The Real Life of Mary Ann Evans: George Eliot, Her Letters and Fiction 9781501721021

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THE REAL LIFE OF MARY ANN EVANS

ALSO BY ROSEMARIE BODENHEIMER

The Politics of Story in Victorian Social Fiction

The

Real Life of Mary Ann Evans George Eliot, Her Letters and Fiction

Rosemarie Bodenheimer

CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ITHACA AND LONDON

Copyright © 1994 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 1994 by Cornell University Press. Second printing 1995. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bodenheimer, Rosemarie, 1946The real life of Mary Ann Evans : George Eliot, her letters and fiction I Rosemarie Bodenheimer. p. em. ) and index. Includes bibliographical references (p. ISBN: 978-0-8014-8184-0

1. Eliot, George, 1819-188o. 2. Women novelists, EnglishCorrespondence-History and criticism. 3· Autobiographical fiction, English-History and criticism. 4· Women and literatureEngland- History-19th century. 5· Women novelists, English19th century-Biography. 6. Letter writing, EnglishHistory. 7· Self in literature. I. Title. PR4681.B57 1994 823'.8-dc2o [B) 94-10513

Printed in the United States of America

@> The paper in this book meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39·48-1984.

For Andy

Contents

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS lX

FREQUENTLY CITED WORKS Xl

PREFACE Xlll

ONE

On Reading Letters 1

TWO

Constructing the Reader 23 THREE

Mary Ann Evans's Holy War 57 FOUR

The Labor of Choice

ss

Contents

VIII

FIVE

The Outing of George Eliot ug SIX

Ambition and Womanhood 161

SEVEN

George Eliot's Stepsons t8g EIGHT

Old and Young 232 NOTES

26g INDEX

28g

Illustrations

Manuscript, letter of Mary Ann Evans to Maria Lewis, August 18, 1838 JI Manuscript, letter of Mary Ann Evans to Maria Lewis, January 27, 1840 45 Manuscript, George Eliot, "Letters from a Town Mouse to a Country Mouse" 4 7 Manuscript, letter of Mary Ann Evans to Robert Evans, February 28, 1842 JO Portrait of George Eliot in 1864, etched by Paul Rajon after a drawing by Frederic Burton

I24

Manuscript, letter of Charles Lee Lewes to Marian Evans, July 24, 1859 I9I Manuscript, letter of Marian Evans Lewes to Charles Lee Lewes, November 11, 1879

209

Frequently Cited Works

John Walter Cross. George Eliot's Life as Related in Her Letters and Journals. 3 vols. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1885. Cited as "Cross." Gordon Haight. George Eliot: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968. Cited as "Haight." Gordon S. Haight, ed. The George Eliot Letters. 9 vols. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1954-1974. Cited in the text by volume and page in parentheses; in the notes as "GEL." Thomas Pinney, ed. Essays of George Eliot. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963. Cited as "Pinney, Essays." Ruby V. Redinger. George Eliot: The Emergent Self: New York: Knopf, 1975. Cited as "Redinger." Because there are so many editions of George Eliot's novels, I have simply designated quoted passages by chapter number in the text. The footnotes indicate particular editions of less widely published works: short stories, essays, and poems.

Preface

Remember that what you are told is really threefold: shaped by the teller, reshaped by the listener, concealed from both by the dead man of the tale .... And where is the third party? Rotting peacefully in the cemetery of St. Damier. Laughingly alive in five volumes. -Vladimir Nabokov, The Real Life of Sebastian Knight

"T

he best history of a writer is contained in his writings-these are his chief actions," George Eliot wrote to a friend in 187g. "But Biographies generally are a disease of English literature" (7:230). Her acerbity covered a complex set of feelings. George Henry Lewes, her life's companion, had been dead for only a year, and her correspondent was inquiring whether there was to be a biography. Lewes's efforts had supported her own persistent resistance to requests for biographical information about herself; now, at the end of her own career, she was alone and increasingly exposed to a marketplace in which readers were, she thought, more interested in personal gossip about a writer than in reading her books. In one of her more lighthearted moods, I like to imagine, George Eliot would have taken pleasure in Nabokov's The Real Life of Sebastian Knight, a novel about a biographer in quest of the elusive truth about his half-brother, the writer Sebastian Knight. The narrator-biographer of this tale burns intimate letters unread, fails to interview the closest witnesses of his subject's life, and discovers in the shimmering velleities of Knight's prose his most suggestive autobiographical glimpses. Echoing Na-

XIV

Preface

bokov's, my title plays with the dubious promises of the biographical situation: the yearning to know which sends readers and writers on biographical quests, and the impossibility of knowing anything that is not somebody's fiction of the self in the guise of a story about another. My own quest for something about George Eliot began when I read the extraordinary letters of the young Mary Ann Evans and found myself compelled to go on reading, through all the volumes in Gordon Haight's edition of the George Eliot letters. From the beginning Mary Ann Evans was highly conscious of her letters as pieces of writing. Her real life, as she imagined it then, took place in the moments when she could get free of household duties to read, write, and "take a deep breath in my own element," as she put it in a letter to Maria Lewis on her twentieth birthday (1 :33). Some months later she announced to Lewis that she had made time "to prepare such a representative of myself for tonight's post as my rather dissipated brain will allow" ( 1: 54). Her playful, literary notion of the letter as a representative of the self, rather than an expression or a confession, perfectly characterizes her lifelong practice of letter writing. The care with which she constructed her self-representations has led many readers of the correspondence to reject it as disappointingly dull and inexpressive, compared with the inventive genius displayed in the novels. My project in this book is to undo this dichotomy, and to suggest that a "best history" of George Eliot may be told by reading her letters in conjunction with her novels, stories, and poems. I have found that this history is most usefully organized not as a chronological narrative but in a series of connected yet discontinuous chapters. Each chapter focuses on one of the intractable issues in George Eliot's mental and moral life, and each moves in some way between readings of a certain group of letters and readings of related published works. I have not attempted to give a full or comprehensive account either of George Eliot's letters or of her fictions. Certain periods of her life, certain correspondences, certain novels hardly come into play at all. The topics that became full-blown chapters did so because particular clusters of letters were especially compelling to me and because they suggested a fruitful dialogue with imaginative fictions. In addition, the chapters all bear in some fashion on two related patterns of consciousness which consistently emerge from my reading of George Eliot's texts. The first is a moral and emotional pattern in which acts of assertion, satire, or rebellion are followed by remorse or retreat. The second is George Eliot's peculiarly intense

Preface

XV

consciousness of audience, which caught her between scorn and defiance of public opinion and a strong dependence on it. Coming to the chapters as a group, the reader will see how often their stories and arguments intertwine along these central axes. Although the chapters do form a roughly chronological sequence, I have been particularly interested in isolating certain critical junctures and unresolved issues in George Eliot's experience. Some chapters treat a short, well-defined period of biographical time, while extending their attention to works written at later periods. Chapter 2, "Constructing the Reader," concentrates on the adolescent letters written during the Evans family's residence at Griff; Chapter 3, "Mary Ann Evans's Holy War," investigates the period during which Mary Ann Evans lived with her father at Foleshill, Coventry; and Chapter 5, "The Outing of George Eliot," is concerned with the first three years of George Eliot's life as a pseudonymous novelist. Other chapters juxtapose disparate periods of life with one another: Chapter 4, "The Labor of Choice," focuses on Marian Evans's decision to live with George Henry Lewes, and on the marriage to John Walter Cross which occurred twenty-five years later, whereas Chapter 6, "Ambition and Womanhood," spans the whole career from adolescent writing to Daniel Deronda. The last two chapters, "George Eliot's Stepsons" and "Old and Young," widen the focus in order to look more broadly at the relationships with younger people which became important in the last two decades of George Eliot's life. The introductory chapter, "On Reading Letters," offers a context for this work on George Eliot's correspondence by making some general reflections on the history and methodology of letter reading. Considering the letters along with novels and stories, I wish to suggest some ways in which George Eliot's works may be read autobiographically, as meditations on and transformations of the most intimate paradoxes of her very paradoxical experience. Because her mind reorganized autobiographical material in conceptual ways, it is rarely appropriate to identify her family or acquaintance directly with characters in her fiction, nor is it in my view desirable to read biography out of fictional representation, as some seekers after the lost truths of Mary Ann Evans's early life have done. What she does not represent in writing is not part of my concern, so I do not discuss her mother, Christiana Evans, the relative positions of her father, Robert Evans, and brother, Isaac Evans, in her interior life, or the successful intimate relationship with George Henry Lewes. Nevertheless this

XVI

Preface

work has clarified for me the intense autobiographical charge of George Eliot's fictions and her great and flexible capacity for selfunderstanding, for transforming painful preoccupations into distanced fictional structures. During the course of our century, various psychoanalytic languages have been developed which might be used to name some of the internal struggles that I delineate in these pages. Readers who are familiar with one or more of those languages may be tempted to apply them, or to wish that I had. My reluctance to learn and employ such a frame is based on the feeling that a retrospective application of any powerful terminology has the effect of disempowering the language of our predecessors. My desire in this book has been to effect just the reverse, to highlight the power of writing through which Mary Ann Evans managed both to express and to contain her strenuous affective life. Taken together, my chapters should create a general impression that the novelist George Eliot elaborated in fictional form both the probing self-analyses and the transcending self-idealizations that she tended to repress, or compress, in her correspondence. Yet to dwell for a moment on a given set of sentences in a certain letter is often to be overwhelmed by the reservoir of problematical feeling conveyed in the very phrases that attempt to master and present it for the consumption of others. To imagine writing as the counterforce in a psychic life poised near the border of melancholy or depression may help to shift our perspective on the gender dualisms that have figured prominently in both Victorian and contemporary accounts of George Eliot's career. It is often said that George Eliot found her authority by writing like, or as, a man. I would prefer to say simply that George Eliot was a woman who found her authority in writing. Mary Ann Evans, a learned schoolgirl who cherished little hope of growing up to become anyone at all, was at sixteen already writing the complex, "masterful" sente'hces that her life of difficult feeling, ravenous reading, and evangelical piety stimulated in her. For an image of the George Eliot narrator ascendant, repressing in magisterial syntax the threats of weakness, silliness, or subordination represented by womanhood, I would substitute the picture of a woman battling not womanhood itself but internal threats of collapse into despair and loss of meaning, a woman using all the resources of her (immense) intellectual and imaginative capacity to redeem her life by reworking its elements within an aesthetic and moral order.

Preface

XVll

Nevertheless, the play between "Mary Ann/Marian Evans/Lewes" and "George Eliot" must concern everyone who writes about this woman and artist of many names, not least when it comes to making decisions about what to call her. I use George Eliot when the working novelist is in question, and I follow the lead of her signatures in naming her for any given period of her personal life. Mary Ann Evans becomes Marian Evans after her move to London in 18 51, then Marian Lewes. (At the last she signed herself Mary Ann Cross, a move I allow myself to avoid.) For the sake of ease in writing, I also designate her sometimes by first name; to use either of her last names alone confuses her with others. I must confess, however, that I cannot call George Henry Lewes "George" -he rarely appears by that name in Marian Evans Lewes's letters, nor does he sign himself with his given name-so that I occasionally reproduce a situation in which the woman is called by her first name, the man by his last. I trust that my readers will forgive this practice.

I am indebted to the late Gordon S. Haight, whose long dedication to the collection and editing of the George Eliot letters made this book possible. The nine gray-bound volumes of the correspondence have been my companions for several years, during which I have appreciated on many occasions the careful attention to detail that is demonstrated on every page. Professor Haight was also responsible for leaving us the George Eliot and George Henry Lewes collection of letters and manuscripts in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University. The Beinecke staff made the correspondence readily available and gave me permission to quote from unpublished letters of the Lewes family. Portions of Chapters 3, 5, and 6 were previously published as articles in Nineteenth-Century Literature (© 1989, by the Regents of the University of California), Dickens Studies Annual (AMS Press, 1991), and Victorian Studies (1990); permission to reprint is gratefully acknowledged. At various stages of this work I received crucial encouragement from scholars who had worked in the rich labyrinth of George Eliot studies well before I entered it. Neil Hertz, U. C. Knoepflmacher, George Levine, and Michael Wolff cheered me on when my direction was not yet clear and supported pieces of the work as it developed. Boston College gave me a well-timed faculty fellowship which enabled me to complete the book. The enthusiasm and curiosity of many friends who read initial pieces and wanted to hear more about George

XVlll

Preface

Eliot made the writing a real delight. I thank in particular Harriet Ritvo, who gave me astute editorial advice about every chapter, and Jonathan Strong, who offered the welcome perspective of a novelist. Andrew Von Hendy has, as always, been the best friend of this project. In thanks for everything he has contributed to its making, I dedicate the book to him. ROSEMARIE BODENHEIMER

Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

THE REAL LIFE OF

MARY ANN EVANS

ONE

On Reading Letters

It is better to live quietly on under some degree of

misrepresentation than to attempt to remove it by the uncertain process of letter-writing. -Marian Evans to Clementia Taylor, June 8, 1856

"A

certain grayness of tone, something measured and subdued, as of a person talking without ever raising her voice." That was how Henry James characterized George Eliot's letters, as he reviewed the volumes in which they first appeared under the title George Eliot's Life, as related in her Letters and journals, "arranged and edited by her husband, J. W. Cross."' James's polite description did not prevent his sister, Alice, from responding to Cross's volumes with an intensity that was anything but polite. Alice James recorded her reactions in a diary entry dated June 28, 188g, with a relish that defied any specter of reticence: Read the third volume of George Eliot's Letters and Journals at last. I'm glad I made myself do so for there is a faint spark oflife and an occasional, remotely humorous touch in the last half. But what a monument of ponderous dreariness is the book! What a lifeless, diseased, self-conscious being she must have been! Not one burst of joy, not one ray of humour, not one living breath in one of her letters or journals, the commonplace and platitude of these last, giving her impressions of the Continent, pictures and people, is simply incredible! Whether it is that her dank, moaning features haunt and pursue one thro' the book, or not, but she makes upon me the impression, morally and physically, of mildew, or some mor-

2

The Real Life of Mary Ann Evans

bid growth-a fungus of a pendulous shape, or as of something damp to the touch. I never had a stronger impression. Then to think of those books compact of wisdom, humour, and the richest humanity, and of her as the creator of the immortal Maggie, in short, what a horrible disillusion! ... What an abject coward she seems to have been about physical pain, as if it weren't degrading eno[ugh] to have head-aches, without jotting them down in a row to stare at one for all time, ther·eby defeating the beneficent law which provides that physical pain is forgotten. If she related her diseases and her "depressions" and told for the good of others what armour she had forged against them, it would be conceivable, but they seem simply cherished as the vehicle for a moan. Where was the creature's vanity! And when you think of what she had in life to lift her out of futile whining!2 What did Alice James want? It is not enough to offer her sentences as lively examples of the late nineteenth-century reaction against the high moral tone of George Eliot, or even as examples skewed by the peculiarities of James's positions: as a woman whose sole visible occupation was the endurance of illness, as a writing woman who had no novels, no George Henry Lewes to "lift her out of futile whining." 3 James's envy and fear take the form of a recorded triumph over George Eliot the letter writer, but her disappointment also signals a more general structure of expectation about what great writers' letters are good for. That expectation is simultaneously moral and aesthetic. Published letters should offer a model of character which could turn envy into admiration and emulation; at least they should present an attractive character, not one that will create repugnance by reminding the ailing and depressive reader too much of herself in her worst moments. They should be entertaining, uplifting for the reader, and expressive in the writer of spontaneous feeling. A marked difference between the performed personae of the novels and the writer of the letters gives rise to a terrible feeling of "disillusion," as though the discovery that a toad had created a beautiful object had raised questions about the authenticity of the object. It is worth examining the assumptions that shape such reactions, because they bear directly on the questions of method I want to raise in this chapter. What do we look for in letters? What do we do with them? Alice James's diary entry offers one starting point for some notes toward a history and methodology of letter reading. Like hun-

On Reading Letters

3

dreds of other nineteenth- and twentieth-century letter readers, she turns to the writer's letters exactly because they are not her books, in order to find out something else about her "as a person." Yet she is appalled by the distance between the two forms of writing. She makes the assumption that "character" is to be found in letters, that they offer an index to a living being. Her inability to imagine the audiences for whom individual letters were written is partially created by Cross's patchwork manufacture of a continuous narrative from carefully selected excerpts, but her sense that a private correspondence ought really to speak to a public audience betrays itself in her wish that George Eliot had written of her headaches in a more exemplary fashion. The peculiar self-fashioning and self-covering which is the special opportunity of letters written to particular absent others at particular moments in time eludes her even though she, like most of us, has had more writing experience in the epistolary form than in any other. The published letter, whether fictional or real, carries with it the cachet of violated boundaries and revealed secrets simply by virtue of circulating in print what was once (or is alleged to have been) written for an audience of one. In his judicious and generous review of Cross's Life, Henry James attributes the widely felt disappointment in the biography to just such expectations of "revelations" raised by the form itself. He knows perfectly well that George Eliot's letters are not a true index of her mind: George Eliot's letters and journals are only a partial expression of her spirit, but they are evidently as full an expression as it was capable of giving itself when she was not wound up to the epic pitch. They do not explain her novels; they reflect in a singularly limited degree the process of growth of these great works; but it must be added that even a superficial acquaintance with the author was sufficient to assure one that her rich and complicated mind did not overflow in idle confidences. 4 Henry James was admirably equipped to sympathize with the reticences of a "rich and complicated mind." Nonetheless, in the course of his review he makes several judgments about the letters and the life which are simply more eloquent versions of his sister's commentaries. He understands letter writing as an art-of wit, of spirit, of entertainment-in which George Eliot failed to excel: "George Eliot was not a great letter-writer, either in quantity or quality; she had

4

The Real Life of Mary Ann Evans

neither the spirit, the leisure, nor the lightness of mind to conjure with the epistolary pen." He gestures toward the possibility that letters might "explain" or bring some essential truth to bear upon the writer's published work, even though George Eliot's do not. The "remarkable, extraordinary" thing turns out in the closing sentences of the essay to be the gap between George Eliot as a personality and the novels themselves, though Henry James expresses the gap not, like Alice, as a disillusion but rather as a mystery of creation: it is "that this quiet, anxious, sedentary, serious, invalidical English lady, without animal spirits, without adventures or sensations, should have made us believe that nothing in the world was alien to her; should have produced such rich, deep, masterly pictures of the multiform life of man." 5 Here and elsewhere Henry James displays a tendency to read the content of the letters as a true expression of chatacter-that is, to believe what George Eliot the letter writer says of.herself. This tendency is especially marked in the single passage that attends directly to the letters themselves, one in which James talks about the early letters written "on the threshold of womanhood, which form a very full expression of her feelings at the time." The feelings themselves, he asserts, "are rather wanting in interest-one may almost say in amiability." And he goes on to quote several of the most rigidly evangelical pronouncements of Mary Ann Evans, as single sentences lifted out of their contexts, in order to demonstrate "the provincial strain" of her young mind.6 So Henry James, who knows aU about letters as "partial expressions," falls himself into the familiar habit of understanding their assertions as represented truths of character. Nineteenth-century readers of the George Eliot le~ters were understandably hampered by the deletions and scramblings of John Cross. By cutting the most exemplary fragments from the letters and journals and lacing them together with occasional connective comments, Cross produced an "autobiography" that was clearly intended both to monumentalize the public figure that George Eliot h-oJG' ....~

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