The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire: Excavations in advance of Manchester Airport's Second Runway, 1997-8 9781407300405, 9781407320908

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BAR  435  2007   GARNER  

The construction of a second runway at Manchester Airport created a unique opportunity to examine a 3km long corridor across north-eastern Cheshire’s rural landscape. The project uncovered low-level Early Bronze Age activity within the landscape with a major ‘nodal’ site at Oversley Farm, located on the lip of the Bollin valley and overlooking an ancient ford. The evidence recovered from the Oversley Farm site demonstrates a reuse of the site from the Early Neolithic period onwards, primarily as a small agriculturally-based ‘farmstead’, probably heavily dependent upon livestock-farming, particularly sheep. The stratified sequence of deposits preserved on the site has produced an invaluable assemblage of artefacts (ceramics and lithics) from well-stratified contexts, independently radiocarbon dated. The artefact assemblage therefore forms an important type series for the Early Bronze Age in the North West and a reference source for any future work undertaken on this period in the region. The combination of the stratigraphic, artefactual and ecofactual evidence has demonstrated that the site is the first excavated example of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age occupation in Cheshire.

The archaeological investigations and this publication have been made possible by generous financial support from Manchester Airport PLC.

THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE SETTLEMENT AT OVERSLEY FARM

Bronze Age pottery and barbed and tanged flint arrowhead from the excavation.

Gifford Archaeological Monographs Number One

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Excavations in advance of Manchester Airport’s Second Runway, 1997–8

D. J. Garner

BAR British Series 435 B A R

2007

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Excavations in advance of Manchester Airport’s Second Runway, 1997–8

D. J. Garner with major contributions by

C. S. M. Allen and F. F. Wenban-Smith and other contributions by

R. E. Bevins, S. N. Dudd, R. P. Evershed, P. I. Maclean, J. G. McDonnell, D. W. Shimwell, I. R. Smith and D. Williams

Gifford Archaeological Monographs Number One

BAR British Series 435 2007

ISBN 9781407300405 paperback ISBN 9781407320908 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407300405 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Contents

LIST OF FIGURES iii LIST OF PLATES

vii

LIST OF TABLES

vii

ABBREVIATIONS ix FOREWORD

xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xiii

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

1

CHAPTER 2:

THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD (4300 – 2100 BC)

12

CHAPTER 3:

THE EARLY BRONZE AGE (c.2500 – c.1500 BC)

29

CHAPTER 4:

THE LATER PREHISTORIC PERIOD (1500 BC – AD 43)

102

CHAPTER 5:

THE ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD (AD 43 – 410)

112

CHAPTER 6:

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (AD 410 – 1600)

120

CHAPTER 7:

THE POST-MEDIEVAL PERIOD

132

CHAPTER 8:

CONCLUSIONS

141

APPENDICES: APPENDIX A:

THE PREHISTORIC POTTERY FABRIC TYPES

145

APPENDIX B:

A NOTE ON THE LITHICS ANALYSIS

147

APPENDIX C:

THE RESIDUE ANALYSIS OF THE POTTERY

150

APPENDIX D:

THE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

152

APPENDIX E:

THE INDUSTRIAL RESIDUES

157

APPENDIX F:

THE PETROLOGY OF THE LITHICS

159

BIBLIOGRAPHY

163



List of Figures

Site Location Excavation Location Site Topography Site Geology Tithe Map of 1845 and First Edition 6” OS Map of 1882 Multi-Phase Site Plan Site Plan, Phase 1A Plan of Structure 1 Section through construction-trench 308 and post-hole 336 Section through construction-trench 308 Section through construction-trench 312 Section through post-hole 310 Section through hearth 295 Section through hearth 268 Section through post-hole 436 Section through hearth 229 Site Plan, Phase 1B Plan of Structure 2 Section through hearth 267 Section through hearth 320 Neolithic Pottery Lithic Artefacts (i-viii) Lithic Artefacts (i-xi) Organic residue analysis on pottery sherds Site Plan, Phase 2A North-facing sections through hollow way South-facing sections through hollow way North-facing sections through hollow way North-facing sections through hollow way Distribution of pottery and lithics in midden (380/441) Section through pit 445 Section through pit 486 Section through pit 478 Section through pit 360 Section through pit 579 Section through pit 583 Plan of Structure 3 Section through construction-trench 351 Section through construction-trench 311 Section through pit 330 Section through pit 249 Section through pit 301 Plan of Structure 4 Section through post-hole 241 Section through post-hole 242 Section through post-hole 244 Section through post-hole 245 Section through post-hole 247 Section through hearth 251 Section through post-hole 304 Section through post-hole 306 Section through stake-hole 321

iii

Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25: Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Figure 29: Figure 30: Figure 31: Figure 32: Figure 33: Figure 34: Figure 35: Figure 36: Figure 37: Figure 38: Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44: Figure 45: Figure 46: Figure 47: Figure 48: Figure 49: Figure 50: Figure 51: Figure 52:

2 3 3 4 5 10 12 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 16 16 17 17 18 19 24 29 31 32 32 32 33 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 35 36 36 36 36 36 37 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39

Figure 53: Figure 54: Figure 55: Figure 56: Figure 57: Figure 58: Figure 59: Figure 60: Figure 61: Figure 62: Figure 63: Figure 64: Figure 65: Figure 66: Figure 67: Figure 68: Figure 69: Figure 70: Figure 71: Figure 72: Figure 73: Figure 74: Figure 75: Figure 76: Figure 77: Figure 78: Figure 79: Figure 80: Figure 81: Figure 82: Figure 83: Figure 84: Figure 85: Figure 86: Figure 87: Figure 88: Figure 89: Figure 90: Figure 91: Figure 92: Figure 93: Figure 94: Figure 95: Figure 96: Figure 97: Figure 98: Figure 99: Figure 100: Figure 101: Figure 102: Figure 103: Figure 104: Figure 105: Figure 106: Figure 107: Figure 108: Figure 109: Figure 110:

Section through stake-hole 322 Section through pit 928 Site Plan, Phase 2B Plan of Structures 5 and 6 Section through construction-trench 901 Plan of Structure 8 Section through post-hole 506 Section through post-hole 511 Section through post-hole 520 Section through post-hole 517 Section through post-hole 518 Section through post-hole 545 Section through pits 514 and 516 Reconstruction of the site in the Early Bronze Age with Structures 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10 (by Graham Sumner) Site Plan, Phase 2C Section through pit 540 Section through pit 581 Section through pits 270/271 Section through pit 491 Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (12-21) Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (22-29) Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (30-33) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (34-44) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (45-52) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (53-60) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (61-64) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (65-76) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (77-83) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (85-87) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (88-93) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (94-103) Phase 2B Early Bronze Age pottery (104-115) Bar Chart – Percentage of fabrics by weight for each period Distribution of types of pottery in midden deposit Phase 2C Early Bronze Age pottery Phase 2C Early Bronze Age pottery Unstratified pottery Lithic Artefacts (i-ix) Lithic Artefacts (i-viii) Lithic Artefacts (ix-xx) Lithic Artefacts (i-x) Lithic Artefacts (xi-xvii) Lithic Artefacts (i-iv) Lithic Artefacts (i-ix) Quern-stones and cup-marked stone Other stone objects Site Plan, Phase 3A Section through pit 525 Section through pit 357 Site Plan, Phase 3B Section through pit 355 Sections through pit 594 Section through pits 594 and 598 Section through post-hole 437 Site Plan, Phase 3C Section through pit 456 Plan of Structure 10 Section through post-hole 204 iv

39 39 42 43 43 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 48 50 51 51 51 51 54 55 57 60 61 63 64 66 67 67 68 69 70 71 72 74 75 76 78 80 82 84 86 87 92 95 96 102 103 103 104 105 105 105 105 106 106 108 108

Section through post-hole 205 Section through post-hole 206 Section through post-hole 207 Site Plan, Phase 4A Plan of Structure 11 Section through post-hole 814 Section through post-hole 851 Site Plan, Phase 4B Section through Roman road Romano-British pottery Romano-British copper-alloy brooch Romano-British pewter spoon Romano-British lead weight Romano-British shale armlet Indication of Roman roads and settlements in the North West region in relation to Oversley Farm Site Plan, Phase 5A Section through pit 262 Section through pit 319 Site Plan, Phase 5B Plan of Structure 12 Section through construction-trench 184 Section through construction-trench 184 Section through construction-trench 211 Section through construction-trench 211 Section through construction-trench 212 Section through construction-trench 214 Section through pit 611 Section through ditch 277 Section through ditches 277/279 Section through ditch 298 Section through ditch 209 Section through ditch 269 Section through pit 293 Section through pit 289 Anglo-Saxon fittings Medieval lead spindle whorl Medieval whetstone Late-Medieval pottery Site Plan, Phase 6A Section through pits 226 and 227 Section through Phase 6A features Site Plan, Phase 6B Plan of Structure 14 Post-Medieval copper alloy buckles Post-Medieval lead objects Post-Medieval pottery-black/brown wares Post-Medieval pottery-yellow wares Post-Medieval pottery-slipwares



Figure 111: Figure 112: Figure 113: Figure 114: Figure 115: Figure 116: Figure 117: Figure 118: Figure 119: Figure 120: Figure 121: Figure 122: Figure 123: Figure 124: Figure 125: Figure 126: Figure 127: Figure 128: Figure 129: Figure 130: Figure 131: Figure 132: Figure 133: Figure 134: Figure 135: Figure 136: Figure 137: Figure 138: Figure 139: Figure 140: Figure 141: Figure 142: Figure 143: Figure 144: Figure 145: Figure 146: Figure 147: Figure 148: Figure 149: Figure 150: Figure 151: Figure 152: Figure 153: Figure 154: Figure 155: Figure 156: Figure 157: Figure 158:

108 108 108 112 114 114 114 115 115 116 118 118 118 119 121 122 122 123 124 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 127 127 127 127 127 128 128 129 129 129 130 133 134 135 136 136 137 138 139 140 140

List of Plates Front cover: Plate 1: Plate 2: Plate 3: Plate 4: Plate 5: Plate 6: Plate 7: Plate 8: Plate 9: Plate 10: Plate 11: Plate 12: Rear cover:

Reconstruction of the Oversley Farm site in the Early Bronze Age (Phase 2B) by Graham Sumner The excavation site with the airport in the background General view of the excavation, looking south Early Neolithic hearth 295 Early Bronze Age (Phase 2A) Structure 4, looking east Early Bronze Age Structure 6, looking south The Hollow way metalling in Phase 2C, looking south Late Iron Age pit 456, looking north-east Late Iron Age pit 456 after excavation, looking north-east Late Iron Age Structure 10, looking east Romano-British Structure 11, looking east Romano-British post-hole 814, looking south-west Late Medieval ditch 186/269, looking south-east Bronze Age pottery and barbed and tanged flint arrowhead

xi 6 15 38 44 52 106 107 107 113 113 128

List of Tables Radiocarbon Dates The Main Periods and Events at Oversley Farm Neolithic pottery by context Lithic Artefacts from Neolithic contexts Lithic Artefacts from sieved scatter Distributions of lithic debitage Charred plant remains – Phase 1A Early Bronze Age pottery – Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery – Phase 2B Numbers and weights of vessel parts found in hollow way Early Bronze Age pottery – Phase 2C Residual prehistoric pottery – Phases 4-6 Lithic Artefacts – Phase 2A Lithic Artefacts – Phase 2B Lithic Artefacts – Phase 2C Lithic Artefacts ­from general Phase 2 (EBA) contexts Lithic cores – Phase 2A Lithic debitage – Phase 2 Unbroken lithic debitage dimensions Lithic debitage –width: length ratios by percentage Lithic tools – Phase 2 Lithic summary – Phase 2 Lithic Artefacts – Unphased Lithic Artefacts – Romano-British, Medieval and Post-Medieval Charred plant remains – Phase 2A Charred plant remains – Phase 2B Details of pollen analyses in Phase 2B Charred plant remains from Phase 2C Pottery – Phase 3 v

ii

Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Table 11: Table 12: Table 13: Table 14: Table 15: Table 16: Table 17: Table 18: Table 19: Table 20: Table 21: Table 22: Table 23: Table 24: Table 25: Table 26: Table 27: Table 28: Table 29:

7-8 9 18 20 23 23 25 53 59 71 73 76 77 79 83 87 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 93 97 98 99 99 109

Lithic Artefacts – Middle Bronze Age Charred plant remains – Phase 3 Romano-British pottery by context and pottery type

v

iii

Table 30: Table 31: Table 32:

109 110 117

Abbreviations AP c. CR EBA GC GC-MS GPS HP LBA LIA MBA NGR OD OS Pers.comm PERU SF SGR TP UCM

Arboreal pollen circa Carbonised residues Early Bronze Age (2330-1500 BC) Gas chromatography GC-mass spectrometry Ground Positioning Survey Herbaceous pollen Late Bronze Age (1150-750 BC) Late Iron Age Middle Bronze Age (1500-1150 BC) National Grid Reference Ordnance Datum Ordnance Survey Personal communication PalaeoEcological Research Unit (Manchester University) Small Find Site Grid Reference Total pollen Unresolved complex mixtures

ix

FOREWORD Manchester Airport involved archaeologists in the second runway at the start of the nineteen nineties when we were giving consideration to the possibility of developing a second runway. Part of a team of largely environmental specialists, the archaeologists participated in the evaluation of alternative locations for the proposed runway. As this book will reveal the involvement of archaeologists continued throughout the planning and construction process yielding interesting results. By implementing a programme of works designed to ensure the discovery of any sites of importance, archaeologists discovered a prehistoric site of regional significance. As you will discover, evidence was found that the site had been occupied from the Neolithic period through to the twentieth century. The evidence collected provides cause to reflect on how communities were previously sustained and to contrast that with the way we now live and the influence powered flight has had on behaviour patterns. I am delighted that we have had the opportunity to excavate the site and provide specialists with the opportunity to record and interpret the findings as a part of the second runway project. Archaeology has proved a fascinating subject, this work has increased our historical understanding of the area and the details in this book will be of considerable interest to local people now and in the future.

G. Muirhead

Chief Executive, Manchester Airport PLC.

Plate 1: The excavation site with the airport in the background

i

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have been involved in the archaeological works related to the second runway development and so at the commencement of this list of acknowledgements we offer our apologies to anyone whose name has been unconsciously omitted. We would like to thank Manchester Airport PLC for giving us the opportunity to be part of the exciting second runway development and for generously funding all the archaeological works, including this publication. The Runway 2 Project Management Team provided invaluable assistance and support and in particular we would like to thank Steve Kelly, Anne Knape and Stephen Cain, who willingly embraced the archaeological process and the needs of a discipline they had never worked with before. Other airport staff who were involved at times included John Twigg, Group Infrastructure Planning Manager and P Dawson, Employers Representative. During the excavation and the post-excavation stages of the project the Amec-Tarmac, later Amec-Carillion, Joint-Venture and Hyder Environmental provided essential co-operation and facilitated the requirements of the archaeological works. To all their staff we extend our gratitude for their patience and help, especially Peter Wilson, A Roberts and Harvey Pownall from the JV, together with Pete Coe and Ian MacGregor from Hyder. Special thanks go to Phil Hunter (Hyder) for his constant support and his ability to manage the many and varied issues that arose during the project with unflagging enthusiasm. Our thanks also go to the archaeological curators for their on-going advice and support during this project – the staff of Cheshire County Council Environmental Planning Service (past and present) including Adrian Tindall, Jill Collens, Mark Leah, Douglas Moir, Catrina Appleby, and Gail Falkingham; Robina McNeil and Norman Redhead of the Greater Manchester Archaeology Service; Mike Scammell of Macclesfield Borough Council; and Gerry Friell of English Heritage. To the following we extend our grateful thanks for their vital contributions to this report: Dr Carol S M Allen (prehistoric pottery), Dr Francis F Wenban-Smith (lithics), Dr David W Shimwell, Stuart B Downhill and Dr Richard Gregory (palaeoenvironmental analysis), Ivan W Hradil (dendro-dating), Dr David Williams (ceramic petrology), P I Maclean and Dr J Gerry McDonnell (industrial residues), Dr Stephanie N Dudd and Dr Richard P Evershed (organic residues), Richard E Bevins (lithics petrology), Ian R Smith (animal bone), the staff at Beta Analytic Inc (radiocarbon dating), Yannick Minvielle-Debat (metal artefact conservation), Alison Stooshnov (stone artefact conservation), and Ruth Young (wood charcoal identification). A number of people have read and commented on the various drafts of this publication and the author would like to thank them all – Dr Ian Longworth (Chairman of the Gifford Research Advisory Committee and an external reader); Peter Cardwell (who took over the role of archaeological consultant to the Airport once Gifford agreed to undertake the excavation); Adrian Tindall and Mark Leah of Cheshire County Council; Robina McNeil of the Greater Manchester Archaeological Unit; and Tim Strickland, Anne Thompson and Tim Malim of Gifford. Gill Reaney has prepared the maps, plans and sections, plates and layout of the artefact figures for publication. Tim Morgan provided the artefact drawings except for the following lithic drawings prepared by Caroline Malim: Figure 22, i–v and vii-viii; Figure 23, i-vi and xi; Figure 90, i-iv and viii-ix; Figure 91, i, iii-viii; Figure 92, xiii-xx; Figure 93, ii-x; Figure 94, xi-xvi; Figure 95, i-iv; and Figure 96, i-vi and x. Thanks also go to Graham Sumner for his skill in producing the reconstruction painting. Site visits and specialist advice were gratefully received from Simon Timberlake, Dr Ron Cowell, Dr Nick Higham and Alan Garner. Finally a special debt of thanks is owed to the excavation team, many of whom laboured in cold, waterlogged conditions during the late winter and early spring of 1998. They are: Joanne Barnes (surveyor), Jo Eaton (finds assistant), Richard Gregory (environmental assistant), John Halstead, Jane Kenney, Karina Kucharski (supervisors), John Sunderland (photographer), David Tonks, Chris Healey, Gary Burns, Gavin Plaskitt,

iii

x

Tamsin Sloan, Andrew West, Pete Owen, George Luke, Ian Grant, Dan Atkinson, Leigh Dodd, Darren Vyce, Julie Dilcock, Sue Clelland, Daniel Robertson, Mark Lacey, Daniel Rhodes, Paul Stead, James Kercher, Kevin Colls, Greg Jones, Roy Lumb, Peter Piers, Ken Owen, Andy McBrien, D Barker, C Merrony and B McCluskey (site assistants).

xiv

ON

CHAPTER 1  INTRODUCTI

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Early map-evidence indicates the site of ‘Oversleyford’. This place-name is first mentioned in a 13th century document as ‘Ulresford’ and intermittently thereafter until the present day (Dodgson 1970, 230). The actual fording-point of the River Bollin is now marked by the Oversleyford Bridge (a Grade II listed building), an 18th/19th century structure built from large ashlar buff sandstone (NGR: SJ 8162 8294). The name ‘Oversley Farm’ therefore appears to be a relatively modern derivative.

Oversley Farm lies on the edge of Styal, in Macclesfield, Cheshire. The site is perched on the edge of a natural escarpment overlooking a section of the Bollin Valley (NGR: SJ 8156 8338) at a height of 73m OD, which effectively marks the boundary between the flat low-lying Cheshire Plain to the south and west, and the foothills of the Pennines to the north and east (Figures 1 and 2). The construction of the first airport runway (to the north and west), the Wilmslow Road (A538)-works in the 1980s and, to the south, the brickworks which became the airport viewing-park, have all fundamentally altered the landscape surrounding the site. Today, only the topography to the south and east of Oversley Farm retains its original character (Figure 3).

The site of Oversley Ford was on a meander of the River Bollin 500m to the south of Oversley Farm and was first documented in a charter of AD 1215 (Dodgson 1970, 230), though its use as a naturalpoint is probably much older. The crossing-point at Oversley Ford would have provided a route across what was then the significant barrier of the River Bollin, allowing access to the Cheshire Plain and important sites such as Lindow Moss (2 km to the south) and Alderley Edge (5 km to the south-east). The Bollin Valley appears to have been a favoured area in prehistory – for burials, such as the urned cremations found at Wilmslow (Harris 1987, 69-72) and an unurned cremation excavated at Fairy Brow, Little Bollington (Tindall and Faulkner, 1989) – and for settlement, such as the enclosure excavated at Heath Farm, Arthill (Nevell, 1988). Indeed, the excavation at Oversley Farm has shown that this site was a focus for a domestic presence from the Early Neolithic, through the Early Bronze Age and onwards to the present day.

The geology of the area is dominated by a glacial drift of boulder-clay, overlying a solid geology of Mercian Mudstone (Figure 4). Along the edges of the Bollin Valley isolated patches of glacial sands and gravels overlie the boulder-clays and Oversley Farm is located on such a deposit. Given the combination of a location on high ground, overlooking a river valley (with a plentiful water/food supply) and a free-draining gravel-site amidst an area of clay, it is not surprising that the Oversley Farm site was favoured for settlement from an early date. This discovery provides an object-lesson in the search for other early settlement-sites elsewhere in the North West.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Due to the modern large-scale remodelling of the landscape in the area surrounding Oversley Farm, a review of the early cartographic evidence provides some valuable insights into the earlier history of the site. The site sits adjacent to an old crossroads, formed by the junction of the old Altrincham-toWilmslow road with the road to Styal. The Styal road is the focus for most of the early settlement evidence on the Oversley Farm site and its course mirrors the line of the old parish boundary between Pownall Fee and Ringway, suggesting a long established territorial boundary. More specifically, the Tithe map (1845) and first edition OS map (1882) (Figure 5) demonstrate the presence of the Oversley Farm buildings, even though they are not actually named. These same



There is surprisingly little documentation regarding the history of the Oversley Farm site. The placename ‘Oversley’ translates as “Wulfric`s meadow or woodland clearing” (Dodgson 1970, 230), whilst Wulfric occurs in the Domesday Book as the owner of land and manors at Ollerton, Butley, and Bredbury in both 1066 and 1086 (Harris 1987, 352 and 364). This may imply that Wulfric was a major landowner operating in north-eastern Cheshire. It seems that he was powerful or shrewd enough to be able to hold onto his lands (which may have included the area around Oversley) for at least a generation after the Norman Conquest.

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 1: Site Location 

Introduction

Figure 2: Excavation Location



Figure 3: Site Topography

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 4: Site Geology

maps also indicate some of the old field-boundaries no longer present in the modern landscape and it soon appeared that some of these align with the ancient

ditch-system uncovered during the excavation, thus pointing to considerable longevity and continuity of use. 

Introduction

Figure 5: Tithe Map of 1845 and First Edition 6” OS Map of 1882

THE EXCAVATION 1997-8

overlooking the Bollin Valley at Oversley Farm. As this site was located entirely within the footprint of the proposed second runway and did not survive at a depth sufficient to enable its preservation in situ, it was agreed with the archaeological curators for Cheshire and Greater Manchester that preservation by record (that is, excavation of the site) would be necessary and appropriate in this instance.

The excavation at Oversley Farm followed the completion of a mitigatory exercise across the proposed second runway construction-area. In 1992 Gifford had undertaken a desk-based assessment of the archaeological potential of the proposed second runway area, which involved the examination of documentary, cartographic and photographic records, accompanied by a site-inspection. The assessment concluded that no archaeological sites were known within the proposed development-area but, inevitably, this was considered to be largely a reflection of the lack of previous archaeological investigation, rather than an absence of previous occupation-sites. The assessment identified several areas of possible archaeological potential, some of them based on assumptions made about the influence of historical locating-factors, such as the Bollin Valley. To that end the archaeological mitigation-strategy was designed to test the area and was encapsulated in the Gifford Proof of Evidence for the Public Inquiry (Public Inquiry document MA791). The proposed mitigatory work incorporated several elements including: geophysical and topographical survey of defined areas of the landscape considered to contain a representative sample of the field-and settlement patterns; a programme of palaeoenvironmental sampling; and a series of evaluation-trenches located to test sites considered to be of some potential, as well as to test the ‘archaeological blanks’. The evaluation-trenching was undertaken during 1997 and resulted in the identification of a multi-period site



The evaluation established that the archaeological site was delimited by the extent of the underlying glacial-sand and gravel-deposit, effectively confining the area of excavation to the field numbered EA93. It was also demonstrated that the northern half of the field contained the greatest archaeological potential, with evidence for a rich midden-deposit contained within an area of surviving stratigraphy 0.5m thick and radiocarbon dated to the Early Bronze Age. The southern end of the field also produced evidence for prehistoric occupation, but this had suffered from the effects of plough-erosion and a large area had been disturbed by the construction of post-medieval farmbuildings and ditches, demolished in the 1950s. A large spoil-heap, which occupied the central portion of the field during the evaluation stage, had precluded a detailed appraisal of its potential. However, once this obstacle was removed and the area was topsoilstripped it became apparent that there had been a great deal of disturbance, some of which seemed to be due to small-scale post-Medieval sand/gravel extraction. It was later discovered that an anti-aircraft battery had been located in this area of the field during the Second World War and although no trace

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Methodology

of this installation could be detected, its subsequent removal probably accounted for much of the ground disturbance identified. The main excavation-site was therefore limited to an area of c.12,000m2 (examined between January and May 1998), during the course of which it became apparent that archaeological deposits extended beneath the modern Altrincham Road, bounding the western edge of the excavation. A series of test-pits were excavated along either side of the modern road and the results defined a stretch of c.120m where archaeological deposits appeared to remain intact. The investigations further to the west of the road revealed that landscaping associated with construction of the first runway at Manchester Airport had removed the archaeological record and so confined the extension of the excavation-area to c.1,200m2 (undertaken between July and September 1998). Written method statements for the programme of excavations were prepared and agreed in advance with the archaeological curators for the Counties of Cheshire and Greater Manchester.

It was established during the evaluation that the northern part of the excavation-area was covered by an unusually deep layer of ploughsoil, c.0.5m thick, which was in contrast to the rest of the second runway development-area, where an average ploughsoil thickness of 0.3m was normal. At Oversley Farm, two distinct horizons within this thick ploughsoil deposit could be distinguished, the upper horizon a modern ploughsoil, 0.3m thick, and the lower a ploughsoil 0.2m thick that did not appear to contain material more recent than the seventeenth century AD. These deposits of ploughsoil generally lay directly above the glacial sands/gravels and were removed in 0.1m spits using a mechanical excavator equipped with a 1.8m wide toothless ditching-bucket, until the top of the glacial or intact archaeological deposits were reached. There were two exceptions where the lower ploughsoil deposit was not removed by mechanical excavator but by hand – the potential flint scatter (an area c.10m in diameter) and a linear hollow (10m wide and 120m long) identified along the western edge of the excavation that contained stratigraphy of Early Bronze Age date. The Wilmslow metal-detecting club assisted by scanning the spoil-heaps for metal smallfinds and, in the final week of site work, they scanned the area of the excavation for any missed objects.

This report incorporates the results of both the Field EA93 and Altrincham Road excavations and, where applicable, the relevant findings from the earlier evaluation-work have been integrated to present a complete account of the archaeological evidence recorded at Oversley Farm.

Plate 2: General view of the excavation, looking south. To the right is Altrincham Road and to the left of that is the Early Bronze Age hollow way. In the foreground are the Phase 5B and Phase 6 features. 

Introduction All of the fills contained within discrete pit and post-hole features were sampled 100% and sieved through 8mm and 4mm gauge steel mesh for bulk finds-recovery, whilst a 10% sample of linear feature-fills and deposits was treated in the same way. Palaeoenvironmental sampling was undertaken separately by Dr Richard Gregory of PERU (based at Manchester University) and was generally confined to contexts exhibiting good potential for the recovery of environmental information. The area of the potential flint-scatter was divided into a grid of 0.5m squares labelled A-J (east-west) and 1-99 (north-south), the squares were then excavated in a series of 10mm spits labelled IIII and all of the material sieved through 4mm and 2mm steel mesh for bulk finds-recovery. Across the rest of the excavation area all artefacts, features and deposits were recorded three-dimensionally, using a total-station instrument that was tied into the National Grid and local topographical features, using GPS to an accuracy of +/-10mm.

of archaeological investigation a certain amount of rationalisation has been necessary to ease integration. Primarily this has involved the reallocation of context numbers from the evaluation and Altrincham Road stages of the work. Where crossover contexts could be established the main excavation context-sequence has taken preference. However, in irreconcilable instances the Altrincham Road excavation-sequence has been converted to an 800-series and the evaluation context-sequence to a 1000-series, in order to avoid duplication. Standard procedures of stratigraphic analysis were followed to create a hierarchical report based on the grouping of contemporary contexts to aid in the interpretation of the structural elements of the site by phase.

Radiocarbon dates All dates referred to in the text are expressed as a 2 sigma calibration. Details of the dated samples are presented in Table 1 and the calibration-curves are contained in the archive.

Post-excavation In bringing together the results of three phases

Table 1: Radiocarbon Dates (dates calibrated using INTCAL 98) Phase

Context

Beta lab. Code

Conventional radiocarbon age

2 Sigma, cal BC

1 Sigma, cal BC

1 Sigma, cal BP

2 Sigma, cal BP

1A

43

Beta127172

4870 +/- 80 BP

3715 to 3630

-

-

1A

303

Beta127175

5040 +/- 70 BP

3795 to 3510 and 3410 to 3395 3975 to 3675

Calibration Curve Intercept Age, cal BC 3655

3950 to 3760

-

-

3800

1A

92

Beta133362

5020 +/- 90 BP

3985 3645

3950 to 3695

5900 5645

1B

93

Beta127174

4210 +/- 90 BP

2900 to 2845 and 2830 to 2620

-

1B

21

Beta133364

4570 +/- 80 BP

3015 to 2985 and 2935 to 2560 and 2525 to 2500 3520 to 3025

3490 to 3465 and 3375 to 3315 and 3230 to 3110

2A

360

Beta133367

3650 +/- 60 BP

2195 1885

to

2125 to 2075 and 2055 to 1935

2A

542

Beta133370

3730 +/- 70 BP

2330 1935

to

2210 to 2025

5440 545 5325 5265 5180 5060 4075 4025 4005 3885 4160 3975

2B

110

Beta127171

3610 +/- 60 BP

2135 to

2030 to

3980 to

4085 to

1770

1895

3845

3720



to

to

5935 5595

to

-

3790

2875

to and to and to

5470 4975

to

3355

to and to

4145 3835

to

2020

to

4280 3885

to

2135

1955

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Table 1 continued Phase

Context

Beta lab. Code

Conventional radiocarbon age

2 Sigma, cal BC

1 Sigma, cal BC

1 Sigma, cal BP

2 Sigma, cal BP

2B

Beta127181 Beta133361

3510 +/- 70 BP

1985 1660 2135 1745

to

1910 to 1735

-

-

2B

359 BOTTOM 122

to

2025 to 1880

3975 3830

to

4085 3695

to

Calibration Curve Intercept Age, cal BC 1870, 1830 and 1780 1935

2B

254

Beta133366

3600 +/- 60 BP

2130 1765

to

2025 to 1890

3975 3840

to

4080 3715

to

1945

2B

501

3500 +/- 60 BP

1900 to 1740 2035 to 1890

3915 3630 4095 3710

to

to

3850 3690 3985 3840

to

929

1965 1680 2145 1760

to

2B

Beta133369 Beta133372

1865 and 1835 and 1780 1955

2C

119

Beta127173

3260 +/- 80 BP

1705 1390

to

1620 to 1430

-

-

1515

2C

359 TOP

Beta127180

3490 +/- 70 BP

1965 1630

to

1895 to 1705

-

-

1765

2C

464

Beta133368

3460 +/- 40 BP

1890 1680

to

1865 to 1835 and 1780 to 1725

2C

900

Beta133371

3490 +/- 70 BP

1975 1635

to

1900 to 1725

3815 3785 3730 3676 3850 3675

2C

1204

Beta113151

3400 +/- 60 BP

1750 to 1620

-

-

1685

3A

232

Beta127177

3020 +/- 70 BP

1875 to 1805 and 1795 to 1525 1420 to 1020

1385 to 1135

-

-

1265

3B

19

Beta127178

2640 +/- 70 BP

830 to 790

-

-

805

3C

470

Beta127179

2150 +/- 60 BP

10 to 760 and 635 to 560 375 to 20

345 to 310 and 210 to 75

-

-

180

5A

316

Beta127176

1520 +/- 60 BP

Cal AD 420 to 650

-

-

Cal AD 560

5A

137

Beta133363

940 +/- 70 BP

Cal AD 980 to 1250

Cal AD 465 to 475 and Cal AD 515 to 620 Cal AD 1015 to 1185

935 to 765

970 to 700

Cal AD 1040

5A

142

Beta133365

1510 +/- 50 BP

Cal AD 430 to 645

Cal AD 530 to 615

1420 1335

1520 1305

Cal AD 560

3590 +/- 70 BP

3610 +/- 70 BP

THE PHASING

to

to

to and to

3840 3630

to

1750

to

3925 3585

to

1770

to

to

their implied radiocarbon age, rather than by their stratigraphic relationship. For the prehistoric period the weight of the archaeological evidence starts with Phase 2A and continues until the end of Phase 2C. The implied date-range for this activity derived from the radiocarbon samples suggests cal BC 2330-

Erosion due to ploughing denied the possibility of establishing a stratified framework for the whole area. Some deposits and features have had to be grouped together on the basis of their artefactual contents or 

Introduction

A NOTE ON THE CRITERIA FOR NEOLITHIC/EARLY BRONZE AGE SETTLEMENT

1635. On one level all of this activity can be viewed as belonging to the Early Bronze Age period. However, the complex stratigraphy in the hollow way has necessitated the subdivision of the activity into three separate periods or sub-phases. This was further complicated by the framework-chronology put forward by Needham (1996), which identified the time-slot of 2500-2100 BC as the Late Neolithic (copper phase). For the purposes of this report this time-slot (Phase 2A) has been labelled as Early Bronze Age and the temptation to identify a specifically Beaker phase to the site has been avoided despite the presence of Beaker pottery in some contexts allocated to this phase.

In order to place the evidence from Oversley Farm into a wider context and to set some precedents for the interpretation of the various features and deposits encountered, a set of criteria for what might indicate ‘settlement’ is proposed and has been used to test the evidence from each phase of the site. The terms ‘domestic site’ and ‘settlement’ seem synonymous, but the criteria for what may be considered permanent, as opposed to temporary or seasonal, seems to be a matter for great debate. Bradley considered that Belle Tout was permanent because of the locally produced pottery, the number of permanent structures and the presence of four-and six-row barley, indicative of both spring and autumn sowing respectively (Bradley 1970,

The main sequence of events recovered from the excavation has been summarised in tabulated form (Table 2), whilst Figure 6 presents the multi-phase site plan.

Table 2: The Main Periods and Events at Oversley Farm Period

Main Features

Significant Artefacts

1A

Early Neolithic (4300-3300 BC)

Rectangular structure; pits; hollow way; flint scatter

Pottery; lithics

1B

Late Neolithic (3300-2500 BC)

Rectangular Structure; Pits; Hollow way

Pottery; lithics

2A

Early Bronze Age (2330-1770 BC)

2 oval structures; pits; hollow way

Beaker and Collared Urn pottery; lithics; cup-marked stone; saddle-quern

2B

Early Bronze Age (1975-1630 BC)

Round structure; rectangular structure; 2 four-post structures; Pits; hollow way

Collared and Cordoned Urn pottery; lithics; perforated stone

2C

Early Bronze Age (1800-1500 BC)

hollow way; pits

Pottery; lithics

3A

Middle Bronze Age (1500-1150 BC)

Pits; hollow way

Deverel-Rimbury pottery; lithics

3B

Late Bronze Age (1150-750 BC)

Round structure; pits; hollow way

Pottery; lithics; saddle-quern

3C

Iron Age (750 BC-43 AD)

Four-post structure; pit

Pottery

4A

RomanoBritish (43-120)

Oval structure; pit

Pottery; brooch

4B

RomanoBritish (120-420)

Road

Pottery

5A

Medieval (410-1066 AD)

Pits

-

5B

Medieval (1066-1600 AD)

Ditched enclosures; pits; rectangular structure; road

Pottery

6

Post-Medieval (1600 onwards)

Rectangular structures; pits; wells; ditches; road

Pottery; coin; buckles



Phase

Figure 6: Multi-Phase Site Plan

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

10

Introduction 360). When considering a Neolithic enclosure site at Plasketlands (Cumbria), Bewley used ‘site catchment analysis’ to argue for a settlement on the grounds of its proximity to the sea, the sandy soils and the fertile (high and dry) position (Bewley 1994, 48-9). To this equation must be added an assessment of the factor of post-depositional processes; and when considering a site where erosion can be demonstrated, either by natural agents or by the effects of ploughing, it is important not to underestimate the significance of the ephemeral traces of partially surviving structuralevidence. Thus, a number of criteria apply to the Oversley Farm site regardless of the period under discussion, and are summarised as follows:–

The remaining criteria are then used in the consideration of each phase of activity on the site in order to offer a structured approach to the interpretation of the evidence. Thus:– 5. The presence of locally manufactured pottery (as pottery manufacture may be considered as a ‘settled’ activity). 6. The presence of more obviously ‘permanent’ structures. 7. The presence of crop-cultivation of more than a single season’s variety. Due to the multi-period nature of the site the report organisation has been ordered so as to produce a series of self-contained sections dealing with each of the main phases identified. Each section is broken down in to a number of sub-headings beginning with structural analysis, followed by the artefact and ecofacts and finally a phase discussion/ interpretation. Some general conclusions on the evidence as a whole are then presented in the final chapter.

1. The site is located on the edge of a major river valley, which would have been able to provide access by boat to the Mersey Basin and, ultimately, the Irish Sea. 2. The site is confined to a glacial deposit of freedraining sandy soils. 3. The site occupies a fertile high-and-dry position within the surrounding landscape. 4. The site had been subjected to severe erosion through the agent of long-term ploughing.

11

CHAPTER 2 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD (c.4300 – c.2100 BC) PHASE 1A: THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (c.4300-c.3300 BC)

the extent that no interior surface-levels remained. The structure comprised a rectangular building on a north-south alignment with external dimensions of 11m x 7m. The wall-timbers were ground-set, in two irregular slots, varying in depth between 0.41m0.55m. The south-eastern corner of the structure lay beyond the limit of excavation and the southern wall-line was represented by a single post-setting, centrally located and 0.5m in depth.

The early Neolithic activity at Oversley Farm comprised evidence for at least one small rectangular timber structure (Figure 7). Within the structure were two possible hearths, which produced ceramic and lithic artefacts indicative of domestic activity, including tool manufacture and cooking. Small quantities of charred cereals were also recovered from these features indicating small-scale crop production. A working area may be indicated by a scatter of knapped lithic debris to the east of the structure, while to the north a re-used post setting and nearby hearth may have ritual associations.

Construction-trench 308 (Figures 8-10) Construction-trench 308 comprised a linear cut, aligned east-to-west for a length of 6.2m with both the eastern and western terminals rounded, stepped and containing shallow post-settings in the form of distinct circular depressions, 0.2m across and 0.2m deep. The primary fill (345) was a silt-sand that appeared to be the result of slippage formed immediately after the trench had been initially excavated. The absence of this fill from the centre of the trench may hint at the location of structural timbers which were subsequently removed. The later fill (318) consisted of a silt-sand interspersed with lenses of silt-clay, suggesting formation whilst the trench remained open and disused, though

The Stratigraphy Structure 1 (Figure 8)

Including features 268, 295, 308, 310, and 312; Figures 7-14; Plate 3. Structure 1 was situated on the south-eastern edge of the site and had suffered severe plough-erosion to

12

A

Figure 7: Site Plan, Phase 1

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC)

Figure 8: Plan of Structure 1 activity in the vicinity was implied by the occurrence of lumps of charcoal and lithic artefacts in the matrix. The secondary fill (317) was a uniform siltsand, the homogenous nature of which suggests it was the deliberate backfill of a presumably inconvenient hollow. Pottery and lithic artefacts from this context suggest some associated level of domestic occupation.

trench and may represent timbers that had rotted in situ. Post-setting 310 (Figures 8 and 12) Post-setting 310 was a sub-circular cut, which was located in the centre of the southern wall-line of Structure 1. The fill (102) comprised a single uniform sand-silt which was devoid of any artefacts other than rare fragments of charcoal. The profile would suggest that a wooden post had been removed for reuse and the setting subsequently backfilled in one event.

Construction-trench 312 (Figures 8 and 11) Construction-trench 312 was an irregular linear cut, aligned approximately north to south for a length of 4.8m and occupied the middle segment of the western wall-line to Structure 1. Gaps in the constructiontrench (between 2.5-3m wide) at the north-west and south-west corners, may have been filled originally by more ephemeral structural elements or served as entrances for the building. The primary fill (327) was a silt-sand which had formed on the sides of the trench, leaving the impression of structural timbers in the centre of the cut, probably representing initial back-filling during construction. The upper fill (98) was a very dark silt-sand containing charcoal fragments which had formed in the centre of the

Hearth 295 (Figures 8 and 13; Plate 3) Hearth 295 comprised a sub-circular cut located towards the centre of Structure 1, with steep sides, which were stepped to form a deeper central hollow. The primary fill (303) was characterised by a high density of pottery sherds which appeared to line the sides and base of the cut. These sat in a very dark sand-silt matrix, which contained a high percentage of charcoal and fragments that produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 3975-3675 (Beta-127175), as well as heat-fractured stone, 13

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figures 9-16: Sections

14

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC)

The Flint Debitage Scatter (213, 479, 1342 and 1348)

occasional pieces of burnt animal bone and lithic artefacts. The pottery may have been deliberately used to form an insulating lining for heat-retention and the residue-analysis undertaken on a selection of these sherds produced only trace levels of lipid, indicating subjection to high temperatures leading to thermal degradation. The charcoal, burnt animal bone and heat-fractured stone also support use of the pit for cooking purposes. The upper fill (97) was a sand-silt containing fragments of charcoal, which increased in density towards the base of the deposit. This fill contained heat-fractured stone as well as pottery and lithic artefacts and would appear broadly contemporary with the primary fill (303). The lithic debitage from fill 97 indicated bladelet manufacture using the same technology as that evidenced in the adjacent flint-scatter described below.

Approximately 22.5m to the north of Structure 1 was a disturbed flint-scatter possibly representing a knapping-floor (Figure 7). The scatter covered a roughly circular area 7.5m north-south and 6m eastwest, which was defined as layer 479/1342 being 0.1m thick and consisting of a brown silt-sand, identical in appearance to the ploughsoil (7). This area was divided into 0.5m grid-squares and excavated in spits 0.05m thick, which were then sieved through a 4mm mesh for bulk finds-recovery. Artefacts recovered during excavation were plotted three-dimensionally. The top of the natural subsoil (213) was also sampled to a depth of 0.1m, as it was noted that lithic artefacts had worked down to this depth. The finished tools recovered from this scatter suggested an Early Neolithic date.

Hearth 268 (Figures 8 and 14) Hearth 268 consisted of an irregular sub-rectangular cut on a north-east to south-west alignment, located at the northern end of Structure 1. The fill (92) comprised a dark sand-silt containing patches of charcoal, fragments of heat-fractured stone and occasional sherds of pottery. Fill 92 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 3985-3645 (Beta-133362) and the associated material may again suggest use of the feature for cooking purposes.

Gully 351 (Figure 7) A gully was located mid-way between Structure 1 and the flint scatter (Figure 7) and was a slightly irregular cut (351) 2.5m long, with a width and depth of 0.3m. The fill was a light grey silt-sand (352) which contained rare charcoal flecks and a sherd of highly burnished pottery of probable Neolithic date. The irregularity of the feature suggested that it was probably the result of animal burrowing or other natural agents.

Plate 3: Early Neolithic hearth 295, looking west. Note the lining of pottery sherds concentrated towards the base of the feature. 15

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Associated Features

as well as ceramic and lithic artefacts. This material suggests that the feature may have been used for a domestic cooking activity. The upper fill (43) was also almost black due to the high density of charcoal in the matrix and this produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 3795-3510 (Beta-127172), the fill otherwise consisted of a sand-silt containing a high percentage of heat-fractured stone. Fills 230 and 43 possibly indicate several reuses of hearth 229 for a similar function.

Post-setting 436 (Figures 7 and 15) Post-setting 436 was located in the north-western corner of the site comprising a triangular-shaped cut with a series of three rounded hollows at the base, each of which was 0.25m in depth. The primary fill (448) was a silt-sand which had formed against the sides of the cut probably shortly after the feature was originally excavated. The secondary fill (21) consisted of another silt-sand interspersed with charcoal lenses that produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 3520-3025 (Beta-133364). Fill 21 also contained a small amount of heat-fractured stone and a single sherd of pottery, suggesting that after several periods of reuse this feature was eventually abandoned to silt up naturally.

PHASE 1B: THE LATER NEOLITHIC (c.3300 – c.2500 BC) (Figure 17) The Stratigraphy Structure 2 (Figure 18)

Hearth 229 (Figures 7 and 16) Hearth 229 was located 1.5m to the south-east of post-setting 436 and was sub-circular with a steppedbase reaching a maximum depth of 0.16m. The primary fill (231) was a silt-sand which had formed on the lower step of the base, whilst in the southeast quadrant the upper step of the pit was filled with an almost black silt-clay (230), containing a high percentage of heat-fractured stone and charcoal,

Including features 84, 90, 267, 313, 320 and 336; Figures 9, 10, 12 and 17-20

Figure 17: Site Plan, Phase 2A

Figure 18: Plan of Structure 2

This structure represents a second phase of building overlying Structure 1 and, as such, it had suffered from severe plough-erosion to the extent that no interior surface-levels remained. The external

16

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC) dimensions suggest a rectangular-shaped building of 11m x 7m and the alignment had shifted slightly from that of Structure 1 to a north-west to southeast alignment. The wooden posts had been set in shallow, sub-circular pits at the corners of the rectangle, averaging 0.5m in diameter and 0.25m in depth (though the south-eastern corner was beyond the area of excavation and remained unproven). Post-setting 336 (Figures 9, 17 and 18) Post-setting 336 was located in the north-west corner of Structure 2 and had been cut into the backfill deposit (317) of the earlier wall trench 308 (which had formed the northern end of Structure 1). The post-setting had a shallow bowl-shaped profile and the primary fill (335) comprised a charcoal lens which lay along the sides and base of the cut, above which was a silt-sand matrix, apparently synonymous with deposit 84 and containing similar sherds of pottery. Post-settings 90 and 313 (Figures 12, 17 and 18) Post-settings 90 and 313 each had shallow bowlshaped profiles comparable to post-setting 336. The south-western post-setting (313) had been cut into the backfill (102) of earlier post-setting 310 and was filled by a lens of charcoal, above which lay a silt-sand deposit similar to 84. The north-eastern post-setting (90) had been heavily disturbed by animal burrowing and was filled with an homogenous silt-sand, probably associated with the formation of deposit 84.

Figures 19-20: Sections through hearths 267 and 320

Hearth 267 (Figures 18 – 19) Hearth 267 comprised a sub-rectangular-shaped pit aligned on an approximately east-to-west alignment and located towards the northern end of Structure 2. In places along the sides of the cut the natural sub-soil had been discoloured to a bright red, suggestive of in situ burning. The fill (93) was a dark brown sand-silt containing lenses of charcoal that produced standard radiometric dates of cal BC 3015-2985, cal BC 29352560 and cal BC 2525-2500 (Beta-127174). Fill 93 also contained frequent fragments of heat-fractured stone, which were concentrated towards the centre of the pit, and several pottery sherds were recovered from the upper part of the matrix. This feature was identical in character to hearth 268 from Phase 1A and presumably served a similar function.

flecks, sherds of pottery and was almost impossible to distinguish from the fill (335) of post-setting 336. The fills (90, 96, and 313) of other Phase 1B features bore a marked resemblance to deposit 84 and all of these may represent surviving pockets of an occupation or abandonment layer, which had once covered the area prior to its destruction by ploughing.

THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD FINDS The Neolithic Pottery by C S M Allen The prehistoric pottery from the Neolithic phase represents 14.6% (by weight) of the total amount of pottery found on the site. It comprises a significant assemblage of interesting and quite unusual material. Pottery from Phases 1A and 1B lay in features in the eastern part of the site.

Hearth 320 (Figures 17, 18 and 20) Possible hearth 320 was a sub-circular shaped pit, with steep sides and a concave base. The fill (96) was a sand-silt containing rare flecks of charcoal and reminiscent of deposit 84.

Phase 1A: Early Neolithic Pottery

Deposit 84 (Figures 9, 10 and 18) Deposit 84 formed the uppermost fill of Phase 1A construction-trench 308, but had also formed above Phase 1B post-setting 336. The matrix of 84 comprised a silt-sand containing occasional charcoal

Hearth 295 1.448kg of Neolithic pottery was found in this feature, representing c.12.5% of the total amount of pottery from the site. The pottery sherds lined the sides and 17

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Table 3: Neolithic pottery by context Context

Radiocarbon date

84

Sherds

Fragments

Weight

Figure 21, no.

Fabric type

5

0

14

-

2

92

3790BC

23

4

107

-

2, 4

93

2875BC

4

0

8

10

7

25

15

93

9

2,4

97 286

2

0

10

-

7

287

102

1355

1-8

4, 6

317

8

2

58

11

4, 5, 7

335

2

0

5

-

2

352

3

0

16

-

2, 3

428

2

3

5

-

10

1268

0

3

3

-

5

Total

361

129

1674

303

3800BC

Construction-trench 308 The upper fill (317) was stratigraphically later than the abandonment of Structure 1 and earlier than the Phase 1B activity and contained 10 sherds (58g) of Neolithic pottery. Of the 10 sherds nine were undecorated body sherds in granite and quartztempered fabrics with a dark and slightly burnished finish as seen in Early Neolithic pottery elsewhere (Gibson 1986, 11). One sherd may be part of an inturning neck. Alongside the undecorated material was a sherd decorated with whipped cord probably in a chevron pattern (Figure 21, 11). This is a small piece of a collar which in this context, is most likely to be Peterborough Ware, possibly of Fengate type. The granite fabric type conforms to other Neolithic wares on this site.

base of the lower fill (303) and a number of sherds retained burnt deposits on the interior. 267 sherds and fragments of the pottery were granite-tempered and 122 were in a very friable organic fabric. In the upper fill (97) 40 sherds and fragments (93g) were found. The thickness of the body sherds varied considerably between 6mm and 15mm within the same fabric and context and so it was not possible to judge how many vessels were originally present. The total weight in fabric type 4 for pit fill 303 (1.075kg) need only have represented the sherds of one vessel, but as a number of different rims are apparent, a minimum of eight vessels must have been deposited.

Phase 1B: Middle To Late Neolithic Pottery

The pottery is brown and grey in colour and undecorated with a good finish on most sherds, although some of the organic tempered material is very friable. Rims vary from thickened and everted (Figure 21, 1) to slightly everted (Figure 21, 2 and 3). A well-made rolled or beaded rim is also apparent (Figure 21, 4) and a body sherd which shows a shoulder or carination may be part of the same pot, as it has a very similar finish and is of the same granite-tempered fabric (Figure 21, 5). This is considered to be Grimston Ware of the Early Neolithic (Gibson 1986, fig. 2.3: Herne, 1988). All the pottery in these contexts is of Early Neolithic type and represents a number of undecorated round bottom bowls (Gibson and Woods 1997, fig. 127).

Construction-trench 308 In contexts 84 and 286, above 317, a further seven undecorated body sherds and fragments (24g) of Neolithic type were found. Sherds in 84 were granitetempered and in 286 were of volcanic fabric type. Post-setting 336 The fill of this feature (335) contained two body sherds of granite-tempered pottery. These were very friable, but are probably of Neolithic type. Hearth 267 The fill (93) of this hearth pit contained four friable sherds of undecorated pottery, with a rounded rim (Figure 21, 10). A date of cal BC 3015-2500 was recorded for this feature. The pottery appears to be Neolithic, but with volcanic-tempering it is more like the material from later phases.

Hearth 268 The fill (92) contained 27 sherds and fragments (107g) of pottery, including a small rounded rim sherd. All the material is very friable and represents Early Neolithic granite-tempered pots. 18

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC)

Figure 21: Neolithic Pottery

Gully 351 This gully lay below the construction-trench 311 of Phase 2A Structure 3 and the fill (352) contained three sherds of pottery. The pottery sherds are granitetempered and thin walled, two have a dark burnished surface and all are likely to be of Neolithic date.

Pit 445 This was located alongside the hollow way and was probably deliberately back-filled in a single event, represented by fill 428. Two sherds and three fragments of undecorated pottery, possibly Late Neolithic, were found in this context. 19

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Discussion of the Pottery

everted (Figure 21, 2 and 3) and rolled (Figure 21, 4 and 9), fit well into the early Neolithic Grimston style of pottery (Gibson 1986, fig. 2). A carinated body sherd (Figure 21, 5) is indicative of a shouldered bowl and such vessels are often considered to be special depositions. Pits seen to contain carinated bowls, as in this case, often also have other materials including flint and animal bone (Herne 1988, 26). Rounded rim sherds from hearth 295 (Figure 21, 6) and from hearth 268, are also from Early Neolithic bowls.

Grimston Ware The Grimston type pottery can be dated to the early/mid 4th millennium cal BC, as described for lower fill 303 of hearth 295.. Recent work on dating Peterborough Ware has concluded that this type of pottery falls between about 3400 and 2500 cal BC (Gibson and Kinnes 1997, 67). The previously considered stylistic ceramic sequence which put Fengate at the end of the Ebbsfleet/ Mortlake/ Fengate types could still hold true in some cases. Although in general Peterborough was later than the Neolithic bowl traditions, there was also some overlap and good reason to suppose that Fengate Wares were also to be found in the mid-4th millennium cal BC (ibid, 69).

Open bowls with thin walls and everted (Figure 21, 7) or rounded (Figure 21, 8) rims are typical of Neolithic pottery known from a number of sites. Usually these are more common in the southern areas of England, for example at Cherhill (Evans and Smith 1983, fig. 23) or Windmill Hill, Wiltshire (Smith 1965, figs. 16 and 17).

A date of 3975-3675 cal BC was obtained for hearth fill 303. Elsewhere, at sites in Derbyshire, dates of 38002900 cal BC at Aston on Trent (Smith 1974, 128) and 4350-3800 cal BC at Lismore Fields (Herne 1988, 19) have been obtained. This type of pottery therefore seems to have a long life probably beginning in the earlier 4th millennium BC and continuing for several hundred years and perhaps even for a millennium (Gibson 1986, 11; Smith 1974, 107). Three other rim sherds originated from finer walled pots, two with rounded rims (Figure 21, 6 and 8) and one with a slightly rolled rim and wall only 3mm thick (Figure 21, 7). In the upper fill (97) of hearth 295 a different but slightly rolled rim is also represented (Figure 21, 9).

Peterborough Ware The sherd of Fengate-type Peterborough Ware from the upper fill of construction-trench 308 is unusual in this area and of particular interest. No other Peterborough Ware has been found on the site. The date range for this type of pottery (3400-2500 cal BC) fits well with the later fills of Structure 1. Sherds in Phase 1B originated from a post-setting (336), hearth (267) and construction-trench (308) and sherds of undecorated Neolithic pottery were found in all these features. Hearth 267, also contained undecorated Neolithic pottery with a rounded rim type, but the tempering of this vessel was volcanic, more similar to the pottery types of later phases.

The sherds found in Phase 1A originated from the fills of two hearths (295 and 268) and a constructiontrench (308). All these features are thought to be associated with an Early Neolithic structure and are dated to 3975-3675 cal BC. The pottery deposited in these features was granite and organic-tempered indicative of the Neolithic period on this site (Appendix A).

The Neolithic Lithics by F F Wenban-Smith A total of 51 lithic artefacts were recovered from six Neolithic contexts, four of them from Phase 1A associated with Structure 1, one from Phase 1B associated with Structure 2 and the sixth from general Phase 1 from a linear feature underlying Structure 3 (Table 4).

Sherds are dark brown and grey and well-finished; some have a burnished surface and some sherds, particularly the organic tempered material, are friable. The rims and body are undecorated and the style of the rims, everted (Figure 21, 1), slightly Table 4: Lithic artefacts from Neolithic contexts Phase/location 1B, Structure 2 1A, Structure 1 1A, Structure 1 1A, Structure 1 1A, Structure 1 1, Structure 3 Total

Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

84 92 97 303 317 352

1 1 2

5 1 1 7

1 1

- (-) 2 (2) 12 (9) 4 (3) - (-) 2 (1) 20 (15)

1 (1, -) 2 (1, 1) 18 (4, 15) 5 (-, 4) 1 (-, 1) 3 (3, 2) 30 (9, 23)

20

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC)

Phase 1A – Structure 1

The artefact from the construction-trench fill (317) comprised a broken segment of a scale-flaked knife with a straight cutting edge and convex cortical backing on good quality glossy dark flint (Figure 22.i).

The lithic artefacts comprise one object from 317 (one of the fills of the construction-trench 308), one small assemblage from 92 (the fill of the internal hearth 268) and two larger assemblages from 303 and 97 (the lower and upper fills respectively of the adjacent internal hearth 295). Charcoal from both contexts 92 and 303 has been radiocarbon dated (Table 1).

The two artefacts from hearth fill 92 were undiagnostic flint waste flakes, one of them burnt. The assemblage from the lower fill (303) of hearth 295

Figure 22: Lithic Artefacts (i-viii) 21

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire consisted of four undiagnostic flint waste debitage from different raw material (three flakes and one blade) and one core, crudely flaked and made of coarse frost-fractured flint. The assemblage from the upper fill (97) was unusually rich in lithic artefacts, as well as pottery, most of the finds being present at the interface between 303 and 97. It contained debitage, several tools and a pecked stone with a high proportion of artefacts in fresh condition. The debitage included six blades, three of which were of good quality grey flint and refitted with each other (Figure 22.ii). These represent reduction of a pyramidal blade core which had already been sufficiently worked for none of the three blades to have any cortex and for them to show numerous scars from earlier blade removals. The first removal of the refitting group was from the base of the core and trimmed away from the core surface several step-fractures from a disastrous previous episode of knapping. This failure having been remedied, blade production continued from the original orientation. The refitting blades do not represent consecutive removals and the core from which they were knapped is not present either in the assemblage or in the other Neolithic assemblages. The missing debitage, presumably selected for tool manufacture, seems to have comprised fairly delicate blades 200-300mm long. One small flake (Figure 22.ii) also appears to have come from the same piece of raw material, probably representing platform preparation prior to removal of the blades, but does not refit. The other debitage is made from a range of raw materials including rolled flint pebbles and two different pieces of chert.

1A occupation of the structure when lithic manufacture and abandonment were more prevalent.

Phase 1 – Gully 351 A slightly ambiguous linear feature (352) underlying Phase 2A Structure 3 – a Bronze Age roundhouse – contained three artefacts, all of flint and all burnt. One was a broken segment of quite a large scale-flaked knife on a broad blade (Figure 22.viii) and the other two were waste debitage, one a small blade and the other a flake. The burning does not appear to have happened in situ judging from the lack of associated charcoal and other signs of burning, so the artefacts are probably residual evidence of the general Neolithic manufacture and use of lithic artefacts in this part of the site.

The Flint Scatter A scatter of material, thought at the time to be possibly Mesolithic, was identified in evaluation Trench 34D overlying natural gravel and not associated with any layer or feature. This was assigned to context 1342 and sieving was carried out to ensure maximum lithic recovery. A comparatively rich collection of lithic material was also recovered in Trench 34D from context 1348 which was the fill of a linear feature which ran across the side of the scatter; during the excavation this linear feature was identified as a Phase 5 ditch (277), which formed the division between rectangular enclosures A and B. Further sieving in this area during the excavation led to the recovery of more lithic material from the same scatter (contexts 213 and 479). These assemblages were studied together and refitting was attempted to try and ascertain the extent to which a single undisturbed scatter was represented and the relationship of the assemblage from the ditchfill 1348 with the adjacent scatter. When this material was examined together it was clear from the variety of raw material that numerous episodes of reduction were present and that the scatter did not represent undisturbed debitage from a single or few reduction episodes. The raw material comprised pebbles of flint and chert of great diversity in quality. The flint was predominantly translucent grey in shades ranging from light to dark and the chert was opaque dark grey to black. There were several pieces of raw material which looked sufficiently similar for them to have probably come from the same knapping sequence, but only two pairs of refitting artefacts were found. Two chert flakes from 1348 fitted together and two chert microlithic tools made on blades also fitted together, one from 1348 and the other from 1342. Since the ditch-fill 1348 cuts through the scatter layer 1342/479 this confirms that the ditch-fill assemblage includes material derived from the scatter and that the assemblages can be grouped as a single entity. The absence of further refits confirmed the impression gained from the raw

The tools from 97, none of which come from the same raw material as the refitting blades, include one serrated edge on a pointed scrap of coarse flint (Figure 22.iii) and a segment of a scale-flaked knife, now broken and burnt (Figure 22.iv). There is also an unusual tool made on good quality glossy dark flint retouched by scale-flaking along the sides and sharpened at the end by flaking up the ventral surface (Figure 22.v). This tool could have served as a small adze and been abandoned when it could no longer be sharpened further. The remainder of the tools are broken retouched parts which do not fit into specific categories. The pecked stone (Figure 22.vi) is an almost circular flattened pebble with a roughened patch caused by shallow pecking in the middle of one face and the opposing face smoothed by abrasion; it could have served as a hand-held grinding stone for use on a flat or slightly concave surface.

Phase 1B – Structure 2 A single burnt discoidal keeled core (Figure 22.vii) was recovered from 84, the uppermost fill of constructiontrench 308 and part of an intermittent occupation upper layer associated with a later phase of Structure 2. This was probably derived from the earlier Phase 22

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC) Table 5: Lithic artefacts from the sieved scatter Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

1342

2

8

-

48 (23)

58 (16, 54)

1348

2

2

-

9 (6)

13 (1, 11)

479

5

6

-

35 (17)

46 (8, 31)

213

-

1

-

3 (-)

4 (-, 4)

Total

9

17

-

95 (46)

121 (25, 100)

material variability that an undisturbed knapping floor was not represented.

are broken, have been blunted down one edge beneath a small notch which may have been part of the retouching or may have facilitated hafting; the other has been obliquely retouched at the end to form abrupt backing or a small scraping edge. One of the scrapers is double-ended with two opposed convex scraping edges (Figure 23.xi) and the others are less neatly worked opportunistic exploitations of scraps of flint. The scale-flaked knife/point stands out from the rest of the assemblage on account of its size, quality of working and quality of raw material. Both edges of a blade of very high quality translucent dark brown flint have been unifacially retouched by scale flaking, converging to form a point. The butt end of the tool shows a break, which could have been a tang.

The assemblages representing the scatter contained 121 artefacts, comprising 9 cores, 17 tools and 95 debitage (Table 5). The knapping debitage from the scatter comprised 37 flakes, 33 blades, 13 irregular waste, 10 spalls and 2 retouching flakes. Most of the debitage was flint and most of it was in fresh condition. The cores were all blade or bladelet cores apart from one made on very poor quality raw material, which was abandoned after removal of a single flake and one where due to poor quality raw material only flakes were produced, although blades or bladelets may have been intended. One of the blade cores was neatly worked and made on a flint pebble, with scars from the production of numerous blades (Figure 23.i) and the others involved the production of a few bladelets from suitably shaped scraps of quite good quality translucent grey flint (Figure 23.ii, iii).

Despite the prevalence of blade manufacture, the assemblage does not appear Mesolithic. The microlithic tools do not have typically Mesolithic forms, the overall proportions of tool-types do not correspond with typical Mesolithic collections, which are characteristically dominated by burins, microliths and end-scrapers and forms such as the finely scale-flaked knife/point are not present in the Mesolithic. Furthermore there is a complete absence of microburins from microlith manufacture despite intensive sieving. A total of 47 whole flakes and blades were present which was a sufficient sample for the distribution of their width/ length ratios to be compared with the framework for Early and Late Mesolithic, Early and Late Neolithic and Bronze Age debitage developed by Pitts (1978) and

A variety of tools were present including six retouched bladelets, two scrapers, two serrated blades (Figure 23.iv), one finely worked scale-flaked knife/point (Figure 23.v), one broken sharply pointed awl/borer (Figure 23.vi) and one small burin on a flake. The remainder of the tools were miscellaneous or broken retouched pieces. The assemblage was dominated by tools made on very similar chert (Figure 23.vii-x), possibly representing a single episode of reduction since two of them refit. Three of them, two of which

Table 6: Distributions of debitage - width: length ratios for Holocene cultural periods compared with the Oversley Farm scatter Period

0-0.2

0.2-0.4

0.4-0.6

0.6-0.8

0.8-1.0

>1.0

Early Mesolithic

1.0

34.5

26.0

15.0

9.5

14.0

Later Mesolithic

0.5

13.0

27.0

22.5

14.0

21.5

Early Neolithic

-

11.0

33.0

27.5

14.5

13.0

Later Neolithic

-

4

21.5

29.0

20.0

25.5

Bronze Age

-

3.5

14.5

23.0

23.0

35.5

Oversley Farm scatter

-

34.0

40.5

10.5

6.5

8.5

23

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 23: Lithic Artefacts (i-xi) Pitts and Jacobi (1979). Although not corresponding closely to any of Pitts and Jacobi’s distributions, the Oversley Farm scatter distribution (Table 6) is most similar to Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic samples with its peak at 0.4-0.6. The shape of the distribution is closer to the Early Neolithic, with the peak being sharper and higher than for the Late Mesolithic. The low quantity of debitage with high width: length ratios contrasts markedly with the Bronze Age. Healy (pers. comm) emphasises that Early Neolithic debitage can appear very Mesolithic-looking, but lacks the byproducts of microlith and tranchet axe manufacture, as is the case here. Overall the scatter appears to

relate to the Early Neolithic activity at the site. The mixture of tools, worked-out cores and debitage could reflect residual evidence of a location where tool-use and abandonment was accompanied by occasional knapping and tool-manufacture, or it could represent a location where lithic waste was occasionally dumped away from the main occupation or activity areas.

Discussion of the Lithics The Neolithic occupation of the site has not left much lithic evidence. The two main lithic assemblages attributable to the Neolithic are from hearth 295 within 24

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC) Structure 1, which has an Early Neolithic radiocarbon date (Table 1) and from the sieved scatter c.25m to the north of Structure 1, which has no independent dating, but can be linked with the Neolithic occupation on typological and technological grounds.

and scale-flaked edges were used in longitudinal cutting actions. The absence of silica gloss suggests cutting plant material was not involved. Although the presence of bladelet manufacture is well-recognised in Neolithic assemblages, tools made on bladelets are not usually regarded as typically Neolithic which is clearly an anachronism. The retouched bladelets from the sieved scatter would not in isolation have been characterised as Neolithic despite not appearing typically Mesolithic either. Their presence at the site suggests they were not projectile points, as these would probably have ended up off-site unless broken, and they are more likely to have been used hafted for precision cutting such as for leather-working; the retouched notch on several of them may have aided hafting. Overall the range of tools suggests varied domestic activity.

Overall the Neolithic exploitation of flint was fairly selective for raw material, with most artefacts made on pebbles of good quality dark grey/brown/black flint or chert. These would all have been locally available, either directly from the local glacial diamict, which would have contained raw material transported by glaciation from the Irish Sea direction, or from river terraces and channels containing material derived from the glacial diamict. The proportions of cores, tools and debitage suggest the import of unworked or minimally tested pebbles of raw material into the site where it was used as occasion demanded. The quantities of debitage and tools abandoned at the site suggests that flint working, tool-use and abandonment generally took place within the sphere of the site. The refitting debitage from Structure 1 suggests that cores were curated and maintained over a period of time, with occasional episodes of reduction when particular tools were needed.

THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE The Macro-Botanic Evidence by D W Shimwell Five samples were analysed from Phase 1A (Table 7) derived from possible hearths (295 and 229) and from post-setting 436. Pollen preservation was poor and mainly indeterminate, precluding a formal count.

The knapping technology included significant amounts of bladelet production, clearly shown by the refitting debitage from hearth-fill 97, as well as the use of discoidal keeled cores for the production of flatter flakeblanks. The tools included superficially microlithiclooking retouched blades, serrated-edge flakes and blades, scale-flaked knives, convex scrapers, a small burin and a possible adze. The functions of such tools have never been clearly established and many tools could have been used for multiple functions. Generally it is reasonable to assume and it has been supported by some use-wear studies that scrapers were used for scraping tasks such as cleaning hides and that serrated

There would appear to be two significant features of the environmental analyses of the samples from the Neolithic phases. First, the charcoal species are relatively constant in all contexts – hazel (Corylus), willow (Salix) and birch (Betula) in this order of frequency. This constancy implies some selective use of the three species in association with the function of the possible hearths, although it is equally possible that all three types could have been components of local natural scrub. If this latter

Table 7: Charred plant remains from contexts in Phase 1A Context 21

Context 43

Context 97

Context 230

Context 303

Hordeum polystichum

+

Bromus sp.

+

Polygonum aviculare

+

Spergula arvensis

+

+

Vicia sp.

+

Polygonum cf lapathifolium Corylus avellana

+ +

+

+

Betula sp.

+

+

Salix sp.

+

+

25

+

+

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire size (c.2-22mm). The condition of some of these fragments is fragile, and the predominant colour is white. Identification to species has not been possible, but it seems probable that the majority of this bone is mammal bone and based on the thickness of the cortical fragments one might expect that a mid range (in size) mammal is represented, that is sheep size. One bone from the sieved scatter (479) is a caudal vertebra from a medium sized mammal. The condition of the bone makes identification based on morphological characteristics very difficult, but it demonstrates the presence of medium sized mammals (sheep/goat) in Phase 1.

explanation was the case, then a greater diversity of forest-tree charcoals might be expected. Second, although the total complement of grain and seed is relatively small, it seems most probable that some of the possible hearths were used for the storage of an agricultural crop, specifically naked barley (Hordeum polystichum). Grains of emmer (Triticum dioccum) and/or bread wheat (T. compactum) might have been expected from deposits of this period (Goodwin, 1984) but none were found, perhaps due to the fact that barley would have been more suited to the local soil conditions. The weed seeds were all from plants typical of sandy soils, especially Corn Spurrey (Spergula arvensis).

INTERPRETATION OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD (PHASE 1)

The Organic Residues by S N Dudd and R P Evershed

It would appear that the earliest structural activity on the site can be attributed to the Early Neolithic, represented by a timber long-house with two internal hearth-type features and associated domestic material. A secondary area with a single structural element may represent another building, although the single reused post-setting may imply an upright timber, possibly with a ritualistic function, such as a boundary marker or totem pole – and its proximity to the Phase 2 hollow way may be relevant. If that is so, the associated hearth-type feature may have been used for an external fire, designed for the burning of offerings or other ceremonial purposes.

Figure 24 sets out the results of the analysis of organic residues on pottery sherds. From hearthfills 92 and 303 the results indicate that the majority of the vessels appear to have functioned as ‘cooking’ vessels, used to heat their contents over a fire. This process has accelerated the decay of lipid components entrapped within the fabric, as the overall level of preservation is not high. The distributions of lipid components indicates that the majority of the degraded animal fats derive from an ovine source, although it is not possible to differentiate between sheep and goat fat due to their compositional similarity.

Deposit 318 would suggest that after the long-house (Structure 1) went out of use there was a period of abandonment prior to deliberate infilling (deposit 317).

Overall, these analyses have provided substantial evidence for the use of the vessels in the processing of natural commodities derived from ruminant and more specifically ovine animal products. The meatconsumption at Oversley Farm in the Neolithic appears to have been dominated by ruminant, most likely ovine animals, with no evidence that animals were exploited for their milk.

A second phase of structural activity is represented by the construction of a second long-house (Structure 2). This is intriguing as it was on the same site and of the same dimensions as Structure 1, to the extent that some structural elements were reused (such as post-settings 310, 312 and construction-trench 336). Furthermore, the internal hearth arrangements of Structure 2 appear to mirror those of Structure 1 and the fact that the radiocarbon dates suggest these two structures are separated by up to a millennium raises interesting possibilities of considerable longevity of occupation. It may well be that features from Structure 1 (such as post-setting 310 and construction-trench 308), survived as hollows on the site after its abandonment, acting as markers for subsequent re-occupations of the site. If this was the case it would imply a desire to build Structure 2 as a reconstruction on the original walllines of Structure 1. The possibility that taphonomic processes or contamination may have led to an erroneous radiocarbon date for Structure 2 must, however, be considered.

Unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) have been observed in analyses of pottery samples from hearthfill 303. UCM are believed to consist of a range of oxidised lipid components resulting from extensive degradation of the original commodity processed in the vessel. It is hypothesised that these UCM may derive from highly unsaturated commodities, such as fish oil or plant oil. However, investigations into their formation are ongoing. A full account of the analysis is provided in Appendix C.

The Animal Bone by I R Smith The animal bone recovered from Phase 1 contexts consisted entirely of burnt bone fragments of small 26

The Neolithic Period (c.4300 – c.2100 BC)

Figure 24: Organic residue analysis on pottery sherds The evidence suggests that construction-trench 312 did not survive as a hollow and was, therefore, not visible on the surface by the time of Phase 1B. This may explain the alignment-shift between Structures 1 and 2, if post-setting 310 was mistakenly interpreted as the corner of Structure 1 (as opposed to a central roof-support) during the setting out of Structure 2. Alternatively, the focus for the alignments of Structures

1 and 2 may have shifted, or been completely different in each episode. The style of construction in the two buildings seems to differ greatly, with Structure 1 having deep-set timber construction-trenches and evidence for a post supporting the apex of the roof, whilst Structure 2 comprised wide shallow corner post-settings, probably 27

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire of structures, locally produced pottery and cultivation of a cereal (naked barley) as seen in the presence of charred seeds, including several species of crop weed. The albeit limited evidence provided by the residue analysis and burnt animal bone might also indicate animal husbandry, specifically maintenance of ovine (sheep/goat) animals.

functioning more as post-pads and little evidence for roof-supports. Also of interest is the evidence of primary charcoal lens-deposits in post-settings 313 and 336 of Structure 2, which may represent foundation-deposits derived from a ceremony prior to construction of the building. The internal layout of Structures 1 and 2 appears to repeat a pattern of one sub-circular and one subrectangular pit, each filled with a matrix which has been subject to the action of fire. This type of feature is common to the period and has been thought to have ritualistic origins (Thomas 1991, 75) often including finely crafted items and human remains, neither of which were present at the Oversley Farm site. Furthermore, it has been suggested that these pit-deposits embody some of the most basic activities of human social life (eating, drinking, cooking and burning fires) which may have served as a way of fixing a place in an otherwise transitional world (Thomas 1991, 76).

The lithic evidence lends further support to a domestic presence, primarily because of the evidence for flint working and tool manufacture immediately adjacent to the structures. The range of tools in use is also significant with scrapers and cutting tools usually associated with animal butchery and the primary treatment of hides; as well as boring tools often associated with the secondary working of skins and other raw materials. The overbearing importance of the Neolithic evidence presented in this chapter is in establishing a group of both ceramic and lithic artefacts derived from contexts which have been subject to a programme of scientific dating. As no comparable group of data exists for the early Neolithic in the North West this well dated artefact group will serve as a point of reference for future research in the region. At a glance it can be seen that the pottery types and forms identified are in concordance with the pattern of ceramic development established at a national level; however, analysis of the lithics technology has produced some unexpected results that may have implications for the interpretation and dating of future sites.

Comparisons of such long-houses can be found in both upland and lowland Britain at sites such as Crickley Hill, Gloucestershire (Dixon 1981, 145) and Fengate Cambridgeshire (Pryor 1974; 1978, 7-10). The nearest site is that at Lismore Fields near Buxton, Derbyshire, where three houses, each 3m x 5m were excavated (Parker Pearson 1993, 51) and which have been interpreted as ‘mortuary houses’ (Holgate 1988, 31-2). A domestic function for Structures 1 and 2 at Oversley Farm is considered even more likely given the criteria for a domestic site with evidence

28

CHAPTER 3 THE EARLY BRONZE AGE (c.2500 – c.1500 BC) PHASE 2A (Figure 25)

also produced charred plant remains including two varieties of cereal.

A linear hollow which probably formed during Phase 1 began to accumulate deposits and features during the EBA phase of the site. In Phase 2A this mainly involved evidence for a possible fence-line along part of the eastern edge of the hollow, the accumulation of fire-related deposits and the cutting of several enigmatic pits. Two sub-circular structures were also erected along the eastern edge of the site on a parallel axis with the hollow way. The phase was characterised by the presence of Beaker domestic pottery in some of the pit-fills and hollow way deposits, which were also associated with lithics including a barbed and tanged arrowhead. A small group of radiocarbon dates from the hollow way and structures corroborate with the ceramic evidence in assigning this phase to the EBA. Associated palaeoenvironmental evidence

The Stratigraphy Hollow way (378 and 578) (Figures 25-29) Including features 552, 579, 583, 445, 478, 486, 537, 555, 360, 857 and 928; Figures 25-36 and 54 The hollow way comprised a shallow linear depression, c.7.5m wide and 0.5m deep, which ran on an approximate north-to-south alignment for the entire length of the western edge of the excavationsite (c.300m). The feature survived to varying degrees along its length with several areas completely eroded by ploughing. Survival was greatest towards the middle and northern half of the site, where an

29

A

Figure 25: Site Plan, Phase 2

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire setting. Deposit 542 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 2330-1935 (Beta-133370).

uninterrupted length of some 75m was recorded. In this area a patchy metalled surface covered by primary silting deposits was identified, which in several places was cut by pits of varying size and function. The complexity of the stratigraphy in this phase has necessitated the division of these pits and deposits into a series of four horizons.

Pit-group 552 and 583 (Figures 25 and 36) Pit 552 had been cut into deposit 541 and comprised an oval bowl-shaped cut, c.7.5m to the south of deposit 542, 2.8m long, 1.7m wide and 0.3m deep, with irregular steep sides and an uneven base. The fill (551) consisted of a dark grey silt-sand interspersed with lenses of sand and charcoal and containing small water-worn pebbles, probably derived from the localised natural gravels. The nature of 551 would suggest that the pit had silted up naturally rather than being deliberately backfilled. Pit 583 was roughly equidistant from deposit 542 and pit 552 and comprised a shallow oval-shaped cut. The fill (574) consisted of a black charcoal-rich silt-sand with no inclusions and perhaps indicated the use of the pit as a fire-setting. As with pit 552 this feature had been cut into deposit 541.

Horizon 1 Hearth 416 and pebble surface 566 (Figures 25 and 26) The hollow way, where it survived best, exhibited a profile of gently sloping concave sides and a flat base. Lying at the base of the feature beneath the primary silt (377, 449, 454 and 541) was a localised patch of charcoal-rich silt-sand (416) (Figure 26). This survived as a roughly circular area 0.8m in diameter and 0.05m thick, containing fragments of heat-fractured stone. It is possible that this deposit represents a fire-setting, although it cannot be related to any structural features and is unlikely to be a domestic hearth. Broadly contemporary with 416 and 20m to the north, was an area of densely packed pebbles (566) which appeared to form a surface, 2.7m long and 1.1m wide. This may have been the remnant of a metalled surface which had once covered the base of the hollow way.

Pit-group 445, 478 and 486 (Figures 25, 31-33) Three pits were located to the east of deposit 542 and their alignment would suggest that they were sited along the edge of the hollow way (378/578). The most southerly of these pits (444/478) was sub-circular in shape, with a steep-sided profile tapering to a concave base. The deepest fill (438) in pit 478 comprised a black charcoal-rich sand-silt, which contained a high percentage of heat-fractured stone and some lithic artefacts, above which was a clean brown sand-silt deposit (481). Pit 478 had the appearance of a domestic hearth-type feature and lay c.4m to the south of a second sub-circular pit (486). This second pit had a flat base, on which were laid several fairly flat green mudstone slabs that may have functioned as a lining and were covered by a clean, light brown silt (429). The third pit (445) was located c.1m north of pit 486 and was also circular in plan, with a primary fill (482) of light grey silt-sand apparently formed by natural silting, which contained charcoal and lithic artefacts. Above this was a thick homogenous dark brown silt-sand (428) containing ceramic and lithic artefacts, which probably formed as a deliberate backfilling of the pit. Deposit 440 had formed over this pit-group area and consisted of a light brown sand, 0.1m thick, which had the appearance of being the result of natural silting.

Deposit 377, 449, 454 and 541 (Figures 26-29) The primary silting of the hollow way (377, 449, 454 and 541) was a pale grey silt-sand containing a small percentage of water-worn pebbles, which were probably derived from the localised natural gravel deposits. Small amounts of charcoal and heatfractured stone were also present in this deposit, which had formed in places to a depth of 0.3m. Horizon 2 Pit 579 and pebble surface 584 (Figures 25 and 35) Cut into the silt deposit (377, 449, 454, 541) and c.2m to the north of hearth 416 was a small squareshaped pit (579), which had a lining on the lower half of the sides and base of small water-worn pebbles. Above this was a dark grey silt-sand (580) containing occasional fragments of charcoal, heatfractured stone and collared-urn pottery. Adjacent to the pit was another patch of densely packed pebbles (584), this time set into deposit 449 and possibly functioning as a surface, covering an area 7m long and 3m wide.

Horizon 3 Midden 380 and 441 (Figures 26 and 30) A deposit of light grey sand (380) containing numerous inclusions of heat-fractured stone and water-worn pebbles sealed surface 584 and pit fill 580. This sand (380) had formed to a thickness of 0.12m, contained occasional charcoal flecks, lithic artefacts and sherds of EBA Beaker domestic pottery

Deposit 542 (Figure 25) Deposit 542 had formed above deposit 541 within the hollow way and comprised an irregular-shaped spread of black charcoal-rich silt-sand 1.5m long and 0.3m wide, which was possibly indicative of a fire30

Figure 26: North-facing sections through the Hollow Way

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

31

Figures 27-29: Sections through the Hollow Way

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

32

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 30: Distribution of pottery and lithics in midden (380/441)

Horizon 4

and Food Vessel. Deposit 441 lay above 380 in a discrete area 2m east-west and 1.2m north-south and was 0.1m thick. 441 comprised a dark grey sand-silt containing small pebbles, heat-fractured stone, abundant charcoal and artefacts including EBA Beaker domestic pottery (Figures 82-84) and an exquisite barbed and tanged flint arrowhead (Figure 90 (v)); the latter probably deliberately deposited rather than accidental loss (see lithics discussion below).

Deposit 110/499/575 (Figures 25, 27 and 28) Deposit 110/499/575 comprised a dark grey silt-sand covering an area within the hollow way (378/578) which was c.13m long, 4m wide and 0.15m thick and contained fragments of charcoal, small waterworn pebbles, lithic and ceramic artefacts; more specifically fragments of Collared Urn with a date range of 2200-1500 BC. The deposit had formed above pit-fills 551 and 574 as well as context 542 and marks the end of the Phase 2A activity in this part of the hollow way. Charcoal recovered from the wetsieving of a bulk sample from context 110 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 2135-1770 (Beta-127171).

Fence-line 585-588 (Figure 25) Stake-holes 585 – 588 were located towards the centre of the western edge of the site and formed an alignment along the eastern edge of the hollow (378/578), along with further possible stake-holes which were not excavated or recorded in any detail. Each stake-hole was 0.1m in diameter, 0.2m deep and contained a dark brown silt-sand fill (589 – 592), and had been cut into deposit 449 (Phase 1C) and sealed by deposit 534 (Phase 2B). The stake-holes would appear to be part of a fence-line delimiting the eastern edge of the hollow way.

Pit-group 928 and 857 (Figures 25 and 54) Pit 928 was located to the west of the hollow way towards the western edge of the excavation, and consisted of an oval-shaped feature (3 x 1.5 x 0.6m) with steep sides and a rounded base. The primary fill (930) was a deposit of yellow-brown silt-sand, above which was a charcoal-rich lens of black silt (929). The upper fill (931) comprised a dark grey silt-sand containing fragments of heat-fractured stone and this was cut by Phase 2B gully 901. The function of this pit remains enigmatic, but a primary function associated with storage may be likely. The charcoal-rich lens 929 could indicate that the pit was subsequently used as a convenient hollow in which to set a fire, or that the pit had been cleaned/sterilised by fire prior to reuse. A sample of charcoal recovered from

Pit-group 537, 553 and 555 (Figure 25) This pit-group was located towards the centre of the hollow way and cut through deposit 441. All three pits were sub-circular in shape, 0.2m deep, with steep sides and concave bases. Pit 537 had a diameter of 0.95m, pit 553 a diameter of 0.42m and pit 555 a diameter of 0.2m. The fills (538, 554, and 556 respectively) comprised a mid grey-brown sand-silt containing a few small pebbles. 33

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figures 31-36: Sections through Pits

no physical connection could be established due to an area of disturbance between the two deposits having destroyed key stratigraphic relationships. Ceramic artefacts including fragments of Collared Urn were recovered from 362, which were broadly contemporary with ceramics from 110/499/575.

charcoal-lens 929 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 2145-1760 (Beta-133372). Pit 857 lay to the south of pit 928 and was an oval-shaped cut (0.8 x 0.5 x 0.47m) with a funnel-like profile and a flat base. The primary fill (865) was a grey silt sand containing ceramic and flint artefacts, above which was a lens of charcoal (59) and an upper fill of brown silt-sand (58). This feature may possibly be a postsetting associated with a fence-line on the edge of the hollow way.

Pit 360 (Figures 25 and 34) Pit 360 comprised a circular-shaped feature, 1m in diameter, with a steep funnel-shaped profile, 0.45m deep, which was cut into deposit 362. The primary fill (364) consisted of a pale grey silt-sand which had formed on the sides and base of the pit to a thickness of 0.2m, and probably represents a period of natural silting. Above this was a dark grey silt-sand (363) 0.3m thick, which had a lens of charcoal at its upper horizon. The upper fill (233) overlay this charcoal

Deposit 362 (Figure 29) Deposit 362 was centred c.30m to the north of deposit 542 within the hollow way (378/578) and comprised a grey silt-sand, c.10m long, 7.5m wide and 0.22m thick. It is possible that this deposit is the same as 110/499/575 to the south, although 34

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) lens and comprised a brown silt-sand 0.2m thick. Contexts 363 and 233 are thought to be the filling of a post-pipe, 0.6m in diameter, within pit 360, which was defined by primary fill 364. A shallow linear scarp (368) 0.8m wide and 0.1m deep was seen to be running south from pit 360 for a length of at least 3m and may imply repeated traffic to and from the pit for reasons unknown. A charcoal-lens from the top of fill 363 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 2195-1885 (Beta-133367).

1 and 2. As with the Phase 1 structures Structure 3 had suffered from severe plough-damage to the extent that no associated surface-levels or even a complete building-plan survived. Indeed, the structure comprised a shallow curvilinear trench, which enclosed an oval-shaped area, 6m long and 4m wide, with a break on the eastern portion of its circuit, possibly implying an entrance. Construction-trench 311 (Figures 25 and 37-39) Construction-trench 311 consisted of a curvilinear gully, which had a circumference that extended uninterrupted for c.8m and enclosed an area 6m long and 4m wide. The sides were almost vertical and the base was flat, with terminals which simply petered-out as opposed to ending abruptly. The gully contained a single grey silt-sand fill (88) which had occasional inclusions of charcoal and heat-fractured stone, as well as ceramic and lithic artefacts, suggestive of some level of domestic occupation/activity.

Deposit 369 Deposit 369 lay above 362 and was located 4m to the north of pit 360, surviving to a thickness of 0.1m over an area 2.5m long and 0.7m wide. The deposit comprised a black silt-sand with frequent inclusions of charcoal and heat-fractured stone and presumably represents a fire-setting.

Structure 3 (Figures 25 and 37)

Including features 311, 301, 330 and 24; Figures 25 and 37-41

Pit 301 (Figures 25, 37 and 42) Within Structure 3 was a large sub-circular pit (301) 1.9m long, 1.5m wide and 0.3m deep, which had sides

This structure was located on the north-eastern edge of the site, c.6m to the north of Phase 1 Structures

Figure 37: Plan of Structure 3 35

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

ns

Figures 38-42: Sectio

36

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Pit 249 (Figures 25, 37 and 41) Pit 249 lay c.5m west of pit 330 and consisted of a circular cut, with a shallow bowl-shaped profile. The flat base was lined with a layer of water-worn pebbles (248) which may have formed a surface in the pit, the north-western half of which was overlain by a clean brown silt-sand (261). Above this lay a dark brown clay-sand (95), which contained fragments of charcoal, probably a deliberate backfill. On the southern edge of pit 249 was a sub-rectangular postsetting (260) (0.4 x 0.3 x 0.3m), which had steep sides, a flat base and was filled by (259) a brown siltsand with no inclusions. This pit may have been used for threshing cereals, the post-setting forming part of a superstructure associated with this activity.

that sloped at 45º to a concave base. The primary fill (302) was a thin band of dark brown clay-silt, 0.05m thick, which appeared to be the remains of an organic lining, originally possibly of leather or wood bark. Above this was a dark grey silt-sand deposit (89), c.0.3m thick, which contained fragments of charcoal and heat-fractured stone and probably represented deliberate backfilling once the pit had fallen into disuse. Pit 330 (Figures 25, 37 and 40) Pit 330 was located c.3m to the south of Structure 3 and comprised an oval-shaped cut, with almost vertical sides and a flat base. A light brown sandsilt (334) had formed as primary silting down the south-western side of the cut shortly after it had been excavated, possibly indicating that the pit was left open for a short time. Subsequently, a light brown silt-sand (331) was deposited in the pit and contained occasional charcoal fragments as well as lithic and ceramic artefacts including many sherds of comb decorated Beaker pottery. Overlying this was a homogenous silt-sand (83), which also contained ceramic artefacts.

Structure 4 (Figures 25 and 43; Plate 4)

Including features 321, 322, 241, 244, 245, 247, 251 and 256; Figures 25 and 43-51; Plate 4 This oval-shaped building was located c.40m to the south of Structure 3 and had no associated surfaces remaining due to extensive erosion from ploughing. Its complete ground-plan could not be ascertained

Figure 43: Plan of Structure 4 37

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Plate 4: Early Bronze Age (Phase 2A) Structure 4, looking east. Timber fence posts indicate the locations The Phase 5B ditch can be seen cutting across the circumference in the foreground.

of the post-settings and the circumference of the building is marked on the ground.

due to the later cutting of a Phase 5B field boundaryditch (186/269) which removed c.30% of the projected building-plan area. The building was identified through a broken line of six post-holes, suggesting an enclosed area 6.5m long and 5.5m wide and two stake-holes within the circumference which hinted at an internal partition. A possible hearth located towards the eastern side of the building could mark the original entrance. A further two post-holes to the east of this possible entranceway may represent a porch-type structure, although radiocarbon dating evidence makes the association of these features questionable.

cut. Furthermore, at the base of fill 123 was a flat mudstone fragment, possibly designed to act as post packing or a pad-stone for a timber post, whilst 122 and 120 contained reasonably large packing-stones. The fill (122) of post-setting 242 had a concentration of charcoal towards its base that produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 2135-1745 (Beta-133361). The remaining two post-holes on the north-western part of the arc (304 and 306) had been far more severely eroded by ploughing, but it was clear that they had a similar character with their respective fills (305 and 125) comprising a clean brown silt-sand. Porch (Figures 25, 43 and 47) Post-settings 245 and 256 lay c.1m east from the circumference of Structure 4 and directly opposite post-holes 247 and 242, which were thought to mark the entranceway to Structure 4. Post-hole 245 was filled with a dark brown sand-silt (119) containing ceramic and lithic artefacts. Post-hole 256 was more difficult to interpret as it had been severely disturbed by animal burrowing, to the extent that the original location of the post-setting was hard to establish. The fill (118) was a dark brown sand-silt with few inclusions other than the odd charcoal fleck. These post-settings may have formed an external feature such as a porch to Structure 4; if so a baffled entrance seems most likely as the gap between (245) and (256) is very

External wall-line (Figures 25, 43-46, 48, and 5051) The four post-holes on the eastern part of the arc (241, 242, 244 and 247) were all fairly similar in character, in that they often bore a central depression suggestive of a post-imprint. The primary fills (121,122,250 and 120 respectively) were consistently a dark brown sand-clay, containing occasional fragments of heatfractured stone, charcoal (including hazelnut shell), burnt animal bone, ceramic and lithic artefacts. Other than this, minor differences did occur with post-hole 241 containing a post-pipe (240) which was identified as a dark grey charcoal-rich deposit up to 0.3m in diameter and depth, centrally situated within the 38

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figures 44-54: Sections 39

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire narrow. The fill (119) of post-setting 245 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 1705-1390 (Beta127173) which was derived from charcoal recovered from the wet sieving of a bulk sample.

This phase is characterised by the appearance of two oval or sub-circular structures along the eastern edge of the site, each of which was some 40m to the east of the hollow way. Interestingly, Structures 3 and 4 were also about 40m apart suggesting some intended symmetry to the layout of the site during this phase, which is further supported by the apparent preference for an easterly aligned entranceway. Notably, the alignments appear to respect the hollow way, providing further evidence for its early origins. In satisfying the criteria for settlement it can be noted that this phase contained evidence of permanent structures, locally-made pottery and two varieties of cereal-crop (naked barley and emmer wheat). To this can be added the presence of a saddle-quern fragment, indicative of grain processing.

The later date for fill 119 may indicate that it was not associated with Structure 4, although the possibility that it took longer to form than fill 122, or was subsequently contaminated by animal-burrowing cannot be ruled out. Interestingly, the latest date for post-setting 242 of cal BC 1745 and the earliest date for post-setting 245 of cal BC 1705 are separated by a time span of 40 years, which is an acceptable lifespan for a timber building of this type. Internal partition (Figures 25, 43 and 52-53) Stake-holes 321 and 322 lay within Structure 4 towards its northern edge, each being filled with a dark brown silt-sand (314 and 315 respectively). This pair of features is thought to represent a partition-wall within the building.

The constructional techniques employed for Structures 3 and 4 appear to differ in several ways. First, Structure 3 (6 x 4m) is slightly more narrow and smaller than Structure 4 (6.5 x 5.5m) and had a continuous construction-trench slot probably designed to hold a wall of upright planks, whilst Structure 4 relied on a series of ground-set upright posts, presumably infilled with wattle-and-daub panels. Second, Structure 3 had its long axis aligned north-south with the entranceway on the eastern side wall, whilst Structure 4 had its long axis on an east-west alignment, with the entrance in the eastern end-wall. Finally, the entranceway in Structure 4 was 1.6m wide and possibly had an additional porch area (1.5m by 1.5m square) in front of it to the east, and an internal domestic hearth inset 1.2m to the west. Structure 3, however, may have had an entranceway up to 4m wide, with no porch-like embellishments and no evidence for internal hearthsettings. It is also noteworthy that Structure 3 had a cluster of pits and a flint-scatter associated with it, implying that various craft-type activities were being undertaken in its vicinity.

Hearth 251 (Figures 25, 43 and 49) Hearth 251 comprised an oval-shaped pit aligned on a north-east to south-west alignment, being equidistant from post-holes 242 and 247 by c.0.9m. The profile suggested a stepped cut, which had a primary fill (254) comprising a dark brown sandsilt containing a density of charcoal that produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 2130-1765 (Beta-133366).The hearth contained a broken fragment of a saddle quernstone, placed on end against the side of the pit; a flat cup-marked stone which had been placed face down on the base of the pit; and a rim-sherd from a pygmy cup. This deposit was sealed by a lens of clean yellow clay (253) 0.05m thick, which in turn was covered by a dark grey charcoal-rich silt-sand (124/252) containing heat-fractured stone.

Interpretation of Phase 2A

Elements of ritualism may be associated with Structure 4 from the primary fill (254) of possible hearth 251, given the collection of three deliberately-placed unusual objects. The objects comprised a fragment of quernstone (which could have been deliberately broken or may have been reused, as it resembles crude EBA stone-hammers found at Alderley Edge which are associated with copper-mining activity – S. Timberlake pers. comm); a flat blue/green stone with two cup-marks pecked into it (which had been placed face down to conceal the decoration); and a decorated rim-sherd from an accessory cup. The intended concealment of these objects was further implied by the capping of 254 with a deposit of clean yellow clay (253), effectively creating a false bottom to pit/hearth 251.

Phase 2A sees the start of activity in the hollow way on the western side of the excavation site which appears to begin with evidence for fire-settings, patches of metalling and pitting, possibly designed for temporary storage purposes. Although the earliest radiocarbon date from this area is calibrated to c.2100 BC the hollow way must have formed prior to this date, given that it would have taken the passage of a considerable amount of traffic to create. The hollow way may therefore have earlier origins serving as a track or droveway for the movement of livestock to a crossing-point on the Bollin River, possibly at Oversley Ford, which the site overlooks. In fact the hollow way could well be the earliest feature on the site with its north-to-south alignment forming the orientation for the various structural elements during the prehistoric period.

It is hard to find comparisons for structural elements to domestic sites of this period. However, one 40

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) extremely close comparison exists at Belle Tout, Sussex (on the south coast near Beachy Head) which the excavator suggested was a continuouslyoccupied Beaker settlement (Bewley 1994, 67). This site had evidence for several oval houses, including house 4, which was c.6m long, 4.5m wide and built with a continuous construction-trench; and house 6, which was built with post-holes and was c.5m long and 4m wide. Interestingly, house 4 at Belle Tout, which demonstrates the same building-techniques as the Oversley Farm Structure 3, was surrounded with pits, knapping/working areas and external hearths suggestive of craft-type activities. House 6 from Belle Tout may be favourably compared to Oversley Farm Structure 4, as it had an apparent entranceway in its southern end-wall, although it contained small internal knapping/working and was possibly thought to be a workshed as opposed to a house (Bradley, 1970).

hypothesis may apply to the Phase 2A occupation at Oversley Farm with Structure 4 comprising the domestic dwelling and Structure 3 the associated workshop. Two of the radiocarbon determinations from these structures give very similar dates of approximately 2130-1750 cal BC, and a third could just overlap with the end of this range. These dates would fit well with the Beaker pottery recovered from this phase, which has been suggested to be late in the development of Beaker type ware (see ceramics discussion below). Corroborative dates were obtained from pits and deposits associated with the hollow way, which also fall within the general range of 21301750 cal BC.

PHASE 2B (Figure 55) Phase 2B probably represents the high point of the prehistoric evidence from Oversley Farm, not only due to the wealth of artefactual material, but also because of the well-stratified structural features, the comprehensive suite of radiocarbon dates and the detailed palaeoenvironmental information. The activity in this phase is centred on the hollow way, further highlighting its importance to the community occupying the site. The palaeoenvironmental data suggests that an open landscape prevailed around Oversley Farm during this phase, the natural vegetation being a hazel/alder/birch scrub, with a marked absence of primeval or modified woodland. Elevated counts for grasses, heaths, bracken and cereals were strong indicators of open pastoral and arable conditions in the immediate vicinity and this was supported by the relatively restricted number of weed species indicating a reduction of diversity through human occupation. No evidence for stock-enclosures or fieldsystems was recovered suggesting a predominantly open heath-type environment conducive to freerange grazing. Presumably areas set aside for the growth of crops would need to have been delimited and protected by barriers; since nothing definite has been identified hedges may perhaps be imagined at Oversley Farm as they would leave little trace in the archaeological record. As with Phase 2A there would appear to be two main house-type buildings, one a round structure associated with a midden-deposit and the other rectangular and having evidence for an internal floor and occupation-layers. The additional evidence for two smaller subsidiary structures may be due to better preservation in this area of the site.

A range of other examples exist for these structures in a Beaker period context, including a possible oval house excavated at Flamborough, Yorkshire (Moore 1964, 196) and two circular huts excavated at Gwithian, Cornwall (Christie 1986, 84) with diameters of 4.5m and 3.6m, each of which had evidence for an entrance porch and central hearth. The Cornish examples represent two phases of occupation at the same site, were associated with pottery and saddlequern fragments and may have been contemporary with an adjacent field-system. Another site at Northton on the Isle of Harris (Hebrides) produced evidence of two oval structures, the better preserved of which was 8.5m long and 4.2m wide. It was suggested by the excavator that the structure may have originally been covered by a tent or upturned boat (Dyer 1990, 91). From these examples it would appear that there are certain recurring themes to Beaker period buildings, namely the oval shape and their relatively small dimensions. The suggestion that the covering to such structures may have been an upturned boat might account for these factors. The upturned boat idea is lent credence by the fact that all of the above examples are located in coastal positions where boats would have been an important feature of everyday life. Oversley Farm being an inland site is an exception to this, although the River Bollin may have made the need for small boats equally valid. Alternatively, the oval structures may be part of a structural tradition designed to mimic the shape of a boat, or based on the same constructional technology as boat-building. Without the luxury of Beaker period boats for comparison one can only speculate.

The Stratigraphy Structure 5 (The round structure)

As a hypothesis, it has been suggested that a standard Bronze Age farming-household consisted of two houses, the main one usually being for domestic occupation and the other, subsidiary house, reserved for cooking and craft-type activities, such as textile production (Parker Pearson 1993, 105). This

Including features 901, 861 and 872; Figures 26 and 55-57 This structure was located towards the centre of the western limit of excavation and immediately to the 41

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 55: Site Plan, Phase 2

gully that formed 40% of the arc to a circle, 12.5m in diameter, broken by a gap of 2m along its eastern edge and connected to linear trench 861 to the south. The fill (900) was a mid grey silt-sand containing small pebbles and towards the base a patchy concentration of charcoal fragments that produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 1975-1635 (Beta-133371). In some sections of 901, a primary fill of redeposited natural sand (906) had formed on the inner edge and base of the cut. B

west of the hollow way. It differed from the earlier structures in that some stratigraphy survived above and below the structural elements of the building, albeit truncated by activity associated with the much later construction of a Roman road (Chapter 5). Only half of the building plan was recorded within the area of excavation and further investigation to the west would have been fruitless, as it had been demonstrated during the evaluation stage that levels beyond the excavation area in that direction had been removed during the first runway development c.1935. Structure 5 comprised an interrupted circular trench with an internal diameter of 12.5m, to the inside of which had been deposited a low bank of sand, the top of which was punctuated by various post-settings marking a timber wall-line. Enclosed by this slot and bank-perimeter was a floor surface, 10m in diameter, towards the centre of which was one large postsetting, presumably originally accompanied by three others and designed to support the roof. The gap that existed in the eastern section of the wall-line may have indicated the location of an entranceway and a shallow channel running away to the south, may represent a gully/drain.

To the west of trench 901 lay a deposit of pale grey silt-sand (907) containing small amounts of charcoal and water-worn pebbles. This formed a low enclosing bank 1.5m wide and 0.2m thick, which probably represented the upcast from the excavation of trench 901. Cut into the top of deposit 907 was a narrow irregular curvilinear trench (917) which mirrored the course of slot 901 and was 0.2m wide and 0.25m deep. The base of 917 was interrupted by circular stake-holes (0.1 x 0.1m) every 0.15m and larger post-settings (0.4 x s0.3m) every 2.2m, all of which were filled with a pale grey sand-silt fill (916). Drain 861 (Figures 55-56) Drain 861 was a linear feature on a north-south alignment, at least 8m long, 0.38m wide and 0.1m

Construction-trench 901 (Figures 55-57) Construction-trench 901 comprised a curvilinear 42

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 56: Plan of Structures 5 and 6

deep, with shallow concave sides and a rounded base. The trench was cut into deposit 835 and filled by a mid grey/brown silt-sand (860), containing small pebbles and a single sherd of pottery; it ran from construction-trench 901 southwards to the hollow way and presumably acted as a drain for surfacewater running into the eaves-drip of Structure 5. Post-hole 872 (Figures 55-56) Post-hole 872 was located within the arc of construction-trench 901; it was circular with a diameter of 0.8m and a depth of 0.2m and had steep sides and a rounded base. The primary fill (879) was a light grey sand with flecks of manganese, above which was dark grey brown sand-silt (871) containing small pebbles. This post-hole was cut into deposit 835 and probably indicates the setting of a roof-support within Structure 5.

Figure 57: Section through construction-trench 901 have been a frame for the treatment of hides or textile manufacture, and its position between Structures 5 and 8 might also suggest a communal usage. Post-holes 838, 840, 843, and 853 (Figures 55-56) Post-holes 838, 840, 843, and 853 were circular in plan with diameters of 0.24m, average depths of 0.3m and a profile comprising vertical sides tapering to a rounded base. Each post-hole was filled with a dark grey silt-sand (855, 841, 856, and 844 respectively), containing occasional charcoal fragments and small pebbles.

Structure 6 (A four-posted square building)

Including features 838, 840, 843 and 853; Figures 55-56; Plate 5 This structure was located 5m to the north of Structure 5 and immediately west of the hollow way. Its buildingplan consisted of a square four-posted structure with dimensions of 1.4m east-west and 1.4m north-south. These structures are often interpreted as granary buildings designed so that the floor is raised off the ground on the four corner-posts in order to keep the grain dry and well ventilated. The small size of Structure 6 may be indicative of relatively small yields of cereals from the vicinity, although an alternative function may

Post-hole 893 (Figure 56) Roughly equidistant from Structures 5 and 6 was a single post-hole (893), which was 0.53m in diameter and 0.23m deep, with steep sides and a concave base. This was filled with a dark grey sand-silt (894) which contained small pebbles. 43

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Plate 5: Early Bronze Age Structure 6, looking south.

Structure 7 (A possible four-posted granary building)

The structure was defined to the north, south and east by a group of five substantial post-holes, whilst the western side could not be proven due to severe waterlogging on the site during the excavation. An internal sand and gravel floor-surface appeared to have been preserved on the eastern side of the structure, together with an associated pit. Post-holes 506 and 520 and pit 545 were cut into Phase 2A deposit 575.

Including features 818 and 926; Figure 55

Another structure which might have been similar to Structure 6 is represented by post-holes 818 and 926, located 20m to the south of Structure 5. The spacing of these posts could suggest a square fourpost structure 2.2 x 2.2m. Post-holes 818 and 926 were each 0.4m in diameter and 0.3m deep, having steep sides and a flat base. The fills (819 and 927) comprised a dark grey-brown silt-sand containing small water-worn pebbles, and fill 819 also contained large angular stones, possibly representing packing material, which included a fragment of a saddle quernstone laid flat on the base of the cut. The quernstone (Figure 97.2) might have been a ritualistic deposit, possibly a foundation-offering to protect the overlying superstructure and the object may hint at a granary-function for the building.

Eastern wall-line (Figures 55 and 58-61) The eastern side of the structure was defined by post-holes 506 (Figure 59), 511 (Figure 60) and 520 (Figure 61). The most southerly of these, post-hole 511, was a sub-circular-shaped cut with a primary fill (510) of light grey silt containing two large sub-angular stones and occasional charcoal flecks, above which was a clean mid-brown silt (502). Post-hole 520 lay 2m to the north of post-hole 511 and comprised a circular cut, the primary fill (521), a light grey silt-sand with abundant charcoal inclusions, while the upper fill (505) was a clean mid-brown sand-silt (very similar to the upper fill (502) of post-hole 511). Approximately 3m north of 520 was an oval-shaped post-hole 506, which had stepped sides and a flat base. The primary fill (576) was a pale grey sand-silt, 0.37m thick, which contained a high percentage of small pebbles and which was overlaid by a lens of red-brown silt-sand

Structure 8 (Figure 58)

Including features 506, 511, 520, 558, 607, 517, 518 and 545; Figures 55 and 58-64 Structure 8 comprised a rectangular structure, 5m east-west and 6m north-south, located within the hollow way, 12.5m to the north-east of Structure 6. 44

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 58: Plan of Structure 8 (536). Above this was part of layer 464 that had slumped into the top of pit 506. The profile of posthole 506 implied that the post setting was recut or the timber replaced while Structure 8 was still in use.

into the general structural pattern. Circular pit 545 was 1m to the north-west of post-hole 511 and the primary fill (546) was a mid grey sand-silt containing sherds of EBA pottery and worked flint. Fill 547 lay above this and comprised a dark brown silt-sand containing occasional pieces of charcoal and small pebbles. Pit 545 may have functioned as an internal storage-pit, subsequently backfilled with domestic waste. Cuts 517 and 518 comprised circular features, filled with a clean grey-brown silt. They probably represented stake-holes associated with an external timber feature, such as a fence-line.

Northern wall-line (Figures 55 and 58) The northern wall-line was represented by an ovalshaped post-hole (558) which was 0.95m long, 0.75m wide and 0.3m deep. The profile was of a steep-sided cut tapering to a concave base, on which had been set mudstone fragments to form a post-pad. The fill (559) was a dark grey sand-silt containing common charcoal inclusions and fragments of mudstone. A second smaller post-hole 560 appears to have been cut on the western edge of 558, also having a circular shape (0.4 x 0.3 x 0.3m) and tapering profile. This second feature appears to have been subsidiary to the main structural elements of the building and may represent a doorpost indicating the location of an entrance threshold.

Internal floor surfaces (Figure 28) Layer 500 was a spread of light brown sand covering an area 10m north-south and 2m east-west, sealing Phase 2A deposits 440 and 575 and cut by postholes 511, 517 and 518. It is possible that 500 represents a floor-surface associated with Structure 8, or a levelling deposit laid down immediately prior to its construction. Above this, a deposit of red-brown silt-sand (432) covered most of the internal area of Structure 8 to a thickness of 0.1m and contained occasional charcoal flecks and small pebbles.

Southern wall-line (Figures 55 and 58) Post-hole 607 represented the southern wall-line and comprised a sub-circular cut, 0.7m in diameter and 0.3m deep and the fill (608) comprised a dark grey sand-silt. It might have been anticipated that a posthole should have existed between 511 and 607, but the location of this possible feature was inaccessible to excavation and so its existence could not be proved.

Abandonment deposits (Figure 28) Deposit 432 and upper fills 502, 505, and 547 were covered by layer 501/532/463 which comprised a black charcoal-rich silt covering the area of Structure 8. Charcoal recovered from a bulk sample of layer 501 produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal BC1965-1680 (Beta-133369). This was overlain by layer 464/465/528/593 (also covering upper fills 503, 504, and 536), which consisted of a dark

Associated features (Figures 55, 58 and 62-64) Cuts 517 (Figure 62), 518 (Figure 63) and 545 (Figure 64) were associated with Structure 8, but did not fit 45

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figures 59-65: Sections 46

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) grey silt-sand with occasional inclusions of burnt animal bone, sherds of pottery and charcoal that produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 1890-1680 (Beta-133368). These deposits must have accumulated after Structure 8 had either been dismantled or collapsed as they form the upper fills to several of the structural elements of the building, and the occurrence of domestic waste within them implies a continued domestic presence in the vicinity.

pits. These pits may have been working-hollows or storage-areas, and although specific functions could not be discerned in them, their proximity to the north-eastern edge of the midden-deposit and their equidistance from Structures 5 and 8 may be relevant. Midden deposit 359, 425, 455, 475 and 1204 (Figures 26, 30 and 66) Located 2m to the east of Structure 5 within the hollow way (378/578) was a layer of black charcoal-rich sand-silt (359/425/455/475) covering an area 19m north-south and 7m east-west. This layer contained a high percentage of heat-fractured stone, pottery, lithics, fired clay and burnt animal bone. Charred seeds recovered from samples of 359 included naked barley and emmer wheat, as well as ten varieties of crop-weed species, suggesting that cereals were being cultivated near the site (Appendix D). The occurrence of seeds from Meadowsweet would suggest its use as a strewing herb, possibly on the floor of Structure 5, or for some domestic purpose, such as the flavouring of mead.

Hollow way

Including features 514, 516 and 458; Figures 26-28 and 65-66 During Phase 2B a complicated sequence of deposits including Structure 8 and a spread of midden-type material that was deposited to the east of Structure 5 accumulated in the linear hollow. The midden deposits produced a large assemblage of EBA pottery and lithics, as well as well preserve pollen giving a valuable insight into the environment at this time. Deposit 534/1225 (Figure 26) The lowest deposit (534) in this phase of the hollow way 378/578 was a light grey-brown silt-sand, which covered an area 26m north-south and 2.1m eastwest, located to the east of Structure 5. Layer 534 overlay the Phase 2A stake-holes 585 to 588 and deposits 380 and 441.

This midden produced nearly 1000 sherds and fragments of pottery, which account for over 53% of the prehistoric pottery recovered from the entire excavation (Figure 66). Amongst this assemblage was a dazzling array of vessel forms and decorative styles including parts of: 3 accessory cups; 4 Food Vessels; 64 Collared Urns; and 4 Deverel-Rimbury type bucket urns. A total of 83 lithic artefacts produced from a large variety of raw materials were also recovered from this deposit (Figure 30), again proving to be one of the most prolific contexts on the site.

Pit-group 514 and 516 (Figures 55 and 65) Pit 516 comprised a sub-rectangular-shaped cut aligned north-east to south-west located on the northern edge of deposit 534. The fill (515) consisted of a mid grey silt-sand with occasional inclusions of charcoal and heat-fractured stone. A circular area of red-brown silt-sand (582) with a high percentage of small pebbles (possibly a fragment of a metalled surface) was located immediately to the south of pit 516. This was covered by a mid-brown silt-sand (571), covering exactly the same surface-area as 582. The southern end of pit 516 was cut by circular pit 514, which was filled a deposit of mid-brown silt-sand with occasional inclusions of charcoal, burnt animal bone and heat-fractured stone (513). Deposit 567 lay to the south of pit 514 and partially above deposit 571, consisting of a mid-brown silt-sand containing pebbles, heat-fractured stone and possibly making up another isolated patch of metalled surface. Above 567 was a mid grey sand-silt (570) covering the same surface area.

Deposit 359 was sampled during the evaluation (as context 1204) and produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 1875-1805 or cal BC 1795-1525 (Beta113151). The two calibrated date-ranges suggested two distinct phases of use; so more detailed stratified sampling was undertaken and dating of the upper and lower horizons of this layer attempted. The upper horizon of deposit 359 produced the standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 1965-1630 (Beta-127180), whilst the lower horizon produced the standard radiocarbon date of cal BC 1985-1660 (Beta-127181). It may be reasonable to deduce from this that deposit 359 was formed during a date range of cal BC 1875-1630. Pit 458 (Figures 26, 55 and 56) Within the area defined as the midden-deposit (359, 425, 455, 475) was a sub-rectangular pit 458, aligned on a north-south axis. This pit appeared to have been cut into layer 359 and the up-cast (376) had been deposited on the western side of the pit where it had remained as a low bank of pale grey

These pits and associated deposits are rather enigmatic, but pit 516 appears to be associated with surface 582 and deposit 571, while pit 514 is linked to surface 567 and deposit 570. This raises the possibility that the associated deposits represent the up-cast from the excavation of each of the successive 47

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 66: Reconstruction of the site in the Early Bronze Age with Structures 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10 (by Graham Sumner)

had some association with the entrance to Structure 5 is uncertain.

sand and gravel (2.7 x 1.4 x 0.22m), which sealed part of Phase 2A layer 454. The crest of this bank had subsequently been overlaid by a deposit of black charcoal-rich silt-sand (382), the character of which was similar to midden-deposit 359/425/455/475. A second stage of up-cast (381) appears to have been deposited above 382, giving the original bank an increased height to 0.5m and this was probably derived from the re-excavation of pit 458. This deposit (381) was a clean light grey sand which contained occasional sherds of pottery and appears to have slumped into pit 458 after its re-excavation, suggesting that it had remained open for a short time. The sequence of deposition in the pit and on the associated bank implies that the pit had initially been used and subsequently filled with something other than the original up-cast and that this backfill, once re-excavated, was used to increase the size of the original bank while new material was imported to fill the open hole. This would point to a possible function for the pit as a storage-area, reused on at least one occasion, although the pit could also merely be a quarry for material to create the bank. Whether the bank had a function delimiting the edge of an area such as the midden, or possibly

Interpretation of Phase 2B This phase of the site was concentrated around the central portion of the hollow way where three distinct structural features could be discerned. The largest of these was Structure 5 which comprised a roughly circular building, which would have had walls made of wattlework, of a type that can be paralleled on later prehistoric sites such as Danebury, particularly house-type 2, epitomised by building CS20 (Cunliffe 1993, 60-62). A possibly more relevant comparison for the building-type can be seen in the EBA house at Gwithian, Cornwall, which had a floor-space in excess of 100sq.m and a doorway that faced to the south (Parker Pearson 1993, 10). The most interesting aspect of Structure 5 is its close association to the midden-area within the hollow way, which produced the same range of radiocarbon dates as slot-fill 900. The fact that the midden was directly in front of the postulated eastern entrance of Structure 5 implies that the deposit and the structure are closely related and it is noteworthy that despite the survival of internal 48

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) deposits within Structure 5, no domestic debris was recovered from the building.

suggest a communal usage. Structure 7 existed to the south and is associated with a fragment of saddle quernstone. This second building was larger and may thus be a more likely contender for a granary.

Comparisons can be drawn with Belle Tout where the pattern that emerged on that site was that the interiors of the structures contained little or no refuse, while the associated debris occupied a midden outside (Bradley 1970, 333). The largest midden at Belle Tout was positioned against the entrance to the surrounding enclosure-ditch, leading to the conclusion that the domestic rubbish could thus be taken out to spread on the arable fields located to the east (Bradley 1970, 362). At Oversley Farm the midden was sited on a long-established track or droveway and environmental evidence demonstrated its close proximity to arable fields. Thus a similar process of the stock-piling of rubbish for use in manuring could be postulated. If this midden was being intermittently removed to the fields and subsequently fresh waste was being deposited, this could explain the fragmentary state of the pottery assemblage where only a handful of sherds from any one vessel are represented. It would also explain the range of possibilities offered for the radiocarbon dating, as vestiges of any one midden deposit would probably linger after the bulk of the material had been removed for manuring, and would subsequently be subsumed by a new midden deposit.

With reference to the criteria for settlement, Phase 2B produced evidence for permanent structures, locally produced pottery and two varieties of cereal crop (naked barley and emmer wheat). However, to this may be added a wealth of additional environmental information recovered from the midden, which produced a good pollen count, with associated charred seeds and macro-remains. The combined data suggests that an open landscape prevailed around Oversley Farm during this phase, the natural vegetation being a hazel/alder/birch scrub, with a marked absence of primeval or modified woodland. Elevated counts for grasses, heaths, bracken and cereals were strong indicators of open pastoral and arable conditions in the immediate vicinity and this was supported by the relatively restricted number of weed species indicating a reduction of diversity through human occupation. The added presence and dominance of plantains could also be seen as a clear indicator of trampled and disturbed ground. The combined evidence would argue strongly in favour of the Phase 2B site being a permanently occupied farming settlement and Figure 66 presents a reconstruction of the site at this time.

Structure 8 was the second largest building in the group and was rectangular in shape, being constructed from earth-fast timber posts and sited on the hollow way. Within this building was evidence for a sand and gravel floor-surface, above which had accumulated layers mainly characterised by high percentages of charcoal and containing small amounts of domestic rubbish. The main internal feature of Structure 8 was a pit which had been backfilled with domestic rubbish and was probably originally intended for storage. Its small size, however, suggested a low capacity for bulk-storage of material such as grain and it possibly supported an upstanding wicker basket, as evidenced by some of the charcoal samples analysed from the site. Belle Tout structure 5 offers a good comparison for this building (Bradley 1970, 328) and a domestic function seems to be inferred.

The appearance of a group of seemingly contemporary structures directly on top of the hollow way in Phase 2B requires some explanation. The arrangement of the buildings appears to be fairly ad hoc, but activity does appear to have been centred on Structure 5 and the adjacent midden (359). It would seem likely that there was a desire on the part of the builders to be connected with the hollow way: possibly either to control traffic using it; or because it had powerful ritual significance as suggested by the deposition of artefacts like the arrowhead in Phase 2A. Whatever the reasons for this development the hollow way must have continued to function as a route-way and this is borne out by the subsequent treatment of the feature in Phase 2C.

PHASE 2C (Figure 67)

The other buildings in this phase were Structures 6 and 7 which had the appearance of small four-posted rectangular structures for which many analogies exist. These structures are often interpreted as granary buildings designed so that the floor is raised off the ground on the four corner-posts in order to keep the grain dry and well ventilated. The small size of Structure 6 may be indicative of relatively small yields of cereals from the vicinity, although an alternative function may have been a frame for the treatment of hides or textile manufacture, and its position between Structures 5 and 8 might also

This was the final phase of EBA activity on the site and was highlighted by a paucity of structural evidence. The main feature of this phase was the construction of a compact area of metalling in the base of the hollow way, which ran for a significant length as an uninterrupted surface, a fence-line, a gully, various pits and associated deposits. Isolated deposits formed above this surface, whilst intermittent and patchy resurfacing appears to have been undertaken randomly thereafter. 49

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 67: Site Plan, Phase 2

C

The Stratigraphy

of charcoal and heat-fractured stone, over which the upper fill (239) consisted of a clean light grey siltsand.

Hollow way and associated features

Including features 112, 383, 457, 540, 493, 271 and 491; Figures 26-29, 59 and 67-71; Plate 6.

Pit 383 was also cut into the bank-deposit 381 and comprised a circular cut, 0.57m in diameter and 0.35m deep and a fill (384) of light grey silt-sand with inclusions of charcoal and small pebbles. This was cut by pit 457 which was a sub-rectangularshaped feature (2.6 x 1.95 x 0.55m), the fill (385) consisting of a dark grey charcoal-rich sand-silt containing heat-fractured stone and small pebbles. Pits 383 and 457 may be associated with the management of bank 381 and fill 385 may in fact be the up-cast from the excavation of pit 112, having the effect of increasing the size of the bank to a width of 2.4m.

Fence-line (Figures 26 and 67) Stake-holes 451 and 452 were cut into midden-deposit 455 and the fills (450 and 453) were a mid-brown silt-sand with no inclusions. Additional stake-holes were identified at this horizon forming a north-south alignment along the eastern edge of the hollow way and presumably represent the continued existence of a fence-line in this area. Pit-group 112, 383, and 457 (Figures 26 and 67) In the area of the Phase 2B midden-deposit 359/425/455/475, various pits appear to have been excavated in association with pit 458 and bankdeposit 381. Foremost of these was pit 112 which appears to be a second re-cut of pit 458, it was cut through layer 455 and deposit 381 and its primary fill (113) comprised a charcoal-rich silt-sand with frequent inclusions of heat-fractured stone, pottery and worked flint. The secondary fill (114) above this, was a dark grey sand-silt containing a high percentage of rounded pebbles and rare inclusions

Layers 483 and 484 Adjacent to pit 458 was layer 484, a distinct feature which overlay Phase 2B midden deposit 359 and which covered an area 2.5m east-west and 2m north-south. Layer 484 was 0.1m thick and consisted of a mid grey sand-clay. Above this and covering the same area was layer 483, a patch of metalled surface formed from small rounded pebbles probably derived from the natural gravel 50

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) subsoil. Interestingly, this deposit and pit 112 continue the theme of enigmatic pits associated with small areas of metalling which occur in this area of the site in both Phases 2A and 2B. In every instance these features produced little in the way of evidence for their primary function, but the accompanying metalled surfaces imply a need for an area of hardstanding immediately adjacent to the pits – suggestive of an activity such as threshing. Associated deposits (Figures 28 and 59) During Phase 2B in the area occupied by Structure 8, a sequence of layers and deposits had formed prior to the laying of metalled surface 466. The lowest of these, 535, was a circular patch of orange sand, 1.8m in diameter and 0.07m thick, which had slumped into the top of pit 506. Above this had been laid a patch of rammed pebbles and cobbles, 468, which may have been intended to level off the depression left after the backfilling of pit 506. A layer of dark brown sand-silt (431) covered this area and contained flecks of charcoal and fragments of heat-fractured stone. Within layer 431 was a patch of charcoal and pebbles (459) up to 0.05m thick, spread over an area 3m north-south and 1.5m east-west, which had also slumped into the top of pit 506. Subsequently, a lens of black charcoal-rich sand (461) formed above 431, prior to the laying of surface 466. Pit 540 (Figures 67-68) Pit 540 was located 5m to the south of the area covered by deposit 461 and comprised a sub-circular shaped feature, containing a fill (539) of mid-brown silt-sand with a low percentage of small pebble inclusions. This feature was cut into layer 532 and was interpreted as a post-hole. The function of a solitary timber post remains a matter for speculation, though a boundary-marker, or a post for a gate regulating livestock/ traffic along the hollow way, are among the possibilities. Gully 493 Gully 493 was cut into the northern end of middendeposit 359 and comprised a shallow curvilinear feature (1.1 x 0.56 x 0.25m) with gently sloping sides and a flat base. The fill 494/1252 was mid yellow-brown sand-silt, identical in appearance to the ploughsoil. This feature would have extended originally beyond the hollow way to the south. However, heavy ploughtruncation had removed all trace of its original extent. Its irregularity seemed to indicate that it had been an animal burrow.

Figures 68-71: Sections

Metalled surface 1 (also 421/466/474/512) (Figures 27-29 and 67; Plate 6) Surface layer 1 (also 421/466/474/512) comprised an extensive metalled surface covering the entire northern part of the hollow way, overlying the area occupied by midden deposit 359 (also 425/455/475), as well as layers 539, 461 and 361. The make-up of surface 1 (also 421/466/474/512) consisted of 95% small rounded pebbles and 5% fragments of heatfractured stone laid to a thickness of 0.1m, which had been pressed into the underlying deposits.

Layer 361 (Figure 29) Layer 361 was a dark brown silt-sand which had formed above Phase 2A pit 360, gully 369 and deposit 368 in the northern part of the hollow way, prior to the laying of surface 1. 51

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Pit 271 (Figures 67 and 70) Pit 271 was a square-shaped feature (0.6 x 0.85 x 0.6m) with steep sides and a flat base, being cut directly into natural sand. The primary fill (280) was a dark grey-brown silt containing heat-fractured stone and charcoal, whilst the upper fill (272/296) consisted of redeposited natural sand. The pit may have functioned as an isolated post-setting, although the burnt remains in the lower fill may indicate its use as a hearth.

The surface varied in width between 1.5 and 3m and appears to have been a deliberate attempt to provide a solid track in the base of the hollow way. This horizon is also the first continuous layer of metalled surface to be identified in an EBA context in the hollow way. Above this metalled surface was a layer (430 – also 472/490/557), consisting of a dark grey-brown siltsand 0.1m thick, with moderate inclusions of rounded pebbles and charcoal flecks. This in turn was covered with a layer of mid grey-brown silt-sand (374/469), again containing moderate inclusions of pebbles and charcoal. A second layer of pebbles (373 – also 433/467/473/523/524) had been deposited above this and probably formed a second metalled surface within the hollow way, although this was far more patchy in survival due to damage by later ploughing activity.

Pit 491 (Figure 71) Layer 490 was cut by pit 491 comprising a deep subcircular feature, 1.7m in diameter and 0.47m deep, with steep sides and an irregular base. The fill (477) was a mixed mid-brown and pale yellow silt-sand with lenses of orange sand and inclusions of small rounded pebbles. Pit 491 may have functioned as a storage-pit or possibly the setting for a large posthole. Layer 174 Layer 174 was located at the southern end of the excavation-area and consisted of a light grey silt sand, up to 0.1m thick, that covered an area 4m north-south and 1.5m east-west. This layer contained heatfractured stone and charcoal fragments as well as EBA lithic and ceramic artefacts. A similar deposit (1360) was located in this area during the evaluation and was thought to overlie a patchy metalled surface. It thus seems possible that these isolated patchy deposits represent the plough-damaged remains of the hollow way, later identified in a far better state of preservation further to the north.

Plate 6: The hollow way metalling in Phase 2C, looking south 52

Abandonment deposit 237 (Figures 2628) The uppermost context within the hollow way was a layer of mid grey-brown sandsilt (237-also 347/386/434/530/595/80 4/1217/1218/1296), which overlaid the upper metalled surface 373 and survived to a thickness of up to 0.44m. This layer was directly covered by the Roman road deposits (802 and 803) and the postMedieval ploughsoil deposit (7); and its upper horizon produced a quantity of Romano-British artefacts. It seems probable that the deposit represents a build-up of colluvial sediments during the later prehistoric period, ultimately forming the ground-surface for early-RomanoBritish activity. However, it is included here as its formation apparently began in the EBA, as evidenced by the large quantity of EBA ceramics.

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Interpretation of Phase 2C

9.247 kg were found, representing 80.7% of the total finds by weight. Three sub-phases were recognised, Phases 2A, 2B and 2C and the pottery from each phase is presented separately.

The activity present in Phase 2C would appear to be a continuation of that seen in the previous EBA phases with activity concentrated around the hollow way, characterised by pitting, burnt deposits and a buildup of domestic waste. However, two main departures from earlier activity are apparent in the lack of structural evidence and the first clear evidence for a deliberately laid metalled surface within the hollow way. To this may be added an unfortunate lack of environmental evidence for this phase, resulting in only one of the criteria for settlement being met (locally produced pottery). This raises the interesting question of whether the lack of criteria equates to a lack of settlement, although the area to the west of the excavation (destroyed by the construction of the first runway) could well have held evidence for the missing criteria.

Phase 2A (Figures 72-74) The pottery from the EBA, Phase 2A, represents 13.7% by weight of the total amount of prehistoric pottery found on the site and includes a number of interesting sherds.

Structure 3 Building-slot 311 The fill of this curvilinear gully (88) contained two undecorated body-sherds of EBA volcanic-tempered ware.

The Early Bronze Age Pottery by C S M Allen

Pit 330 This pit lay 3m to the south of slot 311, with the lower fill (331) containing 39 sherds and fragments (103g) of pottery and the upper fill (83) containing a sherd and five fragments of thin walled (6mm) undecorated pottery with volcanic-tempering, probably of EBA type.

Phase 2 covers the EBA period on the site. A total of 1551 sherds and fragments of pottery weighing

Sherds from 331 are grog-tempered, most are slightly abraded and of a similar pale orange to buff well-fired

THE FINDS

Table 8: Early Bronze Age pottery from Phase 2A Context

Sherds

Fragments

Weight (g)

Drawing no.

Fabric type

83

1

5

4

-

11

88

2

0

6

-

9

121

11

26

21

-

6

124

0

1

1

-

7

219

2

0

6

26

1

233

1

0

4

-

7

250

2

1

3

-

9

331

36

3

103

22 – 25

1

362

5

0

34

33

7, 8, 10

380

71

5

615

12-15, 19

7, 8, 9 10, 11

440

5

0

12

- 7

441

32

41

295

16-18, 20-21

10, 11

480

10

1

45

-

7, 9

499

32

18

400

28-32

7, 9, 10, 11

580

1

0

11

-

7

Total

212

103

1568

-

-

254

Date

1945 BC

53

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire colour. All the sherds are of fine EBA Beaker type with comb decoration. These pots are characterised by the thin wall, fine decoration and consistent orange and buff firing colour. The patterns of the comb designs on these sherds are horizontal (Figure 73, 23), diagonal in zones (Figure 73, 22), triangular (Figure 73, 24) or horizontal and vertical (Figure 73, 25). The average sherd size is small at 2.6g and the wall thicknesses vary between 4-9mm, although most are 6-8mm in thickness.

that all the sherds came from one pot. A Beaker vessel from a pit at Aston on Trent, Derbyshire exhibited areas of differential weathering due to disturbance in antiquity (D. Garton, pers. comm). However, the sherds could have originated from one or two very similar pots. No rim or base sherds are apparent from pit fill 331. The typology of Beakers is still debated (Gibson and Woods 1997, 100), but pots with comb-decorated zones are probably of Middle to Late Beaker period (Gibson 1986, 33). Radiocarbon dating of British Beakers has led to the conclusion that most fall within the period 2600-1800 cal BC (Kinnes et al, 1991) and these sherds may therefore be dated to around 22002000 cal BC.

The variation in design on the sherds could be the result of zoned patterns seen on individual vessels of this type (Clarke 1970, fig. 859). Some sherds (Figure 73, 25) are in better condition, although it is possible

Figure 72: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (12-21) 54

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 73: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (22-29)

Structure 4

stone, a flint and the rim of a small accessory cup. These cups may have had special uses in society (Allen, 2000).

Within the features comprising this structure, fills (121 and 250) of two post-holes (241 and 244) contained pottery. Fill 121 contained 11 small sherds and 26 fragments (21g) of pottery, whilst fill 250 contained two sherds and a fragment (3g). Both were volcanictempered wares. The sherd size for both contexts was small, the pieces were undecorated and probably of EBA type.

The sherd in a volcanic fabric is part of a small accessory cup of EBA type. It has fine twisted-cord decoration below the rim and above a small applied cordon with diagonal twisted-cord across the upper body (Figure 73, 27). The rim has vague twisted-cord decoration and is about 70mm in diameter. A very similar small cup with twisted-cord decoration below and on the rim, with a small applied-cordon above was found at Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire (Allen 1988, fig. 15.104.519), which also has fine twistedcord in vertical pattern between rim and cordon.

Hearth 251 This oval-shaped pit lay within Structure 4 and contained primary fill 254. Within 254 was a broken piece of a saddle-quernstone, a flat cup-marked 55

THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE SETTLEMENT AT OVERSLEY FARM, STYAL, CHESHIRE Lincolnshire (Gibson 1982, fig. RW12.1 and 11) where ‘domestic Beaker’ ware with similar incised or grooved decoration was also found. At Oversley Farm four body-sherds were found, one in 380 (Figure 72, 15) and three in context 441 (Figure 72, 16, 17 and 18). These sherds show distinct stylistic links to Late Neolithic Grooved Wares which are known in northern England (Manby 1999, fig. 6.4.5). Such affinities between Beaker and Grooved Ware pottery have been noted elsewhere (Bamford 1982, 24). On this site subsequent contexts (359) provide a terminus ante quem of 1985-1660 cal BC for 380 and 441. Such sherds as these with thicker walls and rather poorly executed decoration are considered to be late in the Beaker style and may therefore have been in fashion in the early-second millennium cal BC. This late Beaker ‘domestic’ pottery may therefore be dated to around 1800-1700 cal BC (Needham 1996, 131).

It is thought that these small vessels, often called pygmy or incense cups, emerged around 1800-1700 cal BC (Needham 1996, 131). At Oversley Farm a radiocarbon date of 2130-1765 cal BC was obtained from 254, which fits well with dates associated with similar vessels elsewhere, such as Buckskin barrow, Hampshire (2280-1690 cal BC: Allen et al 1995, fig. 7, 169 and 183).

Hollow way Horizon 2 Fill (580) of Pit 579 In this deposit a single sherd (11g) from the collar of a Collared Urn was found with volcanic-tempering. The sherd has vague decoration and is abraded. Horizon 3 Midden 380 and 441 Layer 380 lay below deposit 441, close to the primary silts in the hollow way and contained 76 sherds and fragments (0.615kg) of pottery. The average sherd weight was 8g and many were small, friable undecorated body-sherds, although a few bodysherds can be recognised as domestic Beaker pottery with incised or grooved decoration. In the overlying layer (441) 32 sherds and 41 fragments of pottery were found (0.295kg), giving an average sherd weight of only 4g. In 441 some Food Vessel sherds, described below, were also found with more sherds of domestic Beaker. Most of the sherds in 441 were small, abraded, friable and undecorated, with a few of the body-sherds showing grooved decoration.

One body-sherd (Figure 72, 19) representing a vasetype Food Vessel with whipped-cord decoration was found in 380. Vessels with this decoration are considered part of the northern Food Vessel tradition and are known in the Peak District (Manby 1957, fig. 4.29) and Northumberland (Cowie 1978, fig. 10). Sherds from two different Food Vessels were also uncovered in 441. One large sherd (Figure 72, 20) has a rounded rim, incised or grooved lattice decoration and a large lug. The fabric (Mercia Mudstone, 10) and the decoration are very like the domestic Beaker pottery, but the lug is more reminiscent of Food Vessels of northern type. Lugs are common on northern Food Vessel bowls (Manby 1957, fig. 2), although they are usually perforated. Food Vessel Vases with unperforated lugs are however known in northern areas (Cowie 1978, fig. 15).

Three rims and four body-sherds of decorated Beaker pottery with incised decoration, were apparent in these contexts. As there are only isolated rim and bodysherds apparent, the shape of the vessels is difficult to establish with certainty. There are two distinct fabric types seen, as volcanic-tempering predominates amongst sherds in 380. Mercia Mudstone-tempering is most common for sherds in 441 and for a few of those in 380, including three of the illustrated sherds (Figure 72, 16, 17 and 18). Some sherds (Figure 72, 12) are unabraded and in fine condition while others are abraded.

In 441, a well decorated and unabraded Food Vessel rim was found. This has fine twisted-cord in chevronpattern on a wide flattened rim and fine combdecoration on the upper part of a bowl-shaped body (Figure 72, 21). This type and pattern of decoration is known on bowl-shaped Food Vessels in the Peak District (Manby 1957, figs. 2.8 and 7.10). Usually such bowls are decorated all over the pot body, so more decorated sherds would be expected. However, although the sherds are not abraded and therefore do not seem to have been moved far, no further sherds of this pot were found.

Two of the rim-sherds are bevelled, one decorated (Figure 72, 12) with horizontal and chevron incised design, and another is undecorated (Figure 72, 13): a plain rounded rim is also apparent (Figure 72, 14). Sherds similar to all three have been found at Beaker ‘domestic’ sites elsewhere, for example a very similar sherd to Figure 72, 12 was found at Reffley Wood in Norfolk (Bamford 1982, fig. 43.d). Undecorated rounded and bevelled rims are also known on Beaker domestic sites, for example at Risby Warren,

It has been suggested that the Irish Food Vessel tradition could be seen before 2300 cal BC, but that there are few radiocarbon dates for early Food Vessels in Britain. However, a few more recent dates begin to suggest that this pottery could have begun in the later part of the third millennium cal BC (Needham 1996, 128 and 130). Yorkshire-type Vase 56

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 74: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (30-33)

Horizon 4

Food Vessels from Harland Edge in the Peak District have been dated to 2183-1420 cal BC (Barnett 1995, 12), although the large standard deviation has thrown doubt on this date (Needham 1996, 128).

Deposit 499/575 Deposit 499/575 covered an area in the hollow way 57

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire which had formed above several pits (551, 574 and 542). The layer contained a total of 32 sherds and 18 fragments of pottery (400g) and a number of different vessels are represented in this context, but the small total weight indicates that none of the vessels were complete.

sherds of pottery (34g) were recovered, the sherds have volcanic and Mercia Mudstone-tempering and are small and friable. There is one rim (Figure 74, 33) and one collar-sherd with incised decoration which originated from two different Collared Vessels of EBA type.

The pottery comprises mainly decorated sherds and also a few undecorated body-sherds, from Collared Urns. The rims are decorated with rows of fine twisted cord decoration. One rim sherd has vertical whipped-cord decoration (Figure 73, 28) and another has incised herringbone pattern on and below the collar (Figure 73, 29 and Figure 74, 32). A number of rim, collar and body-sherds of similar fabric and decoration are apparent (not illustrated) and these may originate from very similar vessels or from a single pot. Unusually for this site, in this context a base-sherd of a collared-pot was found (Figure 74, 31). A number of friable decorated and undecorated body-sherds were also found, in different volcanic and Mercia Mudstone fabrics, indicating that a number of Collared Vessels are represented in this context.

Pit 360 The middle fill of the pit (363) was radiocarbon-dated to 2195-1835 cal BC. As pit 360 cut into deposit 362 this provided a terminus ante quem for 362 and a terminus post quem for upper fill 233. The upper fill of this pit (233) contained one sherd (4g) of volcanictempered pottery probably of EBA type.

Discussion of Phase 2a There are two distinct areas with pottery in this phase. The first is the pottery found with the structures in the east and the second is the pottery from the area of the hollow way in the west. In the eastern area fine Beaker ware was found in pit 330. Twenty five body-sherds were decorated with fine combed designs from this pit (Figure 73, 22-25). The sherds are in reasonable condition and not very abraded, but the exact nature of their deposition is not clear. The pottery can be dated to the early-second millennium cal BC.

Collared Vessels with similar decoration on the rims are known in the area of the site, including a pot from Eddisbury, Cheshire (Longworth 1984, pl. 120.133). Whipped cord decoration was apparent on a vessel from Astbury, Cheshire (ibid, pl. 5.131) and incised herringbone on Collared Urns from Wilmslow found last century (Earwaker 1877, 146).

In the south-east of the site, hearth-fill 254 contained an interesting association of artefacts. Alongside a broken piece of a saddle-quernstone, a flat cupmarked stone and a flint lay a sherd from a small decorated accessory cup of EBA type. Dates in the early-second millennium cal BC would also be appropriate for this sherd (Figure 73, 27). Recent research into this type of vessel suggests that these were unlikely to be in everyday use (Allen, 2000) and it is thought that the cups were used during ceremonies or meetings and may have been used for consumption of stimulating drinks or for inhaling narcotic substances (ibid: Sherratt 1991, 62, note 14). In this context as a number of unusual objects were found, it seems very likely that some tradition or custom was being respected which demanded such a deposition.

Radiocarbon dates for Collared Urns indicate a wide date-range apparent for this type of vessel, which, when recalibrated, run from about 2200-1500 BC (Longworth 1984, 140: Barnett 1995, 12). Dates from a variety of sources give a `period package’ which saw the beginnings of Collared Vessels c.2050 cal BC, with this type of pot flourishing from 1700-1500 cal BC and declining thereafter (Needham 1996, 132). If these date ranges apply in all regions these would appear to be reasonable dates for this type of pot at Oversley Farm. As the form of the vessels is unclear it is not possible to place these sherds into an early, middle or later stage of the Collared Vessel series. Layer 219 This layer between 380 and 359 in the hollow way contained two sherds of Beaker pottery. One may be a base-sherd and the other has comb-decoration making a V-shape design (Figure 73, 26). The dating of this pottery is likely to be similar to that described above.

Within the area of the hollow way on the western side of the site, in Phase 2A (Horizon 3), sherds of incised decorated Beaker domestic pottery (Figure 72, 1218) and Food Vessel pots, of both vase (Figure 72, 19) and bowl (Figure 72, 20 and 21) types were found (380/441). Of 70 sherds found in 380, four had incised decoration and another nine incised body sherds were found in 441. These Beaker domestic sherds have some stylistic similarities to Grooved Ware, which had a long life span over the third millennium cal BC (Cleal and MacSween, 1999).

Deposit 362 A deposit within the hollow way and was very similar, if not the same, as 499/575 discussed above. Five 58

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) There is no accepted typology for Food Vessels (Gibson and Woods 1997, 162), but the division into vase and bowl forms is common. The body sherd with whipped cord decoration from 380 is a vase type Food Vessel of the type found in northern parts of England (Figure 72, 19). Other sherds are from decorated bowl-type vessels also found in northern England and the Peak District. One large bowl-type vessel with lugs from 441, has incised or grooved decoration, but in a lattice design (Figure 72, 20). This pot has some similarities with the Beaker and Grooved Ware designs. Such bowlshaped pots with lugs are often referred to as `Yorkshire’-type, but this is an unusual vessel with no parallels known. The fine comb-decorated and well-made bowl Food Vessel (Figure 72, 21) was also found in 441.

29 and Figure 74, 30 and 32). Both twisted cord and incised decoration are apparent. These sherds could be dated to around 1700 cal BC. No pot was complete and the variety of volcanic fabric types suggests that a number of pots are represented.

Phase 2B (Figures 75-84) The EBA pottery from Phase 2B represents 59.3% by weight of the total amount of prehistoric pottery found on the site. This includes the ceramic material from the midden, which had the largest single deposit of pottery on the site.

Structures 5 and 6 The eavesdrip-slot (861) of Structure 5 cut into deposit 835, which contained small pebbles and two rim sherds (49g) of undecorated EBA pottery with volcanic-tempering. The post-holes of Structure 6 were sealed by a layer (808), which contained three undecorated body sherds (61g) of EBA pottery with volcanic-tempering.

Food Vessels are usually associated with burials, either inhumations or cremations, but are also known in domestic contexts (ibid, 159). No burials are apparent at Oversley Farm, but also only one or two sherds of each vessel have been found. The sherds are in good condition and do not appear typical of discarded material or of domestic rubbish. Food Vessels may have had their origin in the latethird millennium, but are more commonly dated to the early-second millennium cal BC. Associations of Beaker `domestic’ wares, as in this case with grooved or incised decoration, and Food Vessels have been found in Norfolk (Bamford, 1982).

Structure 8 Within this structure was circular pit 545, with a primary fill (546), which contained four friable sherds (66g) of EBA pottery and part of the base of a vessel (Figure 75, 34). Few bases were found on this site and this appears to be a base sherd from an EBA Collared Urn.

In 499/575 (Horizon 4) a number of sherds of Collared Urns were found, including two base sherds (Figure 74, 31), 16 undecorated body sherds, and 14 decorated collar and rim sherds (Figure 73, 28 and

Layer 500 was cut by the post-holes of the above structure and may represent a floor surface. This layer contained four sherds of pottery (13g). These

Table 9: Early Bronze Age pottery from Phase 2B (note: 359/425/455/475 are equivalent) Context

Date (approx)

Sherds

Fragments

Weight (g)

Drawing no.

Fabric type

359

1765/1870 BC

658

252

5728

82

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

425

37

8

358

4

7, 11

455

1

0

14

-

11

475

2

0

10

-

7

376

2

0

6

-

10

10

7

26

-

7

500

4

0

13

-

7

534

45

2

471

35, 36

7

546

5

0

66

34

7

808

3

0

61

-

7

835

2

0

49

-

7, 8

Total

769

269

6802

464

1750BC

59

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire the sherds. Also, there are a few small sherds from collars of other Collared Urns, showing twisted cord and various incised decorations. It is clear that at least seven different vessels are represented.

undecorated sherds with volcanic-tempering originated from the shoulder of a Collared Urn. Layer 464 was radiocarbon dated to 1890-1680 cal BC and contained 10 sherds and 7 fragments (26g) of pottery. The sherds are of EBA type and fabric, fragmentary and undecorated.

Midden 359, 425, 455 and 475 Just to the east of Structure 5, within the linear hollow, was a layer of black charcoal-rich material covering a considerable area. Radiocarbon dates from the bottom of this deposit were between 19851660 cal BC and from the top of this midden between 1965-1630 cal BC (Table 1). These deposits and the artefacts found within them are therefore firmly placed in the EBA period.

Hollow way Within the area of the hollow way the lowest deposit (534) of this phase contained 45 sherds and two fragments (471g) of pottery. Many of the sherds are quite fresh and unabraded. Two sherds are apparent from one Collared Urn, with a collar sherd exhibiting coarse twisted cord herringbone pattern and a neck sherd with whipped cord decoration in parallel rows (Figure 75, 35). Also in 534 were two sherds from a different vessel, again unabraded, with finger nail decoration randomly placed on the collar of a Collared Urn (Figure 75, 36).

In total, 698 sherds and 260 fragments (6.110kg) of pottery were found in these contexts. This represents 53.3% of the total quantity of pottery found on the site. 80 sherds, both decorated and undecorated, are illustrated and are considered to be representative of the material found. Seventy-nine of the illustrated sherds are considered to originate from separate vessels, which has been determined based on the form, decoration, wall thickness and fabric of each

Other sherds were more fragmentary and many are undecorated, but four fabric types are present amongst

Figure 75: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (34-44) 60

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 76: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (45-52)

61

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Food Vessel traditions emerged in Britain towards the end of the third millennium cal BC, and were most popular during the period 2000-1700 cal BC (Needham 1996, 130), most commonly associated with burials, both inhumations and cremations. However, no burials are apparent on the Oversley Farm site.

sherd. All the material in these contexts is of EBA type, with the exception of the Deverel-Rimbury pottery, which is likely to be Early-Middle Bronze Age. As the typology and dating of EBA accessory cups, Food Vessels and Collared Urns has been discussed earlier in Phase 2A, typology and dating is briefly summarised with further information given where applicable below.

Collared Urns At least 64 different vessels are represented by the sherds which are illustrated from this site. There is an interesting variety of type and pattern of decoration apparent. The rims, collars and upper body are mainly from decorated Urns and the type and pattern of decoration varies and often between rim and collar of a single pot.

Accessory Cups Rim sherds of three small accessory cups of EBA type were found in the midden (Figure 75, 37-39) and rims of three more vessels also likely to be similar small cups or vessels are represented (Figure 75, 40-42). All are tempered with Mercia Mudstone and appear to be undecorated. The shape of the cups is unclear, so it is not possible to indicate their type or origin. Two other small accessory or `pygmy’ cups have been found in Cheshire (Longley 1987, 67). As described in Phase 2A (hearth 251), where part of another small cup was found in the east of the site, these cups are generally dated to c.18001700 cal BC (Needham 1996, 131). It seems very likely that such vessels were kept for special social occasions and used for drinking or for smoking customs rather than being employed in domestic use (Allen, 2000).

Whipped cord – Figure 76, 46, 48-52: Five different collars and rims are recognised by different fabric types and by the varying patterns of decoration: short diagonals, vertical rows, diagonal, horizontal and chevron. Such decoration on Collared Urns is a tradition seen elsewhere in Cheshire (Longley 1987, fig. 11.5 and 12.5; Longworth 1984, pl. 5c and 196a). Undecorated – Figure 77, nos.53-55 and 57: Four undecorated rims of Collared Urns were identified: flat, everted, bevelled and rounded. Undecorated Collared Urns are also known as a Cheshire tradition (Longley 1987, fig. 11.4 and 6; Longworth 1984, pl. 45b). A few recognisable undecorated base sherds were found and some indicate a small base with a flaring lower body similar to a vessel base from a pot from Delamere, Cheshire (Harris and Thacker 1987, fig. 12.2).

Food Vessels At least four Food Vessels seem to be represented in the midden. A small lug, the upper side of which is decorated with diagonal incised lines has become detached from a pot, which must have been of similar type to that seen in 441 of Phase 2A. Such lugs are common on northern Food Vessels bowls (Manby 1957, fig. 2), and as previously described can be unperforated. A wide bevelled rim with whipped cord decoration from a Food Vessel bowl is also apparent (Figure 76, 47). Similarly decorated rims are known in the Peak District (Manby 1957, fig. 4.29), about 30 km to the east and also in more northern areas (Cowie 1978, fig. 10). A bowl-shaped Food Vessel with whipped cord decoration and cordons was found at Grappenhall, Cheshire, but in that case near a burial cairn (Longley 1987, 67).

Open Circular Impressions – Figure 77, 56: One rim (two sherds) has most unusual open circular impressions, about 15mm in diameter, placed in a regular pattern about 15mm apart. It is unclear how these were formed, as it seems unlikely that a hollow plant stem would be sufficiently firm to make the impression. No similar pattern or impression has been found elsewhere and this would appear to be a unique Oversley Farm type of Collared Urn. The flat rim is undecorated.

The two other Food Vessels represented are of the larger vase type. Both vessels have volcanic fabric types (7 and 8) and rounded rims, decorated inside rim and neck with diagonal and herringbone whipped cord and the exterior body with the same decoration. On one of the Vessels (Figure 75, 44) the cordon forming part of the upper body is seen to be applied rather than raised and as this is missing has created a rough area. The cordon is in place on the other vessel (Figure 76, 45). The Food Vessels from Oversley Farm appear to be part of the northern Food Vessel types.

Impressed Decorations – Figure 77, 58 and 59: Two rim sherds showed impressed decoration. Figure 77, 58 shows a Collared Urn rim sherd, with undecorated rim and a collar with decoration made with short sharp diagonal impressed strokes. Figure 77, 59 shows part of the collar of a Collared Urn decorated with a row of small deep round impressions. Similar decoration in a local tradition is seen on an Urn from Wincle (Longley, fig. 13.3) and in other areas the decoration is also apparent on Collared Urns (Longworth 1984, 219f). 62

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 77: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (53-60) 63

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 78: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (61-64) 64

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Twisted Cord – Figure 77, 60 – Figure 80, 83: twenty four sherds which appear to represent different Collared Urns with twisted cord decoration were found, eleven rim sherds and thirteen collar sherds. A total of 24 body sherds, 34 collar sherds and 16 rim sherds exhibited twisted cord decoration and some of these seem to relate to the 24 illustrated vessels, as they are similar in colour and fabric. However, this is not certain and a number of further vessels could be present.

and type of decoration was apparent on a Collared Urn from Manley (ibid, fig. 12.1). Figure 81, 87) also shows diagonal incised decoration, but with lattice on the rim. A complex pattern of incised vertical and horizontal herringbone is apparent on three collar sherds (Figure 81, 86) with diagonal deep incisions on the rim of the pot. Incised chevron patterns appeared on another Collared Urn from Manley (ibid, fig. 12.3), showing these pots are part of a local EBA tradition. Incised chevron patterns are seen on collars and rims (Figures 82, 92, 93 and 84, 106 and 108) and vertical (Figure 82, 89) and horizontal designs (Figure 83, 95 and 96) are also apparent. Incised herringbone decoration was apparent on three collars (Figure 81, 86, Figure 82, 91 and Figure 84, 106). A similarly decorated vessel was found at Wilmslow in 1857 (Earwaker 1877, 146)

There are a variety of decorative patterns seen on these sherds. Some decoration is made with very fine twisted cord in horizontal and chevron pattern (Figure 77, 60). Other sherds have a medium (Figure 79, 68) or very coarse (Figure 78, 64) twisted cord decoration. Patterns include diagonal twisted cord as in Figure 78, 62, where there is diagonal whipped cord on the rim. Figure 78, 61 has horizontal twisted cord decoration on the collar, diagonal on the rim, whilst Figure 78, 64 has vertical twisted on the collar and horizontal on the rim. Figure 79, 76 shows a collar sherd with herringbone decoration similar to a vessel found at Wilmslow in 1859 (Earwaker 1877, 145-6). A number of combinations of sizes of decoration and of patterns are apparent on other vessel sherds (Figures 78, 63; Figure 79, 65; Figure 80, 81).

Most of the sherds with this type of decoration are in good and unabraded condition showing the decoration clearly, but a few are abraded making the decoration vague (Figure 84, 106). There are radiocarbon dates from the midden (359), which range from 1985-1660 cal BC for the bottom of the context and 1965-1630 cal BC for the top, therefore giving remarkably similar results. Dates discussed in the previous section for this type of vessel concur well, suggesting the flourishing of these vessels c.1700 cal BC.

Most of the sherds with this type of decoration are in good condition, but one sherd decorated with twisted cord is much abraded (Figure 79, 70). Sherds with greater wall thickness tend to have coarser decoration, but some have fine decoration (Figure 80, 81). The decoration on two much abraded collar sherds is difficult to discern (Figure 80, 82). All the illustrated sherds are parts of the collars or upper body of decorated Collared Urns. Vessels with similar types and patterns of decoration have been found elsewhere in the area at Manley, Delamere, Grappenhall, and at Wilmslow (Harris and Thacker 1987, figs. 12 and 13), confirming that these fit into a local tradition of the period.

Deverel-Rimbury These sherds were found in this context in association with sherds of vessels of a number of types, usually considered to be of EBA date, that is, accessory cups, Food Vessels and Collared Urns. Deverel-Rimbury pottery was named after two Bronze Age cemeteries in southern England, where this type of pottery has been found upon settlement and cemetery sites (Ellison, 1980). Similar vessels have been found in flat cremation cemeteries in the Midlands, for example at Barton under Needwood, Staffordshire (Martin and Allen, 2001), at Hoveringham, Nottinghamshire and Long Bennington in Lincolnshire (Allen et al, 1987), at Catfoss, Humberside (McInnes, 1968) and other locations (Barnett 1994, 368). Deverel-Rimbury bucket types of pottery have also been found on a few settlement sites in the Midlands, as at Billingborough (Chowne, 2001) and Welland Bank (Pryor 1998, 142). In Lincolnshire at Kirkmond Le Mire (Field and Knight, 1992), Pinchbeck (Allen, 1997a) and Silk Willoughby (Allen, 1998a) pottery of this type is thought to indicate Bronze Age settlement sites. At Oversley Farm there is no indication of any burials and the sherds seem to originate from a deposit which could be domestic in nature.

Incised Decoration – Figure 80, 83; Figures 81, 85 – 84, 110: twenty seven sherds have incised decoration, in a variety of patterns. All those illustrated appear to originate from different vessels, although there is often similarity in design. For example, two sherds with incised lattice are similar, but one (Figure 84, 110) has a wall thickness of 8mm whilst the other (Figure 84, 109) is 15mm thick. Some collar and rim sherds show horizontal incised rows (Figures 80, 83 and 83, 98). Figure 81, 85 shows two joining rim sherds with deeply incised diagonal lattice on collar and rim and Figure 82, 90 also shows incised diagonal, but this is shallow and thin with an incised horizontal line at the base of the collar. Figure 81, 85 shows a thick (18mm) sherd which must have been part of a large and heavy vessel. A similar pattern 65

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 79: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (65-76) 66

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 80: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (77-83)

Figure 81: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (85-87) 67

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 82: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (88-93)

68

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 83: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (94-103)

69

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 84: Phase 2A Early Bronze Age pottery (104-115)

from a Deverel-Rimbury cemetery at Brightlingsea indicated the pottery could have been in use between 2199-1510 cal BC (Brown 1995, 128). In the Midlands an undecorated bucket-shaped pot has been dated to 1440-1145 cal BC at Swarkestone, Derbyshire (D. Knight pers. comm). It is considered that this tradition began to emerge at about 1700-1500 cal BC (Needham 1996, 133) and it is therefore quite possible that Collared Urns and Deverel-Rimbury pottery should occur in the same context.

A number of sherds show a pale buff colour typical of this type of pot. Four rims are apparent: these are of simple rounded form and the sherds have a wall thickness of about 12-15 mm. Three rims are undecorated (Figure 84, 112-114). One rounded rim sherd has fingernail decoration (Figure 84, 111) and a body sherd exhibits a small raised cordon with fingertip decoration (Figure 84, 115). This pottery is characterised by the mainly undecorated body and the simple rounded rims in the Midlands and north of England (Allen 1987, 212). In the south of England globular, barrel and bucket shapes are seen, but the simpler bucket shape is considered to be the most usual form seen in the central and northern areas (ibid), often with fingertip and fingernail decoration, particularly on cordons on the upper body.

Discussion of Phase 2B Collared Urns of the EBA period usually have a decorated collar and often some decoration below the collar on the neck (Longworth, 1984), with the remainder of the body being undecorated. At Oversley Farm only three rims of Collared Urns which seem totally undecorated are apparent. Table 10 shows the numbers and weights of sherds found in the hollow way contexts (359, 425, 455 and 475).

These pots are usually considered to be of MBA type, but may have their origins in the EBA, in the first part of the second millennium cal BC. Radiocarbon dates show that some of this pottery, for example highly decorated vessels at Ardleigh, Essex (Brown 1995, 128) and at Fengate, Cambridgeshire (Pryor 1980, 247) was current in the EBA. Radiocarbon dates

Some complete small- to medium-sized Collared Urns from other sites in the East Midlands have been weighed and usually these weigh more than 70

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Table 10: Numbers and weights of vessel parts found in the hollow way Vessel part

Sherds/fragments

Weight (g)

%age of total weight

Base

33

310

5.0

Undecorated body

644

2556

41.5

Collar

154

1361

22.0

Lug

2

10

0.5

Rim

92

1498

24.5

Shoulder

33

406

6.5

Total

958

6110

100

1.2 kg. At Oversley Farm, from the hollow way, at least 63 different Collared Urns are represented by the sherds. However, the total weight for the phase would only represent the total remains of six urns and this indicates that only a very small part of each individual Collared Pot was deposited in the hollow. This is confirmed by the lack of duplication in the decorated sherds. Only in a few cases (Figure 76, 48; Figure 77, 58-60; Figure 78, 62; and Figure 81, 86) is it apparent that more than one sherd was found from a single Collared Urn. It is very likely that some of the undecorated body sherds may also belong to the same pots, but this cannot be determined with any certainty.

it is difficult to understand why there are only a few sherds of each pot and why they are unabraded. The various fabrics of sherds in the midden are presented in Figure 85 with the distribution within the hollow of the different types of pottery (Figure 86). In the case of the Collared Urns, the varying types of decoration are indicated by different symbols. A few pairs of joining sherds are also highlighted.

The function and nature of these pottery deposits in the hollow way area is not immediately apparent. Accessory cups, Food Vessels and Collared Urns are more commonly found with burials and DeverelRimbury pottery has often been found in cemeteries. However, there is not the slightest evidence for any form of burial being apparent on this site. Less than 3km from Oversley Farm three complete Collared Urns were found during railway building in the midnineteenth century (Earwaker 1877, 145-6; Bateman 1861, 286-8). Cremated bones and the fragments of a small bronze dagger were found in one of these vessels, whilst another vessel, which contained cremated bones, was inverted but its mouth was `covered with a piece of coarse cloth, that fell to powder when touched’ (Earwaker 1877, 146). This site at Wilmslow, from evidence of its name and the nineteenth century reports seems very likely to be the location of a burial site, a round barrow or a flat cemetery. The hollow way seems very likely to have originally been a route-way providing access to a river crossing point and that the resulting depression later began to be filled with a variety of materials. Some of the Beaker `domestic’ ware from Phase 2A and almost all of the Food Vessels and the Collared Urn sherds are in good condition. If this was merely a rubbish pit,

Figure 85: Par Chart – Percentage of fabrics by weight for each period

71

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

t

Figure 86: Distribution of types of pottery in midden deposi

There is within these deposits, an interesting assemblage of vessels often considered to range in date from the Early to Middle Bronze Age, although there is no doubt that the types overlap. Early dates for Deverel-Rimbury at Worgret Barrow between 25001800 cal BC (Smith 1974, 228) are doubted, but other later dates quoted above show that there is some overlap between the types. The direct association of these types is unusual. Collared Urns and DeverelRimbury vessels have been found on the same site, but usually the Deverel-Rimbury pots are secondary to the Collared Vessels, or the two types cannot be shown to have been directly associated. This was the case at Pokesdown (Clay, 1927) and Latch Farm (Piggott, 1938) cemeteries both in Hants and at Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxon. (Barclay and Halpin, 1999). The radiocarbon dates for these associated vessels at Oversley Farm, lies between 1965-1630 cal BC from the top of the midden and from 19851660 cal BC at the bottom of the midden. The dates on the site therefore cover a three hundred year span

It was considered likely that the pottery placed in the hollow way may have been the result of `structured deposition rather than simple rubbish disposal’ as suggested by Brown at other sites (1995, 128). However, the detailed analysis of the deposits suggests that this is unlikely. No sherds of similar pottery-type lie close by and those of similar pattern are quite widely spread. More significantly, the joining sherds lie far apart and seem to point to the throwing away of rubbish. However, the sherds are not abraded. The small cluster of pottery finds (from evaluation trench A) from the southern part of the midden were examined to determine whether a single vessel had been deposited in this case. However, at least three separate vessels were seen in this small cluster of sherds. Six sherds were of fabric type 7, including a collar sherd with poorly executed incised decoration and 11 sherds were of fabric type 11, including one undecorated base sherd. Also found in this cluster was a shoulder-sherd with finely incised diagonal lines, made from fabric type 10. 72

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Pit-group 112, 383 and 457 In the area of the midden deposit (359 and equivalents) a number of pits were found. Pit 112 had a primary fill (113) and a secondary fill (114). In fill 113, 22 sherds of EBA pottery were found. These represent the rim, collar and body sherds of at least three Collared Urns. One had a thick collar with deep round impressions on the collar (Figure 87, 116), another had coarse twisted cord, probably in vertical rows (Figure 87, 117) and the third had incised lattice on the collar and an undecorated rim (Figure 87, 118). Secondary fill 114 contained four sherds of EBA type, most likely from a Collared Urn.

and on this site these types were clearly deposited together in the hollow way. It seems very likely that this pottery, including the different types and varying decorations, could have accumulated in the dark soil of a midden deposit. The material may then have been spread within the hollow in a series of events not discernible archaeologically, or which took place quite quickly. This would account for the association of the material, the spread of the sherds, where joining sherds do not lie anywhere near each other, the similar dates for the top and bottom events and for the unabraded condition of the majority of the pottery sherds.

In pit 383, fill 384 contained two undecorated body sherds which were volcanic tempered and of EBA type. Both pits 112 and 383 cut into a bank deposit (381) and in this deposit were found two undecorated body sherds of EBA fabric and type. Pit 383 was cut by pit 457 and its fill (385) contained seven sherds of Collared Vessels, most undecorated, but one with diagonal coarse twisted-cord decoration (Figure 88, 128) on the collar and neck.

It seems clear that the people making this pottery from local materials and using and disposing of the vessels must have been living, working and farming on the site. This seems to be confirmed in the residue analysis which shows sheep and pig fats within the pottery (Appendix C). Settlements with Collared Vessels are not common, but some are known, although the pottery assemblages cannot begin to compare with that at Oversley Farm. At Swine Sty, a small enclosed settlement near Baslow in north Derbyshire, a few Collared Urn sherds were found (Machin, 1971 and 1975).

Metalled surface 421 and layer 430/472 Two sherds from a Collared Vessel were found in 421. One was an undecorated body-sherd and the second was a sherd from the base of the collar (Figure 88, 129). Above this metalled surface was a layer (including 430/472/490) in which another body and shoulder sherd were found and in 430 part of the collar of a Collared Urn with two rows of small rounded impressions (Figure 88, 130) was recovered.

Phase 2C (Figures 87-88) The pottery from Phase 2C is of EBA type and represents 7.7% of the total weight of pottery found on the site. All these deposits or pits overlay or cut into the features of the previous Phase 2B. Table 11: Early Bronze Age pottery from Phase 2C Context

Sherds

Fragments

Weight (g)

Drawing no.

Fabric type

80 112 113 114 174 204 237 347 374 381 384 385 386 421 430 472 491 494

4 1 22 4 13 4 39 10 1 2 2 7 6 2 3 2 2 4

0 2 8 1 13 0 33 6 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 4

11 2 185 26 74 19 198 47 14 22 11 129 29 16 23 15 11 45

116-118 119-127 128 129 130 131

7 7 7, 8, 10, 11 9, 10 4, 7, 8, 9, 10 8, 10 6, 7, 8 10 7 7 7 7 7, 8, 9, 10 7 10 7, 10 10 8, 10

Total

128

70

877

73

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 87: Phase 2C Early Bronze Age Pottery

Linear feature 493 The fill of this feature (494) contained four sherds and four fragments of EBA pottery. One of these was the unabraded rim of an apparently undecorated accessory or pygmy-cup (Figure 88, 131) of the type described in Phase 2B. These are not common finds.

pottery weighing 0.198kg, were found. Most were undecorated body sherds, but a number of different Collared Vessels were represented. Two collar sherds with small rounded impressions, one in fabric type 10 (Figure 87, 119) and a second in fabric type 8 (Figure 88, 126), a worn collar-sherd with incised lattice decoration (Figure 87, 120) and a collar-sherd with very fine twisted cord decoration in a diagonal pattern and in very good condition were recorded. Two small sherds, probably from a collar, had shallow incised parallel decoration (Figure 87, 121). Rim-sherds from Collared Urns were also found in 237: one with diagonal whipped-cord impressions on the rim and a chevron in whipped-cord on the collar (Figure 87, 122), another with coarse twisted-cord decoration

Pit 491 Within this pit two sherds of pottery were found, both undecorated body-sherds of EBA type tempered with Mercia Mudstone. Layer 237 Within this layer 39 sherds and 33 fragments of 74

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 88: Phase 2C Early Bronze Age Pottery

both on the rim and collar (Figure 88, 125), and one with fine twisted-cord just below the rim (Figure 88, 124). A much abraded sherd is probably from the rim of an EBA pot (Figure 88, 127).

pattern. Also sherds of Collared Vessels with impressed decoration were found and undecorated urns were apparent. The scheme for the Collared Vessel Series (Longworth, 1984) presented a workable and logical sequence for the vessels defining a chronological Primary and Secondary Series based on traits which were mainly derived from preceding types, particularly Peterborough/ Fengate wares. Unfortunately, the Collared Vessels at Oversley Farm, although many and varied, are represented by sherd material and it is not possible to discern the original form of the vessels to assist in any chronological scheme. Alternative schemes which have been advanced for this type of vessel, based on measured proportions and dated associations may also be valid, but the resulting proposals are complex (Allen 1988, 97f; Burgess 1986, 346-7) and still could not be applied to this material.

Discussion of Phase 2C Within the contexts of this phase, which overlay or cut into the features of the preceding Phase 2B, lay 198 sherds and fragments of pottery, identified as EBA type. As Phase 2B was radiocarbon dated to 1965-1630 cal BC (top of 359) this pottery must be dated to the same or later date. The rim of a well-preserved undecorated small accessory cup (Figure 88, 131) was found. These cups are of EBA date and are usually considered to be for special purposes, perhaps ceremonial use. However, the presumed use of these cups has depended upon the location in which they have been found and it is simply that there has previously been little evidence for their utilisation in a domestic repertoire of pottery.

Certainly the decorative traits considered to be indicative of Primary Series, particularly the whippedcord decoration are apparent in the earlier Collared Vessels of Phase 2B on this site. However, other decoration of the Secondary Series, such as incised decoration is also apparent in Phase 2B. However,

The Collared Vessels of this final EBA phase exhibit twisted-cord decoration in vertical and diagonal 75

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 89: Unstratified Pottery

of 298 lithic artefacts from 69 contexts. Three distinct sub-phases – 2A, 2B and 2C – were identified from a combination of pottery analysis, radiocarbon dating and stratigraphic relationships.

the tendency towards undecorated collars and rims is seen in the later phase.

Residual Prehistoric Pottery

Phase 2A (Figure 90)

A total of 15 sherds and 18 fragments of prehistoric pottery were found in the later phases, and all were therefore residual material. In 142 a sherd from the collar of a very thick walled Collared Urn was found, which has incised diagonal decoration on the collar (Figure 89, 133). In 131 the rim of a Collared Vessel with three rows of fine twisted cord decoration on the rim, and incised chevron on the collar of the sherd (Figure 89, 134) was found. Both are of EBA origin.

In Phase 2A several layers and pits were added in the base of a hollow way and Structures 3 and 4 were built c.45m to its east, each with some associated pits. A total of 50 artefacts were recovered from 19 contexts (Table 13). The fills of features associated with Structures 3 and 4 produced small assemblages of 1-3 artefacts, whereas the layers of the hollow way produced slightly larger assemblages, including one of 15 artefacts.

The Early Bronze Age Lithics by F F Wenban-Smith

Structure 3 Structure 3 has three contexts containing a total of six lithics from Phase 2A: the fill (88) of the main curved slot 311; and the upper and lower fills (83 and

Early Bronze Age occupation represents the peak of prehistoric activity at the site, reflected in the recovery Table 12: Residual prehistoric pottery from Phases 4-6 Context 142 281 131 7 165 234 266 282 354 426 Total

Date/phase Romano-British Post-Roman Medieval

Sherds

Fragments

Weight (g)

1 1 4 6 1 0 4 2 1 1

1 0 0 5 0 7 6 0 0 0

35 13 55 7 1 5 2 1 1 10

15

18

27

76

Figure 89, no. 133 134 -

Fabric type 7 7 10 4, 6, 10 10 10 10 10 7 7

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Table 13: Lithic Artefacts from Phase 2A (*a double cup-marked stone and a broken piece of quernstone were contained in 254 and are discussed below). Site location Structure 3 Structure 3 Structure 3 Structure 4 Structure 4 Structure 4 Structure 4 Structure 4 Structure 4 Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Total

Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

83 88 331 119 120 122 123 254 305 1209 360 362 380 428 440 441 482 499 542

1 1 1 1 2 -

1 3 2 2 1 -

* -

- (-) 2 (1) 3 (1) 1 (-) 3 (-) 1 (1) - (-) 1 (1) 1 (-) 1 (-) 1 (1) 2 (1) 11 (6) 2 (-) 4 (2) - (-) - (-) 1 (1) 1 (1)

1 (-, 1) 2 (-, 2) 3 (-, 3) 1 (1 , -) 3 (2 , 1) 1 (-, 1) 1 (- ,-) 1 (-, 1) 1 (-, 1) 2 (1, 2) 1 (-, 1) 2 (1, 2) 15 (2, 14) 2 (-, 1) 6 (1, 2) 3 (-, 3) 1 (-, 1) 3 (- ,2) 1 (1, 1)

6

9

-

35 (16)

50 (9, 39)

Hollow way

331) of pit 330 c.5m to the south of the structure. The lithics from these contexts include one large blade with both edges serrated (Figure 90.i) and the rest is waste debitage, three of which are nicely made blades, all missing the distal ends. All of the artefacts are made on good quality unpatinated grey flint, are in good condition and none of them are burnt. These assemblages are probably residual material from the Neolithic activity in the area, incorporated into the fills of the EBA construction.

The hollow way has ten contexts containing 36 lithics in total from Phase 2A, comprising mostly superimposed layers and middens, but also some feature-fills which were sub-divided into four separate horizons. Horizon 3 produced the largest assemblage mainly derived from layers 380 and 441. Horizon 3 The assemblage from layer 380 at the base of the hollow way contained 15 artefacts, comprising one core, three tools and 11 debitage. The unusually large size of the assemblage is explained by the extent of the layer, which was 100-150mm thick over an area covering c.7m x c.2.5m. All of the assemblage was in fresh condition except for one burnt piece of irregular waste. All, however, came from different pieces of raw material and no refitting was possible, either within the assemblage or between it and the overlying layers (534 and 441/359/1204). The core (Figure 90.ii) was a bipolar worked bladelet core of very good quality glossy dark flint which had clearly been exploited to the full. The debitage included four blades, two flakes and two pieces of irregular waste. One of the flakes was large, flat and from a pale fine-grained igneous rock and could have come from axe manufacture. The tools comprised a short convex scraper with a slightly splayed distal end (Figure 90.iii), a broken proximal segment of a scaleflaked knife (Figure 90.iv) and a broken mesial part of a serrated chert blade. The assemblage probably

Structure 4 Structure 4 has six contexts containing a total of eight lithics from Phase 2A: the fill (119) of the outer porch post-hole 245; the fills of the entrance postholes 247 and 242 (120 and 122); the fills (123 and 305) of post-holes 244 and 304 around the edge of the putative circular structure; and 254, the fill of the internal pit 251. Three of these lithics are burnt and only four are in fresh condition. All of them are small bits of nondescript waste debitage from different medium quality flint pebbles except for the artefact from 305 which is a chert blade removed from a large flake used as a core. The artefact from 254, the fill of the internal pit which also contained a fragment of a saddle quern and a double cup-marked stone, was merely a small chip of undiagnostic waste debitage. These assemblages are probably residual material from activity in the area preceding, or associated with, the construction of Structure 4, accidentally incorporated in the post-hole fills. 77

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 90: Lithic Artefacts (i-ix)

represents residual redeposited waste products from lithic manufacture and tool use on the site.

The assemblage from layer 441 only contains three artefacts, but these are exceptional both individually 78

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Phase 2B (Figures 91 And 92)

and as a group for their good state of preservation, the quality of the flint raw material and the types of artefact represented. The assemblage has no waste debitage and is restricted to two tools and an artefact which could be a core or a tool. These comprise one Conygar Hill type barbed-and-tanged arrowhead with small denticulations worked around its two long edges and one barb broken off (Figure 90.v), one convex scraper on a flake, neatly made, but with a major piece broken off (Figure 90.vi) and one flake which has been coarsely, almost violently, bifacially worked around most of its perimeter (Figure 90.vii), possibly to produce small blanks, to create a tool with a coarsely denticulated edge, or just to destroy the original artefact whatever it was – the vigour of the secondary working has led to a large chunk being broken off. None of the artefacts are burnt despite the prevalence of associated heat-fractured stone and charcoal and none are made from the same original piece of raw material. Traces of a knapped patinated surface on both faces of the arrowhead suggest that an older artefact may have been recycled as raw material for its creation. This assemblage has probably been deliberately deposited and its significance is discussed further below.

In Phase 2B layers continued to accumulate in the hollow way and Structures 5, 6, 7 and 8 were developed immediately adjacent to it, each with associated pits and occupation surfaces. A total of 105 artefacts were recovered from 13 contexts (Table 14), most from the layers of the hollow way and small assemblages recovered from Structures 5, 6, 7 and 8, mostly from presumed internal occupation surfaces.

Structure 5 Structure 5 has two contexts containing five lithics from Phase 2B: layer 835 within the interior of the structure; and fill 860 of the southward drainage cut 861. The four artefacts from 835 are technologically undiagnostic waste debitage from different pieces of raw material and the artefact from 860 is a broken retouched piece which cannot be identified to tooltype. The assemblage from the internal surface is unlikely to be related to occupation since flint-knapping is unlikely to have occurred in the dark interior of the structure and so it is probably residual material from before erection of the structure. The artefact from the fill of the drainage ditch is probably also residual, but from after the structure had fallen into disuse and the drainage ditch was no longer in use.

The remainder of the assemblages from Phase 2A of the hollow way contained a general mixture of probably residual material including three tools, three flake cores and the remainder waste debitage. The tools comprised two small broken scrapers, one of them burnt, from layer 440 and a small gingercoloured flint with abrupt backing opposing a sharp unretouched edge from the lower pit-fill (482) (Horizon 2). The flake cores were all from the layer 1209/362/499 (Horizon 4) and comprised one very misshapen burnt lump and two small pieces of quite good quality flint, which had been intensively reduced by concentrating upon reduction of a single face to maximise their exploitation (Figure 90.viii-ix).

Structure 6 Structure 6 has a single context containing four lithics from Phase 2B: layer 808 overlying its four post-holes and spreading further around the structure. This assemblage contains a single chert serrated-edge blade with some sharpening retouch on the opposite edge at the distal end (Figure 91.i), and three pieces of waste debitage, all from different pieces of flint raw material, and one of them from blade production. Given

Table 14: Lithic artefacts from Phase 2B Site location Structure 5 Structure 5 Structure 6 Structure 8 Structure 8 Structure 8 Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Total

Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

835 860 808 464 500 501 1204 1225 359 425 475 534 804

1 1 2 2

1 1 2 11 1 9

1 -

4 (1) - (-) 3 (2) 2 (2) 1 (1) 2 (1) 10 (5) 1 (-) 40 (16) 1 (-) 1 (1) 4 (3) 4 (2)

4 (-, 4) 1 (-, 1) 4 (-, 4) 3 (1 ,2) 1 (-, 1) 2 (-, -) 13 (2, 8) 1 (-, -) 53 (6, 39) 1 (-, -) 1 (-, 1) 6 (-, 6) 15 (1, 12)

6

25

1

73 (34)

105 (10, 78)

79

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 91: Lithic Artefacts (i-viii)

Structure 8

the wider extent of layer 808 there is no necessary relation to use of the structure. In any case the single tool found does not provide much interpretive information. The lack of silica gloss suggests it was not used for repeated cutting of plant material and so it was probably used for cutting something, but what, and in what context, remains unknown.

Structure 8 has three contexts containing six lithics from Phase 2B, in ascending stratigraphic order: layers 500, 501 and 464. These are considered to be occupation layers associated with construction and use of the structure. Layers 464 and 501 were 80

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) radiocarbon dated (Table 1) to 1865-1725 cal BC and 1900-1740 cal BC respectively. The lithics from these contexts include one burnt flint flake core, heavily reduced and five pieces of debitage, two of them chert, one of which is from blade production. These lithics are all from different pieces of raw material and are clearly the residual evidence of separate events, probably not associated with occupation of the structure, but accidentally included in the internal layers, either reworked from the underlying deposits of the hollow way or the broadly contemporary midden layer 1204/475/359/425.

before abandonment. The other core (Figure 91.iii) has been more systematically worked to produce blades, but curiously all of the ridges between flakescars are well-rounded, consistent with prolonged fluvial rolling and transport. This core is, therefore, probably not associated with the EBA occupation at the site, but relates to earlier Upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithic occupation in the area. It may have been collected from a streambed and brought to the site as raw material, but remained unused. The tools from this layer are dominated by serratededge blades and convex scrapers, with six of the former (Figure 91.iv-viii) and three of the latter (Figure 92.ix-xi). There are also a finely worked scale-flaked knife in good quality red flint with the sharp scale-flaked edge opposed by slightly concave blunt backing retouch (Figure 92.xii), a flake which has all sides blunted apart from the distal end, which appears to have been sharpened suggesting use as an adze before abandonment due to damage (Figure 92.xiii) and two miscellaneous retouched flakes, one of which was probably a scraper, but which has been intensively reduced beyond recognition. All of the tools are made on good quality flint apart from two of the serrated-edge blades which are made on chert, also of good quality.

Hollow Way The hollow way has seven layers containing 90 lithics from Phase 2B, with several of the contexts comprising different parts of the same archaeological horizons. The lowest horizon is represented by 1225/534 and was overlain by another substantial and extensive midden horizon represented by 1204/475/359/425. This horizon has three radiocarbon dates: one from 1204, one from the top and one from the bottom of 359 (Table 1). Layer 808 has no direct stratigraphic link to this horizon, but is thought to be broadly contemporary. Only seven artefacts were recovered from the lower horizon 1225/534. One of these was a perforated stone pebble (Figure 91.ii), one was the broken distal end of a serrated-edge blade, and the remainder were small pieces of waste flint debitage, one of them a blade. The perforation of the pebble is biconical, being substantially wider at both surfaces compared to the width of the hole in the middle. The hole is not at the centre of gravity of the pebble and the pebble shows no sign of working to make it more symmetrical around the hole. There are no signs of battering or abrasion from use around the outside of the pebble. These factors make interpretation as a hafted hammer, mace head or battle-axe unlikely. Stocks (1988) has suggested that such objects were designed for use at the end of a knotted rope as weights, possibly for weighting fishing nets, gates or tethering livestock. However the lack of abrasion on this specimen suggests it was not used for any of these purposes either, so it remains a mystery. The remainder of the artefacts represent sparse residual evidence of lithic manufacturing at the site, accidentally dropped or incorporated in the middle of the hollow way.

The debitage is dominated by technologically undiagnostic waste flakes and irregular waste, usually of small size, with only five blades. A great variety of raw material is represented, with flint and chert pebbles of all qualities and colours having been used. Only seven pieces of debitage are cracked from burning, although the red colour of some others could be due to heating to a lesser degree. Several of the larger flakes are wholly cortical, with a slightly weathered surface probably reflecting origin from the surrounding glacial till. Overall the debitage reflects a lack of systematic strategies of flake production and an emphasis on ad hoc exploitation of scraps of locally available raw material for the production of flake-blanks or as blanks themselves for disposable tools. The absence of good quality flint cores and the intense reduction of several tools on better quality flint suggest that once good quality raw material had reached the site it was exploited to the full before abandonment. Conversely, this also suggests an added value for larger flint artefacts, giving extra significance to their abandonment or deposition. Layer 808 is probably equivalent to the prolific midden horizon 1204/475/359/425, although no stratigraphic link was proven. The assemblage of 15 artefacts contained a high proportion of tools and cores, with nine of the former, two of the latter and the rest debitage. The cores comprised two chunks of chert which seemed to have been tested, but not to have undergone any further reduction. The tools comprised

The upper horizon of Phase 2B (represented by contexts 1204/475/359/425) was one of the most prolific contexts for lithic artefacts at the site. A total of 68 artefacts were recovered from this layer including three cores, 13 tools and 52 pieces of debitage. Two of the cores are small scraps of material, one flint and one chert, from which a few flakes had been removed 81

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 92: Lithic Artefacts (ix-xx)

five scrapers (Figure 92.xiv-xviii), two serrated-edge flakes (Figure 92.xix), one flake bifacially worked at the distal end, possibly an adze (Figure 92.xx) and

one broken miscellaneous retouched flake, possibly originally a scraper. The scrapers give a good reflection of the diversity present, with one of them 82

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) a thick example of the classic Beaker/EBA thumbnail form (Figure 92.xiv), two of them made on natural scraps of frost-fractured flint (Figure 92.xv-xvi) and two of them made on tiny mostly cortical flakes, from what must originally have been a small scrap of poor quality natural frost-fractured raw material (Figure 92.xvii-xviii).

Structure 5: pit 112 contained primary fill 1276/113 and an overlying secondary fill 1277/114; pit 493 contained fill 1252; pit 457 contained fill 1218/386; and the area around pit 112 was covered by layer 484. Following this, a series of layers was formed in the area of Structure 8, in the northern part of the hollow way. Those containing lithic artefacts are, in ascending stratigraphic order: 535, 431/459 and 461. These are overlain by an extensive metalled surface 466/1/421/474/512 over most of the surviving hollow way. This metalled surface was in turn overlain by a series of patchy layers, in ascending stratigraphic order: 472/490, 374 and 373/433, culminating in the more extensive layer 1217/1296/347. Finally, fill 1294 of pit 1292 cut into the 373/433 layer also contained a lithic artefact.

Phase 2C In Phase 2C there is no evidence of further structures being built, but layers and pits continue to accumulate in the hollow way, including the creation of an extensive compacted metalled surface along much of the surviving part of the hollow way. A total of 114 artefacts were recovered from 23 contexts (Table 15). The Phase 2C collection is dominated by material from layers within the hollow way, particularly from 1217 and 347, although some of the hollow way assemblages also represent pit-fills.

Midden pit-group Most lithics from this group came from pit 458/112. A total of 11 artefacts were recovered from the two fills of this pit, including a pecked stone, a core, a tool and eight debitage. The pecked stone (Figure 93.i) was broken across the middle and had a small shallow depression on its convex face and a deeper, wider depression on its flat face. The depressions did not meet, but were opposed to one another suggesting the artefact broke during manufacture with the intention of perforating the object fully. The core is a small piece of debitage from blade production from which a

Hollow way The hollow way produced 22 contexts with lithic artefacts from Phase 2C, although several of these contexts represent the same archaeological horizons excavated at different times. The earliest lithic material comes from a group of pits and patches of associated layers over the midden layer 359 outside Table 15: Lithic artefacts from Phase 2C Site location Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Isolated pit Total

Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

1217 1218 1252 1276 1277 1294 1296 113 114 347 373 374 386 431 433 459 461 466 472 484 490 535 280

2 1 1 1 1 1 2 -

9 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 -

1 1 -

53 (25) - (-) 1 (1) 1 (-) 2 (-) 1 (-) 1 (1) 4 (2) 1 (-) 8 (3) 1 (-) 1 (-) 1 (-) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (-) 1 (-) - (-) 1 (1) - (-) 2 (-) 2 (1) 1 (1)

64 (14, 33) 1 (-, -) 1 (-, -) 1 (-, -) 3 (1, 2) 1 (1, -) 1 (-, -) 6 (1, 6) 1 (-, -) 13 (3, 7) 1 (-, -) 2 (1, -) 1 (-, -) 1 (-, 1) 1 (-, 1) 3 (-, 3) 1 (-, 1) 2 (1, 2) 2 (-, 2) 1 (1, -) 4 (1, 2) 2 (1,1) 1 (-, 1)

9

18

2

85 (37)

114 (24, 62)

83

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire are probably residual and are of no interpretive significance beyond exemplifying the varied nature of lithic production and use at the site.

few further removals of tiny bladelets were attempted and the tool is a broken flake with one retouched edge, possibly originally a crude ad hoc scraper. Of the eight pieces of debitage, two are broken pieces of blades and the rest technologically undiagnostic waste flakes. The artefacts from this pit are made from a variety of raw material pieces including flint and chert of varying qualities. They show no signs of having been deposited deliberately and are probably residual evidence from Phase 2B incorporated in the pit-fills. The fills of the other associated pits contained three artefacts including one intensively reduced bifacially worked flake core (Figure 93.ii) and two technologically undiagnostic waste debitage and the layer overlying the area around pit 458/112 contained a single burnt broken piece of a scraper. Again these

Under metalled surface The seven artefacts from this grouping include one core, one tool and five waste debitage. The core (Figure 93.iii) is a small and intensively reduced globular specimen, typifying the heavy exploitation of pieces of good quality flint. The tool (Figure 93.iv) has a slightly concave scraping edge made on a piece of natural frost-fractured raw material, typifying the expedient nature of much of the tool production and use at the site. All the waste debitage comprises technologically undiagnostic flint flakes, from varied raw material pieces.

Figure 93: Lithic Artefacts (i-x) 84

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Metalled surface Despite its extensive spread, the metalled surface produced only two flint artefacts. One of these was a core worked from both ends for the production of flakes (Figure 93.v) and the other was a burnt and broken mesial segment of a neatly made scaleflaked knife (Figure 93.vi). These could have been incorporated as part of the metalling, or could have been dropped on the metalled surface and then embedded. In either case they are isolated losses or discards, out of their original context of use.

is dominated by technologically undiagnostic waste flakes, irregular waste and spalls with only six blades present. A great variety of raw material is represented, mostly poor-medium quality ginger or grey flint pebbles collected as frost-fractured chunks or transported beach pebbles from the surrounding glacial tills, gravel or the adjacent river channel. The debitage does not represent undisturbed knapping debitage and none of it refits. A relatively high proportion (c.22%) of artefacts from this layer was burnt, probably reflecting the tendency for abandoned lithic artefacts to find their way into pits used for hearths or rubbish burning, before being redeposited as layers.

Layers above metalled surface The group of patchy layers under the main spread of 1217/1296/347 produced a total of ten artefacts including two flake cores, two tools and six debitage. One of the cores was a small intensively reduced piece of good quality flint, originally formed by frost-fracturing off a larger nodule (Figure 93.vii). The other was a small and severely fire-cracked broken part of a heavily worked flake core. One of the tools was a small and neatly made thumbnail scraper, now burnt (Figure 93.viii), and the other was the broken proximal segment of a small serrated blade. The debitage constituted four blades, two of them chert and two technologically undiagnostic waste flakes, all from separate pieces of raw material.

Isolated pit 271 The only lithic material from Phase 2C found away from the hollow way was a single and technologically undiagnostic waste flint flake from the fill (280) of pit 271 which was not related to any of the structures.

Phase 2 (General) Several contexts, mainly isolated pits in the main excavated area and patches of layers at the southern extremity of the site, cannot be linked to a specific sub-phase but relate to general Phase 2 occupation (Table 16). A total of 29 artefacts were recovered from 14 such contexts, including material from the southern extremity of the excavated area c.175m from the main preserved part of the hollow way from contexts presumed to represent a continuation of the hollow way.

The more extensive layer 1217/1296/347 which overlay these patches formed the climax of Phase 2C and was also the single most prolific horizon, containing 78 artefacts including three cores, 12 tools, one pecked stone (Figure 94.xvii) and 62 debitage. The cores comprise two tested flint pebbles, brought to the site but not further reduced and one tiny flint bipolar bladelet core (Figure 93.ix) worked to extinction. The tools comprise five scrapers (Figure 93.x and 94.xi-xiii), one distally broken scale-flaked knife (Figure 94.xiv), one serrated-edge blade, one awl/borer (Figure 94.xv), one possible adze (Figure 94.xvi) and three miscellaneous/broken retouched pieces. All the tools are on flint apart from one of the miscellaneous pieces which is on chert. The scrapers include one with a straight scraping edge (Figure 93.x), one with both sides of the blank also neatly retouched (Figure 94.xi) and two of them made on irregular chunks of waste debitage, possibly exhausted cores (Figure 94.xii-xiii); one of these is also fire-cracked. The straight-edged scraper (Figure 93.x) is made on a core-tablet from trimming the platform of quite a large core of good quality flint, exemplifying that sizeable cores of good quality flint were in use at the site, but their absence in the collection is because they were all completely exploited with even the final core often used as a tool-blank. The point of the awl/borer is worn smooth, reflecting heavy use before abandonment. The debitage from this horizon

Structure 3 Two contexts from the area of Structure 3 produced three lithics, but could not specifically be related to Phase 2A: fill 94 of pit 309 and the upper fill (480) of pit 489. These lithics comprised a flint blade with minor serrations or use damage on one sharp edge, a waste chert flake and a chert spall.

Hollow way Seven EBA contexts from the general area of the main surviving part of the hollow way produced lithics that could not be related to any of Phases 2A, 2B or 2C. The contexts involved are: layers 1107 and 1253; layer 868 from near Structure 5; and fills 845, 858, 887 and 889 from the area of Structure 5. A total of 17 lithics were found from these contexts including three cores, three tools and 11 waste debitage. One of the cores was a large frost-fractured flint pebble which appeared to have been tested and then rejected, one was a flake with another small flake struck off and the third was a very rolled flint beach pebble which had 85

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 94: Lithic Artefacts (xi-xvii)

Hollow way (south)

been used as a blade core, but with the ridges from this episode of reduction also well-rolled (Figure 95.i) suggesting derivation from Upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithic use. Two of the tools are broken flake segments with a serrated edge and the third is a larger miscellaneous tool with retouch around most of the perimeter of the flake blank (Figure 95.ii). The debitage is entirely technologically undiagnostic flint waste flakes and irregular waste, from a variety of different raw material pieces.

Four contexts containing lithics were found in patches of deposits preserved c.175m south of the main surviving part of the hollow way. These were layers 1360, 1392 and 174, and fill 411. A total of eight artefacts came from these contexts comprising one core, one tool and six debitage. The core was a tiny remnant of a flint pebble (Figure 95.iii) and the tool was a convex scraper worked around the end 86

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Table 16: Lithic artefacts from general Phase 2 (EBA) contexts Site location Structure 3 Structure 3 Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way Hollow way (S) Hollow way (S) Hollow way (S) Hollow way (S) 10702/9862 Total

Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

94 480 1107 1253 845 858 868 887 899 1360 1392 174 411 22

1 2 1 1

1 1 2 1 -

-

1 (-) 1 (1) 6 (4) 1 (-) - (-) - (-) 2 (1) 1 (-) 1 (1) 3 (-) 1 (-) 2 (2) - (-) - (-)

1 (-, 1) 2 (-, 2) 7 (3, 3) 1 (-, 1) 2 (-, 1) 1 (-, 1) 4 (-, 3) 1 (-, 1) 1 (-, 1) 3 (-, 3) 1 (-, 1) 3 (1, 2) 1 (-, 1) 1 (-, 1)

5

5

-

19 (9)

29 (5, 22)

Figure 95: Lithic Artefacts (i-iv)

and up one side (Figure 95.iv). The debitage includes two blades, five technologically undiagnostic waste flint flakes and one piece of waste from removing the butt of a chert flake, but not a typical microburin.

layer 441, which appears to have been deliberately deposited, the majority of the material appears to be the lost and abandoned evidence of the regular usage of flint as an easily available and disposable resource for everyday domestic tasks. A few of the tools are finely worked pieces on particularly good quality raw material, sometimes in unusual colours such as red or dark black. This may be a reflection of transient symbolic importance associated with the social context of their use, but this significance seems to have passed by the time of these tools’ abandonment and they are found lost/abandoned in conjunction with the most mundane scraps of everyday tools and debitage on poorer quality raw

Discussion of the Early Bronze Age Lithics Despite large numbers of contexts each with only a few artefacts, in total the site has produced a substantial collection of well-stratified EBA material, dated by radiocarbon to between c.2200 and 1500 BC. With the probable exception of the group from 87

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire production where raw materials were scarce. The 18 cores which were not tested were fully exploited, with the average size of finished unbroken specimens was only 26 x 19 x 12 mm. The knapping strategies represented are mostly the production of flakes from bipolar or globular multiplatform cores and the production of short, squat blades from bipolar cores (Table 17). There are also four keeled cores, involving the radial bifacial production of flakes from both sides of a discoidal core, but without any sign of a Levalloisian approach involving predetermination of the form of a privileged flake. There are almost similar numbers of flake and blade cores in each of Phases 2A, 2B and 2C.

materials. Despite the predominantly scattered nature of the Bronze Age collection, its recovery from sealed and dated contexts makes it valuable for the overview it provides of lithic production and use in the EBA. Raw material The great majority of the lithic collection constitutes knapped artefacts made from fine-grained flint or chert. The collection also includes seven pecked artefacts made on pebbles of fine or coarse-grained sandstones and a knapped flake from a finegrained volcanic tuff which underwent microscopic petrographic sourcing (Appendix F). The flint and chert raw material occurred, before knapping, as small, well-rolled and weathered pebbles and frostfractured chunks. The pieces used for knapping were highly varied in colour, quality and texture, ranging from pieces of what must have originally been reasonably large pebbles of good quality flint in deep red, cream or dark black, through derived Eocene pebbles and very well-rolled beach pebbles, to tiny frost-fractured chunks, such as might be picked up from any road works in the modern day. The site is located on a level patch of gravel on higher ground above the north-east flank of the Bollin Valley, probably resulting from glacial outwash, and surrounded by glacial till and boulder clay. The local area has been subject to glacial incursions throughout the Pleistocene from the north in the direction of the Lake District, the west in the direction of the Irish Sea and south-west in the direction of Wales. This activity has led to the concentration in local glacial deposits of a great variety of secondary or tertiary derived lithic clasts from all these directions (Simpson, 1960). Consequently despite the great variety of lithic raw materials represented in the collection, all would have been immediately available locally, either directly from the gravel constituting the site bedrock, from the surrounding glacial boulder clay, or from the channel of the nearby River Bollin. Several pieces of poor-medium quality flint and chert similar to those used as raw material in the EBA were collected from the gravel underlying the site during the excavation, confirming its viability as a ready source. Bevins (Appendix F) also confirmed a local source for the artefacts which underwent microscopic petrographic examination, two of which are presumed to have been made on erratics transported by glacial action from a bedrock source in the Lake District.

Table 17: Lithic cores – Phase 2 Phase

2A

2B

2C

2

Core Type

Total

Single platform (Clark 1960, type A) Flake

-

-

-

-

-

Blade

-

1

1

-

2

Flake

-

-

-

1

1

Blade

2

1

2

1

6

Flake

-

1

2

-

3

Blade

-

-

1

-

1

2

1

1

-

4

Flake

1

-

-

-

1

Total

5

4

7

2

18

Double platform (Clark 1960, type B)

>2 platforms, globular (Clark 1960, type C)

Keeled Flake Indeterminate

Debitage The debitage reflects both flake and blade production as indicated by the cores, but there is a trend through Phases 2A-2C for the percentage of flakes to increase and of blades to decrease (Tables 18-19). A few (5%) of the debitage was hard-hammer struck and a single flake appeared soft-hammer struck, but almost all debitage showed no attributes enabling identification of percussor. Debitage size is overall very small, averaging c.18 x 14 x 4 mm for flakes and 27 x 12 x 5 mm for blades. There is a faint trend for decreasing flake size through Phases 2A-2C, accompanying

Cores A total of 25 cores were recovered from Phase 2 contexts, including seven tested pieces of raw material with a single removal, but not otherwise knapped and three flakes used as cores for several further removals. The tested pieces were uniformly of very poor quality raw material, and were obviously rejected because of this even in a context of lithic 88

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) the trend towards an increased proportion of flake production. The width: length ratio distribution of all the Phase 2 debitage was investigated for comparison with the distributions established by Pitts (1978) and Pitts and Jacobi (1979). Interestingly, despite the use of an immaculate sample of well-excavated, stratified and radiocarbon dated EBA material, the results (Table 20) show no correspondence with Pitts and Jacobi’s Bronze Age distribution and furthermore broadly contradict established wisdom (Pryor 1980; Healy 1996) concerning the increased proportion of broader flakes in Bronze Age assemblages. There is no doubting the provenance of the Oversley Farm material, so the implication is that either the lithic

technology of the Bronze Age in North West England is different from the better-researched situation further south and east, or that the established framework has been erroneously based upon a biased sample of primarily poorly provenanced fieldwalked material and needs revision. Typology A total of 60 tools were recovered from Phase 2 contexts, including the worked stone pebbles (Table 21). Overall, apart from broken and miscellaneous retouched forms, the tool collection was dominated by scrapers and serrated-edge blades and flakes, plus a few scale-flaked knives and possible adzes and

Table 18: Phase 2 Debitage Phase

Flakes (whole)

Blades (whole)

Irregular waste

Spalls

Total

2A

14 (10)

14 (9)

5

2

35

2B

37 (25)

9 (8)

18

9

73

2C

47 (33)

12 (5)

19

7

85

2 general

12 (8)

3 (1)

4

1

20

Total

110 (76)

38 (23)

46

19

213

Table 19: Unbroken lithic debitage dimensions (mm), arithmetic mean Phase

No. of

Length

Width

Thickness

2A

Flakes Blades Flakes & Blades

Debitage category

10 9 16

20 29 24

15 13 14

4 5 4

2B

Flakes Blades Flakes & Blades

25 8 33

17 26 19

14 11 13

5 5 5

2C

Flakes Blades Flakes & Blades

33 5 38

18 25 19

15 11 14

5 5 5

2

Flakes Blades Flakes & Blades

8 1 9

16 31 18

14 15 15

4 4 4

Flakes

73

18

14

4

Blades

22

27

12

5

Flakes & Blades

95

20

14

5

Total

Table 20: Lithic debitage width: length ratios by percentage (after Pitts 1978 and Pitts and Jacobi 1979) Period

0 - 0.2

0.2 - 0.4

0.4 - 0.6

0.6 - 0.8

0.8 - 1.0

>1.0

Bronze Age

-

3.5

14.5

23.0

23.0

35.5

Oversley Farm Phase 2

-

12.5

30.0

23.0

12.5

17.0

89

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire generally not being abandoned until they were too small to reduce any further.

single specimens of a barbed-and-tanged arrowhead, a burin and an awl/borer. The scrapers are all small, with a few typical Bronze Age forms worked almost all the way round to form a small convex-edged or almost circular scraper, but are mostly small scraps with short curved, straight or slightly concave scraping edges. Apart from the arrowhead and scale-flaked knives, there is a general absence of finer quality Bronze Age implements such as mace-heads, axehammers, plano-convex knives and daggers. The tools generally give the impression of having been created as occasion demanded to serve a variety of essentially domestic functions and then disposed of rapidly after use.

The material from the EBA contexts provides a good sample of material of known date and unselectively excavated rather than the more usual fieldwalked collections of uncertain date and biased collection. As such it serves as a good model for developing an understanding of Bronze Age lithic technology and typology in the North-West. The technology is dominated by the reduction of small locally available raw material for small flakes and blades, which serve as the blanks for a variety of tools, mostly small scrapers and serrated edges. Some tools reflect high quality working and pressure-flaking, such as the arrowhead, the scale-flaked knives and a few of the scrapers, but the majority of the artefacts are scarcely shaped at all and seem to constitute ad hoc manufacture of the immediately desired tool-edge on the nearest scrap of flint followed by its swift disposal. The lithic use at the site seems to relate to its ongoing domestic occupation, with local raw material collection and on-site knapping, tool manufacture, use and abandonment.

Table 21: Lithic tools from Phase 2 Phase Tool type Barbed-and-tanged arrowhead Pecked/perforated stone pebble Scraper Scale-flaked knife Serrated-edge flake/blade Adze? Awl/borer Burin Miscellaneous Total

2A

2B

2C

2

1

-

-

-

Total 1

-

1

2

-

3

4 1 1 2

8 1 9 2 1 4

8 2 2 1 1 4

1 3 1

21 4 15 3 1 1 11

9

26

20

5

60

It is also possible to explore some more behavioural and social interpretations of the lithic material. The generally disposable approach to lithics suggests a lack of status for the context of daily lithic manufacture and use, although there are hints at continuation of an occasional more significant role for lithic artefacts, for instance in the deliberately deposited assemblage with the barbed-and-tanged arrowhead in 441 and the occasional manufacture of scale-flaked knives on higher quality coloured raw material. This bifurcation between the quotidian and the symbolic suggests some variability in the status within society of the roles in which they were used at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Arrowheads and scale-flaked knives continue to be made on high quality raw material and to have careful attention paid to their quality of finish and shape, whereas the rest of lithic technology generally nosedives in aesthetic quality with the exception of occasional scrapers and most lithic tools are made and used as disposable items. Despite the advent of metal-working and its replacement of some lithic functions, lithic artefacts were still clearly necessary and in general use for certain purposes and the gaze of society was clearly absent for some

Organisation of production Overall, approximately 10% of the lithic material from Phase 2 was cores, 20% tools and 70% debitage (Table 22). The debitage was dominated by noncortical pieces (c.50%), with the amount of surviving cortex on the remainder evenly distributed across the groups 1-20%, 21-40%, 41-60%, 61-80% and 81100%. This is compatible with the impression gained from examination of the material that lithic technology at the site involved the import of unworked or minimally tested small pebbles of local raw material and that these were then intensively reduced to maximise their exploitation as a source of raw material for tools, Table 22: Lithic summary – Phase 2 Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

2A 2B 2C 2

6 6 9 4

9 25 18 5

1 2 -

35 (16) 73 (34) 85 (37) 20 (9)

50 (9, 29) 105 (10, 78) 114 (24, 62) 29 (5, 22)

Total

25

57

3

213 (97)

298 (48, 191)

Phase

90

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) purposes and present for others. Arrowheads were probably used in warfare, so there was clearly status attached to this activity and the deposition of an arrowhead in the 441 layer in the centre of the hollow way raises some interesting possibilities about its symbolic associations. Scale-flaked knives would probably have been used for cutting something, not plant fibre so probably flesh and the blunt backing on the red specimen from layer 359 implies hafting. The attention to these artefacts suggests some symbolic significance attached to a flesh-cutting activity, maybe killing or feasting on animals, or maybe something more exotic in relation to scarring or cutting the human body. Conversely, the presence of disposable lithic manufacture and use suggests no or maybe adverse symbolic significance, perhaps reflecting an overt lack of access to new metallic resources and an intensification of social stratification in the Bronze Age, continuing a process whose origins probably lie in the Neolithic (Thomas, 1991).

a piece of anthracite debitage. The cores comprise one large and unevenly worked flake core on a piece of frost-fractured flint and a medium size bladelet core with a single platform and worked partly round. The tools are mostly convex end or side scrapers made on small-medium flakes (3 of) and there are also single examples of a concaveedged scraper, an unfinished arrowhead and two unspecific retouched/utilised edges of flakes. The unphased collection as a whole includes no pieces characteristic of any particular cultural period. The arrowhead, which was left unfinished due to breakage at an early stage of working could have continued towards either a leaf-point or barbed and tanged form and does indicate Neolithic or Bronze Age presence. The remainder of the collection could represent any Holocene prehistoric period and its lack of context and phasing does not enable it to contribute further to interpretation of the site.

Phases 4, 5 and 6: Romano-British, Medieval and Post-Medieval (Figure 96)

Residual Lithics attributable to Phase 2 Unphased

A total of 160 lithic artefacts were recovered from 36 Romano-British, Medieval or post-Medieval contexts, mostly from Phases 5B and 6, Late Medieval and post-Medieval (Table 24). Lithic technology was not a major part of cultural practice at these times, so the lithic assemblages almost certainly represent residual material from the Neolithic and EBA occupation at the site, despite their generally fresh and unburnt condition. A few of the larger assemblages and some of the more unusual artefacts are worth reviewing briefly.

The unphased and out-of-context material from the site consisted of 41 artefacts (Table 23) comprising 31 debitage, 8 tools and 2 cores. Most of the unphased collection is in fresh and unburnt or patinated condition, suggesting it has not been subject to major disturbance. The raw material is mostly flint although there are several pieces of opaque black chert debitage and one of the tools (an ad hoc retouched/utilised edge) was made on Table 23: Lithic artefacts ­- unphased Context

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

U/S 1051 1207 1393 1432 1436 12 14 81 156 157 158 189 193 213 389 509

1 1 -

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

-

14 (11) 3 (1) 1 (-) - (-) 1 (1) - (-) - (-) 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (-) 1 (-) 1 (-) 1 (1) - (-) 1 (-) 3 (-)

16 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 3

(4, 11) (-, 3) (1, -) (-, 1) (1, -) (-, -) (-, 1) (-, 1) (-, -) (-, 1) (-, 1) (-, 2) (-, 1) (-, 1) (-, 2) (-, 2) (2, 1)

Total

2

8

-

31 (12)

41

(8, 28)

91

  Total

(Burnt, Fresh)

Cores

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 96: Lithic Artefacts i-ix 92

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) The largest assemblage, the 46 artefacts from layer 7, represents material recovered from the initial trowel-clean of the base of the plough-zone from the entire excavated area. Despite the presence of several tools and cores in this assemblage, including one heavily exploited flake core (Figure 96.i) and two thumbnail scrapers (Figure 96.ii-iii), their spatial distribution across the site bears no relation to underlying in situ deposits and it is futile to speculate about their archaeological associations, although they are most likely derived material from the later EBA horizons.

of the adjacent Neolithic sieved scatter, incorporated within the linear feature at a later date. A relatively rich lithic assemblage was also recovered from the fill (137) of pit 262 just 5m to the south-west of Structure 3. This was an asymmetric pit interpreted as due to an uprooted tree and the concentration of artefacts contained was initially thought to be of potential symbolic significance as part of the EBA occupation of the site, possibly representing deliberate deposition under the tree. However radiocarbon dating of charcoal from the fill produced a date of c.1040 AD (Table 1), belying the Bronze Age interpretation. The lithic assemblage included three tools, one worked stone pebble and the remainder was debitage. The tools comprised two serrated blades (Figure 96.iv-v) a proximal flake segment retouched into a blunt point (Figure 96.vi) and a stone tool comprising a flattened

A relatively large assemblage of 13 artefacts, including two cores and two tools, was recovered from the fill (1348) of a substantial Medieval linear feature (101). This assemblage has already been discussed above; refitting has demonstrated that this material is part

Table 24: Lithic artefacts -Romano-British, Medieval and post-Medieval Phase 4 4 5A 5A 5A 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 5B 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Context 802 821 137 281 316 1348 49 80 101 126 128 131 217 276 435 495 1009 1014 1015 1016 1112 1115 1116 1234 1270 1314 1343 1344 1346 7 47 107 426 434 439 801

Total

-

Cores 1 2 1 2 1 3 1

Tools 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 1

Stone 1 1 1 -

Debitage (Whole) 1 (1) 1 (-) 3 (2) 1 (1) 3 (1) 9 (6) 1 (1) 1 (1) 7 (1) 3 (1) 1 (1) 3 (2) - (-) - (-) 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (2) 4 (2) 4 (1) 2 (-) 4 (3) - (-) 1 (-) 4 (1) 3 (1) 1 (-) 1 (-) 1 (1) 1 (1) 37 (14) 3 (-) 1 (-) 2 (1) 5 (2) 4 (3) 2 (2)

Total (Burnt, Fresh) 2 (-, 1) 3 (1, 3) 7 (-, 7) 1 (-, 1) 3 (-, 1) 13 (1, 11) 2 (-, 2) 1 (-, -) 7 (1, 6) 4 (1, 2) 1 (-, 1) 6 (1, 4) 1 (-, 1) 1 (-, 1) 2 (1, 1) 1 (1, -) 2 (-, 1) 6 (2, 6) 5 (2, 3) 3 (-, 3) 4 (-, 4) 3 (-, 3) 1 (-, -) 4 (-, 3) 5 (-, 5) 1 (-, 1) 2 (1, 2) 2 (1, -) 1 (-, 1) 46 (7, 29) 4 (-, 3) 1 (-, 1) 2 (-, 1) 5 (1, 3) 4 (2, 1) 4 (-, 3)

11

28

3

118 (54)

160 (24, 114)

93

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire dating. The sample is too small to make meaningful analysis of distribution. However, it is interesting to note that both finds were associated with structural evidence and that one of the finds was located on the edge of the hollow way. Both of the stones can be classed as saddle querns, although neither can be said to be in anything like a complete state. One example was of millstone grit, whilst the other was of a softer fine grey micaceous sandstone material; both demonstrated a significant amount of wear, indicating prolonged use prior to discard or burial.

and evenly rounded pebble with a depression in the middle of one face (Figure 96.vii). The assemblage is from a variety of different raw material pieces and probably represents residual material. The relatively large size of the assemblage reflects the richness of residual material at the time when the feature was filled during the Medieval era. Finally, a few further artefacts from Medieval contexts are also worth noting. These may also represent residual material, or they may actually be Medieval artefacts. Two contexts, 217 and 276, each contained a single worked stone pebble: 217 was a post-hole setting associated with the linear enclosure at the northern end of the site and contained an asymmetric stone pebble with a narrow deep cup-mark in the middle of one face opposed by a wider shallow pecked depression on the other (Figure 96.viii). Both surfaces had numerous scratch marks probably relating to use, but the function of the artefact remains a mystery. 276 was the fill of a Medieval ditch and contained a broadly similar artefact, this time with cupmarks on the two faces of equal size and shape, but not directly opposed to each other, although each mark was in the middle of its respective face (Figure 96.ix). The cup-marks were smoother at their internal base, whether as a by-product of use or manufacture is unknown. Again the function of this artefact remains mysterious. Finally a small drill-bit (Figure 96.x) was amongst the artefacts recovered from the fill 131 of the western end of the east-west Medieval ditch running between Structure 4 and the middle of the surviving part of the hollow way. Typologically this artefact can be described as a mèche-de-forêt following Clark (1975), although there is no reason to suppose it is Mesolithic in origin. Similar drill-bits are known from later prehistoric sites in the Middle East (Calley and Grace 1988), so this artefact most likely reflects residual evidence of Bronze Age activity or a discard in the area of the hollow way.

Interestingly, in each case the circumstances of burial would suggest structured deposition. This phenomenon is echoed at other prehistoric sites around the country and has been explored to some extent on excavations in the Lincolnshire/ Cambridgeshire Fens (Pryor 1998, 61-4). It would seem that the deliberate breaking of these objects and their inversion (often with an accompanying grinding-stone) during burial, are both attempts at removing them from the world of the living. At Oversley Farm the quernstones were derived from EBA contexts in Phases 2A and 2B, while a third stone was from a LBA context in Phase 3B (discussed below). From a simple chronological view the reasons for their burial may have changed over time and it may be significant that the two EBA stones were both broken pieces of larger objects, whilst the LBA stone from Phase 3B was almost complete and accompanied by its grinding stone.

Quernstones (Figure 97)

The first EBA stone was a broken quern buried at the base of pit 251 in the entranceway of Structure 4, in association with the cup-marked stone (discussed below) and a single sherd from a pygmy-cup. This group represents the most unusual structured deposit on the site and was preceded by the use of pit 251 as a hearth. Associated radiocarbon dates from the hearth and a post-hole belonging to Structure 4 would suggest that this group may have been a foundation deposit. Alternatively, the group might indicate a special function for the structure. The second EBA stone (again a broken quern) had been placed in the base of post-hole 818 and may possibly have functioned as a pad stone for an upright timber post. Again this object could be seen as a form of foundation deposit, placed in post-hole 818 prior to the erection of the timber superstructure. It may also be significant that posthole 818 has been interpreted as part of a four-post structure (often considered to function as a granary building on prehistoric sites), the quern deposit possibly having been chosen for its associations with the processing of grain.

Both fragments of quernstone recovered from Phase 2 can be attributed to stratified Bronze Age contexts, one of which is confirmed through radiocarbon-

It appears that in the EBA querns were used as foundation deposits, possibly having been deliberately broken in order to ritually kill the objects prior to

The Non-Flint Lithic Finds by D J Garner The perforated and cup-marked stones from Phase 2 are discussed in the main lithic artefacts report with one exception: the large multiple cup-marked stone from hearth 251. All of the other finds discussed in this section can be broadly divided between quernstones and whetstones or hones.

94

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500)

Figure 97: Quern-stones and cup-marked stone their burial and maybe in the hope that this would bestow good fortune on the subsequent overlying structures.

2: Saddle-quern, lower stone, fine-grained grey sandstone. Fill (819) of post-hole 818, Phase 2B (Figure 97, ii). The fragment has been broken in several places with no clear intention. 200 mm x 150mm; 1.29kg.

1: Saddle-quern, lower stone, millstone grit. Lower fill (254) of pit 251, Phase 2A (Figure 97, i). The fragment has been broken in several places, possibly in order to shape it for a specific task – the resulting shape has similarities to some of the crude EBA hammer stones found at Alderley Edge, believed to have been used for the extraction of copper ore from the exposed rock face (S. Timberlake pers. comm.). 250mm x 190mm x 45mm; 2.75kg.

The cup-marked stone (Figure 97) This object seemingly has no practical function and its circumstances of burial would suggest that it was considered to be special by the people who buried it. For this reason it may be considered that the markings on this stone can be classed as prehistoric rock-art. A similar stone in both shape 95

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 98: Other stone objects

Newquay, Cornwall, where a cup-marked stone was buried in a pit near the central hearth of a round house. Bradley has pointed out that examples of cupmarked stones coming from settlement-sites may help to illustrate the change from a ritual landscape to an agricultural one, indicating that even the most practical activities such as building a house, drew on a symbolic code of considerable antiquity (Bradley, 1998).

and dimensions and bearing two cup-marks was found associated with a Food Vessel in a pit at the centre of a cairn-circle at Moor Divock, Cumbria (Beckensall 1999, 134). The cup-marked stone was the first object to be placed in the base of pit 251 and it was positioned face down to conceal the decorative markings. Then, along with the broken quern fragment and pygmy-cup sherd discussed above, the cup-marked stone was further concealed beneath a layer of clean yellow clay which, in effect, created a false bottom to pit 251. These attempts at concealment further support the special nature of deposit 254.

1: Flat, pear-shaped, cup-marked stone. Green volcanic tuff. Fill (254) of pit 251, Phase 2A (Figure 98, i). The object bears two pecked cup-marks: the first 30mm in diameter and 8mm deep; the second 40mm in diameter and 8mm deep. The edges and corners of the stone have been worn quite smooth, suggestive of repeated handling. 260mm x 220mm x 65mm; 4.91kg.

A close comparison for this type of deposit can be found at the MBA settlement site of Trethellan Farm, 96

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Table 25: Charred plant remains from Phase 2A Context

110

119

120

122

Species Present

124

240

369

+

+

+

Hordeum polystichum

+

Triticum cf. dioccum

+

Fallopia convolvulus

+

Chenopodium sp.

+

Chrysanthemum segetum

+

+

Filipendula ulmaria

+

Alnus glutinosa Gramineae

+

Spergula arvensis

+

Vicia sp. Pteridium aqulinum

+

Corylus avellana

+

+

Hedera helix

+

Quercus sp. Salix sp.

+ +

+

+

+

Whetstones and hones (Figure 98)

3: Whetstone, fine-grained sandstone. Layer 1, Phase 2C (Figure 98, iii). A rectangular-shaped block, which fits very well in the left hand. The upper face has one deep groove worn into it through the repetitive sharpening of a pointed implement. The edges and underside have no evidence of wear. 156mm x 70mm x 20mm; 410g. 4: Whetstone, fine-grained micaceous sandstone. Layer 373, Phase 2C (Figure 98, iv). An ovoid-shaped object, of D-shaped section. The flat upper face retains a large number of knife strokes, whilst there are none on the reverse. 95mm x 45mm x 15mm; 155g.

The three stone objects in this category comprise two whetstones and one hone, all of which were derived from stratified Phase 2 EBA contexts located in the hollow way. The whetstones are apparently complete, whilst the hone is broken at one end and bears signs of wear suggestive of an earlier primary function as an ard point. All three objects were found in association with EBA pottery and worked flint and were probably derived from midden deposits intermittently spread on the hollow way. These objects are significant as their presence clearly indicates the maintenance of bronze tools, despite the fact that no prehistoric metalwork was recovered from the site. No specific conclusions can be drawn from their distribution or form of deposition.

THE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE

2: Hone/ard point, fine-grained sandstone. Layer 380, Phase 2A (Figure 98, ii). The object has a roughly triangular-section, tapering to a rounded point at the unbroken end, where there is a chip missing. The upper face has two slight hollows worn into it suggestive of use as a hone/whetstone. The narrow edge has been repeatedly chipped resulting in a rough finish, which could have been caused if the object had originally been used as an ard point, being reused as a hone once it had become broken. 120mm x 37mm x 20mm; 185g.

The Macro-botanic Evidence by D W Shimwell Phase 2A: Early Bronze Age Macro-fossil analysis Eight samples were analysed from Phase 2A (Table 25). These were derived from: pit 928, deposit 369 and deposit 110 within the hollow way (horizon 4); post-settings 241, 242, 245, 247 and possible hearth 97

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire Table 26: Charred plant remains from Phase 2B

251 within Structure 4. Pollen preservation was poor and mainly indeterminate due to the sandy nature of the soils, precluding a formal count, although some spores of bracken were noted in deposit 110. The sample from pit 928 only produced indeterminate wood charcoal.

Context

359

359 (top)

359 (base)

+

+

Fallopia convolvulus

+

+

Chenopodium sp.

+

+

Chrysanthemum segetum

+

+

900

Species Present Hordeum polystichum

Macro-fossil analysis from post-hole fills 119, 120, 122, and 240 of Structure 4 indicated that wood charcoal of Quercus sp. (oak), Corylus avellana (hazel), Salix sp. (willow) and Hedera helix (ivy) were present. The hazel and willow charcoal dominated, being derived from small stems of withes that could have been used for basket storage, pit-lining etc. The ivy charcoal came from post-hole 247 which formed one of the posts to the entrance of Structure 4, and is thought to have ritualistic associations and may have been part of a foundation deposit. Interestingly, posthole 247 also produced charred seeds of Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet), which is a riverside plant thought to have been used as a strewing-herb or possibly an ingredient in the production of beer or mead. Post-hole 241 produced fragments of charred hazelnut shells indicative of wild food foraging during the autumn season.

Triticum cf. dioccum

The upper fill (124) of hearth 251, which lay within Structure 4, produced charred seeds of Hordeum polystichum (naked barley) and Triticum cf diococcum (emmer wheat). The lower fill of this feature also produced a broken quernstone fragment further strengthening the case for the processing of cultivated cereal crops. At the MBA site of Trethellan Farm (Cornwall) the evidence suggested that amongst cereal cultivation barley was of primary importance as a staple food (being probably spring-sown), whereas the presence of small amounts of wheat led to the suggestion that some autumn-sowing took place as well (Nowakowski 1991, 191). This pattern may be repeated during Phase 2A at Oversley Farm.

Salix sp.

Filipendula ulmaria

+

Alnus glutinosa

+

Gramineae

+

+

+

Spergula arvensis

+

+

Vicia sp.

+

Pteridium aqulinum

+

+

+

Corylus avellana

+

+

+

Hedera helix

+

+

Quercus sp. +

+

derived from midden deposit (359) as it had been identified as having potential during the evaluation stage of the project. Pollen preservation was good in deposit (359) and three of the samples were subject to a formal count (discussed below).

Pollen analysis The three samples that lent themselves to a full pollen analysis were all from hollow way deposit 359, samples 60-62 (analysis 1), samples 63-65 (analysis 2) and sample 66 (analysis 3), all of a cal BC date of 1870-1765. For each sample, two counts of 150 pollen grains were made and as no significant differences between counts were apparent, the results for six analyses are aggregated in Table 27. The various types are expressed as % total pollen (TP) and as % arboreal pollen (AP) and % herbaceous pollen (HP).

Charred seeds recovered from hollow way deposit 110 (horizon 4) also included Hordeum polystichum (naked barley) and Triticum cf diococcum (emmer wheat) as well as four varieties of crop weed (black bindweed, goosefoot, corn marigold and corn spurrey). This again supports the argument for the presence of cultivated crops on the site during Phase 2A and again indicates the presence of both barley and wheat crops.

Phase 2B: Early Bronze Age

Also single grains of Caryophyllaceae (?Spergula), Umbelliferae (parsley family), Scrophulariaceae (figwort family) Asteraceae/Liguliflorae (?Taraxacum) and Rosaceace (?Potentilla).

Macro-fossil analysis

Discussion Of Phase 2B

Five samples were analysed from Phase 2B (Table 26). These were derived from: construction-trench 901 of Structure 5 and midden deposit (359) within the hollow way. Four of the samples were actually

Macro-fossil analysis from hollow way deposit 359 indicated that charcoal of Alnus glutinosa (alder), Corylus avellana (hazel), Salix sp. (willow) and Hedera helix (ivy) were present. The hazel and willow charcoal 98

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) Table 27: Pollen analysis - Phase 2B Woody species/types

%AP

%HP

%TP

Coryloid

(Hazel)

54

11

Alnus

(Alder)

21

5

Betula

(Birch)

15

4

Quercus

(Oak)

5

Hedera

(Ivy)

3

Pinus

(Scot’s Pine)

1

Salis

(Willow)

1

Three samples from deposit 359 were subjected to pollen analysis. The closest 1.5 comparable pollen analysis for the EBA period comes from the work of Branch and 1 Scaife (1995) on a peat-profile in association + with the Lindow III bog-body (LPAZ LN1 2202-2039 cal BC). This analysis is of + a relatively undisturbed peat-profile and the Oversley analyses differ markedly in several ways. Firstly, it was noted that the 38 relatively low arboreal/non-aboreal ratio of 16.5 23/77% is an indication of open landscape conditions and localised or restricted 5 pollen deposition; the natural vegetation at Oversley in this period was probably a hazel/alder/birch scrub. The absence of 4.5 Ulnus/Tilia/Fraxinus pollen suggests the 3 absence of primeval or modified woodland 4 and the relatively high percentage of Hedera pollen perhaps suggests some 3 ritualistic use of the plant or alternatively 1.5 its management as a fodder-crop. Elevated values for Gramineae, Ericales, Pteridium 1.5 and Cerealia are a strong indication of open pastoral and arable conditions in the immediate vicinity and a record of only 10 weedpollen types is also an indication of the reduction of diversity by human occupation, especially when this fact is coupled with the dominance of Plantago types, clear indicator species of trampled and disturbed ground (Dimbleby, 1967). Finally, the elevated values for Filipendula (F. ulmaria is a plant of wet streamside soils) suggest its use either as a strewing-herb or for some other domestic purpose such as in flavouring mead or some other alcohol.

Grass-heath species/types Gramineae

(Grasses)

48

Ericales

(Heaths)

22

Pteridium

(Bracken)

7

Plantago media/major

(Plantain)

6

Plantago lanceolata

(Plantain)

4

Filipendula

(Meadowsweet)

5

Rumex

(Dock/Sorrel)

4

Chenopodium

(Fat hen)

2

Cerealia

(Cereals)

2

deposit 359 also produced charred seeds of Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet) which is a riverside plant thought to have been used as a strewing herb or possibly an ingredient in the brewing process.

Weed/herb species/types

dominated, being derived from small stems of withes that could have been used for basket-storage, pitlining etc. The ivy charcoal is thought to have ritualistic associations (Godwin, 1984) and may indicate that 359 was a special deposit. But ivy can also be used as a winter fodder-crop for sheep/goat livestock and its presence may simply suggest that it was being harvested for this purpose during Phase 2B. Deposit 359 produced charred seeds of Hordeum polystichum (naked barley) but unlike Phase 2A there was no Triticum cf diococcum (emmer wheat) present. However, vetches were identified, and at the MBA site of Trethellan Farm (Cornwall) the evidence for vetches was used to suggest that crop-rotation was being practised, as these plants have nitrogenfixing properties and might imply that fields were left fallow (Nowakowski 1991, 191). Charred seeds from varieties of crop-weed (black bindweed, goosefoot, corn marigold and corn spurrey) were also recovered from deposit 359, which again supports the argument for the presence of cultivated crops on the site during Phase 2B.

Phase 2C: Early Bronze Age Macro-fossil analysis Three samples were analysed from Phase 2C (Table 28). These were all derived from fill (113) of pit 112 located within the hollow way. Pollen preservation was poor and mainly indeterminate, precluding a formal count. Table 28: Charred plant remains from Phase 2C Context Species Present Gramineae Corylus avellana Salix sp.

The frequency of indeterminate gramineous remains including straw of the barley type and bracken in deposit 359, suggests that these materials may have been used for pit-linings or strewing. Interestingly, 99

113 + + +

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

The Organic Residues by S N Dudd

Another factor to consider when looking at the evidence from Oversley Farm is the evidence for EBA settlement as a whole as distinct from Beaker sites in particular, because there is a considerable amount of overlap between the periods represented by these labels. Most general books on the subject see the period from 2100-1500 BC as the beginnings of land-division, with settlements represented by clusters of round-houses forming both enclosed and unenclosed rural farms or hamlets (Parker Pearson 1993, 103). The site at Fengate, Cambridgeshire for example, brought to light the complete plan of a settlement dating to between cal BC 2030-1860, that was associated with grooved-ware pottery and had evidence for a small field-system and a droveway (Darvill 1990, 105). This pattern is followed and appears to proliferate during the subsequent MBA period when evidence for settlement becomes more convincing and the examples more numerous. However, at Oversley Farm the weight of evidence is in favour of the EBA period despite indications that the site was occupied in the MBA and LBA periods, so it remains a matter of some consternation to explain this reverse in the usual sequence of settlement development. It may simply suffice to suggest that the entire site was not uncovered during the excavation and that areas favoured for later Bronze Age settlement had unfortunately been removed by subsequent modern development such as the brickworks and the first runway at Manchester Airport.

The analysis of organic residues on pottery-sherds from: Phase 2A pit fill 331 and hollow way deposits 380 and 441 (horizon 3); and Phase 2B hollow way deposits 359, 381 and 534 indicated that the majority of the vessels appear to have functioned as ‘cooking’ vessels, used to heat their contents over a fire. This process has accelerated the decay of lipid components entrapped within the fabric, as the overall level of preservation is not high. The distributions of lipid components indicate that the majority of the degraded animal fats derive from an ovine source, although it is not possible to differentiate between sheep and goat fat due to their compositional similarity (Figure 24). Overall, these analyses have provided substantial evidence for the use of the vessels in the processing of natural commodities derived from ruminant and more specifically ovine animal products. The meat consumption at Oversley Farm in EBA phase 2 still appears to have been dominated by ruminant, most likely ovine animals, though still with no evidence that animals were exploited for their milk. However, a greater degree of animal diversity appears to have been reached by Phase 2A, with evidence for goose/ duck and pig fats being present in beaker potterysherds from pit 330. This evidence may simply represent the products of a single hunting-trip, but it may be significant that they were recovered from finely decorated beaker pottery, possibly implying a ritualistic purpose. In Phase 2B, there is evidence again for goose/duck and pig-fats being present, this time in collared urn vessel sherds from deposits 359 and 534. This evidence may further support the exploitation of wild game as food to supplement a diet based on domesticated livestock.

The temptation to refer to a Beaker phase has been avoided when looking at the evidence from Oversley Farm. However, Phase 2A included a high proportion of Beaker and Beaker domestic pottery in its assemblage. This activity seems to have been a springboard for the subsequent occupation during Phase 2B, which was dominated by Collared Urns, Food Vessel and accessory cup pottery usually, but evidently not only associated with funerary practices. It is fortunate that a direct stratigraphic link can be seen between these two phases in the hollow way area, as the transition from a preference for Beaker pottery to a desire for Collared Vessels can be clearly demonstrated. Furthermore, residue analysis on a selection of these pottery-types has indicated that many were used for the cooking of meat (including sheep/goat), a fact that supports a predominantly domestic usage.

Unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) have been observed in analyses of pottery samples from Phase 2A pit fill 331 and hollow way deposit 380 as well as pottery samples from Phase 2B hollow way deposit 359. UCM are believed to consist of a range of oxidised lipid components resulting from extensive degradation of the original commodity processed in the vessel. It is suggested that these UCM may derive from highly unsaturated commodities such as fish oil or plant oil. However, investigations into their formation are ongoing.

The presence of structures within the hollow way in Phase 2B requires some explanation, as this would seem an unlikely place to erect buildings if the trackway was still in use. However, it maybe significant that this was also the phase in which the midden deposit accumulated in the hollow way and the two could be related. Whatever the reasons the hollow way is unlikely to have gone out of use as the

DISCUSSION OF PHASE 2 It has been suggested that EBA settlement patterns may have followed a cycle of settlement-drift (Bradley 1970, 360) and that this may have been confined to a circumscribed area (Bamford 1982, 54). 100

The Early Bronze Age (c.2500 – c.1500) evidence in Phase 2C suggests a concerted effort to maintain the routeway. The buildings in Phase 2B could have been deliberately erected in order to exert some control over the passage of traffic to and from the fording point, or it may simply have been viewed as a symbolically powerful place to site a settlement.

to an area that has previously only yielded mortuary sites of the period. This helps to confirm that a similar sequence of development in the organisation of domestic sites was applicable to the North West as to elsewhere in the country. The results have highlighted the problems of site recognition, and to a very great extent the preservation of stratified in situ deposits within the hollow way can be seen as remarkable, and unlikely to be encountered with any degree of frequency in the future. As such the sequential formation of the artefact-rich deposits within this feature provide an almost unique record for the development of pottery and lithic use during the EBA in the North West; which is enhanced by the complementary and comprehensive suite of radiocarbon dates provided.

As various aspects of the EBA occupation of the site are discussed in earlier sections of this chapter and a holistic overview is provided in the conclusions later, further discussion seems unwarranted here. It remains, however, to underline the importance of the EBA evidence recovered from Oversley Farm at both regional and national levels. From a regional perspective the evidence has added a domestic site

101

CHAPTER 4 THE LATER PREHISTORIC PERIOD (1500 BC – AD 43) PHASE 3A: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE 1500 – 1150 BC

with inclusions of water-worn pebbles, probably representing natural silting in the base of the feature. Above this was fill 531, comprising a dark brown charcoal-rich silt-clay and containing sherds of pottery of Deverel-Rimbury type. At the western end of pit 525 was an oval-shaped feature (581) which appeared to have been cut into upper fill 531. Pit 581 (1.1 x 0.7 x 0.25m) was a slightly irregular-shaped feature with gently sloping sides and a rounded base. Red and yellow heat-discoloured patches on the sides and base of the cut suggested in situ burning. The fill (526) was a charcoal-rich clay-silt containing fragments of mudstone discoloured by heat and metalworking waste. On analysis, the latter was found to be tap-slag from the ironworking process and its presence strongly suggests later contamination of pit fill 526.

Including features 525 and 357; Figures 99-101 This phase is represented by two isolated pits, 357 and 525, neither of which could be linked to any structural features on the site. As such they serve to demonstrate a continued use of the site during this period, although it is hard to speculate about status or function beyond identifying that elements of domestic life were present. If a pattern of settlementshift occurred at Oversley Farm from generation to generation, confined to the natural outcrop of sand/ gravel subsoil and the focus of the hollow way, then it may be reasonable to assume that a domestic settlement or farmstead was present, even though no positive trace of the latter could be recovered within the available area.

Pit 357 (Figures 99 and 101) Pit 357 was located within the northern section of the hollow way and was a rectangular-shaped feature. The primary fill (232) was a charcoal-rich silt containing a high percentage of heat-fractured stone, which produced a standard radiometric

Pit 525 (Figures 99-100) Pit 525 was an irregular-shaped cut aligned eastwest and located in the north-eastern corner of the site. Its primary fill (544) was a pale yellow sand,

Figure 99: Site Plan, Phase 3A 102

The Later Prehistoric Period (1500 BC – AD 43) Pit 355 (Figures 102-103) Pit 355 was a sub-rectangular-shaped cut aligned roughly north-east to south-west, located at the northern end of the hollow way and having sides which sloped at a 45º angle to a rounded base. The fill (19) consisted of a dark grey silt-sand interspersed with lenses of pale yellow sand, containing small pebbles and several pottery sherds of LBA type. Sitting on the top of fill 19 was a complete saddle-quernstone with its accompanying grinding-stone which bore a single cup-mark (Figure 90). Both of these objects had been buried upside down and may represent a ritual deposit, symbolising the removal of the pit from the living world. Charcoal recovered from a bulk sample of fill 19 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 910-760 (Beta-127178). Post-hole 27 was associated with pit 355 and lay along its southern edge. The feature was circular with a diameter of 0.2m, tapering to a point at a depth of 0.2m and filled with a grey-brown silt-sand. This posthole may indicate that pit 355 originally had a timber superstructure associated with it. Pits 594 and 598 (Figures 102 and 104-105) Pit 594 was located 5m to the south of pit 355 and was a sub-rectangular-shaped feature aligned northwest to south-east. The fill (22) was a dark grey sand-silt containing lenses of red-brown sand with inclusions of water-worn pebbles and a single sherd of LBA pottery. Pit 598 had been cut into fill 22 and consisted of an oval-shaped feature. The lowest fill (597) was a clean dark grey silt 0.2m thick, above which lay a yellow-brown silt-sand fill (596). Both of these pits were apparently located within Structure 9, but were probably for a similar use to that of pit 355 (discussed above).

Figures 100-101: Pit Sections

date of cal BC 1420-1020 (Beta-127177). Whilst the upper fill (358) was a grey-brown silt-clay containing occasional fragments of charcoal and heat-fractured stone. The fills of pit 357 suggest that it may have functioned as a domestic hearth, though no in situ burning was noted. Three of the four corners of this pit contained shallow circular depressions, as could be left by upright timber posts, implying that a frame may have been constructed over the feature.

Structure 9 (Figures 102 and 106) This structure was located towards the northern end of the hollow way on the western side of the site and was in the vicinity of pits 355, 594 and 598. The structure can only be a tentative suggestion as the area had been badly eroded by ploughing activity and the surviving elements were probably the most substantial components of the building. The structure consisted of four post-holes which possibly sat on the line of a circle with a diameter of 10m, at the centre of which lay pits 594 and 598. This could represent the remains of a round-house and structures of a comparable size and post-hole construction have previously been recorded in Cheshire at Beeston Castle (Ellis 1993, figure 23) and Tatton Park (Higham 1999, ill. I26) in a later Iron Age context.

PHASE 3B: THE LATE BRONZE AGE 1150-750 BC Including features 355, 594, 23, 31, 32 and 437; Figures 102-106 The evidence for this phase of the site is limited to a couple of pits concentrated along the eastern edge of the hollow way and, as with Phase 3A, serves merely to demonstrate the continued occupation of the site. Artefactual evidence recovered from these pits again seems to indicate a domestic presence, although structural elements were ephemeral, making the building assigned to this phase only tentative.

Post-holes 23, 31, 32 and 437 (Figure 106) were sub-circular-shaped cuts 0.3m in diameter and 0.2m deep, with steep sides and a flat base, the fills of 103

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

B

Figure 102: Site Plan, Phase 3

dark brown silt, containing a high percentage of heat-fractured stone, charcoal, fragments of burnt bone and a single sherd of pottery. Charcoal recovered from a bulk sample of fill 470 produced a standard radiometric date of cal BC 375-20 (Beta127179).Upper fill 99 consisted of a matrix made up almost entirely of heat-fractured stone, which sat in a grey-brown silt containing rare fragments of charcoal. This upper fill was sealed by a deposit of red-brown silt-sand (487) covering an area 4.4m east-west and 3.7m north-south, to a thickness of 0.12m, which contained worked flint and metalworking waste.

which were a dark grey silt-sand containing a high percentage of small pebbles.

PHASE 3C: THE IRON AGE 750 BC – AD 43 (Figure 107) Including features 456 and 204-207; Figures 107113; Plates 7, 8 and 9 Only one pit can be positively attributed to this phase of the site and as with the Middle and Late Bronze Age phases at Oversley Farm, the evidence merely serves to demonstrate a continued presence/use of the site during the Iron Age. A four-post structure is also discussed within phase 3C and although there is no dating evidence to support this allocation, on typological grounds the structure belongs in a late prehistoric/Iron Age context.

Structure 10 (Figures 107 and 109-113, Plate 9) This comprised four post-holes (Figures 110-113) forming a square structure 3m east-west and 3m north-south which was located at the northern edge of the site. The structure was 30m north-east of pit 456 and 18m east of the hollow way. Where a post pipe could be discerned the evidence suggests that

Pit 456 (Figures 107-108; Plates 7-8) Pit 456 was a sub-circular feature, located towards the northern end of the site and 10m east of the hollow way 378/578. The primary fill (470) was a 104

The Later Prehistoric Period (1500 BC – AD 43)

Figures 103-106: Pit Sections the timber posts had been of square section, 0.2 x 0.2m in size.

and an average depth of 0.35m. Their profile tended to consist of steep sides tapering to a blunt point at the base and the fills (69, 70, 78, and 79) were a mid grey-brown silt-sand containing large sub-rounded cobbles, which would have formed the packing-stones

Post-holes 204, 205, 206, and 207 were approximately circular in shape with an average diameter of 0.45m 105

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 107: Site Plan, Phase 3C

Figure 108: Section through pit 456

Plate 7: Late Iron Age pit 456, looking north-east – demonstrating the density of heat-fractured stone forming its fill. 106

The Later Prehistoric Period (1500 BC – AD 43)

Plate 8: Late Iron Age pit 456 after excavation, looking north-east. To the right are the contents of the pit, which has now taken on the appearance of a burnt mound.

Plate 9: Late Iron Age Structure 10, looking east. Note the excavated packing stones from each post-hole are placed to the left of each setting.

107

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

THE FINDS The Later Prehistoric Pottery By C S M Allen The pottery from Phase 3 represents 2.1% of the total weight of prehistoric pottery found on the site and comprises a number of sherds of MBA type, with a few sherds of LBA and Iron Age pottery. Pit 525 This was an isolated pit in the north-eastern corner of the excavated area. Within the upper fill (531), 44 sherds of undecorated pottery weighing 0.218kg were found. This included two simple rounded rims, one of which was broken in antiquity, but the two halves have remained together (Figure 89, 132). The rims are most likely to have originated from DeverelRimbury bucket-shaped pots, of MBA type, made from a local volcanic fabric type. Two flints were also found in this context. Figure 109: Plan of Structure 10

Deverel-Rimbury pottery is well known from cremation cemeteries in the south of England (Ellison, 1980) and in the Midlands, for example at Barton-underNeedwood, Staffordshire (Allen, 1997b: Martin and Allen, 2001) and at Coneygre Farm, Hoveringham, Nottinghamshire (Allen et al, 1987). In the south of England globular, barrel and bucket shapes are seen, but the bucket shape is considered to be the most usual style seen in central and northern areas (ibid, 212). As with the sherds found at Oversley Farm the pottery is characterised by the undecorated body of plain bucket shape and the simple rounded rims.

for the timber posts. Post-hole 205 also produced a flint flake and a fragment of metal-working waste. All four post-holes were cut into a deposit of mid greybrown sand-clay (208) which covered a roughly circular area 3m in diameter to a thickness of 0.1m and contained small water-worn pebbles.

Figures 110-113: Post-hole sections 108

These pots are considered to be of MBA type, but may have their origins in the EBA, in the first part of the second millennium cal BC. Radiocarbon dates show that some of this pottery, for example highly decorated at Ardleigh, Essex, (Brown 1995, 128), and at Fengate, Cambridgeshire (Pryor 1980, 247) was current in the EBA, at the start of the second millennium cal BC. As discussed earlier at Swarkestone in Derbyshire a small undecorated bucket-shaped pot has been dated to 1440-1145 cal BC placing this type of vessel in this area in the mid-second millennium cal BC. In the north and central area dates spanning the early to mid second millennium cal BC are known from similar pottery on cemetery sites (Barnett 1994, 368).

The Later Prehistoric Period (1500 BC – AD 43) Table 29: Phase 3 pottery Context

Date/phase

Sherds

Fragments

Weight (g)

Drawing

Fabric type

531

Bronze Age/ 3A

44

0

218

132

7

19

LBA/Iron Age

3

0

18

-

9

470

3C

2

2

3

-

6

1212

3

1

6

-

11

Total

52

3

245

Discussion

of the two pieces of technologically undiagnostic flakes from 525. The primary fill (232) of pit 357 in the northern section of the hollow way also contained two pieces of debitage, both spalls recovered from sieving. Such a small lithic collection, all debitage, is of no interpretive potential. It may all represent the residual evidence of Neolithic and/or EBA activity at the site, which produced more substantial lithic collections. No lithic material was recovered from Iron Age contexts (Phase 3C).

Deverel-Rimbury bucket-shaped vessels are dated to the early to mid-second millennium cal BC, although in some areas the type may have continued to the end of the second millennium cal BC. The bucket-urns are mainly known from cemetery sites, particularly in the central and northern areas of England. However, there is no indication of any burial at the Oversley Farm site. In the south of England this type of pottery has been found on both settlement and burial sites (Darvill 1990, 118), but in the central and northern areas this pottery has previously been recognised mainly in burial locations (Barnett, 1994). However, this pottery is being identified on settlement sites such as Billingborough (Chowne et al, 2001) and Welland Bank (Pryor 1998, 142) and other sites found with this type of pottery may also be settlements as no burial evidence has been found, for example at Kirkmond Le Mire, Lincolnshire (Field and Knight, 1992) and Pinchbeck (Allen, 1997a).

The Non-Flint Lithics (Figure 97) In contrast to the EBA querns the LBA quernstone had been deposited in the uppermost fill of pit 355 and may well be a complete object. The quern had been buried face down and lay directly on top of its grinding-stone which had also been inverted. These objects could not have accidentally ended up like this and so must have been carefully placed in position at their time of burial. The underlying grinding stone is also of particular interest as it has a single cup-mark on its upper face, although the practical function of this feature in allowing added grip during use cannot be ignored. The main difference between the burial of this quern and the EBA stones was in its deposition at the end of the pits life, as opposed to the beginning. The function of pit 355 remains enigmatic, it could have served for the storage of grain and the burial of the quern seems linked to its abandonment – possibly due to a failed harvest or its failure as a grain-store.

The Later Prehistoric Lithics By F F Wenban-smith Archaeological evidence from this phase is minimal, restricted to a few pits and fills and the almost destroyed remnants of Structure 9, attributed to Phase 3B. The only lithic evidence came from the fills of two pits attributed to Phase 3A, the MBA. The upper fill (531) of pit 525 contained two blades, one of them broken, in a charcoal-rich deposit also containing DeverelRimbury pottery; this was probably also the source

It appears that in the EBA querns were used as foundation deposits, possibly having been deliberately

Table 30: Lithic artefacts - MBA Site location

Context

Cores

Tools

Stone

Debitage (Whole)

Total (Burnt, Fresh)

Hollow way

B.232

-

-

-

2 (2)

2 (1, 2)

c.10725/9830

B.525

-

-

-

2 (2)

2 (-, 1)

c.10725/9830

B.531

-

-

-

2 (1)

2 (-, 1)

-

-

-

6 (5)

6 (1, 4)

Total

109

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire information is relatively scant. The most significant feature is perhaps the appearance of the common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) as a charcoal species, a feature that is continued in later Iron Age deposits. The charcoal of ash is easily recognisable and although it has been recorded from occupation sites of Mesolithic age, by far the greatest concentration of records come from the Bronze and Iron Ages and the Romano-British periods as the frost-sensitive tree spread north and west in Britain (Godwin, 1984). Pollen frequencies reach maximal values in north-west England in Flandrian Zone IZ (the Iron Age onwards) and are interpreted as being due to regrowth of the tree at the margins of wildwood previously cleared by Neolithic and EBA cultures. In ecological terms, it is unlikely that the reasonably basiphilous tree would have grown on the acidic, sandy and clayey soils of the drift plateau, but on the steeper slopes of the Bollin Valley. Its ecology implies the deliberate collection for firewood from the LBA onwards.

broken in order to ritually kill the objects prior to their burial and maybe in the hope that this would bestow good fortune on the subsequent overlying structures. However, the LBA quern was not broken, but buried face down in the top of a feature that had outlived its use, possibly as an offering to ensure that whatever ill fortune had caused the abandonment of the pit (355) did not occur again. 1: Saddle-quern, lower stone millstone grit, upper stone granite. Fill 19 of pit 355, Phase 3B (Figure 97). The lower stone has one jagged edge suggesting a break, although the object could be complete. The upper stone is complete and has a single cup-mark pecked into its upper face, which could have served as a thumb-hold during grinding. The curvatures on the upper face of the lower stone and the lower face of the upper stone are a perfect match. Lower stone: 400mm x 250mm x 50mm; 5kg. Upper stone: 2.3 kg.

The base fill (470) of pit 456 produced wood charcoal of Betula sp. (birch), Corylus avellana (hazel), Hedera helix (ivy) and Fraxinus excelsior (ash) and indeterminate gramineous stems and rootlets. The pollen-preservation was poor, but broken grains of Coryloid, Betula, Salix, Ericales, Pteridium and Gramineae were identified. This may suggest that the vegetation immediately surrounding the pit comprised a hazel, birch and willow scrub. The presence of grasses, heaths and bracken may also indicate open pastoral conditions in the immediate vicinity, although no cereals were present. The charcoal suggests that birch and ash were being selected for firewood, though the presence of ivy could suggest a possible ritualistic function. The pattern of charcoal deposits is much the same as for the MBA, notably in the predominance of small wood of Corylus and Salix, in the continued presence of Fraxinus and in the reappearance of Hedera. The same premises as those discussed above also apply here.

THE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE The Macro-Botanic Evidence by D W Shimwell Macro-fossil analysis Four samples were analysed from Phase 3 (Table 31). These were derived from: Phase 3A pit fills 137 and 232; Phase 3B pit fill 19; and Phase 3C pit fill 470. Pollen preservation was poor and mainly indeterminate, precluding a formal count, although some spores of Ericales, Pteridium and Gramineae were noted in pit fill 470. The samples from pit fills 137 and 232 only produced indeterminate wood charcoal. Table 31: Charred plant remains from sampled contexts in Phase 3 Context

19

Construction-works in relation to the alteration of the course of the River Bollin beneath the second runway provided an opportunity to analyse stratigraphic profiles from the sediments of the Bollin Valley. Profiles BV3/4 from a section through a former meander of the River Bollin adjacent to the Oversley Farm site produced timber of Fraxinus excelsior (ash), nuts of Corylus, roots and stems of Phragmites australis (reed) and rhizones of Equisetum sp. (horsetail) in a river silt dated cal BC 370-5 (Beta112650). The radiocarbon date of cal BC 370-5 from the base of profile BV3 suggests that this was the location of the original river channel throughout much of the later prehistoric period. Whereas most of the woody remains in the various horizons of all profiles would have been deposited by fluvial activity, the presence of the macroscopic root remains of reeds

470

Species Present Gramineae

+

Corylus avellana

+

+

Fraxinus excelsior

+

+

Betula sp.

+

+

Hedera helix Salix sp.

+ +

+

The Middle and Late Bronze Age periods are poorly represented at Oversley Farm and the environmental 110

The Later Prehistoric Period (1500 BC – AD 43) and horsetails indicates a marginal fen vegetation and channel stability. Moreover, the complicated nature of the stratigraphy indicates a relatively stable river channel functioning over a long period of time. This prehistoric channel was located at the foot of the major escarpment of the south side of the Bollin flood plain and the earlier phases of alluvial siltation in the channel would appear to be associated with the worsening climate and increased deforestation of the landscape during the Iron Age.

evidence from this phase was recovered from pit 355 which lay just to the north of Structure 9, most significant of which was the saddle-quernstone and accompanying grinding-stone deposited upside down in the top of the fill. Comparisons for this type of deposit are fairly common, most notably an identical deposit was made in a Bronze Age pit at Etton in Cambridgeshire, leading the excavator, Francis Pryor, to comment that: “The normal position of the two stones in domestic life had been reversed. This was a symbolic act intended to remove them from circulation within the everyday world.” (Pryor 1998, 63). Pryor went on to suggest that the quernstone may have come to represent the family unit and burial of such objects could have been used to delimit sub-groups within broader kin-groups. Pit 355 also produced a reasonable quantity of charcoal which included birch, hazel, willow and ash, the latter being unlikely to have grown on the acidic sandy soils around Oversley Farm, implying the deliberate collection of firewood from further afield, probably on the slopes of the Bollin Valley.

DISCUSSION Phase 3 generally represents three episodes during a period of 1500 years and as such cannot be taken as evidence for continuous occupation of the site between the EBA and the Romano-British periods. However, it does serve to illustrate that the Oversley Farm site continued to be used by the later prehistoric people of the area and that the hollow way remained an important feature of the landscape. No direct evidence was found for the continued use of the hollow way in Phase 3, however, (as discussed in Phase 2C) deposit 237 was thought to have continued to accumulate during the later prehistoric period, inferring the continued use of the feature.

The Iron Age (Phase 3C) was restricted to a single pit and an insecurely dated four-post structure. This phase is marked by the almost complete absence of artefactual evidence with only a single sherd of pottery in the lower fill of pit 456 and a flint flake from post-hole 205, which was probably residual. The established rural settlement type for the Iron Age in the Mersey Basin region is characterised by ditched enclosures (Nevell 1999, 26), a feature lacking in this phase at Oversley Farm. The nearby place-name ‘Ringway’ (thought to lie beneath the first runway at Manchester Airport, some 500m to the west of Oversley Farm) may imply the presence of a circular enclosure of this date in the vicinity (Field 1993, 214). As the environmental evidence suggests that the Iron Age phase of the site was dominated by vegetation representative of a pastoral landscape, it may be reasonable to assume that pit 456 and Structure 10 were located in fields to the east of the main domestic site. In this case a function such as a granary-building for Structure 10 would seem unlikely given its unprotected location and an alternative suggestion may be that the structure represents an excarnation platform, thought to be the normal disposal rite for the dead over much of Britain during the Iron Age (Cunliffe 1995, 111). The function of pit 456 could then possibly be seen as associated with the rituals of excarnation, such as an area where feasts were held to honour the dead. Features comprising large quantities of heatfractured or burnt stone such as burnt mounds, have been suggested to mark the location of cooking sites (Darvill 1990, 116).

The MBA (Phase 3A) is perhaps the least informative in terms of structural evidence. However, it did yield the only good pottery group for the later prehistoric period on the site. As with the EBA and Neolithic phases of the site, Phase 3A is characterised by small shallow pits filled with material that had been subjected to heat, specifically heat-fractured stone and charcoal. The pottery associated with pit 525 may imply domestic occupation, but this may be compared to pit 357 which despite the entire fill being sampled and wet sieved produced no artefactual evidence. It might therefore, be proposed that these features represent occasional visits to the site and that their respective fills are ritual deposits as suggested for the Neolithic pits discussed in Phase 1. However, the only criterion lacking for the identification of a domestic site during Phase 3A is a building; but due to the plough-truncated nature of the excavation area the former existence of this element cannot be completely ruled out. Phase 3B representing the LBA period at Oversley Farm met all the criteria for a domestic site. This was characterised by three large sub-rectangular pits which may have functioned as working-hollows and a possible round-house (Structure 9). Notably, pit 594 was succeeded by pit 598 and both features may have been located towards the centre of the circular post-built Structure 9. The only artefactual

111

CHAPTER 5 THE ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD (AD 43 – 410) The archaeological evidence for the Roman period was slight at Oversley Farm, although some structural evidence was recovered. The implication was towards reuse of the site for agricultural-based activity, with possible spells of intermittent abandonment. This may suggest that during the Roman period the land at Oversley Farm was considered to be marginal and therefore only exploited during times of population growth. The evidence from Phase 4B would seem to indicate that by the later second century the sites’ main importance was as part of the road network serving the Roman military.

was located towards the centre of the excavationarea and had been sited on top of the earlier hollow way. The evidence for Structure 11 comprised six post-holes forming the incomplete plan of an oval or bow-sided building. All six post-holes (851, 814, 863, 895, 882, and 880) were cut into deposit 804 and were circular in shape with steep sides and a concave base, varying in diameter from 0.4-1m and in depth from 0.3-0.5m. The largest post-hole – 814 (Figure 117 and Plate 11) had a primary fill (822) comprising a dark grey clay-silt, above which was a mid grey sand-silt (821) containing a high percentage of pebbles and charcoal as well as sherds from a latefirst to early-second century orange ware jar (Figure 125.4). Fill 892 lay above this and comprised a mid brown silt-sand, which in turn was covered by a lens of charcoal-rich silt (817) containing sherds from a Samian ware plate (Figure 125.7).

PHASE 4A: LATE-FIRST TO EARLYSECOND CENTURY AD Including features 814, 851, 863, 880, 882, 897 and 921; Figures 114-117; Plates 10 and 11

Structure 11 (Figures 114-117)

Post-hole 851 (Figure 118) lay 1m to the south-west of cut 814 and had a primary fill (852) consisting of a grey silt-sand containing one large packing stone and

This phase was dominated by Structure 11, which

112

A

Figure 114: Site Plan, Phase 4

The Romano-British Period (AD 43 – 410)

Plate 10: Romano-British Structure 11, looking east. The area of metalling on the interior of the building relates to the Early Bronze Age hollow way from Phase 2.

Plate 11: Romano-British post-hole 14, looking south-west. The feature is sealed by gravel deposits related to the Phase 4B road construction.

113

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire sherds from an early second century grey ware jar (Figure 125.3). Above this was a lens of orange sand (850) and an upper fill (849) comprising a mid grey silt-sand with inclusions of pebbles and charcoal. Post-hole 882 had a primary fill of orange clay (890), above which was a grey siltsand (883) which contained small pebbles. The remaining post-holes (863, 895 and 880) were filled with a pebble-rich grey-brown silt-sand (864, 896 and 881 respectively). There were no internal surfaces or features associated with Structure 11, although this may have been due to truncation during the later roadbuilding activity of Phase 2B. Comparisons for the structure can be seen in round and oval houses of the early Romano-British period, and a particularly close parallel may be drawn from Trethurgy in Cornwall where an oval post-built building of comparable dimensions was interpreted as a domestic house (Hingley 1989, 32). Pit-group 897 and 921 (Figure 114) Pits 897 and 921 comprised two D-shaped features (2.1 x 0.8 x 0.4m) on a roughly northsouth alignment, pit 897 lying 1m to the north of Structure 11 and pit 921 15m further north again. The profile of these pits comprised a vertical side along the northern edge, while the remaining sides sloped at a 45º angle to a concave base. The fills (898, 899, 925, and 915) comprised grey silt-sands containing small pebbles and fill 915 produced a sherd of Romano-British orangeware.

Figure 115: Plan of Structure 11

These features have been interpreted as treebole pits and may represent evidence for a tree or hedge-line possibly marking a field or propertyboundary. Coincidentally, this boundary respects the alignment of the hollow way and may even have served to mark the edge of a track in use during this phase of the site.

PHASE 4B: SECOND – FOURTH CENTURY AD Road 802 and 803 (Figures 118 and 119) After Structure 11 had fallen into disuse and the post-holes had been backfilled, a layer of grey silt-clay (932) formed in the central portion of the hollow way and covered an area 70m northsouth and 7m east-west. Layer 932 produced Romano-British pottery of second century date and included Black-Burnished ware suggesting a date after AD 120 for the accumulation of the deposit. The domestic waste within layer 932 suggested a continued presence on the site after the abandonment of Structure 11 and a

Figures 116-117: Post-Hole Sections 114

The Romano-British Period (AD 43 – 410)

Figure 118: Site Plan, Phase 4B

Figure 119: Section through Roman road subsequent building (unidentified within the available area) could, of course, have existed nearby.

between Middlewich to the south and Manchester to the north (Margary 1973, 303-4). The southern end of this road has recently been confirmed at Middlewich (Gifford, 2000) where its construction was of waterworn cobbles and pebbles forming a road 10m wide and flanked by roadside drainage ditches. A roadside ditch was not identified at Oversley Farm and it is certain that one did not exist on the eastern side of the road. However, a ditch was identified on the western side of the road which produced post-Medieval pottery. This later ditch may have respected the line of a Roman one and its cutting could have obliterated any trace of a predecessor. It is, of course, also a truism that roadside ditches are not always present.

Above layer 932 was a layer of grey silt-clay (803) containing a high percentage of small water-worn pebbles, 0.25m thick and covering an area 7m eastwest and 70m north-south. The interface between these two layers was marked by a lens of ironpanning (810), and within layer 803 was more second century Romano-British pottery. Layer 802 had been deposited above 803 and comprised a compact brown gravel up to 0.25m thick, which again covered an area 7m east-west and 70m north-south. Layers 802 and 803 are thought to represent a Roman road probably constructed in the mid-late-second century AD. Although the line of this road respects the earlier prehistoric hollow way its alignment suggests that it may be part of a postulated road running

At the southern end of the excavation an isolated deposit of mid-grey sand-silt 0.3m thick (148) covered an area 4m north-south and 2m east-west and contained charcoal flecks and Romano-British 115

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire smaller more abraded and residual sherds recovered from ploughsoil and later contexts. The majority of the wares present were in orange and grey local sandy fabrics (61%) and were restricted to jar and bowl forms with the exception of one mortaria vessel in a Wilderspool fabric. Amongst the other Romano-British coarsewares represented were Severn Valley orange ware (13.2%), Black Burnished ware 1 (4.4%), Oxfordshire orange ware (2.9%), Dales ware (0.7%) and a single sherd of Mancetter-Hartshill mortaria (0.7%). The imported fineware pottery was exclusively South Gaulish Samian ware (13.2%) all of which was undecorated, the only identifiable form being a Drag. 18 plate. The remainder of the imported pottery was made up of Dressel 20 amphorae (2.9%).

pottery. This deposit may represent the southern end of the Roman road as it resembled layer 803, but the poor survival of the archaeology in this area prevented further comparison. A single post-hole (149) was cut into deposit 148, circular in shape with a diameter of 0.5m and a depth of 0.3m. The fill comprised a dark brown sand-silt containing large sub-rounded cobbles probably used as packing stones for a timber post. This feature was the only evidence for a structure which may have superseded Structure 11 and very little more can be drawn from it.

The Finds by D J Garner The Romano-British Pottery

The pottery-assemblage offers a microcosm for second century pottery supplies reaching both Middlewich and Manchester, dominated by local coarsewares, Black Burnished ware 1, Samian pottery and Dressel 20 amphorae, with occasional vessels in different wares. If the road at Oversley Farm is Margary’s route 700 (1973, 303-4), then it would seem reasonable to suggest that the site lay on an important military supply-route, the pottery assemblage being the result of passing trade as

The assemblage of 141 sherds of Romano-British pottery with a combined weight of 0.139 kg has been quantified by both weight and count (Table 32), though it is too small for numerical analysis to be meaningful. Two distinct groups can be drawn from the material: the first comprising larger stratified sherds associated with Structure 11 and road deposits 802, 803, and 932; the second comprising

Figure 120: Romano-British pottery 116

The Romano-British Period (AD 43 – 410) opposed to organised market-forces. The fact that the group fits into the Hadrian’s Wall pattern of pottery-distribution, which lacks wine amphorae, strengthens the assumption that the assemblage was derived due to links with a military supplyroute.

4. 5.

Catalogue of the Romano-British Pottery (Figure 120)



1. A wide-mouthed jar or bowl in an oxidised Severn Valley ware fabric. Probably of late-second or early-third century date. Phase 4B, layer 932. 2. A base-sherd to a jar in a sandy oxidised fabric of local Cheshire Plain-type, possibly Wilderspool. The base bears ring-marks from the potter’s wheel derived from the manufacturing process. 3. A medium-mouthed jar in a sandy reduced fabric of local Cheshire Plain-type.

6. 7. 8.

Probably mid-first to early-second century date. Phase 4A, post-hole fill 852. A medium-mouthed jar in an oxidised Severn Valley ware fabric. Probably late-first century date. Phase 4A, posthole fill 821. A bowl or jar in an oxidised Severn Valley ware fabric. Probably second century date. Phase 4B, layer 932. A flanged mortarium in an oxidised Wilderspool fabric, with white slip decoration and a partially surviving makers stamp. Early-second century date. Phase 4B, layer 932. A Dragendorff 18 plain Samian ware plate, in a South Gaulish fabric. Probably mid- to late-first century date. Phase 4B, layer 932. A bowl in a Black Burnished ware 1 fabric. Phase 4B, ploughsoil 7.

Table 32: Romano-British pottery by context and pottery type Pottery Type

Severn Valley ware

Wilderspool Black Sandy Dressel 20 South Oxfordshire Cheshire Wilderspool Hartshillorange-ware Burnished grey- amphora Gaulish orange-ware Plains ware mortaria Mancetter ware 1 ware Samian mortaria

7 49 148 158 161 165 193 802 803 804 813 817 821 828 852 868 880 892 915 919 932 1001 1218 1234 1354 1393 1432

1

2 1

Total

18

Context

2 4 1 1 4 8

1 2 1 1 20

1

1 4

1

3 1 2 1 4 1

1 3

10

3

4 1

2

4 1

18 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 2 3 4 1

1

52

6

1

1 22

4

18

117

4

10

2

1

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Copper Alloy (Figure 121)

Lead (Figure 123)

The only object attributable to this classification was a trumpet-brooch recovered from lower ditch-fill 1456 during the evaluation. The object was incomplete, but enough remained to identify it as a second century Romano-British type. The decoration was restricted to a band of red and blue enamelling. SF no.2159. Length 35mm.

A sheet of lead rolled into a cylinder was recovered from ploughsoil 1270 during the evaluation. The object has parallels from other Romano-British sites where they are often thought to be fishing-net weights. SF no.2160. Length 29mm.

t

Figure 123: Romano-British lead weigh

Figure 121: Romano-British copper-alloy brooch

Glass Half of a blue-green glass melon-bead of typical Romano-British type. The bead was recovered from ploughsoil 1116 during the evaluation and was located adjacent to Roman road 802. SF no.2162.

Pewter (Figure 122) This was a poorly preserved object which fragmented during excavation. The more robust elements comprised: a shaft of square section 60mm long, 8mm wide and 8mm thick; and a curved bowl-shaped scoop 48mm long, 24mm wide, and 2mm thick. This object was recovered from a deposit associated with the Roman road and is thought to be a pewter spoon. SF no.2161.

Shale (Figure 124) A fragment of a shale armlet was recovered from Roman road 802. The armlet was finely worked and regularly made with smooth edges making it hard to distinguish whether it was lathe-turned. The armlet was made from a dark grey shale and had an ovoid section, the surfaces were smooth and burnished but

Figure 122: Romano-British copper-alloy brooch 118

The Romano-British Period (AD 43 – 410) likely that the hollow way simply offered a sheltered and well drained location to site a domestic building. The implication is that the traffic using this route was greatly diminished from the time of its heyday in the EBA, possibly this was a gradual decline evidenced by the slow accumulation of deposit (237) in Phases 2C and 3. As was the case elsewhere in Cheshire the needs and resources of the Roman military could rapidly transform the order of the landscape and it would appear that some time in the second century a new use for the ancient fording point and track way at Oversley was found. Once this route had been reestablished it apparently remained important enough to prevent further incursions of building to block the flow of traffic. If the traffic was primarily concerned with military supply between Middlewich and Manchester this would provide the economic and commercial necessity for such a state of affairs. Figure 124: Romano-British shale armlet

The artefactual evidence attributable to the RomanoBritish period at Oversley Farm is typical of a rural site in the North West region, generally comprising c.120 sherds of pottery and a couple of items of personal adornment. There is therefore nothing in the material culture to suggest anything more than a typical native farmstead class of settlement.

could probably not take a high polish. One side was marked by several circumferential and slightly incised grooves. A possible source for this object may be the Pennines where sites have produced undated and isolated finds of partially worked shale-rings (Beswick 1975, 209) indicating production areas. SF no.2163. Diameter 12mm.

DISCUSSION The circular building represented by Structure 11 in Phase 4A was apparently part of an unenclosed Romano-British farm complex. Recent studies in RomanoBritish settlement morphology have tried to offer some chronology to enclosed rural settlement (Cowell and Philpott 2000, 183), which is believed to be the common if not dominant settlement type in the North West region. However, it has also been acknowledged that unenclosed rural settlement does occur as well, such as the site at Court Farm, Halewood (Cleary 1998, 390), though at present these sites are poorly understood. At Oversley Farm the entire site was clearly not uncovered by the excavation and it must be assumed that the original runway development removed the rest of the structural elements relevant to Phase 4A. In this context it is difficult to explain why Structure 11 was constructed within the prehistoric hollow way or why subsequent abandonment of this building was followed by the re-establishment of this ancient track. It would seem most

Figure 125: Indication of Roman roads and settlements in the North West region in relation to Oversley Farm 119

CHAPTER 6 THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (AD 410 – 1600) It was decided on stratigraphic grounds to allocate the rectangular-ditched enclosure phase of the site to this period, as to offer a more specific date would be purely speculative. An early feature to this phase of activity was the occurrence of large D-shaped features that have been interpreted as tree bole pits and possibly indicate a period of reforestation and subsequent clearance. This implies that the site went through a period of abandonment prior to the establishment of the ditched enclosure. Interestingly the place-name of ‘Oversley’ translates to ‘Wulfric’s Ley’ (or ‘clearing in a wood’) and is believed to date to the lateAnglo-Saxon period.

produced a standard radiometric date of cal AD 430-645 (Beta-133365).

Phase 5A (Figure 126)

Pit-alignment B (270, 319 and 85) (Figures 126 and 128) Pit 270 (2.5 x 0.8 x 0.55m) was a linear feature aligned east-west and marked the most southerly pit in alignment B. As was observed in pit 319 (below) the base of the pit contained several circular depressions which probably represented tree-root disturbance. The fill (130) was a mid-red-brown siltsand containing fragments of heat-fractured stone and burnt animal bone.

Pit 103 (3 x 1.7m) was some 20m to the north of 142 and pit 100 (3.2 x 1.7m) lay 15m to the north of this, both being D-shaped features on roughly east-west alignments. Neither of these features was excavated archaeologically, although they appeared to be treebole pits similar to pit 142. This pit-alignment ran on a north-south axis parallel to the course of the hollow way, along its eastern edge and again it would seem likely that it represents a longstanding field-boundary.

Including features 100, 103, 142, 85, 270, 319, 75, 107, 262, 187-189; Figures 126-128 This phase was characterised by a scatter of D-shaped pits, probably indicative of a phase of reforestation on the site, or the lines of hedge/field boundaries. The range of dates indicates occasional wind-blown treeloss. Artefactual evidence was limited to redeposited Bronze Age lithic objects and ceramics, as well as some fragmentary copper objects that may have represented fittings from a possible Anglo-Saxon belt.

Pit 319 (3 x 1.3 x 0.78m) lay 40m to the north of pit 270 and was a D-shaped feature aligned eastwest. Several circular depressions 337, 348, 349, and 356 were apparent in the base of this feature and probably represent tree-root disturbance. The primary fill (316) was a dark-grey silt-sand with a lens of charcoal towards the base, containing heatfractured stone, worked flint and fragments of a copper-alloy object. Overlying this pit-fill was a layer of mid-brown silt-sand (281), covering an area 2.6m east-west and 2m north-south and containing a high percentage of small water-worn pebbles as well as residual prehistoric pottery and flint. A charcoal sample recovered from pit fill 316 produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal AD 420-650 (Beta127176).

Pit-alignment A (142, 103 and 100) (Figure 126) The southernmost pit 142 (3.5 x 1.6 x 0.8m) had been investigated during the evaluation stage of the site-work (as pit 1211/1205) and was confirmed as a D-shaped feature on a north-south alignment. The straight southern edge had a vertical side, while the remaining edges had steeply-sloping sides and the base was irregular. The primary fill (1224) was redeposited natural gravel, over which lay a series of grey-brown silt-sands (1223, 1208, 1207 and 1206). Upper fill 1206 produced a sherd of collared vessel and beneath this (in 1207) was a charred wooden object lifted and sent for identification. The cleaning and stabilisation of this object confirmed it as a fragment of bark from an oak tree, suggesting that it represented the remains of a burnt tree-stump resulting from woodland clearance. Prior to conservation a charcoal sample was removed from the charred wooden object recovered from pit fill 1207 and this

Pit 85 was c.20m to the north of pit 319 and was the northernmost feature in the pit-alignment, which, although unexcavated, appeared also to have been another tree-bole pit. The pit alignment represented by 270, 319 and 85 appeared to closely follow the line of Phase 5B ditch 277/297, suggesting that these 120

The Medieval Period (AD 410 – 1600)

A

Figure 126: Site Plan, Phase 5

features were either contemporary or demarcated a long-standing field-boundary.

from pit fill 137 produced a standard radiometric date of cal AD 980-1250 (Beta-133363).

Pit-alignment C (262, 107 and 75) (Figures 126 and 127) The most southerly feature in this alignment was pit 262 (4.6 x 1.3 x 0.8m), which was a D-shaped feature aligned north-south. A couple of circular features (442 and 443) were evident in the base of the feature, which probably represented tree-root disturbance. The fill (137) was a dark grey-brown sand-silt containing water-worn pebbles, burnt animal bone and charcoal, together with redeposited Bronze Age flint and pottery. A charcoal sample recovered

Approximately 19m north of pit 262 was a second Dshaped feature (107), 2.3 x 1.5 x 0.7m, that was also aligned north-south, filled with a dark red-brown siltsand containing water-worn pebbles. Pit-alignment D (187, 188 and 189) (Figure 126) Pits 187 (1.7 x 0.75 x 0.3m), 188 (1.5 x 0.75 x 0.3m), and 189 (1.25m x 1.25 x 0.3m) were all D-shaped features filled with a grey-brown silt-sand. These pits were again aligned north-south and presumably represent a field-boundary. 121

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

PHASE 5B (Figure 129) The enigmatic ditched enclosures that crisscrossed the excavation area are attributed to this phase. At the northern end of the westernmost enclosure were the traces of a rectangular timber structure and 50m to the south of this were two large pits of uncertain function. The dating for this phase is based purely on the ceramic evidence which suggests a date range of late-fourteenth to sixteenth century, although the lack of Cisterciantype wares in the assemblage may indicate a date prior to c.1500 AD.

Structure 12 (Figures 129-130)

Including features 184, 211, 217, 218, 212, 214, 61, 62, 71, 59, 60 and 611; Figures 129-137 This was located at the northern end of the site, represented by a series of shallow linear building-slots forming three sides to a rectangular structure 12.5m north-south and 17.5m east-west. No evidence was found for the northern side of this structure, however, but the shallow nature of the features together with the considerable post-Medieval disturbance in this location may account for its absence. A collection of features in the south-east corner of the structure may have marked the location of a threshold and an alignment of three post-holes in this area could represent an internal partition-wall. Eastern wall-line (Figures 129-136) The easternmost construction-trench 184 was a linear feature aligned north-south with square terminals and a fill (58) of mid-grey-brown silt-sand with occasional inclusions of water-worn pebbles. At the southern and northern terminals of this feature were deeper sub-circular features, 0.7m in diameter and 0.4m deep, filled with an identical matrix to fill 58. It is assumed that these represent post-holes for the corners of the structure and may indicate that the upstanding building was of timber cruck-framed construction.

Figures 127-128: Pit sections

Discussion These four pit-alignments probably represent treelines demarcating longstanding field-boundaries and possibly indicate small fields between 10 and 30m east-west and at least 65m north-south. The radiocarbon dating evidence suggests that these tree-lines were being removed between the sixth and tenth centuries AD, presumably to make way for the larger Phase 5B enclosures. By dating the demise of these tree-lines it is possible to suggest that the field-system they partially represent is of far greater antiquity; if not prehistoric, then almost certainly at least Roman in origin. A similar alignment of D-shaped pits has recently been excavated at Middlewich, sealed beneath early-second century AD Romano-British layers. Although undated, these Middlewich features do not conform to the Roman site-layout orientated on the main Roman road, and residual finds of possible Bronze Age flint-work were also recovered from the site (Strickland, 2001).

Southern wall-line (Figures 129-130 and 133-134) Construction-trench 211 was aligned east-west and ran westwards from the southern end of trench 184, after a gap of 0.2m. The feature had an irregular profile and a variable width, which seemed to have been adversely affected by the action of tree-roots. At intervals along the base of this trench were subrounded trenches 217 and 218, each filled with a grey silt-sand (219 and 220) that possibly represented post-holes. Above these features was primary fill 216 comprising a dark grey sand-silt and fill 215, which was a dark brown sand-silt containing small waterworn pebbles and fragments of iron-working waste. The upper fill (80) consisted of a dark brown sand-silt containing fragments of sandstone that may represent 122

The Medieval Period (AD 410 – 1600)

B

Figure 129: Site Plan, Phase 5

123

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire may represent evidence for a wattleand-daub fireplace-hood or elements of a staircase. Unfortunately, a lack of surviving floor levels or evidence for a hearth precludes detailed analysis. Associated external features (Figures 129-130) To the south of post-hole 71 was slot 59 which comprised a rectangular-shaped feature (2 x 0.5 x 0.1m) aligned northsouth with steep sides and a flat base. At the southern end of this was a second rectangular feature 60, this time aligned east-west (1.5 x 0.75 x 0.5m) and again having steep sides and a flat base. Slots 59 and 60 were both filled with a clean mid-grey-brown sand-silt. Pit 611 (Figures 129-130 and 137) Pit 611 (2 x 2 x 1.1m) was located on the north-eastern edge of Structure 12 and was a square-shaped cut with a funnel-like profile. The primary fill (610) was a lining of red clay which would have made the pit water-retentive, and was presumably applied to the sides and base of the pit shortly after its excavation. The secondary fill (609) was a mid-grey-brown silt-clay containing charcoal and small rounded pebbles that probably represents a deliberate backfill. The pit did not produce any dating evidence and has been allocated to this phase owing to the similarity of its upper fill (609) to that of ditch-fill 101 (below). It is unclear whether pit 611 actually lay within Structure 12 or just outside of it, largely due to the lack of evidence for the northern wall-line of this building. However, since the pit had a water-retentive capability, it could have functioned as a water-cistern, providing drinking-water for livestock, which would imply that Structure 12 was more likely to be a barn than a dwelling. Alternatively, the lack of evidence for a well during this phase of the site might suggest that the pit was a means of providing drinking-water as a water cistern, thereby providing drinking water to the occupants and suggesting a domestic function for the building.

Figure 130: Plan of Structure 12

part of a robbed out stone sill, onto which would have been set the sleeper beam for the southern wall of Structure 12. Western wall-line (Figures 129-130 and 135-136) Slot 212/214 was a linear feature aligned north-south, running northwards from the western end of trench 211. The fill (49) was a mid-grey-brown sand-clay containing small pebbles, iron working waste and pottery sherds from a late Medieval cistern (Figure 146.2). Internal features (Figures 129-130) Post-holes 71, 61 and 62 were circular-shaped features, 0.7m in diameter and 0.2m deep that formed a north-south alignment at the eastern end of Structure 12. These were all filled with a mid-grey silt-sand containing small water-worn pebbles. If trench 59/60 represent a porched entranceway in the south-east corner of the building (discussed below), then it may be possible that post-holes 71, 61 and 62 formed an entrance-lobby at the eastern end of the building to accommodate this. The only other internal features associated with Structure 12 were a group of post-holes in the western half of the building, represented by sub-circular features 63-68, each 0.3m in diameter and 0.1m deep. These features

The Enclosure Ditches The lines of four ditches were detected within the main excavation-area. These formed the sides of two rectangular enclosures (Enclosure A to the west and Enclosure B to the east) set side by side, each roughly 80m east-west and 80m north-south. A complex of entranceways was detected at the southeast corner of Enclosure A and 17m to the north of this was a single entrance between Enclosures A and 124

The Medieval Period (AD 410 – 1600)

Figures 131-137: Sections through construction-trenches

125

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire was a grey silt-clay (290) containing large fragments of green mudstone. Circular pit 293 lay to the east of pit 289 and was filled with a dark brown silt-sand containing fragments of green mudstone. This feature was not fully excavated and could represent a well or cistern.

B. The western side of Enclosure A was delimited by the modern line of Altrincham Road and it is likely that a hedge or fence formed the boundary for this edge of the enclosure. A line of post-holes forming an arc between the edge of Altrincham Road to the west and the entranceway complex to the east may represent a ‘crush’, designed to guide livestock into the enclosures.

Enclosure B (Figures 129 and 142; Plate 12) The southern edge of Enclosure B was marked by ditch 186/269, comprising a linear feature aligned east-west (Plate 12). To the west the ditch ended in a rounded terminus, while the eastern end formed a T-junction with another north-south aligned ditch which was not investigated archaeologically. The fill (126) was a mid brown silt-clay containing a small percentage of sub-angular and sub-rounded stone and from the top 0.2m of this fill sherds of seventeenth century pottery and the skull of a sheep or goat were recovered. At the western terminus was a shallow linear trench (26), 3.1 x 0.5 x 0.2, aligned east-west and filled with a mid-brown sandclay (128).

Enclosure A (Figures 129 and 138-141) Enclosure A was bounded to the south by ditch 492/498, which was a linear feature (32.5 x 0.9 x 0.3m) aligned east-west with sides that sloped at a 50º angle to a flat base. To the east, the ditch had a shallow rounded terminus, whilst to the west it gently petered out as it reached the edge of Altrincham Road. The primary fill (497) was a mid-grey-brown silt-sand containing occasional water-worn pebbles and above this was upper fill 131/435 consisting of a mid-red-brown sand-silt which produced pottery of a late-seventeenth century date. This ditch was mirrored to the north by a second parallel gully 496 (32 x 0.81 x 0.2m) that had shallow sides and an irregular base. The fill (495) was a mid-grey-brown silt-sand containing small pebbles and the feature was interpreted as an old hedge-line associated with ditch 492/498.

Approximately 1m to the north of trench 265 was trench 270 (2.5 x 0.8 x 0.55m) which was aligned north-west to south-east and had vertical sides and a rounded base. The fill (130) was a mid red-brown siltsand containing heat-fractured stone, charcoal flecks and fragments of burnt animal bone.

The eastern edge of Enclosure A was defined by ditch 298/277/209, consisting of an interrupted linear feature aligned north-south for a distance of at least 80m. The ditch was 1.4m wide and 0.37m deep with sides that sloped at a 50º angle to a concave base. The initial section of the feature was only 12m long and had a rounded terminus to both the north and south, then after a gap of 2m the feature continued for at least another 65m beyond the limits of excavation to the north. The primary fill (297/276/210) was a pale grey-brown silt-sand containing small pebbles and a partially perforated stone, above which was a dark brown sand-silt (275) containing small amounts of worked flint and heat-fractured stone. The upper fill (101) consisted of a dark brown silt-clay containing small pebbles, worked flint, and iron-working waste. Fill 275 had been sampled during the evaluation stage as context 1348 in the area adjacent to the Early Neolithic flint-scatter, which had resulted in a disproportionately high number of lithic artefacts being recovered. The western boundary to Enclosure A was delimited by Altrincham Road and although no ditch-line was established there, a hedge or fenceline would be anticipated.

The Finds by D J Garner Copper-alloy (Figure 145) A collection of small highly-corroded objects were recovered from Phase 5A pit 319. After conservation these items appeared to be fragments of fittings probably associated with a belt. Charcoal recovered from the same context (316) produced a standard radiocarbon date of cal AD 420-650 (Beta-127176). These were the only objects attributable to Phase 5A as most other artefacts recovered could be demonstrated to be residual and prehistoric in nature. Possible exceptions to this are a fragment of whetstone and a partially perforated stone from pit fill137, though these would be of significantly later date. 1. Two curved fragments of round-sectioned copperalloy 1.5mm in diameter. Possible parts of an attachment link for accessories such as a toiletry set. Pit fill 316. 2. A thin strip of copper-alloy 15mm long and 1mm thick, tapering from 3mm to 2mm in width and broken at both ends. The broadest end showing evidence of being bent over. Possible buckle-pin. Pit fill 316.

Associated features (Figures 129 and 143-144) Pits 289 and 293 were located at the southern end of Enclosure A, roughly 45m to the south of Structure 12. Pit 289 was a sub-rectangular feature aligned approximately north-south, which apparently had a single fill (104) of grey-brown silt-clay, within which 126

The Medieval Period (AD 410 – 1600)

Figures 138-142: Ditch Sections

127

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figures 143-144 (above): Pit Sections

Plate 12 (left): Late Medieval Ditch 186/269, looking south-east. 128

The Medieval Period (AD 410 – 1600)

Figure 145: Anglo-Saxon fittings

Figure 146: Medieval lead spindle whorl 3. Possible buckle-pin. Pit fill 316. 4. A slightly curved strip of copper-alloy, 6mm long, 5mm wide and 1mm thick, broken at both ends. The surface shows some signs of possibly having been plated, suggesting that it is a fragment from a dress-fitting. Pit fill 316.

2. A partially perforated stone. Pit fill 137.

Lead (Figure 146)

Medieval Pottery (Figure 148)

1. A spindle-whorl. SF no.158. Ploughsoil 7.

A total of 24 sherds weighing 748g were recovered and all were attributable to Phase 5B activity. Statistical analysis of such a small assemblage would be meaningless and the assemblage simply serves to demonstrate some of the fabrics and forms in use on the site. Indeed, the quantity of material recovered from such a large excavation demonstrates a particularly poor range of ceramics reaching the site. This may be biased by the means of rubbish-disposal (such as midden-spreading) in operation during this phase, which could have led to pottery being spread and broken down in the ploughsoil.

Figure 147: Medieval whetstone

Worked stone (Figure 147) Two pieces of worked stone were recovered from Phase 5A pit 262, which produced a standard radiometric date of cal AD 980-1250 (Beta-133363). These items were associated with residual Bronze Age pottery and flintwork and may therefore, be residual. 1. A whetstone, produced from a fine-grained grey sandstone, probably derived from the vicinity of the site. The object is of square-section, 80mm long, 30mm wide and 16mm thick, broken at one end. Pit fill 137.

The forms of pottery-vessel are dominated by ‘kitchen-type’ wares such as cooking-pots, cisterns and chaffing dishes, suggesting an area where 129

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 148: Late-Medieval pottery

3. Body-sherds from a cistern in an early Midland Purple-type fabric c.fifteenth/sixteenth century. Construction-trench fill 49. 4. Rim-sherd from a cooking-jar in a light grey Pennines Gritty ware fabric. c.fourteenth/fifteenth century. Ploughsoil 81. 5. Rim-sherd of a jug in an early Midland Purple-type fabric. c.fifteenth/sixteenth century. Ploughsoil 165.

pottery was of purely subsistence level use. There is a complete lack of finewares in the assemblage, other than a single rim from a Cistercian-ware drinking-cup, which may be due to the use of vessels made from wood or leather (or even pewter), for which no evidence has survived, instead of the finer tablewares. The status of the site during Phase 5 implies a small sheep farm, possibly occupied by tenants as opposed to a wealthy landowner. Comparison between this site and the higher status moatedmanor-houses of the region such as Bury Castle, demonstrates a stark difference in the quantity, range and function of the pottery in use. Comparable excavations of what could be considered a fairly typical farm-type of the region are rare, limiting the scope for what may be considered comparable assemblages of material. One such comparable site at Brunt Boggart, Tarbock, produced a vastly larger assemblage of pottery of potentially earlier date than the Oversley Farm material (Cowell and Philpott 2000, 140). It is interesting to note the possibility that fourteenth/fifteenth century rural farmstead-sites in Cheshire may have an even more impoverished ceramic-assemblage than those of the Romano-British period.

A SUMMARY OF THE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE The fill of linear pit 319 produced wood charcoal dominated by Prunus cf spinosa (blackthorn) as well as twigs and leaf fragments of Corylus, Prunus, Betula and Calluna and roots and leaves of Gramineae. The nature of the other organic remains suggests that this feature was a natural scrub development of blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) in an open pit, in which the debris of neighbouring scrub and heath collected. Construction-works in relation to the alteration of the course of the River Bollin beneath the second runway provided an opportunity to analyse stratigraphic profiles from the sediments of the Bollin Valley. Profiles BV3/4 from a section through a former meander of the River Bollin adjacent to the Oversley Farm site produced the following horizons:

1. Body-sherd from a chafing-dish in a Ewloe-type orange-ware fabric. c.fifteenth century. Ploughsoil 7. 2. Handle from a possible jug in a Ewloe-type orange-ware. Surfaces have a red-brown slip and splashes of purple glaze. c.fifteenth century. Ploughsoil 12.

BV3 Horizon C/D cal AD 535-685 Beta-112648: timber of Salix sp (willow), Quercus sp (oak) and alnus 130

The Medieval Period (AD 410 – 1600) glutinosa (alder); nuts of Corylus avellana (hazel); BV3 Horizon F/G cal AD 420-650 Beta-112649: timber, bark and twigs of Betula sp. (birch); BV4 Horizon E/F cal AD 790-1040 Beta-112652: timber of Betula sp.

of 1440 +/-60BP and 1520 +/-60 BP, occurred in the period AD 420-685, presumably at a time of increased woodland clearance in the region. Evidence of a later channel (Phase 2) comes from profile BV4 with a basal radiocarbon date of 1090 +/-70 BP (cal AD 790-1040) during a period of increased precipitation and deposition and associated Saxon activity in the catchment area.

Subsequent infilling of the original late Iron Age channel, as indicated by the two radiocarbon dates

131

CHAPTER 7 THE POST-MEDIEVAL PERIOD

This period of the site’s history covers all the remaining archaeological features recorded on the site, some of which have been omitted from the text altogether as, on investigation, they proved to be animal burrows or patches of ploughsoil left behind after the topsoil-strip. The area was occupied by at least two phases of structures, at the northern end of the excavation, which had been heavily disturbed by the demolition-works undertaken prior to the start of the archaeological investigations. Thus, in this area only the deepest and most substantial archaeological features survived, rendering building-plans and other structural elements incomplete and difficult to interpret.

runway development) were constructed in a similar manner, suggesting a similar building had existed at Oversley Farm during the seventeenth century. No occupation-layers related to the interior of this building could be discerned, probably as a result of later rebuilding and modern ground-disturbance. However, associated features and external deposits produced plenty of evidence to support seventeenth century occupation on this part of the site. Pit-group 226 and 227 (Figures 149 and 150) Approximately 16m to the south-east of Structure 13 were a pair of intercutting pits, the shallowest of which was circular in shape with a diameter of 1.05m, vertical sides and a concave base at a depth of 0.22m (226). The fill (72) was a dark grey siltsand containing a high percentage of mudstone fragments and seventeenth century pottery. Pit 227 may have cut pit 226, or been contemporary with it, again it was circular in shape with a diameter of 1.4m, vertical sides and a concave base at a depth of 0.75m. The fill (73) was a clean dark grey silt-sand containing rare inclusions of water-worn pebbles, but no artefacts.

The sequence appears to illustrate that the area occupied by the Medieval Structure 12 continued to be the focus, initially for a seventeenth century timber-framed building and then an eighteenth century brick one. The seventeenth century structure was served by a clay-lined pit which may have acted as a water-cistern, whilst two bricklined wells were added during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to complement the brick building. The ditched enclosures established during Phase 5B continued to be used and their lines were still apparent on the First Edition Ordnance Survey map of 1870, while additional enclosureditches were added at the southern end of the site. Amongst the artefacts from this phase of the site was a collection of metal objects (including buckles and coins) recovered from the ploughsoil context by a combination of the initial site cleanup and subsequent metal-detecting by local metaldetectorists.

Associated deposits and features (Figures 149 and 151) Immediately to the north of pits 226/227 was a rectangular area of dark grey-brown sand-silt (deposit 48, which appeared to occupy a shallow hollow 12.5m east-west, 3m north-south, and 0.3m deep. Deposit 48 contained a small percentage of coarse components including fragments of green/ brown mudstone, fragments of brick, charcoal and coal flecks, sub-rounded cobbles and seventeenth century pottery.

Phase 6A (Figure 149) Structure 13

The western end of deposit 48 was cut by a subrectangular pit 46 (2 x 1.5 x 0.4m), which had sides that sloped at a 45º angle to a rounded base. The primary fill was an orange-brown silt-clay containing brick fragments and charcoal, above which was an upper fill of mid grey-brown silt-clay containing high percentages of brick fragments, sandstone, mudstone and sub-rounded cobbles – the latter demonstrating a deliberate attempt to backfill the pit presumably after its original function had become obsolete.

This consisted of two alignments of sandstone blocks forming the corner to a rectangular-shaped structure, 10m east-west and 4m north-south. These stone blocks only stood to a height of one course and no perceivable foundation cut could be detected, suggesting that they represented a plinth to hold a timber superstructure. Interestingly, the box-framed timber buildings at Hill House and Hanson House (at the opposite end of the second 132

The Post-Medieval Period

A

Figure 149: Site Plan, Phase 6

Pit 46 also cut the edge of deposit 38 to the west, comprising an oval-shaped spread of mid-greybrown silt-clay 4m east-west, 3m north-south and 0.2m thick. Deposit 38 contained a high percentage of lumps of red-brown clay and brick fragments. The western end of deposit 38 was cut by pit 37, consisting of a circular-shaped feature, 0.7m in diameter and 0.93m deep, with steep sides and a concave base. The fill was a dark grey-brown silt-clay containing fragments of mudstone, brick, charcoal and sub-rounded cobbles.

To the south of pit 46 was a sub-rectangular pit 225 (3 x 1.5 x 1.2m), which had vertical sides and a flat base. The fill (47) was a mid-grey-brown sand-silt containing sub-rounded cobbles, brick fragments, charcoal and seventeenth century pottery. Pit 40 was approximately 8m to the south-west of this and comprised a shallow rectangular-shaped cut (5 x 1.5 x 0.2m) aligned east-west, with concave sides and base. The fill (39) comprised a dark grey-brown sand-silt containing sherds of seventeenth century pottery. 133

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 150: Section through pits 226 and 227

Figure 151: Section through Phase 6A features

Phase 6B (Figure 152)

The second well was located 8m to the south-west of Structure 14 and comprised a circular shaft 1.6m in diameter and at least 3m deep. This was again constructed from handmade bricks bonded in a clay matrix, but the courses were repeatedly stretcherbond and no stepping of the sides was visible before reaching the water-level.

Structure 14 (Figure 153) This comprised a late-eighteenth century brick farmhouse (Grade II listed building) that was demolished in 1997 prior to the commencement of site-works. The below-surface remains comprised a series of brick-footings forming a roughly rectangularshaped structure, which had also incorporated elements of phase 6A, Structure 13.

These two wells were probably built within a short time of one another and although the building materials were the same, variations in the construction were evident. This suggested that the more substantial stepped structure was a more developed construction-technique and therefore, superseded the more simple construction Nonetheless, the possibility remains that both wells were, in fact, in use at the same time.

Two associated brick-lined wells were assigned to this building, both of which had been capped with large stone slabs as opposed to being deliberately filled in, the first located immediately to the east of Structure 14. This comprised a circular-shaped shaft 2m in diameter and at least 3m deep and was constructed from handmade bricks bonded in a clay matrix, alternating between courses of headers and stretchers. The inner face was stepped inwards twice before reaching the depth where water was encountered.

Associated features (Figure 153) An alignment of post-holes (including 13 to 17, 33 to 37, 46, 50 and 51) demarcated the line of a fence that had once marked the eastern side of a cobbled drive leading from Altrincham Road to Oversley 134

The Post-Medieval Period

Figure 152: Site Plan, Phase 6B

Figure 153: Plan Structure 14

of

135

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire

Figure 154: Post-Medieval copper alloy buckles

Farm, which was still standing in 1997. Likewise, post-holes 3-6 represented the line of a fence, which in 1997 had bordered the eastern side of Altrincham Road.

The Finds by D J Garner

Pits 8, 10, and 18 were D-shaped features up to 1.5m in diameter and 0.3m deep, which produced sherds of eighteenth century pottery and were interpreted as tree-boles.

All of the copper-alloy objects ascribed to Phase 6 were recovered from the ploughsoil (7), either during the site clean-up or by sweeps with metal detectors. The general flavour of the illustrated material is towards the seventeenth century (Phase 6A), as much of the later material was either unexceptional or very modern in character.

Copper-alloy (Figure 154)

Boundary-ditches 144 and 170 (Figure 152) These features were located at the southern end of the site and appeared to represent traces of field-boundaries not recorded on the First Edition Ordnance Survey map of 1870. Ditch 144 (SGR 10492 09746) was a linear feature aligned eastwest (28 x 5 x 1m), having sides that tapered at a 45º angle to a concave base. The fill was a dark yellow-brown silt-clay containing fragments of post-Medieval pottery and a ceramic field-drain, suggestive of an eighteenth to nineteenth century date.

1. 2. 3. 4.

A copper-alloy buckle. A copper-alloy buckle. A copper-alloy buckle, covered in silver plating. A copper-alloy coin of James II dated 1690 and minted in Ireland.

Lead (Figure 155) Several lead objects could be ascribed to this period, including two types of projectile, a weight/spindle-whorl and a decorative horse-fitting. All were metal-detector finds recovered from the ploughsoil (7). The musketshot could be simply representative of an occasional hunting episode by a local farmer, but the pistol-shot is more unusual. When this evidence is viewed with the decorative horse-fitting and the James II coin, one wonders whether an unrecorded skirmish during the closing events of the `Glorious Revolution`, may have occurred in the vicinity of Oversley Ford.

Ditch 170 was a slightly curvilinear feature (44 x 5 x 1.2m) on a north-south alignment, with concave sides and a concave base. The fill was also a dark yellowbrown silt-clay, containing sherds of post-Medieval pottery. Above the fill and towards the centre of its length was an area of metalling containing fragments of brick and pottery of nineteenth or early-twentieth century date. These features are probably related to a farmstead shown to be standing on this area of the site on the Second Edition Ordnance Survey map of 1899 and presumably ditch 170 marks the earlier line of the prehistoric hollow way and later Roman road.

1. A lead musket ball. Weight 35g. Two were recovered of the same weight and dimensions. SF no.1513. 136

The Post-Medieval Period

Figure 155: Post-Medieval lead objects

2. A lead pistol ball. Weight 5g. 3. A circular lead disc 25mm in diameter, with a central projection. Weight 25g. This object could either be a weight or possibly a spindle whorl, the central projection allowing it to be attached to something such as, a fishing net or a length of yarn. 4. A folded piece of lead sheet. Forming a rectangular tablet (90 x 60 x 5mm). Both faces are decorated with the cast pattern of a stylised rose, and a rectangular perforation is evident at one edge. Possibly a fitting for a piece of horse harness. Weight 160g. SF no.256.

However, a distinct group of seventeenth century pottery was recovered from several pits and deposits within the vicinity of Structure 13, characterised by large joining sherds sometimes giving complete vessel profiles. All of the identifiable forms from this group are closely paralleled in Civil War contexts from Beeston Castle (Ellis, 1993), suggesting a similar date-range for the Oversley Farm group. Although, the assemblage is still too small for meaningful statistical analysis, it is of interest to note the relative proliferation of ceramic artefacts compared to that of Phase 5B. As conceded earlier this could be biased by a change in rubbish-disposal practices between the two phases, but it may also reflect the growth in pottery production in the region, and therefore, availability, which was gathering pace from the seventeenth century onwards. A large portion of the illustrated pottery was recovered from pit 226 and the material seems to represent a single event, possibly a kitchen-clearance. It is worthy of note that

Post-Medieval Pottery (Figures 156-158) A total of 271 sherds of pottery weighing 9.759kg were recovered from Phase 6 contexts at Oversley Farm. The pottery ranges in date from seventeenth to nineteenth century and mainly comprised small abraded sherds from ploughsoil derived contexts. 137

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire all of the black/brown glazed earthenware from this feature was so similar in fabric and glaze, that it was probably derived from the same kiln and the same firing, suggesting that it may have been purchased as a job-lot.

light brown glaze was only applied to the internal surface of the vessel where it overlies a dark red brown iron rich slip. Pit fill 39. 2. A large cistern or ‘cider jar’. Both surfaces are covered with a thick black glaze, and a single ‘bung-hole’ is located towards the base of the vessel. Seventeenth to early-eighteenth century. Pit fill 39. 3. A large cylindrical storage jar. The speckled light brown glaze was only applied to the bottom two thirds of the internal surface of the vessel, where it overlay a dark red-brown iron-rich slip. The vessel is paralleled in the Civil War assemblage from Beeston Castle (Ellis 1993, fig. 131.15) and it is noted that these vessels are often referred to as butter pots. Seventeenth to early-eighteenth century. Layer 48. 4. A single handled everted-rim jar. Both surfaces of the vessel are covered with a dark brown glaze, which has a slight metallic sheen. The vessel is paralleled in the Civil War assemblage from Beeston Castle (Ellis 1993, fig. 131.19-24) and Eccleshall Castle (Stoke-on-Trent Museum and

Unlike the Phase 5 pottery both kitchen wares and tablewares are represented in the assemblage, suggesting that ceramics were performing a wider range of functional needs by Phase 6. Having said this, the tablewares are restricted to slipware dishes probably derived from Staffordshire and no continental imports such as German stoneware are represented. When this is compared to the broadly contemporary assemblage from Hanson House, similarities in the trends can be seen, although the Hanson House assemblage is considerably larger and contains a single example of a German stoneware vessel.

The Black and Brown Glazed Wares (Figure 156) 1. A large butter dish, with a club rim. The speckled

Figure 156: Post-Medieval pottery – black/brown wares 138

The Post-Medieval Period Art Gallery). Seventeenth to early-eighteenth century. Pit fill 72. 5. A large tall slightly rounded storage jar, with a club rim. Both surfaces are covered with a dark brown glaze, which has a slight metallic sheen. This vessel is paralleled in the Civil War assemblage from Beeston castle (Ellis 1993, fig.130.11). Pit fill 72. 6. A small drinking cup. Both surfaces are covered with a dark brown glaze, which has a slight metallic sheen. This vessel is paralleled in the Civil War assemblage from Beeston castle (Ellis 1993, fig.130.9). Seventeenth to early-eighteenth century. Pit fill 72.

The Yellow Wares (Figure 157) 1. A large storage jar. Both surfaces are covered with a yellow green glaze. Layer 48. 2. A chaffing dish. Both surfaces are covered with an olive green glaze, which has a slight metallic sheen. This vessel is paralleled in the Civil War assemblage from Beeston Castle (Ellis 1993, fig.138.131). Seventeenth to early-eighteenth century. Layer 48. 3. A squat single-handled storage jar. Both surfaces are covered with a yellow glaze, which has a slight metallic sheen. This vessel is paralleled in the Civil War assemblage from Beeston Castle (Ellis 1993, fig.137.117). Pit fill 72.

The Slipwares (Figure 158) Figure 157: Post-Medieval pottery – Yellow wares

1. A slipware dish. The decoration comprises a red-

Figure 158: Post-Medieval pottery – slipwares 139

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire fig.136.101), an exact parallel to the decorative design could not be found. Seventeenth to earlyeighteenth century. Pit fill 72. 2. A slipware dish. As above. Pit fill 72.

brown iron-rich background, with a trailed white slip floral pattern. A clear lead glaze has been applied to the internal surface. Although the type is paralleled at Beeston Castle (Ellis 1993,

140

ONS

CHAPTER 8  CONCLUSI

From the outset, the archaeological work at Manchester Airport was aimed at producing an understanding of the landscape affected by the second runway development, in an attempt to catalogue a history of landuse from earliest times to the present day. Oversley Farm was not only the jewel in the crown of this programme of research, but may also be seen as representative and indicative of the history of settlement in the general area. In some respects, however, Oversley Farm can also be seen to be atypical of the landscape of the second runway in that it was perched on the edge of a major river valley, at an ancient fording point and on a small outcrop of glacial sands and gravels. The typical landscape of the second runway development comprises a relatively flat and reliefless sea of glacial till (boulder clays), intermittently interrupted by minor watercourses such as the Sugar Brook.

stretch of track at Oversley Farm. Landscape-studies elsewhere such as Fyfield and Overton in Wiltshire have demonstrated a similar prehistoric alignment in the landscape dictated by tracks (Everson and Williamson 1998, 26). It has been suggested that these tracks formed the same function up until relatively modern times, as transhumance droveways for the controlled movement of livestock (such as sheep) through the landscape between areas of rich pasture often separated by relatively long distances (Everson and Williamson 1998, 39). Furthermore, it would appear that these tracks contributed to the shaping of the land-units and the locations of subsequent settlements within the landscape. The settlement-evidence from Oversley Farm demonstrates the repeated reuse of the site from the Early Neolithic onwards as a small agriculturallybased ‘farmstead’, probably heavily dependent upon livestock farming for which the scant evidence seems to point towards sheep. It is a matter of interest that the earliest evidence for any form of ditched enclosure at the site appears to be Medieval in origin, earlier field-systems being hinted at by evidence for several tree-lines apparently removed during the AngloSaxon period. This would strongly support the use of ephemeral fence-and hedge-lines in earlier periods to demarcate the limits of settlement and the boundaries of land-tenure. During the prehistoric period it may even be that little in the way of boundaries was necessary for an existence based upon the freerange grazing of livestock.

A further exceptional factor related to the Oversley Farm site was the presence of the track/droveway that had survived to the present day as Altrincham Road and which, prior to modern road improvements, had served as a link between Altrincham to the northwest, Wilmslow to the south-east and Styal to the east. In recent landscape-studies emphasis has been placed on the importance of the movement of people and materials within the landscape, as both cause and effect to the dynamics of its change (Everson and Williamson 1998, 25). Routes, roads, and tracks are significant in chronicling landscape-development, although the dating of these features has always been problematical (Taylor 1979, 9). In this respect, Oversley Farm provides a rare opportunity to observe how the presence of a proven prehistoric track has served to influence the formation of the historic landscape ever since. Visually, the historic landscape around Oversley Farm is held together by three types of linear feature: field-boundaries; tracks; and water courses. In the main, the field-boundaries can be seen as the products of the eighteenth and nineteenth century Enclosure Acts and the placename evidence (such as the ‘Woodend’ name) strongly suggests that much of the landscape had been wooded prior to this. However, much of the modern field-system appears to have been set out to respect a pre-existing network of trackways such as Woodend Lane and Blakeley Lane, which fit into a south-west/north-east axis repeated by the

Prehistoric settlement Within recent studies of the British Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages there appears to have developed a growing aversion to the use of the word ‘settlement’ and alternative explanations for the formation of pit and midden deposits together with the ephemeral timber structures to which they are sometimes associated, appears to be in vogue. Thomas’s ‘Rethinking the Neolithic’ is probably the most-often referred-to text on this subject and, in essence, sees the life of a Neolithic clan or family group as transitory within the wider landscape. Occupation sites are interpreted as temporary or seasonal camps and the features often associated with them are analysed in terms of structural deposition. It is argued for example, that the 141

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire most common type of pit fill deposits, characterised by their affinities to fire (often containing charcoal, firecracked stone and pottery – the material of domestic life), have a ritualistic purpose in fixing a site within the landscape. The association of prestigious items with such deposits and related structures has often led commentators to conclude that the site was of ritual significance and in some way exceptional to the typical domestic set-up. The Neolithic building from Fengate has been regarded as a mortuary-house on the grounds that it lacked a hearth and had several unusual objects within it, which were atypical of a domestic assemblage (Holgate, 1988).

evidence for what may reasonably have been called settlement. This strategy met with mixed success as in a phase such as 2C a lack of criteria did not necessarily lead to the conclusion that settlement had not been present. Furthermore, the settlement evidence for the historical phases (4-6) of the site actually met less of the criteria than for example Phase 1A or 2B, yet interpretation of the evidence from Phases 4-6 as rural settlement would generally be accepted. What the prehistoric settlement evidence from Oversley Farm does not tell us is whether the site was utilised for a prolonged period of time or whether the occupation was intermittent and separated by long periods of abandonment. For example, were the people occupying Structures 3 and 4 in Phase 2A in any way related to the people occupying Structures 5 and 8 in Phase 2B?

When reviewing the evidence for settlement in Britain during the Beaker period Robert Bewley remarked that negative evidence has led to the conclusion that “…we cannot find the [settlement] sites so they must have lived in temporary settlements which could be easily moved.” (Bewley 1994, 66-67). Bewley went on to admit that we do not know what the settlementsystem was and that any society which had such organised burial-practices is likely to have had a similarly sophisticated settlement-organisation. Bewley concluded that there are two reasons why Beaker settlements were hard to find: first, that current archaeological techniques were not good enough; and second, that the post-depositional factors had rendered these sites lost or obscured (Bewley 1994, 66). One exception to this is the Beaker settlement at Belle Tout, which comprised overlapping rectangular enclosures within which was evidence for oval and rectangular timber structures and middens containing locally-produced pottery. The excavator, Richard Bradley, concluded that the site was not seasonal but continuously occupied, exhibiting a pattern of ‘settlement drift’ with the settlement-nucleus shifting along the valley floor from generation to generation (Bradley 1970, 360). Bradley made reference to work by David Clarke on sites in the Netherlands and this country demonstrating a similar pattern of shift that was caused as a result of contaminated pits, eroded fields and rotting house foundations (Clarke 1970, 57). Another study, conducted by Helen Bamford on the Beaker Domestic sites of East Anglia concluded that “The precise duration of any occupation by a single community must remain a matter of conjecture at present”. Bamford highlighted that even continuously-occupied settlements would probably have been moved from time to time due to the exhaustion of arable or grazing land and that loosely organised farmsteads may have followed a shifting pattern of existence within a circumscribed area (Bamford 1982, 54).

Certainly, at Oversley Farm occupation was limited to the circumscribed area of the sand and gravel terrace and arguably Phases 2A and 2B demonstrate a pattern of ‘settlement drift’. However, possibly the most crucial element of the evidence for prehistoric settlement at Oversley Farm comes from the midden deposit (359) within the hollow way. Recently the issue of refuse and midden formation has been the subject of some scrutiny, leading to the suggestion that ‘midden sites’ were connected with specialised activities such as craft production, feasting, or the burial of special deposits. Enhanced refuse generation has been suggested to be linked to the centralised storage of agricultural produce/ livestock or the regular entry of materials by visitors from neighbouring sites of similar status. ‘Midden sites’ could therefore suggest nodal settlements in terms of the settlement hierarchy and the ease of access afforded by the proximity to a communication network (rivers, trackways etc) may have been vital to this success (Needham and Spence 1997, 88). If this argument is valid then it is certainly pertinent to Oversley Farm, where the trackway itself has become the focus of the midden formation.

Ritualism A concession must be made to the concept of ritualism, as some of the deposits and features at Oversley Farm demonstrate patterns of deposition that defy a practical/obvious explanation, and echo findings of ritual deposition in evidence at other sites. However, it would be wrong to identify elements of ritualism as the only process in the formation of important deposits or structures and the study of the sites at Skara Brae and Barnhouse on the Orkneys has demonstrated the inextricable connection between domestic and ritual activity (Bewley 1994, 60). For this reason the presence of ritualism in several phases at Oversley Farm has not led to the preclusion of domestic settlement as a primary function of the site.

At Oversley Farm many of these issues are raised and in an attempt to avoid becoming embroiled in on going debate it was felt that by devising some criteria for settlement it should have been possible to test the 142

Conclusions Specifically elements of ritualism can be seen in the following instances: Phase 1A the lining of pit 295 with sherds of Neolithic pottery from several bowls; Phase 1B the reuse of post-setting 313 and the repeated primary charcoal deposits in the postsettings of Structure 2; Phase 2A the deposition of fine Beaker pottery in pit 330, the concealment of the cup-marked stone and associated objects in hearth 251 and the lithic and ceramic objects present in the hollow way deposits (380 and 441); Phase 2B the burial of the broken quern fragment within a postsetting of Structure 7 and the formation of midden deposit 359; Phase 3B the inverted burial of the complete quernstone and accompanying grinding stone in pit 355; Phase 3C the formation of fill 470 in pit 456 and the possible connection to four-post Structure 10.

this factor alone may have singled the site out as of special significance. At one level a convenient midpoint between upland and lowland punctuated by the location of a fording-point on the Bollin River; whilst at a spiritual level it may have symbolised a turningpoint in the annual cycle of transhumance. This, of course, raises the issue of whether Oversley Farm was ever permanently occupied during the prehistoric period, to which no simple answer can be given. However, it is interesting to compare the evidence for settlement provided in the EBA phase of the site with that of the Romano-British or Medieval phases in which a permanent presence is assumed. Whether Oversley Farm is seen as typical or atypical for the region throughout its history a certain number of factors can be isolated which may serve to provide signposts to the ordering of the Cheshire landscape and ultimately to other such ancient settlement sites. From a geographical perspective the site is located on a fording-point of a major river valley, which not only provided access to and from the lower-lying Cheshire Plain, but would also have been an invaluable natural food-source. Geologically the site occupies an isolated patch of glacial sand and gravel in a landscape dominated elsewhere by boulder-clays, thus providing light tillable welldrained soils favourable to cultivation using early farming techniques. The glacial sands and gravels also provided an invaluable source of raw materials for the production of lithic tools and objects. From a landscape-historian’s point of view the proximity to an ancient thoroughfare on a northeast/southwest axis appears to have been pivotal in the repeated reoccupation of the site. Whilst archaeologically the site was almost undetectable through the agents of survey, aerial reconnaissance, or geophysics the fact that an eighteenth century farmhouse still stood on the site, and that the place-name ‘Oversley’ was demonstrably ancient, could be seen as clear indicators of potential. Despite this, the full story of Oversley Farm was only recovered by the topsoilstripping and subsequent excavation of a large surface area, coupled with an extensive programme of radiocarbon-dating achieved through an intensive regime of palaeoenvironmental-sampling.

The possibilities for each of these cases have been explored in the relevant sections above, however, viewed as a whole there are apparently two repeated trends: The earliest and most common is that of broken objects, possibly deliberately broken or ritually killed, and subsequently used in a complex process of structural deposition; the second is apparently peculiar to the Bronze Age and involves the inverted burial and concealment of complete and possibly significant objects. Whether either of these trends can be demonstrably linked to organised religious belief or a specific cult is a matter for conjecture.

Oversley Farm in its regional and national context The identification and controlled excavation of a hitherto unknown and unenclosed Neolithic and EBA settlement site in the North West is unprecedented. The stratified sequence of deposits preserved in the hollow way has produced an invaluable assemblage of well-dated artefactual and ecofactual evidence for the EBA in the North West, which will form a basic point of reference for any future work undertaken on this period in the region. The rarity of such sites also serves as a salutary reminder of the fact that modern surveying techniques are not of much help in searching for them.

In a wider context, the new evidence from Oversley Farm demonstrates the use of ephemeral timber structures for domestic occupation from the Early Neolithic through to the EBA. During the latter period, locally-produced pottery in the form of collared vessels, food-vessels and pygmy-cups (usually associated with funerary monuments), were being used in a domestic context for amongst other things cooking sheep/goat. Small amounts of cereal crops were also being grown throughout this period (specifically naked-barley and emmer-wheat), although the predominant agricultural terrain would

In its local context Oversley Farm can be seen within a landscape dominated by a system of track-ways, which were fundamental to a way of life probably based on sheep-farming, which necessitated the movement of livestock through the landscape between areas of rich pasture. From the prehistoric period onwards this landscape was orientated on a north-east/south-west axis connecting the upland pasture of the Pennines with the lowland pasture of the Cheshire Plain. As such, Oversley Farm sits on the boundary between the two (physically marked by the River Bollin) and 143

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire appear to have been open scrub and heath more suited to the grazing of livestock.

the interim results of the Oversley Farm excavations in their wider context. Halstead’s study concludes that there is a relative lack of recorded Bronze Age settlement sites in the Welsh Marches, but notes that what evidence there is hints at the potential for continuity of settlement at specific locales; not just in the EBA, but in the transition between the Early and Middle Bronze Age too. He acknowledges that this runs counter to long standing interpretations of EBA residency patterns and introduces the caveat that the presence of fixed settlement nodes does not necessarily exclude the existence of settlement mobility (Halstead 2005, 69).

The lithic-evidence suggests that during the Early Neolithic blade-technology was still evolving from Late Mesolithic traditions, though probably far more inspired by use in leather-working and the treating of hides than as a tool for hunting. The EBA material may also indicate a regional trait in the manufacture of relatively small tools, possibly necessitated by the poor range of raw materials available. Possibly the most significant contribution that Oversley Farm has made is related to the geometry of the ancient landscape, the way in which it may have been used by early farmers, and how it interacted with the fixed sites of domestic habitation. In this way the site can be used as both an object-lesson and benchmark in other landscape studies, in an attempt to identify trends both on a regional and national basis.

The second significant publication is the first volume of the Resource Assessment of the Research Framework for North West England (published in 2006). The prehistoric period resource assessment includes a section on the Neolithic and Bronze Age and this includes references to Bronze Age roundhouses recently discovered in Cumbria at both Botcherby (Carlisle) and at Stephenson Scale (Hodgson and Brennand 2006, 34). Further south evidence for MBA settlement is reported from Irby (Wirral) (ibid. 37). In conclusion the authors note that a degree of mobility may have been a feature of settlement throughout the Neolithic, and even into the Early and Middle Bronze Age. Broad processes of change may be seen taking place despite evidence for continuity, in seasonal movements of people and animals, and continued re-emphasis of particular locations (ibid. 51).

Postscript The bulk of the text for this report was compiled prior to 2001 and whilst several attempts have been made to update the text subsequently, new discoveries and the continued results of new research have continued apace. For this reason it was considered more important to get the manuscript published, so that the details of the excavation results were widely available for future study; even though the discussion sections of the report may have become limited and somewhat out of date. Other archaeological discoveries made during the second runway development that are relevant to the Bronze Age period have already been published elsewhere (Garner, 2001).

It is clear from the two publications referred to above that Oversley Farm remains a key site to the study of Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement in both the Welsh Marches and the North West of England. Not only due to the fact that it produced structures and well stratified assemblages of ceramics, lithics and palaeoenvironmental evidence that have been independently dated using scientific dating techniques; but also because it can be seen to sit in an emerging landscape of funerary/ritual, domestic, mining and mere sites centred around the Bollin Valley.

Two recent publications however are of significant relevance to the Oversley Farm excavation results and warrant some reference here. The most substantial of these is John Halstead’s study of ‘Bronze Age Settlement in the Welsh Marches’ (published in 2005), which includes the county of Cheshire and considers

144

APPENDIX A  THE PREHISTORIC POTTERY FABRIC TYPES by C S M Allen and D Williams

There are eleven fabric types in the pottery assemblage. However, as with all earlier prehistoric pottery, the fabrics described are not homogenous and there is some overlap between the types. The descriptions therefore aim to establish the general character of each of the fabrics found on the site, by describing the type and quantity of the inclusions.

Fabric type 1 was apparent only in a small number of Beaker sherds. It contained angular grog inclusions, confirmed in thin section. Fabric type 5, containing only quartz, consisted of three small sherds and fragments and was not thin sectioned. Two major groups both contained distinctive fragments of igneous rocks, either granitic or volcanic. The varying fabric types within these two igneous groups were categorised by the differing sizes and quantities of the inclusions. The granitic fabric types 2, 3 and 4, were confirmed in thin section and the sherds in this fabric were easily identified with a binocular microscope as they contained biotite mica and large grains of orthoclase feldspar.

The Guidelines for Analysis and Publication recommended by the PCRG (1997), have been used for recording. The sherds were examined with a x2 binocular microscope and fabric groups have been confirmed by thin section analysis. The fabric types are summarised below (Table A). The notations, used throughout the report for the fabrics, describe the inclusions together with the estimated quantity and modal size of the tempering materials.

The volcanic fabric types 7, 8, 9 and 11 contained weathered volcanic material, identified under the binocular microscope by the white and pale cream colour of the large fine-grained and angular inclusions. Due to the extremely fine-grain it was not possible to closely identify the minerals even in thin section, but these inclusions were considered most likely to be a

Petrological examination of 21 sherds selected to represent the main fabric groups was carried out by David Williams in the Department of Archaeology at Southampton University. Table A: Summary of fabric types

Fabric

Code

Main Inclusions

1

GRMC/QUMC

grog and quartz

2

GTMV/QUMC

granite and quartz

3

GTMV/QUMC

granite and quartz, less friable

4

GTSC/QUSC

granite and quartz

5

QUMF

quartz

6

VOMM

voids, probably organic

7

RHMV/QUSF

rhyolite and quartz

8

RHMV

rhyolite

9

RHSC/QTSF

rhyolite and quartzite

10

MMSC/QUMF

Mercia Mudstone and quartz

11

RHMC/QUSF

rhyolite and quartz

No

145

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire lesser extent in other samples. This is thought to be Mercia Mudstone available locally, which was probably deliberately selected and crushed as tempering material. Quartz and quartzite inclusions could be found in local glacial sand and gravels. Grog, usually considered to be crushed pre-existing pottery (Allen 1991, fig 4: Allen, 2000), again could be available locally.

porphyritic rhyolite or andesite. Orthoclase feldspar and quartz were also present in some of these sections. Fabric type 10, again confirmed in thin section, contained angular pieces of Mercia Mudstone together with quartz. The sherds of fabric type 6 were very vesicular and friable and although consolidated prior to thin sectioning, analysis was only partially successful. Clearly identified in thin section were remnants of charcoal and burnt wood, suggesting that the sherds were originally tempered with some organic material. This could have been vegetable matter or even animal dung, but the origin is unclear.

There is nothing to suggest that any of the materials used for tempering within the pottery originated elsewhere. Links with other regions may be suggested by additional aspects of the ceramic material, but not by the fabric types and content.

Summary

Oversley Farm is situated on Mercia Mudstone (formerly called Keuper Marl), covered by Boulder Clays (Geological Survey 1” map of England, sheet no. 98). There are no natural outcrops of igneous rocks in the Manchester region and the nearest igneous formations in the Buxton and Peak Forest region are mainly basaltic and therefore unlikely to be the source of these materials. However, local glacial deposits of sand and gravel cover the area of the site and are known to contain numerous lavas from the Borrowdale Volcanic Series, including andesites and rhyolites, together with boulders of Eskdale and Criffel granite (Taylor et al, 1963).

Phase 1 sherds are mainly tempered with granitic and organic material, although there are a few sherds with granite tempering apparent throughout the site. In Phase 2, sherds tempered with volcanic material dominate the assemblage and sherds with Mercia Mudstone and grog tempering are also seen mainly in Phase 2. Thus the choice of tempering materials is seen to vary chronologically throughout the phases of the site. As all the tempering materials are likely to have originated on or close to the excavated area, the choice of fabric type for vessels on this site was much more dependant upon the tradition favoured in a particular period even though all the materials were available locally. Such chronological variations have been noted in other regions in prehistory (Allen 1991: Allen 2000, fig 7: Cleal 1995, 191). At this site, such chronologically dependant traditions, indicate that prehistoric potters of each period deliberately chose their tempering materials from the variety that was available locally. Changes of tempering with time could assist with the classification of material from isolated or undated features.

It seems very likely therefore, that the range of rocks in the local drift may be the source of the igneous inclusions in these sherds, although further work on local deposits would be needed to confirm this with certainty. Similar local drift material has also been found in prehistoric pottery from other Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in the Merseyside region where Boulder Clays overlie Triassic formations (Irby, Kirby and Tarbock – Ancient Monuments Laboratory, Petrological Reports). The angular argillaceous or clay-like inclusions dominating fabric type 10, were also present to a

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APPENDIX B  A NOTE ON THE LITHIC ANALYSIS by F F Wenban-Smith

Introduction

The lithic artefact collection constituted 149 assemblages from different contexts. The great majority of contexts (138) produced an assemblage of less than ten artefacts, usually in a variety of conditions and states of patination, probably reflecting a mixture of derived material. The possible Mesolithic scatter was represented by two large assemblages from sieving an indistinct layer overlying natural bedrock, as well one small assemblage from the surface of the natural bedrock. The Neolithic and Bronze Age contexts, although dominated by mixed condition assemblages of less than ten artefacts, also produced some larger assemblages of good condition material, sometimes with a predominance of tools and cores, suggesting a possible lack of post-depositional disturbance and/or deliberate deposition. Assemblages from later phases were also dominated by small mixed assemblages, with the exceptions of the general cleaning context 7 which included 46 artefacts from across the site, and the assemblage from context 1348 which contained 13 artefacts mostly in fresh condition. This context was a ditch-fill immediately adjacent to the sieved scatter and the assemblage was studied with the sieved assemblages on the premise it may have been reworked into the ditch-fill from the original scatter.

A collection of 657 lithics artefacts was recovered from the site, c.140 related to Neolithic occupation and almost 300 from stratified contexts dated to the EBA. A very small number of lithics were recovered from MBA contexts and the remainder were unphased or were residual derived artefacts incorporated in subsequent Romano-British, Medieval or postMedieval contexts. All of the raw material used was locally available pebbles of flint or chert, collected from the glacial till around the site, the gravel on which the site was located or the channels of streams and rivers in the vicinity of the site. The great majority of lithics seemed to represent the residual evidence of general domestic activity at the site, with occasional finer specimens of tools possibly reflecting their use in a more symbolic context. The concentration of lithic artefacts in the hearth associated with the main surviving Neolithic structure may reflect deliberate deposition with some connotations in the ideational domain and one particular EBA assemblage from the hollow way included a fancy Conygar Hill barbed-and-tanged arrowhead which was certainly deliberately deposited, possibly for symbolic reasons at the threshold of the site, possibly reflecting a funerary association, or possibly for some other nonfunctional reason. Overall the quantity of stratified and dated EBA lithic material with ceramic associations provides a benchmark for defining the lithic typology and technology of this period in north-west England, enabling comparative studies with material from other regions and local unstratified sites.

Potential for analysis Almost all the lithic artefacts are provenanced to phased contexts whose location within the site and stratigraphic associations are known and several from layers had their precise position recorded. Generally a good proportion of artefacts were in fresh condition, suggesting that not too much secondary derivation has taken place and that the assemblages have reasonable archaeological integrity. The lithic artefacts were usually associated with pottery assemblages and often came from contexts which were either radiocarbon dated, or which had a direct stratigraphic relationship to a radiocarbon dated context (Table 1).

Overview Of the total of 657 lithic artefacts most were cores, struck debitage and tools made from fine-grained siliceous raw materials, but included seven coarsegrained stone pebbles worked by pecking or boring. Aside from unphased and out-of-context material (41 of), the majority of artefacts (298) came from EBA contexts. Reasonably large quantities also came from the sieved scatter (108) and from Romano-British, Medieval and post-Medieval contexts (164) scattered across the site and no doubt incorporating derived material from earlier phases. Much of the material (46) from Phase 6 (post-Medieval) was derived from the ploughsoil (7).

Four groups of assemblages with different analytical potential were recognised within the lithic collection: Group 1 material from unphased or unknown contexts 147

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire potentially usable for cultural attribution, particularly when containing quantities of complete debitage for comparison with the general British framework established by Pitts and Jacobi (1979), although a framework for regional comparison is as yet little developed in the North West. Such assemblages can also give insights into specific and short-lived activities at the site, both through analysis of the tool-types represented and through refitting of the debitage. This enables reconstruction of the sequences of lithic reduction, the state of the raw material before import to the site and the selection of blanks for immediate or future use. Refitting has a further role to play in confirming the stratigraphic relationship and/or integrity of assemblages from different contexts in the same area, such as the sieved scatter.

Group 2 small assemblages (1-10) in varied condition from phased contexts Group 3 small-medium assemblages (3-20) of mostly tools in good condition, often with a wholly or partially perforated stone artefact, from phased features of restricted size such as pits, hearths or possible treeboles Group 4 large assemblages (40-60) in good or varied condition with cores, tools and debitage from open-area phased contexts such as layers or middens. Group 1 material is of little analytical potential, except for the occasional presence of culturally diagnostic tool types, which demonstrate local presence at a particular cultural period.

Aims and objectives

Group 2 assemblages are of little use for cultural attribution on their own, but when grouped and phased by other means to a particular period, can be amalgamated to give a representative sample of lithic technology and typology at the site from the period. This information can also help in investigating the nature of activity at the site and possibly the spatial distribution of activities within the site.

The objectives of the lithic analysis were, therefore: Investigation of the sieved scatter It was necessary to establish what material from different contexts in the scatter area belonged together as a single assemblage and to what extent an undisturbed scatter is in fact represented. Having established this the technological and typological characteristics may contribute to its dating and cultural attribution and if an intact assemblage is represented analysis of the stages of knapping reduction present can help establish the form in which the raw material was brought to the site, whether flakes made on the spot were made into tools and used and discarded on the same spot and whether particular flakes were exported for subsequent use. The range of tools present may also lead to interpretation of the activities carried out.

Group 3 assemblages are of particular interest, since, particularly in a Bronze Age context, they may relate to a more spiritual perspective of site organisation rather than functional aspects of activity at the site. Their good condition indicates swift burial or possible deliberate deposition, and their small size, together with the prevalence of carefully made tools on high quality raw materials belies a purely functional explanation. The fact that five of the seven perforated stone artefacts come from Group 3 assemblages reinforces their distinctive nature. It is clear from pottery studies and radiocarbon dating that much of the activity at the site is from the Bronze Age and it is clear that in this period finely made lithic artefacts played a major role in the spiritual realm, for instance being deposited at the bases of ditches around henges, at the base of post-holes of major structures and in burials and barrows, in contrast to the lithics in everyday use which were particularly unaesthetic. The recognition of Group 3 assemblages as of potential spiritual significance offered the opportunity to explore the spatial distribution of spiritual significance within the site area. A further more interpretive level of analysis (Hodder et al, 1995) concerns addressing what these beliefs might have been on the basis of the typology, raw material characteristics and contextual associations of the Group 3 assemblages.

Cultural characterisation Given phasing based on independent pottery analysis and radiocarbon dating, the typological and technological analysis of the associated lithic material can begin the project of establishing a framework of lithic material culture from dated late prehistoric contexts in North West England. Site use and activities The relative proportions and intensity of reduction of cores, flakes and tools reflect the patterns of raw material import and on-site exploitation. The types of tool may give an indication of the range of activities for which they were used and it is possible that there might be some residual patterning within the site of different types of tool relating to spatial organisation of activity within the site, notwithstanding the vagaries of incorporation of lithic artefacts into feature-fills. Some of the assemblages recovered from particular contexts may represent specific instances of activity

Group 4 assemblages are of significance for more traditional interpretive goals. The relatively large size and integrity of such assemblages makes them 148

Appendix B or deposition, which may reflect either functional or ritual aspects of the site’s use.

represented by the cores and debitage were identified and the use of hard and soft percussors determined when possible. Tools were attributed to types following the later prehistoric typology summarised by Healy (1996). The condition (fresh, slightly damaged or very damaged) and presence/absence of burning was recorded for all artefacts and the colour, quality and type of raw material was noted. Refitting was attempted for two sets of material, artefacts from the area of the potential Mesolithic scatter and artefacts from the more prolific Bronze Age layers. The dimensions of whole debitage for these assemblages were recorded for comparison with the framework established by Pitts and Jacobi (1979). The spatial distribution of different tool types across the site and where possible the precise spatial relationships between tools within Group 3 assemblages of potential ritual significance, were investigated. The lithic assemblages were grouped by phase and the results of the lithic analysis are presented within the context of the overall site phasing and structural interpretations.

Ritual behaviour Preliminary examination of the lithic collection indicated that some assemblages of tools may have been deliberately deposited, indicating a possible ritual significance. These assemblages need to be examined with attention paid to factors such as raw material type and quality, as well as technology and typology, which may enhance the provisional ritual interpretation. Consideration of the possibility of the ritual significance of certain lithic assemblages may enhance the interpretation of the features containing them and it is possible that the spatial organisation of ritual areas within the site may be revealed.

Methods All the lithic artefacts were individually examined and attributed to broad technological categories such as core, debitage or tool. The knapping strategies

149

APPENDIX C  ORGANIC RESIDUE ANALYSIS OF THE PREHISTORIC POTTERY by S N Dudd and R P Evershed

Introduction

Samples

The analysis of organic residues associated with archaeological pottery encompasses both the study of visible carbonised residues adhering to the surface of the sherd and also the extraction and analysis of lipids absorbed within the porous microstructure of the pot wall (Evershed et al., 1992). Organic residues are readily extracted from powdered ceramic using organic solvents and analysed using high-temperature gas chromatography (GC) to separate, quantify and make preliminary identifications of lipid components. The nature of unknown compounds or complex mixtures can be elucidated by further analysis using GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Archaeological residues are invariably degraded to some extent. However, consideration of the distribution and isotopic composition of lipid components and the presence of diagnostic biomarkers enables the commodities originally processed or contained in the vessels to be determined. The most commonly recognised residues in archaeological vessels are degraded animal fats, which are present in a high percentage (>40%) of vessels. However, other commodities are occasionally found, including beeswax, animal fats mixed with beeswax (Charters et al., 1995) and plant leaf waxes (e.g. from Brassica sp.; Evershed et al., 1991, 1994).

Twenty sherds were received for analysis. All of the samples were photographed and portions removed for screening for absorbed organic residues (AR). In addition, surface deposits from three of the samples (deposit numbers 10, 13 and 18) were removed using a scalpel and analysed separately in order to investigate the nature of their carbonised residues (CR).

Analytical Methodology Solvent extraction of archaeological potsherds Each sherd was screened for absorbed lipid residues using established extraction protocol, whereby, thumbnail-sized (c 2g) pieces of sherd were sampled and the surfaces cleaned with a modelling drill to remove exogenous contamination (e.g. from postexcavation handling). The sherds were crushed to a fine powder using a pestle and mortar and the ground sherd was then extracted with a mixture of organic solvents (chloroform/methanol, 2:1 v/v) by ultrasonication to obtain the solvent-extractable lipid components. The solvent was reduced under nitrogen to yield a total lipid extract (TLE). Preparation of trimethylsilyl derivatives Portions of the total lipid extract were derivatised using N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide (20 µl; 70°C; 30 minutes) and analysed by gas chromatography (GC).

Recent research has focussed on the identification of the origins of animal fats found preserved in potsherds. A range of chemical criteria have been considered in drawing distinctions between different fats, including overall lipid distributions, free fatty acid ratios, distributions of C18:1 positional isomers and intact triacylglycerols, and the stable carbon isotope ratios (13C values) of the major n-alkanoic acids (C16:0 and C18:0) the combination of these criteria has enabled clear distinctions to be drawn between ruminant and non-ruminant fats (Evershed et. al., 1997; Dudd and Evershed, 1999; Mottram et al., 1999). Furthermore, it has been established that dairy fats from ruminant animals have an isotopic signal which is distinct from that of adipose fats, which results from differences in the biochemistry and metabolic processes involved in the formation of milk and adipose fats (Dudd and Evershed, 1998). This finding has established the basis of a new approach to study dairying in prehistory.

Results Screening of the extracts demonstrated the presence of lipid residues in 12 out of the 20 potsherds and in 2 of the 3 carbonised surface residues analysed from deposit 10, 13 and 18. Several of the potsherds analysed contain abundant lipid derived from animal fats, specifically adipose or body fat rather than dairy fat. Lipid content in the absorbed residues ranged between 2-808 µg g­¹, with samples from deposits 17 and 19 yielding 757 and 808 µg g­¹ of lipid, respectively. Samples containing only trace lipid included those from deposits 1,5,6,8,10,16,18 and 20.

150

Appendix C The range of lipid distributions in the samples was interesting and in several cases, variations correlated very well with their context. Examples of lipid distributions characteristic of non-ruminant (e.g. porcine) animal fats are characterised by a relatively narrow range of triacylglycerols and the presence of only one C18:1 positional isomer.

of the ketones is indicative of ovine (sheep or goat) fat, rather than cow. The distribution of lipid components in the fats also supports this evidence, indicating that the fats containing mid-chain ketones all derive from ruminant rather than non-ruminant sources. The use of free fatty acid ratios in drawing assignments is flawed in that the relative rates of decay for the different fatty acid components varies according to their acyl carbon number and subsequently their differing ease of solubility in water.

In contrast, degraded ruminant fats comprise a more broad distribution of intact triacylglycerol components and a range of C18:1 positional isomers. Ruminant fats have been identified in samples from deposits 3, 4, 11, 13 and 19. Ovine (sheep or goat) fat can be distinguished from bovine (cattle) fat on the basis of differences in the distributions of the triacylglycerols. On this basis it has been possible to identify ovine fats in samples from deposits 3 and 19.

It is notable that, with the exception of one sample, all of the extracts from samples recovered from context 303 contained only trace levels of lipid. In addition, both the Neolithic bowls were found to contain degraded ruminant animal fat residues. Unfortunately, although the presence of burnt or carbonised surface residues may provide a good indication that a vessel was used in processing foodstuffs or other natural commodities over a fire, it provides no guarantee that there will be residues preserved within the fabric of the sherds. Indeed, several samples described as having interior deposits yielded little or no absorbed lipid residue. The charred residues are evidence that the vessel has been subject to high temperatures and the absence of any lipid residue is most likely attributable to thermal degradation.

Unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) have been observed in GC analyses of several samples. UCM are believed to consist of a range of oxidised lipid components resulting from extensive degradation of the original commodity processed in the vessel. It is hypothesised that these UCM may derive from highly unsaturated commodities such as fish oil or plant oil, however, investigations into their formation are ongoing. Several extracts were found to contain a more infrequently observed range of triacylglycerols, which maximised at C48, with decreasing abundances of C50, C52 and C54. At present it is not possible to identify the source of these components, which appear frequently in extracts from samples obtained from context 359 (dated to 1765 BC) and also in contexts 331 and 380. However, it is recognised that comparable distributions in samples of modern chicken and goose fat may indicate that the archaeological residues from these contexts derive from the processing of goose or duck fats.

Conclusions Although many of the extracts contain low abundances of lipid, the evidence indicates that the vessels were used predominantly for processing animal meat/fats, with no strong chemical evidence for dairy products or leafy vegetables. Dairy fats in prehistoric vessels have often been identified from other sites in the United Kingdom and it is therefore surprising that they do not occur in these vessels. The lack of evidence for leafy vegetables is somewhat less surprising since chemical evidence for epiculticular leaf waxes is rarely found prior to the Iron Age. The majority of the vessels appear to have functioned as ‘cooking’ vessels, used to heat their contents over a fire. This process has accelerated the decay of lipid components entrapped within the fabric, as the overall level of preservation is not high. The distributions of lipid components indicate that the majority of the degraded animal fats derive from an ovine source, although it is not possible to differentiate between sheep and goat fat due to their compositional similarity.

Samples 12 and 13 (AR) contained predominantly free fatty acids, which have most likely resulted from the hydrolysis (decay) of animal fats. The surface residue from sample 13 had not been completely carbonised during processing and the preservation was actually better than for the absorbed lipid in the potsherd to which the residue was adhered. Mid-chain ketones are formed during heating of the vessel and its contents at temperatures in excess of 300ºC – over an open fire – from fatty acids originally present in the fat. The presence of ketones therefore indicates those vessels that have been used in ‘cooking’ (although it is also possible that ketones have formed in discarded sherds from broken vessels lying in a fire). The relative abundances of the ketones also indicate the original ratio of the fatty acids present in the fat from which they were formed. In almost all cases, the ratio

Overall, these analyses have provided substantial evidence for the use of the vessels in the processing of natural commodities including ruminant and nonruminant animal products and possibly fowl. The meat consumption appears to have been dominated by ruminant, most likely ovine animals, with no evidence that animals were exploited for their milk. 151

APPENDIX d  THE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

by D W Shimwell

Programme and Procedure

Unit (PERU) attended the excavation as on-site environmental archaeologist. All contexts which appeared to have potential for the environmental analysis of charcoals, organic macrofossils and seeds and which might have potential for pollen analysis were sampled. The collection of 66 samples were coarse sieved on site and brought into the laboratory for further wet-sieving down to a finer grade.

An initial evaluation of the environmental archaeological potential of the site was provided in February 1998 by Downhill and Shimwell in which recommendations were made for the excavation at Oversley Farm. Subsequently, for an eight week period from mid-February to early April 1998, Dr Richard Gregory of the Palaeoecological Research

Table B: Samples with charcoal and organic remains for major analyses Sample (context no)

>10

>5

>2.5

>1

Residue

Charcoal

Other

385

445

5

Organics, seeds, pot?

(mm sieve/dry weights in g) 3 (110)

-

27

Charcoal sample only

125

Organics

37 (119)

Charcoal sample only

12

Organics

46 (303)

-

10

320

680

690

25

Organics, seeds bone

47 (316)

-

25

305

420

310

63

Organics

58

2710

345

535

340

450

27

Organics, seeds, bone

60/62

2950

405

785

930

1040

57

Organics, seeds, flint

63/65

2680

440

975

755

945

184

Organics, seeds, flint

25

420

Table C: Samples with quantities of organic remains Sample (context no)

>10

>5

>2.5

>1

Residue

Charcoal

Other

(mm sieve/dry weights in g) 14 (143)

1065

340

550

375

705

+

Organics

17 (110)

1575

240

435

260

580

-

Organics, seeds

18 (110)

1170

250

430

210

440

-

Organics, seeds

25/26 (113)

Charcoal/organic samples only

+

+

33 (120)

1845

1250

1450

140

360

+

Organics, nuts

34 (124)

1530

730

105

345

390

-

Organics

35 (240)

440

1030

640

370

320

+

Organics, nuts

66 (359)

25

375

225

130

230

68

Organics

152

Appendix D Table D: Samples lacking organic remains other than charcoal in quantities sufficient for radiocarbon dating Sample (context no)

>10

>5

>2.5

>1

Residue

Charcoal

Other

780

215

225

42

5 pot sherds

520

465

495

4

-

(mm sieve/dry weights in g) 4 (113)

1010

240

30 (113)

Charcoal sample only

36 (122)

2630

39 (230)

Charcoal sample only

41 (97)

-

20

220

600

580

37

Wood/bone

42 (93)

-

12

170

360

390

17

-

52 (369)

-

8

240

260

400

21

-

53 (19)

-

120

260

425

525

47

-

54 (21)

-

7

215

190

460

17

-

56

-

105

390

610

160

35

Bone

57

-

70

335

220

100

31

Bone

410

The original 71 samples from Oversley Farm were subjected to fine sieving down to 0.5mm and flotation of charcoal, organic macrofossil debris and seeds. The potential of each sample was assessed by a preliminary scan under a binocular microscopy (x 40). Preliminary smear evaluations of the potential for pollen-analysis were undertaken on those samples that were relatively rich in macrofossil debris and the preparation slides examined at a magnification of x 400. On the basis of these evaluations, the following recommendations were made. The samples were divided into –

preservation poor and mainly indeterminate, precluding a formal count. Sample 41/Context 97 Upper fill of possible hearth 295, stratigraphically above fill 303 wood and bone. (37.23g charcoal; Corlylus avellana, Betula sp. and Salix sp.). Sample 27/Context 43 (4870 ± 80 BP: cal BC 3655) Fill of possible hearth or pit 229. Charcoal sample from top of fill 43, from cut 229. (125.66g charcoal; Corylus avellana, Betual sp. and Salix sp.); washings from charcoal contain a few seeds of Polygonum cf lapathifolium and Spergula arvensis; pollen absent. Sample 39/Context 230 Lower fill from possible pit/ hearth 229. Charcoal sample only (22.90g; Corylus avellana and Salix sp.). Sample 54/Context 21 (cal BC 3520-3025) Fill of pit 436. (17.43g charcoal; Corylus avellana).

A Recommendations for full macrofossil and seed analysis: i. those sent for radiocarbon dating with additional organic residues ii. those not sent for radiocarbon dating with organic residues B Recommendations for specific analysis of charcoals only C Recommendations for no further analysis

There would appear to be two significant features of the environmental analyses of these samples from Neolithic pits. First, the charcoal species are relatively constant in all contexts – hazel (Corylus), willow (Salix) and birch (Betula) in this order of frequency. This constancy implies some selective use of the three species in association with the function of the pit, although it is equally possible that all three types could have been components of local natural scrub. But if this latter explanation was the case, then a greater diversity of forest tree charcoals might be expected. Moreover, the charcoal in all cases is from underwood branches, less than 10mm in diameter, the type of material used for domestic lattice and wickerwork. It seems possible that the pits were lined thus for storage (Thomas, 1991).

The samples are presented by phase order.

Phase 1A – Early Neolithic Sample 46/Context 303 (5040 ± 70 BP: cal BC 3800) Lower fill of possible hearth 295, stratigraphically below fill 97 and containing a quantity of Neolithic pottery. (25.88g charcoal; species indeterminate); two grains of Hordeum polystichum (naked barley), testa fragments of Bromus sp. And seeds of Polygonum avidculare, Spergula arvensis and Vicia sp.; pollen 153

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire greater part indeterminate; some small pieces of flint waste; organic remains as above with two grains of Hordeum polystichum and seeds of crop weeds as above, with additional Filipendula ulmaria; pollen preservation reasonable – analysis 2. Samples attributed to same date as 60-65 Sample 4/Context 113 Charcoal-rich fill from linear feature 112 cutting through the Early Bronze Age occupation layer. (14.42g charcoal; Corylus avellana and Salix sp.) Sample 14/Context 143 (Original dated occupation layer: 3400 ± 60 BP Cal BC 1875-1805 and 17951525) Possible occupation layer found stratigraphically later than layer 110; organic debris of leaves and roots of grass and bracken; seeds absent and pollen preservation poor and indeterminate. Samples 25 & 26/Context 113 20 litres of charcoalrich fill from feature 112; pollen absent but a few organic residues of gramineous species. Sample 30/Context 113 Charcoal sample only (72.76g species indeterminate). Sample 52/Context 369 Layer found beneath metalled surface. (21.90g charcoal; Corylus avellana and Quercus sp.). Sample 66/Context 359 Very rich in charcoal (68.78g) of Corylus avellana, Salix sp., Alnus glutinosa and Hedera helix; some organics of gramineous type; pollen preservation moderate – analysis 3. Sample 37/Context 119 (3260 ± 80 BP: 1515 BC). Cut 245. Charcoal sample (12.36g) from post-hole; Quercus sp. Other plant macrofossils and pollen absent. Sample 33/Context 120 Fill of post-hole containing burnt hazelnut shells and a Bronze Age pot. (1.95g charcoal; Corylus avellana and Hedera helix ); leaves and twigs of Corylus and Salix sp.; seeds by Filipendula ulmaria. Sample 34/Context 124 Upper fill of possible heath 251 containing Bronze Age pottery; charcoal absent; three grains of Hordeum polystichum (Naked Barley) and two grains of Triticum cf dicoccum (Emmer); pollen preservation poor and indeterminate. Sample 35/Context 240 Post pipe of post-hole 241 with hazelnut shells, twig and leaf fragments of hazel; charcoal absent; pollen preservation poor and indeterminate.

Second, although the total complement of grain and seed is relatively small, it seems most probable that some of the pits were used for the storage of an agricultural crop, specifically naked barley (Hordeum polystichum). Grains of emmer (Triticum dioccum) and/or bread wheat (T. compactum) might have been expected from deposits of this period (Godwin, 1984) but none was found, perhaps due to the fact that barley would have been more suited to the local soil conditions. The weed seeds are all from plants typical of sandy soils, especially Corn Spurrey (Spergula arvensis). The general absence of pollen is unfortunate.

Phase 2: Early Bronze Age Macro-fossil analysis Sample71/context 929 (cal BC 2145-1760). Bulk sample from pit 928 with 8g charcoal (species indeterminate). Sample 36/Context 122 (cal BC 2135-1745). Fill of post-hole 242 (4.46g charcoal; Quercus sp.). Sample 69/Context 900 (cal BC 1975 – 1635). Bulk sample from wall slot 901 with 12g charcoal (species indeterminate); other organic material absent. Sample 3/Context 110 – equivalent to 425 (3610 ± 60 BP: cal BC 1955). Dark grey layer, possibly the remains of an occupation layer, containing large stone and a small quantity of charcoal; stratigraphically below layer 109. (5.15g charcoal; species indeterminate); organics mainly gramineous (cf barley straw and an indeterminate grass species) with bracken and hazel and willow leaves; three grains of Hordeum polystichum and one of Triticum cf. dioccum; crop weeks include Fallopia convolvulus, Chenopodium sp., Chrysanthemum segetum and Spergula arvensis; pollen preservation poor and indeterminate. Samples 17 and 18/Context 110 Below layer 143; may represent either occupation layer or buried soil; content of organics as above with prolific fragments of hazel leaves; two grains of Hordeum polystichum and crop weeds as per previous sample; some spores of bracken but pollen mainly indeterminate. Sample 60-62/Context 359 (top) (3490 ± 70 BP: cal BC 1765). 30 litres bulked sample from upper level of layer 359. Black, dated ‘occupation’ layer; charcoal 32.58g and 24.54g, mainly indeterminate, but some small fragments of Corylus avellana present; small pieces of flint waste; organic remains of gramineous stems and bracken with two grains of Hordeum polystichum and cropy weed seeds as previous, but with Vicia sp.; pollen preservation reasonable – analysis 1. Sample 63-65/Context 359 (base) (3510 ± 70 BP: cal BC 1870-16780). 30 litres bulked sample from base of layer 359 (80.82g, 31.10g and 73.12g charcoal of Corylus avellana and Salix sp. but the

The details of charcoal and macrofossil analyses in terms of sample records are as follows:

154

A

B

C

Corylus avellana

6

6

3

A . Charcoal

Salix sp

3

2

-

B. Macroremains

Quercus sp.

3

-

-

C. Seeds

Appendix D Hedera helix

2

-

-

Alnus glutinosa

1

-

-

Gramineae

-

6

1

Pteridium aqulinum

-

4

-

Hordeum polystichum

-

-

5

Triticum cf dicoccum

-

-

2

Fallopia convolvulus

-

-

4

Chenopodium sp.

-

-

4

Chrysanthemum segetum

-

-

3

Spergula arvensis

-

-

3

Vicia sp.

-

-

2

Filipendula ulmaria

-

-

2

expressed as % total pollen (TP) and as % arboreal pollen (AP) and % herbaceous pollen (HP). Woody species/types

%AP

%HP %TP

Coryloid

(Hazel)

54

11

Alnus

(Alder)

21

5

Betula

(Birch)

15

4

Quercus

(Oak)

5

1.5

Hedera

(Ivy)

3

1

Pinus

(Scot’s Pine)

1

+

Salis

(Willow)

1

+

Grass-heath species/types

Discussion

Gramineae

(Grasses)

48

38

Ericales

(Heaths)

22

16.5

Pteridium

(Bracken)

7

5

Plantago media/major

(Plantain)

6

4.5

Plantago lanceolata

(Plantain)

4

3

Filipendula

(Meadowsweet)

5

4

Rumex

(Dock/Sorrel)

4

3

a. Corylus (hazel) and Salix (willow), dominate the charcoal identifications. All samples were of small stems of withes suggesting the use of the shrubs for basket-storage or pit-lining. Quercus (oak) charcoal was found in two of the post-hole samples. Hedera (ivy) is an interesting charcoal to record; its use is probably ritualistic as discussed below in the section on pollen-analysis.

Weed/herb species/types

Chenopodium

(Fat hen)

2

1.5

b. The frequency of indeterminate gramineous remains and bracken suggests the use of these two materials for pit linings or strewing; some grass stems appeared to be straw of the barley type.

Cerealia

(Cereals)

2

1.5

Also single grains of Caryophyllaceae (?Spergula), Umbelliferae (Parsley family), Scrophulariaceae (Figwort family) Asteraceae/Liguliflorae (?Taraxacum) and Rosaceace (?Potentilla).

c. The prevalence of grains of naked barley (Hordeum polystichum) is a feature to be expected in the EBA in northern England and Scotland (Godwin, 1984; Boyd, 1988). Triticum cf dicoccum (Emmer) is more unusual and the Oversley site may represent the more northerly cultivation limit of the crop in this period.

Discussion The closest comparable pollen analysis for the EBA period comes from the work of Branch and Scaife (1995) on a peat-profile in association with the Lindow III bog-body (LPAZ LN1 2202-2039 cal BC). This analysis is of a relatively undisturbed peatprofile and the Oversley analyses differ markedly in several ways.

d. With one exception, the seeds recorded are typical of crop weeds of sandy oils. The exception is Filipendula ulmaria (Meadowsweet), the probable use of which is discussed below.

a. The relatively low arboreal/non-aboreal ratio of 23/77% is an indication of open landscape conditions and localised or restricted pollen deposition; the natural vegetation at Oversley in this period was probably a hazel/alder/birch scrub. b. The absence of Ulnus/Tilia/Fraxinus pollen suggests the absence of primeval or modified woodland. c. The presence of Salix at low % values is surprising, considering the high frequency of charcoal records and selective use is implied.

Pollen analysis The three deposits that lent themselves to a full pollenanalysis were all from context 359, samples 60-62 (analysis 1), samples 63-65 (analysis 2) and sample 66 (analysis 3), all of a cal BC date of 1870-1765. For each sample, two counts of 150 pollen grains were made and as no significant differences between counts were apparent, the results for six analyses are aggregated in the table below. The various types are 155

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire d. The relatively high percentage of Hedera pollen and charcoal perhaps suggests some ritualistic use of the plant. (Godwin, 1984 conjectures this situation and the present author has recently recorded charcoal of ivy in an Iron Age cremation of a pig in Ireland). e. The absence of pollens of Cyperaceae, Sphagnum and aquaic speices at Oversley is to be expected and there is thus no evidence of standing water or permanent waterlogging on site. f. Elevated values for Gramineae, Ericales, Pteridium and Cerealia are a strong indication of open pastoral and arable conditions in the immediate vicinity. g. Records of only 10 weed-pollen types compared with 28 by Branch and Scaife is also an indication of the reduction of diversity by human occupation, especially when this fact is coupled with the dominance of Plantago types, clear indicator species of trampled and disturbed ground (Dimbleby, 1967). h. The elevated values for Filipendula (F. ulmaria is a plant of wet streamside soils) suggest its use either as a strewing-herb or for some other domestic purpose such as in flavouring mead or some other alcohol.

north and west in Britain (Godwin, 1984). Pollen frequencies reach maximal values in north-west England in Flandrian Zone IZ (Iron Age onwards) and are interpreted as being due to regrowth of the tree at the margins of wildwood previously cleared by Neolithic and EBA cultures. In ecological terms, it is unlikely that the reasonably basiphilous tree would not have grown on the acidic, sandy and clayey soils of the drift plateau, but on the steeper slopes of the Bollin Valley. Its ecology implies the deliberate collection for firewood from the LBA onwards.

PHASE 3C IRON AGE Sample 58/Context 470 (2150 ± 60 BP: cal BC 180) from the base of pit 456. (27.18g charcoal; Betula sp., Hedera helix and Fraxinus excelsior); prolific burnt bone fragments; leave fragments and twigs of Betula sp. and Salix sp.; indeterminate gramineous stems and rootlets; seeds absent; pollen preservation poor, but broken grains of Coryloid, Betula, Salix, Ericales, Pteridium and Gramineae). Samples 56 and 57/Context 470 lower fill of pit 456, containing large quantity of burnt stone and some burnt bone fragments (34.98g and 31.37 charcoal; Corylus avellana, Betual sp., Salix sp., Fraxinus excelsior and Hedera helix).

Phase 3A/3B Middle/Late Bronze Age

Discussion

Sample 50/Context 232 (3020 ± 70BP: cal BC 1265). (Charcoal species indeterminate) Sample 49/Context 137 cal BC 1250-980. (Charcoal species indeterminate) Sample 53/Context 19 (2640 ± 70 BP: cal BC 805). Fill of pit 355. (47.42g charcoal; Corylus avellana, Fraxinus excelsior, Salix sp. and Betula sp.); other macrofossils absent.

The pattern of charcoal deposits is much the same as for the MBA, notably in the predominance of small wood of Corylus and Salix, in the continued present of Fraxinus and in the reappearance of Hedera. The same premises as those discussed above also apply here.

Discussion

PHASE 5 Medieval

The Middle and Late Bronze Age periods are poorly represented at Oversley and the environmental information is relatively scant. The most significant feature is perhaps the appearance of the common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) as a charcoal species, a feature that is continued in later Iron Age deposits. The charcoal of ash is easily recognisable and although it has been recorded from occupation sites of Mesolithic age, by far the greatest concentration of records come from the Bronze and Iron Ages and the Roman period as the frost-sensitive tree spread

Sample 47/Context 316 (1520 ± 60 BP: cal AD 560) Fill of linear pit 319. (63.52g charcoal dominated by Prunus cf spinosa); twigs and leaf fragments of Corylus, Prunus and Betula; twigs of Calluna; roots and leaves of Gramineae (indeterminate; pollen absent. The nature of the other organic remains suggests that this feature was a natural scrub development of blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) in a ditch, in which the debris of neighbouring scrub and heath collected. The absence of pollen prevents further conjecture on its purpose.

156

APPENDIX E  ASSESSMENT OF INDUSTRIAL RESIDUES

FROM OVERSLEY FARM by P I Maclean and J G McDonnell

Residue classification

Table E: Material quantities

All residues (0.34kg) were examined and classification was based on a combination of morphology and qualitative element analysis (XRF). The residues were primarily identified as metalworking slags. In general, slags and residues can be divided into two broad groups: diagnostic and non-diagnostic. The diagnostic slags can be attributed to a particular industrial process, these comprise both the iron working slags (smelting or smithing slags) and nonferrous residues (such as crucibles). Non-diagnostic residues cannot be directly ascribed to a process, but may be identified with a process by association with diagnostic residues for example clay furnace-lining with smelting-slag.

Diagnostic Residues

Context

Mass (g)

Tap slag

Mn

49

72.3

Y

Y

58

24.5

Y

80

22.6

Y

101

38.5

Y

464

28.5

479

144.7

Y

Y

526

10.6

Y

Y

Total

341.7

Other

Y ‘Cinder’

Unfortunately, due to possible contamination of all three of these contexts it is not possible to clearly identify these residues as evidence for early ironworking activity.

The majority of the residues were identified as ferrous tap-slags, produced during the manufacture of iron from its ore. Visually these are often identified by a characteristically dark and flowed, ‘ropey’ surface. The presence of significant quantities of Manganese (Mn) can also be used to differentiate between smeltingslags (elevated Mn) and smithing-slags (Mn low or absent, McDonnell 1988). Material from context 479 is a classic example of tap slag, possessing both the flowed surface and elevated traces of Mn.

Material from contexts 49, 58, 80 and 101 was recovered from linear features believed to represent structural elements of a rectangular timber building, with pottery suggesting a late-fourteenth/fifteenth century date. All residues from these contexts can be ascribed to iron-working activity. There are no characteristic differences between residues to suggest a clear demarcation should be made between material from either set of contexts. Both contexts show evidence for iron-smelting activity. However, the relatively small quantities of material, the lack of micro residues (hammerscale) and associated contexts denoted as pit-fills or building structural components indicate that these are secondary deposits, with iron-working activity taking place elsewhere either on or off-site.

There was no evidence, either visually or chemically (XRF) for the presence of copper (Cu) or tin (Sn) therefore these residues are not derived from copper smelting or any related non-ferrous activity.

Non-diagnostic Residues Non-diagnostic residues recovered from Oversley Farm are limited to context 464, a dark, lightweight ‘cindery’ type material produced from an unascribed pryrotechnological process that could very well be modern.

Summary The 342g of industrial residues have been identified as evidence of iron-working activity, notably ironsmelting. No evidence for copper-smelting activity was found. Uncertainty in the dating of possible Bronze Age contexts means it is not currently possible to ascribe this material as evidence for

Discussion Initially considered as of possibly Bronze Age date, the analysed material from contexts 464, 479 and 526 can be identified with ferrous metalworking activity. 157

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire suggests that they were recovered from secondary deposits with metalworking activity being carried out elsewhere.

early iron-production during the British Bronze Age. It is possible that the residues derive, instead, from the Medieval period. Distribution of the residues

158

APPENDIX F  THE PETROLOGY OF SELECTED LITHIC ARTEFACTS by R E Bevins

This report details the petrology and likely provenance of a suite of artefacts collected from the site. The report is based on observations made on the artefact, using standard sterobinocular microscopy, combined with examination of selected artefacts using transmitted polarised light microcopy of thin sections prepared from the samples. The report also comments on the relative durability of the various petrological groups identified.

Group 2: Coarse-grained, greyish sandstones • B0571B 311 276 sub-rounded, smoothed (Figure 87, ix) Group 3: Dark green, medium-grained slicic volcaniclastic rock; irregular, slab-like boulder, subangular, partially smoothed. • B0571B 254 (Figure 91) Group 4: Fine-grained pale cream coloured, silicic volcaniclastic rock; thin, angular flake, original form not discernable due to later knapping. • B0571B 1429 380

Comparisons were made with samples from the National Museums and Galleries of Wales collections, from relevant literature descriptions and from the report of Bevins (1998) on the petrology of Early Bronze Age hammerstones from Alderley Edge, a site located 6.5km to the south-east of Manchester Airport.

On the basis of the above groupings, the following artefacts were selected for thin section examination: B0571B 113; B0571B 789 137; B0571B 311 276; B0571B 254; and B0571B 1429 380.

Table F: Petrology samples

Group 1 (B0571B 113 and B0571B 789 137)

Sample No

Size (mm)

Weight

B0571B 711-347 B0571B 194-217 B0571B – 113 B0571B 1466 534 B0571B 311 276 B0571B 708 97 B0571B – 789 137 B0571B – 254 B0571B 1429 380

70x45x20 60x55x20 70x45x30 130x65x45 90x85x40 85x75x40 55x50x25 260x230x70 46x43x7

76g 78g 129g 456g 439g 358g 107g Ca 7kg 13.5g

Samples 113 and 789 137 represent well sorted by grain size but compositionally immature fine-grained sandstones. They are dominated by sub-angular to sub-rounded quartz grains which almost entirely show uniform extinction. Feldspar crystals are also present, albeit in much less abundance than quartz; in specimen 113, the feldspar crystals show evidence of being broken and fractured. Muscovite mica crystals are present in both samples, occurring as thin flakes up to 0.3mm in length and more rarely as shorter, thicker ‘books’ of platey aggregates. Sample 137 shows rare flauconite crystals. In both specimens, the matrix is iron-stained.

On the basis of macroscopic and optical binocular microscopic investigations, the following groupings were determined:

Group 2 (B0571B 2311 276)

Group 1: Fine- to medium-grained, light brown-grey sandstones • B0571B 194 217 sub-angular, smoothed (Figure 87, viii) • B0571B 1466 534 elongate, smoothed (Figure 84, ii) • B0571B 113 rounded, ovate, smoothed with fracture faces (Figure 85, i) • B0571B 711 347 rounded, ovate, smoothed with fracture faces • B0571B 789 137 ovate to discoid, rounded, smoothed

This sample is an immature coarse-grained, greyish sandstone. It is dominated by quartz crystals up to 0.3mm in diameter which shows a variety of shapes, from angular and fractured grains, through to subrounded grains, as well as rare, elongate ‘chips’. The majority of the quartz grains show even extinction, although some do show undulose extinction. Feldspar crystals are also present in the sample, forming irregular, fractured crystals, as well as euthedral, prismatic crystals up to 0.4mm in length. Large flakes of white mica, up to 0.5mm in length, occur throughout the sample; some crystals are bent, 159

The Neolithic and Bronze Age Settlement at Oversley Farm, Styal, Cheshire while others show discrete kinks. Retrogression of the white mica has led to the presence of a small population of chlorite/white mica stacks, again up to 0.5mm in length. Rock fragments are present in low abundance and comprise polycrystalline quartz aggregates (up to 0.3mm across), various igneous rocks (including microtonalite and feldspar-phyric lava, both up to 0.3mm across). A single clast of probable mica-schist was also observed. The matrix is difficult to resolve due to iron-staining, which pervades the sample. It appears to be dominated by quartz and clay minerals.

a tripartite succession of glacial tills and sands from the area south of Manchester and determined fifteen lithological groups. In all three units the most common erratic component was the ‘light sandstones’, which Simpson (op. cit.) considered to have been derived from ‘Upper Carboniferous’ outcrops, some from ‘Lower Carboniferous, others of Triassic origin’. The sandstones recovered from the site area are clearly represented in the glacial clays and sands of north Cheshire. However, whichever means of transport occurred, it is clear that such material was readily available in the area local to the site.

Group 3 (B0571B 254)

Groups 3 and 4

Sample 254 is a dark green, angular boulder with a poorly developed planar foliation. Superficially it resembles a basic volcanic rock, although microscopic examination reveals that it is, in fact, a chloritised acidic vocanicalstic rock. It contains altered intermediate to acidic clasts up to 2.5mm across which preserve igeneous textures and contain altered feldspar phenocrysts along with rare mafic (?amphibole) phenocrysts replaced by chlorite. The sample also contains discrete feldspar crystals and glomerocrysts of feldspar up to 1.3mm across. The feldspars are ubiquitously altered, being replaced by sericite, chlorite and more rarely, calcite. Associated with the feldspars are prismatic apatite crystals up to 0.5mm in length. Rarer chlorite and epidote are found in coarse aggregates in the matrix, which comprises a fine-grained intergrowth of quartz and feldspar. Chlorite is extensively developed and defines the planar foliation. Abundant spherules of leucoxene occur throughout.

Groups 3 and 4 artefact lithologies are sourced from some distance, as they are volcanic rocks which have been affected by low-grade metamorphism (Bevins and Rowbotham, 1983). Similar rocks are exposed in North Wales and the Lake District. A source in the Lake District is favoured for the Group 3 artefact in view of the presence of a relatively high content of plagioclase phenocrysts. Such a petrological character is consisted with the calcalkaline geochemical character of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group (BVG) of the Lake District (Millward et al., 1978). Earlier studies have also proposed that erratics in North Cheshire have been derived from the Lake District region (Simpson, 1960; Taylor et al., 1963). Interestingly, Bevins (1998) identified a BVG-like component in a collection of Prehistoric hammerstones from Alderley Edge, to the south-east of the site. Finally, Browne (1996) described a number of large erratics from the Ringway area, reaching up to 3.5m x 2.1m in one case. All of the erratics were interpreted as being ‘andesites’ derived from the Borrowdale Volcanic Group. Interestingly, one of the erratics described by Browne (1996) was uncovered during excavations linked to the Manchester Airport Cargo Terminal. All of the available information, along with relatively large size and sub-angular form of the Group 3 artefact, strongly implies that it is an erratic, derived from the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, transported by ice to north Cheshire in Pleistocene times and most probably deposited in the vicinity of the Airport. As for the Group 1 and 2 artefacts, therefore, the Group 3 artefact could realistically have been recovered locally.

Group 4 (B0571B 1429 380) Sample 380 is a fine-grained, siliceous, pale cream coloured worked stone. In hand specimen, it reveals little detail. Microscopically it can be seen to have a fine-grained, quartz-rich matrix in which occur euhedral, prismatic feldspar crystals up to 0.8mm in length. The feldspars are cloudy due to alteration and typically contain chlorite. Anhedral quartz crystals, 0.10.2 mm across, also occur scattered throughout the matrix, some of which show shard-like forms. On this basis, it is suggested that the sample is a silicic tuff. Geological context

The single Group 4 artefact is almost certainly also of Lower Palaeozoic age and hence sourced at some distance from Manchester Airport. This could have been North Wales, or once again the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, of the Lake District. On the abundant evidence of BVG erratics in north Cheshire (see above) it is wholly reasonable to infer a BVG source, the rock again occurring as an erratic in the local vicinity of the site. The original form of the erratic is not known, however, as this artefact was knapped.

Site, derived from the foothills of the Pennine range to the east of a line joining Bollington to Poynton. Their size and sub-rounded form would be consistent with their transport from the foothills of the Pennines by westerly draining rivers, such as the Bollin and its tributary the Dean. Alternatively, they could have been transported locally by ice during Pleistocene times. Simpson (1960) described the erratic component of 160

Appendix F The artefact studies show varying qualities regarding ease of working and durability. The Group 1 sandstones have relatively weak durability and would undoubtedly break under pressure or when struck hard. However, they represent an abundant source (Simpson, 1963) of rounded to sub-rounded cobbles and pebbles easily obtained from the various river beds of the area, such as the Bollin. The Group 2 artefact lithologies appear to be more strongly cemented than the Group 1 samples and hence are more durable lithologies.

derived from the same source region. The Group 4 artefact is also silicic in composition, but has not been so extensively chloritised; hence is a tougher, more durable rock, which is undoubtedly the reason for it having been knapped. At the Pontnewydd Cave Lower Palaeolithic site, near Denbigh, North Wales, various fine-grained silicic igeneous rocks with a very similar character form one of the most abundant artefact petrological groupings (Bevins, 1984). In the absence of flint or chert raw materials, they appear to provide the most appropriate raw material for knapping and flaking.

The Group 3 erratic is a chloritised silicic volcaniclastic tuff. Chlorite is a mafic phyllosilicate mineral with a sheet-like structure. Because of the high proportion of the sheet silicate mineral, this erratic shows a poorly developed planar fabric. This is a weak cleavage, developed during Acadian deformation in early to mid Devonian times (Soper et al., 1987). Given this planar fabric, the artefact would be relatively weak, breaking along the poorly developed planar fabric when struck.

Summary The artefacts are composed of a limited variety of rock-types. Some of these are of relatively local origin, occurring in and within the immediate vicinity of the site. Others are sourced further afield, in the Lake District. However, it is most likely that the raw materials for the artefacts were all collected from the immediate vicinity of the site, from the glacial deposits in the case of the distally-derived rock-types and from the stream deposits in the Bollin Valley for the most locally-derived rock types.

The single Group 4 artefact contrasts with the Group 3 artefact, even though they have most probably been

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