fn ea rbyG e rmanun i t s . Sp r ingandth eaba t ingco ldd idno timp rov econd i t ion sa s mu cha s m igh tb eexp e c t ed .Th ethaw wa sa c compan i edbyth er a spu t i t s a ,o r “ t im ew i thou troad s ,” wh i chtu rn edth e wo r ldin toanimpa s sab l e mud pudd l e .V a s ta r ea stu rn edto ma r sh e sandth e mudimp ed edth et ran s i t

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o fp rov i s ion s ,t ru ck s ,t roop s ,andv i r tua l lya l lt ra ff c .Th eso ld i e r s ’p robl em sd idno tendth e r e :humanr ema in sa l sothaw edandfoa t eddown th eV o lkhov .A sth eyd e compo s ed ,th eyf l l edth ea i ra roundth eba t t l e s i t e sw i thas i ck en ingsw e e ts t en ch .Inth em id s to fi ta l l ,so ld i e r sk ep t fgh t inganddy ing .Th e wo r s to f many wa ra c t ion s wa shav ingto mov e onfoo t ,som e t im e sfo r manyk i lom e t r e sinra ino rin t en s eco ld ,w i th h eavypa ck s ,s t rugg l ingth roughth esnowandth e mud .128 Pa t ro l sin food edfo r e s t sm ean thou r so f wa lk ingin muduptoth ekn e e s ;th e comba tan t send edth edayd r en ch edin mudtha tsoak edth roughth e i r und e r c lo th e s .Th e wa t e rf l l edth et r en ch e sandund e rg roundpo s i t ion s , 129 sotha tth eso ld i e r shadtosp enden t i r eday sha l f soak ingini t . Th ey w e r ea l sot e r r if edo fth ed en s e ,imm en s efo r e s t s , wh e r ei t wa sea syto g e t lo s tfo rhou r s ,andwh e r esound se cho edd e c ep t iv e ly inth ed i s tan c e . A f t e rth esp r ingthawcam eth ein t en s eh ea to fth eb r i e fbu tsu f fo ca tingsumm e randth ep e r s i s t en tc loud so f mo squ i to s , wh i ch w e r ee sp e c ia l lyf e r c eonth eV o lkhovF ron t .Th ecomba tan t su s edn e t t ingov e r th e i rh e lm e t sfo rp ro t e c t ion , wh i chd idno tp rov id ealong t e rmso lu t ion .Th er e s i s tan t ,agg r e s s iv ein s e c t s“b i t er igh tth roughja ck e t sand t rou s e r s .”Th eyd rov ea r t i l l e ryo ff c e r Gu i l l e rmo H e rnanztod i s t ra c t ion :h er e tu rn edf romcommand ingapa t ro lw i thh i sfa c eandhand s 130 swo l l en ,b l e ed ingf romso mu chs c ra t ch ing . Comba t t ingth e pun i sh ingc l ima t eandenv i ronm en t wa so f t ena g r ea t e rcon c e rnthanen emyf r e .A sGu t i é r r ezd e lCa s t i l lopu ti t ,“fgh tinginRu s s iai s …som e th ing my s t i ca landfan s ta s t i ctha tf l l syou w i th s t rang et e r ro r s ;i tf e e l sun fo cu s ed ,a si fyou w e r einag ian tva s tn e s s …i ti sl ik eimm e r s ingth esp i r i tinf r igh t en ingda rkn e s s .”131 Though th ein conv en i en c e sa f f e c t edbo ths id e sequa l ly ,th eSov i e t sw e r eb e t t e r equ ipp edfo rth eco ld .D e sp i t enum e rou sca s e so ff ro s tb i t eandf r e ez ing ,th ey w e r e mo r er e s i s tan ttoth eha rd sh ip sandsu rv iv edons ca r c e ra t ion s .Th ey w e r econ t en ttos taya l iv e ,d e sp i t eb ru ta lt r ea tm en tf rom 132 th e i rsup e r io r s . Th eG e rman sr e cogn iz edtha tth ef r on t ov i k i–th eSo v i e trank -and -f l eso ld i e r s–s e em edtob e“ l e s svu ln e rab l ethanou rso ld i e r s”toth eco ldandth esnow .133 Th i sd emo ra l iz edth einvad e r s .In D e c emb e r1941 ,th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sr epo r t edtha tth et roop sw e r e inpoo rcond i t iondu etoth eco ldandh ighca sua l t i e s .W o r s ethantha t , how ev e r , wa sth eapa thytha ta f f e c t edsom ecommand e r sandth ep r edom inan tanx i e tyamongth et roop s .134 Su chd ep r iva t ion sandphy s i ca ls en sa t ion sw e r etyp i ca lr i t e so fpa ssag e in m i l i ta ryexp e r i en c e ,e sp e c ia l ly in l i f eonth ef ron t .Th ey w e r eno t son ewfo rC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s , manyo f whomhadpa r t i c ipa t ed inha r sh comba tand w e r efam i l ia rw i thhung e r ,co ld ,f l th ,l i c e ,andbo r edom 135 sp r ink l ed w i th mom en t so fdang e r . Th ey w e r enov e l ,how ev e r ,fo r

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s tud en t sandvo lun t e e r sf romu rbanenv i ronm en t s , who w e r el e s sa c cu s tom edtophy s i ca l wo rkandal i f eexpo s edtoth ee l em en t s .Th erad i ca lin t en s i tyanda c cumu la t iono fth e s eexp e r i en c e scomb in ed w i thth e g ru e l l ingfoo t ma r ch e sandth eun c e r ta in tytha ta c compan i edsu chan exo t i c lo ca t ion w e r e in compa rab l etoany th ing inth e i rp r io rexp e r i en c e . No tev e ry th ingth a tw a ss e en ,h e a rd ,andsu f f e r edonth e Ru s s i an F ron tw a st r an sm i t t edinth es am em ann e r .Th ecomb a t an t s–cond it ion eda sth ey w e r ebyth e i rr ank ,th e i run i t ,o rth e i rd e s t in a t ion–r eg i s t e r edd i f f e r en timp r e s s ion so fth eco ldo rcon t a c tw i thth een emy ,andto d i f f e r en td eg r e e s .I tfo l low s ,th en ,th a tth eyd idno ts e l e c t iv e lyt r an s fo rm th e i rimp r e s s ion sin tos im i l a rexp e r i en c e s . Th e i ra s so r t edfo rm a t iv e , id eo log i c a l ,andso c i a lb a ckg roundl edth emtoexp r e s sau th en t i cw a r exp e r i en c e sind iv e r s ew ay s ,a c co rd ingtoth e i rp r e ex i s t ingcogn i t iv e 1 3 6 f r am e s . Th eo ff c e r sand m any NCO s ,ev en inth ev angu a rdpo s i t ion s , l iv edth roughth ew a rinb e t t e rcond i t ion sth anth er egu l a rso ld i e r s . Th eyh adr e l a t iv e lycom fo r t ab l esh e l t e r s ,th ey w e r eno ta lw ay sexpo s ed onth ef ron tl in e ,andSp an i sho ff c e r sw e r ea l low edon eo rev entwo 1 3 7 a s s i s t an t sandth e i rowncook . So ld i e r sinth er e a rgu a rd ,inlog i s t i c a l s e rv i c e s ,inth eG en e r a lS t a f f ,o rin t e l l ig en c ea l soh add i f f e r en texp e r i en c e sth antho s eonth ef ron tl in e s .Th es app e r sandp ion e e r s ,a sw e l la s th ea r t i l l e rym en ,commun i c a t ion st e chn i c i an s ,andan t i t ankso ld i e r s , con s t i tu t edsp e c if cc lu s t e r s .Th ef r s tg roupendu r edg r e a t e rexpo su r e tod ang e randsom e t im e ssp en thou r sandd ay sl ay inginth esnow ,su f f e r ingh e av i lyf romex t r em ew in t e rcond i t ion s wh i l ep e r fo rm ingth e i r 1 3 8 r i skydu t i e s . Th es e condfo l low edju s tb eh indth ev angu a rd .Th el i a i son ss e ldomeng ag edincomb a tbu tw e r eo f t enexpo s edtosn ip e r ,a r t i l l e ry ,andav i a t ionf r e .M ed i c a lp e r sonn e ls c a r c e lyexp e r i en c edt r en ch w a r f a r ebu td e a l tw i thi t scon s equ en c e sandth ep sy cho log i c a lf a t igu ei t en t a i l ed .Th eso ld i e r sb e long ingtoth er ad ios e c t ion ssp en t mo s to fth e t im eincom fo r t ab l epo s t sb eh indth ef ron tl in ebu tw e r er equ i r edgoou t 1 3 9 andr ep a i rcommun i c a t ionl in e samongf ron tun i t s . L ia i sond r iv e r Ma r t ín V e la s co wa sab l etoshow e rw i thsom ewha t mo r er egu la r i tyf rom Nov emb e r1941on .H i ss e rv i c e s(mo s t lytaking m e s sag e stot roop sfa rawayf romh eadqua r t e r s )w e r eno ta lway s n e ed edandev e rydayh een joy edar e la t iv e lyca lmb r eak fa s to fco f f e e andtoa s tw i thbu t t e r .Som e t im e sh ev i s i t edcom rad e s who w e r e“ f ry ing upsom eb e e ff l l e t s ,and ma sh edpo ta to e sw i th m i lkandbu t t e r ,”and w en ttob edea r ly . Dang e rcam einth efo rmo fspo rad i cbomba rdm en t f romSov i e ta r t i l l e ry .A l so ,th ebadcond i t ion so fth et e r ra insom e t im e s mad ei tn e c e s sa ryfo rh imtoa skfo rh e lpf romth ep ea san t stopu l lh i s mo to r cy c l ef romth e mud .H ehadtosp endth en igh to f 24–5 O c tob e r 1941ina Ru s s ianham l e t ,andth efo l low ingdayr equ i r edh e lpf rom

134 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th einhab i tan t so fano th e rlo ca l i ty .“ Ipo l i t e lya sk edsom eRu s s ian sina hou s etoh i t chaho r s etoaca r tandcom ew i th m e ;w er ea ch ed my mach in e ,pu ti tinth eca r t ,andth eytook m etoth een t ran c eo f Novgo rod .” 140 Ind e ed ,th er ea ldang e rcam ef romth epa r t i san s . P r iva t eFa r r éPa lau s wa s inanadvan c epo s i t iono fth es e c t iona round Lak eI lm en .H ehadtosp endth en igh t sinahu t ,tak ingtu rn sa tgua rd du tyinth ep e r i lou sco ld . Du r ingth eday ,h ehadtodoinnum e rab l e ta sk stha tla ck ed wa r r io rg lo ry bu ten su r edth e hab i tab i l i ty o fth e sh e l t e r : Wh enth e r ei sn ’ tgua rddu tyinBabk i ,th e r ei s woodtoco l l e c t ,o rsupp l i e s , o rsnowtoshov e l , mun i t ion stof e t ch ,m in e stop la c einth elak e ,athousandn e c e s sa rye r rand s ,and wh enth eya r edon eth e r ei sba r e lyt im el e f tto 1 4 1 s l e epacoup l eo fhou r sandsp endth en igh tona l e r taga in .

S in c e1 9 4 5 ,BD m emo i r sb eg antofo cu sonr e c r e a t ingth ea c t ion sonth e V o lkhovand inK r a sny iBo r–ep i c im ag e so ff e ro c iou scomb a tonb loody snow . How ev e r ,con s id e r ingth a tSp an i shso ld i e r ss t ay edanav e r ag eo f t en mon th sonth ef ron t , mom en t so fin a c t iv i ty w e r e mu ch mo r eabun d an tth antho s eo fcomb a t .T e s t imon i e sco in c id er eg a rd ingth eunb e a r ab l e mono tonyo fl i f eonth ef ron t , wh i ch w a sac l a s s i cf e a tu r eo f mod e rn w a r f a r eth a tcou ldl e adtoa“ c a lmd e sp e r a t ion ”andanob s e s s ion w i th 1 4 2 th em i s e r i e so fev e ryd ayl i f e . Th e mo s tcommonsub j e c ta f t e rD e c em b e r1 9 4 1w a sl am en tov e rth ep a r a ly s ingrou t in eo fd ay sinth et r en ch e s . Th a t mon th ,D an i e lT o r r aw ro t ehow“no tb e ingab l etoe s c ap eth e mono tonyo fth ehou r si sth e wo r s tth ing . ”Jo aqu ínRo sno t ed mon th sl a t e r th a t“ l i f ei sv e ry mono tonou s . ”Bo r edoma c comp an i edl a cko fhyg i en e , 1 4 3 co ld ,andad i f fu s es en s eo fin s e cu r i tyth a tin c r e a s eda tn igh t . Th i sw a sa w a ro fpo s i t ion s ,bu ti tn ev e rb e c am ea“ c a lmf ron t ”a s m anyh adknowndu r ingth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r .I tw a st ak ingp l a c ein aho s t i l eg eog r aphy ,ag a in s tanen emyon lyaf ewdo z en m e t r e saw ay . Th e r ew e r eo c c a s ion a la rm eden coun t e r s ,bu tth eadv e r s a rylu rk edin th efo r e s t so fth er e a rgu a rd l ik esom em en a c ing ,gho s t lyp r e s en c ewho s e unp r ed i c t ab i l i ty m ad e i ta l lth e mo r ed ang e rou s .Th et ed iumw a sd e c ept iv e :af ewhund r ed m e t r e saw ayth e r em igh tb eac amouf ag edp a r t i s an ,asn ip e r ,ana c egunn e r .Th ehou r so fn igh tw a t cht r i edth eso ld i e r s ’ n e rv e s :“Th e wo r s ti ss en s ingsom e th ingou tth e r e ,f e e l ingacon fu s ed , in exp l i c ab l eapp r eh en s ion ,no tknow ing wh a ti sh app en ingo r wh a t 1 4 4 i scom inguponyou . ” Th erou t in ew a so c c a s ion a l lyin t e r rup t edby 1 4 5 s t r ik e s ,r e in fo r c edp a t ro l s ,and mom en t so fb r i e fbu tin t en s ecomb a t . Th e mo s tt e r r ib l eexp e r i en c e wa sho ld ingth epo s i t ion sdu r ingenemya r t i l l e ryf r eo ro c ca s iona la i rbomba rdm en t .Th eSpan i sht roop s

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hadnoad equa t ep ro t e c t ionf romth ela t t e r ;Sov i e tp lan e scou ldin t e rrup timp rov i s ed“wa rtou r i smou t ing s”ton e ighbou r ingv i l lag e sonth e 146 f ron t . Inana r t i l l e ryo ra i ra t ta ck ,th eangu i sho fno tknow ing wha tto exp e c tdom ina t edth em ind so ftho s e whosough tr e fug eund e rg round o rr i sk edgo ingou t .R id ru e jo w ro t e :“Wha t wa sasa f ep la c e ?W ehad toinv en tasp e c if cconv i c t iontha ti t wou ldno tfa l l‘ th e r e , ’ wh e r ev e r ‘ th e r e ’ wa sa tanyg iv en mom en t ,andl iv ena tu ra l ly .”In s id eth ehov e l s , th es en sa t iono fs e cu r i ty wa son lyi l lu so ry : I fyoua r ein s id e ,ev e ry th ingshak e s ,youa r ed ea f en edandr e s ign edto wha t mu s thapp ena tany mom en t .I fyougoou t s id eth ea i ri sf l l ed w i th sh rapn e l ,th ehou s e stha tr ema ina r eonf r e ,sh e l t e r sa r ecav ingin ,p eop l e 1 4 7 a r es cu r ry ing ,pa s s ing ,andfa l l ing .

Th ea r r iva lo fsp r ingsom ewha ta l l ev ia t edth eco ld r e la t edha rd sh ip s anda l low edfo rb e t t e rp e r sona lhyg i en e :“W eb eganto wa shou r s e lv e s mo r eandno tgosoh eav i lyd r e s s edand w ea l lta lk edtoea cho th e r mo r e ,b e cau s ein w in t e rw ew e r el ik ecoa lm in e r s ,” w ro t eJoaqu ín Ro s .148 Th i sd idl i t t l etoa l t e rth e mono tonyo fth eday s ,how ev e r .L i eu t enan tA r ena l e sw ro t eona r r iv inga th i spo s i t iononth eV o lkhovF ron t on12Jun e1942tha t“h e r eth e r ei sab so lu t e lyno th ing ,i ti sanex t r em e ly ca lms e c to r ,” wh i chr em ind edh imo fh i sexp e r i en c e sinth eC iv i lW a r . Da i lyl i f e wa sf l l ed w i throu t in eta sk s :gua rddu ty ,c l ean ing w eapon s , ca rdgam e s ,l e t t e rw r i t ing ,m e e t ingup w i thcom rad e s ,andon c eina wh i l eav i s i ttoth er ea rgua rd .A r ena l e sw ro t eaga intwoday sla t e rtha t h i ssh e l t e rhada“b ed roominth es ty l eo fth equa t e rna ryp e r iod .”149 A r t i l l e ryL i eu t en an t Gu i l l e rmo H e rn an zh adth es am eimp r e s s iono f th ef ron twh enh ea r r iv edon 2 M ayo f th es am ey e a r ; i tbo r eab so lu t e lyno r e s emb l an c etoth eh e ro i cenv i ronm en th eh adim ag in edb e fo r e .“ Ih av e su f f e r edasm a l ld i s appo in tm en t ;w ea r eonth ef ron t ,i th a sb e ens ev e r a l hou r s ,and w eh av eno th e a rdas ing l ec annon . ”Th e wo r s tfo rh im w a s tos e eth elow mo r a l eo fm anyv e t e r an s .“Th eya l lsp e akc r i t i c a l lyo f… howth eya r et r e a t edbyth ecomm and e r s ,byth eG e rm an s ,andnoon ei s 1 5 0 con t en to rth ink so fany th inge l s ebu ttol e av e . ” Inf a c t ,rumou r sabou t imm in en tr ep l a c em en t sh adb e enc i r cu l a t inginth eBDs in c eD e c emb e r 1 9 4 1 .A tth eendo fth a t mon th ,D an i e lT o r r ah e a rd“v a r iou ss to r i e sabou t th efu tu r eo fth eD iv i s ion . ”Th i sg en e r a t edanx i e tyamongth eso ld i e r s , who w e r ea l r e adyt i r eda f t e rth ef r s ts e r i e so fh a rdcomb a t s .By m id J anu a ry1 9 4 2 ,op t im i sm w a sf ad ing :“ [hop e ]o fr ep l a c em en t s ,no t mu ch . ”151 Ev endu r ingt im e so f in a c t iv i ty ,th ing sw e r eno tsocom fo r t ab l efo rA r en a l e s .W o r s eth anth ein e s c ap ab l e mo squ i to e sw e r eth e mono tony ,th e hom e s i ckn e s sfo rh i sf am i ly ,andth ein c l em en tw e a th e r . On1Jun eh e

136 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

no t edth a th eh adno tl e f tth esh e l t e ra l ld ayandh addon eno th ing mo r e th anw r i t e l e t t e r shom e .H eh adtog iv es ign so f l i f e ,though“ Idon ’ tknow wh a t mo r etot e l lth em . ” On 2 0Jun e ,h ew a sch e e r eda tth eexp e c t a t ion th a th em igh tb es e l e c t edtop a r t i c ip a t einas t r ik eand“ c a t chaRu s s i an , ” wh i ch m igh te a rnh imanI ronC ro s si fsu c c e s s fu l . How ev e r ,h i sc ap t a in d idno ts e l e c th im . Wh enth es t r ik eg roupr e tu rn edon2 6Jun e ,h ew a s sh ak enbyth ed e a tho faf r i end whoh adf a l l eninth er a id .Th i sw a sa c comp an i edbyacon t r ad i c to rys en s eo fr e l i e f :i fA r en a l e sh adgon ein s t e ad ,h ewou ldh av ed i edandn ev e rb e enab l etofu lf lh i sg r e a t e s td e s i r e : tor e tu rntoh i sg i r l f r i end .“ Iw i l lcon so l e mysp i r i tandt ryno ttob eacow a rd ,tor e tu rntoh e rs id ea sIl e f t . ”Ev enso ,h ea l soenv i edtho s e whoh ad 1 5 2 t ak enp a r tinth es t r ik eand w e r enowb e ingr e comm end edfo rm ed a l s . L i eu t enan tH e rnanz , who wa sa s s ign edtoth eh eadqua r t e r sa tG r igo rovo ,exp e r i en c ed anequa l lycon t rad i c to rys en sa t ion . Though h e long edtob es en ttoaba t t e ryonth ef ron t ,h ecou ldno tavo idth ef ea r o fb e ingg rav e lyin ju r edo rk i l l edonth ef ron tl in eandn ev e rs e eh i s b e lov edg i r l f r i end Ma ru jaaga in .153 Dan i e lT o r ra mou rn edth ed ea th o ftwocom rad e sinas t r ik einla t e Ma r ch1942andb i t t e r ly mu s eda t th em ean ingo fth i slo s s :“Whyd idi thapp en ?Th ey w e r eso wo r thy , andth e i rd ea th wa sno tpu r cha s eda ti t sva lu e .”154 On28Jun e1942 , A r ena l e s wa scon sum edbyno s ta lg iaandangu i sh edov e rth eab s en c e o fl e t t e r sf romh i sg i r l f r i end :“ Idon ’ tknow wha ttoth ink ,ev e ry th ing mak e sm eb i t t e r ,i t ’ sb e ensolongtha tIdon ’ tknow wha ttob e l i ev e abou tSag ra r io .” H i s moodtu rn edd ep r e s s iv esom eday sla t e r : I ti sth e max imum ,u tmo s tbo r edomtoknowtha tw ew i l lsp enda l lw in t e r h e r e ,th i si sno ta wa r ,i ti sasumm e rbu t …th e mo squ i to e s mak el i f eimpo s s ib l e ,Ican ’ ts l e ep ;Ib lam eth em ,bu ti t ’ sr ea l lyb e cau s eIhav en ’ thad 1 5 5 anyl e t t e r sf romhom eo rf romSag ra r io .

H e rnanz wa sno tfa r ing mu chb e t t e rinh i spo s i t ion ,ina“wa rtooidio t i canddu l ltoev en wan tto w r i t eabou tinad ia ry .”Af ewday sla t e r , th ela cko fa c t iv i ty mad eh imapa th e t i c ,“d i sgu s t ed w i thRu s s iaand … s i cko fth eBD .” H es ca r c e ly mov edb eyondarad iu so ftwohund r ed m e t r e sf romh i spo s t .Th ein t e rm inab l eday l igh to fth ea r c t i csumm e r mad es l e ep mo r ei r r egu la r ,andfa t igu ea c cumu la t edd e sp i t eth eina c156 t iv i ty . Dan i e lT o r ra w ro t ein May1942tha t“ Iamlo s ing myin t e r e s tin ob s e rv ingandtak ingno t e s ,”ov e r com ea sh e wa sbyas en s eo f“ comp l e t eabandonm en ttofa t e .”157 A r ena l e s wa sd e j e c t edun t i l 16Ju ly , wh ena tla s th er e c e iv edal e t t e r f romh i sg i r l f r i endandh i sd ia ryaga inov e rfow ed w i then thu s ia sm . Intha th e wa snod i f f e r en tf rom mo s to th e rso ld i e r s .H e rnanzcoun t ed

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th ehou r sun t i l ma i ld e l iv e ryand wa sd e ep lyd i sappo in t ed wh enth e r e w e r enol e t t e r sfo rh im .Th eina c t iv i tyl edh imtob e com eob s e s s ed w i th th eid eatha th i sg i r l f r i endhadabandon edh im . How ev e r ,th e s ed ep r e s s iv es ta t e sgav e waytoeupho r ia wh enth ecou r i e rb rough tn ewl e t t e r s 158 f romh i sb e lov ed . Af ewl in e sf romh i sg i r l f r i endgav eA r ena l e sf r e sh in sp i ra t iontosu rv iv e ,to“ ea rnth ep r iv i l eg eo fca l l ingh e r my w i f e… 159 fo rh e rI w i l lfgh tandendu r eany th ingfa t eth row sa tm e .” How ev e r ,th e ma i lf romhom ed idno ton lyb r inggoodn ew s .I ta l so r em ind edth eso ld i e r so fongo ingfam i ly ,s en t im en ta l ,o rso c ia lcon f i c t s , wh i ch w e r ein t en s if edbyqu e s t ion ssu cha showtoa l lo ca t eth e comba tan t ’ ssa la ry .Th e s eth ing s wo r r i edth eso ld i e r sd e ep lyandb e cam een tang l ed w i thth e i rha rd sh ip sonth ef ron t .Th ed i s tan c e mad e th emf e e lh e lp l e s s .A r ena l e s ’pa r en t sands i s t e r sd emand edth epa r to f h i sea rn ing stha th ehads t ipu la t edshou ldgotoh i sg i r l f r i end .Th i s wa s af r equ en tcon c e rninth eco r r e spond en c eo fSpan i shvo lun t e e r sw i th 160 th e i rfam i l i e s . T o mak e ma t t e r s wo r s e ,ano th e r l e t t e rf romh i sb e lov ed Sag ra r ioexp r e s s edtoh imh e r j ea lou syo fA r ena l e s ’ s“wa rgodmo th e r .” W iv e sandg i r l f r i end scon s id e r ed“wa rgodmo th e r s”andnu r s e sr ea l comp e t i t ionina wo r ldth eyimag in edtob eanexo t i cGomo r rah . Wh enth e r ew e r enol e t t e r sf romhom e ,th eday spa s s edinas t rang e ca lm . On26Ju ly ,A r ena l e sw ro t etha t“ th i sdo e sno ts e eml ik ea wa r ; on c eina wh i l eth e r ei sanex chang eo fgun sho t s ,bu ti tgo e snofu rth e r .” On4 Augu s t ,ana la rm wa sr e co rd eda th i spo s t ,bu ta f t e rwa rd s ev e ry th ing wa s“a sbo r inga sev e r .” Ou t ing stoth er ea rgua rdtown s andv i l lag e sw e r eth eso l ed i s t ra c t ion . On15 Augu s t ,h ew ro t etha th e 161 andh i scompan ion shaddan c ed w i th“ som er ea l lyug lyp an i en k a s.” Th eimp rov i s edf e t e sw i thth elo ca l sd idno ta lway shav earoman t i c au ra .H e rnanzcou ldno tcomp r eh endhowo th e ra r t i l l e ryo ff c e r shad th e“ s toma ch”todan c ew i th“ fa tandsm e l ly”f ema l e sinarank ,a lmo s t da rkroom“ sm e l l ingo fhuman i ty .”162 C i r cum s tan c e sd idno tchang e mu ch wh enth es e c t iono fL i eu t enan t A r ena l e s wa sr e l i ev ed ,andh e wa s mov edtoth eKo lp inos e c to r . On 12 O c tob e r ,h e wa st ran s f e r r edandpu tincha rg eo fa ma ch in eguninPavlov sk , wh e r eh er ema in edun t i l22 D e c emb e r .Th eday sr e sum edth e i r mono tonou scou r s e .H e r e ,h i sen t r i e scom etoanend ;w i th ins ix w e ek s , by m id -F eb rua ry1943 ,h ehadfa l l en incomba t .Som e mon th s la t e r ,A r ena l e s ’ sfam i lyr e c e iv edh i sw r i t t end ia ryandsom epho to s–in c lud ing on eo fh i sg rav e–f romar e tu rn edcom rad e .163 Th ew a rd i a r i e so fH e rn an zandA r en a l e s i l lu s t r a t e th ed a i lyp e r c ep t ion o fd ang e rm anyso ld i e r sexp e r i en c ed .Th e mono tonyo ft ed iou sw e ek s , phy s i c a lh a rd sh ip s ,andf l th m igh tb ein t e r rup t edb ru squ e lybyanenemys t r ik e ,asn ip e r s ’bu l l e t ,o rw e l l -p l a c eda r t i l l e ryf r e .D e a thhound ed

138 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .4 .5 .T ombo fB en jam ínA r ena l e s ,1943(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fCa rm e lod ela s H e ra s , Mad r id )

ev e ry mom en tandf r equ en t lyc am einth e mo s tab su rd m ann e r .A f t e r a lmo s ta mon tho fs tup e fy ingbo r edom ,H e rn an zr e s i s t eds ev e r a lhou r s o fa r t i l l e rya t t a ck , wh i chc l a im edth el iv e so fnum e rou scomp an ion sa t h i spo s i t ion .A f t e rth a texp e r i en c e ,h ef e l th eh adb e enr ebo rn .W e ek s l a t e r ,Sov i e ta r t i l l e ryh i tth r e eo fh i scom r ad e s ,l e av ingth emd i sfgu r ed . Emo t ion a lt r ibu t etoth ef a l l encou ldno tm a skth es en s a t ionth a td e a th lu rk edn e a rby .Th el a t ea r r iv a lo fm a i lf romSp a info rtho s e whoh ad ju s t 1 6 4 f a l l enb e c am easup e r s t i t iou sp r emon i t ion . C ap t a inF igu e ro l aw ro t e inh i sd i a ryabou tth e mono tonyo fth ed ay sa tth ef ron t ,h i sen coun t e r sw i tho th e ro ff c e r s ,andth eev e r in c r e a s ingd emo r a l i z a t iono fh i s

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com r ad e s ina rm s . How ev e r ,o c c a s ion a la r t i l l e ry imp a c t sc au s edsudd en 1 6 5 c a su a l t i e s .On1 4Ju ly1 9 4 3h ew a sa l soh i tbyash e l l . F ea ro fdy inginas t r ik e ,f romas t raybu l l e t ,o rf romen emy mo rta rf r eb e cam e doub lyangu i sh ing . How ev e r ,th ep ro sp e c to fb e ing awa rd eda m eda lfo rtak ingpa r ta tana c t ioncou ldapp ea ltoth ep r id e o fev enth el ea s tid ea l i s t i cso ld i e r . Ang e l Ma r ch enaexp r e s s edh i sd el igh ta tr e c e iv ingad i s t in c t ionf romh i scap ta ina f t e rpa r t i c ipa t ingin ani so la t eds t r ik e .Incon t ra s t ,S e rg ean tV a l e r ianoRu izlam en t edtha t h ehadb e end en i eda m eda lfo rth eon lya rm eda c t ionin wh i chh ehad pa r t i c ipa t eddu r ingh i st en mon th sinth et r en ch .166 Jüng e ro rR em a r qu e? Th eSpan ia rd shadf ewoppo r tun i t i e stogoonth eo f f en s iv e du r ing th e i rt im eonth eEa s t e rnF ron t . Wh enth eyd id ,no ta l lun i t spa r t i c i pa t edinequa lm ea su r e .In mo s to fth em ,p e r iod so ft en s eca lmand wa i t ingou tnumb e r edtho s eo fo f f en s iv e .Th es en sa t ion sexp e r i en c ed du r ing mom en t so fin t en s ecomba tw e r era r e lyr ef e c t eduponinBD t e s t imon i e s ,pa r t lyb e cau s esu ch imp r e s s ion sandexp e r i en c e scou ldno t ea s i lyb et ran sm i t t eda f t e rth efa c t .A t mo s t ,D ion i s ioR id ru e joob s e rv ed (h i simp r e s s ion sc l ea r lyevok ingtho s ew r i t t enbyE rn s tJüng e ry ea r s b e fo r e ) ,o f f en s iv ea c t ion sw e r er e cogn iz eda sa mom en to fl ib e ra t ion f roma l lth ef ea r sa c cumu la t eddu r ingt im e so f wa i t ingandpa s s iv i ty . A t ta ck ,ev en w i thabayon e tinanop enf e ld ,b e cam eachao t i cbu tcatha r t i cexp e r i en c eb e cau s eo fth ead r ena l insu rg etha ta c compan i edi t : “a t ta ck ings t r eng th en s , l i f t sth esp i r i t s : i tr e l ea s e syou rt en s ion s ,youg e t ath r i l l wh enth ean t i tank sh i tth e i r ma rk . Dang e rs e em stoe lud eyou p e r sona l lyanddo e sn ’ ts e ekyouou tl ik esom eanonymou sandpa s s iv e mou s e .Bu t wa i t inginth eco ldi sa lmo s tt e r r i fy ing .”167Inth e wo rd so f Fa lang i s tAnd r é sGay tan ,“ runn ingfo rwa rd wa rm supyou rf e e t .”168 Som eex c ep t ion so f f e r edanequa l lyc la s s i cexamp l eo fhowcom rad esh ip wa ss t r eng th en edth roughb loodbond sfo rg edbyk i l l ing ,pa r t i c i pa t inginth esp e c ta c l eo fv io l en c eandd ea th ,andsu rv iv ing .Th ea c to f k i l l ing ,a sina l l wa rexp e r i en c e , wa ssh i e ld edbyco l l e c t iv er e spon s ib i li ty .P r iva t eSán ch ez D ianar em emb e r edth ee f f e c to fana c t iononh im andh i scom rad e sdu r ingth eV o lkhovo f f en s iv ea sabap t i smbyf r e .I t r e in fo r c edab ro th e rhoodc r ea t edf romsha r edexp e r i en c e stha tcou ld no tb et ran sm i t t ed : Ic l imbin toahay s ta cktor e s tandpu t mythough t sino rd e r . Mycom rad e s a r ed i f f e r en tnow .Th eyhav ead i f f e r en tp e r sona l i ty .Th eb l indin s t in c tto fgh tha schang edth esp i r i tbo rninth ecamp ,inth e ma r ch e s ,andinth e

140 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t day sonth et ra inanda tth epo s t .W ea r el ik e wo rk e r so fd ea th .W eb ea rth e 1 6 9 an c i en t ma rko fd e s t ru c t ion .W ea r e wa r r io r s ,l i f eha sad i f f e r en ts ign .

Ind iv idua landco l l e c t iv ecomba texp e r i en c e ,th eemo t iona limpa c t o fk i l l ingands e e ingc lo s ecom rad e sd i e , ma rk edth eso ld i e r sfo rl i f e , mo r ethananyr i t eo fpa s sag einth eba r ra ck so rdu r ingth e ma r chto th ef ron t .I t wa saso r to finn e r jou rn eytoth ed e ep e s tsu rv iva lin s t in c t s , wh i chSán ch ezD ianacap tu r edinid ea l iz edbu tv e ryexp r e s s iv et e rm s : Th ech ang eo fm en t a l i tyth a tw eh av ea l lsu f f e r edandth a tw i l lm a rku s i fw esu rv iv e …Th et e r r ib l ehou r sonth ef ron t ,andth ed i s app e a r an c eo f goodf r i end sandcom r ad e sh a sth i spo s i t iv ea sp e c t .I tsu r round sth i sp l a c e w i thb i t t e r , in t en s e ly ly r i c a ld r eg s …w ek i l l ,andw ed i es imp lyb e c au s e .I t i s ah idd enin s t in c tinhum ank indth a tw el ik etod r e s sup w i thp r e t ty wo rd s . Th es ign if c an c eo fw a ri sth a ti tr ev e a l sth eendr e a sono fm an .W a ri sth e mo th e ro fev e ry th ing …Th e mo r ew ed i s r eg a rdl i f eandth el e s sw ed e s i r e i t ,th e mo r ein t en s e ly w el iv ei t . Ou ran im a lfu ryb lo s som sinag ig an t i c d i sp l ayo fun iqu ev i t a l i t i e s .F a i thinon e s e l fin c r e a s e sw i thd e a th .Th esp i r i t b e com e srough ,p r i ck ly ,h a rd .I ti ssom e th ingh igh e rth anb a rb a r i sm .170

W i thl e s sl i t e ra rya cum en ,ano th e rv e t e ranr e ca l l edth es ta t eo fexc i ta t iontha thadcom eov e rh imdu r ingcomba t :“Y oudon ’ th ea r wha t th eysaytoyou ,youdon ’ th ea ryou r s e l f ,no th ing !Y ou rb loodb eg in sto bo i l ,andyoudon ’ tev enknow wh e r eyoua r e ,no ?Y oucanea s i lyd i e w i thou tno t i c ingi t .”171 Fo r manyso ld i e r s ,inth equ i e ta f t e rth eba t t l e ,th e wa r r io r ’ simm ed ia t er epo s eb rough tw i thi tr ef e c t ionon wha thadb e enexp e r i en c ed .O f t en ,th eapp ea ran c eo fth eexhau s t edcomba tan t sr e tu rn ingf roma rm ed a c t ion sc l ea r lyexp r e s s edhowth e i rl iv e shadchang ed .A f t e r wa t chings ev e ra lcomba tan t sr e tu rnf romPo sad ,R id ru e jod e s c r ib edtwoa t l eng th :twoFa lang i s t s whohadd i s t ingu i sh edth em s e lv e sinba t t l eand whomh enowsawt ran sfgu r edbyexhau s t ionandsu f f e r ing : Tho s etwoanda l lth eo th e r s who“hav eb e enth e r e”nowlookl ik es l e epwa lk e r s . Th e i rconv e r sa t ioni sin coh e r en tand m i s s ingha l fth e wo rd s . Th eyhav easunk en ,lo s tlook ,w i thou tv igou r ,w i thaf ev e r i shsh e enand v e i l ed .Th eyhav eb e com eho r r ib lyth inanda r eb la ckf romgunpowd e r … On em igh tsayth eshadowo fd ea th , wh i ch wa ssoc lo s etoth emand ha sr ep ea t edi t sd e edso manyt im e sb e fo r eth em ,s t i l lhang sov e rth em .172

W a sth ew a raninn e r jou rn ey ,ano rgyo fb loodandv io l en c eth a tl ib e ra t edun su sp e c t edv i t a len e rg i e sinth eso ld i e r s ,l ik eth e“ s to rm so fs t e e l ”

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th a tE rn s tJüng e rid e a l i z edin1 9 2 0 ?Th e mono tonyl ed m anytocon c lud e th a tth ew a rw a sno mo r eth anth e i rev e ryd aye xp e r i en c e :d i r t in e s s ,h a rd sh ip s ,th es a t i s fy ingo fb a s i cn e ed s ,no s t a lg i a ,d ang e ro fd e a th … O th e r s , th eF a l ang i s t s inp a r t i cu l a r ,h ada mo r e id e a l i s t i cr e ad ing .R id ru e jor e fu s ed toth inkl ik eE r i ch M .R em a rqu e–au tho ro fth ep a c if s tnov e lA l l Qu i e t ont h eW e s t e rnF r on t( 1 9 2 9 ) , wh i chd enoun c edth eb ru t a l i tyo ft r en ch w a r f a r edu r ingth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r–th a taso ld i e r ’ sl i f ew a sr edu c edto“ th e pu r ee xp e r i en c eo fth ehum anan im a lw i thou ti l lu s iono rb e l i e f ,w i thou t en cou r ag em en to rh app in e s sand w i thou tv a lu e . ”H econ c ed edth a tR e m a rqu em igh tb er igh tabou t“ th ean e cdo t e s , ”bu tno t in th ed e ep m e an ing o fth ew a re xp e r i en c e .173 D e sp i t eth eco ld ,th eh a r shenv i ronm en t ,andth e num e r i c a lsup e r io r i tyo fth een emy ,th ecomb a te xp e r i en c ew a sana lmo s t my s t i c a lin i t i a t ionin tocom r ad e sh ipandth epu r if c a t iono fth e i rid e a l s : Do w eSpan ia rd sl iv ew e l lth roughth i sd i ff cu l tcampa igno rno t ?I fyou pu tl iv ing w e l lin toabou rg eo i so r ma t e r ia lca t ego ry ,I w i l lt e l lyoutha t h e r ew el iv ebad ly ;i f ,toth econ t ra ry ,youpu ti tona mo ra lp lan e ,o f wha t i sex emp la ryo rsa t i s fy ingtoth econ s c i en c e ,Icant e l lyoutha tw el iv ev e ry w e l l ,b e t t e rthan w ew i l lev e rl iv eaga in .174

L i f eonth ef ron t wa sasou r c eo fp e rman en tp r id efo rth e mo s tid ea l i s t i cso ld i e r s .Th eyfough tfo r wha tth eycon s id e r eda mo ra landju s t cau s e .Th i sf e e l ing wa sen cou rag edf romad i s tan c ebyfam i ly m emb e r s , g i r l f r i end s ,and w iv e s whosha r edth e i r wo r ldv i ew . Do lo r e sGan c edo , th efan c é eo fBDvo lun t e e randFETp rov in c ia ll ead e rA lb e r to Ma r t ín Gam e ro ,w ro t ehowsh ef e l tp roudo f“ th i st ru eFa lang etha tyoua l la r e” andtha tsh esu f f e r ed w i thun c e r ta in ty inth eab s en c eo fh e rspou s e .Th e su f f e r ingo f wa rs e rv edtopu r i fyid ea l sandg iv em ean ingtoano th e r w i s edu l landanonymou sl i f e : Th eso r row so f wa ra r eth ek indtha tf l lu sw i thp r id e ,anda f t e rth eha rd mom en t shav epa s s edi ti sa tl ea s tfo rm eth eon lyth inginth e wo r ldtha t f l l sm ew i thsa t i s fa c t ion ,i ti sth eh igh e s t , mo s tnob l eth inginth i s wo r ldto e l eva t eon e s e l ff romth evu lga r i tyo fl i f eandpu r i fyou rw eakn e s s e sinl i f e w i thth epu r i tyo fou rsu f f e r ingfo rth eb e s tid ea l s .175

Th el e t t e r sr e c e iv edf romSp a ing av een cou r ag em en tandr ev e a l ed con c e rn .Th i sd idno ts topo th e rF a l ang i s t sf romd e s c r ib ingth es am ew a r exp e r i en c ea sana c cumu l a t iono fp enu r i e sandr i sk s ,o fcon s t an tf a t igu e h e igh t en edbysnowandco ld ,s t e ep edinp e rm an en tno s t a lg i afo rhom e . How ev e r ,th i slong ingfo rSp a ing av es t r eng thandin sp i r edcou r ag ein 1 7 6 co r e l ig ion i s t s whoaw a i t edth er e tu rno fth eB lu eD iv i s ionvo lun t e e r s .

142 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .4 .6 .Span i shso ld i e r stak eSov i e tp r i son e r ,1942(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fM .X . Nogu e i ra ,San t iagod eCompo s t e la )

C om r ad e sh ipandth eCu l to fth eF a l l en On e wayo fcomba t t ingf ea ro fd ea th wa stocu l t iva t ebond so fcama rad e r i e .Ev ena sth eD iv i s ionf r s ten t e r edcomba t ,R id ru e jo w ro t e :“Th e v i s ib l ep r e s en c eo fd ea thcanno tb es e enimpa s s iv e ly .Bu tth i sd ea th mak e sso mu chno i s e ,th esp e c ta c l eo f wa t ch ingo th e r sg iv e scou rag e andpa s s ion .”T ra in inghadcon t r ibu t edtoth i s .R id ru e jono t ed“ th eco ll e c t iv ed i s ca rd ingo fc e r ta inhab i t so fd e l i ca cy ,s en t im en t , mo ra lsw e e t n e s s ,andin t e l l e c tua le l egan c e ,”a s“ ev e ry th ingb e com e s mo r erobu s t bu tsma l l e r .Th em enconfn eth em s e lv e stoane l em en ta llay e r ,tha to f p r ima ryn e c e s s i t i e s .”G e t t ingupea r lyev e ryday ,th eha r sht ra in ing ,th e f ruga lm ea l s mad eev e ryso ld i e rc lo s eh im s e l fw i th ina“ ra th e rb l i s s fu l 177 ands eda t ingd e ta chm en t .” How ev e r ,m i l i ta ryl i f e wa sfo r manyFa lang i s t stoo m e chan i ca land d i f f e r en tf romth e i rownid ea lo fpo l i t i ca lcom rad e sh ip .R id ru e jocomp la in eda l soo fth e“pu e r i l eco l l e c t iv ec l ima t etha t mu ff e ssp i r i tua l l i f e .” H ef e l tcom fo r t edbyacompa c t ,in t e r c la s scommun i tytha tg en e ra t ed

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 143

a“ co l l e c t iv ep r id e ,” wh en“ s e e ingon e ’ sco lumngo inga roundacu rv e , youjo ini ta sa man ,v i s ib l eini t sha rmon iou sun i ty …ands ing l eobj e c t iv e .”Th eexamp l eo fo th e r sandsha r edf ea rl edth emtod em ean “any th inginl i f etha tr equ i r ednoe f fo r t .”Th eadv en tu r e wa sa l soan 178 inn e rexp e r i en c e . As t rongs en s eo fcoh e s ion ma rk edth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,e sp e c ia l lyin th ef r s texp ed i t ion .I t wa s ma in lycompo s edo fvo lun t e e r sf romr e l a t iv e lysma l l po l i t i ca lands tud en tp r ima ry g roup s . Th i s mad eth e D iv i s iona“ l i t t l e wo r ld” ;ino th e run i t so rf e ldho sp i ta l son em igh tencoun t e rr e la t iv e s ,a cqua in tan c e sf romth esam ec i ty ,o rb ro th e r sina rm s f rom1936– 9 . Manyo ldf r i end sandcom rad e sfoundea cho th e ra tboo t campin G ra f enwöh r . On eco r r e spond en tw ro t e :“ i ti sf r equ en ttos e e th es c en eo fon eso ld i e remb ra c ingano th e rso ld i e rands lapp ingh imon th eba ck . ‘H i , man …Id idn ’ tknowyou w e r eh e r e . ’” How ev e r ,su chen coun t e r scou lda l sob eunp l ea san t , wh ena cqua in tan c e sandhom e town f r i end sshow edupinth ec em e t e r i e s .San t iago Muñoz C é sa rofound th ec ro s s e so fach i ldhoodf r i endandtwo C iv i lW a rcom rad e sinth e M e s t e l evoc em e t e ry .179 Th eBDs e rv e sa sagoodexamp l eo fcoh e s ionba s edonth es t r eng th o fi t sp r ima ryg roup s , wh i ch w e r eea s i lyr ep rodu c edinth e many mom en t so fr e laxa t iontha ta c compan i eda wa ro fpo s i t ion s .A tl ea s tun t i l m id -1942 ,th i scoh e s ioncou ldb eexp la in eda sth efu s iono f“p r ima ry g roup s”o fo r ig in ,d efn edbypo l i t i ca lo rhom e townbond s ,andn ew g roup s who s ecama rad e r i e wa sso l id lyc em en t edinth e i rcommonexp e r i en c eonth ef ron t .T im eandcomba t mad eth econ tou r so fth ed iv e r s ep r e ex i s t ingpo l i t i ca lcu l tu r e sanda ffn i tyg roup so fth eso ld i e r s so f t enand m e ldin toan ewid en t i tyt i edtoth eD iv i s ioni t s e l f .T oad e g r e e ,th esam eo c cu r r edinth eW eh rma ch t .180 Conv e r sa t ionc i r c l e sp lay edanimpo r tan tro l eincon so l ida t ingo ld andn ewg roup so fr e f e r en c e . Mo r ep r e s t ig iou sFa lang i s t scou ldta lk abou tpo l i t i c sfo rhou r sinth e i rsh e l t e r s , wh i l ep lay ingca rd sandsha r 181 ingd r ink sandfood . Po l i t i c sw en thanding lov ew i thhom e town o r ig in s .V o lun t e e r sf romth esam etownt r i edto m e e t upo f t en ;tog e th e rw i thcom rad e sandf r i end s ,th ey wou ldc e l eb ra t eb i r thday sand pa t ronsa in tday s .182 “ Im e taf r i endandn e ighbou r whoi sth esono f M r .Lu c iano whol iv e sn ex ttoth eC iv i l Gua rdh eadqua r t e r s ,and w e c e l eb ra t ed w i tha d r ink ingb ing e ,” w ro t eA l f r edo Rod r ígu ezto h i s mo th e rinD e c emb e r1941 .183 Th e r ew e r ea l sos ev e r a lc a s e so fb ro th e r sf romth es am ef am i lya ss ign edtod i f f e r en tun i t s , whot r i edtos e ee a cho th e r wh enth eycou ld . S ev e r a lo fth em w e r eo fO ldGu a rdp ed ig r e e–su cha sth eRu i zV e rn a c c i b ro th e r s ,th eG a r c í a Nob l e j a sb ro th e r s ,e t c .S im i l a r ly ,th eBDvo lun t e e r s

144 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

f romC a tho l i cA c t ionY ou th , thoughd i sp e r s edamongs ev e r a lun i t s , t r i ed 1 8 4 to m e e tuponSund ay stop r ayth ero s a ryo rh e a rM a s stog e th e r . Th e BDt r en chn ew sp ap e ro f t enp r in t edr equ e s t so find iv idu a l so rg roup s o fso ld i e r sf romth es am ep l a c e who w e r ein t e r e s t edind i s cov e r ingth e un i to r wh e r e abou t so faf r i end ,r e l a t iv e ,o rhom e towna cqu a in t an c e . Th ehom e towno rpo l i t i c a lco l l e c t iv e , wh e th e rth eg roupi t s e l fo rth e comp any ,s e rv eda sar e fug ef romso r row s ,f e a r ,andlon e l in e s sina s t r ang el and .F a l ang i s tvo lun t e e r s , who w e r eo f t enun iv e r s i tys tud en t s f rom m idd l e -o r upp e r -m idd l e c l a s s hom e s ,l iv ed a long s id eh a l f i l l i t e r a t ep e a s an t s ,m anu a ll abou r e r s ,ands e rg e an t s who h adcom e upth roughth er ank s . Onth ef ron t ,t en s ion sf romth et r a in ingp e r iod so f t en ed ,andso ld i e r sl e a rn edtofun c t iontog e th e rinth es am eun i t s . Sh a r ingqu a r t e r sa l sol edtosom ehomo s exu a lr e l a t ion s , wh i ch w e r e s i l en c edina lmo s ta l lt e s t imon i e sbu tsom e t im e sin s inu a t edinth ed i a r i e s .Th eRu s s i anin t e rp r e t e rV l ad im i rKov a l ev sk i ir e f e r r edinh i sm em o i r stoac a s einvo lv ingtwos e rg e an t s .185 On elog i s t i c sd r iv e rw ro t eo fan en s ign who w a s“ r e a l lyc lo s e ”toh i sa s s i s t an t :“ th eyev ens l e epinth e 1 8 6 s am eb ed . ” BDin t e rn a lsou r c e sind i c a t ea sm anya ss ev en tyc a s e so f homo s exu a l i tyamongo ff c e r s , NCO s ,andso ld i e r sbyth eendo f1 9 4 1 .187 Com rad e sh ipadd edn ewt i e stoth eo ldon e s ,andex i s t ingf r i end sh ip s w e r er e confgu r edbyth e wa r .R id ru e joexp r e s s edth i s wh enh er e f e r r ed toth eev en ing ssp en tinconv e r sa t ion w i thh i scom rad e s :“W eta lk eda lo t .In myhou s eth e r ea r ea lway sf e l lowconv e r sa t iona l i s t s ,som ep e r man en t ,o th e r sva r iab l e .”Lu i sAgu i la rno t edtha tinh i ssha cko th e rFa188 lang i s t so f t en m e ttota lk“abou tpo l i t i c sinSpa inandinth eFa lang e .” T a lk ingabou tt ran s c end en ta lth em e s ,g i r l s ,o rth e i rownl i t t l ep rob l em s c r ea t edaf c t i t iou sbu tn e c e s sa ryi l lu s iono fno rma l i tyfo rth em emb e r s o fth efgh t ingcommun i ty .“ Inth i sa tmo sph e r e ,If e e la si fev e ry th ingi s a l r igh t ;a l l mycompan ion shav eth e i rownl i t t l ep rob l em s ,” ju s ta si fh e w e r eamongf r i end sa tun iv e r s i ty ,w ro t eSa lvado rZanón . How ev e r ,ano th e rr ea l i ty m e tth em wh enth eyl e f tth ei z b a ;th e wa rchang edp eop l e : “ f r i end sI w en ttos e conda rys choo lw i tho rp lay ed w i thinth epa rka s 189 ch i ld r en ,Is e eth eyhav echang ed .” Fo r manyFa lang i s t s ,th ecama rad e r i ea l sohadapo l i t i ca lr ead ing . R id ru e josu rm i s edtha tth esha r ede f fo r thadbond edFa lang i s t sand non -Fa lang i s t sw i th in h i scompany .H ethough th e wa sw i tn e s s ing 190 th eb i r tho fan ewcommun i tyo ft ru eb e l i ev e r s . Inh i sv i ew ,an ew Fa lang ehadem e rg edf romth eb loodo fth efa l l en ,on etha tcomb in ed C iv i lW a rv e t e ran s ,un iv e r s i tys tud en t s , NCO s ,andCa tho l i c s :“Th eD iv i s ioni snowandfo r ev e rFa lang i s t ,f romth ecap ta indown .”En r iqu e E r randocap tu r edsom e th ings im i la rinaconv e r sa t ion w i that rad i t iona l i s tvo lun t e e r :in Ru s s ia“w es topd iv id ingou r s e lv e sup …b e cau s e

Th eB lu eD iv i s iononth eF ron t 145

o fou rlab e l s .”191 How ev e r ,po l i t i ca la ffn i ty wa sno ta lway sth e ma in th ing .P r iva t eJo s éL ina r e s ,r e c ru i t edin1942 ,r e ca l l edsom ey ea r sla t e r th eb ehav iou ro fh i scom rad e s . Amongth em w e r e“an t i commun i s t s l ik em e , manyoppo r tun i s t s whohop edfo radvan tag eou s po s i t ion s wh enth eyr e tu rn ed ,som e who w e r eind i f f e r en t ,Fa lang i s t s ,r e l ig iou s on e sonanan t i -Bo l sh ev ikc ru sad e ,m e lan cho lyon e s ,non con fo rm i s t s ,” bu tth eya l lfough t“mo s ta rduou s lyfo rsom e th ingo fl i t t l econ c e rn .” Why ?G roupso l ida r i tyandsu rv iva l .192 Com rad e sh ipa l soex t end edtoth efa l l en . Th eSpan i shcu l ttoth e fa l l enonth ef ron td i f f e r edl i t t l ef rom wha thadb e enr e inv en t edinth e t r en ch e so fth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r–n ewadap ta t ion so fat rad i t iona lr i t e– o rf romth es tanda rdp ra c t i c eo fth eG e rmanA rmy .193 Ea ch W eh rma ch t d iv i s iono rr eg im en te s tab l i sh edac em e t e ryini t sr ea rgua rd .Th es imp l ebu r ia lr i t e sw e r eob s e rv ed w i thca r eandinvo lv edacon c i s er e l ig iou sc e r emony .Incon t ra s tw i thth eR edA rmy ’ sn eg l ig en c eo fi t sown 194 fa l l en , th eW eh rma ch t wo rk edtolo ca t ei t sfa l l enso ld i e r s . Honou r ingfa l l encom rad e sk ep tth ema l iv einth eh ea r to fth e“fgh t ingcom mun i ty”and mo t iva t edth el iv ingtoav eng eth e i rd ea th s .I t wa sa l soa p sy cho log i ca lcop ing m e chan i smfo rsu rv iv ingth eexp e r i en c eo f ma s s d e s t ru c t ion .Su chr i t e sr ea ff rm edb loodbond sandexo r c iz edth ef ea r o fd ea th .W a rc em e t e r i e sinconqu e r edt e r r i to rythu sb e cam easymbo l i co c cupa t ionandlandba th edinth eb loodo fh e r o e sap e r enn ia lr e m ind e ro fpa s tv i c to r i e sa sw e l la sap e rman en t wa rn ingfo rtho s e who r e tu rn ed :th e i rcom rad e sbu r i edinRu s s ias e rv eda s mo ra lexamp l e sfo r 195 th efu tu r eta sk so fth eFa lang e . Th eB lu eD iv i s ionrap id lya s sum edth i s modu sop e rand i .Th eyhad th e i rownc em e t e r i e s ,bu ta l sosha r edspa c ew i thth eG e rmand ead .Th e abundan c eo ffa l l enFa lang i s t sinth ew in t e ro f1941–2a l sogav er i s eto animp rov i s edcampa ignr i tua l .A f t e rth echap la inspok e ,th ecom rad e s sangth eFa lang i s thymn ,pu tb i r chpo l e sa roundth etomb ,andp la c ed aLa t inc ro s sw i tha symm e t r i ca rm s ,a long w i thth efag s(o rsymbo l s ) o fth eFa lang eando th e rr e l ig iou se l em en t s .196 Com rad e st end edth e g rav e s ,p ray ed ,andp la c edfow e r sa tth em ,th e r ebyin t eg ra t ingth eabs en ton e sin toth ecomba tf e l low sh ip .Tho s e whor e tu rn edtoSpa inf e l t th e mo ra ldu tytov i s i tth efam i l i e sandd e l iv e rth ep e r sona le f f e c t so f th efa l l ena safna lt r ibu t etotho s e who wou ldno tr e tu rn .

5O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion in No r thw e s tRu s s ia

A c co rd ingtoth eBDna r ra t iv ea f t e r1945 ,th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s ion con s t i tu t edanex c ep t ioninth eW eh rma ch tfo ri t sex t rao rd ina r i lyb e n ignt r ea tm en to fRu s s ianc iv i l ian sandSov i e tp r i son e r s .Th i shadto do w i ths e e ingth ep r e s en c eo fth eBDinRu s s iaa sanan t i commun i s t en t e rp r i s e ,d evo id o fany Naz isympa th i e s . How ev e r ,b eyondth i s s e l f comp la c en timag e ,th e r ei sroomtoa skth esam eh i s to r iog raph i c qu e s t ion stha t wou ldapp lytoo th e ro c cupy ingfo r c e s .T o wha tpo in t w e r eth eSpan ia rd sd i f f e r en tf romth er e s to fth eW eh rma ch t ?W a sth e B lu eD iv i s ionaso r to foa s i sin A rmy G roup No r th w i thr e sp e c ttoth e t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian sandR ed A rmyp r i son e r s ?W a sth e r ea H i span i c va r ian to fth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion ? Aso c io cu l tu ra lfo cu sonth e wa r exp e r i en c eo fBDcomba tan t stha texp lo r e sth e i rv i s iono fth een emy ,o f Ru s s ia ,ando fth eJ ew s mayp rov id esom ean sw e r s .Th i sshou ldb ea ccompan i edbyemp i r i ca lana ly s i so fth e i rb ehav iou rtowa rd sc iv i l ian s , p r i son e r s ,andJ ew sincon t ex tanda si to c cu r r ed ,u s ingacomb ina t ion o fsou r c e sra th e rthanana c r i t i ca la c cumu la t iono fla t e rt e s t imon i e s f romth ecomba tan t sth em s e lv e s . A sind i ca t edabov e , Naz iG e rmanyhadp lann eda wa rtoex t e rm ina t ela rg epo r t ion so fth eSov i e tpopu la t ion .Fundam en ta la sp e c t so f th ep ro j e c ttoc r ea t eanemp i r eund e rth econ t in en ta lh eg emonyo fth e Th i rdR e i chin c lud edd eny ingSov i e tcomba tan t sth er igh ttoc iv i l iz ed t r ea tm en t ,e l im ina t ingpo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r s ,co l labo ra t inginta sk sto ann ih i la t eth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion ,expand ing m i l i ta ryju s t i c etoa s s imi la t et r ea tm en to fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,andn eg l e c t ingtop rov id e th em w i thfood .Som eo fth e s ep r em i s e sa r er e co rd edin“ In s t ru c t ion s fo rth e Condu c to fT roop sin Ru s s ia”o f19 May1941 ,in c lud ingth e “Comm i s sa rO rd e r”(6Jun e1941 ) ,th e“D e c r e eonth eEx e r c i s eo fW a r Ju r i sd i c t ion”(13 May1941 ) ,and“Gu id e l in e sfo rth eT r ea tm en to fP r i s on e r so fW a r”(16Jun e1941 ) .

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 147

ASpan i shv e r s iono fth e“ In s t ru c t ion s” wa sd i s t r ibu t edtoth eBD , t ran s la t eda s“D i r e c t iv e sfo rT roop Condu c tin Ru s s ia .” A sinth e o r ig ina lG e rman ,i tid en t if edBo l sh ev i sma s“ th e mo ra len emyo fth e n ewEu rop e .” A c co rd ing ly ,th ep r e s en tconf i c t wa sd i r e c t ed“aga in s t i t sd i s in t eg ra t ingid ea sandtho s e whor ep r e s en tth em .”Thu s ,“ th i s fgh tr equ i r e sen e rg e t i c ,unwav e r inga c t ionaga in s ta l lBo l sh ev ik ,agi ta to r ,sn ip e r ,sabo t eu r ,o rJ ew i she l em en t sandcomp l e t ee l im ina t ion o fa l la c t iv eo rpa s s iv er e s i s tan c e .”Fu r th e rmo r e ,“a l lcompon en t so f th eR ed A rmy ,in c lud ingp r i son e r s”shou ldb et r ea t ed w i th“anex t r em e lys ev e r ea t t i tud e and max imum p r e cau t ion ,a st r ea ch e rou s m e thod so fcomba tcanb eexp e c t ed .” Pa r t i cu la r ly dang e rou sw e r e th e“A s ia t i cso ld i e r so fth eR edA rmy ,” who w e r e“ in s c ru tab l e ,unp r e d i c tab l e ,in s id iou s ,andun f e e l ing .” Uponcap tu r ingen t i r eun i t s ,“ th e l ead e r sshou ldb eimm ed ia t e lys epa ra t edf romth et roop s .”A sfo rth e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,th egu id e l in e sind i ca t edtha t mo s to fth em w e r e an t i commun i s t s ,v e rye thn i ca l lyd iv e r s e ,l iab l etoexp r e s sr e j e c t ion fo rth eSov i e tr eg im eth roughr e l ig iou sob s e rvan c e ,andshou ldno t b ein t e r f e r ed w i th . How ev e r ,“max imump r e cau t ion”shou ldb eex e rc i s ed“ inconv e r sa t ion sw i thth epopu la t ionandb ehav iou rtowa rd s wom en .”P i l lag ing wa sfo rb idd en ,bu t“a l lk ind so fm e r chand i s eand m i l i ta ryr equ i s i t ion s ,e sp e c ia l lyfoodandfodd e r ,fu e landc lo th ing , 1 shou ldb ep r e s e rv edandconf s ca t ed .” Infa c t ,po l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r s w e r es t igma t iz edbyth eSpan i shFa lang i s tp r e s sandp r e s en t eda sth e d i r e c tin s t rum en t so fSov i e tty rannyandJuda i sm .2 Th e s eo rd inan c e s w e r eso f t en edsom ewha tbyG en e ra lD i r e c t iv e3 .005 ,pub l i sh edbyth e BD G en e ra lS ta f fon 4 Augu s t1941 , wh i ch wa sa sg en e r i co r mo r e sothanth efo rm e r on e s . Th einhab i tan t so fo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e s , th e i rp e r sonandpo s s e s s ion s ,shou ldb er e sp e c t ed ;r equ i s i t ion shad tob ecomp en sa t ed ;th ep r i son e r sw e r etob et r ea t ed w e l landen emy wound ed wou ldr e c e iv em ed i ca la t t en t ion .Sp i e sandsn ip e r sshou ld no tb esumma r i lyex e cu t edbu thand edov e rtosup e r io r sfo rin t e rnm en tinp r i son e rcamp s .3 Th e r ei snoemp i r i ca lev id en c etha tth eSpan i sho ff c e r sw e r eno t if ed o fth e“Comm i s sa rO rd e r .” H i t l e rra t if edi tju s tp r io rtoth eBDa r r iva l a tth ef ron tbu tsp e c if edtha ti tshou ldon lyb et ran sm i t t edo ra l lyto 4 th et roop s . Compa ra t iv e ly , wa rb ru ta l i tyonth e No r th e rnF ron t wa s c e r ta in lyl e s ss ev e r ethanino th e rs e c to r s .O fth e2 ,253 do cum en t edex e cu t ion so fcomm i s sa r sinth ef r s ttw e lv e mon th so fth e wa r(a m in i mume s t ima t e ) ,on ly17 .32p e rc en t(405 )co r r e spond edtoA rmyG roup No r th .F rom O c tob e rth rough D e c emb e r1941 ,th eto ta lnumb e r wa s 101(15 .2p e rc en to fth eto ta lonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ) ,andth enumb e r s d e c r ea s edqu i ck lyinth ef r s t mon th so f1942 .5

148 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Mo s tl ik e ly ,th eSpan i shcomba tan t ss imp lyfo l low edo rd e r s ,s epara t ingou tth epo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r sandshoo t ingth emons i t e . How ev e r ,w ecanno tru l eou ttha t ,a sinsom eG e rmanun i t s ,Span i sho ff c e r s spa r edth et roop ssu cha c t ion sbyo rd e r ingth et ran s f e ro fth ep o l i t ru k s to D iv i s ionCommand , wh e r eth ey wou ldb ehand edov e rtoth eG e r man s .Ind i r e c tda tasugg e s t stha tth eBDcommandando ff c e r skn ew abou tth eo rd e r ;i t wa sexp l i c i t lycoun t e rmand edinsp e c if cop e ra t ion s th rougho rd e r st ran sm i t t edbyth eco r r e spond ing A rmyCo rp s .T oen cou rag eth esu r r end e ro fth eun i t sund e rs i eg einth eV o lkhovPo ck e t , D i r e c t iv e2 .018o f 12 May1942e s tab l i sh edtha tp ropagandal eaf e t sb e d i s t r ibu t ed .Th eyp rom i s edgoodt r ea tm en ttotho s e whola iddown th e i rw eapon s :“T roop sw i l lb ein s t ru c t edimm ed ia t e lytha ti ti sfo r b idd entoshoo tcap tu r edpo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r so rtho s e who w i l l ing ly jo inou rrank s .Th ecomm i s sa r sw i l lr e c e iv eth esam et r ea tm en ta sth e o th e rp r i son e r s .”6I t wou ld mak enos en s etofo rb idth eex e cu t iono f comm i s sa r sun l e s sth ep ra c t i c e wa shab i tua l .L ik ew i s e ,in May1943th e BDG en e ra lS ta f fr e c e iv edno t i c ef romth eLA rmyCo rp sind i ca t ingtha t cap tu r edpo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r shadb e eno rd e r edto“p r e s en tth em s e lv e s vo lun ta r i lyfo r wo rkinth eG e rmanl eg ion s ,”s in c e“ th eRu s s iancommandha sno t i c edth efa c ttha tw enolong e rshoo tcap tu r edRu s s ian 7 comm i s sa r sonp r in c ip l e .” Ano the rImageo ftheEnemy T o wha td eg r e ed idth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r ssha r eth ein t en to fG e rman so ld i e r sdu r ingth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion ? Howd idth eyp e r c e iv eth e en emy ,pa r t i cu la r lySov i e tc iv i l ian s ?T o wha td eg r e ed idth eb e t t e rb e hav iou ro fSpan i sho c cupy ingfo r c e stowa rd sth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion r ef e c tad i f f e r en tv i ewo fth een emy ?W a si tm e r e lyar e su l to fth e mo r e s ta t i cna tu r eo fth eno r th e rns e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron t , wh i chhadl e s s pa r t i sana c t iv i tythaninth e Uk ra in eo r Wh i t eRu s s iaandl e s s(o rl e s s s ign if can t )rad i ca l iz edandb ru ta l iz edfgh t ingcond i t ion s ,a so c cu r r ed 8 in o th e rG e rman d iv i s ion s ? In o th e r wo rd s ,i fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ’ s t r ea tm en to fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ioncon s t i tu t edanex c ep t ion ,to wha t d eg r e e wa sth i scau s edby ,o rto wha td eg r e ed idi tc r ea t e ,ad i f f e r en t imag eo fth een emy–on einh e r i t edf romth eSpan i shC iv i lW a rbu tno t rad i ca l iz edbyab io log i ca l wo r ldv i ew ? S e t t inga s id efo ra mom en tth e monum en ta lsu f f e r ingandth ethousand so fd eadamongth eb e s i eg edc iv i l ianpopu la t ioninth ec i tyo f L en ing rad ,th e wa rinth eno r th e rns e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron tf rom S ep t emb e r1941 wa s( inr e la t iv et e rm s )fa r mo r es ta t i candsom ewha t l e s srad i ca landb ru ta lthaninth ec en t r eandsou th ,and w i thl e s s

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pa r t i sanp r e s en c e .Th eV o lkhovo f f en s iv e(O c tob e r– D e c emb e r1941 ) , th eba t t l e so fth eD emyan sk(F eb rua ry–Ap r i l1942 )andth eV o lkhov fo r e s tpo ck e t(F eb rua ry–Jun e1942 ) ,th eengag em en t sa tLak eLadoga , ando th e r sw e r ec e r ta in lyb loodyba t t l e s ,y e tno ta l lG e rmand iv i s ion s w e r ea f f e c t edtoth esam ed eg r e ebyth ein t en s i tyo fth ecomba t .L ik e th eo th e rd iv i s ion so fth e16 thand18 thA rm i e so fA rmyG roup No r th , th eSpan i shso ld i e r sp r e f e r r edto mak ecampinRu s s ianv i l lag e sn ea r th er ea rgua rd . Onth eV o lkhovF ron t , wh e r ep ea san tpov e r ty wa sex t r em ein1941 ,cohab i ta t ionb e tw e enp ea san t sando c cupy ingfo r c e s b e cam ee sp e c ia l lyt igh t .S ev e ra lso ld i e r s wou lda c commoda t eth ems e lv e sinth em i s e rab l eth r e e -o rfou r spa c edw e l l ing s wh e r eafam i ly a l sol iv ed .9 Th eSpan i sho ff c e r sob s e rv edtha tth efam i sh edc iv i l ian popu lat ion ,sub j e c t edto G e rmanr equ i s i t ion ing , wa s mu ch mo r econ c e rn ed w i thsu rv iva lthanpa t r io t i cr e s i s tan c e .Fo rth i sr ea son , mo s tp ea san t s w e r equ i cktoco l labo ra t ew i thth e s einvad e r s .P ea san t wom en wou ld wa shth eso ld i e r s ’c lo th e s ,ando ld e rp eop l etaugh tth emhowtobu i ld wood enshan t i e s .Insu chc lo s equa r t e r s , many d iv i s i on a r i o sw e r ep ra c t i ca l lyadop t edbyth e s ep ea san tfam i l i e sandcam etos e eth em amu s k a s 10 andth e i ri z b a sa sa“ r ea lex t en s iono fth e i rownhom e .” Th e r ew e r e ev enca s e so funau tho r iz ed w edd ing sb e tw e enSpan i shso ld i e r sand Ru s s ian wom en .G en e ra l ly ,though ,th et igh tl iv ingqua r t e r sande sp ec ia l lyth efoods ca r c i tyl edtoda i lyqua r r e l s ,a sth ep ea san t sh idth e i r m eag r er e s e rv e sf romth ep r ey inginvad e r s .11 Th er e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e enSpan i shso ld i e r sandth ep ea san tpopu lat ion ino c cup i edv i l lag e s–comp r i s ing mo s t ly wom en ,ch i ld r en ,andth e e ld e r ly– w e r eca s tinav e ryfavou rab l eandid ea l iz edl igh tinpo s t -1945 t e s t imon i e s .Th eyunan imou s lyspok eo fha rmon iou scohab i ta t ion ,fu l l 12 r e sp e c t ,app r e c ia t ion ,and mu tua lso l ida r i ty . Th eB lu eD iv i s iont r en ch jou rna lH o j ad eC amp añ a in t rodu c edth i simag e rya sea r lya s1943 :th e Ru s s ianv i l lag e shadb e enp ea c e fu l lyo c cup i edbyso ld i e r s ,“who w e r e pa r tm i s s iona ry ,pa r tboh em iana r t i s t ,andano th e rpa r tg lob e t ro t t e r .”13 How ev e r ,th i sr ep r e s en ta t ionshou ldb edu lycon t ra s t ed w i tht e s t imon i e spub l i sh edand w r i t t enbyBDcomba tan t sp r io rto1945–pa r t i cula r lyinth e i rl e t t e r sandd ia r i e s–and w i thn ew sa r t i c l e sf romtha tt im e . Th eimag efoundth e r econv ey sg r ea t e rnuan c eandr e s emb l e stha to f th eG e rmanso ld i e r sinsom ea sp e c t s .Th eSpan ia rd s ,how ev e r ,hadno t b e ensub j e c t edtora c ia lindo c t r ina t ion .Th eyla ck edanyp r io rcon ta c t w i thth eS lav i cEa s tandf l t e r edth e i rp e r c ep t iono f“Ru s s ia”andth e Ru s s ian sth roughth e i rCa tho l i cconv i c t ion s . ManySpan i shvo lun t e e r s d e s c r ib edth ep ea san t s ’pov e r tyinl i t e ra rys ty l e ,th e r ebyc ra f t ingas ingu la rimag eo fth een emy .14

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F r om“ th eH o rd e”t o“ th eRu s k i” Inth et e s t imon i e spub l i sh eda f t e r1945 ,BDv e t e ran se s tab l i sh edac l ea r d i f f e r en c eb e tw e enth e i rb ehav iou randtha to fth eG e rman sw i thr ega rdtoth e i rapp r e c ia t iono find iv idua lSov i e tcomba tan t sandth e i r (good )t r ea tm en to fp r i son e r s .Th i s wa sr e comm end edinth ef r s tin 15 s t ru c t ion so fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f . Th een emy wou ldno tb er ega rd ed a sara c ia l lyin f e r io rb e ing ,bu ta sa m i l i ta ryadv e r sa ry w i thhuman cha ra c t e r i s t i c s ,av i c t imo fth en eg l e c ttha tth eR edA rmyandth eCom mun i s tr eg im ed i sp lay edcon c e rn ingth ed ign i tyo fth e i rso ld i e r s .16 Th eR ed A rmy ,a saco l l e c t iv een t i ty , wa sfo r manySpan i shvo lunt e e r safo rm l e s sandanonymou s ma s s ,d evo ido fa l lr e sp e c tfo rsp i r i tua l con c e rn sandth eind iv idua l .So ld i e r sw i th A s ianf ea tu r e s ,d runkon vodka , whoadvan c edtoth e wh i s t l eo fth e i ro ff c e r sing r ea t wav e s : “b ea s t ly ma s s e sp r epa r edbyT imo sh enkofo rth einva s iono fEu rop e ,” th rowntog e th e r“ f roma l lth ep rov in c e so fA s ia. . .inth ean ima lpan i c o fas tamp ed e .”17 Su chanimag ea c cu ra t e lyr ef e c t edth ed r ead edCom mun i s tand A s i aninva s iono fW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t iontha thadb e enevok ed by Eu rop eanfa s c i s timag ina rys in c eth eea r ly1920 s . Th ea t ta ck ing ho rd e s wou ldno tb eanexamp l eo froman t i ch e ro i sm ,bu tsymbo l so f th esp i r i tua ld eg en e r a t i onto wh i chBo l sh ev i smsub j e c t edth eind iv id ua l ,w i thou tth et ran s c end en ta ld im en s iono fex i s t en c e .18 A“m e ekand mo t l ey ma s s”o f“d i r ty ,ta t t e r ed[m en ]ty rann iz edbyS ta l in” ;o rra th e r , “ s tup ef edcannonfodd e r ,fo r c edtofgh tby mu rd e rou scomm i s sa r s .”19 Co lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lob e l i ev edtha tth eSov i e tcomba tan t ,l ik eth eR epub l i cano fth eSpan i sh C iv i lW a r ,hadl i t t l ein t e rna l mo t iva t ion ;on ly th e wh ipo fth epo l i t i ca lcomm i s sa r spu sh edh imfo rwa rd ,“w i thafa 20 ta l i smbo rd e r inguponsu i c id e .” Th een emyso ld i e r sw e r ed e s e rv ingo fsom eind iv idua lcomm i s e rat ion–th i sco l l e c t iono f“hung ryandb e t ray edson so fth eRu s s ianp eo p l e ,sa c r if c edbyth e madn e s s ,p r id e ,andev i lo fth e i rJuda eo -Ma son i c 21 l ead e r s .” On c esho tdown ,how ev e r ,though t sr ega rd ingth ed e f ea t ed d idno ta lway sevok ecompa s s ionamongSpan i shso ld i e r s .S ty l iz edd es c r ip t ion so fd eadadv e r sa r i e sabound ,w i thth eimp l i c i td ehuman iza t ionandd e roga to ryt r ea tm en to fth een emy ’ sbodysohab i tua l lyfound in mod e rn wa r fa r e .Th eFa lang i s tJo s é Ma r t ia layd e s c r ib edth e“g r ea t ca rp e to fRu s s ianbod i e s”tha thadb e enl e f tbyaSpan i sha t ta cka sa h eapo f“ sp e c t r e s .”22 Th eSov i e tso ld i e r wa saf e ro c iou sadv e r sa rybu tla ck edin i t ia t iv e .H e cou ldfgh tun t i lexhau s t edbu tla ck edid ea l s . Goodp roo fo fth i s wa s h i ssubm i s s iv en e s s on c ecap tu r ed :S e rg ean t Ma r t ín ez -T e s s i e rw ro t e tha t Ru s s iancomba tan t sw e r e“Poo rd ev i l s , who s eey e sand mou th s

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op en w id ew i thadm i ra t iona tth ehuman et r ea tm en tth eyr e c e iv e .”23In th i sr ega rd ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s ion m emb e r sw e r enod i f f e r en tthanth e G e rman s , who look eduponth eSov i e tso ld i e r sa sexamp l e so fun tam ed fana t i c i sm . Infa c t ,s ev e ra lau tho r scon cu r ind e t e c t inga m ix tu r eo ffa ta l i sm inth e Sov i e tf r on t ov i k i ,comb in ed w i thas en s eo fco l l e c t iv esa c r if c eandsub j e c t iontoth er ep r e s s iv eS ta l in i s tappa ra tu s ,a l lenv e lop edinas imp l e bu te f f e c t iv epa t r io t i sm .24 Th eD iv i s ion m emb e r sa l soa cknow l edg ed som e wa r l ik equa l i t i e sinth een emy :a“da rkf r i end l in e s s”r e ca l l ingth e con t rad i c to ryf e e l ing stowa rd sth ef e sh -and -b loodadv e r sa rytha tF i r s t W o r ld W a rcomba tan t sa l soexp e r i en c ed .25 S ev e ra lr epa t r ia t edBDcom ba tan t sa s s e r t edtha t“ th e Ru s s ian sfgh tw e l l .Th eyla ckt e chn i c ian s , bu tth eyd idno tla ckconv i c t ion s ,” wh i l e“Th eyoungRu s s iang en e rat ion sa r e Ma rx i s t s .”Gu i l l e rmoA lon sod e lR ea ladm i t t edla t e rtha t“ th e Ru s s ianso ld i e r … wa sd i s c ip l in ed ,b rav e ,and magn if c en t lyt ra in ed .” And G en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e sadd edtha tth e Iv an wa sp e r s i s t en t ,bu t s lav etoas e cu la r“ma s sin s t in c t ,”la ck ingin i t ia t iv e .Th i sapp ra i sa l ,ex p r e s s ingadm i ra t ionfo rth eau s t e r i tyandr e s i s tan c eo fth ef r on t ov i k i , wa sr ep ea t edinth et e s t imon i e so fex -BD m emb e r s .26 P ra i s ingth een emyfo rm spa r to fth em i l i ta rycod e sfo rr e c r ea t ing th e my tho fag en t l em en ’ s wa r .Som ea c coun t ss en tby D iv i s ion m em b e r sempha s iz edth i ss en s eo fcomba tinth eEa s ta sac la s s i cdu e l :th e fgh taga in s tth einho sp i tab l ec l ima t eandth ed i ff cu l t i e so fth ef ron t b e cam ean ewt e s to fLa t inv i r i l i ty .27 A l thoughsom et e s t imon i e sex p r e s s edtha tth efgh t inginth eEa s tp i t ch edEu rop eanso ld i e r saga in s t ma s s e so fs lan t ey ed ,y e l low fa c edcomba tan t sf rom“ th eex t r em eFa r Ea s t ,”28 d ehuman iz edd e s c r ip t ion so fSov i e tcomba tan t ssu cha stho s e foundinl e t t e r ss en tby G e rmanso ld i e r sw e r era r eamong s tth eBD . Among s t many L and s e r(F l em i shand No rw eg ianSSvo lun t e e r sa l so , and manyI ta l ian sa sw e l l ) ,th ep r eva l en timag eo fth een emya ssub humanhadb e encon s t ru c t edov e ry ea r so fcon s tan tindo c t r ina t ion .29 Incon t ra s t ,v i sua lr ep r e s en ta t ion so fth e Ru s s ianso ld i e rtha tapp ea r inth eBDt r en chp r e s sw e r eo f t en mo r eb en ignthantho s eapp ea r ing inth eW eh rma ch tandI ta l iant r en chn ew spap e r s . Manyo fth em w e r e s ign edby“K in ,”th eca r toon i s tfo rth eFa lang i s tn ew spap e rA r r i b a and BDvo lun t e e rJoaqu índ eA lba .Th ey w e r ea l sol e s sb i t ingthantho s e d rawnap o s t e r i o r iby“K in”h im s e l ffo rth eexh ib i t ionTh a t ’ s Wh a tth e R ed sW e r eL i k e !A sp e c t so fth eR edR e a r gu a rd, wh i chop en edin Mad r id in May1943 .Th e r e ,th eSov i e tso ld i e r wa sd i s t ingu i sh edbyh i sA s ian 30 f ea tu r e s , wh i chs e em edtof tw i thexp e c ta t ion sf romh igh e rup . S im i la r ly ,th eimag e so fth eSov i e tso ld i e rf romth eBDt r en chjou rna lw e r el e s sagg r e s s iv ethantho s epub l i sh edbyF ran co i s t magaz in e s

152 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .5 .1 .W a t e r co lou rbyJoaqu índ eA lba(K in ):Th eyb r ingu san ewcu l tu r ef o r Eu r op e(AGA )

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F ig .5 .2 .W a t e r co lou rby K in ,Th eS ov i e t sbu i l tth e i rp a l a c e sov e rth ep e op l e ’ s m i s e ry (AGA )

du r ingth eSpan i sh C iv i l W a randev enr ep rodu c edbycom i cbook 31 a r t i s t sinSpa indu r ingla t eF ran co i sm . Th e r ew e r enod e fo rm edand b loody mon s t e r s ,bu tth e s e mo r econ t empo ra ryimag e st end edtopo rt rayth een emya sb ea rd ed ,ta t t e r edso ld i e r sw i thna iv eexp r e s s ion s . Th i sr ef e c t sanin t e r e s t ingt ran spo s i t iono fimag e so fRu s s ianc iv i l ian s on toso ld i e r s :th ef r on t ov i k it end edtob ec l ean shav enandth e i rha i r wa so f t enc lo s e c ropp ed , wh i l s tp ea san t so fac e r ta inag ew e r eknown 32 fo rth e i rlongb ea rd s . Th i si conva r i edl i t t l einr ep r e s en ta t ion so fth e fu tu r eo fSpa ininSov i e thand s ,i fth e wa rw e r elo s t . How ev e r ,th e

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av e r s iontowa rd s“Ang lo -Am e r i can”imp e r ia l i sm wa so f t en mo r ecu t33 t ingthanth eimag eo fth eSov i e tso ld i e r . Th e BDso ld i e r ssawth e Ru s k ia sav i c t imo fcommun i smanda spawno fa th e i s tand ma t e r ia l i s tid eo logy . Th e i rs e rv i l ena tu r eon ly conf rm edhowlowind iv idua ls e l f e s t e emhadfa l l eninaninhuman e 34 r eg im e . Th eSov i e tcomba tan tm igh tb ea wo r thyen emyandawak en compa s s ionandhumanf e e l ing son c eap r i son e r . How ev e r ,th eSpan i sh andG e rmanso ld i e r scon c lud ed ,h e wou ldn ev e rb eab e t t e rcomba tan t 35 thanaEu rop ean . Th eBD wou ldupho ldth e“ c iv i l iz ed”and“mo ra l” va lu e stha t mad eth emchamp ion so fanid ea l .Th e i rs en s eo fr e l ig iou s t ran s c end en c e wou ldg iv eth eSpan ia rd sanadvan tag eov e rth e i rad v e r sa r i e s :a“ fana t i cen thu s ia sm”tofnd Godinth ef roz ent r en ch e s .36 Th i sconv i c t ionh e lp edth emr e s i s tth e“ava lan ch e s”o fth eR ed A rmy andtu rn edth eBD ’ s mod e s tm i l i ta ryp e r fo rman c ein toav i c to ry .Th e Ib e r ianta l en tfo rd e f en s iv e wa r fa r esp rangf romanan c i en tsou r c e , 37 inh e r i t edf romth e i rr e s i s tan c eaga in s tth e Roman sand Napo l eon . Th e i rm i l i ta ry m e r i tnowcon s i s t edo fcon ta in ingth en ewth r ea ttoth e i r hom e land w i th inSov i e tt e r r i to ry .38 Th eSov i e tso ld i e r s whosu r r end e r edcou ldno ta lway sr e lyonimm ed ia t egoodt r ea tm en tf romth e i ren em i e s , wh e th e rSpan i sho rG e rman . Inth ec lamou ro fcomba t ,andtofa c i l i ta t eth ef r e edomo f mov em en to f th e i rownfo r c e s ,i t wa scommonp ra c t i c eamong s tSpan i shun i t sno tto tak ep r i son e r s .Shoo t ingtho s e whosu r r end e r edonth espo t wa sahab i t manyo ff c e r shada cqu i r edinth e Mo ro c can W a r .I ti t wa sa l sou s edby a rm i e sinth eS e cond W o r ld W a r ,pa r t i cu la r lyinth ePa c if candinth e fgh t ingfo l low ingth e No rmandyland ing s .Th eex c i t em en to fcomba t infu en c edth i sb ehav iou r :th eba s i cd e s i r etoav eng ed eadcom rad e s , th ein conv en i en c eo fd ea l ing w i thp r i son e r s ,andev enenvyamongth e cap to r sb e cau s eth e wa r wa sov e rfo rth ecap t iv e s .Thu s ,th econv en 39 t ion sr e la t ingtoth et r ea tm en to fp r i son e r sw e r eno ta lway sr e sp e c t ed . Wha ttodo w i thp r i son e r sl edtof r equ en td i spu t e samong s tth eBD so ld i e r s .I so la t edex e cu t ion so ftho s e whola id downth e i rw eapon s w e r eno tunu sua land w e r eju s t if edonth econv i c t iontha tth eSov i e t s wou lddoth esam etoth e i rp r i son e r s .Cap t iv e s whor e fu s edtocoop e r40 a t edu r ingin t e r roga t ion scou ldb esho ta sa wa rn ingtoth er e s t . Th i s p ra c t i c e wa scu s toma rydu r ingth eV o lkhovo f f en s iv e . Aso ld i e r who c ro s s edth er iv e rtotak esupp l i e stoth et roop sno t ed w i thd i sp l ea su r e tha t wound edp r i son e r sw e r el iqu ida t edru th l e s s ly : Sho r t lya f t e rwa rd s ,th eyb egantob r ing wound edSpan ia rd sb e cau s eth e r e w e r eno wound edRu s s ian s .W e l l ,th eyca t chth emand w ek i l lth em ,and i t ’ sv e ryunp l ea san ttos e e wound edRu s s ianp r i son e r sa sk ingfo rm e r cy

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 155 and w eg raba ma ch in egunand mowth ema l ldown ,I ’dn ev e rs e en mo r e d eadtog e th e rintha t way ,andi t ’ sno tap r e t tys igh t .41

A c t so fth i sk ind ,a l socommoninth eG e rmand iv i s ion s ,hav eb e ena cknow l edg edint im e lya c coun t spub l i sh eds in c eth e1990 s .42 Th eycap tu r eth ev io l en c eo fhand to -handfgh t ing ,a l soth een joym en to fr i sk anddang e r ,andth e“ t e r r i fy ingb eau ty”o fcomba t ,inth e mann e ro f E rn s tJüng e r .Jo s éM .Sán ch ezD iana ,d e s c r ib edi tthu s : W er ea chth ev e ryedg eo fth een emyt r en ch … W ea r epo s s e s s edo faf rm madn e s s ,sw ea r ingandshou t ing“V iv aE sp añ a.”Ikno ckaga in s tabody in to wh i chI ’v es tu ckth ebayon e t .B loods l ipp edth rough myfng e r s… Th eRu s s ianfgu r e sw i thth e i rb r i ck co lou r edcap e sshak el ik ea mov ing s tag ew i thou tl im i t so rend. . .W een t e rth ehou s e sinth etown , wh i chi sa r ea l lylongs t r e e t .W es ea r chth em .I fth e r ei sanen emyso ld i e rin s id e ,h e ’ s k i l l ed .Som esu r r end e rbu tsom eo fth ecompany ,ex c i t ed ,shoo tth emon th espo tw i thou tl i s t en ingtoth em …P eop l ed runkonb looddon ’ tb ehav e w e l lw i thsom ep r i son e r s , wh i ch mak e sm es i ck . Runn ingo f fg iv e sth e p r i son e rac e r ta ins en s eo ff r e edom ,a sh efgu r e stha th eha ssom ef r e edom fo raf ews e cond s …Th e wo r s ti sth esavag e ryo fth ea c t wh i cha tth esam e t im ei st e r r i fy ing lyb eau t i fu l .

Th eb loodb ing e ,ad r ena l in ,andv io l en c econ t inu edth en ex tday : “P r iva t eH e r ed iashoo t send l e s s ly ,e l im ina t ings ev e ra lR ed s who w e r e app roa ch ingw i th th e i ra rm sh e ldup tosu r r end e r …Y ou tak eap r i son e r , youd i spa t chap r i son e r .Th e r e ’ snot im etoga th e rth ema l ltog e th e r .” O th e rcap t iv e s ,a f t e rb e ingr e l i ev edo fth e i rw eapon sandb e long ing s , w e r es en ttoth er ea rgua rd .Bu ttha td idn ’ ta lway sgua ran t e eth eml i f e : Itak eap r i son e r ,anug lyandd i r tyb lok ew i thashadyexp r e s s ion whoi s hugg ing myboo t s .N esp an k i ,n e ,n e ru s k il iu b e t ,n eo b id e . Inh i shav e r sa ckI fndal i t t l eb r eadandahand fu lo fr i c eg ra in s , wh i chIea tl ik ea lmond s .I d e l iv e rh imtoth es e rg ean t s ,bu ton eo fth emc r i e sou t : “Wha ta r ew ego ingtodo w i thh im ?T ak etha t ,yousono fab i t ch. . . !” Andh epu t sabu l l e tinth eba cko fh i sh ead .

As im i la rs c en etookp la c eaf ewday sla t e r ,du r ingth ePo sadfgh t ing : “W etookth r e ep r i son e r s .Th eyhadth ecommun i s ts ta ronth e i rcap s . Mo r i l lotookth emaway ,s tomp edonth em ,andth enbambambam !H e 43 sho tth emdown .” Th e r ew e r eday so fm e r c i l e s scomba t ,su cha stho s eo fth e“ in t e r m ed ia t epo s i t ion”a tth eendo fD e c emb e r1941 ,pa r t ly mo t iva t edby

156 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th eSpan ia rd s ’d e s i r efo rr ev eng ea f t e r fnd ingth e i rowncom rad e s na i l edtoth eg round .Som esou r c e ss ta t etha tth eSov i e t ssom e t im e s n i cknam edth eSpan ia rd s“h eadhun t e r s ,” p e rhap sb e cau s esom eo f th emcu tea r sandno s e sf rombod i e sandev enf romp r i son e r sb e fo r e 44 r e tu rn ingth emtoth e i rl in e s . N ev e r th e l e s s ,apa r tf romsom eo f f en s iv e a c t ion sandsu rp r i s ea t ta ck s ,a f t e r1941th e r ew e r ef ewoppo r tun i t i e sto l iv euptotha tr epu ta t ion , wh e th e rt ru eo rfa l s e . Du r ingfgh t inginth e V o lkhovpo ck e t ,P r iva t eRa igánAb e l lán w ro t einh i sd ia rytha t“ s ev e ra l p r i son e r shav eb e entak en .Th e r ei sano rd e rtok i l lth ema l l ,” wh i chh e ju s t if edb e cau s eth eb e s i eg edo f t enf r edf romt r e e s .Su rp r i s ea t ta ck s cou lda l sob es e t t l ed w i thou tp r i son e r s :“Th e r e wa sar ea lb loodba th ; s in c eth een emy w e r einth e i rh id eou t sandd idn ’ t wan ttocom eou t , 45 th ey w e r ea l lb lownup ,” w ro t es e rg ean tA lon soinAp r i l1943 . ManyBD m emb e r sr e j e c t edth eG e rmant r ea tm en to fcap t iv e s .Th e i r f r s ten coun t e rw i thco lumn so fSov i e tp r i son e r sinea s t e rE Po land b e ingl edby G e rmangua rd stowa rd sp robab l ed ea thc r ea t edop en con t emp tinsom eSpan i sho ff c e r s .I t wou ldb eea sytod e f ea tsu chan en emy . Mo s tSpan ia rd sr ea c t ed ,how ev e r ,w i tha m ixo ffa s c ina t ionand compa s s ion :“O fcou r s eth eyd e s e rv etha tandab i t mo r e ,bu ta sIam aCh r i s t ian ,i tsadd en sm e .”46 R epa t r ia t edso ld i e r sp rov id eds im i la ra c coun t so fth eunm e r c i fu l ,“ t ru lyc r im ina l”a t t i tud eo fth eW eh rma ch t 47 towa rd sSov i e tp r i son e r s . P r iva t eM en énd ezGund ín w ro t einAugu s t 1941 :“ Is e eRu s s ianp r i son e r s , i t ’ sar igh tm e s s . . .w ef e e lso r ryfo rth em , th ey ’ r ea ma r ty r edp eop l eandd ragg edin toth efgh tbyth e i rex e cu 48 t ion e r s .” Th i scu r io s i tyandev enp i tya l soapp ea r edinth er epo r tw r i t t eninla t eO c tob e rbyth eSpan i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch éinB e r l in ,fo l low ing h i sv i s i ttoth eEa s t e rnF ron t : Th e r ea r econ t ing en t sandeno rmou sco lumn so fRu s s ianp r i son e r sev e rywh e r e ,s ta rv ingandimpov e r i sh ed :som ea r eca r r i edons t r e t ch e r s ,o th e r s ma r ch ,labo r iou s lyr e s t ingonth e i rf r i end s ,andfna l lyo th e r sfa l lphy s ica l lybyth eroad s id e ,anda r eo f t ens e enco l lap s ingf romexhau s t ion ,n ev e r tog e tupaga in . How ev e r ,th eon e syous e ea r einth eb e s tcond i t ion. . .th e on e s whoa r einth ep r i soncamp sou tinth eop enand w i thha rd lyany 4 9 foodfo rday sand w e ek s wou ldb einanev en wo r s es ta t e .

Th ef r s tau tob iog raph i e s pub l i sh edby BD v e t e ran sinth e1940 s h igh l igh t edth ed ehuman iz edapp ea ran c eo fth eco lumn so fp r i son e r s : “Sou l l e s sbod i e s ,”r edu c edbycommun i smtoth esubhumanaby s s : am ixo fra c e s ,in c lud ing“ th e Mongo l s ,th e wo r s ts cumo fA s ia” ;o r ra th e r“mon s t rou sandf l thygho s t s whoth rowth em s e lv e stoth efoo r l ik eb ea s t stofgh t ,b i t ingandpun ch ing ,fo raf ru i tp e e lo raba r ebon e .”

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Th eimp r e s s iono fth em emb e r so fth eBDIn fo rma t ionS e c t ion whoa tt end edp r i son e rin t e r roga t ion sinla t e Augu s t ,a tth einv i ta t iono fth e G e rman s , wa snod i f f e r en t :i l l i t e ra t eso ld i e r sf romc en t ra lA s ia ,d ehuman iz edand w i thnos en s eo fr e l ig ion ,command edbyJ ew i shcomm i s50 sa r s . O th e r squa l if edth i simag ey ea r sla t e rtoempha s iz ecompa s s ion fo rth ed e f ea t edandd e s c r ib eden coun t e r ingth eco lumn so fcap t iv e sa s 51 ag enu in eemo t iona lsho ck . Th es i tua t ionchang edin O c tob e r1941 , wh en D iv i s ion m emb e r s th em s e lv e sb egantocap tu r ep r i son e r sandk e epth emincu s todyfo r w e ek s ,un t i lth ey w e r ed e l iv e r edto G e rmanun i t s .P r iva t eF e rnando T o r r e sr e ca l l edhowgoodt r ea tm en tcou ldtu rncap t iv e sin tocom rad e s andev ensuppo r t e r so fth eBDcau s e .52 Ano th e rvo lun t e e rr em ind ed th eD iv i s ion m emb e r stha tth eyshou ldt r ea ttho s ev i c t im so fSov i e tba r ba r i smhuman e ly , wh e th e rth eyd e s e rv edi to rno t ,b e cau s eth eyhad b e ensob ru ta l iz ed :“W ew e r efgh t ingfo rc iv i l iza t ionandlov eamong s t 53 a l lm enonea r thandth eya r eengu l f edinba rba r i sm .” Ac la s s i c mo t i fo f BD comm emo ra t iv ep ro s ei sto evok eth e qua s i cama rad e r i eb e tw e en D iv i s ion m emb e r s andth e i rp r i son e r s . Num e rou san e cdo t e sr ef e c t edth i s :f romth es en t ry whol e f th i sw eapon s wh i l eh es l ep tinth eca r eo faRu s k i,toth eso ld i e r whoevad edan ambu shthank stoa wa rn ingf romh i sp r i son e r s . Onon eo c ca s ion ,a Sov i e tpa ra chu t i s tsu r r end e r edto“achau f f eu r who wa sd r iv inga lon e , su r r end e r ingh i sf r ea rmtoh im .”Th ed r iv e rth enhand edov e rth ep r i s on e r“ toas e rg ean tandachau f f eu r who w e r ego ingbyinano th e rca r .” How ev e r ,“non eo fth e s eth r e eso ld i e r shadaf r ea rmonth em .”BD H eadqua r t e r sth e r e fo r er e i t e ra t edtha tso ld i e r sw e r ep roh ib i t edf rom wand e r ingabou tth er ea rgua rduna rm ed .54 Th esubm i s s iv e ,roughp r i son e r sw e r eanob j e c to fcu r io s i tyfo rBD m emb e r s , whoen joy ed w r i t ingdownth e i rimp r e s s ion s . Hudd l edtog e th e rl ik e“a w r e t ch edh e rdo fan ima l s ,”th ecap t iv e squ i ck lyb e cam e co l labo ra to r s who w e r e“a sloya land d evo t eda s dog s .” Th eyev en c e l eb ra t edEa s t e rw i thth e i rcap to r s . On ea c coun ta l sod e s c r ib edhow th eRu s s ianaux i l ia rynu r s e sinth eSpan i shho sp i ta l s ,g ra t e fu lfo rth e goodt r ea tm en tth eyhadr e c e iv ed ,l ea rn edsom e Ca s t i l ianandcomp la in edabou tth eSov i e t s .Som ecap t iv e sw e r ev e ryyoung ,andl ik eso manyo rphan edch i ld r enth eyd e s e rv edcompa s s ionb e cau s eth eyhad b e enb rough tuponSov i e tva lu e s . On ea r t i c l einth eH o j ad eC amp añ a f ea tu r edak ind ,comm i s e ra t ingimag eo fth egoodRu s k ip r i son e r who wou ldhav es e enth eSpan ia rda sh i sl ib e ra to r .55 Why w e r eth e ru s k i ssodo c i l e ?BDso ld i e r sw e r eno ta lway sawa r e o fth eR edA rmyru l etoshoo to rin t e rnincon c en t ra t ioncamp sanyo f i t sso ld i e r s who w e r etak enp r i son e r ,anda c cu s edth emo fcowa rd i c e

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andt r ea son . Mo r eov e r ,th ew in t e ro f1941–2 wa scha ra c t e r iz ed by low mo ra l eandca s e so fd e s e r t ionamong s tSov i e tt roop sf romL en in g radandth eV o lkhovf ron t .56 Ga in ingth et ru s to fcap to r s whot r ea t ed th emhuman e lyo f t enb e cam eth eon lyra t iona lop t ionfo rsu rv iva lin th esho r tt e rm ,b e fo r eth ey w e r ehand edov e rtoth eG e rman s .Fo rth e Uk ra in ian sando th e rp eop l e s ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r e“ l ib e ra t ing”th em f romcommun i s tand/o rRu s s ians e rv i tud e .Som efough tonth es id eo f 57 th einvad e r s . Af ewRu s s ianp r i son e r so rd e s e r t e r sw e r eev entak ento Spa in w i thth eknow l edg eo fd iv i s iono ff c e r s .58 Th eSpan i shso ld i e r s whoa r r iv ed inth esu c c e s s iv er ep la c em en tun i t s w e r esu rp r i s ed , wh enr ea ch ingth ef ron t ,tos e e“p r i son e r s who w e r e wand e r inga roundf r e e lyev e rywh e r e ,” m ix ing w i thth eRu s s ianc iv i lian s whod idth e i rb idd ing ,and whor e c e iv edco f f e e ,c iga r e t t e s ,and 59 foodf romth eSpan i shso ld i e r s . Insom es e c t ion s ,con s id e rab l enum b e r so fcap t iv e sw e r eu s edinaux i l ia ryta sk s .60 Manyun i t shadap r i s on e rinth e i rs e rv i c e , wh i ch wa sto l e ra t edbyth e i rcommand .Acap ta in o fth esapp e r s ’ba t ta l ion ,Gu i l l e rmo D íazd e lR ío ,r e ca l l edtha th i sown Span i sha s s i s tan thadaRu s s iana s s i s tan tandaboyfo rev e ry th ing .61 Su chs i tua t ion sl edth eG e rmanh ighcommandtoo rd e rinJu ly1942 tha tth eso ld i e r sk e epth e i rd i s tan c ef romcap t iv e sandt r ea tth emco r r e c t ly ,bu tf rm ly .Th eya l sopo in t edou ttha tp r i son e r s“a r eadd i t iona l wo rk fo r c e ;th e i remp loym en tbyth et roop s mu s tno tl eadth emtos top wo rk ing .”Ex c e s s iv ef ra t e rn iza t ion ,su cha ssha r ingtoba c co , wa sfo rb idd en .62 How ev e r ,a sla t ea s Nov emb e r1942th eSDpo s tinPu shk in r e c e iv edr epo r t sind i ca t ingtha tsom eRu s s ian sinG e rmanun i fo rmhad b e ens e en wand e r inga roundand wo rk ingfo rth eSpan ia rd s , who w e r e 63 “ ex t r em e lyr e ck l e s s”inth i sr e sp e c t . Th e s es i tua t ion sa l soo c cu r r edinho sp i ta l s ,pa r t i cu la r lytho s elo ca t ed n ea rth ef ron t .Ru s s ian ma l enu r s e sca r edfo rth e wound edbyn igh t , andth eSpan i shf ema l enu r s e shadva r iou s Ru s s ian wom eninth e i r s e rv i c e . Un l ik eth eh i e ra r ch i ca lt r ea tm en tt ing ed w i thra c ia lcon t emp t tha to f t encha ra c t e r iz edth ea t t i tud eo f manyK r an k en s chw e s t e rnto wa rd sth e i rS lav i ca s s i s tan t s ,64th er e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e enSpan i shand Ru s s iannu r s e sw e r eing en e ra lqu i t ef r i end ly .InPo rkhovho sp i ta l ,a Span i sh -Ru s s ian Ch r i s tma sf e s t iva l wa simp rov i s edin1941 ,w i thf a65 m en c op e r fo rman c e s ,popu la rRu s s iansong s ,andgymna s t i cd i sp lay s . G e rmant r ea tm en to fSov i e tp r i son e r sso f t en edcon s id e rab lyf rom m id -1942on ,ow ingtoth er evo ca t iono fth e“Comm i s sa rO rd e r”and th en e edtoemp loyth ecap t iv e sa sa wo rk fo r c einth eR e i ch .A c co rd ing ly ,th eBD wa sa l soo rd e r edin May1943tog iv ep r e f e r en t ia lt r ea t m en ttod e s e r t e r s ,p rov id ingth em w i th m ed i ca landnu t r i t iona lca r e .66 Th e s em ea su r e sw e r efo l low edbysp e c if cBDo rd e r stha tadd i t iona l

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foodra t ion sb ep rov id edtop r i son e r so f wa r who w e r e“ s i ckinandou t o fho sp i ta l s ,”andtha tSov i e td e s e r t e r sno tb erobb edo fth e i rb e long67 ing s . A l lp r i son e r s ,in c lud ingtho s es e rv ingth eBD ,hadtob et ran s f e r r edtoth en ea r e s tDu r chg ang l ag e r,o rp rov i s iona lG e rmanp r i son e r 68 camp ,tob es en ttoth e“R e i chfo rth e i rr e sp e c t iv eta sk s .” In May1943 , th eD iv i s ionhadtohandov e ron ehund r edadd i t iona lp r i son e r s ,r e p la c ingth eminth e i rdu t i e sw i th“Ru s s iano rF inn i shc iv i l ian s .”69 V i c t im s ,Exo t i c s ,and Nob leSavage s :Ru s s ianC iv i l ian s A“S t in k ingandD ep r av edP ov e r ty” Th eFa lang i s tjou rna l i s tJa c in to M iqu e la r ena wa sth ef r s tSpan i shco rr e spond en ttov i s i tth eRu s s ianF ron t ,in Augu s t1941 .H een joy edd e s c r ib ingth epov e r tyo fth e“Smo l en sk Ho t e l”andhowcommun i sm had“ c r ea t edta t t e r edb egga r sands ca l lywag s .”70 T oth eIb e r ianvo lun t e e r s whoa r r iv eda mon thla t e r ,and manyo th e r sa f t e r ,Ru s s ian s–in c lud ingth ep eop l eo f wha t wa sth enEa s t e rnPo land–r ep r e s en t eda k indo fs t epba ckwa rd sinhumanh i s to ry . On eFa lang i s tw ro t e : W es e eh e r e“ equa l i ty”and“pa rad i s e .”Ev e ryp e r soni sba r e foo t ,s ca r c e ly c lad ,andunawa r eo fth e mo s tba s i cp e r sona lhyg i en e .Th e“p eop l e ,”a s th eyca l lth e wo rk e r s ,l iv ein wood enhu t sinth e mo s tm i s e rab l e wayim 7 1 ag inab l e , wh i l eth eComm i s sa r sinhab i tlav i shpa la c e s .

A sw i th G e rmanandI ta l ianso ld i e r s ,th ef r s tSpan i shvo lun t e e r sto s e tfoo tonSov i e tso i lcon cu r r edinr epo r t ingth e mo s tba s i ce l em en t : f l thypov e r ty .I t wa scap tu r edin wa t e r co lou rbyca r toon i s tandB lu e D iv i s ionvo lun t e e rJoaqu índ eA lba(K in)uponh i sr e tu rntoSpa inin 1943 .72 Cap ta in Áng e l Muñozd e s c r ib edl i f einRu s s iaa s“ap endu lum sw ing ingb e tw e en wo rkand m i s e ry ,”in“ so rd id”town s wh e r eth e 73 room sw e r e“mo r ef tfo ran ima l sthanp eop l e .” D ion i s io R id ru e jo cond en s edin toaf ews en t en c e sa l lth em ean ingh ea t t r ibu t edtoth e m i s e ryh esaw : T e r r ib l e ,th i sl i f eIs e e .T e r r ib l em i s e ry ,in f rahuman i ty ,andd e so la t ion .Th i s i saland s cap eo fno th ingn e s s ,andon lyth ec i t i e sr ev ea ltha tEu rop e wa s h e r e ,andth enaR evo lu t ion w i thad i c ta to r sh ipo fth ep ro l e ta r ia t .Th ev i l7 4 lag e sr e ca l lIvanth eT e r r ib l ei fany th ing. . .

Th eta l e sto ldobv ia t edth efa c ttha tth i sd e so la t epano ramapa r t ia l ly co r r e spond edtoth ee f f e c t so f wa r .I t wa sa l lp r e s en t eda sanexamp l e

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o f wha tcommun i sm wou ldhav eb rough ttoSpa in ,hadi tt r iumph ed in1936andth roughou ta l lo f Eu rop eandhadth e Th i rd R e i chno t p r e emp t iv e lyinvad edth eUSSR .Ino th e r wo rd s ,th eBo l sh ev ikd e s t ru c t iono fp rop e r ty ,o rd e r ,andso c ia lva lu e shadcond emn edth eSov i e t p ea san t stoanex i s t en c etha tcou ldno tb eca l l edl iv ing , wh i ch wou ld b enou r i sh edbyt ran s c end en tb e l i e f ,bu t wa sin s t eadav eg e ta t iv es ta t e 75 con c e rn edon ly w i thimm ed ia t esu rv iva l . Jo s éLu i s Góm ezT e l lod e s c r ib eda“Ru s s ianv i l lag e” :Sov i e t ma t e r ia l i smhadtu rn edth echu r ch e s in to wa r ehou s e sands choo l s ;th eadm in i s t ra t iv eh eadqua r t e r scon s i s t edo fa“ cubo idfo rmth eco lou ro fb lood ,”a c compan i edbyag roup o f“ ram sha ck l e ,da rk ,and m i s e rab l e”k o l kh o zbu i ld ing s .Th ep ea san t s hads t epp eds ev e ra lc en tu r i e sba ck int im eand l iv ed inan“ in f rahuman 76 zon e”n ex ttoth eCommun i s tPa r ty m i l l iona i r e s . N ew lya r r iv edvo lun t e e r sa f t e r1942exp r e s s eds im i la rimp r e s s ion s inth e i rl e t t e r s .Th eyd e s c r ib edth e Ru s s ian sa sap eop l ela ck inghy g i en e , who s esauna ss e em eda“ savag e ,p r im i t iv esy s t em .” Aco rpora lw ro t ehowth eRu s s ian s“a r euna cqua in t ed w i thl igh t s ,e l e c t r i c i ty , Eu rop ean s ty l ec lo th ing ,p lumb ing ;th e i rhu t sa r epoo r lycon s t ru c t ed o f woodandfu l lo fm i s e ry ,insho r t , wo rd scanno td e s c r ib e wha tth ey 77 ca l lth e‘Sov i e tPa rad i s e . ’” P e r sona ld ia r i e st end edtob eev en mo r e a c e rb i c .En s ignJuanRom e ro w ro t etha tth ev i l lag e sw e r e“mad eo fs ev78 e ra l wood enhou s e stha tlook ed mo r el ik es tab l e s .” Co rpo ra lJ e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rd e s c r ib edh i sf r s timp r e s s ion so fth e Ru s s ianp ea san t sa s“d i r tyandimpov e r i sh ed …Th eRu s s ian sw e r ea l lb ea rd sand 79 ta l lboo t s .Th ed i r tyhou s e s mu s tsu r e lyb efu l lo fpa ra s i t e s .” Af ew mon th sla t e r ,upona r r iv inga tth ev i l lag e wh e r eh e wou ldr e s id eonth e f ron t ,B en jam ín A r ena l e sa l sor ema rk edonth econ t ra s tb e tw e enth e Sov i e t my thp ropaga t edbyth el e f tandth epano ramah esaw : Th ev i l lag ecou ldn ’ tpo s s ib lyb econ s t ru c t edany wo r s e .Th ehou s e sa r ea l l mad eo f wood ,f l l ed w i thafou ls t en chtha tI wou ldno tr e comm end ,a s th es tab l e sa r einfa c taroominth ehou s e .Th i si sth eRu s s ianPa rad i s eth e R ed sd r eam edo f !80

A l lt e s t imon i e sun t i l1945con cu rr ega rd ingth e s eimag e s . Góm ez T e l locon s id e r edth em i s e ryh esawinth ePo l i shv i l lag e saluxu rycompa r edtoth e“ in f rahumanl i f eo fth eSov i e tp ea san t ry ,”p e rm ea t edby a“b ea s t lys t igma”uponth e i rfa c e s .81Jo s éM .Ca s tañónexp r e s s edth e sam ev i ew s : Th ehou s e s look l ik e la rg e wood enba r ra ck s ,fo rm edbyon eroom in wh i ch th ep eop l eand l iv e s to ckandfa rm ing in s t rum en t s l iv ea l ls ta ck edtog e th e r .

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 161 Th e r ea r ep i l e so fhaytha ts e rv ea sb ed s …a roundth es tov e , wh i chth ey bu i l tth em s e lv e sou to ft in stha to f t encau s ein tox i ca t ion ;90 p e rc en to f Ru s s ianv i l lag e r shav en ev e rknownanyo th e rso r to fb ed .82

Manyo fth e s ed e s c r ip t ion sw e r ein t end edtoconv in c eanyr ema ining USSRsympa th iz e r so fth ee r ro ro fth e i r way s . Co rpo ra l Ado l fo F e rnánd ez -V e la s co w ro t etotho s e“b l ind edby Ma rx i s tp ropaganda ,” t e l l inghow wha th esawp rov edtha tcommun i sm“hadtu rn edp eo p l ein tob ea s t s ,f l l ed w i thinhuman ma t e r ia l i sm .”Ar epa t r ia t edso ld i e r a l soto ldh i sf e l lowv i l lag e r so fth e“m i s e rab l e wayin wh i ch m i l l ion s 83 and m i l l ion so fRu s s ian sl iv ed .” Th ecommont e rm sinth ed e s c r ip t ion so fth e s eBDvo lun t e e r sr ef e r r ed ma in lytoov e r c rowd ing ,badsm e l l s ,dampn e s s… Un l ik eG e r man s ,Span i shso ld i e r st end edtocon t ra s td i r ty/ c l ean mo r ethan w e t/ d ry .84 Th e mo s tp rom in en t wo rd sfo rd e s c r ib ingRu s s ia w e r eundoub t ed lyd i r tyandf ou l sm e l l ing . Mon t s e r ra tRom eu ,anu r s e ,d e s c r ib edin h e rd ia ryth eunp l ea san timp r e s s ionuponen t e r ingani z b a :“ th es t en ch i sl ik eas laptoth efa c e ,a sw i tha l lRu s s ianhom e s .” Góm ezT e l lov iv id lyd e s c r ib edi ta sasm e l lo fth eO r i en t ,a c c en tua t inghum id i tyand pu t r e fa c t ion :“ I tsm e l l sRu s s ian :ro t t enpo ta to e s ,k apu s k a ,human m i s e ry , manu r e ,anda l l mann e ro ff e rm en ta t ioninana tmo sph e r etha tha s no tb e env en t i la t edfo rt en mon th s .”85 V agu e ly A s ian ph eno typ e so c ca s iona l lya c compan i edth ed e sp i ct ion s ,a sFa lang i s t An ton io A ragon é sexp r e s s edinh i simp r e s s ion sr e ga rd ingth eg r imy inhab i tan t s– w i thsuppo s ed lyA s ianf ea tu r e s–o fth e Novgo roda r ea : F roma fa r ,th eya l llookth esam e .I fp la c edonth eho r izona tn igh t ,th ey wou lda l lhav eth esam ep rof l e :toughr id ingboo t s ,u sua l lyla rg eand a lway sd i r ty ,b r e e ch e so fd i f f e r en tco lou r sandfab r i c sfa l l ena roundth e kn e e s ,a woo l l in edtun i co rlongp e l i s s e ,uptoth en e ck ,andab la cko r khak icap .Ev e ry th ingi sg r imyandb rok en .Th e i rfa c e sa r ea l lth esam e ; round w i tho l iv ecomp l ex ion ,b rowno rsom e t im e sb londha i r ,as t rong b ea rdround eda tth ech in ,a d i r ty mou s ta ch ey e l low edf romtoba c co , sunk enb lu eey e s ,andp rom in en tch e ekbon e s ,t in t ingth e i rfa c e sw i tha sad lyo r i en ta la i r …A l lo fth em ,youngando ld , look l ik eS ib e r ianE sk imo s .

“An ima l iza t ion” wa sano th e rcha ra c t e r i s t i cth eSpan i sho c cup i e r s o f t enp e r c e iv edinth ep ea san t s . Ru s s ianhom e sw e r epu t r idin s id e , w i than ima l sandp eop l el iv ingtog e th e rina“humanp ig s ty .”An ton io A ragon é sspok eo fhowh e wonth et ru s to fa“humancub” w i thcho cola t e . Mon th sla t e rh ed e s c r ib edhowth eRu s s ian wom end e lou s edea ch

162 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

o th e r ,k i l l ingth ein s e c t sw i thth esam ekn iv e sth eyu s edtocu tb r ead . Ja im eFa r r éa s c r ib edtoth ep ea san t sa lmo s tap e l ik et ra i t s ,d e s c r ib ing th e“hov e l s” wh e r eth ey“ s l ep ta roundth es tov e ,a l ltog e th e r ;th epa r en t shun t edinth e i rch i ld r en ’ sha i rfo rl i c ea tth esam etab l e wh e r eth ey wou ldea t .”86 Th ea s ton i shm en to fth eIb e r ianvo lun t e e r sa tw i tn e s s ingth em i s e ry o fSov i e tp ea san tl i f es t em sinpa r tf romth efa c ttha t manyo fth e s e so ld i e r shadu rbano r ig in sand w e r eun fam i l ia rw i thth eru ra lcon t ex t . Th econ t ra s td idno ts e emqu i t ea ss ta rktotho s ef romr e la t iv e lyund e rd ev e lop eda r ea so fSpa in .Th i s wa sth eca s efo rJoaqu ín Mon taña , who compa r edth el iv ingcond i t ion so fth eRu s s ian sw i ththo s eo fth ep ea s an t sinh i shom ecoun ty .A l thoughth e wood eni z b a so fth e Ru s s ian s w e r eind e edl e s scom fo r tab l ethanth ep ea san thom e sw i th wh i chh e wa sfam i l ia r ,h ea l sound e r s toodtha tgoods ton ehou s e scou ldno tb e bu i l tinaland wh e r es ton e sw e r es ca r c e .Fo rth i sr ea son ,h ef e l tc lo s e r 87 toth eRu s s ianp ea san t sthan manyo fth e mo r eu rbanvo lun t e e r s . M i l i ta ryeng in e e rA l f r edoB e l lodand Ma jo rJoaqu índ ela C ruza l soap p r e c ia t edth era t iona ls t ru c tu r eo fth e wood enRu s s ianhom e s ,bu i l tto 88 e ff c i en t ly ma in ta ina wa rmin t e r io r . How ev e r ,th rough Span i shl en s e s ,th esp i r i tua lind ig en c eo fth e p ea san t ry wa sev en mo r ed i s tu rb ingthanth e ma t e r ia lm i s e ry . Th e la cko fr e l ig iou sva lu e s wa ss ta rk lyappa r en t–e sp e c ia l lyinth eg en e r a t ion sedu ca t edund e rSov i e tru l e–a long s id eth ela cko fp rog r e s sand w e l l -b e ing .Sa rg ean tSán ch ez A lad ro w ro t ehowth eBo l sh ev ik“mat e r ia l i s tba rba r ian s”hadi so la t ed Ru s s iaf romth ec iv i l iz ed wo r ldby sup r e s s inga l la e s th e t i cexp r e s s ion .“Th e r ei snoph i lo sophyh e r e ,on ly exa c t ma thandacompa s s ;andab so lu t e lynocon s id e ra t ionfo rind iv id ua l i sm .” Ma th s ,bu tnono t iono f God .Th eso c ia l i s ta r ch i t e c tu ra ls ty l e s e em ed ma t e r ia l i s t i candimp e r sona l :“Onth ein s id em enn e i th e rf e e l no rl iv e ,th eya r el ik e ma ch in e se j e c t ing wa rp edid ea s .”89 Th e r e wa sind e edacu lp r i tfo rth ed e so la t e , ma t e r ia l i s t i c ,inhuman pano ramath eSpan i sh vo lun t e e r sfoundinth eSov i e t Un ion :commun i smhadp r ey edupon“ th e s epoo r ,d i r ty ,b ea rd ed Ru s k i s!”T r i ck ed byth er eg im e ,som e th ingev en mo r epa in fu lthan ma t e r ia lm i s e ry wa s 90 add ed :“w r e t ch edn e s so fth esou l .” Th eRu s s ianp eop l ecou ldno tev en comp en sa t eth e i r ma t e r ia ld ef c i en c i e sw i thas en s eo ft ran s c end en c e . Th e Ru s s iansou ls e em ed“ sh e ep l ik e ,a lmo s tun f e e l ing .”S t r ipp edo f 91 th e i rr e l ig ion ,“ th e i rb ea s t l ik ein s t in c t srunrampan t .” A th e i smandth er e tu rntoas ta t eo fna tu r e wa sco r r e la t ed w i thla ck o fs exua l mo ra l i ty , wh i ch manyBD m emb e r sa t t r ibu t edtoth einfuen c eo fcommun i smra th e rthanth ehab i tua lp e rm i s s iv en e s so fru ra l l i f e .P r iva t eSa lvado r Zanónexp r e s s edh i ssu rp r i s eupon m e e t inga

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Ru s s ians tud en tfo r whomlov e wa sm e r e ly“as exua ln e edtob esa t i sf edl ik eanyo th e r .”Th e“Ru s s ian way”o flov eimp l i ed“ ca rna lr e la92 t ion sf romth ev e ryb eg inn ing .” R id ru e jo wa ss canda l iz edbyRu s s ian w edd ing s , wh i ch h ed e s c r ib eda sa“ ca rna lzoo logy .”93 R e ca l l inga n igh tin wh i chap ea san tcoup l esham e l e s s ly mad elov en ex ttoth e Span i shso ld i e r ss l e ep inginth e i ri z b a ,h econ c lud edtha tins exua l ma t t e r sth eRu s s ianp eop l ehadd eg en e ra t edto“ab ea s t lys exua limpu l s e .” Sp i r i tua lm i s e ryanda th e i smhadl edto“ th e mo s tappa l l ing mo ra l d ep rava t ion ,”tha tev ene ra s ed“a mo th e r ’ sa f f e c t ionfo rh e rch i ld r en .” Sov i e tcommun i smsough t“ f r e elov e … wom ena sp rodu c t ionin s t rum en t ss e rv ingth ep ro l e ta r ia t .”94 Th eK a r am a z ovR ev iv ed? W e r eth e s en ewimag e s ?D idth evo lun t e e r sfnd ,o rth inkth eyhad found , conf rma t ion o f th ep r e con c e iv edi con s and s t e r eo typ e s n e ed edtocon so l ida t eth eimag eo fth een emy ?95 Ru s s ia ,a si t sown n in e t e en th c en tu ry w r i t e r shadd ep i c t edi t , wa sa sp r e s en tinth eSpani sh m inda san t i commun i s tindo c t r ina t ionandth eid en t if ca t iono f Ru s s ia w i thth e An t i ch r i s t . Mo r ethanon e“ cu l tu r ed”vo lun t e e rb el i ev edh ehadfounda ff rma t iono fth eexo t i cand my s t i ca limag e s d i s t i l l edf romRu s s ianl i t e ra tu r e ,f romFyodo r Do s to ev skytoL evT o ls toy .Th i ssom ehowp rov id edal in eo fcon t inu i tyf rom Do s to ev sky ’ s pan -S lav i cexpan s ion i smtotha to fth eBo l sh ev ik s .96 R id ru e jo w ro t e how“ th ep eop l eh e r es e eml ik eth echa ra c t e r sinth enov e l sw ea l l soav id lyr ead w i theag e rsympa thy ,bu tw i thou tanad equa t eund e r 97 s tand ingo ft rag edy .” Góm ez -T e l lo wa sfa r mo r ee loqu en t :“ Ib e cam e fam i l ia r iz ed w i thth eb la ckand mo s syenv i ronm en to fth e s ep eop l eo f lo s thuman i tyinth epag e so f Do s to ev skyandT o l s toy .” H efoundth e sub s tan c eo fth e s el i t e ra rycha ra c t e r sinth e my s t i ca l ,“d i so rgan iz ed , w i ldexa l ta t ion”o fap eop l e whohadb rough tth eSov i e t stopow e r , w i th“asou lbu rn ing w i thth ew indo fG engh i s Khan .”98 A lva rod e La ig l e s iaevok eds im i la rimag e s wh end e s c r ib ingth ei z b ain wh i chh e s l ep t ; wh e r eask e l e ta l ,pa ra ly t i co ld manl iv eda s s i s t edby“ano ld lady w i thach i ckp eafa c eandh ighboo t s mad eo fg r eyf e l t .” No tev en Do s to ev sky ’ s“ ex c i t ing m i s e ry” o rT o l s toy ’ s“ ra s ca l s androgu e s” 99 cou ld ma t chth i sSov i e tr ea l i ty . Th ep eop l eandth es c en e sf e l tl ik eth eyb e long edtoal i t e ra ryd é jà vu .Th em i l i ta rysu rg eonJuanPab lo D ’O r sw ro t ehow“manyo fth e ev en t s ,cha ra c t e r s ,andland s cap e stha ta r enowapa r to f myl i f eIhad a l r eadyl iv edinGo rk i ’ spag e s ,und e rth ev iv idl igh to fr ea l i ty .”En r iqu e E r randofound manypa ra l l e l sb e tw e enth ep ea san t sh eo f t en m e tand

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tho s ein Do s to ev sky ’ sTh eB r o th e r sK a r am a z ov(1880 ) .O th e rv e t e ran s vo i c eds im i la rv i ew sy ea r sla t e r ; wha tth eysawinRu s s iah e lp edth em und e r s tandth echa ra c t e r sth ey w e r ea l r eadyfam i l ia rw i thth rough Ru s s ianl i t e ra tu r e :“K indn e s s ,o r i en ta lfa ta l i sm … R e sp e c tbo rd e r ing ons e rv i l i ty .”100 Th e s eimag e sw e r eo f t en u s edinSpan i shan t i commun i s tm ed ia , b l end ing l i t e ra ry i con sw i thpo l i t i ca lp ropaganda ,andhada l r eadyb e en emb edd edinth em ind so f manyvo lun t e e r s .Th eycou ldev enb er e in fo r c edbyth e i rfam i l i e sba ckhom e .In O c tob e r1941 , Do lo r e s Gan c edo w ro t ef romT o l edotoh e rfan c é ,th eFa lang i s tA lb e r to Ma r t ín -Gam e ro , d e s c r ib ing wha tsh eimag in edth e Ru s s ianp eop l etob el ik e ,r ef e c tinga m ix o fl i t e ra ryimag e sandi con sfo rm ed byan t i commun i s t p ropaganda : Il ik edi t wh enyou w e r ein ma in landEu rop e ,bu tIdon ’ tth inkyou w i l l en joyRu s s ia mu ch .Ihav er eadsom eRu s s iannov e l s ,andIl ik edth em , bu tev e rs in c eIr eadCh ekhov ’ sR o omnum b e r5[ s i c ] ,If e e lt e r r ib lyr epu l s ed by Ru s s ia .Iimag in ei ttob ef l thyandco ld ,howshou ldIsay ,l ik eth e s t i cky ,sm e l lyco ldo fad i r ty ,g r ea sysu i t ;o rabu t ch e r ’ sc loaka f t e run load ing m ea t ;tha t ’ sth eenv i ronm en tIimag in e .Ihav ea l soh ea rdabou tth e cha ra c t e r sth e r e ,andtha t ’ showIimag in eth ep ea san t stob e :in capab l eo f b e com ingany th inge l s e ,fo rs e rv inga sva s sa l s won ’ tsha rp enth em ind … Ra spu t in ,S ta l in ,L en in ,Iimag in eth ema l lw i th[ th efo rm e rp r e s id en to f S e condSpan i shR epub l i c ]A l ca láZamo ra ’ sfa c e .101

Cap ta in Manu e ld eCá rd ena sd e s c r ib edth ea tmo sph e r eo fth ec iv i l ian popu la t iono fLugainas im i la rfa sh ion ,m ing l ingpov e r tyands t e r eotyp e sfo rm edbyimag e sf romRu s s ianl i t e ra tu r e .T oh im ,o ldmu zh i k s look edl ik e“Ch r i s t ’ sapo s t l e s ,”a si fth eyhad“ e s cap edf romT o l s toyo r And r ey evnov e l s .”102 Y e tth e s es c en e sc e r ta in lys e em ed wo r thyo fp i ty andcu r io s i tyra th e rthanha t r edandd i sda in ,andth ep ea san t s ’m i se ryr e in fo r c edth e mo s tn ega t iv ea sp e c t so fo ld e rs t e r eo typ e s .M en én d ez Gund ínf e l tsympa thyfo rSov i e tc i t iz en s ,ra th e rthanr epu l s ion : “Hon e s t ly ,Ithough tth es to r i e sto ldinSpa inabou tth eRu s s ianp eop l e w e r em e r e lyp ropaganda ,bu tth eyfa l lsho r to fr ea l i ty .Th e s ep eop l ea r e d i r ty ,poo r lyd r e s s ed …th eyevok e mo r ep i tythanha t r ed .”103 Inth i s way ,acon t rad i c to ryr e la t ion sh ipfo rm edb e tw e enth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,o ra tl ea s ttho s e mo s tid en t if ed w i thth ean t i -Bo l sh ev ik c ru sad e ,andRu s s ianc iv i l ian s .I t wa s ma rk edbyc e r ta ind i sda inanda s en s eo fsup e r io r i ty ,bu ta l sobycompa s s ionandg row ingfam i l ia r i ty w i thth ep ea san t s . Mo r eov e r ,th ecommonp eop l ew i th whomth eBD in t e ra c t ed w e r epo l i t i ca l lyra th e rpa s s iv e .A son ew ro t e ,“ commun i sm

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ha s no tt r iumph edinth e Ru s s iancoun t ry s id eb e cau s e …though som ewha td eg en e ra t e ,i ts t i l lha saspa rko fsp i r i tua l i tyini t sb e ing ,i t i ss t i l lth eco rn e r wh e r eth ela s te s s en c e so fth eo ldt rad i t ion sa r ep r e 104 s e rv ed .” S e rg ean t Manu e l Ma r t ín ezpo in t edou thowth elo ca l sh e m e ta l soha t edS ta l in ’ sty ranny ;h esub con s c iou s lyid en t if edth et e rm Ru s s i an w i thc ommun i s t ,th e r eby p e rp e tua t ings t e r eo typ e sinh e r i t ed f romth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r : Th en e ighbou r s whod idno teva cua t e wan tno th ingtodo w i thth eRu ss ian s[ s i c ] ,andi fyoua skth emabou tS ta l in ,th ey w i l linva r iab lyr ep lytha t h eshou ldb ehungf romat r e e ,fo rth e s ep eop l ehav eb e ens ev e r e lyg r i ev ed byth ecommun i s tr eg im e …Th eya r egoodp eop l efo rth e mo s tpa r t ,and 1 0 5 commun i smha scond emn edth emtor ema inex t r em e lyba ckwa rd s .

Fa lang i s t vo lun t e e r Eu s eb io Dona i r ed e c la r eds im i la r op in ion sin Janua ry1942 . Th e“Ru s s ian s”( commun i s t s )w e r e“b ea s t s”fo rsub j e c t ing“ tho s epoo rp eop l e”toa“ s lav e ry”tha t wa sth er ea l i tyo fth e “Sov i e tPa rad i s e” :“ co ld ,d i r ty ,lov e l e s sv i l lag e s .”106 Commun i sm wa s p e r c e iv eda safo rmo f mod e rnab so lu t i smtha thadtu rn edth eon c e p ro sp e rou sp ea san t ryin toth eva s sa l so fato ta l i ta r ians ta t e .107 Th i s cau s ed manyvo lun t e e r stof e e lso r ryfo rth epopu la t ionv i c t im iz edby S ta l in ,“andlam en taho r r ib lyopp r e s s edp eop l e who mu s tb el ib e ra t ed .”108 Th era th e rna iv ed raw ing sfo rth eH o j ad eC amp añ ao f t end e p i c t edqua in to ld m en ,jov ia l wom en ,ands c en e sf romda i lyl i f e ,su ch a sso ld i e r sp lay inggam e sw i thRu s s ianch i ld r enandf ra t e rn iz ing w i th 109 th ep ea san t s . Gu i l l e rmo H e rnanzcon c lud edtha t“ th ep eop l eI ’v e m e ts in c ea r r iv ingh e r ea r eno tn ea r lya sbada sI wa sl edtob e l i ev e , th eya r es imp ly un fo r tuna t ew r e t ch e scond emn edth e i ren t i r el iv e s (f r s tbyth eT sa r sandth enbycommun i sm )tob e ingho r r ib lyandt ru ly opp r e s s ed .”110 AP s eud o -A s i a t i cP e op l e? Th eSpan i shr ead ingo fth eRu s s iancoun t ry s id ew en tb eyonds c en e s o faninno c en tp eop l ev i c t im iz ed w i th inat r iado f ma t e r ia lm i s e ry , commun i sm ,andh i s to r i ca lfa ta l i sm .Fo r manyvo lun t e e r s ,e sp e c ia l ly th eFa lang i s t s ,commun i smhadp r eva i l edinRu s s iab e cau s eo fth eto r m en t edRu s s iansou l :i t wa sth eou t com eo fanex t r em ec l ima t e ,ho s t i l e land s cap e s ,andba r r enf e ld s–a“god fo r sak enland ,h ea t , mo squ i to s… 1 1 1 th i si sal iv ingh e l l .” Th eRu s s ianp eop l ew e r ebo thd ep r iv edo fc iv i l iza t ionand mad esp i r i tua l lyl e tha rg i cbyth eha r shphy s i ca lenv i ron m en t .Th i s wa sa“p r im i t iv eland ,” w i thon lyshan t i e s“bu i l ts imp lya s

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sh e l t e rf romth et e r r i fy ing w in t e r ,no tin t end eda shom e s .”Tho s el iv ing th e r ecou ldb eno mo r ethan“ s lav e stoth eha r shenv i ronm en t ,”in ca pab l eo fe s tab l i sh ingana r ch i t e c tu ra ls ty l eins ton e .Ind e ed ,th eab s en c e o fs ton econ s t ru c t ionr ef e c t edth eS lav i c“ la cko ft rad i t iona lsp i r i t”o r s en s eo f“h i s to r i ca lcon t inu i tyande f fo r t .”Th elands e em edtor equ i r ea d i c ta to rcapab l eo fru l ingth eimm en s es t epp e .112 A sin G e rmana c coun t s ,ha rd sh ipa spa r to fRu s s ianna tu r eb e cam e acommonf ea tu r einBDp e r c ep t ion s .S in c eth en in e t e en thc en tu ry ,th e th eo ryo fso c ia lhyg i en ehadpo s tu la t edc l ean l in e s sa sa ma rko fc iv i l iza t ionandbou rg eo i scu l tu r e .A c co rd ing ly ,ad i r ty ,w r e t ch edp eop l e w e r esobyna tu r eandno tbya c c id en t .D i r ty ,c rud e ,p r im i t iv eand ,unc iv i l iz edp eop l e ,o rs imp lyphy s i ca l lyuna t t ra c t iv ep eop l e ,w e r eno tin th esam el eagu ew i thEu rop eaninvad e r s . Many G e rmanandI ta l ian so ld i e r sexp r e s s edinth e i rl e t t e r sf romRu s s iahowth ebo rd e rb e tw e en c l ean l in e s sando rd e r– wh i chth eya s so c ia t ed w i thth eW e s t e rn wo r ld and ma s cu l in i ty–andd i r t in e s sandd i so rd e rnowcon s t i tu t edth ebo r d e rb e tw e enc iv i l iza t ionandba rba r ian i sm .113 Th eSpan ia rd sw e r eno t sub s tan t ia l lyd i f f e r en tinth i sr e sp e c t .Infa c t , manyo ff c e r so fth eB lu e D iv i s ionhadexp e r i en c eds im i la rs en sa t ion samongth eB e rb e rpopu la1 14 t iondu r ingth e i ry ea r sinA f r i ca . S im i la r ly ,Span i shcomba tan t ssaw“ th er iv e ro fr e s igna t ion ,th econfo rm i tyo ftho s epoo rp eop l e”a sth eou t com eo fc en tu r i e so fsub j e c t ion toad e spo t i smtha t wa sfo r e igntoEu rop eant rad i t ion .Th e i radap ta t ion tod e spo t i smhadfo rg edanind i f f e r en c etowa rd sd ea th–th eendo fan inan eex i s t en c e– wh i chfo rSov i e tso ld i e r st ran s la t edin toanob s t ina t e d e t e rm ina t iontofgh ttoth eend : Th eRu s s ianp ea san ti sun l ik eanyo th e r man . On e mu s ttak ein toa c coun t tha tun t i lth ela s tc en tu rys lav e ryex i s t edinRu s s ia ;p e rhap sth i si son eo f th ecau s e so fth ecomp l e t eb e s t ia l i tyo fRu s s ianp ea san t s .A l so ,th eab so lu t em i s e ryo fth ecoun t ry s id e ,th ein f rahumanl i f eth eya r ea c cu s tom edto andhav eb e enfo rc en tu r i e s ,th ed e spo t i smo fa l lt sa r s ,r edo r wh i t e ,hav e c r ea t edasp e c ia ltyp eo f man ,th e mo s tp e r f e c tundoub t ed lyfo rsu f f e r ingth eexp e r i en c eo fCommun i s tco l l e c t iv iza t ion .Th eyfgh tb e cau s eth ey don ’ tca r e ,s in c ed ea thi su l t ima t e lyfo rth emth ecomp l e t el ib e ra t ionf rom 1 1 5 al i f etha tha sg iv enth emno th ing .

An ton io A ragon é sexp r e s s edsadn e s sfo rth e“m i s fo r tun eo fth e s e p eop l e ,”bu ta l soa s s e r t edtha tth eyd e s e rv edth e i rfa t e :th e“Ru s s ian 1 16 s lav e s”hada“p sy cho logyo fr e s ign eds e rv i l i ty .” S im i la rthough t s w e r eexp r e s s edbyLu i sR iudav e t sd e Mon t e s , who wa sr e spon s ib l efo r th ecu s todyo fth eSov i e tp r i son e r s .H ed e s c r ib edth eRu s s ianp eop l e

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a s“ ind i f f e r en t ,fa ta l i s t i c ,f e rv en tb e l i ev e r s” who ,du etoth einfu en c e o fc l ima t eo rcu s tom s ,w e r er e s ign edtoty ranny :“ fo rth i sv e ryr eason ,th eyhav ebo rn eth eR evo lu t ion w e l l .Ano th e rp eop l e wou ldhav e g rown w ea ryo fi ty ea r sago .”117 Ino th e r wo rd s ,th i sp eop l ew i th“o r i en ta l”cu l tu ra l ,sp i r i tua l ,and som e t im e sev enphy s i ca lf ea tu r e s ,a c compan i edbyanin s t in c tfo rsub s e rv i en c e ,l iv edinas ta t eo fba rba r i sm ,pov e r ty ,andb ru ta l i ty .Th ein g ra in eds e rv i l i tyo fth e s eRu s s ian s ,w i thth e i r“p rom in en tch e ekbon e s [and ]sma l l ,s l igh t lys lan t edey e s ,” wa sa t t r ibu t edtoc en tu r i e so fty r annybyt sa r sandov e r lo rd s .Su chf e r t i l eg roundhadb e enr ip efo r man ipu la t ionbyth eBo l sh ev ik s .118I tconv in c edth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r stha t th ey w e r efgh t ingfo ra ju s tcau s e .Infa c t ,th esam eno t ionr ev e rb e ra t ed inth el e t t e r sandt e s t imon i e so fth e i rG e rmancoun t e rpa r t s .Th ey w e r e engag edinaqua s i -apo ca lyp t i cs t rugg l eaga in s taf e ro c iou sen emy w i th 1 19 e s s en t ia l lysubhuman(a c co rd ingtosom eG e rman s )f ea tu r e s . Mo r e thanon ecomba tan texp r e s s edth econv i c t iontha th e wa ss e rv ingSpa in 120 andEu rop e“ inth i sb r ea cho fC iv i l iza t ion .” C en tu r i e so f“A s ian” d e spo t i smandaninho sp i tab l e phy s i ca lenv i ronm en tcou ldon lyr e su l tinaboo r i sh ,ind i f f e r en t ,andsubm i s s iv e p eop l e . ManySpan i sha c coun t sd e s c r ib ed Ru s s ian sa sl e tha rg i c ,ind i f f e r en t ,andlazy .Som e t im e sth eyh in t eda tid en t if ca t ion w i thJ ew121 i shs t e r eo typ e s . Fo r Ma r t ín ez -T e s s i e r ,th echa ra c t e r i s t i ca l ly “ lazy mov em en t s”o fth e Ru s s ian sgav eanimp r e s s iono fb e ing“ e t e rna l ly fa t igu ed .” H ea l soob s e rv edtha t“ th elo ca l sa r ed r e s s edinrag sandin 122 ev e ry th ingapp ea rtob e longtoanin f e r io rra c e .” AndJo s éO t e ro -d e A r c ed e s c r ib ed Ru s s ianp ea san t sa s“ ind i f f e r en ttowa rd sev e ry th ing tha tm ean sp rog r e s sands imp lynov e l ty ,”v i c t im so fa“ co l l e c t iv es tu po r .”123 Th i scomm en tca r r i ed mo r ecu l tu ra lthanb io log i ca lm ean ing . Th ecu l tu ra lra c i smappa r en tin manyt e s t imon i e se cho edah i s to r i ca l andg eog raph i ca ld e t e rm in i smtha tr e ca l l sth ea t t i tud e so fG e rmanand Au s t r ianso ld i e r stowa rd sRu s s iaandth eS lav i cEa s tdu r ingth eF i r s t W o r ld W a r–th er e s e rvo i rf rom wh i chn ewra c i s ta t t i tud e sd ev e lop ed 124 a f t e r1920 . Amongth eRu s s ianp eop l e ,how ev e r , mo r ethanon eSpan i shvo lunt e e r wa sab l etoapp r e c ia t ehuman ,ev en mod e rnf ea tu r e s .Fo ras ta r t , mo s tp ea san t sw e r el i t e ra t e ,e sp e c ia l lyth eyoung e rg en e ra t ion s .Som e w e r esu rp r i s edbyth eabundan tcommun i tyl ib ra r i e s ,w i thp l en tyo f popu la rl i t e ra tu r ebu tnopo rnog raphy .125 R id ru e jod e s c r ib edRu s s ian s a sa m ed i eva lp eop l e who w e r eb l ind ed“byp rog r e s s , ma ch in e s , Da r w in …andth ep edan t ryo fth e manys choo l t ea ch e r sp rov id edbyth e r eg im e .”Thoughcommun i smhadtaugh tth emtor ead , i thadd ep r iv ed 126 th emo fth e i r“ la s tsp i r i tua lr e sou r c e s ,”b eg inn ing w i thr e l ig iou sr i t e s .

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A f t e rl i t e ra cy ,som evo lun t e e r sno t edtwoo th e ran e cdo ta lf ea tu r e s : “Th eyn ev e rs t r ik eth e i rho r s e sandth ey mak e wood enn e s t sfo rb i rd s ; bu tth ey m i s t r ea tm en[o th e rhuman s ] .”127 Th e s e mo r em inu t ea sp e c t s spok eo fth eRu s s ian sa ss t rang e ,t r ea t ingan ima l sw i thg r ea t e rr e sp e c t thanhuman s .Th i scoa r s e ,p i t iab l ep eop l ehadend ea r inga sp e c t sbu t w e r e ind e c iph e rab l etoth eSpan ia rd s .Th em ixo fexo t i c i sm ,apa thy ,and fa ta l i smd efn edth ema st ru lysavag eand in capab l eo fs e l f -gov e rnan c e ; a c co rd ingtoE r rando , Ru s s ian shadan“ in fan t i l et emp e ram en t .L ik e ch i ld r en ,th eya r ena iv eandc ru e l .”Ev enth e i rsadpopu la r mu s i cex p r e s s edth econ t rad i c to rycha ra c t e r i s t i c so fth eRu s s ianp sy ch e .128 Th eN o b l eS av ag e :AnOpp o r tun i tyf o rR ed emp t i on A c co rd ingto G e rmanp ropaganda ,th eu l t ima t eob j e c t iv eo fth e Eu r op e anc ru s ad eaga in s tBo l sh ev i sm wa stoban i shth eth r ea to fRu s s i ato Eu rop e . How ev e r ,Span ia rd ss e ldomgav ethough tto wha tth ed e s t iny o fth eSov i e tp eop l e wou ldb eon c e“ l ib e ra t ed ,”a lb e i tw i thaf ewin t e re s t ingex c ep t ion s . Thu s ,th eFa lang i s t Manu e lB enda laa cknow l edg edth euna s sa i lab l e l ega lba s i son wh i chth eTh i rdR e i chcou ldju s t i fyth eapp rop r ia t iono f Sov i e tw ea l th .H eob s e rv edtha tin Ru s s iath e r ew e r eno“ in tang ib l e ind iv idua lr igh t s .”Th e r ew e r eon ly“v i rg ine l em en t stha tinth ehou r o fp ea c e wou ldb ehand edov e rtotho s e whothank stoth e i rw eapon shadca r r i edth eb r ea tho fEu rop etoth ep la c e wh e r eha t r edhad fou r i sh ed .”129 Ru s s ia ,how ev e r ,shou ldno ton lyb e“ sub j e c t edbu ta l so d iv id ed” :th edang e rlayincommun i s tapp rop r ia t iono f“S lav i cm e s130 s ian i sm .” Th eSov i e tr eg im ehadb rough ti t sp eop l eou to fc en tu r i e s o fl e tha rgyandhadadvan c ed“byr e su s c i ta t inga l lth ea tav i sm sand p rom i s ingtha tth eha rdy ,comba t iv ep eop l e so fth es t epp e scou ldba th e in W e s t e rnb lood .” How ev e r ,th ep ea c e fu lco ex i s t en c eo fRu s s ianc iv i l ian sandSpan i shso ld i e r sl edB enda latocon c lud etha ti t wa spo s s ib l e toin co rpo ra t eth eRu s s ianp eop l ein toEu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion . How ?By e conom i csub j e c t ion ,tu t e lag e ,andcon t ro lo fth e i rna tu ra lenv i ronm en t th rougha mu ch mo r eb en igncomb ina t iono fco lon iza t ionandp ro t e c to ra t ethan wha tth eG e rmano c cupy ingau tho r i t i e shadp lann ed .Th i s s e em edto ma t chsom eo fth et en e t so fA l f r edRo s enb e rg : Th ein t e rpo s i t iono re s tab l i shm en to fs t rong Eu rop eanco lon iz ing nuc l e i–a si so c cu r r ing w i thth e Du t ch ,G e rman s ,and Roman ian s–th e po l i t i ca lind ep end en c eo fth eBa l t i cs ta t e s ,o f Uk ra in eand Wh i t eRu s s ia , d i sa rmam en tandabo l i t iono f wa rindu s t r i e s …in t en s if ca t iono fag r i cu ltu r e , wh i ch wou ldn e edl i t t l e mo r ethanth er e e s tab l i shm en to fp r iva t e

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 169 p rop e r ty ,d i r e c tEu rop eanin t e rv en t ioninth eindu s t r i e stob ep r e s e rv ed , 1 3 1 andp e rp e tua lcon c e s s iono fth eo i lw e l l stoEu rop e .

Th i s mo r eo rl e s sf r i end lyco lon i z a t ionr e s t edonanapp r a i s a lo fth e S l av sa sap eop l eno ty e tcom eo fag e ,lo c a t edonth elow e rrungo fc ivi l i z a t ion .Eu rop eshou ldo f f e rth emtu t e l ag eandgu id an c e–som e th ing ak in to th eco lon i z edp eop l e so fA s i aandA f r i c a–w i thnoc l e a r ind i c a t ion o f wh enem an c ip a t ion wou ldo c cu r .Th en a r r a t iv e so fBDso ld i e r sw e r e amp l if edb a ckinSp a in . Dom ingoL agun i l l aind i c a t edinth eF a l ang i s t jou rn a l E lE s p añ o lth a tth eh i s to ryo fth eS l av i cp eop l e sh ada lw ay sb e en f r augh tw i th“ igno r an c eandf an a t i c i sm . ”S l av sw e r es e ena scu l tu r a l ly in f e r io rb e c au s eth eya c t edon“ in tu i t ion ,rou t in e ,andsubm i s s ion , ”th ey b e l i ev edin“o c cu l tpow e r s ”and“v i s ion a ry m e s s i an i cr e l ig ion s . ”132 Ana r t i c l epub l i sh edinth eBDt r en chjou rn a lw en tsof a ra stocons t ru c ta rgum en t ss im i l a rtoth eb io log i c a l -g en e t i ct en e t so fN a t ion a lSo c i a l i sm .Th e“Ru s s i an m a s s e s ”h adl iv edimm e r s edina l coho l i sm ,c r im e , ands exu a ld eg en e r a t ionp r io rtoth eBo l sh ev ikR evo lu t ion .A c co rd ingto “ a l ls c i en t if cl aw so finh e r i t an c e , ”a l coho l i cp a r en t scou ldon lyeng en d e r“d ef c i en tch i ld r en w i thabno rm a lt end en c i e s . ”Commun i sme a s i ly tookroo tinth i sf e r t i l eg roundbu tfu r th e ragg r av a t edth ed eg en e r a t iv e s t a t eo fth eRu s s i anp eop l e“bysp r e ad ingpo rnog r aph i cnov e l sand … th eth eo ryo ff r e elov e . ”Th em a l ign an ttumou r ,“ th eM a rx i s tc anonth a t th r e a t en edtop l a c eEu rop e inth eh and so facong en i t a l lyd e f e c t iv er a c e , ” h adtob eex t i rp a t ed“ th rougha mo r a l i z ingands an i t a ry l abou r . ”133 Som e ev enrh e to r i c a l lyc a l l edfo rex t e rm in a t ion ;l e t t e r sf romSp a inspok eo f “ th eex t in c t iono fth ef a e c a lr a c eo fhum an i ty …th en a t iono fh a t r edand c a r e fu l lyo rg an i z edag a in s t God . ”Ini ron i can a logytoth econqu e r ing o fJ e ru s a l embyth ec ru s ad e r s( 1 0 9 9 ) ,on evo lun t e e rw ro t einS ep t emb e r o f1 9 4 1th a tth eyhop edto m ak eano f f e r ingtoth em emo ryo fF a l ang i s t l e ad e r sk i l l edbyth eR epub l i c an sby“p a s s ingtwohund r edthou s and wom en ,ch i ld r enande ld e r lyund e rth ekn i f e ”a ssoona s Mo s cowf e l l .134 How ev e r ,th i sex t e rm ina t ionrh e to r i c wa sno tth edom inan tton ein th eFa lang i s tp ropagandar ega rd ingth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eB lu eD i v i s ion ’ s mou thp i e c er e ca l l edon12 O c tob e r1943tha tra c eexp r e s s ed “ahom e landba s edf r s tonb lood ,”bu t“a l soon m ix edb lood .”Th e s e d efn edth eH i span i cra c eint e rm so fcu l tu r e ,fa i th ,andex t e rna lp roj e c t ion .L en inandth eJ ew shade ra s ed“wha t ev e ri snob l ein man k ind”f romth eRu s s ianp eop l e ,bu tth eyou tho fth eN ewEu r op e wou ld r e edu ca t eth emandr e tu rnth emto Ch r i s t ianfa i th .Th eyenv i s ion ed Span ia rd st r ea t ingth eRu s s ian sa sth es ix t e en th c en tu ryconqu i s tado r s hadt r ea t ed Am e r i canna t iv e s :o f f e r ingth emb r eadandca r ry ing God 135 in toth e i rhom e s . Th i swa sfo rth emSpa in ’ sr ea ldu ty inRu s s ia ,wh i ch

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t ran s c end edth e mo r ein s ip idimag e so fco lon ia lm i s s ionh e ldbysom e G e rmano ff c ia l s .136 F ewno t i c edtha tth eSov i e tr eg im er e l i edonpa t r io t i smto mob i l iz eth epopu la t ionaga in s tth einvad e r s ,oppo r tun i s t i 137 ca l lyinvok ingth ev e ryp r in c ip l e stha tth eIb e r ian ssough ttor e s to r e . ManySpan i shso ld i e r sr ea c t edtoth eRu s s ianp eop l eina mann e rr es emb l ingtha to fth e i rf e l lowcoun t rym eninA f r i ca .L ik eth eind ig enou s p eop l e so f Gu in eao r No r th e rn Mo ro c co ,Ru s s ian sw e r egood -na tu r ed andindo l en t ,bu tw i thcu s tom sinapp rop r ia t efo rc iv i l iza t ion . Th ey 138 th e r e fo r er equ i r edtu t e lag eino rd e rtoa c c e s si t . Th i sa t t i tud er ep r e s en t edanadap ta t iono fth et rad i t iona l i s tcon c ep to fH i span idadtha t hadb e enco in edinth eea r ly1920 sandid eo log i ca l lycod if edbyth e Ca tho l i cw r i t e r Ram i ro d e Ma ez tuin1934 .H ehad p ro j e c t edSpa in a sac iv i l iz ingemp i r etha thadex t end edth e Ca tho l i cfa i th ,by wh i ch th esub j e c t so fanyra c ecou lda c c e s ssa lva t ion .Inth eo ry ,a l lm en w e r e equa l ;in p ra c t i c e ,th e Ca tho l i co rd e rd iv id edc la s s e sandra c e sin to tho s ei tcon s id e r edcu l tu ra l lyadvan c edo rba ckwa rd .Th eb la ck A f r i can s ,th e“ma s s e so fth eO r i en t ,”andth eJ ew sw e r eamongth ep e rma n en t lyba ckwa rdra c e s .Eu rop eant r ea tm en to fsu chg roup sshou ldb e ba s edon“ cha r i tyandp i e ty .”139 A c co rd ingto mo s tSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,Ru s s ian scou ldb ec onv e r t ed , a sak eytoth e i rco l l e c t iv esa lva t ion .Th i s ma rk edas ign if can td epa r tu r ef romth era c ia l wo r ldv i ewo fth e Naz i sbu t wa sl e s sd i s tan tf rom 140 th eind iv idua lp e r sp e c t iv e so f many G e rman Ca tho l i ccomba tan t s . Th eysub s c r ib edtoth em i s s iontha ts ev e ra lFa lang i s tjou rna l shadimag in edfo rth e“a rm i e so fEu rop e”onSov i e tso i l .Inth i s ,th edom inan t ton ein Ca tho l i c i smr e sona t ed w i thth eG e rmancon s e rva t iv e so fth e 1920 sandth ev i ewo fc e r ta in Naz i ssu cha s Ro s enb e rg , whod i s t in gu i sh edb e tw e enth e Ru s s ianp eop l eandi t sr eg im e .141 R e s to r ingth e Ru s s ian stoc iv i l iza t iona l so m ean tr e s to r ingth emtoCh r i s t ,a s wa sf r equ en t lyexp r e s s edbyth eBD m i l i ta rychap la in s .142 Infa c t ,du r ingth e i rt im einRu s s iaSpan i shso ld i e r spa r t i c ipa t edin lo ca lr e l ig iou sc e r emon i e s ,f romin fan tbap t i sm stofun e ra l s .Ib e r ian fa s c i s t sd idno tcon s id e rth eRu s s ianp eop l ea sab io log i ca l lyin f e r io r ra c e .Incon t ra s tw i th many W eh rma ch tcomba tan t s ,th eSpan ia rd sd id no tcon s id e rr eg en e ra t ionimpo s s ib l e .Th eRu s s ianp eop l ew e r esu s c ept ib l etosp i r i tu a lr ed emp t ion , ma in lyth roughth er e e s tab l i shm en to fr e 143 l ig iona sasub s tan t iv ea sp e c to fth et rad i t iono fth ecoun t ry . AnIdy l l i cRe la t ion sh ip ?The O c cup ie r sandthe O c cup ied A sm en t ion edabov e ,th eimag eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionso ld i e r sa s“good o c cup i e r s”ha sra r e lyb e ensub j e c t edtoc r i t i ca lenqu i ryo rh i s to r i ca l

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qu e s t ion ss im i la rtotho s eadd r e s s edinth eva s th i s to r iog raphyconc e rn ingth econdu c to fAx i st roop sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t .W e r eth eSpan ia rd sanex c ep t iono rju s tava r ia t ioninth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion ?W a s th e i rco l l e c t iv eb ehav iou rd e t e rm in edbyth ecomba tenv i ronm en t ,o r wa si tr e la t edtop r io rindo c t r ina t ion ?144 Naz iG e rmanyemba rk edona W a ro fEx t e rm ina t iona im eda ts eve ra ls egm en t so fth eSov i e tpopu la t ion . Manyo fth egu id e l in e sfo rth e G e rmanso ld i e r sw e r esoonadap t edtoth eSpan i sht roop sa sD i r e c t iv a sp a r al ac ondu c t ad el at r op aenRu s i a, wh i chid en t if edBo l sh ev i sma s “ th e mo ra len emyo fth en ewEu rop e .”Th eba t t l eta rg e t edth e i r“ co r ro s iv eid ea sandr ep r e s en ta t iv e s ,”and“ th efgh tr equ i r e srobu s t ,im pa r t ia la c t ionaga in s ta l lBo l sh ev ike l em en t s ,su cha sag i ta to r s ,sn ip e r s , sabo t eu r s ,o rJ ew s ;andcomp l e t ee l im ina t iono fa l lr e s i s tan c e , wh e th e r a c t iv eo rpa s s iv e .”S im i la r ly ,a“mo s ts ev e r ea t t i tud eandu tmo s tca r e shou ldb eob s e rv ed”towa rd s“a l lm emb e r so fth eR edA rmy ,in c lud ing th ep r i son e r s .”Th eyb rand edth e“A s ianso ld i e r so fth eR edA rmy”a s “ in s c ru tab l e ,in s id iou s ,andin s en s i t iv e ,”andpa r t i cu la r lydang e rou s . Wh enen t i r eun i t sw e r ecap tu r ed ,“ th ecommand e r sshou ldb eimm ed ia t e lys epa ra t edf romth er e s to fth et roop s .” Though mu cho fth e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion wa sr epo r t ed lyan t i commun i s t ,“ th eu tmo s tcau t ionshou ldb eemp loy ed wh ensp eak ingtoth epopu la t ionand wh en add r e s s ing wom en .”Loo t ing wa sfo rb idd en ,bu t“m e r chand i s eo fa l l 145 typ e s …shou ldb ep r e s e rv edandimpound ed .” Th e s eo rd e r sw e r e so f t en edbyth eIn s t ru c c i ónG en e r a l3 .005 ,i s su edbyth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f in Augu s t1941 , wh i chs t ipu la t edtha tth einhab i tan t so fo c cup i edt e r r i to r i e sw e r etob er e sp e c t ed ,r equ i s i t ion shadtob ecomp en sa t ed ,p r i s on e r sw e r etob et r ea t ed w e l l ,andin ju r eden em i e sw e r etor e c e iv eca r e . Sp i e sandsn ip e r sshou ldno tb eex e cu t edons igh tbu td e l iv e r eda l iv eto h igh e rau tho r i t i e sfo rin t e rnm en tinp r i son e rcamp s .146 Th ew a rw a sc e r t a in ly mo r es t a t i candl e s sv i c iou sinth ea r e acov e r ed by A rmy G roup No r th .Th ey w e r er e spon s ib l efo ron ly1 7 . 3 2p e rc en t ( 4 0 5 )o fth e2 , 2 5 3(m in imume s t im a t e )do cum en t edex e cu t ion so fcom m i s s a r s inth ef r s ty e a ro fw a r .B e tw e enO c tob e randD e c emb e r1 9 4 1 ,th e to t a lfgu r ew a s1 0 1 . Th enumb e r sr ap id lyd e c l in edinth ef r s t mon th s o f1 9 4 2 .147 Th e r ei snoemp i r i c a lev id en c etod a t eth a tth e“Comm i s s a r O rd e r ”w a sev e rcommun i c a t edtoth eSp an i sho ff c e r s .I ti sl ik e lyth a t o rd e r sw e r efo l low ed ,andpo l i t i c a lcomm i s s a r sw e r esumm a r i lyt ak en a s id eandsho t .I ti sa l sopo s s ib l eth a tSp an i sho ff c e r s wou ldsp a r eth e i r t roop sf romsu chana c t–a so c cu r r ed inc e r t a inG e rm anun i t s–byo rd e r ingth et r an s f e ro fth ecomm i s s a r stoth eBDh ighcomm and , wh e r eth ey wou ldb eh and edov e rtoth eG e rm an s . How ev e r ,som ed a t asugg e s t s th a tth eSp an i shcomm andando ff c e r sw e r eaw a r eo fth e s e in s t ru c t ion s ,

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b e c au s eth eG e rm an A rmyCo rp s–und e r wh i chth eBDs e rv ed–s en t o rd e r stor ep e a lth eminsp e c if cop e r a t ion s .Fo rin s t an c e ,toen cou r ag e th esu r r end e ro fth eSov i e t un i t ssu r round edinth eV o lkhov po ck e t (M a r ch – Jun e1 9 4 2 ) ,In s t ru c t ion2 0 1 8f rom1 2 M ay1 9 4 2o rd e r edth eu s e o fp rop ag and ap rom i s inggoodt r e a tm en ttowho ev e rsu r r end e r eda rm s . “Th et roop ssh a l lp romp t lyb em ad eaw a r eo fth ef a c tth a t i t i sfo rb idd en toshoo tpo l i t i c a lcomm i s s a r s ,o rtho s e whovo lun t a r i lyjo inou rr ank s . Th e s ecomm i s s a r ssh a l lb esub j e c t edtoth es am et r e a tm en ta sth er e s to f 1 4 8 th ep r i son e r s . ” C l e a r ly ,i t wou ldb es en s e l e s stofo rb idth eex e cu t ion o fcomm i s s a r sun l e s sth i sw a sth eu su a lp r a c t i c e .S im i l a r ly ,in M ay1 9 4 3 th eSp an i shG en e r a lS t a f fr e c e iv edno t if c a t ionf romA rmyCo rp sL ,s t a t ingth a tpo l i t i c a lcomm i s s a rp r i son e r sw e r eo rd e r edto“vo lun t a r i lyo f f e r th em s e lv e sfo remp loym en tin G e rm anl eg ion s , ”a s“ i tw a sev id en tto th eRu s s i anComm andth a tw er e c en t lys topp edshoo t ingRu s s i ancom m i s s a r s wh enth eya r ec ap tu r ed . ”149 T o wha tex t en tcan w eemp i r i ca l lyco r robo ra t eth eb en ignimag eo f th eSpan i sho c cupa t ionpo l i c i e sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ?T ob eg in ,th eG e r man sd idno ta lway sb ehav esod i f f e r en t lyf romth eSpan ia rd s .150 Mo r e ov e r ,th er e la t ion sh ipb e tw e enac iv i l ianpopu la t ionandano c cupy ing a rmyi sa lway scomp l ex ,ev en wh enth elo ca l sdono tsympa th iz ew i th th er eg im eth einvad ingfo r c es e ek stotopp l e .Th en e edtosu rv iv ein ab ru ta l iz edenv i ronm en t mo t iva t ed manyc iv i l ian stofndcommon g roundandavo idop encon f ron ta t ion w i thth einvad e r s .Th i sc r ea t eda d i s t in c t ionb e tw e enth eimp e r sona lo c cupy ingf o r c eandth eind iv idua l o c cup i e r sw i th whomam i cab l er e la t ion sw e r eo f t enfo rm ed .Ev en tua l ly ,so c ia lconv en t ion sb egantoc rumb l e ;f i r t ing w i thth eo c cup i e r s 151 ca r r i edth einh e r en tr i sko fd ev e lop ingas en s eo fc lo s en e s s . Mo r eov e r ,ad e l i ca t eba lan c eex i s t edb e tw e enth eRu s s ianp ea san t s andth eo c cupy inga rmyinth ea r eaen compa s s ingA rmyG roup No r th . W i tha mo r es ta t i c wa rthanin A rmy G roupC en t r eand A rmy G roup Sou th ,th ep ea san t sp rov id edth einvad ingso ld i e r sw i thfoodand hou s ing .Po s t -wa ra c coun t ssugg e s ttha tth ep ea san t sonth eV o lkhov andL en ing radF ron t sha t edth eG e rman sl e s sthanth eRu s s ianco l labo ra to r s ,La tv ian s ,andE s ton ianaux i l ia ryt roop s .W i l l ing lyo ro th e rw i s e , th ev i l lag e mayo r s( s t á r o s t a ,e ld e r s )andlo ca lfam i l i e so f t encoop e ra t ed w i thth eo c cup i e r s .P ea san t s wou ldev enr epo r tth e pa r t i san s who 152 s e iz edth e i rpo s s e s s ion sw i thou tas e condthough t . C o l ou r fu landUnd i s c ip l in edO c cup i e r s Th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ea l r eadyimp l i ca t edinas e r i e so fm ino r in c id en t sinvo lv ingth ep ea san t ry du r ingth e i rf r s t ma r ch onfoo t

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f romEa s t e rnPo landtoth e Ru s s ianF ron t(Augu s t–S ep t emb e r1941 ) . Inr e spon s eto f r s t comp la in t sf romth eG e rmanl ia i son o ff c e r s , Muñoz -G rand e s i s su edaned i c tr em ind ingth eso ld i e r stha t“anya t ta ck top eop l e ,p rop e r ty ,o runau tho r iz edr equ i s i t ion scou ldb econ s id e r ed anin f ra c t iono fth er igh t so fth ep eop l eaga in s td eva s ta t iono rloo t ing” 153 andpun i shab l ebyth eSpan i sh M i l i ta ryCod e . How ev e r , th eb ehav iou ro f th eBDvo lun t e e r sd idno tchang euponent e r ingRu s s iant e r r i to ry .Inla t eS ep t emb e r ,aG e rmanun i tr epo r t edtha t apa s s ing“d iv i s iono fSpan i shso ld i e r s”hadr equ i s i t ion ed l iv e s to ckand 154 ch i ck en sf romlo ca lp ea san t sinth ev i l lag eo fIz i fovo . BDt roop sa r r iv eda tth er ea rgua rds ta t ionin Novo soko l ’n ik ib e tw e en29S ep t emb e r and13 O c tob e r .Th elo ca lG e rman m i l i ta rypo l i c e wa sin e f f e c t iv ein k e ep ingth eSpan i shso ld i e r sf romengag inginloo t ingandin t im idat ion .Th eyd e s t roy edth es ta t iontoob ta inf r ewood ,loo t ed wa r ehou s e s , 155 andr equ i s i t ion edl iv e s to ckandg ra inf romp ea san thou s eho ld s . Th ea r r iva lo fth eSpan ia rd stoth eV o lkhovF ron tc e r ta in lyb egan chao t i ca l ly . Th eylodg ed w i thth elo ca lr e s id en t sinn ea rbyv i l lag e s , d i s rup t ingth erou t in e sth ep ea san tfam i l i e shadb e com ea c cu s tom ed tound e rG e rmanru l e .Th eBD G en e ra lS ta f fo rd e r edtha tb ehav iou r towa rd sth elo ca l sb e“p rud en tandp rop e r ,”avo id ing“ co e r c ionandv i o l en c e. . .a sw e l la sfam i l ia r i ty , wh i chcou ldinv i t ee sp ionag e .”156 How ev e r ,G e rman ssoonb eganr e c e iv ingcomp la in t sf romp ea san t stha tth e Span ia rd sw e r ep lund e r ingfood ,l iv e s to ck ,and wa rmc lo th ing .157 Th ey a l soloo t ed“ exo t i csouv en i r s ,”e sp e c ia l ly O r thodoxi con s .I ti sd i ff cu l t tod i s c e rnhow mu cho f wha tth eso ld i e r stookco r r e spond edtola r c eny , r equ i s i t ion s ,o ro th e rfo rm so fa cqu i s i t iono rba r t e r ing .In Nov emb e r 1942 ,aSpan i shvo lun t e e rd e s c r ib edh i sp e r sona lboo ty :“ Ifoundal i t t l e Ru s s iansu i t ca s e , in wh i chIp lantotak efou rbook sand i con s i fpo s s ib l e …I t ’ sno t mu ch ,andc e r ta in lyno t‘p r e t ty ’–th e r e wa squ i t eth ei con hun ta roundth e s ehou s e sfo rth ef r s tf ewday s–bu tenoughtos t i ra m emo ry .”158 Th eG e rman sa t t r ibu t edsu chb ehav iou rtor e lax edd i s c ip l in e ,m i smanag em en t byi l l t ra in ed NCO s ,th eind i f f e r en c eo fth e BD h igh command , ande sp e c ia l lyth eh i e ra r ch i ca l po s i t ion o fth eD iv i s ion qua r t e rma s t e r , whod i s t r ibu t ed mu chtoth eo ff c e r sandl i t t l etoth e 159 so ld i e r s . Th i sin e ff c i en tp rov i s ion ingsy s t emhadb e enaf ea tu r eo f th eSpan i shA rmys in c eth eco lon ia l wa r so f1895– 8 ,andi tb e cam eev i d en tdu r ingth efoo t ma r chtoRu s s ia .By Nov emb e r1941 ,A rmyG roup No r th wa ss e r iou s lycon s id e r ingr ep la c ingth eBDqua r t e rma s t e rw i th anann ex edd epa r tm en tund e rG e rmancommand .160 Th es i tua t ion may hav el edth ed i s con t en t edSpan i shso ld i e r sto p rov i s ionth em s e lv e s f romth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,a sth e i rG e rmancom rad e shadb e endo ing

174 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 161 fo rw e ek sand mon th s . How ev e r ,v io l en c e wa sno ta lway sn e c e s sa ry . Upona r r iv inga tth ef ron t ,S e rg ean tRamónAbad íad e s c r ib edhowea sy i t wa stoob ta infoodf romth ev i l lag e r s , whomh er ega rd eda sgood savag e s :“w i thal i t t l echo co la t eandsom esw e e t sw ecant r i ckth em in tog iv ingu sm i lkandpo ta to e s…  p robab lyu s ingth esam em e thod s a sCo lumbu sd id wh enh ed i s cov e r edth eAm e r i ca s .”162 Th e r e wa sno t mu chtor equ i s i t ion .Th elo ca lfoods i tua t ioninth e r ea rgua rdo fth eV o lkhovF ron t wa sc r i t i ca lf romO c tob e r1941on .Sub j e c t edto W eh rma ch td emand s ,th ep ea san t shada l r eadyso ld mo s to f th e i rl iv e s to ckanda lmo s tev e ry th ingo fva lu eth eyown ed ,in c lud ing coa t sandboo t s .I t wa sapoo rr eg iontob eg in w i th ;th e r e wa sv e ry l i t t l em e chan iz edag r i cu l tu r e ,andon lyha l fo fth ef e r t i l eland scou ld b efa rm edintha ta r ea .In O c tob e r1941 , many wom en ,ch i ld r en ,and e ld e r lyp eop l eb eganto w i thd rawtoth er ea rgua rdf roma r ea sc lo s eto th ef ron t .On24 O c tob e r ,A rmyG roup No r thcommandd r i lyno t edtha t 163 “ soon e ro rla t e rth e s ep eop l ew i l la l ld i eo fs ta rva t ion .” Th e un ru lycondu c to fth e BDtowa rd sth ep ea san t shada l r eady a la rm edth eG e rmanl ia i sons ta f fbyla t eO c tob e r1941 .Th eyhadcaugh t w indo fth ep e rva s iv ela cko fd i s c ip l in einth er e la t ion sb e tw e enth e Span i shvo lun t e e r sandth ec iv i l ianpopu la t iona sw e l la sth eind i sc r im ina t eandsom e t im e sco e r c iv ep lund e r ingo ffoodandl iv e s to ck . Th e Ru s s ian p ea san t sth em s e lv e sev encomp la in edtoth e Span i sh 164 command . W o r s to fa l l ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r s ’“ la cko fcon t ro lw i th wom en”g en e ra t ed“d i s ta s t e fu ls c en e s”andth eth r ea to fp ropaga t ing v en e r ea ld i s ea s e s .165 Add ingtoth econ t inua lr equ i s i t ion s ,“ rap e sand o th e rnu i san c e stoth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion” mad eth eexa sp e ra t edlo ca l s 166 l e s scoop e ra t iv einth ean t i -pa r t i sanfgh t . Thoughth eBDG en e ra l S ta f fr e co rd edf ewca s e s aga in s tso ld i e r sfo r “d i shon e s t abu s e ,”167 th ecomp la in t sev enr ea ch ed G en e ra lF ran coandth eSpan i sha rmy m in i s t e rin D e c emb e r1941 . Confd en t ia lr epo r t sd e s c r ib edth e“un savou rycha ra c t e r sinth eD iv i s ion , whorob , mu rd e r ,andbu rn wha t ev e r th ey w i sh”a sw e l la sth efa c ttha to ff c e r s“hadto wa t chth et roop s ,to avo idth emr equ i s i t ion ingev e ry th ingth eyfoundinth en e ighbou r ing v i l lag e s ,a sth e s ew e r ef r equ en t ,emba r ra s s ingca s e s .”168 Th ela cko fap p rop r ia t eequ ipm en tfo rsu rv iv ingth ew in t e ragg rava t edth es i tua t ion . Wh enn e c e s sa ry ,th eSpan ia rd s–ando th e r s–tookf e l tboo t s ,ha t s ,and coa t sf romth ep ea san t s ,l eav ingth emd e f en c e l e s saga in s tth ew in t e r 169 co ld . Th ed e layo fth eCh r i s tma sbonu sd i spa t ch edf romSpa in ,and i t ss ca r c i tycompa r edto wha t wa sp rom i s ed ,g en e ra t edadd i t iona ld i s 170 con t en tamongth et roop sinla t eD e c emb e r1941 . A s id ef romth e i rp r e jud i c eaga in s tth eSpan i sh ,th eG e rmanh ighcommandcon c lud edtha tth es t ru c tu ra lcau s eo fBDcondu c ts t emm edf rom

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th eh i e ra r ch i ccu l tu r eo fth eSpan i sh m i l i ta ry .Th ech i e fcommand e ro f th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sa t t r ibu t edth e“b ru ta lcondu c to fth eSpan i sh so ld i e r s”toth ela cko fd i s c ip l in einth eBD ,po in t ingou thow“ th eb e s t foodi sunaba sh ed lyea t enbyth eo ff c e r sa sex t rara t ion s .”InD e c emb e r 1941 ,th ecommand e ro fth e16 thA rmyd emand edf romB e r l intha tth e BDvo lun t e e r sb er e l i ev edo fth e i rdu t i e s ,tok e epth e i rla cko fd i s c ip l in e 171 f romsp r ead ingtoth eG e rmanso ld i e r s . No ton ly w e r eth et roub l e som eso ld i e r sj eopa rd iz ingth eW eh rma ch t ’ sh on ou r , bu tth e i rana r ch i c a c t ion scou lda l sol eadth ec iv i l ianpopu la t iontosuppo r tth epa r t i san s . O fcou r s e ,G e rmanso ld i e r sa l soc r ea t edd i s tu rban c e s ,bu tth e s ew e r e sub j e c tto W eh rma ch td i s c ip l in e .Sy s t ema t i cexp lo i ta t ionand mo r eo r 172 l e s so rgan iz edp lund e r ing wa sd i f f e r en ttoun con t ro l l edr equ i s i t ion s . Th e BDen joy edth ep r iv i l eg eo f no tb e ingsub j e c tto W eh rma ch t m i l i ta ryju s t i c e .Th i st roub l edth eG e rman s ,a sth eycou ldno ta lway s impo s eth e i rd i s c ip l in eonth e i ra l l i e s .In Nov emb e r1941 , wh entwo Span i shso ld i e r sk i l l edth etowne ld e ro f Novgo rod ,th ecu lp r i t sw e r e on lysan c t ion edbyBDcommanda f t e rs ign if can tp r e s su r ef romth e G e rman s .173In D e c emb e r1941 ,th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sb egantof ea r tha tin c e s san tBDp i l lag ing wou ld mak eth ep ea san t sunw i l l ingtoco l 174 labo ra t einr epo r t ings igh t ing so fSov i e tin cu r s ion s . Th r e e mon th s la t e r ,th eA rmy Co rp s Ma r t ia l Cou r texp l i c i t lyind i ca t edtha tth eB lu e D iv i s ion wa sr e spon s ib l efo ra l l ma jo rd i s c ip l in ei s su e sw i th inth e i r ju r i sd i c t ion .A ttha tpo in t ,th eG e rman sd e c id edtoa r r e s tSpan ia rd s caugh tp i l lag ingo rs t ea l ing ,andtoin ca r c e ra t eth emfo rs ev e ra lday s b e fo r ehand ingth emov e rtoBD m i l i ta ryju s t i c e .Th econdu c to fth e vo lun t e e r sa l sol edtor e lax edd i s c ip l in einth eG e rman126 thIn fan t ry D iv i s ion .175 How ev e r ,o th e rG e rmand iv i s ion stha thadl i t t l eo rnocon ta c tw i thth e i rSpan i shcom rad e sw e r ea l soinvo lv edinagg r e s s ionand 176 th em i s t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian s . Th er e l i e fba t ta l ion sa r r iv ingf romSpa inf rom Ma r ch1942onwa rd s w e r enob e t t e rb ehav edthanth e i rp r ed e c e s so r s .Foodth e f t wa scommondu r ingt ra ins top sinPo l i sh ,Ba l t i c ,o rRu s s iant e r r i to ry .F rom D ec emb e r1942on ,th et roop sb egantor e c e iv eb e t t e rfoodra t ion sand w in t e rc lo th ingund e rth ecommando fG en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e s ,and 177 thank stoin c r ea s edsupp l i e sf rom Spa in . Ab e t t e r qua r t e rma s t e r andG e rmanin s i s t en c ea l soh e lp edtoimp rov eda i lyr e la t ion sb e tw e en th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sandth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion . S l e ep ingw i thth eEn emy Th eV o lkhovand L en ing radF ron t sw e r epano rama so fhung e rand d e so la t ion .Som er e co rd sshowtha tth eSpan ia rd sw e r eawa r eo fth e

176 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

t e r r ib l el iv ingcond i t ion sinth eb e s i eg edc i ty ,thank stoth es to r i e so f Sov i e tp r i son e r s .178 M i s e ry wa sth es ta tu squointh er ea rgua rdo fth e o c cup i eda r eaa sw e l l .Inth ev i l lag eo fV y r i t sa ,fo rexamp l e ,th ec iv i l ian mo r ta l i tyra t e in c r ea s ede l ev en fo ld inAp r i l1942 .Cap ta inS e ra f ínPa rdo d e s c r ib ed mon th sla t e rhowch i ld r enand wom en wou ldfgh tov e rth e 179 s c rap sth evo lun t e e r sgav eth em . Wh en Manu e ld eCá rd ena spa s s ed th roughth etowno f Ga t ch ina ,h ed e s c r ib edth e ma lnou r i shm en tw i th c l in i ca lp r e c i s ioninh i s wa rd ia ry : Th e r ea r elo t so fp eop l eonth es t r e e t s. . .o ld ,b ea rd edmu zh i k s,d i r tyand ragg ed ;shabbyo ld wom en w i thfa c e sy e l low edf rom many mon th so f hung e r .P r e t tyyoung wom ennon e th e l e s spoo randd i r ty ;no ta sth ina s th eo ld wom ena sth eycan wo rksom eanda r eb e t t e rsu i t edtofnd ing foodthank stoth e i ryou th . Ba r e foo tu r ch in sw i thha t sonth e i rh ead s bu tsoho r r ib lyth inth e i rl eg slookl ik eth eyb e longtosk e l e ton s …Th e hung e ramongth e s ec iv i l ian si shon e s t lyf r igh t en ing .Th ey mayno tev en su rv iv eth en ex tw in t e r .Io f t ens e em en w i thjuv en i l ef ea tu r e sbu t who looksoho r r ib lyag ed ,pa l edbyav i tam ino s i sandth e i rl eg sswo l l enf rom hung e r . Andth e s eha l f -m ena r eth elu ckyon e s ,th eya r eno tinth ep r i son e rcamp .180

Th ec iv i l ian sw e r esound e r f edtha t ma lnu t r i t ion w eak en edth e i rimmun esy s t em s .Span i sh m i l i ta rysu rg eon sinth eimm ed ia t er ea rgua rd o f t enh e lp edth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion ,bu tth e i rgoodin t en t ion sw e r eno t a lway senough .181InJun e1942 ,Cá rd ena sv i s i t edaho sp i ta lfo rc iv i l ian s andSov i e tp r i son e r sinKo lmovo ,and wha th esawho r r if edh im :“Th e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion …su rv iv edth i sw in t e randnowsu f f e rf romth e mo s taw fu lhung e rand m i s e ry .”Th eho sp i ta lenv i ronm en t wa sf r igh ten ing lyg ru e som e :“Ea chbodyi s mo r eema c ia t edthanth ela s t ;th e i r fa c e s ,hand s ,andf e e tlookl ik eana tom i ca li l lu s t ra t ion s , wh e r eev enth e 182 sma l l e s tt endoncanb es e en .” D e sp i t eth e i rp lund e r ing ,f romth eb eg inn ingo f1942onth eSpani shso ld i e r sw e r eg en e ra l lyam i cab l ew i thth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion .In May1943 ,G en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e sin s t ru c t edth eD iv i s iono ff c e r sto b e wa ryo fso ld i e r so ro ff c e r sl iv ing w i th wom eno rRu s s ianfam i l i e s , bu tth e i rr e spon s e sshow edl i t t l econ c e rnfo rth i si s su e .183 Sov i e tc i t i z en s who wo rk edfo rth eSpan ia rd so f t enp r e s en t edth e i rchao t i co c cup i e r sf romapo s i t iv eang l einth e i rm emo i r s :th eSpan i sh w e r el e s s p r ed i c tab l eandd i s c ip l in edthanth eG e rman s ,bu ta l sol e s sh ea r t l e s s . Th et e s t imonyo fSov i e tco l labo ra to r spo r t ray edBDso ld i e r sa sd evo t ed Ca tho l i c s ,fo rth e mo s t pa r tf r i end ly , whosha r edth e i rra t ion sw i th p ea san tfam i l i e sand w e r eho s t i l etowa rd sth eG e rman s .184

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 177

Fo r manyRu s s ian wom en ,ch i ld r en ,ande ld e r lyp eop l e ,hav ingan o ff c e randh i sa s s i s tan t so rasquad rono fso ld i e r sinth ehou s ecou ld b eal i f e l in efo ren su r ingsu rv iva l ,byg iv ingth e i rfam i lya c c e s stoex t ra ra t ion sandc lo th ing .Two mon th sa f t e rth e i ra r r iva la tth ef ron t ,th e Span ia rd sw e r eg en e ra l ly mo r ew e l com ethanth eG e rman s ,a sth ey d idno tfo r c eth ee ld e r lytoc l ea rroad sandl e tth ep ea san t su s eth e i r l iv e s to ckfo rp lough ing wh enth eg roundthaw ed .Th eIb e r ian so f t en foundinRu s s ianp ea san t wom en“ th efam i ly w ela ck edb e cau s ei t wa s fa raway ,” wh i l eSpan i shlodg e r sw e r es e ena sp ro t e c t ionaga in s tth e g r ea t e rr igou r so fG e rmano c cupa t ion .185 How ev e r ,Span ia rd sa l sob e cam eawa r eo fth em i s e ryth e i r“adop t iv e”fam i l i e ssu f f e r ed .Sa lvado r Zanóna cknow l edg edtha tth ehung ryfam i lyo fth ei z b a wh e r eh i sp la toonl iv eda l sohadtof e edth em : C rabal iv e sw i thh e rsma l l ,d i r ty ,c ry ingbaby ,twov e ryug ly wom en ,and twoo th e rlad so fe igh to rt en , whot ea chu sRu s s ianandea tth ecandyand cho co la t ew esupp ly .Th e s epoo rp eop l el iv easad ,ha r shl i f e ,bu t wh e r e e l s ecanth eygo ?H e r ea tl ea s tth eyhav eaf ewpo ta to e s ,w e l l -h idd enso 1 8 6 tha tw edono ttak eth em .

O chapk ina A .D im i t r i evar em emb e r edth eSpan i shso ld i e r s ’good b ehav iou rtowa rd sth ep ea san tfam i l i e stak ingr e fug einth eO t en sk i i mona s t e ry :“ th ey w e r e mo r ehumanthanth eG e rman s .”187 Span i sho f f c e r sw e r epa r t i cu la r ly w e l com e ,a sth eyb rough tw i thth emb e t t e rsupp l i e s .V a s í lyP . ,ath i r t e en -y ea r -o ldboya tth et im e , wa slu ckyenoughto hav eaSpan i shl i eu t enan tl iv ing w i thh imandh i s mo th e r .Th eo ff c e r sha r edh i sadd i t iona lfoodsupp l i e sw i thh i sho s tfam i ly ,a sd id many BDvo lun t e e r s .188 A c co rd ingtoth elo ca lco l labo ra to rL id ia Ó s ipova ,inPav lov skth e lo ca l s ’f r s timp r e s s iono fth eexo t i co c cup i e r s wa samb iva l en t :in s t ead o fb e ing“p roud ,nob l e ,b eau t i fu l ,”th eSpan ia rd sw e r ev e ryk ind ,bu t “un ru lyl ik e monk ey s ;d i r tysw ind l e r sl ik egyp s i e s .”Th esu c c e s so fth e Ib e r ianvo lun t e e r s wa sno ten t i r e lydu etoth e i rsou th e rncha rm .F rom m id -1942on ,th eyo f t enr e c e iv edpa ckag e sf romSpa incon ta in ingp rodu c t simpo s s ib l etofndinRu s s ia–ev e ry th ingf romch i ckp ea stol iquo r –and wou ldd i s t r ibu t eth e i rsu rp lu samongth elo ca lp eop l e . Na tu ra l ly , th i send ea r edth emtoth ec iv i l ian s , who“hadn ev e rb e enfondo fth e G e rman s .”On17S ep t emb e r ,L id iar e co rd edtha taSpan i shcap ta inhad r i sk edh i sl i f etosav eahom e l e s sch i lddu r ingabomba rdm en t . Onth e down s id e ,th eo rgan iza t iona lchao stha tr e ign edinth eBDr ea rgua rd c r ea t edun c e r ta in tya sto wha t wa sand wa sno ta l low ed . Compa r ed toth eG e rman s ,th eSpan i sho c cup i e r sw e r era th e runp r ed i c tab l e ,bu t

178 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 189 c l ea r lyp r e f e r r edbyth elo ca lpopu la t ion . Th e s t a r o s t ao fAn t rop ch ina v i l lag er epo r t edtoth eG e rmanin fo rma t ions e rv i c e sin Nov emb e r1942 tha tth eSpan ia rd st r ea t edc iv i l ian sfa i r ly w e l l ,andtha tund e rth e i rsu r v e i l lan c eth elo ca l sw e r eno tr equ i r edtodoa s mu chfo r c edlabou r .H e add edtha tth e“moodo fth eRu s s ianpopu la t ionsh i f t s mo r eand mo r e 190 infavou ro fth eSpan i sho c cupa t ion .” Th er equ i s i t ion sd idno tend wh enth eD iv i s ion wa st ran s f e r r ed toth esou th e rnfanko fth es i eg eo fL en ing rad .Th ep ea san t so c ca s iona l lyr epo r t edth e s eev en t stoSpan i sho ff c e r s ,andth efo r c e fu l o c cupa t ionandran sa ck ingo fhom e sbyso ld i e r sl edtos ev e ra lcou r t ma r t ia l s .191 Th eIb e r ian sw e r epa r t i cu la r lyun sy s t ema t i cinp i l lag ing . Th i scau s edt roub l efo rth eG e rmancommand ,a sth ep ea san t sa l so p i l lag edev e ry th ingth eycou ldfnd .192 Th eadv e r s ee f f e c t so fr equ i s i t ion sonth eimag eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionamongth eRu s s ianp ea san t s w e r eno ta lway scomp en sa t edbyequ iva l en ta c t so fk indn e s sf rom o th e rso ld i e r sando ff c e r s .A sw i tho th e rW eh rma ch td iv i s ion s ,exp e r i en c e sva r i edg r ea t lyamongun i t sandv i l lag e s . Wh enCap ta ind e And r é s ’ sd e ta chm en tpa s s edth rough V y r i t sa ,th eyfoundag roupo f fam i sh ede ld e r lyp e r son sandch i ld r en who s ech i ck en shadb e ens to l enbyano th e rSpan i shun i t .T or epa i rth i sd e ed ,d eAnd r é ssa c r if c ed aho r s eandd i s t r ibu t edi tamongth em .S im i la r ly , wh enCap ta inS e r a f ínPa rdoa r r iv eda th i sn ewpo s tonth eL en ing radF ron t ,h etook inas ta rv ing Ru s s ianfam i lyto wo rka saux i l ia r i e sinex chang efo r amp l era t ion s .193

Ug lyPan i enka s,Id e a l i z edKa t iu sha s,andth eCh i ld r en F romth ev e ryb eg inn ingo fth eSpan i sho c cupa t ion ,p l en tyo froman c e s o c cu r r ed b e tw e en d iv i s i on a r i o sandp an i en k a s–th e Po l i sh wo rdfo r “g i r l s”tha tth eIb e r ianvo lun t e e r sa l soapp l i edtoRu s s ian wom en . Num e rou so rd e r sw e r ei s su edf romth eBDG en e ra lS ta f fp roh ib i t ingc lo s e r e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e en Ru s s ianc iv i l ian sandso ld i e r s . Th i sex t end ed to dan c ing , wa lk inga rm in -a rm w i th“Sov i e t wom en ,”anda c c ep t 194 ingth e i rinv i ta t ion s . Th er e i t e ra t iono fth e s ein s t ru c t ion ssp eak so f 195 th e i rin e f f e c t iv en e s s . ManyaSpan i shvo lun t e e r ma in ta in edv i r tua l ly p la ton i cr e la t ion sw i thyoung wom enth eycou ldba r e lycommun i ca t e w i thth roughg e s tu r e s .So ld i e r Rob e r to R iv e ra d e s c r ib edin Augu s t 1942how“Myd ea rl i t t l ef r i endT a t iana(19 y ea r so ld )t r i e stot ea ch m etosp eakRu s s ian. . .Ihav eon lyl ea rn edtosay j o r a s ó=p r e t tyand 196 l in b l in=Ilov eyou .” Span i shso ld i e r spo r t ray edth em s e lv e sa ssu r round edbydo t ing wom en who wa sh edth e i rc lo th e s“b e cau s eIg iv e th emsw e e t sinex chang e .”

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 179

F ig .5 .3 .Span i shso ld i e r sr ead ingspo r t si l lu s t ra t edp r e s s ,1943(AGA )

Thoughga l lan t ry w i thRu s s ian wom en wa s mo r ein t en s eonth eL en197 ing radF ron tthanth eV o lkhovF ron t , ma t ch e sb e tw e enth eo c cupy ing so ld i e r sandRu s s ian wom en w e r ep lau s ib l einth esha r edl iv ingcond i t ion stha tp r eva i l edinbo tha r ea s .Th i s wa sno tl im i t edtoth eSpan ia rd s 198 e i th e r ;ev enth esuppo s ed lyco ld G e rman sfan c i ed Ru s s ian g i r l s . Span i shroman c e sw i thlo ca l wom ensom e t im e send edupinunautho r iz ed w edd ing s ,andby m id -1942th es i tua t ion wa ss canda l iz ingth e OKH .Th eBDcommandd e c id edno ttoo ff c ia l lyr e cogn iz eany ma rr iag e sb e tw e eni t sso ld i e r sandRu s s ian wom en ,fo rb idd ingth emf rom a c company ingr e tu rn ingso ld i e r stoSpa in .199 How ev e r ,som eo fth e s e ma r r iag e ss e rv edtoh id ead i f f e r en ttyp eo fr e la t ion sh ip .Fo rexamp l e , Co lon e l Rob l e sPazo so rd e r edh i s Ru s s ianlov e rto ma r ryon eo fth e D iv i s ion ’ sRu s s ianin t e rp r e t e r ssoh ecou ldb r ingh e rba cktoSpa in .200 Thoughsom e ma r r iag e so c cu r r ed ,i ts e em stha tv e ryf ews in c e r er ela t ion sh ip sem e rg edou to fth e s ec i r cum s tan c e s .Fo ras ta r t ,th e Ru s s ian wom en w e r equ i t er emov edf romth ef em in in eid ea lh e ldbyth e

180 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Span ia rd s ,e sp e c ia l lytho s ef rom m idd l e c la s sba ckg round s .Ev en wh en th eycou ldfndRu s s ian wom en w i thu rbanhab i t s ,s im i la rf e e l ing ssu r 201 fa c ed . L e t t e r sandd ia r i e spo r t ray ed Ru s s iancoun t ryg i r l sa sd i r ty , unk emp tf ema l e s whola ck edso c ia lg ra c e s ,w e r eag edby wo rkand hung e r ,d r e s s edinrag s ,andd idno ta lway sr e sp e c tt rad i t iona l mo ra l s .202 S e rg ean t Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rno t edth e wan to fs i lks to ck ing sand d e l i ca cyinfo rmandd r e s samongth ef r s tRu s s ianp ea san tg i r l sh esaw . H er ema rk edtha tth eyhad“nof em in in i ty”and“man ly” mann e r s .203 Ano th e rvo lun t e e rev en w ro t etha t“ th e woman ,inRu s s ia. . .la ck sth e mo s texqu i s i t es en s e :f em in in i ty .Sh ei sab ea r who wo rk sth ef e ld s .”204 Th ed i s tan c eb e tw e enRu s s ianp ea san t wom enanda e s th e t i cid ea l s con c e rn ingSpan i sh wom en wa sa l soin t e rp r e t eda son e mo r eexam p l eo fSov i e tba rba r i sm , wh i chhadsuppo s ed lys t r ipp ed wom eno fa l l f em in in eand mo ra lcon t en tino rd e rtofa c i l i ta t eth ed e s t ru c t iono ft ra d i t iona lfam i lyt i e s .Th e i rla cko fhyg i en ea l sof tw i thth epu rpo r t ed d i r t in e s so fth eRu s s iancon t ex t .A r ena l e sno t edtha ton lys choo lm i st r e s s e s“ s e emto wa sh , wh i chi sun common .”Th ep s eudo -A s ianphy s i ca lf ea tu r e sh esawinth emd idno tcon t r ibu t etoth e i rb eau ty :“ s lan t ed 205 ey e stha ts e emsunk endu etoexagg e ra t edch e ekbon e s .” No tev e ry th ingqua l if eda sth einno c en tlov etha t wa sla t e rpub206 l i sh edinth em emo i r so fSpan i shv e t e ran s . O f t en ,th eob j e c t iv e wa s m e r es exua len t e r ta inm en tw i th p ea san t wom en , who w e r es e ena s p r im i t iv e stha tm igh t la ck mo ra l sand w e l com ep rom i s cu i ty .InO c tob e r 1941 ,s ev e ra lSpan i shso ld i e r sen t e r edahou s einPodb e r ez ’ e ,look ing fo ras e rg ean tandaco rpo ra l who w e r em i s s ingf romth e i run i t .Th e r e th eysawth e i rcom rad e shav ingin t e r cou r s ew i th( rap ing ? )som elo ca l g i r l sw i thpu rpo r t ed lyA s ianf ea tu r e sinad i r tyenv i ronm en t : Th e r ew e r etworoom s. . .andth eysm e l l edd i sgu s t ing ;inon ew e r eth e “pa r en t s”andth e“ ch i ld r en”o fth ef emm e sf a t a l e s ,no ta ta l lcon c e rn ed w i thth esh r i ek so rw i th wha tth e i rdaugh t e r so rs i s t e r sw e r edo ing …and inth eo th e r ,unb e l i evab ly ,non eo th e rthanth es e rg ean tandth eco rpo ra l , ta lk ingl i t t l eanddo ing mu ch ,w i thtwoSpan ia rd sandtwo G e rman ss i t t ingth e r ed r ink ingands ing ingand“adm i r ing”th eRu s s ianb eau t i e s .Y ou shou ldhav es e enth em !Ande sp e c ia l ly– wha taf r igh t–twoo fth em w e r e sho r t ,s tou t ,w i ths lan t edey e s , mongo lo idl ip s ,andr epugnan ta rm s… on e wa sm i s s ingha l fano s eandha l fo fh e rfa c e wa sbu rn ed ,andth eo th e r k ep tfa r t ingso mu chtha ti ttu rn ed mys toma ch. . .207

B la tan tp ro s t i tu t iona l soo c cu r r ed . On et ea ch e rf romSamokhva lovo , fnd ingsh ecou ldno long e rg iv e l e s son s ,suppo r t edh e r s e l fandth ech i ld r enby“ s e l l ingh e r s e l fa sap ro s t i tu t etoth eSpan ia rd s whoo c cup i ed

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 181 208 th es choo lcomp l ex .” Som ed ia r i e ssugg e s ttha to th e rp an i en k a so f f e r edth e i rcha rm sinex chang efo rfood ,andr e la t ion sh ip scou lda l so b lo s somf romsu chen coun t e r s , wh i ch w e r eev enp romo t edbyp ea san t mo th e r sfo rth esak eo fth e i rdaugh t e r s , whonow w e r e“p ro t e c t ed”and 209 f edbySpan i shso ld i e r s . N ea rS i tno ,aso ld i e rv i s i t ed“ som ep an i enk a stha tI wa sto ld w e r equ i t en i c elook ing .Th eylaugh edand‘w ehad fun . ’” H ev i s i t edon eo fth ems ev e ra l mo r eday s . Wh enh i sun i t wa s 210 fo r c edto w i thd raw ,sh ea sk edinva intha th etak eh e rw i thh im . An ton io H e r r e ro w ro t einAp r i l1943tha ta f t e ra t t end ingaCa tho l i c Ma s s ,h etookpa r tina“magn if c en tbanqu e tfo l low edbyafundan c e w i thth elo ca lg i r l s .”Ev en ingpa r t i e sw e r ecommoninsp r ingandsumm e r ,o f t eninf ron to fan O r thodoxchu r chtha thadb e enr eop en ed .211 How ev e r ,som et e s t imon i e ssugg e s ttha t manyo fth e s ef e t e sw e r eo rgan iz edbyth eG e rmanK omm and a tu r en, wh i chr e c ru i t edlo ca l wom en w i thfood . On eRu s s ianin t e rp r e t e rr ev ea l edtha th i s ma indu t i e sinvo lv edt rav e l l inginth er ea rgua rds e ek ingg i r l sfo rth eo ff c e r s ’pa r212 t i e s . R e la t ion sw i thRu s s ian wom enimp l i eda m ixo fs edu c t ionand d i s t ru s t ,a sth ey m igh tb eco l labo ra t inga sd e coy sfo rapa r t i sanambu sha tth epa r ty .213 Th eda i lyd i spu t e sb e tw e en G e rmanandSpan i sh so ld i e r so f t enr evo lv eda round wom en . An ton ina Davy ch enko w ro t e o faf s tfgh ttha to c cu r r ed wh enSpan i shso ld i e r sp ro t e c t edaRu s s ian womanf romth eha ra s sm en t so fG e rmanso ld i e r s .L id ia Ó s ipovaind i ca t edtha t wh enth ed iv i s i on a r i o sa r r iv edinPav lov sk ,“a l lth eloo s e wom en who w e r ew i thth eG e rman simm ed ia t e ly w en ttob ew i th th eSpan ia rd s ,”a t t ra c t edbyth e i rLa t inna tu r e…andb e t t e rfoodra 214 t ion s . How ev e r ,Evdok i iaBoga ch eva -Ba skakova ,af ema l esu rg eon f romth esam ea r ea ,w ro t e downinh e r unpub l i sh ed wa rm emo i r s tha t“aSpan i shso ld i e ri sju s tth esam erap i s tl ik ea G e rmanon e ,w i th th ed i f f e r en c etha t wh enav i c t impu t sev enth es l igh t e s tr e s i s tan c e ,a Span ia rd wou ldabandonh e rw i thou thu r t ingh e r .” Onth econ t ra ry , th eG e rmanso ld i e r“ i sady ed in th e -woo lrap i s t–i fh ecaugh th i s p r ey ,h e wou ldn ev e rl e th e rgo ,anda t e rth ed e edh e wou lds imp ly shoo th e r .” Wha t wa sth eexp lana t ionfo rsu chb ehav iou r ?A c co rd ing toh e r ,i t wa sno ta ma t t e ro f“La t in”v e r su s“G e rman i c”cha ra c t e r ,bu t th econ s equ en c eo fm i l i ta ryd i s c ip l in e . Wh i l eth eG e rmanso ld i e r wa s a f ra ido fth em i l i ta rycou r tandp r e f e r r edtol eav enot ra c e so fh i srap e , “ th eSpan i sha rmyi sv e ryd i s so lu t e ,andth eSpan i shso ld i e rha sno 215 f ea ro fth ep eop l eabov eh im .” Infa c t ,th eSpan i sh D iv i s iona l socou r t -ma r t ia l l edsom eo fi t sm em b e r s oncha rg e so floo t ingandrap e .N ev e r th e l e s s ,som eexamp l e s sugg e s ttha tth eyra r e lyend edinha r shconv i c t ion s . On7 Ap r i l1942 , acou r t ma r t ia l wa scondu c t edaga in s tS e rg e iPonoma r iov ,a Ru s s ian

182 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

in t e rp r e t e rfo rth eBDandafo rm e r Wh i t eRu s s ianex i l e ,fo r“ana l l eg ed c r im eaga in s tin t e rna t iona llaw”tha thado c cu r r edinJanua ry1942 .A c co rd ingtoth ejud i c ia lr e co rd ,th ein t e rp r e t e ro rgan iz ed“ th ep rov i s ion o ffoodandsupp l i e s”fo rh i sr eg im en tinth ev i l lag eo f Ch e chu l ino . V e raKo r i chava ,w i f eo fth efo rm e rlo ca lh eado fth eCommun i s tPa r ty , wa s“ su sp e c t ed o fh id ing w eapon s .” Th e hou s e wa ss ea r ch edand Ponoma r iov wa scha rg ed w i thhav ings exua l lyabu s edh e rands to l en ob j e c t sand mon ey ,a c co rd ingtoth es ta t em en t so fs ev e ra lRu s s ian w i tn e s s e s . How ev e r ,th ed e f endan t wa sa cqu i t t edb e cau s eth eso ld i e r sand th elo ca ls t a r o s t a–r e c en t lyappo in t edbyPonoma r iovh im s e l f– who w e r ew i thh imt e s t if edtha tth eyhadno tw i tn e s s edanyrap e ,th e f t ,o r abu s e . Mo r eov e r ,th eya l l eg edtha tth et e s t imon i e scam ef rom“Ru s s ian c iv i l ian s who s efam i ly m emb e r sa r een l i s t edinth eR ed A rmy ,”and th echa rg e sw e r eundoub t ed lyin t end edto“d i s c r ed i tth eo c cupa t ion .” Ponoma r iov wa ss en t en c edtoth r e e mon th sinth ep ena lba t ta l ionfo r hav ingex c e ed edo rd e r s ,“n e ed l e s s lyha ra s s ingth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion , wh i chth eyth r ea t en ed .”216 U l t ima t e ly ,Ru s s ianc iv i l ian sd idno tb en ef t f romth em i l i ta rylawimpo s edbyth eo c cup i e r s , wh i chin c lud edth e Span ia rd s . Ch i ld r encon s t i tu t eav e ryd i f f e r en tchap t e r in th eBDna r ra t iv e ,a s th e i r inno c en c ecou ldea s i lysymbo l iz eandr e in fo r c eth er e -Ch r i s t ian iz ing m i s s ionSpan ia rd sa t t r ibu t edtoth em s e lv e s .217 Manyvo lun t e e r ssaw th em s e lv e sa sp ro t e c to r so fch i ld r enandgav eth emt r ea t sandfood . Y oungon e sw e r esom e t im e staugh ttop rayo rsp eakaf ew wo rd sin Span i sh .218 Compa s s ionfo rth ech i ld r eninth e i rm i s e ryshow edupin wa rd ia r i e s . Ma r t ínV e la s co w ro t eo fth ehung e rinV i t eb sk : Fou rRu s s ianch i ld r enn ea rm ea r eho ld inginth e i rl i t t l ehand sag r ea sy pap e rw i thlambbon e sf romou rm e s s , wh i chth ecook sgav eth em .I ti s p i t i fu landsadtos e ehowth e s ech i ld r engnawa tbon e sw i tha lmo s tno m ea tonth emandlooka tm ew i thsma l lsadey e s ,say ing g ou t[ s i c ] , wh i ch 2 1 9 inG e rman m ean s“good .”

ManySpan i shv e t e ran sd e s c r ib edhav ingnou r i sh edandp ro t e c t ednat iv ech i ld r ena sth e i rb e s tm emo ryo fRu s s ia .La t e ra c coun t so fe ld e r ly p ea san t sf romth e Novgo roda r eaco r robo ra t eth i s . Un l ik eth eG e rman s ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eo f t ensu r round edbych i ld r en .220 Many o fth e s em a l en k i s w e r e wa ro rphan s whosom e t im e sfo rm edband stha t wand e r edabou tth er ea rgua rd ,s ea r ch ingfo rfoodo rsh e l t e r ,b egg ingo r 221 engag ing inp e t tyth e f t . BDso ld i e r sando ff c e r sf r equ en t lysuppo r t ed o rphan so rth ech i ld r eno fw idow s ,a l thoughs exua lfavou r sf romth e mo th e r ssom e t im e sw e r eimp l i c i t lya cknow l edg eda sth ep r i c efo rsu ch

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p ro t e c t ion .222 D e sp i t eth eF ran cor eg im e ’ sz ea ltoavo idinf l t ra t ionby Sov i e tsp i e s ,s ev e ra ldo cum en t edca s e st e l lo fRu s s ianch i ld r enandado l e s c en t sh id ingin wagon so rd r e s s inga sSpan i shso ld i e r sandb e ing tak entoSpa inbyBDso ld i e r sando ff c e r s , whoth enin co rpo ra t edth em 223 in toth e i rfam i l i e s . Th i sa l socon s t i tu t edac l ea rd iv e rg en c ef romth e a t t i tud e so f mo s tG e rmanso ld i e r s . D e a l ingw i thP a r t i s an s :B en ev o l en c eo rIn e ff c a cy? An t i -gu e r r i l laop e ra t ion sa r eamongth etho rn i e s ti s su e sinth em emo i r so fBDv e t e ran s .Thoughpa r t i san sw e r er e spon s ib l efo rnum e rou s BDca sua l t i e s ,bu rn t Ru s s ianv i l lag e sandhang edp ea san t sa r eg en224 e ra l lyr e ca l l eda sth e wo rko fth e i rG e rmana l l i e sinth em emo i r s . Du r ingth e ma r chth rougho c cup i edt e r r i to r i e s ,m emb e r so fth ef r s t Span i shexp ed i t ion w i tn e s s ed G e rmanr ep r i sa l saga in s tpa r t i san so r su sp e c t s .Inth e i rd ia r i e s ,s ev e ra lBD m emb e r sw ro t eo fs e e ingpa r t i 225 san s–andc iv i l ian sa c cu s edo fco l labo ra t ing w i thth em–b e ingsho t . Th eya l sosawp l en tyo fpa r t i san shungintownsqua r e s .Som eequa t ed th em w i thJ ew s ,ba s edonacha ra c t e r i s t i cs logano fW eh rma ch tp ropa ganda .226 Th e s es c en e s mu l t ip l i edp ropo r t iona l ly wh enSpan i shvo lun t e e r sr ea ch edth eV o lkhovF ron t .V í c to rJ .J im én ezd e s c r ib edhowh i s l i t e ra rya l t e rego wa so rd e r edbyth eG e rman stoex e cu t etwopa r t i san 227 command e r sth ev e rydayh ea r r iv eda tth ef ron tl in e . Th eBDIn fo rma t ionS e c t ionin t e r roga t eddoz en so fp r i son e r stoid en t i fypo l i t i ca l comm i s sa r sandpo s s ib l epa r t i san s .Th ey w e r eth entak entoth eG e r manA rmyCo rp sh eadqua r t e r sand mo s tl ik e lysho t .228 Th eSpan i sh D iv i s ionhadv e ryf ewF e ldg end a rm en whocou ldtak e cha rg eo fcoun t e r in su rg en cy .Th et e r r i to rycov e r edbyth eSpan ia rd s onth eV o lkhovF ron t wa ss imp lytoob roadtob ee f f e c t iv e ly wa t ch ed , andth ela cko fspa t ia lp en e t ra t ioninth eBDo c cupa t ion m ean ttha tva s t fo r e s ta r ea sandr emo t ev i l lag e sw e r eno te f f e c t iv e lycon t ro l l edbyth e invad e r s .Th eSpan i shso ld i e r sp e r c e iv edpa r t i sandang e ra sad i f fu s e , omn ip r e s en tth r ea t ,l ik e“gho s t s” who popu la t edth ed en s efo r e s t s : “W eh ea rn ew so fb e t raya l s ,ambu sh e s ,andth enr ep r i sa l s .I t i scommon tos e esom eon ef romth etown sonth ebank so fth eV o lkhovhang ing 229 f romab eamo rt e l ephon epo s t .” Byea r ly1942n ea r lytw en tythou sandSov i e tpa r t i san sop e ra t edinth er ea rgua rdo fA rmy G roup No r th and w e r epa r t i cu la r lyabundan tinth e Novgo rodr eg ion . How ev e r ,th e l ev e lo fpa r t i sana c t iv i ty wa s mod e ra t e ,compa r edto Wh i t eRu s s iao r Uk ra in e .230 Th ecommando fth eA rmyG roup No r thr ea rgua rdapp l i ed l e s sagg r e s s iv em ea su r e stocomba tpa r t i san sandu s edp ropagandato en cou rag ep ea san tcoop e ra t iono rth esu r r end e ro fgu e r r i l la m emb e r s .

184 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

R ep r i sa l sandf r ingsquad sin t en s if eda f t e rm id -1942 ,bu tth ebu lko f pa r t i sana c t iv i tyo c cu r r edinth efa rr ea rgua rd , wh e r enoSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ed ep loy ed .231 In O c tob e r1941 ,in s t ru c t ion sf romth eBD H igh Commandr e com m end edtha ti f“anyind iv idua l so fth eoppo s inga rmy ,ini so la t iono r ing roup s ,” w e r ecaugh t“ ca r ry ingou ta c t so fsabo tag esu cha sb low ing upb r idg e s ,a s sau l t ingv eh i c l e so rlodg ing s ,o rca r ry ingou tgu e r r i l la wa r fa r ed r e s s eda sc iv i l ian s ,”th eo ff c e r sincha rg ew e r eau tho r iz edto do“wha t ev e rn e ed stob edon ew i thth e s eind iv idua l s ,d ep end ingon th eta c t i ca ls i tua t ion .”E l ev enday s la t e r ,n ew in s t ru c t ion s ind i ca t edtha t inl igh to fth ein c r ea s ingin t en s i tyo fgu e r r i l laa c t iv i ty ,s e c to rch i e f sand o ff c e r s whocaugh tpa r t i san sshou lda s sum egu i l tandno ts e ekcon c lus iv eev id en c e , wh i ch m igh thav eb e end e s t roy ed w i thth e“ comp l i c i ty o fth elo ca l s .” O ff c e r s mu s tno tb e“ l en i en tg iv enth een su ingth r ea tto th es e cu r i tyo fth ea r eaen t ru s t edtou s .”Su sp i c iou sind iv idua l sshou ld b ehand edov e rtoth ec lo s e s tG e rmancommandand“ sn ip e r s”shou ld b ein t e r roga t ed ,th enhang edinapub l i cp la c eandl e f tth e r efo rs ev e ra l day sa sa wa rn ing .232 Th egu id e l in e sw e r eso f t en edin m id -1942 ,w i thin s t ru c t ion stha tpa rt i san s whosu r r end e r edb eg iv enth esam et r ea tm en ta sR edA rmyd e s e r t e r s .Inth eo ry ,Span ia rd sw e r etot ran s f e ra l lpun i shab l eca s e s ,and summa ryp ro c edu r e saga in s tp r i son e r so f wa rw e r etob eca r r i edou tby th ec lo s e s tG e rman m i l i ta ryau tho r i t i e s .Th ef ewt e s t imon i e stha tm en t ionr e ta l ia to ryop e ra t ion s ind i ca t etha t lo ca l sw e r ea lway shand edov e r toth eG e rman s , whoa l soca r r i edou t ma s s iv er ep r i sa l sintown s wh e r e s en t r i e shadb e en mu rd e r ed .Th e r ei sev id en c etha tSpan i shso ld i e r s c ed ede s cap edp r i son e r stoth ecomp e t en tau tho r i t i e sinth e16 thand 233 18 thA rm i e s . How ev e r ,onsom eo c ca s ion sSpan i sh F e ldg end a rm en un d e r tookth e i rownr ep r i sa l s ,su cha s wh enaSpan i shan t i -pa r t i sanun i t l edby Cap ta in Ma r t ín ezd eTud e lalo ca t edand mu rd e r eds ev e ra lSo v i e tso ld i e r sa sth eya t t emp t edtor e tu rntoth e i rt e r r i to ryinla t e1941 .234 Inea r ly1942 ,th eG e rmancommand d e c id edtor e l i ev eth eB lu e D iv i s iono fa l ls en t rydu t i e sinth en ea rr ea rgua rd ,pa r t lyb e cau s eth e Span ia rd shadtocov e rav e ryb roads e c t iono fth ef ron t .235 Wh e r eth ey w e r er e spon s ib l efo rth e s edu t i e s ,ev id en c esugg e s t stha tcon t ro lo fth e c iv i l ianpopu la t ion wa sl e s ss ev e r ethan w i thth eG e rman“ s e cu r i tyd i v i s ion s”and“p ro t e c t iont eam s”(S i ch e rung sd iv i s i on en andS chu t zm anns ch a f t en ) tha top e ra t ed in th er ea r .Th eIb e r ianp ra c t i c e sw e r er em in i s c en t o ftho s eu s edinth efo rm e rco lon ia l wa r s ,ra th e rthanth eb ru ta l iz ed “ to ta l i ta r iancoun t e r in su rg en c e” m e thod so fth eW eh rma ch t .236 A sin th eG e rman -o c cup i eda r ea s ,th eRu s s ianv i l lag e r sw e r eg en e ra l ly w i l l ingtoco l labo ra t e ; many p ea san t sthough ttha tco l l e c t iv iza t ion had

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end edandexp e c t edtor e cov e rth e i rland .Fo rm e rT sa r i s to ff c ia l sa l so d enoun c edCommun i s tPa r ty m emb e r s whohadno ty e tf edto“R ed” 237 t e r r i to ry . Span i she ff ca cyinth ean t i -pa r t i sanfgh t wa sa l sodub iou s ; th e i reva cua t ion so fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ionf romtown sw e r eo f t encha o t i c ,w i thou t“any m i l i ta rysup e rv i s ion wha t so ev e r .”Th i sm igh tfa c i li ta t eSov i e te sp ionag eandfavou rth epa r t i san s .InJu ly1943 ,ca s e so f Span i shso ld i e r slo s ingth e i rw eapon sto Ru s s ianc iv i l ian sp romp t ed th eLA rmyCo rp scommandtor e comm endtha tth eSpan ia rd sex e r c i s e 238 s t r i c t e rcon t ro lov e rth epopu la t ion . In May1943 ,in c r ea s edpa r t i sana c t iv i tyl edth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s commandtoinvo lv eth ed iv i s ion sonth ef ron tinth ep e r s e cu t iono f pa r t i san sop e ra t inginth e i rr e sp e c t iv er ea rgua rd s .Thu s ,th eSpan ia rd s w e r er equ i r edto wo rk w i thd e ta chm en t so faux i l ia ryRu s s ianandBa lt i ct roop s .Som et e s t imon i e sco r robo ra t etha tth e BDcommandhad g iv eno rd e r stoth e i run i t stoex e cu t eanycap tu r edpa r t i san sons i t e .In O c tob e r ,LA rmyCo rp sin s t ru c t edtha tr ep r i sa l sb eca r r i edou taga in s t lo ca lc iv i l ian s wh e r ev e rW eh rma ch tso ld i e r shadb e ena t ta ck ed . How ev e r ,Span i she ff ca cyincon t ro l l ingpa r t i san sandc iv i l ian sa c t inga s in fo rman t sd idno timp rov e . On18Ju ly1943 ,th eB lu eD iv i s ionh ead qua r t e r sinPok rov sko esu f f e r edap r e c i s eSov i e ta r t i l l e rya t ta ckdu eto in fo rma t ionp rov id edbysp i e sinf l t ra t edamongRu s s iana s s i s tan t sto 239 th eBD . Fou r mon th sla t e r ,th eG e rmancommandl ea rn edo fth ep r e s en c eo fag roupo fpa r t i san stoth esou tho fN iko law jaandr equ e s t edth e a s s i s tan c eo ftwohund r edBDso ld i e r sto“ c l ean s e”th ea r ea . How ev e r , th eop e ra t ionfa i l edfo rla cko fe ff c i en cyamongth eSpan ia rd s .G e rman o ff c e r sb lam edth ebo t ch edop e ra t iononth e i ra l l i e s ’ind i s c r e t ion sw i th 240 th e i rRu s s iana id e s , whoth enpa s s edonth ein fo rma t iontopa r t i san s . F ewBDin t e rna lr epo r t sm en t ionexp l i c i tan t i -pa r t i sana c t ion s ,bu t 241 th eex c ep t ion sshowtha tth eyd ido c cu r . Span i sht e s t imon i e sdono t a lway sc la r i fy whosho tth epa r t i san sandp rov id ef ewd e ta i l sr ega rdingr ep r i sa l s .S ev e ra lBDd e s e r t e r sin t e r roga t edbyth eR edA rmya tth e endo f1942adm i t t edh ea r ings to r i e so fr ep r i sa l saga in s tpa r t i san sf rom 242 th e i rG e rmancom rad e sbu tsa idth eyhadn ev e ra c tua l lys e enany . O th e rt e s t imon i e sa l lud eto G e rmanso ld i e r s“fn i sh ingo f f”in ju r ed pa r t i san sandp r i son e r s . How ev e r ,th eG e rman sd idno ta c ta lon e :som e BD m emb e r ss ta t edtha tth ey w e r eo rd e r edtoex e cu t etho s e whohad b e ena r r e s t edandsumma r i lyt r i ed .243 Th ep e r sp e c t iv eo fth e Ru s s ianc iv i l ian ssugg e s t ssom e th ings imi la r .Span i shso ld i e r so c ca s iona l lyca r r i edou tr ep r i sa l saga in s tc iv i l ian s wh enb l ind edbyad e s i r etoav eng eth ed ea tho facom rad e .L id ia N iko la évnawa se l ev enwh enh e rv i l lag eo fRogavka , lo ca t ed inth er ea rgua rd ,b e cam eth er e s id en c eo fs ev e ra ld e ta chm en t so fSpan i shso ld i e r s

186 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .5 .4 .Conva l e s c en tSpan i shso ld i e r s ,Kön ig sb e rg ,1942(AA )

who w e r er e s t ingf romcomba tinea r ly D e c emb e r1941 .Pa r t i sana c244 t iv i tyimm ed ia t e lyin c r ea s ed ,invo lv ings ev e ra lSpan i shv i c t im s . Th e Ru s s iang i r lw i tn e s s edhowsom eang rySpan ia rd sround edupa l lth e inhab i tan t sf romth etownandsu r round inga r eatotak er ev eng eand hangapa r t i sanfgh t e r .I t wa sth elo ca lG e rmancommand e r whoin t e rv en edtos topg r ea t e rr ep r i sa l s ,a sth eW eh rma ch tn e ed edth ec iv i l ian s 245 fo rlabou r . Th eBDr ea rgua rd wa snob l i s s fu lA r cad ia . How ev e r ,i t wa sn ev e rcha ra c t e r iz edbyco l l e c t iv er ep r i sa l sandru th l e s sb ru ta l i ty . TheSpan i sh D iv i s ionandthe“ Jew i sh Que s t ion” A sth ey ma r ch edonfoo tth roughEa s t e rnPo land ,th ef r s tcon t ing en t o fSpan i shvo lun t e e r ssaw wha tth eJ ew i shinhab i tan t so fth ea r ea w e r e exp e r i en c ing . Span i sh m i l i ta ry ho sp i ta l sw e r e op e ra t ingin V i ln iu s andR iga wh enth elo ca lJ ew i shcommun i t i e sw e r ed epo r t edandth e i r gh e t to sf l l ed w i thJ ew i shfam i l i e sf rom G e rmany ,th rough m id -1942 . Span i shso ld i e r sinth er ea rgua rdo fth eR e i cha l sohadoppo r tun i tyto

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w i tn e s sth ee f f e c t so f Naz ian t i -S em i t i cpo l i c i e s .L e t t e r sand wa rd iar i e so fB lu eD iv i s ion m emb e r sr ef e c t edth i sr ea l i tytoac e r ta inex t en t , thoughp e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew sr ema in edatabootop i cand wa sra r e ly r e f e r r edtoop en lyinth ew r i t t ent e s t imon i e so fth e i rG e rmancom rad e s 246 f romtha tt im e . Wha t wa sth er ea c t iono fSpan i shvo lun t e e r stoth e G e rmanp e r s e cu t ion ,d i s c r im ina t ion ,d epo r ta t ion ,andex t e rm ina t iono f J ew s ? Wha td idth eBDvo lun t e e r ss e e ,andhowd idth eyin t e rp r e ti tin l igh to fth e i r wo r ldv i ew ,p r e jud i c e s ,andpa s texp e r i en c e s ? An t i -S em i t i smw i th ou tJ ew s Span i shfa s c i smsha r edtosom eex t en tth eg en e r i c ,an t i -S em i t i cp ropagandaob j e c t iv e so fo th e rEu rop eanin t e rwa rfa s c i s t mov em en t s .Th e s e a im sw e r ea l sola t en tinSpan i sht rad i t iona l i s tthough tandf edbyn ew imag e stha tapp ea r eddu r ingth ef r s tth i rdo fth etw en t i e thc en tu ry .A d i s cu r s iv et op o s wa sb e ingc r ea t eda ttha tt im e , wh i chsugg e s t edana s so c ia t ionb e tw e enin t e rna t iona lJ ew ry ,F r e ema son ry ,andcommun i sm . I t wa sd ep loy edinth ep ropaganda w i thg r ea t e ro rl e s s e rin t en s i tyd e p end ingonth eid eo logu eo rg roupinvo lv ed .Thoughan t i -S em i t i sm had b e enacon s tan tf ea tu r eo fr eb e lp ropagandaandi conog raphy du r ingth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ,i tcou ldha rd lyfun c t iona sa mob i l iz ing my thdu etoth eobv iou sfa c ttha tth e r e wa snos ign if can tJ ew i shpopu la t iononIb e r ianso i l .Cu r iou s ly ,at ra c eo fph i lo -S em i t i smapp ea r sin a e s th e t i cFa lang i sm ,a sexp r e s s edbyE rn e s to G im én ezCaba l l e ro , who con s id e r ed m emb e r so fS epha rd i ccommun i t i e sinth e Ba lkan sand A s ia M ino rtob eSpan ia rd s .247 Th ef ewJ ew sinSpan i sht e r r i to ry ,sp e c if ca l lyinth eP ro t e c to ra t eo f Mo ro c coandth e No r th A f r i canc i t i e so f C eu taand M e l i l la ,su f f e r edsom ed i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sf rom1936 on .An t i -S em i t i smc e r ta in lyex i s t ed ,bu tv i r tua l lynot ra c e so fb io log i ca l ra c i smcanb efound . Th e r ew e r etwoa sp e c t stoth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion . On e wa sth eJudai smana th em iz edinF ran co i s tp ropagandaando f t enca s ta sanou t s id e fo r c ed ed i ca t edto w eav ingcon sp i ra c i e saga in s tCh r i s t ianna t ion s .Th e o th e ra sp e c t wa s mu chl e s sc l ea randhadtodo w i thhowJ ew i shp eop l e andJ ew sw e r ep e r c e iv eda sad i f f e r en t ia t edco l l e c t iv e .Du r ingth eea r ly 1940 s ,F ran co i s tp ropagandak ep tth e fam eo fan t i -S em i t i crh e to r i c bu rn ing .Th ehund r ed so fJ ew sl iv inginSpa in w e r eund e rp r e s su r eby th eau tho r i t i e sandsom esynagogu e sw e r ec lo s ed .Th eF ran co i s tpo l i c e comp i l edaJ ew i shdo s s i e r ,bu tth ey w e r eno tsub j e c t edtopu rg e so r d i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sw i thr ega rdtoth e i rc iv i lr igh t s .Po s i t ion son th eJ ew sandth eS epha rd i ccon t r ibu t iontoSpan i shcu l tu r epa s tand p r e s en tw e r eo f t encon t rad i c to ry ,a s wa sth eadm i s s ionpo l i cyfo rJ ew s

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f e e ing Naz ip e r s e cu t ion .Th ey w e r eg en e ra l lya l low edtopa s sth rough Span i sht e r r i to ry ,onth econd i t iontha tth eyl e f ta ssoona spo s s ib l e . Th e r ew e r ea l soca s e so fr e fug e e sb e ingr e tu rn edtoth ebo rd e r . Howev e r ,th eind iv idua la c t ion so fd ip loma t ssu cha s Áng e lSanz -B r izin Budap e s tsav edth el iv e so fdoz en so fJ ew i shc i t iz en s , who w e r eg iv en Span i shpa s spo r t s .248 Ra c ia lpo s tu la t e so fas c i en t if cna tu r ew e r eg en e ra l lyab s en tf romth e pub l i csph e r e . Amba s sado rEb e rha rdvonS toh r e rr epo r t edinF eb rua ry1941tha tth eJ ew i shqu e s t ioninSpa ind idno tr ep r e s en t“anyr ea l po l i t i ca lp rob l em”b e cau s e mo s tJ ew shadconv e r t edto Ca tho l i c i sm longago . Wha tth e Naz id ip loma tcon s id e r eda“mod e rncon c ep t iono f th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion”hadv e ry m eag r esuppo r tinSpa in .Som e mon th s la t e r ,vonS toh r e rr e i t e ra t edtha td e sp i t eth er e c en tin c r ea s einan t i S em i t i cp ropagandainSpa in ,th eg en e ra la t t i tud eo fth eSpan i shpopu la t iontowa rd sth eJ ew i shqu e s t ionhadchang edl i t t l eb e cau s eth e r e hadb e env i r tua l lynoJ ew sinth e i rcoun t rys in c e1492 .249 Pub l i csuppo r tandexa l ta t iono fth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sa sth eyl e f t inth esumm e ro f1941e cho ed w i thea r l i e rton e so fan t i -S em i t i cp rop aganda .A l lu s ion stoth eJ ew sw e r eo f t ens eman t i ca l lya s so c ia t ed w i th Sov i e tcommun i sm .Som eo fth eb ro chu r e spub l i sh edinJu ly1941to honou rth evo lun t e e r s who w e r ed i spa t ch edtoRu s s iaa l soexp r e s s ed tha trh e to r i c .A r tu roCua r t e ro w ro t etha tth eB lu eD iv i s ionshou lds e rv e a sapa t r io t i cl e s sonfo ra“m ino r i tyo fF r e ema son sandJ ew s whos t i l l lo i t e ra roundth eg r ea tn e s so fth e[na t iona l ]id ea”andtha tth e“ J ew i sh s egm en to fSpa in”r ep r e s en t edby“ cap i ta l i s t ,indu s t r ia landcomm e r c ia le l em en t s” wou ldb er edu c edto“ap i l eo fs lag”on c eth eB lu eD iv i s ionr e tu rn ed .D e s id e r io Ca r r ión ,apha rma c i s tf romaT o l edov i l lag e , invok edth eBDso ld i e r s :“a sakn igh tsw ea r/tot i eyou rbann e r/toth e eag l e so fth eR e i ch” ino rd e rtod e f ea tSov i e tcommun i sm , who s ew eap on sw e r esuppo s ed lycon t ro l l edbyth eJ ew sand“ th e God l e s s .”250 Th e 1942do cum en ta ryf lmL aD iv i s i ónA zu l,d i r e c t edbyJoaqu ínR e igand V í c to rd elaS e rna ,r ep rodu c edth ea s so c ia t ionb e tw e encommun i sm andJ ew sin t en tond e s t roy ingCh r i s t iancu l tu r e : Th e Com in t e rno rd e ri sas tand ingo rd e ro fth edamn edra c e :tod e s t roy ev e ry th ingtha tevok e sth ep r e s en c e ,r em emb ran c e ,o rp r id eo fCh r i s t ian cu l tu r e .Spa in mu s tb e[ con s id e r edbyth ema s ]th ew i ckby wh i chth e commun i s tto r ch w i l ls e tf r etoth ev en e rab l eEu rop e .I ti sth eo rd e ro f Z ionlaun ch edf rom Mo s cow .251

Th i styp eo frh e to r i cw a sp e r s i s t en tinth eB lu eD iv i s iont r en chp r e s s . Th econ sp i ra cyth eo ry wa scon s i s t en t ly–though no tcon s tan t ly–

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p r e s en t edinop ed sandin s e r t edinp ropagandabann e r sp i c tu r ingJuda i sminb ed w i thin t e rna t iona l Ma rx i sm ,p lu to c ra cy ,andl ib e ra l i sm , wh i ch w e r er e spon s ib l efo rth eou tb r eako fth eSpan i shC iv i lW a rand 252 th eS e cond W o r ld W a r . Som ea r t i c l e ss ta t edtha tcommun i s t sinRu s s ia w e r eat inyp e r c en tag e ,“ twop e rthou sando fth eto ta lpopu la t ion ,” bu tw e l l -o rgan iz edtos e rv ead e spo t i cty ranny ,compo s edla rg e lyo f J ew sandF r e ema son s . Mo s to fL en in ’ sandS ta l in ’ scoun s e l lo r sw e r ela b e l l eda sJ ew s , who w e r esa idtohav ein sp i r edSov i e tcommun i smand 253 i t sob s t ina t ed e -Ch r i s t ian iz ingamb i t ion . How ev e r ,th e s eexp r e s s ion s w e r es t i l lf ram ed w i th inth esam ed i s cu r s iv epa t t e rn sinh e r i t edf rom Ca tho l i can t i -S em i t i sm .Inth epag e so fH o j ad eC amp añ a,onth eo c ca s iono fth e“Dayo fou rRa c e ,”12 O c tob e r1943 ,th eau tho rw ro t etha t ra c e wa s“ th ehom e landbu i l tf r s tonth efounda t iono fb lood .”I tw en t ontosay :“Ev en m ix edb lood .O f t enun i tyr e s id e sin m ix ing .F romint en s ee f fu s ion so fv e ryd iv e r s ee l em en t s ,Spa inc r ea t edp e r enn ia lra c ia l ba s e s ,”ara c e man i f e s tinad i s t in c t iv ecu l tu r e ,th eCa tho l i cfa i th ,and 254 ex t e rna lp ro j e c t ion . Ev enth e mo s tG e rm anoph i l eF a l ang i s tinth eB lu eD iv i s iond idno t emb r a c eb io log i c a lr a c i sm .Y e tth eyd idd emon s t r a t econ sp i cuou sg en e r i c cu l tu r a landr e l ig iou sr a c i smag a in s tJ ew s .A tt im e si tm an i f e s t edi t s e l f op en ly ,bu tono th e ro c c a s ion si tw a sexp r e s s edsub l im in a l ly .Th eAnd alu s i ant emp e r am en tandf am en cod an c ing ,fo rex amp l e ,w e r ed e c l a r ed 2 5 5 f r e ef rom“ cow a rd ly ”J ew i shinfu en c e . C e r t a ind i s cu r s iv ee l em en t s spo r ad i c a l lyapp e a r ed ,d i sp l ay ingc l e a ran t i -S em i t i cton e s ind e s c r ip t ion s o fRu s s i aa s“ th el ando fJ ew s , ”comm en t sabou ten em i e sth a t“ look ed 2 5 6 l ik eJ ew s , ”ad e s i r eto“ sh av eth eb e a rdo f fth a tJ ewS t a l in , ”e t c . En c oun t e r ingth eE a s t e rnEu r op e anJ ew s ,1941–3 Th eSov i e t -G e rman W a r wa sp lann edandex e cu t edbyth eTh i rdR e i ch a sa wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion .Th i sb e cam ec l ea rtoth eSpan i shso ld i e r s , ev eninth er ea rgua rd ,bu te sp e c ia l lya sth eyob s e rv edth eG e rman s m i s t r ea t ingSov i e t wa rp r i son e r sandc iv i l ian sdu r ingth e i r ma r chtowa rd sth eR ron t .Th ePo l i shemba s syin Mad r id , wh i ch wa sno tc lo s ed un t i lJanua ry1942 ,andSpan i shd ip loma t s inth efo rm e rPo l i sht e r r i to ry in fo rm edth eF ran cocab in e to fth esu f f e r ing so fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion und e ro c cupa t ion ,in c lud ingth ep e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew s .257 Th i scon t ra s t ed w i thth esuga r coa t edd e s c r ip t ion so fsom e wa rco r r e spond en t s . Lu i sSán ch ez -Ma spon spo r t ray edth eK rakowgh e t toin O c tob e r1941 a san“ en c lo s edspa c e ,w i th w id es t r e e t sandc l eanhou s e s ,” mu ch mo r e hyg i en i cthanth eo ldJ ew i shqua r t e r .H eempha s iz edhowth eJ ew i sh po l i c ew e r eincha rg eo f ma in ta in ingo rd e r ,“w ea r ingcap sr em in i s c en t

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o fou rpo r t e r s”und e rth e Coun c i lo fE ld e r s ,th eau tonomou sgov e rnm en to fth en e ighbou rhood .”258 A c co rd ingtoa1942r epo r tf romth eSpan i shpo l i t i ca lpo l i c e ,th ef r s t r e tu rn e e sf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron tin fo rm edtha tG e rmano c cupa t ion t roop sw e r eca r ry ingou ta“b loodyr ep r e s s ioncampa ign”inPo land , L i thuan ia ,and Ru s s ia .I t wa sd i r e c t edaga in s tPo l e sand Ru s s ian sin g en e ra l , who w e r eex e cu t edinth es t r e e t sands en tto“ r emo t ep r i son 259 camp s .” T owa rd sth eendo f1941 ,Span i shd ip loma t shad manyop po r tun i t i e stoh ea rabou tth em i s t r ea tm en to fJ ew sinth eo c cup i edt e rr i to r i e s .S e r ranoSuñ e rh im s e l fhada l r eadyb e enin fo rm edabou tth e s i tua t iono fJ ew sino c cup i edPo landbyp r e s sco r r e spond en t Ramón Ga r r iga .Thoughsp e c if cd e ta i l sm igh tno thav eb e enava i lab l e ,f rom m id -1942onSpan i sh l ead e r skn ewtha tth eJ ew so fEa s t -C en t ra lEu rop e w e r eb e ingd epo r t edinla rg enumb e r s ,andinJu ly1943th eykn ewfu l l w e l ltha tJ ew sw e r eb e ing mu rd e r ed .InAugu s t1944 ,Amba s sado rÁng e l  SanzB r izr epo r t edto Mad r idtha tJ ew sw e r eb e ingd epo r t edand ex t e rm ina t ed .I t wa sno tun t i lAp r i lo f1945tha tth ec en so r sa l low edth e Span i shp r e s stopub l i shany th ingabou tth eex i s t en c eo fth econ c ent ra t ionandex t e rm ina t ioncamp so fBu ch enwa ld ,B e rg en -B e l s en ,and Au s chw i tz .Th ey w e r ep r e s en t eda sa m e r econ s equ en c eo fth efna l 260 chao t i cs tag e so fth econf i c t . Span i shso ld i e r sen coun t e r eda lmo s tnoJ ew sinth eno r th e rns e c to r o fth eRu s s ianF ron t .Th e r e wa snos ign if can tcon c en t ra t iono fRu s s ian J ew sonth eV o lkhovF ron to rth esou th e rnfanko fth es i eg eo fL en in g rad .E in sa tzg rupp e Ahada l r eady“ c l ean edup”th eV o lkhovr eg ion b e fo r eth eSpan ia rd sa r r iv edth e r e ,in c lud ingv i l lag e ssu cha sS ta ra ia Ru s saandr ea rgua rda r ea ssu cha sP skov/P l e skau , wh e r eth e r ew e r e s t i l lsom efv ehund r edJ ew sinAugu s t1941–th ey w e r eann ih i la t edby G e rmant roop sinan ea rbyfo r e s tf romla t eD e c emb e r1941toF eb rua ry 1942 .InS ta ra iaRu s sa ,abou ttwothou sandJ ew sw e r ea r r e s t ed ,lo ck ed inap r i sonanda mona s t e ryn ea rth ec i ty ,andsho taf ewday sla t e r .A f t e rtha t ,th e l ik e l ihoodo fSpan i shso ld i e r sen coun t e r ingJ ew i shc iv i l ian s inth er ea ro fth e i rf ron ts e c to r wa ssma l l .Byth en ,E in sa tzg rupp eAcon s id e r edi tjud en f r e i–f r e eo fJ ew s–apa r tf romi so la t edind iv idua l s who had manag edtoe s cap eex t e rm ina t ion .Th i spa r t lyexp la in s whyco llabo ra t iono fA rmy G roup No r thun i t s ,in c lud ingth e281 s tR ea rgua rd D iv i s ion ,w i thE in sa tzg rupp enta sk s wa s mu ch mo r el im i t edthanin o th e ra r ea so fth eEa s t e rnF ron t .261 A sar e su l t ,th epo s s ib i l i tyo fSpan i sh so ld i e r ss e e ingany th ingo ranyon eJ ew i shamongth ec iv i l ian so fo c cu p i eda r ea sn ea rth ef ron t wa sex t r em e lylow . Th eg en e ra lin s t ru c t ion sfo rth eSpan i sh D iv i s ion w e r eth esam ea s tho s et ran sm i t t edtoth eG e rmanA rmyCo rp sto wh i chth eyb e long ed .

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F rom O c tob e r1941on ,th e wo rd wa stha tth eJ ew sw e r eth e“ma inupho ld e r s”o fBo l sh ev i sm ,and“anyco l labo ra t ion”o fth ea rmy w i thth e J ew i shpopu la t ion wa sfo rb idd en .Th i sin c lud edth eBD .Th e r e wou ld b eno mo r e“ emp loy ingJ ew sfo raux i l ia rys e rv i c e stoth eA rmy ,”ex c ep t 262 in“ sp e c ia lco lumn so f wo rk e r s…  und e rG e rmansu rv e i l lan c e .” Th i s in s t ru c t ion ,how ev e r , wa sat ran s la t iono fg en e r i cG e rmano rd e r sand no tar e f e r en c etoth ep r e s en c eo fJ ew sonth ef ron tl in e .I t wa s mo r e l ik e lytha tth ed iv i s i on a r i o s hadh ea rdsom eta l eo fth ek i l l ingo fth eJ ew i shpopu la t ionf romRu s s ianlo ca l so rG e rmanso ld i e r s .Som eo fth ela t t e rhadlook edon wh i l eth eE in sa tzg rupp enandth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e i comm i t t edth e s ea c t s , wh i chh e lp edtosp r eadn ew sr ega rd ingth efa t e o fth eJ ew s .263 A roundahund r edJ ew shadb e enk i l l eday ea rea r l i e r inpo s i t ion sh e ldbyth eSpan i shf rom Augu s t1942on .Inth epa la c e ga rd en so fCa th e r in eth eG r ea tinPu shk in ,250J ew shadb e ensho tand bu r i ed .S im i la r in c id en t shado c cu r r ed inPav lov sko rV y r i t sa .264 P r iva t e Jo s é -Lu i sP in i l lo sd e c la r edla t e rh ehadb e com eawa r eo fth efa t eo fth e 265 J ew sth roughconv e r sa t ion sw i thG e rmano ff c e r s . How ev e r ,th eva s t ma jo r i tyo fth eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eigno ran to fth eendlog i co fth i s p e r s e cu t ion , wh i ch ,a f t e rth eW ann s e eCon f e r en c eo fJanua ry1942 , wa s on eo fsy s t ema t i cex t e rm ina t ion . Th eSpan ia rd sthu s wou lds ca r c e lyhav een coun t e r edJ ew sonth e f ron t .Inla t e Augu s tandea r lyS ep t emb e ro f1941 ,how ev e r ,th ef r s t BDvo lun t e e r shadth eoppo r tun i tytocon t emp la t eth es i tua t iono f J ew s und e r Naz i dom in iona sth eycam ea c ro s ss ign if can tJ ew i sh commun i t i e sinth eB ia ły s tok -G rodnod i s t r i c t .Th i sp r e c ed edth eF ina l So lu t ion ,in wh i chth eJ ew sw e r ef r s tconfn edtogh e t to sandla t e r d epo r t edtoex t e rm ina t ioncamp s .Inth eBa l t i cc i t i e so fV i ln iu sand R igaa sw e l la sin G e rmany ,Span i shso ld i e r sa l soen coun t e r edJ ew i sh c iv i l ian s .A c co rd ing ly ,som epo s t -wa rt e s t imon i e sr e f e rtoin c id en ta l en coun t e r so fr ep la c em en tcon t ing en t sw i thJ ew i shc iv i l ian s who w e r e c l ean ingth et ra ins ta t ion sandt ra ck sino c cup i edt e r r i to ryinPo land o rth e USSR .Th ea s ton i sh edSpan i shso ld i e r sth r ewth emtoba c coand 266 foodf romth et ra in . G r odn o ,O shm i any ,V i ln iu s ,andR ig a P rom in en tamonga l lth ec i t i e sw i th impo r tan tJ ew i shcommun i t i e stha t th eB lu eD iv i s ionpa s s edth rough wa sG rodno( today H rodna )inEa s t e rnPo land . Onth i se thn i cf ron t i e r ,Po l e s ,By e lo ru s s ian s ,L i thuan ian s , and Y idd i sh sp eak ingJ ew sl iv edinp r e ca r iou sha rmony .Th eJ ew i sh commun i tyin G rodnonumb e r eda rounds ix tythou sandp eop l eand wa sso l id lypo s i t ion edinso c i e ty .Th e r ew e r eedu ca t iona lin s t i tu t ion s

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in H eb r ewandPo l i sh ,afou r i sh ingcu l tu ra ll i f einY idd i sh ,anda c t iv e so c ia ld emo c ra t ,con s e rva t iv e ,and Z ion i s to rgan iza t ion s .Th eJ ew i sh m idd l ec la s st end edtob ecu l tu ra l lyPo l i sh iz edandhadb e enra th e r Ru s soph i l es in c eth eT sa r i s temp i r e .Th eyco ex i s t ed w i thth e i rO r thodoxandCa tho l i cn e ighbou r s ,bu tno ta lway ssmoo th ly :th ePo l i shnat iona l i s tandcon s e rva t iv ee l em en t sin s t iga t edpog rom sin1935 ,1937 , andaga ininS ep t emb e r1939 ,a s wa rb rok eou t . Inla t eS ep t emb e r1939 ,G rodnoandi t ssu r round inga r ea w e r ein co rpo ra t edin toth e USSR . Thoughth eJ ew i shcommun i tysu f f e r ed e conom i ca l lyf romth eco l l e c t iv iza t ionimpo s edbyth eo c cup i e r s ,th ey con s id e r edth eSov i e t sal e s s e rev i l ,a sth ecommun i s tr eg im egua ran t e edth emequa loppo r tun i t i e sanda c c e s stoedu ca t ion ,pub l i cs e rv i c e s , andth es ta t e adm in i s t ra t ion . Th i sa t t i tud er e in fo r c edth econ sp i r a cyth eo ryo fconn ivan c eb e tw e enJ ew sandBo l sh ev ik sinth eey e so f Ca tho l i cPo l e s .267 A sino th e rc i t i e sinBy e lo ru s s iaandth en ewo c cup i edr eg ionknown a sO s t land ,th eG rodnoJ ew sb egantof e e lth econ s equ en c e so f Naz i ra c ia lpo l i c i e ssho r t lya f t e rth eG e rman so c cup i edth ec i tyinJun e1941 . Du r ingJu lyand Augu s t ,th eyendu r edd iv e r s ed i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sbyth eo c cup i e r s ,andagoodpo r t iono fth e i rp ro f e s s iona land cu l tu ra le l i t e sd i sapp ea r ed .A tf r s t ,th ey w e r er equ i r edto w ea rana rm band w i thas ix -po in ts ta r ,th entwoS ta r so fDav idhadtob es ewnon to th eb r ea s tandba cko fth e i rc lo th ing .Soona f t e r ,th ey w e r efo rb idd en to wa lkonth epav em en tandr equ i r edtoun cov e rth e i rh ead sandsa lu t epa s s ing G e rmanso ld i e r s .J ew i sh m en w e r epu ttofo r c edlabou r . F ina l ly ,on1 Nov emb e r1941 ,th eJ ew i shcommun i tyin G rodno wa s confn edtotwogh e t to s :a“p rodu c t iv e”gh e t tointh eh i s to r i cc en t r eo f th ec i tyandan“unp rodu c t iv e”on eonth eou t sk i r t s .Bo thgh e t to sw e r e e l im ina t edb e tw e en Nov emb e r1942and Ma r ch1943 ;on lyth r e ehun d r edJ ew s manag edtosu rv iv e .268 Onth eroadtoth ef ron t ,th eSpan ia rd scamp edn ea rG rodnofo rs eve ra lday sinla t e Augu s tandea r lyS ep t emb e r1941 .Th e r e ,th eyhad o c ca s iontoe s tab l i shcon ta c tw i thJ ew i sh m en , wom en ,andch i ld r en do ingh eavylabou rund e rth esup e rv i s iono fG e rmant roop s . Wha t d idth eBDvo lun t e e r ss e eandf e e l wh enth eyf r s tw i tn e s s eds ign so f th e Naz ira c ia ls eg r ega t ionpo l i cy ?Th e i rt e s t imon i e sf romth et im ed e s c r ib edth eJ ew sinanappa r en t lyn eu t ra l waya sd i r ty ,ragg ed ,hun g ryind iv idua l s whoapp roa ch edth eco lumn so fso ld i e r stob egfood s c rap sandlook eda tth em w i thf r igh t en edey e s . How ev e r ,th ey w e r e a l so wa ryl e s tth eJ ew i shc iv i l ian sk i l lca r e l e s sso ld i e r s ,suppo r tth epa r t i san s ,o rpo i sonth e i r wa t e randfood . And r é s Gay tand e s c r ib edth e day so fth et r ekin Ma r ch1942 , wh enth ey ma rv e l l eda tth ef ea ro fth e

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J ew sandth e i rf igh tyb ehav iou r ,a si fd i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e shadno t b e enth ecau s e : O fcou r s e ,th eJ ew sa r eab so lu t e lyfo rb idd entogon ea rth em i l i ta ry . Wh en th e r ew e r eJ ew sinon eo fth etown s wh e r ew er e s t ed ,th ed i f f e r en c eb e tw e enth e i rra c eandth eo th e r s wa sobv iou s .Th eyf r igh t enea s i ly ,l ik e wh ipp eddog s ,andlow e rth e i rey e s wh enth ey mov etol e tso ld i e r spa s s . Th eya r efo rb idd entoen t e rth ecan t e en so rca f é sf r equ en t edby G e rman so ld i e r sandth r ea t en ed w i thth e mo s ts ev e r epun i shm en t .Th ey m e e tin c e r ta inhov e l s wh e r eyoudon ’ th ea ras ing l evo i c e . On lyth eb r ea tho fr e p r e s s edlam en ts t eam supth e i rw indow s .269

Th esam ey ea r ,E r randoV i la rw ro t ela con i ca l lyo fth eG rodnoJ ew sand th e wa rn ing so fth eG e rmancommand : Th eJ ew s ,w i thth e i runm i s t ak ab l er a c i a lf e a tu r e s ,r ep r e s en t3 5p e rc en to f th e inh ab i t an t s .Y ouh av etod e f endyou r s e l ff romth em .Th eyw e a ray e l low s t a rw i thfv epo in t s[ s i c ]onth e i rsu i t s .Y oua l soh av etoknow wh e r eth ey l iv e .Inth ec i t i e sth eyh av ee s t ab l i sh edan e ighbou rhood ,at ru eG e t h o[ s i c ] , and inth etown sth e r ea r es ign sev e rywh e r es ay ing“ H i e rw h on en [ s i c ]Ju d en ” 2 7 0 ( J ew sl iv eh e r e )inth ehou s e s wh e r eanI s r a e l i t ef am i ly m ak e si t shom e .

Ach ron i c l epub l i sh eds ev e ra l mon th sla t e rbyP r iva t e Manu e l Nofu en t e sa l lud edtoh i sen coun t e rw i th“mu l t i tud inou sJ ew stha tth e G e rman s had pu t wh i t ea rmband sontoid en t i fyth em”in Po land . Th eau tob iog raph i ca lno t e so fSa lvado r Zanónto ldhowth eSpan i sh vo lun t e e r signo r edth eo rd e rtod i s t ru s tth eJ ew s , wh i l eJ im én ez Ma lo d e Mo l ina d e s c r ib edth e mu l t i e thn i c pano ramao fG rodnoandth e d i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e sapp l i edtoth eJ ew i sh popu la t ion ,w i thou t exp r e s s inganyva lu ejudg em en t .D e sp i t eth esn ip e r s ,th et im einth e c i tyhadg en e ra l lyb e env e ryp l ea san tfo rth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s .Th ey op en lyf ra t e rn iz ed w i thth elo ca lg i r l s , wh e th e rJ ew so r Ca tho l i c s .In th ev i l lag eo fLyda ,Gu i l l e rmoGonzá l ezd eCana l e sob s e rv edtha tJ ew s w e r e“mo r er efn ed ,bu tth e r e fo r e mo r edang e rou s .”271 Som em en t ion ed gh e t to s( r ea lo rsuppo s ed )a sano th e re l em en t inth eu rban land s cap e .272 Th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r scou ldno tigno r eth ep e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew s , bu tno rma t iv e judg em en t sa r eg en e ra l lyab s en tf romth e i rt e s t imon i e s . Mo s to fth eme i th e rs i l en c edth ei s su eo ra c c ep t edi ta ssom e th ingr e la t iv e lyno rma ltha tth eJ ew i shpopu la t ionhadto w ea ray e l lows ta r onth e i rc lo th ing ,o rtha tth eycou ldno t wa lkonth epav em en t s .Su ch s i l en c e wa sno tex c lu s iv etoth eSpan ia rd s ,how ev e r ;i ti sa l sotyp i ca lo f th ed ia r i e so fth ePo l i shCa tho l i cpopu la t ionf romtha tt im e , whoo f t en

194 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

w i tn e s s ed w i thind i f f e r en c eth es eg r ega t ion ,d epo r ta t ion ,and mu rd e r o fth e i rf e l lowc i t iz en s .273 D e s c r ip t ion sf romtho s e mom en t sexp r e s s ednoexp l i c i tsympa thy fo ro rev encompa s s iontowa rd sth eJ ew s . On eso ld i e rno t edupona r r iv ingin G rodnotha tth eJ ew shad“badin t en t ion s ,a tn igh tth eyt ry toshoo tth eG e rmano rSpan i shso ld i e r s .”Twoday sla t e r ,h ea cknow l edg edth ema s“poo rp eop l e” who w e r econ t en tto wo rkfo rth eSpan ia rd sinr e tu rnfo rfoods c rap s .O c ca s iona l ly ,th ey w e r eev ens e ena s p i c tu r e squ ehuman sinad eg en e ra t eenv i ronm en t :R id ru e jod e s c r ib ed h i sv i s i ttoa“f l thy ,ram sha ck l epho tos tud io”runbya“ fan ta s t i cJ ewi shpho tog raph e r .” Mo r ef r equ en t ly ,th eimag e wa simp l i c i t lyn ega t iv e : th eJ ew sw e r ean t i -Po l i sho r i en t edanda l l i ed w i thth ecommun i s t s ; on lyho s t i l i tycou ldb eexp e c t edf romth em . Ramón Abad íapo in t ed ou tth ein t r in s i cdang e rtha t mo t iva t edth ep roh ib i t iono fd ea l ing w i th J ew s :“ th eya l ll iv ebad ly ; wh enth eso ld i e r sshowth ema ma rk ,th ey wan ttotak eth emtos l e epo rea t .” M en énd ez Gund ín w ro t ehowth e G rodnoJ ew s“ looka tu sw i tha l lth eha t r edtha tth eI s ra e l i t era c eho ld s towa rd sfa s c i sm .”In May1942 ,R evu e l taImazju s t if edth ed i s c r im ina to ry m ea su r e so fth eG e rman s :th eSpan ia rd sth em s e lv e sw e r ein nopo s i t iontojudg e ,a sth eyhada l r eady“ so lv ed”th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion 274 in1492 . On lysom ein s igh t fu lob s e rv e r spo in t edou ttha ti fth eBo l sh ev ik shada s s ign ed manylo ca lpo l i t i ca lpo s i t ion stoJ ew s ,i t wa sno t b e cau s eth eysp e c ia l lyapp r e c ia t edth em ,bu tb e cau s eth ey w e r ea l i ento 275 th ePo l i she thn i c ma jo r i tyand ,th e r e fo r e , mo r er e l iab l e . Th i s wa sth e 276 ca s e ino th e ra r ea so c cup i edbyth eUSSR ,su cha sth eBa l t i ccoun t r i e s . S im i l a rs c en e sw e r er ep rodu c ed inV i ln iu saf ewd ay s l a t e r .Th e r e ,howev e r ,th eN a z it e r ro rm a ch in eh adp rog r e s s edfu r th e rini t ssp i r a lo fex t e r m in a t ion .Th eG e rm ano c cup i e r sh adk i l l edth i r ty s ev enhund r edJ ew i sh m en , wom en ,andch i ld r eninar ep r i s a line a r lyS ep t emb e r1 9 4 1 .Th ey h ade s t ab l i sh edtwogh e t to son6and7S ep t emb e r ,c rowd ingfo r ty s ix 2 7 7 thou s andp eop l ein toth em . On lytho s ew i th wo rkp e rm i t scou ldl e av e th egh e t to ,andth e r ew e r erumou r sth a tth einh ab i t an t s wou ldb e mov ed toano th e rp l a c e .Th erumou rr e a ch edth eBD ,a sM a r t ín e zT e s s i e rr ev e a l s : Th eJ ew sa r efo rb idd ena c c e s stoshop sandpub l i cspa c e s .Th eycanno t wa lkonth epav em en t sandth ey l iv ec lo s edup inth e“gh e t to”f rom wh e r e th eyon lyl eav eto wo rki fth e i r wo rkha sb e enau tho r iz ed .Th eyr e c e iv ea 2 7 8 s can tfoodra t ionands l e ep w i thou tb ed s . Mo s tw i l lb eeva cua t ed .

O th e rSpan i shcomba tan t sh ea rd mo r ep r e c i s es to r i e s .Ramón Abad ía w ro t etha t“ th eG e rman shav ehund r ed so fJ ew i shp r i son e r s whomi ti s 279 rumou r edth eyp lantoshoo tth en ex tday .”

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Som es toodou tfo rth e i rexp l i c i t ,h igh lya r t i cu la t edan t i -S em i t i sm . Jo s éLu i s Góm ezT e l lo ,onh i s waytoth eRu s s ianF ron t ,w ro t eha r sh wo rd sabou tth eJ ew sh eob s e rv edinR iga .H es ta t edtha tJ ew i shba rb e r sw e r ehappyto“ con t inu esk inn ingCh r i s t ian s .”Th eJ ew so fG rodno hadb e en“ th epo l i c eandex e cu t ion e r so fth eG .P .U .[S ta l in i s tpo l i t i ca l po l i c e ] ,”a lway sw ea r ing“ la rg eg r ea sycoa t s”andl iv inginf l th , wh i ch th eFa lang i s tf e l t mu s timp l i c i t lyco r r e spondtosom ein t e rna lsp i r i tua l 280 fou ln e s s . Hav ingn ev e ra c tua l lys e enaJ ew i shcommun i tyb e fo r e , Góm ez T e l losough ttosa t i s fy h i san t i -S em i t i ccu r io s i tybyob s e rvingth esma l lJ ew i shcommun i tyo fO shm iany , wh e r eth eBDpa s s ed th roughaf ewday sa f t e rl eav ingth eou t sk i r t so fV i ln iu sb eh ind .I t wa s th enasma l lPo l i sh -By e lo ru s s ianc i tyo fe igh ty -fv ehund r edinhab i t an t s ,a lmo s tha l fo fth emJ ew s .Th eO shm ianygh e t to wa se l im ina t edin pha s e sf romO c tob e r1942to May1943 , wh enth er ema in ing2 ,830J ew s w e r ed epo r t ed .281 Góm ezT e l lo ’ sd e s c r ip t ion so fth egh e t toinO shm ianyr ev ea lh i scont emp tfo rth eJ ew i sh“ ra c e” ,andh i sf rmb e l i e finth el inkb e tw e enJu da i smandcommun i sm .Th elo ca lJ ew sw e r e“mo s tfabu lou s lyr i chin th e i rw r e t ch edn e s s ,”th e i ropu l en c esu rpa s s ingev enth eF r en chJ ew s . Inth egh e t to w e r e“ s t r e e t stha tw e r ecana l so ff l th in e s s ,”o c cup i edfo r th ela s tth r e ehund r edy ea r sbyth esam em i s e ry t ra ff ck ingJ ew i shfam i l i e s .Th eFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rsaw m i s e ryandf ea rinth ehom e s ,bu t th i sl edh imn e i th e rtocompa s s ionno rtor e j e c t iono fth ean t i -S em i t i c po l i c i e stha thadr edu c edth eJ ew stoth e s et e r r ib l econd i t ion s .Ra th e r , h ea s s e r t edtha tth eJ ew s“a r esobu rd en edbyth e i rs in s”tha tth eyd es e rv ed wha tth ey w e r eg e t t ing .Infa c t ,“ th e r ea r esom eth ing stha tI wou ldon lyt e l lina wh i sp e r .” A tsom epo in tth eJ ew s wou ldaga in wand e r ,andth ena“ s to rm”f romh eav en wou ldcom euponth em .H e s ta t edtha ttho s e whohadspa rk edth eBo l sh ev ikR evo lu t ionhadcom e f romappa r en t lypoo rp la c e sl ik eO shm iany : Th e“gh e t to”o fO shm iany ,lo s tonth es t epp e , wou ldb eo fnocon s equ en c e i fi tw e r en ’ tfo rth efa c ttha ti ti sth esp ea rh eado fI s ra e l .F romh e r eand o th e rsu chp la c e shav ecom eth eg r ea tfgu r e stha tcau s edth er evo lu t ion andd i r e c t edth epo l i t i c so fth eK r em l in . Ev e ryon eknow stha tT ro t sky and C la raZ e tk in w e r eJ ew i sh m i l l iona i r e s ,andtha tL en in ’ sw i f e wa sa J ew. . .  Whyno tm en t ionth efa c ttha tth eJ ew so rgan iz edth eSo c i e t i e so f “ th e God l e s s ,”andth esa c r i l eg iou sp ro c e s s ion s ,andth ed e s t ru c t iono f chu r ch e s ,andth er e l en t l e s sandun end ingfgh to fth e Commun i s tS ta t e aga in s tR e l ig ion ?I si t wo r th m en t ion ingtha tth eJ ew sfo l low eda sex e cut ion e r sandpo l i c e wh enth eSov i e tr eg im en t s ma r ch edin to V i ln iu sand R igaandPo landin1939 ?

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A l lth i sl edtoon econ c lu s ion :th e USSRhadb e com eth ep r e f e r r ed in s t rum en to fth eJ ew sinth e i rc en tu r i e s -o ldd e s i r efo rexpan s ionand v eng ean c eonRom eandCh r i s t ian i ty .“Mo s cowi sI s ra e l ’ sg r ea tcamp , 282 and O shm ianyi son eo fi t sou tpo s t s .” How ev e r ,i t wa son eth ingtoha rbou ranan t i -S em i t i cp r e jud i c etowa rd sJ ew s ing en e ra l ,andqu i t ead i f f e r en t ma t t e rtos e ehowth eyw e r e sy s t ema t i ca l lyp e r s e cu t ed ,ev eni fon e wa signo ran to fth eendawa i t ing th eJ ew sconfn edtogh e t to s , wh e r eth ey w e r ev i s ib ly m i s t r ea t ed .Th i s gav er i s etoh ea t edr ea c t ion sf romev enth e mo s td evou tFa lang i s t s .In h i s wa rd ia ry ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jos ta t edop en lytha tth eJ ew sh ehadencoun t e r edinPo land w e r e“ r epu l s iv e”toh im ,andtha tth em ea su r e s adop t edbyth eTh i rd R e i ch w e r eju s t ifab l e .S t i l l ,h er e cogn iz edtha t Span ia rd sw e r e“o f f end edinou rs en s ib i l i t i e s”byth eG e rman s , who w e r eex e r c i s inga“ co ld ,m e thod i ca l ,imp e r sona lc ru e l ty ,”a c co rd ingto ap r ed efn edp lan“ tha t wa sno tar ea c t iontoany th ingonth eg round .” Ino th e r wo rd s ,an t i J ew i shp r e jud i c e wa sund e r s tandab l e ,bu tno tth e sy s t ema t i cv e r s iono fan t i -S em i t i sm .R id ru e joshow edund e r s tand ing fo rspon tan eou sr ep r i sa l s ,su cha s“ loo t ing w i thf r eandb lood ,”bu t no tth econfn em en tand ma rk ingo fe l em en t stob eex c lud edf romsoc i e ty .Ev enthoughSpan ia rd s wou ldf e e lr epu l s edbyJ ew sa saco l l e c t iv e ,“w ecanf e e lno th ingbu tso l ida r i ty w i thth eind iv idua l s .” Wha t R id ru e johadob s e rv eds e em edex c e s s iv etoh im .Infa c t ,a sth eysough t to“a s so c ia t efu l ly w i thG e rmany ,th ehop eo fEu rop etoday ,”th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sfoundtha tth eg r ea t e s tob s ta c l e stoov e r com ew e r eth e i r 283 exp e r i en c e sw i than t i -S em i t i cm ea su r e s . Ca s tañónhadas im i la rr ea c t ioninV i ln iu s : Is e eth epoo rJ ew i shp eop l e wa lk ingabou tw i thth ed i s c r im ina t ings t igma o fas ta r .Th i spoo rra c e , wh i chha sp r ea ch edlov eandnow w es e eth em l ik eth i s ,sotha tw edon ’ tm ix w i thth em .Idono tund e r s tand ,Idono tun d e r s tandsu chd i s c r im ina t ionand ,a saSpan ia rd ,Icanno thav eanyra c ia l comp l ex ,Iob s e rv eth em w i tht end e rn e s sthoughIcanno tsayany th ing 284 toth em .

Non e th e l e s s ,th e s eob s ta c l e sw e r einno wayanin su rmoun tab l eba rr i e rfo rSpan i shfa s c i s t s .Infa c t ,th et rad i t iona lan t i -S em i t i smo fth evo l un t e e r s wa senhan c edbyth ean t i J ew i shf e e l ing so f manyPo l e sand By e lo ru s s ian s whol iv edinth et e r r i to r i e so c cup i edbyth eG e rman s . Som e Span ia rd sequa t edJ ew sto pa r t i san sandsabo t eu r s .285 Many m emb e r so fth ePo l i shr e s i s tan c e ,f romna t iona ld emo c ra t stol e f t -w ing g roup s ,w e r ea l soamb iguou sabou t Naz ira c ia l po l i t i c s .286 R id ru e jo w ro t etha tth elo ca lPo l e sha t edth eG rodnoJ ew sw e r e mo r ethanth e

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G e rman sd id ,and w i thaha t r edtha t“g r ind saud ib ly .”Th i s wou ldh e lp 287 exp la in th ean t i -S em i t i cm ea su r e s imp l em en t edby th en ewo c cup i e r s . Som eev id en c esugg e s t stha t ,du r ingth e ma r chtowa rd sth ef ron t , Span i shvo lun t e e r sw e r eno tav e r s etocon ta c tandd ea l ing sw i thth e J ew i shpopu la t ion ,igno r ingth eo ff c ia lp roh ib i t ion .S in c eth eG rodno gh e t to wa sno ts e tupun t i l Nov emb e r1941 ,th eSpan ia rd shad many chan c e sto m e e tJ ew sonth ec i tys t r e e t s ,d e sp i t eth es ev e ra lr e s t r i c t ion s tha tw e r eimpo s edonth ela t t e rbyth eG e rman ss in c eJun e1941 ,in c lud ingth e i ru s ea sfo r c edlabou r .Thu s ,Span ia rd scou ldob s e rv efo r th em s e lv e sth ee f f e c t so fth es eg r ega t ion m ea su r e s ,thoughth ey may no thav eb e enawa r eo fth espo rad i cra id stha tend edinth erandom k i l l ingo fg roup so fJ ew s .288 Th e BDso ld i e r sw e r ea l sosu rp r i s edtha tsom eJ ew scou ld mak e th em s e lv e sund e r s toodinSpan i sh ,a sth ey w e r eimm ig ran t s whohad r e tu rn edf romA rg en t ina inth ep r io rd e cad e .Som esu rv ivo r sconf rm ed 289 th i simp r e s s ion . G en e ra l ly ,th i scon ta c td idno tinvo lv eso l ida r i tyo r exp l i c i t lyf ra t e rna l mo t iv e s .Ra th e r ,i t ma in lyinvo lv edsma l lcomm e r c ia lex chang e s :ba r t e r ingfo rgood s ,an ima l s ,o rtoo l s ,andh i r ingJ ew s fo raux i l ia ryjob s ,f romsho e sh in etocook ’ sa id .J ew sp r e f e r r edtodo fo r c edlabou rfo rth eSpan ia rd sb e cau s eth ey w e r el e s sb ru ta lthanth e G e rman sandL i thuan ian s .Su rv ivo r Dan i e lK lov skyr e ca l l edtha tr e lat ion sw i thth eSpan ia rd sw e r epa r t i cu la r ly wa rmandf r i end ly .B ronka K l iban sk ia l sor em emb e r edtha tth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s“a l low edu sto ea ta s mu cha sw e wan t edandtotak efoodhom e ,so w ed idno tn e ed 290 tos t ea lany th ing .” Con c lud ingth el i s t wou ldb eth ed emandfo rs exua lfavou r sf rom J ew i sh wom eninex chang efo r mon eyo rfood ,o rth eo c ca s iona lcou r t sh ip . Appa r en t ly ,Span i shso ld i e r sd emon s t ra t ednop r e jud i c eonth i s ma t t e r .J ew i shand Ca tho l i c wom enlook eda t t ra c t iv etoSpan ia rd s , 291 andnum e rou slov ea f fa i r sw e r er e co rd ed . Infa c t ,G e rmano ff c e r sin G rodnocomp la in edabou tth eSpan i shb ehav iou ro ff ra t e rn iz ing w i th 292 th e“ ind ig enou s” wom ening en e ra l . Ev enth ecommand e rinch i e f o fth eG e rmanA rmyG roupC en t r e , Ma r sha lF edo rvonBo ck ,no t edin h i sd ia rytha tth eSpan ia rd shad“o rg i e s” w i thJ ew i sh wom en .293 R id ru e jo w ro t etha tsom eSpan i shso ld i e r s mad elov ew i thJ ew i sh wom en 294 inth em idd l eo fth eV i ln iu ss t r e e t s . Manu e lBa r sr e ca l l edy ea r sla t e r tha t“w ed evo t edou r s e lv e sto‘p lay ingth ebu l lfgh t e r ’w i thth eJ ew i sh g i r l s–th eG e rman scou ldn ´ tp r ev en tu sf romdo ingtha t .” AndS e rg ean t Manu e lG rand es ta t edtha th ehadon lyb e en w i thJ ew i sh wom en a sh et rav e l l edth roughPo landandBy e lo ru s s ia ,anddu r ingh i ss tay 295 in R iga . O th e rt e s t imon i e ssugg e s tca s e so fs exua l ha ra s sm en tin G rodnobyg roup so fSpan i shso ld i e r s .296

198 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Wha td idth einhab i tan t so fG rodnoth inko fth eSpan i shso ld i e r s ? On lyaf ewJ ew i shsu rv ivo r sm en t ionth eSpan ia rd sinth e i rm emo i r s . A l exand r eB lum s t e in(bo rn1930 )w ro t etha tth en ew com e r s“w e r ev e ry s t rang e ‘G e rman s , ’ou tgo ingandso c iab l e ,v i s i t ingc iv i l ianhom e s ,wa lk ingca sua l ly , laugh ing …on ecou lds e eth e s eso ld i e r s jok ing w i thPo l i sh andJ ew i shg i r l s ,s ing ingSpan i shsong s ,p lay ingth e mando l in .Som e app ea r edtob eemba r ra s s edbyth ebow ingandth ea rmband s wo rnby th eJ ew s .”B lum s t e incon s id e r edth ep r e s en c eo fth eSpan i shso ld i e r sa s a“ r e f r e sh ing in t e r lud e .”Andth e i rd epa r tu r e l e f tb eh ind“good imp r e s 297 s ion sandaf ewb rok enh ea r t s .” T oL e ibR e iz e r ,th eSpan ia rd sw e r e no tsod i f f e r en ttoJ ew s :“A l lo fth em w e r eda rkandsunbu rn ed ,had cu r lyha i randS em i t i cno s e s ,andg e s t i cu la t ed w i thth e i rhand s–ju s t l ik eJ ew s .Th e r e wa snot ra c eo fth epu r eG e rman i cra c e .Th eon lyth ing G e rmanabou tth em wa sth e i run i fo rm .”298 AndF e l ixZandmans ta t ed tha tth eSpan ia rd sshow edth eG rodnoJ ew sth ed i f f e r en c eb e tw e en G e rmanan t i -S em i t i smandt rad i t iona lan t i Juda i sm : A si ftoi l lu s t ra t ehowd i f f e r en tth eG e rman sw e r e ,on edayaSpan i shb r igad ecam eth roughth ec i ty ,s en tbyF ran cotofgh taga in s tth eSov i e t s . Th ey w e r einG rodnofo rabou ttwo w e ek s ,and wh i l eth ey w e r eth e r e ,th e a tmo sph e r echang eden t i r e ly .Th eya s so c ia t ed w i thth eJ ew i sh m en w i th ou tas igno fd i s l ik eo rha t r ed .Th ey w en tou tw i thth eJ ew i shg i r l s . And wh enth eyl e f t ,i t wa sev enha rd e rtofa c eth eba rba r ian s whohadtak en 2 9 9 con t ro lo fou rl iv e s .

O th e rsou r c e sconf rmth i simp r e s s ion . Mo sh eB e rkow i tz ,aJ ewf rom V o ronovo ,al i t t l ev i l lag eonth eroadb e tw e enV i ln iu sandLyda ,w ro t e tha tth ea r r iva lo fth eSpan i shso ld i e r sm ean tfo rth elo ca lJ ew i shcom mun i tyab r i e fin t e r lud eo f joyandr e lax .Th ed iv i s i on a r i o sb ehav edco r r e c t ly ,p ro t e c t edth emf rom m i s t r ea tm en tbyth eco l labo ra t ion i s tpo l i c e , andsha r edth e i rfoodsupp l i e sw i thth eV o ronovoJ ew s .Span ia rd sev en had“ typ i ca l lyJ ew i shf ea tu r e s .”300 Th ec land e s t in eo rgano fth ePo l i sh r igh t -w ingr e s i s tan c eg roupS z an i e cin fo rm edinS ep t emb e r1941o fs ev e ra lin c id en t sinG rodnob e tw e enSpan i shvo lun t e e r sandG e rmanso l d i e r s who w e r egua rd ingSov i e tp r i son e r s ,a sw e l la sf r i end lycon ta c t b e tw e enSpan ia rd sandth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion .301 Wh i l eth i sdo e sno t n e c e s sa r i ly m eantha tth eSpan i sht roop sp ro t e c t edth eJ ew sinanysy st ema t i c way ,p lay ingca rd sw i thano ldJ ew i sh mano r wa lk ingabou t w i thaJ ew i shg i r lonyou ra rm wa sc e r ta in lyag e s tu r etha tcommun ica t edhuman i ty ,imp l i c i ta cknow l edgm en ttha tJ ew sd e s e rv edth esam e t r ea tm en ta sanyo th e rc iv i l ian ,andv e i l edd efan c eo fth eru l e so fth e o c cupy ingG e rmanpow e r .

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Amaz ing ly , th e r ea r enopho tog raph s l e f to f th e s een coun t e r sb e tw e en Span i shso ld i e r sandJ ew sinG rodno ,andon lyaf ewSpan ia rd sv i s i t ed th eW a r sawgh e t to .BDnu r s e Mon t s e r ra tRom eusp en tsom eday sth e r e w i thh e rexp ed i t ioncompan ion sinS ep t emb e r1941 .Th et raml in etook th emth roughth egh e t to , wh e r eth eyfounda“n igh tma r i shs c en e .”Sh e saw“ c la s s i crabb i sw i thth e i rb ea rd sandhook edno s e s ,d i r tyandd e c r ep i t ,”a long w i th w e l l -d r e s s ed wom en who“ s t ro l l ednon cha lan t ly 302 amongtha tr i f f ra f f .” Th ep rob ab i l i tyo fen coun t e r sb e tw e enSp an i a rd sandJ ew sw a sh ighe s tinth eB a l t i ccoun t r i e so rSp an i sh m i l i t a ryho sp i t a l sinth er e a r .Sp an i shs e c t ion sw e r eop en ed in th eG e rm an m i l i t a ryho sp i t a l so fKön ig sb e rg , R ig a ,and V i ln iu s .Th e r e ,Sp an i shsu rg eon sandnu r s e semp loy edth e 3 0 3 lo c a lJ ew i shp e r sonn e la saux i l i a r i e s ,nu r s e s ,andt r an s l a to r s . Th ey c a r edfo rSp an i shconv a l e s c en t sand w e r eh igh lyapp r e c i a t ed ,a sth ey w e r eu su a l lyfu en tins ev e r a ll angu ag e s ,in c lud ingSp an i sh . Th eSp an i sh m ed i c a lp e r sonn e ls e em toh av eh e a rdabou t th ef a t eo f th e J ew s ,bu tb a r e lyr ef e c t edoni tinth e i rw a rd i a r i e s .A l fon so U rqu i jo w i t n e s s ed“b r ig ad e so fJ ew s ”inR ig a , whoshov e l l edsnowand w a lk ed“on th ero ad , l ik eb e a s t s . ”J ew i shemp loy e e sa tth eSp an i shho sp i t a l inV i ln iu s c am eand w en tf romth egh e t to , wh e r eth eys l ep t ,and w e r ee s co r t edby conv a l e s c en tso ld i e r s whoo c c a s ion a l lylook eda f t e r wo rkd e t a chm en t s o f gh e t toJ ew sb e ingsub j e c t edtofo r c edl abou r . M en énd e z Gund ín , who w a spo s t edinth eL i thu an i anc i tyin M ay1 9 4 2 ,w ro t eth a tth eJ ew s w e r em i s t r e a t edand wo r e“ th ec l a s s i cp a t chonth e i rb r e a s tandb a ck . ” Ano th e rSp an i shvo lun t e e r whosp en ts ev e r a lw e ek sinho sp i t a ls t a t ed y e a r sl a t e rth a tonon eo c c a s ionth eJ ew i shemp loy e e sw e r ed e c l a r ed ind i sp en s ab l ep e r sonn e ltop r ev en tth emb e ingd epo r t edinr ep r i s a lfo r ana c to fr e s i s t an c e .Th roughth ew indow s ,th econv a l e s c en t scou lds e e th e“go rg eou s ”J ew i sh wom en who“ c l e a r edth esnowf romth eg a rd en p a th sandfow e rb ed s . ”M anyigno r edth ep roh ib i t iono fsp e ak ing w i th th em .Ju an -Eug en ioB l an cos t a t edth a tth eSp an i a rd sb e c am e“ f r i end ly v i s i to r stoth egh e t to ”tocou r tJ ew i shg i r l s .304 O th e rSp an i shconv a l e s c en t so ld i e r sw e r eey ew i tn e s s e stoco l l e c t iv er ep r i s a l sag a in s tinm a t e sinth e J ew i shgh e t to s ,p a r t i cu l a r lyinV i ln iu s ,a sexp r e s s edinth ew a rd i a ryo f p r iv a t eB en ignoC aboinAp r i l1 9 4 3 .F iv e mon th sl a t e r ,ag roupo fSp an3 0 5 i a rd ss awano th e rs l augh t e rinth egh e t to . Som eau tob iog r aph i c a la c coun t spo in t edou tth a tinV i ln iu s ,du r ing Nov emb e r –D e c emb e ro f1 9 4 2 , conv a l e s c en tSp an i shso ld i e r sw e r esom e t im e so rd e r edbyth eG e rm an 3 0 6 comm andtogu a rdg roup so fJ ew s wo rk ingou t s id eth egh e t to . Th esam eth ingo c cu r r edino th e rr ea rgua rdtown s wh e r eth e r ew e r e f e ldho sp i ta l s .On econva l e s c en tinPo rkhovconf rm edth ep r e s en c eo f “ J ew i sh wom enc l ean ingth es t r e e t s ,” who w e r eea s i lyd i s t ingu i sh edby

200 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th e“y e l lows ta rth ey wo r eonth e i rc lo th e s .” H el im i t edh im s e l ftoex p r e s s ingh i sd i sp l ea su r ea ts e e ing“ tho s eg i r l s ,som ev e ryyoung , wo rk307 ingl ik elabou r e r sa tanend l e s sta sk .” P r o t e c t o r so rBy s t and e r s? Th ea t t i tud e so fB lu eD iv i s ionso ld i e r s mu s tb el ink edtoth eh i s to r iog r aph i cd eb a t er eg a rd ingth ero l eo fby s t and e r s :tho s e whod idno tp roa c t iv e lyco l l abo r a t ew i thth eN a z i sbu tw i tn e s s ed wh a tw a sh app en ing 3 0 8 andd idno tin t e rv en etop r ev en ti t . C e r t a in ly ,som et e s t imon i e sm en t ioni so l a t edbu texp l i c i tin i t i a t iv e so fSp an i shso ld i e r stop r o t e c tJ ew i sh c iv i l i an s .Th e s ec anb eund e r s tooda sun s e lf sha c t sth a t invo lv edr i skfo r th eBDvo lun t e e r s ,and w en tb eyondaspon t an eou sr e a c t iono fso l id a r i tyo rg a l l an t rytoob t a ins exu a lf avou r s .A c co rd ingtoth eI s r a e l ih i s to r i anBob eM end e l ,aSp an i sho ff c e rh e lp edag roupo fJ ew stof e ef rom th eR ig agh e t toandgo tth emtoth eF r en ch -Sp an i shbo rd e r . How ev e r , 3 0 9 th ey w e r ed i s cov e r edbyth eG e rm an sandr equ i r edtog e to f fth et r a in . S im i l a r ly ,Sw ed i sh I s r a e l iw r i t e r Co rd e l i aEdv a r son , who w a sbo rnin Mun i chin1 9 2 9a sth ei l l eg i t im a t ed augh t e ro faJ ew i shf a th e randCh r i st i an mo th e r ,r e c e iv edh e lpf romaconv a l e s c ingBDo ff c e rin1 9 4 3 .H e ag r e edtoa m a r r i ag eo fconv en i en c esoth a tsh em igh top tfo rSp an i sh c i t i z en sh ipandavo idd epo r t a t ion .Th ep l anf a i l edb e c au s eCo rd e l i aw a s und e r ag e ,andth eo ff c e rw a sh im s e l ftooyoungtol eg a l lyadop th e r .H e con t a c t edtwoSp an i shs e rv an t s whoag r e edtoadop th e r ,bu tth i sa l so 3 1 0 f a i l ed .Co rd e l i aend edupinAu s chw i t zbu tm an ag edtosu rv iv e . Th epo s t -1945id ea l iza t iono fth ea t t i tud e so fBDvo lun t e e r stowa rd s th eJ ew sinEa s t e rnEu rop eha sb e ena c c ep t ed ,w i thad eg r e eo fm e th odo log i ca ls imp l e -m ind edn e s s ,a sar e c r ea t ion o f wha tr ea l ly happ en ed .Th evo lun t e e r shav eev enb e enca s ta scon s c i en t iou sp r o t e c t o r s o fth eJ ew s ,th roughth er ep rodu c t iono fd iv e r s ean e cdo t e sr ef e c t ing o c ca s iona ld e f en c eo fJ ew i sh m enand wom eninth efa c eo fG e rman 31 1 abu s e . Su chg en e ra l iza t ioni sd eba tab l e .Th evo lun t e e r sla ck edop po r tun i t i e sfo rcumu la t iv erad i ca l iza t iono fa t t i tud e stowa rd sth eJ ew s andhads ca r c eo c ca s ionto mak econ ta c tw i thJ ew sa f t e rO c tob e r1941 . Th i sm ean ttha tSpan ia rd sd idno tpa r t i c ipa t eink i l l ing so rra id s ,no r w e r eth eyo rd e r edtodoso .Thu s ,th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r sw e r en ev e r invo lv ed inth esy s t ema t i cann ih i la t iono fth eJ ew i shpopu la t ion ,un l ik e th e i rRoman iancoun t e rpa r t sinB e s sa rab iaandth e Uk ra in e ,o rsom e Hunga r iant roop s .312 How ev e r ,in s tan c e so fBD m emb e r sin cu r r ingr i sk and wo rk ings e lf e s s lyandcon s c i en t iou s lyov e ras ign if can tspano f t im etop r o t e c tJ ew i shc iv i l ian sa r ev e ryin f r equ en tand–un l ik eth eI ta l ian sinth e Uk ra in eo rinth eBa lkan s–d idno tp rovok eanys e r iou s 313 con f ron ta t ion w i thth eG e rman s .

O c cupa t ionP ra c t i c e sin No r thw e s tRu s s ia 201

Apa r tf romspo rad i ca l t e r ca t ion s ,th e Span i shso ld i e r sg en e ra l ly b ehav edl ik ea r ch e typ i ca lby s tand e r s– m e r eob s e rv e r s–thoughp e rhap sra th e rcon fu s edon e sa tf r s t .“W ep e r c e iv edsom e th ingabno rma l 314 inth em ;th ey wa lk edabou tf ea r fu l ,f igh ty ,pa l e ,andgaun t .” Th e i r mo r econf i c t edp e r sona lr ea c t ion sm igh tin c lud ein comp r eh en s iona t th eex t r em i tyo fth em ea su r e sth ey w e r econ t emp la t ingo r Ch r i s t ian compa s s ionfo rth ev i c t im s ,bu tnoempa thyfo rth eJ ew i shco l l e c t iv e . Th e r ei sroomtoa ski fth eSpan i shso ld i e r shadanyr ea lpo s s ib i li tyo fr ea c t ingd i f f e r en t ly .Th e i rcondu c tr e s emb l edtha to f manyo th e r G e rman ,Po l i sh ,o rBa l t i cc i t iz en s .315Inth eb ru ta l iz ingl i f eandcomba t cond i t ion so f wa r ,G e rmanso ld i e r sg en e ra l lya s s im i la t edp r ed i spo s ed pa t t e rn so fb ehav iou rtha tw e r econg ru en tw i thy ea r so f Na t iona lSoc ia l i s tindo c t r ina t iontoa c c ep tth et en e t so fth e Naz i wa ro fex t e rm ina t ion .Th i sd idno tco r r e spondso mu chtof ea ro fth e i rcommand e r sa s toag radua lab so rp t iono ftho s eid eo log i ca lpa t t e rn sinth e i re th i ca lpo s i t ion sandth e i rd e c i s ion s .Examp l e so f“p ro t e c to r so fth eJ ew s” w i th in 316 th eW eh rma ch ta r ef ew . Inth eB lu eD iv i s ionsub t l ebu ts ign if can t d i f f e r en c e scanb ed e t e c t ed w i thr ega rdtoth eG e rman s .H i s to r iog raphi ca l ly ,inth ecu r r en td eba t eb e tw e enin t en t iona l i s t sandfun c t iona l i s t s 317 r ega rd ingth ein t e rp r e ta t iono fth e Ho lo cau s t , th eSpan i shfa s c i s t s d idno tha rbou ranid eo logytha tfavou r edsy s t ema t i cs eg r ega t iono r ex t e rm ina t iono fth eJ ew s .Th eyhadnoc l ea rs en s eo f wha tth eJ ew sa s aco l l e c t iv een t i tya c tua l ly w e r e :ar e l ig iou sfa i th ,ane thn i co rcu l tu ra l g roup ,o ra“ ra c e .”Th e r e wa sev ena H i spano -G e rmanBDo ff c e rw i th J ew i shan c e s t ry :L i eu t enan tE r i chRo s e , whod i edina c t ionin1943 .Pa r t o fh i sfam i lyhadp e r i sh ed inth eShoah .318 Mo r eov e r ,b ru ta l iza t ionf rom l i f eandcomba tcond i t ion sonth ef ron t wou ldno thav el edBDso ld i e r s toadop tg eno c ida la t t i tud e stowa rd sth eJ ew s ,a sth ey w e r ev i r tua l ly non ex i s t en tinth ea r ea s wh e r eth eSpan ia rd sw e r ed ep loy ed . How ev e r ,th i sdo e sno tm e anth a tth eSp an i shpo s i t ion w en t mu chb eyondth a to ftyp i c a lby s t and e r s .Th eyp a s s edth roughs c en e s wh e r eth e Ho lo c au s tw a sg e s t a t ingo ra l r e adyund e rw ay ,thoughf ewh adth eoppo r tun i tyto w i tn e s sm a s sex e cu t ion s .Th eyshow ednoi l lw i l lin wo rdo r a c t iontoth eJ ew sth eyen coun t e r ed ,bu tt r ad i t ion a lan t i J ew i shp r e jud i c e su r f a c ed in th e i rd i a r i e so r l a t e rr ef e c t ion s .Th eyp e r c e iv ed th a tsom e th ing unu su a lw a sh app en ingtoth eJ ew s ,andsom er e a c t edspon t an eou s ly inf avou ro fth ep e r s e cu t ed ,thoughth i sdo e sno tn e c e s s a r i lyimp lyany ongo ingp ro t e c t ion .Inth er e a rgu a rdho sp i t a l s ,th eSp an i shcomm ande r sadop t edl im i t ed m e a su r e sth a tqu a l i fya sp ro t e c t iv e .Th e r em ayh av e b e enaBDvo lun t e e rsom ewh e r e whos toodupandr i sk edh i sl i f e ,bu t mo s tr em a in eds i l en to rspok eon lyob l iqu e lyo f wh a tth ey w i tn e s s ed .319 On e examp l ei l lu s t ra t e sth i sa t t i tud e .S e rg ean t Ma r t ín ez T e s s i e r na r ra t edy ea r sla t e rtha tin G rodnoh e wa sov e r s e e ingad i s c ip l ina ry

202 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .5 .5 .M emb e r so fBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,amongth emG en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e s , tak ingpa r ta taCa tho l i cc e r emony ,h eadqua r t e r sinPok rov sko e ,1943(AGA )

p la toono fso ld i e r s whohadb e ena s s ign edtodophy s i ca l labou r .AG e rmans e rg ean tapp ea r ed w i thag roupo fJ ew stodoth e wo rkin s t ead . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e rtookcha rg eo fth emando rd e r edth eyb eg iv enfood . Ag i r lto ldh iminb rok enF r en cho fth e i rm i s e ryanda sk edth eSpan i sh co rpo ra ltop e t i t ionth eBDcommandtohav eag roupo fJ ew sa s s ign ed toh imr egu la r ly ,toen su r eb e t t e rt r ea tm en t .H ed idno t .I t wa son eth ing toshowspon tan eou shuman i tytowa rd sth eJ ew s ,andqu i t eano th e rto 320 comm i ton e s e l ftop ro t e c t ingth em . Su r e ly , mo s tvo lun t e e r scou ldno t imag in e wh e r esu chs eg r ega t ion wou ldl ead . Wh enth eya r r iv eda tth e f ron t ,th ey w e r es t i l lf r ivo lou sabou t wha tth eyhads e eninPo land .K in, th eca r toon i s tfo rth eH o j ad eC amp añ a,na r ra t edinahumo rou sco lumn howth eRu s s ian s ,hav ingn ev e rta s t edg r e enb ean s ,w e r ep e rp l ex edby th e i r Ca s t i l iannam e ,jud í a , wh i cha l so m ean saf ema l eJ ew .“T oobad : w e ’ l lhav etopu tay e l lows ta ronea chon e ,soth ey ’ l lb e l i ev eu s !”321

6Th eLa s tC ru sad e r so fth e Naz iN ew O rd e r(1944–5 )

A f t e rth ed i s so lu t iono fth eB lu eL eg ionin Ma r ch1944 ,Span ia rd s who w i sh edtocon t inu etofgh tinth eG e rmanA rmylo s tth e i rSpan i shc i tiz en sh ip . Manyv e t e ran so fth eB lu eD iv i s ionadm i r edth eW eh rma ch t andb e l i ev edtha tth eTh i rdR e i chr ep r e s en t edanau th en t i cexamp l eo f r evo lu t iona ryfa s c i sm .I tcou ldb et ran sp lan t edtoSpa in ,ov e r com ing th econ s t ra in t simpo s edonFa lang i s tinfu en c eby mona r ch i s t s ,Ca tho l i ct rad i t iona l i s t s ,andth ea rmy .Th eya l sof e l ttha tth e in t e rna t iona l wa r aga in s tcommun i smtha thadb egunonSpan i shso i lin1936 wa sno t y e tfn i sh ed .A l tog e th e r ,b e tw e ens ixhund r edandon ethou sandSpani shvo lun t e e r s–adv en tu r e r s ,oppo r tun i s t s ,fa s c i s tfana t i c s ,su rv ivo r s– cho s etor ema inandjo in edth eG e rmanA rmya f t e r Ma r ch1944 .Som e o fth em w en t in tor egu la ra rmyun i t s ,o th e r s jo in edth eW a f f en -SS .Th ey w e r es ca t t e r edth roughou td i f f e r en t un i t sand d ep loy edonva r iou s f ron t s . Mo r ethanha l fo fth emd i ed ;som eo ftho s e whor e tu rn edfa c ed m i l i ta ryt r ia l s ,bu tth ey w e r eu sua l lya cqu i t t ed . Span ia rd sinthe W eh rma ch tandthe W a f fen -SS(1944–5 ) A sea r lya sD e c emb e r1943 , mo r ethanon ehund r edSpan i sho ff c e r s andso ld i e r sexp r e s s edtoth eG e rmanl ia i sonun i to fth eB lu eL eg ion tha tth ey w i sh edtojo inth eW a f f en -SSa svo lun t e e r s .Th eya l sohop ed tor e c ru i tfu r th e rvo lun t e e r sinSpa inand w e r ecoun t ingonFa lang e 1 suppo r t . Som eG e rmand ip loma t sb e l i ev edtha tB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e r an scou ldfo rmaco l labo ra t ion i s tfo r c einca s eo fa G e rmano rA l l i ed inva s iono fth eIb e r ianP en in su la .Th eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id f rm lyd i sapp rov edo fanya t t emp ta tcon sp i r ing w i thrad i ca lFa lang i s t s tos e tupn ewun i t so fvo lun t e e r sfo rth eEa s t e rnF ron t . How ev e r ,m em b e r so fth eG e rmanemba s syinth es e rv i c eo fth eAbw eh randth eS i ch2 e rh e i t sd i en s t(SD )f r equ en t ly w en tth e i rown way .

204 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F romea r ly1944 ,doz en so fSpan ia rd sc ro s s edth ePy r en e e sonth e i r ownin i t ia t iv e . Manyo fth emcon ta c t edth eG e rmanemba s syin Mad r id .Th ey w e r eg iv ennoexp l i c i tsuppo r t ,bu tSD m emb e r sandcon su l s u sua l lyadv i s edth emonhowtor ea chth eG e rmanr e c ru i t ings ta t ion s 3 c lo s etoth eF r en ch -Span i shbo rd e r . In m id Janua ry ,H i t l e r wa sin fo rm edabou tth en ewvo lun t e e r s .H een thu s ia s t i ca l lyou t l in edth ep ro j e c to ffo rm inga“Fo r e ignL eg ion”compo s edo fSpan ia rd sando th e r “app rop r ia t ehuman ma t e r ia l”f romanycoun t ry .H egav eth eg r e en 4 l igh tfo ra c c ep t ingSpan i shvo lun t e e r sin to G e rman A rmyun i t s . Th e SDa t t emp t edtot r igg e rac land e s t in ecampa ignfo rr e c ru i t ingSpan i sh vo lun t e e r sw i th inSpa inandcon ta c t edsom erad i ca lFa lang i s t s .B r i ti shin t e l l ig en c er epo r t sev en m en t ion edtha t“ i ti srumou r edtha tp lan s a r ea foo ttoo rgan iz ea‘B la ckSSFo rma t ion . ’Th e s ethug sa r ea l soto b er e c ru i t edf romr e tu rn ing m emb e r so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,a r etob e pa id50p e s e ta sadayand wo rkc lo s e ly w i thth eG e rman s .”5Inea r ly Augu s t1944th ep ro j e c t wa sabandon ed .G e rmand ip loma t sf ea r eda r ea c t ionf romth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t ;th eya l sohadno wayo fp r e v en t ingsh e e radv en tu r e r s ,m e r c ena r i e s ,andpa r t i cu la r lyB r i t i shsp i e s f romjo in ing .Fo rth eG e rmanemba s sy ,i t wa s mo r eimpo r tan ttok e ep Spa inn eu t ra lthantoa t t ra c taf ewhund r edvo lun t e e r s .6 Inth em e an t im e ,s ev e r a lG e rm ano ff c e r sb eg ancomp e t ingtoa t t r a c t vo lun t e e r s .Onth e i rown in i t i a t iv eo rw i thsom eh e lpf romth eD eu t s ch e A rb e i t s f ron t(G e rm an L abou rF ron t )o ff c ein M ad r id ,a long w i th Abw eh randSDag en t s ,anumb e ro fSp an i a rd sc ro s s edth ePy r en e e s , o f t enbyb r ib ingbo rd e rpo l i c em eno rsmugg l e r s . On c einF r an c e ,th ey w e r eb rough ttoa m e e t ingpo in tc lo s etoLou rd e s ,th e“F(F r i t z )Sp e c i a l S t a f f ”(S on d e r s t a bF) , wh e r efo rm e rm emb e r so fth eG e rm anl i a i sonun i t w i thth eB lu eD iv i s ionaw a i t edth en ew com e r s .Th einfuxo fvo lun t e e r s w a s mod e s t :abou t1 5 0Sp an i a rd s , mo s to fth emf an a t i cf a s c i s t s ,w e r e 7 r epo r t edtoh av er e a ch edth eFS e c t ionb e tw e enJun eandJu ly1 9 4 4 . O th e rr e c ru i t scam ef rom G e rmant e r r i to ry .D e s e r t e r sf romth eB lu e L eg ionjump edo f fth et ra in stak ingth emba cktoSpa in ,som e t im e s w i thth eh e lpo fth e i ro ff c e r s ,ands tay eda tth eS tab la ck -Südba r ra ck s in Kön ig sb e rg .B e s id e sth e s e ,th e r ew e r es t i l l mo r ethanth r e ethou sandSpan i shfo r e ign wo rk e r s( F r emd a r b e i t e r)in G e rmant e r r i to ryin m id -1944 ,th ela s to fth ec iv i l wo rk e r s ’con t ing en ttha tF ran co i s tSpa in hadb egund i spa t ch ingtoG e rmanyinth esumm e ro f1941 .La s tbu tno t l ea s t ,a tl ea s tth r e ethou sandSpan i sh R epub l i canr e fug e e sinF ran c e hadb e entak entoG e rmanya sfo r c edlabou r e r s(Zw ang s a r b e i t e r) .Som e o fth em w e r ea c t iv ea tth eO rgan iza t ionT od t ,and H i t l e rh im s e l fcons id e r edth ema spo t en t ia l lyr e l iab l ea l l i e sfo rshap ingan ewSpan i sh 8 fa s c i sm . Fo r e ign andcon s c r ip t ed wo rk e r sjo in ed W eh rma ch t and

La s tC ru sad e r so fth e Naz iN ew O rd e r 205

F ig .6 .1 .TwoSpan i shso ld i e r stak eas tud iosho tb e fo r er e tu rn ingtoSpa in , S ep t emb e r1942(AA )

W a f f en -SSun i t s ,o f t en mo t iva t edbyth ed e s i r efo rb e t t e rsa la r i e sand foodra t ion s ,e sp e c ia l lya f t e rA l l i edbomb ingra id shad d e t e r io ra t ed th e i r wo rk ingcond i t ion s .O th e r shop edtor ea cha r ea stha tw e r ec lo s e r toSpa in( I ta lyo rSw i tz e r land ) , wh i l eahand fu ls e emtohav es in c e r e ly 9 emb ra c ed Naz iid eo logy . Inla t eF eb rua ry1944 ,th eOKWcon c en t ra t edth eSpan i shc land e s t in e vo lun t e e r sf romth ePy r en e e sinth eLa R e in eba r ra ck s ,in V e r sa i l l e s . Th ey w e r eth entak entoKön ig sb e rgto jo inth e i rcompa t r io t s .Th eG e rman ssoonr ea l iz edtha tth en ewvo lun t e e r sw e r etoof ewinnumb e r

206 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

tos e tup mo r ethanacoup l eo fcompan i e s ,o ra tb e s taba t ta l ion .Th e G e rmanh ighcommanda l soh e s i ta t edabou thowtou s eth evo lun t e e r s . S in c e1941 ,th eyhadb e enconv in c edtha tIb e r ian sw e r eb e t t e rgu e rr i l la fgh t e r sthan d i s c ip l in edso ld i e r s . Th eSpan ia rd sw e r eeag e rto fgh tth eR ed A rmyonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,y e tth eA bw eh rp r e f e r r edto r e c ru i tsom eo fth em ,in c lud ingth efo rm e rB lu eD iv i s iono ff c e r sLu i s Ga r c ía -V a lda jo sand M igu e lEzqu e r ra ,fo ran t i -pa r t i san“ sp e c ia lun i t s” d ep loy edinF ran c e .10 Th e i rob j e c t iv e wou ldb etoinf l t ra t eF r en chr e s i s tan c eg roup s , wh i ch m igh tin c lud eSpan i sh R epub l i can sinex i l e . Som evo lun t e e r sw e r es en ttoSou th e rnF ran c e , wh i l eo th e r s jo in edsp ec ia lop e ra t ion sun i t sfa c ingth eUSt roop sin No r th e rnF ran c e . Inea r lyS ep t emb e r1944 ,twocompan i e so fSpan i shso ld i e r sl e f t Kön ig sb e rgfo rth e Ho l lab runnandS to ck e rauba r ra ck s ,n ea rV i enna . Sho r t lya f t e rwa rd sth ey w e r eg roup eda tth eSo lbad Ha l lin s t ru c t ion camp( Inn sb ru ck ) ,fo rt ra in inga s moun ta int roop s .Th ey w e r eca l l ed th eSpan i shV o lun t e e rCompan i e s(Span i s ch e -F r e iw i l l ig enKompan i en ) 101and102andg iv en G e rmano ff c e r s .Co ex i s t en c e wa sno tea sy :r e ga rd l e s so fth e i rp r ev iou srank sand m e r i t s ,a l lB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran s w e r er edu c edtoth eg rad eo fp r iva t e .Inla t e Augu s t1944 ,th e102nd Company wa sd i spa t ch edto G e rman -o c cup i edS lov en iaandin co rpora t eda long s id eF r en chandI ta l ianso ld i e r sin toth eB rand enbu rg D iv i s ion ,tofgh tth eYugo s lavpa r t i san s .A l thoughpa r t i sansou r c e ss e emto hav eov e r e s t ima t edth es iz eo fth eSpan i shun i t s ,th ey w e r ed ep loy edin th eno r th ea s t e rnZago r j er eg iontop ro t e c tra i lwayl in e sandpa t ro lth e v i l lag e sins ea r cho fpa r t i san s .Som ev i l lag er ep r e s en ta t iv e sp ro t e s t ed toth eG e rman sanda c cu s edth eSpan ia rd so fs t ea l ingf romth ec iv i l ian popu la t ion .M eanwh i l e ,th e101 s t wa sd i spa t ch edtoBukov inatosuppo r tth eG e rman w i thd rawa lf romRoman ia .11 Inea r lyD e c emb e r1944 ,th esu rv ivo r so fbo thcompan i e sr e tu rn edto Ho l lab runnandS to ck e rau .W i thsom eSpan i shn ew com e r s ,th e i run i t s w e r er e f r am eda sth eSp an i shV o lun t e e rR e s e rv eB a t t a l ion(F r e iw i l l ig en E r sa tz -Ba ta i l lon ) andth e Span i sh T ra in ing Ba t ta l ion(F r e iw i l l ig en Au sb i ldung s -Ba ta i l lon )andadh e r edtoa C roa t ianSS un i t .S ev e ra l Span ia rd sd e s e r t edandth e r ew e r ef r equ en t qua r r e l sw i th G e rman o ff c e r s . Appa r en t ly ,in D e c emb e r1944bo thun i t sw e r ed i s so lv edand p la c edund e rth ecommando fth eW a f f en -SS .12 Th en ,a sth en ewy ea r b egan ,th eSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r ea s c r ib edtoth e357 thIn fan t ry D iv is ionandd ep loy edaga in s tth eSov i e tA rmyin No r th e rn Hunga ryand Sou th e rnS lovak ia .On lyaf ewsu rv iv edtho s ew e ek so fin t en s ecomba t . Th e s ew e r er e l ea s edf romth e i roa thtoth eG e rman A rmyandg iv en fa l s ep e r sona ldo cum en t stha tid en t if edth ema sfo r e ign wo rk e r s ,in hop e sth ey m igh tb eab l etor e tu rntoSpa in .

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Ap a r a l l e l in i t i a t iv e ,p e rh ap s t r igg e r edby th eAbw eh r ,w a sund e r t ak en bytwo W a l loono ff c e r s ,A lphon s eV an Ho r emb ek eandP au lK eh r en , whoh adfough tonth eF r an co i s ts id einth eSp an i shC iv i lW a randh ad a l sos e rv edinth eW a l loonL eg ion .A long w i th G a r c í a -V a ld a jo s ,th ey tu rn edtoL éon D eg r e l l e , whoen thu s i a s t i c a l lyapp rov edth e i rp l an .In co l l abo r a t ion w i thsom esup e rv i so r so fSp an i shfo r e ign wo rk e r s ,i tw a s po s s ib l efo rth emtor e c ru i t1 5 0 – 2 0 0Sp an i a rd sinG e rm anyf romamong fo r e ign wo rk e r s ,con s c r ip t ed wo rk e r s( Zw an g s a r b e i t e r) ,andso ld i e r s f romth ecomp an i e ss t a t ion ed inAu s t r i a .A l lo fth emfo rm edacomp any o fth e2 8 th W a l loon D iv i s iono fth eW a f f en -SS .13 How ev e r ,no ta l lth e Sp an i a rd sen l i s t edinth eSS w en tin to D eg r e l l e ’ sd iv i s ion .Som ew e r e g iv enth eop t iono fa c comp any ings ev e r a ldo z enI t a l i an sto No r th e rnI ta ly , wh e r eth ey jo in edsom ev e t e r an so fth eB r and enbu rgD iv i s ion who h adr em a in edth e r e . On eo fth em w a sth eo ff c e rJo s éO r t i z -F e rn ánd e z , aBDv e t e r an who wo rk ed inB e r l ina sat r an s l a to run t i lh ew a sr e c ru i t ed byth eA bw e h r tofgh tth eF r en chr e s i s t an c e .H i sm ix edF r en ch -Sp an i sh I t a l i anun i tw a s l a t e rr en am eda sE in s a t zg rupp ePy r en ä en ,andf rom Ju ly1 9 4 4p l a c edund e rth ecomm ando fth eSD ,a sp a r to fJ agdv e rb and Südw e s t ,l edbyth ech a r i sm a t i cSSco lon e lO t toSko r z eny . How ev e r ,O rt i zw en tb a cktoI t a ly ,r e c ru i t edahund r edSp an i a rd sf romamongth e Sp an i sh wo rk e r sin t e rn edinc amp s( som eo fth emh adb e enf r eddu eto l a cko fd i s c ip l in e )n e a rV i enn a ,andfo rm edag roupth a ta l soin c lud ed fo rm e rW a l loon sandB r and enbu rgv e t e r an s .By m id -D e c emb e r1 9 4 4 , th i scomp any w a s in co rpo r a t edtoth e5 9 .G e b i r g s j ä g e r -R e g im en to fth e 2 4 SS Moun t a in D iv i s ion . Un t i li t sd i s so lu t ionin M ay1 9 4 5 ,th e s eSp an i sh SSso ld i e r sfough tI t a l i anp a r t i s an sandth eadv an c ingUSA rmy .14 Th eSpan i sh m emb e r so fth eW a l loond iv i s iontookpa r tinth ef e r c e fgh t ing saga in s tth eR ed A rmyinPom e ran ia .In Ma r ch1945 ,th esu rv iv ingSpan ia rd sga th e r edinPo t sdam , wh e r eth ey w e r eo rd e r edto jo in an ewSSun i tcommand edby M igu e lEzqu e r ra .I tr e l i edonth elog i s t i c suppo r to fth eIb e roam e r i canIn s t i tu t eo fB e r l in ,d i r e c t edby W i lh e lm Faup e l . Cap ta inEzqu e r rar eg roup edSpan i shv e t e ran sf romd i f f e r en t un i t s ,andr e c ru i t edo th e rvo lun t e e r sf romamongSpan i sh wo rk e r s andev ensom eSpan i shs tud en t sinB e r l in .Th eE inh e i tEzqu e r raba r e ly amoun t edtotwocompan i e s . Many m emb e r sd e s e r t ed ,d evo t edth ems e lv e stop lund e r ing ,o ra t t emp t edtor e tu rntoSpa in w i thh e lpo fth e Span i shcon su la t e , wh i chcon s i s t en t lyboy co t t ed Ezqu e r ra ’ sa c t iv i ty . O th e r sd epa r t edfo rth eA lp s , wh e r e ,in s t eado fjo in ingth e“A lp in e fo r t r e s s ,”th eyf edin toI ta lyand wa i t edth e r efo rachan c etor e tu rn toSpa in .M eanwh i l e ,af ewdoz enSpan ia rd sr ema in edinB e r l inand fough ta long s id eF r en ch ,La tv ian ,andS cand inav ianvo lun t e e r sinth e No rd landD iv i s ionun t i lth efna lco l lap s eo fth eR e i ch .

208 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Inth efna lba t t l e so fth e wa r ,som eSpan i shsu rv ivo r sw e r ecap tu r ed byth eSov i e t s ,o th e r sbyth e Am e r i can sandB r i t i sh . Ahand fu l manag edtof e ed i sgu i s eda sc iv i l wo rk e r sandr ea ch edPa r i s ,Sw i tz e r land , andRom e , wh e r eth ey w e r eh e lp edbyth eSpan i shcon su la t e s , wh i ch p rov id edth empa s spo r t sandr e tu rnt i ck e t stoSpa in .15 Wh enth ebu lk o fth esu rv iv ingp r i son e r so f wa rf romth eB lu eD iv i s ion w e r er e l ea s ed f romSov i e tcap t iv i tyin Ap r i l1954 ,th e r ew e r etw en ty -on efo rm e r m emb e r so fth eW a f f en -SSamongth em . Mo r eSSv e t e ran sr e tu rn ed 16 toSpa ininth efo l low ingy ea r s , bu t mo s to fth eSpan i shSSso ld i e r s p e r i sh edincomba t ,w e r ek i l l edbypa r t i san s ,o rd i edinSov i e tcap t iv17 i ty . O th e r sw e r es ca t t e r edamongG e rmanf e ldho sp i ta l s , wh e r eth ey su f f e r edf romth e i r wound sandth einab i l i tytocommun i ca t ew i th 18 su rg eon sandnu r s e s . Naz i s ,Rad i ca lFa lang i s t s ,andSu rv ivo r s A sth eB lu eD iv i s ionandth eB lu eL eg ionr e t r ea t edf romth eEa s t e rn F ron t , manylo ca landp rov in c ia ll ead e r so fFa lang eexp r e s s edth e i r d i sag r e em en t .Som eu l t ra -Fa lang i s tin t e l l e c tua l sev ensough tG e rman suppo r t ,un su c c e s s fu l ly . On eo fth em wa sth eh i s to r ianf romth e Un i v e r s i tyo f Mad r id ,San t iago Mon t e ro D íaz , whouph e ldth e“ r evo lut iona rye s s en c e”o fSpan i shfa s c i sm . Un t i lF eb rua ry1945 ,h e mad e pub l i csp e e ch e sca l l ingonF ran co i s tSpa intoendo r s eG e rmanr e s i s tan c eaga in s tth eSov i e tinva s iono fEu rop etoth ela s t .H e wa sconfn ed byth eF ran co i s ts e cu r i tyfo r c e sun t i lth eendo fth e wa r . How ev e r ,th e Fa lang i s t ma in s t r eampa r tyr ema in ed loya ltoF ran co ,adop t edaCa thol i candan t i commun i s tp rof l e ,andsough ttod i s tan c ei t s e l ff romEu ro p eanfa s c i sm s .19 Th e id eo log i ca lp rog ramfo rth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r so fth eNaz i“N ew O rd e r” wa sc ra f t edou t s id eSpa inbya G e rman ,W i lh e lmFaup e l ,and th ed e f ro ck edBa squ ep r i e s t Ma r t índ eA r r izub i e ta .Th ela t t e rhadb e en c lo s etoth eBa squ ena t iona l i s t mov em en tun t i l1937 ,th enb e cam eaR e pub l i canr e fug e einF ran c e , jo in edth eF r en chFo r e ignL eg ion ,and wa s cap tu r edbyth eW eh rma ch tin1940 .A r r izub i e tasp en tfou ry ea r sdo ing fo r c edlabou rind i f f e r en tpa r t so fG e rmanyun t i lh e wa sr e l ea s edf rom cap t iv i tyAugu s t/S ep t emb e r1944 ,thank stoFaup e l ’ s infu en c e .H ewa s tak entoB e r l inandcha rg ed w i thed i t ingEn l a c e(L ia i son ) ,fo rm e r lyth e mou thp i e c eo fth eFa lang einG e rmany .I thadb e enpu r cha s edbyFaup e landg iv enan ew ,rad i ca l lyan t i -F ran co i s tandu l t ra -Fa lang i s ts tan c e . A f t e rh i st im einSpa inin1936–7a sf r s tH i t l e r ’ senvoytoF ran co ’ s h eadqua r t e r s ,Faup e l wa sconv in c edtha tanau th en t i ca l ly“ r evo lu t iona ry”fa s c i s tr eg im einSpa incou ldon lyb ea ch i ev edi fFa lang i s t sw e r e

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a l soendo r s edbyth ed e f ea t edR epub l i can sandR ed s ,th e r ebyna t iona l iz ingth el e f t . Wh enh eaga ina s sum edl ead e r sh ipo fth eIb e roam e r icanIn s t i tu t e ,h ea l sod ev e lop edac l i en t e l i s tn e two rkamongSpan ia rd s andLa t inAm e r i can sl iv ingin G e rmany .H ep ro t e c t edSpan i shfo r e ign wo rk e r s ,in c lud ingB lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran sand R o t sp an i e r(Span i shR e pub l i canp r i son e r so rcon s c r ip t ed wo rk e r s ) . Th e“Na t iona l -So c ia l i s tFa lang i sm” d ev e lop edby A r r izub i e taand Faup e l ,h e lp edbysom e mo r erad i ca lFa lang i s t sandB lu eD iv i s ionv e te ran s , mo s t lycon s i s t edo farad i ca l iz edv e r s iono fth efound ingt en e t s o fSpan i shfa s c i sm ,s e enth roughth em i r ro ro f Naz i“Eu rop ean i sm ,”an exp r e s s ionco in edinth ep ropagandao fth e“Eu rop eanc ru sad eaga in s t Bo l sh ev i sm .”20 S im i la ra ff rma t ion shada l sob e enr ep rodu c edinth e H o j ad eC amp añ a,andinth ew r i t t encon t r ibu t ion stoth eSpan i shed i t ion 21 o fD a sJung eEu r op a byv e t e ran so fth eRu s s ianF ron t . Th en ewEn l a c e, how ev e r ,p r e s en t edc l ea rd i s t in c t ion sonsom epo in t s .Th ef r s to fth e s e wa si t sin s i s t en c eonsom e th ingc lo s etob io log i ca lra c i sm ,toendo r s ea mo r erad i ca lan t i -S em i t i sm .22 S e cond ,i tadvo ca t edna t iona l iza t iono f th el e f t :th ena t iona lf ra c tu r ecau s edbyth eC iv i lW a rinSpa inhadto b eov e r com ebyan ewna t iona lr evo lu t iontha tshou ldb es e cu la r ,abandon ingth ero l eo f Ca tho l i c i sm .F ina l ly ,i t srad i ca l“ so c ia l i s t”rh e to r i c 23 wa sa im eda ta t t ra c t ing R o t sp an i e rtoth en ewna t iona lcau s e . A l lth e s e t en e t s wou ldl eadtoth eov e r th rowo fG en e ra lF ran coon c eth eTh i rd R e i chhad wonth e wa randshou ldb ea t ta in ed w i th inth ef ram ewo rk o fth eEu rop ean N ew O rd e r .24 T o wha tex t en td idth ela s tm entofgh t und e rth eG e rmanfagsha r eth e Naz ic r e ed ?En l a c e wa sundoub t ed ly th e mo s tamb i t iou sa t t emp ttoshap eak indo f“Span i sh Na t iona lSo 25 c ia l i sm ,”ind ep end en to fth eFa lang i s tpa r tyando fth eF ran cor eg im e . Th ela s tSpan i shso ld i e r stos e rv eth eTh i rdR e i ch mayb econ s id e r ed a ma rg ina lph enom enon ,abando fadv en tu r e r s ,th i ev e s , mu rd e r e r s , andaf ewd e sp e ra t e wa rv e t e ran sunab l etosh i f tba cktoc iv i l ianl i f e . Som eau tho r sr ega rdth ema sth et ipo fth ei c eb e rg ,th es e ed so fco l labo ra t ion i s t Naz i sm w i th inth erank so fSpan i shfa s c i sm , wh i chcou ldf t th e Qu i s l ing mod e l . How ev e r ,th e r ei snor ea sontosuppo s etha tth e i r mo t iva t ion sw e r ee s s en t ia l lyd i f f e r en tf romtho s etha td rov eo th e rW e s t Eu rop eanvo lun t e e r sto jo inth eW a f f en -SSun i t s ,b eg inn ingin1943 .26 Av i ewf romb e low ,c en t r edonl e t t e r sanda c coun t sf romSpan i shSS and W eh rma ch tvo lun t e e r sin1944–5 ,show sa m ix tu r eo f mo t iva t ion s . Manyo fth em w e r efa s c i s tadv en tu r e r simbu ed w i thaz e i tg e i s to ffgh t aga in s tcommun i sm .O th e r sw e r eyou thhung ryfo radv en tu r e . Many o th e r sw e r es imp lyt ry ingtosu rv iv e .Th em emb e r so f wha ti ssom et im e sca l l edth e“Gho s tBa t ta l ion”l e f tf ewt ra c e so fth e i rexp e r i en c e s andev enf ew e rw r i t t en m emo i r s , wh i ch w e r eu sua l lyfu l lo ffan ta sy .

210 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

How ev e r ,th e r ei senoughev id en c etoa l lowana t t emp ta tc r ea t inga co l l e c t iv epo r t ra i t .M igu e lEzqu e r raando th e rv e t e ran s whopub l i sh ed th e i rm emo i r sa f t e rr e tu rn ingf romSov i e tcap t iv i tyd ep i c t edth e i rd e c i s iontojo inth efna l wa re f fo r to fth eTh i rdR e i cha ss imp lyanex t en s iono fth e mo t iv e stha thadl edth emtotak eupa rm sinJu ly1936 . Th ey w e r e mo t iva t edbyan t i commun i sm ,th ed e f en c eo f Ch r i s t ian and W e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ion ,andloya l tytoth eo r ig ina lp r in c ip l e so fSpan i shfa s c i sm .A l lth i s wa sa l sosh roud edinath inlay e ro fg en e ra t iona l non con fo rm i sm . Manyapp ea r eda sang ryyoungFa lang i s t s ,bu ton 27 r e tu rn ingtoSpa ins ev e ra lw e r elab e l l eda s“ comp l e t egang s t e r s .” Asamp l eo fth el e t t e r ss en tbySpan i shvo lun t e e r sinth eW eh rma ch t andth eW a f f en -SSb e tw e en Nov emb e r1944and Ma r ch1945 mayp ro v id esom ein s igh ta stoth e mo t iva t iono fth e s ela s tcomba tan t s . Mo s t o fth emsawl i t t l ed i f f e r en c eb e tw e enth eFa lang i s tandan t i commun i s t c r e edth eyhademb ra c edin1936and1941and wha thad mo t iva t ed th e i rfna lr e so lv etofgh ttoth ed ea thin G e rman m i l i ta ryun i t s .Th e fna l -hou rvo lun t e e r sp r e s en t edth em s e lv e sa s“ t ru e”Fa lang i s t s :loya l k e ep e r so fth et rad i t ion so fea r lySpan i shfa s c i smb e fo r ei t“ su r r end e r ed”toth epow e ro fth e Ca tho l i c Chu r chandth ea rmy .Th i sb e l i e f wa sc loak edinag en e ra lapp ea ltoth e“d e s t inyo fEu rop e ,”bu tth ey gav enos igno fhav ingadop t edany Na t iona lSo c ia l i s tc r e edtha tcou ld b econ s id e r ed m im e t i co fth eG e rman mod e l .Juan M .Pon ss ta t edin O c tob e r1944tha t“w ea r enow w i th inth erank so fth eG e rmanA rmy , and. . .con t inu eth efgh tw eb eganfo rth esak eo fSpa inonth e18 th o fJu ly1936 ,”thoughfo r c edto wag e wa rfa rf romSpa inand“und e r 28 ano th e r fag .” W eh rma ch tso ld i e rJo s é -Lu i sIbáñ ez w ro t etha tth e Span ia rd sloya ltoth eFa lang i s tl ega cy w e r efgh t inga long s id era th e r thanfo rG e rmany .B lu eD iv i s ionv e t e ran Manu e lD íaz -T e l la , wh enen l i s t edinth eW a f f en -SS ,s ta t edtha th e wa sfgh t ingfo ra l ltha th ehad d e f end edin1936 ,bu ta l sofo rth esak eo f“Eu rop eanc iv i l iza t ion .”29 S ixSpan i shgu e s t wo rk e r sinV i enna man i f e s t edth e i rd e s i r eto jo inth e W a f f en -SS ,toca r ryon“ th eg r ea tta sktha tw ein i t ia t edinou rcoun t ry onth e18 tho fJu ly[1936 ] ,andtha tw ehav eno ty e tg iv enup , wh i ch w e b eganina rm sandla t e rcon t inu ed w i thou r wo rk .”30 Th eFa lang i s tsu r g eonJo s é Igna c ioImaz ,a ttha tt im ea m ed i ca lvo lun t e e ra taho sp i ta lin B raun s chw e ig ,sa idin D e c emb e r1944tha t wh i l e“ ra i s ing mya rm”in aFa s c i s tsa lu t e ,”h esawinth epag e so fEn l a c etha t“ th e r ea r es t i l lt ru e Fa lang i s t s :longl iv eth eO ldGua rd !”31 Th e r ew e r eev ensom ei so la t edca s e so ffo rm e rSpan i shR epub l i can A rmyso ld i e r s who ,a f t e rexp e r i en c ingF r en chlabou rcamp s du r ing 1939–40andy ea r so ffo r c ed labou r inG e rmany ,exp r e s s edtha tth eyhad b e com econv in c edo fth e“ so c ia lr evo lu t iona ryo r i en ta t ion”o f Na t iona l

La s tC ru sad e r so fth e Naz iN ew O rd e r 21 1

So c ia l i sm .Thu s ,Ado l foGonzá l ez -A lm ena ra w ro t einJanua ry1945tha t h esawth eTh i rdR e i cha sth e“ r ea lFa th e r land”o fa l l wo rk e r s ,compa r32 ingi tw i thth ed i sappo in tm en th ef e l tuponen t e r ingF ran c ein1939 . Fa i thinth e“Eu rop ean i s t” p ropagandao fth e Th i rd R e i ch ,anda b e l i e finth ep ro j e c to fa N ew O rd e rfo rth e Con t in en t ,s e em edtob e mo r ethanju s ts logan sfo r manySpan i shvo lun t e e r s .Th i s wa ssu r e ly th eca s efo r Dav id Góm ez , whoc ro s s edF ran c ew i thtwoBDv e t e ran s a f t e rl eav ingSpa inon15 Augu s t1944 .Th ey manag edtor ea chG e rman t e r r i to ryand w e r e wo rk ing inafa c to ry inCh emn i tz ,bu ta l soexp r e s s ed th e i reag e rn e s sto“aga in w ea rth eg r eyun i fo rmandtak epa r tinth e n ewEu rop eano rd e r .”33 S im i la r ly , wo rk e r An ton ioLu c enasa lu t edth e ed i to r so fEn l a c e w i thth es logan“A r r ibaE spaña”and w ro t etha t“ th e v i c to ryo fth eG r ea tR e i ch mu s tb eav i c to ryfo ra l lo fu s .”34 H e wa s fa s c ina t edby“ th i sg r ea tG e rmancoun t ry ,”a long w i th manyo th e run knownSpan ia rd s who w e r ea l so m emb e r so fth eW a f f en -SSand wou ld fgh ttoth eend .35 Ga l i c ianvo lun t e e rP ed roPo r t e lad efn edh im s e l fa sa “young wa r r io rfo rth en ewEu rop e ,”ands ign ed w i th“H e i lH i t l e r !Up w i thSpa in !LongL iv eG e rmany !”36 Ino th e rl e t t e r s ,an t i commun i smapp ea r edtob eth e ma in mo t iv efo r 37 jo in ingth eG e rmanA rmy . Lo r enzo O caña s ,anen s ign whotookpa r t inth ed e f en c eo fB e r l inand wa scap tu r edbyth eSov i e t sin May1945 , id en t if edimag e so fbomb ed G e rmantown sw i th“m emo r i e so f my coun t ry ,”imag in ing“wha tSpa in wou ldhav eb e enl ik ei fth e Mo s cow mon s t e rhad manag edtoroo ti t s e l finou rso i l. . .Ic lo s ed myey e sand saw myownv i l lag einfam e s .” O caña s , whohadb e enavo lun t e e rin th ein su rg en ta rmyo f1936 ,f rm lyb e l i ev edtha tth ecau s eo f1936– 9 onSpan i shso i l wa sb e ingd e f end edinad i f f e r en ts c ena r ioun t i l1945 . Ev ena f t e rr e tu rn ingf romSov i e tcap t iv i ty ,h ew ro t etha tth e wa r wa s no tov e ry e t .38 A l lth e s eexamp l e ssugg e s ttha tev enth e mo s tfana t i cSpan i shso ld i e r s , whofough ta s vo lun t e e r sinth e W eh rma ch tand W a f f en -SS du r ingth e fna ld e sp e ra t e mon th so fth e wa r ,d idi tfo rth esam e p r in c ip l e stha thad mo t iva t ed manyo fth emtofgh tfo rF ran coe igh t y ea r sea r l i e r .Infa c t ,som eo fth evo lun t e e r s who w e r esub s c r ib e r sto En l a c ed i sag r e ed w i thi t sed i to r , Ma r t índ eA r r izub i e ta ,b e cau s eth ey foundth ean t i -Ca tho l i cand“Na t iona lSo c ia l i s t”a r t i c l e spub l i sh edin th ejou rna ltoor emov edf romth ek eye l em en to fau th en t i cSpan i sh t rad i t ion , wh i chth eyf e l tshou ldp e rm ea t eanypu r e lySpan i shfa s 39 c i sm . B eyondadop t inga“Eu rop ean i s t”rh e to r i c ,invo lv em en tinth e G e rmanA rmyandev enth eW a f f en -SSc l ea r lyd idno tl eadth e s evo lun t e e r stoemb ra c ean ew wo r ldv i ew .Th e i rid eo log i ca l mo t iva t ion s r ema in edt ru etoaf ews imp l ebu tfa i r lye f f e c t iv ek eyt en e t s :th efgh t

212 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

wa sb e tw e en GoodandEv i l ,b e tw e en Godandth e God l e s s ,b e tw e en “ c iv i l iz edEu rop e”and“A s ia t i cba rba r i sm .” Apa r tf roman t i -S em i t i c rh e to r i co fr e l ig iou sex t ra c t ion ,th e r e wa snob io log i ca lra c i sm . Bu t th eso c ia lpo t en t ia lfo r“Na t iona lSo c ia l i s tFa lang i sm” wa sex t r em e ly l im i t edini t sfna lhou r .I ton lyr ea ch edaf ewhund r edFa lang i s tad v en tu r e r s ,Span i shgu e s t wo rk e r sin G e rmany ,andsom es e cond rank Fa lang el ead e r sandin t e l l e c tua l sinSpa in .Th ela s tSpan i shfa s c i s t s d i s l ik edth econ s e rva t iv eg en e ra l who wa snowch i e fo fs ta t e ,bu tth e i r ownpo l i t i ca lsu rv iva l wa st i edtoF ran co ’ s .Inth eend ,th i s wa sth e i r ma incon t rad i c t ion .

7W a rV e t e ran sand M emo r i e sf romth e Ea s t e rnF ron tinF ran co ’ sSpa in(1942–75 )

In Nov emb e r1941 ,Span i sho ff c e r sandso ld i e r s whohads e rv edonth e Ru s s ianF ron tb eganr e tu rn inghom e :som eonl eav e ,som e wound edo r mu t i la t ed ,som er epa t r ia t eda sund e s i rab l e s .Th ehaphaza rdt r ea tm en t th eyr e c e iv eda tth eI rúnt ra ins ta t ion ,a f t e rc ro s s ingth eF r en chbo rd e r , 1 spa rk edp ro t e s tamongth er e tu rn e e s . Though manyo fth e s ed i ff cu l t i e sw e r eso r t edou t ,th ef r s tg r ea t wav eo fsom efv ehund r edr e tu rn e e sin Ap r i l1942r e c e iv edaco ld ,i l l -p r epa r edhom e com ingf romth e 2 c iv i land m i l i ta ryau tho r i t i e s . Th eW a rM in i s t ry wa s mov edtoo rgan iz eab e t t e rw e l com efo rr e tu rn ingso ld i e r sa f t e rcomp la in t sw e r eh ea rd f rom G e rmancon su l sandFa lang i s tl ead e r s .A c co rd ing ly ,th eth i r t e en hund r ed m eninth es e cond wav eo fr e tu rn e e s , whos topp edinI rún on24 May ,w e r er ega l ed w i th m i l i ta ryhonou r sb e fo r econ t inu ingon 3 toat r iumpha lw e l com ein Mad r id . Th roughou tth ey ea r ,d i s cha rg ed , wound ed ,o rd i sab l edv e t e ran sr e c e iv eda l l mann e ro fhomag einth e i r hom e town s . Th e Na t iona lD e l ega t iono f Ex comba tan t s(D e l ega c ión Na c iona ld eEx comba t i en t e s , DNE ) ,th es ta t eo rgan iza t ionincha rg eo f wa rv e t e ran sf romth eF ran co i s tA rmy ,a s sum edth eta sko fp rov id ing fo rth e mo s tp r e s s ingn e ed so ftho s e whor e tu rn edf rom Ru s s iaina 4 s i tua t iono find ig en c e . G e rmand ip loma t sf e l ttha t manyr e tu rn e e sw e r es imp lyabandon ed toth e i rfa t ea tth eo th e rendo fth ehom e com ingpa rad e .Th es igh to fBD v e t e ran s ,I ronC ro s s e sonth e i rlap e l s ,un emp loy edo rev enr edu c edto b egg ing , mov edG e rmancon su l stoa c td e c i s iv e ly .InJu ly1942 ,th econsu linB i lbaoin t e r c ed ed w i thth elo ca lau tho r i t i e stofnd wo rkfo rr e 5 tu rn e e sf romRu s s ia . How ev e r ,lo ca lemp loy e r sw e r eno ta lway seag e r toh i r eth e s ev e t e ran s ,know ingtha ti tm igh ts t i rupr e s en tm en tino th e r wo rk e r s , who w e r eho s t i l etoth eF ran cor eg im e .Th eG e rmanamba s sado r ,con c e rn edtha tth ehonou ro fth eW eh rma ch t wa sb e ingta rn i sh ed , in s i s t edtoS e r ranoSuñ e rtha th es endBDv e t e ran sp r e f e r en t ia l lyto

214 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

G e rmanya sc iv i l wo rk e r s .6 Th eFo r e ign M in i s t rys en tth ep ropo sa lto th ecomp e t en tau tho r i t i e s ,bu tgo tnor ep ly .Ev enso , many , manyv e t e r an s manag edtor e tu rntoth eTh i rdR e i cha sc iv i l wo rk e r s . B eg inn inginJu ly1942 ,th en ew lye s tab l i sh ed G en e ra lO ff c efo rth e B lu eD iv i s ion w i th inth e DNE ,d i r e c t edbyth eFa lang i s t wa rv e t e ran Lu i sN i e to ,b e cam e mo r ea c t iv e lyinvo lv edin m e e t ingth en e ed so f tho s e whor e tu rn edf romRu s s ia .Th epo s to fBDp rov in c ia lin sp e c to r wa sc r ea t ed ,andLabou rM in i s t e rJo s é An ton io G i rónannoun c edin Ma r ch1943tha ts ta t ecompan i e s wou lda s sum e“ tu t e lag e”o f wo rke r s whohads e rv edonth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eG e rmancon su la t e sa l so r e c e iv edin s t ru c t ion stoexp ed i t eth eadm in i s t ra t iv e wo rkinvo lv edfo r BDv e t e ran so rth e i rfam i l i e stor e c e iv eth e i r wag e sandp en s ion s .S imi la r ly ,th eyin t e r c ed ed w i thlo ca lbu s in e s s e sandin s t i tu t ion stos e cu r e wo rkfo run emp loy edv e t e ran s .7 A f t e r1944 ,jobp la c em en t wa so f t en chann e l l edth rough DNEr e comm enda t ion sba s edonind iv idua lp e t i t ion s .R e tu rn e e sf romRu s s ia w e r e mo r ein s i s t en t ,a sth eyc la im edth e b en ef t sa s so c ia t ed w i thb e ingaF ran co i s tex comba tan tla t e rthano th8 e r s , whohada l r eadyapp l i edfo rth emin1939–41 . Th i sadm in i s t ra t iv esuppo r tp rov ede sp e c ia l lye f f e c t iv efo rp r i son e r s o f wa r who w e r er epa t r ia t edf romth e USSRin Ap r i l1954 .O fth e286 whor e tu rn ed ,192 w e r eawa rd edth et i t l eo fex comba tan tfo rhav ing s e rv edinth eBD ,th eB lu eL eg ion ,o rsu c c e s so run i t s ,andfo rhav ing condu c t edth em s e lv e s“ r e sp e c tab ly”du r ingth e i ry ea r so fcap t iv i ty .On tha tpo in t ,m i l i ta ryju s t i c eenqu i r i e so f t enb e cam equagm i r e so fun c e r ta in ty ,b eg inn ing w i thconf i c t inga c cu sa t ion so fco l labo ra t ion w i thth e Sov i e t samongth ep r i son e r sth em s e lv e s ,cha rg e so fd e s e r t ion ,o rth e fa c ttha tsom eo ftho s e whohadjo in ed G e rmanun i t sin1944– 5 had l e f tSpa ini l l ega l ly ,o rhadcou r t ma r t ia l sp end ing . Ap ragma t i cso lu t ion wa sadop t ed :a lmo s ta l lBDso ld i e r sw e r eg ran t edth econd i t iono f ex comba tan t ;andf f ty fou ro fth er e tu rn e e sw e r ee l ig ib l etor e c e iv eth e t i t l ei fth e i ro ff c e r sdu r ingcap t iv i tycou ldc e r t i fyth e i rgoodb ehav iou r . Th roughth ein t e rv en t iono fth e DNEandc iv i lgov e rno r s ,a lmo s ta l l tho s er epa t r ia t ed w e r eg iv enemp loym en t . How ev e r ,th er e tu rn edp r i son e r so f wa rw e r ein conv en i en th e ro e s inth eCo ld W a re ra .Th eycomp la in edtha tF ran cohadno tw e l com ed th emba ckinp e r son .Thoughth eW a rM in i s t rypu sh edtoawa rda l l r e tu rn e e sm i l i ta ryd i s t in c t ion sand m eda l sc r ea t edadh o c ,Cap ta inT eo do roPa la c io sandCap ta inG e ra rdoO roqu i e ta ,th etwoh igh e s t rank ing o ff c e r samongth eSpan i shcap t iv e s , wa i t edt eny ea r stob eawa rd ed th e i rm eda l s .Pa la c io s wa st r ea t eda sah e robyth er eg im eand wa s g iv ensom econ t ro lov e rs ev enla t e rexp ed i t ion stor epa t r ia t e“wa rch i ld r en”f romth eSov i e tUn ion ,un t i l1959 .9

W a rV e t e ran sand M emo r i e sf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t

215

P ro sopog raphyo ftheT ra je c to r ie so fBDRe tu rnee s Th eFa lang i s tjou rna l s hop edtha tin co rpo ra t ingth er e tu rn e e sf rom Ru s s iain toc iv i l ianl i f e wou ldh e lpr ev i ta l iz eSpan i shfa s c i smf romb elow , wh i l ea l sos e rv inga sa“Eu rop ean iz ing”and mod e rn iz inge l em en t 10 ini t spo l i t i ca lcu l tu r e . Th es ing l epa r tyfoundth emtob easou r c e o flo ca landp rov in c ia ll ead e r sh ip ;th eycou ldr e inv igo ra t ei t ss t ru c tu r e inth ep rov in c e s wh e r eex comba tan t sw e r eth inonth eg round ,su ch a ssou th ea s tSpa in . How ev e r ,th eBDv e t e ran sn ev e rb e cam eana r t i c u la t edg en e ra t iontha tl e f taun i fo rmimp r e s s iononth eF ran co i s tr eg im e .“Tho s ef romRu s s ia”hadhop edtob e com eth evangua rdo fth e Fa lang i s tc r e ed ,11 andsom e t im e sd e c la r edth em s e lv e seag e rtotak eup a rm saga intok e epSpa inf romb e com inga“ so c ia l i s t”r epub l i c .Th i s wa sani s su ein1946 , wh enex t e rna lp r e s su r ef romth eA l l i e sth r ea t en ed toov e r th rowth eF ran cor eg im e .ABDv e t e ranf romA lmad én(C iudad R ea l )w ro t eth entha t“aga in w eh ea rth evo i c eo fa la rmandi to rd e r su s 12 totak eupcomba tpo s i t ion s .” How ev e r ,th ed i c ta to r sh ip manag edto su rv iv ew i thou tth eh e lpo fth eBDv e t e ran s . A f t e rr e tu rn ingf romth eRu s s ianF ron t ,d iv e r s i ty ma rk edth et ra j e cto r i e so fth eBDv e t e ran s ,a c cu ra t e lyr ef e c t ingth eso c ia lh e t e rog en e i ty o fth evo lun t e e r so f1941–3 . Th i r tyy ea r sla t e r ,th ew r i t e rT omá sSa l vado rob s e rv edtha tany my thth eD iv i s ionhadc r ea t eda roundi t s e l f ow edtoth ein t e rna ld iv e r s i tytha thada l low edi t sm emo rytof l t e rin to b roads e c to r so fSpan i shpo s t -wa rso c i e ty : Many m enf romth eD iv i s ion , who w e r el i eu t enan t so rcap ta in sth en ,a r e h igho ff c e r sinth eA rm edFo r c e stoday .Andno taf ewo fth e i rm enhav e b e ene i th e rm in i s t e r so rl ead e r sinSpan i shpo l i t i c s .Ahand fu lo fth ema r e w r i t e r s .Bu t mo s to fth em …b e longtoth eo rd ina ryp eop l e .Pa r to fth e i r 1 3 l eg endow e stoth i sc i r cum s tan c e .

R e tu rn edo ff c e r sand many NCO scon t inu edth e i rm i l i ta ryca r e e r ,bu t mo s tso ld i e r sr e tu rn edtoc iv i l ianl i f e .Th e i rl i f et ra j e c to r i e sw e r eind e ed va r i ed . B e ingr e cogn iz eda sanex comba tan tf rom Ru s s iahadadvan tag e s wh eni tcam etoa c c e s s ingc iv i ls e rv i c epo s t s . Aquo ta wa sr e s e rv ed fo rBDso ld i e r s–a long w i thC iv i lW a rv e t e ran s ,d i sab l edso ld i e r s ,and ex -p r i son e r sinth eR epub l i canzon edu r ingth eC iv i lW a r( ex c au t iv o s )– ins ta t ec iv i ls e rv i c eexam sa ta l ll ev e l s .Tho s e whocho s etopu r su e un iv e r s i tys tud i e sw e r eex emp t edf romtu i t ionandexamf e e s .InF ebrua ry1942 ,th econd i t iono fex comba tan t ,a sd e s c r ib edinLawo f25 Augu s t1939 , wa sex t end edtoanyon e whohads e rv edfou r mon th s

216 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

onth eRu s s ianF ron to rhadb e en wound edth e r e .14 Th e s e mod e s tad van tag e sgav eBDv e t e ran sando th e rex comba tan t sa c c e s stolow -and m ed ium sk i l lpo s t srang ingf roms choo l t ea ch e r stochau f f eu r s .V e t e ran sw e r ea l sog iv enp r io r i tyfo rob ta in ingp e t ro ls ta t ioncon c e s s ion s 15 and job sinpub l i ccompan i e s . W i th inth i sg en e ra l lyfavou rab l ef ram ewo rkfo rin t eg ra t ingF ranco i s tex comba tan t sin toth ec iv i ls e rv i c e wo rkfo r c e ,ea chv e t e ranhad to mak eth eb e s to fh i sownsk i l l sandr e la t iona ln e two rk stor e in s e r t h im s e l fin toth elabou r ma rk e t .Ev entho s e whod idno tb en ef td i r e c t ly f romth e s ecompa ra t iv eadvan tag e shadb rough tsom e th ingba ckf rom Ru s s ia :th eyhad“ s e enth e wo r ld .”Th i sp r epa r edth emfo rem ig ra t ion toLa t in Am e r i caandEu rop e .Infa c t ,s ev e ra lBDv e t e ran sr e tu rn edto G e rmanya sgu e s t wo rk e r sa f t e r1955 . Th ep ro sopog raph i cda taava i lab l eonth epo l i t i ca landso c ia lp rovenan c eo fth eru l inge l i t einea r lyF ran co i smdo e sno tco r robo ra t eth e id eatha ts e rv inginth eB lu eD iv i s ionandth ea s so c ia t edp r e s t ig eo f b e ingav e t e rano fth eEa s t e rnF ron thadanyimm ed ia t eo rin t r in s i c “ t rampo l in e”e f f e c tonth epo l i t i ca lca r e e r so fth er e tu rn e e s .Th eBD v e t e ran sr e c e iv edsom esymbo l i cd i s t in c t ionun t i l1944 ,bu ta lway sa s ag roup w i th inala rg e rco l l e c t iv eo fex comba tan t so rO ld Gua rdFa lang i s t s . How ev e r ,th e i rp r e s en c e inth e s eg roup st end edtob eno t ewo r thy .T ob eav e t e ranf romth eEa s t e rnF ron t wa snoi so la t edd i s t in c t ion : i to f t enco r r e la t edtoaca r e e rtha tb egan w i thFa lang i s tm emb e r sh ipin th e1930 sandhadinvo lv edimp r i sonm en t ,comba t ,a“p rov i s iona len s ign”po s t ,anddu t i e sinsom eb ran cho fth es ing l epa r ty .Inadd i t ionto loya l tytoth eFa lang e ,b e ingan O ldGua rdFa lang i s t ,anex comba tan t , anex cap t iv e ,o ra m emb e ro faFET ma s so rgan iza t ion w e r eamong th ea c c ru ed“m e r i t s”tha tqua l if edon efo rtowncoun c i lm emb e r sh ip du r ingth e1940 sand1950 s .Fo rm e rBDvo lun t e e r sw e r ein c lud edinth e quo tafo rex comba tan t s .BDv e t e ran sw e r eno tnum e r i ca l lys ign if can t inth es ta t epo l i t i ca lpow e rs t ru c tu r e s ,bu tth ey w e r e mo r er e l evan tin tho s ep rov in c e s wh e r eth e r ehadno tb e en mob i l iza t iono rr e c ru i tm en t o fF ran co i s tcomba tan t sun t i l1938–9 . R e tu rn e e sf romRu s s iad idno tev encon s t i tu t easp e c if ca l lyd efn ed po l i t i ca lfa c t ion ,thoughtho s e who w e r eo rgan iz edina s so c ia t ion s t end edtob ea l ign ed w i thth e mo r efa s c i s ts e c to r so fth eFETa f t e r1944 . On lytwo m in i s t e r sinth eF ran cocab in e t sw e r eBDv e t e ran s :th efo rm e rcommand e r in ch i e fo fth eD iv i s ion ,G en e ra l Muñoz G rand e s , whob e cam eM in i s t e ro fth eA rmy(1951–7 )and V i c e -P r e s id en to fth e Gov e rnm en t(1962–7 ) ;andF e rnando M . Ca s t i e l la ,p ro f e s so ro fin t e r na t iona llawa t Mad r id Un iv e r s i ty , whos e rv eda sanamba s sado rand M in i s t e ro fFo r e ign A f fa i r s(1957–69 ) .In1968 ,1 1o fth e109 m emb e r s

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o fth eFET Na t iona lCoun c i l(app rox ima t e ly10 p e rc en t )w e r efo rm e r d iv i s i on a r i o s,and 22 BDv e t e ran sw e r em emb e r so fth eF ran co i s tCo r t e s o rl eg i s la t iv echamb e r(4 p e rc en to fi t s530 m emb e r s ) .Th e s ew e r esma l l p ropo r t ion s ,bu tla rg e rthanth eg en e ra t iona lcoho r to fBDv e t e ran sin Span i shso c i e ty , wh i chamoun t edtol e s sthan2 p e rc en t ,o rev enth e 16 co l l e c t iv eo fF ran co i s tex comba tan t so fth eC iv i lW a r . Wh en G en e ra l F ran cod i edin Nov emb e r1975 ,th e r ew e r etwoBDv e t e ran s– G ene ra lCa r lo sF e rnánd ezV a l l e sp ínand G en e ra lÁng e lSa la sLa r razába l– amongth es ix t e en m emb e r so fth eCoun c i lo fth eR ea lm(Con s e jod e l R e ino ) ,th eg roupta sk ed w i ths e l e c t ingth ecand ida t e sfo rh eado fgove rnm en tandp ropo s ingth emtoK ingJuanCa r lo sI . BDv e t e ran sw e r e mo r ep l en t i fu la tth es e condl ev e lo fs ta t eadm in i st ra t ion .Th ey w e r ee sp e c ia l lyov e r r ep r e s en t edamongth ed i r e c to r so f th eFa lang i s tV e r t i ca lSynd i ca t e , wh e r eO ldSh i r t sabound ed .F rom1942 to1951 ,10 .5p e rc en t( 19 o f181 )o fth ep rov in c ia lsynd i ca t ebo s s e sw e r e BDv e t e ran s .17 P e r c en tag e sw e r es im i la r lyh igh e rfo rp rov in c ia ll ead ing fgu r e so fth eFETando th e rin t e rm ed ia t epo s t sinth eadm in i s t ra t iv e appa ra tu so fth er eg im e .Th er e la t iv eyou tho fth ev e t e ran sf romRu s s ia , inr e la t ionto C iv i lW a rv e t e ran s , mad eth e i rp r e s en c el e s sno tab l ea t f r s tinth e mun i c ipa ladm in i s t ra t ion so fth ep rov in c ia lcap i ta l s ,p rov inc ia lcoun c i l s ,o ramongth eFa lang i s t s whoev en tua l lyh e ldpo s t sa sc iv i l gov e rno r s .18Inth e1950 s ,th epa r t i c ipa t iono ffo rm e rBD m emb e r sb e cam e mo r ev i s ib l e :a tl ea s ttw en tyBDv e t e ran sb e cam e mayo r sinsma l l and m id s iz edtown s .Thoughp r e s en tth roughou tSpa in ,th e s ev e t e r an sw e r e mo r eabundan tinth esou th ea s t e rnp rov in c e s .S ign if can t ly mo r ev e t e ran sf romRu s s ia w e r ee l e c t eda stowncoun c i lm emb e r sdu r19 ingF ran co i sm ,bu tth eexa c tnumb e r sa r ed i ff cu l ttoa s c e r ta in . Th e r ei sas epa ra t echap t e rinth es to ryfo rth eg en e ra t iono fa rmy o ff c e r s whofn i sh edth e i rt ra in inga tth eG en e ra lM i l i ta ry A cad emy b e tw e en1939and1942ands e rv edinth eBD .Th eEa s t e rnF ron t wa s on eo fth e i rf r s ta s s ignm en t s ,and manycho s ei ta sa wayo fa cqu i r ing wa rm e r i t s .Som e166h igh rank ingo ff c e r spa s s edth roughth eBD ,a l l o fth emca r e e rm i l i ta ry m en . Manyhadb egunth e i rt ra j e c to ryinth e co lon ia l wa r sin Mo ro c co ,o th e r sinth eC iv i lW a r . Add i t iona l ly ,2 ,030 low e r rank ingo ff c e r sanda s manya s4 ,083 NCO shadb e ena s s ign ed toth eRu s s ianF ron t ,and manya cqu i r edac e r ta inp r e s t ig eamongth e i r co l l eagu e sfo rhav ings e rv edinth eW eh rma ch t .M eda l sw e r eea rn ed , a tl ea s t21 o ff c e r s ,34 non comm i s s ion edo ff c e r s ,and2so ld i e r sw e r e p romo t edtoah igh e rrank ,anda tl ea s t218o ff c e r sw e r ep romo t edon 20 th ef e ld . Th i senab l edth emtoc l imbth em i l i ta ryladd e randa s c end topo s i t ion so fh ighcommandr e la t iv e ly mo r equ i ck lythancoho r t stha t hadr ema in edinSpa in .

218 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Y e t ,th ee sp r i td ec o rp so fth ev e t e ran sf romth eRu s s ianF ron tandth e i r g en e ra t iona lso l ida r i ty w i th inth eSpan i sh A rmyd idno tr ea chth ed eg r e eo fcoh e s iontha thadcha ra c t e r iz edth e“A f r i can i s t s”twod e cad e s ea r l i e r ,tho s e whohadfough ta tth eco lon ia l wa r in Mo ro c co .Th e i rt im e inRu s s iahadl e f ta m ean ing fu lbu tth inlu s t r eonth e i rs e rv i c er e co rd s , a f fo rd ingth em p romo t ion s ,m eda l s ,andexp e r i en c e s .A c co rd ingto th ela t eg en e ra lA l fon soA rmada ,“ i t wa sa sthough w ehadcomp l e t ed ado c to ra t e .”Th i sin fo rma lc r i t e r ionba r e lyfoundroominth ea rmy fo rc r ea t ingsp e c if ca s so c ia t ion so rev enfo rcu l t iva t ingla s t ingg roup bond s .21 Af ewo ff c e r sco l labo ra t ed w i thv e t e ran s ’a s so c ia t ion s , wh i ch w e r e ma in lyp romo t edbyBDv e t e ran sr e tu rn edtoc iv i l ianl i f e . Thank stoth ea c cumu la t ed p romo t ion sfo r wa r m e r i t s , du r ing th ey ea r so fth e Span i sht ran s i t ionto d emo c ra cy(1975– 82 )as ign if can tp e r c en tag eo fd iv i s ionandb r igad eg en e ra l sinth eSpan i sh A rmyhadfo rm e r lys e rv edin Ru s s ia .B e tw e en1962and1983 ,s ev en command e r s in ch i e fo fth eC iv i l Gua rd–th em i l i ta r iz edru ra lpo l i c e co rp s–a long w i ths ixg en e ra l sande igh tco lon e l sw e r efo rm e rBDo f f c e r s .A tl ea s t300g en e ra l sind iv e r s eb ran ch e so fth eA rm edFo r c e s(2 cap ta ing en e ra l s ,66l i eu t enan tg en e ra l s ,62 d iv i s iong en e ra l s ,170b r i gad eg en e ra l s )hada l sofough tonth eEa s t e rnf ron t .22 How ev e r ,th i s d idno tn e c e s sa r i lyd e t e rm in epo l i t i ca la l ignm en t s . Wh i l eBDv e t e ran s w e r ep l en t i fu lamongth em i l i ta rytopb ra s s , wh i ch ma in lyid en t if ed w i th ma in ta in ingF ran co i s tva lu e s ,no ta l lo fth em w e r eha rd l in e r s .In fa c t ,th em i l i ta rycommand e r s whop lay edc en t ra lro l e sinth efa i l ed coupd ’ é ta ton23 F eb rua ry1981 ,in c lud ingth ep e rp e t ra to r s– G en e ra l Ja im eM i lán sd e lBo s chandG en e ra lA l fon soA rmada–andtho s e who r ema in edloya lto K ingJuan Ca r lo sIandd emo c ra cy– G en e ra l sA r ambu ruT op e t e ,Jo s é Gab e i ra s ,and Qu in tanaLa ca c i–hadon eth ing incommon :th eI ronC ro s s ,awa rd edfo rs e rv i c eonth eRu s s ianF ron t . G en e ra l sLu i sÁ lva r ezRod r ígu ezandF ed e r i coGóm ezd eSa laza r , who p r e s id eda tth ecou r t ma r t ia lo fth econ sp i ra to r s ,w e r ea l sov e t e ran s f romRu s s ia .Th eyhada l lsha r edacommonpa s texp e r i en c ebu tw e r e onv e ryd i f f e r en troad sfou rd e cad e sla t e r . Agen t so f Memo ry :B lue D iv i s ionV e te ran s ’A s so c ia t ion s Compa r edtov e t e ran s ’b ro th e rhood so fth eG e rman A rmyandi t sa l23 l i e s , o rev entho s eo fF ran co i s tex comba tan t s ,th eo r ig ino fBDv e t e r an s ’a s so c ia t ion s wa sc lo s e lyl ink edtoth ecu l ttoth efa l l en .InJanua ry 1942 ,th eG e rmanemba s syp ropo s edap ro j e c ttoo rgan iz eana s so c ia24 t ionfo rr e tu rn e e sf romth eRu s s ianF ron t . How ev e r ,th esugg e s t ion fa i l eddu etola cko fin t e r e s tonth epa r to fth eSpan i shgov e rnm en t .

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Th ea rmyf ea r edtha tth ev e t e ran sm igh tp romo t erad i ca lFa lang i sm andcomp l i ca t ed ip loma t i cr e la t ion sw i thth eA l l i e s ,o rtha tth eycou ld s e rv ea saT ro janho r s efo rth eTh i rdR e i ch . How ev e r ,th eSpan i shpo l i c e 25 a t t r ibu t ed mu ch mo r er e l evan c etoth e s eg roup sthan wa s wa r ran t ed . Inla t e1942 ,th eG e rmanemba s syb e cam es en s i t iv etoth ep e t i t ion s o fth efam i l i e so fSpan ia rd sfa l l eninRu s s ia .Th econ su l so f t enawa rd ed I ronC ro s s e stofam i ly m emb e r so fth ed ead ,andev ensough tG e rman p en s ion sfo rth em .26In1943 ,th eF ran cor eg im eb eganto mak ei tcom p l i ca t edfo rfam i l i e so fth efa l l enandBDv e t e ran stor e c e iv eind iv idua l iz eda t t en t ionf rom G e rmand ip loma t s ;inJun e1944 , Amba s sado r Han s -H e in r i ch D i e ckho f flam en t edtha th e wa sunab l etos endp ropagandatoth er e tu rn e e s ,a sh ehadnoa c c e s stoth e i r ma i l ingl i s t s .27 D e c i s iv eimp e tu sin i t ia l lycam eth roughth ecoo rd ina t iono fw iv e s anddaugh t e r so fth evo lun t e e r s ,e sp e c ia l lytho s el ink edtoth eFa lang e , inth esumm e ro f1941 .So l ida r i tyin c r ea s eda sn ew so fth ef r s tba t t l e s a r r iv edin m id -O c tob e randBDso ld i e r sb egantos endg r e e t ing sv iaRa d ioB e r l in .Th efan c é eo faFa lang i s tcomba tan td e s c r ib edth e s ega th e ring s , wh i chtookp la c ea f t e r Ma s sandRo sa r i e s : H e r eth e r ea r ev e r i tab l ec i r c l e sfo rl i s t en ingtoRad ioB e r l in ,andg roup s o f mo th e r sands i s t e r sfo rminhom e sw i thrad ior e c ep t ion … w ed i s cu s s i t ,comm en toni t ,som e t im e sw ea r eenv i edando th e rt im e senv iou s ,d e p end ingoni fw ehav er e c e iv edal e t t e ro rno t .28

G i r l f r i end s ,s i s t e r s ,andr e la t iv e sw ro t etoen cou rag eth ecomba tan t s infa r -o f fRu s s ia ,th e i ranx i e tyin c r ea s ing wh enth erad ior epo r t edon th eV o lkhovba t t l e so r wh enth e r ew e r ed e lay sinr e c e iv ingl e t t e r sf rom 29 th evo lun t e e r s . Th e mo th e r s ,g i r l f r i end s ,andr e la t iv e so ftho s e who d i edin Ru s s iao f t en m e ta f t e r Ma s s e sfo rth evo lun t e e r sinfou r Mad r idchu r ch e s .InJun e1942 ,th eid eaa ro s etoc r ea t eab ro th e rhoodo f ex comba tan t stocoo rd ina t eadm in i s t ra t iv e wo rkr e la t edtop en s ion s andsub s id i e sfo rv e t e ran sandth e i rfam i l i e s .30 Span i shA rmyr e t i c en c e exp la in s whyth efam i l i e so fth efa l l enaga intookth ein i t ia t iv e .In1943 , th eB ro th e rhoodo fFam i l i e so fth eFa l l eno fth eB lu eD iv i s ion(H e rman dadd eFam i l ia r e sd eCa ído sd ela D iv i s ión Azu l ) wa sfo rm ed ,w i tha chap e linaFETh eadqua r t e r wh e r ear ep l i cao fas cu lp tu r ebyV í c to rd e lo sR ío s ,ar e l ig iou sca rv e r , wa sin s ta l l ed .Th e r e ,r e la t iv e scou lda t t end da i ly Ma s sfo rth efa l l en ,andfo rBDp r i son e r so f wa rinth eSov i e t Un ionla t e ron .G radua l ly ,symbo l i cda t e sw e r ee s tab l i sh edin m emo ryo fth eBD ,su cha sA l lSa in t s ’ Day(2 Nov emb e r )and13Ju ly ,th e ann iv e r sa ryo fth e1941d epa r tu r eo fth ela rg e s tvo lun t e e rexp ed i t ion . Th ein i t ia t iv esoonsp r eadtoo th e rc i t i e s .Inla t e1942 ,anana logou s

220 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .7 .1 .Hom eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion , Mad r id ,1943(AGA )

b ro th e rhoodr equ e s t edth epa t ronag eo falo ca lpa t ronsa in tf romth e B i shopo f Má laga .InJun e1943 ,th efounda t ionfo rth eP iou sM emo ryo f 31 th eFa l l eninth eG lo r iou sB lu eD iv i s ion wa se s tab l i sh edinV a l en c ia . Inla t e1944 ,th eSpan i shgov e rnm en to rd e r edth ec lo su r eo fth eB lu e D iv i s ion Hom e ,bu tth echap e l wa s mov edtoth eh eadqua r t e r so fth e P rov in c ia lD e l ega t iono fEx -Comba tan t s .Twoy ea r sla t e r ,i tb e cam eth e B ro th e rhoodo fth eFam i l i e so fth eFa l l eno fth eB lu eD iv i s ion(H e rmandadd eFam i l ia r e sd eCa ído sd ela D iv i s ión Azu l ) ,w i tha c t iv i t i e sl imi t edtop e r iod i ca lr e l ig iou sa c t sandth ec e l eb ra t iono f Mo th e r ’ sDayon 8D e c emb e r .In1953 ,i tb e cam eth eB ro th e rhoodo fth eFam i l i e so fth e Fa l l en ,P r i son e r s ,andEx -Comba tan t so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,andb egan n ego t ia t ion stha tu l t ima t e lyl edtoth er epa t r ia t iono f mo s tp r i son e r s f romSov i e tcamp sin Ap r i l1954 ,thank stoth em ed ia t iono fth eR ed C ro s s . Hund r ed so fv e t e ran sw e l com edhom eth er e l ea s edp r i son e r sa t th epo r to fBa r c e lona ,g iv ingth ea c th ighemo t iona limpa c tandin c r ea s 32 ingth ev i s ib i l i tyo fth eco l l e c t iv em emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .

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Th eau th en t i c“ t r an sm i s s ionag en t s ”o fth eo ff c i a lm emo ryo fth ev i cto r so f1 9 3 9 ,th eex comb a t an ta s so c i a t ion sf romth eC iv i lW a r(N a t ion a l Ex -Comb a t an t sB ro th e rhood , N a t ion a lB ro th e rhood o fP rov i s ion a l En s ign s ) , wo rk edincoo rd in a t ion w i thth e DNE .Th ebu rg eon ingBD b ro th e rhood sf tw i th inth i ss t ru c tu r e ,bu tw i thsom es ingu l a r i t i e s .F i r s t , m anyo fth emfo rm edonth espon t an eou sin i t i a t iv e so fg roup so fBD v e t e r an s .S e cond ,th en e c e s s i tyo fad ap t ingtoth eCo ld W a rcon t ex tr equ i r edth er eg im etodownp l ayi t sa t t en t iontoaun i tth a th adfough tin th eW eh rm a ch t .Th e r e fo r e ,th ed i c t a to r sh ipg av es c an to ff c i a lsuppo r t 3 3 toth eBDb ro th e rhood s . Th i sb e c am eev id en t in M ayo f1 9 5 9 , wh enBD v e t e r an sh e ldar e c ep t ionfo rad e l eg a t iono fth eCondo rL eg ionV e t e ran s ’A s so c i a t ion , wh i chh adb e enfound edth r e ey e a r se a r l i e r . Du r inga r e l ig iou so f f e r inginB a r c e lon a ,som eshou t edp ro -N a z is log an s , wh i ch p rov edawkw a rdfo rth eW e s tG e rm anemb a s sy .34 How ev e r ,suppo r tfo r comm emo r a t iv ea c t so fth eb ro th e rhood sinsom ep rov in c e sr ev e a l ed comp l i c i ty w i thp rov in c i a ll e ad e r so fth eFET ,c iv i land m i l i t a rygov e r no r s ,andev entown m ayo r s .Thu s ,th eA l i c an t eb ro th e rhoodr e c e iv ed don a t ion sf romth ep rov in c i a lgov e rnm en tands ev e r a l mun i c ip a l i t i e s . Som eex -BD m emb e r s ma in ta in eds t rongin fo rma ll ink sw i thfo rm e r 35 com rad e sand m e to c ca s iona l lytocomm emo ra t esp e c if cda t e s . Th i s a l sofoundexp r e s s ioninth espon tan eou sfounda t iono fb ro th e rhood s ins ev e ra lc i t i e s ,som e t im e sw i thnoo rgan i cl inktoth e DNEo rth eFa lang e .In A lava ,ap rov in c ia lb ro th e rhood wa sa l r eadyo rgan iz edby F eb rua ryo f1954 .Sub s equ en t ly ,th eA lavag roupp ropo s edth ec r eat iono fb ro th e rhood sina l lth ep rov in c e stoth e Na t iona lD e l ega t eo f Ex -Comba tan t sand BDv e t e ran T omá s Ga r c ía R ebu l l .In1954–5 ,26 mo r eb ro th e rhood ssp rangupin Mad r id ,Ba r c e lona ,ando th e rp rov inc ia lcap i ta l s .Apa r tf romth eex c ep t iona l lyla rg eA s tu r ianb ro th e rhood , m emb e r sh iprang edf rom 45to150 m emb e r ssp r ead ma in lyth rough ou tCa s t i l e ,Anda lu s ia ,andth esou th ea s t . InJun e1956 ,250BDv e t e ran sr ep r e s en t ing29lo ca lg roup sconv e rg ed inV a l en c iafo rth ef r s t Na t iona lCon f e r en c eo fB lu eD iv i s ionB ro th e r hood s ,p r e s id edbyGa r c íaR ebu l l .36 On eo f i t sp r ima ryob j e c t iv e s wa sto c r ea t ea Na t iona lF ed e ra t iono fBDb ro th e rhood s .Con f e r en c esp eak e r s exud edan t i commun i sm ,Ca tho l i c i sm ,andloya l tytoth efound ingt en e t so fF ran co i sm .Th eya l soca l l edfo rfu lf lm en to fth e“ r evo lu t iona ry” t en e t so fth eFa lang e , wh i chin c lud eda“ fa i rr ed i s t r ibu t iono fna t iona l in com e”a sw e l la sa“ so c io e conom i cpo l i cytha tavo id edex c e s s iv ed i f f e r en c e samongwo rk e r s ,”th eg radua ld i sman t l ingo f“p r e s su r eg roup s , ca r t e l s ,t ru s t s ,and monopo l i e s ,”andth evagu egoa lo f“ t ran s fo rm ing th een t r ep r en eu r ia ls t ru c tu r eandcon c ep to fp rop e r ty .”A ch i ev ingth e s e ob j e c t iv e s wh i l eavo id ingpov e r tyinth elow e rc la s s e s– wh i ch m igh t

222 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .7 .2 .Mo th e ro fCo rpo ra lN em e s ioGa r c íaV ega ,d e co ra t ed w i thth eI ron C ro s sawa rd edpo s thumou s lytoh e rson(In f o rm a c i on e s ,24 Ma r ch1942 )

op enth edoo rtocommun i sm–r equ i r edavagu e“ r e fo rm”o fth ed i cta to r sh ip ,r ev i ta l iza t iono fth eFa lang e ,anda l low ingsom ek indo f“o r d e r ly”f r e edomo fsp e e ch .Th eya l sop e t i t ion edtoe s tab l i shquo ta sfo r BDv e t e ran stoa c c e s sc iv i ls e rv i c epo s t sandsub s id iz edhou s ing .37 Th enumb e ro fb ro th e rhood scon t inu edtoin c r e a s ea f t e rth ef r s tconf e r en c e .Th ef r s tN a t ion a lCoun c i lo fBDB ro th e rhood sh e ldinSob rón (Á l av a ) inO c tob e ro f1 9 5 8ho s t edfo r ty twod e l eg a t e sf romtw en ty th r e e lo c a l and p rov in c i a lb ro th e rhood s . Th eg eog r aph i c a ld i s t r ibu t ion loo s e lyco in c id ed w i thp rov in c e sund e rR epub l i c ancon t ro lun t i lM a r ch

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F ig .7 .3 .BDv e t e ran s ’lun chinCa l e l la(Ba r c e lona ) ,ea r ly1950 s(Ca l e l laC i ty A r ch iv e )

1 9 3 9 ;th e r e ,BDv e t e r an sw e r e mo r ev i s ib l einth eab s en c eo fo th e rF r an 3 8 co i s tex comb a t an t so fth eC iv i lW a r . Th eco rpo r a t iv eand mu tu a l i s t i c n a tu r eo fth eo rg an i z a t ion w a sr e in fo r c edandth eyag r e edtoinv i t eth e M in i s t ryo fFo r e ignA f f a i r stoov e r s e ed e a l ing sw i thth eF ed e r a lR epubl i co fG e rm any ,top ro cu r eG e rm an w a rp en s ion sfo r mu t i l a t edv e t e r an s o rf am i l i e so fth ef a l l en .39 Y e t ,th eN a t ion a lB ro th e rhoodo fth eB lu eD i v i s ion w a sno to ff c i a l lye s t ab l i sh edun t i lth eS e cond N a t ion a lCoun c i l , wh i chtookp l a c ein A l i c an t einJun e1 9 5 9 .Ev en w i than a t ion a ls t ru ctu r eandi t s mon th lyjou rn a lH e rm an d a d (b egunin1 9 5 5 ) ,th ep rov in c i a l b ro th e rhood sa lw ay s m a in t a in ed amp l e au tonomy . Th ey pub l i sh ed bu l l e t in sth a tw e r es e ldomr egu l a r ,w i thth eex c ep t iono fth e mon th ly 4 0 m ag a z in eB l auD i v i s i ón ,b egunin1 9 5 7byth eA l i c an t eb ro th e rhood . Th eb ro th e rhood sa l sod emon s t ra t edth e i rconv en ingpow e rin O ctob e r1961 , wh enana c to fhomag eto Ou rLadyo fth eP i l la r(V i rg en d e lP i la r )inZa ragoza wa so rgan iz edfo rth etw en t i e thann iv e r sa ryo f th e i rbap t i smbyf r eonth eV o lkhovF ron t . A man t l ew i thth eBDem b l em wa sp la c edonth eV i rg in ,tob e wo rnev e ry10 F eb rua ryonth e ann iv e r sa ryo fth eBa t t l eo fK ra sny iBo r .Som efou rthou sandex -BD

224 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t 41 so ld i e r sandth e i rr e la t iv e sa t t end ed ,a long w i ths ev e ra lFETl ead e r s . Th ev i ta l i tyo fth eBDb ro th e rhood s wa sr ef e c t edinth e i rcapa c i tyto b r ingtog e th e ras ign if can tpo r t iono fth ev e t e ran sinea chp rov in c e . Mo r eov e r ,th eso c ia lp rof l eo fBDb ro th e rhood s wa sl e s sm idd l e c la s s co lou r edthantha to fo th e rF ran co i s tex comba tan ta s so c ia t ion s .Thu s , th eSan tand e rb ro th e rhood wa sfound edin1955andboa s t ed186 m em b e r say ea r la t e r ,r ep r e s en t ingsom e15–17 p e rc en to f l iv ingBDv e t e ran s intha tp rov in c e .Th em idd l eandlow e r -m idd l es t ra ta w e r esom ewha t ov e r r ep r e s en t edinth eso c ia lo r ig in so fth e159 m emb e r s whol i s t ed th e i rp ro f e s s ion , wh i cha c cu ra t e lyr ef e c t edth ed iv e r s i tyo fBDv e t e r an s :54( 34 p e rc en t )w e r eemp loy e e s ,non -manua l wo rk e r s ,andc iv i l s e rvan t s ;43( 27 p e rc en t )w e r esk i l l edlabou r e r s ;35( 22 p e rc en t )w e r e un sk i l l ed wo rk e r so rdaylabou r e r s ;10(6 .28p e rc en t )w e r em emb e r so f 42 th em i l i ta ry ;and2(1 .35p e rc en t )w e r efa rm e r s . Ex c ep tfo rth epow e r fu lA s tu r iana s so c ia t ion , mo s tb ro th e rhood sr ep43 r e s en t ed15–33 p e rc en to fBDr e tu rn e e s . Th ep r e s id en to fth eA lba c e t e b ro th e rhoodc la im edtha tth i sen t i tyhadga th e r eda s manya s200(38 .1 p e rc en t )o fth e515r e tu rn e e stoth ep rov in c e .Th e Gu ipúz coab ro the rhood ,s e tupin1961 ,had120 m emb e r s , wh i chr ep r e s en t eda round 23 p e rc en to fth er e tu rn e e so fth ep rov in c e .Th e Mad r idb ro th e rhood 44 c la im edtwothou sand m emb e r s in1958 . O th e r ind i ca to r sp la c eth e infu en c eo fth eb ro th e rhood sa t mo r e mod e s t l ev e l s .Th eBa r c e lonab ro the rhoodd i s t r ibu t ed2 ,940cop i e so fi t sbu l l e t in( H e rm and ad)th roughou t Spa inin D e c emb e r1958 , wh i chco r r e spond edto7–8 p e rc en to fa l lBD 45 r e tu rn e e s . Th eso l idco r eo fb ro th e rhood s wa s mu chsma l l e r :f rom 1957to2008ato ta lo f870v e t e ran sw e r em en t ion edbynam einB l au D iv i s i ón a scon t r ibu to r s ,sub s c r ib e r s ,a s so c ia t e s ,o rs imp lyr e f e r en c e s . Th i sr ep r e s en t ed ju s tov e r2 p e rc en to fth er e tu rn edv e t e ran s . Lo ca lb ro th e rhood sw e r ee s tab l i sh edonth ein i t ia t iv eo fBDv e t e ran s , who w e r eg en e ra l ly w e l lconn e c t ed w i thlo ca landp rov in c ia lau tho ri t i e s ,o rby m i l i ta ryga r r i sono ff c e r s whohads e rv edonth e Ru s s ian F ron t .A l la s so c ia t ion sfo l low eds im i la r op e ra t iona l pa t t e rn s :som e pub l i sh edbu l l e t in s ,s ev e ra lhadso c ia lc en t r e s ,andth eyd ed i ca t edpa r t o fth e i ra c t iv i t i e stoa ch i ev ingp ra c t i ca lgoa l s ,su cha sin t e r c ed ingto ob ta inp en s ion sfo rfam i l i e so fth efa l l en ,s e ek ings ta t esub s id i e sfo r d i sab l edv e t e ran s ,andp ro cu r ingsub s id i e sfo rtho s einpov e r ty .46 Th ey fun c t ion ed a s bo th mu tua la id a s so c ia t ion s andin fo rma lemp loy m en tag en c i e s . Th eya l so m ed ia t edtos e cu r ea c c e s sto un ionhou singfo rth en e ed i e s t ,o rtosp e c if cs e rv i c e ssu cha spa r t i c ipa t ioninth e 47 s ta t e spon so r edl e i su r eandr e c r ea t iona lo rgan iza t ion s . So l ida r i tyamongv e t e ran sa l soex t end edb eyonda s so c ia t iv esph e r e s . T i e sw e r e ma in ta in edth roughin fo rma lso c ia lga th e r ing s(t e r tu l i a s )tha t

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F ig .7 .4 .Twor e tu rn e e sf romSov i e tcap t iv i tya r r iv ea tth e i rhom e town ,Ap r i l 1954(AA )

b rough ttog e th e ro ff c e r s ,su rg eon s ,ands imp l eso ld i e r s .Th e i rin t en s e cama rad e r i e wa sin fu s ed w i thb i t t e rd i s en chan tm en t :th eBD w e r eth e 48 “a c cu r s ed h e ro e s ,”o r“a g en e ra t ion m i sund e r s toodtoday .” Many v e t e ran skn ewtha tth eycou ldr e f e rtoth e s es en t im en ta lbond s wh en 49 s e ek ingemp loym en to rr e comm enda t ion s . Th eb ro th e rhood sa l soa s sum edth eta sko f ma in ta in ingth eBD m emo ryth roughacu l ttoth efa l l en .I twa ssu s ta in edbycomm emo ra t iv ea c t s and Ma s s e sonsp e c if cda t e s ,o f f e r ing sa tC iv i lW a r monum en t s ,and co l l e c t iv epa r t i c ipa t ioninpa rad e sandcomm emo ra t ion so fth er eg im e . BDv e t e ran sa l socu l t iva t edth e i rowncomm emo ra t iv el i tu rgy . Onchos enann iv e r sa r i e s ,th eyc e l eb ra t edth em emo ryo fth ed epa r tu r eo fth e “f r s td iv i s ion” inea r lyJu ly(1941 ) ,th ea r r iva la tth ef ron ton12 O c tob e r (1941 ) ,ande sp e c ia l lyth eBa t t l eo fK ra sny iBo r(1943 )on10 F eb rua ry . Th esymbo l i cro l eo fth efam i l i e so fth efa l l enr ema in eds ign if can t ,and sp e c if cc e l eb ra t ion sw e r eh e ldfo rth e mo th e r so ffa l l enso ld i e r s .Ev e ry y ea r ,onon eo fth e s eth r e eda t e s ,aCa tho l i c Ma s s wou ldb esa idins eve ra lc i t i e sfo rth esou l so ftho s e whoa r es t i l l“ inRu s s ia ,”fo l low edby sp e e ch e s . Wh e r ev e rth e r e wa sac lo s er e la t ion sh ip w i thc iv i lo rm i l i ta ryau tho r i t i e s ,th e s ea c t sin c lud ed m i l i ta ryr ev i ew s . How ev e r ,in mo s t p rov in c e sth elo ca lau tho r i t i e sg radua l lys topp eda t t end ing .50

226 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

Th ev e t e ran sf romth eRu s s iancampa igno f t encomp la in edabou tth e s can tv i s ib i l i tyo fth em emo ryo fth e i rfa l l encom rad e s . No mau so l eum equ iva l en ttoth e ma j e s t i cV a l l eyo fth eFa l l en ,inaugu ra t edin1959 ,had b e enbu i l tfo rtho s e who“a r es t i l lin Ru s s ia .”Th e monum en ttoth e B lu eD iv i s ioninA lba c e t e ,bu i l tin1958andnowr emov ed , wa sth eon ly p la c e wh e r efo ra lo f f e r ing sw e r e mad eonsp e c if cda t e s .51 How ev e r , th enumb e ro fs t r e e t sandsqua r e sd ed i ca t edtoth eBDin c r ea s eds ign i f i can t lydu r ingth ela t eF ran coy ea r s .S ev e ra ltown s ,in c lud ingCu en ca , V i to r ia ,G i jon ,andPon t ev ed ra ,r e cogn iz eda l lv e t e ran sa s“adop t iv e son s”andnam eds t r e e t sa f t e rth eB lu eD iv i s ioninth eea r ly1960 s .Ba r c e lonafo l low edsu i tin1966 .S t r e e t sw e r enam edfo rG en e ra l Muñoz G rand e sinfou rc i t i e s , wh i l esqua r e sands t r e e t sw e r enam edfo rlo ca l fa l l enh e ro e sandBDo ff c e r sinth e i rhom e town s . Mad r ida l soinaugu ra t edas t r e e td ed i ca t edtoth e“ fa l l enso ld i e r so fth eB lu eD iv i s ion”in 1958 .52 Th e s elo ca lin i t ia t iv e scou ldb epa r t lyund e r s tooda sar ea c t ion by manyFa lang el ead e r s whosawth epo l i t i ca linfu en c eo fth es ing l e pa r tyd e c r ea s ing w i th inth ed i c ta to r sh ip .Jo s éM . Ma r t ín ez -V a l ,as e condh eado fth eFa lang einth eC iudad R ea lp rov in c eandh im s e l fa BDv e t e ran ,w ro t ein1968tha ti tshou ldb ecompu l so rytoshou tinth e fa c e so fth e manyfo rm e rcom rad e s whohadpo l i t i ca l lyd e s e r t edtha t th e“B lu eD iv i s ion wa sno m i s tak ea ta l l .”T oh im ,th eD iv i s ionhad b e enanen t i r e ly“na t iona landFa lang i s t”end eavou r .53 Non e th e l e s s ,th eBD m emo ryins t r e e tnam e s wa ss ign if can t lyl e s s p r e s en tthanth em emo ryo fth ew inn e r so fth eC iv i lW a r .S t r e e t sd edi ca t edto18Ju ly ,F ran co ,Jo s é An ton ioP r imod eR iv e ra ,ands ev e ra l in su rg en tg en e ra l sw e r efa r mo r ef r equ en tthanu rbanr em ind e r so fth e B lu eD iv i s ion .A f t e rth ef r s td emo c ra t i clo ca le l e c t ion sin Ap r i l1979 , th e i rnumb e r sd e c r ea s ed .In1986 ,how ev e r ,a tl ea s tn in e t e enc i t i e so f mo r ethanf f tythou sandinhab i tan t ss t i l lhads t r e e tnam e scomm emo54 ra t inge i th e r th eB lu eD iv i s ion , i t sfa l l en ,o r i t s“h e ro e s .” Th eyw e r es t i l l th e r einnum e rou stown sa tth eb eg inn ingo fth etw en ty -f r s tc en tu ry . Ma in ta in ings t r e e tnam e sin m emo ryo faun i to ffo r e ignvo lun t e e r sin th eW eh rma ch ti st ru lyex c ep t iona lin W e s t e rnEu rop e . How ev e r ,th e s e con s t i tu t eat r if ingp e r c en tag eo fth eF ran co i s tsymbo l sandp la c e so f m emo rytha tendu r edb eyond1978 .55 TheB lue D iv i s ionPo s t -wa r Na r ra t ive Inadd i t iontoth epub l i c i ty -o r i en t eda c t iv i tyo fth eb ro th e rhood s ,an impo r tan tp e r c en tag eo fth eau tob iog raph i ca lna r ra t iv e so rBD -ba s ed f c t ionem e rg edf rom pub l i sh inghou s e sl ink edtorad i ca lFa lang i s t c i r c l e s . Twosu ch pub l i sh e r s w e r e Ca ra l t and A c e rvo , own ed by

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F ig .7 .5 .Inaugu ra t iono fca l l eD iv i s iónAzu l(B lu eD iv i s ions t r e e t ) ,V i to r ia , 1961(C i tyA r ch iv eo fV i to r ia )

228 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

th e Fa lang i s t Ba r c e lonac i tycoun c i l lo r Lu i sd e Ca ra l tandth e BD ex comba tan tJo s éL lo r en s Bo r rá s ,r e sp e c t iv e ly . Bo r rá s ma in ta in ed c lo s econ ta c tw i ths ev e ra l Eu rop eanfa s c i s tex i l e sinSpa in(Ho r ia S ima ,O t toSko rz eny ,L éon D eg r e l l e )andpub l i sh edan t i -S em i t i cand n eo -Naz i ma t e r ia linth e1960 s .56 In1944 ,th eF ran co i s tr eg im eb egantodownp layth em emo ryo fth e BD .Inth en ewrh e to r i c ,d i spa t ch ingth eB lu eD iv i s iontoth eEa s t e rn F ron thadb e enac l ev e r mano euv r etoapp ea s eH i t l e r wh i l ek e ep ing Spa inou to fth econf i c t :apu r e lyan t i commun i s ten t e rp r i s eandp r ecu r so rtoth e Co ld W a r .Th i sd i lu t edth eG e rmanoph i l iao f manyBD m emb e r s .F rom1943on ,th echang eo fd i r e c t ionb egantosu r fa c esub t ly insom en ew spap e r sand wa sev end e f end edbys ev e ra lBDv e t e ran s . F ed e r i coIzqu i e rdo w ro t ein Ma r ch1945tha tF ran cohadb e enr igh tno t toa s so c ia t eh im s e l fw i th Ax i spo l i t i ca lfo rmu la s .“Ahand fu lo fSpan ia rd s ,r ep r e s en ta t iv e so fana t iona lan t i commun i s tf e e l ing”hadgon e to Ru s s iafou ry ea r sea r l i e r ,toca r ryonth efgh to f1936 ,no tou to f “ f r i end sh ip w i thG e rmany .”57 T r in idad N i e tod e s c r ib edr ea son sfo rc e l eb ra t ingth eA l l i edt r iumphbu tlam en t edth epo s s ib l e“ ex t e rm ina t ion” o fth eG e rmanp eop l ea tSov i e thand s .Eu rop eanc iv i l iza t ionhadb e en d e f ea t edby“aby s sa lA s ia”andth e Un i t edS ta t e s .58 F i f t e eny ea r sla t e r , M in i s t e rF e rnando M .Ca s t i e l lap r e s en t edth eB lu eD iv i s iona tG eo rg etown Un iv e r s i tya sanem in en t lyan t i commun i s ten t e rp r i s e ,th ep r i c e Spa inhadpa idfo ri t sn eu t ra l i tyandap r e cu r so rto wha tth eCo ld W a r wou ldr ep r e s en t .59 Th eBD m emo ryi son eo fd e f ea t ed w inn e r s ;th eyfa i l edtobu i ldan au th en t i ca l lyfa s c i s tSpa inand w e r ed e f ea t edbyth eSov i e ten emy , a long s id eth e i rEu rop eana l l i e s . How ev e r ,th eBDi sa l soimpo r tan tto th ep ro f e s s iona lm emo ryo fth em i l i ta rye s tab l i shm en t .Th e r e ,ab en ign andid ea l i s t i cin t e rp r e ta t iono fth eB lu eD iv i s ionp e r s i s t edun t i lth eend o fth etw en t i e thc en tu ry .Th eBDexp e r i en c eha sg en e ra t eda tl ea s t150 m emo i r s ,na r ra t iv e s ,o rb iog raph i ca lnov e l ss in c e1942 ,w i thg r ea t e s t in t en s i tyf rom1954to1962 ,thank stoth epub l i cv i s ib i l i tytha ta c com pan i edth er e tu rnf romth e USSRo fth ep r i son e r so f wa raboa rdth e sh ipS em i r am i sin Ap r i l1954 .O ff c e r sT eodo roPa la c io sand G e ra rdo O roqu i e ta w e r eexa l t edbyth er eg im ea sh e ro i cd e f end e r so f Ch r i s t ian i ty ;th eya l soempha s iz edth ep e r fo rman c eo fth em i l i ta ryov e rtha t o fth eFa lang i s t s , whosawth e i rro l einth eB lu eD iv i s ion m in im iz ed .60 Th e i rlongcap t iv i tyin sp i r ednov e l sandp lay sfo cu s edonth esu f f e r ing o fth e i rfam i l i e sinSpa in .61In t e r e s tsp ik ed w i thth efa l lo fcommun i s t r eg im e sinth eea r ly1990 sandaga ininth eea r ly2000 s ,co in c id ing w i th asub l im ina l wa ro fm emo ry w i thth eSpan i shpo l i t i ca ll e f t , wh i chhad laun ch edth ecampa ignfo rth er e cov e ryo fth eh i s to r i ca lm emo ryo fth e

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v i c t im so fF ran co i s tr ep r e s s ion .62 T oth e s ew ecanaddhund r ed so fsho r t au tob iog raph i ca lo rf c t iona ls to r i e sandsom ec in ema tog raph i cr e c r eat ion s ,e sp e c ia l lyinth e1950 s , wh enth eBDo c cup i eda mo r ec en t ra lo r 63 la t e ra lpo s i t ioninth ep lo t . Why wa sw r i t ingonth i stop i csop ro l if c ? Ma in lydu etoth eh igh p e r c en tag eo fsu rv ivo r s .A lmo s t90 p e rc en to fth eBDvo lun t e e r sl iv ed tot e l lth eta l e ,b e cau s eth ey w e r ep la c edona mo s t lys tab l ef ron tand w i thd rawnp r io rtoth eg r ea tSov i e to f f en s iv e so f1944 .Th eBD m emo ry wa sn ev e rbann edf romth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e ,andacon s id e rab l e p ropo r t iono fth evo lun t e e r sw e r eun iv e r s i tys tud en t s ,in t e l l e c tua l s ,o r ad ep tw r i t e r ssu cha sR id ru e jo ,T omá sSa lvado r , Ca s tañón ,andRodr igo Royo ,o rjou rna l i s t sl ik e Góm ez -T e l loandT r in idad N i e to ,a long w i th manyo th e r s whos toodou t inth ea r t so rs c i en c e s .Th econ t ex t wa s favou rab l efo rau tob iog raph i e s , ma in lytho s eo fedu ca t edFa lang i s t vo lun t e e r s .Th e i r wo rk scon s t i tu t easubg en r einSpan i shfa s c i s tl i t e ratu r e .By1975 ,af ewBD th em ednov e l shada l sob e enpub l i sh edou t s id e o fSpa in ,thoughth eyd epa r t edf romth eu sua lton e s .64 Th e BD m emo ryund e rw en ts ev e ra lr enova t ion s .65 Thoughi t wa s bo th e r som efo rF ran co i smb e tw e en1945and1950 , i tg radua l lyadap t ed toth eCo ld W a rcon t ex t .Spa in wa sp r e s en t eda saCa tho l i ccoun t ryand afo r e runn e rinth efgh taga in s tcommun i sm .Ap r im eexamp l eo fth i s wa sth eau tob iog raphyo faBDv e t e ran who wa sth ena wo rk e rinG e rmany ,A lb e r tod eLav edán .InAp r i l1945 ,h ee s cap edtoP ragu e , wh e r e h ew i tn e s s edth eup r i s ingaga in s tth eG e rman sandth ea r r iva lo fth e R edA rmy .H eid en t if ed w i thth eCz e chp eop l ea s ma r ty r s ,empha s izingtha tth eB lu eD iv i s ionhadc l ea r lypo in t edou tth een emy wh enth ey con f ron t ed“ th eSov i e tho rd e s …w i thth e i rr edfag s ,th e i rrap e s ,p i l lag ing , ma s s mu rd e r s .”Inh i sv i ew ,thou sand so fSpan ia rd shadfo r e s e en in1936“ th et rag i cun r e s to fth ecu r r en t ,dynam i ca l lyagg r e s s iv ecold 66 war tha tth eSov i e t Un ioni s wag ingaga in s tth e Ch r i s t ian wo r ld .” Thu s ,th el e i tmo t i fo fBDl i t e ra tu r econ s i s t edo fh igh l igh t inghowSpania rd sfough tw i th G e rmany ,bu tno tf o rth eTh i rdR e i ch ,aga in s tacom monen emyinth enam eo fW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ionandCa tho l i cva lu e s ,a s acon t inua t iono fth eC iv i lW a randa sap r e lud etoth eCo ld W a r . Th ed ea tho fF ran cop rov id ednon con fo rm i s tFa lang i s t sw i than ew mo t iva t ion :tov ind i ca t eth el ega cyo fth eB lu eD iv i s iona sanexamp l e fo rn ewg en e ra t ion so fn eo fa s c i s t sandno s ta lg i s t s , who w e r ed i so r i en t edbyth econ so l ida t iono fd emo c ra cyandth e i rowne l e c to ra lw eak n e s s . Manyo fth ems ea r ch edfo rafu tu r einth epa s t .N ewed i t ion so f m emo i r so f wa rv e t e ran sf romth eEa s t e rnF ron tw e r enowen cou rag ed by ma rg ina lpub l i sh e r ssu cha sGa r c ía H i spán , wh i ch wa sown edbyan ex -m emb e ro fth en eo -Naz ig roupCEDADE ,andyoungp ropagand i s t s

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a l ign ed w i thr ev i s ion i s tt en e t so fth e Ho lo cau s to rl ink ed w i tha t t emp t s 67 tor enova t eth eid eo logyo fSpan i shfa s c i sm . How ev e r , du r ingth e t ran s i t ionto d emo c ra cy ,in t e r e s tin c r ea s edinth ep lu ra l i tyo f mo t i va t ion samongth eBDvo lun t e e r s , whoapp ea r eda sev e ry th ingf rom 68 an t i -F ran co i s t stoadv en tu r e r so fth eL eg ion . Th ed em i s eo fth eSov i e tb lo ckandth e USSRin1991h e lp edtor ev iv eth ein t e r e s to f manyex -BDcomba tan t sinpub l i sh ingth e i rm emo i r s .Th i s mom en ta ryr e su rg en c eo fpub l i cin t e r e s tinth eB lu eD iv i s ion co in c id ed w i thth ein t en s if ca t iono fth e2002– 4campa ignind iv e r s e s e c to r so fSpan i shc iv i lso c i e tytor e cov e rf romob l iv ionth em emo ry o fth ed e f ea t edo f1939 :i t wa sth e“ r e tu rno fh i s to r i ca lm emo ry .”Th e so c ia l -d emo c ra t i cgov e rnm en to f Rod r ígu ez Zapa t e ro(2004– 1 1 ) pa r t ia l lya s sum edth i sta sk ,p rovok ingapa ra l l e lcoun t e r -o f f en s iv ef rom in t e l l e c tua l sand w r i t e r sl ink edtoth e mo s tcon s e rva t iv es e c to r so fth e Popu la rPa r ty(PP ) .Th ey w e r ejo in edbyex t r em er igh tc i r c l e s ,t rad it iona lm i l i ta ryh i s to r ian s ,andap e r s i s t en t ,u l t ra -Ca tho l i ch i s to r iog ra phy ,a l lo f wh i chcon s id e rth eB lu eD iv i s iona sas en s i t iv etou ch s ton eo f 69 ana l t e rna t iv eh i s t o r i c a lm em o ry,tha to fth ew inn e r sinth eC iv i lW a r . C l i ch é sinB lu eD iv i s i on M em o ry Th ec i r cum s tan c e sd e s c r ib edh e r ehav econd i t ion edth eso c ia lf ram e s o fth eco l l e c t iv eandind iv idua lm emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion .70 Th eBD na r ra t iv em ix e sap e r fo rma t iv er e con s t ru c t ion w i thfa c tua lr ef e c t ion s o fev en t s ,comb in ingr em emb e r ingandfo rg e t t ing . As e to fna r ra t iv e s t ra t eg i e s ,pa ra t ex tua lr e cou r s e s ,m emo i r s ,nov e l s ,andf lm sha sfo rg ed ap e r fo rma t iv ena r ra t iv eabou tth eind iv idua lexp e r i en c eo fth eBDvo lun t e e r stha tha sb e eng en e ra l iz edtoth e who l eD iv i s iona saco l l e c t iv e . Th i sin t e rp r e ta t ionha ssp r eada sth eau th en t i cn a r r a t iv eo fth eB lu eD i v i s ion :i tb e cam eh eg emon i cdu r ingF ran co i smbu ta l sosp r eadth rough 71 th ea rmyand mu cho fth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r ea f t e r1975 . Th e ma inf ea tu r e so ftha tna r ra t iv er e s emb l etho s eo fth em emo r ia li s t i c wo rk so fG e rman ,I ta l ian ,o ro th e rso ld i e r sinth eEa s t e rnF ron t .In b roads t rok e s ,th e i rl eg i t im iz ingd i s cou r s ei sa l soana logou sto wha t wa sp romo t ed by W eh rma ch tv e t e ran a s so c ia t ion s : Eu rop ean i sm , an t i commun i smd e ta ch edf rom Naz iexpan s ion i sm ,d i s tan c ingf rom 72 a l lcomp l i c i ty w i thth e wa rc r im e scomm i t t edex c lu s iv e lybySSun i t s Wha t ,th en ,w e r eth e mo s td i s t in c t iv ee l em en t so fth eBDna r ra t iv eon th eEa s t e rnF ron t ?Th eycanb esumma r iz edinfou rpo in t s . a ) Ih a dad i s i l lu s i on e dc om r a d e .M anyn a r r a t iv e sr ev e a lacomb in a t ion o frubb e r s t ampF a l ang i s tid e a l i smanda c r idd i s appo in tm en t ,bo rn

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o fth econ t r a s tb e tw e enth ev i r i l e ,in t e r c l a s senv i ronm en to fth e 7 3 t r en ch e sandth ehypo c r i t i c a lm a t e r i a l i smo fc iv i l i anl i f e . Th e r ew a s a l sopo l i t i c a ld i s en ch an tm en t .Th eF r an co i s tr eg im eandi t soppo r tun i s tl e ad e r sh adf a i l eda f t e r1 9 4 5tohonou rth es a c r if c eo fth ed i v i s i on a r i o s .M anyv e t e r an sp r e s en t edth em s e lv e sa sth el a s tF a l ang i s t s , ho ld ingh ighth ef ago fap end ingr evo lu t ion ,on lytob e com e“ou tl aw sandou t c a s t s . ”Th ey w e r enon con fo rm i s t s ,bu tun r ep en t an t . R id ru e jo ,C a s t añón ,o rLu i sRom e roevo lv edtow a rd san t i -F r an co i s t andd emo c r a t i cpo s i t ion s ,y e tth eya lw ay sm a in t a in edth a tth eB lu e D iv i s ionh adr ep r e s en t edth eid e a l i smo fa“hypo th e t i c a lF a l ang e . ” Th ey w e r eyoung m eno f“good w i l l ” whob e l i ev edth ey w e r ep a rt i c ip a t ingin“ a mov em en ttor eg en e r a t eth ecoun t ry ,a s mu chin t e rm so fn a t ion a lempow e rm en ta sso c i a lr e fo rm , ” wh i l eth e“ r e a l F a l ang e ”h adb e com e“ ane s s en t i a l lycon s e rv a t iv epow e r . ”74 b )M o rn ings t a r sandb l o od i edsn ow. Mo s tm emo i r sabou tth eBDa l so f ea tu r eas t r ik ingr ea l i sm , man i f e s t edind e s c r ip t ion so fth eha rd sh ip so fth e wa randap en chan tfo rfa i th fu ld e s c r ip t ion so fth e 75 r ea l i tyo fcomba tandth et r en ch e s . Th i shada l r eadyapp ea r ed inth el i t e ra tu r eonth eSpan i shC iv i lW a ro rth eCo lon ia lW a rin No r th e rn Mo ro c co ,andco ex i s t ed w i tharh e to r i ca lly r i c i smcha ra c t e r i s t i co fth eFa lang i s tl i t e ra rys ty l e .Th er e su l ti sap e cu l ia r m ixo fba r ra ck slanguag eandb eau t i fu ll i t e ra ryimag e stha tevok e th esnowyRu s s ianland s cap ein my s t i ct e rm so rcon t emp la t ea s “mo rn ings ta r s”(lu c e r o s )th ecom rad e s whof e l lons ta r ryn igh t s wh i l eongua rddu ty ,a m e tapho rr em in i s c en to fth eFa lang i s tanth em“Ca raa lso l .” c )C l e an e rth anth e“ c l e an W eh rm a ch t .” A so c cu r r ed w i thau tob iog raph 76 i ca lt e s t imon i e so fG e rmanandI ta l iancomba tan t s , som etaboo s w e r era r e lyb rok en .Th e“my tho fth eW eh rma ch t”tha t wa sg ene ra t edinth epo s t -wa rpub l i cop in iono fW e s tG e rmanyin s i s t ed tha tth er egu la rt roop shads e rv edhonou rab ly , wh i l eSSando th e r co rp sw e r eex c lu s iv e lyr e spon s ib l efo rth ea t ro c i t i e sandc r im e s aga in s tth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion .77 Th i spa rad igmi sr ef e c t edin Span i sh m emo r ia l i s t i c wo rk s ,w i thon enuan c e :th eB lu eD iv i s ion hadb ehav edev en mo r ei r r ep roa chab ly .Th eyd i s tan c edth em s e lv e s f romth eSSing en e ra l ,thoughsom ewha tl e s sf romth eW a f f en -SS , bu tth e i rpo s t -wa rd i s cou r s e wa ss t r ik ing lys im i la rtotha to fth e v e t e ran so ftha to rgan iza t ion .78 Wha tw e r etho s es i l en c e sabou t ? G en e ra l ly ,abou tm i s t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian s ,ex e cu t ion so fp r i son e r s o rcomm i s sa r s ,d e s e r t ion s ,abu s eo fc iv i l ian wom en ,homo s exua l r e la t ion sb e tw e enso ld i e r s ,th efgh taga in s tpa r t i san s ,andth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion .

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d ) Ag am eo fm i r r o r s . On eex t rao rd ina ryf ea tu r eo fBD m emo r ia l i s t i c wo rk si sth e i rr e cu r r en tapp ea ltona t iona ls t e r eo typ e s :th ed el igh tinr e c r ea t ingth er ea c t ion so fth eau th en t i cSpan ia rdth rough con t ra s tb e tw e enh i sid ea l iz edt ra i t s–sou th e rn ,ch e e r fu l ,ga l lan t , andg en e rou s–andth eco l l e c t iv ep sy cho logyo fth eo th e rp eop l e s 79 th eyen coun t e r ed . Th enum e rou san e cdo t e sthu sa cqu i r eimp l i c i t m ean ing s .Th eyr ev ea l edth ev i r tu e so fth eSpan i shra c etoth e wo r ld :th e“b rownso ld i e r ,w i thas c en to fca rna t ion sandth eg lo ry o fth esuninh i spup i l s” w en ttoRu s s iato“m ixonth eha rdi c eo f th edamn eds t epp eh i sho tb loodfu l lo fpa s s ionandg en e ro s i ty w i thth eb loodo fth eG e rmancom rad e .”80 Th i scapa c i tyfo radap t ingtoun fo r e s e enc i r cum s tan c e sinaho s t i l eenv i ronm en tb e cam ea pa ramoun texp r e s s iono fth equa l i t i e stha thadenab l edSpan ia rd s toconqu e remp i r e sint im e spa s t : Th es c en eo faSpan i shgu r ip ad r iv ingas l e igh ,w i thh i scoa tunbu t ton ed andha ttoon es id e ,i son eo fth e mo s ttyp i ca lonth ef ron t …Th e s e Anda lu s iancom rad e slooka sthoughth eyhadb e endo ingi ta l lth e i rl iv e s thoughsu r e lyth eyhadn ev e rs e enasnowfak einth e i rhom e town …T o dayth eG e rmancom rad e sund e r s tandhowaf ewhand fu l so fSpan ia rd s , lo s tonava s tcon t in en t , manag edtod e ep lyimp lan tth e i rra c e ,languag e , 81 andr e l ig ion .

Incomba t ,how ev e r ,th e s e jov ia lyoung m enf romth eSou thamaz ed th eG e rman sw i thth e i r inna t ed i s r ega rdfo rd ea th .Th eyw e r e“Qu ixo t e s w i th ma ch in egun s” , who ,un l ik eco ldG e rmanp e r fo rman c e ,fough ta c82 co rd ingtoth e i ran c i en tin s t in c t ,“f i r t ing w i thd ea th .” Th i ss e l f imag e hadtwoadd i t iona lfun c t ion s .I ttu rn edf ru s t ra t ionin tosymbo l i cv i cto ry :“G en e ra lW in t e r”hadp rov edtoo mu chfo r Napo l eon ,bu tno tfo r Span i sh m e t t l e .83I ta l soa l low edth emtocon t ra s tSpan ia rd sandth e r ig id G e rman s wholook eddownonth e i rexo t i ccom rad e s .Th e r e fo r e , th ed iv i s i on a r i o sb e cam ep s eudo -v i c t im so fth eTh i rdR e i chinth eend . AnUnp l e a s an tT op i c :Th eH o l o c au s t W i thth e Nu r emb e rgt r ia l sandth eA l l i e s ’e f fo r t stob road ca s tth ed im en s ion so f Naz ira c ia lex t e rm ina t ionpo l i c i e s ,th eBDex comba tan t s cou ldno tr ema inind i f f e r en ttoth i s ma t t e ra f t e r May1945 .A tf r s t ,th ey d en i edth eex i s t en c eo fth e Ho lo cau s t ,a tl ea s ta si t wa sr ev ea l edtoint e rna t iona lpub l i cop in ionb eg inn ingin1945 .Th e r ew e r ea t t emp t sto d i lu t ei tth roughr ev i s ion i s ta rgum en t stha tempha s iz edth ec r im e sand rap e scomm i t t edbyth eR edA rmy ,o r ma s sd ea th sf romind i s c r im ina t e

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a i rra id sonG e rmanc i t i e s .Ev enso ,th eSpan i shv e t e ran sf e l tcomp e l l ed tosom ehow ju s t i fyth e i rp r e s en c einth eG e rmanA rmy .Th eB lu eD iv i s ionna r ra t iv eb egantod i s tan c ei t s e l ff rom Naz ira c i sm ,pa r t lyth rough as e l e c t iv ea c cumu la t iono fan e cdo t e stha ti l lu s t ra t edth e i rd i sa f f e c t ion w i th G e rmanan t i -S em i t i sm .Th eys t i l lh e ldnosympa thyfo rJ ew sa sa co l l e c t iv eand mu chl e s sfo rth en ews ta t eo fI s ra e l ;i t sem e rg en c e wa s 84 c r i t i c iz edinFa lang epub l i ca t ion s . Inth ev e t e ran s ’a c coun t spub l i sh eda f t e r1945 ,th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion wa sg en e ra l lyavo id ed .Som em en t ioni tsup e rf c ia l ly ,po in t ingou ttha t th eSpan i shso ld i e r shadnoknow l edg eo fth eShoah , wh i ch wa sa l so th epo s i t iono fth eF ran cor eg im eun t i lm id -1944 .In1945 , An ton ioJ . H e rnánd ez -Nava r rop r e s en t edth eJ ew so fG rodnod e roga to r i lyinh i s au tob iog raph i cnov e lId ayvu e l t a(R e tu rnt r ip ) .H ed e s c r ib edth ema s “unk emp tandhumb l e ,en t e r ingth e i rda rkand my s t e r iou shou s e sw i th th ehum i l ia t ionandg r im eo fc en tu r i e s ,l ik ean t sinanan th i l l ;p i l ingup sp i t eand mon ey ,ind i f f e r en ttoth ef e e ttha tt r eaduponth em .”Th e s e “ s ca r edandf l thyJ ew s” w e r esa idtohav ecau s eda“ s l imyf e e l ing”in th eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s .Th ep ro tagon i s to fth i ss to ry ,aFa lang i s tf rom Mad r id ,i sconv in c edtha td e sp i t eth e i rob s equ iou sn e s s ,th eJ ew sw i l l c l ingtoth e i rg rudg e sfo rg en e ra t ion s ,th i r s t ingfo rv eng ean c eonth e goy im .Th ey mayev enhav ecau s edth efa l lo fth eTh i rdR e i ch : T oday ’ sJ ew sa r ea sth ey w e r eathou sandy ea r sagoand w i l lb eth esam e inano th e rthou sandy ea r si fth e wo r ldla s t stha tlong .Andi fth ela s ton e i sv i c to r iou s ,a l ltho s e whop r e c ed edh im w i l lrubth e i rhand sw i thg l e ein h e l l. . .i fth ela s tb ro th e ro fth e i rra c er ip sth esk ino f fth ela s tCh r i s t ian .85

Inh i sau tob iog raph i cnov e l4in f an t e s3lu c e r o s( 4in fan t ryso ld i e r s3 mo rn ings ta r s ) ,w r i t t enin1942 ,Ja im eFa r r ér e ca l l edth een coun t e rw i th J ew i shg i r l s inG rodno .La t e r ,th ep ro tagon i s to fth enov e l ,aSpan i shFa lang i s t ,m e e t ssom eJ ew i shg i r l sinR iga , whot e l lh imo fth efa t eo fth e i r pa r en t s . Wh enh efnd saG e rmans e rg ean t whosp eak sSpan i sh ,h ea sk s whyth eJ ew sw e r ep e r s e cu t ed .H i spa r tn e rexp la in stoh imth er ea son : th eJ ew sw e r eb eh inda l lcon sp i ra c i e saga in s tG e rmany ,anda sahom e l e s sp eop l ew e r eoppo s edtopa t r io t i sm .A f t e rwa rd sh ea l sod e s c r ib e s howsom eBDvo lun t e e r scam etoha t eaBa l t i cJ ew whocon f e s s edto hav ingfough tw i thth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e s .A tth eend ,th eSpania rd s ’s en s eo fd i s tan c ef rom Naz ian t i -S em i t i sm wa sso f t en edbyth e 86 fa c ttha tth eya l sosha r edth eth eo ryo faJ ew i sh -Bo l sh ev ikcon sp i ra cy . F rom1954on ,th eJ ew i shqu e s t ion wa sapp roa ch edf roma mo r enuan c edang l e .In1957 ,G en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e savo id ed mak ingva lu e judg em en t sonth e s eando th e rs c en e sob s e rv edbySpan i shvo lun t e e r s

234 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

whohad w i tn e s s ed“ th ed i sag r e eab l esp e c ta c l eo fc e r ta inL i thuan ian popu la t ion sw i thaJ ew i shfavou randana i ro fd e s t i tu t ionandsadn e s s .”87 How ev e r ,th ew r i t ing so f mo s tv e t e ran so f f e r edsom eva lu e judg em en t sr ega rd ingth et r ea tm en to fJ ew s .T omá sSa lvado rw ro t e abou tth e“poo r ,d i r ty ,w r e t ch ed”J ew sh esawinSuwa łk i .I t wa sp la in tha t“ th eG e rman sca r r i edth e i ran t i -S em i t i smtoapo in to ftw i s t ingth e 88 t ru th ,”andth ew r i t e rf e l tcompa s s ionfo rth em . Ca r lo sM .Yd ígo ra s r e ca l l edinh i s1957nov e lA lgun o sn oh em o s mu e r t o (Som eo fu sa r eno t d ead )th ep i t i fu limag eo fth eG rodnoJ ew s ,th es exua la t t ra c t iono fJ ewi sh wom enfo rSpan i shvo lun t e e r s ,th ec la sh e sb e tw e enSpan ia rd sand SSso ld i e r s ,andacon c en t ra t ioncampfu l lo fJ ew i shp r i son e r stha t wa s 89 a l l eg ed lyd i s cov e r edbyaBDvo lun t e e r . In1960 ,Lu i sR iudav e t sd e Mon t e stookabo ld e rpo s i t ion : Som eJ ew s ,bu rd en edbyth es ta ro fZ ion ,a l soc ro s s edth es t r e e t s ,s i l en t , th e i rh ead shunglow ,p e rhap sa sham ed ;th ey w e r ego ingtoth e i r wo rk. . . s t ra igh ttoth egh e t t o, wh i chhadb e enconv e r t ed ,byo rd e ro fth eG e rman command ,in toaneno rmou scampfo rp r i son e r s who s el iv e sw e r eno t v e rysa f e .Fo rG e rmanycomm i t t edon eo fth eg r ea t e s tm i s tak e sinpu r suingth eJ ew sw i thso mu chfu ryandla cko fcha r i ty , manyo f whomth ey sho tands en ttoth ega l low s … How manyJ ew shadfa l l eninV i ln iu s ,in R iga ,inKauna s ? How manythou sand s ,p e rhap sm i l l ion s ,w e r e mu rd e r ed byth eSS ?Th enumb e r wou ldb ehug eandth efgu r e sin c r ed ib l e .90

As im i la rna r ra t iv e wa sr ep rodu c edinth een su ingy ea r s .91 Th eb e s t examp l e wa sth esho r tnov e lE lp anene lf ang o(B r eadinth e mud ,1962 ) , wh i chr e c e iv edal i t e ra ryawa rdf roma Ca tho l i cjou rna l .Th eau tho r , Manu e lBa r sCa sam i t jana ,na r ra t edhowaSpan i shso ld i e rs toodupto anSSpa t ro linG rodnotha tsough ttos toph imf romsha r ingh i sra t ion s w i thane ld e r lyJ ew .Bo thth eJ ewandth eSpan ia rdd i ea tth ehand so f th e s eunf in ch ingand m e r c i l e s sT eu ton i cso ld i e r s , who“a c t ed w i tha co ld ,m e ta lfu ry ,fu lf l l ingth e i rta sk w i thcomp l e t ep r e c i s ion ,l ik e ma ch in e s .”Th eb loodo fth eSpan ia rdandth eJ ew ,sh edtog e th e r ,symbo l iz e sth et ru es e ed so fp ea c e ,av i c to ryo fCh r i s t ianind iv idua l i smov e r 92 to ta l i ta r ian i sm . As im i la rm e s sag e wa sr ep rodu c edbyth enov e l L aú lt im aop o r tun id ad(Th e la s tchan c e ,1963 ) ,byRamónZu la i ca .Inth eend ,a g roupo fSpan i shso ld i e r si ssho ta long s id es ev e ra le ld e r lyJ ew i sh m en who w e r efo r c edtod igth e i rowng rav e s .93 Th e r eha sb e enb lank e td en ia ltha tSpan ia rd shadanyknow l edg eo f th ep e r s e cu t iono fJ ew so rth econ c en t ra t ioncamp s . How ev e r ,som e a c coun t ss t i l lcon ta in edan t i -S em i t i cton e sino c ca s iona lcha ra c t e r iza t ion sa s so c ia t ed w i thth ed i s cu r s iv et rop e sabou tth een tang l em en to f

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Juda i sm ,F r e ema son ry ,andcommun i s tl ead e r sh ip .Fo rm e rBDchap la inI ld e fon soJ im én ezAnd rad e sw ro t eabou tth econ t ra s tb e tw e enth e w r e t ch edn e s so fth ec iv i l ianpopu la t iono fM in skandth eluxu r iou s pa la c e so fth eS ta l in i s te l i t e s , mo s to fth em“ J ew i shl ead e r s whol iv edin opu l en c e .”94 Góm ez -T e l lo ,a l ead ingFa lang i s t jou rna l i s t inth epo s t -wa r p e r iod ,f e ro c iou s lyc r i t i c iz edI s ra e lonth eo c ca s iono fth et r ia lo fAdo l f E i chmannin1961 .H eempha s iz edhowth eJ ew ssha r edth eb lam efo r pa s t ma s sk i l l ing sund e rSov i e tcommun i sm .95 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s d i sda in edb io log i ca lra c i smbu tr e ca l l edtha tth e r ehadb e enaconn e ct ionb e tw e enJuda i smandcommun i sms in c eKa r l Ma rx .H elam en t ed th ep e r s e cu t iono fth eJ ew s ,bu t wa sno tfondo fth em : Th eo ldt ro ika sc ro s s edth e i rs t r e e t sandth eJ ew sw e r es t i l lbu rd en edby th e i reno rmou ss ta r so fZ ion …A lad ju s ttu rn edfou r t e ento ld m e :“Th ey a r ek i l l ingu sm e r c i l e s s ly ,M r .Cap ta in ,andhow i sth i s myfau l t ,b e ingJ ew i sh ? Wha to f f en c ehav eIcomm i t t edfo rth emtok i l lm e . . . ?”…Y e sind e ed , th ey w e r eJ ew s ,acu r s edra c eab l etod e s t royth e wo r ldi fafavou rab l e o c ca s iona ro s e .Th ey w e r eth ea s sa s s in so fJ e su s ,th et r ea ch e rou sandd e ic ida lp eop l e ,tha tm i s e r lyand w r e t ch edp eop l ef rom who s erank sg r ea t th ink e r s wou ldem e rg e ,bu ta l sor epugnan tr evo lu t iona r i e s : Ka r l Ma rx , H eg e l ,L en in … How ev e r ,aCh r i s t iansp i r i tcou ldno tapp rov eo ftha tco l9 6 l e c t iv ec r im e .

Inf a c t ,po s t -w a rBDn a r r a t iv e sa t t emp t edto m a in t a inad i ff cu l tb a l an c e . Onth eon eh and ,th eyd i s t ingu i sh edth eb eh av iou ro fSp an i sh so ld i e r sf romth a to fth e i rW eh rm a ch tcom r ad e s .Th eSp an i shv e t e r an s adm i t t edth a tm any G e rm anso ld i e r sw e r e mo t iv a t edbyr a c i s tid eo l ogy ,andth a tth e r ew e r eex t e rm in a t ionc amp s .Onth eo th e rh and ,th e r e w a sad e s i r etop r e s e rv eas en s eo floy a l tytow a rd sfo rm e rcom r ad e s in a rm s .Áng e lRu i zA yú c a rexp r e s s edth i spo in to fv i ewin1 9 5 4 : Mu chha sb e ensa idabou tth econ c en t ra t ioncamp sinth i ssadandsp i t e fu l po s t -wa rp e r iod .Ev e ryon eha sth rownas ton ea tth efa l l enp e r son w i thou t f r s tch e ck ingtos e ei fh i sownhand sw e r ec l ean …Bu tw ew i l lno tjo in inth i ss ton ing .I fw ehadanyc r im e stha tw e wan t edtor ep roa chth eG e r man sfo r ,w e wou ld wa i tun t i lth eya r epow e r fu l . . .W ew i l lno tfa l lin toth e 9 7 ab e r ra t iono fin su l t ingtho s e who w e r eou rcom rad e sinth epa s t .

Th i ss ea r chfo rm idd l eg roundcon t inu ed inth een su ingd e cad e s .B lu e D iv i s ion m emo i r sg en e ra l lydor e cogn iz eth e Naz ic r im e saga in s tJ ew s andS lav i cwa rp r i son e r s ,thoughth eyd i spu t eth e i rquan t i ta t iv ed im ens ion .Th ei s su ei sd i sm i s s ed w i thth e wo rn -ou ta rgum en ttha tb lam e

236 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

F ig .7 .6 .Span i shs e c t iono fG e rman m i l i ta ryc em e t e ryinPankovka (Novgo rodAA )

fa l l sonbo ths id e so f th econf i c t .Du r ingh i sv i s i t toAu s chw i tz -B i rk enau in1987 ,Pab lo Ca s t e loa rgu edtha tth eSov i e t s ,w i th Ka tynandth e i r S ta l in i s tcon c en t ra t ioncamp s ,a sw e l la sth eA l l i e s ,w i thth e i rca rp e t bomb ingo fG e rmanc i t i e sandth etwoa tom i c bomb sd ropp edon Japan ,hada l lcomm i t t eda t ro c i t i e saga in s tc iv i l ian s , mak ingth emno b e t t e rthanth eG e rman s .98 Ep i l ogu e :“W eW e r eR igh t !”Th e“C onv e r s i on”o fRu s s i a Afu r th e r ,p e r s i s t en tf ea tu r eo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion m emo i r si sth e i rcha ra c t e r iza t iono fth eb ehav iou ro fth eSpan i shso ld i e r stowa rd sth eRu ss ianpopu la t iona sex emp la ry .A sav e t e ransumma r iz edin1991 ,th e Span ia rd shadb e en“ab l etocomb in eb rav e ry w i thlov e”inth e i rcondu c t .Th i sin t e rp r e ta t ionb e cam eane ff c i en ta rgum en tinp r e s en t ing 99 th eexp e r i en c eo fth eBDinRu s s iaa sa mo ra lv i c to ry . Th eSov i e tv i c to ryin May1945 wa s mo s t lyr ega rd edbySpan i sh v e t e ran sa sth e i rownandEu rop e ’ sd e f ea t . How ev e r ,f rom1954on , in t e r e s tinth eva r iou sfo rm so fO r thodox wo r sh ipandth em emo ryo f th e“ r eb i r th”o fr e l ig io s i tyamongth eRu s s ianp eop l edu r ingth eSpan i sho c cupa t iongav esom ev e t e ran shop etha tRu s s ia wou ldov e r com e commun i sm .C e r ta inamongth emev ensugg e s t edth epo s s ib i l i tyo fa

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syn c r e t i s t i cfu s iono f Ca tho l i c i smand O r thodoxytha tcou ldr e s to r e Ru s s iatoCh r i s t ianc iv i l iza t ion .Th eRu s s ianp eop l ehadr ed i s cov e r ed “ th e i rt rad i t ion s ,th roughth epa ino fcommun i s tp e r s e cu t ion ,” w i th 100 th eh e lpo fth eo c cupy ingfo r c e s . Inapa ra l l e l way ,th elanguag eo f so c ia lhyg i en e wa sr ep la c ed w i thaqua s i e thnog raph i cin t e r e s tinRu s s ia .Som ev e t e ran sco l l e c t edpopu la rl eg end sandta l e sth eyhadh ea rd f romth ep ea san t so fth eV o lkhovr eg ion .Th e s es to r i e sconv ey edbu co l i cimag e so fap r e r evo lu t iona ryRu s s iafu l lo fr e l ig iou sappa r i t ion s andp ea san tcu s tom s .101 F rom1950on ,nuan c e sapp ea r edtha td iv e rg edf romth eov e rwh e lming lys t e r eo typ edimag eo fth eSov i e t Un iontha t wa sp r e s en tinth e m ed iao fth eF ran cor eg im e . Amongv e t e ran s ,fa s c ina t ionfo r“ th eimm en s eand my s t e r iou sRu s s ia …as t rang ep eop l e ,in t ro sp e c t iv eandr el ig iou sinsp i t eo fth eo ff c ia la th e i sm”g r ew ,b l end ing“ lov eandha t r ed , 102 t end e rn e s sandha r shn e s s .” Ru s s ianv i l lag e r sw e r eth enr em emb e r ed a sth edoub l ev i c t im so fth eBo l sh ev ikt e r ro randth er igou r so fG e r mano c cupa t ion .Th ean t i commun i s tid ea lo f1936–9 wa sr e in fo r c ed byr e ca l l ingth em i s e ryo fRu s s ianp ea san t s .V e t e ranBDo ff c e r ssu cha s Co lon e lD íazd eV i l l ega so f f e r edt ra in ings em ina r sfo rFa lang i s tau tho ri t i e sonth ee f f e c t so fcommun i sminRu s s ia .H eempha s iz edth eev i l s o fth ecommun i s tsy s t em , wh i chd e s t roy edfam i lyt i e sandr e l ig ion .R etu rn ingp r i son e r sin1954u s eds im i la rt e rm s wh enr em emb e r ingth e i r d ea l ing sw i thSov i e tc iv i l ian s . How ev e r ,som eex -D iv i s ion m emb e r sr ema in edconv in c edtha tth eRu s s ianp eop l ecou ldn ev e rchang edu eto th e i rh i s to ry .Th e i r“an th ropo log i ca ls t ru c tu r eandra c ia lcompo s i t ion” mad eth emimp e rm eab l eto W e s t e rnva lu e s .103 RamónS e r ranoSuñ e r ,th efo rm e rp ro -Naz iM in i s t e ro fFo r e ign A ffa i r sandla t e rasu c c e s s fu llawy e r ,empha s iz edin1959tha tth eSpan i sh comba tan t shadgon etoth e USSRtod e s t roySov i e tcommun i smbu t no tth eRu s s ianp eop l e .Ind iv idua l ly ,th eysaw“ th een em i e sth ey w e r e fa c ing mo r ea sv i c t im so fth eid eo log i ca len emythana sth el iv ingin ca rna t iono fi t .”Th eCo ld W a rhadconf rm edtoth emtha tSov i e tcom mun i sm wa sth e ma inen emyo fW e s t e rnc iv i l iza t ion ,Eu rop eancu l tu r e , and Ch r i s t ianva lu e s .I tr ema in edanadv e r sa rytha tk ep ti t sownc i t i z en sin m i s e ry :animag econf rm edino c ca s iona lt rav e lna r ra t iv e sby 104 fo rm e rd iv i s i on a r i o s whov i s i t edth eUSSRp r io rto1989 . D e sp i t eth efa c ttha tBDv e t e ran shadg r ea td i ff cu l t i e scom ingto t e rm sw i thth et ran s i t iontod emo c ra cyinSpa in ,th efa l lo fth eB e r l in W a l l ,th er eun if ca t iono fG e rmany ,andth efu l l ,a lmo s timm ed ia t econv e r s iono fRu s s iaandth eo th e rEa s t e rnB lo ccoun t r i e sr e in fo r c edth i s l in eo fa rgum en t . W ew e r er igh t,r eadth et i t l eo fth em emo i r so fana c t iv e m emb e ro fth eBDB ro th e rhood s .A f t e rth efa l lo fcommun i sm ,fo rm e r

238 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

d iv i s i on a r i o sr e en coun t e r edth e Ru s s ian p eop l eandr ea ff rm edth e i r 105 conv i c t ion so f1941 . Th e“ e t e rna lRu s s ia”hadt r iumph ed .Th i s wa s th eBD ’ su l t ima t ev i c to ry ,a son ev e t e ranexp r e s s edth roughaf c t i t iou s Ru s s ianpop e ,u s ingth e“o ld wo rd”fo ri t : Som eday , Godknow s wh en ,a l lth i sw i l lend …andth ee t e rna l Ru s s ia w i l lb er ebu i l t ,thoughp e rhap sab i tsma l l e r ,r edu c edto wha ti t wa sa t th eb eg inn ingo fth es ix t e en thc en tu ry …bu t mo r eau th en t i c .W ehav ean o ldt e rmtod e s igna t etha tr eb i r th ,tha tr e con s t ru c t iontha tw i l lsom eday 1 0 6 r ev iv eu s :p e r e s t r o i k a.

W i thth i s ,th em emo ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ionfoundc lo su r e .Th ev e t e ran sf e l tfu l lyv ind i ca t edinth e i rd e c i s iontovo lun t e e rf f tyy ea r sea r l i e r . Th i sp e r c ep t ionp e rm ea t edSpan i shpub l i cop in ionandcu l tu r eandha s endu r edb eyondth eno s ta lg iafo rF ran co i smtoth ep r e s en tday .

8Con c lu s ion :ASpan i shEx c ep t ioninth e W a ro fEx t e rm ina t ion ?

Th eG e rm an w a ro fex t e rm in a t ioninth eE a s tw a sno ton lyaconf i c t b e tw e enG e rm anyandth eSov i e tUn ion .No rw e r e i t scon s equ en c e s l imi t edtoth etwo m a incoun t r i e sth a ttookp a r t inth eho s t i l i t i e s .Thou s and s o f No r th e rn ,W e s t e rn ,Sou th e rn ,andE a s t e rnEu rop e an stookp a r tinth e w a r .Th eyexp e r i en c edth eb ru t a l i z a t iono fth ef ron ttov a ry ingd eg r e e s . Th ey w i tn e s s edo rp a r t i c ip a t edin w a ra t ro c i t i e s ,r ap e s ,and mu rd e r s . Som ew e r ea c t iv e lyo rp a s s iv e lyinvo lv edinth e Ho lo c au s t .S i tu a t ion a l ands t ru c tu r a lf a c to r scond i t ion edth eb eh av iou ro fn a t ion a lun i t son th ef ron tandinth er e a r . Wh i l esom eo fth e i rm emb e r sw e r es t rong ly mo t iv a t edbyf a s c i sm ,an t i commun i sm ,and/o ran t i -S em i t i sm ,m any o th e r sw e r es imp lycon s c r ip t edso ld i e r s ,adv en tu r e r s ,o rev enap a th e t i c w a r r io r s whoh aden l i s t edfo rd i f f e r en tr e a son s .Th etyp eo fw a rth ey condu c t eda sw e l la sth ein t en s i tyo fcomb a tonth ef ron tl in ed e c i s iv e ly infu en c edth e i rb eh av iou randth e i rp e r c ep t ion so fth econqu e r edl and andth een emy .I tm aya l soh av econ t r ibu t edtoth er ad i c a l i z a t iono fa tt i tud e stow a rd sSov i e tc iv i l i an sandp a r t i s an s .Inth i sr e sp e c t ,th es am e in t e rp r e t a t iv ef r am ewo rkth a th a sb e enapp l i edtoth es tudyo fth eG e r m an W eh rm a ch tinth eE a s tc anb eex t end edtoi t sfo r e igna l l i e sand co l l abo r a to r s ,b e c au s eth er e s e a r chqu e s t ion sa r es im i l a r . W e r eth ed iv e rg en ta t t i tud e so fth eSpan ia rd sw i thr e sp e c ttoth e W eh rma ch tanendo r s em en to fth eth e s i stha tid eo logyandindo c t r inat iono fso ld i e r sw e r eth e ma inp r e r equ i s i t efo rth e i rb ru ta l iza t ion ?O r w e r eth eyafu r th e rexamp l eo fhowcomba tcond i t ion sandenv i ronm en td e t e rm in edth ecomba tan t s ’b ehav iou r ?Ev id en c ecanb efoundto endo r s ebo thhypo th e s e s .Incon t ra s tw i thth eG e rman s ,th eSpan ia rd s la ck eds t rongra c ia l lyo r i en t edid eo log i ca lindo c t r ina t ion ,bu t many a sp e c t so fth e i rb ehav iou rw e r eno tsub s tan t ia l lyd i f f e r en ttoo rd ina ry G e rmanso ld i e r s . How ev e r ,th es i tua t ion i s thypo th e s i ss e em stob e t t e r exp la inth ed i f f e r en c e stha tex i s t edb e tw e enSpan ia rd sandI ta l ian s .Th e

240 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

la t t e ra l sola ck edra c ia lindo c t r ina t ion ,bu thadtofgh tin mu ch wo r s e cond i t ion s ,anda l soca r r i edou tv io l en tr ep r e s s iv em ea su r e saga in s t c iv i l ian s . D e sp i t e wha t po s t -wa rl i t e ra tu r eandv e t e ran s ’a c coun t s hav eins t i l l edinth eSpan i shpub l i csph e r e ,th e r e wa snosp e c if ca l ly“M ed i t e r ran ean”pa t t e rno f wa rexp e r i en c etha tco r r e spond edtoanep i cu r ean na tu r e ,ap e cu l ia rtyp eo ffa s c i smand/o ran t i commun i s tc r e ed ,o ra la cko fra c ia lp r e jud i c etowa rd sJ ew sandS lav s . Onth econ t ra ry ,th e B lu eD iv i s ion wa s ma in lyandcon s i s t en t lycompo s edo ffa s c i s tand an t i commun i s t vo lun t e e r s ,p ro f e s s iona l NCO s , and a rmy o ff c e r s . Th e i rid eo log i ca lcoh e s ion wa ss t rong e rthantha to fth eI ta l ian ,Roman ian ,and Hunga r ianun i t sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t , wh i chp r edom ina t e ly con s i s t edo fcon s c r ip tso ld i e r s .In many way s ,th i s mad eth eB lu eD iv i s ion mo r ecompa rab l etoth eid eo log i ca lW e s t e rnEu rop eanvo lun t e e r s inth eW a f f en -SS . A s s e s sm en t so fSpan i shcondu c tonth e Ea s t e rnF ron tshou ldfa l l som ewh e r eb e tw e enth e“ c l eanB lu eD iv i s ion”l eg end–a sr ep rodu c ed inth e po s t -1945 na r ra t iv eba s edon wa rv e t e ran m emo i r sin mo r e o r l e s sapo log e t i ch i s to r i ca ll i t e ra tu r e–andth eg en e ra lcha ra c t e r i st i c stha tapp lyto mo s tG e rman W eh rma ch tt roop s , pa r t i cu la r lyin th eno r th e rns e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th eSpan i sh250 th D iv i s ion n ev e rhadac en t ra lro l einth e wa ro fex t e rm ina t ionun l ea sh edbyth e W eh rma ch tonth e Ea s t e rnF ron t , no ra r eth e r eind i ca t ion stha tth e Span i shcommand e r skn ewo fth elong t e rmo c cupa t ions ch em e so f th eTh i rdR e i chl ead e r s , wh i ch w e r eimp l em en t edbyth em i l i ta ry . Un l ik e Hunga r ianso ld i e r sinth eUk ra in ianandRoman ian m i l i ta rypo l i c e andcomba tan t sinB e s sa rab ia ,Bukov ina ,andT ran sn i s t r ia ,Span ia rd s d idno tpa r t i c ipa t esy s t ema t i ca l lyo rsp e c if ca l ly inco l l e c t iv er ep r i sa l s in th er ea rgua rdaga in s tRu s s ian ,Po l i sh ,By e lo ru s s ian ,o rBa l t i cc iv i l ian s , o rJ ew s .1 Mo r eov e r ,Span i sht roop sw e r eno ta f f e c t edbys t rongid eo log i ca lo rso c io cu l tu ra lfa c to r s .C e r ta in ly ,som era c i s tund e r ton e sin fo rm ed BDp e r c ep t ion so fth eRu s s iano th e r , whomth eyr ega rd eda sba rba r ian , A s ia t i c ,andcu l tu ra l lyin f e r io rto“ c iv i l iz ed” W e s t e rncu l tu r e s .Inth e i r v i ew ,th i sp r e sum edcu l tu ra lin f e r io r i tyhadpav edth e wayfo rth esu cc e s so fBo l sh ev i sm , wh i chcou ldon lyfou r i shonf e r t i l eso i l .Span i sh ra c ia lv i ew sw e r eno tcomp l e t e lyvo ido fb io log i ca le l em en t s ,bu tw e r e mo s t lyshap edbyh i s to r i ca l ,cu l tu ra l ,andg eog raph i ca ld e t e rm in i sm . S in c eth em id -n in e t e en thc en tu ry ,Span i shan th ropo log i s t shadcon s ide r edth e i rna t iontob eth eou t com eo fa“ ra c ia la l loy”tha thadcon t inu 2 i tyinth eAm e r i canco lon i e s . Inth i sr e sp e c t ,Span i shp e r c ep t ion so fth eEa s thad mo r eincommon w i th G e rmanand Au s t ro -Hunga r ianp e r c ep t ion so fth eS lav i cen emy

Con c lu s ion 241

du r ingth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r .3 Mo s tSpan i shvo lun t e e r shadno tb e enso c ia l iz edinb io log i ca lra c i sm( inr e la t iontoS lav sandJ ew s ) .Th efgh t ing env i ronm en ta tth eV o lkhovF ron t ,andla t e rinL en ing rad ,d idno tfo s t e rana c cumu la t iv erad i ca l iza t iono fSpan i sha t t i tud e stowa rd sth een emyo rc iv i l ian s .Th eno r ths e c to ro fth eEa s t e rnF ron t wa s mo r es tab l e thanth ec en t r eandsou th ,w i thl e s spa r t i sana c t iv i ty .Span i shso ld i e r s hadno tb e enfgh t ingfo r mon th sb e fo r eth eya r r iv edonth ef ron t ,and th eys tay edl e s st im eonav e rag ethanth e i rG e rmancom rad e s .Th e s e fa c to r sd e c i s iv e lyenhan c edb ru ta l iza t ioninth eva r iou s W eh rma ch t un i t s ,a sha sb e end emon s t ra t edfo rth e121 s t ,123 rdand126 thG e rman D iv i s ion so fA rmyG roup No r th .4 Th eab s en c eo fth e s efa c to r sr edu c ed th ee f f e c t so fs t eadyb ru ta l iza t ioninth eSpan i shD iv i s ion . L e s sc e r ta in tyex i s t sr ega rd ingo th e ra sp e c t s ,su cha sth et r ea tm en t o fp r i son e r sandta c t i c sapp l i edinth ean t i -pa r t i sanfgh t .5 G en e ra lb e n evo l en c etowa rd sSov i e tp r i son e r sf romD e c emb e r1941onwa rd s wa s ev id en tamongSpan i shso ld i e r s ,bu tth e r ew e r ea l sosumma ryex e cu t ion sandin t e r roga t ion so fp r i son e r sdu r ingcomba t .Ib e r ian sw e r eno t e sp e c ia l lye f f e c t iv e ,z ea lou s ,o rc ru e linr ep r i sa l so rinth efgh taga in s t pa r t i san s .Th eysom e t im e sex e cu t edc iv i l ian sa c cu s edo fh id ingpa rt i san s . How ev e r ,th e r ei snoev id en c etoind i ca t etha tth eyengag ed inco l l e c t iv ek i l l ing so rr ep r i sa l saga in s ten t i r ev i l lag e s .G e rmanr e po r t ss ca r c e ly m en t ionSpan i shpa r t i c ipa t ioninth e s ea c t iv i t i e s .Th ey do ,how ev e r ,r ev ea lac e r ta inla cko ft ru s tinth eSpan ia rd stoca r ry ou tr ea rgua rdpopu la t ioncon t ro landc l ean s inga c t ion s ,g iv enth e i r d emon s t ra t edin e ff ca cyinth i sa r ea .Th eB lu eD iv i s ion ’ scomp l ian c e w i thth eComm i s sa rO rd e ra l sor ema in sun c l ea r .Th e r ei sno m en t ion o fsumma ryex e cu t ion so fSov i e tcomm i s sa r sinSpan i sh m emo i r so r B lu eD iv i s iona r ch iv e s .Th i sdo e sno tn e c e s sa r i ly m eani td idno thapp en ,s in c etha to rd e r wou ldhav eb e ent ran sm i t t edv e rba l lyto W eh rma ch tcomba tan t s . Th ea t t i tud e so fSpan ia rd stowa rd sc iv i l ian sw e r e mo r eamb iva l en t thanla t e rna r ra t iv e ssugg e s t .Ea s t e rnF ron tv e t e ran A lb e r to D íazex p r e s s edy ea r sla t e rhowSpan ia rd sgo ta long“ fa i r ly w e l l” w i thRu s s ian c iv i l ian sbu t“who ev e rsay sth eRu s s ian sw e r ebadi sly ingand who ev e rsay sth ey w e r egoodi sa l soly ingand who ev e rsay sw eSpan ia rd s w e r esa in t sl i e stoo” ;amongth et roop sth e r ew e r ea l so“ lou t s ,rogu e s , oppo r tun i s t s ,ev enc r im ina l s .”6 Th eimag eo fRu s s iaandth eRu s s ian s tha tSpan i sho ff c e r sandvo lun t e e r shad ,o rfo rg eda tth ef ron t ,d idno t in c lud era c ia lha t r edandcon t emp tba s edonb io log i ca l -g en e t i ct en e t s . How ev e r ,d ia r i e s ,l e t t e r s ,pub l i sh eda r t i c l e s ,andca r i ca tu r e sinth eFalang i s tp r e s sf romtha tt im eshowa mu ch mo r enuan c edp i c tu r ethan th eidy l l i c ,ha rmon iou sco ex i s t en c ed e s c r ib edin m emo i r sand w r i t ing s

242 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

pub l i sh eda f t e r1945 .Th em i s e ryo fth eRu s s ianp ea san t s ,th e i rhumb l e andsubm i s s iv echa ra c t e r ,w e r eund e r s tooda sth econ s equ en c eo fcommun i s td eg en e ra t ion ,d e -Ch r i s t ian iza t ion ,andasuppo s edd e s t ru c t ion o fba s i c mo ra lva lu e s ,su cha sr e sp e c tfo rth efam i ly . How ev e r ,c l ima t e , cu l tu r e ,land ,andc en tu r i e so fnon -Eu rop eant rad i t ionand d e spo t i c gov e rnm en tw e r ea l sop e r c e iv edtob ead e c i s iv einfu en c e . Ru s s ian s w e r ean A s i an p eop l e :b loa t ed ,la ck ingsp i r i tua lp e r sona l i ty ,t e l lu r i c , andp r im i t iv e ,w i thamo ra lt end en c i e stha tp r ed i spo s edth emtob e ing th ep rop i t ia to ryv i c t imo fcommun i sm . Th i s m igh tb e con s id e r ed cu l tu r a lra c i sm , bu ti t wa s no t b io log i ca l -g en e t i cb igo t ry .I tcon s id e r edind iv idua l stob ed e t e rm in ed byth e i rcu l tu ra lm i l i eu ,l eav ingl i t t l eo rnoroomfo rchang e .7 O f t en , th i s wa ssub l im ina l lyexp r e s s edinton e sr edo l en to fso c ia lhyg i en e : f r equ en ta l lu s ion stoth e i rd i r t in e s sandla cko fp e r sona lo rfam i ly hyg i en eh e lp edund e rm in econ s id e ra t iono f Ru s s ian sa shumanb eing sandt ran s fo rmpo l i t i ca lo rso c ia la rgum en t sin tob io log i ca lon e s . Su cha m ind s e ta l sof e s t e r edinSpan i shfa s c i sm , wh i chcon s id e r ed th eo c cup i ed p eop l e sa ssp i r i tua l lyandcu l tu ra l lyin f e r io ro r“un d e rag e ,”thoughno ta sab io log i ca l lysubhumanUn t e rm en s ch.Th i s p e cu l ia rv i s iono fth een emy m igh tin c i t ecomm i s e ra t ionandpa t e rna l i smbu tn ev e rp r ev en t edRu s s ianc iv i l ian sf romsu f f e r ingr equ i s it ion sandth e f t .H i e ra r ch i ca l lyun ev enandlog i s t i ca l lyd ef c i en tt roop p rov i s ion ing wa safa c to rf romth e mom en tth eSpan i shvo lun t e e r s l e f tth e i rt ra in ingcamp sin G e rmany .Th i s wa sagg rava t edbyo rgan iza t iona ld ef c i en c i e sandala cko fd i s c ip l in eamongth eBDt roop s , who w e r eah e t e rog en eou sm ixo fca r e e ro ff c e r s ,non comm i s s ion ed o ff c e r sw i thl i t t l et ra in ing ,en thu s ia s t i cfa s c i s t vo lun t e e r s ,m e r c ena ryl eg ionna i r e s ,d ra f t edso ld i e r s whohadb e enp e r suad edtogo to Ru s s ia ,adv en tu r e r s ,and ,fna l ly ,un emp loy ed wo rk e r ss e ek inga l iv ing .F romth e mom en tth eyb eganto ma r chinth esumm e ro f1941 , th e r ew e r econ s tan tin c id en t sinvo lv ingth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion–a l l o f wh i chd e fyp r e c i s equan t if ca t ion–in c lud ingr equ i s i t ion s ,th e f t , s exua labu s e ,andev enrap e . Span i shso ld i e r sw e r eno thab i tua l lyinvo lv edinth ehom i c id eo f Ru s s ianp ea san t s ;infa c t ,th eyco ex i s t edr ea sonab ly w e l l ,g iv enth e i r cond i t iona sinvad ingt roop sinap la c esu cha sth eEa s t e rnF ron t .A s im i la rpa t t e rno fb ehav iou rtowa rd sth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion wa sa l so d i sp lay edbyo th e rG e rmand iv i s ion so fA rmy G roup No r th .8 Af ew s ign if can texamp l e shav er ev ea l ed ju s thownon idy l l i cth e s er e la t ion s w e r e . ManySpan i sho ff c e r shadl ea rn edinth eco lon ia l wa r sin No r the rn Mo ro c cotol e tth e i rt roop sfndp rov i s ion sonlo ca t ion ,ap ra c t i c e 9 th eyr ep ea t ed un s c rupu lou s lyin Ru s s ia . Co lon e lD íaz d eV i l lag e s

Con c lu s ion 243

r e ca l l edth ea rgum en tpu tfo rwa rdbyaFa lang i s tvo lun t e e rengag edin ad i s cu s s ion w i thaG e rman m i l i ta rypo l i c eman :“ I t wou ldb eab su rd … i fa f t e rs e e ingso manyo fou r sfa l l ,a f t e rsu f f e r ingsu chad i ff cu l t wa r , w ecou ldno tev enea taRu s s ianch i ck en .”10 Th ecomp l ex i tyinh e r en tinth ep r e s en c eo f an o c cupy ing a rmy amongc iv i l ian sl ed manySpan i shso ld i e r sando ff c e r s wholodg ed inth ei z b a stofun c t iona sp ro t e c to r so fRu s s ianfam i l i e s , wh i ch w e r e ma in lycompo s edo f wom en ,ch i ld r en ,ando ld m en .Th ed iv i s i on a r i o s wou ldf e edandp ro t e c tth eminex chang efo rs e rv i c e stha trang edf rom lodg ingandlaund rytos exua lfavou r s . Th elowin t en s i tyandev en ab s en c eo fb io log i ca lra c i sml edtoag r ea t e rd eg r e eo ffam i l ia r i tyb etw e en mo s tSpan i shso ld i e r sandRu s s ianc iv i l ian s .Con t ra rytoRoma n ianand Hunga r iant roop sin A rmy G roup C en t r eand A rmy G roup Sou th ,11th eSpan ia rd sd idno tb e com einvo lv edinsy s t ema t i cr ep r i sa l s o rla rg e s ca l e mu rd e r so fc iv i l ian s .Th ey w e r e ,non e th e l e s s ,r e spon s ib l e fo rcon t inua lth e f t ,r equ i s i t ion ing ,andp i l lag ing ,a long w i tho c ca s iona l s exua labu s e .Th i s wa styp i ca lo fth eexp e r i en c e so fo th e ro c cupy ing Ax i sa rm i e sdu r ingth eS e cond W o r ld W a r ,su cha sth er e la t iv e lyb en ignp r e s en c eo fG e rman sin No rway ,D enma rk ,andth eN e th e r land s . Inth e s ecoun t r i e s ,th eexp e r i en c eo fo c cupa t ion wa scha ra c t e r iz edby alowl ev e lo fev e rydayt en s ion ,c lo s ein t e ra c t ion sb e tw e eno c cup i e r s andsom es egm en t so fth eo c cup i edpopu la t ion ,spo rad i cou tbu r s t so f v io l en c e ,r ep r i sa l s ,ando th e rin c id en t s .12Inth econ t ex to fth eEa s t e rn F ron t ,th i s wa sa l sosom ewha tcha ra c t e r i s t i co fth eo c cupa t ionp ra c t i c e s 13 imp l em en t edbyth eI ta l ian A rmyonth e DonF ron t . W i thr ega rd sto Span i sht roopb ehav iou rtowa rd sRu s s ianc iv i l ian sinth eV o lkhovand L en ing rada r ea , wha ts canda l iz ed A rmy G roup No r th– w i thi t sG e rman m i l i ta rys t e r eo typ e s– wa sno ti t sluk ewa rmcomm i tm en ttoth e G en evaConv en t ionbu tth efa c ttha tSpan i shso ld i e r sw e r eun sy s t ema t i cinth e i rp i l lag ing .Th i sn ega t iv e lya f f e c t edth eimm ed ia t ein t e r e s t s o fth eW eh rma ch tini t sa t t emp t sno ttocomp l e t e lya l i ena t eth ec iv i l ian popu la t ion . How ev e r ,i t mu s tno tb efo rgo t t entha tth eB lu eD iv i s ione f f e c t iv e ly thoughind i r e c t lya id edas t ra t eg i ca c t iontha ts e rv edth em id rang e p lan sfo ra wa ro fex t e rm ina t iontha thad mo t iva t edth einva s iono fth e USSR :th es en t en c ingo fth r e em i l l ionp eop l etod ea thbys ta rva t ion . ManyFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s ,o ff c e r s ,and NCO sr e j e c t edRu s s iaandth e Ru s s ian sa sA s i an p eop l e , whomth eycon s id e r edtob ecu l tu ra l lyand sp i r i tua l lyin f e r io r .Inadd i t iontob lam ingRu s s iaandcommun i smfo r th em i s e ryo fth ep ea san t s , manya l soa c cu s edth e“ subm i s s iv e”and “b ru t i sh” Ru s s ian sth em s e lv e s .Th i sv i ew wa sp e rm ea t ed w i thcomm i s e ra t ionandev enempa thy ,no tra c ia lha t r ed .Span i shso ld i e r sm igh t

244 Th eSpan i shB lu eD iv i s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t

comm i tex c e s s e s ;th eyf e l tac e r ta ins en s eo fcu l tu ra lsup e r io r i tytowa rd s th een emyandc iv i l ian s ,ak intotha texp e r i en c edby No r th Am e r i can 14 so ld i e r sfa c ingth eJapan e s einth e Pa c if c . N ev e r th e l e s s ,th eB lu e D iv i s ion– i t scommand e r s , manyo f i t so ff c e r s ,and mo s to f i t sso ld i e r s– hadno tenv i s ion edth em id t e rmex t e rm ina t iono rsub juga t iono fth e S lav i cpopu la t ion . Mo s tw e r econv in c edtha tth eyhadcom etor e s to r e Ch r i s t ianfa i thandc iv i l iza t ioninRu s s iabye rad i ca t ingcommun i sm ; th e wa rth eyhadtofgh tonth eEa s t e rnf ron t wa sad i f f e r en ton e .

No t e s

1 .In t rodu c t ion :TheB lue D iv i s ion ,theF ran coReg ime ,andthe Se cond W o r ld W a r 1S e eF e rnánd ezCopp e l(2007 )andE s cuad ra(1998 ) .A l lt ran s la t ion sf rom fo r e ignlanguag e sth roughou tth i sbooka r e myownun l e s so th e rw i s e ind i ca t ed . 2S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018d ) . 3E lP a í s( 1 1and12 O c tob e r2004 ) . 4Spa ina sas ta t ed idno tpa r t i c ipa t einth econf i c t .Th i sdo e sno tequa t e w i thn eu t ra l i ty ,o rnon -a l ignm en tw i thanys id einth e wa r ,a tl ea s tun t i l 1944 . 5D e cad e sla t e r , many wa rv e t e ran ss t i l lb e l i ev edtha tth e i rro l ehada c tua l lyb e entop r ev en tSpa inf romen t e r ingth e wa ronth eAx i ss id e .S e e ,fo r examp l e ,J .d elaT o r r e ,“LaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”D e s t in o( 28Jun e1975 ) . 6S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,P ro c to r(1972 ) ;Ruh l(1986 ) ;Bow en(2007 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá (2007 ) ,o rth esp e c ia li s su eonSpan i shnon -b e l l ig e r en cydu r ingth eS e cond W o r ld W a rbyP eña lbaSo to r r io(2019 ) . 7S e eP r e s ton(1995 ) ;Tu s e l l(1995 ) ;Gud e rzo(1995 ) ;Payn e&Con t r e ra s (1996 ) ;Thomà s(2016b ) . 8S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th eex t en s iv eand w e l l -do cum en t ed monog raphby Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 )tha tfo cu s e s mo r eonop e ra t iona landd ip loma t i ca sp e c t s ,a sw e l la sh i sd e ta i l edt r ea tm en to fth eB lu eL eg ion(Mo r enoJu l iá 2014 ) .S e ea l soth e monog raphbyRod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a ) ;th ed es c r ip t iv eandun c r i t i ca ls tudybyth eama t eu rm i l i ta ryh i s to r ianCab a l l e ro Ju rado(2019 ) ;o rth ev e rysp e c if ct r ea tm en to fchap la in sandr e l ig io s i ty inth eBDbySaga r ra(2012 ) .W i th inRu s s ianh i s to r iog raphy ,som es tud i e s hav eapp ea r edinr e c en ty ea r stha ts tandapa r tf romth ein t e rna t iona l d i s cu s s iononth eEa s t e rnF ron t .Th e i r ma in m e r i tundoub t ed lyl i e sin sh edd ingl igh tonsom eSov i e t/Ru s s ian m i l i ta rya r ch iv esou r c e stha ta r e

246 No t e stopag e s 8–16 mo s t lyunava i lab l etonon -Ru s s ianh i s to r ian s :s e eKova l ev(2014 )and E lpa t ev sk i j(2015 ) . 9S e e Ha r tmann(2009 ,2013 ) ; Ha r tmann , Hü r t e r ,L i eb ,&Poh l(2009 ) ;F r i tz (201 1 ) . 10 S e eKühn e&Z i emann(2000 )and W e t t e(1992 ) . 1 1 How ev e r ,an ewg en e ra t iono fh i s to r ian sha sd rama t i ca l lyr ev iv edth e pano ramao f wa rs tud i e sinSpa in .Agoodexamp l ei sth eR ev i s t aUn iv e r s it a r i ad eH i s t o r i aM i l i t a r( www . ruhm . e s) ,fo und edin2012 . 12 Fo rr e f r e sh ingp e r sp e c t iv e sonth em i l i ta ryh i s to ryo fth eSpan i shC iv i l W a r ,s e eS e idmann(2002 ) , Ma t th ew s(2013 ,2019 ) ,H e rnánd ezBu rgo s (2020 )andA l ca ld e(2014 ) .S e ea l soE sda i l e(2020 )fo ranupda t edr ev i ew o fr e c en ts tud i e s . 13 S e eth ec la s s i cs tudybyL e ed(1979 :1–38 ) .S im i la r ly ,s e eLa tz e l(1997 ) , Ja sp e r(201 1 ) ,Z i emann(2013 ) ,and Nüb e l(2014 ) . 14 Fo rth eexp e r i en c eo fth eCondo rL eg ioninth eSpan i shC iv i lW a r ,s e e S chü l e r -Sp r ingo rum(2010 ) . 15 A mod e lapp roa chtoth i si s su e ,fo rth eI ta l ianca s e ,i sexam in edinG iu s t i (2003 ) .Ad e s c r ip t iv e(andpa s s iona t e lyp ro -Fa lang i s t )app roa chcana l so b efoundinT o r r e s(2018 ) . 16 S e eRuh l(1986 )and Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 ,2007 ) 17 S e eW e t t e(1992 ) ;U l r i ch(1996 ) ;andJa sp e r(201 1 ) . 18 S e eU l r i ch(1997 ) ;Epk enhan s ,Fö r s t e r ,& Hag emann(2006 ) ;D id czun e i t , Eb e r t ,&Jand e r(201 1 ) . 19 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018a :355–87 )fo racompa ra t iv er ef e c t ion . 20 En c ina s Mo ra l(2008 ) . 21 S e eJud e r ía s(1940 ) ; Ma r t ín ez Ma r t ín ez(1999 ) . 22 T odo rova(1997 ) ;S ch enk(2002 ) . 23 E lo rza&B iz ca r rondo(1999 :79–99 ) ;Fa s ey(2000 ) . 24 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 ) . 25 C ruz(1997 ) ;onth eEu rop eancon t ex t ,s e eK lug(1987 )andGa r c ía(2005 ) . 26 “E lv e rdad e rop e l ig roru so .Lacaba lga taa s iá t i ca ,”A r r i b a( 4 Ap r i l1935 ) . 27 S e eV en t ron e(2005 )andS coppo la(2006 ) . 28 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006 :177–305 ) . 29 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 :7–36 ) . 30 S e r ranod e Ha ro(1942 :289 ) ;D eCa s t roA lba r rán(1938 :156 ) . 31 S e e ,e .g . ,Ga r c ía Mo r en t e(1961 :20–1 ) . 32 S e e“Po raqu ípa sóRu s ia .”L aAm e t r a l l ad o r a( 17 O c tob e r1937 ) ;M .Somoza Po l ea ,“Caba l l e ro scon t raho rda s ,”L aAm e t r a l l ad o r a( 10 O c tob e r1937 ) . 33 S e eKa r l(1937 :161–96 ) . 34 F l e ch a( 25Ju ly1937 ) ;“S ta l in ,M ia jaysu scha r r e t e ra s ,” L aAm e t r a l l ad o r a ( 17Ju ly1938 ) . 35 S e eexamp l e sin Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006a :249–50 ) .

No t e stopag e s 16–19 247 36 J .M .Sa lav e r r ía ,“E lru so .”ABC ( 20 D e c emb e r1939 ) ;“Con t ralaURSS ,” Mund o( 29Jun e1941 ) . 37 P e lo i l l e(2015 ) . 38 S e eT oma son i(2017 ) . 39 S e e ,e .g . ,L .Pu é r to la s ,“Unl ib ro :Cz e ch Jo chb e rg :H i t l e r ,un mov im i en to a l emán ,”L aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t ad o,16( 27Jun e1931 ) ;R .Bad e r ,“E lt r iun fo na c iona lso c ia l i s tad e Hambu rgo ,”L aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t ad o,21( 10 O c tob e r 1931 ) . 40 R .L [ ed e sma ]R [amo s ] ,“E lna c iona l so c ia l i smoa l emán .E lpa r t idod eH i tl e r ,”L aC on qu i s t ad e lE s t ad o,2( 21 Ma r ch1931 ) ;“Lal ib e ra c iónan t i -ma rx i s ta .Ep i sod io sd e lna c iona l so c ia l i smoa l emán ,”L i b e r t ad,19( 19 O c tob e r 1931 ) ;“Ento rnoa lna c iona l so c ia l i smo ,”L i b e r t ad( 9 Nov emb e r1931 ) . 41 R .L ed e smaRamo s ,“E lna c iona l so c ia l i smoene lpod e r .Laru tad eA l eman ia ,” JONS ,1(May1933 ) . 42 “A l eman ia ,”FE,1( 7D e c emb e r1933 ) ;“E lg e s tod eA l eman iaylaSo c i e dadd e Na c ion e s ,”A r r i b a( 21 Ma r ch1935 ) ;“V en tanaa l mundo ,”A r r i b a, ( 16and30 May1935 ) ;E .Gu t i é r r ez -Pa lma ,“ I ta l ia ,A l eman ia ,E spaña ,” L i b e r t ad( 24S ep t emb e r1934 ) . 43 S e eThomà s(2019 )andGa l l ego(2014 :181–7 ) .S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s (2019 ) . 44 F .Ga r c ía Má rqu ez ,“Laraza :fundam en tod elacomun idad ,”JONS ,1 1 (Augu s t1934 ) . 45 “A l eman ia :naz i sy jud ío s ,”FE( 1 1Janua ry1934 ) ;“T r ibuna l e sd eSa lud Púb l i ca ,”FE( 22 F eb rua ry1934 ) . 46 Th e“p i lg r imag e”toB e r l in wa sar i t eo fpa s sag efo r many“ l i t t l efa s c i s t s” o fth eEu rop eanp e r iph e ry .S e eR e i ch e l(2006 ) ;Ba joh r&S t rupp(201 1 ) ; andSa l l é e(2014 ) . 47 Gay(1934 ) . 48 B en ey toP é r ez(1934 :43–6 ,1 13– 18 ,148– 50 ) . 49 Ra to(1935 ;1936 :1 19–23 ) . Th eda t e1492r e f e r stoth ey ea r wh enth eso ca l l edCa tho l i c Mona r ch sF e rnandoandI sab e lexp e l l edf roman ew ly un if ed“Span i sh”k ingdoma l lJ ew sand Mu s l im s whor e fu s edtoconv e r t toCa tho l i c i sm . 50 O .R edondo ,“R e l ig iónypo l í t i ca .D e f en sad eH i t l e r ,” L i b e r t ad( 6 Augu s t 1934 ) . 51 S e eR .d e Ma ez tu ,“H i t l e r :Sut r iun foysup rog rama ,”A c c i ónE sp añ o l a ( 16 May1932 ) .S e ea l so mo r eexamp l e sin H e rnánd ez(2016 :777– 8 ) . 52 Mo rodo(1985 :1 14–24 ) ; Ga l l ego(2014 :165– 7 ) . 53 Ro s enb e rg ’ sd ia r i e s ,en t ryo f23 Augu s t1936(Ma t thäu s&Ba joh r2015 : 200 ) . 54 Payn e(1997 :261–7 ) ;V iña s(2001 :186– 7 ) . 55 V e la rd eFu e r t e s(2008 ) .

248 No t e stopag e s 19–24 56 Bö ck e r(2000 :200 ,230 ,289– 90 ) ;Á lva r ezCh i l l ida(2002 :312– 14 ) . 57 V iña s(2001 :187–8 ) ; Mo ran tiA r iño(2013 :136–7 ) . 58 S e eV iña s(2001 ) ;M e rk e s(1961 ) ,andS chü l e r -Sp r ingo rum(2010 ) . 59 Ru izCa rn i c e r(1996 :156–61 ) ; Mo ran tiA r iño(2013 :325–517 ) . 60 Fo rexamp l e ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jov i s i t edG e rmanya sP ropagandaCh i e fin 1937(R id ru e jo1976 :188–92 ) . 61 S e eB rydan(2016 ,2019b ) . 62 S chu lz e -S chn e id e r(2004 ) ;P eña lbaSo to r r io(2019 ) . 63 S e eRo sAgudo(2002 :271–314 ) ;Janu éi M i r e t(2008 ) ;andS e smaLand r ín (201 1 ) . Onth einfu en c eo f Naz ilawdo c t r in e sinSpa in ,s e eR ivaya(1998 : 49–82 ) ,andGa l l ego(2014 :510– 16 ,740– 7 ) . 64 Bow en(2007 ) . 65 R epo r t sbyth eG e rmanv i c e con su linBada jozf rom16 ,17 ,and20 Augu s t 1940(PAAA ,DBM ,R eg .Po l .A l lg .[RPA ]558/2 , Box767 ) . 66 A l ca ld e(2014 :83–1 1 1 ) . 67 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,“E lhomb r eysue s t i lo ,”A r r i b a( 20Ju ly1940 ) . 68 R epo r t sbyLö s chn e randPau lW inz e r ,V a l en c ia ,28 Ap r i land5 May1941 (PAAA ,DBM ,RPA557/ 2 , Box766 ) . 69 L e t t e rtovonS toh r e r ,13Ju ly1941(PAAA ,DBM ,RPA557/ 2 , Box766 ) . 70 R i cha rd s(2010 ) . 71 R epo r t sf romLö s chn e randPau lW inz e r , Mad r idandV a l en c ia ,28 Ap r i l 1941(PAAA ,DBM ,RPA .557/2 , Box766 ) . 72 R epo r tf romAmba s sado rvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,17Ju ly1942(PAAA , R -29744 ) . 73 S e e Mazow e r(2000 :141–3 ) . 74 L e t t e ro fM .D .R iu sandC .Copa ,Ba r c e lona ,17Jun e1940(PAAA ,DBM , RPA558/2 , Box767 ) . 75 L e t t e rf romAn ton ioCa r r eño , Mad r id ,30 Ap r i l1941(PAAA ,DBM ,RPA 555/1 , Box764 ) . 76 Lazo(1998 :165–75 ) . 77 R epo r tf romG e rmancon su linB i lbao ,1Ju ly1941 ,andl e t t e rs ign edbys ix R e qu e t éo ff c e r s ,29Jun e1941(PAAA ,DBM ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 78 L e t t e r(n .d . ,Jun e1941 )s ign edbyth efv eR equ e t él ead e r sf rom Nava r r e (PAAA ,DBM ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 79 L e t t e rs ign edby19 Ca r l i s to ff c e r sand wa rv e t e ran s , Mad r id ,3 Augu s t 1942(PAAA ,DBM ,G eh e imak t en ,Box795 ,6/2 ) . 2 . Ru s s iaI s Gu i l ty ! 1Fö r s t e r(1983 ) ;W egn e r(1990 ) . 2C i t edbyS t r e i t(1978 :34 ) . 3W e t t e(2002 : 95–7 ) .

No t e stopag e s 24–31 249 4S t r e i t(1978 :29–30 ) . 5H i l lb e rg(2005 :953–78 ) ;Snyd e r(2010 ) . 6K rau sn i ck(1998 :123–30 ) . 7S e eH i lb e rg(2005 :1360–6 )andSnyd e r(2010 ) . 8H i t l e r(1930 :751–53 ) . 9S e eth econ t rov e r s ia lGo ldhag enth e s i s(1997 ) .Ac r i t i c i smapp ea r sin Kühn e(1999 :605–14 )a sw e l la sinB rown ing(2002 )andBöh l e r(2006 : 17–19 ) . 10 Poh l(2008 ) ; Ha r tmann(2009 :466–7 ) . 1 1K e l l e r(201 1 :320–3 ) . 12 K rau sn i ck(1977 )andRöm e r(2008 ) . 13 S e eU eb e r s chä r& W e t t e(1984 :310–15 ) ; Ba r tov(2001 : 106–7 ) ; Röm e r(2008 : 133–58 ) . 14 Röm e r(2008 :172–88 ) . 15 S e eW e t t e(2002 :103–4 )andK e r shaw(2000 :357 ) . 16 Ba r tov(1991 ,2001 ) ;Ra s s(2003 ) . 17 S e eN e i tz e l& W e lz e r(201 1 ) . 18 Röm e r(2012 ) . 19 Ha r tmann(2009 ,2013 ) ;Ru th e r fo rd(2014 ) . 20 V ehv i lä in en(2002 ) ;K iv imäk i(201 1 ) ;K iv imäk i&K innun en(2012 ) . 21 S e eA s swo r thy ,S ca f e s ,&C ra c iuno iu(1995 )a sw e l la sCon s tan t in iu ,Du tu , &R e t egan(1995 ) ,Ro ta r i ,Bu r c in ,Zod ian ,& Mo i s e(1999 ) ,andF i l ip e s cu (2006 ) . 22 D iNa rdo(1996 ,2005 ) ;N e i tz e l(2004 ) ;Ca ta ruzza ,Dy ro f f ,&Lang ew i e s ch e (2012 ) . 23 S ch l emm e r(2005 ,2009 ) ;G iu s t i(2016 ) ;S c ianna(2019 ) . 24 K l im en t& Nak lada l(1997 :65–89 ) , Ry ch l ik(2017 ) . 25 And e r son(1999 ) ;Ungvá ry(2004 ,2005a ,2005b ) ;Rom s i c s(2017 ) . 26 G lan tz(2001 :9 ) . 27 Hau s l e i tn e r ,M ihok ,& W e tz e l(2001 ) . 28 Ungvá ry(2005a :99–100 ) . 29 S t e in(1966 :137–48 ) ; W e t t e(1984 ) ;G run e r t(2012 :51–60 ) . 30 Jou rna len t r i e sda t ed23 ,24and28Jun e1941 ,quo t edby N e i tz e l(2004 : 137 ) . 31 V ö l k i s ch e rB e o b a ch t e r( 28Jun e1941 ) . 32 Ga r c íaP é r ez(1990 ) ;K luk e(1955 ) ; Mazow e r(2000 :221–2 ) ;B run e t eau (2003 ) ;Lo f f(2008 ) ;G run e r t(2012 ) ;andP r évo taux(2010 ) . 33 S e eS t e in(1966 ) ;W egn e r(1999 :1 12–29 ) ;L e l eu(2007 :261– 77 ) ; Roh rkamp (201 1 ) ;S chu l t e ,L i eb ,& W egn e r(2014 ) ;Böh l e r &G e rwa r th(2016 ) . 34 “N i ed e r s ch r i f tüb e rd i eS i tzungimAu swä r t ig enAm tvom30 .Jun i1941 üb e rd i eF r e iw i l l ig en -M e ldunginf r emd enLänd e rnfü rd enKamp fg eg en d i eSow j e tun ion ,”4Ju ly1941(PAAA ,Box708 ,G eh e imak t en ,504/ 4 ) ;

250 No t e stopag e s 31–6 “R i ch t l in i enfü rd enE in sa tzau s länd i s ch e rF r e iw i l l ig e rimKamp fg eg en d i eSow j e tun ion ,”6Ju ly1941(BA -MA ,RW19/686 ) . 35 T ou t el ’Eu r op ec on t r el eB o l ch év i sm e .2 èm eann iv e r s a i r e22Ju in1941– 22Ju in 1943,n .p . :C .E .A . ,n .d .[1943 ] ,25–31 . 36 S e eR eady(1987 )and Mü l l e r(2007 ) .Fo rW e s t e rnEu rop ean s ,s e eE s t e s (2003 ) ;An ton ioue ta l .(2016 ) ;andA l eg r eLo r enz(2017 ) .Fo ranon ex hau s t iv el i s to f monog raph sonth ed i f f e r en tna t iona lun i t s ,s e eB ruyn e (1991 )a sw e l la sB ruyn e &R ikm en spo e l(2004 )fo rth eW a l loon s ;G i o l i t to(2007 ) ,Ca r ra rd(2010 ) ,andS chö t t l e r(2014 )fo rth eF r en ch ;P i e r ik (2001 )fo rth e Du t ch ;W e r th e r(2004 ) ,Sm i th ,Pou l s en , &Ch r i s t en s en (1999 )a sw e l la sCh r i s t en s en ,Pou l s en &Sm i th(2014 )fo rth e Dan e s ; F igu e i r edo(2001 )andSo r l i e(2019 )fo rth e No rw eg ian s ;D eW ev e r (1985 ,1991 ) ,Ca r r e in(1999 ) ,andS eb e r e ch t s(2002 )fo rth eF l em i sh ; S t e in &K ro sby(1966 )fo rth eF inn s ; Gu e r ra(2012 )fo rth eI ta l ian s ; Zaugg(2016 )fo rth eA lban ian s ;and Mo tad e l(2014 )fo ro th e r Mu s l im p eop l e s . 37 W egn e r(1999 :31 1 ) ;N e i tz e l(2004 : 142 ) . 38 P i e r ik(2001 :56–7 ) ; Ch r i s t en s en ,Pou l s en ,&Sm i th(2014 :197 ) . 39 N e i tz e l(2004 : 149 ) ; Roh rkamp(201 1 :14 ) . 40 Luy t en s(2010 ) ;Gu e r ra(2012 ) ;M i la ta(2009 :174–214 ;2014 ) . 41 Th eexa c td im en s ion so fth e s ep lan si sl i t t l eknown .Inth i sr ega rd ,W a f fen -SSth eo r i s t sando rgan iz e r ssu cha sGo t t lobB e rg e randth eG e rm an i s ch e L e i t s t e l l e exp r e s s ed mo r epan -Eu rop eanamb i t ionthan H imm l e r .S e eW eg n e r(1999 :310–16 )andGu tmann(2017 ) . 42 InAp r i l1945 ,25 o fth e38 W a f f en -SSd iv i s ion s(65 .78% )w e r epa r t ia l lyo r en t i r e lycompo s edo fnon -G e rmanvo lun t e e r s ,though manyd iv i s ion s w e r ev e rysma l l(Roh rba ch201 1 :604–6 ) . 43 S e eL aSSt ’ app e l l e !,n .p . ,1943 . 44 Zaugg(2016 )andP e tk e(2014 ) . 45 Go l cz ew sk i(2003 ) . 46 Ho f fmann(1976 ) ; Mo tad e l(2013 ;2014 : 133–77 ) . 47 Fo rE s ton ian s ,s e eM i cha e l i s(2000 )and H i io(2014 ) ;fo rLa tv ian s ,S ch i l l (1977 )andF e ldman i s(2005 :122–131 ) ;andKo t t(2012 ) . 48 N ew land(1991 : 122–37 ) ; Ed e l e(2017 ) ;P e t rov&B eyda(2017 ) . 49 And r ey ev(1987 :206–15 ) ; Ho f fmann(1986 ) . 50 R id ru e jo(1978 :55–6 ) . 51 Ruh l(1986 :22–24 ) ;Smy th(1994 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :69–70 ) . 52 V onS toh r e rtoB e r l in , Mad r id ,22Jun e1941 ,and D eu t s ch eIn f o rm a t i on s st e l l er epo r t , Mad r id ,23Jun e1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 53 R ibb en t roptovonS toh r e r ,Sonn enbu rg ,24Jun e1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 54 R epo r tonth eFETPo l i t i ca lCoun c i lm e e t ing ,n .d .( Jun e1941 ) ,AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 .

No t e stopag e s 36–40 251 55 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 : 65–6 ) ;s e c r e tr epo r t s ,B e r l in ,24Jun e1941 ,and Ma d r id ,24Jun e1941 ;vonS toh r e rtoB e r l in , Mad r id ,25Jun e1941(PAAA R .29741 ) .L e t t e rn .d .(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 56 R epo r t sf romK rahm e r , Mad r id ,25Jun e1941 ,andvonS toh r e r ,26Jun e 1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 57 R epo r t sf romEb e rha rdvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,24Jun e1941 ;F r i tzLöw e , T a r ragona ,26Jun e1941 ;Roh rba ch ,B i lbao ,26Jun e1941 ;vonKnob lo ch , A l i can t e ,26Jun e1941(PAAA ,Box796 ,G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) ;r epo r t sf rom vonS toh r e r(24Jun e1941 ) ,f romcon su l so fSan taC ruzd eT en e r i f e( 25 Jun e1941 ) , Má laga( 26Jun e1941 ) ,A l i can t e( 27Jun e1941 ) ,andBa r c e lona ( 26Jun e1941 ) ,PAAA ,D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id ,Box766 ,R eg .Po l .A l lg . 58 T e l eg ram sf romvonS toh r e r ,26Jun e1941(PAAAR .29741 ) ;copyo fin s t ru c t ion stop rov in c ia lh eado fth eFETinT é touan ,n .d . ,andl e t t e rf rom th eSpan i sh H ighComm i s s ion e rin Mo ro c cotoG en e ra lV a r e la ,27Jun e 1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .588 ) . 59 And r é sSa l iqu e ttoV a r e la ,30Jun e1941 ,andV a r e latoSa l iqu e t ,2Ju ly 1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . Fo rahag iog raph i capp roa chto Muñoz G rand e s ,s e eT ogo r e sSán ch ez(2007 ) . 60 R id ru e jo(1978 :57–9 ,en t r i e so f4and12Ju ly1941 ) . 61 R epo r tby H eb e r l e in ,2Ju ly1941(PAAAR .29741 ) . 62 R epo r tonth em e e t ingo fG e rmanandSpan i sh M i l i ta ryJu s t i c er ep r e s en ta t iv e son19 Augu s t1941inB e r l in(AGMAV1978/ 8/2/1 ) . 63 V on W e iz sä ck e rtoth eG e rmanemba s syin Mad r id ,B e r l in ,3Ju ly1941 (PAAA ,R -29742 ) . 64 R epo r tf rom H eb e r l e in , Mad r id ,9Ju ly1941(PAAA ,R .29742 ) ;K l e in f e ld &T amb s(1983 :42–5 ) . 65 “R e la c iónd evo lun ta r io sru so s”n .d .[ Ju ly1941 ] ,AGMAV2005/3/2/3 , s e ea l soth em emo i r so fth evo lun t e e rV lad im i rKova l ev sk i iin Núñ ez S e ixa s&B eyda(2019 ) . 66 Lu i sAgu i la r ,“D ia r iod em icampañad eRu s ia ,”en t ryo f4Ju ly1941 (Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 :43 ) . 67 R epo r tf rom H eb e r l e in ,17Ju ly1941(PAAA , Mad r id553/ 3 , Box761 ) ; Lyau t ey(1942 :58–62 ) . 68 M .Da rana r ,“E lv ia j eaRu s iad elo svo lun ta r io sfa lang i s ta s ,” ABC ( 22Ju ly 1941 ) . 69 S e er epo r t sf romth e2nds e c t iono fG en e ra lS ta f f ,G ra f enwöh r ,19and 21Ju ly1941 ;andCommand e rRamónRod r ígu ezV i ta ,n .d . ,inAGMAV , 2005/2/2 ; MuñozG rand e s ’ sr epo r ttoV a r e la ,29Ju ly1941(AHMC -FGV , C .1 15 ) . 70 R epo r tf romth eBDG en e ra lS ta f ftoG en e ra lV a r e la ,5 Augu s t1941 ;r epo r t byth eDGS ,I rún ,8 Augu s t1941 ,and MuñozG rand e s ’ sr epo r ttoV a r e la , 19 Augu s t1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) .

252 No t e stopag e s 40–6 71 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,9 Augu s t1941 (AFR I ) ;Cap ta insu rg eonB e rna rd inoLóp ezRom e ro ,DEV .H o sp i t a ld e C amp añ a250 .M em o r i a,20 Augu s t1942 ,7(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fCa r lo sLóp ez d e lR ío ,Bo i ro/Mad r id[ACLR ] ) . 72 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,14 Augu s t1941 (AFR I ) . 73 S e eGa r r iga(1977 :360–3 ) ;r epo r t so fvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,9and18Augu s t1941(PAAA ,R29742 ) . 74 S e eth eexhau s t iv ed e s c r ip t ionbyCaba l l e roJu rado(201 1 ) . 75 R epo r t so fth eBDCh i e fo fM i l i ta ryPo l i c e ,B e r l in ,12and23 May1942 (AGMAV1982/ 6/3 ) . 76 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :315 ) ;Caba l l e roJu rado(201 1 : 21 1–17 ) . 77 Ibáñ ez H e rnánd ez(1998 ) ;“Ho jad eCampaña ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,266(S ep t emb e r1981 )and273(Ap r i l1982 ) . 78 R epo r tby MuñozG rand e stoG en e ra lV a r e la ,1 Augu s t1941 ,andt ran s la t edcop i e so fth esp e e ch e so fCo ch enhau s enandF romm(AHMC -FGV , C .1 15 ) . 79 P ro c to r(1972 ) ;K l e in f e ld&T amb s(1983 ) ;Bow en(2000a ) .Th i st end en cy i sno t edins ev e ra llo ca ls tud i e sbyama t eu randn eo -F ran co i s th i s to r ian s : s e eN eg r e i ra(201 1 ) ;T o r r e s(2014 ) ;andCaba l l e roJu rado(2019 ) . 80 E l lwood(1984 :145–6 ) ; Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a ,2009 ) . 81 Ruh l(1986 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 ) . 82 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,18S ep t emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 83 L ev s en&K rüg e r(2010 ) ;A r i e l l i&Co l l in s(2013 ) . 84 A r e s t i(2014 ) .R ega rd ingth eG e rmancomba tan t s ,s e eW e rn e r(2008 ) . 85 E l s t e r(1999 ,2002 ) . 86 A l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r eztoh i spa r en t s ,G ra f enwöh r ,25Ju ly1941 (AFN ) . 87 Skou t e l sky(2006 :270–2 ) ;au tob iog raphyo fJ .M .Ca s tañón ,n .d . , c .1957– 8 (RAH -FMD ) . 88 “ ¿Po rqu éfu imo sa l lá ?”B l auD iv i s i ón,21(May1961 ) ; Mon t e s(2006 :23 ) . 89 Onth econ c ep to f“ r e f e r en c eg roup ,”s e eM e r ton(1970 : 228–386 ) . 90 “ I wa sno taFa lang i s t ,bu tId id wha t manyo f myf r i end sandcompan ion sd id ,”a cknow l edg edF ran c i s coRu iz , whoen l i s t edin1942 , wh enh e wa sdo ingh i sm i l i ta rys e rv i c e(P é r ez Ma e s t r e2008 : 125 ) . 91 L e t t e rf romP ed roLu i sFa ja rdoB i e l ,12 Augu s t1941(AGA 51/20552 ) . 92 L e t t e rf romEdua rdoApa r i s i ,V a l en c ia ,n .d .(O c tob e r1941 ) ,PAAA ,Box 796 ,G eh e im a k t en ,6 /9. 93 L i c in iod ela Hu e rgatoCa r lo sP in i l la ,B enav en t e ,1 1Ju ly1941(CDMH , Ca r lo sP in i l la ’ spap e r s ,Box1448/1 ) . 94 Quo t edbyLóp ezV i l la to ro(2012 :280 ) .

No t e stopag e s 46–9 253 95 Manu e lS .yS .toF ran co , Mad r id , 21Ju ly1941 .O th e rp e t i t ion e r sc i t ed mo t iv e so fav eng ingfam i ly m emb e r s( su cha sth esono fal i eu t enan t who hadfa l l enin1937 )o ran t i commun i smandpa t r io t i sm(Cazo r laSán ch ez 2014 :48–50 ) . 96 App l i ca t iono fI sab e lSa ladoEn r íqu ez , Hu e lva ,13 D e c emb e r1941(AGA , 51/20552 ) . 97 F romasamp l eo f61 vo lun t e e r sinth eG i rona M i l i t ia , mo r ethanon e th i rd ( 36% )w e r eno tbo rninCa ta lon ia ;a lmo s t40% w e r esk i l l edandun sk i l l ed wo rk e r s ,andon e fou r th(24 .6% )w e r elow -and m id rank ingemp loy e e s andc iv i ls e rvan t s ,a long w i thas ign if can tnumb e r(6 .5% )o fl ib e ra lp rof e s s iona l s ,ag r i cu l tu ra landindu s t r ia lbu s in e s sown e r s . Mo r ethanha l f w e r eFET m emb e r s ,ando th e r sw e r er igh tw ingo rt rad i t iona l i s t sp r io rto 1936 .S e ea l soGay(2002 ) . 9 8R epo r t sf romS amu e l Ho a r e ,M ad r id ,8Ju ly1 9 4 1(NA -PRO3 7 1/ 2 6 9 4 0 ) : S t i l l etoG e rm anFo r e ign M in i s t ry ,M ad r id ,8Ju ly1 9 4 1(PAAA ,S amm lung d e rL ag eb e r i ch t e ,M ad r id5 5 3/3 , Box7 6 1 ) ,andf romth eG e rm ancon su lin B a r c e lon a ,1 0Ju ly1 9 4 1(PAAA ,Box7 9 6 , G e h e im a k t en6/ 9 ) ;r epo r tbyAm b a s s ado rFox á ,H e l s ink i ,2 6Ju ly1 9 4 1(AMAE ,R 2 1 9 2 ,Exp . 3 1 ) . Th eBBC s e rv i c einSp an i shr epo r t edth a tno ton ly“m i sd i r e c t ed ”id e a l i s tvo lun t e e r s jo in edth eBD ,bu ta l soex conv i c t sandso ld i e r s whoh adb e enfo r c edtoen l i s t .S e er epo r tbyS amu e l Ho a r e ,1 4S ep t emb e r1 9 4 1(NA -FO3 7 1/ 2 6 9 4 0 ) . 99 R epo r tby Ma jo r Ma r ianod e lP rado ,G ra f enwöh r ,21Ju ly1941(AGMAV 2005/272/23 ) ;K l e in f e ld&T amb s(1983 :35–6 ) . 100 R epo r t sf romth eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id ,andcon su l sinBa rc e lona ,San taC ruzd eT en e r i f e ,B i lbao ,A l i can t e , Má laga ,A lm e r íaand o th e rtown s(PAAA ,D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id ,R eg .Po l .A l lg . ,Box766 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 : 98–100 ) ; Hoa r etoFo r e ign O ff c e ,9Ju ly1941(NA PRO/FO371/26940 ) .S e ea l soF e rnánd ezV i c en t e(2019 :342 ) . 101 Sán ch ezB run(2002 :81 ) . 102 R epo r tf romaV -M ann to H eb e r l e in , Mad r id ,3Ju ly1941(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) . 103 “Pa r t em en sua ld eFET ,”1–30Jun e1941(AGA ,51/20557 ) ;N i co lá s Ma r ín (1982 :437– 9 ) ;A l ca ld e(2012 :53–5 ) . 104 “Pa r t em en sua ld eFET ,”A s tu r ia s ,Jun e1941(AGA ,51/20565 ,Exp .39 ) . 105 R epo r t sf romCon su lR i ch t e r ,T é touan ,5and10Ju ly1941(P AAA ,Box 796 ,G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) . Amongth e Mo ro c canso ld i e r ss ta t ion edinIb iza w e r e 106 vo lun t e e r s ,a l lo f whom w e r er e j e c t ed ;a l so ,490 Mo ro c can so ld i e r ss ta t ion edinT en e r i f evo lun t e e r ed(N eg r e i ra1991 :97–8 ;l i s to f nam e sf rom28Jun e1941 ,in N eg r e i ra201 1 :20–2 ;J im én ezSo to2015 : 161–2 ) . 106 C e rv e raG i l(1998 )andRu iz(2012 ) .Anexamp l e wa sth eFa lang i s t Edua rdoD íazIn fan t e(n .d . :9–10 ) .

254 No t e stopag e s 49–52 107 Samu e l Hoa r etoAn thonyEd en ,2Ju ly1941( c i t edbyPa loma r e s1996 : 35 ) . 108 S e ePa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :271–9 ) . 109 E . Hax e l ,Zu s t and b e r i ch tü b e rd i esp an .F r e iw .D iv .,1 1 Augu s t1943(BA -MA , RH24–50/59 ) . 1 10 W a rd ia ryo fEn r iqu eSán ch ezF ra i l e ,quo t edbyL .Ru iz ,“Ano ta c ion e s d eunso ldadosob r elacampañad eRu s ia ,”unpub l i sh edpap e r ,2006 .S e e a l soV i c iana(2018 :236–7 ) . 1 1 1 Unpub l i sh eds ta t em en t sbyD ion i s ioR id ru e jo(Mo r en t e2006 :191 ) . 1 12 “D i ezr e spu e s ta sad i ezp r egun ta sco lo candolo spun to ssob r ela sí e s ,” B l auD iv i s i ón ,50(O c tob e r1963 ) . 1 13 D e lA r coB lan co(2007 ) ;A l ca ld e(2014 :1 17–38 ;2010 ) . 1 14 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :276 ) . 1 15 T oavo idcomp l i ca t ion sinth eba r ra ck sund e rh i scommand ,inJanua ry 1942th eH ighComm i s s ion e ro f Mo ro c co ,G en e ra lLu i sO rgaz ,sugg e s t ed tha ton lyFa lang i s tvo lun t e e r sb ed i spa t ch edtor ep la c etho s e whor e tu rn edf romRu s s ia ;G en e ra lV a r e lar e spond edtha t“ th e r ea r ev e ryf ew Fa lang i s tvo lun t e e r s .”Lu i sO rgaztoV a r e la ,T é touan ,10Janua ry1942 , andV a r e latoLu i sO rgaz , Mad r id ,24 F eb rua ry1942 .Th eph ra s er e f e r r ing toth eFETvo lun t e e r sinth el e t t e rf romth eA rmyCh i e fo fS ta f fto Muñoz G rand e s , Mad r id ,n .d . ,c . Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 1 16 R epo r tbyG en e ra lCa r lo sA s en s io ,A rmyC en t ra lS ta f f ,toF ran co , Mad r id , 9F eb rua ry1942(AGMAV ,C .2005/ 14/1/6 ) . 1 17 Thomà s(2016b ) . 1 18 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a :31 1 ) ;Caba l l e roJu rado(2004a :30–1 ) . 1 19 Inth ebo rd e rtowno fI rún ,th e“f r s t”BDvo lun t e e r s who w e r er e tu rn ing toth ef ron ta f t e rl eav eo rconva l e s c en c einSpa inev ena sk edno ttosha r e at ra incompa r tm en tw i thth er ep la c em en t s ,a sth ey w e r e“no to fth e sam ec la s sa stho s e who w en tay ea rago”(DGSr epo r to f13Jun e1942 , AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 120 Fo rexamp l e ,th eC iv i lGua rd Manu e lPu en t e sin May1942 ,a l soa Fa lang i s t ,inal e t t e rtoD ion i s ioR id ru e jo ,15 May1942(CDMH -FR , MF/ R5912 ) . 121 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :395–6 ) ; DGSr epo r t s ,24and28 F eb rua ry1942 (AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . An O ldGua rdFa lang i s tf romV a l en c iavo lun t e e r ed inth ela t esumm e ro f1942 wh i l edo ingh i sm i l i ta rys e rv i c einBa r c e lona . H ehadno tb e enadm i t t edon ey ea rb e fo r e ,bu tla t e r“vo lun t e e r sa r ela cking”andthu ss e rv i c em enondu ty w e r ea l low edtoen l i s t(G eo rga copu lo s 2015 :29 ) . 122 Mon th lyr epo r to fth eFETinA lba c e t e , Ma r ch1942(AGA ,P r e s id en c ia , 51/20580 ) . 123 Manu e lT a r ínSa latoR em ed io sR ebo l lo , 13Jun e1942(AFR ) .

No t e stopag e s 53–6 255 124 Manu e lT a r ínSa latoR em ed io sR eb e l lo , 12Ju ly1942 ,andtoanonymou s f r i end s ,21 O c tob e r1942(AFR ) . 125 U r su latoCo rpo ra lAn ton io H e r r e ro ,Poznań,13S ep t emb e r1943 ,and An ton io H e r r e rotoU r su la ,Ru s s ia ,30S ep t emb e r1943(AA ) . 126 InA lba c e t e ,fo rexamp l e ,984vo lun t e e r ss ign edupa tr e c ru i tm en to f f c ein1941 .In Ma r ch1942 ,th enumb e ro fen l i s tm en t s wa s132 .S e eth e mon th lyr epo r t so fth eFETinA lba c e t e ,Ju ly1941and Ma r ch1942(AGA , 51/20544and51/20580 ) ,andA l ca ld e(2012 :62 ) . 127 Mo s ca rdótoV a r e la , Mad r id , 20Ju ly1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 128 Rod r ígu ezGonzá l ez(2003 :291 ) ;N eg r e i ra(201 1 :129–200 ) . 129 S e ePu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :195–7 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :482– 6 ) . 130 Aso ld i e rinSan tSadu rn íd ’Ano iar e fu s edtogotoRu s s ia ,igno r ingth e sugg e s t ion so fh i ssup e r io r s :J . J .Tha r ra t s ,“San tSadu rn íd ’Ano iaila f l · lox e ra ,”D i a r id eG i r on a( 1 1O c tob e r1987 ) . 1 3 1C ap t a inF ed e r i coFu en t e s -Góm e zd eS a l a z a rw a sc a l l edtofo rm a t ionin Jun e1 9 4 2onth ecou r ty a rdo fth eC ad e t sA c ad emyinLog roño .Tho s e who d i dn o tw i s htogodoRu s s i aw e r etot ak eon es t epfo rw a rd .Though a lmo s ta l lth ec ad e t ssymp a th i z ed w i thth eBDinth eo ry ,th eyh adto m ak e th e i rd e c i s ionina m a t t e ro fs e cond s(Lóp e z -Cov a r rub i a s2 0 1 2 :1 6 – 1 7 ) .P r i v a t eJo s éL in a r e sG a r c í aw a sr e c ru i t edina Mo ro c c anb a r r a ckbyano ff c e r whos en te igh tso ld i e r sfo raphy s i c a lex am ,b lu r t ingou t :“Y oua r ego ing toth eD iv i s ion ,r igh t ? ”Bycon t r a s t ,inn e ighbou r ingT é tou an“ th eco lon e l d idno tw an tanyon eto‘vo lun t e e r ’inth a tw ay ”(L in a r e s2 0 0 0 :2 3 ) . 132 In t e rv i ew w i thJoaqu im M .Ro sad eO l iv e i ra ,L i sbon ,17 O c tob e r2010 ( cou r t e syo fM r .R i ca rdoS i lva ,L i sbon ) . 133 MuñozG rand e stoV a r e la , 10 May1942 ;V a r e lato MuñozG rand e s , Mad r id , 12Jun e1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) ;r epo r tbySonn l e i thn e r ,t ran s m i t t edto H i t l e randR ibb en t rop , 4S ep t emb e r1942(PAAAR .29744 ) ; OInd ep end en t e,26Jun e1992 . 134 J .Fa r r éd eCa lzad i l la ,“L eg i s la c iónlabo ra lp ro t e c to rad elo svo lun ta r io s d elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”En l a c e,9( 20S ep t emb e r1942 ) . 135 ¡E sp añ o l e s ! , Mu r c ia :Imp .J im én ez ,n .d .[1942 ] . 136 L e t t e rbyCap ta inF ran c i s coGonzá l ez , Ho f ,25 Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV , C .1 15 ) . 137 D íazB en í t ez(2005 ) . 138 Ma r ch enaCañ e t e(2003 : 49–50 ) . 139 C e la(2010 :177–8 ) . 140 P é r ez Ma e s t r e(2008 :131–2 ) . 141 L ina r e s(2000 :30–1 )ind i ca t edtha tinth e16 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion(S ep t em b e r1942 )th e r ew e r e manyc iv i l ianvo lun t e e r s ,som es em ina rys tud en t s andco rpo ra l sands e rg ean t s whor eg r e t t edth e i rd e c i s iontoen l i s tba ckin 1941 .

256 No t e stopag e s 56–8 142 A c co rd ingtoth er e coun tby Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :505 ) ,a so fth eendo f 1943 ,upto42 p e rc en to fB lu eD iv i s ionp e r sonn e lhadcom ef romth e Fa lang e .Y e tnod e ta i l edsou r c e sa r ep rov id ed . 143 Su cha sth eg roupo ftw en ty -fv em emb e r so fth eF ran co ’ sY ou thFa lang e f romA lmad én(C iudadR ea l ) whoen l i s t eda svo lun t e e r sin Nov emb e r 1942 :E lP i r in e o( 12 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 144 S e eB o l e t índ eA c c i ónC a t ó l i c a,G rano l l e r s( 1Jun e1942 ) ;C ru z ad a( 1 Ma r ch 1943 ) ;FETyJONS( 3F eb rua ry1942 ,10 Nov emb e r1943and3 F eb rua ry 1944 ) . 145 R epo r t ,n .d .(1943 ) ,CDMH ,FNFF , MF/R7256 ,Do c .2595 . 146 D i a r i od eop e r a c i on e seimp r e s i on e sd e lt en i en t ep r ov i s i on a lB en j am ínA r en a l e s enl ac amp añ ad eRu s i a ,unpub l i sh ed wa rd ia ry(1942 ) ,1and31–2(p r iva t e a r ch iv eo fCa rm e lod ela sH e ra s , Mad r id ) ; wa rd ia ryo fCap ta insu r g eon Manu e ld eCá rd ena sRod r ígu ez(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fJo s é Manu e ld e Cá rd ena s ,SanS eba s t ián ) ,p .1 ; M i ra l l e sGü i l l(1981 :74–8 ) ; Ca s tañoDoña (1991 ) ;F .Caña sE s t iva l ,“No ch ebu enaene lf r en t eru socon m i scama ra da s ,”O f en s iv a,27 D e c emb e r1942 . 147 R ibb en t roptoAdo l fvon Mo l tk e ,1 1F eb rua ry1943 ;von Mo l tk etoR ib b en t rop ,12 F eb rua ry1943(PAAA ,R .29747 ) . 148 M emoo fFETp rov in c ia ll ead e rLu i sJu lv e , Hu e s ca , 30Janua ry1942(AGA 51/20665 ) . 149 “ J e ra rqu ía sd elaFa lang eenRu s ia ,”En l a c e,I I : 13( 26Jun e1943 ) ;A .Pozo Zaya s ,“D iv i s iónAzu l ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 27 F eb rua ry1943 ) . 150 R epo r to fth eFETP rov in c ia lH eadqua r t e r sin Hu e lva ,2Jun e1943(AGA , 51/20613 ) ;no t e so fth eB r i t i shV i c e -Con su linG ranada ,28 F eb rua ry1943 ; r epo r to fth eB r i t i shemba s sy ,7 Ap r i l1943(NA -PRO ,FO371/34813 ) .In Ju ly1943arumou rc i r cu la t edtha tfou r t e enyoung m ena r r e s t edinapo l i c era idhadb e entak end i r e c t lytoZa ragozaandp la c edinth eun i ttha t wa sl eav ingfo rth eRu s s ianF ron t .S e eB r i t i shV i c e -Con su lr epo r t ,G ranada ,17Ju ly1943(NA -PRO ,FO371/34813 ) . 151 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :4 ,en t ryo f30 Ma r ch1942 ) ;M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s , “Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,59( Ju ly1964 )and80(Ap r i l1966 ) . 152 R epo r t sf romth em i l i ta rygov e rno ro fGu ipúz coa ,16 Ap r i l1942 ,andth e DGS ,SanS eba s t ián ,4 Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 153 R epo r to fth ep rov in c ia ld e l ega t eo fth eFET O ff c efo rPopu la rEdu ca t ion , Log roño ,25Jun e1943 ,andr epo r to frumo r s ,25 O c tob e r1943(AHPLR , PP/20andPP/ 20/8 ) ;L ina r e s(2000 :30 ) . 154 MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 : 21 ,en t ryo f20Jun e1942 ) . 155 C i t edinRod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :293 ) .S e ea l soL ina r e s(2000 :35 ) . 156 S t e eng ra ch ttoR ibb en t rop ,B e r l in ,1 O c tob e r1943 ,and m emo randum p r e s en t edtoth eSpan i shamba s sado r ;r epo r tbyD i e ckho f fa f t e raconv e rsa t ion w i thJo rdana , Mad r id ,2 O c tob e r1943(PAAA ,R .29750 ) .

No t e stopag e s 58–64 257 157 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,AOK16toA rmyG roup No r th ,7 F eb r ua ry1942 , andth e OKWr epo r t ,B e r l in ,8 Ap r i l1942(BA -MARH19I I I/493 ) ;r e po r t so fth eG e rmanFo r e ign M in i s t ry ,3S ep t emb e r1942(BA -MA ,RH 20–18/1075 ) . 158 R epo r to f Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzkommandoI ,10 Nov emb e r 1943(USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 159 Hax e l , Zu s t and b e r i ch t,1 1 Augu s t1943 . 160 Th eCa ta lano ff c e rDan i e lT o r raexp r e s s edinJu ly1941h i sd i s cou rag em en ta tno thav inghadth egoodfo r tun etogototh eRu s s ianF ron t ,a s th es ev en t e eno ff c e rvo lun t e e r samongf romR eu sandT a r ragonaex c e ed edth equo ta :“ ev entho s ew i thconn e c t ion sa r eonth e wa i tl i s t .And h e r eyouhav eu sth i r t e enl e f tov e r ,squ i rm ingl ik eaba s i l i skandeag e rfo r som es e r iou sa c t iono rfo rn ewun i t stob eo rgan iz ed .”L e t t e rf romDan i e l T o r ra ,T a r ragona ,6Ju ly1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :35 ) . 161 L e t t e r sf romCap ta inF e rnando MuñozA c e rato MuñozG rand e s ,n .d . (AGMAV ,2003/ 4/2/1 )andf romJo s éSa laza rM e l cónto Ma r i saS chü tz e A lon so ,14 O c tob e r1943(MPA ,R .4453/ 12 ) . 162 Cu en caT o r ib io(2001 :25 ) . 163 In s t ru c t ion so fth eFET O ff c efo rPopu la rEdu ca t iontoth ep r e s s ,29Jun e 1941(AGA ,SC ,M IT ,C .76 ) . 164 “ Juv en tudyop t im i smoene lband e r índ eengan ch e ,”A zu l( 5Ju ly1941 ) . 165 Asamp l eo f122so ld i e r sf romth eCana ryI s land s who w e r er e c ru i t ed wh i l edo ingth e i rm i l i ta rys e rv i c e ,and who s ep ro f e s s ion sinc iv i ll i f e w e r eknown ,a l sor epo r t ss im i la rr e su l t s :40 .16% w e r efa rm e r s ,daylabou r e r s ,andf sh e rm en , wh i l e14% w e r eun sk i l l edandsk i l l ed manua l wo rk e r s( J im én ezSo to2015 :291 ) . 166 Au tho r ’ sowne s t ima t e sba s edonRam í r ez -Cop e i rod e lV i l la r(2001 ) ; P é r ez Ma e s t r e(2008 :1 15–18 ,217–86 ) . 167 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :395 ) .Th eau tho r ,how ev e r ,d idno tl i s tth epopu la t ion samp l ed . 168 Ramo s(1953 :6 ) ; Gonzá l ezP in i l la(1987 :238 ) ;r epo r tbyvon W e iz sä ck e r , 5F eb rua ry1943(PAAA ,R -29743 ) . 169 Da taha sb e encomp i l edf romd iv e r s eda i lyn ew spap e r s(ABC,A r r i b a, Pu e b l o,In f o rm a c i on e s ,L aV angu a rd i a) ,a sw e l la sf roms e conda rysou r c e s , b iog raph i ca lr epo r t sonfa l l enFa lang i s tso ld i e r sandda tacomp i l edbyth e Span i shA rmyi t s e l f(AGMAV ,C .3762/1andC .3762/ 5 ) . 170 B e tw e enJanua ry1942andD e c emb e r1943 ,214 ob i tua r i e sw i thb iog ra ph i e so fBDvo lun t e e r sw e r epub l i sh edinth en ew spap e rABC.S ix ty -fv e o fth evo lun t e e r s(30 .3% )w e r ef romth eA rmy .Th e r ew e r e56 FET m em b e r sa ttha tpo in t(26 .16% ) ,40 o f whom(18 .7% )w e r eo ldsh i r t so rc am i s a s v i e j a s.A long w i thth e s ew e r e34(15 .88% ) whohadfough tinth eC iv i l W a r .Th e r ew e r e 10(4 .67% )p rov i s iona len s ign sandasma l lp e r c en tag e

258 No t e stopag e s 64–8 a ff l ia t ed w i thCa tho l i cY ou tho ro th e rr e l ig iou so rgan iza t ion s(12 ,o r 5 .6% ) .N in eo fth efa l l en(4 .2% )w e r ef romfam i l i e s ma rk edbyr ep r e s s ion inth eR epub l i canzon e . 171 S e el i s t so fth efa l l enk ep tinth eFunda c iónD iv i s iónAzu l(Mad r id ) ,and da taga th e r edf romth ed i s cu s s ionfo rumh t tp ://m emo r iab lau . fo ro s .w s 172 S e ePu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :179–80 ) ;au tho r ’ se s t ima t e sba s edonPa la c io P i la c é s(2013 :I I ,1083–1246 ) ;V i c iana(2018 :242 ) ;T o r r e s(2014 :183 ) . 173 V onS toh r e r , Mad r id ,18 Augu s t1941(PAAA ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en6/9 ) ; Rüh l(1986 :25–6 )e s t ima t e sth i sfgu r etob eb e tw e en20%and30% . 174 “ In fo rm esob r elaD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s ,l lamada‘D iv i s ión Azu l , ’r ea l izadocont e s t imon io sd ep r i s ion e ro s ,d e s e r to r e syd ia r io sd e campañacap tu rado spo re lE j é r c i toRo jo ,”F eb rua ry1942(AHPCE ,Box 104 , Fo ld e r1 ) . 175 Som eB r i t i shr epo r t sm en t ion edth i s :Con su lin Ma laga ,10Ju ly1941 (NA -FO371/26891 ) . 176 “ In fo rm esob r elaD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s ,”4–8 . 177 Th ee ff ca cyo fFa lang i s tr evo lu t iona ryrh e to r i cina t t ra c t ingfo rm e rm emb e r sf romth e wo rk ing c la s sl e f tha sb e enadd r e s s ed ,andtosom eex t en t ov e r e s t ima t ed ,byPa r e jo(2008 ) . 178 Mon th lyr epo r tJu ly1941 , Mu r c ia(AGA 51/20557 ) ;T o r r e s(2014 :74 ,183 ) ; Rod r ígu ezGonzá l ez(2003 :251–5 ) ; Do lo r e sGan c edotoA lb e r to Ma r t ín Gam e ro ,T o l edo ,27 O c tob e r1941(AA ) . 179 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 ) .Som eb iog raph i e sinPa r r i l la N i e to(2007 ) , andD elaIg l e s ia&Bu rgu e t e(2015 ) . 180 A l ca ld e(2014 :101–2 ) ;J .S eoan eAb e l la ,“E lSa rg en toP rov i s iona lenlaD i v i s iónAzu l ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,158(S ep t emb e r1972 ) . 181 S e e ,e .g . ,M e l iáV i la(2003 ) . 182 L e t t e r sf romL eopo ldo Mu l e t ,21 O c tob e r1941 ,andf romJu l ioGonzá l ez , 7 May1942(Ramóny O r t iz2003 :345– 8 ,369– 74 ) . 183 B e l lodGóm ez(2004 :269–72 ) . 184 Th eB r i t i shamba s sado rsu rm i s edsom e th ings im i la r :s e eth er epo r to f Samu e l Hoa r e ,2Ju ly1941(NA -FO371/26940 ) . 185 G eo rga copu lo s(2015 :33 ,40 ) . 1 8 6A r r e s etoR id ru e jo ,M ad r id ,3Ju ly1 9 4 1(CDMH ,D ion i s ioR id ru e jop ap e r s , MF/R5 9 1 2 ) ;R id ru e jo( 1 9 7 8 :1 8 – 2 0 ,and 1 1 6 ) ;B l an co( 1 9 5 4 : 8 – 1 0and 3 4 ) . 187 D ia ryo fEn r iqu eM en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f23Ju ly1941(C e la2010 : 139 ) . 188 “ In fo rm ed eamb i en t esob r elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” Mad r id ,7Ju ly1941 (AGA ,P r e s id en c ia ,54/18950 ) ;2ndS e c t iono fBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,n .d .[25 Ju ly1941 ] ,AGMAV2005/ 2/3/6 . 189 W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t r i e so f 23Ju ly1941and3 Augu s t1941 , r ep rodu c edinPa r r i l la N i e to(2018 :49and53 ) .

No t e stopag e s 68–70 259 190 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,n .d .[ ea r lyAugu s t 1941 ] ,AFR I ; Mo r en t e(2006 :294–5 ) . 191 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,25 O c tob e r1941 ,AFR I ;“D ia r io d ecampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(1ªpa r t e )”B l auD iv i s i ón,619 (F eb rua ry201 1 ) ,en t ryo f9 Augu s t1941 . 192 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :95–8 ) ,m emo i r so fP r iva t eEn r iqu e Mu r i l lo(G rag e ra D íaz&In fan t e s2007 :146–9 ) . 193 W a rd ia ryo fF ed e r i co M en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 (C e la2010 :142 ) . 194 S e eexamp l e sinL ina r e s(2000 )andSán ch ezSa l c edo(2002 ) . 195 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :285 ) . 196 O rd e ro fBDR ep r e s en ta t ion , 30 Nov emb e r1942(AGMAV2006/ 8/3/1 ) . 197 OKWtoA rmyG roup No r th , 8Jun e1942 ,andAbw eh rpo s tr epo r to fth e X I I IM i l i ta ryD i s t r i c t(Nu r emb e rg ) ,28Jun e1942 ,r ega rd ingCap ta inJuan A lga r ra , who wa s ma r r i edtoanEng l i sh woman(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 ) . 198 Samu e l Hoa r etoth eFo r e ign O ff c e ,6 Augu s t1941(NA -PRO ,FO 371/26891 ) . 199 Cap ta inCo l la tztoL IVA rmyCo rp s ,26 O c tob e r1942(BA -MA ,RH20– 18/1075 ) .Th e r e mayhav eb e en mo r eca s e so fd e s e r t ion ,a sth eBDCh i e f s o fS ta f fw e r er e lu c tan ttop rov id er e l iab l eda tatoth eG e rman s .S e er epo r t o fG en e ra l Han s eno fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,toth e1 1 thA rmy ,27 O c tob e r 1942(BA -MA ,RH20–18/1075 ) . 200 A c co rd ingtor epo r t sbyth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f(AGMAV ,3736/6 ) ,th e r e w e r ef ewp ro c e ed ing sfo rs e l f -mu t i la t ionb e fo r eth eendo f1942 :on ein Nov emb e r1941andano th e rinJu ly1942 . 201 S e efou rca s e sinP in i l laTu r iño(1987 :261–3 ) . 202 R epo r tonth eB lu eD iv i s ion ,F eb rua ry1942 ;ar epo r ttoG en e ra lV a r e la , n .d .(c .D e c emb e r1941 ,AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 )ind i ca t edtha tth e r ehadb e en fv ed e s e r t ion stoda t e . 203 Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 : 202 ) ; Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2009 :329 ) . 204 Au tho r ’ sownda taba s edono rd e r so fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f fb e tw e en tho s eda t e s(AGMAV ,3736/ 6 ) . 2 0 5S e e ,fo rex amp l e ,th er epo r to fth eIn t e l l ig en c es e c t ionr eg a rd ingA v e l ino N av a r ro , whoh ad jo in edth eBD wh i l edo ing m i l i t a rys e rv i c e .H eh adb e en aSo c i a l i s t ,h ads e rv edinth eR epub l i c anA rmy ,and w a sp r e sum edtob e“ a R edA rmysymp a th i z e r . ”Th er e so lu t ion w a sto w a t chh imandd enyh im l e av e( r epo r to fCo lon e lS .Am ado ,1 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 3 ,AGMAV1 9 9 4/ 1 2/ 2 ) . 206 R epo r t so fth eCommand ingG en e ra lo fth e21 s t Ma r chba t ta l ion ,8 Ap r i l 1943 ,andth e27 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion , Ho f ,18 O c tob e r1943(AGMAV , 1989/5/4/3 y1995/ 6/5/1 ) . 207 S e eAOK18toA rmyG roup No r th ,5 Augu s t1942 ; OKHtoA rmyG roup No r th , 5S ep t emb e r1942and15S ep t emb e r1942(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 ) .

260 No t e stopag e s 70–3 208 R epo r t so fCo lon e lW i lh e lmKnüpp e l ,9 May1943 ,andL i eu t enan t Fö r s t e r ,9Ju ly1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/59 ) . 209 Th enumb e ro fd e s e r t e r sinth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e s wou ldb ea tl ea s t 575(o f32 ,256to ta lvo lun t e e r s ) .S e eSkou t e l sky(2006 :169 ,266– 74 ) . 210 Fo rin s tan c e ,th eCommun i s tJu l ioJ im én ezGóm ez(2010 ) , whod e s e r t ed inJanua ry1943 . 21 1R epo r to fth eC iv i lGov e rno ro fBa r c e lona ,9Ju ly1954(AGMAV ,C 3770/1 ) . 212 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,Abw eh r s t e l l eO s t landtoth e OKWAm tAu s land/ Abw eh r ,24Janua ry1942(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 )andr epo r tbyth e G en e ra lkommandoXXXV I I IAK ,I c ,Un e r l au b t eEn t f e rnung en -F ahn enfu ch t 1 .4 .42–31 .12 .42(BA -MA ,RH24–38/187 ) . 213 Pu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :87 ) . Fo r mo r eca s e s ,s e eAGMAV ,C3777/ 4 . 214 R epo r tbyS e rg ean tJu l ioLu engo ,F rank fu r ta .M . ,14 Ap r i l1943(AGMAV C37777/4 ) . 2 1 5 Fo rex amp l e ,P r iv a t eV i c en t eP e r a l e sen l i s t edinJun e1 9 4 2 .Uponb e ingpuni sh edbyano ff c e r , whos en th imun a rm edtoth ef ron tl in e s ,h ed e s e r t ed and w a sc augh tinav i l l ag einth er e a rgu a rdandcond emn edtof f t e en y e a r so fp r i son .S e eCou r tM a r t i a lo f1 3 M ay1 9 4 3(AGMAV ,1 9 9 0/ 5/ 5/ 1 2 I ) . 216 R epo r to fth ep rov in c ia lh eado fth eFET , Ou r en s e ,16 O c tob e r1941(AGA , 21/20558 ) . 217 Au tho r ’ sowne s t ima t e sba s edonda tabyPu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :53–64 ) andT o r r e s(2014 :120 ) . 218 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th eevo ca t iono fv io l en c ein1936–7inh i shom e townby BDvo lun t e e rE sp ino saPov eda(1992 :32–5 ) ;o rth eb r i e fau tob iog raphyo f m ed i ca ls tud en tPauA r r iaga(2003 ) . 219 Th i s wa sth eca s efo rG ranadaSEUl ead e rDan i e lSau c edo .Anin t e rna l r epo r ts ta t edtha th eshou ldb ed i spa t ch edtoRu s s iatod i sp rov eh i s“ fak e Fa lang i sm”(H e rnánd ezBu rgo s2013 :197–8 ) . 220 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th es e r i e so fa r t i c l e spub l i sh edinth eBDt r en ch jou rna l w i thth et i t l eM añ an a[ tomo r row ] :H o j ad eC amp añ a,17and25 F eb rua ry 1942and9 Ma r ch1942 . 221 S e e ,e .g . ,S .Lóp ezd elaT o r r e ,“Do saño sya” ;H a z,IV : 6( Ju ly -Augu s t 1943 ) ;J .H e rnánd ezB ravo ,“Unpu e s tod egua rd iasob r elan i ev eru sa ,” A r r i b a( 6F eb rua ry1942 ) . 222 A .Azna r ,“F i e s tad elaRazaenRu s ia ,”A r r i b a( 1 1O c tob e r1942 ) ;R id ru e jo (2008 :123 ) ;J .B en ey to ,“Pa ra l e loo r i en ta l ,”H a z( 19 Augu s t1941 ) . 223 M emo randumtoth eG e rmanamba s sado rin Mad r id , 13Ju ly1941 (PAAA ,ADBM ,R eg .Po l .A l lg . ,557/ 2 , Box766 ) . 224 “Ca r ta sd e sd eRu s ia ,”A r r i b a( 16Janua ry1942 ) ;A .Abad O ju e l ,“Lo squ e vamo salagu e r ra ,”ABC ( 1 1F eb rua ry1942 ) ;A .C r e spo ,“T i empo sd e juv en tud ,” Juv en tud ,23( 29 O c tob e r1942 ) ;F .Caña sE s t iva l ,“E l Qu in to

No t e stopag e s 73–7 261 An iv e r sa r iod ela mu e r t ed eJo s éAn ton ioenla st r in ch e ra sd e lE s t ed e Eu ropa ,”O f en s iv a( 19 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 225 “Homb r e snu evo s ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 4 Nov emb e r1942 ) ;J .L .Góm ez T e l lo ,“Connu e s t ro sabu e lo s ,con t ranu e s t ro spad r e s ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 31 ( 29 May1943 ) ;J .Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro ,“Lapaznos een cu en t ra ;hayqu e gana r la ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 30 Ma r ch1942 ) . 226 Ru izCa rn i c e r(1996 :143–7 ) . ;J .G .Land e ro ,“E lS ind i ca toE spaño lUn iv e r s i ta r io .Sulabo rp r e s en t eysu sanh e lo sfu tu ro s ,”ABC ( 2 Nov emb e r1941 ) ; J .L .A .B e l log ín ,“D euncama radad elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”H a z( 14 O c tob e r 1941 ) ;F .San choRuano ,“Evo ca c iónyr e cu e rdod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” H o r i z on t e s,5( 31Janua ry1942 ) . 227 T e s t imonybyLu i sGa r c íaB e r langainth ef lmdo cum en ta rybyJav i e r R ioyo ,Ex t r an j e r o sd es ím i sm o s(2001 ) ,ava i lab l ea t :h t tp s ://www .you tub e . com/wa t ch ?v=EHOZ57wo45U(m inu t e58 :30 onwa rd s ) . 228 D ia ryo fEn r iqu eM en énd ezGund ín ,en t r i e so f4Ju ly1941and26 O c to b e r1941(C e la2010 :137 ,146 ) ;l e t t e r so ffv eso ld i e r stoCo lon e lL eand ro Ga r c ía13 O c tob e r1941 ,andf romS e rg ean tR ío s ,12 D e c emb e r1941 (FLGG -MPA ) . 229 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,30 O c tob e r1941and17 D e c emb e r1941(AFR I ) ;F .Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“Lag en e ra c iónd elo sd iv i s ion a r io s ,”A r r i b a( 9F eb rua ry1943 ) ;A .T ova r ,“Cómoin t e rp r e tamo se l25 d e jun io ,” H a z,IV : 5( Jun e1943 ) . 230 W a rd ia ryo fL t .JuanRom e ro O s end e ,en t ryo f 29 O c tob e r1941(p r iva t e a r ch iv eo fAnaRom e ro ,ACo ruña ) .S e ea l soAnd r é s On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] , “Lacan c iónd elaFa lang eene lf r en t eru so ,”A r r i b a( 14 Ap r i l1942 ) . 231 “Po rla Nav idadd elo sd iv i s iona r io s ,”A r r i b a( 17 Nov emb e r1942 ) ;“Un cuad rol eg enda r ioh e ro i co ,”A r r i b a( 25 F eb rua ry1943 ) ;T .N i e toFun c ia , “Lasa lva c iónd elo sCa t i l ina r io s ,”A r r i b a( 1 1O c tob e r1942 ) ;D .R id ru e jo , “LaE spañad e lW o l chow ,”A r r i b a( 18Ju ly1942 ) . 2 3 2S e e ,e .g . ,l e t t e ro fM anu e lT a r ínS a l atoh i sg r and f a th e r ,1 0 Ap r i l1 9 4 2(AFR ) . 233 Ca s tañón(1991 :81 ,100 ) ;r epo r tbyth eB r i t i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch é , Mad r id ,9 Ju ly1941(NA -FO371/26940 ) . 2 3 4S e e“C a ído sd el aD iv i s iónA zu l :¡P r e s en t e s ! ”Nu e v aA l c a r r i a( 1 1 Ap r i l1 9 4 2 ) . 235 Juand e Novgo rod ,“Pa soanu e s t rag en e ra c ión ,”H e rm and ad,I I I : 8( Janu a ry–F eb rua ry1959 ) . 3 . ALong Ma r ch :F romCen t ra lEu ropetotheV o lkhovF ron t 1J .M .T ron co so ,“ConlaD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io senuncampa m en toa l emán ,” E j é r c i t o,25(F eb rua ry1942 ) . 2Cap ta inB e rna rd inoLóp ezRom e ro ,H o sp i t a ld eC amp añ a250 .M em o r i a . D e sd ee ld í a8d es ep t i em b r ea l1ºd eo c tu b r ed e1941 ,2and4–5(ACLR ) .

262 No t e stopag e s 79–83 3W a rd ia ryo fth eG e rmanl ia i sonun i t ,en t r i e so f 26and31 Augu s t ,1and 6S ep t emb e r1941 ,BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ; Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a : 1 18–19 ) . 4Muño zG r and e stoV a r e l a ,M in sk ,1 8S ep t emb e r1 9 4 1(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 1 5 ) . 5R e iz e r(2009 :87 ,96–7 ) . 6W a rd ia ryo fth e9 thA rmy ,en t r i e so f 24and25S ep t emb e r1941 ,BA -MA , RH20–9/17 ;K l e in f e ldandT amb s(1983 :102–3 ) . Th i sund idth ein i t ia l p lano fth e9 thA rmytod ep loyth eSpan i shD iv i s ioninp la c eo fth e86 th D iv i s ion , wh i ch wou ldhav egon ein toth er e s e rv e . 7W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f 27S ep t emb e r1941(Pa r r i l la N i e to 2018 :65–6 ) . 8R epo r tbyth equa r t e rma s t e ro fth eG e rmanl ia i sons ta f finth eBD ,B e r ich tü b e rd i eE r f ah rung enb e imSp an . -D iv . -V e rp l f .Am tW i t e b s kam2 . -10 .10 .41 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) . 9W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,vo l .4 ,en t ryo f10 O c tob e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/168 ) . 10 W a rd ia ryo fth eG e rmanl ia i sonun i t ,en t r i e so f 25S ep t emb e rand1 ,1 1 , and17 O c tob e r1941 . 1 1D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,7 Augu s t1941 (ARF ) ;V i c en t eRod r ígu ezV e latoCo lon e lL eand roGa r c ía ,22 Ma r ch1942 (MPA ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :30–1 ) ; Co lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lotoV a r e la ,16 Augu s t1941and25 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ) . 12 R e c ioCa rdona(1998 :87–107 ) ;R id ru e jo1978 :1 19 ) . 13 In f o rm es o b r el aS an id add el aD iv i s i ónA zu l ,Po rkhov ,30 Nov emb e r1941 (AGA ,P r e s id en c ia18950 ) . 14 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :158–9 ,172 ) ;D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :175– 6 ) . 15 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :254–5 ,en t ryo f9 Nov emb e r1942 ) ;Fa r r éA lb iñana (1949 :187– 90 ) . 16 S e eF r i tz(1995 )andKühn e(2006 ) . 17 S e e wa rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f25 F eb rua ry1942 ;s im i la r a c coun t sw e r eco l l e c t edbyG e rmand ip loma t sinSpa inamongr e tu rn ed so ld i e r s :r epo r tf romEb e rha rdvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,1Jun e1942(PAAA , D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id553/3 , Box761 ) . 18 Ca s tañoDoña(1991 :60 ) ;G rag e raD íaz&In fan t e s(2007 :76 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 :I ,388– 9 ) ; W a rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínCu e rdaRo s ,en t r i e so f19and 22S ep t emb e r ,3 O c tob e r ,and1 Nov emb e r1941(Cu e rdaRo s2013 :38 ,41 , 46 ,61–3 ) ; Anonymou s , D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f18S ep t emb e r1941 (AGMAV ,46767/ 2/5 ) . 19 A .Rug e roCozano ,“R e tazo s ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,537(Ap r i l2004 ) . 20 T ä t ig k e i t s b e r i ch td e sG en ,Kd o .L IVAK ,A b t .Iv a ,fü rd i eZ e i tv om1 .9–31 D e c em b e r1942(BA -MA ,RH24–54/235 ) .G e rmanp i lo t so fth eCondo rL e g ionh e ldas im i la rv i ew(S chü l e r -Sp r ingo rum[2010 :152–7 ] ) .

No t e stopag e s 83–5 263 21 S e eH e l lb e ck(2012 :507 ) ;D iNa rdo(1996 :71 1–30 ) . 22 R epo r t so fCap ta in W e s s e l , Dno ,2 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–1/29 ) ; G en e ra lvonChappu i s ,8 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/67 ) ;16 th A rmytoA rmy G roup No r th , 18 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I /774 ) . 23 Ludw igS chwab ,D i eS t ad tH o fundd i esp an i s ch eD iv i s i onimeu r op ä i s ch en F r e ih e i t s k r i eg,1944 ,15(SH -A , Manu sk r ip t e , M48 ) . 24 P e t e r(1992 :180–4 ) ;Sp an i en sF r e iw i l l ig eand e rO s t f r on t :L o sv o lun t a r i o se sp añ o l e sene lf r en t e .E inB i ld bu chv ond e rB l au enD iv i s i on,Kauna s :P ropagan da -Kompan i ed e rA rm e eBu s ch ,n .d .[1942 ] . 25 En t r i e so f4and5Janua ry1942 ,inJo chmann(1982 :178 ) .H i t l e rr ep ro du c eda lmo s tl i t e ra l lyth ev i ew so fth eP ru s s iano ff c e rAugu s tKa r lvon Go eb en , whofough tinSpa ina sa m e r c ena ryinth em id -n in e t e en thc entu ryandp enn edtwobook s :V i e rJ ah r ein Span i en(1861 )andR e i s e -und L and b r i e f eau sSp an i enundv omsp an i s ch enH e e r ein M a r o k k o(1863 ) . 26 S e efo rin s tan c e“H e ld enkamp fd e rB lau enD iv i s ion ,”B rü s s e l e rZ e i tung ( 1Janua ry1942 ) ;“Moa r t eag lo r ioa sâaS e fu lu i .E s cad r i l eA lba s t r e ,”V i a t a, Bu cha r e s t(2S ep t emb e r1942 ) ;“D i eB lau eD iv i s ion ,”P a r i s e rZ e i tung ( 3O c tob e r1943 ) . 27 L e t t e r so fCo rpo ra lO t to M . ,30 O c tob e r1941 ,andCap ta in H e rmannS ch . , 5 Nov emb e r1941(B fZ -SS ) . 28 Au tho r ’ sin t e rv i ewo fD r .Ch r i s tophvonAu e r ,G roßbu rgw ed e l ,15S ep t emb e r2002(AA ) .S e ea l so“La sm emo r ia sd euncap e l lánca s t r en s e ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,583(F eb rua ry2008 ) ,andth ea c coun tbyth efo rm e rp r iva t e o fth e126 thIn fan t ryD iv i s ion ,H . -H .Ku rzinB l auD iv i s i ón(Nov emb e r D e c emb e r1987 ) . 29 L e t t e rf romcava l ryin sp e c to rH e in r i chK . ,B r e s t -L i tov sk ,30 Ap r i l1942 (B fZ -SS ] . 30 D o sañ o sd elu ch a .E s t amp a sd iv i s i on a r i a s,B e r l in :Ga l lu sD ru ck e r e iAG , 1944 ,p .5 . 31 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 20 ) . 32 A .A ragon é s ,“D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 18 Ap r i l1942 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :320 ) . 33 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th el e t t e r sex chang edb e tw e enth eG e rmanso ld i e rA lfon sL i t tw in( 15 D e c emb e r1944 )andth eSpan i shv e t e ranL id ioB engoa (B i lbao ,5Jun e1944 ) ,GS tA ,I . Ha218 ,N r .256 . 34 W a rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo s ,en t ryo f May1942(Cu e rdaRo s2013 : 63 ) ; W a r d ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f4 Ma r ch1942 ;Yd ígo ra s(1984 :299 ) ; M e l iáV i la(2003 :1 14 ) . 35 “A l eman e sye spaño l e san t eL en ing rado ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 31 Nov emb e r 1943 ) ;“D e l‘ land s e r ’a l‘gu r ipa ’pa sandopo rM e s t e l ewo ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 7 Nov emb e r1943 ) .

264 No t e stopag e s 85–9 36 J e sú s Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,D i a r i od ec amp añ a,en t ryo f24S ep t emb e r1941 (p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fM r .Jo rg e Ma r t ín ezR ev e r t e , Mad r id ) ;“ In fo rm esob r e laD iv i s iónE spaño lad eV o lun ta r io s ,”AHPCE ,F eb rua ry1942 . 37 R epo r to fth eF e ldg enda rm e r i eo fth e18 thA rmy ,16–31Janua ry1943 (BA -MA ,RH20–18/1476 ) ; mon th lyr epo r to fth e Ho sp i ta l s ’In sp e c t ion , Jun e1943(AGMAV29/7/49 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :53–4 ) .P r iva t eEug e n ioRod r ígu eza l sod e s c r ib edsom equa r r e l sb e tw e enSpan ia rd sandG e rman s ,g en e ra l ly mo t iva t edbyG e rmanb ehav iou rtowa rd sc iv i l ian s .S e e P é r ez(2020 :187 ) 38 R epo r to fl i eu t enan tB en í t ez ,Kön ig sb e rg ,19 Nov emb e r1943(AGMAV , 1996/3/3/3 ) . 39 D ia ryo fL id ia Ó s ipova ,en t r i e sda t ed25 Augu s t1942and8Janua ry1943 (Lomag in2004 :464 ,466– 7 ) . 4 0D ion i s ioR id ru e joto M a r i chud el a Mo r a ,1 7D e c emb e r1 9 4 1(ARF ) ; Muño z G r and e stoV a r e l a ,M in sk ,1 8S ep t emb e r1 9 4 1(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 1 5 ) . 41 R epo r tfo rm Ob e r füh r e rSS W a l th e r -F r i ed r i chS ch e l l enb e rg ,B e r l in ,4Jan ua ry1944(PAAA ,R -101 143 ) ; Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzg rupp eI ,14 Nov emb e r1943(USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 42 S e eA ly(2005 ) ,a sw e l la sanupda t edsyn th e s i sin H e rb e r t(2016 :105–15 ) . 43 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f 1 Ma r ch1942 ;SanzJa rqu e (2010 :45–6 ) ; W a rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo ,1944 ,13–14(p r iva t ea r ch iv e o fJo rg eV i l l ena , Mad r id ) . 44 L e t t e ro fDan i e lT o r ra ,4 O c tob e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :51 ) . 45 A r r i b a( 13 Ma r ch1942 ) ;Sa la sIñ igo(1988 :45 ) . 46 G .R i e ra ,“C rón i caazu ld egu e r ra ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 5S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 47 Ma r t ín ez -M ena(1991 : 14–15 ) . 48 Ca s tañón(1991 :184–5 ,187 ) . 49 “E lcap i tán Muñozhab lad e lh e ro í smod elo svo lun ta r io sd elaD iv i s ión Azu l ,”E lA l c á z a r( 3F eb rua ry1942 ) . 50 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,B e r l in ,21 Augu s t1941(ARF ) ; D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :210–1 1 ) ;th ed e s c r ip t iono fth ebomba rdm en t sinB e r l in ,in wa rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo ,144 . 51 “Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,”B o l e t índ e lSEUd eM ad r id,12(1942 ) ;“D elah e ro i ca D iv i s iónAzu l ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 20 Ma r ch1943 ) . 52 “Ca r tad e lcama radaGab r i e lR i e ra ,vo lun ta r ioenlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 25 Ap r i l1942 ) . 53 “Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,”B o l e t índ e lSEUd eM ad r id,1 1(1942 ) . 54 Cap ta insu rg eonLóp ezRom e ro ,H o sp i t a ld eC amp añ a250 .M em o r i a, 9(ACLR ) . 55 E .N ind eCa rdona ,“R eg r e sod eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 14 Ma r ch 1942 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :26 ,en t ryo f4Ju ly1942 ) ;Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 : 16 ) ;R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :10 ) .

No t e stopag e s 90–2 265 56 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,7 Augu s t1941and B e r l in ,21 Augu s t1941(ARF ) ;H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :38–9 ,en t ryo f25 Ap r i l1942 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fCa r lo sF igu e ro la ,en t ryo f17Jun e1942(R em í r ez d eE spa rza2020 :27–8 ) . 57 V ad i l lo(1967 :70–3 ,101 ) ;L e t t e ro f Manu e lT a r ínSa la ,17 Ap r i l1942(AFR ) ; W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s , 10–1 1 . Fo r mo r eexamp l e s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s (2018b ) . 58 In t e rv i ew sw i thA lb e r tLo r enz(bo rn1927 ) ,B e rn r eu th ,andJohannL e i t g eb(bo rn1930 ) ,Au e rba ch ,17 May2004 ,by Han s Jü rg enKug l e r(AA ) . 59 R epo r t so fth e2ndS e c t iono fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,25and28Ju ly1941 (AGMAV ,2005/ 2/3/7 ) ;R epo r to fth e2ndIn fan t e r i e -E r sa tzba t ta l ion ,Bay r eu th ,5 Augu s t1942(AGMAV ,1978/ 7/3/2 ) ;D ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo sCabo , en t ryo f10S ep t emb e r1941 ,inCu e rdaRo s(2013 :33 ) . 60 S chwab ,D i eS t ad tH o f,20–1 . 61 Pau lu s(2001 :73 ) . 62 No t i c e so fth ecommand e ro fth e14 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion , Ho f , 31 Augu s t and1S ep t emb e r1942(AGMAV ,1985/ 20/3and1984/ 12/1 ) ;r epo r tf rom Cap ta inAn ton ioV i l la lobo s , Ho f ,6–7Ju ly1942(AGMAV1983/ 5/3 ) . 63 S ev e ra lexamp l e sinAGMAV28/7/15/9 . 64 R epo r tf romth eSpan i sh m i l i ta rypo l i c e ,B e r l in ,28 D e c emb e r1942 (AGMAV1985/ 20/5 ) ;l e t t e rf romG en e ra l MuñozG rand e stoA l f r edo Gu ed ea ,28 O c tob e r1942(AGMAV1985/ 8/4 ) ;In sp e c c i ónd eH o sp i t a l e s .In f o rm em en su a l ,Ap r i l1943(AGMAV2025/ 6/1 ) .S e ea l soB rydan(2019b ) . 65 R epo r t sf romCo lon e lF e rnánd ezd eLanda ,20Ju ly1941 ,andCap ta inV í c to r Ho rn i l lo s ,G ra f enwöh r ,21Ju ly1941(AGMAV20052/ 2/21 ) . 66 L e t t e rf romA l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r ezto M .Rod r ígu ezDopazo ,20–1Ju ly 1941(AXFN ) ;l e t t e rf romtw e lv evo lun t e e r stoCo lon e lL eand roGa r c ía , 9 Augu s t1941(MPA ) ;l e t t e ro fD ion i s ioR id ru e jo ,G ra f enwöh r ,n .d .[ c .25 Ju ly1941 ] ,AFR . 67 S e e ,e .g . ,H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :24–5 ,en t ryo f9 Ap r i l1942 ) . 68 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,106( Jun e1968 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 : 25 ) . 69 W a rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGund ín ,en t r i e so f 10and29 O c tob e r1941(C e la 2010 :146–7 ) . 70 L e t t e ro fE l i sab e th M e e stoco rpo ra lAn ton io H e r r e ro ,Jöh l ing en ,28 Ma r ch1943(AA ) . 71 S e e Mo ran tiA r iño(2013 :422 ,433–5 ) ,and H e rzog(2007 :10–63 ) .  72 Á lva r ezd eSo tomayo r(1991 :156 ) . 73 “C rón i cad eRu s ia ,”En l a c e,13( 29 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 74 D .Ca s t roV i l la caña s ,“Unso ldadoenB e r l ín ,”A r r i b a( 26 Ma r ch1943 ) . 75 J .R evu e l taImaz&F .Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“Lapa r t ida ,”M en s a j e .R ev i s t at r im e s t r a l,1–2(1943 ) .

266 No t e stopag e s 92–6 76 R epo r to fth eDGS ,19Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) ; wa rm emo i r so f B en ignoCabo ,151 . 77 S e e ,e .g . ,Emm iSan t t e rtoAn ton io H e r r e ro ,B ra ck enh e im ,3and7 F eb rua ry1943(AA ) . 78 Na t t e rmann(201 1 ) . 79 Saga r ra(2012 :180–90 ) . 80 S chwab ,D i eS t ad tH o f,22 . On eo fth e s eca s e s wa sF ran c i s caG r i e s s l(bo rn 1943 ) , who wa sto lda sayoungadu l ttha taSpan i shso ld i e r wa sh e rb io log i ca lfa th e r . Manyy ea r sla t e r ,sh efoundtha th e rfa th e rhadb e enth e p ion e e r s ’s e rg ean tF ran c i s coSuá r ez O j eda(B l auD iv i s i ón,573 ,Ap r i l2007 ) . 81 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t r i e so f 4and15 Ma r ch1942 ; wa r d ia ryo fJ . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t r i e so f25–6 Augu s t1941 ;D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f29 Augu s t1941 . 82 R epo r tf romth ed i r e c to ro fth eSpan i sh Ho sp i ta linB e r l in ,6 F eb rua ry 1943(AGMAV1987/10/2/3 ) ;H o j ad ein s t ru c c i ónp a r al o ss o ld ad o se sp añ o l e s, n .d .[1942 ] ,andDEV ,3dS e c t ionG en e ra lS ta f f ,In s t ru c c i óng en e r a l3 .054 ,18 May1942(AGMAV ,3736/5 ) . 83 L eaf e tAna l l eU r l au b e r,s ign edbyth eW eh rm a ch t s t and o r t ä l t e s t e rH o f, Ho f : n .p . ,1942 ,AA . 84 V ad i l lo(1967 :104–5 ,1 10–1 1 ) ;r epo r t sf romth e2ndS e c t iono fth eG en e ra l S ta f f ,28–9Ju ly1941(AGMAV ,2005/ 2/3/7–8 ) . 85 W a rM emo i r so fB en ignoCabo , 14 ;S chwab , D i eS t ad tH o f, 21 ;H e r rm ann (2012 :95 ) . 86 S e eth e wa rd ia ryo fth eG e rma inL ia i son ,13 Augu s t1941– 24Ju ly1942 ,in BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ,en t r i e so f26 Augu s tand1S ep t emb e r1941 . Ma r t ín V e la s coa l so w ro t etha ta tt im e sh i s mo to r iz edl ia i song roup mad eo f f w i th mo r ech i ck en sthanth eycou ldca r ryba cktoth ecamp(wa rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryo f 19S ep t emb e r1941 ) . 87 R e iz e r(2009 :96 ) . 88 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f29 Augu s t1941 ;E izagu i r r e(1955 :17–19 ) ; R id ru e jo(1978 :47–8 ) . 89 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 :120–1 ,126 ) . 90 T ran s c r ib edl e t t e ro fP r iva t eCa r lo sJuan ,M in sk ,18S ep t emb e r1941 ,in AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 91 Ja sp e r(201 1 :45 ) ; Böh l e r(2006 ) . 92 E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :50 ) ;J im én ezAnd rad e s(1957 :38–47 ) ; Ca s t e loV i l laoz(1990 :55–6 ) ;E sp ino saPov eda(1993 :9 ) . 93 E .Bo r rá s ,“E lh e ro í smod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”M ed i t e r r án e o( 26 F eb rua ry 1942 ) ;SanzJa rqu e(2010 :77–82 ,89 ) . 94 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,75(Nov emb e r 1965 ) . 95 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :40 ) .

No t e stopag e s 96–101 267 96 L .Sán ch ez Ma spon s ,“C rón i cad eunv ia j eaRu s ia .Lap r im e raimp r e s ión a len t ra renUk ran ia ,”In f o rm a c i on e s( 30 O c tob e r1941 ) . 97 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 29 Augu s t1941 ;P .Ca r r e t e roV e ga s ,“Suwa lkyoSudau en ,in i c iod eaqu e l la s ma r cha s ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,256 (Nov emb e r1980 ) . 9 8W a rd i a ryo fLu i sAgu i l a r ,en t ryo f3 1 Augu s t1 9 4 1(P a r r i l l aN i e to2 0 1 8 : 5 9 ) . 99 U rqu i jo(1973 :261 ) ;J .San tama r íaD í ez ,“P i e ckzankayGa spa ron e ,”B l au D iv i s i ón,271(F eb rua ry1982 ) . 100 R epo r to fth eDGS ,28 Ap r i l1942(FNFF1992– 4 :331– 50 ) . 101 U r su la[ su rnam ei l l eg ib l e ]toCo rpo ra lAn ton io H e r r e roCa s t e l lano , Poznań,13S ep t emb e r1943(AA ) . 102 S e eB .B engoa ,“Po lon iacon t ralahozye l ma r t i l lo ,”D om ing o .S em an a r i o N a c i on a l( 2 May1937 ) . 103 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 ;“D iv i s ión Azu l ,”H a z,IV : 4(May1943 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :126–7 ,132–3 ,en t r i e so f 14 Ma r chand16–17 Ma r ch1943 ) . 104 Ca s tañón(1991 :186 ) ;R ev e r t e&R ev e r t e(2001 :192 ) . 105 M .PomboAngu lo ,“La má sb e l lao ra c ión ,” ABC ( 29 Ap r i l1943 ) ;E . G im én ezCaba l l e ro ,“Ka tynolav enganzad eBo r i sGoduno f ,”ABC ( 2 May1943 ) ;J .A r ra rá s ,“La sfo sa sd eKa tynyo t ra s ,”L aV angu a rd i a E sp añ o l a( 15 May1943 ) . 106 Sa lvado r(1962 :68–9 ,73 ) ; Ba r sCa sam i t jana(1962 :1–2 ) . 107 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 . 108 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryo f 16 Ma r ch1942 . 109 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 . 1 10 D elaV ega(1998 :82 ) ; M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,153(May1972 ) .S e ea l soth eimp r e s s ion sw r i t t enbyJav i e rU rm en e ta ,r ep rodu c edinJ im enoA rangu r en(2015 :1 12 ) . 1 1 1R epo r to fth eSpan i sh M i l i ta ryG enda rm e r i einR iga ,6 Augu s t1943 (AGMAV1993/ 6/1/2 ) ; M e l iáV i la(2003 :127 ) ;d ia ryo fM en énd ezGun d ín ,en t ryo f4 Nov emb e r1941(C e la2010 :148 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :325 ) . 1 12 Cogo l lo sV i c en s(1985 :166–7 ) ; Lóp ez -Cova r rub ia s(2012 :322– 4 ) . 1 13 E r randoV i la r(1942 :280–1 ) . 1 14 B lan chSab en ch(2010 :75 ) ;L .Lóp ezBa l l e s t e ro s ,“Su rene l No r t e ,” E lE sp añ o l,I I : 30( 22 May1943 ) ;J .L .Góm ez -T e l lo ,“V e in t i cua t roho ra sen R iga ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 29( 15 May1943 ) . 4 . TheB lue D iv i s ionontheF ron t 1S e eA ly& H e im(1993 :381–5 ) , Hü r t e r(2001 :402– 4 ) , Ganz enmü l l e r(2000 ; 2005 :19–40 ;2014 ) ,K i l ian(2012 )andRu th e r fo rd(2014 ) . 2S e eRö s s l e r&S ch l e i e rma ch e r(1993 ) ,a sw e l la s Mada j czyk(1994 ) .

268 No t e stopag e s 102–7 3V ehv i lä in en(2002 ) . 4G en e ra lBu s ch ,AOK16 ,toA rmyG roup No r th ,18 Nov emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH20–16/66 ) . 5G lan tz(2002 :287–304 ) . 6Ganz enmü l l e r(2005 )andR e id(201 1 ) . 7O fth e1 ,31 1 ,000inhab i tan t s ,69% ov e rfou r t e eny ea r so fag ew e r e wom en ; tho s eund e rfou r t e enandtho s eov e rs ix tyto ta l l ed46%(K i l ian2012 : 94–6 ) . 8Hü r t e r(2001 ) ; Ha s s(2002 ) ;andK i l ian(201 1 ) . 9Bo rd jugov(1999 ) ;Ra s s(2005 :80–90 ) . 10 Fo rana r ra t iono fth eb lo ckad e ,s e eG lan tz(2002 )andSa l i sbu ry(2003 ) . Onth eda i lyl i f eo ftho s eund e rs i eg e ,s e eth ed ia ryo fL ena Mu ch in a (2014 )a sw e l la sJa rov(2013 ) ,Dob ro tvo r ska ja(2013 )andAdamow i t s ch& G ran in(2018 ) . 1 1 Ganz enmü l l e r(2005 :279–313 ;201 1 ) ;R e id(201 1 :143–71 ) . 12 R e id(201 1 :497–500 ) ;V o ron ina(201 1 ) . 13 Th ein i t ia lid ea wa sfo rth eBDtor e l i ev etwo th i rd so fth e126 thD iv i s ion , wh i ch wou ldgoin toth er e s e rv e s .S e eo rd e ro fth e16 thA rmyCommand , 28S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MARH24–1/29 ) . 14 Command e rG en e ra lo fth eIA rmyCo rp stoG en e ra lH e r r l e in ,24S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–1/37 ) . 15 D ia ryo fth eG e rmanl ia i sonco rp s ,en t r i e so f1 ,4and1 1O c tob e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ) . OnF ranzvonRoqu e s ,s e e Ha s en c l ev e r(2010 : 108–20 ,197 ) . 16 R epo r to fSpan i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch éinB e r l in ,7 Nov emb e r1941(AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 17 R epo r to fCap ta inCo l la tz ,n .d .[2 O c tob e r1941 ](BA -MA ,RH24–1/29 ) . 18 R epo r to fCap ta in W e s s e l ,Dno ,2 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–1/29 ) . 19 R epo r to fth e16 thA rmytoA rmyG roup No r th ,10 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA , RH20–16/67 ) ;r epo r to fG en e ra lvonRoqu e s ,20 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA , RH20–16/70 ) . 20 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t ryo f 23 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH 19 I I I/168 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :122–8 ) . 21 W a rd ia ryo fG e rmanl ia i sonun i t ,en t r i e so f 9 Nov emb e rto4 D e c emb e r 1941(BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ) ;J e sú sBad i l lotoV a r e la , Novgo rod ,24 O c tob e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) ;D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryinS i tno ,18 Nov emb e r1941 . 22 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f7D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA RH24–38/51 ) ; W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f7and8 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/769 ) . 23 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 8and9 D e c emb e r1941 . 24 S e e“Go luva iaD iv iz iai s t eka e tk rob iu ,”P r avd a( 17Janua ry1942 ) .

No t e stopag e s 108–10 269 25 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 10 ,1 1 ,12and14 D e c em b e r1941 ,a l so9and13Janua ry1942 ; wa rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th , en t ryo f8 D e c emb e r1941 . 26 R epo r t sf romAOK16 ,6 ,8 ,and9 D e c emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH20–16/66 ) . 27 R epo r ttoPCE ,F eb rua ry1942 ;Kova l ev(2014 :124–231 ) . 28 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,F .M .Ca s t i e l la ,“ ¡C lavado sa lt e r r eno !”In f o rm a c i on e s( 20 Janua ry1942 ) . 29 A c co rd ingtoda taf romth e16 thA rmy ,b e tw e en17 O c tob e rand21 D e c emb e r1941 ,th eBDsu f f e r ed509d ea th s(6 .41%o fto ta ld ea th sin th e16 thA rmy )and1 ,351in ju r ed(4 .52% ) .S e eV e r lu s t l i s t en,BA -MA ,RH 20–16/627 . 30 R epo r tbyG en e ra lGóm ezU l la ,h eado fBD m ed i ca ls e rv i c e s ,10 Ma r ch 1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 31 Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :200–2 ) . 32 R epo r tby W i lh e lm i ,23 Ma r ch1942(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e im a k t en6/9 ) . Tha tsam e mon th , MuñozG rand e sh im s e l fe s t ima t ed900d ea th sand 1 ,000 wound ed who w e r e“ i r r e cov e rab l e”(MuñozG rand e stoV a r e la , B e r l in ,16 Ma r ch1942 ,AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 33 A rmyG roup No r th ,Z ah l enm ä s s ig eG e s am tv e r lu s t eb i s15 .7 .42,27Ju ly1942 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/51 1 ) . 34 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t ryo f 14 D e c emb e r1941 . 35 R epo r to fAOK16 , Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) ; B o l e t índ e In f o rm a c i óno fth e2ndS e c t iono fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,17Janua ry1942 (AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 36 DGSr epo r t ,I rún ,17Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) .Soona f t e r ,E s pa rza wa sr e l i ev edo fh i scommandandr epa t r ia t ed ,appa r en t lydu eto p r e s su r ef romth eFa lang epa r ty . 37 R epo r to fth e2ndS e c t iono fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,1 1 Nov emb e r1941 to31 Ma r ch1942(BA -MA ,RH24–38/41 ) .S e ea l soP in i l la(n .d . :181–261 ) . 3 8F .I zqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“ ¡O t en sky !¡Po s s ad ! ”H o j ad eC am p añ a( 1Ju ly1 9 4 2 ) ;A . d eL a ig l e s i a ,“Po s s ad ,e lsub l im em a r t i r io , ”H o j ad eC am p añ a( 2 4Jun e1 9 4 2 ) ; J .A .V i l l a e s cu s a ,“Nu e s t r ap r im e r aop e r a c ión , ”O f en s i v a( 1 8O c tob e r1 9 4 2 ) . 39 Th eBDt r en ch jou rna landth eFET JONSpub l i ca t ionEn l a c e,pub l i sh ed s in c em id -1942fo rSpan i sh wo rk e r sinG e rmany ,b eganth e my th if ca t ion o fth e s ea rm edd e ed s .S e eE .G .R .I . ,“Soñando… ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 23 Ma r ch1942 ) ;L . Mo r c i l loD íaz ,“H e ro í smoe spaño lenT igoda ,”En l a c e ( 1 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 40 S e eCa r r e raBu i l&F e r r e r -Da lmau(2003 ) ,andRománJ im én ez(201 1 ) . 41 J e sú sBad i l lotoV a r e la ,8 Nov emb e r1941and 24 Nov emb e r 1941(AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 42 W a rd ia ryo fth eAOK 16 ,1 s tS e c t ion ,en t r i e so f16 ,18and20 Nov em b e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/49 ) ;r epo r t so fAOK16 thA rmy ,s ign edby

270 No t e stopag e s1 10–14 Bu s ch ,8 Nov emb e r1941and14 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/66 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,9 D e c emb e r1941 . 43 R epo r to fG en e ra lvonChappu i s ,G r igo rovo ,9 D e c emb e r1941(RH 20–16/67 ) ; W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f9 ,10 ,and1 1 D e c emb e r1941 . 44 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f 18 ,20 ,26 ,28 ,and29 D e c emb e r1941 . 45 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 21 Nov emb e r1941 (BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 46 R epo r to fAOK16toA rmyG roup No r th ,9 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MARH 20–16/67 ) . 47 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f2D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA RH24–38/51 ) . 48 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 4Janua ry1942 ;Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :197– 9 ) . 49 L ind emanntoA rmyG roup No r th ,3 O c tob e r1941 ,andr epo r t sbyAOK 16 ,17 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/67 ) ;r epo r to fth e16 thA rmy , 29 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/90 ) . 50 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 24Janua ryand5 F eb rua ry1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 51 R epo r t so fvon W e iz sä ck e r ,10and16Janua ry ,5 ,13 ,19 ,and26 F eb rua ry 1942 ;r epo r to fvonS toh r e r ,27 F eb rua ry1942 ;R i t t e rtoth eS e c r e ta ryo f S ta t e ,4 Ma r ch1942(PAAA ,R .29742 ) ;r epo r to fSpan i sh m i l i ta rya t ta ch é , B e r l in ,1 F eb rua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 52 S e r ranoSuñ e rtoR id ru e joandAgu s t ínAzna r ,n .d .[w in t e ro f1941 ] ,and toD ion i s ioR id ru e jo ,6 Ap r i l1942(G ra c ia2007 :75–6 ,79–80 ) . 53 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 10 ,12 ,and13 F eb rua ry 1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 54 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,E sp añ ayA l em an i a .F r a t e rn id adene lc amp od eb a t a l l a, n .p . ,1942 ;V .d elaS e rna ,“E ld e sf l ed e l42 ,”En l a c e( 17 Ap r i l1943 ) ; S ch l a ch tam W o l ch ow,179–80 ;“La shazaña sd enu e s t ro sc ruzado sjun to a llago ,”E lA l c á z a r( 13 F eb rua ry1942 ) .S e ea l soAzna r(1942 )andBa r ra ch ina(1994 ) . 55 Conv e r sa t ionb e tw e enth eCommand e ro fth eA rmyG roup No r thand th eCommand e rG en e ra lo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s , wa rd ia ryo fth e XXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f29 Ma r ch1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 56 A c co rd ingtoth eda i lya c t iv i tyr epo r t so fth eun i t sund e rth ecommando f th eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp sb e tw e en1 Ap r i land29Jun e1942(BA -MA ,RH 24–38/180 ) . 57 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 27 May1942(BA -MARH 24–38/51 ) . 58 Onth eV o lkhovPo ck e tcomba t s ,s e eRu th e r fo rd(2014 :240–6 ) .

No t e stopag e s1 14–17 271 59 Comba tr epo r t so fCo lon e l Hopp e ,24Jun e1942 ;o fCap ta inS chm id t L i e rmann ,24Jun e1942(BA -MA ,RHRH24–38/55 ) ;o fth eSSS tandan t e r füh r e rBu rk ,26Jun e1942 ,ando fL i eu t enan tH e in r i ch s ,24Jun e1942 (BA -MARH26–126/49 ) . 60 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 22 ,23 ,24 ,and26Jun e 1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 61 R epo r to fAOK16 ,2 O c tob e r1942(BA -MARH19 I I I/693 ) ;r epo r to fL t . vonU s la r -G l e i ch en ,B e r l in ,25Ju ly1942(BA -MARH19 I I I/780 ) .S e ea l so Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :202–8 ) . 62 S e eth ea lbumK amp fundS i egam W o l chow( 19 42 ) ,BA -MA ,RH 24–38/292 . 63 R epo r to fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,ICS e c t ion ,13Ju ly1942(BA -MARH 24–38/137 ) . 64 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f6 ,14 ,19 ,and31Ju ly 1942(BA -MARH24–38/51 ) . 65 L e t t e rf romAOK18toth eg en e ra lincommando fth eXXXV I I IA rmy Co rp s ,22Ju ly1942 ;l e t t e rf romAOK18toA rmyG roup No r th ,28Ju ly 1942(BA -MA ,RH19I I I/493 ) . 66 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f7 ,9 ,13 ,and21 Augu s t , 2and10S ep t emb e r1942 . 67 ABDr epo r tda t ed7 D e c emb e r1942l i s t ed7 ,252 m en ,anav e rag eo f348 so ld i e r s/kmo ff ron t ,ou tnumb e r edon lybyth e1 s tG e rmanIn fan t ry D iv i s ion , wh i chhad656so ld i e r s/km .Th eo th e rd iv i s ion shadf ew e r comba tan t sp e rk i lom e t r eo ff ron t( S t and7 .12 .1942 .In f . -G e f e ch t s s t ä r k end e r D iv . -A b s cn i t t e,BA -MARH20–18/823 ) . 68 Th e121 s tD iv i s iona l soapp l i edani ron -f s t edo c cupa t ionpo l i cyinPavlov skinth ew in t e ro f1941– 2(Ru th e r fo rd2014 :151–68 ,287– 8 ) . 69 Mo s tda i lyd i spa t ch e shad“no th ingsp e c ia ltor epo r t .”S e eth e wa rd ia ry o fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,O c tob e r–Nov emb e r1942(BA -MARH24–54/60 ) . 70 No t eonth es ta t eo fth eho r s e so fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,D e c emb e r1943 (BA -MARH24–54/69 ) . 71 InD e c emb e r1942 ,th eBDhadato ta lo f7 ,242comba t r eady m en ,com pa r edto3 ,727 m enth eSS -Po l iz e iD iv i s ionand3 ,944inth e170 thD iv i s ion .Th e i rl igh tandh eavy w eapon ry wa squ i t es im i la r .S e er epo r t so fth e L IVA rmyCo rp s ,7 D e c emb e r1942(BA -MA ,RH24–54/65 ) . 72 R epo r to fAOK18toA rmyG roup No r th ,3 D e c emb e r1942(BA -MARH 19 I I I/708 ) ;w e ek lyd iv i s ionr epo r t so fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s ,5 ,12 ,and18 Janua ry1943(B -MA ,RH24–54/74 ) . 73 Conv e r sa t ionb e tw e enth ecommand e rg en e ra lo fA rmyG roup No r th andth eL IVA rmyCo rp sCommand(wa rd ia ryo fth eL IVA rmyCo rp s , en t ryo f31 D e c emb e r1942[BA -MARH24–54/60 ] ) . 74 E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :136–7 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :283– 5 ) .

272 No t e stopag e s1 17–22 75 L ind emanntoA rmyG roup No r th ,9 D e c emb e r1942 ,BA -MA ,RH 20–18/1075 . 76 Mo r enoJu l iá(2007 :427–9 ) . 77 Ca r r e raBu i l&F e r r e r -Da lmau(2003 :227–36 ) . 78 Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :208–10 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2004 :186–7 ) . Fo rop e ra t iona l d e ta i l s ,s e eCaba l l e roJu rado(2004a )andFon t en laBa l l e s ta(2012 ) .S e ea l so r epo r tbyCap ta inA l emany ,20 F eb rua ry1942(AGMAVc .2006/ 14/3/1 ) . 79 W a rd ia ryo fth eA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f1 1and12 F eb rua ry1943 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/199 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f10and 16 F eb rua ryand2 Ma r ch1943(BA -M ,RH24–50/35 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth e AOK18 ,en t r i e so f10and1 1F eb rua ry1943(BA -MA ,RH20–18/470 ) . 80 W a rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t r i e so f 17 F eb rua ryand7 Ma r ch1943 (BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/200 ) . 81 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,LA rmyCo rp stoth e18 thA rmy ,18 May1943(BA -MA , RH24–50/65 ) . 82 Conv e r sa t ionb e tw e enG en e ra lK l e f f e landG en e ra lLo ch ,8 Ap r i l1943 (BA -MA ,RH24–50/64 ) . 83 F ah r t b e r i ch t10 M a r ch1943250( sp an . )In f .D iv . ,r epo r ttoth eLA rmy Co rp s ,BA -MA ,RH24–50/49 ;F ah r t b e r i ch t24 M a r ch1943(BA -MA ,RH 24–50/64 ) . 84 “B e f eh lfü rd i eUmg l i ed e rungimAb s chn i t td e sL .AK ,”9 May1943 (BA -MA ,RH24–50/65 ) . 85 W a rd ia ryo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 16 Ma r ch ,8and18 Ap r i l ,1 ,9 , and17 May ,17and26Jun e1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/57 ) . 86 F ah r b e r i ch to f26Jun e1943(BA -MARH24–50/65 ) . 87 O rd e rf romth eLA rmyCo rp sCommand , 20Ju ly1943(BA -MA ,RH 24–50/66 ) . 88 O rd e ro fth eLA rmyCo rp sCommand , 10 Augu s t1943 ;r epo r to fGa r c ía Nava r ro , 26 Augu s t1943(BA -MARH24–50/66 ) . 89 W e ek lyr epo r t stoAOK 18 ,16 ,and22 Ma r chand29 Ap r i l1943 ;l ia i sonr e po r t s(Co lon e lKnüpp e l ) ,8 Ap r i l1943 ,9 May1943 ,9Jun e1943(BA -MA , RH24–50/59 ) . 90 L ia i sonr epo r t s ,9Ju lyand1 1 Augu s t1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/59 ) . 91 K l e in f e ldandT amb s(1983 :483–4 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(1999 ,2014 ) ;W eh rma ch t G en e ra lS ta f fr epo r ttoth eAOK18 ,28S ep t emb e r1943(BA -MARH 19 I I I/493 ) . 92 M e e t ingo fL ind emannandE s t eban In fan t e s , 13 O c tob e r1943 ;p r e s en ta t iono fE s t eban In fan t e stoL ind emann ,14 O c tob e r1943(BA -MARH 24–50/84 ) ;Sonn l e i thn e rtoR i t t e r ,3 O c tob e r1943 ,andtoR ibb en t rop ,9 O c tob e r1943(PAAA ,R .29750 ) . 93 E s t eban In fan t e stoG en e ra lW eg en e r ,13 Nov emb e r1943(PAAA ,ADBM , Zu sa tz12 ) .

No t e stopag e s 123–6 273 94 Fo rtho roughd e s c r ip t ion so fth eba t t l e sandth ed ip loma t i cc i r cum s tan c e s su r round ingth ea c t ion so fth eB lu eL eg ion ,s e eP é r ezRub io&P r i e toBa r r io(2014 )and Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 ) . 95 G en e ra lO rd e rs ign edbyA .Ga r c ía Nava r ro ,21 O c tob e r1943 ;andr ep ly o fth ecommand e ro fth e250 thSapp e r s ’Ba t ta l ion ,29 O c tob e r1943(AG MAV 28/18/15/12 ) . 96 Ibáñ ez H e rnánd ez(1997 :261– 2 ) ;r e co rd so fth econv e r sa t ionb e tw e enE s t eban In fan t e sandKnüpp e l ,9 Nov emb e r1943(BA -MA ,RH24–50/84 ) . 97 T e s t imonyo fJuanRam í r ezd eV e rg e r , whovo lun t e e r edin1941and wa s r epa t r ia t edin May1942fo rb e ingund e rag e .H er e en l i s t edinth eB lu e L eg ion(U r ia r t eA rba iza2012 :1 13 ) . 98 R epo r tonr e en l i s tm en t sda t ed9S ep t emb e r1943(AGMAV , 1994/12/5/1 ) .Inth e2ndCompanyo fth e26 th Ma r chBa t ta l ion ,fo rex amp l e ,th e r ew e r e23 ,a l lfo rm e rvo lun t e e r sf romJu ly1941 .Th e r ew e r e10 inth e3 rdCompanyand9inth e4 thCompany .Ar e l evan tnumb e rw e r e s e rg ean t sandco rpo ra l s .Th eto ta lamoun to fr e en l i sm en t s wa s60 ,r ep r e s en t ingasma l lp e r c en tag eo fn ewa r r iva l s . 9 9W a rd i a ryo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,en t r i e so f 5and 3 0O c tob e r , 1 3Nov emb e r , 1 0and 1 2D e c emb e r1 9 4 3(BA -MA ,RH 2 4 – 5 0/ 7 4 ) ; Knüpp e ltoE s t eb an In f an t e s ,1 3 Nov emb e r1 9 4 3(BA -MA ,RH 2 4 – 5 0/ 8 4 ) . 100 M .J im én ezto Manu e lT a r ín ,K ing i s epp , 27 D e c emb e r1943(AFR ) . 101 T e l eg ramf romth e18 thA rmytoth e OKH ,D ep t .o fM i l i ta ryA t ta ch é s ,27 Janua ry1944 ,and18 thA rmytoA rmyG roup No r th ,5Janua ry1944 ,bo th inBA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ; Mo r enoJu l iá(1999 :127 ) . 102 Anonymou sr e tu rn edvo lun t e e rtoAn ton io H e r r e roCa s t e l lano ,Log roño , 18 O c tob e r1943(AA ) . 103 V eytoE in sa tzkommandoI ,23 Nov emb e r1943(USHMM ,SpBD 1 1 .001M .05 ) . 104 Fo rfu r th e rd e ta i l s ,s e e Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :344–8 ) ,andP é r ezRub io& P r i e toBa r r io(2014 :144–50 ) . 105 R epo r to fth eXXV IA rmyCo rp stoth e18 thA rmy ,1 F eb rua ry1944 (BA -MA ,RH24–26/1 15 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eXXV IA rmyCo rp s ,en t ryo f 1F eb rua ry1944(BA -MA ,RH24–26/1 13 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :328– 9 ) ; R epo r tbyD i e ckho f f , Mad r id ,1 1F eb rua ry1944(PAAA ,R -29751 ) . 106 Command e ro fth eS i ch e rung s t rupp entoA rmyG roup No r th ,5 F eb rua ry 1944(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) . 107 Sonn l e i thn e rtoth eS e c r e ta ryo fS ta t e ,B e r l in ,20 F eb rua ry1944 ;r epo r tby S t e eng ra ch t ,B e r l in ,22 F eb rua ry1944(PAAA ,R -29751 ) . 108 K l e in f e ld&T amb s(1983 :498–500 ) ; Mo r enoJu l iá(2014 :368–9 ) . 109 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,G ra f enwöh r ,14 Augu s t1941 , AFR I . 1 10 Audo in -Rouz eau(1986 :53–6 ) ; Kühn e(2006 :152–3 ) .

274 No t e stopag e s 126–32 1 1 1W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f 22 Augu s t1941(Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 : 56–7 ) . 1 12 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra , 22 S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; l e t t e rf rom Dan i e lT o r ra ,19 D e c emb e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 : 57–8 ) . 1 13 Audo in -Rouz eau(1986 :42–7 )s ta t edsom e th ings im i la rabou tth eF r en ch so ld i e r sinth eF i r s tW o r ld W a r .S e ea l so Nüb e l(2014 :42–788 ) ,andKno ch (1989 ) . 1 14 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 123 ,141 ,162 ,237 ) ;M e r inoB ravo(2007 :62–3 ) . 1 15 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryo f 2 Nov emb e r1941 . 1 16 “D ia r iod eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(5apa r t e ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,623( Jun e 201 1 ) . 1 17 W a rd ia ryo fEn r iqu eSán ch ezF ra i l e ,quo t edby Ma r t ín ezR ev e r t e(201 1 : 430 ) . 1 18 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryo f3O c tob e r1941 ;A .Gay tan ,“E lf r ío enRu s iaye lequ ipa j ed elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lP i r in e o( 9F eb rua ry1942 ) . 1 19 M em o r i as o b r el ainfu en c i ad el a sép o c a sd el luv i a s ,f r í o syd e sh i e l oenl o ss e rv ic i o sd egu e r r a ,enl ac amp añ a1941–1942enRu s i a ,10 May1942(BA -MA ,RH 24–38/55 ) .S e ea l soB rydan(2019a ) . 120 A l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r ezto Ma r ía -Lu i saP é r ez ,6 F eb rua ry1942(AFN ) ; r epo r to fth ech i e fdo c to ro fth e16 thA rmy ,30 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA , RH20–16/748 ) ;Ra s s(2003 :155 ) . 121 Rom e ro(1982 :135 ) ;A .H e rnánd ez -Nava r ro ,“Cam i saAzu len Nu eva Y o rk ,”L o sS i t i o s( 12 F eb rua ry1952 ) . 122 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,10 Nov emb e r1941(AFR I ) . 123 W a rd ia ryo fDan i e lT o r ra ,en t ryf rom 22 D e c emb e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :61 ) . 124 M .Gu i ja r ro ,“M ip r im e raau ro raenRu s ia ,” L o sS i t i o s( 7S ep t emb e r1958 ) . 125 W a rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo ,1944 . 126 Fa r r éPa lau s(1991 :86–7 ) . 127 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th er epo r t so fth em ed i ca lch i e fo fth eXA rmyCo rp s ,30 O c tob e r1941(BA -MARH 24–10/86 ) . 128 S e e ,e .g . ,D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,25 O c tob e r1941 (AFR I ) . 129 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :1 10–14 ,en t ryo f30Jun e1942 ) ;F r i tz(1995 :104–14 ) ; Lu ca s(2014 :71–91 ) ;F .T o r r e s ,“Y as efu e ronlo st r in eo s ,”L aV o zd eG a l i c i a, 15 Ap r i l1943 . 130 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 88 ,95–6 ,en t r i e so f31 May1942and1–3Jun e 1942 ) .S e ea l soth e wa rd ia ryo fCa r lo sF igu e ro la ,9Ju ly1942(R em í r ezd e E spa rza2020 :33–4 ) . 131 J .M .Gu t i é r r ezd e lCa s t i l lo ,“E lAgu ina ldod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”O f en s iv a ( 3D e c emb e r1942 ) .

No t e stopag e s 132–6 275 132 M e r r ida l e(2005 :1 18–21 ) . Th eSov i e tso ld i e r shadnosou r c eo findoo r h ea t ing .Th e i rw in t e requ ipm en t wa sb e t t e rthantha to fth eG e rman s , thoughno tn e c e s sa r i lyth e i rfoodra t ion s .Sov i e tindu s t rycou ldon lyp ro v id eon epa i ro fboo t sfo rev e ryth r e em en . 133 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,1 1 Nov emb e r1941to31 Ma r ch 1942 ,en t ryo f20 F eb rua ry1942(BA -MA ,RH24–38/51 ) . 134 R epo r to fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,6 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20– 16/67 ) ;s e ea l soF r i tz(1995 :59–60 )and Humbu rg(1999 ) . 135 A l ca ld e(2014 :60–9 ) . 136 Ro s en tha l(1990 ) ;La tz e l(1997 ) ;N e i tz e l& W e lz e r(201 1 ) . 137 S e e ,e .g . ,P .d elaL lav eA la s ,“ Juan ,”R e c on qu i s t a,352( Ju ly1979 ) . 138 Agoodexamp l eo fth i s wa sth ea c coun tbyP ion e e r s ’s e rg ean tF ran c i s co Suá r ez O j eda :s e eh i s wa rd ia ry ,14–15(p r iva t ea r ch iv eo fM s . Ma r íaP . Suá r ez M ed ina ,Gá lda r ,G ranCana r ia ) . 139 S e efo rin s tan c eth ed e s c r ip t iono fth eda i lyrou t in ebyth eso ld i e r so fth e 250 thT ran sm i s s ion sG roup ,a sr ef e c t edbyth e wa rd ia ryo fP r iva t e Ca r lo sO r ja l e s(Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 :147–8 ) . 140 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t r i e so f 24and25 d eO c tob e rand1 Nov emb e r1941 . 141 Fa r r éPa lau s(1991 :85 ) . 142 S e e Ma e land&B run s tad(2009 :3–4 ) . 143 L e t t e rf romDan i e lT o r ra ,19 D e c emb e r1941(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 : 57 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo sCabo ,en t ryo fJu ly1942(Cu e rdaRo s2013 : 66 ) ;l e t t e r sf romp r iva t eAn ton io Qu in tanaLu ca s .n .d .(Qu in tanaSo lá 2020 :29–30 ,36 ) . 144 S .Zanón ,“Lacampañad eRu s ia ,unañod e spu é s(2 ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 612–13( Ju ly–Augu s t2010 ) . 145 S e e ,e .g . ,th em emo i r so fp r iva t eEug en ioRod r ígu ez( Ju ly1942 ) ,inP é r ez (2020 :172–6 ) . 146 W a rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f 26 Ap r i l1942(Pa r r i l la N i e to2018 :98 ) . 147 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,Po r chow ,17 D e c emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 148 W a rd ia ryo fJoaqu ínRo sCabo(Cu e rdaRo s2013 : 62 ,en t ryo f May 1942 ) . 149 W a rd ia ryo fB en jam ínA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 12and14Jun e1942 . 150 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 57 ,en t ryo f2 May1942 ) . 151 W a rd ia ryo fDan i e lT o r ra ,en t r i e so f 29 D e c emb e r1941 ,2and1 1Janua ry 1942(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :62–3 ) . 152 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 24and26Jun e1942 . 153 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 72–4 ,en t ryo f17 May1942 ) . 154 L e t t e rf romDan i e lT o r ra ,1 Ap r i l1942(T o r raiPu igd e l l ívo l2013 :82–5 ) . 155 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 28Jun eand6Ju ly1942 .

276 No t e stopag e s 136–43 156 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 130[ en t ryo f17Ju ly1942 ] ,138[ 26Ju ly1942 ]and 164–5[ 17 Augu s t1942 ] ) . 157 W a rd ia ryo fDan i e lT o r ra ,en t r i e so f 14and15 May1942(T o r rai Pu igd e l l ívo l2013 :94 ) . 158 L .M .D . ,“Laho rad e lco r r eo ,”¡ ¡A r r i b aE sp añ a ! !( 24Ju ly1943 ) ;H e rnanz B lan co(2013 :60 ,75–6 ,97 ,103 ,and151 ) . 159 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t ryf rom 16Ju ly1942 . 160 S e eexamp l e sinPu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :75 ,83 ) . 161 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t r i e so f 26Ju lyand15 Augu s t1942 . 162 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 63 ,80 ,en t r i e so f8and24 May1942 ) . 163 A r ena l e s ’ob i tua ry wa spub l i sh edsom ew e ek sla t e r :s e e“B en jam ínA r ena l e sV a l cabado ,”O f en s iv a( 1 1 Ma r ch1943 ) ,and“Cama radaB en jam ín A r ena l e s ,”O f en s iv a( 18 Ma r ch1943 ) . 164 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 , 167–9 ,212– 13 ,en t r i e so f19 Augu s tand30 S ep t emb e r1942 ) . 165 S e eR em í r ezd eE spa rza(2020 :37–942 ,47 ,97–8 ) . 166 Ma r ch enaCañ e t e(2003 : 66 ) ;t e s t imonyo fV a l e r ianoRu iz(Pu en t eF e rnán d ez2012 :289–91 ) . 167 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,Po rkhov ,17 D e c emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 168 A .Gay tan ,“Lagu e r raar e tagua rd iaolo sp e l ig ro sd elao cupa c ión ,” E lP i r in e o( 14 Ma r ch1942 ) . 169 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :1 1 1 ) . 170 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :128–9 ) . 171 T e s t imonyo fF ran c i s coB e rgua ,c i t edbyPa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :475 ) . 172 R id ru e jo(1978 :302–3 ,en t ryo f19 Nov emb e r1941 ) .Rom e ro(1982 :142–3 ) w ro t etha ttho s eso ld i e r sr e tu rn ed“w i thswo l l enandf eb r i l eey e s[… ] a l thoughsom ew e r ee igh t e enando th e r suptoth i r ty ,th eya l ls e em edo ld . W esawth ema r r iv eth roughth efog ,ind i f f e r en ttodang e randexhau st ion ;th eylaydownn ex ttoth ef r s tf r eth eyfoundl i t .” 173 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,Po rkhov ,17 D e c emb e r1941 (AFR I ) . 174 And r é s On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] ,“Ca r ta sd elagu e r ra . Nu e s t rov iv i r ,”A r r i b a ( 27 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 175 Do lo r e sGan c edotoA lb e r to Ma r t ínGam e ro ,T o l edo ,5and29 Augu s t 1941(AA ) . 176 N .A l ca láA rana ,“C rón i cad eund ía ,” A r r i b a( 17 Ma r ch1942 ) . 177 R id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,25 O c tob e r1941 ,andG ra f enwöh r ,25 Ju ly1941(AFR I ) . 178 R id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,n .d .[ ea r lyAugu s t1941 ] ,9 ,and22 Augu s t1941(AFR I ) . 179 J .M iqu e la r ena ,“Lo svo lun ta r io sfa lang i s ta sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”ABC ( 4 Augu s t1941 ) ; MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :37 ,65 ,152 ) .

No t e stopag e s 143–7 277 180 Onth es t r eng tho f“p r ima ryg roup s”a sacoh e s iv efa c to rinth eW eh rma ch t ,s e eBa r tov(1991 : 29–58 ) . Onth efu s iono fpo l i t i ca lcu l tu r e sand so c ia lo r ig in sinth eW eh rma ch t ,s e eRöm e r(2012 ,2013 ) . 181 And r é sd e On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] ,“E ll ib roylae s ta tua ,”A r r i b a( 13Janua ry 1942 ) . 182 S e eA .A ragon é s ,“D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a rr i a( 25 Ap r i l1942 ) . 183 A l f r edoRod r ígu ezP é r eztoh i s mo th e r ,21 D e c emb e r1941(AFN ) . 184 M .M .Ca r ra s co sa ,“R e cu e rdoaunaf e cha ,” O f en s iv a( 18 O c tob e r1942 ) ;M . Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,142( Jun e1971 ) ;E l N o r t ed eC a s t i l l a( 2Janua ry1942 ) ;SanzJa rqu e(2010 :122 ) . 185 S e e Núñ ezS e ixa sandB eyda(2018 :108 ) . 186 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryf rom1S ep t emb e r1941 . 187 Ca s e so fso ld i e r sr epa t r ia t edfo r“homo s exua l i sm ,”inth eDGSr epo r t , SanS eba s t ián ,13 Ma r ch1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . Ma r t ínV e la s coe ch o edth i sinh i s wa rd ia ry( en t ryo f4 Nov emb e r1941 ) . 188 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,9 Nov emb e r1941(AFR I ) ;L . Agu i la r ,“D ia r iod em icampañaenRu s ia( IX ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,604(No v emb e r2009 ) . 189 “D ia r iod ecampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(V I ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 624–5( Ju ly–Augu s t201 1 ) . 190 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,30 O c tob e r1941andPo rkhov , 17 D e c emb e r1941(AFR I ) . 191 E r randoV i la r(1942 :105 ) . 192 L ina r e s(2000 :127 ) . 193 Capd ev i la &V o ldman(2002 :173–205 ;2004 ) ;Ko s e l l e ck &J e i smann (1994 ) . 194 S e eM e r r ida l e(2005 :121–2 )and H i l l(2016 ) . 195 Audo in -Rouz eau(1995 :176–9 ) ; Kühn e(2006 :166–71 ) .S e efu r th e rexam p l e sinB .B en í t ez ,“Avo so t ro s ,”O f en s iv a( 23 Augu s t1942 ) ,and“Ca ído s d elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”O f en s iv a( 28 O c tob e r1942 ) . 196 V .d elaS e rna ,“P r e s en c iar ea ld eJo s éAn ton ioenlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” In f o rm a c i on e s( 20 Nov emb e r1941 ) . 5 .O c cupa t ionP ra c t i ce so ftheB lue D iv i s ionin No r thwe s tRu s s ia 1D i r e c t iv a sp a r al ac ondu c t ad el at r op aenRu s i a,2ndS e c t iono fth eG en e ra l S ta f f . ,n .d . ,AGMAV/2003/5/1/4 . 2“Lo scom i sa r io sd egu e r raene lE j é r c i tosov i é t i co ,”Pu e b l o( 26 Nov emb e r 1941 ) . 3In s t ru c c i óng en e r a lnúm .3 .005 ,2ndand3 rdS e c t ion so fth eBDG en e ra l S ta f f ,Amp l i a c i ónd en o rm a sju r íd i c a sin t e rn a syd eD e r e ch oIn t e rn a c i on a l, AGMAV2005/4/2/1 .

278 No t e stopag e s 147–51 4O rd e ro fth e OKH ,2 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I/ 123 ) . 5Röm e r(2008 :581–96 ;2014 ) ;Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :212 ) . 62ndS e c t iono fth eBDG en e ra lS ta f f ,In s t ru c c i ónn . º2 .018 ,12 May1942 (AGMAV2005/ 18/1/6 ) . 7Commun i ca t ionbyth eCh i e fo fS ta f fo fth eLA rmyCo rp s ,3 May1943 (AGMAV2007/ 5/3/1 ) . 8Onth eimpo r tan c eo fs i tua t iona lfa c to r sfo rth eb ru ta l iza t iono fG e rman so ld i e r sa tth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,s e eS .N e i tz e l& W e lz e r(201 1 ) ,a sw e l la sRu th e r fo rd(2014 ) . Onindo c t r ina t ionandi t sro l einenhan c ingb ru ta l iza t ion , s e eBa r tov(2001 )andRöm e r(2012 ,2013 ) . 9Add endumtoth er epo r to fCap i ta inCo l la tzfo rth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s , 5 May1942(BA -MA ,RH26–250/3 ) . 10 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,166(May1973 ) . 1 1 Fo rexamp l e ,th evo lun t e e rSa lvado rZanónadm i t t edtha tinth ei z b ao c cup i edbyh i sg roup ,po ta to e s wou ldd i sapp ea rf romth efam i ly ,bu t“ th ey sha r edou rb r ead ,ou rra t ion sandou rm e s spo r t ion .”Two w e ek sla t e r ,h e no t edtha tth eo th e rso ld i e r shads e c r e t lyen t e r edac e l la r wh e r eaRu s s ian fam i lys to r edth e i rpo ta to e s ,thoughla t e rth eysha r edth em w i thth esam e fam i ly .S e e“D ia r iod elaCampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(Pa r t e V I ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,624– 5( Ju ly -Augu s t201 1 ) ,en t r i e sda t ed22and24 D e c emb e r1941 ,and6Janua ry1942 . 12 Sa lvado r(1962 :355 ) ;Dom ingo(2009 :192–3 ) . 13 “C rón i cafá c i l .¨EnlaCa l l ed e lP i la rt i en eu s t edsuca sa ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 31 O c tob e r1943 ) . 14 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :45–50 ) ;“Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,” B o l e t índ e lSEUd e M ad r id,12(1942 ) ;J .E .B lan co ,“P ion e ro scon t raD io s .S en t idoan t i r r e l ig i o sod elaedu ca c iónru sa ,”A r r i b a( 29 Ap r i l1944 ) . 15 In s t ru c c i óng en e r a ln . º3 .005 ,4 Augu s t1941 ,AGMAV ,2005/ 4/2/1 . 16 R id ru e jo(1978 :157–8 ) . 17 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :39 ) . 18 D íazd eV i l l ega s(1967 :57–8 ) . 19 D .Ca s t roV i l la caña s ,“No ta sd eh e rmandad .E lt en i en t eRo s s e ,”En l a c e ( 3 Ap r i l1943 ) ;Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :29 ) ;“Lad e c i s ión ,e lva lo rye len tu s ia smod elag lo r io saD iv i s iónAzu l ,”ABC ( 25Janua ry1942 ) . 20 R epo r tbyCo lon e lJ e sú sBad i l lo ,n .d .(D e c emb e r1941 ) ,AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 . 21 F .P radoL e r ena ,“Unen em igov en c idoyo t roqu elos e rá ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 9 Ma r ch1942 ) . 22 J . Ma r t ia lay ,“Má sno ta spa raund ia r iod egu e r ra ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 14 F eb rua ry1942 ) ;Audo in -Rouz eau(2008 :241–2 ) .S e ea l so D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f7 Nov emb e r1941 . 23 Quo t edby Ma r t ín ezR ev e r t e(201 1 : 187 ) .

No t e stopag e s 151–4 279 24 S e eM e r r ida l e(2005 :315–16 )and H i l l(2019 ) . 25 Audo in -Rouz eau(1986 :197–8 ) . 26 “En cu en t roconcama rada sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”In f o rm a c i on e s( 24janua ry 1942 ) ;A lon sod e lR ea l[F e rnandoRamo s ](1953 :24 ) ;E s t eban In fan t e s (1956 :37 ) ; Royo Ma s ía(1956 :213–14 ) ; Agu s t íRo ca(2003 :106 ) . 27 J . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,“T e rm inae linv i e rnoenRu s iays eadv i e r t ens ín toma s d ep róx ima sop e ra c ion e s ,”A r r i b a( 9 Ap r i l1942 ) . 28 Th i s wa sa ff rm edbyEn r iqu eGa r c íaGa l ludinh i sunpub l i sh ed m emo i r s ( M i sd o sc amp añ a sm i l i t a r e s ,1936–1942) ;s e eE r randoV i la r(1942 :89 ,121–2 , 204–5 ) . 29 Ba r tov(2001 :76–87 )andKno ch(2003 ) . OnF l em ing s , No rw eg ian s ,and I ta l ian ss e eD eW ev e r(1985 :80 ) ,So r l i e(2014 :187–98 ) ,andPanna c c i (2020 ) . 30 Fo rexamp l e ,th e wa t e r co lou r sP o r t ad o r e sd eun anu ev acu l tu r ap a r aEu r op a, and¡Eu r op e o s !E s t o ss onl o so j o squ en o sa c e ch an ,enAGA ,F/0474 ,IDD (03 )003 .000 . 31 Bo ix ca r(1954 ,1955a ,1955b ) .Fo r mo r ed e ta i l s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2017 ) . 3 2 Fo rex amp l e so fc a r i c a tu r e so fth eR edA rmy ,s e eth eBDt r en ch jou rn a l ,H o j a d eC am p añ a , 9 M a r ch1 9 4 2 ,d ep i c t ingaSov i e tp a t ro l ) ; 5 Augu s t1 9 4 2(po r t r ay ingp r i son e r s ) ;1 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2(Sov i e tt ankc r ew m emb e r ) ; 3 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2( ano th e rp r i son e r ) ;3 O c tob e r1 9 4 3 ,o r 7 Nov emb e r 1 9 4 3(Sov i e t so ld i e r ) .On lyinon ec a s e( 3 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 )do w efndanagg r e s s iv ed e p i c t iono fth eSov i e tso ld i e r .Th e r ea r ea l soth ef r equ en tc a r i c a tu r e so fS t a l in o rSov i e tcommun i sm ,w i th Mongo lo ido rc ad av e rou sf e a tu r e s ;o rin s t e ad , tho s eth a tevok eth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r ,w i thSov i e tso ld i e r sw e a r ingth e i r unu su a lm i l i t a ryc ap ,po r t r ay eda sabu s ing wom en( s e eH o j ad eC am p añ a, 2 1 Nov emb e r1 9 4 3 ) .Jo aqu índ eA lb a( K in)a l sod r ewupons ev e r a lo fth e s e th em e sfo rth eexh ib i t ionS ow e r et h eR e d s !,a sd i sp l ay edinh i sw a t e rp roo f s V e in t eañ o sd ee s t a tu a sl i b e r t a r i a s, L ai gu a l d a do S o b r el am i s e r i ad e lpu e b l o ,l o s s o v i e t sh anc on s t ru i d osu s“ p a l a c i o s ”(AGA ,F/ 0 4 7 4 ,IDD ( 0 3 ) 0 0 3 . 0 0 0 ) . 33 S e e“Unaca r i ca tu racon mo ra l e ja ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 7 Nov emb e r1943 ) ; “Lo sd i ez mandam i en to sd e lbu ene spaño l ,”En l a c e( 29 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 34 “C rón i cafá c i l .E lp r i s ion e ro ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 19S ep t emb e r1943 ) ;Fa r r é A lb iñana(1949 :1 15 ) . 35 Bu chb end e r&S t e rz(1982 :83–105 ) ; La tz e l(2000b ) . 36 G .Góm ezd elaS e rna ,“Laan t iguavozd e lh e ro í smoenlae s t eparu sa ,” A r r i b a( 5 May1942 ) ;J .R evu e l ta ,“D ecómoE r i ch Ma r iaR ema rqu enoe s tuvoenlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”H a z,IV : 1(F eb rua ry1943 ) . 37 Royo Ma s ía(1956 :318 ) . 38 D iv i s i ónA zu l .2 .ºCu ad e rn o , Mad r id :V i c e s e c r e ta r íad eEdu ca c iónPopu la r , 1943 ;A .Abad O ju e l ,“Ha c eunañoqu elaD iv i s iónAzu lcomba t e ,”E lP i rin e o( 13Ju ly1942 ) .

280 No t e stopag e s 134–57 39 S e eBou rk e(1998 :175–91 ) . 40 SanzJa rqu e(2010 :123 ,129 ) . Co lon e lE spa rzah im s e l fhado rd e r ed p r i son e r so r wound eden emyso ld i e r stob esho t :s e eth eDGSr epo r t ,23 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 41 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryo f3 Nov emb e r1941 . 42 Onth ep ra c t i c eo fshoo t ingp r i son e r sinr ev eng efo rth e mu t i la t iono f th ebod i e so ffa l l enSpan i shso ld i e r s ,s e eSán ch ezD iana(1993 :1 18 ,138 , 144 ,and146 ) ;th et e s t imonyo fA lb e r toD íazGá lv ez ,inGa r r idoPo lo n io&Ga r r idoPo lon io(2002 :168–9 )andV i c iana(2018 :227–8 ) .S e ea l so Lóp ez -Cova r rub ia s(2012 :141 ,223 ) . 43 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :109–10 ,1 13–14 ,144–6 ) . 44 S e efo rin s tan c eE r randoV i la r(1942 :277 ) . Th er e f e r en c eto mu t i la t ion s , wh i cha r eno tco r robo ra t edbyo th e rsou r c e s ,i sfoundinK l e in f e ld& T amb s(1983 :245 ) . 45 Som et e s t imon i e sinSaga r ra(2012 :628–30 ) . As im i la rin c id en t wa sa l so d e s c r ib edbyP ion e e r s ’s e rg ean tF ran c i s coSuá r ez O j edainAp r i l1942 (wa rd ia ry ,p .6 ) . 46 D ia ryo fth eH ea l thUn i t2ndCompany ,w r i t t enbyth em i l i ta rysu rg eon Lu i sRod r ígu ezd elaBo rbo l la(quo t edinRod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2007a :226 ) ; DGSr epo r t ,unda t ed( endo fS ep t emb e r1941 ) ,AMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ;D i a r i o d euns o ld ad o,en t ryo f1 1S ep t emb e r1941 .Som eday sla t e r ,h er epo r t edin Bo r i sov(19S ep t emb e r1941 )tha tinan ea rbySov i e tp r i son e rcamp ,th e G e rman s wou ldk i l l“100–200 ,a sr ep r i sa l sfo rth esn ip e r s .” 47 DGSr epo r t ,SanS eba s t ián ,29Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 48 W a rd ia ryo fF ed e r i co M en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f 30 Augu s t1941(C e la 2010 :140 ) . 49 R epo r tby m i l i ta rya t ta ch éRo cad eT ogo r e s ,B e r l in ,30 O c tob e r1941 (AGMAV ,DEV29/3/52 ) . 50 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryo f 29 Augu s t1941 ;H e rnánd ez Nava r ro(1971 : 48–9 ) ; Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :169–71 ) . 51 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :52–3 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :268 ) . 52 F .T o r r e s ,“E lsa rg en toG i l ,”ABC ( 6 Ma r ch1943 ) . 53 E .F e i jooGa r c ía ,“RamónGa r c íaP in to ,vo lun ta r iod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” M ed i t e r r án e o( 7F eb rua ry1942 ) . 54 P in i l laTu r iño(1987 :271–4 ) ;2ndS e c t iono fG en e ra lS ta f f , In s t ru c c i óng en e r a l ,num .2 .019 ,31 May1942 ,AGMAV2005/ 18/1/8 . 55 “Enunho sp i ta ld ecampañad elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”A r r i b a( 13 Ma r ch1943 ) ; A .Gay tan ,“M i s chka ,so ldadosov i é t i co ,enlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lP i r in e o ( 1 1 Ma r ch1942 ) ;A .Andú ja r ,“Nu e s t roru sk ihas idoh e r ido ,”H o j ad e C amp añ a( 8 Augu s t1943 ) ;F .T o r r e s ,“E lp r i s ion e rod eKop ino ,”L aV o zd e G a l i c i a ,16 Ma r ch1943 .

No t e stopag e s 158–9 281 56 Lomag in(1998 :14–16 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fA rmyG roup No r th ,en t ryo f19 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/168 ) . 57 A s wa sev enpo in t edou tinth ep ropagandabookpub l i sh edin1943 : B a l an c ed eh e r o í sm o .L aD iv i s i ónE sp añ o l ad eV o lun t a r i o sene lF r en t ed e lE s t e , Inv i e rn o1942–1943 ,Ru s i a ,T a l l in :n .p . ,1943 ,19 ;l ik ew i s e ,B lan co(1954 :33 ) . 58 D eAnd r é s(2004 :143–4 ) ; Ru izA yú ca r(1981 :158–61 ) . Fu r th e rca s e sw e r e th ed e s e r t e rPab loS .A l exand rov i ch , who wa sp ro t e c t edbyo ff c e r so f th eSpan i shG en e ra lS ta f f ,andla t e radop t edbya ma jo r whotookh im toSpa in ,andS e rgu e iD . Ma r ch enko ,bo rnin1926 , wa sana s s i s tan tcook inth eBD m ed i ca lco rp sand ,und e rth ep ro t e c t iono fsom eo ff c e r s wa s tak entoS ev i l l e , wh e r eh es e t t l ed .Fu r th e rmo r e ,th ee igh t e en -y ea r -o ld W a l t e rJam saf romPu shk in ,ana s s i s tan to faSpan i sho ff c e r ,l iv edin Ap r i l1944inC iudadR ea l .S e eJ .M .Ga r c íaS e t i én ,“Pab loSak i enkoA l exand rov i ch .Unru sod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,602(S ep t emb e r 2009 ) ;“Un jov enru sos ebau t iza ráenS ev i l la ,”L o sS i t i o sd eG e r on a( 24 May1944 ) ,andC .L .P . ,“Un mu cha choru soenC iudadR ea l ,” L an z a( 22 Ap r i l1944 ) . 59 M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,87(Nov emb e r 1966 ) . 60 InS ep t emb e r1942 ,th eBDS e rv i c eCo rp shad45Sov i e tp r i son e r sini t s s e rv i c eini t sbak ing ,supp ly ,and m ea tcompan i e s :th enumb e rhadd e s c r ea s edto34in1943 .S e ea l soth er epo r tbyth eS e rv i c eCo rp sComman dan t ,29S ep t emb e r1942(AGMAV2006/ 3/2/3 ) ,andr epo r t sbyCap ta in Ra fa e lGonzá l ezF e rnánd ez ,27 F eb rua ry1943(AGMAV1987/ 15/1/2 ) . 61 D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :172–3 ) . 62 In s t ru c t ioncon c e rn ingP r i son e r so f wa r ,2 .ªS e c c iónd eEM ,16Ju ly1942 , AGMAV2006/1/3/1 . 63 R epo r t stoth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e iundSD -Au s s en s t e l l ePu s chk in ,7 Nov emb e r1942 ,C en t ra lS ta t eA r ch iv eo fSa in tP e t e r sbu rg(T sGASPB ) . Fund9788 , Op i s1 .D e lo31 ,L i s t21 . 64 S e e ,e .g . ,Eb e r t&P euk e r t(2006 ) . 65 Rom euF e rnánd ez(2007 :66–7 ) .S e ea l soth et e s t imonyo fth enu r s e sAu r e l iaS egov iaandT e r e saV a ld e r rama ,inLóp ez -Cova r rub ia s(2012 :249–51 ) . 66 O rd e rby OKH , 4 May1943 , H o j ad ein s t ru c c i óns o b r ee lt r a t am i en t od eev ad id o s(p a r al at r op a )(AGMAV2007/ 7/1/1 1 ) . 67 G en e ra lo rd e r sn .20( 21 May1943 )and22( 9 May1943 ) ,AGMAV , 2007/7/1/22and2007/ 7/1/17 . 68 In s t ru c t ionbyLA rmyCo rp stoBD ,2S ep t emb e r1943 ,AGMAV 2008/13/2/1 . 69 G en e ra lO rd e r ,2ndG en e ra lS ta f fS e c t ion ,19 May1943 ,inAGMAV 2007/9/3/1 .

282 No t e stopag e s 159–62 70 J .M iqu e la r ena ,“E lho t e lSmo l en sko ,ho t e l mod e rno ,”ABC ( 16 Augu s t 1941 ) . 71 “D iv i s iónAzu l ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 15 Nov emb e r1941 ) . 72 S e eth ecom i cs t r ip sF e l i c id adenl o sh og a r e s andAp en a sp i s am o sl ap r im e r a c a r r e t e r aru s a ,c am in od e lf r en t e ,y av em o sl oqu ee se lad e l an t os ov i é t i c o ,in AGA ,F/0474 ,IDD(03 )003 .000 . 73 E lA l c á z a r( 3F eb rua ry1942 ) . 74 J .Fu e r t e s ,“Loqu eno sl l egad eRu s iaalo sfa lang i s ta s .Sa c r if c ioyen tu s i a smod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”A r r i b a( 1Janua ry1942 ) . 75 Elcorreodelzar,“D iv i s iónAzu l .Com en ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 21 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 7 6J .L .Góm e z -T e l lo ,“L aa ld e aru s a , ”En l a c e( 2 0S ep t emb e r1 9 4 2 ) ;F .I zqu i e rdo Luqu e ,“Un ac a s aco l e c t iv aenRu s i a , ”P en s am i en t oA l a v é s( 2 2 M ay1 9 4 2 ) . 77 Po s t ca rd sf romBDvo lun t e e r s ,22 O c tob e r1941and19 D e c emb e r1941 (V ázqu ezEn c i so1995 :133–5 ) ;V i c en t eRod r ígu ezV e latoCo lon e lL eand ro Ga r c ía ,22 Ma r ch1942(MPA -FLGG ) . 78 W a rd ia ryo fJuanRom e ro O s end e ,en t r i e sf rom 24 Augu s t1941and17 O c tob e r1941 . 79 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryf rom 14S ep t emb e r1941 . 80 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t ryo f 25 May1942 . 81 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :51 ) ;“Cómohab land e l Mandolo svo lun ta r io sd ela ‘D iv i s iónAzu l , ’”In f o rm a c i on e s( 26 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 82 “Lag lo r io saD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lN o r t ed eC a s t i l l a( 24 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 83 F e rnánd ezV e la s co(1943 :9–1 1 ) ;“ In fo rma c iónd elap rov in c ia ,” Nu ev aA lc a r r i a( 1 1 Ap r i l1942 ) . 84 Th e l ew e i t(1995 ) . 85 Rom euF e rnánd ez(2007 :57 ,en t ryda t ed16 O c tob e r1941 ) ;Góm ez -T e l lo (1945 :50 ) . 86 “D ia r iod eunvo lun ta r io . No ta sd em i ma cu to ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 20 D e c emb e r1941 ) ;“D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a ( 21 Ma r ch1942 ) ;Fa r r éA lb iñana(1949 :92 ) . 87 M emo i r so fJoaqu ín Mon taña ,inC e la(2010 : 249–50 ) . 88 B e l lodGóm ez(2004 :199–200 ) ;J .d elaC ruzLa ca c c i ,“Laca sad eN i co la i F r ed e r i ch ,”R e c on s t ru c c i ón,34( Jun e Ju ly1943 ) . 89 Ra imundoSán ch ezA lad rotoJoaqu inaCab e ro ,17 F eb rua ry1943(MPA , R .6410 ,A6/15–5 ) ;V .d elaS e rna ,“No ta sd eunv ia j ealaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” In f o rm a c i on e s( 12 D e c emb e r1941 ) ;C r e spo(1945 :178 ) . 90 V id .“Loqu ev imo senRu s ia ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 23 May1943 ) ;“M i s e r ia sob r em i s e r ia(E lay e rd eRu s ia ) ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 20Jun e1943 ) ;C . Lam e la ,“Y oe raof c ia ld e lZa r ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 8 Augu s t1943 ) . 91 A r r i b a( 13 Ma r ch1942 ) ;M .T imm e rman s ,“R e cu e rdo sd euninv i e rnoen Ru s ia ,”A r r i b a( 4 Augu s t1942 ) .

No t e stopag e s 163–6 283 92 S .Zanón ,“Lacampañad eRu s ia ,unañod e spu é s( I I I ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 615(O c tob e r2010 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fRamónAbad ía ,c i t edbyPa la c ioP i la c é s (2013 :I ,549 ) . 93 R id ru e jo(1978 :172–3 ) .O th e rt e s t imon e sw e r era th e rd i s co rdan t :s e eLa r razAnd ía&S i e r ra -S e súmaga(2010 :371– 2 ) . 94 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,19S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; J im én ezAnd rad e s(1957 :39 ,51 ) ;Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :25–7 ) ;V a s cano (1960 :84 ) . 95 B enz(1996 :9–18 ) . 96 E . Mon t e s ,“D ramayg rand eza .D eDo s to i ev sk iaS ta l in ,”D om ing o .S em an a r i oN a c i on a l( 2 May1937 ) . 97 D ion i s ioR id ru e jototh eed i to r ia lboa rdo fE s c o r i a l,22S ep t emb e r1941 (CDMH -FR , MF/R5912 ) . 98 Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :52 ,1 1 1–13 ) . 99 A .d eLa ig l e s ia ,“E s tampa sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l .Laún i car e tagua rd ia ,” En l a c e( 28Jun e1942 )and“Lal ey endapa r t ida ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 4F eb rua ry1942 ) . 100 D ’O r sP é r ez(1960 ) ;E r randoV i la r(1942 :255–6 ,260 ) ;H e rm and ad,I I : 4 ( Ju ly -Augu s t1958 ) .S e ea l soP é r ez(2020 :146 ) . 101 L e t t e ro fDo lo r e sGan c edotoA . Ma r t ínGam e ro ,T o l edo ,22and23 O c tob e r1941(AA ) .Th eCh ekhovs to rysh er e f e r stoi sW a rdn o .6 . 102 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryda t ed 21 Ap r i l1942 . 103 W a rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryda t ed 18S ep t emb e r1941(C e la 2010 :143 ) . 104 “ ¿Cuán to scomun i s ta shayenRu s ia ?”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 3O c tob e r1943 ) ; Góm ez -T e l lo(1945 :124–6 ) ;R .d eGonza lo ,“Laconqu i s tad elaa ld ea ,” O f en s iv a( 9 Augu s t1942 ) . 105 “Ca r tad eRu s ia ,”V o lun t ad ( 8F eb rua ry1942 ) . 106 Od i e l( 15Janua ry1942 ) . 107 S e e ,e .g . ,“Cha r landoconunlab rado rru so .Imp r e s ion e sd eunso ldadoen laRu s ial ib e rada ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 26S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 108 H i spanu s ,“Ca r ta sd e sd eRu s ia .C r i s i s mo ra l ,” Lu ch a( 7Ju ly1943 ) . 109 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,H o j ad eC amp añ a( 13 D e c emb e r1941 ;1 1Janua ry1942 ; 5 Augu s t1942 ;19 Augu s t1942 ;26 Augu s t1942 ;18 Nov emb e r1942 ;21 Ma r ch1943 ; 31 Ma r ch1943 ,and1 1 Ap r i l1943 )(fgu r e s3and4 ) . 1 10 H e rnanzB lan co(2013 : 46–47 ,en t r i e sda t ed27–30 Ap r i land1 May1942 ) . 1 1 1L e t t e ro f Manu e lT a r íntoR em ed io sR ebo l lo ,5Jun e1942(AFR ) . 1 12 A .d elaIg l e s ia ,“Pa ralah i s to r iad enu e s t raD iv i s iónAzu l .Supa i sa j e ,” ABC ( 17 May1942 ) ;D íazd eV i l l ega s(1967 :45–6 ) ;E r randoV i la r(1942 : 61–2 ,1 13and233 ) . 1 13 S e eLa tz e l(2000 :145–56 ) ; Mü l l e r(2007 :175–94 ) ;andK ipp(2014 :47–1 10 ) . S e ea l soCo rn i(2010 ;2012 :37–8 )andV e t to razzo(2004 ) .

284 No t e stopag e s 166–9 1 14 N e r ín(2005 : 204–6 ) . 1 15 F .T o r r e s ,“Lacampañad einv i e rnopa rae le j é r c i toru so ,”ABC ( 26Janu a ry1943 ) . 1 16 “D iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r ta sd eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 21 Ma r ch1942 ) ; P .Sa lvado r ,“D iv i s iónAzu l :V oze spaño laenlaba ta l lad e l mundo ,”H o j a d eC amp añ a( 9 May1943 ) . 1 17 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :21 ,77 ) . 1 18 E r randoV i la r(1942 :1 12–13 ) ;J .R evu e l taImaz ,“Cam i sa sazu l e sen Now go rod ,”Pu e b l o( 28Ju ly1942 ) . 1 19 F r i tz(1995 :195–203 ) . 120 L e t t e ro fRa imundoSán ch ezA lad ro ,10 D e c emb e r1943(MPA ,R6410/ A6/15–2 ) . 121 Thu s , Mon t s e r ra tRom eu(2007 :67 )d e s c r ib edata i lo rinPo rkhova s “ th ec la s s i cRu s s ian w i thsma l lsp e c ta c l e s ,aRu s s ianb lou s eandJ ew i sh look .” 122 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryda t ed 19S ep t emb e r1941 .S e ea l so J . Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,“D e sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l .E s tampa ssov i é t i ca s ,”S I . Sup l em en t os em an a ld eA r r i b a,37( 13S ep t emb e r1942 ) . 123 J .Gonzá l ez Muñoz ,“Lo squ er eg r e sand e lo t rolado .Unvo lun ta r iod ela D iv i s iónAzu lhab lapa raEl C orreo G allego,”E lC o r r e oG a l l eg o ,30 Augu s t1942 . 124 S e eL iu l ev i c iu s(2000 ;2006 )andDo rn ik(2013 ) . 125 L e t t e ro fCa r lo sJuan ,M in sk ,18S ep t emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 126 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,19S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; And r é s On ca la[D .R id ru e jo ] ,“Pa i sa j ed elaba ta l la ,”A r r i b a( 10Janua ry 1942 ) .S e ea l soR id ru e jo(1978 :225–30 ) . 127 A .A ragon é s ,“D elaD iv i s iónAzu l .Ca r tad eunvo lun ta r io ,”Nu ev aA l c a rr i a( 3Janua ry1942 ) . 128 E r randoV i la r(1942 :250–1 ) ;“C rón i cafá c i l .Uncon c i e r to ,” H o j ad eC amp añ a( 30 May1943 ) ;J .L .Góm ezT e l lo ,“Nowgo rod ,lac iudadb lan cad e lo se spaño l e s ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 16( 6F eb rua ry1943 ) . 129 M .B enda la ,“Po l í t i caygu e r raene l mundo .La ju r id i c idadenlagu e r ra d eRu s ia ,”Juv en tud( 30 Ap r i l1942 ) . 130 “Ru s iav i s tad e sd efu e ra ,”Juv en tud( 7 May1942 ) . 131 M .B enda la ,“Ru s iacomo m i s ióneu rop ea ,” H a z,IV : 5( Jun e1943 ) . 132 D .Lagun i l la ,“Lo sin s t in to sp r im i t ivo sd elarazae s lava ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 15 ( 6F eb rua ry1943 ) . 133 S .M .C . :“La mo rbo s idadd elaRu s iasov i é t i ca ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a ( 5S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 134 L e t t e r so fth eJuv en tudd eA c c iónCa tó l i cato MuñozG rand e s ,S igü enza , 20 Nov emb e r1941(AGMAV1979/ 6/1/5 ) ,andf romP r iva t eCa r lo sJuan , 18S ep t emb e r1941 .

No t e stopag e s 169–73 285 135 “Laraza ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 10 O c tob e r1943 ) ;G .G .R . :“Lo sbo l ch ev iqu e s , laimp r en taylar e l ig ión ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 14 Nov emb e r1943 ) ;“E lco mun i smo ,in t e rp r e ta c ión ma t e r ia l i s tad elav ida ,” H o j ad eC amp añ a( 21 Nov emb e r1943 ) ; Ma r t ín ezC ru c e s(1942 :1 10–1 1 ) . 136 “Sang r eib é r i casob r ee lh i e lod eRu s ia ,”A r r i b a( 29Ju ly1942 ) .Fo ru top ia s ba s edonth eG e rman“ cu l tu ra lm i s s ion”inRu s s ia ,con s i s t inginb r ing ing “o rd e r”toth eEa s t ,s e eK ipp(2014 :139–46 ,176–82 ) . 137 C .A lon sod e lR ea l ,“D iá logosob r et emaru so ,”E lE sp añ o l,I I : 48 ( 25S ep t emb e r1943 ) . 138 Á lva r ezCh i l l ida(2014 ) . 139 Ma ez tu(1941 : 67–8 ) . 140 S e esom eexamp l e sinS ta rga rd t(2015 :207–8 ) . 141 S e eA y çob e r ry(2003 )and Qu ink e r t(2014 ) . 142 R ega rd ingth esuppo s edG e rmancomm i tm en ttor e -Ch r i s t ian iz eRu s s ia , s e eF .d eBo l inaga ,“LaayudaalaR e l ig iónenRu s iaylaapo r ta c iónd ela Ig l e s iae spaño la ,”Lu ch a( 20 Augu s t1943 ) . 143 S e e“Han ma tadoaunan iña ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 15 Augu s t1943 ) ; Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :91–3 ) .F .T o r r e s ,“Ru so senlar e tagua rd ia ,”Lu ch a ( 15Ju ly1943 ) . 144 S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018 c ) . 145 D i r e c t iv a sp a r al ac ondu c t ad el at r op aenRu s i a,G .S .2nds e c t ion ,n .d . , AGMAV ,2003/5/1/4 . 146 DEVG en e ra lS ta f f ,Amp l i a c i ónd eN o rm a sJu r íd i c a sin t e rn a syd eD e r e ch oInt e rn a c i on a l ,AGMAV2005/ 4/2/1 . 147 Röm e r(2008 :581–96 ) . 148 2ndS e c t iono fDEVG en e ra lS ta f f ,In s t ru c c i ónnum .2018 , 12 May1942 , AGMAV2005/18/1/6 . 149 Comun iqu éo fth eH eado fG en e ra lS ta f fo fA rmyCo rp sL ,3 May1943 , AGMAV2007/5/3/1 . 150 K i l ian(2012 :189–240 ) . 151 S e esom eob s e rva t ion scon c e rn ingSov i e t wom endu r ingth eo c cupa t ion inR eb rova(2014 ) . 152 S e eth er epo r to fS i ch e rung s r eg im en t107 ,8 Ma r ch1942(BA -MA ,RH 20–16/99 ) . 153 Ed i c tby Muñoz -G rand e s ,3S ep t emb e r1941(AGMAV1978/ 13/5/1 ) . 154 R epo r tbySond e r füh r e rW a l t e r ,Bau t ruppI I ,29S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MA , RH19 I I I/774 ) . 155 S e eth eo rd e ro fth elo ca l Novo soko l ’n ik icommand ,5 O c tob e r1941 ; r epo r t so fs ta t iono ff c e rS e i f e r t ,13 O c tob e r1941 ,andth eV i ln iu sT ran s po r tCommand ,16 O c tob e r1941 ;r epo r t so fLo ca lCommandI(V )293 Novo soko l ’n ik iandV 181 ,21and22 O c tob e r1941 ;and M i l i ta ryPo l i c e r epo r t , Novo soko l `n ik i ,20 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) .

286 No t e stopag e s 173–5 156 DEV ,2ndS e c t ionGS ,G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2009 ,19 O c tob e r1941(AGMAV 3736/5 ) . 157 How ev e r ,th e s er epo r t st end edtob lam efo r e igna l l i e so rn e ighbou r ingd iv i s ion sfo rbadb ehav iou r , wh i chcou ldhav eb e enth edo ingo fG e rman s . S e eK i l ian(2012 :218–19 ) . 158 G r ego r itoLu i sRom e ro ,8 Nov emb e r1942(UCSD -MS563 ) . 159 D ion i s ioR id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,24 O c tob e r1941(AFR I ) . 160 S e er epo r t sbyl ia i sono ff c e rD r .Gu tz s ch ebau ch ,2–10 O c tob e r1941 ,a s w e l la sr epo r t stoth eIAd epa r tm en to fth eA rmyG roup No r th , 2 Nov em b e r1941 , OKHtoA rmyG roup No r th ,3 Nov emb e r1941 ,ando fG en e ra l vonChappu i stoth eSup r em eCommando fth e16 thA rmy ,G r igo rovo ,17 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH 19I I I/774 ) . 161 Th i spo in t wa sa l sopo in t edou tbyV lad im i rKova l ev sk i i(Núñ ezS e ixa s &B eyda2019 :152–3 ) . 162 K i l ian(2012 :215–17 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :548 ) . 163 R epo r to fG roupIV Wo f16 thA rmy ,29 O c tob e rto21 D e c emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH20–16/1 100 ) ; Ha s en c l ev e r(2010 :305–9 ) ;A rmyG roup No r th wa rd ia ry ,en t ryda t ed 24 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/ 168 ) . 164 U rqu i jo(1973 :283 ) ;in fo rma t ionno t eo fth eG en e ra lS ta f f2nds e c t ion ,28 D e c emb e r1941 ,AGMAV2005/8/3/1 . 165 Cap ta inCo l la tztoA rmyG roup No r th ,23 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH 19 I I I/774 ) . 166 Co l la tztoA rmyG roup No r th ,5 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/774 ) . Fo rt e s t imon i e so fs exua la s sau l tonRu s s ian wom enbyG e rman sand Span ia rd s ,s e eth e wa rm emo i r so fF ran c i s co Man e ro(Pa la c ioP i la c é s 2013 ,I :551–2 ) ,andB en ignoCabo ,132 .S e ea l sosom eRu s s ianey ew i tn e s s a c coun t sinKova l ev(2014 :347 ) . 167 On lyon eo c cu r r edb e tw e en Nov emb e r1941andAugu s t1942(G en e ra l S ta f fO rd e r103 ,16Ju ly1942 ,AGMAV3736/ 6 ) . 168 S e c r e tr epo r tbyasu rg eon s ’comm i s s iontha tv i s i t edG e rmanyandPoland ,D e c emb e r1941(FNFF1992 :404– 19 ) ;r epo r ttoV a r e la ,22 D e c emb e r 1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 169 T e s t imon i e so fA .P .Ja s ch in ,S .V .A l ek sand rovna ,andG .Ivanovna(Koval ev2014 :354– 9 ) . 170 ¿Qu éh ap a s ad oc one lAgu in a ld o? N .d .[F eb rua ry/Ma r ch1942 ] ,AGMAV 2005/16/2/13 . 171 R epo r t so fG en e ra lvonChappu i s ,8 D e c emb e r1941 ,andG en e ra lBu s ch , 4D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/67 ) . 172 Ba r tov(1991 :76–8 ) ;K i l ian(2012 :220–5 ) .A sw i thth eca s eo f Hunga r ian so ld i e r s ,G e rmanr epo r t st end edtoexagg e ra t eth e i rcon c e rnfo rth ec iv i l ianpopu la t ion wh en ev e ro th e r sw e r er e spon s ib l efo rm i s condu c t(And e r son1999 ;Ungvá ry2005 ) .

No t e stopag e s 175–8 287 173 Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 : 208–9 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I I .A rmy Co rp s ,en t ryda t ed18 Nov emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–38/51 ) . Th ed e ta in e e wa scond emn edandr epa t r ia t edinJanua ryo f1942(DGSr epo r t , Mad r id , 27Janua ry1942 ,AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) . 174 W a rd ia ryo fth eXXXV I I I .A rmyCo rp s ,en t ryf rom 2 D e c emb e r1941 (BA -MA ,RH24–38/51 ) . 175 T ä t ig k e i t s b e r i ch td e rA b t .I I Id e sG en .K omm and o sd e sXXXV I I IA .K .fü rd i e Z e i tv om1 1 .X I .1941b i s31 .I I I .1942(BA -MA ,RH24–38/253 ) . 176 K i l ian(2012 :225–33 ) . 177 Cogo l lo sV i c en s(1985 :1 15 ) ;H e rnanzB lan co(2013 :220 ,en t ryf rom6 O c tob e r1942 ) . 178 F .T o r r e s ,“Bomba rd eod eSanP e t e r sbu rgo ,”ABC ( 4Jun e1943 ) ;E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :128 ) . 179 Mon th lyr epo r to fth eW i r t s cha f t skommandoK ra snogwa rd e i skfo rAp r i l 1942(BA -MA ,RH20–18/1358 ) ;Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :1 18 ) . 180 Cá rd ena s ,D i a r i o,en t ryf rom1S ep t emb e r1942 . 181 S e eJ .San tama r íaD í ez ,“Sd r inoga ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,179( Jun e1974 ) ;D ’O r s P é r ez(1960 ) . 182 W a rd ia ryo f Manu e ld eCá rd ena s ,en t ryf rom 3Jun e1942 . 183 S e eIn s t ru c c i óng en e r a l2 .016 ,4 May1942(AGMAV ,28/28/18 ) ;fo rth e w r i t t enr e spon s e so fo ff c e r stoth em emoo fG en e ra lE s t eban In fan t e s da t ed27 May1943 ,s e eAGMAV ,2007/ 12/2/5 . 184 S e e ,e .g . ,th ea c coun tbyV lad im i rRud in sk i ,aSov i e tc i t iz en who wo rk ed fo rth eSpan ia rd sa sanin t e rp r e t e r :V .Rud in sk i ,“ I span t syGo lubo id iv i z i i ,”N a sh as t r an a( 8S ep t emb e r2007 )and“Pa t r ia rkhru s sko iza rub ezhno i pub l i t s i s t ik i ,”N a sh as t r an a( 6 Augu s t201 1 ) . 185 D íazd e lR ío(201 1 :202–3 ) ;t e s t imonyo fA .V a l l e jo ,inLa r raz&S i e r ra S e súmaga(2010 :373 ) . 186 “D ia r iod elacampañad eSa lvado rZanón M e r cado(V ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón, 623( Jun e201 1 ) ,en t ryf rom22 D e c emb e r1941 . 187 Kova l ev(2014 :330–2 ) . 188 In t e rv i ew w i thV a s í lyP .(bo rn1928 ) ,Podb e r ez ’ e ,29 Ap r i l2003(AA ) ;t e s t imonyo fap ea san tg i r lf romT rub i t ch ino ,inGa r r idoPo lon io&Ga r r ido Po lon io(2002 :90–1 ) . 189 D ia ryo fL id ia Ó s ipova ,en t r i e sda t ed25 Augu s t ,17S ep t emb e r , 30S ep t emb e r ,1and5 O c tob e r1942(Lomag in2004 :I I ,464– 6 ) . 190 R epo r ttoth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e iundSD -Au s s en s t e l l ePu s chk in , 2 Nov emb e r1942(T sGASPB ,Fund9788 . Op i s1 .D e lo31 .L i s t29 ) . 191 Th i so c cu r r edaf ew mon th sa f t e rth eSpan ia rd sa r r iv edinPav lo sk , wh en ag roupo fs ev enso ld i e r sen t e r edth elodg ing so fRu s s ianc iv i l ianCa tar ina Ma l i s ch eva .Th ea c cu s ed w e r econd emn edtos ix mon th s ’in ca r c e ra t ion(AGMAV ,C .3777/ 2 ) .

288 No t e stopag e s 178–81 192 L e t t e rf romL i eu t enan tP .Em e r i ch ,O r t skommandan tu rI I(351 ) , 22S ep t emb e r1942(B fZ -SS ) . 193 D eAnd r é s(2004 :25 ) ; Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :1 18 ) . 194 G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2016 ,4 May1942(AGMAV28/28/18/3 ) . 195 In O c tob e r1943as im i la rin s t ru c t ionou t l in edth esam et e rm s(GS O rd e r 1F eb rua ry1943 ,AGMAV ,28/29/1 1/7 ) . Mo r eexamp l e sinBow en(2000 : 1 14–15 ) . 196 Rob e r toR iv e rotoCa rm enSán ch ez ,26 Augu s t1942(D eRamón& O r t iz 2003 :355–6 ) . 197 W a rm emo i r so fB en ignoCabo , 128–9 ; Ga r c ía Izqu i e rdo(2009 :333– 5 ) . 198 Ch i cha r ro -Lamam i éd eC la i ra c(2001 :42 ) . Lov ea f fa i r sb e tw e eno c cupy ingso ld i e r sandSov i e t wom enno rma lyhadon er ea lfun c t ion :tofndan i l lu so ryr e fug ef romth eha rd sh ip so f wa r :s e eF r i tz(1995 :78–9 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :166–7 ) ,and Müh lhäu s e r(2010 :159 ,216 ) . 199 OKHtoA rmyG roup No r th , 20 May1942 ,and18 thA rmytoA rmy G roup No r th ,12Jun e1942(BA -MA ,RH19 I I I/493 ) .Som eexamp l e sa r e d e s c r ib edbyD íazIn fan t e(n .d . :49 ) . 200 Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :133 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :552 ) . 2 0 1D .R am í r e z Mo r a l e s ,“No t a sd eund i a r io , ”Ju v en tu d , 2 9( 5 Nov emb e r1 9 4 2 ) . 202 Ra imundoSán ch eztoJoaqu inaCab e ro ,18Janua ry1943(MPA ,R .6410 , 16/15–3 ) .S e ea l so M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,85(S ep t emb e r1966 ) . 203 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryf rom 14S ep t emb e r1941 . 204 “Ca r ta sd eRu s ia ,”B o l e t índ e lSEUd eM ad r id,1 1(1942 ) . 205 W a rd ia ryo fA r ena l e s ,en t ryda t ed 5Jun e1942 .S e ea l so“Loqu ecu en tan lo svo lun ta r io sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”E lP r og r e s o,7 F eb rua ry1942 . 206 S e ee .g .th eunpub l i sh ednov e lR e cu e rd o s byth eBDv e t e ran Ó s ca rR ey , wh i chna r ra t e sas to ryo flov eand j ea lou syb e tw e entwoSpan i shso ld i e r s andaRu s s iang i r l(p e r sona la r ch iv eo fCa r lo sR ey ,ACo ruña ) . 207 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t ryf rom28 O c tob e r1941 . 208 J .San tama r íaD í ez ,“An e cdo ta r iod e lD r .Payno ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,183 (O c tob e r1974 ) .S e ea l soth em emo i r so fP r iva t eEug en ioRod r ígu ez , whor e f e r r edop en lytoth eex i s t en c eo fRu s s ianandPo l i shp ro s t i tu t e sin Novgo rodando th e rp la c e sc lo s etoth ef ron tl in e(P é r ez2020 : 151 ,165 ) . 209 P r iva t eEug en ioRod r ígu ezr e ca l l edinh i sm emo i r stha th eandh i s com rad e so f t enfoundsh e l t e randf ema l ecompanya tafam i ly ’ si z b a ,in ex chang efo rp ro t e c t ionandfood . On en igh t ,th eyev en w i tn e s s edhow th efam i lyh idtwopa r t i san s who w e r es ea r ch edbyaG e rmanpa t ro l .S e e P é r ez(2020 :166–8 ) . 210 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t r i e sf rom2 ,3 ,and8 D e c emb e r1941 .Su chcon du c t wa sa l socommonamongG e rmanso ld i e r s(Ru th e r fo rd2014 :187–9 ; Müh lhäu s e r2010 : 251–2 ) .

No t e stopag e s 181–3 289 2 1 1 An ton io H e r r e rotoh i s mo th e r ,2 5 Ap r i l1 9 4 3(AA ) ;w a rd i a ryo fM anu e l d eC á rd en a s ,en t ryf rom2 0 M ay1 9 4 2 ;J im én e zM a lod e Mo l in a( 1 9 4 3 : 1 7 6 ) . 212 Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 :123 ) ; no t eo fth eDGS ,9 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC FGV ,C .1 15 ) .Som eRu s s ian mo th e r sh idth e i rdaugh t e r sf romth eSpan i sh o ff c e r s(Kova l ev2014 :365 ) . 213 Á lva r ezd eSo tomayo r(1991 :162–3 ) ; Royo Ma s ía(1956 :88–9 ) ; Ga r c ía Luna(1959 :32 ,1 13 ) ;SanzJa rqu e(2010 :330 ) . 214 T e s t imonyo fA .Dav i ch enko ,r ep rodu c edinth edo cum en ta ryTh eS i eg e o fL en ing r ad(Sa in tP e t e r sbu rglo ca lTV ,2007 ) ;d ia ryo fL id ia Ó s ipova ,en t r i e sda t ed25 Augu s tand5 O c tob e r1942(Lomag in2004 ,2 :464– 6 ) . 215 Un t i t l ed m emo i r so fEvdok i iaBoga ch eva -Ba skakova(1970 ) ,pp .29and 32–5(Mu s eumo fRu s s ianCu l tu r e ,SanF ran c i s co , Manu s c r ip tCo l l e c t ion , Box2 , Fo ld e r4 ) . 216 S e er e co rdo fth ecou r t ma r t ia lands en t en c e ,7 Ap r i l1942 ,a sw e l la sr e po r t sbya t to rn eyo ff c e ro fth eBD ,7 Ma r ch1942and17 Ap r i l1942(AG MAVC .3791/30 ) . 217 “A lampa ropa t e rno ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 15 Augu s t1944 ) ;J . Ma r t ia lay , “Nu evap r imav e ra ,”Nu ev aA l c a r r i a( 23 May1942 ) . 218 Pu en t e(1954 :157–8 ) ;J . Ma r t ia lay ,“Ho ra syho ra sene ld e s can so ,” Nu ev a A l c a r r i a( 7 Ma r ch1942 ) . 219 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ínV e la s co ,en t ryf rom 3 O c tob e r1941 . 220 In t e rv i ew sw i thL id ia N .Y e ro f e j eva ,Po sad ,27 F eb rua ry2015 ,andth e p r i e s to fKo ro t sko e ,27 F eb rua ry2015(AA ) ;Kova l ev(2014 :336 ,372– 3 ) . 221 S e e ,fo rexamp l e , Mon t e s(2006 :93–6 ,1 13–17 ) . Onth eov e rabundan c eo f o rphanch i ld r eninth er ea rgua rd ,s e eth er epo r to fth eW i r t s cha f t skommandoK ra snogwa rd e i sk , 20 Ap r i l1942(BA -MA ,RH20–18/1358 ) . 222 B l auD iv i s i ón,50(O c tob e r1963 ) ;M i ra l l e sGü i l l(1981 :88–90 ) . 223 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,Pu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :125–8 ) . ARu s s ianch i ld ,Bo r i s S .N iko la i ev i ch , wa stak entoSan t iagod eCompo s t e labyana r t i l l e ryo ff c e randadop t edbyalo ca lfam i ly , wh i chbap t iz edh ima saCa tho l i c ( E lC omp o s t e l an o,7Jun e1944 ) . 224 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :26 ,53 ,59–60 ,68–9 ,71–3 ) . 225 DEV ,2ndS e c t ion ,17 O c tob e r1941(AGMAV3736/ 5 ) ;t e s t imon i e so fJuan Lu i sPa ch e co ,F ran c i s coT a r r é s ,P ed roB e ja rano ,Ado l fod e Mon tagu t ,and Gu i l l e rmoGonzá l ezd eCana l e s ,numb e r edinSaga r ra(2012 :643–4 ) ; Lu i s Agu i la r ,“D ia r iod em iCampañad eRu s ia(3 ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,603(2009 ) , en t ryf rom18S ep t emb e r1941 ;U rqu i jo(1973 :272 ) . 226 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,en t ryda t ed 28S ep t emb e r1941 . 227 J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina(1942 :178–9 ,187–8 ) . 228 V ad i l lo(1967 :347–53 ) . 229 Sán ch ezD iana(1993 :132 ) . 230 OnSov i e tpa r t i san s ,s e eS l epyan(2006 ) ,H i l l(2005 ) ,and Mu s ia l(2009 ) .

290 No t e stopag e s 184–6 2 3 1H a s en c l ev e r( 2 0 1 0 :3 7 1 –7 ,4 1 0 – 1 7 ,4 4 8 – 5 5 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd( 2 0 1 4 : 1 4 5 ,2 1 5 ) . Som ea t t r ibu t edi ttoth el a cko fa moun t eds e c t ion( c av a l ry )inth eBD , wh i chh adb e enr ep l a c ed w i thab i cy c l es e c t ionth a tcou ldno tc a r ryou ti t s du t i e sinfo r e s t edo rm a r shya r e a s .S e eth eICs e c t ionr epo r to fth eXXXV I I I A rmyCo rp s ,1 3Ju ly1 9 4 2(BA -MA ,RH 2 4 – 3 8/ 1 6 4 ) ;J .M a r t ín e zE sp a r z a , “Lo s‘p a r t i s an e s ’yo t ro sru so s , ”H o j ad eC am p añ a( 1 5D e c emb e r1 9 4 3 ) . 232 G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2007 ,17 O c tob e r1941and2007B ,28 O c tob e r1941 (AGMAV ,2005/ 5/5 ) . 233 G en e ra lIn s t ru c t ion2023 ,7Ju ly1942(AGMAV ,2006/ 1/1/7 ) ; OKWo r d e rf rom20 Augu s t1941(BA -MA ,RW19/686 ) .T e s t imonyo fon esu ch r ep r i sa l wa sna r ra t edbyr epa t r ia t edso ld i e r sinaDGSr epo r t ,SanS e ba s t ián ,30Janua ry1942(AHMC -FGV ,C . 1 15 ) ;T ä t ig k e i t s b e r i ch td e rA b t . I c /A .O .fü rd i eZ e i tv on1 .b i s22 N ov em b e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/473 ) . 234 Ga r c ía H i spán(1992 :46–7 ) ; Kova l ev sk i i ’ sm emo i r s ,in Núñ ezS e ixa s& B eyda(2019 :254–73 ) . 235 H ighCommando fth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s , 5Janua ry1942(BA -MA , RH .24–38/34 ) . 236 Fo racompa ra t iv ed i s cu s s ion ,s e eH eu s e r(2013 :142–215 ) . 237 S e eKova l ev sk i i ’ sm emo i r s ,in Núñ ezS e ixa s&B eyda(2019 :129–45 ) . 238 P ion e e r s ’Ba t ta l ion250toth ecap ta ino fth e1 s tCompany ,5 O c tob e r 1942(AGMAV1985/3/5/1 ) ;A rmyCo rp sL ,O rd e rda t ed10Ju ly1943 (BA -MA ,RH24–50/66 ) . 239 MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 : 158 ,183 ,en t r i e sf rom29 Mayand31 O c tob e r1943 ) . 240 Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzkommando 1 ,6 Nov emb e r1943 (USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 241 Da i lyr epo r to f250 thD iv i s iontoth eXXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,18 D e c emb e r 1941(BA -MA ,RH24–38/171 ) . 242 In t e r roga t ion so faSpan i shso ld i e ro fth e10 thCompany ,R eg im en t269 ; o faso ld i e ro fth e3 rdCompanyo fth esam er eg im en t ,andano th e ro fth e R e conna i s san c eBa ta l lon :Ga t ch ina Nava lA r ch iv e ,102 .o .1 .d .354 . l l .71–4 , 1 10–13 ,and146–9 . 243 T e s t imonyo fAn s e lmoP é r ezGóm ez(P é r ez Ma e s t r e2008 :161–3 ) ;Sanz Ja rqu e(2010 :239 ) ;D ia ryo fP r iva t eP ed roSo l é ,en t ryf rom25 Ma r ch1942 ( h t tp ://www .m iabu e lo en ru s ia . com) . 244 Da i lyR epo r to f250 thD iv i s iontoXXV I I IA rmyCo rp s ,21 Nov emb e r 1941 ,3and4 D e c emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH24–38/171 ) ;s e ea l soth er epo r t o fth e16 thG e rmanA rmy ,P a r t i s an en b e k ämp fungind e rA rm e eind e rZ e i t v om6–12 D e c em b e r1941(BA -MA ,RH20–16/99 ) . 245 In t e rv i ewo fL id ia N iko la évna ,Rogavka ,28 Ma r ch2004byPav e lT en d e ra(Au tho r ’ sA r ch iv e ) ,andann extoth er epo r to fth e16 thA rmy H igh Commandtoth eA rmyG roup No r th ,13 F eb rua ry1942(BA -MA ,RH 20–16/99 ) .

No t e stopag e s 187–91 291 246 K ipp(2007 ,2014 ) . 247 Fo rasyn th e s i so fth ean t i -S em i t i crh e to r i candcon t en t so fSpan i shfa sc i smandea r lyF ran co s im ,s e eÁ lva r ezCh i l l ida(2002 :381–420 ) .S e ea l so Bö ck e r(2000 ) ;Pa lm e roA randa(2016 ) ;andS chammah -G e s s e r(2007 ) . 248 Ro th e r(2005 :53–77 ) ; Roz enb e rg(2010 :213–48 ) ;and H e r rman&B r enn e i s (2020 ) . 249 V onS toh r e rtoAu swä r t ig e sAm t , Mad r id ,28 F eb rua ry1941(PAAA ,R 29741 ) ;r epo r tf romth eG e rmanemba s syin Mad r id ,7 Nov emb e r1941 , quo t edbyRoz enb e rg(2010 :179 ) . 250 S e eCua r t e ro(1941 :23–5 )andCa r r ión(1941 ) . 251 Quo t edbyT ran ch e&Sán ch ezB io s ca(201 1 : 69 ,440– 1 ) . 252 E .B lan coB . ,“E lv e rdad e roen em igo ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 4 May1942 ) : “W eknowyou !Y ou rsu rnam e sa r eD emo c ra cy , Ma rx i smandP lu to c ra cy , andyou rf r s tnam ei sunm i s takab l e :Juda i sm .”S e ea l so“E spañad ef end eEu ropacon t rasu st r e sen em igo sa l iado s :bo l ch ev i smo , juda í smo , ma son e r ía ,” H o j ad eC amp añ a( 15 D e c emb e r1943 ) ;“Lo sbo l ch ev iqu e s ,la imp r en taylar e l ig ión ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 14 Nov emb e r1943 ) ;and“E l comun i smoin t e rp r e ta c ión ma t e r ia l i s tad elav ida ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 21 Nov emb e r1943 ) . 253 “ ¿Cuán to scomun i s ta shayenRu s ia ?”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 3O c tob e r1943 ) . 254 “Laraza ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 10 O c tob e r1943 ) . 255 A .Gay tan ,“Can t e jondoene lF r en t ed e lE s t e ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 25 May 1942 ) . 256 MuñozG rand e sc r i t i c iz edsom em emb e r so fth eG en e ra lS ta f fandlab e l l edth emd e sp e c t iv e lya s“ J ew s”(Pa rdo Ma r t ín ez2005 :142 ) .S e ea l so Ma r t ín ezC ru c e s(1932 : 28 ) . 257 Bow en(2007 ) . 258 L .Sán ch ez Ma spon s ,“Cam inod eRu s ia .E lpa sopo rC ra cov iaylaPo lon ia O r i en ta l ,”In f o rm a c i on e s( 28 O c tob e r1941 ) . 259 R epo r tbyth eDGS ,28 Ap r i l1942 ,r ep rodu c edinFNFF(1992– 94 :I I I , 331–50 ) . 260 ABC ( 26 Ap r i l1945 ) ;Ga r r iga(1983 :41–43 ) ; Ro th e r(2005 :125–9 ) . 261 K rau sn i ck(1998 :154–5 ) ; Kova l ev(1998 :43 ) ;H i l l(2005 :25–37 ) ; Ha s en c l ev e r(2010 :548– 50 ) ;K i l ian(2012 :95 ) . 262 In s t ru c c i óng en e r a l2010 ,28 O c tob e r1941 ,AGMAV/2005/ 5 . 263 N ew so fth ea t ro c i t i e sp e rp e t ra t edaga in s tth eSov i e tc iv i l ian sandJ ew s o f t ensp r eada srumou r sp ropaga t edbyso ld i e r sont ra in so ronl eav e f romth ef ron t(Humbu rg201 1 ;Ja sp e r201 1 :79–82 ) . 264 A rad(2009 :196–7 ) ; Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :159–60 ) . 265 Dom ingo(2009 :190–1 ) . 266 M . Ma r t ín ez -M ena ,“E spañas ead e lan tóa lt i empoenqu ev iv ía ,” B l au D iv i s i ón,36(Augu s t1962 ) .

292 No t e stopag e s 192–7 267 Cho law sk i(1998 :x–xxv i i ,3–31 ) ;s e ea l soA ck e rmann(201 1 :93–127 ) ,and th et e s t imonyo fCha s iaBo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka(2008 :51–96 ) . 268 K la r s f e ld(1980 ) ;Fa ta l -Knaan i(1995 ,1996 ) ;A ck e rmann(201 1 :158–72 ) . 269 A .Gay tan ,“Lagu e r raar e tagua rd iaolo sp e l ig ro sd elao cupa c ión ,”E l Id e a lG a l l eg o( 13 Ma r ch1942 ) . 270 E r randoV i la r(1942 :20 ) . 271 M . No fu en t e s ,“La s ma r cha sd elaD iv i s iónent i e r raru sa ,” Juv en tud ,2( 30 Ap r i l1942 ) ;S .Zanón ,“Lacampañad eRu s ia ,unañod e spu é s(1 s tpa r t ) ’ ; J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina(1943 :37–41 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fGonzá l ezd eCana l e s , quo t edbySaga r ra(2012 :598 ) . 272 S e eth e wa rd ia ryo fLu i sAgu i la r ,en t ryo f10S ep t emb e r1941 . 273 T y ch(2005 ) . Ons i l en c ea sau sua lfo rmo fr ea c t ionbyth eby s t and e r s ,s e e Ba rn e t t(1999 :125–8 ) . Examp l e so fs i l en c ew e r ecap ta inU rm en e ta( J i m enoA rangu r en2015 :1 1 1–12 )andP r iva t e Qu in tanaLu ca s(Qu in tana So lá2020 :26 ,53 ) . 274 D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t r i e so f1and3S ep t emb e r1941 ;R id ru e joto Ma r i chud ela Mo ra ,22S ep t emb e r1941(AFR I ) ; wa rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGun d ín ,en t r i e so f31 Augu s tand 6S ep t emb e r1941(C e la2010 : 140–1 ) ; Pa la c io P i la c é s(2013 ,I :379 ,383–4 ) . 275 B lan co(1954 :17–19 ) ; Royo Ma s ía(1956 :267 ) ;U rqu i jo(1973 :264 ) ; Yd ígo ra s(1984 :61–2 ) . 276 OnBa l t i can t i -S em i t i smin1940–5 ,s e eF e ld e r(2009 :172–5 )and W e i s s W end t(2009 ) . 277 A rad(2009 :144–6 ) ;D i e ckmann(201 1 :892– 6 ,967–1008 ) . 278 W a rd ia ryo f Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,d ia ryen t ryo f 8S ep t emb e r1941 . 279 Quo t edinPa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I :382 ) . 280 Góm ezT e l lo(1945 :12–13 ) . 281 Cho law sky(1998 :231–2 )andA rad(2009 :261–2 ) . 282 Góm ezT e l lo(1945 :64–73 ) . 283 R id ru e jo(1978 :40 ,42–3 ,53 ,60–4 ,and80–1 ) . 284 Ca s tañón(1991 :127 ) . 285 S e e MuñozC é sa ro(201 1 :187 ,en t ryda t edon9 Nov emb e r1943 ) . 286 Gu tman(2005 )andF r i szk e(2005 ) . 287 R id ru e jo(1978 :42–3 ) . OnPo l i sh-S em i t i sm ,s e e Mu s ia l(2002 :71–8 ) , Pu f e l ska(2007 ) ;andG ro s s(2002 ) . 288 Som et e s t imon i e sinK la r s f e ld(1980 ) .S e ea l soBo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka(2008 : 98–120 ) . 289 Bo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka(2008 :35 ) ;l e t t e rf romCha s iaBo rn s t e in -B i e l i cka , K ibu tzL ehavo t Haba s chan( I s ra e l ) ,23 Augu s t2009(AA ) . 290 J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina(1943 :38–9 ) ;K lov sky(2003 :22 ) ;in t e rv i ew w i th B ronkaK l iban sk i ,ava i lab l ea th t tp :// co l l e c t ion s .u shmm .o rg/ s ea r ch/ ca ta log/ i rn502736( la s ts e enon1 1D e c emb e r2015 ) .

No t e stopag e s 197–200 293 291 Cap ta inCo l la tztoA rmyG roup No r th ,23 O c tob e r1941(BA -MA ,RH19 H I/774 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fth eG e rma inL ia i sons e c t ion ,en t r i e so f 26 Augu s t , 1and6S ep t emb e r1941(BA -MA ,RH26–250/2 ) ;D i a r i od eunS o ld ad o,en t r i e so f3and4S ep t emb e r ,1941 . 292 No t ef romth eLo ca lK omm and an tu ro fG rodno ,26 Augu s t1941 ,AGMAV , 1978/7/4 . 293 V onBo ck(1995 :268 ,281 ) ,en t r i e so f3and20S ep t emb e r1941 . 294 R id ru e jo(1978 :64–5 ) . 295 C f .A .Da lmau ,“Rú s s iae scu lpab l e !”E lD ium eng e( 28Ju ly1991 ) ;in t e r v i ew w i th Manu e lG rand ebyX .M . Núñ ezS e ixa s , Ou r en s e ,27 D e c emb e r 1987(AA ) . 296 M e l iáV i la(2003 : 75–6 ) . 297 B lum s t e in(2002 :71–3 ) . 298 R e iz e r(2009 :86–7 ) . 299 Zandman(1995 :42 ) . 300 Mo sh eB e rkow i tz ’ shandw r i t t en m emo i r sa r ek ep ta tth eY adV a sh em Mu s eum ,J e ru sa l em .S e eapoo r lyed i t edSpan i sht ran s la t ionbyr ev i s ioni s tama t eu rh i s to r ian s ,a long s id eanin t rodu c t ionbyB e rkow i tz ’ sg rand son ,inB e rkow i tz&Fon t en laBa l l e s ta(2019 :85–7 ) . 301 Quo t edby Mu szyn sk i(2002 : 19–20 ) . 302 Rom euF e rnánd ez(2007 :37–8 ) . Pho toonp .4 :ag roupo fJ ew s wa lk ing away ,w i thth es ix -po in ts ta ronth e i rba ck s ,inasnowyu rbans e t t ing . 303 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,th eno t e sby Manu e ld eCá rd ena sonSpan i shho sp i ta l p e r sonn e linV i ln iu s(wa rd ia ry ,en t ryo f19 Ma r ch1942 ) ,a sw e l la sPa rdo Ma r t ín ez(2005 : 189 ) . 304 U rqu i jo(1973 :326 ) ; wa rd ia ryo fM en énd ezGund ín ,en t ryo f7 May1942 (C e la2010 :154–5 ) ;B lan co(1954 :57 ) . 305 S e em emo i r so fB em ignoCabo(1944 )a sw e l la sSaga r ra(2012 :600 ) . 306 M emo i r so fP r iva t eEm i l io Mu r i l lo(G rag e raD íaz2004 : 170 ) . 307 Ga r c ía Izqu i e rdo(2009 :185 ) . 308 H i lb e rg(1992 : 195–268 ) ; Ba rn e t t(1999 ) ;C e sa r in i&L ev in e(2002 ) . 309 M end e l(1972 : 218 ) . Th eau tho r ,how ev e r ,p rov id e snofu r th e rd e ta i l s .An o th e ra t t emp ta te s cap ebyag roupo fJ ew sf romth eR igagh e t toinvo lv ed b r ib ingaLu f twa f f eo ff c e rtotak eth emtoSw ed en ;un fo r tuna t e ly ,h e wa s infa c taG e s tapoag en t . 310 Edva r son(2008 :59–60 ) ;H i lb e rg(1992 :156–7 ) . 31 1 Bow en(1998 ) . 312 And e r son(1999 ) , Hau s l e i tn e r ,M ihok ,& W e tz e l(2001 ) ,s e ea l soUngvá ry (2002– 3 ) . 313 M i cha e l i s(1978 : 321 )and W e t t e(2002 :135–40 ) . Th e my tho fth ep ro J ew i shna tu r eo fth eI ta l iano c cupa t ioninRu s s iaandth eBa lkan si snon e th e l e s ssub j e c ttod eba t e(Rodogno2005 ;2006 :107–51 ) .

294 No t e stopag e s 201–6 314 Rom e ro(1982 :139 ) . 315 F r i ed länd e r(2007 ) . 316 S e eRa s s(2005 ) ;W e t t e(2003 ) ;and Ha r tmann , Hü r t e r ,L i eb ,&Poh l(2009 ) . 317 Ca ta ruzza(2006 ) ;Ba joh r ,&Löw(2015 ) . 318 Caba l l e roJu rado(2004b ) . 319 Kova l ev(2014 :379–93 )a r r iv e sa tas im i la rcon c lu s ionind e s c r ib ingth e r ea c t iono fth eBDvo lun t e e r stoth eJ ew i shqu e s t ion ,ba s edonsom et e s t i mon i e sr ega rd ingR igatha tpa r t ia l lyco in c id ew i thou r sh e r e . 320 R ev e r t e&R ev e r t e(2001 :193–5 ) . 321 K . ,“La ma rm i ta ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 10 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 6 . TheLa s tC ru sade r so fthe Naz i New O rde r(1944– 5 ) 1Ob e r s tu rm füh r e rV eytoE in sa tzkommandoI , 29 Nov emb e r1943 ,and S tu rmbahn füh r e rGo ta rdtoCh e fo fSD“O s t land ,”Ga t ch ina ,1 1D e c emb e r 1943(USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 2In l andI ItoR ibb en t rop ,B e r l in ,29Janua ry1944 ;no t i c ebyR ibb en t rop ,1 F eb rua ry1944(PAAA -R .101 143 ) . 3G e rman m i i l i ta rya t ta ch é , Mad r id ,13Janua ry1944(BA -MA ,RW5/ 430 ) ;W inz e rtoR e i ch s s i ch e rh e i t shaup tam t , Mad r id ,4 F eb rua ry1944 (USHMM ,SpBD1 1 .001M .05 ) . 4No t i c ebyCo lon e lKu rmma ch e r , 19Janua ry1944 ;o rd e rbyfo r e igns e c t ion o fAbw eh r ,19Janua ry1944 ;G e rman O c cupa t ionAu tho r i tyinF ran c e ,17 Janua ry1944(BA -MA ,RW5/430 ) . 5R epo r tbySamu e l Hoa r e ,25 Ma r ch1944(G rand íoS eoan e2017 :127 ) . 6M emo randumby W a l t e rS ch e l l enb e rg , 2Jun e1944(BA -MA ,RW5/430 ) . 7M inu t eby OKH , 19Ju ly1944 ;r epo r to fSond e r s tabF ,7Ju ly1944 ;no t i c e so f3 ,8 ,and10S ep t emb e r1944 ;m inu t e sf romA l lg em e in e sH e e r e s am t, 29Ju ly1944(BA -MA ,RW5/431 ) ;m inu t e so fth em e e t ingo fCo lon e l Rudo l f Ma jo r , Ma jo rUm é(ag .Au s land -Abw eh r )amdSond e r füh r e r K e l l e r(Sond e r s tabF ) ,5 Augu s t1944 ; Ob e rkommandod e rW eh rma ch tto Sond e r s tabF ,12 Augu s t1944(BA -MA ,RW5/431 ) . 8S e eH i t l e r ’ sp r iva t econ s e rva t ion s ,en t r i e so f7Jun eand7Ju ly1942 (Conv e r sa c ion e s2004 :41 1– 12 ,415– 16 ,451 ) . 9R epo r t so fSpan i shamba s sado rinB e r l in ,18 Augu s t1944 ,andSpan i shamba s sado rinS lovak ia ,B e rn ,21 Ap r i l1945(AMAE ,R -2299/ 2and R -2192/36 ) ;Janu éi M i r e t(2014 ) . 10 No r l ing(2007 ) ;Ezqu e r ra(1947 ) . 1 1S e eBow en(2001 ) ;G i l Ma r t ín ez(201 1 ) ;Sou rd(2007 ) ;Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2015 : 194–7 ) ;andKo c jan c i c(2016 ) . 12 W .V op e r sa l ,F r e iw i l l ig en -K omp an i e( sp an . )101 , BA -MAN756 .Examp l e s o fd e s e r t ioninl e t t e ro fJo s éLu i sIbáñ ez , Ho l lab runn ,27 F eb rua ry1945

No t e stopag e s206–1 1 295 (G s tA ,I . HA218/536 ) ,and m inu t e sf rom15Janua ry1945(GS tAI . HA 218/467 ) . 13 S e eJ .T omá sG in e r ,In f o rm es o b r ed iv e r s o sa sun t o senB e r l inenr e l a c i ónc on F a l ang e, 16 May1946(A r ch iv eo fth eFUE , Mad r id ,A r ch ivod e lGob i e rno d elaR epúb l i caene lEx i l io ,M in i s t e r iod eGob e rna c ión ,103–4 ) . 14 Af ewSpan ia rd sw e r es ca t t e r edth roughd iv e r s eun i t s ,su cha sth e Sou th -T y ro l eanSS -Po l iz e iF r e iw i l l ig enBa t ta l l ionPo s en ,andev enth e sp e c ia lba t ta l ionD i r l ewang e r(Sou rd2007 :90– 5 ) . 15 Thu s ,Co rpo ra lJu l ioGa r c íaAgu i la r , whovo lun t e e r edfo rth eBDin1943 , r ema in edinth eB lu eL eg ionand ,a f t e rr e tu rn ingtoSpa in ,c ro s s edth e Py r en e e sin May1944 .InJun e1945 ,h eshow edupa tth eSpan i shcon sula t eo fB ra t i s lava ,th enf edtoV i enna ,B e lg rad e ,andfna l lyr ea ch edI ta ly , wh e r eh e manag edtocon ta c tth eSpan i shcon su la t einRom e .F in a l ly ,h e wa sr epa t r ia t edbyth econ su la t e( s e eth er epo r tinAGA ,52/2289 ) . 16 D e ta i l so fth epa r t i c ipa t iono fSpan i shso ld i e r sa tth eBa t t l eo fB e r l ina r e l i t t l eknown . How ev e r ,s e eth eun r e l iab l ena r ra t iono fEzqu e r ra(1947 ) . 17 Som eo fth ems e emtohav eb e enk i l l edbySpan i shR epub l i canvo lun t e e r s o fth eL e c l e r cD iv i s ion ,a sth eyen t e r edB e r ch t e sgad en ;s e eth e wa rd ia ry o fLu ca sCamónPo r t i l lo ,7 May1945(Coa l e2014 :422– 3 ) . 18 S e el e t t e r sf romL eoGa r c ía ,SS -Laza r e t tS ta rk enba ch ,14Janua ry1945 ,16 Janua ry1945 ,and22Janua ry1945(GS tA ,I .Ha218/586 ) . 19 Fo rfu r th e rin fo rma t iononth i s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2012 :156–62 ) . 20 G run e r t(2012 ) . 21 S e eL aJ ov enEu r op a(1942–1943 ) .An t o l og í ad et ex t o sd iv i s i on a r i o sye sp añ o l e s, Mo l in sd eR e i :Ed s . Nu evaR epúb l i ca ,2010 . 22 “So c ia l i smoeu rop eo ,”En l a c e( 21 D e c emb e r1944 ) . 23 S e e“Ob r e ro scomo m e r can c íahumana ,”En l a c e( 23 Nov emb e r1944 ) ,and “Hab launr e fug iado ,”En l a c e( 20Janua ry1945 ) . 24 “RazayR evo lu c ión ,”En l a c e( 15 O c tob e r1944 ) . 25 Fo rfu r th e rd e ta i l s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2005 ) . 26 S e eBow en(2001 :196–219 ) ,andL e l eu(2007 :261–77 ) . 27 S e eEzqu e r ra(1947 ) ;Pa r r i l la(2002 ) ;Pu en t e(1954 :16–22 ) ;E izagu i r r e (1955 :32–48 ) .S e ea l soth eb iog raph i e so fsom eo fth emco l l e c t edinr epo r t da t edon24S ep t emb e r1954(AGMAV ,C .3770/ 2 ) . 28 J .M .Pon s Ma s ca ró ,“ ¡E spaño l e s . . .” ’En l a c e( 29Janua ry1945 ) . 29 J .L .Ibáñ ezPa ja r e s ,“Ho ra sd e c i s iva s ,”En l a c e( 23 Nov emb e r1944 ) . 30 L e t t e rs ign edbyJ e sú sO choa M i randaands ix mo r eSpan ia rd s ,S t . V a l en t in(V i enna ) ,8Janua ry1945 ,GG s tA ,I . Ha318/586 . 31 L e t t e ro fJo s éIgna c ioImaz ,B raun s chw e ig ,29 D e c emb e r1944(GS tA ,I . Ha318/586 ) . 32 Ado l foGonzá l ezA lm ena ratoA r r izub i e ta ,K ra tzan ,7Janua ry1945 (GS tA ,I . Ha218/586 ) .

296 No t e stopag e s21 1–17 33 Dav idGóm eztoA r r izub i e ta ,Ch emn i tz ,25 D e c emb e r1944 ,GS tA ,I . Ha 318/586 . 34 An ton ioLu c enatoA r r izub i e ta ,Ko rnw e s th e im ,7Janua ry1945(GS tA ,I . Ha318/586 ) . 35 L e t t e ro faSpan i shvo lun t e e ro fth eW a f f en -SS ,B e r l in ,28 Ap r i l1945 (V ázqu ezEn c i so1995 :261 ) . 36 P ed roPo r t e latoA r r izub i e ta ,S to ck e rau ,10Janua ry1945(GS tA ,I . Ha318 /586 ) . 37 L e t t e r sbyJuanSán ch ezP eña lv e r ,R e s e rv e laza r e t tR in t e ln ,15 Ma r ch1945 , andbyJ e sú sCo r ra l Ma r t ín ,6Janua ry1945 ,toA r r izub i e ta(GS tA ,I . Ha 318/586 ) . 38 Pu en t e(1954 :20–2 ) .S e ea l soE lL eg ionar io ,“Po rqu élu chamo s ,”En l a c e ( 6Janua ry1945 ) . 39 “Am igo sd eEn la c e ,”En l a c e( 23 Nov emb e r1944 ) . 7 . W a rV e te ran sand Memo r ie sf romtheEa s te rnF ron tinF ran co ’ sSpa in (1942– 75 ) 1DGSr epo r t ,19 D e c emb e r1941(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 2S i ch e rh e i t sd i en s td i r e c to randth eS i ch e rh e i t spo l iz e itoth eFo r e ign M in i st ry ,B e r l in ,9 Ap r i l1942 ;G e rmanFo r e ign M in i s t rytoemba s syin Mad r id , 13 May1942 ;r epo r tf romG e rmancon su linSanS eba s t ián ,21 May1942 (PAAA ,R -101 144 ,andG eh e imak t en ,Box796 ) . 3DGSr epo r t s ,26and27 May1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 4A l ca ld e(2014 :169–70 ) . 5R epo r t sf romRoh rba ch ,23Ju ly1942and 22 Augu s t1942(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 6No t i c eonth em e e t ingo fvonS toh r e rw i thS e r ranoSuñ e r , 25Ju ly1942 (PAAA ,Box796 ,G eh e imak t en ,6/9 ) . 7L e t t e rf romth eC iv i lGov e rno ro f Má lagatoth eG e rmancon su l ,19Janu a ry1944 ,inPAAA ,D eu t s ch eBo t s cha f t Mad r id ,Zu sa tz91 . 8A l ca ld e(2014 :268–78 ) .S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s(2018d ) . 9AGMAV ,C .3770/1andC .3770/ 2 ; M e r inoIzqu i e rdo(2017 :179– 82 ) . 10 “Lag en e ra c iónd elo sd iv i s iona r io s ,”E lE sp añ o l( 2Janua ry1943 ) .S e ea l so J . MoyaGóm ez ,“A lgosob r eh e ro i c idad ,”O f en s iv a( 26 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 1 1 “Lo sd eRu s ia ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 18 Nov emb e r1942 ) . 12 D .Ca s t ro Ma r t ín ez ,“Nu evam en t ed i spu e s to sala só rd en e sd eF ran co ,” L an z a( 26 Ma r ch1946 ) . 13 Sa lvado r(1971 ) . 1 4B o l e t ínOf c i a ld e lE s t a d o¸2 2J anu a ryand 5F eb ru a ry1 9 4 2 , 8and 1 7 M ay1 9 4 2 . 15 A l ca ld e(2014 :177–8 ) ; Pa la c ioP i la c é s(2013 ,I I :886– 92 ) . 16 B l auD iv i s i ón,104(Ap r i l1968 ) .

No t e stopag e s217–23 297 17 B e rna lGa r c ía(2010 :276–86 ) . 18 Fo rth eca s eo fth er eg ionCa s t i l e -La Man cha ,s e eGonzá l ez Mad r id (2007 ) . 19 Fo rexamp l e ,inth esou th ea s t e rnc i tyo fA l i can t e ,fv eex -BDvo lun t e e r s s e rv eda stowncoun c i l lo r sin1963 ,andtwoin1967 .S e eB l auD iv i s i ón,44 (Ma r ch1963 )and89( Janua ry1967 ) . 20 P in i l la(n .d . :170–2 ) ;B l auD iv i s i ón,598(May2009 ) ,r epo r t edtha t40en s ign sb e cam el i eu t enan t s ,154l i eu t enan t sb e cam ecap ta in s ,15cap ta in s b e cam ecommand e r s ,and7command e r sb e cam el i eu t enan tco lon e l s . 21 Cu en caT o r ib io(2001 :43 ) . 22 S e eGa r c ía H i spán(1991 :77–80 ) ;“Lo sg en e ra l e sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,539( Jun e2004 ) . 23 E ch t e rnkamp(2000 ) ;E ch t e rnkamp& H e t t l ing(2008 ) ; Man ig(2004 )and S chw e l l ing(2010 ) . 24 R epo r tf romGa rd emann , Mad r id ,2Janua ry1942(PAAA ,Bo t s cha f t Ma d r id ,Box796 ,G eh e im a k t en ,6/9 ) . 25 DGSr epo r t sf rom9 ,13 ,18 ,and20Jun e1942a s sum edth eex i s t en c eo f anex -BD“o rgan iza t ion”und e rth ecommando fa“ s e condJo s éAn ton io [P r imod eR iv e ra ]”tha tsough ttor eo r i en tth er eg im eandv ind i ca t e Mo ro c co ,Po r tuga l ,Ando r ra ,andG ib ra l ta r(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 26 S e es ev e ra lexamp l e sinPAAA ,ADBM ,Zu s a t z91 .B e t r . :v ond enA l l i i e r t en g e f e r t ig t eV e r z e i chn i s s e( Inv en t a r l i s t enu . a . ) . 27 Mo r enoJu l iá(2009 : 90 ;2014 :429– 30 ) ;r epo r tf romD i e ckho f f ,9Jun e1944 (PAAA ,R -29752 ) . 28 Do lo r e sGan c edotoA . Ma r t ínGam e ro ,T o l edo ,1 Nov emb e r1941(AA ) . 29 T e l eg ramf romvonS toh r e r , Mad r id ,28 O c tob e r1941(PAAA ,Box796 , G eh e imak t en ,6/10 ) . 30 DGSr epo r t ,21Jun e1942(AHMC -FGV ,C .1 15 ) . 31 U r ia r t eA rba iza(2012 :172–3 ) ;Saga r ra(2012 :655– 60 ) ;L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 1 1Ju ly1943 ) . 32 L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 2 ,3 ,and4 Ap r i l1954 ) ;Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(2008 ) ; S egado r(2019 :90–3 ) . 33 R i cha rd s(2013 :150–5 ) . 34 L ehmann(2006 :182–95 ) . 35 A s ,e .g . ,inC iudadR ea l :s e e“No tapa ralo sex comba t i en t e sd elaD iv i s ión Azu l ,”L an z a( 27 Ap r i l1954 ) . 36 L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 9Janua ry1956 ) . 37 H e rm and ad,7(Augu s t -S ep t emb e r1956 ) . 38 A l ca ld e(2014 :280–2 ) .A c co rd ingtoSaga r ra(2012 :985– 7 ) ,40 b ro th e r hood sex i s t edb e tw e en1943and2012 . 39 In1959 ,th e Na t iona lBDB ro th e rhoodp e t i t ion edth eM in i s t ryo fFo r e ign A f fa i r stoau tho r iz ei t sa ff l ia t ion w i thth eV e rbandD eu t s ch e rSo lda t en

298 No t e stopag e s223–6 (VDS ) ,tor equ e s ta idf romth eFRGfo r mu t i la t edv e t e ran sandfam i l i e so f th efa l l en .In c lu s ionb e cam ee f f e c t iv einJanua ry1960 .Twoy ea r sla t e r ,an ag r e em en ton wa rp en s ion s wa ss ign ed ,and wa sra t if edbyth eBund es tagin1965(A s chmann1999 :385– 91 ) . 40 S e eB l auD iv i s i ón,534( Janua ry2004 ) ;Saga r ra(2012 :985– 7 )id en t if e s21 pub l i ca t ion s .Som elo ca ln ew spap e r sa l sor e s e rv edr egu la rspa c efo rth e p rov in c ia lBDB ro th e rhood . 41 Saga r ra(2012 :674–5 ) ;“ Jun ta sCon su l t iva s ,” H e rm and ad,8(Ma r ch–Ap r i l 1959 ) . 42 Au tho r ’ sowne s t ima t ionba s edonPu en t eF e rnánd ez(2012 :210–13 ,226– 7 )andth eb ro chu r eH e rm and add eEx c om b a t i en t e syf am i l i a r e sd ec a íd o sd el a “D iv i s i ónA zu l” .S an t and e r .Índ i c ed eaf l i ad o s .M ay o1956,n .p . ,1956 . 43 In1974(Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez1997 :361– 4 ,396 ) ,th eBDb ro th e rhood wou ld hav enumb e r ed12 ,550ex comba tan t s ,o ra lmo s tath i rdo fth esu rv ivo r s . Saga r ra(2012 :664 )s ta t edtha tth e r ew e r e10 ,000(a lmo s t25% ) . Bo thfg u r e ss e eminfa t ed . 44 L .Pa r r eño ,“50 .ºan iv e r sa r iod elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”L aT r i bun a( 7 Ap r i l 1991 ) ;A r ch iv eo fth eR eg i s t r od eA s o c i a c i on e s,SanS eba s t ián( cou r t e syo f D r .Ama iaLam ik iz ) ;A l ca ld e(2014 :281 ) . 45 “T i radayd i fu s iónd eH e rmandad ,”H e rm and ad,6(Nov emb e r -D e c emb e r 1958 ) . 46 “A c t iv idad e s ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a .Ó r g an od ea c t iv id ad e sd el a“D iv i s i ónA zu l” d eV a l en c i a,9(Ma r ch1961 ) . 47 H e rm and ad,19(Ap r i l–May1961 ) .Examp l e so fin t e r c e s s iontos e cu r e wo rk fo rBDv e t e ran sinB l auD iv i s i ón,2( Ju ly1957 ) ,and4(Nov emb e r1957 ) . 48 “M i rado rna c iona l .Atumbaab i e r ta ,”L o sS i t i o s( 1 1Ju ly1971 ) ;“T r e in ta año sd eunag e s ta ,”L o sS i t i o s( 24 O c tob e r1971 ) . 49 Th eBDv e t e ranÁng e l Ma r ch ena ,a f t e rb e ingaru ra l wa rd eninh i sv i llag e ,d idodd job sandl ev e rag edh i scond i t iontoob ta inl e t t e r so fr e com m enda t ionf romfo rm e rBDo ff c e r s .Th roughth e s e ,h ea c c e s s edhou s ing inBa r c e lona .Y ea r sla t e r ,h epa s s eda m ed i ca lexam ina t ionto m ig ra t eto G e rmanyb e cau s eth esu rg eona l so wa sav e t e rano fth eRu s s ianF ron t (Ma r ch enaCañ e t e2003 :1 16– 20 ,124– 7 ) . 50 S .N i evaY a r r i tu ,“S egu imo sso lo sya i s lado s ,”H e rm and ad,16(O c tob e r Nov emb e r1960 ) . 51 S e e“S econm emo raenA lba c e t ee lXXV Ian iv e r sa r iod elaen t radaen comba t ed elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”L o sS i t i o s,13 O c tob e r1967 ;“C iudadR ea l . Hom ena j ealaD iv i s iónAzu l ,” L an z a( 1 1F eb rua ry1968 ) . 52 S e eB l auD iv i s i ón,1 1( Janua ry1960 )and31(Ma r ch1962 ) ;Lóp ezd e Ma tu r ana(2014 :272–7 ) ;L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 1 1F eb rua ry1966 ) . 53 J .M . Ma r t ín ezV a l ,“M emo r iad elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”L an z a( 10 F eb rua ry 1968 ) .

No t e stopag e s226–30 299 54 Gu í aC ód ig oP o s t a l -E sp añ a, M in i s t e r iod eT ran spo r t e s ,Tu r i smoyT e l e co mun i ca c ion e s , Mad r id ,1986 . 55 Du chiP lana(2002 ) . 56 Rod r ígu ezJ im én ez(1997 :402 ) . 57 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,“Pa ras e rin expugnab l e s ,”L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a( 24 F eb rua ry1943 ) ;F .Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,“Lav i c to r iad elapazd eF ran co ,”E l E sp añ o l,127( 31 Ma r ch1945 ) . 58 T .N i e toFun c ia ,“Razon e se spaño la ssob r elapaz ,”E lE sp añ o l,133( 12 May1945 ) . 59 L o sS i t i o s( 25 Ma r ch1960 ) . 60 Lu cad eT ena&Pa la c io s(1955 ) ;E izagu i r r e(1955 ) ;Ca lav ia&Á lva r ez Co sm en(1956 ) ;O roqu i e ta&Ga r c íaSán ch ez(1958 ) ;N eg roCa s t ro(1959 ) ; Poqu e tGua rd io la(2001 ) ;Sa laman ca&T o r r e sGa r c ía(2002 ) . 61 Fo rexamp l e ,J .Sa lom ,E lm en s a j e(Mad r id1963 ) ;J .L . Ma r t ínV ig i l ,L a mu e r t ee s t áene lc am in o (Ba r c e lona1956 ) ;C .Ku r tz ,E ld e s c on o c id o(Ba r c e lona1956 ) . 62 Un t i l1988 ,th e r ew e r ea tl ea s t136t i t l e sin c lud ingbook s ,pamph l e t s ,nove l s ,f lm s ,andau tob iog raph i e sfo cu s edonth eB lu eD iv i s ion(Caba l l e ro& Ibáñ ez1989 ) .S e ea l so Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006 ) . 63 Inadd i t iontoEm b a j ad o r e sene linf e rn o(Amba s sado r stoh e l l ,Jo s éM . ª Fo rqu é ,1956 ) ,w ecanr e ca l lL ap a t ru l l a(Th epa t ro l ,P ed roLazaga ,1954 ) , L ae sp e r a(Th e wa i t ,V i c en t eL lu ch ,1956 ) ,andC a r t aaun amu j e r(L e t t e rto a woman , Manu e lIg l e s ia s ,1961 ) .A f t e ralongpau s e ,th etop i c wa sr e -add r e s s edinth eamb i t iou s ,bu tfa i l ed , mov i eS i l en c i oenl an i ev e(S i l en c ein th esnow ,G e ra rdo H e r r e ro ,201 1 ) .S e eIbáñ ez H e rnánd ez(2001 ) . 64 Fo rexamp l e ,s e eA lva r e l lo s(1948 )o rth e1959 wo rko f Hann s Maa s s en ,a fo rm e rcomba tan to fth eIn t e rna t iona lB r igad e s whob e cam ea w r i t e rin th eG e rmanD emo c ra t i cR epub l i c .S e ea l soPan iagua(1961 ) . 65 S e ePo s s i(2016 ,2017 ) ,a sw e l la sGuzmán Mo ra(2016 ) . 66 Lav edán(1959 :12 ) . 67 Ca sa l s(1995 :177 ,315–16 ) . 68 S e eCogo l lo sV i c en s(1985 )andL ina r e s(2000 ) . 69 S e eBu l lónd eM endoza&T ogo r e s(201 1 ) ,a sw e l la s manyo fth ep r e s en tat ion sa tth econ f e r en c eh e ldin Mad r idin201 1fo rth es ev en t i e thann iv e r sa ryo fth eB lu eD iv i s ion( h t tp ://www . cong r e so lad iv i s ionazu l . com) .Fo r som ein t e r e s t ingsou r c e s ,though mo s t lyt r ea t eda c r i t i ca l ly ,s e eSaga r ra (2012 )andCaba l l e roJu rado(2019 ) . 70 Ha lbwa ch s(2004 ) . 71 Fo r mo r ed e ta i l s ,s e e Núñ ezS e ixa s(2006b ) . 72 Ro cha t(1982 ) ; Mond in i(2008 :157–218 ) ;O s t iGu e r razz i(2010 :266–79 ; 201 1 ) ;Co rn i(2012 :45–9 ) ; Fo ca rd i(2013 ) ;Ca r t eny(2013 ) .R ega rd ingth e I ta l ian m emo i r sandau tob iog raph i cw r i t ing sonth eEa s t e rnF ron t ,s e eth e

300 No t e stopag e s230–5 b e s t s e l l e r sbyB ed e s ch i(1994 )andR ev e l l i(2013 ) .Fo rth eF r en chcomba tan t s ,s e eCa r ra rd(2010 ) . 73 S e eSa lvado r(1975 ) ;U rgo i t iyBa s(1987 ) ;Royo Ma s ía(1944 :157–9 ) . 74 Ca s tañoDoña(1991 :104 ) ;R id ru e jo(1976 :438– 9 ) ; Rom e ro(1982 :143 ) . 75 Rod r ígu ezPu é r to la s(1986 :556–65 ) . 76 Epk enhan s ,Fö r s t e r ,& Hag emann(2006 ) ;W e t t e(2002 :180–1 ) ; Co rn i (2012 ) . 77 H e e r(1999 :180–8 ) ; Pä tzo ld(2000 ) ,s e ea l soBa ld ,K lo tz ,& W e t t e(2001 ) . 78 W i lk e(201 1 : 17 ) ; W e r th e r& Hu rd(2014 :334– 5 ) . How ev e r ,th eb ro th e r hood s jo in edth ef r s ta c t so ff ra t e rn iz ing w i thv e t e ran so fth eW a f f en -SS inth em id1960 s ,su cha sth ega th e r ingo ffo rm e rSSinR end sbu rgin O c tob e r1965 :s e e“Fo toconp i e ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,76(D e c emb e r1965 ) . 79 Anea r lyexamp l einA . Ma rqu e r í e ,“E j e r c i c io sd elaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”In f o r m a c i on e s( 6 Augu s t1941 ) .M emo i r so fF r en chSSvo lun t e e r sp rov id es im i la rexamp l e s(Ca r ra rd2010 :1 19– 22 ) . 80 D iv i s i ónA zu l .2ºCu ad e rn o ,n .p . 81 “Lo st ran spo r t e senlaD iv i s iónAzu l ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 16 Ma r ch1942 ) . S e ea l soJ .R . Ma so l iv e r ,“Lo sGuzman e snohan mu e r to ,”D e s t in o,305( 22 May1943 ) . 82 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :302 ) ;Á .d eLa ig l e s ia ,“Un Qu i jo t eha mu e r toenRu s ia ,” E lE sp añ o l( 27 F eb rua ry1943 ) . 83 “Lain fan t e r íae spaño la ,”H o j ad eC amp añ a( 6 Ap r i l1942 ) ;R .Ga r r iga , “Nu e s t ro svo lun ta r io s ,inv i c to stamb i énd e lf r ío ,”L aV angu a rd i aE sp añ o l a ( 14Janua ry1942 ) . 84 Onth er e c ep t ioninSpa ino fth e Nu r emb e rgt r ia l s ,s e ePa lm e roA randa (2016 :241– 52 ) . 85 H e rnánd ez Nava r ro(1971 : 57–60 ) . 86 Fa r r éA lb iñana(1949 :90 ,250– 5 ) . 87 E s t eban In fan t e s(1956 :50 ) . 88 Sa lvado r(1962 :73 ) . 89 Yd ígo ra s(1984 :57–8 ,62–9 ) . 90 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :13–14 ) .B e fo r el eav ingfo rRu s s ia ,h es ta t ed tha taJ ew i shcon sp i ra cyhadex i s t edinSpa in ;s e eh i s“R i e sgoyv en tu ra d elarazah i spana ,”E lA l c á z a r( 14 F eb rua ry1942 ) . 91 S e eV ad i l lo(1967 :134–5 ,156 ,159– 66 ,180 ,186– 94 ) ;V .Lo rF e rnánd ez ,“L ia , laen f e rm e rapo la ca ,”H e rm and ad ,5(S ep t emb e r–O c tob e r1958 ) ;Ca s t e lo V i l laoz(1990 :45 ) ;Sán ch ezSa l c edo(2002 :44 ) ,L ina r e s(2000 :1 10 ) . 92 Ba r sCa sam i t jana(1962 :6–12 ) . 93 Zu la i ca(1963 ) . 94 J im én ezAnd rad e(1957 :50–1 ) . 95 A r r i b a( 14 Ap r i l1961 ) . 96 R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s(1960 :18–19 ,40–1 ,155– 6 ) .

No t e stopag e s235–42 301 97 Ru izA yú ca r(1981 :156 ) . 98 Ca s t e loV i l laoz(1992 :87–8 ) . 99 V ida lyGad ea(1991 :63 ) ;A .M ed inaL eón ,“E spaño l e syru so s ,” E lE sp añ o l,159( 30 O c tob e r1965 ) . 100 G .A lon sod e lR ea l ,“Unsa rg en toe spaño lan t elaV i rg end eKazán ,”ABC ( 21 May1955 ) ;M .A t i enza ,“R e cu e rdo sd eRu s ia ,”H e rm and ad,17(D e c em b e r1960– Janua ry1961 ) . 101 S e e ,fo rexamp l e ,B enda la(1944 ) . 102 Á lva r ezd eSo tomayo r(1991 :160–1 ) .S e ea l soth eimp r e s s ion sw r i t t enby cap ta inJav i e rU rm en e tain1942 ,r ep rodu c edbyJ im enoA rangu r en(2015 : 121 ) . 103 D íazd eV i l l ega s(1950 ;1951 ) ;Ga r c íaLuna(1959 :38–9 ,121 ) ;M . Ma r t ín ez M ena ,“P en sa ryv iv i rd eunpu eb lo ,cone lcua llo sd iv i s iona r io ss impat izamo s ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,56(Ap r i l1964 ) . 104 R .S e r ranoSuñ e r ,“Ha c iaunpa t r io t i smoeu rop eo ,”ABC ( 29S ep t emb e r 1959 ) ;M .Sa lvado rG i ron é s ,“Co sa sd epo ra l lá ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,54(F eb rua ry1964 ) ;J .A .V ida lyGad ea ,“No ta sd eunv ia j ealaURSS( I I Iyú l t imo ) ,”B l auD iv i s i ón,197(D e c emb e r1975 ) ;V . Ma s ,“Do sv ia j e saRu s ia ,” B l auD iv i s i ón,537(Ap r i l2004 ) . 105 E sp ino saPov eda(1993 ) ;T r em l e t t(2008 :59–60 ) ,r ep rodu c e ss im i la rv i ew s exp r e s s edbyth ep r e s id en to fth eBDB ro th e rhooda ttha tt im e ,Juan Ch i cha r ro -Lamam i éd eC la i ra c . 106 D elaV ega(1999 :33–4 ) . 8 . Con c lu s ion :ASpan i shEx cep t ioninthe W a ro fEx te rm ina t ion ? 1S e eAnd e r son(1999 ) .S tud i e sonth eb ru ta l iza t iono fRoman ian wa r fa r ein th e wa raga in s tth eSov i e tUn ion mo s t lyfo cu soni t spa r t i c ipa t ioninth e d epo r ta t iono fth eJ ew i shandGyp sypopu la t ion sS e e Hau s l e i tn e r ,M ihok , &W e tz e l(2001 ) ,a sw e l la sH e in en(2007 :109–49 ) ,andD e l e tan t(2006 : 150–204 ) . 2Fo rth eem e rg en c eandd ev e lopm en to fra c ia lthough tinSpa in ,s e eGood e (2009 ) . 3S e eL iu l ev i c iu s(2000 )andDo rn ik(2013 ) . 4Ru th e r fo rd(2014 :1 15–52 ,240– 79 ) . 5Ru s s i ant e s t imon i e sa f t e r1 9 4 4on lyind i c a t eth a taSp an i shl i eu t en an tinKoro t sko ew a sr e spon s ib l efo rsom eshoo t ing so fp e a s an t s(Kov a l ev2 0 1 2 :3 6 9 ) . 6Dom ingo(2009 :158 ) . 7S e eW i evo rka(2009 :42–7 )andKa l l i s(2009 :26–84 ) . 8A sRu th e r fo rd(2014 :280–302 )sugg e s t sfo rth eG e rman121 s tand126 th D iv i s ion s , wh i l eba t t l econd i t ion sfo s t e r edg r ea t e rb ru ta l iza t ionamong th eso ld i e r so fth e123 rdD iv i s ion .

302 No t e stopag e s242–4 9Ba l fou r(2002 :215–33 ) ;N e r ín(2005 :280–3 ) . 10 Sán ch ezCa r r i l e ro(1992 :124 ) . 1 1S e eAnd e r son(1999 )andUngvá ry(2005 ) . 12 S e eBohn(1997 ) ;Pou l s en(1991 ) ;andFo ray(2010 ) . 13 S ch l emm e r(2005 :368–97 ;2009 ) ;ad i f f e r en tp e r sp e c t iv eonth eI ta l ian t r ea tm en to fc iv i l ian s ,ba s edonSov i e tdo cum en t s ,i so f f e r edbyS co ton i (2013 :218–23 ,286–300 ) , whound e r l in e sth eb en igncha r c t e ro fI ta l ian o c cupa t ionincompa r i son w i thG e rmanb ehav iou rtowa rd sc iv i l ian sand p r i son e r so f wa r .S e ea l soS c ianna(2019 :229–66 )andPanna c c i(2020 ) . 14 S ch r i jv e r s(2002 ) .

Sou r c e sandR e f e r en c e s

P r ima rySou r ce s Pu b l i candP r iv a t eA r ch iv e s A r ch iv eo fth eFUE ,R e s id en c iad eE s tud ian t e s , Mad r id A r ch ivoG en e ra ld elaAdm in i s t ra c ión ,A l ca lád eH ena r e s(AGA ) A r ch ivoG en e ra lM i l i ta r ,Á v i la(AGMAV ) A r ch ivo H i s tó r i co Mun i c ipa ld eCád iz ,FondoG en e ra lV a r e la(AHMC -FGV ) A r ch ivod e lM in i s t e r iod eA sun to sEx t e r io r e s , Mad r id(AMAE ) Au tho r ’ sA r ch iv e(AA ) B ib l io th ekfü rZ e i tg e s ch i ch t e ,S tu t tga r t ,S t e rzCo l l e c t ion(B fZ -CS ) Bund e sa r ch iv -M i l i tä ra r ch iv ,F r e ibu rgimB r e i sgau(BA -MA ) C en t ra lS ta t eA r ch iv eo fSa in tP e t e r sbu rg(T sGASPB ) C en t roDo cum en ta ld ela M emo r ia H i s tó r i ca ,Sa laman ca(CDMH ) C i tyA r ch iv e Ho f/S tad t sa r ch iv Ho f(SH ) F e ldpo s ta r ch iv , Mu s eumfü rKommun ika t ion ,B e r l in G eh e im e sS taa t sa r ch ivP r eu s s i s ch e rKu l tu rb e s i tz ,B e r l in(GHS ta ) H i s to r i ca lA r ch iv eo fLaR io ja/A r ch ivo H i s tó r i coP rov in c ia ld elaR io ja , Log roño(AHPLR ) H i s to r i ca lA r ch iv eo fSpan i shCommun i s tPa r ty/A r ch ivo H i s tó r i coPa r t ido Comun i s tad eE spaña , Mad r id(AHPCE ) Mu s eod e lPu eb lod eA s tu r ia s ,G i jón(MPA ) ,L eand roGa r c íaGonzá l ezPap e r s (FLGG ) Na t iona lA r ch iv e s–Fo r e ign O ff c e ,Su r r ey ,London(NA -FO ) Nava lA r ch iv e ,Ga t ch ina(Ru s s ianF ed e ra t ion ) Po l i t i ca lA r ch iv eo fth eG e rman M in i s t ryo fFo r e ignA f fa i r s/Po l i t i s ch e sA r ch iv d e sAu swä r t ig enAm t e s ,B e r l in(PAAA ) P r iva t eA r ch iv eo fM r .Xo s éF e rnánd ez Nava l ,San t iagod eCompo s t e la(AFN ) P r iva t eA r ch iv eo fM r .Ca r lo sLóp ezd e lR ío ,Bo i ro/Mad r id(ACLR )

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Sou r c e sandR e f e r en c e s 335 V onBo ck ,F .(1995 ) .Zw i s ch enPf i ch tundV e rw e ig e rung :D a sK r i eg s t ag e bu ch. Mun i ch :H e rb ig . V o ron ina ,T .(201 1 ) .H e ro i s ch eT o t e .D i eB lo ckad e ,d i e Op f e rzah lundd i e E r inn e rung .O s t eu r op a,61(89 ) ,155–68 . W egn e r ,B .(1990 ) .D e rK r i egg eg end i eSow j e tun ion1942/43 .In M i l i tä rg e s ch i ch t l i ch e sFo r s chung sam t(Ed . ) ,D a sd eu t s ch eR e i chundd e r zw e i t eW e l t k r i eg .Bd .6 :d e rg l o b a l eK r i eg .D i eAu sw e i tungzum W e l t k r i egundd e r W e ch s e ld e rIn i t i a t iv e (pp .761–1 102 ) .S tu t tga r t :DVA . W egn e r ,B .(1999 ) .H i t l e r sP o l i t i s ch eS o ld a t en :D i eW a f f en -SS ,1933–1945. Pad e rbo rn :S chön ingh .(O r ig ina l wo rkpub l i sh ed1986 ) W e i s s -W end t ,A .(2009 ) . Mu rd e rw i th ou th a t r ed :E s t on i an sandth eH o l o c au s t. N ewY o rk :Sy ra cu s eUP . W e rn e r ,F .(2008 ) .“Ha r t mü s s en w i rh i e rd rauß ens e in” :So lda t i s ch e Männ l i chk e i timV e rn i ch tung sk r i eg1941–1944 .G e s ch i ch t eundG e s e l l s ch a f t, 34(1 ) ,5–40 . W e r th e r ,S .(2004 ) .D än i s ch eF r e iw i l l ig eind e rW a f f en -SS.B e r l in : W i s s en s cha f t l i ch e rV e r lag . W e r th e r ,S . ,& Hu rd ,M .(2014 ) .GoEa s t ,o ld man :Th er i tua lspa c e so fSS v e t e ran s ’m emo ry wo rk .Cu l tu r eUn b ound,6,327–59 .h t tp ://dx .do i . o rg/10 .3384/ cu .2000 .1525 .146327. W e t t e ,W .(1984 ) .D i ep ropagand i s t i s ch eB eg l e i tmu s ikzumd eu t s ch enÜb e r fa l l au fd i eSow j e tun ionam22 .Jun i1941 .InU eb e r s chä r& W e t t e(Ed s . ) , Un t e rn ehm enB a r b a r o s s a (pp .1 1 1–29 ) . W e t t e ,W .(Ed . ) .(1992 ) .D e rK r i egd e sk l e in en M ann e s .E in eM i l i t ä r g e s ch i ch t ev on un t en. Mun i ch/Zü r i ch :P ip e r . W e t t e ,W .(2002 ) .D i eW eh rm a ch t .F e ind b i ld e r ,V e rn i ch tung s k r i eg,L eg end en. F rank fu r ta .M . :F i s ch e r . W e t t e ,W .(Ed . ) .(2003 ) .R e t t e rinUn i f o rm .H and lung s sp i e l r äum eim V e rn i ch tung s k r i egd e rW eh rm a ch t.F rank fu r ta .M . :F i s ch e r . Wh ea l ey ,R .H .(1989 ) .H i t l e randSp a in :Th eN a z ir o l eandth eSp an i shC iv i lW a r 1936–1939.L ex ing ton :Th eUn iv e r s i tyP r e s so fK en tu cky . W i evo rka ,M .(2009 ) .E lr a c i sm o :un ain t r odu c c i ón.Ba r c e lona :G ed i sa . W i lk e ,K .(201 1 ) .D i e“H i l f sg em e in s ch a f tau fG eg en s e i t ig k e i t”(H IAG )1950–1990 . V e t e r an end e rW a f f en -SSind e rBund e s r epu b l i k.Pad e rbo rn :S chön ingh . Yd ígo ra s ,C .M .(1984 ) .A lgun o sn oh em o smu e r t o. Mad r id :Cy r[1957 ] . Zandman ,F .(1995 ) .N ev e rth el a s tj ou rn ey. N ewY o rk :S cho ck enBook s . Zaugg ,F .(2016 ) .A l b an i s ch e Mu s l im eind e rW a f f en -SS .V on“G r oß a l b an i en”zu r D iv i s i on“S k and e r b e r g .” Pad e rbo rn :S chön ingh . Zu la i ca ,R .(1963 ) .L aú l t im aop o r tun id ad.SanS eba s t ián :Ágo ra .

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Ind ex

Abad O ju e l ,An ton io ,73 Abad ía ,Ramón ,174 ,194 Abw eh r ,203–7 A f r i ca ,6 ,23 ,166 ,169–70 Agu i la rSanab r ia ,Lu i s ,39 ,68 ,80 ,96 , 126 ,144 A lba ,Joaqu índ e(K in) ,151 ,159 A lba c e t e ,48 ,52 ,224 ,226 A l i can t e ,37 ,221 ,223 A lm e r ía ,49 ,60–2 ,64 A lon so ,Aman c io ,156 A lon sod e lR ea l ,Gu i l l e rmo ,152 Á lva r ezRod r ígu ez ,Lu i s ,218 And r ey ev ,L eon id ,164 An ton e s cu ,Ion ,28–30 An t rop ch ina ,178 Apa r i s iSo l e r ,Edua rdo ,45 A ragon é s ,An ton io ,161 ,166 A rambu ruT op e t e ,Jo s éLu i s ,218 A randa ,An ton io ,69 A r ena l e s ,B en jam ín ,56 ,90 ,135–8 , 160 ,180 A rmada ,A l fon so ,59 ,218 A r r e s e ,Jo s éLu i s ,36–7 A r r izub i e ta , Ma r t índ e ,208–9 ,21 1 A s en s io ,Ca r lo s ,51 ,123 A s sun çâoG ra ça ,Ja im ed e ,5 A s tu r ia s ,48 Au e rba ch ,90 ,94

Au s chw i tz ,12 ,190 ,200 ,236 Azna r ,Agu s t ín ,51 ,68 ,72 ,1 12 Bada joz ,55 ,60–2 Bad i l lo ,J e sú s ,81 ,1 10 ,150 Ba r c e lona ,16 ,39 ,46–7 ,52 ,63 ,71 , 220–1 ,224 ,226 ,228 Ba r sCa sam i t jana , Manu e l ,234 Bava r ia ,89 B e l lod ,A l f r edo ,162 B enav en t e ,46 B enda la , Manu e l ,168 B en ey toP é r ez ,Juan ,18 B e rg en -B e l s en ,190 B e rkow i tz , Mo sh e ,198 B e r l in ,3 ,7 ,19–20 ,23 ,28 ,31 ,34 ,36 , 40–1 ,58 ,73 ,88 ,93 ,1 12 ,1 17 ,122 , 156 ,175 ,188 ,207–8 ,21 1 ,219 ,237 B e rmúd ezCañ e t e ,An ton io ,19 B ia ly s tok ,191 B i lbao ,213 B lan ch ,Jo s é Ma r ía ,52 B lan co ,JuanE . ,199 B lum s t e in ,A l exand r e ,198 Boga ch eva -Ba skakova ,Evdok i ia ,181 Bo l ’ sho eZamo sh ’ e ,1 14 Bono ,Jo s é ,5 Bo r i s sovo ,104 B raun s chw e ig ,210

338 Ind ex B romb e rg ,41 Bu ch enwa ld ,190 Bukov ina ,206 Bu rgo s ,56 Bu rk ,SS -S tanda r t en füh r e r ,1 14 Bu s ch ,E rn s t ,104 ,1 10 By e lo ru s s ia ,29 ,76 ,197

D íazGá lv ez ,A lb e r to ,214 ,277 D íazT e l la , Manu e l ,210 D i e ckho f f , Han s -H e in r i ch ,219 D im i t r i eva ,O chapk inaA . ,177 Dona i r e ,Eu s eb io ,165 Do s to ev sky ,Fyodo rM . ,13 ,163–4 Dub rovka ,105 ,107 ,109

Cabo ,B en igno ,199 Cád iz ,71 Ca l e l la ,223 Cano ,S e cund ino ,71 Ca ra l t ,Lu i sd e ,228 Cá rd ena s , Manu e ld e ,56 ,87 ,93 ,96 , 164 ,176 Ca r r ión ,D e s id e r io ,188 Ca s tañón ,Jo s éM . ,75 ,88 ,160 ,196 , 229 ,231 Ca s t e loV i l laoz ,Pab lo ,236 Ca s t e l lón ,46 Ca s t i e l la ,F e rnando M . ,55 ,216 ,228 C eu ta ,54 ,187 Ch e chu l ino ,182 Ch ekhov ,An ton ,164 Ch emn i tz ,21 1 C iudadR ea l ,215 ,226 Co l la tz ,Gün th e r ,80 Có rdoba ,55 ,60–2 C roa t ia ,29 Cua r t e ro ,A r tu ro ,188 Cu en ca ,56 ,226

Edva r son ,Co rn e l ia ,200 E i chmann ,Ado l f ,235 E r randoV i la r ,En r iqu e ,144 ,163 ,168 , 193 E s t eban In fan t e s ,Em i l io ,58 ,1 17–18 , 120–3 ,151 E s ton ia ,125 Ezqu e r ra ,M igu e l ,206–7 ,210

D ’O r s ,JuanPab lo ,163 Da rw in ,Cha r l e s ,165 Davy ch enko ,An ton ina ,181 D eAnd r é s ,An ton io ,178 D elaC ruz ,Joaqu ín ,162 D eg r e l l e ,L éon ,32–3 ,207 ,228 D emyan sk ,102 ,1 18 ,149 D íaz ,A lb e r to ,241 D íazd eV i l l ega s ,Jo s é ,237 ,242 D íazd e lR ío ,Gu i l l e rmo ,158

Fa ja rdoB i e l ,P ed roL . ,45 Fa lCond e , Manu e l ,47 Fa r r é ,Ja im e ,162 ,233 Fa r r éPa lau s ,Ramón ,130 ,134 Faup e l ,W i lh e lm ,207–9 F e rnánd ezV a l l e sp ín ,Ca r lo s ,217 F e rnánd ezV e la s co ,Ado l fo ,161 F e r r e ro , Ma r t ín ,71 F igu e ro la ,Ca r lo s ,90 ,138 F ina t ,Jo s éM .(Coun to f Maya ld e ) , 1 12 F in land ,28 F ran c e ,4 ,6–7 ,15 ,20–1 ,34 ,39 ,82 , 125 ,204 ,206 ,208 ,21 1 F ran coBahamond e ,F ran c i s co ,3 , 6–7 ,20 ,36 ,46 ,51 ,57 ,73 ,99 ,1 17 , 122–3 ,174 ,198 ,208–9 ,21 1 ,214 , 217 ,226 ,228–9 F rank fu r tam Ma in ,71 F romm ,F r i ed r i ch ,41 Ga c eod e lP ino ,V i c en t e ,109 Gan c edo ,Do lo r e s ,141 ,164 Ga r c ía ,So t e ro ,71 Ga r c íaB e r langa ,Lu i s ,73

Ind ex 339 Ga r c ía Nava r ro ,An ton io ,123–4 Ga r c íaR ebu l l ,T omá s ,221 Ga r c íaV a lda jo s ,Lu i s ,206–7 Ga r c íaV a l iño ,Ra fa e l ,123 Ga r c íaV ega ,N em e s io ,222 Ga r r iga ,Ramón ,190 Ga t ch ina ,176 Gay ,V i c en t e ,18 Gay tan ,And r é s ,139 ,192 G eo rga copu lo s ,Con s tan t ino ,67 G e rmany ,3–4 ,6–7 ,12–13 ,16–22 , 31 ,34 ,39–41 ,47 ,54 ,58 ,69–71 ,81 , 86–92 ,94 ,96 ,98 ,1 14 ,146 ,171 ,186 , 191 ,196 ,204 ,207–12 ,214 ,216 ,223 , 229 ,231 ,233–4 ,237 ,239 ,242 G i jón ,226 G im én ezCaba l l e ro ,E rn e s to ,16 ,187 G i rón ,Jo s éAn ton io ,214 G i rona ,46 Go ebb e l s ,Jo s eph ,31 Góm ezd eSa laza r ,F ed e r i co ,218 Góm ez -T e l lo ,Jo s éLu i s ,96 ,99 ,160–1 , 195 ,229 ,235 Gonzá l ez ,Ju l io ,67 Gonzá l ezA lm ena ra ,Ado l fo ,21 1 Gonzá l ezd eCana l e s ,Gu i l l e rmo ,193 Go rk i , Max im ,14 ,163 G ra f enwöh r ,38–41 ,44 ,76–8 ,81 ,86 , 89–90 ,93–4 ,105 ,143 G ranada ,57 G rand e , Manu e l ,197 G rano l l e r s ,56 G ra s s e r ,An ton ,125 G r igo rovo ,41 ,81 ,1 17 ,136 G rodno ,76–7 ,191–9 ,201 ,233–4 Gu i ta r t e ,Jo s éM . ,72 Gu t i é r r ezd e lCa s t i l lo ,Jo s éM . , 72 ,132 Ha ld e r ,F ranz , 100 Han s en ,E r ik ,1 16 H e id e lb e rg , 16

H e l s ink i , 34–5 ,44 ,148 ,151 H enday e ,6 ,39 ,70 H e rnánd ez Nava r ro ,An ton ioJ . , 233 H e rnanz ,Gu i l l e rmo , 57 ,90 ,128 ,132 , 135–8 ,165 H e r r e ro ,An ton io , 53 ,97 ,181 H eyd r i ch ,R e inha rd , 24 H imm l e r ,H e in r i ch , 30–3 ,35 ,101 H i t l e r ,Ado l f ,6 ,16–24 ,29–31 ,34–5 , 41 ,80 ,87 ,89 ,93 ,100 ,1 10 ,1 12 ,1 15 , 1 17 ,120 ,122 ,125 ,147 ,204 ,208 , 21 1 ,228 Hoa r e ,Samu e l , 69 Ho f , 41 ,54 ,70 ,83 ,86 ,89–91 ,93–4 Ho l lab runn , 206 Hopp e , Ha r ry ,1 14 Ho r thy ,M ik ló s , 29 Hu e lva , 45 ,55–6 ,61–3 Hu e rga ,L i c in iod ela , 46 Hu e s ca , 57 ,60 Hunga ry , 28–9 ,206 Ibáñ ez ,Jo s éLu i s ,210 I lm en ,Lak e ,81 ,102 ,104 ,107–8 ,1 1 1 , 1 13 ,1 18 ,134 Imaz ,Jo s éIgna c io ,210 Inn sb ru ck ,206 I rún ,70 ,213 I sho raR iv e r ,1 16 ,120–1 I s ra e l ,195 ,233 ,235 I ta ly ,16 ,17–18 ,29 ,34 ,36 ,205 ,207 Iz i fovo ,173 Izqu i e rdoLuqu e ,F ed e r i co ,228 Japan ,7 ,236 J im én ezAnd rad e s ,I ld e fon so ,235 J im én ez Ma lod e Mo l ina ,V í c to rJ . , 183 ,193 Jo rdana ,Coun to f ,7 ,51 ,57–8 , Jud e r ía s ,Ju l ián ,13 Ju lv e ,Lu i s ,57 Jüng e r ,E rn s t ,139 ,141 ,155

340 Ind ex Ka r l s ruh e ,39 ,91–2 Ka tyn ,98 ,236 Kauna s ,234 K eh r en ,Pau l ,207 K e i t e l ,W i lh e lm ,38 K ing i s epp( Jambu rg ) ,123–4 K l e f f e l ,Ph i l ipp ,1 18 ,120–1 K l iban sk i ,B ronka ,197 K lov sky ,Dan i e l ,197 Ko lmovo ,176 Ko lp ino ,137 Kön ig sb e rg ,41 ,85 ,87 ,93 ,125 ,186 , 199 ,204–6 Ko r i chava ,V e ra ,182 Kova l ev sk i i ,V lad im i r ,95 ,144 K ra sny iBo r ,1 16 ,1 18 ,120 ,134 ,223 , 225 Kh ru sh ch ev ,N ik i ta ,104 Ladoga ,Lak e ,102 ,105 ,108 ,1 17 ,149 Lagun i l la ,Dom ingo ,169 La ig l e s ia ,Á lva rod e ,41 ,163 La tv ia ,87 ,99 Laux ,Pau l ,104 L ed e smaRamo s ,Ram i ro ,16–17 L en in(V lad im i rU l ianov ) ,15 ,164 , 169 ,189 ,195 ,235 L en ing rad ,10 ,28 ,80 ,85 ,94 ,100–4 , 107–8 ,1 13 ,1 16–18 ,121 ,124 ,148 , 154 ,172 ,175 ,178–9 ,190 ,241 ,243 L en ing rad ,s i eg eo f ,28 ,80 ,105 , 1 16–19 ,121 ,178 ,190 L eón ,55 ,66 L ey ,Rob e r t ,40 L ina r e s ,Jo s é ,145 L ind emann ,G eo rg ,120 ,122 L i thuan ia ,76 ,97–8 ,190 L lo r en sBo r rá s ,Jo s éA . ,228 Lobkovo ,108 Log roño ,58 ,70 London ,38 Lóp ez ,Lu i s ,109 ,264

Lóp ezd elaT o r r e ,Sa lvado r ,72 Lóp ezRom e ro ,B e rna rd ino ,77 Lou rd e s ,204 Luban ,1 18 Lu c ena ,An ton io ,21 1 Luga ,124–5 ,164 Lyda ,79 ,193 ,198 Mad r id ,7 ,16–17 ,21 ,35–6 ,39 ,41 , 45–50 ,52 ,58 ,62–3 ,65 ,67–70 ,1 12 , 120 ,122–3 ,125 ,151 ,189–90 , 203–4 ,208 ,213 ,216 ,219–21 ,224 , 226 ,233 Má laga , 37 ,220 Ma lo eZamo sh ’ e ,1 13 Mannh e im , 16 Ma r ch ena ,Áng e l , 55 ,139 Ma r t ia lay ,Jo s é , 150 Ma r t ínGam e ro ,A lb e r to , 141 ,164 Ma r t ín ez , Manu e l , 165 Ma r t ín ezE spa rza ,Jo s é , 40 Ma r t ín ez M ena ,M igu e l , 49 Ma r t ín ezT e s s i e r ,J e sú s , 79 ,93 ,96–8 , 150 ,160 ,167 ,180 ,194 ,201–2 Ma r t ín ezd eTud e la ,P ed ro , 184 Ma r t ín ezV a l ,Jo s é ,M . , 226 Ma rx ,Ka r l , 235 M e l i l la , 187 M en énd ezGund ín ,F ed e r i co , 74 ,99 , 156 ,164 ,194 ,199 M e s t e l evo , 41 ,143 M ia sno iBo r ,1 13 M i lán sd e lBo s ch ,Ja im e , 218 M in sk , 77 ,79 ,235 Mon taña ,Joaqu ín , 52 ,55 ,162 Mon t e roD íaz ,San t iago , 208 Mo ra -F igu e roa , Manu e l , 35 ,72 Mo ra l e s ,Jo s éLu i s , 87 Mo r eno ,A lb e r to , 71 Mo ro c co ,6 ,9 ,37 ,48 ,53–4 ,170 ,187 , 217–18 ,231 ,242 Mo s ca rdó ,Jo s é , 53

Ind ex 341 Mo s cow , 14 ,27 ,80 ,100 ,102 ,104 , 108 ,1 12 ,1 16 ,126 ,169 ,188 ,196 ,21 1 Mu l e t ,L eopo ldo , 66 Mun i ch , 20 ,200 Muñoz ,Áng e l , 159 MuñozA c e ra ,F e rnando , 59 MuñozG rand e s ,Agu s t ín , 37 ,40–1 , 54 ,59 ,79–80 ,85 ,101 ,104 ,107 ,1 10 , 1 15 ,1 17 ,143 ,173 ,216 Mu r c ia , 48 ,54 ,60–6 ,72 Mu s so l in i ,B en i to , 16–17 ,19 ,29 Na rva ,1 18 ,123–4 N i e toFun c ia ,T r in idad , 228–9 N i e toGa r c ía ,Lu i s , 214 N ik i tk ino , 105 ,107 ,128 N iko law ja , 185 No fu en t e s , Manu e l , 193 Novgo rod , 81 ,85 ,102 ,104 ,107 ,1 10 , 1 12 ,120 ,134 ,161 ,175 ,182–3 ,235 Novo soko l ’n ik i , 173 Nu r emb e rg , 90 ,93 ,323 O caña s ,Lo r enzo , 21 1 Od e s sa , 28 O roqu i e ta ,G e ra rdo , 214 ,228 O r sha , 77 O r t izF e rnánd ez ,Jo s é , 207 O shm iany , 191 ,195–6 Ó s ipova ,L id ia , 177 ,181 O t en sk i i , 107 ,109 ,177 O t e ro -d eA r c e ,Jo s é , 167 Ou r en s e , 71 Ov i edo , 48 Pa la c io s ,T eodo ro ,214 ,228 Pa rdo ,S e ra f ín ,176 ,178 Pa r i s ,14 ,208 Pa r í sEgu i laz ,H ig in io ,72 Pa s ca l ,Jo s éLu i s ,71 Pav lov sk ,1 16 ,137 ,177 ,181 ,191 P é ta in ,Ph i l ipp e ,6

P im en t e l ,P ed ro ,39–40 P in i l lo s ,Jo s éLu i s ,191 Podb e r ez ’ e ,180 Pogo s t ’ e ,1 18 Pok rov sko e ,1 16 ,121 ,185 Po land ,20 ,24 ,76 ,86 ,94 ,96–8 ,104 , 156 ,159 ,173 ,186 ,190–1 ,193 , 195–7 ,202 Pom e ran ia ,207 Ponoma r iov ,S e rg e i ,181–2 Pon t ev ed ra ,226 Po rkhov ,41 ,158 ,199 Po r t e la ,P ed ro ,21 1 Po sad ,107 ,109 ,140 ,155 Po s e lok ,107 ,1 17–18 Po t sdam ,207 P ragu e ,35 ,229 P r imod eR iv e ra ,Jo s éAn ton io ,19 , 37 ,74 ,226 P skov(P l e skau ) ,125 ,190 Pu shk in ,14 ,1 16–17 ,158 ,191 Pu shk in ,A l ek sand r ,14 Qu in tanaLa ca c i ,Gu i l l e rmo , 218 Radun ,95 Ram í r ezd eCa r tag ena ,Áng e l , 1 14 R e ig ,Joaqu ín ,188 R e iz e r ,L e ib ,95 ,198 R ema rqu e ,E r i ch M . ,139 ,141 R evu e l taImaz ,J . ,194 R id ru e jo ,D ion i s io ,35 ,37 ,40 , 43 ,49 ,51–2 ,68 ,72 ,74 ,81 ,85 ,90 , 1 12 ,126 ,130 ,135 ,139–42 ,144 ,159 , 163 ,167 ,194 ,196–7 ,229 ,231 R i e f en s tha l ,L en i ,92 R iga ,41 ,98–9 ,123 ,186 ,191 ,195 ,197 , 199–200 ,233–4 R ío s ,V í c to rd elo s ,219 R ipo l l ,56 R i t t e rvonL e eb ,W i lh e lm ,102

342 Ind ex R iudav e t sd e Mon t e s ,Lu i s ,89 , 166 ,234–5 R iv e ra ,Rob e r to ,178 Rob l e sPazo s ,Ramón ,179 Ród ena s ,Ca r lo s ,95 Rod r igo ,M igu e l ,39–40 Rod r ígu ez ,A l f r edo ,143 Rogavka ,185 Ro ja sO rdóñ ez ,Edua rdod e ,72 Roman ia ,28–40 ,206 Rom e ,7 ,12 ,16–17 ,19 ,196 ,208 Rom e ro ,Lu i s ,231 Rom e ro O s end e ,Juan ,160 , Rom eu , Mon t s e r ra t ,161 ,199 Ro s ,Joaqu ín ,90 ,134–5 Ro s e ,E r i ch ,201 Ro s enb e rg ,A l f r ed ,19 ,168 ,170 Royo Ma s ía ,Rod r igo ,229 Rub io ,D ion i s io ,126 Ru iz ,V a l e r iano ,139 Ru izA yú ca r ,Áng e l ,235 Sa lado ,I sab e l ,46 Sa la sLa r razába l ,Áng e l ,217 Sa lav e r r ía ,Jo s éM . ,16 Sa lvado r ,T omá s ,215 ,221 ,229 ,234 Samokhva lovo ,180 SanS eba s t ián ,51 ,58 Sán ch ezA lad ro ,Ra imundo ,162 Sán ch ezD iana ,Jo s éM . ,139–40 ,155 Sán ch ezF ra i l e ,En r iqu e ,49 Sán ch ez Ma spon s ,Lu i s ,189 San taC ruzd eT en e r i f e ,37 San tama r ía ,Ja c in to ,97 San tand e r ,60–2 ,64 ,71 ,75 ,224 SanzB r iz ,Áng e l ,188 ,190 SanzJa rqu e ,JuanJ . ,95 S chap i ,124 S chwab ,Ludw ig ,83 ,93 S e rna ,V í c to rd ela ,188 S e r ranoSuñ e r ,Ramón ,35–9 ,51 ,64 , 1 12 ,190 ,213 ,237

S ev i l l e ,37 ,39 ,63 S ima , Ho r ia ,228 S i tno ,105 ,107 ,181 Sko rz eny ,O t to ,228 S lov en ia ,206 S lowak ia ,29 ,206 Smo l en sk ,159 Sob rón ,222 So lbad Ha l l(Ha l linT i ro l ) ,206 So tomayo r ,En r iqu e ,68 ,109 S ta l in ,Io s i f ,30 ,102–3 ,150 ,165 ,189 S ta l ing rad ,12 ,28 ,88 ,102 ,1 17–18 S ta ra iaRu s sa ,190 S to ck e rau ,206 S t ra s sbu rg ,91 Suwa lk i ,76 ,96 ,234 Sw i tz e r land ,205 ,208 T a l l inn(R eva l ) ,41 ,125 T apa(T ap s ) ,125 T a r ín , Manu e l ,52–3 ,90 T e r em e t s ,1 12 T e ru e l ,47 ,60 T é touan ,48 T igoda ,105 ,109 T ikhv in ,102 ,105 ,107–8 ,1 10 T o l edo ,60–1 ,164 ,188 T o l s toy ,L ev ,13 ,163–5 T o r ra ,Dan i e l ,87 ,130 ,134–6 T o r r e s ,F e rnando ,157 T r eubu rg(O l e cko ) ,79 ,93 ,95–6 Uda rn ik ,104–5 ,108 Uk ra in e ,29 ,34 ,76 ,100 ,148 ,168 , 183 ,200 Upp e rPa la t ina t e ,38–9 ,89–90 U rqu i jo ,A l fon sod e ,99 ,199 U r ru t ia ,F ed e r i cod e ,19 V a l en c ia ,29 ,45–6 ,48 ,63 ,65 ,74 , 220–1 V a l e ra ,Juan ,13

Ind ex 343 V a l lado l id ,17 ,29 ,63 V a l l e jo -Nág e ra ,An ton io ,21 van Ho r emb ek e ,A lphon s e ,207 V a r e la ,Jo s éEn r iqu e ,36 ,51 ,58 ,1 12 , 1 17 V e la s co , Ma r t ín ,128–9 ,133 ,182 V e r sa i l l e s ,87 ,205 V i enna ,20 ,41 ,206–7 ,210 V i e rna ,Jo s é ,39–40 V igón ,Juan ,36 V i ln iu s ,41 ,71 ,98–9 ,186 ,191 ,194–9 , 234 V i t eb sk ,76 ,80 ,182 V la sov ,And r e j ,35 ,1 15 V o lkhovf ron t ,10–1 1 ,76 ,84 ,102 , 104–5 ,132 ,135 ,149 ,173–4 ,179 , 183 ,190 ,223 ,241 V o lkhovR iv e r ,74 ,81 ,104 ,107–8 , 1 10–1 1 ,1 13–15 ,123 ,134–5 V o lo sovo -N iko la evka ,122 vonBo ck ,F edo r ,26 ,80 ,197 vonCh appu i s ,F r i ed r i ch -W i lh e lm ,1 1 0

vonCo ch enhau s en ,Con rad ,41 vonK lug e ,Gün th e r ,79 vonKüch l e r ,G eo rg ,1 10 von Man s t e in ,E r i ch ,1 17 vonRoqu e s ,F ranz ,80 ,104 vonS toh r e r ,Eb e rha rd ,40 ,188 V o ronovo ,198 V y r i t sa ,176 ,178 ,191 Vzvad ,1 13 W a r saw , 71 ,84 ,199 Yd ígo ra s ,Ca r lo sM . ,234 Zago r j e ,206 Zandman ,F e l ix ,198 Zanón ,Sa lvado r ,68 ,128 ,144 ,162 , 177 ,193 Zapo l ’ e ,1 15 Za ragoza ,39 ,60 ,223 Zu la i ca ,Ramón ,234 Zw i ckau ,94

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T o ron toIb e r i c

co -ed itor s : Rob e r t Dav id son(T o ron to )andF r ed e r i ck A .d eA rma s (Ch i cago ) ed i tor ia lboard :Jo s i ahB l a ckmo r e (H a rv a rd ) ;M a r in aB rown l e e (P r in c e ton ) ; An thonyJ .C a s c a rd i(B e rk e l ey ) ;Ju s t inC rumb augh(M t Ho lyok e ) ; Em i ly F r an com ano(G eo rg e town ) ;Jo rd an a M end e l son(NYU ) ;Jo an R amon R e s in a(S t an fo rd ) ;En r iqu eG a r c í aS an to -T om á s(U M i ch ig an ) ; H .Ro s iSong(Du rh am ) ;K a th l e enV e rnon(SUNYS tonyB rook ) 1An thonyJ .Ca s ca rd i ,C e rv an t e s ,L i t e r a tu r e ,andth eD i s c ou r s eo f P o l i t i c s 2J e s s i caA .Boon ,Th e My s t i c a lS c i en c eo fth eS ou l :M ed i ev a lC ogn i t i on inB e rn a rd in od eL a r ed o ’ sR e c o l l e c t i on M e th od 3Su sanBy rn e ,L awandH i s t o ryinC e rv an t e s ’ Don Qu ixo t e 4Ma ryE .Ba rna rdandF r ed e r i ckA .d eA rma s( ed s ) ,O b j e c t so f Cu l tu r einth eL i t e r a tu r eo fImp e r i a lSp a in 5N i lSan t iáñ ez ,T op og r aph i e so fF a s c i sm :H a b i tu s ,Sp a c e ,and W r i t ingin Tw en t i e th -C en tu rySp a in 6N e l son O r r ing e r ,L o r c ainT un ew i thF a l l a :L i t e r a ryand Mu s i c a l In t e r lud e s 7Ana M .Góm ez -B ravo ,T ex tu a lAg en cy :W r i t ingCu l tu r eandS o c i a l N e tw o r k sinF i f t e en th -C en tu rySp a in 8Jav i e rI r igoy en -Ga r c ía ,Th eSp an i shA r c ad i a :Sh e epH e rd ing ,P a s t o r a l D i s c ou r s e ,andE thn i c i tyinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 9S t ephan i eS i ebu r th ,Su rv iv a lS ong s :C on ch i t aP i qu e r ’ s Cop la sand F r an c o ’ sR eg im eo fT e r r o r 10 Ch r i s t in eA rk in s ta l l ,Sp an i shF em a l eW r i t e r sandth eF r e e th in k ing P r e s s ,1879–1926

1 1 Ma rga r e tBoy l e , Un ru ly W om en :P e r f o rm an c e ,P en i t en c e ,and Pun i shm en tinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 12 Ev e l inaGužau sky tė ,Ch r i s t oph e rC o lum bu s ’ sN am inginth ed ia r io so f th eF ou rV oy ag e s(1492–1504 ) :AD i s c ou r s eo fN eg o t i a t i on 13 Ma ryE .Ba rna rd ,G a r c i l a s od el aV eg aandth eM a t e r i a lCu l tu r eo f R en a i s s an c eEu r op e 14 W i l l iamV i e s t enz , Byth eG r a c eo fG od :F r an c o i s tSp a inandth eS a c r ed R o o t so fP o l i t i c a lIm ag in a t i on 15 M i cha e lS cham ,L e c to rLud en s:Th eR ep r e s en t a t i ono fG am e sand P l ayinC e rv an t e s 16 S t eph enRupp ,H e r o i cF o rm s :C e rv an t e sandth eL i t e r a tu r eo fW a r 17 En r iqu eF e rnand ez ,Anx i e t i e so fIn t e r i o r i tyandD i s s e c t i oninE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 18 Su sanBy rn e ,F i c in oinSp a in 19 Pa t r i c ia M .K e l l e r ,Gh o s t lyL and s c ap e s :F i lm ,Ph o t og r aphy ,andth e A e s th e t i c so fH aun t inginC on t emp o r a rySp an i shCu l tu r e 20 Ca ro lynA . Nad eau ,F o od M a t t e r s :A l on s oQu i j an o ’ sD i e tandth e D i s c ou r s eo fF o odinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 21 C r i s t ianB e r co ,F r omB odyt oC ommun i ty :V en e r e a lD i s e a s eandS o c i e ty inB a r o qu eSp a in 22 E l izab e thR .W r igh t ,Th eEp i co fJu anL a t in o :D i l emm a so fR a c eand R e l ig i oninR en a i s s an c eSp a in 23 RyanD .G i l e s ,In s c r i b edP ow e r :Amu l e t sand M ag i cinE a r lySp an i sh L i t e r a tu r e 24 Jo rg eP é r ez ,C on f e s s i on a lC in em a :R e l ig i on ,F i lm ,and M od e rn i tyin Sp a in ’ sD ev e l opm en tY e a r s ,1960–1975 25 JoanRamonR e s ina ,J o s epP l a :S e e ingth eW o r ldinth eF o rmo fA r t i c l e s 26 Jav i e rI r igoy en -Ga r c ía ,“ M o o r sD r e s s eda sM o o r s” :C l o th ing ,S o c i a l D i s t in c t i on ,andE thn i c i tyinE a r ly M od e rnI b e r i a 27 J eanDang l e r ,Edg ingt ow a rdI b e r i a 28 RyanD .G i l e sandS t ev en W ag s cha l( ed s ) ,B e y ondS i gh t :Eng a g ing th eS en s e sinI b e r i anL i t e r a tu r e sandCu l tu r e s ,1200–1750 29 S i lv iaB e rmúd ez ,R o c k ingth eB o a t :M ig r a t i onandR a c ein C on t emp o r a rySp an i sh Mu s i c 30 H i la i r eKa l l endo r f , Am b igu ou sAn t id o t e s :V i r tu ea sV a c c in ef o rV i c ein E a r ly M od e rnSp a in 31 L e s l i e Ha rk ema ,Sp an i sh M od e rn i smandth eP o e t i c so fY ou th :F r om M igu e ld eUn amun ot o LaJov enL i t e ra tu ra 32 B en jam inF ra s e r ,C ogn i t iv eD i s a b i l i tyA e s th e t i c s :V i su a lCu l tu r e , D i s a b i l i tyR ep r e s en t a t i on s ,andth e( In )V i s i b i l i tyo fC ogn i t iv eD i f f e r en c e 33 Rob e r tPa t r i ck N ew comb ,I b e r i an i smandC r i s i s :Sp a inandP o r tug a l a tth eT u rno fth eTw en t i e thC en tu ry

34 Sa raJ .B r enn e i s ,Sp an i a rd sin M au th au s en :R ep r e s en t a t i on so faN a z i C on c en t r a t i onC amp ,1940 -2015 35 S i lv iaB e rmúd ezandRob e r taJohn son( ed s ) ,AN ewH i s t o ryo f I b e r i anF em in i sm s 36 S t ev en W ag s cha l ,M ind ingAn im a l sInth eO ldandN ew W o r ld s :A C ogn i t iv eH i s t o r i c a lAn a ly s i s 37 H ea th e rBam fo rd , Cu l tu r e so fth eF r agm en t :U s e so fth eI b e r i an M anu s c r ip t ,1 100–1600 38 En r iqu eGa r c íaSan to -Tomá s( ed ) ,S c i en c eonS t ag einE a r ly M od e rn Sp a in 39 Ma r inaB rown l e e( ed ) ,C e rv an t e s ’P e r s i l e sandth eT r av a i l so f R om an c e 40 Sa rahThoma s ,Inh a b i t ingth eIn -B e tw e en :Ch i ldh o odandC in em ain Sp a in ’ sL ongT r an s i t i on 41 Dav idA . Wa ck s ,M ed i ev a lI b e r i anC ru s ad eF i c t i onandth e M ed i t e r r an e an W o r ld 42 Ro s i l i eH e rnánd ez ,Imm a cu l a t eC on c ep t i on s :Th eP ow e ro fth e R e l ig i ou sIm ag in a t i oninE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 43 Ma ryCo f f eyand Ma rgo tV e r s t e eg( ed s ) ,Im ag in edT ru th s :R e a l i smin M od e rnSp an i shL i t e r a tu r eandCu l tu r e 44 D ianaA rambu ru ,R e s i s t ingInv i s i b i l i ty :D e t e c t ingth eF em a l eB odyin Sp an i shC r im eF i c t i on 45 Samu e lAmagoand Ma t th ewJ . Ma r r( ed s ) ,C on s e qu en t i a lA r t : C om i c sCu l tu r einC on t emp o r a rySp a in 46 R i cha rdP .K inkad e ,D awno faDyn a s ty :Th eL i f eandT im e so fIn f an t e M anu e lo fC a s t i l e 47 J i l lRobb in s ,P o e t ryandC r i s i s :Cu l tu r a lP o l i t i c sandC i t i z en sh ipinth e W a k eo fth eM ad r idB om b ing s 48 Ana Ma r íaLagunaandJohnB eu s t e r i en( ed s ) ,G o od by eE r o s : R e c a s t ingF o rm sandN o rm so fL ov einth eAg eo fC e rv an t e s 49 Sa raJ .B r enn e i sandG ina H e r rmann( ed s ) ,Sp a in ,W o r ld W a rI I ,and th eH o l o c au s t :H i s t o ryandR ep r e s en t a t i on 5 0F r an c i s coF e rn ánd e zd eA lb a ,S e x ,D ru g s ,an dF a s h i onin1 9 7 0 sM a d r i d 51 Dan i e lAgu i r r e -O t e iza ,Th i sGh o s t lyP o e t ry :R e ad ingSp an i sh R epu b l i c anEx i l e sb e tw e enL i t e r a ryH i s t o ryandP o e t i cM em o ry 52 La raAnd e r son ,C on t r o landR e s i s t an c e :F o odD i s c ou r s einF r an c o Sp a in 53 Fa i th Ha rd en ,A rm sandL e t t e r s :M i l i t a ryL i f eW r i t inginE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 54 E r inA l i c eCow l ing ,T an iad eM igu e l Mag ro ,M inaGa r c íaJo rdán , andG l endaY .N i e to -Cu eba s( ed s ) ,S o c i a lJu s t i c einSp an i shG o ld en Ag eTh e a t r e

55 Pau lM i cha e lJohn son ,A f f e c t iv eG e og r aph i e s :C e rv an t e s ,Em o t i on ,and th eL i t e r a ry M ed i t e r r an e an 56 Ju s t inC rumbaughand N i lSan t iáñ ez( ed s ) ,Sp an i shF a s c i s tW r i t ing : AnAn th o l ogy 57 Ma rga r e tE .Boy l eandSa rahE . Ow en s( ed s ),H e a l thandH e a l ingin th eE a r ly M od e rnI b e r i an W o r ld :AG end e r edP e r sp e c t iv e 58 L e t i c iaÁ lva r ez -R e c io( ed ) ,I b e r i anCh iv a l r i cR om an c e :T r an s l a t i on s andCu l tu r a lT r an sm i s s i oninE a r ly M od e rnEng l and 59 H en ryB e r l in ,A l on eT og e th e r :P o e t i c so fth eP a s s i on sinL a t eM ed i ev a l I b e r i a 60 Ad r ianShub e r t ,Th eSw o rdo fLu ch an a :B a ld om e r oE sp a r t e r oandth e M a k ingo fM od e rnSp a in ,1793–1879 61 Jo rg eP é r ez ,F a sh i on ingSp an i shC in em a :C o s tum e ,Id en t i ty ,and S t a rd om 62 En r iqu e taZa f ra ,L a z a r i l l od eT o rm e s :AG r aph i cN ov e l 63 E r inA l i c eCow l ing ,Ch o c o l a t e :H owaN ew W o r ldC omm od i ty C on qu e r edSp an i shL i t e r a tu r e 64 Ma ryE .Ba rna rd , AP o e t ryo fTh ing s :Th eM a t e r i a lL y r i cinH a b s bu r g Sp a in 65 F r ed e r i ckA .d eA rma sandJam e s Mand r e l l( ed s ) ,Th e G a s t r on om i c a lA r t sinSp a in :F o odandE t i qu e t t e 66 Ca th e r in eIn fan t e ,Th eA r t so fEn c oun t e r :Ch r i s t i an s , Mu s l im s ,andth e P ow e ro fIm ag e sinE a r ly M od e rnSp a in 67 Rob e r tR i chmondE l l i s ,B i b l i oph i l e s , Mu rd e r ou sB o o km en ,and M ad L i b r a r i an s :Th eS t o ryo fB o o k sin M od e rnSp a in 68 B ea t r izd eA lba -Ko ch( ed ) ,Th eI b e r o -Am e r i c anB a r o qu e 69 D ebo rahR .Fo r t eza ,Th eEng l i shR e f o rm a t i oninth eSp an i sh Im ag in a t i on :R ew r i t ingN e r o ,J e z e b e l ,andth eD r ag on 70 O lgaS end raF e r r e r, B a r c e l on a ,C i tyo fM a r g in s 71 Da l eShug e r ,G od M ad eW o rd :AnA r ch a e o l ogyo f My s t i cD i s c ou r s ein E a r ly M od e rnSp a in 72 Xo s éM . Núñ ezS e ixa s ,Th eSp an i shB lu eD iv i s i ononth eE a s t e rn F r on t ,1941–1945 :W a rExp e r i en c e ,O c cup a t i on ,M em o ry