The Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer 9781607241485, 160724148X

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T h e Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer

Monastic Studies Series

7

This series contains titles from monastic and ascetical writers throughout the history of monasticism.

The Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer

By Evagrius Ponticus Translation and Introduction by John Bamberger OCSO

1 gorgias press 2009

Gorgias Press LLC, 180 Centennial Ave., Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2009 by Gorgias Press LLC Originally published in 1981 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.

ISBN 978-1-60724-148-5

This volume is the book published under the same title by Cistercian Publications, 1981.

Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS

Preface by Jean Leclercq OSB

vii

Introduction

xxiii

Recovery of the Evagrian Writings Life The History of Evagrian Theology The Writings Evagrius the Writer Doctrine Praktikos

xxiii xxxv xlviii lix lxvii lxxi i

Introduction Text

3 12

Chapters on Prayer

43

Introduction Text

45 52

Selected Bibliography

81

Indexes

83

Old and New Testaments Names of Persons General Index

83 84 88 v

ABBREVIATIONS

ACW

Ancient Christian Writers (Westminster, Md., 1946-

DS

Dictionnaire de Spiritualité (Paris, 1932-

DTC

Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique (Paris, 1903-1950)

ES

J . Muyldermans, Evagriana Syriaca (Louvain, 1952)

LH

Palladius, The Lausiac History. A C W 34 (Washington, 1964)

LTK

Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche. 2 ed. (Freiburg, 1957-1966)

PG

Patrologia Graeca. Ed. J . P. Migne (Paris, 1844-1855)

PL

Patrologia Latina. Ed. J . P. Migne (Paris, 1857-1866)

OCP

Orientalia Christiana Periodica (Rome, 1935-

PO

Patrologia Orientalis. Ed. R. Griffin, F. Nau (Paris, 1897-

RAM

Revue d'Ascetique et de Mystique (Toulouse, 1920-

)

RSR

Recherches des Sciences Religieuses (Louvain, 1 9 1 2 -

)

SC

Sources Chrétiennes (Paris, 1942-

TP

A. and C. Guillaumont, Traité Pratique ou le Moine, S C 170, 1 7 1 (Paris, 1971)

ZAM

Zeitschrift für Askeze und Mystik (Munich, 1926vi

)

)

) )

)

)

PREFACE

\T FIRST SIGHT one is surprised to see the writings of a ZJL Greek author of the fourth century in a series of publicaX JLtions which go under the title of "Cistercian," that is, concerned with the monastic order founded in the Middle Ages, in the West and, although today spread out across the world from the British Isles to Japan, still not having any monasteries in the Greek Near East. However, as we shall see, these texts have a real significance for Cistercian studies. Unfortunately, up to now only patrologists or others versed in Syriac, Greek, Armenian, or Latin could have access to them. Now they are readily available in English thanks to the learning and labors of a Cistercian monk who is an orientalist, one familiar with the original languages, who has done graduate study in the field and who has published articles in reviews devoted to oriental studies. In addition, he is also a psychiatrist with considerable practical experience in monastic spirituality. Thus, he keeps in close contact with real life and ably brings to the fore Evagrius' great psychological insight. As with all the great spiritual masters of antiquity, Evagrius offers not only interest but also something of practical value. This is true in regards to his own life but also in his being a witness to an ever-living tradition and a practical and stimulating guide for working out a way of life even today. The writings left by Evagrius have contributed to the building of the spiritual tradition from which we all draw. During his lifetime he was criticized. After his death his writings were attacked—to a vii

viii

Preface

greater or lesser extent, according to the times and the regions— and even sometimes condemned. Sometimes he was also praised. But more frequently he was ignored, either because certain of his writings were attributed to others or else because the texts were lost only to be found recently by manuscript hunters. However, in the living currents of spirituality his influence was constantly at work, like some underground river giving freshness and vitality to the soil and causing springs to erupt, further and further along, whereever it flowed unseen, unknown. In the West those of his texts which were of a more practical nature—particularly his sentences which were so easy to memorize—circulated in several Latin versions.1 Throughout the Middle Ages they spread through Europe from monastery to monastery in Italy, France, Austria, Spain. An eighth-century monk of Liguge inserted certain extracts from his writings into a sort of digest which he entitled Liber Scintillarum, A Book of Sparks, which was very widely diffused. A Cistercian of Clairvaux in the twelfth century did much the same. However, to understand the role of Evagrius in the evolution of Christian spirituality and to situate him properly in relation to the twelfth century and in particular to the Cistercians, it is necessary to enter more deeply into the matter. A mere historical knowledge of the man and the diffusion of his works is not sufficient. It is necessary to seek to grasp, as a whole, the religious experiences which fashioned the milieu of which Evagrius was a part, and which gave direction to the tradition which would inspire the lives of the monks of the Middle Ages and find a reflection in their writings. W e actually know relatively little of the events of the life of Evagrius and only some of his writings have come down to us, in i. B . Lambert, "Sententiae ad coenobitas translatae a S. Hieronymo (recte Rufitio)," Bibliotheca Hieronymiana Manuscripta (Steenbrugge, 1970), pp. 4 5 5 - 7 , gives the list of the manuscripts of the sentences of Evagrius according to the three Latin translations: 26 mss. of which 24 are of the seventh to twelfth centuries, 2 of the fifteenth century. This indicates a rather large circulation and influence of these sentences during the early Middle Ages and the Golden A g e ofCiteaux. Twenty of them certainly come from monasteries; the six others are of unknown provernance.

Preface

IX

some cases only in translation. But more important than this transmission o f texts, it is his ideas and above all the general spiritual attitude, the "religious mentality," o f which he was a witness, that have been assimilated.

Evagrius and Hellenic

Christianity

Evagrius himself was but a link in tradition, the tradition which introduced into Christianity elements o f Greek thought—Hellenic or Hellenistic—-without however "Hellenizing" faith in Christ and life in Christ. That is to say, without reducing the Church to nothing more than a school o f philosophy, without causing it to lose its specific character, the unique character which it had received f r o m G o d through his revelation. W e have here the phenomenon o f humanism which from the very origins o f Christianity has shown that, without ceasing to be herself and betraying her divine origins, the Church can integrate all that is human because she exists among men for men, men in w h o m G o d was already at w o r k before they ever knew o f the Gospel. T h e Second Vatican Council reasserted this principle which the Fathers o f the Church had formulated and put into practice. 2 Christianity did absorb much from the Hellenic culture. In this sense there was a "Christian Hellenism." O n e could say that there was a certain "Hellenization" o f Christianity, however within the limits which w e will indicate. This delicate problem o f "Hellenization" and, by consequence, o f eventual "de-Hellenization" o f the different manifestations o f Christian life, has been the object o f many studies for quite some time n o w , but most especially has there been a renewal o f interest in it during the past fifteen years. A t first there was a tendency to denounce "Hellenization" as a corruption o f Christianity. Then, and especially in more recent years, scholars have zealously devoted themselves to all the different aspects— 2. The Decree, Adgentes, on the missionary activity of the Church, n. 18; Declaration, Nostra aetate, on the non-Christian religions, n. 2.

X

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historical, philological, biblical, patristic—of this extremely complex problem, and now their conclusions are for the most part positive. It will suffice here to cite but one witness: " T h e Hellenistic tradition provided the necessary conditions of possibility for a clearer affirmation of the divinity ofJesus Christ and the universality of the eschatological self-revelation of God in the face of Jesus." 3 Certainly the process of Hellenization had its risks. This is true of any great development within the Church or in human society. There was a danger of the contamination of the faith or of Christian practice by profane or even pagan ideas. There were abuses and deviations, but the Holy Spirit animates the Church, and under his breath those men of God who were the Fathers of the Church, above all the great bishops and doctors of the third and fourth centuries, played a double role. They conserved the Christian message in its purity and they enriched it with cultural elements coming from Hellenism. It is true that some among them on certain particular points were too influenced by the Greek milieu in which they lived. But as a whole they did not fail in their mission. The most recent study on this question ends with this conclusion: " I f in many cases we must recognize the effects of language on ideas—an effect often profound and sometimes sweeping—it nevertheless remains that the thought and experience themselves are original and in the final count authentically Christian. One can adopt here, making the necessary transposition, the words of M . Harl concerning Philo: 'Apparently very Greek, profoundly very Christian.' " 4

Evagrius and Early Oriental Monasticism An American monk has spoken of the "de-Hellenization of monasticism," 5 and there is certainly something to be done in that 3. David W . Tracy in Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 3 1 (1969), 287. 4. P. T . Camelot, "Hellénisme," D S 4 4 - 4 5 (1968), 164. 5. M . Ohlislager, "Dehellenization of Monastic Life," American Benedictine Review, 18 (1967), 5 1 7 - 5 3 0 . Father Bamberger has formulated in relation to

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direction to the extent that some elements of the monastic spirituality of today are still too marked by ideas which do not come directly from the Gospel. Yet it is necessary to look to the Fathers in order not to lose anything of the human values which monasticism has Christianized. Evagrius offers in this regard a valuable contribution. He is inseparable from his source and his milieu. And from this point of view his texts give an introduction to the world which gave birth to Origen, Gregory of Nyssa and all the great writers w h o gave a doctrinal expression to the spiritual experience of thousands o f anonymous ascetics. The originators of the monastic way of life—Anthony and the hermits, Pachomius and his disciples w h o lived in common—were not especially marked by Hellenism. But very soon there appeared the theologians w h o were the interpreters and guides of those w h o were simple practitioners. These could elaborate the "theory" because they themselves also had the "practice." Historians have sufficiently demonstrated that Evagrius depends on Origen and Gregory of Nyssa so that there is no need to insist upon it here. Let us simply underline the fact that in spite of these influences he retained his own proper character. Less biblical than his two masters, he was more philosophical. In this regard he brought about in relation to them a certain evolution, which, while not without its dangers, was a step forward. More than they, he concentrated on the questions of asceticism and prayer. It is above all in relation to prayer that he introduced ideas which have served as a ferment throughout the whole course of tradition and continue to be active in our own times. For the mystery and the practice of prayer—above all contemplative prayer—raises questions which to some seem new, but which are in fact the same which have confronted every period of Christian life when man has stood before God in that eminent attitude o f soul where faith touches as it were its object, unable to grasp it yet ever reaching for it. One of

the problem treated in this article certain useful and well founded reservations in his c o m m e n t o n it in Collectanea

Cislerciensia,

31 (1969), "Bulletin

Monastic Spirituality," n. 313, 338, pp. 261 and 270.

of

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the most outstanding orientalists of our times w h o is at the same time a great man of the spirit, Father Irenée Hausherr, summed it up when he spoke of a work o f Evagrius as the "lessons of a contemplative." 6 As Father Bamberger has well shown, Evagrius knew by experience the inner struggles of man; he knew of all the tensions, the dissensions, the revolts, the manifestations of anarchy, the aggressiveness, the self-hatred, the hatred of God and man that every man conceals within himself. In one of his works, the Antirrheticos, he describes sensible and imaginative obsessions which make the temptations of St Anthony seem as the dreams o f a mere infant.7 It is necessary to interpret these hallucinations with an objective realism, in the way that one of the best scholars of early monasticism has done in regards to St Anthony. 8 Beneath all the literary form—and without doubt the humor—that is employed in the expression of the psychic phenomenon w e must discern quite simply the daily efforts of a converted sinner who, though given entirely over to God, yet continues to experience the resistance of his superficial " e g o " until at length from the depths there emerges his true self. That which is called today "depth psychology" does not in actual fact reach the deepest part of man where the image o f God resides in him. It is this obscure presence of God in his depths that man must discover and bring to light. Then in him in a certain sense God encounters God by the spirit of the risen Christ, and then there is peace: that calm, that security, that repose, that Sabbath, that leisure, that reality so rich that it can not be circumscribed by any words. This is what the term hesychia said for Evagrius and his contemporaries, when it is properly understood in the context of all the other terms which are complementary to it and give greater precision to its meaning. 6. I. Hausherr, Les leçons d'un contemplatif: Le Traité de l'oraison d'Evagre le Pontique (Paris, i960). 7. Ed. "W. Frankenberg, "Evagrius Ponticus," Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse, N . F . XIII, 2 (Berlin, 1912) : a text o f the Syriac version with a facing Greek text. 8. H. Dörries, in Wort und Stunde, II (Göttingen, 1968), 268.

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The author of the most recent complete study which has appeared on hesychasm could write that Evagrius was only "the echo of the teaching which had passed from master to disciple among the Egyptian solitaries. The hesychia which he recommended was solitude in silence apart from the world. But more important was solitude of the spirit . . . ('the spirit-monk') ; the intellect itself—one could say just as well the heart—-became monk, interior eremitism or anchoritism. O n this point also Evagrius, whatever other personal and learned theories he held in regard to contemplation, was a witness to the great hesychastic tradition." 9 And this same historian brought out that a part of the vocabulary and ideas of this tradition has been conserved in the Western monasticism of the Middle Ages. This is especially true of the Cistercian school. But in this school above all, "this hesychasm seems to have been historically much less associated than in the Orient with the properly anchoritic life. Between the hesychastic ideal and the cenobitic life there was in the West much more of a synthesis than a marked opposition. The quies monastica in the quest of contemplation was a reality for all the monks, something they ought to tend towards by their vocation even if they were not all hermits." 10

Evagrius and Western

Monasticism

During the course of the Latin Middle Ages, Evagrius was used. He was adapted to the new historical situation and to a mentality different from that of his original milieu. The field o f application of his ideas was extended to the mental structures and institutions of the medieval West. In this sense it is possible to speak of even a "Benedictine and Cistercian Evagrius." It is necessary to consider the great steps of the process by which this took place from the 9. P. Adnès, "Hésychasme," D S , 44-5 (1968), 388. 10. P. Adnès, ibid., col. 398-9, makes a résumé o f what I have said concerning "Latin hesychasm" in Otia monastica: Etudes sur le vocabulaire de la contemplation au moyen âge, Studia Anselmiana, 51 (Rome, 1963).

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time of Evagrius himself until the twelfth century, the Cistercian Century. Cassian. The first step of this evolution was marked by the influence of Cassian, the writer whose Conferences were recommended by the Rule of St Benedict. In these conferences he offered an initial synthesis of the monastic experience of the Orient with the spirit of the West. This ascetic and contemplative synthesis can not be separated from a particular aspect of the teaching of John Cassian which has not always been given the attention it merits. It is what a recent historian has called the "Christological aspect." 11 Certainly this aspect was not lacking in the writings of Evagrius. But it is found there more by way of allusion than by elaboration. Evagrius could not profit by the many precisions which were required in the course of the studies and the disputes which marked the growth of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine of the Church. It was possible for one to say that "the mysticism of Evagrius was closer to that of Buddhism than that of Christianity." 12 It was the role of Cassian on this point, as well as on others, to "purify" the teaching of Evagrius,13 but the Christology of Cassian itself needs to be situated in a larger context and clarified by other sources. Nevertheless it is true that in order to understand Cassian, it is necessary to know Evagrius. And because Cassian is a source of St Benedict—his Rule depends on him and explicitly refers to him—one must say that Evagrius forms a part of the Benedictine and Cistercian tradition. From this point of view a translation of Evagrius has its importance. It ought to aid the Cistercians of today and others also to attain to a greater understanding of early monasticism which today's monasticism ought not simply to copy but ought to look to as a source of continual inspiration. 11. V. Codina sj, El aspecto cristologico en la espiritualidad de Juan Casiano (Rome, 1966). 12. V. Codina, ibid., p. 75, citing H. U . von Balthasar, "Metaphysik und Mystik des Evagrius Ponticus," Zeitschrift fürAszese undMystik, 14 (1939), 3913. V. Codina, ibid., 104, citing A. Guillaumont, Les "Kephalaia Gnostica" d'Evagre le Pontique (Paris, 1962), 334.

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The Early Middle Ages. In actual fact the spiritual teaching of early Eastern monasticism has penetrated the whole of the Western Middle Ages to a degree greater than one often suspects. Here is an area for careful study which remains to be explored, and perhaps this new translation can inspire such an undertaking. Attention was especially drawn to this point in the course of the eighth centenary of St Bernard in 1953. A few years later I attempted to present the results of the studies made up to that point. 14 Quite recently a scholarly study of John Scotus Eriugena and his influence has provided new information. Lacking an overall study, which will have to be prepared by a qualified group of scholars, w e can consider this particular case which exemplifies the transpositions and the continual reinterpretations which made up the teaching of the great spiritual authors of the West. John Scotus, called Eriugena, that is to say " o f Irish origin," came from that country to the Continent in the ninth century. He entered into the development of ideas which animated the Carolingian Empire and many of the monasteries of that time. He translated into Latin, sometimes with commentary, the works of three Greeks w h o came to have very great influence on the monastic thought of the twelfth century. There was first of all the PseudoDenis. His translation was " f o r three centuries and more the fundamental text for the study of Denis in the West." 1 5 But Denis was read more particularly among the scholars and in actual fact had little influence on the monastic spirituality of the Western Middle Ages. But the case was otherwise with the other two authors whom Eriugena made more commonly available. One was Maximus the Confessor whose Amhigua and Quaestiones ad Thalassium were translated into Latin by John Scotus. These texts are found among monastic manuscripts, especially in the codex of Clairvaux of the twelfth century. 16 The other witness of early 14. The Love of Learning and the Desire for God ( N e w Y o r k , 1962), 9 4 - 1 1 5 . 1 5 . E . Jeauneau ,Jean Scot. Homélie sur le Prologue de Jean, Introduction (Paris, 1969), S C 1 5 1 , 28, citing H . Dondaine, Le Corpus dionysien de l'Université de Paris au XIIIc siècle ( R o m e , 1953), 28. 16. Ibid., 32}

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mysticism was Gregory of Nyssa whom we have seen was very close to Evagrius. T o his treatise, On the Creation of Man, Scotus gave the title, On the Image.11 The notion expressed by this word, image, was central in the Cistercian theology of the twelfth century, and Father Déchanet has established that William of St Thierry used the translation of Gregory of Nyssa which was prepared by Scotus. 18 The monks were attracted by what was most "contemplative" in the work of Eriugena, his long and admirable homily on the prologue of the Fourth Gospel. It was due to this that monastic tradition came to speak of "John the Theologian," that is to say, "John the Contemplative." 19 This text is found in many manuscripts coming from Cistercian and Benedictine abbeys, 20 in particular from Cîteaux 21 and Clairvaux. 22 The homily was read at the Office in the monastery 23 and a Cistercian chronicler at the end of the twelfth century, Helinand of Froidmont, gave voice to the praise of Eriugena because of the "perspicacity of his genius and the sweetness of his language." 24 The Twelfth-Century Cistercians. The influence exercised on St Bernard by Maximus the Confessor and Gregory of Nyssa has already been pointed out by Gilson. 25 The various studies on St 17. Ibid., 34. 18. Ibid., 36, referring to J . M . Déchanet, Aux sources de la spiritualité de Guillaume de Saint-Thierry (Bruges, 1940), and Guillaume de Saint-Thierry. L'homme et son oeuvre (Bruges, 1942). The latter has been published in English. 19. In Etudes sur le vocabulaire monastique du moyen âge, Studia 48, (Rome, 1961), 74-5, 92, 1 5 1 , I have cited some texts.

Anselmiana,

20. E . Jeauneau, op. cit., 8 1 - 1 1 3 . 2 1 . Ibid., 86. 22. See ibid, in the Index, 388, the list of manuscripts of Troyes coming from Clairvaux. Ms. Troyes 1234, whose origin is not indicated there, comes from Clairvaux. Cf. Harmand, Catalogue général des manuscrits des Bibliothèques publiques des Départements, II (Paris, 1855), 506. 23. E . Jeauneau, op. cit., 1 3 1 . 24. Ibid., 62, n. 1, citing Hélinand, Chronicon, Book 46 (PL 2 1 2 : 8 7 0 D 871 D) and pointing out this notice of Hélinand. 25. La théologie mystique de S. Bernard (Paris, 1934), 39-42, 29-30.

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Bernard which were published on the occasion of the eighth centenary of his death in 1953 brought to light how much the Abbot of Clairvaux and the other Cistercian authors of his time looked back to Origen, to Maximus the Confessor, to Gregory of Nyssa, to other witnesses of the Greek patristic age, to Cassian, and to John Scotus.26 They reproduced in some way the earlier milieu as a whole for the Middle Ages, which were more aware of general tendencies than detailed doctrine. Evagrius was part of this whole. At the root of his teaching, as with all the others, is to be found Origen, and the more one studies St Bernard the more one is convinced that he owes a great deal to Origen. 27 Recently John Morson has brought out how much Guerric of Igny also owes to Origen.28 But rather than accumulate here a collection of detailed texts, it is more important to point out the general lines which the whole early tradition of Christian Platonism gave to the monastic writers of the Middle Ages and, especially, to the Cistercian School of the twelfth century. For it was in the development of this general orientation that Evagrius had a decisive role. A scholar who knows well this tradition has shown how important Evagrius was for the formation of the anthropology of the Latin Middle Ages, that anthropology which was expressed especially in the treatises De Anima which in one form or another were left to us by all the great Cistercian writers of the twelfth century.29 One can say the same for the monastic anthropology of the ninth century. 30 The

26. See "Saint Bernard théologien," Analecta S. Ordinis Cisterciensis, 9(1953), 3 1 6 - 3 2 3 , under the names which w e will cite as w e go along. 27. The references are indicated in the Index of J . Leclercq, Recueil d'études sur S. Bernard, I (Rome, 1962), 359; II (Rome, 1966), 395; III (Rome, 1969), 429. 28. J . Morson, "Guerric d'Igny," D S , 6 (1967), 1 1 1 8 . 29. Endre von Ivânka, Plato christianus: Übernahme und Umgestaltung des Piatonismus durch die Väter (Einsiedeln, 1964), passim. 30. In the article "Humanisme," D S , 4 6 - 7 (1969), 9 6 3 - 4 and in a more developed study on "L'humanisme des moines du moyen âge," Studi medievali, 10 (1969), 44-76, I have cited some texts.

B

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Preface

three foundation stones of this tradition were Plato, Origen, and Evagrius. Through the writings of Cassian, Augustine, Gregory the Great and others, the Platonic, Stoic, and Origenist elements, purified and passed on by Gregory of Nyssa, Evagrius, Maximus, Eriugena and others found their place in new and original syntheses which remained in contact with the earlier sources but which were nonetheless quite different. In some respects they were not so rich, but, on the other hand, were better adapted to the men whom they were to sanctify, and they were enriched with life experience more familiar to them. 31 In this respect, Evagrius brought about a veritable turnabout—• in this sense a "conversion"—of the ideas received from early Hellenism. He did indeed retain what had been given him, but he modified—or more exactly inverted—the values.32 Where the Stoics began with knowledge—which they called logic or theology —and then went on to the physic, that is to say cosmology, to come at length to praxis or ethics, Evagrius began the spiritual itinerary with the latter. His way led man from asceticism to knowledge, and from there to "spiritual doctrine." At the end, at the summit, at the apex mentis, there was to be found the knowledge of God "in himself," that is to say in the very deepest depths of the man who had this experience. He did not attain to simply a knowledge of God as it were in a mirror of creation but rather in the real experience of himself being purified and united to him. Here we have in Evagrius a sort of extreme "Origenism," which is not without its dangers, for according to this viewpoint a man can unite himself directly to the Trinity without the mediation of the Incarnate Word. Certain pages where St Bernard speaks of mystical union make it clear that he knew this point of view, 33 perhaps through Cassian. But the Abbot of Clairvaux was so

3 1 . E . von Ivanka, op. cit., 370 and in the Index under the names of the medieval authors. 32. According to E . von Ivanka, op. cit., 146-8. 33. According to E. von Ivanka, op. cit., 148, n. 1, referring to St Bernard, Sup. Cant., 20, 8-9, and to Cassian, Conf., 1 : 1 5 and Conf., 12.

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impregnated with the whole of the Catholic tradition that he easily avoided the deviation that this could have led to if he isolated from the whole of which it forms a part this idea of the deepest being of man, that which in him is the most intimate and which makes him to be who he is, uniting itself to the source of being. Bernard was able to make use of this heritage from Evagrius, reinterpreting it and situating it in a larger context. One cannot grasp in all its fullness the teaching of Bernard nor of the other Cistercian authors of that time if one does not know their sources and among them Evagrius.

Evagrius

Today

The influence of Evagrius then, whether directly or through intermediaries, remains and continues to grow. Through him the whole of an ancient wisdom, both theoretical and practical, has been transmitted and inserted into life. His texts were at once a terminus and a starting point. They were the culmination of his own experiences, the meeting point of all the trends of his period. At the same time they were also the starting point of a new phase in evolution which has never ceased to go forward. It is easy therefore to understand that such a varied and rich teaching, such a powerful personality as Evagrius, should today merit attention not only from those scholars who edit his texts but also from such deep and original thinkers as Rahner, Hausherr, Balthasar, and Danielou. And it is just as understandable that simple men of God recognize in his writings a description of their own problems and difficulties and also discover solutions in them. I recall that when I prepared a critical edition of a Latin version of Evagrius' Sentences for Monks, based on the Spanish manuscripts, I was asked if the text might be translated into Spanish and published in a small local magazine because the Christians of that region found spiritual nourishment in them. And today I know monks and nuns who draw as much profit from Evagrius as scholars fmd—according to their historical or psychological standpoint—difficulties or pleasure.

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Monastic tradition is not identical with the material transmission of literary documents. N o r does it consist in constantly referring to historical sources. It is rather a living continuity. It is good, therefore, that a monk such as Father Bamberger, who also knows well the theological tradition and is skilled in the work of spiritual direction, can show us how Christian Platonism holds a legitimate place in our thinking today and still has a fruitful role to play. B y means of very precise examples he illustrates that humanism which is the heritage of an earlier monasticism, a monasticism which was open to all the values of philosophical thinking. T o all that he had received from philosophy Evagrius joined the psychological experience of generations of monks, and it is this alliance of reflection with life that makes his writings so valuable today. Men must live in their own day, be of their own times, in suchwise that perennial problems may receive the benefit of scientific advance in all domains, but especially in that of psychology. It is difficult to anticipate what new elements will be brought forth as these texts are examined under new lights. But it is already obvious that when a psychiatrist studies them he finds in them things which escape the simple historian. Father Bamberger established this in his article in which philology was made to serve very up-to-date views on human experience.34 A similar study has also come from the pen of Father Canivet, sj. 35 From a sixth-century text, " T h e Life of St Theodosus," he was able to bring out traces of "erroneous asceticism," diagnose disturbances of the mind, and admire therapy which led those who considered themselves abandoned by God to patience and thanksgiving. In his introduction to the text presented in this volume, Father Bamberger alludes to similarities which have been pointed out between Evagrius on the one hand and St John of the Cross and Freud on the other. What w e need today is not only critical editions and philo-

34. J . E. Bamberger, ' 'MNHM&-A I A 6EEIZ: The Psychic Dynamism in the Ascetical Theology of St Basil," O C P 34 (1968), 233-51.

35. Recherches des sciences religieuses, jo (1962), 161-205.

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logical exegesis of the ancient sources but present-day and constantly reviewed studies of the states of soul which are part of the spiritual experience of every age. The ancient writers have some very real contribution to make to our understanding of the facts of our own personal existence. It is not a matter, of course, of projecting our own ideas into the documents of the past in order to make them say what they did not intend to say. Rather, it is a question of beginning with these ancient witnesses and seeing if they have something to teach us about ourselves, about what we are today. In this respect one can anticipate very fruitful results from the younger generation of research workers who are better prepared for what we call inter-disciplinary work. There are already promising signs of this, and Father Bamberger gives us a further one in this volume. Father Bamberger was a disciple of a master of the monastic life and spiritual teaching who was one of the geniuses of our times: Thomas Merton. It is he who should have written this preface, for it was he w h o first encouraged this translation. In many of his own essays he showed an excelling ability to rejuvenate ancient texts and bring to light all the freshness of early documents. Into apparently dry bones he breathed new life, the intense life which was his own. His existence was a constant discovery of life. In one of the last books which he prepared for publication he compared the sayings of ancient Christian monks and the words, proverbs, and riddles of monks of Zen Buddhism, both ancient and new. 36 In the present-day climate, when the monks of different religions are beginning to enter into dialogue with one another, to discover each other, a publication such as w e have here is most opportune. It will reveal to many that wisdom which God created for all ages and confided to mortal man. In the course of its being handed on from father to son, from generation to generation, it does at times become obscure and covered over with the dust of human thought. 36. Zen and the Birds of Appetite (New York, 1968), 99-100. On p. 131 we read: "This is the language of Evagrius Ponticus, severely intellectual, a fact which brings him closer to Zen than the more affective theologians of prayer. . . . "

xxii

Preface

But such accidents of time and deeds can never prevent this Godgiven wisdom from leading to God those who truly seek him, for "in every generation wisdom lives in holy souls and makes them friends of God." 3 7 J . Leclercq OSB Clervaux Abbey, Luxembourg

37. W i s 7:27.

INTRODUCTION

1

\ H E T W O W O R K S OF E V A G R I U S

PONTICUS

which are translated in this volume have played a notable role in the spiritual life of the Church as well as in the develop-

ment of mystical and ascetical theology. Their influence has been

active, above all in the monastic world, from the fourth century, when they were composed, down to the present day.

RECOVERY OF THE EVAGRIAN WRITINGS

Until recent times Evagrius was hardly more than an obscure name in the annals of history. His very memory was all but forgotten except insofar as it was linked with that of Origen, in a series of condemnations of their more extreme theological views. 1 In spite of several learned works written on him at the end of the i. Origen (185-253) was the most influential and brilliant writer of the early Church. He lived and taught first in Alexandria then in Palestine. His vast literary output covered the fields of textual criticism, homilies, scriptural commentaries and important theological works. Although his theological ideas early became controversial and finally condemned by the Fifth Ecumenical Council, by reason of his excellence and rare piety he continued to exert a profound influence upon the later Patristic Age and the Middle Ages. His ascetic teaching provided the theoretic basis for monastic theology in large part. Not only Evagrius but also the three Cappadocian Fathers were marked by Origen's teaching. For an evaluation of his life and works and a bibliography see J. Quasten, Patrology, vol. 2 (Westminster, Md. ,1955), 37-101. xxm

xxiv

Introduction

last century, 2 the prevailing view fifty years ago was that Evagrius was an able teacher who left us some interesting, if not very impressive, literary works. 3 At present, however, there is a completely different attitude toward Evagrius and his works. He is now looked upon as the author who has produced "one of the most captivating works of Christian antiquity" 4 and as "one of the most important names in the history of spirituality, one of those that not only marked a decisive turning-point, but called forth a real spiritual mutation." 5 The recovery of his lost writings and of his life-story is hailed as "a romance of modern scholarship,"6 and not without good reason. There is, however, a certain irony in it as well, for it reveals how his name was reviled as that of a heretic7 even while his teaching was being preached and spread abroad in the most serious religious circles. At times it was his very detractors who were the most influenced by his writings. Before studying his life and works in detail let us take a brief look into the causes and events which led to his condemnation and the prolonged eclipse of his name. 2. Notably that by O. Zôckler, Evagrius Pontikus, Seine Stellung in der altchristlichen Literatur-und Dogmengeschichte (Munich, 1893) ; also the article by J. Draseke, "Zu Evagrios Pontikos," Zeitshcriftfiir wissenschaftliche Theologie, 37 (1894), 125-37. 3. The article in the voluminous D T C by P. Godet is very brief (2 columns) and makes no attempt to describe the particulars of his teaching, his theological antecedents or his place in the spiritual theology of the Church. The reason is that at that time the available works were too fragmentary and limited to allow for this kind of assessment. See DTC, 5:161 if. 4. J. Daniélou, in a review of A. Guillaumont's edition of the Kephalaia Cnostica published in 1958; see RSR, 47 (i959), 115. 5. L. Bouyer, The Spirituality of the New Testament and the Fathers, vol. 1 (New York, 1963), 381. 6. O. Chadwick, John Cassian: A study in primitive monasticism (Cambridge, 1950), 82. The second edition of this work (Cambridge, 1968) ascribes to Evagrius the title of "father of our literature of spirituality," p. 86. 7. In particular St Maximus the Confessor, w h o owes so much to Evagrian thought, has nothing good to say about him, and "heretic" is the only distinctive title he reserves for him. See M. Viller, "Aux Sources de la Spiritualité de S. Maxime," R A M , 11 (1930). 159-

Recovery of the Evagrian Writings

xxv

Ecclesiastical Condemnation Evagrius was an ardent Origenist. He speculated at great length upon certain of the more daring of Origen's teachings, such as the doctrine of pre-existence of souls and the doctrine of the eventual return of all souls, even those of the demons, to the primitive union with Divinity (aTTOKaTaarams). It is not so certain that Origen himself held some of these points at the end of his life. In any case, he was quite careful to express his submission to the Church's judgment on their orthodoxy. Evagrius was less cautious. As Von Balthasar has pointed out, Evagrius tended to pursue principles to their extreme logical conclusions and then proceeded to adopt them in this extreme form as norms for life. 8 The inevitable happened. Evagrius joined Origen and Didymus the Blind 9 on the list of heretics. The first official condemnation was at the Fifth Ecumenical Council in 553, while Justinian the Great was ruling the Byzantine Empire. The next three Ecumenical Councils that met made it a part of their business to repeat this same condemnation. 10 It is now known that the chief target of the anathemas of the 8. H. U . von Balthasar, "Metaphysik und Mystik des Evagrius Ponticus," Zeitschrift fur Askeze und Mystik, 14 (1939), 32. 9. Didymus the Blind (313-about 398) was a man of remarkable gifts and intellectual accomplishments in spite of the blindness which he suffered from his youth. Under the great Athanasius he headed the Catechetical School that had formerly been the theater of Origen's activity. Both St Jerome and Rufinus were numbered among his pupils. There can be little doubt that Evagrius knew him personally and accompanied by his disciples visited him in his cell on the outskirts of Alexandria. See Palladius, The Lausiac History, trans. R.Meyer, A C W , 34(1964), 35. (Hereafter cited as LH.) For bibliography and further details on his writings, see Quasten, op. cit., vol. 3, 85-100. 10. For this history see D T C , 1 1 :i565ff.: "Origenisme." The dates of these Councils are as follows: Sixth—680 AD; Seventh—781 AD; Eighth—869 AD. In addition, at the Lateran Synod of 649 AD, which was attended by St Maximus the Confessor, Evagrius was once again condemned. A t the important Synod in trullo, held in 692 AD to complete the works undertaken by the Fifth and Sixth Councils, this condemnation was ratified. See further A . Guillaumont, Les "KephalaiaGnostica" d'Evagre le Politique (Paris, 1962), i36f. (Hereafter cited as Guillaumont.)

XXvi

Introduction

Councils were certain Christological doctrines found in a particular work of Evagrius known as the Kephalaia Gnostica.11 These,same doctrines are not found in many of his other works, especially in his more pastoral writings. Perhaps the only other major work of his which is strongly marked by these theories in their extreme form is his Commentary on the Psalms.12 As a result of this official condemnation the Kephalaia Gnostica were, on orders of Justinian, 13 destroyed in their original Greek version. They were preserved, however, sufficiently long for some Syriac translations to be made. This work is extant only in the Syriac translation, and the Armenian which is made from the Syriac. 14 Thus was preserved for us the most important of all of Evagrius' theoretic writings. There are two distinct translations of the Syriac. The "received version," the only one known till recently, is actually a very able modification of the text. It is purged of much of its objectionable Christology. The version recently discovered is much more faithful to the original text, and for that reason allows us for the first time in more than a thousand years to study the Evagrian systematic theology in its original lineaments.15 1 1 . For Evagrius' Christology see Guillaumont, 1 5 6 - 9 ; also F. Refoulé, " L a christologie d'Evagre et rOrigenisme," OCP, 27 (1961), 221-66. 12. See Refoulé, ibid., 241 f. 13. The whole affair was initiated and energetically guided through the Council by the Emperor. In fact, the Council's part was largely to ratify, by acclamation, the letter of Justinian which contained the anathemas. See Guillaumont, I35f. 14. See Guillaumont, 256. The Syriac translations were done very early. The one made by Philoxenus of Mabboug antedates the condemnation of the Council by about fifty years, having been made around the year 500. Some of the Evagrian writings were translated several times into Syriac and the various versions are still extant, as Muyldermans has stressed in his analysis of the Syriac manuscript tradition. See his Evagriana Syriaca (Louvain, 1952), 46f and passim. (Hereafter cited as ES.) That the Armenian translation is largely dependent upon the Syriac (only some parts of the Greek text were available to the translators) is demonstrated by Hausherr, "Les Versions Syriaque et Arménienne d'Evagre le Pontique," Orientalia Christiana, 22 (1931), 1 1 4 . 15. Guillaumont, 25óf.

Recovery of the Evagrian Writings

xxvii

Some other writings of Evagrius managed to survive in Greek by passing as the work of a more evidently orthodox Father. His Commentary

on the Psalms was transmitted under the name o f

Origen and thus, in spite of the Christological heresies it contains,16 was preserved in Greek. His more pastoral works fared better at the hands of posterity than his dogmatic writings. They have been more largely transmitted in the original Greek version for they were early accepted by wide segments of the Church and eagerly read without anyone finding objectionable theories in them. 17 It is to this group of pastoral works that the two collections of sentences translated in this volume belong. Both were much admired and widely influential in the period immediately following Evagrius' death. In this w a y it happened that, even while his name was execrated as that of an abominable heretic by some, Evagrius was loved and esteemed as a sure and holy spiritual guide by large segments of the Church. This ambiguity was to adhere to his memory throughout the centuries. In the West Evagrius enjoyed a wide popularity at first. St Jerome observes18 that Evagrius was being read by large numbers of Christians in the Latin translation made by Rufinus. 19 These 16. See v o n Balthasar, " D i e Hiera des Evagrius Pontikus," Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, 63 (1939), 86-106 and 181-206; also M . J. Rondeau, " L e Commentaire sur les Psaumes d'Evagre le Pontique," OCP, 26 (i960), 307-48. 17. In this context the story told about the much-consulted Barsanupheus, the great spiritual director w h o lived in Palestine in the neighborhood o f Gaza (died about 540 AD), is very informative. W h e n asked about the advisability o f reading Evagrius by a young m o n k the elder told him that only his dogmatic works are to be avoided; his other writings i f read with discretion can prove very useful for the spiritual life. It is not without significance that this same y o u n g m o n k on another occasion asked the master h o w it came about that some o f the more fervent monks occupied themselves with the works o f Evagrius indiscriminately, whether dogmatic or not. C f . P G 86:898A. 18. T h e Epistle to Ctesiphon, 13313, P L 2 2 : i i 5 i A . 19. Rufinus o f Aquileia was a close friend o f St Jerome f r o m their student days in R o m e . After the completion o f his studies he spent some years in a monastery at Aquileia as a monk, once again in the company o f Jerome. W h e n Melania went to E g y p t on her w a y to the Holy Land in 371 Rufinus

xxviii

Introduction

works were published a year or t w o after Evagrius' death in 399,20 but before the fifth century was ended a second translation o f certain writings was made by the historian Gennadius.21 Because the years between Evagrius' death and his condemnation in 553 were precisely the decisive years for determining the character and spirit of Western monasticism, and because his writings were so popularly received in the West at this time, he has proved to be one of the significant influences upon the Latin monastic tradition.22 Even after his condemnation, when there was a sharp decrease in the circulation of his writings, 23 he continued to have an active though indirect influence through the writings of his disciple, John Cassian.24 But his direct influence was eliminated almost completely for more than a millennium once he was labeled

accompanied her and assisted her in the founding o f the double monastery in Jerusalem, on the Mount o f Olives. Both became ardent students o f Origen, and Rufinus dedicated his talents as a translator to a number of Origen's more important works, and thereby preserved them for posterity. The friendship that grew up between him and Evagrius when the latter was a guest at the Jerusalem hospice attached to Melania's monastery was maintained by letters and presumably by their mutual interest in Origenist theology. Some o f these letters have survived (see Guillaumont, ôyf.). In particular Rufinus translated into Latin Evagrius' Sentences for Monks and Praktikos. The works o f Rufinus are printed in PL 21. For other details o f his life and a bibliography, see B . Altaner, Patrology, trans. H. Graef ( N e w Y o r k , i960), 459ft"20. O . Bardenhewer, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Literatur, vol. 3 (Freiburg, 1923). 55521. See De viribus illustris, 11, PL 58:io67A. Gennadius also translated the Antirrheticus of Evagrius, although this translation is n o w lost. 22. See the informative discussion b y A . Wilmart, "Les versions latines des Sentences d'Evagre pour les Vierges," Revue Bénédictine, 28 (1911), 152. T h e earlier Latin version o f these Sentences, published by Jean Leclercq in Scriptorium, 5 (1951). 195-213. has allowed this same investigator to trace the spread o f Evagrian influence in the Latin West in considerable detail. See his The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New Y o r k , 1961), 117. O n the nature o f this influence, which was practical rather than theoretical, see his judicious remarks on p. 116. 23. Wilmart, ibid. 24. For the marked influence o f Evagrius upon Cassian see the basic w o r k o f S. Marsili, Giovanni Cassiano ed Evagrio Pontico (Rome, 1936). Basically Cassian derives his teaching on a number o f the central ideas in his works from Evagrius although he does not mention his name, for reasons of prudence.

Recovery

of the Evagrian

Writings

XXIX

as a n O r i g e n i s t b y t h e C h u r c h . I n t h i s t h e L a t i n w o r l d w a s

more

absolute and efficient than w a s the G r e e k . B u t e v e n i n t h e W e s t h i s n a m e w a s p r e s e r v e d , a t least i n t h o s e monasteries w h e r e the exploits and teachings o f the early E g y p t i a n m o n k s w e r e read in one o f the n u m e r o u s Latin versions o f Lausiac

History

o f Palladius,25 or in that other f a m o u s a c c o u n t

t h e d e s e r t f a t h e r s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e Historia

Monachorum,26

the of

another

w o r k t r a n s l a t e d b y R u f i n u s . B u t this m e a n t h a r d l y m o r e t h a n t h a t E v a g r i u s w a s r e m e m b e r e d as a r a t h e r d i m

figure

f r o m the glorious

past, a h o l y m a n , a g i f t e d teacher b u t o n e w h o s e w o r k s h a d b e e n lost t o posterity.27 2J. Palladius(c. 363-431) is the chief source o f our information onEvagrius. H e was born in Galatia and at the age o f twenty-three became a m o n k in the monastery founded by Rufinus on the M o u n t o f Olives. He m o v e d f r o m there to Jericho for a time and then on to Alexandria. Finally he settled in Nitria where he became a disciple o f E v a g r i u s w h o m he followed to Cells. After the death o f E v a g r i u s he was forced to leave E g y p t because o f his health and thus it came about that he w e n t to Constantinople where he became fast friends w i t h John Chrysostom. He was ordained Bishop o f Helenopolis and remained a loyal friend to Chrysostom, not fearing to pay for his loyalty w i t h much suffering. He w r o t e t w o works w h i c h enjoyed lasting r e n o w n : The Dialogue w h i c h deals w i t h Chrysostom and the Lausiac History which gives an account o f the lives o f many o f the more heroic figures o f the Egyptian desert. It seems quite likely that Palladius had written a biography o f Evagrius o f greater length and that the details preserved in chapter thirty-eight o f his Lausiac History is a brief résumé o f this w o r k . T h e Syriac version o f this history may well contain original material derived f r o m this n o w lost longer biographical account o f E v a g r i u s . For further discussion see Guillaumont, 76, n. 118. It is n o w well established that the Lausiac History is fundamentally conceived in the spirit o f the Evagrian theological system. C f . R. Draguet, "L'Histoire Lausiaque, une oeuvre ecrite dans l'esprit d ' E v a g r e , " Revue d'histoire ecclésiastique, 41 (1946), 321-64 and 42 (1947), 5-49. 26. T h e Historia Monachorum is likewise an early monastic history composed chiefly o f biographical accounts o f the more notable figures o f the Egyptian desert. It was composed around the year 400 perhaps b y T i m o t h y , the A r c h deacon o f Alexandria, a contemporary ofEvagrius. Rufinus translated it f r o m Greek into Latin and, since it gives a favorable account o f E v a g r i u s , in this w a y t o o Rufinus contributed to spreading Evagrian influence in the Latin Church. For bibliography see Quasten, vol. 3, 178. A n e w critical edition has recently c o m e o u t : A . J . Festugière, Historia Monachorum in Aegypto (Subsidia Hagiographica 34, Brussels, 1961). 27. W i l m a r t , op. cit., 146, has pointed out h o w f e w Mss. o f the Latin

XXX

Introduction

Aside f r o m the publication in the late seventeenth century o f his Sentences for Monks and the Exhortation to a Virgin by Holstenius 28 and o f the Praktikos together w i t h a f e w other collections

of

sentences b y Cotelier 2 9 a f e w years later, nothing o f importance was done to recover the place o f E v a g r i u s in the history o f spirituality until the publication o f Evagrius Pontikus b y Z o c k l e r in the late nineteenth century. T h e early years o f the twentieth century saw the publication o f a number o f n e w l y discovered w o r k s o f Evagrius. T h e first was the Armenian corpus o f Evagrius, which included a biographical note on Evagrius as well as an extensive collection o f his more important works. This was published in 1907 b y Sarghisian, 30 but because the w h o l e w o r k was in Armenian it had rather little influence at first. T h e publication b y Frankenberg, h o w e v e r , o f the Syriac translation o f many o f Evagrius' basic writings together w i t h a retroversion into Greek some five years later 31 led to a considerable quickening o f interest in our author. W h e n Gressman published the original Greek text o f the Sentences to Monks and the Exhortation to a Virgin the next year 32 enough material was available for a rather extensive and thorough study o f the main lines o f Evagrius' system. It was Bousset w h o supplied

translation o f the once popular Exhortation to a Virgin n o w remain. A s late as 1908 one o f the best informed scholars o f the period wrote o f the Evagrian corpus: " O n l y a f e w brief and broken fragments have reached us." See O . Bardenhewer, Patrology, trans. T . Sheehan (St Louis, 1908, 2nd ed.), 310. 28. Lucas Holstenius, Codex Regularum, 6 vols. (Graz reprint o f the 1759 ed. o f Augsburg, 1957). T h e works o f E v a g r i u s are printed in vol. 1, 465-69. 29. T h e Praktikos was discovered and edited, poorly it is true, b y J. B . Cotelier in 1686. It is this edition w h i c h is reprinted in Migne. 30. H . B . Sarghisian, The Life and Works of the Holy Father Evagrius Pontikus in an Armenian Version of the Fifth Century with Introduction and Notes (Venice, 1907). 31. W . Frankenberg, "Evagrius Pontikus," Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse, N . F . XIII, 2 (Berlin, 1912). 32. H . Gressmann, Nonnenspiegel und Mönchsspiegel des Euagrios Pontikos zum ersten Male in der Urschrift herausgegeben (Texte und Untersuchungen 39, 4B, Leipzig, 1913).

Recovery of the Evagrian this basic study in 1923.

33

Writings

xxxi

A t the same time he discovered that the

important dogmatic letter of St Basil, the eighth letter as it is known, was actually authored by Evagrius. His results were independently confirmed by R. Melcher's publication, at the same time, of his book which vindicates this eighth letter of St Basil for Evagrius. 34 But the real break-through

came in 1930 when M . Viller

demonstrated the very basic influence exercised by Evagrius upon one of the most important of Byzantine theologians, St Maximus the Confessor. 35 N o one apparently had previously suspected this influence since St Maximus not only did nothing to indicate his dependence upon Evagrius but actually had spoken of him as an "abominable heretic." 36 Later studies have shown that Viller was over-impressed with the extent of influence that Evagrius had upon St Maximus. 3 ' But the basic fact of a considerable influence has 33. W . Bousset, Apophthegmata (Tübingen, 1922), III. Buch: "Euagriosstudien." 34. Melcher, Der achte Brief des heiligen Basilius ein Werk des Evagrius Pontikus (Münster, 1923). 35. Viller, art. cit., 156-84, 239-68. The significance of this article was appreciated immediately by such investigators as I. Hausherr and the young Karl Rahner. The latter wrote an article on Evagrius which he modestly described as little more than a paraphrase in German of Viller's article, "Die geistliche Lehre des Evagrius Pontikus," ZAM, 8 (1933), 21-38. 36. Viller, ibid., 159, where Maximus is quoted as using the word "impious" or "faithless." Of course, at this time Evagrius was thought of as a man anathematized by the Church since Maximus wrote after the condemnation of 553. Maximus (580-662) was a member of the nobility of Constantinople and while still young had become a member of the court, serving as secretary to the Emperor. Before long, however, he left all to become a monk in a nearby monastery, and attained to renown by virtue of his writings. He was the leading theologian of his age, and fought strenuously for the true faith against the powerful faction that favored the monothelite Christology. Finally he triumphed in the struggle when in 649 the Lateran Synod condemned monothelitism. This same Synod condemned Evagrius once again, so it is not too surprising that Maximus tended to speak of Evagrius in harsh terms. Towards the end of his life Maximus was subjected to cruel tortures for his defense of Orthodoxy and soon after this ordeal died as a result of his treatment. For further details and bibliographical data see Altaner, op. cit., 629-33. 37. P. Sherwood, St Maximus the Confessor, A C W , 21 (1955), 235, n. 356; also W. Völker, 490fr Maximus Confessor als Meister des geistlichen Lebens

xxxii

Introduction

been well established and proved to be the decisive discovery needed to assure for Evagrius recognition of his importance as a spiritual writer. Since Viller's publication there have been increasing numbers of articles dealing with the many questions involved in establishing the place of Evagrius in the life of the Church. A few of the major contributions deserve to be mentioned here briefly so as to complete the history of the recovery of the writings of Evagrius. A few years after Viller's paper Hausherr published a careful study of the Chapters on Prayer, which until that time had been ascribed to St Nilus of Sinai.38 His conclusions were that the true author of the work was Evagrius Ponticus not St Nilus, and that the work contained some of the most important theological concepts on prayer in the history of spirituality.39 In particular he demonstrated that Evagrius was the writer responsible for the popularization of the works of Origen and Gregory of Nyssa, but still more significantly he had devised and shaped a highly personal synthesis of spirituality into a fully articulated and systematized view of the whole spiritual life. Hausherr further drew the conclusion that Evagrius is the chief source of the properly contemplative spirituality of the Byzantine tradition, to such an extent that its centuries old tradition should properly be described as Evagrian spirituality40 not, as he had formerly recommended, Sinaitic spirituality.41 The next major contribution came from Hans Urs von Balthasar

(Wiesbaden, 1965). This author makes the point that Maximus formed his own theology even while he took elements from Evagrius and other earlier writers. 38. St Nilus of Sinai (died about 430), the higoumenos of a monastery in Ancyra (modern Ankara, the capital of present-day Turkey), was a famous and influential spiritual writer who was much influenced by St John Chrysostom. There is still confusion as to the extent of his writings, and some of the works ascribed to him by certain Mss. may well belong to Evagrius. The Chapters on Prayer long passed as the work of St Nilus.

39. RAM, 1 i (1934). 169-70-

40. I. Hausherr, "Oraison Hesychaste," Orientalia Christiana, 9 (1927), I34ff-

41. I. Hausherr, RAM, IJ (1934). 169.

Recovery of the Evagrian Writings

xxxiii

in 1939. 42 He made a detailed study of the Commentary on the Psalms ascribed to Origen and arrived at the conclusion that this work was actually in large part the work of Evagrius. He based his judgment exclusively on internal evidence. In i960 the correctness of his view was demonstrated when Rondeau discovered a Vatican manuscript which provided evidence that the work indeed came from the hand of Evagrius. 43 The crowning achievement came in 1952 when A . and C . Guillaumont reported the discovery of the original, unexpurgated version of Evagrius' magnum opus, the Kephalaia Gnostica.li

This

work was preserved in a Syriac translation, and was found to contain

precisely

those

Christological

doctrines

which

were

condemned by the Fifth Ecumenical Council as being Origenist. 45 Since the publication in 1958 46 of this authentic version it has been possible to re-evaluate Evagrius on a much broader scale precisely as a dogmatic theologian. He has emerged from this study as the author of one of the works "most characteristic of Christian Neoplatonism," w h o leads us to "the supreme limits of the adventure of the spirit which advances in absolute solitude in search of intelligible light. But this light for Evagrius is that of the Trinity." 4 7 42. H . U . v o n Balthasar, " D i e Hiera des Evagrius Pontikus," Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, 63 (1939), 86-106 and 18 1—206. At the same time he published a second article studying very thoroughly the Evagrian t h o u g h t : "Metaphysik u n d Mystik des Evagrius Pontikus," ZAM, 14 (1939), 3 1 - 4 7 . This last article has been recently translated into English by a m o n k of Gethsemane Abbey, Monastic Studies, 3 (1965), 183-95. 43. M . J. Rondeau, "Le C o m m e n t a i r e sur les Psaumes d'Evagre le P o n tique," O C P , 26 (i960), 307-48. A n edition of this c o m m e n t a r y is being prepared by the same author on the basis of the newly discovered m a n u script Vat Graec 754 (tenth century). F. Refoulé has studied the Christology of this w o r k which he states should be considered rather a series of marginal notes, or scolia, than a true commentary. "La christologie d'Evagre et r O r i g e n i s m e , " OCP, 27 (1961), 241. 44. A. and C . Guillaumont, "Le texte véritable des 'Gnostica' d'Evagre le Pontique," Revue d'histoire des religions, 142 (1952), 156-205. 45. F. Refoulé, op. cit., 2 5 1 - 5 5 . 46. A. Guillaumont, Les "Kephalaia Gnostica" d'Evagre le Pontique (Paris, 1958). 47. J. Daniélou, RSR, 47 (1959). ! I 5> in a review of the w o r k cited in the preceding note. C

xxxiv

Introduction

As w e shall soon discover, the final word has not as yet been spoken on the definitive position occupied by Evagrius in tradition. While there is wide agreement at present on his filling a pivotal role in the transmission and development of the ascetic and mystical theology of both the East and the West, the precise degree of influence is far from being clearly established. Perhaps the most important problem to be solved at the present is the nature of the relationship between the more speculative and Hellenistic side of his thought on the one hand and the more practical aspect which derives from his own experience and from his having entered so deeply into the Coptic desert tradition. In spite of the thoroughness and penetration of Guillaumont's study of the Kephalaia Gnostica48 he seems to have given too little attention to the more traditional elements of the Evagrian corpus. N o one so far has been able to reconcile in any kind of convincing synthesis these two blocks of material to be found in the various works of the monk-theologian. Indeed, one finds opposite conclusions drawn about his qualities by different scholars depending upon which work of his they concentrate upon. Wilmart speaks of him as a great director w h o had a strong sense for the practical demands of the spiritual life; 49 V o n Balthasar has pointed out that his greatest defects are his tendency to be too rigid in adhering to system and to form extreme positions.50 At the present nothing is clearer than that the key to understanding the widely disparate components of Evagrius' teaching and personality remains hidden from us. One has the impression that the t w o major streams of influence, the Hellenistic and the Coptic, flow side by side, in mutual isolation, rather than merging into a single confluence. Yet it is abundantly evident that to his disciples Evagrius represented the very pattern of restored integrity in all senses of that word. He was considered to have attained to a rare 48. Guillaumont's work is easily the most complete study o f Evagrius so far undertaken. He himself is aware, however, that he has not yet given a full picture o f Evagrius and his thought; Guillaumont, 337, especially note 8. 49. A . Wilmart, op. cit., 152. 50. H. U . von Balthasar, "Metaphysik und Mystik des Evagrius Ponticus," ZAM, 14 (1939). 32.

Life

XXXV

degree of harmony in his personality through his ascetic practice and through his pure prayer. 51 There remains then an aura of mystery surrounding the figure of Evagrius. Any attempt to portray him now can only claim to be a preliminary sketch. The definitive portrait must await another day.

LIFE

Evagrius was born in 345 in the small provincial town of Ibora in Pontus.52 His father was a chorbishop,53 that is to say, a bishop of a country area who traveled about to care for the various churches 5 1 . L H 3 8 : 1 3 , p. 1 1 4 . 52. Ibora, present-day Iverônii in Turkey (see R . Janin, Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Geographie Ecclésiastique, 16 (1964), 1 0 7 : " E v a g r e le Pontique") was placed under the episcopal jurisdiction of Gregory of Nyssa in 380 AD. Gregory visited here to preside over the election of a new bishop, and it seems very likely that the retiring bishop was Evagrius senior, the father of Evagrius Ponticus. W e know from Palladius that Evagrius' father died while the son was in the Egyptian desert and, to judge from the degree of spiritual discernment the story told by Palladius implies, he must have been there for some time. (See LH, 3 8 : 1 3 , p. 1 1 4 ; also the Praktikos, 95.) For the visit of Gregory to Ibora see his Epistle 19, P G 4 6 : 1 0 7 6 c . The name of Evagrius senior is known f r o m an epistle of Gregory Nazianzen while he was tutor to Evagrius. H e wrote the letter to the father and in the course of it mentions that it was for the sake of Evagrius' religious education that he, Gregory, had charge of his son (see Epistle 3, P G 37:24!$; see also Sozomen, Historia Ecclesiastica, V I , 30 and Guillaumont, 49, note 8, w h o has pointed out the significance of Gregory's letter). Sozomen provides an interesting variant in the account of Evagrius' origins which is not without significance for the history of spirituality. H e maintains that Evagrius was a native of Iberia (modern Georgia, U S S R ) , not Ibora. (See P G 67:1384.) The earliest Coptic version of the Lausiac History affirms the same origin for Evagrius. The Georgians consider Evagrius to be their first monk and honor him accordingly. C f . M . Tarchnisvili, "Il monachesimo Georgiano nelle sue Orienti e nei suoi Primi Sviluppi," II Monachesimo Orientale, Orientalia Christiana Analecta, 153 (Rome, 1958), 307. 53. L H 38:2, p. n o . A X">P QO

exercises. Some of the more personal difficulties Evagrius experienced in adapting himself to the desert life after his brilliant career in Con85. Ibid., 38:10. 86. Ibid. 87. Ibid. 88. On the basic importance of discretion in monastic ascetic practice, see R . T . Meyer, The Life of St Anthony in A C W , 10 (1950), 57, where w e are told that it was above all by his discretion that Anthony so impressed his hearers. For the place of this virtue in fourth-century monasticism in general see P. Resch, La doctrine ascétique des premiers maîtres égyptiens du quatrième siècle (Paris, 1931), 95-9. 89. A . J . Festugière, op. cit., 2 0 : 1 5 , 123. 90. L H 3 8 : 1 1 , pp. 1 1 3 - 1 4 . 9 1 . A . J . Festugière, op. cit., 1 2 3 . 92. Budge, op. cit., 343. 93. Ibid., 406.

Life

xlv

stantinople are preserved in the Syriac tradition. They give some concrete picture of the nature of his struggles as well as indicating the ideas that his fellow-monks and later generations of Christians formed of him. There is the story about Evagrius' trip to Scete to visit a certain Desert Father (probably Macarius the Great) to ask him the customary question: " 'Tell me some piece of advice by which I might be able to save my soul.' The old man answered him: 'If you wish to save your soul do not speak before you are asked a question.' N o w this bit of advice was very disturbing to Evagrius and he displayed some chagrin at having asked it for he thought: 'Indeed, I have read many books and I cannot accept instruction of this kind.' Having derived much profit from his visit he left the old man." 94 There is another story which makes it quite clear that Evagrius did not take readily to the desert concept of humility and silence, and that this difficulty of his was not hidden from his Coptic brethren who, doubtless, had a sharp eye for the shortcomings of the cultured Greek living in their midst. On a certain occasion when the Council of Elders of Cells was in session discussing problems of interest to the community Evagrius came forth with his own views "and an elder said to him: 'We know, Abba, that if you had remained in your own country where you are a bishop (sic) and the governor of many [your speech would have been quite in order]; but in this place you sit as a stranger.' Evagrius was chagrined but he did not take offense. He just shook his head and looked down to the ground and wrote with his finger and told them: 'You are right my fathers: I have spoken once. But I will not do so a second time.' " 9 5 The political overtones of this passage are obvious; the fact that Evagrius was Greek and connected in high places at the Byzantine Court did nothing to make his life easier among the simple Egyptian fellahs become monks. Another interesting bit of information contained in this passage is the evidence it provides for the influence of the traditional desert spirituality upon Evagrius. He accepts their advice, whereas his 94. Ibid., 606. Ibid., 606-7.

95.

The scriptural reference here is to Job 4.0".s.

xlvi

Introduction

o w n is rejected. He was as much a disciple of the desert fathers as he was a student of Origen, and this is nowhere more evident than in these two stories. Evagrius was seen not only as a gifted writer and strenuous ascetic but also as a lovable master. He gathered disciples about him by virtue of his spiritual powers and because of his human qualities. As he grew in purity of heart and attained to the high degree of self-control that is the prerequisite for contemplation, he also grew in charity. There is another tale preserved only in the Syriac tradition which gives us much light on this side of Evagrius' character. Evagrius went to Alexandria with a group of monks on a business trip. While walking along in the city they came upon a renegade monk w h o had deserted the monastic life to take up his lot with the low life of the metropolis. In fact he was actually speaking with a street-walker when Evagrius came upon him. Immediately Evagrius approached him with the greatest signs of respect and friendliness, though he could not refrain from weeping at the sight of such depravity in a former monk. He managed to persuade the man, Stephana by name, to lodge with him and the other monks while they were in the city. W h e n he entered their lodgings Evagrius affectionately embraced him and pleaded with him to return to the desert, assuring him with the most touching kindness of the mercy of God. But his trouble was for nothing. Stephana had nothing but contempt and mockery to utter for monks and their ways. " A n d the blessed Evagrius and the brethren wept and groaned over him greatly." 98 As Evagrius' reputation for holiness and his abilities became known the Patriarch of Egypt, Theophilus of Alexandria, became interested in him. He wished to ordain him bishop of Thmuis. 97 Evagrius, however, firmly resisted. He knew that if a monk was to remain faithful to his calling he had to follow the advice of the Fathers w h o had taught that monks must "avoid women and 96. Ibid., 402. 97. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica 4 : 2 3 ; P G 67:52113.

Life

xlvii

98

bishops." He continued in the way of humility and supported himself by copying b o o k s . " Evagrius' last years were marked by deep peace and the increase of his spiritual powers. He came to be referred to as "that man of understanding," 100 and he had a reputation for working miracles as well as for the gift of prophecy. 1 0 1 During the last three years of his life, he is said to have confided to the brethren, he had attained such a degree of apatheia that he was no longer troubled by disordered passions and thoughts. 102 His health had begun to fail the last years of his life but he made little change in his austere regimen. He only allowed himself the use of cooked food to replace the raw vegetables he was accustomed to when his stomach could no longer digest the rougher fare. 1 0 3 In his Letter to Anatolius he mentions his illness, though he is not specific as to the precise nature of it. The end came prematurely. He was fifty-five when he sensed that he was at the verge of death. The year was 399, and it was the Feast of the Epiphany, the Feast of the Light of Christ revealed to the believing Gentiles. The last thing we learn of Evagrius was that he asked to be taken to the church for the Feast so that he could participate in the mysteries. 104 He received Holy Communion there and died peacefully in the Lord. 98. This "beware of bishops" so as to avoid all occasion of either ambition or of involvement in distracting cares through being ordained a priest became a kind of standing pleasantry among the Fathers of the Desert, as one may observe from the banter between Palladius and John of Lycopolis. L H 35 :IO-II, p . i o i f .

99. L H 38:10, p. 1 1 3 . L. Duchesne observes that the art of calligraphy was practiced in Nitria as a form of work by certain of the more cultivated monks (Histoire ancienne de l'Église, 2 [ 1 9 1 1 ] , 497J. Palladius tells us that Evagrius was quite skilled in this work and that he made use of the oxyrhynchus characters. Indeed, some scholars have thought that the beautiful ms H of St Paul's epistles was copied by Evagrius' own hand, on the basis of a signature found on the ms. (Thus Armitage-Robinson in C . Butler, The Lausiac History of Palladius [Cambridge, 1898] 1 , 3, 6; R . Devresse, Introduction à l'étude des manuscrits grecs (Paris, 1954), 23 and 163, also discusses and favors this view.) It remains dubious, however, since the name "Evagrius" that is thought to appear on this ms as the scribe is not the correct reading. 100. Budge, op. cit., 1043. 102. Ibid., 3 8 : 1 3 .

1 0 1 . L H 3 8 : 1 2 , p. 1 1 4 . 103. Ibid.

104. Ibid.

xlviii

Introduction

He did not realize it but his early death spared him a trial greater than any he had been subjected to in his lifetime. Before the same year had ended his followers were being persecuted as heretics b y their Metropolitan,

the Patriarch Theophilus, Evagrius' former

admirer. The charge was Origenism.

THE HISTORY OF EVAGRIAN THEOLOGY

Origenism The struggles centering about the Origenist heresy were to plague the Church in Egypt, Palestine and Constantinople for many years to come. This is not the place to attempt to unravel all the complex history o f this painful episode in the annals o f early monasticism. 105 Let us simply state that the trouble

had been

threatening for some years, ever since Epiphanius had complained in his Panarion in 374 of the presence o f Origenists in Nitria. 106 Trouble came more from the Coptic monks than from Epiphanius. Naturally they would v i e w with suspicion the intellectual pursuits o f the more cultured and refined monks o f Hellenistic background. A t least the less spiritual-minded and less intelligent among them felt some such hesitations about accepting the presence o f men whose type o f spirituality seemed to them to threaten their o w n traditions. O n e o f their chief objections to the system taught b y Evagrius was the immateriality o f God, the doctrine that held he was pure spirit. This was indeed a key-stone in the Evagrian system. Literally all depended upon it. In opposition to this view the Copts for the most part held an anthropomorphic concept o f the divinity. T h e y considered that he was in his very form a pattern for the structure o f the human body, except in larger proportions. After all, they reasoned, the Bible tells us that man is made in the image and likeness o f God. 107 105. For a good detailed account of this history see Guillaumont, 81-166. 106. Epiphanius, Panarion, 64:4, ed. G. Dindendorf (Leipzig, 1859), 590. 107. Guillaumont, 61. This author has a very interesting discussion of the origins of this anthropomorphite theology. He sees it as a development taking

The History of Evagrian Theology

xlix

Probably it was the very success of Evagrius' teaching, among other factors, which prompted them to press the Patriarch for a decision in this matter. He put them off at first with considerable diplomatic skill. The Copts knew of Theophilus' former favorable attitude to the Origenists—had he not wanted to make Evagrius himself a bishop ? So they were suspicious of his motives in hesitating to condemn their erring brethren. They would not be put off, and indicated it with the very forceful methods which came quite naturally to a large crowd of angry and fanatical men determined to win what they considered their rights. Theophilus saw that he was defeated. He was not the man to suffer the loss of all things for a principle. He determined to condemn Origenism and to that end convoked a synod of bishops at Alexandria where he induced them to produce the required condemnation. When the followers of Evagrius refused to acquiesce in this decision and offered resistance to the measures taken to suppress them, the Patriarch employed troops to quell their rebellion. In a short time they were forced into exile. Among those who fled were some of the most renowned among the ascetics of the desert: the four Long Brothers, Palladius, John Cassian and his companion Germanus. All these latter eventually found refuge with John Chrysostom who was at that moment the Patriarch of Constantinople. Before the entire episode was complete Chrysostom himself would die in exile. 108 Thus did the Community of Evagrius come to an abrupt and violent end. In the event, however, this proved to be the end only of the Egyptian phase of its history. With the departure of the émigrés a new period of its life began, one which would carry the work of Evagrius and his followers to all parts of the Christian

place in reaction to the mystical theology of the Chapters on Prayer of Evagrius, notably the view that one goes "immaterial to the Immaterial" (see c. 66), This struck the more earthy Copts as being too spiritualized a concept of God. 108. For further details of the condemnation and the subsequent events see Guillaumont, 63f. D

1

Introduction

world and hand it down the centuries to the future. Evagrius' teaching found eloquent spokesmen in the persons of Palladius and Cassian, both of whose writings achieved wide and enduring renown. But it was not to be transplanted full grown, root and branch. John Cassian in particular was to interpret Evagrius' doctrine to the Latin world. He understood that it was necessary to prune away the coarse excretions of an over-severity that was ill suited to the more temperate climate of his native France. 109 In the process he created a more supple form of life. This new growth remained essentially the same stock as the Nitrian asceticism of Evagrius with its orientation to purity of heart and its culmination in the state of pure prayer. But in the transplanting it grew more verdant and fresh with the bloom of a milder spring. In a short time it was found as suited to the Gallic landscape as ever any native growth might be. 1 1 0 This same process of transplanting and transformation would be repeated in different ways and under diversified forms throughout the Roman Empire. Before long it would carry the teachings of Evagrius through Syria and the mountainous regions of Armenia and far into Persia where it was vastly influential. Eventually even the Arabic world would not only welcome his works into its literature but even pass them on to the Ethiopian Church which proved to be eager to collect and translate his works. 1 1 1 109. J. Cassian, Institutions Cenobitiques, Preface, 9; ed. J. P.Guy, S C 109 (1965), 32f. n o . St John Chrysostom, who had ordained Cassian a deacon, exercised a moderating influence upon his presentation of the Evagrian system of spirituality, although Chrysostom himself was favorable to the circle of Evagrius' followers. There is, further, evidence that Cassian and Chrysostom share common sources for certain aspects of their teaching. i n . O. Spies, "Die äthiopische Uberlieferung der Abhandlung des Evagrius," Oriens Christianus, 7-3F (1932), 203. The author points out the large number of mss. of the treatise he edits here as one of the clear indications of the popularity of Evagrius in the Church of Ethopia. Surprisingly, the Arabic text was used as basis for the translation into Ethopian, which was made about 1551 AD.

The History of Evagrian Theology

li

Above all it was the Syrian Church which gave the most sympathetic hearing to the doctrines ofEvagrius. All his major writings were translated into the Syriac tongue very early, 112 and soon after passed on by this church to the Armenians who translated them into their own tongue. The result was that the teachings ofEvagrius have played a major role in the ascetic and mystical theology of the Syriac tradition. Not only were they copied in large numbers and widely circulated, but important commentaries were written on his works by some of the outstanding Syrian theologians.113 One of the reasons for this was that the Syriac world was left largely untroubled by the Origenist and Pelagian conflicts. But perhaps the more important reason is that the writings of this ardent monk with his concentration on a severe asceticism and the complete orientation of life to mystical prayer appealed to the temper of the Syriac world, more Oriental than classical in its tendencies. In the Latin world the reception of Evagrius was at first enthusiastic on the part of large numbers. The translations of Rufmus had a wide audience and so popularized Evagrius that even the strictures of St Jerome, as severe as they were, 114 could not prevent the 112. There are a number o f Syriac mss. w h i c h are appreciably earlier than any o f the Greek mss. w h i c h are extant. Some date to the sixth century. In addition some o f the works ofEvagrius are found in several distinct translations and for that reason have a special value in establishing the critical text. See Muyldermans, op. cit., 6 and 31. 113. Guillaumont, 19, referring to the commentary o f Babai the Great, quotes "Evagrius' w o r k became the chief manual and the authoritative e x position o f the ascetico-mystical w a y o f life for Persian monasticism."—• Cyprian Rice, The Persian Sufis (London, 1964), 22. It was Babai the Great, abbot o f the monastery o f M t Izla in Persia, w h o introduced Evagrius' works so successfully into Persia that they continued to be active even after the Moslem conquest, and have decisively influenced the development o f the spirituality o f the Persian Sufis. 114. See the Epistle to Ctesiphon, 133:3 ; P L 2 2 : i i 5 i A . St Jerome considered Evagrius and the Origenists generally to be the precursors o f the Pelagians. Cavallera considers that he did this "quite artificially" and that this v i e w is untenable (F. Cavallera, St Jerome: Sa pie et son oeuvre, 2 (Paris, 1922), 125. B u t a recent author takes the opposite side o f the argument (J. Gross, Entstehungsgeschichte des Erbsiindendogmas (Munich, 1963), 163, as cited b y F. Refoulé, op. cit., 223).

lii

Introduction

continuing influence o f Evagrius. In addition to the spread o f his teachings by the Latin translation o f his works b y Rufinus, and later a second translation by Gennadius, there was the personal influence o f the exiled Origenists w h o turned to the Latin West. A b o v e all, the writings o f Cassian assured the ideas o f Evagrius wide welcome in the spirituality o f the Benedictine monasteries. St Benedict named Cassian along with St Basil as Fathers whose writings he most highly recommended

to his monks. 1 1 5

His

recommendation was taken very seriously as the great popularity o f both o f Cassian's major works in the Benedictine centuries attests. 116 Besides these books there were the many translations o f Palladius' History 1 1 7 which not only speaks about Evagrius but illustrates his ascetic and mystical teaching. W h e n the Fifth Ecumenical Council condemned the Origenism o f Evagrius there was a marked reaction against propagating his writings. T h e immediate occasion o f this condemnation was the revival o f interest in Origenistic and Evagrian spirituality on the part o f a group o f fervent Palestinian monks living in the N e w Lavra. This group was opposed by the higoumenos o f the Great Lavra, Gelasius. Political interests led to involvement on the part o f the Basileus and violent scenes characterized the struggle. In the face o f this threat to orthodoxy and to unity Justinian insisted on the Council's giving a decision on the question. The Council issued a statement containing fifteen anathemas against Origenism. 118 The Origenists at the N e w Lavra, however, w o u l d not accept the decree. 119 T h e y were forcefully expelled and

115. The

Rule

of St Benedict,

trans. J. M c C a n n ( L o n d o n , 1952), 160. c. 73,

ed., G. Penco (Firenze, 1970). P- 188. 116. Both the Institutes and the Conferences of Cassian have been among the most popular monastic spiritual reading down through the centuries. St Benedict recommends both of these works. Cassian's third major piece of writing, De Incarnatione, was much less popular. It is a dogmatic treatise. 117. For a detailed discussion of some of the problems arising from this fact, LH, p. 9. 118. G u i l l a u m o n t , I33ff.

119. Ibid.,

136.

The History of Evagrian Theology

liii

replacements from the Great Lavra were sent to repopulate the monastery. This final measure spelled the end of the Origenists as a force in history. The condemnation pronounced by the Ecumenical Council was the reason for the eclipse of Evagrius' work. The reaction set in immediately both in the East and the West.

Later History of Evagrian Writings In spite of the eclipse his name suffered Evagrius continued to exercise a vast influence upon the spirituality of the Church in many cultures and in various ways. One of the reasons for this is that many persons thought a great deal of the usefulness of his writings. Not all of them were intellectuals. Both of the works translated in this volume had wide appeal, especially for monks but also for Christians of all classes who read them for centuries without discovering in them anything harmful to orthodox faith. 120 The Chapters on Prayer were preserved by passing under the name of the respected St Nilus. 1 2 1 A few other works were also preserved in the original Greek even though they were known to be works of Evagrius. 122 One of the interesting ways in which Evagrius managed to continue to teach in his native tongue was through the translation

120. I. Hausherr has stressed this in Les Lefons d'utie Contemplative (Paris, i960), 7-8. One of the arguments against Evagrius is the lack of references to the name of Jesus or his person and to the sacraments in his work on prayer. Yet, while this has some significance, too much weight must not be put on it, for other works of antiquity, even by some great Fathers, display certain serious lacunae. E.g., B. Steidle, Die Regel St Benedikts (Beuron, 1952), i89ff. has pointed to the paucity of sacramental theology in the Benedictine spirituality. The recently published second part of the Letter to Melania, moreover, places the person of Jesus at the center of Evagrius' thought. 121. There were others too whose name lent shelter to some of Evagrius' works, Gregory of Nazianzen and St Basil being the two most renowned. 122. Other works in Greek are the Sentences for Monks, The Exhortation to a Virgin, the Praktikos and the Hypotyposis, to name the more important ones.

liv

Introduction

into Greek of the works of Isaac the Syrian. 123 This great theologian of the mystical life was profoundly indebted to Evagrius for much of his teaching, so that when his works were put into Greek to a great extent Evagrius was readmitted into his mother Church, though like Isaac of old she did not recognize his identity: " T h e voice is the voice of Jacob, but the hands are the hands of Esau." 1 2 1 It is clear that some of the greatest Byzantine writers had studied Evagrius very thoroughly and had incorporated his basic concepts of the spiritual life in varying degree into their systems of ascetic 123. Isaac the Syrian, also known as Isaac of Nineveh (died about 700), is an important spiritual author of the Syrian Church. Originally a monk of Bethabe in Kurdistan he became the Nestorian bishop of Nineveh. But he soon returned to become a hermit, then finally a monk in the monastery of Rabban Shapur in the mountains of Persia. His literary remains are very considerable and much appreciated by the Syrian Church. But they remain almost wholly unpublished in Syriac, though translations in several other languages are printed. He is often confused with Isaac of Antioch, who lived in the fourth century, and one of the difficulties about editing his work is the confusion of the mss. tradition. For bibliography see, Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. F. L. Cross (London, 1963): "Isaac of Nineveh," 703. For further evidence ofEvagrian influence on Nestorians seeE. A. W. Budge, The Book of Governors, 2 vols. (London, 1893), passim. The recent edition of the Asceticon of Abba Isaiah of Scete adds another page to the textual history and to the influence of Evagrius in the Syriac world. See R. Draguet, Les Cinq Recensions de I'Asceticon Syriac d'Abba Isaie (Louvain, 1968), vol. 1, 10. Scattered throughout this work are references to Evagrius which provide certain data for situating him in the monastic tradition as well as evaluating his influence. 124. Gen 27:22. 125. Viller, passim, and Volker, 490. 126. Diadoch of Photicus is a figure about whom very little is known beyond that he was the bishop of Photicus and that he attended the Council of Chalcedon. He has written some very interesting spiritual reflections which, while influenced by Evagrius, of themselves contribute to the development of the Byzantine mystical and ascetic theology. Bouyer, op. cit., 43off. has a good study of his doctrine, and his works have been published recently. Ed. E. des Places, Oeuvres Spirituelles de Diadoque de Photice, SC 5 bis (1955). 127. St John Climachus, though a very original writer as his Ladder of Divine Ascent clearly indicates, is essentially a disciple of Evagrius as regards his basic conception of the relations between asceticism and contemplation (see H. G. Beck, Kirche und Theologische Literatur im Byzantinischen Reich [Munich, 1959], 353f.). W. Volker, in his recent study of Climachus, shows that it is that part of Evagrius which is rooted in the Apophthegmata and

The History of Evagrian

lv

Theology

and mystical theology. In recent times it has been possible to trace out a g o o d

deal o f the course traveled b y E v a g r i a n theology

through the centuries. Besides the considerable influence he had upon M a x i m u s theology

of

the Confessor, 1 2 5 Evagrius contributed to

Diadoch

of

Photicus, 1 2 6

St J o h n

the

Climachus, 1 2 7

Hesychius, 1 2 8 Nicetas Stethatos, 1 2 9 and S y m e o n the N e w

Theo-

logian. 1 3 0 His theology also came to be important in the hesychastic school o f spirituality through being incorporated in the teaching o f G r e g o r y o f Sinai 1 3 1 w h o in some sense can be called the originator o f the m o v e m e n t which culminated in the w o r k s o f G r e g o r y which was accepted by Barsanuphius as safe and valuable which has influenced Climachus. See his Scala Parodist (Wiesbaden, 1968) v, vi, 7. This applies in particular to his studies of the chief vices. Ibid., 69ff. But he did not always take kindly to Evagrius, going so far as to call him "cursed" (The Ladder of Divine Ascent, trans. L. Moore [New York, i960], 141). Climachus is still the most influential of writers on monastic matters among the Russian monks. Indeed, it has been recently pointed out that his work has played a part in the formation of the character of modern Russia, notably through Dostoyevsky. See T. Merton, Disputed Questions (New York, i960), 88. 128. Hesychius was the abbot of the Monastery of the Thornbush on Mt Sinai, and lived probably in the seventh century. His two Centuries represent a blending of elements taken from Evagrius and Climachus into an original synthesis that marked another stage in the development of Byzantine spirituality. These works are printed in PG 93:148c)—1544, where they are erroneously ascribed to Hesychius of Jerusalem. See Beck, op. cit., supra note 127, 453. 129. Nicetas Stethatos was an important figure in the Byzantine world at the time of the Great Schism in the mid-eleventh century. Born in 1020, he entered the Studite Monastery at the age of fourteen and soon became the favorite disciple of Symeon the New Theologian who was living there at the time. Later he wrote the life of Symeon and also edited his works. In addition he wrote a number of books himself. He died about 1090. For further details of his life and a recent edition of his works, Nicetas Stethatos: Opuscules et Lettres, ed. A. Darrouzès, SC 81 (Paris, 1961). 130. Symeon the New Theologian represents the high-point of the postpatristic mystical theology of the Byzantine tradition. He fills out the Evagrian framework, which he basically accepts, with the more affective emphasis of Diadoch and of pseudo-Macarius. But his own mystical experience and the strongly personal style put a highly distinctive mark on all that he wrote. See the discussion in Beck, 3608". and 585 for further particulars, and more especially Symeon le Nouveau Theologien: Catéchèse, ed. B . Krivocheine, SC, 96, vol. 1 (Paris, 1963), the Introduction. 1 3 1 . Gregory of Sinai, born towards the end of the thirteenth century, became a monk first on the island of Cyprus, but before long transferred to

Introduction

lvi Palamas.

132

T h e spiritual descendants o f Palamas, such as t h e c o m -

pilers o f the Philokalia,

N i k o d e m u s a n d Macarius, 1 3 3 as well as the

i m p o r t a n t g r o u p o f O r t h o d o x theologians o f o u r o w n t i m e w h o h a v e been referred t o as the Neo-palamites 1 3 4 —all are in v a r y i n g degree influenced b y the E v a g r i a n p o i n t o f v i e w . In fact it is the Russian O r t h o d o x w h o h a v e c o m e t o b e m o r e d e v o t e d t o the spiritual t h e o l o g y o f the Philokalia (in Russian, the

Dobrotolyubie)135

t h a n a n y o f the other churches. O n e o f the m a j o r pieces contained in this collection o f writings is the O n e H u n d r e d C h a p t e r s o f the Praktikos

b y Evagrius. 1 3 6 T h e extent t o w h i c h the spirit o f the

Mt Sinai where he made a number of disciples. He soon had to leave there, however, and settled on Crete where he encountered an elderly monk who introduced him to the practices of hesychasm, the contemplatively oriented monastic observance. When later on he moved to Mt Athos he found scarcely one there who practiced the hesychastic observance and so he set about to establish it there himself and thus gave rise to the movement which was to culminate in the experience and writings of the influential Gregory Palamas not long after Gregory's death in 1346. For particulars of his teaching, see Beck, op. cit., supra note 127, 694-5. 132. Gregory Palamas, born in Constantinople about 1296, is easily one of the most influential of the Byzantine theologians and mystics. After he had dedicated himself to his studies—with the significant exclusion of philosophy— he was introduced into mysticism by Theoleptus of Philadelpia. He then entered the Athos monastic community and became a disciple of Gregory of Sinai. An invasion by the Turks caused him to flee from there after five years and this led to his founding a new monastery in Macedonia, near Berrhoia, with a group of like-minded monks. The incursions of Serbs forced him to return to Athos. An important controversy with Barlaam broke out at this time and occupied a great deal of his activity and gave him great prominence. He wrote mystical treatises in addition to controversial works and was accorded official recognition, so that even in his life time his theology became the recognized property of Mt Athos. He died in 1359 and was beatified by the Patriarch Philotheos in 1368. See Beck, op. cit., supra note 127, 712ft'. for a more thorough discussion. 133. For a brief account of Nikodemus the Hagiorite and Macarius of Corinth see the article by Un Moine de l'Eglise d'Orient. "La Prière de Jésus," Irénikon. 20 (1947), 39iff134. This term is used by E. von Ivânka, "Palamismus und Vàtertradition," L'Eglise et les eglises, 2 (Chevtogne, 1955), 41. This group of young and very influential theologians have reinterpreted the Palamite theology for our own times in the conviction that it is a basic element of the Byzantine tradition and still valid for our times. According to Ivânka their way of interpreting

The History Dobrotolyubie

penetrated

of Evagrian

into

the

Theology

soul

of

lvii

nineteenth-century

Russia is best illustrated b y the m o v i n g a n d b e a u t i f u l s t o r y o f the Russian peasant w h o s e o n e a i m w a s to f o l l o w the prescriptions o f its t e a c h i n g . 1 3 7 Pseudo-Denis, fluential

the

Areopagite,

who

was

perhaps

more

in-

i n the W e s t than in the E a s t , t h o u g h he h a d a considerable

n u m b e r o f f o l l o w e r s in B y z a n t i u m , is n o w k n o w n t o h a v e b o r r o w e d s o m e o f the basic elements o f his o w n t h e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m f r o m Evagrius.138

Through

him Evagrian

teachings

penetrated

d e e p l y into the m y s t i c a l w r i t e r s o f the M i d d l e A g e s in the W e s t . 1 3 9

Palamas presents no difficulty to the traditional view of the simple nature of the Divinity, although the teaching of Palamas himself did present such a difficulty. It should be noted that in the spirituality of the Byzantine world, including the Russian Orthodox, the Palamite theology has been predominant, at the expense of those writers whose teaching tends to stress other elements of spirituality than the contemplative. For instance such great spiritual writers as Basil the Great, Barsanuphius, Dorotheus and Theodore the Studite are all excluded from the Philokalia. See the discussion by J . Meyendorf, St Gregoire Palamas et la mystique orthodoxe (Paris, 1959), 174-78 on hesychastic tradition. 135. This Russian translation, with the considerable additions it incorporates, has played a prominent role in the Orthodox Russian spirituality. That it continues to do so is evidenced by the fact that a new printing is being undertaken at present by the monks of Holy Trinity monastery: Dobrotolyubie, 5 vols (Jordanville, N . Y . , 1963). It is a reprint of the 2nd ed. (Mt Athos, 1883). It has been partly translated into English: Early Fathers from the Philokalia, trans. E. Kadloubovsky and G. Palmer (London, 1959) and the companion volume by the same translators, Writings from the Philokalia on Prayer of the Heart (London, 1959). 136. Dobrotolyubie, 1 (Jordanville, N . Y . , 1963) 421-36. 137. The Way of a Pilgrim, trans. R . M . French (New Y o r k , 1952). The pilgrim actually must have used the Slavonic translation, made by Paissy Velichkovsky (Moscow, 1793) since the Russian translation was made only in 1877 by Theophane the Recluse. There is an interesting piece of evidence for the fact that Evagrius was read by the pilgrim, for on p. 76 we read: " W h e n the spirit prays purely without being led astray then the demons no longer come upon it from the left side but from the right." C f . Chapters on Prayer, 72. Actually it is the staretz who speaks these words to the pilgrim, but he has so completely assimilated them that they belong as completely to him as to Evagrius. 138. Bouyer, op. cit., 399-400, 413 and 421. 139. See the informative article by A . Rayez, M . A. Fracheboud et al., in D.S., 3:318-429: "Denys l'Areopagite," which discusses the extensive in-

lviii

Introduction

It is not clear h o w far the writings of Evagrius had a direct influence upon certain mystics of the West, such as John of the Cross 1 4 0 and Ruysbroeck, 141 but there are reasons for thinking they had some knowledge of his theology by writings other than those of PseudoDenis. Nearly all the writers mentioned in this long list of saints and theologians derived such parts of their doctrine as were taken from the teachings of Evagrius largely from the two works here translated. They contain the essence of his ascetico-mystical system in its relation to the life of prayer. In spite of the heretical elements 142 in his speculative theology and the tendencies to extremism which are to be found in certain passages in Evagrius' writings, there pulses the life that is a longing for God and which is a sign of the fluence upon the western mystics and theologians of Pseudo-Denis. The list of his disciples includes some of the greatest saints and doctors of the Roman Church: St Albert the Great, St Thomas Aquinas, Eckhardt, Fenélon, etc. T o obtain an impression of the depth and the power of this influence one has only to read the extensive commentary of St Thomas on the Divine Names. 140. Hausherr, Lefons, 19. Also the very provocative article, "Les Orientaux connaissent-ils les 'nuits' de Saint Jean de la Croix e" OCP, 12 (1946), 5-46. 141. Jan van Ruysbroeck (1293-1381) is one of the greatest mystics of the West. He lived as a canon regular of St Augustine in a hermitage near Brussels and wrote a number of important works dealing with the mystical life. He is the head of the school of devotio moderna. That he may well have read some of Evagrius is a conclusion one is inclined to draw after perusing some of his work, for instance chapter twelve of his Book of Supreme Truth where he refers to bare images, the divine brightness, conformity of the created image with the uncreated image through contemplation. See this passage in J . E. Sullivan, The Image of God (Dubuque, 1964), 291-2, note 200. 142. It is useful to point out here that for many of the churches Evagrius was never considered a heretic. On the contrary he has been venerated as one of the great saints by several of them, above all the Jacobite Syrians honor him as one of the first among their holy doctors. Indeed, John Bar Kaldoun lists him ahead of St Basil, St Chrysostom and others. Isaac of Nineveh speaks of him as the "greatest of contemplatives," and in the Syrian martyrology of Raban Sliba{Analecta Bollandia, 27 [1908], 173) Evagrius has a commemoration for January 16th. The Nestorians commemorate him in the Canon of the Mass and the Copts celebrate his feast on the Fifth Sunday of Lent, while the Armenians have his feast on the n t h of February. See Guillaumont, 198-9. The Georgian Church, which considers Evagrius a native son, holds him in the highest honor and considers him its first monk. See M. Tarchnisvili, p. 307, op. cit.

lix

The Writings 143

Spirit who is himself the living tradition of the Church. It is the presence of this Spirit which is the reason for the wide and enduring influence of this monk and writer upon the spiritual life of the Church, especially through the Praktikos and the Chapters on Prayer.

THE WRITINGS

The list of Evagrian writings is an extensive one. Establishing the precise number and names of all his works is a task beset with certain serious difficulties. As we have already seen, considerable ingenuity was needed to preserve some of his works from the fire. This meant using pseudo-authors on the title page at times. However, there is considerable agreement on a good deal of the Evagrian corpus and it is possible to give a rather detailed statement as to the state of the research into this matter at present.

Certainly Authentic Works i. The Praktikos One of the two works translated in this volume, the Praktikos deals with the ascetic life but actually has a good deal about prayer as well as about the work of cleansing the affections of passionate and disordered impulses. It was one of Evagrius' most popular works. Even today manuscripts containing this work are found in libraries of the East and West alike. This very fact of the number of manuscripts preserved and their broad distribution has prevented the establishing of a critical edition up to the present. 144 It is the best

143. V . Lossky and L . Ouspensky, The Meaning of Ikons (Boston, 1952), 17-18. 144. See E S , 26-27. While this w o r k was in galleys, the critical edition was published, and w e have been able to refer to it. It is excellent. C f . below, note 34, p. 1 1 .

lx

Introduction

preserved text o f the entire corpus o f the Greek Evagriana. 145 It is also found in Syriac and Armenian versions. Although it is an independent whole in itself yet it forms a trilogy as Evagrius himself tells us, 146 the Gnostikos and the Kephalaia Gnostica being its t w o companion pieces. 2. The

Gnostikos

Within the trilogy mentioned above, the Praktikosand the Gnostikos formed a special unit and were k n o w n together as the Monachikos.147 The Gnostikos has but fifty chapters or sentences in contrast with the hundred chapters o f the Praktikos.

It has been transmitted only in

the Syriac and Armenian translations, although a number

of

fragments o f considerable interest have been preserved in the original Greek. 148 The Gnostikos is written for contemplatives rather than for those concentrating primarily on the ascetic life. But it concentrates on practical advice for this group of monks rather than on speculation. 3. Kephalaia Gnostica (Problemata Gnostica) This is Evagrius'major speculative treatise. It is a kind o f Summa Theologica o f his cosmological and anthropological thought and contains a great deal o f philosophical material. It is above all in this work that the ideas for which he was condemned are to be found. This w o r k consists of six Centuries o f aphoristic sayings. C u r iously, the Centuries contain only ninety such sentences or chapters rather than the expected hundred. There is a collection o f sixty sentences which is k n o w n as the Supplement for the reason that it brings the number up to six hundred for the six Centuries. It seems to be preserved only in a single Syriac manuscript. 149 There is

145. Ibid., 26.

14.6. Letter to Anatolius, below, p. 15.

147. Socrates, Historia ecdesiastica, 3:7; P G 6 7 : 5 i 6 A . 148. See the interesting fragment printed in P G 40:1285, preserved by Socrates in his history (c. 4:23). 149. In the Vatican Syr 178. See ES, 66.

The

Writings

lxi

some question as to whether the Supplement was actually prepared by Evagrius himself. 150 This work has been almost completely lost in the original Greek, and even the "received text" of the Syriac version was a skillful re-writing of a good deal of the material so as to produce a text which was free of objectionable doctrines for the most part though not entirely. 151 It has been edited by Frankenberg, though somewhat carelessly, with a retro-version into the original Greek. 152 There is a second Syriac translation which preserves the original text very closely that has ¡recently been discovered and published. This version allows a more accurate and complete evaluation of Evagrian theology than has hitherto been possible.153 It reveals clearly the justice of the condemnation of the Christology of this work. 1 5 4

4. The Chapters

on Prayer

This work is the most important of all the Evagrian corpus. It is here translated into English for the first time. It is preserved in the Greek under the name of St Nilus of Sinai. It was always ascribed to Evagrius by the Syrians and Armenians, and Hausherr has proved they were correct in doing so. 155 Although the entire text was probably translated into Syriac at one time 156 only a part of it is preserved in that tongue. 1 5 ' The work consists of a Prologue in the form of a letter and 153 sentences on prayer.

150. Ibid.

151. Guillaumont, 256-57.

152. Frankenberg, Evagrius Pontikos (Berlin, 1912). 153. This is the version discovered by Guillaumont in 1952 and published in P O 28:1. 154. Guillaumont, 159, and also F. Refoulé, op. cit., 251 ff. 155. I. Hausherr, "Le traité de l'oraison d'Evagre le Pontique," RAM, (1934), 169. This is n o w generally accepted: see ES, 39, note 67.

15

156. I. Hausherr, "Le De Oratione d'Evagre le Pontique en syriaque et en arabe," OCP, 5 (1939), 69. 157. That is the first thirty-five chapters in Syriac. T h e y correspond to the first thirty-two chapters o f the Greek text. ES, 39.

lxii

Introduction

5. Antirrheticos. This work is one that is entirely characteristic of Evagrius in his traditional side, that is to say it reflects the part of his teaching which he took over almost exclusively from the Bible and the desert tradition and reworked in his own very distinctive manner. It deals with the eight kinds of passionate thoughts. Evagrius was the first to draw up the catalogue of these and to fill out the description of them. In this work Evagrius cites a series of scriptural texts in their proper order from Genesis to the Apocalypse which can be useful in the fight against these evil tendencies and thoughts. It contains some 487 citations in all, 158 each division of the work having the passages appropriate to the particular logismos that is its theme. It is one of the much appreciated works of Evagrius. It exists only in the Syriac and Armenian. The Latin translation made by Gennadius 159 has perished.

6. Sentences for Monks In distinct contrast with all the preceding works this treatise is intended primarily for cenobites. Evagrius usually had hermits in mind when he wrote. This book has been edited in the original Greek version by Gressman, 160 but the Syriac text remains unedited. It is also published in the Armenian edition of his works and there is a Latin version in Migne. 1 6 1 Wilmart has pointed out how influential this work was in the West in the fifth and sixth centuries. 162

158. See the description in A . and C . Guillaumont, D S 4 : 1 7 3 4 (i960): "Evagre le Pontique." 159. Gennadius, De vir. ill., 1 1 (PL 58:1066); he describes the workjat some length and remarks that he was careful to preserve the original simplicity that characterizes this most biblical of works. 160. H. Gressman, Nonnenspiegel und Monchsspiegel des Euagrios Pontikos (Leipzig, 1913). Muyldermans, op. cit., 29, discusses the edition of Gressman and states the position of the Syriac text in the tradition. 161. PG 40:1277-83. 162. A . Wilmart, op. cit., 1 5 2 .

The Writings

lxiii

7. Exhortation to a Virgin. This work too has been preserved in the Greek original and edited by Gressman.163 It has been preserved too in Syriac and Armenian and Wilmart has published a Latin translation164 which is quite distinct from the one printed in Holstenius. This work is preserved in only a very few manuscripts, differing in this from the Sentences for Monks for which we have numerous copies. 8.

Hypotyposis.

The Hypotyposis or Principles of the Monastic Life, describes the obligatory practices o f those who become monks. It concentrates especially on the need for hesychia or recollection and the way o f life required to maintain a more or less constant state o f spiritual concentration. This work is preserved in Greek also and is included in the Philokalia.165 It is also extant in Syriac and Armenian translations. Indeed there are three distinct Syriac translations.166 Guillaumont 167 has some doubts about the Evagrian authorship o f this work, largely on the basis o f the style which lacks the originality and freshness that is usually found in Evagrius. But the manuscript tradition is constant in its attribution, although one passage o f this work is found among the works o f Ammonas. 168 9. Treatise to the Monk

Eulogius,169

Although some o f the Greek manuscripts ascribe this work to Evagrius some doubt could well be entertained as to the authenticity of this work since the majority o f the Greek manuscripts attribute it to St Nilus. Indeed Guillaumont considers it a doubtfully genuine work in spite o f the fact that the Armenian and especially the Syriac tradition which has a large number o f extant copies o f this work 163. 165. 167. 169.

See note 160 above. 164. Wilmart, op. tit. Philokalia 1, 38-43. 166. ES, 31. A. and C. Guillaumont, op. tit., 173-5. 168. Loc. tit. This is printed in PG 79:1093-1140, among the works of St Nilus.

lxiv

Introduction

ascribe it to Evagrius. There are also three distinct Syriac translations of this work. 170 10. Treatise on Various Evil

Thoughts

(Capita

Cognoscitiva

is the

title used by one editor)171 This is preserved in Greek, and has also appeared in the Philokalia under the name ofEvagrius. There are two distinct Greek recensions of this work, and Muyldermans has studied the Syriac tradition. 172 There is some hesitation in the Greek tradition about ascribing this to Evagrius, but the evidence is heavily in favor of ascribing it to him. 11. Protrepticus a n d Paraeneticus

These two works were addressed to a monk and deal with such questions as prayer, psalmody and other topics of monastic interest. Although it has been called into question by one scholar, the Evagrian authorship seems quite certain.173 They have been edited at the head of the collection of letters in Frankenberg's edition. They are preserved only in the Syriac translation, not in the original Greek.174 12.

Letters

The sixty-two letters preserved in Syriac are an important part of his work. For one thing they form probably the most ancient and complete collection of the entire Syriac literature.175 For under170. ES, 4óf. 171. PG 79:1200-1233, among the works of St Nilus. It is also included in the Philokalia, 1, 44-57172. Actually Muyldermans decides that this work is factitious, being made up by some later editor of collections of sentences from other works of Evagrius. ES, 79-80. 173. Ibid., 75. 174. Possibly too in the Armenian under the title Sermo exhortationis, Frankenberg, pp. 124-280. Cf. I. Hausherr, "Les versions syriaque et arménienne d'Evagre le Pontique," Orientalia Christiana, 22 (1931), 74. 175. ES, 76.

The Writings

lxv

standing the thought of Evagrius his letters are quite essential. In particular the letter to Melania, which is listed separately from the collection of sixty-two letters just mentioned. It explains a number of important Evagrian concepts, not all of which are orthodox. 176 The letters are addressed to Melania for the most part, 177 but others to whom letters are addressed are St Basil and St Gregory of Nazianzen.178 A number of these letters are preserved also in Armenian and the important Letter Eight of St Basil, as it has been called, is still preserved in Greek having been transmitted among the letters of Basil. 179 13. Scriptural Commentaries Although Socrates and Gennadiusand Palladius have all referred to certain of Evagrius' works by name, none of the ancients has stated that he also wrote commentaries on Scripture. Yet the fact is now certain. The most important of these commentaries is the Commentary on the Psalms which was preserved among the works of Origen, being ascribed to the latter. In 1939 von Balthasar studied the text and on the basis of its contents concluded that it was a work of Evagrius. 180 In i960, Rondeau discovered in the Vatican library the manuscript evidence for Evagrian authorship of this work. 1 8 1 Actually this commentary is a series of sentences which represent highly personal reflections upon the text of the Psalms rather than a commentary in the usual sense of that word. It is quite important for a fuller understanding of Evagrian Christology. Other commentaries on the Scriptures which are extant only in fragments deal with the books of Job and Proverbs. There are also the De Seraphim182 dealing with the vision of Isaiah and De Cherubim 176. Ibid., 78. 177. Ibid., 77. 178. Ibid., 78. 179. See the work by R . Melcher, op. cit. It has been edited recently in a critical edition: Saint Basile, Lettres, ed. Y . Courtonne, vol. 1 (Paris, 1957), 22-37. 180. H. U . von Balthasar, " D i e Hiera des Evagrius Pontikus," Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, 63 (1939), 86ff. and i 8 i f f . 1 8 1 . M . J . Rondeau, op. cit. 182. J . Muyldermans, "Sur les Séraphins et sur les Chérubins d'Evagre le Pontique dans les versions syriaque et arménienne," Muséon, 59 (1946), 367-79. E

lxvi

Introduction

commenting on the vision o f Ezechiel. 183 Finally a commentary on the Pater noster is known to have been written by him. 1 4 . Various Ascetic

Treatises

MuyHermans has published a group o f Evagrian texts dealing with ascetic topics such as fasting, silence, humility, the signs o f the state o f quiet, the just man and the perfect man and still others. 184 A l l o f these are preserved in the Syriac and prior to this edition were pretty much forgotten. Some o f them are o f considerable interest especially the short treatise entitled De Justis et Perfectis.18s There are some sixteen such short treatises edited by Muyldermans.

Works

of Doubtful

1. De Malignis

Authenticity Cogitationibus

This work is quite likely from the pen o f Evagrius 1 * 6 . It is extant in both Syriac and Greek. 187 The Syriac version however is a good deal shorter than the Greek text printed by Migne. 2. Collections

of

Sentences

A number o f collections o f sentences are extant under the names o f Evagrius and Nilus in the tradition. The precise author has not yet been adequately established even though one of these collections, an alphabetical series, is found among the works o f Evagrius in the Migne edition 188 and three others are found among the works o f 183. Ibid. 184. ES, iosff. Muyldermans also makes the interesting observation that in the Syriac literature there are a large number o f mss. which contain collections o f excerpts from various works o f Evagrius. These collections were made for the use of monks in their lectio divina, and they constitute clear evidence for the wide popularity o f Evagrius among the monks o f various periods. 185. ES, 8if. 186. ES, 38. 187. It is printed in the Greek version in P G 79:1199-1234. 188. In P G 40:1268-69.

Evagrius the Writer

lxvii

189

Nilus. This type of literature has been influenced by the Greek gnomic style 190 but also by the biblical collections of aphorisms, especially Proverbs.

EVAGRIUS THE WRITER

Evagrius was a born writer. It is evident from his early activities in Constantinople that he had a gift of eloquence which soon put him in the public eye. He became known as an important speaker and was an excellent debater. 191 He did not altogether give up this activity even in his later years in the desert, but engaged in teaching and on occasional visits to Alexandria successfully preached against heresy. 192 However, his style as a writer betrays very little of the sort of eloquence which was admired in the Greek world of his day. Evagrius carried his asceticism even into his writing and exercised a severe restraint which rarely gave free rein to his pen. The monk is always in evidence with insistence on a gravity and concentration of expression which would become oppressive were it not for the clear light of insight and the occasional flash of brilliance which lightens the whole. His aim was a conciseness of expression, and he achieved this purpose through the perfecting of his use of the "sentence," or gnomic saying. But he occasionally makes use of more descriptive, detailed style, as in the analysis of the various passions. In this case his native power of observation and accuracy of detail as well as the choice of precisely the telling gesture are striking and mark him out as the writer of genius. One of the best instances of this more descriptive style is found in the chapter of the Praktikos dealing with the vice of acedia.193 189. In P G 7 9 : 1 2 3 6 - 6 4 . 190. Bardenhewer refers to Evagrius as the "first Christian writer o f gnomic literature" (op. cit., 97). C f . also A . and C . Guillamont, "Traité pratique," S C 1 7 0 , H 3 f . for a thorough discussion o f E v a g r i u s ' use o f that form. 1 9 1 . L H , 3 8 : 2 , p. i n .

1 9 2 . Festugière, op. cit.,

1 9 3 . C . 1 2 o f the section: " T h e eight kinds o f evil thoughts."

123.

lxviii

Introduction

In fact it was in the area of descriptive psychology that Evagrius exercised one of his chief influences on later monastic tradition. He found in the desert tradition already a considerable body of teaching concerning the various passions and logismoi (passionate thoughts) which was the fruit of a practical experience of many years on the part of the more experienced monks. But he was the first to classify them into an ordered series of eight types of passionate thoughts.194 He gave considerable place to these logismoi in his ascetic system. So he occupied himself with making the most accurate observations and descriptions of their dynamisms and operations. He was careful to describe the patterns of activity which characterized them and to indicate their inter-relations among themselves.195 His work in this area became the classic and when John Cassian wished to teach the western monks the desert doctrine on the logismoi he could find no better source than the writings of Evagrius. 196 The fact that Evagrius gave such prominence to psychology of a practical, experiential kind is another indication that he was influenced more by the desert tradition and by the lived experience of the spiritual life than is recognized by those scholars who see in him only the systematizer and the systematic philosopher. Indeed it was precisely this elemental concern with human experience as well as with the more theological aspects of the spiritual life that did so much to make his writings popular even among the monks 194. I. Hausherr, "L'origine de la théorie orientale des huit péchés capitaux." Orientalia Christiana, 30 (1933). 173195. The conviction that the dynamic relations among the passions was one of the most useful and significant things about their operations that the monk could understand is one of the most remarkable features of Evagrius' study of the logismoi. It puts him in the line of great practical-descriptive psychologists and relates him, in this respect, to the work of Freud. 196. See for instance Cassian's description of acedia as found in his Institutes, 10, 1, 2. It is not without significance that Cassian devotes so much space to this problem to which Evagrius himself gave so much stress. See S C 109, 384ÎF. Hausherr has pointed out that for Evagrius apatheia implies passive purification (See OCP, 12 [1946], 5-46). A full study of acedia has been done recently: S. Wenzel, The Sin of Sloth: Acedia in Medieval Thought and Literature (Chapel Hill, 1967)-

Evagrius the Writer

Ixix

w h o were often not intellectual in their approach to the spiritual life. In this he stands far removed f r o m a writer like Pseudo-Denis, f o r instance, whose f r a m e w o r k f o r his spiritual teaching is a N e o platonic cosmology. W h e r e Evagrius also elaborated a highly systematic philosophical cosmology, he was far less successful as a writer and theologian. H e was a much better analyst o f the human psyche than a theoretical thinker as regards his orthodoxy. Another aspect o f Evagrius' writing which is w o r t h noting is the f o r m he chooses to present his thought. T h e t w o w o r k s translated in this v o l u m e are both written in the f o r m o f sentences. There is nothing original in this f o r m , f o r it was used by writers in the Greek w o r l d f o r a long time before Evagrius. T h e gnomic sayings, and especially important f o r Evagrius, the Sentences o f

Sextus made

use o f this literary genre. B u t Evagrius did make an original structure f r o m this f o r m . T h e highly polished, concise sentences w h i c h he composed were collected into groups, often o f a hundred, and edited under the name o f Century. This is actually quite an artificial process. N o w h e r e perhaps is that more evident than in the w o r k on prayer which is translated in this volume. It contains 153 sentences or chapters so as to correspond with the number o f fish caught b y the disciples in the miraculous catch (Jn

21:11).

B u t in fact the Century f o r m became quite popular. A n d , since it was Evagrius w h o first conceived o f this approach to editing collections o f sayings, 1 9 7 he stands as the initiator o f a literary f o r m which has a pedagogy all its o w n and is well adapted f o r meditation. 197. For a discussion of the Century in Byzantine literature see I. Hausherr, DS 2:4i6ff. (1938): "Centuries." Some interesting observations on the sentence form as a literary genre are to be found in F. Schlegel who wrote his philosophical teaching in the form of Fragments for the same kind of reason, so it seems to us, that Evagrius used the sentences: to express the incompleteness of human thought and its mysteriousness. See H. J. Forstman, "The Understanding of Language by Friedrich Schlegel and Schleiermacher," Soundings, 51 (1968), 152. And in recent times one of the philosophers of modern culture has shown how the sentence form is still a type of literature that fits in with the TV age for it has the same kind of tendency to produce active participation on the part of the reader who is stimulated to complete the thought it utters and so to enter into it in depth. See M. McLuhan, Understanding Media: the Extensions of Man (New York, 1966), 30.

lxx

Introduction

O n e o f the reasons for its popularity as spiritual reading is that it allows one to begin and end wherever one wishes. In some sense the C e n t u r y has no beginning and n o end. Its construction is not based on the line o f logical development but follows more c o m p l e x psychological laws, and perhaps at times f o l l o w s n o l a w at all. This gives the over-all effect o f approaching the same topic f r o m different points o f v i e w or aspects, looking at it n o w f r o m one side, n o w f r o m another. It sets the truth before one as an object to encounter, to penetrate, to assimilate, rather than as an element o f a complete logical analysis. Each separate sentence exists independently f r o m one point o f v i e w , but at the same time it has a relationship w i t h each o f the ninety-nine other sentences w h i c h lend various shades o f meaning to it. A l l these factors w e n t to make the C e n t u r y a f o r m m u c h appreciated b y the later Byzantine w o r l d . S o m e o f its greatest spiritual masters saw in it the literary genre admirably suited to c o n v e y the mystery o f a spiritual experience w h i c h was ever renewed in its concrete uniqueness and w h i c h always escaped the confining limits o f logical analysis. T h e n too it had the additional advantage o f providing short, concise sayings w h i c h the monks could readily memorize and ponder in their meditation or call to mind in times o f trial. Authors like D i a d o c h o f Photicus, 1 9 8 Maximus the C o n fessor, 1 9 9 and S y m e o n the N e w Theologian 2 0 0 were to continue the use o f this genre begun b y Evagrius and pass it on to a large number o f other spiritual authors in the Byzantine w o r l d . T h r o u g h the Philokalia it continues to be a w i d e l y read f o r m o f literature in the Greek and Russian O r t h o d o x world. 2 0 1 198. T h e sentences o f Diadoch have been published in the collection o f his w o r k s that appeared in S C , ed. E. des Places, 84, 163. 199. T h e Centuries o f Maximus have been published in an English translation: St Maximus the Confessor: the Ascetic Life, the Four Centuries on Charity, trans. P. Sherwood, A C W 21 (1955). 200. Symeon's Centuries are found in: Symeon Le Nouveau Theologien: Chapitres Theologiques, Gnostiques et Pratiques, ed. A . Darrouzes, S C 51 (1957). 201. T h e Century is one o f the more widely used literary forms in these collections o f spiritual writings. W h e t h e r literally one hundred sentences are adhered to or not, the basic conception remains that o f the Century. This is clear, for instance, for the case where Evagrius named his major w o r k the

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A last feature of Evagrius' style that bears mentioning is his marked preference for definitions. His works reveal a decided concern for precise and logical definition which is in contrast with his overall lack of concern to present the final work as an articulated logical whole. Evagrius' emphasis on conciseness and precision of analysis led him largely to avoid allegory, and this is a feature which sets him off strongly from most other early theologians and writers, notably Origen and Gregory of Nyssa. This characteristic often makes Evagrius' writings easier to comprehend and was one of the reasons that he succeeded in popularizing the thought of these two Fathers to so large an extent. In taking their ideas into his own system and stating them in his clearer fashion he spread their ideas among wider audiences, and in part to a different type of audience than they were accustomed to find. 202 After Evagrius the Byzantine ascetic and mystical vocabulary undergoes little change of direction. It progresses rather by enriching its vocabulary with later contributions from its many great theologians, but the basic stock was the Evagrian contribution in the form in which he cast the many elements he himself had taken from an earlier tradition formed from many currents.203

DOCTRINE

The Cosmology Although much can be done by way of presenting the systematic teaching in Evagrius' world of thought, yet there is an important

Six Centuries, even though they contained only ninety, each Century missing ten sentences. The Century form was to have a future in the Latin world as well as in the Byzantine tradition, as one may observe, for example, in the hundred chapters of the Diadema Monachorum of Smaragdus, abbot of St Mihiel at Verdun, in the Carolingian period. See PL 102:593-690, and Jean Leclercq's comments in his Témoins de la spiritualité occidentale (Paris, 1965). More recently there is the work by Claudel: Cent phrases. 202. W . Jaeger, Two Rediscovered Works of Ancient Christian Literature: Gregory of Nyssa and Macarius (Leiden, 1954), 230. 203. See the evaluation by J. Meyendorf, loc. cit. He considers Evagrius the

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fact to keep in mind from the beginning. Evagrius' history prepares us to accept the fact that he was a complex person. From the highest social and intellectual life of his times he passed to the most austere and simple form of life known to his age. It would be perhaps too much to hope that any man would be able to completely integrate two worlds of culture so far removed from one another as these, especially since anyone capable of passing through both cultures would be quite likely to be somewhat of a complex person to begin with. In any case it seems clear that, while Evagrius achieved an uncommon degree of integration and balance and gave the impression of a man fully at one with himself and his world at the end of his life,204 he made no successful attempt to integrate into a single whole the various traditions by which he was formed. Nor has any modern scholar so far been able to demonstrate the organic unity of Evagrius the Hellenistic thinker with the monk Evagrius, formed by Macarius and the other masters of the Coptic desert tradition. St Basil first, then Gregory of Nazianzen, the great Theologian of the Trinity, and then Gregory of Nyssa, each exercised a direct intellectual and personal influence upon Evagrius while he was still quite young. And above all there is the giant of the early theologians, Origen, who strongly influenced all three of the Cappadocian Fathers and whose works Evagrius himself read. Clement of Alexandria too was influential. This is true especially with regard to the concept of apatheia, which Origen did not take up but which played a prominent part in Clement's asceticism and, under his influence, in Evagrius' thought also. The earlier Eklogoi propheticae

first great organizer of the monastic doctrine on prayer and the one who, in his Chapters on Prayer, gave a mystical vocabulary as well as a spiritual doctrine to subsequent generations of monks. 204. L H 38:13» p- i i 3 205. The Eklogoi propheticae and the Excerpta are selections from works of ancient literature made by Clement of Alexandria which, as Bousset points out, give a singular emphasis to gnosis as an important activity of man. The same author considers that Evagrius' stress upon contemplation is so forceful

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influenced Evagrius very deeply. 205 The list could be still further lengthened. 206 There is the list of Egyptian antecedents to reckon with also. The list here is no less lengthy and no less eminent than the Greek one. It includes such personages as Macarius the Great, Macarius o f Alexandria, Paphnutius,207 Ammonius Parotes,208 and, through his posthumous influence, the greatest of them, Blessed Anthony. 209 U p to the present most of the scholars' attention has been given to that side of Evagrius' teaching which brought upon him the charge of heresy and the condemnation of the Church. Even those w h o recognize the basically Christian inspiration of his thought, such as Karl Rahner, 210 make no serious attempt to present it either as a system that stands alone or as an organic part of his thought as a whole. It is seen as a fact, but as a fact that resists analysis. This defect in our understanding of Evagrius is a serious one. Yet it is largely overlooked. The best of recent studies on his thought, that

as to align him with these works more than with Origen or Clement. Bousset, op. cit., 3 "Evagriosstudien." 206. Such a list would include the Stoic philosophers and the Pythagorean Sextus (in the Armenian tradition the Sentences o f Sextus are ascribed to Evagrius), whose morality was to impress itself upon the spirit of Evagrius. See H. Chadwick, The Sentences of Sextus (Cambridge, 1959), 162. Plotinus and other Neo-platonists too would find a prominent place in this list. 207. Paphnutius is particularly important for he is made to play a central role in the dialogues that Cassian records in his Conferences. His doctrine is very much reminiscent of that of Evagrius, and, indeed, w e are informed by Palladius that Evagrius visited and spoke with this venerable father. L H 47:3, p. 125. For the teaching of Paphnutius, Cassian, Conferences, 3:1-22; PL 49:558-81. 208. Ammonius was already quite familiar with both Origen and with the desert tradition by the time Evagrius arrived in Nitria. It seems quite likely that he exerted considerable influence upon Evagrius at first. 209. In the L H 21.7, p. 73, St Anthony is referred to simply as " T h e Great O n e , " and this is during the period of Evagrius' sojourn inEgypt. Indeed, some o f the ideas which seem to be so characteristically Evagrian are to be found in the teaching o f Anthony as presented by St Athanasius. C f . St Athanasius, The Life of St Anthony, trans. R. Meyer, A C W 10 (1950), 50, where the concept of apatheia is suggested and related to the brightness of one's o w n soul. 210. K . Rahner, op. cit., 22.

lxxiv of Guillaumont,

Introduction 211

except for a point here and there, notably his

teaching on creation, does not deal with this difficulty. He makes an admirable study of the Evagrian cosmology and of his

Weltan-

schauung as a whole, giving a very satisfying account of the Hellenistically inspired system, But what its relations are to his sacramentology, his view of the priesthood, his doctrine of the Church, all of which Evagrius deals with or at least mentions in the two works translated in this volume, is not studied.812 Perhaps the best that can be done at this moment is simply to underline that, while w e can present his thought as a developed theological and cosmological system, there yet remains the somewhat embarrassing fact that there are clear and strong assertions found in both the Chapters on Prayer and the Praktikos, as well as in others of his works and sayings, which do not fit into this system. 213 Their precise relation seems not to have been worked out by Evagrius himself. He may not have been aware of the contradictions. On the other hand, it is certainly not inconceivable that he chose to allow such discrepancies to remain. W e may suppose that he was too much of a realist to attempt to enclose all of life in a rigid theoretic framework. In any case the fact is 2 1 1 . We are thinking here of Guillaumont's Les 'Kephalaía Gnostica.' 212. For instance, Evagrius teaches that pure prayer takes place without images. At the same time he finds another, much more traditional way of describing the summit of the spiritual life: "If you can make deep thought about God have dominion in yourself, you can overcome all passions and you will be worthy of the perfection of the love of Christ." (Budge, op. cit., 1017.) That Evagrius himself was well aware of the tension between these two traditions is well illustrated by a story recounting one of his conversations with one of the Fathers: On one occasion Abba Evagrius said to Abba Arsenius: "Since we are not without learning according to the world . . . (how is it that) the Egyptian villagers possess such excellences»" Abba Arsenius replied to him: " W e possess nothing whatever from the learning of the world but these Egyptian villagers have acquired spiritual excellences through their labors." Budge, 882f. 213. T. Spidlik in a review of Guillaumont's study ofEvagrius also arrived at the conclusion that Evagrius' doctrine is more traditional than Guillaumont believes it to be. He holds that his spiritual teaching, precisely because it is so traditional, is separable from his cosmological speculations, whereas Guillaumont holds the contrary. See OCP, 31 (1965). 4^2.

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there: there remain tensions and conflicts, even in his carefully constructed works, which he did not attempt to resolve.214 The Kephalaia Gnostica, supplemented by the Epistle to Melania, are the chief sources for the analysis of his implicit world-view and theological system. They provide adequate materials to reconstruct the logically consistent and elaborate structure of the Hellenistically influenced segment of Evagrius' thought. The following description, which in large measure follows Guillaumont's study, 215 will give the main outlines of this system. In the beginning there existed a single Henad, that is to say a single, undivided, integral whole whose nature was pure intelligence. It had been created by the Primitive Monad, or rather Henad. (Both these terms mean a simple unity; the second is the one Evagrius used. Origen had used the first.) Because of negligence these bodiless spirits after their multiplication fell away from their original state of mutual equality, where they had but a single activity and purpose: that of contemplating God (the Primitive Henad) in a simple eternal glance of essential knowledge. 216 This primitive state of unity with God is evidently a moral union only, not a metaphysical one in the fullest sense of the word, for it admits of being ruptured through moral fault. Nevertheless, it does have decidedly metaphysical consequences for it occasions the second creation. The fall itself is termed the movement (Kivrjcns). The decree which God enacts in response to this movement is called the judgment (Kprjms). Thus the fall and its consequence is not a mere inevitable and necessary natural result of this carelessness, but it is rather the result of a free decree on the part of God. Consequently creatures are not mere degradated phases of a basically Divine Being, as the Neoplatonists taught. Evagrius does not hold to an emanational philosophy.217 214. Guillaumont, 336-37, mentions that he realizes too the complexity of Evagrian thought and that Origenism is but a part of it. He promises a more careful and thorough study of the question of the organic unity of this thought in a future publication. 215. Guillaumont, 37ff. 216. Ibid. 217. Guillaumont, 42, note 76.

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The result of this judgment is the second creation. This is the origin of the cosmos, the organized world of bodies, the visible creation. It is ruled over by the God who is its Creator, and under this aspect, as ruler and protector, he is known as Providence.218 Creation for Evagrius has a positive value, and nature is, in itself, good. The fate of the individual spirits depends upon the degree of their guilt. They pass into bodies which are more or less material, more or less dark, more or less thick. The angels form part of this material cosmos for they too have bodies. But their bodies are made of fire.219 Thus they are very light, subtle and relatively unconfined by the thickness of matter. Other intelligences pass through this angelic stage to a lower one. They enter the world of visible bodies, in contrast to the invisible angelic bodies. Their bodies are thickened, above all by passion, by sensuality and by anger. 220 Those which are moderately dominated by such passion, above all by sensuality, are human beings. Human bodies occupy an intermediate position in the scale of fallen intelligences. Their bodies are formed from earth. The demons occupy the last rung on the ladder. Their bodies are the darkest, most immersed in matter, most thickened by hatred, anger and resentment, most devoid of light. They consist of air, which being devoid of light, is ice-cold. 221 Thus the position occupied in this ontological scale of beings is determined by the measure of ignorance of God. This, in turn, is proportioned to guilt. 222 2 1 8 . This emphasis on Providence is not the only element of Stoic thought which has found its w a y into Evagrian theology (see Guillaumont, 37-38). But whether this came directly from the Stoics or from Didymus the Blind is an open question. W e know that Evagrius took the teaching of Didymus very much to heart with regard to this point: he relates it to Didymus in Gnostikos, 150, as Viller, op. cit., 244, points out. 219. Six Centuries, 1:11. (Hereafter references to this work will be given imply according to the number, e.g. 1:68). 220. Thus the ascetic life, through purifying the soul of the passions, leads to putting on the new spiritual body even here on earth. See 1 : n . 2 2 1 . 6:25. 2 2 2 . See for instance 1:68.

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N o t only do bodies arise from this creation, but souls also result from it. They too are part of the fall. Indeed, the same intelligence which was once a pure intelligence, without becoming another person, or more exactly another being, becomes a soul (^vyr)). N o w one of the outstanding characteristics of a soul, or psyche, is affectivity. The psyche is the seat of the passions. It is involved in varying measure with the body of the fallen intelligence (vovs). In the angels it is the intelligence that predominates; in man and in the demons, the psyche with its complex of passions. In man it is the passions associated with sensuality (¿mOvfua) that predominate; in the demons, those arising from irascibility (dvjxos). This then is the make-up of the second creation, the schema which locates the position of the rational creatures after their movement. In their original state these intelligent creatures were known as the first creatures, but in the process of being formed into beings with corporality as a part of their condition, they become second creatures. Along with the creation of bodies there takes place the creation of the particular world which is suited to them. The angelic creatures with their bodies of fire move in their own proper ambient. The same thing holds true for man and the demons. The environment is suited to the merit and to the qualities of each. Although the second creation is the result of a fall and a decree of punishment on the part of God, yet at the same time Evagrius considers it an act of mercy. Were it not for the material world and the corporal substance joined to the rational nature (Aoywcoj), this creature would be in a position where it could not achieve liberation from its guilt, and so would remain in ignorance about God. Indeed, it is this ignorance of God that constitutes the great evil for the second creatures of all degrees. It is healed through the activity proper to rational nature's contemplation. Having lost their primitive intuitional knowledge of God they are yet provided with the type and measure of knowledge of him which is suited to their position in the cosmic ladder. Evil men, for instance, possess only a very rudimentary form of contemplation (mi^eia) which gives little penetration into the true meaning of things. Angelic knowledge, on the other hand, is known as the first

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natural contemplation.223 Those men who, by the practice of prayer and asceticism become worthy of it, possess second natural contemplation. Above both these forms there remains a primeval form known as essential contemplation (Oeœpia ovoiœ8TJS) which is the activity of only those creatures who are totally purified of all passion of a disordered sort and of all images which could interfere with such an exalted form of understanding. Wherever one finds himself situated on this scale of life he has the duty of advancing higher through the various intermediate stages until he returns to the primitive state. Man, therefore, must advance by means of purification so that he attains by ascesis and prayer to the angelic state with its more spiritual form of knowledge. As the individual advances from one type of knowledge to another he puts on the form of body, or rather is transformed into that bodily form, which is appropriate to his new state, and at the same time enters the environmental conditions appropriate to that body. One of the conclusions to be drawn from this analysis ofEvagrian teaching is that basically it is not the nature of the rational creature that establishes him in his individual ontological position, but rather his contemplation. Fundamentally, all rational beings are the same; they are intelligences (voeç). This process leads to the union with God that they obtained formerly, prior to the second creation, and to the primeval knowledge. It is the task of creatures to move steadily upwards to this union with God, though it can also happen that, through negligences repeated, they move down the scale, further away from him. This process of ascent takes place under the benevolent influence of God's grace and through the good services of exceptionally pure spirits. Angels who are very pure and most favorable to man's salvation may even assume a lower position on the world scale so 223. The problem of translating the Greek word Oetopia, which w e have called "contemplation," is an old one. For a discussion of the problems it represents see I. Hausherr, "Les versions syriaque et arménienne d'Evagre le Pontique," Orientalia Christiana, 22 (1931), 75 and esp. the interesting footnote 1 citing F. S. Marsh on this problem. The latter feels that at times it is better translated as "mystery," "secret," etc. rather than "contemplation."

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as to be able to enlighten and otherwise assist men on their upward path. Christ himself is precisely such an intelligence.

Christology

There was one single intelligence who did not fall into negligence, but who remained faithful to the contemplation and possession of the essential knowledge. This means that he alone remained united to God. This intelligence was possessed, as a result, unceasingly by the Word of God. Through the union with the Word this intelligence is God. The whole second creation is the work of this Savior, who is Christ. The multifaceted wisdom with which the second creation is achieved fills all things and provides the rational creatures with their proper object for theoria physike, the contemplation of nature which leads to an increase of the knowledge of God. This same Christ is the judge who decrees all the judgments consequent upon every new movement. The Incarnation was another step in this work of salvation. It is an indication of the benevolence of this all-pure Christ that he willingly lowered himself to help man. This, however, is but one phase of redemption. There is still another, the seventh day, which is an eschatological period characterized by the rule of Christ over all rational creatures. The demons too fall under his rule, for they also are to pass through successive stages and attain, increasingly, purity of heart. When all creatures have attained to the stage of angelic purity and its proper contemplation and its spiritual body of fire, then the first eschatological period is established. This period in turn shall give way to a second, known as the eighth day. This eighth day will mark the end ofthe reign ofChrist when all the intelligences return to the primitive unity with God, and all rational creatures become laoxplaroi, fully equal to Christ. All the second creation will be abolished, and this includes bodies in all their forms. Indeed, matter itself will be done away with, and all the implications of matter such as diversity, multiplicity and number. The original integral Henad is reconstituted. The great

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cosmic round-dance has come to an end. All things have returned to union with their beginning, until union itself gives way to unity.224 This is the cosmology of Evagrius and his salvation history as it appears in his most theoretical works, notably the Kephalaia Gnostica as seen through the perspectives of the important first part of the Letter to Melania,225 We cannot comment on the various parts of it in a work of limited dimensions, but its defects are obvious. One could even wonder what has become of biblical Christianity in the system of Evagrius, were this all that we had to go on in evaluating the Evagrian spirituality. Fortunately, it is not all. We have his more empirical works, above all the two works translated in this volume. Before analyzing their contents to discern the structure of his ascetic system it may be well to remark that these other works are oriented much more toward experience than speculation. They give no clear indications of these highly philosophical speculations. This is so true that, until the recovery of the original version of the Kephalaia Gnostica some fifteen years ago, it was not at all evident that Evagrius was justly judged to be a teacher of those dogmas for which the Council in 553 had condemned him. Some of the most judicious of theologians and Church historians, in fact, had absolved 224. A striking feature of this Weltanschauung is the many features it shares with certain theologies found in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The large place given to demons and angels; the ascent of souls through the various heavens (cf. The Ascension of Isaias); the marked eschatological bias which is a feature of this tradition, and which gives the lie to the assertion made by some (e.g. F. M . Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran [New Y o r k , 1958], 74) that under contact with Hellenistic thought Christianity lost its eschatological tension. Evagrius is a prime instance where such is not the case, and the whole history of monasticism bears witness to the preservation of an element of the eschatological within the Church. Monasticism understands itself precisely as eschatologically oriented. For the pertinent data on the Judeo-Christian tradition see the important work by J . Danielou, The Theology of Jewish Christianity (London, 1964), esp. 3$8f. 225. Frankenberg, op. cit., 612-619. The second part of this letter, which gives a great deal of attention to the mysteries of Christ, has been discovered and published more recently by G. Vitestam. See note 31 of the Introduction to the Praktikos, below, p. 10.

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Evagrius of these charges.226 They had based their judgment on the Evagrius of the Praktikos and Antirrheticus and of the Apophthegmata; and had they known that the Chapters on Prayer was his, they would have felt only more secure in this judgment, as Hausherr points out.227 With our present knowledge of his authorship of the Kephalaia Gnostica and the first part of Epistle to Melania, however, there remains no doubt that the charges brought against him are correct22® though they were made with undue harshness and without the restraint which was due to his personal sanctity and good faith.

Ascetic and Mystical Theology Evagrius was the first important writer among the monks of the desert. He was further the first to organize into a coherent system the teachings of the Desert Fathers on prayer. 229 T o be sure, this part of Evagrius' system is of a piece with the desert tradition that had been developed over several generations prior to his arrival in Egypt. The young monk recently arrived from Jerusalem, from the agony of his painful conversion and his backsliding and reconversion, had accepted the monastic life with all his heart. He would come as a disciple. And he would learn his lesson well from the Fathers, especially from both of the famous Macarii. More, he would give a new form and an enhanced force of expression to this tradition which, after his work, would ever bear the mark of his influence. Evagrius defined for the monks in his circle his own concept of the ascetic life. It is "the spiritual method whose aim it is to purify the part of the soul that is the seat of the passions."230 The defini226. Tillemont, Duschesne and Butler to name but three. Guillaumont remarks on this, p. 40, notes 6gf. 227. I. Hausherr, "Le traité d'oraison d'Evagre le Pontique," R A M , 15 (1934). 39f228. Guillaumont, 256t. 229. J. Meyendorf, op. cit., 19. F

230. Praktikos, 50.

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tion is programatic: Evagrius is going to set forth the method for attaining purity of heart through the sublimation and right ordering of the emotions, or as he would call them, the passions. Evagrius was to become the anatomist of the passions of the psyche both in their manifestations in behavior and in their intrapsychic activity. He had an extremely dynamic view of their operations. And this quite naturally extended to their good and wholesome operations as well as to their disordered tendencies. Here is the speech that he recommends for the novice to hear upon receiving the monastic habit. It gives some idea of his manner of clarifying and uniting into a single whole the operations of the emotions: " T h e fear of God strengthens faith, my son, and continence in turn strengthens this fear. Patience and hope make this latter virtue solid beyond all shaking and they also give birth to apatheia. N o w this apatheia has a child called agape who keeps the door to deep knowledge of the created universe. Finally, to this knowledge succeed theology 231 and the supreme beatitude." 232 This passage is noteworthy from another point of view, for it locates in a specifically Christian and biblical context the key-stone of his whole structure of ascetic practice, apatheia.233 Thus apatheia, 2 3 1 . For Evagrius' definition o f theology, Praktikos, 60. It amounts to the experiential knowledge o f G o d through the highest f o r m o f prayer. 2 3 2 . Letter to Anatolius, b e l o w , p. 14. 2 3 3 . T h e recently discovered C o p t i c Gospel of Thomas lends support to the v i e w that apatheia as a concept is rooted rather in the biblical than in the Greek w o r l d , as it is used b y the Fathers o f the C h u r c h . N o t only does one logia (n. 2 2 ) refer to the interior simplicity that is implied b y apatheia in the patristic tradition, but t w o o f the logia use the C o p t i c term for monk as the term describing the one w h o has attained to this simplicity. This fact is all the m o r e significant in that the w o r k is deeply rooted in the Bible and probably p r e serves some o f the original sayings o f Jesus. It is therefore not unlikely that this theme formed an element o f the primitive catechesis and derived f r o m the teaching o f our L o r d himself. See M . Harl, " A propos des logia de Jésus: le sens du m o t fiômxos,"

Revue des études grecques, 63 (Paris, i960), 4 6 4 - 4 7 4 ,

as reported and discussed in A . L o u f , et. al., The Message of Monastic

Spirituality,

trans. L . Stevens ( N e w Y o r k , 1964), 4 i f . G . Quispel has also studied this term in the same text, and observes that it replaces the w o r d for " v i r g i n s " o f the original gospel parable. It thus appears to be a technical term. There is a corresponding term in the H e b r e w text o f the " R u l e for the C o m m u n i t y "

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far from being a mere transposition of the Stoic experience, is rather akin to the fear of the Lord. Still more significantly, it is parent to love, to agape. Because apatheia is the immediate aim of ascetic practice for Evagrius and because in the treatises translated in this volume it occupies so important a position, w e would do well to examine his understanding of it quite carefully. The word itself is indeed taken from the Stoic philosophers, where it had a long and venerable history. In fact even before the Stoics it had a development centuries long in the Greek philosophical tradition. 234 It was taken over by the Christians early, long before Evagrius. Indeed, it was used by the most orthodox of Fathers and was applied to Christ himself. St Ignatius of Antioch is the first to employ it in this way. 2 3 5 Other orthodox Fathers adopted it as well. St Anthanasius made considerable use of it in his arguments against the Arians, likewise applying it to the man-God, Jesus. 236 But it was Clement of Alexandria who took it over into his ascetical theology. He made it, in fact, a cornerstone of his spiritual edifice. He is somewhat idealistic in the description he gives of the peace possessed by the man who attains to this state. Yet he does not go so far as to convey that all emotion is extinguished in the man who possesses this state of harmony. Rather he sees it as the full possession, under the influence of divine contemplation, of the affective faculties, so that disordered passions are resolved into a state of abiding calm. It seems to us that Clement exaggerates man's achievement in this area when he speaks of his attaining a state even here on earth where he is not exposed to desire and lacks nothing of spiritual from Qumran Jdw'd, which designates a "celibate" member of the community. See Cistercian Studies, 3 (1968), (97). Does this mean that the concept "monk" derives from Judaism ; 234. For a thorough discussion of the Greek tradition of apatheia, T. Ruther, Die Sittliche Forderung der Apatheia (Freiburg, 1949), 3-19. A. and C. Guillaumont, TP, 93f. also study apatheia in Evagrius. 235. The Epistles of St Clement of Rome and St Ignatius of Antioch, trans. J. Kleist, A C W i (1946), 63. 236. St Athanasius: Discourses against the Arians, trans, and ed. by J. H. Newman (Oxford, 1877), 449. For further references, Lexicon Athanasianum, Guido Müller (Berlin, 1952): "anddeia" and "dnddtis," 107-108.

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Introduction 237

goods. On the other hand, mystics of more recent times than his have spoken the same language, St John of the Cross for one. Then too, St Theresa of Avila seems to have been very close to this state at the very end of her life, though she was less absolute in her expression of it than John of the Cross. Origen himself was more cautious, for once, in his choice of terms. He seems to have avoided the word apatheia quite deliberately. 238 Because of the fact that Origen emphasizes so much the continual progress in the spiritual life, he is less inclined to speak of so perfect a state as apatheia. When he does, he gives it much less central a place in his system. 239 The term occurs often in the writings of the Cappadocians, but it is far less important for them than it is for either Evagrius or Clement. 240 Evagrius, consequently, is going back beyond his immediate teachers, the Cappadocian Fathers, even back beyond Origen to Clement of Alexandria when he gives to this concept such prominence. It may well be that the desert tradition had influenced him in this, for the ideal of apatheia is prominently painted for us in the Vita Antonii by St Athanasius. St Anthony was to be the model for monks in this as in all other matters pertaining to the ascetic life. 241 But Evagrius was to put his own stamp on this concept as well as on so many others. For him apatheia is more recognizably human than it is in Clement. Although it does represent a certain definitive state of arrival at a level of perfection, it represents only a relatively permanent state of deep calm, arising from the full and harmonious integration of the emotional life, under the influence of love. For him apatheia and agape, divine love, are but two aspects of a single reality. In fact, the offspring of apatheia is agape.242 This is its first 237. L . Lorié, Spiritual Terminology in the Latin Translations of the Vita Antonii (Nijmegen, 1955), 1 2 3 - 2 4 , where he discusses the Stromata, V I , 9, 71-72. 238. Bouyer, op. cit., 298. 239. Ibid., 240. Patristic Greek Lexicon, ed. W . H. Lampe (Oxford, 1961-68): "anádeia." 241. A C W 10:77. On the question of the biblical basis of apatheia, O. Rousseau, " L e role important du monachisme dans l'Eglise d'Orient," II Monachismo Orientale, Orientaba Christiana Analecta, 153 (Rome, 1958), 4 0 - 4 1 . 242. Praktikos, Si.

Doctrine

lxxxv

fruit and flower, so that where the first is found the second is present also. The one supports and vitalizes the other, enabling its continuance and full expression. They are, as it were, the positive and negative poles of a single field of force. 243 What is the genealogy of this state of deep calm? According to our author it is obtained through obedience to the commandments of God and the practice of virtue. 244 It is worth noting that Evagrius has an unusually strong confidence in the powers of such obedience to achieve purity of heart in the monk. In this he is doubtless deeply under the influence of St Basil, whose teaching gave such prominence to the commandments and to obedience in all its forms. This confidence in obedience as a path to perfection is much stronger in Evagrius than in many other mystical writers, notably Denis the Areopagite. 245 Conceived by obedience apatheia is preserved by fear of the Lord. 246 It is nourished and grows through the practice of humility and the cultivation of sorrow for sin.247 Further, it never fully stabilizes; it always requires a willingness to guard and protect it, for it remains exposed to the assaults of the demons. 248 It has limits that come from the human situation. For instance, it is too much to expect that one should love all men with an equal love. 249 Apatheia is not a leveling out of the human emotions to an equal degree of indifference towards all men. N o , it is a state where all men can be loved, at least to the extent that one lives peacefully and without resentment towards others.250 Even so some will be loved more, some less ; Evagrius considers that this is no defect in the perfection

243. G. M . Columbás, " E l concepto de Monje y Vida Monástica hasta fines del Siglo V , " Studia Monastica, 1 (1959), 298. He is following Hausherr here. 244. Praktikos,

81.

245. I. Hausherr, "Les grands Courants de la Spiritualité Orientale," i (1935), 124246. Praktikos,

81.

248. Praktikos,

77 and 60. See Viller, op. cit., 178.

249. Ibid., 100.

247. 5 : 5 .

250.

Ibid.

OCP,

lxxxvi

Introduction

of the state of apatheia. Lastly, this state admits of degrees and allows for a continuing growth. 251 Still more basic—and this point has been contested by some—is the place occupied by grace in the acquisition of this state of soul. It is essential.252 So is the ministration of the priest and the reception of the sacraments essential for the perfect purification of soul that is apatheia.253 Indeed, it is the fruit of prayer, of the grace of the Holy Spirit, and the "power of Jesus Christ w h o makes me grow." 2 5 4 The content of the Evagrian apatheia is fully Christian beyond all cavil, both in its inspiration and in its aim. It is the art of achieving the right order of charity, as the medieval monks would speak of it, 255 that Evagrius describes when he writes on attaining to apatheia. In fact he states that apatheia makes one "worthy of the perfection of the love of Christ." 256 There are a number of characteristics that indicate the presence of apatheia for Evagrius. N o t the least interesting of these is what he has to say about its relation to dreams. For he understood the dynamic influence exercised upon the dream activity of man by the passions and emotions that filled his soul in the waking state too well to overlook the fact that purity of heart would be reflected in one's dreams. He asserts that one of the indications that a man has attained to apatheia is the absence of passion and disordered emotion from his dream images.257 He goes on to state elsewhere258 that under the influence of apatheia not only does a man remain free from passion when subject to the situations and events that tend to stimulate passion, but also—and he clearly considers this a greater achieve-

251. Ibid., 60, where two types of apatheia are mentioned, perfect and imperfect, which implies the possibility of growth. 252. Ibid., 100.

253. Ibid.

254. Ibid.

255. For instance St Bernard de Clairvaux: Sermones super Cantica Canticorum, ed. by J. Leclercq, C . Talbot and H. Rocháis, Sermons 49 and 50 (Rome, 1958), 73 ff.; trans. K. Walsh, On the Song of Songs, Cistercian Fathers Series 31. The theme of ordinavit in me charitatem is one of St Bernard's favorites and sums up for him the whole work of the spiritual life. 256. Budge, op. cit., 1017.

257. Praktikos, 64.

258. Ibid., 67, 34.

Doctrine

lxxxvii

ment—when the very memory of such things is stirred, he nevertheless remains calm and at peace. Another sign of the presence of this state is the ability to pray without distraction. 259 Finally when the soul begins to see its own light, then it can be sure of having attained to the longed for goal of apatheia.260 Evagrius himself has grouped these various signs together for the convenience of the monk. He considered them so significant that he does not wish them to be either overlooked or forgotten too rapidly. Thus he collected his evidence in an impressive series of signs that would act as a forceful reminder to monks of the aim of their ascetic life, the purity of heart that he called apatheia, for to it is promised the Kingdom of Heaven that is the vision of God. 2 6 1 Indeed, he tells us: " T h e Kingdom of Heaven is apatheia of the soul along with true knowledge of existing things." 262 Later on, when John Cassian would address himself to the western monks on the true aims of the ascetic life, he could find nothing better to put at the very head of his Conferences than this same apatheia,263 though he was careful, of course, to employ a Latin equivalent that would not stir up the suspicions of the anti-Pelagians of his day. That equivalent was puritas cordis, purity of heart.264 The apatheia described by Evagrius differs from the stabilitas and tranquilitas of Jerome and some of the other Western Fathers in that these latter commonly refer to a state that is more or less transient.265 Apatheia, on the other hand, for Evagrius is a permanent state and marks a decisive turning point in the spiritual itinerary of the Christian. It is the door to contemplation, or more exactly, its vestibule. For charity, the finest fruit of apatheia, is the door to contemplation. 268 259. Ibid., 69.

260. Ihd.,

261. M t 5:8.

262. Praktikos,

64. 2.

263. J . Cassian, Conferences, 1 : 4 ; P L 49:486. 264. Lorié, op. cit., 1 2 5 - 2 6 , where it is pointed out that other equivalents of apatheia are tranquilitas and stabilitas. 265. Chadwick, op. cit. 84; also G . Bardy, D S 1 : 7 3 4 (1934): 266. Letter to Anatolius, below, p. 14.

"apatheia."

lxxxviii

Introduction

Contemplation

For Evagrius apatheia is the health of the soul.267 But alone it does not suffice for a complete return to health. "The effects of keeping the commandments (that is to say, apatheia) do not suffice to heal the powers of the soul completely. They must be complemented by a contemplative activity which is appropriate to these faculties and this activity must penetrate the spirit." 268 Contemplation in this view, then, is not a mere luxury for a few specially favored souls. It is the indispensable activity of every Christian who would become perfect. Had Evagrius thought any differently, after all, he would hardly have been a Greek. And he certainly would not have been so fully a pupil of the great Alexandrians, especially of Clement. Was it not this Christian humanist who preserved to posterity the strongest expression of the place of contemplation in life that the Greek world has left us? deœpla ecrrt TeXoçrov fitov, that is to say, the purpose of life is contemplation. 269 Hardly any spiritual writer before him had used the words for contemplation so frequently as he. Both decopia and yvwois occur abundantly in his vocabulary. 270 Once apatheia with its attendant charity is achieved in a stable manner, contemplative activity, properly so called, becomes dominant. The first phase of the contemplative life he chose to call "contemplation of nature," décupla ((¡vaucrj. Without trying to go into great detail on the precise nature of this stage of contemplation, we might point out that it includes penetration into the meaning of 267. Praktikos, 65. Possession of apatheia is clearly presumed here. 268. Ibid., 79. 269. This saying of Anaxagoras of Clazomenes is preserved by Clement of Alexandria. Clement d'Alexandrie: Les Stromates, 2:21, vol. 2 trans. P. Camelot et Cl. Mondésert, SC 38 (Paris, 1954), 130. I. Hausherr, "Les grands courants de spiritualité orientale," OCP, 1 (i935)> 121, has pointed out the relevance of this statement for understanding the Greek spirituality. 270. J. Le Maitre, R. Roques, M. Viller in DS 2:1776 (1950) : "Contemplation," where it is pointed out that Clement uses these two terms more often than any other Greek author except Maximus the Confessor.

lxxxix

Doctrine

Scripture. Also included is the structured order of the universe, the varieties of natural phenomena and the natural symbols that fill our world—all these provide material for the pure of heart to grow in understanding of the ways of God with men, and so reveal something further about the nature of God himself. But more significant than merely what it includes is the fact that it is more than a mere natural knowledge or poetic insight into the real connections of things, into their inner logoi. It is this, to be sure, but it has an added dimension to it. That is the moral dimension. For it is accessible only to the pure of heart. 271 In his commentary on the Psalms, Evagrius was to take up a definition that St Anthony had already employed, although he did not speak of the term theoria physike, when he spoke of the physical world as a book of God in which the Spirit can write. 272 From this contemplation one derives a knowledge of the attributes of God, rather than of his very nature. Thus it represents a real but intermediate stage of contemplation; in no wise does it imply unusual mystical graces. It is a more elemental knowledge than the contemplation of the Blessed Trinity. In holding the view that there are two degrees of contemplation he is in fundamental accord with the teaching of Gregory of Nyssa. 273 Whereas in the inferior degree o f contemplation, theoria

physike,

the monk does not attain to complete simplicity of thought, but remains in a state of multiplicity, the contrary is true in the higher contemplation, 9ea>pia rrjs aylas rptaSos.274 The lower kind of contemplation further contrasts with the higher in that the former is attended by effort, struggle, and at times a degree of frustration.275 The latter is marked by great peace and calm. It knows no frustration, but only the tranquility of possession. 2 7 1 . 4:90. 272. The Selecta in Psalmis (PG 1 2 : 1 6 6 1 c — a m o n g the works of Origen). This passage is cited in the article by LeMaitre, Roques and Viller, D S 2 : 1 7 7 7 (1952). Our discussion of contemplation owes a good deal to this highly informative article. Cf. also E . Jeauneau, op. cit., 254, note 2, for this same theme in John Scotus and Maximus the Confessor; in addition, cf. Praktikos, below, ch. 92. 273. Ibid., 1779.

274. Chapters on Prayer, 57.

275. D S 2 : i 7 7 8 ; a l s o 1:65.

xc

Introduction

This higher form of contemplation has several names, such as the first contemplation [-rrpwrrj decupia) or contemplation of the Blessed Trinity (Betupia Tfjs ay las rplahos). It results in simple intuitive knowledge (yvaxri? /LAovoeiSijs) or again what he terms "essential knowledge" (yvdxrij ova-iwStjs). This last does not refer to a knowledge of the essence of God, a doctrine which Evagrius does not teach, but rather to an experimental knowledge of God. Nevertheless, though God can be known only as present and not in his essential nature, yet even this kind of penetration into the Divinity is an exalted state and as such is beyond the mere capacity of man. Man can only pray for it and humbly and gratefully receive it as a gift. 2 ' 6 The other feature of this elevated contemplation is that it requires complete nudity of the intellect.277 In this mysticism at its highest point it is the Blessed Trinity that is the object of vision. Only this vision is beyond form (/xovoetS^s; ¡/liAoj); it is totally simple. N o one has stressed this more forcefully than Evagrius did. The essential transcendence of God is a cornerstone o f his mystical theology. It is this surpassing grandeur of the Divine Nature that demands such total purity, even nudity of the spirit of man, for like can be known only by like in his view. In adopting this position he is following the lead of the Platonic school, 278 but he speaks with a passion and insistence that bear witness to his own profound experience of the necessity of the utmost purification from all limiting concepts as well as from all moral impurity for the attainment of this knowledge of the Blessed Trinity. Evagrius gives no precise description of the nature of this knowledge, but he does speak habitually of states of soul that accompany it. The most revealing ones are those which speak of the light phenomena that attend this contemplation. Already the Cappadocians had spoken in the same w a y ; both Gregory of Nyssa 279 and St Basil had referred to the knowledge of God as being 276. 5:79. 278. A . J . Festugiere, Contemplation et Vie Contemplative

277. 3:6,21. selon Platon (Paris,

1950), 108. 279. Gregorii Nysseni Opera Ascetica, ed. W.Jaeger, J . Cavarnos, V . Callahan, " D e institutione Christiana" (Leiden, 1952), 48, 50.

Doctrine

xci

heralded by the light shining in the soul. Indeed, Evagrius, in one passage, relies upon the witness and authority of Basil for teaching that pure prayer brings the soul to a glorious experience of interior light. 280 But his most renowned description of the light-mystique occurs in the following passage: "When the spirit has put off the old man to replace him with the new man, created by charity, then he will see that his own state at the time of prayer resembles that of a sapphire; it is as clear and bright as the very sky. The Scriptures refer to this experience as the place of God which was seen by our ancestors, the elders, at Mount Sinai." 281 In other words, the soul itself becomes the locus visionis, the place of vision, not of God as he is in himself, but as he makes his presence known. He shines in the soul as in a mirror. 282 The Septuagint 283 had introduced this expression of the "place of G o d " as a way of toning down the epiphany of Yahweh. T o "see G o d " seemed too strong a saying. The concept of the soul as the mirror of God is an important element in the anthropological doctrine of Evagrius, and it plays a central role in his mysticism as well. He tells us explicitly that "The image of God . . . is he who has become capable of the unity." 284 This unity, as we know, is Evagrius' way of saying that the soul has attained to the perfect knowledge of the Blessed Trinity in loving union. Indeed, the paraphrase adopted by the corrected Syriac version expresses it in these terms: "That man is the image of God who is capable of receiving the knowledge of the Blessed Trinity." 2 8 5 Consequently, for Evagrius, the very definition of man must be established in terms of his contemplation. It is contemplative union 280. Cf. DS 2:1781 with its references to Gnostikos, 147 and the Supplement to Centuries, 50. 281. PG 4CK1244A. Though this is printed as a part of the Praktikos it is not in fact a part of this work. 282. This concept is already found in Gregory of Nyssa's Commentary on the Canticle of Canticles (PG 44:824c). 283. The Septuagint already makes the connection found in Evagrius between the place of God ( O T O ' T T O S TOS 0(OS) and sapphire light: "They saw then the place where the God of Israel stood; and under his feet there was a kind ofwrought-work as bright and clear as if made of sapphire." Ex 24:10-11. 284. 3:32. 285. Ibid.

xcii

Introduction

with God which is man's ultimate end, and which establishes man in his full self-realization as the image of God. In this outlook man is not defined as a rational animal (Aristotle) but rather as a being created to be united with God in loving knowledge. This is, for our author, in the full sense of the word, a metaphysical statement, not only a mystical and religious statement.286 In the closing words of his treatise, Gnostikos, Evagrius has given us a characteristically lapidary phrase summarizing his view on this matter: "Hasten along to transform your image to the resemblance of the archetype . . .." 2 8 7 This is the aim of life. In this work of transformation is summed up the meaning and purpose of human existence for Evagrius. It is all of man.

Prayer and Contemplation Hausherr has shown that the deepest significance of the achievement of Evagrius' thought is situated precisely at the point where he identifies the highest form of contemplation with the state of pure prayer. 288 The man who truly prays is the man who has seen the place of God. This is what it means to be a theologian, 289 or as we should say today, a mystic. Not only do these two activities and states coincide at their highest states, they also coincide every step of the way. 2 9 0 While Origen and Gregory of Nyssa had already taught the relationship that exists between prayer and the stages of the spiritual life, Evagrius goes beyond their position in the identification of the two, as two complementary aspects of a single whole. There is a

286. E . von Ivanka, Plato Christianus (Einsiedeln, 1964), 148; also Muyldermans, op. cit., 164, for a citation from Evagrius' Commentary on the Parables and Proverbs of Solomon, 26. 287. Gnostikos, Le Maître, etc.

1 5 1 , cited in D S 2 : 1 7 8 3 (1952):

"Contemplation"

288. Hausherr, Leçons, 8off. 289. Chapters on Prayer, 60.

290. Hausherr,

80-81.

by

Doctrine

xeni

profound psychology hidden beneath this doctrine; a psychology which realizes the dynamic connections between psychic images on the one hand and, on the other, the emotions and habitual attitudes both of mind and of affections. Only where mental and spiritual images are fully adapted to the pure light of God, so far as this can be, is it possible for man's attitudes and activities to achieve their full flowering in a harmony that resolves all earlier discords. These images are purified and transformed through contemplation of this same Divine Light as it shines in the mirror of the soul. Man cannot be perfected merely from action that proceeds from the exterior to the interior. He must be altered even in the depths of his spirit, where there lie hidden in the furthest recesses of his being unknown images, inaccessible to the external world save by some longforgotten, distant paths which still exert their influence upon a man's attitudes and ways. Only when these images are healed and restored in the pristine light of a holy contemplation that reaches even thus far into the spirit of a man is the work of his salvation and of his perfection fully realized. On the psychological plane, Evagrius' emphasis upon a contemplation so pure that it penetrates beyond all distinct, clearly defined (and so limited and limiting) images is wholly vindicated. Whether at the same time it meets all the demands of the Christian religion where the sacred humanity of Jesus is the focal point of all knowledge of God is quite another question. It is one that many, perhaps, would answer in the negative. There can be little doubt that in his more theoretical works Evagrius does deviate too far from a life of prayer centered on the Incarnate Word of God. Yet, since he never had a chance to answer those who saw the implications of his teaching as a deviation from the orthodox faith, it is impossible to say precisely how he would have dealt with the objections that were raised against his Christology. In this he resembles, perhaps, Teilhard de Chardin. W e know that Evagrius had a great love of the sacraments and of the Eucharist in particular, for his last act was to receive Communion at the church on Epiphany, just prior to his death. He did not always give the central place to Christ in his teaching, however, even when

xciv

Introduction

perhaps he thought he was doing so. In this too he is a follower o f Origen. 291 It is unfortunate that w e have no commentary by Evagrius on that verse of St John which defines the essential nature of salvation for the Christian: "This is eternal life, that they may k n o w you the only true God, and Jesus Christ w h o m you have sent." 292

291. O n e o f the clear indications o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f E v a g r i a n thought is his express statement that one must be always careful not to put Christ in the shade w h e n read alongside the criticisms o f those w h o find he has himself done precisely this. That Evagrius himself thought he had preserved o r t h o d o x y is clear f r o m his warning that w e must b e on guard lest w h i l e striving after mystical k n o w l e d g e o f G o d w e should neglect the mystery o f the Incarnation: Iva ¡jLTj . . . rrj 0€a>\oyia Trpooexovrcs, rrjs ¿iKovofiias KaTaif>pova>(iev (Cf. Sancti Basilii Opera Omnia, ed. Maurists (Paris, 1839) 3 : 1 1 6 . B u t the p r o b l e m o f the place o f the humanity o f Christ in the higher stages o f the spiritual life is in any case one that has l o n g presented difficulties to mystics and theologians. Cassian had his difficulties w i t h it too, as C h a d w i c k indicates ( C h a d w i c k , op. cit., 150) and even Teresa o f A v i l a did not find it easy to deal w i t h this problem. 292. Jn 17:3. For an interesting theological elaboration o f this crucial point, see K . Rahner, " D i e e w i g e D e u t u n g der Menscheit Jesu für unser Gottesverhältnis," Schriften für Theologie 3 (Einsiedeln, 1961), 47-60. M o r e recently this problem comes up in the confrontation o f Christian mysticism w i t h Z e n Buddhism. It is the major theme o f an important study: W i l l i a m Johnston's " T h e Still P o i n t " ( N e w Y o r k , 1970).

PRAKTIKOS

INTRODUCTION

T

lHE P R A K T I K O S

is Evagrius' best known work on

the ascetic life. In it he sets forth more completely than

anywhere else his doctrine of ascesis. In writing it he had

in mind primarily the needs of hermits, who, he tells us, are most frequently tempted by the demons by means of passionate thoughts. 1 B u t it has quite as much to say to Christians of all states as it does to solitaries, for they have no monopoly on the struggle against

passionate thoughts. This work is part of a larger book, though it was written as a whole that could be read independently. Evagrius himself 2 tells us of its relation to the Gnostikos3 and the Kephalaia Gnostica.4 While these last works deal with the contemplative life, the Praktikos confines itself to questions more directly concerned with the active life, w i t h ascesis. However, these various sentences clearly point beyond themselves 1 . See Praktikos, 5. A . Guillaumont in his introduction to Evagrius very well shows the specific contribution made by Evagrius to the concept of praktike in the monastic spirituality. Prior to him the term was used in a broader context, of the life of a bishop, for instance, or even of a layman, or a cenobite in a monastery, as contrasted with that of a hermit. This last usage was that of Gregory of Nazianzus. See R . Ruether, Gregory of Nazianzus: Rhetor and Philosopher (Oxford, 1969), i38f. Cf. A. and C . Guillaumont, T P

3«f. 2. Letter to Anatolius. 3. See above, p. lx, concerning the Gnostikos. 4. See above, pp. lxf, for a discussion of the Kephalaia Gnostica.

3 G

Praktikos

4

to the w a y of contemplation. B y their insistence upon apatheia5 which " is the very flower of ascesis''6 and "the health of the soul," 7 they lead to the threshold of contemplation. For the works of the active life " d o not suffice to heal the powers of the soul completely. T h e y must be complemented by a contemplative activity which is appropriate to these faculties.. . ." 8 " T h u s it is that w e go on eagerly working at the ascetical life so long as w e have not tasted this (contemplative) knowledge . . . . " 9 Since the introduction to Evagrius' theology as a whole has already dealt with the main lines of his system of ascesis w e shall dwell here only on one further point: the demonology of this treatise. O f the hundred chapters that make up the Praktikos, demons are mentioned in sixty-seven. This preoccupation with the influence of evil spirits on the life of man, and in particular on solitaries, can be a serious obstacle to a twentieth-century reader's appreciation of Evagrius. Paul Valéry has pointedly depicted the attitude that marks modern man's attitude toward demonology. His Faust informs Mephisto that his "reputation in the world is not so grand as it used to be . . . " 1 0 with a touch of condescending irony that leaves bewildered Mephisto weakly gasping: " N o one has ever talked to me this w a y before." The effect is withering. Such a demon can hardly be taken seriously. It is no easy thing to bridge the gap between the modern image of a rather pitiable demon, the ineffectual product of backward or weak minds, and the fearsome, powerful and clever spirit whose delight was to inspire terror in the heart of man so as to defeat his every effort to achieve a worthy life. Long before Evagrius, however, the origins of his demonology were being developed.

In Plato, demons occupy a place in

the world between the gods and men, acting as intermediaries 5. For further details on Evagrius' notion of apatheia see above, pp. lxxxiiiff. 6. Praktikos, 81.

7. Ibid., 65.

8. Ibid., 79.

9. Ibid., 32.

10. P. Valéry, Plays, trans. D . Paul and R. Fitzgerald ( N e w York, i960), 29-

Introduction

S

11

between these two societies. Plato's demons are all good, rendering various benign services to man, but later on, under the influence, quite probably, of the dualism imported from Iranian culture and possibly Chaldean traditions as well, the Neo-platonists included evil as well as good demons in their world-view and in their religious systems. Elaborate, detailed descriptions of the precise good and evil done by these respective demons became a prominent feature of many of the Neo-platonists' writings. Also specific functions of the pagan cult were intimately associated with these good and evil demons so that pagan religion, in the early Christian centuries, was in fact preoccupied with a whole series of sacrifices to both good and bad demons. It thus came about that in the period when the first Christian spirituality was being elaborated the early theologians and apologists had to incorporate into their systems of thought a demonology. The world of the demons was, phenomenologically, simply a given fact in the life of man at this period, an important, even crucial fact of experience. Indeed, in the New Testament it is evident that both good and bad demons were recognized, universally accepted features of the cosmos. 12 The Judeo-Christian theology that represents the most direct continuity with the thought of the New Testament writers eventually gave even more prominence to demonology than the New Testament itself. And this demonology is brought especially into relation with the ascetic life. 13 There was a ruling concept in the early Church that the ascetic life is a war against demons. The early martyrs viewed their struggle to the death as a contest with the demons whose power was so great that it could be overcome only by the presence of 1 1 . For these views of the development of demonology in antiquity see J. Daniélou, DS, 3:153fî". : "Démon." For the demonology of the classical world see the fine pages of E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Boston, 1957), 28-43. 12. See the thorough study by H. Schlier, Principalities and Powers in the New Testament (New York, 1961). 13. J . Daniélou, The Theology of Jewish Christianity (London, 1964), 358-362.

Praktikos

6

Christ in his faithful witness. Likewise the ascetics w h o undertook the life of prayer and of ascetic striving after virtue and spiritual perfection through contemplation viewed their own efforts as a battle. They understood that attempts to arrive at self-domination and to grow in perfection means a fight with the demons, the powers of this world. 1 4 Far from being an exception to this view the monks of Egypt carried it to a further pitch of intensity. It is well known to what an extent this theme of the combat with demons is operative in the Life of Anthony by St Athanasius. 15 It is clearly one of the major theological ideas in this work, that the spiritual life is a combat against the demonic forces. Such was the teaching that Evagrius met when he came to Egypt. He would have learned from his masters, the t w o Macarii, all the rich detail of the elaborate demonology that had continued to evolve since the death of Anthony a generation earlier. It is even possible that some of the ideas which have been considered to have come to him from Origen or other Greek influences may well have actually derived from this Coptic tradition. For instance, there is the matter of negligence that was responsible for the fall away from unity 16 and which plays an important part too as a continuing tendency in man's nature. Evagrius may have taken this concept from a tradition that is expressed in one of the letters of St Anthony. 1 7 The same holds true of his view that the angels are interested in us and do not rest because of us.18 Evagrius, however, was to do more than merely accept this 14. Origen in particular developed this view. S. T . Bettencourt, Doctrina Ascetica Origenis seu De Ratione Animae Humanae cum Daemonibus (Rome, 1945). 15. St Athanasius in fact seems to be setting forth what he considers a basic principle of the spiritual life when he depicts Anthony's advances in the way of perfection as marked at each stage by increased demonic assaults. A C W , 10:25, 29Î. 16. See above, p. lxxv. 17. Lettres de St Antoine, Version géorgienne et fragments copts, trans. G. Garrite, 4:26. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, 149 (Louvain, 1955), 12. 18. Ibid., 4:98-99, i8f.

Introduction

7

tradition. H e contributed to it w i t h his analyses and also w i t h the applications he made o f this teaching b y relating it to his profound psychological insights. T h e Praktikos represents a distinct phase in the evolution o f the d e m o n o l o g y o f the desert tradition. Rather more f r o m the practical side than f r o m elaboration o f theories this w o r k makes its contribution to an understanding o f the w a y s and wiles o f the various kinds o f demons in their assaults upon the ascetic. Future generations w o u l d become acquainted w i t h the traditions o f the desert concerning these matters largely in the f o r m that they came to assume under the pen o f Evagrius. Rather than attempt to give a complete account o f his contribution to this area o f asceticism w e shall content ourselves w i t h indicating some o f the more interesting and original data. T h e description o f the eight logismoi is surely the most original and interesting in Evagrius' present w o r k . N o t that he necessarily invented the system o f eight such evil thoughts, 1 9 but he has given us a classic description. His abilities as a writer and teacher are clearest in the nine chapters that comprise this section o f the Praktikos.20 It w o u l d even seem that his reputation in the desert during his o w n lifetime was based to a large degree u p o n his analysis and description o f these logismoi.21 The Historia Monachorum in Aegypto in the brief notice it devotes to Evagrius fastens upon his insight into the workings o f the passions as the basis o f his reputation for learning and brilliance. 22 T h e source o f this w i s d o m , it hastens to add, is n o mere b o o k k n o w l e d g e but rather personal experience. A second point to underline is the fact that the demons influence man through these logismoi.23 This is the reason for devoting so m u c h attention to analyzing the passions. 24 For this insight gives us p o w e r , 19. I. Hausherr, "L'origine de la théorie orientale des huit péchés capitaux," Orientalia Christiana, 86 (1933). 164-175. 20. Under the section entitled Eight Kinds of Evil Thoughts, pp. i6fF. 21. For a g o o d example o f this style see also the Praktikos, 23-27. 22. A . J. Festugière, Historia Monachorum in Aegypto, 20:1 J, 123. 23. For instance Praktikos, 34. 24. Ibid., 43.

8

Praktikos

Evagrius tells us, anticipating by some thousand years Freud's statements to the same effect. 25 Here are his own words: W e must take care to recognize the different types of demons and note the special times of their activity . . . so that when these various evil thoughts set their own proper forces to work w e are in a position to address effective words against them, that is to say, those words which correctly characterize the one present. . . . In this manner we shall . . . pack them off, chafing with chagrin, marveling at our perspicacity.26 Evagrius" is well aware of the essential distinction between the demons and the passions. He knows that "the passions are accustomed to be stirred up by the senses."27 He recognizes that "those memories, colored by passion, that w e find in ourselves come from former experiences w e underwent while subject to some passion." 28 And still more explicitly: " A n d so the conqueror of the d e m o n s . . . despises not only the demon he conquers, but also these kinds of thoughts he causes in us." 29 Y e t he holds that the relation between the demons and the thoughts is extremely close; indeed, his idea of these various demons is that they are each specialists in their own particular field, as it were, by their nature. The demon o f vainglory knows all the variations of this most subtle vice, is well practiced in devices and arts by which this thought takes hold of a man, and leads him astray. The same holds true for each of the demons. The key to understanding the nature and quality o f the demon is through the most attentive observation of one's inner impulses and thoughts: If there is any monk w h o wishes to take the measure of some of the more fierce demons so as to gain experience in his monastic 25. Insight as the principle f o r resolving conflicts arising f r o m passionfilled memories and thoughts is the aim o f most o f the interpretation employed b y analysts today, ever since Freud's re-emphasis o f this point. 26. Praktikos, 43. 27. Ibid., 38. A . Guillaumont points out that, at times, there is an equivalence between the demon and the passionate thought, so that the demon w o u l d seem to be the thought hypostatized. C f . T P , 57. 28. Ibid., 34.

29. Ibid.

Introduction

9

art, then let him keep careful watch over his thoughts. Let him observe their intensity, their periods of decline, and follow them as they rise and fall. Let him note well the complexity of his thoughts, their periodicity, the demons which cause them, with the order of their succession and the nature of their associations. Then let him ask from Christ the explanations of these data he has observed.30 In this view, then, demons represent a source and influence that is distinct from the mere intrinsic psychology of the human soul, a kind o f added dimension o f the affective life. It also assumes that, though the world of demons is separate from the world of the passions, yet it is in continuity with it, and follows laws analogous to the psychological laws of man's nature. In view o f these data, it would seem that there is a very solid, theologically precise and acceptable basis for Evagrius' demonology, whatever one may choose to think of its practical validity. Further, this theological substructure gives to the majority o f his statements concerning demons an air of sobriety and restraint. Lastly, the method o f observation employed by Evagrius is as close to a scientific psychology as clinicians are now able to establish. Indeed, the paragraph cited above, except for the reference to demons, reads very much like a practical bit of advice for an intern in clinical psychology. It is the approach of dynamic psychoanalysis with its emphasis on careful observations upon one's most interior and spontaneous thoughts in their risings and fallings, in their associations and relations to one another. The very last sentence of this same paragraph deserves to be underlined too. "Then let him ask from Christ the explanations o f these data he has observed." For Evagrius such observation was a form of searching for God. He simply assumes that Christ would have an interest in assisting such a monk to interpret his findings, for it would obviously be an aid to spiritual growth. Once again there is a profoundly orthodox theology behind such an assumption, a theology that accepts the nature of man in its operations as a sacra30. Ibid.,

50.

IO

Praktikos

ment of union with Christ. If this point were better appreciated, perhaps there would be less criticism of the tendency of the Desert Fathers generally, and Evagrius in particular, to employ themselves excessively in the understanding of the passions and the heart of man, and insufficiently with the love of God. For them such understanding assured that their love of God was genuine, not based on self-deception or evasion, but on a courageous and humble encounter with the forces of good and evil that aided or barred the way to their ascent. Once the obstacles are removed through intelligent, ascetic effort, directed where insight leads, the grace of Christ will flower fully into a love of God that is ineffable. This is the unexpressed preconception that underlines our author's study of psychology, and his demonology as well. "Put this also to my credit (says Christ), that I preserve you in the desert and put to flight the demons who rage against you." 3 1

The Text This present translation was made from the Greek text printed in Migne Patrologia Graeca, 40, which itself is a reproduction of the edition printed in Cotelier, Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta, vol. 3 (1686), 68-102. However, the state of this text is not altogether satisfactory, especially in regard to the order of the Chapters, as Gennadius himself tells us.32 In fact he took steps to restore the text. More recently Muyldermans33 has been able to restore the true order of 3 1 . Ibid., 33. Further evidence for the central place of Christ in Evagrian spirituality is provided in the recently published second half of his "Great Letter" where Evagrius relates the Incarnation, Redemption and Resurrection to the one essential knowledge and finds perfection is hidden "in the breast of Jesus" upon which St John leaned. See G . Vitestam, Seconde Partie du Traité que Passe sous le Nom de "La Grande Lettre d'Euagre le Pontique à Mélanie l'Ancienne" (Lund, 1964), 2 3 - 2 9 . 32. Gennadius, op. cit., 1 1 (PL 58:1066). 33. J. Muyldermans, " L a teneur du Praktikos d'Evagre le Pontique," Muséon, 42 (1929).

il

Introduction

the treatise b y using the Syriac manuscript tradition, and it is this restored order, the original one, which is f o l l o w e d in this translation. F r o m the point o f v i e w o f the readings o f the text itself, the M i g n e edition is surprisingly accurate, as the critical edition, just n o w completed but not as yet published, reveals. M a d a m e Claire Guillaumont has established the critical text o f the Praktikos f o r Sources Chrétiennes.

She has v e r y generously placed at m y disposal

all the variants of any significance. W h e r e they differ f r o m the M i g n e text—they are f e w indeed—they have been used in this translation. M i g n e had already noted a number o f the variant readings, and these were, even before the w o r k o f

Madame

Guillaumont, evidently the preferred reading in a number of cases. T h e text o f Guillaumont establishes also the same order as that restored b y Muyldermans. For a v e r y thorough and interesting study of the history o f the transmission o f the text o f the Praktikos, the study o f Guillaumont, to appear shortly in Sources Chrétiennes,

is v e r y rewarding. It

points to the w a x i n g o f interest in the w o r k in the eleventh and twelfth centuries when so many o f the extant mss w e r e produced. 3 4

34. The critical text with an introduction was received as the present work was being proofread: A. and C. Guillaumont "Evagre le Pontique, traité pratique ou le moine" (Paris, 1971) (SC 170 and 171). The translation and notes have been most helpful. (Referred to as TP.)

THE

PRAKTIKOS

INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO ANATOLIUS 1

R

E C E N T L Y Y O U W R O T E t o m e here in Scete, Anatolius m y dearest brother, from the Holy Mountain 2 to request L f r o m me an explanation of the symbolism of the habit

of the monks w h o live in Egypt. 3 Y o u have well understood that

not without purpose is this habit made in a form so very different from what other men employ for the style of their clothes. So let me go on to tell you what I have learned about these matters from the holy Fathers. 1. This introductory letter does not, strictly speaking, form part of the Praktikos. In the Syriac tradition it appears at the head of the Antirrheticos or the Protrepticos and Paraneticos (ES, 26). In these notes it is referred to as the Letter to Anatolius. Cf. TP, 383 for its relation to the textual history of the Praktikos. 2. What mountain is meant; Possibly Mt Nitria in the Egyptian desert. (This is the opinion given by Theophane the Recluse in his note to this passage Dobrotolyubie, 421.) It could also refer to Mt Sinai where there were monks established from very early times. But it may well be a reference to the Mt of Olives where Evagrius had a number of friends with whom he maintained correspondence, chief of whom was Rufinus. 3. On the monastic habit, J. M. Besse, Les Moines d'Orient antérieurs au Concile de Chalcédoine (Paris, 1900), 249-54. The symbolism of the monastic habit was influential throughout all the Middle Ages, as Dom Jean Leclercq has pointed out in a personal communication. See La Vie Parfaite (TournhoutParis, 1948), 20-21 and passim. This is probably the first time a symbolic meaning was given to different parts of the habit. Cf. TP, 484. 12

Praktikos

13

The cowl is a symbol of the charity of God our Savior. It protects the most important part of the body and keeps us, who are children in Christ, warm. Thus it can be said to afford protection against those who attempt to strike and wound us. Consequently, all who wear this cowl on their heads sing these words aloud: "If the Lord does not build the house and keep the city, unavailingly does the builder labor and the watchman stand his guard." 4 Such words as these instill humility and root out that long-standing evil which is pride and which caused Lucifer, who rose like the day-star in the morning, to be cast down to the earth.5 That the monks go with their hands bare is a symbol of a life lived free of all hypocrisy. For vainglory has a frightful power to cover over and cast virtues into the shade. Ever searching out praise from men, it banishes faith. Our Lord has put it very well: " H o w can you believe when you get your praise from other men and are not interested in the praise that God alone gives»" 6 The good must be pursued for its own sake, not for some other cause. If this is not admitted then it would appear that the occasion that moves us to perform some good deed is better by far than the good that is done. How absurd this is can be seen from the extreme case where one would consider or say that something is better than God. 7 The scapular which8 has the form of a cross and which covers the shoulders of the monks is a symbol of faith in Christ which

4. Ps 1 2 6 : 1 . 5. Lucifer is the Latin name for the day-star. It came to be applied to the Prince of demons very early in the patristic exegesis of Is 1 4 : 1 2 where the literal reference is to a pagan tyrant, probably Sargon II, w h o had recently died in Assyria. Isaiah describes his death as a well-deserved humiliation of pride. 6. Jn 5:44. 7. Evagrius' thought here is somewhat elliptical. W h a t he leaves out is the statement that to pursue good for some cause other than its own self is precisely what the man does who falls into vainglory. He adds that such a way of acting is manifestly absurd. 8. The Syriac texts adds "which is made of a thin cord and which. . . . " E S , 25.

14

Praktikos

raises up the meek, removes obstacles 9 and provides for free, untrammeled activity. 1 0 The belt which they wear about their loins signifies their rejection of all impurity and proclaims that "it is a good thing for man not to touch a w o m a n . " 1 1 These men, to signify that they continually bear in their bodies the mortification of Jesus 1 2 and check all the irrational passions, wear also a sheep-skin garment. 13 Further they cut off the vices of the soul by their communion in the good, as also by loving poverty and fleeing from avarice, the mother of idolatry. They carry a staff which is the tree of life that affords secure footing to those w h o hold on to it. It allows them to support themselves upon it as upon the Lord. W e see then that the monk's habit is a kind of compendious symbol of all these things w e have described. (Whenever they confer this habit) the Fathers speak the following words to the young monks: " T h e fear of God strengthens faith, m y son, and continence in turn strengthens this fear. Patience and hope make this latter virtue solid beyond all shaking and they also give birth to apatheia-14 N o w this apatheia has a child called agape w h o keeps the door to deep knowledge of the created universe. 15 Finally, to this knowledge succeed theology and the supreme beatitude." 16 Let this suffice then for our explanation of the meaning of the holy habit and for the teaching of the ancients, and now let us go on to the discussion of the ways of the ascetic and contemplative lives. W e shall not, to be sure, tell everything that w e have seen or heard, but as much as w e have been taught by the Fathers to tell 9. The Syriac text adds " f r o m their monastic life; and thus this cord. . . . " ; ibid. 10. Cassian gives a more precise description of the scapular. C f . J . C . Guy, "Jean Cassien, institutions cenobitiques" (Paris, 1965), S C 109:45-7. 1 1 . 1 Cor 7 : 1 . 12. 2 C o r 4:10. 1 3 . The sheep here is seen as a symbol of sacrifice, the reference being to the Paschal lamb and to the sheep spoken of in Is 53 14. For apatheia see pp. lxxxiiiff above. 15. For the relation between agape and apatheia see p. lxxxii above. 16. This paragraph gives a succinct summary of the spiritual life according to Evagrius. While the individual ideas it contains are all quite traditional, the particular manner of relating them is quite original with the author.

Praktikos

i-2

15

t o o t h e r s . 1 7 W e shall m a k e a c o n c i s e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o o n e h u n d r e d c h a p t e r s o n t h e ascetic l i f e 1 8 a n d fifty p l u s a n o t h e r s i x h u n d r e d o n c o n t e m p l a t i v e m a t t e r s . S o as " n o t t o g i v e w h a t is h o l y t o t h e d o g s o r t o cast o u r p e a r l s b e f o r e s w i n e " s o m e o f these matters w i l l be kept in concealment and others alluded to

only

o b s c u r e l y , b u t y e t s o as t o k e e p t h e m q u i t e c l e a r t o t h o s e w h o w a l k along in the same path.19

THE HUNDRED CHAPTERS20 1 . C h r i s t i a n i t y is t h e d o g m a o f C h r i s t o u r S a v i o r . It is c o m p o s e d o f praktike,

o f the contemplation o f the physical w o r l d and o f the

contemplation o f God.21 2 . T h e K i n g d o m o f H e a v e n is apatheia

o f the soul a l o n g w i t h true

k n o w l e d g e o f existing things.22

1 7 . Evagrius gives special importance to the duty of the spiritual master to conceal such points o f doctrine as were beyond the powers or merits o f the disciple. B u t he shared this practice with the other great theologians of the Patristic A g e . 18. These one hundred chapters on the ascetic life comprise the Praktikos. The fifty chapters referred to make up the Gnostikos, while the six hundred chapters are the Kephalaia Gnostica. This, the Praktikos, is the first part o f a trilogy. 19. See also P G 4 0 : 1 2 8 5 ! ! where Evagrius again asserts this principle. 20. T h e Guillaumonts have shown that the rubric directing scribes to copy each chapter separately probably goes back to Evagrius himself. It is found in a number o f mss: T P 384f. T h e titles o f the sections o f chapters also seem to be f r o m Evagrius. C f . T P n 6 f . 2 1 . This chapter formulates very concisely the teaching o f Clement o f Alexandria and of Origen, as I. Hausherr indicates in his article on "Les grands courants de la spiritualité orientale," O C P , 1 (1935), 1 2 1 . A . Guillaumont, in his introduction to the works o f Evagrius soon to appear in S C will show that it was Evagrius w h o introduced the concept of praktike into the monastic vocabulary. In earlier periods it was employed with another meaning and in another context. Gregory Nazianzen, for instance, used it to describe the life o f a bishop. C f . T P 83f. 22. yvû>is Tûv ovTcov àXrjû-Qs is an expression which refers to the activity of dcajpca oyv(ôiiuiv a very rare w o r d in Greek. See Hausherr's note in Leçons, 107, note 10. L

68

Chapters on Prayer 75-81

75. The statement in the Apocalypse that speaks of the angel who takes care of putting incense in the bowl that contains the prayer of the saints refers, in my opinion, to precisely this grace wrought by the angel. He infuses knowledge of true prayer so that for the future the spirit may stand firm, free of all acedia and all negligence.37 76. The phials of perfume are said to be the prayers of the saints which are offered by the twenty-four ancients.38 77. These phials are to be understood as the love of God, or rather as the perfect and spiritual charity in which prayer is offered in spirit and in truth. 78. When you are of the mind that you do not stand in need of tears for your sins along with your prayer, then give some thought to the distance that separates you from God, whereas you ought to be in him constantly. Then you will shed more abundant tears than ever. 79. Surely when you take your own measure you will know a sweet sorrow and will call yourself, as Isaiah spoke of himself, a miserable wretch. 39 For you yourself are impure, your very lips are defiled and it is among such people as these rebels that you live and yet you dare to stand before the Lord of Armies. 40 80. If you pray in all truth you will come upon a deep sense of confidence. Then the angels will walk with you and enlighten you concerning the meaning of created things. 81. Know that the holy angels urge us on to pray. They are present with us amid rejoicing as they pray for us. So if we are 37. Rev 8:3. Negligence is the source of the first sin and the fall. See GuiJJaumont, op. cit., 37. 38. Rev 5:8. 39. Is 6:5. 40. W i t h Haushferr this translation follows the text of the Philokalia. The Migne texts omits "among such people as these rebels."

Chapters on Prayer 82-88

69

careless and admit distracting thoughts w e provoke them sharply inasmuch as they are joining in the fight on our behalf and w e do not even take care to intercede with G o d on our o w n behalf. O n the contrary b y this contempt o f their services and b y this forsaking o f their G o d and Ruler w e fall in with the designs o f the impure demons. 82. Pray w i t h fitting reverence and without anxiety; sing w i t h understanding and with attention to the requirements o f the music —then y o u w i l l soar aloft like y o u n g eagles. 83. T h e singing o f Psalms quiets the passions and calms the intemperance o f the body. Prayer, on the other hand, prepares the spirit to put its o w n powers into operation. 84. Prayer is activity which is appropriate to the dignity o f the spirit; or better, it is appropriate f o r its nobler and adequate operation. 4 1 85. Psalm-singing is an image o f w i s d o m w h i c h is many-sided; prayer is the prelude to immaterial and uniform knowledge. 4 2 86. K n o w l e d g e ! T h e great possession o f man. It is a f e l l o w w o r k e r w i t h prayer, acting to awaken the p o w e r o f thought to contemplate the divine knowledge. 87. If as yet y o u have not received the grace o f prayer or o f psalmody, then press ahead eagerly. Y o u will gain hold o f it. 88. In a parable the L o r d spoke o f the need f o r constant prayer 41. This reading follows Hausherr's suggestion which emends Kpijois into xpfjms ; Leçons, 117. 42. We have substituted avoiKiXr/s for TTOIKÎÀTJS since the context obviously demands this meaning, that is to say it calls for "uniform" or "simple" knowledge, not multiform or varied knowledge as both Migne and the Philokalia have it. See Hausherr, Leçons, 119.

70

Chapters on Prayer 8g-Q2

and of the avoidance of discouragement. 43 D o not fall into despondency if at times you do not get what you ask for. Keep up your courage. It will come later. For the Lord went on to tell another parable: " I f I do not fear God and have no reverence for man, yet since this woman affords me such pains I had better do her justice." 44 The same thing will happen to those who cry out to God day and night—-he will give them justice, and do it quickly. Take courage then, and persevere in your holy prayer with all sails unfurled. 89. D o not set your heart on what seems good to you but rather what is pleasing to God when you pray. This will free you from disturbance and leave you occupied with thanksgiving in your prayer. 90. Though you seem to be in God's presence, yet guard against the demon of unchastity. There is no more destructive or deceptive fellow than he. He would give the impression of being swifter than thought, and that he penetrates the watchfulness of your spirit. He would have you believe that your spirit is distracted from God when in fact it stands in his presence in fear and with reverence. 9 1 . If you have a real interest in prayer then be prepared to withstand the assaults of the demon and endure with constancy the lashes he lays on. He shall attack you like a wild beast and buffet your entire body. 92. Train yourself like a skilled athlete. Y o u must learn not to become anxious even if you should see some sudden apparition, or some sword pointed at you, or a beam of light leaping toward your face. Even though you should see some hideous and bloody figure, still stand firm, and in nowise give way to the fear that clutches at your heart. When you thus bear witness to your faith you will face your enemies with ready confidence. 43. Lk 18:1.

44. Lk 18:4-5.

Chapters on Prayer 93-98

71

93. The man who endures painful things will some day also find consoling ones. The man who is constant in disagreeable matters will not be without pleasant ones as well. 94. See to it that the evil demons do not lead you astray by means of some vision. Rather be wise: turn to prayer and call upon God to enlighten you if the thought comes from him, and if it does not, ask him to drive away from you the deceptive one quickly. Then take courage, for the dog will not hold his ground. With you praying to God with such ardor he shall be at once driven far off under the invisible lashings laid on by the unseen power of God. 95. It is proper that you be advised about another ruse. The demons divide up into two groups for a time, and when they see you calling out for help against the one group the others make their appearance under the form of angels who drive away the first group. They have in mind to deceive you into believing that they are holy angels in all truth. 96. Strive to cultivate a deep humility and the malice of the demons shall not touch your soul. Then the plague shall not approach your dwelling for "he has given his angels the command to watch over y o u " 4 5 and to drive away from you, invisibly, every hostile force. 97. Crashing sounds and roars and voices and beatings—all of these, coming from the devils, are heard by the man who pursues the practice of pure prayer. Y e t he does not lose courage nor his presence of mind. He calls out to G o d : " I shall fear no evils for you are with me." 4 6 And he adds other similar prayers. 98. At the time of these temptations make use of short and intense prayer. 45. Ps 9 0 : 1 1 .

46. Ps 22:4.

72

Chapters on Prayer

99-105

99. If the demons threaten you, appearing suddenly from the atmosphere and frightening you greatly and shattering your spirit or mauling your flesh like wild beasts, do not give w a y to panic because of them. D o not so much as trouble yourself over their threats. They frighten you so as to test your mettle. They wish to see if you will take them seriously or if you ignore them through contempt and whether you communicate in prayer with the omnipotent God, the Creator and Provider of all. 100. If it is before the omnipotent God, Creator and Provider of all, that you stand in your prayer, how is it that you foolishly ignore the fear of him which is beyond all measure, and you fear instead mosquitoes and roaches? Have you not heard Moses tell you: " T h e Lord your God shall you fear," 4 7 or again: " W h o m they dread and fear in the presence of his power . . . " ; 48 1 0 1 . Just as bread is nourishment for the body and virtue for the soul, so is spiritual prayer nourishment for the intelligence. 102. Pray not as the Pharisee but as the Publican in the holy place of prayer, so that you also may be justified by the Lord. 103. Strive to avoid praying against anyone in your prayer so that you do not destroy what you have been building up by making your prayer a defilement. 104. Learn a lesson from the man w h o owed ten thousand talents: unless you forgive the man who owes you a debt you yourself will not find forgiveness. For our Lord said: " H e was given over to the hangman." 4 9 105. Despise the needs of the body while you are engaged in prayer lest you do some damage to that unsurpassed gift that you gain by prayer due to the sting of some flea or even a louse, fly or mosquito. 47. Deut6:i3.

48. Ex 15:16.

49. Mt 18:24-35.

Chapters on Prayer

106-110

73

106. W e once heard a story about one of the holy men of prayer who was assailed by the spiteful demon. N o sooner had he lifted his hands in prayer than this demon transformed himself into a lion and, raising his forelegs up, he sunk his claws into either cheek of this athlete of prayer. But this man simply would not yield. He did not lower them until he had completed all his usual prayers. 107. W e know that John the Short was a man of the same stamp —in fact it were more proper to refer to him as John the Greatest of Monks. He lived his solitary life in a ditch, and would remain unmoved in his communion with God even while the demon wrapped himself around him in the form of a great serpent that squeezed his flesh and vomited in his face. 108. Doubtless you have also heard of the monks of Tabennisi. It is related that, on one occasion when Abbot Theodore was speaking to the brethren, two vipers crawled up right between his feet. Well, he remained undisturbed and made a kind of arch of his feet to keep them there till he should finish his talk. Only then did he show them to the brethren and told them what had happened. 109. There was another spiritual man about whom we have read. While he was praying one day a viper crawled up to him and seized his foot. He did not so much as lower his arms until he finished his customary prayer, and he suffered no harm whatever from thus loving God above his own self.50 110. Keep your eyes lowered while you are praying. Deny your flesh and your desires and live according to the spirit. 50. This and the preceding chapters are curiously reminiscent of a passage in the Talmud dealing with prayer (Tefillah)-. "(when praying) even if a snake is wound round his heel he should not break off." The Talmud, "Barakoth," 5, ed., I. Epstein vol. 1 (London, 1961), 187. This is but another point of contact with a Jewish milieu that marks the writings of Evagrius. This area deserves further study.

74

Chapters

on Prayer

111-116

h i . There was another holy man living the solitary life'in the desert. The demons pressed in upon him, surrounded him for a period of t w o weeks, tossing him up in the air and letting him fall on a mattress. Yet in no wise were they able to cause him to leave off his ardent prayer. 112. T w o angels once came up to another man w h o was very dear to G o d — a man much given to prayer. Well, he was walking along in the desert at the time and they joined him in his journey, one on this side, another on that. For his part he gave them no attention lest he should detract in some way from "the better part," keeping in mind the admonition of the Apostle: "Neither angels nor principalities nor powers can separate us from the love of Christ." 51 113. B y true prayer a monk becomes another angel, 52 for he ardently longs to see the face o f the Father in heaven. 114. D o not by any means strive to fashion some image or visualize some form at the time of prayer. 115. D o not cherish the desire to see sensibly angels or powers or even Christ lest you be led completely out of your wits, and taking a w o l f for your shepherd, come to adore the demons w h o are your enemies. 116. Vainglory is the source of the illusions of your mind. W h e n it exerts its influence on the mind it attempts to enclose the Divinity in form and figure.

51. R o m 8:35. 52. Lk 20:36 where the w o r d used here by Evagrius, laayyeXos, is found on the Hps o f our Lord himself. In Migne the second half o f this sentence has slipped into the next one. Wagenaar, op. cit., 524, gives reasons for translating here "another angel" rather than "the equal of an angel."

Chapters

on Prayer nj-123

75

1 1 7 . L e t m e repeat this s a y i n g o f m i n e that I o n c e expressed o n s o m e o t h e r o c c a s i o n s : H a p p y is t h e s p i r i t t h a t a t t a i n s t o p e r f e c t f o r m l e s s n e s s at t h e t i m e o f p r a y e r . 5 3 1 1 8 . H a p p y is t h e spirit w h i c h , p r a y i n g w i t h o u t d i s t r a c t i o n , g o e s o n i n c r e a s i n g its d e s i r e f o r G o d .

1 1 9 . H a p p y is t h e spirit t h a t b e c o m e s f r e e o f all m a t t e r a n d is s t r i p p e d o f all at t h e t i m e o f p r a y e r .

1 2 0 . H a p p y is t h e spirit t h a t attains t o c o m p l e t e u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f all s e n s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e at t h e t i m e o f p r a y e r . 5 4

1 2 1 . H a p p y is t h e m a n w h o t h i n k s h i m s e l f n o b e t t e r t h a n d i r t .

1 2 2 . H a p p y is t h e m o n k w h o v i e w s t h e w e l f a r e a n d p r o g r e s s o f a l l m e n w i t h as m u c h j o y as i f it w e r e h i s o w n .

1 2 3 . H a p p y is t h e m o n k w h o c o n s i d e r s all m e n as g o d — a f t e r God.85

53. There is some doubt about the authentic Greek text o f this brief chapter. W e give the reading attested b y Coislin M s 109 and adopted b y Hausherr. For the variant reading in M i g n e and a discussion o f its significance, see Leçons, 150-54. 54. Literally the text reads: " H a p p y the spirit w h i c h attains to total insensibility at prayer."But translated this w a y in English it suggests the possibility that pure prayer is equal to sleep or a sheer black-out, w h i c h is far removed f r o m Evagrius' thought. W h a t he intends to convey is the concept o f a prayer so pure and so rapt on its transcendent object that it absorbs the full being, consciousness and unconscious functioning as well. This teaching is explained in his Hellenistic system, yet it conveys the teaching o f the desert, for St A n t h o n y had taught, " T h a t prayer is not perfect in the course o f w h i c h the monk is aware o f the fact that he is praying." Cassian, Conferences 9:31 (PL 49:808). 55. This deep respect for one's fellow man goes very far toward combating one o f the chief accusations made against Desert spirituality, namely that it is egocentric. G r o w t h in pure prayer leads to deepened regard for the dignity o f one's fellow man. Theologically this idea is founded on the v i e w o f man as the image o f God.

76

Chapters on Prayer

124-132

124. A monk is a man who is separated from all and who is in harmony with all. 125. A monk is a man who considers himself one with all men because he seems constantly to see himself in every man. 58 126. Would you wish to know who is the man that prays perfectly? The one who brings forth all the best of thoughts for God. 127. Avoid every lie and all oaths since you desire to pray as a monk. Otherwise you are a vain pretender when you wear a habit, seeming to be something you are not. 128. If you desire to pray in the spirit then take nothing from the flesh so that you will not have some cloud darkening your vision at the time of prayer. 129. Trust in God for the needs of your body and then it will be clear that you are also relying upon him for the needs of your spirit. 130. If you attain to the (evangelical) promises you shall rule as a king. Keep your eye on this truth and you will count your present poverty a sweet thing. 1 3 1 . D o not reject poverty and affliction. They are not trifling materials for the edifice of prayer. 132. Let the virtues that deal with the body be a pledge of the virtues of the soul, and those of the soul a pledge of those dealing with the spirit, and these latter a pledge of immaterial knowledge.

56. With Hausherr this translation follows the Philokalia text.

Chapters on Prayer

133-138

77

1 3 3 . When you are praying against some evil thoughts and you find that you are freed from them readily, examine how this comes about lest you fall into some hidden trap, and by being deceived betray yourself. 134. It happens at times that the demons suggest some bad thoughts to you and again stir you up to pray against them, as is only proper, or to contradict them. Then they depart of their own choosing so as to deceive you into believing that you have conquered your thoughts of yourself and have cast fear into the demons. 135. If you pray against your passions or the demons that assail you 5 7 recall to mind the man who said: " I shall pursue after my enemies and shall lay hold of them and shall not turn aside until they all fall. I shall crush them and they shall not be able to stand. They shall fall beneath my f e e t . . . etc." 58 Y o u are to say this at the appropriate moment thus arming yourself against your adversary with humility. 136. D o not think you have attained to virtue until first you have fought to the shedding of blood. One must resist sin even unto death—manfully and irreproachably, as the divine Apostle tells us.59 137. If you do good to some one or other, be sure of it, another man comes along and does you an ill turn. This is calculated to make you yield under the pressure of injustice and do something injurious to another. In this way you would miserably scatter what you had so well gathered up—and precisely this is the aim of the demons. So be on your guard. 138. Keep an eye out for the grievous assaults of the devil; give thought to a w a y of putting an end to your servitude to him. 57. W e follow the Philokalia here as Hausherr recommends. 58. Ps 1 7 : 3 8 - 3 9 . 59. Heb 1 2 : 4 .

7«

Chapters on Prayer

139-145

139. B y night the demons demand the spiritual master for themselves—to harass him. B y day they surround him with pressures from men—with calumnies and with dangers. 140. D o not seek to avoid those who would give you a good drubbing. Though they kick you about and stretch you and hackle you like flax, yet after all this is the way the fuller cleans your clothes. 60 1 4 1 . Inasmuch as you have not renounced the passions but resist virtue and truth with your spirit, you will not find fragrant perfume in your bosom. 142. D o you wish to pray > Then banish the things of this world. Have heaven for your homeland and live there constantly—not in mere word but in actions that imitate the angels and in a more godlike knowledge. 143. If you remember the Judge only when you are in difficulties as One w h o inspires fear and who is incorruptibly honest, then you have not as yet learned to "serve the Lord in fear and to rejoice in him with trembling." 61 For understand this point well: one is to worship him even in spiritual relaxations and in times of good cheer with even more piety and reverence. 144. A wise man is one who does not cease-to recall the painful memory of his own sins before he has been perfectly converted— and the eternal punishment by fire that they merit as well. 145. A man who is still held by sin and still subject to fits of anger and yet dares shamelessly to strive after knowledge of more divine things or to rise up to the level of immaterial prayer is to be rebuked 60. Correcting a"adi)ais of Migne to eoB-qs of the Philokalia, see Hausherr,

Lefotis, 172.

61. Ps 2 : 1 1 .

Chapters on Prayer

146-150

79

in the words of the Apostle where he gives it out that not with impunity does he pray with his head bare 62 and uncovered. "Such a soul is to have domination over its head because of the holy angels w h o are present," St Paul tells us,63 that is to say, it is to be covered by respect and fitting humility. 146. Just as it hardly is of benefit to a man with bad eyes to stand gazing at the midday sun, when it is hottest, with fixed attention and uncovered 64 eyes, so also is it of no avail at all for an impure spirit, still subject to passions, to counterfeit that awesome and surpassing prayer in spirit and truth. On the contrary, it stirs up the resentment of God against itself. 147. If he w h o has need of nothing and who is not liable to be corrupted by any bribe does not receive the gift of a man w h o draws near to the altar before that man reconciles himself with his neighbor who has some grief against him, then consider what great circumspection and prudence we need if we are to offer incense that is well-pleasing to God on the spiritual altar. 148. D o not find your j o y in words of praise if you do not want sinners to cut you up no longer on the back but on your face. 65 Then too you will be mocked at by them at the time of prayer as you are drawn away, allured by them with monstrous thoughts. 149. When attention seeks prayer it finds it. For if there is anything that marches in the train of attention it is prayer; and so it must be cultivated. 150. Just as sight is the most worthy of the senses, so also is prayer the most divine of the virtues. 62. Read aKwraKaXvirros, not o/coAra-ros of Migne. Cf. Hausherr, Lefons, 176. 63. 1 Cor 1 1 : 1 0 . 64. W e have adopted, with Hausherr, the Philokalia reading of ¿KaTaKaXmTOS for a/foraAum-os of Migne. 65. Cf. Ps 128:3.

8o

Chapters

on Prayer

151-153

1 5 1 . The value of prayer is found not merely in its quantity but also in its quality. This is made clear by those two men who entered the temple, and also by this saying: "When you pray do not do a lot of empty chattering . . ." S8 152. To the extent that you still give attention to the values of the body, and your mind concerns itself with the amenities of life, you have not yet seen the place of prayer. Rather the happiness of this way is still far off. 153. When you give yourself to prayer, rise above every other joy—then you will find true prayer.

66. Lk 1 8 : 1 0 and M t 6:7. I am grateful to T . C . Lawlor for his helpful suggestions which led to certain improvements in the text. The Editors would also like to express their gratitude to G . Smerillo, Pembroke College, Oxford, for his assistance in preparing this volume for publication.

SELECTED

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Altaner, B., Patrology. Trans. H. Graef (New York, i960). Bardenhewer, O., Geschichte der altkirchlichen Literatur, vol. 3 (Freiburg, 1923). Beck, H. G., Kirche und Theologische Literatur im Byzantinischen Reich (Munich, 1959). Bousset, W . , Apophthegmata: Studien zur Geschichte des ältesten Mönchtums (Tübingen, 1922). Bouyer, L., The Spirituality of the New Testament and the Fathers (New York, 1963). Budge, E. A . W . , The Book of Paradise: Being the Histories and Sayings of the Monks and Ascetics of the Egyptian Desert. 2 vols. (London, 1904). Butler, C., The Lausiac History of Palladius. 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1898, 1904). Chadwick, O., John Cassian: A study in Primitive Monasticism (Cambridge, 2 ed., 1967). Frankenberg, W., Evagrios Pontikus (Berlin, 1912). Guillaumont, A., Les "Kephalaia Gnostica" d'Evagre le Pontique (Paris, 1962). Les Six Centuries des "Kephalaia Gnostica" d'Evagre le Pontique. PO, 28:1 (Paris, 1958). Guillaumont, A. and C., Traité Pratique ou le Moine, SC 170, 171 (Paris, 1971).

82

Selected Bibliography

Hausherr, I., " L e 'De Orati one' d'Evagre le Pontique en Syriaque et en Arabe," O C P , 5 (1939), 7-77. "Les grands courants de la spiritualité orientale," O C P , 1 (1935), 1 1 4 - 1 3 8 Les Leçons d'un Contemplative : Le Traité de }'Oraison

d'Evagre

le Pontique (Paris, i960). Le Maître, J . , Roques, R., Viller, M . , "Contemplation chez les Grecs et autres orientaux chrétiennes," D S , 2 : 1 7 6 2 - 1 7 8 7 (1950-1952). Lorié, L. T . A., Spiritual Terminology in the Latin Translations of the "Vita Antonii" (Nijmegen, 1955). Marsiii, S., Giovanni Cassiano ed Evagrio Pontica. Studia Anselmiana 5 (Rome, 1936). Muyldermans, J . , Evagrian Syriaca: Textes indiéts du British Museum et de la Vaticane. Bibliothèque Muséon, 31 (Louvain, 1952). Nikodemus the Hagiorite, Macarius of Corinth, Philokalia.

6

vols. 3 ed. (Athens, 1957-1963). Ortiz de Urbina, I., Patrologia Syriaca. 2 ed. (Rome, 1965). Palladius, The Lausiac History. Trans. R . T . Meyer. Ancient Christian Writers 34 (Washington, 1964). Quasten, J . , Patrology. 3 vols (Westminster, Md., 1950-1960). Viller, M . , " A u x Sources de la Spiritualité de S. M a x i m e : Les Oeuvres d'Evagre le Pontique," R A M , 1 1 (1930), 1 5 6 - 1 8 4 , 239-268. Völker, W . , Maximus Confessor als Meister des geistlichen Lebens (Weisbaden, 1965). V o n Ivanka, E., Plato Christianus (Einsiedeln, 1964).

OLD A N D NEW TESTAMENT

GENESIS

90;6

27:22 29:15-30 32:15

liv 52 23

EXODUS

3:5

56

15:16

72

24:10-11 30:34

64, xci 55

26

18:4-5

71

18:10

80

42 39

20:36

74

90:11 103:15 125:6 126:1

13

JOHN

128:3

79

4:24 5:44 17:3

ISAIAH

6:5 14:12 53:7

68

26

14

53

JUDGES 21

JOB

40:5

xlv

PSALMS* 2:11

MATTHEW

5:8 5:24 6:7 18:25-35 19:21

10:3

30

MARK

77 35

2:11

30

2

lxxxvii 58 80

CORINTHIANS

7:1 11:10

14 79

CORINTHIANS

3:3 4:10

72

HEBREWS

47

12:4

55

5:15

53 70

5:8 8:3

53 14

77

71

LUKE

35 23

5:5 18:1

I JOHN 60

REVELATION

enumeration. 83

M

74

78

17:38-39 17:39 22:24 26:2 41:6-7 *Vulgate

53

ROMANS

1 SIRACH

42:24 7:5-6

21:11

22

DEUTERONOMY 72

13

xciv

8:35 13:14

WISDOM

7:27 6:13

64

13

LEVITICUS 11:22

70

68 68

N A M E S OF P E R S O N S

Adnes, P., xiii. Albert the Great, St., lviii. Altaner, B., xxviii. Ammonas, briii. Ammonius Parotes, xlii, lxxiii. Amoun, xliii. Anatolius, xlvii, 12, 41. Anaxagoras, lxxxviii. Anthony (the Great), St, xii, xliv, lxxiii, lxxxiv, ixxxix, 6,39,75. Arbesmann, R., 26. Aristotle, xcii. Arsenius, lxxiv. Athanasius, St, xxv, lxxiii, lxxxiii, 6. Aubineau, M., 41. Augustine, St, xviii.

Bousset, w., xxx, xxxvi, xxxvii, lxxii, lxxiii. Bouyer, L., xxiv, xxxvii, liv, lvii, lxxxiv, 46. Budge, E. A . W . , xxxvii, xii, xliv, xlvii, liv, lxxiv, lxxxvi, 20. Bultmann, R., 60. Butler, C., xlvii, 81. Callahan, V., xc. Camelot, P., x. Cani vet, J., xx. Cassian, John, xiv, xvii, xviii, xxiv, xxviii, xlix, 1, Iii, lxviii, lxxiii, lxxxvii, xciv, 14, 16, 46, 75. Cavallera, F., li. Cavarons, J., xc. Chadwick, H., lxxiii. Chadwick, O., xxiv, lxxxvii, xciv. Chrysostom, St John, xxix, xxxii, xlix. Claudel, P., lxxi. Clement of Alexandria, lxxii, lxxiii, lxxxiii, lxxxiv, lxxxviii, 15. Codina, V., xiv. Colombas, G. M., lxxxv, 16. Constantine, 47. Cotelier, J. B., xxx, 10. Courtonne, Y . , lxv. Cross, F., liv, lxxx.

Babai the Great, li. Balthasar, H.U. von, xiv, xix, xxv, xxvii, xxxii, xxxiii, xxxiv, lxv. Bamberger, J. E., xii, xx, xxi. Bardenhewer, O., xxviii, xxx, lxvii. Bar-Kaldoun, J., lviii. Barlaam, lvi. Barsanuphius, xxvii, lv, lvii, lviii, 31. Basil (the Great), St, xxxi, xxxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii, xxxix, liii, lvii, lviii, lxv, lxxxv, xc, xci, 22, 45, 46. Beck, H. G „ liv, lv. Benedict, St, Iii, 45. Bernard of Clairvaux, St., xv, xvii, xviii, xix, lxxxvi. Besse, J.-M., 12. Bettencourt, S.T., 6.

Daniel, Abba, 40. Daniélou, J., xix, xxiv, xxxiii, xxxix, lxxx, 5, 37. Darrouzes, A., lv, lxx. David, 23. 84

Index Déchanet, J.-M., xvi. Denis, pseudo-, the Areopagite, xv, lvii, lviii. Des Places, E., ed., liv, lxx. Devresse, R., xlvii. Diadoch of Photicus, liv, lv, lxx. Didymus the Blind, xxv, lxxvi. Dindendorf, G., xlviii. Dodds, E. R., 5. Dondaine, H., xv. Dorotheus, St., lvii. Dörries, H., xii. Dostoyevsky, F., lv. Draguet, R., xxix, liv. Dräseke, J., xxiv. Drask, B., xxxvii. Duchesne, L., xlvii, lxxxi. Eckhart, Meister, 64. Eliade, M., 16, 34. Epiphanius, St., xlii, xlviii. Epstein, I., 73. Erikson, E., 36. Esaù, liv, 23. Eucarpius, xliv. Eulogius, lxiii. Evagrius, vii, viii, xii, xiii, xiv, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, xxi—passim. Ezechiel, lxvi. Faust, 4. Festugiere, A.-J., xxix, xxxviii, xxxix, xliv, lxvii, xc, 7. Fitzgerald, R., 4. Forstman, H. J., lxix. Fracheboud, M. A., lvii. Frankenberg, W., xii, xxx, lx, bri, lxiv, lxxx. French, R. M., lvii. Freud, S., xx, lxviii, 8. Garrite, G., 6. Gelasius, Iii. Gennadius, xxviii, Iii, lxii, lxv, 10. Germanus, xlix. Gideon, 21. Gilson, E., xvi. Godet, P., xxiv. Gordini, G. D., xl. Goutagny, E., 37, 40. Graef, H., xxviii.

85

Gregory the Great, St, xviii. Gregory of Nazianzen, St, xxxv, xxxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii, liii, lxv, lxxii, 3, 15, 38, 42, 55. Gregory of Nyssa, St, xi, xvi, xvii, xviii, xxxii, xxxv, xxxvii, xxxix, lxxii, lxxxix, xc, xcii, 37-

Gregory of Palamas, see Palamus. Gregory of Sinai, lx, lvi. Gressmann, H., xxx, lxii, lxiii. Grobel, K., 60. Gross, J., li. Guerric of Igny, Bid, xvii.. Guillaumont, A., xiv, xxiv, xxv, xxvi, xxix, xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi, xxxvii, xliii, xlix, Ii, Iii, lviii, lxi, lxii, lxiii, lxvii, lxxiv, lxxv, lxxvi, lxxxi, 3, 8, 19, 68. Guillaumont, C., xxxiii, xliii, xlviii, lxii, lxiii, lxxxiii, 11, 15. Guy, J . P., 14. Harl, M., x, Ixxxii. Harmand, xvi. Hausherr, I., xii, xix, xxvi, xxxi, xxxii, xxxix, liii, lviii, lxi, lxiv, lxviii, lxix, lxxviii, lxxxi, lxxxv, lxxxviii, xcii, 7, 15, 34, 45. 48, 50, 55. 56, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79

Helinand of Froidemont, xvi. Hermas the Shepherd, 33. Hesychius, lv. Hesychius of Jerusalem, lv. Holstenius, L., xxx, lxiii. Homer, 22. Ignatius of Antioch, St, liv, lxxxiii. Isaiah, lxv, 13. Isaie, Abba, of Scete, liv. Ivanka, E. von, xvii, xviii, lvi, xcii Jacob, liv, 23, 52. Jaeger, W., xxxix, lxxi, xc. Janin, R., xxxv. Jeans, Sir James, 54. Jeauneau, E., xv, xvi, lxxxix.

86

Index

Jerome, St, xxv, xxvii, xl, li, lxxxvii, 54Jesus, liii, lxxxiii, xclii, xciv, 14, 42, 54John, St, xvix, 10. John Bar Kaldoun, lviii. John Climachus, St, liv, lv, 21. John of Lycopolis, xlvii. John of the Cross, St, xx, lviii, lxxxiv, 56. John Scotus Eriugena, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, lxxxix. Johnston, W . , xciv. John the Theologian, xvi. Joly, R., 33Justinian the Great, xxv, xxvi, lii. Kadloubovsky, E., lvii. Kleist, J., lxxxiii. Krivocheine, B., lv. Lagrange, M . J., 54. Lambert, B., viii. Lampe, W . H., lxxxiv. Lawlor, T . C., 80. Leah, 52. Leclercq, J., xvii, xxviii, lxxi, lxxxvi, 12,46. Le Maitre, J., lxxxviii, lxxxix. LeRoy.J., 46. Long Brothers, xlii, xlix. Lorié, L., lxxxiv, lxxxvii. Lossky, V., lix. Louf, A., xxxvii, lxxxii. Lucifer, 13. Macarius of Alexandria, xlii, lxxiii, 6. —of Corinth, lvi. —pseudo-, lv. —(the Great) of Egypt, xlii, xlv, lxxii, lxxiii, 6, 24, 39, 40, 52. Marsh, F. S., lxxviii. Marsili, S., xxviii. Maximus the Confessor, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, xxiv, xxv, xxxi, xxxii, lv, lxx, lxxxviii, lxxxix. McCann, J., lii. McLuhan, M., lxix. Melania (the Elder), xxvii, xxviii, xxxvi, xl, xli, xlii, lxv, 10. Melcher, R., xxxi, lxv. Mephisto, 4.

Merton, T . , xxi, lv. Meyendorf, J., xlii, lvii, lxxi, lxxxi. Meyer, R. T., xxv, xliv, lxxiii. Migne, 10, i i , 56, 59, 60, 64, 69, 79. Moine de l'Eglise d'Orient, lvi. Mondesert, CI., lxxxviii. Moore, L., lv. Morson, J., xvii. Moses, 26, 56, 64, 72. Muller, G., lxxxiii. Murphy, F. X., xi. Musurillo, H., xxxviii. Muyldermans, J., xxvi, li, lxii, lxiv, lxv, lxvi, xcii, 10. N a u , F., 24, 40. Nectarius, Patriarch of Constantinople, xxxviii. N e w m a n , J. H., Cardinal, lxxxiii. Nicetas, Stethatos, lv. Nikodemus the Hagiorite, lvi. Nilus, St, xxxii, liii, lxi, lxiii, lxvi, lxvii, 50. Ohlislager, M . , x. O'Meara, J., 47. Oppianus of Cilicia, 54. Origen, xi, xvii, xviii, xxiii, xxvii, xxviii, xxxii, xxxiii, xli, xlii, xlvi, lxv, lxxi, lxxii, lxxiii, lxxv, lxxxiv, xcii, xciv, 6, 15, 33. 47. 48Ortiz de Urbina, I., 82. Ouspensky, L., lix. Palamas, G., lv, lvi, lvii. Palladius, xxv, xxix, xxxv, xlvii, xlix, 1, lii, lxv, lxxiii, 50. Palmer, G., lvii. Pambo, Abba, xlii. Paphnutius, lxxiii. Paul, D., 4. Paul, St, 79. Philo, x. Philotheos, Patriarch, lvi. Philoxenus of Mabboug, xxvi. Plato, xvii, xviii, 4, 5. Plotinus, lxxiii. Pseudo-Denis: see Denis. Pythagoras, 54. Quasten, J., xxiii, xxv, xxix. Quispel, G., lxxxii.

Index Raban Sliba, lviii. Rachel, 52. Rahner, K., xix, xxxi, lxxiii, xciv. Rayez, A., lvii. Refoulé, F., xxvi, xxxiii, li, 34. Rendina, S., 46. Resch, P., xliv. Rice, C., li. Robinson, J. Armitage, xlvii. Rochais, H. M., lxxxvi. Roques, R., lxxxviii, lxxxix. Rondeau, M. J., xxvii, xxxiii, lxv. Rouse,W., 22. Rousseau, O., lxxxiv. Ruether, R., 3. Rufxnus, xxv, xxvii, xxviii, xl, xli, li, Iii, 12, 51, 52. Ruther, T., lxxxiii. Ruysbroeck, J. van, lviii. Sarghisian, H. B., xxx. Sargon II, 13. Schlegel, F., lxix. Schleiermacher, F., lxix. Schlier, H., 5. Sextus, lxix, lxxiii. Sherwood, P., xxxi, lxx. Sirach, Ben, 53. Sliba, Raban: see Raban. Smaragdus, Abbot of St. Mihiel, lxxi. Smerillo, G., 80. Socrates, xlvi, lx, lxv. Sozomen, xxxv. Spidlik, T., lxxiv. Spies, O., 1. Steidle, B „ liii. Stephana, xlvi, 20. Stevens, L., lxxxii.

87 Sullivan, J. E., lviii, 64. Symeon the New Theologian, lv, lxx. Talbot, C. H., lxxxvi. Tarchnisvili, M., xxxv, lviii. Teilhard de Chardin, xciii. Teresa of Avila, lxxxiv, xciv. Theodore Studite, lvii, 45, 46. Theodore of Tabennisi, 73. Theodosius, Emperor, xxxviii. Theodosus, St., xx. Theoleptus of Philadelphia, Ivi. Theophane the Recluse, lvii, 12. Theophilus of Alexandria, xlvi, xlviii, xlix. Thomas Aquinas, St, lviii. Tillemont, S. L., lxxxi. Tracy, D. W., x. Trask, W. R., 16. Valerius Maximus, xl. Valéry, P., 4. Vandenbroucke, F., 46. Velichkovsky, P., lvii. Viller, M., xxiv, xxxi, xxxii, liv, lxxxv, lxxxviii, lxxxix, 38. Vitestam, G., lxxx, 10. Völker, W., xxxi, liv, 32. Wagenaar, C., 54, 74. Wagner, M., xxxvii. Walsh, K., lxxxvi. Wenzel, S., lxviii, 18. White, E. G. E., xliii. William of St Thierry, Bid, xvi. Wilmart, A., xxviii, xxix, xxxiv, lxii, lxiii. Zöckler, O., xxiv, xxx.

GENERAL

abandonment, 61. abba, xlv. abstinence, 17. acedia, lxvii, lxviii, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,68. Adgentes, ix. affectivity, lxvii, 36, 37. affliction, 76. agape, lxxxii, lxxxiii, l x x x i v , 14, 25, 36. Alexandria, xxiii, x x i x , xli, xliii, xliv, xlvi, lxvii, 40. Alexandrians, lxxxviii. allegory, lxxi. almsgiving, 20, 21. altar, 58, 79. anachoresis, 30. Ancyra, xxxii. angel, lxxvi, lxxvii, lxxviii, l x x x , 6, 23, 31. 36, 38, 41, 59, 61, 67, 71, 74, 78, 79. angelic, lxxviii, lxxix, 61. anger, l x x v i , 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 35, 36, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 78. angry, 22, 41, 57, 59. Anima, De, xvii. Annesi, x x x v i . anthropological, lx. anthropology, xvii. anthropomorphic, xlviii. Antipelagians, lxxxvii. Antirrhetkos, xii, lxii, lxxxi, 12, 22,28. anxiety, 33, 69. anxious, 60, 70. apatheia, xlvii, lxviii, lxxii, Ixxiii, lxxxii, -lxxxviii, 4, 14, 19, 25, 31-34, 36, 46, 49. 51. 63.

88

INDEX

apex mentis, xvii. aphorisms, lxvii. Apocalypse, 68. Apollinarianism, xliv. Apophthegmata, liv, lxxxi. approval, 61. Aquileia, xxvii. Arabic, 1. archdeacon, x x x v i i , xxxviii. archetype, xcii. Arianism, x x x v i i , xliv. Arians, lxviii. Armenia, 1. Armenian, x x v i , x x x , li, lviii, lx, lxi-lxv. arrogance, xliv, 59. Ascension of Isaias, lxxx. ascent, 60. ascesis, lxxvii, 3, 4, 36, 47. ascetic, lxxi, l x x x , lxxxi, lxxxiii, l x x x i v , 6, 14, 17, 19, 25, 33, 34, 36, 37. 41, 55ascetical: see theology. Assyria, 13. Athos, lvi. attention, 69, 74, 79, 80. attentive, 23. attitudes, 31. avarice, 14, 17, 25, 63. avenge, 57, 62. awareness, 34. awkwardness, 24. banquets, 31. beasts, 18, 21, 31, 41, 70. beatitude, lxxxi, 14. belt, 14. Benedictine, xiii, xiv, x v i , Iii, liii, 46.

Index Bethabe, liv. bible, lxii. biblical, lxxx, lxxxii. bishop, xxxix, xlv, xlvi, xlvii, xlix, 3. blasphemy, 28, 30, 40. bodily, 66. body, xlviii, lxxvii, 17, 22, 24, 25, 29. 30, 3 1 . 36, 37. 53. 65, 69, 70, 72, 76, 80 —of fire, lxxvi, lxxvii, lxix. —of earth, lxxvi. book, xliv, xlv, xlvii, 39, 40. Book of Governors, liv. Book of Paradise, xxxvii. See Budge, E. A. W . brain, 67. brightness, lxxiii. British Isles, vii. Buddhism, xiv. Byzantine, xiv, lxix-lxxi, 46, 53, 64 Byzantium, lvii. calligraphy, xlvii. calm, lxxxvii, 34, 66. canticle, 35. Capita Cognoscitiva, lxiv. Cappadocians, xxiii, lxxxiv, xc. careless, 69. Carolingian, xv, lxxi. celibate, lxxxiii. cell, 19, 23. cells, xlii, xlv. cenobites, lxii, 3, 16. century, lxix, lxx. Chaldean, 5. Chapters on Prayer, xxxii, lxii, lix, lxi, lxix, lxxii, lxxiv, lxxxi, 27, 47ff. 53ffcharity, xlvi, Ixxxvi, lxxxvii, xc, 13, 2 i , 26, 36-39, 41, 46, 49, 53, 55,68. Cherubim, De, lxv. chorbishop, x x x v . Christ, xii, xxiv, lxxix, lxxx, lxxxiii, Ixxxvi, xciii, 5, 9, 10, 13, 15, 25, 30, 31. 47. 48, 54. 55. 74Christian, Ixxxvi, xciii, 3, 5, 47, 51. Christianity, xiv, 15. Christological, xiv, xxvii, xxxiii. Christology, xxvi, lxi, lxv, lxxix, xciii.

89

Church, xxiii, xxvii, xxix, xxxii, xxxviii, xlvii, xlviii, lxxiv. Cistercian, vii, viii, xiii, xiv, xvi, xvii, xix. Citeaux, viii, xv. city, xxxvii, xlvi, 27. Clairvaux, viii, x v , xvi. Coislin ms, 109, 50. cold, lxxvi. combat, 6, 16, 29, 33, 37, 38, 63. commandments, lxxxv, lxxxviii, 35, 36, 37. 46. commentaries on Job, lxv. commentaries on the Pater, lxvi. commentaries on Proverbs, lxv. commentaries on the Psalms, xxvixxviii, lxv. commentaries on Scripture, lxv. Communion, Holy, xlvii. Community of Ammonius and Evagrius, xlii. Community ofEvagrius, xlix. compassion, 65, 66. compunction, 32, 61. concept, 48, 66. concern, 57. conciseness, lxxi. concupiscence, 26. concupiscible, 3 1 , 32. condemnation, xxii, x x v , xxvi, lxxiii. Conferences of Cassian, xiv, li, lxxiii, lxxxvii. confess, 56. confession, 65. conflict, 33. Congregation ofEvagrius, xlii. consent, 35. consoling, 71. Constantinople, xxix, xxxi, xxxvii, xxxviii, xl, xlv, xlviii, lvii, 45contemplation, xii, xiii, lxiii, lxxii, lxxv, lxxvii-lxxix, lxxxiii, lxxxvii-lxxxix, xc, xcii, xciii, 3, 4. 25, 26, 30, 31, 37, 45ff, 61. contemplative, lx, 14, 24, 30-33, 36, 37, 40, 46, siff and passim. continence, lxxxii, 14, 17, 24, 25, 26, 34. 38, conversion, lxxxi. Copt, xlii, xlix.

9°

Index

Coptic, xxxiv, x x x v , xlv, xlviii, lxxii, lxxxii, 6. corporal, lxxvii. corporality, lxxvii. corporeal, 38,64. cosmic, Ixxx. cosmological, ix. cosmology, xvii, lxix, lxxi, lxxx. Councils, x x v . FifthEcumenical, xxiii, x x v , xxxiii, lii, liv, lxxx. SecondEcumenical, xxxvi-xxxviii. Second Vatican, ix. courage, 38, 70, 71. cowardice, 24. cowl, 13. created things, 3 1 , 37, 39, 63, 68. creation, lxxiv, lxxvi, lxxxii, 15. second, lxxv, lxxvi, lxxviii, lxxix. Creator, 3 1 , 64, 72. creatures, first, lxxvii. second, lxxvii, lxxix. cross, 13, 58. deacon, xxxvii. deaconate, xxxvii. death, 77. deceive, 17. deception, 67, 70. de-Hellenization, ix, x. delight, 31. demon, xliv, lxxvi, lxxix, lxxx, l x x x v , 3ff, and passim. noonday, 18, 20, 26. demonology, 5, 6, 7, 9. derangement: see madness, desert, lxviii, lxxxi, lxxxiv, 7, 12, 25, 74. 75desire, 6,20, 35, 52, 53, 59, 60, 73-76. despondency, 58, 70. destruction, 28. devil, 47, 62, 77. devotio moderna, lviii. Diadema Monachorum. lxxi. dialogue, xxi. diet, 39. direction, spiritual, xx, xliv. discernment, xliv. discouragement, 70. discretion, xliv, 41. distractions, lxxxvii, 33, 35, 58, 69, 70, 75-

disturb, 34, 57, 59, 65. disturbance, 66, 70. divine, 67, 69. Divinity, xc, 66, 74. Dobrotolyubie, lvi, lvii, 12. dogma, 15. dream, x x x i x , lxxxvi, 3 1 , 34. drugs, 37. East, x v , liii, lvii. ecstasy, 34. ego, xii. egocentric, 75. Egypt, xxvii, xl, xli, xlviii, lxxxi, 6, 12, 51. Egyptian, xiii, xxix, xlv, xlix, lxxiii, lxxiv, 12, 51. eighth day, lxxix. Eklogoi propheticae. lxxii. endure, 58. enemy, 35. English, vii. enlighten, 68, 71. envy, 53, 62. epektesis, 37. Epiphany, xlvii, xciii. epistle: see letters, eschatological, lxxix, lxxx. Ethiopian, 1. Eucharist, xciii. Eunomianism, xliv. Excerpta, lxxii. Exhortation to a Virgin, x x x , liii, lxiii. experience, xviii, xx, lxviii, lxx, lxxx, 7, 8, 25, 29, 51, 61, 64, 75. experimental, xc. eye, of spirit, 59. eyes, 65, 79. faculty, 16, 46. faith, lxxxii, 13, 14, 36, 37, 55, 70. fall, lxxv, lxxvii, 6. fancies, 35, 62. fast, 29, 39. fasting, lxvi, 23, 26. Father, God the, 40, 63, 74. Fathers, the, x, lxxiv, lxxxi, lxxxii, lxxxiii, lxxxvii, 12, 14, 26. favor, 56, 60. fear, 14, 2 1 , 24, 70, 72, 77, 78. of God, lxxxii, lxxxv, 36, 70. feeling, 16.

Index fight, 6, 29, 33, 35, 59, 69. firm, 67, 68, 70. fish, lxix, 53, 54. fixity, 57. flesh, 30, 62, 72, 73, 76. food, 41. forgiveness, 72. form 48 64 66, 67, 74. formlessness, 48, 75. fornication, 22. France, 1. Georgian, lviii, 6. gift, 23, 47, 53, 55, 60, 79. gluttony, lxviii, lxix, 16, 17. gnosis, Ixxii, lxxxviii. Gnostikos, lx, lxxvi, xcii, 3, 15. Gospel of Thomas, lxxxii. Gospels, 40, 47, 54. grace, lxxviii, lxxxvi, 57, 68, 69. gravity, 61. Great Lavra, lii, liii. Greek, vii, x, xxvi, xxvii, xxix, xxx, xlv, li, liii, liv, lx, lxi-lxvii, lxx, lxxiii, lxxxii, lxxxviii, 6, 10, 22, 50, 56, 75. growth, lxxxv. guard, 77. guilt, lxxvi. habit, 40, 61, 71. monastic, xxxvi, xl, lxxxi, 12, 14. hallucinations, xii, 20. harmony, lxxxiii, xciii, 38, 39, 49, 75. hatred, lxxvi, 19, 21, 36, 41. heal, lxxxviii, 36, 58. health, lxxxviii, 4, 24, 29, 31, 33, 55. healthy, 31. heart, 29, 34, 49, 52, 70. heaven, 78. heir, 61. Helenopolis, xxix. Hellenism, ix, x, xviii. Hellenistic, ix, x, xxxiv, xlii, xlviii, lxxii, lxxiv, lxxvi, lxxx, 51, 75Hellenization, x. Henad, lxxv, lxxix. heresy, xxvii, lxxiii. heretic, xxxi, lviii. heretical, lviii. hermit, xiii, lxii, 3, 16, 51.

91

hesychasm, xiii. hesychia, xii. xiii, lxiii. Hindu, 16, 34. Historia Lausiaca: see Lausiac History Historia Monachorum in Aegypto, xxix, 7Holy City: see Jerusalem. Holy Land, xi, xxvii, xlviii, 15. holy powers: see angels. Holy Spirit, x, lix, lxxxvi, 42, 64, 65. Holy Trinity: see Trinity. hope, lxxxii, 14, 20, 23, 55. hospitals, xxxvii. humanism, ix, xvii. humanist, lxxxviii. humanity of Christ, xx, xciv. humiliation, 13, 17. humility, lxvi, lxxxv, 13, 25, 32, 46, 71.79humor, xii. hunger, 21. hymns, 35. hypocrisy, 13. Hypotyposis, liii, lxiii. Iberia, xxxv. Ibora, xxxv. idolatry, 14. ignorance, lxxvi, lxxvii, 48, 61. ill: see sick. illness, xlvi, xlvii, 17, 20, 26, 37, 51. illusion, 18, 74. image, xvi, lviii, lxxxvi, xciii, 2 1 , 23, 34» 66, 67, 74. of God, xii, xlviii, xci, xcii, 38, 75. immateriality), xlviii, xlix, 48, 66, 76, 78. impure, 56, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 79. impurity, 17, 20, 30, 32, 63. Incarnation, lxxix. Incamatione, De, lii. incense, 68, 79. incorporeal, 33, 38. indifference, lxxxv. indignation, 18. insight, vii 7, 41. Institutiones, of Cassian, lii, lxviii. intellect, xc. intelligence, lxxv, lxxix, 16, 53, 72. intelligible things, 54. interdisciplinary, xxi. Iranian, 5.

Index irascibility, Ixxvii, 22, 33, 37. Irascible, 31. irrational, 34, 38. Iveronu: see Ibora. Jacobite Syrians, lviii. Japan, vii. Jerusalem, xxviii, xl, xli, lxxxi. Job, commentary on, Ixv. j o y , 19, 38, 39. 49. 58. 65, 75. 79. 80. Judaism, lxxxiii. Judeo-Christianity, lxxx, 5. judge, 78. judgment, Ixxv, Ixxvi, 57. justice, 38, 42, 61, 70. Justis et Perfectis, De, lxvi. Kephalaia Gnostica, xxvi, xxxiii, xxxiv, lx, lxxi, Ixxv, lxxvi, lxxx, lxxxi, 3, 15, 48, 49. Kingdom of God, 16, 64. of Heaven, 15, q6. knowledge, xviii, xliv, lxxvii-lxxix, lxxxii, xci-xciii, 4, 15, 23-25, 34, 39. 41. 47. 49. 54. 65-69. 76. 78. angelic, Ixxvii. of creation: see theoria physica. essential, Ixxv, lxxix, xc, 67. simple, xc. labor, 19, 29, 52. Latin, vii, xiii, xv, xvii, xxviii, xxix, li, lii, lxii, lxx, 50. Lausiac History, xxv, xxix, xxxv, lii and passim, law, 35. learning, lxxix. lectio divina, lxvi. lector, xxxvi. letters, xl, briv, lxv, 6, 56. collection of Evagrius, hriv. Eight of St Basil, xxxi, lxv. to Anatolius, lx. to Ctesiphon, xxvii, li. to Melania, liii, lxv, Ixxv, lxxx, lxxxi. lie, 76. light, lxxxvii, xc, xci, xciii, 23, 33, 34, 67, 70. of Christ, xlvii. Limbic pathways, 67. liturgy, 46.

liver, 17. logismoi: see thoughts, passionate, logos, lxxxix. longing, 32, 65. love, lxxxiv, lxxxv, 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 j , 26,41, 50, 53. 58, 61, 63, 65, 68, 73, 74last, 35, 63. madness, 34, 57, 65. maladies: see illness. Milignis Cogitationibus, De, lxvi. manuscripts, viii, lix. Maria, 40. martyr, 5. martyrdom, 47, 48. Master, 56, 78 mathematics, 53 medieval, xxiii. meek, 14. meekness, 21, 57. memories, simple, 26. memory, lxxxvii, 17, 19, 25, 34, 35, 39. 57. 62, 65, 66, 78 mercy, Ixxvii, 36, 39. metaphysical, xcii. method, 36. Midian, 21. mildness, 57. mind, 20, 29. miracles, xlvii. mirror, xci. Monachikos, lx. monastery, 46. of M t Izla, li. of the M o u n t of Olives, xxviii, xxix, xxxvi, xl, 12, 51. of the Studium, lv. of the Thornbush, lv. monastic, 24, 27, 30, 45, 47. monasticism, xiii, lxxx, 46. money, 21, 41. monk, lxxxi, lxxxiii, lxxxvi, 12, 13, 18, 20, 26, 28, 29, 32, 39, 40, 41, 46, 62, 74, 75, 76. monothelitism, xxxi. mortification, 14. M t Nitria, 12. Sinai, lvii, 12, 64. Mountain, Holy, 12. movement, Ixxv, Ixxvii, lxxix, 54, 55. 57-

Index multiplication, lxxv. multiplicity, lxxix, lxxxix, 48, 64. music, 69. Mysteries, Holy, 41. mystery, lxxviii, lxxx, 55. mystic, lviii, xcii, 49. mystical, li, lxxi, lxxii, xcii, 34. theology, 39, 40, 4 1 , 48, 55, 64. mysticism, xci, xciv. naturai, 3 1 , 32. nature, lxxvi, lxxix, lxxxviii, 23, 26, 29. 35. 37, 38. negligence, lxxv, lxxviii, lxxix, 6,68. Neo-palamites, Ivi. Neo-platonism, xxxiii, lxviii, 30. Neo-platonists, lxxiii, lxxv, 5. Nestorians, lviii. N e w Lavra, lii. Nineveh, liv. Nitria, xxix, xli, xlii, xliii, xlviii, 1, lxxiii, 12, 49. noonday demon, 18, 20, 26. Nostra aetate, ix. nous, lxxvii, lxxviii, 57. See also intelligence, mind, spirit, novice, lxxxii. nudity of spirit, xc. number, lxxix, 51, 53, 54, 55. obedience, l x x x v , 46. one, 76. only-begotten, 64. Orient (al), x, xiii, xiv, li. Origenism, xviii, x x v , xl, xlviii, xlix, lxxv. Origenist, xviii, x x v , xxix, xxxiii, xli, xlviii, xlix, li, lii, liii. orphanages, xxxvii. painful, 7 1 . Palestine: see Holy Land. Partanoti, xlviii. Paraeneticus, lxiv, 12. pardon, 56. parents, 17. passion, lxxiv, lxxvi, lxxvii, lxxxi, lxxxii, Ixxxvi, 17, 19, 22, 25, 26, 29, 4 1 . 49, 52, 56, 57, 59, 63, 66, 77, 78, 79. passions, eight chief, 7, i6ff.

lxxviii, 7ff, 14, 35, 37, 60, 62,

93

pastoral, xxvii. Pater noster, commentary on, lxvi. patience, lxxxii, 20, 34, 38, 58. patient, 24. patiently, 29, 58. Patriarch of Alexandria, xlvi, xlviii, xlix. of Constantinople, xxxviii, xlix. Pelagian, li. perception, 56, 59. Persia, li, liv. phantasm, 28, 3 1 , 38, 66. Pharisee, 72. Philokalia, Ivi, lvii, lxiii, lxiv, lxx, 50, 56, 60, 61, 64, 65, 68, 69, 7679philosophical, x x . philosophy, lxxv. physician, 17, 22. place of God, xci, 64, 66. of prayer, xci, 64, 66. of vision, xci. Platonic, xviii, xc. Platonism, xcii, xx, 16, 2 1 , 22, 38, 40, 62. pleasure, 2 1 , 22, 41. Pontus, x x x v i , xxxvii. poor, 58. poverty, 76. powers, 46. praktike, 3, 55; see ascesis. Praktikos, xxviii, x x x , Ivi, lix, lxvii, lxxiv, lxxx-lxxxii and passim. praxis, xviii. pray, 27, 29, 3 1 , 35, 41. prayer, xi, 1, lix, lxiv, lxxiv, Ixxxviff. Prayer, Chapters on, xxxii, liii, lix, lxi, 3ff, 18, 20, 22, 27, 29, 33, 34, 42, 45ÌF, 5 3 f f a n d passim. prayer, pure, xcii, 22. purity of, 48, 7 1 , 75. short and intense, 7 1 . pre-existence, x x v . prejudice, 21. presence of the Lord, 29, 64, 70. pride, 13, 17, 20, 2 1 , 25, 32. priest, Ixxxvi, 20, 41. priesthood, lxxiv, 19. progress, 28, 33, 46, 75. prophecy, xlvii. prototype, 38. Protrepticus, lxiv, 12.

94

Index

Proverbs, commentary on, lxv. Providence, l x x v i , 60. Provider, 72. prudence, 35, 38, 79. psalmody, lxiv, 20, 69. psalms, 20, 36, 69. commentary on, lxv. psyche, 26. psychiatrist, vii. psychologist, 49. psychoanalysis, 9, 28. psychology, xii, x x , lxviii, xciii, 9 , 1 0 , 33, 49publican, 72. punishment, lxxvii, 35, 78. pure, 63, 66, 67. purification, 24, 25, 61. purity, 67. o f heart, xlvi, 1, l x x i x , lxxxii, lxxxv, lxxxvi, lxxxvii, lxxxix, 30, 33. 37. 39Pythagorean, boriii, 54. quantity, 66, 80. quies, xiii. quiet, lxvi. Qumran, lxxxiii. Rabban Shapur, liv. rational, 37, 38. reading, 20. reconcile, 58, 79. redemption, lxxix. remedy, 31. resentment, l x x v i , l x x x v , 41, 53, 58, 63. 65, 78. reverence, 65, 70, 78. R o m e , xxvii. round-dance, l x x x . rudeness, native, 56. Rule, 27. o f St Benedict, xiv, lii, 46. for the C o m m u n i t y , lxxxii. Russia, lvii. Russian, lvi, l x x . monks, lv. pilgrim, lvii. spirituality, lvii. Sabbath, xii. sacramentology, lxxiv. sacraments, l x x x v i , xciii, 10, 54.

sadden, 57, 58. sadness, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 58. St Mihiel, h a d salvation, l x x i x , xciii, 29. sapphire, xci. Sasima, x x x v i i . satiety, 21. Savior, 13, 1 j . scapular, 13. Scete, xlii, xlv, 12. Scripture, l x x x i x . secret, lxxviii. sense, 16, 26, 34, 67. sensible, 75. sensibility, 65. sensibly, 74. sensuality, l x x v i , lxxvii. sentence, lxvii, lxix. Sentences for Monks, viii, x i x , liii, lxii, Sentences for Nuns, xxviii, x x x . Septuagint, xci, 64. Seraphim, De, lxv. Serbs, lvi. Sermo exhortationis see Paraeneticus Sermones super Cantica Canticorum, lxxxvi. serpent 73. seventh day, l x x i x . shape: see f o r m , sheepskin, 14. sick, 27, 36, 39, 46, 50, J l , 55. sickness: see illness. sight, 79. sign, 29. silence, xiii. simplicity, lxxxii, l x x x i x , 48. sin, 16, 29, 35, 56, 61, 68, 77, 78. sing, 26, 27, 35, 69. sleep, 31, 34, 40. smell, 26. snake, 26, 31. solitary, 26, 73, 74. solitude, xiii, 20, 22. song, 35. sorrow, l x x x v , 61, 68. soul, l x x v i , lxxvii, xciii, 20,23,25, 26, 30, 31, 32, 46, 56, 60, 7 6 , 7 9 . Spanish, xix. spirit, xii, xiii, lvii, l x x v , lxxxviii, xciii, 4, 23, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37,48, 52, 53, 56, 59-62,64-66, 68, 69, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79.

Index Spirit o f G o d : see H o l y Spirit, spiritual, 65. spirituality, Byzantine, xxxii, lv, 34, 53o f the desert, xlv. Evagrian, xxxii, lii, l x x x , 46. Greek, lxxxviii. hesychastic, lv. Hindu, 34. history of, x x x . Russian, lvii. Sinaitic, xxxii. spleen, 17. stability, 20. staff, 14. stage, lxxix. state, l x x v , lxxviii, l x x x v i , l x x x v i i , x c , 28, 32, 36, 56, 59, 62, 63, Stoic, lxxiii, l x x v i , lxxxiii, 41, 55. stomach, 17, 50. Sufis, li. Supplement o f the Kephalaia Gnostica, lx, lxi. supplication, 29, 56. symbol, 13, 31. symbolic, 53, 54. symbolism, 12, 53. Synod, in trullo, x x v . Lateran, x x v . xxxii. Syria, 1. Syriac, x x v i , x x i x , x x x , xxxiii, xlv, xlvi, li, liv, lviii, lx, lxi-lxvi, xci, 11, 12, 13. Syrian: see Syriac. swift, 10, 30.

Tabennisi, 73. T a l m u d , 73. tattva, 16. tears, x l v i , 23, 32, 39, 56, 57, 68. temperament, 65. temperance, 21, 38, 40. tempt, 57. temptation, 22, 24. thanksgiving, 49, 58. theologian, lxix, lxxii, l x x x , xciii, xciv, 15, 65. theology, xviii, x x v i , lxxxii, 5, 9, 14, 48, 49, 64.

95

ascetical & mystical, xviii, x x i v , xlii, liv, lv, lviii, l x x x i , xc. Palamite, lvi. theoria, lxxviii, l x x i x , l x x x v i i i ; see also contemplation, first, x c . physike, l x x x v i i i , l x x x i x , 14, 15. •rij? ayias TptaSos, l x x x i x , XC. Thmuis, xlvi. thoughts, 26-30, 32, 3 j , 36, 63, 76. association of, 9. eight chief, 7, 16, 20. passionate, xliv, lxii, lxviii, 3, 7 , 4 9 , 56, J7, 65, 67, 77, 79. simple, xc, 64, 69. toil, 20. tradition, vii, xiii, x i v , x x , x x x i v , lix, lxiii, l x v i , lxviii, lxxi, lxxxi, lxxxiv. Byzantine, l v , lvi. tranquil, 67. tranquillitas, l x x x v i i . tranquillity, l x x x i x , 33, 59. transcendent, 75. transformation, xcii. translated, x v , x i x , xxviii, x x i x , liii, lxi. translation, x x v i , x x v i i , x x i x , x x x , 1, li, lii, lx, lxi, lxii, lxiii, lxvi. Treatise to the Monk Eulogius, lxiii. Treatise on Various Evil Thoughts, lxiv. tree o f life, 14. Trinitarian, xiv. Trinity, xviii, xxxiii, lxxii, x c , xci, 16, 48, 49, 54, 55, 56, 62. true self, xii. trust, 23, 76. truth, 64, 65, 68, 78. turbulence, 36. Turkey, xxxv. T y p i k o n , 45, 46. unaware, 67. unchastity, 70. unconsciousness, 75. understanding, xlvii, 38, 66. undistracted, 59. undisturbed, 58. union with God, l x x v , lxxviii, l x x x , 49unity, primitive, l x x v , l x x x , xci, 6,41.

96

Index

universe: see cosmos, unreasonable, 62. unshakeable, 56. untimely, 20. Upanishads, 34. vainglory, 8 , 1 3 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 32, 57, 67, 74version: see translation, vigils, 20, 29, 31. viper, 48, 73. virginity, 47. virgins, lxxxii. virtue, lxxxv. vision, lxv, 71, 76. war: see combat, watch, 29, 30, 62. watchfulness, 70.

weeping: see tears. West(era),xiii,xv, xxvii, xxviii, xxix, xli, lii, liii, lvii, brii, 64. wisdom, xxi, xxii, xlii, xliv, lxxix, 7, 35. 38, 53. 58, 63. wise, 58, 59, 71, 79. withdrawal, 6j. women, xl, xlvi, 14, 19, 31, 40, 70. word, 67, 78. of God, lxxix, xciii, 63. work, 19, 29, 58, 59, 62. world, 78. wrath: see anger, wrestle, 35. writer, xlvi, lxvii, 7. writing, 53. Zen Buddhism, xxi.