The relations between the Crimean Tartars and the Ottoman Empire, 1578-1608, with special reference to the role of Gazi Giray Khan : Ph. D. thesis

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I.

THE

RELATIONS

BETWEEN

OTTOMAN iiMFIRE,

TO

THE

THE

CRIMEAN

1573 - 1603,

ROLE

OF

TATAR 5

141TH SPECIAL

GSzT

GIlS.1

AND

REFERENCE

KHAN

b 7

C a r l Max K o rte p e te r

T h e s is p re s e n te d f o r th e Degree o f Ph. D. in th e U n iv e r s ity o f London

1962

THE

ProQuest Number: 11010629

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H i s t o r i e s o f th e Ottoman Em pire b a se d on O r i e n t a l and W e s te rn s o u rc e s have been w r i t t e n by o u ts ta n d in g s c h o la r s in th e n i n e t e e n t h and tw e n tie th c e n t u r i e s .

T hese h i s t o r i e s t r a c e th e d ev elo p m en t o f t h e

Empire as a whole w ith o u t g iv in g to o much c o n s i d e r a ti o n to th e s e p a r a t e c o n tr i b u ti o n s of p o l i t i c a l e n t i t i e s o r s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s w i t h i n th e E m p ire.

In s h o r t , th e la c u n a e o f Ottom an h i s t o r y m ust now be f i l l e d

in by s t u d i e s o f th e component p a r t s of t h a t h i s t o r y . The Crimean K hanate i s one such p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y w hich h as at*t r a c t e d v e ry l i t t l e s y s te m a tic s tu d y o u ts id e o f R u s s ia and T u rk e y .

The

Crim ean K hanate . . m a in ta in e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n in th e r e l a t i o n s betw een th e Ottoman and R u ss ia n E m pires from th e s i x t e e n t h to th e e i g h t ­ e e n th c e n t u r i e s , d u rin g w h ich tim e a change to o k p la c e i n th e b a la n c e o f power i n E a s te rn Europe and W estern A s ia - a change g e n e r a l l y t o th e a d v a n ta g e o f R u ss ia and a t th e -expense o f th e Ottom an S t a t e . The p r e s e n t s tu d y a tte m p ts to make a d e t a i l e d su rv e y o f t h e r e ­ l a t i o n s o f th e K hanate w ith th e Ottoman Em pire and o t h e r f o r e i g n pow ers betw een 1578 and 1603 an d , a t th e same tim e , to throw l i g h t on th e in ­ s t i t u t i o n s and p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f th e K hanate by t f a c i n g th e l i f e

o f one

*— T —i o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t Khans o f th e Crim ean T a t a r s , G azi G ira y Khar I I (1 5 3 3 -1 6 0 8 ). The n o te on s o u rc e s d is c u s s e s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y th e w id e ly s c a t t e r e d s o u rc e s p e r t i n e n t to th e s tu d y o f th e Crim ean K hanate i n th e l a t e s ix t- e e n th

3.

and e a r l y s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r i e s .

In th e i n tr o d u c ti o n th e w r i t e r se e k s

to p la c e th e s tu d y in a s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry E a s te r n E uropean and W estern A sian c o n te x t, g iv in g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to th e ^ la c k Sea and th e s te p p e e n v ir o n ­ m en ts o f th e K h a n ate .

The f i r s t th r e e c h a p te r s th e n d e s c r ib e th e r e ­

l a t i o n s o f th e K hanate w ith in th e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l o r b i t s o f i t s p o l i t i ­ c a l a c t i v i t y , th e C aucasus, th e S teppe and E a s te r n E urope r e s p e c t i v e l y , betw een 1573 and I 6 O65 f lu n g a c t i v i t i e s .

C h a p te r IV p ro v id e s an e v a lu a tio n o f th e s e f a r

4. P R E F AGS

TheT r a n s c r ip tio n o f names and p la c e s in S o u rc es f o llo w th e S o u rces#

th e S la v o n ic

E n g lis h system as i s r e f e r r e d to

i n th e Note

on

In th e case of th e T r a n s c r ip tio n o f T u rk is h w o rd s, th e

sy stem a s s e t f o r t h in Volume One o f th e T u rk is h Isla m A n s ik lo p e d is i w i l l be g e n e r a lly fo llo w e d w ith two e x c e p tio n s ! k i s h UCH as th e t r a n s c r i p t i o n f o r th e O ttom an E n g lis h ' * and, f o r th e Ottoman cu m flex

( a )w i l l be fo llo w e d ,

tra n s c rip tio n

j

i n p la c e o f th e T u r­ ^

norm al

, th e E n g lis h Mj ,! w ith a c i r ­

A s lig h t v a ria tio n

o f th e T u rk is h

w i l l be u se d f o r P e r s ia n s p e l l i n g s .

The g e o g ra p h ic te rm in o lo g y , w henever p o s s i b l e , conform s to th e s p e l l i n g s as g iv e n i n th e ^ohn Bartholom ew e d i t i o n o f The T im es 1 A tla s o f th e W orld

(London, 1955-1959) in f i v e volum es.

I n so f a r

a s i t has been n e c e s s a iy to r e f e r t o Mongol names o r te rm in o lo g y , th e s p e l l i n g s used by George V ernadsky in h i s s tu d y , The M ongols and R u ssia (New Haven, 1953) have been f o llo w e d . I sh o u ld l i k e to th an k P r. P a u l S k w arczy n sk i and D r. John Keep o f th e School o f S la v o n ic and E a s te r n E uropean S t u d i e s , London U n iv e r s ity and P r o f e s s o r R oger S avory o f th e U n iv e r s ity o f T o ro n to f o r h e l p f u l s u g g e s tio n s w hich th e y have made d u r in g th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s s tu d y .

I :, p a rtic u la rly w ish to th a n k P r o f e s s o r B ern ard L ew is and Mr.

Vernon P a rry o f th e School o f O r i e n t a l and A f r ic a n S t u d i e s , London U ni­ v e r s i t y , f o r t h e i r t i r e l e s s v i g il a n c e and encouragem ent d u rin g th e p re ­ p a r a tio n o f t h i s t h e s i s and f o r th e i n s i g h t w h ich th e y have g iv e n to me i n th e s tu d y of Is la m ic ^ i s t o r y .

5.

CONTE NT S £ age A b s t r a c t ........................ P re fa c e

. ....................................

2

........................................................................................................

4*

C o n t e n t s .............................................. .

5

A Note on S o u rc es I

O r i e n t a l S o u rces ............................................................

7

II

S la v o n ic S o u r c e s ............................................................

27

III

W estern S o u r c e s ..........................................................

4o

The Ottom an U npire and E a s te r n Europe

6 f

I n t r o d u c t io n A

..

B O ttom an-Saf a v id R iv a lry and th e S tru g g le f o r T r a n s c a u c a s i a ..................................... G The E a r ly Y ears o f Gazi G ira y , 1554-1573 C h a p te r I .

..

I 02.

G azi G ira y and th e P e r s ia n War 1 . The Commencement o f th e P e r s ia n War

..

..

2. The C onquest o f G e o rg ia and S h irv a n ( 1 5 7 3 ) .. 3 . The Advent o f th e Crim ean T a ta r s

4 . Toward th e C o n s o lid a tio n o f th e N o rth e rn F la n k , 1579-1534

.....................................

5 . Gazi G ira y i n th e S e rv ic e o f ‘ OsmanP ash a ».

i54

>74

6 . The R e v o lt o f Mehemmed G ira y Khan and

th e E scape o f G azi G iray

••

7 . The C lose o f th e P e r s ia n War

> rr .........................

XO |

(o.

Page C h a p te r I I . G azi G ira y Khan and h is R e la tio n s w ith th e S tep p e Pow ers, 1583-1594 ..

zo*l

...........................................................

X l4-

1.The Legacy of Mehemmed G ira y Khan

..

2 . The A cce ssio n o f G azi G ira y and th e Nogay Q u e stio n

3 . The O ttom an Crim ean Crisis w ith P o la n d - L ith u a n ia

%%o

4 . The A tta c k on Moscow and th e C rim ean-M uscovite S e ttle m e n t o f 1594 C h a p te r I I I .

••

••

X*$

G azi G ira y Khan and th e H u n g arian War

1.The Background

^ar

.....................................

2 . The F i r s t Y ears o f th e H u n g arian War

and th e R o le o f th e Crim ean T a t a r s

..

3 *The R e v o lt o f th e P r i n c i p a l i t i e s and th e

D is m is s a l o f G azi G ira y Khan

..........................

X%2L

4 . The End o f th e H ungarian War and o f th e R e b e llio n in th e T r ib u ta r y P r i n c i p a l i t i e s

..

5 . The Crim ean T a ta r s and th e F i n a l S ta g e s

o f th e H ungarian War C h a p te r IV . B ib lio g ra p h y

...........................................

The Ba s t Y ears of G azi G iray Khan .•

.........................

..

••

••

.. *•

..

3 443s3

7. A NOTE ON SOURCES

The s o u rc e s f o r th e h i s t o r y o f th e Crimean T a ta r s in th e l a t e s i x t e e n t h and e a r l y s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r ie s a re w id e ly s c a t t e r e d .

The

m ost im p o rta n t o f th e s e m a t e r i a ls may be d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e m ain c a t e ­ g o rie s :

O r i e n t a l S o u rc e s , w r i t t e n i n T a t a r , O ttom an, P e r s ia n and A ra b ic ;

S o u rc e s o f S la v o n ic o r i g i n , w r i t t e n in R u s s ia n , P o lis h and L a t in ; i n th e lan g u a g e s of W estern E urope,

S o u rces

E ach g roup may be f u r t h e r su b d iv id e d

i n t o d ocu m en ts, c h r o n i c le s , l i t e r a r y w o rk s, and, where a n l i c a b l e , e p i ­ g rap h y end n u m ism a tic s.

I.

ORIENTAL SOURCES ■

1.

D ocum ents:

The c o l l e c t i o n o f 12J+ re c o rd books w hich were fo u n d

t y th e R u ss ia n s in th e A rchive of th e Crim ean K hanate a t A km esjid and w hich w ere s u b s e q u e n tly removed to th e L e n in g ra d L ib r a r y c o n s t i t u t e a b a s i c so u rc e f o r th e h i s t o r y o f th e Crim ean K hanate.^-

The R u ss ia n

o r i e n t a l i s t , V. D. S m irnov, d e s c r ib e d th e s e docu m en ts, w hich commence in th e m id d le o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y and ex ten d to th e l a t e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y .

They c o n ta in r e c o rd s o f j u d i c i a l p r o c e e d in g s , g o v e rn m e n ta l

d e c r e e s , p o p u la tio n s t a t i s t i c s , f i n a n c i a l m a tte r s and o t h e r docum ents,

"Si. I n a l c i k , a r t . nG ira y ,f, I.A . , IV , 7 38.

1

e i t h e r i n e x te n so o r i n sum m arized v e r s io n s .

W hile t h i s c o l l e c t i o n

a p p e a rs to be of param ount im p o rta n c e f o r h i s t o r i a n s i n t e r e s t e d in c e r ­ t a i n a s o e c ts of th e s o c i a l and econom ic h i s t o r y of th e Crim ean T a t a r s , th e T a ta r and Ottoman docum ents p re s e rv e d in th e O ttom an, R u ss ia n and P o lis h a r c h iv e s o f I s t a n b u l , Moscow, and Cracow-Warsaw r e s p e c t i v e l y , con­ t a i n a v a s t q u a n tity o f m a t e r i a l s upon w hich f u t u r e s t u d i e s of th e d i p l o ­ m a tic and c o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f th e T a ta rs w i l l d ep en d .

U n f o r tu n a te ly ,

o n ly a sm a ll p o rtio n o f th e s e docum ents h a s become a v a i l a b l e to s c h o la r s th ro u g h p u b lic a tio n i n th e o r i g i n a l T a ta r o r Ottom an;

2

how ever, many

o f them may be c o n su lte d in p r i n te d v e rs io n s o f co n tem p o rary t r a n s l a t i o n s in v a r io u s lan g u a g es w hich a c t u a l l y accom panied th e o r i g i n a l docum ents o r w h ich were made i n th e r e s p e c t iv e f o r e ig n m in i s t r y upon r e c e i p t o f th e 3 j ___ o rig in a l. F o r th e p e rio d o f th e r e i g h / o f G azi G ira y Khan I I , th e

D. Sm irnov, Krymskoe K hanstvo nod verlchoyenstvom o to n an sk o y P o r t i do n a c h a la x v i i i veka ( S t . P e te r s b u r g , 1887)7 x x x i i i ; th e same s c h o la r h as w r i t t e n a more d e t a i l e d d is c u s s io n o f th e s e re c o r d b o o k s, ffT a ta r s k o k h a n sk ie y a rly k y i z k o l l e t s i i T a v rich e sk o y a rk h iv n o y k o m m issi,f in th e I z y e s t i y a T avr. Uchen A rk h eo lo g . k o m m is s ii, N r. 54 (1 9 1 8 ). ( n o t seen ) 2

See Sm irnov, o n . c i t . . i - x x x iv and I n a l c i k , l o c . c i t . f o r a l i s t i n g o f document c o l l e c t i o n s o t h e r th a n th e ones a lr e a d y m e n tio n e d . R e c e n tly a g r e a t amount of work has been done on th e r i c h c o l l e c t i o n s of O ttom an, T a ta r and o th e r o r i e n t a l docum ents a v a i la b l e in P o l i s h d e p o s i t o r i e s . The b e s t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s a c t i v i t y i s th e r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n , u n d er th e a u s p ic e s of th e P o lis h Academy o f S c ie n c e s , o f th e f i r s t volume o f th e p r o je c te d K a talo g Rekooisow Q rie n ta ln y c h Ze Zbiorow P o ls k ic h (C a ta ­ lo g u e des M a n u sc rits O rie n ta u x des C o lle c tio n s P o l o n a is e s ) , e n t i t l e d K a talo g Dokumentow T u r e c k ic h .. .1A55-1672 (C a ta lo g u e des Documents T u r c s ) , e d . by Zygmunt Abrahamowicz u n d e r th e d i r e c t i o n o f A. Z ayaczkow ski (War­ saw, 1 9 5 9 ). T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y tr u e o f th e documents p r in te d i n th e Lashkov and Kurmuzaki c o l l e c t i o n s d is c u s s e d below .

p r i n t e d v e r s io n s o f s e v e r a l T a ta r documents a re a v a i l a b l e i n th e M a te ri a l i d ly a I s t o r i i Krvmskfrgo K hanstva ( l ia te r i a u x pour s e r v i r \

l a H is to ire

du C hanat de G rim e e ), p u b lis h e d by V. V elyam inov-Z ernov in c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith H. F e y iz Khan.

These docum ents, p r in te d i n S t . P e te r s b u rg i n I 8 6 4 ,

w ere c o p ie d from th e o r i g i n a l s i n th e A rch iv es o f th e M i n i s t r y f o r F o re ig n A f f a ir s in Moscow d u rin g th e s p rin g and summer of I 858 by H. F e y iz Khan, who was th e n a l e c t u r e r in th e T a ta r lan g u a g e a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f S t . P e te r s b u r g .

A cadem ician V. D. Smirnov c r i t i c i z e d t h i s c o l l e c t i o n i n th e 1 i n tr o d u c ti o n to h i s g e n e r a l work on th e Crim ean K hanate on th e grounds

t h a t H« F e y iz Khan had made some v c iy bad e r r o r s w h ile co p y in g and t h a t someone com petent should have checked th e docum ents b e fo r e t h e i r p u b l i ­ c a tio n .

The M a t e r i a l i . . . in c lu d e docum ents ra n g in g from 926 /1 5 1 9 -2 0

to 1155/174-2-4.3•

Th« B ashkov, an i n s t r u c t o r i n th e Gymnasium a t S im f e r -

o o o l 1, p u b lis h e d h i s P a m y atn ik i d ip lo m a tic h e s k ik h sn o s h e n iy Krymskfrgo K hanstva s K oskovskim G osudarstvom y XVI i XVII v .v .

(Monuments o f th e

D ip lo m a tic R e la tio n s o f th e Crimean K hanate w ith th e M u sco v ite S t a t e i n th e 1 6 th and 1 7 th c e n t u r ie s ) (S im fe ro p o l1, 1 8 9 1 ).

In h i s i n tr o d u c t i o n

he a ls o c r i t i c i z e d P r o f e s s o r V elyam inov-Z ernov f o r le a v in g many gaps and f o r p u b lis h in g th e T a ta r o r i g i n a l s b e fo re th e con tem p o rary R u ssia n t r a n s ­ l a t i o n s , th u s r e n d e r in g th e c o l l e c t i o n i n a c c e s s i b l e to a l l b u t t r a i n e d

'S m irnov, o n . c i t . , x x iv ; th e same a u th o r m en tio n s t h a t he has t r e a t e d t h i s q u e s tio n in more d e t a i l i n a s tu d y e n t i t l e d S b o rn ik n e k o to ry k h vazfenykh i z v e s t i y i o f i t s i a l !nykh doknm entov k a s a t e l t no T u r t s i i . R o s ii i Kryma ( S t . P e te r s b u r g , 1 8 8 1 ). I have n o t been a b le t o c o n s u l t t h i s . F o r f u l l e r d e t a i l s o f t h i s a rc h iv e , see below p p . i-*7- 3 1 .

10.

o rie n ta lis ts .

Th. L ashkov1s welcome a d d itio n f i l l e d many im p o rta n t

gaps l e f t by th e V ely an in o v -Z em o v c o l l e c t i o n f o r th e p e rio d 1474 to 1692.

T h is new c o l l e c t i o n produced th e o r i g i n a l R u s s ia n t r a n s l a t i o n s 1 p re s e rv e d w ith the T a ta r docum ents. H ere, a s i n th e V elyam inov-Z ernov

c o l l e c t i o n , a number o f sworn p a te n ts (S h e rtn a y a G ram ota) and o th e r d i p _

* - -r

-

lo m a tic p a p e rs from th e tim e of Gazi G iray come to l i g h t .

2

A p a rt from th e document c o l l e c t i o n s o f A. N. K u ra t and F e v z i - 3 K urdoglu f o r th e e a r l i e s t p e rio d o f Crim ean H i s t o r y , and th e two volume c o m p ila tio n a t t r i b u t e d to N i^ a n ji Ahmed, c a l l e d F e r id u n ,^ v e ry few docu­ m ents from th e O ttom an A rchives which a re p e r t i n e n t to th e h i s t o r y o f th e Crim ean T a ta r s a re a v a ila b le to s c h o la r s o u ts id e I s t a n b u l ,

As K.

H o lte r i n d ic a te d in h is su rv e y of th e v a rio u s document c o l l e c t i o n s a t t r i ­ b u te d to F e r id u n ,^ th e scope o f th e o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i o n i s n o t known, b u t a c c o rd in g to th e a c c o u n t o f th e c h r o n i c l e r , S e l a n i k i , i t was assem b led

As th e s e docum ents d e riv e from th e same a r c h i v a l c o l l e c t i o n as th e M a te ri a l i . . . th e Lashkov c o n tr i b u ti o n i s d is c u s s e d w ith th e O r i e n t a l d o cu m en ts.

2

In a d d it i o n to th e T a ta r docum ents w hich a r e l i s t e d i n th e r e f e r e n c e s n o te d i n F .N . 2, p . fc , L ashkov, in th e i n tr o d u c ti o n to h i s P a m y a tn ik i. . . m en tio n s o t h e r s , f o r p e rio d s n o t p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s t u d y , p u b lis h e d i n t h e Z a o is k i OdesskSgo O bshchestva I s t o r i i i D re v n o stey and i n th e S b o rn ik R u ssk iy o Isto ric h e sk fe g o O b sh c h e stv a .

3 t *v ~T —— M A. N. K u ra t^ Topkapi S a ra y i M uzesi a r g iv in d e k i A ltm o r d u , K irim , v e _ T u rk is t a n IT a n la n n 'a a i t y a r l i k v e b i t i k l e r ( I s t a n b u l , 1940) a n d F . Kurd o g lu , !tI l k K irim h a n la r in m m e k tu p la r i , 11 B e l l e t e n . Kos. 3 and 4 (1 9 3 7 ). ^ T h is h as appeared i n two e d i t i o n s , th e f i r s t o f w hich i s somewhat l a r g e r th a n th e seco n d . Ahmed, c a l le d F e rid u n , Mi5n$a> a t e s - S e la t;in ( I s t a n b u l ) , 1264-5 and 1 2 7 4 -5 ),* 2 v o l s . ^K. H o l t e r .7 ^52tu d ie n zu Ahmed F e rid u n * s Mllnse, a t e s -S e la tin L litte il• „ • ,*7* — ungen d e s O e s te r r e ic h is c h e n I n s t i t u t e f t i r G e s c h ic h ts fo rs c h u n g , XIY, F rg a nzungs-E and (In n s b ru c k , 1939]"^

iVkc. by F e rid u n when he was IT i§ an ji ^and c o n ta in e d 1880 docum ents d iv id e d i n t o 11 p a r t s c o rre s p o n d in g t o th e r e i g n s o f th e s u l t a n s from w hich th e docum ents w ere d e r iv e d .^

Of th e docum ents p u b lis h e d , a lm o s t a l l

o f th o s e in Volume I and i n Volume I I , up to page 100, have been tr a c e d to a common s o u rc e .

K. H o lte r pro ceed ed t o pro v e th e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f

many o f th e docum ents i n th e l e s s e r known l a t e 16 t h and 17 t h As e c t i o n s o f volume I I by com paring th o s e w hich a l l e g e d l y had been s e n t t o th e H oly Roman Emperor w ith a c t u a l c o p ie s found i n th e A rc h iv e s o f V ie n n a. J , Rypka

3

used a s i m i l a r method to c o l l a t e th e O tto m a n -T a ta r l e t t e r s o f

th e F e rid u n c o l l e c t i o n w ith th e G o e ttin g e n c o l l e c t i o n o f l e t t e r s exchanged betw een th e F o rte and th e Crimean Khans betw een 1054- and 1093/1644.-1686.^ Of th e 37 l e t t e r s Rypka c o n s i d e r s , from th e r e i g n o f B ayazid I I t o th e end o f th e 1 7 th c e n tu r y , e i g h t l e t t e r s b e lo n g to th e p e rio d o f G azi G ir a y 1s a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in Ottoman a f f a i r s .

These l e t t e r s Rypka c o n s id e r s

t o be a u th e n tic on th e b a s i s o f s t y l e and o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . th e problem s of d a tin g w ere n o t e n t i r e l y so lv e d by him.

Only

I t i s hoped t h a t

some c o n t r i b u t i o n can be made to w ard s t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n i n t h i s s tu d y .

1

.

K. H o l t e r , l o s . c i t . , p . 4-29.

2

T hat i s , th o s e ite m s w hich c o u ld n o t p o s s ib ly have b een c o l l e c t e d by F e r id u n b ecause m ost o f them b e lo n g to th e p e rio d a f t e r F e r id u n 1s d e a th (1 5 3 3 ). Ifypka, tf B r ie f w ech sel d e r Ho hen P f o r te m it den K rim chanen im I I . Bande von F e rid u n s M&nse’ a t , 11 F e s t s c h r i f t Georg J a c o b , ed . T. K en zel ( L e ip z ig , 1 9 3 2 ), ^ 4-1-

^ G o e ttin g e n , B n i v e r s i t a e t s - B i b l i o t h e k , Godd. T u rc . 29 and 3 0 .

The l a s t c a te g o ry o f docum ents r e l a t i n g to th e l i f e

of G azi

G ira y c o n s i s t s m ain ly o f l e t t e r s , p o e tr y and s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s w hich a re w id e ly s c a t t e r e d in jo u r n a ls and In^a* c o l l e c t i o n s , some o f w hich a re d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in .

P r o f e s s o r I n a l c i k p u b lis h e d a number o f f a c ­

s i m il e s and tr a n s c r ip ts o f docum ents in an a p p e n d ix to h i s a r t i c l e on th e Don-Volga C anal p r o j e c t . ^

Ahmed R e f ik ! s a r t i c l e s a ls o p ro v id e im 2

p o r t a n t docum entary su p p o rt from th e I s t a n b u l A rc h iv e s . Some poems _ __ ti s e n t to G azi G ira y , Khan o f th e T a t a r s , a p p e a rs in th e M unse*at o f M u stafa ib n P i r Muhammad, c a lle d A z n iz a d e .^

F e v z iy e A b d u llah i n th e

Isla m A n s ik lo o e d is i d is c u s s e s th e m e r i t o f G azi G ira y *s l i t e r a r y p ro ­ d u c tio n s .

He m en tio n s t h a t o t h e r w r i t in g s o f th e Khan can be found in

th e SadTkT T e z k e r e s l, in th e h i s t o r y by Muhammad R iz a , and i n th e a p p en d ix to an a r t i c l e by A b d u llah o g lu Hasan Bey.

4

L a s tl y o f some im p o rta n c e

f o r t h i s stu d y a re th e poems o f G azi G irey - w hich a p p e a r in an a r t i c l e

H. I n a l c i k , ffO sm anli-R us R e k a b e tin in M en^ei ve Don-Volga K a n a li Te^ebblisu ( I 5 6 9 ) / 1 B e lle t e n . 46 (A n k ara, 1943)^ p p . $62. . ^A. R e f ik , nB a h r - i H a za r-K a ra d e n iz K a n a li ve k jd e r h a n S e f e r i , ’1 TOEH VII2T (43) ( I s t a n b u l , 1333/1914-15) pp. and n^ tf« |f5 fc r /* a ^ T k d e n iz m e s e l e s i ,” TOHM XVI (94) ( I s t a n b u l , 1 9 2 6 ), pp. i g - i - 7 5 " . 3 C. R ie u , C a ta lo g u e o f th e T u rk is h M a n u sc rip ts in th e B r i t i s h Museum (London, 1888^ 9 6 -9 7 . K. V. Z e t t e r s t e e n i n h i s Die A ra b is c h e n . P e r s is c h e n .u n d T u rk isc h e n H a n d s c h rifte n d e r U n i v e r s i ta ts - B ib l i o t h e k _ z u IT oosala. V ol. I I , p . 105* i n a d d itio n to a n o th e r copy o f th e Azmizade l e t t e r , m entions a l e t t e r to th e T a ta r Khan G azi G ira y I I . (n o t seen ) ^ A r t. MG ir a y ,n I . A . ? 739-790: H. A b d u llah o g lu ^ ttK irim t a r i h i n e a i t n o t l a r ve v e s i k a l a r - G azi G ir a y ’ i n m e k tu p la r i” A zerbaycan Yurd B i l g i s i MecmuasT ( is ta f c b u l, 19 32 ) , i s s u e s 3 - 7 . I have o n ly c o n s u lte d th e l e t t e r and poems i n Mehemmed R iz a . F o r a f u l l e r d is c u s s io n o f Mehemmed R iz a , s b elo w , p .IV ,

*3

%

by 0 . B u ria n .

2.

1

C rim e a n -T a ta r H i s t o r i c a l W r itin g s :

A number o f T a ta r and O tto ­

man and a ls o some A rab ic and P e r s ia n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s c o n ta in i n f o r ­ m atio n r e l a t i n g to th e l i f e o f G azi G ira y Khan I I . I t i s q u ite e v id e n t t h a t h i s t o r y w r i t i n g and r e l a t e d form s o f l i t e r a r y e x p re s s io n a lo n g t r a d i t i o n a l I s la m ic l i n e s p la y e d an im p o r ta n t p a r t i n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o f th e Crimean K h a n a t e . ^

From th e s o u rc e s

a v a i l a b l e we know t h a t th e s e w r i t i n g s p r i n c i p a l l y c o n s i s t o f c a le n d a r s ( t a k v i n ) , c o l l e c t i o n s (mejmu*a) . h i s t o r i e s ( t a r i h ) and b io g r a p h ie s . t! . • _ -y _ ( te r ju m e ) . I n th e c a s e o f G azi G ira y , a s m en tio n ed p r e v i o u s ly , a o o r tio n

^ 0 . g u r i a n , ,TBozulc Id a re d e n S i k a y e t ^ i I k i § a i r , fl D ll ve T a rih -C o g ra fy a F a k u l t e s i D e r g is j IX (1 9 5 0 ), p p . 675-681. % u r s a l i Mehmet T a h ir , in h i s Krim M u * e llif le r T ( I s t a n b u l , 1 3 3 5 ), 38 p p ., has made a s tu d y o f th e p r i n c i p a l Crim ean w r i t e r s , ( n o t s e e n .)

'4.

o f h i s D o etry and p e rs o n a l d ip lo m a tic c o rre sp o n d e n c e h a s a ls o been p re se rv e d ,

As no T a ta r c h ro n ic le w r i t t e n d u rin g th e p e rio d o f t h i s

o u ts ta n d in g Khan i s e x t a n t , we a>:-e fo rc e d to r e l y on two Crim ean a u th o r s who w ro te a t a l a t e r d a te , lie hemmed R iz a and *Abd u l G a f f a r , f o r g e n e r a l • -

T

-

d e t a i l s ab o u t th e l i f e o f G azi G ira y .

1

Mehemmed RiZa (d . 1 7 5 6 ), a mud e r r i s

( r* t e a c h e r ^ and k a z i ( A d ju d g e )

in th e Ottoman le a rn e d t r a d i t i o n , became nakTb a l - e $ r a f ( c h i e f o f th e r e ­ g i s t e r e d d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e P ro p h e t Muhammad) a t th e Sublim e P o rte from 1752 to 1756.

He w ro te , ab o u t th e y e a r 1737, what i s c o n s id e re d t o be

th e m ost v a lu a b le o f Crim ean h i s t o r i e s b a se d on e a r l i e r T a ta r , O ttom an and P e r s ia n s o u r c e s .

2

H is work c o v e rs th e p e rio d from th e a c c e s s io n o f

H^llm Gj^rajr, i*1 "the i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s h i s t o r y o f th e Crim ean K h a n a te , G ulbun-u Han an ( I s t a n b u l , 1 3 2 7 ), l i s t s e i g h t Crim ean s o u rc e s from w hich he su p p o s e d ly g a th e re d in fo rm a tio n f o r h i s w ork. I n f a c t , how ever, P r o f . I n a l c i k ( a r t . MG ira y ” , I . A . , TV, 768) c o n s id e r s h i s h i s t o r y t o be l a r g e l y a summary o f Mohammad R iz a . L ik e w is e , th e s h o r t Crim ean h i s t o r y by J e v d e t P a sa , ICrim ye K afkas T a r i h i ( I s t a n b u l , 1307) i s l a r g e l y a b o rro w in g from Halim G ira y . S ee, i n t h i s r e g a r d , F . B a b in g e r, C e s c h ic h ts s c h r e ib e r d e r Osmanen und. I h r e Werke ( L e ip z ig , 1 9 2 7 ), p . 34-3* The anonymous c h r o n ic le f i r s t r e p o r te d t y A. J a u b e r t in 1819 ( P a r i s , BiKL. M a t,, T urc M ss. S uppl. No. 515) and t r a n s l a t e d i n t o F re n c h by M. K a z im irs k i in th e J o u rn a l A s ia tic m e , 2nd S e r i e s , X II (183 3 )^ was c o n s id e re d by J a u b e r t to be a summary o f Muhammad R iz a ( J . A . , l o q c i t . ) r P(?. ^A1 Seb* a l S ey y ar f i a h b ar m uiuk a l - T a t a r (K azan, 1 8 3 2 ). T h is r a t h e r in a d e q u a te e d i t i o n was p u b lis h e d u n d e r th e s u p e r v is io n o f l i i r z a A. Kazembeg from Ms. Iir. 369 o f th e O r i e n t a l I n s t i t u t e , L e n in g ra d . A ccord­ in g to Sm irnov, o p . c i t . x i i f f . , Mfthemmftd R iz a r e l i e d upon N ig a n ji P a s a , Maxima ( J e le b i, M ir Hwand, V a s s i f , S e k e n d er, Abu*l Feda^ H a y riz a d e , *A bdul V e i l E fe n d i and M a^udi. R iz a , a c c o rd in g to Sm irnov, a ls o m e n tio n s, a l ­ th o u g h a o n a r e n tly he d id n o t s e e , th e h i s t o r i c a l c o l l e c t i o n o f K a y su n izade Neda’I M fendi, c a l l e d Remmal n o ja w hich P r o f . B. Lew is b e l i e v e s to be th e T a r i h - i S a h ib G ira y found in th e B ib l. N a tl. S u p p l. T urc No. 164 .. F o r a d d i t i o n a l n o te s on Me hemmed Rifea, O f. T 'I n a l c i k , l o o . oi^ . KVt>»

16.

M engli G ira y Khan I (871/14-66) to th e a c c e s s io n o f K e n g li G ira y I I (1 1 5 0 /1 7 3 7 ),

F o r th e p e rio d o f th e khan s h ip o f G azi G ira y , i t h a s

many e r r o r s .

No w r i t te n so u rc e e x o l i c i t y e la b o r a t e s upon

th e con-

n e c tio n o f Hehemned R iza w ith th e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s o f th e C rim ea. Sm irnov, how ever, c o n te n d s t h a t t h i s may be deduced from h i s c i r c l e o f a c q u a in ta n c e s , h is knowledge o f Crim ean T a t a r and o t h e r E a s te r n T u rk is h l i t e r a t u r e , and th e s t y l e i n w hich he w r o t e .^ The T a ta r so u rc e ‘ Umdet a l- a h b a r composed by ‘ Abd a l G a f f a r , c a l l e d K irim i ( d . ? ) , ab o u t th e y e a r 174-4-, d e v o te s much a t t e n t i o n to th e d e s c e n d a n ts o f J u c h i (so n o f Chlngis^j and th e h i s t o r y o f th e C rim ean Khans down to th e p e rio d o f h i s own l i f e t i m e .

The a u th o r draw s upon a

number o f A ra b ic , P e r s ia n , O ttom an, and T a ta r so u rc e s to w hich he r i v e s 2 c r e d it in h is in tro d u c tio n . From h i s c i t a t i o n i t i s c l e a r t h a t ‘ Abd a l G a f f a r drew upon s e v e r a l s o u rc e s to w hich Kehemmed R iz a e i t h e r had no a c c e s s or d id n o t a c c e p t.

K irim i was a member o f th e *Ulema1 o f th e

C rim ea b u t , d u r in g th e p e rio d when he composed t h i s h i s t o r i c a l work ( c . 1157/1744-4.5) > he had been b a n ish e d to th e l o n e l y f o r t r e s s o f Sogujuk

S m irnov, o p . c i t . , x - x i , c i t i n g th e T a r i h - i S u b h i ( I s t a n b u l , 1198) p . .2 1 2 , a ls o g iv e s i n t e r e s t i n g in f o rm a tio n ab o u t th e r e l a t i o n o f Me^emmtd R iz a to h i s p a tro n A l H ajj K u g ta fa E f e n d i, R e * is a l K u tta b . 2

«...

An a u to g ra p h copy o f th e *Umdet a l Ahbar e x i s t s i n t h e I s t a n b u l E s*ad E fe n d i L ib r a r y , Ks. N r. 2331, 321nf o l i o s . bee th e e x t r a c t o f t h i s work p u b lis h e d by N e jib * lsim i n th e Turk T a r i h i Enjum eni K e j i m / a s i , No. 8 5 , Supplem ent 2 (134-3) p p . 5 - 7 . The s o u rc e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t w h ic h K irim i u se d in c lu d e : th e O ttom an - *A li E f e n d i, Husayn H e z a rfe n n , L u t f i P a f a , S u h e y li; and th e T a ta r - T a r i h - i D ost S u l t a n i - i Uzbegi , T a r ih - u Adu ( s i c ) , 3 a k a * i Je -n g iz i and th e Jam *i y a t - 'i Hayr Vfl-D inzade liufoammad a l § irin i.

Ifc.

i n A b k h a zia ,

P r o f e s s o r I n a l c i k of Ankara U n iv e r s ity p r e v io u s ly n o te d

th e d iv e rg e n c e o f th e s e two s o u rc e s i n h i s a r t i c l e d i s c u s s i n g th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f Ottoman s u z e r a i n ty o v e r th e Crim ean K h a n ate ,

2

The u n a v a i l ­

a b i l i t y o r com plete absence o f many o f th e T a ta r m a n u s c rip ts m en tio n ed b o th by Mehcjnraed R iza and K irim i make th e f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n o f th e s e two so u rc e s d i f f i c u l t in d e e d .

3

One i s le d to s u s p e c t, how ever, on th e b a s i s

o f P r o f e s s o r I n a l c i k 1 s t e n t a t i v e f in d in g s , t h a t th e e x c e lle n t o u t l i n e h i s ­ t o r y o f th e house o f Ju 9 i , fo u n d in H e za rfen n , who in t u r n borrow ed h e a v ily from C e n ab i, i s o f prim e im p o rtan ce f o r ‘ Abd a l G a f f a r f s n a r a tiv e a ls o . O th e r g e n e ra l h i s t o r i e s o f th e Crim ean T a ta rs which a r e known to be o f im p o rta n c e , b u t w hich a re u n a v a ila b le f o r t h i s s tu d y in c lu d e th e T a r i h - i H a n a n -i T a ta r ve D e y t-i K i 0921k by R izv an p a^ azad e ‘ A bdullah.^*

As

‘ AM a l G a f f a r , T.T.K.M . . l o c . c i t . T I. I n a l c i k , "Yen! V e s ik a la r a Gore Karim H a n la g n T n OsmanlT T a b l ll g i n e G irm esi ve Ahidname M e s e le s i , 11 B e lle te n ^ S (194-4) > PP* 1 3 6 -1 9 1 . P r o f , I n a l c i k a ls o makes th e p o in t t h a t ^ i r i m i #a p p a r e n tly b e lo n g s t o t h a t group o f h i s t o r i a n s who r e l y h e a v ily o n ^ je n a lu ! s a c c o u n t o f th e Crim ean K h a n a te . ^The o n ly known Ms, o f th e T a r i h - i D ost S u lta n i s i n th e p e rs o n a l l i b r a r y o f A. Z eki V e l id i Togan i n I s t a n b u l ( i n a l c i k , a r t . " G ira y 11, l o c . c i t . ) The H is to r y o f Remmel Hoja e x i s t s i n a copy to be found i n th e L e n in g ra d U n iv e r s ity L ib r a r y Mss n o . 4 3 G ^ aooorcling to i t o G a ta lsguo of ^ r i c n t a l M an u co rip tfl; see S m irn o v / o o . c i t . . x i i , N. 12t and U oto PP ab o v e. l o c a t e d i n P a r i s , A rse n a l B ib l. Ms. Ho. 39. A cco rd in g to Von Hammer, G e sc h ic h te d e r Chane d e r Krim u n te r Q sm anischer H e r r s c h a f t (V ien n a , 1 8 5 6 ). p . 8 . t h e 'a u t h o r 's 'f a t h e r was B eA lerbe# o f K a ffa i n 1616.

»7.

t h i s w ork was a p r i n c i p a l so u rc e f o r Jo se p h cle G u ig n e s1 H i s t o i r e g e n e r a le des R uns, d es T u rc s . d e s Mongols e t cles a u t r e s T a r ta r e s O c c id e n ta u x ( P a r i s , 1 7 5 6 -5 8 ), r e l e v a n t p a r t s of th e l a t t e r work have been c o n s u lte d in th e p r e p a r a tio n o f t h i s s tu d y .

The T a n h -H a n a n , D a g e s ta n , I b s k o v , ve

D eg t- K inpak w r i t t e n c a . 1736 by K e fe v i Ib ra h im , w hich was p u b lis h e d by C. Seydahmed K irim e r,

2

was a ls o n o t a v a i l a b l e .

V. D. Sm irnov q u o te s

v e rb a tim s e v e r a l p a ssa g e s from an anonymous work w hich he c a l l s th e " S h o rt H is to r y " (K ra tk a y a I s t o r i y a ) .

He g a in e d a c c e s s t o t h i s work

th ro u g h th e a s s i s t a n c e o f th e famous Crim ean j o u r n a l i s t , 1-Iirza Ism a ‘1 1 G a sp rin sk y (G aspY ralT ).

T his 126 page h i s t o r y , b e lie v e d by Smirnov to

have been com piled in th e e ig h te e n th c e n t u r y , c o n s i s t s o f some o b v io u s b o rro w in g s from Ktthemmad R iz a .

P r o f e s s o r S m irnov, how ever, c o n s id e r s

i t to be a v a lu a b le in d e p e n d e n t s o u rc e . 3.

Ottoman C h r o n ic le s :

3

A number o f Ottoman c h r o n i c l e r s t r e a t th e

p e rio d encom passing th e r e i g n o f G azi G ira y Khan I I #

These h i s t o r i c a l

m a t e r i a l s c o n s i s t o f a v a r i e t y o f ty p e s in c lu d in g H i s t o r i e s o f Campaigns a g a i n s t th e I n f i d e l (G azav atn an e) , B io g ra p h ic a l H i s t o r i e s in e p ic s t y l e o f i n d i v i d u a l s u l t a n s ( Shahname) , C a le n d a rs o r D ia r ie s (Ruzname) and t r a d i t i o n a l I s la m ic h i s t o r i e s ( T a rih )

■ ^In alcik, "Y eni V e s ik a la r a Gore K irim H a n lT g T ...” l o c . c i t . . 187* No. 8; C f. a l s o , de G u ig n e s1 own S urvey o f S o u rc e s , o p . c i t . I , x i i f f . and I I I , 406 f . 2

B a z a r jik , Roumania, 1933.

3 ^Sm irnov, o p . c i t . , x v i .

'F or a d is c u s s io n o f th e s e te rm s , c o n s u lt A .3 . L evend, G a za v atn a m e ler (A n k ara, 1 9 5 6 ), p . 1 f f , and B a b in g e r. o p . c i t . . 3 ff." ,' 163 f .

I*. _

yf

1

The N usratnam e

o f M u sta fa b in Ahmed, c a l l e d * A ll( d . c a . 1 5 9 9 ),

has p ro v id e d b a s ic in f o rm a tio n ab o u t th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f G azi G ira y i n th e cam paigns o f th e C aucasus,

‘ A ll E fe n d i d e d ic a te d t h i s work to

h i s p a tr o n , L a la M u sta fa ” P a s h a , f i r s t c o m m a n d e r-in -c h ie f o f th e C au casio n f r o n t , whom he se rv e d as a p e rs o n a l s e c r e t a r y d u rin g th e c o n o u e st o f G e o rg ia .

T h is c h r o n ic le , w hich b e g in s in S e v a l, 985 / J a n u a r y , 1573 and

c o n tin u e s to Zu’ l- K a * /d e , 9 3 7 /J a n u a ry , 15S 0, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o rta n t f o r th e co p io u s specim ens o f p o l i t i c a l c o rre sp o n d e n c e w hich i t c o n ta in s - co rre sp o n d e n ce d e a lin g m ain ly w ith th e p r e p a r a tio n and e x e c u tio n o f p th e cam paigns. - The e x tre m e ly r e l i a b l e and d e t a i l e d f o u r t h o a r t o f * A lif s g e n e r a l w orld h i s t o r y , th e Kunh a l-A h b a r , w hich r e l a t e s th e h i s ­ t o r y o f th e O ttom ans from th e fo u n d a tio n o f t h e i r d y n a s ty to th e a c c e s s io n o fAKfthemm&d I I I (1595)> has n o t been a c c e s s i b l e . Owing to th e c o n s ta n t w a rfa re d u rin g t h i s p e rio d o f O ttom an h i s ­ t o r y , s e v e r a l s h o r te r h i s t o r i c a l t r a c t s and e u l o g i s t i c w o rk s, many o f w hich a re i n v e r s e , a p p e a r.

Of th e s e , o n ly th e h i s t o r y e n t i t l e d $ e ja * a tn a m ^

w r i t t e n by ^kc ‘v^

S

1

G ira y i n &oumany and T r a n s y l v a n ia d u r in g t h e H u n g arian War, 1593-1606. The S c r i p t o r e s Rerum P o lo n ic a r u r u p u b lis h e d t y th e H i s t o r i c a l Commission o f th e Academy of S c i e n c e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Cracow, c o n t a i n s d ocum ents,

.

_ 2

l e t t e r s and memoirs p e r t i n e n t t o t h e l i f e o f Gazi G ir a y .

A '.v alu ab le

d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e Crimean T a t a r s comes to us from t h e work o f M arcinB ro n io w sk i, an envoy of S tep han B a th o iy , who was s e n t to t h e c o u r t of 3 Mehemmed G ira y i n 1579. Documente p r i v i t o r e l a i s t o r i a r o m a n ilo r ( B u c h a r e s t , 1 8 7 6 -1 9 2 2 ), 19 v o l s , ; Supplem ent I I (3 v o l s ) c o l l e c t e d by G. G. T o c i l e s c u and A. J . O dobescu, c o n t a i n s th e p r i n c i p a l c o l l e c t i o n o f P o l i s h docum ents. O th e r P o l i s h do cu m en ts, m ainly i n t h e i r German and I t a l i a n v e r s i o n s , a p p e a r i n o t h e r volum es, % c r i p t o r e a Rerum P olonicarum (Cracow, 1 8 7 2 -1 9 1 7 ), 22 v o l s ; V o l. V I I I ,fL i s t y J a n a Z am o y sk ieg o ^ ~ (L etters o f Jan Zam oyski), V o l. XX "Dyaryusz Sejmu R. 1597,r (D ia ry o f th e D i e t f o r th e Y e ar 1597) and V o l, XXII ?,S w ie to slaw a O r z e ls k ie g o B e zk ro lew ia K siag Osmioro 1572-1576n ( E ig h t Books on th e I n te rre g n u m t y S w ieto slaw O r z e l s k i , 1572-1576) were u s e f u l f o r t h i s s tu d y . Many o f th e l e t t e r s i n V o l. V I I I a p p e a r i n th e HurmuzakL c o l l e c t i o n ; Vol. XX c o n t a i n s some documents i n German t r a n s l a t i o n . His w o rk , T a r t a r i a e D e s c r i n t i o . . . (C o lo n ia e A g r ip p in a e , 1595) i n L a t i n h a s b een a v a i l a b l e t o me i n th e s e l e c t i o n s of Samuel P u r c h a s , Pure has h i s P i l g r i m e s , P a r t 3 (London, 1 6 2 5 ). A nother e d i t i o n o f t h i s s e l e c t i o n ap­ p e a re d i n Glasgow, 1906, V o l. X I I I ,_ p p , 461-4.91. F o r s im ila r am bassador­ i a l r e p o r t s d u r in g th e r e i g n o f Gazi G ir a y , see K a z im ir P u l a s k i , nT rzy P o s e ls tw a Lawryna P ia s e c z y n s k ie g o do ^ a z i G i r e j a , ha n a T atarow p e r e k o p s k i c h ( l 6 0 1 - l 6 0 3 ) w, Przew odnik naukowy i l i t e r a c k i (L e o p o l, 191 l ) . ( n o t seen) There a r e , however, f i v e l e t t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h th e Embassy o f Lawryn P i a s e c z y n sk i in c lu d e d i n t h e M ik o laj M alinow ski and A le x a n d e r P r z e z d z i e s k i c o l l e c t i o n which i s e n t i t l e d Z rz o d la doDzieiow F o l s k i c h . V o l, I I ( V i l n a , 18 4/.), pp . 161-165. A lso , f o r * s u r v e y of P o l i s h r e l a t i o n s w i t h b o t h Ottomans and T a t a r s , se e J . B a r to s z e w ic z , Po glad n a s t o s u n k i P o l s k i z T urcya i T a t a r a n i . . . (Wers aw, i 8 6 0 ) .

3« . T here i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o th e m a t e r i a l s j u s t m e n tio n e d , a v e r y i m p o r t a n t g ro u p o f docum ents, a b io g ra p h y and a c h r o n i c l e , a l l of w h ich a re c l o s e l y c o n n ec te d w i t h th e l i f e o f Ja n Zamoyski, Grand C h a n c e ll o r o f Poland (154.2-1605), one of the i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e s o f th e e r a i n which GazT G iray Khan l i v e d .

The docum ents, i n a d d i t i o n to th e ones i n volume V I I I

o f th e S c r i p t o r e s Rerum P olonicarum a re to be found i n a n , a s y e t , 1 i n com plete s e r i e s e d i t e d by Waclaw S o b i€ s k i and o t h e r s .

1

2 The b io g ra p h y and

3 th e c h r o n i c l e were b o th w r i t t e n t y Re in h o ld H e i d e n s t e i n , who se rv e d a s 1 y ^ S e c r e t a r y to Zamoyski, as a d ip lo m a t f o r th e Kings S te p k n B a th o iy and Sigism und ty asg / as w e l l a s

s e c r e t a r y t o th e l a t t e r k i n g . One o t h e r ite m

d e s e r v e s m e n tio n as a p a r t

o f the m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g to Zamoyski.

T h is

i s a l e t t e r s e n t by th e C h a n c e llo r t o C a r d in a l A l d o b r a n d i n i , w hich d i s cu sses in g r e a t d e t a i l th e

r o u t e to Hungary ta k e n t y th e

Archivum J a n a Zamoyskiego

(Warsaw, 1 9 0 4 * ,.1 9 4 9 ) 4 v o l s .

T a t a r s i n 1594.*

5

2

The V ita e J o a n n is Z am oyscii (Posnan, 1361) a p p a r e n t l y was n e v e r p u b l is h e d u n t i l t h i s l a t e d a te .

3

R e in h o ld i H e i d e n s t e i n i i S e c r e t a r i i R e g ii Rerum Polonicaru m ab e x c e s s u S ig ism u n d i A u y u s ti l i b r i XII ( F r a n k f u r t a/M, 1 6 7 2 ), a c h r o n i c l e o f e v e n t s from 1572 to 1603, a l s o was p u b lis h e d a f t e r th e d e a t h o f H e i d e n s t e i n .

^W ielka I l u s t r o w a n a Encykloped.ja Fow szecbna, V ol. V i , p . 119. 5pe T r a n s i t u T a r t a r s rum p e r Ppcutiam . Anni M .D .X C IIII. E p i s t o l a Ad I l l u s t r i s s i m u r a e t Reverendissimum Dominum Cynthium , 3 .R .2 . TIT. S. G e o r g ii C ard in alem Aldobrandinum: Ab I l l u s t r i s s i m o Dimino l o a n , de Zamoscio, R .F . Supremo G a n c e l l a r i o , e t E xercitu u m G e n e r a li m is s a . (D anzig , 1595)

A ll o f

t h e m a t e r i a l s ta k e n from t h e s e P o l i s h s o u rc e s make s i g n i f i c a n t

c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e h i s t o r y of t h e Crimean T a t a r s i n t h i s s t u d y .

4o. in

WESTERN

SOURCES

1.

Docum en ts;

The docum entary m a t e r i a l s f o r th e l i f e o f Gazi

G ir a y w hich a re a v a i l a b l e i n W estern European s o u r c e s ^ c o n s i s t o f th e f o l lo w in g ty p e s : a.

C o l l e c t i o n s o f O f f i c i a l Exchanges between governm ents o r heads o f s t a t e ;

b.

P e r i o d i c a l R e p o rts and C orrespondence o f am bassadors o r o th e r o f f i c i a l s r e s i d i n g i n th e Ottoman EmDire;

c.

N e w s - l e tt e r s s e n t t o governments o r com m ercial f i r m s by t h e i r a g e n ts s t a t i o n e d in B a s t e m Europe and W estern A s ia .

The most im p o r ta n t s i n g l e c o l l e c t i o n o f documents f o r t h i s stu d y i s t h e Documente P r i v i t o r e l a -Mstoria R o m an ilo r. com piled un der th e d i r e c t i o n o f Eudoxin deH urnuzaki.

I t was H u rm u za k i's i n t e n t i o n t o c o l ­

l e c t from th e a r c h i v e s of Europe a l l o f th e m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g to th e h i s t o r y of Roumania.

By c o n c e iv in g t h i s p r o j e c t i n th e b r o a d e s t term s

p o s s i b l e , th e c o m p ile r in c lu d e d many i m p o r t a n t documents d e a l i n g w i t h th e h i s t o r y of th e Crimean K hanate, th e e a s t e r n n e ig h b o r o f W a lla c h ia and M oldav ia.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , th e Hurmuzaki c o l l e c t i o n p r o v id e s i m p o r ta n t

d o c u m e n ta tio n f o r th e V/alia c h i an r e v o l t o f 1595 and f o r -subseouent e v e n t s

^1 have had to l i m i t my r e s e a r c h i n t h i s s e c t i o n to m a t e r i a l s i n E n g l i s h , F r e n c h , German and I t a l i a n . I n th o s e i n s t a n c e s where I have c o n s i d e r e d a L a t in so u rce t o be of im p o rtan ce f o r t h i s s tu d y , I have o b t a i n e d t r a n s ­ l a t i o n s o f th e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e s .

41. i n v o lv i n g th e Ottomans, P o le s and Tatars.*^* A. V eres s e d i t e d th e F o n t eg Rerum Tran sy lv a n i c arum ,

2

a c o lle c tio n

o f documents i n f i v e volumes, m o s tly i n L a t i n , d e a l i n g w i t h th e a f f a i r s o f T r a n s y lv a n ia ,

While t h i s c o l l e c t i o n p ro v id e s i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a ti o n

abo ut th e p e rio d i n q u e s t io n , i t sh eds v e r y l i t t l e l i g h t on th e l i f e o f th e Crimean Khan. The Documente P r i v i t o a r e l a I s t o r i a A r d c a l u l u i , N o ld a v e i s i J a r i i * 3 Romane|t i t by the some e d i t o r , c o n t a i n s u s e f u l m a t e r i a l s .

Dr. V e re s s has

a ls o c o l l e c t e d th e l e t t e r s and a c t s ( b o i s t o l a e e t A c ta ) ^ o f G eorgia B a s ta (d, 1 6 1 2 ), the A lbanian noblem an, who se rv ed as a f i e l d commander f o r th e Smpcror i n N o rth ern Hungary and T r a n s y l v a n ia d u rin g th e H ungarian War. F i n a l l y , an a r t i c l e by Dr, V eress on t h e campaign o f ICoja Sinan Pasha i n 1595 c o n ta in s a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r s . ^

Documente P r i v i t o r e . , . , ( B u c h a r e s t , 1 3 7 6 -1 9 2 2 ), 19 v o l s . The documents a re a rra n g e d by d a te i n each v o lu m e, and th e y e x ten d from th e M iddle Ages to th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry . Of p a r t i c u l a r im p o rtan c e i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n a re V o ls, I I I , IV, V I I I and X I, w hich c o n s i s t , i n th e m ain , o f documents drawn from th e a r c h iv e s o f th e I t a l i a n C i t y - S t a t e s and t h e Holy Roman Em­ p i r e . The two v a lu a b le su p plem en ts a re as f o l l o w s : S u p p l. I - t h e F rench A rchives ( c o l l e c t e d by N. I o r g a ) (B u c h a re s t 1386) 1 v o l . S u p p l, I I - th e P o l i s h A rc h iv e s ( c o l l e c t e d by G. G. T o c ile s c u and A. J . Odobescu) ( B u c h a re s t 13*93, 1395) 2 v o l s . ^F o n tes Rerum T ran sy lv an icaru m (B u d a p e st, 1 9 1 1 -1 9 1 6 ), 5 v o l s . Acfo

i\

S

P a r t i c u l a r l y , KV ols. IV -V III (1593-1613) ( B u c h a r e s t, 1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 5 ). P . V e r e s s , E p i s t o l a e e t A c ta G e n e r a l i 3 G e o r g ii B a s t a (1 5 9 7 -1 6 0 7 ). V ol. I (1 5 9 7 -1 6 0 2 ), Konumenta H ungariae H i s t o r i c a , D i p l o m a t a r i a .V o l. XXXIV (B u d a p e st, 1909)'. % o r a good summary o f th e l i f e o f B a s ta , see th e a r t i c l e " B a s t a " , A l l gemeine Deutsche B io m ra o h ie , V o l. I I ( L e i p z i g , 1375)> p. 131. ^"Campania G r e s t i n i l o r i n C o n tra L u i S in a n Pa^a Din 159 5 " , Academia Roman a , M cm oriile S c -ctiu n ii I s t o r i c e , S e r . I l l / T V , (B u d a p e st, 19257," pp. 1 - 8 4 *

42 *. The C alen d ar o f S t a t e Pape r s For e i g n S e r i e s o f t h e Reign o f E l i z a b e t h , J u l y , 1577 - J u l y , 1589, c o n t a i n a c e r t a i n amount o f d a t a 1 r e l e v a n t to t h i s s tu d y . As th e "F o re ig n S e r i e s 11 o f t h e C a le n d ar t h u s f a r e x te n d s to th e y e a r 15$9 i t has a l s o been n e c e s s a r y to c o n s u l t th e o r i g i n a l m a t e r i a l s p r e s e r v e d i n the P u b lic Record O f f i c e o f Edvard B a rto n , 2 S i r Henry L e l lo and S i r Thomas G lo v e r, th e E n g li s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s r e ___________ 3 s i d i n g i n C o n s ta n tin o p le d u rin g the k h a n sh ip of -G azi G ira y , E. Gharrie^re has a ls o assem bled an i m p o r ta n t number o f documents from th e French A rc h iv e s.

They c o n s i s t m ainly of th e d e s p a tc h e s of t h e A F rench am bassadors from C o n s ta n tin o n lc up t o th e y e a r 1589.

1

C a le n d a r o f S t a t e Papers V o ls . IX-XXIII (London, 1 9 0 1 -1 9 5 9 ), e d i t e d by A. J . B u t l e r , 3, C. Lomas, A, B. Hinds and R. B. Hernham. The dfrs eatiohsB of ^ e l l o have been e d i t e d by 0 , B u r ia n , "The R e p o rt o f L e i lo " Ankara f t n i v e r s i t e s i Di1 ve T a rih -C o g ra fy a Faku l t e s i Y a y i n l a r i Ko. 83 (A nkara, 1952)

^ P u b l ic Record O f f i c e , S t a t e P a p e rs 9 7 /B u n d le s 2 -6 . ^ N e g o c ia tio n s de l a F ra n ce dans l e L ev ant ( P a r i s , 134.8-1860), 4 v o l s . liany o f th e s e documents were r e p r i n t e d in th e Hurmuzaki c o l l e c t i o n , Supplem ent I . A p o r t i o n o f th e p a p ers of F r a n p o i s S a v a ry de B re v e s, F re n ch ambassador to th e Ottoman Em pire, 1589-1605 and a g r e a t number o f t h e despatchCvS o f Je a n de G ontaut-B iron, Baron de S a l ig n a c , am bassador t o th e S u lta n between 1605 and 1610, have been p r i n t e d , and th e y com prise a v a lu a b le supplem ent to t h e G h s r r ie r e c o l l e c t i o n . F. B. S a v a ry de B re v e s, R e l a t i o n dec Voyages ( P a r i s , 1623) and p i s c o i r 5 a b r e g e . . . . ( P a r i s . 1 6 6 6 ), J . de G ontaut B iro n , Baron de S a l i g n a c , "Ambassade en T u r a u ie , 1605 a 1610", C om ite"dlH i s t o i r e e t d 1A rc h eo lo g ie de l a P ro v in c e E c c l e s i a s t i o u e d fAuch ( P a r i s , 1833-1889), F a s c . 16, 19, 2 v o l s .

43. The A l b e r t and Bar o z z i - B e r c h e t c o l l e c t i o n s o f R e l a z i o n i o r (5 |y*V I'B i'lO R e p o rts o f th e V e n etian B a ili/\a n d r e l a t e d M a t e r i a l s , such as th e v a r i o u s e d i t i o n s of th e Thesoro P o l i t i c o .

2

p ro v id e i n t e r e s t i n g r e o o r t s o f th e

Ottoman sc e n e , d u rin g th e l i f e - t i m e o f G azi G ?ray. The N e w s-L e tters o r Z e i tu n g e n . which became so p r e v a l e n t in W estern Europe d u r in g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , have r e c e i v e d con­ s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n as s o u rc e s f o r t h e n e r i o d .

A lthough some o f th e

Z eitu n g en were based on h e a r s a y , s p u r i o u s r e p o r t s and ru m o u rs, th e y d e riv e d more o f t e n from e y e - w i t n e s s e s of co n te m p o ra ry e v e n t s o r w e l l p la c e d in fo rm a n ts i n government or b u s i n e s s c i r c l e s .

Am bassadors, p r i e s t s ,

s p i e s and commercial a g e n ts g a th e r e d i n f o r m a ti o n and p a s s e d i t on t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c e n t r e s o r s u p e r i o r s where i t was u se d a s a b a s i s f o r p o l i c y d e cisio n s.

I n th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y th e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f news, which

had p r e v i o u s ly ta k e n p la c e by m e sse n g e r, rumour and g o s s i p , was o o s s i b l e on a l a r g e r s c a l e th an p r e v i o u s l y as a r e s u l t of th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e p r i n t i n g p r e s s to th e p r i n t i n g of news i te m s .

3

The E a s t e r and Autumn

S. A l b e r i , e d . , Le R e la z i o n i d e g l i A m b a s c ia to ri V e n e t i a l S e n a to d u r a n te i l s e c o lo d e cim o sesto ( F l o r e n c e V 133 9-13 63). S e r i e s I I I , V o ls . I - I I I N. B aro zzi and G. B e r c h e t, Le R e la z i o n i d e g l i S t a t i E u ro p e i l e t t e a l S e n a to d a g l i A m b a sc ia to ri V e n e ti n e l s e c o l o decimo s e t ti m o ( V e n i c e . 18561 8 7 8 ), S e r i e s V, f a r t s 1 and 2. p C. V e n tu ra , e d . , Thesoro P o l i t i c o (C ologne, 1 5 8 9 ) : F . Romanci ( ? ) , e d . , La T erz a P a r t e d e l Tesoro P o l i t i c o ( T u m o n i , 1605/$ D el T esoro p o l i t i c o l a P a r t e t e r z a e a u a r t a (V ran lcfu rt aA l. 1 6 1 2 ): T r e s o r o o l i t i c u e ( P a r i s . lSiTyT------------------- — ------------------------------------------ ------------ --------------3 At f i r s t , w ith t h e developm ent of p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , h a n d w r it t e n Z e itu n g e n became c u r r e n t . I n f a c t , th e word p o s t m a s t e r , f o r a tim e , became synony­ mous w i t h t h a t of Z e itu n g -(w r ite r ) ^ as p o s tm a s te r s o f t e n exchanged i n f o r ­ m a tio n . I n th o s e c i t i e s where many p o s t r o a d s c o n v e rg e d , su ch a s a t R um berg and L e i p z i g , i t was n o t l o n g b e f o r e h a n d w r it t e n Z e itu n g e n ap­ p e a r e d . The r a t h e r o r d i n a r y news of th e p o s t m a s te r s was n o t , however, (c o o t.)

44. F a i r s a t Pranlcf’i r t- o n - t h e - M a i n became e x c e l l e n t c e n t r e s f o r t h e d i s " 1 t r i b u t i o n o f Z e itu n g e n , f l i e g e n d e B l a t t e r and r e l a t e d news r e p o r t s . The g r e a t comm ercial f a m i l y o f F a g g e r had i t s own inform ation s e r v i c e and d i s t r i b u t e d e x t r a c t s from th e r e p o r t s o f i t s a g e n ts to a s e l e c t group o f b u rg h e rs and p r i n c e l y f a m i l i e s .

2

To g a in some i d e a of th e e x t e n t and

v a r i e t y o f th e s e p a m p h let-ty p e news r e p o r t s c i r c u l a t i n g i n th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s u l t some com prehensive l i s t i n g of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s such as has been compiled by K. II. K e r tb e n y .

K e rtb e n y h a s a

s p e c i a l s e c t i o n o f r e p o r t s d e a l i n rp w ith t h e H ungarian War.

3

The n e x t s ta g e i n the p ro c e s s of d i s s e m i n a t i n g c u r r e n t news took p la c e i n th e l a s t d e ca d es of th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

The f l i e g e n d e

B l a t t e r , Z e itu n g e n , and h a n d - w r i t t e n r e p o r t s became i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t r a c t s c o v e rin g p e rio d s o f s i x months o r l o n g e r .

F r e i h e r r M ic h a e l von

A i t z i n g was one of th e f i r s t w r i t e r s t o com pile Z eitu n g e n c o v e r in g a

(c o n t.) n h e ld i n such esteem as t h a t from o t h e r s o u r c e s . C f. , F . S t i e v e , "Tiber $ i e a l t e s t e n h a j b j a h r i g e n Z eitu n g e n o d e r k e 's s r e l a t i o n e n und i n b e so n d ere u b e r d e re n Begrunder F r e i h e r m M ic h ae l von A i t z i n g " , Abhandlungen d e r H i s t o r i s c h e n G lasse d e r K o n ig lic h B a y e risc h e n Akademie d e r W is s e n s c h a f te n V o l. XVI (I'u n ie h , I 883 ) , pp. 177-132. ^See th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s b i - a n n u a l e v e n t i n th e contemoor: r y a c c o u n t o f H enri E s t i e n n e , f i r s t p r i n t e d i n 1574: The F r a n k f o r t Book F a i r , o r i g i n a l L a t i n w ith E n g li s h t r a n s l a t i o n and n o t e s by James W e s t f a l l Thompson (C hicago, 1 9 1 1 ), p a r t i c u l a r l y pp. 169 f f * 2 C f . , II. A. H. F i t z l e r , "Die E n tstehu njj d e r S ogen annten F u g g e r z e itu n g e n i n d e r W iener K a to n a l b ib l i o jt h e k " , V e r o f f e n t li c h u n g e n d e s W iener H o fk a m m era rch iv s, V o l. I I (V ien na, 1 9 3 7 ), pp. 1 -8 1 . M. K e rtb e n y , "Ungam b e t r e f f e n d e d e u ts c h e E r s t l i n g s - D r u c k e , 1454-1600” ? B i b l i o g r a f i e d e r u n g a ris c h e n n a t i o n a l e n und i n t e r n a l i o n a l e n L j t e r a t u r , V o l. I (B u d a p est, 1 8 8 0 ), pp. 17-753.

4*. s i x month p e r i o d .

Von A i t z in g had l o s t h i s p o s i t i o n as H o fd ie n e r upon

t h e a c c e s s i o n o f Rudolph I I i n 1576.

U n t i l t h e n , he had d e s u l t o r i l y

pursued lav; s t u d i e s i n th e N e th e r la n d s and had p u b lis h e d s h o r t works i n which he c a l c u l a t e d the coming of th e Day o f Judgm ent,

He was w id e ly

t r a v e l e d and knew th e i m n o r t a n t W estern E uropean la n g u a g e s o f h i s day. A f t e r he had l o s t the p a tr o n a g e o f th e H a p sb u rg s, he had to r e p l a c e th e income he had enjoyed as H o fd ien e r w i t h a more p r o f i t a b l e v e n tu r e th a n h i s p r e v io u s on es.

I n 1531 he s e t t l e d i n Cologne; a t th e end o f th e y e a r

he produced th e Leo B e l g i c u s . a n a r r a t i o n i n L a t i n o f th e p r i n c i p a l e v e n t s i n th e h i s t o r y of th e N e th e rla n d s from 1559 to 1 5 3 1 .^

I n th e

s u b s e o u e n t e d i t i o n s Von A it z in g c a r r i e d th e n a r r a t i o n fo rw a rd and made some r e v i s i o n s .

I n 1533 he b ro u g h t out t h e R e l a t i o H i s t o r i c a i n German

based on th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f th e L eo.

T h is work was t h e n t r a n s l a t e d

i n t o L a t i n by M ic h ae l van I s s e l t , an a s s o c i a t e o f Von A i t z i n g from t h e N eth erlan d s.

2

Von A i t z i n g th e n began a d d in g su p p le m e n ts t o h i s b a s i c

work a t r e g u l a r s i x month i n t e r v a l s to c o rre sp o n d w i t h t h e E a s t e r and Autumn F a i r s i n F r a n k f u r t .

I n t h i s m a t t e r , he o r i g i n a t e d th e Mess-

r e la tio n e n o r b i-an n u a l f a i r g a z e tte s .

I n 1590 Von A i t z i n g s t a r t e d

p u b lis h in g a rev ised v e rsio n o f h is R e la tio .

T h is work became v a l u a b l e

as a so u rc e f o r co ntem porary e v e n ts because o f i t s g r e a t e r a c c u ra c y and 3 f u l l e r q u o t a t i o n s o f docum ents. Von A i t z i n g d ie d i n 1593. ^"Stieve, l o c . c i t . . pp. 193-201;

The Leo was p u b l i s h e d i n L a t i n .

T b i d . , pp. 213-214.; t h i s same Van I s s e l t u n d e r th e pseudonym o f D. M. J a n s o n iu s s t a r t e d p u b l i s h i n g h i s own e d i t i o n o f th e R e l a t i o . H i s t o r i c a i n L a t i n under th e t i t l e o f N e r c u r iu s G a l l o b e l g i c u s i n 1 59& • 3 I b i d . , 215 f f .

4G. Liven by 1590 Yon A i t z i n g , as a r e s u l t of th e s u c c e s s o f h i s e n t e r p r i s e , had had .many i m i t a t o r s .

Some o f them

c h r o n o l o g i c a l approach of Von A i t z i n g ;

r e t a i n e d th e s t r i c t l y

o t h e r s m o d ifie d t h e i r a c c o u n ts ,

t r e a t i n g t h e i r s u b j e c t m a t t e r c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y by c o u n tr y .

Yon A i t z i n g ,

a l i b e r a l C a t h o l i c , had t r e a t e d h i s so u rc e m a t e r i a l s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e im p a rtia lity .

The c o l l e c t o r s and c o m p ile rs o f Z e itu n g e n who fo llo w e d him

nfcy be d iv id e d i n t o th o s e o f C a th o l i c and th o s e o f P r o t e s t a n t b i a s .

Many

o f th e s e s u c c e s s o r s , C a th o lic o r P r o t e s t a n t , had no qualms a b o u t borrow ­ in g Yon A i t z i n g * s t i t l e , th e emblem on h i s t i t l e to p o f th e Globe) o r even h i s name.

page (m ercury p o is e d on

l y o i c a l o f C a t h o l i c i m i t a t o r s o f Yon

A i t z i n g a re W illiam l i e p h a n , C aspar von Lorch and th e a fo re m e n tio n e d Van Isse lt.

W illiam R iep h an , a c o l l a b o r a t o r of Yon A i t z i n g i n t h e e a r l y p a r t 1 o f t h e 1590*s , s t a r t e d p r i n t i n g a s e p a r a t e R e l a t i o i n 1595* Commencing i n 1596 M ic h a e l van 1 s s e l t , u nder th e pseudonym D. M,

J a n s o n i u s , s t a r t e d p u b lis h e d th e M e rc u riu s G a l l o b e l g i c u s i n L a t i n .

2

The

f i r s t volume c o n ta in e d a s u rv e y o f e v e n t s i n th e 158 ^ ' s and gave i n f o r ­ m ation i n d e t a i l a f t e r 1590.

I n 1596, t h e y e a r o f Von A i t z i n g * s d e a t h ,

t h e < d ito rsh ip o f th e M e rcu riu s p a s s e d t o C aspar von L orch (G aspare L o r chano).

T h e r e a f t e r , th e M e rcu riu s was p r i n t e d i n F r a n k f u r t r a t h e r th a n

i n Cologne.

3

1 C f. f o r exam ple, R ie n h s n fs Kurze W arhaftte^rjund E ig e n t l i Che H i s t o r i s c h e B e sc h re ib u n g (C ologne, 159 6 ).

2

See above, p .

6 j b i d . , 222 f . ; 1 5 9 3 ).

n o te 2. C f . , a l s o , M e rc u riu s G a l l o b e l g i c u s V o l. IV ( F r a n k f u r t ,

47. Alr e a d y I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f th e 1 5 9 0 ’ s , p a r t i c u l a r l y among P r o t e s t a n t r e a d e r s i n N o rth Germany, th e w r i t i n g s o f Ja c o b u s F ra n c u s (Conrad L autenbach) (d . 1595) were becoming v e ry p o p u l a r .

P erh ap s th e

most im p o rta n t R e l a t i o o f t h i s P r o t e s t a n t clergyman o f F r a n k f u r t , who compiled h i s m a t e r i a l s i n vSccret, was h i s f i v e - y e a r c h r o n i c l e , J a n u a r y , 1 15 J l - A ugust, 1594. h i s h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts were s t r i c t l y of th e b i ­ annual f a i r v a r ie ty .

A f t e r h i s p a s s i n g , th e R e l a t i o c o n ti n u e d t o ap p ea r

u n t i l th e d e a th of h i s p r i n t e r , P a u l B ra c h f e ld i n 1599.

2

Sigism und

Latomus, c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h Theodor H e u r e r , c o n tin u e d u s in g th e name o f Ja co b u s F ra n c u s f o r a tim e a f t e r 1599.

L a t e r , however, I 'e u r e r i u s g a in e d

g r e a t e r fame i n h i s own r i g h t th a n had e i t h e r Von A i t z i n g o r F r a n c u s .

3

T h is b r i e f s k e t c h o f th e Z eitu ngen and l i e s s r e l a t i o n e n m ig h t w e l l s e r v e as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o one form of w e s te r n E uropean h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i n t h e e a r l y s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r y .

The b o u r g e o i s ie i n th e l a t e s i x t e e n t h

c e n tu ry , made s e l f - c o n s c i o u s by the u p h e a v a ls of th e R e fo rm a tio n , f o llo w e d th e i n t e r - C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o u s wars and th e war a g a i n s t th e Ottoman T urks w i t h a v id a t t e n t i o n .

Kany of th e R e l a t i o s made c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o th e

knowledge of Ottoman and T a t a r a c t i v i t i e s i n Hungary and T r a n s y l v a n i a . B a s i c a l l y , Von A i t z i n g made h i s r e p u t a t i o n n a r r a t i n g t h e e v e n ts o f t h e Wars &

____________

^ R e l a t i o H i s t o r i c a Q u in n u e n n a lis . . . von Anno 1590 b i s 1595 ( F r a n k f u r t a / l i , 1 5 9 6 ). S t l e v e , l o c . c i t . . 224.-227. 3I b i d . . 2 2 9 .

i n th e N e t h e r l a n d s .

R ie p h a n , F ra n c u s and M e u re riu s drew upon c u r r e n t %

r e p o r t s o f th e lo n g H ungarian War to f i l l th e pages o f t h e i r l i e s s r e l a t i o n e n . From t h e s e a c c o u n ts , i t was j u s t one more s t e p t o t h e c h r o n i c l e s o f t h e p e rio d w h ich, i n t h e i r t u r n , ^ o f t e n c o p ie s from th e f o r e g o i n g m a t e r i a l s r tc « 'iv 6 A and, o c c a s i o n a l l y , ad da d f r e s h a c c o u n ts of th e w ar and a d d i t i o n a l docu­ m e n ts.

G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , th e y a ls o enjoyed a somewhat b e t t e r p e r s p e c t ­

iv e th a n th e y e a r to y e a r c o m p i l a t i o n s .

As a so u rc e f o r th e h i s t o r y o f

the H ungarian War o f 1593-1606, th e Z e itu n g e n and H e g s r e l a t i o n e n a re r e ­ p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a kind o f o n - t h e - s p o t r e p o r t i n g of e v e n ts w hich can be compared w i t h th e r e p o r t s o f war c o rr e s p o n d e n ts i n o u r own d a y .

The no

•f e r e T h e y o f t e n p ro v id e a w e a lth o f d e t a i l a b o u t o th e r w is e o b s c u re e v e n t s , b u t th e y a re a ls o f i l l e d w ith rumours and c o n f l i c t i n g a c c o u n ts and, t h e r e ­ f o r e , must be used w ith caution.*** 2.

C h r o n ic le s and H i s t o r i e s :

Such c h r o n i c l e s a s t h o s e o f H. O r t e l i u s ,

K. I s t h v a n f i , J . C e c si and Cesare Campana i n v a ry in g d e g re e draw upon t h e p r e v i o u s l y m entioned Z e itu n g e n and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s .

Hieronymus O r t e l i u s

( d . 1 6 1 4 ), who^hs b a rn i n Augsburg in 152A? r o s e t o become a P r o c u r a t o r and N o ta ry t o t h e I m p e r i a l C o u r t.

I n l a t e r l i f e , as a P r o t e s t a n t and a

d e fe n d e r o f th e C o n fe ssio n o f Augsburg, he was b a n is h e d from th e Haosburg " t e r r i t o r i e s (15S0) d u r in g the r e i g n o f Rudolph I I .

He th e n to o k up r e s i ­

dence i n Hurnberg and, upon th e s u g g e s t i o n o f h i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , w ro te

1

*«.© wV»^V The f r e q u e n t r e p ea t s i n th e Z e itu n g l i t e r a t u r e afeeuf th e d e a t h o f th e \ Khan p ro v id e an example o f one form o f w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g w hich one f i n d s %nf th ese d e sp atc h es. , / /

4r h i s c h r o n i c l e which was based on e y e w itn e s s a c c o u n ts , d e s c r i p t i o n s and t r a c t s o f c o n te m p o r a r ie s .

H is a c c e s s to such s o u r c e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y

to th e Z e i tu n g e n . was nade e a s i e r by th e c o n n e c tio n s o f h i s b r o t h e r - i n la w , Johan nes S ibm acher, whft-v a -o. a famous c o p p c r - p l a t e e n g r a v e r and the p u b l i s h e r o f the book o f h e r a l d r y named a f t e r him."*' p The Hungarian w r i t e r s Ja no s i e c s i ( d . 1611) and N ic o la u s I s t h v a n f i ( a . 1 6 1 5 )3 e x o e rie n c e d th e H ungarian War and w ro te t h e i r h i s t o r i e s s h o r t l y a f t e r i t s c o n c lu s io n .

D e c s i, a p h i l o l o g i s t and s c h o l a r o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l

r e p u t a t i o n , w rote a h i s t o r y of Hungary from 1592 t o 1593. H u ngarian nobleman who had s t u d i e d la n g u a g e s i n

4

Isth v a n fi, a qIȣvi * a, , won f a v o u r a t

th e c o u r t of M ax im ilian I I a n d , d u rin g th e r e i g n o f Rudolph I I , was ch arg ed w ith n e g o t i a t i n g a peace w ith th e Ottoman T urks d u r i n g th e l o n g H ungarian War.

L a t e r i n l i f e , as a rew ard f o r h i s s e r v i c e s , he was ap­

p o in te d v i c e p a l a t i n e o f Hungary. to ry .

I t was th e n t h a t he com piled h i s h i s -

5 As a man o f a f a i r s , who d o u b t l e s s p o s s e s s e d many p r i v a t e p a p e r s

o f h i s t o r i c a l m e r i t , I s t h v a n f i was a b le to w r i t e an i m p o r t a n t a c c o u n t o f

C h ro n o lo g ia oder I i i s t o r i s c h e B e sc h re ib u n g a l l e r K r ie g s e n p o n mgen und Bg lag e ru n g e n . . . . so i n Obcr und Under TJngarn auch SibenbiTygen n i t dem Turcken von Ao. 1395 b i s s a u f f g e g e n w e rtig e Z e i t t . . . . (N u m b e r^ . 1602) A second e d i t i o n ap p ea re d I n N u m b e rg , 1620-1622 and a Dutch e d i t i o n came o u t i n Amsterdam, 1619. C f. a ls o a r t . n0 r t e l i u s ft, A llg em ein e D eutsche B i o g r a p h i e , V o l. 24-,( L e i p z i g , 1 8 8 7 ), pp. 445-44-6*

2

I n f o r m a tio n on D ecsi i n o t h e r la n g u a g e s t h a n H un garian i s s c a n ty in d e e d , see th e a r t i c l e , nDecsi ( J u a n ) M, E n c i c l o p e d ia U n i v e r s a l U l u s t r a d a Burope o-Americ an a , V o l. 17. ( B a r c e lo n a , N .D .), p . 1250.

^ A r t i c l e , nI s t h v a n f i u s ,f, B io p ra p h ie U n i v e r s a l l e . V o l. XX ( P a r i s , 18 5 8 ) , p . 4-13. ^Magyar H i s t o r i a j a 1592-1593. Konumenta H u ngariae H i s t o r i c a S c r i p t o r e s , V o l. X7II " (P e s t, 1 8 6 6 )7 * (c o n t.)

$0. th e r e l a t i o n s between th e Ottomans and th e C h r i s t i a n s d u r in g t h e Hun­ g a r i a n War, an a ccoun t w hich i s r i c h a ls o i n r e f e r e n c e s t o th e Crimean T atars.

G esare Campana ( d . 1606) a ls o w ro te d u r in g t h e p e r i o d o f th e

H un garian lia r and, draw ing upon th e R e l a t i o n i c u r r e n t a t t h a t tim e , i n ­ clu d e d much in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e war i n h i s L s t o r i a d e l mondo d e s c r i t t e d a l S i r n o r G esare C anoana, a h i s t o r y o f th e p e rio d 1570 t o 1596. c e iv e d wide a cc la im f o r h i s h i s t o r y w r i t i n g ;

He r e ­

i t was c o n s id e r e d th e model

o f i t s tim e .^ I n th e y e a r 1503, th e c h r o n i c l e o f L e u n c la v iu s and th e h i s t o r y *3 o f H in a d o i f i r s t a p p ea re d ; th e one, in L a t i n , th e o t h e r , i n I t a l i a n . Jo h a n n es L e u n c la v iu s (Hans Lewenklaw) (d . 1594-)* a g r e a t H u m a n istic s c h o l a r of ’.ride renown, p r e p a r e d th e A n n a le s. . .

from T u r k is h s o u rc e s ^

as a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f accompanying Heinrich von L i e c h t e n s t e i n , h i s p a tr o n and f r i e n d , on an embassy t o I s t a n b u l d u rin g t h e y e a r s 15 84. and 1535#

(c o n t.) ^H i c o l a i I s t h v a n f i Panno n i H i s t o r i arum De Rebus T Jngaricis L i b r i XXXIV (C ologne, 1622). ^"Art. ftCampana,T, E n c i c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n s Vol. 8 (Milan-Rome, 1 9 3 0 ), p . 5&6. H is work was f i r s t p u b l is h e d i n V e n ic e , 1599 and. a .s e c o n d e d i t i o n ap­ p e a r e d i n 1607. ^A nnales Sultanorum Othmonidarum. a T u r c is sua l i n g u a s c r i p t i ( F r a n k f u r t ,

15W . o

H is to r ia d e l la Guerra f r a Turchi, e t P e r s ia n i di G. T. Kinadoi (Venice, 1 5 3 8 ). A second e d itio n of t h i s work appeared in Venice i n 1594 and i n 1595 an E nglish t r a n s l a t i o n by A. ^ a rtw e ll was p r in te d i n London.

^ C f . , B a b in ^ e r, G e s c h i c h t s s c h r e i b e r , pp. 43>n7 3 , 110; G f. , a l s o , i n t h i s reg ard , W itte k , nZum Q uellenprob lem d e r a l t e s t e n o sm anischen C h ro n ik en ( m it Auszuge aus N e s r i ) n , M i t t e i l u n g e n z u r osm anische G e s c h i c h t e . V ol. I . (1 9 2 1 -2 2 ), pp. 77-150 and p a r t i c u l a r l y , pp. 140 f f .

Most o f t h i s sane work was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o German w ith a supplem ent d e a l i n g w ith more r e c e n t e v e n ts and p a r t i c u l a r l y , e v e n t s of th e O ttom anB a fav id H a r.^

A s i z e a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h i s s u o n le m e n ta ry m a t e r i a l a p o e a rs

to have been borrowed from K i n a d o i 's h i s t o r y i n s p i t e of l e u n c l a v i u s 1 l a t e r a t t a c k on th e work.

2

I t i s e v i d e n t a l s o t h a t b o th w r i t e r s drew

upon i d e n t i c a l so u rc e s such as th e v a lu a b le R e l a t i o n i on th e O ttom anS a f a v id i a r l y G iovanni M ic h e li and o t h e r s .

3

G iovanni Thomaso M inadoi da Rovigo ( d . 1 6 1 5 ), a f t e r c o m p le tin g h i s m e d ic a l s t u d i e s i n Padua, p u rsu ed h i s p r o f e s s i o n f o r seven y e a r s i n the s e r v i c e of the V e n e tia n c o n s u ls a t C o n s ta n tin o p le and A leppo.

Dur­

i n g h i s s o jo u r n i n th e Ottoman E m pire, Minadoi c o l l e c t e d e y e -x ^ itn e s s a c ­ c o u n ts f o r h i s K i s t o r i a from Ottoman m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s , some o f whose m a la d ie s he a c t u a l l y t r e a t e d .

4

He a ls o p u t t o use any m a t e r i a l x*rith

e which th e b a i l i ( s i n g , b a i l o ) c o u ld p ro v id e him .

When he r e t u r n e d to

Hansen Lowenld.au 1s Neue C hronika t u r k i s ch e r ITation ^ L e u n c la v iu s c i t e s M inadoi as one o f h i s s o u r c e s i n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s Neue C h ro n ik a . F o r f u r t h e r in f o r m a ti o n a b o u t th e d i s p u t a t i o n , see b e lo w ,p . $ 2 . n o te x . 3 See n o te 5 below . ^ I n h i s H i s t o r i a . M inadoi m entions h i s c lo s e a s s o c i a t i o n xblth Husayn Bey, son o f '^ambulat (p . 1 0 1 ) , H ala ( s i c ) Bey-, S i p a h i o f Aleppo (p . 101) and Emir S u l t a n , m erchant o f Aleppo ( p . 92 ) . 5 I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n , Minadoi e s p e c i a l l y p r a i s e s th e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e V e n e tia n c o n su ls i n Aleppo, Theodore B a lb i and G iovanni I l i c h e l i ; G f. , H i s t o r i a , p r i n t e r ’s mark +5 r e c t o .

*z.

I t a l y , he became th e p r i v a t e p h y s i c ia n to th e Duke o f Mantua u n t i l he r e c e iv e d an appointm ent as p r o f e s s o r o f m edicine i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Padua i n 1596.

In t h i s c a p a c i t y , he composed a number o f m e d ic a l t r a c t s .

M inadoi d ie d i n F lo re n c e i n 1615 where he mas a t t e n d i n g th e Grand Duke Cosimo I I o f Tuscany.*^ The works o f b o th L e u n c la v iu s and Minadoi i n t r o d u c e much b a s i c m a te ria l in to

W estern h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e w hich was drawn upon by

l a t e r w r i t e r s even th o u g h th e a u th o r s th em se lv e s d i s a g r e e d a b o u t th e d e 9 ta ils. I f t h e i r a c c o u n ts of th e e v e n ts cf t h e 1570*s and 1580 !s a r e com­ pared w ith the re le v a n t Ottoman and P e r s i a n s o u r c e s , th e-/ a r e found t o be g e n e r a l l y a c c u r a t e b u t g a rb le d as r e g a r d s s p e c i f i c e v e n t s . I t i s f o r t u n a t e f o r l a t e r h i s t o r i a n s t h a t th e R e la c io n e s

3

o f Ulugh

Beg, b e t t e r Imown as Don Juan o f P e r s i a (d . I 6 G5 ) , s e r v e to c l e a r up some e r r o r s i n th e works o f M inadoi and L e u n c la v iu s .

The w r i t e r , o r more p r o ­

p e r l y , th e n a r r a t o r of t h i s h i s t o r y o ccup ied th e p o s i t i o n o f c h i e f s e c r e t ­ a r y t o the P e r s i a n am bassador, Husayn *A li 3 e £ , who d e p a r t e d from th e c o u r t of Shah Abbas i n 1599 on a m is s io n t o t h e c a p i t a l s o f Europe i n th e company o f Anthony S h e r l e y .

Don Juan became a c o n v e r t to th e C a t h o l i c

^CfM, a r t . fTU inadousfT, B io g ra p h ic U n i v e r s e l l e (Michaud) Ancienne e t I b d e r n e new e d i t i o n , V ol. 27 ( P a r i s - L e i p z i g ) , p. 339 and a r t . ,h iin a d o u s,l~ M ouvelle ~ B io g ra o h ie G e n e r a te , e d . H o e fe r, V ol. 35 ( P a r i s , I 8 6 5 ) , p . 590. 2

J o . Thomae Minadoi Pro sua de h e llo p e r sic o h i s t o r i a . adversus ea qua i l l i a Joanne L eun clavio o b .jiciu n tu r d is p u t a t io . . . (V e n ice . 1595) (n o t s e e n ) .

^ V a l l a d o l i d , 1601, This work h a s been t r a n s l a t e d from i t s o r i g i n a l C a s t i l l i a n S p a n ish and e d i t e d w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by G. Le S trn a g e f o r th e Broadway T r a v e l l e r s S e r i e s : Don Juan of P e r s i a a S h i f ah C a th o l i c (London, 1 9 2 6 ). IJlugh Beg drew upon M inadoi and o t h e r works o f t h e p e rio d f o r th e framework of h is n a r r a t i o n .

53.

f a i t h upon re a c h in g S p a in .

His h i s t o r y , t h e r e f o r e , i n so f a r as i t

d e a l s w ith O tto rran -S a fav id a f f a i r s , i s most v a l u a b l e f o r th e p e r io d 1 a f t e r h i s b i r t h ( c a . 156o) to 1 5 9 9 . R ich ard An o l l e s ( d . 161 0 ), a u th o r of th e G e n e r a l i H i s t o r i c o f th e T urkes from th e f i r s t b e g in n in g of t h a t N a tio n ( t o 1 6 0 3 ), g r a d u a te d from Oxford i n 156/+-6 5 , and, a f t e r r e c e i v i n g h i s II»A ,, he rem ained as a f e l l o w u n t i l a t l e a s t 1571.

T h e r e a f t e r he was a p p o in te d m a s te r o f th e grammar

s c h o o l i n Sandwich, n e a t , where he se rv e d u n t i l th e end o f h i s I f e , F o r h i s h i s t o r y , R n o llc s depended on th e Z e i t r n r e n

2

and many o f the o t h e r

m a t e r i a l s a lr e a d y m en tioned , most of which a r e c i t e d i n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n 3 to h i s work. G. U re c h i ( d . c a . 1 6 5 0 ), who stemmed from an o ld b o y a r f a m i ly o f M o ld av ia and who a chieved c o n s id e r a b le l o c a l prom inence as grand S o a t a r ( c h i e f b o y a r? ) and v o r n i c

o f lo w e r M oldavia d u r i n g h i s l i f e -

tim e , comnosed th e Ghronione de R oldavie d e p u is l e mi l i e u du x i v

®

V sie c le

\ 4. .jusoufa 1594 i n Roumanian. T h is c h r o n i c l e , how ever, h a s o n ly m inor i n -

^ CS.

o? Tcrs-i*.

j>f>. I- 3?

.

2

A r t . ’’K n o lle s , R ic h a rd ’1, D i c ti o n a r y o f T at io n a l B io g ra p h y , V ol. 31 (London, 1887) , pp. 237-238. K nolles* work app eared i n London i n 1603 and s u b s e ­ q u e n tl y was r e v i s e d supplem ented and p u b lis h e d many tim e s : 16 1 0 , 1 6 2 1 , I 6 3 8 . I n 1679 P a u l R ycaut r e v i s e d and e n la r g e d th e work and a f u r t h e r r e v i s e d e d i t i o n i n t h r e e volumes appeared between 1637 and 1700. V. J . P a r r y , who i s p r e p a r i n g a c r i t i c a l s tu d y o f th e s o u r c e s o f ^ n o l l e s , h a s i n d i c a t e d how R n o lle s condensed th e i n f o r m a t i o n of a R e l a t i o (A u g u st, 1602 - A p r i l , 1603) o f T. K e u re r iu s i n o r d e r to com plete t h e f i n a l pages o f h i s work: Cf, K n o l l e s , 114-5 f f . w ith T. E e u r e r i u s , R e la tiq n e m H is t o r i ­ cal)! omnium o r a e c i o uarum e t memo r a t u maxime dignarum re ru m . . . ( F r a n k f u r t , 1603).

^ P u b l i c a t i o n de I 'L c o l e dec Langes O r i e n t a l e s v i v a n t e s , S e r . 1 , V o l. 9 ( P a r i s , 137 3 ), e d i t e d w ith a F re n c h t r a n s l a t i o n and an i n t r o d u c t i o n by E. P i c o t .

fA r .

p o r ta n c e f o r the stu d y o f th e Crimean T a t a r s d u rin g th e l a s t d e ca d es o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A n o th er h i s t o r y c o n s u lte d f o r t h i s s tu d y was c o m p ile d , l a r g e l y 1 from V e n e tia n s o u r c e s , by G io v an n i Sagredo ( d . c a . 1 6 9 1 ). Sagredo came from one o f th e most i l l u s t r i o u s f a m ilie s o f V enice a n d , as was t y p ic a l o f th e r o l e p la y e d by th e o a t r i c i a n c l a s s , he was s e n t a s anbassadeu.r e x tr a o r d in a ir e to O l i v e r Cromwell in I 6 f 0 and, in the same c a p a c i t y , t o

Louis XIV in I 656.

Sagredo1s b r o th e r , N ic o la s, became doge in 1674 and,

noon h i s u n tim e ly d e a t h , G iovanni Sagredo was e l e c t e d t o succeed him. When h i s enemies ach ieved the annulm ent o f h i s e l e c t i o n , Sagredo went i n t o v o l u n ta r y e x i l e d u rin g w hich he ore-pared h i s h i s t o r y .

When F ra n c e s c o

M o ro s in i became doge i n 1633, he urged Sagredo t o r e t u r n to th e R e p u b lic where he was a p p o in ted p r o v e d i t o r g e n e r a l o f th e L e v a n tin e S e a s. s h o rtly a fte rw a rd s.

2

He d ie d

His h i s t o r y , based upon a w e a l t h of h i s t o r i c a l m at­

e r i a l s , s e r v e s to p la c e th e e v e n t s o f th e l a t e s i x t e e n t h and e a r l y se v en ­ t e e n t h c e n t u r y Ottoman S n p ire i n a W estern E uropean p e r s p e c t i v e .

3.

O th e r S o u rc e s :

Some l i t e r a r y s o u rc e s i n W estern E uropean l a n ­

guages have serv ed to f i l l th e la c u n a e o f th e f o r e g o i n g c o l l e c t i o n s and w o rk s.

Theee a c c o u n ts f a l l i n t o two g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s :

G e n e ra l A ccounts

and Accounts o f S p e c i f i c E v e n t s .

~4lem orie i s t o r i c h e d e f monarc h ! O ttom ani (V e n ic e , 1 6 7 7 ), a h i s t o r y from 1300 to I 64.6 . There i s a F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s by M. L a u r e n t, H i s t o i r e de l f£h.oiv’e Ottoman ( P a r i s , 1 7 2 4 ), 7 v o l s . a r t . ,TS a g red o , l e a n 11, B io g ra p h ic U n i v e r s e l l e , V ol. 37, p. 235.

M a r tin E ro n o v s k i^ d e s c rib e d th e Crimean T a t a r s o c i e t y i n c o n s i d e r ­ ab le d e t a i l a t the b e g in n in g o f th e lo n g O tto m a n -S a fav id War.

D uring

th e r e i g n o f Gazi G ira y , a Scotsman, W illia m Bruce ( B r u s s iu s ) ( f l . 158616 1 3 ), a la w y e r, p u b l i c i s t , p r o f e s s o r a t t h e Zamoyski Academy, and an E n g li s h a g e n t in P oland, w ro te an i n t e r e s t i n g t r a c t on th e Crimean T a t a r s .

3

mmm

I n t h e p e rio d f o llo w in g th e khan sh ip o f Gazi G ir a y a v a l u a b l e a c c o u n t of th e Crimean s t a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n and economy was comoosed by G iovanni da Lucca ( f l . c a . 1620-1640 ) , a Dominican f r i a r , who v i s i t e d t h e Crimean pen­ i n s u l a and th e Caucasus about th e y e a r 1633*^” P. L am bcrti ( n . c a . 1630-1654)* a m is s io n a r y o f th e C o n g re g a tio n f o r th e P r o p a g a tio n o f th e F a i t h , who had r e s i d e d i n l l i n g r e l i a f o r tw e n ty y e a r s p r i o r to th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f his acco unt

5

o f t h a t c o u n t r y , has made a

v a lu a b le c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e o th e rw is e o bscure p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and econo­ mic h i s t o r y o f th e E a s te r n s h o r e s o f the Black Sea.

1

Je a n -B a p tis te T a v e m ie r

^

The a c c o u n t o f B ro nov ski, a P o l i s h envoy t o th e Crim ea, i s d i s c u s s e d w ith the S la v o n ic s o u r c e s , see above, p . 3 7 .

2 See th e s h o r t b i o g r a p h i c a l n o te by S. Kot i n th e a r t i c l e tfW illia m B ruceTI, F o l s k i Slow nik B i o ^ r a f i c z h y , V ol. I l l (Cracow, 1937)* pp. 3-4* t o w hich i s appended a few o t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s . Of. a l s o , Thomas A. F i s c h e r , The S c o ts in E a s t e r n and W estern P r u s s i a (E d in b u rg h , 1 9 0 3 ), pp. 63-69 and 216-218. ^De T a r t a r ! s d i a r i u n ( F r a n k f u r t a /il, 15 9 8 ). ^ A p p a r e n tly v ery l i t t l e i s known abou t da Lucca. His s h o r t a c c o u n t, en­ t i t l e d R e l a t i o n d.es T a t a r s , P e r c o o i t e s e t N o g a ie s , des C i r c a s s i e n s , K angrel i e n s , e t Geogrieng" ( p o s s i b l y a French t r a n s l a t i o n o f a t r a c t o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n i n I t a l i a n ) appeared i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f t r a v e l l e r s , R e l a t i o n s de D iv e rs Voyages C u r le u x . . . . ( P a r i s , 16 63), P a r t I , pp. 1 4 -3 0 . ^As i n th e case of Da L ucca, f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e l i f e of L a m b e rti a p p e a r t o be u n o b ta in a b le e r c e p t a s th ey a re p ro v id ed i n th e work i t s e l f , R e l a t i o n e d e l l a C holchide Koggi D e tta t l e n g r e l l i a . . . (N a p le s , 1654)*

(cl. 1639) a ls o v i s i t e d th e Caucasus in the m id dle of t h e s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r y and p u b lis h e d a t r a v e l a ccoun t which su p p lem ents th e m a t e r i a l o f L a m b e r ti.^ L azaro Soranzo (d . 1602) w rote a s u c c i n c t a c c o u n t o f th e Ottoman Empire d u r in ^ the l a s t y e a r s o f S u lta n Kurad I I I

(1571-1595) and the 2 e a r l y y e a r s of the s u l t a n s h i o o f Kehemncd I I I (1 5 9 5 -1 6 0 3 ). Contemporary a c c o u n ts of Ih s c o v y by G ile s F l e t c h e r and J a c o u e s

l t a r g e r e t p ro v id e i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a ti o n on th e m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n and economy o f t h a t s t a t e a t t h e end o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

F le tc h e r

( d . 1 6 1 1 ) , who u n d e rto o k an embassy to th e c o u r t o f T s a r F e d o r i n 153389 on b e h a l f o f Queen E l i z a b e t h , w rote an e x tre m e ly v a l u a b l e a c c o u n t of h i s m is s io n i n which he a ls o d e s c r ib e d the Crimean T a t a r s .

3

Jacoues

M a rg e re t (d. c a . 1 6 1 2 ), a f t e r s e r v in g i n the army o f Henry IV to 1595? to o k s e r v i c e w ith th e P r i n c e o f T r a n s y lv a n ia and th e Emperor, t u a l l y became a c a p t a i n i n a P o l i s h i n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t ,

He ev en ­

I n 1600 he w ent

Les s i x voyag es de J . 3. T a v e r n i e r . . . . e n T n rq u ie en P e r s e e t aux I n d e s (P a ris , 1 6 7 6 ) 2 v o ls. 2

i

d

C

V

i vUc c .

Ll, 4 »

. Th th e l e a d in g c o n te n d e r s o f th e G ira y l i n e f o r th e p o s t of th a n made a l l i a n c e s w i t h th e p r i n c i p a l Crimean T a t a r t r i b e s , and o f t e n a l s o so u g h t su p p o rt from th e Nog ay t r i b e s on th e Kipchak s t e p p e , o r from th e C i r c a s s i a n s .

I t was a ls o n o t u n u su a l f o r p r e t e n d e r s to be p sp on so red by P o l a n d - L i t h u a n i a , Muscovy or th e G enoese. ~ By e s t a b l i s h i n g th c -ir r i ~ h t to a p p o in t and d i s m is s th e Khans th e

Ottomans g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d th e r e s p e c t f o r th e o f f i c e o f Khan and a l s o i n tr o d u c e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f s t a b i l i t y f o r th e K hanate i t s e l f . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th r o u g h o u t th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , th e t r i b a l a r i s t o c r a c y s p l i t r o u g h ly i n t o two f a c t i o n s :

th e one, pro-O ttom an and th e o t h e r ,

t r a d i t i o n a l i s t , a d v o c a tin g a c l o s e r adherence t o th e Y asak,

1

3

and th e

P r o f . I n a l c i k ( ^ G i r a y " , I . A , . IV, 783-789) f o l l o w i n g Nemeth Gyula (Hongf o g l a l o M agyarsag K i a l a k u l a - s a (B u d a p est, 1 9 3 0 ), pp. 2 6 5 -2 6 3 ), a s s o c i a t e s t h e name "G ira y 11 w ith th e name o f the Mongol t r i b a l c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f K e r a i t s

"The a n c e s t o r s o f th e G ira y s had ta k e n r e fu g e in. P o l a n d - L i t h u a n i a d u r in g t h e f i r s t d ecad es o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y when t h e y had. been d r i v e n o u t o f t h e i r u l u s o r h e r e d i t a r y appanage by O h i n g i s i d s o f o t h e r l i n e s . Dur­ in g th e f o r m a t iv e y e a r s of th e G ira ^ J y n a s ty i n th e C rim ea, i t i s n o t un­ f a i r to c o n s i d e r th e Crimean ilia n s as n e a r v a s s a l s of th e P o l i s h crown. T hen K e n g li G ira y became Khan i n 1/.66, he weakened t h e a n c i e n t t i e w ith P o l a n d - L i t h u a n i a by fo rm ing a l l i a n c e s w ith th e Ottoman T urks and w i t h Mus­ covy . I t was owing to t h e i n t r i g u e o f th e G eno ese, t h e n i n p o s s e s s i o n o f th e s o u th e r n sh o r e s o f th e C rim ea, t h a t th e Ottomans were p ersu ad e d by th e § i r i n Beg to i n t e r v e n e . T h is i n t e r v e n t i o n l e d t o th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t by th e Ottomans o f th e r i g h t o f th e S u l t a n t o a p p o in t and d i s m is s th e Crimean Khans. F o r a f u l l e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h i s p o r t i o n o f th e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f Crimean T a r t a r y , see th e m onographic a r t i c l e by H. I n a l c i k , " I l k v e s i k a l a r a gore K i r i n I l a n l l g i . . . ,T Be H e t e n . 30 (1944) > pp.34^-4** and th e a r t . "Kaci G iray " I . A . , V, pp. 25-27 ( I n a l c i k ) . ^The Yasak was the term a p p li e d t o th e c o l l e c t i o n o f r e g u l a t i o n s and r e ­ s t r i c t i o n s prom ulgated hy J e n g h iz Khan which was based on t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e Mongols and o t h e r s te p p e p e o p le s . G. V ernadsky, The H i s t o r y of R u s s i a . V ol. I l l , Toe Mongols and R u ssia (New ITaven, 1953) \ pp . 99-109*

7t5\ e l e c t i o n o f th e Khan i n th e t r a d i t i o n a l manner.

T he-O tto nana to o k

m easures to s t r e n g t h e n th e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r c h o ic e f o r Khan by p r o v i d ­ in g him w ith f u n d s , o v e r and above h i s y e a r l y income, t o e s t a b l i s h h is own h ouseh old t r o o p s .

T his payment, th e s o - c a l l e d sole ban a k p c s i was i n ­

s t i t u t e d upon the f o r c i b l e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f S a h ib G i r a y , t h e pro-Ottom an c a n d i d a t e , i n 1534 -. The Khan, w i t h i n th e d i c t a t e s o f custom , c o n t r o l l e d a p p o in tm en ts f o r h is a d m in istra tio n .

He f i r s t a o o o in te d h i s v e li * ahd o r h e i r a o o a r e n t , ■

who was known by the t i t l e X alg ay .

I ■■

4- j .

7

The Khans j e a l o u s l y guarded t h i s p r i ­

v i l e g e a s one o f the few means by which th e y c~uld i n f l u e n c e th e c h o ic e 1 of t h e i r s u c c e s s o r . A p a rt from th e Crimean p e n i n s u l a o v e r w hich th e Khan had j u r i s d i c t i o n e x c e p t f o r th e e y a l e t o f E a f f a (F eo d o siy ) and th e tf

,

X

g a r r i s o n towns of Gozleve (K v p a to riy a ) and K e rc h , th e Khah a l s o c o n t r o l l e d most o f the K ipchak ste p p e from th e D n e ste r t o th e Don and p o r t i o n s o f th e Kuban r i v e r b a s i n and th e s u rro u n d in g s t e p p e .

These r e g i o n s were

p re d o m in a n tly o c c u p ie d by Nygay T a ta r s av':d C i r c a s s i a n s .

To a c t a s a g e n ts

o f th e Khan and as commanders o f th e m i l i t a r y c o n t i n g e n t s i n t h e s e r e g i o n s o u t s i d e th e Crimean p e n i n s u l a , th e Khan a p p o in te d t h r e e o t h e r o f f i c i a l s ,

The Khan u s u a l l y a p p o in te d a y oun ger b r o t h e r o r h i s son t o t h i s p o s t . Ke hemmed G ir a y I I , when h i s b r o t h e r and K a lg ay , * A d il G ir a y , was murdered, i n P e r s i a , wished t o a p p o in t h i s son Hubarek a s K algay b u t , upon t h e ob­ j e c t i o n s of h i s b r o t h e r , Alp G ira y , was f o r c e d t o a p p o in t him to t h i s r a n k . Khan Kehemmed, however, a c c o rd in g to t r a d i t i o n , c r e a t e d t h e o f f i c e of Nur a l Din o r second i n s u c c e s s io n t o th e K h a n sh ip , t o which o f f i c e he a p p o in te d h i s son. He was a b le to g a in the S u l t a n 1s a p p ro v a l f o r t h i s i n n o v a tio n b e ca u se T a t a r t r o o p s were b a d ly needed i n P e r s i a . F o r f u r t h e r d e ta ils a r t . "K a lg a y ," T.A. , V I, pp. 131-132 ( I n a l c l k ) .

th e s o - c a l l e d s e r - * a c k e r s u l t a n s , as th e B u jak , Y edisan and Kuban.

who c o n t r o l l e d th e d i s t r i c t s known

2

The Khan, m o re o v e r, a n n o in te d th e 3 Or b e g i o r commander o f th e f o r t r e s s a t Qrkapa ( P e r e k o p ) . T h is o f f i c e was o r d i n a r i l y th e p r e r o g a t i v e of th e § i r i n beg.

Among o t h e r i m p o r t a n t

e n s t s , th e Khan a p p o in te d a ls o th e m u f t i , th e nlng-am a ( t h e V e z l r ) , th e K a z i * a s k e r , th e h a s i n e f a r bag! and the d c f t e r d a r . ^ The Khan w ie ld e d h i s power w ith the a id of t h e s e d i g n i t a r i e s . The checks upon h is a u t h o r i t y could o r i g i n a t e w ith t h e Ottoman S u l t a n , th e Grand V e z i r , the Crimean T a t a r t r i b a l a r i s t o c r a c y , th e r u f t l o r th e D efterd"ar.

To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , th e Khan was r e s t r i c t e d by the Yasak

and o t h e r custom ary law a s w e l l as th o se a c t s coming withfe th e j u r i s ­ d i c t i o n of the 5 e r i * a t .

Throughout th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e r e i s an

These p o s i t i o n s w e r e , i n f a c t , g e n e r a l l y f i l l e d _ b y sons o f th e Khan, who w ere r e f e r r e d t o e i t h e r as Kanzades o r s u l t a n s . Cf . a r t . ’’K irim , 11 I . A . VI, p . 755. * 2 Bu.jak, a T u rk is h word meaning Hc o r n c r ,r, p resum ably r e f e r r e d t o th e c o r n e r o f t h e s te p p e or much o f th e r e g i o n known as B e s s a r a b i a to d a y , C£. a r t . uB udjakn , K . I . 2 , V ol. I , pp. 1205-1286 ( i n a l c T k ) . The ser* a s k e r s u l t a n i n c h arg e of t h a t d i s t r i c t oresum ably had c harge o f th e T a t a r s l i v i n g i n t h e B u jak , betw een th e Danube and th e D n e s te r . The r e g i o n known a s Y e d i­ sa n a p p e a rs to have i n c l u d e d th e p o r t i o n o f th e s te p p e between th e D n e s te r and th e Dnepr ( c £ . W. R. S hepherd, H i s t o r i c a l A tla s (London, 1922) p . 1 3 9 ). The Kuban d i s t r i c t encompassed th e s te p p e la n d between Azak (Azov) and th e Kuban r i v e r . A cco rding t o L ykachev, P u t e s h e s t v i y a R u ssk ik h P o slo v (Moscow-Leningrad, 194-7) , p . 335, n o te 67, th e B e s l e n i ^ B esT an i) C i r - " c a s s i a n s l i v e d betw een th e Kuban and Lava r i v e r s . These -oresumably cane u n d e r th e j u r i s d i c t i o n of th e s e r * a s k e r o f t h e Kuban. As f o r th e re m a in ­ in g Crimean T a t a r t e r r i t o r y between th e Dnepr and t h e Don, t h i s seems t o have been th e ore s e r v e o f th e Or B e g i t b e g fo f ’P e r e k o p ) ; -the ' T iy is' r e ­ g i s t e r s 'in-.-Velyaminov^rnov^M a t e r i a l ^ d ly a I s t o r i y / Krymtf, . The a c c o u n t o f G io v an n i da L u cca, l o c . c i t . a ls o c o n firm s t h e s e d e t a i l s . ^See p r e v i o u s n o t e . ^ A rt. M KirLmn l o c . c i t . t j f . IT.A.R.Gibb and H, Eowen, I s l a m i c S o c i e t y and th e West i / i , pp. l 66 - l 68 £\ nassim f o r a g e n e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e

77.

i m p e r c e p t i b l e a s s i m i l a t i o n by th e Crimean T a t a r s o f many a s p e c t s of Ottoman l i f e .

The K hans, however, r e t a i n e d t h e i r r i - h t to have s e p ­

a r a t e coinage ( S ik k e ) th ro u g h o u t th e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e K hanate;

Is la m

G ira y ( 1 5 3 4 -1 5 8 8 ), th e immediate p r e d e c e s s o r of G azi G i r a y , a c q u ie s c e d i n th e l o s s o f th e second g r e a t p r i v i l e g e of in d e p e n d e n t K uslim r u l e r s , th e r i g h t o f b e in g f i r s t m entioned i n th e K ^ d a y p r a y e r s (H u tb e )

4*

The P o l i t i c s o f th e Steppe and t h e i r S i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e G re a t Powers_______________________________ _ At n i d - c e n t u r y , a p a r t from the doomed k h a n a te s o f Lazen and

A s t r a k h a n , 'f o u r d i s t i n c t l o c i o f power su rv iv e d on th e s t e p p e , each P o s s e s s in g a c e r t a i n amount o f freedom o f a c t i o n : th e C i r c a s s i a n s , th e C ossacks a n d ' the Kogay T a t a r s .

th e Crimean T a t a r s , The power o f th e

.

Crimean T a t a r s c e n t r e d i n th e Crimean o e n in s u la b u t r a d i a t e d t o th e B e s l e n i C i r c a s s i a n s i n th e N o rth e rn Caucasus and to th o s e T a t a r s , Eogay and o t h e r s , who wandered between Azak (Azov) and th e B u jak.

T ra d itio n ­

a l y an i l l - d e f i n e d s u z e r a i n t y even extended o v e r th e B e^tepe ( i n R u s s i a n , o P y a tig o r s k ) " ' and K a b a r d in ia n C i r c a s s i a n s . The f i r m n e s s o f th e Crimean T a t a r h o ld o v er th e C i r c a s s i a n s depended l a r g e l y on t h e p e r s o n a l e f f e c t i v e ­ n e s s o f any g iv e n khan i n e x e r t i n g h i s a u t h o r i t y i n t h a t r e g i o n . . These

"Almost s i n c e th e tim e o f th e subm ission o f the khans to th e Ottomans th e k h a n s 'h a d r e g u l a r l y been confirm ed i n o f f i c e by th e r e c e p t i o n o f s t a n ­ d a rd s ( tuft 4 l i t e r a l l y , h o r s e t a i l s ; ro b e s of honour ( h i l * a t ) and w r i t t e n p a t e n t s ( h a t t ) from th e S u l t a n . A r t . uKTrir_i,,f l o c . c i t . %[. Eoworth, H i s t o r y of th e Kongo I s (London, 1380) I I , p . 4&9, c a l l s them ’’B e sh tav "; Pe 9 ew i, I I , p . 77 , r e f e r s to th e r e g i o n as rfBe^ Bepe,!.

7S. c o n s id e r a tio n s did n o t , however, keep the C ir c a s s ia n s from arranging sep arate a l l i a n c e s w ith the Don Cossacks, the Tsar o f Muscovy, the ffamhal o f Tarku, the Ottoman S u ltan or from e f f e c t i v e l y r e p u lsin g an o v e r -z e a lo u s Crimean Lhan. The C h r istia n s

Cossacks o f the Dnepr and Don r i v e r s w ere, i n the main, of S lavon ic o r ig i n .

Although th ey cooperated w ith t h e i r

Muslim neighbours ov" o c c a s io n , thc-y were, c u l t u r a l l y speaking, an ex­ t e n s io n in to the Steope of the P o lish -L ith u a n ia n and M uscovite powers and in d efen se o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l sid e o f t h e i r economy as w e ll as v t h e i r homes and v i l l a g e they f r e q u e n tly a s s i s t e d the C h r istia n rowers at the expense o f the i-luslims.

For the period o f t h i s stu d y , the two

Cossack settle m en ts w i l l be considered as independent of each o th e r . Don Cossacks had t h e i r

The

cen tre on the Don r i v e r near Voronezh and by the

end o f the cen tu ry t h e i r s e t t le m e n t s

had moved downstream towards Azov

and through v a r io u s o o rta g es to the D onets.

The Dnepr Cossacks or the

Z aporozhians, as thdse names im ply, had t h e i r str o n g h o ld 11beyond the r a p id s n on an isla n d i n the Dnepr r i v e r .

These two vanguards o f S la v o n ic

c i v i l i z a t i o n on the steppe had, by m id-cen tu ry, fir m ly e s t a b l i s h e d them­ se lv es.

As the cen tu ry advanced, the Don C ossacks, who fr e q u e n t ly mar1 r ie d t h e i r C ir ca ssio n c a o t i v e s , served the i n t e r e s t s o f Muscovy i n i t s expansion down the Volga and in t o the northern Caucasus.

The Zaporozhians,

■^S. A. B elokurov, Snosheniya R o s s i i s Favkazom (Moscow, 1399)* PP* n x x i i x x x iii.

m o reo v er, were f r e q u e n t l y encouraged by th e T sa r o f Muscovy to r a i d the Crimean T a ta r s e i t h e r a c r o s s the steppe o r by se a,.

Those Dnepr

Cossacks frc -o u e n tly a ls o a s s i s t e d o r em barrassed th e P o l i s h k in g s by t h e i r bold a t t a c k s on Ottoman t e r r i t o r y .

The hogay T a t a r s , th e T u rk ic

group on th e W estern ste o o e w hich was most s t r o n g l y committed t o a nomadic way of l i f e , t r a d i t i o n a l l y had i t s c e n t r e n e a r th e w e ll- w a te r e d d e l t a s o f th e Volga ( i t i i ) and 7k ra l (Ya* ik ) r i v e r s and had lo n g been c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d , p o l i t i c a l l y sp e a k in g , w i t h th e K hanate o f A s tr a k h a n . The e a r l y d ecades o f th e s i x t e e n th j c c n t u r y were c r i t i c a l f o r d e­ te r m in in g th e d i r e c t i o n of th e f u t u r e developm ent o f th e s t e p p e .

At

t h a t tim e , a long s t r u g g l e commenced f o r th e c o n t r o l o f ' t h e s p a r s e l y p o p u la te d and i l l - d e f i n e d t e r r i t o r i e s between th e Ottoman and M u sco vite S ta te s.

The Ottoman E h p ire d u r in g th e p e rio d had t o f a c e fo r m id a b le

enem ies to the W est, S ou th and Mast and was t h e r e f o r e c o n t e n t , i n g e n e r a l , to le a v e th e problem s of the s te p p e t o the Crimean K hans.

B u t, much t o

th e c o n s t e r n a t i o n o f t h e Sublim e P o r t e , Mehemmed G ira y Khan I (1514-1523) and S a h ib G iray Khan I (1534-1551) a t th e h e i g h t o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e k h a n s h in s , succeeded i n r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g p a r t o f th e o r e r o g a t i v e s o f t h e Golden H orde, th u s o f f e r i n g a t h r e a t t o Ottoman d o m in a tio n of th e N o r th e r n s h o r e s of th e Black Sea."*"

Mehemmed G ir a y had extended, h i s sway over

Kazan, A stra k h an and much of th e N o rth e rn C a u ca su s, a n d , a t t h e same tim e ,

I n a l c T k , nDon-Volga K an al Te^ebbtisu . . . ,f B e l l e t e n No. 46 ( 1 9 4 ^ ) , pp. 355-364; ^ .

had managed t o e x t r a c t l a r g e t r i b u t e s from Moscow. a t one p o i n t , been a lm o st e q u a l l y s u c c e s s f u l .

§!ahib G irav had,

Both d i e d v i o l e n t d e a t h s :

t h e fo r m e r , a t th e hanchs o f th e B ogays, th e c h i e f o p p o n e n ts o f Crimean T a t a r p r e t e n s i o n s t o o v e r l o r d sh in of the s t e p p e ;

th e l a t t e r , i n th e

s t r u g g l e to r e t a i n c o n t r o l o f th e k h a n ate a f t e r th e S u l t a n had a p p o in te d D c v le t G ir a y to succeed him.

Hehemmed G ir a y had been a t r a d i t i o n a l i s t _ 1 and h ence, a s t r o n g s u c p o r t e r o f t h e l a s a d p r e s c r i p t i o n s ; S a h ib G ir a y _

.

made e v e r y e f f o r t to i n t r o d u c e Ottoman i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o th e Crimea. Both k h a n s , however, had d ared t o opoose t h e Ottoman h i e r a r c h y a t c r i t i ­ c a l sta g e s.

I t i s l i t t l e w onder, th e n , t h a t th e Ottomans i n i t i a l l y

r^fayed l t m i t d d a t t e n t i o n t o 1'Iuscovy e x c e p t a s a p o t e n t i a l a l l y who cou ld 2 be c o l l e d upon to c l i p th e w ings of t h e i r Crimean v a s s a l . The f a l l of Kazan and A s tra k h a n alarm ed th e ^ o r t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y as th e Be 5 Tepe ( P y a t ig o r s k ) C i r c a s s i a n s a c c e p te d B u s c o v ite p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Crimean T a t a r s i n 1552. lowed s u i t i n 155V.

3

The Kalmucks and K a b a rd in ia n s f o l -

The Muslim dam had b ro k e n and nw a f l o o d o f C h r i s t ­

i a n S la v s poured i n t o th e Volga-Kama B a sin . What had become a p p a r e n t i n a few y e a r s on th e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l had been d e v e lo p in g f o r d e c a d e s on a s o c i a l and economic p l a n e .

See a bove, p . ^

n o te 3 .

p ’I n a l c T k , l o c . c i t . % o w o rth , l o c . c i t ;

B e lo k u ro v ,, p . xxxv. A

G e n e r a ll y

9>\.

s p e a k in g , M uscovite m e r c h a n ts , d e a lin g i n m e t a l w a r e s , f i r e a r m s , c l o t h and g r a i n , had more to o f f e r to th e ste p p e d w e l le r s t h a n d id the Crimean T a ta r s.

The lo n g -sta n d in g trade r e l a t i o n s of Muscovy w ith the H anseatic

League and o t h e r W e ste rn European s t a t e s were to be enhanced by d i r e c t t r a c e w ith E ngland a f t e r th e opening of t h e N o rth e rn Route t o S t . N ic h o la s 1 i n 1553 by R ic h a rd C h a n c e llo r and by d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h S a fa v id P e r s i a a c r o s s th e Caspian Sea a f t e r 155&*

An a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y p o s s e s s i n g

s k i l l e d , to w n -d w e llin g c ra ftsm e n and a s o c i e t y based on a p a s t o r a l economy c o u ld -work o u t in. th e s h o r t run a sy m b io tic r e l a t i o n s h i p ) p r o f i t a b l e t o b o th .

But th e Crimean T a t a r s , on t h e i r own, c o u ld n o t compete economi­

c a l l y w i t h Moscow, c i t h e r as g r a i n growers or c ra f ts m e n .

Only Ottoman

t r a d e r s c o u ld have f i l l e d the economic gap, b u t th e Crimean T a t a r s , by c o n ti n u i n g the f i c t i o n o f th e Golden Horde p r e r o g a t i v e s and by p u t t i n g o b s t a c l e s i n th e way o f smooth r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e O ttom an s, a p p e a r t o have a l i e n a t e d th e s te p p e m arket and Ottoman t r a d e r s a s w e l l .

Thus, t r a d e

i n human b e in g s i n s t e a d o f t r a d e a long c r a f t o r a g r i c u l t u r a l l i n e s con­ tinued. to dom inate th e economic scene o f Crimean T a t a r y .

With th e grow­

in g advantage of th e s e t t l e d p o p u la tio n s o v e r t h e nom adic, however, as a r e s u l t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v an c es, th e s e t t l e d p e o p le s began to dom inate the- -cmads more th a n had been p r e v i o u s ly p o s s i b l e .

^Q f. the L 'crlish Voyages I I , pp.

M uscovite c o n t r o l o f

d e s c r i p t io n o f t h i s event by Clement Adams, t r a n s la t e d i n t o from the L a tin o r ig in a l fo r R. Hakluyt, The P r in c ip a l Navi gat io n s T r a ffin u e s e t D is c o v e r ie s of the E n g lish N a tio n . (Glasgow. 1 9 0 3 ). 239 f f .

th e Volga a ls o checked th e flow ox T a ta r mannover i n t o th e W este rn s te p p e a t a tim e when p r e s s u r e from the E a s te r n s t e p p e , n o t a b l y from th e K a z a k s, was te n d i n g t o f o r c e the f o r a y s w estw ard o u t of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p a s to r a g e 1 The C ossacks, i n p a r t i c u l a r , by means o f t h e i r t a h u r s o r armed wa§on t r a i n s , t h e i r |a y k a s o r l i g h t s e a c r a f t armed w i t h s m a ll cannon and t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g l y e f f e c t i v e use o f f i r e a r m s , developed t e c h n iq u e s f o r moving ab o u t th e s te p p e and r i v e r s i n r e l a t i v e s a f e t y .

Such i n n o v a t i o n s

as t h e s e , combined w ith f a c t i o n a l r i f t s among th e t r i b a l l e a d e r s o v e r what m easures th e y m ight ta k e t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r way o f l i f e , helped b r i n g a b o u t -

-

-

a g r e a t s p l i t i n th e l b gay u lu s d u rin g th e khan s h in o f S a h ib G ir a y .

2

As

th e t r i b e s had to a c q u ir e such n e c e s s i t i e s as g r a i n and f i r e a r m s , th e y were f o r c e d to choose

betw een th e Ottomans and t h e M u s c o v ite s , t h e two

p r i n c i p a l powers i n t h i s r e g i o n ^ which c o u ld p ro v id e such ite m s .

I n so

f a r as some t e c h n i c a l s k i l l was r e q u i r e d t o handle new w eapons, th e p r o v i s i o n of t e c h n i c i a n s a l s o played a n a r t .

3

The Ib g a y s a l s o found a more

~*~Q;f . J , Kerne t h , nKeuere U n te r sue hung en liber das Wort T abor 1L a g e r f,f Acta L i n g u i s t i c a , III (B u d a p e st, 1953) > pp. 431-4-46. ^ I n a lc T k , uDon-Volga K a n a li Te 5ebbusu^,. . . , B e l l e t e n . 4-6 ( 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 359— 3^0. The O ttom ans, f o r c y a ^ p le , had p ro v id e d th e Uzbegs (Uzbeks) of C e n t r a l A s ia w ith gunners and hand guns d u rin g th e r e i g n o f Sulayman th e M a g n ifi­ c en t, th e t r a n s l a t i o n by A. Vamberjj, The T r a v e ls and A d v e n tu re s o f th e T u rk ish Admiral S i d i A li R e is i n I n d i a . A f g h a n is t a n , C e n t r a l A s i a . P e r s i a d u rin g th e y e a r s 1553-1556 (London, 1 8 9 9 ). o f th e work by S i d i 6A ll he* i s ( K a t i b - i liuLiij , Mir* a t a l KemVLik, pp. 68-78 and p a s s im . M argerek (p . 27) a ls o d e s c r i b e s how th e T s a r o f Muscovy p ro v id e d arms t o th e C ossacks.

*

3

.

1

a c c e s s i b l e m arket f o r t h e i r h o r s e s in. Moscow th a n i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . F i n a l l y , i t seems t h a t th e O ttom ans, in l e a v i n g Nogay a f f a i r s l a r g e l y in th e hands of th e Crimean T a t a r s , had ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t th e Nogays would c o n tin u e to sn o p o rt t h e i r c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s a g a i n s t th e .—. Dar.. a l B a r bjl . ( i . e . ^ th e non-Muslim enemy c o u n t r i e s ) .

Moscow, on th e c o n t r a r y , s e n t to

th e Nogays s k i l l e d d ip lo m a ts , the M a lts e v s , who c o uld sp e ak th e ^ o g av 2 T a t a r d i a l e c t w ith c a s e . By m id -c e n tu ry th e s o - c a l l e d Ulug or G re a t Nogays, u n d e r th e l e a d e r s h i p of Ism a‘T l l l l r z a , a d e s c e n d a n t of Mdigu, had come u n d e r M uscovite i n f l u e n c e .

The re m a in d e r, known as th e X iq!

o r L i t t l e Ib g a y s , le d by Yusuf M irz a, a n o th e r d e s c e n d a n t o f KGigu, l e f t the Volga s e c t i o n of th e ste p p e and e n te re d th e Crim ear-O ttom an so h e re of i n f l u e n c e by s e t t l i n g 1x2tween th e Dnepr and th e Kuban 'l i v e r s .

3

These

movements and a lig n m e n ts d u rin g th e l a t e r y e a r s o f S a h ib G i r a y 1s r e i g n d id n o t c o n s t i t u t e a b l e s s i n g f o r th e Crimean T a t a r s o r t h e i r s te n p e p o lic y .

On the one hand, th e Ulug Ib g a y s , by s u p p o r t i n g Muscovy, p la y e d

a v i t a l r o l e i n th e su b se q u e n t l o s s of iVazan and A stra k h an to Muscovy. The E i 9 i Ib g a y s , f a r from h e lp in g th e Crimean T a t a r s stem th e t i d e , a c t u a l l y t h r e a te n e d th e e x i s t e n c e o f th e K hanate.

Only a f t e r th e y w ere

b ro u g h t to obedien ce i n 154-6 could Sahib G ira y a g a in ta k e m easures a g a i n s t

^ M a rg a re t, p. 10 f f . ^P. A. S adiko v, nPokhod T a ta r i Turok na A^j^khan* v 1569 § . M, I s t o r i c h e s k i e Z a p i s k i . 22 (1947) pp. 132-166. 7 3 bThe v a c a ti n g o f t h e Don Volga r e g i o n opened i t t o Don Cossack s e t t l e m e n t , y . I n a lc T k , 1,Don-Volga T ep eb b u su .. MT, l o c . c i t . . c i t i n g A.Z.V .Togan, Bugunku T ftrk is ta n ve Yakin M a zisi (C a iro 1 9 2 9 -3 0 ), pp. 110-115.

S4. the Moscow S t a t e .

1

Thece fundamental economic and p o l i t i c a l moves enabled Moscow, in the absence of a c t i v e o p p o sitio n on the part o f the Ottomans, to d iv id e the steppe i n t o two parts and to e s t a b l i s h a f o o t h o ld on the Caspian Sea.

The Tsar could n-w c o n tr o l the movements of the t r i b e s

and the East-West flow o f tra d e.

B. AND

1.

0 TTOMAN-SAffAVID RIVALRY

THE STRUGGLE FOR TRANSCAUCASIA

Shah Tahmasp and the Ottoman Wars to th e Peace o f Amasya (1555) Tahmasp I (1 5 2 4 -1 5 7 6 ), su cc esso r o f Shah Ism a'T l I (d . 1 5 2 4 ),

apart from th e th r e a t o f a tw o -fro n t war, had to contend w ith th e in te r _ 2 n a l r i v a l r i e s o f the Turcoman am irs ( i . e . , th e le a d e r s o f th e K iz ilb a ? )

1

n

it

I n a l c i k , ,fDon-Volga Te§?ebbusu.. . w, B e lle te n . 4 6 . pp. 110 -1 1 5 . ^The devoted T u rk ish -sp eak in g fo llo w e r s o f th e Shahs o f P e r s ia (who w ere, i n S a favid tim e s, n o t on ly heads o f s ta te but a ls o th e heads o f a S h i* it e r e l ig i o u s s e c t ) d is tin g u is h e d them selves from o th er Turkic and Ir a n ia n s u b je c ts o f th e Shah by w earing a headdress o f red c lo t h c o n s is t in g o f tw e lv e f o l d s . Both th e co lo u r and th e number o f th e f o ld s_ _ (rep resen tin g th e 12 Imams) sym bolized th e S ^ i^ ite f a i t h w hich th e K iz ilb a ^ ( l i t . red heads) p r o fe s se d . Only some d e t a i l s are known about th e o r ig in o f th e v a r io u s Turcoman groups rep resen ted in the S a fa v id o rd er. The Rumlu. b e lie v e d to be th e o l d e s t f o llo w e r s , were suppoed to have d e r iv e d from th e descendants o f the p r iso n ers of war Timurlang brought w ith him a f t e r d e fe a tin g Y ild ir im Bayazld i n 1402. _The ffamlu r o se to prominence d u rin g th e Sheikhdom o f Haydar, as d id th e U s ta jlu . The_name §am (= S y r ia ) p o in ts to the p o s s ib le geographic o r ig in o f th e Samlu and th e re i s some ev id en ce th a t the U s t a j lu i s a branch o f th e $amTin At th e same tim e (under §aydar) th e Kajars appear, but t h e ir o r ig in i s unknown. Somewhat l a t e r but b efore 1500 / i 7 e \ , when Ism a il commenced h is r i s e to poweij^. th e Karamanlu and th e Zu *1-Kadr are m entioned. The rem aining K izilb a ^ ( c o n t .)

1 and the attem pts o f h is b roth ers to usurp

h i s th ro n e.

Under th e se

cir cu m sta n c es, Shah Tahmasp was fo r c e d to pursue a d e fe n s iv e p o lic y \ 2 v i s - a - v i s the Ottomans throughout most o f h is r e ig n . S u ltan Sulayman (1523-1566) conducted th r ee campaigns a g a in s t S a fa v id P e r s ia ,

During th e f i r s t , 1534.-1536, in w hich th e Ottomans came

in t o p o s s e s s io n o f Arab Ir a q , the C-rand V e z ir , Ibrahim Pasha, occupied T abriz f o r a tim e but r e fu se d to g iv e i t over to th e tro o p s to be sa ck ed . In t h i s campaign, the Shirvanshah and th e P rin ce o f G ila n s e n t envoys t o 3 o f f e r t h e ir subm ission t o the S u lta n . The b r o th e r o f th e Shah, Alljras M irza, who had been e n tr u ste d w ith the go v ern o rsh ip o f S h irv a n , d e fe c te d

( c o n t .) t r i b e s , of which the_Tekk etu from a r e g io n o f A n a to lia and the Afgar from the region around im p o rta n t, appear during the r e ig n o f I s m a 'il W alter H inz, Irans A u fstie g zum N a tio n a ls ta a t (B e r lin and L e ip z ig , 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 7 8 -8 0 .

th a t name i n Southern Lakr Urmia are th e most I (ljj0 2 -1 5 2 4 ). O f ., im F unfzehnten Jahrhundert

A lkas M irza, broth er of Shah Tahmasp, who was ap p oin ted governor o f S h irv a n , c ro ssed the Kjpchak Steppe and took refu g e a t th e c o u r t o f S u lta n Sulayman. During the Ottoman campaign a g a in s t P e r s ia , 154.8-154*9, th e S u lta n su p p lied t h i s p rin ce w ith funds t o undertake a s o r t i e deep i n t o P ersia n t e r r it o r y . A lthough s u c c e s s f u l in t h i s u n d ertak in g , A lkas M irza was su b seq u en tly captured by another b r o th e r , who turned him over to Shah Tahmasp. Hammer, V I, pp. 1 1 -1 4 , p N otab le e x c e p tio n s to t h i s p o lic y were th e s u c c e s s f u l th r u s t s in t o O tto ­ man t e r r it o r y le d by Isma‘ i l , son o f Shah Tahmasp, p r io r to th e Ottoman in v a s io n o f P e r sia i n th e y e a r 1554- T his same Is m a * il was d e s tin e d to become, fo r a tim e , Shah Ism a/T l 11 (1 5 7 6 -1 5 7 7 ). I b id . . p . 52. For de­ t a i l s o f the l i f e o f Shah I s m a 'i l , se e th e stu d y by W. H in z, HSchah Esma‘1 1 I I . Lin B e itr a g zur G esch ich te d er S a fa v id en ’1, M itte ilu n g e n des Seminars fu r O r ie n ta lis c h e Sprachen. V o l. 3 6 , P art I I ( B e r lin , 1933) pp. 19-100. ^Hammer, V, p . 210 f f , P a r tly as a r e s u l t o f t h i s h a sty a c t io n , Shirvan became a province in s te a d o f a tr ib u ta r y o f the S a fa v id S ta t e .

to th e Ottomans i n 154-7.

I t did n ot take much u rgin g on h is part to

co n vin ce th e P orte th a t the tim e was p r o p itio u s fo r. a new E astern cam­ p a ig n .

In the same y e a r , a f iv e - y e a r tru ce was sig n e d w ith the Holy

Roman S n p ire.^ During th e second campaign, 154-3-15-49, T abriz was again taken w ith o u t a str u g g le and in c u r sio n s were made in to G eorgia and in to P e r sia as f a r as Isfa h a n .

The Ottomans acquired a d d itio n a l t e r r i t o r y in th e

im portant border areas o f Armenia and K urdistan . p a r a tio n s

A renew al o f war pre­

in C en tra l Europe prevented the Ottomans from fo llo w in g up

t h i s sh o rt campaign w ith another th r u st in t o P e r s ia th e fo llo w in g y e a r . As soon as th e Ottomans became f u l l y engaged in Europe, however, a K iz ilb a g detachm ent, under th e le a d e r sh ip o f I s m a e l , son o f Shah Tah­ masp, made a s u c c e s s f u l th r u s t in to A sia Minor in 1552 and even d e fe a te d th e Pasha o f Erzurum.

T his even t was th e c u r ta in r a is e r f o r anoth er

determ ined e f f o r t by S u lta n Sulayman to p u nish th e S a fa v id s in th e cam­ paign o f 1554,-1555.

In 1554.* th e o n ly y e a r in w hich s i g n i f i c a n t a c tio n

to o k p la c e , th e p r o v in c es o f Nakhichevan, Erevan and Karabagh (Karabakh)

1

Hammer, V , l o c . c i t .

2

Hammer, V I, pp. 1 0 -1 5 .

^See above, p. n ote 2 . For d e t a i l s o f t h i s b a t t l e , C f ., H inz, MSchah Esma i l I I n , M itte ilu n g e n 36/ I I , pp. 2 9 -3 2 .

1 s u ffe r e d th e w orst e x a c tio n s o f a marauding s o ld ie r y .

The r e lu c ta n c e

o f the Ottomans to occupy t e r r i t o r y in A zerb aijan and th e u n w illin g n e s s o f the S afavid fo r c e t o engage the Ottoman army le d t o the im portant Peace o f Amasya concluded 29 May, 1555.

2

T h is f i r s t form al peace between

th e Ottomans and S a fa v id s r e s u lte d in the r e c o g n itio n of th e s ta tu s quo* Although th e Ottomans had shown them selves r e lu c t a n t t o undertake permane n t con q u ests o f A zerbaijan proper,

3

th ey w ere c l e a r l y in a p o s it io n , when

th ey assem bled an army f o r a campaign, to dominate the border areas of Armenia, K urdistan and Georgia*

2*

The S afavid s and T ranscaucasia The S a fa v id s, however, in s p it e o f the m ilit a r y prowess o f the

Ottomans during the r e ig n o f Sulayman the M a g n ific e n t, made ev er y e f f o r t

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p i l l a g e , the Shah, in a l e t t e r t o th e S u lta n , im­ p lie d th a t the Ottomans took refu g e behind t h e ir fir e a r m s . To t h i s th e Grand V e zir r e p lie d th a t the Ottomans would g la d ly la y a s id e t h e i r f i r e ­ arms fo r a chaUCtto have combat w ith th e P e r s ia n s . Hammer, VI, pp. 64.- 65. ^Amon{| the s t ip u la t io n s o f the agreement, which took th e form o f an e x ­ change o f l e t t e r s w ith the Shah, the Ottomans e x p r e sse d to le r a n c e , w ith c e r t a in reservation s!,, o f S h i4ism . The f r o n t i e r commanders were urged to avo^d is s u e s which m ight le a d to c o n f l i c t and to p r o te c t p ilg r im s who were proceeding to Mecca and ^ ed in a ._ Hammer, V^, p. 70, A l e t t e r r e l a t in g to t h i s t r e a t y appears i h Pepewi, I , pp. 3 3 7 -3 4 0 . ^Apart from the r ig o u r s o f moving men and equipment o v er the Armenian m ountains, i t became p a r t ic u la r ly d i f f i c u l t , once a la r g e army was in A zerb a ija n , to m aintain communications w ith , and b rin g i n s u p p lie s from , th e Ottoman h in te r la n d . The S a fa v id s, knowing t h i s , d e stro y ed a l l fo o d s t a f f s as they r e tr e a te d and in c it e d t h e ir su p p orters among th e &urds, Armenians and G eorgians, to harass the supply l i p s .

to dominate T ran scau casia.

1

The fo r c e s o f Shah Tahmasp undertook fo u r

campaigns in to the Georgian p r i n c i p a l i t i e s during w hich th ey c a rr ie d o f f thousands o f women and c h ild r e n in to c a p t i v it y . v id s h e s it a t e to dethrone r u le r s .

Nor did the S a fa ­

I f , however, th e S a fa v id s , a f t e r the

c o n c lu sio n of peace w ith the Ottomans, became more in v o lv e d in the, p o l i ­ t i c s o f th e Caucasus, the con verse was a ls o true?

th e G eorgian s, C ir­

c a s s ia n s and Dageste^ians began a ls o to p la y an im portant r o le in the in ­ t r ig u e s a t the S afavid c o u r t.

In th e days o f Isma4T l I and during th e

f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f the r e ig n o f Shah Tahmasp, th e cou rt was d iv id e d in t o two p r in c ip a l factions*

the K iz ilb a g (T urkish) and T ajik ( P e r s ia n ) .

With the in c r e a s in g embroilment o f th e S a favid s in the Caucasus, how ever, a th ir d f a c t io n c o n s is t in g m ostly o f G eorgians and D agestan ian s began making t h e ir in flu e n c e f e l t .

R e la tiv e s and f r ie n d s o f the r u lin g f a m i li e s

o f th e Caucasus, who were in S afavid harems, high governm ental p o s ts o r m ilit a r y u h i t s , c o u ld , in a llia n c e w ith one or more o f th e K iz ilb a g t r i b e s , w ie ld g r ea t in f lu e n c e .

2

The G eorgians had been u n ite d and pow erful a t v a r io u s s ta g e s i n t h e ir h is to r y ;

the l a s t o cca sio n was in the tim e o f A lexander B agrati

T h is tendency was no doubt n e c e s s ita t e d - at l e a s t in p a r t - t y the c lo s e p roxim ity o f th e Ottomans to the Caucasus and t h e ir own i n ­ crea sed p ressu re on t h i s r e g io n . The Ottomans q u ite c le a r l y supported the Dadian o f M in g re lia i n h is wars w ith the Abkhazians and la r g e ly dominated the e n t ir e B lack Sea Co^t. C f. the ,fR e la z io n e .. ,d i Marino C a v a lli11 (1 5 6 0 ), A lb e r i, I I l / l , pp. 2 7 8 -2 8 0 ., He rep o rted th a t th e G eorgians p r e fe r the P er sia n s as do th e ArmSmans, but t h a t th e M ing r e lia n s c a l l upon th e Ottomans fo r a s s is t a n c e a g a in s t th e C ir c a s s ia n s . , H in z, nSchah Esma^il I I . . . 11, H itt e ilu n g e n . 36/ I I , p p .4 6 -4 9 .

I i i

| I

| 1

( L U 3 - I 4.4 3 ) f -r -

Tim urlang.

1

son o f G io r g i, fo llo w in g the break up o f th e empire o f By the end

o f th e reig n o f Shah Tahmasp, G eorgia had

s p lit

up in t o th r ee independent kingdoms and a number o f sm a lle r p r i n c i p a l i t i e s . The B a g ra ti l i n e , descen dan ts o f Alexander, r u led th e kingdoms o f K a r t li (T if l i s ) and K akheti ([zekim ), w h ile a c o l l a t e r a l branch reig n ed in Imer­ e t i ( K u t a is i) , descen din g from, an iL fe itim a te l i n e o f G io r g i IX (1 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 ).

The king o f K a r t l i, Luarssab I , d ie d i n 155*3, le a v in g as h e i r s ,

h is sons Simon and Davud. sword, became k in g .

Simon, the e ld e r , a v e r y cap ab le man o f the

As he had refu sed to become a co n v ert to Islam and

to conform to o th e r p o l i c i e s o f the Shah, a f t e r S a fa v id in f lu e n c e became dominant in h is realm , he was im prisoned by the S a fa v id s i n 15^9, and h is b r o th e r, Davud, a w eak lin g and a convert to t he 5^(1* llf c a i t h , was put in h is p la c e .

In 1578 when i t was learn ed in K azvin th a t King Davud had

l e f t T if l i s to th e Ottomans w ith o u t a s tr u g g le Simon, who Islam and su b seq u en tly had been r e le a se d from a S a fa v id

had accep ted

p r iso n i n 1576,

was g iv en the trap p in gs o f a k in g , s u f f i c i e n t funds andequipm ent, and a l l o f th e Georgian p r is o n e r s , upon c o n d itio n th a t he would take arms

1 A lle n , H is to r y , p . 126. E. D. A llen has prepared a s u c c in c t summary o f the Georgian d y n a s tie s i n t h i s p eriod i n h is ,,iMo t e s on Don Juan o f P e r s ia 1s Account o f G eorgia” , B .S .O .S . (now B .S .O .A .S .) . VI (1 9 3 0 -3 2 ), pp. 1 7 9 -1 8 6 , (h e r e a fte r c it e d as A lle n , nDon Juan o f P e r sia ” , B .S .O .S .. V I) .

90* a g a in s t th e Ottomans.

Prom 1579 u n t i l h is e v e n tu a l capture i n 1600,

he harassed the Ottomans^occupying h i s countiyj u n m e r c ifu lly and alm ost 1 succeeded in r e u n itin g a l l G eorgia. W hile K a r tli throughout the s ix te e n th cen tu ry in v o lv e d i t s e l f in in c e s s a n t q u a rrels w ith i t s neighbours and the two G reat Powers, Kakh­ e t i , r u le d by Levan I I (1520-1574)> enjoyed p r o s p e r ity and r e l a t i v e p ea ce. Alexander I I , son of Levan (hence the Isk en d er Levendoglu o f Ottoman s o u r c e s ) , succeeded to the throne in 1574 and by p la c a tin g b oth Persian: and Ottoman, much i n the t r a d it io n o f h i s f a t h e r , he was a b le to r e ig n u n t i l h is death in 1605.^ The Im eretian king o f the p e r io d , G iorgi IV (1 5 4 8 -1 5 ^ 5 ), c o n t r o lle d most o f W estern G eorgia as th e neighbouring p r in c e s o f G uria and M in g relia were h i s v a s s a ls .

In Ottoman sou rces he was d e sig n a te d as Ba? a ? ik (" b a re-

head” ) , app arently because th e Im eretian s and M in grelian s shaved t h e i r h ead s.

The v a s s a l s t a t e o f G uria was r u led by th e Wardanidze r e s id in g

a t O zu rg e ti, who were known by th e d e sig n a tio n " G u r ieli" .

L a s t ly , the

^ A llen , H is to r y * pp. 155- 1 60. 2 I b id . ■'According to Ulug Beg, X usuf, son o f G ori, jo in e d the Ottomans and b e came a Muslim, C f. G. Le S tran ge, ed . and t r . , Don Juan o f P e r s ia . 139 f f ; A llen ("Don Juan o f P e r sia " , B .S .O .S .. V I, pp. 182-186) s t a t e s th a t a t the time o f the Ottoman in v a s io n , G iorgi I I r u led in G u r ie li and d ie d in 1600. He spent an e x i l e o f fo u r y ea rs (1 5 8 3 -8 7 ) in C on stan tin op le and was succeeded by h is son , Mamia I I , who may have had th e Muslim name "Yusuf".

Tf .

D adiani fa m ily , dwelling a t Z u gdidi, ruled M in g re lia . Samtzkhe o r M eskhia, th e country occupying th e upper Kura r iv e r b a s in , was wedged between Ottoman t e r r it o r y and the o th e r G eorgian kingdoms.

— 2 I t s r u l e r s , th e ! atabegs o f the J a q e li fa m ily , were r i v a l s

o f th e B a g r a tis .

T heir c a p it a l was a t A k h a ltzik h e, th e ”Afcun g a l* e ” o f

the Ottoman so u r c e s .

Here Kai Khusrau I I had d ie d in 1575$ le a v in g h i s

s t r o n g -w ille d Queen, D ed is-Im ed i, and th ree s o n s , Quarquare V ( c a l l e d A lexander in some s o u r c e s ) , Manuchar I I (who r e c e iv e d th e Muslim name M u sta fa ), and Beka I I I .

T h is p r in c ip a lit y , w h ich, in th e W est, bordered

on the Ottoman Empire, was th e f i r s t to c c jitu la te and do homage to the S u lta n a f t e r the commencement o f h o s t il i t ie s between the Ottomans and Per­ s ia n s in 1517 3, Northern A zerb a ija n , Shirvan

3

and Derbent

A

’ m n | r e l i a had lo n g been under Ottoman in f lu e n c e .

were under d ir e c t

See above, p .

n° t e 1 .

2A tabeg. — in the proper se n se o f the term, in d ic a te d a person o f g r e a t E xperience and high p r e s t ig e w ith in a s t a t e i£io was g iv en th e s u p e r v is io n o f a young p r in c e . In c a se s where the l a t t e r su cceed ed to th e th r o n e , the atabeg q u ite o fte n assumed the r o le o f a r e g e n t. An atabeg o f Mesk­ h ia had e a r lie r usurped the throne and h en cefo rth th e l i n e o f s u c c e s s io n remained in h^s fa m ily ; hence the term ,lSa-A tobagoff (G eorgian) Land o f th e A tabegsj i s found in some c h r o n ic le s . A lle n , ”Don Juan o f P e r s ia ” , B .S .O .S ., V I, pp. 1 8 2 -1 8 6 . O f., a l s o , a r t. ”Atabak (A tab eg)” , E .I . I, pp. 731-732 (Cahen). Shirvan was made a province o f P e r sia in 1536. T h e r e a fte r , v a r io u s a t­ tem pts were made t y the descendants o f the Shirvanshahs to r e - e s t a b l i s h th em selves in th e kingdom. In 1547 when A lkas M irza, b ro th er o f Shah Tahmasp and a t th a t tim e governor o f S h irvan , d e fe c te d to th e Ottomans, Ism a * il M irza, th e fo u r te e n -y e a r -o ld son o f Tahmasp was a p p o in t e d to the p o st, accompanied^by h is l a l a or atabeg ^ se e above, p . n o te 3 ) , Gokya S o lta n o f the K ajar t r i b e . Borhan *A li M irza, son o f th e l a t e Shirvanshah H a l i l , made an u n su c c e ssfu l attem pt t o r e g a in h i s f a t h e r fs h e r ita g e but was rep u lsed Ty th e f o r c e s o f Isma* i l . The fo llo w in g y e a r ( c o n t .)

S a fa ^ fl c o n tro l*

The r u le r s o f Dagestan,'*' however, who were d e sig n a te d

by th e t i t l e ffamhal

2

m aintained a p recariou s ind ep en dence, w h ile , a t

the same tim e, through marriage a llia n c e s w ith the S a fa v id r u le r s , e n joyed c o n sid e r a b le in flu e n c e a t the cou rt in Qazvin.

3

( c o n t .) when S h irvan , as a r e s u l t o f the Ottoman campaign, became devoid o f S a fa v id tr o o p s , Borham *A li K irza s u c c e s s f u lly e s t a b lis h e d h im se lf in Shirvan u n t i l he was driven out a f t e r the Ottoman w ith d raw al. C f. H inz, l,Schah Bsmaci l I I . . . ,f, M itte ilu n g en 36/ I I , pp. 2 6 -2 8 . L

— -r

Shah Isma‘ i l I conquered Derbent in 1509; t h e r e a f t e r , th e r u le r o f Derbent was anpointed t y the Shah of P e r s ia . Of. a r t . nDerbendn, I . A . . I l l , p. 537 (B a r th o ld ).

f^amhal 9uban, a Kumuck {Kumuk) who c o n tr o lle d most o f the r e g io n from th e Terek r iv e r to Kaytaq (Kaya da£ or Kayakent (?) /% f. The Times A tla s o f th e W orld. V ol. II (London, 1 9 5 9 ), P la te 4^ / , and from th e Avar country (C f. i b i d . . the branch o f the r iv e r Sulak c a lle d rtAvarskoye ' Koysu11) to the Caspian S ea, d ied in 1578 a t Buynak. -According to the a r t . HD a g ista n n, I . A . . I I I , p . 454 (B a r th o ld ), (Juban d ied in 9 8 6 /1 5 7 8 7 9 . He l e f t fo u r so n s, Andiy, Gerey, E l! dar and iviagom et, by h i s Kaytak (Kaytak) w if e . They d iv id ed up the realm o f t h e i r f a t h e r among th em selves and h e r e a fte r e le c t e d the §amhal in turn from the fo u r h o u se s. A f i f t h son qf Cuban, But ( s i c ) , because he was born to a daughter o f a C irca s­ s ia n was excluded from the o r ig in a l d iv is io n o f the D agestan la n d s and o n ly l a t e r , by f o r c e , won h im se lf an appanage betw een th e Sulak and Terek r i v e r s . F o llo w in g puban, as IJamhal, were A ndiy, Gerey and E l'd a r , r e s p e c t iv e ly . Such a system le d to a number o f in t e r n a l c la s h e s . C f. , M. A. P o lie v k to v , nI z P e r e p isk i Severne-K avkazskikh F eodalov XVII v e k a ,tf XLV Akademiku N, Ya. Marru. e d . , I . I . Meshchaninov (M oscow-Leningrad, 1 9 3 5 ), pp. 7A 5-755. 2 _ §amhal - §ah Ba 1 , e t c . , Cf. a r t. !TD agistan n , l o c . c i t . ^The ^amhal, presumably §>amhal Quban ( s e e n o te In a b o v e .) h e ld th e p o s it io n o f Muhurdar ( r y sealbearerT under Shah Tahmasp and Shah Isma*Tl (Roemer, Per Njedergang I r a n s , pp. 1 4 -1 6 ). H is s i s t e r , a w ife o f Shah Tahmap, had g iv e n b ir t h to _ th e S u ltan a (A >princess) P a ri Efajn Hanum and S u lta n p rin ce) Sulayman (Ib id .a n d H inz, wSchah E s m a * I l...n M itte ilu n g e n 3 6 / I I , p. 4 7 ) . M oreover, the ^arahal's daughter, who was th e m is tr e s s o f Levan o f K a k h eti, had given him a daughter who became th e w ife o f Simon o f K a r tli ( A lle n . H is to r y , p. 140) .