The social and economic history of the Roman Empire, Vol. 2 9780198142317

Citation preview

THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE

ROMAN EMPIRE

DEBRw ot:Pets ok Bs genes eae ctDyas. es See Pe 3.NR .._7. IE :_ oe : . 4 a . oe os Boy . . . : : . : ee ED . woe . . . . . . . . ; on - . . ; atone a weley as .Roe aENR AST TE ES aOO oa ..*;awt Cd :. :.a. .:".. :OO ISS SR RENO ae saat .SAS ...::';.:.:oly tg -.aFRC REE RN RIS CANTER OREN ORO ;Lh oS coe 3fo Si SS SSeS Bias NSA SS .aee.:; oh 1aLo We ._ . PRRs .a SEN eS ee SeSER eee eeRO CO sea tee boa . ge Re ee eae ON FS . . rn ag - BP Car oeRE4Ber nee ARS BRE RS aes ee ®. . Serer .a":. :acos 8 : : ..AS .:So ERR. Le NO ge RMS Coes oS hl NBSeee ESR RRR Rak ORR RE-Sa Sa - of . . 8CS ee,:ST Cf EES SPE BEERS SS ERE RORY CLS . ..as) ::a-vies eo Bees ss cg ile -:a:oo:|DoS . . SEE eRe Sod a ce ae te ght VE : ee s cu eee eee ee | . ee a BE a oe SSE tes ae eee Ce , Rene Bike em EL I BIG EE RSS RMB SE se SE SSR ESSERE dS . ° zs SRR OE, cS ORE Sa : : : : ue wo SS SOR Se ee : : ORES oe ST eae RS . :oto eecee ee ee os es ::PRS aes eeae nSSie :we ;eet oe aBe AeSnOo BOERS CESS Bee es es . . MEM : i See ee= erSees ete ss? eeee SEE ARS BENSRS RQRE og as Star eeeek AEE SS ."oe : . ease ae UBT aae ce ee One eee ee eee “SRR

..‘....-:: " “hE RRR COUN ORE RRR ERO! ISS Es - vhs eeES . =yy SS . . .Re an CIE SS «Ra iors pikes .. .woe ; .. Pas ae e: i.Sees iEER RD etase Soc Oa ey.SPRERGRSS aotSake kes goa |.. co! OR :oe: MRS SRE .7;rege :oo dez ° BOE ; ‘DoS ites AL ioe«,Ot eee che ee ee .iite BREA aoeian -. .oo FE

,:uo .: ;. BRAS Soe tgel 1SOS ae aeR SE SO an:2tae SR Se. lok cenegs oeSR, cS aeDos . : -Sr . . ;etgated BS a: SO, eae OO oS OeOt blake : ere Fe ee en ee Bee a RES eta . _ He. - SSR: < Fes HE SE EERIE SS, NR SO 2: RE

Bae: War ihPerea eS . ;Se. ss : :it:ee CORRES ¢ BRS SOUS OF iatS50 SeeTn eee eS eaouSES ~mos,, . :a.. LE : BP ee ee a BEE Pe eee ee fern ee ae. Ae OU aee see SRRRBRE OE ee Seer Nae . SG Me: Bestoes,. “Socmcrsey sl a ee ee oo re ee eS ee eeSeed eR Re eRe .Stee DS hte, TEN SES oe ES Sor BR ae 3 ETONERENS eNeeeRS is See ge nn oo ee eee ee A ee fe FRCS 7 . . rdoO Se irae SSE eran ee Be oie SRE SOs EE ‘ BR ae ES SE SR RE oR SE ES Ss :ogy 4hee SESS Saeee Be ee reeES ee CY Arg RARE area Sar 7:“;.".:a Seren AR SSE RRR ees SEE Be See ee Fre RR OR oe SARS EA = oes Ce at Bs gE Re: Ne ne Oe ee < ORR 3 ERR os SER ERS RE ee SRN IRR ceed

AON ee Le ASRAR ON a ee ERS. eeUe PSOEOR SS MMSE A RRC. SIMMS he ee Tes ,:"Leee: re se ee SSoa ERG -:::OR SB a LM eB eeINS SS EESt RNS ee eGwme SS © Sa ” PORIIRNS CUSCOC TREE. SEA errr RR aaa Fue OeRRS, eeSoo SeeCesRN etegoo ae fags OSS En oe seeaeet es . § Oe ee Ss Soak ll a SEES Rg ee Oe er NC ce cS i AS : i SN eRERS EON RS Sees EERE oo SCRee Cen Sag BR 2G ARETCL ERESOR SOSRe 5”SO SEC RNRNRRON SREP OC MERE LASS aS~Ree SSS eeSSSR Fe Bees See RauUe reeONS RR Loe Sega SRE TSBe BREA SS PE BIR PE NN SYS ifs5RES SES ge eoneytee hof ae REG .- .,ya&, AROSE SRR a SnSESE 7 REE os ERooRY SE OO aSSSgcRRR ¢ OS SELES S UES OR ROR RAE RECS eS SR SR TERR RRIRRR ee EPLA SS, ARR OCR SORA SENN 5 RASS EScSSE SSSIOT 2aBAe SR SSR SisROR ES SRG OMMEERSS PR OS NOGER ARER ERR S EAE ae bsAP eee! a3eSBee REE OS RSME SSS SEO ON Sos ERPS SS oN oe RUN ONT BRNO BEF SNRS ie EEE RS OE OE ES Ss BERS SS SERS SRN SRNR RC RNS CRC eee F So ee. SSSoeSRS ES Soe VRING SONoe O08 ENS 2 cei hea SINER raeSORES WEAR ees SRE OSESSE er fee. SHS RR es : :‘ ‘¥BS RYalgSoe 2 Mr SS RRR PENS: He eee RIE 2SSNE oS SPEC SSOER KS Se SSeS I 3. SSSIS SCA

., :ae oeOO SRR RNSeONY ROI ee ES OM er heeeele ery AT a a ag eS oe oO ee RES ; ae MM Xs Ce Vie ee SA SERRS | SESE RO Ee rhsNGS gee neON ee eeSS Cae ce |arSRR I ea Pee nan)

. e.Sea:REE SPS et. POEs SN ee AO ec182,SRR RS ye Ae RS CR ee aa RR SeSN eee os OR Og MRI EP aie SS oo Bac § Roars: xeMCR LORS 7SENS SRRSoS aera Seas RRERROEEROC S$. Sia SS,PRS #0 SRY ee," BOR SUS. ae Bs ERS SRR EOE ce er BRB AY Siri i3S Ml ae. ih SS MIR Ee SRE SSN ORE PoP ORNS RAN SCRE BNes BOO RES SRNRee Ay SMES ORME RESoe SNRSCPR SRR |G eRe ©'9 i.. .i 2. Se. een SeeCSROR SOR RECT FsUMS MIPaga eae Ste SR eSRD Nee) RIS ova Rae eR aeSagal ERR PRIS SERRE | ROR: Set REY asSESS Sa Rass $8

- ,Pog BE. 1S _RAS SS SleG eR ey RRSR NE oe Se ee Poke ea ee Sa4asfon Shi ss PE*a Se ae gectes CBRN i Mims Revel a aSaati feeakEaSSSe Redat| Sarr ON

SFC ARR SN ca Nae mete any eto OR RN SES RI Sai tense nan Geer Goce SoU NCR SRR ga CR RENN ac | owe 3 Ye ieee: es RR SPS aa RR EE EE ae

CRE SUE ee ESE BaeBese BPE ee Res. ES PES 2 ESSE EOS EER UUME corey PeeBRceESeee yei =. Co==#= Se aSe528SeeereeRSe SaaS EOE Se ee oeesaeas ca ee PES EAS ge RS eae ee ees Cees © PAS eee Seas | eee}. 0 6=§56—6Cfh. ges aes oes. HO

ee pee ey* — s—“(i—SsSsSsi—Ss SGeeaoe 8 Se oe oe eeCea ee ee poee ees eeSE i r—“—_i—O™OOOOOCOCOCOCOCzsCS:S:szSsétésa CC Sa,Poe Nae Oramaaass $3 CesOSS ahaa eeESRs Bee Ps ee ee SORE os Re ‘Ss e.: |_| Bee! Oe BE AS eeUES ERs Oe Se Beh ee ee RESes See ears —rr———C“i;””OC~”C~*”~”C~”~C”C—~—C—~—~—Cr~—C:«iCkzSCKsi‘a NCirsC:CCi*CSRE Pins oe PIES ESoe Re OG OEE ee eS rrrrr—“‘“‘RRRCCNONCCUCCCCiCiCUi(COOOCC:sC'isCWCsC ——,h,rrr—“( ‘i‘CiOsCstsisisCisCrsSCSsi“‘C(;RSSC;*C*C“‘“(CSCOC SRO GER SLES BUooerORE acento sere 4 oe RSM Pe SE GOSS Se eeSees ee ee ceBASS ee co SSRs AS ee

oe te oeSeoe ee ees Sees =a.--SS. _ Baie i |== Lip2ROT MEM EERE ae oeOSI CBE SOs har OS ECE SS|| feeURS Sins eae a osee es eesc Bie. 2 ae i 2S29 RNs Bese ea PEERS SO SS oeSonC Renee : eS JS Ess! rr REAR ERR. CR FR RSSORENESS LE SERRE rineeceemins emcee eer eae oeameen. ee eas eee 2»RU Mi cy eee ..6©=—h6ef6 es Bee ae Pecan Ea eee Sey SEM) SERRE * SA? ieeerame sent foacyxe ae Eee Se ee= BUSES ee eeSena ee errrr—srs—sSsi—“i‘COCOisCsisOCOSCNC:*C*CéCi*ésCN Ee ReSees oe |._RNS cs Ff. ae FRE 5.petO CC ee eeBe ee ———— ee ee ee EEC Cae LARS RSS SEE SRcee

HE Re Ses Tee See -S ee or SES Bee —— —i—‘isO—C me re ae tees, Pak Pe ESS ee eee ee Be MIR oS Bet ksh Swen SE SCE SS SSN Ree ME eae Rake SS a SE EER SSR AERA a a SS eet aN ae ee ee re oeose ees specs Ayo ee ric 7Re oC ee SBS RL Se ae ee oe Cr eeas ed SESE See ee oes enee Ree: Re panne as CARRERE 1.eSRS AR Re eee aH RS Se Be|.Ven SE BSS AeOe eean S aBerc iee . rr .Rees . Worneena RENEE Ps TSE ee ee ee SS BeOS SS Seay eaererr | Leste Se —rrrrr—“ eer RE REN Re eee |TS Ree ae Re oe teRR, ERS=:Seeen tyRRR PESOS SES ORRIN SIN ea RR ee Swe SN cae ERE Cyee ceee PeeRRS ie eeeAe SRR Recast Cee SRBC OnSURO a eRaSate ee RR iee ce napee es RN OMe CARES RO. ge SC IGEN SNRES NeRae OVID ee HON eGR Fo nent, gupta OT RRR, se“va pees SesR ae ace ar ge: asSraSate ere Smet Sic7 UNM fg RES 8DEC Ee PORE NG PES SRC Teea RG eRNUS KSes S AO % So a Rae OE Ne STS Can ee ERR TRgOSLE eeaca RES DSRS EROS uetac REIT AOR BREE SANE CV BRR te apL io Res RN STa LRER BI Od STERN REN SRR RRA T OOS I reg DR EELS 0oa, Ee EE NS ,hws Speers, BOSS aaa Sak rao Oe PRR RINT SisOR OGRE See RRSSan ReiSN ENNome eee, Ure Ae ee OeRe nd :ON * ee ere CEES: SATEEN Sam nea REE Sncnrpint pabtbbbog aches ERG SOSSCR BORE NGO OE ER WEE GES oeeR See rasetanes rete CARRS Re Na SRS ee adeen ®RYBIE Eeeeesceeae eat Ait ELS NUR eS RUBRIC ANGIE SUNS eeegeo eee aeSPSS ERIE aSS SNC Cee eee TO ERRESS. ROSSER See ot CSA ROARE Rather Canny Sea

Re ee rs A Re CSRS Ye Cee = eee cee Ras ra RS ce RR ee : See ee Re ae Sy ONS SPO RR Bee 4

rr : ee Coaa oo cs ee— Sesa. —oe ne Disoos eeoS——s UN RENO greene ee a eS aN Nas OR ORG ROC eR eee CRE rnSR POLS EDEE ON SOREN ERR Ee OSE ETO PERCE Sere oe eerSPROEIN ciyaatte : et Be SO arran teaNeg ACES 2 Oe ONS pO Or etPERS 6LPRgoes, eR ESR Ree POS ae rer NNT Se:BORO ae ccuetean§isgst Ra ORION ONC It CS URG SE ORU RN eR-OE Se ee Sk pata SAR Bietrrorten apoccinns.SIO GS BR ERROR CREE RRR ROS SRN a Sena Sues FST SO eS:: aSWRI AER See So POS Re SOREESE EER Gene Sees tNBANU ea eae RO ER Ee SeSin: hte sh ae yam Oe EA TO RE ECS ESOS EUS cre

OOS eeotREE ST £495 ys SARIS pea aemw ts BROeeROG ee Fey USSR EaeeEERO ROE SS BER eR RecA ORS ARR ensbitensto a9.ature . PRISE OOS GR Ae aRU Re a ea BORGES cor hiRoe er aCoS a GaN SSE SEE et SOTO RUESORES AEN ECO BeSeay RS PRE OREaSena RRR og SOO PeESAS ee ee eA E NNBRE Be SE ASRS SEOSCR GE AS tte ee SRC OSOU SOS & RE ok AG ee SoeRRS BR Sane ce srpenn sO Re Nao Cae a eS BESET eeNO ONO SS NC CES Rice eRe aeRES eee erNe URS Ge SRE aiaibineatoni EeREN SUSOES VENI a Smee A eR Be eri inet eis ain OR eS GOR ORR ROS ECS AEB BD ERR RON Se es NRO en SRNR RR RON RO ANS Ree ARNE a Oe SS RRR SR ERRNO RNS SUR cu UNE RR aE Re NER SES RE RE SORES SSS PERG SS RS A SOG ER aCe

SRS SRO PacoSOLER A SOROS NERISS CCRRS EERSEEN EO US FRSA Ur TR CRED RRRRCN CRORE NR LHSUAR USOT Crate pS RRR BeeAE RCSSO PESSES aS OR PS SRL SS cia SSEPFGsORT OAS er OS CeCRY SUEESE OA RON RONG Rent MERU EY BS ree Se ES RSIS ONER ROE OS RNR : AUR E NORE ONES SRO ein ONS SS RN ee BRANES: SERS ea EON Se Ape RES EIEN

BRS RS aoe ARLDR Oe OREN SPSS i NeERC onesNG REN REoe RAN an ERRORS eS ERY SORE D EOS: Rs ea PENON C ee n SSA ead EEgONeSOOO eee ag, MUNN OR EES SENGSee ean ese ein ean SESE (LGN ORES ARES NGAUS RE SASSI SR ON OG LONY URANO a SOM aRPees Wut GR EES tyRsgee eeneseeSS SRE SOARS CR OSE RE

Re Niner es en Rory ues SEY ag AAPOR pte USRU SAE ere Re ea NE MRRO NS OKyn SBR ES Re OSS CRRCAEG OS SOs SEN Cea RSS PRC RERae RRA RCE SURE RR og Sa See ae BRT RTceAS NS SRR Reena ® Sa es OEE RU EAN ES EARN Le UREA SOO RO ONO Renta BERS 7RO ON ane RR Ae rate CNR Ones CNPRR PeGN OSCR Ge eeeSe Ee Bes ieee LEP aan rags ENE CRS SS SUE TON ee, UoicREE SRR SRSRE BN U S34ey Ree SROOES ROC RAN RENSS aNOER ANS Sas Fa RSS CE ceieRe RSSacer RRR GR RE SERIO ARGS CoRR SAB SERRE RRSee IS See a ans os

EEO BRIA GY ERT SRO SSa so IDaeoC ee eesioe ao eerSee ee om eeein eS RRR eeUNET oe Se | SER esSe CeEe CteRSO ee Oe ee Re eat CRaC ji See Rt es Oe eReBREE CCL SON ESN REESE NSS OSGI Seee PENG GCS

PE CUORRCER E ES EOSOLE f

WARRIORS I.: NLA y

oe Baas ee i. OTS ee lr lc Pe CN CaN RA SOR a Re OE ti ( si—i> Pe Sees. AES ee e Bees _ Seewee : es OB “ a et af Res ae Ae ea eee ee > aS “ s-ms -— a4 ka KE Pe? ra ae ee Be a pe a cee f BAe 3 5 Bee oS ” See ps pe) .— ao ais hE Yer ho ra api Ay” ae 4 ae S. oe a eee AS Behoe tog ee : .cao aa mete, 3% coe apeeese ss . er .ec Sa “3¢ eg x 2: aE ie re ee BER a:on=& F.Me aan ceee Sey -to me geAS . roN vores rosie: m Ee «, Re RSRRS. gf iesgt °Ps Ntere 1ee aeeSe ge : re Ses a.|ETRE 4yee” sd ry. «ge Ng Se :. ee ao :rae aie. ®:We Bil Pa “eo yn 8eeBO 3S pay 4 de ee yShe oan iaa+g Sy, “ye RNS >Fg 5 4aSvt a ey ay %4se Bloc

; .4ae th ee 3204 ;es thop §HfEB ey’ _*Es SL ees Act21.8 oo P32 ee te os sti. pee -a>. |oe gh, gSaba :og aaa£Ee By ®FE oO .*6. ayoo ee . BE ok ES. a rik ae :Bae ee OE e2h iDE ee ?&ES aaa fg AS athy 6I? alae at» SBec Rhee hye 8Fi ee Se“re Ai 7yee & >iy‘, gk OSS +BEBE eo Ss 3coo eas Sep id— j4 aBe ae A aos ss io &FEBS @ “on Bowel . ARye VA @: EsFs iee we ey NS poe Biss 2G ; Be 7 ee, ie Ne, oe? @ TNR By eg ; : ie oe, a ° 5 Sj Sm SO ERA 4 eg F Sa ea . i, Ly . ed § Ripert Ss ee ; te me EBS ? peas * no, SE 2 Pek Bel do:AS Mg Se “nme BE ee /BS Awee ae Lee e 42 Se* ee $e RRS a:34ao -eS :RZ .BER 3 PEE Bes aS: te pete 22Lae . iS eee 4Si we eewees gees PES ; Bais ,BES 4ive. %; es: .Eye Be aPy . .::ieSn, tertFRE SME encore Ber aARS MAL a EO a6 coo ROE: ee 92g a Bye - i ee aeSha) eae or. ES«3 ape aap cesES= iis ez aa ati:See: eOs% rig Dae 9 2 ER epeebiSo feeror eee

“FfBe BeerABS. ee6akpebei.Dy POR,Pers: SE =. °S™ e/a ae en Ae eS Bea 33be go.8% ESNai: ee SS 2 Seen eee 2 RNS ex Lpgamin, SAF ee ae ssfeRY a macgigity #: eeAE. | sie SES nnsear” egaaa SS Ae oieBOT 2 ik he gone Boe. whore Beefoes : ee 84 eeSE Bed PR ae pad - ee & At a BeSE Oefee 8 oten RSa oe th A oeSD 2 a Bg. a AN PRET | eS| Vinee aes Sh”rape ae Ramee? 5032

”. Ba aoRE eee E,£7*i 4: ec 9g ggg7 3i.penises eeRy ae ae 4 3oe eh4 jSomme Te a eee Be i Se OM ae eS:Se, Pi, BaEe” SS oo eSxstfoe mT BAT Seat Foake $F iS? 3 a Saeed ¢ey Sos Ao RUSE aaeeFe aa_ ON AO a ’ag 3MET .7% age re syweesi. pele fe .Be grees kee} ESPiceee: aes Bi cy ane tae

pe toe i eaeFg Ava e. ie‘ i453 ; Peoe f ge , %BEN Ps Pe ie ee aeM, 33 3‘>we . a an eei sty. ; Bai~. “3 as, Mg*REY “4Joe ae Bee eoRia adwRpiigs ne, eoyaSe Se aE a. 3ani poe £fs ES cod es ee aSe mee 7: BN tag Babee ¥ooBe eet ie 28:gee Rages Le. i pe) a* een een, Ne ni anelee mes BS t™ $FAP PE BR ee tinet “apa ee? .aeoS Oa v:a4E a4,.eeaie Si aSiee 5. eee . ee pe aS

, a Bee Boe Pee ER Py FHP g emis Be , a ie Rerke, case aes 7 : aa ONES ill ato EER z 2: eee

wee aoe Neat Pole tend es me ES eeie: PG eee °ges: \ a Sie oe Ay. SaSai Oe 2Sere Fe igs ee ‘an LGce ekpF aea. "s& a— et: 3°+,Lag Be Sf a$ssio ees a ee ob Bes 2aeTega . Bd BS Sa sa eee eae? REESE . AggaK whee ope. Cee ee er@ 2 sc as aAM Go eSe >esae 2 oe eS vy :FR, uae ioe Begs Ea RicHa Ee ee ee: Bi GaP eS Pa. 5% :Pea es§& ee eEe = e7aaa fei .ate £3 oa ey ¥ BioS Re 145% ge, be bt=aes bat 2 Beh be ee PRO Ae ee oY 34Eee Ee BN seAE nS ieAS cs >ae os ee ipint eee SSS » Shc, Se ao 3g ee ' PE Bey a : -S ° | a4 ae ie ty Spel . ie re Ya Sol aie e Ve heed Rey 4 Bae 3cnaati ER i Bote aoy gee. 7% Be me ee aeite Seoo Beers el | eee Sewee. ite. eR . 3oe ! x1;ae “RE »..|. ay -Re dere Be ihxEo PRY pote, Ba? 3S sine, ear oe th +R Fae aa “acee aah ‘. ee é,Peer Re ne i:Se alll -€i.Be oe ae eee ge, ne Sftee RR WE EEams ey3ale an Lee See a,See »ee 'ae yia aewe >we NR 2oe ee ap he oheeEE gk enea EL aeeke ge 3S

co. :me eaee“:ig: cS ee OT ony & PSs dt sss os eeFf rtLeat Hi, _— 4sf ‘og “ Be A: eieeSe AA ge iay ee aaie 2, isesSa Be ead aa icemtttiatat ns Bhd xin, oo: awe Se ae aad ae ee oe Ses Be Re re RS en gh pails ;soe < hatha iat oi, eT Pew ote ees sO PaTs “ee “pve eer 2“ .aS es Ree pe Ge ee Ld as ae ca :Secale . _— OsSen oy ay een cane eae ad i:eal mate: pee De a* yg RRR Pras. Shee. Ss ae i,elnag SS Bete Ne reste RienBaked cle SER por nse eat Fae so we fin ges we BAP og eese mg gone ES Pe bola Degen, Pest pas REE We ne gP‘gala Sp. 8 es: RB og See Res BM Sar iting SB feck foo wat PeSET eas ey AAEREN AS =e ats OR thy. Fag ii. OI ESBE cs A OR oe Oe aS a.Boe 95 » ane gerne ee ER Bo grxan Wee Lees ae rea *Pg eae? kdOE RE CONC TE awee amare ve% 4, ees, Raa

ONE ee eeseyemer L oO ee cats STAO aksiia Pe| F Lean THE SLABS Roepe es Sone Bae ee eeu Siar Tees cnn ataeMM Se KOCR ehgh jeaeds pe hen BPE Se oeparce ibe Gattaseet Barn BS ee. ¥ RAS RG 5| a cote ety MaRAL ST A Tew ea&pS Be AEE

. THE LEADINNG IDEA “ OFE AUGU5i

U Ss

II The Policy of Augustus 45 best Roman spirit, of the Ara Pacis at Rome, the Altar of Peace built on the Field of Mars, especially in the idyllic scenes with the figure of Terra Mater surrounded by the elements and symbolizing the creative forces of nature as restored and protected by Augustus.3

What has been said of the mood of the population of the Roman Empire in general is not intended to imply that everybody was of the same opinion. There were, to be sure, exceptions, and the most striking was the majority of the senatorial class. Nobody would expect those Stoics and Epicureans to look upon Augustus as a divine being, son of the equally divine Julius. ‘They regarded him as one of their own class, one who was more successful than themselves. Some of them hated Augustus because he had prac-

tically put an end to the exclusive domination of the senate; some had personal reasons, some were actuated by jealousy and regarded themselves as having the same right as Augustus to be leaders of the state, principes. Hence the not infrequent plots and conspiracies against the life of Augustus. The attitude of the senatorial class, however, was of no importance. Besides, the majority of the senate and of the senatorial class, glad to have peace re-

stored again, indulged not so much in displays of republican spirit as in demonstrations of contemptible servility. From time to time agitations also broke out in the provinces, which showed how Augustus never felt completely secure and how

both he and the provincial governors considered 1t opportune to take adequate measures. One such agitation—certainly of slight importance—occurred in, or shortly before, 7/6 B.c.4 Nevertheless, the anxieties of Augustus and of the provincial governors were undoubtedly excessive. The quiet temper of the army, which reflected that of the people in general, made it possible for Augustus, despite the latent contradiction in the political system of the Roman state, to carry out the work of restoration

undisturbed by new outbursts of civil strife. The fulfilment of his promise to the Roman citizens meant not merely the maintenance of their political privileges, but, above all, the avoidance of encroachment on their social and economic position, and indeed the increase of their opportunities in comparison with the other classes of the population of the Empire. Here again what was demanded of Augustus was not a work of antiquarian restora-

tion but a consolidation of what he found firmly established in

46 The Policy of Augustus CHAP. the economic and social life of the Roman state and what, to a great extent, was a creation of the civil wars. During these wars the differences between the classes of Roman citizens had not been wiped out. The senatorial class remained as exclusive as it had been before. ‘The knights realized their great importance for the state and regarded those who had not the same standing and the same means as far inferior beings. The same classes existed in the Italian cities. ‘The senatorial aristocracy, members of the municipal councils, some of them Roman knights, formed the upper order. Alongside of them, but inferior to them, was the mass of the well-to-do bourgeoisie, in part not even freeborn men and women. The distinction between the different groups of these higher classes, alike in the city of Rome and in the Italian municipia, was very sharp. Among the senators only those who were members of the patrician order and those who numbered a consul among their ancestors counted as belonging to the nobilitas. In the eyes of these nobiles all the others were more or less parvenus. ‘The Roman knights who succeeded

in breaching the wall that surrounded the senatorial aristocracy were regarded as intruders, as new men. The senators and knights of the capital smiled at the boorishness of the municipal gransignori. ‘The latter in their turn despised the rich freedmen and others. And separated from them all stood the lower classes of the free-born population, the mass of free peasants, free artisans, half-free farmers, and manual workers. Among the lower classes, again, those resident in the city looked with a kind of contempt on the peasants, the pagant or rustic. In the background there was the enormous mass of slaves—servants, artisans, agriculturists, miners, sailors, and so forth. We are speaking here, not of the provinces, but of the social divisions among the Roman citizens in Italy. Augustus never dreamt of altering these conditions; he took

them for granted. What he did was to sharpen the edges, to deepen the gulf between the classes and to assign to each its part

in the life of the state. If the Roman citizens were to be the masters and rulers, each group of them must have its special task in the difficult business of ruling the world-empire. The work of

Augustus in this respect is well known and hardly requires detailed description. The senatorial class furnished the state with the members of the supreme council of the Empire—the senate—

ui The Policy of Augustus 47 with the magistrates of the city of Rome, with the governors of the provinces (whether appointed by the senate or representing the emperor in the provinces which were governed by him), with generals, and with a large part of the officers of the citizen army. The equestrian class supplied the jurors of the Roman courts, one part of the provincial governors, the commanders of the fleet and of the troops stationed in Rome, the officers of the auxiliary troops and, to some extent, those of the legions, and finally the ever-growing mass of civil officials in the personal service of the emperors. The cities of Italy, except for the higher aristocracy, which mostly belonged to the equestrian class, had to provide the state with good soldiers for the praetorian guard and the legions, and with non-commissioned officers for the guard, the legions, and the auxiliary troops. ‘The freedmen furnished sailors for the navy and firemen for the capital. Lastly, a higher class of slaves and freedmen—those of the emperor—served in the

bureaux and offices of the Imperial household, branches of which were spread all over the Empire. This discrimination between the various classes was not new. It was taken over from the established habits and customs of the later Republic. The distinguishing features were of a purely materialistic character. To a certain extent birth played a part

in drawing the lines of distinction. But the main point was material welfare, a larger or smaller fortune, a census of definite dimensions. Nobody, of course, asked for a particular standard

of education. That was taken for granted, as one of the distinguishing features of the higher classes in general. ‘The only educa-

tional training required by the state from the aristocratic and freeborn youth of the capital and of the Italian cities was some degree of physical and military training. As the promotion from one class to another depended practically on the emperor, loyalty towards the emperor was required as one of the most important conditions.5

Such was the situation in Italy. It was a stabilization and consecration of conditions which had prevailed during the period of the civil wars. The same policy was pursued by Augustus in regard to the provinces. Nothing of importance was done to give them a share in the management of the state. The provinces remained what they had been before, estates of the Roman people.

It was as difficult as before for the provincials to attain the

48 The Policy of Augustus CHAP. franchise. In this respect the policy of Augustus was a reaction as compared with that of Pompey, Caesar, and Antony. Very little, too, was done to promote the provincial cities to the higher stages

of municipal dignity, that is to say, to assimilate their rights to those of the Italian cities and of such provincial cities as had already received Italian rights. The only noticeable exception was the treatment of the oldest province of the Roman Empire— Sicily, which practically formed a part of Italy, like the valley of the river Po. Progress in this direction was rather slow in the time of Augustus after the end of the civil wars. What he did was done mostly during the turmoil of the civil wars and immediately after their close.® Nevertheless the provinces, and especially the provinces of the East, were the first to experience the blessings of the new régime.

Without making any change in the system of provincial administration, Augustus succeeded in improving enormously the prac-

tice of government. The provinces continued to be ruled by members of the senatorial class. They governed either in the name of the emperor or under his steady control. But the rule of the senatorial class as such came to an end, and simultaneously the methods of government became much fairer and much more humane. With the establishment of peace came the end of requisitions and contributions. With it, too, came the end of the domination of Roman usurers. Direct taxation became gradually stabilized and, being stabilized, ceased to offer an attractive field for the companies of Roman tax-collectors. ‘These companies began to die out and were gradually replaced (for instance, in the case of the new taxes paid by Roman citizens only, which were introduced by Augustus) by agents of the government who dealt directly with the taxpayers. The taxes were not reduced. For some sections of the population they were even increased. But a better system of collection meant a good deal for the provinces.7 Moreover, the provincials were now well aware that if they complained to the emperor or the senate, through the representatives of the cities who gathered every year to celebrate the festivals of the imperial cult, they would get a more sympathetic hearing and obtain greater satisfaction than they had received before.® In case of conflict with the governor the provincial councils could always approach the emperor himself. And, what was

not of least importance, provincials knew perfectly well that

i The Policy of Augustus 49 everything which went on in the provinces was known to the emperor through his personal agents, the procurators, who managed his private financial business in the senatorial provinces and collected the taxes in the others.9 In their internal affairs the cities of the Eastern provinces (with the exception of Egypt) remained as independent as before, and perhaps became more independent than they had ever been. No attempt was made by Augustus to effect any change in the social

conditions which prevailed in these provinces, most of which were aggregates of Greek and Hellenized cities. ‘The city admini-

stration with its magistrates and its council (BovAy) was such a good medium for reaching the masses of the population that a change in the system would have been a foolish attempt to divert the course of natural evolution. In the time of Augustus the cities of the Greek East never dreamed of the possibility of regaining the ancient liberty of the city-state. They acquiesced in the fact that their political liberty was gone for ever. They were glad to retain their local selfgovernment. The Roman government on its side desired quiet and order to prevail in the cities. ‘The age of social and political revolutions was past. The best guarantee for the stability of internal conditions in the cities was the rule of the wealthiest citizens. Lhe protection of this social class had been the traditional policy of the Romans ever since they had appeared in the East, and it was the policy of Augustus also. The only new feature, if new it was, discernible in Augustus’ policy towards the Eastern provinces was the fresh impetus given to the movement initiated by some of the Hellenistic rulers, which aimed at the rapid transformation of city-less territories into regular city-states. All over the East Augustus faithfully followed the policy of Pompey, Gaesar, and Antony as against that of the senate, creating new city-states out of villages, hamlets, and temple territories. ‘The Roman Empire was to become a commonwealth of self-governing cities.!° Exception was made only in the case of Egypt, with its immemorial organization, so different and so far removed from the system of a Greek citystate.?!

A splendid confirmation of my remarks on the work of Augustus in the East is to be found in two of the five edicts issued by

4735.1 E

him (namely, the first and the fourth; compare also the third),

50 The Policy of Augustus CHAP. found in Cyrene (cf. notes 6 and 8 to this chapter). These deal with various problems in the life of the city, particularly the diffi-

cult question of relations between the Roman citizens resident there and the Greeks who, asa whole, were not necessarily citizens either of the city of Cyrene or of the cities of the Pentapolis. ‘The

privileges of the few Roman citizens domiciled in Cyrene and who were in part of Greek blood—for the most part not very wealthy—remained what they had been before, but some slight reforms assured the Greeks of not insignificant improvements, par-

ticularly in regard to the organization of the tribunals, and to the liturgies and municipal taxes. The question of the privileges granted to the new Roman citizens of Greek origin was of impor-

tance: probably these were those who had received citizenship en masse from Pompey, Caesar, Antony, and Augustus himself. The emperor decided to consider them as a special class of Roman citizens possessing restricted rights. ‘They remained members of the Greek community in respect of taxes and liturgies, with the exception of those who had received a personal grant of immunitas; and even this last privilege was valid only for estate already in possession and not for subsequent acquisitions (see note 6). The same principle of policy was applied by Augustus to the West—to Gaul, Spain, and Africa. Not satisfied with creating new colonies of Roman citizens, he endeavoured to introduce city life into the tribal system of the Celtic peoples in Gaul and Spain, and to revive it in the former Carthaginian state of Africa. It would be out of place to deal fully with this topic here. The importance for the future of the Western provinces of the policy of urbanizing their social and economic life will be plain to every reader. In the new cities the leading class was, of course, the wealthy citizens, who were staunch supporters of the Roman régime. !2

Mainly as the result of this policy, the external aspect of many countries began to change almost completely. In Asia Minor and Syria the difference was less marked, for here (as we have said) the process of transforming tribes, villages, and temple-lands into city territories had begun with Alexander the Great and perhaps earlier. But in the Western provinces it was very striking. ‘The Celtic towns on the tops of hills and mountains, fortified refuges and market-places, died out. The ruling aristocracy of the Celtic

I The Policy of Augustus 51 tribes settled in the plains near the great rivers of France and of Spain. Here they built houses and erected the usual public buildings. [he new centres of life attracted merchants, artisans, and sailors. A real city was thus formed. In Africa the great city of Carthage was rebuilt and began to be prosperous again. The old

Phoenician communities on the coast started a new life. The

mixed Punic and Berber communes of the fertile plains of Africa and Numidia, some of which sheltered a community of Roman emigrants, recovered from the shattering effects of the civil wars

and resumed their economic activity. New agglomerations of houses were formed in the South, East, and West, under the protection of Roman soldiers, soon to assume the shape of regular cities. In Africa, as elsewhere—on the Rhine, on the Danube, and in Spain—large settlements consisting of shops and houses, called canabae, grew up around the forts of the legions and auxiliary troops and on the roads leading to them, to form the nucleus of future cities. Discharged soldiers increased the population of these settlements or received, as a group, land on which to settle

and build a city. Thus the Roman Empire was gradually transformed by the conscious efforts of its ruler into an aggregate of city-states. Augustus stood out as the leader not only of the Roman citizens in Rome, Italy, and the provinces, but also of all the urban, that is to say, the civilized elements of the Empire, as a leader who was assured of their support. This fact was emphatically expressed in the composition of the Roman imperial guard and of the Roman imperial legions. They were representative both of the Roman citizens and of the urban population of the Empire, though the former element was, of course, the more dominant. To the non-urban elements, the tribes and villages which were attached to the cities, was assigned a secondary role in the life of the Empire. They had to work and to obey, they were not free in the ancient sense of the word. We turn now to the economic policy of Augustus. His main endeavour was to fulfil his promise to restore peace and prosperity. In this task he succeeded admirably. But we must not forget that behind Augustus stood the traditions of the Roman past, the glorious records of brilliant conquests and the longing of the majority of the Roman citizens for peace. They wanted peace, but a peace with dignity. For Romans this meant a further

52 The Policy of Augustus CHAP. advance on the path of conquest and annexation. We must remember, too, that Augustus himself was a Roman aristocrat and that for him, as for all the leading men of Rome, military glory and military laurels, victories and triumphs were the most desirable achievements of human life. Moreover, the fabric of the Roman Empire was far from completed. Augustus was the adopted son of Caesar, and everybody knew that Caesar had had two main tasks in mind: the consolidation of the Roman power in the North and in the North-east, and the redeeming of Roman honour, so badly tarnished in the East and South-east by the defeat of Crassus and the half-successes of Antony. On the foreign policy of Augustus a few words must suffice. The rule of Augustus was not a time of rest. Peace for the Roman Empire was secured, not by a policy of passive resistance, but by

a policy of unflagging and strenuous military efforts. The chief problem was to find and to establish for the Empire such frontiers as would assure both stability and safety, and so make a lasting peace possible.!3 By the efforts of Augustus himself, of his friend and companion Agrippa, and of his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus, a complete pacification of the mountainous Alpine districts, of Gaul, and of Spain was achieved. ‘The conquest of Britain was for the moment postponed. The more serious was the effort made to solve the difficult problem of consolidating the Empire in the North and in the North-east, on the Rhine and on the Danube. One part only of this task was carried through, the pacification

of the lands south of the Danube, and that after a long and bloody fight against the Pannonians and the Dalmatians. The second part of the task, the advance of the Roman frontier to the Elbe, was not successfully accomplished. The defeat of Varus in Germany, a disastrous but not fatal reverse, drove Augustus to

abandon the idea of adding Germany to the Romanized provinces. We must bear in mind that the disaster happened in the second half of his reign, when he was already old. The decisive step in the relations between Rome and Germany was taken not by Augustus but by his stepson and successor Tiberius. In the East no important military effort was made to redeem the shame of Crassus’ defeat by the Parthians. To satisfy public opinion, the Parthians were threatened with the prospect of a serious war and agreed to restore to Rome the captured standards. The same aim was pursued in the expedition of Augustus’

i The Policy of Augustus 53 grandson, Gaius Caesar, against Armenia. The principal factors in the extension and consolidation of Roman influence in the East were diplomacy and trade. But they were supported by strong military forces and by a strenuous military activity. An identical policy was followed in Egypt and Arabia and in Northern Africa. The Arabian expedition of Aelius Gallus was not a complete success, but at any rate it secured good harbours for Roman traders on their way from Egypt to the ports of India.'4 By these means a lasting peace was secured for the Roman Empire. The splendid altar built to the ‘Augustan Peace’ (Pax Augusta) on the Field of Mars (Campus Martius) was a symbol of

the fact that peace had overcome war and was now the prominent feature of Augustus’ rule. The same idea was symbolized by the repeated closing of the doors of the Temple of Janus and

by the games celebrating the ‘new Golden Age’ which had dawned with Augustus for the civilized world. The goddess Roma might now rest on the arms that protected peace and prosperity, based on Piety. It is needless to insist upon the fact that the establishment of peaceful conditions on land and sea was of the utmost importance for the economic life of the Empire. For the first time after centuries of unceasing wars the civilized world enjoyed a real peace. The dream of the leading spirits of the ancient world for

century after century was at last realized. Small wonder that economic life showed a brilliant revival throughout the length and breadth of the Empire. The best times of the Hellenistic age returned, with the sole difference that instead of many rivals in the field, represented by many independent states, which used their economic resources for political purposes, the whole civilized world was now one huge state comprising all the kingdoms of the Hellenistic period. The competing states had disappeared, competition was now a purely economic rivalry between business men and went on unhampered by political considerations.

With this competition neither the Roman state nor the emperor interfered. They left economic life to its own development. The only handicap to trade within the Empire was the customs-

duties levied on the borders of each province, and these duties were not very high. We do not know how heavy was the burden

of taxation imposed by the state on industry and agriculture. But the amount of the taxes paid by Roman citizens on

54 The Policy of Augustus CHAP. inheritances, for instance, and on the manumission of slaves (both 5 per cent. )—the former introduced, the latter reorganized by Augustus—cannot be called exorbitant. We must, of course, take into account that besides state-taxation there was a municipal taxation of various kinds, of which we know very little. But the

growing prosperity of the cities, both in Italy and in the provinces, shows that this taxation was not heavy enough to be a real handicap to the development of private enterprise and of economic activity. Apart from taxation, we can hardly discover any measure of an economic character taken by the government. The period of Augustus and of his immediate successors was a time of almost complete freedom for trade and of splendid opportunities for private initiative. Neither as a republic nor under the guidance of Augustus and his successors did Rome adopt the policy pursued by some Hellenistic states, particularly Egypt, of nationalizing trade and industry, of making them more or less a monopoly of the state as represented by the king. Everything was left to private management. Even in Egypt, the classical land of étatisation, with its complicated system of interference by the state in all branches of economic life—a land retained by Augustus as a province under his personal management after his victory over Cleopatra and Antony—some changes were introduced with the primary purpose of reducing the pressure of state-control. Thus, for example, he protected the development of private landed property in Egypt, which was guaranteed by the state in the same way as in other provinces. Many flourishing estates, large and small, belonging to private owners, especially Roman veterans, made their appearance in Egypt.'5 In the economic life of the Empire the great capitalists of Republican times seem to have remained dominant; some of them were of senatorial rank, some of equestrian, but a large number were former slaves, freedmen. One of these capitalists, and the largest of all, was the emperor. Unlike the Hellenistic monarchs who identified their own fortune with that of the state, claiming for themselves the right of property over all its land and all its resources, Augustus, like other financial magnates of the time, managed his enormous private fortune by means of his slaves and freedmen. But, despite his own wish, he could not definitely separate his private fortune from those moneys which he possessed as the highest magistrate of the Roman Republic,

v1 The Policy of Augustus 55 as governor of many provinces, and as ruler of Egypt in direct succession to the Ptolemies. His family, or household, purse (arca) very soon became hopelessly mixed up with his magisterial

purse (fiscus), and it was attractive and easy to manage both of them in the same way and by the same men. Thus the slaves of the emperor’s household, his private secretaries and in particular his ‘chief accountant’ (a rationibus\, held in their hands the control of the finance alike of the imperial household and of Egypt and other provinces. For the senate the easiest way to get rid of the obligations involved in the financial management of the imperial provinces, where the main body of the Roman army was quartered, was to transfer the management to the emperor and leave him free to collect the taxes and to dispose of the proceeds as he pleased. If, as may be presumed, such provinces as Gaul with the Rhine frontier, the Danube provinces with the Danube frontier, and Syria with the Euphrates frontier, cost much more than they

paid, their financial management, including the pay of the troops, entailed a regular deficit which was met from the private purse of the emperor. Thus by the force of circumstances, by the weight of the enormous personal wealth accumulated in the hands of the emperor

during the civil wars, conditions were created in the Roman Empire which bore a strong resemblance to those of the Hellenistic monarchies. The more the emperor disbursed for public pur-

poses—for feeding and amusing the Roman proletariate, for transforming Rome into the capital of the world, for regulating the course of the Tiber, for building new military roads all over the empire—the more difficult it became to draw a line between

his private resources and the income of the state. Not that this implied the absorption of the emperor’s fortune by the state. It implied rather the right of the emperor to dispose of the resources of the state in the same manner as he disposed of his own private resources. [his condition of things was inherited by Tiberius and his successors, who gradually became accustomed to regard the

revenues of the state as their own personal income and to use them for any purpose they pleased.!6 The emperor was not the sole possessor of an enormous private

fortune. We do not know how many of the old aristocratic

families retained their wealth after the turmoil of the civil wars.

Description of Plate VII 1. ONE OF THE GOBLETS OF THE TREASURE OF BOSCOREALE. Found in the ruins of a villa near the village of Boscoreale (Pompeii). Louvre Museum (Paris). A. Héron de Villefosse, Mon. Piot, 5, 1899, pl. vit, 2. The goblet here reproduced is one of a pair, adorned with human skeletons, some of

which represent famous writers and philosophers of Greece. The scene shown in the photograph is the best expression of the spirit which inspired the decoration of these goblets. The left side is occupied by an altar, on which are placed two skulls; behind it a column supports a statuette of one of the Fates (with the inscription KAw#@w). Above

the left skull is a purse, with the legend Yodia (‘Wisdom’), to which corresponds a roll of papyrus placed above the other skull with the inscription 4é€a: (‘Opinions’). The field

is filled by three large skeletons. The one nearest the column holds in its right hand a large purse full of money, and in its left a butterfly (typifying the soul), which it presents to the second skeleton. Near the purse is engraved ®@dvoi (‘Envy’). The second skeleton is engaged in placing a wreath of flowers on its head. Between the two is a small skeleton playing the lyre, with the inscription Tépyus (‘Joy’). The third examines a skull held in its right hand, while its left grasps a flower, inscribed AvOos (‘Flower’). Between the

second and the third skeleton another small skeleton is represented clapping its hands. Above it runs an inscription which summarizes the artist’s main idea: Zdav peradaBe, To yap avpiov addyAdv €or. —‘Enjoy life while you are alive, for tomorrow is

uncertain’.

2. A CLAY GOBLET WITH A GREENISH VARNISH. Museum of Berlin. R. Zahn, Kra Xpe, 81st Winckelmann’s Programm, Berlin, 1921, pls. 1-1. A human skeleton surrounded by a wreath, a ham, a pipe, a flute, and an amphora of wine. On right and left two dancing pygmies, one of them holding a purse. To the left and right of the skeleton’s head is engraved: x7ra@, yp@ (‘Acquire and use’). Cf. JG xii. 9.

1240 (Aidepsos; Preuner, 7DAI 40, 1920, pp. 39 ff.): an old shipowner, in command of a ship at the moment of his death, gives to those who survive him the counsel contained in his funerary inscription: cr@ ypa. These two goblets are only two specimens of a large series of objects which express the ideas of life current in the late Hellenistic, and still more in the early Roman, period. Allusion need hardly be made to well-known examples which have often been collected and illustrated, such as the little silver skeleton which adorned the banquet table of the rich parvenu Trimalchio in the novel of Petronius (Cena, 34. 8). The two goblets are reproduced here because they admirably illustrate the prevailing mood of the people during the early Roman Empire, especially the well-to-do bourgeoisie of the cities. A superficial materialism and a sort of trivial epicureanism were the natural result of the age of peace and prosperity which followed the turmoil of the civil wars from the time of Augustus onwards. ‘Enjoy life so long as you are alive’ is the motto. ‘The best things

in the world are a full purse and what it can buy: meat and drink, music and dance’. These are the real facts, and the speculations of the philosophers and poets, mortal men yourself, are mere opinions (dd0£a1); or in the words of Trimalchio, ‘eheu nos miseros,

quam totus homuncio nil est. sic erimus cuncti, postquam nos auferet Orcus. ergo vivamus, dum licet esse bene’ (Cena, 34. 10). It is interesting to compare this philosophy

of life with the mildly epicurean metrical precepts, reminding us of Ovid, which are written on the walls of the recently discovered triclinium of the house of Epidius Hymenaceus, M. Della Corte in Riv. Indo-Greco-Italica, 8, 1924, p. 121.

. fi a nn a Se wg pt et tae are pe

«sc ORE samecmstt lah BE FF taeDF nated nahee Scheele Seo PS EO BE Mee EINE COOTER PRES ragee Titers yee eT akA PORE SIE ieEER Ot A RIS agONE RedSaas ge BE beEade tar ee PR secre u ef gee Patna, APO Sig lac ie SAE PROS oSNE eR OBR SawhIO Re PR OS Bogs oeMET Tee ES TS PRD ge a reOG taeteRe SSR RR OS, Beir rien at) RSSEI OO ee eetonpacks ans uocenptanamniins " ra 74, NI “enengepiapeaiapeeipentiingarepiricieartne oFEg TySE“ows St Se IES ae Som Se RINT. alan mnorneeinmemneninmmatemmnninmaennnmnmugimayte :« :% “eeammnapuaannseteee tee es Bea Ey UND ETPRS ores camera rane EROnfyore CALaaa ai pererrecccoreererteceseconeranent-t0w instrec ° NOMURA RDP BE CLE Peeante Ucannmer mwas, ST RAG TACARTS he te ae DSSk jee try CHO TORII OC IC cee (OO eed es aan OR CRON DS NO meOS eer ee TN Menner EEEMS eS vg, RRR

aR RT A es pene Lecce alana oe thee pe ayhpatent tate Pel) paarTEER r te a Tae Sa adae pl Lise cet aeAI eReeer egg te in Late mes. Seeee tt be ea wo taeOE eeBa Tad AE DS eng

Cr ae Se Se TLS BREE 53 S nee iis aSe se ulin: Sou Re DE ay ERR Rees tate LS NR etOEMCLE +: Riess BsFeMEG ORS cy eae : Sige zSES BaeMER | REN Be ases JAE aR. Siig A ROS ee Pei ore oa A% Tag oe BER Coy, eas SERade SAR okoeae RPI etegS NE eS SS7ae aS. Ei seere ae teSe ORES, 4ol. ig SNe ye OS eS s ¥ we Rnee 1nS EE EER PCE RRhe Bo SETRES gees aLet >) athe RY Se Eg REE oS OI OS Sr Lee ene see O° Ee OS TE SAGESONE Sila teFoe 8 bogs Sy ue! Bc OO eee BPRE da eon Aes i Pe al FRA IIEE NRi EORE EPEype, SS Sty MNS SEO oe Ne OSH eReae SS Be : - Ak i Sie“ash LAS PEER DEE OR Sn >nae SIE tapers Pela. aNe ekg Ses RRS eeOM a Cages Se Onna dee her ee Gea agBSahd AESN 4 Reo way By OTE

SSN ERO CP OOS ee Mee SReg FSFPes eo SR oeEGE a aeES aesTS reeeaBEE RS CRAB ES ee Wie wee” Sig ae aMNT oeaes3Se. SEC. fe! . ; SIF Ge. EN gree ars BeeBas se Log oe Loe Ey DSTO’ IES. FORSSK Eeot foe eee BERS S ha BECaCAE ESi.ete FE Sa, RR YF a ar ee RIPESOS. BENS Se ae eGOP oy ee A OSie Soh eagsME he on Scees, ae .eae? FS: Sage

Pd ae PPGS Soe By Rae Semee ie && PES ee .4%2 ice i.oeBe. oe PPABS Se By EeS ha PSE BeeRE esSOc. Ye. SORES 4 atin, Sa Foti 2RS Mik Oe! aewe Sia bain.eo é. s 2ra es Geese. epee re eR a«4° EE 303 “ps SAR CABS. re tyFEES + emt OD gf sas ers 550 2 SS aeMe. ped i OR PeSe Sseee 42 JeS). 2S vg EEtsRy2EP tema ney, 3 GREED. wee i Lp ByBikers Beesee

FL ys tM 3 Agaes PE ENE SES EL OT OT RE RS AM keh 8 Lt ef RR eg “ Bit. x gO Gai enee Bane eer oe RS Se SRR oeSee RSRe

Sime 8 bE Sees: 2 rem3S “Ras § BR eR ee Fag ogwre Re ack ; esree oes aeee SRR ~ poet Ng, SES 9 :aSIRE co] RS SSR eet | ae Gees Bee ie ee aS OF pierSy gees oeBe a RC SER ie A 3MRS oo RR. OS 2GASES aewet . sy |aRR. eeRS ae Fees Pa oe US er pat SE ceeSe ee ; oars ey ee‘SS iShs aeeePee apy ‘eee 2SeBSSe Ree NS SLRs eee eee gn Ba See eB PA Se eS yeee £cea,OR pRB RAE soaSTM” bet OAR pe.es eee Ga Be ESE a aeUR BOP hs eee 3atk oi ee fe 2. | eeSe er be RECS SE ORS hes GA RE PASE eanUe ec eas Sp Rs2a eee Ee BOE RRM Seo Le SS Pe en BE OE! en an as COR OG a A So iBee Se eee Bids ee.ieee ees ne gee aeeeHES a-Sig a aleapo SeSS SN bP Ge Sag SE 9 ae aee Pete PDE eei BRET PRS RS, SUNN ePS & Seees Wo UESRE BeRR RS ee RRRSs SN SrTAT) RCRA MIRC. °c Uh oseSES alPie ts WETS SPREE Oege RE Baka SN

BaSkSPA ES oe OB og SRE Eg So ee { eR br eeeS Seah ga goo:

BOW epee TRE op gig te” RA ae ee See,CaS oe ie eeANT oe ME NSS SEE Pa saeSES |” SSS ee ee nantes. Eee BAG ee gi AOS chena te ee wide SA 2) SO ene a Pa oe rrREE aEeked See ate eit Bie ae RUC REE SCPC t BoSees, ae * SS rr Eee ea EES BeeSME 28 oe ERR = oe Sey 2 | ee eR ENB bongs SR aE ean Pe eRe 8ere RPE gO paste ESAP panBey Be HEAT Coe 5, SRE ISOS 2S.A TEP ORL BF Abe SsEspeSe PeRare ORRSe: ehOSs PE ee Pee SR See B.S ee ots gee (Rak CSee a2os: PR RAEN et ar a A EE ge le Tae eddie le, SPT gS PRaRe oOR E pee get

ee oe PATE eee Coane ce |

ee RR See §PSS GEE SerDaee AS ER SN ee AMG Passe a1,Ree Sopne EeBF ee By eta eo wyAREY Se SD me ba ee BRE “SRR aeGO weBR Or RS aPhBh ge BER Gee, eee eres [eto ieere. PS iS ee eee ee ee oe Yo“BR Sac te elsGR Uy Ha OOD Pg ONECar Se Kas PG 50a; eee a5 Beae cee eek oe oir, FARK 1iaeie ie t eae +h Ee oe: Serge yA ish5 ae ennaCORES ue RE $e Bao BieEs“1Teguage ee shed anc abRSBeEafeOeEgERE oS LAE BOSVig. eet 3 ge ee roe _Y & fb Poe RES ; ia Rae

beesoven wpe Ne AEwgES ALL Qh tt ae gi NSE aRNd, ohPe eyPAE Stastgae SB a ERE SR ee sere KS SSot SBieaPE ge RE AyAa GOPRE, SEERA i eae Beh OePE SnRSD ao ese ERAT ee Beg Se ae|YRS ‘x “ ax0: Eas 5S =oN ec aie ens ae eaeee gsHl Fhe SON Boal wey OR Sy ESSos ROR ES Pag Ree oe Rage pe DT «8 AOE eS Meee wacpaet eres TER Coe

& Cr Ge gb UNSER PAR 88 Ged BB ene ores Bests U8 Sok PASE a MR air CORD ON AES pa eeSo ta 0ON Sl Mg RE Se 76 2k MOB Rae acerCO emeene tay - ff GA ea aN cy Ee sah RE oe ROARS ShSo OS ROS aeBE AG SRE Sage Pee se+EF Re BTS ete SSTEN ONAL Ce eeavrg eC EEyiCE be Vabe ES aeeBEE tin: esPRRs Po BSS aay i OS Se SR PCO Senet ae ghER Noe EeSE oeSoy en gies ARO gS ASA NRE BRem RB aeeetBens ATE eeBS SER GE Do ee EO . eeCEE MOS MS DaegRS WS ee tlaN PoeAEM og PwaS nekGielen & R ESESERE trays cee Re". LeEF ee Fy «hese 6 hes bay . 23

OR SN aeehaaye BPeSAes Reoy A EM a eS eadyeRAS EE SERS ata eR SsSgr . ge gt RR A Sanayi Sct reeSate EGY OF iene Ayes inogeaGE 1 TAA PRR, RSBRE. Eee i pteBee ede Me eee Sy 1 Bey fee AS kee, AN Boe 2eee eee Re TIBOS OE UScom ESS ly ton kes AN onihe Se yA Se ORR

UL qtBoo apie Be 8 :SP RE REE, SeSER BeRRR PO ROO AVES thee, eg 8de APCAG OeEe eg Tate SE wake Pees PWT LS? $ SR GIBNE te, REL wee OP sate $e?FORO eC ag S es oe ag Te UR SO BE aohse ORES Babee

Ve up os Ga A Mee Bore ae iS NE Be 29 OK: Da eR RS weg E YE 6 SSIES a BS ENS eb RECS os

Bag: ¥ oe 4‘s aa. OE ASone) BRBrn Nat M2 ay ae Sted eerSteake eS ee re eee cea 4g a ori ee >opSee oooerSoa "Sp BS teiae OeoY Ss Rt GE ARE GSBe ERSg 8 ates para Ee SHE neee, ae fectPy we sy geOE 3es2ENS eeoy x 9tan gig TEPER ¢ Hy. “¢ PR Na etNOE Ratt ‘ eo “tafFR HES ; 3% , “8 BAG BE oF as A Se Sain ai cai Beenes ah ENS ES) pe2 IN Pa Yo. BS Se? eeerea TR PEey ae sey ne Caen arRO RN ve iyOR Sed os, Wye “moarapaetnn EOaie MEI EE ESETS SSP OS Geter. SR SE "APad ee oe ‘ .ee are EAE g 8 ty*;ME A>3s a. -atCRA AS:aie saFst RT aa ee en aeYS, eSSSaeWEES res Shain phil tiePRS See aren EESo AOES are,BEL I: Ni, Bee ee Z Re spe, Ee RSAig hey eex here * Sew Se cree aed op OSE -* go ES Se EK + EES eS cca oh. SOS ann RE petit Soper ot tuares 2 SB Ty cee, 2 | Ne Oe ae Ti goth £2% - neat

aree aot ey Bey ath Pee 2 AOR sa Hat 8SRS DOCSS Sre FF Fath £Cae £ Sac Secs ‘$IgS + ;eeiS wan wet PoKg BfRe: vee vs gee FnSReeL y ehSee x fRSET sae BS. AN * Ky SE aorta! oe aad -sae o*oe) Se“vn BR Ys ama ieSs SRE PAY f Sste: iglty Rae TP kg BSahoes tN. ae ask 7Ore, RGIS: |. ate BELN REAR gc €Te kOe : J::9). SU OR BIRD PAREAA oeRie 2 ANS ¥oy: heekes. os Bi eeeDe ° rT om we Reatig BC Od SEN. peo NRT Fn

4 aoe Spe? bi heh SRE $s Sam Gp SR Me 5, weee sr Kt. RS aS, ty aR,See fee of “Be Ga ON ae PTR fx Se Ey ee . * | Bite Sha” hah eeFESE Se . OS SERS ets eee)

oeAEN NNER SOR HORA Sn =eeEN ? RTE oS 3UES tee Vay ys ACER

;>SP Sere | tab Ae| Ee ve. Bch: SieOA eeAA ie 5RE ode ~™ wae. iy ark $f: ' Sins WE ctiD Raia - esAgee Behe we Tx pe eeeeSS SERS std Pi +a ML Sa3aeAe ed (i‘: he71 S hb xo aad. WE rare .fi pies +7 ea AYERS s Ete lp eeSe Bins tis “ow aS UO: ESR IRRame OO ase. ee Ngold 3s, SEINE he FHay tn aN REy ahr Sefer: saa yeas Seeae Nese hae BS ee -SPS 2 Sif A RX) Be fie SSRN FE7 Sigg: ae) RD RSCe aes ghtaes Fraps) oe ee mS nSwos Se; ae + Soe ORNS RRGe SUS aesRar Rte: BPERS SRG Peeane Ytare epee eaBeYi 3 wg ay Oe &ER Ly Sk Ae “8 ae. LPS Ss eeesfBeOd a vue ete ge BY a SRN 0 St RENg Be ig SES sa SBS OSS ix i RS twae Soba Mag & Ces 1K A?eee ; A xEF DaeEN 1 Sees Fe BE Sha ee ey OS Be ME ARS ae oan coxN ee m4 fe are3ne: | K Ry SOAS Soe «8 age 7 ey.Ryan nr ar Sie On TEaeanes . erin RRS BARS ERs “gee BR Bt CES i EET

C a _-a: -pie Rae f~~ ? as sag? note eee asain te ees 4 See eee om & Ss a 3 Sites: 3355 ¢”2SB xgBS ¢