The sentence intonation of contemporary standard Russian as a linguistic structure [Reprint 2021 ed.] 9783112414583, 9783112414576

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THE SENTENCE INTONATION OF CONTEMPORARY STANDARD RUSSIAN

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY STANDARD RUSSIAN Edited by ROMAN JAKOBSON Harvard University

and C. H. VAN SCHOONEVELD Stanford University

III

MOUTON & CO • 'S-GRAVENHAGE 1961

THE SENTENCE INTONATION OF CONTEMPORARY STANDARD RUSSIAN AS A LINGUISTIC STRUCTURE by

J. E. JURGENS B U N I N G

and C. H. VAN SCHOONEVELD Stanford University

MOUTON & CO • 'S-GRAVENHAGE 1961

©

MOUTON

& CO • P U B L I S H E R S • THE HAGUE • THE

NETHERLANDS

No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.

P R I N T E D I N T H E N E T H E R L A N D S BY M O U T O N

& CO • P R I N T E R S • T H E

HAGUE

PREFACE

We were fortunate to be able to use, in the course of the investigation which reaches its conclusion with the present publication, the material provided by Dr. Irina Borisova-Morozova Lynch, who is a trained linguist as well as a native informant of great insight. We express our gratitude to all other persons who, in one way or another, have helped with the completion of this book. Voorhout and Leiden, December 1958.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

5

Preliminary Remarks

8

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER II

T H E DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

13

CHAPTER III

T H E INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

67

CHAPTER IV

EMPHASIS

73

CHAPTER V

PERMUTATIONS AND CONTEXTUAL VARIANTS

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS

9

.

.

.

.

85 91

PRELIMINARY REMARKS

1. The examples of intonations are quoted in our book in musical notation. To achieve a maximal simplification of the musical script we use exclusively the bass key. For the same reason, the melody is given several octaves lower than it is actually produced by the human voice. 2. Although we designate in some instances the length of the notes (whole note, half note, quarter note, etc.), this notation has no bearing upon the present investigation but has been used in anticipation of a later investigation into the rhythmic characteristics of sentence intonation. 3. Contrary to the usual notation (in lower case) in musical literature, we denote the minor keys in small capitals in order to set them off from the rest of the text. 4. While following in our discussion the English usage of referring to flat and sharp, we follow in our scores the continental usage. Thus D FLAT MAJOR and D FLAT MINOR in the text both correspond to Des and des in the scores, D SHARP MAJOR and D SHARP MINOR to Dis and dis in the scores, etc.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Our investigation is based on two principles: (1) the problem of sentence intonation is primarily a question of fundamental frequencies, that is, of (successions of) tones; each of these tones conveys a certain amount of information, thus enabling us to (2) classify it according to its semantic function: a hierarchy of information entities enables us to construct a hierarchy of the tonal invariables which convey them. In the nineteenth century, there have been numerous attempts to describe the sentence melodies of various languages in a musical notation. Thus, several authors, among whom P. Passy is perhaps the best known, agree in the surmise that the final intonation movement of a sentence stands in the tonic or a chord based upon the tonic (they obviously mean the tonic of the key in which the given sentence segment is spoken), whereas the non-final sentence parts are pronounced in notes which lie a third, a fourth, a fifth or, in sharp contrasts, on a dominant seventh chord above the tonic, to which the sentence melody is to descend at the end.1 We shall, in Chapter II, elaborate on the validity of this observation for Modern Russian. We found their ideas basically correct; the question which remains, however, unanswered by the authors quoted is whether it is possible to formulate more exact rules for the intonation of each individual internal syllable of a sentence. In any case, the existence of precise norms for the intonation of each internal syllable is proved experimentally by the fact that not any arbitrary higher or lower note can occur, but that many notes, if used in a given internal syllable, would be perceived as deviations. Only an analysis which separates various levels of information such as created by modern linguistics, with its distinctions between invariables, free variants and contextual variants (the latter only giving information about the context itself), can furnish a classification which makes exactly predictable the tonal variations appearing when the sentence is increased or decreased in length while the meaning of the sentence intonation in its entirety remains the same. 1 J. Storm, Englische Philologie, I (Leipzig, 1892), pp. 206-209 and passim; the statement by V. Vsevolodskij-Gemgross, Teorija russkoj recevoj intonacii (Peterburg, 1922), pp. 39-42, is in our opinion incorrect.

10

Introduction

While these attempts at describing sentence intonation remain unsatisfactory for the lack of conceptual tools for the classification of the information conveyed by each tone, the development of the kymograph and other instruments have made possible a highly exact registration of the frequency curve, independently of aural perception. This approach to sentence intonation has found wide application up to the present day. 2 It furnishes us the absolute height of any segment of the text and, consequently, the graphic representation of the relative height of any segment. There are no invariable absolute frequencies to be found in melody curves from which the melody starts and ends. The sizes of the intervals spanning the melodic movements also vary greatly, even in the last melodic fall or rise of a sentence, so that curves do not allow us to establish constants for downward or upward transitions. The great variety of melodic curves makes it also difficult to establish whether the stressed syllables are the only relevant ones or whether unstressed syllables also carry essential intonational elements. The results which the investigation of melody curves is able to yield are that interrogative sentences (excluding sentences containing an interrogative adverb, pronoun, or particle) are, generally, rising, while statements (including sentences containing an interrogative adverb, pronoun, or particle) have a melody curve which shows a tendency to drop. There is also a rise just before the juncture between a main clause and secondary clause, or conversely between a secondary and a main clause. Thus, the results attained by investigating melody curves are rather vague, and our objection against the attempts at musical analysis can be repeated for the present method: no classification is reached of the information conveyed by each tone nor is predictability of their occurrence achieved.3 After the foregoing it is easy to see that in the literature even the question is undecided by which formal properties of the intonation semantic differentiations are invariably denoted: by the absolute tones (fundamental frequencies) or by the distances (intervals) between them. Inasfar as the difficulties just mentioned leave the possibility of a conclusion at all: neither of them seems to be invariable. These questions come to the foreground in the works of several American scholars.4 The development of the structural analysis of language has naturally given rise to attempts at such an analysis of sentence intonation. It is especially in the United States of America that investigations of this nature have been undertaken. The most pressing question is whether the intonation of a sentence can be cut up in component parts. It is obvious that the answer is affirmative, since shorter and longer declarative sentences have certain intonation features in common and hence the longer sentence must have been lengthened by additional components; sentence intonation, then, * Cf., e.g., O. von Essen, "Rhythm and Melody in Germanic Languages," in Manual of Phonetics (Amsterdam, 1957), pp. 295-301. 3 Cf. supra, p. 9. 4 K. L. Pike, The Intonation of American English (Ann Arbor, Mich., 4945, 51953); G. L. Trager and H. L. Smith, An Outline of English Structure (Norman, Okla., 1951); Rulon S. Wells, "The Pitch Phonemes of English " Language, 21 (1945), pp. 27-39.

Introduction

11

must be an articulated structure. Another problem is how to divide the sentence in its components parts. Pike posits as formal invariants (which he calls "pitch phonemes") four intonation levels; meaning is conveyed by the connections between two or more successive levels (which he calls "intonation contours"). An attempted parallelism with the concepts of phoneme and morpheme of (non-supra-)segmental phonology is obvious. It is, however, questionable why supra-segmental phonology should have a comparable formal structure at all. Furthermore, D. L. Bolinger shows that Pike's and Trager-Smith's systems lead to inconsistencies. His conclusion is that since neither the absolute frequencies of the intonation levels nor the intervals between them are invariable, the only invariant must be the rising quality of the interval versus a drop. 6 Our solution embraces the two alternatives. On the one hand, the interval between two syllables is not variable without semantic changes; a larger interval usually means a heavier emotional charge of the utterance. On the other hand, while the choice of the fundamental frequency on which a given syllable is intoned is, in principle, free, this fundamental frequency is linguistically relevant since the whole following gamut of tones stands in mathematical relationship to it. This is, obviously, a constellation of the same character as a musical code. When we started our investigation, our only working hypothesis was that sentence intonation is primarily a succession of fundamental frequencies. We proceeded to register these successive fundamental frequencies as precisely as possible, and found empirically that in sentence intonation, as in music, the number of fundamental frequencies actually occurring is restricted, and for Modern Russian even coalesces with a musical scale, namely, the set of tones extant in European music. We also found that the intervals occurring in a Modern Russian sentence intonation can be classified in the same manner as the intervals of Western music; thirds, fifths and octaves fulfill in the sentence a different function than primes and seconds. As we remarked before, the special role of fifths has been common knowledge of the French school of intonation investigation for a long time, but the dependencies between this invariable minimal indicator of the declarative sentence and preceding intervals occurring in sentences expanded by one or several syllables, remain unclarified. We have tried to establish the exact hierarchy between tones which must be present in every declarative sentence (as opposed to the interrogative sentence), and tones which, in such a sentence, do not have to occur. Thus, the semantic interpretation of a given tone is in such analysis essential, in other words, at every step of the analysis we ask ourselves the question whether the given tone indicates by itself the declarativeness (vj. interrogativeness) of the sentence, or whether it occurs only on a syllable which is an expansion of the minimal sentence. This is to say that we have tried to determine the information carried by each different tone, linking to each difference in form a difference in meaning. For such a semantic evaluation it was necessary 6

D. L. Bolinger, "Intonation: Levels versus Configurations," Word, 7 (1951), pp. 199-210.

12

Introduction

not to exclude the synchronized interpretation of the material by the ear. We renounced, for this reason, the help of instruments. The material analysed embraces several thousand sentences. It contains evidence taken from a sufficient number of speakers to preclude the possibility of omission of intonation types. It is important to state that the examples quoted in this book were chosen for their ability to illustrate, as far as possible, minimal distinctions. Their close resemblance should, however, not lead the reader to think that our work was done on only a few stereotypes. Working with various speakers also gives the investigator the insight that each speaker realizes the musical tones in which the listener interprets the message, only by a larger or smaller approximation. This phenomenon forms a legitimate parallel to phonemics, which deals with invariants which, in the actual materialization of the message, receive an individual coloring from the speaker. On the other hand, the approximation is clear enough to establish beyond doubt the existence of such a tonal parameter. Its existence is furthermore confirmed by the observation that each deviation from the standard is perceived and interpreted as a stylistic or individual variant. The dialectic tension between code and message, or, as De Saussure formulates it, between langue and parole, is a linguistic reality which enables us to explain the two aspects of sentence intonation: invariation and variation. In the following chapters, the main attention will be directed towards the former. A systematic investigation of stylistic variations in sentence intonation is beyond the scope of this book.

CHAPTER II

THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

§ 1. The normal declarative sentence is characterized by a drop of a fifth to the tonic of the key in which the given sentence or sentence segment is spoken. This down glide moves from the immediately preceding unstressed syllable (which is, therefore, spoken a fifth higher than the tonic) to the last stressed syllable of the sentence (which is, therefore, spoken on the tonic).1 This drop of a fifth2 is found on the final stressed syllable irrespectively of the length of the sentence; thus, the invariable characteristic of the declarative sentence is found at the end (examples 1-5). The unstressed syllable carrying the fifth does not necessarily belong to the same word as the following tonic syllable (examples 3 and 5). (1)'

9

a - nä she

mnö - ga much

c

stra - dä - la suffered

"She suffered much." Key: C MAJOR. Quintal fall from G to c.

1 There is in another type of sentence a postictic drop to the tonic, in contradistinction to the preictic drop to the tonic described here. Cf. Chapters IV, p. 73 (§ 1, "contrastive emphasis"), and VI, p. 93. 8 Cf. on the meaning of an interval larger than a third Chapter II, § 9. There occurs sometimes a quartal, instead of a quintal drop to the tonic (no examples are given in this book). The quartal fall announces a less definite ending of the sentence. 3 In our notation of stresses we use the acute to denote a realized grammatical stress, that is, an ictus (cf. this chapter, pp. 21-22). For grammatical stresses which are realized only weakly and grammatically unstressed syllables which receive in the actual materialization of the message a secondary stress we use the gravis.

The Declarative

14

Sentence

(2 = 17, 25Y

m

5 1 na n'éj bì - l'i s'i - n'a ba - t'in - k'i on her were blue shoes 'She had blue shoes on." Key: C MAJOR. Quintal fall from G to c.

m (3)

m n&

[a]

mi

je - zd'i - l'i

but [uh] we a

traveled

f[ to que - bee

mont - re

al

l and

d

na zä - pat to west "But we traveled to [Quebec, Montreal] and to the West." Key of the final segment: D MAJOR. Quintal fall from A to D.

(4 = 33, 72, 89)

)

t)J

U

v è - taj in this

3y kó

K

mna- t i room

sta - jit stands

r

ra - jäl' grand-piano, e

1

ItJ

ttJ"

tfJ

J

ka - tò - rij which a

^ ' F 1

p& - pa ku - p'il p'it' l'et ta - mii na - zdt papa bought five years hence back "In this room stands a grand-piano, which papa bought five years ago." Key of the final segment: A MINOR. Quintal fall from E to A. 4

Preceding the scores of the examples in the various chapters we give after the number of the given example the numbers of corresponding examples. If the correspondence is in text only, but not in intonation, the number concerned is italicized.

The Declarative Sentence

15

(5)

I

fcÉPi

6n n'fe p6 - mn'it he not remembers "He does not remember." Key: C MAJOR. Quintal fall from G to c, starting on the particle As has been repeatedly noted in the literature (see our discussion in Chapter I, p. 10), such sentences as contain an interrogative pronoun or particle have the intonation pattern o f the declarative sentence (examples 6 and 7). The glide on the last syllable found in example 7 gives the rhetorical question a special emphasis.

* (6)

bes es U b

J

iW

j .

j

j

^

u 5

któ p'èr - vij who first

vi - pu - st'il let out

stò that

ón he

1

r'i - v'i - zór? inspector?

"Who let out first that he is an inspector?" Key of the sentence: E FLAT MAJOR. Quintal fall f r o m B FLAT t o E FLAT.

(7)

'>' r r

r " r

i ka - k6j and what

2a

ru - sk'ij russian

, T

n'i not

l'u - b'it loves

d

es

5

6

m bi - straj fast

d

g

1

ji - zdi? riding?

"And which Russian does not love fast riding?" Key of the sentence: G MINOR. Quintal fall from D to G. The retention of the high level, suspended on the digression to E FLAT, causes a sextal glide on the stressed syllable. Declarative sentences consisting of a single word have the usual quintal drop from the last preictic syllable to the last ictic syllable. (8)

bet

I

"r

V

b.

ma - ra s'it drizzles "It is drizzling." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. Quintal fall from F to B FLAT via B (glide).

16

The Declarative Sentence

(9)

f

bes

[T-. t J 5 t'i

1

mi

- mn'e - a darker

"It has become darker." Key: B (10)

1

FLAT MAJOR.

Quintal fall from F to

B FLAT.

iv r J bJii f

b

bes

S

t'i

'11

- mno dark

"It is dark." Key: B FLAT

MAJOR.

Quintal fall from F to

B FLAT.

In monosyllabic sentences we often find within the syllable a lesser glide of a second to the tonic (examples 11-13). There are two facts which lead us to interpret the final tone of these monosyllabic sentences as a tonic: a) the preceding and/or following sentences are in an emotionally uncharacterized monologue often in the same key; b) in music, if a pause follows, a transition of one step occurs exclusively in the transition of a leading tone towards the tonic. 5 (ID

v rjd i d

cis

2

1 tdm there

"There." Key: c (12)

:

dis

SHARP MINOR.

Glide of half a step from

D

to c

SHARP.

d

D -frJjJi 2

1 n'et no

" N o . " K e y : D MAJOR. G l i d e o f h a l f a s t e p f r o m D SHARP (E FLAT) t o D. 6

On the concept of leading tone, see § 2 and its footnote 7.

The Declarative Sentence

17

(13)

diIS

CIS

I V

f4ii-!ll 2 1 di yes "Yes!" Key: C SHARP

MAJOR.

Glide of one step from

D SHARP

to c

SHARP.

§ 2. In emotionally colored final intonations of the declarative sentence, often, the tonic does not coalesce with the last stressed syllable, but falls on the syllable immediately following. 6 The last stressed syllable itself is one step lower. The syllable immediately preceding the last stressed syllable is usually a normal fifth above the tonic (examples 14 and 15), but may also show a larger interval; a sixth, for instance, in example 16. (14 = 32) f

1 u by

nas us

^

^

do - ma stäjt ra - jäl'; ka - gda home stands grand-piano; when fis

))i'

g

It

0

ais

b

-2

1

ja I

do - ma, home,

ja I

fs'i - gdä na n'öm i - grä - ju always on it play "At home there is a grand-piano; when I am at home, I always play on it." Key of the last segment: B MAJOR. Quintal fall from F SHARP to B via A SHARP on the last ictus. (15 = 59, 69) fis

ais

i ü i ^

#J

" " V

*

-2 1 p'6 - r'id dv'e - r'ju sta - ja - l'i: va - n'a, p'e - t'a i td - n'a before door stood: vanya, petya and tanya "Before the door stood: Vanya, Petya and Tanya." Key of the last segment: B MAJOR. Quintal fall from F SHARP to B via A SHARP on the last ictus. 8

A much less frequently occurring intonational ending is formed by a sextal, occasionally quintal, fall to the last stressed syllable at a third from the tonic; cf. examples 38 and 47 of this chapter, pp. 30, 37). Archaic Russian folk songs often end comparably on the equivalent of the final of old modal usage or even on the seventh.

18

The Declarative

Sentence

(16 = 30, 68). b rr-

j

j

u by

n&s us

J

j

fsa - du ra - st'ot in garden grows

„J

f t f J

sl'i - va, plum,

,

j

v'i - sin'a cherry

cis

d

y I 6 i and

j 1 gni - sa pear

"In our garden grow a prune tree, a cherry tree and a pear tree." Key of the last segment: D MAJOR. Sextal drop from B to D via c SHARP on the last ictus. This uncommonly large interval is accompanied by a slowing-down of the speech tempo beginning on i. The speaker, wishing to give emphasis, among the other words at the end of the sentence, also to /, retains / on a high sextal level. The lingering emphatic attitude of the speaker causes the melody to attain the ictus below the tonic. This type of ending may be compared to examples 11-13, with the understanding that the tonic is now beyond the last stressed syllable, the tone on the latter having the function of leading tone, comparable to a leading tone in music. 7 Its occurrence is accompanied by a temporary lowering or acceleration of the speech tempo. § 3. Non-final declarative sentence patterns: the pivots. Whereas an emotionally neutral statement is characterized by the quintal drop between the preceding unaccented and last accented syllable, the preceding segments of the same sentence pivot on accented syllables (to be called pivots) which are intoned at a fifth or an octave (and, occasionaly, a twelfth) up from the tonic (examples 17-23). Octaves are found on pivots which form the nucleus of a sentence, a clause or a discrete judgement (they occur usually at the end of such a segment) whereas fifths occur on 7 In music the leading tone is the one which tends towards another tone a step or a half-step higher, to be resolved into this higher tone. In the diatonic scale the only leading tone is the seventh note leading to the octave of the tonic. In describing sentence intonation it is useful to operate with a concept of leading tone which may be either a step (or a half-step) higher or a step (or a half-step) lower than any of the four pivots. If the melody rises towards the pivot from the preceding notes the leading tone on the ictic syllable is a (half-)step lower than the pivot; such a leading tone occurs in a rising melody when the speech tempo, under emotional influences, slows down. Conversely, if the melody falls towards the pivot from the preceding notes, the leading tone on the ictic syllable is a (half-)step higher than the pivot; a leading tone a (half-)step higher on the ictus occurs in a falling melody when the ictic syllable is emotionally stressed. When a rising melody reverses its trend to falling exactly on the ictic syllable the leading tone is a half-step higher than the pivot; conversely, when a falling melody, after a pause, reverses its trend to rising exactly on the ictic syllable, the leading tone is a half-step lower than the pivot. It is important to state that sentence intonation, unlike classical music, knows two types of leading tone: a leading tone on an ictus followed in the sentence by an immediately postictic pivot (parallel to the leading tone of classical music) on the one hand and, on the other, a leading tone (termed by us "near-pivot" although, when the difference does not matter, we may also simply speak of "pivot") merely representing the pivot, which does not materialize in the given sentence. The pivot in abstracto still plays a role, in these cases, as a parameter for measuring whether the leading tone is a half step higher or lower than the presupposed pivot. (A parallel to the near-pivot is found in contemporary music and in the Russian folk song, which often have not the leading tone of classical music, and therefore may end not on the tonic or its modal equivalent but on any other degree.) The extension of the term "leading-tone" to these cases is ours.

The Declarative Sentence

19

pivots of less importance. (There are special phenomena at the beginning of the sentence, to be discussed later, see this chapter, § 9.) Our examples 20-23 contain a few semi-enclitic syllables which are near-pivots and reach notes (a fourth or a sixth) approaching a fifth. They occur when the speech tempo is temporarily changed; they are comparable to leading tones in music. We shall return to the phenomenon of leading tone in § 4.

(17 = 2, 25) W

7

J

o i ) jtJ

i g

na

n ej

bi - l'i

si - n a

on

her

were

blue

ba - t'in - k'i shoes

"She had blue boots on." Key: C MAJOR. The non-final main stress is on n'ej, intoned at an octave from the tonic. A secondary stress is found on s'i-, at a fifth from the tonic.

(18 = 60, 80)

as ..J

des

i,J ( t j

j

not

ga - va - r'á saying

J

or?

8

5 ni

des

5

ni

sló - va,

on

any

word,

he

vi - Sil went

is out

kó - mna - ti room

"Not saying a word, he left the room." Key: D FLAT MAJOR. The non-final main interval is an octave from the tonic, falling on the stressed syllable sld-. Two less important pivots are at a fifth from the tonic. Examples 18 and 19 may show that the pivot in the octave of the tonic often occurs just before the transition between main clause and secondary clause or secondary clause and main clause, graphically denoted by a comma.

(19 = 35, 63, 85, 99)

Bes >'

J(¿j>

bJ

^

Ü

8a

n J ( g

c

s'i - vó - dn'a

pr'i - sil

i - ván

today

arrived

ivan

J

^ p'i - tró - vie petrovió

9(8 y ga

- va - r'á

Sto

saying

that

20

The Declarative Sentence c

••

9 i

9

5

5

c

C

K"

j :v - u - vô - l'i - l'i sa him dismissed from

| I

1 slli - 2bi service

"Today arrived Ivan Petrovic saying that he was dismissed." Key of the last segment: C MAJOR, of the preceding segment: B FLAT MAJOR. The important pivot in the last segment is -r'a in gavar'a; in the preceding segment the important pivot is -tro in p'itrdv'ic, intoned in c, a ninth in the key of B FLAT MAJOR and at the distance of an octave from the tonic of the final segment. The c which we find here instead of B FLAT (which would be the octave of the tonic of the key in which the given segment is spoken) is an anticipation of the following segment. This anticipation, incidentally, is explainable by the fact that the preceding sentence in the tape recording was also spoken in C MAJOR and hence the transition to B FLAT MAJOR must be seen as a temporary drop. The third important pivot is on the syllable -vJ- in s'ivddn'a, also intoned at an octave from the tonic. The pivots on -van and -v6-, at a fifth from the tonic, are on semantically less important stressed syllables. (20)

es

f

')' d U i.J(gfrfr < 5 * ^ a J ^ I J jà I

"4 t l 8 pa - stu - 5âl v dv'ér', du - ma - ja knocked in door, thinking

8to that

bes

B

ji - jô tàm n'et her there not

"I knocked at the door, thinking that she was not there." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. The non-final main stress is on dumaja, intoned at an octave from the tonic. The main stress before the comma, falling on the near-pivot dVer\ lies again a fourth higher than B FLAT, the octave of the tonic, and an eleventh higher than the tonic. A more usual relation would be a twelfth, but F lies almost outside the informant's range. On the recording the E FLAT sounds as having insufficient tension. The syllable -cat, with a near-pivot at a fourth, stands in close connection to it, having the identical deviation. The entire passage before the comma is spoken in an accelerated tempo. (21)

'J' J (J) J J . J

J. J.

vi - sil went

is out

kô - mna - ti, room,

n'i not

c

5

1

I

8 on he

9

ga - va - r'â saying

n'i any

W

slô - va word

"He went out of the room, not saying a word." Key: C MAJOR. The main non-final stress is on kô-, intoned an octave higher. It is preceded by a secondary quintal pivot on vi-. Before the final quintal drop, there is a leading tone (see § 4) at a fourth from the tonic on -r'a. With

The Declarative Sentence

21

examples 22 and 23, the present example presents a leading tone just before the final drop. The leading tone is particularly frequent in this position because of retardation of the speech tempo at the end of the sentence. (22 = 37, 38, 46, 95)

r~3>

-1

J

- B S

8 vo - dn'a today

8

1

pr'i - d'6t comes

i - van ivan

p'i

-

-2 tr6 - v'i£ petroviS

"Today Ivan Petrovic will come." Key: C MAJOR. The two non-final main stresses in the sentence are intoned at an octave from the tonic. Leading tone on -van (quartal). The word ivan is on the one hand semi-enclitic, with the result that the speech-tempo accelerates, the ictus being reached before the pivot; on the other hand, ivan is not completely enclitic and keeps its own emphasis, manifested by the drop g—F from i- to -van. (23 = 27, 94)

bes

9

8 \b - taj in this

k6 - mna - t'i room

6 sta - jit stands

9

bes

r ^ i ra - j&l' grand-piano

"In this room is a grand-piano." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. The main non-final stress falls on the first syllable of komnat'i. This syllable is an octave higher than the tonic. Lesser pivots fall on ¿- and -jit. The beginning (-taj hints at a slight drop from E) and final intervals, as can be recognised when listening to the recording, are slightly emotional, and spoken in a higher tempo. In these examples, some of the non-final stressed syllables have tones of an octave or a fifth from the tonic, whereas others are intoned at different intervals. The graphic configurations clearly show that the octave stresses form the segmental tops on which the sentence pivots. Those syllables, on the other hand, which according to the rules of morphology are to be stressed, but which are not realized as stressed syllables in the given examples, are ranged by smaller intervals or primal (zero) intervals with the grammatically and actually unstressed syllables. It is, then, important to note that not every grammatical stress is realized in the message, and that many grammatical stresses are in the actual utterance enclitic in a phonetic as well as in a semantic sense. When listening to the hybrid syllables of examples 20-23 one finds oneself in doubt whether, at the tempo in which they are spoken, the syllables in question are stressed or not. § 4. In non-final segments of the declarative sentence emotionally spoken in an uneven tempo we find again a phenomenon which shows similarity to the leading tone of

The Declarative Sentence

22

music. We have to do here with the same use of the leading tone which we noticed in the final cadence in § 2. Instead of falling on the stressed c.q. last stressed syllable, the tone representing an interval of an octave or a fifth from the tonic, c.q. the tonic itself falls on the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, whereas the latter is one or a half-step lower or higher. A distinction must be made here between pivot, that is a syllable which carries a tone related to the tonic by intervals of a twelfth, an octave, a fifth or a prime or which carries the tonic itself; and ictus, that is, a syllable which is accented according to the rules of the code and moreover actually stressed in the intonation of the given message. The speaker changes for the moment his tempo and reaches the ictus before reaching the pivot. Thus, the stressed syllable is characterized by a leading tone and the regular interval is on the immediately postictic8 syllable (examples 24-27). In examples 28-29 in places the pivot is not attained at all, being replaced entirely by the leading tone ('near-pivot'). The reference by the leading tone is here to the existence of the pivot exclusively in the code. When the leading tone refers to the following note figuring in the message, it is, in the examples, enclosed in a dotted circle; if it replaces a pivot non-existent in the message it is enclosed, like the pivots, in a solid circle throughout the book. Non-final leading tones are common in pivots of larger sentences (examples 25-29). For larger sentences characterized by modulations see under modulation, discussed in the next section.

(24)

b

sa

- bd

c

7

8

dog

ka

c

1 l i - jit barks

"The dog barks." Key: C MAJOR. The preceding pivot, an octave, falls on the syllable following the stress, which carries the leading tone as a glide from a sixth to a seventh from the tonic. Both ex. 24 and ex. 25 present an articulation of the message into two stretches, the second of which receives more of the speaker's interest. The leading tone, as do the octaval pivots in ex. 18 and ex. 19, occurs at the division.

8

Therefore, in this case (ictus and pivot not coalescing) "immediately postictic" means "pivotal". Usually, however, ictic and pivotal syllables are identical. The interval termed by us "preictic" (c£. § 8 of this chapter, p. 35) always runs to the ictus, even if the pivot has shifted.

The Declarative Sentence

23

(25 = 2 , 1 7 )

c

b

c

i 8 na on

n'éj her

7

9

ri

r l

9 I

5

8

bi - l'i were

c

, — 5

s'i - n'a blue

1

ba - t'in shoes

¥

J

k'i

"She had blue boots on." Key: C MAJOR. The pivot has moved from the stressed syllable (now intoned in B) to the following syllable. The lowering of the stressed syllable by one step to B is caused by the fact that biVi is half-enclitic to na riej. If bi- would have been intoned at the octave c, we could have found on -Vi an E (postictic rising interval of a third, see § 8b) which would have meant the equivalent of a colon: the listener would have been aroused to tension; or a seventh or a sixth (B or A) in which case the postictic fall (see § 8b) would have indicated a flat factual statement, slightly emphasizing the lexical meaning of the copula bil'i. As 6/77 is intoned now it indicates that the speaker lost interest after riej but wishes to stress what follows: s'Ma bat'ink'i.

(26 = 73, 86)

b/c 7 -

ff

J V t f

u nàs by us

J

9 8 fkó - mna • t'i

j

j ' n j

j

I» tyx

8/9 sta - jàd gra - ma - fón, far phonograph, stand

t'i - p'i - ä piano

bes

_8

1_

i ra - inland grand-piano "In our room stand a phonograph, a piano and a grand-piano." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. The c on kd- is the leading tone to the following octave. Being higher than this octave, it sets komnat'i in strong emotional relief. When hearing the recorded sentence one is inclined to interpret the sentence as an insistent assertion. The glide on -fdn is followed by a pause. The glide goes beyond the octave since it incorporates, as it were, a postictic interval (see Ch. II, § 8b).

24

The Declarative

Sentence

(27 = 23, 94) a

v 6 - taj in this

f

bes

ko - mna - t'i room

bes

sta - jit ra - jal' stands grand-piano

"In this room stands a grand-piano." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. Instead of the seventh on kothe rules prescribe an eighth; the eighth follows in the pivotal, postictic syllable. On -jit we find a normal pivot, preceded by sta-, which is only a second lower. Thus, stajit is almost proclitic to the rest of the predicate, rajdl\ (28 = 49)

W bes

a bes

im

W o 10

8

a - n'i they

vnd- Saj in our

7

8

8

ko - mna - t'i room

sta - ja - l'i stood

"They were standing in our room." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. Ko- is intoned at a seventh instead of an octave, the leading tone on the ictus being the point where the melody momentarily slows down and reverses its trend. There is also a ninth, leading to an octave, and a nearpivot at a tenth, standing for an eighth. The final octaval fall (as opposed to a quintal fall), too, is emotionally motivated. (29 = 93)

j v b - taj in this

es

^'t ^ i j

11

8

c

¡IJ^ •pfi'r ^ 1

ko - mna - t'i stajt ra - jal'; ka - gda room stands grand-piano; when t

m

es

11

ja I

do - ma, home,

ja I

bes

rpf fs'i - gdd always

na n'dm on it

i - grd play

ju

"In this room stands a grand-piano; when I am home I always play on it." Key of the first sentence: B FLAT MAJOR. The eleventh presents a parallel to the tenth in example 28. The

The Declarative Sentence

25

ninth on do- is the beginning of a rise of a third before a comma to be started on the octave (see this Ch., § 8b: postictic intervals); emotional emphasis has shifted this entire rise of a third a step upwards, parallel to the eleventh on ko- in the first sentence. The strongly assertive fs'igda, too, carries on its ictus a near-pivot which has shifted one step upwards. Examples 27, 28 and 29 form a coherent set in that the informant produced, one after another, a series of sentences about a room, komnata. Repeating the same type of communication made her lose interest. At the same time she was inclined, in order to keep, in her own feelings, the sentences natural, to place a certain amount of assertive power upon the central word, komnata. To summarize: in speech of momentarily uneven tempo, in which the speaker nevertheless does not lose his emphatic attitude, 9 pivots may be shifted from the ictus to the next syllable. The leading tone on the ictus refers to the ensuing pivot. When the tempo becomes yet more irregular, the pivot may be absent altogether from the message, existing solely in abstracto in the code. At the same time, accelerations cause a leveling of preictic and postictic intervals (cf. § 9). The general tendency of accelerated speech, then, is to have fewer pivots by making some pivots enclitic. The extreme ends of this tendency are reached in the sentence with contrastive emphasis (see Chapter IV), which on the one hand underlines one interval by giving it an (at least) octaval pivot, spoken in a slow tempo, on the other hand accelerates the pronunciation of the enclitic preceding and following syllables. In the examples presented throughout our monograph the occurrence of nearpivots, that is, leading tones representing absent pivots, is quite common. It is well to remember that they are always connected with a momentary disruption of the speech tempo. Normally, the leading tone is higher than the pivot for which it stands if the preceding syllables are still higher, and lower if the preceding syllables are still lower. § 5. Modulation. Modulation in music is the transition from one key to another. In musical theory three classes of modulation are distinguished: the diatonic, the chromatic, and the enharmonic modulations. For our purposes the diatonic modulation is by far the most important. It makes use of the possibility of considering one given chord (triad) as belonging to more than one harmonic configuration. For instance, the triad C-E-G is the chord of the first degree in the scale of C MAJOR (by virtue of its root c which is the first note in this scale). At the same time it is possible to say that this triad belongs to the scale of F MAJOR. In this scale it is a chord of the fifth degree by virtue of its root c, for c is the fifth tone in the scale of F MAJOR reckoning upwards from the tonic F. Thus, this chord is an expression of the close relationship between the scales of C and F. By means of such chords we can change from one key to another. * If the speaker does loose his emphatic attitude, a general leveling of the intervals occurs. Cf. also the concept of neutralisation as discussed in Chapters III and IV.

26

The Declarative Sentence

In general, the most obvious way to achieve this change, is modulation by consecutive fifths (c, G, D, A, E, and so on). In musical composition the use of this sort of modulation is avoided, because of the danger of monotony. In intonation quintal modulation is only too helpful as it is easier for the ear. It should be mentioned that in music as well as in sentence intonation any other tone than the fifth may also be used as "modulation note". In the Russian sentence we find mainly three types of diatonic modulation 10 : a) Modulation by consecutive fifths: consequently, the distance between the two keys is here a fifth (quintal modulation). b) Modulation into a second key which lies only a smaller interval (often a half-step or a step) away from the first key. c) Interchange of mode: modulation from a major key to a minor key of the same tonic note, e.g. modulation from G MAJOR to G MINOR, and vice-versa. a) The quintal modulation is in the Russian sentence intonation the usual type. It serves to set off a main clause from a secondary clause (which clause precedes and which follows is irrelevant) or to separate emphatically one sentence segment from the following. In writing, this modulation is traditionally denoted by a comma. Our first two examples (30 and 31) show the modulation within a main clause, whereas the next example (32) is an instance of the quintal modulation as transition from a secondary clause to a main clause, and example 33 employs the quintal modulation to create a transition from a main clause to a secondary clause.

(30 = 16, 68)

u nas by us

fsa - du in garden

ra - st'ot sl'i - va, grows plum,

v'i - Sn'a i cherry and

gni - sa pear

"In our garden grow a plum-tree, a cherry-tree and a pear-tree." Key of the fragment from i to the end of the sentence: D MAJOR ; key of the fragment from u to i inclusive: A MINOR. The distance between the two keys is a fifth. Modulation note is B, the ninth in A MINOR and the sixth in D MAJOR. The end is of the type with a leading tone c SHARP. The first segment, too, has leading tones (near-pivots) on / at a ninth (sixth), and sl'i- at a ninth from the tonic. The latter near-pivot is followed by a tertial rise (which has its own meaning; cf. this Chapter, § 8b: postictic interval) to -va.

10

The types b and c occur frequently in archaic Russian folk songs. The type b is a typical example of modal modulation via the second degree.

The Declarative Sentence

27

(31 = 64, 84, 98) Fis

B

b ) '

cis

cis

J

F

J

||J

||J

8 9 s'i - vo - dn'a pr'i - d'dt today comes

(¡jjl

9 i - van p'i - tro - v'ic, ivan petrovic,

s u

vo - l'i - n:ij dismissed

.Lis fis; gis l 7TT5 fm ( f r j u qjjj tjj J J* ¡I ftj ( g ^ 1 6 7 _3 7 e_ 1 v b - taj ko - mna - t'i sta - jit ra - jal', ka - td - rij in this room stands grand-piano, which r

cis I P /épì^—[—3

1

Cis l —i I

i i

a

ais

|

w

e

6

6 pà

pa papa

ku - p'il bought

1

p'it' l'ét five years

ta - mu hence

na - zàt back

"In this room is a grand-piano, which papa bought five years ago." Key of the initial segment: D MAJOR. Preictic rise: F S H A R P — D (via c SHARP; sextal); no postictic, but an introictic rise. The figure constitutes a unit of information creating suspense. Stajit might be considered a separate figure but with its preictic prime it would be semantical ly unmarked. Since it is followed only by a secundal fall it is practically proclitic to rajdV.

(73 = 26, 86)

r fa i p

d b/c I

—Pr

—^

J u by

nas us

9 fko - mna - t'i in room

bes Mi^ri i n —

J'fcJ

9_ 3 8 sta - jad gra - ma - fon, far - t'i - p'i - a - na stand phonograph, piano

mm ' J bes

J

i ra - jdl' and grand-piano "In our room are a phonograph, a piano and a grand-piano." Key of the sentence: B FLAT Preictic rise: D—C (septimal). No postictic rise. Stajad is slightly stressed; it may be considered either a semantically unmarked independent figure or proclitic to gramafon, or enclitic to komnafi. Cf. also example 86. MAJOR.

49

The Declarative Sentence (74 =¡81) C

r— n'i not

d

e

—

9 sli - 5a hearing

d

i Ï fmT tfj 1|J -J- w H1 T1 1 3 9 _ 1

stô what

on he

ga - va - r'it, says,

ja I

J

10 p'i - r'i - spra - s'il asked

—bes bes

ÉÏ ji - sco still

ji - vo him

ras once

"Not hearing what he said, I asked him once more." Key of the initial segment: C MAJOR. Preictic rise: E—D (septimal); no postictic rise. As in 73, the given figure presents a unit of information to be followed by others. (75 = 88, 100) c g):

r

dis g » — Y a J

6 v è - taj in this

b J ^ —

7 kô - mna - t'i room

v

—fr 1 «T

«

_ [sta - jit stands

dis r f g H i - y p -

•Pi W

7_ ra - jâl', no grand-piano, but

P J—

na on

r

.

|

— n'om it

b gis f

tfj

J .

J J- J du - ma thinking

ja

d • ••

9

> _

5j Stò j : ó tam n'ét, that her there not,

0

jà I

|

I

J jiJ

Q

#J

^

pa - stu - cài knocked

v dv'ér' in door

"Thinking that she was not there, I knocked at the door." Key of the initial fragment: c SHARP MINOR. Preictic rise: F — D (sextal); no postictic rise. J:o, being enclitic, coalesces into one syllable. Since its stress is at pivotal height (a fifth), we might consider itd j:6 a separate figure with a preictic fall. It would, in that case, be a semantically unmarked figure, gradually winding up in the preictic fourth of the following figure. For rhythmical reasons, however, it is preferable to surmise one single figure. The secondary clause, only a part of the entire sentence, thus forms one single figure. (77 = 101)

.Bes

A d

d ^ V — J

r - p «

v é - taj in this

a

j

4

• J

_ sta - jit stands

kò - mna - t'i i

12

U

e T

\ W| — r I 4 ' 1 12 I 4 ra - jàl', a grand-piano, and •

1 •

•

Vr

1 1

~

J

M

tl fsa - s'é - dn'aj in neighbouring

e

S ?

w

far - t'i - p'i - à - na piano "In this room is a grand-piano and in the next a piano." Key of the initial segment: A MAJOR Preictic rise: D—E (nonal); no postictic rise.

more

m'é - s'i - ca month

The Declarative

51

Sentence

-Bes

¿a

1

u

^

i r

ab

rà - da - val - sa fstr'é - êaj rejoiced encounter "Not having seen him more than a month, he was much pleased by the encounter." Key of the initial segment: F MAJOR. Preictic rise: E—C (sextal); postictic fall: C—C (octaval). The discussed figure is, by way of introduction, intended to retain the attention. The main information, the predicate, then follows. This is corroborated by the postictic fall. (79)

e

9 1

*

J

(j)

5

c

f

e

J L

3

l

^

-jJ J -

J

8

9

rir

i j .

5 1

4

n'i slô - va on vi - Sil is kô - mna - ti, n'i ga - va - r'â he went out room, not saying even word "He went out of the room, without saying a single word." Key of the sentence: C MAJOR. Preictic rise: e — c (sextal); postictic fall: c—e (sextal). The figure gives an independent piece of information, at the same time introducing the actual psychological predicate. (80 = 18, 60)

ir i as ; ;f des ~~i——i——i— jT-SL 1 i fl^ Ir u J U ( W ) i j q y piL 5 J ¡_3 8 7_

a(as) H

1

j o ë

J

s

~

, L

t± 5 1

n'i ga - va - r'a n'i slo - va, on vi - sil is ko - mna - ti not saying even word, he went out room "Without saying a single word he left the room." Key of the initial fragment: D FLAT MAJOR. Preictic rise: F — D FLAT (sextal). Postictic fall: D FLAT—E (dual). In contrast to 79, the psychological predicate is here in the main clause. It is introduced by the independent but not separated initial figure. (81 = 74) d ' '

JW 9

n'i not

sil - 5a hearing

d

J

^J

8td what

on he

^J

j ,

i f f 9 !

ga - va - r'it, says,

^

r |

•W 7 jit I

—r i .

ftBtf l^i-L

10 i i— i p'i - r'i - spra - s'il asked

The Declarative Sentence

52 iF e y - t, V-)—

a p- - i — bes 1 7T"? TT— * 8_

L_

8

—

1

1

ji - vô

ji - s i ô

ras

him

still

once

"Not hearing what he said, I asked him once more." Key of the second segment: B FLAT Preictic rise from -spra- to -s'il: F—C SHARP (quintal); postictic fall from -s'il to -vo: D FLAT—B FLAT (tertial). The figure P presents an independent piece of information, which is designed to retain the attention a moment before proceeding to the next unit of information. The immediately preictic syllable is the terminal point of a fall B FLAT—F (quartal). The figure is preceded by the figure ja (Y, intoned at A), which must be considered equivalent to a figure with falling preictic and postictic intervals, while itself lacking any such intervals. The ja, in other words, represents a semantically unmarked independent figure, thus merely presenting an independent reference to extra-linguistic reality. The P-figure might be separated into two figures, since its last grammatical stress is pivotal. Semantically, however, it would be, like y, unmarked, because of its falling preictic interval. Moreover, the figure is at approximately the same melody level as [i2, and the stress on the ictic syllable is rather weak. The initial B FLAT of P2 forms the alternate to the rule stated in footnote 1 2 (p. 35): according to this rule, p'i- should have started not higher than ja. In this case, however, ja would have been in a falling or level sequence, which would have made its independence as figure dependent only upon dynamic stress. MINOR.

(82)

gis tà r

m I

9 s'i - vô - dn'a today

i i—

^ * (jjoH H 7 pr'i - d'6t comes

— © — p —

— F 9

i - van ivan

•y

i

r jf\

i

L

p'i - trô - v'iô, petrovic,

0

L4|J

r

h t - 4 -

ka - tô - ra - va whom

A

"!r

^

1

5 - !i 5 ja n'i v'i - d'i - la dva gô - da I not saw two years "Today Ivan Petrovic will come, whom I have not seen for two years." Keys of the segment under discussion: A MAJOR and D MAJOR. Preictic rise from E to B FLAT via G (quintal); postictic fall from B FLAT to A (dual). The figure draws the attention to a situation which is to be clarified in the course of the dialogue, subsequently, by means of a postictic prime links up with dva gôda, which follows as clarification. Preceding the preictic rise is a fall A—E. I

The Declarative

53

Sentence

(83) e

bes l*v

. 1

.

CD

t?J

ja I

"i —w—w

[¡.«I

11 g pa - stu - £¿1 vdv'er', du - ma - ja knocked on door, thinking

f

J, sta that

5 ji - j6 her

f

bes

fw -i

rl

5 n'et 1 t4m there not

"I knocked at the door, thinking that she was not there." Key of the sentence: B FLAT MAJOR. The first19 figure under discussion (Y) has no preictic syllables and repeats B FLAT after the ictus. The following figure (P) has a preictic rise from E to F (dual), whereas the postictic syllable remains at F. This figure presents a unit of information to be commented upon but which, since it has no postictic rise, links up with the last word. If y were enclitic to the following figure there would be a postictic fall. As it is, there is a definite difference in pivotal level between dumaja and Sta, which makes it necessary to consider dumaja a semantically unmarked separate figure. (84 = 31, 64, 98)

Fis

Bcis ')•

j c - h h

CIS

J(g>iiJ

7 s'i - v6 - dn'a pr'i - d'6t comes today

a l

ixaj(8F>

— F p r

I ' 9 i - vskn p'i - tro - v'ic, ivan petrovi£,

r T gis

m v6 - l'i - n:ij dismissed

.Cis

j-.zzzzr.

W® WW fis I

fci - ra sa slu - zbi yesterday from service

"Today Ivan Petrovic will come, who was dismissed yesterday." Key of the segment under discussion: F SHARP MAJOR. Preictic rise: G SHARP—B (tertial) followed by a level sequence at B. The figure gives a new unit of information linked up with the subsequent text.

" Although we start our notation from the end of the sentence, our discussion of the various figures follows the reading direction and we call the a figure the final figure. Not always are all figures marked in the example; thus, a y figure may be characterized without the a and /? figures being indicated.

54

The Declarative

Sentence

(85 = 19, 35, 63, 99) Be*-..^

bes y T :—i— ^

f

Qj)

c —

Ui

8

5 i - vàn ivan

s' - vó - dn'a pr'i - sii today came

:

—

( )

i |

e

c r

—

J r ni r ^ n 9 3 8 p'i - tró - v'ic, petrovic,

ga - va - r'â saying

\

1 I 41 I sto that

r irt:

9

i ,

a cj) 3

J

J

i=:

5

5

II

^

•

j:vu - vó - l'i - l'i sa him dismissed from

HI 1 sili - zbi service

"Today came Ivan Petrovic, saying that he has been dismissed." Key of the figures under discussion: C major. Figure y, which presents a unit of information to be commented upon, has a preictic rise e—c (sextal), preceded by a fall f—e (dual). Figure p has a preictic rise E flat—G (tertial), preceded by a fall e—e f l a t (primal) ; it presents information to be elucidated but linked up with the final figure. Figure a, with a preictic fall g—c (quintal), gives this elucidation. (86 = 26, 73) 8

Y

c

PA—•Xbff

u n£s by us

e bes d b/c fis 1 " —HT "i W C g J • ' ,=i J ? [) ^ ì ì N Ì ® 9 U 5 8 _5 3 fko - mna - t'i sta - j&d gra - ma - fon, far - t'i - p'i - d - na in room stand phonograph, piano

i

P bes ~tr*? 1TS

N l m8

| I

1 i ra - jâl* and grand-piano "In our room stand a phonograph, a piano and a grand-piano." Key of the sentence: B f l a t major. Preictic rise in 8: d—c (septimal), preceded by a fall e—d (dual). No postictic interval. The figure denotes an independent element of the enumeration. Preictic rise in y: f—b f l a t (quartal), preceded by a fall f sharp—e (dual) and followed by a repetition of b f l a t .

The Declarative Sentence

55

The figure denotes an independent figure of enumeration, connected with what follows. The following B FLAT forms an independent figure P.20 This is clear largely from the stress it has and the pause that follows it. To a lesser extent, the high octaval tone on which it is spoken makes it possible to consider it enclitic to rajaV. Comparison with example 87 corroborates this. Thus we may say that the octaval fall from ra- is motivated by /. (87 = 41,66)

r

c •>:

i—r"\

-4—lyJ

FT

(d) 0

- 1 1

U

s na on

n'éj her

-ir f ¡¡bes (j)

L bì - la was

I—1

If 1 c ! ¡ais fisi CIS I j .T f i

J | | 0 1_¡L«

b'é - laj white

a

1

Hi

!

t

- T

i

5 '

_9

i jl_7 plá - t'ja, krá - snaj red dress,

_

4

51'á - p a j hat

s'i - n'a and blue

-C

I

71

ba - t'in - k'i shoes "She had a white dress, a red hat and blue shoes on." Key of figure 8: F

MAJOR;

of figure y:

B MAJOR.

8. See example 66. T- krasnaj may be considered an independent figure with a postictic fall A SHARP— F SHARP (tertial), making it semantically unmarked. This amounts to the same as considering it enclitic to SVapa. Preictic rise of the figure: F SHARP—c SHARP (quintal), followed by a postictic level at c SHARP, singling out the semantic contents of the figure in the dialogue, but linking it up with the next figure. The following i is enclitic and figures with the immediately preictic syllable before the tertial rise F—A to -ria. (88 = 75,100)

g dis, f psy.— —^ bJ—j_ — —d—j —-—i— .«1 3 jál'7 JL 7 "

f

5

kó

mna room

t'i

sta - jit stands

T

^

1

— *

vè - taj in this

8

1

grand-piano

no but

i

J—j—J

!

na on

m—I

n'óm him

_i'

20 It is often difficult to decide whether i forms a separate figure or not. It usually stands on a quintal or octaval level together with another segment; cf. numerous instances in other examples of this chapter. In these examples, the enclisis of i is identical with the enclisis of i and ríe in examples 3 and 5, respectively, of this chapter. In the present instance we are motivated by conditions of stress, absent in the other examples.

56

The Declarative r r

1

'

jjiJ' L

±

0

5 n'i - ka never

1 7 11_ 8 gda n'i - kto nobody

)

a

P " 1 1 . a I gis Hs-^-i

d

e

Sentence

gis

^ n'i not

4

H -H

-

6 1 1 i - gra - jit plays

"In this room stands a grand-piano, but nobody ever plays on it." Key of figure 8: E MAJOR; of figure y: A MAJOR. 8. has neutralization of the postictic opposition, stajit is enclitic. Y2. may or may not be considered an independent figure. Cf. example 100. Y1. The preictic interval e—d (septimal) gives the figure a separate status in the dialogue. The size of this interval emphasizes its lexical meaning; the then following figure is, as it were, the answer to n'ikagda. (89 = 4, 33, 72) Y

cis

g

J1

r

7 v & - taj ko - mna - t'i in this room

4 sta - jit stands

flS

d

8 ra - jal', grand-piano,

ka - t6 which

6 rij

8 _ pd - pa papa

C> ldis

ku> p'il bought

P

ais

p'it' l'et five years

ta - mu this

na - zat. back

"In this room is a grand-piano, which papa bought five years ago." Key of figure y: A MAJOR and D MAJOR; of figure (3: A MAJOR (and C SHARP MAJOR). y. Preictic rise F SHARP—A (tertial), followed by a continuation on the level of A. While we have here to do with a piece of information to be elucidated, it is linked up with the following figure. The difference with figure 8 of example 88 is enlightening. p. This figure is similar to y of 88; p'it' Vet is given as an independent piece of information not connected with what follows. The problematics of the sentence reach here a climax, which is solved by means of establishing the time of the process in relation to the time of the utterance. This is effected in the last figure. The recording of this sentence sounds as a sophisticated stylization, caused by the fact that the informant became bored after several hours' work.

The Declarative Sentence

57

(90 = 47)

CIS 7iT\ |»J ( i f f

'

fis dJ

a

eis

-| i ^s L f r J . . J

12

9

kar - t'i - na picture

v'i - s'e - la hung

fis

b

p J

'

7_

10_ na on

ais

r

8 4 st'i - n'e fsta - lo - vaj wall in dining-room

"The picture hung on the wall in the dining-room." Key of the sentence: F SHARP MAJOR. In the preceding examples we had to do with preictic rises, whereas the postictic interval either rose or descended. (A continuation at the same level must be ranged semantically with the following interval.) In the present and the next examples we shall discuss much rarer falling preictic intervals. Y. Preictic interval: c SHARP—F SHARP (quintal); postictic interval: F SHARP—A (tertial). The falling preictic intervals denote a predicate rather than a psychological subject, whereas the postictic rise separates it from the following unit of information. P. This figure has only a preictic fall (A—E SHARP; tertial), while the opposition between the postictic rising and falling intervals is neutralized. Here also we have to do with a predicate; the fact that an F SHARP follows shows that there is an independent figure. The rare combination of falling preictic intervals with rising postictic intervals gives the melody its tortuous appearance, which in its turn makes an impression of affectation. (91 = 78)

a b * —

c —j.

J (A J

- 4 —

v'i - d'a seeing

d

es

J

zA

\J_

5

3

4

1

^

'

10

n'i not

i r~> i

12 ji - vo him

bol' - sa more

m'e - s'i - ca, month,

on he

Y

|

9

1

6

-i

o - cin' very

bes U

ab - ra - da - val - sa rejoiced

d 1

l i " 1

fstr'e - caj meeting

"Not having seen him for more than a month, he rejoiced very much in the meeting." Key of the figures under discussion: B FLAT MAJOR. On dcin' (y) must be considered a separate figure by virtue of the fact that the ictus carries a near-pivotal note (a sixth). The present example demonstrates clearly the function of the level postictic interval: while retaining the high pivotal level and thus keeping the figure melodically apart from the next one, it never-

58

The Declarative Sentence

theless is semantically interpretable as falling (see footnote 13, p. 35). Abrádavalsa (¡3) has a preictic fall (F—D; tertial), and a postictic rise (D—E FLAT; dual); it gives a predicate which is however singled out from the last word. § 9. The size of the preictic and postictic intervals. Intonation clauses. The preictic interval at the end of an emotionally neutral declarative sentence is, as we have set forth in § 1, a fifth. The non-final non-initial preictic interval rises (or falls), in emotionally neutral intonation, a third or - especially in the second (and third) last figure of short sentences, that is, sentences comprising no more than three or four figures - a second. The initial interval of a short sentence rises, if this sentence is emotionally neutral, a fourth 21 towards the ictus; in an emotionally neutral longer sentence the initial preictic rise comprises a mere third or even a second. The quartal rise is usually from the dominant to the octave of the tonic (as is often found in folk music) or, less frequently, from the octave of the tonic to the octave of the subdominant. 22 The smaller initial preictic rises in large sentences usually end at the octave of the tonic. Initial falling preictic intervals occur usually in affirmative sentences to be discussed in Chapter IV. After the ictus, the figure may have another rising interval. This rise, in emotionally unmarked instances, is a third. An emotionally unmarked postictic fall, too, comprises a third. The postictic interval at the end of a declarative sentence has been discussed in § 1. It may not be superfluous to remark that, within a sentence which is otherwise neutral from an emotional point of view, one single figure may be emotionally charged, thus showing larger preictic and postictic intervals than it would have if emotionally unmarked. Whenever the speaker wishes to point out an element of extra-linguistic reality with particular force as one of the focal points of the predication, he expands the normal preictic interval. Thus, we find larger intervals than a second or a third at the beginning (the normal position of the subject) and at the end (the normal position of the predicate) of main and secondary clauses. Just as we can call a preictic interval of more than a third an emotionally marked interval, effecting the pointing out of a segment of reality with more than ordinary force, so a postictic rising interval of more than a third is similarly emotionally marked, separating, with more than usual stress, a figure from the following one. Postictic falling intervals denoting emphatic junctions between two figures are very rare. They occur relatively often at the end of a non-final clause ('before a comma'), cf. examples 78-79. Preictic and postictic intervals of more than a third are usually concomitant with 81 An interval larger than a third sets the figure off as denoting a segment of extra-linguistic reality more important than those denoted by the other figures in the message, whereas the preictic rise makes an appeal to the attention of the participants in the dialogue for the segment of extra-linguistic reality denoted. See Chapter II, p. 35, and Chapter IV, p. 73. 22 Our examples offer only one instance (Chapter III, example 10, p. 72), since the octave of the subdominant is at the limit of the range of the human speaking voice.

The Declarative Sentence

59

a lowering of the speech tempo; conversely, flattening of these intervals occurs when the speech tempo is temporarily raised and is the first step towards enclisis. These phenomena are sometimes accompanied by the appearance of leading tones to the pivot or even the complete replacement of the pivot by a leading tone. A main and a secondary clause belonging to one sentence count, as far as the size (not the direction) of their preictic intervals is concerned, as separate sentences, except for their beginning and end. Thus, a sentence having a main and a secondary clause each comprising four figures, will start with a small initial interval (a third), conclude its main clause, before the comma, with a rising fifth (or a larger interval), resume at a rising third and end with the usual quintal fall to the tonic, while the medial figures of each clause will show preictic intervals of a third, typical of longer sentences. It goes without saying that also two clauses connected by a paratactic conjunction may be set off from each other by means of the intonation (the conjunction usually either belonging to the first figure of the second clause, or forming a separate figure within the second clause). Even single figures may be divided off into intonation clauses by being preceded by a large interval and by containing one themselves. It is, then, useful to distinguish between syntactic clauses and intonation clauses, the latter being one or more intonation figures preceded by a pause or a clause border and marked off at the end by a clause border or the final drop to the tonic. The intonation clause, however, is a genetically secondary structure which is brought about by the existence of emphatic preictic intervals.

(92) qit

dis \

*U 4 _

_

va - r'ak fci - ra Varyag yesterday

pr'i - bil arrived

"The Varyag arrived yesterday." Key: B MAJOR. P (medial): preictic interval: a second. Y (initial): preictic interval: a fourth. Var'ak is grammatical as well as psychological subject. The last figure, a, shows an emotional ending with the pivot at a third from the tonic (see footnote 6, Ch. II, p. 17). This intonation, which shows a hesitation to reach the tonic, is caused by the fact that the next sentence on the tape inverts the word order: Pr'ibil fcira var'ak and was, during the continuous recording, anticipated by example 92.

60

The Declarative Sentence

(93 = 29) P1

- h

- r — 1 I p 1?» bJ ~

Im—Inr-• T T -- - W

PT

LJ 4 vè - taj kó - mna - t'i in this

~*Y'

1

U

~H

room

1-

P

1

r , ! i

n'òm it

RJ

1 ^

WL

Ti 6

r

d d

pfiijW— 3 J 5 dó - ma, ja

Fi I

stàjt ra - jàl'; ka - gdà ja stands grand-piano; when I

_!L

2 J fs'i - gdà na always on

IT 5 "W

home,

]

I i

i - grà - ju play

"In this room is a grand-piano; when I am home, I always play on it." This example consists of two sentences; Pi: initial preictic interval: a fourth. The postictic trend is level. The adverbial modifier v ètaj kómnafi is psychological subject. Pn: medial preictic interval: a second, typical of this sort of interval in smaller sentences, yn: initial preictic interval: a fifth. This interval is larger than the usual fourth, being slightly emphatic before the end of the secondary clause. Postictic interval: a third. The modifying clause kagdà ja dòma is psychological subject. (94 = 23, 27) 6 -4—

>J

5~1{~7 f> 1—rfr

- 1

1 "

-

•t±

3 - 2 J_ 2 J ra - jal' vè - taj kó - mna - t'i sta - jit this stands grand-piano room

L

"In this room stands a grand-piano." p. Preictic interval: a second. The medial preictic interval of a second is characteristic of smaller sentences, y. Preictic interval: a third; postictic interval: a second. The key of the sentence is B FLAT MAJOR. The octave of the tonic is reached only at -mna-, immediately following the ictic syllable kd-, which is intoned at A FLAT, here serving as a leading tone. This is a case of a shifted pivot. The interval from the syllable immediately before the ictus, -taj, to the pivot is, here, a fourth, but the preictic interval is a third (cf. footnote 8, p. 22). If we take v etaj as a separate figure kd- has no preictic interval.

The Declarative Sentence

(95 = 22, 37, 38, 46) 8 -• -

s'i

a 3

-

j—

J:-

• v6 -

2

1

JL

dn'a

today

Y

3

pr'i - d'ot comes

—.

a

P

1

LJ JL 2 J i - vdn ivan

p'i

-

tro petrovic

v'ic

"Today Ivan Petrovic will come." P: (medial) preictic interval: a second (falling). A second is normal in the p figure of short sentences. y: (medial) preictic interval: a third (rising). 8: (initial) preictic interval: a third; postictic interval: a second. Both preictic and and postictic intervals in 8 are rather small: a preictic fourth would have been more conventional. These small intervals are motivated by the fact that this sentence, when recorded, was one of the last out of a series of fourteen sentences beginning with s'ivodn'a. The informant tired at last and started to drawl the interval on s'ivodria; cf. the ictic glides in a, y and 8. The adverbial modifier s'ivddn'a is psychological subject; p'rid'ot is at the same time psychological subject and psychological and grammatical predicate.

(96 = 67) T nr

L4 j

I_1hL 7 J L 2

m 2 J

va - r'dk fci - ra pr'i - bil i varyag yesterday arrived and

3

3

3

JL J

a - std - n'i - caj^zd'ez' da su - bo - ti stays here until Saturday

"The Varyag arrived yesterday and will stay until Saturday." p. It is possible to take p1 as enclitic to p2, but because of its stress, causing a pronounced depth, it may be preferable to consider it a separate figure. P2: Preictic interval: a third; postictic interval: a third. These intervals are normal in longer sentences. y. Fcira can be taken as enclitic to pr'ibil. Preictic interval: a seventh, at the end of the first part of the main clause, separated by an emphatic rise from the second part. Postictic interval: a second. 8. Preictic falling interval: a fourth. This interval is characteristic of the beginning of a short sentence, not of a long compound or non-compound sentence. Its occurrence here is due to the fact that the first clause of the sentence contains an affirmative answer.

The Declarative

62

Sentence

(97 = 34, 62)

r i

v? i h l '

J1

- taj in this P —ii—

-I'

^

llJ' t t J

ko - mna - t'i room «

sta - jit stands

1

1 1 ^ 1

V

ma - si - na, machine,

gra - ma - f6n phonograph

^

FP

i and

ra - j&l' grand-piano

"In this room stand a machine, a phonograph and a grand-piano." The figures y and 8 show the typical emphatic preictic intervals of the emphatically rising intonation dividing off the clauses. Their postictic intervals are also large. The preictic interval of e2 is, as one would expect, the initial interval of larger sentences. (98 = 31, 64, 84)

hth / - —

#

2

4 P

J

J

t

IN

s'i - vo - dn'a pr'i - d'dt today comes

|

r

i r ^ 3 A r J i - vdn p'i - tro - v'ic, ivan petrovic,

i

J

J

3 u

vo - l'i - n:ij dismissed

-4— 2 fci - ra sa slu - zbi yesterday from service "Today Ivan Petrovic will come, who was dismissed yesterday." Since the near-pivot of p is located a second lower than the preictic syllable of (3 and

The Declarative

63

Sentence

the preictic syllable of a is higher again 3 may be considered a separate figure (cf. example 95). Its interval is a second, normal for the (3 figure, especially in shorter sentences. y. Preictic interval: a third. Postictic trend: level, which means connection with the following figure. 8. Preictic interval: a fourth; postictic: a third. Emphasis of comma-intonation, e. Preictic interval: a second, usual for larger sentences.

(99 = 19, 35, 63, 85) -i r 11

1

rp 2 s'i - v6 -dn'a pr'i - Sil today arrived

F*y 1

—

5 p'i - tr6 - v'ii, ga - va - r'a petroviS, saying

Sto that

rJ

' '

i - ykn ivan

m

W

j± 11 JLl

J :

3 j:v-u - v6 - l'i - l'i him dismissed

sa slii - ibi from service

"Today Ivan Petrovic arrived, saying that he was dismissed." (J. Preictic interval: a third, y. Preictic interval: a sixth. 8. Preictic interval: a fifth, e. Preictic interval: a second. The large intervals in y and 8 are motivated by emphasis in the recitation. The preictic third in (3 is not abnormally large, particularly for a smaller clause.

(100 = 75, 88)

m

ii .

2 3 3 J vfc - taj k6 - mna - t'i sta - jit in this room stands

I

n

6/5 J ra - jST, grand-piano,

2 no but

na on

-I n'6m it

64

The Declarative Sentence — |

Y

—.

r ^

- f — ilJ *

•>

.1. i 5

n'i - ka never

I

r

n

3

f n t f 2

gda

n'i - kto anybody

[—

J

a

P

n'i not

ffJ

—

^

^

i - grd - jit plays

"In this room is a grand-piano, but nobody ever plays on it." (3. Because of the emphasis on the relatively low G SHARP (sextal near-pivot, we note (3 as a separate figure. y. The preictic seventh is emphatic (cf. the clearly discernable glide). 8. This figure, like (3, may and may not be considered an independent figure. We choose the former alternative since the height is retained as long as possible, the (secundal) fall sets in later (cf. the glide) and remains, compared with the preictic tones of the following figure, on a high level. e. The preictic fifth occurs at the end of the first clause of the sentence. K- The preictic rising third (from -taj to ko-) and the postictic falling third are normal. The initial postictic fall (a second from c to B) tends to create a figure (cf. example 94). (101 = 77) c

8

-4— ^=4 -T-Wt _

5

(3

IM

a JL

vè - taj in this

7

4'

J

kò - mna - t'i room

4' 1

a - J• 1 J L 9

sta - jit stands

-J J L

J 1

—U—

7

ra - jàl', a f sa - s'é - dn'aj grand-piano, and in next

a

- f - —

j

L

js

t J

far - t'i

4«

j

i—

ri - p'i - à - na piano

"In this room is a grand-piano, and in the next one a pianino." The figures (3 and y show again large intervals marking off intonation clauses. 8. The slight rise (a half) at the end of 8 would make it desirable to consider 8 a separate figure from Ye. The initial fall of a fifth (there is neutralization of the preictic interval) is motivated by contrastive stress. Actually, this sentence might be adduced in Ch. IV, but since the contrastive stress does NOT neutralize the rest of the sentence we give it here.

The Declarative Sentence

65

Summarizing the patterning of non-final preictic intervals in non-emotional usage, we can say that in smaller sentences the closer to the end the more likely we are to find a small interval: a second, otherwise a third; whereas at the beginning we find, conversely, the smaller interval in longer sentences: a fourth in short sentences, but a third or even a second in the longer ones. Postictic intervals, by virtue of their meaning, are less dependent upon their rank in the sentence. § 10. Conclusions. The semantic hierarchy underlying the intonation message. What are the invariants in the intonation pattern which are capable of conveying information? Firstly, a pivot which is not a tonic tells us that we have to do with a figure which is non-final. An octaval pivot usually sets off a non-final intonation clause, a quintal pivot merely sets off a non-final figure. Secondly, the preictic fall occurs in figures (that is, intonation units) which merely designate a segment of extra-linguistic reality, whereas the preictic rise points out a segment of extra-linguistic reality while setting it off from the other elements of extralinguistic reality referred to in the dialogue. In the third place, the postictic interval, signifying the intonation figure itself, that is not an element of the code but an element of the dialogue (designating, in other words, not a segment of extra-linguistic reality, but the pointing out of a segment of extra-linguistic reality), if rising, divides off the given figure from the other elements of the dialogue. Thus, in declarative sentences, it creates a tension between the given figure and the following one, whereas no such tense contrast is effected by the postictic fall. In the fourth place, a preictic interval larger than a third in a given figure denotes that among intonation figures in general, such a figure occupies an especially prominent place and points with particular emphasis at a segment of extra-linguistic reality. Postictic intervals larger than a third are concomitant with larger preictic intervals or other emotionally expressive intonation phenomena in the sentence, such as shifting pivots. Finally, as far as the opposition between pivot and preictic and postictic intervals is concerned: the former is a part of the dialogue in abstracto, the latter are parts of the materialized dialogue. §11. Final remarks. Neutralization phenomena. We have not yet summed up our observations concerning what happens when the intonation figure begins or ends with an ictus, excluding preictic or postictic intervals. As we have seen in § 10, the semantic values of the trends of the preictic and postictic intervals are closely related. If a figure has a preictic rise but lacks a postictic interval, it divides off for special attention a segment of reality, leaving the inter-

66

The Declarative Sentence

pretation of the junction with the following figure to the semantic context. See, for instance, examples 498, 77y, 79(3, 85y, 868, 888, 89(3, 92(3, y, 94(3, 95y.23 Conversely, if an intonation figure begins with an ictus, having only a postictic interval, a postictic rise signifies the non-integration of the figure with the other intonation figures, thereby indicating that the segment of extra-linguistic reality to which the figure points needs to be elucidated by the rest of the dialogue (see examples 68y (v'iSn'a), 69y, 8, 71y, 76 beginning, 87(3). Thus, the semantic contrast of nonpredication versus predication prevails as soon as a rising interval appears in a figure affected by neutralization. Finally, in monosyllabic figures, a rise again denotes a claim to attention. Thus, the meaning of the preictic rise overrules the meaning of the postictic rise. See examples 67 (zd'es'), 76 end, 81y, 86(3.

23 In the interrogative sentence, the postictic interval is, in oxytona, incorporated in the form of an introictic rise, which reaches a third beyond the octave.

CHAPTER III

THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

§ 1. The normal interrogative sentence. As has been often noted, interrogative sentences containing an interrogative pronoun, adverb or particle have the declarative intonation. 1 This phenomenon is understandable. Firstly, the declarative intonation is the unmarked member of the opposition: declarative intonation vs. interrogative intonation, having no other function than holding a sentence, that is, a predication, together. Hence, it can be used also in a sentence which implies a question about its predication. Secondly, the occurrence of the declarative intonation is even entirely reasonable in sentences with an interrogative pronoun or particle. These so-called interrogative elements are only contextually interrogative, but may also be used as indefinites. They express the uncertainty of the speaker and become interrogative only when used in the function of an appeal. In other words, adjectives like kako> and kotoryj, substantives like kto and cto denote that the speaker is uncertain exclusively about one element (an adjectivity or a substance respectively) of a sentence, while otherwise accepting the predication effected. In a sentence with an interrogative intonation, on the other hand, the entire situation described, the predication with all its elements is placed in doubt by the speaker. Here we are concerned only with the latter type of sentences, distinguished from the declarative sentence by their intonation alone. Such interrogative sentences are characterized, besides by a final preictic rise, by a rise from the last accented syllable, which is intoned on the tonic of the key in which the given sentence segment is spoken, to the next unaccented syllable, which is intoned one third higher. The tonic in question is the octave of the tonic in which the surrounding declarative sentences end.

1

Cf. Chapter II, § 1, examples 6 and 7 (p. 15), and Chapter I, p. 10.

68

The Interrogative

Sentence

(1) b

dis

S ^ i ö Id - jit barks

sa - bi - ka? dog?

"Is the dog barking?" Key: B

(2)

IM-

MAJOR.

c !

Li

on he

J

sk6 - ra soon

Final postictic rise: a third

c

e

J

^

(B-D SHARP).

3 pr'i - d'6t? conies?

"Will he come soon?" Key: C

MAJOR.

Upward glide within last ictus: a third

(C-E).

(3)

cis

e

iv r j y » 3 pra - vda? truth? "Is it true?" Key: c SHARP MINOR. Final postictic rise: one third, reckoned from the deepest point of the glide within the ictus (c SHARP—E). The ictic glide is emotionally motivated. In monosyllabic sentences we find an upward glide of a third. (4)

bes des

rv J"? a 3 da? yes? "Yes?" Rising glide: one third (B FLAT—D FLAT). By analogy with the other questions ending in a rising third, we posit B FLAT MINOR to be the key.

The Interrogative Sentence

69

The examples 1-4 present questions of an unmarked nature. The entire situation described is questioned by the speaker, without drawing attention to a special detail. This type of question occurs also in larger sentences: (5) -fcVf

r

n r

Fgxnj J j j j i i^j j i 1—

kar - t'i - na picture

ii

_L L_

v'i - s'è - la hung

na on

j

d

c

M j T 2

J

st'i - n'è f sta - 16 - vaj? wall in dining-room?

"Was the picture hanging on the wall in the dining room?" Key: A MINOR. Final interval: c—D (secundal, probably because of the length of the sentence). Kart'ina and staldvaj have the largest intervals. They are intended to be the centers of attention. We could consider, therefore, the sentence as consisting of two figures (kart'ina and staldvaj) containing rising preictic and postictic intervals, connected by the enclitic v'is'ela na st'in'i. The figures would not only as far as the trend of their tones is concerned, but also semantically, form one extension: by virtue of the trend of their preictic and postictic intervals, each section of the utterance would take part in the question. Such a long sentence has, naturally, the connotation of a repetition of a statement made by a previous speaker. A long interrogative sentence which is not divided into intonation figures is confined to the special situation of the speaker who wishes to check up whether he heard the sentence correctly. § 2. Questions articulated into intonation figures. In other questions, the speaker, while inquiring about the entire situation described (in contrast to the questions with an interrogative, where he accepts the situation, but inquires after the identity of one of its elements), wishes to draw special attention to separate segments of extralinguistic reality referred to in the sentence. The question then falls apart in several figures. The figures denoting segments of extra-linguistic reality about which the speaker is uncertain receive rising postictic intervals, usually a third. The statement about the meaning of the postictic rise made in Chapter II is here confirmed: the postictic rise denotes here, too, a pointing to a separate segment of extra-linguistic reality, which is considered by the speaker to be not the end of the dialogue. (Hence, the "colorless question" treated in § 1, examples 1-5, consists of a series of such figures which are the extension of each other, or, rather, one extensive figure of this sort.) It is almost superfluous to remark that in the question, even when articulated, practically all non-initial postictic intervals are rising or level, in contradistinction to the statement, in which they are usually falling. The preictic interval in questions, too, may be rising, or falling. Here, again, the situation is the opposite of what we

70

The Interrogative

Sentence

find in the statement: the initial preictic interval is usually falling, whereas the following preictic intervals usually rise. Thus, we find that the generalized interrogative sentence presents the mirror image of the generalized statement: initial syllables

non-initial syllables

preictic

postictic

preictic

postictic

statement

rise

rise (or fall)

fall

fall

question

fall

rise

rise

fall (or rise)

This transmutation in form is founded upon a semantic transposition. In a statement the preictic fall denotes that the function of the figure is simply to point at a segment of extra-linguistic reality, whereas the preictic rise appeals that the position in the described situation of the phenomenon pointed at be recognized by the partners of the utterance. The question on the other hand puts the entire predication of the sentence in doubt; hence not merely does it point by means of the predicate, but the predicate is the sentence element the position of which is to be scrutinized. The subject, in the sentence with interrogative intonation (which often repeats questioningly a statement made by the preceding speaker), is the starting point. Thus, the subject is the only element of the predication which may have been taken over from the previous dialogue and whose truth value is not questioned in the dialogue. The examples 6-10 already demonstrate the borderline of the question: in the larger sentences, normally, only a part of the sentence is questioned by the speaker. (6)

L

des . 1 L_

-L_p L , r

L na on

3

JL n'ej her

-

H

1 2 JL bi - l'i were

s'i - n'a blue

»

3 ba

-

f •--I = t—1

3 t'in shoes?

k'i?

"Did she have blue shoes on?" Key: D f l a t major. Figure a has a postictic rise of one third (d flat—f), for emotional reasons already anticipated on the ictus itself. Bat'ink'i also has a preictic rise (which denotes together with the postictic rise that the figure poses a question) and is preceded by the enclitic s'in'a. Figure (5 has a postictic rise of a second (c—d f l a t ) . Figure y has a preictic rise of a third (b—d f l a t ) . The enumeration of three segments of reality questioned by three separate figures gives the sentence, taken as a whole, a connotation of surprise.

The Interrogative Sentence

71

(7)

on

her

were

m

white

gis

dress,

red

hat

dis

^

1 ^ 3 3 _J i s'i - n'a ba - t'in - k'i? and blue shoes? "'Did she have a white dress, a red hat and blue shoes on?" Key of thefinalsegement: G SHARP MINOR. Key of the initial segment: A FLAT MINOR. Figure a has a postictic rise of one third (B—D SHARP), and a preictic rise of one third (G SHARP—B), preceded by the enclitic i s'in'a. The pivot is on the syllable before the ictus; cf. p. 72, § 3. In figure (3 we have to do with a preictic rise towards il'a-, already anticipated in -ja. This type of figure is normal in the enumeration of the statement: a preictic rise to mark the figure off for the attention of the participants of the dialogue, a postictic fall to effect connection with the following figure. Figure ¡3 is semantically unmarked, having a weak interrogative value which is only contextually given. The figures y, 8 and e have each preictic or postictic intervals denoting that the phenomenon referred to is submitted for special scrutiny. The accumulation of questioned elements, here also syntactically given, again effects a connotation of surprise. (8)

ß

U l U J L . L 2 s'i - v6 - dn'a pr'i - d'dt today comes

* — t i — A , ft» ~ 1 'i* G ) P 1 T M 1 i 3 J i - vän p'i - trö - v'iö? ivan petroviö?

'Is Ivan Petrovic coming to-day?" Key: B MAJOR. Final postictic rise: a third ( B — D SHARP). This sentence contains two figures. In the last figure (a) ivan is enclitic. The first figure (¡3) has a small preictic interval, a second ( B — C SHARP; as is normal initially in larger sentences) which is rising to denote that this element has to receive recognition yet. The articulation into two figures (effected also by a small intermediary pause) gives the question a particular force.

72

The Interrogative

Sentence

(9)

vi bi - l'i vma - skv'6? you were in moscow? "You were in Moscow?" Key: c SHARP MINOR. Upward glide on last ictus: a third (c SHARP—E). Since there is another rising third (A—c) on biVi the sentence must be considered to have two figures; biVi is subjected separately to questioning. (10) a

mi

es

es I/»

k

dup ra - st'dt f sa - du ? oak grows in garden ? "Is an oak growing in the garden?" Key: c MINOR. Final ictic upward glide: a second (E FLAT— F). The note F is the highest which the informant is able to produce; going by the rule, we would expect G FLAT. Because of the initial tertial interval (C—E FLAT), largely realized already on dup, dup must in any case (even more so than a) be considered the central figure, separately posing a question about the phenomenon to which it refers.

§ 3. Emotional variations. Since the very question conveys an emotional attitude of the speaker it is understandable that in interrogative intonation we do not find the gamma of emotional variations which are so typical of the declarative intonation. Shifted pivots, unlike in the statement, occur BEFORE the ictus (cf. Ill 7 and IV 23). §4. Conclusions. The question tends to be monotonous. Since it usually has a starting point previously given in the dialogue, the interrogative sentence is mostly brief. If it is longer, there is either such a division into intonation figures as to make a part of the sentence the starting point while the rest is made to contain the question, or the whole sentence remains one large intonation figure repeating (for instance, for checking up purposes) what the preceding speaker has already said. Natural is only the short interrogative sentence, questioning the only phenomenon presented. In this way, the sentence consists of one figure with rising preictic and postictic intervals. The question, then, tends towards neutralization of the opposition between sentence and figure. We shall find back the same tendency, to an even higher degree, in the emphatic statements, to be treated in the next chapter.

CHAPTER IV

EMPHASIS

§ 1. Introduction. Declarative sentences with contrastive emphasis. A special type of sentence intonation is found in declarative and interrogative sentences with contrastive emphasis. As does the question, sentences carrying contrastive emphasis do not present new information besides the attitude of the speaker. In such sentences, one word (characterized by a heavy dynamic stress) is emphasized in contrast to all its possible substitutes; one can always paraphrase by sentences like "it is (or: is it) such and such, and not such and such who...". This semantic function of the sentence with contrastive emphasis determines its intonation pattern: the message consists of only one reference to extra-linguistic reality, which is presented to the attention of the adressee as being more important than any of its kind 1 : in the declarative variant (examples 1-12), the word pointing to the center of attention has usually a preictic rise of a fourth or more, followed by a postictic fall of approximately an octave to the tonic of the key in which the given sentence is spoken. The final drop to the tonic signifies the end of the information which the speaker wishes to present (what may follow in the same sentence serves merely identification purposes); an octaval interval sets off the importance of the figure concerned; a falling postictic interval does not denote that there is more to follow in the dialogue. The remainder of the sentence, preceding and/or following the stressed figure, merely serving to complete the identification of the situation described, is enclitic. Correspondingly, we find an acceleration of the speech tempo in the enclitic parts of the sentence, in contrast to a lowering of the tempo at the emphasized place. Like the question2, the sentence with contrastive emphasis thus has a tendency towards neutralization of the opposition: figure vs. sentence. However, unlike the question, which may divide the described situation into a part which is merely identified and a questioned part, the sentence with contrastive emphasis exclusively identifies. Its only difference with the statement is that it gives us no new information besides either the vigorous confirmation by the speaker of a 1 2

Cf. Chapter II, § 9. Cf. Chapter III, § 4 (p. 72).

74

Emphasis

previously described, identified and predicated situation, or, at the most, a new lexical meaning of a given substance, adjectivity or adverbiality. Thus, articulation into intonation figures is with the sentence containing contrastive emphasis in principle even more unlikely than in the question. The same imperative tendency towards neutralization of the opposition: sentence vs. figure is found in a cognate type, the intonation pattern of the affirmative sentence. On shifted pivots, cf. p. 72, § 3.

(l)

bes bes

5

8

vma - skv'e in

m'i - tr£>

moscow

metro

"It is in Moscow that there is an underground." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. Preictic rise from E to B FLAT via F (quintal). The last preictic interval (rrfi-trd) is not a fifth falling to the tonic (as would have been the case in a non-contrastive declarative sentence), but a prime. Th fall to the tonic occurs earlier, postictically between -kVe and m'i-. (The only pivot is, in (2) examples 1-17, not encircled.)

bis

r> »¿-I H I

i e

-

ta

there

d des(ris) 4 2

c!s

i

^

2

dùp

Su - m'ìt

oak

rustles

p

1

*T fsa - dù in

garden

"That is an oak rustling in the garden." Key: C SHARP MAJOR, eta is enclitic, initiating a preictic quartal rise (F SHARP—B SHARP via G). After the emphasized word dùp, the melody drops via D to the tonic. Just as the octaval pivot is not reached completely, the postictic fall to the tonic is not immediate. (3)

fis

3 sa

-

ba - ka dog

3

là - jit barks

"It is a dog that is barking." Key: G

MAJOR.

Preictic rise from

F SHARP

to

B

(quartal).

Emphasis

75

lajit is intoned at B, a third from the tonic. This is a well-known emotional variant, which often, as in this case, lends the sentence the connotation of an exclamation. As in the final rising third in the question, the speaker invites, as it were, the response of the hearer upon his utterance. Cf. also footnote 6 of Ch. II (p. 17). The next example shows the same phenomenon.

(4) b

b

lä - jit barks

ais

ais

sa - bä - ka dog

"Barking is what the dog does." Key: F SHARP MAJOR. Since there are no initialpreictic syllables, there is no preictic rise. In such cases we usually find an ictic up-glide; cf. example 6. Postictic fall: B—B (octaval). -baka is intoned at A SHARP, one third from the tonic. The sentence has the connotation of an exclamation. See the preceding example.

(5)

e

bes

cis

bes

5 6(7) va - r'dk fci - rh varyag yesterday

pr'i - bil arrived

"It is the Varyag that arrived yesterday." Key: B FLAT MAJOR. Preictic rise from E to (quintal), followed by a septimal fall developing into an octave after two syllables.

B FLAT

(6)

bes

')

-iJ1

W

bes

Is J 8 pr'i - bil arrived

C j l

t J " I/o! l / J föi - rä yesterday

lnJ~

va - r'äk varyag

"The Varyag arrived yesterday." Key: B FLAT MINOR. Icticrisingglide from A—B FLAT (secundal), followed by a postictic octaval fall B FLAT—B FLAT.

76

Emphasis

(7) _

0

1

r ij

J

—i h

i LP

J * r

^

d i| T

vè - taj

kò - mna - t'i

sta - jit

ra - jàl'

in this

room

stands

grand-piano

"It is a grand-piano that stands in this room." Key: D MAJOR. Final preictic fall from D to D (octaval). The final drop to the tonic neutralizes the rule that there be a high preictic rise on the word contrastively emphasized. That there is contrastive emphasis and not an affirmative intonation is evinced by the fact that the fall from ra- to -jaV starts actually only on -jaV. This might also be an exceptional case of articulation into figures, y presenting a phenomenon to be commented upon, (3 (if it is to be taken as a separate figure) presenting the first predicate; whereas a presents the emphatic predicate. This sort of sentence is on the verge of sounding artificial. (8)

es=dis

1

V

vé - taj in

b

kò - mna - t'i

sta - jit

ra - jàl'

room

stands

grand-piano

this

"It is in this room that the grand-piano is." Key: B MINOR. Postictic fall D—D SHARP (septimal). The tonic is reached five syllables later. This sort of 'delayed drop occurs also in examples 3, 4, 5, and 9. (9)

IM

'

vj 5 kar - t'i - na picture

v'i - s'è - la hung

na on

st'i - n'è wall

b

ais

4

3

f sta - lò - vaj in dining-room

"It is a picture that was hanging on the wall of the dining room." Key: F SHARP MAJOR. Preictic rise from F SHARP to C SHARP (quintal). The last ictus is at B, a fourth from the tonic; this ictus carries the leading tone to a third from the tonic. The third from the tonic is reached on the first postictic syllable. This sentence, too, has an exclamatory intonation.

77

Emphasis (10)

d bes

ka - t6 - rij cas? what hour ?

"What time is it?" Key: B FLAT MAJOR. Octaval postictic drop from D to D. Although sentences containing an interrogative may follow the pattern of the non-emphasizing declarative sentence, they usually are, for obvious reasons of stress, of the emphatic declarative type, the emphasis falling on the interrogative.

(H)

k&k how

on he

p6 - mn'it ? remembers ?

"How does he remember?" Key: D FLAT MAJOR. Octaval fall from the interrogative adverb to the following syllable.

E FLAT—E FLAT.

Octaval fall

(12)

8

5tô on what he

pô - mn'it ? remembers ?

"What does he remember?" Key: D

FLAT MAJOR.

The same type as example 11.

§2. Affirmative sentences (examples 13-17). A type of sentence intonation very similar to the type just discussed is found in the affirmative sentence. The affirmation carries even less information than the emphatic sentence does: in the emphasis, the speaker introduces as new information a new lexical meaning by referring to a segment of extra-linguistic reality which he contrasts to all its peers. In the affirmation, there is no new lexical meaning; the speaker simply repeats a previous utterance or, at the most, refers to a totally known situation in order to show that he conforms his view to that of the other participant(s) of the dialogue. Usually, the affirmation concerns only one segment of reality, towards which the attitude of the speaker was un-

78

Emphasis

known to the participants in the utterance situation, whereas reference to other phenomena is merely made for identification purposes. Thus, the intonation of the affirmative sentence, like the intonation of the question, is grouped around one single intonation figure. However, since this figure does not appeal specifically for recognition, it carries a falling octaval preictic interval; this interval ends at the tonic since no other important information follows. The postictic interval and the following words, if they exist, are level. Thus, the affirmative sentence intonation differs from the contrastive sentence intonation in that it has a falling, instead of a rising preictic interval on the word carrying the psychological predicate. Among our examples of sentence intonations containing contrastive stress and affirmations are several pairs showing no other difference than in the trend of the preictic interval (examples 1 and 13, 3 and 14, and, in principle, 2 and 16). (13) d

d/cis

8 v ma - skv'é in moscow

m'i - tr6 metro

"[Yes,] there is an underground in Moscow." Key: C MAJOR. Preictic fall from D to D/C (octaval). In contradistinction to examples 1-12, in which the fall is postictic, we have here an octaval (nonal) preictic fall D—C SHARP, which constitutes an answer. The realization of the contrast: emphatic statement vi. answer by means of the opposition: preictic rise larger than a fifth vs. preictic fall larger than a fifth confirms our statement about the semantic functions of the preictic rise and the preictic fall made in Chapter II, § 8. In the case of the rising preictic interval, the phenomenon denoted is recommended for the attention of the partners of the utterance, whereas in the falling preictic interval signifying the answer the attention of the listeners for the phenomenon concerned is assured. SHARP

(14) b

ci s

7 sa - bâ - ka dog

là jit 1barks

"[Yes,] it's a dog that is barking." Key: C MAJOR. Preictic fall from B t o e SHARP (septimal) Lajit is intoned at the tonic, c. This intonation signifies an answer, as contrasted to example 3.

79

Emphasis (15)

cis jiJ

jiJ

jiJ

^

p

i

9

1 SI - vô - dni'a pr'i - d'ôt

today

l

b

i - vàn

p'i - trô - v'ic

ivan

petrovii

comes

"[Yes,] Ivan Petrovii will come to-day." Key: B MAJOR. Final preictic fall from c SHARP to B (nonal). Since this affirmative intonation hardly stresses any particular element as the center of the reply, the large fall occurs at the end of the sentence. The low degree of tension present in this sentence emerges clearly in the comparatively wavy line of the melody, showing even a contextually conditioned quintal rise (F SHARP—C SHARP) before the relevant preictic fall. (16)

ÇSrdiS es

Vfef H 4 è é dup

ra - st'dt

f sa - du

oak

grows

in garden

"[Yes,] it is an oak that is growing in the garden." Key: A MAJOR. Ictic octaval glide E FLAT— (Both these notes represent E; E FLAT is a contamination, being due to the octave of the final note of the preceding sentence of the recording.) The ictic glide, standing for a preictic glide impossible in this example lacking a preictic syllable, represents the affirmative intonation. E FLAT.

(17) dis '

dis

"i1

J 8

^

gr'6p

s'i - r'd - ia

rowed

seryozha

^

J lôt -

ku

boat

J pa on

r'i

k'è

river

"Seryozha did row a boat on the river." Key: E FLAT MAJOR. Ictic fall from D SHARP to D (octaval), representing the affirmation.

SHARP

§ 3. Interrogative sentences with contrastive emphasis are, like other interrogative sentences, characterized by a postictic rise of one third (when the questioning is more emphatic, also a larger interval) from the tonic (usually in the octave) resting on the ictus of the last stressed word to the next postictic syllable. Besides this rise, there is a postictic rise of a fourth or more towards the tonic (usually in the octave) from the

80

Emphasis

ictic syllable of the emphasized word. There is on this syllable a preictic fall of at least a fourth. This fall is motivated by the fact that the speaker presupposes the concept emphasized to have already been accepted as element of the predication, which is questioned as a whole. The emphasized concept is not brought up for scrutiny apart from the question. The postictic rise starting from the emphatic syllable denotes the continuation of the dialogue. On the other hand, the rise to the tonic or its octave signifies that the information itself is ended and that what follows in the sentence is merely explanatory. The large size of the preictic and postictic intervals indicates contrastive emphasis. Thus a semantically motivated mirror image of the declarative sentence with contrastive emphasis is obtained. Here, too, we find the preictic and postictic rises and the interval larger than a third to have their normal semantic value. As in the emphatic declarative sentence we find a tendency to neutralise the opposition: intonation sentence versus intonation figure: the syllables not belonging to the emphatic figure coalesce into one single other figure.3 (18)

bes

f

f bes bes des iCk bm- - * q

I_j

5

i*

l_ 4

sa - bd - ka dog

L la

M

j

3

3 5 -

jit?

barks ?

"Is it the dog that is barking?" Key: B FLAT MINOR. Final postictic rise: a fifth (B FLAT—F, via D FLAT). Sabaka forms the main figure, with a preictic fall of a fourth (B FLAT—F), and a quartal postictic rise (F—B FLAT). The fourth is the usual interval in the rises at the beginning of smaller sentences, setting off the phenomenon of extra-linguistic reality referred to as particularly important, in other words, setting off the subject from the predicate. Here, on the other hand, we find a falling fourth. How can we explain this? As we have remarked before, in the sentence with interrogative intonation the entire predication is questioned. Here, too, this is the case. Sabaka has already been given as being a part of a question. Hence, its position in relation to other phenomena in the ken of the participants of the dialogue is not so much the point to be questioned as whether a dog or another substantivity is involved. Thus, the semantically unmarked preictic fall extends over a fourth, an emphatic interval. Since figure [3 forms only part of a (questioned) predication, its postictic interval is rising. The postictic fifth makes the entire question more emphatic. The a figure is almost enclitic.

•

Chapter III, § 4 (p. 72).

Emphasis (19)

-

—

9

81

t-

p e

i1 3 & i II 2 1 v'i - s'é - la hung

bes des u

!>„

^

kar - t'ì - na picture

»„-W

na on

H

W ^

T

II

UJ

st'i - n'è fsta - lò - vaj? wall in dining-room?

"Did the picture hang on the wall in the dining room?" Key : B FLAT MINOR, P has a preictic fall G—E (tertial), followed by a rise E—F. Figure a might alternatively be considered to start at na st'in'e, the preceding section belonging to p. We prefer the present solution since it assigns the emphatic v'is'ela the status of a separate figure by itself. The final interval of a is not emphatic, in contradistinction to its counterpart in 18. According to the introductory statement of § 3, v'is'ela should have had at least fourths. It has only thirds because the sentence is long and artificially-sounding. A less artificial sentence would leave out na st'in'e and have fourths on v'is'ela. (20) —

p

1

'

4

—I

J

c

J;- 4 — s —

7

va - r'äk fei - ra varyag yesterday

J

e -i

r

Lpr'i 3-

bil? arrived?

"Was it the Varyag that arrived yesterday?" Key: C MAJOR. Initial preictic fall: G — D (quartal); final postictic rise: C—E via D (tertial). The same type as 18, only with a tertial postictic interval in a. (21)

v ma - skv'é m'i - tró? in moscow metro? "Is it in Moscow that there is an underground?" Key: A MINOR. Final preictic rise from E to c (sextal). The heavy preictic fall on maskv'e (instead of a level melody at c) divides, as emerges very clearly when the recording is played, the sentence into an emphatically pointing figure ((3) and an emphatically questioning figure (a). The entire sentence thus

Emphasis

82

acquires a connotation of surprise. It is interesting to note that the final rise E—c does not start on the tonic, which is A. This is caused by the necessity of the emphatic rises starting immediately after the emphatic fall, that is, below the tonic. Obviously, a sentence with two contrastive emphases, even if one is declarative and the other interrogative, is artificial and exceptional. In our other examples (18-20 and 22-23) only the questioned element is marked by contrastive emphasis. (22) *y

j

J

j J

j

c

a

j

J

cis

^

l I J L J 4 3 vi ve - tarn u - v'e - r'i - ni? you in this convinced? "Are you convinced of that?" Key: A MAJOR. Final postictic rise: a sixth (E—C SHARP) via a fourth (E—A) and a third (A—C SHARP). The large interval indicates emotional coloring. The question is concentrated around uv'er'ini (preictically level, postictically rising), whereas V/ v etam merely points out (preictically level, postictically falling from A to F; tertial) and may be considered enclitic. Thus, in contradistinction to example 19, we have here one figure. It is interesting to note that the final postictic rise does not start on the tonic, but reaches the tonic on the immediately postictic syllable. We may interpret this example, then, as having a shifted pivot; cf., however, p. 72 § 3. (23) —

-4—

P

"1 1 —tT7 1?J q J vgg i|*

v6 - taj in this

_ i "t: b-J

k6 - mna - t'i room

sta

•

.

jit stands

bes des W L-

f

5 3 ra jal'? grand-piano?

"Is it a grand-piano that is standing in this room?" Key: B FLAT MINOR. We adduce this example in order to show the borderline of the emphatic intonation. We have obviously to do, as we have in examples 19, 20 and 21, with two figures. In contradistinction to these examples, however, the preictic interval in fi is rising. The informant was asked to intone the sentence in such a manner that two phenomena would be presented as questioned. This is unusual, since normally the speaker questions either the entire predication, or one phenomenon (indicated in a lexical meaning), uttering in the latter case the remainder of the sentence merely for identification purposes. When listening to the recording, one clearly notices the artificiality of the sentence. On the contrastive emphasis, cf. ex. 7. The shifted pivot is anticipatory. § 4. Non-contrastive emphatic preictic intervals. In some instances, emphatic preictic intervals are used without creating a contrast between one lexical meaning and its paradigmatic peers. The large interval retains the meaning of denoting something occupying a prominent place among the segments of extra-linguistic reality referred

Emphasis

83

to. The entire sentence thus acquires often a connotation of emphatic declaration, if there is a falling large preictic interval, and of emphatic, emotional exclamation if there is a rising large preictic interval. See examples 24-27. (24)

oc b

S

3

LJ 5 on

in -

t'i - r'é - snij

he

J6 ,_ l

ci -

interesting