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English Pages 247 [261] Year 1938
THE ORIGIN of the
GREEK TRAGIC FORM A
Study of the Early Theater in Attica
BY
AUGUST
C.
The Ohio
MAHR,
Ph. D.
State University
New York PRENTICE-HALL^ INC. 1938
Copyright, 1938, By
PRENTICE-HALL, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCEn IN ANY FORM, BY MIMEOGRAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOIT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHERS.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
b
To JULIUS
SCHOENEMANN
CLASSICAL SCHOLAR IX GERMANY,
MY
BELOVED
TEACHER
AND
FRIEND OF A LIFETIME, THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.
? J
K^
Preface 'T^HIS
BOOK deals with the one aspect of the Greek the-
-^ ater
and drama
although this
it
is
indispensable for an intelligent study of
important branch of Hellenic
and development of the Since theater, cialists
tragic
art,
form
namely, the origin
as a
whole.
previous books on Greek tragedy or the Greek
without an exception, have been written by spe-
in classical literature, philology, or archaeology, the
fact has
tion
all
been sadly neglected
that, so far, has
been overlooked that the
field of tragic presenta-
to a very considerable extent, the concern of the
is,
student in the field of form analysis of the plastic
The
methods of
lytic
arts.
author, therefore, has applied to this study the anaart criticism that
seemed best adapted
to his purpose, since those of philology or archaeology or literary history
do not afford
complex form of totality.
The methods
comprehensive
results,
artistic activity of
mined by a
of art criticism also promised
a race
whose form of
all arts, at
no more than natural
tragic
form the center
its
more
because this study deals with an life
was
deter-
Consequently, the
forms that show a clearly
defined structure and are tactual, as fore
can be viewed in
clear sense of the finite.
Greeks arrived, in
from which the
a standpoint
tragic presentation
were.
It is
there-
that in an analysis of the
Greek
it
of gravity should
the development of the visible scene
if
lie
in a study of
the various struc-
PREFACE
Vlll
tural elements of that
form
as a
whole
are expected to ap-
pear in their characteristic relations to one another. It
need not be mentioned that the
in philology, archaeology, literature,
have found careful consideration.
results of research
and
in the plastic arts
Occasionally,
other sources failed, an inference was
drawn on
when
all
the basis
of the inner logic of form.
The
scope and purpose of this study did not permit the
author to discuss whether the specific space concept of the Hellenes was indigenous or acquired. it
seem necessary
of
Greek
to
embody
to give
Neither did
an account of the development
ethics prior to Plato, since his writings all
that
seem
essential in the practical reasoning
is
of the fifth century B. C.
The book reader
form of
who
is
intended primarily for any intelligent
wishes to acquaint himself with the basic
principles that underlie the origin
Greek tragedy and
its
theater.
It
and development
may
be profitably
used in any courses in classical literature, history of fine arts, art criticism,
or aesthetics, in
which the
instructor
intends to present this particular art form under the aspect of organic growth, regardless of whether such courses be offered in institutions of higher learning or in professional
schools of the
The
drama
or schools of fine
arts.
subject matter has been so organized that the
makes not too of a teacher.
difficult
A
reading, even without the guidance
glossary of unfamiliar terms has been
added, which, the author hopes, will meet cies.
The
book
all
contingen-
accompany the numerous illusworded that they summarize in brief what
captions that
trations are so
the illustrations are intended to demonstrate.
Especial
PREFACE
IX
and
attention has been given to the table of contents
the index, both of
which
to
will greatly facilitate a profitable
use of the book.
Thanks seums for
works
art
are
due
mu-
to the directors of the following
their permission to reproduce
photographs of
in their collections: the British
Museum, Lon-
don; the Musee du Louvre, Paris; the Museo Nazionale, Naples; the Pergamon
Museum,
Berlin; the Glyptothek,
Munich; the
Ny
Carlsberg Glyptothek, Copenhagen.
Thanks
due
to the University of
are
Chicago Press for
the permission to quote a lengthy passage their publications; to Verlag F.
Germany, tion
Bruckmann
from one of Munich,
A.-G.,
for their permission to reproduce an illustra-
from one
of their books; to Fratelli Alinari, publishers,
two
Florence, Italy, for their permission to reprint
of their
photographs; to Professor Bernard Ashmole, University College,
London,
Kleobis,
and
Buck,
Jr.
photograph of the Statue of
for the permission to reproduce
colleagues in the S.
for his
Ohio
(School of Architecture), Ralph
(Department of Fine Arts), John
ment
S.
to
my
Richard
Fanning
B. Titchener (Depart-
of Classical Literature), for their invaluable assist-
ance, both theoretical
the
it;
State University, Professors
Department
and technical;
of History
to
my
colleague in
and Art Criticism
versity of Wisconsin, Professor
at the
Oskar Hagen, for
Uni-
his price-
and suggestions; and, last but not least, to Nelson Transeau and to his daughter, Edgar Professor my dear wife, Elizabeth Transeau Mahr, for their criticism and untiring aid in the revision and preparation of less criticism
the manuscript.
August
C.
Mahr
Contents PAGE
Fundamentals
i
Space and time as prerequisites of artistic effect, i Dramatic space and dramatic time, 2; Dramatic space and theatrical space not identical, 3; Form of nation's drama determined by ;
its
basic concepts of space
and time,
PART Origin and
3.
I
Form Development
of the
Tragic Locale CHAPTER I.
Outline of the Greek Character
9
Greek form of life and its relation to space and time, 9; Problem of infinity, 9; Greek ethics and tragic conflicts, 10; Dramatic action static and not dynamic, 12; Character develop-
ment 11.
The
a comparatively late achievement, 12.
Beginnings of Tragic Presentation
Under
Pisistratus
Pisistratus' reorganization of the
14 Dionysian cult
festival,
Introduction of mythological elements into choral
Thespis of
III.
Icaria,
lyrics,
14; 15;
16.
Origin of the Theater
Form
Account of author's methods, 18; Meaning of space
i8 as applied
in these pages, 19; Circular orchestra as structural nucleus of Graeco-Roman theater type, 19; History of term yiOQOq, 19;
Propensity of Dorians toward bounded locale, 21; Character of their choral art, 21; Inferences from fact that in Sparta
market place was named XOQog, 22; Doric architecture rests on same basic principle as does choral art of Dorians, 23; Dionysian dithyramb and its circular orchestra, 24; Drama not to be considered developmental stage of dithyramb, 24; Chorus
CONTENTS
Xll CHAPTER III.
Origin of the Theater that
first
sity,
25;
met
actor
Drama
Form
{Cont.)
in orchestra, a dramatic chorus
Agreement
Kinetic pattern of dithyramb, 27;
of ritual, 25;
by neces-
never attained equality with dithyramb as part
with Wolfflin's statement
that, in
development of
artistic ex-
pression, line universally precedes plane, 30; Centripetal relations also prevail in Parthenon, 32; Character
of oldest dramatic chorus, 34; Location of
entations in Athens doubtful, 36;
and
station
of
actor,
first
Form
and importance
first
dramatic pres-
of oldest orchestra
37; Inner, tragic, orchestra, 42;
Origin of longitudinal axis of theater, 43; Vertical plane character of actor's appearance, 46; Perceptual plane in archaic sculpture in the round, 48.
IV.
The
Form
Basic
of Tragic Presentation
53
Kinetic pattern of epeisodion exclusive basis for the dramati-
V.
zation of plot
situations,
kinetic pattern,
55: Thfspis
The Character
Subsequent modifications of and Epiphany oj Dionysus, 56.
54;
of Attic Tragedy Before
Aeschylus
62
Increased concern with ethical problems, 62; Completion of traditional form pattern of tragedy before 500 B.C., 62; Sublimation of Dionysian ecstasy, 62; Dialogue gradually acquires equal rank with choral parts, 62; Phrynichus and his
VI.
development, 63.
Aeschylus and the Development of the Classic
Form
65
Introduction of the second actor widens range of action, 65; It makes vertical plane an essential integrant of theater, 65; Ideal vertical plane of inner contact, 66; Visible vertical plane
—
first
erection of
background
structures, 66;
Aesthetic sig-
nificance of ox)iv)'i, 69; Vertical plane of dialogue contrasts
with horizontal
plane of chorus,
69;
Stratified
perceptual
plane as an aesthetic characteristic of Greek sculptural form, 70; of architecture, 71; of unengaged statues in the round,
Wolfflin,
primitive
and
classic
72; Figure of
first
actor has primitive plane character, 76;
72;
according
planes
to
Structural premises of two-actor scene, 77; Sculptural reliefs as stratified planes,
from primitive
to
77;
Development
classic
of stratified scene plane by
stratified
means
of visible tragic scene
plane,
82;
Amplification
of decorative painting, 87;
CONTENTS
Xlll PAGE
CHAPTER
VI.
Aeschylus and the Development of the Classic
Form
(Cont.)
Parascenia and proscenium and their aesthetic significance, 90;
Uniform penetration
of all
its
strata
main
characteristic of
plane of scene, 98; Analogy to classic relief sculpture, 98; Eccyclema, loi; Aesthetic significance of eccyclema, 104. classic
VII.
Historical and Aesthetical Outlook on
the Future Development Capacity for illusion, 105; Difficulty for
105 modern man
to
com-
prehend completely form of Attic tragedy, 106; Continuity of dramatic action and function of chorus, 107; Development of dramatic action and function of chorus, 107; Development form, 108; Dionysian character of tragic experience, 108: Steadily decreasing importance of chorus, 109; Pseudo- Aristotelian unity of place and its origin, iii; In Attic tragedy, such unity of place, or time, non-existent as an aesthetic principle, 112; Perceptual stratified plane of scene constitutes an aesthetic unity of place, 112; Relativity of artistic effects, 113;
Longevity of mistaken notions held by Italian humanists, 114.
VIII.
The
Hellenistic Structure of the Dionysus
Theater
115
Necessary modification of methods applied, 115; Comparison of foundations of Hellenistic structure with those of
Lycurgus istic
era,
theater, 118;
Change
in aesthetic outlook of Hellen-
119; Loosening of plane precedes
its
dissolution.
120; Analogous observation in statuary of period, 121; Prob-
lem of elevated
stage, 122; Statements of
Vitruvius, 123;
elevated stage in Athens, 124; Hellenistic proscenium and
No its
part in conquest of spatial depth, 126; Hellenistic space concept illustrated: Altar of Zeus at Pergamoii, 127; In Hellenistic art there exist planes of departure for inirposc of establishing
depth relations of composition. 133; Functional analysis of structural elements of Hellenistic Dionysus theater, 136; Approximate idea of presentation character of proscenium
may be gained from certain murals at Boscoreale, 138: important statement of Vitruvius, 140; Hellenistic cpiscenium presumably served as theologium but not as elevated panels
An
stage for entire action. 141; Hellenistic Dionysus theater represents completion of
From .scenic
development
of Attic theater form,
141;
here, road starts toward .ictual penetration of depths of
background, 142.
CONTENTS
XIV CHAPTER
PAGE
The Roman Structure
IX.
of the Dionysus
Theater
144
Chronology of main
development of Dionysus theater, 144; Reconstruction of Roman Dionysus theater, 146; Projecting stage platform, together with wide openings of doors and windows, encouraged orientation in direction of depth dimension, 149; Roman structure no longer served serious drama, 149; During Italian Renaissance, Roman theater type became germ cell of European perspective stage, 150. steps of functional
PART The
II
Epeisodion as the Formative
Agent of
Attic Tragedy
Form Development
X.
Brief
summary
of the Epeisodion
of Chapter IV,
"The
Basic
Form
153
of Tragic
with which this chapter connects, 153; Introduction of a second actor did not at once deprive chorus
Presentation,"
of its function as dramatic opponent to protagonist, 155; Enforced formal restraint led to resourcefulness, 155; In addition to being a stranger opposing native group, individual
was presented dramatic
What
pattern, 157;
weak and impotent,
as being
156; Increased
through modifications of original kinetic
possibilities
is
called tragic in
modern
sense resulted
from such modification, 157; This particular concept of tragedy was achieved simultaneously with completion of classic scene plane, 159; At same time, tragic conflicts between individuals were discovered to be dramatically more fruitful than conflicts between individual and group, 159; This development of tragic form has many characteristics of organic growth, 161; In "*
XI.
spite of incessant individual interference, line
of development
shows unbroken continuity, 161; Similar forms are bound to develop on basis of similar premises, 161; Parallel development of Italian opera and Attic tragedy, 161.
The
Epeisodion
edies OF
Form
in
the Existing Trag-
Aeschylus
chronology of seven tragedies individual plays, 165;
164 in question,
(i) Suppliants,
164; Analysis of
165; Formal reasons
for static intensity of action, 165; Reversal of
—
prototype: foreign group action,
168;
Form and
normal scene
native individual, 166; Analysis of
function of successive epeisodia and
CONTENTS
XV
The Epeisodion Form in the Existing Trag-
XI.
Aeschylus (Cont.)
edies OF choral
i68; Messenger scene as epeisodion with sec-
parts,
ondary, nontragic, function, 170; Background structure constitutes primitive plane, 170; Dramatic time of play, 171; (2) Persians, 171; May be briefly characterized as musicodra-
matic narrative for chorus and
soli,
171; Epeisodia without
dramatic function, 171; Persians' place and function in the trilogy of
which
it
was
part, 172;
Form and
function of epei-
sodia in Persians, 173; Special technique of sustaining spec-
175; Effect hardly Dionysian in sublimest sense, 175; Aeschylus' efforts to purify that effect, 175; Primitive character of scenic plane, 176; (3) Prometheus Bound, 176; Reasons why Prometheus Bound, in spite of its doubtful autators' interest,
thenticity,
is
For analysis is
being discussed in this chronological order, 176; of
insignificant,
form 177;
of presentation, question of authenticity
Prologue
separate consideration, 177;
It
in
seems
dialogue
form requires
to be later addition, 177;
Prometheus probably not represented by dummy, 180; His assumed posture, 180; Form and function of epeisodia of Prometheus Bound, 181; Hermes scene is epeisodion with secondary, nontragic, function, 183;
trophe
is
What
appears to be catas-
not really a catastrophe, 184; Primitive character of
visible scene plane, 184; Time and p'ace conditions of Prometheus Bound, 184; (4) Seven Against Thebes, 185; Play was preceded in trilogy by Laius and Oedipus, 185; Presumable influence of Sophocles on form of prologue, 186; In Seven
Against Thebes
little is left
of outer characteristics of original
epeisodion pattern, 186; Analysis of action shows that original function of epeisodion has been preserved, tragic conflict
187;
Form
of
can easily be traced to kinetic pattern of epei-
sodion, 189; Presumable influence of Sophocles on visible scene form, 189; Use of parascenia must be postulated for this play, 190; Classic character of scene plane, 190; Time relations of play
show unique
congruity with
artistic
static tension
treatment, 191; It
is
in perfect
characterizing entire form of ex-
pression, 191; Perfect artistic presentation of a moment, 192; (5-7) Orestean Trilogy, 193; Tragic guilt of hero, 193; Influ-
ence of Sophocles on form of tragic eventful than in any other
known
193; Action more play of Aeschylus, 193;
conflict,
Dialogue takes place preferably between chorus and one actor, 193; These dialogues frequently are actors' monologues with chorus acting as reflecting agent, 194; Orestean Trilogy holds median position between older chorus-protagonist type of tragedy and later actors' tragedy, 194; Form and function of epeisodia varies within trilogy as well as in individual plays, 194; Solution of tragic conflict, 196; Pseudo-archaic character
CONTENTS
XVI CHAPTER
XI,
The Epeisodion Form in the Existing Tragedies OF
Aeschylus {Cont-)
of Eiimenides, 196; Presentation in Orestean Trilogy of dra-
matic time-space, 197; Visible scene possesses all characteristics of complete classic plane, 197; House front as background structure, 197; Pillared
panels,
198;
trilogy,
198.
proscenium with exchangeable painted 198; Time and place relations in
Eccyclcma,
Conclusion
201
Notes and Bibliography
205
Glossary
219
Index
231
Illustrations
PAGE
FIGURE 1.
Diagram
2.
Linear presentation of the central relation of the Parthe-
of the centripetal
non columns
to the
dynamics of the dithyramb
image of the goddess
32
3.
Origin of the principal axis of the tragic theater
4.
Cross section of the orchestra-terrace of the oldest theater of
5.
Form
28
39
Dionysus
43
of presentation of the earliest type of epeisodion:
chorus-protagonist
46
6.
Statue of Kleobis or Biton (Delphi)
49
7.
Apollo of Piombino
50
8.
Ideal plane of the two-actor scene
67
9.
Plan of the early Aeschylean theater
68
10.
Form
11.
Diagram
of presentation of early Aeschylean tragedy of multiple plane stratification in
Greek
69 archi-
tecture
71
12.
Diagram
of the stratified plane in a statue
73
13.
Diagram
of the primitive foreground plane
74
14.
Diagram
of the
median plane
of
reference in classic
statues
75
15.
Statuette of a tragic actor
76
16.
Pediment
78
17.
Low
relief
figures with plane of reference
with plane of reference xvu
79
ILLUSTRATIONS
XVUl FIGURE 1
8.
PAGE
Pediment
figures of the
Temple
Aphaia
of
19.
Death
20.
West pediment
21.
Section through a sculptural frieze
22.
Early
23.
Ground plan
at
Aegina
8i
of Aegisthus
82
of the
Temple
of Zeus at
and
Olympia
its
83
architectural
frame classic,
wooden of the
structure of the Dionysus theater
Lycurgean theater of Dionysus
84 88
at
Athens
91
24.
Lycurgean structure of the Dionysus theater
at
Athens
.
92
25.
Periacti
26.
Orpheus
27.
Eccyclema (a) rolling type, (b) revolving type
102
28.
The
n6
29.
Ground plan
97 Stele
99
Hellenistic theater of Dionysus of the Hellenistic structure of the
Dionysus
theater
117
30.
Standing Discus Thrower, Athlete Dropping Oil
122
31.
The
Altar of Zeus at
128
32.
The
Altar of Zeus at Pergamon, partial view
33.
Slabs from the Large Frieze of the
Pergamon
Pergamon Altar
129 130
34.
The Farnese
Bull
135
35.
Murals in the Villa of Boscoreale
139
36.
Ground plan
37.
The Neronian
of the
Neronian structure of the Dionysus
theater
146 structure of the Dionysus theater
147
Fundamentals nr^HE EFFECT
of any kind of art rests
upon indispensable prerequisites. Painting, sculpture, and architecture presuppose illuminated space which is more or less -*-
defined according to the character of the individual work.
Apart from their
style of execution, the
feature of the creations in these arts
is
most
essential
the material
which
the artist chooses for the definite and enduring expression of his ideas.^
Different conditions prevail in the arts that appeal to
Here the
the sense of hearing.
author's composition
must
be reproduced whenever an audience wishes to perceive the effect of
it;
the
means
of reproduction are recitation
for poetry,
and instrumental or vocal execution for works
of music.
For
their effectiveness, these arts likewise pre-
suppose bounded space as a container of sound-conducting air.
Their material
quences.
meaning
is
sound
in
time-conditioned
se-
Poetry, in addition, employs words and their as vehicles of
emotion and thought.
In their
choice of tempo, musicians and readers presuppose in their
audiences a time sense commensurate with their own.
Thus the time
pattern acquires the character of formative
material; or, in other words, the
cance that
it
tempo
cannot be changed without,
is
at
of such signifi-
the same time,
changing the innermost character of the work. In view of the fact that
little
disagreement seems to
FUNDAMENTALS
2 exist
concerning the aesthetic fundamentals of music and
poetry,
surprising to find that the aesthetics of dra-
is
it
matic art are not nearly as well
Although
clarified.
ethical relations constitute the principal concern of the
drama,
i
its
analysis of
students must not confine their efforts to the its
literary
forms and ethical content.
The
written words of the author, on the contrary, are to be
regarded as no more than an accessory to the production of the play.
plays
\
all
The
Only
the performance in the theater dis-
the possibilities of artistic expression.
dramatists of
all civilizations,
*
therefore, have con-
ceived and shaped their works with a view to a definite
form of theater which had grown out of the fundamental space concept of their race. tions
The
fact that other civiliza-
adopted such works and performed them in theaters
which
no way
reflected a different space concept, does in
impair the validity of our statement./ In
fact,
it
cannot
be sufficiently emphasized that any attempt to transfer a
drama which
to a theater of a different type it
than the one for
has been created, by necessity changes
its
entire
character.^
What
has been said about the time pattern in music
must be extended, it
combines the
dible arts.
in the
drama, to space and time, since
qualities of
dynamics, perceived by the unity in the drama. in
both the
If,
ear,
visible
by the
and the au-
eye,
and time
form a new
aesthetic
Spatial stasis, perceived
therefore,
it
has been said that
music the time pattern acquires the character of forma-
tive material, the
same can be
regard to space and time.
said for the
drama with
For not only do the audible
impressions follow one another in a certain tempo but
FUNDAMENTALS
3
under a rule
also the visual impressions in space appear
of time continuity,
and
differ therein
from the
painting, sculpture,
and
architecture.
This makes time
and space equally
them
matic action:
hand,
it is
able
in fact,
makes
Dramatic space
the time continuity of dra-
its existetice
The
time-space.
spectator,
on the other
time-space of his everyday reality to
lives in the
which he is
drama;
essential functions of each other.
presupposes for
he
significant for the
arts of
relates the time-space of the play.
and willing
to
submit to
illusion, the
The more more com-
pletely will he succeed in regarding this paradoxical
sit-
uation as artistically justified.
After what has been said, that theatrical space
The former tion of the
and in
is
it
need hardly be mentioned
not identical with dramatic space.
is
merely the occasional and topical realiza-
The
latter.
theatrical space has
relation
between dramatic space
an analogy,
in the art of painting,
the relation between the picture and the canvas on
which
it is
painted.
two
the fusion of
and that of
same
art.
basic time
'
*
Theatrical space
is,
to the spectator,
spheres of reality; that of
everyday
life,
Primarily both have sprung from the
and space concepts which
for the structural uniformity of
all
are responsible
cultural manifestations
of every race. In every kind of civilization, the pression, even in
its
nation gives to either spatial
primitive stage
of dramatic ex-
most primitive beginnings, owes
specific character to the preference
cession in time.
form
It is
stasis
which the or to
its
particular
dynamic
suc-
of importance to note that in the
which invariably precedes the completion
of cultural development, the thoughts and actions of a
FUNDAMENTALS
4
people are primarily governed by the dynamics of one-
dimensional progression in time
as well as in space.
We
consider a nation's cultural development completed as
soon
as there
is
which appears Its
evidence of a uniform structural pattern in every expression of that nation's life.
form character may be determined by the
exclusive
recognition of time continuity, or by the prevalence of
or by a valuation of both time and space.
stasis,
^
The
course which the dramatic art of a nation
is
des-
tined to follow can, as a rule, be traced in the forms of
The fundamental form
prehistory.
its
of any particular type
of theater originates, by necessity, simultaneously with the
advent of a dramatic form of expression, no matter primitive.
how
>.'
In a civilization such as that of the Greeks, where spatial ^
stasis
reigns supreme, quite naturally a clear-cut place of
action can be traced at a
ment than
in a civilization
much
earlier stage of develop-
whose nature
is
determined by
the sole valuation of time dynamics, such as
we
find
during the Gothic period of European cultural history. Medieval
man was
so
exclusively
concerned with the
progression in time and, consequently, with the succes-
them he gave little heed Thus it happens that theater
sion of events, that in presenting to considerations of place.
buildings of a clearly defined structural character are only
found
in
domains of culture which
at least in part,
are exclusively, or
founded on the principle of
spatial stasis.
In those, however, which are time-conditioned, such theater structures are nonexistent.
The same
holds true for dramatic space and time. Their
study in a space-conditioned domain of culture will nat-
FUNDAMENTALS urally have for
its
object time-space
J
which
finds a formal
expression in a dramatic action characterized by
and, in
its
structure.
The time
element, in spite of
its
indispensable
function as a dimension of time-space, carries thetic weight.
tioned
domain
space-time.
which ations.
ment is
of
is
stasis,
collateral in space, a clearly defined theatrical
Its
On
little
aes-
the other hand, within a time-condi-
of culture, the student
formal expression
is
is
concerned with
a dramatic action
characterized by the dynamics of successive situ-
Consequently, in
this
kind of drama
it is
the ele-
of space, as materialized in the place of action,
minor
aesthetic significance, although
its
which
dimensions
cannot be dispensed with for the definition of space-time.
PART
I
Origin and Form Development of the Tragic Locale
Outline of the Greek
'T^HE GREEK form -*-
of
life,
as
Character
evidenced in the non-
territorial unit of the city-state, in
in the
works of
especial
historians, poets in
clarity,
painting,
Greek
Euclidian geometry,
and dramatists, and, with
sculpture,
architecture,
and
characterized by lack of dynamics.. Space,
is
as such, has little significance;
it
is
the
empty
cavity be-
tween bounding planes. Their particular concept of space seems to have led the Greeks not
much beyond
the con-
fines of tangible localities; consequently, spatial extension,
for them, seems to have been limited to the distances be-
tween points within a plane and
to the interlying area.
In analogy to this concept of space, their time consisted
Their sense of the past and
of intervals between events. the future, moreover,
mine
their
form
of
was not
forceful
enough
to deter-
life."
This, however, does not imply that the Greeks lacked a sense of the infinite.
Mondolfo,^ on the contrary, has
proved that an awareness of infinity can be traced even in early
Greek
that, before
and
points of the
poetry.
Moreover, he has demonstrated
after Socrates, the philosophers at various
Greek world were concerned with problems
such as infinite time, motion, number, boundless space,
and the
eternity of
God and 9
the individual soul.
OUTLINE OF THE GREEK CHARACTER
10
There seems
to be a discrepancy
between the
interest
of the philosophers in these problems and the insignifi-
cant share of both space and time in the determining
form of
of the Greek
These problems may have
life.
been the concern of a small minority of creative thinkers
community which
v^'ithin a
of space in
and time and,
possessed a limited concept
therefore, an urge to express itself
bounded forms; and
it
is
possible that the antithetic
urge caused these philosophers to raise the problem of
On
infinity.
the other hand, the awareness of infinity
may have been
a
common
possession of
all,
and fear may
have impelled them to take refuge in the secure confines of
human measurements.
from
attitude
differs
that of the occidental nations in that the fear of
infinite space it,
The Greek
and time caused the Greek
from
to escape
whereas the western European attempted to overcome
that fear by a creative imitation of the infinite.
These indigenous concepts of space and time which shape a nation's entire view of the world also condition the particular type of tragic conflict which prevails in the
drama
of Attica; and, moreover, they
may even
sidered the roots of the ethical principles
which
conduct of the dramatic characters in such
M^
According
be con-
direct the
conflict.
to the Attic concept of ethics, as represented
by Plato's writings,^ the ultimate goal of human the attainment of beatitude.
his self-determination, therefore,
aim
at that
assures
is
is
solely directed
The temporary
man's endeavor should
good, since only that which
such condition of
therefore, ^
which
life is
Within the boundaries of
felicity.
All true
toward that which
is
good
endeavor, is
satisfaction of impulsive desires,
good.'
on the
OUTLINE OF THE GREEK CHARACTER
II
Other hand, can never be the object of true endeavor.
Moderation
is
the most indispensable of
all
virtues since
nothing can be the object of endeavor which interferes
with the attainment of beatitude by others.
How
man
is
conscious
It is better,
therefore,
achieve a state of felicity so long as he
of having
harmed
to suffer injustice
his fellow
man ?
than to do
to others.
it
can a
This, however,
does not imply that one should accept injustice without resisting
A
it.
moral code of
('Avdyxri)
human Attica.
this basic nature, in
Greek
that particularly
and Destiny pervades
life,
He who
is
connection with
which recognizes Necessity
piety
(Tijxti)
as the directing forces of
tragic creations of the land of
all
truly pious resigns himself with
mag-
nanimity to the inevitable decrees of Destiny; with dignified
composure he
suffers misfortune
even
if
it
befalls
him through no fault of his own. Whenever he finds himself in a dilemma between divine and human commandments he decides in favor of the Deity /^ot even the imminence of death will make him falter, as is shown in ;
Sophocles' Antigone. of
what
is
of acting,
right; to
In his
him
own
there
is
heart he finds a sense
but one possible
no matter how menacingly Necessity stands
against him.
Necessity
is
the supreme
Zeus, the guardian of law and order,
gods,
is
way
subject to her rule.
decrees, but
are
powerless
no
power and even less
than
all
other
The immortals know her against them. How much
so
is
Man
Thus,
it
appears almost as a matter of course that the
more
in the frailty of his mortal flesh!
action of Attic tragedy does not constitute a
succession of causally connected volitional acts of
dynamic its
hero,
/'
OUTLINE OF THE GREEK CHARACTER
12
in the course of
his character unfolds itself.
It
on the contrary, the catastrophal predicament
presents, in
which
which
a
morally conscious person finds himself because
of his destiny." 'Attic tragedy
characterized by a static
is
condition of suffering rather than by dynamic action.
^ The
tragic hero
flect his
is
shown
reactions to
in a series of situations
moral
conflicts
and not
which
re-
until Euripides
does he become a clearly defined character.^ /
There
is
a tendency, nevertheless, in
Sophocles and traces of
it
some works
of
even in some of Aeschylus,
toward granting the hero an opportunity to avoid the catastrophe by
^
means
of a volitional act.
of his ethics, however, bars this
way
tragic effect of his final downfall
is all
The
discipline
of escape,
and the
more
pathetic.
the
But it remained for Euripides to devise tragic conflicts which arose from, and found their solution in, a succession of volitional actions, Here we find character develi
opment based on
a
dynamic succession of
situations."
Euripides shows the force of Tyche in a state of disinte-
which amounts almost to irony, for contemporaries, has definitely abandoned the gration
he, like his belief in the
inevitable rule of Destiny and the absolute validity of
To him and
ethical standards.
in his character,
sponse
when he
which is
his age
man's destiny
lies
reveals itself in his volitional re-
confronted by the active manifesta-
tions of other characters.
Even Euripides'
gods,^ such as
Artemis and Aphrodite in Hippolytus, are merely personified it
human
may seem
impulses.
To
the
modern dramatic
critic
that their introduction into the prologues
the concluding parts of certain
and
plays has been prompted
by sophisticated routine rather than by dramatic
necessity.
OUTLINE OF THE GREEK CHARACTER In the following pages an attempt the inner causes to
owes
its
which the
specific
is
form
origin, and, furthermore, the laws
the development of this form.
made of
13
to reveal
Greek drama
which underlie
II
The Beginnings of Tragic Presentation Under
TN SPEAKING
of the
Pisistratus
Greek drama we have
-"-particularly Attic tragedy, that
that
was cultivated
sixth century B. C. istics
are
its
in Its
Athens
mind
in
unique dramatic form
after the first half of the
most striking external character-
presentation under an open sky, and the re-
peated alternation of lyrical parts rendered by a chorus and of dramatic parts performed by actors.
It
is
reasonably
certain that credit for this fruitful combination of indi-
vidual and group efforts into a
new
artistic
unity goes to
the Athenian autocrat Pisistratus (561-528 B. integral part of his social
benefit of his people
was
and
C).
An
religious reforms for the
a comprehensive reorganization
of the cults of the gods in general and that of Dionysus in particular for
form.
which he found
"Pisistratus,"
says
a
new and more
Schmid,*
"not
spiritual
simply
trans-
ferred to the city the customary Dionysian cult of the Attic peasants and, in the process, added splendor to
its
—in which case he would have become the originator of comedy —but he introduced a new, foreign cult of the
xtoi-ioi
god from the Boeotian settlement Eleutherae. "His idea
may
have been that the 14
spirit of this
Eleuthe-
BEGINNINGS UNDER PISISTRATUS
I5
raean cult readily lent itself to the serious character
he desired
give to the festival;
to
To
Dionysus Melanaegis. to the age-old
was the
it
which
cult
of
beautify the ritual he added
dithyramb the 'drama'; the presentation of
an action, not by persons detached from the action such as a narrating poet or chorus, but
who were
primary and secondary,
by
very characters,
its
impersonated by play-
ers.
This dramatic action was not a requirement of the
ritual
but an original contribution
of the festival.
was no more
made by
coherence with the
Its
the organizer
ritual of the cult
hymns
rigid than that of the rhapsodic
or of any other 8ju8ei|ig with the ritual of their related festivals.
no more
With in
the ancient Dionysian rites
common
dithyramb of Arion, no more than that
from
taken
the
has perhaps
it
than the use of masks; with the
myths
ancient
of
its
were
plots
heroes.
.
.
.
The
process of introducing the mythological element into the lyrical poetry
been
has
analogy in the plastic
its
started, as far as the
Arion
(SSt,
II,
dithyramb
is
arts,
and had
concerned, by
This connection with the myths
407f.).
of ancient heroes automatically invested the dithyramb
From now on
with austere dignity.
and
perceive with their eyes tangible
mode
Panathenaean
by means of
what
heretofore,
had been offered
recitation;
of the ancient heroes.
most vivid and
ears in the
of presentation
festival,
the people were to
From
very name, TQaywSia.
tors
do not appear
the
namely, selections from the myths the very beginning, choral
singing was the property of tragedy," as its
at
to the ear alone
It
may
is
be mentioned that ac-
in singing parts until a
period of dramatic development.
indicated by
much
later
BEGINNINGS UNDER PISISTRATUS
l6
"The decisive step towards a clear differentiation of the drama was the addition of the actor who expressed himIt is possible self in lyrical forms and iambic meters. had taken an
that rhapsodic recitation
mimic expression (Aristotle, and had thereby provided drama, such
There
29!!.).
we
as
(A. B, Keith,
The is
Poetics
26,
;
a
1462,
drama of ancient India Drama, Oxford, 1924, pages
find in the
Sanscrit
another possibility that, beginning with
had taken
and
it is
a turn
probable that somewhere in the
land of Attica, most likely at Icaria, some time before tratus,
Pisis-
experiments with serious drama had been made,
and that
Pisistratus availed himself of their results."
Whatever may have been the motives of
when he
^"
Pisistratus
instituted the city Dionysia, tradition has con-
nected with their
name
7),
a prerequisite for the heroic
Arion, the presentation of choral lyrics in this direction
toward
early turn
(in 534 B. C.) the
initial celebration
Themon,
of Thespis, son of
of Icaria in Attica,
where Dionysus had been worshiped throughout the ages
and
is
even remembered in the modern
The name
Dionyso."
which
flashes for just a brief
uncertainty.
was the
The
first
Pisistratus,
in
of Thespis
it is
of the place,
moment
in the night of
tradition of the ancients has
to present
it
said, invited
him
to organize the cult plays
honor of the Eleutheraean Dionysus and thereby
must have enjoyed
at that
that he
an actor opposite the chorus.
foundations for the tragic drama."
as
name
like a little spark
is
laid the
Thespis, therefore,
time an established reputation
an actor, a dramatist, or both.
As
is
not unlikely with
BEGINNINGS UNDER PISISTRATUS 3.
native of Icaria he
Dionysian plays. be,
may
rest
even have been connected with
Whatever the truth
we know nothing
of the matter
definite about his Hfe
acter of his presentations.
IJ
At
and the char-
best our information
on circumstantial evidence.
may must
Ill
Origin of the Theater
TN THE -*-till
following chapters,
the patient
it
is
tools of philology, literary criticism,
define
to
the
not our intention to
once more with the conventional
soil
rather to apply the
Form
methods of
and archaeology; but
art criticism
and
aesthetics
fundamental time-space pattern of the
Dionysian cult play in Attica; and, subsequently, to demonstrate
how
drama and its from it through
the tragic
their characteristics
theater have derived a natural process of
development. In the fine
arts,
form
analysis considers
the realm of the visible. to analyze dramatic
and
with visual data such less
the dramatic
theatrical
and
try to reconstruct before his
from
all
forms does not deal un-
to his physical eye
this naturally
only in contemporary drama.
a play
outside
as are supplied to the art critic
works are presented
in their original style,
no data
However, anyone who attempts
can be achieved
In any other case he must
mind's eye the ensemble of
available sources.
If
he succeeds in gain-
ing a sufficiently clear view of such an ensemble he will
be able to discover
its
degree of certainty as
formative principle with the same if
his observations
were based on
the physically visible creations of architecture, sculpture, or painting. |8
— ORIGIN OF THE THEATER At
much
By
it
is
not meant
The
conditions a dramatic entity.
analysis of occidental
drama
reveals that depth, the third
dimension of physical space, kind of drama.
this
concerns the astronomer, but rather
it
aesthetic space as
In the following
arise.
will be said about space.
physical space as
I9
author wishes to forestall a misun-
this point, the
derstanding that might easily
pages
FORM
is
most
essential for that
For Greek drama physical space
drama and
not
is
essential.
In the Greek
mount
an unmeasurable, undeterminable something,
to
theater, space
enclosed by only two confining planes; cavity,
xevov,
upon the
The
whose minute
fact that
it
aesthetic
significance
from
its
is
facilitated
it
never
basic characteristic, which, in the last analysis, sible for the erection of the
No matter obliterated
of
them
are
to
by
beginnings the place of action has
been definitely fixed in space and that
whose ruins
rests
contains air and conducts sound.
study of the entity of Attic tragedy
the fact that
tanta-
an empty
is
it
is
is
lost this
respon-
permanent theater buildings
found in every part of the Greek world.^^
what extent
their original outlines
by Hellenistic and even
possess a
Roman
have been
additions,
all
uniform structural nucleus: a circular
orchestra, the dancing place of the chorus.
word chorus, fOQoc,^ discloses the very principle on which Greek form is based. RetrogresThe latest sively, we mark the following semantic steps: meaning is dramatic chorus, that is, a group of choreutae, and simultaneous to it chorus means choral part of the
The
history of the
—
play (as opposed to dialogue parts).
This
is
choral dancing and singing, dance meaning,
preceded by first,
group
dance; then dancing place, and finally enclosed place.
ORIGIN OF THE THEATER FORM
20
The
original
meaning
of
its
basic stem, x^Q-, seems to have
been enclosing, embracing, confining (also in Greek xeiq a hand); with /-augmentation
it
appears in *l^Q-^-^'i\
Latin hor-t-us, a garden; Gothic gar-d-s, a house (Ger-
manic *gar-d-az). (See Curtius, Griechische Etymologic, page
199.)
It is
eral,
significant for the history of
and for
tiated
in gen-
that of the dramatic entity in particular, that
Homeric
as early as
Greek form
appears in the differen-
epics, xoQog
meanings, dancing place and dance (Homer,
Iliad,
XVIII, 590; Odyssey, VIII, 260, 264; XII, 4; XII, 318). oldest meaning, enclosed place, is hypothetical and un-
The
supported by literature. the inference can be
From Homer's
drawn
use of the
word
that the early lonians con-
sidered a confined dancing place a prerequisite for group
dancing; that, in other words, there existed already in
Homeric times
that
fundamental propensity toward the
clearly defined locale that in the course of time
become the
At no
was
Greek culture and
essential feature of
art.
time, however, have the lonians regarded group
dancing in
a confined area as a matter of sufficient
portance to
make
expression, for
ments
to
it
it
is
of their highest artistic
the
their greatest achieve-
in the field of individual lyrics."
lie
XoQog^ both as a
achieved
medium known that
im-
its
essential significance
Peloponnesus. orate forms of
practiced
on
word and
it
To them
a
ritual,
seems to have
with the Dorians of the
the measured floor
and the
elab-
group dancing and singing which they
became the concrete symbols At the time
of their reli-
gious and
artistic
art of the
Peloponnesus had reached the zenith of
longings.
that this choral its
ex-
ORIGIN OF THE THEATER FORM pressiveness actors'
it
was mated, on the
dialogue.
This
product of the Ionian
shows a marked
and
since
its
latter
soil
21
of Attica, with the
readily identified as a
is
mode
spirit since its
of presentation
Ionian epic poetry;
affinity to that of
execution, also true to Ionian style, was
to individual performers.
During the process
left
of amalga-
mation, the lyrical chorus of the Dorians was transformed
As an
into a dramatic chorus.
new
integral part of a
Attic tragedy, the dramatic chorus under-
artistic unity,
went, in the course of time, most remarkable modifications of both It
its
form and
its
functions.
cannot be sufficiently emphasized that without that
age-old propensity toward the art of the
bounded
locale the choral
And we
Dorians could never have originated.
shall readily see that Attic tragedy
and
its
theater
would
never have attained their specific form without the previous existence of the measured dancing floor, to the circular orchestra
There
is
which
merely incidental.
are other indications that the Dorians possessed
an indigenous inclination toward the bounded their attitude
vails a centripetal
tendency, that
from the menacing expanse confines of
locale.
In
toward the world and the Deity, there pre-
human
is
they
fled, as
it
were,
of the universe into the safe
measurements.
The
terrible
and mys-
terious gods were conjured by means of their images and
the
spot
where
their
blessings
were needed.
tied
to
The
idol, the center of an enclosed place (xooo;), was
appeased by the magic of the imitative group dances and the chants of
its
worshipers.
lyricized versions of the ancient
In the course of time,
myths of
heroes replaced the primitive magic
local
gods and
cult, in part
or en-
E
,
N
!•
»
O5 H
E
H^B^^^H
E »
1
c/
-«
» • *
0000
[
\ I
1 Fig. 29.
Ground plan of the Hellenistic structure of the Dionysus
{According to Dorpfeld, DRGTh, plale IV.) (Compare page In studying the above ground plan, the reader is referred to Figure 23
Theater. ii8
and
f.)
to the
explanation of Figure 28.
did the Athenians proceed so radically as was done in other parts of the Greek and Hellenistic world where the pride of local wealthy merchants or the
whim
of a squan-
dering Diadochus or proconsul, unhampered by tradition,
caused the erection of brand-new theaters equipped
with every contemporary improvement.
This refined
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE
Il8
hesitation of the Athenians in the introduction of
new-
fangled forms was probably conditioned both by eco-
nomic and sentimental ever
Certainly, what-
considerations.
form changes the Dionysus
theater
underwent must
have been brought about by a functional necessity.
sumably nothing was destroyed which could be retained, and what actually was changed regarded as an
A
Pre-
just as well
may
be safely
requirement.
artistic
comparison of the Hellenistic foundations of the
Dionysus theater (Figure 29) with those of the Lycurgean structure (Figure 23)'^ discloses that the front of the scene
building with
its
three door openings apparently
not affected by the remodeling. ever,
at
In front of
distance of approximately six
a
was placed that
feet, a parallel stone sill
as a stylobate for a
row
is
it,
was
how-
and one-half
easily identified
of twelve Doric columns.
Their
intercolumniations are of equal width excepting two, each of
which corresponds
in the side
to a
door in the scene wall, the one
middle being twice
one and one-half times
as as
wide, the one to the right
wide
as the
normal
inter-
columniation.
This row of columns formed a proscenium whose height, according to fragments of the entablature,
was about thirteen
columns and
their
feet, that is to say, exactly
the same as that of the Lycurgean parascenia (Figures 24
and
28).
Further,
it
was found that the front
the parascenia had receded
from
that of the
line of
Lycurgean
parascenia to almost the exact extent (six and one-quarter feet) of the distance
scene wall.
between the proscenium and the
In other words, the
two
vertical structural
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE
II9
planes have approached, at an almost equal rate, an ideal
median plane halfway between them.
The
aesthetic significance of this innovation for the
perceptual form of the scene will be discussed
regard to theatrical technique, however,
must be noted, though,
f.
and Figure 24).
It
that the location of the proscenium
in the Hellenistic theater, as part of the structure, points
in the
temporary structures
in the
of the fifth century B. C. (page 90
With
later.
was of no im-
wooden proscenium
portance since there existed a
Lycurgean theater and even
it
to the gradually
permanent stone
acquired practice of
erecting the decorative wall of the proscenium at precisely that distance
from the scene
ically Hellenistic shape,
wall.
Moreover,
its
specif-
namely, that of a row of columns
with widened door intercolumniations, indicates that the house front had definitely become the conventional place of action (pages 93 and iii).
imply that
it
was impossible
This, however, does not
change the
to
scenes.
On
the contrary, the study of the Hellenistic proscenium discloses that
an increased demand for variety in the decora-
tion of the scene
may have been
able degree for the particular
Furthermore,
it
may
responsible to a consider-
form
be regarded
of this proscenium.
as certain that the dec-
orative picture of the scene unmistakably reflected the
space concept of the Hellenistic era. Prior to the analysis of the Hellenistic scene picture, a
few phenomena must be discussed which to the clarification of the Hellenistic
When
in
will contribute
form problem.
406 B. C, Attic tragedy died with Sophocles
and Euripides, the
stratified
plane form of the theatrical
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE
I20
What
scene was also doomed.
immediately followed
may
be best characterized as a loosening of the plane, since
complete dissolution, naturally, did not ensue
its
at once.
It
has been previously mentioned that in the works of Euripides
the
chorus
well-nigh
is
smothered under the
weight of the dramatic happenings (page 109).
mer
aesthetic equilibrium
The
for-
between the horizontal plane of
the orchestra and the stratified vertical plane of the scene
had been
definitely
abandoned
fact that the orchestra of the
served
its
circular shape
The
in favor of the latter.
Dionysus theater had pre-
unimpaired until the days of the
Emperor Nero, was due
to conditions that
had no con-
nection whatsoever with tragic presentations.
Since about
400 B.
C,
the Greek theater, not excepting the Athenian
one, served
Comedy
almost exclusively.
There are
in-
dications that even in Aristophanes' plays the scenic per-
formance was not
as clearly divided
chorus as was the case in tragedy.
from
that of the
Flickinger, supported
by Capps and White,'' proves that the actors quite unconcernedly
mount
moved
all
This
over the orchestra.
is
tanta-
to the appearance, in dramatic presentation, of a
novel type of dynamics which
movements
is
no longer
restricted to
parallel to a vertical plane (like those of the
tragic dialogue scene), but could freely include advances
into the horizontal plane of the orchestra. tain to
of is
what extent Menander and other
New Comedy
It is
uncer-
representatives
availed themselves of this liberty, but
more than probable
it
that they did so to an even greater
extent, since their traditional connection
with the
statu-
esque style of tragic presentation was distinctly looser than that of
Old Comedy,
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE The importance of the perceptual
phenomenon
of this
form of the scene
121
for the aesthetics
rests
upon the
fact
that the third dimension, that of space proper, gradually
moved
into the reach of aesthetic possibility
some time
before the stratified plane definitely surrendered to the Hellenistic proscenium
and the form principle which
it
Although a recession into the depth of the means of breaking up the background plane
represented.
scene by
did not yet take place, the premises for
it
presented them-
selves gradually.
About 400
B.
C,
the loosening of the plane becomes
noticeable in statues in the round, that possess
char-
all
plane but, in addition, an element
acteristics of the classic
of motion w^hich extends the plane in the direction of
This
the third spatial dimension.
may
be well illustrated
by the Standing Discus Thrower and the Athlete Dropping Oil (Figure 30).
In both instances, an advance
made from
a plane into space.
toward the
rear,
is
A
not carried any farther than
is
nec-
essary for the establishment of aesthetic balance, since is
is
movement,
reciprocal
it
not yet a question of dissolving, but merely of loosen-
ing the plane.
Owing
to this gradual conquest of spatial
depth in
all
fields of art of the late-classic era, the Hellenistic penetra-
tion of the plane,
when
it
was
at last
accomplished, could
not have given the effect of an aesthetic catastrophe, but rather of a necessary event pated.
How
it
may have
which had long been presented
itself in
of the theater will be discussed after presenting a of theatrical technique
which
is
antici-
the realm
problem
of the highest importance
in the functional interpretation of the visible scene
form
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE
122
of the Hellenistic theater:
tion
it
the widely discussed ques-
is
whether or not the Hellenistic theater possessed an
elevated stage.
It
seems that
it
cannot be answered uni-
Standing Discus Thrower. BY Alcamenes ( .') (Rome, Vatican.) (Munich, Glyptothek). (Compare page 121.) A loosening of the sculptural plane appears in Greek art about 400 B. C. The two statues above serve to illustrate this. Although both possess all characFiG. 30.
Athlete Dropping Oil
teristics
tion
of classic sculptural presentation they also contain an element of
which extends the plane
formly for in
all
effect in the direction of a third spatial
parts of the Hellenistic world.
southern Italy and
Sicily,
a
mo-
dimension.
Probably,
moderately high stage
platform was adopted from the local form of primitive theater
which served the presentation
of popular farces;
a theater of a non-Hellenic basic type.
trace of such a platform
In Athens, no
was found whereas
in
other
Hellenistic theaters outside Italy their existence could not
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE be definitely ascertained.'^
In the Dionysus theater, a
stage platform appears in the
no longer It
12}
Neronian structure that
is
Hellenistic.
should be remembered that Bethe
from the
"*
infers,
solely
importance of the chorus,
steadily decreasing
that even the theater of classic tragedy possessed an ele-
The
vated stage.
archaeological results
and Reisch compiled
which Dorpfeld
work
in the final chapters of their
on the Dionysus theater " prove conclusively that
in the
Lycurgean structure (and, consequently, in the temporary an elevated
theaters preceding it) there has never existed stage;
and they further prove
it
to be unlikely that, in
the Hellenistic structure, the actors performed in the nar-
row
area on top of the proscenium, almost thirteen feet
above the orchestra
scription of ViTRuvius.^^
question of
has been read into the de-
level, as
In his passages
naming corresponding
it
is
merely a
structural parts
and
in this the architect, Vitruvius, has proceeded in perfect
consistency with his purpose. the Hellenistic and the
Roman
In both types of theaters, one, a person
who moved
along the principal axis of the theater, through the
or-
chestra to the scene, traversed a longer path in the Hellenistic
theater than in the
Roman
one, before he reached
the elevated platform, the pulpitum. orchestra
was
In the former, the
a full circle while, in the latter, the elevated
stage projected part
way
into the orchestra, thus over-
lapping a considerable segment of the former
circle.
Vitruvius says no more than that the Greek term for
pulpitum
is
XoyeTovi but
makes no statement whatever
about their identity of theatrical function. the scaena
of
the
Roman
theater
Functionally,
coincides
with the
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE
124 pulpitum theater
is
(^oyeiov), but
makes no statement whatever
not identical with the area on top of the pro-
scenium; an area which, in Athens, was about thirteen feet
above the orchestra and only about nine feet deep.
This does not that "with
appear
m
conflict
them
with Vitruvius' further statement
[the Greeks] the tragic
and comic
actors
scaena, whereas the other artists perform per
orchestram."
Note
in
scaena but per orchestram!
In
denotes "presence at a place," but per indicates "expansion over an area."
performed
at
throughout the
This
is
the decisive point: the actors
the same place fifth
the scene building.
century B.
where they had acted
C,
This statement
that
is
logically concluded
by the passage: "Therefore, in Greek, there fundamentally different terms
to say, near
is
'scenic'
and
exist the
two
'thymelic' art-
ists." It is
certainly incorrect to identify these latter,
who
per-
form "throughout the orchestra," with the chorus of tragedy or comedy, because at the time of Vitruvius, and even long before, a great number of thymelic presentations took place in the theater; presentations rhetorical, rhapsodic,
character.
In other words, they were things that had
nothing whatsoever to do with the drama.
may
which were
dithyrambic or purely musical in
Possibly,
it
be assumed that the choral remnants that survived
in the
contemporary drama, are to be expressly exempted
from being
styled thymelic.
How
the
synonymy
of thy-
melic and orchestric could originate becomes apparent
from the following instance from Pollux: " "The scene is
the realm of the actors, the orchestra that of the chorus.
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE In the latter there
is
found the
6ii[.i8?iri,
12$
which
is
either
a kind of step or an altar."
Neither Vitruvius,
who
wrote
beginning of the
at the
Christian era, nor Iulius Pollux, a contemporary of the
Emperor Commodus,
are likely ever to have witnessed a
fine type of dramatic presentation let alone that of a
Greek tragedy (or comedy) discussed in these pages.
of approximately the kind
Nevertheless,
antiquarian tradition
still
no awareness of
Beyond the
existed.
remarkable
records the orchestra and the
scene as separate domains, although certain that
is
it
middle of the second century A. D.
that as late as the
a
it
may
be regarded as
developmental continuity
descriptions of theatrical structures,
such as furnished by Vitruvius, their writings possess little
value.
One
fact has
been repeatedly mentioned:
that, in con-
sequence of the diminished importance of the chorus, the
dramatic dialogue attained such predominance that structural changes
sole
all
improvement
Since in the Dionysus and other Hellen-
of the scene. istic
were planned for the
theaters with similar pillared proscenia, the actors
must have performed than on
its
top,
finds in the scene
in jrofit of the
proscenium rather
the analysis of the Hellenistic entity
background the very same
structural
elements that had formed that background during the classic period.
The
modifications which their form and
function underwent will be presently discussed. It
has been previously stated (page ii8) that in the
Hellenistic Dionysus theater the front line of the para-
scenia
had receded from that of the Lycurgean parascenia
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE
126
to almost the
same extent
as the distance
between the
proscenium and the scene wall, whose front was appar-
changed
ently not
An
of remodeling.
in the process
might lead
inspection of the foundations alone
to the
rash conclusion that the mutual approach of the vertical structural planes
might have aimed
of the sculptural
at a
decrease in depth
scene plane as compared to
rich
its
Evidence will forth-
stratification in the classic period.
with be presented to show that exactly the opposite was intended. In
intercolumniations, the proscenium of the Hel-
its
lenistic
panels
Dionysus theater contained exchangeable painted (:n;ivaxeg)
scenium of the
of the kind discussed apropos the proclassic
(page 93).
era
In Athens, the
proscenium columns show no trace of abutments for the panels to lean against," such as were found in other
Not
Hellenistic theaters.^^
preserved.
It is,
a single such panel has been
therefore, just as impossible to attain a
mode
concrete impression of their is
for those of the classic period.
may
of presentation as
it
however,
it
Indirectly,
be inferred that they expressed the same idea of form pervades
that
every
other
branch
of
Hellenistic
Architecture, sculpture in the round or in the the
few remaining fragments
make
it
of
apparent that the days of the
were definitely over and
that,
art and,
This use of space occidental concept,
with is
it,
its
and
painting
stratified
plane
henceforth, in place of
the corporeal surfaces, the body, as such, has
problem of
relief,
Hellenistic
art.
become the
interior space.
fundamentally different from the
which found
in the great Gothic cathedrals
its
sublime expression
where dusky vaultings and
THE HELLENISTIC STRUCTURE softly colored expanses of
enormous
dows mark vague boundaries contrary, Hellenistic space
has
grown out
stained-glass win-
On
against infinity.
always reveals that
It
of the plane and, moreover,
loses contact with that plane.
put
from within,
dental peoples look out the peoples of the
To
Hellenistic
the
a clearly defined,
possesses
measurable dimension of depth. it
llj
it
as
briefly,
never
it
the occi-
were, whereas
it
world looked in from
without.
An
illustration
concept of space. at
Hellenistic
Figure 31 shows the Altar of Zeus
a Hellenistic building of the second cen-
?ergamon,
tury B. C.
help to clarify the
will
Its
structural mass,
viewed in
its
totality, is
a hollow cubic body of a width and depth greater than its height. A broad flight of steps rises from its lower
frontal
edge toward an oblong horizontal plane that
once bore the altar proper.
The
rear
and
walls
side
constitute in themselves a structural unity consisting of a
lower basement whose wings encase the steps on either side,
and an upper colonnade with a
unbroken continuity, height on
The
all
this
four sides
flat
colonnade
temple roof.
rises to a
In
uniform
and on the wings of the basement.
character of the composition compels the visitor to
approach the building from the front.
In doing
so, his
eye no longer meets stratified planes such as the buildings of the classic era present without exception (Figure 32).
On
the contrary, the ascent of the steps takes
agonally into the interior space of a sides of the
basement that flank the
significance as
crowned,
all
vertical
along
its
him diThe
hollow body.
steps
have no aesthetic
planes because the basement
is
upper edge, by a cornice projecting
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