The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society 2020938283, 9780190932596

This book is a guide into the increasingly interconnected domains of digital technology and society. It presents extensi

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Table of contents :
Front Matter
Copyright Page
Preface
List of Figures
List of Tables
About the Contributors
1 Overview
Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes
ESRC Review: Methodology
2 Health, Age, and Home
ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being
Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field
Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communities
Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research
A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption
3 Communication and Relationships
ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships
Media Mastery by College Students: A Typology and Review
Boundary Management and Communication Technologies
4 Organizational Contexts
ESRC Review: Economy and Organizations
The Changing Nature of Knowledge and Service Work in the Age of Intelligent Machines
Workplace “Digital Culture” and the Uptake of Digital Solutions: Personal and Organizational Factors
5 Communities, Identities, and Class
ESRC Review: Communities and Identities
Digital Engagement and Class: Economic, Social, and Cultural Capital in a Digital Age
6 Citizenship, Politics, and Participation
ESCR Review: Citizenship and Politics
Digital Ecology of Free Speech: Authenticity, Identity, and Self-Censorship
7 Data, Representation, and Sharing
ESRC Review: Data and Representation
Digital Citizenship in the Age of Datafication
Digitizing Cultural Complexity: Representing Rich Cultural Data in a Big Data Environment
Motivations for Online Knowledge Sharing
8 Governance and Accountability
ESCR Review: Governance and Security
Governance and Accountability in Internet of Things (IoT) Networks
9 Synthesis
ESRC Review: Future Research on the Social, Organizational, and Personal Impacts of Automation: Findings from Two Expert Panels
Conclusion: Cross-Cutting, Unique, and General Themes in the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society
End Matter
Index
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Copyright Page

Copyright Page Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020

(p. iv)

Copyright Page

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2020 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Control Number: 2020938283 ISBN 978–0–19–093259–6 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America

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Preface

Preface Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020

(p. v)

Preface

Introduction THIS book is based upon work undertaken as part of the UK Economic and Social Re­ search Council commissioned project “Ways of Being in a Digital Age”—for which Simeon was Principal Investigator and Ronald was a member of the Steering Group. The primary goal of the project was to identify the upcoming research questions and challenges facing the social sciences as they address the impacts that digital media and technologies are having and may have. This included a systematic review of prior work and a “horizon scanning” derived from expert opinion. This book is therefore as full of questions as it is of findings or answers. In particular, it identifies the topics that the social sciences, often in interdisciplinary collaboration, will need to tackle—probably sooner rather than later. The book is structured around the themes of the project—slightly reworked in the light of the findings. We have called these “domains.” The following list presents their initial de­ scriptions, while the last part of Chapter 1 describes the ESRC and subsequent confer­ ence and workshops in more detail, the final domains, and their main questions. Initial Domains and Scoping Questions 1. Citizenship and politics How does digital technology impacts on our autonomy, agency, and privacy—illus­ trated by the paradox of emancipation and control? Whether and how our understanding of citizenship is evolving in the digital age— for example whether technology helps or hinders us in participating at individual and community levels? 2. Communities and identities How we define and authenticate ourselves in a digital age? What new forms of communities and work emerge as a result of digital technolo­ gies—for example, new forms of coordination including large-scale and remote collaboration? Page 1 of 7

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Preface 3. Communication and relationships How are our relationships being shaped and sustained in and between various do­ mains, including family and work? 4. Health and well-being Does technology make us healthier, better educated, and more productive?

(p. vi)

5. Economy and sustainability How do we construct the digital to be open to all, sustainable, and secure? What impacts might the automation of the future workforce bring? 6. Data and representation How we live with and trust the algorithms and data analysis used to shape key features of our lives? 7. Governance and security What are the challenges of ethics, trust, and consent in the digital age? How we define responsibility and accountability in the digital age?

Challenges

Interdisciplinary Views of the Digital Society The project, the book, and research on the social impacts of digital media and technology have faced and will continue to face a number of key challenges. One of the great chal­ lenges of working in this field is that of avoiding simplistic “technological determinism”— or what Grint and Woolgar (2013) call “technism”—an inherent or implied reliance on “obvious or intrinsic” features of the technology in explanations of technology develop­ ment, use, or effects. Technism falls short of “technological determinism”—an approach that Grint and Woolgar argue is very rarely fully taken—but implies the assumption that technologies have intrinsic features that determine outcomes. We hope that we have sought to avoid this as much as we can, and to have captured the reflective and reflexive nature of the interactions among technologies, social systems and structures, and people. Another major challenge is that of interdisciplinary collaboration. Many questions require multiple disciplinary perspectives—across the social sciences, into health and engineer­ ing, but very often in collaboration with computer science and information studies col­ leagues. How does one understand the uses, implications, and role of the smartphone in any social domain without also understanding the telecommunications infrastructure, hardware, software, security, and design issues underlying the device? As a result, many of the contributions to this book are from very different disciplines (see Chapter 1), and this has enriched the perspective and critical analysis that have been considered. The interdisciplinary perspectives and the way new technologies have been developing have also introduced new ethical challenges in our research objects as well as our prac­ tices as researchers. Questions around automation, security, surveillance, and privacy Page 2 of 7

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Preface (chapters 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 22) have complicated how we think about the (p. vii) relationship between humans and machines and what are the roles of govern­ ments, technology companies, and civil society in their design, use, and regulation. When it comes to conducting research on these subjects or using digital technologies to exam­ ine them, researchers also face new ethical challenges of what they can and should ac­ cess, collect, analyze, and then present or publish. Digital media and technologies, then, have complicated how we do research, how we think about our research objects and sub­ jects, and who is involved in these processes.

Volume of Literature and Digital Tools Another challenge is the volume of work out there needing to be reviewed and assessed. As we note in chapter 2, it is a feature of our contemporary world that the volume of aca­ demic work continues to increase at a far greater rate than can be followed. As Petticrew and Roberts note: The problem is not just one of inconsistency, but one of information overload. The past 20 years have seen an explosion in the amount of research information avail­ able to decision makers and social researchers alike. With new journals launched yearly, and thousands of research papers published, it is impossible for even the most energetic policymaker or researcher to keep up-to-date with the most recent research evidence, unless they are interested in a very narrow field indeed. (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008, p. 7) In the ESRC project, and in many of the non-ESRC chapters, we have turned to digital tools to help manage this mass of literature—to extract topics and concepts from close to thousands of articles in few hours rather than in tens of thousands of hours. This is an ex­ ample of the well-documented fact that digital tools are therefore transforming how we undertake many aspects of social research. The project therefore provided an opportunity to experiment with several of these tools and methods (see chapter 2). Thus, two charac­ teristics of this Handbook of Digital Technology and Society is the broad range of litera­ ture covered in most chapters, and the frequent use of computer-based programs and techniques for collecting, analyzing, and displaying the results of that literature.

Constant Change Another key challenge for work in this field is the constantly changing nature of the arte­ facts, contexts, and social practices as technologies develop and change, and are adapted and socially constructed. This is often a clearly two-way street as social change (p. viii) and regulation change systems and new systems create new opportunities, debates, and challenges. This influences research as scholars seek to address current issues, new tech­ nologies, new behaviors, and new implications. The ESRC chapters have reflected on this by contrasting the development of concepts and topics over the period of the sampled lit­ erature and through the reflections of the experts involved in the ESRC project.

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Preface This constant change generates a specific set of challenges for theory and methods: Do we need new theory and methods? Or do our existing tools still work—if slightly modi­ fied? We have found in exploring the literature a highly varied mix of work. In many cases the work is inductive, documenting and evidencing digital media and technology use and impacts but not testing or evaluating theory—with a good number of papers being “theo­ ry free.” Having said this, many papers draw on key social theories—with the notable reuse and revision of older theory. Uses and Gratifications is one notable “older” social the­ ory that has been given new life by examinations of digital media use (see chapters 8, 9, 18, and 21). In other cases, new theory has had to be developed and honed to explore specific issues or to address challenges specific to digital technology use. An example here would be “unified user acceptance” theory or models (see chapter 13). Questions concerning theory that we might address include, • How is the digital socially and technically conceptualized? • Which theories are predominant in which domains? • What new theory has been developed, and/or is “old theory” adequate to the task of explaining the social impacts and use of the digital? • To what extent is digital research theoretically or empirically driven? • Which concepts and key themes cluster and link regardless of theoretical or empiri­ cal approach? • Can a new “theoretical framework” for understanding the digital be generated, and is this needed? • To what extent have interdisciplinary approaches modified or developed theory? • Which methods predominate in which domains of work? • Does the availability of large volumes of digital data change how the digital is stud­ ied and/or the approaches taken to the social in a digital world? • Are certain methods intrinsically linked to certain domains or theories? How are methods tied to the social contexts around digital research? • Have interdisciplinary approaches modified or prioritized certain methods in the study of the digital? We hope that by documenting issues of theory and method the book can help colleagues reflect on issues of theory selection and testing, as well as appropriate methodology. In this way, the book provides a snapshot from a brief period in time, assembling what has been studied in the area of digital media and technologies with an eye to the future of this research. (p. ix)

Chapters in the Book

The chapters in the book either present the outcomes from the respective domains of the ESRC project or they are developed from responses to an open call as part of the Ways of Being Conference held in 2017 (both of which are described more fully in chapter 1). The non-ESRC contribution chapters represent reviews, reflections on the state of the art, or Page 4 of 7

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Preface the application of reviews to various kinds of evidence in each of the domains. The Table of Contents provides detailed listings of the sections of each chapter as a guide to their content and focus. The online versions of each chapter also provide an abstract. All of the chapters should help provide overviews for, and spark ideas for and debates about, future research directions in the broad and evolving area of digital technology and society. As such, we would hope that current and future scholars can draw upon these as a resource when planning their work, using these chapters as foundations and baselines for literature reviews, as well as identifying central concepts and topics and larger re­ search areas that need more attention and explication. We have also provided a range of supporting materials and visualizations via the project website at https:// waysofbeingdigital.com. The production of the materials presented in the ESRC chapters was a complex process involving contributions of the core research team, the project post-doctoral researchers, and other colleagues. The ESRC chapters follow a fairly similar and standard initial for­ mat developed by the core team—especially Sim Yates, Jordana Blejmar, and Elinor Carmi —and revised and finalized by Ron Rice. In listing the authorships of these chapters, we have tried to reflect as accurately as we can the contributions to these chapters from core project team members, either directly or via Delphi or workshop materials. We more gen­ erally acknowledge the contributions made by all across the project. Ron conceptualized the structure and flow of chapters, worked with Oxford University Press to develop a shared approach to the book, worked with the chapter authors through multiple versions of all 25 chapters, and developed and continually updated the surround­ ing material to ensure consistency of text and reference format, correspondence of terms, cross-referencing, and style. Ron and Sim engaged in multiple iterations of the materials, raising questions, resolving questions, and sharing detailed descriptions of all the things going on in our personal and academic lives that continually got in the way of completing the book. Irony, dark humor, encouragement, promises, arcane analysis details, Byzantine university politics, strikes, Brexit, floods, fires, emergency administration meetings, changes in contributors’ affilia­ tions, reshuffling of chapter order, and debates about the proper use of “concept” or “top­ ic” pervaded these email and Skype conversations. (p. x)

Potential Audiences

Primary audiences for the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society are re­ searchers, faculty, and graduate students, in one or more of the seven theme areas. The entire book, and certainly specific chapters, provide required reading for anyone interest­ ed in the multifaceted nature of relationships between digital technology and society. Se­ condary audiences are policymakers, research funding agencies, libraries, and upper-lev­ el college students working on academic projects. The chapters should provide exception­ al resources for those working on projects needing literature background and sources for deeper insights, research results, and theoretical foundations. Readers will benefit from Page 5 of 7

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Preface this book’s disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary perspectives. Given the seven theme sections—Health, Age, and Home; Communication and Relationships; Orga­ nizational Contexts; Communities, Identities, and Class; Citizenship, Politics, and Partici­ pation; Data, Representation, and Sharing; Governance and Accountability—as well as a Synthesis section, different portions of the proposed book could be of interest to diverse audiences, including, for example, those interested in sociology, political science, commu­ nication, psychology, media policy, management, organizational community, community studies, environment, economics, public administration, political communication, digital design, socio-technical systems, public health, and media research. No prior training or expertise is required to read or benefit from the chapters.

Conclusion This book was born out of a need to understand what the future research challenges will be for social research in understanding the relationships among digital technology and society. It is not meant as a definitive guide to this, but as rather a set of starting points and provocations to fellow scholars (and ourselves) as to the next steps in research, prac­ tice, and policy. Simeon J. Yates, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom Ronald E. Rice, University of California, Santa Barbara, United States

(p. xi)

Acknowledgments

Particular thanks need to go to our colleagues Jordana Blejmar and Elinor Carmi. Jordana was instrumental in organizing the conference from which the non-ESRC chapters came. Both Jordana and Elinor managed many of the practicalities of getting the ESRC chapters together, and they were quick and detailed in providing additional literature reviews and editorial suggestions for all the ESRC chapters. We obviously need to thank all the con­ tributors to the project and to the book without whose input neither the research nor the contributions to this volume would have been possible. Sim thanks the ESRC, which funded the project, and the UK Defence Science Technology Laboratory and the US National Science Foundation, which funded the workshops. He al­ so thanks Ron, Jordana, and Elinor for their patience as he got distracted over the life of the project and book writing by role changes, a secondment to government, and a univer­ sity promotion. As ever, thanks to his family: Rachel, Ciaran, Ethan, and Niamh for just being there (and typing up workshop “yellow stickies”—if only for extra pocket money!). Ron thanks the Arthur N. Rupe Foundation for funding his UC Santa Barbara endowed professorship, which supported travel and other resources involved in this project. He al­ so thanks Claire for her ongoing tolerance of his frequent late-night editing work, and our cats Tinker and Belle for their frequent occupation of his desk and keyboard during those times.

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Preface We very much appreciate the enthusiastic initial response to our book proposal by Hallie Stebbins at Oxford University Press, and the ongoing support by the Oxford University Press Editor Sarah Humphreville. Thanks, too, to the copyeditor Suzanne Copenhagen, the production team at SPi Global, and indexer Robert Swanson. Grint, K., & Woolgar, S. (2013). The machine at work: Technology, work and organization. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2008). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

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List of Figures

List of Figures   Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020

(p. xxi)

List of Figures

1.1 Trends over time in mention of four major digital terms in books through 2008, based on Google Ngram Viewer. 11 1.2 Hierarchical clustering of main codes based on co-occurrence (correlation) of main and subcodes within each source text. 25 2.1 Delphi process. 41 2.2 Bubble map of concept pairs. 48 2.3 Tree map of concept pairs. 49 2.4 Interactive topic modelling graph–topic. 50 2.5 Interactive topic modelling graph–keyword. 51 2.6 WordStat topic modelling. 52 3.1 Health and Well-Being 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 60 3.2 Health and Well-Being 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 61 4.1 Distribution of nine core topics over time. 94 4.2 Top 20 journals. 94 4.3 Distribution of articles per discipline over time. 95 4.4 Distribution of mental health concepts over time. 96 8.1 Communication 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 226 8.2 Communication 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 227 11.1 Economy 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 327 11.2 Economy 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 328 13.1 Digital roll-outs (or not) by company size. 375 13.2 Number of digital roll-outs by organization size (area represents proportion of cases). 375 13.3 Roll-outs or not by sector. 376 13.4 Digital solution roll-outs by sector (area represents proportion of cases). 377 13.5 Increase in roll-outs over the last two years by sector. 378 13.6 Reasons for digital roll-outs. 379 13.7 Knowledge worker and number of roll-outs. 384 13.8 Proportion of digital roll-outs UK workforce thought successful. 384 Page 1 of 2

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List of Figures 13.9 Level of employment and number of roll-outs experienced. 385 13.10 Positive impacts of new digital tools. 386 13.11 Reasons for a negative attitude. 387 13.12 Organization size and challenges to implementation of digital solutions. 389 13.13 Levels of organizational challenge and successful digital roll-outs. 389 13.14 Communication channels used. 390 13.15 Adequate communication and communication channel. 391 13.16 Communications channels and successful roll-outs. 392 13.17 Leadership and successful roll-outs. 392 13.18 Leadership by sector. 393 13.19 Regression model of perceptions of successful digital roll-outs. 397 14.1 Communities and Identities 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 409 14.2 Communities and Identities 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 410 15.1 Mean of frequency of social media use by social class (NS-SEC). 437 15.2 Type of Internet user by social class (NRS). 438 15.3 MCA analysis—overall results. 440 15.4 Mean number of social media platforms used by class. 443 (p. xxii)

15.5 Social media platforms used by social class (NS-SEC). 444 16.1 Citizenship 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 453 16.2 Citizenship 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 454 18.1 Data and representation 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 506 18.2 Data and representation 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 507 21.1 Summary of review of motivations for online knowledge sharing. 592 22.1 Governance and security 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 610 22.2 Governance and security 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 611 23.1 Governance tools and their application at different levels of IoT activity. (Smith, 2012) 632 24.1 Productivity graph. 662 24.2 Clustering of ideas: ESRC-NSF workshop. 665 24.3 Political, economic, social, technical, legal, and environmental clustering: ESRC-NSF workshop. 666 24.4 Final research topic template: ESRC-DSTL workshop. 667 25.1 All seven domains 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs. 701 25.2 All seven domains 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs. 702 25.3 Hierarchical clustering of non-ESRC chapters based on co-occurrence of coded themes. 716

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List of Tables

List of Tables Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020

(p. xxiii)

List of Tables

1.1 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in Web of Science 7 1.2 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in ScienceDirect 7 1.3 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in Nexis Uni (News) 8 1.4 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in Proquest Periodicals Index On­ line 9 1.5 First Substantive Entries of Four Major Digital Terms in Books, from Google NGram 10 1.6 Themes, Main Codes and Subcodes Used to Identify Issues and Concerns in Re­ cent Books on Digital Technology and Society 12 2.1 Steering Group 37 2.2 Initial Scoping Questions 39 2.3 Example Concept Mapping by Digital Humanities Institute at the University of Sheffield 47 3.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked 58 3.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 59 3.3 Wordstat Analysis of Topics 62 3.4 Comparison between Concepts and WordStat Topics 63 3.5 Epistemological Approach 70 3.6 Empirical Approach 71 3.7 Analytic Approach 71 3.8 Research Method 72 3.9 Study Population 72 3.10 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 73 3.11 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Ranked by Importance 73 3.12 Key Topics Ranked by Percentage of Delphi Survey Responses 74 3.13 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 74 3.14 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases 75 3.15 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 76 4.1 Search Terms, Databases, and Concept Operationalization 87 Page 1 of 5

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List of Tables 4.2 CTM with 15 Manually Selected Topics Merged into Nine Thematically Overlapping Topic Clusters, Sorted by Aggregated Frequencies (k = 110, N = 1780, Max. 2 topics/Document, Prob ≥ 0.1) 90 4.3 Mental Health Concepts Distributed over Disciplines 97 4.4 Mental Health Concepts Distributed over Topics 97 5.1 Range of Theories and Methods Identified in Review 117 6.1 Mainstream and Specialist Outlets Included in the Review 138 6.2 Terms Related to Older People Used to Select Papers for Inclusion in the Review 139 6.3 The 16 Topics of the Research in the Papers Reviewed 140 7.1 Summary of Approaches, Key Concepts, Methodologies, and Studies in Each Sec­ tion 190 8.1 Scoping Questions 222 8.2 Analysis Concepts Ranked 224 8.3 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 224 8.4 WordStat Analysis of Topics 225 8.5 Epistemological Approach 238 (p. xxiv)

8.6 Empirical Approach 238 8.7 Research Method 238 8.8 Study Population 239 8.9 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 240 8.10 Scoping Questions Ranked by Number of Cases 240 8.11 Scoping Questions Ranked by Importance 240 8.12 Consultation Workshop Scoping Categories and Example Questions 241 8.13 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Cases 242 8.14 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 243 8.15 Challenges Ranked by Percentage of Cases 243 8.16 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 245 9.1 Media Mastery Typology Codes and Sublevels 257 9.2 Co-occurrences of Media Mastery Subcodes with Social and Individual Aspects Subcodes 260 11.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked 324 11.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 325 11.3 WordStat Analysis of Topics 326 11.4 Epistemological Approach 335 (p. xxv) 11.5 Empirical Approach 335 11.6 Research Method 336 11.7 Study Population 336 11.8 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 338 11.9 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Cases 339 11.10 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 339 11.11 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases 340 11.12 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 340 13.1 Defining Digital Solutions 373 Page 2 of 5

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List of Tables 13.2 Organization Size and Number of Digital Roll-Outs 376 13.3 Confidence at Home 380 13.4 Access to Technology at Home 381 13.5 K-Means Clustering with a Target of Six Clusters 382 13.6 Correlations of Age, Personal Confidence, and Work Confidence 382 13.7 Factor Analysis 394 13.8 Key Predictors of UK Workforce Perceptions of Successful Digital Roll-Outs 397 14.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked 407 14.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 408 14.3 Wordstat Analysis of Topics 411 14.4 Comparison between Concepts and WordStat Topics 412 14.5 Epistemological Approach 416 14.6 Empirical Approach 416 14.7 Research Method 417 14.8 Study Population 417 14.9 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 418 14.10 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Delphi Survey Responses 419 14.11 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 419 14.12 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases 420 14.13 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 420 15.1 NRS Social Grades and NS-SEC Classifications 436 15.2 Key Features of Non-users 439 15.3 Key Features of Limited Users 439 15.4 MCA Clustering of Arts Attendance 441 16.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked 455 16.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 455 16.3 WordStat Analysis of Topics 456 (p. xxvi)

16.4 Comparison between Concepts and WordStat Topics 457 16.5 Empirical Approach 461 16.6 Research Method 461 16.7 Study Population 461 16.8 Analytic Approach 461 16.9 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 462 16.10 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Ranked by Number of Cases and by Impor­ tance 463 16.11 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Delphi Survey Responses 464 16.12 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 465 16.13 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases 466 16.14 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 466 17.1 List of Keywords Used in the Process of Literature Review 474 17.2 Free Speech Challenges Posed by Digital Technologies and Practices 486 18.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked 502 18.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 503 18.3 WordStat Analysis of Topics 504 Page 3 of 5

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List of Tables 18.4 Comparison between Concepts and WordStat Topics 505 18.5 Epistemological Approach 516 18.6 Empirical Approach 516 18.7 Analytic Approach 517 18.8 Study Population 517 18.9 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 519 18.10 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Ranked by Importance 520 18.11 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Delphi Survey Responses 521 18.12 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 521 18.13 Data-focused Topics and Challenges 522 18.14 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases 522 18.15 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 523 20.1 Analysis of Journal of Big Data, 2014–2017 559 20.2 NASA’s Earth Observing System Data Information System (EOS DIS) 563 22.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked 606 22.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts 607 (p. xxvii) 22.3 WordStat Analysis of Topics 608 22.4 Comparison between Concepts and WordStat Topics 609 22.5 Empirical Approach 620 22.6 Research Methods 621 22.7 Analytic Approach 621 22.8 Study Population 621 22.9 Delphi Review Scoping Questions 622 22.10 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Ranked by Importance 623 22.11 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Delphi Survey Responses 623 22.12 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 624 22.13 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases 625 22.14 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey 625 23.1 Key Emergent Themes and the Case Studies to Which They Particularly Relate 636 23.2 Mapping of Themes in EU Governance 638 23.3 Mapping of Themes in United States Governance 640 23.4 Mapping of Themes in UK Governance 642 24.1 Expertise Represented at the Two Workshops 663 24.2 ESRC-NSF Workshop: Topics by Issues 669 24.3 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Topic Areas by Level of Impact 670 24.4 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Social and Cultural Perceptions by Level of Impact 671 24.5 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Technology Acceptance and Systems Design by Level of Impact 672 24.6 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Trust and Automation by Level of Impact 673 24.7 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Work and Organizational Topics by Level of Impact 678 24.8 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Areas of Inequality by Level of Impact 679 24.9 ESRC-DSTL Workshop: Research Impact Questions by Level of Impact 681 25.1 Main Themes of Concept Pairs, 2000–2004 703 Page 4 of 5

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List of Tables 25.2 Main Themes of Concept Pairs, 2012–2016 704 25.3 Cross-cutting Topics in ESRC Themes 705 25.4 Most Frequent Cross-cutting Challenges in ESRC Themes 705 25.5 Non-ESRC Chapters: Number of Themes and Subthemes by Chapters and by Total Instances 709 25.6 Non-ESRC Chapters Including at Least One Instance of Each Theme 715

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About the Contributors

About the Contributors Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020

(p. xxviii)

(p. xxix)

About the Contributors

Editors Simeon J. Yates

(PhD, Open University UK, 1993) is Professor of Digital Culture and Associate ProVice-Chancellor Research Environment and Postgraduate Research at University of Liverpool. His research on the social, political, and cultural impacts of digital media includes a long-standing focus on digital media and interpersonal interaction. More recently, he has worked on projects that address issues of digital inclusion and exclu­ sion. He was seconded to the UK Government’s Department of Digital, Culture, Me­ dia, and Sport (DCMS) in 2017 to act as research lead for the Digital Culture team. He remains the joint-chair of the DCMS Research Working Group on Digital Skills and Inclusion. His prior work covered topics such as the use of digital technologies in the workplace, digital media use during crises, and ICT use by the security services. The majority of his research has been funded by the Economic and Social Research Coun­ cil (ESRC), the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), EU, and industry. Simeon’s work has often been interdisciplinary and has predominantly involved cre­ ative and digital industry partners. He led on a major Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded interdisciplinary program (Engineering for Life) while at Sheffield Hallam. Simeon has been researching the impacts of the internet and digital media on language and culture since 1990. His PhD thesis (1993) is a large-scale linguistic comparison of speech, writing, and online interaction. Sub­ sequent published work has covered analyses of gender differences in computer-me­ diated communication (CMC), gender and computer gaming, email and letter writing, and science in the mass media. Simeon has written text books on social research

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About the Contributors methods—in particular, linguistic and discourse analytic methods. https:// www.liverpool.ac.uk/communication-and-media/staff/simeon-yates/

Ronald E. Rice

(PhD, Stanford University, 1982) is the Arthur N. Rupe Chair in the Social Effects of Mass Communication in the Department of Communication at University of Califor­ nia, Santa Barbara. Dr. Rice has been awarded an Honorary Doctorate from Universi­ ty of Montreal (2010), an International Communication Association (ICA) Fellow, se­ lected President of the ICA (2006–2007), awarded a Fulbright Award to Finland (2006), and appointed as the Wee Kim Wee Professor at the School of Communication and Information and the Visiting University Professor, both at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore (Augusts 2007–2009 and June 2010). (p. xxx) His co-authored or co-edited books include Organizations and unusual routines: A systems analysis of dysfunctional feedback processes (2010); Media ownership: Research and regulation (2008); The Internet and health care: Theory, research and practice (2006); Social consequences of internet use: Access, involvement and interaction (2002); The Inter­ net and health communication (2001); Accessing and browsing information and com­ munication (2001); Public communication campaigns (1981, 1989, 2001, 2012); Re­ search methods and the new media (1988); Managing organizational innovation (1987); And The new media: Communication, research and technology (1984). He has published over 150 refereed journal articles and 70 book chapters. Dr. Rice has con­ ducted research and published widely in communication science, public communica­ tion campaigns, computer-mediated communication systems, methodology, organiza­ tional and management theory, information systems, information science and biblio­ metrics, social uses and effects of the Internet, and social networks. http:// www.comm.ucsb.edu/people/ronald-e-rice

Authors Audrey N. Abeyta

(MA, UCSB) is a doctoral candidate at the University of California, Santa Barbara and an instructor in the Department of Communication at the University of Missouri. Her research explores the creation and consumption of online information, focusing specifically on individuals’ motivations to share information online and their assess­

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About the Contributors ment of that information. Audrey teaches courses in public speaking, group communi­ cation, research methods, and statistics.

Sarah Barnard

is an Assistant Professor in Sociology of Contemporary Work and a member of the Centre for Professional Work in Society in the School of Business and Economics at Loughborough University, United Kingdom. Her research focuses largely on gender, organizations, sociology of higher education, and sociological research in Science, En­ gineering, and Technology (SET). Her research investigates inequalities in society; ex­ plores the social impact of construction and engineering; how digital technology can inform and influence professional working practices; and gender and higher educa­ tion. She has extensive experience applying quantitative and qualitative social re­ search methods over a range of research and consultancy projects. She has written and published 20 conference papers, 7 journal articles and 11 reports on these sub­ jects. She is a member of the British Sociological Association and the Women in High­ er Education Management (WHEM) network.

Jordana Blejmar

(MPhil, PhD as a Gates Scholar, University of Cambridge) is Lecturer in Visual Media and Cultural Studies in the School of the Arts, University of Liverpool, after previous­ ly working on an Arts and Humanities Research Center–funded project on Latin Amer­ ican Digital Art. Before Liverpool, she was Lecturer in Hispanic Studies at the Insti­ tute of Modern Languages Research, University of London. Her research is (p. xxxi) situated at the meeting point of Latin American visual cultures, memory studies, and digital humanities. She is the author of Playful Memories: The Autofictional Turn in Post-Dictatorship Argentina (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). She has co-edited several books and has also published articles and book chapters on contemporary Latin American, especially Argentine, literature, art, photography, theater, digital artworks, and film.

Catherine Brooks

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About the Contributors (PhD, University of California) is the Founder and Director of the Center for Digital Society and Data Studies (CDSDS), Director of Arizona’s iSchool, and an Associate Professor in the School of Information. Catherine’s primary research interests focus on issues of language and culture, with particular concern about data privacy and dig­ ital exclusion. She established the CDSDS as an interdisciplinary research center meant to explore today’s grand challenges related to a digital society and data-driven culture. Catherine has spent more than 20 years in higher education, she developed the new Information Science and eSociety degree program for the School of Informa­ tion at UA, and has published work on a variety of topics to include supporting faculty online and training students for life and work in a digital society.

Elinor Carmi

(PhD, Media and Communications Department at Goldsmiths, University of London) is a digital rights advocate, feminist, researcher, and journalist who has been working, writing, and teaching on deviant media, internet standards, feminist-technoscience, sound studies, internet history, and internet governance. Currently, she is a postdoc­ toral research associate in digital culture and society at Liverpool University (UK), where she works on several ESRC and AHRC projects around digital ways of being, digital inclusion, and digital literacies. In addition to writing her book about spam, she is also working on two special journal issues: One about “sonic publics,” together with Ram Sinnreich for the International Journal of Communication, and the other about (re)designing time, together with Britt Paris, for Theory, Culture & Society.

Marta E. Cecchinato

is an Senior Lecturer at Northumbria University, working in human-computer interac­ tion (HCI). Prior to this, she has worked at the UCL Interaction Centre and at Mi­ crosoft Research in Cambridge (UK). She has a BS and MS in Psychology from Uni­ versity of Padua (Italy) and has a PhD in HCI from the UCL Interaction Centre. Her current research focuses on understanding complexities of dealing with digital tech­ nologies in everyday life especially for work-life balance, and has been investigating strategies that support people in feeling in control of their digital lives. Her work has been consistently published in top tier HCI conferences and has been featured in the New Scientist, The Conversation, and The Psychologist.

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About the Contributors Rob Comber

is a human-computer interaction researcher working at the Swedish Institute for Computing Science at RI.SE, where he is an ERCIM Fellow. His research explores the ethics, methods, and tools to promote citizen participation in social and civic issues. His current research examines topics such as activism, citizen science, community ed­ ucation, and food and technology, all through a lens of designing for community.

(p. xxxii)

Louise Cooke

is Professor of Information and Knowledge Management in the School of Business and Economics at Loughborough University. Her main research interests focus on the ethical aspects of information, data and knowledge use, and the societal value of ac­ cess to information. In particular, her work has focused on challenges to freedom of expression in the online environment. She led the Arts and Humanities Research Cen­ ter–funded MAIPLE (Managing Access to the Internet in Public Libraries) and JISCfunded staff access to Information and Communication Technology in UK Further Ed­ ucation and Higher Education projects. Her PhD thesis investigated the impact on freedom of expression of measures taken to regulate internet access and content. She has published widely in the field of information science.

Crispin Coombs

is a Reader in Information Systems (Associate Professor) and Head of the Information Management group in the School of Business and Economics at Loughborough Uni­ versity, UK. He is an expert in the organizational impacts of new technologies, their successful implementation, and people’s attitudes and behaviors towards IT. Particu­ lar interests include the robotization of knowledge and service work, the behavioral impacts of new technologies, and benefits realization management from information systems. He has led several externally funded research projects from Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), British Academy, National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), and Department of Health. He has published over 80 outputs and is a senior editor for Information Technology and Peo­ ple and associate editor for the European Journal of Information Systems. He was ap­

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About the Contributors pointed to the Board of the UK Academy of Information Systems in 2015 and is a Vis­ iting Professor at the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Caitlin D. Cottrill

is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Geography and Environment at the Univer­ sity of Aberdeen. Her primary research interests span the interrelated topics of trans­ port, individual behavior, technology, and data, linked by an underlying commitment to encouraging sustainable and efficient mobility. Her work has a strong focus on fa­ cilitating data sharing between transport service providers and travelers in a privacypreserving manner, in order to encourage better decision making. She has, additional­ ly, worked to ensure that this research takes place in a multidisciplinary context, with collaborators from the areas of computing science, engineering, statistics, and infor­ mation sciences.

Anna L. Cox

is Professor of Human-Computer Interaction at the University College London Inter­ action Centre. Her research focuses on productivity at work, work-life balance, and well-being. She has published nearly 200 papers, many of which in top-tier HCI con­ ferences and journals. She co-edited the first textbook on Research methods for hu­ man-computer interaction. Her work has been featured, among others, in The Conver­ sation, The Psychologist, Men’s Health, BPS Occupation Digest, and most recently in the Guardian.

(p. xxxiii)

Jenny S. Darzentas

was the Marie Curie Advanced Researcher Fellow in the Department of Computer Science at the University of York 2016–2018 during the writing of the chapter. She is currently Assistant Professor at the Department of Product and Systems Design Engi­ neering, University of the Aegean, Greece. Her research interests are in accessibility, service design and systems thinking, and information design. She has worked on col­ laborative research projects funded by the European Union on HCI, intelligent tutor­ ing, decision support, library and information systems, and universal design. She also has an interest in accessibility issues in international (ISO) and European (CEN/CEN­

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About the Contributors ELEC) standardization efforts through her voluntary work with ANEC (www.anec.gr). She has published widely on all these subjects.

Emese Domahidi

is an Assistant Professor for Computational Communication Science at the Technische Universität Ilmenau in Germany. Her research focuses on the psychosocial conse­ quences of online media use and on (biased) information processing in digital media. Emese is especially interested in computational communication science methods and their use to gain insights into her research questions. She is an expert in computa­ tional systematic reviews and meta-analysis.

William H. Dutton

is an Emeritus Professor at the University of Southern California, Senior Fellow of the Oxford Internet Institute, and Oxford Martin Fellow with the Global Cyber Security Capacity Centre, Department of Computer Science at the University of Oxford, and Visiting Professor in the School of Media and Communication at the University of Leeds. He was the Quello Professor of Media and Information Policy in the Depart­ ment of Media and Information, College of Communication Arts and Sciences, Michi­ gan State University, where he was also Director of the Quello Center.

Jennifer Edmond

is Associate Professor of Digital Humanities at Trinity College Dublin and the co-di­ rector of the Trinity Center for Digital Humanities. She holds a PhD in Germanic Lan­ guages and Literatures from Yale University, and applies her training as a scholar of language, narrative, and culture to the study and promotion of advanced methods in and infrastructures for the arts and humanities. Jennifer is President of the Board of Directors of the pan-European research infrastructure for the arts and humanities, DARIAH, and was the Principal Investigator for the European Commission-funded KPLEX Project.

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About the Contributors Peter Edwards

is Professor of Computing Science at the University of Aberdeen. Between 2009 and 2015 he was Director of the RCUK Digital Economy Hub dot.rural—a large interdisci­ plinary research effort which explored how digital technologies could transform rural life; from 2006 to 2012 he was Director of the ESRC Digital Social Research Node, PolicyGrid—exploring the role of computational models of provenance in documenting social policy formulation. He has over 25 years of experience of research into distrib­ uted information systems and their applications, working in domains as diverse as transport, health care, environmental modelling, and food safety.

(p. xxxiv)

Alexander Frame

is an Associate Professor in Communication Science at the Languages and Communi­ cation Faculty of the University of Burgundy (Dijon, France), where he runs the MA course in Intercultural Management. Born in Britain, he graduated from the Universi­ ty of Oxford in 1998, before settling in France and completing his PhD in Communica­ tion Science at the University of Burgundy, in 2008. He is a member of the TIL (“Text, Image, Language”) research group (EA 4182), where he specializes in intercultural communication, political communication on Twitter, organizational communication, and comparative cross-cultural communication studies. Recent publications include Citizen participation and political communication in a digital world (Routledge, 2015).

Jerome Fuselier

has been an Associate Researcher at the University of Liverpool since 2008. Before that he was a Postdoc at Xerox Research Centre Europe. He was awarded his PhD in 2006 at the Université Savoie Mont Blanc.

Nicola Green

is a Research Associate with the OpenLab, Newcastle University. She is a sociologist by trade and a qualitative interdisciplinary researcher by inclination. Her background

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About the Contributors has run the gamut of social sciences, HCI, science and technology studies, media and cultural studies, and surveillance studies; all intersecting via projects on digital media technologies and/or sustainabilities of various sorts. Her projects have included work on virtual reality technologies; mobile devices and everyday mobilities; the rise and spread of mobile data and “big data”; digital trust, risk, and privacy; and lifestyles, consumption, and environment. Issues explored across these projects have included embodiment and identity, organization and discourse, popular media and culture, as well as the development of qualitative research methodologies and their use in both HCI research and within social sciences more generally—particularly in respect of ethnographic, mixed, feminist, and participatory methodologies.

Elisabeth Günther

is a PhD candidate at the Department of Communication, University of Münster, Ger­ many. Her research interests are in computational methods, especially topic model­ ing, and online journalism. Elisabeth works as a data scientist at Axel Springer Digi­ tal.

Ingunn Hagen

(PhD) is a Professor in Psychology at the Department of Psychology, Norwegian Uni­ versity of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway. Her main research interests include topics related to media and communication psychology, such the role of media and ICT in children and young people’s lives. She has been involved in re­ search projects on Internet-related risks (EU Kids Online). Her research also includes such fields as audience reception studies, political communication, consumption of popular culture, children and consumption, and yoga and well-being. See https:// www.ntnui.edu/employees/ingunn.hagen

Paul Hepburn

is a Research Associate at Heseltine Institute for Public Policy and Practice, Universi­ ty of Liverpool. His research interests lie in exploring the potential of the new digital media to enhance local democracy and local governance. He is also (p. xxxv) interested in methods and tools for analyzing and explaining the structure of online networks.

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About the Contributors Prior to pursuing an academic career, Paul worked in local government conducting re­ search, developing policy, and, lately, implementing an e-government program.

Iona C. Hine

is a postdoctoral researcher at the Urban Institute at the University of Sheffield. To­ gether with Digital Humanities developers and colleagues in the School of English, she has modelled discursive concepts in text collections ranging from the earliest English print to comments on YouTube videos. She has a particular interest in context and translation, as well as the challenges of unruly metadata. Her work spans several disciplines, including biblical studies, early modern literature, and translation studies.

Arne Hintz

is Senior Lecturer at the School of Journalism, Media and Culture at Cardiff Universi­ ty, where he leads the MA Digital Media and Society, and co-directs the Data Justice Lab. His research addresses questions of digital democracy, datafication, and commu­ nication policy. He has led several collaborative research projects, including Digital Citizenship and Surveillance Society: State-Media-Citizen Relations after the Snow­ den Leaks and Towards Democratic Auditing: Civic Participation in the Scoring Soci­ ety. His publications include, among others, Beyond WikiLeaks (Palgrave, 2013) and Digital Citizenship in a Datafied Society (Polity, 2018).

Donald Hislop

is Professor in the Business School at the University of Aberdeen. Prior to this he worked at Loughborough University and Sheffield University. His research interests are in two main areas: knowledge management and mobile working. He has pub­ lished on knowledge management in a range of journals, including Management Learning, Journal of Information Technology, Technology Analysis & Strategic Man­ agement, and the Journal of Knowledge Management. He is also the author of a popu­ lar and well-regarded textbook called Knowledge management in organizations: A critical introduction (now in its fourth edition, published in 2018). He is on the editori­ al board of the journal New Technology, Work and Employment.

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About the Contributors

Kristin Page Hocevar

(PhD, UC Santa Barbara) is an Assistant Professor at Southern Oregon University. She has worked in television, documentary film, and web production for multiple Pub­ lic Broadcasting Service stations and affiliated organizations. Her current research focuses on online health information sharing, selection, and evaluation, and the social and health implications of the interactions, communities, and pooled information facil­ itated by the Internet.

Naomi Jacobs

is a Research Fellow currently based at the University of Aberdeen, whose interdisci­ plinary work focuses on social impacts of technology for interaction in digital and physical spaces. Her research to date has included examining the nature and impacts of the digital public space, developing new tools for interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange, and using design ethnography and speculative design to in­ vestigate factors affecting trust by citizens and communities with regard to the Inter­ net of Things.

(p. xxxvi)

Adam Joinson

is Professor of Information Systems at the University of Bath. He conducts inter-disci­ plinary research on the interaction between human behavior and technology, with specific foci on issues of how the design of systems influences behavior ranging from privacy and self-disclosure, cyber-security, social relations, and patterns of influence. He is a program lead for the national Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats, as well as currently running funded projects on individual susceptibility to malevolent influence techniques (e.g., scams, phishing), communication accommoda­ tion, and behavioral change and technology. Adam’s work has been funded by the ESRC, EPSRC, EU, British Academy, DSTL, and UK Government. He also has an inter­ est in “big data” generally and the use of computational social science to gain in­ sights into social and workplace behaviors.

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About the Contributors Gerwyn Jones

is a Senior Research Fellow working at Liverpool John Moores University’s Screen School. He is currently program leader for the MA in Cities, Culture, and Creativity. Gerwyn has over 15 years academic and consultancy experience relating to urban policy, governance, and regeneration. In recent years, Gerwyn has undertaken ESRC funded research and published articles on the impact of austerity on the cities of Liv­ erpool and Bristol.

Sharron Kuznesof

is a Senior Lecturer and applied qualitative social scientist working in an interdiscipli­ nary environment in the School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University. Her research focuses on conceptual exploration of the behaviors and prac­ tices of food consumers and innovative research methods to support that endeavor. Related research includes Food Standards Agency–funded research with HCI staff at Newcastle University’s OpenLab to examine domestically situated food safety prac­ tices.

Yenn Lee

(PhD, University of London) is a widely published researcher in the sociology of digi­ tal technologies, participation, and social change, with a special interest in the Asia– Pacific region. She has also long collaborated with various activist and non-profit or­ ganizations outside academia, including Freedom House for its annual report Free­ dom on the Net since its first edition in 2011. In her current position as Senior Lectur­ er in Research Methodology at SOAS University of London, she teachesPhD students. interdisciplinary and technology-enhanced research methods.

Rich Ling

(PhD, University of Colorado) has focused his work on the social consequences of mo­ bile communication. He was a professor at the IT University of Copenhagen, where he

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About the Contributors has served in department management, and he works at Telenor near Oslo, Norway. Ling has been the Pohs visiting professor of communication studies (2005) at the Uni­ versity of Michigan in Ann Arbor, where he has an adjunct position. He is the author of the book Taken for grantedness (2012 MIT Press), which was recently the subject of a complementary review in the journal Science. He has also written New tech, new ties (2008, MIT), The mobile connection (Morgan Kaufmann) and, along with Jonathan Donner, he has written the book Mobile phones and mobile communication (2009, Polity). Ling is a founding co-editor of the Sage journal Mobile Media and (p. xxxvii) Communication. He is the co-editor of the Oxford University Press series Studies in Mobile Communication with Gerard Goggin and Leopoldina Fortunati. Along with Scott Campbell he is the founding editor of The Mobile Communication Research Series and he is an associate editor for The Information Society, The Journal of Com­ puter Mediated Communication, and Information Technology and International Devel­ opment.

Eleanor Lockley

is Research Fellow and Associate Lecturer at Sheffield Hallam University. Her re­ search falls broadly under communication studies and information studies, and work­ ing in C3RI means that she has worked on a variety of different interdisciplinary projects since 2008. One day she can be a human-computer interaction researcher— the next she can be investigating issues associated with user centered design! Her previous role in C3RI involved engaging with knowledge transfer activity—meaning that she has worked on commercial consultancy, as well as on academic projects. She has recently worked on several European-funded projects; two of note are COURAGE (2014–2016) and ATHENA (2013–2016). The former involved developing a research agenda for cybercrime and cyberterrorism based upon user-centered research. Her role in the latter focused upon human factors and best practices for crisis sense-mak­ ing and communication and, in particular, how social media can be best used for cri­ sis and disaster management. ATHENA is creating a prototype to enhance the ability of Local Education Agencies of police, first responders, and citizens in their use of mobile and smart devices in crisis situations.

Adrian Meier

is a PhD candidate at the Department of Communication, Johannes Gutenberg-Univer­ sity Mainz, Germany. His research revolves around the question of whether and how

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About the Contributors communication technologies can improve or impair mental health and well-being. Specifically, he investigates the relationship between technology usage and mental health through the lens of self-regulation processes, using intensive longitudinal sur­ veys (e.g., diaries, experience sampling), and systematic review methodology.

Georgina Nugent-Folan

is Assistant Professor of Modern English Literature, Department of English and Amer­ ican Studies, Ludwig Maximillians University of Munich, Germany. She completed her PhD on the works of Samuel Beckett and Gertrude Stein at Trinity College Dublin in 2016. Georgina is currently preparing a digital genetic edition of the Compagnie/ Company module as part of the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project (forthcoming, 2020). Articles on Beckett, Stein, and/or James Joyce have been published in the Jour­ nal of Beckett Studies, The Southern Review, Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui, and the James Joyce Quarterly. Her article, “Samuel Beckett: Going On in Style,” received a Special Mention in the 2017 Pushcart Prize.

Helen Petrie

is Professor of Human Computer Interaction in the Department of Computer Science at the University of York in the UK. Her research centers on the use of new technolo­ gies for people with disabilities and older people, particularly the web. She has been involved in many British and international projects and has published extensively. She has advised numerous private and public sector organizations on web (p. xxxviii) acces­ sibility and accessibility issues of other new technologies. She directed the largest study in the world on web accessibility for the Disability Rights Commission of Great Britain and a similar study for the UK Museums, Libraries, and Archive Council, and she has conducted many smaller studies of web accessibility. In 2009 she was award­ ed an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Award for the social impact of her research, and in 2017 she was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Royal National Institute for Blind People.

Michael Pidd

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About the Contributors is Digital Director of HRI Digital at the Humanities Research Institute, University of Sheffield, one of the United Kingdom’s leading Digital Humanities centers. Michael has over 20 years of experience in developing, managing, and delivering large collab­ orative research projects in the humanities and heritage subject domains.

Laura Robinson

is Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology at Santa Clara University. She earned her PhD from UCLA, where she held a Mellon Fellowship in Latin American Studies and received a Bourse d’Accueil at the École Normale Supérieure. In addition to holding a postdoctoral fellowship on a John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Founda­ tion–funded project at the USC Annenberg Center, Robinson has served as Visiting Assistant Professor at Cornell University and Affiliated Faculty at the UC Berkeley In­ stitute for the Study of Societal Issues. She is a series co-editor for Emerald Studies in Media and Communications and previously served as the Chair of CITAMS (former­ ly CITASA). Her research has earned awards from CITASA, AOIR, and NCA IICD. Robinson’s current multi-year study examines digital and informational inequalities. Her other publications explore interaction and identity work, as well as new media in Brazil, France, and the United States.

Liz Robson

is a Research Associate at the University of Newcastle. She has a background in eco­ nomic development with expertise in understanding labor markets, employment, and skills. Liz Robson joined Center for Urban and Regional Development Studies in September 2000 as a research associate, leaving in 2004 to work for the Regional De­ velopment Agency as a skills and employment analyst. She returned in 2011 as a Vis­ iting Fellow supporting the work of Ranald Richardson and the SIDE (Social Inclusion through the Digital Economy) project to better understand how young people might access the life-changing benefits offered by digital technologies. Her recent research at CURDS has focused on the digital age, which throws up all kinds of questions re­ garding how technology, social media, and the so-called fourth industrial will impact on institutional and organizational arrangements. In June 2017, she joined the depart­ ment of sociology to work on a prestigious AHRC (Arts and Humanities Research Council) project, which is investigating the different ways audiences engage with spe­ cialized film outside of London. Research questions encompass the range of special­

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About the Contributors ized film venues and events within regional provision, as well as how digital platforms feature in the venue and event-based film experience.

Karen Salt

is Director of the Centre for Research in Race and Rights (C3R) and Assistant Profes­ sor at the University of Nottingham. She is an interdisciplinary scholar with (p. xxxix) strong interests in transnational American studies and Afrodiasporic studies. A signifi­ cant portion of her work investigates how black nation-states have fought for their continued existence within a highly racialized world. As this work has developed, Dr. Salt has considered the relationship of sovereignty and race to environmental con­ sumption and protection, enabling her to craft new research on racial ecologies. In addition to this work, she currently leads or co-leads projects on reparative trust, col­ lective activism, racial equity, and transformative justice politics.

Alison Scott-Baumann

is Professor of Society and Belief in the Department of Religions and Philosophies at SOAS University of London. She is a scholar with an international reputation in Islam in Britain, and her recent book Islamic Education in Britain, with Cheruvallil-Contrac­ tor (2015), is highly regarded in British Muslim communities. She recently completed her leadership of Re/presenting Islam on Campus (2015–2018), a major project fund­ ed by the Arts and Humanities Research Council of the United Kingdom. In 2017 she gave evidence to the Joint Committee on Human Rights in their investigation of free­ dom of speech in universities.

Boyka Simeonova

is Lecturer in Information Management at Loughborough University, United King­ dom. Boyka is Director of the Knowledge and the Digital Economy Network and Deputy Director of the Centre for Information Management at Loughborough Univer­ sity. Boyka is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Boyka is the recipient of the Dean’s Early Career Researcher Award at Loughborough University and has pub­ lished in Information Systems and Management.

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About the Contributors

Stanimira Taneva

is currently Senior Researcher and REF Impact Officer, School of Sociology and So­ cial Policy, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom. During the work on her chap­ ter, she was a Senior Research and Enterprise Associate and a member of the Centre for Professional Work and Society at the School of Business and Economics at Lough­ borough University. Her background is in developmental and work/organizational psy­ chologies, as well as psychometrics. Stanimira’s work experience is a combination of academia and practice—she has been in academic, research, management, and ex­ pert roles in the public, private, and third-sector. Stanimira has conducted a variety of academic and applied research programs in areas such as developing and managing careers, (age-) diversity, well-being, and performance in organizations. In 2013 she was awarded a Marie Curie Fellowship from the European Commission for her crosscultural research on successful aging at work. Stanimira’s most recent research inter­ ests include cross-disciplinary research impact and the exploration of the impacts of new technology (e.g., AI) on work. She is a fellow at the UK Research and Innovation Future Leaders Fellowships program Peer Review College.

Claire Taylor

is Gilmour Chair of Spanish and Professor of Hispanic Studies at the University of Liv­ erpool. She is a specialist in Latin American literature and culture and has published widely on a range of writers, artists, and genres from across the region. Her particu­ lar geographical areas of interest are Colombia, Argentina, and Chile, although she also worked on literature, art, and culture from other regions. Within (p. xl) Latin American Cultural Studies, she takes a particular interest in the varied literary and cultural genres being developed online by Latin(o) Americans, especially hypertext novels, e-poetry, and net art. She has published numerous articles and book chapters on these topics, and she is the co-author of the recent volume Latin American identity in online cultural production (New York: Routledge, 2012) and author of the recent monograph Place and politics in Latin America digital culture: Location and Latin American net art (New York: Routledge, 2014). She is currently working on an AHRCfunded project focusing on memory, victims, and representation of the Colombian conflict.

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About the Contributors Leanne Townsend

is a Senior Social Scientist working within the Social, Economic, and Geographical Sciences Group at the James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland. Leanne leads re­ search on a number of projects exploring digitization and innovation in various rural contexts, including agriculture, rural entrepreneurship, and rural community develop­ ment.

Sharon Wagg

is a doctoral researcher in the Centre of Information Management, part of the School of Business and Economics at Loughborough University, United Kingdom. She is the recipient of the Mark Hepworth PhD scholarship, and her research interests include digital inclusion and social change, information literacy, and lifelong learning. Sharon worked as part of the research team at the digital inclusion charity Good Things Foundation, and has a master’s degree in Librarianship (Distinction) from the Univer­ sity of Sheffield. Her PhD dissertation investigated digital inclusion initiatives in the context of rural communities in the United Kingdom.

Paul Watry

is Principal Investigator for the Multivalent Digital Preservation Architecture project and the Cheshire digital library system. His primary area of interest is in computa­ tional linguistics and in bibliographic analysis. A core activity is to develop and imple­ ment a strategy which will embrace both electronic and traditional information re­ sources and address the needs of both research and learning.

Vishanth Weerakkody

joined the School of Management at University of Bradford in March 2017 as Profes­ sor in Management Information Systems and Governance. He was previously a Pro­ fessor of Digital Governance at the Business School in Brunel University, London, where he held several leadership roles. Prior to his academic career, Prof. Weer­

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About the Contributors akkody worked in a number of multinational organizations, including IBM UK. He has a successful track record of research and enterprise and has secured numerous re­ search grants from funding bodies such as the European Commission (FP7 & H2020), Economic and Social Research Council, Qatar Foundation, and UK Local Government. His R&D expertise spans several disciplines, including management decision making, ICT evaluation, public administration, social innovation, and process transformation. He is the editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Electronic Government Re­ search and a handling editor for Information Systems Frontiers. He is a chartered IT professional and fellow of the UK Higher Education Academy.

(p. xli)

Bridgette Wessels

is Professor of Social Inequality, Department of Sociology, at the School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Glasgow. Her research focuses on the innovation, de­ velopment, and use of digital technology and services in social and cultural life. Re­ cent books include Open data and knowledge society (2017, Amsterdam University Press) and Communicative civic-ness: Social media and political culture (2018, Rout­ ledge). She is a co-investigator on the ESRC project Ways of Being in the Digital Age, and she is Principal Investigator on the AHRC funded project “Beyond the Multiplex: Audiences for Specialized Film in English Regions,” which is using digital humanities methods. Other examples of funded work include research on telehealth, social me­ dia, digital social research methodologies, women, work and technology (NordWit project), journalism in the digital age (REGPRESS project), and mobile networks (COST network: Social Networks and Travel Behaviour).

Monica Whitty

is Professor of Human Factors in Cyber Security at the University of Melbourne, Aus­ tralia and the University of Warwick, WMG, United Kingdom. She is also on the Glob­ al Futures committee for cybersecurity for the World Economic Forum. Her research over the last 20 years has focused on the ways individuals behave in cyberspace. Her work, in particular, examines identities created in cyberspace, cyberscams, online se­ curity risks, behavior in cyberspace, insider threat, as well as detecting and prevent­ ing cybercrimes. Monica is the author of over 100 articles, and five books, the latest being Cyberpsychology: The study of individuals, society and digital technologies (Wiley, 2017, with Garry Young). She is currently leading an interdisciplinary project funded by TIPS (ESPRC) titled, Detecting and Preventing Mass-Marketing Fraud.

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About the Contributors

Nicole Zamanzadeh

received her PhD from the University of California, Santa Barbara. Her research in­ terests include new media, stress, and family resilience. Her current work investi­ gates questions about media use habits such as media multitasking as a potential source of stress or resilience for individuals and the family system. (p. xlii)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes

Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Tech­ nology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes   Ronald E. Rice, Simeon J. Yates, and Jordana Blejmar The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.1

Abstract and Keywords This chapter summarizes the main themes associated with relationships between digital technology and society. It first proposes four central characteristics of digital technology that differentiate this concept from the more general term “information society.” Then it maps the growth of the use of terms associated with digital technology in articles in acad­ emic databases from 1972 through 2018, and in books from 1967 through 2008. Howev­ er, the main focus is on summarizing the emergent themes associated with 89 recent books on digital technology society: (A) theory and conceptualization of this vast social change; (B) technology (venues and characteristics), (C) issues (content, creation; big da­ ta; civic issues; participation, engagement; inclusion, exclusion, discrimination; ethics, ethical issues; and managing the digital experience), (D) contexts (digitization of self and others; health; relationships; user groups; culture, everyday life, education, learning; work and organizations; and law, policy, regulation), and (E) effects (negative; positive; societal; contradictions, paradoxes, tensions, unintended). Finally, it describes the origins and motivations for this handbook and its main themes. Keywords: academic databases, books on digital technology, digital technology, digital technology society, infor­ mation society, social change

Introduction MANY developed countries have become information or knowledge societies, whereby cognitive activities, symbolic and data analysis, and information resources are replacing agriculture and manufacturing as the primary sectors of developed countries’ economies. This idea of the information society or economy has been identified, discussed, and ana­ lyzed since the 1960s. For example, Machlup’s (1962) analysis of the US economy identi­ fied an information sector, primarily devoted to information activities necessary to pro­ duce physical goods and services. Porat (1971) reanalyzed Machlup’s data to define the key components of the growing information society. Bell (1973) explained the post-indus­

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes trial economy, whereby knowledge becomes the primary resource, allowing freedom from constraints of labor, land, and machines. But we can argue that the concept of an information society does not, in itself, require computers or digitization (Beniger, 1989). The extensive collection and analysis of infor­ mation, especially about transactions and inventory, but also about local and regional ad­ ministration, has existed from early civilizations (Egypt, Mesoamerica, Mesopotamia). Nevertheless, it can be argued that the information society as we see it now has roots in the growth of the British Empire and systematic organizational management (Yates, 1993); the need to control and market industrial revolution technologies and products (p. 4) (Beniger, 1989); and even the development of dictionaries, maps, and classification schemes during the “age of enlightenment” (Headrick, 2002). The core argument is that the basis of wealth is shifting to the collecting, management, analysis, and application of data and information (Daley, 2015; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). This shift is also a manifes­ tation of the rise of information capitalism and the exploitation of knowledge labor (Castells, 2000; Curtin & Sanson, 2016; Fuchs, 2014). Thus, information is a crucial as­ pect of modern economies, as well as everyday life, in most countries, although with con­ siderable disparities across countries and even within regions, cities, and towns. But the digital society involves additional dimensions. While mainframe digital computers had played major roles in WWII and after in telephone switching, office automation, and manufacturing in the 1960s and 1970s, the advent of end-user computing, widescale so­ cial uses of computing, and networked communication such as email and the Internet re­ quired the interaction of several factors. Although literature on the history of computing, transmission networks, the Internet, and programming is vast, we need to note only four basic components that underpin the transformative nature of the digital world. The first is digitization, or more specifically, the encoding of information into bits (binary digits). Negroponte (1995) was an early (but not the first) popularizer of the understand­ ing that “being digital” was the foundation for widespread, pervasive, and unique changes in our social, economic, and political world. He articulated the main difference between the analog and digital world: the first, traditional, world was based on atoms (physical material), while the second, digital, world was based on bits, standing for “bina­ ry digits”: symbolic or electronic signals indicating presence or absence, “on” or “off,” or more colloquially, “0s” and “1s.” By converting information from analogue to digital rep­ resentation the information contained within or collected about a process or artefact (Zuboff, 1985), one could “free” the information from its material “packaging.” For exam­ ple, in the analog world, a book means the paper-based bound set of pages on which words and images are printed. However, in the digital world, the content becomes inde­ pendent of any particular physical form. So digital information is freed from the analog, material world. In 1987 (though he had earlier raised this point in a 1984 Hacker’s Con­ ference; http://www.rogerclarke.com/II/IWtbF.html), Brand (1987) claimed that “Informa­ tion wants to be free,” in a slightly different way. First, its cost approaches zero because it is freed from material resources and so is easily storable, copyable, and distributable— although today we can recognize the infrastructural and environmental costs of moving Page 2 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes data around. He also noted at the same time that information wants to be expensive be­ cause it may require exceptional resources to create initially, and can be extremely valu­ able if held privately or used in combination with other information. Importantly, he noted that there seemed to be a tension between these two tendencies, which may rise or fall in different contexts. He also noted that information sought to be politically free as access to high-quality information and free speech fosters political freedom—though we might to­ day note that propaganda and misinformation are just as easily distributed. The key point is that digitizing information—converting frequencies, symbols, material dimensions, etc. to bits in a flow of information—means that content (p. 5) in general is wholly or partly in­ dependent from the material used to convey the information (such as a the text in a print­ ed book). This is one of the foundations for digital convergence: the same or different por­ tions of content can appear via multiple devices, at the same or different times; and all digital media can partake of the same content in different forms. The second component is computing. Digitization also means that this content can now be treated as data by computer processes, vastly increasing what can be done with, or by, that content. For example, instead of one or two “see also” cards in a library’s card cata­ log associating a given book with other books, now almost any content in a digitized source can be searched and associated with similar or related content in the same or oth­ er sources. At present it is not perfect for all content (such as images, sounds, smells) but iterations of improved computing power and algorithms make this easier and easier. Thus, any kind of content (information in various forms) can be processed through com­ puting programs. Information becomes a powerful raw resource and can be transformed, combined, integrated, and analyzed. This is the essence of datafication and digitization: anything that can be formally and systematically represented in a digital form can then be processed, combined, and analyzed, for a vast and growing range of purposes. Practically related but conceptually distinct, the third component is microprocessors via integrated circuits, the increasingly small and powerful devices for performing a wide ar­ ray of computer processes. The integration of basic computing functions into one chip in­ creased computing functionality, speed, and power, yet reduced computing size and com­ puting power cost, leading to the ability to embed computing power into ever smaller ob­ jects. Current smartphones and games consoles easily outperform super computers of the 1980s and early 1990s (as measured by calculations per second). Recent developments in massive multiprocessing and quantum computing, and embedding of computing power onto and into tiny devices and our bodies, will extend this growth in power and decrease in size. The fourth component is digital networking, or transmission of digitized information among nodes that are themselves computers. Information can be conveyed in analog form, through material carriers (books, photographs), and amplitude or frequency modu­ lation (pre-digital radio, television). But digital networks allow much faster, more errorcorrected, more distant, and more robust ways of processing, accessing, and distributing information (content of any form). Digital networks can interconnect with local, “lastmile” analog transmission lines. The Internet is a vast interconnected set of subnetworks, Page 3 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes using various protocols to standardize and facilitate exchange of digital information from source to receiver. Wireless networking allows devices and people to communicate with each other without constraints of physical wiring, also enabling computing power to be distributed throughout space (such as in the Internet of things, radio-frequency identifica­ tion [RFID], and mobile phones). The transformative power of the digital comes from combining these elements. If we put these together, we can move artefacts and ideas around the globe, and at increasing speed. We can undertake a 3D scan of a contemporary artwork or new product, send the data around the world, and print it out on a 3D printer minutes later. Citizen journalists (p. 6) can live-stream news events as they happen. Doctors can diagnose patients from thousands of miles away. Consumers can watch almost any film or listen to almost any music ever recorded. Grandparents can see and talk to the grandkids in Australia. Politi­ cians can directly message followers to their heart’s content. The examples are ever ex­ panding.

Terms and Growth of These Developments The smart mobile phone has become the most general exemplar of the integration of these four transformative components in one device. However, our focus in this book is not on these four crucial components of digital technologies, or any one technology, but, rather, on how their integration shapes, and is shaped by, social factors. Hence the title is the Handbook of digital technology and society. While technology has developed, and con­ tinues to evolve over time, we become more aware of the implications of these changes— positive and negative, intended and unintended, short-term and long-term, individual and collective, and straightforward and contradictory—for digital technology, individuals, groups, communities, organizations, societies, nations, and the world. So along with in­ creasing mention of the technologies in the academic and general literature, ways of characterizing the role and implications of digital technologies have also arisen. The four primary terms that have been used to refer to such changes are digital age, digi­ tal era, digital society, and digital technology. In the spirit of some of the literature analy­ ses to follow that utilize digital tools to extract and evaluate academic discussions about the social impacts of digital, we have used databases to explore how these terms were first used. Tables 1.1 through 1.4 show the first entries that used these terms in major academic reference, news, and periodicals databases (Web of Science, Science Direct, Nexis Uni News, and Proquest Periodicals Index Online, respectively). While in general all four terms began being mentioned in publications covered by these four sources between 1972 and 1983, the earliest terms used were “digital technology” (1967) and “digital soci­ ety” (1968), followed by “digital era” (1970) and then “digital age” (1982). Naturally, most were mentioned in reference to the growth and development of computers and digi­ tization. For example, “digital technology” typically referred to computers, computerized control, data flow, and the computer-based telephone switching network. “Digital society” noted the diffusion of technology use in everyday contexts. “Digital era” highlighted the Page 4 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes introduction of the personal computer, digital satellites, and industrial automation; while the “digital age” referenced the transition of technology to digital forms, and twice with specific reference to analog models. However, not all mentions of these terms related on­ ly to new technological developments at the time. Both “digital technology” and “digital society” were associated with new training and education, and the first discussion of “dig­ ital technology” (in 1967) specifically emphasized its potential social and economic im­ pacts. Some of these (p. 7) (p. 8) (p. 9) impacts of the “digital age” were quite novel: for example, an early concern about the switch to digital clocks was that people would no longer know what “clockwise” meant. So we see that right from the beginning that social aspects and implications (both positive and negative) were part of the discussion, even though the very first uses of these four terms were stimulated by technological develop­ ments. Table 1.1 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in Web of Science Term

First-year entries

digital age

Zenman, M. J. (1982). Even in a digital age, scopes re­ main the instrument. Electronic Design, 30(18), 129ff.

digital

Electronics. (1970). Bold new inroads for computer as

era

digital era gets under way. Electronics, 43(1), 105 ff.

digital society

Cazes, B. (1984). The digital society: New technologies in everyday use. Quinzaine Litteraire, 421, 8–9.

digital

Fenik, F., & Stopper, H. (1968). Rapid switching circuits

technol­ ogy

in digital technology. Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift BAusgabe, 29(7–8), 229ff. Ulrich, G. (1968). Comparison between analogue and digital technology in information flow. Periodica Poly­ technica Electrical Engineering, 12(2), 145ff.

Note: Based on Topics (in title)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Table 1.2 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in ScienceDi­ rect Term

First-year entries

digital age

Geballe, T. H. (1984). Materials: Analogue answers in a digital age. Physica B&C, 172(1–3), 50–58.

digital era

Dement, D. K. (1980). Developing the next phase in NASAs satellite communications program. Acta Astronautica, 7(11), 1275–1286. “In the coming digital era, maximizing the use of frequency spectrum allocations will require spe­ cial techniques for transmitting television signals within allowable bandwidths …” Latour, P. R. (1980). S2: Requirements for successful closed-loop optimization of petroleum refining processes. IFAC Proceedings Volumes, 13(9), 11–23. “DIGITAL ERA: Adequate Hardware and General: Software for Automation of Industrial Plants. Costs are still Dropping. …”

digital

Delorme, J-C. (1985). Education in a digital world. Educa­

society

tion and Computing 1(2), 117–124. “These questions not only have pertinence from the perspective of or as a conse­ quence of the emergence of the digital society …”

digital tech­

Beaverstock, M. C. & Bernard, J. W. (1977). Advanced con­ trol: Ready able accepted? IFAC Proceedings Volumes,

nology

10(16), 335–341. “Further application of more advanced control systems to industrial processes is limited by accep­ tance of the newer digital technologies.” Rony, P. R. & Larsen, D. G. (1977). Teaching microcomput­ er interfacing to non-electrical engineers. Euromicro Newsletter, 3(2), 57–62. “Rather, we are providing them with specific training in digital technology that may be useful to them professionally.” Benvenuto, F., DiTomaso, C., Donati, L. F., Sbragia, D., & Valcada, A. (1977). Digital control system for uninterrupt­ ible power supply. IFAC Proceedings Volumes, 10(10), 973– 979. “The most peculiar characteristic of the system just described consists in the fact that the control has been carried out using the digital technology in almost every part of it.”

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Newstead, A. (1977). Australia’s telecom 2000. Telecom­ munications Policy, 1(2), 158–162. “Continue network studies on optimum rate of transition to digital technologies in transmission and switching …” Schnieder, E. (1977). Control of DC-drives by microproces­ sors. IFAC Proceedings Volumes, 19(10), 603–608. “The current signal is the only analogue variable requiring A/D conversion, since speed measurement can be performed by digital techniques thus disposing of analogue trans­ mitters such as DC tachometers.” Fujii, K., Takeda, N., Kogure, Y., Neda, T., … Abe, M. (1977). Recent computerized power generation plant au­ tomation and advanced man-machine interface system. IFAC Proceedings Volumes,10(1), 16–20. “In the future, their reliability will have to be highly improved using mi­ crocomputerized digital technology for example.” Nyborg, P. S. (1977). Computer technology and US com­ munications law. Telecommunications Policy, 1(5), 374– 380. “Significant technologies, among others, are largescale integration, software control of switching devices and terminals, digital technology, and new services and techniques relating to audio transmission (including satel­ lite).” Owen, E. W. & Moseley, E. C. (1977). A user-compatible terminal for medical applications. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 7(2), 165–176. “He is currently working on the application of microprocessor and related digital technologies to these fields.” Note: Based on Abstract, Title, Keywords, Text in Research Articles

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Table 1.3 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in Nexis Uni (News) Term

First-year entries

digital age

Williams, E. (1982). Comdial system ready for switch to the digital age. Financial Times. Mulligan, H. A. (1982). [no headline]. The Associated Press. “Urchins raised in this digital age do not know which direction is clockwise.” Safire, W. (1982). Watch what you say. The New York Times. “… moving finger has written that we are now in the Digital Age.”

digital era

Heine, C. (1970). This diabolical hipster hoodwinker al­ most sold a bag of Brooklyn air for $20,000. Adweek. “… scenario could be that it was modern art for the digital era, an existential exhibit, if you will.”

digital society

Salisbury, D. F. (1983). Life in the computer age: Social choices in a futuristic world. The Christian Science Moni­ tor. “In its extreme form, a ‘Digital Society’ would be­ come simply a giant, clean, well-ordered Disneyworld, Vallee warns …”

digital tech­

Chapman, W. (1978). High stakes race: Japanese search for breakthrough in field of giant computers. The Washing­

nology

ton Post. “It [Japan] took transistors and digital technol­ ogy, added automation and superior quality control, and transformed those innovations into profitable exports.” Anon. (1978). Scientific and technical exchanges in China. Xinhua General Overseas News Service (China). “… the first conference on digital technology was recently held in Kochiu in Yunnan province.” Ostry, B. (1978). The Mermaid Inn: The wiring of Canada: A danger, a challenge, a certainty. The Global and Mail (Canada). “One writer insists digital technology will turn the international telephone network into the biggest blooming computer the world has ever seen.”

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Table 1.4 First Appearances of Four Major Digital Terms in Proquest Periodicals Index Online Term

First year entries

digital age

Julesz, B. (1983). The role of analog models in our digital age. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(4), 668–669.

digital era

Stauffacher, J. (1985). The Transylvanian Phoenix: The Kis-Janson types in the digital era. Visible Language, 19(1), 61–76.

digital society

Bixby, J. L. (1968). Public opinion and school music. Music Journal, 26(3), 48–53. “Effects of reduced privacy, restric­ tions on individualism (in a computerized digital society; shall we tattoo the Social Security number on the new­ born?)”

digital

Baran, P. (1967). The future computer utility. The Public

tech­ nology

Interest, 8(summer), 75–87. “These new developments in computer technology are of such significance as to af­ fect materially the nature of our economic and social life.”

Table 1.5 lists the earliest mentions of these same four terms in books that Google has digitized and indexed, and that were retrieved through their Ngram Viewer (https:// books.google.com/ngrams). For some of these, the plots do indicate entries before 1967, but either those do not retrieve an entry, do not retrieve a book entry, or are snippets from journals whose starting publishing date was in that time range, but the document with the term occurred in a much later issue. Ngram Viewer provides results through 2008. Figure 1.1 shows the trends in these four sets of terms over time. In books, the “digital technology” focus is the most frequently mentioned over time, really increasing during 1975–1995. However, the terms “digital society” (1965) and “digital era” (1969) appeared a bit earlier. The term “digital age” was the last to be introduced, around 20 years later, but quickly became the most used term indicating the societal aspects of digi­ tal technology.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes

Figure 1.1 Trends over time in mention of four major digital terms in books through 2008, based on Google Ngram Viewer.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Table 1.5 First Substantive Entries of Four Major Digital Terms in Books, from Google NGram Term

First substantive entry

Percentage of all Ngram en­ tries that year; in 2008; and times greater

digi­ tal age

Watkinson, J. (1990). Coding for digital recording. Focal Press. https:// books.google.com/books? id=cjBTAAAAMAAJ “Perhaps some fu­ ture historian will classify this as the digital age, when everyday processes increasingly came to be performed us­ ing discrete numbers.”

.00000040; 0.00000770; 18.25

Unites States. Congress. Senate. Com­ mittee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Subcommittee on Com­ munications. (1990). Hearings on … Digital Audio Tape Recorder Act of 1990. U.S. Government Printing Office. https://books.google.com/books? id=DTGqJhRf4jsC With the passage of S. 2358, such synergy will extend into the digital age, to the benefit of every­ one.” digi­ tal era

Parrish, L. (1969). Space flight simula­ tion technology. H. W. Sams. https:// books.google.com/books? id=k7NZAAAAYAAJ “… the accom­ plished simulation designer … will, of necessity, have qualified as a digitalcomputer programmer (this latter ac­ complishment being a forced require­ ment of the digital era).”

.00000002; 0.00000140; 69

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes digi­ tal soci­ ety

White, T. H. (1965). The making of the president 1964. Antheneum. https:// books.google.com/books? id=NIVkmNgX7_UC “The emotions of normal people resist the general condi­ tion of a Digital Society—digits for the boys who are drafted, digits for Social Security and income-tax people, digits on credit cards and union cards, digits replacing familiar telephone exchanges, the electronic recordings that answer the telephone at airports and railway stations.”

.00000000; 0.00003800; 3800+

digi­ tal tech­ nolo­

Canada. Department of Communica­ tions. (1971). The future of communi­ cations technology. Department of Communications. https://

.00000100; 0.00004700; 46

gy

books.google.com/books? id=lBe4AAAAIAAJ “6.5 DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY The evolving carrier network will be composed mainly of digital sub-systems, which can offer the complete range of digital and analogue capability required by any user on a switched network basis.”

Main Digital Technology and Society Issues and Contexts in Recent Books Method Presuming that books integrate and distill considerable prior work, and represent topics that are important, salient, and likely of broad and timely concern, we turn to recent (p. 10) books for indicators of the main issues and contexts about digital technology and society. Using the same four sets of terms, we searched Amazon Books for relevant titles, and relevant recommended titles, in the past decade. We ended up with 89 books, from 2009 to 2018 (M = 2015.2). There are of course many more books related to various as­ pects of digital technology and society, both those retrievable through other terms and from earlier (p. 11) years, but this seems a reasonable sample (in both size and source) to represent the most frequent and important issues and contexts. Within this sample 77 Page 12 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes were (co)authored, and 12 were edited (including one encyclopedia); 16 were general (i.e., textbook, overview or coverage of many issues), and 73 were specific (about an iden­ tifiable issue or topic; e.g., youth and media, or Internet governance). Again, as our goal was to identify main issues and contexts, we did not analyze the text of each book; rather, we collected information about each book, including summaries, reviews, prefaces, and table of contents; that is, what do the authors and others think the book is “about,” or what topics do they emphasize? We combined all those materials about each book into a file for each book. The total text across all books constituted around 29,000 words. We read each file, compiling a list of possible issues and contexts from each one. We then re­ viewed that compilation, reorganizing, regrouping, and combining terms into an alpha­ betized list of main codes and subcodes. This grouped list provided our initial a priori coding scheme. Needless to say, others might have developed a more or less different list, many of the subcodes could have been included with other main codes, and more or less different main codes could have been developed. We will return to a possible different grouping of the main codes later on. The purpose of the following overview is to identify some of the primary themes and topics of recent books in this domain. We entered those 89 book summary files and the initial coding taxonomy into NVivo 11. Then we re-read each book file and coded the materials using the initial codes, as well as adding new codes as they arose. After coding all files, we revisited the coding taxonomy and again reorganized, regrouped, and combined terms, and then re-coded the book files. For the following overview of the issues and contexts covered in these books, we re-orga­ nized the main codes by general themes: (A) Theory and Conceptualization, (B) Digital Technology, (C) Issues, (D) Contexts, and (E) Effects. Table 1.6 lists the general themes, their main codes and their subcodes, along with the number of sources that used that code and the number of times (references) that code was used.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Table 1.6 Themes, Main Codes and Subcodes Used to Identify Issues and Concerns in Recent Books on Digital Technology and Society Theme, Code, and Subcodes A. Theory and Conceptualization A1. Theory [17] Actor-network theory (48) Critical studies, theory (9,22) Diffusion (39) Digital divide (38) Digital media & social change (51) Mediation theories (23, 31, 33) Model of digital coping with illness (68) Network theory (35, 39, 51) Public good (23) Science & technology studies (33) Social capital (54) Sociological (4, 21) Socio-technical (4, 10, 26) Various (51, 53) A2. Names for new digital technology and society era [49] Age of big data (56) Attention economy (89)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Culture of connectivity (85) Digital age/society/revolution (6, 7, 9, 51) Digital natives, immigrants (12, 64) Ecosystem of connective media in a culture of connectivity (85) Fourth industrial revolution (77) Fourth wave (digital health) (79) Global information society (58) Global network society (17, 48) Information society (14, 38) Integrate technological, social, political, cultural, economic dimen­ sions (4, 9, 13, 17, 18, 21, 26, 28, 33, 39, 41, 47, 57, 58, 69) Marketplace of attention (86) Mass surveillance society (75) Media ecologies (44) Mediation (interrelated technical, social, biological processes) (4, 22, 23) Network as “defining concept of our era” (20) New mobile age (49) Next Internet (59) Participatory condition (5) Second machine age (13) Softwarization of society (9) Superconnected society (18) Page 15 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Third wave of computing technologies (25, 32) B. Technology B1. Technology venues [68] 3D printing, fabrication (32, 77) Algorithms (10, 19, 24, 29, 33, 51, 63, 84) Artificial Intelligence (13, 30, 49) Blockchain (81) Cloud computing (4, 11, 39, 42, 59) Constant change and development of technology (4, 11) Data storage (24) Drones (59, 77) Gaming (57, 69, 71, 82) Internet of things (11, 15, 26, 56, 59, 81) Mobility (11, 26, 51, 84) Robots & social robots (30, 49, 59, 82) Search engines (63) Smart homes, cities, e-government (5, 11, 37, 39, 41, 77, 81) Social media-networking sites (4, 11, 39, 51, 57, 79, 80, 85) Ubiquitous computing (26, 59) Wearable computing, devices, sensors (26, 59, 77, 79) B2. Technology characteristics [9] Affordances (68, 71, 82) Page 16 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Habitual, updating (20, 82) Materiality (33, 42) Mediation vs. objects, devices, apps (47) C. Issues C1. Content, creation [33] Art, performance (5, 10, 23, 40, 52, 54, 81) Collective intelligence (70) Creative production, industry, digital media production (44) Crowdfunding (7) Design (5, 71) Humor & memes (46, 66, 78) Online expression (66) Producers, users, produsers (2, 5, 28, 43, 69, 76) Public, online debate (66) Storytelling (5, 7, 66) C2. Big data, data mining, data storage, analytics, user data [56] Attention industry, marketplace, merchants, customers (2, 13, 24, 39, 50, 75, 83, 84, 86, 89) Audience behaviors and meaning changing, fragmentation, overlap (7, 33,62, 86) Big data, data mining, data analytics (5, 11, 14, 29, 39, 51, 56, 59, 71, 84) Data user, personal, online, digital traces (22, 35, 51, 55, 61, 73, 75, 83, 84) Page 17 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Privacy, surveillance, security, anonymity (5, 10, 12, 15, 18, 19, 26, 39, 40, 45, 48, 53, 59, 61, 64, 69, 82, 84, 87) C3. Civic issues [50] Civic media, citizenship, democracy, public sphere, the news press (3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 29, 33, 39, 40, 51, 59, 65, 69, 81, 87) Digital countercultures, underground (52) Engagement, participation civic (3, 5, 27, 37, 46, 53, 59, 65) Political, politics (17, 21, 25, 39, 55, 69) Power (5, 7, 21, 42, 51) Social movements & digital activism (incl. feminist activism, play as resistance), collective action (5, 17, 25, 31, 37, 39, 51, 69, 87) C4. Participation, engagement [7] (5, 12, 27, 45, 48, 70) C5. Inclusion, exclusion, discrimination [26] Digital divide (6, 38, 39) Disability (22, 69) Discrimination (19, 29, 63) Gender (25, 39, 63, 69) Inclusion, exclusion; equality, inequality (7, 18, 37, 53, 54, 59, 69, 81, 88) Race (39, 63, 69) C6. Ethics, ethical issues [6] (28, 29, 45, 47, 64) C7. Manage digital experience [8] (23, 29, 35, 38, 39, 41, 53, 57, 60, 79, 81) D. Contexts

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes D1. Digitization of self & others [13] Biosensing, quantified self & animals (5, 10, 47, 49, 52, 55, 59, 61, 67, 84) Qualified self (45) D2. Health [12] Digital health (13, 30, 61, 71, 79) End of life (68) Healthspan and lifespan (49) Online information, interventions (68) Support, coping (68, 82) D3. Relationships [40] Community (4, 51) Families (38, 44, 54, 72, 80) Friendship (44) Identity, selfhood (12, 18, 19, 22, 38, 40, 43, 44, 51, 54, 64, 65, 82, 87) Individual, collective; public, private (35, 70, 87) Intimacy (44, 82) Sex, sexuality (69) Social (interactions, relationships, networks (6, 18, 35, 46, 54, 70, 72, 82) D4. User groups [19] African-Americans (38) College students (72) Page 19 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Elderly (68, 71) LGBTQ (31, 37) Worshippers (8) Youth (6, 12, 39, 44, 45, 53, 54, 64, 69, 80) D5. Culture, everyday life, education, learning [35] Culture (6, 10, 25, 37, 39, 51, 69, 88) Domesticity (26) Education, learning (5, 13, 30, 37, 41, 44, 53, 54, 64, 69) Everyday life, practice (4, 9, 21, 26, 38, 39, 53, 54, 58, 80) Literacy (46, 53, 70, 88) D6. Work and organizations [37] Business models (7, 24, 49, 81, 89) Innovation (11, 27, 37, 71, 77, 79) Labor, creative, digital, employment (7, 13, 30, 33, 39, 76, 77) Organizations & business (10, 21, 24, 39, 41, 57, 71, 79, 81) Work, work-life boundaries (1, 44, 46, 71, 77, 82) D7. Law, policy, regulation [12] (23, 29, 35, 38, 39, 41, 53, 57, 60, 79, 81) E. Effects E1. Effects negative [25] Addiction (1, 82) Attention, brain, overload (6, 16, 64, 70, 82)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Cyberbullying (6, 12) Danger, harm, risk (6, 12, 46, 53, 56, 82) Disconnection (among people) (54) Multitasking (82) Online hate and shaming (72) Pressure for access, connectedness, response (82) Wasting time (34, 82) E2. Effects positive [13] Collaboration, cooperation, sharing (5, 12, 13, 34, 70, 71) Connectivity, connectedness (1, 2, 38) Creativity (34) Safety (12, 82) Social capital (38) E3. Effects societal [23] Crime (36) Economy, economics (13, 30, 39, 41, 58, 71, 81, 87) Environment implications of digital media (23, 42, 59, 69) Global impacts (17, 18, 22, 58, 69, 71) ICTs for development (41, 57, 87) Institutions (18, 41) E4. Effects contradictions, paradoxes, tensions, unintended [21] (1, 6, 9, 10, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 41, 48, 50, 52, 66, 69, 82, 86)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes Note: [# times code was referenced], aggregated from # times each subcode was referenced (number of the specific publication refer­ enced); see References of Books for Issues and Contexts Analysis for correspondence between number and reference.

(p. 12)

(p. 13)

(p. 14)

A. Theory and Conceptualization

A1. Theory. Theoretical perspectives are not likely to be highlighted in book summaries or reviews, especially in edited books. However, of those mentioned, several appear multi­ ple times. A socio-technical approach appears in Athique’s (2013) overview of digital me­ dia and society; Beyes, Leeker, and Schipper’s (2017) analysis of digital performance: and Dourish and Bell’s (2011) discussion of ubiquitous computing. Network theory is an obvi­ ous framework for considering digital technologies due to their networked nature and the rise of a global network society, and how they connect people through social networks and social networking sites (González-Bailón, 2017; Graham & Dutton, 2014; Krieger & Belliger, 2014; Lindgren, 2017). Similarly, as digital technologies provide mediated com­ munication, representation, and interaction, mediation and materiality theories are rele­ vant (Cubitt, 2016; Fotopoulou, 2017; Gillespie, Boczkowski, & Foot, 2014). Other speci­ fied theoretical approaches include critical studies, sociological theories, and others rang­ ing from public goods and social capital to diffusion of innovations and digital divide. Sev­ eral books emphasize multiple theories, related to areas such social media, cyber-opti­ mism, social interaction, social change, identity, development, education, and participa­ tion (Lindgren, 2017; Livingstone, 2009). Names for new social era. Based on the article and NGram analysis, we might refer to the emergence of relationships between digital technology and society as the “Digital Age.” Indeed, several books use some variant of that (Bauerlein, 2011; Bennett, Chin, & Jones, 2015; Berry, 2015; Lindgren, 2017). However, in recent books authors have used a wide variety of terms. Some refer to a broad phenomenon (culture of connectivity, digital age/society/revolution, ecosystem of connective media in a culture of connectivity, fourth industrial revolution, global information/network society, the familiar term (p. 15) informa­ tion society, next Internet, the participatory condition, second machine age, super con­ nected society, and third wave of computing technologies). Several of these emphasize the increased opportunities for connecting, communicating, and networking (Barney et al., 2016; Castells, 2015; Chayko, 2017; Chun, 2017; James, 2014; Van Dijck, 2013). Barney et al. (2016) refers to this as the “participatory condition,” whereby participation has become the theme for most everyday activities; similarly, Van Dijck (2013) shows how social media in particular have created a “culture of connectivity,” and Chayko (2017) ar­ gues that the Internet and digital media in general have made social life “superconnect­ ed.” Others indicate more specific aspects (age of big data, the attention economy, mass surveillance society, new mobile age, and the “softwarization” of society; Berry, 2015; Kvedar, Colman, & Cella, 2017; Lynch, 2016; Schneier, 2015; Wu, 2017). Note that all but one of these are concerned with how large-scale collection of user behavior both fuels the Page 22 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes economy as well as enables individual, corporate, and government surveillance. More common, however, is a general reference to the integration of biological, cultural, eco­ nomic, environmental, political, psychological, social, and technological dimensions. Athique (2013) and Berry (2015), for example, discuss how digital systems pervade all as­ pects of our lives, especially given vast global information and communication networks (Castells, 2015). Many of these broader approaches emphasize how the technological and the social are interrelated (e.g., Graham & Dutton, 2014).

B. Digital Technology B1. Technology venues. Many other books explain and study specific digital technolo­ gies, but those mentioned in the context of societal concerns in these books range from 3D printing/fabrication to online gaming and ubiquitous computing. More frequent are associations with algorithms, cloud computing, Internet of things, mobility, robots (includ­ ing social robots), smart homes and cities, social media, and wearable computing devices/ sensors. Algorithms are both based on, and influence, our search behaviors, news view­ ing, online friends, and shopping (Cheney-Lippold, 2017; Turow, 2017), shape who gets access to social services (Eubanks, 2018), and affect how race and gender are portrayed in search engine results (Noble, 2018). Cloud computing seems abstract and ethereal, yet requires massive infrastructure and energy (Hu, 2015), and raises issues of privacy (Gra­ ham & Dutton, 2014). The miniaturization of computing power and the increasing reach and strength of wireless networking provide the foundations for the Internet of things (Bunz & Meikle, 2017), ranging from interactive refrigerators to worldwide tracking of shipping containers (Dourish & Bell, 2011), as well as “smart” cities and governments (Barney et al., 2016; Hanna, 2016). Robots have already replaced many manufacturing jobs (Ford, 2015), while social robots can provide physical, and emotional support to pa­ tients, the elderly, and coworkers (Mosco, 2017). Turkle (2011) argues that mobile phones are social robots. B2. Technology characteristics. While not much mentioned at the general level of our source documents, some work does approach digital technologies not from their purely physical or technical aspects, but, rather, from their main functions or capabilities, the ways in which they mediate. The argument here is that particular technologies and their manifestations are always changing, so a more conceptual approach is more endur­ ing and generalizable. This approach is variously labeled here as affordances, habit, ma­ teriality, and mediation. For example, from a patient’s or a physician’s perspective, persis­ tent awareness of the patient’s condition is more crucial than a particular medical device (Rains, 2018), or from a project team’s perspective, searchability of a database in order to share knowledge is critical independent of the system used (Rossignoli, Virili, & Za, 2017). Continuing, everyday use of a digital technology may, however, make these capa­ bilities and affordances become taken-for-granted, habitual, and invisible (Chun, 2017). (p. 16)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes

C. Issues C1. Content, creation. Digital technologies make it possible for all kinds of people to find, create, share, reshape, and link a dizzying array of existing and unforeseeable con­ tent. Familiar content issues include produsage, crowdfunding/sourcing, digital media production, and online expression. Yet less common topics are discussed as well. Soft­ ware, computing, devices, and networks enable new kinds of and ways of presenting, art, performance, dance, music, and design (Beyes, Leeker, & Schipper, 2017; Gronlund, 2016). New kinds of digital images (from space and the deep sea) may foster more engaged re­ sponses to environmental threats (Cubit, 2016). A major motivation for creating, viewing, and sharing online content is its humorous nature (Phillips & Milner, 2018), while consid­ erable research attempts to understand the power and rapid diffusion of certain memes (Shifman, 2014). Digital storytelling can be multi-modal, collaborative, and interactive (Barney et al., 2016). C2. Big data, data mining, data storage, analytics, user data. Transforming informa­ tion and communication from analog to digital has a major, inherent implication: the con­ tent is (potentially, depending on the context and laws) now easily captured, stored, ana­ lyzed, associated, separated, (re)combined, transmitted, and networked. Thus, there is considerable recent coverage of issues relating to both specific and very large scale (big) user data. Such data capture and mining provide the economic model for much digital media, marketers, and vendors (think social media and search engines, especially), lead­ ing to terms such as the attention economy or the attention market, and fundamental changes in the nature of media audiences (Anand, 2016; Daley, 2015; Napoli, 2011; Sch­ neier, 2015; Turow, 2012, 2017; Webster, 2014). But big data, from personal biosensors to Google searches, also allow both scientific and commercial analyses of topics otherwise not possible (González-Bailón, 2017; Graham & Dutton, 2014; Lupton, 2016; Rudder, 2014). For example, Webster (2014) argues that the expansion of multiple media sources and content allows audiences to (p. 17) both concen­ trate attention on, as well as overlap with other audiences across, some outlets and con­ tent. The generation, access, analysis, and selling of such personal data also lead to con­ cerns about anonymity, privacy, and surveillance. Several have noted the irony in the fact that while digital technology inspires so much participation and sharing, that very partici­ pation generates information that may be used to control, influence, or otherwise shape us and our possibilities (Barney et al., 2016; Bunz & Meikle, 2017). As Turkle (2011, p. 243) wrote, “Facebook looks like ‘home,’ but you know that it puts you in a public square with a surveillance camera turned on.” C3. Civic issues. For some, civic issues are at the heart of debates about digital technol­ ogy and society. Awareness, participation, freedom of speech, and exposure to diverse ideas are crucial for the practice and maintenance of democracy. The public sphere is now online, but not necessarily civil. Digital and online technology can both facilitate and constrain, improve and harm, these activities. It provides opportunities for political en­ gagement and citizen marketing as well as tools for political message targeting, and opin­ Page 24 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes ion control by both governments and corporations (Anduiza et al., 2012; Athique, 2013; Penney, 2017; White, 2014), but increasingly also by interest groups and individuals. Of­ fline divides by class, disability, ethnicity, gender, and race potentially may be overcome online, but often are reinforced (Reed, 2014). Online spaces provide meeting ground, sup­ port, and solidarity for countercultural communities (Lingel, 2017), and citizen and politi­ cal activism and collective action, from small towns to governments, and from nations to global regions, sometimes successful, sometimes not (Castells, 2015; Graham & Dutton, 2014). Online citizen engagement also represents opportunities for and means of identity expression (Penney, 2017). Some work discusses implications of site and system design, accessibility, and use on the nature of civic engagement (Godron & Mihailidis, 2016). Un­ derlying these civic issues are questions about power and politics shape and are shaped by new forms of participation and their actors (Barney et al., 2016; Hu, 2015). C4. Participation, engagement. As noted in the overview about labeling this changing social condition, a central underlying theme is the increased amount, diversity, forms, and actors in online participation in general (i.e., other than civic or political). Social media in particular enable people to engage in communication and activities in multiple ways, con­ tinuously (boyd, 2014), often leading to over-dependence and disconnection from ethical and moral behavior (James, 2014). Yet features and designs, as well as online attitudes and behavior, still limit participation by those with disabilities (Ellcessor, 2016). C5. Inclusion, exclusion, discrimination. Thus an explicit or implicit thread running throughout much of the discussions about digital technology concerns inclusion, exclu­ sion, and discrimination, both in terms of accessing and using these technologies, as well as in how designs, data mining, site features or policies, and other users affect which peo­ ple and what content are allowed online. The major throughline here is about the general digital divide (Graham, 2014, discussing African Americans’ digital practices; Graham & Dutton, 2014); but other specific distinctions appear too, such as disability, ethnicity, gen­ der, and race (Ellcessor, 2016; Reed, 2014). And a wide variety of factors (p. 18) affects forms of inclusion and exclusion, including algorithms shaping data mining and search engine results (Cheney-Lippold, 2017; Eubanks, 2018). Noble (2018), for example, shows how algorithm design, commercial interests, and oligopolies of search engine and social media companies serve to privilege whiteness while discriminating against people of col­ or (especially women). Young users, while nearly continuously online, nonetheless experi­ ence exclusion and disconnections due to their pre-existing networks, digital literacy, and attitudes (Livingstone, Sefton, & Green, 2016; Wiesinger & Believau, 2016)). However, online communities and social media provide opportunities for digital activism on the ba­ sis of gender, feminism, LBGTQ, among others (Dey, 2018; Fotopoulou, 2017; Gordon & Mihailidis, 2016), and are empowering people around the world (Mosco, 2017). Blockchain technology may both increase and circumvent exclusion (Tapscott & Tapscott, 2018), by concentrating wealth and increasing energy demands, while bypassing control by financial institutions and intermediaries.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes C6. Ethics, ethical issues. As most commenters note, ethical issues receive limited cov­ erage in digital technology discussions. The online environment provides extensive and new challenges to professional journalism ethics (Elliott & Spence, 2017), data mining and algorithms distance consequences from ethical criteria (Eubanks, 2018), and youth users seldom make connections between their online behaviors and more general moral ethical implications, experiencing ethical blind spots (James, 2014). The very process of mediation often distances awareness or knowledge of ethical implications (Palfrey & Gasser, 2016), and the beneficial use of social robots nonetheless has ethical implications such as emotional dependency and privacy (Kvedar, Colman, & Cella, 2017). C7. Managing the digital experience. While nearly all books on digital technology and society have sections on policy, implementation, and individual recommendations, some specifically focus on advice, based on research, on how to manage and improve one’s dig­ ital experience. James (2014), for example, explicates the concept of conscientious con­ nectivity, which involves both ethical thinking as well as awareness of and sensitivity to online dilemmas. Other approaches include exercises for mindful technology use (Levy, 2016), and thriving online (Rheingold, 2012). Johnson (2015) develops the idea of an in­ formation diet, or how to evaluate and balance one’s online behaviors and use of informa­ tion. Other guides are designed for parents interested in protecting their family from the negative aspects of the digital age (Steiner, Adair, & Barker, 2013), attempting to protect your online data and identity (Schneier, 2015), and reducing online shame and hate (Sch­ eff & Schorr, 2017). Rowan-Kenyon, Aleman, and Savitz-Romer (2018) specifically honed in on how universities can improve the experience and retention of first-generation col­ lege students through their engagement with digital technology.

D. Contexts D1. Digitization of self and others. As devices become smaller, and more powerful, wireless, and connected, very personalized uses have developed, creating the quantified (p. 19) self movement. People use biosensors (such as fitness trackers, smartphones, eyeand face-scanners, and even implants) to record their activities and responses, both for personal interest and health monitoring (Kvedar, Colman, & Cella, 2017; Lupton, 2016), but also for advertising and consumer user behavior (Turow, 2017). Interestingly, while in one way this allows people to develop a more detailed sense of their own identity, shared quantified self data creates online communities who compare and even compete (includ­ ing, for example, brain scans; Barney et al., 2016). To some extent, this is one form of the cyborg or the singularity, or the melding of humans and machines (Beyes, Leeker, & Schipper, 2017; Kember & Zylinska, 2012; Mosco, 2017). Further, large-scale collection of such data can be used for medical diagnoses, genetic and epidemiological analyses, and possible threats to insurance and employment. As a form of the Internet of things, these applications extend to animals as well, for tracking their diet and health, as well as prove­ nance, ownership, location, and migration, from cats to cattle to whales (Pschera & Lauf­ fer, 2016). As a complement to this digital data collection via bodily devices and social media, Humphreys (2018) shows how people have been recording and commenting on Page 26 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes their personal information for ages, through baby books, photo albums, pocket diaries, and postcards, to account for their everyday lives. D2. Health. Health is another major context for digital technology, including computer­ ized medical instrumentation, digital device implants, data collection and analysis, health information monitoring, digital records, network sharing of medical information, online health information seeking, and mediated communication within support communities and between patients and caregivers (Rains, 2018; Turkle, 2011). Such technologies can be used for large-scale as well as personalized health interventions, improve one’s lifespan and health-span (Kvedar, Colman, & Cella, 2017), as well as help manage end-of-life and bereavement (Rains, 2018). D3. Relationships. From a communication and interaction perspective, personal and so­ cial relationships are a major context for the use and implications of digital technologies. A frequent focus is on how people create, manage, promote, and try to protect, their (multiple) online identities and selfhood (Lindgren, 2017). This is especially salient for youth users (boyd, 2014; Ito et al., 2009; Palfrey & Gasser, 2016; Turkle, 2011), in their social and classroom lives (Livingstone, Sefton, & Green, 2016). Other central foci are about online ethnic, gender, racial, and sexual identities (Graham, 2014; Reed, 2014), and about how data mining entities construct and constrain our online and even offline identi­ ties (Cheney-Lippold, 2017). Online communities and services also hold the promise for bringing together individual identities to create a more powerful and positive (or nega­ tive) collective identity (González-Bailón, 2017; Rheingold, 2012), but also blur the dis­ tinctions between public and private, and offline and online, identities (White, 2014). Digital technology and society of course involve far more than just individual-level identi­ ty. More relational contexts include engaging in online intimacy even though the content may be public (Ito et al., 2009). Yet our technologies may be distorting intimacy; as Turkle (2011) notes, immersion in social media and mobile phones may create an illusion of inti­ macy while distancing actual personal relationships. The mobile phone (p. 20) and social media may help maintain family relationships, especially when children move away to col­ lege (Rowan-Kenyon, Aleman, & Savitz-Romer, 2018), but also serve to wrest control away from parental monitoring and socialization (Graham, 2014; Ito et al., 2009; Living­ stone & Green, 2016), both by youth and by their peers and marketing companies (Stein­ er, Adair, & Barker, 2013). And, of course, much work concerns the nature, engagement in, and effects of online communities, ranging from political to health and culture (Lind­ gren, 2017). D4. User groups. Different kinds of audiences, groups, or users have different motiva­ tions for and experiences with online and digital technology, so some books focus on spe­ cific user groups. These include how African Americans use such technologies to deal with inequalities (Graham, 2014), how students engage with technology to manager their transition from home to their first year at college (Rowan-Kenyon, Aleman, & SavitzRomer, 2018), how the elderly can manage the end of their lifespan (Rains, 2018), how LGBTQ members engage in media activism, promote visibility, and work to combat sui­ Page 27 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes cide (Fotopoulou, 2017 Gordon & Mihailidis, 2016), and how worshippers participate in mediated liturgy practices, such as digital prayer chapels and live-streaming of religious services (Berger, 2017). Much work looks at how youth use digital media, with both posi­ tive and negative implications (Bauerlein, 2011). For example, boyd (2014) considers why youth share so much online and why they are so obsessed with social media, Graham and Dutton’s book (2014) includes chapters on children’s Internet use and next generation digital divides, and Steiner, Adair, and Barker (2013) consider how the digital age is sig­ nificantly affecting childhood. D5. Culture, everyday life, education, learning. More general daily concerns include the ways in which ubiquitous computing might affect the form and meaning of domestici­ ty (Dourish & Bell, 2011) and everyday life practices, such as how society is becoming embedded in software (Berry, 2015), the digital experiences of African Americans (Gra­ ham, 2014), and how the Internet is interwoven throughout children’s lives at home, school, and play (Livingstone, 2009). Research investigates the role of digital technology in education and learning, such as the participatory potential for education (Barney et al., 2016; Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2014), the need for greater civic education (Gordon & Mi­ hailidis, 2016), how young people do, or do not, learn through digital media within their daily class contexts (Livingstone, Sefton, & Green, 2016), the need for greater digital lit­ eracy (Johnson 2015; Rheingold, 2012) and ways in which educational technologies such as MOOCs and scholarly publishing are changing the nature of teaching and research (Reed, 2014). Concerns about digital culture include how digital technology shapes and is influenced by broad societal culture (Wiesinger & Beliveau, 2016), artistic and creative culture (Reed, 2014), and the culture(s) associated with particular media, such as mobile phones (Lindgren, 2017). D6. Work and organizations. Another major context, work and organizations, is consid­ ered much more in the management and information systems literature. However, recent digital technology and society books discuss how business models, industries, and economies are being transformed, such as through crowdsourcing, crowdfunding, (p. 21) and microcelebrity (Bennett, Chin, & Jones, 2015); the “gig” economy such as Uber and Airbnb (Daley, 2015); and the ability to identify and monetize attention (Wu, 2017). They also discuss how the very nature of organizations and industries is changing, towards more networked, virtual, and distributed forms (Graham & Dutton, 2014). Note that these opportunities and challenges also apply to not necessarily commercial or for-profit contexts, such as health provision and caregiving (Kvedar, Colman, & Cells, 2017), and smart cities and technology parks (Hanna, 2016). Not only are innovation processes crucial to the development and diffusion of new digital technologies, but such technologies are also necessary for implementing other innovations. For example, innova­ tions in medical technologies can transform experiences and possibilities for the disabled (Ellcessor, 2016), patients (Sonnier, 2017), and caregivers (Rossignoli, Virili, & Za, 2017), and innovative designs for egovernment (such as ways to visualize data, involvement in open policymaking, engaging young and feminist activists) can foster greater civic en­ gagement (Gordon & Mihailidis, 2016). Digital innovations are making work-life bound­ Page 28 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes aries more permeable (Alter, 2017; Schwab, 2017), increasing the ability to share and manage knowledge (Botto & Resende, 2017), and threatening the loss of traditional and even knowledge work through artificial intelligence, algorithms, blockchain technology, and robots (Ford, 2015; Tapscott & Tapscott, 2018). D7. Law, policy, regulation. As many have noted, technology develops and diffuses faster than laws, policy, and regulation can keep up with. Should the Internet and social media be regulated as a common carrier, or subject to the same regulations and liabilities as other publishers (Graham & Dutton, 2014)? Who should govern what aspects of the In­ ternet (Mueller, 2010)? What are the effects of supporting or removing net neutrality? Should algorithms affecting search results and service provision be regulated and made explicit (Eubanks, 2018)? What policies and regulations best stimulate public ICT provi­ sion (Hanna, 2016)? Is a HIPAA sufficient to protect personal digital medical records (Sonnier, 2017)?

E. Effects E1. Negative effects. An enduring research, policy, and popular topic is the extent to which digital technologies are associated with negative or positive effects. The list of pos­ sible implications is endless. The books included here refer to just a few. Addiction is at the top of many people’s list, both alphabetically and behaviorally (Alter, 2017). As Turkle (2011, p. 154) notes, “Always on and (now) always with us, we tend the Net, and the Net teaches us to need it.” But she argues that addiction is not inherent to the technology; rather it’s to how we practice the use of that technology. For example, social pressures to be constantly accessible and to respond quickly create stress and reinforce dependencies (Turkle, 2011). Excessive use also ends up wasting considerable time, often fostering feel­ ings of guilt (Goldsmith, 2016). Watching YouTube music videos, and endlessly scrolling friends’ text messages, do not strengthen personal relations or get one’s (home) work done. As noted in the terms associated with digital technology and society, attention has gained a lot of attention, not only in regard to the commercial focus on collecting and an­ alyzing user attention, but also about the cognitive effects of excessive screen use and multitasking on attention span (Bauerlein, 2011; Carr, 2011). Further, excessive attention to our devices reduces our attention to those people around us (Turkle, 2011, p. 268). Re­ search has identified a wide array of possible dangers, harms, and risk, including cyber­ bullying (Bauerlein, 2011), information overload (Johnson, 2015), threats to children (Liv­ ingstone, 2009), and loss of control over one’s identity in the present and the future. Turkle (2011), for example, notes people’s vulnerability is not just limited to their commu­ nication or site content, but also to anyone taking a photo of them or posting comments about them. There is thus a constant worry about one’s offline behavior being recorded and distributed. This leads some to self-censor and self-surveil both their online and of­ fline comments and behavior. Another kind of harm is online harassment, shaming, hat­ (p. 22)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes ing, and trolling (Scheff & Schorr, 2017), negatively affecting everyone from children to CEOs and celebrities. E2. Positive effects. Needless to say, digital technologies are associated with many posi­ tive benefits. Chief among these is the ability to connect and communicate with others, from family and friends to fellow group members, and with people and organizations oth­ erwise unknown and inaccessible, allowing the co-creation of meaning and sharing of re­ sources, from emotional support to complex information (Barney et al., 2016). Computing and networking support new and distributed forms of collaboration and cooperation, in­ creasingly between humans and machines, necessary for accomplishing tasks, creating content, and generating innovative ideas (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2014; Rheingold, 2012; Rossignoli, Virili, & Za, 2017). Tools such as mobile phones and GPS also improve one’s safety (boyd, 2014), and keep others aware of your locations and activities (Turkle, 2011). This support for connectivity and relationships also develops social and cultural capital (Graham, 2014). E3. Societal effects. More societal negative effects include the uses of digital technolo­ gies for crime, including hacking and identity theft, fomenting hate crimes, and drug and sex trafficking, among many others (Goodman, 2015). Also, little understood is the in­ creasingly devastating environmental implications of digital technology, including cloud computing (with its need for massive server farms consuming increasingly more energy) and toxic materials recycling (Cubitt, 2016, Hu, 2015, Mosco, 2017). Digital, networked ICTs have a wide range of negative and positive implications for economies and econom­ ics, such as facilitating rapid and global financial crises, and threats to particular indus­ tries and jobs, but also making information and transactions more transparent and effi­ cient, and supporting micro-economic and entrepreneurial activities and produsage (Gra­ ham & Dutton, 2014; Hanna, 2016; Martin, 2017). ICTs have held great promise for the developing world, from markets and health, to farming and education (Hanna, 2016; White, 2014). Other global impacts include occasions for (more or less successful) citizen participation (Castells, 2015), and broader intercultural communication (Cover, 2015). E4. Contradictions, paradoxes, tensions, and unintended effects. Interwoven throughout discussions of effects of digital technology is the awareness of contradictions, paradoxes, tensions, and unintended consequences. The very concept of online expression is ambivalent, indicating helpful as well as harmful intent and content (Phillips & Milner, 2018). Both positive and negative implications may be associated with a particular tech­ nology or use, often simultaneously, and paradoxically. Online feminist and queer activist communities can use the same technologies that mis-portray or exclude them as ways to construct and promote valued identities (Fotopoulou, 2017). Digital technologies are both highly useful and entertaining, but also create stress, overload, and complications (Levy, 2016); they blur boundaries between work and home, private and public (Krieger & Bel­ liger, 2014). Online and social media communication can strengthen relationships and promote intimacy while also generating user data that are processed by other digital technologies and software around the world to group, categorize, and target audiences (p. 23)

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes (Beyes, Leeker, & Schipper, 2017). For example, Turkle (2011) identifies the following paradoxes (p. 176, 280): • Connectivity brings us closer, but some use technology to hide from others • In order to feel like themselves, users must be connected to their devices and others • It is easy to find others to interact with, but also to become tired by demands to per­ form • It is possible to make many new connections, but they are often tentative and tempo­ rary • Mobile phones enable as well as inhibit separation from parents, partners, work • Nonstop connection also means limited attention by self or others • People can play with identity but are less free from their past • People like online linkages and features that are based on knowledge about one’s use, but they are also concerned about the loss of privacy and are constrained by ex­ ternally created online identity • People reject real-time phone but get lost in real-time online gaming • Providing online content may be available to immediate and broad audiences, but the content is often depersonalized and abbreviated • The ability to work from anywhere means one cannot escape work • Users develop expectations of instant connections to and response from others, but they themselves are then expected to always be available and respond ourselves • Users themselves acknowledge tensions between good and bad aspects, and often say they are resigned to this condition. What some researchers or users may perceive as a positive aspect may be considered negative by others. For example, increased ability to participate online may take the form of reading and posting only to groups with the same interest or political position, thus limiting exposure to diverse ideas and strengthening polarization (though Webster, 2014, argues that audiences are fragmented, but also participate in various venues, (p. 24) cre­ ating overlapping audiences). By accident or user intent, technology may be used in ways that designers, vendors, or implementers did not intend, expect, or imagine (Lingel, 2017). For example, González-Bailón (2017) shows how data mining and network analysis can reveal unintended consequences of individual behavior for collective outcomes. Even use of digital technology that might be critiqued as “wasting time” can provide a context for allowing thoughtfulness and creativity (Goldsmith, 2016). The same systems and fea­ tures can promote support and caring (Rains, 2018) as well as international crime and terrorism (Goodman, 2015), democratization as well as authoritarianism (Berry, 2015), learning as well as fragmented attention (Bauerlein, 2011), empowerment as well as ad­ diction (Alter, 2017). ICTs may increase the pace of development and economic growth, but also increase inequities, work dislocation, and environmental degradation (Cubitt, 2016; Gershenfeld, Gershenfeld, & Cutcher-Gershenfeld, 2017; Hanna, 2016). Page 31 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes

Summary The preceding sections reviewed the main arguments and concerns about digital technol­ ogy and society, organized by the emergent coding of subthemes and then the main codes of Theory and Conceptualization, Technology, Issues, Contexts, and Effects. This provides a subjective conceptual framework for identifying the most noted and discussed topics of 89 recent books. Another way to identify general arguments and concerns is to assess how those coded themes co-occur across the material about the 89 books. Figure 1.2 shows the hierarchical clustering of the coded themes, based on the Jaccard similarity co­ efficients derived from the co-occurrence of the codes in each source text (provided through NVivo 11). What constitutes a cluster, or main theme, depends on the cutoff be­ tween sets of codes one wants to use. The most general distinction is among three prima­ ry clusters.

Figure 1.2 Hierarchical clustering of main codes based on co-occurrence (correlation) of main and subcodes within each source text.

The first cluster includes Content, creation; Digitization of self & others; Ethics, ethical issues; Participation, engagement; and Manage digital experience. Given that many of the Ethics, ethical issues have to do with personal data privacy, much of the Content, creation material has to do with individual use or production of content, and Manage digital expe­ rience emphasizes how individual can (more, or less, effectively) attempt to manage their own digital usage, this cluster could be considered to represent a major general theme of Individual uses. The second cluster contains two subclusters. The first subcluster consists of Theory; Cul­ ture, everyday life, education, learning; Relationships; and User groups. This as a some­ what diverse grouping, but seems to represent the central social and theoretical contexts of digital technology: groups, relationships, culture. The second subcluster reflects more societal issues, such as policy, societal effects, civic and public sphere behavior, inequali­ ties, organizations and technology, and very broad issues of the nature of the developing

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes societal changes, along with big data. Thus, the entire two-fold cluster might be labeled Societal and technological issues. The third cluster is mostly about Effects, notably in the health arena, as well as as­ pects of technologies that might shape or influence those effects. Note that specific nega­ tive or positive effects are subsumed within the more complex topic of contradictory and unintended effects. (p. 25)

Related Work A detailed analysis of the full content of these books would provide a comprehensive re­ view of topics associated with digital technology and society, to say nothing of what indi­ vidual articles and chapters discuss. There is, of course, a huge range of review articles, chapters, books, and handbooks on the many aspects of digital media and society. There are journals in specific disciplines that publish reviews, and there are handbooks in a wide variety of related research areas. Almost all of those, however, focus on one disci­ pline (e.g., management, information systems, sociology), or one dimension (organization­ al communication, privacy, identity), or one technology (e.g., Internet, social media, videogames). Further, edited books or handbooks in these areas bring together diverse, expert authors who contribute on the topic of their own specialty, often without an under­ lying integrative foundation. Finally, many books on the “digital age” are more popular, applied, or oriented toward marketing, technology, management, or consulting practice. For example, Salganik’s Bit by bit: Social research in the digital age (2017) is about the conduct and design of research in the digital environment, such as using big data, experiments, and collaborative studies. Baym’s Personal connections in the digital age (2015) emphasizes the communication discipline and relationships. Similarly, the book edited by Wright and Web, Computer-mediated communication in personal relation­ ships (2011) exclusively focuses on relational communication. Other books, such as Noble and Tynes’ (2016) The intersectional Internet: Race, sex, class, and culture online do take a more interdisciplinary and multi-dimensional approach, applied to a range of digital me­ dia, platforms, and infrastructures, in more global and social contexts, but is primarily fo­ cused on the issue of intersectionality instead of on more general life in the digital age. Perhaps the single best overview is that of Mansell et al. (2015) International encyclope­ dia of digital communication and society, which covers 150 topics, ranging in length from 2,000 to 10,000 words. (p. 26)

More relevant to this book, there are also handbooks on specific topics and media such as The Oxford handbook of Internet studies (Dutton, 2014); Routledge handbook of Internet politics (Chadwick & Howard, 2009); Oxford handbook of Internet psychology (Joinson & McKenna, 2009); Internet studies (Consalvo & Ess, 2012)–their book’s chapters do cover a number of similar topics, such as society, and culture, but again focus on the Internet; and Economics of the Internet (Bauer & Latzer, 2016). The two-volume Handbook of re­ search on computer-mediated communication (Kelsey & St.-Amant, 2008) also covers some similar areas, such as identity (though from a credibility perspective), community Page 33 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes and information exchange, and culture, but also different areas, such as instruction, de­ sign, discourse, and libraries, as well as chapters on specific technology contexts. Similar­ ly, more handbooks on the mobile phone are appearing: Handbook of mobile communica­ tion studies (Katz, 2008) and Research on human social interaction in the age of mobile devices (Xu, 2016); as well as for related new media, such as Handbook of digital games (Angelides & Angus, 2014), and Sage handbook of social media (Poell & Marwick, 2018). Some handbooks are focused on particular populations, such as Handbook of children and the media (Singer & Singer, 2011). Sundar’s (2015) Handbook of the psychology of com­ munication technology covers a wider array of digital contexts than many of the other books but does take a primarily individual and group perspective (reasonable, given the title), though also includes health issues. However, our book does not in any way overlap with the intriguing Handbook of porous media (Vafal, 2015). The only recent book that provides a similar multi-dimensional, interdisciplinary, and the­ matic review of recent research on life in the digital age is Graham and Dutton’s (2014, Oxford University Press) edited book Society & the Internet: How networks of informa­ tion and communication are changing our lives. That excellent book frames the work as a major foundation for the new field of Internet studies (along with Dutton’s 2014 Oxford Handbook of Internet studies). Somewhat similar to the UK Economic and Social Re­ search (ESRC) project theme chapters in our book (see the next section), the chapters in Graham and Dutton’s book evolved from research work and a lecture series at the Oxford Internet Institute. Their 23-chapter book covers some of the same main areas as (p. 27) our book (with main sections called: Internet studies of everyday life; Information and culture on the line; Networked politics and governments; Networked businesses, indus­ tries, and economics; and Technological and Regulatory histories and futures). That book complements this book, but is primarily focused on the Internet, and does not have the organizing framework of the ESRC project reviews.

Purpose and Origins of This Book Purpose and Domains The purpose of chapters in this handbook is to provide detailed reviews of central topics about digital technology and society within our seven domain sections. It includes inter­ disciplinary, comprehensive reviews on central aspects of the current digital age. After the following chapter on project methodology, the next sections move from more individ­ ual and relational domains (Section 2: Health, Age, and Home; Section 3: Communication and, Relationships) to more organizational, community, and citizenship domains (Section 4: Organizational Contexts; Section 5: Communities, Identities, and Class; Section 6: Citi­ zenship, Politics, and Participation), and then to more societal and governance domains (Section 7: Data, Representation, and Sharing; and Section 8: Governance and Account­ ability). It ends with Section 9: Synthesis. The chapters within each section provide a sol­ id foundation for understanding the current state of research and theory in each of these areas and for grounding future research, theory, and practice. They also bring to bear lit­ Page 34 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes erature from a wide variety of disciplines, necessary for understanding the interrelation­ ships between digital technology and society.

Origins How did these chapters come to life? In 2016, the UK Economic and Social Research Council (http://www.esrc.ac.uk/) noted that “[t]he 21st century has witnessed significant changes due to digital technological advancements, which impacts the way we communicate, receive, consume and process information, travel, shop and do our work. The presence of digital technol­ ogy mediates our perceptions, behaviours and practices across these areas and in­ fluences our ways of living, learning, sharing, engaging and seeing the world around us. This raises a number of fundamental questions about our ways of being in a digital age, the risks and opportunities associated with digital living, and our understanding of the individual, community and society [. …] It is apparent that there is a real need for meta-analytic work to synthesise and interpret the existing literature and data, to refine and consolidate existing understanding of the social, cultural, economic, political, psychological and other effects of digitalisation. This (p. 28) will enable the development of new insights, ideas and methods to be ap­ plied to a practical context. This approach will facilitate the exploitation of exist­ ing research, but also build new knowledge on synthetic work” (p. 2). The University of Liverpool, in collaboration with a core project team, and 17 other part­ ner Universities and organizations from the UK, EU, USA and Singapore, lead the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) scoping review on Ways of Being in a Digi­ tal Age (see https://waysofbeingdigital.com/ for details on the project, people, events, and reports). That scoping study developed a multi-domain holistic view of how digital tech­ nology mediates our lives, and of the way technological and social change co-evolve and shape each other. The project involved an interdisciplinary research team across the so­ cial sciences, arts and humanities, engineering, physical sciences and health. The final re­ port included reviews and analyses in six domains: Communication, community, and iden­ tity; Citizens, politics, and governance; Understanding the platform economy; Data and digital literacies for engaged and included citizens; Everyday digital health and well-be­ ing; and Digital inequalities.

Conclusions and Recommendations from the ESRC Project The final ESRC report recommended funding initiatives to emphasize these six core ar­ eas. The work should have a strongly social science focus, even where it is interdiscipli­ nary. The topics should avoid areas that are already well researched or have been sup­ ported by recent or current funding programs. Research efforts need to look more holisti­ cally at the social, economic, political, cultural, and community impacts and roles of digi­ tal technologies. The ESRC report proposed the following six areas, each with associated

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes research topics derived from the literature reviews and analyses, the Delphi surveys and discussions, and the stakeholder workshops and discussions.

Communication, community, and identity • The norms and values of digital communication and relationships • The “affordances” different platforms provide for digital communication and relation­ ships • The quality of relationships and communication supported by digital media and tech­ nologies • The management of relationships via digital media and technologies • Social and community aspects of everyday digital technology use • Digital community exclusion/inclusion • Digital community participation, action and social change • Power in online communities • Understanding global diaspora as digital communities • Understanding function of aspects of identity online (Gender/Race/Ethnicity/Sexuali­ ty)

(p. 29)

Citizens, politics, and governance

• Digital technologies, radicalization, mobilization and political action • Digital technologies and the disruption of current political institutions • Digital technologies and new forms of citizenship • Digital technologies, political communication, debate and media • Digital technologies and state control–especially in non-democratic regimes • Impact of social media on governance • Success factors in digital governance at local, national and international level • Privacy, citizenship, the state and surveillance in the digital age • Regulation and governance of automated systems

Understanding the platform economy • Role and impact of major corporate digital platforms (Impacts on firms of digital plat­ forms, Role of digital monopolies and large corporations) • Forms of digital labor (Impacts of digital labor on people’s life experience, Gig econo­ my, linked to platforms)

Data and digital literacies for engaged and included citizens • Citizen and community use of data Page 36 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes • Citizen interaction with data and algorithms • Data literacy in everyday life • Power and accountability for data and algorithms • Social construction of data and algorithms • Citizens/everyday life experiences and uses of data • Understanding open data/algorithm transparency/accountability • Digital identity and data • Data Exclusion/Inclusion/Divides

Everyday digital health and well-being • Understanding and addressing the governance of digital health technologies. • Need for detailed systematic evidence of the impact and lived experience of everyday health technologies (e.g., fitbits). • Questions of health and well-being in the digital workplace. • Digital technologies and health communication and health behavior change.

Digital inequalities • Digital community exclusion/inclusion • The two-way interaction between digital inequities and other areas of social inequity • Data exclusion/inclusion/divides • Digital cultural capital and cultural exclusion/inclusion • Digital governance, policy and inclusion • Digital health inequalities For this book, these have been reorganized into the following seven ESRC domain chapters: (p. 30)

• Chapter 3. ESRC Review: Health and well-being • Chapter 8. ESRC Review: Communication and relationships • Chapter 11. ESRC Review: Economy and organizations • Chapter 14. ESRC Review: Communities and identities • Chapter 16. ESRC Review: Citizenship and politics • Chapter 18. ESRC Review: Data and representation • Chapter 22. ESRC Review: Governance and security

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes

Beyond the ESRC Project As culmination of this project, a conference to present project findings and provide a con­ text for debate was held on October 10 and 11 2017 at the University of Liverpool (https://waysofbeingdigital.com/conference/). To complement and critique the work of the ESRC project reviews, a call was publicized (through association email lists and websites, and the conference website) to invite others to submit their extended abstracts for pre­ sentation at the conference. Each presentation was attended by at least one of the edi­ tors. After the conference, the editors went through the program and decided which of the other researchers to invite to prepare their abstracts, presentations, or papers as full reviews for the edited book. We were particularly interested in papers that built on re­ views to offer analysis of research gaps and challenges for social research in the digital age. Contributions come from established, early career, and PhD scholars who systemati­ cally reviewed a research issue within one of the seven foci of the ESRC project. Two further workshops developed a closer focus on issues of work and automation. The joint UK ESRC and Defence Science and Technology Laboratory workshop held on 7th and 8th of October 2016 at University of Liverpool in London considered the topic of The Automation of Future Roles. This meeting brought together 33 academics, policy makers, and industry stakeholders to explore the likely future impact of digital tools in the work­ place, in particular the possible implications of the continued “automation” of human tasks, roles, and jobs; knowledge, skills, and attributes; organizational structures, cul­ tures, and development; workforce training, recruitment, engagement, and motivation; and decision-making in organizations. A joint UK ESRC and US National Science Founda­ tion workshop was held on October 12 and 13 2017 at the University of Liverpool on the topic of Changing Work, Changing Lives in the New Technological World. This brought to­ gether 35 experts from the academic and professional community, as well as top execu­ tive and program directors from the U.K. Economic and Social Research Council and the U.S. National Science Foundation to discuss shared programmatic research. In both cases the two days consisted of intensely interactive group activities, generating extensive in­ formation about issues, research programs, and timelines for possible impacts. The writeup (p. 31) and analysis of these insights provided the basis for chapter 24, which synthe­ sizes the implications of the domains for research and practice. Thus, two primary contributions of the book’s review chapters are their unifying ap­ proach and review focus, as well as the diversity of the authors’ expertise and disciplines. The central ESRC domain reviews are the product of extensive, multi-method, cumulative work, and provide a macro context for the associated more focused reviews of specific ar­ eas within that section. The non-ESRC chapters hone in on more specific topics within each of the domains, bringing to bear multi-disciplinary reviews and analyses. Overall, the sections and chapters provide a multi-dimensional perspective on one of the most consequential aspects of contemporary times: relationships between digital technology and society.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes

References in Main Text Bell, D. (1973). The coming of post-industrial society: A venture in social forecasting. New York: Basic Books. Beniger, J. (1989). The control revolution: Technological and economic origins of the infor­ mation society. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. Brand, S. (1987). The Media Lab: Inventing the future at MIT. New York: Viking Penguin. Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Curtin, M. & Sanson, K. (Eds.) (2016). Precarious creativity: Global media, local labor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Daley, B. (2015). Where data is wealth: Profiting from data storage in a digital society. Stoke-On-Trent, UK: Play Technologies. Fuchs, C. (2014). Digital Labour and Karl Marx. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. Headrick, D. R. (2002). When information came of age: Technologies of knowledge in the age of reason and revolution, 1700–1850. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Machlup, F. (1962). The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States (Vol. 278). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Negroponte, N. (1995). Being digital. New York: Vintage. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating company. NY: Oxford Univer­ sity Press. Porat, M. U. (1971). The information economy. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Li­ brary. Yates, J. (1993). Control through communication: The rise of system in American manage­ ment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Zuboff, S. (1985). Automate/informate: The two faces of intelligent technology. Organiza­ tional Dynamics, 14(2), 5–18.

References of Books for Issues and Contexts Analysis [Numbers refer to their use in Table 6]

1. Alter, A. (2017). Irresistible: The rise of addictive technology and the business of keep­ ing us hooked. London: Penguin. 2. Anand, B. (2016). The content trap: A strategist’s guide to digital change. New York: Random House Group. Page 39 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes 3. Anduiza, E., Perea, E. A., Jensen, M. J., & Jorba, L. (Eds.). (2012). Digital media and political engagement worldwide: A comparative study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. (p. 32)

4. Athique, A. (2013). Digital media and society: An introduction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 5. Barney, D., Coleman, G., Ross, C., Sterne, J., & Tembeck, T. (Eds.) (2016). The participa­ tory condition in the digital age. University of Minnesota Press. 6. Bauerlein, M. (2011). The digital divide: Arguments for and against Facebook, Google, texting, and the age of social networking. London: Penguin. 7. Bennett, L., Chin, B., & Jones, B. (Eds.). (2015). Crowdfunding the future: Media indus­ tries, ethics, and digital society (No. 98). Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. 8. Berger, T. (2017). @ Worship: Liturgical practices in digital worlds. New York: Rout­ ledge. 9. Berry, D. M. (2015). Critical theory and the digital. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. 10. Beyes, T., Leeker, M., & Schipper, I. (Eds.). (2017). Performing the digital: Perfor­ mance studies and performances in digital cultures. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript-Ver­ lag. 11. Botto, R. & Resende, L.M. (2017). Digital transformations: Technological innovations in society in the connected future. Independently published via Amazon Digital Services. 12. Boyd, D. (2014). It’s complicated: The social lives of networked teens. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 13. Brynjolfsson, E., & McAfee, A. (2014). The second machine age: Work, progress, and prosperity in a time of brilliant technologies. New York: WW Norton & Company. 14. Buckland, M. (2017). Information and society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 15. Bunz, M., & Meikle, G. (2017). The Internet of things. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 16. Carr, N. (2011). The shallows: What the Internet is doing to our brains. New York: WW Norton & Company. 17. Castells, M. (2015). Networks of outrage and hope: Social movements in the Internet age. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 18. Chayko, M. (2017). Superconnected: The internet, digital media, and techno-social life. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes 19. Cheney-Lippold, J. (2017). We are data: Algorithms and the making of our digital selves. New York: NYU Press. 20. Chun, W. H. K. (2017). Updating to remain the same: Habitual new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 21. Couldry, N. (2012). Media, society, world: Social theory and digital media practice. Cambridge, UK: Polity. 22. Cover, R. (2015). Digital identities: Creating and communicating the online self. Cam­ bridge, MA: Academic Press. 23. Cubitt, S. (2016). Finite media: Environmental implications of digital technologies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 24. Daley, B. (2015). Where data is wealth: Profiting from data storage in a digital society. Play Technologies. 25. Dey, A. (2018). Nirbhaya, New media and digital gender activism. Bingley, UK: Bing­ ley, UK: Emerald Group Pub Ltd. 26. Dourish, P., & Bell, G. (2011). Divining a digital future: Mess and mythology in ubiqui­ tous computing. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 27. Ellcessor, E. (2016). Restricted access: Media, disability, and the politics of participa­ tion. New York: NYU Press. 28. Elliott, D., & Spence, E. H. (2017). Ethics for a digital era. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. (p. 33)

29. Eubanks, V. (2018). Automating inequality: How high-tech tools profile, police,

and punish the poor. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 30. Ford, M. (2015). Rise of the robots: Technology and the threat of a jobless future. New York: Basic Books. 31. Fotopoulou, A. (2017). Feminist activism and digital networks: Between empowerment and vulnerability. New York: Springer. 32. Gershenfeld, N., Gershenfeld, A., & Cutcher-Gershenfeld, J. (2017). Designing reality: How to survive and thrive in the third digital revolution. New York: Basic Books. 33. Gillespie, T., Boczkowski, P. J., & Foot, K. A. (Eds.). (2014). Media technologies: Essays on communication, materiality, and society. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 34. Goldsmith, K. (2016). Wasting time on the Internet. New York: Harper Perennial. 35. González-Bailón, S. (2017). Decoding the social world: Data science and the unintend­ ed consequences of communication. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Page 41 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes 36. Goodman, M. (2015). Future crimes: Inside the digital underground and the battle for our connected world. New York: Random House. 37. Gordon, E., & Mihailidis, P. (Eds.). (2016). Civic media: Technology, design, practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 38. Graham, M. & Dutton, W. H. (Eds.) (2014). Society & the Internet: How networks of information and communication are changing our lives. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 39. Graham, R. (2014). The digital practices of African Americans: An approach to study­ ing cultural change in the information society. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. 40. Gronlund, M. (2016). Contemporary art and digital culture. New York: Routledge. 41. Hanna, N. K. (Ed.). (2016). Mastering digital transformation: Towards a smarter soci­ ety, economy, city and nation. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 42. Hu, T. H. (2015). A prehistory of the cloud. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 43. Humphreys, L. (2018). The qualified self: Social media and the accounting of everyday life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 44. Ito, M., Baumer, S., Bittanti, M., boyd, d., Cody, R., Stephenson, B. H., Horst, H. A., … & Tripp, L, (2009). Hanging out, messing around, and geeking out: Kids living and learn­ ing with new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 45. James, C. (2014). Disconnected: Youth, new media, and the ethics gap. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 46. Johnson, C. A. (2015). The information diet: A case for conscious consumption. Se­ bastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, Inc. 47. Kember, S., & Zylinska, J. (2012). Life after new media: Mediation as a vital process. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 48. Krieger, D. J., & Belliger, A. (2014). Interpreting networks: Hermeneutics, actor-net­ work theory & new media (Vol. 4). Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript-Verlag. 49. Kvedar, J. C., Colman, C., & Cella, G. (2017). The new mobile age: How technology will extend the healthspan and optimize the lifespan. Amazon Digital Services. 50. Levy, D. M. (2016). Mindful tech: How to bring balance to our digital lives. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. 51. Lindgren, S. (2017). Digital media and society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 52. Lingel, J. (2017). Digital countercultures and the struggle for community. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Page 42 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes 53. Livingstone, S. (2009). Children and the Internet. Cambridge, UK: Polity. 54. Livingstone, S., & Sefton-Green, J. (2016). The class: Living and learning in the digital age. New York: NYU Press. (p. 34)

55. Lupton, D. (2016). The quantified self. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 56. Lynch, M. P. (2016). The internet of us: Knowing more and understanding less in the age of big data. New York: WW Norton & Company. 57. Mansell, R., Ang, P. H, Steinfield, C., van der Graaf, S., Ballon, P., Kerr, A., … Grimshaw, D. J. (Eds.). (2015). The International encyclopedia of digital communication and society (3 volume set). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. 58. Martin, W. J. (2017). The global information society. New York: Routledge. 59. Mosco, V. (2017). Becoming digital: Toward a post-Internet society. Bingley, UK: Emer­ ald Publishing Limited. 60. Mueller, M. L. (2010). Networks and states: The global politics of Internet governance. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 61. Nafus, D. (Ed.). (2016). Quantified: Biosensing technologies in everyday life. Cam­ bridge, MA: MIT Press. 62. Napoli, P. M. (2011). Audience evolution: New technologies and the transformation of media audiences. New York: Columbia University Press. 63. Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. New York: NYU Press. 64. Palfrey, J., & Gasser, U. (2016). Born digital: How children grow up in a digital age. New York: Basic Books. 65. Penney, J. (2017). The citizen marketer: Promoting political opinion in the social media age. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 66. Phillips, W., & Milner, R. M. (2018). The ambivalent Internet: Mischief, oddity, and an­ tagonism online. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 67. Pschera, A. & Lauffer, E. (translator) (2016). Animal Internet: Nature and the digital revolution. New York: New Vessel Press. 68. Rains, S. A. (2018). Coping with illness digitally. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 69. Reed, T. V. (2014). Digitized lives: Culture, power, and social change in the Internet era. New York: Routledge. 70. Rheingold, H. (2012). Net smart: How to thrive online. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Page 43 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes 71. Rossignoli, C., Virili, F., & Za, S. (Eds.). (2017). Digital technology and organizational change: Reshaping technology, people, and organizations towards a global society. New York: Springer. 72. Rowan-Kenyon, H. T., Alemán, A. M. M., & Savitz-Romer, M. (2018). Technology and engagement: Making technology work for first generation college students. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 73. Rudder, C. (2014). Dataclysm: Love, sex, race, and identity—What our online lives tell us about our offline selves. Crown. 74. Scheff, S., & Schorr, M. (2017). Shame nation: The global epidemic of online hate. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, Inc. 75. Schneier, B. (2015). Data and Goliath: The hidden battles to collect your data and con­ trol your world. New York: WW Norton & Company. 76. Scholz, T. (Ed.). (2012). Digital labor: The Internet as playground and factory. New York: Routledge. 77. Schwab, K. (2017). The fourth industrial revolution. New York: Crown Business. 78. Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in digital culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT press. (p. 35)

79. Sonnier, P. (2017). The fourth wave: Digital health. https://

storyofdigitalhealth.com/fourth-wave-book 80. Steiner-Adair, C. & Barker, T. H. (2013). The big disconnect: Protecting childhood and family relationships in the digital age. New York: Harper Business. 81. Tapscott, D. & Tapscott, A. (2018). Blockchain revolution: How the technology behind Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies is changing the world. New York: Portfolio-Penguin. 82. Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. New York: Basic Books. 83. Turow, J. (2012). The daily you: How the new advertising industry is defining your identity and your worth. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 84. Turow, J. (2017). The aisles have eyes: How retailers track your shopping, strip your privacy, and define your power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 85. Van Dijck, J. (2013). The culture of connectivity: A critical history of social media. Ox­ ford, UK: Oxford University Press. 86. Webster, J. G. (2014). The marketplace of attention: How audiences take shape in a digital age. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes 87. White, A. (2014). Digital media and society: Transforming economics, politics and so­ cial practices. New York: Springer. 88. Wiesinger, S., & Beliveau, R. (2016). Digital literacy: A primer on media, identity, and the evolution of technology. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. 89. Wu, T. (2017). The attention merchants: The epic scramble to get inside our heads. New York: Vintage

Ronald E. Rice

Ronald E. Rice (PhD, Stanford University, 1982) is the Arthur N. Rupe Chair in the Social Effects of Mass Communication in the Department of Communication at Uni­ versity of California, Santa Barbara. Dr. Rice has been awarded an Honorary Doctor­ ate from University of Montreal (2010), an International Communication Association (ICA) Fellow, selected President of the ICA (2006–2007), awarded a Fulbright Award to Finland (2006), and appointed as the Wee Kim Wee Professor at the School of Communication and Information and the Visiting University Professor, both at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore (Augusts 2007–2009 and June 2010). His co-authored or co-edited books include Organizations and unusual routines: A systems analysis of dysfunctional feedback processes (2010); Media ownership: Re­ search and regulation (2008); The Internet and health care: Theory, research and practice (2006); Social consequences of internet use: Access, involvement and inter­ action (2002); The Internet and health communication (2001); Accessing and brows­ ing information and communication (2001); Public communication campaigns (1981, 1989, 2001, 2012); Research methods and the new media (1988); Managing organi­ zational innovation (1987); And The new media: Communication, research and tech­ nology (1984). He has published over 150 refereed journal articles and 70 book chap­ ters. Dr. Rice has conducted research and published widely in communication sci­ ence, public communication campaigns, computer-mediated communication systems, methodology, organizational and management theory, information systems, informa­ tion science and bibliometrics, social uses and effects of the Internet, and social net­ works. http://www.comm.ucsb.edu/people/ronald-e-rice Simeon J. Yates

Simeon J. Yates (PhD, Open University UK, 1993) is Professor of Digital Culture and Associate Pro-Vice-Chancellor Research Environment and Postgraduate Research at University of Liverpool. His research on the social, political, and cultural impacts of digital media includes a long-standing focus on digital media and interpersonal inter­ action. More recently, he has worked on projects that address issues of digital inclu­ sion and exclusion. He was seconded to the UK Government’s Department of Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS) in 2017 to act as research lead for the Digital Cul­ ture team. He remains the joint-chair of the DCMS Research Working Group on Digi­ tal Skills and Inclusion. His prior work covered topics such as the use of digital tech­ nologies in the workplace, digital media use during crises, and ICT use by the securi­ Page 45 of 46

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Introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society: Terms, Domains, and Themes ty services. The majority of his research has been funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), EU, and industry. Simeon’s work has often been interdisciplinary and has predominantly involved creative and digital industry partners. He led on a major Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded interdisciplinary program (Engi­ neering for Life) while at Sheffield Hallam. Simeon has been researching the impacts of the internet and digital media on language and culture since 1990. His PhD thesis (1993) is a large-scale linguistic comparison of speech, writing, and online interac­ tion. Subsequent published work has covered analyses of gender differences in com­ puter-mediated communication (CMC), gender and computer gaming, email and let­ ter writing, and science in the mass media. Simeon has written text books on social research methods—in particular, linguistic and discourse analytic methods. https:// www.liverpool.ac.uk/communication-and-media/staff/simeon-yates/ Jordana Blejmar

Jordana Blejmar (MPhil, PhD as a Gates Scholar, University of Cambridge) is Lectur­ er in Visual Media and Cultural Studies in the School of the Arts, University of Liver­ pool, after previously working on an Arts and Humanities Research Center–funded project on Latin American Digital Art. Before Liverpool, she was Lecturer in Hispanic Studies at the Institute of Modern Languages Research, University of London. Her research is situated at the meeting point of Latin American visual cultures, memory studies, and digital humanities. She is the author of Playful Memories: The Autofic­ tional Turn in Post-Dictatorship Argentina (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). She has coedited several books and has also published articles and book chapters on contempo­ rary Latin American, especially Argentine, literature, art, photography, theater, digi­ tal artworks, and film.

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ESRC Review: Methodology

ESRC Review: Methodology   Simeon J. Yates, Iona C. Hine, Michael Pidd, Jerome Fuselier, and Paul Watry The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.2

Abstract and Keywords This chapter summarizes and describes the methodology used to generate and analyze the literature for the ESRC Review Chapters (3, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22). A core goal of the project was to undertake a systematic literature review and synthesis to identify gaps in current research. This process included Delphi reviews, digital and manual coding of the literature to identify topics and trends, and stakeholder engagement. The first section describes the project team and its participants, what they contributed, and how other stakeholders were engaged. The second section identifies the initial scoping areas and how these were used to identify seven primary domains, to which separate project teams were assigned. These scoping areas included the use of theory and methods. The next section introduces the Delphi process, the eight administrations and six related work­ shops, based on the initial scoping areas. Key questions, topics, challenges, and literature identified through the Delphi and workshop activities were then used as comparisons to, and guidelines for, the literature reviews. The project developed narrative reviews from the database of over 6,000 publications, using a variety of digital humanities tools and manual content analysis (to code for theory, method, and population sample). The digital tools included concept mapping and topic analysis, and were used to identify the most frequent topics or concepts and related terms or themes. Manual content analysis was used to summarize main discipline, theories used in empirical work, theory development, empirical methods, population studies, and data analysis methods. Keywords: digital and manual coding, digital humanities tools, Delphi reviews, ESRC Review, manual content analysis, narrative reviews

Introduction AS noted in chapter 1 of this book, many of the chapters are developed from the findings of the “Ways of Being in a Digital Age” project commissioned by the UK Economic and So­ cial Research Council (ESRC). This scoping review project was commissioned to provide a more holistic view of research on how digital technology mediates our lives, and of the ways technological and social change co-evolve and impact each other. A core goal of the Page 1 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology project was to undertake a systematic literature review and synthesis of expert opinions so as to identify gaps in current research. This chapter sets out how the data and results presented in the ESRC overview chapters of this book were generated (chapters 3, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22). The methods used were in part defined by the nature of the chal­ lenge: as the project was commissioned to complete the review in just under 12 months, a considerable part of the project had to be automated in some manner. This provided the opportunity to examine a range of “digital” methods by which a large body of literature, data, and evidence could be summarized.

Participants Project Team The core project team consisted of staff who, at the time, were based at the University of Liverpool, University of Sheffield, and University of Newcastle. A broader group of UK coinvestigators and non-UK advisors from 16 universities across the UK, EU, USA, and Sin­ gapore also supported the project. This provided expertise across a range of social (p. 37) (p. 38) science, arts, engineering, and science backgrounds (see Table 2.1). Overall these colleagues predominantly provided input to the Delphi elements of the project, work­ shops, and conferences. The key contribution from all these colleagues was the provision of initial inclusion criteria, key words, and key citations for the systematic reviews. The main technical partner for this project was the Digital Humanities Institute (DHI) at the University of Sheffield. In this project the DHI provided the technical and analytical skills to undertake the concept-modelling work needed to explore the full range of literature covered by the review chapters. The work of the DHI was complimented by University of Liverpool researchers using related methods.

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ESRC Review: Methodology Table 2.1 Steering Group Group mem­ ber

Role

Group

Institution

Discipline

Research

Simeon Yates

PI, Core

SG

University of Liverpool

Social science

Digital culture

Michael Pidd

Co-I, Core

DH

University of Sheffield

History

Digital humani­ ties

Adam Joinson

Co-I

SG

University of Bath

Psychology

Computer-medi­ ated communi­ cation

Ann Light

Co-I

SG

University of Sussex

HCI and design

Human comput­ er interaction and design

Simon Maskell

Co-I

SG

University of Liverpool

Computer sci­ ence

Data analytics

Claire Taylor

Co-I

SG

University of Liverpool

Modern lan­ guages

Digital culture and community

Leanne Townsend

Co-I

SG

University of Aberdeen

Sociology

Communities and digital

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ESRC Review: Methodology Vishanth Weer­ akkody

Co-I

SG

Brunel Universi­ ty

Information studies

e-Government

Bridgette Wes­ sels

Co-I, Core

SG

University of Newcastle

Sociology

Internet studies

Monica Whitty

Co-I

SG

University of Leicester

Psychology

Identity and se­ curity online

Naomi Baron

SG

American Uni­ versity, Wash­ ington, D.C.

Linguistics

Computer-medi­ ated communi­ cation

Catherine Brookes

SG

University of Arizona

Information studies

Identity online

William Dutton

SG

Michigan State University

Communication studies

Internet studies

Alex Frame

SG

University of Bourgogne, Di­ jon

Linguistics

Digital media and politics

Ellen Helsper

SG

London School of Economics

Communication studies

Digital inclusion

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ESRC Review: Methodology Rich Ling

SG

Nanyang Tech­ nological Uni­ versity, Singa­ pore

Sociology

Media technolo­ gy

Alison Preston

SG

Ofcom

Media policy

Head of media Literacy re­ search

Ronald E. Rice

SG

University of California, San­ ta Barbara

Communication

New media, dif­ fusion

Laura Robinson

SG

Santa Clara University/Uni­ versity of Cali­ fornia Berkley

Sociology

Digital exclu­ sion

Alison Vincent

SG

Cisco

CDI sector

Chief technolo­ gy officer for Cisco

Paul Watry

DH

University of Liverpool

School of Histo­ ries, Lan­ guages, and Cultures

Digital humani­ ties

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ESRC Review: Methodology Note: SG = steering group; DH = digital humanities group

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ESRC Review: Methodology

Stakeholder Engagement In order for both academics and potential stakeholders to have an opportunity to inform the review within the short time frame, the team made use of key networks of which they were already members. As will be detailed in the section on the Delphi methods, these ex­ isting networks were key to the initial data collection. To connect with non-academics, the project worked with the Digital Leaders network as a route to engage private sector, pub­ lic sector, and third sector partners (http://digileaders.com). Established by Martha Lane Fox, the Digital Leaders network provides access to around 40,000 corporate, Small and Medium Sized Enterprise (SME), national government, local government, academic, and charity staff and organizations. The project lead (Yates) ran the Digital Leaders Research theme. Yates and Helsper are also members of the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport’s (DCMS) Digital Skills and Inclusion Research Working Group, which under­ takes reviews of UK digital engagement strategy and policy research. All of the UK Steer­ ing Group members have been members of relevant ESRC, Arts and Humanities Research Council, or Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council networks, funded pro­ grams, or have had senior roles in UK Research and Innovation policy and practice in re­ gard to digital research. Other networks that the overall team are part of include the Communities and Cultures Network; New Social Media, New Social Science Network; Eu­ ropean Sociological Association (Communities and Digital Cultures groups); International Communication Association (Communication and (p. 39) Technology Section); US Partner­ ship for Progress on the Digital Divide; Digital Latin American Cultures Network; Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats; the Cabinet Office Behavioural Science Expert Group; ESRC Emoticon Network; EU COST Action on Social Media and Social Networks; ECREA Material Digital Cultures group; British Sociological Association Digi­ tal Sociology group; the EU e-forum; and the Meccsa Policy Group.

Initial Outline for the Scoping Areas Domains and Goals The ESRC commission identified a number of potential questions for future research work. The scoping review took these as a starting point that could be added to, devel­ oped, and validated. The team separated these into seven major foci for the review (see Table 2.2). We have called these seven foci “domains.” The goal of the review was to as­ sess the following for each domain: • What existing literature addressed these domains and what central topics emerged from them (p. 40)

• How the reported research addressed these domains • What experts viewed as the gaps in understanding in regard to these domains • Some suggestions of future research directions and challenges for each of these do­ mains Page 7 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology Table 2.2 Initial Scoping Questions 1. Citizenship and politics How does digital technology impact our autonomy, agency, and priva­ cy—illustrated by the paradox of emancipation and control? Is our understanding of citizenship evolving in the digital age—for example does technology help or hinder us in participating at individ­ ual and community levels? If so how? 2. Communities and identities How do we define and authenticate ourselves in a digital age? What new forms of communities and work emerge as a result of digi­ tal technologies—for example, new forms of coordination including large-scale and remote collaboration? 3. Communication and relationships How are our relationships being shaped and sustained in and be­ tween various domains, including family and work? 4. Health and well-being Does technology makes us healthier, better educated, and more pro­ ductive? 5. Economy and sustainability How do we construct the digital to be open to all, sustainable, and secure? What impacts might the automation of the future workforce bring? 6. Data and representation How do we live with and trust the algorithms and data analysis used to shape key features of our lives? 7. Governance and security What are the challenges of ethics, trust, and consent in the digital age? How do we define responsibility and accountability in the digital age? The reviews also sought to describe and assess the use of theory and of methods in each of the domains.

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ESRC Review: Methodology

Use of Theory This element of the analysis considered how theories are used both deductively to set up empirical work and/or to provide explanation and conclusions from inductive work. Some key questions around theory included: How is the digital socially and technically concep­ tualized? Which theories are predominant in which domains? What new theory has been developed, and/or is “old theory” adequate to the task of explaining the social impacts and use of the digital? To what extent is digital research theoretically or empirically dri­ ven? Which concepts and key themes cluster and link regardless of theoretical or empiri­ cal approach? Can a new “theoretical framework” for understanding the digital be gener­ ated, and is this needed? To what extent have interdisciplinary approaches modified or developed theory?

Use of Methods This element emphasized the range of methods, types of data, and research contexts in the examined literature. Some key questions that were addressed include: Which meth­ ods predominate in which domains of work? Does the availability of large volumes of digi­ tal data change how the digital is studied and/or the approaches taken to the social in a digital world? Are certain methods intrinsically linked to certain domains or theories? How are methods tied to the social contexts around digital research? Have interdiscipli­ nary approaches modified or prioritized certain methods in the study of the digital?

Approaches for the Review The project explored these questions for each domain through both established and new digital approaches to systematic reviewing and expert opinion elicitation: (p. 41)

• Delphi reviews of expert opinion for each domain

• Stakeholder engagement • Digital examination of and systematic review of a citation-led sampling of the litera­ ture

Delphi Process As a starting point the project undertook seven sets of Delphi process interviews (Lin­ stone & Turoff, 1975). An eighth set, run with non-academic stakeholders, was undertak­ en via a series of workshops and “salon events.” Round one of the Delphi process was un­ dertaken with the project Steering Group. The results from this were used to develop a snowball sample of additional domain experts. Round two was undertaken with this iden­ tified sample. Round three consisted of a confirmatory survey of international scholars and a consultation workshop with the UK Steering Group and a set of invited UK acade­ mics. Delphi methods have a long history going back to the 1950’s and were initially de­ signed as a method for forecasting or predicting outcomes in complex situations. More re­ Page 9 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology cently, the methods have been employed as a set of tools for systematic knowledge elicita­ tion in complex domains.

Figure 2.1 Delphi process.

The Delphi method in most cases is a structured iterative communication technique or method by which a panel of experts provide evidence and then review this evidence, look­ ing to move to a broad consensus position (Figure 2.1). Delphi methods are based on the principle that knowledge, decisions, or forecasts from a selected group of individuals (experts) who iteratively review information are more accurate than those from un­ structured groups. In a standard Delphi process the selected experts answer question­ (p. 42)

naires or semi-structured surveys in two or more rounds. The results of each round are summarized by the team managing the process and provided back as an anonymized sum­ mary to the expert panel. The panel is then provided the opportunity to revise their an­ swers in light of these summaries, with the goal of reaching either an overall consensus, or statistically acceptable “mean” or average, where numeric predictions are being sought. We modified our Delphi process to incorporate the outcomes of the literature review work. Rounds one and two helped to provide the basis of both the literature work and po­ tential research gaps. Round one was conducted with the project Steering Group (see Ta­ ble 2.1). This included the opportunity for the team to identify key scholars in the field for round two of the Delphi process as well as starting points for the literature review. Delphi reviews are often undertaken anonymously—in that the experts do not know who the oth­ er contributors are—and are also conducted remotely. In our case Round one was con­ ducted with the steering group, so this was not anonymous. Round two was undertaken anonymously among the experts identified in Round one. Invitations to contribute were sent out by email, and the data were collected via an online survey tool. Experts were in­ vited to contribute answers around one of the seven domains relevant to their back­ grounds as identified by the core team. The team only changed this allocation when ex­ perts notably self-identified with a different domain to that which they had been allocat­ ed. Round three consisted of a consultation workshop based on the Delphi and literature Page 10 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology review findings and a confirmatory survey. The survey was sent to all prior participants, asking asked them to rank the identified topics and challenges in terms of importance for future research. The Delphi process therefore identified four sets of data for each do­ main: 1) Initial scoping questions for future programs of research 2) Key authors and key literature for each domain 3) Key topics to be addressed within these programs of work 4) Key challenges when undertaking these programs of research Initial scoping questions for future programs of research. Though Table 2.2 details the initial scoping questions set by the ESRC, we utilized rounds one and two of the Del­ phi process to validate and expand these as required. In all cases, this led to the initial scoping questions being modified. The specific changes to each of these domains are de­ tailed in the ESRC review chapters (Chapters 3, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22). In some cases, this involved expansion of the questions (e.g., in the Communication and Relationships domain), or focusing on specific interpretations of terms (e.g., in the Health and Well-be­ ing domain). Delphi respondents were asked to use their interpretation of the domain scoping questions as the basis for their answers to the Delphi survey. Key authors and key literature for each domain. The experts were asked for key au­ thors, key items of literature, and key search terms (derived from their scoping ques­ tions) for the (p. 43) collection of the domain literature. This information was then used to systematically collect literature from key databases (Web of Science-ISI Web of Knowl­ edge; Social Sciences Citation Index; Google Scholar). Key topics to be addressed within these programs of work. The survey first explored which “topics” the experts believed needed further research within the domain. These might be areas where there is a lack of research, where further research was needed, or where specific questions needed to be unpacked further. The responses provided the ba­ sis for assessing future research areas in the domain. They could also be matched against and compared with the concepts and topics identified in the literature review. Key challenges when undertaking these programs of research. The survey next asked experts to highlight the methodological, practical, and other challenges that might be faced when attempting to address the topic areas they had identified. These might be existing challenges for relevant research but also new ones due to the digital context of the research. The methodological challenges could be compared to and contrasted with the methods and approaches identified in the literature. One of the key features of the Delphi process results was the commonality of responses to the “challenges” questions across all seven domains. We have therefore reported these cross-cutting challenges as a separate chapter (Chapter 25) and sought to identify specific challenges when reporting on each domain.

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ESRC Review: Methodology

Stakeholder Engagement: Workshops The project organized a range of facilitated workshops to engage academic and non-acad­ emic stakeholder partners. The main one of these was a final consultation workshop to re­ view the outcomes of the Delphi process. This was attended by the majority of the UK members of the Steering Group as well as UK colleagues identified in the Delphi process, via the literature review and the other workshops. Two additional workshops explored the impacts of Automation on work and society and were supported by the ESRC, the UK De­ fence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL), and the US National Science Founda­ tion (NSF). A total of six workshop programs contributed to the project: 1) Salon events in collaboration with Digital Leaders (www.digileaders.com). Salon events involved short presentations to develop discussion followed by open “Chatham house rules” (https://www.chathamhouse.org/chatham-house-rule) discus­ sions among academic, industry, and policy partners. Salon events were led by acad­ emics based on the domains and the team attended industry led Salon events. These allowed for non-academic input to the Delphi process. 2) A joint ESRC and DSTL funded facilitated workshop to explore research topics around the social impacts of automation and augmentation in the workplace. (p. 44) 3) A further joint ESRC and NSF workshop on “Work at the Human Technolo­ gy Interface.” 4) A joint MECSSA and project supported workshop on “digital policy,” which exam­ ined the policy and policy-making issues arising from digital media. 5) A project and UK Department of Digital, Culture, Media and Sport workshop to explore the impacts of digital on the arts and cultural sector. 6) An academic symposium discussing the results from the project and seeking fur­ ther invited review papers, some of which are in this volume, conducted by the project just prior to the ESRC and NSF workshop.

Systematic Literature Reviews Approach. As noted above the Delphi process provided the literature survey with three initial starting points for the literature review: • Key authors • Key words—from the scoping questions • Key literature—as the starting point for citation searchers The collection of literature was undertaken twice, following rounds one and two of the Delphi process. This produced two overlapping sets of key literature that were combined for the final analytical work and content analysis. Given the volume of published work within the seven domains, undertaking a meta-analysis to synthesise the quantitative re­ sults of available empirical studies (Blundell, 2013) was not possible. Nor, as the ESRC Review chapters (Chapters 3, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22) point out, were there enough em­ Page 12 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology pirical studies of similar design and focus (either deductive or inductive) to undertake such a process. Rather, to address the challenges of dealing with such a large body of da­ ta, a partly automated systematic narrative review (Popay et al., 2006) was undertaken with the goal of synthesizing primary studies and descriptively exploring the heterogene­ ity of work. This hopefully provides the basis for targeted systematic literature reviews for hypothesis generation (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008) likely to be undertaken by future studies. A key element defining the approach was the need to address the large volume of work in each domain within the limited timescale of a few months. The project had an overall database of just under 6,000 potential target publications from key authors and flowing from cita­ tions of key papers, identified by the two rounds of the Delphi work. The databases searched to collect this material were the ISI Web of Science (http:// webofknowledge.com/), the International Bibliography of the Social Sciences and Google Scholar. Google Scholar produced results outside the date range and some non-academic “grey literature.” Other bibliographic studies, especially social studies of science, under­ taking citation analyses have been able to gain formally agreed commercial access to publisher APIs (application programming interfaces)—so as to be able to “scrape” searched-for (p. 45) items—this was not feasible within the budget and timescale of the project. As a result, the majority of papers were downloaded manually or by utilizing tools with limits on downloads. Of the initial 6,000 target cases, once non-academic “grey liter­ ature,” papers published outside the main sampling frame date range (2000–2016), and items not available in digital format were removed, this left 3,971 publications included in the analysis. We estimated that to systematically read, review, and code these by hand for all of the various aspects discussed in the review chapters of the analyses below (that is, coding for all overlapping concepts and topics, theory, methods and analytical approach) would have taken as a minimum 12,000 person hours or around seven person years of work. This challenge is not unique to contemporary research in all academic fields, and reflects a growing problem for academic work, as Petticrew and Roberts note: The problem is not just one of inconsistency, but one of information overload. The past 20 years have seen an explosion in the amount of research information avail­ able to decision makers and social researchers alike. With new journals launched yearly, and thousands of research papers published, it is impossible for even the most energetic policymaker or researcher to keep up-to-date with the most recent research evidence, unless they are interested in a very narrow field indeed. (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008, p. 7) We would also argue that this issue is compounded for inherently interdisciplinary work, such as the study of the social impacts of digital media and technologies. Relevant papers on a question such as the role of digital media in interpersonal interaction may be found in psychology, sociology, linguistics, computer science, information studies, philosophy, and health care publications. To solve this dilemma, we looked to digital technology solu­ tions. The survey was therefore in part an “experimental” consideration of the use of digi­ Page 13 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology tal tools developed in digital humanities, social sciences, and linguistics to analyze large bodies of text. These tools supported the core team in undertaking the review through lin­ guistic, content, and reflective methods. Similar, both automated and non-automated, methods have been applied to the contents of this volume in chapter 25. More specifically, undertaking a systematic review in the social sciences involves a num­ ber of challenges that are less of a concern in other science contexts. First, a large pro­ portion of the work will be case study based. Second, a considerable amount of work will be in long form (books and edited collections) and will contain mostly narrative and theo­ retical content. Third, other work, mainly in journals, will be predominantly empirical. We therefore needed: • An overall content analysis across theory, method, research topic, and context • A predominantly narrative systematic review across the material to address descrip­ tive, case study, theoretical, qualitative, and quantitative publications Digital tools. As a first step, the literature was analyzed using linguistic, text mining and computational tools to identify predominant topics and concepts within each domain, (p. 46) involving three approaches: concept-modelling and two kinds of topic analysis. Then a traditional manual content analysis was applied to assess theory and methods. Concept-modelling—Linguistic DNA. First, literature identified after round one of the Delphi process was subjected to a lengthy and detailed concept analysis. Concept-model­ ling procedures, developed at the Digital Humanities Institute at the University of Sh­ effield, in association with the University of Sheffield’s School of English, analyzed pat­ terns within the literature to identify recurrent associations and themes. The procedures output groups of words (or more specifically, lemmas) representing dominant associations within each given dataset. For the current project, groups were limited to pairs accompa­ nied by a non-ranked list of further associates, i.e. words repeatedly located alongside those pairs (Fitzmaurice et al., 2017a; 2017b; also http://linguisticdna.org linguisticdna.org). This process is underpinned by the notion of a discursive concept, as theorized by Fitzmaurice et al. (2017a, 2017b). Though sometimes referenced by a single word, the discursive concept cannot be reduced to that word but is a complex meaning with wider inference. This inference can be detected by the other language that sur­ rounds the word. For example, when an author uses the word “society” (or “societies”) we can determine the inferred conceptual characteristics by identifying other words found repeatedly in proximity (e.g. within the same paragraph), and modelling such patterns of proximate words in the given text and in other texts. Importantly, concept-modelling en­ ables us to detect how ideas, theories, and methods emerge and evolve within discourse, by detecting changes in proximate words across texts and across time. In the initial sample of documents supplied to the DHI team, “business” was discovered to be strongly linked to “competence” (and vice versa), “consumer” with “self-service,” and “knowledge” with “seeker.” Table 2.3 shows these concept-pairs with the first 20 associat­ ed words arranged alphabetically (ranking of the associated words represents a further Page 14 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology analytical step). This type of concept-modelling is distinct from topic modelling, in that it focuses on sections of discourse that are shorter than a text, with a goal of extracting conceptual structure and tracing patterns and change in language and thought.

Page 15 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology Table 2.3 Example Concept-Mapping by Digital Humanities Institute at the University of Sheffield business, compe­ tence

consumer, self-ser­ vice

knowledge, seeker

administration

academy

ability

area

addition

action

awareness

adoption

ambiguity

breadth

amount

anticipation

capability

anxiety

average

category

attitude

awareness

client

attribute

beginning

collaboration

banking

bit

competency

behavior

capacity

component

characteristic

caution

concept

checkout

choice

construct

comparison

colleague

contribution

control

complexity

core

customer

condition

creation

customization

conjunction

definition

delay

correlation

deployment

delivery

cross

depth

determinant

decision

development

difference

delay

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ESRC Review: Methodology dimension …

ease …

description …

Note: Only the first 20 associated alphabetic terms are listed under the three example concepts. In practice, the process begins by identifying parts of speech and lemmas (in this case we used Helmut Schmidt’s TreeTagger). The machine-readable texts then pass through a fur­ ther algorithm pipeline that uses frequency and location to identify prominent lemma pairs, applying a refined statistical probability calculation based on Pointwise Mutual In­ formation. The core process can be repeated to identify other lemmas co-occurring re­ peatedly with each pair, which have here been termed “associates.” These lexical rela­ tionships can then be visualized via clustering algorithms and network diagrams. Con­ cept-modelling is considered more nuanced than topic modelling, because it pays atten­ tion to the relative location of words. The end result is a “concept model” that enables users to explore how ideas, theories, and methods relating to ways of being in the digital age emerge and evolve across the literature. As a tool, it provides a data-driven map for identifying trends and anomalies that might warrant further study. Concept-modelling outputs were presented via a range of visualizations including bubble maps (Figure 2.2) and tree maps (Figure 2.3), with specific versions in each of (p. 47) the ESRC Review chapters. An interactive browser-friendly version and further documentation may be found online at https://dhi.ac.uk/waysofbeingdigital/.

Figure 2.2 Bubble map of concept pairs.

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ESRC Review: Methodology

Figure 2.3 Tree map of concept pairs.

Topic analysis. As a follow up to this analysis, the team applied two further digital meth­ ods to the full data set of literature gathered after round 2 of the Delphi process. The first involved the application of project-specific tools developed using Python to extract topics through the statistical analysis of word frequency within individual documents. This work was undertaken by a team at the University of Liverpool following methods outlined by Sievert and Shirley (2014) and Chuang et al. (2012). This produced interactive maps of topics (Figure 2.4) and key words (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.4 Interactive topic modelling graph–topic.

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ESRC Review: Methodology

Figure 2.5 Interactive topic modelling graph–key­ word.

Second, the same data were examined utilizing the commercial WordStat tool (https:// provalisresearch.com). The data were examined in WordStat at a paragraph (p. 48) rather than document level. WordStat split the papers into paragraph segments and then con­ structed a word-by-segment frequency matrix. This matrix is subjected to an exploratory factor analysis using a Varimax rotation, from which a set of “factors” is extracted—these should map onto consistent topics in the data. All words with a loading higher than a tar­ get criterion (we used 0.3) are then defined as being an extracted topic (Figure 2.6). Us­ ing this tool produced similar results to those from the University of Liverpool topic analysis. Combining these three results allowed the team to develop a thematic metaanalysis of the overall themes and issues in the literature (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008).

Figure 2.6 WordStat topic modelling.

The results from these three approaches are presented in the ESRC Review chapters for each of the domains (chapters 3, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22). Though the underlying textmining methods are relatively established, these are novel and experimental approaches Page 19 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology within the context of a study review such as this. In using these tools it was hoped that the team would gain an overall appreciation of their usefulness for future research. Im­ portantly they provided a route to understanding key concepts and topics within this very large (p. 49) literature set within a short time frame, and allowed the team to compare the literature topics with the proposed future topics identified in the Delphi process. Interac­ tive visualizations of the topic-based data can be examined at https:// waysofbeingdigital.com/literature-analysis-interactive-results/; these are also explained as a note in relevant ESRC Review chapters. Content analysis. The final stage of the literature review was a content analysis focus­ ing on the methods, theory, and data in the collected papers. The initial plan was to con­ duct a random sample of papers so as to manage both volume and timescale, as this work could not be done easily via digital tools. An initial test run found that nearly all of the re­ quired information could be found in the abstracts, methods, and conclusion sections of the papers, cutting down the time needed to code papers. This allowed a team of six re­ searchers working in parallel to code the full corpus over a period of six weeks. The project took inspiration from a recent in-depth content analysis of the Communication Studies literature (Borah, 2017) on the social impact of the Internet, covering 56 journals over a 16-year period (1998 to 2014). Borah’s analysis found that 70 percent of journal papers on this subject did not employ any core theoretical position, nor use theory to de­ fine a research question. Instead, papers predominantly reported on case studies or pre­ sented analyses of empirical data sets. Following a similar method to Borah, the content analysis systematically documented six aspects the publications in each domain: 1) Main discipline: as in sociology, communication studies, computer science, etc., primarily determined by the discipline of the lead or main authors. (p. 50) (p. 51) (p. 52) 2) Theories used in empirical work: the project coded actual use of theory to define hypotheses or to explore data. Very often theoretical positions were mentioned but not used to define hypotheses or explore data. For example, the works of Castells (2011) were often cited as well as those of van Dijk (2013). But such references were used as scene-setting or as justifications for why studies of dig­ ital media are important; they were rarely used to construct models nor explanations of findings. 3) Theory development: either inductively from new data or deductively via empiri­ cal testing. 4) Empirical methods used: whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. 5) Type of population studied: from nationally representative surveys to target popu­ lation or case studies. 6) Data analysis methods: including whether methods were described as “big data.” The results of this content analysis are presented in each of the ESRC review chapters (chapters 3, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22). The results show considerable variation across do­ mains, with some favoring strongly quantitative work and others more varied approaches.

Page 20 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology As with Borah’s (2017) work, the formal use of theory to either develop hypotheses or ex­ plore data was fairly limited in most domains.

Conclusion This chapter has presented the approach to the analysis of both the literature review and Delphi processes undertaken by the ESRC project “Ways of being in a digital age.” The methods used addressed two challenges: (p. 53)

• Undertaking the analysis within a limited time frame of less than one calendar

year • Utilizing and evaluating digital tools as far as possible in the analysis It is important to note that the digital processes utilized by the project can be coupled with tools to present the results in interactive—often visual—forms. Such processes there­ by provide an opportunity to explore the data and literature in novel ways. This allows re­ searchers to make use of the different views and representations as routes into the litera­ ture and data in ways not previously available. The use of tools and processes in this project was effectively experimental, exploring their to manage, review, and assess a large body of literature. One of the team’s future research area recommendations is to further assess such approaches to examining prior research publications. As we noted earlier in this chapter, the challenge of having to deal with a large body of literature, or a considerable body of academic evidence or opinion, is not specific to this project or this research area. It is somewhat ironic that in support of an ever-growing range of academic publications, and facilitating their ready access, digital media are also making it harder to overview and assess these bodies of knowledge. Again, somewhat ironically, digital tools (including algorithmic solutions) provide a route to manage this volume. In reflecting on the process, the team would note that having multiple views, and importantly different “algorithmic solutions” underlying these views, provides routes to cross-reference and cross-validate results, as well as provide different insights. This digitally-derived insight must also be combined with the insights from the extensive engagement of the re­ searchers with the source materials.

References Blundell, M. (2013). Understanding and synthesising my numerical data. In A. Boland, M. G. Cherry, & R. Dickson (Eds.), Doing a systematic review: A student’s guide (pp. 94–124). London: Sage. Borah, P. (2017). Emerging communication technology research: Theoretical and method­ ological variables in the last 16 years and future directions. New Media & Society, 19(4), 616–636. Castells, M. (2011). The rise of the network society (Vol. 12). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Page 21 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology Chuang, J., Manning, C. D., & Heer, J. (2012, May). Termite: Visualization techniques for assessing textual topic models. In Proceedings of the international working conference on advanced visual interfaces (pp. 74–77). New York: ACM. Fitzmaurice, S., Robinson, J. A., Alexander, M., Hine, I. C., Mehl, S., & Dallachy, F. (2017a). Linguistic DNA: Investigating conceptual change in early Modern English dis­ course. In Studia Neophilogica, 89 Suppl, 1: Interfacing individuality and collaboration: Patterns in English language research (Guest editors: I. Taavitsa, J. Smith, & M. Kytö). 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00393274.2017.1333891. Fitzmaurice, S., Robinson, J. A., Alexander, M., Hine, I. C., Mehl, S., & Dallachy, F. (2017b). Reading into the past: Materials and methods in historical semantics research. In T. Säily, A. Nurmi, M. Palander-Collin, & A. Auer (Eds.), Exploring future paths for his­ torical sociolinguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Okoli, C. & Pawlowski, S. D. (2004). The Delphi method as a research tool: An ex­ ample, design considerations and applications. Information & Management, 42(1), 15–29. (p. 54)

Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2008). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Popay, J., Roberts, H., Sowden, A., Petticrew, M., Arai, L., Rodgers, M., … Duffy, S. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews. ESRC Methods Programme. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

233866356_Guidance_on_the_conduct_of_narrative_synthesis_in_systematic_reviews_A_produ download doi:10.13140/2.1.1018.4643 Sievert, C. & Shirley, K. (2014). LDAvis: A method for visualizing and interpreting topics. In Proceedings of the workshop on interactive language learning, visualization, and inter­ faces (pp. 63–70). Baltimore, MD. Van Dijk, J. A. (2013). A theory of the digital divide. In The digital divide (pp. 49–72). New York: Routledge.

Simeon J. Yates

Simeon J. Yates (PhD, Open University UK, 1993) is Professor of Digital Culture and Associate Pro-Vice-Chancellor Research Environment and Postgraduate Research at University of Liverpool. His research on the social, political, and cultural impacts of digital media includes a long-standing focus on digital media and interpersonal inter­ action. More recently, he has worked on projects that address issues of digital inclu­ sion and exclusion. He was seconded to the UK Government’s Department of Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS) in 2017 to act as research lead for the Digital Cul­ ture team. He remains the joint-chair of the DCMS Research Working Group on Digi­ tal Skills and Inclusion. His prior work covered topics such as the use of digital tech­ nologies in the workplace, digital media use during crises, and ICT use by the securi­ ty services. The majority of his research has been funded by the Economic and Social Page 22 of 23

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ESRC Review: Methodology Research Council (ESRC), the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), EU, and industry. Simeon’s work has often been interdisciplinary and has predominantly involved creative and digital industry partners. He led on a major Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded interdisciplinary program (Engi­ neering for Life) while at Sheffield Hallam. Simeon has been researching the impacts of the internet and digital media on language and culture since 1990. His PhD thesis (1993) is a large-scale linguistic comparison of speech, writing, and online interac­ tion. Subsequent published work has covered analyses of gender differences in com­ puter-mediated communication (CMC), gender and computer gaming, email and let­ ter writing, and science in the mass media. Simeon has written text books on social research methods—in particular, linguistic and discourse analytic methods. https:// www.liverpool.ac.uk/communication-and-media/staff/simeon-yates/ Iona C. Hine

Iona C. Hine is a postdoctoral researcher at the Urban Institute at the University of Sheffield. Together with Digital Humanities developers and colleagues in the School of English, she has modelled discursive concepts in text collections ranging from the earliest English print to comments on YouTube videos. She has a particular interest in context and translation, as well as the challenges of unruly metadata. Her work spans several disciplines, including biblical studies, early modern literature, and translation studies. Michael Pidd

Michael Pidd is Digital Director of HRI Digital at the Humanities Research Institute, University of Sheffield, one of the United Kingdom’s leading Digital Humanities cen­ ters. Michael has over 20 years of experience in developing, managing, and deliver­ ing large collaborative research projects in the humanities and heritage subject do­ mains. Jerome Fuselier

Jerome Fuselier has been an Associate Researcher at the University of Liverpool since 2008. Before that he was a Postdoc at Xerox Research Centre Europe. He was awarded his PhD in 2006 at the Université Savoie Mont Blanc. Paul Watry

Paul Watry is Principal Investigator for the Multivalent Digital Preservation Architec­ ture project and the Cheshire digital library system. His primary area of interest is in computational linguistics and in bibliographic analysis. A core activity is to develop and implement a strategy which will embrace both electronic and traditional infor­ mation resources and address the needs of both research and learning.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being

ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Simeon J. Yates, Leanne Townsend, Monica Whitty, Ronald E. Rice, and Elinor Carmi The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.3

Abstract and Keywords This chapter describes the analyses and results for the ESRC Domain of Health and WellBeing, guided by a three-part main question: “whether technology makes us healthier, better educated, and more productive.” It first provides an initial overview of the major insights from the literature review and analysis, the Delphi surveys, and workshop discus­ sions about the relevant range of the concepts of health and well-being in a digital age. The resulting focus is initially mostly about the technology but later on users, health, and research. Eight main topics emerged, including health care, measures and measurement, mobile and smartphone devices, social support, and weight loss. The analyses also high­ lighted theory, methods, and approaches in the literature, showing a relatively even dis­ tribution of deductive–inductive approaches and quantitative–qualitative approaches, us­ ing several well-known theories from psychology (e.g., theories of behavior change) and sociology (social networks). The review provides examples of literature from the project’s study period that illustrate these topics. The chapter concludes with a discussion of fu­ ture research directions (e.g., cross-platform or holistic assessments examining the ef­ fects of broad, everyday digital technology use on health and well-being) and research challenges (e.g., methods, rapid change in health care technology, big data for health, and linking of personal and clinical health data with well-being outcomes). Keywords: digital technology, ESRC Review, health, health care, mobile and smartphone devices, psychology, so­ cial networks, social support, sociology, weight loss

Introduction THIS chapter provides an overview of the results from analyses of the literature, the Del­ phi process, and any relevant workshops for the Health and Well-Being domain. The ini­ tial ESRC scoping question for this area of work was: “whether technology makes us healthier, better educated, and more productive?” We first explore the results of the vari­ ous digital humanities analyses of the literature and the review of methods and theory,

Page 1 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being and then set out the results of the Delphi process. We compare these results, and we con­ clude with recommendations for areas of future study.

Initial Comments This domain generated the largest set of literature of all. This appears to reflect discipli­ nary differences with other domains. Much of the literature was within health studies and health research journals. There was a stronger tendency to report experimental and em­ pirical findings and there were far fewer general reviews. The responses to the Delphi process focused on health and mainly health-based, well-being issues but not much on the education element. We have also bracketed off the productivity issue in the health domain as this was extensively addressed in the Automation Workshop and therefore is presented in chapter 24. Workshops we ran with stakeholders via the UK Digital Leaders network focused on two main areas: health inequalities and access to digital technologies and pri­ vatization of health delivery through digitization. As a result, the one element of (p. 58) the ESRC brief that is under-represented here is the question, “Does digital media make us better educated?” We would argue that in relation to formal education this area is well served by work on educational technology, so that issue is not analyzed here. In regard to informal learning and also the specifics of both basic and complex digital skills—digital literacies—this issue clearly runs through many of the chapters and analyses in this vol­ ume.

Literature Analysis Topics As with the other literature analysis chapters in this volume, we aimed to identify two sets of data. The first was key concept pairs and topics within the existing literature. This allowed the comparison with areas of importance identified by the Delphi review. The sec­ ond was a content analysis of the literature to explore the predominance of specific theo­ ries, methods, and approaches. The 11 most common concept pairs identified in the Round-1 literature are listed in Table 3.1. These represent the topics covering 2% or more of the identified cases. Table 3.2 lists the main and second (sub) concepts identified.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.1 Analysis Concepts Ranked Concepts

Percent

Disease

7.3

Body

4.6

Care

4.0

Health

3.8

Behavior

3.7

Loss

3.3

Activity

3.2

Network

2.6

Communication

2.4

Child

2.2

Intervention

2.1

Note: Topics occurring in at least 2% of the cases.

Page 3 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.2 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Concepts

Percent

Concepts

Percent

Concepts

Percent

disease

18.60

health

9.66

communica­ tion

6.14

outbreak

6.26

promotion

9.66

conflict

1.91

prevention

4.59

loss

8.47

mail

.95

sufferer

1.07

weight

8.47

stress

3.28

surveillance

6.68

activity

8.17

behaviour

9.36

body

11.69

conduct

2.09

counselling

3.10

device

2.44

isolation

1.25

recycling

2.03

embodiment

2.15

leisure

1.13

smoking

3.58

mass

3.22

pedometer

1.31

taxonomy

.66

mother

.95

sport

2.39

child

5.66

object

1.91

network

6.56

donation

1.13

self

1.01

outbreak

1.43

mother

4.53

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being care

10.26

rice

.89

intervention

5.43

caregiver

3.22

stress

2.92

mobile

1.91

clinic

2.74

vaccination

1.31

vegetable

3.52

follow-up

4.29

Note: bolded term is the main concept; the unbolded terms below that and above the line are the related subcon­ cepts.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Figures 3.1 and 3.2 display the changing nature and frequency of concept pairs from the periods 2000–2004 and 2012–2016.1 Clearly the focus in the early period was on the tech­ nology (computers, system, information, Internet, data, navigation, space, robot, phone) with some relationships with people (user, scientist, and group), and only an emerging fo­ cus explicitly on the health context (care, health, support, intervention, (p. 59) effects, weight). By the later period, the most frequent concepts involve health (health, care, in­ tervention, participant, patient, group, support) with the most frequent concept pairs in­ volving those items, and then some emphasis on research (study, intervention, analysis, data, control, outcome, effect, trial).

Figure 3.1 Health and Well-Being 2000–2004: Most frequent concept pairs.

Figure 3.2 Health and Well-Being 2012–2016: Most frequent concept pairs.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being All the literature collected from both rounds was analyzed using Wordstat. Wordstat iden­ tified 18 topics, presented in Table 3.3.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.3 Wordstat Analysis of Topics Topic

Keywords

Eigenvalue

Freq

Cases

Cases (%)

Educational technology

LEARN; STU­ DENT; TEACHER; LEARNER; EDUC; COLLA­ BOR; TECH­ NOLOGI

9.38

21,504

752

92.7

Health care

CARE; HEALTH; PATIENT; MEDIC; IN­ FORM; PRAC­ TIC; PRO­ FESSION

2.97

54,753

775

95.6

Measures

ITEM; SCALE; MEASUR; SCORE; WA; QUESTION­ NAIR; ASSESS

2.35

25,758

759

93.6

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Social support network analy­ sis

WEAK; TIE; TI; NETWORK; SUPPORT

2.26

13,485

739

91.1

Mobile devices

MOBIL; DEVIC; PHONE; APP; DIGIT; MONI­ TOR; TRACK

2.11

11,251

680

83.9

Weight loss

WEIGHT; LOSS; OBES

2.00

4616

419

51.7

Ethnicity and gender

ETHNIC; GEN­ DER; AG; STATU; BLACK

1.88

7575

640

78.9

Disease out­ break surveil­ lance

OUTBREAK; SURVEIL; DISEAS; IN­ FECT; IN­ FLUENZA; VAC­ CIN; UENZA

1.86

6349

469

57.8

Stopping smok­ ing

SMOKE; CESSAT; SMOKER

1.71

2363

183

22.6

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Efficacy

EF; CACI; FECT

1.68

2798

304

37.5

Family

MOTHER; IN­ FANT; PARENT; CHILDREN; BODI

1.66

3764

537

66.2

Product quality

HEDON; BEAUTI; USABL; PROD­ UCT; QUALITI

1.61

5776

634

78.3

Social media

FACEBOOK; MEDIA; TWIT­ TER; SOCIAL; SITE; BLOG; POST; SHARE; CONTENT

1.54

23,283

746

92.0

Hypertension

PRESSUR; BLOOD

1.52

1537

269

33.2

Chronic dis­ eases

CHRONIC; PAIN; DISEAS; ILL

1.48

3190

452

55.7

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Palliative care

PALLI; TELE­ CONSULT

1.46

510

25

3.1

Activity

ACTIV; TECH­ NIQU; AR

1.45

22,405

764

94.2

Controlled trial

TRIAL; INTER­ VENT; RAN­ DOM; CON­ TROL

1.42

17,838

677

83.5

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.4 Comparison between Concepts and WordStat Topics Con­ cept/ Topic

Pallia­ tive care

Dis­ ease

Body

X

Care

Healt h

Be­ hav­ ior

Loss

Activ­ ity

Net­ work

Com­ mu­ nica­ tion

Child

Inter­ ven­ tion

X

Stop­ ping smok­ ing

X

Hy­ perte nsion

X

X

Effi­ cacy Weigh t loss

X

X

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Chron ic dis­ eases

X

Dis­ ease out­ break sur­ veil­ lance

X

Fami­ ly Prod­ uct quali­ ty

X

X

Eth­ nicity and gen­ der

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Con­ trolle d trial Mo­ bile de­ vices Social sup­ port net­ work analy­ sis

X

X

X

Social media

X

Edu­ cation al tech­ nolo­ gy

X

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Mea­ sures Activi­ ty Healt h care

X

X

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being As we can see in Table 3.4, there is a good overlap between the two analyses. We would argue that the analyses point to literature that is focused on the use of digital technolo­ gies and social media in three main areas. First, monitoring and supporting individuals in changing health behaviors (such as weight loss or stopping smoking); second, using digi­ tal technologies to monitor and support patients with chronic illness (e.g., hypotension); and third, using digital technologies to support health communication or as part of health support communities. Separate from this, the literature is focused on the measurement and evaluation of the ef­ ficacy of such interventions. This evaluation fits with the content analysis on methods and theory that follows. A section of the literature also included work on educational technol­ ogy with some crossover to technologies to support health education. Six key areas stand out from the analysis (Table 3.3): educational technology, health care, measures and measurement, mobile and smartphone devices, social support, and weight loss. As noted earlier, we put the “educational technology” issue to one (p. 60) side, ex­ cept where it overlaps with issues of health and well-being. In the following sections we consider some examples of how these issues have been examined in the recent literature. Health care. Work on the interaction in health care provision between social, occupa­ tional, and organizational roles and digital media has a long history. For example, Aydin and Rice (1991) argued that membership of specific occupational and departmental social worlds can help to explain attitudes toward medical information systems within health care organizations. They noted that Physicians, for example, expected involvement in decision-making and felt the sys­ tem had become primarily an administrative system, while other medical employ­ ees were more concerned with computer use as infringement on their patient care activities. (p. 132) More recently the focus has moved to the role of digital systems in the range of health services including public health and personalized health. The analysis by the University (p. 61) of Sheffield shows that literature before 2004 had a stronger emphasis on informa­ tion systems and users, whereas more recent work has focused on care, intervention, and health information for patients. For example, Bennett and Glasgow (2009) discuss advan­ tages in public health interventions conducted via the Internet and Web 2.0. Within this domain they point out that there are also challenges, such as reach (access), sustainabili­ ty of effects, reporting in standardized measures, and attrition. Bennett and Glasgow ar­ gue that these challenges could be overcome with more tailored messages and greater use of social networking functions. This shift from a system focus to a user or “person” fo­ cus can be found in a lot of the literature on digital media use. This represents a shift from the novelty and specifics of technologies to the integration of these into everyday practice. ennett and Glasgow see advantages for digital media in reach and efficacy in health-related interventions, as “Internet-based implementation allows participants to ac­ Page 18 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being cess intervention content at their convenience, in a manner that can feel largely anonymous” (p. 276). Combined with available data, “Internet interventions can be struc­ tured to provide highly personalized messages” (p. 276). As digital technologies (p. 62) of­ ten have low marginal costs, providing specific services can be undertaken while lower­ ing costs. As a result they conclude that [g]iven their potential for low costs, scalability, adaptability, and effectiveness, In­ ternet interventions may be appropriate for dissemination to a range of settings (e.g., health systems, health plans, employers, municipalities). However, each of these settings varies considerably with regard to their resources, expertise, inter­ est, and ability to implement Internet interventions independently. (p. 279) This shift also reflects the rise of new digital forms such as social media. For example, Chou et al. (2009) pointed out that US-based health-related communication pro­ grams, which seek to impact population health (such as smoking cessation and dietary in­ terventions), should consider carefully key social factors when looking to communicate (p. 63)

(p. 64)

via social media. They argue that social networking sites by far attract the most users, making them an obvious tar­ get for maximizing the reach and impact of health communication and eHealth in­ terventions. (p. 9) In looking specifically at communication around cancer they found that among family members who had cancer, there was a high prevalence of Internet and social media use. This therefore made social media a potentially fruitful route to “‘secondary audiences,’ that is, caregivers, family, and friends of cancer patients” (pp. 9–10). Thus they concluded that “social media promise to be a way to reach the target population regardless of so­ cioeconomic and health-related characteristics” (p. 10). Househ et al. (2014) also explored the role of social media, in community empowerment in US health care contexts. They argued that there is a promising future for social media in community engagement, informa­ tion sharing, data collection functions, appointment setting, prescription notifica­ tions, providing health information, engagement of the elderly, improved participa­ tion, autonomy, motivation, trust, and perceived self-efficacy. (p. 56) On the other hand, they point out key challenges related to the use of social media for health care, such as

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being privacy, security, the usability of social media programs, the manipulation of iden­ tity, and misinformation. These factors can pose serious threats to patient safety if not addressed appropriately by those who wish to engage patients through social media. (p. 56) Measures and measurement. Another theme in the literature is the interplay between using digital media derived data, using digital tools to collect data, and measuring the im­ pacts of digital media use or digital media interventions in the health context. Very often these three elements are combined. In the early 2000s the focus around measurement ap­ pears to be on tools such as Internet surveys. For example, Eysenbach and Wyatt (2002) examined the use of the Internet to conduct research as well as other parts of the analy­ sis. They provided recommendations for implementing Internet-based surveys as well as emphasizing ethical considerations. They focused on Internet survey methods and did not address the use of “big data” nor data scraped from social media, issues that have be­ come more prevalent in recent years. But two of their key warnings are still very rele­ vant: In ‘open’ surveys conducted via the Internet where Web users, newsgroup read­ ers, or mailing list subscribers are invited to participate by completing a question­ naire, (p. 65) selection bias is a major factor limiting the generalizability (external validity) of results … The ethical issues involved in any type of online research should not be forgotten. These include informed consent as a basic ethical tenet of scientific research on human populations, protection of privacy, and avoiding psy­ chological harm. (p. 4) As noted earlier, the analysis of the literature sees a strong shift towards issues of digital media in health interventions. For example, Glasgow (2007) examines the measurement and assessment of eHealth intervention and behavior change programs and provides rec­ ommendations on design, measurement, and methods, concluding with four main recom­ mendations, First, explore outside of research silos, meaning work across different ill­ nesses taking into account multiple variables. Second, explore the role of human support, which could be the most important contextual factor. Third, tailor experiment design and reporting criteria to eHealth questions, meaning that they have to be interactive, usercentered, dynamic, and evolving. Fourth, follow translation and diffusion theories of tech­ nology uptake and innovation. They point out that [t]he majority of evidence-based health care procedures fail to translate into prac­ tice. Part of the reason for this failure to translate is because of the research methods most often used to evaluate interventions. In particular, typical designs do not address external validity concerns or provide information relevant to poli­ cymakers or to those considering program adoption.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being (p. 120) He concludes that “eHealth is complex, contextual, evolving, and has effects at multiple levels. The designs and measures for eHealth research need to have these same characteristics” (p. 125). Given the nature of this domain, the focus of many papers is on the empirical evaluation of specific digital interventions from bespoke digital tools to general social media cam­ paigns. Often these involve the application of a digital media format to a specific health intervention. One example is provided by Coyle and Doherty (2009), who examined the use of a 3D computer game developed to support adolescent mental health interventions. This was a goal-oriented computer game that adolescents and therapists could play to­ gether in sessions. In the evaluation, the shortcomings that therapists mentioned are ap­ plicable to many digital technology interventions. These included an over-reliance on lit­ eracy skills, lack of engagement with the specific technology, and a need to adapt to clients’ needs (for example, choosing more suitable characters). As we have noted else­ where in this volume (especially chapters 18, 19, and 20), issues of digital literacy and digital efficacy underpin many aspects of digital media use. Having noted these shortcom­ ings, Cole and Doherty argue, “The initial clinical evaluation of [the game] has provided evidence that computer games have the potential to assist therapists working with ado­ lescent clients” (p. 2058). But they add that [f]uture projects in the MHC [mental health care] domain may benefit from more rigorously applying traditional user-centered requirements gathering techniques. However, the problem of access to clients by HCI researchers still remains. (p. 66) Techniques are required which help HCI researchers to gain access to the tacit knowledge of MHC professionals. (p. 2058) Such work points out a challenge found in many other domains (e.g., social care, govern­ ment policy interventions, etc.), where existing design and evaluation tools are designed around existing practice and need to take on methods from digital and computer science disciplines. Coyle and Doherty also note that development and evaluation of digital sys­ tems is time-consuming; therefore “systems should aim to be useful to a broad range to therapists, in a broad range of settings and with a broad range of clients” (p. 2059). Not only are digital media forms (e.g., games and social media) being applied in health settings, but also digital devices are now key to monitoring and evaluating health, both personal (e.g., wearables) and public (e.g., environmental monitoring and sensors). Again the number and range of papers in this area is vast. An example from our corpus is Pan­ telopoulos and Bourbakis (2008), who reviewed the research and development of wear­ able biosensor systems for health monitoring. These can provide low-cost unobtrusive so­ lutions for continuous all-day and any-place health, mental, and activity status monitor­ ing. The article outlines the technical challenges of these technologies. As with many oth­ er evaluations in this area, they found that many of the systems in fact remain poorly de­ Page 21 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being signed for wearability, for many practical reasons to do with size, weight, and complexity. Alternatively, they propose that integration of these tools into clothing and textile mod­ ules is an efficient alternative approach, though it has the disadvantage of being less scal­ able. There is then a tension between scalability (e.g., mass availability) and wearability. As with other digital technologies in the medical domain, security is a key concern. They concluded that “integration of proper encryption and authentication mechanisms is re­ quired to ensure privacy and security of personal health data” (p. 4890). Mobile and smart phone devices. Over the same period, mobile and smartphone de­ vices have increased in popularity globally. They clearly have become a major target for digital health solutions from health and activity monitoring to information and advice to supporting behavior change. It is unsurprising therefore that this is a topic identified in the literature. For example, Dennison et al. (2013) argue that young, currently healthy adults have interest in apps that attempt to support health-related behavior change. The factors that most influence their app use were accuracy and legitimacy, security, effort re­ quired, and immediate effects on their mood and well-being. However, they point to draw­ backs, such as context skepticism and security and privacy of health-related data, espe­ cially keeping control over what apps can do with the user’s health data. Dennison et al. raise doubts “around whether users will use behaviour change apps for long periods of time, a critical issue that will affect the effectiveness of many behavior change apps” (p. 8). As was noted in the work on wearables, there are concerns about usability and accura­ cy. Dennison et al. noted that “participants lacked faith in the accuracy with which a smartphone could sense relevant states (e.g., mood, activity levels) (p. 67) and expected that incorrect and irritating suggestions would make them mistrust the app and cease us­ ing it” (p. 9). Importantly, this work identified concerns among users as to whether health apps were linked to digital media such as social networks. One of the areas of intervention in the literature is that of self-diagnosis. As an example, Lupton and Jutel (2015) analyzed the way lay people negotiated the use of self-diagnosis smartphone apps in mid-2014. Their main findings are that they represent a contested and ambiguous site for meaning and practice in relation to personal health. Importantly, they point out that many apps purport a level of medical authority that they may not pos­ sess, and that much of this is undertaken through the presentation of information and im­ agery related to broader societal discourse around “healthy living” (p. 131). As they note: Self-diagnosis apps (…) state and engage with the discourses of healthism and control that pervade contemporary medicine. They also participate in the quest for patient ‘engagement’ and ‘empowerment’ that is a hallmark of digital health rhetoric (p. 132) Lupton and Jutel point out that the implied medical authority combined with the apparent accuracy of “algorithms” provides a basis for both their promotion and use. Yet the users themselves are well aware of their own status as “not medically qualified.” The combina­ tion of both user uncertainty and, in some cases, the lack of robust medical evaluation Page 22 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being and transparent algorithms means that there remain many challenges to making such systems work. Such work highlights the challenge found elsewhere outside the health do­ main, that digital technologies disrupt (for good or ill) existing systems and in many cases both individual practice and necessary societal regulation may take time to catch up. One area that is strongly prevalent in the literature is that of using mobile and smart­ phone devices to support patients with long-term (chronic) conditions. For example, Gol­ lamudi et al. (2016) find that smartphones data allow these patients to make informed health decisions, though they point out that this changes the dynamics of health care re­ lationships: [O]ne of the more intriguing aspects of this technology as a tool to enhance indi­ vidual health is that data is collected, stored, and presented digitally without the need for direct interaction between the user and (as traditional) health profession­ al. (p. 12) Another area of work we noted in the literature and which may need to be better devel­ oped and formalized within the medical domain is the systematic comparison of digital so­ lutions. For example, in the case of enhanced self-management of the chronic arthriticlike condition of gout, Nguyen et al. (2016) reviewed 57 mobile health apps. Very few apps met the internationally accepted gout management guidelines, with only one meet­ ing all requirements. As noted previously, it is clear that more systematic work (p. 68) is needed to assess the viability of such apps. Nguyen et al. point out a range of limitations in the apps with regard to this specific condition, especially the lack of routes for access­ ing health care professionals, but still argue that [T]he use of mobile applications to support self-management of chronic conditions presents much potential. The extent to which such apps contain content consis­ tent with treatment guidelines and are user-friendly is central to their likely adop­ tion and effectiveness. (p. 71) Social support. With the rise of social media, we also see a range of literature con­ cerned with social support in health contexts. This work goes back to some of the earliest work around online communities with a focus on Internet fora. For example, Richardson (2004) explored issues of Internet use and heath debates across Cancer, SARS, and the debate about the measles/mumps/rubella vaccine and Autism. Such work has taken on much greater importance in recent years as citizens and patients have become able to en­ gage others, often of like minds, on such issues via social media. This range of work is very broad and overlaps with research around online communities, issues of identity, and political debate where health issues are tied to policy issues. We will focus here on the more clinical health and well-being issues. As with other material discussed in this chap­ ter, many of the publications evaluate a specific intervention or compare across technolo­ Page 23 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being gy contexts, with foci ranging from perceptions to behavior change to the links between digital media use and health. An example of comparative work is Barrera et al. (2002), who examined if diabetes pa­ tients change their perception about support following their participation in Internetbased support groups. The study finds that after three months of intervention, patients who participated in Internet-based social support significantly changed their views com­ pared to those patients who had only participated in computer access to information about diabetes. This was achieved with patients who did not have previous experience with the Internet. In another comparative study, Barak et al. (2009) review the literature about Internet-supported psychological therapeutic interventions, conceptualizing them into four categories: web-based interventions, online counselling and therapy, Internet operated therapeutic software, and other online activities (e.g., as supplements to face-toface therapy). They concluded that [T]he ability to develop feasible and effective alternatives by exploiting the Inter­ net for clinical work—alternatives that suit many people and distress areas— should be regarded as broadening and expanding the availability of professional help, especially for those who feel comfortable in the virtual environment. (p. 14) Such work highlights the conceptual challenge of tidying up the conceptualization of, and regulating and assessing different forms of, digital media-based interventions in the med­ ical context. Overall, much of the work in this area is not about direct clinical support interventions but rather about fostering patient and citizen empowerment in online support (p. 69) groups. As an example, earlier work by Barak et al. (2008) point out that online support groups encourage well-being, a sense of control, self-confidence, feeling of more indepen­ dence, social interactions and self-image, loneliness, optimism, and mood state. There­ fore, the authors argue that participation in online support groups can foster personal empowerment, which can help in dealing with feelings of distress, but do not necessarily help in producing therapeutic changes. These groups also have drawbacks, such as devel­ oping dependence, developing distance from interpersonal contacts, and experiencing un­ comfortable situations which are part of online social interactions. Barak et al. argue that It seems that the basic factors identified by quantitative research, as well as by our qualitative study—impact of writing, expressing emotions, gathering informa­ tion and improving knowledge, developing interpersonal relationships, and better­ ing decision-making skills—generate, each and all of them, a personal sense of em­ powerment. (p. 1878)

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being They conclude, however, that such groups are not a substitute for professional treatment where such clinical intervention is needed but can offer a complementary component to such interventions. Yet, there are always challenges in regard to communication, digital skills, and competences in such circumstances. These may interact with and influence both outcomes and well-being in and of themselves. Wright et al. (2013) argue that inter­ personal motives, increased face-to-face communication, communication competence, and computer competence can predict whether college students are feeling more de­ pressed. One of the most important skills to reduce depression was found to be communi­ cation competence, which is a set of skills that enable college students to mobilize social support in a better way. Weight loss. One area that brings all these issues of health care, social support, device use, monitoring, measurement, and personal digital technology use is that of weight loss. This is a domain where online groups, digital media, and apps have all been both promot­ ed and critiqued as routes to intervention (or not). It is not unsurprising then that this has been highlighted as one of the few specific health topics in the analysis of the literature. One immediate question is the extent of the link between digital media use (or at least da­ ta on digital media use) and the prevalence of obesity. For example, Chunara et al. (2013) examined the relationship between online social environments via web-based social net­ works and population obesity prevalence. Their main finding is that activity-related inter­ ests (such as television watching as opposed to sports) across the United States and neighborhoods in New York City were significantly linked with obesity. They argue that their study corroborates the association of social environments and obesity, and also begins to uncover aspects of the environment, such as interests in the online medium, and how they are positively or negatively related to this outcome. Sharing of these norms through Facebook may also be magnified because network connections are ‘friends’; people who likely share demographic profiles, meaning there messages are better focused. Issues of digital self-monitoring are also found in the literature. Steinberg and oth­ ers (2013) examine the impact of weight loss interventions that focus on self-monitoring digital techniques such as “smart scales” (which displayed current weight and sent it di­ rectly to a website), a web-based weight loss graph, and weekly tailored feedback via emails. These interventions have proved to be successful when combined with other inter­ vention elements. They found that (p. 70)

a lower intensity weight loss intervention that focused on daily self-weighing as the main self-monitoring strategy and also included emailed tailored feedback and skills training with no regular face-to face-contact or focus on self-monitoring of diet and physical activity behaviors produced clinically significant weight losses. (p. 8)

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being With regard to mobile and smartphone interventions, Svetkey et al. (2015) examined the efficacy of mobile health weight loss intervention apps in young adults: smartphone selfmonitoring, or personal coaching enhanced by smartphone self-monitoring (PC), com­ pared with a control group. They concluded that digital interventions were not success­ ful. This lead them to the conclusion that a combination of methods, both digital and so­ cial support of human interaction which are adaptive can be more beneficial. The re­ searchers found that relative to the control group: “neither a mobile app alone nor per­ sonal coaching with mobile self-monitoring resulted in statistically significant weight loss after 24 months” (p. 2139). Like many other studies, they concluded that iterative and rapid development and testing of health interventions in context are needed to ensure the best outcomes. Summary. We would argue that there has been a shift in focus from health care tech­ nologies, to interaction with health care technologies, to a greater focus on the role of digital technologies in intervention, especially in regard to health behaviors and percep­ tions. Where the focus is on non-clinical and community interventions, there is notable overlap with the literature around digital communities. In regard to digital clinical inter­ ventions from this selection of literature, it is clear that much more work is needed on the veracity, development, and regulation of such tools.

Theory, Method, and Approach As with the other review chapters, this analysis builds on Borah (2017). A slight majority of the analyzed papers (52%) were deductive, applying existing theory (Table 3.5). Nearly (p. 71) half of papers utilized primary collected data (48%), with 43% of the papers using secondary data (Table 3.6). In line with the focus on health interventions and health be­ havior, the main disciplines from which theory was used or for which theory was devel­ oped were psychology (50%), sociology (19%), health studies (8%), communication and media (8%), and information studies (5%). There was considerable variety in the specific theories applied from these disciplines. Theories of behavior change, social cognition, and planned behavior (each 8% of total) were the main theories in psychology studies, while social network analysis was the most frequent theory (2% of total) in sociology articles. There was a fairly even split between statistical and qualitative approaches (Table 3.7). For those items that undertook empirical research, the main research methods were pre­ dominantly quantitative: experiments or comparisons (19%), surveys (11%), social net­ work analysis (3%), and meta-analysis (4%) (Table 3.8). The majority of the empirical work focused on specific groups, but with a larger proportion of general population stud­ ies (31.5%) than in the other domains (Table 3.9). Less than 2% of the work described it­ self as using a “big data” approach.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being (p. 72)

Table 3.5 Epistemological Approach Percent

Deductive (testing of existing theory)

51.5

Inductive (conclusions driven by data)

48.5

Table 3.6 Empirical Approach Percent Primary empirical (data collected and analyzed)

48.0

Secondary empirical (analysis of existing data)

43.4

Discursive/descriptive (no new data or theory)

8.2

Theoretical (synthesis of current or prior work)

.5

Table 3.7 Analytic Approach Percent Qualitative (textual—non-discourse)

48.4

Statistical (numerical)

42.6

Not applicable

8.3

Discourse (textual—linguistic-discourse)

.7

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.8 Research Method Percent Literature Review (general or narrative)

28.6

Other

22.0

Experiment

18.8

Survey

10.8

Interview(s)

6.6

Content analysis

4.5

Meta-analysis or systematic review

3.3

Social network analysis

2.6

Focus groups

2.0

Textual (linguistic-discourse analysis)

.4

Ethnography

.4

Table 3.9 Study Population Percent Specific group

53.8

General population

31.5

Not applicable

12.8

Case study (studies)

1.9

This domain is notably different than the others in two clear respects. First, the number of published papers by identified authors was much higher, and second, the majority of these reported quantitative empirical studies. Much of the work was broadly psychologi­ cal and focused on the role of digital technologies in supporting or driving health behav­ ior changes. This is reflected in the main theories identified in the literature. Unlike the Page 28 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being other domains, there is a limited amount of reflection on the broader social or health im­ pacts of digital media.

Delphi Review This section provides details of the results of the Delphi process for the Health and WellBeing domain, covering suggested scoping or research questions, key topics to address within these questions, and key challenges to researching these questions.

Future Research and Scoping Questions The Delphi review identified a set of scoping questions for the domain, which were coded into four categories: design for positive health impacts of digital technology use; health behavior and using digital technologies; health user needs; and negative health impacts of digital technology use (Table 3.10). Their ranked importance from the confirmatory survey is given in Table 3.11. It is important to note that ranked importance is almost the inverse of the number of questions allocated to the category.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.10 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Question catego­ ry

Example questions

Design for positive health impacts of digital technology use

What types and amounts of technology make us healthier, better educated and more se­ cure? How can we design technology assist in mak­ ing us healthier, better educated and more se­ cure? How can we design technology to support us being healthier and thrive psychologically? What are the best practices/processes in the design of technology that will make us health­ ier, better educated and more secure?

Health behavior and using digital

How do people engage with technology to im­ prove health and well-being?

technologies

You could extend well-being to personal and social well-being What motivates people to be healthier, better educated and more secure, and how can these motivational drivers be incorporated in­ to technology?

Health user needs

What are the factors that lead to development of health information technology programs that meet the needs and capacities of differ­ ent users? How can research be used to guide the strate­ gic development of health information tech­ nology programs that meet the needs of dif­ ferent users? How can we engage different technology users in developing and implementing strate­ gic health information systems that will meet their health information and support needs?

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Negative health im­ pacts of digital technology use

What isn’t asked here though is if technology is also hurting health. I.e., is it replacing go­ ing to the doctor, moving around (not just sit­ ting in front of a computer all the time), too much sitting, lack of social ties, etc.? Does the use of digital technology contribute positively to our health and well-being?

Table 3.11 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Ranked by Importance

(p. 73)

Question category

Percent

Design for positive health impacts of digital technology use

30.8

Health behavior and using digital technologies

30.8

Negative health impacts of digital technology use

20.5

Health user needs

17.9

The consultation workshop found these scoping areas too broad and noted that the

issue of “design” created a focus on devices and away from a more holistic view of soci­ etal health and well-being. The workshop suggested other scoping areas or questions. These include that more should be done to understand the role of digital technologies in health inequalities (do they help to alleviate, reproduce or deepen these inequalities?) and to link educational technology and health (for example, to think about learning (p. 74) about well-being and the role of digital technology in this). The workshop also sug­ gested addressing the governance of digital health technologies and the need for detailed systematic evidence of the impact and lived experience of everyday health technologies (e.g., fitbits). Finally, they recommended looking at the broader socio-economic and tech­ nical challenges of “joining up” health providers and services through digital technolo­ gies, and examining more questions of health and well-being in the digital workplace. The topics identified in the Delphi review were then coded into 11 categories as detailed in Table 3.12, with their ranked importance from the confirmatory survey are presented in Table 3.13. As with the scoping questions, those topics that were most (p. 75) common­ ly cited in the Delphi workshop were not those deemed most important in the review. The four most frequent were device, environment, and service design; benefits and harm from digital technology use; health communication; and education. Benefits and harm from digital technology use received by far the highest importance ratings, followed by health communication and privacy.

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.12 Key Topics Ranked by Percentage of Delphi Survey Re­ sponses Topic

Percent

Device, environment and service design

31

Benefits and harm from digital technology use

15

Health communication

15

Education

10

Device and service design

5

Digital literacy

5

Other

5

Preventative and long-term condition support

5

Digital divide

3

Organizational change

3

Privacy

3

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.13 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey Topic

Very impor­ tant

Important

Neutral

Unimportant

Very unimpor­ tant

Benefits and harm from digi­ tal technology use

76.9%

23.1%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

Health commu­ nication

46.2

46.2

7.7

0.0

0.0

Privacy

46.2

38.5

7.7

7.7

0.0

Device, environ­ ment, and ser­ vice design

38.5

53.8

7.7

0.0

0.0

Preventative and long-term condition sup­ port

38.5

46.2

15.4

0.0

0.0

Digital divide

38.5

30.8

15.4

15.4

0.0

Digital literacy

30.8

38.5

23.1

7.7

0.0

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Organizational change

7.7

76.9

15.4

0.0

0.0

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being The consultation workshop identified a set of additional potential topics within the health care domain. These were: what are “healthy” environments or “life worlds” and what role can digital technologies have in these; how do or can digital technologies help people to generate their own definition of a healthy “lifeworld”; and finally, understanding the im­ pact of major digital platforms on behavior, perception of health and well-being, and routes to health information.

Research Challenges The challenges in undertaking research in this area identified by the Delphi panel were placed into seven categories. These categories are detailed in Table 3.14 and ranked by the percentage of coded items. The ranking of these by the confirmation survey are pre­ sented in Table 3.15. The methods category was twice as frequent as the next category, processes of co-design, followed by collecting and accessing data. Methods were also rat­ ed as the most important challenge, followed by rapid changes, big data for health, and interdisciplinarity. Table 3.14 Challenges Ranked by Percent of Cases Challenge

Percent

Methods to analyses digital health

46

Processes of co-design

21

Collecting and accessing data on digital health

14

Rapid change in digital and health technology

7

Big data for health

4

Education

4

Interdisciplinarity

4

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Table 3.15 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey Challenge

Very impor­ tant

Important

Neutral

Unimportant

Very unimpor­ tant

Methods to ana­ lyze digital health

61.5%

30.8%

7.7%

0.0%

0.0%

Rapid change in digital and health technolo­ gy

38.5

61.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

Big data for health

38.5

46.2

15.4

0.0

0.0

Interdisciplinar­ ity

38.5

46.2

15.4

0.0

0.0

Collecting and accessing data on digital health

30.8

61.5

7.7

0.0

0.0

Processes of codesign

30.8

46.2

15.4

7.7

0.0

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being The consultation workshop agreed with the challenges identified by the Delphi process, in particular focusing on “big” health data, personal and commercial uses of health data, linking personal and clinical health data with well-being outcomes, governance in digital health care, and digital technologies’ role in the rich pathways of health and social care. Combining this broad range of ideas with the material in the literature provides a clearer picture. The next section undertakes this reflection.

(p. 76)

Conclusion

As in the Communication and Relationships (chapter 8), and the Communities and Identi­ ties domains (chapter 14), much of the work in the Health and Well-Being domain appears to be focused on specific technologies, in this case the use of bespoke or platform tech­ nologies to impact health behavior. There are few if any examples of cross-platform or holistic assessments examining the effects of broad, everyday digital technology use on health and well-being. There were also clear crossovers with the Communication and Re­ lationships (see chapter 8) and the Communities and Identities domains (see chapter 14). Much of the work involved aspects of health communication supported by digital tech­ nologies, or at least interaction with digital technologies that afforded aspects of patientcarer-doctor-service interactions. There were also a good number of cases focused on the role of online health support communities. Health and well-being may therefore be a con­ text for applied communications and community research. To summarize, the majority of the literature in the Health and Well-Being domain is fo­ cused on the evaluation of digital health technologies. There appears to be a limited liter­ ature on the broader question of the impacts of digital lifestyles on health and well-being and limited work on the negative impacts of the digital technologies. Moreover, the broader social questions identified in the Delphi work and consultation workshops that appear to go beyond the literature include the following: • Understanding and addressing the governance of digital health technologies • Need for detailed systematic evidence of the impact and lived experience of everyday health technologies (e.g., fitbits) • Questions of health and well-being in the digital workplace (p. 77)

• Digital technologies and health communication and health behavior change

• Broader socio-economic challenges and issues in “joining up” health providers and services through digital technologies

References Aydin, C. E., & Rice, R. E. (1991). Social worlds, individual differences, and implementa­ tion: Predicting attitudes toward a medical information system. Information & Manage­ ment, 20(2), 119–136. Page 37 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Barak, A., Boniel-Nissim, M., & Suler, J. (2008). Fostering empowerment in online support groups. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 1867–1883. Barak, A., Klein, B., & Proudfoot, J. G. (2009). Defining internet-supported therapeutic in­ terventions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 38(1), 4–17. Barrera, M., Glasgow, R. E., Mckay, H. G., Boles, S. M., & Feil, E. G. (2002). Do Internetbased support interventions change perceptions of social support? An experimental trial of approaches for supporting diabetes self-management. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(5), 637–654. Bennett, G. G., & Glasgow, R. E. (2009). The delivery of public health interventions via the Internet: Actualizing their potential. Annual Review of Public Health, 30, 273–292. Bennett, G. G., Steinberg, D. M., Stoute, C., Lanpher, M., Lane, I., Askew, S., … & Baskin, M. L. (2014). Electronic health (eHealth) interventions for weight management among racial/ethnic minority adults: A systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 15, 146–158. Borah, P. (2017). Emerging communication technology research: Theoretical and method­ ological variables in the last 16 years and future directions. New Media & Society, 19(4), 616–636. (p. 78)

Chou, W. Y. S., Hunt, Y. M., Beckjord, E. B., Moser, R. P., & Hesse, B. W. (2009). So­

cial media use in the United States: Implications for health communication. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 11(4). Chunara, R., Bouton, L., Ayers, J. W., & Brownstein, J. S. (2013). Assessing the online so­ cial environment for surveillance of obesity prevalence. PloS One, 8(4), e61373. Coyle, D., & Doherty, G. (2009, April). Clinical evaluations and collaborative design: De­ veloping new technologies for mental healthcare interventions. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2051–2060). ACM. Dennison, L., Morrison, L., Conway, G., & Yardley, L. (2013). Opportunities and challenges for smartphone applications in supporting health behavior change: Qualitative study. Jour­ nal of Medical Internet Research, 15(4). Eysenbach, G., & Wyatt, J. (2002). Using the Internet for surveys and health research. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 4(2). Glasgow, R. E. (2007). eHealth evaluation and dissemination research. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(5), S119–S126. Gollamudi, S. S., Topol, E. J., & Wineinger, N. E. (2016). A framework for smartphone-en­ abled, patient-generated health data analysis. PeerJ: Life and Environment, 4, e2284. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2284

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being Househ, M., Borycki, E., & Kushniruk, A. (2014). Empowering patients through social me­ dia: The benefits and challenges. Health Informatics Journal, 20(1), 50–58. Lupton, D., & Jutel, A. (2015). “It’s like having a physician in your pocket!” A critical analysis of self-diagnosis smartphone apps. Social Science & Medicine, 133, 128–135. Nguyen, A. D., Baysari, M. T., Kannangara, D. R., Tariq, A., Lau, A. Y., Westbrook, J. I., & Day, R. O. (2016). Mobile applications to enhance self-management of gout. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 94, 67–74. Pantelopoulos, A., & Bourbakis, N. (2008, August). A survey on wearable biosensor sys­ tems for health monitoring. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2008. EMBS 2008. 30th annual international conference of the IEEE (pp. 4887–4890). IEEE. Richardson, K. (2004). Internet discourse and health debates. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Steinberg, D. M., Tate, D. F., Bennett, G. G., Ennett, S., Samuel-Hodge, C., & Ward, D. S. (2013). The efficacy of a daily self-weighing weight loss intervention using smart scales and e-mail. Obesity, 21(9), 1789–1797. Svetkey, L. P., Batch, B. C., Lin, P. H., Intille, S. S., Corsino, L., Tyson, C. C., … & Gallis, J. A. (2015). Cell phone intervention for you (CITY): A randomized, controlled trial of behav­ ioral weight loss intervention for young adults using mobile technology. Obesity, 23(11), 2133–2141. Wright, K. B., Rosenberg, J., Egbert, N., Ploeger, N. A., Bernard, D. R., & King, S. (2013). Communication competence, social support, and depression among college students: A model of Facebook and face-to-face support network influence. Journal of Health Commu­ nication, 18(1), 41–57.

Notes: (1.) As part of the review, The Digital Humanities Institute at the University of Sheffield applied concept modelling techniques to a curated corpus of 1,900 journal articles from the period 1968 to 2017. Concept modelling is a computational linguistic process that in­ volves identifying the emergence of concepts, or key ideas, via lexical relationships. For the purposes of the review, lexical relationships were limited to high frequency co-occur­ rences of terms as pairs and trios. The process is entirely data driven and resulted in 2 million rows of data. The website https://www.dhi.ac.uk/waysofbeingdigital/ provides ac­ cess to the top 50 most frequently occurring pairs and trios through a series of data visu­ alizations. Click on View Data Visualizations at the top. Then check/submit which of the seven ESRC domains you are interested in (including all). Then choose the visualization. These show configurations across selected time frames. Choose bubble chart, tree map, zoomable pack layout, or network diagram, by individual subject or by all seven subjects combined, by document or concept frequency. You can similarly search the analyzed doc­ uments (all, by subject, author, concept, concept trio, and year) by clicking on Browse Ar­ Page 39 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being ticles at the top. Also, see https://waysofbeingdigital.com/literature-analysis-interactiveresults/ for interactive visualizations with mouse-overs of the main clusters of concepts within each domain, and the relative frequency of concepts associated with each cluster.

Simeon J. Yates

Simeon J. Yates (PhD, Open University UK, 1993) is Professor of Digital Culture and Associate Pro-Vice-Chancellor Research Environment and Postgraduate Research at University of Liverpool. His research on the social, political, and cultural impacts of digital media includes a long-standing focus on digital media and interpersonal inter­ action. More recently, he has worked on projects that address issues of digital inclu­ sion and exclusion. He was seconded to the UK Government’s Department of Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS) in 2017 to act as research lead for the Digital Cul­ ture team. He remains the joint-chair of the DCMS Research Working Group on Digi­ tal Skills and Inclusion. His prior work covered topics such as the use of digital tech­ nologies in the workplace, digital media use during crises, and ICT use by the securi­ ty services. The majority of his research has been funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), EU, and industry. Simeon’s work has often been interdisciplinary and has predominantly involved creative and digital industry partners. He led on a major Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded interdisciplinary program (Engi­ neering for Life) while at Sheffield Hallam. Simeon has been researching the impacts of the internet and digital media on language and culture since 1990. His PhD thesis (1993) is a large-scale linguistic comparison of speech, writing, and online interac­ tion. Subsequent published work has covered analyses of gender differences in com­ puter-mediated communication (CMC), gender and computer gaming, email and let­ ter writing, and science in the mass media. Simeon has written text books on social research methods—in particular, linguistic and discourse analytic methods. https:// www.liverpool.ac.uk/communication-and-media/staff/simeon-yates/ Leanne Townsend

Leanne Townsend is a Senior Social Scientist working within the Social, Economic, and Geographical Sciences Group at the James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland. Leanne leads research on a number of projects exploring digitization and innovation in various rural contexts, including agriculture, rural entrepreneurship, and rural community development. Monica Whitty

Monica Whitty is Professor of Human Factors in Cyber Security at the University of Melbourne, Australia and the University of Warwick, WMG, United Kingdom. She is also on the Global Futures committee for cybersecurity for the World Economic Fo­ rum. Her research over the last 20 years has focused on the ways individuals behave in cyberspace. Her work, in particular, examines identities created in cyberspace, cy­ berscams, online security risks, behavior in cyberspace, insider threat, as well as de­ tecting and preventing cybercrimes. Monica is the author of over 100 articles, and Page 40 of 41

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ESRC Review: Health and Well-Being five books, the latest being Cyberpsychology: The study of individuals, society and digital technologies (Wiley, 2017, with Garry Young). She is currently leading an in­ terdisciplinary project funded by TIPS (ESPRC) titled, Detecting and Preventing Mass-Marketing Fraud. Ronald E. Rice

Ronald E. Rice (PhD, Stanford University, 1982) is the Arthur N. Rupe Chair in the Social Effects of Mass Communication in the Department of Communication at Uni­ versity of California, Santa Barbara. Dr. Rice has been awarded an Honorary Doctor­ ate from University of Montreal (2010), an International Communication Association (ICA) Fellow, selected President of the ICA (2006–2007), awarded a Fulbright Award to Finland (2006), and appointed as the Wee Kim Wee Professor at the School of Communication and Information and the Visiting University Professor, both at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore (Augusts 2007–2009 and June 2010). His co-authored or co-edited books include Organizations and unusual routines: A systems analysis of dysfunctional feedback processes (2010); Media ownership: Re­ search and regulation (2008); The Internet and health care: Theory, research and practice (2006); Social consequences of internet use: Access, involvement and inter­ action (2002); The Internet and health communication (2001); Accessing and brows­ ing information and communication (2001); Public communication campaigns (1981, 1989, 2001, 2012); Research methods and the new media (1988); Managing organi­ zational innovation (1987); And The new media: Communication, research and tech­ nology (1984). He has published over 150 refereed journal articles and 70 book chap­ ters. Dr. Rice has conducted research and published widely in communication sci­ ence, public communication campaigns, computer-mediated communication systems, methodology, organizational and management theory, information systems, informa­ tion science and bibliometrics, social uses and effects of the Internet, and social net­ works. http://www.comm.ucsb.edu/people/ronald-e-rice Elinor Carmi

Elinor Carmi (PhD, Media and Communications Department at Goldsmiths, Universi­ ty of London) is a digital rights advocate, feminist, researcher, and journalist who has been working, writing, and teaching on deviant media, internet standards, feministtechnoscience, sound studies, internet history, and internet governance. Currently, she is a postdoctoral research associate in digital culture and society at Liverpool University (UK), where she works on several ESRC and AHRC projects around digital ways of being, digital inclusion, and digital literacies. In addition to writing her book about spam, she is also working on two special journal issues: One about “sonic publics,” together with Ram Sinnreich for the International Journal of Communica­ tion, and the other about (re)designing time, together with Britt Paris, for Theory, Culture & Society.

Page 41 of 41

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Inter­ disciplinary Field   Adrian Meier, Emese Domahidi, and Elisabeth Günther The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.4

Abstract and Keywords The relationship between computer-mediated communication (e.g., Internet or social me­ dia use) and mental health has been a long-standing issue of debate. Various disciplines (e.g., communication, psychology, sociology, medicine) investigate computer-mediated communication in relation to a great variety of negative (i.e., psychopathology) and posi­ tive (i.e., well-being) markers of mental health. We aim at charting this vast, highly frag­ mented, and fast growing literature by means of a scoping review. Using methods of com­ putational content analysis in conjunction with qualitative analyses, we map 20 years of research based on 1,780 study abstracts retrieved through a systematic database search. Results reveal the most common topics investigated in the field, as well as its disciplinary boundaries. Our review further highlights emerging trends in the literature and points to unique implications for how future research should address the various relationships be­ tween computer-mediated communication and mental health. Keywords: computational content analysis, computer-mediated communication, Internet mental health, scoping review, social media

Introduction SINCE the earliest days of Internet, mobile phone, and social media use, researchers and the general public have debated how computer-mediated communication (CMC) is relat­ ed to mental health (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998; Kross et al., 2013; Turkle, 2011; Twenge, Martin, & Campbell, 2018). Today, various disciplines (e.g., communication, psychology, sociology, medicine) investigate a smorgasbord of CMC variables in relation to a great va­ riety of negative (i.e., psychopathology) and positive (i.e., psychological well-being) mark­ ers of mental health. Research in this field asks questions as diverse as, is loneliness a driver or outcome of Facebook use (Song et al., 2014)? Does passively browsing through Instagram increase depression levels by eliciting upward social comparison and envy

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field (Verduyn, Ybarra, Résibois, Jonides, & Kross, 2017)? Does mobile voice communication in­ crease social capital and, hence, affective well-being (Chan, 2015)? This diverse interdisciplinary field has become seemingly impossible to overview, with both primary research studies and reviews being published at what appears to be a rapid­ ly increasing rate. Currently, various reviews exist, each synthesizing only a fraction of the available evidence on the relation between CMC and mental health (e.g., Domahidi, 2018; Huang, 2010; Huang, 2017; Liu, Ainsworth, & Baumeister, 2016). This fragmented state of the research landscape calls for a higher-level integration. (p. 80) We answer this call in the form of a scoping review (Colquhoun et al., 2014; Pham et al., 2014), using both computational and qualitative methods to chart the boundaries of this emerging research field and to identify its core topics. In defining and mapping the field of CMC and mental health research, we integrate this fast-growing and interdisciplinary literature in the hopes of assisting researchers in navi­ gating through it. Therefore, this review has three main goals: 1. To assess the scope, growth, and current state of the field by tracing the develop­ ment of core topics in research on CMC and mental health for the last 20 years. 2. To characterize the publication behavior in the field, specifically by illuminating who contributes to it (i.e., journals and disciplines). 3. To identify patterns of how the key construct of mental health has been studied in relation to CMC. We first define our key constructs, CMC and mental health, and provide a brief overview of the state of the field. Guided by five research questions and three hypotheses, our scoping review then addresses the goals outlined. Results of this comprehensive assess­ ment of the literature are discussed with regard to implications for a future research agenda.

Computer-Mediated Communication and Men­ tal Health Defining Key Constructs As a first step towards an overview of the research field, the key constructs—CMC and mental health—require thorough definition. We understand both terms as umbrella con­ structs for a variety of technological (i.e., CMC) and psychological (i.e., mental health) phenomena and consequently define them broadly. We reviewed classical and more contemporary uses of the term (e.g., Hiltz & Turoff, 1978; Lee & Oh, 2015; Walther, 1992), and arrived at a broad definition of computer-me­ diated communication (CMC) as multimodal human-to-human social interaction mediated by information and communication technologies (ICTs). Social interaction here encom­ passes all forms of interpersonal behavior, including everything from mere social atten­ Page 2 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field tion (e.g., browsing through the Facebook News Feed) to deep communication (e.g., a conversation via voice call; cf. Hall, 2018). We also limit our definition to those ICTs whose primary and original—though not exclusive—function is the facilitation of CMC as social interaction (e.g., email, chat, mobile text messaging, instant messenger, social net­ work sites, but not, e.g., games). Turning to our second umbrella construct, mental health is commonly understood from two distinct perspectives: mental illness (psychopathology) and mental (p. 81) thriving (psychological well-being). Psychopathology (PTH) refers to “any pattern of behavior— broadly defined to include actions, emotions, motivations, and cognitive and regulatory processes—that causes personal distress or impairs significant life functions, such as so­ cial relationships, education, work, and health maintenance” (Lahey, Krueger, Rathouz, Waldman, & Zald, 2017, p. 143). Psychological well-being (PWB), in contrast, is under­ stood as a positive condition characterized by “optimal psychological functioning and experience” (Ryan & Deci, 2001, p. 142). Note that we exclude physical health, as well as socio-economic well-being, with these definitions. This review is based on the extended two-continua model of mental health developed by Meier and Reinecke (2020). Based on previous two-continua models (Greenspoon & Saklofske, 2001; Keyes, 2007), they integrate the PTH and PWB perspective into a coher­ ent framework and argue for a simultaneous assessment of both the negative (PTH) and positive (PWB) side of mental health in relation to CMC. Based on a review of recent PTH and PWB literature (e.g., Huta & Waterman, 2014; Lahey et al., 2017), Meier and Rei­ necke (2020) further differentiate indicators of PTH (into externalizing and internalizing disorders and symptoms) and PWB (into hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions) and com­ plement the two mental health continua with risk factors (e.g., loneliness, stress, poor sleep) and resilience factors (e.g., social resources, self-esteem), which are frequently studied in relation to CMC. Note that these risk and resilience factors are understood as important predictors of PTH and PWB, but not indicators of mental health in a strict sense. Next, we specify how CMC and mental health can relate to each other and which of these relationships is eligible for our proposed definition of the field. This review is motivated by the long-standing public and research debate on the key question of whether the avail­ ability and usage of CMC hampers or contributes to “the good life” (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998). Accordingly, we limit our review to two perspectives that address how the usage of CMC relates to indicators of mental health. In the first perspective, CMC is understood as a causal factor contributing to declines or improvements in mental health (i.e., the tech­ nology effects perspective), while in the second, mental health is understood as a causal factor explaining amount or types of CMC usage (i.e., the technology selection perspec­ tive). Other approaches to CMC and mental health (e.g., inferring mental health from CMC data traces or delivering mental health treatments via CMC) go beyond the focus of this review.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

The State of the Research Field This section provides a brief narrative overview of the development and current state of research on CMC and mental health in order to illustrate why we believe the field can benefit from a higher-level scoping review. Following a long-standing research debate about the quality of social interaction via CMC vs. face-to-face communication (e.g., Rice, 1980; Walther, 1992), the first study to explicit­ ly investigate CMC in relation to mental health and hence virtually constitute (p. 82) this field was Kraut et al.’s (1998) HomeNet study. In a longitudinal panel, 73 households were surveyed during their first two years of Internet use. Although the authors found that participants had frequently used the Internet for social interaction, higher levels of Internet use were negatively related to indicators of social involvement and mental health. The authors explained these negative effects through the displacement of offline social activity and strong tie communication. The study received various critical respons­ es (e.g., Walther & Parks, 2002) and follow-up studies both succeeded (e.g., Nie, Hillygus, & Erbring, 2002) and failed (e.g., Kraut et al., 2002) to replicate its findings. Specifically, the same authors in a later wave of the HomeNet panel found no evidence for social dis­ placement (Kraut et al., 2002). Instead, in a second sample, they reported evidence for positive effects of Internet use on mental health, at least for users high in extraversion and social support, labeling this a “rich get richer” or social enhancement effect (as com­ pared to a “poor get richer” or social compensation effect). For reviews of this early re­ search, see, for example, Bargh and McKenna (2004), Huang (2010), Katz and Rice (2002), or Valkenburg and Peter (2009). Since then, numerous studies have addressed the core question of whether Internet use and CMC impact social resources, and, hence, mental health (for recent reviews, see, e.g., Domahidi, 2018; Forsman & Nordmyr, 2015; Liu et al., 2016; Mikal, Rice, Abeyta, & DeVilbiss, 2013). However, beyond the focus on social resources, the field has markedly branched out in re­ cent years, specifically since CMC via social network sites (SNS) and mobile (smart)phones has permeated much of daily life. While researchers continue to address social resources in relation to these newer ICTs (e.g., Chan, 2015; Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007), numerous other lines of inquiry have emerged. Researchers have, for in­ stance, started to address how passively consuming others’ positively biased self-presen­ tations in SNS is linked to mental health, specifically through the lenses of social compar­ ison and envy (Verduyn et al., 2017). The authenticity of SNS self-presentations has also been linked to the mental health of the presenters themselves (Twomey & O’Reilly, 2017). Furthermore, studies have repeatedly linked “screen time” as a global indicator of ICT us­ age to the mental health of adolescents (Przybylski & Weinstein, 2017; Twenge, Martin et al., 2018). Various theoretical links between CMC and decreased or increased mental health have also been confirmed, including self-affirmation (Toma & Hancock, 2013), so­ cial sharing of emotions (Choi & Toma, 2014), extended self theory (Clayton, Leshner, & Almond, 2015), multitasking (van der Schuur, Baumgartner, Sumter, & Valkenburg, 2015), or deficient self-regulation (Meier, Reinecke, & Meltzer, 2016), among many others. Si­ multaneously, a more clinical “addiction” or “problematic usage” approach to CMC and Page 4 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field mental health has gained traction (for reviews, see, e.g., Carli et al., 2013; Tokunaga & Rains, 2010). Overall, the field appears to have grown considerably in recent years and has become in­ creasingly difficult to overview for individual researchers. While several reviews of specif­ ic relationships between forms of CMC (e.g., SNS use) and single indicators of mental health (e.g., depression) exist (e.g., Baker & Algorta, 2016), there is little awareness of the research field as a whole. This is problematic for at least two reasons: First, re­ searchers may simply not be aware of similar or related work being done outside of their “disciplinary bubbles” or “invisible colleges” (Zuccala, 2006). Without awareness (p. 83) of a field as a whole, researchers may unnecessarily “reinvent the wheel,” especially every time a new ICT grasps (younger) users’ attention. Second, while the diversity of research questions and theoretical concepts in this field seems staggering, several of the topics outlined earlier also show considerable conceptual overlap. Integrating this literature to achieve consensus about its basic concepts (i.e., CMC and mental health), their relation, as well as its core underlying themes and topics, thus appears paramount.

The Present Study: Foci, Hypotheses, and Research Questions Based on the available literature on CMC and mental health and its deficient higher-level integration as a larger research field, we arrive at three distinct foci for our review: (1) core topics, (2) publication behavior in the field, and (3) mental health concepts. 1. While our brief narrative review highlights some of the issues that research on CMC and mental health has addressed, it does so in an inherently selective manner. In con­ trast, here we aim to systematically identify a variety of core topics that have received considerable research attention in the field. Moreover, the development of these topics over time and their relative impact on the field as a whole remain unclear: While some topics may continuously dominate the field, others may have fallen or risen in research attention. Accordingly, we ask the following research questions: RQ1: What are the core topics of research on CMC and mental health? RQ2: How are the core topics distributed over time?

2. Beyond identifying core topics, we also aim to characterize the publication behavior in the research field, that is, the publication rate, publication outlets, and contribution of different disciplines. These criteria allow an assessment of the trajectory of research on CMC and mental health (publication rate) and a critical examination of who (journals and disciplines) contributes to this field. The latter, in particular, may have implications for the kind of research questions asked, the concepts studied (see focus 3: mental health concepts), and the representativeness of research findings. First, based on the increasing public debate on the relationship between CMC and mental health (e.g., Turkle, 2011; Twenge, Martin et al., 2018), a rise in systematic review arti­ cles on this issue in recent years (Meier & Reinecke, 2020), and a general upward trend Page 5 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field in overall publication output (Günther & Domahidi, 2017), we assume that this research field is growing: H1: The number of publications in CMC and mental health research has in­ creased over time. Second, we aim to identify key publication outlets that particularly contribute to research on CMC and mental health. This is important for two reasons: First, researchers previous­ ly unfamiliar with this field can benefit from knowing which key outlets to turn to for both (p. 84) targeted literature searches and to submit publications that reach an audience likely to be interested in their work. Second, publication outlets can serve as proxies to identify the contributions of different disciplines to this field (see H2 and RQ4). Accord­ ingly, we ask: RQ3: What are the key outlets that publish research on CMC and mental health? Third, beyond assessing the publication outlets, another approach to mapping a research field lies in assessing its disciplinary boundaries (e.g., de Chavez, Backett-Milburn, Parry, & Platt, 2005). Interdisciplinary research creates a rich and multifaceted literature, but may come at the price of insufficient research integration, for example, because re­ searchers are not aware of relevant work being published outside of their discipline. Our review attempts to further integration by making visible who contributes to the field of CMC and mental health. However, based on our narrative review and the nature of the subject matter studied, we feel safe to assume that the field has been particularly driven by researchers with a back­ ground in psychology (e.g., Twenge, Martin et al., 2018) and by papers published in psy­ chological journals (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998; Meier & Reinecke, 2020). Accordingly, we ex­ pect: H2: The relative majority of research on CMC and mental health is published in outlets from psychology. Beyond psychology, however, there may be various other disciplines contributing to this research field due to the increasing concern over and recognition of technology’s impact on society and the individual (see this Handbook). We thus ask: RQ4: Based on the publication outlets, which other disciplines contribute to re­ search on CMC and mental health?

3. Our definition of mental health encompasses two distinct perspectives or meta-con­ cepts, that is, psychopathology (PTH) and psychological well-being (PWB). However, past reviews have shown little attempts to reflect upon these two mental health concepts that have been studied in relation to CMC (Meier & Reinecke, 2020). For instance, Huang (2017) reviewed the literature on time spent on SNS in relation to “psychological well-be­ ing,” operationalized via self-esteem, life satisfaction, depression, and loneliness (i.e., Page 6 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field lumping together PTH and PWB indicators under the PWB label). Researchers in this field often fail to address whether the mental health indicators they empirically assessed allow statements about PTH or PWB or both (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998). Moreover, at least from a media effects perspective, the choice of mental health indicators in empirical studies should depend on whether one expects CMC to impair mental health, which should favor PTH indicators, or contribute to mental health, which should favor PWB. The choice of mental health concepts—that is, whether researchers measure indicators of PTH or PWB —thus at least partly reflects researchers’ (implicit) (p. 85) assumptions about whether CMC is more relevant for mental illness (PTH) or mental thriving (PWB). These assump­ tions may vary over time (e.g., due to researchers shifting their focus from negative to positive technology effects, or because some mental health indicators become more rele­ vant with the emergence of new ICTs) as well as discipline and topic (e.g., some disci­ plines focus on topics that relate CMC only to PTH while others focus on CMC in relation to PWB; cf. de Chavez et al., 2005). This leads us to ask: RQ5: How are the mental health concepts PTH and PWB distributed (a) over time, (b) within and between disciplines, and (c) within and between topics? While we are interested in the general trajectory of both concepts, there is some reason to believe that, overall, studies will address PTH more often than PWB. Typically, new me­ dia and communication technologies are met with cultural critique, skepticism, or even moral panic (e.g., Jensen, 1990; Buckingham & Strandgaard Jensen, 2012). This is cer­ tainly the case with CMC, as illustrated by fierce public and research debates about the impact of each new and popular ICT, especially on younger users (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998; Turkle, 2011; Twenge, Joiner, Rogers, & Martin, 2018; Walther & Parks, 2002). With re­ gard to mental health, researchers are then more likely to address CMC in relation to im­ pairments of mental health (i.e., PTH) rather than to contributions to optimal psychologi­ cal functioning (i.e., PWB). Accordingly, we expect: H3a: Overall, there will be more research investigating PTH than PWB. However, over time, researchers typically go beyond a “negative effects” paradigm and start investigating the positive potentials of media and communication technologies. Tele­ vision research, for instance, started by addressing the potentially negative impact on ag­ gression, people’s tendency to seek escape, or cultivation effects, but later turned to posi­ tive potentials for mood management and meaningful entertainment (for an overview, see Reinecke & Oliver, 2017). We expect a similar shift with regard to CMC and mental health. Specifically, we expect to see a larger increase in research studying CMC in rela­ tion to the positive (PWB) than the negative side of mental health (PTH). H3b: Over time, the rate of research investigating PWB will increase more than the rate of research investigating PTH.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

Method Scoping Review Methodology To chart the vast, highly fragmented, and fast growing literature on CMC and mental health we make use of scoping review methodology (Colquhoun et al., 2014; Pham et al., 2014). In reaction to the exponential rise in research output (Günther & Domahidi, 2017), scoping reviews have become a popular approach for research synthesis in many disci­ plines. The main function of this type of review is “to map a vast body of research litera­ ture in a field of interest in terms of the volume, nature, and characteristics of the prima­ ry research” (Pham et al., 2014, p. 371). Scoping reviews are particularly relevant when a field of interest is highly heterogeneous in nature (Mays, Roberts, & Popay, 2001) and helpful in tracing the emergence of new (sub-)fields. Moreover, they can illuminate a field’s main lines of inquiry (i.e., its topics) as well as its disciplinary boundaries; uncover gaps and trends in the literature; and, most importantly, point to future directions for fur­ ther research integration. Scoping reviews have rarely been applied in the field of communication (e.g., Peng, Zhang, Zhong, & Zhu, 2013), although research on mass media, ICTs, and CMC is inher­ ently interdisciplinary and growing fast (Günther & Domahidi, 2017). We believe that this type of review represents a useful method to assess the state of research on the relation­ ship between CMC and mental health. As research in this area is currently particularly fragmented and likely growing exponentially, a “classical” review approach that involves hand searches and manual coding would be highly resource-intensive. We therefore make use of economical and effective computational methods that have recently gained popu­ larity in communication (e.g., Günther & Domahidi, 2017; Peng et al., 2013; Rauchfleisch, 2017). Besides allowing us to conduct a scoping review based on a great amount of infor­ mation (Tsafnat et al., 2014), computational methods facilitate thematically comprehen­ sive reviews, as they are typically based on large-scale systematic sampling and quantita­ tive analysis (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). To also provide more indepth and detailed accounts of the reviewed body of literature, we combine these compu­ tational methods with qualitative manual coding wherever necessary (e.g., to select the topics relevant for our research question, or to further illustrate the meaning of topics identified by our quantitative analysis).

Sample To realize our sample of relevant studies, we systematically developed a search string covering both CMC and mental health concepts (see Table 4.1). An original string was de­ veloped and then iteratively refined and validated manually in multiple steps (e.g., by as­ sessing the number of false-positive search results). During this procedure, it became ap­ parent that certain highly prevalent terms (e.g., sex, suicide, therapy, or cancer) as well as technology and media terms not meeting our definition of CMC (e.g., games, robots, porn) needed to be explicitly excluded in order to reduce high numbers of false-positives. Page 8 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Table 4.1 Search Terms, Databases, and Concept Operationalization Search String of the Systematic Database Search AB(((Internet or cyber* or “online media” or “online communication” or “online social network*” or “online communit*” or chat* or email or “computer-mediated” or “mobile phone” or smartphone or “instant mess*” or “mobile mess*” or “social media” or “social network* site*” or “information and communication technolog*” or facebook or instagram or snapchat or twitter or wechat or weibo or texting) not gam* not robot* not porn*) and ((“well-being” or “psych* functioning” or “life satisfaction” or “satisfaction with life” or “positive affect” or “negative affect” or psychopatholog* or “mental health” or anxiety or loneliness or “self W1 esteem” or depression) not sex* not suicid* not disabil* not trauma* not patient* not emergency not therap* not training not protocol not intervent* not prevent* not care not program not cancer)). EBSCO Host Databases Searched Academic Search Ultimate; Business Source Premier; Communica­ tion Source; EconLit; ERIC; Library, Information Science & Technolo­ gy Abstracts; MEDLINE; PsycARTICLES; PsycINFO; SocINDEX with Full Text. Operationalization of Mental Health Concepts for Concept Analysis Concept 1, psychological well-being (very broadly defined, incl. re­ silience factors): “well-being” or “psych* functioning” or “life satisfac­ tion” or “satisfaction with life” or “positive affect” or “negative affect” or happiness or “social support” or “social capital” or “self-esteem” Concept 2, psychopathology (very broadly defined, incl. risk factors): psychopatholog* or anxiety or loneliness OR depress* or stress or phobia or fear or disorder or “substance abuse” or “attention-deficit” or “hyperactivity” or “ADHD” or “AD/HD” or aggress* The final search string was then applied to search articles’ abstracts via the meta-data­ base EBSCO Host from 1998 (i.e., the year of publication of Kraut et al.’s pivotal article) until April 4th 2018. EBSCO Host offers access to a wide range of databases and journals and (p. 87) allows downloading abstracts and metadata (though not full texts) for all search results as an .xml file. We searched 10 databases within EBSCO Host representing a broad variety of disciplines that may conduct research on CMC and mental health (see Table 4.1). Automated content analysis is highly dependent on language; thus, only publi­ cations in English were included. Included publication formats were journal articles, dis­ sertations, and conference proceedings.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field After downloading, we excluded all duplicates and entries with missing abstract and/or ti­ tle data, resulting in our final sample of 4,118 potentially relevant documents. All our analyses are based on articles’ abstracts and metadata (i.e., title, year of publication, journal title).

Analytical Approach Topic modeling. To process the large sample, we opted for an automated content analy­ sis, specifically topic modeling. Topic modeling is an unsupervised machine learning ap­ proach “inferring topics from recurring patterns of word occurrence in documents” (Maier et al., 2018, p. 94). Note that topic models are mixed membership ap­ proaches, meaning that documents can be associated with multiple topics (Maier et al., 2018). Given the characteristics of our sample (i.e., topics are likely to be correlated), we estimated a (p. 88) Correlated Topic Model (CTM) based on the text in articles’ abstracts (Blei & Lafferty, 2009). Common preprocessing steps such as word stemming and TFIDF weighting were implemented (Manning, Raghavan, & Schütze, 2008) with the R package tm:0.7-3 (Feinerer, Hornik, & Meyer, 2008). Following a common approach, we estimated 90 topic models from k = 20 to k = 200 in order to find the number of topics k that deliv­ ers the best model fit for our data. We then estimated our CTM with the resulting para­ meter value of k = 110 topics using the R topicmodels_0.2-7 package (Grün & Hornik, 2011). Based on the estimated hyperparameter values, we observed a few dominant top­ ics per document (instead of a high number of equally distributed topics). To avoid skewed results, we selected the two topics with the highest probability, meaning the like­ lihood that a topic k occurs in a given abstract. Additionally, we only considered topics with a minimum probability of 0.1 in a given abstract. Manual topic selection and merger. After the automated analysis, we manually checked abstracts and titles for all topics that appeared as first or second most probable in more than 50 documents (Maier et al., 2018). Out of the identified 110 topics, we man­ ually selected only those topics that fit our specific research focus for further analysis (see the section on Defining key constructs). This manual topic selection resulted in a re­ duction of our sample to 15 topics (N = 1780 abstracts). All analyses are based on this re­ duced sample. We then merged the 15 topics into nine based on our qualitative assess­ ment that they showed high thematic overlap. That is, we retained the algorithmically identified 15 topics, but manually grouped them together on a more general level, based on common research themes investigated in these topics. This merger was done to en­ sure a parsimonious yet still exhaustive analysis. For each of the nine merged topics, we chose a label that best represents its content on a conceptual level above and beyond the words associated with each topic (see Table 4.2). Publication behavior in the field. Journal names were determined from article metada­ ta. Additionally, we manually coded journals’ disciplinary affiliations for all journals that had published three or more articles in our sample. Coding was based on a journal’s So­ cial Science Citation Index (SSCI) categorization (see end of chapter for URL). In a few cases, journals were not listed in the SSCI; disciplinary affiliations were then coded based Page 10 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field on the journal’s self-description taken from its web presence. In a next step, SSCI sub-dis­ cipline categories (e.g., developmental psychology, social psychology, clinical psychology) were grouped in broad disciplines (e.g., psychology) to ensure comparability of results across a reasonable number of disciplines. Note that journals can be listed for multiple disciplines in the SSCI and were coded and analyzed accordingly (71 journals belonged to only one discipline, 30 belonged to two disciplines, five belonged to three disciplines, and two belonged to four disciplines). Publication outlets other than journals (e.g., Disserta­ tion Abstracts databases) were not coded for disciplinary affiliation. Concepts. The two key mental health concepts, psychopathology (PTH) and psychologi­ cal well-being (PWB), were identified via a keyword search based on lists of relevant ex­ pressions which we applied to the downloaded abstracts, title, and keywords of all (p. 89) 1780 documents (see Table 4.1). The keyword search included terms from our literature search string as well as additional terms originally not included in the literature search string due to high rates of false-positive search results (e.g., “social capital” or “disor­ der”). We ensured that both concepts were operationalized with roughly the same num­ ber of keywords to avoid bias. Software. All data management, cleaning, and analysis was performed using R (R Core Team, 2018). All visualization was done with the R package ggplot2_2.2.1 (Wickham, 2009).

Results Core Topics To answer RQ1, we illustrate each topic based on example research themes derived from documents associated with each of the 15 topics grouped into nine core topics (see Table 4.2). Due to the high number of documents, we can only include exemplary citations for each topic, taken from the complete topic modeling dataset (N = 1780). These only serve to illustrate a topic and do not represent the definitive state of the respective sub-field. However, we generally chose the most recent and most thematically fitting publications in order to provide an accurate description of the current state of the topic. The complete references for these citations can be found in the appendix. Topics are sorted in descend­ ing order based on the (aggregated) number of documents associated with each topic.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Table 4.2 CTM with 15 Manually Selected Topics Merged into Nine Thematically Overlapping Topic Clusters, Sorted by Aggregated Fre­ quencies (k = 110, N = 1780, Max. 2 topics/Document, Prob ≥ 0.1) Top­ ic

Label

Most relevant preprocessed words

Freq

1a

Internet addic­ tion & problem­ atic Internet use

addict, selfesteem, impuls, iad, iat, turkey, comorbid, sclr, ex­ cess, nonaddict

265

1b

Internet addic­ tion & problem­ atic Internet use

problemat, alcohol, piu, drink, addict, fomo, cellphon, excess, impuls, heavi

167

2a

Facebook & SNS use

facebook, selfesteem, updat, lone, extravers, passiv, gratif,

322

impress, upward, selfpresent 2b

Facebook & SNS use

sns, selfpresent, authent, un­ certainti, reconnect, passiv,

70

snapchat, offlin, acquaint, tie 3a

Mobile & smart­ phone use

mobil, phone, spiritu, nurs, leisur, app, send, nomophobia,

233

recreat, smart, dses 3b

Mobile & smart­ phone use

smartphon, selfefficaci, exercis, app, taiwan, disposit, gratif, tablet, locus, multitask

153

4a

Relationships & CMC

attach, style, gay, men, stressor, homoneg, secur, bisexu, ro­ mant, insecur

105

4b

Relationships & CMC

selfdisclosur, intimaci, romant, computermedi, disclosur, wei­ bo, avatar, cue, partner, wechat

89

4c

Relationships & CMC

friendship, girl, violenc, date, boy, sibl, domest, violent, grade, parentchild

84

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field 5a

Chatting & tex­ ting

loneli, chat, room, selfesteem, selfconcept, ciu, compuls, in­ stant, clariti, teenag

141

5b

Chatting & tex­ ting

text, partner, talk, instant, voic, channel, afford, retic, sms, textmessag,

63

6

Cyberbullying

victim, cyberbulli, bulli, cyber, aggress, peer, cybervictim, per­ petr, selfesteem, harass

185

7

ICT adoption

ict, incom, rural, swb, house­ hold, inequ, farm, agricultur, urban, broadband

136

8

Work-related CMC

job, employe, workplac, worker, workrel, worklif, intrus,

115

burnout, supervisor, turnov 9

ICT use & sleep

sleep, insomnia, disturb, hy­ gien, sensor, pittsburgh, perfec­

72

tionist, telepressur, perfection, baselin Internet addiction & problematic Internet use. Internet addiction (IA; topic 1a) is a controversially debated, but dominant, approach to the study of CMC and mental health since the earliest days of commercial Internet use (e.g., Young & Rodgers, 1998). It postu­ lates that excessive Internet use—for some—can result from or reflect impulse control, substance abuse, or compulsive disorders (Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006). While some use the terminology interchangeably, problematic or pathological Internet use (PIU; 1b) often represents one of several alternative approaches to this issue (e.g., Caplan, 2003; Karde­ felt-Winther, 2014; Tokunaga, 2014). PIU recognizes problematic behaviors surrounding (excessive) Internet use, but does not necessarily see these behaviors as indicative of be­ havioral addiction. Numerous studies have linked IA/PIU to various psychopathological symptoms and disor­ ders (e.g., Floros, Siomos, Stogiannidou, Giouzepas, & Garyfallos, 2014) or lacking social resources (e.g., Wu et al., 2016). However, beyond providing evidence of construct validi­ ty and assessing comorbidity, studies finding negative relationships between IA/PIU and mental health appear somewhat tautological, as its measures often include impaired men­ tal health as a diagnostic criterion. Furthermore, a much contended issue pertains to the causal direction between comorbid psychopathology and IA/PIU (e.g., Carli et al., 2013).

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Facebook & SNS use. With the rise of SNS, specifically Facebook, a second large research topic has emerged. Often, studies extend classic research on CMC and mental health (e.g., on the displacement of face-to-face contact) to the SNS context (e.g., Dienlin, Masur, & Trepte, 2017). While some studies appear largely atheoretical and “effectsdriven” (e.g., Huang, 2017; Shakya & Christakis, 2017), increasingly research (p. 91) illu­ minates how the passive consumption of others’ (often positively biased) self-presenta­ tions on SNS elicits upward social comparison and emotional reactions such as envy (e.g., Blease, 2015; Kross et al., 2013; Tromholt, 2016; Verduyn et al., 2015). Some of this re­ search gathers under the label of “Facebook depression” (Steers, 2016). In contrast to this negative perspective on SNS and mental health, much work has assessed positive mental health effects of social support and social capital derived from SNS use (e.g., Nabi, Prestin, & So, 2013), albeit also finding mixed results (e.g., Utz & Breuer, 2017). Another theme within this broader topic has been the relationship between individuals’ loneliness and their SNS use (i.e., social compensation vs. social enhancement; e.g., Song et al., 2014). It should be noted that the Facebook sub-topic (2a) was considerably more frequent than the general SNS topic (2b), reflecting a “Facebook bias” in this research (see Table 4.2). (p. 90)

Mobile & smartphone use. Research on the role of mobile phones (3a) and smart­ phones (3b) in mental health shows a variety of themes: Epidemiological and medical work, for example, is linking mobile screen time to impaired mental health, especially among adolescent users (e.g., Babic et al., 2017). Early mobile research, in contrast, has identified the emotional attachment that users have to their mobile devices as a doubleedged sword (Vincent, 2006), providing positive feelings of connectedness to social ties, but eliciting anxiety once the mobile is absent (sometimes termed “nomophobia”; e.g., Hoffner, Lee, & Park, 2016). Another recent line of research investigates “phubbing,” the snubbing of conversation partners by using mobiles phones during face-to-face talk, which has been linked to reduced quality of social interactions and relationship satisfac­ tion (e.g., Rotondi, Stanca, & Tomasuolo, 2017). Studies have also investigated the posi­ tive (Pearson, Mack, & Namanya, 2017) and negative (Xie, Zhao, Xie, & Lei, 2016) sides of mobile phone usage in rural and developing areas. Relationships & CMC. This topic encompasses three—partly overlapping—research foci that are tied together by their common theme of how people use CMC to develop and maintain relationships: attachment theory, self-disclosure, and friendship and dating via CMC. Research on attachment theory (4a) investigates how different attachment styles (e.g., anxious vs. avoidant) impact CMC usage in (romantic) relationships (Oldmeadow, Quinn, & Kowert, 2013) and its effects on relationship well-being (e.g., intimacy or satisfaction). Morey, Gentzler, Creasy, Oberhauser, and Westerman (2013), for instance, find that at­ tachment style moderated most of the effects between CMC and relationship quality. Oth­ er work has studied how attachment style is related to using CMC for break-ups or moni­ toring of ex-partners via SNS (Weisskirch & Delevi, 2012).

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Self-disclosure (4b) crucially contributes to maintaining interpersonal relationships and receiving social support, and is hence beneficial for mental health. Often coming from a hyperpersonal perspective (e.g., High & Caplan, 2009), this line of research investigates how social anxiety relates to more disinhibited disclosures in CMC (Schouten, Valken­ burg, & Peter, 2007) and provides evidence for social compensation (“poor get richer”) ef­ fects (Weidman et al., 2012). Finally, research on friendship and dating via CMC (4c) finds further evidence for such compensation effects (e.g., Desjarlais & Willoughby, 2010; Selfhout, Branje, Delsing, ter Bogt, & Meeus, 2009), but also for social enhancement (“rich get richer”) effects in online dating (Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). In dating relationships among adolescents, the role of social anxiety has further been studied with regard to “electronic intrusion,” that is, overcontrolling behavior towards one’s partner via CMC (Reed, Tolman, Ward, & Safy­ er, 2016). (p. 92)

Chatting & texting. The research clustered around chatting (5a) and texting (5b) inves­ tigates several of the issues outlined previously with a specific focus on text-based CMC. Partly in reaction to Kraut et al.’s (1998) survey, researchers have, for instance, assessed the relation between chatting and mental health experimentally and found positive effects —specifically, reductions in depression and loneliness as well as increases in social sup­ port and self-esteem (e.g., Shaw & Gant, 2002). However, researchers have also studied chatting and texting from an addiction perspective, sometimes under the label of compul­ sive Internet use (CIU; van den Eijnden, Meerkerk, Vermulst, Spijkerman, & Engels, 2008), and found CIU to be linked longitudinally to higher depression levels. Text messag­ ing has also been differentially associated with relationship well-being (Park, Lee, & Chung, 2016) and affective well-being (Hall, 2017). Notably, many studies in this topic as­ sess and confirm mental health variables as predictors (e.g., loneliness, social anxiety, or depression symptoms), rather than outcomes of texting behavior (e.g., Coyne, PadillaWalker, & Holmgren, 2018; Reid & Reid, 2010). Cyberbullying. The phenomenon of cyberbullying (6) has received much research atten­ tion over the past 20 years (Chen, Ho, & Lwin, 2017). Researchers have, for instance, studied whether cyberbullying extends or replaces offline bullying (Kubiszewski, Fontaine, Potard, & Auzoult, 2015) and tested whether cyberbullying uniquely contributes to victims’ mental health impairments when controlling for offline bullying (Hase, Gold­ berg, Smith, Stuck, & Campain, 2015; Sjursø, Fandrem, & Roland, 2014). Typical out­ comes of cyber victimization include internalizing and externalizing psychopathology (Schultze-Krumbholz, Jäkel, Schultze, & Scheithauer, 2012), and stress (Wright, 2015). Researchers have also found psychopathology to predict whether adolescents become cy­ berbullies (Chen et al., 2017). Research on this topic shows a unique focus on children and adolescents, but has also recognized cyberbullying as a prevalent phenomenon in the workplace (Vranjes, Baillien, Vandebosch, Erreygers, & de Witte, 2018) and in the form of online trolling behavior (Hong & Cheng, 2018).

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field ICT adoption. This topic (7) focusses on how the adoption of or access to ICTs affect the well-being of different (marginalized) populations (e.g., elderly, rural inhabitants, low-in­ come individuals, inhabitants of developing regions; Greyling, 2018; Ihm & Hsieh, 2015; Tseng & Hsieh, 2015). Some of this research comes from a digital divide or digital in­ equality perspective (e.g., Nie, Sousa-Poza, & Nimrod, 2017), studying differences in ac­ cess, adoption, and effects depending on various sociodemographic factors. In contrast to emphasizing the desirability of equal access to ICTs, researchers have also proposed that increased ICT access can negatively affect well-being, for instance, by (p. 93) raising ma­ terial aspirations (Lohmann, 2015). Overall, research on this topic takes a more sociologi­ cal and economical macro perspective. Work-related CMC. With the radical shift in work-environments towards email and mo­ bile communication, research has been paying attention to the role that CMC plays for workers’ well-being (8). For instance, research has explored how email usage contributes to “technostress” and burnout (Carmago, 2008; Ninaus, Diehl, Terlutter, Chan, & Huang, 2015) or the well-being tradeoffs made when resisting interruptions from emails during work tasks (Russell, Woods, & Banks, 2017). Research by Sonnentag, Reinecke, Mata, and Vorderer (2018), however, shows that the effects of interruptions through messages at work are not uniformly negative and depend on the user’s responsiveness. The impact of incivility in email communication on well-being within organizations is another theme within this topic (e.g., Giumetti, McKibben, Hatfield, Schroeder, & Kowalski, 2012). Con­ cerning positive effects, researchers also recognize the potential of CMC technologies to allow for micro-breaks at work, facilitating recovery and, hence, well-being (Ivarsson & Larsson, 2011). ICT use & sleep. Finally, emerging research increasingly links ICT use to poor sleep quality (9), for example, through sleep displacement (e.g., Rosen, Carrier, Miller, Rokkum, & Ruiz, 2016; Thomée, Eklöf, Gustafsson, Nilsson, & Hagberg, 2007). Poor sleep is a cru­ cial risk factor for various psychopathologies. Research on this topic has found increased social media use, both overall and nighttime-specific, to be linked to decreased sleep quality among adolescents (Woods & Scott, 2016). A study also found that the collapse of social contexts resulting from constant connectivity via ubiquitously used ICTs created “telepressure” among college students (Barber & Santuzzi, 2017), which contributed to poorer sleep hygiene (e.g., not going to bed at a regular time).

Changes over Time Concerning the development of these nine core topics over time (RQ2), some topics did increase particularly sharply in the last decade (see Figure 4.1). While topic 2 “Facebook & SNS use” is only represented with one publication in 1998 and only two in 2008, in the year 2017 we already find 62 publications on the topic. The same is true for topic 1 “In­ ternet addiction & problematic Internet use,” a topic only represented with four publica­ tions in 1998 and eleven in 2008, but 74 in 2017. Other topics such as topic 6 “cyberbul­ lying” (2002: n = 1, 2008: n = 1, 2017: n = 28) increased less in the last decade. Overall,

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field we observe a sharp increase in research on CMC and mental health since 1998. Accord­ ingly, H1 was supported.

Figure 4.1 Distribution of nine core topics over time.

Publication Behavior in the Field Concerning RQ3, the number of outlets for research on CMC and mental health is very high, with 715 different publication outlets in our final sample. However, the number of (p. 94) (p. 95) documents per outlet is often low (i.e., the distribution is highly skewed to­ wards a few outlets that publish most of the research in the field). Figure 4.2 displays the output of the 20 outlets with the highest number of documents in our sample. When inter­ preting these results, it is important to keep in mind that outlets differ both in terms of how far their archives date back, and in their yearly output (affected by number of issues per year and articles per issue). We clearly find two psychological journals, Computers in Human Behavior (n = 174) and Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking (n = 110) to have published the largest relative share of research on CMC and mental health. Interestingly, genuine communication journals do not play an important role, with only the Journal of Computer Mediated Communication (n = 14) among the top 20 publication outlets. Note that while journals dominate the publication outlets, there is also a high number of dissertations on CMC and mental health both in the “Sciences and Engineering” (Diss. Abstract B, n = 133) and “Humanities and Social Sciences” (Diss. Ab­ stracts A, n = 51).

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

Figure 4.2 Top 20 journals.

We also analyzed the relative importance of disciplines for this research field. Clearly (see Figure 4.3), psychology is the discipline publishing most research on CMC and mental health (n = 510). We thus find support for H2. To answer RQ4, we look at the other disci­ plines and find psychiatry (117), other social sciences (101), health and medicine (74), and other (the residual category; 70), followed by communication (69), computer and in­ formation science (60), and education (55) to considerably contribute to this field. The re­ maining publications (n = 832) were either scattered over other outlets (e.g., Diss. Ab­ stracts), which we could not clearly classify by discipline, or they were (p. 96) published in journals with fewer than three articles on CMC and mental health and hence not included in this analysis. Disciplines vary with regard to their growth rates of publications on CMC and mental health. Communication is not represented in the year 1998, has three articles in 2008, while the rate increased fourfold to 13 articles in 2017. Psychology has a similar output of only three articles in 1998 and 11 in 2008, but an almost sevenfold increase to 73 articles in 2017. The interest of psychology in CMC and mental health research thus seems to have increased particularly sharply.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

Figure 4.3 Distribution of articles per discipline over time.

Mental Health Concepts In order to answer RQ5a and test H3, we searched for terms representing each of the two concepts, psychopathology (PTH) and psychological well-being (PWB), in our sample. In general (see Figure 4.4), we found that research on PTH (n = 1205) is more prevalent than on PWB (n = 808). We thus find support for H3a. However, a number of publications addressed both concepts simultaneously (n = 368)—that is, they included both terms as­ sociated with PTH and terms associated with PWB. Note that 135 abstracts could not be classified in our sample as they included neither a term indicative of PTH or of PWB; specifically, the search term “mental health” was considered to capture both concepts and thus not included in the concept analysis (see Table 4.1 for details on the terms used). In order to test H3b we look at the increase over time in number of publications contain­ ing each concept. While PTH is represented with seven publications in the year 1998, and 32 in 2008, in 2017 we find 176 publications. PWB is represented with five publications in 1998, 19 in 2008, and 128 in 2017. While the increase rate is the same for both concepts (p. 97) for the last two decades (factor 25), we find a slightly higher increase for PWB in the last decade (factor 6.7) than for PTH (factor 5.5). Hence, we find weak support for H3b.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

Figure 4.4 Distribution of mental health concepts over time.

With regard to RQ5b, we find differences concerning the disciplines that publish research on both concepts (see Table 4.3). While in communication journals the concept PTH (n = 49) is only 1.1 times as common as the concept PWB (n = 37), in psychology the rate is 1.8 (PTH: n = 397; PWB: n = 222), and in psychiatry studies on PTH (n = 90) were three times more common than on PWB (n = 31).

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Table 4.3 Mental Health Concepts Distributed over Disciplines Discipline

PTH

PWB

Both

Not classified

Communication

49

37

21

4

Psychology

397

222

121

12

Psychiatry

90

31

16

12

Education

40

27

14

2

Health & Medical Sciences

43

30

13

14

Computer & Infor­ mation Sciences

37

32

14

5

Social Sciences (Other)

65

51

19

4

Other disciplines

45

32

11

4

Note: PTH = psychopathology; PWB = psychological well-being. Based on the data from our CTM with manual se­ lection of 15 relevant topics, merged into nine topics based on high thematic overlap, k = 110, N = 1780, max. 2 top­ ics/document with topic probability ≥ 0.1.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Regarding the question of how the two mental health concepts are distributed over topics (RQ5c), we find several noteworthy differences (see Table 4.4). In most topics such as “In­ ternet addiction & PIU,” “mobile & smartphone use,” “relationships & CMC,” (p. 98) “chatting & texting,” “cyberbullying,” and “ICT use & sleep,” we find a clear focus on PTH. On the contrary, research on “Facebook & SNS use” shows an almost balanced dis­ tribution of the concepts, while in the topics “ICT adoption” and “work-related ICT use” we find more publications on PWB.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Table 4.4 Mental Health Concepts Distributed over Topics Topic

PTH

PWB

Both

Not Classified

Internet addiction & PIU

355

138

88

27

Facebook & SNS use

254

231

105

12

Mobile & smart­ phone use

231

159

52

48

Relationships & CMC

194

113

50

21

Chatting & texting

180

82

63

5

Cyberbullying

151

66

43

11

ICT adoption

47

96

17

10

Work-related CMC

67

81

41

8

ICT use & sleep

52

25

13

8

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Note: PTH = psychopathology; PWB = psychological well-being; based on the data from our CTM with manual se­ lection of 15 relevant topics, merged into nine topics based on high thematic overlap, k = 110, N = 1780, max. 2 top­ ics/document with topic probability ≥ 0.1.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field

Discussion Summary and Contribution Since the mid-1990s, Internet and ICT use has firmly established itself in the everyday lives of billions of people around the globe (International Telecommunications Union, 2018). As this Handbook summarizes, a large part of our daily social behavior is now me­ diated by technology. The question of whether and how such computer-mediated commu­ nication is related to the mental health of users has been the center of much public de­ bate and research attention. With the emergence of new, heterogeneous, and interdisci­ plinary lines of research on CMC and mental health (Meier & Reinecke, 2020), the chal­ lenge of defining and navigating this field has arisen. We face this challenge by present­ ing this scoping review, which identifies core topics as well as structural properties of the field. Our results underline that research interest in CMC and mental health has increased dra­ matically in the last 10 years. Beyond the general increase in publication output across disciplines (e.g., Günther & Domahidi, 2017), a likely explanation for this is the radical es­ tablishment of social media (e.g., SNS) and smartphones in daily life, and an increase in societies’ and researchers’ concerns surrounding their potential impact (e.g., Twenge, Martin et al., 2018). With regard to the core topics, research on Internet addiction and problematic Internet usage clearly dominates the field. However, there is a variety of top­ ics that offer alternative approaches to the study of CMC and mental health. Specifically, there is a strong and fast growing research focus on Facebook and SNS, as well as on mo­ bile (smart)phone usage, and the role that CMC plays in close interpersonal relationships. Our qualitatively derived topic descriptions imply that, instead of largely atheoretical overpathologizing of everyday life behavior (Billieux, Schimmenti, Khazaal, Maurage, & Heeren, 2015), researchers now also apply more fine-grained theoretical approaches that specify both how CMC can impact mental health (e.g., social comparison or attachment theory) and how mental health can be a predictor rather than an outcome of CMC (e.g., social compensation vs. social enhancement). The topics also highlight that while the fo­ cus of the first research decade (i.e., how CMC impacts social resources) is still very much present in the literature (Domahidi, 2018), there are numerous other important connections between CMC and users’ mental health that receive considerable research attention. Our qualitative topic descriptions also further specify the fragmentation and lack of theo­ retical integration of the research field. While research on some topics such as (p. 99) “ICT adoption” or “ICT use & sleep” seems to focus more on global usage indicators such as access to ICTs or time spent in front of screens, research on other topics investigates the interpersonal communication unfolding within a specific ICT channel (see, e.g., “rela­ tionships & CMC”). That is, research on different topics focuses on different aspects and indicators of CMC, with potentially unique implications for its relation to mental health. A Page 25 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field much needed systematization and integration of these different operationalizations of CMC would go beyond the focus of this scoping review, representing an important im­ pulse for future research. Concerning mental health, both topics and disciplines differed in how much they ad­ dressed the two key concepts, psychopathology and psychological well-being. Overall, the research in this field emphasizes PTH, which may indicate a dominant presumption that CMC is more related to mental illness than to mental thriving. While this could also be in­ terpreted as studies investigating how CMC reduces risks of mental illness (hence also fo­ cusing on PTH instead of PWB), the topics identified here suggest that this was not a common approach in our sample. However, some topics showed a focus on PWB, while only research on the topic “Facebook & SNS use” overall equally addressed both PTH and PWB concepts. We also found research on PWB to increase slightly more frequently in the last decade, potentially indicating researchers’ increasing—or reemerging (cf. Hiltz & Turoff, 1978)—recognition of the positive potentials of CMC for PWB. We encourage fu­ ture researchers to further reflect upon whether a sole focus on negative (PTH) or posi­ tive (PWB) markers of mental health is justified for their specific research question and whether their investigation can benefit from a more comprehensive appreciation of the full mental health spectrum (Meier & Reinecke, 2020). Concerning the structural properties of the field, we find clear evidence for a dominance of psychological research. This appears understandable, given that any study of human behavior in relation to mental health requires a thorough understanding of the human psyche. However, it may also affect the kind of research questions that are (not) studied with regard to CMC and mental health. While psychological research typically focusses on an individual’s cognition, affect, and behavior vis-à-vis CMC, sociological research, for instance, may seek to explain relationships between CMC and mental health by investi­ gating differences in users’ network structures (e.g., Haythornthwaite, 2005). Similarly, communication research may add a more detailed conceptualization of different aspects of communication unfolding within CMC channels (e.g., Walther & Parks, 2002), instead of conflating them in global “time spent” or “screen time” indicators of technology use. More research from perspectives beyond psychology may thus help fully understand how CMC affects and is affected by ICT users’ mental health.

Limitations The results of this scoping review need to be interpreted in light of several limitations concerning both sampling and analysis. First, our review only includes publications that explicitly mentioned both CMC and mental health concepts (as operationalized by our (p. 100) search string) in their abstracts. Many more empirical and theoretical articles may inform research on how CMC relates to mental health and vice versa, but fail to men­ tion this in their abstracts. Second, our review relies on a systematically drawn sample of publications on CMC and mental health. Systematic reviews, in general, can hardly include all available literature Page 26 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field or even draw a representative sample, as the population of relevant documents is typical­ ly unknown. Instead, we aimed to balance the precision of our search (e.g., by excluding certain terms that resulted in high numbers of false-positives) with an adequately com­ prehensive recall of eligible articles (e.g., by relying on a broad interdisciplinary database search). Still, some research that may be relevant to this field could not be included here. For instance, we explicitly excluded the search term “suicide” due to very high numbers of false-positives in our initial literature searches. Research on how some forms of CMC (e.g., SNS use) may be related to suicide is thus not represented here (e.g., Twenge, Join­ er et al., 2018). Third, the accessibility of databases used for sampling is contingent on a researcher’s institutional access to EBSCO Host, which in our case was provided by the Free University of Berlin, Germany. Fourth, each journal’s terms of publication (frequen­ cy of issues and number of articles per year), the year in which a journal was launched, and the extent to which older issues are digitized determine the availability and total number of abstracts and metadata online. Not all journal archives are fully digitized; thus, some relevant abstracts may be missing from our dataset. Fifth, we only included re­ search published in English. Research from some parts of the world is likely underrepre­ sented in this review. Concerning our topic modeling analysis, a number of characteristics of this approach need to be taken into account when interpreting the results. First, given the generally in­ creasing rates of scientific outputs (Günther & Domahidi, 2017), a characteristic of our sample is that the number of journals and abstracts has increased over time. As such, the choice of the most relevant words per topic (see Table 4.2) is likely to be skewed towards recently published research. It should also be emphasized that a traditional manual cod­ ing of research topics may have resulted in a different set of topics. Topic modeling repre­ sents a large-scale, data-driven, and bottom-up approach to the identification of research topics and does not require an a priori coding scheme that predefines what constitutes a research topic. As the two approaches (computational vs. manual) are analytically (bot­ tom-up vs. top-down) and pragmatically different (feasibility for large vs. small samples), they are likely to arrive at different results. None of these arguments represents a limita­ tion in a strict sense, but should be kept in mind when evaluating the topic modeling re­ sults. Concerning the impact of different disciplines on the research field, we only assessed dis­ ciplines based on journals’ SSCI categories and our manual aggregation of these cate­ gories into broad groups of disciplines. However, researchers from various disciplines may publish in journals relevant to their research topics, not just those from their home discipline. For example, communication researchers also publish in psychological journals (e.g., Meier et al., 2016). Accordingly, our statements about disciplinary impact are only based on journals’, not researchers’, disciplinary affiliations. Moreover, 34% of (p. 101) coded journals belonged to more than one discipline, indicating that many journals them­ selves are somewhat interdisciplinary. Also, while our sample includes over 700 publica­ tion outlets, some of these may be duplicates due to slightly different spelling in different databases searched by EBSCO Host. We only deduplicated outlets with three or more Page 27 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field documents in our sample. Accordingly, the actual number of unique outlets may be slight­ ly lower. Finally, with regard to our two umbrella constructs, CMC and mental health, we only ana­ lyzed the mental health concepts PTH and PWB in detail. A similar analysis with regard to CMC concepts could not be realized, as a consistent typology of CMC concepts is current­ ly missing from the literature and would go beyond the scope of this review.

Future Research Agenda Based on this review, we suggest several directions for future research. First, researchers should reflect more on whether their research question implies a relation between CMC and PTH, or PWB, or both. Addressing both PWB and PTH appears preferable, as it avoids overlooking potential positive associations between CMC and mental health that are difficult to capture with PTH indicators only (and vice versa). Second, future research syntheses on this field should treat PTH and PWB in a more detailed manner than was possible here. For instance, research on CMC and mental health could be further differ­ entiated by whether externalizing versus internalizing PTH or hedonic versus eudaimonic PWB is addressed (Meier & Reinecke, 2020). Third, theory-driven research beyond a psy­ chological and clinical (e.g., addiction) paradigm is much needed to achieve a fuller un­ derstanding of the complex relationships between CMC and mental health. Fourth, a more in-depth and systematic synthesis of research from some of the broader topics (e.g., “Facebook & SNS use,” “relationships & CMC,” or “mobile & smartphone use”) appears warranted in order to assess how relationships between specific aspects of CMC (e.g., ac­ tive vs. passive SNS use) differ with regard to mental health. Finally, while our concept analysis only focused on mental health, we encourage researchers to develop analytical frameworks for the analysis of the various concepts and indicators of CMC that have been studied in relation to mental health. Without a more systematic approach to both umbrel­ la constructs, CMC and mental health, further integration of the fast growing literature is hampered. We believe that our review represents one step in this direction by providing a first higher-level overview of the emerging research field and by charting its development over the last 20 years.

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A comple­ mentary strategy for improving national mental health. The American Psychologist, 62(2), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.2.95 Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford, A. (2002). In­ ternet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49–74. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/1540-4560.00248 Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukophadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psycho­ logical well-being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017–1031. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0003-066X.53.9.1017 Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., … Sueur, C. (2013). Face­ book use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLOS One, 8(8), e69841. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841 Lahey, B. B., Krueger, R. F., Rathouz, P. J., Waldman, I. D., & Zald, D. H. (2017). A hierar­ chical causal taxonomy of psychopathology across the life span. Psychological Bulletin, 143(2), 142–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000069 Lee, E.-J., & Oh, S. Y. (2015). Computer-mediated communication. Retrieved from http:// www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756841/ obo-9780199756841-0160.xml Liu, D., Ainsworth, S. E., & Baumeister, R. F. (2016). A meta-analysis of social networking online and social capital. Review of General Psychology, 20(4), 369–391. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/gpr0000091 Maier, D., Waldherr, A., Miltner, P., Wiedemann, G., Niekler, A., Keinert, A., … Adam, S. (2018). Applying LDA topic modeling in communication research: Toward a valid and reli­ able methodology. Communication Methods and Measures, 12(2–3), 93–118. https:// doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2018.1430754 Manning, C. D., Raghavan, P., & Schütze, H. (2008). Introduction to information retrieval. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (p. 104)

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Wickham, H. (2009). ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. New York: Springer. Zuccala, A. (2006). Modeling the invisible college. Journal of the American Society for In­ formation Science and Technology, 57(2), 152–168. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20256

Appendix: Publications Analyzed from the Topic Modeling Dataset (N = 1780) Used for Topic Description Babic, M. J., Smith, J. J., Morgan, P. J., Eather, N., Plotnikoff, R. C., & Lubans, D. R. (2017). Longitudinal associations between changes in screen-time and mental health outcomes in adolescents. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 12, 124–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.mhpa.2017.04.001 Barber, L. K., & Santuzzi, A. M. (2017). Telepressure and college student employment: The costs of staying connected across social contexts. Stress and Health, 33(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2668 Blease, C. R. (2015). Too many ‘friends,’ too few ‘likes’? Evolutionary psychology and ‘Facebook depression’. Review of General Psychology, 19(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/gpr0000030 (p. 106)

Caplan, S. E. (2003). Preference for online social interaction: A theory of problem­

atic Internet use and psychosocial well-being. Communication Research, 30(6), 625–648. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650203257842 Carli, V., Durkee, T., Wasserman, D., Hadlaczky, G., Despalins, R., Kramarz, E., … Kaess, M. (2013). The association between pathological internet use and comorbid psychopathol­ ogy: A systematic review. Psychopathology, 46(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/ 10.1159/000337971 Carmago, M. R. (2008). A grounded theory study of the relationship between e-mail and burnout. Information Research, 13(4), paper 383. Chen, L., Ho, S. S., & Lwin, M. O. (2017). A meta-analysis of factors predicting cyberbully­ ing perpetration and victimization: From the social cognitive and media effects approach. New Media & Society, 19(8), 1194–1213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816634037 Coyne, S. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Holmgren, H. G. (2018). A six-year longitudinal study of texting trajectories during adolescence. Child Development, 89(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12823 Desjarlais, M., & Willoughby, T. (2010). A longitudinal study of the relation between ado­ lescent boys’ and girls’ computer use with friends and friendship quality: Support for the social compensation or the rich-get-richer hypothesis? Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 896–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.02.004

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Dienlin, T., Masur, P. K., & Trepte, S. (2017). Reinforcement or displacement? The reci­ procity of FtF, IM, and SNS communication and their effects on loneliness and life satis­ faction. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 22(2), 71–87. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jcc4.12183 Floros, G., Siomos, K., Stogiannidou, A., Giouzepas, I., & Garyfallos, G. (2014). The rela­ tionship between personality, defense styles, Internet addiction disorder, and psy­ chopathology in college students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 17(10), 672–676. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0182 Giumetti, G. W., McKibben, E. S., Hatfield, A. L., Schroeder, A. N., & Kowalski, R. M. (2012). Cyber incivility @ work: The new age of interpersonal deviance. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(3), 148–154. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber. 2011.0336 Greyling, T. (2018). Internet access and its relationship to subjective well-being in a de­ veloping region. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 21(1), a1841. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1841 Hall, J. (2017). The experience of mobile entrapment in daily life. Journal of Media Psy­ chology, 29(3), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000228 Hase, C. N., Goldberg, S. B., Smith, D., Stuck, A., & Campain, J. (2015). Impacts of tradi­ tional bullying and cyberbullying on the mental health of middle school and high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 52(6), 607–617. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits. 21841 High, A. C., & Caplan, S. E. (2009). Social anxiety and computer-mediated communication during initial interactions: Implications for the hyperpersonal perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 475–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.011 Hoffner, C. A., Lee, S., & Park, S. J. (2016). “I miss my mobile phone!”: Self-expansion via mobile phone and responses to phone loss. New Media & Society, 18(11), 2452–2468. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815592665 Hong, F.-Y., & Cheng, K.-T. (2018). Correlation between university students’ online trolling behavior and online trolling victimization forms, current conditions, and personality traits. Telematics and Informatics, 35(2), 397–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele. 2017.12.016 Huang, C. (2017). Time spent on social network sites and psychological well-be­ ing: A meta-analysis. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(6), 346–354. (p. 107)

Ihm, J., & Hsieh, Y. P. (2015). The implications of information and communication technol­ ogy use for the social well-being of older adults. Information, Communication & Society, 18(10), 1123–1138. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1019912

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Ivarsson, L., & Larsson, P. (2011). Personal Internet usage at work: A source of recovery. Journal of Workplace Rights, 16(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.2190/WR.16.1.e Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014). A conceptual and methodological critique of internet addic­ tion research: Towards a model of compensatory internet use. Computers in Human Be­ havior, 31, 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059 Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukophadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psycho­ logical well-being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017–1031. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0003-066X.53.9.1017 Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., … Sueur, C. (2013). Face­ book use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLOS ONE, 8(8), e69841. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841 Kubiszewski, V., Fontaine, R., Potard, C., & Auzoult, L. (2015). Does cyberbullying overlap with school bullying when taking modality of involvement into account? Computers in Hu­ man Behavior, 43, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.10.049 Lohmann, S. (2015). Information technologies and subjective well-being: Does the Inter­ net raise material aspirations? Oxford Economic Papers, 67(3), 740–759. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/oep/gpv032 Morey, J. N., Gentzler, A. L., Creasy, B., Oberhauser, A. M., & Westerman, D. (2013). Young adults’ use of communication technology within their romantic relationships and associa­ tions with attachment style. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1771–1778. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.019 Nabi, R. L., Prestin, A., & So, J. (2013). Facebook friends with (health) benefits? Exploring social network site use and perceptions of social support, stress, and well-being. Cy­ berpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(10), 721–727. https://doi.org/ 10.1089/cyber.2012.0521 Nie, P., Sousa-Poza, A., & Nimrod, G. (2017). Internet use and subjective well-being in China. Social Indicators Research, 132(1), 489–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11205-015-1227-8 Ninaus, K., Diehl, S., Terlutter, R., Chan, K., & Huang, A. (2015). Benefits and stressors— Perceived effects of ICT use on employee health and work stress: An exploratory study from Austria and Hong Kong. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 10, 28838. https://doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v10.28838 Oldmeadow, J. A., Quinn, S., & Kowert, R. (2013). Attachment style, social skills, and Face­ book use amongst adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 1142–1149. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.006

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Park, N., Lee, S., & Chung, J. E. (2016). Uses of cellphone texting: An integration of moti­ vations, usage patterns, and psychological outcomes. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 712–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.04.041 Pearson, A. L., Mack, E., & Namanya, J. (2017). Mobile phones and mental well-being: Ini­ tial evidence suggesting the importance of staying connected to family in rural, remote communities in Uganda. PLOS One, 12(1), e0169819. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0169819 Reed, L. A., Tolman, R. M., Ward, L. M., & Safyer, P. (2016). Keeping tabs: Attach­ ment anxiety and electronic intrusion in high school dating relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 58, 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.019 (p. 108)

Reid, F. J. M., & Reid, D. J. (2010). The expressive and conversational affordances of mo­ bile messaging. Behaviour & Information Technology, 29(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/01449290701497079 Rosen, L., Carrier, L. M., Miller, A., Rokkum, J., & Ruiz, A. (2016). Sleeping with technolo­ gy: Cognitive, affective, and technology usage predictors of sleep problems among col­ lege students. Sleep Health, 2(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2015.11.003 Rotondi, V., Stanca, L., & Tomasuolo, M. (2017). Connecting alone: Smartphone use, qual­ ity of social interactions and well-being. Journal of Economic Psychology, 63, 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2017.09.001 Russell, E., Woods, S. A., & Banks, A. P. (2017). Examining conscientiousness as a key re­ source in resisting email interruptions: Implications for volatile resources and goal achievement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 90(3), 407–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12177 Schouten, A. P., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2007). Precursors and underlying process­ es of adolescents’ online self-disclosure: Developing and testing an “Internet-attributeperception” model. Media Psychology, 10(2), 292–315. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15213260701375686 Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Jäkel, A., Schultze, M., & Scheithauer, H. (2012). Emotional and behavioural problems in the context of cyberbullying: A longitudinal study among Ger­ man adolescents. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17(3-4), 329–345. https:// doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2012.704317 Selfhout, M. H. W., Branje, S. J. T., Delsing, M., ter Bogt, T. F. M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Different types of Internet use, depression, and social anxiety: The role of perceived friendship quality. Journal of Adolescence, 32(4), 819–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.adolescence.2008.10.011

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Shakya, H. B., & Christakis, N. A. (2017). Association of Facebook use with compromised well-being: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 185(3), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kww189 Shaw, L. H., & Gant, L. M. (2002). In defense of the Internet: The relationship between In­ ternet communication and depression, loneliness, self-esteem, and perceived social sup­ port. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/ 10.1089/109493102753770552 Sjursø, I. R., Fandrem, H., & Roland, E. (2014). Emotional problems in traditional and cy­ ber victimization. Journal of School Violence, 15(1), 114–131. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15388220.2014.996718 Song, H., Zmyslinski-Seelig, A., Kim, J., Drent, A., Victor, A., Omori, K., & Allen, M. (2014). Does Facebook make you lonely? A meta analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 446–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.011 Sonnentag, S., Reinecke, L., Mata, J., & Vorderer, P. (2018). Feeling interrupted–being re­ sponsive: How online messages relate to affect at work. Journal of Organizational Behav­ ior, 39(3), 369–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2239 Steers, M.-L. N. (2016). ‘It’s complicated’: Facebook’s relationship with the need to be­ long and depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9, 22–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.copsyc.2015.10.007 Thomée, S., Eklöf, M., Gustafsson, E., Nilsson, R., & Hagberg, M. (2007). Prevalence of perceived stress, symptoms of depression and sleep disturbances in relation to informa­ tion and communication technology (ICT) use among young adults: An explorative prospective (p. 109) study. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(3), 1300–1321. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2004.12.007 Tokunaga, R. S. (2014). A unique problem or the manifestation of a preexisting disorder? The mediating role of problematic Internet use in the relationships between psychosocial problems and functional impairment. Communication Research, 41(4), 531–560. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0093650212450910 Tromholt, M. (2016). The Facebook experiment: Quitting Facebook leads to higher levels of well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(11), 661–666. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0259 Tseng, S.-F., & Hsieh, Y. P. (2015). The implications of networked individualism for social participation. American Behavioral Scientist, 59(9), 1157–1172. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0002764215580620 Utz, S., & Breuer, J. (2017). The relationship between use of social network sites, online social support, and well-being: Results from a six-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Me­ dia Psychology, 29(3), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000222 Page 38 of 40

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2007). Who visits online dating sites? Exploring some char­ acteristics of online daters. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10(6), 849–852. https:// doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.9941 Van den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., Meerkerk, G.-J., Vermulst, A. A., Spijkerman, R., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2008). Online communication, compulsive Internet use, and psychosocial wellbeing among adolescents: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 655– 665. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.655 Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., … Kross, E. (2015). Pas­ sive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evi­ dence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/xge0000057 Vincent, J. (2006). Emotional attachment and mobile phones. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 19(1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12130-006-1013-7 Vranjes, I., Baillien, E., Vandebosch, H., Erreygers, S., & de Witte, H. (2018). When work­ place bullying goes online: Construction and validation of the inventory of cyberbullying acts at work (ICA-W). European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 27, 28– 39. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2017.1363185 Weidman, A. C., Fernandez, K. C., Levinson, C. A., Augustine, A. A., Larsen, R. J., & Rode­ baugh, T. L. (2012). Compensatory internet use among individuals higher in social anxiety and its implications for well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(3), 191–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.003. Weisskirch, R. S., & Delevi, R. (2012). Its ovr b/n u n me: Technology use, attachment styles, and gender roles in relationship dissolution. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(9), 486–490. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0169 Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. (2006). ‘Internet addiction’: A critical review. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4(1), 31–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11469-006-9009-9 Woods, H. C., & Scott, H. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is asso­ ciated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. Journal of Adoles­ cence, 51, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008 Wright, M. F. (2015). Cyber victimization and perceived stress. Youth & Society, 47(6), 789–810. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14537088 Wu, X.-S., Zhang, Z.-H., Zhao, F., Wang, W.-J., Li, Y.-F., Bi, L., … Sun, Y.-H. (2016). Preva­ lence of Internet addiction and its association with social support and other related fac­ tors among (p. 110) adolescents in China. Journal of Adolescence, 52, 103–111. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.07.012

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Computer-Mediated Communication and Mental Health: A Computational Scoping Review of an Interdisciplinary Field Xie, X., Zhao, F., Xie, J., & Lei, L. (2016). Symbolization of mobile phone and life satisfac­ tion among adolescents in rural areas of China: Mediating of school-related relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 694–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb. 2016.07.053 Young, K. S., & Rodgers, R. C. (1998). The relationship between depression and Internet addiction. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(1), 25–28. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb. 1998.1.25

Adrian Meier

Adrian Meier is a PhD candidate at the Department of Communication, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Germany. His research revolves around the question of whether and how communication technologies can improve or impair mental health and well-being. Specifically, he investigates the relationship between technology us­ age and mental health through the lens of self-regulation processes, using intensive longitudinal surveys (e.g., diaries, experience sampling), and systematic review methodology. Emese Domahidi

Emese Domahidi is an Assistant Professor for Computational Communication Science at the Technische Universität Ilmenau in Germany. Her research focuses on the psy­ chosocial consequences of online media use and on (biased) information processing in digital media. Emese is especially interested in computational communication sci­ ence methods and their use to gain insights into her research questions. She is an ex­ pert in computational systematic reviews and meta-analysis. Elisabeth Günther

Elisabeth Günther is a PhD candidate at the Department of Communication, Universi­ ty of Münster, Germany. Her research interests are in computational methods, espe­ cially topic modeling, and online journalism. Elisabeth works as a data scientist at Axel Springer Digital.

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties

Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communities   Sharon Wagg, Louise Cooke, and Boyka Simeonova The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.5

Abstract and Keywords This review explores the role of digital inclusion in women’s health and well-being in rur­ al communities. This involves reviewing existing research that focuses on the information experiences of women, specifically those who were digitally excluded or limited users of the Internet, who have benefitted from the support of digital inclusion initiatives and technology. There is a global gender digital divide in which more women than men often lack access to information and digital skills, particularly in rural areas. Digital inclusion initiatives are attempting to close this divide and to enable women to make informed deci­ sions about their health and well-being and their families. The review also identifies that digital inclusion is a complex situation of enquiry; there is limited, fragmented research in which the concepts of information literacy and digital inclusion have been brought to­ gether; and significant tensions and contradictions exist within digital inclusion practice. The review also highlights the opportunity for further research and theory development. Keywords: digital inclusion, digital inclusion initiatives, digital skills, gender, Internet, rural communities, women’s health

Introduction DIGITAL inclusion is of global importance as government digital-by-default agendas in­ creasingly recognize the need for society to possess strong digital skills and capabilities to fully benefit from living in a digital world. Yet a global gender digital divide exists where women lack access to information and digital skills, particularly in rural areas (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017). Women are 14% less likely to own a mobile phone than men in low and middle income countries (GSMA, 2015); globally, the proportion of women using the Internet is 12% lower than that of men using the Internet (ITU, 2017a); and while the gender gap in Internet access has narrowed in most regions since 2013, it has widened in Africa, where the proportion of women using the Internet is 25% lower than the propor­ tion of men (ITU, 2017a, p. 3).

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Digital inclusion initiatives around the world, designed to provide access and the develop­ ment of digital skills, are critical to bridging the digital divide in local communities (Mervyn et al. 2014). However, the multiple factors that contribute to digital exclusion are complex and make the task of implementing workable digital inclusion solutions particu­ larly challenging for policymakers (Bach et al., 2013). Information literacy helps people make informed choices and decisions about their lives, including the health and well-being of individuals and their families (CILIP, 2018, p. 5). However, as argued by Dunn (2013), “insufficient attention is being paid to the urgency of information literacy as a key component to any strategy to redress the digital (p. 112) divide” (p. 326), potentially leaving those newly connected to the Internet or with low in­ formation literacy vulnerable to poor information content and choices. Anderson and Johnston (2016) argue that without the development of information literacy, “the benefits of digital participation will be significantly diminished” (p. 8). Challenges to access and meaningful use of online information underline the necessity of increased levels of infor­ mation literacy. “While this may affect both men and women, the challenges are often greater for women (particularly in developing countries) because past information isola­ tion leaves them less equipped to deal with these challenges” (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017, p. 80).

What Is Digital Inclusion? Broadly, digital inclusion refers to the activities necessary to ensure that all individuals and communities, including the most disadvantaged, have access to and meaningful use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Digital inclusion activities essen­ tially include five key elements: (1) affordable, broadband Internet service, (2) Internetenabled devices, (3) quality technical support, (4) applications and online content de­ signed to enable and encourage self-sufficiency, participation, and collaboration, and (5) access to digital skills training (NDIA, 2017, n.p.). Such activities are driven by govern­ ments to address the digital divide (those without access, skills or the motivation to use ICTs), and implement the digital-by-default agenda (the drive to replace services deliv­ ered through face-to-face, telephone and paper-based interactions, with web-based ser­ vices), and are delivered by a plethora of organizations and community partners (ITU, 2017b; Rhinesmith, 2016). Digital inclusion research emerged from research on the digital divide, a topic widely ac­ cepted as a complex and dynamic issue, that continues to evolve, particularly as ICTs evolve and diffuse (Jaeger et al., 2012; Van Dijk, 2005). Digital inclusion is addressed by researchers across various disciplines, but compared to the established area of research on the digital divide, digital inclusion research is relatively new (Jaeger et al., 2012). In­ deed, the Rapid review of evidence for basic digital skills (McGillivray et al., 2017) con­ cluded that there is a notable dearth of academic research in relation to digital inclusion solutions and initiatives, and particularly in relation to the role and responsibilities digital inclusion intermediaries and actors play. Similar to research on the digital divide, digital inclusion is a complex area of enquiry and suffers from conceptual inconsistencies and di­ Page 2 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties chotomies that lead to ambiguities in understanding why and what it takes to be included in the information society (Nemer, 2015).

What Is Information Literacy? The Library and Information Association defines information literacy as “the ability to think critically and make balanced judgements about any information we find and use. (p. 113) It empowers us as citizens to develop informed views and to engage fully with society” (CILIP, 2018, p. 3). This definition relates to information in all its forms, including digital and online, reinforcing the relevance and need to consider information literacy when using and accessing the Internet for online information (Anderson & Johnston, 2016; CILIP, 2018; Dunn, 2013). While some scholars advocate information literacy as a set of skills (Andretta, 2005; Burke, 2010), others advocate information literacy as a way of learning (Kuhlthau, 1993), or as an appreciation of the complex ways of interacting with information (Bruce, 2000, p. 97). Yet information literacy research as a concept has traditionally been siloed in the library and information science sector. While there is a significant amount of information literacy research within educational (Corrall, 2008; Secker & Coonan, 2013) and workplace (Lloyd, 2010) settings, and an emerging body of research in information literacy in every­ day life contexts (Martzoukou & Abdi, 2017), information literacy research within commu­ nity settings (relevant to digital inclusion) is barely recognized as a research area (Hep­ worth & Walton, 2013). However, the CILIP definition emphasizes how information litera­ cy is relevant to everyone in a wide variety of contexts, specifically the contexts of every­ day life, health, citizenship, education, and the workplace (Secker, 2018), and as such makes information literacy relevant to digital inclusion and an essential part of this re­ view.

Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communities The importance of digital inclusion and information literacy has been emphasized in a few areas including health and well-being (Ferreira et al., 2016; Park, 2017. It is further em­ phasized that access to online services could lead to improved health and well-being, par­ ticularly in rural areas (Freeman et al., 2016; Hart et al., 2004). However, the specific benefits of digital inclusion and information literacy to women’s health and well-being in rural communities have not been explicated. Therefore, the review aims to examine the literature to outline the specific benefits of digital inclusion initiatives on women’s health and well-being in rural communities.

Rationale for Review This systematic literature review considers research that focuses on the information ex­ periences of women, specifically those who were previously digitally excluded or limited users of the Internet, especially in rural communities, and have benefitted from the sup­ port of digital inclusion initiatives and technology. The review provides an opportunity to Page 3 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties unpack the complexity of this situation of enquiry by problematizing the concept of digital inclusion; exploring if and how digital inclusion has been linked with the concept of infor­ mation literacy and digital skills training; providing insight on the role of digital inclusion on women’s health and well-being in rural communities; and revealing tensions and con­ tradictions within digital inclusion practice. To guide this systematic literature review, the following two questions are ad­ dressed. (1) What role do digital inclusion initiatives play with regard to women’s health and well-being in rural communities? (2) How have the concepts of digital inclusion with information literacy been linked with regard to digital inclusion skills training? The chap­ ter concludes with an agenda for future research within the realms of digital inclusion and information literacy. The chapter includes the following sections: an outline of the methodology of the systematic literature review; description of the reviewed literature; the findings from the selected papers (with respect to theory and methodologies, termi­ nologies, approaches to digital inclusion initiatives, digital inclusion training, digital inclu­ sion, information literacy, health, and well-being); a brief discussion; and a conclusion. (p. 114)

Methods The review was conducted on journal articles—excluding conference proceedings, PhD theses and book chapters—reporting primary research published worldwide in English language sourced from the Web of Science and Scopus. Search terms included the phras­ es information literacy, and digital inclusion, combined with the terms rural, gender, health and well-being appearing in the topic. The search yielded 194 results, which fol­ lowing the exclusion of conference proceedings, duplicates, articles that were irrelevant, or in a non-English language, was refined to a final set of 66 journal articles. Articles were identified and selected on the basis of their relevance to digital inclusion and women’s health and well-being in rural communities and links to the concept of informa­ tion literacy within that context. Due to the multidisciplinary nature of the topic, articles were identified across different research domains such as information science, educational research, computer science, and the broader field of social science research. Drawing on the researcher’s previous ex­ perience in digital inclusion and librarianship, a small collection of relevant grey litera­ ture (16 items) was also selected to provide richness, context, and currency to the review. These items were predominantly in the form of reports published by third-sector, corpo­ rate, and public policy organizations, such as Development and Access to Information (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017), Lloyds Bank consumer digital index (Lloyds, 2017), and “Smart­ phone by default” internet users (Ofcom, 2016). Grey literature is cited hereafter with an asterisk (*) to differentiate it from journal articles. The final set of materials (n = 82) of 66 journal articles and 16 grey literature items was coded using thematic analysis. This first involved a general categorization of the articles into a number of foci important on the basis of digital inclusion and information literacy, such as Internet access, digital skills, social inclusion, and learning. The second level of Page 4 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties analysis involved the meticulous reading of the texts in order to identify and refine themes and subthemes. Through this process the following themes and subthemes emerged: Theory and Methodologies; Terminology (including subthemes on Digital (p. 115) Inclusion, Information Literacy, and Rurality); Approaches to Digital Inclusion (in­ cluding subthemes on Differentiation of Digital Inclusion Initiatives, Examples of Digital Inclusion Initiatives Intended for Women, the Use of Mobile Technology in Digital Inclu­ sion, Digital Inclusion Frameworks, Measurements and Evaluations); Digital Inclusion Training; and Digital Inclusion, Information Literacy, Health, and Well-Being. Although all the papers were coded, for the purpose of conciseness not every paper is re­ ferred to in the text of the analysis; however, a supplementary reference list provides the complete set of analyzed journal articles and grey literature.

Description of the Reviewed Literature The reviewing identified a number of key themes and relationships that paint a complex landscape of enquiry, scope for critique, and opportunities for further research. Journal articles focused across a range of demographics, with a limited number related to just women. Indeed, only a fraction of the academic studies sourced, such as Freeman et al. (2016), Jiménez-Cortés et al. (2015), Martínez-Cantos (2017), Potnis (2015), Rashid (2016), and Rebollo and Vico (2014) specifically link digital inclusion and women’s health and well-being in rural communities. The majority of the journal articles tended to be more focused on the digital divide (Adhikari et al., 2016) and digital inclusion initiatives across a range of sub-groups in de­ veloping countries (Correa & Pavez, 2016) and developed countries (Freeman & Park, 2015; Shade, 2014; Turkalj et al., 2013); the development of information literacy (Papen, 2013; Yu et al., 2017) and health information literacy (Enwald et al., 2016; Niemelä et al., 2012) or digital literacy skills (Hughes et al., 2017); gender differences in attitudes and use of ICTs and the Internet (Singh, 2017); and the relationships between digital inclu­ sion, digital inequalities, and social inclusion (Park, 2017). Journal articles related to in­ formation literacy tended to come from the discipline of information science, although re­ searchers in other fields used varying terminology such as multiliteracy, transliteracy, or digital literacy to describe aspects of information literacy (Aires, 2014). In comparison, journal articles related to digital inclusion came from a wider selection of disciplines such as ICT for Development (ICT4D), Human Computer Interaction, Geography, Education, Health, Rural Studies, and Information Science. There was only a limited crossover between the concepts of digital inclusion and informa­ tion literacy. Journal articles related to information literacy tended to focus on effective use of the Internet (Berger & Croll, 2012) or Internet/technology adoption (Chiu & Liu, 2017; Yu et al., 2017). Whereas journal articles regarding digital inclusion referred to a plethora of vocabulary related to digital skills and literacies, and technology and infra­ structure, the angle of the articles was often influenced by the research discipline of the Page 5 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties journal. For example, journal articles from Computer Science and ICT4D (p. 116) tended to have more of a bias towards digital infrastructure, technology and access (Ferreira et al., 2016; Whitney et al., 2011) whereas Geography focused more on rurality (Roberts et al., 2015) and Information Science on digital skills and motivation (Thompson & Paul, 2016). Journal articles referred to a plethora of organizations where people would go to access computers and the Internet such as public libraries (Fourie & Meyer, 2016; Real et al., 2014); community centers, cybercafés, and local agencies (Berger & Croll, 2012); telecen­ ters (Ferreira, 2016; Kapondera & Hart, 2016); and education centers and schools (Sali­ nas & Sánchez, 2009; Wei et al., 2013). Bertot et al. (2014) state that public libraries were often the only providers of free broadband Internet service and computer terminals for communities. Overall, the limited number of journal articles specifically on the review topic highlights that there is little academic research in relation to digital inclusion on women’s health and well-being in rural communities. While the majority of the journal articles focused more broadly around the subject of the review, academic research on this topic appears fragmented, meaning research is spread across a range of disciplines and the focus of the articles, theoretical stance, and methods used vary, thus potentially hampering the devel­ opment of a coherent body of work (Meijer & Bekkers, 2015). The inclusion of some grey literature was essential in addition to the academic literature in order to provide further understanding, richness, and currency. Therefore, the review includes interdisciplinary research in the area and the grey literature, while highlighting gaps and setting an agen­ da for future research.

Theory and Methods As Table 5.1 summarizes, the studies used a variety of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. While the review highlights some use of theory, only a very small number of journal articles used any underpinning theory (8 out of the 66 journal articles). For exam­ ple, apart from Diffusion of Innovation Theory (Rogers, 2003), which appears in two arti­ cles, all the other theories have only been used in one paper.

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Table 5.1 Range of Theories and Methods Identified in Review Theories

Methods

Activity theory (1) Diffusion of innovation theory (2) Global model of human information behav­ iour (1) Informed learning theory (1) Institutional theory (1) Media richness theory (1) Relational/network approach (1) Structuration theory (1)

Action research Case study Ethnography Interviews Literature reviews Observations Questionnaire sur­ veys

Note: (#) = Number of papers using that theory (n = 8 papers); (*) = same paper Activity Theory is discussed by Aires (2014) to explore the opinions of parents and teach­ ers on the Magellan (Magalhães) digital inclusion Initiative in Portugal, to investigate common understandings and contradictions in the dissemination of the digital technolo­ gies and digital inclusion in families and schools in rural communities; Diffusion of Inno­ vation (DOI) theory is used in two articles. Correa et al. (2017) use elements of DOI com­ bined with Van Dijk’s (2005) Relational/Network approach to understanding digital inclu­ sion, where consideration of people’s context, position in a community, resources, and so­ cial networks are necessary to understand their adoption of ICTs. Kapondera and Hart (2016) invoke DOI as a theoretical framework to examine the factors influencing the use of telecentres in rural areas by means of a case study of Lupaso Community Telecentre, in a remote region of Malawi. Potnis (2015) employs the Global Model of (p. 117) Human In­ formation Behavior as a conceptual model using three constituent constructs—(1) context of information needs, (2) information-seeking behavior, and (3) information processing and use—to examine the information use of poor female mobile phone users in rural In­ dia. Hughes et al. (2017) use Informed Learning theory to underpin the development of a new framework to support digital literacy learning through social living labs examined through, a voluntary community organisation in North Queensland, Australia. Madon et al. (2009) apply Institutional theory to analyze three digital inclusion projects to identify processes of institutionalization crucial to the long-term value, sustainability, and scalabil­ ity of digital inclusion projects. Yu et al. (2017) use Media Richness theory to discover the psychological factors that influence ICT adoption behavior of residents in a rural village in Taiwan. Finally, Structuration theory is used by Correa and Pavez (2016) to explore In­ ternet adoption in isolated rural communities in remote villages in Chile, considering people’s capabilities to choose what they value (i.e., psychological resources, attitudes to­

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties ward technologies) and social structures (social institutions, cultural norms, and social context).

Terminology Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the review topic, the theme of the need for shared vocabulary and standardization of terminology emerged from the journal articles, particu­ larly in relation to the concepts of digital inclusion and information literacy.

Digital Inclusion Very few journal articles defined or attempted to describe or explain the concept of digi­ tal inclusion. Indeed, not all journal articles specifically included the phrase “digital inclu­ sion,” (p. 118) but were clearly focused on research in relation to digital inclusion activi­ ties using alternative phrases such as adoption of the Internet and ICT access. Jaeger et al. (2012) define digital inclusion as “the policy developed to close the digital divide” and to “promote digital literacy through outreach to unserved and underserved populations” (p. 3). Thompson et al. (2016) state that digital inclusion is a key component of modern social justice as “the ability of the individual to participate fully in society is in­ creasingly tied to the ability to access and to use digital technologies in a meaningful way for social, political, and economic participation” (p. 93). Hashim et al. (2012) propose that digital inclusion encompasses three areas: access, technology literacy, and content ser­ vices. According to Rashid (2016), digital inclusion focuses not just on levels of access to ICTs, but also on factors such as motivation, knowledge, and skills that enable individuals to have the ability to meaningfully engage with technology and online information.

Information Literacy Journal articles related to information literacy sometimes included a definition or clarifi­ cation of the concept such as the Association of College and Research Libraries’ Informa­ tion Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education (Dorner & Gorman, 2011), the American Library Association and the Australian and New Zealand Information Literacy Framework (Williamson & Asla, 2009), or the 2005 Alexandria Proclamation on Informa­ tion Literacy (Jacobs & Berg, 2011, p. 384). Further clarification of the concept of information literacy was provided by Martzoukou and Abdi (2017) within the context of everyday life, stating that information literacy “is regarded as an important condition for civic participation and engagement, informed citi­ zenship, health and well-being” (p. 634). Drawing on theories from information science and new literacy studies, Papen (2013) presents a view of information literacy not primar­ ily as a skill but as a social information practice. Papen argues that researchers studying information literacy need to look beyond people’s abilities to search for and understand information; rather, they need to focus their attention on the contexts within which such information is used. As Yu et al. (2017) highlight, information literacy is about making sense of information found online that is relevant to an individual’s circumstances and Page 8 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties specific context, and argue that “information literacy is an important factor in new ICT adoption and increased ICT usage” (p. 206). Information literacy is also clarified in relation to how it helps make informed choices re­ lating to the health and well-being of individuals and families, such as in articles referring to the concepts of health information literacy (HIL) (Martzoukou & Abdi, 2017) and every­ day life health information literacy (EHIL) (Niemelä et al., 2012). The presence of HIL “is essential for making health decisions and is considered an important prerequisite for pro­ moting and maintaining an individual’s health” (Martzoukou & Abdi, 2017 p. 649) and for “engaging in an informed dialogue with healthcare professionals” (CILIP, 2018, p. 5). (p. 119)

Rurality

The issue of rurality was discussed within the journal articles but with limited clarifica­ tion of the actual meaning of the term. Despite the high levels of connectivity in devel­ oped countries and growing Internet access in developing countries, digital inclusion in rural areas remains a strong concern for policymakers (Correa & Pavez, 2016; Yueh et al., 2013). Indeed, despite many policymaking efforts that have promoted Internet connection in rural areas, the evidence suggests that digital inclusion is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon that is not “solved” after access is provided (Correa et al., 2017). Boulos et al. (2015) discuss how the higher costs associated with the installation of digital infrastructure for mobile and broadband in rural areas compared to urban areas is over­ come through the concept of “distributed cities,” where small neighboring towns and vil­ lages (e.g., the Scottish Highlands and Islands) unite together and pool their resources to form a larger “distributed city” and improved economies of scale. Pavez et al. (2017) highlight the importance of understanding rurality, and exploring how people from rural and geographically isolated contexts may experience digital connection differently from an urban perspective. This supports findings by Correa and Pavez (2016) which showed that remote rural communities face specific characteristics, such as lack of economic resources, geographic isolation, an aging population, and out-migration of young people, that need to be considered when thinking about digital inclusion initiatives for their particular context.

Approaches to Digital Inclusion Initiatives The following section provides details of approaches to digital inclusion initiatives, follow­ ing the subthemes of Differentiation of Digital Inclusion Initiatives; Examples of Digital Inclusion Initiatives Intended for Women; The Use of Mobile Technology in Digital Inclu­ sion; and Digital Inclusion Frameworks, Measurements, and Evaluations.

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties

Differentiation of Digital Inclusion Initiatives: Levels and Approaches When describing approaches to digital inclusion initiatives, journal articles tend to use a macro- or micro-level perspective. Journal articles using a macro-level perspective take a top-down approach to describing digital inclusion and focus primarily on digital inclusion policy and agenda setting issues on a national or international scale (Hughes et al., 2017; Shade, 2014; Martínez-Cantos, 2017). This compares with journal articles taking a (p. 120) micro-level perspective, which look at specific local or regional digital inclusion projects and case studies (Madon et al., 2009). Some journal articles initially provide a macro perspective and then provide an example of an initiative at micro-level (Berger & Croll, 2012; Broadbent & Papadopoulos, 2013). Digital inclusion initiatives are also described in relation to their activities. For example, Armenta et al. (2012) differentiates digital inclusion initiatives between those that take an access driven/infrastructure approach and those that take a user-centric approach. In­ deed, the debate that the provision of technology, infrastructure, and access alone is not enough to get people online is acknowledged in several journal articles (Correa et al., 2017; Freeman & Park, 2015; Haenssgen, 2018; Livingstone & Helsper, 2007). Haenssgen (2018) adds that the techno-centric focus in ICT4D has been criticized for its emphasis on the social embeddedness of technology, user behavior, and different forms of use, yet highlights that the discipline is gradually transitioning towards broader research on technological and social development that permits locally grounded conclusions. Ar­ menta et al. (2012) provide an example of how a techno-centric approach in Mexico was not effective and lacked community participation. Correa and Pavez (2016) note similar findings when evaluating the experiences of individuals in rural communities in Chile that had benefitted from a public/private initiative called Todo Chile Comunicado (All Chile Connected), which provided subsidies for 3G wireless connections. They found a lack of motivation and a level of skepticism among the community participants in adopting the new mobile technologies, again confirming physical access alone is not sufficient. Correa et al. (2017) highlight government top-down approaches to digital inclusion initia­ tives by discussing programs in Latin America targeting rural areas in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. Their research confirmed that most of these policymaking initiatives focused on the provision of infrastructure; yet while access to both devices and infrastructure connection cannot be dismissed as a logical first step, it does not necessar­ ily entail Internet adoption, particularly in isolated, rural contexts. The researchers rec­ ommend that policymakers take into account the social, cultural, and economic context of where these initiatives are implemented. In comparison, Madon et al. (2009) provide a micro-level analysis of three digital inclu­ sion projects: the Akshaya e-literacy project in the state of Kerala in India, a communitybased ICT project in South Africa, and a telecenter project in Sau Paulo in Brazil. The re­ searchers describe how the projects changed significantly over time and demonstrate a

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties complex mix of success and failure, and how, while the projects are unique in themselves, they also share common features: • Enrolling government support • Generating linkage to viable revenue streams • Getting symbolic acceptance by the community • Stimulating valuable social activity in relevant social groups The Kerala project, for example, got symbolic acceptance by the community by linking the e-literacy project to Kerala’s development philosophy through grassroots (p. 121) cam­ paigning; and stimulated valuable social activity in relevant social groups by widespread participation of groups, such as Muslim women who are often part of the socially exclud­ ed. Madon et al. (2009) argue these successful common features are of relevance to digi­ tal inclusion projects, particularly in the developing world.

Examples of Digital Inclusion Initiatives Intended for Women The main drivers behind most digital inclusion initiatives aimed at women are related to ensuring access, improving digital literacy, and working towards gender equality and par­ ticipation of women in the digital world (ITU, 2017a*). ITU’s Gender Digital Inclusion Map (2017b*) provides a list of digital inclusion initiatives from 97 countries around the world aimed at women. In the grey literature, the report Development and access to information (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017*) has a specific focus on women and the need for meaningful access to in­ formation and information capabilities, and it provides examples of digital inclusion initia­ tives, mainly in public libraries. In Uganda, the National Library’s digital skills training program is offered in local languages and is designed for female farmers. In Burkina Fa­ so, the Girls’ Mobile Health Clubs located in village libraries provide access to health in­ formation while providing information literacy and technology skills. In Chile, women, young adults, and low-income families receive preferential access to all BiblioRedes, Chile’s national network of some 400 library-based infocentros, which offer free digital lit­ eracy classes. Additionally, governments have started to consolidate public-private collab­ oration with different organizations, driving initiatives that empower women through technology. Some examples are Intel’s “She Will Connect” program in Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa; Mexico’s “Código X;” and India’s “Internet Saathi” (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017*). In most cases these digital inclusion initiatives, through the use of technology, empowered women by ensuring that they have equal access to information and educa­ tion, enabling them to gain knowledge and confidence and make informed decisions on is­ sues such as family planning and health care. Chile’s network of Infocentros, designed to be women-friendly spaces, is an example of an initiative that has empowered women through the combination of providing a trusted, safe place with digital skills training that has enabled them to develop knowledge and skills which they can use in their everyday life. Importantly, this initiative has stepped away from the “macho culture found in Inter­ Page 11 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties net cafés,” enabling women to talk and help each other and get help from directors of the centers (often female), in a way not possible with men (IFLA & TASCHA, p. 81, 2017*). However, for any of this digital inclusion work to happen, social barriers such as cultural demands, illiteracy, and lack of access to education need to be overcome (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017*). The World Wide Web Foundation (2015*) supports this point, stating that “the Internet can support women in making informed choices about their bodies and health, but without adequate access to safe, legal and affordable sexual and reproductive (p. 122) health services and action against practices such as early marriage, these choices cannot be implemented” (p. 47). As alluded to earlier, only a very small proportion of the journal articles sourced in the re­ view—such as Freeman et al. (2016), Jiménez-Cortés et al. (2015), Martínez-Cantos (2017), Potnis (2015), Rashid (2016), and Rebollo and Vico (2014)—specifically related to digital inclusion initiatives aimed at women, with reference to health and well-being in rural communities. This therefore highlights the limited amount of research on this topic and the potential for further research. The gender digital divide was clearly referenced in the literature and was particularly evidenced in case studies from the developing world and in rural areas (Ferreira et al., 2016; Rashid, 2016; Rebollo & Vico, 2014). These out­ lined the information experiences of women, particularly in relation to their access and adoption of using technology and the Internet and the barriers that they faced. A recent report by Intel (2013*) entitled Women and the Web reported that one in five women in India believes the Internet is “not appropriate” for them or useful, and that their families would disapprove. Yet positive aspects about being more connected included how moth­ ers noted that it supports their children with homework and education (Correa et al., 2016). Rashid (2016) states that research on gender and ICTs has for the most part been cen­ tered on the concept of the gender digital divide, particularly in relation to access to pro­ vision and the fact that proportionally more men than women use the Internet. However, other articles, such as Martínez-Cantos (2017), looked more towards gender differences in attitudes, self-efficacy, and the experiences of men and women in using computers and the Internet. Shade (2014) provides a critical overview of the changing digital inclusion agenda in Canada, describing how that country played an international role in promoting gender equity in access to the Internet. Yet in recent years, despite the continued persis­ tent issue of digital exclusion, the government agenda of online gender equity has signifi­ cantly diminished and there has been a gradual disinvestment in funding for programs for Internet access. As highlighted by Rashid (2016), to reduce the gender digital divide there is a need for digital inclusion policy interventions to not only focus on the supply-side of providing ICT equipment and connectivity infrastructure, but to also include “a more nuanced under­ standing of the behavior and use of ICTs by women in meaningful ways to enable them to fulfil specific individual motivations and needs” (p. 327).

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties

The Use of Mobile Technology in Digital Inclusion The use of mobile technology was identified as a key element in digital inclusion activities in the review. In the grey literature, IFLA and TASCHA, (2017*) confirm that “for the bil­ lions of people coming online for the first time, mobile phone and increasingly smart­ phones are their point of entry to the Internet” (p. 31). GSMA’s report Bridging the gen­ der gap: Mobile access and usage in low-and middle-income countries (2015*), and the report Development and access to information (IFLA & TASCHA, 2017*), both provide in­ sights (p. 123) into the use of mobile technology by women and its impact on digital inclu­ sion. Although not specifically focused on women, the UK Ofcom report “Smartphone by default” internet users (2016*) provides further insight into the use and behavior of indi­ viduals whose only access to the Internet is via a smartphone, and the implications this has in relation to the user experience and digital inclusion. For example, completing on­ line forms (for government services) and creating and editing a document (such as for a CV) via a mobile phone were cited as being particularly challenging. In the Good Things Foundation’s Library Digital Inclusion Fund Action Research project evaluation, the use of mobile technology was a key enabler for the research participants getting online through public library WiFi (Good Things Foundation, 2016c*). The use of mobile technology was also referenced in the academic literature. Correa et al. (2016) found that despite not being able to get good service, many people from Chilean rural communities purchased mobile phones to use when they travelled outside their vil­ lage. Haenssgen’s (2018) study in rural India argued that households without mobile phones are increasingly disadvantaged in their health care access, stating that “phone diffusion leads [healthcare] providers to expect health-related phone use among the population” (p. 371). Rashid (2016; based on research in developing countries) found that although women re­ ly less on computers and the Internet, they are more likely to use mobile phones com­ pared to men. Yet Potnis’s (2016) research on rural women in India highlighted that women often spoke about rumors and gossip on how mobile phones can cause health problems, thus deterring them from adopting and using mobile phones. Focus group dis­ cussions in research by Pavez et al. (2017) also revealed negative perceptions of how the Internet and mobile devices were viewed as intrusive and disruptive to their way of life, with participants referring to the “adverse and harmful consequences attributed to the Internet, including addiction and isolation” (p. 17). Haenssgen (2018) also states that mobile technology has become so pervasive in some domains of Western urban life that it is simply expected of everyone to use it so as to not inconvenience others. Yet as stated by Freeman et al. (2016), not everyone has access, the motivation, or indeed the skills to use online services, and many rural regions strug­ gle with slow or unreliable broadband and mobile phone connectivity.

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Digital Inclusion Frameworks, Measurements, and Evaluations Only a limited number of articles focused on the actual process of measuring or evaluat­ ing the success and outcomes of digital inclusion initiatives, highlighting a lack of both underpinning theory as well as evaluation procedures to guide digital inclusion research. Smith (2015) provides a conceptual framework for analyzing the success of digital inclu­ sion projects, and Madon et al. (2009) identify three crucial factors that must be consid­ ered when planning digital inclusion initiatives: the value, sustainability, and scalability of the project. Armenta et al. (2012) provide a seven-stage framework for rural, under­ served and less-privileged populations: (1) identification and evaluation of regional so­ cioeconomic condition, (2) assessment of external factors that impact the region’s sus­ tainable development, (3) identification of those ICT more favorable to (p. 124) support sustainable development, (4) analysis of financial viability of ICT infrastructure and oper­ ations deployment, (5) development and implementation of a technology adoption and training program, (6) development and implementation of and ICT application focused on the regional sustainable development needs, and (7) evaluation of the project. The work of Boulos et al. (2015) related to digital inclusion provides well-being measures calculated through the Organization for Economic Co-operation Development (OECD) Better Life Index for the 34 OECD member countries, and the related OECD Regional Well-Being “How’s life where you are?” tool that covers 362 OECD regions. In addition, digital inclusion research by Jones et al. (2015) include Tennant’s Short Warwick-Edin­ burgh Mental Well-Being Scale (SWEMWBS) to measure well-being. The grey literature contains examples of “outcomes-based evaluation” of digital inclusion initiatives often in the form of a logic model, as an evaluation and communication tool. According to Rhinesmith and Siefer (2017*), this method is useful for communicating the goals and the “theory of change” underlying the work of digital inclusion initiatives to funders. The grey literature also included two frameworks to measure the level of people’s digital skills. The UK Essential Digital Skills Framework (Tech Partnership, 2018*) includes five categories of essential digital skills for life and work: communicating, handling information and content, transacting, problem solving, and being safe and legal online. The European Commission’s Digital Competence Framework for Citizens 2.1 (Car­ retero et al., 2017*), includes five competence areas: information and data literacy, com­ munication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem solving. Both frameworks have been updated to remain relevant. Using the UK Essential Digital Skills Framework (Tech Partnership, 2018*) measures, the Lloyds Bank Digital Index reported that there is a small but increasing digital skills gap between men and women in the Unit­ ed Kingdom (Lloyds Bank, 2017*). Rashid’s (2016) research on gender differences in ICT access and use in five developing countries also involves the development of a digital in­ clusion index. Based on five broad categories—skills, attitude, frequency of use, location of use, and breadth of use—Rashid developed the index specifically to challenge a com­ monly held assumption in the discourse on technology and gender that “compared to men women are more likely to be lacking in digital competencies” (p. 326).

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties

Digital Inclusion Training The review identified digital skills training as an important aspect of digital inclusion and the effective use of ICT (Hughes et al., 2017; Yueh et al., 2013). For example, MartinezCantos (2017) note that the EU, in line with academic research and other political institu­ tions around the world, “considers that digital literacy and associated competences play a key role in the development of the Information Society, and is becoming a priority in ini­ tiatives for social inclusion and human capital” (p. 420). As stated by Ferreira (2016) “users need to feel capable of using ICT administered through (p. 125) training classes and peer support to overcome lack of experience and to encourage participation” (p. 39). References were made to training and interventions, referring to varying terminology such as digital literacy or digital skills (Martinez-Cantos, 2017) or other inter-related terms such as digital competence (Hatlevik et al., 2015), digital capabilities (Britz et al., 2012), online skills (Zhou & Purushothaman, 2015), Internet literacy (Livingstone & Helsper, 2007), Internet skills (Van Deursen, 2012), computer literacy (Hart et al., 2004), and information literacy (Yu et al., 2017). However, in general few explanations are pro­ vided about each of these terms, leaving the reader unclear of the meaning of such termi­ nology. Only a small fraction of the studies linked the concepts of digital inclusion and informa­ tion literacy. For example, the research of Yu et al. (2017) on understanding factors influ­ encing ICT adoption behavior found that when a digital divide exists, it is important to keep on investing in information literacy development activities for rural communities to help them develop their ICT competence. Wyatt et al. (2005) extend this point by clarify­ ing that while there needs to be an ability to find and make sense of information found online, it is also important to have “the ability to make sense of generic information that is relevant to one’s own circumstances” (p. 213). Approaches to digital inclusion digital skills training are also discussed. Pischetola (2011) emphasizes the need for investment in education and training in schools to use the ICT infrastructure and enhance learning. Berger and Croll (2012), in their work on training in basic Internet skills for special target groups in non-formal educational settings, discuss the trainer/learner relationship and the importance of trust. The researchers highlight a successful intervention in Germany where a female teacher was appointed for a group of female learners to prevent them from feeling intimidated and to help create an open learning atmosphere where any question could be raised without embarrassment. Madon et al.’s (2009) research confirms the importance of this approach, highlighting how a digi­ tal inclusion project in Mpumalanga, South Africa failed for a number of reasons, includ­ ing that the trainers were outsiders whose motives were often suspected. While the review identified the importance of digital skills training, and provided details of specific approaches, there appeared to be a lack of depth in relation to what and how was actually being taught, and this thus provides another opportunity for further re­ search. Page 15 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties

Digital Inclusion, Information Literacy, Health, and Well-Being The health and well-being benefits of digital inclusion initiatives received few mentions in the literature (Ferreira et al., 2016; Park, 2017; Rashid, 2016) and did not always relate (p. 126) specifically to women in rural areas, or provide specific examples of how health and well-being benefits are gained through digital inclusion initiatives. For example, Broadbent and Papadopoulos (2013) found that participants reported some improvement in their sense of well-being attributed to the provision of ICT, citing con­ necting with relatives, reading news in their own language, and getting access to online services as important conduits to improved health and well-being. Other journal articles referred specifically to health practices. For instance, Freeman et al. (2016) state how poor connectivity inhibits basic health practices, such as contact between patients, physi­ cians, and colleagues, and how rural health services would benefit enormously from effec­ tive mobile and Internet services, particularly to communicate with their patients. Hart et al. (2004) highlight how the use of the Internet can increase patients’ knowledge about their health conditions, although patients in their study were often too overwhelmed by the information available on the Internet to make an informed decision about their own care. In the grey literature, as part of their evaluation of the NHS Widening Digital Participa­ tion, Good Things Foundation (2016a*) stated there is “a huge crossover between those who are digitally excluded, and those at risk of poor health” (p. 8). Although not specifi­ cally aimed at women or rural areas, the project was set up to help improve the digital health skills of people in hard-to-reach communities. Similarly, the English My Way project, also evaluated by Good Things Foundation, designed to help people gain English language skills through a blend of digital tools and face-to-face training sessions, found that participants gained health and well-being benefits (Good Things Foundation, 2016b*). Both projects depended on a network of hyperlocal community organizations and agents who were able to reach out to hard-to-reach communities. Deloitte’s (2014*) report highlights how an empirical study undertaken in rural villages in India to analyze the impact of Internet access on child mortality rates found that villages with Internet ac­ cess that “provided specific online health information to women during and after preg­ nancy had 14% lower child mortality rates than villages without the Internet” (p. 19*). As referred to earlier, information literacy is important for health and well-being (Mart­ zoukou & Abdi, 2017) and people’s adoption of the Internet (Yu et al., 2017). Williamson and Asla (2009) state that information literacy is crucial to the well-being of people in the “fourth age” (a stage of increasing dependence and disability, for those aged 85+). Mart­ zoukou and Abdi’s (2017) work on information literacy in everyday life makes a specific reference to the significant role information literacy can play in both the physical and psychological well-being of women. This is particularly the case in a critical life situation, for example, during pregnancy and childbirth, where the way in which women evaluate Page 16 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties different sources of information can have a significant impact. Adekannbi and Adeniran’s (2017) work on the information literacy of women in rural communities in Nigeria discov­ ered that women had limited, basic knowledge of family planning and that the acquisition of information on family planning was accidental, as a majority of research participants did not have access to health centers.

(p. 127)

Discussion

The review highlights a number of specific tensions and contradictions in relation to digi­ tal inclusion initiatives, definitions, and the relationship with public policy.

Vague and Inconsistent Terminology For example, very few journal articles defined or attempted to describe or explain the concept of digital inclusion, which as evidenced from conducting this review, has led to ambiguities in the understanding and meaning of digital inclusion in academic research. Further confirmation of this tension was revealed by practitioners, funders, policymakers, and other key digital inclusion stakeholders at the 2016 Net Inclusion Summit, who iden­ tified a lack of a shared vocabulary in defining digital inclusion (Rhinesmith & Siefer, 2017*). Jaeger et al. (2012) neatly sum up the consequence of this tension stating, “it is a challenge to solve a problem you cannot define, and the inconsistency of definitions has affected policymaking processes that have attempted to address these issues” (p. 4).

Relations between Information Literacy and Digital Inclusion Similarly, tensions in relation to information literacy and how it relates to digital inclusion are also identified through the review. For example, information literacy, despite its asso­ ciation with critical thinking skills (Bingham et al., 2016) and its clear relevance to digital literacy and digital inclusion (Adhikari et al., 2016; Turkalj et al., 2015), continues to be overlooked in digital inclusion policy and practice. This is also confirmed by the lack of linkages found between digital inclusion and information literacy in the review (Wyatt et al., 2005; Yu et al., 2017), as highlighted earlier. The reason for this is partly explained in the work by Jaeger et al. (2012), which explores the inter-relationships between digital lit­ eracy, digital inclusion, and public policy, and the fragmented nature of research in this area. They highlight that “while the terms digital divide and digital literacy have entered into common usage, the term digital inclusion is still in its infancy” (p. 3). This suggests that the use of digital inclusion as a term may grow over the forthcoming years, thus pro­ viding future opportunities to reveal linkages with information literacy. Another explanation for the lack of linkages found between digital inclusion and informa­ tion literacy within the review, and a further tension, as alluded to earlier, is that re­ searchers in other fields use varying terminology to describe information literacy and dig­ ital inclusion concepts. For example, a small selection of authors including Britz et al. (2012) referred to the application of Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach in relation to an (p. 128) information-based rights framework, in which an individuals’ ability to use infor­ Page 17 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties mation is influenced by their relative capabilities. Whilst this approach displays similari­ ties with the concepts of information literacy and digital inclusion, it is also highlights the need for a shared vocabulary within digital inclusion research to reduce ambiguities and fragmentation of the research landscape.

Differences between Developing and Developed Country Contexts Contradictions were also revealed within the review. For example, a clear split was identi­ fied between digital inclusion initiatives in developing countries and those in developed countries, which were often discussed in contradictory terms. Research in developed countries tended to make a number of assumptions in relation to access, knowledge, and skills. For example, Whitney et al. (2011) ascertained through their research in five Euro­ pean countries that there is increasingly an assumption that people should be able to par­ ticipate in a wide range of formal activities such as eGovernment, eHealth and eEduca­ tion via their computers and mobile phones. Research in developing countries, however, tended to be more about access and infrastructure; how access does not necessarily en­ tail Internet adoption, particularly in isolated contexts; and how digital inclusion needs the support of reliable broadband and electricity (Correa, et al., 2017; Pavez et al., 2017; Potnis, 2015). Contradictions were also highlighted in relation to digital inclusion in public libraries in developed countries. For example, Jaeger (2012) states that libraries report across-theboard increases in the use of their public-access technologies, Wi-Fi, training classes, and online resources. Indeed Real et al. (2014) state that public libraries—and rural public li­ braries in particular—are still the primary source of broadband access for many, high­ lighting the importance of public libraries for digital inclusion activities. Yet as highlight­ ed by Fourie and Meyer (2016), Jaeger (2012), and Real et al. (2014), this increase in use has occurred concurrently with dramatic decreases in library budgets, government sup­ port, and well-trained staff.

Complexity of and Theoretical Approaches toward Initiatives Another major insight identified from the review is the tension regarding the need to bet­ ter understand the complexity of digital inclusion initiatives (Madon et al., 2009). For ex­ ample, only a small number of journal articles, as noted earlier, contain an underpinning theory to guide the research and attempt to unpick the complexity of digital inclusion projects. This in turn has led to clear gaps in digital inclusion research, such as (p. 129) the lack of insight on the content of digital skills training, leaving scope for criticism, but also providing opportunities for future research into this area.

Conclusion This review provides a number of contributions to the existing literature on digital inclu­ sion and information literacy. First, while the review confirms that there is a global gen­ der digital divide where women lack access to information and digital skills, particularly Page 18 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties in rural areas, there is limited research with regard to the role of digital inclusion in women’s health and well-being in rural communities. Second, the review identifies that digital inclusion initiatives are attempting to close the digital divide by providing infra­ structure and access to digital technologies; by building capabilities and skills in how to use such technologies and online information; and that mobile technology is playing an increasing role in digital inclusion initiatives. Third, from the limited research that does exist, the review confirms that digital inclusion has the potential to contribute to the im­ provement of women’s health and well-being in rural communities and that information literacy can play a key role in digital inclusion. Fourth, the review confirms that digital in­ clusion is a complex area of enquiry, and that digital inclusion research appears frag­ mented and requires more depth (particularly in relation to terminology, digital skills training, linkages with information literacy and use of theory). Indeed, the inclusion of some grey literature was essential in the review in order to provide further understand­ ing, richness and currency. Finally, the review reveals that significant tensions and con­ tradictions exist within digital inclusion practice and policy. The review does come with its limitations. This review was limited to using two databas­ es, and a selection of grey literature, and so is by no means exhaustive. The exclusion of books and conference papers rendered the search more manageable, as did the omission of the phrase “digital divide” from the search terms which, if included, would have pro­ duced a far greater number of articles but perhaps with less specific relevance. The identification of such issues in the literature and limitations of this study helps identi­ fy a future research agenda. First, there is a need for further systematic reviews across more databases and grey literature on the research topic with inclusion of a greater num­ ber of search terms/phrases. Second, there is opportunity for further research, particular­ ly in relation to (1) the processes and mechanisms of digital inclusion initiatives, (2) digi­ tal inclusion digital skills training where the concepts of information literacy and digital inclusion are brought together, and (3) the experiences of women who have benefitted from digital inclusion initiatives. Finally, there is scope to incorporate more underpinning research theory in digital inclusion research to make sense of this complex situation of enquiry and provide a deeper foundation for both shaping research in this area as well as in understanding and evaluating the process and results.

References Not in Review Database Anderson, A. & Johnston, B. (2016). From information literacy to social epistemology: In­ sights from psychology. Cambridge, UK: Chandos Publishing. Andretta, S. (2005). Information literacy: A practitioner’s guide. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing. Bach, A., Shaffer, G., & Wolfson, T. (2013). Digital human capital: Developing a framework for understanding the economic impact of digital exclusion in low-income communities. Journal of Information Policy, 3, 247–266.

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Bruce, C. (2000). Information literacy research: Dimensions of the emerging collective consciousness. Australian Academic & Research Libraries, 31(2), 91–109. Burke, M. (2010). Overcoming challenges of the technological age by teaching informa­ tion literacy skills. Community & Junior College Libraries, 16(4), 247–254. Corrall, S. (2008). Information literacy strategy development in higher education: An ex­ ploratory study. International Journal of Information Management, 28(1), 26–37. Dunn, H. S. (2013). Information literacy and the digital divide: Challenging e-exclusion in the Global South. In Information Resources Management Association (2013) digital litera­ cy: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 20–38). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Hepworth, M., & Walton, G. (2013). Developing people’s information capabilities: Foster­ ing information literacy in educational, workplace and community contexts. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing. Kuhlthau, C. (1993). A principle of uncertainty for information seeking. Journal of Docu­ mentation, 49, 339–355. Lloyd, A. (2010). Framing information literacy as information practice: Site ontology and practice theory. Journal of Documentation, 66(2), 245–258. McGillivray, D., Jenkins, N., & Mamattah, S. (2017). Rapid review of evidence for basic digital skills. School of Media, Culture & Society, University of the West of Scotland, Ayr, Scotland. https://digitalparticipation.storage.googleapis.com/reports/ Tackling_Digital_Exclusion_Literature_Review.pdf Meijer, A., & Bekkers, V. (2015). A metatheory of e-government: Creating some order in a fragmented research field. Government Information Quarterly, 32, 237–245. Mervyn, K., Simon, A., & Allen, D. K. (2014). Digital inclusion and social inclusion: A tale of two cities. Information, Communication & Society, 17(9), 1086–1104. NDIA (2017). Definitions. National Digital Inclusion Alliance.https:// www.digitalinclusion.org/definitions/ Nemer, D. (2015). From digital divide to digital inclusion and beyond: A positional review. Journal of Community Informatics, 11(1). http://ci-journal.org/index.php/ciej/article/ view/1030 Rhinesmith, C. (2016). Digital inclusion and meaningful broadband adoption initiatives. Evanston, IL: Benton Foundation. https://www.benton.org/publications/digital-inclu­ sion-and-meaningful-broadband-adoption-initiatives Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press. Secker, J. & Coonan, E. (2013). Rethinking information literacy: A practical framework for supporting learning. London: Facet. Page 20 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Secker, J. (2018). The revised CILIP definition of information literacy. Journal of Informa­ tion Literacy, 12(1), 156–158. Van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2005). The deepening divide: Inequality in the information society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Appendix: Publications Analyzed: Journal Articles (N = 66) and Grey Literature (N = 16) * Grey literature ** Journal articles not cited in the text Adekannbi, J. O., & Adeniran, O. M. (2017). Information literacy of women on family plan­ ning in rural communities of Oyo State Nigeria. Information Development, 33, 351–360. doi:10.1177/0266666916661387 Adhikari, J., Mathrani, A., & Scogings, C. (2016). Bring your own devices classroom: Ex­ ploring the issue of digital divide in the teaching and learning contexts. Interactive Tech­ nology and Smart Education, 13(4), 323–343. doi:10.1108/ITSE-04-2016-0007 Aires, L. (2014). From dissemination to the domestication of digital technologies in rural communities: Narratives of parents and teachers. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 21(4), 337– 352. doi:10.1080/10749039.2014.947654 Armenta, A., Serrano, A., Cabrera, M., & Conte, R. (2012). The new digital divide: The confluence of broadband penetration, sustainable development, technology adoption and community participation. Information Technology for Development, 18, 345–353. doi: 10.1080/02681102.2011.625925 Berger, A., & Croll, J. (2012). Training in basic Internet skills for special target groups in non-formal educational settings: Conclusions from three pilot projects. Research in Learn­ ing Technology, 20(4).https://journal.alt.ac.uk/index.php/rlt/article/view/1330 Bingham, T. J., Wirjapranata, J., & Chinnery, S. (2016). Merging information literacy and evidence-based practice for social work students. New Library World, 117(3/4), 201–213. Blackstock, O. J., Cunningham, C. O., Haughton, L. J., Garner, R. Y., Norwood, C., & Hor­ vath, K. J. (2016). Higher eHealth literacy is associated with HIV risk behaviors among HIV-infected women who use the Internet. Journal of the Association of Nurses in Aids Care, 27(1), 102–108. ** Boulos, K., Tsouros, A. D., & Holopainen, A. (2015). Social, innovative and smart cities are happy and resilient: Insights from the WHO EURO 2014 International Healthy Cities Con­ ference. International Journal of Health Geographics, 14(3).https://ijhealthgeographics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-072X-14-3

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Britz, J., Hoffmann, A., Ponelis, S., Zimmer, M., & Lor, P. (2012). On considering the appli­ cation of Amartya Sen’s capability approach to an information-based rights framework. Information Development, 29(2), 106–113. doi:10.1177/0266666912454025 Broadbent, R., & Papadopoulos, T. (2013). Impact and benefits of digital inclusion for so­ cial housing residents. Community Development, 44(1), 55–67. Carretero, S., Vuorikari, R., & Punie, Y. (2017). DigComp 2.1: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens with eight proficiency levels and examples of use. EUR 28558 EN, doi:10.2760/38842 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-tech­ nical-research-reports/digcomp-21-digital-competence-framework-citizens-eightproficiency-levels-and-examples-use * Chiu, C. J., & Liu, C. W. (2017). Understanding older adult’s technology adoption and withdrawal for elderly care and education: Mixed method analysis from national survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(11), e374. CILIP (2018). What is information literacy. Library and Information Professionals Associa­ tion.http://www.cilip.org.uk/?page=informationliteracy * Correa, T., & Pavez, I. (2016). Digital inclusion in rural areas: A qualitative explo­ ration of challenges faced by people from isolated communities. Journal of Computer-Me­ (p. 132)

diated Communication, 21, 247–263. doi:10.1111/jcc4.12154 Correa, T., Pavez, I., & Contreras, J. (2017). Beyond access: A relational and resourcebased model of household Internet adoption in isolated communities. Telecommunications Policy, 41, 757–768. Crawford, J., & Irving, C. (2007). Information literacy: The link between secondary and tertiary education project and its wider implications. Journal of Librarianship and Infor­ mation Science, 39(1), 17–26. doi:10.1177/0961000607074812 ** Deloitte (2014). Value of connectivity: Economic and social benefits of expanding internet access. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ie/Documents/Technolo­ gyMediaCommunications/2014_uk_tmt_value_of_connectivity_deloitte_ireland.pdf * Dorner, D. G., & Gorman, G. E. (2011). Contextual factors affecting learning in Laos and the implications for information literacy education. Information Research, 16, 1–23. Enwald, H., Hirvonen, N., Huotari, M. L., Korpelainen, R., Pyky, R., Savolainen, M., & Niemelä, R. (2016). Everyday health information literacy among young men compared with adults with high risk for metabolic syndrome: A cross-sectional population-based study. Journal of Information Science, 42(3), 344–355. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0165551516628449

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Eynon, R., & Helsper, E. (2015). Family dynamics and Internet use in Britain: What role do children play in adults’ engagement with the Internet? Information, Communication & Society, 18(2), 156–171. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2014.942344 ** Ferreira, S. M., Sayago, S., & Blat, J. (2016). Going beyond telecenters to foster the digi­ tal inclusion of older people in Brazil: Lessons learned from a rapid ethnographical study. Information Technology for Development, 22, sup 1, 26–46. doi: 10.1080/02681102.2015.1091974 Fotopoulou, A. (2016). Digital and networked by default? Women’s organisations and the social imaginary of networked feminism. New Media & Society, 18(6), 989–1005. ** Fourie, I., and Meyer, A. (2016). Role of libraries in developing an informed and educated nation. Library Hi Tech, 34, 422–432. doi:10.1108/LHT-01-2016-0009 Freeman, J., & Park, S. (2015). Rural realities: Digital communication challenges for rural Australian local governments. Transforming Government: People, Process and Policy, 9(4), 465–479. Freeman, J., Park, S., Middleton, C., & Allen, M. (2016). The importance of broadband for socio-economic development: A perspective from rural Australia. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 20, 1–18. Gerli, P., Wainwright, D., & Whalley, J. (2017). Infrastructure investment on the margins of the market: The role of niche infrastructure providers in the UK. Telecommunications Pol­ icy, 41, 743–756. ** Good Things Foundation. (2016a). Health & digital: Reducing inequalities, improving soci­ ety: An evaluation of the Widening Digital Participation programme.https:// www.goodthingsfoundation.org/sites/default/files/research-publications/ improving_digital_health_skills_report_2016_1.pdf * Good Things Foundation. (2016b). English My Way Phase 2 Evaluation: Final evaluation report.https://www.goodthingsfoundation.org/sites/default/files/research-publica­ tions/emw-phase-2-evaluation-report_-_rev_a.pdf * Good Things Foundation. (2016c). Library Digital Inclusion Fund Action Research Project evaluation final report.https://www.goodthingsfoundation.org/sites/default/files/re­ search-publications/ library_digital_inclusion_fund_action_research_project_final_report.pdf * GSMA. (2015). Bridging the gender gap: Mobile access and usage in low-and mid­ dle-income countries.https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/up­ loads/2016/02/GSM0001_03232015_GSMAReport_NEWGRAYS-Web.pdf * (p. 133)

Haenssgen, M. J. (2018). The struggle for digital inclusion: Phones, healthcare, and mar­ ginalisation in rural India. World Development, 104, 358–374. Page 23 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Hart, A., Henwood, F., & Wyatt, S. (2004). The role of the Internet in patient-practitioner relationships: Findings from a qualitative research study. Journal of Medical Internet Re­ search, 6(3), 1. Hashim, R., Kartika, S. I., Ustadi, Y. A., Merican, F. M., & Fuzi, S. F. S. M. (2012). Digital inclusion and lifestyle transformation among the Orang Asli: Sacrificing culture for modernity? Asian Social Science, 8(12), 80–87. Hatlevik, O. E., Ottestad, G., & Throndsen, I. (2015). Predictors of digital competence in 7th grade: A multilevel analysis paper. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31, 220– 231. doi:10.1111/jcal.12065 Hughes, H., Wolf, R., & Foth, M. (2017). Informed digital learning through social living labs as participatory methodology: The case of Food Rescue Townsville. Information and Learning Science, 118(9/10), 518–534. IFLA & TASCHA. (2017). Development and access to information. International Federa­ tion of Library Associations and Institutions, and Technology & Social Change Group. Uni­ versity of Washington.https://da2i.ifla.org/sites/da2i.ifla.org/files/uploads/docs/ da2i-2017-full-report.pdf * Intel. (2013). Women and the Web. https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/ us/en/documents/pdf/women-and-the-web.pdf * ITU. (2017a). ICT facts and figures. International Telecommunication Union.http:// www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2017.pdf * ITU. (2017b). Gender digital inclusion map. International Telecommunication Union.https://www.itu.int/en/action/gender-equality/Pages/equalsGDImap.aspx * Jacobs, H. L. M., & Berg, S. (2011). Reconnecting information literacy policy with the core values of librarianship. Library Trends, 60(2), 383–394. Jaeger, P. T., Bertot, J. C., Thompson, K. M., Katz, S. M., & DeCoster, E. J. (2012). The in­ tersection of public policy and public access: Digital divides, digital literacy, digital inclu­ sion, and public libraries. Public Library Quarterly, 31(1), 1–20. doi: 10.1080/01616846.2012.654728 Jiménez-Cortés, M., Rebollo-Catalán, M. A., García-Pérez, R., & Buzón-García, O. (2015). Social network user motivation: An analysis of rural women’s profiles. RELIEVE, 21(1), art. 2. doi:10.7203/relieve.21.1.5153 Jones, R. B., Ashurst, E. J., Atkey, J., & Duffy, B. (2015). Older people going online: Its val­ ue and before-after evaluation of volunteer support. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(5), 1. doi:10.2196/jmir.3943 Julien, H., & Breu, R. D. (2005). Instructional practices in Canadian public libraries. Li­ brary & Information Science Research, 27, 281–301. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2005.04.002 ** Page 24 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Kapondera, S. K., & Hart, G. (2016). The use of multipurpose community telecentres and their services in Malawi: The case of Lupaso Community Telecentre. South African Jour­ nal of Libraries and Information Science, 82(1), 13–25. doi:10.7553/82-1-1589 Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2007). Gradations in digital inclusion: Children, young peo­ ple and the digital divide. New Media & Society, 9(4), 671–696. Lloyds Bank (2017). Lloyds Bank consumer digital index.https:// www.thetechpartnership.com/globalassets/pdfs/research-2017/ consumerdigitalindex_mar17.pdf * Madon, S., Reinhard, N., Roode, D., & Walsham, G. (2009). Digital inclusion projects in developing countries: Processes of institutionalization. Information Technology for Development, 15, 95–107. doi:10.1002/itdj.20108 (p. 134)

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Rashid, A. T. (2016). Digital inclusion and social inequality: Gender differences in ICT ac­ cess and use in five developing countries. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(3), 306–332. Real, B., Bertot, J. C., & Jaeger, P. T. (2014). Rural public libraries and digital inclusion: Is­ sues and challenges. Information Technology and Libraries, 33(1), 6–24. doi:10.6017/ ital.v33i1.5141 Rebollo, A. M, &.Vico, A. (2014). Perceived social support as a factor of rural women’s digital inclusion in online social networks. Comunicar, 22, 173–180. doi:10.3916/ C43-2014–17 Renteria, C. (2015). How transformational mobile banking optimizes household expendi­ tures: A case study from rural communities in Mexico. Information Technologies & Inter­ national Development, 11, 39–54.** Rhinesmith, C. & Siefer, A. (2017). Digital inclusion: Outcomes-based evaluation. Evanston, IL: Benton Foundation.https://www.benton.org/publications/digital-inclu­ sion-outcomes-based-evaluation * Roberts, E., Farrington, J., & Skerratt, S. (2015). Evaluating new digital technologies through a framework of resilience. Scottish Geographical Journal, 131(3–4), 253–264. Salinas, A., & Sánchez, J. (2009). Digital inclusion in Chile: Internet in rural schools. In­ ternational Journal of Educational Development, 29, 573–582. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev. 2009.04.003 Sanchez, M. S. O., & Sanchez, M. R. F. (2017). Digital technologies and rural women’s en­ trepreneurship. Prisma Social, 18, 259–277. ** Shade, L. R. (2014). Missing in action: Gender in Canada’s digital economy agenda. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 39(4), 887–896. Singh, S. (2017). Bridging the gender digital divide in developing countries. Jour­ nal of Children and Media, 11(2), 245–247. doi:10.1080/17482798.2017.1305604 (p. 135)

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Sharon Wagg

Sharon Wagg is a doctoral researcher in the Centre of Information Management, part of the School of Business and Economics at Loughborough University, United King­ dom. She is the recipient of the Mark Hepworth PhD scholarship, and her research interests include digital inclusion and social change, information literacy, and lifelong learning. Sharon worked as part of the research team at the digital inclusion charity Page 27 of 28

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Digital Inclusion and Women’s Health and Well-Being in Rural Communi­ ties Good Things Foundation, and has a master’s degree in Librarianship (Distinction) from the University of Sheffield. Her PhD dissertation investigated digital inclusion initiatives in the context of rural communities in the United Kingdom. Louise Cooke

Louise Cooke is Professor of Information and Knowledge Management in the School of Business and Economics at Loughborough University. Her main research interests focus on the ethical aspects of information, data and knowledge use, and the societal value of access to information. In particular, her work has focused on challenges to freedom of expression in the online environment. She led the Arts and Humanities Research Center–funded MAIPLE (Managing Access to the Internet in Public Li­ braries) and JISC-funded staff access to Information and Communication Technology in UK Further Education and Higher Education projects. Her PhD thesis investigated the impact on freedom of expression of measures taken to regulate internet access and content. She has published widely in the field of information science. Boyka Simeonova

Boyka Simeonova is Lecturer in Information Management at Loughborough Universi­ ty, United Kingdom. Boyka is Director of the Knowledge and the Digital Economy Network and Deputy Director of the Centre for Information Management at Lough­ borough University. Boyka is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Boyka is the recipient of the Dean’s Early Career Researcher Award at Loughborough University and has published in Information Systems and Management.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research

Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Re­ cent Research   Helen Petrie and Jenny S. Darzentas The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.6

Abstract and Keywords This chapter reviews recent research on digital technology to support older people. The review concentrates on research emphasizing the design and evaluation of technologies used by older people, rather than the technical implementation of the technologies. Such papers provided insight into the needs and interests for this group, how older people were involved in the research, and what outcomes were achieved. 407 papers were iden­ tified and grouped into 16 major topics of research. Four of these topics are discussed in detail, as well as several of the general themes that emerged from the research. Keywords: ageingaging population, being digital, digital technology, lived experience, mainstream digital tech­ nologies, older people, older people’s welfare

Introduction ONE of the great challenges facing the world today is the aging of the population. The United Nations (2017) estimates that in 2017 there were 962 million people aged 60 or over worldwide, but by 2050 there will be 2.1 billion people in that group, a rise from 12.7% to 21.5% of the population. Currently, Europe and Japan have the greatest percent­ age of population aged 60 or over (over 25%), but by 2050 all regions of the world except Africa will have nearly a quarter or more of their populations aged over 60. An important consequence of the aging population is that the ratio of people of working age to older people (the Potential Support Ratio, PSR) is declining. Thus, there will be fewer people of working age to care and support the older population. Europe currently has a PSR of ap­ proximately 4 younger people for each older one, although many European countries have a PSR of less than 3 younger/older, and Japan’s is the lowest at 2.1 (United Nations, 2017). Digital technologies are often presented as a major solution to this increasing problem of providing care to older people. Increasingly, particularly in the wealthier countries, it is expected that older people will be cared for and will care for themselves using digital Page 1 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research technologies. However, the relationship between digital technologies and older people is rather more complex than many commentators suggest. First, old age spans from people in their 60s to people well over 100 years old. People currently in their 60s may have been using digital technologies for many years, whereas those much older may have little experience with these technologies. So the acceptance and familiarity of digital technolo­ gies may be very different for different cohorts of older people. Second, we can think of two different ways of “being digital” for older people. In the first way of “being digital”, their use of mainstream technologies, older people both need (p. 137) and want to be able to use the many mainstream digital technologies that have emerged in recent years and that are continuing to emerge. For example, automated teller machines (ATMs) are now the most common way of withdrawing cash from one’s bank account. Twenty years ago, people over 60 rarely used ATMs (van Schaik, Petrie & Kirby, 1995). But as these machines have become more and more common, and bank branches less common, everyone, including older people, needs to use them, whether they wish to or not. Consequently, banks and ATM manufacturers have had to consider the needs of older users, for example that very short time-outs may not be appropriate, and that text, button sizes and colors need to be suitable for older eyes and fingers. In ad­ dition, older people want to use many mainstream digital technologies. For example, they often realize that the best way to communicate with their children and grandchildren is via email, Skype, or a social networking site (e.g., Sayago, Forbes & Blat, 2012). In the second way of “being digital”, the use of technologies specially developed to assist older people with problems they encounter in their daily lives, technologies have provid­ ed many opportunities for assisting older people in overcoming such problems. This may be as simple as an electronic pillbox that reminds older people to take their medicines, or complex systems involving the use of the global positioning system of satellites (GPS) to assist older people in navigating unfamiliar environments (Petrie, Johnson, & Strothotte, 1997) and to monitor and locate older people with dementia, who may wander and be­ come confused (Jönsson & Svensk, 1995). So, these digital technologies must be accept­ able and usable by older people. This chapter presents a review of recent research on digital technologies for older peo­ ple, highlighting research in both of these ways of “being digital”. First, we will present the scope of our review and an overview of the 16 different research topics that emerged from this review. Then we will consider in more depth four of the topics of research, three related to the first way of “being digital”, that is older people’s use of mainstream digital technologies. These three emerged most frequently in our review, namely: older people’s 1) interaction with digital technologies, 2) lived experience of digital technologies, and 3) use of digital technologies for communication and social interaction. The fourth topic to be considered in depth is related to the second way of “being digital”: i.e. digital tech­ nologies that are specially developed to assist older people, with the specific topic being 4) that of monitoring their welfare. Finally, we reflect on some of the overarching themes

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research that emerged from the research, some of the limitations of recent research, and further areas of research that need to be undertaken.

Scope of the Review As part of an ongoing review of research on technology for disabled and older people (Petrie, Gallagher, & Darzentas, 2014), research about older people published in a selec­ tion of peer-reviewed conferences and journals between 2005 and 2017 was identified for this chapter. Conferences and journals were chosen that deal primarily with the design (p. 138) and evaluation of technologies with the target users, rather than with the techni­ cal implementation of the technologies. This means that papers should provide insight in­ to what area of need or interest for older people is being addressed, how older people were involved in the research, and what outcomes were achieved. A range of mainstream outlets in human-computer interaction and human factors, as well as specialist outlets in gerontology and rehabilitation technology, were selected (see Table 6.1). Outlets were se­ lected for inclusion based on their Impact Factor (Thomson Reuters, 2013); journals with the highest impact factors for their sector were chosen. The Australian Research Council’s (2012) rankings of journals and conferences were also used in the decisions.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Table 6.1 Mainstream and Specialist Outlets Included in the Review Mainstream outlets Journals ACM Transactions on Computer Human Interaction (ToCHI) Behaviour and Information Technology Human Computer Interaction Human Factors International Journal of Human-Computer Studies Conferences ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) British Computer Society Interaction Specialist Group Conference (BCS HCI) IFIP TC 13 Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (INTERACT) Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (NordiCHI) Specialist outlets Journals ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing (ToACCESS) Educational Gerontology Technology and Disability Universal Access to the Information Society Conferences ACM Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research International Conference on Computers Helping People with Special Needs (ICCHP) Papers were included if they used words relevant to older people and technology in the ti­ tle, abstract, or keywords. Terms included “older people”, “older adults,” or “elders” in mainstream papers (which were by definition about technology, although this was checked) and in addition terms such as “computer/s” and “assistive technology” in the specialist papers. Table 6.2 provides the search terms and how they were used. Only pa­ pers published in English were included. There is not a well-established definition of when old age begins and therefore at what age people become “older” or “elderly”. Typi­ cally, 60 or 65 years of age are used to indicate the start point of old age in chronological terms, although it is well accepted that there are wide individual differences in the aging process. Therefore, we made no attempt to impose a definition of older people (p. 139) on the selection of papers; if the paper stated it was about older people, it was included in the review. This process identified 407 papers. See the appendix at the end of the chapter for the full list of references analyzed. Table 6.2 Terms Related to Older People Used to Select Papers for In­ clusion in the Review Category

Term

Referring to older peo­

aging (ambiguous alone, only used in

ple in general

conjunction with other terms) aging population elder/s elderly (people) geriatric/s grandparents older adult/s senior adult/s

Specific conditions re­ lated to aging

Alzheimer’s dementia Parkinson’s disease (if the emphasis is on the disabilities related to Parkinson’s)

Technology (if they later included reference to older people)

assistive technology/ies cognitive prosthetic/s web accessibility

An initial analysis, based on the area of need or interest of older people, rather than on the technology deployed, grouped the research conducted into 16 topics (see Table 6.3).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Table 6.3 The 16 Topics of the Research in the Papers Reviewed Topic

Number of pa­ pers

*Interaction with digital technologies: physical use of technologies, for example use of mouse, touchscreen, voice input

90

*Older people’s lived experience of digital technologies: adoption, attitudes, holistic experiences, abandonment of digital technologies

58

*Communication and social interaction: using digital technologies to communicate with others and for social interaction, including use of email, social networking

52

sites, online communities Methods for research with/about older people: including problems of using existing methods and methodological

39

innovations Access and use of information: including access to and use of the Web, eBooks, eKiosks and other digital forms

37

of information Education and training (of older people and other stake­ holders): education and training of older people (e.g., in computer skills), also education and training of others (e.g., doctors, nurses, carers, engineers) in working with older people

28

*Monitoring older people’s welfare: use of digital tech­ nologies to monitor older people’s movements, vital signs, home environments

28

Activities of everyday living: using digital technologies to support all kinds of everyday living activities, from writing a cheque to dispensing medicines

22

Mobility and wayfinding: indoor and outdoor mobility and wayfinding, also older drivers and driving cessation

20

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Health and well being: use of digital technologies to support all aspects of health and well-being

17

Support for carers/others: use of digital technologies to support those who are supporting older people, includ­ ing carers, family members, healthcare staff

14

Games and leisure: digital technologies for leisure, in­ cluding video games for older people, digital versions of traditional games

13

Memory: digital technologies to support memory prob­ lems in older people, (e.g., medication reminders, calen­ dars and appointment alert systems)

9

Exercise: digital technologies to support exercise in old­ er people, for general fitness and rehabilitation exercise

8

Understanding general user requirements for using dig­ ital technologies: studies investigate older people’s ac­

7

ceptance, use across a range of digital technologies Rehabilitation: digital technologies to support rehabili­ tation programs for older people

6

Notes 1: * indicates topics discussed in detail in this chapter. 2: Papers often covered several topics, so the numbers are greater than the total of 407 publications.

Uses of Mainstream Technologies by and for Older People Four of these 16 topics were chosen for more detailed exploration in the remainder of this chapter.

Topic 1: Older People’s Interaction with Mainstream Digital Tech­ nologies This topic investigated how older people physically interact with mainstream digital tech­ nologies, the problems they might encounter, and different solutions that have been de­ veloped to overcome these problems. It was the most frequent in the research reviewed, Page 7 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research with 90 papers addressing it. This topic included four subtopics: physical interaction, spoken dialogue interaction, multimodality, and security. (p. 140)

(p. 141)

Physical interaction. Physical interaction might include pointing and clicking with a mouse, or tapping on a touchscreen; research considered how these interaction styles might be adapted for older users. Hwang and colleagues (Hwang, Hollinworth, & Williams, 2013) proposed several ways in which items on a computer display, such as icons, can be expanded to make them easier for older people to select. They found that using such techniques substantially improved selection time and reduced error rates. Sayago and Blat (2008) found that older people were not concerned about how fast they could interact, but were very concerned about not making errors, so this second result is particularly important. Jochems, Vetter, and Schlick (2013) compared younger and older people in their use of mouse, touchscreen, and eye gaze control, and found that both groups were fastest with a touchscreen, particularly the older group. They also investi­ gated combining eye gaze with input from a keyboard, speech input, or a foot pedal, find­ ing that the best combination was eye gaze with keyboard confirmation. In research on touchscreen interaction specifically, Apted, Kay, and Quigley (2006) intro­ duced older people to interaction with a tabletop computer using a digital photograph sharing application. They found that older people coped well with tasks in this applica­ tion, although they took longer to complete them than did younger people. They also un­ derstood the new interface elements, although initially they had some difficulty with one of the elements, a copy operation. This was overcome with further training. Lepicard and Vigouroux took a more experimental approach to touchscreen interaction, investigating one-hand versus two-hand interaction (Lepicard & Vigouroux, 2010), and single-touch versus multi-touch interaction (Lepicard & Vigouroux, 2012). In relation to number of hands, older people were faster and more accurate when using one hand than using two hands. In relation to multi-touch, both younger and older people had more difficulty with multi-touch interaction, but especially the older people. Nicolau and Jorge (2012) investi­ gated text entry via a touchscreen, comparing mobile phone input with tablet computer input. Older participants made more errors on a mobile than on a tablet; although input speed, but not accuracy, correlated with experience with the QWERTY keyboard. On the mobile in particular, the amount of hand tremor (a common problem for older people) cor­ related strongly with less accuracy. Wulf, Garschall, Klein et al. (2014) investigated younger and older people’s gesture performance on a tablet touchscreen, including drag­ ging, pinching and rotating. Older people were slower than younger people, but both groups were more accurate when the tablet was in portrait rather than landscape orien­ tation. Finally, Muskens, van Lent, Vijfvinkel et al. (2014) designed touchscreen applica­ tions to be particularly usable by older people. They successfully eliminated problems with button size, navigation, readability of fonts, and gesture execution. They found that older people had strong preferences for designs with low numbers of icons, direct input, no deep hierarchies, large buttons with immediate feedback, clear notification that screens have changed, and bright colors.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Spoken dialogue interaction. In terms of more natural interaction paradigms, only two papers reviewed investigated spoken dialogue interaction for older people. (p. 142) Wolters, Kilgour, MacPherson et al. (2015) explored a bottom-up approach to adapting spoken dialogue systems for older people. In an analysis of a corpus of spoken interac­ tions between an intelligent computer agent and both younger and older people, they found two main groups of people, a factual group and a social group. The factual users adapted quickly to the dialogue system and interacted with it efficiently; the social users treated the system more like a human being and did not change their interaction style when it did not understand their requests. Almost all the social users were older, although about a third of older users were factual in style. The authors concluded that spoken dia­ logue systems need to adapt to users based on observed behavior of users, not age per se. Vacher, Caffiau, Portet et al. (2015) also found that older users were more inclined to treat a spoken dialogue system as a human being and were disturbed by the rigid gram­ mars needed to use such systems. Multimodality. Four papers explored multimodal aspects of interaction for older people. Carrasco, Epelde, Moreno et al. (2008) and Diaz-Orueta, Etxaniz, Gonzalez et al. (2014) studied the use of avatars for older people with Alzheimer’s disease, using a TV screen to display the avatar and a TV remote control for input. Both studies found that older people readily understood this interaction metaphor and were able to interact successfully in simple dialogues. Nunes, Kerwin, and Silva (2012) also tested a TV platform for interac­ tion but used text and icons rather than a visual avatar. Again, they found that older peo­ ple could interact successfully with the system, although there were interesting usability problems, for example around understanding standard icons for the video player. On the basis of a number of evaluations, the authors produced a set of guidelines for TV-based applications for older people. Finally, Warnock, McGee-Lennon, and Brewster (2013) in­ vestigated using multimodal notifications for home care reminder systems for older peo­ ple. There were no particular differences between younger and older people in their reac­ tions to textual, pictographic, abstract visual, speech, sound, tactile, and olfactory notifi­ cations in the context of playing a game in a laboratory setting. Security. A number of papers investigated security issues in interacting with digital tech­ nologies for older people. Renaud and Ramsay (2007) explored authentication mecha­ nisms that would be easier for older users but equally secure, including recognition of handwritten numerals and doodles. Nicholson, Coventry, and Briggs (2013a) compared face-based and picture-based authentication systems, finding that older people performed better with the face-based authentication while younger people performed better with the picture-based authentication. However, in further work, Nicholson, Coventry, and Briggs (2013b) reported that older people performed better with age-appropriate faces.

Topic 2: Older People’s Lived Experience of Digital Technologies This topic addresses older people’s lived experience of digital technologies. It includes re­ search into how older people understand meaningful practices with technology as (p. 143) well as issues such as quality of life, well-being, and aging-in-place, and how these might Page 9 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research impact existing and future technologies. It was the second most frequent topic in the re­ search reviewed, with 58 papers addressing it. Research reviewed often addressed issues of older people’s acceptance of, and motivation to use digital technologies, including re­ search about understanding values (Briggs & Thomas, 2015); how older people account for their difficulties in learning to use a computer (Turner, Turner, & van de Walle, 2007); older people’s concerns about using mobile phones (Kurniawan, 2008); their emailing practices and the barriers to using email (Sayago & Blat, 2010); their use and sharing of YouTube videos (Sayago et al., 2012); their perceptions of telecare (Bentley, Powell, Orrell et al., 2014); and their attitudes toward robots as supportive devices (Pigini, Facal, Blasi et al., 2012; Scopelliti, Giuliani, & Fornara, 2005). These issues constituted four subtopics: types of technology, acceptance of technology, value of technology, and the im­ portance of stigma. Types of technology. A number of papers discussed a wide variety of experiences with different types of digital technology: the Internet (Briggs & Thomas, 2015; Larsson, Lars­ son-Lund, & Nilsson, 2013); videos (Ferreira, Sayago, & Blat, 2014); email (Sayago & Blat, 2010); telecare systems (Šimšík, Galajdová, Siman et al., 2012); a television-based information system (Ferreira et al., 2014); various features of smart homes (Brajnik & Gi­ achin, 2014; Leitner, Fercher, Felfernig et al., 2012); and domestic robots (Heerink, Kröse, Wielinga et al., 2009; Pigini et al., 2012; Scopelliti et al., 2005). As one example, Sáenzde-Urturi, Zapirain, and Zorrilla (2015) investigated the suitability of a Kinect-based game for rehabilitation exercises for older users. Since the participants in their study in­ cluded wheelchair users, people with Parkinson’s, people with one hand, and people with vision impairments, they needed to adapt the technology and make the games config­ urable for people in different situations. After testing the prototype, they also made other adjustments to the game presentation (e.g., animated instructions rather than text to read, larger fonts for scores). The game required reaching out for objects, thus creating exercises to use the arms, as well as activating cognitive processes, because players have to recognize the objects to catch from amongst other objects. They found that partici­ pants became absorbed in the game and engaged in the exercises as part of the game. Acceptance of technologies. Much research has attempted to investigate acceptance of digital technologies (Bentley et al., 2014; Heerink et al., 2009). Researchers have been able to develop nuanced accounts of barriers to take-up. For example, Kurniawan’s (2008) survey of older people revealed that the role of mobile phones was perceived to increase their feelings of safety, particularly when they felt themselves in vulnerable, or potentially vulnerable, situations such as being alone, going out, getting lost, or being in trouble. Consequently, the phones were not used primarily in their communication or entertain­ ment capacities. The study also reported various problems with learning to use the de­ vices. Heerink et al. (2009) investigated whether social abilities of robots and screen agents would influence their use by older people. In an experiment with two types of agent, an onscreen avatar and a tabletop robot, implemented in a highly sociable and a less sociable condition. They found that older people were more comfortable with the more social agent, particularly with the robot. They concluded that social (p. 144) abilities Page 10 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research are important to interaction and need to be implemented in intelligent support technolo­ gies for use by older people. Value of technology. Sayago and Blat (2008; also Sayago et al., 2012), studying older people at a computer club, found they had great motivation to learn. They wanted to use email and share videos to maintain social communication, especially with their families. For this motivated group, the researchers concluded that reducing cognitive load was more important in the design of systems for these older people than interface design (e.g., screen size, button size). For example, to reduce cognitive load in their use of YouTube each older people made use of familiar practices, such as copying and pasting links from emails, rather than querying the search engine; if using the search function, they typed complete sentences into the search box, rather than first using categories to narrow down the search (Sayago et al., 2012). In another study with older people learn­ ing to use computers, Turner et al. (2007) investigated the values older people placed on this activity. In practice this meant understanding the ways older people viewed their ex­ periences and accounted for their learning difficulties and those of their peer group. Seven value-based explanations emerged: alienation (“not my world”); lack of fit with one’s identity (“I worked with people not machines”); agency (the computer being in con­ trol, rather than the person; in addition, the pressure to use technology); anxiety; belief in being too old to learn; being too busy; and finally, questioning the purpose of learning to use computers. The researchers concluded that it is important to seek out older people’s values and understandings of themselves in relation to digital technologies and help them to reframe these values in more optimistic and positive ways. Larsson et al. (2013) investigated how older people’s perceptions and experiences of In­ ternet activities reflected more generally on their being able to participate in society. Old­ er people perceived that not undertaking Internet-based activities implied being moved to the sidelines. For instance, one interviewee explained that in a group she participates in, the group leader sent out information by email, forgetting that not all participants have access to this technology. Participants also noted that services with traditional delivery, such as health services, now take much longer compared to Internet-based delivery. This study was conducted with older people who were open to technology, but who also cited conditions that are required for them to engage in Internet activities, such as support and continual use (so that they remember what they have learnt), as well as problems with trust (e.g., buying online). A further issue was whether some Internet activities (e.g., so­ cial networking sites) are useful for older people, since the most commonly cited need was that of communication with family and friends, which they accomplished via email and video links. These findings were also echoed in other research with older people learning computer skills. Wanting to see whether the commonly used measures of usability, such as time to complete task, were relevant for older people, Sayago and Blat (2008) found slow task completion was not an issue. The participants valued accuracy more than efficiency and wanted to take their time. For them, it was important not to make mistakes, for they often found they could not recover from mistakes without asking for help. The researchers not­ Page 11 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research ed the importance of self-efficacy: they reported how one participant said that she (p. 145) enjoyed feeling of being competent despite never using a computer before and having a low level of education (Sayago et al., 2012). The importance of stigma. Bentley et al. (2014) discovered that stigma was a strong reason for non-acceptance of digital technologies by older people. They investigated whether telecare products, such as pendants and panic button systems, were considered acceptable by older people who were not current users of such products. They found re­ sistance to these systems: older people saw them as symbols of old age and loss of auton­ omy and claimed that their designs were stigmatizing as well as impractical. However, the overall concept of being able to summon help was considered useful and important, and participants acknowledged that they might use such systems in the future. Other studies of home deployment of technologies also found that stigma was a concern. For in­ stance, Doyle, Bailey, Scanaill et al. (2014) explained that an alertness awareness cushion was specifically designed to fit in with the home environment, and not look like a piece of assistive technology.

Topic 3: Older People’s Use of Digital Technology for Communication and Social Interaction Communication and social interaction are very important activities for health and well-be­ ing in later life, and the lessening of these activities poses risks as serious as those for cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, and obesity (Cohen, Underwood, & Gottlieb, 2000). Therefore, it is not surprising that there was a considerable amount of research on this topic with 52 papers addressing this topic in the papers reviewed. Subtopics included social networking, facilitating interaction, motivations for interaction, intergenerational interaction, communication habits, obstacles to communication, reminiscing, and loneli­ ness. Social networking. Nine papers investigated the use of social networking sites (SNSs). A network analytic approach comparing different age groups (Arjan, Pfeil, & Zaphiris, 2008) revealed a number of interesting differences, including that, compared to younger people, older people had smaller networks of friends in SNSs and a greater variety in the age of their friends, and represented themselves in more formal ways. A study of older people in the UK and in Cyprus revealed the effect of different cultures in their attitudes to and use of online social support communities (Michailidou, Parmaxi, & Zaphiris, 2015). Older people in the UK who used such communities were happy to interact with people outside their family, but were reluctant to reveal too much about themselves, due to their fears about security in online situations. On the other hand, older people in Cyprus most­ ly used such communities to interact with family members: they were generally aware of and confident about online security issues, having discussed them with their families. Other studies about SNSs (Gibson, Moncur, Forbes et al., 2010; Lehtinen, Näsänen, & Sarvas, 2009) investigated older people’s attitudes to such sites after the researchers demonstrated and helped them register on the network. In both these studies, the older Page 12 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research users (located in Finland and Scotland) reported they did not feel they needed this channel of communication: they were happy communicating with people they knew by email. Privacy was a problem for two reasons: older people were wary of giving infor­ mation about themselves, and they worried about information accidentally becoming pub­ lic. They also felt it was not socially acceptable to broadcast information about them­ selves on SNSs. Results from an online questionnaire (Prieto & Leahy, 2012) supported these findings, noting that the main reasons for not using SNSs were privacy issues, com­ plexity of their use, and friends not using them. Also, most older people who were users of SNSs had been using them for less than five years and got to know about them from family more than from friends. However, the researchers suggest that SNSs might be a more interesting way of introducing older people to computer usage than by browsing websites. (p. 146)

Studying older users and their social interactions off and online, Harley, Howland, Harris et al. (2014) noted that older people were often passive users on Facebook, logging in to see what family members were doing, especially younger members who did not use email to communicate with them, but did not themselves post on Facebook. Norval, Arnott, and Hanson (2014) proposed recommendations for making SNSs more usable for older people who had expressed interest in using such sites, but for whom the complexity of the appli­ cations was a barrier. Finally, Coelho, Rito, Luz et al., (2015) investigated the problem of easier interactions for older people on SNSs, using familiar technologies like television and alternative interaction types such as speech and tapping on tablets. They also identi­ fied the functions that older people most value: to share photos and television content with family and close friends, and to be able to manage different groups of acquain­ tances. Facilitating interaction. On the theme of facilitating interaction with communication and social interaction technologies, Spreicer, Ehrenstrasser, and Tellioğlu (2012) investi­ gated tangible interfaces (interfaces that include physical objects, using tokens to repre­ sent different functions, e.g., for calling or for sending photos), and explored the idea of personalized tokens that could be placed on a surface to initiate actions. The result was a playful interface design, using familiar objects. Older participants in workshops reacted to this concept very positively. They supplied meaningful objects from their own collec­ tions, the researchers enhanced these with RFID tags, and when placed on a special sur­ face, these objects would, for example, start a Skype call, or send an email. One much ap­ preciated aspect of the design was a reduced demand for space in the homes of older people, a need supported by other studies (e.g., Doyle, Skrba, McDonnell et al., 2010). Motivations for interaction. A number of papers investigated motivations for communi­ cation and social interaction with digital technologies by investigating what older people did with existing mainstream technologies. Conci, Pianesi, and Zancanaro (2009) showed that older people perceived mobile phones to be primarily a utilitarian device for enhanc­ ing safety, and that support with use was needed even with practice. Unlike younger users, older users showed little enjoyment or fulfilment in using their phones. Trying to understand the needs of people transitioning from working to retirement, Salovaara, Page 13 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Lehmuskallio, Hedman et al. (2010) showed that for many older people, the Internet, and in particular, email and online calendars, had become important (p. 147) means of main­ taining and even initiating new social contacts. The older people felt that these tools helped them to cope with the stresses and conflicts of the transition from working to re­ tirement which involved new activities and commitments, housing arrangements, etc. Intergenerational interaction. A number of papers investigated the theme of intergen­ erational interaction. Staying in contact with grandchildren is a major motivation for old­ er people to engage with and learn to use digital technologies. Studies by Vutborg, Kjeld­ skov, Vetere et al. (2010) and Fuchsberger, Sellner, Moser et al. (2012) described systems to facilitate interactions between grandparents and grandchildren. Fuchsberger and col­ leagues were able to show that the motivation to use a technology for this purpose was very strong, even though users had low computer skills and found it difficult to use. Gam­ liel and Gambay (2014) investigated intergenerational teaching programs in schools, where children and older people taught one another, and found that older people showed strong learning motivation and took the assignments set by the children about learning how to use technology very seriously. Finally, in research about encouraging older people’s social interaction amongst themselves at a community center by playing games, Mubin, Shadid, and Mahmud (2008) reported that the participants were keen to include their grandchildren in the activity. Communication habits. Researchers have also examined the nature of older people’s habits with their communication technologies. Many older people prefer to sustain close relationships that are meaningful to them, rather than seek to make new acquaintances (Lindley, Harper, & Sellen, 2008). Older people are prepared to spend time keeping in touch with valued friends and maintaining family links (Lindley, Harper, & Sellen, 2009). Sokoler and Svensson (2007) concentrated on ways to include technologies for enabling social interaction that would not stigmatize older users as lonely people craving compan­ ionship. Dowds and Masthoff (2015) described a system to provide live video feeds for people who are unable to visit each other in person. The idea is that the “window on the outside world” will be stimulating and may lead to a desire to participate online in other activities. Doyle et al. (2010) reported on the deployment of a touchscreen device for communication activities. The device was designed to broadcast some content, with health suggested as being of particular interest to older people. The hypothesis was that the broadcast content would act as the trigger to begin interactions, as older people might send messages or call one another to comment on the broadcast program. In fact, it was found that the broadcasts were not much attended to, partly due to the fixed broadcast times. However, the long deployment period (7-9 weeks) yielded much informa­ tion about how older people felt about such communication. While they agreed it would be useful for people who are housebound, particularly for calling and messaging, they were concerned about issues of disturbance and availability. Finally, Otjacques, Krier, Feltz et al. (2009) conducted an exploratory study in a large residential care facility about a social activities management system, allowing residents to book places on outings and

Page 14 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research events. The researchers noted a tendency for the physical spaces where the technologies are installed to become face-to-face meeting places for residents. Obstacles to communication. Several papers discussed specific health obstacles to communication, such as aphasia and dementia, and how technology could be used to (p. 148) help with these. Tixier and Lewkowicz (2015) aimed to increase communication between family carers of people with Alzheimer’s disease, often spouses and hence older people themselves. Their results showed that online support could help facilitate meeting arrangements and help continue communication between carers of people with Alzheimer’s. Such support would help reinforce the interaction between carers that was already taking place, but only maintained via face-to face meetings. Kalman, Geraghty, Thompson et al. (2012) attempted to indirectly diagnose aphasia, showing that it could be reliably detected in online messages. Mahmud, Limpens, and Martens (2013) investigated the design of a tool for manipulating digital photographs to be used to communicate everyday happenings and stories. Both the researchers dealing with aphasia and those dealing with dementia sought to stimulate social interactions, making use of technologies to initiate reminiscence, which has been shown to be beneficial for older people. Reminiscing. Supporting reminiscing in older people as a way of stimulating basic social interactions was the goal of Nijhof, van Hoof, van Rijn et al. (2014) and Siriaraya and Ang (2014). Nijhof and colleagues compared two games, one supported by technologically en­ hanced objects, made to look like familiar objects such as a television or a telephone. When these enhanced objects were switched on they played a fragment of music or a movie clip, to trigger memories. The researchers studied older people’s responses to these enhanced objects, such as smiling, laughing out loud, making gestures, singing, and answering with a short answer or with a story. There were no significant differences be­ tween responses to the technologically enhanced game and a traditional one. The facilita­ tors of the activities, who were staff in institutions where the players lived, gave feedback on the designs. For instance, they noted that the television, as a visual tool, was the most successful of the triggers, whereas the telephone was confusing, because when it rang and was answered, it started playing music instead of a voice being heard. The staff felt that the enhanced objects could help trigger more responses with less prompting by the facilitators if different types of content were used (more general subjects, like nature and animals). They could be very useful in helping to bring more novel approaches into stimu­ lating communication with the older people. Siriaraya and Ang (2014) created a virtual world environment for people with dementia in a care home. They found that older peo­ ple were attracted to the wonderland character of the virtual world, and that it triggered reactions from some residents who began to talk and reminisce, and to tell stories, helped and encouraged by the care staff. Loneliness. Finally, although research on communication and social interaction often mentioned social isolation, only one study specifically considered loneliness amongst old­ er people. Van der Heide, Willems, Spreeuwenberg et al. (2012) investigated mitigating loneliness with a television-based system allowing older people living independently to in­ teract with carers, family and friends. A large number of older people (130) completed a Page 15 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research questionnaire at the beginning of the study and again a year later. Their responses were assessed in relation to both emotional loneliness (missing an intimate relationship) and social loneliness (missing a wider social network). Analysis showed that use of the system for social interaction was positive and that feelings of both emotional and (more so) social loneliness were reduced.

Topic 4: Using Digital Technologies to Assist Older People: Monitoring Older People’s Welfare (p. 149)

Research on monitoring older people’s welfare has investigated various aspects of safety and security. These included ways to monitor sleep, wandering, falls, and risky behaviors, via recording vital signs or tracking people’s movements. Indications that people may need help included irregular pulse or not moving. Since falls are a major source of acci­ dents and anxiety about them is high, fall prevention is an active area of research (Kepski & Kwolek, 2012; Oberzaucher, Jagos, Zödl et al., 2010; Schikhof, Mulder, & Choenni, 2010). Older people were also monitored for activity patterns, to determine behaviors that might be unusual, for instance spending a long time in the corridor or opening the front door. Other possibilities included monitoring activities of daily living by interpreting data from sensors placed in various parts of the home (e.g., on the fridge, in the bath­ room) (Lexis, Everink, van der Heide et al., 2013), or interpreting sleep behavior (CareySmith, Evans, & Orpwood, 2013; Nijhof, van Gemert Pijnen, de Jong et al., 2012), as well as locating people who may have wandered out of the house, or who may be exhibiting er­ ratic behaviors, e.g., not completing normal routines. Technologies for monitoring, quality of life, ethical concerns, and beneficiaries of monitoring systems were the subtopics. Technologies for monitoring. The term monitoring conjures up visions of people being under surveillance by closed circuit TV cameras, possibly without their knowledge, but in fact a range of technologies has been developed that track older people’s movements and vital functions in ways that are transparent to the users. Some are designed to enable old­ er people to control their home environment with smart home technologies (Abascal, de Castro, LaFuente & Cia, 2008). Such technologies can be configured to individuals’ needs: for example, where mobility is an issue, they can enable remote opening and clos­ ing of windows, curtains and doors, or remote checking of who is at the front door. Simi­ larly, environmental sensor-activated systems (Lexis et al., 2013) can be set up to switch on lights as an older person comes into a room, to keep rooms at appropriate tempera­ tures, to check on appliances to ensure they are not left on, etc. Other monitoring tech­ nologies include a range of wearables such as watches, belts, or pendants (Ahanathapil­ lai, Amor & James, 2015; Holliday, Ward, Fielden et al., 2015; Nijhof et al., 2012), and even shoe insoles (Oberzaucher et al., 2010). The purpose of these is to monitor vital signs (e.g., heart beat or pulse), to send alerts (e.g., time to take medication, call for help in an emergency), or to monitor gait to prevent falls (as noted earlier, a common and seri­ ous occurrence amongst older people). Recently robotic devices (e.g., Mehdi & Berns, 2014) have been developed to search autonomously for an older person, to check their status, rather than have them under constant human supervision. Although most of the technologies are for indoor use, in private homes (e.g., Abascal et al., 2008; Casas, Marin, Page 16 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Robinet et al., 2008; Lozano, Hernáez, Picón et al., 2010; Orpwood, Gibbs, Adlam et al., 2005), or in assisted care settings (e.g., Lexis et al., 2013; Martin, Nugent, Wallace et al., 2007; Schikhof et al., 2010), some have been (p. 150) developed for outdoor use, to allow people to move outside but still be protected from getting lost when wandering (Boulos, Anastasiou, Bekiaris et al., 2011; Wan, Müller, Wulf et al., 2014). Quality of life. Beyond concerns with physical safety and security, research in the moni­ toring topic investigated general quality of life. For instance, Schikhof et al. (2010) found that care staff in an assisted living facility expressed a concern about their charges, who were older people with dementia, having panic attacks while alone in their rooms. One of the technological solutions proposed and tested as a result was a system to detect if older people with dementia in the facility were having a panic attack: if an attack were detect­ ed, the system would help the care staff to quickly intervene to comfort and reassure them. Ethical concerns. Ethics was an important recurring subtopic. Some papers addressed this only in passing, as it was not the main thrust of the work being reported. Neverthe­ less, it was an important dimension of the type of work being undertaken. For example, there is a fine divide between tracking, monitoring, and surveillance (Holzinger, Searle, Kleingerger et al., 2008). Other papers treated this theme more fully: for instance, inves­ tigating the notion of trust (Ahanathapillai et al., 2015), and the ambivalence of feelings regarding freedom versus monitoring (Boström, Kjellström, & Björklund, 2013), while Casas, Marco, and Falcó et al. (2006) developed the basis for an ethics framework associ­ ated with digital technologies for older people. Beneficiaries of monitoring systems. In many cases the end-users of the monitoring systems were not older people, but family members, informal and professional carers, and nursing staff. Older people being monitored had a largely passive role, although in some cases they were in control of the system (Boulos et al., 2011; Holliday et al., 2015; Lexis et al., 2013). The primary beneficiaries of the monitoring system were, however, considered to be the older people who were being monitored. Such systems aimed to give them a sense of safety and well-being (Orpwood et al., 2005; Schikhof et al., 2010). How­ ever, there was also benefit for caregivers, for example, to professional care staff for bet­ ter management of their time that necessarily had to be divided between a number of old­ er people (Schikhof et al., 2010) and to be better able to tailor care (Boström et al., 2013; Carey-Smith et al., 2013; Lexis et al., 2013; Nijhof et al., 2012), and to give some peace of mind to families and carers.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research

Reflections on the Research on Uses of Digital Technology for Older People Particular Subtopics within Topics Our review of recent research on the use of digital technologies for older people shows that this is a vibrant area of research, with much activity on many different topics and over 400 papers identified. The four topics chosen for detailed discussion in this chapter demonstrate a range of themes and subtopics within them that together give a good representation of the questions investigated by researchers. (p. 151)

In the first topic, older people’s interaction with digital technologies, in addition to the obvious subtopics corresponding to the interaction types based on current technologies such as natural dialogue and touch, there are also intriguing insights, such as the lack of concern for speed and greater ease with face-based than picture-based authentication systems. The second topic, older people’s lived experience of digital technologies, illus­ trated the wide range of technologies, both established and emergent, being investigated, from technologies deployed in smart homes, to those employed in health and well-being. In terms of particular subtopics of interest within this topic, researchers investigated people’s acceptance of technologies, developing a deeper understanding their value sys­ tems and beliefs. This included their dislike of technologies that declared too obviously that they needed assistance. The third topic, older people’s use of digital technology for communication and social in­ teraction, moved to a specific application area, although involving many types of digital technologies. Social networking sites (SNSs) featured prominently, and age differences in their use were particularly interesting, showing that older people have smaller networks of friends, and were mostly passive users of such systems, feeling that to broadcast infor­ mation about oneself publicly is not socially acceptable. Often researchers investigated ways to facilitate digital interaction for older people, for example in terms of interface de­ sign. But researchers also investigated older people’s motivations for using these tech­ nologies, for instance, for keeping in touch with their families, particularly grandchildren. They sought to understand better what older people’s communication habits are, and also obstacles to communication. They found that reminiscing, a well-known technique to en­ courage social communication, could be encouraged with some technologies, and that loneliness could be reduced. Finally, the fourth topic, monitoring older people’s welfare, was chosen as an example of an area in which emerging technologies are being deployed in the care of older people. Besides the range of ways to monitor, subtopics that emerged from this topic were quality of life and ethical concerns, but also a call for clarity about acknowledging who are the beneficiaries of such systems.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research

Two Themes across the Four Topics Although the papers discussed in detail in this chapter covered four different topics, there were a number of themes that recurred across the topics. Here, we highlight two of these themes, control and familiarity. The issue of who is in control of digital technologies came up in many ways throughout the review. For instance, in the longitudinal study by Leitner et al. (2012) in which older people kept equipment for 36 months, they were able to pick and choose what they want­ ed installed, gradually gaining confidence and knowing they could ask for components to be removed. Also, Lexis et al. (2013) helped older people to understand the kind of data that was being collected from sensors in their bathrooms. They had imagined it (p. 152) might be photographs but were shown that it was just numbers. Orpwood et al. (2005) found that a common problem for older people with dementia is flooding caused by bath­ room or kitchen taps being left on. An engineering solution to this problem could use a sensor so that the water supply turns off when the water reaches too high a level. Howev­ er, this would take control away from the older person and could confuse them, as they would find later that the taps no longer work. Instead, a system of reminder messages triggered by the sensor was proposed. Scopelliti et al. (2005) found that older people were more apprehensive than younger people at the prospect of a robot in the home, and so would like to be in control of it. Accordingly, they expressed preferences for robots to be small, slow moving, with limited autonomy, and with fixed well-defined tasks. The re­ quirement that it is important that older people feel in control of their environment was also highlighted in the research by Doyle et al. (2014) and Pigini et al. (2012). One of the technologies deployed in people’s homes in the study by Doyle et al. (2014) for a balance and exercise system was meant to use a chair, but this was cumbersome and took up too much space. The kitchen sink was then proposed by the participants themselves as a sta­ ble place to hold onto while doing exercises, even if this meant the camera and screen had to be positioned in the kitchen. Thus, the older people reconfigured the positioning of the new technology themselves. Pirgini et al. (2012) found that older people voiced fears that a robot might be uncontrollable and clumsy, and damage or break things. The older people voiced strong psychological attachments to their homes, furniture, and ornaments, and said they would prefer no technology rather than technology they could not control and thus that might harm those possessions. The second theme, familiarity, in the context of this review refers to building upon older people’s existing knowledge and learning strategies (Ballegaard, Pedersen, & Bardram, 2006; Lehtinen et al., 2009). There was much support for the idea that at different stages in their lives people use different strategies when learning to use technology: trial and er­ ror is favored by young people, the reading of instructions and manuals by older people; and as well, older people often prefer to ask experts for help (Larsson et al., 2013; Leitner et al., 2012). This was found in numerous settings and technologies, from older people’s behavior in computer classes to their learning to use home monitoring systems. Following the principle of familiarity also means that the cognitive load to learn new routines will lessen the negative impact the perceived utility of the technology (Heerink et al., 2009; Page 19 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Sayago and Blat, 2010). Familiarity also referred to the technology fitting in with people’s routines or their physical environments. For example, the importance of building on ob­ jects and systems that people are already familiar with was discussed by Doyle et al. (2014) and Holzinger, Schaupp, and Eder-Halbedl (2008). That of fitting new technologies appropriately into older people’s lived routines was discussed by Dickinson and Gregor (2006) and Orpwood et al. (2005).

Limitations and Future Research It is important to note some of the limitations of the studies, as well as areas that could benefit from further research. In all the disciplines with research on older people, typical­ ly, (p. 153) chronological age is used as the measure of old age. But this is not a reliable guide, since there is a great deal of heterogeneity between older people, and even if a more specific set of groupings is sometimes used, for example “young-old”, “old-old”, and “oldest-old” (Petrie, 2001), people vary in experience and abilities. Particularly at present, in terms of digital literacy, someone aged 60 may have used computers in the workplace, while someone aged 80 may not. The questionnaire developed by Arning and Ziefle (2008) to assess computer experience and expertise was an interesting attempt to ad­ dress this problem. Also, physical and mental health varies considerably across older peo­ ple of different ages, and even with the same age. A further aspect that could offer more nuanced understandings of older people’s use of digital technologies is to address contextual and cultural differences in research. It was clear that many of the studies investigated technological practices embedded in a particu­ lar societal and organizational setting, such as residential assisted care homes in Holland (Nijhof et al., 2014), occupational therapy in Sweden (Molin, Pettersson, & Jonsson et al., 2007), and computer classes for older people in Spain (Sayago & Blat, 2008). There were also instances in the research when it was clear that cultural practices had an important effect on the outcomes of studies. The higher amount of religious content watched on television in Brazil compared to Spain meant the proposed interactive television service that was based around religious content was of more interest to older people in Brazil but did not work so well in Spain (Ferreira et al., 2014). Older people in the UK and in Cyprus revealed the effect of different cultures in their attitudes to and use of online social sup­ port communities (Michailidou et al., 2015). The different levels of Internet penetration in different countries was also important. Older people in Denmark mentioned that airline tickets could only be booked online and many government services were online (Ferreira et al., 2014), and Internet-based healthcare services were available for older people in Sweden (Larsson et al., 2013), but such services are not yet available in other countries. Other culture-based attitudes were noted by Pigini et al. (2012). Although older people in Germany, Italy, and Spain attached a similar level of importance to food preparation, so that the suggestion to have a robot help prepare meals by heating food in a microwave was considered a useless function, participants from Germany and Italy objected more to the proposed robot cooking functions than did their Spanish counterparts. Such results

Page 20 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research highlight the challenges of cultural influences on digital technology use and attitudes amongst older people. It is also important that researchers disseminate their results back to the appropriate di­ verse disciplines. Awareness of issues and updates are important within disciplines, and across disciplines, as seen by papers that dealt with lack of awareness about telecare and fall alert systems (Bentley et al., 2014), or were about health and social care professionals who need help to bridge gaps in organizational knowledge about what technology is avail­ able and how to determine what is suitable for their older people (Molin et al., 2007). We have attempted to illustrate the range of research on digital technologies for older people. Research in this area is particularly challenging as it needs to draw on work from many disciplines as different as gerontology and engineering. It is also vital to work very closely with the relevant users, older people themselves but also other stakeholders such (p. 154) as family members, carers, and professionals, to ensure that digital technologies are useful to, and are acceptable, understandable, and usable by, older people and their caregivers.

Conclusion This review has shown that research on digital technologies for older people, both the use of mainstream technologies and the use of specially developed technologies, is a very di­ verse area of endeavor, with many lines of research on a wide range of themes. Research ranges from studies that are developing new methods to help older people physically in­ teract with digital technologies to those exploring the meanings of digital technologies for older people. As with all research, the more we explore these topics, the more questions we raise.

Acknowledgments The research for this chapter has been partly funded by the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Action Experienced Researcher Fellowship Program, as part of the Education and Engagement for inclusive Design and Development of Digital Systems and Services Project (E2D3S2, Grant No. 706396). We would like to thank Bláithín Gal­ lagher and Leonardo Sandoval for their help in gathering material for this chapter.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Sokoler, T., & Svensson, M. S. (2007). Embracing ambiguity in the design of non-stigma­ tizing digital technology for social interaction among senior citizens. Behaviour and Infor­ mation Technology, 26(4), 297–307. Spreicer, W., Ehrenstrasser, L., & Tellioğlu, H. (2012). kommTUi: Designing communica­ tion for elderly. In Proceedings of the 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP’12) (pp. 705–708). Thomson Reuters. (2013). The Thomson Reuters impact factor. Available at: http://ip­ science-help.thomsonreuters.com/inCites2Live/indicatorsGroup/aboutHandbook/ usingCitationIndicatorsWisely/jif.html Tixier, M., & Lewkowicz, M. (2015). Looking for respite and support: Technological oppor­ tunities for spousal caregivers. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM conference on hu­ man factors in computing systems (CHI ‘15) (pp. 1155–1158). Turner, P., Turner, S., & Van De Walle, G. (2007). How older people account for their expe­ riences with interactive technology. Behaviour and Information Technology, 26(4), 287– 296. United Nations (2017). World population prospects: Key findings and advance tables (2017 revision). New York: United Nations. Vacher, M., Caffiau, S., Portet, F., Meillon, B., Roux, C., Elias, E., Lecouteux, B., & Chahuara, P. (2015). Evaluation of a context-aware voice interface for ambient assisted living: Qualitative user study vs quantitative system evaluation. ACM Transactions on Ac­ cessible Computing, 7(2), art. 5. van der Heide, L. A., Willems, C. G., Spreeuwenberg, M. D., De Witte, L. P., & Rietman, J. (2012). Implementation of CareTV in care for the elderly: The effects on feelings of loneli­ ness and safety and future challenges. Technology and Disability, 24(4), 283–291. van Schaik, P., Petrie, H., & Kirby, V. (1995). Task performance and technology ac­ ceptance: The use of an automatic teller machine by elderly people. In Proceedings of third European conference for the advancement of rehabilitation technology (ECART3) (pp. 62–64). (p. 160)

Vutborg, R., Kjeldskov, J., Vetere, F., & Pedell, S. (2010). Family storytelling for grandpar­ ents and grandchildren living apart. In Proceedings of NordiCHI 2010 (pp. 531–540). Wan, L., Müller, C., Wulf, V., & Randall, D. W. (2014). Addressing the subtleties in demen­ tia care: Pre-study and evaluation of a GPS monitoring system. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (CHI ‘14) (pp. 3987–3996). Warnock, D., McGee-Lennon, M., & Brewster, S. (2013). Multiple notification modalities and older users. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (CHI ‘13) (pp. 1091–1094). Page 29 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Wolters, M. K., Kilgour, J., MacPherson, S. E., Dzikovska, M., & Moore, J. D. (2015). The CADENCE corpus: A new resource for inclusive voice interface design. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (CHI 2015) (pp. 3963– 3966). Wulf, L., Garschall, M., Klein, M., & Tscheligi, M. (2014). The influence of age and device orientation on the performance of touch gestures. In Proceedings of the 14th internation­ al conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP’14) (pp. 583–590).

Appendix: Publications Analyzed Abascal, J., de Castro, I. F., Lafuente, A., & Cia, J. M. (2008). Adaptive interfaces for sup­ portive ambient intelligence environments. In Proceedings of 11th international confer­ ence on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 30–37). Adam, S., Mukasa, K. S., Breiner, K., & Trapp, M. (2008). An apartment-based metaphor for intuitive interaction with ambient assisted living applications. In Proceedings of the 22nd British HCI group annual conference (BCS-HCI ‘08) (pp. 67–75). Ahanathapillai, V., Amor, J. D., & James, C. J. (2015). Assistive technology to monitor activ­ ity, health and well being in old age: The wrist wearable unit in the USEFIL project. Tech­ nology and Disability, 27(1–2), 17–29. Ahmad, D., Komninos, A., & Baillie, L. (2008). Future mobile health systems: Designing personal mobile applications to assist self diagnosis. In Proceedings of the 22nd British HCI group annual conference (BCS-HCI ‘08) (pp. 39–42). Aksan, N., Dawson, J. D., Emerson, J. L., Yu, L., Uc, E. Y., Anderson, S. W., & Rizzo, M. (2013). Naturalistic distraction and driving safety in older drivers. Human Factors, 55(4), 841–853. Albinet, C., Tomporowski, P. D., & Beasman, K. (2006). Aging and concurrent task perfor­ mance: Cognitive demand and motor control. Educational Gerontology, 32(9), 689–706. Alelis, G., Bobrowicz, A., & Ang, C. S. (2015). Comparison of engagement and emotional responses of older and younger adults interacting with 3D cultural heritage artefacts on personal devices. Behaviour and Information Technology, 34(11), 1064–1078. Al Mahmud, A., Limpens, Y., & Martens, J. B. (2013). Expressing through digital pho­ tographs: An assistive tool for persons with aphasia. Universal Access in the Information Society, 12(3), 309–326. Al Mahmud, A., Mubin, O., Shahid, S., & Martens, J. B. (2008). Designing and evaluation the tabletop game experience for senior citizens. In K. Tollmar, & B. Jönsson (Eds.), Pro­ ceedings of the 5th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘08) (pp. 403–406).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Almer, S., Kolbitsch, J., Oberzaucher, J., & Ebner, M. (2012). Assessment test framework for collecting and evaluating fall-related data using mobile devices. In Pro­ ceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 83–90). (p. 161)

Arning, K., & Ziefle, M. (2008). Development and validation of a computer expertise ques­ tionnaire for older adults. Behaviour and Information Technology, 27(4), 325–329. Arning, K., & Ziefle, M. (2009). Effects of age, cognitive and personal factors on PDA menu navigation performance. Behaviour and Information Technology, 28(3), 251–268. Astell, A., Alm, N., Dye, R., Gowans, G., Vaughan, P., & Ellis, M. (2014). Digital video games for older adults with cognitive impairment. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 264–271). Augusto, J., Mulvenna, M., Zheng, H., Wang, H., Martin, S., McCullagh, P., & Wallace, J. (2014). Night optimised care technology for users needing assisted lifestyles. Behaviour and Information Technology, 33(12), 1261–1277. Aula, A. (2005). User study on older adults’ use of the Web and search engines. Universal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 67–81. Ayoade, M., Uzor, S., & Baillie, L. (2013). The development and evaluation of an interac­ tive system for age related musculoskeletal rehabilitation in the home. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part IV (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science 8117 (pp. 1– 18). Baecker, R., Sellen, K., Crosskey, S., Boscart, V., & Neves, B. (2014). Technology to reduce social isolation and loneliness. In Proceedings of the 15th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘14) (pp. 27–34). Bagalkot, N., Nassi, E., & Sokoler, T. (2010). Facilitating continuity: Exploring the role of digital technology in physical rehabilitation. In E. Hvannberg, M. K. Lárusdóttir, A. Bland­ ford, & J. Gulliksen (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘10) (pp. 42–51). Baharin, H., Rintel, S., & Viller, S. (2013). Rhythms of the domestic soundscape: Eth­ nomethodological soundwalks for phatic technology design. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction Part IV (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science 8117 (pp. 463–470). Baharin, H., Viller, S., & Rintel, S. (2015). SonicAIR: Supporting independent living with reciprocal ambient audio awareness. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 22(4), Art. 18.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Ballegaard, S. A., Bunde-Pedersen, J., & Bardram, J. E. (2006). Where to, Roberta? Re­ flecting on the role of technology in assisted living. In A. Mørch, K. Morgan, T. Bratteteig, G. Ghosh, & D. Svanaes (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Nordic conference on human-com­ puter interaction (NordiCHI ‘06) (pp. 373–376). Bauer, S. M., & Lane, J. P. (2006). Convergence of assistive devices and mainstream prod­ ucts: Keys to university participation in research, development and commercialization. Technology and Disability, 18(2), 67–77. Beach, S., Schulz, R., Downs, J., Matthews, J., Barron, B., & Seelman, K. (2009). Disability, age, and informational privacy attitudes in quality of life technology applications: Results from a national web survey. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 2(1), Art. 5. Bechtold, U., & Sotoudeh, M. (2008). Participative approaches for “Technology and Au­ tonomous Living”. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 78–81). Beer, J. M., Smarr, C.-A., Fisk, A. D., & Rogers, W. A. (2015). Younger and older users’ recognition of virtual agent facial expressions. International Journal of Human(p. 162)

Computer Studies, 75(March), 1–20. Bentley, C. L. (2014). Addressing design and suitability barriers to telecare use: Has any­ thing changed? Technology and Disability, 26(4), 221–235. Berkowsky, R. W., Cotton, S. R., Yost, E. A., & Winstead, V. P. (2013). Attitudes towards and limitations to ICT use in assisted and independent living communities: Findings from a specially-designed technological intervention. Educational Gerontology, 39(11), 797– 811. Bertera, E. M. (2014). Storytelling slide shows to improve diabetes and high blood pres­ sure knowledge and self-efficacy: Three-year results among community dwelling older African Americans. Educational Gerontology, 40(11), 785–800. Bertera, E. M., Bertera, R. L., Morgan, R., Wuertz, E., & Attey, A. M. O. (2007). Training older adults to access health information. Educational Gerontology, 33(6), 483–500. Bidwell, N. J., & Jay Siya, M. J. (2013). Situating asynchronous voice in rural Africa. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Humancomputer interaction, Part III (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science 8117 (pp. 36–53). Blanco-Gonzalo, R., Sanchez-Reillo, R., Martinez-Normand, L., Fernandez-Saavedra, B., & Liu-Jimenez, J. (2015). Accessible mobile biometrics for elderly. In Proceedings of the 17th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘15) (pp. 419–420).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Bobillier Chaumon, M. E., Michel, C., Tarpin Bernard, F., & Croisile, B. (2014). Can ICT improve the quality of life of elderly adults living in residential home care units? From ac­ tual impacts to hidden artefacts. Behaviour and Information Technology, 33(6), 574–590. Boechler, P. M., Foth, D., & Watchorn, R. (2007). Educational technology research with older adults: Adjustments in protocol, materials, and procedures. Educational Gerontol­ ogy, 33(3), 221–235. Boström, M., Kjellström, S., & Björklund, A. (2013). Older persons have ambivalent feel­ ings about the use of monitoring technologies. Technology and Disability, 25(2), 17–25. Boulos, M. N. K., Anastasiou, A., Bekiaris, E., & Panou, M. (2011). Geo-enabled technolo­ gies for independent living: Examples from four European projects. Technology and Dis­ ability, 23(1), 7–17. Boulton-Lewis, G. M., Buys, L., Lovie-Kitchin, J., Barnett, K., & David, N. L. (2007). Age­ ing, learning, and computer technology in Australia. Educational Gerontology, 33(3), 253– 270. Brajnik, G., & Giachin, C. (2014). Using sketches and storyboards to assess impact of age difference in user experience. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 72(6), 552–566. Brandtzaeg, P. B., Heim, J., & Karahasanović, A. (2011). Understanding the new digital di­ vide: A typology of Internet users in Europe. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 69(3), 123–138. Briggs, P., & Thomas, L. (2015). An inclusive, value sensitive design perspective on future identity technologies. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 22(5), Art. 23. Brown, P. S., & Hanks, R. S. (2008). Implementing an online writing assessment strategy for gerontology. Educational Gerontology, 34(5), 397–399. Bruder, C., Blessing, L., & Wandke, H. (2014). Adaptive training interfaces for less-experi­ enced, elderly users of electronic devices. Behaviour and Information Technology, 33(1), 4–15. Cabreira, A. T., & Hwang, F. (2016). How do novice older users evaluate and perform midair gesture interaction for the first time? In S. Björk, E. Eriksson, M. Fjeld, S. Bødker, (p. 163) W. Barendregt, & M. Obaid (Eds.) Proceedings of the 9th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘16) (Art. 122). Cahill, S., Begley, E., Faulkner, J. P., & Hagen, I. (2007). “It gives me a sense of indepen­ dence”— Findings from Ireland on the use and usefulness of assistive technology for peo­ ple with dementia. Technology and Disability, 19(2–3), 133–142. Cahill, S., Macijauskiene, J., Nygård, A.-M., Faulkner, J.-P., & Hagen, I. (2007). Technology in dementia care. Technology and Disability, 19(2–3), 55–60. Page 33 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Caird, J. K., Chisholm, S. L., & Lockhart, J. (2007). Do in-vehicle advanced signs enhance older and younger driver’s intersection performance? Driving simulation and eye move­ ment results. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66(3), 132–144. Caird, J. K., Edwards, C. J., Creaser, J. I., & Horrey, W. J. (2005). Older driver failures of at­ tention at intersections: Using change blindness methods to assess turn accuracy. Human Factors, 47(2), 235–249. Caprani, N., Doyle, J., Komaba, Y., & Inomata, A. (2015). Exploring healthcare profession­ als’ preferences for visualising sensory data. In Proceedings of the 2015 British human computer interaction conference (British HCI 2015) (pp. 26–34). Carey-Smith, B. E., Evans, N. M., & Orpwood, R. D. (2013). A user-centred design process to develop technology to improve sleep quality in residential care homes. Technology and Disability, 25(1), 49–58. Carmichael, A., Rice, M., MacMillan, F., & Kirk, A. (2010). Investigating a DTV-based physical activity application to facilitate wellbeing in older adults. In Proceedings of the 24th BCS interaction specialist group conference (BCS HCI ‘10) (pp. 278–288). Caroux, L., Consel, C., Dupuy, L., & Sauzeon, H. (2014). Verification of daily activities of older adults: A simple, non-intrusive, low-cost approach. In Proceedings of the 16th inter­ national ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘14) (pp. 43–50). Carrasco, E., Epelde, G., Moreno, A., Ortiz, A., Garcia, I., Buiza, C., … Arruti, A. (2008). Natural interaction between avatars and persons with Alzheimer’s disease. In Proceed­ ings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (IC­ CHP ‘08) (pp. 38–45). Carrington, P., Kuber, R., Anthony, L., Hurst, A., & Prasad, S. (2012). Developing an inter­ face to support procedural memory training using a participatory-based approach. In Pro­ ceedings of the 26th annual BCS interaction specialist group conference on people and computers (BCS-HCI ‘12) (pp. 333–338). Casas, R. (2008). User modelling in ambient intelligence for elderly and disabled people. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 114–122). Casas, R., Marco, A. Falco, J. Artigas, J., & Abascal, J. (2006). Ethically aware design of a location system for people with dementia. In Proceedings of 10th international confer­ ence on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 777–784). Castilla, D., Garcia-Palacios, A., Breton-Lopez, J., Miralles, I., Banos, R. M., Etchemendy, E.,… Botella, C. (2013). Process of design and usability evaluation of a telepsychology web and virtual reality system for the elderly: Butler. International Journal of HumanComputer Studies, 71(3), 350–362. Page 34 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Cesta, A., Cortellessa, G., Giuliani, V., Pecora, F., Rasconi, R., Scopellitti, M., & Tiberio, L. (2007). Proactive assistive technology: An empirical study. In C. Baranauskas, P. Palanque, J. Abascal, & S. D. J. Barbosa. (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction (INTERACT 2007). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 4662, (pp. 255–268). Chaffin, A. J., & Harlow, S. D. (2005). Cognitive learning applied to older adult learners and technology. Educational Gerontology, 31(4), 301–329. (p. 164)

Chase, C. A. (2010). An intergenerational email pal project on attitudes of college stu­ dents toward older adults. Educational Gerontology, 37(1), 27–37. Chen, J.-M., Chen, Y.-C., & Chen, Y.-C. (2012). The K-shape learning project for senior citi­ zens. Educational Gerontology, 38(12), 841–853. Chen, S.-Y. (2008). Reading practices and profiles of older adults in Taiwan. Educational Gerontology, 34(5), 427–441. Chou, W. H., Lai, Y.-T., & Liu, K.-H. (2013). User requirements of social media for the el­ derly: A case study in Taiwan. Behaviour and Information Technology, 32(9), 920–937. Chu, C., Rebola, C. B., & Kao, J. (2015). BUMP: Bridging unmet modes of participation. In Proceedings of the 2015 British human computer interaction conference (British HCI 2015) (pp. 261–262). Chung, J., Chaudhuri, S., Le, T., Chi, N.-C., Thompson, H. J., & Demiris, G. (2015). The use of think-aloud to evaluate a navigation structure for a multimedia health and wellness ap­ plication for older adults and their caregivers. Educational Gerontology, 41(12), 916–929. Coelho, J., & Duarte, C. (2015). Socially networked or isolated? Differentiating older adults and the role of tablets and television. In J. Abascal, S. Barbosa, M. Fetter, T. Gross, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part I (IN­ TERACT 2015). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9296, (pp. 129–146). Coelho, J., Rito, F., Luz, N., & Duarte, C. (2015). Prototyping TV and tablet Facebook inter­ faces for older adults. In J. Abascal, S. Barbosa, M. Fetter, T. Gross, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part 1 (INTERACT 2015). Lec­ ture Notes in Computer Science, 9296 (pp. 110–128). Conci, M., Pianesi, F., & Zancanaro, M. (2009). Useful, social and enjoyable: Mobile phone adoption by older people. In T. Gross, J. Gulliksen, P. Kotzé, L. Oestreicher, P. Planaque, R. Oliveira Prates & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interac­ tion (INTERACT 2009). Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5726 (pp. 63–76). Convertino, G., Farooq, U., Rosson, M. B., Carroll, J. M., & Meyer, B. J. F. (2007). Support­ ing intergenerational groups in computer supported cooperative work (CSCW). Behaviour and Information Technology, 26(4), 275–285.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Cornejo, R., Tentori, M., & Favela, J. (2013). Enriching in-person encounters through so­ cial media: A study on family connectedness for the elderly. International Journal of Hu­ man-Computer Studies, 71(9), 889–899. Cresci, M. K., Jarosz, P. A., & Templin, T. A. (2012). Are health answers online for older adults? Educational Gerontology, 38(1), 10–19. Cresci, M. K. & Novak, J. M. (2012). Information technologies as health management tools: Urban elders’ interest and ability in using the Internet. Educational Gerontology, 38(7), 491–506. Cresci, M. K., Yarandi, H. N., & Morell, R. W. (2010). Pro-nets versus no-nets: Differences in urban older adults’ predilections for Internet use. Educational Gerontology, 36(6), 500– 520. Crete-Nishihata, M., Baecker, R. M., Massimi, M., Ptak, D., Campigotto, R., Kaufman, L. D., … Black, S. E. (2012). Reconstructing the past: Personal memory technologies are not just personal and not just for memory. Human-Computer Interaction, 27(1–2), 92–123. Czaja, S. J., Schulz, R., Perdomo, D., & Nair, S. N. (2014). The feasibility and efficacy of technology-based support groups among family caregivers of persons with dementia. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 455–458). (p. 165)

Dahn, I., Ferdinand, P., & Lachmann, P. (2014). Supporting senior citizen using

tablet computers. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 323–330). Dale, O. (2010). Usability and usefulness of GPS based localization technology used in de­ mentia care. In Proceedings of 12th international conference on computers helping peo­ ple with special needs (ICCHP ‘10) (pp. 300–307). Darroch, I., Goodman, J., Brewster, S., & Gray, P. (2005). The effect of age and font size on reading text on handheld computers. In M. F. Costabile & F. Paternò (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction (INTERACT 2005), Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS), 3585, (pp. 253–266). Davidse, R. J., Hagenzieker, M. P., van Wolffelaar, P. C., & Brouwer, W. H. (2009). Effects of in-car support on mental workload and driving performance of older drivers. Human Fac­ tors, 51(4), 463–476. de Beer, R., Keijers, R., Shahid, S., Al Mahmud, A., & Mubin, O. (2010). PMD: Designing a portable medicine dispenser for persons suffering from Alzheimer’s Disease. In Proceed­ ings of 12th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (IC­ CHP ‘10) (pp. 332–335).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research DeCoster, V. A., & George, L. (2005). An empowerment approach for elders living with di­ abetes: A pilot study of a community-based self-help group—The Diabetes Club. Educa­ tional Gerontology, 31(9), 699–733. Diaz-Orueta, U., Etxaniz, A., Gonzalez, M. F. Buiza, C., Urdaneta, E., Yanguas, J., Carras­ co, E., & Epelde, G. (2014). Role of cognitive and functional performance in the interac­ tions between elderly people with cognitive decline and an avatar on TV. Universal Access in the Information Society, 13(1), 89–97. Dickinson, A., Arnott, J., & Prior, S. (2007). Methods for human–computer interaction re­ search with older people. Behaviour and Information Technology, 26(4), 343–352. Dickinson, A., Eisma, R., Gregor, P., Syme, A., & Mile, S. (2005). Strategies for teaching older people to use the World Wide Web. Universal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 3–15. Dickinson, A., & Gregor, P. (2006). Computer use has no demonstrated impact on the wellbeing of older adults. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64(8), 744–753. Dickinson, A., & Hill, R. L. (2007). Keeping in touch: Talking to older people about com­ puters and communication. Educational Gerontology, 33(8), 613–630. Dickinson, A., Smith, M., Arnott, J., Newell, A., & Hill, R. (2007). Approaches to web search and navigation for older computer novices. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI confer­ ence on human factors in computing systems (CHI 2006) (pp. 281–290). Diño, M. J. S., & de Guzman, A. B. (2015). Using partial least squares (PLS) in predicting behavioural intention for telehealth use among Filipino elderly. Educational Gerontology, 41(1), 53–68. Dobosz, K., Dobosz, M., Fiolka, T., Wojaczek, M., & Depta, T. (2014). Tablets in the reha­ bilitation of memory impairment. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on com­ puters helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 399–402). Dogruel, L., Joeckel, S., & Bowman, N. D. (2015). The user and acceptance of new media entertainment technology by elderly users: Development of an expanded technology ac­ ceptance model. Behaviour and Information Technology, 34(11), 1052–1063. Donorflo, L. K. M., & Healy, C. (2008). Teaching an interactive television course on adult­ hood and aging: Making it happen. Educational Gerontology, 34(6), 531–549. Dorin, M. (2007). Online education of older adults and its relation to life satisfac­ tion. Educational Gerontology, 33(2), 127–143. (p. 166)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Doyle, J., Bailey, C., Ni Scanaill, C., & van den Berg, F. (2014). Lessons learned in deploy­ ing independent living technologies to older adults’ homes. Universal Access in the Infor­ mation Society, 13(2), 191–204. Doyle, J., O’Mullane, B., McGee, S., & Knapp, R. B. (2012). YourWellness: Designing an application to support positive emotional wellbeing in older adults. In Proceedings of the 26th annual BCS interaction specialist group conference on people and computers (BCSHCI ‘12) (pp. 221–226). Doyle, J., Sassu, A., & McDonagh, T. (2013). “We were all the same age once”: Experi­ ences of intergenerational app. design. In Proceedings of the 27th international BCS hu­ man computer interaction conference (BCS-HCI ‘13) (Art. 24). Doyle, J., Skrba, Z., McDonnell, R., & Arent, B. (2010). Designing a touch screen commu­ nication device to support social interaction amongst older adults. In Proceedings of the 24th BCS interaction specialist group conference (BCS HCI ‘10) (pp. 177–185). Duff, P. & Dolphin, C. (2007). Cost-benefit analysis of assistive technology to support inde­ pendence for people with dementia–Part 1: Development of a methodological approach to the ENABLE cost-benefit analysis. Technology and Disability, 19(2–3), 73–78. Duff, P. & Dolphin, C. (2007). Cost-benefit analysis of assistive technology to support inde­ pendence for people with dementia–Part 2: Results from employing the ENABLE cost-ben­ efit model in practice. Technology and Disability, 19(2–3), 79–90. Eaton, J., & Salari, S. (2005). Environments for lifelong learning in senior centers. Educa­ tional Gerontology, 31(6), 461–480. Edlund, C., & Björklund, A. (2011). Family caregivers’ conceptions of usage of and infor­ mation on products, technology and Web-based services. Technology and Disability, 23(4), 205–214. Ejupi, A., Gschwind, Y. J., Valenzuela, T., Lord, S. R., & Delbaere, K. (2016). A Kinect and inertial sensor-based system for the self-assessment of fall risk: A home-based study in older people. Human-Computer Interaction, 31(3–4), 261–293. Elias, S. M., Smith, W. L., & Barney, C. E. (2012). Age as a moderator of attitude towards technology in the workplace: Work motivation and overall job satisfaction. Behaviour and Information Technology, 31(5), 453–467. Elton, E., & Nicolle, C. (2013). Designing inclusive products for everyday environments: The effects of everyday cold temperatures on older adults’ dexterity. Universal Access in the Information Society, 12(3), 247–261. Ezer, N., Fisk, A. D., & Rogers, W. (2008). Age-related differences in reliance behaviour attributable to costs within a human-decision aid system. Human Factors, 50(6), 853–863.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Fan, C., Forlizzi, J., & Dey, A. (2012). Considerations for technology that support physical activity by older adults. In Proceedings of the 14th international ACM SIGACCESS confer­ ence on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘12) (pp. 33–40). Fang, Y.-M. & Chang, C.-C. (2016). Users’ psychological perception and perceived read­ ability of wearable devices for elderly people. Behaviour and Information Technology, 35(3), 225–232. Farina, K., & Nitche, M. (2015). Outside the brick: Exploring prototyping for the elderly. In Proceedings of the 2015 British Human Computer Interaction Conference (British HCI 2015) (pp. 11–17). Fernandes, F., Rodrigues, A., Duarte, C., Jion-Neira, R., & Carrico, L. (2014). Web accessibility of mobile and desktop representations. In Proceedings of the 28th Interna­ tional BCS human computer interaction conference on HCI (BCS-HCI ‘14) (pp. 195–200). (p. 167)

Ferreira, S. M., Sayago, S., & Blat, J. (2014). Towards iTV services for older people: Ex­ ploring their interactions with online video portals in different cultural backgrounds. Technology and Disability, 26(4), 199–209. Ferreira, S. M., Sayago, S., & Blat, J. (2017). Older people’s production and appropriation of digital videos: An ethnographic study. Behaviour and Information Technology, 36(6), 557–574. Ferreira, S., Torres, A., Mealha, O., & Veloso, A. (2015). Effects on older adults in informa­ tion and communication technologies considering psychosocial variables. Educational Gerontology, 41(7), 482–493. Fezzani, K., Albinet, C., Thon, B., & Marquie, J. C. (2010). The effect of motor difficulty on the acquisition of a computer task: A comparison between young and older adults. Behav­ iour and Information Technology, 29(2), 115–124. Fried-Oken, M., Rowland, C., Baker, G., Dixon, M., Mills, C., Schultz, D., & Oken, B. (2009). The effect of voice output on AAC-supported conversations of persons with Alzheimer’s disease. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 1(3), Art. 15. Fronemann, N., Weisener, A., Pollmann, K., & Peisnner, M. (2016). Happily ever after: Pos­ itive aging through positive design. In S. Björk, E. Eriksson, M. Fjeld, S. Bødker, W. Baren­ dregt, & M. Obaid, (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘16) (Art. 105). Fuchsberger, V., Sellner, W., Moser, C., & Tscheligi, M. (2012). Benefits and hurdles for older adults in intergenerational online interactions. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 697–704). Gagliardi, C., Mazzarini, G., Papa, R., Giuli, C., & Marcellini, F. (2008). Designing a learn­ ing program to link old and disabled people to computers. Educational Gerontology, 34(1), 15–29. Page 39 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Gamliel, T. & Gabay, N. (2014). Knowledge exchange, social interactions, and empower­ ment in an intergenerational technology program at school. Educational Gerontology, 40(8), 597–617. Gao, Q., & Sun, Q. (2015). Examining the usability of touch screen gestures for older and younger adults. Human Factors, 57(5), 835–863. Gappa, H., Nordbrock, G., Mohamad, Y., Pullmann, J., & Velasco, C. A. (2012). Controlled natural language sentence building as a model for designing user interfaces for rule edit­ ing in assisted living systems–A user study. In Proceedings of 13th international confer­ ence on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 415–418). Gappa, H., Nordbrock, G., Thelen, M., Pullmann, J., Mohamad, Y., & Velasco, C. A. (2014). Extended scaffolding by remote collaborative interaction to support people with dementia in independent living–A user study. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 445–450). Gatto, S. L., & Tak, S. H. (2008). Computer, internet, and e-mail use among older adults: Benefits and barriers. Educational Gerontology, 34(9), 800–811. Gibson, L., Moncur, W., Forbes, P., Arnott, J., Martin, C., & Bhachu, A. S. (2010). Design­ ing social networking sites for older adults. In Proceedings of the 24th BCS interaction specialist group conference (BCS HCI ‘10) (pp. 186–194). Gil, S. R. & Sánchez Martín, V. (2014). ELDERS-UP! Adaptive system for enabling the el­ derly collaborative knowledge transference to small companies. In Proceedings of 14th in­ ternational conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 148–151). (p. 168)

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ly and the use of artifacts for time management. In E. Hvannberg, M. K. Lárusdóttir, A. Blandford & J. Gulliksen (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th Nordic conference on human-com­ puter interaction (NordiCHI ‘10) (pp. 198–206). González, A. M., Ramírez, P., & Viadel, V. (2012). Attitudes of the elderly toward informa­ tion and communications technologies. Educational Gerontology, 38(9), 585–594. Goodman, J., Brewster, S. A., & Gray, P. (2005). How can we best use landmarks to sup­ port older people in navigation. Behaviour and Information Technology, 24(1), 3–20. Grabowski, P. J., & Mason, A. H. (2014). Age differences in the control of a precision reach to grasp task within a desktop virtual environment. International Journal of HumanComputer Studies, 72(4), 383–392. Gramss, D., & Struve, D. (2009). Instructional videos for supporting older adults who use interactive systems. Educational Gerontology, 35(2), 164–176.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Grill, T., Osswald, S., & Tscheligi, M. (2012). Task complexity and user model attributes: An analysis of user model attributes for elderly drivers. In Proceedings of 13th interna­ tional conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 642– 649). Grimes, G. A., Hough, M. G. Mazur, E., & Signorella, M. L. (2010). Older adults’ knowl­ edge of internet hazards. Educational Gerontology, 36(3), 173–192. Gudur, R. R., Blackler, A., Popovic, V., & Mahar, D. (2013). Ageing, technology anxiety and intuitive use of complex interfaces. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part III (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 8117, (pp. 564–581). Gusi, N., Prieto, J., Forte, D., Gomez, I., & González-Guerreroc, J.-L. (2008). Needs, inter­ ests, and limitations for the promotion of health and exercise by a web site for sighted and blind elderly people: A qualitative exploratory study. Educational Gerontology, 34(6), 449–461. Hakobyan, L., Lumsden, J., & O’Sullivan, D. (2014). Participatory research with older adults with AMD: Co-designing a SMART diet diary app. In Proceedings of the 28th Inter­ national BCS human computer interaction conference on HCI (BCS-HCI ‘14) (pp. 32–41). Hakobyan, H., Lumsden, J., O’Sullivan, D., & Bartlett, H. (2012). Understanding the IT-re­ lated attitudes and needs of persons with age-related macular degeneration: A case study. In Proceedings of the 26th annual BCS interaction specialist group conference on people and computers (BCS-HCI ‘12) (pp. 239–244). Hakobyan, L., Lumsden, J., O’Sullivan, D., & Bartlett, H. (2013). Designing a mobile diet diary application with and for older adults with AMD: A case study. In Proceedings of the 27th International BCS human computer interaction conference (BCS-HCI ‘13) (Art. 17). Hallewell Haslwanter, J. D., & Fitzpatrick, G. (2013). The development of a sensor-based system for older people: A case study. In Proceedings of the 27th International BCS hu­ man computer interaction conference (BCS-HCI ‘13) (Art. 11). Hancock, H. E., Fisk, A. D., & Rogers, W. A. (2005). Comprehending product warning in­ formation: Age-related effects and the roles of memory, inferencing and knowledge. Hu­ man Factors, 47(2), 219–234. Hanson, V. L., & Crayne, S. (2005). Personalization of Web browsing: Adaptations to meet the needs of older adults. Universal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 46–58. Harada, S., Sato, D., Takagi, H., & Asakawa, C. (2013). Characteristics of elderly user be­ haviour on mobile multi-touch devices. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part IV (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 8117, (pp. 323–341).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Hardt, J. H., & Hollis-Sawyer, L. (2007). Older adults seeking healthcare informa­ tion on the Internet. Educational Gerontology, 33(7), 561–572. (p. 169)

Harley, D., Howland, K., Harris, E., & Redlich, C. (2014). Online communities for older users: What can we learn from local community interactions to create social sites that work for older people. In Proceedings of the 28th International BCS human computer in­ teraction conference on HCI (BCS-HCI ‘14) (pp. 32–41). Hart, T. A., Chaparro, B. S., & Halcomb, C. G. (2008). Evaluating websites for older adults: Adherence to “senior-friendly” guidelines and end-user performance. Behaviour and Information Technology, 27(3), 191–199. Hawthorn, D. (2007). Interface design and engagement with older people. Behaviour and Information Technology, 26(4), 333–341. Heerink, M., Krose, B., Wielinga, B., & Evers, V. (2009). Measuring the influence of social abilities on acceptance of an interface robot and a screen agent by elderly users. In Pro­ ceedings of the 23rd British HCI group annual conference on people and computers (BCS-HCI ‘09) (pp. 430–439). Hendriks, N., Truyen, F., & Duval, E. (2013). Designing with dementia: Guidelines for par­ ticipatory design together with persons with dementia. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part I (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 8117, (pp. 649–666). Hernández-Encuentra, E., Pousadaa, M., & Gómez-Zúñigaa, B. (2009). ICT and older peo­ ple: Beyond usability. Educational Gerontology, 35(3), 225–245. Hirotomi, T., Hosomi, Y., & Yano, H. (2008). Brake control assist on a four-castered walker for old people. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping peo­ ple with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 1269–1276). Hogeboom, D. L., McDermotta, R. J., Perrina, K. M., Osmana, H., & Bell-Ellison, B. A. (2010). Internet use and social networking among middle aged and older adults. Educa­ tional Gerontology, 36(2), 93–111. Holliday, N., Ward, G., Fielden, S., & Williams, S. (2015). Exploration of information needs and development of resources to inform and support those at risk of falling. Technology and Disability, 27(1–2), 31–40. Hollinworth, N., & Hwang, F. (2009). Learning how older adults undertake computer tasks. In Proceedings of the 11th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on comput­ ers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘09) (pp. 245–246). Holllinworth, N., & Hwang, F. (2011). Investigating familiar interactions to help older adults learn computer applications more easily. In Proceedings of the 25th international BCS human computer interaction conference (BCS HCI ‘11) (pp. 473–478). Page 42 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Holzinger, A., Sammer, P., & Hofmann-Wellenhof, R. (2006). Mobile computing in medi­ cine: Designing mobile questionnaires for elderly and partially sighted people. In Pro­ ceedings of 10th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 732–739). Holzinger, A., Schaupp, K., & Eder-Halbedl, W. (2008). An investigation on acceptance of ubiquitous devices for the elderly in a geriatric hospital environment: Using the example of person tracking. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 22–29). Holzinger, A., Searle, G., Kleinberger, T., Seffah, A., & Javahery, H. (2008). Investigating usability metrics for the design and development of applications for the elderly. In Pro­ ceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 98–105). Hoshi, K., Ohberg, F., & Nyberg, A. (2011). Designing blended reality space: Con­ ceptual foundations and applications. In Proceedings of the 25th international BCS hu­ man computer interaction conference (BCS HCI ‘11) (pp. 217–226). (p. 170)

Huber, L. & Watson, C. (2014). Technology: Education and training needs of older adults. Educational Gerontology, 40(1), 16–25. Huldtgren, A., Mertl, F., Vormann, A., & Geiger, C. (2015). Probing the potential of multi­ media artefacts to support communication of people with dementia In J. Abascal, S. Bar­ bosa, M. Fetter, T. Gross, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-comput­ er interaction, Part III (INTERACT 2015). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9296, (pp. 71–79). Hurtienne, J., Horn, A. M., Langdon, P. M., & Clarkson, P. J. (2013). Facets of prior experi­ ence and the effectiveness of inclusive design. Universal Access in the Information Soci­ ety, 12(3), 297–308. Hwang, F., Hollingworth, N., & Williams, N. (2013). Effects of target expansion on section performance in older computer users. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 5(1), Art. 1. Hwang, M.-Y., Hong, J.-C., Hao, Y.-W., & Jong, J. T. (2011). Elders’ usability, dependability, and flow experiences on embodied interactive video games. Educational Gerontology, 37(8), 715–731. Iacono, I., & Marti, P. (2014). Engaging older people with participatory design. In V. Roto, J. Häkkilä, Lárusdóttir, K. Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila, O. Juhlin, T. Olsson, & E. Hvannberg (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘14) (pp. 859–864). Infeld, D. L., & Adams, W. C. (2013). Using the Internet for gerontology education: Assess­ ing and improving Wikipedia. Educational Gerontology, 39(10), 707–716. Page 43 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Inoue, K., Sakuma, N., Okada, M., Sasaki, C., Nakamura, M., & Wada, K. (2014). Effective application of PALRO: A humanoid type robot for people with dementia. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 451–454). Iwarsson, S., & Wilson, G. (2006). Environmental barriers, functional limitations, and housing satisfaction among older people in Sweden: A longitudinal perspective on hous­ ing accessibility. Technology and Disability, 18(2), 57–66. Jang, Y., Yoon, H., Marti, C. N., & Kim, M. T. (2015). Aging IQ intervention with older Ko­ rean Americans: A comparison of internet-based and in-class education. Educational Gerontology, 41(9), 642–652. Jastrzembski, T., Charness, N., Holley, P., & Feddon, J. (2005). Input devices for web browsing: Age and hand effects. Universal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 39–45. Jochems, N., Vetter, S., & Schlick, C. (2013). A comparative study of information input de­ vices for aging computer users. Behaviour and Information Technology, 32(9), 902–919. Johansson, K., Lundberg, S., & Borell, L. (2011). “The Cognitive Kitchen”–Key principles and suggestions for design that includes older adults with cognitive impairments as kitchen users. Technology and Disability, 23(1), 29–40. Jung, Y., Peng, W., Moran, M., Jin, S.-A., McLaughlin, M., Cody, M., Jordan-Marsh, M., Al­ bright, J., & Silverstein, M. (2010). Low-income minority seniors’ enrollment in a cyber­ café: Psychological barriers to crossing the digital divide. Educational Gerontology, 36(3), 193–212. Kahana, B., Kahan, E., Lovegree, L., & Seckin, G. (2006). Compensatory use of computers by disabled older adults. In Proceedings of 10th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 766–769). Kaklanis, N., Moschonas, P., Moustakas, K., & Tsovaras, D. (2013). Virtual user models for the elderly and disabled for automatic simulated accessibility and ergonomy evaluation of designs. Universal Access in the Information Society, 12(4), 403–425. (p. 171)

Kaklanis, N., Moustakas, K., & Tzovaras, D. (2008). A methodology for generating virtual user models of elderly and disabled for the accessibility assessment of new products. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 295–302). Kalman, Y. M., Geraghty, K., Thompson, C. K., & Gergle, D. (2012). Detecting linguistic HCI markers in an online aphasia support group. In Proceedings of the 14th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘12) (pp. 65–70). Kamiliaris, A., Kondepudi, S., & Danial, N. (2015). Understanding the activities and areas of concern of elderly population: The case of Singapore. Technology and Disability, 27(4), 141–153. Page 44 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Kamollimsakul, S., Petrie, H., & Power, C. (2014). Web accessibility for older readers: Ef­ fects of font type and font size on skim reading webpages in Thai. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 332–339). Kepski, M., & Kwolek, B. (2012). Fall detection on embedded platform using Kinect and wireless accelerometer. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 407–414). Kim, H. J., Jarochawski, B., & Ryu, D. H. (2006). A proposal for a home-based health moni­ toring system for the elderly or disabled. In Proceedings of 10th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 473–479). Kim, Y. B. (2006). A ubiquitous social community portal service for social networking with convenient accessibility. In Proceedings of 10th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 263–270). Kim, Y. S. (2008). Reviewing and critiquing computer learning and usage among older adults. Educational Gerontology, 34(8) 709–735. Kobayashi, M., Hiyam, A., Miura, T., Asakawa, C., Hirose, M., & Ifukube, T. (2011). Elderly user evaluation of mobile touchscreen interactions. In P. Campos, N. Graham, J. Jorge, N. Nunes, P. Palanque, and M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction (INTERACT 2011). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6947, (pp. 83–99). Kobayashi, M., Ishihara, T., Kosugi, A., Takagi, H., & Asakawa, A. (2013). Question-answer cards for an inclusive micro-tasking framework for the elderly. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part III (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 8117, (pp. 590–607). Komori, T., Takagi, T., Kurozumi, K., Shoda, K., & Murakawa, K. (2010). A device to evalu­ ate broadcast background sound balance using loudness for elderly listeners. In Proceed­ ings of 12th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (IC­ CHP ‘10) (pp. 560–567). Koopman-Boydena, P. G., & Reid, S. L. (2009). Internet/E-mail usage and well-being among 65–84 year olds in New Zealand: Policy implications. Educational Gerontology, 35(11), 990–1007. Kort, H. S. M., & van Hoof, J. (2014). Design of a website for home modifications for older persons with dementia. Technology and Disability, 26(1), 1–10. Kurniawan, S. (2008). Older people and mobile phones: A multi-method investigation. In­ ternational Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66(12), 889–901. Laberge, J. C., & Scialfa, C. T. (2005). Predictors of web navigation performance in a life span sample of adults. Human Factors, 47(2), 289–302. (p. 172)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Laganà, L. (2008). Enhancing the attitudes and self-efficacy of older adults toward com­ puters and the internet: Results of a pilot study. Educational Gerontology, 34(9), 831–849. Larsson, E., Larsson-Lund, M., & Nilsson, I. (2013). Internet based activities (IBAs): Se­ niors’ experiences of the conditions required for the performance of and the influence of these conditions on their own participation in society. Educational Gerontology, 39(3), 155–167. Lee, B., Lee, M., Sook, M. S., You, H., Park, H., Jung, K., Lee, B. H., Na D. L., & Kim, G. H. (2015). The effects of age, gender, and hand on force control capabilities of healthy adults. Human Factors, 57(8), 1348–1358. Lee, C. C., Czaja, S. J., & Sharit, J. (2008). Training older workers for technology-based employment. Educational Gerontology, 35(1), 15–31. Lehtinen, V., Nasanen, J., & Sarvas, R. (2009). “A little silly and empty-headed”: Older adults’ understandings of social networking sites. In Proceedings of the 23rd British HCI group annual conference on people and computers (BCS-HCI ‘09) (pp. 45–54). Leinonen, E., Syrjanen, A.-L., & Isomursu, M. (2014). Designing assistive and cooperative HCI for older adults’ movement. In V. Roto, J. Häkkilä, Lárusdóttir, K. Väänänen-VainioMattila, O. Juhlin, T. Olsson & E. Hvannberg (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Nordic confer­ ence on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘14) (pp. 877–882). Leitner, G., Fercher, A. J., Felfernig, A., & Hitz, M. (2012). Reducing the entry threshold of AAL Systems: Preliminary results from Casa Vecchia. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 709–715). Leonard, V. K., Jacko, J. A., & Pizzimenti, J. J. (2005). An exploratory investigation of hand­ held computer interaction for older adults with visual impairments. In Proceedings of the 7th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘05) (pp. 12–19). Leonard, V. K., Jacko, J. A., & Pizzimenti, J. J. (2006). An investigation of handheld device use by older adults with age-related macular degeneration. Behaviour and Information Technology, 25(4), 313–332. Lepicard, G., & Vigouroux, N. (2010). Touch screen user interfaces for older subjects: Ef­ fect of the targets number and the two hands use. In Proceedings of 12th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘10) (pp. 592–599). Lepicard, G., & Vigouroux, N. (2012). Comparison between single-touch and multi-touch interaction for older people. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on comput­ ers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 658–665). Leung, R., Findlater, L., McGrenere, J., Graf, P., & Yang, J. (2010). Multi-layered interfaces to improve older adults’ initial learnability of mobile applications. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 3(1), Art. 1. Page 46 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Leung, R., McGrenere, J., & Graf, P. (2011). Age-related differences in the initial usability of mobile device icons. Behaviour and Information Technology, 30(5), 629–642. Leung, R., Tang, C., Haddad, S., McGrenere, J., Graf, P., & Ingriany, V. (2012). How older adults learn to use mobile devices: Survey and field investigations, ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 4(3), Art. 11. Lexis, M., Everink, I., van der Heide, L., Spreeuwenber, M., Willems, C., & de Witte, L. (2013). Activity monitoring technology to support homecare delivery to frail and psy­ chogeriatric elderly persons living at home alone. Technology and Disability, 25(3), 189– 197. Li, H., Rau, P.-L. P., Fujimura, K., Gao, Q., & Wang, L. (2012). Designing effective web forms for older web users. Educational Gerontology, 38(4), 271–281. (p. 173)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research McBride, S. E., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2011). Understanding the effect of workload on automation use for younger and older adults. Human Factors, 53(6), 672–686. McCann, R. M., & Keaton, S. A. (2013). A cross cultural investigation of age stereotypes and communication perceptions of older and younger workers in the USA and Thailand. Educational Gerontology, 39(5), 326–341. McCarthy, S., Sayers, H., & McKevitt, P. (2007). Investigating the usability of PDAs with ageing users. In Proceedings of the 21st British HCI group annual conference (BCS-HCI ‘07) (pp. 67–70). McLaughlin, A. C., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2009). Using direct and indirect input de­ vices: Attention demands and age-related differences. ACM Transactions on ComputerHuman Interaction, 16(1), Art. 2. Macek, J., & Kleindienst, J. (2011). Exercise support system for elderly: Multi-sensor phys­ iological state detection and usability testing. In P. Campos, N. Graham, J. Jorge, N. Nunes, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction (IN­ TERACT 2011). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6947, (pp. 81–88). Maciuszek, D., Aberg, J., & Shahmehri, N. (2005). What help do older people need?: Con­ structing a functional design space of electronic assistive technology applications. In Pro­ ceedings of the 7th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessi­ bility (ASSETS ‘05) (pp. 4–11). Magnusson, L. & Hanson, E. (2012). Partnership working: The key to the AT-technology transfer process of the ACTION service (Assisting Carers using Telematics Interventions to meet Older people’s Needs) in Sweden. Technology and Disability, 24(3), 219–232. (p. 174)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Marston, H. R. (2013). Design recommendations for digital game design within an ageing society. Educational Gerontology, 39(2), 103–118. Marston, H. R. (2013). Digital gaming perspectives of older adults: Content vs interac­ tion. Educational Gerontology, 39(3), 194–208. Marston, H. R., Greenlay, S., & van Hoof, J. (2013). Understanding the Nintendo Wii and Microsoft Kinect consoles in long-term care facilities. Technology and Disability, 27(2), 77–85. Martin, S., Nugent, C., Wallace, J., Kernohan, G., McCreight, B., & Mulvenna, M. (2007). Using context awareness within the “Smart home” environment to support social care for adults with dementia. Technology and Disability, 19(2–3), 143–152. Matthews, J. T., Beach, S. R., Downs, J., de Bruin, W. B., Mecca, L. P., & Schulz, S. (2010). Preferences and concerns for quality of life technology among older adults and persons with disabilities: National survey results. Technology and Disability, 22(1–2), 5–15. Mayer, C., Morandell, M., Gira, M., Hackbarth, K., Petzold, M., & Fagel, S. (2012). AALuis, a user interface layer that brings device independence to users of AAL systems. In Pro­ ceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 650–657). Mehdi, S. A., & Berns, K. (2014). Behavior-based search of human by an autonomous in­ door mobile robot in simulation. Universal Access in the Information Society, 13(1), 45– 58. Meza-Kubo, V., Morán, A. L., & Rodríguez, M. D. (2014). Bridging the gap between illiter­ ate older adults and cognitive stimulation technologies through pervasive computing. Uni­ versal Access in the Information Society, 13(1), 33–44. Michailidou, E., Parmaxi, A., & Zaphiris, P. (2015). Culture effects in online social support for older people: Perceptions and experience. Universal Access in the Information Society, 14(2), 281–293. Miotto, A., Lessiter, J., Freeman, J., Carmichael, R., & Ferrrari, E. (2013). Cognitive train­ ing via interactive television: Drivers, barriers and potential users. Universal Access in the Information Society, 12(1), 37–54. Miura, T., Yabu, K.-I., Hiyama, A., Inamura, N., Hirose, M., & Ifukube, T. (2015). Smart­ phone-based gait measurement application for exercise and its effects on the lifestyle of senior citizens. In J. Abascal, S. Barbosa, M. Fetter, T. Gross, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part III (INTERACT 2015). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9296, (pp. 80–98). Moffatt, K., & McGrenere, J. (2007). Slipping and drifting: Using older users to uncover pen-based target acquisition difficulties. In Proceedings of the 9th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘07) (pp. 11–18). (p. 175)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Moffatt, K., & McGrenere, J. (2009). Exploring methods to improve pen-based menu selec­ tion for younger and older adults. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 2(1), Art. 3. Moffatt, K., Yuen, S., & McGrenere, J. (2008). Hover or tap?: Supporting pen-based menu navigation for older adults. In Proceedings of the 10th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘08) (pp. 51–58). Mohadis, H. M., Ali, N. M., & Smeaton, A. F. (2016). Designing a persuasive physical ac­ tivity application for older workers: Understanding end-user perceptions. Behaviour and Information Technology, 35(12), 1102–1114. Molin, G., Pettersson, C., Jonsson, O., & Keijer, U. (2007). Living at home with acquired cognitive impairment: Can assistive technology help? Technology and Disability, 19(2–3), 91–101. Moloney, K. P., Jacko, J. A., Vidakovic, B., Sainfort, F., Leonard, V. K., & Shi, B. (2006). Leveraging data complexity: Pupillary behaviour of older adults with visual impairment during HCI. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 13(3), 376–402. Morrell, R. W. (2005). http://www.nihseniorhealth. gov: The process of construction and revision in the development of a model web site for use by older adults, Universal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 24–38. Morrow, D. G., & Rogers, W. A. (2008). Environmental support: An integrative framework. Human Factors, 50(4), 589–613. Mubin, O., Shahid, S., & Al Mahmud, A. (2008). Walk 2 Win: Towards designing a mobile game for elderly’s social engagement. In Proceedings of the 22nd British HCI group an­ nual conference (BCS-HCI ‘08) (pp. 11–14). Murata, A., and Iwase, H. (2005). Usability of touch-panel interfaces for older adults. Hu­ man Factors, 47(4), 767–776. Muskens, L., van Lent, R., Vijfvinkel, A., van Cann, P., & Shahid, S. (2014). Never too old to use a tablet: Designing tablet applications for the cognitive and physically impaired el­ derly. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 391–398). Nansen, B., Vetere, F., Robertson, T., Downs, J., Brereton, M., & Durick, J. (2014). Recipro­ cal habituation: A study of older people and the Kinect. ACM Transactions on ComputerHuman Interaction, 21(3), Art. 18. Nawaz, A., Skjaeret, N., Ystmark, K., Helbostad, J. L., Vereijken, B., & Svanaes, D. (2014). Assessing seniors’ user experience (UX) of exergames for balance training. In V. Roto, J. Häkkilä, Lárusdóttir, K. Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila, O. Juhlin, T. Olsson & E. Hvannberg

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘14) (pp. 578–587). Németh, G., Olaszy, G., Bartalis, M., Kiss, G., Zainkó, C., Mihajlik, P., & Haraszti, C. (2008). Automated drug information system for aged and visually impaired persons. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 238–241). Newell, A. F., Dickinson, A., Smith, M. J., & Gregor, P. (2006). Designing a portal for older users: A case study of an industrial/academic collaboration. ACM Transactions on Com­ puter-Human Interaction, 13(3), 347–375. Ng, C.-H. (2007). Motivation among older adults in learning computing technolo­ gies: A grounded model. Educational Gerontology, 34(1), 1–14. (p. 176)

Nicholson, J., Coventry, L., & Briggs, P. (2013). Faces and pictures: Understanding age dif­ ferences in two types of graphical authentications. International Journal of Human-Com­ puter Studies, 71(10), 958–966. Nicolau, H., & Jorge, J. (2012). Elderly text-entry performance on touchscreens. In Pro­ ceedings of the 14th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and acces­ sibility (ASSETS ‘12) (pp. 127–134). Nijhof, N., van Gemert-Pijnen, J. E. W. C., de Jong, G. E. N., Ankoné, J. W., & Seydel, E. R. (2012). How assistive technology can support dementia care: A study about the effects of the IST Vivago watch on patients’ sleeping behavior and the care delivery process in a nursing home. Technology and Disability, 24(2), 103–115. Nijhof, N., van Hoof, J., van Rijn, H., & van Gemert-Pijnen, J. E. W. C. (2013). The behav­ ioural outcomes of a technology-supported leisure activity in people with dementia. Tech­ nology and Disability, 25(4), 263–273. Nunes, F., Kerwin, M., & Silva, P. A. (2012). Design recommendations for TV user inter­ faces for older adults: Findings from the eCAALYX Project. In Proceedings of the 14th in­ ternational ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility (ASSETS ‘12) (pp. 41–48). Nygård, L. (2009). The stove timer as a device for older adults with cognitive impairment or dementia: Different professionals’ reasoning and actions. Technology and Disability, 21(3), 53–66. Oberzaucher, J., Jagos, H., Zodl, C., Hlauschek, W., & Zagler, W. (2010). Using a wearable insole gait analyzing system for automated mobility assessment for older people. In Pro­ ceedings of 12th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘10) (pp. 600–603).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research O’Brien, M., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2012). Understanding age and technology expe­ rience differences in use of prior knowledge for everyday technology interactions. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 4(2), Art. 9. Ofei-Dodoo, S., Medvene, L. J., Nilsen, K. M., Smith, R. A., & DiLollo, A. (2015). Exploring the potential of computers to enrich home and community-based services clients’ social networks. Educational Gerontology, 41(3), 216–225. Ogawa, M., Inagaki, H., & Gondo, Y. (2006). Usage of IT and electronic devices, and its structure, for community-dwelling elderly. In Proceedings of 10th international confer­ ence on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 752–758). Omori, M., Miyao, M., Kanamoriand, H., & Atsumi, B. (2008). Visual cognitive perfor­ mance of elderly people: Effects on reading time of age, character size and visual dis­ tance. Behaviour and Information Technology, 27(4), 313–318. Orpwood, R., Gibbs, C., Adlam, T., Faulkner, R., & Meegahawatte, D. (2005). The design of smart homes for people with dementia–user-interface aspects. Universal Access in the In­ formation Society, 4(2), 156–164. Osman, Z., Poulson, D., & Nicolle, C. (2005). Introducing computers and the Internet to older users: Findings from the Care OnLine project. Universal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 16–23. Östlund, B. (2008). The revival of research circles: Meeting the needs of modern aging and the third age. Educational Gerontology, 34(4), 255–266. Otjacques, B., Krier, M., Feltz, F., Ferring, D., & Martin Hoffman, M. (2009). Helping old­ er people to manage their social activities at the retirement home. In Proceedings of the (p. 177) 23rd British HCI group annual conference on people and computers (BCS-HCI ‘09) (pp. 375–380). Panek, P., & Zagler, W. L. (2008). A living lab for ambient assisted living in the Municipali­ ty of Schwechat. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 777–784). Panitsides, E. A. (2013). Interview with Ariadne. Educational Gerontology, 39(12), 944– 945. Paredes, H., Cassola, F., Morgado, L., de Carvalho, F., Ala, S., Cardoso, F., Benjamim, B., & Martins, P. (2014). Exploring the usage of 3D virtual worlds and Kinect interaction in exergames with elderly. In Proceedings of 14th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 297–300). Parekh, M., & Baber, C. (2010). Tool use as gesture: New challenges for maintenance and rehabilitation. In Proceedings of the 24th BCS interaction specialist group conference (BCS HCI ‘10) (pp. 241–249). Page 52 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Pasoule, E., & Koutsabasis, P. (2014). Redesigning web sites for older adults: A case study. Behaviour and Information Technology, 33(6), 561–573. Patomella, A.-H., Kottorp, A., Malinowsky, C., & Nygård, L. (2011). Factors that impact the level of difficulty of everyday technology in a sample of older adults with and without cognitive impairment. Technology and Disability, 23(4), 243–250. Pedlow, R., Kasnitz, D., Shuttleworth, R. (2010). Barriers to the adoption of cell phones for older people with impairments in the USA: Results from an expert review and field study. Technology and Disability, 22(3), 147–158. Petrie, H., Darzentas, J. S., & Power, C. (2014). Self-service terminals for older and dis­ abled users: Attitudes of key stakeholders. In Proceedings of 14th international confer­ ence on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘14) (pp. 340–347). Pigini, L., Facal, D., Blasi, L., & Andrich, R. (2012). Service robots in elderly care at home: Users’ needs and perceptions as a basis for concept development. Technology & Disabili­ ty, 24(4), 303–311. Pigini, L., Facal, D., Garcia, A., Burmester, M., & Andrich, R. (2012). The proof of concept of a shadow robotic system for independent living at home. In Proceedings of 13th inter­ national conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 634–641). Piper, A.-M., Weibel, N., & D. Hollan, H. D. (2014). Designing audio-enhanced paper pho­ tos for older adult emotional wellbeing in communication therapy. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 72 (8–9), 629–639. Pitts, K., Pudney, K., Zachos, K., Maiden, N., Krogstie, B., Jones, S., … Turner, A. (2015). Using mobile devices and apps to support reflective learning about older people with de­ mentia. Behaviour and Information Technology, 34(6), 613–631. Plaisant, C., Clamage, A., Hutchinson, H. B., Bederson, B. B., & Druin, A. (2006). Shared family calendars: Promoting symmetry and accessibility. ACM Transactions on ComputerHuman Interaction, 13(3), 313–346. Pradhan, A. K., Hammel, K. R., DeRamus, R., Pollatsek, A., Noyce, D. A., & Fisher, D. L. (2005). Using eye movements to evaluate effects of driver age on risk perception in a dri­ ving simulator. Human Factors, 47(4), 840–852. Price, M. M., Pak, R., Muller, H., & Stronge, A. (2013). Older adults’ perceptions of useful­ ness of personal health records. Universal Access in the Information Society, 12(2), 191– 204. Priest, L., Nayak, L., & Stuart-Hamilton, I. (2007). Website task performance by older adults. Behaviour and Information Technology, 26(3), 189–195.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Prieto, G., & Leahy, D. (2012). Online social networks and older people. In Pro­ ceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 666–672). (p. 178)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Rice, M., Newell, A., & Morgan, N. (2007). Forum theatre as a requirements gathering methodology in the design of a home telecommunication system for older adults. Behav­ iour and Information Technology, 26(4), 323–331. Riikonen, M., Paavilainen, E., & Salo, H. (2013). Factors supporting the use of technology in daily life of home-living people with dementia. Technology and Disability, 25(4), 233– 243. Robertson, T., Durick, J., Brereton, M., Vaisutis, K. Vetere, F., Nanse, B., & Howard, H. (2013). Emerging technologies and the contextual and contingent experiences of ageing well. In P. Kotzé, G. Marsden, G. Lindgaard, J. Wesson, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction, Part III (INTERACT 2013). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 8117, (pp. 582–589). Rogers, W. A., Fisk, A. D., McLauglin, A. C., & Pak, R. (2005). Touch a screen or turn a knob: Choosing the best device for the job. Human Factors, 47(2), 271–288. Romoser, M. R. E. (2013). The long-term effects of active training strategies on improving older drivers’ scanning in intersections: A two-year follow-up to Romoser and (p. 179)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Savitch, N., & Zaphiris, P. (2006). Accessible websites for people with dementia-a prelimi­ nary investigation into information architecture. In Proceedings of 10th international con­ ference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 144–151). Sayago, S., & Blat, J. (2008). Exploring the role of time and errors in real-life for older people and ICT. In Proceedings of 11th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 46–53). Sayago, S., & Blat, J. (2010). Telling the story of older people e-mailing: An ethnographi­ cal study. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68(1–2), 105–120. Sayago, S., Forbes, P., & Blat, J. (2012). Older people’s social sharing practices in YouTube through an ethnographical lens. In Proceedings of the 26th annual BCS interac­ tion specialist group conference on people and computers (BCS-HCI ‘12) (pp. 185–194). Sayago, S., Forbes, P., & Blat, J. (2013). Older people becoming successful ICT learners over time: Challenges and strategies through an ethnographical lens. Educational Geron­ tology, 39(7), 527–544. Sayago, S., Guijarro, J.-M., & Blat, J. (2012). Selective attention in web forms: An ex­ ploratory case study with older people. Behaviour and Information Technology, 31(2), 171–184. Schall, M. C. Jr., Rusch, M. L., Lee, J. D., Aksan, N., & Rizzo, M. (2013). Augmented reality cues and elderly driver hazard perception. Human Factors, 55(3), 643–658. Schikhof, Y., Mulder, I., & Choenni, S. (2010). Who will watch (over) me? Humane moni­ toring in dementia care International. Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68(5), 410– 422. Schmettow, M., & Havinga, J. (2013). Are users more diverse than designs? Testing and extending a 25 years old claim. In Proceedings of the 27th international BCS human com­ puter interaction conference (BCS-HCI ‘13) (Art. 40). Schneider, N., Schreiber, J., Wilkes, J., Grandt, M., & Schlick, C. M. (2008). Foundations of an age-differentiated adaptation of the human-computer interface. Behaviour and Infor­ mation Technology, 27(4), 319–324. Schröder, S., & Ziefle, M. (2008). Effects of icon concreteness and complexity on semantic transparency: Younger vs. older users. In Proceedings of 11th international con­ ference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 90–97). (p. 180)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Seals, C. D., Clanton, K., Agarwal, R., Doswell, F., & Thomas, C. M. (2008). Lifelong learn­ ing: Becoming computer savvy at a later age. Educational Gerontology, 34(12), 1055– 1069. Sharit, J., Hernandez, M. A., Czaja, S. J., & Pirolli, P. (2008). Investigating the roles of knowledge and cognitive abilities in older adult information seeking on the web. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 15(1), Art. 3. Sharit, J., Hernandez, M. A., Nair, S. N., Kuhn, T., & Czaja, S. J. (2011). Health problem solving by older persons using a complex government web site: Analysis and implications for web design. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 3(3), Art. 11. Shaw, S., & Roberson, L. (2013). Social connectedness of deaf retirees. Educational Gerontology, 39(10), 750–760. Shepherd, C. E., & Aagard, S. (2011). Journal writing with Web 2. 0 tools: A vision for old­ er adults. Educational Gerontology, 37(7), 606–620. Siek, K. A., Rogers, Y., & Connelly, K. H. (2005). Fat finger worries: How older and younger users physically interact with PDAs. In M. F. Costabile and F. Paternò (Eds.), Pro­ ceedings Human-computer interaction (INTERACT 2005), Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS), 3585, (pp. 267–280). Simpson, T., Camfield, D., Pipingas, A., Macpherson, H., & Stough, C. (2012). Improved processing speed: Online computer-based cognitive training in older adults. Educational Gerontology, 38(7), 445–458. Simsik, D., Galajdova, A., Siman, D., Bujnak, J., Andrasova, M., & Novak, M. (2012). Mon­ AMI Platform in elderly household environment: Architecture, installation, implementa­ tion, trials and results. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 419–422). Siriaraya, P., Ang, C. S., & Bobrowicz, A. (2014). Exploring the potential of virtual worlds in engaging older people and support healthy aging. Behaviour and Information Technolo­ gy, 33(4), 283–294. Sjölinder, M., Höök, K., Nilsson, L.-G., & Andersson, G. (2005). Age differences and the acquisition of spatial knowledge in a three-dimensional environment: Evaluating the use of an overview map as a navigation aid. International Journal of Human-Computer Stud­ ies, 63(6), 537–564. Slegers, K., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. (2007). The effects of computer training and internet usage on the use of everyday technology by older adults: A randomized con­ trolled study. Educational Gerontology, 33(2), 91–110. Smith, A. L., & Chaparro, B. S. (2015). Smartphone text input method performance, us­ ability, and preference with younger and older adults. Human Factors, 57(6), 1015–1028. Page 57 of 64

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Smith, D. J. (2005). Senior users of the internet: Lessons from the cybernun study. Univer­ sal Access in the Information Society, 4(1), 59–66. Sokoler, T., & Svensson, M. S. (2007). Embracing ambiguity in the design of non-stigma­ tizing digital technology for social interaction among senior citizens. Behaviour and Infor­ mation Technology, 26(4), 297–307. Soubelet, A. (2012). Computer use and the relation between age and cognitive functioning. Educational Gerontology, 38(9), 644–649. (p. 181)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Swallow, D., Petrie, H., Power, C. and D. N. Edwards, A. D. N. (2015). Using photo diaries to elicit user requirements from older adults: A case study on mobility barriers. In J. Abas­ cal, S. Barbosa, M. Fetter, T. Gross, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Hu­ man-computer interaction, Part I (INTERACT 2015). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9296, (pp. 147–164). Szymkowiak, A., Morrison, K,., Gregor, P., Inglis, E. A., Shah, P., Evans, J. J., & Wilson, B. A. (2006). A memory aid with remote communication: Preliminary findings. Technology and Disability, 17(4), 217–225. Tee, K., Bernheim Brush, A. J., & Inkpen, K. M. (2009). Exploring communication and sharing between extended families. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67(2), 128–138. The, P.-L., Lim, W. M., Ahmed, P. K., Chan, A. H. S., Loo, J. M. Y., Cheong, S.-N., & Yap, W.J. (2017). Does power posing affect gerontechnology adoption among older adults? Behav­ iour and Information Technology, 36(1), 33–42. Thomas, K. E. (2013). Investigation of age-differentiated spatial semantic elaboration strategies for communicating route instructions. Universal Access in the Information So­ ciety, 12(2), 175–190. Thomas, L., & Briggs, P. (2014). An older adult perspective on digital legacy. In V. Roto, J. Häkkilä, Lárusdóttir, K. Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila, O. Juhlin, T. Olsson & E. Hvannberg (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (NordiCHI ‘14) (pp. 237–246). (p. 182)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Turner, P., Turner, S., & van de Walle, G. (2007). How older people account for their expe­ riences with interactive technology. Behaviour and Information Technology, 26(4), 287– 296. Uzor, S., Baillie, L., Skelton, D., & Fairlie, F. (2011). Identifying barriers to effective user interaction with rehabilitation tools in the home. In P. Campos, N. Graham, J. Jorge, N. Nunes, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-computer interaction (IN­ TERACT 2011). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6947 (pp. 36–43). Vacher, M., Caffiau, S., Portet, F., Meillon, B., Roux, C., Elias, E., … Chahuara, P. (2015). Evaluation of a context-aware voice interface for ambient assisted living: Qualitative user study vs. quantitative system evaluation. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 7(2), Art. 5. van den Heuvel, E., Jowitt, F., & McIntyre, A. (2012). Awareness, requirements and barri­ ers to use of assistive technology designed to enable independence of people suffering from Dementia (ATD). Technology and Disability, 24(2), 139–148. van der Geest, T., van der Meij, H., & van Puffelen, C. (2014). Self-assessed and actual In­ ternet skills of people with visual impairments. Universal Access in the Information Soci­ ety, 13(2), 161–174. van der Heide, L. A., Willems, C. G., Spreeuwenberg, M. D., Rietman, J., & de Witte, L. P. (2012). Implementation of CareTV in care for the elderly: The effects on feelings of loneli­ ness and safety and future challenges. Technology and Disability, 24(4), 283–291. van Volkom, M., Stapley, J. C., & Malter, J. (2013). Use and perception of technology: Sex and generational differences in a community sample. Educational Gerontology, 39(10), 729–740. Vetere, F., Davis, H., Gibbs, M., & Howard, S. (2009). The Magic Box and Collage: Re­ sponding to the challenge of distributed intergenerational play. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67(2), 165–178. Vines, J., Blythe, M., Dunphy, P., & Monk, A. (2011). Eighty something: Banking for the older old. In Proceedings of the 25th international BCS human computer interaction con­ ference (BCS HCI ‘11) (pp. 64–73). Viswanathan, P., Little, J. L., Mackworth, A. K., & Mihailidis, A. (2011). Navigation and ob­ stacle avoidance help (NOAH) for older adults with cognitive impairment: A pilot study. In Proceedings of the 13th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and ac­ cessibility (ASSETS ‘11) (pp. 43–50). Volkmann, T., Sengpiel, M., & Jochems, N. (2016). Historytelling: A website for the elderly a human-centred design approach. In S. Björk, E. Eriksson, M. Fjeld, S. Bødker, W. Barendregt, & M. Obaid, (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th Nordic conference on human-com­ puter interaction (NordiCHI ‘16) (Art. 100). (p. 183)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Vrkljan, B. H. (2011). Collaborative learning among older married couples: An explorato­ ry study. Educational Gerontology, 37(2), 117–137. Vutborg, R., Kjeldskov, J., Pedell, S., & Vetere, F. (2010). Family storytelling for grandpar­ ents and grandchildren living apart. In E. Hvannberg, M. K. Lárusdóttir, A. Blandford & J. Gulliksen (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th Nordic conference on human-computer interac­ tion (NordiCHI ‘10) (pp. 531–540). Waara, N., & Risser, R. (2013). Exploring the influence of online traveller information ser­ vices on the use of public transport by older people and people with functional limita­ tions: A mixed methods approach. Technology and Disability, 25(1), 15–25. Walker, B. L., & Harrington, S. S. (2008). Computer-based instruction and the Web for de­ livering injury prevention training. Educational Gerontology, 34(8), 691–708. Wang, L., Rau, P.-L. P., & Salvendy, G. (2011). Older adults’ acceptance of information technology. Educational Gerontology, 37(12), 1089–1099. Wang, L., Sato, H., Rau, P.-L. P., Fujimura, K., Gao, Q., & Asano, Y. (2008). Chinese text spacing on mobile phones for senior citizens. Educational Gerontology, 35(1), 77–90. Webster, G., Fels, D. I., Gowans, G., & Hanson, V. L. (2011). Portraits of individuals with dementia: Views of care managers. In Proceedings of the 25th international BCS human computer interaction conference (BCS HCI ‘11) (pp. 331–340). Webster, G., & Hanson, V. L. (2014). Technology for supporting care staff in residential homes. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 5(3), Art. 8. Werner, J. M., Carlson, M., Jordan-Marsh, M., & Clark, F. (2011). Predictors of computer use in community dwelling, ethnically diverse older adults. Human Factors, 53(5), 431– 447. Wherton, J. P., & Monk, A. F. (2008). Technological opportunities for supporting people with dementia who are living at home. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66(8), 571–586. Wilkinson, C., Langdon, P., & Clarkson, J. (2010). Observing learning and conceptual de­ velopment through novel product interaction. In Proceedings of the 24th BCS interaction specialist group conference (BCS HCI ‘10) (pp. 328–336). Wilson, J., Curzon, P., & Duncker, E. (2015). Exploring older women’s confidence during route planning. Behaviour and Information Technology, 34(7), 725–740. Wilson, M., Doyle, J., & McTaggart, G. (2015). Designing stress management interven­ tions to older adults to improve wellbeing. In Proceedings of the 2015 British Human Computer Interaction Conference (British HCI 2015) (pp. 307–308).

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Wittenberg-Lyles, E., Parker Oliver, D. P., Demiris, G., & Shaunfield, S. (2012). Benefits and challenges of the passport broadcast intervention in long-term care. Educational Gerontology, 38(10), 691–698. Wittland, J., Brauner, P., & Ziefle, M. (2015). Serious games for cognitive training in ambi­ ent assisted living environments-a technology acceptance perspective. In J. Abascal, S. Barbosa, M. Fetter, T. Gross, P. Palanque, & M. Winckler (Eds.), Proceedings Human-com­ puter interaction, Part I (INTERACT 2015). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9296, (pp. 453–471). Wockl, B., Wimmer, B., Yildizoglu, U., Leitner, M., & Tscheligi, M. (2011). “Accept” or “De­ cline”: Alternative options for video telephony tools for inter-generational family commu­ nication. In Proceedings of the 25th international BCS human computer interaction con­ ference (BCS HCI ‘11) (pp. 253–258). Wockl, B., Yildizoglu, U., Buber, I., Diaz, B. A., Kruijff, E., & Tscheligi, M. (2012). Basic senior personas: A representation design tool covering the spectrum of European older adults. In Proceedings of the 14th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on (p. 184)

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Xie, B., Watkins, I., Golbecka, J., & Huanga, M. (2012). Understanding and changing older adults’ perceptions and learning of social media. Educational Gerontology, 38(4), 282– 296. Xu, Q., Ng, J. S. L., Tan, O. Y., & Huang, Z. (2015). Needs and attitudes of Singaporeans towards home service robots: A multi-generational perspective. Universal Access in the Information Society, 14(4), 477–486. Yancura, L. A. (2013). How to make reminiscence movies: A project-based gerontology course. Educational Gerontology, 39(11), 828–839. Yanguas, J. J., Buiza, C., Etxeberria, I., Galdona, N., Gonzalez, M. F., & Urdaneta, E. (2006). A randomized, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of cognitive intervention on elderly people and on patients with Alzheimer’s disease. In Proceedings of 10th inter­ national conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘06) (pp. 759–765). Zakraoui, J., & Zagler, W. (2012). A method for generating CSS to improve web accessibil­ ity for old users. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 329–336). Zaphiris, P., & Sarwar, R. (2006). Trends, similarities, and differences in the usage of teen and senior public online newsgroups. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interac­ tion, 13(3), 403–422. Zhang, B., Lau, P.-L. P., & Salvendy, G. (2009). Design and evaluation of smart home user interface: Effects of age, tasks and intelligence level. Behaviour and Information Technol­ ogy, 28(3), 239–249. Zhang, C., Tian, Y., & Capezuti, E. (2012). Privacy preserving automatic fall detection for elderly using RGBD Cameras. In Proceedings of 13th international conference on comput­ ers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘12) (pp. 625–633). Zheng, R., Spears, J., Luptak, M., & Wilby, F. (2015). Understanding older adults’ perceptions of Internet use: An exploratory factor analysis. Educational Gerontology, 41(7), 504–518. (p. 185)

Zhou, J., Rau, P.-L. P., & Salvendy, G. (2014). Age-related difference in the use of mobile phones. Universal Access in the Information Society, 13(4), 401–413. Zhou, J., Rau, P.-L. P., & Salvendy, G. (2014). Older adults’ use of smart phones: An investi­ gation of the factors influencing the acceptance of new functions. Behaviour and Informa­ tion Technology, 33(6), 552–560. Ziefle, M., & Bay, S. (2005). How older adults meet complexity: Aging effects on the us­ ability of different mobile phones. Behaviour and Information Technology, 24(5), 375–389.

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Digital Technology for Older People: A Review of Recent Research Ziefle, M., & Bay, S. (2006). How to overcome disorientation in mobile phone menus: A comparison of two different types of navigation aids. Human-Computer Interaction, 21, 393–433. Ziefle, M., Pappachan, P., Jakobs, E. M., & Wallentowitz, H. (2008). Visual and auditory in­ terfaces of advanced driver assistant systems for older drivers. In Proceedings of 11th in­ ternational conference on computers helping people with special needs (ICCHP ‘08) (pp. 62–69). Ziefle, M., Schroeder, U., Strenk, J., & Michel, T. (2007). How younger and older adults master the usage of hyperlinks in small screen devices. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (CHI 2006) (pp. 307–316).

Helen Petrie

Helen Petrie is Professor of Human Computer Interaction in the Department of Com­ puter Science at the University of York in the UK. Her research centers on the use of new technologies for people with disabilities and older people, particularly the web. She has been involved in many British and international projects and has published extensively. She has advised numerous private and public sector organizations on web accessibility and accessibility issues of other new technologies. She directed the largest study in the world on web accessibility for the Disability Rights Commission of Great Britain and a similar study for the UK Museums, Libraries, and Archive Council, and she has conducted many smaller studies of web accessibility. In 2009 she was awarded an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Award for the so­ cial impact of her research, and in 2017 she was honored with a Lifetime Achieve­ ment Award from the Royal National Institute for Blind People. Jenny S. Darzentas

Jenny S. Darzentas was the Marie Curie Advanced Researcher Fellow in the Depart­ ment of Computer Science at the University of York 2016–2018 during the writing of the chapter. She is currently Assistant Professor at the Department of Product and Systems Design Engineering, University of the Aegean, Greece. Her research inter­ ests are in accessibility, service design and systems thinking, and information design. She has worked on collaborative research projects funded by the European Union on HCI, intelligent tutoring, decision support, library and information systems, and uni­ versal design. She also has an interest in accessibility issues in international (ISO) and European (CEN/CENELEC) standardization efforts through her voluntary work with ANEC (www.anec.gr). She has published widely on all these subjects.

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption

A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Re­ source Consumption   Nicola Green, Rob Comber, and Sharron Kuznesof The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.7

Abstract and Keywords Humans beings in the 21st century face significant social and global change. Ever-evolv­ ing digital technologies are increasingly embedded in the material, economic, and sociocultural milieu; while global crises in climate change present challenges to human and global security and resilience. Social science and human-computer interaction research has investigated how digital systems might help to understand current environmental changes and intervene in the problematic human relationships to scarce resources of the natural world. This chapter reviews research contributions of sustainable human-comput­ er interaction (HCI) and the social sciences on human consumption of resources most crucial to human life: water, energy, and food (WEF). Briefly outlining the current and on­ going evolution of digital technologies particularly concerned with embedded urban digi­ tal infrastructures in “smart” and automated technologies and the Internet of Things, it then touches on the scope and scale of the simultaneous environmental challenges posed by population growth and urbanization. It introduces sustainable HCI as one approach that directly addresses both trends. The chapter then outlines the most significant ap­ proaches that have informed the development of “sustainable HCI,” and reviews impor­ tant empirical contributions underpinning the developing interdisciplinary research in the field. It outlines the current understanding of household resource use and considers how developing digital technologies might support domestic resource conservation and miti­ gate intensive domestically based resource consumption. The chapter closes with obser­ vations on the shifting relationships (and sustainable HCI research into them) that might constitute future ways of being in a sustainable digital age. Keywords: domestic resource conservation, domestic resource consumption, domestically based resource con­ sumption, environmental challenges, household resource use, social science, sustainable HCI, sustainable humancomputer interaction

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption

Introduction: Digital Systems and Natural Re­ sources AT the beginning of the twenty-first century, human beings are facing a range of global and globalizing shifts in social organization that bring technologies, societies, and cul­ tures into complex tension with each other. Nowhere is this more so than in the shifts wrought by the development of digital technologies towards extensive social change. In the second decade of the 21st century, we have also seen the emergence of what is now commonly referred to as “ubiquitous computing,” or the “Internet of Things,” where alongside various forms of automation, “smart” technologies have emerged to be de­ ployed at different scales, whether that is at the level of the urban land/city-scape, the workplace, or the dwelling (as several chapters in this Handbook emphasize). While the technological imaginaries of the late 1990s had already identified the possibilities associ­ ated with, for example, “smart homes” (Harper, 2003), developments since have seen ur­ ban environments becoming ever more deeply imbricated with the material infrastruc­ tures of the digital, and the data-mediated social and cultural relations those infrastruc­ tures support. Here then, urban domestic dwelling spaces and places have received in­ creasing attention as crucial units of analysis for the understanding of potential techno­ logically mediated futures and the ways they might shape our ways of being in a digital age. At the same time, we have simultaneously seen challenges that pose fundamental ques­ tions about the continued prosperity (or security, or in some cases even survival) of hu­ mankind and our technological, economic, political, social, and cultural futures. Not least of these challenges are those posed by both climate change, and a related and (p. 187) on­ going large-scale depletion or waste of increasingly scarce natural resources. These chal­ lenges are global (indeed also planetary) in nature, and are expressed over multiple scales of human social life—from the practices and relations of the everyday, to the orga­ nization of communities, cities and regions, to large-scale technical, economic, and politi­ cal systems at national and international levels. It would be something of an understate­ ment to remark that these are not inconsiderable environmental challenges for global hu­ manity to be facing.

Where Digital Development Meets Environmental Crisis Given these two widespread and significant sets of rapid social change, this chapter con­ siders the ways that humanity’s digital and environmental futures are becoming inter­ twined, and how each domain is implicated in shaping the economic, cultural, and politi­ cally mediated futures of the other: that is, a complex digital nexus. Whilst the natural resources that human beings exploit are innumerable, the most funda­ mental of these are those that are crucial for the sustenance of human life itself: The availability of, and access to, Water, Energy, and Food (WEF). The ways that human be­ ings exploit (or use, or consume, or transform) these crucial WEF resources are, of Page 2 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption course, variable, and are considerably differentiated across globally interconnected soci­ eties, depending on a range of variables such as: Historical systems of economic develop­ ment, the deployment of technical systems at different scales, the politics of colonization and globalization, and the social and cultural values and norms that define the relation­ ships between “natures” and “cultures.” At the beginning of the twenty-first century, however, further factors are increasingly coming into play. Two of the most important of these are population growth and urbaniza­ tion. On the one hand, pressures are increasing on the planetary WEF resource base at­ tributable to the simple calculation of global population growth (Maheshwari et.al., 2014). The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) currently esti­ mates the global population at around 7.6 billion, with a projection to 2030 of 8.6 billion, including “roughly 83 million being added to the world’s population every year” (UNDESA, 2017a). Of those 7.6 billion around the world, 665 million have no access to clean drinking water, 795 million are undernourished or malnourished, 1.4 billion have no access to electricity, and 2.4 billion have no access to basic sanitation services (UN­ DESA, 2017b). While the implications of such growth for the environment have been ap­ parent for quite some time, studies in recent years have highlighted population growth as an increasingly pressing challenge in relation to current global economic and political or­ ganizations of resource capture, distribution and use. On the other hand, populations are not only growing, they are also simultaneously and progressively urbanizing. The United Nations (2018) estimates that 55% of the world’s population currently live in urban areas, and project that this figure will reach 68% by 2050. This means that cities, and the organization of them, are becoming an ever-more critical locus of resource deployment and consumption—and are therefore vital sites of (p. 188) evaluation for those processes (Colucci et al., 2017). The dwelling places of con­ temporary cities—and their progressive digitization—have therefore simultaneously be­ come an important focus for the investigation of contemporary resource consumption, and have become crucial spaces to explore in-depth in any consideration of the digitally supported sustainability of resource use. The focus on dwelling places therefore simulta­ neously draws attention to the role households play in processes of consumption more broadly (Burgess et al., 2003).

A Nexus of Relationships Alongside the critical role of the expansion of growing urban concentrations in relation to population growth, attention has at the same time further been drawn to the relationships between the core WEF resources themselves in a nexus of interdependencies (Abdul Salam et al., 2017; Bhaduri et al., 2015). This nexus thinking has been largely framed by the notion of a WEF nexus (or multiple nexii) of resources—the ways in which any shifts or perturbations in the availability, process, distribution or consumption of one WEF re­ source system will have a “tipping point” into “ripple effects” on the socio-technical sys­ tems organizing the exploitation, deployment and consumption of the other resources

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption (Beddington, 2009; McGrane et al., 2018; Smajgl et al., 2016), with widespread social im­ plications. The focus of this chapter is therefore to review environmental social science and humancomputer interaction (HCI) research on the ways in which digital systems can potentially intervene in urban domestic spaces to investigate, analyses and understand household WEF resource consumption, and design digital infrastructures to mitigate against unsus­ tainable consumption.

Chapter Overview Towards this more general goal, the chapter outlines social research-based responses to the environmental challenges presented by population growth, urbanization and climate change, and their effects on the consumption of related WEF resources. We begin our review of research in The Development of Sustainable HCI by introducing the concept and (inter)disciplines of “Sustainable HCI” (Human-Computer Interaction). Here we highlight the interplay of social research and digital design disciplines, and the goals articulated by strands of Sustainable HCI research towards resource minimization in sustainable digital design, and persuasion towards sustainability in consumption via digital systems. The chapter then goes on to consider the various strands of theory that have informed the conceptual development of Sustainable HCI over time, how those various theoretical frameworks have been employed in empirical investigations of WEF resource use, and their implications for digital systems in general and sustainable HCI in particular. (p. 189) Accordingly, the section Investigating Physical Resource Use addresses those studies that have attempted to represent the human activities that consume WEF resources across different social domains, and the systems, organizations, and interactions involved—from large-scale systems of resource distribution and consumption, to a range of micro-land­ scapes of resource use (including studies employing digital technologies to such ends). In the following section, Investigating Rational Choice and Behaviour Change, we then re­ view those studies that have used theories of behaviour and cognition to analyses what people do with physical resources in the process of consumption, and under what condi­ tions. A particular concern here is to examine those research designs that are concerned with the possibilities for behavioral influence and social change towards more sustainable resource relationships. We then turn to a review of those projects that have attempted to operationalize concepts such as Attitudes, Values and Lifestyles in the pursuit of understanding the social aspects of resource consumption that can then be used to guide the design, development and im­ plementation of digital systems towards various dimensions of sustainability. In the final section, Investigating Practices and Networks, we go on to consider how theories of prac­ tices and networks have been deployed at different scales to both understand the dynam­ ics of resource use, and to identify potential levers for “doing things differently” with and Page 4 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption through digital systems. Table 7.1 summarizes the approaches, key concepts, methodolo­ gies, and emphases in studies associated with each section.

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption Table 7.1 Summary of Approaches, Key Concepts, Methodologies, and Studies in Each Section Chapter sections

Approaches

Key concepts

Methodologies

Studies

Introduction

Climate change Population growth Urbanization

Defining a resource nexus Tipping points and ripple effects

Sustainable HCI

Human–computer interaction

Sustainability in and through design Pervasiveness and persuasion Sustainable interac­ tion design Revisioning con­ sumption Citizen sensing

Measurement Intervention

Digital feedback systems Displays Applications Interventions

Physical resource use

Infrastructure mea­ surement

Empirical studies of physical resources

Provider-supplied aggregate system statistics Scaled real-time and phase-time measurement of WEF infrastruc­ tures and appli­ ances

Digital measure­ ment systems Interventions

Household-focussed

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption Surveys Interviews Rational choice and behaviour change

Behavioral psychol­ ogy Cognitive and social psychology

Individual action Cognition Agency

(including online) Surveys Structured and se­ mi-structured inter­ views Observation

(including online) Individually fo­ cussed Single-resource fo­ cussed Aggregate digital measurement of re­ source use Aggregate survey responses Individual qualita­ tive responses

Attitudes, values, and lifestyles

Cognitive and social psychology Environmental soci­ ology Cultural sociology Phenomenology

Norms Values Attitudes Knowledge Structure-agency

Surveys Structured and se­ mi-structured inter­ views Focus groups Observation Visual methods

Individual and group-focussed Aggregate survey measurement of norms, values, atti­ tudes Individually narrat­ ed lifestyles and consumption pat­ terns

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption Practices and net­ works

Environmental, po­ litical, and cultural sociology Socio-technical net­ works Actor-network theo­ ry

Habits and routines Material infrastruc­ tures Knowledge-mean­ ing-action compe­ tencies Human and non-hu­ man (digital) agen­ cies

(including online) Observation Ethnography Semi-structured in­ terviews Visual, virtual, and sensory methods Participatory meth­ ods

Practice focussed (doing) across so­ cial scales Nexus of systems, things, thinking, do­ ing, and meaning Negotiation of so­ cial complexity

Revisiting sustain­ able HCI

Extensively interdis­ ciplinary approach­ es Computing-based Design-based Social sciencebased

Digital information transformation Influence

(including online) Participatory meth­ ods Design-based meth­ ods Interventions Ethnography Semi-structured in­ terviews Visual, virtual, and sensory methods

(including online) Digital feedback systems Displays Applications Social media Interventions Workshops Games Negotiation of digi­ tal-environmentalsocial complexity across scales

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption

The Development of Sustainable HCI One of the main contemporary developments in the investigation of the intersections of digital systems and resource use is the development of approaches in “Sustainable HCI.” Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is itself a broadly interdisciplinary field, focusing as it does on the interaction of humans with computing objects and environments, and encom­ passing (inter)disciplinary perspectives from computer sciences and engineering, along­ side interdisciplinary social sciences, and design disciplines. In “Sustainable HCI” (sometimes “Environmental HCI”) (Hee-Jeong Choi & Blevis, 2010; DiSalvo et al., 2010), understanding humans’ interaction with digital technologies—their objects and in­ frastructures—and the development of novel digital technologies, has been brought to­ gether with a concern to address current and future environmental challenges. HCI approaches to human-digital relations are focussed at the “interface” between com­ puting systems and their human “users,” and involve both understanding the relationship between them (given the contexts of their interactions), and planning design interven­ tions for the development of alternative or improved digital systems. Based on critical de­ sign studies, Blevis (2007, p. 503) argues that an important dimension of Sustainable HCI is the efforts by technology designers to build sustainability into both material and databased computing products—including in their “invention, disposal, renewal and reuse.” Mankoff et al. (2007) characterize this position as advocating (p. 190) (p. 191) (p. 192) “sus­ tainability in design” (reducing the resource intensity of computing systems), to which they add an orientation towards interaction in “sustainability through design”—designing digital media technologies to influence broad socio-cultural trends towards sustainability. According to DiSalvo et al., these two broad-based characterizations of the field of Sus­ tainable HCI have since produced a proliferation of HCI sub-specialties in both pervasive (in design) and persuasive (through design) computing systems oriented towards sustain­ ability. Woodruff and Mankoff (2009) summarizes the combination of these approaches as the “core challenges” of Sustainable HCI, “including monitoring the state of the physical world; managing the direct and indirect impacts of large-scale human enterprises such as agriculture, transport, and manufacturing; and informing individuals’ personal choices in consumption and behavior” (DiSalvo et al., 2010, p. 1976). Drawing on Goodman’s (2009) characterization of Sustainable HCI into three broad discursive and empirical clusters of environment-digital understandings—including “sustainable interaction design,” “revi­ sioning consumption,” and “citizen sensing”—DiSalvo et al. (2010) further extend an eval­ uation of the relevant research literature to identify multiple sub-specialties in Sustain­ able HCI that both relate to, and challenge, each other—and in doing so they provide an excellent critical map of this extensive field. In the following sections then, the chapter reviews the empirical research in HCI and en­ vironmental social sciences that has variously addressed questions relating to human in­ teraction with both digital technologies and resources in the consumption spaces of ur­ ban domestic dwellings. From mapping physical systems and infrastructures via digital Page 9 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption means, to considering the factors that affect human interaction with and transformation or consumption of both natural resources and digital systems in the home, the chapter aims to summarize the contemporary state of play in relevant research, and to indicate di­ rections for development in sustainable digital design.

Investigating Physical Resource Use There is no doubt that environmental systems are broadly grounded in long-term process­ es of industrialization (now extended to digitization), and systems of market capitalism. These technical developments and economic shifts inevitably altered human relationships with their environments—in the case of resources, the technically and economically medi­ ated means through which people access, use, exploit or consume the resources of the natural world. On the one hand this promotes a logic of technocratic rationality, placing faith in technology to guarantee the wide-ranging and efficient exploitation of resources. At the same time, emerging digital technologies offer the potential to “map,” to a finegrained level, the systems through which resources are distributed, circulated, and con­ sumed, and therefore contribute to understandings of (and potential interventions in) un/ sustainable socio-cultural practices. (p. 193)

In the investigation of WEF relationships, natural science and engineering disci­

plines tend to focus on the quantitative measurement of extant and available physical re­ sources (and the modelling and visualization of available macro-scale national and inter­ national data pertaining to such via digital systems). Such data may then be used by so­ cial research that focuses on the human exploitation, organization, distribution and gov­ ernance of such resources via economic and technical (especially urban) infrastructures that make the harvest, supply, delivery and circulation of resources possible (Kalbar et al., 2016, 2018; McGrane et al., 2018). Relevant empirical examples may be derived from a number of sources,1 such as utility companies’ annual supply and distribution reporting, analyzed with respect to official population demographics (such as those from the Office for National Statistics) derived via digitally generated data. In the case of water, for example, Ofwat (the independent UK Water Services Regulation Authority) requires water utility companies to measure (via ag­ gregate—both analogue and digital—water flow distribution meters) and report the cubic metric distribution of water to households and non-households (business and industry), as well as accounting for waste (leakages) and operational usage (Ofwat, 2018). Similar na­ tional-level statistics, often generated via the deployment of digital metering systems, are available via various government departments and agencies, such as (in the UK) the De­ partment for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (DBEIS; for example, see their En­ ergy Use in the UK, 2018a; Digest of UK Energy Statistics, 2018b) reporting on energy use—households comprise 28% of total UK energy consumption (DBEIS, 2018a)—or vari­ ous aggregate-level food statistics from the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the Environment Agency, and the Food Standards Agency (FSA).

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption Digital systems, of course, support the collection, processing, and analysis of such data. But whereas the foregoing research attempts to map physical resource consumption at the level of entire populations, digital developments situated in HCI often instead turn to the innovation of digital systems to map such relationships at a more fine-grained scale. Drawing on approaches where the focus is “sustainability in design,” a prominent ap­ proach is the design of urban household sensor-based information systems that are capa­ ble of collecting and managing data on local natural resource use. In the domestic sphere, the ecosystems comprise the spaces of the built environments that are inhabited, and the distribution and circulation of natural resources within (and beyond) them. The intent in such digital systems, then, is the quantitative measurement of resource use or consumption within dwellings in order to be able to understand how, where, and when re­ source consumption is taking place. Such measurements can be both aggregated (for ex­ ample, measuring total energy use within the dwelling via “smart” [digitally based] me­ tering), and/or disaggregated (such as sensor systems to measure energy or water use down to the appliance level, or for different daily or seasonal periods, or even in compari­ son to comparable neighborhoods or areas). The measurement of domestic energy consumption (typically including domestic electrici­ ty and gas use) has been one of the most extensively researched areas of digital technolo­ gy design, deployment, and evaluation within the domestic sphere. (p. 194) Examples in product and critical design could include advances in the design of sensor-based mea­ surement systems to accurately measure consumption, such as Wood and Newborough’s (2003) development of indicators for (disaggregated) appliance consumption of energy. They could also include the development of interactive visualizations to represent such consumption (Costanza et al.,2012). Other salient examples might include designs for wa­ ter measurement, such as Srinivasan et al.’s (2011) motion-sensor-based disaggregated water flow measurement system, or Arroyo et al.’s (2005) development of the “Waterbot,” measuring water flow, use, and waste at the interface of the sink. Waterbot not only mea­ sured water flow, but also developed visualization and display technologies (located at the sink) intended to feedback information on resource consumption to its human inter-actors (see also Kuznetsov & Paulos, 2010). Pierce, Odom and Blevis (2008) provide a useful crit­ ical overview of interaction design for eco-visualization in general, and Casado-Mansilla et al. (2016, p. 1695) extend such a discussion into “eco-aware systems within everyday things” to provide user feedback toward awareness and understanding. Such feedback systems are largely informational, and as such they assume a rational and decision-making human subject for their interpretation, and the ability to act on that in­ formation and the interpretation of it. However, such digital systems (and the design of them) are also sometimes significantly oriented towards persuasion and “behaviour change”: As such, the design, deployment and use of persuasive digital systems is muchdebated in the Sustainable HCI literatures. In the following section we therefore consider those studies that have deployed theories of cognition and behaviour to not only analyze what people do with the physical WEF resources available to them in their domestic envi­ ronments (and beyond), but also whether innovative digital systems might be designed and developed to persuade consumers of the need for (or desirability of) change, or influ­ Page 11 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption ence behaviour towards more sustainable practices of resource use within the domestic sphere.

Investigating Rational Choice and Behavior Change The physical resources and distribution systems outlined earlier that are “mapped” at the macro-scale tend to be grounded in a technocratic rationality derived from the process of industrialization. Simultaneously, however, environmental relations are also embedded in global systems of market capitalism, and the assumptions that underpin them—such as the ever-expanding growth of markets (for thorough analysis and critique, see Callon, 1998; Granovetter, 1985; Polanyi, 1944/1957). Such macro-level economic analyses have, however, received extensive criticism for their generally reductionist (and sometimes de­ terminist) tendencies. Given the limitations of such approaches for understanding, for ex­ ample, everyday lived experiences and interactions, or collective (p. 195) or organizational processes, others have turned their focus to other scales of human life—such as individ­ ual human beings and their behaviours in social context.2 There are a number of accounts of nature-people relationships that have derived their ap­ proaches from the discipline of social psychology in general, and environmental social psychology more specifically. The focus of these approaches is to understand and explain the ways that individuals encounter and experience WEF resources in their everyday lives, and, most importantly, what they do with them. Here the focus shifts to the position of the individuals as sovereign agents within such structures as economic decision mak­ ers, exercising rational choice and acting in self-interest with respect to both the produc­ tion and consumption of goods and services within markets (Barr et al., 2011b). With re­ spect to the uses of WEF resources then, individuals are positioned predominantly as con­ sumers, and the aggregate outcomes of individuals’ rational judgements in consumption are assumed to maximize the efficiencies of resource supply and demand, and guarantee rational resource distribution. Alongside the more micro-scale investigations of digital systems mapping resource use in domestic spaces then, there are a range of projects that attempt to simultaneously out­ line individual (or household) environmentally focussed behaviour, especially where con­ sumption is a matter of the intersections between economic decision making or behav­ iour, and those activities concerned with resource use (Advani et al., 2013; Chitnis et al., 2013, 2014; Druckman et al., 2011; Ofwat, 2011; Oikonomou et al., 2009). If the concept of rational action positions the individual as a pre-eminent economic social actor, further approaches in environmental psychology extend the conceptualization of human action from the exclusively economic, to other social realms. The focus here is again on what individuals do, rather than who they are or what they experience. Other projects therefore focus towards more extensive behavioral dimensions of resource use it­ self. In these types of quantitative studies, digital and online research tools become par­ Page 12 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption ticularly important, demonstrating the increasing importance of Internet-based digital systems for the investigation of household water-energy consumption. For example, the studies by the Energy Saving Trust (2013) characterizing the self-reported water (and en­ ergy) behaviours of 86 thousand households across the UK, are based on their online wa­ ter-energy calculator (see also Energy Saving Trust 2014; Kenway et al., 2011). Similar larger-scale surveys in water analyze self-reported behaviours amongst smaller and re­ gional population samples—for example, see Pullinger et al. (2013), for an analysis of be­ havioral water data derived from 997 questionnaire respondents using computer-assisted personal interviews. In energy, Palmer and Terry’s (2014) Powering the nation is based on the Household Elec­ tricity Survey, consisting of self-reported and retrospective behaviours of a sample of 250 UK households (another example of methodology using computer-assisted personal inter­ views), alongside extensive digital energy consumption monitoring down to appliance lev­ el. There are now also a significant number of larger-scale surveys of food behaviour. The UK Food and You survey, for example, provides a broad-based snapshot of the United Kingdom’s food provisioning, preserving, cooking, eating, and waste behaviors in a selfreported representative questionnaire survey of 3,453 respondents (p. 196) (Food Stan­ dards Agency, 2014a, 2014b). Similarly, the Waste and Resources Action Program (WRAP) provides aggregate statistics on food waste, including that at the household level (WRAP, 2017). It is within this broadly environmental social science research milieu that Sustainable HCI is located, and where the broad question of potential digital interventions towards sustainable behaviour might take place. According to the APA (2018) “behaviours” are de­ fined as “an organism’s activities in response to external or internal stimuli, including ob­ jectively observable activities, introspectively observable activities, … and non-conscious processes.” In the case of WEF resource use, attention is therefore paid to those behav­ iours directly related to environmental (causes and) effects. According to Stern (2000, p. 408), this “environmentally significant behaviour” is that which can … reasonably be defined by its impact: the extent to which it changes the avail­ ability of materials or energy from the environment or alters the structure and dy­ namics of ecosystems or the biosphere itself … Some behavior, such as clearing forest or disposing of household waste, directly or proximally causes environmen­ tal change … Other behavior is environmentally significant indirectly, by shaping the context in which choices are made that directly cause environmental change … For example, behaviors that affect international development policies, commod­ ity prices on world markets, and national environmental and tax policies can have greater environmental impact indirectly than behaviors that directly change the environment. Stern goes on to note that the environmental impacts listed have historically been byproducts of activities aimed at the fulfilment of “human desires” (and the creation of tech­ nologies and organizations to achieve them) rather than the straightforward sustenance Page 13 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption of human life itself (Stern, 2000, p. 408: emphasis added). By conceptualizing environ­ mentally significant behaviours as the product of human “desires” rather than of “needs,” the approach therefore opens discursive space to invoke the possibility for change in hu­ man behaviour with respect to the environment via social interventions, including via dig­ ital interventions. The interventions proposed therefore tend towards persuasion of one kind or another. If rational individuals can be convinced that maximizing their self-inter­ ests can be aligned with a collective interest in maximizing resource use without damag­ ing the sources of those resources (which will also therefore maximize future self-inter­ ests), then changes to individual behaviour will “naturally” result as a consequence of ra­ tional cognitive processes.3 Indeed, it is the design, development and evaluation of digital feedback systems toward persuasion—whether aggregated or disaggregated—that are most extensively found in the Sustainable HCI literature. That is, they include not only the measurement of re­ source use to understand its dynamics, but also to represent that use and convey that in­ formation to users in order to persuade them towards resource conservation—“sustain­ ability through design” in “eco-feedback” systems (Froehlich et al., 2010). Studies explic­ itly focussed on the creation of interventions for behaviour change tend to be directed to­ wards the interactional design of their feedback components in terms of (p. 197) communi­ cation, clarity, and goals, and the evaluation of the effectivity of such systems with re­ spect to both human interactions with digital technologies, and/or concomitant impacts in the form of observable changes in users’ behaviours towards sustainability (Fischer, 2008; Vassileva et al., 2013). As is the case with studies of resource consumption in the social sciences more generally, however, examples of intervention and persuasion here are often focussed on a single re­ source—most commonly with respect to either energy (Bang et al., 2007; Bonino et al., 2012; Froehlich, 2009; Gamberini et al., 2012; Oliveira et al., 2016; Riche et al., 2010; see Hazas et al., 2011 for a useful review), or water (Erikson et al., 2012; Froehlich et al., 2012; Kappel & Grechenig, 2009; Liu et al., 2015). Novel approaches to domestic prac­ tices concerned with digital interaction design in food provisioning, preservation, prepa­ ration and food waste have only more recently emerged in the Sustainable HCI research base. Notable examples include understanding food consumption lifecycles using wear­ able cameras (Ng et al., 2015), or “the pervasive fridge,” a fridge-based digital system mitigating against food waste (Rouillard, 2012) (see also Farr-Wharton et al., 2014a, 2014b on the use of “fridge-cams” for similar purposes). Murtagh et al. (2014) remark that a range of studies have tended to confirm the view that resource usage feedback technologies—for example, In-Home Displays (IHDs)—can make some (at least marginal) difference in resource demand reduction. They point out, howev­ er, that there is considerable heterogeneity amongst individuals and households, and their own project on energy use indicated that whilst located feedback appears to be of immediate utility in persuasion towards changes in behaviour, its effectiveness diminishes

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption over time and is largely secondary to attempts at conservation or persuasion “situated in wider social and physical contexts” (Murtagh et al., 2014, p. 1). Others tend to concur (Burchell et al, 2016; Boucher et al., 2012; Foster et al., 2010; Tira­ do Herrero et al., 2018), with some claiming that intentional HCI interventions towards persuading individuals are at least relatively limited in their effectiveness, and at most such interventions themselves “narrow our visions of sustainability” (Brynjarsdottir et al., 2012, p. 947). DiSalvo et al. (2010a), in their critical review of sustainable HCI, acknowl­ edge that while there is diversity in design among the digital systems developed to per­ suade—from ambient awareness systems that seek to provide information for knowledge and understanding, to systems that seek to change both thinking and action—their premises are often problematic. On the one hand, they can render aspects of environ­ ments and the consumption of resources visible. On the other hand, they might attempt, with various degrees of intent, to influence users to behave in ways deemed “more sus­ tainable.” As DiSalvo et al. (2010a, p. 22) point out, this involves specific value judge­ ments about what constitutes “sustainable behaviour,” and as such are also politically in­ flected (even ideologically aligned) positions: Most persuasive technologies imply that users engage in problematic behaviors and should be directed toward more desirable ones. In many scenarios, persua­ sion begins to border on coercion, sometimes even evoking Skinnerian behaviour modification … Questions of “the user” quickly become issues of expertise and (p. 198) hegemony. If we agree that fundamental change is needed and it might be change that users don’t want, who gets to decide what change should happen and how? Whose needs are met, and whose values matter? (DiSalvo et al., 2010a, p. 23). Such approaches have therefore attracted critique on the basis that they are both reduc­ tionist (to the level of the individual and their actions), and deterministic (to largely iso­ lated causes and effects; (Barr et al., 2011a). In response, other psychologically oriented approaches have therefore added some level of nuance, acknowledging that more than a single factor might be involved in any behaviour change: Various and multiple individual motivations, as well as collective altruistic motivations, might simultaneously qualify as “self-interest.” Moreover, seemingly contradictory choices between competing individual and collective motivations might also qualify as “rational”—as some have argued, “choice matters” (Murtagh et al., 2015; Uzzell et al., 2006). The focus on behaviour change is certainly not limited to the HCI exploration of resourceconservation behaviours, and there is a wide range of social science studies more broadly that also take individuals and/or their behaviours as the starting point for investigating resource consumption. These include studies, both within HCI and beyond, that have at­ tempted to capture wider aspects of environmental practice such as attitudes, values, and lifestyles.

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption

Investigating Attitudes, Values, and Lifestyles By way of contrast to approaches that focus largely on “behaviour” and its change, more sociologically oriented approaches focus on units of analysis between the social-psycho­ logical and sociological via concepts such as attitudes with respect to norms, and further acknowledge the additional intervening roles of values or situation with respect to the in­ tention-behaviour relationship (Barr, 2003; Barr, 2006). Further research has also invoked more extensive categories that could act as intervening factors in the formation of values as they relate to environmental behaviours: including, for example, (both individual and collective) identities (Evans, 2011b; Gatersleben et al., 2014), and cross-cultural politics (Katz-Gerro et al., 2017). One important and extensively debated concept in recent years has related to the formu­ lation and deployment of a meta-category labelled lifestyles in an attempt to link the psy­ chologically and individualistically oriented concerns described by behavioral and cogni­ tive processes with wider socio-cultural concerns that account for values, but which also recognize the interplay between individuals and the extensive and diverse social and cul­ tural collectivities (at various scales) of which they are a part. Some researchers have, for example, advocated attempts to formulate a broadly conceived typology of “lifestyle groups” based on, for example, “environmental values and concern,” (p. 199) “socio-demo­ graphic variables,” and “psychological factors” (Barr & Gilg, 2006; Gilg et al., 2005). Many of these have also been explicitly oriented towards describing a home or household as engaged in lifestyles, rather than focusing at the level of the individual or behaviour per se (Barr & Gilg, 2006; for reviews across frameworks see Barr, 2016; Evans & Abra­ hamse, 2009). As Evans and Abrahamse (2009) point out however, the historic influence of policy shifts and their orientation towards persuasion has also meant that the discourse of “sustain­ able lifestyles” has become ever-more ubiquitous, but also therefore ever-more politically inflected. Instead, in nearly every case where “sustainable lifestyles” are invoked, the analysis reverts almost immediately to a consideration of “sustainable consumption” as definitive of lifestyles (Barr et al., 2011a; Connolly & Prothero, 2008: Evans, 2011a; Hob­ son, 2002; Shove & Warde, 2002; Spaargaren, 2003; Spaargaren & Oosterveer, 2010; Spaargaren & Van Vliet, 2000). Hobson (2002), for example, explores the relationship be­ tween the pro-environmental meanings of consumption and values relating to social jus­ tice, arguing that rationalized formulations of “sustainable consumption” carry little cul­ tural meaning, and are therefore unable to address collective social concerns. Seyfang (2006) addresses similar themes with respect to the intersection of “sustainable con­ sumption” and the concept of “ecological citizenship.”4 One response to some of this complexity has been the more extensive development of mixed methods approaches to understand resource consumption in the domestic sphere. Pullinger et al. (2013), for example, extend behavioral questionnaires to a sub-sample of qualitative interviews to further explore the combination of factors that might contribute to environmentally aware action and interaction concerning water use. Still others have Page 16 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption turned entirely to a range of qualitative methods (such as interviews, focus groups, or di­ aries, amongst other methods) to explore dimensions of behaviour that concern knowl­ edge, attitudes, beliefs, values and lifestyles (including aspirations and assumptions). Some explore these issues with respect to a range of environmental issues of concern to individuals and households (e.g., Barr, 2006; Barr & Gilg, 2006), whereas others turn their attention to resource consumption—and specific resources—in particular (Owen et al., 2009; Wutich, 2009). In this broad context, the responses of research in Sustainable HCI have also included the methodological as well as the analytic, with the development of mixed methods projects that attempt to capture some of these multiple dimensions of human actions and interac­ tions with computing and the digital, as they pertain to domestic resource consumption. Given that the focus of HCI has historically been concerned with the interaction between digital systems and their users, the challenges for Sustainable HCI here include ways to capture the multidimensionality of material action and interaction alongside dimensions of practice that remain “unobservable.” Some HCI studies have therefore turned to alter­ native frameworks to explore the relationship between home inhabitants and embedded resources via digital technologies more extensively. Schwartz et al. (2013), for example, extend behavioral or cognitive approaches to consider explicitly phenomenological and ethnomethodological aspects of interaction with energy—rendering it visible, perceptible, and therefore (p. 200) “accountable” via “ordering structures”—thereby capturing both the observable, and the implicit. This shift in focus allows them to examine observable sit­ uated practices at the microcosmic scale—the connections between thinking, being, and doing. This widening of topics within the sustainabilities literature has allowed both so­ cial science practitioners, and HCI designers, to focus their research approaches on com­ binations of methods that are specifically based on theories of those practices. Furthermore, in all of these debates, the concept of agency becomes particularly impor­ tant—and agency of different types, from humans to (digital) non-humans, and from the individual to collectivities such as digital systems. Some, for example, have evolved “ide­ al-typical” typologies to characterize “environmental agency” (Spaargaren & Oostvesteer, 2010). According to this argument, even at the everyday level of the household, forms of environmental agency are at the same time also necessarily mediated by the technolo­ gies, objects, and infrastructures of consumption practices (organized by “distant oth­ ers”), in different modes of appropriation and provision—including digital systems (see al­ so van Vliet et al., 2005). They argue that attention to both (distributed) human practices and non-human (especially digital) interventions are crucial. To these ends, a substantial body of environmental social sciences literatures has turned to theories of human prac­ tices in order to fully explore how human-environment relations are embedded in multiple networks of action, interaction, knowledge, meaning, organization, and power at different scales of social life.

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption

Investigating Practices and Networks Theories of practices have therefore become ever-more-extensively substantial and influ­ ential in Sustainable HCI over the past two decades. Adopted from approaches in envi­ ronmental social sciences more broadly, these frameworks have been largely developed from Bourdieu’s theories of “habitus,” “capital,” and “field” and Giddens’ theories of “agency,” “system,” and “structure.”5 Practice theories take earlier notions of “behav­ iour” as central—in the sense that it is doing that is a key unit of analysis—but conceptu­ alize those “doings” in more complex ways than cause-effect models would have us be­ lieve. As Spaargaren (2011, p. 815) argues with respect to Bourdieu and Giddens, [w]hat is recognized as being of lasting value in their work is the understanding of social life as a series of recursive practices reproduced by knowledgeable and ca­ pable agents who are drawing upon sets of virtual rules and resources which are connected to situated social practices. Agents are involved in the reproduction of series of practices within designated fields of social life by drawing upon the spe­ cific sets of rules and resources constitutive for those practices. Because of the emphasis on practices as “shared behavioural routines,” the individual is no longer in the center of the analysis. Practices, instead of individuals, become the units of analysis that matter most. Practices “produce” and co-constitute individu­ als and their values, knowledge and capabilities, and not the other way around. Crucially, practice theories attempt to bridge the structure-agency dualism, con­ necting the micro- and macro-sociological contexts—agency as performed, powers as en­ (p. 201)

acted, and interests as actively pursued (Spaargaren, 2011). One of the important points here is therefore that “practices” can be conceived at different scales of production and reproduction—everyday habits are reproduced through practices (the “social organiza­ tion of normality”; Shove, 2003), but so are markets—consumption routines are repro­ duced through practices, but so are structures of governance. It is not far from this ob­ servation to extend to a focus on context—to observe that practices are always “situated” in networks of relationship between people and their material and socio-cultural contexts (Hui & Walker, 2018). In the domain of resource-human relations then, “the most vigor­ ous application of practice theoretical repertoires … may be found in the interstices be­ tween technologies, utilities, resource consumption and the problematic of sustainability” (Halkier, Katz-Gerro, & Martens, 2011, p. 5). A number of contemporary researchers have incorporated such positions and integrated them into practice research on contemporary environmental politics: From engaging in practice-theoretical development more generally (Shove, 2003; Shove, Pantzar, & Watson, 2012), to elaborating the congruence of practices and “sustainable consumption” in everyday life and the domestic sphere (Shove & Spurling, 2013; Southerton, 2013), and with particular regard to “ecological citizenship” (such as research on the role of practice theory in understanding shared ecological governance; Spaargaren, 2011).

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption It is worth noting that contemporary formulations of practice theories in relation to con­ sumption and sustainability have progressively incorporated and emphasized materiality as a key dimension of practices, whether that be the materiality of the embodied human (en)acting, or the contextual materialities of human-built objects, environments, struc­ tures and technologies (Appadurai, 1988; Dant, 1999; Miller, 1998). In these frameworks, material relations are always co-constructed, so the focus is on the materials necessary to reproduce ways of doing over time, the knowledge and competencies to deploy those ma­ terials, and the (shared) meanings associated with particular “ways of doing” in relation to norms, values, and identities. The result is a complex framework that opens up digital and HCI design spaces to explore the intricacies of agentic-yet-institutionally embedded socio-cultural knowledge-meaning-action assemblages. In the context of empirical social science research on domestic resource consumption, both experience and interaction are captured in the notions of “situated knowledge” and “situated action.” That is, any practices are a combination of contextually dependent and mutually informing organization of human activities, material infrastructures, and knowl­ edges of them, the relations between which are played out in the routines, habits, and rhythms of everyday life. These approaches have become well-represented in empirical environmental social science literature on resource consumption. Of particular interest to research on practices has been a shift of the units of analysis in the design of empirical research. Whereas behavioral or attitudinal studies tend to focus on the individual, in­ creasingly the environmental social science literature has focussed on (p. 202) alternative units of consumption such as the urban-based household, where activities, routines, and practices are both shared and negotiated amongst spatially and temporally extended net­ works of actors, infrastructures, organizations and agencies. Thus the home is both a mi­ cro-topography, and a simultaneously multiply layered and connected spaces (Barac & McFadyen, 2007; Hitchings, 2004; Horta et al., 2014). Some projects are concerned with attempting to empirically map household consumption as a set of practices in-depth, rather than attempting to outline the breadth of common practices across more general populations. Early research here focussed on the (particu­ larly routinized and habitual) activities, knowledges, and materialities framing consump­ tion, using observational, interview, and ethnographic methods of various sorts (Shove, 2003; Shove & Warde, 2002; Shove et al., 2012; Southerton 2013; Spaargaren & Van Vli­ et, 2000). Research has extended more general household studies to include a particular focus on specific single resources, such as those oriented towards energy (Butler et al., 2016; Genus & Jensen, 2019; Moroşanu, 2016; Shove & Walker, 2014; Strengers, 2012), water (Vannini & Taggert, 2016), or food (Crivits & Paredis, 2013; Paddock, 2017; Sa­ hakian & Wilhite, 2014; Warde, 2013, 2014). Increasingly, practice research is also turning to the “nexus of practices” (Hui et al., 2017) that form consumption in relation to a nexus of resources—such as that between water and energy (Strengers, 2011; Strengers & Maller 2017; Strengers et al., 2014). At times these studies drill down their analytic focus to particular nexus points such as a cluster of related practices—for example, showering (Shove 2003) or washing (Kuijer, Page 19 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption 2017), doing laundry (Jack, 2013), or eating practices (Devaney & Davies, 2016)—and al­ so often entail the innovative use of novel participatory, design-based, or interventionist methodological strategies. At other times, the analytic focus is on those nexus points that are materialized in the infrastructures of everyday life—such as the nexus of food and en­ ergy in the case of the domestic freezer (Hand & Shove, 2007; Southerton & Shove, 2000), or energy and water in the (potentially digital) washing machine (Bourgeois et al., 2014). This latter focus on everyday materialities is where the relationship between the focus on practices and the focus on (digital) technological networks is most significant—whether that is cast in terms of the “infrastructures of consumption” (van Vliet et al., 2005), or the “socio-technical networks” of humans and non-humans in Actor-Network Theory (ANT) research, for example in water (Sofoulis, 2005; Sofoulis & Williams, 2008) or energy (Strengers, 2012). In this regard then, practice theories are particularly well-situated to explore multi-di­ mensional phenomena such as a WEF nexus (Hui, Shove, & Schatzki, 2017) across over­ lapping social contexts and multiple scales. Therefore, while not without its critics (Cairns & Krzywoszynska, 2016), and despite its potential limitations and partialities (Taherzadeh, Bithell, & Richards, 2018), the notion of a WEF nexus of resource interde­ pendencies could potentially provide a recursive lens alongside practice theories to un­ derstand domestic resource use. The focus on materiality—associated significant tech­ nologies and infrastructures—simultaneously provides a lens through which to view po­ tential emerging interdependencies between digital systems, local practices, and (p. 203) resource infrastructures. Such arguments are particularly congruent with a consideration of socio-technical systems and “actor-networks.” Actor-network approaches share practice theory’s concern with paying attention to the materialities within which embodied human beings are embedded—the things/objects and technologies through which humans act and interact in the world. In HCI most broadly, this therefore involves understanding human-social relationships as co-constitutive of hu­ man-computer/object relationships in the context of digitally mediated social processes. In the case of Sustainable HCI, where the focus is simultaneously environmental, the con­ sideration of digital networks-and/as-things is coupled with a consideration of physical-re­ sources-as-things, and humans interact with both. In ANT, identifying the actors in any relation is a primary endeavor—importantly, as al­ ready noted, actors can be both human and non-human. Humans are only one set of enti­ ties (alongside objects and technologies) that act and interact in relation to humans and to each other, meaning that in ANT, “things” such as digital technology systems, and physical resource distribution and consumption systems, have equivalent agency as the humans they shape and are shaped by. Such agentic actors are thereafter themselves em­ bedded in networks—the normative organizational systems (or assemblages) that asso­ ciate actor-entities with each other across relational domains (Akrich, 1992; Latour, 2000; Suchman, 2006; Taylor, 2015). The socio-technical systems described by ANT are in many ways recursive with theories of practice, with the additional emphasis on the agencies of Page 20 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption non-humans as well as humans—and both are currently widely employed in both the envi­ ronmental social sciences and HCI literatures.

Revisiting Sustainable HCI in a WEF Context It is within the assemblages of human practices and non-human agencies described by practice and actor-network theories that the relationship between empirical research in environmental social science and HCI is at its strongest. This is not least because digital technologies increasingly comprise one of the most important infrastructures that under­ pin our everyday material and social lives in the context of both the household and the ur­ ban landscape. On the one hand, there are those environmental social science studies of household resource consumption that have been embedded in innovative methods and in­ terdisciplinary collaborations with engineering and computer science colleagues—such as Pink’s (and collaborators’) studies of household energy use combining ethnographic ex­ ploration of practices with the use of digital sensors to quantitatively measure consump­ tion (Pink, 2011; Pink & Leder Makley, 2012; Pink et al., 2013; see also Coughlan et al., 2013). On the other hand, practitioners and designers situated firmly in HCI as an interdiscipline have increasingly used an extremely broad mixture (p. 204) of (often digitally based) methods to understand practice-based consumption within the home (and at times intervene in it – see Mitchell et al., 2015). Smart meters, and digital technologies such as (still and video) cameras and/or sensor ar­ rays, have all been variously deployed to both measure and understand resource-related domestic practices. Larrabee Sønderlund et al. (2014), for example, explore and review the different types of smart metering of water and their associated user feedback sys­ tems, whilst with respect to food, Ganglbauer (2013) introduced—in addition to inter­ views and home tours—a “FridgeCam” within households to record the situated practices of food waste (see also Ganglbauer et al., 2013). The FridgeCam consisted of a mobile phone camera attached to the refrigerator door capturing images automatically when ac­ tivated by refrigerator door-opening. The captured images were then further uploaded to a Facebook site to be shared amongst interested parties, which encouraged the social me­ dia discussion of “appropriate” or “inappropriate” practices leading to food waste and/or its mitigation (to supplement the narrative data from participants in interviews and tours). Through these (digitally based) “technology probe” methods, Ganglbauer et al.’s study therefore sought to utilize practice theory to “design strategies to support dis­ persed as well as integrated food practices” (2013, p. 1)—that is, to explore how digital technologies might be deployed to understand, intervene in, and feed back to users on the assemblages of practices associated with their preservation, preparation, consump­ tion and disposal of food to mitigate against waste. Ganglbauer et al.’s research therefore echoed Comber and Thieme’s (2012) earlier study that developed a similar technology in­ tervention in the form of a “BinCam” (a mobile phone capturing images when triggered by the bin [garbage] lid, capturing still images), while additionally also instituting an on­

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption line community amongst their study participants to discuss the practices concerned (Thieme et al., 2012). It is only more recently that Sustainable HCI research has come to focus explicitly on WEF relationships—the ways that resources and their associated practices and networks of actors in the domestic sphere are interrelated and mutually dependent—rather than fo­ cusing simply or intensively on single resources. For example, with respect to food and energy research in HCI, Clear et al. (2013) introduced a “cooker cam” to explore prac­ tices of cooking within shared student accommodation—focusing on both energy and food. The aim of this study was to uncover the observable mundane, ubiquitous, and ha­ bitual practices of food preparation at the site of the cooker (stove/range) within studentshared households, amongst a demographic where design interventions might have a sig­ nificant impact in transitional life stages. The “cooker cam” consisted of a motion-trig­ gered wildlife trail camera mounted above the cooker (dubbed the “hobcam”), capturing still images every 30 seconds when motion-activated. This was supplemented with data from real-time energy smart meter readings for each cooking session recorded, and fur­ ther supplemented with interview narratives on the experiential process and meaning of cooking. Such multiple methods uncovered several potential directions for innovative de­ sign interventions, including various smart/digital modifications to cooking appliances, the possibilities of encouraging communal organization of food responsibility and sociali­ ty via the design of mobile and social media applications or (p. 205) add-ons, or developing digital tools to render the carbon intensity of particular foods and their preparation more accessible and transparent to users, encouraging less energy-intensive diets (see also Clear et al., 2016; Hupfeld & Rodden, 2012). In the case of water and energy, Chetty et al. (2008) focused on “in the moment” house­ hold resource consumption to map the relative “visibility” of resources and their infra­ structures to participants in the course of their consumption practices. The aim of the study was to develop digital display and control system tools, both for reflection and en­ gagement, and to support and underpin the management of domestic resource consump­ tion based on current management practices, technology use, and interaction with out­ side stakeholders. Using home tours, semi-structured interviews and (digital imagebased) visual methods, the findings of the study underlined the importance of household­ ers’ understandings of domestic utility systems, or more likely, their invisibility in the practice of everyday life. The design interventions considered on the basis of the research findings therefore focussed towards ways of making the production of water and energy more visible and available to consumers via domestic digital toolkits (at the same time as providing comparative and “benchmarking” consumption information at different urban, regional and national scales). The intervention thus accounted for both diversity and in­ equality in the design of those digital systems, and supported more collective as well as individual agency in “green” behaviour change via those same tools. In a similar vein to Chetty et al., Strengers (2011) draws explicitly on both practice theo­ ries and concepts in socio-technical networks to explore the potential role of digital feed­ back systems in encouraging sustainable water and energy consumption. Her review of Page 22 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption different approaches and empirical strategies draw on research derived via methodolo­ gies variously including ethnographic interviews and home tours as well as the deploy­ ment of digital technologies. The digital systems explored include In-Home Displays (IHDs) and smart meters of a range of different types, from visualization tools to render real-time consumption visible, to the intersection of digital information systems with what are considered “negotiable” or “non-negotiable” domestic practices. Strengers (2011, p. 319) concludes from her comparative review of different digital systems that digital feed­ back mechanisms have the potential to legitimize particular practices and to overlook those consid­ ered non-negotiable … IHDs [In-Home Displays] can play a role in making sociotechnical systems of energy and water provision more relevant to householders’ everyday lives, and in questioning and debating non-negotiable practices. This will necessitate repositioning and blurring the roles and responsibilities of resource providers and consumers. As Strengers’ study indicates, both HCI and social science studies focussed on practices through the deployment and use of digital technologies remain commonly oriented to­ wards the development of (digital) tools for persuasion towards “behaviour change”—the Sustainable HCI position of “sustainability through design” (Butler et al., 2016; Paddock, 2017; Thieme et al., 2012). It is this model of “persuasion” or “behaviour (p. 206) change”—alongside debates over the conceptualization of “agency,” the material organi­ zation of “consumption” processes or “sustainability” itself—that remain at the heart of contemporary theory and empirical research design in Sustainable HCI. As such, Sustain­ able HCI is playing a crucial and expanding role in the politics of ways of being digital.

Conclusion: Resource Sustainability, Re­ silience, and Security There is no doubt that living in a digital age is transforming the ways that human beings relate to their environments, particularly with respect to the exploitation, use, transfor­ mation, and consumption of natural resources. This is especially the case if we are to un­ derstand the centrally important role of the household in resource consumption. The key to the evolution of empirical practice in contemporary Sustainable HCI research is the recognition of complexity across multiple social scales, whether that is in the complexity of resource interdependencies (found in WEF Nexus thinking), or in the complexity of the human consumption of them via digitally based resource measurement, feedback, and management systems at the household level (in Practice and Network thinking). Throughout the chapter, we have sought to review the approaches relevant to the devel­ opment of Sustainable HCI, and evaluate the ways that they inform current empirical studies in the field focussed towards domestic resource consumption. The preceding sec­ tions reviewed the frameworks that have underpinned contemporary social science re­ search on the relationships between humans and their digital and natural environments. Page 23 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption Such frameworks have variously focussed on: structural-level variables such as political economy and facets of globalization; social psychological approaches encompassing indi­ vidual behaviours, attitudes, values, norms and lifestyles; and mid-level theories focussed on practices that attempt to connect relational processes across different scales of social organization. As part of this latter discussion, we have also reviewed the focus on digital materiality that is common to both theories of practices and to frameworks derived from STS such as Actor-Network Theory. Throughout this discussion, several further salient conceptualizations of social processes have come into play—including those relating to “consumption” and “sustainability,” as well as those concerning “structure,” “agency.” and “social change.” These latter concep­ tualizations have become particularly important as environmental crises intensify, and po­ tential digital solutions to expansive resource consumption are sought via Sustainable HCI. It becomes apparent throughout recent Sustainable HCI theory and research that in order to understand the complexity involved in these landscapes of embedded digital net­ works—multiple and overlapping configurations of humans and non-humans, of struc­ tures and systems, within assembled networks of actions and (p. 207) interactions—we need to pay attention simultaneously to the material as well as the discursive forms of knowledge and power that situate practices in socio-technical systems, and which enable some digital ways of being to the exclusion of others. Such understandings underpin any attempts within Sustainable HCI to inform, transform, and influence human-resource rela­ tionships. Certainly digital technologies as they are empirically deployed in HCI studies might help us to further understand the digital-physical-social webs of relationship within house­ holds. How the results of that research are communicated in the public sphere is also of import, given the scale of current environmental challenges. An overly emphatic focus on “behaviour change” via digital systems might, however, also have unintended conse­ quences, running the risk of unequally marginalising some already vulnerable popula­ tions: In contrast to aspirational claims for a “smart utopia” of greener, less energy in­ tensive, and more comfortable homes currently present in market and policy dis­ courses, we argue that SHTs [Smart Home Technologies] may reinforce unsustain­ able energy consumption patterns in the residential sector, are not easily accessi­ ble by vulnerable consumers, and do little to help the “energy poor” secure ade­ quate and affordable access to energy at home. (Tirado Herrero et al., 2018, p. 65) While Sustainable HCI is therefore able—to some extent—to intervene positively toward behaviour change, some argue that any influence derived from such interventions is not straightforward, nor is it unproblematic (Burchell, Rettie, & Roberts, 2016). Demograph­ ic, socio-economic, and life-cycle factors all have an impact on values, lifestyles, and con­ sumption. Similarly, routine, habit, affect, and the meaning of home can also vary signifi­ cantly amongst and between populations. Therefore any potential interventions are there­ Page 24 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption fore likely to have extensively variable and uneven effects (Watson, 2017). There is there­ fore also the question as to whether Sustainable HCI research currently only reaches populations already positively oriented towards the environmental issues under scrutiny (Vassileva et al., 2013). If HCI recognizes that digital technologies are imbricated in “the domestic”—and domes­ tic resource practices—in the complex assemblages outlined earlier, it is unsurprising that the question of digital persuasion towards sustainabilities remains contested in the HCI literature and beyond. Innovative approaches drawing on practice theory and ANT have expanded the units and scales of analysis in Sustainable HCI to encompass a variety of different forms of possible influence, such as the recognition of mutual or collective re­ sponsibilities for sustainable consumption across different organization and civic scales. For example, supermarkets/food providers and households could each be digitally linked in local communities to hold collective responsibility for sustainable food provision. It is for such reasons that there has been a movement within Sustainable HCI debates to explicitly focus on digital “politics” (broadly defined) towards sustainability. In a timely contribution, Dourish (2010, p. 8) adds a final and crucial consideration to any (p. 208) characterization of environmentally oriented HCI as a broad field of endeavor—“the poli­ tics of design and the design of politics.” According to Dourish (2010, p. 8), Sustainable HCI must become more explicitly and self-consciously “political”; that is, he is making an attempt to dismantle design as an anti-politics machine. Political, social, cultur­ al, economic, and historical contexts have critical roles to play, not only because they shape our experience with information technologies, but also, and even more, because information technologies in contemporary life are sites at which these contexts are themselves developing. Such approaches hold the potential to help us further understand how digital technolo­ gies and the projects of Sustainable HCI might mediate the relationships between physi­ cal resources, things, systems, people, their knowledge, skills, and activities. This under­ standing might move us closer to resource security and resilience, and sustainable ways of being in a digital age.

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Notes: (1.) The exemplar empirical research presented throughout the chapter citing national statistics are derived from UK sources. Corresponding international statistics, especially those produced by governmental bodies (or e.g., private utilities companies), can be rela­ Page 38 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption tively easily located via the relevant corresponding national or international bodies, or via straightforward Internet searches. (2.) Environmental social sciences and philosophy addressing the macro-level have fo­ cussed on both human-nature social relationships, as well as the salient cultural cate­ gories through which those relationships are made meaningful and are understood. The foundational theoretical literatures in environmental social sciences are extremely exten­ sive, and have undergone considerable revision over the course of at least fifty years—not least in light of feminist and post-colonial theories, and theories of globalisation. As such, only an extremely brief indication of broad conceptual areas can be offered here, al­ though those interested in reading towards further contemporary theoretical develop­ ments might consult compendia readers such as Gabrielson et al. (2016). (3.) A number of different models of persuasion towards “behaviour change” have been proposed over time—and have also been deconstructed. For a critical review of AIDA (Awareness-Information-Decision-Action) models, for example, see Barr (2006). For a cri­ tique of 4E (Enable-Engage-Encourage-Exemplify) models, see Jackson (2006) and Spaar­ garen (2011). Such models have also been adopted in different contexts—for example, in public (often policy-generated) awareness campaigns towards “ecological citizenship,” through to technology-driven techniques of persuasion (see chapter sections on Sustain­ able HCI design and development). A key endeavor in these approaches is also identifying “barriers to change.” (4.) Over the past decade, the literature on “sustainable consumption” has grown rapidly, and has entailed extensive debates not only on the conceptualization of sustainable con­ sumption itself, but also the relation it bears to “consumerism” (Evans & Jackson, 2008) and “citizenship” (Seyfang, 2016). For a review of these literatures see Jackson (2008). (5.) Halkier, Katz-Gerro, and Martens (2011) provide a comprehensive review of the prac­ tice theory literature via Bourdieu and Giddens, tracing their philosophical antecedents to (amongst others) Durkheim, Heidegger, Husserl, Levi-Strauss, Marx, Mauss, MerleauPonty, Weber, and Wittgenstein.

Nicola Green

Nicola Green is a Research Associate with the OpenLab, Newcastle University. She is a sociologist by trade and a qualitative interdisciplinary researcher by inclination. Her background has run the gamut of social sciences, HCI, science and technology studies, media and cultural studies, and surveillance studies; all intersecting via projects on digital media technologies and/or sustainabilities of various sorts. Her projects have included work on virtual reality technologies; mobile devices and everyday mobilities; the rise and spread of mobile data and “big data”; digital trust, risk, and privacy; and lifestyles, consumption, and environment. Issues explored across these projects have included embodiment and identity, organization and dis­ course, popular media and culture, as well as the development of qualitative re­ search methodologies and their use in both HCI research and within social sciences Page 39 of 40

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A Digital Nexus: Sustainable HCI and Domestic Resource Consumption more generally—particularly in respect of ethnographic, mixed, feminist, and partici­ patory methodologies. Rob Comber

Rob Comber is a human-computer interaction researcher working at the Swedish In­ stitute for Computing Science at RI.SE, where he is an ERCIM Fellow. His research explores the ethics, methods, and tools to promote citizen participation in social and civic issues. His current research examines topics such as activism, citizen science, community education, and food and technology, all through a lens of designing for community. Sharron Kuznesof

Sharron Kuznesof is a Senior Lecturer and applied qualitative social scientist work­ ing in an interdisciplinary environment in the School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University. Her research focuses on conceptual exploration of the behaviors and practices of food consumers and innovative research methods to support that endeavor. Related research includes Food Standards Agency–funded re­ search with HCI staff at Newcastle University’s OpenLab to examine domestically sit­ uated food safety practices.

Page 40 of 40

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships

ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships   Simeon J. Yates, Rich Ling, Laura Robinson, Catherine Brooks, Adam Joinson, Monica Whitty, and Elinor Carmi The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.8

Abstract and Keywords This chapter explores the outcomes of the literature review and expert Delphi review process for the communication and relationships domain. The initial scoping question— How are our relationships being shaped and sustained in and between various domains, including family and work?—was considered too broad. So we instead focus on five cate­ gories and associated questions articulated by the Delphi process, concerning digital lit­ eracies, norms and values, platform affordances, quality of relationships and communica­ tion, and relationship management. The most frequent topics emerging from the litera­ ture analysis included friends, media, pair, group, adolescent, phone, communication, re­ lationship, time, and medium. Over time the most frequent topic pairs shifted from focus­ ing on relationships, pair/tie/link, communication, medium, and work, to more specific media such as Facebook and related terms such as user, network, and friend. Three main themes emerged from the literature analysis: social media platforms, young people and adolescents, and social network analysis; each is illustrated through brief examples from the literature. This literature emphasized inductive approaches, with two-thirds being dis­ cursive reviews, largely from psychology, sociology, and communication and media disci­ plines, with research methods spread across these reviews, surveys, and interviews. Of the five Delphi categories, digital literacies, and quality of relationships and communica­ tion, were rated as the most important. Keywords: Delphi reviews, ESRC Review, Facebook, friendships, relationship formation, relationship management, social media, social network

Introduction THIS chapter explores the outcomes of the literature review and expert Delphi review process for the Communication and Relationships domain. As with the other review chap­ ters, the goal is not to work through a large number of examples from the literature. In­ stead, building on the methods described in chapter 2, we will first set out the results of the digital humanities-based analyses of the literature, highlighting the major topics, Page 1 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships themes, and concepts within the literature, providing a few general examples. These are not intended to be the “most important” examples from the literature but rather simply indicative of the types of work. This is then followed by the presentation of the content analysis that sought to identify the key theories and methods in use within the literature. Next, we outline the results from the Delphi review of experts. This concludes with the key questions, topics, and challenges we identified, comparing these to the results from the literature work. The last section presents the recommendations for areas of future study. As a reminder, the initial scoping question for this area of work was: “How are our relationships being shaped and sustained in and between various domains, including fam­ ily and work?”

Initial Comments The original ESRC Domain question was criticized in the Delphi process for being too broad and ambiguous. Importantly, it was asked whether it constitutes a viable standalone question, since communicating and building relationships necessarily forms a piv­ otal (p. 222) strand of nearly all activity in relation to “ways of being” in a digital society. Therefore, looking for one very specific starting point was not seen as straightforward, especially given the multiple ways in which relationships are expressed. Consequently, both social behavior and results from research can vary as the context of interests, condi­ tions, and constraints ebb and flow with changing digital technology. As a result, the analysis put the initial ESRC scoping question to one side and utilized those derived from the Delphi first round, shown in Table 8.1.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.1 Scoping Questions Question category

Example questions

Digital litera­ cies

What literacies are required for effective communi­ cation using digital technologies? Should these lit­ eracies be taught, or can we assume that they de­ velop organically? To what extent does an individual’s digital legacy and digital capability affect their interactions with others in work and leisure?

Norms and values

What normative pressures do people experience re­ lated to relationships shaped and sustained by digi­ tal technologies? What is the new normal for relationships now they are shaped and sustained by digital technologies across multiple domains?

Platform af­

What are the Platform affordances of digital tech­

fordances

nology that construct or constrain relationships? How do particular platforms affect various kinds of relationships: social, sexual, familial, collegial, ac­ tivism, fandom, etc.?

Quality of re­

How does communication via digital technologies

lationships and commu­ nication

facilitate the quantity and quality of our relation­ ships? How are our relationships being shaped, sustained, and diminished by digital technologies, in and be­ tween the domains of work and family?

Relationship management

How are family, friend, and work relationships shaped by, and reshaping, the trajectories that new digital technologies are taking. How are our friendships being shaped, sustained, and diminished by digital technologies?

Of all the domains examined, the question of how media and technologies have affected relationships and communication is one of the oldest, going back to Classical Greek de­ bates over the value of orality and literacy. In the context of digital media, much early re­ search in the 1980s and 1990s sought to understand how interaction without face-to-face presence would function. This work has its roots in prior research comparing social pres­ Page 3 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships ence in various pre-digital media (e.g., Short et al., 1976; Rutter 1987). These ideas were taken up in relation to digital media in the 1980s around ideas of “cuelessness” and formed the foundation of works such as Kiesler, Siegel and McGuire’s (1984) examination of the effects of “reduced social cues.” Much of this work had a strongly social-psycholog­ ical focus around group behavior. The cumulation and to (p. 223) a large extent rejection of this line of work can be found in the SIDE model of online group behavior (see: Postmes et al., 1998; Spears et al., 2002) that is also discussed in chapter 14. This is also the basis of more recent work on deception and “anonymity” in online interaction. Some clear parallels can be drawn between the “flaming” behavior identified by Kiesler, Siegel, and McGuire and more recent work on contemporary anti-social behavior online (e.g., trolling). Other work examined the content of interaction such as the examination of so­ cio-emotional content in computer conferencing by Rice and Love (1987), and how com­ puter-mediated communication could foster organizational innovation (Rice, 1987, ex­ tending the Short et al., 1976 work on social presence) which early on contributed to the rejection that computer-mediated communication necessarily is cueless and therefore generates de-regulated mediated content, such as flaming and depersonalization. Separately, socio-linguistic work examined the textual and linguistic differences between speech, writing, and online interaction (e.g., Herring, 1996; Yates, 1996).

Literature Analysis The literature analysis was designed to create two analytic outcomes. First, the goal was to identify key topics within the existing literature. This would allow for a comparison with areas of future importance identified by the Delphi review. Second, we applied con­ tent analysis of the literature to explore the predominance of specific theories, methods, and approaches within the domain.1

Topics As noted in chapter 2, the literature data were subjected to two analyses. The first round of collected literature was analyzed to create concept pairs and trios, while the combined first and second rounds of literature were analyzed to identify key topic clusters. The re­ sults of these two approaches were then compared. The 10 most common concept pairs identified by the Round 1 literature analysis are listed in Table 8.2. These represent the concepts covering 2% or more of the identified cases. Table 8.3 lists concept pairings.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.2 Analysis Concepts Ranked Concepts

Percent

Friend

9.9

Media

8.2

Pair

8.0

Group

4.3

Adolescent

4.3

Phone

4.0

Communication

3.9

Relationship

2.5

Time

2.5

Medium

2.3

Level

2.1

Teen

2.1

Life

2.0

Parent

1.9

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.3 Concept Pairings—Main and Secondary Concepts Concepts

Percent

Concepts

Percent

Concepts

Percent

Adolescent

4.3

Friend

9.9

pair

8.0

Adult

2.0

Friendship

2.4

Percentage

0.9

Life

1.5

Instant

0.3

Rate

1.3

Realism

0.3

Judgment

0.5

Relation

1.3

Uncertainty

0.5

Newcomer

0.7

Sociability

1.1

social-media

8.2

Pair

1.3

Status

1.1

Communication

0.9

Photo

1.4

Total

0.6

Group

0.4

Post

1.3

Week

0.4

Information

0.8

Tie

2.1

Whole

0.4

Interaction

0.4

Group

4.3

Writing

0.9

Medium

0.9

Identification

1.2

Parent

1.9

Member

0.6

In-Group

0.8

Phone

1.9

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Pair

0.9

Out-Group

0.7

Phone

4.0

Relationship

0.9

Poster

0.4

Plan

1.1

Student

0.5

Sip

0.5

Punishment

0.4

Tie

0.8

Socialization

0.7

Someone

0.9

Work

1.0

Level

2.1

Subgroup

0.5

Communica­ tion

3.9

Move

0.7

Teens

1.0

Controllability

0.7

Pair

0.9

Relationship

2.5

Correspondent

1.0

Var

0.6

Root

0.6

Monograph

0.9

Life

2.0

Work

1.9

Propinquity

0.9

Pew

1.4

Teen

2.1

Sip

0.4

Writing

0.6

Twitter

1.2

Medium

2.3

Voice

1.0

Multitasking

0.3

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Richness

1.5

Storytelling

0.5

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.4 Wordstat Analysis of Topics Topics

Keywords

Eigen-value

Freq

Cases

% Cases

Social network platforms

SOCIAL; COM­ MUN; THI; AR; INTERACT; PEOPL; SPACE; INFORM; NET­ WORK; THEI; SYSTEM

1.61

108,173

569

97.1

Facebook

FACEBOOK; ELLISON; SITE; NETWORK; FRIEND; SN; SNSS; BOYD; CAPIT; SOCIAL

1.91

44,414

559

95.9

Measurement

MEASUR; VARIABL; WA; SAMPL; ITEM; SURVEI; DATA

1.64

28,226

552

94.7

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Twitter

TWEET; TWIT­ TER; HASH­ TAG; RETWEET; USER; REPLI; API; PLAT­ FORM; AC­ COUNT; CHAP­ TER

11.88

28,460

537

92.1

Higher educa­ tion

STUDENT; COLLEG; TEACHER; EDUC; SCHOOL; LEARN

1.73

13,949

521

89.4

CMC vs. FTF

CMC; FTF; CUE; WALTHER; PARTNER; IN­ TERACT

2.26

13,697

511

87.7

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Storytelling

CCM; STORY­ TEL; CREATIV; AUSTRALIAN; AUSTRALIA; ART; DIGIT; PROJECT

2.39

14,149

507

87.0

Nations and countries

NATION; EU­ ROPEAN; COUNTRI; EU­ ROP; POLIT; GLOBAL

1.70

13,864

506

86.8

Gender and lan­ guage

WOMEN; MEN; MALE; FEMAL; GENDER; LIN­ GUIST; FEMINIST; LANGUAG; SEX; SPEECH

2.69

16,931

503

86.3

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships SNA

PAIR; CERIS; TIE; MULTI­ PLEX; FRE­ QUENC; FAC­ ULTI; TI; FRIENDSHIP; EXCHANG; EM­ PLOYE

2.96

9430

498

85.4

Corporations

COMPANI; MARKET; BUSI; CORPOR; CONSUM; SERVIC; AD­ VERTIS

2.01

11,752

490

84.1

Critical theory

MARX; LABOUR; FUCH; DIALECT; LUK¡C; IDE­ OLOGI; ECONOMI; CAPIT; CRITIC; CLASS

3.37

11,067

464

79.6

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Privacy

ION; PRIVACI; ER; AL; PRO­ TECT

1.49

7717

452

77.5

Health care

CARE; PATIENT; TELE­ CONSULT; HEALTH; HOME

1.57

5937

421

72.2

Blogging

BLOG; BLOG­ GER; READER; COMMENT

1.81

5106

403

69.1

Media con­ sumption

FILM; CINEMA; NARR; IMAG GAME; PLAY­ ER; VIDEO; AVATAR

1.46

5557

340

58.3

Adolescents and sexuality

ADOLESC; SEX­ UAL; EX­ POSUR; SEIM; SEX

3.71

8015

326

55.9

Social club

CLUB; FAN; SPORT; TEAM

1.45

1305

194

33.3

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Children and families

BOI; GIRL

1.40

2285

167

28.6

Old media

TELEVIS; AU­ DIENC; WATCH; TV; BROADCAST; VIEWER; MEDIA

1.94

22,518

523

89.7

Mobile phone

PHONE; CELL; TEEN; MOBIL

1.88

8567

421

72.2

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships All the literature collected from both rounds was then analyzed using Wordstat. Wordstat identified 21 concepts, which are presented in Table 8.4. These map closely to the con­ cept pairings identified in the above analysis. As with the other domains, we can see a shift in focus within the literature between 2000 and 2016 (shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2). The broad comparison of change over time in the frequency of concept pairs associated with the subject “communication” based on the smaller curated literature shows considerable differences between the periods 2000– 2004 and 2012–2016. Early on, the most frequent pairs involve relationships, (p. 224) (p. 225) (p. 226) pair/tie/link, communication, medium, and work. Less frequently included were terms such as information, use, Internet, and exchange. Thus the focus was on rela­ tionships or network ties involving the process of communication, the medium of commu­ nication, and the context of the relationship (work and information). By 2012–2016, there was much less emphasis on general relationships and specific links, and more on the spe­ cific medium of Facebook and related terms such as user, network, and friend. This obvi­ ously reflects, in terms of more recent research, the commercial and social dominance of the new platforms (especially Facebook) in western societies. It may also point to the fact that data from these platforms is easily harvested along with the fact that many studies appear to be of adolescents and colleague students—the concepts of “teen” and “college student” are also notable in the analysis. Within this there is a distinct shift to social net­ work analysis informed approaches, and this domain is one where this approach is high­ lighted in the analysis. Contexts shifted from work to college, the family, students, teens, and patient care. The mediated social network became central. Overall there appears to be a shift from studies that may have sought to generalize about digital (p. 227)

media—computer-mediated communication—to ones with a strong “platform focus.” The challenges of a “platform” focus are discussed in chapter 25.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships

Figure 8.1 Communication 2000–2004: Most fre­ quent concept pairs. Note: Bubble chart showing frequency of the top 50 concept pairs, based on concept modeling (described in Chapter 2) within the Domain for 2000–2004. The diameter of each circle reflects the frequency of the concept pair.

Figure 8.2 Communication 2012–2016: Most fre­ quent concept pairs. Note: Bubble chart showing frequency of the top 50 concept pairs, based on concept modeling (described in Chapter 2) within the Domain for 2012–2016. The diameter of each circle reflects the frequency of the concept pair, with the most frequent pair beginning in the center.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships In examining the papers and publications collected for this domain we found that the identified themes and topics consistently cross cut and overlap. A paper on Facebook would also likely raise issues about young adults, or a social network analysis would ad­ dress issues of community. Underlying much of the literature are comparisons with faceto-face, and occasionally other media (writing, TV, mass media). Such comparative goes back to very early studies of digital media (computer-mediated communication) use dis­ cussed above. We do not intend to review this work here though we would note that such analyses are important in comparatively grounding studies in relation to existing (p. 228) media practices. We would also note that many recent studies, and the examples exam­ ined below, are more likely to explore the use of a specific digital media as part of a citizen’s or user’s “suite” of communicative and media practices. We have therefore pulled out three themes as starting points for the presentation of example literature in this domain where the cross-cutting overlaps can be seen: • Social media platforms • Young people and adolescents • Social network analysis Social media “platform” studies. Taking Twitter and Facebook as examples of new plat­ forms that have become the context of study, we find a range of different foci in the re­ search literature. Many of these cross-cut the other themes identified in this domain but also reflect broader social and media discussion. Much of the media coverage of Twitter, Facebook, and other social media platforms has raised concerns about the level and ex­ tent of data and information sharing by young people. Such concerns are also reflected in research. For example, Madden et. al (2013) examined the way teens share information on social media. In fact, according to Madden et al.’s findings, few teens embrace a fully public ap­ proach to social media. Instead, they take an array of steps to restrict and prune their profiles, and their patterns of reputation management on social media vary greatly ac­ cording to their gender and network size. As with many studies of new platforms, there is a need to understand the basic features and demographics of their use. At the time of writing Madden et al. noted an increase in the use of Twitter by teens from 16% in 2011 to 24% in 2013. They also noted that the median number of friends in Facebook was 300 and the number of Twitter followers was 79. Their research found that teenagers were sharing more information about themselves on such sites than they had in the past on other platforms and media. The research looked at five different types of personal information sharing (examples of personal photos, or de­ tails of school, city, email, and phone information) comparing 2006 and 2012. All five types significantly increased. Nonetheless, many (60%) teenage Facebook users keep their profiles private and a majority expressed high levels of confidence in managing set­ tings. At the same time the research found that they have limited concerns about the use of their data by third parties. Overall the respondents were found to utilize a range of methods to manage their presentation of self and sharing of data online—including the Page 18 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships deletion of other people from their networks. The focus group discussions undertaken by the researchers found that respondents had a waning enthusiasm for Facebook for a range of reasons. These included a dislike for the increased presence of adults on the platform, pressures to be present, and issues around excessive and demanding levels of posting. Yet they kept using the platform because participation was an important part of overall teenage socializing (Madden et al., 2013). This trend has been seen to continue in more recent studies (e.g., Anderson & Jiang, 2018). This change (p. 229) points out three key topics researchers should emphasize when exploring the impact of specific platforms: • Document the social contexts, demographics, interactional behaviors, and general uses over time. • Understand their use in the context of other digital and non-digital interactions and contexts. • Explore the broader underlying issues, in this case sharing of personal information and presentation of self (c.f. Goffman, 2002, 1959), that have broader social science importance but which may be articulated in specific ways in specific platforms. Similarly, Marwick and boyd (2014) examine how teenagers negotiate content in social media. They argue that the dynamics of sites such as Facebook have forced teens to alter their conceptions of privacy to account for the networked nature of social media. The re­ searchers draw on examples from a large-scale ethnographic study consisting of 166 se­ mi-structured interviews with teenagers and participant observation conducted across 17 US States to explore what they refer to as “networked privacy.” They argue that teens conceive of privacy as the ability to control a particular situation that happens in a partic­ ular place, stating that, To manage an environment where information is easily reproduced and broadcast, we find that many teenagers conceptualize privacy as an ability to control their situation, including their environment, how they are perceived, and the informa­ tion that they share. (p. 1056) To achieve privacy, teens therefore use various strategies to gain control over the way their information is distributed. Online privacy therefore becomes context-specific and changes over time. Marwick and boyd note that, How people achieve privacy depends not solely on their ability to navigate tech­ nology, but requires them to fully understand the context in which they are operat­ ing, influence others’ behaviors, shape who can interpret what information, and possess the knowledge and skills necessary to directly affect how information flows and is interpreted within that context. (pp. 1062–1063)

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships In addition, they argue that teens developed tactics to regulate who can access the infor­ mation they share online, for example, encoding the content itself in order to limit the au­ dience (rather than using the social media affordances of privacy settings). Thus, … achieving privacy requires that people have an understanding of and influence in shaping the context in which information is being interpreted. This can be done by co-constructing the architecture of the systems, or it can be done by embed­ ding meaning and context into the content itself. (p. 1063) Overlapping with the social network analysis theme, literature exploring specific social media often focuses on the nature of relationships in these networks (what it means to link as a contact, friend or follower, etc.) For example, Mesch et al. (2012) ex­ amine the effect of individual, relational (e.g., tie homophily, relationship type, tie dura­ tion, and tie closeness), and cultural variables on communication via instant messaging (IM). The study focuses on the frequency of interaction among users from Israel and Canada. The researchers collected data from 785 participants between 2005 until 2006. (p. 230)

Participants in Israel completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire in Hebrew, and partici­ pants in Canada completed an online survey in English. Their findings show that in both countries, IM was used primarily to keep in touch with close friends. Hours of daily IM use was positively associated with frequency of communication via IM in both countries. Relationship type predicted the frequency of communication via IM; for example, people were messaging their romantic partner more frequently than with a close friend. Mesch et al. argued that relationship variables are key to understanding IM behavior (rather than ones relating to technology features). As they note, The most salient result of this study is the explanatory power of relational vari­ ables in the understanding of the use and content of IM. The current study pro­ vides strong support for the argument that online communication is used primari­ ly, but not exclusively, to maintain existing ties rather than to develop new ties. (p. 750) They also identified potential social and cultural variations, finding that, Gender similarity was not associated with IM topic multiplexity in Canada, but had a negative association in Israel. This finding suggests that in Canada same-sex and opposite-sex pairs discuss diverse topics to the same extent, whereas in Israel same-sex pairs are less likely than opposite-sex pairs to discuss a diverse set of topics. (p. 750) They also found that IM had a specific role—mainly coordinating social activity—in rela­ tionships and interactions, irrespective of the length or that relationship:

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships … it seems that regardless of relationship duration, IM is used more for instru­ mental purposes (i.e., coordinating activities and scheduling meetings) than pre­ dictive purposes (i.e., companionship and social support). This distinction in use may explain the non-significant effect of relationship duration on frequency of communication. (p. 751) Overall, though, Mesch et al. found considerable similarities between the two groups of users in Israel and Canada, stating that, The results show that young people in both countries have strikingly similar pat­ terns of usage. Participants in both countries indicated that their primary commu­ nication partners to be close friends, and family members. Contacts who met on­ line were rare (p. 231) in both countries, suggesting that IM is used to maintain ex­ isting relationships rather than to generate new online ties. (p. 753) This result reminds us that much digital media use is embedded in the everyday lived lives of people and not in some separate “cyberspace” world. This does not mean that there are not online contexts that function primarily or solely online, but rather to point out that digital media are now well embedded into the management of everyday social in­ teraction. Work on relationships in digital media and digital platforms also often cuts into issues of community (see chapter 14). For example, Gruzd et al. (2011) examine the concept of community on Twitter using Benedict Anderson’s idea of “imagined communities” (1983). In addition to relying on Anderson’s work, they also apply two other notions of online communities: Jones’s (1997) notion of “virtual settlement” and McMillan and Chavis’s (1986) compilation of what constitutes a “sense of community.” In order to examine this, the study used one of the researcher’s own Twitter accounts and examined his network by using Twitter’s API to automatically retrieve a list of his followers and sources and to also determine who follows whom. So as to trace changes in the Twitter network of mutu­ al followers, the researchers collected these data twice: in August 2009 and February 2010. The researchers utilized a mix of social network analysis and content analysis of the messages. They argued that, An ‘imagined’ community on Twitter is dual-faceted. It is at once both collective and personal. It is collective in the sense that all [users] belong to the worldwide set of [users] who understand Twitter’s norms, language, techniques, and govern­ ing structure. (Gruzd et al., 2011, p. 1312)

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships They noted that Twitter communities formed around “high centers” that include “… popu­ lar individuals, celebrities, or organizations such as media companies. Yet even less popu­ lar individuals on Twitter can play the role of local high centers of predominantly mutual networks” (p. 1313). Taking a sociological view of the results, Gruzd et al. argued that, Twitter turns out to be an implementation of the cross-cutting connectivity be­ tween social circles that 19th-century sociologist Émile Durkheim (1893/1993) ar­ gued was the key to modern solidarity. (Gruzd et al., 2011, p. 1314) In a similar approach, McEwen and Wellman (2013) examine how communities operate in different contexts in light of social media such at Twitter. They argue that groups in such media as Twitter are alternative places for people to connect with each other and that such online interactions are just as real and authentic offline contact: For the networked individual, ‘community’ is not geospecific but is defined as net­ works of personal communities that provide sociability, support, information, a sense of belonging, and social identity, managed on and offline using ICTs. (p. 170) As with many other studies, they find that Twitter groups are extensions of other social groups or communities—and that only a small proportion of Internet users met (p. 232)

someone new online. Thus: These places are just alternate spaces for people of all ages to connect with their friends and peers; technology-enabled interaction fits seamlessly into their every­ day lives and complements other practices. (p. 170) As a result, social media platforms are not the sole focus of specific relationships; rather, they mark one of many locations where relationship and community building work is done: When the networked individual manages relationships through a wide variety of media, such as email, landline telephone, instant messaging, Facebook, Twitter, mobile phone, and so on, we describe both the relationship and the media as be­ ing multiplexed. (p. 173) It is clear just from these example studies that social media platforms are key to under­ standing communication patterns and relationships in a digital age and this behavior and individual platforms are not separate from broader social interaction. The papers have al­ Page 22 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships so cross-cut other domains, especially Community and Identity (chapter 14). We also find that long-standing themes in social science—from presentation of self to community for­ mation—form the underlying basis of the analysis. Young people and adolescents. The use of digital media and its impacts on young peo­ ple is prevalent in the literature for this domain. The review did not specifically seek to explore the use of digital media by children—this is an area that has been extensively ex­ plored in recent years from research and policy perspectives (see Livingstone, 2002; Drotner & Livingstone, 2008; Livingstone & Sefton-Green, 2016). The literature discussed here therefore focuses on adolescents and young adults and much of this work explores how digital media are utilized in social interaction, relationships and socialization. For a comprehensive review of how college students manage multiple media for purposes such as relationships, see chapter 9. Such research questions and concerns have a long history in the study of media— digital or traditional, focusing on the use by and often the potential hazards that media may hold for young people. These issues have also often been the focus of media debates about adolescent behaviors—including many cases of media “moral panics” (Critcher, 2003). Such debates have also influenced the direction and fo­ cus of research questions. For example, prior work has explored the role of media in the socialization of adolescents, with Arnett (1995) noting that: … media are part of the process by which adolescents acquire—or resist acquiring—the behav­ iors and beliefs of the social world, the culture, in which they live. (Arnett, 1995, p. 525) Arnett (1995) provides a typology of adolescent media uses, including: entertainment, identity formation, high sensation, coping, and youth culture identification. Exploring (p. 233) these five uses in relation to adolescent socialization, Arnett notes that media use and consumption differs from other socializing agents such as family, school, community, and the legal system. The key difference is that adolescents have greater control over their media choices than they do over their socialization from these other sources: The independence granted to adolescents in making media choices may contribute to their alienation, as they attempt to sort out the dissonance between the social­ ization messages in the media they use and the socialization messages promoted by adults in their families, schools, and communities. (Arnett, 1995, p. 530) Issues of socialization, media use, and family and community relationships are also all bound up in issues of identity and its expression. Within the context of digital media use this is often explored through the presentation of self online, or through form and content of interactions via digital platforms. Here again concerns over potential harms as well as benefits of digital media use can be found in both academic research and media cover­ age. As an example, Valkenburg and Peter (2008) investigate the effects of adolescents’ Page 23 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships online identity on their offline social competence and self-conception, with an underlying concern that digital media use might increase social anxiety. They conducted an online survey in 2006 among 1,158 Dutch teens between 10 and 17 years old. They developed a set of measurement scales of off-line social competence that included four subscales: ini­ tiation, supportiveness, self-disclosure, and assertiveness. Their findings that even though adolescents experimented with their online identity more have more often communicated with people from different ages and backgrounds online, and “… although adolescents’ self-concept showed considerable variance, there was no evidence that their level of selfconcept unity is affected by engaging in online identity experiments” (Valkenburg & Pe­ ter, 2008, pp. 225–226). For some of these adolescents, this experience had positively contributed to their social competence: Although we did not find a positive relationship between social anxiety and online identity experiments, our result did reveal that lonely adolescents significantly more often used the Internet to experiment with their identity than nonlonely ado­ lescents. Lonely adolescents apparently benefit from the relative anonymity of the Internet to learn how to relate to people and to practice their social skills. (p. 226) There is an element of “technological determinism” in some of this work, as many studies are formulated around the assumption or hypothesis that the use of digital media will have a direct influence on behaviors, experiences, and outcomes. Very often, though, the picture is quite complex and non-digital factors (in other words social and demographic factors) are found to be either necessary, and often sufficient, for all explanations. Subrahmanyam and Lin (2007) examined the relationship between adolescents’ online ac­ tivity and their well-being, conducting a survey of 192 adolescents ranging from the age of 15 to 18. The survey explored their access to and use of the Internet, focusing on lone­ liness and social support. Overall they found that, (p. 234)

Contrary to our expectations, loneliness was not related to whether participants knew and were familiar with their online partners but was related to participants’ gender and their perceived relationship with their online partners. (Subrahmanyam & Lin, 2007, p. 672) Such results remind us that many key explanatory variables underpinning interaction and relationships via digital media are not “new”; they are based on a whole range of wellknown social, psychological, and cultural behaviors and factors. What may be new is the specific manner and form in which digital media are used to support interaction and rela­ tionships. For example, for a review of how computer-mediated communication are relat­ ed to social support, especially during times of transition, see Mikal et al. (2013). Page 24 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Similarly, research has focused on how teenagers and adolescents have appropriated technologies and developed new forms of interaction in digital media. As an example, Greenfield and Subrahmanyam (2003) examined the way participants in an adolescents’ online chatroom adapt to the features of chat to create coherence and distinct registers. Once again, as noted above, the focus is on how digital interaction differs (or not) from face-to-face interaction. In order to examine the strategies that adolescents use to achieve coherence in online chats, Greenfield and Subrahmanyam conducted participant observation in teen chatrooms, and analyzed the transcripts of the interactions. The re­ searchers find two main strategies: The strategies for achieving coherence in this environment address two important functions—identifying a conversational partner and determining a relevant re­ sponse. We suggest that adapting to the demands of online chatrooms uses re­ sources from both oral and written discourse to produce a new register for online chat. (Greenfield & Subrahmanyam, 2003, p. 714) Many of the strategies used to achieve coherence were found to be similar to those in face-to-face conversation. These include such things as repetition and directly addressing intended conversational partners. There are also media- and channel-specific strategies tied to the technology or the specific norms of the group. There are also coherence be­ haviors similar to those in face-to-face interaction that are articulated via the constraints of the medium: In addition to specific cues, there are also general judgments of topical relevance, semantic relationship to a prior turn, and knowledge of who is participating in a particular thread at a particular time that must come into play, both for us and for the participants. (p. 735) The participants also used a range of textual and use visual cues and conventional codes, constructing a distinct register. Use of this register marked them out as “native speakers” of online chatrooms. The visual nature of the online computer medium helps participants to overcome the confusion of multiple overlapping conversations, changing participants, and (p. 235) spatially and temporally separated conversation threads. Key strategies— such as nickname format, use of numerals, distinctive script, standard graphic for­ mat, and slot-filler framework—capitalize on the visual nature of the medium. (p. 736) Social network analysis. Throughout the history of the study of interactions via digital media the “networked” nature of the interaction—especially in the context of group inter­ action—has been a prominent feature. Many early studies of digital interaction focused Page 25 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships on aspects of network structure, including power and influence, as well as the manage­ ment of coherence in networked interaction (e.g., Paolillo, 2001), and how online network links were related to emotional content and reciprocity (Rice, 1982; Rice & Love, 1987). With the rise of “social networking sites” such as Facebook and Twitter (or their various precursors such as MySpace or even Usenet) the nature of social-networks has become a key topic for analysis. This has introduced the confusion of a “social network” as type of digital media with the longstanding idea of a “social network” as an object of analysis in social research. While also exploring their history and how academia had explored them to date, boyd and Ellison (2007) looked to define the key characteristics of social network sites (SNS). In this work boyd and Ellison argue that social “network sites” rather than “networking” is a more accurate term, as it describes people communicating within their networks rather than trying to be in these spaces solely for the sake of “networking.” They define SNS as “services that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-pub­ lic profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. The nature and nomenclature of these connections may vary from site to site” (boyd & Ellison, 2007, p. 211). As with other digital media, boyd and Ellison note how users appropriate the technology to their needs, sometimes subverting the intentions or expectations of the technologies designers. In particular they note the development of groups within SNS—networks with­ in the network—defined by social, demographic, political, or cultural factors: While SNSs are often designed to be widely accessible, many attract homoge­ neous populations initially, so it is not uncommon to find groups using sites to seg­ regate themselves by nationality, age, educational level, or other factors that typi­ cally segment society …, even if that was not the intention of the designers. (p. 214) Importantly, boyd and Ellison point out something that has now become a core feature of many studies of digital media—the use of SNS as a source of potentially “naturalistic” (that is non-experimental) data for social and digital research (such as pro­ file and linkage data); though more recent work has pointed out the potential biases of such data sets (Blank, 2017; Blank & Lutz, 2017), and harmful implications for citizenship and governance (chapters 16 and 18). This question of methods is also present in much of the literature, as researchers look to explore and examine new digital tools used to analyses SNS or new digital data sources derived from SNS. Bruns and Stieglitz (2013) address aspects of this by (p. 236) consider­ ing the use of standardized metrics to comparatively and systematically analyses Twitter interaction. They are looking to outline metrics which examine the total activity and visibility of individual partici­ pants; metrics which establish the temporal flow of conversation, and of specific forms of conversation; and metrics which combine these aspects to examine the Page 26 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships relative contributions of specific, more or less active, user groups during each unit of time. (Bruns & Stieglitz, 2013, p. 92) They describe a catalogue of widely applicable, standardized metrics for analyzing Twit­ ter-based communication, with particular focus on hashtagged exchanges in data “at large scale.” They note the value of user-focused metrics but also look to address the analysis of Twitter data over time, arguing, While user-based metrics are valuable for analyzing the overall shape of the user base of a specific hashtag, for highlighting especially active or visible contribu­ tors, and for examining whether hashtags are used mainly for posting original thoughts, for engagement within the community, or for sharing information, a sec­ ond major group of metrics emerges from a breakdown of the total data-set not by user, but by time. (p. 99) Bruns and Stieglitz suggest three areas for metrics: metrics which describe the contribu­ tions made by specific users and groups of users; metrics which describe overall patterns of activity over time; and metrics that combine these aspects to examine the contribu­ tions by specific users and groups over time. Such metrics and analyses also draw upon well-established methods for social network analysis developed within sociology and information studies for the analysis of links be­ tween individuals, groups, organizations or artefacts (e.g., Wasserman & Faust, 1994). The application of such methods to explore the digital interactions or SNS interactions of users and citizens often focus on specific communities (e.g., Rice, 1982’s over-time study of computer conferencing groups), and therefore overlapping with the Community and Identity (chapter 14) and Citizenship and Politics (chapter 16) domains. For example, Vromen et al. (2015) examined how politically engaged young people inte­ grate social media use into their organizations, political communication, and civic en­ gagement. They conducted in-person focus groups with 12 civic groups of students from the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. All the groups reported that they use social media to maintain the group, distribute related information, and organize different kinds of events. As with many other similar studies, they found an integration between digital media use, traditional media use, and physical and digital social networks: While Facebook discussion does not replace meetings and events for the group members at large, it has become essential for organizing any kind of offline group (p. 237) meeting and ensuring event attendance. This is consolidated through so­ cial media functionality, such as the public display of members saying they are at­ tending an event, and especially the diary functions Facebook events add to. (Vromen et al., 2015, p. 89) Page 27 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships The analysis found four main ways that social media created or shaped the respondents’ political communication: “broadcast, new information, everyday political talk and new po­ litical action” (Vromen et al., 2015, p. 90). Importantly, the researchers compared these behaviors across three countries to explore the impact of cultural context, finding that, the three dutiful-oriented party groups had more in common with one another in terms of their citizenship norms and practices than they did with the identity and issue-based groups within their own country. (p. 95) In the context of social network analysis, a key measure or research focus is that of social capital—however measured. Ellison et al. (2007) examined the relationship between use of Facebook and the formation and maintenance of social capital. They also explored the dimension of social capital that assesses one’s ability to stay connected with members of a previously inhabited community, which they called “maintained social capital.” The re­ searchers conducted a survey with 800 undergraduate students from Michigan State Uni­ versity. The students reported spending between 10 and 30 minutes on average using Facebook each day and report having between 150 and 200 friends listed on their profile. Ellison et al. noted that Facebook had a role in the processes by which their student re­ spondents formed and maintained various aspects of social capital social capital. They al­ so examined their well-being (self-esteem and satisfaction from life). Students who report­ ed low satisfaction and low self-esteem seemed to gain social capital if they used Face­ book more intensely. As a result they concluded that Facebook use is important for devel­ oping bridging social capital: This form of social capital—which is closely linked to the notion of ‘weak ties’— seems well-suited to social software applications, as suggested by Donath and boyd (2004), because it enables users to maintain such ties cheaply and easily. (Ellison et al. 2007, p. 1162) As has been noted above and in many places throughout this volume, the study also found that SNS use was integrated into everyday life. As a result, this digital media use formed part of, rather than was a separate activity from, ongoing relationships: Online interactions do not necessarily remove people from their offline world but may indeed be used to support relationships and keep people in contact, even when life changes move them away from each other. (p. 1164)

Page 28 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships (p. 238)

Theory, Method, and Approach

As with the other ESRC review chapters, the following analysis builds on Borah (2017). Most of the analyzed papers (64%) were inductive, either describing findings or building theory (Table 8.5), while only 14% undertook theory testing. Reflecting this, 64% of the papers undertook primary data collection with 23% being discursive reviews of or reflec­ tive on existing research (Table 8.6). The main disciplines from which theory was used or for which theory was developed were: psychology (39%), sociology (32%), and communi­ cation and media (16%). Only actual use for the purposes of deign or analysis (p. 239) were coded. General reference to prior work and theory were not coded. There was con­ siderable variety in the specific theories applied from these disciplines and no clear pref­ erence. No one theory appeared more than three times. The main research methods (Table 8.7) were surveys (36%), interviews (24%), and litera­ ture reviews (20%). Though many studies undertook to analyses respondents’ social net­ works (often via surveys), only a small number of papers (4%) conducted formal statisti­ cal social network analysis from scraped or surveyed SNS use. The majority of the empiri­ cal work focused on specific groups (e.g., Facebook users) with a limited number of gen­ eral population studies (Table 8.8). Less than 2% of studies overtly stated that they were using a “big data” approach. Table 8.5 Epistemological Approach Percent No clear epistemology

22.1

Deductive (testing of existing theory)

13.9

Inductive (conclusions driven by data)

64.0

Table 8.6 Empirical Approach Percent Discursive/descriptive (no new data or theory)

22.9

Primary empirical (data collected and analyzed)

63.8

Secondary empirical (analysis of existing data)

5.1

Theoretical (synthesis of current or prior work)

7.7

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.7 Research Method Percent Content analysis

5.4

Ethnography

6.9

Experiment

9.5

Focus groups

5.4

Interview(s)

23.7

Literature review (general or narrative)

20.3

Meta-analysis or systematic review

0.5

Other

18.0

Social network analysis

4.1

Survey

36.0

Textual (linguistic-discourse analysis)

4.1

Theory building

6.2

Table 8.8 Study Population Percent Case study(ies)

1.5

General population

8.0

Specific group

34.8

No study group

56.0

Grand Total

44.3

Page 30 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships

Delphi Review The following sections detail the results of the Delphi process for the Communication and Relationship domain, covering three main areas: suggested scoping or research ques­ tions, key topics to address within these questions, and key challenges to researching these questions (see the initial comments section at the start of the chapter). The Delphi review identified a set of scoping questions for the domain and these were coded into the five categories detailed in Table 8.9: digital literacies, norms and values, platform affor­ dances, quality of relationships and communication, and relationship management. The ranking of these categories by the number of questions allocated to the category is provided in Table 8.10, and by their ranked importance from the confirmatory survey is given in Table 8.11. The two categories of scoping questions rated as the most important were digital literacies, and quality of relationships and communication. It is important to note that ranked importance is almost the inverse of the number of questions allocated to the category. As has been noted already in regard to the literature, many of areas identi­ fied in the scoping questions and challenges are cross-cutting of this and the other do­ mains (see chapter 25), a key one of these being digital literacy.

Page 31 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.9 Delphi Review Scoping Questions Question cat­ egory

Example questions

Digital litera­ cies

What literacies are required for effective commu­ nication using digital technologies? Should these literacies be taught, or can we as­ sume that they develop organically? To what extent do individuals’ digital legacy and digital capability affect their interactions with oth­ ers in work and leisure?

Norms and val­ ues

What normative pressures do people experience related to relationships shaped and sustained by digital technologies? What is the new normal for relationships now that they are shaped and sustained by digital technolo­ gies across multiple domains?

Platform affor­

What are the platform affordances of digital tech­

dances

nology that construct or constrain relationships? How do particular platforms affect various kinds of relationships: social, sexual, familial, collegial, activism, fandom, etc.?

Quality of rela­

How does communication via digital technologies

tionships and communication

facilitate the quantity and quality of our relation­ ships? How are our relationships being shaped, sus­ tained, and diminished by digital technologies, in and between the domains of work and family?

Relationship management

How are family, friend, and work relationships shaped by, and reshaping, the trajectories that new digital technologies are taking? How are our friendships being shaped, sustained, and diminished by digital technologies?

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.10 Scoping Questions Ranked by Number of Cases Relationship management Platform affordances Quality of relationships and communication Digital literacies Norms and values

Table 8.11 Scoping Questions Ranked by Importance Percent

(p. 240)

Digital literacies

85.7

Quality of relationships and communication

71.4

Norms and values

64.3

Relationship management

50.0

Platform affordances

28.6

(p. 241)

Scoping Questions

The consultation workshop identified a set of issues or additional scoping questions for each of the five categories, shown in Table 8.12. The workshop also noted that the follow­ ing topics appeared to be missing from the results of the Delphi work: • Issues of cultural specificities • Cultural analysis • Mixed modal interaction

Page 33 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.12 Consultation Workshop Scoping Categories and Example Questions Scoping question cat­ egory

Example questions

Digital literacies

Who needs help with digital literacies? Are these taught or learned? Understanding our “digital communica­ tion assets”

Norms and values

What are the origins of normative pres­ sures? How are communicative norms formed and transmitted? Which behaviors and activities are “nor­ mal”?

Platform affordances

What types of relationship are supported? What types are “new”? Changes to proximities/propinquity? Managing privacy? Platform is the message—or platform fo­ cus may be to technological determinist?

Quality of relationships and communication

Interaction versus functioning online? Why focus on old categories of work, home, family? Overlaps to well-being? Overlaps to relationship management?

Relationship manage­ ment

Interaction versus functioning online? Why focus on old categories of work, home, family? Overlaps to well-being? Overlaps to quality of relationships?

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.13 Key Topics Ranked by Percent of Cases Topics

Per­ cent

Topics

Per­ cent

Friendships and relationship formation

12

Identity

2

Age

10

Integration

2

Privacy and ethics

10

Interperson­ al

2

Work and organizations

8

Methods

2

Education

6

Other

2

Social and community support

6

Place

2

(Social) Media “bubbles”

4

Platforms

2

Data and representation

4

Psychology

2

Exclusion

4

Quality and variety

2

Politics

4

Sexuality

2

Social change

4

Textuality

2

Dependency

2

Theory

2

Family

2

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.14 Key Topics Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey Topics

Very impor­ tant

Important

Neutral

Unimportant

Very unimpor­ tant

Privacy and ethics

57.1%

35.7%

7.1%

0.0%

0.0%

Friendship and relationship for­ mation

57.1

35.7

0.0

7.1

0.0

Social change

42.9

42.9

14.3

0.0

0.0

Social and com­ munity support

35.7

57.1

7.1

0.0

0.0

Education

35.7

28.6

35.7

0.0

0.0

Exclusion

28.6

57.1

14.3

0.0

0.0

Age factors—co­ hort and age

28.6

50.0

14.3

7.1

0.0

(Social) Media “bubbles”

21.4

42.9

21.4

7.1

7.1

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Work and orga­ nizations

14.3

57.1

28.6

0.0

0.0

Political com­ munication

14.3

50.0

35.7

0.0

0.0

Data and repre­ sentation

14.3

50.0

28.6

7.1

0.0

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships

Topics The topics identified in the Delphi review were coded into 25 categories as detailed in Ta­ ble 8.13. The categories occurring the most frequently include friendships and relation­ ship formation, age, privacy and ethics, work and organizations, education, and social and community support. The consultation workshop also highlighted the following issues: • Age (user age versus user experience) • Social media “bubbles” • Cross over to the Data and Representation Domain • Research methods The ranked importance of these from the confirmatory survey are presented in Ta­ ble 8.14. As with the scoping questions, there is also divergence between those topics that were most commonly cited in the Delphi workshop and those deemed most important in the final workshop. However, two of the three top topics were the same: friendships and relationship formation, and privacy and ethics, indicating these are central and im­ portant topics for consideration. (p. 242)

The workshop participants also identified the following potential gaps in the Delphi topics list: • Culture • Misinformation and miscommunication • Teaching of digital literacies • Exclusion/inclusion/participation • Friendship formation (especially regarding young people)

Challenges The challenges in undertaking research in this area identified by the Delphi panel were placed into 16 categories. These categories are detailed in Table 8.15 and ranked by the number of coded items, with four of those deemed to be domain specific by the consulta­ tion workshop marked shown in in bold: • Multi-platform studies • Co-design • Ethics and privacy • Multi-disciplinary working The first category—multi-platform studies—raises the issue of multimodal rela­ tionships. It questions how we should explore and how we assess the influence of any one particular technological platform, when many important relationships involve so many (p. 243)

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships platforms (as well as face-to-face, and “legacy media” such as phone, texting, or mass me­ dia, etc.)? The question becomes how do we assess these complex combinations? (p. 244) As a result, how do we research or follow people’s digital communication in their every­ day lives—especially as looking at only one medium will likely only give us part of the communications or relationships (social network) picture? Research on this domain should therefore not make conclusions about relationships from single-media studies but aim to understand communications platforms as multi-media and hybrid media, address­ ing dynamic network analytics. Within this is the need to understand the physical and em­ bodied use of the digital in communication activities and processes. The second category—co-designing technologies—was proposed as it was argued that many SNS systems have been implemented without such a focus. The challenge here is how to work with and alongside communities that are often ignored (especially marginal­ ized communities) so as to co-design technologies that are of use to them and of value in their lives. Such work should focus on improving relationships rather than distancing our­ selves from others. It was argued that technologies are often designed for communities with some “user testing” but little engagement with people and their lives. Thus, social scientists, working alongside designers and engineers, can use methodologies and ap­ proaches central to social science to work alongside communities to understand and com­ municate their needs and broker relationships. The third category—ethics and privacy—should look at the question of how using SNS da­ ta, especially to effectively mine data about relationships (as SNS platforms themselves do) affect our use, trust, or selection of digital technologies, whether for research, busi­ ness or service provision? Finally, multidisciplinary working is relevant to all the domains. Here it points to the need for the research to integrate ideas from a range of disciplines to best examine and ex­ plore the technical, performative, and dynamic nature of digital communication. Such col­ laborations should include critical approaches (e.g., Marx, Gramsci, Hall, critical theory, Bourdieu, Foucault) so as to question and reflect on the impacts of digital media use. In conclusion, as with the other domains we believe that the complexity and variety of po­ tential work warrants consideration to be taken of all the questions topics and challenges identified. Table 8.16 shows the eight most frequent challenges ranked by importance, with three of the domain-specific in the top four listed as “very important”: ethics and privacy, multidis­ ciplinary working, and multi-platform studies.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.15 Challenges Ranked by Percentage of Cases Challenge

Per­ cent

Challenge

Per­ cent

Multi-platform stud­ ies

17

Community

2

Theory

17

Data access

2

Co-design

13

Exclusion

2

Big data

10

Longitudinal stud­ ies

2

Ethics and privacy

8

New forms of pub­ lication

2

Surveys

6

Old media

2

Methods

4

Other

2

Multidisciplinary

4

Uses and gratifi­

2

working

cations

Note: Domain-specific challenges in bold.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Table 8.16 Challenges Ranked by Importance from Delphi Survey Challenge

Very impor­ tant

Important

Neutral

Unimportant

Very unimpor­ tant

Ethics and pri­ vacy

64.3%

14.3%

21.4%

0.0%

0.0%

Theory

53.8

30.8

7.7

7.7

0.0

Multidiscipli­ nary working

46.2

38.5

7.7

7.7

0.0

Multi-platform studies

42.9

35.7

21.4

0.0

0.0

Big data

35.7

28.6

35.7

0.0

0.0

Methods

28.6

42.9

28.6

0.0

0.0

Surveys

14.3

21.4

50.0

7.1

7.1

Co-design

0.0

38.5

38.5

15.4

7.7

Page 41 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Noting this, we would argue that the analysis of the Delphi data suggests the following key areas for future research (see Tables 8.10, 8.13, and 8.15): • The norms and values of digital communication and relationships • The “affordances” that different platforms provide for digital communication and re­ lationships • The quality of relationships and communication supported by digital media and tech­ nologies • The management of relationships via digital media and technologies Within these areas, future projects need to consider some key cross-cutting topics: (p. 245)

• Social and community aspects • Privacy and ethics • Exclusion • Social change • Work and organizations Furthermore, key domain-specific challenges include • Multi-platform studies • Ethics and privacy

Conclusion Communication behaviors and relationships are fundamental to almost all online activi­ ties, folded into and overlapping the other Domains. Digital media use on current scales and developments likely to be undertaken (e.g., with the rise of the Internet of Things; see chapter 23) make such engagements ubiquitous and almost invisible for many citi­ zens. The overall impact of this expansion remains potentially unknown territory. Re­ searching such change requires inter- and multi-disciplinary research methods and groups. It was widely recognized in the literature, workshops, and by the team that a whole new axis in communication has been brought about by the development and use of social media. Already, scholarly research is abundant; however, many commentators felt there were still under-researched areas, especially in terms of theory. Foremost was how people are able integrate digital media so easily into their everyday lives. Experts ac­ knowledge that there will be benefits and further potential in social media but also that the well-documented concerns are still not well understood. These include a range of be­ haviors that could normatively be described as negative, for example, hyper sociability,

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships sexting, cyberbullying, online grooming, trolling, and more generally, the broad areas of Internet safety and problematic use (see chapters 3 and 4). There is an enduring concern with the virtual versus the physical aspects of com­ munication, with questions raised around costs and benefits of functioning effectively in a digital world and particularly if individuals were “being shaped and diminished” by digital technologies as opposed to proactively assessing and shaping future technologies. Under­ standing what a digital person or a digital citizen becomes problematic as digital forms of communication are folded seamlessly into lives. (p. 246)

A general observation was raised, that communication and relationships are impacted dif­ ferently depending on the particular stages in the life course, e.g., children, adolescents, students, adults and seniors (see chapters 5, 6, and 9) and also by the type of social rela­ tions. The team noted that the literature in its breadth highlights how communication density is intensified by digital technologies, so attention must be given to formulating re­ search questions that take this into account. This is likely reflected in the topics and chal­ lenges identified in the Delphi work around “multi-platform studies” within which there needs to be focus on communication and relationships as they intersect with • Other people • Things and artefacts • Our personal “curation” of self on platforms • “Nodes” (people/artefacts/bots etc.) and networks themselves Overall, reflecting on the literature and the data, the team noted the following general is­ sues that appeared to cross-cut both the Delphi data and the literature analyses, and which stand out as potential new questions: • What normative pressures do people experience related to relationships shaped and sustained by digital technologies? • What literacies are required for effective communication using digital technologies? • Should these literacies be taught, or do they develop organically? • How do digital media facilitate the quality and quantity of our relations (e.g., “to what extent does an individual’s digital literacy and digital capability affect interac­ tions with others in work and leisure?”) The literature also indicates that Twitter and Facebook are well represented in contempo­ rary literature, but research studies need to include investigations and comparisons of other social media platforms. Moreover, the team had concerns about the attractiveness of big data analytics, reflected in the Delphi results, as this might undermine more holis­ tic multi-method approaches required to get at the dynamics of offline and online aspects of communication and relationships.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Overall, contemporary research in the Communication and Relationships domain studied here appears to have focused on: comparisons of computer-mediated communication to other media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter; digital media use by (p. 247) younger people and adolescents; and understanding social networks. Existing work has employed fairly traditional methods such as surveys and interviews. It is orientated to­ wards psychological and sociological approaches, with some linguistic and information studies aspects. The work does not appear to have extensively employed digital tools and big data methods, though those approaches are increasing rapidly. Most notably the work appears to have been “platform driven” and “platform specific” with a bias towards younger people. The future research identified in the Delphi process is different, though there are some overlapping areas. The focus has shifted towards more general studies of communication and relationship in everyday life and the need to understand the integration of multiple media into communication and relationship behavior. The key questions, topics, and chal­ lenges include: norms and values; the “affordances” that different platforms provide; the quality of relationships and communication supported by digital media and technologies; and the management of relationships via digital media and technologies. Within these ar­ eas key issues to consider are: social and community aspects, privacy and ethics, exclu­ sion, social change, and work and organizations.

References Anderson, M. & Jiang, J. (2018). Teens, social media & technology 2018. Pew Research Center, 31 (http://publicservicesalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/TeensSocial-Media-Technology-2018-PEW.pdf) Arnett, J. J. (1995). Adolescents’ uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(5), 519–533. Blank, G. (2017). The digital divide among Twitter users and its implications for social research. Social Science Computer Review, 35(6), 679–697. (p. 248)

Blank, G., & Lutz, C. (2017). Representativeness of social media in Great Britain: Investi­ gating Facebook, Linkedin, Twitter, Pinterest, Google+, and Instagram. American Behav­ ioral Scientist, 61(7), 741–756. Borah, P. (2017). Emerging communication technology research: Theoretical and method­ ological variables in the last 16 years and future directions. New Media & Society, 19(4), 616–636. boyd, d. n., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholar­ ship. Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, 13(1), 210–230. Bruns, A. & Stieglitz, S. (2013). Towards more systematic Twitter analysis: Metrics for tweeting activities. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 16(2), 91–108.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Critcher, C. (2003). Moral panics and the media. London, UK: McGraw-Hill Education. Donath, J. & Boyd, D. (2004). Public displays of connection. BT Technology Journal, 22(4), 71–82. Drotner, K., & Livingstone, S. (Eds.). (2008). International handbook of children, media and culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Durkheim, E. (1993). The division of labor in society. (transl. by G. Simpson), New York: The MacMillan Company (originally published 1893). Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook friends: Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Medi­ ated Communication, 12(4), 1143–1168. Greenfield, P. M., & Subrahmanyam, K. (2003). Online discourse in a teen chatroom: New codes and new modes of coherence in a visual medium. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(6), 713–738. Goffman, E. (2002, 1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor Books. Gruzd, A., Wellman, B., & Takhteyev, Y. (2011). Imagining Twitter as an imagined commu­ nity. American Behavioral Scientist, 55(10), 1294–1318. Herring, S. C. (Ed.). (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Linguistic, social, and cross-cultural perspectives (vol. 39). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Jones, Q. (1997). Virtual-communities, virtual settlements & cyber-archaeology: A theoret­ ical outline. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(3). Kiesler, S., Siegel, J., & McGuire, T. W. (1984). Social psychological aspects of computermediated communication. American Psychologist, 39(10), 1123–1134. Livingstone, S. (2002). Young people and new media: Childhood and the changing media environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Livingstone, S., & Sefton-Green, J. (2016). The class: Living and learning in the digital age. New York: NYU Press. Madden, M., Lenhart, M., Cortesi, S., Gasser, U., Duggan, M., Smith, A., & Beaton, M. (2013, May 21). Teens, social media, and privacy. Pew Research Center. http:// assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2013/05/ PIP_TeensSocialMediaandPrivacy_PDF.pdf Marwick, A. E., & boyd, d. (2014). Networked privacy: How teenagers negotiate context in social media. New Media & Society, 16(7), 1051–1067.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships McEwen, R., & Wellman, B. (2013). Relationships, community, and networked individuals. In R. Teigland & D. Power. (Eds.), The immersive internet (pp. 168–179). London: Pal­ grave Macmillan. McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6–23. (p. 249)

Mesch, G. S., Talmud, I. & Quan-Haase, A. (2012). Instant messaging social networks: In­ dividual, relational, and cultural characteristics. Journal of Social and Personal Relation­ ships, 29(6), 736–759. Mikal, J. P., Rice, R. E., Abeyta, A., & DeVilbiss, J. (2013). Transition, stress and computermediated social support. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(5), A40–A53. Paolillo, J. C. (2001). Language variation on Internet Relay Chat: A social network ap­ proach. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5(2), 180–213. Postmes, T., Spears, R., & Lea, M. (1998). Breaching or building social boundaries? SIDEeffects of computer-mediated communication. Communication Research, 25(6), 689–715. Rice, R. E. (1982). Communication networking in computer-conferencing systems: A lon­ gitudinal study of group roles and system structure. In M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication yearbook, 6 (pp. 925–944). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Rice, R. E. (1987). Computer-mediated communication and organizational innovation. Journal of Communication, 37(4), 65–94. Rice, R. E., & Love, G. (1987). Electronic emotion: Socioemotional content in a computermediated communication network. Communication Research, 14(1), 85–108. Rutter, D. R. (1987). Communicating by telephone. International Series in Experimental Social Psychology. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. Short, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. London: Wiley. Spears, R., Lea, M., Corneliussen, R. A., Postmes, T., & Haar, W. T. (2002). Computer-me­ diated communication as a channel for social resistance: The strategic side of SIDE. Small Group Research, 33(5), 555–574. Subrahmanyam, K., & Lin, G. (2007). Adolescents on the net: Internet use and well-being. Adolescence, 42(168), 659–678. Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2008). Adolescents’ identity experiments on the Internet: Consequences for social competence and self-concept unity. Communication Research 35(2), 208–231.

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Vromen, A., Xenos, M. A., & Loader, B. (2015). Young people, social media and connective action: From organisational maintenance to everyday political talk. Journal of Youth Stud­ ies,18(1), 80–100. Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications (Vol. 8). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Yates, S. J. (1996). Oral and literate linguistic aspects of CMC discourse: A corpus based study in S. Herring (Ed.), Computer-mediated communication: Linguistic, social, and cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 29–46). Amsterdam: John Benjamins (International Prag­ matics Series).

Notes: (1.) As part of the review, The Digital Humanities Institute at the University of Sheffield applied concept modelling techniques to a curated corpus of 1,900 journal articles from the period 1968 to 2017. Concept modelling is a computational linguistic process that in­ volves identifying the emergence of concepts, or key ideas, via lexical relationships. For the purposes of the review, lexical relationships were limited to high frequency co-occur­ rences of terms as pairs and trios. The process is entirely data driven and resulted in 2 million rows of data. The website https://www.dhi.ac.uk/waysofbeingdigital/ provides ac­ cess to the top 50 most frequently occurring pairs and trios through a series of data visu­ alizations. Click on View Data Visualizations at the top. Then check/submit which of the seven ESRC domains you are interested in (including all). Then choose the visualization. These show configurations across selected time frames. Choose bubble chart, tree map, zoomable pack layout, or network diagram, by individual subject or by all seven subjects combined, by document or concept frequency. You can similarly search the analyzed doc­ uments (all, by subject, author, concept, concept trio, and year) by clicking on Browse Ar­ ticles at the top. Also, see https://waysofbeingdigital.com/literature-analysis-interactiveresults/ for interactive visualizations with mouse-overs of the main clusters of concepts within each Domain, and the relative frequency of concepts associated with each cluster.

Simeon J. Yates

Simeon J. Yates (PhD, Open University UK, 1993) is Professor of Digital Culture and Associate Pro-Vice-Chancellor Research Environment and Postgraduate Research at University of Liverpool. His research on the social, political, and cultural impacts of digital media includes a long-standing focus on digital media and interpersonal inter­ action. More recently, he has worked on projects that address issues of digital inclu­ sion and exclusion. He was seconded to the UK Government’s Department of Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS) in 2017 to act as research lead for the Digital Cul­ ture team. He remains the joint-chair of the DCMS Research Working Group on Digi­ tal Skills and Inclusion. His prior work covered topics such as the use of digital tech­ nologies in the workplace, digital media use during crises, and ICT use by the securi­ ty services. The majority of his research has been funded by the Economic and Social Page 47 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Research Council (ESRC), the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), EU, and industry. Simeon’s work has often been interdisciplinary and has predominantly involved creative and digital industry partners. He led on a major Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded interdisciplinary program (Engi­ neering for Life) while at Sheffield Hallam. Simeon has been researching the impacts of the internet and digital media on language and culture since 1990. His PhD thesis (1993) is a large-scale linguistic comparison of speech, writing, and online interac­ tion. Subsequent published work has covered analyses of gender differences in com­ puter-mediated communication (CMC), gender and computer gaming, email and let­ ter writing, and science in the mass media. Simeon has written text books on social research methods—in particular, linguistic and discourse analytic methods. https:// www.liverpool.ac.uk/communication-and-media/staff/simeon-yates/ Rich Ling

Rich Ling (PhD, University of Colorado) has focused his work on the social conse­ quences of mobile communication. He was a professor at the IT University of Copen­ hagen, where he has served in department management, and he works at Telenor near Oslo, Norway. Ling has been the Pohs visiting professor of communication stud­ ies (2005) at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, where he has an adjunct posi­ tion. He is the author of the book Taken for grantedness (2012 MIT Press), which was recently the subject of a complementary review in the journal Science. He has also written New tech, new ties (2008, MIT), The mobile connection (Morgan Kaufmann) and, along with Jonathan Donner, he has written the book Mobile phones and mobile communication (2009, Polity). Ling is a founding co-editor of the Sage journal Mobile Media and Communication. He is the co-editor of the Oxford University Press series Studies in Mobile Communication with Gerard Goggin and Leopoldina Fortunati. Along with Scott Campbell he is the founding editor of The Mobile Communication Research Series and he is an associate editor for The Information Society, The Jour­ nal of Computer Mediated Communication, and Information Technology and Interna­ tional Development. Laura Robinson

Laura Robinson is Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology at Santa Clara University. She earned her PhD from UCLA, where she held a Mellon Fellowship in Latin American Studies and received a Bourse d’Accueil at the École Normale Supérieure. In addition to holding a postdoctoral fellowship on a John D. and Cather­ ine T. MacArthur Foundation–funded project at the USC Annenberg Center, Robinson has served as Visiting Assistant Professor at Cornell University and Affiliated Faculty at the UC Berkeley Institute for the Study of Societal Issues. She is a series co-editor for Emerald Studies in Media and Communications and previously served as the Chair of CITAMS (formerly CITASA). Her research has earned awards from CITASA, AOIR, and NCA IICD. Robinson’s current multi-year study examines digital and infor­

Page 48 of 50

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships mational inequalities. Her other publications explore interaction and identity work, as well as new media in Brazil, France, and the United States. Catherine Brooks

Catherine Brooks (PhD, University of California) is the Founder and Director of the Center for Digital Society and Data Studies (CDSDS), Director of Arizona’s iSchool, and an Associate Professor in the School of Information. Catherine’s primary re­ search interests focus on issues of language and culture, with particular concern about data privacy and digital exclusion. She established the CDSDS as an interdisci­ plinary research center meant to explore today’s grand challenges related to a digital society and data-driven culture. Catherine has spent more than 20 years in higher education, she developed the new Information Science and eSociety degree program for the School of Information at UA, and has published work on a variety of topics to include supporting faculty online and training students for life and work in a digital society. Adam Joinson

Adam Joinson is Professor of Information Systems at the University of Bath. He con­ ducts inter-disciplinary research on the interaction between human behavior and technology, with specific foci on issues of how the design of systems influences be­ havior ranging from privacy and self-disclosure, cyber-security, social relations, and patterns of influence. He is a program lead for the national Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats, as well as currently running funded projects on indi­ vidual susceptibility to malevolent influence techniques (e.g., scams, phishing), com­ munication accommodation, and behavioral change and technology. Adam’s work has been funded by the ESRC, EPSRC, EU, British Academy, DSTL, and UK Government. He also has an interest in “big data” generally and the use of computational social science to gain insights into social and workplace behaviors. Monica Whitty

Monica Whitty is Professor of Human Factors in Cyber Security at the University of Melbourne, Australia and the University of Warwick, WMG, United Kingdom. She is also on the Global Futures committee for cybersecurity for the World Economic Fo­ rum. Her research over the last 20 years has focused on the ways individuals behave in cyberspace. Her work, in particular, examines identities created in cyberspace, cy­ berscams, online security risks, behavior in cyberspace, insider threat, as well as de­ tecting and preventing cybercrimes. Monica is the author of over 100 articles, and five books, the latest being Cyberpsychology: The study of individuals, society and digital technologies (Wiley, 2017, with Garry Young). She is currently leading an in­ terdisciplinary project funded by TIPS (ESPRC) titled, Detecting and Preventing Mass-Marketing Fraud. Elinor Carmi

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ESRC Review: Communication and Relationships Elinor Carmi (PhD, Media and Communications Department at Goldsmiths, Universi­ ty of London) is a digital rights advocate, feminist, researcher, and journalist who has been working, writing, and teaching on deviant media, internet standards, feministtechnoscience, sound studies, internet history, and internet governance. Currently, she is a postdoctoral research associate in digital culture and society at Liverpool University (UK), where she works on several ESRC and AHRC projects around digital ways of being, digital inclusion, and digital literacies. In addition to writing her book about spam, she is also working on two special journal issues: One about “sonic publics,” together with Ram Sinnreich for the International Journal of Communica­ tion, and the other about (re)designing time, together with Britt Paris, for Theory, Culture & Society.

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Media Mastery by College Students: A Typology and Review

Media Mastery by College Students: A Typology and Re­ view   Ronald E. Rice, Nicole Zamanzadeh, and Ingunn Hagen The Oxford Handbook of Digital Technology and Society Edited by Simeon J. Yates and Ronald E. Rice Print Publication Date: Aug 2020 Subject: Sociology, Social and Cultural Anthropology Online Publication Date: Aug 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190932596.013.9

Abstract and Keywords The continuing evolution and use of a wide array of digital media represents challenges to understand and learn new features and applications, as well as manage the contradic­ tions and paradoxes of both positive and negative implications, often simultaneously. This chapter explicates the concept of media mastery, the more or less conscious and more or less successful ongoing process of how people master (understand, manage, make sense of, cope with, and use) one or more new media in their everyday lives, as well as how me­ dia in turn master (manage, control, or affect) individuals and their social relations. Based on extensive and iterative analyses of transcripts of focus groups with college stu­ dents in Norway and the United States and several rounds of reviewing research litera­ ture about college students’ use of new media, we develop a typology of three sets of con­ textual factors or occasions for media mastery (Technology, Social Aspects, and Individual Aspects), and a set of Media Mastery factors (access, boundaries, constraints, managing content, obstacles, and use awareness). We use this typology to produce a focused litera­ ture review of 218 articles from 2010 to 2018. One implication is that the concept of me­ dia mastery appears to underlie a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding uses and effects of new media. Keywords: college students, digital media, effects of new media, focus groups, media mastery, new media, uses of new media

Introduction DIGITAL media, from the early Arpanet and email through to current developments such as social media and the Internet of Things, have changed our everyday lives and social re­ lationships.1 But every aspect of society has also become more and more dependent on that technology. We use digital media for information, education, entertainment, interac­ tion, and consumption, and for managing countless aspects of our lives. Yet digital media also compete for people’s attention, energy, time, id